{"collection":"Hinduism","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/browse/hin/sbe32/sbe3227.htm","path":"hin/sbe32/sbe3227.htm","source_url":"https://sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe32/sbe3227.htm","text":"Vedic Hymns, Part I (SBE32), by Max M\u00fcller, [1891]\n1. Let us now proclaim for the robust 1 host, for the herald 2 of the powerful (Indra), their ancient greatness! O ye strong-voiced Maruts, you heroes, prove your powers on your march, as with a torch, as with a sword 3!\n2. Like parents bringing a dainty to 1 their own 2 son, the wild (Maruts) play playfully at the sacrifices. The Rudras reach the worshipper with their protection, strong in themselves, they do not fail the sacrificer.\n3. For him to whom the immortal guardians have given fulness of wealth, and who is himself a giver of oblations, the Maruts, who gladden men with the milk (of rain), pour out, like friends, many clouds.\n4. You who have stirred 1 up the clouds with might, your horses rushed 2 forth, self-guided. All beings who dwell in houses 3 are afraid of you, your march is brilliant with your spears thrust forth.\n5. When they whose march is terrible have caused the rocks to tremble 1, or when the manly Maruts have shaken the back of heaven, then every lord of the forest fears at your racing, each shrub flies out of your way 2, whirling like chariot-wheels 3.\n6. You, O terrible Maruts, whose ranks are never broken, favourably 1 fulfil our prayer 2! Wherever your gory-toothed 3 lightning bites 4, it crunches 5 cattle, like a well-aimed bolt 6.\n7. The Maruts whose gifts are firm, whose bounties are never ceasing, who do not: revile 1, and who are highly praised at the sacrifices, they sing their song 2 for to drink the sweet juice: they know the first manly deeds of the hero (Indra).\n8. The man whom you have guarded, O Maruts,\u2014shield him with hundredfold strongholds from injury 1 and mischief,\u2014the man whom you, O fearful, powerful singers, protect from reproach in the prosperity of his children.\n9. On your chariots, O Maruts, there are all good things, strong weapons 1 are piled up clashing against each other. When you are on your journeys, you carry the rings 2 on your shoulders, and your axle turns the two wheels at once 3.\n10. In their manly arms there are many good things, on their chests golden chains 1, flaring 2 ornaments, on their shoulders speckled deer-skins 3, on their fellies sharp edges 4; as birds spread their wings, they spread out splendours behind.\n11. They, mighty by might, all-powerful powers 1, visible from afar like the heavens 2 with the stars, sweet-toned, soft-tongued singers with their mouths 3, the Maruts, united with Indra, shout all around.\n12. This is your greatness 1 O well-born Maruts!\u2014your bounty 3 extends far, as the sway 2 of Aditi 4. Not even 5 Indra in his scorn 6 can injure that bounty, on whatever man you have bestowed it for his good deeds.\n13. This is your kinship (with us), O Maruts, that you, immortals, in former years have often protected the singer 1. Having through this prayer granted a hearing to man, all these heroes together have become well-known by their valiant deeds.\n14. That we may long flourish, O Maruts, with your wealth, O ye racers, that our men may spread in the camp, therefore let me achieve the rite with these offerings.\n15. May this praise, O Maruts, this song of M\u00e2nd\u00e2rya, the son of M\u00e2na, the poet, ask you with food for offspring for ourselves! May we have an invigorating autumn, with quickening rain!\nThis hymn is ascribed to Agastya, the reputed son of Mitr\u00e2varunau, and brother of Vasishtha. The metre in verses 1-13 is Gagat\u00ee, in 14, 15 Trishtubh. No verse of this hymn occurs in SV., VS., AV., TS., TB.\nNote 1. Rabhas\u00e1, an adjective of r\u00e1bhas, and this again from the root rabh, to rush upon a thing, \u00e2-rabh, to begin a thing. From this root rabh we have the Latin robur, in the general sense of strength, while in rabies the original meaning of impetuous motion has been more clearly preserved. The Greek \u03bb\u03ac\u03b2\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, too, as pointed out by Cowell, comes from this root. In the Vedic Sanskrit, derivatives from the root rabh convey the meaning both of quickness and of strength. Quickness in ancient languages frequently implies strength, and strength implies quickness, as we see, for instance, from the German sn\u00ebl, which, from meaning originally strong, comes to mean in modern German quick, and quick only. The German bald again, meaning soon, comes from the Gothic balths, the English bold. Thus we read:\nI, 145, 3. s\u00edsuh \u00e2\u00b4 adatta s\u00e1m r\u00e1bhah.\nThe child (Agni) acquired vigour.\nIndra is called rabhah-d\u00e2\u00b4h, giver of strength; and rabhas\u00e1, vigorous, is applied not only to the Maruts, who in V, 58, 5, are called r\u00e1bhishth\u00e2h, the most vigorous, but also to Agni, II, 10, 4, and to Indra, III, 31, 12.\nIn the sense of rabid, furious, it occurs in\nX, 95, 14. \u00e1dha enam vr\u00edk\u00e2h rabhas\u00e2\u00b4sah ady\u00fah.\nMay rabid wolves eat him!\nIn the next verse rabhas\u00e1, the epithet of the wolves, is replaced by \u00e1siva, which means unlucky, uncanny.\nIn our hymn rabhas\u00e1 occurs once more, and is applied there, in verse 10, to the a\u00f1g\u00ed or glittering ornaments of the Maruts. Here S\u00e2yana translates it by lovely, and it was most likely intended to convey the idea of lively or brilliant splendour, though it may mean also strong. See also IX, 96, 1.\nNote 2. Ket\u00fa, derived from an old root ki, in Sanskrit ki, to perceive, from which also kitra, conspicuous, ken-speckled, beautiful, means originally that by which a thing is perceived or known, whether a sign, or a flag, or a herald. It is the Gothic haidu, species. It then takes the more general sense of light and splendour. In our passage, herald seems to me the most appropriate rendering, though B. and R. prefer the sense of banner. The Maruts come before Indra, they announce the arrival of Indra, they are the first of his army.\nNote 3. The real difficulty of our verse lies in the two comparisons aidh\u00e2\u00b4-iva and yudh\u00e2\u00b4-iva. Neither of them occurs again in the Rig-veda. B. and R. explain aidh\u00e2\u00b4 as an instrumental of a\u00eddh, flaming, or flame, and derive it from the root idh, to kindle, with the preposition \u00e2. Professor Bollensen in his excellent article Zur Herstellung des Veda (Orient and Occident, vol. iii, p. 473) says: 'The analysis of the text given in the Pada, viz. aidh\u00e2\u00b4-iva and yudh\u00e2\u00b4-iva, is contrary to all sense. The common predicate is tavish\u00e2\u00b4ni kartana, exercise your power, you roarers, i. e. blow as if you meant to kindle the fire on the altar, show your power as if you went to battle. We ought therefore to read aidh\u00e9 va and yudh\u00e9 | va. Both are infinitives, aidh is nothing but the root idh + \u00e2, to kindle, to light.' Now this is certainly a very ingenious explanation, but it rests on a supposition which I cannot consider as proved, viz. that in the Veda, as in P\u00e2li, the comparative particle iva may be changed, as shown in the preface to the first edition, to va. It must be admitted that the two short syllables of iva are occasionally counted in the Veda as one, but yudh\u00e9-iva, though it might become yudh\u00e1 iva, would never in the Veda become yudh\u00e9va.\nAs yudh\u00e2\u00b4 occurs frequently in the Veda, we may begin by admitting that the parallel form aidh must be explained in analogy to yudh\u00e2\u00b4. Now y\u00fadh is a verbal noun and means fighting. We have the accusative y\u00fadham, I, 53, 7; the genitive yudh\u00e1h, VIII, 27, 17; the dative yudh\u00e9, I, 61, 13; the locative yudh\u00ed, I, 8, 3; the instrumental yudh\u00e2\u00b4, I, 53, 7, &c.; loc. plur. yut-s\u00fa, I, 91, 21. As long as y\u00fadh\nretains the general predicative meaning of fighting, some of these cases may be called infinitives. But y\u00fadh soon assumes not only the meaning of battle, battle-ground, but also of instrument of fighting, weapon. In another passage, X, 103, 2, y\u00fadhah may be taken as a vocative plural, meaning fighters. Passages in which y\u00fadh means clearly weapon, are, for instance,\nV, 52, 6. \u00e2\u00b4 rukma\u00edh \u00e2\u00b4 yudh\u00e2\u00b4 n\u00e1rah rishv\u00e2\u00b4h risht\u00ee\u00b4h asrikshata.\nWith their bright chains, with their weapon, the tall men have stretched forth the spears.\nX, 55, 8. p\u00eetv\u00ee\u00b4 s\u00f3masya div\u00e1h \u00e2\u00b4 vridh\u00e2n\u00e1h s\u00fb\u00b4rah n\u00edh yudh\u00e2\u00b4 adhamat d\u00e1sy\u00fbn.\nThe hero, growing, after drinking the Soma, blew away from the sky the enemies with his weapon. See also X, 103, 4.\nI therefore take y\u00fadh in our passage also in the sense of weapon or sword, and, in accordance with this, I assign to a\u00eddh the meaning of torch. Whether a\u00eddh comes from idh with the preposition \u00e2, which, after all, would only give edh, or whether we have in the Sanskrit a\u00eddh the same peculiar strengthening which this very root shows in Greek and Latin a, would be difficult to decide. The torch of the Maruts is the lightning, the weapon the thunderbolt, and by both they manifest their strength; ferro et igne, as Ludwig remarks.\nWilson: We proclaim eagerly, Maruts, your ancient greatness, for (the sake of inducing) your prompt appearance, as the indication of (the approach of) the showerer (of benefits). Loud-roaring and mighty Maruts, you exert your vigorous energies for the advance (to the sacrifice), as if it was to battle.\nNote 1. That \u00fapa can be construed with the accusative is clear from many passages:\nIII, 35, 2. \u00fapa im\u00e1m yag\u00f1\u00e1m \u00e2\u00b4 vah\u00e2tah \u00edndram.\nBring Indra to this sacrifice!\nI, 25, 4. v\u00e1yah n\u00e1 vasat\u00ee\u00b4h \u00fapa.\nAs birds (fly) to their nests.\nNote 2. N\u00edtya, from ni + tya a, means originally what is inside, internus, then what is one's own; and is opposed to n\u00edshtya, from nis + tya, what is outside, strange, or hostile. N\u00edtya has been well compared with nig\u00e1, literally eingeboren, then, like n\u00edtya, one's own. What is inside, or in a thing or place, is its own, is peculiar to it, does not move or change, and hence the secondary meanings of n\u00edtya, one's own, unchanging, eternal. Thus we find n\u00edtya used in the sense of internal or domestic:\nI, 73, 4. t\u00e1m tv\u00e2 n\u00e1rah d\u00e1me \u00e2\u00b4 n\u00edtyam iddh\u00e1m \u00e1gne s\u00e1kanta kshit\u00edshu dhruv\u00e2\u00b4su.\nOur men worshipped thee, O Agni, lighted within the house in safe places.\nThis I believe to be a more appropriate rendering than if we take n\u00edtya in the sense of always, continuously lighted, or, as some propose, in the sense of eternal, everlasting.\nVII, 1, 2. daksh\u00e2\u00b4yyah y\u00e1h d\u00e1me \u00e2\u00b4sa n\u00edtyah.\nAgni who is to be pleased within the house, i. e. as belonging to the house, and, in that sense, who is to be pleased always. Cf. I, 140, 7; 141, 2; X, 12, 2, and III, 25, 5, where n\u00edtyah, however, may have been intended as an adjective belonging to the vocative s\u00fbno.\nMost frequently n\u00edtya occurs with s\u00fbn\u00fa, I, 66, 1; 185, 2; t\u00e1naya, III, 15, 2; X, 39, 14; tok\u00e1, II, 2, 11; \u00e2p\u00ed, VII, 88, 6; p\u00e1ti, I, 71, 1, and has always the meaning of one's own, very much like the later Sanskrit niga, which never occurs in the Rig-veda, though it makes its appearance in the \u00c2tharvana.\nN\u00edshtya, extraneus, occurs three times in the Rig-veda:\nVI, 75, 19. y\u00e1h nah sv\u00e1h \u00e1ranah y\u00e1h ka n\u00edshtyah g\u00edgh\u00e2msati.\nWhoever wishes to hurt us, our own friend or a stranger from without.\nX, 133, 5. y\u00e1h nah indra abhi-d\u00e2\u00b4sati s\u00e1-n\u00e2bhih y\u00e1h ka n\u00edshtyah.\nHe who infests us, O Indra, whether a relative or a stranger.\nVIII, I, 13. m\u00e2\u00b4 bh\u00fbma n\u00edshty\u00e2h-iva \u00edndra tv\u00e1d \u00e1ran\u00e2h-iva.\nLet us not be like outsiders, O Indra, not like strangers to thee.\nWilson: Ever accepting the sweet (libation), as (they would) a son, they sport playfully at sacrifices, demolishing (all intruders).\nLudwig: Wie einen nicht absterbenden Sohn das Madhu bringend.\nNote 1. \u00c1vyata, a Vedic second aorist of v\u00ee (ag), to stir up, to excite. From it pravayana, a goad, pra-vetar, a driver. The Greek \u03bf\u1f36-\u03c3-\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, gad-fly, has been referred to the same root. See Fick, W\u00f6rterbuch, p. 170.\nRoth (Wenzel, Instrumental, p. 54) translates: 'While you quickly throw yourselves into the mists;' from a verb vy\u00e2.\nNote 2. Adhragan, from dhrag, a root which, by metathesis of aspiration, would assume the form of dragh or dragh. In Greek, the final medial aspirate being hardened, reacts on the initial media, and changes it to t, as b\u00e2hu becomes \u03c0\u1fc6\u03c7\u03c5\u03c2, budh \u03c0\u03c5\u03b8, bandh, \u03c0\u03b5\u03bd\u03b8. This would give us \u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03c7, the Greek root for running, Goth. thrag-jan.\nNote 3. Harmy\u00e1 is used here as an adjective of bh\u00favana, and can only mean living in houses. It does not, however, occur again in the same sense, though it occurs several times as a substantive, meaning house. Its original meaning is fire-pit, then hearth, then house, a transition of meaning analogous to that of aedes. Most of the ancient nations begin their kitchen with a fire-pit. \u2018They dig a hole in the ground, take a piece of the animal's raw hide, and press it down with their hands close to the sides of the hole, which thus becomes a sort of pot or basin. This they fill with water, and they make a number of stones red-hot in a fire close by. The meat is put into the water, and the stones dropped in till the meat is boiled. Catlin describes the process as awkward and tedious, and says that since the Assinaboins had learnt from the Mandans to make pottery, and had been supplied with vessels by the traders, they had entirely done away the custom, \u201cexcepting at public festivals; where they seem, like all others of the human family, to take pleasure in cherishing and perpetuating\ntheir ancient customs a.\u201d\u2019 This pit was called harmy\u00e1 b or gharm\u00e1, which is the Latin formus. Thus we read:\nVII, 56, 16. t\u00e9 harmye-sth\u00e2\u00b4h s\u00edsavah n\u00e1 subhr\u00e2\u00b4h.\nThe Maruts bright like boys standing by the hearth.\nFrom meaning fire-pit, or hearth, harmy\u00e1 afterwards takes the more general sense of house:\nVII, 55, 6. t\u00e9sh\u00e2m s\u00e1m hanmah aksh\u00e2\u00b4ni y\u00e1th\u00e2 id\u00e1m harmy\u00e1m t\u00e1th\u00e2.\nWe shut their eyes as we shut this house (possibly, this oven).\nVII, 76, 2. prat\u00eek\u00ee\u00b4 \u00e2\u00b4 ag\u00e2t \u00e1dhi harmy\u00e9bhyah.\nThe dawn comes near, over the house-tops.\nX, 46, 3. g\u00e2t\u00e1h \u00e2\u00b4 harmy\u00e9shu.\nAgni, born in the houses.\nX, 73, 10. many\u00f3h iy\u00e2ya harmy\u00e9shu tasthau.\nHe came from Manyu, he remained in the houses.\nIn some of these passages harmy\u00e1 might be taken in the sense of householder; but as harmy\u00e1 in VII, 55, 6, has clearly the meaning of a building, it seems better not to assign to it unnecessarily any new significations.\nIf harmya or *harma meant originally a fire-pit, then a hearth, a house, we see the close connection between harma and gharma, harmya and gharmya. Thus by the side of harmyeshtha we find gharmyeshtha (RV. X, 106, 5). We find gharma meaning, not only heat in general, but fire-pit, hearth; and we find the same word used for what we should call the pit, a place of torture and punishment from which the gods save their worshippers, or into which they throw the evil-doers.\nV, 32, 5. y\u00fbyutsantam t\u00e1masi harmy\u00e9 dh\u00e2\u00b4h.\nWhen thou, Indra, hadst placed Sushna, who was anxious to fight, in the darkness of the pit.\nIn the next verse we find\nas\u00fbry\u00e9 t\u00e1masi, in the ghastly darkness.\nVIII, 5, 23. yuv\u00e1m k\u00e1nv\u00e2ya n\u00e2saty\u00e2 \u00e1pi-ript\u00e2ya harmy\u00e9 s\u00e1svat \u00fbt\u00ee\u00b4h dasasyathah.\nYou, N\u00e2satyas, always grant your aid to Kanva when thrown into the pit.\nThis fiery pit into which Atri is thrown, and whence he, too, was saved by the Asvins, is likewise called gharm\u00e1, I, 112, 7; 119, 6; VIII, 73, 3; X, 80, 3.\nLastly we find:\nX, 114, 10. yad\u00e2\u00b4 yam\u00e1h bh\u00e1vati harmy\u00e9 hit\u00e1h.\nWhen Yama is seated in the house, or in the nether world.\nWhen the Pitars, too, the spirits of the departed, the Manes, are called gharma-s\u00e1d, this is probably intended to mean, dwelling on the hearth (X, 15, 9 and 10), and not dwelling in the abode of Yama.\nKuhn, Zeitschrift, vol. ii, p. 234: 'Die ihr die Luft erf\u00fcllt mit eurer Kraft, hervorst\u00fcrmt ihr selbst-gelenkten Laufes.'