{"collection":"Hinduism","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/browse/hin/sbe15/sbe15007.htm","path":"hin/sbe15/sbe15007.htm","source_url":"https://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe15/sbe15007.htm","text":"The Upanishads, Part 2 (SBE15), by Max M\u00fcller, [1879]\nTHE Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad has been handed down as one of the thirty-three Upanishads of the Taittir\u00eeyas, and though this has been doubted, no real argument has ever been brought forward to invalidate the tradition which represents it as belonging to the Taittir\u00eeya or Black Yagur-veda.\nIt is sometimes called Svet\u00e2svatar\u00e2n\u00e2m Mantropanishad (p. 274), and is frequently spoken of in the plural, as Svet\u00e2svataropanishadah. At the end of the last Adhy\u00e2ya we read that Svet\u00e2svatara told it to the best among the hermits, and that it should be kept secret, and not be taught to any one except to a son or a regular pupil. It is also called Svet\u00e2sva 1, though, it would seem, for the sake of the metre only. The Svet\u00e2svataras are mentioned as a S\u00e2kha 2, subordinate to the Karakas; but of the literature belonging to them in particular, nothing is ever mentioned beyond this Upanishad.\nSvet\u00e2svatara means a white mule, and as mules were known and prized in India from the earliest times, Svet\u00e2svatara, as the name of a person, is no more startling than Svet\u00e2sva, white horse, an epithet of Arguna. Now as no one would be likely to conclude from the name of one of the celebrated Vedic Rishis, Sy\u00e2v\u00e2sva, i.e. black horse, that negro influences might be discovered in his hymns, it is hardly necessary to say that all speculations as to Christian influences, or the teaching of white Syro-Christian missionaries, being indicated by the name of Svet\u00e2svatara, are groundless 3.\nThe Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad holds a very high rank among the Upanishads. Though we cannot say that it is quoted by name by B\u00e2dar\u00e2yana in the Ved\u00e2nta-s\u00fbtras,\nit is distinctly referred to as sruta or revealed 1. It is one of the twelve Upanishads chosen by Vidy\u00e2ranya in his Sarvopanishad-arth\u00e2nabh\u00fbtiprak\u00e2sa, and it was singled out by Sa\u1e45kara as worthy of a special commentary.\nThe Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad seems to me one of the most difficult, and at the same time one of the most interesting works of its kind. Whether on that and on other grounds it should be assigned to a more ancient or to a more modern period is what, in the present state of our knowledge, or, to be honest, of our ignorance of minute chronology during the Vedic period, no true scholar would venture to assert. We must be satisfied to know that, as a class, the Upanishads are presupposed by the Kalpa-s\u00fbtras, that some of them, called Mantra-upanishads, form part of the more modern Samhit\u00e2s, and that there are portions even in the Rig-veda-samhit\u00e2 2 for which the name of Upanishad is claimed by the Anukraman\u00ees. We find them most frequent, however, during the Br\u00e2hmana-period, in the Br\u00e2hmanas themselves, and, more especially, in those portions which are called \u00c2ranyakas, while a large number of them is referred to the Atharva-veda. That, in imitation of older Upanishads, similar treatises were composed to a comparatively recent time, has, of course, long been known 3.\nBut when we approach the question whether among the ancient and genuine Upanishads one may be older than the other, we find that, though we may guess much, we can prove nothing. The Upanishads belonged to Parishads or settlements spread all over India. There is a stock of ideas, even of expressions, common to most of them. Yet, the ideas collected in the Upanishads cannot all have grown tip in one and the same place, still less in regular succession. They must have had an independent growth, determined by individual and local influences, and opinions which in one village might seem far advanced, would in another be looked upon as behind the world. We may\nadmire the ingeniousness of those who sometimes in this, sometimes in that peculiarity see a clear indication of the modern date of an Upanishad, but to a conscientious scholar such arguments are really distasteful for the very sake of their ingeniousness. He knows that they will convince many who do not know the real difficulties; he knows they will have to be got out of the way with no small trouble, and he knows that, even if they should prove true in the end, they will require very different support from what they have hitherto received, before they can be admitted to the narrow circle of scientific facts.