{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_11701/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_11701","id":"gutenberg_11701","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11701","summary":null,"tags":["Bible -- History of Biblical events","Category: History - Ancient","Category: History - Religious","Jews -- History -- 586 B.C.-70 A.D.","Judaism"],"text":"The Historical Bible\n\nTHE MAKERS AND TEACHERS OF JUDAISM\n\nFROM THE FALL OF JERUSALEM TO THE DEATH OF HEROD THE GREAT\n\nBY\n\nCHARLES FOSTER KENT, PH.D.\n\nWOOLSEY PROFESSOR OF BIBLICAL LITERATURE IN YALE UNIVERSITY\n\nWITH MAPS AND CHARTS\n\n1911\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE\n\nThe period represented by this volume is in many ways the most complex and\nconfusing in Israel's history. The record is not that of the life of a\nnation but of the scattered remnants of a race. It was inevitable that\nunder the influence of their varied environment, the survivors of the\nJewish race should develop very different beliefs and characteristics.\nThe result is that many different currents of thought and shades of belief\nare reflected in the literature of this period; some of it is dross, but\nmuch of it is purest gold. While the period following the destruction of\nJerusalem was a reflective and a retrospective age in which the teaching\nof the earlier priests and prophets gained wide acceptance, it was also a\ncreative era. Fully half of the literature of the Old Testament and all of\nthe important writings of the Apocrypha come from these tragic five\ncenturies. Although the historical records are by no means complete, the\ngreat crises in Israel's life are illuminated by such remarkable\nhistorical writings as the memoirs of Nehemiah, the first book of\nMaccabees, and the detailed histories of Josephus.\n\nThe majority of the writings, however, reveal above all the soul of the\nrace. Out of its anguish and suffering came the immortal poems found in\nIsaiah 40-66, the book of Job, and the Psalter. Instead of the distinctly\nnationalistic point of view, which characterizes practically all of the\nwritings of the pre-exilic period, the interest becomes individual and the\noutlook universal. During these centuries Israel's prophets, priests,\nand sages became not merely teachers of the nation but of humanity.\nConspicuous among the great teachers of his day stands the noble sage,\nJesus the son of Sirach, who gleaned out and presented in effective form\nthat which was most vital in the earlier teaching of his race. In his\nbroad, simple faith in God and man, in his emphasis on deeds and\ncharacter, as well as ceremonial, and in his practical philosophy of life\nhe was a worthy forerunner of the Great Teacher whose name he bore.\n\nThis period represents the culmination and fruition of the divine\nInfluences at work in Israel's early history. It was during this period\nthat Judaism was born and attained its full development, Israel accepted\nthe absolute rule of the written law, and the scribes succeeded the earlier\nprophets and sages. Out of the heat and conflict of the Maccabean\nstruggle the parties of the Pharisees and Sadducees sprang into existence\nand won their commanding place in the life of Judaism. Hence this period\nis the natural historical introduction to the study of the birth and early\ndevelopment of Christianity. It is also the link that binds the revelation\nfound in the Old Testament to that of the New.\n\nThe volume of literature coming from this period is so vast that it has\nbeen necessary to abridge it at many points in order to utilize that which\nis most valuable. This has been done by leaving out those passages which\nare of secondary origin or value, and by preserving at the same time the\nlanguage and logical thought of the original writers. In the verbose and\nvoluminous writings of Josephus the resulting text is in most cases far\nclearer and more useful; for the repetitious clauses found in the original\noften obscure the real thought of the writer. No apology or explanation is\nrequired for the use of such apocryphal writings as I Maccabees, Ben Sira,\nthe Wisdom of Solomon, or Josephus's histories, for these are required to\nbridge the two centuries which intervene between the latest writings of\nthe Old Testament and the earliest writings of the New. They make it\npossible to study biblical history as an unbroken unit from the days of\nMoses to the close of the first Christian century, and thus concretely to\nemphasize the significant but often the forgotten fact that God was\nrevealing himself unceasingly through the life of his people, and that the\nBible which records that revelation consists not of two disconnected parts\nbut is one book.\n\nTo two of my former students, the Reverend Harold B. Hunting and Ralph H.\nPierce, I am under obligation for valuable aid and suggestions in\npreparing this volume for press.\n\nC.F.K.\nYALE UNIVERSITY,\n_October_, 1911.\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\nTHE EXILE AND REVIVAL OF THE JUDEAN COMMUNITY\n\nSection XCI. THE JEWS IN PALESTINE AND EGYPT\n\nLam. 2:1-10, 5:1-18, Jer. 43:3-12, 44:1-14, 28.\n\nI. The Significance of the Destruction of the Hebrew State.--II. The Book\nof Lamentations.--III. Authorship and Date of the Book.--IV. Its Real\nCharacter.--Numbers and Fortunes of the Jews Who Remained in Palestine.--\nVI. Fortunes of the Jews in Egypt.--VII. The Jewish Colony at Elephantine.\n--VIII. The Temple of Jahu at Elephantine.\n\n\nSection XCII. EZEKIEL'S MESSAGE TO HIS SCATTERED COUNTRYMEN.\n\nEzek. 37, 40:1, 13, 15, 17, 19, 20, 21b, 44-47, 41:1-8a, 43:1-9, 44:9-16,\n23, 24, 45:1-8.\n\nI. The Home of the Exiles in Babylon.--II. Their New Conditions and\nOccupations.--III. Their Religious Life. IV. The Prophecies of Ezekiel.--\n\nV. The Resurrection of the Dead Nation.--VI. The Divine Shepherd.--\nVII. Ezekiel's Plan of the Restored Temple.\n\n\nSection XCIII. THE CLOSING YEARS OF THE BABYLONIAN RULE\n\nII Kings 25:27-30, Isa. 9:1-7, 11:1-10, 13:2-4, 11, 17, 18b, 19-22, Ezra\n6:3-5, 5:14, 15, 1:5-6, I Esdr. 5:4-6, Ezra 3:2-4, 6b.\n\nI. The Transformation of the Jews into a Literary People.--II. The\nLiterary Activity of the Babylonian Period.--III. The Holiness Code.--\nIV. The Liberation of Jehoiachin and the Hopes of the Jews.--V. The Rule\nof Nabonidus.--VII. Rise and Conquests of Cyrus.--VII. His Capture of\nBabylon.--VIII. His Treatment of Conquered Peoples.\n\n\nSection XCIV. THE REBUILDING OF THE TEMPLE\n\nHag. 1, 2, Ezra 5:3-6:14.\n\nI. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah.--II. The Chronicler's Conception of the\nRestoration.--III. Convulsions in the Persian Empire.--IV. Haggai's\nEffective Addresses.--V. The Attempt to Stop the Rebuilding of the\nTemple.--VI. The Significance of the Restoration of the Temple.\n\n\nSection XCV. ZECHARIAH'S VISIONS AND ENCOURAGING ADDRESSES\n\nZech. 1:7-4:6a, 11-14, 8b-10, 6:9-15, 7, 8:1-8.\n\nI. Zechariah's Ancestry and Point of View.--II. The Book of Zechariah.\n--III. Problems and Hopes of the Judean Community.--IV. Zechariah's\nAssurances of Jehovah's Care.--V. Preparations for the Crowning of\nZerubbabel.--VI. Disappointment of these Patriotic Hopes.--VII.\nZechariah's Later Exhortations and Predictions.\n\n\nSection XCVI. ISRAEL'S TRAINING AND DESTINY\n\nIsa. 40:1-4, 6, 31, 41:1-4, 8-10, 42:1-7, 10-15, 22-28, 44:1-5.\n\nI. The Seventy Years Following the Rebuilding of the Temple.--\nII. Spiritual Forces in Judaism.--III. Evidences that Isaiah 40-66 Were\nWritten in Palestine.--IV. Their Probable Date.--V. Their Literary\nCharacteristics.--VI. Their Theme and Purpose.--VII. Reasons Why Jehovah\nWill Restore His People.\n\n\nSection XCVII. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS WITHIN THE JUDEAN COMMUNITY\n\nMal. 1:6-14, 2, 3, 4:1-3, Ps. 22:1-18.\n\nI. Date of the Book of Malachi.--II. Neglect of the Temple Service.--\n\nIII. The Need of a Great Moral Awakening.--IV. The Lot of the Faithful.--\nV. The Problem of Suffering in the Literature of the Period.\n\n\nSection XCVIII. THE PROBLEM AND TEACHINGS OF THE BOOK OF JOB\n\nJob 1, 2 3:2, 11, 13-15, 17, 19, 20-22, 25, 26, 4:1-7, 17-19, 5:17-22, 26,\n27, 6:1-4b, 14, 15, 20-30, 7:1-6, 9-18, 20, 21, 8:1-6, 9:1-7, 16-20, 24,\n31-35, 10:9-15, 20-22, 11:1, 7-9, 13-15, 12:1-3, 13:7-18, 21-25, 14:7-10,\n13-15, 18, 19, 15:4-6, 16:1-4, 11-13a, 18-21, 18:1, 5-7, 19:1, 13-15,\n23-27, 20:1-5, 21:1, 7-9, 22:1-5, 23, 27, 28, 23:1-6, 25:1-4, 26:1, 27:2,\n4, 5, 7-9, 29:1-5, 30:15-21, 31:5-8, 35-37, 40:2, 8, 9, 38:2-7, 8-11,\n39-41, 42:2, 3, 5, 8.\n\nI. The Structure of the Book of Job.--II. Dates of the Different Parts.--\nIII. The Prose Story.--IV. The Poem of Job.--V. Progress in Job's\nThought.--VI. Significance of the Speeches of Job.\n\n\nSection XCIX. THE TRAINING AND MISSION OF THE TRUE SERVANT OF JEHOVAH\n\nIsa. 49:1-15, 50:4-10, 52:13-15, 53.\n\nI. The Different Portraits of Jehovah's Servant.--II. The Prophet's\nPurpose.--III. The Character and Condition of Those to Whom the Prophet\nAppealed.--IV. The Task and Training of Jehovah's Servant.--V. Methods of\nJehovah's Servant.--VI. Realization of the Ideal of Service.\n\n\nSection C. NEHEMIAH'S WORK IN REBUILDING THE WALLS OF JERUSALEM\n\nNeh. 1-4, 6, 7:1-5a, 12:31, 32, 37-40.\n\nI. Nehemiah's Memoirs.--II. Nehemiah's Response to the Call to Service.--\nIII. Obstacles that Confronted Him.--IV. His Plan of Work.--V. The\nRestored Walls.--VI. Completion and Dedication of the Walls.\n\n\nSection CI. NEHEMIAH'S SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORMS\n\nIsa. 56, 58:2-12, Neh. 5, 13:4-31.\n\nI. Cruelty and Hypocrisy of the Jewish Leaders.--II. Nehemiah's Method of\nCorrecting the Social Evils in the Community.--III. The Historical Value\nof Nehemiah 13.--IV. Regulations Regarding the Temple Service.--\nV. Provisions Regarding Sabbath Observance and Foreign Marriages.--\nVI. Significance of Nehemiah's Work.\n\n\nSection CII. TRADITIONAL ACCOUNT OF THE ADOPTION OF THE PRIESTLY LAW\n\nEzra 7:1, 6-10, Neh. 7:73b-8:4a, 5, 6, 9-18, 9:1-3, 6-8. 32-38, 10:28-39b\n\nI. The Ezra Tradition.--II. The Historical Value of the Ezra Tradition.--\nIII. The Facts Underlying It.--IV. Origin and Aims of the Priestly\nLaws.--V. Their Important Regulations.--VI. Their Practical Effects.\n\n\nSection CIII. THE JEWISH STATE DURING THE LAST CENTURY OF PERSIAN RULE\n\nPs. 36:5-10, Joel 2:1-29, Jos. Ant. XI, 7-8:2.\n\nI. Prosperity of the Judean Community.--II. The Growth of the Psalter.--\nIII. The Prophecy of Joel.--IV. Hopes of the Jews.--V. Rule of the High\nPriests.--VI. The Date of the Samaritan Schism.--VII. Its Nature and\nConsequences.\n\n\nTHE GREEK AND MACCABEAN AGE\n\nSection CIV. THE JEWS UNDER THEIR GREEK RULERS\n\nI Mac. 1:1-4, Jos. Ant. XI, 8:7a, e, XII, 1:1b-d, g-j, 2:1a, 5d, e,\n4:1d-f, 2a-f, 3b, 4a-c, 5a-c. e, 6a, 3:3a, b, c-e.\n\nI. Josephus's Histories.--II. Alexander's Conquests.--III. The Jews in\nEgypt and Alexandria.--IV. The Rule of the Ptolemies.--V. Fortunes of the\nJews of Palestine.--VI. Conquest of Palestine by the Seleucids In 311 B.C.\n\n\nSection CV. THE WISE AND THEIR TEACHINGS\n\nProv. 1:2-6, 8:1-6, 13-27, 29-35, 13:14,20, 24:5, 12:10, 20:13, 23:16,\n29-35, 29:20, 15:23, 19:11, 16:32, 23:36-28, 4:25-27, 14:15, 26:12, 27:2,\n4:23, 11:6, 21:3, 15:1, 3:27, 14:21, 19:17, 25:21,22, 3:11,12, 1:5,6.\n\nI. Structure and Authorship of the Book of Proverbs.--II. Date of the\nDifferent Collections.--III. The Wise in Israel's Early History.--\nIV. Their Prominence in the Greek Period.--V. Their Aims.--VI. Their\nMethods.--VII. Their Important Teachings.\n\n\nSection CVI. THE DIFFERENT CURRENTS OF THOUGHT IN JUDAISM DURING THE\nGREEK PERIOD\n\nPs. 19:7-14, 46, 22:27-30, Jonah 1, 2:1,10, 3, 4, Eccles. 1:12-18, 2:1-17,\n24-26.\n\nI. The Ritualists.--II. The Legalists.--III. The Disciples of the\nProphets.--IV. The Date and Character of the Book of Jonah.--V. Its\nTeachings.--VI. The Book of Ecclesiastes.--VII. Koheleth's Philosophy of\nLife.\n\n\nSection CVII. THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS THE SON OF SIRACH\n\nB. Sir. 1:1-10, 2:1-9, 3:17-30, 4:2, 9, 10, 20-25, 28-31, 5:1-2,\n6:2, 4-8, 14-16, 7:12, 13, 20-22, 28-30.\n\nI. Date and Character of Jesus the Son of Sirach.--II. His Writings.--\nIII. The History of the Book.--IV. Its Picture of Jewish Life.--V. Rise of\nthe Scribes.--VI. The Teachings of Ben Sira.\n\n\nSection CVIII. THE CAUSES OF THE MACCABEAN STRUGGLE\n\nI Mac. 1:10-22,24-63.\n\nI. The Character and Contents of I Maccabees.--II. Character and Contents\nof II Maccabees.--III. Aggressive Character of Hellenic Culture.--\nIV. Contrast between Hellenism and Judaism.--V. Apostasy of the Jews and\nPerfidy of the High Priests.--VI. Character of Antiochus Epiphanes.--\nVII. His Policy toward the Jews.\n\n\nSection CIX. THE EFFECT OF PERSECUTION UPON THE JEWS\n\nI Mac. 2, Dan. 7:1-27, 12:1-3.\n\nI. The Uprising Led by Mattathias.--II. Party of the Hasideans or Pious.--\nIII. Date of the Visions in Daniel 7-12.--IV. Their Real Character and\nAim.--V. The Four Heathen Kingdoms and the Kingdom of God.\n\n\nSection CX. THE VICTORIES THAT GAVE THE JEWS RELIGIOUS LIBERTY\n\nI Mac. 3:1-43,46-60, 4.\n\nI. The Character of Judas.--II. Obstacles against which Judas Contended.--\nIII. Defeat of Apollonius and Seron.--IV. The Battle of Emmaus.--V. The\nBattle at Bethsura.--VI. Restoration of the Temple Service.--VII. The New\nSpirit in Judaism.\n\n\nSection CXI. THE LONG CONTEST FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE\n\nI Mac. 5:1-23, 45, 54, 65-68, 63, 6:18-63, 7, 9:1-31, 10:1-21, 67-71,\n74-76, 11:20-29.\n\nI. The Political Situation.--II. The Jewish Attitude toward the Heathen\nReflected in the Book of Esther.--III. Campaigns against the Neighboring\nPeoples.--IV. The Battle of Beth-zacharias.--V. Victories Over Nicanor.--\nVI. The Death of Judas.--VII. Dissensions in the Syrian Court.--\nVIII. Concessions to Jonathan.\n\n\nSection CXII. PEACE AND PROSPERITY UNDER SIMON\n\nI Mac. 11:38-40, 54-56, 12:39-53, 13:1-11, 20-30, 33, 43-53, 14:16-18,\n38-49, 4-15.\n\nI. Capture and Death of Jonathan.--II. Character and Policy of Simon.--\nIII. His Conquests.--IV. His Authority.--V. Completion of the Psalter.--\nVI. The Religious Life Reflected in the Later Psalms.\n\n\nSection CXIII. THE RULE OF JOHN HYRCANUS AND ARISTOBULUS\n\nI Mac. 16:11-22, Jos. Jew. War, I, 2:3c-4b, 4d, 5, 6, Jos. Ant. XIII,\n9:1d, e, Jos. Jew. War, I, 2:7a, b, Jos. Ant. XIII, 10:5, 6a, c, 7,\n11:1a-c, 3a, 3e.\n\nI. Murder of Simon.--II. The Syrian Invasion.--III. John's Military Policy\nand Conquests.--IV. The Break with the Pharisees.--V. The Reign of\nAristobulus.\n\n\nSection CXIV THE PHARISEES, SADDUCEES, AND ESSENES\n\nJos. Ant. XVIII, 1:2, 3a-c, 3d, 4a, b, 5a, b, Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:2-8,\n9a-c, 10b, c, 11b, 12.\n\nI. Influences that Gave Rise to the Jewish Parties.--II. Character and\nBeliefs of the Pharisees.--III. Of the Sadducees.--IV. Of the Essenes.\n\n\nSection CXV. THE LIFE AND FAITH OF THE JEWS OF THE DISPERSION\n\nJos. Ant. XII, 3:1a, VII, 3:3a, b, 10:2d-3e, XIII, 10:4, Wisd. Of Sol.\n6:12-16, 7:25-8:1, 7, 1:1-8, 12-15, 2:23-3:1, 5:15, 16, 11:24-12:2,\n15:1-3.\n\nI. Conditions of the Jews in Antioch and Asia Minor.--II. In Egypt.--\nIII. The Jewish Temple at Leontopolis.--IV. Translation of the Hebrew\nScriptures into Greek.--V. Apologetic Jewish Writings.--VI. The Wisdom of\nSolomon.--VII. Its Important Teachings.\n\n\nSection CXVI. THE DECLINE OF THE MACCABEAN KINGDOM\n\nJos. Jew. War, I, 4:1-4c, 5c, 6a, c, 8c, d, 5:1-7:7.\n\nI. The Character and Policy of Alexander Janneus.--II. The Effects of His\nRule.--III. Alexandra's Reign.--IV. Quarrels between Hyrcanus and\nAristobulus.--V. Rome's Intervention.--VI. Cause of the Fall of the Jewish\nKingdom.--VII. Political, Intellectual, and Religious Effects of the\nMaccabean Struggle.\n\n\nTHE RULE OF ROME\n\nSection CXVII. THE RISE OF THE HERODIAN HOUSE\n\nJos. Jew. War, I, 8:2, 4a, 5-7, 9b, 9:1, 3a-6b, 10:1, 2a, 3a, 4, 5a, b,\n11:1, 4, 6, 12:3-5, 13:1a, Jos. Ant. XIV, 13:1, Jos. Jew. War, I, 13:7,\n8c, 14:1b, 2, 4, 15:3, 4, 16:1, 17:1, 8, 9a, 18:1, 2c, 4a.\n\nI. The Fruitless Struggle against Rome.--II. Antipater's Policy.--\nIII. Herod's Early Record.--IV. The Parthian Conquest.--V. Herod Made King\nof the Jews.\n\n\nSection CXVIII. HEROD'S POLICY AND REIGN\n\nJos. Jew. War, I, 19:1, 2a, 20:1, 2, 3b-4a, 21:13, 1-4, 6a-8a, 9a-10a, 11,\n22:1-4, 23:1a, d, 2a-c, d-3a, 24:1a, 27:1, 2a, 6b, 28:1a, 29:2c, 30:5a,\n31:1a, 33:1, 7, 8a.\n\nI. Herod's Character.--II. His Attitude toward Rome. III. His Building\nActivity.--IV. His Attitude toward His Subjects.--V. The Tragedy of His\nDomestic Life.--VI. Effects of His Reign.\n\n\nSection CXIX. HEROD'S TEMPLE\n\nJos. Ant. XV, 11:1a, 2c, 3a-l, 4a, g, 5a-g, h-k, 6.\n\nI. Herod's Motives.--II. Preparations for the Rebuilding of the Temple.--\nIII. The Approaches to the Temple.--IV. The Organization of the Temple.\n\n\nSection CXX. THE MESSIANIC HOPES AND THE RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF JUDAISM\n\nSibyl. Oracles, III, 7:67-84, 17:23-46, Enoch 46:1-3, 48:3-6, 49:27-29,\n51:1, 2.\n\nI. The Growth of Israel's Messianic Hopes.--II. The Kingly, Nationalistic\nType of Messianic Hope.--III. The Apocalyptic, Catastrophic Type.--IV. The\nEthical and Universalistic Type.--V. The Messianic Hopes of Judaism at the\nBeginning of the Christian Era.\n\n\nAPPENDIX I. A PRACTICAL BIBLICAL REFERENCE LIBRARY\n\nAPPENDIX II. GENERAL QUESTIONS AND SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH.\n\nLIST OF MAPS AND CHARTS\n\nJEWISH AND CONTEMPORARY CHRONOLOGY FROM 597 TO 165 B.C.\n\nTHE EMPIRES OF BABYLONIA, PERSIA, AND ALEXANDER\n\nTHE JEWISH COMMUNITY IN PALESTINE DURING THE PERSIAN AND GREEK\nPERIODS\n\nTHE JERUSALEM OF NEHEMIAH\n\nCHRONOLOGY OF THE MACCABEAN AND ROMAN PERIODS\n\nPALESTINE DURING THE MACCABEAN PERIOD\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTHE EXILE AND THE REVIVAL OF THE JUDEAN COMMUNITY\n\nSection XCI. THE JEWS IN PALESTINE AND EGYPT\n\n[Sidenote: Lam. 2:1-5]\nHow the Lord hath beclouded in his anger the daughter of Zion!\nHe hath cast down from heaven to earth the beauty of Israel,\nAnd he hath not kept in remembrance his footstool in the day of his anger.\nThe Lord hath swallowed up without mercy every habitation of Jacob,\nHe hath thrown down in his wrath the strongholds of the daughter of Judah,\nHe hath struck to the ground, he hath polluted her king and her princes.\nHe hath cut off in the fierceness of his anger all of Israel's strength,\nHe hath drawn back his right hand from before the enemy,\nHe hath burnt in Jacob like a flame, which devours on all sides.\nHe hath bent his bow as an enemy, he hath stood as an adversary,\nHe hath slain all the desirable men in the tent of Zion,\nHe hath poured out his fury as fire [on the daughter of Judah].\nThe Lord hath become like an enemy, he hath swallowed up Israel,\nHe hath swallowed up all of his palaces, he hath destroyed his fortresses,\nAnd he hath multiplied in the daughter of Judah sighing and lamentation.\n\n[Sidenote: Lam. 2:6,7]\nHe hath torn down as a vine his dwelling, he hath destroyed his assembling\n  place,\nHe hath caused to be forgotten in Zion, fast day and sabbath,\nAnd hath spurned in his indignant anger, king and priest.\nThe Lord hath rejected his altar, he hath abhorred his\n  sanctuary,\nHe hath given up into the hands of the enemy the ark of the covenant,\nThey have made a din in Jehovah's house, as in the solemn feast day.\n\n[Sidenote: Lam. 2:8-10]\nJehovah hath determined to destroy the wall of Zion,\nHe hath stretched out the line, he hath not held back his hand from\n  destroying,\nHe hath made rampart and wall lament, they mourn together,\nHer gates have sunk into the ground, he hath destroyed her defences,\nHer king and her princes are among the heathen, there is no law.\nHer prophets also receive from Jehovah no vision.\nSilent, upon the earth sit the elders of Zion;\nThey cast dust upon their heads; they are girded with sackcloth;\nWith heads bowed to earth are the daughters of Jerusalem.\n\n[Sidenote: Lam. 5:1-7]\nRemember, O Jehovah, what has befallen us,\nLook and see our disgrace.\nOur inheritance is turned over to aliens,\nOur homes belong to foreigners.\nWe are orphans and fatherless,\nOur mothers are like widows.\nWe drink our water for money,\nOur wood comes to us by purchase.\nThe yoke upon our necks harasses us,\nWe are weary, but find no rest.\nWe have given the hand to the Egyptians,\nAnd to the Assyrians, that we might be sated with food.\nOur fathers sinned and are no more,\nWhile we bear their guilt.\n\n[Sidenote: Lam. 5:8-13]\nSlaves have dominion over us,\nWith none to deliver from their hand.\nWe get our bread at the peril of our lives,\nBecause of the sword of the wilderness.\nOur skin becomes hot like an oven,\nBecause of the glowing heat of famine.\nThey ravish the women in Zion,\nThe virgins in the cities of Judah.\nPrinces are hanged up by the hand,\nThe person of the elders is not honored.\nThe young men bear up the mill,\nAnd the children stumble under the wood.\n\n[Sidenote: Lam. 5:14-18]\nThe elders have ceased from the gate,\nThe young men from their music.\nThe joy of our heart has ceased,\nOur dance is turned into mourning.\nThe crown has fallen from our head;\nWoe to us! for we have sinned.\n\nFor this reason our heart is faint,\nFor these causes our eyes are dim;\nFor the mountain of Zion is desolate;\nThe jackals walk over it.\n\n[Sidenote: Jer. 43:8-12]\nThe word of Jehovah also came to Jeremiah in Tahpanhes, saying, Take great\nstones in thy hand, and bury them in the loose foundation in the\nbrick-covered place before Pharaoh's palace door in Tahpanhes in the sight\nof the men of Judah; and say to them, 'Thus saith, Jehovah hosts, the God\nof Israel, \"Behold, I will send and bring Nebuchadrezzar the king of\nBabylon, my servant, and will set his throne upon these stones that you\nhave buried, and he shall spread his royal pavilion over them. And he\nshall come and shall smite the land of Egypt; such as are for death shall\nbe given to death, and such as are for captivity shall be given to\ncaptivity, and such as are for the sword shall be given to the sword. And\nhe will kindle a fire in the houses of the gods of Egypt, and will burn\nthem and carry them away. And he shall wrap himself in the land of Egypt,\nas a shepherd puts on his mantle, and shall go forth from there in peace.\nHe shall also break the obelisks of Heliopolis and the temples of the gods\nof Egypt shall he burn with fire.\"'\n\n[Sidenote: Jer. 44:1-10]\nThe word that came to Jeremiah concerning all the Jews who dwelt in the\nland of Egypt, who dwelt at Migdol, Tahpanhes, Memphis, and in upper\nEgypt, saying, Thus saith Jehovah of hosts, the God of Israel, 'Ye have\nseen all the evil that I have brought upon Jerusalem and upon all the\ncities of Judah; and behold, they are this day a desolation, and no man\ndwelleth in them, because of their wickedness which they have committed to\nprovoke me to anger in that they went to offer sacrifices to other gods,\nthat they knew not, neither they nor ye, nor your fathers. However, I\nconstantly sent to them all my servants the prophets, saying, \"Oh, do not\nthis abominable thing that I hate.\" But they neither hearkened nor\ninclined their ear to turn from their wickedness, to offer no sacrifice to\nother gods. And so my wrath and mine anger was poured forth and was\nkindled against the cities of Judah and the streets of Jerusalem, and they\nwere wasted and desolate, as is now the case.' Therefore now thus saith\nJehovah, the God of hosts, the God of Israel, 'Why do you commit a great\nCrime against yourselves to cut off from you man and woman, infant and\nsucking child, out of the midst of Judah so that ye leave none remaining,\nin that ye provoke me to anger with the work of your hands, offering\nsacrifice to other gods in the land of Egypt, whither ye have gone to\nsojourn, that ye may be cut off, and that ye may be an object of cursing\nand a reproach among all the nations of the earth? Have ye forgotten the\ncrimes of your fathers, and the crimes of the kings of Judah, and the\ncrimes of their princes, which they committed in the land of Judah and in\nthe streets of Jerusalem? They are not humbled even to this day, neither\nhave they feared nor walked in my law nor in my statutes that I set before\nyou and before your fathers.'\n\n[Sidenote: Jer. 44:11-13, 22]\n'Therefore thus saith Jehovah of hosts, the God of Israel: \"Behold, I set\nmy face against you for evil to cut off the remnant of Judah in the land\nof Egypt, and they shall fall by the sword and by famine; they shall\ndie, small and great, and they shall be an object of execration, of\nastonishment, of cursing, and of reproach. For I will punish those who\ndwell in the land of Egypt, as I have punished Jerusalem, by the sword, by\nfamine, and by pestilence, so that none of the remnant of Judah, who have\ngone into the land of Egypt to reside there, shall escape or be left to\nreturn to the land of Judah, to which they have a desire to return; for\nnone shall return except as fugitives. And they who escape the sword shall\nreturn from the land of Egypt to the land of Judah, few in number; and all\nthe remnant of Judah, who have gone into the land of Egypt to sojourn\nthere shall know whose word shall be confirmed, mine or theirs.\"'\n\nI. The Significance of the Destruction of the Hebrew State. The\ndestruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. resulted in a mighty Transformation\nof the life and thought of Israel. It marked the final Overthrow of the\nold Hebrew kingdoms, and the gradual rise of that new and important factor\nin human history known as Judaism. For over three centuries the Jews who\nsurvived the great catastrophe were helpless under the rule of the great\nworld powers which in succession conquered southwestern Asia. For the\ngreat majority of the Jewish race it represented the beginning of that\nlong exile which has continued until the present. Scattered from the\ndesert of Sahara to the distant land of China, and from the Black Sea to\nthe Indian Ocean, the different groups of exiles quickly began to adapt\nthemselves to their changed surroundings and to absorb the new knowledge\nand the powerful influences which gradually transformed their beliefs and\nideals. While their vision was vastly broadened by this contact, the\ndanger and horror of being completely engulfed in the great heathen world\nbound the faithful more closely together, and in time made Judaism\nthe solid, unbreakable rock that has withstood the assaults and the\ndisintegrating forces of the ages. At first the survivors of the great\ncatastrophe were stunned by the blow that had shattered their nation. They\nlived only in their memories of the past and in their hopes for the\nfuture. At last, in the long period of misery and enforced meditation,\nthey began not only to accept but also to apply the eternal principles\nproclaimed by their earlier prophets. Thus amidst these entirely new\nconditions they gained a broader and deeper faith and were still further\ntrained for the divine task of teaching mankind.\n\nII. The Book of Lamentations. After describing the destruction of the\nlittle kingdom established at Mizpah under Gedaliah, the Hebrew historical\nrecords suddenly become silent. This silence is due to the fact that there\nwas little of external interest to record. The real history of this tragic\nhalf-century is the record of the anguish and doubts and hopes in the\nhearts of the scattered remnants of the race. The little book of\nLamentations expresses dramatically and pathetically the thoughts of the\npeople as they meditated upon the series of calamities which gathered\nabout the great catastrophe of 586 B.C. Like the ancient Torah, or five\nbooks of the Law, it contains a quintet of poems. These are very similar\nin theme and form to many of the psalms of the Psalter. In the first four\nthe characteristic five-beat measure, by which the deep emotions,\nespecially that of sorrow, were expressed, is consistently employed. Each\nof these four is also an acrostic, that is, each succeeding line or group\nof lines begins with a succeeding letter of the Hebrew alphabet. This\nacrostic form was probably adopted in order to aid the memory, and\nsuggests that from the first these poems were written to be used in\npublic. Even so the Jews of Jerusalem to-day chant them on each of their\nsabbaths beside the foundation walls of the great platform on which once\nstood their ruined temple. Although the artificial character of these\npoems tends to check the free expression of thought and feeling, it is\npossible to trace in them a logical progress and to feel the influence of\nthe strong emotions that inspired them.\n\nIII. Authorship and Date of the Book. In theme and literary form these\npoems are so strikingly similar to Jeremiah's later sermons that it was\nalmost inevitable that tradition should attribute them to the great\nprophet of Judah's decline. This tradition, to which is due the position\nof the book of Lamentations in the Greek and English Bibles, cannot be\ntraced earlier than the Greek period. The evidence within the poems\nthemselves strongly indicates that they were not written by Jeremiah. It\nis almost inconceivable that he would subject his poetic genius to the\nrigid limitations of the acrostic structure. Moreover, he would never have\nspoken of the weak Zedekiah, whose vacillating policy he condemned, in the\nterms of high esteem which appear in Lamentations 4:20. These poems also\nreflect the popular interpretation of the great national calamity, rather\nthan Jeremiah's searching analysis of fundamental causes. A careful study\nof Lamentations shows that chapters 2 and 4 were probably written by one\nwho was powerfully influenced by Ezekiel's thought. They both follow in\ntheir acrostic structure an unusual order of the Hebrew alphabet,\ndiffering in this respect from chapters 1 and 3. They have so many close\npoints of contact with each other that it is safe to say that they are\nboth from the same author. They reveal an intimate familiarity with events\nimmediately following the destruction of Jerusalem and were probably\nwritten between 580 and 561 B.C., when Jehoiachin was liberated.\nChapters 1 and 3 follow the regular order of the Hebrew alphabet and\napparently represent the work of a later author or authors. Chapter 1 is\nfull of pathos and religious feeling and is closely parallel in thought\nto such psalms as 42 and 137. Chapter 3 is a poetic monologue describing\nthe fate and voicing the contrition of the righteous within the Judean\ncommunity. Chapter 5, on the contrary, is in the three-beat measure and\nlacks the acrostic structure of the preceding chapters. Its style and\npoint of view are so different from those of the preceding chapters that\nit must be the work of another author, who probably lived in the Persian\nperiod.\n\nIV. Its Real Character. The purpose of the book of Lamentations was\nevidently, (1) to give appropriate expression to the feelings of the Jews\nwho survived the destruction of Jerusalem, 586 B.C.; (2) to drive home the\ngreat lessons taught by their past history, and thus to arouse true\nrepentance; and (3) to kindle in turn hopes regarding their future.\nThrough them Jeremiah and Ezekiel live and speak again, but from the point\nof view of the people. These tragic poems also throw contemporary light\nupon the horrors of the final siege and capture of Jerusalem and upon the\nfate of those who survived.\n\nV. Numbers and Fortunes of the Jews Who Remained in Palestine. The Jews\nactually carried into captivity constituted only a small part of the total\npopulation of Judah (cf. Section XC:ii). The peasants and the inhabitants\nof the towns outside Jerusalem remained undisturbed, except as some of\nthem were doubtless drafted into the army which under Zedekiah undertook\nto defend Jerusalem against the Chaldeans. From the later record of\nNehemiah's work the names of many of these towns can be determined. In the\nnorth were Jericho, Geba, Mizpah, Anathoth, and Kirjath-jearim; in the\ncentre, Netophah and Bethlehem; and in the south Tekoa, Keilah, and\nBethzur. The lot of these, who are later known as the people of the land,\nwas pitiable indeed. There are many references in Lamentations and Ezekiel\nto the persecutions to which they were subjected by their malignant foes,\nthe Moabites and Ammonites on the east and the Philistines on the west.\nEven more cruel and aggressive were the Edomites, who had suffered many\nwrongs at the hands of the Hebrews. It was probably about this time that\nthis half-nomadic people began to be driven northward by the advance of\nthe Nabateans, an Arab people who came from the south. Dislodged from\ntheir homes, the Edomites took advantage of the weakness of the Jews and\nseized southern Judah, including the ancient capital Hebron. The doom\nwhich Ezekiel pronounces upon the Edomites in 25[12] is because of the\nrevenge that they wreaked upon the Jews at this time. It is significant\nthat Ezekiel's sermons in the period immediately following the fall of\nJerusalem contain dire predictions of divine vengeance upon all these\nfoes. After the overthrow of Gedaliah's kingdom, the Jews who remained in\nPalestine appear to have been left wholly without defences or defenders.\nEzekiel, in 33:23-29, speaks of those who inhabit the waste places in the\nland of Israel, who live in the strongholds and the caves. Some of them\nappear to have turned robbers. Foreign settlers came in from every side\nand in time intermarried with the natives and led them into idolatry.\nEzekiel sternly condemns their immorality and apostasy.\n\nFrom the references in Jeremiah 41:5 and Ezra 3:3 it is clear that even\nduring this reign of terror many of the people continued to offer\nsacrifices to Jehovah at the great altar cut in native rock which stood\nbefore the ruins of their temple in Jerusalem. Priests were also doubtless\nfound in the land to conduct these services. The ancient feasts, however,\nwith their joyous merrymaking and the resulting sense of divine favor,\nwere no longer observed. Instead, the people celebrated in sackcloth and\nashes the fasts commemorating the successive stages in the destruction of\ntheir city (Zech. 7:3-7). While their lot was pitiable and their character\nseemingly unpromising, these people of the land were important factors in\nthe re-establishment of the Judean community.\n\nVI. Fortunes of the Jews in Egypt. The narrative in Jeremiah states\ndefinitely that the large proportion of those who had rallied about\nGedaliah after his death found a temporary asylum on the eastern borders\nof Egypt. Here they were beyond the reach of Chaldean armies and within\nthe territory of the one nation which offered a friendly asylum to the\nJewish refugees. Most of this later group of exiles settled at the towns\nof Tahpanhes and Migdol. The latter means tower and is probably to be\nidentified with an eastern outpost, the chief station on the great highway\nwhich ran along the southeastern shore of the Mediterranean directly to\nPalestine and Syria.\n\nThe excavations of the Egypt Exploration Fund at Tahpanhes, which was the\nDaphnae of Herodotus, has thrown much light upon the home of this Jewish\ncommunity. The town was situated in a sandy desert to the south of a\nmarshy lake. It lay midway between the cultivated delta on the west and\nwhat is now the Suez Canal on the east. Past it ran the main highway to\nPalestine. Its founder, Psamtik I, the great-grandfather of Hophra, had\nbuilt here a fort to guard the highway. Herodotus states that he also\nstationed guards here, and that until late in the Persian period it was\ndefended by garrisons whose duty was to repel Asiatic invasions (II, 30).\nHere the Ionian and Carian mercenaries, who were at this time the chief\ndefence of the Egyptian king, were given permanent homes. By virtue of its\nmixed population and its geographical position, Tahpanhes was a great\nmeeting place of Eastern and Western civilization. Here native Egyptians,\nGreek mercenaries, Phoenician and Babylonian traders, and Jewish refugees\nmet on common ground and lived side by side. It corresponded in these\nrespects to the modern Port Said.\n\nProbably in remembrance of the Jewish colony that once lived here, the\nruins of the fort still bear an Arab name which means The Palace of the\nJew's Daughter. The term palace is not altogether inappropriate, for\napparently the fort was occasionally used as a royal residence. Many\nwine-jars, bearing the seals of Psamtik, Hophra, and Amasis, have been\nfound in the ruins. In the northwestern part of these ruins has been\nuncovered a great open-air platform of brickwork, referred to in Jeremiah\n43:8-10. It was the place of common meeting found in connection with every\nEgyptian palace or private home. When Amasis, in 564 B.C., came to the\nthrone of Egypt he withdrew the privileges granted by his predecessors to\nforeigners. The Greek colonists were transferred to Naukratis, and\nTahpanhes lost most of its former glory. About this time, if not before,\nthe great majority of the Jewish refugees, who had settled in these\nfrontier towns, probably returned to Palestine to find homes in its\npartially depopulated towns.\n\nEzekiel from distant Babylon appears to have regarded the Jews in Egypt\nwith considerable hope (Ezek. 29:21). But Jeremiah, who knew them better,\nwas keenly alive to their faults. In their despair and rage many of them\nevidently rejected the teachings of the prophets and became devotees of\nthe Aramean goddess, the Queen of Heaven, mentioned in the recently\ndiscovered Aramean inscription of Zakar, king of Hazrak (cf. Section\nLXV:vii). Jeremiah's closing words to them, therefore, are denunciations\nand predictions that they should suffer even in the land of Egypt, at\nthe hand of Nebuchadrezzar, the same fate that had overtaken their\nfellow-countrymen at Jerusalem. Both Jeremiah and Ezekiel (Ezek. 30)\npredicted that Nebuchadrezzar would invade and conquer Egypt. In 568 B.C.\nhis army actually did appear on the borders of Egypt; but how far he\nsucceeded in conquering the land is unknown. The complete conquest of\nEgypt certainly did not come until the Persian period under the leadership\nof the cruel Cambyses.\n\nVII. The Jewish Colony at Elephantine. Jeremiah and Ezekiel also refer\nto the Jewish colonists at Memphis and at Pathros, which is the biblical\ndesignation of upper Egypt. Many of the colonists who had settled there\nhad doubtless fled before the conquests of Jerusalem. The presence of a\ngreat number of Jews in Egypt at a later period indicates that even at\nthis early date more exiles were probably to be found in Egypt than in\nBabylon. Recent discoveries on the island of Elephantine in the upper\nNile, opposite the modern Assuan, have thrown new light upon the life of\nthese Jewish colonists. These records consist (1) of a series of\nbeautifully preserved legal documents written in Aramaic on papyrus and\ndefinitely dated between the years 471 and 411 B.C. They include contracts\nbetween the Jews residing on the island of Elephantine regarding the\ntransfer of property and other legal transactions. They contain many\nfamiliar Jewish names, such as Zadok, Isaiah, Hosea, Nathan, Ethan,\nZechariah, Shallum, Uriah, and Shemaiah. They indicate that by the earlier\npart of the Persian period a large and wealthy colony of Jewish traders\nand bankers was established on this island. They appear to have lived in a\ncommunity by themselves, but in the heart of the city, side by side with\nEgyptians, Persians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Greeks, whose property\nIn some cases joined their own. The Jews had their own court which ranked\nequally with the Persian and Egyptian law courts. Even native Egyptians,\nwho had cases against the Jews, appeared before it. The names of Arameans\nand Arabs also appear in its lists of witnesses. From these contemporary\ndocuments it is clear that the Jews of upper Egypt enjoyed great\nprivileges and entered freely into the life of the land. Ordinarily they\nmarried members of their own race; but the marriage of a Jewess with a\nforeigner is also reported. He appears, however, to have been a proselyte\nto Judaism, Another Jewess married an Egyptian and took oath by the\nEgyptian goddess Sati, suggesting that she had nominally at least adopted\nthe religion of her husband. One Hebrew also bears the suggestive name of\nHosea, the son of Petikhnum (an Egyptian name meaning _Gift of the god\nKhnum_).\n\nVIII. The Temple of Yahu at Elephantine. These Aramaic legal documents\nalso contain many references to Yahu (the older form of Yahweh or\nJehovah), the god worshipped by the Jews, and to Yahu's temple situated on\nKing's Street, one of the main thoroughfares of the city. These references\nhave been signally confirmed by a most remarkable letter recently\ndiscovered by the Germans at this site. It was written in November of the\nyear 408 B.C., by the members of the Jewish colony at Elephantine to\nBagohi (the Bagoas of Josephus), the Persian governor of Judah. It states,\namong other things, that \"Already in the days of the kings of Egypt our\nfathers had built this temple in the fortress of Elephantine. And when\nCambyses (529-522 B.C.) entered Egypt he found this temple built, and,\nthough the temple of the gods of Egypt were all at that time overthrown,\nno one injured anything in this temple.\" It further states that recently\n(in the year 411 B.C.), in the absence of the Persian governor in Egypt,\nthe foreigners in Elephantine had stirred up a certain minor official to\ninstruct his son, who was commander of a neighboring fortress, to destroy\nthe Jewish temple.\n\nThe Aramaic letter was intended to be sent, together with rich gifts, to\ninfluence the powerful Persian governor of Judah, Bagohi, to issue an\norder permitting the Jews to rebuild their temple. From this letter we\nlearn that the temple of the God Yahu was built of hewn stone with pillars\nof stone in front, probably similar to those in the Egyptian temples, and\nhad seven great gates built of hewn stone and provided with doors and\nbronze hinges. Its roof was wholly of cedar wood, probably brought from\nthe distant Lebanon, and its walls appear to have been ceiled or adorned\nwith stucco, as were those of Solomon's temple. It was also equipped with\nbowls of gold and silver and the other paraphernalia of sacrifice.\nHere were regularly offered cereal-offerings, burnt-offerings, and\nfrankincense. The petitioners also promised that, if the Persian officials\nwould grant their request, \"we will also offer cereal-offerings and\nfrankincense and burnt-offerings on the altar in your name, and we will\npray to God in your name, we and our wives and all the Jews who are here,\nif you do thus until the temple is built. And you shall have a portion\nbefore the God Yahu, the God of Heaven, from every one who offers to him\nburnt-offerings and sacrifices.\"\n\nHistorical students have long been familiar with the fact that late in the\nGreek period the Jews of Egypt built a temple to Jehovah at Leontopolis,\nin the Delta (cf. Section CXV:iii); but these recent discoveries open\nan entirely new chapter in Jewish history. They indicate that probably\nwithin a generation after the destruction of the Jerusalem temple, in 586\nB.C., the Jewish colonists in Egypt built for themselves far up the Nile,\nand possibly at other points in this land of their exile, a temple or\ntemples to Jehovah; that they remained loyal to God and the institutions\nof their race; and that in the midst of cosmopolitan Egypt they preserved\nintact their racial unity. In the light of these discoveries it is also\nclear that because of their character and numbers and nearness to\nPalestine the Jews of Egypt, even at this early period, were a far more\nimportant factor in the life and development of Judaism than they have\nhitherto been considered. These discoveries also afford definite grounds\nfor the hope that from this unexpected quarter much more valuable material\nwill come to illumine this otherwise dark period of post-exilic Jewish\nhistory.\n\n\n\nSection XCII. EZEKIEL'S MESSAGE TO HIS SCATTERED COUNTRYMEN\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 37:1-6]\nThe hand of Jehovah was upon me, and he brought me by the spirit and set\nme down in the midst of the valley; and it was full of bones. And he\ncaused me to pass by them round about; and, behold, there were very many\non the surface of the valley; and, lo, they were very dry. And he said to\nme, Son of man, can these bones live? And I answered, O Lord Jehovah, thou\nknowest. Again he said to me, Prophesy over these bones, and say to them,\nO ye dry bones, hear the word of Jehovah. 'Thus saith Jehovah to these\nbones: \"Behold I am about to put breath into you, that ye may live. And I\nwill put sinews on you, and will clothe you with flesh, and cover you with\nskin, and put breath in you, that ye may live; and know that I am\nJehovah.\"'\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 37:7-10]\nSo I prophesied as he commanded me: and as I prophesied, there was an\nearthquake; and the bones came together, bone to its bone. And I beheld,\nand, lo, there were sinews upon them, and flesh had clothed them, and skin\ncovered them; but there was no breath in them. Then he said to me,\nProphesy to the breath, prophesy, son of man, and say to the breath, 'Thus\nsaith Jehovah: \"Come from the four winds, O breath, and breathe upon these\nslain, that they may live.\"' So I prophesied as he commanded me, and the\nbreath came into them, and they lived, and stood upon their feet, an\nexceedingly great host.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 37:11-14]\nThen he said to me, O man, these bones are the whole house of Israel;\nbehold, they say, 'Our bones are dried up, and our hope is lost; we are\ncompletely ruined.' Therefore prophesy, and say to them, 'Thus saith\nJehovah: \"Behold, I will open your graves, and raise you from your graves,\nO my people; and I will bring you into the land of Israel. And ye shall\nknow that I am Jehovah, when I have opened your graves, and raised you\nfrom your graves, O my people. And I will put my spirit in you, that ye\nmay live, and I will restore you to your own land: that ye may know that\nI, Jehovah, have spoken it and performed it,\" is the oracle of Jehovah.'\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 37:15-23]\nThis word also came to me from Jehovah: Do thou, O man, take a stick, and\nwrite upon it, JUDAH AND THE ISRAELITES ASSOCIATED WITH HIM: then take\nanother stick, and write upon it, JOSEPH, AND ALL THE HOUSE OF ISRAEL\nASSOCIATED WITH HIM. Then join them together, so that they may become one\nstick in thy hand. And when the children of thy people shall say to thee,\n'Wilt thou not show us what this means?' say to them, 'Thus saith Jehovah:\n\"Behold, I am about to take the stick of Joseph, which is in the hand of\nEphraim, and the tribes of Israel associated with him; and I will unite\nthem with the stick of Judah, and make them one stick, and they shall be\nunited in my hand.\"' And let the sticks on which thou writest be in thy\nhand before their eyes. And say to them, 'Thus saith the Lord Jehovah:\n\"Behold, I am about to take the Israelites from among the nations, whither\nthey are gone, and gather them from all sides, and bring them into their\nown land: and I will make them one nation in the land, upon the mountains\nof Israel; and there shall be one king over them all; and they shall be no\nlonger two nations, neither shall they be divided into two kingdoms any\nlonger; nor shall they defile themselves any more with their idols, nor\nwith their detestable things, nor with any of their transgressions; but I\nwill save them from all their apostasies wherein they have sinned, and\nwill cleanse them; so shall they be my people, and I will be their God.\"'\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 37:24-28]\n'\"And my servant David shall be king over them; and they all shall have one\nshepherd: they shall also walk in mine ordinances, and observe my\nstatutes, and do them. And they shall dwell in the land that I have given\nto my servant Jacob, wherein their fathers dwelt; and they shall dwell\ntherein, they and their sons, forever. And David my servant shall be their\nprince forever. Moreover I will make a covenant of peace with them; it\nshall be an everlasting covenant with them; and I will establish them, and\nmultiply them, and set my sanctuary in the midst of them forevermore. My\ndwelling place also shall be with them; and I will be their God, and they\nshall be my people. And the nations shall know that I am Jehovah who\nsanctifieth Israel, when my sanctuary shall be in the midst of them\nforevermore.\"'\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 40:1-4]\nIn the twenty-fifth year of our captivity, in the beginning of the year,\nin the tenth day of the month, in the fourteenth year after the city was\ntaken, on that very day, the hand of Jehovah was laid upon me, and he\nbrought me in an inspired vision to the land of Israel, and set me down\nupon a very high mountain, on which was a city-like building toward the\nsouth. Thither he brought me, and there was a man whose appearance was\nlike the appearance of bronze, with a flaxen line and a measuring reed in\nhis hand; and he was standing in the gateway. And the man said to me, Son\nof man, behold with thine eyes, and hear with thine ears, and give heed to\nall that I shall show thee; for, in order that thou shouldst be shown it\nwert thou brought hither; declare all that thou seest to the house of\nIsrael.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 40:5]\nThere was a wall encircling a temple, and in the man's hand a measuring\nreed six cubits long, each cubit being equal to about twenty-one inches.\nAnd he measured the thickness of the building one reed (about ten and\none-half feet); and the height one reed.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 40:6-12]\nThen he came to the east gateway and went up its steps and measured the\nthreshold of the gate one reed wide. And each guard-room was one reed\nlong, and one reed broad; and between the guard-rooms were spaces of five\ncubits; and the threshold of the gate at the vestibule of the gate on the\ninner side was one reed. Then he measured the vestibule of the gate, eight\ncubits, and its jambs, two cubits; and the vestibule of the gate was on\nthe inner side. And the guard-rooms of the east gate were three on each\nside; and all three were of the same dimensions; and the posts were on\nboth sides. And he measured the breadth of the entrance to the gateway,\nten cubits; and the width of the gate, thirteen cubits; and there was a\nsill one cubit wide, before the guard-rooms on each side; and the\nguard-rooms, six cubits on both sides.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 40:13, 15]\nAnd he measured the gate from the outer wall of the one guard-room to the\nouter wall of the other, twenty-five cubits wide [about forty-four feet];\ndoor opposite door. And from the front of the gateway at the entrance to\nthe front of the inner vestibule of the gate were fifty cubits.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 40:17, 19]\nThen he brought me to the outer court, and there were chambers and a\npavement made round about the court; thirty chambers were upon the\npavement. And he measured its breadth from the front of the lower gate to\nthe front of the inner court without, one hundred cubits on the east and\non the north.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 40:20, 21b, 24b]\nAnd the north gateway of the outer court, he measured its length and\nbreadth. And its measurements were the same as those of the east gateway.\nThe dimensions of the gateway on the south were also the same as the\nothers.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 40:44-47]\nHe brought me outside the gate and into the inner court, and there were\ntwo chambers on the inner court, one by the north gate, facing the south,\nand the other by the south gate, facing the north. And he said to me, This\nchamber which faces the south is for the priests who have charge of the\ntemple; and the chamber which faces the north is for the priests who have\ncharge of the altar; they are the sons of Zadok, those of the sons of Levi\nwho may be near to Jehovah to serve him. And he measured the court, a\nhundred cubits wide, and a hundred cubits broad--a perfect square. The\naltar was in front of the temple.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 41:1,2]\nThen he brought me into the hall of the temple and measured the jambs, six\ncubits on each side. And the breadth of the entrance was ten cubits; and\nthe sides of the entrance were five cubits on each side; and he measured\nits length, forty cubits; and its width, twenty cubits.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 41:3, 4]\nThen he went into the inner room and measured the jambs of its entrance,\ntwo cubits; and the entrance, six cubits; and the side-walls of the\nentrance, seven cubits on each side. And he measured its length, twenty\ncubits, and its breadth, twenty cubits, before the hall of the temple.\nAnd he said to me, This is the most holy place.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 41:5-8a]\nThen he measured the thickness of the wall of the temple, six cubits; and\nthe width of the side-chambers, four cubits, round about the temple on\nevery side. And the side-chambers were in three stories, one above\nanother, and thirty in each story; and there were abatements all around\nthe walls of the temple that the side-chambers might be fastened to them\nand not to the walls of the temple. And the side-chambers became wider as\nthey went up higher and higher, for the temple grew narrower higher up;\nand there was an ascent from the lowest story to the highest through the\nmiddle story. And I saw also that the temple had a raised platform round\nabout.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 43:1-5]\nThen he brought me to the east gate. And behold the glory of the God of\nIsrael came from the east; and his voice was like the sound of many\nwaters; and the earth shone with his glory. And the vision which I saw was\nlike that which I saw when he came to destroy the city; and the visions\nwere like that which I saw by the River Chebar; and I fell on my face.\nThen the glory of Jehovah came into the temple through the east gate. And\nthe spirit took me up, and brought me into the inner court; and, behold,\nthe glory of Jehovah filled the temple.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezek. 43:6-9]\nThen I heard One speaking to me from the temple, as he stood by me. And\nhe said to me, O man, this is the place of my throne, and the place for\nthe soles of my feet, where I will dwell in the midst of the Israelites\nforever. And the house of Israel, they and their kings, shall no more\ndefile my holy name with their idolatry and with the corpses of their\nkings by placing their thresholds by my threshold, and their door-posts\nby my door-post, with only a wall between me and them, thus defiling my\nholy name by the abominations which they have committed; therefore I have\ndestroyed them in mine anger. Now let them put away their idolatry, and\nthe corpses of their kings far from me, that I may dwell in the midst of\nthem forever.\n\n[Sidenote: Cor. Ezek. 44:9-14]\nTherefore thus saith the Lord Jehovah, 'No foreigner, consecrated neither\nin heart nor flesh, of all the foreigners who are among the Israelites,\nshall enter my sanctuary. But those Levites who went far from me, when\nIsrael went astray, who went astray from me after their idols, shall bear\ntheir guilt. Yet they shall be ministers in my sanctuary, having oversight\nat the gates of the temple, and ministering in the temple; they shall slay\nthe burnt-offering and the sacrifice for the people, and they shall stand\nbefore them and minister to them. Since they were wont to minister to them\nbefore their idols and were a stumbling block of iniquity to the house of\nIsrael; therefore I have taken a solemn oath against them,' is the oracle\nof the Lord Jehovah, 'and they shall bear their guilt. And they shall not\napproach me to act as priests to me, so as to come near any of my sacred\nthings, or to those which are most sacred; but they shall bear their shame\nand the punishment for the abominations which they have committed; I will\nmake them responsible for the care of the temple, for all its service, and\nfor all that shall be done therein.\n\n[Sidenote: Cor. Ezek. 44:15-16]\nBut the priests, the Levites, the sons of Zadok, who took charge of my\nsanctuary when the Israelites went astray from me, shall come near to me\nto minister to me, and they shall stand before me to offer to me fat and\nblood,' is the oracle of the Lord Jehovah. 'They shall enter my sanctuary,\nand they shall approach near to my table to minister to me, and they shall\nkeep my charge.\n\n[Sidenote: Cor. Ezek. 44:23-24]\nAnd they shall teach my people the difference between the sacred and the\ncommon, and instruct them how to discern between the clean and the\nunclean. And in a controversy they shall act as judges, judging it\naccording to my ordinances. And they shall keep my laws and my statutes\nin all my appointed feasts; and they shall maintain the sanctity of my\nsabbaths.'\n\n[Sidenote: Cor. Ezek. 45:2-5]\nWhen ye allot the land as inheritance, ye shall offer as a special gift to\nJehovah, a sacred portion of the land, five thousand cubits long, and\ntwenty thousand cubits wide; it shall be sacred throughout its entire\nextent. And out of this area shalt thou measure off a space twenty-five\nthousand cubits long and ten thousand cubits wide, and on it shall the\nmost holy sanctuary stand. It is a holy portion of the land; it shall\nbelong to the priests who are the ministers in the sanctuary, who draw\nnear to minister to Jehovah; and it shall be a place for their houses, and\nan open space for the sanctuary. Out of this a square of five hundred\ncubits shall be for the sanctuary, with an open space fifty cubits wide\naround it. And a space twenty-five thousand cubits long and ten thousand\nwide shall belong to the Levites, the ministers of the temple; it shall be\ntheir possession for cities in which to dwell.\n\n[Sidenote: Cor. Ezek. 45:6-8]\nAnd as the possession of the city, ye shall assign a space five thousand\ncubits wide, and twenty-five thousand long, beside the sacred reservation;\nit shall belong to the whole house of Israel. And the prince shall have\nthe space on both sides of the sacred reservation and the possession of\nthe city, on the west and on the east, and of the same length as one of\nthe portions of the tribes, from the west border to the east border of the\nland. It shall be his possession in Israel; and the princes of Israel\nshall no more oppress my people, but shall give the land to the house of\nIsrael according to their tribes.\n\nI. The Home of the Exiles in Babylon. From the references in the\ncontemporary writers it is possible to gain a reasonably definite idea\nregarding the environment of the Jewish exiles in Babylon. Ezekiel\ndescribes the site as \"a land of traffic, a city of merchants, a fruitful\nsoil, and beside many waters,\" where the colony like a willow was\ntransplanted [17:5]. The Kabaru Canal (the River Chebar of Ezekiel) ran\nsoutheast from Babylon to Nippur through a rich alluvial plain,\nintersected by numerous canals. Beside it lived a dense agricultural\npopulation. On the tells or artificial mounds made by the ruins of earlier\nBabylonian cities were built the peasant villages. Ezekiel speaks of\npreaching to the Jewish colony of Tel-Abib (Storm-hill), and the lists\nof those who later returned to Judah contain references to those who came\nfrom Tel-Melah (Salt-hill) and Tel-Harsha (Forest-hill).\n\nII. Their Condition and Occupations. It is probable that these mounds\nwere not far from each other and that the adjacent fields were cultivated\nby the Jewish colonists. Thus they were enabled, under even more favorable\nconditions than in Judah, to continue in their old occupations and to\nbuild houses and rear families as Jeremiah had advised (Jer. 29; Section\nLXXXVII:35). In Babylonia, as at Elephantine, so long as they paid the\nimperial tax and refrained from open violence they were probably allowed\nto rule themselves in accordance with their own laws. The elders of the\ndifferent families directed the affairs of the community and acted as\njudges, except in the case of capital offences which were punished in the\nname of Nebuchadrezzar (Jer. 29 22). Thus for a long time the exiles\nconstituted a little Judah within the heart of the Babylonian empire,\nmaintaining their racial integrity even more completely than the Jews\nresident in Egypt.\n\nBabylonia was the scene of an intense commercial activity. The\nopportunities and allurements of the far-reaching traffic which passed\nup and down the great rivers and across the neighboring deserts were\neventually too strong for the Jews to resist. Hence in Babylonia, as in\nEgypt, they gradually abandoned their inherited agricultural habits and\nwere transformed into a nation of traders. In the recently discovered\nrecords of the transactions of the famous Babylonian banking house which\nflourished during the earlier part of the Persian period, under the\ndirection of succeeding generations of the Murashu family, are found many\nfamiliar Jewish names. These indicate that within a century after the fall\nof Jerusalem many sons of the exiles had already won a prominent place in\nthe commercial life of that great metropolis.\n\nIII. Their Religious Life. With this transformation in their occupation\ncame a great temptation to forget their race and to lose sight of its\nideals. The temptation was all the greater because their capital city and\ntemple were in ruins and the belief was widely held that Jehovah had\nforsaken his land and people and retired to his \"mount in the uttermost\nparts of the north\" (Isa. 14:13 Ezek. 1:4). Their actual experiences had\nproved so fundamentally different from their hopes that there was\nundoubtedly in the minds of many a dread doubt as to whether Jehovah was\nable to fulfil his promises. False prophets were also present to mislead\nthe people (Jer. 39:21-23 Ezek. 13:1-7 14:8-10). There is also no\nindication that the Jews of Babylon ever attempted to build a temple to\nJehovah in the land of their captivity. Hence there were no ancient\nfestivals and public and private sacrifices and impressive ceremonials to\nkindle their religious feelings and to keep alive their national faith.\nInstead, the imposing religion of the Babylonians, with its rich temples,\nits many festivals, its prosperous and powerful priesthood, and its\nelaborate ritual must have profoundly impressed them and led them to draw\nunfavorable comparisons between it and the simple services of their\npre-exilic temple. Nevertheless, in spite of these temptations, there\nwere many who proved themselves loyal to Jehovah. Prayer and fasting and\nsabbath observance took the place of sacrificial rites. A strong emphasis\nis laid by Ezekiel on the sabbath. [Sidenote A: Ezekiel 20:12-31; Ezekiel\n22:26; Ezekiel 23:38] From this time on it became one of the most\nimportant and characteristic institutions of Judaism. Under the influence\nof the new situation it lost much of its original, philanthropic, and\nsocial character and became instead a ceremonial institution. In\nfaithfully observing it the exiles felt that even in captivity they were\npaying homage to their divine King. The more it took the place of the\nancient feasts and sacrifices, the more they forgot that the sabbath was\nGod's gift to toiling man rather than man's gift to God. From the\nBabylonian exile, also, probably dates that custom of assembling on the\nsabbath to read the ancient scriptures which represents the genesis of\nthe later synagogue and its service.\n\nIV. The Prophecies of Ezekiel. The priest-prophet Ezekiel was the\ninterpreter, pastor, and guide of the Babylonian exiles. He met their\nproblems and proposed the solutions which became the foundation principles\nof later Judaism. His prophecies fall naturally into four distinct groups:\n(1) Chapters 1 to 24, which recount his call and deal with the issues at\nstake in the different Judean communities in the critical years between\nthe first and second captivities. They represent the prophet's work\nbetween the years 592 and 586 B.C. (2) Chapters 25 to 32, include seven\noracles regarding Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia, Tyre, and Egypt, the\nnations which had taken part in the destruction of Jerusalem or else, like\nEgypt, had lured Judah to its ruin. The complete destruction of these foes\nis predicted, and chapter 32 concludes with a weird picture of their fate,\ncondemned by Jehovah to dwell in Sheol, the abode of the shades.\n(3) Chapters 33 to 39 contain messages of comfort and promise to Ezekiel's\nfellow-exiles in Babylonia and in the distant lands of the dispersion.\nThey are dated between the years 586 and 570 B.C. (4) Chapters 40 to 48\npresent Ezekiel's plan for the restored temple and service and for the\nredistribution of the territory of Canaan, and his belief that Judah's\nfertility would be miraculously increased. This plan is definitely dated\nin the year 572 B.C., two years before the prophet's death.\n\nV. The Resurrection of the Dead Nation. Ezekiel dealt with the problems\nof his fellow-exiles concretely and from a point of view which they could\nreadily understand. He fully realized that if the faith of the people was\nto be saved in this crisis a definite hope, expressed in objective\nimagery, must be set before them. With the same inspired insight that had\nprompted Jeremiah to purchase his family estate in the hour of Jerusalem's\ndownfall, Ezekiel saw that Jehovah would yet restore his people, if they\nwould but respond to the demands of this crisis. His message was,\ntherefore, one of hope and promise. In the memorable chapter in which he\npictures a valley filled with dry bones, he aimed to inspire their faith\nby declaring that Jehovah was not only able but would surely gather\ntogether the dismembered parts of the nation and impart to it new life and\nactivity. The prophet was clearly speaking of national rather than of\nindividual resurrection. Like Jeremiah, he anticipated that the tribes of\nthe north and south would again be united, as in the days of David, and\nthat over them a scion of the Davidic house would rule as Jehovah's\nrepresentative. He also assured them that Jehovah would come again to\ndwell in the midst of his purified and restored people.\n\nVI. The Divine Shepherd. In the thirty-fourth chapter Ezekiel deals with\nthe same theme under a different figure. First he traces the cause of the\nexile to the inefficiency and greed and oppression of the earlier\nshepherds, the rulers like Jehoiakim, who had scattered rather than\ngathered and led the people intrusted to them. Now Jehovah himself, the\ngreat Shepherd of the People, will arise and gather his flock, and lead\nthem back to their home and give them a rich pasture. Over them he will\nappoint a descendant of David, but this prince shall be shorn of his\nancient kingly power.