\nNote 1. Nad certainly means to sound, and the causative might be translated by 'to make cry or shriek.' If we took p\u00e1rvata in the sense of cloud, we might translate, 'When you make the clouds roar;' if we took p\u00e1rvata for mountain, we might, with Professor Wilson, render the passage by 'When your brilliant coursers make the mountains echo.' But nad, like other roots which afterwards take the meaning of sounding, means originally to vibrate, to shake; and if we compare analogous passages where nad occurs, we shall see that in our verse, too, the Vedic poet undoubtedly meant nad to be taken in that sense:\nVIII, 20, 5. \u00e1kyut\u00e2 kit vah \u00e1gman \u00e2\u00b4 n\u00e2\u00b4nadati p\u00e1rvat\u00e2sah v\u00e1nasp\u00e1tih, bh\u00fb\u00b4mih y\u00e2\u00b4meshu regate.\nAt your racing even things that are immovable vibrate, the rocks, the lord of the forest; the earth quivers on your ways. (See I, 37, 7, note I.) Grassmann here translates nad\u00e1yanta by ersch\u00fcttern, but in VIII, 20, 5 by erdr\u00f6hnt.\nNote 2. See I, 37, 7, note 1.\nNote 3. Rathiy\u00e1nt\u00ee-iva does not occur again. S\u00e2yana explains it, like a woman who wishes for a chariot, or who rides in a chariot. I join it with \u00f3shadhi, and take it in the sense of upam\u00e2n\u00e2d \u00e2k\u00e2re (P\u00e2n. III, 1, 10), i. e. to behave like or to be like a chariot, whether the comparison is meant to express simply the quickness of chariots or the whirling of their wheels. The Pada has rathiy\u00e1nt\u00ee, whereas the more regular form is that of the Samhit\u00e2, rath\u00eey\u00e1nt\u00ee. Cf. Pr\u00e2tis\u00e2khya, 587.\nNote 1. Su-ket\u00fan\u00e2, the instrumental of su-ket\u00fa, kindness, good-mindedness, favour. This word occurs in the instrumental only, and always refers to the kindness of the gods; not, like sumat\u00ed, to the kindness of the worshipper also:\nI, 79, 9. \u00e2\u00b4 nah agne su-ket\u00fan\u00e2 ray\u00edm visv\u00e2\u00b4yu-poshasam, m\u00e2rd\u00eek\u00e1m dhehi g\u00eev\u00e1se.\nGive us, O Agni, through thy favour wealth which supports our whole life, give us grace to live.\nI, 127, 11. s\u00e1h nah n\u00e9dishtham d\u00e1dris\u00e2nah \u00e2\u00b4 bhara \u00e1gne dev\u00e9bhih s\u00e1-kan\u00e2h su-ket\u00fan\u00e2 mah\u00e1h r\u00e2y\u00e1h su-ket\u00fbn\u00e2.\nThou, O Agni, seen close to us, bring to us, in union with the gods, by thy favour, great riches, by thy favour!\nI, 159, 5. asm\u00e1bhyam dy\u00e2v\u00e2prithiv\u00ee (\u00edti) su-ket\u00fan\u00e2 ray\u00edm dhattam v\u00e1su-mantam sata-gv\u00ednam.\nGive to us, O Dy\u00e2v\u00e2prithiv\u00ee, by your favour, wealth, consisting of treasures and many flocks.\nV, 51, 11. svast\u00ed dy\u00e2v\u00e2prithiv\u00ee (\u00edti) su-ket\u00fan\u00e2.\nGive us, O Dy\u00e2v\u00e2prithiv\u00ee, happiness through your favour!\nV, 64, 2. t\u00e2\u00b4 b\u00e2h\u00e1v\u00e2 su-ket\u00fan\u00e2 pr\u00e1 yantam asmai \u00e1rkate.\nStretch out your arms with kindness to this worshipper! In one passage of the ninth Mandala (IX, 65, 30) we meet with su-ket\u00fanam, as an accusative, referring to Soma, the gracious, and this would pre-suppose a substantive ket\u00fana, which, however, does not exist.\nNote 2. Sumat\u00ed has, no doubt, in most passages in the Rig-veda, the meaning of favour, the favour of the gods. 'Let us obtain your favour, let us be in your favour,' are familiar expressions of the Vedic poets. But there are also numerous passages where that meaning is inapplicable, and\nwhere, as in our passage, we must translate sumat\u00ed by prayer or desire.\nIn the following passages sumat\u00ed is clearly used in its original sense of favour, blessing, or even gift:\nI, 73, 6 (7). su-mat\u00edm bh\u00edksham\u00e2n\u00e2h.\nBegging for thy favour.\nI, 171, 1. su-ukt\u00e9na bhikshe su-mat\u00edm tur\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m.\nWith a hymn I beg for the favour of the quick Maruts.\nI, 114, 3. asy\u00e2\u00b4ma te su-mat\u00edm.\nMay we obtain thy favour! Cf. I, 114, 9:\nI, 114, 4. su-mat\u00edm \u00edt vay\u00e1m asya \u00e2\u00b4 vrin\u00eemahe.\nWe choose his favour. Cf. III, 33, 1.\nI, 117, 23. s\u00e1d\u00e2 kav\u00ee (\u00edti) su-mat\u00edm \u00e2\u00b4 kake v\u00e2m.\nI always desire your favour, O ye wise Asvins.\nI, 156, 3. mah\u00e1h te vishno (\u00edti) su-mat\u00edm bhag\u00e2mahe.\nMay we, O Vishnu, enjoy the favour of thee, the mighty!\nBhiksh, to beg, used above, is an old desiderative form of bhag, and means to wish to enjoy.\nIII, 4, 1. su-mat\u00edm r\u00e2si v\u00e1svah.\nThou grantest the favour of wealth.\nVII, 39, 1. \u00fbrdhv\u00e1h agn\u00edh su-mat\u00edm v\u00e1svah asret.\nThe lighted fire went up for the favour of wealth. Cf. VII, 60, 11; IX, 97, 26.\nIII, 57, 6. v\u00e1so (\u00edti) r\u00e2\u00b4sva su-mat\u00edm visv\u00e1-gany\u00e2m.\nGrant us, O Vasu, thy favour, which is glorious among men!\nVII, 100, 2. tv\u00e2m vishno (\u00edti) su-mat\u00edm visv\u00e1-gany\u00e2m\u2014d\u00e2h.\nMayest thou, Vishnu, give thy favour, which is glorious among men!\nX, 11, 7. y\u00e1h te agne su-mat\u00edm m\u00e1rtah \u00e1kshat.\nThe mortal who obtained thy favour, O Agni.\nII, 34, 15. arv\u00e2\u00b4k\u00ee s\u00e2\u00b4 marutah y\u00e2\u00b4 vah \u00fbt\u00edh \u00f3 (\u00edti) s\u00fa v\u00e2sr\u00e2\u00b4-iva su-mat\u00edh gig\u00e2tu.\nYour help, O Maruts, which is to usward, your favour may it come near, like a cow!\nVIII, 22, 4. asm\u00e2\u00b4n \u00e1kkha su-mat\u00edh v\u00e2m subhah pat\u00ee (\u00edti) \u00e2 dhen\u00fah-iva dh\u00e2vatu.\nMay your favour, O Asvins, hasten towards us, like a cow!\nBut this meaning is by no means the invariable meaning of sumat\u00ed, and it will easily be seen that, in the following\npassages, the word must be translated by prayer. Thus when Sarasvat\u00ee is called (I, 3, 11) k\u00e9tant\u00ee su-mat\u00een\u00e2\u00b4m, this can only mean she who knows of the prayers, as before she is called kodayitr\u00ee\u00b4 s\u00fbnr\u00edt\u00e2n\u00e2m, she who excites songs of praise:\nI, 151, 7. \u00e1kkha g\u00edrah su-mat\u00edm gantam asma-y\u00fb\u00b4 (\u00edti).\nCome towards the songs, towards the prayer, you who are longing for us. Cf. X, 20, 10.\nII, 43, 3. t\u00fbshn\u00ee\u00b4m \u00e2\u00b4s\u00eenah su-mat\u00edm kikiddhi nah.\nSitting quiet, listen, O Sakuni (bird), to our prayer!\nV, 1, 10. \u00e2\u00b4 bh\u00e1ndishthasya su-mat\u00edm kikiddhi.\nTake notice of the prayer of thy best praiser! Cf. V, 33, I.\nVII, 18, 4. \u00e2\u00b4 nah \u00edndrah su-mat\u00edm gantu \u00e1kkha.\nMay Indra come to our prayer!\nVII, 31, 10. pr\u00e1-ketase pr\u00e1 su-mat\u00edm krinudhvam.\nMake a prayer for the wise god!\nIX, 96, 2. su-mat\u00edm y\u00e2ti \u00e1kkha.\nHe (Soma) goes near to the prayer.\nX, 148, 3. rish\u00een\u00e2m v\u00edprah su-mat\u00edm kak\u00e2n\u00e1h.\nThou, the wise, desiring the prayer of the Rishis.\nVIII, 22, 6. t\u00e2\u00b4 v\u00e2m ady\u00e1 sumat\u00ed-bhih subhah pat\u00ee (\u00edti) \u00e1svin\u00e2 pr\u00e1 stuv\u00eemahi.\nLet us praise to-day the glorious Asvins with our prayers.\nIX, 74, 1. t\u00e1m \u00eemahe su-mat\u00ee\u00b4.\nWe implore him with prayer.\nIn our passage the verb pipartana, fill or fulfil, indicates in what sense sumat\u00ed ought to be taken. Su-mat\u00edm pipartana is no more than k\u00e2\u00b4mam pipartana, fulfil our desire! See VII, 62, 3. \u00e2\u00b4 nah k\u00e2\u00b4mam p\u00fbpurantu; I, 158, 2. k\u00e2mapr\u00e9na-iva m\u00e1nas\u00e2. On sumn\u00e1, see Burnouf, \u00c9tudes, p. 91, and Aufrecht, in Kuhn's Zeitschrift, vol. iv, p. 274.\nNote 3. Kr\u00edvih-dat\u00ee has been a crux to ancient and modern interpreters. It is mentioned as a difficult word in the Nighantu, and all that Y\u00e2ska has to say is that it means possessed of cutting teeth (Nir. VI, 30. krivirdat\u00ee vikartanadant\u00ee). Professor Roth, in his note to this passage, says that krivi can never have the meaning of well, which is ascribed to it in the Nighantu III, 23, but seems rather to mean an animal, perhaps the wild boar, \u03ba\u03ac\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2, with metathesis of v and r. He translates our passage: 'Where\nyour lightning with boar-teeth tears.' In his Dictionary, however, he only says, 'krivis, perhaps the name of an animal, and dant, tooth.' S\u00e2yana contents himself with explaining kr\u00edvirdat\u00ee by vikshepanas\u00eeladant\u00ee, having teeth that scatter about.\nMy own translation is founded on the supposition that kr\u00edvis, the first portion of kr\u00edvirdat\u00ee, has nothing to do with krivi, but is a dialectic variety of krav\u00eds, raw flesh, the Greek \u03ba\u03c1\u03ad\u03b1\u03c2, Latin caro, cruor. It means what is raw, bloody, or gory. From it the adjective kr\u00fbra, horrible, cruentus (Curtius, Grundz\u00fcge, p. 142; Kuhn, Zeitschrift, vol. ii, p. 235). A name of the goddess Durg\u00e2 in later Sanskrit is kr\u00fbradant\u00ee, and with a similar conception the lightning, I believe, is here called kr\u00edvirdat\u00ee, with gory teeth.\nNote 4. It should be observed that in r\u00e1dati the simile of the teeth of the lightning is carried on. For r\u00e1dati may be supposed to have had in the Veda, too, the original meaning of r\u00e2dere and r\u00f4dere, to scratch, to gnaw. Rada and radana in the later Sanskrit mean tooth. It is curious, however, that there is no other passage in the Rig-veda where rad clearly means to bite. It means to cut, in\nI, 61, 12. g\u00f3h n\u00e1 p\u00e1rva v\u00ed rada tirask\u00e2\u00b4.\nCut his joint through, as the joint of an ox.\nBut in most passages where rad occurs in the Veda, it has the meaning of giving. It is not the same which we have in the Zend r\u00e2d, to give, and which Justi rightly identifies with the root r\u00e2dh. But rad, to divide, may, like the German theilen in zutheilen, have taken the meaning of giving. Greek \u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c9 means to divide, but yields \u03b4\u03b1\u03af\u03c2, portion, meal, just as Sanskrit day, to divide, yields d\u00e2yas, share, i. e. inheritance.\nThis meaning is evident in the following passages:\nVII, 79, 4. t\u00e2\u00b4vat ushah r\u00e2\u00b4dhah asm\u00e1bhyam r\u00e2sva y\u00e2\u00b4vat stotr\u00ed-bhyah \u00e1radah grin\u00e2n\u00e2\u00b4.\nGrant us, Ushas, so much wealth as thou hast given to the singers, when praised.\nI, 116, 7. kaksh\u00ee\u00b4vate aradatam p\u00faram-dhim.\nYou gave wisdom to Kaksh\u00eevat.\nI, 169, 8. r\u00e1da mar\u00fat-bhih sur\u00fadhah g\u00f3-agr\u00e2h.\nGive to the Maruts gifts, rich in cattle.\nVII, 62, 3. v\u00ed nah sah\u00e1sram sur\u00fadhah radantu.\nMay they (the gods) give to us a thousand gifts!\nI, 117, 11. v\u00e2\u00b4gam v\u00edpr\u00e2ya\u2014r\u00e1dant\u00e2.\nGiving spoil to the sage!\nVI, 61, 6. r\u00e1da p\u00fbsh\u00e2\u00b4-iva nah san\u00edm.\nGive us, Sarasvat\u00ee, wealth, like P\u00fbshan!\nIX, 93, 4. rada \u00edndo (\u00edti) ray\u00edm.\nGive us, O Indra, wealth!\nVII, 32, 18. rada-vaso (\u00edti).\nIndra, thou who givest wealth!\nIn many passages, however, this verb rad is connected with words meaning way or path, and it then becomes a question whether it simply means to grant a way, or to cut a way open for some one. In Zend, too, the same idiom occurs, and Professor Justi explains it by 'prepare a way.' I subjoin the principal passages:\nVI, 30, 3. y\u00e1t \u00e2bhyah \u00e1radah g\u00e2t\u00fam indra.\nThat thou hast cut a way for them (the rivers). Cf. VII, 74, 4.\nIV, 19, 2. pr\u00e1 vartan\u00ee\u00b4h aradah visv\u00e1-dhen\u00e2h.\nThou (Indra) hast cut open the paths for all the cows.\nX, 75, 2. pr\u00e1 te aradat v\u00e1runah y\u00e2\u00b4tave path\u00e1h.\nVaruna cut the paths for thee to go.\nVII, 87, 1. r\u00e1dat path\u00e1h v\u00e1runah s\u00fb\u00b4ry\u00e2ya.\nVaruna cut paths for S\u00fbrya.\nV, 80, 3. path\u00e1h r\u00e1dant\u00ee suvit\u00e2\u00b4ya dev\u00ee\u00b4.\nShe, the dawn, cutting open the paths for welfare.\nVII, 60, 4. y\u00e1smai \u00e2dity\u00e2\u00b4h \u00e1dhvanah r\u00e1danti.\nFor whom the \u00c2dityas cut roads.\nII, 30, 2. path\u00e1h r\u00e1dant\u00eeh\u2014dh\u00fbnayah yanti \u00e1rtham.\nCutting their paths, the rivers go to their goal.\nThis last verse seems to show that the cutting open of a road is really the idea expressed by rad in all these passages. And thus we find the rivers themselves saying that Indra cut them out or delivered them:\nIII, 33, 6. \u00edndrah asm\u00e2\u00b4n aradat v\u00e1gra-b\u00e2huh. Cf. X, 89, 7.\nNote 5. Rin\u00e2\u00b4ti, like the preceding expressions kr\u00edvirdat\u00ee and r\u00e1dati, is not chosen at random, for though it has the\ngeneral meaning of crushing or destroying, it is used by the Vedic poets with special reference to the chewing or crunching by means of the teeth. For instance,\nI, 148, 4. pur\u00fb\u00b4ni dasm\u00e1h n\u00ed rin\u00e2ti g\u00e1mbhaih.\nAgni crunches many things with his jaws.\nI, 127, 4. sthir\u00e2\u00b4 kit \u00e1nn\u00e2 n\u00ed rin\u00e2ti \u00f3gas\u00e2.\nEven tough morsels he (Agni) crunches fiercely. In a more general sense we find it used,\nV, 41, 10. sok\u00edh-kesah n\u00ed rin\u00e2ti v\u00e1n\u00e2.\nAgni with flaming hair swallows or destroys the forests.\nIV, 19, 3. \u00e1him v\u00e1grena v\u00ed rin\u00e2h.\nThou destroyedst Ahi with the thunderbolt.\nX, 120, 1. sady\u00e1h gag\u00f1\u00e2n\u00e1h n\u00ed rin\u00e2ti s\u00e1tr\u00fbn.\nAs soon as born he destroys his enemies.\nNote 6. S\u00fadhit\u00e2-iva barh\u00e1n\u00e2. I think the explanation of this phrase given by S\u00e2yana may be retained. He explains s\u00fadhit\u00e2 by suhit\u00e2, i. e. sushthu prerit\u00e2, well thrown, well levelled, and barh\u00e1n\u00e2 by hatis, tats\u00e2dhan\u00e2 hetir v\u00e2, a blow or its instrument, a weapon. Professor Roth takes barh\u00e1n\u00e2 as an instrumental, used adverbially, in the sense of powerfully, but he does not explain in what sense s\u00fadhit\u00e2-iva ought then to be taken. We cannot well refer it to didy\u00fat, lightning, on account of the iva, which requires something that can form a simile of the lightning. Nor is su-dhit\u00e2 ever used as a substantive so as to take the place of sv\u00e1dhit\u00eeva. S\u00fa-dhita has apparently many meanings, but they all centre in one common conception. S\u00fa-dhita means well placed, of a thing which is at rest, well arranged, well ordered, secure; or it means well sent, well thrown, of a thing which has been in motion. Applied to human beings, it means well disposed or kind.\nIII, 23, 1. n\u00edh-mathitah s\u00fa-dhitah \u00e2\u00b4 sadh\u00e1-sthe.\nAgni produced by rubbing, and well placed in his abode.\nVII, 42, 4. s\u00fa-pr\u00eetah agn\u00edh s\u00fa-dhitah d\u00e1me \u00e2\u00b4.\nAgni, who is cherished and well placed in the house.\nIII, 29, 2. ar\u00e1nyoh n\u00ed-hitah g\u00e2t\u00e1-ved\u00e2h g\u00e1rbhah-iva s\u00fa-dhitah garbh\u00edn\u00eeshu.\nAgni placed in the two fire-sticks, well placed like an embryo in the mothers. Cf. X, 27, 16.\nVIII, 60, 4. abh\u00ed pr\u00e1y\u00e2msi s\u00fa-dhit\u00e2 \u00e2\u00b4 vaso (\u00edti) gahi.\nCome, O Vasu, to these well-placed offerings. Cf. I, 135, 4; VI, 15, 15; X, 53, 2.\nX, 70, 8. s\u00fb-dhit\u00e2 hav\u00ee\u00b4mshi.\nThe well-placed offerings.\nIV, 2, 10 (adhvar\u00e1m). VII, 7, 3 (barh\u00edh).\nAs applied to \u00e2\u00b4yus, life, s\u00fadhita may be translated by well established, safe:\nII, 27, 10. asy\u00e2\u00b4ma \u00e2\u00b4y\u00fbmshi s\u00fa-dhit\u00e2ni p\u00fb\u00b4rv\u00e2.\nMay we obtain the happy long lives of our forefathers.\nIV, 50, 8. s\u00e1h \u00edt ksheti s\u00fa-dhitah \u00f3kasi sv\u00e9.\nThat man dwells secure in his own house.\nApplied to a missile weapon, s\u00fadhita may mean well placed, as it were, well shouldered, well held, before it is thrown; or well levelled, well aimed, when it is thrown:\nI, 167, 3. mimy\u00e1ksha y\u00e9shu s\u00fa-dhit\u00e2\u2014risht\u00edh.\nTo whom the well held spear sticks fast.\nVI, 33, 3. tv\u00e1m t\u00e2\u00b4n indra ubh\u00e1y\u00e2n am\u00edtr\u00e2n d\u00e2\u00b4s\u00e2 vritr\u00e2\u00b4ni \u00e2\u00b4ry\u00e2 ka s\u00fbra, v\u00e1dh\u00eeh v\u00e1n\u00e2-iva s\u00fa-dhitebhih \u00e1tkaih.\nThou, Indra, O hero, struckest both enemies, the barbarous and the Aryan fiends, like forests with well-aimed weapons.\nApplied to a poem, s\u00fadhita means well arranged or perfect:\nI, 140, 11. id\u00e1m agne s\u00fa-dhitam d\u00fah-dhit\u00e2t \u00e1dhi priy\u00e2\u00b4t \u00fbm (\u00edti) kit m\u00e1nmanah pr\u00e9yah astu te.\nMay this perfect prayer be more agreeable to thee than an imperfect one, though thou likest it.\nVII, 32, 13. m\u00e1ntram \u00e1kharvam s\u00fa-dhitam. A poem, not mean, well contrived.\nAs applied to men, s\u00fadhita means very much the same as hit\u00e1, well disposed, kind:\nIV, 6, 7. \u00e1dha mitr\u00e1h n\u00e1 s\u00fa-dhitah p\u00e2vak\u00e1h agn\u00edh d\u00eed\u00e2ya m\u00e2\u00b4nush\u00eeshu viksh\u00fa.\nThen, like a kind friend, Agni shone among the children of man.\nV, 3, 2. mitr\u00e1m s\u00fa-dhitam.\nVI, 15, 2. mitr\u00e1m n\u00e1 y\u00e1m s\u00fa-dhitam.\nVIII, 23, 8. mitr\u00e1m n\u00e1 g\u00e1ne s\u00fa-dhitam rit\u00e1-vani.\nX, 115, 7. mitr\u00e2\u00b4sah n\u00e1 y\u00e9 s\u00fa-dhit\u00e2h.\nAt last s\u00fa-dhita, without reference to human beings, takes the general sense of kind, good:\nIII, 11, 8. p\u00e1ri v\u00edsv\u00e2ni s\u00fa-dhit\u00e2 agn\u00e9h asy\u00e2ma m\u00e1nma-bhih.\nMay we obtain through our prayers all the goods of Agni.\nHere, however, pr\u00e1y\u00e2msi may have to be supplied, and in that case this passage, too, should be classed with those mentioned above, VIII, 60, 4, &c.