\nWhile fully admitting therefore that the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad has its peculiar features and its peculiar difficulties, I must most strongly maintain that no argument that has as yet been brought forward, seems to me to prove, in any sense of the word, its modern character.\nIt has been said, for instance, that the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad is a sectarian Upanishad, because, when speaking of the Highest Self or the Highest Brahman, it applies such names to him as Hara (I, 10), Rudra (II, 17; III, 2; 4; IV, 12; 21; 22), Siva (III, 14; IV, 10), Bhagavat (III, 14), Agni, \u00c2ditya, V\u00e2yu, &c. (IV, 2). But here it is simply taken for granted that the idea of the Highest Self was developed first, and, after it had reached its highest purity, was lowered again by an identification with mythological and personal deities. The questions whether the conception of the Highest Self was formed once and once only, whether it was formed after all the personal and mythological deities had first been merged into one Lord (Prag\u00e2pati), or whether it was discovered behind the veil of any other name in the mythological pantheon of the past, have never been mooted. Why should not an ancient Rishi have said: What we have hitherto called Rudra, and what we worship as Agni, or Siva, is in reality the Highest Self, thus leaving much of the ancient mythological phraseology to be used with a new meaning? Why should we at once conclude that late sectarian worshippers of mythological gods replaced again the Highest Self, after their fathers had discovered it, by their own sectarian names? If we adopt the former\nview, the Upanishads, which still show these rudera of the ancient temples, would have to be considered as more primitive even than those in which the idea of the Brahman or the Highest Self has reached its utmost purity.\nIt has been considered a very strong argument in support of the modern and sectarian character of the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad, that 'it inculcates what is called Bhakti 1, or implicit reliance on the favour of the deity worshipped.' Now it is quite true that this Upanishad possesses a very distinct character of its own, by the stress which it lays on the personal, and sometimes almost mythical character of the Supreme Spirit; but, so far from inculcating bhakti, in the modern sense of the word, it never mentions that word, except in the very last verse, a verse which, if necessary, certain critics would soon dispose of as a palpable addition. But that verse says no more than this: 'If these truths (of the Upanishad) have been told to a high-minded man, who feels the highest devotion for God, and for his Guru as for God, then they will shine forth indeed.' Does that prove the existence of Bhakti as we find it in the S\u00e2ndilya-s\u00fbtras 2?\nAgain, it has been said that the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad is sectarian in a philosophical sense, that it is in fact an Upanishad of the S\u00e2\u1e45khya system of philosophy, and not of the Ved\u00e2nta. Now I am quite willing to admit that, in its origin, the Ved\u00e2nta philosophy is nearer to the Vedic literature than any other of the six systems of philosophy, and that if we really found doctrines, peculiar to the S\u00e2\u1e45khya, and opposed to the Ved\u00e2nta, in the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad, we might feel inclined to assign to our Upanishad a later date. But where is the proof of this?\nNo doubt there are expressions in this Upanishad which remind us of technical terms used at a later time in the S\u00e2\u1e45khya system of philosophy, but of S\u00e2\u1e45khya doctrines, which I had myself formerly suspected in this Upanishad,\nI can on closer study find very little. I think it was Mr. Gough who, in his Philosophy of the Upanishads, for the first time made it quite clear that the teaching of our Upanishad is, in the main, the same as that of the other Upanishads. 'The Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad teaches,' as he says, 'the unity of souls in the one and only Self; the unreality of the world as a series of figments of the self-feigning world-fiction; and as the first of the fictitious emanations, the existence of the Demiurgos or universal soul present in every individual soul, the deity that projects the world out of himself, that the migrating souls may find the recompense of their works in former lives.'