\n\nEzekiel also presents in his characteristic, symbolic form the promise\nthat Jehovah will now fulfil the popular hopes and destroy the wicked foes\nwho have preyed upon his people, and thus vindicate his divine rulership\nof the world. In one passage Judah's worst foes, the Edomites, represent\naggressive heathendom. Again, in a still more impressive picture,\nsuggested by an experience in his own childhood when the dread Scythians\nswept down from the north, he portrays the advance of the mysterious foes\nfrom the distant north under the leadership of Gog (38, 39). When they are\nalready in the land of Palestine, the prophet declares, Jehovah will\nterrify them with an earthquake, so that in panic they shall slay each\nother, as did the Midianites in the days of Gideon, until they shall all\nfall victims of Jehovah's judgment. Ezekiel thus revived in the changed\nconditions of the exile that popular conception of the day of Jehovah\nwhich the earlier prophets had refused to countenance. It was the\nprophet's graphic way of declaring that Jehovah would prepare the way for\nthe return of his people, if they would but respond when the opportune\nmoment should arrive. Later Judaism, however, and especially the\napocalyptic writers, interpreted literally and developed still further\nthis picture of Jehovah's great judgment day until it became a prominent\nteaching of later Jewish and Christian thought.\n\nSimilarly Ezekiel declared that the barren lands of Judah would be\nmiraculously transformed and rendered capable of supporting the great\nnumbers of the exiles who should return. In this respect Ezekiel became\nthe father of the later priestly school to which belongs the author of the\nbook of Chronicles, in whose thought the events of Israel's history came\nto pass, not through man's earnest effort and in accordance with\nthe established laws of the universe, but through special divine\ninterposition. It is difficult to determine whether Ezekiel himself was\nsimply endeavoring to state dramatically that Jehovah would fully\nanticipate the needs of his people, or whether he did actually anticipate\na series of prodigious miracles.\n\nVII. Ezekiel's Plan of the Restored Temple. Ezekiel, being a true\nprophet, fully realized that the fundamental question regarding the future\nof his race was not whether they would be restored to their home but\nwhether or not they would guard against the mistakes and sins of the past\nand live in accord with Jehovah's just demands. The solution of this\nquestion which he proposes reveals his priestly training. With infinite\npains and detail he develops the plan of a restored temple and ritual.\nThe details were doubtless in part suggested by his remembrance of the\ntemple at Jerusalem and in part taken from the great temples of Babylon.\nBy means of this elaborate picture he declared his firm conviction that\nhis race would surely be restored. His chief purpose, however, was to\nimpress upon the minds of his people the transcendent holiness of Jehovah\nand the necessity that he be worshipped by a holy people. The entire plan\nof the temple, of the ritual, and even of the allotment of the territory\nof Canaan was intended to enforce this idea. His plan, if adopted, was\ncalculated to deliver the people from the temptations and mistakes of the\npast. With this end in view Jehovah's sacred abode was guarded with\nmassive double walls and huge gateways. Only the priests were allowed to\nenter the inner court, and a sharp distinction was made between the\npriests who were the descendants of Zadok and the Levites whose fathers\nhad ministered at the many sanctuaries scattered throughout the land of\nIsrael. The territory immediately adjacent to the temple was assigned to\nthe priests and Levites, and its sanctity was further guarded on the east\nand west by the domains of the prince. His chief function was, not to\nrule, as had the selfish and inefficient tyrants who had preceded him, but\nto provide the animals and the material requisite for the temple service.\nThe territory on the north and the south of the temple was assigned to the\ndifferent tribes of Israel.\n\nNo political or social problems clouded the prophet's vision. The entire\nenergies of priest, Levite, prince, and people were to be devoted to the\nworship of the Holy One, whose restored and glorified sanctuary stood in\ntheir midst. Thus it was that Ezekiel reversed the ideals of the\npre-exilic Hebrew state and presented that programme which with many\nmodifications was adopted in principle at least by the post-exilic Judean\ncommunity. In place of the monarchy appeared the hierarchy; instead of the\nking the high priest became both the religious and the civil head of the\nnation. Soon the Davidic royal line disappeared entirely, and the\ninterests of the people centred more and more about the temple and its\nritual. Although Ezekiel's vision was not and could not be fully realized,\nexcept by a series of miracles, this devoted priest-prophet of the exile\nwas in a large sense the father of Judaism.\n\n\n\nSection XCIII. THE CLOSING YEARS OF THE BABYLONIAN RULE\n\n[Sidenote: II Kings 25:27-30]\nNow it came to pass in the thirty-seventh year of the captivity of\nJehoiachin king of Judah, in the twenty-seventh day of the twelfth month,\nEvil-merodach king of Babylon, in the year in which he became king,\n(561 B.C.) lifted up Jehoiachin king of Judah from prison to a position of\nhonor. And he spoke kindly to him and placed his seat above the seats of\nthe kings who were with him in Babylon, and changed his prison garments.\nAnd Jehoiachin ate with him continually as long as he lived. And for his\nsupport a continual allowance was given him by the king, each day a\nportion, as long as he lived.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 9:1-3]\nThe people who have been walking in darkness see a great light,\nThose who dwell in the land of deepest gloom, upon them a light shines.\nThou multipliest the exultation, thou makest great the rejoicing,\nThey rejoice before thee as men rejoice at harvest time,\nAs men are wont to exult when they divide spoil.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 9:4, 5]\nFor the burdensome yoke and the crossbar on his shoulder,\nThe rod of his taskmaster, thou breakest as in the day of Midian.\nFor every boot of the warrior with noisy tread,\nAnd every war-cloak drenched in the blood of the slain\nWill be completely burned up as fuel for the flame.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 9:6, 7]\nFor a child is born, to us a son is given,\nAnd dominion shall rest upon his shoulder;\nAnd his name will be Wonderful Counsellor,\nGodlike Hero, Ever-watchful Father, Prince of Peace.\nTo the increase of his dominion and to the peace there shall be no end,\nOn the throne of David and throughout his kingdom,\nTo establish and uphold it by justice and righteousness\nHenceforth and forever. The jealousy of Jehovah will accomplish this.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 11:1, 2]\nA sprout shall spring from the stock of Jesse,\nAnd a shoot from his roots shall bear fruit.\nThe spirit of Jehovah shall rest upon him.\nA spirit of wisdom and insight,\nA spirit of counsel and might,\nA spirit of knowledge and the fear of Jehovah.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 11:3-6]\nHe will not judge according to what his eyes see,\nNor decide according to what his ears hear;\nBut with righteousness will he judge the helpless,\nAnd with equity will he decide for the needy in the land.\n\nHe will smite an oppressor with the rod of his mouth,\nAnd with the breath of his lips will he slay the guilty.\nRighteousness will be the girdle about his loins,\nAnd faithfulness the band about his waist.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 11:6-8]\nThen the wolf will be the guest of the lamb,\nAnd the leopard will lie down with the kid;\nThe calf and the young lion will graze together,\nAnd a little child shall be their leader.\nThe cow and the bear shall become friends,\nTheir young ones shall lie down together,\nAnd the lion shall eat straw like the ox;\nThe suckling will play about the hole of the asp,\nAnd the weaned child will stretch out his hand toward the viper's nest.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 11:9, 10]\nMen shall not harm nor destroy\nIn all my holy mountain;\nFor the earth shall have been filled with knowledge of Jehovah\nAs the waters cover the sea.\nAnd it shall come to pass in that day,\nThat the root of Jesse who is to stand as a signal to the peoples--\nTo him shall the nations resort,\nAnd his resting-place shall be glorious.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 13:2-4]\nUpon a treeless mountain lift up a signal, raise a cry to them,\nWave the hand that they may enter the princely gates.\nI myself have given command to my consecrated ones, to execute my wrath,\nI have also summoned my heroes, my proudly exultant ones.\nHark, a tumult on the mountains, as of a mighty multitude!\nHark, an uproar of kingdoms, of gathered nations!\nIt is Jehovah of hosts mustering the martial hosts.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 13:17-22]\nI will punish the earth for its wickedness, and the wicked for their\n  iniquity,\nI will still the arrogance of the proud, and lay low the presumption of\n  tyrants.\nBehold, I stir up against them the Medes,\nWho consider not silver, and take no pleasure in gold,\nOn children they will look with no pity, they have no compassion on the\n  fruit of the womb,\nAnd Babylon, the most beautiful of kingdoms, the proud glory of the\n  Chaldeans, shall be,\nAs when God overthrew Sodom and Gomorrah.\n\nIt shall be uninhabited forever, and tenantless age after age;\nNo nomad shall pitch there his tent, nor shepherds let their flocks lie\n  down there,\nBut wild cats shall lie there, and their houses shall be full of jackals;\nOstriches shall dwell there, and satyrs shall dance there,\nHowling beasts shall cry to each other in its castles, and wolves in its\n  revelling halls;\nIts time is near at hand, its day shall not be extended.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezra 6:3-5]\nIn the first year of Cyrus the king, Cyrus the king made a decree:\nConcerning the house of God in Jerusalem--this house shall be rebuilt,\nwhere they offer sacrifices and bring him offerings made by fire. Its\nheight shall be sixty cubits and its breadth sixty cubits, It shall be\nconstructed with three layers of huge stones and one layer of timber. And\nlet the expenses be paid out of the king's treasury. Also let the gold and\nsilver vessels of the house of God, which Nebuchadrezzar took from the\ntemple at Jerusalem and brought to Babylon, be restored and brought again\nto the temple which is at Jerusalem, each to its place, and you shall put\nthem in the house of God.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezra 5:14, 15]\nNow the gold and silver vessels of the house of God which Nebuchadrezzar\ntook from the temple at Jerusalem and brought to the temple in Babylon,\nthose Cyrus the king took out of the temple in Babylon, and they were\ndelivered to one by the name of Sheshbazzar, whom he had made governor.\nAnd he said to him, Take these vessels; go, put them in the temple at\nJerusalem, and let the house of God be rebuilt in its place.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezra 1:5, 6; I Esdr. 5:1-6]\nThen the heads of the fathers' houses of Judah and Benjamin, and the\npriests and the Levites, even all whose spirit God had stirred to go up to\nbuild the temple of Jehovah which is at Jerusalem, arose. And all those\nwho were about them supplied them with silver vessels, with gold, with\ngoods, and with beasts, and with precious things, besides all that was\nvoluntarily offered.\n\nThese are the names or the men who went up, according to their tribes, by\ntheir genealogy. Of the priests the sons of Phinehas, the son of Aaron:\nJeshua the son of Jozadak, the son of Seriah. And there rose up with him\nZerubbabel the son of Shealtiel of the house of David, of the family of\nPeres, of the tribe of Judah; in the second year of Cyrus king of Persia\nin the first day of the month Nisan.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezra 3:2-4, 6b]\nThen Jeshua the son of Jozadak, and his kinsmen the priests, and\nZerubbabel the son of Shealtiel and his kinsmen arose and built the altar\nof the God of Israel, to offer burnt-offerings on it, as prescribed in the\nlaw of Moses the man of God. And they set up the altar in its place; for\nfear, because of the peoples dwelling in the land, had come upon them,\nbut they plucked up courage and offered burnt-offerings to Jehovah, even\nburnt-offerings morning and evening. And they kept the feast of booths as\nit is prescribed, and offered the fixed number of daily burnt-offerings\naccording to the direction for each day; but the foundation of the temple\nof Jehovah was not yet laid.\n\nI. The Transformation of the Jews into a Literary People. The\ndestruction of Jerusalem transformed the Jewish peasants of Palestine into\na literary race. Before the final destruction of Jerusalem they had lived\ntogether in a small territory where communication was easy and the need of\nwritten records but slight. The exile separated friends and members of the\nsame families, and scattered them broadcast throughout the then known\nworld. The only means of communicating with each other in most cases was\nby writing, and this necessity inevitably developed the literary art. The\nexiles in Babylonia and Egypt were also in close contact with the two most\nactive literary peoples of the ancient world. In countries where almost\nevery public or private act was recorded in written form, and where the\nliterature of the past was carefully preserved and widely transcribed, it\nwas inevitable that the Jews should be powerfully influenced by these\nexamples. Furthermore, the teachers of the race, prophets and priests\nalike, prevented by the destruction of the temple from employing their\nformer oral and symbolic methods of instruction, resorted, as did the\npriest Ezekiel, to the pen. Thus the religious thought and devotion of the\nrace began to find expression in its literature.\n\nThe incentives to collect the earlier writings of the priests and prophets\nwere also exceedingly strong, for the experiences and institutions of\ntheir past, together with their hopes for the future, were the two main\nforces that now held together the Jewish race. Fortunately, the more\nintelligent leaders realized, even before 586 B.C., that the final\ncatastrophe was practically certain, and therefore prepared for it in\nadvance. The decade between the first and second captivities also gave\nthem an opportunity to collect the more important writings of their\nearlier prophetic and priestly teachers, while the Judean state was still\nintact and while these earlier writings could be readily consulted.\nII. The Literary Activity of the Babylonian Period. The literary work of\nthis period took three distinct forms: (1) The collection, compilation,\nand editing of earlier historical writings. It was probably during this\nperiod that the narratives of Judges, of Samuel, and Kings, which carried\nthe history down into the exile itself, received their final revision.\n(2) Earlier writings were revised or supplemented so as to adapt them to\nthe new and different conditions. Thus the sermons of the pre-exilic\nprophets, as for example those of Amos and Isaiah, were then revised and\nsupplemented at many points. These earlier prophets had predicted doom and\ndestruction for their nation; but now that their predictions had been\nrealized what was needed was a message of comfort and promise. The\nfulfilment of their earlier predictions had established their authority in\nthe minds of the people. The purpose of the later editors was evidently\nto put in the mouth of these earlier prophets what they probably would\nhave said had they been present to speak at the later day to their\ndiscouraged and disconsolate countrymen. Studied in the light of these two\nfundamentally different points of view, the glaring inconsistencies which\nappear in the prophetic books are fully explained and the consistency of\nthe earlier prophets vindicated.\n\nThe third form of literary activity is represented by the writings of\nEzekiel. With the authority of a prophet, he dealt directly with the\nproblem of his day, and the greater part of his book consists of the\nrecords of his prophetic addresses or of epistles which he sent to his\nscattered fellow-countrymen, even as Jeremiah wrote from Judah a letter to\nthe distant exiles in Babylon. His new constitution for the restored\nJewish state was also based on earlier customs and laws, but was adapted\nto the new needs of the changed situation. He was not the only one to\nundertake this task. Other priests gathered earlier groups of oral laws\nand put in written form the customs and traditions of the pre-exilic\ntemple. At the same time they modified these earlier customs so as to\ncorrect the evils which past experience had revealed.\n\nIII. The Holiness Code. The chief product of the literary activity of\nthe earlier part of the exile is the collection of laws found in the\nseventeenth to the twenty-sixth chapters of Leviticus. Because of its\nstrong emphasis on the holiness of Jehovah and on the necessity that he\nbe worshipped by a people both ceremonially and morally holy, it is now\ncommonly designated as the Holiness Code. In theme, in point of view, in\npurpose, and in literary form it has many close points of contact with the\nwritings of Ezekiel. In its original unity it evidently came from the\nperiod and circle of thought in which the great priest-prophet lived.\nHis sermons, however, suggest that he was acquainted with its main\nteachings. In distinguishing sharply between the Jerusalem priests and the\nministering Levites, and in prohibiting the marriage of a priest with a\nwidow, Ezekiel shows that his work represented a slightly later stage in\nthe development of Israel's religious standards. The most probable date,\ntherefore, for the Holiness Code is the decade between the first and\nsecond captivity (597-586 B.C.).\n\nLike every ancient lawbook the Holiness Code contains many laws and\nregulations which evidently come from a much earlier period in Israel's\nhistory. Some of its enactments are very similar to those of the primitive\ncodes of Exodus 21-23. In spirit it is closely related to the book of\nDeuteronomy. It also reproduces many of the laws found in this earlier\ncode. Both codes represent the fruitage of the teaching of the pre-exilic\nprophets and priests. Each contains ceremonial, civil, and moral laws; but\nthe emphasis on the ritual is more pronounced in the Holiness Code. It\nconsists of ten or eleven distinct groups of laws. In Leviticus 18 and 19\nare found certain short decalogues. They probably represent the united\nefforts of the Judean prophets and priests during the Assyrian period to\ninculcate the true principles of justice, service, and worship in the\nminds of the people. Some of the laws in these earlier decalogues are the\nnoblest examples of Old Testament legislation:\n\nDUTIES TO OTHERS\n\n[Sidenote: Kindness to the needy]\nI. Thou shalt not wholly reap the corners of thy fields.\nII. Thou shalt not gather the gleanings of thy harvest.\nIII. Thou shalt not glean thy vineyard.\nIV. Thou shalt not gather the fallen fruit of thy vineyard.\nV. Thou shalt leave them for the poor and the resident alien.\n\n[Sidenote: Honesty in business relations]\nVI. Ye shall not steal.\nVII. Ye shall do no injustice, in measures of length, weight or of\n  quantity.\nVIII. Ye shall not deal falsely with one another.\nIX. Ye shall not lie to one another.\nX. Ye shall not swear falsely by my name.\n\nJUSTICE TO ALL MEN\n\n[Sidenote: Toward dependents]\nI. Thou shalt not oppress thy neighbor.\nII. Thou shalt not rob thy neighbor.\nIII. The wages of a hired servant shall not remain with thee all night\n  until the morning.\nIV. Thou shalt not curse the deaf.\nV. Thou shalt not put a stumbling-block before the blind.\n\n[Sidenote: Toward equals]\nVI. Thou shalt not do injustice in rendering a judicial decision.\nVII. Thou shalt not show partiality to the poor.\nVIII. Thou shalt not have undue consideration for the powerful.\nIX. Thou shalt not go about as a tale-bearer among thy people.\nX. Thou shalt not seek the blood of thy neighbor [by bearing false\n  testimony in court].\n\nATTITUDE TOWARD OTHERS\n\n[Sidenote: In the heart]\nI. Thou shalt not hate thy fellow-countryman in thy heart.\nII. Thou shalt warn thy neighbor and not incur sin on his account.\nIII. Thou shalt not take vengeance.\nIV. Thou shalt not bear a grudge against the members of thy race.\nV. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as thyself.\n\nIV. The Liberation of Jehoiachin and the Hopes of the Jews. The\nliberation of Jehoiachin, the grandson of Josiah, from the Babylonian\nprison where he had been confined since the first capture of Jerusalem was\nthe one event in the Babylonian period deemed worthy of record by the\nbiblical historians. The occasion was the accession of Nebuchadrezzar's\nson Evil-merodach (Babylonian, Amil-Marduk). The act possessed little\npolitical importance, for the Jews were helpless in the hands of their\nBabylonian masters; but it evidently aroused the hopes of the exiles, and\nespecially that type of hope which centred in the house of David.\n\nEzekiel, in his ideal programme, assigned to the Davidic prince only minor\nduties in connection with the temple, and transferred the chief authority\nto the high priest and his attendants. But it is evident that Ezekiel did\nnot fully voice the hopes of the majority of the exiles. The late passage\nin II Samuel 7:16, which contains the promise to David:\n\nThy house and kingdom shall always stand firm before me,\nThy throne shall be established forever,\n\nexpresses the prevailing belief in the days immediately preceding the\nexile. The national hopes which looked to the descendants of the house of\nDavid for fulfilment were inevitably modified, however, by the experiences\nof the exile and strengthened by the liberation of Jehoiachin. The rule of\nsuch kings as Manasseh and Jehoiakim had revealed the overwhelming evils\nthat unworthy rulers, even though of the house of David, could bring upon\ntheir subjects. Josiah's reign, on the other hand, established new and\nhigher standards. The noble ethical and social ideals of Amos, Hosea, and\nIsaiah had not wholly failed to awaken a response.\n\nAll of these varied influences are traceable in the two prophecies found\nin Isaiah 9:1-7 and 11:1-10. Embodying as they do many of the social\nprinciples for which Isaiah contended, it was natural that these anonymous\nwritings should afterward be attributed to that great statesman-prophet.\nJehovah, however, was the one supreme king whom Isaiah acknowledged; and\nit was difficult to find in his strenuous life a logical or historical\nsetting for these kingly oracles. They also imply that the royal house of\nJudah had been struck down, and that the new king is to rise out of a\nbackground of gloom and is to inaugurate an entirely new era. The\ncharacter and rule of this king of popular hopes reflect many of the\ntraits of David and Josiah; but his aims and methods are in accord with\nthe moral and social standards of the great pre-exilic prophets. They\nportray a temporal ruler; but the spirit which actuates him and the\nprinciples which guide him are noble and unselfish. As subsequent history\nclearly shows, the prophet or prophets who painted these portraits\napparently hoped that a son or grandson of Jehoiachin would realize them.\nIt is exceedingly probable in the light of the later predictions of Haggai\nand Zechariah (Sections XCIV, XCV) that these prophecies were written not\nlong after the birth of Zerubbabel. The kingdom over which he was to rule\nand to which he was to bring perfect justice and peace was the prophetic\ncounterpart of Ezekiel's priestly plan of the restored and redeemed\ncommunity. The ethical ideals thus concretely set forth were never fully\nrealized in Israel's troubled history; but they remain as valid and\ncommanding to-day as they were far back in the Babylonian period. The\nabolition of all the insignia of war, the high sense of official\nresponsibility, the protection of the weak by the strong, and the reign of\nperfect peace and harmony throughout all the earth are the goals for which\nall earnest, consecrated souls in every age and race are striving. It is\nnatural and proper that the Christian Church should see in Jesus the\nfullest and truest realization of these ancient kingly ideals.\n\nV. The Rule of Nabonidus. The successors of Nebuchadrezzar proved weak\nand inefficient. His dissolute son, Amil-Marduk, was soon murdered by his\nbrother-in-law Nergalsharuzur (Gk. Neriglissar). This ruler is probably\nthe Nergal-sharezer of Jeremiah 39:3 who directed the final capture and\ndestruction of Jerusalem in 586 B.C. After reigning four years he died,\nleaving the Babylonian empire to his young son, who soon fell a victim to\na conspiracy of his nobles. They placed on the throne a certain Nabuna'id,\nwho is known to the Greek historians as Nabonidus. He appeared to be more\ninterested in excavating ancient ruins and in rebuilding old temples than\nin ruling his subjects. By his arbitrary religious policy and his neglect\nof the popular gods of the Babylonians, he completely alienated the\nloyalty of his people. During the latter part of his reign, which extended\nfrom 555 to 538 B.C., he left the government largely in charge of his son\nBelsharuzur, the Belshazzar of the story in Daniel.\n\nVI. Rise and Conquests of Cyrus. While the Babylonian empire was sinking\ninto decay, the Median kingdom on the north and east experienced a\nsweeping revolution. Its cause was the discontent of the older Median\npopulation under the rule of the more barbarous Umman-Manda. These later\nScythian conquerors had, under their king Cyaxares, broken the power of\nAssyria and fallen heir to its eastern territory. The older elements found\na leader in Cyrus, the king of Anshan, a little state among the mountains\nof Elam, northeast of Babylonia. From contemporary inscriptions it appears\nthat the followers of Astyages, who succeeded Cyaxares to the Median\nthrone, rebelled against their king and delivered him over into the hands\nof Cyrus. As soon as Cyrus became master of the Median Empire, he proved\nan able commander, a skilful politician, and a wise statesman. Recognizing\nthat he could hold in control the diverse and turbulent elements in his\nheterogeneous kingdom only as he kept them actively occupied, he at once\nentered upon a series of campaigns which in the end left him undisputed\nmaster of southwestern Asia. In 547 B.C., two years after he became king\nof Media, he crossed the Tigris and conquered Mesopotamia, which had been\nheld for a time by the Babylonians, Apparently he did not assume the title\nKing of Persia until 546. Appreciating the great strength of Babylon, he\ndid not at first attempt its capture, but began at once by intrigue to\npave the way for its ultimate overthrow. In 545 he set out on a western\ncampaign against Croesus, the king of Lydia, the ancient rival of Media.\nAfter a quick and energetic campaign, Sardis, the rich Lydian capital,\nwas captured, and Cyrus was free to advance against the opulent Greek\ncolonies that lay along the eastern shores of the Aegean. These in rapid\nsuccession fell into his hands, so that by 538 B.C. he was in a position\nto advance with a large victorious army against the mistress of the lower\nEuphrates.\n\nVII. His Capture of Babylon. The campaigns of Cyrus were naturally\nwatched with keen interest by the Jewish exiles in Babylonia. The songs in\nIsaiah 14, 15, and 21:1-10, and Jeremiah 51:29-31, voice their joyous\nexpectation of Babylon's impending humiliation. In a contemporary\ninscription Cyrus has given a vivid account of the fall of the capital.\nEarly in October of the year 538 B.C. he assembled a large army on the\nnorthern borders of Babylonia. Here a battle was fought in which the\nBabylonians were completely defeated. The town of Sippar quickly\nsurrendered to Cyrus's general, and two days later the Persian army\nentered Babylon. The record states that the gates of the mighty city were\nopened by its inhabitants, and Cyrus and his followers were welcomed as\ndeliverers. King Nabonidus was captured and banished to the distant\nprovince of Carmania, northeast of the Persian Gulf. In the words\nof Cyrus: \"Peace he gave the town; peace he proclaimed to all the\nBabylonians.\" In the eyes of the conquered, he figured as the champion\nof their gods, whose images he restored to the capital city. The temples\nas well as the walls of Babylon were rebuilt, and the king publicly\nproclaimed himself a devoted worshipper of Marduk and Nebo, the chief gods\nof the Babylonians. Thus from the first the policy of Cyrus in treating\nconquered peoples was fundamentally different from that of the Babylonians\nand Assyrians. They had sought to establish their power by crushing the\nconquered rather than by furthering their well-being; but Cyrus, by his\nmany acts of clemency, aimed to secure and hold their loyalty.\n\nVIII. His Treatment of Conquered Peoples. Cyrus showed the same wisdom\nin his treatment of the many petty peoples who had been ground down under\nthe harsh rule of Babylon. In one of his inscriptions he declares: \"The\ngods whose sanctuaries from of old had lain in ruins I brought back again\nto their dwelling-places and caused them to reside there forever. All of\nthe citizens of these lands I assembled and I restored them to their\nhomes\" (Cyrus Cyl., 31, 32). In the light of this statement it is clear\nthat the Jews, in common with other captive peoples, were given full\npermission to return to their homes and to rebuild their ruined temple.\nThe decree of Cyrus recorded in the Aramaic document preserved in Ezra\n6:3-5 is apparently the Jewish version of the general decree which he\nissued. It is also possible that he aided the vassal peoples in rebuilding\ntheir sanctuaries; for such action was in perfect accord with his wise\npolicy. He also intrusted the rulership of different kingdoms as far as\npossible to native princes. In the Greek book of I Esdras has been\npreserved a list (which has fallen out of the biblical book of Ezra) of\nthose who availed themselves of Cyrus's permission to return to Palestine.\nIt includes simply the priest Jeshua, or Joshua, the lineal heir of the\nearly Jerusalem priestly line of Zadok, and Zerubbabel, a descendant of\nthe Judean royal family. They doubtless took with them their immediate\nfollowers and were probably accompanied by a few exiles whose loyalty\nimpelled them to leave the attractive opportunities in Babylon to face the\ndangers of the long journey and the greater perils in Palestine.\n\nFrom Jeremiah 41:5 and Haggai 2:14 it appears that a rude altar had been\nbuilt on the sacred rock at Jerusalem and that religious services were\nheld on the site of the ruined temple soon after its destruction in 586\nB.C. With the gifts brought back by Zerubbabel and his followers, daily\nsacrifices were probably instituted on the restored altar under the\ndirection of the priest Joshua (cf. Hag. 2:10-14). In the light, however,\nof the oldest records it is clear that the revival of the Judean community\nin Palestine was gradual and at first far from glorious. The Jews were a\nbroken-hearted, poverty-stricken, persecuted people, still crushed by the\ngreat calamity that had overtaken their nation. The general return of the\nexiles was only a dream of the future, and, despite the general permission\nof Cyrus, the temple at Jerusalem still lay in ruins.\n\n\n\n\nSection XCIV. THE REBUILDING OF THE TEMPLE\n\n[Sidenote: Hag. 1:1-6]\nIn the second year of Darius the king, in the first day of the sixth\nmonth, this word of Jehovah came by Haggai the prophet: Speak to\nZerubbabel the son of Shealtiel, governor of Judah, and to Joshua the son\nof Jehozadak the high priest, saying, 'Thus saith Jehovah of hosts, \"This\npeople say: The time has not yet come to rebuild the temple of Jehovah.\"'\nThen this word of Jehovah came by Haggai the prophet: Is it a time for\nyou yourselves to dwell in your own ceiled houses, while this temple lies\nin ruins? Now therefore, thus saith Jehovah of hosts, 'Consider your past\nexperiences. Ye sow much, but bring in little; ye eat, but ye do not have\nenough; ye drink, but ye are not filled; ye clothe yourselves, but not so\nas to be warm; and he who earneth wages, earneth wages in a bag with\nholes.'\n\n[Sidenote: Hag. 1:7-11]\nThus saith Jehovah of hosts, 'Consider your experiences. Go up to the\nmountains, and bring wood and rebuild the temple; then I will be pleased\nwith it, and I will reveal my glory,' saith Jehovah. 'Ye looked for much,\nand it came to little; and when ye brought it home, I blew upon it. Why?'\nsaith Jehovah of hosts. 'Because of my temple that lieth in ruins, while\nye are running each to his own house. Therefore the heavens withhold the\ndew, and the earth withholdeth its fruit. And I have called forth a\ndrought upon the land and upon the mountains, and upon the grain and the\nnew wine and the oil and upon that which the ground bringeth forth, and\nupon men and animals, and upon all the labor of the hands.'\n\n[Sidenote: Hag. 1:12-15a]\nThen Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel and Joshua the son of Jehozadak the\nhigh priest, with all the rest of the people, obeyed the command of\nJehovah their God and the words of Haggai the prophet, as Jehovah their\nGod had sent him to them. The people also feared before Jehovah. And\nJehovah stirred up the spirit of Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel,\ngovernor of Judah, and the spirit of Joshua the son of Jehozadak the high\npriest, and the spirit of all the rest of the people, so that they\ncame and worked on the temple of Jehovah of hosts, their God, in the\ntwenty-fourth day of the sixth month.\n\n[Sidenote: Hag. 1:15b-2:5]\nIn the second year of Darius the king, on the twenty-first day of the\nseventh month, this word from Jehovah came by Haggai the prophet: Speak to\nZerubbabel son of Shealtiel, governor of Judah, and to Joshua, the son of\nJehozadak, the high priest, and to all the remnant of the people, saying,\n'Who is left among you that saw this temple in its former glory? and how\ndo you see it now? Is it not in your eyes as nothing? Yet now be strong, O\nZerubbabel,' is the oracle of Jehovah; 'and be strong, O Joshua, son of\nJehozadak, the high priest, and be strong, all ye people of the land,' is\nthe oracle of Jehovah, 'and work, for I am with you,' is the oracle of\nJehovah of hosts, 'and my spirit abideth in your midst; fear not.'\n\n[Sidenote: Hag. 2:6-9]\nFor thus saith Jehovah of hosts: 'Yet a little while, and I will shake the\nheavens, and the earth, and the sea, and the dry land. And I will shake\nall nations, and the precious things of all nations shall come; and I will\nfill this temple with glory,' saith Jehovah of hosts. 'The silver is mine,\nand the gold is mine,' is the oracle of Jehovah of hosts. 'The later glory\nof this temple shall be greater than the former,' saith Jehovah of hosts;\n'and in this place will I grant prosperity,' is the oracle of Jehovah of\nhosts.\n\n[Sidenote: Hag. 2:10-14]\nIn the twenty-fourth day of the ninth month, in the second year of Darius,\nthis word of Jehovah came by Haggai the prophet: Thus saith Jehovah of\nhosts: 'Ask of the priests a decision, saying, \"If one bear holy flesh in\nthe skirt of his garment, and with his skirt touch bread, or pottage, or\nwine, or oil, or any food, shall it become holy?\"' And the priests\nanswered and said, No. Then said Haggai, If one that is unclean by reason\nof a dead body touch any of these, shall it be unclean? And the priests\nanswered and said, It shall be unclean. Then answered Haggai and said, So\nis this people and so is this nation before me, is the oracle of Jehovah;\nand so is every work of their hands; and that which they offer there is\nunclean.\n\n[Sidenote: Hag. 2:15-19]\nAnd now, I pray you, think back from this day, before a stone was laid\nupon a stone in the temple of Jehovah; how were ye? When ye came to a heap\nof twenty measures, there were but ten; when ye came to the wine vat to\ndraw out fifty vessels, there were but twenty. I smote with blasting and\nwith mildew and with hail all the work of your hands; yet ye turned not to\nme, is the oracle of Jehovah. Think back from this day, think! Is the seed\nyet in the granary, yea, the vine and the fig tree and the pomegranate and\nthe olive tree have not brought forth; from this day will I bless you.\n\n[Sidenote: Hag. 2:20-22]\nThis word of Jehovah came the second time to Haggai in the twenty-fourth\nday of the month: Speak to Zerubbabel, governor of Judah, and say: 'I will\nshake the heavens and the earth; and I will overthrow the throne of\nkingdoms; and I will destroy the strength of the kingdoms of the nations;\nand I will overthrow the chariots, and those who ride in them; and the\nhorses and their riders shall come down, each by the sword of his brother.\n\n[Sidenote: Hag. 2:23]\n'In that day,' is the oracle of Jehovah of hosts, 'I will take thee, O\nZerubbabel, my servant, the son of Shealtiel,' is Jehovah's oracle, 'and\nwill make thee as a seal-ring, for I have chosen thee,' is the oracle of\nJehovah of hosts.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezra 5:3-5]\nAt that time Tattenai, the governor of the province beyond the River, and\nShethar-bozenai and their associates came to them, and spoke thus to them,\nWho gave you permission to build this temple and to finish this wall? And\nwho are the builders who are carrying this through? But the eye of their\nGod was upon the elders of the Jews, so that they did not make them cease,\nuntil a report should come to Darius and a written decision concerning it\nbe returned.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezra 6:1-5]\nThen Darius the king made a decree, and search was made in the archives\nwhere the official documents from Babylon had been deposited. And at\nEcbatana, the royal palace in the province of Media, a roll was found, and\nin it was thus written: A record: In the first year of Cyrus the king,\nCyrus the king made a decree: 'Concerning the house of God at Jerusalem,\nlet the house be rebuilt, where they offer sacrifices and bring him\nofferings made by fire; its height shall be sixty cubits, and its breadth\nsixty cubits. It shall be constructed with three layers of huge stones and\none layer of timber; and let the expenses be paid out of the king's\ntreasury. Also let the gold and silver vessels of the house of God, which\nNebuchadnezzar took from the temple at Jerusalem and brought to Babylon,\nbe restored and brought to the temple which is at Jerusalem, each to its\nplace; and you shall put them in the house of God.'\n\n[Sidenote: Ezra 6:6-12]\nNow therefore, Tattenai, governor of the province beyond the River,\nShethar-bozenai, and the rulers of the province beyond the River, go away\nfrom there; let the work of this house of God alone; let the elders of the\nJews rebuild this house of God in its place. Moreover I make a decree in\nregard to what you shall do for these elders of the Jews for the building\nof this house of God: that out of the king's wealth from the tribute of\nthe province beyond the River the expenses be exactly paid to these men,\nand that without delay. And whatever is needed, both young bullocks and\nrams and lambs for burnt-offerings to the God of heaven, also wheat, salt,\nwine, and oil, according to the direction of the priests at Jerusalem, let\nit be given to them day by day without fail, that they may regularly offer\nsacrifices of sweet savor to the God of heaven, and pray for the life of\nthe king and of his sons. Also I have made a decree, that whoever shall\nmake this command invalid, a beam shall be pulled out from his house, and\nhe shall be impaled upon it, and his house shall for this be made a refuse\nheap. And the God who hath caused his name to dwell there shall overthrow\nall kings and peoples who shall put forth their hand to make invalid the\ncommand or to destroy the house of God at Jerusalem. Exactly will it be\nexecuted.\n\n[Sidenote: Ezra 6:13,14]\nThen Tattenai, the governor of the province beyond the River, and\nShethar-bozenai, and their associates did exactly as Darius the king had\ngiven command. And the elders of the Jews built and prospered. And they\nfinished the building according to the command of the God of Israel and\naccording to the decree of Cyrus and Darius.\n\nI. The Books of Ezra and Nehemiah. The books of Ezra and Nehemiah are\nthe chief sources of information regarding Jewish history during the\nPersian period. They fall into nine general divisions: (1) the return of\nthe Babylonian exiles and the revival of the Judean community, Ezra 1-4;\n\n(2) the rebuilding of the temple, 5-6; (3) Ezra's expedition and the\npriestly reformation, 8-10, and Nehemiah 8-10; (4) Nehemiah's work in\nrebuilding the walls, Nehemiah 1:1-7:5; (5) census of the Judean\ncommunity, 7:6-69; (6) measures to secure the repopulation of Jerusalem,\n11; (7) genealogy of the priests and Levites, 12:1-26; (8) dedication\nof the walls, 12:27-43; and (9) Nehemiah's later reform measures,\n12:44-13:31. It is evident that Ezra and Nehemiah were originally one\nbook, and that they come from the same author as I and II Chronicles.\nThis important fact is demonstrated by the presence of the same marked\ncharacteristics of thought and literary style in both of these books. The\nclosing verses of II Chronicles are also repeated verbatim at the\nbeginning of Ezra.\n\nThroughout these books the interest is religious and ceremonial rather\nthan civil and national. They constitute in reality a history of the\nJerusalem temple and its institutions. The whole may properly be\ndesignated as the \"Ecclesiastical History of Jerusalem.\" It traces the\nhistory of Jerusalem and the southern kingdom from the earliest times to\nthe close of the Persian period. Its author, who is commonly known as the\nChronicler, evidently lived during the earlier part or middle of the Greek\nperiod. Certain characteristics of his literary style and point of view\nindicate that he wrote about 250 B.C. His peculiarities and methods of\nwriting are clearly revealed by a comparison of the older parallel history\nof Samuel-Kings with the books of Chronicles. In general he lacks the\nhistorical spirit and perspective of the earlier prophetic historians. He\nalso freely recasts his record of earlier events in order to bring it into\naccord with the traditions current in his own day. Above all he aimed to\nestablish the authority and prestige of the Jerusalem temple, and to prove\nthat Jehovah \"was not with Israel\" (II Chron. 25:7), which was represented\nin his day by the hated Samaritans. The hatred engendered by the Samaritan\nfeud explains many of the peculiarities of the Chronicler. He was, in\nfact, an apologist rather than a historian. Thus post-exilic institutions,\nas, for example, the temple song service with its guilds of singers, are\nprojected backward even to the days of David, and the events of early\nHebrew history are constantly glorified. The numbers found in the\nearlier, prophetic sources are magnified, and at every point it is easy to\nrecognize the influence of the Chronicler's familiarity with the splendor\nand magnificence of the great Persian and Greek empires, and of his\ndesire to inspire his fellow-Jews with national pride and with loyalty to\ntheir religious institutions.\n\nII. The Chronicler's Conception of the Restoration. Fortunately the\nChronicler did not depend entirely upon traditions current in his day, or\nupon his own conceptions of the early history, but quoted freely from\nearlier sources. As a result a large portion of the prophetic history of\nSamuel and Kings is reproduced verbatim in I and II Chronicles. For the\nPersian period, regarding which he is our chief authority, he apparently\nquoted from three or four documents. In Ezra 4:7-23 is found a brief\ndescription in Aramaic of the opposition of Judah's neighbors to the\nrebuilding of the walls, probably in the days of Nehemiah. In Ezra 5 and 6\nthere is another long quotation from an Aramaic document that describes a\nsimilar attempt to put a stop to the rebuilding of the temple in the days\nof Haggai and Zechariah. The Chronicler evidently believed that the second\ntemple was rebuilt, not by the people of the land to whom Haggai and\nZechariah spoke, but by Jewish exiles who on the accession of Cyrus had\nreturned in great numbers from Babylon. He assumed that Judah had been\ndepopulated during the Babylonian exile, and that the only people left in\nPalestine were the heathen and the hated Samaritans. He also pictures the\nreturn of the exiles, not as that of a handful of courageous patriots, but\nof a vast company laden with rich gifts and guarded by Persian soldiers.\n\nA careful examination of Ezra 2, which purports to contain the list of\nThe 42,360 exiles who returned immediately after 538 B.C., quickly\ndemonstrates that, like its duplicate in Nehemiah 7:6-69, its historical\nbasis, if it has any outside the fertile imagination of the Chronicler, is\na census of the Judean community. This census was taken, not at the\nbeginning, but rather at the end of the Persian period. Thus in the list\nof the leaders appear the names not only of Joshua and Zerubbabel, but\nalso of Nehemiah and Ezra (Azariah). Certain leaders, such as Mordecai\nand Bigvai, bear Persian names which clearly imply that they lived far\ndown in the Persian period. The family of the high priest Joshua already\nnumbers nine hundred and ninety-three. In this census are also included\nthe inhabitants of many towns outside Jerusalem, as, for example, Jericho,\nGibeon, and Bethlehem. Moreover, certain towns are mentioned, such as Lud\nand Ono, which were not added to the Judean community until the latter\npart of the Persian period. In view of these facts and the unmistakable\nimplications in the sermons of Haggai and Zechariah that in their day\nthere had been no general return of their kinsmen from Babylon, the\nprevailing popular interpretation of this period of Israel's history is\nclearly untenable and misleading. If there was a general return of exiles\nfrom Babylon, it certainly did not come until after the walls had been\nrebuilt under the inspiring leadership of Nehemiah. The Jews to whom\nHaggai and Zechariah preached, and who rebuilt the second temple, were the\npeople of the land who had survived the destruction of Jerusalem, or else\nhad returned from their temporary refuge on the borders of the land of\nEgypt.\n\nIII. Convulsions in the Persian Empire. After a brilliant and successful\nreign Cyrus died in 529 B.C., leaving his vast empire to his son Cambyses.\nThe new king lacked the wisdom and statesmanship of his father, but\ninherited his love of conquest. Most of his short reign was devoted to the\nconquest of Egypt. From their hill-tops the Jews doubtless witnessed the\nmarch of the great armies of Persia, and were forced to contribute to\ntheir support. It was a period of change and transition, when old empires\nwent down in ruin and new forces gained the ascendancy.\n\nOn his return from Egypt, Cambyses, finding a pretender contending for\nthe throne, committed suicide, thus leaving the empire without any\nlegitimate head. During this crisis, in the autumn of 521 B.C., a Persian\nnoble, Darius, was raised to the kingship by conspirators, who had slain\nthe pretender. Darius claimed relationship with the Persian royal family,\nand strengthened his position by marrying Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus.\nThe beginning of his reign was signalized by a series of revolts\nthroughout the whole extent of the empire. In Susiana a certain Athrina\nproclaimed himself king. In Babylonia a native prince rallied his\ncountrymen and assumed the title of Nebuchadrezzar III. The Median revolt\nwas led by a certain Pharaortes; while among the Persians themselves a\npretender, who claimed to be a son of Cyrus, gained a wide following.\nFortunately for Darius there was no concerted action among the leaders of\nthese different rebellions, so that he was able to subdue them in\nsuccession; but to the ordinary on-looker the task seemed well-nigh\nimpossible. Not until the spring of 519 did Darius become fully master of\nthe situation.\n\nIV. Haggai's Effective Addresses. It was in the autumn of 520 B.C.,\nwhen the rebellions in the Persian Empire were at their height, that\nHaggai made his stirring appeal to the members of the Judean community.\nFrom the references in his addresses and in those of his contemporary,\nZechariah, it is evident that he and his hearers were profoundly\ninfluenced by these great world movements. The situation seemed to give\npromise not only of deliverance from Persian rule, but an opportunity at\nlast to realize the national hopes of the Jewish race. Haggai's message\nwas simple, direct, and practical. According to the beliefs universally\naccepted in his day his logic was unanswerable. On the one hand Jehovah,\nthrough poor crops and hard times, had plainly showed his displeasure\nwith his people in Judah. The reason was obvious; although they had built\ncomfortable houses for themselves, Jehovah's temple still lay in ruins. If\nthey would win his favor, it was plainly their duty to arise and rebuild\nhis sanctuary. The upheavals in the Persian Empire also gave promise that,\nif they were true to their divine King, he would at last fulfil the\npredictions voiced by their earlier prophets.\n\nThe words of Haggai, uttered in September of 520, met with an immediate\nresponse. Work was begun on the temple in October of the same year. When\nthe energy and enthusiasm of the builders began to wane, the prophet\nappeared before them again in November of 520 with the declaration that\nJehovah was about to overthrow the great world powers and to destroy the\nchariots, horses, and riders of their Persian masters, \"each by the sword\nof his brother.\" He also voiced the popular expectations that centred in\nZerubbabel, who had already been appointed governor of Judah. The prophet\ndeclared boldly that this scion of the house of David would be Jehovah's\nseal-ring, the earthly representative of that divine power which was about\nto work great revolutions in the history of the world. During the same\nperiod Zechariah also uttered his messages of encouragement and spurred\nthe people on to continued efforts (Section XCV).\n\nV. The Attempt to Stop the Rebuilding of the Temple. The Aramaic\ndocument preserved in Ezra 5 and 6 describes in detail an attempt of the\nPersian governor, who ruled over the province west of the Euphrates, to\nput a stop to the temple building. The narrative, the letter, and decrees\nwhich it contains reveal at many points their Jewish origin. While the\ntradition may be comparatively late, its circumstantial character favors\nthe conclusion that it preserves the memory of a definite historical\nevent. The action of the Jews in rebuilding their temple was in perfect\naccord with the policy of Cyrus and also of Darius, as is shown by\ncontemporary inscriptions. The attempt, therefore, to stop the building of\nthe temple failed; and in 516 B.C., four years after the work was begun,\nit was completed.\n\nVI. The Significance of the Restoration of the Temple. The rebuilding of\nthe Jerusalem temple appears to have been of immediate significance\nchiefly to the Jews of Palestine. The Jews of Egypt, or at least those of\nElephantine, had their own temple. From Zechariah 6:9-11 it is evident\nthat the Jewish exiles in Babylon sent certain gifts to the Jerusalem\ntemple; but the hundreds of miles of desert that intervened made\ncommunication exceedingly difficult, so that except at rare intervals\nthere was apparently little interchange between Babylonia and Palestine.\nFor all Jews, however, the rebuilding of the temple meant that at last\nthey had a common rallying-place, and that Jehovah was again being\nworshipped by his own people at his traditional place of abode. In a sense\nit bridged the seventy years that had intervened since the destruction of\nthe pre-exilic Hebrew state, and made it possible to revive the ancient\nreligious customs. In time it attracted from the lands of the dispersion\npatriotic Jews whose interest was fixed upon the ceremonial side of their\nreligious life. It also furnished a centre about which gradually grew up a\nhierarchy with an increasingly elaborate ritual, and a body of laws which\nultimately became the characteristic features of Judaism.\n\n\n\nSection XCV. ZECHARIAH'S VISIONS AND ENCOURAGING ADDRESSES\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 1:7-11]\nIn the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month [February], in the second\nyear of Darius [519 B.C.], this word of Jehovah came to the prophet\nZechariah, the son of Berechiah, the son of Iddo: I saw in the night and\nthere was a man standing among the myrtle trees that were in the\nvalley-bottom, and behind him there were horses, red, sorrel, and white.\nThen said I, O my Lord, what are these? And the angel who talked with me\nsaid to me, I will show you what these are. And the man who was standing\namong the myrtle trees answered and said, These are they whom Jehovah\nhath sent to go to and fro through the earth. And they answered the angel\nof Jehovah who was standing among the myrtle trees and said, We have gone\nup and down through the earth and behold, all the earth is still and at\npeace.\n\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 1:12-17]\nThen the angel of Jehovah answered and said, O Jehovah of hosts, how long\nhast thou no pity on Jerusalem and the cities of Judah with which thou\nhast been wroth these seventy years? And Jehovah answered the angel who\nwas talking with me with good words, even comforting words. So the angel\nwho was talking with me said to me, Proclaim now, 'Thus saith Jehovah of\nhosts: \"I am jealous for Jerusalem and for Zion with a great jealousy. But\nwith great wrath am I wroth with the arrogant nations; for I was only\na little angry [with Israel], but they helped to make greater the\ncalamity.\" Therefore, thus saith Jehovah: \"I am turning to show mercy to\nJerusalem; my temple shall be built in it,\" saith Jehovah of hosts, \"and\na measuring line shall be stretched over Jerusalem. Proclaim again, Thus\nsaith Jehovah of hosts: My cities shall yet overflow with prosperity; and\nJehovah shall yet comfort Zion and choose Jerusalem.\"'\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 1:18, 19]\nNow I lifted up mine eyes and looked, and there were four horns. And I\nsaid to the angel who was talking with me, 'What are these?' And he\nassured me, 'These are the horns with which he scattered Judah.'\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 1:20, 21]\nThen Jehovah showed me four smiths. And I said, What are these coming to\ndo? And he said, These are the horns which scattered Judah, so that none\nlifted up his head; but these are come to terrify them, to strike down the\nhorns of the nations, which lifted up their horn against the land of Judah\nto scatter it.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 2:2-5]\nThen I lifted up mine eyes, and looked, and there was a man with a\nmeasuring line in his hand. Then I said, Where are you going? And he said\nto me, To measure Jerusalem, to see what is its breadth and length.\nThereupon the angel who talked with me stood still, and another angel went\nout to meet him, and said to him, Run, speak to this young man, saying,\n'Jerusalem shall be inhabited as villages without walls, because of the\nmultitude of men and cattle in her midst. For I,' saith Jehovah, 'will be\na wall of fire round about her, and I will be the glory in the midst of\nher.'\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 2:6-9]\nHo, ho, flee from the land of the north, is Jehovah's oracle.\nFor I have spread you abroad as the four winds of the heavens, is\n  Jehovah's oracle.\nHo, escape to Zion, ye who dwell in Babylon.\nFor thus saith Jehovah of hosts to the nations which plundered you:\nHe that toucheth you toucheth the apple of mine eye.\nFor, behold, I am about to shake my hand over them,\nAnd they shall be a spoil to those who served them;\nAnd ye shall know that Jehovah of hosts hath sent me.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 2:10-13]\nSing and rejoice, O daughter of Zion, for, lo, I come,\nAnd I will dwell in the midst of thee, is Jehovah's oracle.\nAnd many nations shall join themselves to Jehovah in that among day,\nAnd shall be his people, and he will dwell in the midst of thee,\nAnd thou shalt know that Jehovah of hosts hath sent me to thee.\nAnd Jehovah shall inherit Judah as his portion in the holy land,\nAnd he shall yet comfort Zion and choose Jerusalem.\nBe silent, all flesh, before Jehovah;\nFor he hath waked up out of his holy habitation.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 3:1-3]\nThen he showed me Joshua, the high priest, standing before the angel of\nJehovah and the adversary standing at his right hand to accuse him. And\nthe angel of Jehovah said to the adversary, Jehovah rebuke thee, O\nadversary; yea, Jehovah, who hath chosen Jerusalem, rebuke thee. Is not\nthis a brand plucked out of the fire? Now Joshua was clothed with filthy\ngarments and was standing before the angel.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 3:4-5]\nAnd [the angel] answered and spoke to those who stood before him, saying,\nTake the filthy garments from off him, clothe him with robes of state; set\na clean turban upon his head. So they set a clean turban upon his head,\nand clothed him with garments; and the angel of Jehovah was standing by.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 3:6-10]\nAnd the angel of Jehovah testified to Joshua, saying, Thus saith Jehovah\nof hosts: 'If thou wilt walk in my ways, and if thou wilt keep my charge,\nthen thou also shalt rule my house and shalt also keep my courts and I\nwill give thee a place of access among these who stand by. Hear now, O\nJoshua the high priest, thou and thy associates who sit before me; for\nthey are men who are a sign; for behold, I am about to bring forth my\nservant the Branch. For, behold, the stone that I have set before Joshua;\nupon one stone are seven facets: behold, I will engrave it,' saith Jehovah\nof hosts, 'and I will remove the iniquity of that land in one day. In that\nday,' saith Jehovah of hosts, 'ye shall each invite his neighbor under the\nvine and under the fig tree.'\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 4:1-6]\nThen the angel who talked with me came again and waked me, as a man who\nis wakened out of his sleep. And he said to me, What seest thou? And I\nsaid, I see midst there a candlestick, all of gold, with a bowl upon the\ntop of it, and its seven lamps upon it; there are seven pipes to each of\nthe lamps, which are upon the top of it, and two olive trees by it, one on\nthe right side of the bowl, and the other on its left side. And I spoke\nand said to the angel who talked with me, What are these, my lord? Then\nthe angel who talked with me answered and said to me, Knowest thou not\nwhat these are? And I said, No, my lord. Then he answered and spoke to me,\nsaying, The eyes of Jehovah, which rove to and fro through the whole\nearth.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 4:11-14]\nThen I answered, and said to him, What are these two olive trees upon the\nright side of the candlestick and upon its left side? And he answered me\nand said, Knowest thou not what these are? And I said, No, my lord. Then\nsaid he, These are the two anointed ones, who stand by the Lord of the\nwhole earth.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 4:6b-10]\nThis is the word of Jehovah regarding Zerubbabel, Not by might, nor by\npower, but by my spirit, saith Jehovah of will I make the great mountain\nbefore Zerubbabel a plain; and he shall bring forth the top stones with\nshoutings of, 'Grace, grace, to it.' Moreover this word of Jehovah came to\nme: The hands of Zerubbabel have laid the foundations of this temple; his\nhands shall also finish it; and ye shall know that Jehovah of hosts hath\nsent me to you. For who hath despised the day of small things? For they\nshall rejoice, and shall see the plummet in the hand of Zerubbabel.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 6:9-11].\nNow this word of Jehovah came to me: Take of them of the captivity, even\nof Heldai, of Tobijah, of Jedaiah and of Josiah the son of Zephaniah who\nhave come from Babylon, yea, take of them silver and gold in order to make\na crown and set it on the head of Zerubbabel the son of Shealtiel.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 6:12-15]\nThou shalt also say to them: 'Thus saith Jehovah of hosts: \"Behold, the\nman whose name is the Branch; and he shall grow up out of his place; and\nhe shall build the temple of Jehovah; and he shall bear the glory and\nshall sit and rule upon his throne; and Joshua the son of Jehozadak shall\nbe a priest upon his right, and the counsel of peace shall be between them\nboth. And the crown shall be to Heldai and Tobijah and Jedaiah, and Josiah\nthe son of Zephaniah, as a memorial in the temple of Jehovah. And they who\nare far off shall come and build in the temple of Jehovah; and ye shall\nknow that Jehovah of hosts hath sent me to you. And this shall come to\npass, if ye will diligently obey the voice of Jehovah your God.\"'\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 7:1-6]\nIn the fourth year of King Darius, on the fourth day of the ninth month,\nthe city of Bethel sent Sharezer and Regemmelech and their men, to entreat\nthe favor of Jehovah, and to speak to the priests of the house of Jehovah\nof hosts, and to the prophets, saying, should I weep in the fifth month\n[in memory of the destruction of the temple] separating myself, as I have\ndone these many years? Then this word of Jehovah of hosts came to me:\nSpeak to all the people of the land, and to the priests, saying, 'When ye\nfasted and mourned in the fifth and in the seventh month [when Gedaliah\nwas murdered], even these seventy years, did ye at all fast to me, even to\nme? And when ye eat and when ye drink, do ye not eat for yourselves, and\ndrink for yourselves?\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 7:7-14]\nShould ye not hear these words which Jehovah cried by the former prophets,\nwhen Jerusalem was inhabited and in prosperity, and her cities round about\nher, and the South Country, and the lowland were inhabited? Execute true\njudgment, and show kindness and pity each to his brother; and oppress not\nthe widow nor the fatherless, the resident alien nor the poor; and let\nnone of you devise evil against your brother in his heart. But they\nrefused to heed, and turned a stubborn shoulder, and stopped their ears,\nthat they might not hear. Yea, they made their hearts as an adamant lest\nthey should hear the teaching, and the words which Jehovah of hosts had\nsent by his spirit through the former prophets. Therefore there came great\nwrath from Jehovah of hosts. And even when I cried they would not hear, so\nwhen they cried I did not hear, saith Jehovah of hosts. And I scattered\nthem by a whirlwind among the nations which they did not know. Thus the\nland was left desolate behind them, so that no man passed to or fro; for\nthey made the pleasant land a desolation.\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 8:1-5]\nNow this word of Jehovah of hosts came to me:\nThus saith Jehovah of hosts,\n'I cherish for Zion a great jealousy,\nAnd I am jealous for her with great indignation.'\nThus saith Jehovah, 'I have returned to Zion,\nAnd will dwell in the midst of Jerusalem;\nAnd Jerusalem shall be called, \"The City of Truth;\"\nAnd the mountain of Jehovah of hosts, \"The Holy Mountain.\"\nThus saith Jehovah of hosts:\n'Old men and old women shall again sit in the broad places of Jerusalem,\nEach man with his staff in his hand because of old age.\nAnd the streets of the city shall be full of boys,\nAnd of girls playing in its broad places.'\n\n[Sidenote: Zech. 8:6-8]\nThus saith Jehovah of hosts:\nBecause it seemeth impossible to the remnant of this people,\nIs it impossible for me? saith Jehovah of hosts.\nThus saith Jehovah of hosts:\nI am about to rescue my people,\nFrom the land of the east and the land of the west,\nAnd I will bring them and they shall dwell in the midst of Jerusalem.\nAnd they shall be my people in truth and righteousness,\nAnd in turn I will be their God.\n\nI. Zechariah's Ancestry and Point of View. Haggai's contemporary, the\nprophet Zechariah, was evidently a priest. In the genealogy of Nehemiah\n12:4, it is stated that he belonged to the priestly family of Iddo. This\nconclusion is confirmed by the character of his prophecies. Like the\npriest-prophet Ezekiel he is exceedingly fond of apocalyptic symbolism. He\nis also deeply interested in the priesthood and in its ceremonial purity.\nFurthermore, it is exceedingly probable that he was a descendant of one of\nthe many priests carried as exiles to Babylon. This is shown by his keen\ninterest in and exact knowledge of the great political movements that were\nthen shaking the Persian Empire. His conception of Jehovah is also\nstrongly influenced by the analogies drawn from the Persian court. In his\nthought Israel's God is a transcendental ruler, who communicates with his\nsubjects not directly, but through angelic messengers, and who, like the\nPersian kings, is dependent for information regarding his great kingdom\nupon the reports of the different members of his heavenly court. Thus\nZechariah marks a wide departure from the simple theology of the\npre-exilic prophets who thought of Jehovah as dwelling in the midst of his\npeople and communicating directly with all who turned to him in faith.\n\nII. The Book of Zechariah. The book which records the prophet's sermons\ncontains four distinct divisions: (1) An exhortation addressed to the\npeople in December, 520, three months after Haggai first appealed to them\nto rise and rebuild the temple, Zechariah 1:1-8; (2) symbolic visions\ndealing with the problems in the Judean community, 1:7-6:8; (3) practical\ncounsel, exhortations, and promises, 6:9-8:23; (4) a later appendix coming\nfrom a prophet who probably lived during the earlier part of the Maccabean\nperiod, 9-14. All of Zechariah's recorded sermons probably date from the\nthree or four years between 520 and 516 B.C., during which the temple was\nbeing rebuilt. They throw a remarkably clear light upon an exceedingly\ncritical and significant period in the life of the Jews of Palestine. They\nare also in many ways the best Old Testament source for the study of the\nunfolding of Israel's messianic hopes.