\nIf then we consider that s\u00fadhita, as applied to weapons, means well held or well aimed, we can hardly doubt that barh\u00e1n\u00e2 is here, as S\u00e2yana says, some kind of weapon. I should derive it from barhayati, to crush, which we have, for instance,\nI, 133, 5. pis\u00e1\u1e45ga-bhrishtim ambhrin\u00e1m pis\u00e2\u00b4kim indra s\u00e1m mrina, s\u00e1rvam r\u00e1kshah n\u00ed barhaya.\nPound together the fearful Pis\u00e2ki with his fiery weapons, strike down every Rakshas.\nII, 23, 8. br\u00edhaspate deva-n\u00eddah n\u00ed barhaya.\nBrihaspati strike down the scoffers of the gods. Cf. VI, 61, 3.\nBarh\u00e1n\u00e2 would therefore mean a weapon intended to crush an enemy, a block of stone, it may be, or a heavy club, and in that sense barh\u00e1n\u00e2 occurs at least once more:\nVIII, 63, 7. y\u00e1t p\u00e2\u00b4\u00f1ka-ganyay\u00e2 vis\u00e2\u00b4 \u00edndre gh\u00f3sh\u00e2h \u00e1srikshata, \u00e1strin\u00e2t barh\u00e1n\u00e2 vip\u00e1h.\nWhen shouts have been sent up to Indra by the people of the five clans, then the club scattered the spears; or, then he scattered the spears with his club.\nIn other passages Professor Roth is no doubt right when he assigns to barh\u00e1n\u00e2 an adverbial meaning, but I do not think that this meaning would be appropriate in our verse. Grassmann also translates, 'ein wohlgezielter Pfeil.'\nNote 1. Al\u00e2trin\u00e2\u00b4sah, a word which occurs but once more, and which had evidently become unintelligible even at the\ntime of Y\u00e2ska. He (Nir. VI, 2) explains it by alam\u00e2tardano meghah, the cloud which opens easily. This, at least, is the translation given by Professor Roth, though not without hesitation. Alam\u00e2tardanah, as a compound, is explained by the commentator as \u00e2tardanapary\u00e2ptah, alam \u00e2tardayitum udakam, i. e. capable of letting off the water. But Devar\u00e2gayagvan explains it differently. He says: alam pary\u00e2ptam \u00e2tardanam hims\u00e2 yasya, bah\u00fbdakatv\u00e2kkhabalo megho viseshyate, i. e. whose injuring is great; the dark cloud is so called because it contains much water. S\u00e2yana. too, attempts several explanations. In III, 30, 10, he seems to derive it from trih, to kill, not, like Y\u00e2ska, from trid, and he explains its meaning as the cloud which is exceedingly hurt by reason of its holding so much water. In our passage he explains it either as an\u00e2trina, free from injury, or good hurters of enemies, or good givers of rewards.\nFrom all this I am afraid we gain nothing. Let us now see what modern commentators have proposed in order to discover an appropriate meaning in this word. Professor Roth suggests that the word may be derived from r\u00e2, to give, and the suffix trina, and the negative particle, thus meaning, one who does not give or yield anything. But, if so, how is this adjective applicable to the Maruts, who in this very verse are praised for their generosity? Langlois in our passage translates, 'heureux de nos louanges;' in III, 30, 10, qui laissait fl\u00e9trir les plantes.' Wilson in our passage translates, 'devoid of malevolence;' but in III, 30, 10, 'heavy.'\nI do not pretend to solve all these difficulties, but I may say this in defence of my own explanation that it fulfils the condition of being applicable both to the Maruts and to the demon Bala. The suffix trina is certainly irregular, and I should much prefer to write al\u00e2trina, for in that case we might derive l\u00e2trin from l\u00e2tra, and to this l\u00e2tra, i. e. r\u00e2tra, I. should ascribe the sense of barking. The root rai or r\u00e2 means to bark, and has been connected by Professor Aufrecht with Latin rire, inrire, and possibly inritare a,\nthus showing a transition of meaning from barking, to provoking or attacking. The same root r\u00e2 explains also the Latin l\u00e2trare, to bark, allatrare, to assail; and, whatever ancient etymologists may say to the contrary, the Latin latro, an assailer. The old derivation 'latrones eos antiqui dicebant, qui conducti militabant, \u1f00\u03c0\u1f78 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03bb\u03b1\u03c4\u03c1\u03b5\u03af\u03b1\u03c2,' seems to me one of those etymologies in which the scholars of Rome, who had learnt a little Greek, delighted as much as scholars who know a little Sanskrit delight in finding some plausible derivation for any Greek or Latin word in Sanskrit. I know that Curtius (Grundz\u00fcge, p. 326) and Corssen (Kritische Nachtr\u00e4ge, p. 239) take a different view; but a foreign word, derived from \u03bb\u03ac\u03c4\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd, pay, hire, would never have proved so fertile as latro has been in Latin.\nIf then we could write al\u00e2trin\u00e2\u00b4sah, we should have an appropriate epithet of the Maruts, in the sense of not assailing or not reviling, in fact, free from malevolence, as Wilson translated the word, or rather S\u00e2yana's explanation of it, \u00e2tardanarahita. What gives me some confidence in this explanation is this, that it is equally applicable to the other passage where al\u00e2trina occurs, III, 30, 10:\nal\u00e2trin\u00e1h val\u00e1h indra vrag\u00e1h g\u00f3h pur\u00e2\u00b4 h\u00e1ntoh bh\u00e1yam\u00e2nah v\u00ed \u00e2ra.\nWithout barking did Vala, the keeper of the cow, full of tear, open, before thou struckest him.\nIf it should be objected that vrag\u00e1 means always stable, and is not used again in the sense of keeper, one might reply that vrag\u00e1h, in the nom. sing., occurs in this one single passage only, and that bh\u00e1yam\u00e2nah, fearing, clearly implies a personification. Otherwise, one might translate: 'Vala was quiet, O Indra, and the stable of the cow came open, full of fear, before thou struckest.' The meaning of al\u00e2trin\u00e1 would remain the same, the not-barking being here used as a sign that Indra's enemy was cowed, and no longer inclined to revile or defy the power of Indra. Hom. hymn. in Merc. 145, \u03bf\u1f50\u03b4\u1f72 \u03ba\u03cd\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2 \u03bb\u03b5\u03bb\u03ac\u03ba\u03bf\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf.\nNote 2. See I, 38, 15, note 1, page 95.\nNote 1. Abh\u00ed-hruti seems to have the meaning of assault, injury, insult. It occurs but once, but abh\u00ed-hrut, a feminine substantive with the same meaning, occurs several times. The verb hru, which is not mentioned in the Dh\u00e2tup\u00e2tha, but has been identified with hvar, occurs in our hymn, verse 12:\nI, 128, 5. s\u00e1h nah tr\u00e2sate duh-it\u00e2\u00b4t abhi-hr\u00fatah s\u00e1ms\u00e2t agh\u00e2\u00b4t abhi-hr\u00fatah.\nHe protects us from evil, from assault, from evil speaking, from assault.\nX, 63, 11. tr\u00e2\u00b4yadhvam nah duh-\u00e9v\u00e2y\u00e2h abhi-hr\u00fatah.\nProtect us from mischievous injury!\nI, 189, 6. abhi-hr\u00fat\u00e2m \u00e1si h\u00ed deva vishp\u00e1t.\nFor thou, god, art the deliverer from all assaults. Vishp\u00e1t, deliverer, from vi and spas, to bind.\nV\u00ed-hruta, which occurs twice, means evidently what has been injured or spoiled:\nVIII, 1, 12. \u00edshkart\u00e2 v\u00ed-hrutam p\u00fanar (iti).\nHe who sets right what has been injured. Cf. VIII, 20, 26.\n\u00c1vi-hruta again clearly means uninjured, intact, entire:\nV, 66, 2. t\u00e2\u00b4 h\u00ed kshatr\u00e1m \u00e1vi-hrutam\u2014\u00e2\u00b4s\u00e2te.\nFor they both have obtained uninjured power.\nX, 170, 1. \u00e2\u00b4yuh d\u00e1dhat yag\u00f1\u00e1-patau \u00e1vi-hrutam.\nGiving uninjured life to the lord of the sacrifice.\nNote 1. Tavish\u00e1 certainly means strength, and that it is used in the plural in the sense of acts of strength, we can see from the first verse of our hymn and other passages. But when we read that tavish\u00e2\u00b4ni are placed on the chariots of the Maruts, just as before bhadr\u00e2\u00b4, good things, food, &c., are mentioned, it is clear that so abstract a meaning as strength or powers would not be applicable here. We might take it in the modern sense of forces, i. e. your armies, your companions are on your chariots, striving with each other; but as the word is a neuter, weapons, as the means\nof strength, seemed a preferable rendering. As to mithaspridhya, see I, 119, 3, p. 164.\nNote 2. The rendering of this passage must depend on the question whether the kh\u00e2d\u00eds, whatever they are, can be carried on the shoulders or not. We saw before (p. 120) that kh\u00e2d\u00eds were used both as ornaments and as weapons, and that, when used as weapons, they were most likely rings or quoits with sharp edges. There is at least one other passage where these kh\u00e2d\u00eds are said to be worn on the shoulders:\nVII, 56, 13. \u00e1mseshu \u00e2\u00b4 marutah kh\u00e2d\u00e1yah vah v\u00e1kshah-su rukm\u00e2\u00b4h upa-sisriy\u00e2n\u00e2\u00b4h.\nOn your shoulders are the quoits, on your chests the golden chains are fastened.\nIn other places the kh\u00e2d\u00eds are said to be in the hands, h\u00e1steshu, but this would only show that they are there when actually used for fighting. Thus we read:\nI, 168, 3. \u00e2\u00b4 esh\u00e2m \u00e1mseshu rambh\u00edn\u00ee-iva rarabhe, h\u00e1steshu kh\u00e2d\u00edh ka krit\u00edh ka s\u00e1m dadhe.\nTo their shoulders there clings as if a clinging wife, in their hands the quoit is held and the dagger.\nIn V, 58, 2, the Maruts are called kh\u00e2\u00b4di-hasta, holding the quoits in their hands. There is one passage which was mentioned before (p. 112), where the kh\u00e2d\u00eds are said to be on the feet of the Maruts, and on the strength of this passage Professor Roth proposes to alter pr\u00e1-patheshu to pr\u00e1-padeshu, and to translate, 'The kh\u00e2d\u00eds are on your forefeet.' I do not think this emendation necessary. Though we do not know the exact shape and character of the kh\u00e2d\u00ed, we know that it was a weapon, most likely a ring, occasionally used for ornament, and carried along either on the feet or on the shoulders, but in actual battle held in the hand. The weapon which Vishnu holds in one of his right hands, the so-called kakra, may be the modern representation of the ancient kh\u00e2d\u00ed. What, however, is quite certain is this, that kh\u00e2d\u00ed in the Veda never means food, as S\u00e2yana optionally interprets it. This interpretation is accepted by Wilson, who translates, 'At your resting-places on the road refreshments (are ready).' Nay, he\ngoes on in a note to use this passage as a proof of the advanced civilisation of India at the time of the Vedic Rishis. 'The expression,' he says, 'is worthy of note, as indicating the existence of accommodations for the use of travellers: the prapatha is the choltri of the south of India, the sar\u00e1i of the Mohammedans, a place by the road-side where the travellers may find shelter and provisions.'\nNote 3. This last passage shows that the poet is really representing to himself the Maruts as on their journey, and he therefore adds, 'your axle turns the two (IV, 30, 2) wheels together,' which probably means no more than, 'your chariot is going smoothly or quickly.' Though the expression seems to us hardly correct, yet one can well imagine how the axle was supposed to turn the wheels as the horses were drawing the axle, and the axle acted on the wheels. Anyhow, no other translation seems possible. Sam\u00e1y\u00e2 in the Veda means together, at once, and is the Greek (\u1f41\u03bc\u1fc7, generally \u1f41\u03bc\u03bf\u1fe6 or \u1f41\u03bc\u1ff6\u03c2, the Latin simul. Cf. I, 56, 6; 73, 6; 113, 10; 163, 3; VII, 66, 15; IX, 75, 4; 85, 5; 97, 56.\nVrit means to turn, and is frequently used with reference to the wheels:\nVIII, 46, 23. d\u00e1sa sy\u00e2v\u00e2\u00b4h\u2014nem\u00edm n\u00ed vavrituh.\nThe ten black horses turn down the felly or the wheel.\nIV, 30, 2. satr\u00e2\u00b4 te \u00e1nu krisht\u00e1yah v\u00edsv\u00e2h kakr\u00e2\u00b4-iva vavrituh.\nAll men turn always round thee, like wheels.\nThat the \u00c2tmanepada of vrit may be used in an active sense we see from\nI, 191, 15. t\u00e1tah vish\u00e1m pr\u00e1 vavrite.\nI turn the poison out from here.\nAll the words used in this sentence are very old words, and we can with few exceptions turn them into Greek or Latin. In Latin we should have axis vos(ter) circos simul divertit. In Greek \u1f04\u03be\u03c9\u03bd \u1f51(\u03bc\u1ff6\u03bd) \u03ba\u03cd\u03ba\u03bb\u03c9 \u1f41\u03bc\u1fc7 \u2026\nNote 1. See I, 64, 4, note 1, page 111.\nNote 2. See I, 166, 1, note 1, page 212.\nNote 3. On \u00e9ta in the sense of fallow deer, or, it may be, antelope, see I, 165, 5, note 2, page 196.\n\u00c9ta originally means variegated, and thus becomes a name of any speckled deer, it being difficult to say what exact species is meant. S\u00e2yana in our passage explains \u00e9t\u00e2h by suklavarn\u00e2 m\u00e2l\u00e2h, many-coloured wreaths or chains, which may be right. Yet the suggestion of Professor Roth that \u00e9t\u00e2h, deer, stands here for the skins of fallow deer, is certainly more poetical, and quite in accordance with the Vedic idiom, which uses, for instance, go, cow, not only in the sense of milk,\u2014that is done even in more homely English,\u2014but also for leather, and thong. It is likewise in accordance with what we know of the earliest dress of the Vedic Indians, that deer-skins should here be mentioned. We learn from \u00c2sval\u00e2yana's Grihya-s\u00fbtras, of which we now possess an excellent edition by Professor Stenzler, and a reprint of the text and commentary by R\u00e2ma N\u00e2r\u00e2yana Vidy\u00e2ratna, in the Bibliotheca Indica, that a boy when he was brought to his tutor, i. e. from the eighth to possibly the twenty-fourth year, had to be well combed, and attired in a new dress. A Br\u00e2hmana should wear the skin of an antelope (aineya), the Kshatriya the skin of a deer (raurava), the Vaisya the skin of a goat (\u00e2ga). If they wore dresses, that of the Br\u00e2hmana should be dark red (k\u00e2sh\u00e2ya), that of the Kshatriya bright red (m\u00e2\u00f1gishtha), that of the Vaisya yellow (h\u00e2ridra). The girdle of the Br\u00e2hmana should be of Mu\u00f1ga grass, that of the Kshatriya a bow-string, that of the Vaisya made of sheep's wool. The same regulations occur in other S\u00fbtras, as, for instance, the Dharma-s\u00fbtras of the \u00c2pastamb\u00eeyas and Gautamas, though there are certain characteristic differences in each, which may be due either to local or to chronological causes. Thus according to the \u00c2pastamb\u00eeya-s\u00fbtras, which have been published by Professor B\u00fchler, the Br\u00e2hmana may wear the skin of the harina deer, or that of the antelope (aineyam), but the latter must be from the black antelope (krishnam), and, a proviso is added, that if a man wears the black antelope skin, he must never spread it out to sit or sleep on it. As materials for the dress, \u00c2pastamba\nallows sana, hemp a, or kshum\u00e2, flax, and he adds that woollen dresses are allowed to all castes, as well as the kambala (masc.), which seems to be any cloth made of vegetable substances (darbh\u00e2dinirmitam k\u00eeram kambalam). He then adds a curious remark, which would seem to show\nthat the Br\u00e2hmanas preferred skins, and the Kshatriyas clothes, for he says that those who wish well to the Br\u00e2hmanas should wear agina, skins, and those who wish well to the Kshatriyas should wear vastra, clothes, and those who wish well to both should wear both, but, in that case, the skin should always form the outer garment. The Dharma-s\u00fbtras of the Gautamas, which were published in India, prescribe likewise for the Br\u00e2hmana the black antelope skin, and allow clothes of hemp or linen (s\u00e2nakshaumak\u00eera) as well as kutapas (woollen cloth) for all. What is new among the Gautamas is, that they add the k\u00e2rp\u00e2sa, the cotton dress, which is important as showing an early knowledge of this manufacture. The k\u00e2rp\u00e2sa dress occurs once more as a present to be given to the Potar priest (\u00c2sv. Srauta-s\u00fbtras IX, 4), and was evidently considered as a valuable present, taking precedence of the kshaum\u00ee or linen dress. It is provided that the cotton dress should not be dyed, for this, I suppose, is the meaning of avikrita. Immediately after, however, it is said, that some authorities say the dress should be dyed red (k\u00e2sh\u00e2yam apy eke), the very expression which occurred in \u00c2pastamba, and that, in that case, the red for the Br\u00e2hmana's dress should be taken from the bark of trees (v\u00e2rksha). Manu, who here, as elsewhere, simply paraphrases the ancient S\u00fbtras, says, II, 41:\n'Let Brahmak\u00e2rins wear (as outer garments) the skins of the black antelope, the deer, the goat, (as under garments) dresses of hemp, flax, and sheep's wool, in the order of the three castes.'\nThe Sanskrit name for a dressed skin is agina, a word which does not occur in the Rig-Veda, but which, if Bopp is right in deriving it from ag\u00e1, goat, as \u03b1\u1f30\u03b3\u03af\u03c2 from \u03b1\u1f34\u03be, would have meant originally, not skin in general, but a goat-skin. The skins of the \u00e9ta, here ascribed to the Maruts, would be identical with the aineya, which \u00c2sval\u00e2yana ascribes to the Br\u00e2hmana, not, as we should expect, to the Kshatriya, if, as has been supposed, aineya is derived from ena, which is a secondary form, particularly in the\nfeminine en\u00ee, of eta. There is, however, another word, eda, a kind of sheep, which, but for Festus, might be haedus, and by its side ena, a kind of antelope. These two forms pre-suppose an earlier erna or arna, and point therefore in a different direction, though hardly to \u1f04\u03c1\u03bd\u03b5\u03c2.