\nI do not quite agree with this view of the \u00cesvara, whom Mr. Gough calls the Demiurgos, but he seems to me perfectly right when he says that the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad propounds in S\u00e2\u1e45khya terms the very principles that the S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophers make it their business to subvert. One might doubt as to the propriety of calling certain terms 'S\u00e2\u1e45khya terms' in a work written at a time when a S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophy, such as we know it as a system, had as yet no existence, and when the very name S\u00e2\u1e45khya meant something quite different from the S\u00e2\u1e45khya system of Kapila. S\u00e2\u1e45khya is derived from sa\u1e45khy\u00e2, and that meant counting, number, name, corresponding very nearly to the Greek \u03bb\u03cc\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2. S\u00e2\u1e45khya, as derived from it, meant originally no more than theoretic philosophy, as opposed to yoga, which meant originally practical religious exercises and penances, to restrain the passions and the senses in general. All other interpretations of these words, when they had become technical names, are of later date.\nBut even in their later forms, whatever we may think of the coincidences and differences between the S\u00e2\u1e45khya and Ved\u00e2nta systems of philosophy, there is one point on which they are diametrically opposed. Whatever else the S\u00e2\u1e45khya may be, it is dualistic; whatever else the Ved\u00e2nta may be, it is monistic. In the S\u00e2\u1e45khya, nature, or whatever else we may call it, is independent of the purusha; in the Ved\u00e2nta it is not. Now the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad states distinctly that nature, or what in the S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophy\nis intended by Pradh\u00e2na, is not an independent power, but a power (sakti) forming the very self of the Deva. 'Sages,' we read, 'devoted to meditation and concentration, have seen the power belonging to God himself, hidden in its own qualities.'\nWhat is really peculiar in the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad is the strong stress which it lays on the personality of the Lord, the \u00cesvara, Deva, in the passage quoted, is perhaps the nearest approach to our own idea of a personal God, though without the background which the Ved\u00e2nta always retains for it. It is God as creator and ruler of the world, as \u00eesvara, lord, but not as Param\u00e2tman, or the Highest Self. The Param\u00e2tman constitutes, no doubt, his real essence, but creation and creator have a phenomenal character only 1. The creation is m\u00e2y\u00e2, in its original sense of work, then of phenomenal work, then of illusion. The creator is m\u00e2yin, in its original sense of worker or maker, but again, in that character, phenomenal only 2. The Gunas or qualities arise, according to the Ved\u00e2nta, from prakriti or m\u00e2y\u00e2, within, not beside, the Highest Self, and this is the very idea which is here expressed by 'the Self-power of God, hidden in the gunas or determining qualities.' How easily that sakti or power may become an independent being, as M\u00e2y\u00e2, we see in such verses as:\nSarvabh\u00fbteshu sarv\u00e2tman y\u00e2 saktir apar\u00e2bhav\u00e2\n Gun\u00e2sray\u00e2 namas tasyai sasvat\u00e2yai paresvara\u00a03.\nBut the important point is this, that in the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad this change has not taken place. Throughout the whole of it we have one Being only, as the cause of everything, never two. Whatever S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophers of a later date may have imagined that they could discover in that Upanishad in support of their theories 4, there is not one passage in it which, if rightly interpreted, not by itself, but in connection with the whole text, could be quoted in\nsupport of a dualistic philosophy such as the S\u00e2\u1e45khya, as a system, decidedly is.