\n\nIII. Problems and Hopes of the Judean Community. Four or five practical\nproblems confronted and disturbed the temple-builders. The first was:\nWould Jerusalem and the temple, still without walls, be protected from the\nattack of the hostile foes that encircled them. A second and larger\nquestion was: What was to be the outcome of the great tempest through\nwhich the Persian Empire was passing, and did it mean for the Jews\ndeliverance from the powerful conquerors who for centuries had oppressed\nand crushed them? The third was: Would the necessarily modest service of\nthe restored temple, already sadly polluted by heathen hands, be\nacceptable to Jehovah? Another problem was: What were the relations and\nthe respective duties of Zerubbabel and Joshua, the civil and religious\nauthorities in the community? It was also inevitable that at this time the\nhope of securing their independence under the leadership of Zerubbabel\nshould come prominently to the front. To each of these problems Zechariah\naddressed himself, and his book records his convictions and public\nutterances.\n\nIV. Zechariah's Assurances of Jehovah's Care. In his initial vision\nconcerning the angelic horsemen he recognizes that the storms that have\nswept over the Persian Empire are beginning to subside, but he tells his\nfellow-laborers that, if they persist, Jehovah's temple shall be rebuilt\nand that the lands about Jerusalem shall again be sold to eager buyers,\nand the cities of Judah shall enjoy their former prosperity, for \"Jehovah\nwill surely comfort Zion.\" In the vision of the four horns and of the four\nsmiths whose mission it is to smite the horns, he assures the people that\nJehovah in his good time and way will overthrow the nations that now wrong\nand oppress them. Although there is no promise that Jerusalem will be\nsurrounded by walls, he declares that it shall enjoy a prosperity and a\ngrowth which no walls can confine, and that Jehovah himself will be its\nprotection, as well as its glory, that he will gather the scattered\nexiles, and that they, together with the nations which shall acknowledge\nJehovah's rule, shall yet come streaming back to Judah.\n\nIn his next vision the prophet graphically presents a scene in Jehovah's\ncourt. Joshua the priest, representing the ceremonial service of the\npolluted temple, is charged by the adversary with uncleanness. Here for\nthe first time in Hebrew literature we catch a glimpse of Satan, who is\nregarded not as hostile to God but as the prosecuting attorney of heaven.\nAs in the prologue of the book of Job, he is an accredited member of the\ndivine hierarchy. His task is to search out and report to Jehovah the\nmisdeeds of men. In Zechariah's vision, however, the divine judge acquits\nJoshua of the charge, and causes him to be clad with clean garments, thus\nproclaiming the divine approval of the modest yet devoted service of the\nJudean community.\n\nV. Preparations for the Crowning of Zerubbabel. Regarding Zerubbabel,\nZechariah declares, in language highly figurative, that he shall yet be\ncrowned and rule over a happy and prosperous people. He is spoken of as\nJehovah's servant, the Branch. The term is probably original with\nZechariah, although again used in the supplementary passages in Jeremiah\n23:5 and 33:15. The word is akin to the term \"shoot of the house of Jesse\"\nused in Isaiah 11, to describe a certain scion of the house of David, who\nin all probability was the young Zerubbabel. Zechariah's figure describes\nthe prince as an offshoot of the same royal tree. The obscure passage\nseems to mean that upon the stone, with its seven facets, which was to be\nset in the crown prepared for the head of Zerubbabel, Jehovah himself\nwould engrave a fitting title.\n\nIn Zechariah's fifth vision he defined the relations between the civil\nand priestly authorities. The golden candlestick represented the temple\nand its service. The two olive trees beside it stood for Zerubbabel, the\ncivil ruler, and for Joshua, the high priest. The duty of each was to\ncontribute his part toward the support of the temple service. They were\nboth Jehovah's Messiahs, that is, men anointed as a symbol of the task\nwhich each was to perform.\n\nIn this connection Zechariah declared that Jehovah would remove all\nobstacles from before Zerubbabel, and that he who had begun the work\nshould live to see its completion. In an address recorded in the latter\npart of the sixth chapter of his prophecy (intentionally revised by a\nlater scribe), Zechariah threw aside all symbolism and gave directions\nto make a crown for the head of Zerubbabel from the silver and gold\nthat had been brought as a gift by a deputation from the Jews of Babylon.\nHe also plainly predicted that this descendant of David should sit on the\nthrone of Judah and that Joshua the priest should be his minister like the\npriests in the pre-exilic kingdom.\n\nVI. Disappointment of These Patriotic Hopes. With Zechariah's prediction\nthat Zerubbabel should reign on the throne of Judah the descendants of the\nhouse of David suddenly and forever disappear from Old Testament history.\nWhether the Jews made the attempt to shake off the yoke of Persia\nOr whether Zerubbabel was quietly set aside cannot be determined.\nContemporary history states that within at least six months after\nZechariah voiced the patriotic hopes of his people the authority of Darius\nwas fully established throughout the empire. He at once began thoroughly\nto organize the vast realm. Post roads bound together the distant\nprovinces, and satraps, appointed largely from the ranks of the royal\nfamily, unified the whole empire and held it under firm control. As a rule\nPersian governors were substituted for the native princes. With the\ninstitution of this policy Zerubbabel may well have been quietly set\naside. The event evidently made a profound impression upon the messianic\nexpectations of the Jews. Henceforth, for three or four centuries, the\ntemporal, kingly type of messianic hope, which had been inspired by the\nglories of the reign of David, entirely disappeared. It was not revived\nuntil the military victories of the Maccabean era had again brought\nprominently to the front this phase of national glory (cf. Section CXVI).\nAs a result of these disappointments Israel's hopes were universalized and\nspiritualized. Jehovah, instead of a scion of the house of David, was\nhenceforth regarded as the one supreme King of Israel.\n\nVII. Zechariah's Later Exhortations and Predictions. In chapters 7 and\n8, which conclude the original sermons of Zechariah, the apocalyptic\nlanguage with which he clothed his earlier predictions regarding the\nfuture of the Judean community disappeared, and he spoke as did Amos and\nHaggai, plainly and directly regarding the questions which were then\nstirring the people. When a deputation came from the north to inquire\nwhether or not, now that the temple was being rebuilt, they should\ncontinue to observe their fasts in memory of the destruction of Jerusalem\nand the death of Gedaliah, the prophet raised the searching question of\nwhether their motive in these services was to please Jehovah or to please\nthemselves. He then went on to declare that the only effective way to\nserve Jehovah was by deeds of justice and kindness, especially to the\ndependent classes in the community, and that the horrors of the exile had\ncome because their fathers had failed to worship Jehovah by righteous\ndeeds.\n\nThe prophet concludes with a brilliant picture of the coming restoration\nof Jerusalem and of the peace and prosperity which should be the lot of\nall, because Jehovah was about to gather his scattered people from the\neast and the west and to establish them in the midst of his sacred city.\nOther nations should eagerly come to Jerusalem to seek the favor of\nJehovah and to ally themselves with his faithful followers, the Jews. In a\nprophecy, preserved in Micah 4:1-4 and Isaiah 2:1-4 (which probably comes\nfrom this period) the same thought is nobly expressed:\n\nIt shall come to pass in the latter days,\nThat the mountain of Jehovah shall be established,\nEven the house of our God on the top of the mountain,\nAnd it shall be lifted above the hills.\nAll the nations shall flow to it,\nAnd many peoples shall go and say,\nCome, let us go up to Jehovah's mount,\nTo the house of the God of Jacob,\nThat he may instruct us in his ways,\nAnd that we may walk in his paths.\nFor from Zion proceeds instruction,\nAnd Jehovah's word from Jerusalem.\n\n\n\nSection XCVI. ISRAEL'S TRAINING AND DESTINY\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:1, 2]\nComfort ye, comfort ye my people, saith your God,\nSpeak tenderly to Jerusalem, and declare to her,\nThat her hard service is accomplished, her guilt is expiated\nThat she hath received from Jehovah's hand double for all her sins.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:3, 4]\nA voice is proclaiming: In the wilderness prepare the way of Jehovah,\nMake straight in the desert a highway for our God!\nLet every mountain and hill sink down, and every valley be lifted up,\nAnd the crooked be made straight and the rough ridges a plain.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:6-8]\nA voice is saying, Proclaim! and I said, What shall I proclaim?\nAll flesh is grass and all its beauty like a flower of the field.\nGrass withers, flower fades, when Jehovah's breath blows eternal upon it,\nGrass withers, flower fades, but the word of our God endureth forever.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:9]\nTo a high mountain, get thee up, Zion's herald of good news;\nLift up mightily thy voice, Jerusalem's herald of good news.\nLift up fearlessly, say to the cities of Judah: Behold your God!\n\n[Sidenote: Isa 40:10, 11]\nBehold, Jehovah cometh in might, and his arm is maintaining his rule;\nBehold, his reward is with him and his recompense is before him,\nAs a shepherd he will tend his flock, with his arm he will gather it,\nThe lambs in his bosom he will bear, the ewe-mothers he will lead.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:12]\nWho hath measured in the hollow of his hand the waters,\nAnd ruled off the heavens with a span,\nOr enclosed the dust of the earth in a measure,\nAnd weighed the mountains in scales,\nAnd the hills in a balance?\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:13, 14]\nWho hath determined the spirit of Jehovah,\nAnd as his counsellor advised him?\nWith whom hath he consulted for enlightenment,\nAnd to be instructed in the right,\nAnd to be shown the way of discernment?\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:16, 17]\nLo the nations! as a drop from a bucket,\nAnd as dust on a balance are they reckoned.\nLo the isles! as a mote he uplifteth,\nAnd Lebanon is not enough for fuel,\nAnd its wild beasts for a burnt-offering.\nAll the nations are as nothing before him,\nThey are reckoned by him as void and nothingness.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:18-20]\nTo whom then will ye liken God,\nAnd what likeness place beside him?\nAn image! a craftsman cast it,\nAnd a smelter o'erlays it with gold.\nHe who is too poor to do this\nChooses a tree that is not decayed,\nSeeks for himself a skilled craftsman,\nTo set up an image that shall not totter.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:21, 22]\nDo ye not know? Do ye not hear?\nHath it not been told you from the beginning?\nHave ye not been aware from the founding of the earth?\nIt is he who is enthroned above the vault of the earth,\nAnd its inhabitants are as locusts;\nWho stretcheth out the heavens as a thin veil,\nAnd spreadeth them out like a habitable tent.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:23, 24]\nIt is he who bringeth princes to naught,\nThe rulers of the earth he maketh as waste.\nScarcely have they been planted, scarcely have they been sown,\nScarcely hath the stock taken root in the earth,\nBut he bloweth upon them and they wither,\nAnd a whirlwind carries them away like stubble.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:25, 26]\nTo whom then will ye liken me\nThat I should equal him? saith the Holy One.\nLift up your eyes on high and see:\nWho hath created these?\nHe who bringeth forth their host by number,\nAnd calleth each by his name;\nOf the many mighty and strong,\nNot one is missing.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 40:27-31]\nWhy sayest thou, O Jacob, and speakest, O Israel:\nMy way is hid from Jehovah\nAnd my right is unnoticed by my God?\nHast thou not known? Hast thou not heard?\nAn everlasting God is Jehovah.\nThe creator of the ends of the earth.\nHe fainteth not, neither is weary,\nHis wisdom cannot be fathomed,\nHe giveth vigor to the fainting,\nAnd upon the powerless he lavisheth strength.\nYoung men may faint and grow weary,\nAnd the strongest youths may stumble,\nBut they who trust in Jehovah renew their vigor,\nThey mount on pinions like eagles,\nThey run but are never weary,\nThey walk but never faint.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 41:1-4]\nListen to me in silence, ye coastlands,\nLet the peoples come near; then let them speak;\nTogether let us approach the tribunal.\nWho raised up that one from the east\nWhose steps victory ever attended,\nGiving up peoples before him,\nAnd letting him trample down kings?\nHis sword made them as dust,\nAnd his bow like driven stubble;\nHe pursued them, passing on in safety,\nNot treading the path with his feet.\nWho hath wrought and accomplished this?\nHe who called the generations from the beginning,\nI, Jehovah, who am the first,\nAnd with those who come after I am the same.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 41:8-10]\nAnd thou, Israel, my servant\nJacob, whom I have chosen,\nOffspring of Abraham, my friend,\nThou, whom I brought from the ends of the earth,\nAnd called from its most distant parts;\nTo whom I said, Thou art my servant,\nI have chosen and have not rejected thee.\nFear not, for I, indeed, am with thee,\nBe not terrified, for I am thy God.\nI will strengthen thee; yea, I will help thee;\nYea, I will uphold thee with my righteous hand.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 42:1]\nBehold, my servant whom I uphold,\nMy chosen, in whom I take delight;\nI have put my spirit upon him,\nThat he may set forth law to the nations.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 42:2-3b]\nHe will not cry aloud nor roar,\nNor let his voice be heard in the street.\nA crushed reed he will not break,\nAnd a dimly burning wick he will not quench.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 42:3c-4]\nFaithfully will he set forth law;\nHe will not lose vigor nor be crushed,\nUntil he establish law in the earth,\nAnd for his teaching the coastlands are waiting.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 42:5-7]\nThus saith the one God, Jehovah,\nHe who spread out the heavens and stretched them forth,\nWho created the earth and its products,\nWho giveth breath to the people upon it,\nAnd spirit to those who walk upon it:\nI, Jehovah, have called thee in righteousness,\nI have taken thee by the hand and kept thee,\nI have made thee a pledge to the people, a light to the nations,\nTo open eyes that are blind,\nTo bring captives out from confinement,\nFrom the prison house dwellers in darkness.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 42:13-50]\nYe who are deaf hear,\nAnd ye blind look up that ye may see,\nWho is blind but my servants,\ndeaf as their rulers?\nMuch have ye seen, without observing it,\nThough your ears were open, ye did not hear.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 42:21, 22]\nJehovah was pleased for his righteousness' sake\nTo make his teaching great and glorious,\nYet it is a people spoiled and plundered,\nThey are all snared in holes,\nAnd hidden in prison houses,\nThey have become a spoil, with none to rescue,\nAn object of plunder, with none to say, Restore.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 42:23-25]\nWho among you will give ear to this,\nWill attend and hear for time to come?\nWho gave up Jacob to plunderers,\nAnd Israel to those who spoiled him,\nAnd poured out upon him the heat of his anger,\nAnd his violence like a flame,\nSo that it scorched him round about, but he knew it not,\nAnd it burned him, but he laid it not to heart?\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 43:1-2]\nAnd now thus saith Jehovah,\nHe who created thee, O Jacob, and formed thee,\nFear not, O Israel, for I redeem thee,\nI call thee by name, thou art mine.\nWhen thou passeth through the waters, I will be with thee,\nThrough the rivers, they shall not overflow thee;\nWhen thou goest through the fire, thou shalt not be scorched,\nNeither shall the flame burn thee.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 43:3, 4]\nFor I, Jehovah, am thy God.\nI, Israel's Holy One, am thy deliverer;\nI give Egypt as thy ransom,\nEthiopia and Seba for thee.\nBecause thou art precious in mine eyes,\nArt honored and I love thee,\nI will give lands in thy stead,\nAnd peoples for the sake of thy life.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 43:5-7]\nFear not for I am with thee,\nFrom the east I will bring thine offspring,\nAnd from the west I will gather thee;\nI will say to the north, Give up!\nAnd to the south, Withhold not!\nBring my sons from afar,\nAnd my daughters from the ends of the earth,\nEvery one who is called by my name,\nWhom for my glory I have created and formed.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 43:10, 11]\nYe are my witnesses, is Jehovah's oracle,\nAnd my servants whom I have chosen,\nThat ye may acknowledge and believe me,\nAnd that ye may perceive that I am ever the same,\nBefore me no God was formed,\nNor shall there be after me,\nI, even I, am Jehovah,\nAnd beside me there is no deliverer.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 43:12, 13]\nIt was I who announced and brought deliverance,\nAnd I declared, and there was no strange god among you,\nYe are my witnesses, is Jehovah's oracle,\nI am God, yea, from henceforth the same;\nAnd there is none who can snatch from my hand,\nWhen I work, who can reverse it?\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 43:14, 15]\nThus saith Jehovah,\nYour redeemer, Israel's Holy One,\nFor your sake I have sent to Babylon,\nAnd have brought them all down as fugitives.\nEven the Chaldeans with their piercing cries of lamentation,\nIt is I, Jehovah, your Holy One,\nThe Creator of Israel, your King.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 43:22-24]\nBut thou, O Jacob, hast not called upon me,\nNor hast thou wearied thyself about me, O Israel;\nThou hast not brought me the sheep of thy burnt-offerings,\nNor honored me with thy sacrifices.\nWith offerings I have not burdened thee,\nNor with incense wearied thee.\nThou broughtest me no sweet cane with thy money,\nNor with the fat of thy sacrifices sated me.\nRather thou hast only burdened me with thy sins,\nAnd wearied me with thine iniquities.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 43:25-28]\nBut it is I alone who blot out thy transgressions,\nAnd I do not remember thy sins.\nRemind me, let us plead together,\nDo thou set forth the matter that thou mayest be justified:\nThy first father sinned,\nAnd thy mediators rebelled against me.\nThy rulers profaned my sanctuary,\nAnd I gave up Jacob to the ban,\nAnd Israel to revilings!\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 44:1-3b]\nBut now hear, O Jacob, my servant,\nIsrael whom I have chosen;\nThus saith Jehovah, thy maker,\nEven he who formed thee from the womb, who helpeth thee:\nFear not, my servant Jacob,\nAnd thou, Jeshurun, whom I have chosen;\nFor I will pour water upon the thirsty land\nAnd streams upon the dry ground.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 44:3c-5]\nI will pour out my spirit upon thy children,\nAnd my blessing upon thy descendants,\nSo that they shall spring up as grass in the midst of waters,\nAs willows by water-courses.\nOne shall say, \"I am Jehovah's,\"\nAnd another shall call himself, \"Jacob,\"\nAnd another will inscribe on his hand, \"Jehovah's,\"\nAnd receive the surname, \"Israel.\"'\n\nI. The Seventy Years Following the Rebuilding of the Temple. Regarding\nthe seventy years which intervened between the rebuilding of the temple in\n516 B.C. and the appearance of Nehemiah in 445 the biblical historians are\nsilent. This silence is probably because there were no important political\nevents in the life of the Judean community to be recorded. During the\nlatter part of his reign Darius bridged the Hellespont and undertook the\nconquest of the western world. Later, under the reign of his son Xerxes,\nthe mighty hordes of eastern warriors were turned back, and the growing\nweakness of the great Persian Empire was revealed. In 486 Egypt rebelled,\nand Persian armies marched along the eastern shore of the Mediterranean,\nprobably levying heavy taxes for their support upon the Jews as well as\nupon the other peoples of Palestine. The suppression of the rebellion in\nEgypt illustrated how impossible it was for any of the eastern peoples to\nwithstand even the decadent power of the Persian Empire.\n\nIn Palestine the Jews were still the prey of their hostile neighbors. No\nwalls protected the temple and city of Jerusalem. The Jews were probably\nground down under their greedy Persian governors. With the disappearance\nof Zerubbabel the local control fell naturally into the hands of the high\npriest and his followers, whose civil authority from this time on\nconstantly increased. The words of II Isaiah well describe the lot of the\nJews of Palestine during this period:\n\nIt is a people spoiled and plundered,\nThey are all snared in holes,\nAnd hidden in prison houses.\nThey have become a spoil,\nWith none to rescue,\nAn object of plunder,\nWith none to say, Restore.\n\nII. Spiritual Forces in Judaism. The political horizon furnished little\nto inspire the disappointed and persecuted Jews. Their eyes were still\nblinded by the brilliant hopes that had stirred them at the time when the\ntemple was rebuilt. The quenching of these hopes had left them in deeper\ndarkness than before. There seemed no rift in the clouds that overshadowed\nthem. Even their priestly rulers were selfish and inconsiderate. For the\nfaithful few who rose above the discouragements and obstacles that\nconfronted them, however, this period of deepest gloom was lighted by a\nfaith that shines through and glorifies most of the later books of the Old\nTestament. From the psalms and prophecies of the period it is evident that\nthere were a few who in the midst of these discouraging circumstances\nfound peace and joy. As they meditated upon the experiences of their race,\nand read and pondered the writings of the earlier prophets, they began to\nappreciate not only the real significance of their past history but the\nmeaning of the present affliction. The chief spokesman of these immortal\nheroes of the faith was the prophetic author of Isaiah 40-66.\n\nIII. Evidences That Isaiah 40-66 were Written in Palestine. Only\nrecently have careful students of Isaiah 40-66 begun to realize that the\npoint of view in all of these chapters is not distant Babylon but\nJerusalem. The repeated references in chapter 56 and following to\nconditions in Jerusalem have led all to recognize their Palestinian\norigin. The evidence, however, regarding chapters 40-55 is almost equally\nconvincing. The vocabulary and literary figures employed throughout are\nthose peculiar to the agricultural life of Palestine and not to the\ncommercial civilization of Babylon. The problems also are those of the\nJudean community. The class to whom the prophet addresses his messages is\nevidently the same as that to which Haggai and Zechariah speak. Jerusalem,\nnot a Jewish colony in Babylon, is the constant object of the prophet's\nappeal. Babylon is only one of the distant lands of the dispersion. It is\nfrom Jerusalem that the prophet ever views the world. Thus in 43:5,6 he\ndeclares in the name of Jehovah:\n\nFear not, for I am with thee.\nFrom the east I will bring thine offspring,\nAnd from the west I will gather them;\nI will say to the north, Give up!\nAnd to the south, Withhold not!\nBring my sons from afar,\nAnd my daughters from the ends of the earth.\n\nInterpreted in the light of their true geographical setting, these\nProphecies gain at once a new and clearer meaning.\n\nIV. Their Probable Date. The reference in 43:23, 24 to the offerings\nbrought by the people to Jehovah's temple clearly implies that it had\nalready been built. Furthermore, the charges preferred against the Judean\ncommunity are very similar to those in the book of Malachi, which is\ngenerally assigned to the period immediately preceding the arrival of\nNehemiah in 445 B.C. (cf. Section XCVII). From the parallels in chapter 48\nand elsewhere it is evident that Jehovah's Messiah in 45:1 is not Cyrus\nbut Israel, the messianic nation, to which Jehovah in earlier days under\nDavid and his successors gave repeated victories and far-extended\nauthority. The presence of the name Cyrus seems without reasonable doubt\nto be due to a later scribe, who thus incorrectly identified the allusion.\nIt is supported neither by the metrical structure nor the context of the\npassages in which it is found. Furthermore, the ideas in Isaiah 40-55 are\nalmost without exception those which Zechariah had already voiced in\ngerminal form, especially in his latest prophecies preserved in chapters 7\nand 8. They are here more fully and far more gloriously expanded,\nindicating that their author lived perhaps a generation later than\nZechariah. The years between 500 and 450 furnish the most satisfactory\nsetting for these prophecies. In a very true sense, however, like many\nof the psalms, they are timeless. The question of their exact date\nis comparatively unimportant except as it throws light upon their\ninterpretation.\n\nV. Their Literary Characteristics. The prophecies in Isaiah 40-66 are\npsalms, sharing the characteristics of all lyric Hebrew poetry. Each is\ncomplete in itself and yet closely related to the others both in content\nand literary form. Their nobility of theme, their breadth of outlook,\ntheir wealth of rich and glowing figures, and their finished literary\ncharacter give them an incontestable place among the greatest writings of\nthe Old Testament. While there is a powerful argument running through them\nall, the logic is not cumulative but rather moves in a spiral, frequently\nreturning to the same subject but having a gradual onward movement. It is\nthe characteristic Oriental method of thinking, which is the opposite of\nthat of the Western world. These poems are grouped into three cycles which\napparently represent the prophet's thinking during succeeding periods. The\nfirst cycle is included in 40-48. Chapter 48 is a recapitulation of the\nthought of the preceding, and furnishes a natural conclusion to the first\ncollection. The second group is in 49-55. The note of suffering is here\nmore prominent, and the portrait of the ideal type of servant which\nJehovah desires in order to realize his purpose in human history is\ndeveloped in greater detail (cf. Section XCIX). The third group, in 56-66,\nis by many assigned to another prophet and to a much later period. While\nthe general theme of the group is different and implies a somewhat changed\nhistorical background, the characteristic ideas and literary forms of\n40-55 also recur here. From the study of Israel's past and future the\nprophet turns to the closer consideration of the problems in Palestine.\nThe historical allusions are for the most part in accord with the\nconditions which Nehemiah found in Jerusalem in 445 B.C.\n\nVI. Their Theme and Purpose. The poems deal with one theme, the destiny\nof the chosen people. The prophet first reviews their past history to\nillustrate Jehovah's purpose that was being realized through Israel. He\nnotes the different ways in which Jehovah had trained and prepared them\nfor their great task. In the light of the new situation and his enlarged\nacquaintance with the world the prophet then proceeds to define the task\nthat awaits his people. While he does not break entirely away from the\npopular expectation that the scattered exiles would yet be restored to\nJerusalem to participate in the universal kingdom that was there to be\nestablished, he fully appreciates the larger significance of Israel's\nmission. He recognizes that it is worldwide. He sees that the Jewish race\nis called not merely to receive honors and material blessings but also to\nserve suffering and needy mankind. The disappointments and afflictions\nthrough which it is passing are but a part of the divine training for that\nnobler spiritual service. The servant Israel is called to be a witness to\nall the nations, faithfully to set forth Jehovah's teachings until his law\nis established in all the earth. Thus the prophet interprets Israel's\npast, present, and future in its vital relation to the universal life of\nhumanity, and declares that Israel is destined to be a prophet nation and\nto reveal Jehovah's character to all mankind.\n\nVII. Reasons Why Jehovah Will Restore His People. The prophet opens with\na declaration that Jerusalem's period of forced service is over, that she\nhas paid double for the sins of the past, and that Jehovah is about to\nremove all obstacles and restore and exalt his oppressed people. He then\ngives the reasons for his strong conviction: (1) Jehovah is incomparably\nsuperior to the forces of nature, to the nations that hold Israel in\nbondage, and to the heathen gods whose images are shaped by the hand of\nman. All the powers of heaven and earth are under his control. He is the\ncreator and supreme ruler of the universe, able to remove all obstacles\nand to give strength and might to those who put their trust in him.\n(2) Through his leadership of his people in the past, through their\nvictories over their powerful foes, and in all the experiences of their\nnational life he has shown his power to guide and deliver. (3) Toward\nIsrael, his servant, he stands in a unique relation, for he has chosen and\ntrained his people for a great service in behalf of all the world.\nTherefore he who is able and eager to deliver will not fail his people in\ntheir hour of need. (4) Their present affliction is but a part of that\ntraining which is essential before they can perform their task as\nJehovah's servant; that task is tenderly to espouse the cause of those who\nare crushed, to open eyes that are blind, to bring captives out of their\nconfinement, and, as a faithful teacher, to inspire all mankind with love\nfor Israel's God.\n\nThe prophet's aim was clearly to encourage his despondent people, to show\nthem the deeper meaning of their present afflictions, to open their eyes\nto Jehovah's gracious purpose, to give to the entire race a goal for which\nto live and strive, and, above all, to arouse them to effective action.\nDoubtless the prophet thought only of the problems of the men of his day,\nbut in his interpretation of Jehovah's worldwide purpose and in the faith\nand devotion which his words inspire he gave to all mankind a universal,\nundying message.\n\n\n\nSection XCVII. CONDITIONS AND PROBLEMS WITHIN THE JUDEAN COMMUNITY\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 1:6-9]\nA son honoreth his father, and a servant feareth his master;\nIf then I am a father, where is mine honor?\nAnd if I am a master, where is the one who fears me?\nSaith Jehovah to you, O ye priests, who despise my name.\nBut ye say, 'Wherein have we despised thy name?'\nYe offer upon mine altar bread that is polluted\nAnd ye say, 'Wherein have we polluted it?'\nIn that ye say, 'The table of Jehovah is contemptible.'\nAnd that when ye offer the blind for sacrifice, 'It is no harm!'\nAnd that when ye offer the lame and the sick, 'It is no harm!'\nPresent it now to thy governor; will he be pleased with it?\nOr will he receive thee favorably? saith Jehovah of hosts.\nAnd now entreat the favor of God with such an offering, that he may be\n  gracious to us,\nWould I receive any of you favorably? saith Jehovah of hosts.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 1:10, 11]\nO that there were those among you who would shut the doors,\nThat ye might not kindle fire on mine altar in vain!\nI have no pleasure in you, saith Jehovah of hosts,\nNeither will I accept an offering at your hand.\nFor from the rising of the sun even to its setting my name is sacred among\n  the nations,\nAnd in every place they offer to my name a pure offering;\nFor my name is great among the nations, saith Jehovah of hosts.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 1:12, 14]\n'The table of Jehovah is polluted, and its food is contemptible.'\nYe say also, 'Behold what a weariness is it!' and ye have scorned me;\nAnd ye have brought the blind, the lame and the sick.\nShould I accept this at your hand? saith Jehovah of hosts.\nBut cursed be the deceiver, who has in his flock a male,\nAnd vows, and sacrifices to the Lord a blemished thing;\nFor I am a great King, and my name is feared among the nations.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 2:1-4]\nAnd now, O ye priests, this command is for you.\nIf ye will not hear, and if ye will not lay it to heart,\nTo give glory to my name, saith Jehovah of hosts,\nThen I will send the curse upon you, and I will curse your blessings;\nBehold, I will cut off your arm,\nAnd will spread offal upon your faces, even the offal of your feasts,\nAnd ye shall know that I have sent this command to you,\nThat my covenant with Levi may be preserved, saith Jehovah of hosts.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 2:15-7]\nMy covenant with him was to give life and peace;\nAnd I gave them to him that he might revere me;\nAnd he revered me, and stood in awe of my name.\nThe true instruction was in his mouth,\nAnd unrighteousness was not found in his lips;\nHe walked with me in peace and uprightness,\nAnd turned many away from iniquity.\nFor the priest's lips should keep knowledge,\nAnd men should seek the law at his mouth;\nFor he is the messenger of Jehovah of hosts.\n\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 2:8, 9]\nBut ye are turned aside out of the way;\nYe have caused many to stumble in the law;\nYe have corrupted the covenant of Levi,\nSaith Jehovah of hosts.\nTherefore have I also made you contemptible,\nAnd base before all the people,\nAccording as ye have not kept my ways,\nAnd have had no respect for me in imparting the law.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 2:10, 13, 14]\nHave we not all one father?\nHath not one God created us?\nWhy do we deal faithlessly with one another,\nProfaning the covenant of our fathers?\nAnd this ye do also:\nYe cover the altar of Jehovah with tears,\nSo that he regardeth not the offering any more,\nNeither receiveth it acceptably from your hand.\nYet ye say, Why?\nBecause Jehovah hath been witness between thee and the wife of thy youth,\nAgainst whom thou hast dealt faithlessly,\nThough she is thy companion, and the wife of thy covenant.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 2:15, 16]\nTherefore give heed to your spirit,\nAnd let none deal faithlessly with the wife of his youth,\nFor I hate putting away,\nSaith Jehovah, the God of Israel,\nAnd him who covers his garment with violence;\nTherefore take heed to your spirit, that ye deal not faithlessly.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 2:17]\nYe have wearied Jehovah with your words.\nYet ye say, How have we wearied him?\nIn that ye say, Everyone that doeth evil\nIs good in the sight of Jehovah,\nAnd he delighteth in them;\nOr where is the God of justice?\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 3:1-4]\nBehold, I am about to send my messenger,\nAnd he shall prepare the way before me;\nAnd the Lord, whom ye seek,\nWill suddenly come to his temple;\nBut who can endure the day of his coming?\nAnd who shall stand when he appeareth?\nFor he is like a refiner's fire,\nAnd like fullers' lyes;\nAnd he will sit as a refiner and purifier,\nAnd he will purify the sons of Levi,\nAnd refine them as gold and silver;\nAnd they shall offer offerings in righteousness.\nThen shall the offerings of Judah and Jerusalem be pleasant to Jehovah,\nAs in the days of old, and as in former years.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 3:5, 6]\nAnd I will come near to you to judgment;\nAnd I will be a swift witness\nAgainst the sorcerers, and against the adulterers,\nAnd against those who sware to that which is false,\nAnd against those who oppress the hireling, the widow, and the fatherless,\nWho turn aside the resident alien from his right,\nAnd fear not me, saith Jehovah of hosts.\nFor I, Jehovah, change not;\nBut ye have not ceased to be sons of Jacob.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 3:7-9]\nFrom the days of thy fathers ye have turned aside from my statutes, and ye\n  have not kept them.\nTurn to me and I will turn to you, saith Jehovah.\nBut ye say, 'Wherein shall we turn?'\nWill a man rob God? Yet ye robbed me.\nBut ye say, 'Wherein have we robbed thee?' In tithes and gifts.\nYe are cursed with a curse, for ye rob me.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 3:10-12]\nBring ye the whole tithe into the store-house,\nThat there may be provision in mine house; and test me thereby,\nIf I will not open to you the windows of heaven,\nAnd pour you out a blessing, until there is more than enough.\nI will rebuke for your sakes the devourer that he destroy not the fruit of\n  the ground,\nNeither shall the vine fail to ripen its fruit in the field,\nAnd all nations shall call you happy,\nFor ye shall be a delightsome land, saith Jehovah of hosts.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 3:13-16]\nYour words are hard upon me, saith Jehovah.\nYe say, 'What have we said against thee?'\nYe have said, 'It is useless to serve God,\nAnd what gain is it to us to have kept his charge,\nAnd that we have walked in funeral garb before him?\nEven now we call the proud happy,\nYea, those who work iniquity thrive,\nYea, they tempt God and escape.'\n\n[Sidenote Mal. 3:16-18]\nSuch things those who feared Jehovah spoke to one another,\nAnd Jehovah gave heed, and heard,\nAnd a book of remembrance was written before him,\nRegarding those who feared Jehovah,\nAnd those who keep in mind his name;\nAnd they shall be mine, saith Jehovah of hosts,\nIn the day that I make up mine especial treasure.\nAnd I will spare them,\nAs a man spares his son who serves him.\nThen shall ye return and discern between the righteous and the wicked,\nBetween him who serves God and him who serves him not.\n\n[Sidenote: Mal. 4:1-3]\nFor behold the day is coming that shall burn like a furnace,\nAnd all the proud and those who work iniquity shall be stubble,\nAnd the day that is coming shall burn them up, saith Jehovah of hosts,\nSo that there shall be left them neither root nor branch.\nBut to you who fear my name there shall arise\nThe sun of righteousness with healing on his wings,\nAnd ye shall go forth and leap like calves out of the stall.\nAnd ye shall tread down the wicked,\nFor they shall be as ashes under the soles of your feet,\nIn the day in which I begin to execute, saith Jehovah of hosts.\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 22:1-5]\nMy God, why dost thou forsake me,\nFar from my salvation is my groaning\nBy day I call, but thou answerest not,\nAnd by night there is no respite for me.\n\nYet thou, O my God, art the Holy One,\nEnthroned on Israel's songs of praise.\nIn thee our fathers trusted,\nThey trusted, and thou didst deliver them;\nTo thee they cried, and were delivered,\nIn thee they trusted and were not ashamed.\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 22:6-8]\nBut I am a worm and no man,\nReproached by men and despised by the people.\nWhoever sees me derideth me,\nThey sneer as they toss the head:\n\"He depended upon Jehovah, let him deliver him,\nLet him save him, since he delighteth in him!\"\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 22:9-11]\nYet it was thou who took me from the womb,\nWho made me safe on my mother's breast;\nOn thee was I cast from birth,\nThou art my God from my mother's womb.\nBe not far from me, for there is distress,\nDraw nigh, for there is no helper.\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 22:12-18]\nMany bulls encompass me,\nMighty ones of Bashan beset me round,\nThey open their mouths at me,\nLike a ravening, roaring lion.\nAs water I am poured out,\nYea, all my bones are out of joint,\nMy heart hath become like wax,\nIt is melted within my body,\nMy palate is dried up like a potsherd,\nAnd my tongue cleaveth to my jaws;\nIn the dust of death thou dost lay me,\nFor dogs circle me about,\nThe assembly of evil-doers enclose me;\nThey pierce my hands and my feet,\nI can count all my bones;\nThey stare, they gloat over me.\nThey divide my garments among them,\nAnd for my clothing they cast lots!\n\nI. Date of the Book of Malachi. Malachi in the Hebrew means My\nMessenger, and the word was apparently taken from the opening verse of the\nthird chapter. Like many of the writings of the post-exilic period, the\nbook, therefore, is anonymous. Its date, however, may be determined from\nits contents. The reference to the desolation of the land of the Edomites\nsuggests that it was written late in the Persian period after the Edomites\nhad been driven out from Mount Seir by the Nabateans and had found a home\non the southern borders of Judah. The priests in the Judean community had\nbecome corrupt and the temple service was neglected, indicating that they\nhad lost the early enthusiasm which followed the rebuilding of the\nsanctuary. The Judean community was discouraged and a spirit of doubt and\nquestioning prevailed in the minds of those who were faithfully striving\nto serve Jehovah. The prophecy is an exact picture of conditions as\nNehemiah found them, so that the book of Malachi may be dated not far from\n445 B.C.\n\nII. Neglect of the Temple Service. The prophet's method is akin to that\nof Zechariah. Evidently the early reverence for the word of the prophet\nhas disappeared. Instead of bare assertions, each conclusion is supported\nby detailed arguments. The author of Malachi is also deeply interested in\nthe ritual and regards the preservation of its purity as essential to the\nreligious life of the Judean community. He charges the priests with\nfailure to observe the ceremonial laws, especially in allowing the people\nto bring for sacrifice animals that are blind, lame, and sick. These acts\nare evidence of the religious apathy that had seized even the religious\nleaders of the people. The prophet declares boldly that under the guise of\nreligion the priests are robbing Jehovah. Above all they are faithless to\ntheir responsibilities as the appointed teachers of the people. In 2:5-7\nhe presents the clearest picture extant of the task of the priest as\nteacher. His duty was to instruct the people, to help them to overcome\ntemptation, and to make very clear to them the way of duty. This ideal,\nthe prophet declares, was realized by earlier priests, but now those who\nare the appointed religious guides are misleading the people.\n\nIII. The Need of a Great Moral Awakening. The evils which the prophet\ndenounced were not confined to the priests. The old Semitic law regarding\ndivorce was exceedingly lax. A husband could lead his wife to the door of\nhis tent and tell her to be gone, thereby severing their marriage\nrelation. The Deuteronomic law sought to relieve this injustice by\nproviding that the husband must place in the hand of his wife, as she\ndeparts, a document stating the grounds on which he had divorced her. By\nthe middle of the fifth century B.C. divorce had evidently become\nexceedingly common in Palestine. The prophet denounced it on the basis of\nits injustice and cruelty. He also maintained that marriage was a solemn\ncovenant before Jehovah between man and wife, and that he who disregarded\nit dealt faithlessly and was the especial object of divine displeasure.\n\nTraces of the old heathenism still remained in Judah, and the dependent,\noppressed classes received little pity from the selfish, heartless rulers.\nIn the face of these evils the prophet declared that Jehovah would\nsurely send a messenger to punish and to reform priest and people.\nThe prophecy was evidently based on a clear recognition that Jehovah\nwas ever working to train and uplift his people, and that a period of\ndegeneration must surely be followed by a period of reform. In the work\nof Nehemiah the prophet's hopes were in part fulfilled, but the larger\nfulfilment of the underlying principle was realized in the thorough-going\nreformatory work of John the Baptist and in that of the Great Teacher. In\na later appendix to the prophecy of Malachi this theme is still further\ndeveloped. The promise is made that another prophet, with the zeal of the\ngreat reformer Elijah, would come and prepare the way for a new and nobler\nera.\n\nIV. The Lot of the Faithful. In the prophecy of Malachi is first voiced\nthe despairing cries and doubts of those of the faithful who failed to\nrise above the effect of the existing social and religious evils. They are\nthe righteous or afflicted who also speak through certain of the earlier\npsalms of the Psalter (e.g., 10-17, 22). It was a period when the man who\ndid right and was faithful to the demands of the law was thereby condemned\nto poverty and persecution at the hands of the corrupt priests and rulers.\nWorse than that, their poverty and wretchedness were interpreted,\nAccording to the current belief of the day, as convincing evidence of\nJehovah's displeasure because of their sins. It was a time when wickedness\ntriumphed and innocence suffered, and when the question whether or not a\nrighteous God ruled the universe rose persistently in the minds of the\nfaithful. The author of Malachi recognizes and seeks to meet these doubts:\n\nYe have said, It is useless to serve God,\nAnd what gain is it to us to have kept his charge,\nAnd that we have walked in funeral garb before him?\nEven now we call the proud happy,\nVerily those who work iniquity thrive,\nYea, they tempt God and escape.\n\nHere the problem is the same as that of the book of Job. To these doubts\nthe prophet could only reply that Jehovah will keep a record of the\nfaithful and in his good time will reward them.\n\nV. The Problem of Suffering in the Literature of the Period. As was\nnatural, this problem of innocent suffering was prominent in the\nliterature of the period. It became especially insistent at this time,\nbecause it had ceased to be the problem of the community, and had become\nthat of individuals or of a class. While the nation rested under the\nshadow of misfortune, a solution of the problem was found in the\nconsciousness of national guilt and in the hope that the affliction would\nbe but temporary. The old dogma that virtue was always rewarded and\nwickedness punished continued to satisfy Israel's leaders. When, however,\na considerable class in the community were conscious that they had\ncommitted no crimes worthy of the bitter persecutions and calamities that\novertook them, and that it was often just because of their virtue and the\nsteadfastness with which they clung to the nobler ideals of their race\nthat they were thus assailed, the current interpretations of evil were no\nlonger satisfactory. When in time many of them went down to the grave\ncrushed by affliction and the objects of the taunts and revilings of their\nwicked pursuers, the insufficiency of the current explanation of\nmisfortune was tragically demonstrated. To their minds Sheol or the grave\noffered no solution, for, as among all early Aryan and Semitic peoples, it\nwas thought of as the dark, passionless, joyless abode of the shades.\n\nIn most of the psalms of this period the poets who speak in behalf of the\nafflicted class, like the author of Malachi, expressed the hope that\nJehovah would speedily come to their deliverance and signally vindicate\nand reward them. The heroism and fidelity that they represent can only be\nfully appreciated in the light of this discouraging period when evil was\nregnant. It was apparently at this time that the great poet, who speaks\nthrough the book of Job, presented, with the spirit and method of a modern\nphilosopher, the lot of these innocent sufferers. He also proved for all\ntime that misfortune is not always the evidence of guilt, and that the\ncurrent doctrine of proportionate rewards and the explanations that were\nadduced to support it were in certain cases absolutely untenable.\n\n\n\nSection XCVIII. THE PROBLEM AND TEACHINGS OF THE BOOK OF JOB\n\n[Sidenote: Job 1:1-5]\nThere was a man in the land of Uz, whose name was Job. And that man was\nblameless and upright; he feared God and turned away from evil. And seven\nsons and three daughters were born to him. His possessions also included\nseven thousand sheep, three thousand camels, five hundred yoke of oxen,\nfive hundred she asses, and an exceedingly large number of servants; so\nthat this man was the greatest of all the peoples of Palestine. And his\nsons were accustomed to hold a feast in one another's house each on his\nday. And they were wont to send and invite their three sisters to eat and\ndrink with them. And when the days of their feasting were over, Job used\nto send and sanctify them, and he rose up early in the morning, and\noffered burnt-offerings according to the number of them all; for Job said,\nPerhaps my sons have sinned, and renounced God in their hearts. Thus Job\ndid continually.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 1:6-11]\nNow on a certain day when the sons of God came to present themselves\nbefore Jehovah, Satan also came among them. And Jehovah said to Satan,\nWhence comest thou? Then Satan answered Jehovah, and said, From going to\nand fro in the earth, and walking up and down on it. And Jehovah said to\nSatan, Hast thou considered my servant Job? for there is none like him on\nthe earth, a blameless and upright man who fears God, and turns away from\nevil. Then Satan answered Jehovah, and said, Doth Job fear God for nought?\nHast thou not made a hedge about him, and about his household, and about\nall that he hath, on every side? Thou hast blessed the work of his hands,\nand his possessions are increased in the land. But put forth thy hand now,\nand touch all that he hath, and he will curse thee to thy face.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 1:12]\nThen Jehovah said to Satan, Behold all that he hath is in thy power; only\nput not forth thy hand upon him. So Satan went forth from the presence of\nJehovah.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 1:13-19]\nNow on a certain day when his sons and daughters were eating and drinking\nin their eldest brother's house, a messenger came to Job and said, The\noxen were plowing and the asses were feeding beside them, when the Sabeans\nsuddenly attacked and captured them, and they have slain the servants with\nthe edge of the sword; and I alone have escaped to tell you. While that\none was yet speaking, another came and said, The fire of God has fallen\nfrom heaven, and has burned up the sheep and the servants, and consumed\nthem; and I alone have escaped to tell you. While that one was yet\nspeaking, another came and said, The Chaldeans made three bands, and\nraided the camels and took them away, and they have slain the servants\nwith the edge of the sword; I alone have escaped to tell you. While that\none was yet speaking, another came and said, Your sons and your daughters\nwere eating and drinking in their eldest brother's house, when there came\na great wind from over the wilderness, and smote the four corners of the\nhouse, and it fell upon the young men, and they are dead. I alone have\nescaped to tell you.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 1:20-22]\nThen Job arose, and tore his robe, and shaved his head, and fell upon the\nground and worshipped; and he said:\n\nNaked I came from my mother's womb,\nAnd naked shall I return thither!\nJehovah gave and he hath taken away;\nBlessed be the name of Jehovah!\n\nIn all this Job sinned not, nor reviled God.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 2:1-6]\nAnd on a certain day when the sons of God came to present themselves\nbefore Jehovah, Satan came also to present himself before Jehovah. And\nJehovah said to Satan, Whence comest thou? And Satan answered Jehovah, and\nsaid, From going to and fro in the earth, and from walking up and down on\nit. And Jehovah said to Satan, Hast thou considered my servant Job? For\nthere is none like him in the earth, a blameless and upright man, one who\nfears God, and turns away from evil; and he still remains steadfast in his\npiety, although thou incitest me against him, to destroy him without\ncause. And Satan answered Jehovah, and said, Skin for skin, yea, all that\na man hath will he give for his life. But put forth thy hand now, and\ntouch his bone and his flesh; surely he will curse thee to thy face. And\nJehovah said to Satan, Behold, he is in thy power: only spare his life.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 2:7, 8]\nSo Satan went forth from the presence of Jehovah, and smote Job with a\nmalignant eruption from the sole of his foot to his crown. And he took a\npotsherd with which to scrape himself; and he sat among the ashes.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 2:9, 10]\nThen said his wife to him, Do you still remain steadfast in your piety?\nCurse God, and die. But he said to her, You speak like one of the foolish\nwomen. We receive good at the hand of God, shall we not also receive evil?\nIn all this did not Job sin with his lips.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 2:11-13]\nNow when Job's three friends heard of all this evil that was come upon\nhim, they came each from his own place: Eliphaz the Temanite, and Bildad\nthe Shuhite, and Zophar the Naamathite; and they made an appointment\ntogether to come to show their sympathy for him and to comfort him. And\nwhen they lifted up their eyes afar off and knew him not, they raised\ntheir voice and wept; and all tore their robes, and sprinkled dust upon\ntheir heads toward heaven. So they sat down with him on the ground seven\ndays and seven nights, without any one speaking a word to him, for they\nsaw that his pain was very great.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 3:2, 11, 13-15, 17-19]\nThen Job began to speak and said:\n\nWhy did I not die before birth?\nWhy did I not expire when my mother bore me?\nFor now would I have lain down and been quiet,\nI would have slept, then had I been at rest,\nWith kings and counsellors of the earth,\nWho built up ruins for themselves;\nOr with princes who possessed gold,\nWho filled their houses with silver.\nThere the wicked cease from raging,\nAnd the weary are at rest.\nThere the prisoners have peace as well,\nThey hear not the voice of the taskmaster.\nThe small and the great are there,\nAnd the servant is free from his master.\n\n\n[Sidenote: Job 3:20-22, 25, 26]\nWhy is light given to the suffering,\nAnd life to those in anguish,\nWho long for death but it comes not,\nAnd search for it more than treasures,\nWho rejoice with great exultation,\nAnd are glad when they can find the grave?\nFor the thing which I feared has come upon me,\nAnd that of which I was afraid has overtaken me.\nNo peace nor quiet, have I,\nNo rest, but trembling seizes me.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 4:1-7]\nThen answered Eliphaz the Temanite, and said:\n\nIf one tries to speak with you, will you be impatient,\nBut who can restrain himself from speaking?\nBehold, you have instructed many,\nAnd have strengthened feeble hands.\nYour words have upheld him who was falling,\nAnd you have made tottering knees strong.\nBut now, that it is come to you, you are impatient,\nIt touches yourself and you lose courage.\nIs not your piety, your trust,\nYour hope the integrity of your ways?\nRemember now who, being innocent, perished?\nOr where have the upright been destroyed?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 4:17-19]\nCan mortal man be righteous before God?\nCan a man be pure before his maker?\nBehold, he trusteth not in his own servants,\nAnd his angels he chargeth with error;\nHow much more the dwellers in clay houses,\nWhose foundation is laid in the dust?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 5:17-22, 26, 27]\nHappy is the man whom God correcteth,\nTherefore reject not the chastening of the Almighty.\nFor he causeth pain and bindeth up;\nHe woundeth and his hands heal.\nHe will deliver you out of six troubles,\nYea, in seven, no evil shall touch you,\nIn famine he will redeem you from death,\nAnd in war from the power of the sword.\nYou shall be hid from the scourge of the tongue;\nYou shall not be afraid of destruction when it comes.\nAt destruction and want you shall laugh,\nAnd you need not fear the beasts of the earth.\nYou shall come to your grave in a ripe old age,\nAs a sheaf garnered in its season.\nLo this, we have searched out, so it is;\nHear it and know it yourself.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 6:1-4b]\nThen Job answered and said:\n\nOh, that my bitterness were weighed,\nAll my calamity laid in the scales!\nThen would it be heavier than the sand of the seas;\nFor this reason my words are rash.\nFor the arrows of the Almighty are within me,\nTheir poison my spirit drinks up.\n[Sidenote: Job 6:8-10]\nOh that I might have my request,\nAnd that God would grant that for which I long:\nEven that it would please God to crush me,\nAnd that he would let loose his hand and cut me off!\nThen this would be my consolation,\nI would exult in pain that spares not.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 6:11-13]\nWhat strength have I still to endure?\nAnd what is mine end that I should be patient?\nIs my strength the strength of stones?\nOr is my body made of brass?\nBehold there is no help in me,\nAnd wisdom is driven quite from me.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 6:14, 15, 20-23]\nKindness from his friend is due to one in despair,\nEven though he forsakes the fear of the Almighty.\nMy brothers have been as deceptive as a brook,\nAs the channel of brooks that disappear.\nFor now you are nothing,\nYou see a terror and are afraid.\nDid I say, 'Give to me?'\nOr, 'Offer a present to me of your wealth?'\nOr, 'Deliver me from a foeman's hand?'\nOr, 'Redeem me from the oppressor's power?'\n\n[Sidenote: Job 6:24-39]\nTeach me and I will hold my peace,\nAnd make plain to me wherein I have erred.\nHow agreeable are upright words!\nBut what does a reproof from you reprove?\nDo you think to reprove mere words,\nWhen the speeches of the desperate are as wind?\nYou fall upon a blameless man,\nAnd you make merchandise of your friend.\nNow therefore be pleased to look upon me;\nFor surely I will not lie to you.\nTurn ere you let injustice be done,\nYea, turn again, my cause is righteous.\nIs there injustice on my tongue?\nCan not my taste discern what is evil?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 7:1-6]\nHas not man a hard service on earth?\nAnd are not his days like the days of a hireling?\nAs a slave who sighs for the shadows of the evening,\nAnd as a hireling who looks for his wages,\nSo am I given months of misery,\nAnd wearisome nights are appointed me.\nWhen I lie down, I say:\n'When shall I arise, and the night be gone?'\nAnd I am full of unrest until the dawn.\nMy flesh is clothed with worms and clods of dust;\nMy skin hardens, then breaks out again.\nMy days are swifter than a weaver's shuttle,\nAnd are spent without hope.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 7:9, 10]\nAs the cloud is consumed and vanishes away,\nSo he who goes down to Sheol shall come up no more,\nHe shall return no more to his house,\nNor shall his place know him any more.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 7:11, 19]\nTherefore I will not refrain my mouth;\nI will speak in the bitterness of my spirit.\nAm I a sea, or a sea-monster,\nThat thou shouldest set a watch over me?\nWhen I say, \"My bed shall comfort me,\nMy couch shall ease my complaint;\"\nThen thou frightest me with dreams,\nAnd terrifiest me through visions:\nSo that I myself choose strangling,\nAnd death rather than my pains.\nI loath life, I would not live always,\nLet me alone, for my days are as a breath,\nWhat is man, that thou exaltest him,\nThat on him thou directest thy thought,\nThat thou visitest him each morning,\nAnd testest him each moment?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 7:20, 21]\nIf I have sinned, what have I done to thee, O watcher of men?\nWhy hast thou set me as thy target?\nAnd why am I a burden to thee?\nAnd why dost thou not pardon my transgression and take away mine iniquity?\nFor now I shall lie down in the dust,\nWhen thou shalt seek me, I shall not be.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 8:1-2]\nThen answered Bildad the Shuhite and said,\n\nHow long will you speak these things?\nAnd the words of your mouth be like a mighty wind?\nDoth God pervert justice?\nOr doth the Almighty pervert righteousness?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 8:3-6]\nIf your children sinned against him,\nAnd he delivered them to the consequences of their guilt;\nYou should earnestly seek God,\nLet him take his rod away from me,\nAnd let not his terror make me afraid,\nThen would I speak and not fear him,\nFor in myself I am not thus fearful.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 10:9-15]\nRemember that as clay thou hast fashioned me,\nAnd wilt thou again turn me into dust?\nHast thou not poured me out as milk?\nAnd curdled me like a cheese?\nThou hast clothed me with a skin and with flesh,\nAnd knit me together with bones and with sinews.\nThou hast granted me life and favor,\nAnd thy care hath preserved my breath.\nYet these things thou didst hide in thy heart;\nI know that this is thy plan:\nIf I sin, then thou watchest me,\nAnd if I be just, yet I cannot lift up my head!\n\n[Sidenote: Job 10:20-22]\nAre not the days of my life few enough?\nLet me alone, that I may have a little cheer,\nBefore I go whence I shall not return,\nTo the land of darkness and of gloom,\nThe land dark as blackness,\nGloom without a gleam or ray of light.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 11:1, 7-9]\nThen answered Zophar, the Naamathite, and said:\n\nShall the multitude of words be unanswered?\nCan you find the depths of God?\nCan you reach the perfection of the Almighty?\nIt is high as heaven; what canst thou do?\nDeeper than Sheol; what can you know?\nIts measure is longer than the earth,\nAnd broader than the sea.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 11:13-15]\nIf you set your heart aright,\nAnd stretch out your hands toward him;\nIf iniquity be in thy hand, put it far away,\nAnd let not unrighteousness dwell in your tent.\nThen you shall lift up your face without spot;\nAnd you shall be steadfast, and have no fear.\nAnd make your supplication to the Almighty.\nIf you are pure and upright,\nThen he will prosper your righteous habitation.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 9:1-7]\nThen Job answered and said:\nVerily I know that it is so,\nBut how can a man be made just with God?\nIf he be pleased to contend with him,\nHe cannot answer him one of a thousand.\nHe is wise in mind and mighty in strength;\nWho has defied him, and remained unharmed?\nHe who removeth mountains and they know it not,\nAnd overturneth them in his anger,\nWho shaketh the earth out of its place,\nSo that its pillars tremble,\nWho commandeth the sun and it rises not,\nAnd on the stars placeth his seal.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 9:16-20, 24]\nIf I called and he answered me,\nI would not believe that he had heard my voice.\nHe who crusheth me with a tempest,\nprey of And multiplieth my wounds without cause.\nHe will not permit me to take my breath,\nBut filleth me with bitterness,\nIf we speak of the strength of the mighty, lo it is he!\nAnd if of justice, Who will summon him?\nThough I am righteous, my own mouth condemns me,\nThough I am perfect, it would prove me to be perverse.\nThe earth is given into the hand of the wicked;\nHe covereth the faces of its judges;\nIf not he, then who is it?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 9:31-35]\nIf I wash myself with snow,\nAnd cleanse my hands with lye,\nYet thou plunge me into the filth,\nprove And mine own friends will abhor me.\nFor he is not a man as I am, that I should answer him,\nThat we should come together in judgment,\nThere is no arbiter betwixt us,\nTo lay his hand upon us both.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 12:1-3]\nThen Job answered and said:\n\nNo doubt but you are the people,\nAnd wisdom shall die with you!\nBut I have a mind as well as you,\nAnd who does not know these things?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 13:7-12]\nWill you speak what is wrong for God?\nAnd will you talk deceitfully for him?\nWill you show favor to him?\nWill you contend for God?\nWould it be well, should he search you out?\nOr as one deceives a man, will you deceive him?\nHe will surely reprove you,\nIf secretly you show favor.\nShall not his majesty overawe you,\nAnd dread of him fall upon you?\nYour memorable sayings are proverbs of ashes,\nYour defences are defences of clay!\n\n[Sidenote: Job 13:13-18]\nHold your peace that I may speak,\nAnd let come to me what will.\nI take my flesh in my teeth,\nAnd put my life in my hand.\nBehold he will slay me; I have no hope,\nBut I will defend my ways before him.\nNo godless man would come before him.\nGive careful heed to my speech,\nAnd let my declaration be in your ears.\nBehold now, I have prepared my case,\nI know that I shall be justified.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 13:21-25]\nWithdraw thy hand far from me;\nAnd let not thy terror make me afraid.\nThen call and I will answer,\nOr let me speak, and answer thou me.\nHow many are my iniquities and sins?\nMake me know my transgression and my sin.\nWhy dost thou hide thy face,\nAnd regard me as thine enemy?\nWilt thou harass a wind blown leaf?\nAnd wilt thou pursue the dry stubble?\n\n[Sidenote: 14:7-10]\nFor there is hope of a tree,\nIf it will be cut down, that it will sprout again,\nAnd that its shoot will not cease.\nThough its root grow old in the earth,\nAnd its stock die in the ground;\nBy the scent of water it will bud,\nAnd put forth its branches like a plant.\nBut man dies and is laid low:\nYea, a man expires, and where is he?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 14:13-15, 18, 19]\nOh, that thou wouldst hide me in Sheol,\nThat thou wouldst keep me in secret, until thy wrath be past,\nThat thou wouldst appoint over me a time, and remember me!\nIf a man might die, shall he live again!\nAll the days of my hard service would I wait,\nUntil my release should come.\nThou wouldst call and I myself would answer thee;\nThou wouldst long for the work of thy hands.\nBut the mountain surely falls,\nAnd the rock moves from its place,\nThe water wears away the stones,\nIts floods wash away the dust of the earth.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 15:4-6]\nThen answered Eliphaz the Temanite and said:\n\nVerily, you do away with the fear of God,\nAnd hinder devotion before God.