\nNote 4. I translate kshur\u00e1 by sharp edges, but it might have been translated literally by razors, for, strange as it may sound, razors were known, not only during the Vedic period, but even previous to the Aryan separation. The Sanskrit kshur\u00e1 is the Greek \u03be\u03c5\u03c1\u03cc\u03c2 or \u03be\u03c5\u03c1\u03cc\u03bd. In the Veda we have clear allusions to shaving:\nX, 142, 4. yad\u00e2\u00b4 te v\u00e2\u00b4tah anu-v\u00e2\u00b4ti sok\u00edh, v\u00e1pt\u00e2-iva sm\u00e1sru vapasi pr\u00e1 bh\u00fb\u00b4ma.\nWhen the wind blows after thy blast, then thou shavest the earth as a barber shaves the beard. Cf. I, 65, 4.\nIf, as B. and R. suggest, vaptar, barber, is connected with the more modern name for barber in Sanskrit, viz. n\u00e2pita. we should have to admit a root svap, in the sense of tearing or pulling, vellere, from which we might derive the Vedic svap\u00fb\u00b4 (VII, 56, 3), beak. Corresponding to this we find in Old High-German snabul, beak, (schnepfe, snipe,) and in Old Norse nef. The Anglo-Saxon neb means mouth and nose, while in modern English neb or nib is used for the bill or beak of a bird a. Another derivation of n\u00e2pita, proposed by Professor Weber (Kuhn's Beitr\u00e4ge, vol. i, p. 505), who takes n\u00e2pita as a dialectic form of sn\u00e2pitar, balneator, or lavator, might be admitted if it could be proved that in India also the barber was at the same time a balneator. Burnouf, Lotus, p. 452, translating from the S\u00e2ma\u00f1\u00f1a-phala Sutta, mentions among the different professions of the people those of 'portier,' 'barbier,' and 'baigneur.'\nNote 1. V\u00ed-bh\u00fbtayah is properly a substantive, meaning\npower, but, like other substantives a, and particularly substantives with prepositions, it can be used as an adjective, and is, in fact, more frequently used as an adjective than as a substantive. In English we may translate it by power. It is a substantive,\nI, 8, 9. ev\u00e1 h\u00ed te v\u00ed-bh\u00fbtayah \u00fbt\u00e1yah indra m\u00e2\u00b4-vate sady\u00e1h kit s\u00e1nti d\u00e2s\u00fashe.\nFor indeed thy powers, O Indra, are at once shelters for a sacrificer, like me.\nBut it is an adjective,\nI, 30, 5. v\u00ed-bh\u00fbtih astu s\u00fbnr\u00edt\u00e2.\nMay the prayer be powerful.\nVI, 17, 4. mah\u00e2\u00b4m \u00e1n\u00fbnam tav\u00e1sam v\u00ed-bh\u00fbtim matsar\u00e2\u00b4sah garhrishanta pra-s\u00e1ham.\nThe sweet draughts of Soma delighted the great, the perfect, the strong, the powerful, the unyielding Indra. Cf. VIII, 49, 6; 50, 6.\nVibhv\u00e3h, with the Svarita on the last syllable, has to be pronounced vibh\u00fa\u00e0h. In III, 6, 9, we find vi-bh\u00e1vah.\nNote 2. See I, 87, 1, note 1, page 160.\nNote 3. See I, 6, 5, note 1, page 41.\nNote 1. Mahi-tvan\u00e1m, greatness, is formed by the suffix tvan\u00e1, which Professor Aufrecht has identified with the Greek \u03c3\u03cd\u03bd\u03b7 (\u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03bf\u03bd); see Kuhn's Zeitschrift, vol. i, p. 482. The origin of this suffix has been explained by Professor Benfey, ibid. vol. vii, p. 120, who traces it back to the suffix tvan, for instance, i-tvan, goer, in pr\u00e2tah-\u00edtv\u00e2 = pr\u00e2tah-y\u00e2\u00b4v\u00e2.\nNote 2. Vrat\u00e1 is one of the many words which, though we may perceive their one central idea, and their original purport, we have to translate by various terms in order to make them intelligible in every passage where they occur. Vrat\u00e1 (from vri, vrinoti), I believe, meant originally what is enclosed, protected, set apart, the Greek \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2:\n1. V, 46, 7. y\u00e2\u00b4h p\u00e2\u00b4rthiv\u00e2sah y\u00e2\u00b4h ap\u00e2\u00b4m \u00e1pi vrat\u00e9 t\u00e2\u00b4h nah dev\u00eeh su-hav\u00e2h s\u00e1rma yakkhata.\nO ye gracious goddesses, who are on the earth or in the realm of the waters, grant us your protection!\nHere vrat\u00e1 is used like vrig\u00e1na, see I, 165, 15, note 3, page 208.\nX, 114, 2. t\u00e2\u00b4s\u00e2m n\u00ed kikyuh kav\u00e1yah ni-d\u00e2\u00b4nam p\u00e1reshu y\u00e2\u00b4h g\u00fahyeshu vrat\u00e9shu.\nThe poets discovered their (the Nirritis\u2019) origin, who are in the far hidden chambers.\nI, 163, 3. \u00e1si trit\u00e1h g\u00fahyena vrat\u00e9na.\nThou art Trita within the hidden place, or with the secret work.\nDr. Muir sent me another passage:\nIII, 54, 5. d\u00e1drisre esh\u00e2m avam\u00e2\u00b4 s\u00e1d\u00e2msi p\u00e1reshu y\u00e2\u00b4 g\u00fahyeshu vrat\u00e9shu.\n2. Vrat\u00e1 means what is fenced off or forbidden, what is determined, what is settled, and hence, like dh\u00e1rman, law, ordinance. V\u00e2rayati means to prohibit. In this sense vrat\u00e1 occurs very frequently:\nI, 25, 1. y\u00e1t kit h\u00ed te v\u00edsah yath\u00e2 pr\u00e1 deva varuna vrat\u00e1m, min\u00eem\u00e1si dy\u00e1vi-dyavi.\nWhatever law of thine we break, O Varuna, day by day, men as we are.\nII, 8, 3. y\u00e1sya vrat\u00e1m ni m\u00ee\u00b4yate.\nWhose law is not broken.\nIII, 32, 8. \u00edndrasya k\u00e1rma s\u00fa-krit\u00e2 pur\u00fb\u00b4ni vrat\u00e2\u00b4ni dev\u00e2\u00b4h n\u00e1 minanti v\u00edsve.\nThe deeds of Indra are well done and many, all the gods do not break his laws, or do not injure his ordinances.\nII, 24, 12. v\u00edsvam saty\u00e1m maghav\u00e2n\u00e2 yuv\u00f3h \u00edt \u00e2\u00b4pah kan\u00e1 pr\u00e1 minanti vrat\u00e1m v\u00e2m.\nAll that is yours, O powerful gods, is true; even the waters do not break your law.\nII, 38, 7. n\u00e1kih asya t\u00e2\u00b4ni vrat\u00e2\u00b4 dev\u00e1sya savit\u00fah minanti.\nNo one breaks these laws of this god Savitar. Cf. II, 38, 9.\nI, 92, 12. \u00e1minat\u00ee da\u00edvy\u00e2ni vrat\u00e2\u00b4ni.\nNot injuring the divine ordinances. Cf. I, 124, 2.\nX, 12, 5. k\u00e1t asya \u00e1ti vrat\u00e1m kakrima.\nWhich of his laws have we overstepped?\nVIII, 25, 16. t\u00e1sya vrat\u00e2\u00b4ni \u00e1nu vah kar\u00e2masi.\nHis ordinances we follow.\nX, 33, 9. n\u00e1 dev\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m \u00e1ti vrat\u00e1m sati-\u00e2tm\u00e2 kan\u00e1 g\u00eevati.\nNo one lives beyond the statute of the gods, even if he had a hundred lives.\nVII, 5, 4. t\u00e1va tri-dh\u00e2\u00b4tu prithiv\u00ee\u00b4 ut\u00e1 dya\u00fah va\u00edsv\u00e2nara vrat\u00e1m agne sakanta.\nThe earth and the sky followed thy threefold law, O Agni Vaisv\u00e2nara.\nVII, 87, 7. y\u00e1h mril\u00e1y\u00e2ti kakr\u00fashe kit \u00e2\u00b4gah vay\u00e1m sy\u00e2ma v\u00e1rune \u00e1n\u00e2g\u00e2h, \u00e1nu vrat\u00e2\u00b4ni \u00e1diteh ridh\u00e1ntah.\nLet us be sinless before Varuna, who is gracious even to him who has committed sin, performing the laws of Aditi!\nII, 28, 8. n\u00e1mah pur\u00e2\u00b4 te varuna ut\u00e1 n\u00fbn\u00e1m ut\u00e1 apar\u00e1m tuvi-g\u00e2ta brav\u00e2ma, tv\u00e9 h\u00ed kam p\u00e1rvate n\u00e1 srit\u00e2\u00b4ni \u00e1prakyut\u00e2ni duh-dabha vrat\u00e2\u00b4ni.\nFormerly, and now, and also in future let us give praise to thee, O Varuna; for in thee, O unconquerable, all laws are grounded, immovable as on a rock.\nA very frequent expression is \u00e1nu vrat\u00e1m, according to the command of a god, II, 38, 3; 6; VIII, 40, 8; or simply \u00e1nu vrat\u00e1m, according to law and order:\nI, 136, 5. t\u00e1m aryam\u00e2\u00b4 abh\u00ed rakshati rigu-y\u00e1ntam \u00e1nu vrat\u00e1m.\nAryaman protects him who acts uprightly according to law.\nCf. III, 61, 1; IV, 13, 2; V, 69, 1.\n3. The laws or ordinances or institutions of the gods are sometimes taken for the sacrifices which are supposed to be enjoined by the gods, and the performance of which is, in a certain sense, the performance of the divine will.\nI, 93, 8. y\u00e1h agn\u00ee\u00b4sh\u00f3m\u00e2 hav\u00edsh\u00e2 sapary\u00e2\u00b4t devadr\u00ee\u00b4k\u00e2 m\u00e1nas\u00e2 y\u00e1h ghrit\u00e9na, t\u00e1sya vrat\u00e1m rakshatam p\u00e2t\u00e1m \u00e1mhasah.\nHe who worships Agni and Soma with oblations, with a godly mind, or with an offering, protect his sacrifice, shield him from evil!\nI, 31, 2. tv\u00e1m agne pratham\u00e1h \u00e1\u1e45girah-tamah kav\u00edh dev\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m p\u00e1ri bh\u00fbshasi vrat\u00e1m.\nAgni, the first and wisest of poets, thou performest the sacrifice of the gods.\nIII, 3, 9. t\u00e1sya vrat\u00e2\u00b4ni bh\u00fbri-posh\u00ednah vay\u00e1m \u00fapa bh\u00fbshema d\u00e1me \u00e2\u00b4 suvrikt\u00ed-bhih.\nLet us, who possess much wealth, perform with prayers the sacrifices of Agni within our house.\nIn another acceptation the vratas of the gods are what they perform and establish themselves, their own deeds:\nIII, 6, 5. vrat\u00e2\u00b4 te agne mahat\u00e1h mah\u00e2\u00b4ni t\u00e1va kr\u00e1tv\u00e2 r\u00f3das\u00ee (\u00edti) \u00e2\u00b4 tatantha.\nThe deeds of thee, the great Agni, are great, by thy power thou hast stretched out heaven and earth.\nVIII, 42, 1. \u00e1stabhn\u00e2t dy\u00e2\u00b4m \u00e1surah visv\u00e1-ved\u00e2h \u00e1mim\u00eeta varim\u00e2\u00b4nam prithivy\u00e2\u00b4h, a as\u00eedat v\u00edsv\u00e2 bh\u00favan\u00e2ni sam-r\u00e2\u00b4t v\u00edsv\u00e2 \u00edt t\u00e2\u00b4ni v\u00e1runasya vrat\u00e2\u00b4ni.\nThe wise spirit established the sky, and made the width of the earth, as king he approached all beings,\u2014all these are the works of Varuna.\nVI, 14, 3. t\u00fb\u00b4rvantah d\u00e1syum \u00e2y\u00e1vah vrata\u00edh s\u00ee\u00b4kshantah avrat\u00e1m.\nMen fight the fiend, trying to overcome by their deeds him who performs no sacrifices; or, the lawless enemy.\nLastly, vrat\u00e1 comes to mean sway, power, or work, and the expression vrat\u00e9 t\u00e1va signifies, at thy command, under thy auspices:\nI, 24, 15. \u00e1tha vay\u00e1m \u00e2ditya vrat\u00e9 t\u00e1va \u00e1n\u00e2gasah \u00e1ditaye sy\u00e2ma.\nThen, O \u00c2ditya, under thy auspices may we be guiltless before Aditi.\nVI, 54, 9. p\u00fb\u00b4shan t\u00e1va vrat\u00e9 vay\u00e1m ni rishyema k\u00e1d\u00e2 kan\u00e1.\nO P\u00fbshan, may we never fail under thy protection.\nX, 36, 13. ye savit\u00fbh saty\u00e1-savasya v\u00edsve mitr\u00e1sya vrat\u00e9 v\u00e1runasya dev\u00e2\u00b4h.\nAll the gods who are in the power of Savitar, Mitra, and Varuna.\nV, 83, 5. y\u00e1sya vrat\u00e9 prithiv\u00ee\u00b4 n\u00e1mnam\u00eeti y\u00e1sya vrat\u00e9 saph\u00e1-vat g\u00e1rbhur\u00eeti, y\u00e1sya vrat\u00e9 \u00f3shadh\u00eeh visv\u00e1-r\u00fbp\u00e2h s\u00e1h nah parganya m\u00e1hi s\u00e1rma yakkha.\nAt whose bidding the earth bows down, at whose bidding hoofed animals run about, at whose bidding the plants assume all shapes, mayest thou, O Parganya, yield us great protection!\nNote 3. D\u00e2tr\u00e1, if derived from d\u00e2, would mean gift, and that meaning is certainly the most applicable in some passages where it occurs:\nIX, 97, 55. \u00e1si bh\u00e1gah \u00e1si d\u00e2tr\u00e1sya d\u00e2t\u00e2\u00b4.\nThou art Bhaga, thou art the giver of the gift.\nIn other passages, too, particularly in those where the verb d\u00e2 or some similar verb occurs in the same verse, it can hardly be doubted that the poet took d\u00e2tr\u00e1, like d\u00e1tra or d\u00e1ttra, in the sense of gift, bounty, largess:\nI, 116, 6. y\u00e1m asvin\u00e2 dad\u00e1thuh svet\u00e1m \u00e1svam\u2014t\u00e1t v\u00e2m d\u00e2tr\u00e1m m\u00e1hi k\u00eert\u00e9nyam bh\u00fbt.\nThe white horse, O Asvins, which you gave, that your gift was great and to be praised.\nI, 185, 3. aneh\u00e1h d\u00e2tr\u00e1m \u00e1diteh anarv\u00e1m huv\u00e9.\nI call for the unrivalled, the uninjured bounty of Aditi.\nVII, 56, 21. m\u00e2\u00b4 vah d\u00e2tr\u00e2\u00b4t marutah n\u00edh ar\u00e2ma.\nMay we not fall away from your bounty, O Maruts!\nIII, 54, 16. yuv\u00e1m h\u00ed sth\u00e1h rayi-da\u00fa nah ray\u00een\u00e2\u00b4m d\u00e2tr\u00e1m rakshethe.\nFor you, N\u00e2satyas, are our givers of riches, you protect the gift.\nVI, 20, 7. rig\u00edsvane d\u00e2tr\u00e1m d\u00e2s\u00fashe d\u00e2h.\nTo Rigisvan, the giver, thou givest the gift.\nVIII, 43, 33. t\u00e1t te sahasva \u00eemahe d\u00e2tr\u00e1m y\u00e1t n\u00e1 upad\u00e1syati, tv\u00e1t agne v\u00e2\u00b4ryam v\u00e1su.\nWe ask thee, strong hero, for the gift which does not perish; we ask from thee the precious wealth.\nX, 69, 4. d\u00e2tr\u00e1m rakshasva y\u00e1t id\u00e1m te asm\u00e9 (\u00edti).\nProtect this gift of thine which thou hast given to us.\nVIII, 44, 18. \u00ee\u00b4sishe v\u00e2\u00b4ryasya h\u00ed d\u00e2tr\u00e1sya agne sv\u00e3h-patih.\nFor thou, O Agni, lord of heaven, art the master of the precious gift. Cf. IV, 38, 1.\nProfessor Roth considers that d\u00e2tr\u00e1 is derived rather from d\u00e2, to divide, and that it means share, lot, possession. But there is not a single passage where the meaning of gift or\nbounty does not answer all purposes. In VII, 56, 21, m\u00e2\u00b4 vah d\u00e2tr\u00e2\u00b4t marutah n\u00edh ar\u00e2ma, is surely best translated by, 'let us not fall away from your bounty,' and in our own passage the same meaning should be assigned to d\u00e2tr\u00e1. The idea of d\u00e2tr\u00e1, bounty, is by no means incompatible with vrat\u00e1, realm, dominion, sway, if we consider that the sphere within which the bounty of a king or a god is exercised and accepted, is in one sense his realm. What the poet therefore says in our passage is simply this, that the bounty of the Maruts extends as far as the realm of Aditi, i. e. is endless, or extends everywhere, Aditi being in its original conception the deity of the unbounded world beyond, the earliest attempt at expressing the Infinite.\nAs to d\u00e2\u00b4tra occurring once with the accent on the first syllable in the sense of sickle, see M. M., '\u00dcber eine Stelle in Y\u00e2ska's Commentar zum Naighantuka,' Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenl\u00e4ndischen Gesellschaft, 1853, vol. vii, P. 375.\nVIII, 78, 10. t\u00e1va \u00edt indra ah\u00e1m \u00e2-s\u00e1s\u00e2 h\u00e1ste d\u00e2\u00b4tram kan\u00e1 \u00e2\u00b4 dade.\nTrusting in thee alone, O Indra, I take the sickle in my hand.\nThis d\u00e2\u00b4tra, sickle, is derived from do, to cut.\nAditi, the Infinite.\nNote 4. Aditi, an ancient god or goddess, is in reality the earliest name invented to express the Infinite; not the Infinite as the result of a long process of abstract reasoning, but the visible Infinite, visible, as it were, to the naked eye, the endless expanse beyond the earth, beyond the clouds, beyond the sky. That was called A-diti, the un-bound, the un-bounded; one might almost say, but for fear of misunderstandings, the Absolute, for it is derived from diti, bond, and the negative particle, and meant therefore originally what is free from bonds of any kind, whether of space or time, free from physical weakness, free from moral guilt. Such a conception became of necessity a being, a person, a god. To us such a name and such a conception seem decidedly modern, and to find in the Veda Aditi, the\n[paragraph continues] Infinite, as the mother of the principal gods, is certainly, at first sight, startling. But the fact is that the thoughts of primitive humanity were not only different from our thoughts, but different also from what we think their thoughts ought to have been. The poets of the Veda indulged freely in theogonic speculations, without being frightened by any contradictions. They knew of Indra as the greatest of gods, they knew of Agni as the god of gods, they knew of Varuna as the ruler of all, but they were by no means startled at the idea that their Indra had a mother, or that their Agni was born like a babe from the friction of two fire-sticks, or that Varuna and his brother Mitra were nursed in the lap of Aditi. Some poet would take hold o the idea of an unbounded power, of Aditi, originally without any reference to other gods. Very soon these ideas met, and, without any misgivings, either the gods were made subordinate to, and represented as the sons of Aditi, or where Indra was to be praised as supreme, Aditi was represented as doing him homage.\nVIII, 12, 14. ut\u00e1 sva-r\u00e2ge \u00e1ditih st\u00f3mam \u00edndr\u00e2ya g\u00eeganat.\nAnd Aditi produced a hymn for Indra, the king.\nHere Professor Roth takes Aditi as an epithet of Agni, not as the name of the goddess Aditi, while Dr. Muir rightly takes it in the latter sense, and likewise retains st\u00f3mam instead of s\u00f3mam, as printed by Professor Aufrecht. Cf. VII, 38, 4.\nThe idea of the Infinite, as I have tried to show elsewhere, was most powerfully impressed on the awakening mind, or, as we now say, was revealed, by the East a. \u2018It is impossible to enter fully into all the thoughts and feelings that passed through the minds of the early poets when they formed names for that far, far East from whence even the early dawn, the sun, the day, their own life, seemed to spring. A new life flashed up every morning before their eyes, and the fresh breezes of the dawn reached them like greetings from the distant lands beyond the mountains, beyond the clouds, beyond the dawn, beyond \u201cthe immortal\nsea which brought us hither.\u201d The dawn seemed to them to open golden gates for the sun to pass in triumph, and while those gates were open, their eyes and their mind strove in their childish way to pierce beyond the limits of this finite world. That silent aspect awakened in the human mind the conception of the Infinite, the Immortal, the Divine.