\nIf we want to understand, what seems at first sight contradictory, the existence of a God, a Lord, a Creator, a Ruler, and at the same time the existence of the super-personal Brahman, we must remember that the orthodox view of the Ved\u00e2nta 1 is not what we should call Evolution, but Illusion. Evolution of the Brahman, or Parin\u00e2ma, is heterodox, illusion or Vivarta is orthodox Ved\u00e2nta. Brahman is a concept involving such complete perfection that with it evolution, or a tendency towards higher perfection, is impossible. If therefore there is change, that change can only be illusion, and can never claim the same reality as Brahman. To put it metaphorically, the world, according to the orthodox Ved\u00e2ntin, does not proceed from Brahman as a tree from a germ, but as a mirage from the rays of the sun. The world is, as we express it, phenomenal only, but whatever objective reality there is in it, is Brahman, 'das Ding an sich,' as Kant might call it.\nThen what is \u00cesvara, or Deva, the Lord or God? The answers given to this question are not very explicit. Historically, no doubt, the idea of the \u00cesvara, the personal God, the creator and ruler, the omniscient and omnipotent, existed before the idea of the absolute Brahman, and after the idea of the Brahman had been elaborated, the difficulty of effecting a compromise between the two ideas, had to be overcome. \u00cesvara, the Lord, is Brahman, for what else could he be? But he is Brahman under a semblance, the semblance, namely, of a personal creating and governing God. He is not created, but is the creator, an office too low, it was supposed, for Brahman. The power which enabled \u00cesvara to create, was a power within him, not independent of him, whether we call it Dev\u00e2tmasakti, M\u00e2y\u00e2, or Prakriti. That power is really inconceivable, and it has assumed such different forms in the mind of different Ved\u00e2ntists, that in the end M\u00e2y\u00e2 herself is represented as the creating power, nay, as having created \u00cesvara himself.\n[paragraph continues] In our Upanishad, however, \u00cesvara is the creator, and though, philosophically speaking, we should say that be was conceived as phenomenal, yet we must never forget that the phenomenal is the form of the real, and \u00cesvara therefore an aspect of Brahman 1. 'This God,' says Pram\u00e2da D\u00e2sa Mitra 2, 'is the spirit conscious of the universe. Whilst an extremely limited portion, and that only of the material universe, enters into my consciousness, the whole of the conscious universe, together, of course, with the material one that hangs upon it, enters into the consciousness of God.' And again, 'Whilst we (the g\u00eev\u00e2tmans) are subject to M\u00e2y\u00e2, M\u00e2y\u00e2 is subject to \u00cesvara. If we truly know \u00cesvara, we know him as Brahman; if we truly know ourselves, we know ourselves as Brahman. This being so, we must not be surprised if sometimes we find \u00cesvara sharply distinguished from Brahman, whilst at other times \u00cesvara, and Brahman are interchanged.'\nAnother argument in support of the sectarian character of the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad is brought forward, not by European students only, but by native scholars, namely, that the very name of Kapila, the reputed founder of the S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophy, occurs in it. Now it is quite true that if we read the second verse of the fifth Adhy\u00e2ya by itself, the occurrence of the word Kapila may seem startling. But if we read it in connection with what precedes and follows, we shall see hardly anything unusual in it. It says:\n'It is he who, being one only, rules over every germ (cause), over all forms, and over all germs; it is he who, in the beginning, bears in his thoughts the wise son, the fiery, whom he wished to look on while he was born.'\nNow it is quite clear to me that the subject in this verse is the same as in IV, II, where the same words are used, and where yo yonim yonim adhitishthaty ekah refers clearly to Brahman. It is equally clear that the pras\u00fbta, the son, the offspring of Brahman, in the Ved\u00e2nta sense, can only be the same person who is elsewhere called Hiranyagarbha,\nthe personified Brahman. Thus we read before, III, 4, 'He the creator and supporter of the gods, Rudra, the great seer (maharshi), the lord of all, formerly gave birth to Hiranyagarbha;' and in IV, 11, we have the very expression which is used here, namely, 'that he saw Hiranyagarbha being born.' Unfortunately, a new adjective is applied in our verse to Hiranyagarbha, namely, kapila, and this has called forth interpretations totally at variance with the general tenor of the Upanishad. If, instead of kapilam, reddish, fiery 1, any other epithet had been used of Hiranyagarbha, no one, I believe, would have hesitated for a moment to recognise the fact that our text simply repeats the description of Hiranyagarbha in his relation to Brahman, for the other epithet rishim, like maharshim, is too often applied to Brahman himself and to Hiranyagarbha to require any explanation.