\nFor your wickedness inspires your speech,\nAnd you choose the tongue of the crafty.\nYour own mouth condemns you, and not I;\nAnd your own lips testify against you.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 16:1-3a, 4b]\nThen answered Job and said:\n\nI have heard many such things;\nTroublesome comforters are you all.\nIs there no end to vain words?\nIf you were only in my place,\nI could join words together against you!\n\n[Sidenote: Job 16:11-13a]\nGod delivereth me to the ungodly,\nAnd casteth me into the hands of the wicked.\nI was at ease, and he shattered me,\nHe seized me by the neck and dashed me to pieces,\nHe hath also set me up as his target,\nHis arrows encompass me round about.\n\n[Sidenote Job 16:18-21]\nO earth, cover not my blood,\nAnd let my cry have no resting place.\nEven now behold my witness is in the heaven,\nAnd he who voucheth for me is on high.\nHe will be found to be my friend,\nTo God my eye pours out its tears.\nAnd he will maintain the right of a man with God,\nAnd between a man and his neighbor!\n\n[Sidenote: Job 18:1, 5-7]\nThen answered Bildad the Shuhite, and said:\n\nThe light of the wicked is put out,\nAnd the flame of his fire does not shine,\nThe light is darkened in his tent,\nAnd his light above him is put out.\nThe steps of his strength are shortened,\nAnd his own counsel shall cast him down.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 19:13-16]\nThen Job answered and said:\n\nMy brothers keep far from me,\nAnd my acquaintances are like strangers to me.\nMy kinsmen have ceased to know me,\nEven the guests in my house have forgotten me.\nMy maids regard me as a stranger,\nI am an alien in their sight.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 19:23-27]\nOh, that my words were now written!\nOh, that they were inscribed in a book!\nThat with an iron pen and lead\nThey were engraved in a rock forever!\nBut I indeed know that my Vindicator liveth,\nAnd at last he will stand upon the earth:\nAnd after this, my skin, is destroyed,\nThen I shall behold God,\nWhom I myself shall see on my side,\nMine eyes shall behold, and not a stranger.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 20:1-4]\nThen answered Zophar the Naamathite, and said:\n\nNot so do my thoughts give answer to me,\nBecause of this my haste is mine!\nI have heard the reproof which puts me to shame;\nBut with wind void of understanding you answer me.\nHave you not known this from of old,\nSince man was placed upon the earth,\nThat the exulting of the wicked is short,\nAnd the joy of the godless but for a moment?\n\n[Sidenote: Job: 21:1, 7-8]\nThen answered Job and said:\nWhy do the wicked live,\nGrow old, and attain great power?\nTheir descendants are established in their sight,\nAnd their offspring before their eyes.\nTheir households are secure from terror,\nAnd the rod of God is not upon them.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 22:1-6]\nThen Eliphaz the Temanite answered, and said,\nIs a man of any account to God?\nSurely a wise man is of account to himself.\nIs it any pleasure to the Almighty that you are righteous?\nOr is it gain to him that you are upright?\nIs it because of your fear of him that he reproveth you,\nThat he entereth into judgment with you?\nIs not your wickedness great?\nAnd there is no end to your iniquities.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 22:26, 27, 28]\nIf you return to the Almighty and humble yourself,\nIf you remove unrighteousness far from your tents.\nYou shall make your prayer to him, and he will hear you,\nAnd you shall pay your vows.\nYou shall also decree a thing, and it shall be established for you.\nAnd light shall shine upon your ways.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 23:1-6]\nThen Job answered and said,\n\nEven now my complaint is bitter,\nMy stroke is heavier than my groaning.\nOh, that I knew where I might find him!\nThat I might come even to his throne!\nI would set forth my cause before him,\nAnd fill my mouth with arguments.\nI would know the words which he would answer me,\nAnd understand what he would say to me.\nWould he contend with me in the greatness of his power?\nVerily he would give heed to me.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 25:1-4]\nThen answered Bildad the Shuhite, and said,\n\nDominion and terror are with him;\nHe maketh peace in his high places.\nIs there any number to his armies?\nAnd upon whom does not his light arise?\nHow then can man be just with God?\nOr how can he be clean who is born of woman?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 26:1, 27:2, 4, 5]\nThen Job answered and said,\n\nAs God liveth, who hath taken away my right,\nAnd the Almighty, who hath made my life bitter,\nSurely my lips do not speak unrighteousness,\nNor does my tongue utter falsehood,\nFar be it from me that I should grant that you are right;\nUntil I die I will not give up my innocence.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 27:7-9]\n[Then Zophar answered and said]:\n\nLet mine enemy be as the wicked,\nAnd let him who rises up against me be as the unrighteous.\nFor what is the hope of the godless,\nWhen God requireth his life?\nWill God hear his cry,\nWhen trouble comes upon him?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 29:1-5]\nAnd Job again took up his parable and said,\n\nOh, that I were as in the months of old,\nAs in the days when God watched over me,\nWhen his lamp shined upon my head,\nAnd by his light I walked through darkness;\nAs I was in the prime of my life,\nWhen God put a covering over my tent,\nWhen the Almighty was yet with me,\nAnd my children were about me.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 30:16-21]\nBut now my soul is poured out within me;\nDays of affliction have taken hold of me.\nThe night bores through my bones,\nAnd my gnawing pains rest not.\nBy reason of great wasting my garment is crumpled together;\nIt binds me about as the collar of my coat.\nHe hath cast me into the mire,\nAnd I am become like dust and ashes.\nI cry to thee but thou dost not answer me.\nI stand up, but thou dost not regard me.\nThou art turned to be cruel to me;\nWith the might of thy hand thou persecutest me.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 31:5-8]\nIf I have walked with falsehood,\nAnd my foot has hasted to deceit;\nLet me be weighed in a just balance,\nThat God may know my integrity.\nIf my step has turned out of the way,\nAnd my heart followed my inclination,\nAnd if any spot besmirches my hands;\nThen let me sow, and let another eat,\nAnd let the produce of my field be uprooted.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 31:35-37]\nOh, that there was someone to hear me!\nSee, here is my signature, let the Almighty answer me!\nAnd the indictment which my adversary has written!\nSurely I would carry it on my shoulder;\nI would bind it to me as a crown;\nI would declare to him the number of my steps,\nAs a prince would I draw near to him.\n\n[Sidenote: Job 38:2-7]\nThen Jehovah answered Job out of the storm, and said,\n\nWho is this that darkeneth counsel\nBy words that lack knowledge?\nGird up thy loins now like a man,\nAnd let me ask of thee and inform thou me.\nWhere wast thou when I laid the foundations of the earth?\nDeclare, if thou hast understanding.\nWho determined its measures that thou knowest?\nOr who stretched out the line upon it?\nOn what were its foundations fastened?\nOr who laid its corner-stone,\nWhen the morning stars sang together,\nAnd all the sons of God shouted for joy?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 38:8-11]\nOr who shut up the sea with doors,\nWhen it broke forth, and issued out of the womb;\nWhen I made clouds its garments,\nAnd thick mists its swaddling-bands,\nAnd marked out for it my bound,\nAnd set bars and doors,\nAnd said, Here shalt thou come, but no further;\nAnd here shall thy proud waves stop?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 38:39-41]\nCanst thou hunt the prey for the lioness,\nOr satisfy the appetite of the young lions,\nWhen they couch in their dens,\nAnd abide in the covert to lie in wait?\nWho provideth at evening his prey,\nWhen his young ones cry to God,\nAnd wander to seek for food?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 40:8,9]\nWill the fault-finder contend with the Almighty?\nHe who argueth with God, let him answer it.\nWilt thou even annul my judgment?\nCondemn me, that thou mayest be justified,\nOr hast thou an arm like God?\nAnd canst thou thunder with a voice like him?\n\n[Sidenote: Job 42:1, 2, 3, 5, 6]\nThen Job answered Jehovah and said:\n\nI know that thou canst do all things,\nAnd that no purpose of thine can be restrained.\nTherefore, I have uttered that which I did not understand;\nThings too wonderful for me, which I knew not.\nI have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear,\nBut now mine eye seeth thee,\nTherefore I loath [my words],\nAnd repent in dust and ashes.\n\nI. The Structure of the Book of Job. Like most of the books of the Old\nTestament, Job is, without reasonable doubt, the work of several different\nwriters. The prose introduction (1-2), with its corresponding conclusion\n(42:7-17), was probably once an independent story. The words of Jehovah in\nthe epilogue (42:7) clearly implies that, as in 1 and 2, Job had endured\nthe test and had meekly submitted to the afflictions which Satan, with the\ndivine approval, had sent upon him, and that on the other hand his\nfriends, like his wife, had urged him to curse God and die. The language\nand phrases of this prose story are radically different from those in the\npoem which constitutes the main body of the book. The unique explanation\nof why Job was afflicted that is given in the opening chapters is also\ncompletely ignored in the poetic dialogues (3-31). Likewise the problem of\nwhether or not Job fears God for naught, raised in the prologue, is not\ntaken up again except in the concluding prose epilogue. In the prose story\nJob's piety conforms to the popular standards, while in the poetic\nsections he is measured by the loftier ethical principles laid down by the\npre-exilic prophets (cf. chap. 31). In form, therefore, in aim, and in\ncontent, the prose story differs fundamentally from the great dramatic\npoem which constitutes the real book of Job. The main body of the book is\nfound in chapters 3-27, 29-31, 38:1-40:14, and 42:1-6. At a few points the\noriginal order has apparently been disarranged and later hands have\nfrequently supplemented the older sections, but the literary unity of the\nwhole is obvious. In three cycles of speeches the problem of innocent\nsuffering is fully developed and the current solutions presented. In\nconclusion the voice of Jehovah comes to Job calling him forth from\nhimself to the contemplation of the larger universe which manifests the\ndivine wisdom and rulership.\n\nThe Elihu speeches in 32-37 are evidently from a still later author or\nauthors who wished to rebuke Job's seeming impiety and the failure of his\nfriends to bring forth a satisfactory explanation of the suffering of the\ninnocent. Its independence is shown by the presence of many Aramaic words,\nby the lack of literary vigor, and by the frequent repetitions, which\ndistinguish it sharply from the writings of the author of the main body of\nthe book. Elihu and his contributions are also completely ignored in the\nrest of the book and at points where, if they were original, certain\nreferences would be almost inevitable. These speeches, in fact, are simply\na fuller development of the argument of Eliphaz found in the fifth\nchapter. They also incorporate many suggestions drawn from the speeches of\nJehovah in chapters 38 and 39.\n\nII. Dates of the Different Parts. The classic Hebrew style and the\nabsence of Aramaic words indicate that the prose story is the oldest\nsection of the book. It also reasserts in modified form the dogma current\nfar down into the Persian period, that if the righteous but patiently\nbear affliction they will surely in the end be richly rewarded. It\ncontains a message well adapted to the needs and beliefs of the Jewish\npeople during the calamities of the Babylonian period. Its conception\nof Satan as the prosecuting attorney of heaven, and of Jehovah as a\ntranscendental ruler surrounded by a hierarchy of angels, is closely akin\nto that which first appears in the second chapter of Zechariah. The\nreferences to Job in Ezekiel 14:14,20, as one of the three heroes of\npopular tradition famous for their piety, implies the existence during the\nexile of a story closely akin to if not identical with the one found in\nthe prologue and epilogue of the book of Job. Such a story was probably\ncurrent long before the days of Ezekiel, but in its present form it was\nnot committed to writing until the latter part of the Babylonian or the\nbeginning of the Persian period.\n\nThe first part of this story was evidently used by the author as an\nintroduction to the great dramatic poem. He thereby deliberately protested\nagainst the solution of the problem of innocent suffering suggested by the\nancient story. The poem itself cannot be dated earlier than the middle of\nthe Persian period. In it the great ethical and social standards of the\npre-exilic prophets are fully accepted. Its marvelous breadth of vision\nalso implies an advanced stage in Israel's thinking. The problem of\nsuffering with which it deals is not merely that of the nation but of the\nindividual or of a class within the Judean community. It is precisely the\nproblem that confronted the author of Malachi and to which he refers in\n3:13-16. It is the same problem that bulks largely in the psalms of this\nperiod and finds its noblest solution in Isaiah 53. All its affinities,\ntherefore, confirm the conclusion that it comes from the middle of the\nfifth century B.C. and is probably slightly older than Isaiah 49-55,\nwhich presents a more fundamental treatment of the problem of human\nsuffering. The author still holds the old, prophetic conception of the\nuniverse (38:4-6), and is unaffected by the priestly thought and\ntendencies which became especially prominent during the closing years of\nthe Persian period.\n\nThe Elihu speeches and the supplemental poem in description of wisdom in\n28, and of the behemoth and leviathan in 40:15-41:34, probably come from\nthe Greek period.\n\nIII. The Prose Story. In the prose story Job is pictured as a man of\nsuperlative piety and prosperity. According to the popular standards of\nthe earlier day he lived a blameless life. His afflictions came simply as\na means of demonstrating the unselfish character of his piety. In rapid\nsuccession he is stripped of all his possessions and afflicted by the\nvilest of all diseases, apparently the loathsome tubercular leprosy. Even\nhis wife tempts him to curse God and die, but he fully meets the test,\nand, according to the testimony of the concluding epilogue, receives\nJehovah's approval and is restored to the joys of family, reputation, and\nriches. It is obvious that, as in the stories found in the opening\nchapters of Genesis, this is a popular narrative freely adjusted to the\nends which the story-teller wished to attain. The incidents recorded are\nnot in keeping with the ordinary experiences of life, but belong rather to\nthe realm of popular fancy. As a reference in Ezekiel implies, it was\nprobably, like the similar stories regarding Noah and Daniel, a heritage\nfrom the common Semitic lore. In fact, a recently discovered Babylonian\ntablet tells of a famous king of Nippur, T\u00e2bi-utul-B\u00eal by name, whose\nexperiences and spirit corresponds closely to those of the hero of this\nprose story.\n\nThe message of the prose story of Job, as it was sent out to the Jewish\nrace, was that it was not always possible to understand the reason why\nthe righteous were afflicted, but that if they faithfully met the test\nrestoration to Jehovah's approval, with the honor and reputation that\nnecessarily follow, were assured. To the nation such a message was not\nwithout its practical application and value, but it failed completely to\nmeet the individual problems that became pathetically insistent during the\nmiddle of the fifth century B.C.\n\nIV. The Poem of Job. In the later poetic version of the story (which\nbegins with the third chapter) Job himself is the embodiment of the\nproblem of innocent suffering. His friends' suppositions and condemnations\nadd still another burden to his weight of woe. More intolerable, however,\nthan loss of possessions, health, and reputation is his sense of being\nforsaken and condemned by Jehovah. Job cannot shake himself entirely free\nfrom the belief, which had been inculcated in his mind from earliest\ninfancy, that calamity was a sign of divine displeasure, and therefore of\nsin on the part of the victim. In the series of monologues and dialogues\nbetween Job and his friends he voices every phase of the great problem and\nmakes it concrete and objective. With marvellous psychological truth and\ninsight the author has presented the different phases of feeling through\nwhich an innocent sufferer in Job's position naturally passes. At times\nJob is intemperate in his speech and at other times he yields to\ndespondency; again his faith overleaps all obstacles and he holds for the\nmoment a clear belief in the ultimate vindication not only of himself but\nof Jehovah's justice.\n\nHis friends, on the other hand, formulate at length the current\nExplanation of suffering. Job in his sharp retorts makes clear the\nInapplicability of the arguments and the limitations of the dogmas which\nthey constantly reassert. In the concluding speeches of Jehovah the author\nwith masterly skill takes Job out of his little circle into the larger\nworld of nature, and brings him face to face with the evidences of\nJehovah's might, wisdom, and gracious rulership of the great universe and\nof the complex life of those who inhabit it. Above all, Job learns to know\nGod, not through the testimony of others, but by direct personal\nexperience, and this knowledge begets humility and trust.\n\nV. Progress in Job's Thought. The thought of the book of Job is\ncharacteristically Oriental. Instead of moving straight on from premises\nto conclusion it constantly reverts to the same themes yet advances\nalong independent, parallel lines. Its progress is not objective, as is\nusually the case in a drama, but almost entirely subjective. These\nparallel lines of progress are: (1) the conviction gradually crystallizing\ninto certainty that the current explanations of suffering are in certain\ncases inadequate and false. While viewed from one point of view this\nconclusion is merely negative, it nevertheless opened the eyes of Job\nand his generation to a larger conception of Jehovah and a far broader\ninterpretation of the universe and of the laws which regulate it. The\nsecond is that he is guilty of no crime commensurate with the calamity\nwhich had overtaken him. Overwhelmed by misfortune and the reiterated\ncharges of his friends, only through a superhuman struggle did Job\nultimately attain the unshaken conviction that he was indeed innocent in\nthe sight of God and man. The third line of progress is that, if not in\nthe present life, in that beyond the grave his reputation would not only\nbe vindicated but he himself would be fully conscious of that vindication.\n\nAs is illustrated by the third chapter, Job in common with his race still\nshared the belief that for the ordinary individual life beyond the grave\nwas a shadowy existence, far removed from Jehovah's presence. This\nconception of the life after death was inherited by the Israelites from\ntheir Semitic ancestors, and was held in common by most ancient peoples,\nboth of the East and of the West. The Babylonians believed, however, that\ncertain favored mortals, as, for example, the hero of the flood, were\ntransported to the abode of the gods, there to enjoy blessed individual\nimmortality. The same belief is the foundation of the Hebrew stories\nregarding Enoch and Elijah. This belief was apparently the germ which in\ntime developed, as in the twelfth chapter of Daniel, into the widespread\nconviction that the grave would not hold those who had been loyal to\nJehovah, but that he would surely raise them again to a glorious life. In\nthe book of Job it is possible to trace the birth-pangs of this broader\nhope. Conscious of his innocence and confronted by the grave, Job\nrepeatedly voices the deep conviction that God, because he is just, will\nraise his afflicted servant from the grave and accord to him that justice\nwhich seems excluded from his present life. This solution of the problem\nof innocent suffering is not given the central place by the author of the\nbook of Job. It is safe, however, to conjecture that if the appearance of\nJehovah had not furnished to the author's mind a more satisfactory\nconclusion, the vindication after death would have been the solution\noffered. At several points Job approaches very close to the belief in\nindividual immortality which became a commonly accepted tenet in the\ntrying days of the Maccabean struggle.\n\nThe fourth line of progress is that Jehovah, after all, must be just and\nthat he will right the seeming wrongs of life. In his opening speeches Job\ngives free vent to the anguish and impatience that fills his tortured\nmind. With a boldness strangely foreign to Hebrew thought, he charges\nJehovah with injustice and speaks of him as a cruel monster that watches\nman, his helpless prey, and takes cruel pleasure in the pain which he\ninflicts. As the discussion progresses Job's mind becomes calmer, and\nthe conviction that God, after all, is just comes more clearly to\nexpression. His strong utterances gradually yield to this quieter mood.\nEven before he hears the voice of Jehovah, Job has attained an attitude of\ntrust, though he is still groping in darkness. Thus with marvelous\nfidelity to human nature and experience the author of the book of Job\nwould have made a great contribution to the problem with which he was\ndealing even had he not added the concluding speeches of Jehovah.\n\nVI. Significance of the Speeches of Jehovah. To many Western readers the\nconcluding speeches of Jehovah are unsatisfying. They lack the emphasis on\nJehovah's love and that divine tenderness in addressing the heroic\nsufferer which to us would seem to have been a satisfactory conclusion to\nthe great drama. This element is furnished in characteristically concrete\nform by the epilogue of the book, in which Job's prosperity is restored in\ndouble measure and he is personally assured of Jehovah's favor. The severe\nand realistic author of the great poem, however, knew that in ordinary\nlife such solutions are rare. In the speeches of Jehovah he does not\nintroduce an altogether new element, but emphasizes motifs already\ndeveloped in the earlier dialogues. The effect of these speeches upon Job\nare threefold: (1) They rebuke his over-accentuated individualism.\n(2) They reveal the fundamental contrast between the infinite God and\nfinite man. In the light of this revelation Job plainly recognizes his\npresumption and folly in attempting, with his limited outlook, to\ncomprehend, much less to criticise, the mighty ruler of all the universe.\n(3) After Job had thus been led out of himself into personal companionship\nwith God he was content to trust his all-wise guide, even though he\nrecognized his own inability to fathom the mysteries of the universe or to\nsolve the problem of innocent suffering. Thus the great contributions of\nthe book of Job to the problem of suffering are: (1) A clear and\nscientific presentation of the problem; (2) a bold sweeping aside of\nthe insufficient current theological explanations; (3) a vastly enlarged\nconception of Jehovah's character and rule; and (4) that attitude of\nfaith which comes from a personal experience of God and which trusts\nunreservedly, even though it cannot see or divine the reason why, and in\nthat trust finds peace and joy.\n\nAlthough the thought of the book of Job is profound, and it deals in a\nmasterly manner with a fundamental human problem, it is more than a mere\nphilosophical discussion. Its primary aim is to set forth the vital truth\nthat God is not to be found through current theological dogmas or\nintellectual discussions, but through personal experience. This is the\ndominant note throughout the book. The greatest calamity that overtakes\nJob in his hour of deepest distress is the sense of being shut away from\nGod's presence.\n\nOh! that I knew where I might find him,\nThat I might come even to his throne!\n\nAs he looks back fondly to the happy days of old the fact that stands\nforth above all others is that\n\nThe Almighty was yet with me.\n\nLooking forward to a possible vindication after death his hope centres\nin the belief that\n\nThou wouldst call and I myself would answer thee;\nThou wouldst long for the work of thy hands.\n\nWhen at last Jehovah answered Job out of the storm, it was not so much\nthe thought expressed as the fact that God had spoken directly to him\nthat brought penitence and peace:\n\nI have heard of thee by the hearing of the ear,\nBut now mine eye seeth thee.\nTherefore I loath my words,\nAnd repent in dust and ashes.\n\n\n\nSection XCIX. THE TRAINING AND MISSION OF THE TRUE SERVANT OF JEHOVAH\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 49:1-3]\nHearken to me, ye coastlands,\nAnd listen, ye distant peoples:\nHe hath called me from the womb,\nFrom my mother's lap made mention of my name.\nHe hath made my mouth like a sharp sword,\nIn the shadow of his hand he hid me,\nHe made me a polished arrow,\nIn his quiver he concealed me,\nAnd he said to me, Thou art my servant,\nIsrael, in whom I will glorify myself.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 49:4]\nBut I said, I have labored in vain,\nI spent my strength for nothing and vanity,\nNevertheless my right is with Jehovah,\nAnd my recompense with my God.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 49:5, 6]\nAnd now, thus saith Jehovah,\n(He who formed from birth to be his servant,\nTo bring Jacob back to him,\nAnd that Israel might be gathered to him;\nFor I was honored in the sight of Jehovah,\nAnd my God became my strength):\nIt is too little a thing to be my servant,\nTo raise up the tribes of Jacob,\nAnd to restore the survivors of Israel;\nTherefore I will make thee the light of the nations,\nThat thy salvation may reach to the ends of the earth.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 49:7]\nThus saith Jehovah,\nThe Redeemer of Israel, his Holy One,\nTo him who is heartily despised,\nTo the one abhorred of the people, a servant of rulers:\nKings shall see and arise,\nPrinces and they shall do homage,\nBecause of Jehovah who is faithful,\nThe Holy One of Israel who hath chosen thee.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 49:3-9b]\nThus saith Jehovah,\nIn a time of favor I answer thee,\nAnd in a day of deliverance I help thee,\nAnd I make thee a pledge to the people,\nTo raise up the [ruined] land,\nTo reapportion the desolate heritages,\nSaying to those who are bound, 'Go forth,'\nTo those in darkness, 'Show yourselves!'\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 49:9c-11]\nThey shall pasture along all ways,\nEven oh all the bare hills shall they graze.\nThey shall not be hungry nor thirsty,\nNeither shall the glowing heat nor the sun smite them,\nFor he who hath pity on them shall lead them,\nAnd to gushing fountains will he guide them.\nAnd I will make all mountains a road,\nAnd highways shall be built up.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 49:12,18]\nBehold, these come from afar,\nAnd these from the north and west,\nAnd these from the land of the Syenites!\nShout with joy, O heavens, and exult, O earth!\nLet the mountains break forth into shouts of joy!\nFor Jehovah hath had pity on his people,\nAnd will show mercy to his afflicted ones.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 50:4-6]\nThe Lord Jehovah hath given me the tongue of a trained disciple?\nTo give to the fainting a word of help, he waketh me early,\nEarly he waketh me, that I may listen as a disciple.\nThe Lord Jehovah hath opened mine ear,\nAnd I have not been wilful nor turned back rebelliously.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 50:6, 7]\nMy back I gave to smiters and my cheek to those who plucked the beard,\nMy face I hid not from insult and spitting,\nFor my Lord Jehovah is my helper; so that I am not confounded.\nTherefore I have set my face like flint, and I know that I shall not be\n  put to shame.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 50:5, 9]\nHe is near who justifieth me, who will contend with me? let us stand up\n  together!\nWho is the adversary to oppose my cause? let him draw near to me!\nBehold the Lord Jehovah is my helper; who is he that can harm me?\nLo, they shall all fall to pieces like a garment, the moth shall consume\n  them.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 50:10]\nWho among you feareth Jehovah, let him hearken to the voice of his\n  servant?\nWho walked in darkness, having no light,\nLet him trust in the name of Jehovah and rely on his God?\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 52:13-18]\nBehold, my servant shall prosper,\nHe shall be raised up and highly exalted.\nEven as many were appalled at him,\nSo shall many nations tremble,\nKings will close their mouths before him,\nWhen what has not been told them they see,\nAnd what they have not heard they perceive.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:1-2b]\nWho believed what has been reported to us,\nAnd to whom was Jehovah's might revealed?\nFor he grew up before us as a young shoot,\nAnd as a root out of dry ground.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:2c-f]\nHe had no form that we should regard him,\nNor appearance that we should delight in him.\nHis appearance was more disfigured than any man's\nAnd his form than any human being's.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:3]\nHe was despised and forsaken of men,\nA man of suffering and acquainted with sickness;\nLike one for whom men hide their face,\nHe was despised so that we esteemed him not.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:4]\nSurely our sickness he himself bore,\nAnd our sufferings--he carried them,\nYet we ourselves esteemed him stricken,\nSmitten of God and afflicted.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:5]\nBut he was wounded for our transgressions,\nCrushed because of our iniquities;\nThe chastisement for our well-being was upon him,\nAnd through his stripes healing came to us.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:6]\nAll of us, like sheep, had gone astray,\nWe had turned each to his own way;\nWhile Jehovah made to light upon him\nThe guilt of us all.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:7]\nYet when afflicted he opened not his mouth;\nLike a lamb led to the slaughter,\nAnd like a sheep dumb before her shearers,\nSo he opened not his mouth.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:8]\nBy an oppressive judgment was he taken away,\nYet who of his generation considered\nThat he had been cut off from the land of the living;\nFor our transgressions had been stricken to death?\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:9]\nAnd his grave was made with the wicked,\nAnd among evil-doers his burial mound,\nAlthough he had done no violence,\nNeither was deceit in his mouth.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:10-11b]\nYet Jehovah was pleased to crush him;\nThrough giving himself as an offering for guilt,\nHe shall see posterity and length of days,\nAnd the pleasure of Jehovah will be realized in his hands;\nOut of his own suffering he shall see light,\nHe shall be satisfied with his knowledge.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 53:11c-12]\nMy righteous servant shall make many righteous,\nAnd himself will bear the burden of their iniquities.\nTherefore I will give him a portion among the great,\nAnd with the strong shall he divide spoil,\nBecause he poured out his life-blood,\nAnd was numbered with transgressors,\nAnd himself bore the sins of many,\nAnd interposed for transgressors.\n\nI. The Different Portraits of Jehovah's Servant. Isaiah 49-54 contains\nthree distinct portraits of the ideal servant of Jehovah. Each in turn\ndevelops characteristics suggested in the preceding. These descriptions\nare interspersed with exhortations addressed to Jehovah's servant Israel\nand assurances that God will fully restore Jerusalem and bring back her\nscattered children. These three portraits of the type of servant that\nJehovah required to realize his purpose in human history, together with\nthe earlier portrait in 42:1-7, supplement each other. In the first of\nthese four (42:1-7) the prophetic qualities of the servant are especially\nemphasized. Like the earlier prophets, he will not fail nor be discouraged\nuntil he has established justice in the earth. His task is to open blind\neyes and to deliver prisoners from the darkness of ignorance and sin in\nwhich they were sitting. In the second picture (49:1-9a) the world-wide\nmission of the servant is emphasized. He is called not only to gather the\noutcasts of Israel, but also as an apostle to bring light to all the\nnations of the earth. In this passage for the first time appears that note\nof suffering and ignominy which is the lot of the true servant of Jehovah.\nIn the third portrait (50:4-10) the servant is pictured as a disciple,\nattentively listening to the divine teachings, learning the lessons which\nwill fit him in turn to become a teacher of men. The last and fullest\npicture (52:13-53:12) describes at length his suffering. A strong contrast\nis drawn between his present shame and ignominy and the future glory and\nvictory which he will achieve through his voluntary and complete\nself-sacrifice. These pictures embody the prophet's ideal, and they can be\nfully understood only in the light of their historical background.\n\nII. The Prophet's Purpose. In his earlier poems this great unknown\nprophet dealt largely with the interpretation of Israel's past history\nand the proclamation of the coming deliverance (40-48). His chief aims in\nchapters 49-55 may be briefly epitomized as follows: (1) to interpret the\ninner meaning of the period of adversity through which the Jewish race was\nthen passing; (2) to make absolutely clear the character and quality of\nthe service that Jehovah required of his chosen people, if they were to\nrealize his purpose in human history; (3) to inspire them all to make the\nneeded sacrifices and thus to prove themselves true servants of Jehovah;\n(4) especially to make plain to the innocent and faithful sufferers in the\nJudean community the real meaning and value of their present shame and\nsuffering, if bravely and voluntarily borne.\n\nIII, Character and Condition of Those to Whom the Prophet Appealed. From\nthe allusions in the prophecies themselves it is possible to determine the\nclasses that the prophet had in mind. In 49:2 his address is to the coast\nlands and the distant peoples who lived at the extremities of Israel's\nhorizon. It is not probable, however, that he anticipated that his message\nin its present form would go out as it has to all races and nations;\nrather his attention was fixed on the scattered members of his own race,\nthose who lived in the north and the west and in the distant city of\nSyene, far up the Nile (49:12). In 49:3 he clearly identifies the nation\nIsrael as Jehovah's servant, whom he makes declare:\n\nJehovah said to me, Thou art my servant,\nIsrael, in whom I will glorify myself.\n\nIt is evident, however, that the prophet has especially in mind the Judean\ncommunity amidst which he lived and for which he worked. In 54, as\nelsewhere, he calls upon this group of discouraged Jews to enlarge their\ntent, for their period of punishment is over and their foundation and\nwalls are about to be rebuilt. At last they shall cease to tremble at the\nfury of the oppressor. In 51:18-20 he addresses Jerusalem directly and\ngives a vivid picture of its condition before the appearance of Nehemiah:\n\nRouse thee! Rouse thee! stand up, O Jerusalem,\nWho hast drunk at Jehovah's hand the cup of his wrath!\nThe bowl of reeling thou hast drunken, hast drained!\nThere is none to guide thee of all the sons whom thou hast borne,\nAnd none to take thee by the hand of all the sons whom thou hast reared.\nThese two things have befallen thee--who can condole with thee?\nDesolation and destruction, famine and the sword--who can comfort thee?\n\nIV. The Task and Training of Jehovah's Servant. The term servant means\nliterally slave, not in the Western sense, but in that of the ancient\nEast, where a slave was often a privileged member of society. In many a\nHebrew household the slaves, next to the children, enjoyed the protection\nand consideration of the master of the household. He was under obligation\nto guard their welfare and interests. On the other hand, slaves, like\nEleazar in the story of Abraham (Gen. 26) faithfully cared for the\ninterests of their master and spared no effort to carry out his commands.\nSemitic usage had also given the term slave a significant meaning. The\nfaithful officials of all Oriental kings called themselves his servants\nor slaves. It was the common term expressing, on the one hand, confidence\nand protection, and on the other, devotion, loyalty, and service. Most of\nIsrael's patriarchs, kings, and prophets are spoken of as the servants or\nslaves of Jehovah. Haggai, in his address to Zerubbabel, called him\nJehovah's servant. In Deuteronomy 32:36 the people of Israel are called\nthe servants of Jehovah, and, as has been noted, in the prophecies of the\nII Isaiah they are frequently referred to as the servant of Jehovah.\nThe term, therefore, was well chosen to express that complete devotion\nAnd loyalty to Jehovah which the prophet aimed to evoke from his\nfellow-countrymen. It was also free from the kingly associations and\nmaterial interpretation that were connected with the word Messiah.\n\nThe prophet's aim was to present so vividly the task and methods of the\ntrue servant of Jehovah that all would recognize a personal call to duty.\nHe emphasizes three distinct yet related elements in the mission of the\nservant. They were: (1) To free the prisoners from their captivity,\nwhether imprisoned by walls of stone or brick or under the tyranny of\nfears and false ideas. (2) To restore the scattered tribes of Israel and\nthus to lay the foundations for a renewed national life that would furnish\nconcrete evidence to all the world of Jehovah's power to deliver. (3) To\ngo beyond the narrow bounds of their race and to bring to the nations that\nwere groping in the darkness of heathenism the knowledge and truth that\nhad been imparted to Israel. Thus the unknown prophet laid the foundations\nfor that Kingdom of God, that dominion of God in nature and in the minds\nof men that was the guide and inspiration of all later prophets and the\ngoal for whose realization the Great Teacher and Prophet of Nazareth\nlabored and died.\n\nThe prophet places great emphasis upon the training of Jehovah's servant.\nHe declares that from birth Jehovah formed him to be his servant. In\n[50:4-7] he is spoken of as a trained disciple attentively listening to\nthe words of his divine teacher, never rebelling at the bitterness of the\nneedful discipline, but ever seeking to prepare himself to give to the\nfainting a word of help. The steadfastness with which he endures shame and\nbitter wrongs is the evidence of his ability as a disciple and an\nessential part in his preparation for his exalted mission.\n\nV. Methods of Jehovah's Servant. In accomplishing his task the servant\nis to use definite instruction, but his teaching is to be illustrated by\nhis own character and attitude. By the voluntary, uncomplaining endurance\nof ignominy and suffering he is to do Jehovah's work and win the grateful\nrecognition, not only of his divine Master, but of all succeeding\ngenerations. Through a keen analysis of life the prophet had attained to a\nclear appreciation of the inestimable value of voluntary self-sacrifice.\nHe saw that it was the most effective means of uplifting the race and\nleading mankind to accept God's mastery over their minds and lives. The\ntruth here presented is illustrated in human experience as clearly to-day\nas in the past. The self-denying service of parents is absolutely\nessential if their children are to attain to the noblest manhood and\nwomanhood. Only through the self-sacrificing labors of those who love\ntheir fellow-men can social evils be removed and society attain its\nhighest development. The low standards in the business and professional\nworld can be raised only as certain men, with the spirit and courage of\nthe ancient prophets, make their own personal interests and popularity\nsubservient to the rigorous demands of justice. It is the law of life that\nhe who would elevate the standards of his associates and thus lead men to\nthe fullest realization of the divine ideals must ordinarily do it in the\nface of opposition, ignominy, and seeming failure. It is this quiet,\nheroic self-sacrifice--the heroism of the commonplace--that the great\nprophet proclaims is the absolutely essential characteristic of Jehovah's\nservant. Despised by his contemporaries, the victim of persecution and\ncalamity, he must do his task, leaving the reward and the appreciation to\nJehovah and to the enlightened sense of later generations.\n\nVI. Realization of the Ideal of Service. The portrait is so concrete\nthat the question naturally arises, Who was the servant of whom the\nprophet was speaking? Undoubtedly the tragic experiences of such prophets\nas Jeremiah suggested many elements in the picture. For half a century\nthat faithful servant of Jehovah suffered, often shrinkingly, yet\nvoluntarily, a constant martyrdom. Upon him fell the persecutions of his\ncountrymen. Yet in the life of later Judaism those principles for which he\nlived and died gained acceptance and application. Of him it may be truly\nsaid:\n\nHe was numbered with trangressors,\nAnd himself bore the sins of many,\nAnd interposed for transgressors.\n\nThe unknown author of these immortal poems spoke out of the depth of his\nown painful experience and doubtless in a large degree realized the\nideals of service which he thus effectively set forth. Those of his\ncontemporaries who, amidst persecution and insults, in their lives\nembodied the ideals of the earlier prophets were crushed like Jeremiah\nbecause of the iniquities of others; but by thus pouring out their\nlife-blood they brought healing to their race. Nehemiah, in responding to\nthe call of service and in turning his back upon the allurements of the\nPersian court in order to rebuild the city of his fathers, proved himself\na faithful servant of Jehovah. With true insight the Christian Church\nhas always recognized that in the character and life of Jesus is found\nthe only complete realization of this ancient ideal of service. With the\nimmortal chapters of the II Isaiah he was clearly familiar, and from\nthem he doubtless received many suggestions regarding his divine mission\nand the methods by which it was to be accomplished. Their author was\nclearly speaking to his contemporaries; but in portraying the way in\nwhich Jehovah's purpose in human history could alone be realized he\npresented an ideal which has a permanent significance in the thought of\nthe human race, Paul rightly recognized that the same responsibility to\nmake this ideal a reality rested upon him, and all who would serve God,\nwhen he quoted the words of 49:6 (cf. Acts 13:47):\n\n\"I have set thee for a light of the Gentiles\nThat thou shouldst be for salvation to the uttermost parts of the earth.\"\n\n\n\nSection C. NEHEMIAH'S WORK IN REBUILDING THE WALLS OF JERUSALEM\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 1:1-3]\nNow in the month of Chislev [November-December, 446 B.C.], I was in\nShushan the royal palace, when Hanani, one of my kinsmen came, together\nwith certain men from Judah, and I asked them concerning the Jews who had\nescaped, who were left from the captivity, and concerning Jerusalem. And\nthey said to me, The survivors who are left from the captivity there in\nthe provinces are in great misfortune and reproach, and the wall of\nJerusalem is broken down and its gates have been destroyed by fire.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 1:4-11b]\nNow when I heard these statements I sat down and wept, and mourned certain\ndays; and I fasted and made supplication before the God of heaven, and I\nsaid, 'I beseech thee, O Jehovah, the God of heaven, the great and\nterrible God, who keepeth the covenant and showeth kindness to them who\nlove and keep his commands; let thine ears now be attentive and thine eyes\nopen, to hear the supplication of thy servant, which I am now making\nbefore thee, day and night, for the Israelites thy servants, while I\nconfess the sins of the Israelites, which we have sinned against thee, as\nI also and my father's house have sinned. We have dealt very wickedly\nagainst thee, and have not kept the commandments, nor the statutes, nor\nthe ordinances, which thou didst command thy servant Moses. Remember, I\nbeseech thee, the word which thou didst command thy servant Moses, saying,\n\"If ye trespass I will scatter you abroad among the peoples; but if ye\nreturn to me, and keep my commands and do them, then, though your outcasts\nwere at the ends of the earth, yet will I gather them thence and will\nbring them to the place that I have chosen, there to cause my name to\ndwell.\" Now these are thy servants and thy people, whom thou hast redeemed\nby thy great power and by thy strong hand. O Lord, I beseech thee, let\nthine ear be attentive to the supplication of thy servant, and to the\nsupplications of thy servants, who delight to fear thy name; and give\nsuccess to thy servant this day, and grant him mercy in the sight of this\nman.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 1:11c-2:8]\nNow I was cupbearer to the king. And it came to pass in the month of\nNisan, in the twentieth year of Artaxerxes the king, when I had charge of\nthe wine, that I took up the wine and gave it to the king, and I had not\nbeforetime been sad. And the king said to me, 'Why is your countenance\nsad, since you are not sick? This is nothing else but sorrow of heart.'\nThen I was greatly afraid, and I said to the king, 'Let the king live\nforever: why should not my countenance be sad, when the city, the place of\nmy fathers' sepulchres, lies in ruins, and its gates have been destroyed\nby fire?' And then the king said to me, 'For what do you make request? So\nI prayed to the God of heaven. And I said to the king, 'If it please the\nking, and if your servant has found favor in your sight, that you would\nsend me to Judah, to the city of my fathers' sepulchres, that I may\nrebuild it.' And the king said to me (and the queen was also sitting by\nhim), 'For how long will your journey be? And when will you return?' Then\nit pleased the king to send me; for I set him a time. Moreover I said to\nthe king, 'If it please the king, let official letters be given me to the\ngovernors of the province beyond the River, that they may let me pass\nthrough until I come to Judah, and a letter to Asaph the keeper of the\nking's park, that he may give me the timber to make beams for the gates of\nthe castle, which belongs to the temple, and for the wall of the city, and\nfor the house that I shall enter. And the king granted me this, according\nto the hand of my God which kindly cared for me.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 2:9-16]\nThen I came to the governors of the province beyond the River, and gave\nthem the king's official letters. Now the king had sent with me military\nofficers and horsemen. And when Sanballat, the Horonite, and Tobiah, the\nAmmonite slave, heard of it, it troubled them exceedingly, that one had\ncome to seek the welfare of the Israelites. So I came to Jerusalem and was\nthere three days. And I arose in the night, together with a few of my\nfollowers, and I told no man what my God had put into my heart to do for\nJerusalem, neither was there any beast with me, except the beast upon\nwhich I rode. And I went out by night through the Valley Gate, toward the\nDragon's Well and to the Dung Gate, and investigated carefully the walls\nof Jerusalem, which were broken down, and where its gates had been\ndestroyed by fire. Then I went on to the Fountain Gate and to the King's\nPool, but there was no place for the beast that was under me to pass. Then\nI went up in the night by the Brook Kidron and investigated carefully the\nwall; then I turned back and entered by the Valley Gate, and so returned.\nAnd the rulers did not know where I went or what I did, neither had I as\nyet told it to the Jews nor to the priests nor to the nobles nor to the\nrulers nor to the rest who did the work.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 2:17-20]\nThen I said to them, 'You see the bad condition in which we are, how\nJerusalem lies in ruins and its gates are destroyed by fire. Come and let\nus rebuild the wall of Jerusalem, that we be no more an object of\nreproach.' And I told them of the hand of my God, which had kindly cared\nfor me, as also of the king's words that he had spoken to me. And they\nsaid, 'Let us rise up and build.' So they strengthened their hands for the\ngood work. But when Sanballat, the Horonite, and Tobiah, the Ammonite\nslave, and Geshem the Arabian heard it, they jeered at us and despised us,\nand said, 'What is this thing that you are doing? Will you rebel against\nthe king?' Then I answered and said to them, 'The God of heaven, he will\ngive us success, for we his servants will proceed to build; but you shall\nhave no portion nor right nor memorial in Jerusalem.'\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 3:1, 2]\nThen Eliashib the high priest rose up with his kinsmen the priests and\nbuilt the Sheep Gate; they laid its beams and set up the doors, even to\nthe Tower of the Hundred, and to the Tower of Hananel. And next to him the\nmen of Jericho built. And next to them Zaccur the son of Imri built.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 3:3-5]\nAnd the Fish Gate the sons of Hassenaah built; they laid its beams, and\nset up its doors, its bolts, and its bars. And next to them Meremoth and\nMeshullam and Zadok and the Tekoites repaired the wall; but their nobles\ndid not bend their necks in the service of their lord.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 3:6-12]\nAnd the Old Gate Joida repaired; they laid its beams, and set up its\ndoors, its bolts, and its bars. And next to them Melatiah the Gibeonite\nand Jadon the Meronothite, the men of Gibeon and of Mizpah, which belongs\nto the jurisdiction of the governor of the province beyond the River,\nrepaired. Next to him Uzziel, one of the goldsmiths, repaired. And next to\nhim Hananiah, one of those who prepare sweet ointments, repaired. And they\nfortified Jerusalem even to the broad wall. And next to them Rephaiah,\nthe ruler of half the district of Jerusalem, repaired. And next to them\nJedaiah repaired opposite his house. And next to him Hattush and Malchijah\nand Hasshub repaired another section, even to the Tower of the Furnaces.\nAnd next to him Shallum, the ruler of half the district of Jerusalem,\ntogether with its dependencies, repaired.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 3:13, 14]\nThe Valley Gate Hanun and the inhabitants of Zanoah repaired; they built\nit, and set up its doors, its bolts, and its bars, and also built a\nthousand cubits of the wall to the Dung Gate. And the Dung Gate Malchijah,\nthe ruler of the district of Beth-haccherem, together with his sons,\nrepaired.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 3:15-27]\nAnd the Fountain Gate Shallun, the ruler of the district of Mizpah,\nrepaired; and he built it, and covered it, and set up its doors, its\nbolts, and its bars, and he also built the wall of the Pool of Siloam by\nthe King's Garden, even to the stairs that go down from the city of David.\nAfter him Nehemiah, the ruler of half the district of Bethzur, repaired to\nthe place opposite the Sepulchres of David, even to the pool that was made\nand to the House of the Warriors. After him Rehum the son of Bani\nrepaired. Next to him Hashabiah, the ruler of half the district of Keilah,\nrepaired for his district. After him their kinsmen Bennui, the ruler of\nhalf the district of Keilah, repaired. And next to him Ezer, the ruler of\nMizpah, repaired another section opposite the ascent to the armory at the\nbend in the wall. After him Baruch repaired from the bend in the wall to\nthe door of the house of Eliashib the high priest. After him Meremoth\nrepaired another section, from the entrance to the house of Eliashib even\nto the end of the house of Eliashib. And after him the priests, the men of\nthe Plain of the Jordan, repaired. After them Benjamin and Hasshub\nrepaired opposite their house. After them Azariah repaired beside his own\nhouse. After him Binnui repaired another section, from the house of\nAzariah to the bend in the wall and to the corner. After him Palal\nrepaired opposite the bend and the upper tower that stands out from the\nroyal palace of the king, which is toward the court of the guard. After\nhim Pedaiah repaired, to the place opposite the Water Gate toward the east\nand the tower that stands out. After him the Tekoites repaired another\nsection, opposite the great tower that stands out and to the wall of\nOphel. And the temple servants dwelt in Ophel.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 3:28-32]\n\nAbove the Horse Gate the priests repaired, each one opposite his own\nhouse. After them Zadok the son of Immer repaired opposite his own house.\nAfter him Shemaiah the son of Shechaniah, the keeper of the East Gate,\nrepaired. After him Hananiah the son of Shelemiah and Hanum the sixth son\nof Zalaph repaired another section. After him Meshullam the son of\nBerschiah repaired opposite his chamber. After him Malchijah, one of the\ngoldsmiths, repaired as far as the house of the temple servants and of the\nmerchants, opposite the Gate of the Watch Tower and to the ascent of the\ncorner. And between the ascent of the corner and the Sheep Gate the\ngoldsmiths and the merchants repaired.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 4:1-5]\nNow when Sanballat heard that we were rebuilding the wall, his anger was\naroused and he was very indignant, and mocked the Jews. And he spoke\nbefore his kinsmen and the army of Samaria and said, 'What are these\nfeeble Jews doing? Will they leave it to God? Will they sacrifice?\nWill they complete it in a day? Will they revive the stones out of the\nheaps of rubbish, although they are burned? Now Tobiah the Ammonite was\nwith him, and he said, 'Even that which they are building, if a fox should\ngo up on it, he would break down their stone wall!' Hear, O our God--for\nwe are despised--and turn back their reproach upon their own head and give\nthem up as an object of spoil in a land of captivity, and cover not their\niniquity and let not their sin be blotted out from thy sight, for they\nhave provoked thee to anger before the builders.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 4:6-8]\nSo we built the wall; and all the wall was joined together to half its\nheight, for the people were eager to work. But when Sanballat and Tobiah\nand the Arabians and the Ammonites and the Ashdodites, heard that the\nrestoration of the walls of Jerusalem was progressing, so that the\nbreaches began to be stopped, they were very angry. And they all conspired\ntogether to come and fight against Jerusalem and to produce a panic\ntherein.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 4:9-14]\nBut we made supplication to our God, and set a watch as a protection\nagainst them day and night. Then the Judean community said, 'The strength\nof the burden-bearers is broken, for there is much rubbish; so that we\nshall not be able to rebuild the wall. And our adversaries have said,\n\"They shall neither know nor see, until we come into their midst and slay\nthem and bring the work to a standstill.\"' And it came to pass that when\nthe Jews who dwelt by them came, they said to us ten times, 'From all the\nplaces where they dwell they will come up against us.' Therefore I\nstationed in the lowest parts of the space behind the wall, in the\nprotected places, I set there the people by their families with their\nswords, their spears, and their bows. And when I saw their fear, I rose up\nand said to the nobles and to the rulers and to the rest of the people,\n'Be not afraid of them. Remember the Lord, who is great and terrible, and\nfight for your kinsmen, your sons and your daughters, your wives and your\nhomes.'\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 4:15-23]\nAnd when our enemies heard that their plan was known to us and God had\nbrought it to nought, we all of us returned to the wall, each to his own\nwork. And from that time on, while half of my servants were engaged in the\nwork, half of them held the lances, the shields, the bows, and the coats\nof mail; and the rulers stood behind all the house of Judah. Those who\nbuilt the wall and those who bore burdens were also armed, each with one\nof his hands engaged in the work, and with the other was ready to grasp\nhis spear; and each of the builders had his sword girded by his side, and\nso builded. And he who sounded the trumpet was by me. And I said to the\nnobles and to the rulers and to the rest of the people, 'The work is great\nand extensive, and we are separated upon the wall far from each other. In\nwhatever place you hear the sound of the trumpet, gather there to us; our\nGod will fight for us.' So we were active in the work, while half of them\nheld the lances from the gray of morning until the stars came out. Also I\nsaid at that time to the people, Let each man with his servant lodge in\nJerusalem, that they may be a guard to us by night and may labor by day.\nSo neither I, nor my kinsmen, nor my servants, nor the men of the guard\nwho accompanied me, not one of us took off our clothes, each had his spear\nin his hand.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 6:1-9]\nNow when it was reported to Sanballat and to Tobiah and to Geshem the\nArabian and to the rest of our enemies, that I had rebuilt the wall and\nthat there was no breach was left in it--though even to that time I had\nnot set up the doors in the gates--Sanballat and Geshem sent to me,\nsaying, 'Come, let us meet together in one of the villages on the plain of\nOno.' But they planned to do me injury. So I sent messengers to them,\nsaying, 'I am doing a great work, so that I cannot come down; why should\nthe work cease, while I leave it and come down to you?' And they sent to\nme in this way four times, and I gave them the same answer. Then Sanballat\nsent his servant to me in the same way the fifth time with an open letter\nin his hand, in which was written, 'It is reported among the nations, and\nGashmu confirms it, that you and the Jews plan to rebel, and that this is\nthe reason you are building the wall, and that you would be their king,\nand that you also have appointed prophets to preach of you at Jerusalem,\nsaying, \"There is a king in Judah.\" And now it will be reported to the\nking to this effect. Come now, therefore, and let us take counsel\ntogether.' Then I sent to him, saying, 'No such things have been done as\nyou say, but you have devised them in your own mind.' For they all would\nhave made us afraid, thinking, 'Their hands shall be weakened from the\nwork, that it may not be done.' But now, O God, strengthen thou my hands.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 6:10-14]\nAnd when I went to the house of Shemaiah the son of Delaiah, the son of\nMehetabel, who was shut up at home, he said, 'Let us meet together in the\nhouse of God, within the temple, and let us shut the doors of the temple:\nfor they are coming to slay you in the night; yes, in the night they are\ncoming to slay you!' And I said, 'Should such a man as I flee? And how\ncould anyone like me [a layman] enter the chief room of the temple and\nstill live? I will not enter.' Then I perceived and it was clear that God\nhad not sent him; but he pronounced this prophecy against me, because\nTobiah and Sanballat had hired him, that I should be alarmed and act\naccordingly and sin; and it would have given them occasion for an evil\nreport, that they might reproach me. Remember, O my God, Tobiah and\nSanballat according to these their acts, and also the prophetess Noadiah\nand the rest of the prophets who would have made me afraid.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 6:15, 16]\nSo the wall was finished in the twenty-fifth day of the month Elul, in\nfifty-two days. And when all our enemies heard, all the surrounding\nnations feared and fell in their own esteem, for they perceived that this\nwork had been done by our God.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 6:17-19]\nMoreover in those days the nobles of Judah sent many letters to Tobiah,\nand those of Tobiah came to them. For many in Judah had taken oath to him,\nbecause he was the son-in-law of Shechaniah the son of Arah and his son\nJehohanan had taken the daughter of Meshullam, the son of Berechiah, as\nwife. Also they praised his good deeds before me and reported my words to\nhim. Then Tobiah sent letters to make me afraid.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 7:1-3]\nNow when the wall had been built and I had set up the doors, and the\nporters and the singers and the Levites had been appointed, I placed my\nbrother Hanani and Hananiah the commander of the castle in charge of\nJerusalem; for he was a faithful man, and more God-fearing than many. And\nI said to them, 'Let not the gates of Jerusalem be opened until the sun is\nhot; and while watchmen are still on guard, let them shut the doors and\nbar them. Also appoint watches consisting of the inhabitants of Jerusalem,\nevery one in his watch and each opposite his own house.'\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 7:4, 5a]\nNow the city was wide and large; but there were few people in it, and the\nhouseholds were not large. Therefore my God put it into my mind to gather\ntogether the nobles and the rulers and the people.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 12: 31, 32, 37-40]\nThen I had the rulers of Judah take their position upon the wall, and I\nappointed two great companies that gave thanks, and the first went to the\nright hand upon the wall toward the Dung Gate. And behind them went\nHoshaiah and half of the nobles of Judah. And by the Fountain Gate, they\nwent straight up the stairs of the city of David, at the ascent of the\nwall, above the house of David, even to the Water Gate on the east. And\nthe other company of those who gave thanks went to the left, and I after\nthem, with the half of the nobles of the people, upon the wall, above the\nTower of the Furnaces, even to the broad wall, and above the Gate of\nEphraim and by the Old Gate and by the Fish Gate and the Tower of Hananel\nand the Tower of the Hundred, even to the Sheep Gate; and they stood in\nthe Gate of the Guard. So the two companies of those who gave thanks in\nthe house of God took their position, and I, and the half of the rulers\nwith me.\n\nI. Nehemiah's Memoirs. Fortunately the author of the books of Ezra and\nNehemiah has quoted at length in the opening chapters of Nehemiah from the\npersonal memoirs of the noble patriot through whose activity the walls of\nJerusalem were restored. They are the best historical records in the Old\nTestament and they shed clear, contemporary light upon this most important\nperiod in the evolution of Judaism. The narrative is straightforward and\nvivid. It lights up the otherwise dark period that precedes Nehemiah and\nenables the historian to bridge with assurance the century that intervened\nbefore the apocryphal book of I Maccabees throws its light upon the course\nof Israel's troubled history. The detailed description of the rebuilding\nof the walls in Nehemiah 3 is probably from the Chronicler, but it reveals\nan intimate acquaintance with the topography and the later history of\nJudah's capital.\n\nII. Nehemiah's Response to the Call to Service. The presence of a\ndeputation from Jerusalem (including Nehemiah's kinsman Hanani) in\nthe distant Persian capital of Susa was not a mere accident. Nehemah's\nresponse to their appeal and the epoch-making movement which he\ninaugurated reveal the presence of an impelling force. Probably back of\nall this movement was the work of the great prophet who speaks in Isaiah\n40-66. In all that Nehemiah did that influence may be seen. In the fervent\nand patriotic prayer that he uttered on learning of conditions in\nJerusalem he used the term servant or servants of Jehovah eight times in\nsix short verses. It also echoes the phraseology and thought of the II\nIsaiah.\n\nThe king under whom Nehemiah served was evidently Artaxerxes I. In\nNehemiah 12:10-11 the Chronicler states that Eliashib, the high priest\nin the days of Nehemiah, was the grandson of Joshua, who shared in\nthe rebuilding of the temple in 520 B.C. Eliashib was also the\ngreat-grandfather of Jaddua, who was high priest in Jerusalem in 332 B.C.,\nwhen Alexander conquered Palestine. References in the recently discovered\nElephantine letters, as well as in the history of Josephus, confirm the\nconclusion that Nehemiah set out upon his expedition in the spring of\n445 B.C. Like all those who ministered personally to the Persian kings,\nhe was probably a eunuch and still a young man. The true piety which is\nrevealed in his prayer, the courage shown by his daring to appear with sad\nface in the presence of the absolute tyrant who ruled the Eastern world,\nand his tact in winning the king's consent to his departure indicate that\nhe was a man of rare energy and ability. Artaxerxes I was famous for\nhis susceptibility to the influence of court favorites. The queen\nreferred to in 1:6 was probably the queen-mother Amestris, who exercised\ncommanding authority in the Persian court. Without the royal consent and\nthe resources and authority granted him, Nehemiah could hardly have\naccomplished the large task which he undertook. The arduous journey of\nfifteen hundred miles over mountains and barren deserts was enough to\ndaunt a man reared in the luxury of an Oriental court, but Nehemiah was\ninspired by an ideal of service which recognized no obstacles.