\u2019 Aditi is a name for that distant East, but Aditi is more than the dawn. Aditi is beyond the dawn, and in one place (I, 113, 19) the dawn is called 'the face of Aditi,' \u00e1diter \u00e1n\u00eekam. Thus we read:\nV, 62, 8. h\u00edranya-r\u00fbpam ush\u00e1sah v\u00ed-ushtau \u00e1yah-sth\u00fbnam \u00fat-it\u00e2 s\u00fb\u00b4ryasya, \u00e2\u00b4 rohathah varuna mitra g\u00e1rtam \u00e1tah kaksh\u00e2the (\u00edti) \u00e1ditim d\u00edtim h.\nMitra and Varuna, you mount your chariot, which is golden, when the dawn bursts forth, and has iron poles at the setting of the sun: from thence you see Aditi and Diti, i. e. what is yonder and what is here.\nIf we keep this original conception of Aditi clearly before our mind, the various forms which Aditi assumes, even in the hymns of the Veda, will not seem incoherent. Aditi is not a prominent deity in the Veda, she is celebrated rather in her sons, the \u00c2dityas, than in her own person. While there are so many hymns addressed to Ushas, the dawn, or Indra, or Agni, or Savitar, there is but one hymn, X, 72, which from our point of view, though not from that of Indian theologians, might be called a hymn to Aditi. Nevertheless Aditi is a familiar name; a name of the past, whether in time or in thought only, and a name that lives on in the name of the \u00c2dityas, the sons of Aditi, including the principal deities of the Veda.\nAditi and the \u00c2dityas.\nThus we read:\nI, 107, 2. \u00fbpa nah dev\u00e2\u00b4h \u00e1vas\u00e2 \u00e2\u00b4 gamantu \u00e1\u1e45giras\u00e2m s\u00e2\u00b4ma-bhih st\u00fby\u00e1m\u00e2n\u00e2h, \u00edndrah indriya\u00edh mar\u00fbtah mar\u00fat-bhih \u00e2ditya\u00edh nah \u00e1ditih s\u00e1rma yamsat.\nMay the gods come to us with their help, praised by the songs of the A\u1e45giras,\u2014Indra with his powers, the Maruts with the storms, may Aditi with the \u00c2dityas give us protection!\nX, 66, 3. \u00edndrah v\u00e1su-bhih p\u00e1ri p\u00e2tu nah g\u00e1yam \u00e2ditya\u00edh nah \u00e1ditih s\u00e1rma yakkhatu, rudr\u00e1h rudr\u00e9bhih dev\u00e1h mrilay\u00e2ti nah tv\u00e1sht\u00e2 nah gn\u00e2\u00b4bhih suvit\u00e2\u00b4ya ginvatu.\nMay Indra with the Vasus watch our house, may Aditi with the \u00c2dityas give us protection, may the divine Rudra with the Rudras have mercy upon us, may Tvashtar with the mothers bring us to happiness!\nIII, 54, 20. \u00e2ditya\u00edh nah \u00e1ditih srinotu y\u00e1kkhantu nah mar\u00fbtah s\u00e1rma bhadr\u00e1m.\nMay Aditi with the \u00c2dityas hear us, may the Maruts give us good protection!\nIn another passage Varuna takes the place of Aditi as the leader of the \u00c2dityas:\nVII, 35, 6. s\u00e1m nah \u00edndrah v\u00e1su-bhih dev\u00e1h astu s\u00e1m \u00e2dity\u00e9bhih v\u00e1runah su-s\u00e1msah, s\u00e1m nah rudr\u00e1h rudr\u00e9bhih g\u00e1l\u00e2shah s\u00e1m nah tv\u00e1sht\u00e2 gn\u00e2\u00b4bhih ih\u00e1 srinotu.\nMay Indra bless us, the god with the Vasus! May Varuna, the glorious, bless us with the \u00c2dityas! May the relieving Rudra with the Rudras bless us! May Tvashtar with the mothers kindly hear us here!\nEven in passages where the poet seems to profess an exclusive worship of Aditi, as in\nV, 69, 3. pr\u00e2t\u00e1h dev\u00ee\u00b4m \u00e1ditim gohav\u00eemi madhy\u00e1ndine \u00fat-it\u00e2 s\u00fb\u00b4ryasya,\nI invoke the divine Aditi early in the morning, at noon, and at the setting of the sun,\nMitra and Varuna, her principal sons, are mentioned immediately after, and implored, like her, to bestow blessings on their worshipper.\nHer exclusive worship appears once, in VIII, 19, 14.\nA very frequent expression is that of \u00e2dity\u00e2\u00b4h \u00e1ditih without any copula, to signify the \u00c2dityas and Aditi:\nIV, 25, 3. k\u00e1h dev\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m \u00e1vah ady\u00e1 vrin\u00eete k\u00e1h \u00e2dity\u00e2\u00b4n \u00e1ditim gy\u00f3tih \u00eette.\nWho does choose now the protection of the gods? Who asks the \u00c2dityas, Aditi, for their light?\nVI, 51, 5. v\u00edsve \u00e2dity\u00e2h adite sa-g\u00f3sh\u00e2h asm\u00e1bhyam s\u00e1rma bahul\u00e1m v\u00ed yanta.\nAll ye \u00c2dityas, Aditi together, grant to us your manifold protection!\nX, 39, 11. n\u00e1 t\u00e1m r\u00e2g\u00e2nau adite k\u00fatah kan\u00e1 n\u00e1 \u00e1mhah asnoti duh-it\u00e1m n\u00e1kih bhay\u00e1m.\nO ye two kings (the Asvins), Aditi, no evil reaches him from anywhere, no misfortune, no fear (whom you protect). Cf. VII, 66, 6.\nX, 63, 5. t\u00e2\u00b4n \u00e2\u00b4 viv\u00e2sa n\u00e1mas\u00e2 suvrikt\u00ed-bhih mah\u00e1h \u00e2dity\u00e2\u00b4n \u00e1ditim svast\u00e1ye.\nI cherish them with worship and with hymns, the great \u00c2dityas, Aditi, for happiness' sake.\nX, 63, 17. ev\u00e1 plat\u00e9h s\u00fbn\u00fah av\u00eevridhat vah v\u00edsve \u00e2dity\u00e2h adite man\u00eesh\u00ee\u00b4.\nThe wise son of Plati magnified you, all ye \u00c2dityas, Aditi!\nX, 65, 9. parg\u00e1ny\u00e2v\u00e2\u00b4t\u00e2 vrishabh\u00e2\u00b4 pur\u00eesh\u00edn\u00e2 indrav\u00e2y\u00fb\u00b4 (\u00edti) v\u00e1runah mitr\u00e1h aryam\u00e2\u00b4, dev\u00e2\u00b4n \u00e2dity\u00e2\u00b4n \u00e1ditim hav\u00e2mahe y\u00e9 p\u00e2\u00b4rthiv\u00e2sah divy\u00e2\u00b4sah ap-s\u00fa y\u00e9.\nThere are Parganya and V\u00e2ta, the powerful, the givers of rain, Indra and V\u00e2yu, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman, we call the divine \u00c2dityas, Aditi, those who dwell on the earth, in heaven, in the waters.\nWe may not be justified in saying that there ever was a period in the history of the religious thought of India, a period preceding the worship of the \u00c2dityas, when Aditi, the Infinite, was worshipped, though to the sage who first coined this name, it expressed, no doubt, for a time the principal, if not the only object of his faith and worship.\nAditi and Daksha.\nSoon, however, the same mental process which led on later speculators from the earth to the elephant, and from the elephant to the tortoise, led the Vedic poets beyond Aditi, the Infinite. There was something beyond that Infinite which for a time they had grasped by the name of Aditi, and this, whether intentionally or by a mere accident of language, they called d\u00e1ksha, literally power or the powerful. All this, no doubt, sounds strikingly modern, yet, though the passages in which this d\u00e1ksha is mentioned are few in number, I should not venture to\nsay that they are necessarily modern, even if by modern we mean only later than 1000 b.c. Nothing can bring the perplexity of the ancient mind, if once drawn into this vortex of speculation, more clearly before us than if we read:\nX, 72, 4-5. \u00e2diteh d\u00e1kshah ag\u00e2yata d\u00e1ksh\u00e2t \u00fbm (\u00edti) \u00e1ditih p\u00e1ri,\u2014\u00e1ditih h\u00ed \u00e1ganishta d\u00e1ksha y\u00e2\u00b4 duhit\u00e2\u00b4 t\u00e1va, t\u00e2\u00b4m dev\u00e2\u00b4h \u00e1nu ag\u00e2yanta bhadr\u00e2\u00b4h amr\u00edta-bandhavah.\nDaksha was born of Aditi, and Aditi from Daksha. For Aditi was born, O Daksha, she who is thy daughter; after her the gods were born, the blessed, who share in immortality.\nOr, in more mythological language:\nX, 64, 5. d\u00e1kshasya v\u00e2 adite g\u00e1nmani vrat\u00e9 r\u00e2\u00b4g\u00e2n\u00e2 mitr\u00e2\u00b4-v\u00e1run\u00e2 \u00e2\u00b4 viv\u00e2sasi.\nOr thou, O Aditi, nursest in the birthplace of Daksha the two kings, Mitra and Varuna.\nNay, even this does not suffice. There is something again beyond Aditi and Daksha, and one poet says:\nX, 5, 7. \u00e1sat ka s\u00e1t ka param\u00e9 v\u00ed-oman d\u00e1kshasya g\u00e1nman \u00e1diteh up\u00e1-sthe.\nNot-being and Being are in the highest heaven, in the birthplace of Daksha, in the lap of Aditi.\nAt last something like a theogony, though full of contradictions, was imagined, and in the same hymn from which we have already quoted, the poet says:\nX, 72, 1-4. dev\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m n\u00fa vay\u00e1m g\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2 pr\u00e1 vok\u00e2ma vipany\u00e1y\u00e2, ukth\u00e9shu sasy\u00e1m\u00e2neshu y\u00e1h (y\u00e1t?) p\u00e1sy\u00e2t ut-tare yug\u00e9. 1.\nbr\u00e1hmanah p\u00e1tih et\u00e2\u00b4 s\u00e1m karm\u00e2\u00b4rah-iva adhamat, dev\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m p\u00fbrvy\u00e9 yug\u00e9 \u00e1satah s\u00e1t ag\u00e2yata. 2.\ndev\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m yug\u00e9 pratham\u00e9 \u00e1satah s\u00e1t ag\u00e2yata, t\u00e1t \u00e2\u00b4s\u00e2h \u00e1nu ag\u00e2yanta t\u00e1t utt\u00e2n\u00e1-padah p\u00e1ri. 3.\nbh\u00fb\u00b4h gag\u00f1e utt\u00e2n\u00e1-padah bhuv\u00e1h \u00e2\u00b4s\u00e2h ag\u00e2yanta, \u00e1diteh d\u00e1kshah ag\u00e2yata, d\u00e1ksh\u00e2t \u00fbm (\u00edti) \u00e1ditih p\u00e1ri. 4.\n1. Let us now with praise proclaim the births of the gods, that a man may see them in a future age, whenever these hymns are sung.\n2. Brahmanaspati a blew them together like a smith (with\nhis bellows); in a former age of the gods, Being was born from Not-being.\n3. In the first age of the gods, Being was born from Not-being, after it were born the Regions (space), from them Utt\u00e2napada;\n4. From Utt\u00e2napad the Earth was born, the Regions were born from the Earth. Daksha was born of Aditi, and Aditi from Daksha.\nThe ideas of Being and Not-being (\u03c4\u1f78 \u1f44\u03bd and \u03c4\u1f78 \u03bc\u1f74 \u1f44\u03bd) are familiar to the Hindus from a very early time in their intellectual growth, and they can only have been the result of abstract speculation. Therefore d\u00e1ksha, too, in the sense of power or potentia, may have been a metaphysical conception. But it may also have been suggested by a mere accident of language, a never-failing source of ancient thoughts. The name d\u00e1ksha-pitarah, an epithet of the gods, has generally been translated by 'those who have Daksha for their father.' But it may have been used originally in a very different sense. Professor Roth has, I think, convincingly proved that this epithet d\u00e1ksha-pitar, as given to certain gods, does not mean, the gods who have Daksha for their father, but that it had originally the simpler meaning of fathers of strength, or, as he translates it, 'preserving, possessing, granting faculties a.' This is particularly clear in one passage:\nIII, 27, 9. bh\u00fbt\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m g\u00e1rbham \u00e2\u00b4 dadhe, d\u00e1kshasya, pit\u00e1ram.\nI place Agni, the source of all beings, the father of strength \u2026\nAfter this we can hardly hesitate how to translate the next verse:\nVI, 50, 2. su-gy\u00f3tishah\u2014d\u00e1ksha-pitr\u00een\u2014dev\u00e2\u00b4n.\nThe resplendent gods, the fathers of strength.\nIt may seem more doubtful, when we come to gods like Mitra and Varuna, whom we are so much accustomed to regard as \u00c2dityas, or sons of Aditi, and who therefore, according to the theogony mentioned before, would have the best claim to the name of sons of Daksha; yet here, too, the original and simple meaning is preferable; nay, it is most likely that from passages like this, the later explanation, which makes Mitra and Varuna the sons of Daksha, may have sprung.\nVII, 66, 2. y\u00e2\u00b4\u2014su-d\u00e1ksh\u00e2 d\u00e1ksha-pitar\u00e2.\nMitra and Varuna, who are of good strength, the fathers of strength.\nLastly, even men may claim this name; for, unless we change the accent, we must translate:\nVIII, 63, 10. avasy\u00e1vah yushm\u00e2\u00b4bhih d\u00e1ksha-pitarah.\nWe suppliants, being, through your aid, fathers of strength.\nBut whatever view we take, whether we take d\u00e1ksha in the sense of power, as a personification of a philosophical conception, or as the result of a mythological misunderstanding occasioned by the name of d\u00e1ksha-pitar, the fact remains that in certain hymns of the Rig-veda (VIII, 25, 5) D\u00e1ksha, like Aditi, has become a divine person, and has retained his place as one of the \u00c2dityas to the very latest time of Pur\u00e2nic tradition.\nAditi in her Cosmic Character.\nBut to return to Aditi. Let us look upon her as the Infinite personified, and most passages, even those where she is presented as a subordinate deity, will become intelligible.\nAditi, in her cosmic character, is the Beyond, the unbounded realm beyond earth, sky, and heaven, and originally she was distinct from the sky, the earth, and the ocean. Aditi is mentioned by the side of heaven and earth, which\nshows that, though in more general language she may be identified with heaven and earth in their unlimited character, her original conception was different. This we see in passages where different deities or powers are invoked together, particularly if they are invoked together in the same verse, and where Aditi holds a separate place by the side of heaven and earth:\nI, 94, 16 (final). t\u00e1t nah mitr\u00e1h v\u00e1runah mamahant\u00e2m \u00e1ditih s\u00edndhuh prithiv\u00ee\u00b4 ut\u00e1 dya\u00fah.\nMay Mitra and Varuna grant us this, may Aditi, Sindhu (sea), the Earth, and the Sky!\nIn other passages, too, where Aditi has assumed a more personal character, she still holds her own by the side of heaven and earth; cf. IX, 97, 58 (final):\nI, 191, 6. dya\u00fbh vah pit\u00e2\u00b4 prithiv\u00ee\u00b4 m\u00e2t\u00e2\u00b4 s\u00f3mah bhr\u00e2\u00b4t\u00e2 \u00e1ditih sv\u00e1s\u00e2.\nThe Sky is your father, the Earth your mother, Soma your brother, Aditi your sister.\nVIII, 101, 15. m\u00e2t\u00e2\u00b4 rudr\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m duhit\u00e2\u00b4 v\u00e1s\u00fbn\u00e2m sv\u00e1s\u00e2 \u00e2dity\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m amr\u00edtasya n\u00e2\u00b4bhih, pr\u00e1 n\u00fa vokam kikit\u00fashe g\u00e1n\u00e2ya m\u00e2\u00b4 g\u00e2\u00b4m \u00e1n\u00e2g\u00e2m \u00e1ditim vadhishta.\nThe mother of the Rudras, the daughter of the Vasus, the sister of the \u00c2dityas, the source of immortality, I tell it forth to the man of understanding, may he not offend the cow, the guiltless Aditi! Cf. I, 153, 3; IX, 96, 15; V\u00e2gasan. Samhit\u00e2 XIII, 49.\nVI, 51, 5. dya\u0169h p\u00edtar (\u00edti) pr\u00edthivi m\u00e2\u00b4tah \u00e1dhruk \u00e1gne bhr\u00e2tah vasavah mril\u00e1ta nah, v\u00edsve \u00e2dity\u00e2h adite sa-g\u00f3sh\u00e2h asm\u00e1bhyam s\u00e1rma bahul\u00e1m vi yanta.\nSky, father, Earth, kind mother, Fire, brother, bright gods, have mercy upon us! All \u00c2dityas (and) Aditi together, grant us your manifold protection!\nX, 63, 10. su-tr\u00e2\u00b4m\u00e2nam prithiv\u00ee\u00b4m dy\u00e2\u00b4m aneh\u00e1sam sus\u00e1rm\u00e2nam \u00e1ditim su-pr\u00e1n\u00eetim, da\u00edv\u00eem n\u00e2\u00b4vam su-aritr\u00e2\u00b4m \u00e1n\u00e2gasam \u00e1sravant\u00eem \u00e2\u00b4 ruhema svast\u00e1ye.\nLet us for welfare step into the divine boat, with good oars, faultless and leakless\u2014the well-protecting Earth, the peerless Sky, the sheltering, well-guiding Aditi!\nX, 66, 4. \u00e1ditih dy\u00e2\u00b4v\u00e2prithiv\u00ee\u00b4 (\u00edti).\nAditi, and Heaven and Earth.\nWhere two or more verses come together, the fact that Aditi is mentioned by the side of Heaven and Earth may seem less convincing, because in these Nivids or long strings of invocations different names or representatives of one and the same power are not unfrequently put together. For instance,\nX, 36, 1-3. ush\u00e1s\u00e2n\u00e1kt\u00e2 brihat\u00ee\u00b4 (\u00edti) su-p\u00e9sas\u00e2 dy\u00e2\u00b4v\u00e2ksh\u00e2\u00b4m\u00e2 v\u00e1runah mitr\u00e1h aryam\u00e2\u00b4, \u00edndram huve mar\u00fatah p\u00e1rvat\u00e2n ap\u00e1h \u00e2dity\u00e2\u00b4n dy\u00e2\u00b4v\u00e2prithiv\u00ee\u00b4 (\u00edti) ap\u00e1h sv\u00e3r (\u00edti sv\u00e3h). 1.\ndya\u00fah ka nah prithiv\u00ee\u00b4 ka pr\u00e1-ketas\u00e2 rit\u00e1var\u00ee (\u00edty rit\u00e1var\u00ee) rakshat\u00e2m \u00e1mhasah rish\u00e1h, m\u00e2\u00b4 duh-vid\u00e1tr\u00e2 n\u00edh-ritih nah \u00eesata t\u00e1t dev\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m \u00e1vah ady\u00e1 vrin\u00eemahe. 2.\nv\u00edsvasm\u00e2t nah \u00e1ditih p\u00e2tu \u00e1mhasah m\u00e2t\u00e2\u00b4 mitr\u00e1sya v\u00e1runasya rev\u00e1tah sv\u00e3h-vat gy\u00f3tih avrik\u00e1m nas\u00eemahi. 3.\n1. There are the grand and beautiful Morning and Night, Heaven and Earth, Varuna, Mitra, Aryaman; I call Indra, the Maruts, the Waters, the \u00c2dityas, Heaven and Earth, the Waters, the Heaven.\n2. May Heaven and Earth, the provident, the righteous, preserve us from sin and mischief! May the malevolent Nirriti not rule over us! This blessing of the gods we ask for to-day.\n3. May Aditi protect us from all sin, the mother of Mitra and of the rich Varuna! May we obtain heavenly light without enemies! This blessing of the gods we ask for to-day.\nHere we cannot but admit that Dy\u00e2\u00b4v\u00e2ksh\u00e2\u00b4m\u00e2, heaven and earth, is meant for the same divine couple as Dy\u00e2\u00b4v\u00e2prithiv\u00ee\u00b4, heaven and earth, although under slightly differing names they are invoked separately. The waters are invoked twice in the same verse and under the same name; nor is there any indication that, as in other passages, the waters of the sky are meant as distinct from the waters of the sea. Nevertheless even here, Aditi, who in the third verse is called distinctly the mother of Mitra and Varuna, cannot well have been meant for the same deity as Heaven and Earth, mentioned in the second verse; and the author of\nthese two verses, while asking the same blessing from both, must have been aware of the original independent character of Aditi.