\nBut it is a well known fact that the Hindus, even as early as the Br\u00e2hmana-period, were fond of tracing their various branches of knowledge back to Brahman or to Brahman Svayambh\u00fb and then through Prag\u00e2pati, who even in the Rig-veda (X, 121, 10) replaces Hiranyagarbha, and sometimes through the Devas, such as Mrityu, V\u00e2yu, Indra, Agni 2, &c., to the various ancestors of their ancient families.\nIn the beginning of the Mundakopanishad we are told that Brahman told it to Atharvan, Atharvan to A\u1e45gir, A\u1e45gir to Satyav\u00e2ha Bh\u00e2radv\u00e2ga, Bh\u00e2radv\u00e2ga to A\u1e45giras, A\u1e45giras to Saunaka. Manu, the ancient lawgiver, is called both Hairanyagarbha and Sv\u00e2yambhuva, as descended from Sv\u00e2yambhu or from Hiranyagarbha 3. Nothing therefore was more natural than that the same tendency should have led some one to assign the authorship of a great philosophical system like the S\u00e2\u1e45khya to Hiranyagarbha, if not to Brahman Svayambh\u00fb. And if the name of Hiranyagarbha had been used already for the ancestors of other sages, and the inspirers of other systems, what could be more natural than that another name of the same Hiranyagarbha\nshould be chosen, such as Kapila. If we are told that Kapila handed his knowledge to \u00c2suri, \u00c2suri to Pa\u00f1kasikha, this again is in perfect keeping with the character of literary tradition in India. \u00c2suri occurs in the Vamsas of the Satapatha-br\u00e2hmana (see above, pp. 187, 226); Pa\u00f1kasikha 1, having five tufts, might be either a general name or a proper name of an ascetic, Buddhist or otherwise. He is quoted in the S\u00e2\u1e45khya-s\u00fbtras, V, 32; VI, 68.\nBut after all this was settled, after Kapila had been accepted, like Hiranyagarbha, as the founder of a great system of philosophy, there came a reaction. People had now learnt to believe in a real Kapila, and when looking out for credentials for him, they found them wherever the word Kapila occurred in old writings. The question whether there ever was a real historical person who took the name of Kapila and taught the S\u00e2\u1e45khya-s\u00fbtras, does not concern us here. I see no evidence for it. What is instructive is this, that our very passage, which may have suggested at first the name of Kapila, as distinct from Hiranyagarbha, Kapila, was later on appealed to to prove the primordial existence of a Kapila, the founder of the S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophy. However, it requires but a very slight acquaintance with Sanskrit literature and very little reflection in order to see that the author of our verse could never have dreamt of elevating a certain Kapila, known to him as a great philosopher, if there ever was such a man, to a divine rank 2. Hiranyagarbha kapila may have given birth to Kapila, the hero of the S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophers, but Kapila, a real human person, was never changed into Hiranyagarbha kapila.\nLet us see now what the commentators say. Sa\u1e45kara first explains kapilam by kanakam 3 kapilavarnam . . . . Hiranyagarbham. Kapilo 'graga iti pur\u00e2navakan\u00e2t. Kapilo Hiranyagarbho v\u00e2 nirdisyate. But he afterwards quotes some verses in support of the theory that Kapila was a\n[paragraph continues] Paramarshi, a portion of Vishnu, intended to destroy error in the Krita Yuga, a teacher of the S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophy.\nVig\u00f1\u00e2n\u00e2tman explains the verse rightly, and without any reference to Kapila, the S\u00e2\u1e45khya teacher.\nSa\u1e45kar\u00e2nanda goes a step further, and being evidently fully aware of the misuse that had been made of this passage, even in certain passages of the Mah\u00e2bh\u00e2rata (XII, 13254, 13703), and elsewhere, declares distinctly that kapila cannot be meant for the teacher of the S\u00e2\u1e45khya (na tu s\u00e2\u1e45khyapranet\u00e2 kapilah, n\u00e2mam\u00e2tras\u00e2myena tadgrahane sy\u00e2d atiprasa\u1e45gah). He is fully aware of the true interpretation, viz. avy\u00e2kritasya prathamak\u00e2ryabh\u00fbtam kapilam vikitravarnam g\u00f1\u00e2nakriy\u00e2sakty\u00e2tmakam Hiranyagarbham ityarthah, but he yields to another temptation, and seems to prefer another view which makes Kapila V\u00e2sudevasy\u00e2vat\u00e2rab\u00fbtam Sagaraputr\u00e2n\u00e2m dagdh\u00e2ram, an Avat\u00e2ra of V\u00e2sudeva, the burner of the sons of Sagara. What vast conclusions may be drawn from no facts, may be seen in Weber's Indische Studien, vol. i, p. 430, and even in his History of Indian Literature, published in 1878.