\n\nIII. Obstacles that Confronted Him. The high-priestly rulers do not\nappear to have welcomed Nehemiah with enthusiasm. Some of them, at least,\nlater sought to undermine his work. It is not difficult to infer the\nreason for their apathy. Intrenched wealth and authority are usually\nconservative, especially if conscious that their position is easily\nassailable. As the sequel proved, these leaders of the community were\nsimply intent upon self-aggrandizement, even at the expense of the\ndependent members of the community. A revolutionizing work like that\nproposed by Nehemiah was certain to affect their vested interests and to\nreveal their cruel selfishness. Certain of their families had also\nintermarried with neighboring chieftains; and they were quite content with\nthe existing conditions. A second obstacle was the opposition of the\nhostile peoples who surrounded the little Judean community. On the east\nthe Ammonites had apparently pressed in and occupied the ancient Hebrew\nterritory as far as the Jordan. Tobiah, the Ammonite, who figures\nprominently in Nehemiah's narrative, was probably one of their local\nchiefs. Gashmu, the Arabian, represented the half-civilized Bedouin tribes\nthat had invaded the territory of Judea from the south and east during the\nperiod of weakness following the destruction of Jerusalem. Possibly he\nbelonged to the Edomites who then held Hebron and all of the southern part\nof Judea. Nehemiah also refers to the descendents of Israel's ancient\nfoes, the Philistines, living in the city of Ashdod. On the north the\nsuperior resources of Samaria had asserted themselves, and these survivors\nof the ancient Israelites who lived among the hills of Ephraim had grown\ninto a powerful nation that overshadowed the struggling Judean community.\nThese northerners, however, still worshipped at Jerusalem and were closely\nallied with the Jews. At their head was Sanballat, the Horonite, who\nprobably came from Bethhoron, in southwestern Samaria. Each of these\npeoples inherited the feeling of hostility with which their fathers had\nregarded the people of Judah, and looked with suspicion upon any movement\nto re-establish Jerusalem's former strength and prestige. Furthermore, the\nmen of the Judean community itself lacked courage and training. With\ninefficient helpers and with opponents within and without the community,\nNehemiah's task seemed well-nigh impossible. That he succeeded in the face\nof all these obstacles in rebuilding the walls in the incredibly short\nperiod of fifty-two days is only explained by his superlative skill,\ndevotion, and energy.\n\nIV. Nehemiah's Plan of Work. Fortunately Nehemiah possessed resources as\nwell as tact. He quickly disarmed the opposition and won at least the\nnominal support of the leaders by entertaining one hundred and fifty of\nthem as his guests. Thus he was able to place them under personal\nobligation to him, to keep them under close surveillance, and to command\ntheir co-operation. In the second place he appealed to them and to the\npeople by means of eloquent addresses which reveal his enthusiasm and\ndevotion. Furthermore, he did not depend upon the reports of others, but\npersonally studied the situation. His secret mid-night ride down through\nthe Valley Gate to the southwest of Jerusalem and thence eastward along\nthe Hinnom Valley to the point where it joins the Kidron, and from there\nup the valley, gave him most accurate information regarding conditions. In\nmost cases the ancient foundations of the city walls still remained. The\nfirst need was to remove the rubbish and where stones had fallen to\nreplace them. The towers required certain timbers, which were cut probably\nfrom the royal domains to the south of the city. Nehemiah enlisted all\nmembers of the community both within and without Jerusalem. He organized\nthem under their local leaders and set them to the task in which each was\nmost interested. Thus the heads of the different villages, the elders of\nthe leading families, the guilds of workmen, and even the priests, were\nall put to work and inspired by the spirit of natural rivalry as well as\ncommon loyalty. Nehemiah himself with his immediate followers directed the\nwork, and instituted a strict military rule which secured both efficiency\nand protection.\n\nV. The Restored Walls. In the light of recent excavations at Jerusalem\nit is possible to follow Nehemiah's work in detail. In the destruction of\nthe walls by the Chaldeans the city had suffered most on the north where\nit was nearly level and protected by no descending valleys. Just north of\nthe temple area a little valley ran up from the Kidron, leaving but a\nnarrow neck of land connected directly with the plateau on the north. Here\ntwo great towers were restored that probably occupied the site of the\nlater Roman tower of Antonia. Thence the wall ran westward across the\nupper Tyropoean Valley, which was here comparatively level. Numerous\nbands of workmen were assigned to this part of the work. The gate of the\nold wall was probably identical with the corner gate at the northwestern\nend of the city. The Ephraim Gate a little further to the southwest\napparently corresponded to the modern Joppa Gate. From this point a broad\nwall ran to the western side of the city where the hill descended rapidly\ninto the Valley of Hinnom, making its defence easy. At the southwestern\nend of the city stood the Tower of the Furnaces and the Valley Gate of\nwhich the foundations have recently been laid bare. The gate itself was\nnarrow, being only eight feet wide, but the wall was here nine feet in\nthickness. The eighteen hundred or two thousand feet of wall along the\nValley of Hinnom was evidently practically intact, for its repair was\nIntrusted to but one group of workmen. Across the southern end of the\nTyropoean Valley the ground was almost level, so that a strong wall was\nrequired. Excavations have shown that it was twenty feet thick at its base\nand supported by six strong buttresses. The Fountain Gate, through which\nran the main street down the Tyropoean Valley out into the valley of the\nKidron, was the chief southern gate of the city. It was nine feet wide\nand defended by a tower about forty-five feet square. Portions of this\nancient thoroughfare, with its stones, worn smooth by the feet of the\ninhabitants of the ancient city, have here been uncovered. Just above the\nPool of Siloam, which was within the city walls, was the King's Garden.\n\nThence the Hill of Ophel ascended rapidly making necessary the stairs\nmentioned in Nehemiah 3. The wall on the southeast was readily repaired,\nfor it ran along the sloping western side of the Kidron Valley. The Water\nGate probably led down to the Virgin's Fount, and the Horse Gate further\nto the north opened directly from the Kidron Valley to the public\nbuildings that occupied the site of Solomon's palace immediately to the\nsouth of the temple. It is the space to-day occupied by the southern end\nof the temple area, which was thus extended in the days of Herod. Opposite\nthe northeastern end of the temple area the wall curved westward until it\nreached the great towers that guarded the northern end of the city.\n\nVI. Completion and Dedication of the Walls. Under the inspiration of\nNehemiah's leadership, and as a result of the constant fear of attack, the\nbuilding of the walls proceeded rapidly and without interruption. To the\nthreats of hostile foes Nehemiah paid little heed. Trained in the Persian\ncourt, he saw at once their murderous purpose when they requested a\nconference in southwestern Samaria on the border of the Plain of Ono.\nThrough the treacherous prophets in the Judean community they sought to\nplay upon his fears and to lead him to compromise himself by taking refuge\nin the sacred precincts of the temple, but his courage, as well as his\nhigh respect for the sanctuary, delivered him from the plot. The cry that\nhe was himself aspiring to the kingship and that his acts were treason\nagainst Persia did not daunt him, and when, in response to their malicious\nreports, the order finally came from the Persian king to cease working,\nthe walls were already rebuilt.\n\nApparently Nehemiah's original leave of absence was for but a short\nperiod. His kinsman Hanani, who had headed the original deputation to\nSusa, and a certain Hananiah were by him placed in charge of the city. To\nprotect it against sudden attack its gates were closed at night and not\nopened until the middle of the following forenoon. Effective measures\nwere also instituted to increase its population. When the work of\nrebuilding the walls was complete, Nehemiah arranged for their public\ndedication. Starting from the Valley Gate on the southwestern side of the\ncity, one half of the nobles and the people marched along the southern\nand eastern wall, while Nehemiah with the other half of the people\nproceeded along the western and northern wall. Finally meeting on the\nnorthern side of the temple area, the two companies blended their voices\nin thanksgiving to Jehovah who at last had made it possible for them to\nworship him in his sanctuary secure from attack.\n\nNehemiah had reorganized the Judean community, rebuilt their walls, and\ninspired them with a new sense of self-respect; thus he made possible\nthat genuine revival of the Judean state that took place during the\nsucceeding centuries. He, like Ezekiel, Haggai, Zechariah, and the II\nIsaiah, was indeed one of the makers of Judaism. Ben Sira with true\ninsight declared (49:13):\n\nThe memorial of Nehemiah is great,\nWho raised up for us the walls that were fallen,\nAnd set up the gates and bars,\nAnd raised up our homes again.\n\n\n\nSection CI. NEHEMIAH'S SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS REFORMS\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 56:1, 2]\nThus saith Jehovah,\nGuard justice and practice righteousness.\nFor my deliverance is near at hand, and my righteousness is soon to be\n  revealed.\nHappy the man who practices, the mortal who holds fast to it,\nKeeping the sabbath so as not to profane it, and keeping his hand from\n  evil.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 56:3-5]\nLet not the foreigner who hath joined himself to Jehovah say,\n'Jehovah will surely separate me from his people.'\nAnd let not the eunuch say, 'Behold I am a dry tree.'\nFor thus saith Jehovah to the eunuchs, 'Those who keep my sabbaths,\nAnd choose that in which I delight, and hold fast to my covenant,\nI will give them in my house and walls a monument,\nAnd a name better than sons and daughters,\nAn everlasting name will I give them which cannot be cut off.\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 56:6-8]\nAnd the foreigners who join themselves to Jehovah to minister to him,\nAnd to love the name of Jehovah, to be his servants,\nEvery one who keeps the sabbath so as not to pollute it and faithfully\n  abides by my covenant--\nThem will I bring to my holy mountain and make joyful in my house of\n  prayer;\nTheir burnt-offerings and sacrifices will be accepted upon my altar;\nFor my house shall be called a house of prayer for all peoples.\nIt is the oracle of Jehovah, who gathereth the outcasts of Israel,\n'I will gather still others to him in addition to those already gathered.'\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 56:9-12]\nO all ye wild beasts of the field come to devour, all ye wild beasts of\n  the forest!\nMy watchmen are all blind, they know not how to give heed,\nThey are all dumb dogs which cannot bark,\nDreaming, lying down, loving to slumber.\nAnd the dogs are greedy, they know not how to be satisfied,\nThey all turn to their own way, each for his own profit [saying],\nCome, I will get wine, and we will drink our fill of strong drink,\nAnd to-morrow shall be as to-day, an exceedingly great day!\n\n[Sidenote: Isa. 58:2-4]\nCry with full throat, be not silent!\nLike a trumpet lift up thy voice,\nMake known to my people their transgression,\nAnd to the house of Jacob their sin.\nMe indeed they consult daily,\nAnd to know my ways is their delight.\nAs a nation that hath done righteousness,\nAnd hath not forsaken the law of its God!\nThey ask me regarding righteous judgments,\nTo draw near to God is their delight!\n'Why have we fasted and thou seest not,\nMortified ourselves and thou dost not notice?'\nBehold, on your fast day ye follow your own pleasure,\nAnd ye exact all money lent on pledge.\nBehold ye fast for strife and contention,\nAnd to smite the poor with the fist.\nYour fasting to-day is not such\nAs to make your voice heard on high.\n\n[Sidenote: Cor. Isa. 58:5-7]\nCan such be the fast which I choose,\nA day when a man mortifies himself?\nTo droop one's head like a bulrush,\nAnd to lie down in sackcloth and ashes?\nWilt thou call this a fast,\nAnd a day acceptable to Jehovah?\nIs not this the fast that I choose:\nTo loose the fetters of injustice,\nTo untie the bands of violence,\nTo set free those who are crushed,\nTo tear apart every yoke?\n\n[Sidenote: Cor. Isa. 58:8-12]\nIs it not to share thy bread with the hungry,\nAnd to bring the wanderers to thy home?\nWhen thou seest the naked, to cover him,\nAnd not hide thyself from thine own flesh?\nThen shall thy light break forth as the dawn,\nThy restoration quickly spring forth,\nAnd thy righteousness shall go before thee,\nThe glory of Jehovah shall be thy reward;\nThen when thou callest Jehovah will answer,\nWhen thou criest out he will say, Here am I.\nIf from thy midst thou remove the yoke,\nThe finger of scorn, and mischievous speech,\nAnd bestow thy bread upon the hungry,\nAnd satisfy the soul that is afflicted;\nThen shall thy light shine forth in darkness,\nAnd thy gloom shall be as noonday,\nJehovah will lead thee continually,\nAnd will satisfy thy soul in parched lands,\nAnd thy strength will he renew,\nThou shalt be like a watered garden,\nAs a fountain whose waters fail not.\nThy sons shall rebuild the ancient ruins,\nThou shalt rear again the foundations of olden days;\nAnd men shall call thee, Repairer of Ruins,\nRestorer of Ruined Places for Inhabiting.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 5:1-5]\nThen there was a loud complaint from the common people and their wives\nagainst their fellow-countrymen the Jews. For there were those who were\nsaying, 'We must give our sons and our daughters in pledge to secure grain\nthat we may eat and live.' Some also there were who were saying, 'We must\nmortgage our fields and our vineyards and our houses, that we may get\ngrain because of the dearth.' There were also those who were saying, 'We\nhave borrowed money for the king's tribute. Yet now our flesh is as the\nflesh of our brothers, our children as their children; but now, we must\nring our sons and our daughters into slavery, and some of our daughters\nhave already thus been brought into bondage, neither is it in our power to\nhelp it, for our fields and our vineyards belong to the nobles.'\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 5:6-11]\nThen I was very angry when I heard their complaint and these statements.\nAnd I took counsel with myself, and contended with the nobles and rulers,\nand said to them, 'You exact usury each of his brother.' And I held a\ngreat assembly against them. And I said to them, 'We ourselves have,\naccording to our ability, redeemed our fellow-countrymen the Jews, who\nhave been sold to the heathen; and would you yourselves sell your\nfellow-countrymen, and should they sell themselves to us?' Then they were\nsilent and could not find a word to say. Therefore I said, 'The thing that\nyou are doing is not good. Ought you not to walk in the fear of our God,\nbecause of the reproach of the heathen our enemies? For I also, my kinsmen\nand my servants, lend them money and grain. Let us, therefore, leave off\nthis usury. Restore to them this day their fields, their vineyards, their\noliveyards, and their houses, also the usury of the money and of the\ngrain, of the new wine, and of the oil, that you exact from them.'\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 5:12, 13]\nThen they said, 'We will restore them and will demand nothing from them;\nwe will do just as you say.' Then I called the priests and took an oath of\nthem, that they would do according to this promise. Also I shook out the\nfold of my garment, and said, 'So may God shake out every man from his\nhouse and from the fruit of his labor, who does not fulfil this promise;\neven thus may he be shaken out and emptied.' And all the assembly said,\n'So may it be.' And they praised Jehovah. And the people did according to\nthis promise.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 5:14-19]\nMoreover from the time that I was appointed to be their governor in\nThe land of Judah, from the twentieth year (445 B.C.) even to the\nthirty-second year (432) of Artaxerxes the king, that is for twelve years,\nI and my kinsmen had not eaten the bread which was due me as governor. But\nthe former governors who were before me were a source of expense to the\npeople, and took of them bread and wine, and also forty shekels of silver\neach day; and furthermore their servants oppressed the people. But I did\nnot so, because of the fear of God. I also devoted myself to this work on\nthe wall, and we did not buy any land; and all my servants were gathered\nthere for the work. Also the Jews and the rulers, a hundred and fifty men,\nbesides those who came to us from among the surrounding nations, were at\nmy table. Now that which was prepared for each day was one ox and six\nchoice sheep and fowls. These were prepared at my expense, and once in ten\ndays wine in abundance for all the people. Yet with all this I did not\ndemand the bread which was due me as governor, because the public service\nrested heavily upon this people. Remember to my credit, O my God, all that\nI have done for this people.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 13:1-9]\nNow before my return from the king, Eliashib the priest, who was appointed\nover the chambers of the house of our God, being related to Tobiah, had\nprepared for him a great chamber, where formerly they had stored the\ncereal-offerings, the incense, the vessels, and the tithes of grain, the\nnew wine, and the oil. But during this time I had not been at Jerusalem;\nfor in the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes king of Babylon I went to the\nking. Then after some time I asked leave of the king, and I came to\nJerusalem and discovered the crime that Eliashib had committed for the\nSake of Tobiah, in preparing him a chamber in the court of the house of\nGod. And it displeased me greatly; therefore I cast all the household\npossessions of Tobiah out of the chamber. Then I gave command that they\nshould cleanse the chambers, and I brought there again the vessels of the\nhouse of God, with the cereal-offerings and the incense.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 13:10-14]\nAnd I perceived that the portions of the Levites had not been given them;\nso that the Levites and the singers, who performed the service had each\nfled to his field. Then I contended with the rulers and said, 'Why is the\nhouse of God forsaken?' And I gathered them together and placed them at\ntheir posts. And all Judah brought the tithe of the grain and the new wine\nand the oil into the store-rooms. And I appointed in charge of the\nstore-rooms: Shelemiah the priest and Zadok the scribe, and Pedaiah the\nLevite; for they were considered faithful, and their business was to\ndistribute to their kinsmen. Remember me, O my God, concerning this and\nforget not all my good deeds that I have done for the house of my God, and\nfor its services.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 13:15-22]\nAt that time I saw in Judah some men treading wine-presses on the sabbath\nand bringing in heaps of grain and loading asses, as also wine, grapes,\nfigs, and all kinds of burdens, and that they were bringing them into\nJerusalem on the sabbath; and I warned them when they sold provisions.\nTyrians also dwelt therein, who brought in fish and all kinds of wares,\nand sold on the sabbath to the inhabitants of Judah and in Jerusalem. Then\nI contended with the nobles of Judah and said to them, 'What evil thing is\nthis that you are doing, and thereby profaning the sabbath? Did not your\nfathers do thus and did not our God bring all this calamity upon them and\nupon us and upon this city? Yet you bring more wrath upon Israel by\nprofaning the sabbath.' Accordingly, when it began to be dark, the gates\nof Jerusalem were shut before the sabbath; and I gave command that they\nshould not be opened until after the sabbath. And I placed some of my\nservants in charge of the gates, and commanded that no burden should be\nbrought in on the sabbath. So the merchants and sellers of all kinds of\nwares spent the night without Jerusalem once or twice. Then I warned them\nand said to them, 'Why do you spend the night before the wall? If ye do\nso again, I will lay hands on you.' From that time forth they came no more\non the sabbath. Remember, O my God, this also to my credit and show me\nmercy according to the greatness of thy loving-kindness.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 13:23-27]\nAt that time also I saw the Jews who had married women of Ashdod, of\nAmmon, and of Moab. And their children spoke half in the language of\nAshdod, but none of them could speak in the Jews' language, but according\nto the language of each people. And I contended with them and cursed them\nand struck some of them and pulled out their hair and made them swear by\nGod, saying, 'You shall not give your daughters to their sons nor take\ntheir daughters as wives for your sons or for yourselves. Did not Solomon\nking of Israel sin by these acts? Yet among many nations there was no king\nlike him, and he was beloved by his God, and God made him king over all\nIsrael; nevertheless foreign women led him into sin. Shall it also be\nreported of you that you do all this great evil, to trespass against our\nGod in marrying foreign women?'\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 13:28, 29]\nAnd one of the sons of Joiada, the son of Eliashib the high priest, was\nthe son-in-law of Sanballat the Horonite; therefore I chased him from me.\nRemember them, O my God, because they have defiled the covenant of the\nPriesthood and of the Levites.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 13:30, 31]\nThus I cleansed them from all foreigners and fixed the duties for the\npriests and the Levites, each for his appointed task, and the bringing of\nwood for the service at appointed times, and the first-fruits. Remember\nit, O my God, to my credit.\n\nI. Cruelty and Hypocrisy of the Jewish Leaders. The fifty-sixth chapter\nof Isaiah presents a sharp contrast: on the one hand a high ideal of\njustice toward the oppressed and tolerance toward all foreigners who\nsincerely desired to unite in Jehovah's worship; on the other the sordid\nselfishness of the Jewish leaders, who disregarded their responsibilities\nand thought of religion only as a round of ceremonial observances. The\nsituation is very similar to that in Northern Israel in the days of Amos.\nThe II Isaiah stands on the same platform as did his predecessors of the\nAssyrian period. He strips fearlessly from the rulers of the community the\nmantle of hypocrisy with which they sought to cover their shame. In\nclearest terms he declares that their first duty to God is to loose the\nfetters of injustice and to share their bread with the hungry. This\nstirring prophetic message is the natural introduction to the reformatory\nwork of Nehemiah.\n\nII. Nehemiah's Method of Correcting the Social Evils in the Community.\nNehemiah's address recorded in the fifth chapter of his memoirs completes\nthe picture suggested in Isaiah 56 and 58. The poor had been compelled by\ntheir poverty to sell their children into slavery to the rich and ruling\nclass. In order to pay their personal taxes they had also mortgaged their\ninherited fields, vineyards, and houses. Doubtless much of the tax thus\nraised went into the pockets of their rulers, who preyed mercilessly upon\nthe helpless and needy. These crimes directly violated the laws of\nDeuteronomy (cf. Deut. 23:9, 20), as well as those in the older Book of\nthe Covenant (Ex. 21-23). Nehemiah's position, therefore, when he demanded\nthat these evils be righted, was unassailable. In the spirit and with the\nmethods of the earlier prophets he gathered together the people, probably\nwithin the precincts of the temple court, and plainly and unsparingly\ndenounced their acts. There is much in common between this later Jewish\nlayman and the shepherd Amos. Each spoke on the basis of close personal\nobservation and experience; but Nehemiah possessed many advantages over\nthe prophets who had preceded him. His own personal example lent force to\nhis words. Although it was his right as governor, he had exacted no\ntribute from the Judean community. Even though the opportunity had\nprobably offered itself, he steadily refused to take their hereditary land\nfrom the poor who applied to him for loans of money or grain. Instead of\nenslaving his countrymen, he had lost no opportunity to free those who had\nbeen forced by misfortune or poverty into slavery. He had also entertained\nlavishly rich and poor alike, and thus given to all an example of\npractical charity. His authority as Persian governor doubtless carried\ngreat weight with the cringing, greedy leaders at Jerusalem. Above all,\nthe force of his personality was irresistible. It is easy to imagine the\npowerful impression which his words made upon them. The restoration of\ntheir lands and the freeing of their children were undoubtedly mighty\nfactors in arousing the men of Jerusalem to those herculean efforts which\nalone made possible the rebuilding of the walls in the brief period of\nfifty-two days.\n\nIII. The Historical Value of Nehemiah 13. In his _Composition of\nEzra-Nehemiah_ (pp. 44-49) Professor Torrey, of Yale, maintains that this\nchapter is a pure creation of the Chronicler. Certainly its phraseology\nand the subjects with which it deals are characteristic of the Chronicler,\nbut on the whole it is probable that he has here simply recast what was\noriginally an extract from the memoirs of Nehemiah. Some of the phrases\npeculiar to the Chronicler are loosely connected with the context. The\nnucleus which remains has the vigorous style of Nehemiah and many of his\npeculiar idioms. Its courageous, assertive spirit is very different from\nthat of the other writings of the Chronicler. It is also doubtful whether\nthis later writer, with his strong, priestly interests, would have made\nNehemiah, the layman, a religious reformer and therefore in a sense the\nrival of Ezra. Above all, the work attributed to Nehemiah in this\nchapter is in harmony with his spirit and attitude, as revealed in the\nunquestioned extracts from his memoirs. Already, as stated in 1:20, he had\ntold Sanballat and Tobiah that they should have no portion or memorial in\nJerusalem. He had already shown himself keen in righting wrongs within the\ncommunity. Zeal in preserving the sanctity of the sabbath and in opposing\nheathen marriages was characteristic rather of the Jews of the dispersion\nthan of those of Palestine. It is probable, therefore, that this chapter\nrecords Nehemiah's work when he revisited Jerusalem some time after 432\nB.C., although it must be frankly confessed that the historical evidence\nis far from conclusive and that the entire account of this second visit,\nincluding the chronological data in 5:14 and the reference to the\nexpulsion of Sanballat in 1:20, may possibly be due to the Chronicler's\ndesire to discredit the Samaritans and to enlist the authority of Nehemiah\nin support of the later priestly laws and customs.\n\nIV. Regulations Regarding the Temple Service. The expulsion of Tobiah\nthe Ammonite from the room which had been assigned him in the temple by\nEliashib, the high priest, was apparently due to two reasons, first\nbecause Tobiah was _persona non grata_ to Nehemiah and had already shown\nhimself a dangerous foe to the Jews. The second and chief reason was\nbecause the room was needed for storing the offerings that were brought in\nfor the support of the temple officials. These offerings were presented in\naccordance with the demands of the Deuteronomic regulation, which at this\ntime was the code acknowledged by the Judean community (Deut. 18:4.\n14:23, 27, 28). The narrative adds that, with his practical knowledge of\naffairs, Nehemiah appointed a representative committee consisting of a\npriest, a scribe, and a Levite, and to them he intrusted the task of\nreceiving and distributing the temple tithes to their kinsmen.\n\nV. Provisions Regarding Sabbath Observation and Foreign Marriages. Far\naway from the temple, and therefore unable to participate in the\ndistinctive feasts and ceremonials that distinguished the religious life\nof their race, and confronted by the constant danger of being absorbed by\nthe heathen among whom they found themselves, the Jews of the dispersion\nplaced strong emphasis on two institutions. The one was the observation of\nthe sabbath and the other was the preservation of the purity of their\nblood by abstaining from all marriage alliances with their Gentile\nneighbors. In Palestine, where they were able to revive the ancient feasts\nin connection with the temple, and where the danger of absorption was not\nso imminent, their practices in these regards appear to have been much\nmore lax. Not only had the priests set the example by contracting foreign\nmarriages, but apparently about this time the author of the beautiful\nstory of Ruth, by citing the tradition regarding the Moabite ancestry of\ntheir illustrious King David, voiced the belief of many in the community\nthat such marriages were permissible. Nehemiah, however, rigorously\nopposed this tendency. He also appreciated the menace to the dignity and\ncharacter of the temple service, if the commercial pursuits of ordinary\ndays were carried into the sabbath. His measure, therefore, in closing the\ngates and thus excluding all traders, was both sane and effective. In\nsetting his face strongly against foreign marriages he was simply\nenforcing the laws found in Deuteronomy 7:1, 3 and 33:3, which forbade the\nHebrews to intermarry with the people of the land.\n\nVI. Significance of Nehemiah's Work. In rebuilding the walls of\nJerusalem Nehemiah prepared the way for that revival of the Jewish state\nwhich characterized the closing years of the Persian period. More\nimportant still was his work in re-establishing a close relation between\nthe Jews of the dispersion and those of Palestine. He himself was the\nconnecting link between them, and his activity prepared the minds of the\nPalestinian Jews for the acceptance of those new principles that were\nstrongly held by leaders like himself. He also enforced the ethical and\nsocial ideals of the earlier prophets, and ably advocated the principles\nthat are fundamental in the late priestly laws. Above all, in his own\npersonality as a prophetic layman, he held up before his race an example\nof patriotism, self-sacrifice, efficiency, and devotion to the service\nof Jehovah which made a profound and lasting impression upon his own and\nlater generations.\n\n\n\nSection CII. THE TRADITIONAL ACCOUNT OF THE ADOPTION OF THE PRIESTLY\nLAW\n\n[Sidenote: Ezra 7:1, 6-10]\nIn the reign of Artaxerxes king of Persia, Ezra, a descendant of Aaron,\nwent up from Babylon; and he was a scribe skilled in the law of Moses,\nwhich Jehovah, the God of Israel, had given. And the king granted him all\nhis request, inasmuch as the hand of Jehovah his God was upon him. And\nsome of the Israelites, and of the priests, the Levites, the singers, the\nporters, and the temple servants went up to Jerusalem [with him]. And he\ncame to Jerusalem in the fifth month, which was in the seventh year of the\nking. For on the first day of the first month he began the journey from\nBabylon, and on the first day of the fifth month he came to Jerusalem,\nsince the good hand of God was with him. For Ezra had set his heart to\nseek the law of Jehovah, and to observe it and to teach in Israel statutes\nand ordinances.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 7:73b, 8:4-6]\nAnd when the seventh month drew near, all the people gathered themselves\ntogether as one man to the broad place that was before the Water Gate. And\nthey spoke to Ezra the priest and scribe to bring the book of the law of\nMoses, which Jehovah had commanded Israel. And Ezra the priest brought the\nlaw before the assembly of men and women, and all who could hear with\nunderstanding, upon the first day of the seventh month. And he read from\nit before the open place that was before the Water Gate, from early\nmorning until mid-day, in the presence of the men and women and of those\nwho could understand; and all the people were attentive to the book of the\nlaw. And Ezra the priest and scribe stood upon a wooden pulpit, which they\nmade for the purpose and opened the book in the sight of all the\npeople--for he was above all the people--and when he opened it all the\npeople stood up. And Ezra blessed Jehovah, the great God. And all the\npeople answered, Amen, Amen, while they lifted up their hands and bowed\ntheir heads and worshipped Jehovah with their faces to the ground.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 8:9-12]\nThen Ezra the priest, the scribe, and the Levites who taught the people\nsaid to all the people, This day is holy to Jehovah your God; mourn not,\nnor weep; for all the people when they heard the words of the law. Then he\nsaid to them, Go away, eat the fat, and drink the sweet, and send portions\nto him for whom nothing is prepared, for this day is holy to our Lord; and\ndo not be troubled, for the joy of Jehovah is your bulwark. So the Levites\nquieted all the people, saying, Be still, for the day is holy, and do not\nbe troubled. And all the people went away to eat and drink and to send\nportions and to make a great rejoicing, for they had understood the words\nwhich had been made known to them.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 8:13-19]\nAnd on the second day the heads of fathers' houses of all the people, the\npriests and the Levites were gathered together to Ezra the scribe, in\norder to gain an insight into the words of the law. And they found written\nin the law, how Jehovah had commanded by Moses that the Israelites should\ndwell in booths at the feast in the seventh month; and that they should\nproclaim aloud in all their cities and in Jerusalem: Go forth to the\nmount and bring olive branches and branches of wild olive and myrtle and\npalm branches and branches of thick trees to make booths, as it is\nprescribed. So the people went out and brought them, and made themselves\nbooths, each man upon the roof of his house and in their courts and in\nthe courts of the house of God and in the open space at the Water Gate and\nin the open space at the Ephraim Gate. And all the assembly of those who\nhad come back from the captivity made booths and lived in the booths; for\nsince the days of Joshua the son of Nun to that day the Israelites had not\ndone so. And there was very great gladness. And day by day, from the first\nto the last day, he read in the book of the law of God. And they\ncelebrated the feast seven days, and on the eighth day, as was the custom,\nthere was a concluding solemn assembly.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 9:1-3]\nNow in the twenty-fourth day of this month the Israelites were assembled\nwith fasting, and with sackcloth and earth upon their heads. And the\nchildren of Israel had separated themselves from all foreigners, and stood\nand confessed their sins and the iniquities of their fathers. And they\nstood up in their place and read in the book of the law of Jehovah their\nGod a fourth part of the day; and another fourth part they confessed and\nworshipped Jehovah their God.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 9:6-8]\nAnd Ezra said, Thou art Jehovah, even thou alone; thou hast made heaven\nand the heaven of heavens with all their host, the earth and all things\nthat are on it, the seas and all that is in them, and thou preservest\nthem all and the host of heaven worshippeth thee. Thou art Jehovah the\nGod, who didst choose Abraham and bring him forth out of Ur of the\nChaldees, and didst give him the name Abraham, and find his heart\nfaithful before thee and make a covenant with him to give the land of the\nCanaanites to his descendants, and hast performed thy words, for thou art\nrighteous.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 9:32-37]\nNow therefore, our God, the great, the mighty, and the terrible God, who\nkeepest covenant and kindness, let not all the affliction seem little\nbefore thee, that hath come on us, on our kings, our nobles, our priests,\nour prophets, our fathers, and on all thy people, since the days of the\nkings of Assyria to this day. However thou art just in all that has come\nupon us; for thou hast done right, but we have done wickedly, neither have\nour kings, our nobles, our priests, nor our fathers, kept thy law nor\nheeded thy commands and thy testimonies with which thou didst testify\nagainst them. For they have not served thee in the time of their kingly\nrule, and in spite of thy great goodness that thou gavest them, they have\nnot turned from their wicked deeds. Behold, we this day are slaves, and as\nfor the land that thou gavest to our fathers to eat its fruit and enjoy\nits good gifts, see we are only slaves in it. And it yieldeth a great\nincome to the kings whom thou hast set over us because of our sin; also\nthey have power over our bodies and over our cattle, at their pleasure,\nand we are in great distress.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 9:38]\nMoreover in addition to all this we made a fixed covenant and wrote it\nout, and our nobles, our Levites, and our priests were enrolled upon the\nsealed document.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 10:28-31]\nAnd all those who had separated themselves from the peoples of the lands\nto the law of God, their wives, their sons, and their daughters, every one\nwho had knowledge and insight, strongly supported their kinsmen, their\nnobles, and entered into a solemn obligation and took oath to walk in\nGod's law, which was given by Moses the servant of God, and to observe\nand do all the commands of Jehovah our Lord, and his ordinances and his\nstatutes; and that we would neither give our daughters to the peoples of\nthe land nor take their daughters as wives for our sons; and that, if the\npeoples of the land should bring wares or any grain on the sabbath day to\nsell, we would not buy of them on the sabbath or on a holy day; and that\non the seventh year we would leave the land uncultivated and would refrain\nfrom the exaction of any debt.\n\n[Sidenote: Neh. 10:32-39]\nWe also imposed upon ourselves the obligation to give yearly the third\npart of a shekel for the service of the house of our God, for the bread\nthat was set forth, and for the continual burnt-offering, for the\nsabbaths, the new moons, the fixed feasts, and the holy things, and for\nthe sin-offerings to make atonement for Israel, and for all the work of\nthe house of our God. And we cast lots, the priests, the Levites, and the\npeople, for the wood-offering, to bring it into the house of our God,\naccording to our father's houses, at appointed times year by year, to burn\nupon the altar of Jehovah our God, as it is prescribed in the law; and to\nbring the earliest products of our ground, and the first of all fruit of\nevery kind of tree year by year, to the temple of Jehovah; also the\nfirst-born of our sons and of our cattle, as is prescribed in the law, and\nthe firstlings of our herds and of our flocks, to bring to the house of\nGod to the priests who minister in the house of our God; and that we\nshould bring the first bread baked of our dough, the fruit of every kind\nof tree, the new wine and the oil, to the priests, in the chambers of the\nhouse of our God; and the tithes of our ground to the Levites; and that\nthey, the Levites, should receive the tithes in all the cities of our\nagricultural districts. And that the priest the son of Aaron should be\nwith the Levites, when the Levites shall bring up the tithe of the tithes\nto the house of our God, to the chambers, into the store-house. For the\nIsraelites and the sons of Levi shall bring the gifts of grain, of new\nwine, and of oil, into the chambers, where are the vessels of the\nsanctuary, and the priests who minister and the porters and the singers,\nand that we would not neglect the house of our God.\n\nI. The Ezra Tradition. The tradition regarding Ezra and his work\npresents many difficult problems. Part of it is found in the heart of the\nbook of Nehemiah; while another part is now found in the second half of\nthe book of Ezra. It is not entirely clear whether this dislocation is due\nto the Chronicler, who desired to give Ezra, the priest and scribe, the\nprecedence before Nehemiah, the layman, or to the mistake of a scribe. A\nrecent writer (Professor Torrey, in _Composition of Ezra-Neh_.) has shown\nconvincingly that the Ezra story in its present form is at least from the\nschool to which the Chronicler belonged, if not from his own pen. Not only\ndoes it abound in the characteristic phrases of this voluminous editor,\nbut it also reflects at many points his peculiar conception of the history\nof this period. Ezra is described as a descendant of Aaron and \"a scribe\nskilled in the law of Moses.\" His work as interpreter of the law, which he\nis represented as bringing in his hand, is typical of the scribes, who\nwere becoming the chief teachers of Judaism in the days of the Chronicler\n(the Greek period). The decree of Artaxerxes found in the seventh chapter\nof Ezra suggests at every point its late Jewish origin. It confers upon\nEzra, the scribe, royal authority far eclipsing that given by Artaxerxes\nto Nehemiah, his favorite. A sum representing more than three million\ndollars is placed at Ezra's disposal. At his summons seventeen hundred\npriests, Levites, singers, and servants of the temple rally about the\nstandard of the faithful scribe. He is represented as going under the\nroyal protection to Palestine to instruct the Judean community, to reform\nits abuses, and to institute the rule of the law of Moses which he bore in\nhis hand.\n\nHe first holds a great synagogue service in which the law is read and\ninterpreted to the people. They are then bidden to observe the Feast\nof Booths or Tabernacles in accordance with its regulations. Later, when\nhe discovers that the people of the land have entered into foreign\nmarriages, he tears his clothes and hair and sits for hours overwhelmed\nby the great crime that rests upon the community. When the people are\ngathered about him, he upbraids them for their laxness and secures the\nappointment of a commission with himself at the head to investigate and\nput an end to these evil practices. When after three months the community\nhas been purified from this foreign element, the people are again\nassembled to listen to the reading of the law. Then Ezra utters a fervent\nprayer in which he sets forth Jehovah's leadership of his people in the\npast and the disasters which have come as a result of their sins. After\nthis public petition for Jehovah's forgiveness, the people through their\nnobles, Levites, and priests subscribe in writing to the regulations\nimposed by the lawbook that Ezra had brought. Its more important\nregulations are also recapitulated. They are to refrain from foreign\nmarriages, to observe strictly the sabbath laws, and also the requirements\nof the seventh year of release, to bring to the temple the annual tax of\none-tenth of a shekel and the other dues required for its support and for\nthe maintenance of the priests and Levites.\n\nII. The Historical Value of the Ezra Tradition. Recognizing that the\nEzra tradition comes from the hand of the Chronicler, certain Old\nTestament scholars are inclined to regard it as entirely unhistorical.\nIt can no longer be regarded as a strictly historical record. Like II\nChronicles 31, it is shot through with the ideas current during the Greek\nperiod. With no desire to deceive, but with nothing of the modern\nhistorical spirit, the Chronicler freely projects the institutions, ideas,\nand traditions of his own day into these earlier periods. The result is\nthat he has given not an exact or reliable historical record, but his own\nconception of the way in which the course of history should have unfolded.\nThe Ezra tradition also lacks the support not only of contemporary\ntestimony, but also of all the Jews who wrote during the next few\ncenturies. Ben Sira in his review of Israel's heroes speaks in highest\nterms of Nehemiah, but knows nothing of Ezra's work. Even the\ncomparatively late Jewish tradition reflected in the opening chapters of\nII Maccabees attributes to Nehemiah the re-establishment of the temple\nService and the collection of the sacred writings of his race. At many\npoints the Ezra tradition is also inconsistent with the straightforward\ncontemporary record contained in Nehemiah's memoirs. The real question\nis whether or not there is a historical nucleus in the Ezra story, and\nif so, what are the facts which it reflects.\n\nIII. The Facts Underlying the Ezra Tradition. The later records make it\nclear that during the latter part of the Persian period the attitude of\nthe Jews in Palestine toward their neighbors became more and more\nexclusive. Nehemiah appears to have given a great impetus to the movement\nwhich ultimately resulted in the Samaritan schism and the high wall that\nhenceforth separated Jew and Gentile. The emphasis on the strict\nobservation of the sabbath grew stronger and stronger, until at the\nbeginning of the Greek period the Jews of Jerusalem preferred to fall\nbefore the sword of their foes rather than fight on the sabbath day (cf.\nSection CIII). The ritual of the temple became even more elaborate, and\nits income was greatly increased during the latter part of the Persian\nperiod. The extension of the territory of the Judean community implied\nthat its numbers were increased by the return of loyal Jews attracted by\nthe security offered by its walls and by the new spirit that animated the\nJews of Palestine. The priestly laws which were formulated to meet the new\nneeds of the Judean community appear to have been written in Palestine and\nby those closely connected with the temple service, but in the emphasis\nupon the sabbath and in their endeavor to prevent marriage with foreigners\nthey suggest the presence and influence of Jews who had returned from the\nland of the dispersion. It is possible that among those who thus returned\nwas the priest Ezra, and he may have been at the head of one of these\ngroups of returning exiles. In the days of Josiah the code contained in\nthe newly discovered Book of the Covenant was presented to the people in a\npublic assembly and adopted and enforced by the king, who acted as the\nrepresentative of the people (Section LXXXIII:iii). It is probable that in\nthe small Judean community new regulations gained acceptance in the same\nway, except that the people were represented by their nobles and priests\nrather than by a king. The tradition of Ezra, therefore, is typical of the\ngreat movement that shaped the life of Judaism in the century immediately\nfollowing the work of Nehemiah.\n\nIV. Origin and Aims of the Priestly Laws. The late priestly laws which\nmoulded the life of Judaism are found in the books of Exodus, Leviticus,\nand Numbers. They do not constitute a unified code, but rather are\nmade up of a series of smaller groups of laws, the older nucleus\nbeing the Holiness Code found in chapters 17-26 of Leviticus (cf. Section\nXCIII:iii). In some cases variants of the same law are found in different\ngroups. Certain of these laws simply reiterate in slightly different form\nthose already found in the primitive and Deuteronomic codes; but in\ngeneral they supplement these earlier codes. The formulation, collection,\nand codification of these later laws apparently continued until toward the\nlatter part of the Persian period when the Samaritan schism (Section CIII)\nfixed them in their present form.\n\nTo these laws was prefixed, as an introduction, the priestly history that\nopens with the account of creation in the first chapter of Genesis and\nbriefly traces Israel's history to the settlement in Canaan. The interest\nof these late priestly historians is, like that of the Chronicler, in the\norigin of institutions. Thus the object of the first chapter of Genesis is\nto give the traditional origin and authority of the sabbath. The account\nof the flood culminates in a covenant embodying the command that man shall\nnot eat of the blood of sacrificial animals; the priestly stories\nregarding Abraham aim to give the origin of the rite of circumcision.\nIsrael's early experiences in the wilderness furnish the setting for the\ngiving of the law at Sinai. In this way the late editors of these opening\nbooks of the Old Testament connect all of Israel's legislation with Moses\nand aim to establish its divine authority.\n\nV. Their Important Regulations. The central aim in all these late\npriestly laws was similar to that of Ezekiel: it was to make Israel a\nholy people and to prevent them from falling again into the sins to which\nwere attributed the overwhelming disasters that had overtaken them. This\naim they sought to accomplish: (1) by making the temple and its services\nthe centre of the life of the people and through ceremonial barriers and\nregulations to shield it from everything that might pollute it; (2) by\nrendering the temple service attractive; (3) by insuring through rigid\nceremonial laws the purity of its priesthood; (4) by preserving the\nceremonial cleanliness of the people through strict laws regarding the\nfood which they ate and elaborate provisions for their purification in\ncase they were contaminated by contact with that which was regarded as\nunclean; (5) by prohibiting absolutely all marriages with the heathen; and\n(6) by emphasizing the rigid observation of the sabbath and other\ndistinctive institutions. In general these late priestly laws represented\na return to the older and more primitive conception of religion, and\ndefined duty in terms of ceremonial rather than moral acts.\n\nVI. Their Practical Effects. Later Judaism represents to a great extent\nthe result of the rigid enforcement of these regulations. Its life was\ncentralized more and more about the temple. In its services the people\nfound their chief interest and joy. The numbers of the priests and Levites\nwere also greatly increased. To the older temple dues many new ones were\nadded. Thus each man brought to the temple the first-born of his flock.\nEven his oldest son must be redeemed within a month after his birth by a\ngift of five shekels (which represented in modern currency between three\nand four dollars). Of every animal slain the shoulder, two joints, and the\nstomach went to the priests. Of the vintage and oil and grain they\nreceived about one-fiftieth. In addition a tithe was turned over to the\nLevites. Part of the wool in every sheep-shearing, as well as a part of\nthe bread which they baked, found its way to the temple. In addition a\nlarge income came through the vows made by the people or the conscience\nmoney which was paid either in currency or gifts. Although the priests had\nno temporal authority by which to enforce these laws, it is evident that\nthe people bore their heavy burdens gladly and brought willingly their\nofferings, that they might thereby win a definite assurance of Jehovah's\nfavor. The law was to them a source of joy rather than a burden. Their\nlove for it steadily grew until two centuries later during the Maccabean\npersecutions there were many who were ready to lay down their lives for it.\n\n\n\nSection CIII. THE JEWISH STATE DURING THE LAST CENTURY OF PERSIAN RULE\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 36:5-10]\nThy loving-kindness, O Jehovah, is in the heavens,\nThy faithfulness reacheth to the skies,\nThy righteousness is like the mighty mountains,\nThy judgments are like the great deep;\nThou preservest man and beast.\nHow precious is thy loving-kindness, O God!\nAnd the sons of men put their trust in the shadow of thy wings.\nThey are fully satisfied with the rich things of thy house,\nAnd thou makest them drink of thy river of delights.\nFor with thee is the fountain of life,\nAnd in thy light shall we see light.\nO continue thy loving-kindness to those who know thee,\nAnd thy righteousness to the upright in heart.\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:1, 2b]\nThe word of Jehovah, which came to Joel, the son of Pethuel:\nBlow a horn in Zion,\nSound an alarm in my holy mountain,\nLet all the inhabitants of the land tremble,\nFor the day of Jehovah comes,\nFor near is the day of darkness and gloom,\nThe day of cloud and thick darkness!\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:2c-6]\nLike the light of dawn scattered over the mountains,\nA people great and powerful;\nIts like has not been from of old,\nNeither shall be any more after it,\nEven to the years of coming ages.\nBefore them the fire devours,\nAnd behind them a flame burns;\nLike the garden of Eden is the land before them,\nAnd after them it is a desolate desert,\nYea, nothing escapes them.\nTheir appearance is as the appearance of horses,\nAnd like horsemen they run.\nLike the sound of chariots on the tops of the mountains they leap,\nLike the crackle of flames devouring stubble,\nLike a mighty people preparing for battle.\nPeoples are in anguish before them,\nAll faces glow with excitement.\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:7-9]\nLike mighty men they run,\nLike warriors they mount up a wall,\nThey march each by himself,\nThey break not their ranks,\nNone jostles the other,\nThey march each in his path,\nThey fall upon the weapons without breaking,\nThey scour the city, they run on the wall,\nThey climb up into the houses,\nLike a thief they enter the windows.\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:10-11]\nEarth trembles before them,\nHeaven quakes,\nThe sun and the moon become dark,\nAnd the stars withdraw their shining;\nAnd Jehovah uttereth this voice before his army,\nFor his host is exceedingly great,\nYea, mighty is he who performs his word,\nFor great is the day of Jehovah,\nIt is very terrible, who can abide it?\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:12-14]\nBut now this is the oracle of Jehovah:\nTurn ye to me with all your heart,\nAnd with fasting and weeping and mourning.\nRend your hearts and not your garments,\nAnd turn to Jehovah your God;\nFor he indeed is gracious and merciful,\nSlow to anger and plenteous in love,\nAnd relenteth of the evil.\nWho knows but he will turn and relent,\nAnd leave a blessing behind him,\nA cereal and drink-offering for Jehovah your God?\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:16-17]\nBlow a horn in Zion,\nSanctify a fast, summon an assembly,\nGather the people, make holy the congregation,\nAssemble the old men,\nGather the children, and the infants at the breast,\nLet the bridegroom come forth from his chamber,\nAnd the bride from her bridal tent.\nBetween the porch and the altar,\nLet the priests, the ministers of Jehovah, weep aloud,\nLet them say, Spare, O Jehovah, thy people,\nAnd make not thine heritage an object of reproach,\nFor the heathen to mock them.\nWhy should it be said among the nations, Where is their God?\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:18-20]\nThen Jehovah became jealous for his land, and took pity upon his people,\nAnd Jehovah answered and said to his people,\nBehold, I will send you corn, and wine, and oil,\nAnd ye shall be satisfied therewith;\nI will not make you again an object of reproach among the nations,\nI will remove far from you the northern foe,\nAnd I will drive him into a land barren and desolate,\nHis van to the eastern sea,\nAnd his rear to the western sea,\nAnd a stench from him shall arise.\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:21-24]\nFear not, O land, exult,\nAnd rejoice for Jehovah hath done great things.\nFear not, O beasts of the field,\nFor the pastures of the wilderness are putting forth new grass,\nFor the trees bear their fruit,\nFig tree and vine yield their strength.\nBe glad, then, ye sons of Zion,\nAnd rejoice in Jehovah your God,\nFor he hath given you the early rain in just measure,\nAnd poured down upon you the winter rain,\nAnd sent the latter rain as before.\nThe threshing floors shall be full of grain,\nAnd the vats shall overflow with new wine and oil.\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:25-27]\nI will make restoration to you for the years which the swarmer hath eaten,\nThe devourer, the destroyer, and the shearer,\nMy great army which I sent among you,\nAnd ye shall eat your food and be satisfied,\nAnd praise the name of Jehovah your God,\nWho hath dealt so wonderfully by you,\nAnd ye shall know that I am in the midst of Israel,\nThat I am Jehovah your God and none else,\nAnd my people shall nevermore be abashed.\n\n[Sidenote: Joel 2:28, 29]\nAnd it shall come to pass afterwards,\nThat I will pour out my spirit upon all flesh,\nAnd your sons and your daughters shall prophesy,\nYour old men shall dream dreams,\nYour young men shall see visions,\nAnd even upon thy male and female slaves,\nIn those days I will pour out my spirit.\n\n[Sidenote: (Jos. Ant. XI, 7:1)]\nWhen Eliashib the high priest was dead, his son Judas succeeded him in the\nhigh priesthood. Then, when he was dead, his son Johanan assumed that\ndignity. It was on his account that Bagoses, the general of Artaxerxes\n[Mnemon], desecrated the temple and imposed tribute on the Jews, that at\npublic expense they should pay for every lamb fifty shekels. The reason\nfor this was as follows: Jeshua was the brother of Johanan. Bagoses, who\nwas Jeshua's friend, promised to secure for him the high priesthood.\nTrusting, therefore, in this support, Jeshua quarrelled with Johanan in\nThe temple and so provoked his brother that, in his anger, Johanan slew\nhim. On this account the people were enslaved and the temple desecrated by\nthe Persians. For when Bagoses, the general of Artaxerxes, knew that\nJohanan, the high priest of the Jews had slain his own brother Jeshua in\nthe temple, he immediately came against the Jews and began in anger to say\nto them, Have you dared commit a murder in your temple! And when he\nattempted to go into the temple they tried to prevent him doing so; but he\nsaid to them, Am I not purer than he who was slain in the temple? And when\nhe had said these words, he went into the temple. Thus Bagoses made use of\nthis pretext and punished the Jews seven years for the murder of Jeshua.\n\n[Sidenote: (Jos. Ant. XI, 7:2)]\nNow when Johanan had departed this life, his son Jaddua succeeded to the\nhigh priesthood. He had a brother whose name was Manasseh. And there was a\ncertain Sanballat who was sent to Samaria by Darius, the last king of\nPersia. This man, knowing that Jerusalem was a famous city and that its\nkings had given great trouble to the Assyrians and the people of\nCoele-Syria, willingly gave his daughter, whose name was Nicaso, in\nmarriage to Manasseh, thinking that this marriage alliance would be a\npledge that the nation of the Jews would continue their good will toward\nhim.\n\n[Sidenote: (Jos. Ant. XI, 8:2a-c)]\nThe elders of Jerusalem, complaining loudly that the brother of Jaddua,\nthe high priest, though married to a foreigner, was sharing with him the\nhigh priesthood, took sides against Jaddua; for they regarded this man's\nmarriage as an encouragement to those who were eager to transgress by\nmarrying foreign wives and that this would be the beginning of a closer\nassociation with foreigners. Therefore they commanded Manasseh to divorce\nhis wife or else not to approach the altar. The high priest himself joined\nwith the people in their indignation and drove his brother from the altar.\n\n[Sidenote: (Jos. Ant. XI, 8:2d-g)]\nThen Manasseh went to his father-in-law, Sanballat, and told him that,\nalthough he loved his daughter, Nicaso, he was not willing to be deprived\non her account of his priestly dignity, since it was the greatest dignity\nin their nation and had always continued in the same family. Thereupon\nSanballat promised him not only to preserve for him the honor of his\npriesthood but also to procure for him the power and dignity of a high\npriest and to make him governor of all the places which he himself ruled,\nif he would retain his daughter as his wife. He also told him that he\nwould build him a temple like that at Jerusalem upon Mount Gerizim, which\nis the highest of all the mountains in Samaria. Moreover he promised that\nhe would do this with the approval of Darius, the king. Manasseh, being\nelated with these promises, remained with Sanballat, thinking that he\nwould gain a high priesthood as the gift from Darius, for Sanballat was\nthen well advanced in years. Now there was a great disturbance among the\npeople of Jerusalem because many of the priests and Levites were entangled\nin such marriages, for they all revolted to Manasseh, and Sanballat\noffered them money and distributed among them land for cultivation and\ndwelling places also. He did all this in order in every way to gratify\nhis son-in-law.\n\nI. Prosperity of the Judean Community. Behind their restored walls the\nJews of Jerusalem enjoyed a sense of security and peace that had not been\ntheirs since the days of Josiah. At last they were free to develop the\nlimited resources of little Judah and gradually to extend their territory\nnorthwestward over the fertile plain of Sharon. At the most their numbers\nand territory were small. The memories of their glorious past and their\nhopes for the future were their chief inspiration. The belief that in\nsupporting faithfully the service of the temple and in conforming to the\ndefinite demands of the ritual they were winning Jehovah's favor was to\nthem an unfailing source of comfort and thankfulness. In the rich services\nof the temple and in the contemplation of Jehovah's character and deeds\nthey found true joy. These feelings are expressed in certain of the\npsalms, as, for example, Psalm 36, which probably comes from this period.\nIn their weakness they looked up in confidence and gratitude to Jehovah\nwho ruled supreme in the heavens, and who was able and eager to preserve\nthose who \"put their trust in the shadow of his wings.\" Their one prayer\nwas that his loving-kindness would continue to protect them.\n\nII. The Growth of the Psalter. Nehemiah's work apparently gave an\nimpulse not only to the development of the law and the temple ritual, but\nalso inspired poets to voice their own feelings and those of the community\nin certain of the psalms now found in the Psalter. It also encouraged them\nto collect the earlier religious songs of their race. The result of their\nwork is the first edition of the Hebrew Psalter. In its present form the\nPsalter, like the Pentateuch, is divided into five books with a general\nintroduction consisting of Psalms 1 and 2 and a concluding doxology (Ps.\n150). At the end of each of these divisions are shorter doxologies or\nbrief epilogues (e.g., 41:13 72:19 89:52 106:48). The Psalter itself is a\nlibrary containing a great variety of poems written at different periods,\nfrom many different points of view and by many different poets. Like the\nPriestly Code and the book of Proverbs, it consists of a collection of\nsmaller collections. Thus many psalms in the first half of the Psalter\nare repeated wholly or in part in later psalms. Psalm 14, for example, is\nidentical with Psalm 73, except that in 14 Jehovah is used as the\ndesignation of the Deity and in 73 Elohim (or God).\n\nThe problem of determining the date of the individual psalms and of the\ndifferent collections is exceedingly difficult, both because the\nsuperscriptions were clearly added by later editors who thought thereby to\nconnect the psalm with an earlier writer or historic incident, and because\nthe psalms themselves contain few historical allusions. A great majority\nof them reflect the teachings of the pre-exilic prophets or, like the book\nof Proverbs, come from the lips of the sages and deal with universal human\nproblems. Some were written by priests or Levites for use in connection\nwith the song service of the temple. Because of this timeless quality,\nhowever, an appreciation of them does not depend upon an exact knowledge\nof their authorship or historical background. It is possible that a few of\nthe psalms in the first part of the Psalter come from the pre-exilic\nperiod, but the great majority reflect the problems, the hopes, the fears,\nand the trials of the faithful who lived under the shadow of the second\ntemple. While the superscriptions clearly do not come from the original\npsalmists themselves, they do record the conclusions of the editors who\nmade the earliest collections. The oft-recurring title \"Psalm to David\"\neither means that by the editor it was attributed to David as the author,\nor is a general designation of psalms that were recognized to be\ncomparatively early. The two great Davidic collections, 3-41 and 51-72,\nwere apparently collected not long after the rebuilding of the walls of\nJerusalem. They are deeply influenced by the inspiring teachings of the\nII Isaiah. They are remarkably free from that ceremonialism which became a\npowerful force in Judaism during the last century of the Persian rule.\nPsalm 51:16, 17, for example, echoes the noble ethical teachings of the\ngreat prophets:\n\nThou desirest not sacrifice, else would I give it,\nThou delightest not in burnt offering,\nThe sacrifice of God is a broken heart,\nA broken and a contrite heart, O God, thou wilt not despise.\n\nThey represent, therefore, the oldest edition of the Psalter and the songs\nwhich were probably sung by the temple singers and the people as they\nwent up to the temple on the great feast days during the closing years of\nthe Persian period.\n\nIII. The Prophecy of Joel. For a brief moment the clear light of\ncontemporary prophecy is turned upon the Judean community by the little\nbook of Joel. The immediate occasion was the invasion of a great swarm of\nlocusts which swept into Judea either from the desert or from the\nmountains in the north. It contains in 3:6 the first Old Testament\nreference to the Greeks. From 3:2 it is evident that the Jewish race has\nalready been widely scattered. In 3:2 the hope is expressed that the\ntime will soon come when strangers shall no longer pass through Jerusalem.\nThe temple, however, and the city walls (2:9) have already been\nrebuilt, indicating that the prophecy followed the work of Nehemiah. The\npriests are exceedingly prominent in the life of the community, and Joel,\nthough a prophet, places great emphasis upon the importance of the ritual.\nWhen the community is threatened by the swarms of locusts, whose advance\nhe describes with dramatic imagery, he calls upon the people to sanctify\na fast and to summon an assembly, and commands the priests to cry aloud to\nJehovah for deliverance.\n\nIV. Hopes of the Jews. In his prophecy Joel has given a very complete\ndescription of the hopes which the people entertained regarding the coming\nday of Jehovah. It is the same day of Jehovah that Zephaniah described\n(Section LXXXI:v) and yet the portrait is very different. A divine\njudgment is to be pronounced, not upon Jehovah's people, but upon their\nfoes. Here Joel reveals the influence of Ezekiel's graphic descriptions\nfound in the thirty-eighth and thirty-ninth chapters of his prophecy.