\nAditi as Mother.\nIn this character of a deity of the far East, of an Orient in the true sense of the word, Aditi was naturally thought of as the mother of certain gods, particularly of those that were connected with the daily rising and setting of the sun. If it was asked whence comes the dawn, or the sun, or whence come day and night, or Mitra and Varuna, or any of the bright, solar, eastern deities, the natural answer was that they come from the Orient, that they are the sons of Aditi. Thus we read in\nIX, 74, 3. urv\u00ee\u00b4 g\u00e1vy\u00fbtih \u00e1diteh rit\u00e1m yat\u00e9.\nWide is the space for him who goes on the right path of Aditi.\nIn VIII, 25, 3, we are told that Aditi bore Mitra and Varuna, and these in verse 5 are called the sons of Daksha (power), and the grandsons of Savas, which again means might: n\u00e1p\u00e2t\u00e2 s\u00e1vasah man\u00e1h s\u00fbn\u00fb\u00b4 (\u00edti) d\u00e1kshasya su-kr\u00e1t\u00fb (\u00edti). In X, 36, 3, Aditi is called the mother of Mitra and Varuna; likewise in X, 132, 6; see also VI, 67, 4. In VIII, 47, 9, Aditi is called the mother of Mitra, Aryaman, Varuna, who in VII, 60, 5 are called her sons. In X, 11, 1, Varuna is called yahv\u00e1h \u00e1diteh, the son of Aditi (cf. VIII, 19, 12); in VII, 41, 2, Bhaga is mentioned as her son. In X, 72, 8, we hear of eight sons of Aditi, but it is added that she approached the gods with seven sons only, and that the eighth (m\u00e2rt\u00e2nd\u00e1, addled egg) was thrown away: ashta\u00fa putr\u00e2\u00b4sah \u00e1diteh y\u00e9 g\u00e2t\u00e2\u00b4h tanv\u00e3h p\u00e1ri, dev\u00e2\u00b4n \u00fapa pr\u00e1 ait sapt\u00e1-bhih p\u00e1r\u00e2 m\u00e2rt\u00e2nd\u00e1m \u00e2syat.\nIn X, 63, 2, the gods in general are represented as born from Aditi, the waters, and the earth: y\u00e9 sth\u00e1 g\u00e2t\u00e2\u00b4h \u00e1diteh at-bhy\u00e1h p\u00e1ri y\u00e9 prithivy\u00e2\u00b4h t\u00e9 me ih\u00e1 sruta h\u00e1vam.\nYou who are born of Aditi, from the water, you who are born of the earth, hear ye all my call!\nThe number seven, with regard to the \u00c2dityas, occurs also in\nIX, 114, 3. sapt\u00e1 d\u00edsah n\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2-s\u00fbry\u00e2h sapt\u00e1 h\u00f3t\u00e2rah ritv\u00edgah, dev\u00e2\u00b4h \u00e2dity\u00e2\u00b4h y\u00e9 sapt\u00e1 t\u00e9bhih soma abh\u00ed raksha nah.\nThere are seven regions with their different suns, there are seven Hotars as priests, those who are the seven gods, the \u00c2dityas, with them, O Soma, protect us!\nThe Seven \u00c2dityas.\nThis number of seven \u00c2dityas requires an explanation. To say that seven is a solemn or sacred number is to say very little, for however solemn or sacred that number may be elsewhere, it is not more sacred than any other number in the Veda. The often-mentioned seven rivers have a real geographical foundation, like the seven hills of Rome. The seven flames or treasures of Agni (V, 1, 5) and of Soma and Rudra (VI, 74, I), the seven paridhis or logs at certain sacrifices (X, 90, 15), the seven Harits or horses of the sun, the seven Hotar priests (III, 7, 7; 10, 4), the seven cities of the enemy destroyed by Indra (I, 63, 7), and even the seven Rishis (X, 82, 2; 109, 4), all these do not prove that the number of seven was more sacred than the number of one or three or five or ten used in the Veda in a very similar way. With regard to the seven \u00c2dityas, however, we are still able to see that their number of seven or eight had something to do with solar movements. If their number had always been eight, we should feel inclined to trace the number of the \u00c2dityas back to the eight regions, or the eight cardinal points of the heaven. Thus we read:\nI, 35, 8. ashta\u00fa v\u00ed akhyat kak\u00fabhah prithivy\u00e2\u00b4h.\nThe god Savitar lighted up the eight points of the earth (not the eight hills).\nBut we have seen already that though the number of \u00c2dityas was originally supposed to have been eight, it was reduced to seven, and this could hardly be said in any sense of the eight points of the compass. Cf. Taitt. \u00c2r. I, 7, 6.\nAs we cannot think in ancient India of the seven planets, I can only suggest the seven days or tithis of the four parvans of the lunar month as a possible prototype of the\n[paragraph continues] \u00c2dityas. This might even explain the destruction of the eighth \u00c2ditya, considering that the eighth day of each parvan, owing to its uncertainty, might be represented as exposed to decay and destruction. This would explain such passages as,\nIV, 7, 5. y\u00e1gishtham sapt\u00e1 dh\u00e2\u00b4ma-bhih.\nAgni, most worthy of sacrifice in the seven stations.\nIX, 102, 2. yag\u00f1\u00e1sya sapt\u00e1 dh\u00e2\u00b4ma-bhih.\nIn the seven stations of the sacrifice.\nThe seven threads of the sacrifice may have the same origin:\nII, 5, 2. \u00e2\u00b4 y\u00e1smin sapt\u00e1 rasm\u00e1yah tat\u00e2\u00b4h yag\u00f1\u00e1sya net\u00e1ri, manushv\u00e1t da\u00edvyam ashtam\u00e1m.\nIn whom, as the leader of the sacrifice, the seven threads are stretched out,\u2014the eighth divine being is manlike (?).\nThe sacrifice itself is called, X, 124, 1, sapt\u00e1-tantu, having seven threads.\nX, 122, 3. sapt\u00e1 dh\u00e2\u00b4m\u00e2ni pari-y\u00e1n \u00e1martyah.\nAgni, the immortal, who goes round the seven stations.\nX, 8, 4. ush\u00e1h-ushah h\u00ed vaso (\u00edti) \u00e1gram \u00e9shi tv\u00e1m yam\u00e1yoh abhavah vi-bh\u00e2\u00b4v\u00e2, rit\u00e2\u00b4ya sapt\u00e1 dadhishe pad\u00e2\u00b4ni gan\u00e1yan mitr\u00e1m tanv\u1ebd sv\u00e2\u00b4yai.\nFor thou, Vasu (Agni), comest first every morning, thou art the illuminator of the twins (day and night). Thou holdest the seven places for the sacrifice, creating Mitra (the sun) for thy own body.\nX, 5, 6. sapt\u00e1 mary\u00e2\u00b4d\u00e2h kav\u00e1yah tatakshuh t\u00e2\u00b4s\u00e2m \u00e9k\u00e2m \u00edt abh\u00ed amhur\u00e1h g\u00e2t.\nThe sages established the seven divisions, but mischief befell one of them.\nI, 22, 16. \u00e1tah dev\u00e2\u00b4h avantu nah y\u00e1tah v\u00edshnuh vi-kakram\u00e9 prithivy\u00e2\u00b4h sapt\u00e1 dh\u00e2\u00b4ma-bhih.\nMay the gods protect us from whence Vishnu strode forth, by the seven stations of the earth!\nEven the names of the seven or eight \u00c2dityas are not definitely known, at least not from the hymns of the Rig-veda. In II, 27, 1, we have a list of six names: Mitr\u00e1, Aryam\u00e1n, Bh\u00e1ga, V\u00e1runa, D\u00e1ksha, \u00c1msah. These with Aditi would give us seven. In VI, 50, 1, we have \u00c1diti,\n[paragraph continues] V\u00e1runa, Mitr\u00e1, Agn\u00ed, Aryam\u00e1n, Savit\u00e1r, and Bh\u00e1ga. In I, 89, 3, Bh\u00e1ga, Mitr\u00e1, \u00c1diti, D\u00e1ksha, Aryam\u00e1n, V\u00e1runa, S\u00f3ma, Asv\u00edn\u00e2, and S\u00e1rasvat\u00ee are invoked together with an old invocation, p\u00fb\u00b4rvay\u00e2 ni-v\u00edd\u00e2. In the Taittir\u00eeya-\u00e2ranyaka, I, 13, 3, we find the following list: 1. Mitra, 2. Varuna, 3. Dh\u00e2tar, 4. Aryaman, 5. Amsa, 6. Bhaga, 7. Indra, 8. Vivasvat, but there, too, the eighth son is said to be M\u00e2rt\u00e2nda, or, according to the commentator, \u00c2ditya.\nThe character of Aditi as the mother of certain gods is also indicated by some of her epithets, such as r\u00e2\u00b4ga-putr\u00e2, having kings for her sons; su-putr\u00e2\u00b4, having good sons; ugr\u00e1-putr\u00e2, having terrible sons:\nII, 27, 7. p\u00edpartu nah \u00e1ditih r\u00e2\u00b4ga-putr\u00e2 \u00e1ti dv\u00e9sh\u00e2msi aryam\u00e2\u00b4 su-g\u00e9bhih, brih\u00e1t mitr\u00e1sya v\u00e1runasya s\u00e1rma \u00fapa sy\u00e2ma puru-v\u00ee\u00b4r\u00e2h \u00e1risht\u00e2h.\nMay Aditi with her royal sons, may Aryaman carry us on easy roads across the hatreds; may we with many sons and without hurt obtain the great protection of Mitra and Varuna!\nIII, 4, 11. barh\u00edh nah \u00e2st\u00e2m \u00e1ditih su-putr\u00e2\u00b4.\nMay Aditi with her excellent sons sit on our sacred pile!\nVIII, 67, 11. p\u00e1rshi d\u00een\u00e9 gabh\u00eer\u00e9 \u00e2\u00b4 \u00fagra-putre g\u00edgh\u00e2msatah, m\u00e2\u00b4kih tok\u00e1sya nah rishat.\nProtect us, O goddess with terrible sons, from the enemy in shallow or deep water, and no one will hurt our offspring!\nAditi identified with other Deities.\nAditi, however, for the very reason that she was originally intended for the Infinite, for something beyond the visible world, was liable to be identified with a number of finite deities which might all be represented as resting on Aditi, as participating in Aditi, as being Aditi. Thus we read:\nI, 89, 10 (final). \u00e1ditih dya\u00fbh \u00e1ditih ant\u00e1riksham \u00e1ditih m\u00e2t\u00e2\u00b4 s\u00e1h pit\u00e2\u00b4 s\u00e1h putr\u00e1h, v\u00edsve dev\u00e2\u00b4h \u00e1ditih p\u00e1\u00f1ka g\u00e1n\u00e2h \u00e1ditih g\u00e2t\u00e1m \u00e1ditih g\u00e1ni-tvam.\nAditi is the heaven, Aditi the sky, Aditi the mother, the\nfather, the son. All the gods are Aditi, the five clans, the past is Aditi, Aditi is the future.\nBut although Aditi may thus be said to be everything, heaven, sky, and all the gods, no passage occurs, in the Rig-veda at least, where the special meaning of heaven or earth is expressed by Aditi. In X, 63, 3, where Aditi seems to mean sky, we shall see that it ought to be taken as a masculine, either in the sense of \u00c2ditya, or as an epithet, unbounded, immortal. In I, 72, 9, we ought probably to read prithv\u00ee\u00b4 and pronounce prithuv\u00ee\u00b4, and translate 'the wide Aditi, the mother with her sons;' and not, as Benfey does, 'the Earth, the eternal mother.'\nIt is more difficult to determine whether in one passage Aditi has not been used in the sense of life after life, or as the name of the place whither people went after death, or of the deity presiding over that place. In a well-known hymn, supposed to have been uttered by Sunahsepa when on the point of being sacrificed by his own father, the following verse occurs:\nI, 24, 1. k\u00e1h nah mahya\u00ed \u00e1ditaye p\u00fanah d\u00e2t, pit\u00e1ram ka dris\u00e9yam m\u00e2t\u00e1ram ka.\nWho will give us back to the great Aditi, that I may see father and mother?\nAs the supposed utterer of this hymn is still among the living, Aditi can hardly be taken in the sense of earth, nor would the wish to see father and mother be intelligible in the mouth of one who is going to he sacrificed by his own father. If we discard the story of Sunahsepa, and take the hymn as uttered by any poet who craves for the protection of the gods in the presence of danger and death, then we may choose between the two meanings of earth or liberty, and translate, either, Who will give us back to the great earth? or, Who will restore us to the great Aditi, the goddess of freedom?\nAditi and Diti.\nThere is one other passage which might receive light if we could take Aditi in the sense of Hades, but I give this translation as a mere guess:\nIV, 2, 11. r\u00e2y\u00e9 ka nah su-apaty\u00e2\u00b4ya deva d\u00edtim ka r\u00e2\u00b4sva \u00e1ditim urushya.\nThat we may enjoy our wealth and healthy offspring, give us this life on earth, keep off the life to come! Cf. I, 152, 6.\nIt should be borne in mind that Diti occurs in the Rig-veda thrice only, and in one passage it should, I believe, be changed into Aditi. This passage occurs in VII, 15, 12. tv\u00e1m agne v\u00eer\u00e1-vat y\u00e1sah dev\u00e1h ka savit\u00e2\u00b4 bh\u00e1gah, d\u00edtih ka d\u00e2ti v\u00e2\u00b4ryam. Here the name of Diti is so unusual, and that of Aditi, on the contrary, so natural, that I have little doubt that the poet had put the name of Aditi; and that later reciters, not aware of the occasional license of putting two short syllables instead of one, changed it into Aditi. If we remove this passage, then Diti, in the Rig-veda at least, occurs twice only, and each time together or in contrast with Aditi; cf. V, 62, 8, page 243. I have no doubt, therefore, that Professor Roth is right when he says that Diti is a being without any definite conception, a mere reflex of Aditi. We can clearly watch her first emergence into existence through what is hardly more than a play of words, whereas in the epic and Pur\u00e2nic literature this Diti (like the Suras) has grown into a definite person, one of the daughters of Daksha, the wife of Kasyapa, the mother of the enemies of the gods, the Daityas. Such is the growth of legend, mythology and religion!\nAditi in her Moral Character.\nBesides the cosmical character of Aditi, which we have hitherto examined, this goddess has also assumed a very prominent moral character. Aditi, like Varuna, delivers from sin. Why this should be so, we can still understand if we watch the transition which led from a purely cosmical to a moral conception of Aditi. Sin in the Veda is frequently conceived as a bond or a chain from which the repentant sinner wishes to be freed:\nVII, 86, 5. \u00e1va drugdh\u00e2\u00b4ni p\u00edtry\u00e2 sriga nah \u00e1va y\u00e2\u00b4 vay\u00e1m kakrim\u00e1 tan\u00fb\u00b4bhih, \u00e1va r\u00e2gan pasu-tr\u00edpam n\u00e1 t\u00e2y\u00fam srig\u00e1 vats\u00e1m n\u00e1 d\u00e2\u00b4mnah v\u00e1sishtham.\nAbsolve us from the sins of our fathers, and from those\nwhich we have committed with our own bodies. Release Vasishtha, O king, like a thief who has feasted on stolen cattle; release him like a calf from the rope a.\nVIII, 67, 14. t\u00e9 nah \u00e2sn\u00e1h vr\u00edk\u00e2n\u00e2m \u00e2\u00b4dity\u00e2sah mum\u00f3kata sten\u00e1m baddh\u00e1m-iva adite.\nO \u00c2dityas, deliver us from the mouth of the wolves, like a bound thief, O Aditi! Cf. VIII, 67, 18.\nSunahsepa, who, as we saw before, wishes to be restored to the great Aditi, is represented as bound (dita) by ropes, and in V, 2, 7, we read:\ns\u00fanah-s\u00e9pam kit n\u00ed-ditam sah\u00e1sr\u00e2t y\u00fb\u00b4p\u00e2t amu\u00f1kah \u00e1samishta h\u00ed s\u00e1h, ev\u00e1 asm\u00e1t agne v\u00ed mumugdhi p\u00e2\u00b4s\u00e2n h\u00f3tar (\u00edti) kikitvah ih\u00e1 t\u00fa ni-s\u00e1dya.\nO Agni, thou hast released the bound Sunahsepa from the stake, for he had prayed; thus take from us, too, these ropes, O sagacious Hotar, after thou hast settled here.\nExpressions like these, words like d\u00e2\u00b4man, bond, n\u00ed-dita, bound, naturally suggested \u00e1-diti, the un-bound or unbounded, as one of those deities who could best remove the bonds of sin or misery. If we once realise this concatenation of thought and language, many passages of the Veda that seemed obscure, will become intelligible.\nVII, 51, 1. \u00e2dity\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m \u00e1vas\u00e2 n\u00fb\u00b4tanena saksh\u00eem\u00e1hi s\u00e1rman\u00e2 s\u00e1m-tamena, an\u00e2g\u00e2h-tv\u00e9 aditi-tv\u00e9 tur\u00e2\u00b4sah im\u00e1m yag\u00f1\u00e1m dadhatu sr\u00f3sham\u00e2n\u00e2h.\nMay we obtain the new favour of the \u00c2dityas, their best protection; may the quick Maruts listen and place this sacrifice in guiltlessness and Aditi-hood.\nI have translated the last words literally, in order to make their meaning quite clear. \u00c2\u00b4gas has the same meaning as the Greek \u1f04\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2, guilt, abomination; an-\u00e2g\u00e2s-tv\u00e1, therefore, as applied to a sacrifice or to the man who makes it, means guiltlessness, purity. Aditi-tv\u00e1, Aditi-hood, has a similar meaning, it means freedom from bonds, from anything that hinders the proper performance of a religious act; it may come to mean perfection or holiness.\nAditi having once been conceived as granting this adititv\u00e1, soon assumed a very definite moral character, and hence the following invocations:\nI, 24, 15. \u00fat ut-tam\u00e1m varuna p\u00e2\u00b4sam asm\u00e1t \u00e1va adham\u00e1m v\u00ed madhyamim srathaya, \u00e1tha vay\u00e1m \u00e2ditya vrat\u00e9 t\u00e1va \u00e1n\u00e2gasah \u00e1ditaye sy\u00e2ma.\nO Varuna, lift the highest rope, draw off the lowest, remove the middle; then, O \u00c2ditya, let us be in thy service free of guilt before Aditi.\nV, 82, 6. \u00e1n\u00e2gasah \u00e1ditaye dev\u00e1sya savit\u00fah h sav\u00e9, v\u00edsv\u00e2 v\u00e2m\u00e2\u00b4ni dh\u00eemahi.\nMay we, guiltless before Aditi, and in the keeping of the god Savitar, obtain all goods! Professor Roth here translates Aditi by freedom or security.\nI, 162, 22. an\u00e2g\u00e2h-tv\u00e1m nah \u00e1ditih krinotu.\nMay Aditi give us sinlessness! Cf. VII, 51, 1.\nIV, 12, 4. y\u00e1t kit h\u00ed te purusha-tr\u00e2\u00b4 yavishtha \u00e1kitti-bhih kakrim\u00e1 kit kit \u00e2\u00b4gah, kridh\u00ed s\u00fa asm\u00e2\u00b4n \u00e1diteh \u00e1n\u00e2g\u00e2n v\u00ed \u00e9n\u00e2msi sisrathah v\u00edshvak agne.\nWhatever, O youthful god, we have committed against thee, men as we are, whatever sin through thoughtlessness, make us guiltless of Aditi, loosen the sins on all sides, O Agni!\nVII, 93, 7. s\u00e1h agne en\u00e2\u00b4 n\u00e1mas\u00e2 s\u00e1m-iddhah \u00e1kkha mitr\u00e1m v\u00e1runam \u00edndram vokeh, y\u00e1t s\u00eem \u00e2\u00b4gah kakrim\u00e1 t\u00e1t s\u00fa mrila t\u00e1t aryam\u00e2\u00b4 \u00e1ditih sisrathantu.\nO Agni, thou who hast been kindled with this adoration, greet Mitra, Varuna, and Indra. Whatever sin we have committed, do thou pardon it! May Aryaman, Aditi loose it!