\nFar more difficult to explain than these supposed allusions to the authors and to the teaching of the S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophy are the frequent references in the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad to definite numbers, which are supposed to point to certain classes of subjects as arranged in the S\u00e2\u1e45khya and other systems of philosophy. The S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophy is fond of counting and arranging, and its very name is sometimes supposed to have been chosen because it numbers (sankhy\u00e2) the subjects of which it treats. It is certainly true that if we meet, as we do in the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad, with classes of things 1, numbered as one, two, three, five, eight, sixteen, twenty, forty-eight, fifty and more, and if some of these numbers agree with those recognised in the later S\u00e2\u1e45khya and Yoga systems, we feel doubtful as to whether these coincidences are accidental, or whether, if not accidental, they are due to borrowing on the part of those later systems, or on the part\nit impossible to come to a decision on this point. Even so early as the hymns of the Rig-veda we meet with these numbers assigned to days and months and seasons, rivers and countries, sacrifices and deities. They clearly prove the existence of a considerable amount of intellectual labour which had become fixed and traditional before the composition of certain hymns, and they prove the same in the case of certain Upanishads. But beyond this, for the present, I should not like to go; and I must say that the attempts of most of the Indian commentators at explaining such numbers by a reference to later systems of philosophy or cosmology, are generally very forced and unsatisfactory.\nOne more point I ought to mention as indicating the age of the Svet\u00e2svatara-upanishad, and that is the obscurity of many of its verses, which may be due to a corruption of the text, and the number of various readings, recognised as such, by the commentators. Some of them have been mentioned in the notes to my translation.\nThe text of this Upanishad was printed by Dr. Roer in the Bibliotheca Indica, with Sa\u1e45kara's commentary. I have consulted besides, the commentary of Vig\u00f1\u00e2n\u00e2tman, the pupil of Paramahamsa-parivr\u00e2gak\u00e2k\u00e2rya-sr\u00eemag-G\u00f1\u00e2notta-m\u00e2k\u00e2rya, MS. I. O. 1133; and a third commentary, by Sa\u1e45kar\u00e2nanda, the pupil of Paramahamsa-parivr\u00e2gak\u00e2k\u00e2ry\u00e2nand\u00e2tman, MS. I. O. 1878. These were kindly lent me by Dr. Rost, the learned and liberal librarian of the India Office.\nxxxi:1 V\u00e2kaspatyam, p. 1222.\nxxxi:2 Catal. Bodl. p. 271 a; p. 222 a.\nxxxi:3 See Weber, Ind. Stud. I, pp. 400, 421.\nxxxii:1 See Deussen, Ved\u00e2nta, p. 24; Ved. S\u00fbtra I, 1, II; I, 4, 8; II, 3, 22.\nxxxii:2 See Sacred Books of the East, vol. i, p. lxvi.\nxxxii:3 Loc. cit. p. lxvii.\nxxxiv:1 Weber, Ind. Stud. I, 422; and History of Indian Literature, p. 238.\nxxxiv:2 The Aphorisms of S\u00e2ndilya, or the Hindu Doctrine of Faith, translated by E. B. Cowell, Calcutta, 1879.\nxxxvi:1 Prathamam \u00eesvar\u00e2tman\u00e2 m\u00e2yir\u00fbpen\u00e2vatishthate brahma; See p. 280, l. 5.\nxxxvi:2 M\u00e2y\u00ee srigate sarvam etat.\nxxxvi:3 See p. 279, l. 5. S\u00e2rvatman seems a vocative, like paresvara.\nxxxvi:4 See Sarvadarsanasa\u1e45graha, p. 152.\nxxxvii:1 Ved\u00e2ntaparibh\u00e2sh\u00e2, in the Pandit, vol. iv, p. 496.\nxxxviii:1 Savisesham Brahma, or sabalam Brahma.\nxxxviii:2 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1878, p. 40.\nxxxix:1 Other colours, instead of kapila, are n\u00eela, harita, lohit\u00e2ksha; see IV, 1; 4.\nxxxix:2 See Vamsa-br\u00e2hmana, ed. Burnell, p. 10; Brihad\u00e2ranyaka-up. pp. 185, 224.\nxxxix:3 See M. M., India, p. 372.\nxl:1 For fuller information on Pa\u00f1kasikha, Kapila, &c., see F. Hall's Preface to S\u00e2\u1e45khya-pravakana-bh\u00e2shya, p. 9 seq.; Weber, Ind. Stud. I, p. 433.\nxl:2 Weber, Hist. of Indian Literature, p. 236.\nxl:3 This ought to be Kanakavarnam, and I hope will not be identified with the name of Buddha in a former existence.\nxli:1 See I, 4; 5; VI, 3","title":"The Upanishads, Part 2 (SBE15): Introduction: V: The Svet\u00e2svatara-Upanishad","type":"page"}