\nVividly he describes the advance of Israel's hereditary foes. With\nFull panoply of war they are pictured as advancing to the Valley of\nJehoshaphat, the valley of judgment (popularly identified with the\nKidron), where Jehovah is to pass sentence upon them. Then suddenly, as\nthe harvester puts the sickle in the grain, they shall be cut down and\nutterly destroyed. Also in the prophet's imagination above this carnage\nrises Jerusalem, an impregnable fortress for the people of Israel, holy\nand no longer polluted by the presence of heathen invaders. Peace and\nprosperity shall then be the lot of Jehovah's people. Above all he will\npour out his purifying, enlightening spirit upon all classes, so that\nyoung and old, slave and free, shall be inspired by the consciousness of\nhis message and presence in their hearts.\n\nV. Rule of the High Priests. The few facts that have been preserved\nregarding the external history of the Judean community during the last\ncentury of the Persian rule are in striking contrast to the inner life and\nhopes of the people. At their head were the high priests, whose names we\nknow, Eliashib, Johanan, and Jaddua. They constituted a hereditary\naristocracy intrenched in the temple, which controlled not only the\nreligious but also the civil life of the Jews. Like all hierarchies it\nlacked the corrective influence of a superior civil authority. The one\nsafeguard of popular liberties, however, was the written law, which was\nfast becoming the absolute authority in the life of the community. To it\nthe people could appeal even against the decisions of the priests. It\ntherefore kept alive that inherited democratic spirit which had been the\npriceless possession of Israel through all its history.\n\nThere is every reason for accepting the detailed account which Josephus\nhas given of the quarrel between the high priest Johanan and his brother\nJoshua which resulted in the murder of the latter within the sacred temple\nprecincts. Such an opportunity would naturally be improved by the greedy\nPersian official to impose an onerous tax upon the Jews. The Elephantine\nletter establishes the fact that Johanan was high priest in 411 B.C. and\nthat Baghohi (of which Bagoses is the Jewish equivalent) was the Persian\nsatrap. It thus directly confirms the testimony of Josephus. References in\nlate Greek writings (Solinus XXXV, 6; Syncellus I, 486) suggest that the\nJews about 350 B.C. were involved with the Phoenicians in the rebellion\nagainst Persia. These historians state that at this time Jericho was\ncaptured and destroyed and that a part of the Jewish people were\ntransported to the province of Hyrcania at the south of the Caspian Sea.\nThe rebellion was instigated by Tachos, the ruler of Egypt, who about 362\nnot only shook off the rule of Persia, but invaded Syria and stirred up\nthe Phoenicians to defy the Persian king. Artaxerxes III, popularly known\nas Ochus, proved, however, the last ruler who was able to revive the\nwaning power of the Persian Empire. At his accession he slew all the\nmembers of the royal family, and throughout his reign (358-337 B.C.) he\ntrusted chiefly to the unsheathed sword to maintain his authority. In 346\nB.C. he finally succeeded in collecting a huge army with which he invaded\nSyria and besieged Sidon. Its king betrayed his city into the hands of the\nPersians, only to be murdered by the treacherous Ochus. The citizens of\nSidon, recognizing that they would receive no mercy from the hands of\nTheir conqueror, shut themselves up in their homes and then burned them\nOver their heads. According to the Greek historians forty thousand\nPhoenicians perished in this revolt.\n\nVI. The Date of the Samaritan Schism. Josephus has given an unusually\nfull and detailed account of the final schism between the Jews and\nSamaritans. He dates it under the high priesthood of Jaddua, who died\nshortly after the close of the Persian period. He implies, therefore, that\nthe schism took place not long before 332 B.C., when Alexander the Great\nconquered Palestine. This is also in keeping with the fact that the\nElephantine letter written in 411 B.C. knows nothing of a division\nbetween Jew and Gentile. The fact that at the time of the division the\ndefecting priests took from Jerusalem the Pentateuch in its final form\nstrongly confirms the conclusion (as Professor Torrey has pointed out\nin his _Ezra Studies_, pp. 324-330) that the Sanballat who ruled over the\nSamaritan community was not the contemporary of Nehemiah, but his\ngrandson, who as an old man was ruling in Samaria at the time when\nAlexander conquered the East.\n\nVII. The Nature and Consequences of the Schism. The schism between Jew\nand Samaritan was but a revival of the ancient rivalry which dated from\nthe days when the Israelites had first settled in Canaan. The destruction\nof Samaria in 722 and the strong policy of Josiah had apparently led the\nSamaritans to look to the temple at Jerusalem as the chief sanctuary of\nthe land. Shechem, however, and Mount Gerizim, which rises abruptly on the\nsouth, enjoyed traditions which dated from the earliest days of Israel's\nhistory. The sacred oak and altar at Shechem figured even in the\npatriarchal period. At the temple of Baal-berith in Shechem apparently\nboth Canaanites and Israelites worshipped during the days of the\nsettlement. According to the Samaritan version of Deuteronomy 24:4, Mount\nGerizim, not Ebal or Jerusalem, was the place where the Israelites, after\nentering Canaan, were first commanded to rear an altar to Jehovah, and to\ninscribe upon it the laws given to Moses. Even in the Jewish version of\nDeuteronomy 11:29 and 27:12 Mount Gerizim is the mountain of blessing. In\nthe light of these passages such commands as, for example, that in\nDeuteronomy 12:4, 5 would naturally be interpreted by the Samaritans as a\nreference to Gerizim rather than to Jerusalem. The destruction of the\nJudean capital and temple gave a great incentive to the revival of these\nAncient traditions and a new prestige to the northern sanctuary. Until the\nclose of the Persian period, however, the Samaritans evidently regarded\nJerusalem as an important shrine and worshipped there side by side with\nthe Jews. The ultimate schism appears to have come as a result of the\ngrowing jealousy with which certain of the Jews regarded foreign\nmarriages. The marriage of Manasseh, the brother of Jaddua the high\npriest, to Nicaso, the daughter of Sanballat II, and his ultimate\nexpulsion by the Jews blew into a flame the smouldering jealousy and\nopposition that had long existed between the two communities. As Josephus\nrecounts, Sanballat, in order to satisfy his son-in-law, ceded lands and\nspecial rights to him and to the other Jerusalem priests, who were\nattracted by these offers, and ultimately built the famous temple on Mount\nGerizim over which Manasseh and his descendants presided. In many ways the\ntemple and service on Mount Gerizim appear to have been duplicates of\nthose at Jerusalem. The same law was recognized by both communities; they\nshared together the same traditions and the same ideals; and yet their\nsubsequent history illustrates the psychological truth that of all forms\nof hatred that between brothers is the most venomous and lasting. The\nbitter rivalry and growing hatred that resulted from this act are\nreflected even in the wisdom teachings of Ben Sira (B. Sir. 47:21, 24,\n25). They also fundamentally color the writings of the Chronicler. The\nstrenuous efforts that he made to discountenance the claims of the\nSamaritans reveals the intensity of the feud even in the Greek period (cf.\nII Chron. 11:13-16). His zeal in trying to prove that the rebuilders of\nthe Jerusalem temple were of Jewish extraction was doubtless inspired by\nthe Samaritan charge that during the Babylonian and Persian periods they\nhad freely intermarried with the heathen population of the land. He was\ncompelled to admit that even the high priestly families had been guilty of\nthis sin, but asserted that the foreign wives were later divorced or else\nthe offenders were expelled from Jerusalem. In the light of the oldest\nrecords it appears that the Samaritans were able to establish almost as\npure a lineage as the Jews. Naturally during the succeeding years the\nancient breach continued to widen until it was beyond all healing.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTHE GREEK AND MACCABEAN AGE\n\nSection CIV. THE JEWS UNDER THEIR GREEK RULERS\n\n[Sidenote: 1 Mac. 1:1-4]\nNow after Alexander the Macedonian, the son of Philip, who came from the\nland of the Greeks, had smitten Darius king of the Persians and Medes, he\nreigned in his place as the first ruler of the Syrian kingdom.\n\nHe fought many battles,\nAnd won many strongholds,\nAnd slew the kings of the earth;\nHe went on to the ends of the earth;\nAnd took spoils from a multitude of nations.\nAnd when the earth was at peace before him,\nHe was exalted and his heart was lifted up;\nHe gathered an exceedingly great army,\nAnd ruled over countries and peoples and principalities;\nAnd they became tributary to him.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XI, 8:7a, c]\nNow when Alexander was dead, the government was divided among his\nsuccessors. It was about this time that Jaddua the high priest died and\nOnias, his son, took the high priesthood.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XII, 1:1b-d]\nAlexander's empire was divided among many: Antigonus gained possession of\nthe province of Asia; Seleucus of Babylon and the surrounding nations;\nLysimachus governed the Hellespont, and Cassander held Macedonia; Ptolemy,\nThe son of Lagus, got Egypt. While these princes ambitiously contended\nwith one another, each for his own kingdom, there were continual\nand protracted wars. And the cities suffered and lost many of their\ninhabitants in these days of distress, so that all Syria experienced at\nthe hands of Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, the opposite of what is implied by\nhis title of saviour. He also captured Jerusalem by means of deceit and\ntreachery; for, coming into the city on a sabbath day, as if to offer\nsacrifices, he without difficulty gained possession of the city, since the\nJews did not oppose him, for they did not suspect him to be their enemy,\nand that day they always spent in rest and quietness. And when he had\ngained possession of it, he ruled over it in a cruel manner.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XII, 1:1g-j]\nAnd when Ptolemy had taken many captives both from the mountainous parts\nof Judea and the places about Jerusalem and Samaria and Mount Gerizim, he\nled them all into Egypt and settled them there. And since he knew that the\npeople of Jerusalem were most faithful in keeping their oaths and\ncovenants, he distributed many of them among garrisons. At Alexandria he\ngave them equal privileges as citizens with the Macedonians themselves. He\nalso required them to take oath that they would be faithful to his\ndescendants. And not a few other Jews went into Egypt of their own accord,\nattracted both by the goodness of the soil and Ptolemy's generosity.\nHowever, there were disorders between their descendants and the Samaritans\nbecause of their resolve to preserve that manner of life which was\ntransmitted to them by their forefathers. They accordingly contended with\neach other; those from Jerusalem said that their temple was holy and they\nresolved to send their sacrifices there, but the Samaritans were\ndetermined that they should be sent to Mount Gerizim.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XII, 2:1a]\nWhen Alexander had reigned twelve years and after him Ptolemy Soter forty\nyears, Ptolemy Philadelphus next had the kingdom of Egypt and held it\nthirty-nine years.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XII, 2:5d, e, 4:1d-f]\nNow when Onias I. the high priest died, his son Simon succeeded him. When\nhe died and left only a young son called Onias, Simon's brother Eleazer\ntook the high priesthood. After Eleazar's death, his uncle Manasseh\nassumed the priesthood, and after he died, Onias II. received that honor.\nThis Onia was lacking in sense and was a great lover of money; for that\nreason he did not pay the tax of twenty talents of silver for the people,\nwhich his forefathers had paid out of their own estates to the kings of\nEgypt. Thus he aroused the anger of King Ptolemy Euergetes, the father of\nPhilopator. Euergetes sent an ambassador to Jerusalem and complained that\nOnias did not pay the taxes and threatened that if he did not receive\nthem, he would parcel out their land and send soldiers to live upon it.\nWhen the Jews heard this message of the king they were filled with dismay,\nbut Onias was so avaricious that nothing of this kind made him ashamed.\n\n[Sidenote Jos. Ant. XII, 4:2a-f]\nThere was a certain Joseph, young in years, but of great reputation among\nthe people of Jerusalem for dignity and exact foresight. His father's name\nwas Tobias and his mother was the sister of Onias the high priest. She\ninformed him of the coming of Ptolemy's ambassador. Thereupon Joseph came\nto Jerusalem and reproved Onias for not taking thought for the security of\nhis countrymen and for bringing the nation into dangers by not paying this\nmoney. Onias's answer was that he did not care for his authority, that he\nwas ready, if it were possible, to lay down his high priesthood, and that\nhe would not go to the king, for he cared nothing at all about these\nmatters. Joseph then asked him if he would give him leave to go as\nambassador on behalf of the nation. He replied that he would. So\nJoseph went down from the temple and treated Ptolemy's ambassador in a\nHospitable manner. He also presented him with rich gifts and feasted him\nmagnificently for many days and then sent him to the king before him and\ntold him that he would soon follow him.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XII, 4:3b, 4a-c]\nNow it happened that at this time all the principal men and rulers of the\ncities of Syria and Phoenicia went up to bid for the taxes; for every year\nthe king sold them to the most powerful men of each city. And when the day\ncame on which the king was to let the farming of the taxes of the cities,\nthe taxes of Coele-Syria, Phoenicia, Judea and Samaria amounted altogether\nto eight thousand talents. Thereupon Joseph accused the bidders of having\nagreed together to estimate the value of the taxes at too low a rate and\nhe promised that he would give twice as much for them, and for those who\ndid not pay he would send the king their entire possessions, for this\nprivilege was sold together with the taxes. The king was pleased to hear\nthis offer, and because it increased his revenues he said he would confirm\nthe sale of the taxes to him.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XII, 4:5a-c, 3, 6a]\nAnd Joseph took with him two thousand soldiers from the king, for he\ndesired to have assistance in order to compel those who refused in the\ncity to pay. And when the people of Askelon refused to pay anything, he\nseized about twenty of their principal men and slew them, and gathered\nwhat they had and sent it all to the king and informed him what he had\ndone. Ptolemy admired the spirit of the man, commended him for what he\nhad done and gave him permission to do as he pleased. By these means he\namassed great wealth and made vast profits by this farming of taxes. And\nhe made use of the wealth he had thus secured in order to support his\nauthority. This good fortune he enjoyed for twenty-two years; and he\nbecame the father of seven sons by one wife. He had also another son whose\nname was Hyrcanus.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XII, 3:3a, b]\nNow in the reign of Antiochus the Great, who ruled over all Asia, the\nJews, as well as the inhabitants of Coele-Syria, suffered greatly, and\ntheir land was sorely harassed, for while Antiochus was at war with\nPtolemy Philopator and his son Ptolemy, who was called Epiphanes, these\nnations suffered equally both when he was defeated and when he was\nvictorious. So they were like a ship in the storm which is tossed by the\nwaves on both sides.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XII, 3:3c-e]\nBut at length when Antiochus had beaten Ptolemy he seized Judea. And when\nPhilopator was dead, his son sent out against the inhabitants of\nCoele-Syria a great army under Scopas, general of his forces, and took\nmany of their cities and especially our people, who, when he attacked\nthem, went over to him. But soon afterwards Antiochus overcame Scopas in a\nbattle fought at the fountains of the Jordan and destroyed a great part of\nhis army. And afterwards, when Antiochus subdued those cities of\nCoele-Syria which Scopas had captured, and Samaria among them, the Jews of\ntheir own accord went over to him and received him into Jerusalem and gave\nplentiful provisions to all his army and readily assisted him when he\nbesieged the garrison which was in the citadel at Jerusalem.\n\nI. Josephus's Histories. The Greek period began with Alexander's\nconquest of Palestine in 332 and extended to the Maccabean uprising in 168\nB.C. For the external history of this period the writings of the historian\nJosephus are the chief sources. This famous Jewish writer was born in 37\nA.D., and apparently lived till about the close of the reign of Domitian\nin 96. According to his own testimony he was the son of a priest named\nMattathiah. Until he was sixteen he studied under the Jewish rabbis. He\nthen spent three years with the Jewish sect known as the Essenes. At the\nage of nineteen he joined the party of the Pharisees. His point of view in\ngeneral is that of this dominant popular party. He was able to read Latin,\nbut wrote his histories in Greek. At the age of twenty-six he went to Rome\nwhere he spent three years. Returning to Palestine at the beginning of the\ngreat rebellion against Rome, he was appointed revolutionary governor of\nthe important province of Galilee. The appointment was unfortunate, for he\nproved both incompetent and unreliable. In 67 A.D. he and his followers\nwere shut up by Vespasian in the Galilean city, Jotapata. During the siege\nhe vainly tried to desert to the enemy. At the fall of the city he was\ncaptured, but his life was spared by Vespasian. In time he ingratiated\nhimself with Titus and also incurred the hostility of his countrymen by\ntrying to persuade them to lay down their arms. He spent the latter part\nof his life in Rome, devoting himself to study and writing. As a result of\nhis long residence at Rome under the patronage of the Roman emperors, he\nwas powerfully influenced by the Greek and Roman philosophical schools.\n\nJosephus was the great apologist of his race. His chief aims in writing\nhis histories were: (1) to excuse his own acts in connection with the\ngreat rebellion; (2) to show why the overwhelming calamity had overtaken\nhis race; and (3) to answer the attack of their Gentile foes by tracing\nthe remarkable history of his people, and by presenting in attractive\nform their beliefs, institutions, and laws. Of his two great historical\nworks the one entitled _The Jewish War_ was issued probably between 75 and\n79 A.D. It opens with the beginnings of the Maccabean struggle, and traces\nthe history, with increasing detail, to the destruction of Jerusalem and\nthe suppression of the Jewish revolt at Gyrene, two or three years before\nthe book was written. His second great work was issued in 93 A.D. under\nthe title of _The Antiquities of the Jews_. In twenty books it traces\nIsrael's history from the earliest beginnings to the opening years of the\nJewish war (68 A.D.). The first half of this extensive history is based\non the author's free paraphrase of the Greek version of the Old Testament.\nFor the latter half he draws largely from the apocryphal book of I\nMaccabees and from the writings of contemporary Greek and Jewish\nhistorians. Chief among these are Polybius, Nicolaus of Damascus, and\nStrabo. At certain points, where earlier sources fail him, he employs\npopular romances and late traditions. The result is that the different\nparts of his history are of widely varying values. All must be carefully\ntested by the canons of historical criticism. After due allowance has been\nmade for his apologetic purpose and his well-known tendencies, a large and\nvaluable body of historical facts remain with which it is possible at many\notherwise obscure points to reconstruct the course of Israel's history.\n\nII. Alexander's Conquests. In many ways Alexander's conquest was the\nmost significant and far-reaching event in the history of Asia. The causes\nof this great movement were, first, the fact that the limited territory of\nGreece and Macedonia gave to the powerful Hellenic civilization little\nopportunity for local expansion. Compelled, therefore, to break these\nnarrow bonds, it naturally spread in the direction of least resistance. In\nthe second place the decadent Persian Empire, with its fabulous riches and\nalmost limitless plains, was a loadstone that lured on Greek adventurers\nto attempt feats that seemed incredible. The third reason was Alexander's\ninherited lust for conquest. His father, Philip of Macedon, had long been\naccumulating the resources which made it possible for his son to realize\nhis ambitious dreams. The fourth reason was Alexander's desire to make the\nworld more glorious by the diffusion of Hellenic culture, ideas, and\ninstitutions and by binding all races together into one great, harmonious\nfamily. His brilliant conquests are a familiar chapter in the world's\nhistory. At Issus, at the northeastern end of the Mediterranean, he won,\nin 333 B.C., the decisive battle which left him in possession of the\nwestern part of the huge Persian Empire. By 332 he was master of\nPalestine. Tyre, the commercial mistress of the eastern Mediterranean, and\nGaza, the key to Egypt, alone offered resistance. The Persian kings by\ntheir onerous taxation and cruel policy had completely destroyed the\nloyalty of their western subjects. In the symbolic pictures of the book of\nDaniel Alexander is regarded as the \"fourth beast, terrible and fearful\nand exceedingly strong. And it had great iron teeth. It devoured and broke\nin pieces, and stamped the rest with its feet\" (7:17,23, 8:5-8). Josephus\nhas preserved a popular tradition regarding the meeting between Alexander\nand the white-robed Jerusalem priests and the homage paid by the conqueror\nto the God of the Jews. It bears on its face evidence of its unhistorical\ncharacter. As a matter of fact, the first goal of Alexander's conquest was\nthe rich land of Egypt. Not being possessed of a navy, he entered it\nthrough its one vulnerable point, the Wady Tumilat, that ran from the\nIsthmus of Suez to the Nile Delta. By 331 B.C. he was master of the Nile\nValley, and thence turned eastward, conquering in succession the different\nprovinces of the great empire, until before his death in 323 B.C. his\nempire extended from the Mediterranean to the Indus, and in the northeast\nfar up toward central Asia.\n\nAlexander's conquests were significant because they represented the\nvictory of Greek ideas and culture as well as of arms. In each country\nconquered he usually succeeded in Hellenizing the native peoples. Greek\ncities, settled by his veterans and the horde of migratory Greeks that\nfollowed in his wake, were founded at strategic points throughout the vast\nempire. As recent excavations have shown, Greek art and ideas continued\neven after the death of Alexander to sweep eastward across Asia, until\nthey profoundly influenced the culture and ideas in such distant nations\nas China and Japan.\n\nIII. The Jews in Egypt and Alexandria. The crown of Alexander's\nconstructive work was the building of Alexandria in Egypt. Selecting a\nnarrow strip of coast, protected on the south by the low-lying lake\nMareotis and on the north by the Mediterranean, he built there a\nmagnificent Greek city. On the south it was connected by canal with the\nCanopic arm of the Nile. Alexander thus diverted to this new metropolis\nthe rich trade of the Red Sea and the Nile. A mile distant was the\nisland of Pharos, which was connected with the mainland by a great moll.\nOn either side, protected from the storms, were the eastern and western\nharbors, large enough to accommodate the merchant-men and navies of the\nancient world. On the west was the native Egyptian quarter. In the\ncentre, opposite the island of Pharos, was the Greek and official quarter.\nIn the northeastern part of the city was the Jewish quarter. Here the Jews\nlived together under the rule of their law; they were also represented in\nthe civic council by their own leaders. When Ptolemy, the son of Lagus,\nbecame governor of Egypt and, after the death of Alexander, subjected\nPalestine, he carried back to Alexandria many Jewish captives, and\nattracted others by the special privileges which he granted them. In them\nhe recognized valuable allies in developing the commercial resources of\nAlexandria and in maintaining his rule over the native Egyptians. Here in\ntime the Jews became wealthy and powerful and developed a unique\ncivilization. From the beginning of the Greek period the number of the\nJews in Egypt equalled, if it did not surpass, that of the Jews in\nPalestine. While they maintained close connection with the Jews in\nPalestine and remained true to their Scriptures, they were profoundly\ninfluenced by their close contact with the civilization and ideas of the\nGreek world.\n\nIV. The Rule of the Ptolemies. The long-continued rule of the Ptolemies\nin Egypt is one of the most astonishing phenomena in this remarkable\nperiod in human history. Far outnumbered by the native population,\ninvolved in almost constant war with their fellow-Greeks, they succeeded\nby sheer audacity and vigilance in maintaining their authority during the\nmany crises through which they passed. Egypt's natural defences also made\nits conquest by outside powers exceedingly difficult. Alexandria with its\nfleet commanded Egypt's one entrance by the sea. In order to protect its\neastern gateway, the Isthmus of Suez, it was essential that the Ptolemies\nshould control Palestine. Southern Palestine also commanded the great\ncommercial highway that led southward and eastward to Arabia and\nBabylonia. Alexandria's ancient rivals, Tyre and Sidon, also lay on the\nborders of Palestine, and it was essential that they be under the control\nof Egypt, if Alexandria was to remain the mistress of the eastern\nMediterranean. Furthermore, Palestine and the Lebanons (known to Josephus\nas Coele-Syria, that is, Hollow Syria), alone of the countries adjacent to\nEgypt, possessed the timber required for the building of Alexandria's\nnavies and merchant-men. Hence Ptolemy, the son of Lagus, and his\nsuccessors spared no effort to maintain their control over the lands lying\nalong the eastern Mediterranean.\n\nIn the division of the empire which followed the death of Alexander three\nrivals struggled in turn for this coveted territory: Ptolemy, in the\nsouth; Antigonus, who soon became master of Asia Minor and northern Syria;\nand Seleucus, to whom fell the Tigris-Euphrates Valley and the more\ndistant eastern provinces. In the decisive battle of Ipsus in 301 B.C.\nthe overshadowing power of Antigonus was broken and the control of\nsouthwestern Asia was divided between Seleucus and Ptolemy. By the\ntreaty that was made after the battle, Coele-Syria was given to Ptolemy;\nbut Seleucus and his descendants, who were known as the Seleucids or the\nSeleucidae, soon attempted to wrest it from Egypt, and during the\nfollowing century frequently, with varying success, renewed the attempt.\nIn 295 and again in 219 they were for a brief period masters of Palestine,\nbut during most of this period it was held by the Ptolemies.\n\nV. Fortunes of the Jews of Palestine. Josephus's figure of a ship in a\nstorm, smitten by the waves on either side, well describes the lot of the\nJews of Palestine during the Greek period. They were in turn victimized\nand courted by the rival kings of Egypt and Syria. The Jews, on the\nwhole, favored the rule of the Ptolemies, who had made many concessions to\ntheir kinsmen in Egypt. The presence of many Jews in Egypt also made this\nrelation more natural. As a rule the Ptolemies during the intervals of\npeace left the Jews of Palestine largely to themselves, as long as they\npaid the heavy tribute that was exacted. It was, however, one of the\nmost corrupt periods in human history. The Ptolemaic court was rich,\nprofligate, and constantly degenerating. The popular story of Joseph the\ntax-collector (which Josephus recounts at length), while largely fanciful,\nvividly reflects the conditions and spirit of the age. Joseph, who\nevidently belonged to one of the leading families of Jerusalem, by his\nenergy and effrontery secured the valuable right of farming the taxes of\nPalestine. By the iniquitous methods then in vogue, he succeeded in\namassing a great fortune. The splendid ruins of Arak el-Emir on the\nheights of southern Gilead, east of the Jordan, represent the huge castle\nand town built by his son Hyrcanus and testify to the wealth of this\nJewish adventurer. The stories that Josephus relates regarding Joseph\nindicate that the materialism and sensuality which were regnant in\nAlexandria had penetrated even into the province of Judea.\n\nThe one bright spot in the political history of this period is the reign\nof the high priest Simon, known as the Just. He appears to have devoted\nhimself to developing, so far as was in his power, the interests and\nresources of the Palestinian Jews and to have lifted the temple service\nto a state of magnificence that received the unqualified commendation\nof Jesus, the son of Sirach.\n\nVI. Conquest of Palestine by the Seleucids in 311 B.C. Seleucus Nikanor\ntransferred the western capital of his empire, known as Syria (a shortened\nform of the ancient name Assyria), to Antioch, near the northeastern end\nof the Mediterranean. This city was situated at the point where the\nOrontes breaks through the Lebanons and where the great roads from the\nEuphrates and Coele-Syria converge and run westward to its seaport,\nSeleucia. It was built in the midst of a fertile valley, partly on an\nisland in the river and partly on its northern bank. Not having natural\ndefences, the city depended for protection upon its broad, encompassing\nwalls. To this new capital was attracted a diverse native, Greek, and\nJewish population. By virtue of its strategic position and its commercial\nand political importance, it soon became one of the great cities of the\neastern Mediterranean. It occupied the natural site on the eastern\nMediterranean seaboard for the capital of a great empire. Shut in by the\nsea on the west and the desert on the east, Syria's natural line of\nexpansion was north and south. Not until 198 B.C., however, under the\nrule of Antiochus the Great, did it secure permanent control of Palestine.\nThe degenerate house of the Ptolemies made several ineffectual attempts to\nwin back their lost province, but henceforth Palestine remained under the\nrule of Syria. The personal attractions of Antiochus the Great, the\nspecious promises which he made, and disgust because of the corrupt rule\nof Egypt inclined the Jews of Palestine to welcome this change of rulers.\nThe court at Antioch, however, soon became almost as corrupt as that of\nEgypt, and the Jews were the victims of the greed and caprice of the\nSyrian despots. Meantime the insidious Greek culture and vices were\ninfluencing and largely undermining the character of the Jewish rulers.\nJudaism was unconsciously facing a supreme crisis in its history.\n\n\n\nSection CV. THE WISE AND THEIR TEACHINGS\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 1:2-6]\nThat men may learn wisdom and instruction,\nMay understand intelligent discourses,\nMay receive instruction in wise conduct,\nIn justice, judgment and equity;\nThat discretion may be given to the inexperienced,\nTo the youth knowledge and a purpose;\nThat the wise man may hear and increase in learning,\nAnd the intelligent man may receive counsel,\nThat he may understand proverb and parable,\nThe words of the wise and their riddles.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 8:1-6]\nDoes not Wisdom call?\nAnd Understanding raise her voice?\nOn the top of high places by the way,\nIn the midst of the street she stands,\nBeside the gateways in front of the city,\nAt the entrance of the gates she cries aloud:\nTo you, O men, I call,\nAnd my appeal is to the sons of men.\nO inexperienced, acquire discretion,\nAnd ye stupid, gain understanding.\nHear, for I speak true things,\nAnd the utterance of my lips is right.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 8:13]\nPride and arrogance and evil conduct\nAnd false speech do I hate.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 8:14-16]\nWith me is counsel and practical knowledge;\nWith me understanding and might.\nBy me kings do reign,\nAnd rulers decree justice.\nBy me princes rule,\nAnd nobles judge the land.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 8:17]\nI love those who love me,\nThose who seek me diligently shall find me.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 8:18-21]\nRiches and honor are with me,\nLordly wealth and prosperity.\nMy fruit is better than gold, yea, than fine gold,\nAnd my increase than choice silver.\nI walk in the way of righteousness,\nIn the midst of the paths of justice,\nThat I may endow those who love me with wealth,\nAnd that I may fill their treasuries.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 8:22-26]\nJehovah formed me as the beginning of his creation,\nThe first of his works of old,\nIn the primeval past was I formed,\nIn the beginning, before the earth was,\nWhen there were no depths, I was brought forth,\nWhen there were no fountains full of water.\nBefore the mountains were settled,\nBefore the hills were brought forth,\nWhen he had not as yet made the earth,\nNor the first of the dust of the world.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 8:27, 29, 30]\nWhen he established the heavens, I was there,\nWhen he marked off the vault on the face of the deep,\nMade fast the fountains of the deep,\nWhen he set to the sea its bound,\nWhen he marked out the foundations of the earth,\nThen I was at his side as a foster-child;\nAnd I was daily full of delight,\nSporting in his presence continually,\nSporting in his habitable earth.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 8:31-35]\nAnd my delight is with the sons of men;\nNow therefore, my sons, hearken to me,\nHear instruction that you may be wise,\nAnd reject it not.\nHappy is the man who hearkens to me,\nHappy are they who walk in my ways,\nWatching daily at my gates,\nWaiting at the posts of my doors.\nFor he who finds me finds life,\nAnd obtains favor from Jehovah.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 13:14-20, 24:5]\nThe teaching of the wise is a fountain of life\nThat man may avoid the ways of death.\nWalk with the wise and you will become wise,\nBut he who associates with fools shall smart for it.\nA wise man is better than a strong man,\nAnd a man who has knowledge than he who has strength.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 12:10]\nA wise man has regard for the well-being of his beast,\nBut the heart of the wicked is cruel.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 20:13]\nLove not sleep lest you come to poverty;\nOpen your eyes and you shall have plenty.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 25:16]\nIf you find honey, eat what is sufficient for you,\nLest you be surfeited with it and vomit it up.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 23:9-35]\nWho cries, Woe? who, Alas?\nWho has contentions? Who, complaining?\nWho has dullness of eyes?\nThey who linger long over wine,\nThey who go about tasting mixed wine.\nLook not upon the wine when it is red,\nWhen it sparkles in the cup.\nAt last it bites like a serpent,\nAnd stings like an adder.\nYour eyes shall see strange things,\nAnd your mind shall suggest queer things.\nYou shall be like one sleeping at sea,\nLike one asleep in a great storm.\n\"They have struck me, but I feel no pain;\nThey have beaten me, but I feel it not;\nI will seek it yet again. When shall I awake from my wine?\"\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 29:20, 15:23]\nDo you see a man hasty in his words?\nThere is more hope for a fool than for him.\nA man has joy from the utterance of his mouth,\nAnd a word in due season, how good it is!\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 19:11, 16:32]\nA man's wisdom makes him slow to anger,\nAnd it is his glory to pass over transgression.\nHe who is slow to anger is better than the mighty,\nAnd he who rules his spirit than he who takes a city.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 23:26-28]\nMy son, give me your attention,\nAnd let your eyes give careful heed to my ways.\nFor a harlot is a deep well,\nAnd an adultress is a narrow pit.\nYea, she lies in wait as a robber,\nAnd increases the faithless among men.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 4:25-27]\nLet your eyes look right straight forward,\nAnd let your gaze be straight before you.\nLet the path of your feet be level,\nAnd let all your ways be stable.\nTurn not to the right hand nor to the left,\nKeep your foot away from evil.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 14:15]\nThe simpleton believes everything,\nBut the prudent man looks well to where he walks.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 26:12, 27:2]\nDo you see a man wise in his own conceit?\nThere is more hope of a fool than him.\nLet another man praise you and not your own mouth;\nSome other, and not your own lips.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 4:23, 11:6]\nKeep your heart above all that you guard,\nFor out of it are the issues of life.\nThe righteousness of the upright shall save them,\nBut the treacherous are caught by their own desire.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 21:3]\nTo do what is just and right\nIs more acceptable to Jehovah than sacrifice.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 15:1]\nA soft answer turns away wrath;\nBut a harsh word stirs up anger.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 3:27]\nWithhold not good from your neighbor,\nWhen it is in your power to do it.\nSay not to your neighbor, \"Go, and come again,\nAnd to-morrow I will give,\" when you have it by you.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 14:21, 19:17]\nHe who despises his neighbor, sins,\nBut he who has pity on the poor, happy is he.\nHe who has pity on the poor, lends to Jehovah,\nAnd his good deed will yet pay him.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 25:21-22]\nIf your enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat,\nAnd if he be thirsty, give him water to drink;\nFor you will heap coals of fire upon his head,\nAnd Jehovah will reward you.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 3:11-12]\nMy son, reject not the instruction of Jehovah,\nAnd do not grow weary of his reproof,\nFor whom Jehovah loveth he reproveth,\nEven as a father the son in whom he delights.\n\n[Sidenote: Pr. 3:5-6]\nTrust in Jehovah with all your heart,\nAnd depend not upon your own understanding.\nIn all your ways know him well,\nAnd he will make plain your path.\n\nI. Structure and Authorship of the Book of Proverbs. The book of\nProverbs is in reality a collection of originally independent groups of\nproverbs. In its present form it consists of nine general divisions:\n(1) The preface defining the aims of the book, 1:1-6. (2) A general\nintroduction describing the characteristics and value of the wisdom\nteaching, 1:7-9:18. (3) A large collection designated as the Proverbs\nof Solomon, 10:1-22:16. The fact that ten proverbs are repeated in\npractically the same words indicates that it, like the book of Proverbs\nas a whole, is made up of smaller collections. In chapters 10-15 the\nprevailing type of the poetic parallelism is antithetic or contrasting,\nwhile in the remainder of the book the synonymous or repeating parallelism\nprevails. (4) A supplemental collection, 22:17-24:22. This is introduced\nby the suggestive superscription, \"Incline your ear and hear the words of\nthe wise.\" (5) A shorter appendix, 24:23-34, with the superscription,\n\"These also are from the wise.\" (6) The second large collection of\nproverbs, 25-29. This bears the superscription, \"These also are the\nproverbs of Solomon which the men of Hezekiah, king of Judah,\ntranscribed.\" It contains several proverbs found in the first large\ncollection, and evidently represents later gleanings from the same field.\n(7) The words of Agur, 30. Of Agur nothing is known beyond his name,\nwhich may be simply typical. The latter part of the chapter contains a\ncollection of numerical enigmas which may or may not have been associated\nat first with the opening section. (8) The words of King Lemuel, 31:1-9.\n(9) A description of the ideal Hebrew housewife, 31:10-31. The contents of\nthese collections as well as their superscriptions clearly indicate that\nthese proverbs represent the work of many different wise men, living at\ndifferent periods and writing from different points of view. Few, if any,\ncan be confidently attributed to Solomon. Even the proverbs in the large\ncollection, 10:1-22:16, which are definitely designated as the Proverbs of\nSolomon, emphasize monogamy and denounce rulers who oppress their\nsubjects. Many of the proverbs in these larger Solomonic collections give\npractical advice regarding the bearing of a subject in the presence of the\nking, and few of them fit in the mouth of the splendor-loving monarch, who\nby his foreign marriages and grinding taxation exerted a baleful influence\nupon the political and religious life of Israel. The great majority of the\nproverbs reflect the noble ethical teachings of the prophets. Clearly the\nterm Proverbs of Solomon is simply a late designation of early proverbs\nthe authorship of which, like that of most popular maxims, had long since\nbeen forgotten.\n\nII. Date of the Different Collections. The preface and general\nintroduction to the book of Proverbs reflect the immorality and evils that\ncharacterized both the Persian and Greek periods. Their background is the\ncorrupt life of the city. The tendency to personify wisdom is also one of\nthe marks of later Jewish thought. It is probable, therefore, that this\npart of the book of Proverbs was added by a late editor who lived during\nthe Greek period. The oldest collection in the book is clearly to be found\nin 10:1-22:10. The evils which it describes, the oppression of the poor\nand dependent by the rich and powerful, existed throughout most of\nIsrael's history, but were especially prominent in the days of the\ndivided kingdom immediately before the destruction of Jerusalem. The\nreferences to the king imply that the proverb writers had in mind Hebrew\nrulers. In general their rule is just and they enjoy the respect of their\nsubjects. The prevailing occupation of the people is agriculture. Commerce\nis just beginning to develop. The exile has not yet cast its shadow over\nHebrew life and thought. The majority of these proverbs clearly represent\nthe fruitage of the teachings of the pre-exilic prophets, and many of them\ncome from the days immediately before the final destruction of Jerusalem.\nFrom the occasional references to the scoffers, the absence of allusions\nto idolatry, and the fact that monogamy is here assumed, we may infer that\nsome of them at least come from the Persian or even the Greek periods. It\nis probable that this large collection was not made until the latter part\nof the Persian or the early part of the Greek period.\n\nThe appendices in 22:17-24:34 contain many repetitions of proverbs found\nin the larger collection. The prevalence of intemperance, the existence of\na merchant class, and the allusions to exiled Jews (e.g., 24:11) point\nrather clearly to the dissolute Greek period as the age when these small\ncollections were made. The word meaning \"transcribe,\" that is found in\nthe superscription to the second large collection (25-29), is peculiar to\nthe late Hebrew, and implies that this superscription, like those of the\nPsalms, was added by a late Jewish scribe. The literary form of these\nproverbs is more complex than those of the other large collection. The\nkings are feared by their subjects, but figure now as oppressors rather\nthan champions of the people. While this collection may contain a few\nproverbs coming from the period before the final destruction of Jerusalem,\nit is probable that, like the smaller appendices to the first large\ncollection, they were not gathered until the early part of the Greek\nperiod. The long appendices in chapters 30-31 are clearly late. The note\nof doubt in the opening section of 30 is closely akin to that which recurs\nin the book of Ecclesiastes. It is also based on Isaiah 44:5 and 45:4.\nAramaisms and the acrostic form in 31:10-31 imply that the background was\nthe late Persian or early Greek period.\n\nThe history of the book of Proverbs is therefore reasonably clear. Its\noriginal nucleus was probably a small group of popular proverbs that had\nbeen transmitted orally from the days before the final destruction of\nJerusalem. These, together with proverbs which first became current during\nthe Persian period, were collected some time in the days following the\nwork of Nehemiah. To these was added in the Greek period the smaller\nappendices in 22:17-24:34. Possibly the same editor joined to them the\nlarge collection found in 25-29. He or some wise man in the Greek period\nprefixed the elaborate introduction in chapters 1-9. To the whole was\nadded the appendices in chapters 30 and 31. It is probable that by the\nmiddle of the Greek period, or at least before 200 B.C., the book of\nProverbs was complete in its present form.\n\nIII. The Wise in Israel's Early History. Long before 2000 B.C. the\nscribes of ancient Egypt were busy collecting \"the words of counsel of the\nmen of olden time.\" Many of these ancient maxims still survive. The\nbest-known is that which bears the title \"The Wisdom of Ptah-hotep.\" The\ndesire to preserve and transmit the results of practical experience is the\ncommon motive that underlies the work of the wise. It is that which\ninspires the teachers of all ages. The ancients were keenly alive to the\nimportance of instruction and training. All that is significant in the\ncivilizations of the past is, in a sense, the result of this teaching\nmotif.\n\nIn early Israel there were many men and women famous for their ability to\ngive wise counsel. In his stormy career Joab, David's valiant commander,\nfrequently profited by the counsel of certain wise women (Sections\nLIII:8-11 LIX:35). David's friend Hushai, by his wily counsel at the time\nof Absalom's rebellion, saved the king's life. The narrative in II Samuel\ndeclares that the counsel of Ahithophel was esteemed almost as highly as\nthe divine oracle. For his keen insight and acute decisions, as well as\nfor his witty utterances, Solomon gained a reputation which made him in\nthe thought of later generations the father of all wisdom literature. In\na significant passage found in Jeremiah 18:18 the three classes of\nIsrael's teachers are brought into sharp contrast. In urging that the\nprophet be put to death his foes declared: \"Teaching will not perish from\nthe priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor the word from the prophet.\"\nFrom references in Isaiah and Jeremiah it is evident that before the final\ndestruction of the Hebrew state the counsel of the wise was chiefly\npolitical and secular, and often not in accord with the higher ideals of\nthe great pre-exilic prophets.\n\nIV. Their Prominence in the Greek Period. The transformation of the wise\ninto religious as well as secular teachers apparently came after the\ndestruction of Jerusalem. It was the result of a variety of forces which\nhave already been studied. The destruction of the Hebrew state and the\nresulting prominence of the individual led the wise to turn their\nattention from questions of political to those of personal import. The\nresult is that the word \"Israel\" is found nowhere in the book of Proverbs.\nThe teachings there found are both individual and universal and apply to\nGentile as well as Jew, to the present as well as the past. The gradual\ndisappearance of the prophets during the latter part of the Persian\nperiod, and the fact that the priests ever devoted themselves more and\nmore to the ritual and less to teaching, left a great need in the life of\nJudaism which called to the front the wise. At the same time the problems\nof the individual became more and more complex and insistent. Especially\nwas this true during the Greek period when Hellenic civilization, with its\ncorrupting influences, swept over Palestine and the lands of the\ndispersion. It was a period when the principles enunciated by the earlier\nprophets had been in general adopted by the Jewish race. The task,\nhowever, of interpreting these principles simply and practically into the\nevery-day life of the people was left to these lovers and teachers of men,\nthe wise. The evidence of the voluminous writings of Ben Sira, as well as\nof the books of Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, makes it quite clear that it\nwas during the Greek period, and possibly in part under the intellectual\nstimulus of Greek thought, that the wise attained their greatest\nprominence and influence.\n\nV. The Aims of the Wise. The aims of the wise are in part defined in the\nremarkable preface to the book of Proverbs, which was intended primarily\nto describe the purpose of the collection of proverbs which embodies their\nteachings. Four distinct classes commanded their attention: (1) The\nignorant, those who were unacquainted with the moral, religious,\nand practical heritage received from preceding generations. (2) The\ninexperienced, those who had not yet learned in the school of life the art\nof adjusting themselves successfully to their environment. (3) The\nscoffers, who openly rejected the counsel of the sages. And (4) the\ndisciples who were eager to learn and profit by the teachings of the wise.\n\nThe definite aims of the wise must be inferred from their teachings. They\nwere concerned with the development of the individual, not the nation.\nTheir first aim was to instruct the ignorant in the fundamental moral and\nreligious principles already laid down by earlier priests and prophets.\nIn the words of the preface to the book of Proverbs they taught,\n\nThat men may learn wisdom and instruction,\nMay understand intelligent discourses,\nMay receive instruction in wise dealing,\nIn justice, judgment, and equity.\n\nTheir second aim was to point out the pitfalls that lay in the path of the\ninexperienced, and to save them from moral wreck by inspiring within them\nright ideals and ambitions. This aim is also well stated in the preface to\nthe book of Proverbs:\n\nThat discretion may be given to the inexperienced,\nTo the youth knowledge and a purpose.\n\nThe third aim of the wise was to educate the receptive and all who came\nto them in the attitude of disciples. This aim corresponded very closely\nto that of the modern educator. Again the preface to the book of\nProverbs clearly expresses this educational ideal:\n\nThat the wise man may hear and increase in learning,\nAnd the intelligent man may receive counsel.\nThat he may understand a proverb and parable,\nThe words of the wise and their riddles.\n\nThe wise, therefore, sought not merely to instruct, but to educate; that\nis, to develop sane, happy, and efficient men and women. They sought to\ntrain those who would have not only knowledge and experience, but also the\nability to apply these successfully in the varied relations of life.\nAbove all, they endeavored to educate not parts of a man, but the whole\nman. Hence their interest and the subjects that they treat are as broad\nas human experience.\n\nThe wise were keenly alive to the importance of youthful education.\nThe proverb:\n\nTrain up a child in the way in which he should go,\nAnd even when he is old he will not depart from it,\n\nvoices the fundamental principle upon which all effective education is\nbased. They recognized that in the plastic days of childhood and youth\nideals and character and efficiency could best be developed, and that\neducation was not the work of a moment, but a gradual, progressive\ndevelopment.\n\nPrimary education, however, they intrusted to parents, and in many\nproverbs emphasized the responsibility which every parent owed to his\nchild. They also counselled parents regarding the training of their\nchildren. The maxims:\n\nThe rod of correction gives wisdom,\nBut a child left to himself brings disgrace to his mother.\nChastise your son while there is still hope,\nAnd set not your heart on his destruction.\nHe who spares his rod hates his son,\nBut he who loves him chastises him,\n\nexpress their appreciation of the importance of discipline in the early\ntraining of the child. It is not clear at what age the wise took up the\ninstruction of the young. Possibly it was at about the age of twelve,\nwhen the individual passed from childhood to adolescence, with its\nincreasing dangers and possibilities. Many of their teachings are\nespecially adapted to the problems of this tempestuous period.\n\nVI. The Methods of the Wise. In attaining their aims the wise men of\nIsrael employed a variety of methods. Proverbs such as,\n\nEvery purpose is established by counsel,\nAnd by wise guidance make thou war,\n\nsuggest that, as in the days before the exile, they were still active in\nconnection with the civic, social, and national life of the people, and\nthat by influencing public policies they conserved the moral welfare of\nthe individual as well as the state. Many references to \"wisdom's voice\ncrying aloud in the public places\" suggest that, like the earlier\nprophets, the wise men at times taught in public, in the market-places, in\nthe open spaces within the city gates, or wherever men were gathered\ntogether. They appear also to have taught in private, by wise counsel\ndelivering the individual disciple who resorted to them from the\nperils that beset his path, or aiding him by prudent advice in solving\nsuccessfully his individual problems.\n\nIn 6:32-37 Ben Sira has given a vivid sketch of the schools of the wise,\nwhich are clearly the forerunners of the later rabbinical schools:\n\nMy son, if you wish, you will be instructed,\nAnd if you pay attention, you will become prudent.\nIf you are willing to hear, you will receive,\nAnd if you listen attentively, you will be wise.\nStand in the assembly of the elders,\nAnd whoever is wise, stick close to him.\nBe willing to listen to every discourse,\nAnd let no illuminating proverbs escape you.\nIf you see a man of insight, hasten to him,\nAnd let your foot wear out his threshold.\nLet your mind dwell upon the law of the Most High,\nAnd meditate continually on his commands.\nThus he will enlighten your mind,\nAnd teach you the wisdom you desire.\n\nIt requires little imagination to picture these ancient prototypes of\nour modern universities. Like all Oriental teachers, the wise doubtless\nsat cross-legged, with their disciples in a circle about them. They\ntrusted largely to question and answer, and poured out from their own\nand their inherited experience wise maxims such as would guide the\nsimple and inexperienced and develop efficient manhood.\n\nVIII. Their Important Teachings. In the opening chapters of Proverbs the\nwise describe the character and value of that wisdom which represents\ntheir teaching as a whole. In chapters 8 and 9 \"Wisdom\" is personified.\nInasmuch as the Hebrew word for \"wisdom\" is feminine, it is spoken of as a\nwoman. Chapter 9 describes, in a form intended to arrest the attention of\nthe most inattentive, the feast that Wisdom offers to her guests. This is\ncontrasted with Folly's banquet, and the consequences to those who\nparticipated in these rival banquets are clearly presented.\n\nIn the practical teachings of the wise no question that vitally concerned\nthe individual man was considered beneath their attention. Like the wise\nmodern teacher they made no distinction between the religious and the\nsecular. Everything that influenced man's acts and ideals possessed for\nthem profound religious import. While the proverbial epigrammatic form of\ntheir teaching was not conducive to a logical or complete treatment of\ntheir theme, yet in a series of concise, dramatic maxims they dealt with\nalmost every phase of man's domestic, economic, legal, and social life.\nThey presented clearly man's duty to animals, to himself, to his\nfellow-men, and to God. If utilitarian motives were urged in the great\nmajority of cases, it is because they sought to reach their pupils on\ntheir own level. Although their ideals sometimes fell below those of the\ngreat prophets, and especially those of the Great Teacher of Nazareth, the\nimportance of their work in establishing individual standards of right and\nwrong, in keeping alive in concrete form the principles of the earlier\nprophets, and in preparing their race for the crises through which it was\nsoon to pass cannot be overestimated. As effective teachers of the\nindividual they have an intensely practical and significant message for\nall men in the stream of life to-day as well as in the past.\n\n\n\nSection CVI. THE DIFFERENT CURRENTS OF THOUGHT IN JUDAISM DURING THE\nGREEK PERIOD\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 19:7-14]\nThe law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul;\nThe testimony of Jehovah is trustworthy, making wise the simple,\nThe precepts of Jehovah are right, rejoicing the heart,\nThe commandment of Jehovah is pure, enlightening the eyes.\nThe fear of Jehovah is clean, enduring forever,\nThe judgments of Jehovah are true and altogether just,\nThey are of more value than gold, yea, than much fine gold,\nSweeter than honey and the droppings from the honey-comb.\nBy them is thy servant warned; in keeping them is great reward.\nWho can discern his errors; cleanse thou me from secret faults,\nAlso from the presumptuous restrain thy servant; let them not have\n  dominion over me.\nThen shall I be perfect and cleared from great transgression.\nLet the words of my mouth be acceptable and the meditation of my heart,\nIn thy sight, O Jehovah, my Rock and my Redeemer.\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 46:1-3]\nJehovah is our refuge and strength,\nAn ever present help in trouble.\nTherefore we fear not, though the earth be moved,\nAnd though the mountains totter into the heart of the sea;\nThe seas roar, their waters foam,\nMountains shake with the swelling of its stream.\n  Jehovah of hosts is with us,\n  The God of Jacob is our refuge.\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 46:4-7]\nHis brooks make glad the city of Jehovah,\nThe holy dwelling place of the Most High.\nJehovah is in the midst of her, she cannot totter;\nJehovah will help her at the turn of the morn.\nNations raged, kingdoms tottered,\nWhen he uttered his voice the earth melted.\n  Jehovah of hosts is with us,\n  The God of Jacob is our refuge.\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 46:8-11]\nCome, behold the works of Jehovah,\nWhat desolations he hath made in the earth.\nHe is about to make wars to cease unto the end of the earth.\nThe bow he breaketh, and dasheth the spear in pieces;\nHe burneth the chariots with fire.\nBe still, and know that I am Jehovah;\nI shall be exalted among the nations, I shall be exalted on the earth.\n  Jehovah of hosts is with us,\n  The God of Jacob is our refuge.\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. 22:27-30]\nAll the ends of the earth will remember and will turn to Jehovah,\nAnd all the families of the nations will worship in his presence;\nFor the dominion belongs to Jehovah and he rules over the nations.\nVerily, him alone will all the prosperous of the earth worship.\nBefore him all those about to go down to the dust will bow,\nA seed will serve him, it will be told to a generation to come;\nAnd they will declare his righteousness that he hath accomplished to a\n  people yet to be born.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 1:1-8]\nNow this word of Jehovah came to Jonah the son of Amittai:\n\nArise, go to that great city, Nineveh, and preach against it; for their\nwickedness has come up before me. But Jonah rose up to flee to Tarshish\nfrom the presence of Jehovah. And he went down to Joppa and found a ship\ngoing to Tarshish; so he paid the fare and embarked to go with them to\nTarshish from the presence of Jehovah.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 1:4-7]\nBut Jehovah sent a furious wind upon the sea, and there was a mighty\ntempest, so that the ship threatened to break in pieces. Then the sailors\nwere afraid and cried, each to his own god; and they cast into the sea the\nwares that were in the ship, in order to lighten it. But Jonah had gone\ndown into the bottom of the ship; and he lay fast asleep. And the captain\nof the ship came and said to him: What are you doing asleep? Call on your\nGod, perhaps that God will think on us that we perish not. And they said\nto one another, Come, let us cast lots, that we may know for whose sake\nthis evil has come upon us. So they cast lots and the lot fell upon Jonah.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 1:8-10]\nThen they said to him, Tell us, what is your occupation, and whence do you\ncome? what is your country and of what people are you? And he said to\nthem, I am a Hebrew, and a worshipper of Jehovah, the God of heaven, who\nhath made the sea and the dry land. Then the men were exceedingly afraid,\nand said to him, What is this you have done? For they knew that he was\nfleeing from the presence of Jehovah, for he had told them.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 1:11-13]\nThen they said to him, What shall we do to thee, that the sea may be calm\nfor us? for the sea grew more and more stormy. And he said to them, Take\nme up and throw me into the sea; so shall the sea be calm for you, for I\nknow that for my sake this great storm has overtaken you. But the men\nrowed hard to get back to the land; but they could not, for the sea grew\nmore and more stormy against them.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 1:14, 15]\nTherefore they cried to Jehovah, and said, We beseech thee, O Jehovah, we\nbeseech thee, let us not perish for this man's life, neither bring\ninnocent blood upon us, for thou art Jehovah; thou hast done as it\npleaseth thee. So they took up Jonah, and threw him into the sea; and the\nsea ceased from its raging. Then the men feared Jehovah exceedingly, and\nthey offered a sacrifice to Jehovah, and made vows.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 1:17-2:1, 10]\nThen Jehovah prepared a great fish to swallow Jonah and Jonah was in the\nbelly of this fish three days and three nights. Thereupon Jonah prayed to\nJehovah his God, out of the belly of the fish. And Jehovah spoke to the\nfish, and it threw up Jonah upon the dry land.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 3:1-4]\nAnd the word of Jehovah came to Jonah the second time, saying, Arise, go\nto that great city, Nineveh, and preach to it what I shall tell thee. So\nJonah rose and went to Nineveh, as Jehovah said. Now Nineveh was a great\ncity before God, of three days' journey. And Jonah began by going through\nthe city a day's journey, and he cried, and said, Forty days more and\nNineveh shall be overthrown.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 3:5-9]\nAnd the people of Nineveh believed God; and they proclaimed a fast, and\nput on sackcloth, from the greatest of them to the least of them. And when\nword came to the king of Nineveh, he rose from his throne, and took off\nhis robe, and dressed in sackcloth, and sat in the dust. And he made\nproclamation and published in Nineveh: By the decree of the king and his\nnobles: Man, beast, herd, and flock shall not taste anything; let them\nneither eat nor drink water; But let them clothe themselves with\nsackcloth, both man and beast, and let them cry mightily to God, and turn\neach from his evil way, and from the act of violence which they have in\nhand. Who knows but that God may relent, and turn from his fierce anger,\nthat we perish not?\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 3:10]\nAnd God saw their works, how they turned from their evil way; and God\nrelented of the evil which he said he would do to them, and did it not.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 4:1-5]\nBut it displeased Jonah greatly, and he was angry. And he prayed to\nJehovah, and said, Ah now, Jehovah, was not this what I said when I was\nyet in mine own country? Therefore I hastened to flee to Tarshish; for I\nknew that thou art a God, gracious and merciful, slow to anger, and\nabounding in love, and relenting of evil. Therefore, O Jehovah, take now,\nI beseech thee, my life from me; for it is better for me to die than to\nlive! And Jehovah said, Doest thou well to be angry? Then Jonah went out\nof the city, and sat down before the city, and there made him a booth, and\nsat under it, until he might see what would become of the city.\n\n[Sidenote: Jonah 4:6-11]\nAnd Jehovah God prepared a gourd, and made it to come up over Jonah, that\nit might be a shade over his head. So Jonah rejoiced exceedingly over the\ngourd. But as the dawn appeared the next day God prepared a worm and it\ninjured the gourd, so that it withered. And when the sun arose, God\nprepared a sultry east wind. And the sun beat upon the head of Jonah, so\nthat he was faint, and begged for himself that he might die saying, It is\nbetter for me to die than to live. And God said to Jonah, Is it well for\nthee to be angry about the gourd? And he said, It is well for me to be\nangry, even to death! And Jehovah said, Thou carest for a gourd, for which\nthou hast not troubled thyself, nor hast thou brought it up--a thing that\ncame in a night and hath perished in a night. Shall I, indeed, not care\nfor the great city, Nineveh, in which there are one hundred and twenty\nthousand human beings who know not their right hand from their left;\nbesides much cattle?\n\n[Sidenote: Eccles. 1:12-18]\nI, Koheleth, was king over Israel in Jerusalem. And I applied my mind to\nsearching out and exploring wisdom, all that is done under heaven: it is\nan evil task that God hath given the children of men at which to toil. I\nhave seen all the works that are done under the sun; and behold, the\nwhole is vanity and a striving after wind. The crooked cannot be made\nstraight; and the wanting cannot be numbered. I communed with myself,\nsaying, Behold, I have increased and gathered wisdom more than all who\nwere before me in Jerusalem, and my mind has abundantly beheld wisdom and\nknowledge. And I applied my mind to know wisdom and knowledge, madness and\nfolly: I know that this also is a striving after wind. For in much wisdom\nis much trouble, and he who increases knowledge, increases pain.