\nHere the plural sisrathantu should be observed, instead of the dual.\nVIII, 18, 6-7. \u00e1ditih nah d\u00edv\u00e2 pas\u00fam \u00e1ditih n\u00e1ktam \u00e1dvay\u00e2h, \u00e1ditih p\u00e2tu \u00e1mhasah sad\u00e2\u00b4-vridh\u00e2.\nut\u00e1 sy\u00e2\u00b4 nah d\u00edv\u00e2 mat\u00edh \u00e1ditih \u00fbty\u00e2\u00b4 \u00e2\u00b4 gamat, s\u00e2 s\u00e1m-t\u00e2ti m\u00e1yah karat \u00e1pa sr\u00eddhah.\nMay Aditi by day protect our cattle, may she, who never deceives, protect by night; may she, with steady increase, protect us from evil!\nAnd may she, the thoughtful Aditi, come with help to\nus by day; may she kindly bring happiness to us, and carry away all enemies! Cf. X, 36, 3, page 251.\nX, 87, 18. \u00e2\u00b4 vriskyant\u00e2m \u00e1ditaye duh-\u00e9v\u00e2h.\nMay the evil-doers be cut off from Aditi! or literally, may they be rooted out before Aditi!\nII, 27, 24. \u00e1dite m\u00edtra v\u00e1runa ut\u00e1 mrila y\u00e1t vah vay\u00e1m kakrim\u00e1 k\u00e1t kit \u00e2\u00b4gah, ur\u00fa asy\u00e2m \u00e1bhayam gy\u00f3tih indra m\u00e2\u00b4 nah d\u00eergh\u00e2\u00b4h abh\u00ed nasan t\u00e1misr\u00e2h.\nAditi, Mitra, and also Varuna forgive, if we have committed any sin against you. May I obtain the wide and fearless light, O Indra! May not the long darkness reach us!\nVII, 87, 7. y\u00e1h mril\u00e1y\u00e2ti kakr\u00fashe kit \u00e2\u00b4gah vay\u00e1m sy\u00e2ma v\u00e1rune \u00e1n\u00e2g\u00e2h, \u00e1nu vrat\u00e2\u00b4ni \u00e1diteh ridh\u00e1ntah yuy\u00e1m p\u00e2ta svast\u00ed-bhih s\u00e1d\u00e2 nah.\nMay we be sinless before Varuna, who is gracious even to him who has committed sin, and may we follow the laws of Aditi! Protect us always with your blessings!\nLastly, Aditi, like all other gods, is represented as a giver of worldly goods, and implored to bestow them on her worshippers, or to protect them by her power:\nI, 43, 2. y\u00e1th\u00e2 nah \u00e1ditih k\u00e1rat p\u00e1sve nr\u00ed-bhyah y\u00e1th\u00e2 g\u00e1ve, y\u00e1th\u00e2 tok\u00e2\u00b4ya rudr\u00edyam.\nThat Aditi may bring Rudra's favour to our cattle, our men, our cow, our offspring.\nI, 153, 3. p\u00eep\u00e2\u00b4ya dhen\u00fah \u00e1ditih rit\u00e2\u00b4ya g\u00e1n\u00e2ya mitr\u00e2varun\u00e2 havih-d\u00e9.\nAditi, the cow, gives food to the righteous man, O Mitra and Varuna, who makes offerings to the gods. Cf. VIII, 101, 15.\nI call for the unrivalled, uninjured gift of Aditi. Here Professor Roth again assigns to Aditi the meaning of freedom or security.\nVII, 40, 2. d\u00eddeshtu dev\u00ee\u00b4 \u00e1ditih r\u00e9knah.\nMay the divine Aditi assign wealth!\nX, 100, 1. \u00e2\u00b4 sarv\u00e1-t\u00e2tim \u00e1ditim vrin\u00eemahe.\nWe implore Aditi for health and wealth.\nI, 94, 15. y\u00e1smai tv\u00e1m su-dravinah d\u00e1d\u00e2sah an\u00e2g\u00e2h-tv\u00e1m\nadite sarv\u00e1-t\u00e2t\u00e2, y\u00e1m bhadr\u00e9na s\u00e1vas\u00e2 kod\u00e1y\u00e2si prag\u00e2\u00b4-vat\u00e2 r\u00e2\u00b4dhas\u00e2 t\u00e9 sy\u00e2ma.\nTo whom thou, possessor of good treasures, grantest guiltlessness, O Aditi, in health and wealth a, whom thou quickenest with precious strength and with riches in progeny, may we be they! Cf. II, 40, 6; IV, 25, 5; X, 11, 2.\nThe principal epithets of Aditi have been mentioned in the passages quoted above, and they throw no further light on the nature of the goddess. She was called dev\u00ee\u00b4, goddess, again and again; another frequent epithet is anarv\u00e1n, uninjured, unscathed. Being invoked to grant light (VII, 82, 10), she is herself called luminous, gy\u00f3tishmat\u00ee, I, 136, 3; and sv\u00e2\u00b4rvat\u00ee, heavenly. Being the goddess of the infinite expanse, she, even with greater right than the dawn, is called \u00far\u00fbk\u00ee, VIII, 67, 12; uruvy\u00e1kas, V, 46, 6; uruvrag\u00e2, VIII, 67, 12; and possibly prithv\u00ee\u00b4 in I, 72, 9. As supporting everything, she is called dh\u00e2ray\u00e1tkshiti, supporting the earth, I, 136, 3; and visv\u00e1gany\u00e2, VII, 10, 4. To her sons she owes the names of r\u00e2\u00b4gaputr\u00e2, II, 27, 7; suputr\u00e2\u00b4, III, 4, 11; and ugr\u00e1putr\u00e2, VIII, 67, 11: to her wealth that of sudravinas, I, 94, 15, though others refer this epithet to Agni. There remains one name pasty\u1eab, IV, 55, 3; VIII, 27, 5, meaning housewife, which again indicates her character as mother of the gods.\nI have thus given all the evidence that can be collected from the Rig-veda as throwing light on the character of the goddess Aditi, and I have carefully excluded everything that rests only on the authority of the Yagur- or Atharva-vedas, or of the Br\u00e2hmanas and \u00c2ranyakas, because in all they give beyond the repetitions from the Rig-veda, they seem to me to represent a later phase of thought that ought not to be mixed up with the more primitive conceptions of the Rig-veda. Not that the Rig-veda is free from what seems decidedly modern, or at all events secondary and late. But it is well to keep the great collections, as such,\nseparate, whatever our opinions may be as to the age of their component parts.\nIn the Atharva-veda Aditi appears more unintelligible, more completely mythological, than in the Rig-veda. We read, for instance, Atharva-veda VII, 6, 1:\n\u2018Aditi is the sky, Aditi is the welkin, Aditi is mother, is father, is son; all the gods are Aditi, and the five clans of men; Aditi is what was, Aditi is what will be.\n\u2018We invoke for our protection the great mother of the well-ruling gods, the wife of Rita, the powerful, never-aging, far-spreading, the sheltering, well-guiding Aditi.\u2019\nIn the Taittir\u00eeya-\u00e2ranyaka and similar works the mythological confusion becomes greater still. Much valuable material for an analytical study of Aditi may be found in B. and R.'s Dictionary, and in several of Dr. Muir's excellent contributions to a knowledge of Vedic theogony and mythology.\nAditi as an Adjective.\nBut although the foregoing remarks give as complete a description of Aditi as can be gathered from the hymns of the Rig-veda, a few words have to be added on certain passages where the word \u00e1diti occurs, and where it clearly cannot mean the goddess Aditi, as a feminine, but must be taken either as the name of a corresponding masculine deity, or as an adjective in the sense of unrestrained, independent, free.\nV, 59, 8. m\u00edm\u00e2tu dya\u00fah \u00e1ditih v\u00eet\u00e1ye nah.\nMay the boundless Dy\u00fa (sky) help us to our repast!\nHere Aditi must either be taken in the sense of \u00c2ditya, or better in its original sense of unbounded, as an adjective belonging to Dy\u00fa, the masculine deity of the sky.\nDy\u00fa or the sky is called \u00e1diti or unbounded in another passage, X, 63, 3:\ny\u00e9bhyah m\u00e2t\u00e2\u00b4 m\u00e1dhu-mat p\u00ednvate p\u00e1yah p\u00eey\u00fb\u00b4sham dya\u00fbh \u00e1ditih \u00e1dri-barh\u00e2h.\nThe gods to whom their mother yields the sweet milk, and the unbounded sky, as firm as a rock, their food.\nIV, 3, 8. kath\u00e2\u00b4 s\u00e1rdh\u00e2ya mar\u00fat\u00e2m rit\u00e2\u00b4ya kath\u00e2\u00b4 s\u00fbr\u00e9 brihat\u00e9 prikkhy\u00e1m\u00e2nah, pr\u00e1ti bravah \u00e1ditaye tur\u00e2\u00b4ya.\nHow wilt thou tell it to the host of the Maruts, how to the bright heaven, when thou art asked? How to the quick Aditi?\nHere Aditi cannot be the goddess, partly on account of the masculine gender of tur\u00e2\u00b4ya, partly because she is never called quick. Aditi must here be the name of one of the \u00c2dityas, or it may refer back to s\u00fbr\u00e9 brihat\u00e9. It can hardly be joined, as Professor Roth proposes, with s\u00e1rdh\u00e2ya mar\u00fat\u00e2m, owing to the intervening s\u00fbr\u00e9 brihat\u00e9.\nIn several passages \u00e1diti, as an epithet, refers to Agni:\nIV, 1, 20 (final). v\u00edsvesh\u00e2m \u00e1ditih yag\u00f1\u00edy\u00e2n\u00e2m v\u00edsvesh\u00e2m \u00e1tithih m\u00e2\u00b4nush\u00e2n\u00e2m.\nHe, Agni, the Aditi, or the freest, among all the gods; he the guest among all men.\nThe same play on the words \u00e1diti and \u00e1tithi occurs again:\nVII, 9, 3. \u00e1m\u00fbrah kav\u00edh \u00e1ditih viv\u00e1sv\u00e2n su-sams\u00e1t mitr\u00e1h \u00e1tithih siv\u00e1h nah, kitr\u00e1-bh\u00e2nuh ush\u00e1s\u00e2m bh\u00e2ti \u00e1gre.\nThe wise poet, Aditi, Vivasvat, Mitra with his good company, our welcome guest, he (Agni) with brilliant light came at the head of the dawns.\nHere, though I admit that several renderings are possible, Aditi is meant as a name of Agni, to whom the whole hymn is addressed, and who, as usual, is identified with other gods, or, at all events, invoked by their names. We may translate \u00e1ditih viv\u00e1sv\u00e2n by 'the brilliant Aditi,' or 'the unchecked, the brilliant,' or by 'the boundless Vivasvat,' but on no account can we take \u00e1diti here as the female goddess. The same applies to VIII, 19, 14, where Aditi, unless we suppose the goddess brought in in the most abrupt way, must be taken as a name of Agni; while in X, 92, 14, \u00e1ditim anarv\u00e1nam, to judge from other epithets given in the same verse, has most likely to be taken again as an appellative of Agni. In some passages it would, no doubt, be possible to take Aditi as the name of a female deity, if it were certain that no other meaning could be assigned to this word. But if we once know that Aditi was the name of a male deity also, the structure of these passages becomes far more perfect, if we take Aditi in that sense:\nIV, 39, 3. \u00e1n\u00e2gasam t\u00e1m \u00e1ditih krinotu s\u00e1h mitr\u00e9na v\u00e1runena sa-g\u00f3sh\u00e2h.\nMay Aditi make him free from sin, he who is allied with Mitra and Varuna.\nWe have had several passages in which Aditi, the female deity, is represented as sag\u00f3sh\u00e2h or allied with other \u00c2dityas, but if s\u00e1h is the right reading here, Aditi in this verse can only be the male deity. The pronoun s\u00e1 cannot refer to t\u00e1m.\nWith regard to other passages, such as IX, 81, 5; VI, 51, 3, and even some of those translated above in which Aditi has been taken as a female goddess, the question must be left open till further evidence can be obtained. There is only one more passage which has been often discussed, and where \u00e1diti was supposed to have the meaning of earth:\nVII, 18, 8. duh-\u00e2dhy\u00e3h \u00e1ditim srev\u00e1yantah aket\u00e1sah v\u00ed gagribhre p\u00e1rushn\u00eem.\nProfessor Roth in one of his earliest essays translated this line, 'The evil-disposed wished to dry the earth, the fools split the Parushn\u00ee,' and he supposed its meaning to have been that the enemies of Sud\u00e2s swam across the Parushn\u00ee in order to attack Sud\u00e2s. We might accept this translation, if it could be explained how by throwing themselves into the river, the enemies made the earth dry, though even then there would remain this difficulty that, with the exception of one other doubtful passage, discussed before, \u00e1diti never means earth. We might possibly translate: 'The evil-disposed, the fools, laid dry and divided the boundless river Parushn\u00ee.' This would be a description of a stratagem very common in ancient warfare, viz. diverting the course of a river and laying its original bed dry by digging a new channel, and thus dividing the old river. This is also the sense accepted by S\u00e2yana, who does not say that vigraha means dividing the waves of a river, as Professor Roth renders k\u00fblabheda, but that it means dividing or cutting through its banks. In the Dictionary Professor Roth assigns to \u00e1diti in this passage the meaning of endless, inexhaustible.\nKan\u00e1.\nNote 5. Nothing is more difficult in the interpretation of the Veda than to gain an accurate knowledge of the power of particles and conjunctions. The particle kan\u00e1, we are told, is used both affirmatively and negatively, a statement which shows better than anything else the uncertainty to which every translation of Vedic hymns is as yet exposed. It is perfectly true that in the text of the Rig-veda, as we now read it, kan\u00e1 means both indeed and no. But this very fact shows that we ought to distinguish where the first collectors of the Vedic hymns have not distinguished, and that while in the former case we read kan\u00e1, we ought in the latter to read ka n\u00e1.\nI begin with those passages in which kan\u00e1 is used emphatically, though originally it may have been a double negation.\nI, 18, 7. y\u00e1sm\u00e2t rit\u00e9 n\u00e1 s\u00eddhyati yag\u00f1\u00e1h vipah-k\u00edtah kan\u00e1.\nWithout whom the sacrifice does not succeed, not even that of the sage.\nV, 34, 5. n\u00e1 \u00e1sunvat\u00e2 sakate p\u00fashyat\u00e2 kan\u00e1.\nHe does not cling to a man who offers no libations, even though he be thriving.\nI, 24, 6. nah\u00ed te kshatr\u00e1m n\u00e1 s\u00e1hah n\u00e1 many\u00fam v\u00e1yah kan\u00e1 am\u00ee\u00b4 (\u00edti) pat\u00e1yantah \u00e2p\u00fah.\nFor thy power, thy strength, thy anger even these birds which fly up, do not reach. Cf. I, 100, 15.\nI, 155, 5. trit\u00ee\u00b4yam asya n\u00e1kih \u00e2\u00b4 dadharshati v\u00e1yah kan\u00e1 pat\u00e1yantah patatr\u00ednah.\nThis third step no one approaches, not even the winged birds which fly up.\nI, 55, 1. div\u00e1h kit asya varim\u00e2\u00b4 v\u00ed papratha, \u00edndram n\u00e1 mahn\u00e2\u00b4 prithiv\u00ee\u00b4 kan\u00e1 pr\u00e1ti.\nThe width of the heavens is stretched out, even the earth in her greatness is no match for Indra.\nVII, 32, 13. p\u00fbrv\u00ee\u00b4h kan\u00e1 pr\u00e1-sitayah taranti t\u00e1m y\u00e1h \u00edndre k\u00e1rman\u00e2 bh\u00favat.\nEven many snares pass him who is with Indra in his work.\nVIII, 2, 14. ukth\u00e1m kan\u00e2 sasy\u00e1m\u00e2nam \u00e1goh ar\u00edh \u00e2\u00b4 kiketa, n\u00e1 g\u00e2yatr\u00e1m g\u00eey\u00e1m\u00e2nam.\nHe (Indra) marks indeed a poor man's prayer that is recited, but not a hymn that is sung. (Doubtful.)\nHoping in thee alone, O Indra, I take even this sickle in my hand.\nI, 55, 5. \u00e1dha kan\u00e1 sr\u00e1t dadhati tv\u00edshi-mate \u00edndr\u00e2ya v\u00e1gram ni-gh\u00e1nighnate vadh\u00e1m.\nThen indeed they believe in Indra, the majestic, when he hurls the bolt to strike.\nI, 152, 2. et\u00e1t kan\u00e1 tvah v\u00ed kiketat esh\u00e2m.\nDoes one of them understand even this?\nIV, 18, 9. m\u00e1mat kan\u00e1 used in the same sense as m\u00e1mat kit.\nI, 139, 2. dh\u00eebh\u00edh kan\u00e1 m\u00e1nas\u00e2 sv\u00e9bhih aksh\u00e1-bhih.\nV, 41, 13. v\u00e1yah kan\u00e1 su-bhv\u00e3h \u00e2\u00b4 \u00e1va yanti.\nVII, 18, 9. \u00e2s\u00fah kan\u00e1 \u00edt abhi-pitv\u00e1m gag\u00e2ma.\nVIII, 91, 3. \u00e2\u00b4 kan\u00e1 tv\u00e2 kikits\u00e2mah \u00e1dhi kan\u00e1 tv\u00e2 n\u00e1 imasi.\nWe wish to know thee, indeed, but we cannot understand thee.\nX, 49, 5. ah\u00e1m randhayam mr\u00edgayam srut\u00e1rvane y\u00e1t m\u00e2 \u00e1gih\u00eeta vay\u00fbn\u00e2 kan\u00e1 \u00e2nu-sh\u00e1k.\nVI, 26, 7. ah\u00e1m kan\u00e1 t\u00e1t s\u00fbr\u00ed-bhih \u00e2nasy\u00e2m.\nMay I also obtain this with the lords.\nI, 74, 7. n\u00e1 y\u00f3h upabd\u00edh \u00e1svyah srinv\u00e9 r\u00e1thasya k\u00e1t kan\u00e1, y\u00e1t agne y\u00e2\u00b4si d\u00fbty\u00e2\u00b4m.\nNo sound of horses is heard, and no sound of the chariot, when thou, O Agni, goest on thy message.\nI, 81, 5. n\u00e1 tv\u00e2\u00b4-v\u00e2n indra k\u00e1h kan\u00e1 n\u00e1 g\u00e2t\u00e1h n\u00e1 ganishyat\u00e9.\nNo one is like thee, O Indra, no one has been born, no one will be!\nI, 84, 20. m\u00e2\u00b4 te r\u00e2\u00b4dh\u00e2msi m\u00e2\u00b4 to \u00fbt\u00e1yah vaso (\u00edti) asm\u00e2\u00b4n k\u00e1d\u00e2 kan\u00e1 dabhan.\nMay thy gifts, may thy help, O Vasu, never fail us!\nMany more passages might be given to illustrate the use of kan\u00e1 or k\u00e1s kan\u00e1 and its derivatives in negative sentences.\nCf. I, 105, 3; 136, 1; 139, 5; II, 16, 3; 23, 5; 28, 6; III, 36, 4; IV, 31, 9; V, 42, 6; 82, 2; VI, 3, 2; 20, 4; 47, 1; 3; 48, 17; 54, 9; 59, 4; 69, 8; 75, 16; VII, 32, 1; 19; 59, 3; 82, 7; 104, 3; VIII, 19, 6; 23, 15; 24, 15; 28, 4; 47, 7; 64, 27, 66, 13; 68, 19; IX, 61, 27; 69, 6; 114, 4; X, 33, 9; 39, 11; 48, 5; 49, 10; 59, 8; 62, 9; 85, 3; 86, 11; 95, 1; 112, 9; 119, 6; 7; 128, 4; 129, 2; 152, 1; 168, 3; 185, 2.\nIII, 30, 1. t\u00edtikshante abh\u00ed-sastim g\u00e1n\u00e2n\u00e2m \u00edndra tv\u00e1t \u00e2\u00b4 k\u00e1h kan\u00e1 h\u00ed pra-ket\u00e1h.\nThey bear the scoffing of men; for, Indra, from thee comes every wisdom.\nI, 113, 8. ush\u00e2\u00b4h mrit\u00e1m k\u00e1m kan\u00e1 bodh\u00e1yant\u00ee.\nUshas, who wakes every dead (or one who is as if dead).\nI, 191, 7. \u00e2drisht\u00e2h k\u00edm kan\u00e1 ih\u00e1 vah s\u00e1rve s\u00e2k\u00e1m n\u00ed gasyata.\nInvisible ones, whatever you are, vanish all together!\nII. We now come to passages in which kan\u00e1 stands for ka n\u00e1, and therefore renders the sentence negative without any further negative particle. It might seem possible to escape from this admission, by taking certain sentences in an interrogative sense. But this would apply to certain sentences only, and would seem forced even there:\nII, 16, 2. y\u00e1sm\u00e2t \u00edndr\u00e2t brihat\u00e1h k\u00edm kan\u00e1 \u00eem rit\u00e9. Beside whom, (beside) the great Indra, there is not anything.\nII, 24, 12. v\u00edsvam saty\u00e1m magha-v\u00e2n\u00e2 yuv\u00f3h \u00edt \u00e2\u00b4pah kan\u00e1 pr\u00e1 minanti vrat\u00e1m v\u00e2m.\nEverything, you mighty ones, belongs indeed to you; even the waters do not transgress your law.