\n\n[Sidenote: Eccles. 2:1-11]\nI said in my mind, Come now, I will test you with pleasure; so look upon\nwhat is attractive; and, behold, this also is vanity. I said of laughter,\nIt is mad; and of pleasure, What does it do? I searched in my mind, how to\nStimulate my flesh with wine, while my mind was guiding with wisdom, and\nhow to lay hold on folly, until I should see what is good for the children\nof men to do under the heavens all the days of their life. I did great\nworks: I built for myself houses; I planted for myself vineyards; I made\nfor myself gardens and parks, and I planted trees in them, every kind of\nfruit-tree. I made for myself pools of water, to water a grove springing\nup with trees. I bought male and female slaves and had slaves born in my\nhouse; also I had great possessions of herds and flocks, more than all who\nhad been before me in Jerusalem. I also gathered for myself silver and\ngold, and the treasure of kings and of provinces. I secured for myself\nmale and female singers, and the delights of the sons of men, mistresses\nof all kinds. And I grew more wealthy than all who were before in\nJerusalem; also my wisdom remained with me. And nothing that my eyes\ncraved did I keep from them; I did not deny my heart any joy, for my heart\nrejoiced because of all my labor. Then I looked on all the works that my\nhands had wrought, and on the labor that I had labored to do; and, behold,\nall was vanity and a striving after wind, and there was no gain under the\nsun.\n\n[Sidenote: Eccles. 2:12-17]\nAnd I turned to behold wisdom and madness, and folly; for what can the man\ndo who comes after the king? Even that which has been done already. Then I\nsaw that wisdom excels folly, as far as light excels darkness. The wise\nman's eyes are in his head, but the fool walks in darkness: yet I know\nthat the same fate overtakes them all. Then I said in my heart, As is the\nfate of a fool so will be my fate; so why have I then been more wise? Then\nI said in my heart that this also is vanity. For of the wise man, even as\nof the fool, there is no remembrance for ever, inasmuch as in the days to\ncome all will have been already forgotten. And how the wise man dies even\nas the fool! So I hated life, because the work that is done under the sun\nis evil to me; for all is vanity and a striving after wind.\n\n[Sidenote: Eccles. 2:24-26b]\nThere is nothing better for a man than that he should eat and drink, and\nfind his pleasure in his labor. This also I saw that it is from the hand\nof God. For who can eat, or who can have enjoyment without him? This is\nalso vanity and a striving after wind.\n\nI. The Ritualists. Liberty of thought as well as speech was from the\nfirst characteristic of Israel's life and thought. It was one of the many\nvaluable heritages that the Hebrews brought with them from the free life\nof the desert. Their close contact with the outside world, and especially\nwith Hellenic life and thought during the Greek period, increased this\nsense of freedom. The result is that many different currents of thought\nare reflected in the Old Testament writings that come from this age.\nMost familiar and easiest understood is the ritualistic type. It is\nrepresented by the Chronicler, who lived and wrote some time between 300\nand 250 B.C. For him all life and interest centred about the temple and\nits services. In general the vision of the ritualists was turned toward\nthe past rather than the present and the future. In the traditions\nregarding the origin of the temple and its institutions, in keeping the\nceremonial law, in participating in the formal ritual, and in joining\ntheir songs with those of the temple singers they found an escape from\nthe pettiness of the age and attained that peace and joy which is\nexpressed in many of the psalms of the Psalter.\n\nII. The Legalists. Closely related to the ritualists were those whose\ninterests were all fixed in the study of the law and the teachings of the\nearlier priests. They regarded the written laws as a complete guide to\nconduct and the embodiment of Jehovah's supreme message to his race.\nPsalms like the fragment found in 19:7-14 voice their convictions:\n\nThe law of Jehovah is perfect, restoring the soul,\nThe judgments of Jehovah are true and altogether just.\nBy them is thy servant warned; in keeping them is great reward.\n\nThey emphasized not merely external acts and words, but inner motives.\nIn character and in conduct they were noble products of that religion\nwhich Israel had inherited from the past. By them were probably treasured\nstories such as are found in the first chapters of the book of Daniel. The\ndetailed references in chapter 2 to the marriage of Antiochus Theos and\nthe daughter of Ptolemy Philadelphus in 248 B.C. and to the murder of\nAntiochus by his former wife Laodicea, together with the absence of\nallusions to subsequent events, indicate that these stories were probably\ncommitted to writing somewhere between 255 and 245 B.C. Their aim was\nclearly to emphasize the supreme importance of fulfilling faithfully the\ndemands of the law, even in the face of bitter opposition and persecution,\nand the certainty that Jehovah would deliver those who were loyal to him.\nTheir teachings were especially adapted to inspire the tried and tempted\nJews of the dispersion, who were sorely persecuted by the heathen among\nwhom they lived. The dramatic picture of men who dared face the fiery\nfurnace or the hungry lions rather than depart from the demands of the law\nundoubtedly proved a great inspiration to the Jews of the Greek period.\n\nIII. The Disciples of the Prophets. Throughout the centuries that\nfollowed the destruction of Jerusalem the great ethical prophets of the\npre-exilic period had never been without spiritual disciples. They\nfaithfully studied and applied in their own lives the principles laid down\nby their earlier guides. Although the influence of the contemporary\nprophets constantly waned, yet the spirit of those earlier champions of\nthe faith lived in the hearts of their followers. In many of the psalms\nof the Psalter Amos and Isaiah and Jeremiah speak in terms adapted to the\nchanged problems of the Jews of the Greek period. In Psalm 46 the trust in\nJehovah which Isaiah advocated has become a living force in the life of\nthe Psalmist and of the class in behalf of which he spoke. In the\nbackground one hears the march of the multitude armed by Alexander for\nworld-conquest and the din of conflict as army met army; but over all\nstands Jehovah, protecting his sanctuary and people, supreme in the lives\nof men and nations. The narrow, nationalistic, messianic hopes have long\nsince been abandoned, and instead Jehovah is recognized as the one supreme\nbeing whose kingdom or dominion includes all the nations of the earth. In\nimagination these disciples of the prophets saw the time when rich and\npoor, Jew and Gentile, should bow before Jehovah and be united in loyalty\nto him. Thus arose that highest conception of the kingdom of God which is\nthe foundation of Jesus' teaching.\n\nIV. The Date and Character of the Book of Jonah. From those who sat at\nthe feet of the earlier prophets came one of the most remarkable books of\nthe Old Testament. In literary form the little book of Jonah is closely\nakin to the stories in the opening chapters of Genesis and the first half\nof the book of Daniel. Its many Aramaic words, its quotations from the\nlate book of Joel, its universalism, and its missionary spirit all\nindicate that it comes either from the closing years of the Persian or\nfrom the earlier part of the Greek period. The story of Jonah, like many\nsimilar stories in the Old Testament, was probably known to the Semites\ncenturies before it was employed by the author of the book to point his\ngreat prophetic teaching. In the familiar Greek story of Hercules,\nHesione, the daughter of the Trojan king, is rescued by the hero from a\nsea-monster which held her in its stomach three days. An old Egyptian tale\ncoming from the third millennium B.C. tells of an Egyptian who was\nshipwrecked and after floating three days was swallowed by a great\nsea-monster and thus carried to the land. From India comes the tradition\nof a man who went to sea contrary to the commands of his mother. While on\nthe way the ship was seized by an unknown power and not allowed to proceed\nuntil the offender was three times selected by lot and then cast\noverboard.\n\nV. Teachings of the Book of Jonah. The value and message of the book of\nJonah have in the past been largely overlooked because the true literary\ncharacter of the book has been misunderstood. It was never intended by its\nauthor to be regarded as a historical narrative. Its hero Jonah, the son\nof Amittai, according to II Kings 14:25, lived during the reign of\nJeroboam II (780-740 B.C.), and predicted the wide extension of the\nterritory of southern Israel; but the Jonah of the story is evidently a\ntype of the Jew of the Persian and Greek periods. By showing the pettiness\nof his attitude toward the heathen the author sought to broaden the vision\nand quicken the conscience of his fellow-Jews. The portrait is remarkably\nvivid and suggestive. Jonah fled from Jehovah's land and took refuge in\nthe sea, not because he feared the Ninevites, but, as he plainly declares\nlater, because he feared that, if he did preach to the Assyrian foes of\nhis race, Jehovah would repent and spare them. In the scene in the midst\nof the raging tempest the piety of the heathen Sailors and their zeal in\nsparing the guilty Israelite stand forth in favorable contrast to Jonah's\naction in refusing to carry out Jehovah's command. The Ninevites, clad in\nsackcloth, repenting for their sins, and craving Jehovah's forgiveness,\nare far more attractive than the sullen prophet, complaining because\nJehovah has spared the heathen foes of his race and later upbraiding\nJehovah because of the destruction of the gourd that for a time had\nprotected his head from the burning sun. Jehovah's concluding remonstrance\nvoices the message of the book. Like the New Testament parable of the\nProdigal Son, the story of Jonah presents in graphic form the unbounded\nlove of the heavenly father and contrasts it sharply with the petty\njealousies and hatred of his favored people. It was a call to Israel to go\nforth and become a missionary to all the world and a protest against the\nnation's failure to perform its God-given task.\n\nVI. The Book of Ecclesiastes. Very different is the spirit and purpose\nof the book of Ecclesiastes. It evidently comes from one of the many\nwisdom teachers who flourished during the Greek period and it speaks in\nthe name of Solomon. It is an essay on the value of life. In its original\nform its thought was so pessimistic that it has been supplemented at many\npoints by later editors. These insertions include (1) proverbs commending\nwisdom and praising the current wisdom teachings, and (2) the work of a\npious scribe, a forerunner of the later Pharisees, who sought to correct\nthe utterances of the original writer (who is commonly designated as\nKoheleth) and to bring them into accord with current orthodoxy. The\nlanguage and style of the book are closely akin to those of the Chronicler\nand the author of the book of Esther. It also contains several Persian and\npossibly one Greek word. The book in its earlier form was evidently known\nto Ben Sira, the author of Ecclesiasticus, who lived about 180 B.C. In\n4:13-16 and 10:16-17 there are apparent references to the reign of Ptolemy\nEpiphanes, who came to the throne of Egypt at the age of five, and whose\ncourt was famous for its dissoluteness and profligacy. The book,\ntherefore, may be dated with considerable confidence a little before 200\nB.C. It was a corrupt, barren period. Crime was rampant in the temple as\nwell as at the court in Alexandria (3:16). The people were crushed by the\npowerful and were without means of redress (4:1). A despot sat on the\nthrone (10:5-7) and spies lurked everywhere (10:20).\n\nVII. Koheleth's Philosophy of Life. The author of the original book of\nEcclesiastes is the spokesman of that class in Judaism who were oppressed\nand crushed by this dreary outlook. He evidently lived in Jerusalem and\nprobably near the temple (5:1 8:10). From the allusions in 7:26, 28 it is\nevident that he was unhappily married. From the classic description of old\nage found in 11:9-12:7 it would appear that when he wrote he was well\nadvanced in years, and spoke out of the depths of his own painful personal\nexperience, having been left without son or close kinsman (4:8). From his\nteachings it is clear that he had broken away from the orthodox wisdom\nschool. Before his enfeebled vision rose the seamy, dreary side of life,\nand yet back of the lament of this ancient pessimist is revealed a man of\nhigh ideals, impelled by a spirit of scientific thoroughness. Though he\nwas intense and eager in his quest for true happiness and in his\nanalysis of the meaning of life, he found no abiding joy, for his\noutlook was sadly circumscribed. Life beyond the grave offered to him\nno hope or compensation. He was, however, by no means an agnostic. He\nbelieved in God's rulership of the world; but the God of his faith was\ninscrutable, far removed from the life of men. Hence, unlike many of his\ncontemporaries, as for example the psalmists, he found little joy or\ninspiration in his religion. According to the conclusion, which he\nproclaimed in the beginning of his essay and held consistently throughout,\nall human striving and ambition, even life itself, are but superlative\nvanity, nor can man attain any permanent or complete satisfaction. The one\npositive teaching which Koheleth reiterates is that it is man's highest\nprivilege to extract from passing experiences the small measure of joy and\nhappiness that they offer, and therewith to be content. Compared with many\nother Old Testament books, the religious value of Ecclesiastes is slight\nindeed. Its chief value, however, is historical: it presents one phase of\nthought in the Judaism of this period, and shows how sorely the Jewish\npeople needed the spur of a great crisis to rouse them to noble and\nunselfish action. The book of Ecclesiastes also furnishes the darker\nbackground which brings out in clear relief the inspiring messages of the\ngreat prophets that had gone before, and of the greater Prophet who\nwas to set before the human race a worthy goal and a fresh and true\ninterpretation of the value of life.\n\n\n\nSection CVII. THE TEACHINGS OF JESUS THE SON OF SIRACH\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 1:1-10]\nAll wisdom is from the Lord,\nAnd is with him forever.\nThe sand of the seas, and the drops of rain,\nAnd the days of eternity--who shall number?\nThe height of the heaven, and the breadth of the earth,\nAnd the depths of the abyss--who shall search them out?\nWisdom hath been created before all things,\nAnd keen insight from everlasting.\nTo whom hath the root of wisdom been revealed?\nAnd who hath known her shrewd counsels?\nThere is one wise, greatly to be feared,\nThe Lord sitting upon his throne,\nHe created her, and saw and numbered her,\nAnd poured her out over all his works.\nShe is with all flesh according to his gift,\nAnd he giveth her freely to those who love him.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 2:1-5]\nMy son, if you would serve the Lord,\nPrepare your soul for temptation.\nSet your heart aright, and be steadfast,\nThat you may not be dismayed in the time of calamity.\nCleave to him, and depart not,\nThat you may prove yourself wise at the last.\nAccept whatever comes to you,\nAnd be patient in sickness and affliction,\nFor gold is tried by the fire,\nAnd acceptable men in the furnace of affliction.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 2:6-9]\nPut your trust in the Lord, and he will help you,\nHope in him, and he will make smooth your way.\nYou who fear the Lord, wait for his mercy,\nAnd turn not aside lest you fall.\nYou who fear the Lord trust in him,\nAnd your reward shall not fail.\nYou who fear the Lord, hope for good things,\nAnd for eternal gladness and deliverance?\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 3:17-20]\nMy son, if you are rich, walk in humility,\nThat you will be more beloved than a generous man.\nThe greater you are, humble yourself the more,\nAnd you shall find favor before the Lord.\nFor great is the might of the Lord,\nAnd he is glorified by those who are meek.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 3:21-25]\nSeek not the things that are too hard for you,\nAnd search not out things that are beyond you.\nThat over which power has been given you, think thereon,\nFor you have no business with the things that are hidden.\nWith that which is out of your field have nothing to do,\nFor more things are shown to you than you can understand.\nFor men have many speculations,\nAnd evil theories have led them astray.\nWhere there is no pupil to the eye, the light fails,\nAnd where there is no understanding, wisdom fails.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 3:26-29]\nA stubborn heart fares ill at the last,\nBut he who loves the good finds it.\nA stubborn heart has many troubles,\nAnd the overbearing heap sin upon sin.\nFor the wound of the scorner there is no healing,\nSince he is a plant of an evil kind.\nA wise mind understands the proverbs of the wise,\nAnd an ear attentive to wisdom is a joy.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 3:30-4:2, 9, 10]\nWater quenches flaming fire,\nAnd right acts make atonement for sins.\nHe who does a favor--it meets him on his way,\nAnd when he falls he shall find support.\nMy son, deprive not the poor of his living,\nAnd let not the eyes of the needy grow weary.\nMake not a hungry soul groan,\nAnd do not stir up the feelings of him who is smitten.\nDeliver the oppressed from the oppressor,\nAnd be not faint-hearted in giving judgment.\n\nBe as a father to the fatherless,\nAnd instead of a husband to the widow;\nSo will God call you his son,\nAnd be gracious to you and save you from destruction.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 4:20-22]\nObserve the opportunity and beware of evil,\nAnd be not ashamed of yourself.\nFor there is a shame that brings sin,\nAnd another shame, glory and grace.\nDo not be obsequious to your own shame,\nAnd do not humiliate yourself until it is a sin against yourself.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 4:23-25, 28, 29]\nHold not back speech, in its proper time,\nAnd hide not your wisdom.\nFor by speech wisdom shall be known,\nAnd instruction by the word of the tongue.\nSpeak not against the truth,\nBut be humble because of your own ignorance.\nStrive for the right even to death,\nAnd the Lord will fight for you.\nBe not boastful with your tongue,\nAnd slack and remiss in your work.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 4:30, 31]\nBe not as a lion in your house,\nNor arrogant and suspicious among your servants.\nLet not your hand be stretched out to receive,\nAnd closed when you should repay.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 5:1, 2a]\nSet not your mind upon your possessions,\nAnd say not, They are sufficient for me.\nFollow not your own mind and strength,\nTo walk in the desires of your heart.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 6:2, 4]\nDo not give yourself up to your passion,\nLest it like a bull eat up your strength.\nFor a wild passion destroys its possessor,\nAnd makes him the laughing-stock of his enemies.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 6:5-8]\nWell ordered speech makes friends,\nAnd a gracious tongue wins kindly greetings.\nLet those who are friendly toward you be many,\nBut your confidant one of a thousand.\nIf you would get a friend, get him by testing,\nAnd do not give him your confidence too quickly.\nFor there is many a fair-weather friend,\nBut he does not remain in the day of need.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 6:14-16]\nA faithful friend is a strong defence,\nAnd he who finds him finds a treasure.\nThere is nothing equal to a faithful friend,\nAnd his worth is beyond price.\nA faithful friend is a source of life,\nAnd he who fears the Lord finds him.\nHe who fears the Lord directs his friendship aright,\nFor as he is, so is his friend.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 7:12, 13]\nDevise not a lie against your brother,\nNor do the like to a friend or associate.\nNever take pleasure in speaking a falsehood.\nFor its outcome is not good.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 7:20, 21]\nDo not treat badly a servant who serves you faithfully,\nNor a hired servant who gives to you his best.\nLove a sensible servant as your own self,\nDefraud him not of liberty.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 7:22, 23]\nHonor your father with your whole heart,\nAnd forget not the pangs of your mother.\nRemember that of them you were born,\nAnd now you can recompense them for what they have done for you.\n\n[Sidenote: B. Sir. 7:29, 30]\nFear the Lord with all your soul,\nAnd regard his priests with reverence.\nLove your Creator with all your strength,\nAnd do not neglect his ministers.\n\nI. Date and Character of Jesus, the Son of Sirach. Out of the large\nnumber of anonymous books that come from the Persian and Greek periods one\nstands forth unique. It is the Wisdom of Ben Sira. With the exception of\nthe Psalter and Isaiah, it is the largest book that has come to us from\nancient Israel. Fortunately, its date and authorship may be determined\nwith reasonable certainty. In the prologue to the Greek translation, its\ntranslator describes himself as the grandson of Jesus, the son of Sirach,\nand states that he went to Egypt in 132 B.C. Hence it is probable that his\ngrandfather wrote some time during the early part of the second century\nB.C. The appreciative description of Simon the high priest in the fiftieth\nchapter of Ben Sira indicates that its author was a contemporary as well\nas an admirer of that famous head of the Judean community. From the\nreferences in the rabbinical writings, as well as from the definite\nstatement of Eusebius, it is reasonably certain that this Simon lived\nbetween 200 and 175 B.C. Furthermore, the quotations in the writings of\nBen Sira from Ecclesiastes in its original form imply that he wrote during\nthe latter part of the Greek period. The complete absence of any reference\nto the Maccabean struggle also proves beyond question that he lived before\n168 B.C. These facts indicate that the date of his writing was somewhere\nbetween 190 and 175 B.C.\n\nIn the Hebrew version the name of this famous sage appears as Jesus, the\nson of Eleazar, the son of Sira. In the Greek version, however, he is\nknown simply as Jesus, the son of Sirach. Ben Sira, or Sirach, was\napparently his family name, while Jesus is the Greek equivalent of Jeshua\nor Joshua. From his writings it may be inferred that he belonged to a\nwell-known Jerusalemite family. It is also not improbable that he was\nconnected with the high-priestly line. His references to Simon the high\npriest reveals his deep sympathies with the ecclesiastical rulers of\nJerusalem. The closing words in the Hebrew version of 51:12 are equally\nsignificant: \"Give thanks to him who chose the sons of Sadok to be\npriests.\" In his teachings Ben Sira is in some respects a forerunner of\nthe later Sadducees. Evidently he was a man of influence in the Judean\ncommunity. His fame as a wise man doubtless attracted many disciples. He\nwas deeply interested in every phase of life. While his point of view was\nsomewhat similar to that of Koheleth, his outlook was thoroughly\noptimistic. His teachings were positive rather than negative. His faith\nwas that of the fathers, and his purpose constructive. Out of the wealth\nof teachings inherited from the past, and also out of his own personal\nexperience and observation, he sought to inspire right ideals in the young\nand to develop them into happy and efficient servants of God and of their\nfellow-men. In this respect he was a worthy representative of the wise who\nduring this period moulded the life of Judaism.\n\nII. His Writings. The prologue to the Greek version of the wisdom of\nSirach states that he was a devoted student of the earlier scriptures of\nhis race. In 33:16 he acknowledges, in all modesty, his indebtedness to\nthe past:\n\nI awakened last of all as one who gathers after the great gatherers,\nBy the blessing of the Lord I profited and filled my wine-press as one\n  who gathers grapes.\n\nIt was natural, therefore, that he should write down his teachings in the\nlanguage of his fathers. Unlike most of his contemporaries, he possessed\na classical Hebrew style. Like the wise men whose teachings are preserved\nin the book of Proverbs, he put his thought into poetic, proverbial form.\nIn his book there is a definite, logical arrangement of ideas. The first\npart consists of a series of essays on various topics. The same subject is\noften dealt with in many different settings (e.g., choice of friends,\n6:5-17, 7:18, 12:8-12, 37:1-5). These brief essays are grouped together,\nand each group is provided with a brief introduction, usually in\ncommendation of wisdom. Apparently the first half of the book consists of\nnotes based on Ben Sira's early teachings. Each group of sayings may\nwell represent his teachings on a given occasion. In 31:21 through 50:24\nis found the roll call of Israel's spiritual heroes, beginning with a\npsalm in praise of Jehovah's majesty and power and concluding with the\ndescription of Simon the high priest. This latter part of the book is\nclearly a pure literary creation, and was probably added by him as a\nconclusion to the collection of his wisdom teachings.\n\nIII. History of the Book. The book containing the writings of Ben Sira\nwas known under a variety of titles. The Latin Church followed the Greek\nin calling it Ecclesiasticus. This term was applied to those books which\nwere not in the canon, but were held to be edifying and proper for public\nuse in the churches. The Hebrew text of Ben Sira enjoyed wide currency,\nwas frequently quoted by the later rabbis, and was often referred to by\nlater Jewish and Christian writers. It was almost completely supplanted in\ntime, however, by the Greek version. Jerome was acquainted with the Hebrew\nversion, but most of the Church fathers followed the Greek. Ben Sira was\napparently quoted by Jesus, by Paul, and by the authors of the Epistle of\nJames and of the Epistle to the Hebrews. Twenty or thirty such references\nor allusions are found in the New Testament. It was also a great favorite\nwith the Church fathers, who quoted from it even more frequently than from\nthe other Old Testament writings. It was adopted in the canon of the Greek\nand Latin Church; but, in common with the other apocryphal books, was\ngiven a secondary place by the Protestant reformers. Unfortunately, during\nthe earlier part of the last century it ceased to be printed in the\nstandard editions of the Bible. The modern revival of interest in the\napocryphal books, both in Europe and America, is tending to restore this\nbook, in common with I Maccabees, to the position which they certainly\ndeserve in the practical working canon of the Old Testament. The discovery\nin 1896 of a fragment of the original Hebrew manuscript of Ben Sira, and\nthe subsequent recovery of many other parts, have also tended to arouse\nwide interest in this hitherto much-neglected book. Hebrew portions of\nthirty-nine out of the fifty-one chapters have thus far been discovered.\nMost of them come from about the eleventh Christian century and are of\nwidely differing values. By means of these, however, and the quotations by\nthe Jewish rabbis and Christian fathers and in the Greek, Syriac, and\nLatin versions, it is now possible to restore most of the original Hebrew\ntext, and the resulting translation is far superior to those based on the\nGreek text.\n\nIV. Its Picture of Jewish Life. Ben Sira has given a vivid picture of\nthe domestic, economic, and social life of the Jews of his age. The\ndebased, Oriental conception of marriage had corrupted the atmosphere of\nthe home. Wives were regarded as the possessions of their husbands, and\nthe immoral influence of Hellenism still further undermined the purity\nand integrity of many a Jewish home. Greek customs and usages were\npervading Palestine more and more. Ben Sira refers to banquets with their\naccompaniments of music and wine. Even these meet with his approval.\nAgriculture and commerce are the chief occupations of the people. In\ngeneral Ben Sira voices the wholesome Jewish attitude toward labor:\n\nHate not laborious work;\nNeither agriculture that the Most High hath ordained.\n\nHe is especially strong in his commendation of physicians:\n\nBe a friend to the physician, for one has need of him,\nFor verily God hath appointed him.\nA physician receives his wisdom from God,\nAnd from the king he receives presents.\nThe knowledge of a physician causes him to lift up his head,\nAnd before the princes may he enter.\nGod created medicines out of the earth,\nAnd a prudent man will not be disgusted with them.\n\nThe following proverb has a universal application:\n\nHe who sins before his maker,\nLet him fall into the hands of his physician!\n\nV. Rise of the Scribes. The writings of Ben Sira reveal the close\nconnection between the earlier wise and the later scribes. He lived at\nthe period when the wise man was turning scribe. He himself had a\nprofound respect for the law:\n\nA man of understanding will put his trust in the law,\nThe law is faithful to him as when one asks at the oracle.\n\nOne of his fundamental teachings is formulated in the proverb:\n\nFear the Lord and glorify his priests,\nAnd give him his portion even as it is commanded.\n\nElsewhere he declares:\n\nThe leisure of the scribe increases his wisdom,\nAnd he who has no business becomes wise.\n\nIn his famous description of the typical wise man in 39:1-11 may be\nrecognized many of the traits of the later scribes. As the law and the\nritual gained greater prominence in the life of Judaism, it was inevitable\nthat it should command the attention of the practical teachers of the\npeople. Thus gradually the wise devoted themselves to its study and\ninterpretation, ever emphasizing, however, thought and conduct as well\nas conformity to the ritual. Scribism was greatly enriched by its lineal\ninheritance through the earlier wise, and long retained the proverbial,\nepigrammatic form of teaching and that personal attitude toward the\nindividual and his problems which was one of their greatest sources of\nstrength. The honor which the early scribes enjoyed was well deserved.\nTheir methods were free from the casuistry that characterized many of\nthe later scribes. They not only copied and guarded the law, but were\nits interpreters, applying it practically to the every-day problems of the\npeople as well as to their duties in connection with the temple service.\nTheir influence upon the Jews in this early period was on the whole\nexceedingly wholesome, and from their ranks rose the martyrs that a\ngeneration later were ready to die for the law.\n\nVI. The Teachings of Ben Sira. Ben Sira was acquainted with Greek\nculture and shows at several points familiarity with Greek ideals and\nmethods of thinking, but his point of view in general was distinctly\nJewish. He gathered together all that was best in the earlier teachings\nof his race. In many ways he represents an advance beyond all that had\ngone before and a close approximation to the spirit and teachings of Jesus\nof Nazareth. The God of his faith was omnipotent, majestic, omniscient,\njust, and merciful. He was the God of all mankind, although it was through\nIsrael that he especially revealed himself. Ben Sira did not, like\nEzekiel, think of God as far removed from the life of men and as\ncommunicating with them only through angels, but as directly and\npersonally interested in the experiences and life of the individual. In\n23:1, 4 he addresses him as Lord, Father, and Master of my life. Thus he\nemploys in the personal sense the term Father, which was most often on the\nlips of the Great Teacher of Nazareth. In Ben Sira's stalwart faith and\nsimple trust there is also much that reminds us of the Greater than\nSolomon. Like the teachers who had preceded him, he had, however, no clear\nbelief in individual immortality (cf. 41:3-4, 38:16, 23) The only reward\nafter death that he could hold up before a good man was his reputation:\n\nA good life has its number of days,\nBut a good name continues forever.\n\nConsistent with the orthodox wisdom school, he taught that rewards for\nright living came in this life:\n\nDelight not in the delights of the wicked;\nRemember they shall not go unpunished to the grave.\n\nEven though he lacked the inspiration of future hope, Ben Sira taught\nloyalty to God and fidelity to every duty. Justice toward all,\nconsideration for the needs of the suffering and dependent, and generosity\nto the poor are constantly urged by this noblest Jew of the age.\n\n\n\nSection CVIII. THE CAUSES OF THE MACCABEAN STRUGGLE\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 1:10-15]\nNow there came forth from [Alexander's successors] a sinful root,\nAntiochus Epiphanes, son of Antiochus the king, who had been a hostage at\nRome, and he began to reign in the one hundred and thirty-seventh year of\nthe Syrian rule (175 B.C.). In those days there appeared certain lawless\nIsraelites who persuaded many, saying, Let us go and make a covenant with\nthe heathen about us; for since we have stood aloof from them many evils\nhave befallen us. And the proposal met with approval. And certain of the\npeople were ready to do it, and went to the king who gave them the right\nto do as the heathen. Then they built a place for gymnastic exercise in\nJerusalem according to the customs of the heathen. They also made\nthemselves uncircumcised, and, forsaking the holy covenant, fraternized\nwith the heathen, and sold themselves to do evil.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 1:16-19]\nNow when Antiochus saw that his authority was well established, he thought\nto reign over Egypt, that he might reign over the two kingdoms. So he\ninvaded Egypt with a great multitude, with chariots and elephants and\nhorsemen, and with a great navy. And he made war against Ptolemy, king of\nEgypt. And Ptolemy was defeated by him and fled, and many fell mortally\nwounded. And they seized the strong cities in the land of Egypt, and he\ntook the spoils of Egypt.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 1:20-22, 24-28]\nThen after Antiochus had conquered Egypt he returned in the hundred and\nforty-third year (169 B.C.) and went up against Israel and Jerusalem with\na great multitude. And he insolently went into the sanctuary, and took the\ngolden altar, and the candelabrum, and all that belonged to the table of\nthe showbread, and the cups for libations, and the bowls, and the golden\ncensers, and the curtain and the garlands; and the decorations which were\non the front of the temple--he scaled them all off. And taking all, he\nwent away into his own land, after he had made a great slaughter, and had\nspoken very insolently. Thus a great mourning came to the Israelites\nwherever they were.\n\nAnd the rulers and elders groaned,\nhe virgins and young men were made feeble.\nAnd the beauty of the women was changed.\n\nEvery bridegroom took up a lamentation,\nShe that sat in the marriage chamber was in heaviness.\nAnd the land was shaken because of its inhabitants,\nAnd all the house of Jacob was clothed with shame.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 1:29-40]\nAfter two years the king sent a chief collector of tribute to the cities\nof Judah, who came to Jerusalem with a great multitude. And he spoke words\nof peace to deceive them, and they trusted him. Then he attacked the\ncity suddenly, and inflicted a severe blow on it, and destroyed many\nIsraelites. And he took the spoils of the city, and set it on fire, and\npulled down its houses and walls on every side. They took captive the\nwomen and the children, and gained possession of the cattle. Then they\nwalled in the city of David with a great and strong wall, with strong\ntowers, and it served as a citadel. And they put there sinful people,\nlawless men. And they fortified themselves in it. And they stored up\nweapons and food and, gathering together the spoils of Jerusalem, they\nstowed them away there.\n\nAnd the citadel became a great trap,\nAnd served as a place of ambush against the sanctuary,\nAnd an evil adversary to Israel continually.\nAnd they shed innocent blood on every side of the sanctuary\nAnd polluted the sanctuary.\nThen the inhabitants of Jerusalem fled because of this,\nAnd she became the habitation of foreigners.\nAnd she became strange to those who were born in her,\nAnd her children forsook her.\nHer sanctuary was laid waste like a wilderness.\nHer feasts were turned into mourning,\n  Her sabbaths into a reproach,\n  Her honor into contempt,\nSo great as was once her glory, so now was her dishonor,\nAnd her exaltation was turned into mourning.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 1:41-53]\nThen King Antiochus wrote to his whole kingdom commanding that all should\nbe one people, and that each should give up his own laws. And all the\nheathen nations yielded to the demand of the king. Many Israelites too\nconsented to worship him and sacrificed to the idols, and profaned the\nsabbath. And the king sent letters by messengers to Jerusalem and the\ncities of Judah commanding them to follow customs foreign to the land, and\nto prevent the making of whole burnt-offerings and sacrifices and\nlibations in the sanctuary, and to profane the sabbaths and feasts, and\npollute the sanctuary and the holy things, to build altars, temples, and\nshrines for idols, and to sacrifice swine's flesh and unclean beasts; also\nto leave their sons uncircumcised, to stain their souls with all manner of\nuncleanness and profanation, so that they might forget the law, and change\nall the customs. And that whoever would not do as the king commanded\nshould die. Thus he wrote to his whole kingdom; and appointed overseers\nover all the people, who commanded the cities of Judah to sacrifice city\nby city. Then many of the people, every one who had forsaken the law,\ngathered about them. And they did evil things in the land, and caused the\nIsraelites to hide themselves in all their places of refuge.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 1:54-58]\nOn the twenty-fifth day of Chislev, in the one hundred and forty-fifth\nyear, they built an abomination of desolation upon the altar; and in the\ncities of Judah on every side they built idol altars. And at the doors of\nthe houses and in the streets they burnt incense. And tearing in pieces\nthe books of the law which they found, they set fire to them. And wherever\na book of the covenant was found in the possession of anyone, or if anyone\nobeyed the law, the king's decree sentenced him to death. Thus they did in\ntheir might month by month to the Israelites who were found in the cities.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 1:59-63]\nAnd on the twenty-fifth day of the month they sacrificed upon the idol\naltar which was upon Jehovah's sacrificial altar. And the women who had\ncircumcised their children they put to death according to the command. And\nthey hanged their babies about their necks, and destroyed their households\nwith those who had circumcised them. But many in Israel made strong\nresolutions not to eat unclean things, choosing to die that they might not\nbe defiled with the meats, and might not profane the holy covenant. So\nthey died. And exceedingly great woe came upon Israel.\n\nI. Character and Contents of I Maccabees. The first book of Maccabees is\nin many ways the best history that has come down from ancient Israel.\nLuther's conclusion that it was more deserving of a place in the Old\nTestament canon than, for example, the book of Esther is now being widely\naccepted both in theory and practice. The religious spirit in which it is\nwritten, the importance of the events with which it deals, and the\nfaithfulness with which they are recorded, all confirm this conclusion. It\nis the work of a devoted patriot, who appears to have been personally\nacquainted with the events which he records. He was an ardent admirer of\nJudas Maccabeus, and may well have been one of the many valiant Jews who\nrallied about this sturdy champion. The author was familiar with the early\nhistories of his race, for he has adopted many of the phrases peculiar to\nthe books of Samuel and Kings. His idioms leave no doubt that he wrote in\nHebrew, although this version has been lost.\n\nThe first book of Maccabees opens with a brief reference to Alexander the\nGreat and to the Greek rulers who succeeded him. The detailed history,\nhowever, begins with Antiochus Epiphanes and continues to the death of\nSimon in 135 B.C. The references in the prologue to the rebuilding of the\nwalls of Jerusalem by Simon's son, John Hyrcanus, between 135 and 125\nB.C., and the absence of any allusions to the more important events in the\nlatter part of his reign, indicate that his history was probably completed\nby 125 B.C. It was written, therefore, less than half a century after all\nthe events which it records took place. While the author is a true patriot\nand keenly interested in the history of his race, he does not allow his\npatriotism to carry him into exaggeration. He reveals the true historical\nspirit and a splendid reserve in recounting the epoch-making events that\nhe records.\n\nII. Character and Contents of II Maccabees. In marked contrast with I\nMaccabees is the second book which bears this name. The author states in\n2:19-32 that it was based on an earlier five-volume history written by\nJason, of Cyrene, in northern Africa. The final epitomizer of this earlier\nwork probably lived not long after 50 B.C. Jason himself appears to have\nlived somewhere between 160 and 140 B.C. and to have written from northern\nSyria. The language of the original was evidently Greek. The aim of the\nauthor was didactic rather than historical, and he drew freely from\npopular tradition. In general character it corresponds closely to the work\nof the Chronicler, who compiled the Old Testament books of Chronicles and\nEzra-Nehemiah. The miraculous element is prominent, numbers are frequently\nenlarged, and Israel's disasters are minimized. Notwithstanding all of its\nobvious faults, II Maccabees has preserved many important historical\nfacts. Where its testimony differs from that of I Maccabees, the latter in\ngeneral should be followed, but its account of the events which led to the\nMaccabean uprising are much more detailed than those of I Maccabees, which\nit supplements at many important points. With the aid of these two\nhistories it is possible to gain a remarkably vivid and detailed\nconception of the half-century that witnessed the reawakening of Judaism\nand the birth of a new national spirit.\n\nIII. Aggressive Character of Hellenic Culture. Jewish life and religion\nwere at times almost uprooted, but never fundamentally transformed by the\nBabylonian and Persian conquerors. Alexander, however, and those who\nfollowed in his wake introduced an entirely new and aggressive force into\nthe life and thought of Palestine. The centuries that began with 332 B.C.\nwitnessed the most important struggle that the world has ever seen. It was\nfought not on the open battle-field, but wherever in Palestine and the\nlands of the dispersion the currents of that ancient life and commerce met\nand mingled. It was the age-long conflict between Hellenism and Judaism,\nthose two mighty forces that had long been maturing in the coast lands of\nthe northern and eastern Mediterranean. The outcome of this contest was\ndestined to affect the civilization and faith of all the world throughout\nthe ages.\n\nJudaism represented the life and faith of a peasant people, while\nHellenism was born in the city. Wherever Hellenism went, it found\nexpression in civic life. The heathen races of Palestine, the Phoenicians\nand Philistines on the coast, and the east-Jordan peoples readily welcomed\nthe superior civilization of the conquerors. It appealed powerfully to\ntheir intellectual, social, and aesthetic sense, and, in the debased form\nthat it assumed in the East, to their passions. Even the Samaritans\nreadily accepted it; and the city of Samaria was settled by a colony of\nMacedonian soldiers. The ancient cities of Gaza, Askelon, Accho under\nthe name of Ptolemais, Tyre, Sidon, Damascus, Bethshean under its new name\nScythopolis, Rabbath-ammon under the name of Philadelphia, and most of the\nimportant east-Jordan cities were soon transformed into active centres of\nHellenic culture. Civic pride and patriotism took possession of their\ninhabitants. Most of the cities had a senate and magistrates elected each\nyear by popular vote. Many of them were adorned by magnificent public\nbuildings, including a forum, theatre, stadium, hippodrome, and gymnasium.\nCivic patriotism took the place of the old despotism and selfish\nindividualism. Each Hellenic city gave to its citizens new ideals and\nopportunities. The discussions of the forum, the agora, and the gymnasium\ninspired them with political, social, and intellectual interests. The\nplays in the theatres, the races in the hippodrome and stadium amazed and\nfascinated them. Many of the youths were enlisted in the clubs that were\nformed in connection with the gymnasium, and all classes participated in\nthe public festivities.\n\nIV. Contrast Between Hellenism and Judaism. In the broad perspective of\nhistory it is clear that both Hellenism and Judaism were essential to the\nupbuilding and broadening of the human character and ideals. Hellenism in\nits nobler form brought what Judaism lacked, and Judaism was fitted to\ncorrect the evils and fatal weaknesses of Hellenism. Ben Sira vaguely\nrecognized this, and sought to reconcile these two types of civilization;\nbut in the second century B.C. men were chiefly aware of the glaring\ncontrasts. Compared with the splendor of the life in the Greek cities that\nof the orthodox Jews seemed crude and barbarous. The intense horror with\nwhich the Jews viewed every form of idolatry led them to reject all forms\nof art. Their hatred of sensuality and immorality led them to regard with\naversion the sports and exercises of the gymnasium and the attendant\nlicentiousness. The practical teachers of Israel looked with suspicion\nupon the subtleties of the different Greek philosophical schools. On the\nother hand, the homely, domestic joys of the average Jew and his intense\ndevotion to the service of the temple and to the faith of his fathers\nseemed contemptible to those familiar with the brilliant, voluptuous life\nof the Hellenic cities. Hellenism protested against the narrowness,\nbarrenness, and intolerance of Judaism; Judaism protested against the\ngodlessness and immorality of Hellenism. Both were right in their\nprotests, and yet each in a sense needed the other.\n\nV. Apostasy of the Jews and the Perfidy of the High Priests. At the\nbeginning of the second century B.C. the Judean state was closely\nencircled by a ring of Hellenic cities and subjected on every side to the\nseductions of that debased Greek culture which had taken firm root in the\nsoil of Palestine. As was almost inevitable, many of the Jewish youth\nyielded to its attractions. Distaste for the narrowness and austere\ncustoms of their fathers begat in their minds a growing contempt for\ntheir race and its religion. Even some of the younger priests forsook\nthe temple for the gymnasium. Unconsciously but surely Judaism was\ndrifting from its old moorings toward Hellenism, until the perfidy of\nits high priests and the persecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes aroused\nit to a full realization of its peril. The apostates in Jerusalem found a\nleader in Jeshua, who had assumed the Greek name of Jason. He was the\nbrother of Onias III, the reigning high priest, and had been sent to\nrepresent him at the Syrian court. There he improved the opportunity by\npromising greater tribute to secure his appointment as high priest. He was\nsoon outbid, however, by a certain renegade named Menelaus, who with the\naid of Syrian soldiers drove Jason from Jerusalem and took his place as\nhead of the hellenizing party. The first cause, therefore, of the\nMaccabean struggle was the apostasy of certain of the Jews themselves.\nApparently in large numbers they abandoned the traditions of their race,\nand assumed the Greek garb and customs, thus leading their Syrian rulers\nto believe that the hellenizing of the entire race would be comparatively\neasy.\n\nVI. Character of Antiochus Epiphanes. The ruler who by his injustice and\npersecutions fanned the smouldering flame of Jewish patriotism into a\nmighty conflagration was Antiochus Epiphanes. As a youth he had been\neducated at Rome with the profligate sons of those who ruled the Imperial\nCity. The Greek and Roman historians, especially Polybius, give vivid\nportraits of this tyrannical king. In him the prevailing passion for\nHellenism found extreme expression. To dazzle his contemporaries by the\nsplendor of his building enterprises and by his dramatic display was his\nchief ambition. In gratifying thus his selfish ambition he drained the\nresources of his kingdom, and was therefore obliged to resort to extreme\nmeasures to replenish his treasury. In 170 B.C. he made a successful\ncampaign into Egypt. Two years later he again invaded the rich land of the\nNile, only to find himself confronted by a Roman general, who peremptorily\nordered him to retreat. Rome was already the chief power in the eastern\nMediterranean, and Antiochus, although in a rage, wisely decided to\nretire. It was at this inopportune moment that he found Jerusalem in\nrevolt, misled by a false report and by the renegade high priest Jason.\nAntiochus not only improved this opportunity to loot the temple and slay\nmany of the inhabitants, but from this time on conceived a bitter\nantipathy to the Jewish race. This antipathy he shared in common with all\nthe Greek world, for already, as a result of the peculiar religion and\ncustoms of the Jews and their success in commercial pursuits, that which\nis known to-day as the anti-Semitic spirit was fully developed. One of\nAntiochus's chief ambitions was also to hellenize all his subjects, and\nthe Jews alone offered opposition to the realization of this ambition.\nHence they could expect no mercy at the hands of this selfish, capricious\ndespot.\n\nVII. Antiochus's Policy toward the Jews. The measures which Antiochus\nemployed to crush the faith of Judaism were relentlessly thorough. He\nbegan with the seizure of Jerusalem, the tearing down of its walls, the\nfortifying and garrisoning of its citadel with Syrian soldiers and\napostate Jews, and the slaughter of all who refused to accede to his\ndemands. Not only was the temple service stopped, but the altar was torn\ndown and desecrated and a heathen altar to Zeus--the abominable desolation\nof the book of Daniel--was reared in its place. On this swine's flesh was\nsacrificed, and the presence of harlots in the sacred precincts completed\nits ceremonial and moral pollution. All the surviving inhabitants of\nJerusalem were compelled to sacrifice and pay homage to the heathen gods.\nThose who retained copies of their laws or persisted in maintaining the\ncustoms of their fathers were slain. When many fled to the outlying towns,\nemissaries of Antiochus pursued them, demanding of each citizen public\nrecognition of the Greek gods. A majority of the Jews apparently yielded\nto these drastic measures and joined the ranks of the apostates. Of the\nmany crises through which Israel passed this was in many ways the most\nsevere; but then it gave to the world some of the noblest martyrs. The\nearly Christians who perished for their faith were inspired by the example\nof their Master and by the hope of blessed, individual immortality. To the\nJews of the Greek period, however, the great calamity that overtook them\ncame as a sudden and unexpected blow. No clear hope of immortality at\nfirst inspired them, for, like Ben Sira and the earlier teachers of the\nrace, the majority of them probably regarded the life beyond death as a\npassionless existence in the land of darkness. Even the expectation of\nfamily or racial immortality seemed denied by the dark outlook. They died\nas did Eleazar, the aged scribe, simply because of their devotion to the\nGod and laws of their fathers, and because that loyalty meant more to them\nthan life.\n\n\n\nSection CIX. THE EFFECT OF PERSECUTION ON THE JEWS\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 2:1-4]\nAt that time arose Mattathias the son of John the son of Simeon, a priest\nof the sons of Joarib, from Jerusalem; and he dwelt in Modein. And he had\nfive sons, John, who was surnamed Gaddis, Simon, who was called Thassi,\nJudas, who was called Maccabeus, Eleazar, who was called Avaran, Jonathan,\nwho was called Apphus.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 2:5-14]\nWhen he saw the sacrilegious acts that were being committed in Judah and\nin Jerusalem, he said,\n\nWoe to me! Why was I born\nTo see the ruin of my people,\nAnd the ruin of the holy city,\nAnd to dwell there while it was being given into the hands of the foe,\nThe sanctuary into the hands of foreigners?\nThe temple has become as though it had no glory,\nIts splendid vessels have been carried into captivity.\nHer children have been slain in the streets,\nHer young men by the sword of the enemy.\nWhat people has not taken possession of her palace,\nAnd seized upon her spoils?\nAll her adornments have been taken away,\nFrom freedom she has been reduced to slavery.\nAnd now our holy things, our beauty and our glory have been laid waste,\nAnd the heathen have polluted them.\nWhy should we still live?\n\nAnd Mattathias and his son tore their clothes, and put on sackcloth, and\nmourned bitterly.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 2:15-22]\nNow the king's officers who were enforcing the apostasy, came into the\ncity of Modein to sacrifice. And many of Israel went over to them, but\nMattathias and his sons offered resistance. Then the king's officers said\nto Mattathias, You are a ruler and a man honored in this city and\nstrengthened by sons and brothers. Now therefore come first and do what\nthe king commands, as all the nations have done, the men of Judah too,\nwith those who remain in Jerusalem. Then you and your house shall be in\nthe number of the king's Friends, and you and your sons shall be honored\nwith silver and gold and many gifts. But Mattathias replied with a loud\nvoice, If all the nations included in the king's dominion obey him, in\nthat each is untrue to the worship of his fathers and chooses to follow\nhis command, yet I and my sons and my brothers will walk in the covenant\nmade with our fathers. Heaven forbid that we should forsake the law and\nthe ordinances. We will not listen to the king's words, to go aside from\nour worship, either to the right hand or to the left.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 2:23-28]\nAnd when he had finished saying these things a Jew came in sight of all\nto sacrifice on the altar that was in Modein according to the king's\ncommand. When Mattathias saw it, his zeal was kindled and he trembled\ninwardly. And he let his anger take possession of him, as was right, and\nhe ran and slew the Jew upon the altar. Also he killed at that time the\nking's officer, who was compelling men to sacrifice, and pulled down the\naltar. Thus he showed his zeal for the law, just as Phinehas did in the\ncase of Zimri the son of Salu. Then Mattathias cried out in the city with\na loud voice, saying, Whoever is zealous for the law and will maintain the\ncovenant, let him follow me. And he and his sons fled into the mountains,\nand left behind all that they had in the city.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 2:29-38]\nThen many who sought justice and right went down into the wilderness, to\ndwell there with their sons and wives and cattle, because the evils were\nbecoming ever harder for them to bear. And it was reported to the king's\nofficers and to the forces that were in Jerusalem, the city of David, that\ncertain men who had broken the king's command had gone down into the\nhiding places in the wilderness. So many pursued after them, and having\novertaken them encamped against them, and drew up the line of battle\nagainst them on the sabbath day. And they said to them, Things have gone\nfar enough, now come forth and obey the command of the king and you shall\nlive. But they said, We will not come forth, neither will we do as the\nking commands, to profane the sabbath day. Then they at once offered them\nbattle. But they made no resistance, neither did they cast a stone at\nthem, nor stop up the places of concealment, for they said, Let us all die\nin our innocency: let heaven and earth bear witness for us, that you put\nus to death unjustly. Then they rose up against them in battle on the\nsabbath, and thus they died with their wives and children and cattle, to\nthe number of a thousand souls.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 2:39-48]\nWhen Mattathias and his friends knew it they mourned bitterly over them.\nAnd they said to each other, If we all do as our brothers have done, and\ndo not fight against the armed heathen for our lives and our customs, they\nwill now quickly destroy us from off the earth. So they took counsel that\nday, saying, Whoever shall come against us for battle on the sabbath day,\nlet us fight against him, and we will by no means all die, as our brothers\ndied in the hiding places. Then there gathered together to them a company\nof Hasideans, brave men of Israel, every one who offered himself willingly\nfor the law. And all who fled from the evils were added to them, and\nstrengthened them. And they mustered a host.\n\nAnd smote the sinners in their anger\nAnd the lawless in their wrath.\n\nAnd the rest fled to the heathen for safety. Also Mattathias and his\nfriends went about and pulled down the altars, and circumcised by force\nthe children who were uncircumcised, as many as they found in the\nterritory of Israel. Thus they pursued the sons of arrogance, and the\nwork prospered in their hand. They took the direction of affairs out of\nthe hands of the heathen and of the kings, nor did they yield ground to\nthe sinner.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 2:49-64]\nWhen the time approached for Mattathias to die he said to his sons, Now\ninsolence and insult have grown strong, and a period of reversals has\ncome, with flaming wrath.\n\nNow, my sons, be zealous for the law,\nAnd give your lives for the covenant of your fathers.\nAnd remember the deeds which your forefathers did in their generations;\nAnd win great glory and everlasting fame.\nWas not Abraham found faithful when tested?\nAnd it was counted to him as righteousness.\nJoseph in the time of his distress kept the commandment,\nAnd became lord of Egypt,\nPhinehas our father, because he was so zealous,\nReceived the covenant of an everlasting priesthood.\nJoshua for carrying out the word of God,\nBecame a ruler in Israel.\nCaleb for bearing witness in the congregation,\nObtained a heritage in the land.\n\nDavid for being merciful,\nInherited a kingly throne for ever and ever.\nElijah because he was so zealous for the law,\nWas taken up into heaven.\nHananiah, Azariah, Mishael believed,\nAnd were rescued from the flame.\nDaniel because of his innocence,\nWas delivered from the mouth of lions.\nAnd thus consider from generation to generation:\nNone who put their trust in him ever want strength.\nThen be not afraid of the words of a sinful man;\nFor his glory shall be dung and worms.\nTo-day he is exalted, but to-morrow he cannot be found,\nBecause he has returned to dust, and the memory of him has perished.\n\nThen my sons be strong, and show yourselves men in behalf of the law;\nBy so doing you shall obtain glory.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 2:65-68]\nAnd, behold, Simon your brother, I know that he is a man of counsel;\nObey him always; let him be your adviser.\nJudas Maccabeus, too, has been a man of war from his youth;\nHe shall be your captain, and fight the battle of the people.\nAnd take to yourselves all law-abiding men,\nAnd avenge the wrong of your people.\nRender a recompense to the heathen,\nAnd give heed to the commands of the law.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 2:69-70]\nThus he blessed them and was gathered to his fathers. And he died in the\none hundred and forty-sixth year, and his sons buried him in the\nsepulchres of his fathers at Modein, and all Israel made a great\nlamentation for him.\n\n[Sidenote: Dan. 7:1-8]\nIn the first year of Belshazzar king of Babylon Daniel had a dream and\nvisions of his head upon his bed. Then he wrote down the dream: I saw in\nmy vision by night, and behold, the four winds of heaven broke forth upon\nthe great sea. And four great beasts came up from the sea, each different\nfrom the other. The first was like a lion and had eagle's wings. I looked\nuntil its wings were stripped off, and it was lifted up from the earth,\nand made to stand upon two feet as a man; and a man's heart was given to\nit. And behold, a second beast, like a bear; and it was raised up on one\nside, and three ribs were in its mouth, between its teeth; and they said\nthus to it: Arise, devour much flesh. After this I beheld, and lo, another\nlike a leopard, which had upon its sides four wings of a bird; and the\nbeast had also four heads, and dominion was given to it. After this I saw\nin the night visions, and behold, a fourth beast, terrible and fearful,\nand exceedingly strong; and it had great iron teeth; it devoured and broke\nin pieces and stamped the rest with its feet; and it differed from all the\nbeasts that were before it; and it had ten horns. I gave attention to the\nhorns, and behold another little horn came up amongst them, before which\nthree of the first horns were plucked up by the roots; and behold, in this\nhorn were eyes, like the eyes of a man, and a mouth speaking great things.\n\n[Sidenote: Dan. 7:9, 10]\nI waited until thrones were set up, and an aged one took his seat; his\nclothing was white as snow, and his hair like spotless wool, his throne\nwas fiery flames, its wheels burning fire. A fiery stream issued and came\nforth before him; thousands of thousands ministered to him, and ten\nthousand times ten thousand stood before him; the judgment was set and the\nbooks were opened.\n\n[Sidenote: Dan. 7:11, 12]\nI looked at that time because of the sound of the great words which the\nhorn spoke--I looked even until the beast was slain, and its body\ndestroyed, and given to be fuel for the fire. Also the rule of the rest of\nthe beasts was taken away; but their lives were prolonged for a fixed time\nand season.\n\n[Sidenote: Dan. 7:13, 14]\nI saw in the night visions, and behold, there came with the clouds of\nheaven one like to a son of man, and he came even to the Aged One, and was\nbrought near before him. And there was given him dominion and glory, and\nsovereignty that all the peoples, nations, and languages should serve him;\nhis dominion is an everlasting dominion which shall not pass away, and his\nsovereignty one which shall not be destroyed.\n\n[Sidenote: Dan. 7:15-18]\nAs for me, Daniel, my spirit was grieved by reason of this, and the\nvisions of my head troubled me. I came near to one of those who stood by,\nand asked him the truth concerning all this. So he told me and made me\nknow the interpretation of the things. These four great beasts are four\nkings who shall arise out of the earth. But the saints of the Most High\nshall receive the sovereignty, and possess the sovereignty forever, even\nfor ever and ever.\n\n[Sidenote: Dan. 7:19-22]\nThen I desired to know the truth concerning the fourth beast, which was\ndifferent from all of them, exceeding terrible, whose teeth were of iron,\nand its nails of brass; which devoured, broke in pieces, and stamped the\nrest with its fourth feet; and concerning the ten horns that were on its\nhead, and the other horn which came up, and before which three horns\nfell--it that had eyes, and a mouth that spoke great things, and it\nappeared to be greater than the rest. I looked, and the same horn made war\nwith the saints, and prevailed against them, until the Aged One came, and\njudgment was given to the saints of the Most High, and the fixed time came\nthat the saints possessed the sovereignty.\n\n[Sidenote: Dan. 7:23-27]\nThus he said, The fourth beast shall be a fourth kingdom upon earth, which\nshall be different from all the kingdoms; and shall devour the whole\nearth, and shall tread it down, and break it in pieces. And as for the ten\nhorns, out of this kingdom shall ten kings arise; and another shall arise\nafter them; and he shall be different from the former, and he shall put\ndown three kings. And he shall speak words against the Most High, and\nshall continually harass the saints of the Most High; and he shall think\nto change the fixed times and the law; and they shall be given into his\nhand until a time and times and half a time. But the judgment shall be\nset, and they shall take away his kingdom, to consume and to destroy\nfinally. And the sovereignty, and the dominion, and the greatness of the\nkingdoms under the whole heaven, shall surely be given to the people\nof the saints of the Most High; his sovereignty is an everlasting\nsovereignty, and all dominions shall serve and obey him.\n\n[Sidenote: Dan. 12:1-3]\nAnd at that time Michael shall stand up, the great prince who stands for\nthe children of my people; and there shall be a time of affliction such as\nthere never was since there was a nation, even to that time; and at that\ntime thy people shall be delivered, every one who shall be found written\nin the book. And many of those who sleep in the dust of the earth shall\nawake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame and everlasting\ncontempt. And they who are wise shall shine as the brightness of the\nfirmament; and they who turn many to righteousness as the stars forever\nand ever.\n\nI. The Uprising Led by Mattathias. The persecutions of Antiochus\n\nEpiphanes had at last reached the point where patient submission and even\nmartyrdom ceased to be a virtue. His agents had successfully carried the\nmerciless, hellenizing campaign throughout practically all the territory\nof Judea. It was not until they reached its extreme northwestern border\nthat they met the first open opposition. The little town of Modein lay out\non the edge of the great plain where the central hills of Palestine break\ndown into low foot-hills. These are intersected by rushing brooks and\nclear, crystal streams that descend from the heights above. The town lay\non a rounded hill about one-third of a mile in diameter that rises\nabruptly in a series of steep terraces. The Wady Malakeh encircled it on\nthe south and west. On the northeastern side, where lies the modern town,\nwas a broad shoulder of land slightly lower and larger than the acropolis.