\nIV, 30, 3. v\u00edsve kan\u00e1 \u00edt an\u00e2\u00b4 tv\u00e2 dev\u00e2\u00b4sah indra yuyudhuh.\nEven all the gods do not ever fight thee, O Indra.\nV, 34, 7. duh-g\u00e9 kan\u00e1 dhriyate v\u00edsvah \u00e2\u00b4 pur\u00fa g\u00e1nah y\u00e1h asya t\u00e1vish\u00eem \u00e1kukrudhat.\nEven in a stronghold many a man is not often preserved who has excited his anger.\nVII, 83, 2. y\u00e1smin \u00e2g\u00e2\u00b4 bh\u00e1vati k\u00edm kan\u00e1 priy\u00e1m.\nIn which struggle there is nothing good whatsoever.\nVII, 86, 6. sv\u00e1pnah kan\u00e1 \u00edt \u00e1nritasya pra-yot\u00e2\u00b4.\nEven sleep does not remove all evil.\nIn this passage I formerly took kan\u00e1 as affirmative, not as negative, and therefore assigned to prayot\u00e2\u00b4 the same meaning which S\u00e2yana assigns to it, one who brings or mixes, whereas it ought to be, as rightly seen by Roth, one who removes.\nVIII, 1, 5. mah\u00e9 kan\u00e1 tv\u00e2\u00b4m adri-vah p\u00e1r\u00e2 sulk\u00e2\u00b4ya dey\u00e2m, n\u00e1 sah\u00e1sr\u00e2ya n\u00e1 ay\u00fat\u00e2ya vagri-vah n\u00e1 sat\u00e2\u00b4ya sata-magha.\nI should not give thee up, wielder of the thunderbolt, even for a great price, not for a thousand, not for ten thousand (?), not for a hundred, O Indra, thou who art possessed of a hundred powers!\nVIII, 51, 7. kad\u00e2\u00b4 kan\u00e1 star\u00ee\u00b4h asi.\nThou art never sterile.\nVIII, 52, 7. kad\u00e2\u00b4 kan\u00e1 pr\u00e1 yukkhasi.\nThou art never weary.\nVIII, 55, 5. k\u00e1kshush\u00e2 kan\u00e1 sam-n\u00e1se.\nNot to be reached even with eye.\nX, 56, 4. mahimn\u00e1h esh\u00e2m pit\u00e1rah kan\u00e2 \u00eesire.\nNote 6. Considering the particular circumstances mentioned in this and the preceding hymn, of Indra's forsaking his companions, the Maruts, or even scorning their help, one feels strongly tempted to take ty\u00e1gas in its etymological sense of leaving or forsaking, and to translate, by his forsaking you, or, if he should forsake you. The poet may have meant the word to convey that idea, which no doubt would be most appropriate here; but it must be confessed, at the same time, that in other passages where ty\u00e1gas occurs, that meaning could hardly be ascribed to it. Strange as it may seem, no one who is acquainted with the general\ntrain of thought in the Vedic hymns can fail to see that ty\u00e1gas in most passages means attack, onslaught; it may be even the instrument of an attack, a weapon. How it should come to take this meaning is indeed difficult to explain, and I do not wonder that Professor Roth in his Dictionary simply renders the word by forlornness, need, danger, or by estrangement, unkindness, malignity. But let us look at the passages. and we shall see that these abstract conceptions are quite out of place:\nVIII, 47, 7. n\u00e1 t\u00e1m tigm\u00e1m kan\u00e1 ty\u00e1gah n\u00e1 dr\u00e2sad abh\u00ed t\u00e1m gur\u00fa.\nNo sharp blow, no heavy one, shall come near him whom you protect.\nHere the two adjectives tigm\u00e1, sharp, and gur\u00fa, heavy, point to something tangible, and I feel much inclined, to take ty\u00e1gas in this passage as a weapon, as something that is let off with violence, rather than in the more abstract sense of onslaught.\nI, 169, 1. mah\u00e1h kit asi ty\u00e1gasah var\u00fbt\u00e2\u00b4.\nThou art the shielder from a great attack.\nIV, 43, 4. k\u00e1h v\u00e2m mah\u00e1h kit ty\u00e1gasah abh\u00ee\u00b4ke urushy\u00e1tam m\u00e2dhv\u00ee dasr\u00e2 nah \u00fbt\u00ee\u00b4.\nWho is against your great attack? Protect us with your help, O Asvins, ye strong ones.\nHere Professor Roth seems to join mah\u00e1h kit ty\u00e1gasah abh\u00ee\u00b4ke urushy\u00e1tam, but in that case it would be impossible to construe the first words, k\u00e1h v\u00e2m.\nI, 119, 8. \u00e1gakkhatam kr\u00edpam\u00e2nam par\u00e2-v\u00e1ti pit\u00fah sv\u00e1sya ty\u00e1gas\u00e2 n\u00ed-b\u00e2dhitam.\nYou went from afar to the suppliant, who had been struck down by the violence of his own father.\nAccording to Professor Roth ty\u00e1gas would here mean forlornness, need, or danger. But n\u00edb\u00e2dhita is a strong verb, as we may see in\nVIII, 64, 2. pad\u00e2\u00b4 pan\u00ee\u00b4n ar\u00e2dh\u00e1sah n\u00ed b\u00e2dhasva mah\u00e2\u00b4n asi.\nStrike the useless Panis down with thy foot, for thou art great.\nX, 18, 11. \u00fat sva\u00f1kasva prithivi m\u00e2\u00b4 n\u00ed b\u00e2dhath\u00e2h.\nOpen, O earth, do not press on him (i. e. the dead, who is\nto be buried; cf. M. M., \u00dcber Todtenbestattung, Zeitschrift der D. M. G., vol. ix, p. xv).\nVII, 83, 6. y\u00e1tra r\u00e2\u00b4ga-bhih das\u00e1-bhih n\u00ed-b\u00e2dhitam pr\u00e1 su-d\u00e2\u00b4sam \u00e2\u00b4vatam tr\u00edtsu-bhih sah\u00e1.\nWhere you protected Sud\u00e2s with the Tritsus, when he was pressed or set upon by the ten kings.\nAnother passage in which ty\u00e1gas occurs is,\nVI, 62, 10. s\u00e1nutyena ty\u00e1gas\u00e2 m\u00e1rtyasya vanushyat\u00e2\u00b4m \u00e1pi s\u00eersh\u00e2\u00b4 vavriktam.\nBy your covert attack turn back the heads of those even who harass the mortal.\nThough this passage may seem less decisive, yet it is difficult to see how ty\u00e1gas\u00e2 could here, according to Professor Roth, be rendered by forlornness or danger. Something is required by which enemies can be turned back. Nor can it be doubtful that s\u00eersh\u00e2\u00b4 is governed by vavriktam, meaning turn back their heads, for the same expression occurs again in I, 33, 5. p\u00e1r\u00e2 kit s\u00eersh\u00e2\u00b4 vavriguh t\u00e9 indra \u00e1yagv\u00e2nah y\u00e1gva-bhih sp\u00e1rdham\u00e2n\u00e2h.\nProfessor Ben fey translates this verse by, 'Kopf\u00fcber flohn sie alle vor dir;' but it may be rendered more literally, 'These lawless people fighting with the pious turned away their heads.'\nX, 144, 6. ev\u00e1 t\u00e1t \u00edndrah \u00edndun\u00e2 dev\u00e9shu kit dh\u00e2ray\u00e2te m\u00e1hi ty\u00e1gah.\nIndeed through this draught Indra can hold out against that great attack even among the gods.\nX, 79, 6. k\u00edm dev\u00e9shu ty\u00e1gah \u00e9nah kakartha.\nWhat insult, what sin hast thou committed among the gods?\nIn these two passages the meaning of ty\u00e1gas as attack or assault is at least as appropriate as that proposed by Professor Roth, estrangement, malignity.\nThere remains one passage, VI, 3, 1. y\u00e1m tv\u00e1m mitr\u00e9na v\u00e1runah sa-g\u00f3sh\u00e2h d\u00e9va p\u00e2\u00b4si ty\u00e1gas\u00e2 m\u00e1rtam \u00e1mhah.\nI confess that the construction of this verse is not clear to me, and I doubt whether it is possible to use ty\u00e1gas\u00e2 as a verbal noun governing an accusative. If this were possible, one might translate, 'The mortal whom thou, O God (Agni),\n[paragraph continues] Varuna, together with Mitra, protectest by pushing back evil.' More probably we should translate, 'Whom thou protectest from evil by thy might.'\nIf it be asked how ty\u00e1gas can possibly have the meaning which has been assigned to it in all the passages in which it occurs; viz. that of forcibly attacking or pushing away, we can only account for it by supposing that tyag, before it came to mean to leave, meant to push off, to drive away with violence (verstossen instead of verlassen). This meaning may still be perceived occasionally in the use of tyag; e. g. dev\u00e2s tyagantu m\u00e2m, may the gods forsake me! i. e. may the gods drive me away! Even in the latest Sanskrit tyag is used with regard to an arrow that is let off. 'To expel' is expressed by nis-tyag. Those who believe in the production of new roots by the addition of prepositional prefixes might possibly see in tyag an original ati-ag, to drive off; but, however that may be, there is evidence enough to show that tyag expressed originally a more violent act of separation than it does in ordinary Sanskrit, though here, too, passages occur in which tyag may be translated by to throw, to fling; for instance, khe dh\u00fblim yas tyaged ukkair m\u00fbrdhni tasyaiva s\u00e2 patet, he who throws up dust in the air, it will fall on his head. Ind. Spr. 1582.\nMuk, too, is used in a similar manner; for instance, vagram mokshyate t\u00e9 mahendrah, Mah\u00e2bh. XIV, 263. Cf. Dhammapada, ver. 389.\nNote 1. S\u00e1msa, masc., means a spell, whether for good or for evil, a blessing as well as a curse. It means a curse, or, at all events, a calumny:\nI, 18, 3. m\u00e2\u00b4 nah s\u00e1msah \u00e1rarushah dh\u00fbrt\u00edh pr\u00e1nak m\u00e1rtyasya.\nLet not the curse of the enemy, the onslaught of a mortal hurt us.\nI, 94, 8. asm\u00e2\u00b4kam s\u00e1msah abh\u00ed astu duh-dhy\u00e3h. May our curse overcome the wicked!\nIII, 18, 2. t\u00e1pa s\u00e1msam \u00e1rarushah.\nBurn the curse of the enemy!\nVII, 25, 2. \u00e2r\u00e9 t\u00e1m s\u00e1msam krinuhi ninits\u00f3h.\nTake far away the curse of the reviler! Cf. VII, 34, 12.\nII, 31, 6. ut\u00e1 yah s\u00e1msam us\u00edg\u00e2m-iva smasi.\nWe desire your blessing as a blessing for suppliants.\nX, 31, 1. \u00e2\u00b4 nah dev\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m \u00fapa vetu s\u00e1msah.\nMay the blessing of the gods come to us!\nX, 7, 1. urushy\u00e1 nah ur\u00fa-bhih deva s\u00e1msaih.\nProtect us, god, with thy wide blessings!\nII, 23, 10. m\u00e2\u00b4 nah duh-s\u00e1msah abhi-dips\u00fah \u00eesata pr\u00e1 sus\u00e1ms\u00e2h mat\u00ed-bhih t\u00e2rish\u00eemahi.\nLet not an evil-speaking enemy conquer us; may we, enjoying good report, increase by our. prayers!\nIn some passages, however, as pointed out by Grassmann, s\u00e1msa may best be rendered by singer, praiser. Grassmann marks one passage only,\nII, 26, 1. rig\u00fah \u00edt s\u00e1msah vanavat vanushyat\u00e1h.\nMay the righteous singer conquer his enemies.\nHe admits, however, doubtfully, the explanation of B. R., that rig\u00fah s\u00e1msah may be taken as one word, meaning, 'requiring the right.' This explanation seems surrendered by B. R. in the second edition of their Dictionary, and I doubt whether s\u00e1msah can mean here anything but singer. That being so, the same meaning seems more appropriate in other verses also, which I formerly translated differently, e. g.\nVII, 56, 19. im\u00e9 s\u00e1msam vanushyat\u00e1h n\u00ed p\u00e2nti.\nThey, the Maruts, protect the singer from his enemy.\nLastly, s\u00e1msa means praise, the spell addressed by men to the gods, or prayer:\nI, 33, 7. pr\u00e1 sunvat\u00e1h stuvat\u00e1h s\u00e1msam \u00e2vah.\nThou hast regarded the prayer of him who offers libation and praise.\nX, 42, 6. y\u00e1smin vay\u00e1m dadhim\u00e1 s\u00e1msam \u00edndre.\nIndra in whom we place our hope. Cf. \u00e2sams, Westergaard, Radices Linguae Sanscritae, s. v. sams.\n214:a Schleicher, Compendium, \u00a7 36, \u03b1\u1f34\u03b8\u03c9, \u03b1\u1f30\u03b8\u03ae\u03c1, \u03b1\u1f34\u03b8\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b1; and \u00a7 49, aides, aidilis aestas.\n215:a \u00c1pa-tya; cf. Bopp, Accentuationssystem, \u00a7 138, \u1f14\u03c0\u03b9-\u03c3\u03c3\u03b1\u03b9, Nachkommen.\n217:a Tylor, Early History of Mankind, p. 262.\n217:b Spiegel, who had formerly identified harmy\u00e1 with the Zend zairimya in zairimyanura, has afterwards recalled this identification; see Spiegel, Av. Ubers. I, p. 190; Commentar \u00fcber den Avesta, I, p. 297; Justi, Handbuch, p. 119; Haug, Pahlavi Glossary, p. 22. According to the Parsis, the Hairimyanura, a da\u00eava animal which appears at the rising of the sun, is the turtle, and Darmesteter (Ormazd et Ahriman, p. 283) identifies zair in zair-imya with the Greek \u03c7\u03b5\u03bb-\u03cd\u03c2, Sanskrit har-muta.\n227:a Kuhn, Zeitschrift, vol. ix, p. 233.\n233:a Sana is an old Aryan word, though its meanings differ. Hesychius and Eustathius mention \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1 as being synonymous with \u03c8\u03af\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2, reed. Pollux gives two forms, \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1 and \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1, (Pollux X, 166 \u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03ba\u03b1 \u03b4\u03ad \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c8\u03af\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f23\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd. VII, 176 \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f10\u03ba \u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03b2\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1) This is important, because the same difference of spelling occurs also in \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03b9\u03c2 and \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03bf\u03b2\u03c2 or \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b2\u03bf\u03c2, a model, a lay figure, which Lobeck derives from \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9. In Old Norse we have hanp-r, in A. S. h\u00e6nep, hemp, Old High-Germ. hanaf.\nThe occurrence of the word sana is of importance as showing at how early a time the Aryans of India were acquainted with the uses and the name of hemp. Our word hemp, the A. S. h\u00e6nep, the Old Norse hanp-r, are all borrowed from Latin cannabis, which, like other borrowed words, has undergone the regular changes required by Grimm's law in Low-German, and also in High-German. hanaf. The Slavonic nations seem to have borrowed their word for hemp (Lith. kanap\u1ebd) from the Goths, the Celtic nations (Ir. canaib) from the Romans (cf. Kuhn, Beitr\u00e4ge, vol. ii, p. 382). The Latin cannabis is borrowed from Greek, and the Greeks, to judge from the account of Herodotus, most likely adopted the word from the Aryan Thracians and Scythians (Her. IV, 74; Pictet, Les Aryens, vol. i, p. 314). \u039a\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b2\u03b9\u03c2 being a foreign word, it would be useless to attempt an explanation of the final element bis, which is added to sana, the Sanskrit word for hemp. It may be visa, fibre, or it may be anything else. Certain it is that the main element in the name of hemp was the same among the settlers in Northern India, and among the Thracians and Scythians through whom the Greeks first became acquainted with hemp.\nThe history of the word \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1\u03b2\u03b9\u03c2 must be kept distinct from that of the Greek \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1 or \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1, reed. Both spellings occur, for Pollux, X, 166, writes \u03c0\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03ba\u03b1 \u03b4\u03ad \u1f10\u03c3\u03c4\u03b9 \u03c8\u03af\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u03c2 \u1f21 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f00\u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03af\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f23\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03b1\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u03bb\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd, but VII, 176, \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c4\u1f78 \u1f10\u03ba \u03ba\u03b1\u03bd\u03ac\u03b2\u03c9\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1. This word \u03ba\u03ac\u03bd\u03bd\u03b1 may be the same as the Sanskrit sana, only with this difference, that it was retained as common property by Greeks and Indians before they separated, and was applied differently in later times by the one and the other.\n235:a Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii, pp. 400, 409. There is not yet sufficient evidence to show that Sanskrit sv, German sn, and Sanskrit n are interchangeable, but there is at least one case that may be analogous. Sanskrit sva\u00f1g, to embrace, to twist round a person, German slango, Schlange, snake, and Sanskrit n\u00e2ga, snake. Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, vol. iii, p. 364.\n236:a See Benfey, Kuhn's Zeitschrift, vol. ii, p. 216.\n242:a Lectures on the Science of Language, Second Series, p. 499.\n246:a Br\u00e1hmanasp\u00e1ti, literally the lord of prayer, or the lord of the sacrifice, sometimes a representative of Agni (I, 38, 13, note), but p. 247 by no means identical with him (see VII, 41, 1); sometimes performing the deeds of Indra, but again by no means identical with him (see II, 23, 18. \u00edndrena yug\u00e2\u00b4\u2014n\u00edh ap\u00e2\u00b4m aubgah arnav\u00e1m; cf. VIII, 96, 15). In II, 26, 3, he is called father of the gods (dev\u00e2\u00b4n\u00e2m pit\u00e1ram); in II, 23, 2, the creator of all beings (v\u00edsvesh\u00e2m ganit\u00e2\u00b4).\n247:a The accent in this case cannot help us in determining whether d\u00e1ksha-pitar means having Daksha for their father (\u039b\u03bf\u03ba\u03c1\u03bf\u03c0\u03ac\u03c4\u03c9\u03c1), or father of strength. In the first case d\u00e1ksha would rightly retain its accent (d\u00e1ksha-pitar) as a Bahuvr\u00eehi; in the second, the analogy of such Tatpurusha compounds as grih\u00e1-pati (P\u00e2n. VI, 2, 18) would be sufficient to justify the p\u00fbrvapadaprakritisvaratvam.\n257:a See M. M., History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, 2nd ed., p. 541.\n260:a On sarv\u00e1t\u00e2ti, salus, see Benfey's excellent remarks in Orient and Occident, vol. ii, p. 519. Professor Roth takes aditi here as an epithet of Agni.","title":"Vedic Hymns, Part I (SBE32): Vedic Hymns: I, 166. To the Maruts (the Storm-gods)","type":"page"}