\nIn ancient times it was probably the site of the lower city. Deep,\nencircling valleys on the north and east completed the natural defences of\nthis border village that became the altar of Jewish freedom. To-day the\nscattered ruins of the acropolis are covered in spring-time with a\nluxuriant growth of grain and olive trees, making it one of the most\npicturesque mounds in Palestine.\n\nIt is surprising that the revolt against the cruel tyranny of Antiochus\nwas led by an aged priest. Like many priests, his home was outside\nJerusalem. Evidently he was one of the chief men of Modein. He was\ndescended from the family of Hasmon, hence his descendants, who ultimately\nbecame the independent rulers of their race, are sometimes called the\nHasmonians. In Mattathias the long-suppressed, hot indignation of the\nJewish race at last found expression. In slaying the apostate Jew and\nSyrian official, Mattathias evoked that warlike spirit which had in\nearlier days given Israel a home and a place among the nations. His\nimpulsive act inaugurated a new chapter in Israel's life and thought. In\nits far-reaching consequences it was comparable only to Moses' impulsive\nslaying of the Egyptian taskmaster.\n\nII. Party of the Hasideans or Pious. It was fortunate that Mattathias\nhad five able, mature sons to support him. Simon, the eldest, was already\nfamous in council. Judas, who bore the surname Maccabeus (whence the word\nMaccabees), soon proved himself a great military leader. Jonathan combined\nthe qualities of Simon and Judas with a certain craftiness that makes\nhim the least attractive of the three. Eleazar later proved on the\nbattle-field that he had the qualities that make heroes and martyrs. Among\nthe Judean hills, and especially in the barren, almost inaccessible\nfastnesses that descend in a series of terraces from the central plateau\nto the Dead Sea, Mattathias and his followers found refuge. Hither many\npatriotic Jews had already fled. The Syrian mercenaries, however, led by\nthe relentless, apostate Jews, pursued them, and, knowing their scruples,\nattacked them on the sabbath day and pitilessly slaughtered them. Learning\nfrom this awful example, Mattathias and his sons wisely decided that it\nwas more important to fight for their lives than to die for a mere\ninstitution. They soon attracted to their standard all who were still\nfaithful to the law. Chief among these were those known as the Hasideans\nor Pious. They were the spiritual successors of the pious or afflicted,\nwhose woes are voiced in the earlier psalms of the Psalter (Section\nXLVII:v). They were also the forerunners of the party of the Pharisees,\nwhich was one of the products of the Maccabean struggle. In them faith and\npatriotism were so blended that, like Cromwell's Ironsides, they were\ndaunted by no odds. At first they depended upon the guerilla type of\nwarfare, to which the hills of Judea were especially adapted. By enforcing\nthe law of circumcision, by punishing the apostates, and by attacking\nstraggling Syrian bands, they encouraged the faltering Jews, and\nintimidated the agents of Antiochus. Mattathias soon died, leaving the\nleadership to his third son, Judas. The poem recording his dying\ninjunctions voices the inspiration that came at this time to Israel's\npatriots from their nation's past, and that supreme devotion to the law\nand dauntless courage that animated the leaders in this great movement.\n\nIII. Date of the Visions in Daniel 7-12. A parallel but different type\nof character and hope is reflected in the latter part of the book of\nDaniel. In the form of visions or predictions, these chapters interpret\nthe meaning of the great world movements from the beginning of the\nBabylonian to the end of the Greek period. Each vision culminates in\na symbolic but detailed description of the rule and persecutions of\nAntiochus Epiphanes. Several passages describe the destructive policies\nof this Syrian ruler almost as vividly as the books of Maccabees (Dan.\n8:11, 12): \"It (Antiochus) magnified itself even to the Prince of the Host\n(Jehovah), and took away from him the daily sacrifice, and cast down\nthe place of his sanctuary, and set up the sacrilegious thing over the\ndaily sacrifice, and cast down truth to the ground, and did it and\nprospered.\"\n\nDaniel 11:20-44 contains a review of the chief events of Antiochus's\nreign. This description closes with the prediction: \"He shall plant his\npalace between the Mediterranean and the glorious holy mountain; so he\nshall come to his end and none shall help him.\" Contemporary records\nindicate, however, that Antiochus died while engaged in a campaign in\ndistant Persia and not in western Palestine as the author of Daniel\nanticipated. In the other visions, after the description of Antiochus's\npersecutions, the details suddenly give place to general predictions,\nimplying that at this point the author turned from the contemplation\nof past and present events to that which was to him future. The great\nvictories of Judas and his followers that led to the restoration of the\ntemple in 165 B.C. are nowhere mentioned. In 11:34 is found an allusion\nto the Maccabean uprising: \"Now when they are falling they shall be helped\nwith a little help; but many shall join themselves to them with false\nprotestations.\" This movement, clearly, is not regarded by the author as\nsignificant. The date of these visions, therefore, may be fixed with great\nconfidence between the years 168 and 166 B.C.\n\nIV. Their Real Character and Aim. In interpreting these visions it is\nimportant to note that they belong to the so-called apocalyptic type of\nliterature. Already Ezekiel and Zechariah had employed the complex\nsymbolism of the apocalypse to stir the imagination and strengthen the\nfaith of their discouraged countrymen. The aim of the author of the\nclosing chapters of Daniel was primarily to present a religious philosophy\nof history. Through the rise and fall of nations Jehovah's purpose was\nslowly but surely being realized. They are the expression of the eternal\noptimism of the prophets. They voice their deathless hope that \"the best\nis yet to be.\" They were intended to encourage those in the midst of\npersecution with the assurance that God was still in his heaven, and that\nall would yet be right with his world.\n\nV. The Four Heathen Kingdoms and the Kingdom of God. In the symbolism of\nthe prophet the four beasts of Daniel 7 represented the Chaldean, Medean,\nPersian, and Greek Empires. The fourth beast with iron teeth that devoured\nand broke in pieces the rest was clearly the empire of Alexander, and the\nlittle horn that sprang up was the little horn which gored and mangled the\nhelpless people of Jehovah. Opposed to the four beasts which represented\nthe angels, or demons, the champions of each of the great heathen\nkingdoms, was Israel's patron angel Michael. It is this angel that is\napparently referred to in 7:13 as coming from heaven, and in appearance\nlike to a son of man. At Jehovah's direction he was to establish a\nglorious, universal kingdom, the citizens of which were to be the saints,\nthe faithful Jews who remained loyal to Jehovah during the long, cruel\npersecutions. Not only those who survived but the martyrs sleeping in the\ndust of the earth were to awake and receive their glorious reward. The\napostates were to be sentenced to everlasting shame and contempt. The wise\nteachers and martyrs who by word and example had striven to keep their\nrace loyal to Jehovah were to be exalted in the coming messianic kingdom.\nThus these visions reveal the hopes that inspired certain of the Jewish\nrace in its period of supreme trial: the belief that Jehovah through his\nangel would speedily overthrow the power of the heathen persecutor, that\nhe would establish a universal kingdom in which his own people should have\nchief place, and finally that even the bonds of death would not hold those\nwho had died for the law. Thus at last out of this struggle Judaism\nemerged with a new-found faith in individual immortality. It was still\nbound up in the belief in the bodily resurrection, but at last the\nimperishable worth of the individual had become one of the cornerstones\nof Israel's religion.\n\n\n\nSection CX. THE VICTORIES THAT GAVE THE JEWS RELIGIOUS LIBERTY\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:1-9]\nThen his son Judas, who was called Maccabeus, rose up in his place. And\nall his brothers helped him, as did all those who had supported his\nfather, and they fought with gladness the battle of Israel.\n\nHe spread far and wide the fame of his glory\nAnd put on his breastplate like a giant,\nAnd girded on his weapons of war,\nAnd set battles in array,\nProtecting the army with his sword.\nHe was like a lion in his deeds,\nAnd as a lion's whelp roaring for prey.\nHe pursued the lawless, seeking them out,\nAnd he burnt up those who troubled his people.\nThe lawless shrunk for fear of him,\nAnd all the workers of lawlessness were greatly terrified;\nAnd deliverance was attained through him.\nHe angered many kings,\nAnd made Jacob glad with his acts;\nAnd his memory is blessed forever.\nHe went about among the cities of Judah,\nAnd destroyed the godless from the land,\nAnd turned away the wrath of God from Israel.\nAnd he was renowned to the ends of the earth.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:10-12]\nThen Apollonius gathered the heathen together and a great army from\nSamaria to fight against Israel. And when Judas learned of it, he went\nout to meet him, and defeated and slew him; and many fell mortally\nwounded, while the rest fled. And they captured their spoils, and Judas\ntook the sword of Apollonius, with which he fought all his days.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:13-15]\nWhen Seron, the commander of the army of Syria, heard that Judas had\ngathered a large force of faithful men about him, who went with him to\nwar, he said, I will make myself famous and gain renown in the kingdom;\nfor I will fight with Judas and those with him, who are defying the\ncommand of the king. And there went up with him also a mighty army of the\ngodless to help him, to take vengeance on the Israelites.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:16-22]\nAs he approached the ascent of Bethhoron, Judas went forth to meet him\nwith a small company. But when they saw the army coming to meet them, they\nsaid to Judas, How shall we, few as we are, be able to battle against so\ngreat a multitude? and we are faint also, having tasted no food to-day.\nThen Judas said, It is an easy thing for many to be shut up in the hands\nof a few; and with Heaven it is equally easy to save by many or by few;\nfor victory in battle does not depend upon the size of an army, but from\nHeaven comes the strength. They come to us full of insolence and\nlawlessness, to destroy us with our wives and children and to plunder us;\nbut, as for us, we are fighting for our lives and our laws. And he himself\nwill crush them before our face; so do not be afraid of them.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:23, 24]\nNow when he had finished speaking, he leaped suddenly upon them, and Seron\nand his army were put to flight before him. And they pursued them by the\ndescent of Bethhoron to the plain, and there fell of them about eight\nhundred men; but the rest fled into the land of the Philistines.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:25-31]\nNow the fear of Judas and his brothers and the dread of them began to fall\nupon the nations round about them. And his reputation reached the king,\nfor every nation was telling of the battles of Judas. But when King\nAntiochus heard these things, he was filled with indignation and sent\nand gathered together all the forces of his realm, a very strong army.\nAnd he opened his treasury and gave his forces pay for a year, and\ncommanded them to be ready for every emergency. And seeing that money was\nscarce in his treasury and that the tributes of the country were small,\nbecause of the dissension and calamity which he had brought upon the land,\nfor the purpose of taking away the laws which had been in force from the\nearliest days, he feared that he should not have enough, as at other\ntimes, for the expenses and the gifts which he had formerly given with a\nliberal hand, in which he had surpassed the kings who had been before him.\nAnd he was exceedingly perplexed in his mind, and determined to go into\nPersia and to take the tributes of the countries and to gather much money.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:32-37]\nSo he left Lysias, an honorable man and one of the royal family in charge\nof the affairs of the king from the River Euphrates to the borders of\nEgypt and to bring up his son Antiochus, until he returned. And he\ndelivered to him the half of his forces and the elephants, and gave him\ncharge of all the things that he wished to have done and concerning those\nwho dwelt in Judea and in Jerusalem, that he should send a force against\nthem, to root out and destroy the strength of Israel and the remnant of\nJerusalem, and to take away their memory from the place, and that he\nshould make foreigners dwell in all their territory and should divide\ntheir land to them by lot. Then the king took the remaining half of the\nforces and set out from Antioch his capital, in the one hundred and\nforty-seventh year, and, crossing the Euphrates, he went through the upper\ncountries.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:38-41]\nNow Lysias chose Ptolemy the son of Dorymenes, and Nicanor, and Gorgias,\ninfluential men among the king's Friends, and with them sent forty\nthousand footmen and seven thousand horsemen to go into the land of Judah\nto destroy it, as the king had ordered. And they set out with all their\narmy and pitched their camp near Emmaus in the plain. And the merchants of\nthe country heard the rumors about them, and taking silver and gold in\nlarge quantities, and shackles, they came into the camp to get the\nIsraelites for slaves. There were added to them the forces of Syria and of\nthe Philistines.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:42, 43, 46-54]\nThen Judas and his brothers saw that evils were increasing and that the\nforces were encamping in their territory, and when they learned of the\ncommands which the king had given to destroy the people and make an end of\nthem, they said to each other,\n\nLet us raise up the ruin of our people\nAnd let us fight for our people and the sanctuary;\n\nSo they gathered together and came to Mizpeh, opposite Jerusalem; for in\nMizpeh there was a place of prayer for Israel. And they fasted that day,\nand put sackcloth and ashes on their heads and tore their clothes, and\nspread out the book of the law--one of those in which the heathen had been\npainting images of their idols. And they brought the priests' garments\nwith the first-fruits, and the tithes, and they cut the hair of the\nNazirites who had accomplished their days. And they cried aloud toward\nHeaven, saying, What shall we do with these and whither shall we carry\nthem away? For thy sanctuary is trodden down and profaned, and thy priests\nare in sorrow, and humiliation. And now the heathen have assembled\ntogether against us to destroy us. Thou knowest what plans they are making\nagainst us. How shall we be able to stand before them, except thou be our\nhelp? And they sounded with the trumpets, and cried with a loud voice.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 3:55-60]\nAnd after this Judas appointed leaders of the people, commanders over\nthousands, over hundreds, over fifties, and over tens. And he told those\nwho were building houses and those who were planting vineyards and those\nwho were afraid, to return, each to his own house, as the law commanded.\nThen the army removed and encamped upon the south side of Emmaus. And\nJudas said, Gird yourselves and be valiant men; and be ready in the\nmorning to fight with these heathen who are assembled together against us\nto destroy us and our sanctuary. For it is better for us to die in\nbattle than to see the misfortunes of our nation and of the sanctuary.\nNevertheless, let Heaven do whatever be his will.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 4:1-6a]\nAnd Gorgias took five thousand footmen, and a thousand chosen horsemen,\nand the army set out by night, that it might fall upon the army of the\nJews and attack them suddenly. And the men of the citadel were his guides.\nBut when Judas heard of it, he broke camp with his valiant men, that he\nmight attack the king's army which was at Emmaus, while as yet the forces\nwere dispersed from the camp. And when Gorgias came to the camp of Judas\nby night, he found no one. Then he looked for them in the mountains,\nthinking that the men were fleeing from him.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 4:6b-11]\nBut as soon as it was day, Judas appeared in the plain with three thousand\nmen; only they had neither armor nor swords as they wished. When now they\nsaw the camp of the heathen strongly fortified and cavalry about it and\nexperienced warriors there, Judas said to the men who were with him, Fear\nnot their multitude neither be afraid of their attack. Remember how our\nfathers were saved in the Red Sea, when Pharaoh pursued them with a host.\nAnd now let us cry to Heaven, if he will show favor to us and will\nremember the covenant made with our fathers and destroy this army before\nour face to-day, that all the heathen may know that there is one who\nredeemeth and saveth Israel.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 4:12-15]\nThen when the foreigners lifted up their eyes and saw them coming toward\nthem, they went from their camp to battle. And those who were with Judas\nsounded their trumpets and joined battle; and the heathen were defeated\nand fled into the plain. But all who were in the rear fell by the sword,\nand they pursued them to Gazara and to the plains of Idumea and Azotus and\nJamnia, and there fell of them about three thousand men.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 4:16-25]\nWhen Judas and his army returned from pursuing them, he said to the\npeople, Do not be greedy for the spoils, since there is a battle before\nus, and Gorgias and his army are near us in the mountain. But stand now\nagainst our enemies and fight them, and afterward you may openly take the\nspoils. While Judas was still speaking there appeared a part of them,\nlooking out from the mountain; and these saw that their army had been put\nto flight and that the Jews were burning their camp, for the smoke that\nwas seen showed what had been done. And when they perceived these things,\nthey were thrown into a panic, and seeing the army of Judas also in\nthe plain ready for battle, they all retreated into the land of the\nPhilistines. And Judas returned to sack the camp, and they took much gold\nand silver and blue and sea-purple and great riches. Then they returned\nhome and sang a song of thanksgiving and gave praise to Heaven, because he\nis good, because his mercy endureth forever. Thus Israel had a great\ndeliverance that day.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 4:26, 27]\nBut the foreigners, as many as had escaped, came and told Lysias all the\nthings that had happened. And when he heard it he was astonished and\ndiscouraged, because neither had Israel met with reverses as he wished nor\nhad what the king commanded been realized.\n\n[Footnote: I Macc. 4:28-34]\nNow in the next year [Lysias] gathered together sixty thousand picked\nfootmen and five thousand horsemen, that he might subdue [the Jews]. When\nthey came to Idumea and encamped at Bethsura, Judas met them with ten\nthousand men. As he saw that the army was strong, he prayed and said,\nBlessed art thou, O Saviour of Israel, who didst shatter the attacking\npower of the mighty man by the hand of thy servant David, and didst\ndeliver the army of the heathen into the hands of Jonathan the son of\nSaul, and of his armor-bearer.\n\nShut up this army in the hand of thy people Israel,\nAnd let them be ashamed of their army and their horsemen.\nGive them faintness of heart,\nAnd let their bold courage melt away,\nAnd let them tremble at their destruction.\nCast them down by the sword of those who love thee,\nSo that all may know thy name who praise thee with thanksgiving.\n\nThen they joined battle; and there fell of the army of Lysias about five\nthousand men, and they fell on the spot before them.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 4:35]\nBut when Lysias saw that his army was retreating, and the boldness that\nhad come upon those who were with Judas, and how they were ready either to\nlive or to die nobly, he removed to Antioch and gathered together hired\nsoldiers, that he might come again into Judea with a still greater force.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 4:36-51]\nThen Judas and his brothers said, Now that our enemies have been defeated,\nlet us go up to cleanse the sanctuary and to dedicate it again; so they\nwent up to Mount Zion. And all the army was gathered together and went up\nto Mount Zion. And when they saw the sanctuary laid desolate, the altar\nprofaned, the gates burnt, and shrubs growing in the courts, as in a\nforest or as on one of the mountains, and the priests' chambers pulled\ndown, they tore their garments and made great lamentation, and putting\nashes upon their heads, they fell prone upon the ground. Then they blew a\nsignal on the trumpets and cried to Heaven. And Judas appointed certain\nmen to fight against those who were in the citadel, until he should have\ncleansed the sanctuary. And he chose priests who were unimpeachable\nobservers of the law, who cleansed the sanctuary and carried out the\npolluted stones to an unclean place. And they deliberated as to what they\nshould do with the altar of burnt-offerings which had been profaned. They\nfinally reached this wise decision: to pull it down lest it should be a\nreproach to them, because the heathen had defiled it. So they pulled down\nthe altar and laid the stones on the temple mount in a convenient place,\nuntil there should come a prophet to give an oracle concerning them. Then\nthey took whole stones as the law required and built a new altar after the\ndesign of the former. They also rebuilt the sanctuary and the inner parts\nof the temple and consecrated the courts. They also made the holy vessels\nnew and brought the candlestick and the altar for burnt-offerings and for\nincense and the table into the temple. And they burned incense on the\naltar and lighted the lamps that were on the candlestick, and they gave\nlight in the temple. Then they set loaves upon the table and spread out\nthe veils. So they finished all the work they had undertaken.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 4:52-61]\nAnd they arose early in the morning of the twenty-fifth day of the ninth\nmonth, which is the month Chislev, in the one hundred and forty-eighth\nyear (165 B.C.) and offered sacrifice according to the law upon the new\naltar of burnt-offering which they had made. About the same time and on\nthe same day, in which the heathen had profaned it, was it dedicated again\nwith songs and harps and lutes and with cymbals. And all the people\nprostrated themselves and worshipped and gave praise to Heaven, who had\ngiven them good success. And they celebrated the dedication of the altar\neight days, and offered burnt-offerings with gladness and sacrificed a\nsacrifice of deliverance and praise. And they decorated the front of the\ntemple with crowns of gold and small shields and rededicated the gates and\nthe priests' chambers and made doors for them. And great joy reigned among\nthe people, because the reproach of the heathen had been removed. And\nJudas and his brothers and the whole congregation of Israel decreed that\nthe days of the dedication of the altar should be kept in their seasons\nfrom year to year for the period of eight days, from the twenty-fifth day\nof the month Chislev, with gladness and joy. At that time also they\nfortified Mount Zion with high walls and strong towers all round, lest by\nany chance the heathen should come and tread them down, as they had done\nbefore. And he stationed there a force to keep it, and they fortified\nBethsura, that the people might have a stronghold in Idumea.\n\nI. The Character of Judas. Judas Maccabeus was a man of unquestioned\ncourage. In the many battles which he fought he was always found at the\nforefront in the most desperate engagement. More than that he was able to\narouse courage in a people that for centuries had learned only to bow\nunresistingly before their conquerors. All the evidence found in the two\nbooks of Maccabees indicates that he was inspired by the noblest\npatriotism. The motive power in his patriotism was devotion to the law and\ncustoms of his race. In this respect he was a leader supremely acceptable\nto the Hasideans or Pious, who rallied about his standard. In any other\nage or setting his devotion would have seemed but fanaticism. The\nsituation, however, was extremely critical. Disloyalty to the law and the\ndistinctive rites of Judaism was treason. If ever in the world's history\nit was justifiable to meet force by force and to unshield the sword in\nbehalf of religion, this certainly was the occasion. In his military\ntactics Judas revealed the cunning that characterizes the hunted. He\ndeveloped great skill in choosing a strategic position and in launching\nhis followers against a vulnerable point in the enemy's line. In this\nrespect he showed himself a disciple of David's able general Joab. They\nwere the same tactics that Napoleon employed so effectively in later days\nand on larger battle-fields. Judas resembled in many ways Israel's first\nking, Saul. He was impetuous, patriotic, intense, and energetic. He was\nespecially skilled in leading a sudden attack. His task also was\nstrikingly similar to that of Israel's first king, and like Saul in his\nlater days he showed the same inability to organize and hold his followers\nin a time of comparative peace.\n\nII. Obstacles against Which Judas Contended. When Judas was called to\nchampion the cause of the Jews, they were hated by the rest of the world.\nIt was a disorganized band of fugitives that rallied about him, without\nhomes, resources, or arms. Opposed to him were the large armies of a\npowerful empire. The Greek mercenaries that fought in the Syrian ranks\nwere armed with coats of mail and the best weapons known to the ancient\nworld. They were also thoroughly trained in the art of war and under the\ndirection of experienced generals. On every battle-field the Syrians\noutnumbered the Jews almost six to one. Pitted against Judas and his\nfollowers were apostates of his own race, who knew the land, were able to\nspy out the movements of the Jews, and were inspired by the bitterest\nhatred. The few advantages on the side of Judas were: first, his followers\nwere aroused to heroic deeds by the peril of the situation. In the second\nplace they were inspired by an intense religious zeal. The one force\nthroughout Semitic history that has bound together tribes and nations and\nmade the Semite an almost invincible fighting power has been religion.\nThe familiar illustrations are the Mohammedan conquests that swept\nvictoriously across the Bosporus and conquered Constantinople, also across\nnorthern Africa, and surged into southern Europe over the Straits of\nGibraltar and threatened for a time completely to engulf the Western\ncivilization. Familiar modern illustrations are the Mahdist insurrections\nthat have from time to time taxed the resources of the English in northern\nAfrica. In the third place the land of Judea, with its narrow western\npasses rapidly ascending to the heights above, enabled Judas to choose his\nbattle-field at a point where only a few of the enemy could be brought\ninto action and where a handful of valiant men could keep an army at bay.\n\nIII. Defeat of Apollonius and Seron. At first Judas wisely confined\nhimself to guerilla warfare. This enabled him in time to clothe and arm\nhis followers with the garments and weapons taken from the enemy. The most\nimportant of these smaller engagements took place north of Jerusalem. As\nApollonius, the Syrian governor of Samaria, was advancing into Judea,\nJudas suddenly fell upon the Syrians and slew their leader. Henceforth the\nsword of the Syrian governor was effectively wielded by Judas in behalf of\nreligious liberty.\n\nNews of the victory soon brought Seron, the governor of Coele-Syria, with\na large army. He advanced from the coast plain by the most direct road to\nJerusalem over the famous pass of the Bethhorons. Within a distance of two\nmiles the road ascended nearly fifteen hundred feet. At points it was\nmerely a steep, rocky pass, so that an invading army was forced to march\nsingle file and to pull themselves up over the rocks. Here on the heights\nthat looked out toward his home at Modein Judas, appealing to the faith\nand patriotism of his men, swept down upon the enemy and won his first\ngreat victory.\n\nIV. The Battle of Emmaus. The first great Jewish victory was a severe\nblow to the power of Antiochus Epiphanes, for at that time he was\nconfronted by a depleted treasury. He therefore left his kingdom in charge\nof Lysias, one of his nobles, and set out on a campaign into Persia from\nwhich he never returned. Three generals with a large army were sent by\nLysias against the Jews. So confident were they of a Syrian victory that a\nhorde of slave merchants accompanied the army that they might purchase the\nJewish captives. This time the Syrians avoided the difficult pass of\nBethhoron and chose the Wady Ali, along which the modern carriage road\nwinds up from the coast to Jerusalem. The main camp was pitched at Emmaus\nat the southeastern side of the Plain of Ajalon under the Judean hills.\nMeantime Judas had selected as his head-quarters the lofty hill of Mizpah,\nassociated by earlier tradition with Samuel and the scene of the\nshort-lived rule of Gedaliah. It was well chosen, for it commanded a view\nof the territory to the north, south, and west. While the army of the\nSyrians, sent by night to surprise Judas, were marching up the northern\nvalley, the Jewish patriots were led westward toward the plain along one\nof the parallel valleys that penetrated the Judean hills. Having appealed\nto the patriotic memories and the religious zeal of his followers, Judas\nled them in a sudden early morning attack against the Syrians encamped\nnear Emmaus. Soon the Syrians were in wild flight across the plain to the\nPhilistine cities, and Judas and his followers were left in possession of\nthe camp and its rich spoil. Panic also seized his pursuers when they saw\ntheir camp in possession of the enemy, and Judas was left for the moment\nundisputed master of the land of his fathers. This victory in the year\n166 B.C. was in many ways the most sweeping and significant in early\nMaccabean history.\n\nV. The Battle at Bethsura. The next year Lysias himself gathered a huge\narmy of sixty thousand infantry and five thousand cavalry and led them\nagainst the Jews. This time the Syrians advanced through the broad valley\nof Elah where David had fought against the Philistine giant. Thence they\nfollowed the Wady Sur, turned southward and then eastward, penetrating to\nthe top of the Judean plateau a little north of Hebron. Approaching from\nthis point the Syrians were protected in their rear by the Idumeans, the\ndescendants of the Edomites. They succeeded in reaching the point where\nthe road from the west joins the central highway from Hebron to Jerusalem.\nThere on a sloping hill crowned with the border town of Bethsura, Judas\nwas able to rally ten thousand followers to meet the huge Syrian army.\nFrom the parallel account in II Maccabees it is clear that he did not\nsucceed in winning a decisive victory, but a crisis in Antioch suddenly\ncompelled Lysias to return, leaving the Jews in possession of the\nbattle-field.\n\nVI. Restoration of the Temple Service. With mingled sadness and\nrejoicing Judas proceeded at once to Jerusalem and with his followers took\nup the task of restoring the desecrated temple and its service. The\ncitadel of Acra, which appears to have been situated on the Hill of Ophel\nto the south of the temple, was still strongly garrisoned by apostate Jews\nand Syrian soldiers. For nearly a quarter of a century, until the days of\nSimon, it continued to be held by Syrian forces, and remained a constant\nmenace to the peace of Jerusalem. The vivid account of the purification of\nthe temple reveals the intense devotion of the Jews to this ancient\nsanctuary, and throws clear light upon the nature of its service. This\nepoch-making act is commemorated even to-day by the Jews throughout the\nworld and is known as the Feast of Lights. It is a memorial of that\nsuccessful struggle for religious freedom in which Principles were\nestablished that have affected the thought and action of all succeeding\ngenerations. Through all their many vicissitudes and under their many\nGentile rulers, with few exceptions, the Jews have enjoyed uninterruptedly\nthe right of worshipping in accordance with the dictates of their law and\nthe customs of their fathers.\n\nVII. The New Spirit in Judaism. Henceforth the law for which their\nfathers had poured out their life-blood and for which the Jews had fought\nso valiantly was regarded with new and deeper veneration and its commands\ngained a new authority. Again the Jews had enjoyed a taste of freedom and\nhad learned that by united and courageous action they could shake off the\nhated heathen yoke. This new warlike note is sounded in many of the later\npsalms of the Psalter. Chapters 9-14, appended to the older books of\nZechariah, apparently come from this same period and voice the thought of\nthe conquerors. The words of the ninth chapter express their joy and\nexultation:\n\nFor I have bent Judah to me,\nAs a bow which I have filled with Ephraim;\nI will urge thy sons against the sons of Greece,\nAnd I will make thee like the sword of a hero.\nThen Jehovah shall be seen above them,\nAnd his shaft shall go forth like lightning.\nJehovah shall blow a blast upon a trumpet,\nAnd travel on the whirlwinds of the south.\nJehovah of hosts shall defend them;\nAnd they shall devour and tread down the slingstones,\nThey shall drink their blood like wine,\nThey shall be filled with it like the crevices of an altar.\nAnd Jehovah their God shall give them victory in that day.\nLike sheep he shall feed them in his land.\nYea, how good and how beautiful shall it be!\nCorn shall make the young men flourish, and new wine the maidens.\n\nThe victories of Judas in all probability also inspired the messianic hope\nexpressed in 9:9-10:\n\nRejoice greatly, O daughter of Zion.\nShout aloud, O daughter of Jerusalem!\nBehold thy king will come to thee;\nVindicated and victorious is he,\nHumble, and riding upon an ass.\nUpon the foal of an ass.\nHe shall cut off chariots from Ephraim,\nAnd horses from Jerusalem;\nThe battle-bow shall also be cut off,\nAnd he shall speak to the nations;\nHis rule shall be from sea to sea,\nFrom the river to the ends of the earth.\n\n\n\nSection CXI. THE LONG CONTEST FOR POLITICAL INDEPENDENCE\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 5:1-5]\nNow when the heathen round about heard that the altar had been built and\nthe sanctuary dedicated as it was formerly, they were very angry and\nconcluded to destroy the race of Jacob that was in the midst of them, and\nthey began to slay and destroy among the people. Judas, however, fought\nagainst the people of Esau in Idumea at Akrabattine, because they besieged\nIsrael, and he defeated them with a great slaughter and humbled their\npride and took their spoils. He remembered the wickedness of the\ninhabitants of Baean, who were a source of annoyance and of danger, lying\nin ambush for them along the roads. And they were shut up by him in the\ntowers, and he besieged them and destroyed them utterly and burned the\ntowers of the place, with all who were in them.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 5:6-8]\nThen he passed over to the Ammonites and found a strong force and many\npeople, with Timotheus as their leader. And he fought many battles with\nthem, and they were defeated before him, and he conquered them. Then when\nhe had gained possession of Jazer and its villages, he returned again into\nJudea.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 5:9-15]\nThen the heathen who were in Gilead gathered together against the\nIsraelites who were on the borders to destroy them. And they fled to the\nstronghold of Dathema and sent letters to Judas and his brothers, saying,\n\nThe heathen who are about us have gathered together against us to destroy\nus, and they are preparing to come and get possession of the stronghold to\nwhich we have fled for refuge, and Timotheus is the leader of their\nforces. Now therefore come and rescue us from their power, for many of our\nmen have fallen; and all our countrymen who dwell in the land of Tob, have\nbeen put to death, and they have carried into captivity their wives and\nchildren and their possessions. And they destroyed there about a thousand\nmen. While the letters were being read, there came other messengers from\nGalilee with their garments torn, bringing a message of similar import,\nsaying, That there were gathered together against them men of Ptolemais,\nof Tyre, of Sidon, and from all heathen Galilee to destroy them\ncompletely.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 5:16-20]\nNow when Judas and the people heard these things, a great assembly came\ntogether to consult what they should do for their kinsmen who were in\ndistress and being attacked by the heathen. And Judas said to Simon his\nbrother, Choose men, and go, rescue your countrymen who are in Galilee,\nbut Jonathan my brother and I will go into the land of Gilead. And he left\nJoseph the son of Zacharias and Azarias, as leaders of the people, with\nthe rest of the army in Judea, in order to guard it. And he gave orders to\nthem, saying, Take charge of the heathen until we return. And to Simon\nwere assigned three thousand men to go to Galilee and to Judas eight\nthousand men to go into the land of Gilead.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 5:21-23]\nThen Simon went into Galilee and fought many battles with the heathen, and\nthe heathen were defeated by him. And he pursued them to the gate of\nPtolemais. And there fell of the heathen about three thousand men, and he\ntook the spoils from them. They took with them those who were in Galilee\nand in Arbatta, with their wives and their children and all that they had,\nand brought them into Judea with great rejoicing.\n\n[Sidenote: I Mac. 5:45, 54]\nThen Judas gathered all the Israelites who were in the land of Gilead,\nfrom the least to the greatest, with their wives and children and their\nhousehold possessions, a very great host, that they might go into the land\nof Judah. And they went up to Mount Zion with gladness and joy and offered\nwhole burnt-offerings, because not one of them had been slain, but they\nhad returned safe and sound.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 5:65-68, 63]\nThen Judas and his brothers went out and fought against the people of Esau\nin the land toward the south. And he smote Hebron and the villages\nbelonging to it and pulled down its citadel and burned the surrounding\ntowers. Then he set out to go into the land of the Philistines; and he\nwent through Marissa. On that day certain priests, desiring to do exploits\nthere, were slain in battle, when they unwisely went out to fight. Then\nJudas turned aside to Azotus, to the land of the Philistines, and pulled\ndown their altars and burned the carved images of their gods and, taking\nthe spoil of their cities, he returned to the land of Judah. And the hero\nJudas and his brothers were greatly honored by all Israel and by all the\nheathen wherever their name was heard.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 6:18-27]\nNow those who were in the citadel were hindering Israel round about the\nsanctuary and were always seeking to do them harm and were a support to\nthe heathen. But Judas determined to destroy them and called all the\npeople together to besiege them. And they were gathered together and\nbesieged them in the hundred and fiftieth year, and he made mounds from\nwhich to shoot and engines of war. Then some of those who were shut up\ncame out and certain apostate Israelites joined them. And they went to the\nking and said, When will you finally satisfy justice and avenge our\nbrothers? We were willing to serve your father and to live as he enjoined,\nand to obey his commands; but because of this our own people besieged us\nin the citadel and were alienated from us; and as many of us as they could\nfind, they killed and despoiled our inheritances. And not against us only\nhave they stretched out their hand, but also against all that bordered on\nthem. And now they are to-day encamped against the citadel at Jerusalem,\nto take it, and they have fortified the sanctuary and Bethsura. And if you\ndo not quickly anticipate them, they will do greater things than these,\nand you will not be able to check them.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 6:28-41]\nWhen the king had heard this, he was angry, and gathered together all his\nFriends, the officers of his army, and those who commanded the cavalry.\nThere came to him also from other kingdoms and from isles of the sea,\nbands of hired soldiers. So the number of his forces was a hundred\nthousand footmen and twenty thousand horsemen and thirty-two elephants\ntrained for war. Then they went through Idumea and encamped against\nBethsura and carried on the siege a long time and made engines of war.\nThe besieged, however, sallied out and burned them and fought valiantly.\nAnd Judas departed from the citadel and encamped at Beth-zacharias,\nopposite the king's camp. Then the king rose early in the morning and had\nhis army set out at full speed along the road to Beth-zacharias and his\nforces prepared for battle and the trumpets were sounded. And they showed\nthe elephants the blood of grapes and mulberries, in order to excite them\nfor the battle. Then they distributed the beasts among the phalanxes and\nstationed by each elephant a thousand men armed with coats of mail and\nhelmets, with brass on their heads; and to each beast five hundred chosen\nhorsemen were appointed. These were already there, wherever the beast was,\nand wherever the beast went, they went with him and did not separate\nthemselves from him. And upon them were towers of wood, strong, covered,\none girded upon each beast. Upon them were engines and two or three men,\nwho fought upon them, besides the Indian who guided the elephant. The rest\nof the horsemen he stationed on both sides of the two wings of the army to\ninspire terror and to protect the phalanxes. And when the sun struck the\ngolden and bronze shields, the mountain shone with them and blazed like\ntorches of fire. And a part of the king's army was spread out on the\nheights, and some on the low ground, and they moved firmly and in good\norder. And all who heard the noise of their multitude, and the marching of\nthe great numbers, and the rattling of the arms, trembled because the army\nwas very great and strong.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 6:42-47]\nThen Judas and his army approached for battle, and there fell of the\nking's army six hundred men. Now when Eleazar, who was called Avaran, saw\none of the beasts armed with royal breastplates, which was higher than all\nthe beasts, and it looked as though the king was upon it, he gave himself\nto save his people and to gain for himself an everlasting fame; and he ran\nupon him courageously in the midst of the phalanx and slew on the right\nhand and on the left, and they scattered from before him on either side.\nThen he crept under the elephant, thrust him from beneath, and slew him.\nAnd the elephant fell to the earth upon him, and he died there. But when\nthey saw the strength of the king and the fierce onset of the armies, they\nturned away from them.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 6:48-54]\nBut those who were in the king's army went up to Jerusalem to meet them,\nand the king encamped for a struggle with Judea and Mount Zion. And he\nmade peace with those in Bethsura; for they surrendered the city, because\nthey had no food there to endure the siege, because the land had a\nsabbath. So the king took Bethsura and stationed a garrison there to keep\nit. Then he encamped against the sanctuary for a long time; and he set\nthere mounds from which to shoot and engines of war and instruments for\ncasting stones and fire, and pieces to cast darts and slings. And they\nalso erected engines against those of the besiegers and fought for a long\ntime. But since there was no food in the sanctuary, because it was the\nseventh year and those who had fled for safety into Judea from among the\nheathen had eaten up what remained of the store of provisions, there were\nbut a few left in the sanctuary, because the famine became so severe upon\nthem, and they scattered, each man to his own home.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 6:55-63]\nNow Lysias heard that Philip, whom Antiochus the king, had appointed\nduring his lifetime to bring up his son Antiochus that he might be king,\nhad returned from Persia and Media and with him the forces that went with\nthe king, and that he was trying to get control of the government, he\nhastily decided to depart. And he said to the king, and to the officers of\nthe army and to the men, We are growing weaker every day, our supplies are\nscanty, and the place which we are besieging is strong, and the welfare of\nthe kingdom depends upon us; now therefore let us give the right hand to\nthese men and make peace with them and with all their nation, and covenant\nwith them that they may live according to their own customs as formerly;\nfor because of their laws, which we abolished, they were angered and did\nall these things. This counsel pleased the king and the princes, and he\nsent to them to make peace. They accepted it, and when the king and the\nprinces took oath to them, they came out of the stronghold. But when the\nking entered Mount Zion and saw the strength of the place, he broke the\noath which he had sworn and gave orders to pull down the wall round about.\nThen he set out in haste and returned to Antioch and found Philip master\nof the city; and he fought against him and took the city by force.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 7:1-4]\nIn the one hundred and fiftieth year, Demetrius the son of Seleucus\nescaped from Rome and went up with a few men to a city by the sea, and\nthere proclaimed himself king. And when he entered the palace of his\nfathers, the army seized Antiochus and Lysias, to bring them to him. But\nwhen the fact was made known to him, he said, Do not show me their faces.\nAnd the army slew them. So Demetrius sat upon the throne of his kingdom.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 7:5-18]\nAnd there came to him all the lawless and the apostate men of Israel, with\nAlcimus, their leader, desiring to be high priest. And they accused the\npeople before the king, saying, Judas and his brothers have destroyed all\nyour Friends, and have scattered us from our own land. Now therefore send\na man whom you trust, and let him go and see all the havoc which he has\nmade of us and of the king's country, and how he has punished them and all\nwho helped them. So the king chose Bacchides, one of the king's Friends,\nwho was ruler in the province beyond the River Euphrates, and was a great\nman in the kingdom, and faithful to the king. He sent him and also that\ngodless Alcimus, and confirmed him in the high priesthood, and commanded\nhim to take vengeance upon the Israelites. So they set out and came with a\ngreat army into the land of Judah, and he sent messengers to Judas and his\nbrothers with words of peace, deceitfully. But they paid no attention to\ntheir words for they saw that these men had come with a great army. Then\nthere were gathered together to Alcimus and Bacchides a company of\nscribes, to seek for justice. And the Hasideans were the first among the\nIsraelites who sought peace with them; for they said, One who is a\ndescendant of Aaron has come with the forces and he will do us no wrong.\nAnd he spoke words of peace to them, and took oath to them, saying, We\nwill seek the hurt neither of you nor of your friends. And they put\nconfidence in him. But he seized sixty of them, and slew them in one day,\nas it is written in the Scriptures,\n\nThe flesh of thy saints...\nAnd their blood they poured out round about Jerusalem;\nAnd there was no man to bury them.\n\nAnd the fear and hatred of them fell upon all the people, for they said,\nThere is neither truth nor justice in them; for they have broken the\ncovenant and the oaths which they made.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 7:13-26]\nAnd when Judas saw that Alcimus and his company had done more mischief\namong the Israelites than the heathen, he went out into the whole\nterritory of Judea round about and took vengeance on the men who had\ndeserted from him, and they were restrained from going forth into the\ncountry. But when Alcimus saw that Judas and his company were growing\nstrong and knew that he was not able to withstand them, he returned to the\nking and brought evil charges against them. So the king sent Nicanor, one\nof his honored princes, a man who hated Israel and was their enemy, and\ncommanded him to destroy the people.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 7:27-32]\nWhen Nicanor came to Jerusalem with a great army, he sent to Judas and his\nbrother a message of peaceful words with deceitful intent, saying, Let\nthere be no battle between us. I will come with a few men, that I may see\nyour faces in peace. And he came to Judas, and they saluted one another\npeaceably. But the enemies were prepared to take away Judas, by violence.\nAnd when the fact was clear to Judas, that he had come to him with deceit,\nhe was very much afraid of him and would see his face no more. So Nicanor\nknew that his plan was discovered, and he went out to meet Judas in battle\nnear Capharsalama. And there fell of those with Nicanor about five hundred\nmen. Then they fled into the city of David.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 7:33-38]\nNow after these things Nicanor went to Zion. And when some of the priests\ncame out of the sanctuary, and some the elders of the people, to salute\nhim peaceably and to show him the whole burnt-offering that was being\noffered for the king, he mocked them, and laughed at them, and abused\nthem, and talked insolently. He also swore in a rage, saying, Unless Judas\nand his army are now delivered into my hands, if I come again in peace, I\nwill burn up this temple. He went out in a great rage. Then the priests\nwent in and stood before the altar and the temple; and they wept and said,\nThou didst choose this temple to be called by thy name, to be a house of\nprayer and supplication for thy people. Take vengeance on this man and his\narmy, and let him fall by the sword. Remember their blasphemies, and let\nthem live no longer.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 7:39-48]\nAnd Nicanor set forth from Jerusalem and encamped in Bethhoron, and there\nthe army of Syria met him. But Judas encamped in Adasa with three thousand\nmen. Then Judas prayed and said, When they who came from the king\nblasphemed, thine angel went out and smote among them an hundred and\nsixty-five thousand. Even so destroy thou this army before us to-day, and\nlet all the rest know that he hath spoken wickedly against thy sanctuary,\nand judge thou him according to his wickedness. So on the thirteenth day\nof the month Adar the armies joined battle; and Nicanor's army was\ndefeated, and he himself was the first to fall in the battle. And when his\narmy saw that Nicanor had fallen, they threw away their weapons and fled.\nAnd [the Jews] pursued them a day's journey from Adasa as far as Gazara\nwhen they sounded the trumpet-signal for the return. Then they came out\nfrom all the villages of Judea on every hand and outflanked them; and the\none turned them back on the other army, and they all fell by the sword, so\nthat none of them was left.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 7:47-50]\nAnd they took the spoils and the booty, and they struck off Nicanor's head\nand his right hand, which he had stretched out so haughtily, and brought\nthem and hung them up in the citadel of Jerusalem. And the people were\nvery glad. They also enacted an ordinance for the celebration of this day\nyear by year, the thirteenth day of Adar. So the land of Judah had rest\nfor a brief period.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 9:1-6]\nWhen Demetrius heard that Nicanor had fallen with his forces in battle, he\nsent Bacchides and Alcimus again into the land of Judah a second time, and\nthe southern wing of his army with them. And they went by that way that\nleads to Gilgal, and encamped against Masaloth, which is in Arbela, and\ngained possession of it and destroyed many people. And the first month of\nthe hundred and fifty-second year they encamped against Jerusalem. Then\nthey set out and went to Berea with twenty thousand footmen and two\nthousand horsemen. And Judas was encamped at Elasa, and three thousand\nchosen men with him. And when they saw the multitude of the forces, that\nthey were many, they were greatly frightened, and many slipped away from\nthe army, so that there were left of them not more than eight hundred men.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 9:7-10]\nAnd when Judas saw that his army had dispersed, he was deeply troubled,\nbecause he had no time to gather them together, and he grew discouraged.\nAnd he said to those who were left, Let us arise and go up against our\nadversaries, if perhaps we may be able to fight with them. And they would\nhave dissuaded him, saying, We shall not be able; but let us rather save\nour lives now; let us return again with our fellow-countrymen and fight\nagainst them, for we are few. But Judas said, Far be it from me so to do,\nthat I should flee from them. For if our time has come, let us die\nmanfully for the sake of our fellow-countrymen and not leave a cause of\nreproach against our honor.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 9:11-18]\nThen the army set out from the camp and drew up to meet them; and the\ncavalry drew up into two companies, and the slingers and the archers went\nbefore the army, with all the strong, foremost warriors. But Bacchides was\nin the rear wing. Then the phalanx advanced on both sides, and they\nsounded their trumpets. And Judas's men also sounded their trumpets, and\nthe earth shook with the shout of the armies; so the battle was begun and\ncontinued from morning until evening. And when Judas saw that Bacchides\nand the strength of his army were on the right side, all who were brave in\nheart went with him, and the right wing was defeated by them, and he\npursued them to the slope of the mountains. And they who were on the left\nwing, when they saw that the right wing was defeated, turned and followed\nupon the footsteps of Judas and of those who were with him. And the battle\ngrew fierce, and many on both sides fell mortally wounded. Then Judas fell\nand the rest fled.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 9:19, 20]\nAnd Jonathan and Simon took Judas their brother and buried him in the\nsepulchre of his fathers at Modein. And they bewailed him, and all Israel\nmade great lamentation for him and mourned many days, and said,\n\nHow is the hero fallen,\nThe saviour of Israel!\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 9:22]\nAnd the rest of the valiant acts of Judas, and his wars and the valiant\ndeeds which he did, and his greatness--they have not been recorded, for\nthey were very many.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 9:23-27]\nNow after the death of Judas, the apostates showed themselves in all the\nterritory of Israel, and all who practised injustice flourished. About the\nsame time there was a very severe famine, and the whole people sided with\nthem. Then Bacchides selected the godless men and made them rulers of the\ncountry. And they conducted a thorough search for the friends of Judas and\nbrought them to Bacchides, and he took vengeance on them and tortured them\ncruelly. Then great tribulation came upon Israel, such as had not been\nsince the time that prophets had ceased to appear among them.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 9:28-35]\nThereupon all the friends of Judas assembled and said to Jonathan, Since\nyour brother Judas has died, we have no one like him to go out against our\nenemies and Bacchides and against those of our own kin who hate us. Now\ntherefore we have chosen you this day to be our prince and leader in his\nplace that you may fight our battles. So Jonathan assumed the leadership\nat that time and took the place of his brother Judas.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 10:1-6]\nNow in the one hundred and sixtieth year, Alexander the son of Antiochus\nEpiphanes went up and took possession of Ptolemais, and they received him,\nand he reigned there. When King Demetrius heard of it, he gathered very\nlarge forces and went out to meet him in battle. Demetrius also sent\nletters to Jonathan with words of peace, so as to honor him greatly. For\nhe said, Let us get the start in making peace with them before he makes a\ncompact with Alexander against us. For he will remember all the wrongs\nthat we have done to him, and to his brothers and his nation. And he gave\nhim authority to collect forces and to provide arms and to be his ally.\nAlso he commanded that they should deliver up to him the hostages who were\nin the citadel.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 10:7-14]\nThen Jonathan came to Jerusalem, and read the letters in the hearing of\nall the people, and of those who were in the citadel. And they were\ngreatly afraid when they heard that the king had given him authority to\ncollect an army. And the garrison delivered up the hostages to Jonathan,\nand he restored them to their parents. And Jonathan took up his residence\nin Jerusalem and began to rebuild and renew the city. And he commanded\nthose who did the work to build the walls and Mount Zion round about with\nsquare stones for defence; and they did so. Then the foreigners, who were\nin the strongholds which Bacchides had built, fled, and each man left his\nplace and went into his own land. Only some of those who had forsaken the\nlaw and the commandments were left at Bethsura, because it was an asylum\nfor them.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 10:15-17]\nAnd when King Alexander heard all the promises which Demetrius had made to\nJonathan and had been told of the battles which he and his brothers had\nfought and the valiant deeds that they had done and of the hardships which\nthey had endured, he said, Shall we find such another man? Now therefore\nlet us make him our friend and ally. So he wrote letters and sent them to\nhim with contents like these:\n\nKing Alexander to his brother Jonathan, greeting: We have heard of you\nthat you are a valiant man and fit to be our friend. And now we have\nappointed you to-day to be high priest of your nation and to be called the\nking's Friend (and he sent to him a purple robe and a crown of gold), and\nto take our part and to remain on friendly terms with us.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 10:21]\nAnd Jonathan put on the holy garments in the seventh month of the hundred\nand sixtieth year at the feast of tabernacles, and he gathered together\nforces, and provided arms in abundance.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 10:67-71]\nNow in the one hundred and sixty-fifth year, Demetrius son of Demetrius,\ncame from Crete into the land of his fathers. Then King Alexander heard of\nit, and he was exceedingly troubled and returned to Antioch. And Demetrius\nappointed Apollonius, who was over Coele-Syria, and he collected a great\narmy and encamped in Jamnia, and sent to Jonathan the high priest this\nmessage:\n\nYou alone are hostile to us, and I have become a laughing-stock and butt\nof ridicule on account of you. Now why do you flaunt your power against us\nin the mountains? If, indeed, you trust your forces, come down to us in\nthe plain, and there let us try the matter together, because with me is\nthe power of the cities.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 10:74-76]\nNow when Jonathan heard the words of Apollonius, he was stirred to anger,\nand he chose ten thousand men and went forth from Jerusalem, and Simon his\nbrother met him to help him. And he encamped against Joppa. The people of\nthe city, however, shut him out, because Apollonius had a garrison in\nJoppa. So they fought against it. Then the people of the city were afraid\nand opened to him, and Jonathan became master of Joppa.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 11:20-27]\nAt that time Jonathan gathered together the people of Judea to take the\ncitadel that was at Jerusalem, and he erected many engines of war against\nit. Some, however, who hated their own nation, apostates, went to the\nking, and reported to him that Jonathan was besieging the citadel. And\nwhen he heard it, he was angry, and immediately after he heard of it he\nset out and came to Ptolemais, and wrote to Jonathan that he should not\nbesiege it, and that he should meet him and confer with him at Ptolemais\nwith all speed. But when Jonathan heard this, he gave orders to proceed\nwith the siege, while he chose certain of the elders of Israel and of the\npriests, and putting himself in peril, and taking silver and gold and\ngarments, and various presents besides, he went to the king at Ptolemais.\nAnd he was favorably received; and although some apostates of the nation\nMade complaints against him, the king treated him just as his predecessors\nhad done and exalted him in the presence of all his Friends, both\nconfirming to him the high priesthood, and all the other honors that he\nhad before, and giving him preeminence among his Chief Friends.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 11:28, 29]\nAnd Jonathan requested the king to make Judea free from tribute, together\nwith the three districts of Samaria, and he promised him three hundred\ntalents. And the king consented and wrote letters to Jonathan concerning\nall these things.\n\nI. The Political Situation. The position of the Jewish patriots was both\nperilous and tragic. A ring of hostile peoples pressed them closely on\nevery side. The Jews were the victims of centuries of wrong and hatred.\nThose residing in the neighboring lands also suffered from this widespread\nand bitter hostility. Among all the peoples of southwestern Asia they had\nno allies except the Nabateans, an Arabian people that had driven the\nEdomites from their home on Mount Seir. The only bond that bound them to\nthis ambitious heathen race was the common hatred of the Syrians. It was\nnatural, therefore, that Judas a little later should send an embassy with\nthe object of securing the moral support, if not the direct intervention,\nof the distant Roman power whose influence was beginning to be felt\nthroughout all the Mediterranean coast lands. For the present, however,\nJudas was dependent simply upon the sword for defence. He also had no time\nfor permanent conquest, for he must prepare himself for the heavier blow\nthat the court of Antioch was preparing to deliver. All that he could do,\ntherefore, was to make sudden attacks upon his foes on every side and\nrescue the persecuted Jews by bringing them back with him to Judea.\n\nII. The Jewish Attitude toward the Heathen Reflected in the Book of\nEsther. In these perilous circumstances it is not strange that the Jews\ngravitated far from the position of broad tolerance advocated by the II\nIsaiah and the authors of the prophecy of Malachi and in the stories of\nRuth and Jonah. In the stress of conflict they completely lost sight of\ntheir mission as Jehovah's witnesses to all the world. The destruction of\nthe heathen seemed to them absolutely necessary if Jehovah's justice was\nto be vindicated. The spirit of this warlike, blood-thirsty age is most\nclearly formulated in the book of Esther. The presence of Aramaic and\nPersian words testify to its late date. It is closely allied to the\nmidrashim or didactic stories that were a characteristic literary product\nof later Judaism. Like the stories of Daniel, the book of Esther contains\nmany historical inconsistencies. For example, Mordecai, carried as a\ncaptive to Babylon in 597 B.C., is made Xerxes's prime-minister in 474\nB.C. Its pictures of Persian customs are also characteristic of popular\ntradition rather than of contemporary history. Its basis is apparently an\nold Babylonian tradition of a great victory of the Babylonians over their\nancient foes, the Elamites. Mordecai is a modification of the name of the\nBabylonian god Marduk. Estra, which appears in the Hebrew Esther, was the\nlate Babylonian form of the name of the Semitic goddess Ishtar. Vashti\nand Hamman, the biblical Haman, were names of Elamite deities. Like\nthe story of creation, this tale has been Hebraized and adapted to the\nstory-teller's purpose. His aim is evidently to trace the origin of the\nlate Jewish feast of Purim. It is probable that this feast was an\nadaptation of the Babylonian New-Year's feast which commemorated the\nancient victory. The story in its present form is strongly Jewish. It\nexalts loyalty to the race, but its morality is far removed from that of\nAmos and Isaiah. Its exultation over the slaughter of thousands of the\nheathen is displeasing even in a romance, although it can easily be\nunderstood in the light of the Maccabean age in which it was written.\n\nIII. Campaigns against the Neighboring Peoples. The first book of\nMaccabees records in detail the repeated blows that Judas struck against\nhis heathen foes. At Akrabattine, probably identical with the Scorpion\nPass at the southwestern end of the Dead Sea, he fought and won a signal\nvictory over his hereditary foes, the Idumeans. His chief enemy on the\neast was Timotheus, the leader of the Ammonites against whom Judas was\nsuccessful in the preliminary skirmishes. Angered by these defeats, the\nheathen east of the Jordan attacked the resident Jews, who fled to one of\nthe towns, where they were besieged. Judas, assembling six thousand of his\npicked warriors, made a rapid march of three days out into the wilderness.\nHe apparently carried few supplies, but depended rather upon the spoil of\nthe captured towns for support. Bosra, far out on the borders of the\ndesert, was seized and looted. Thence returning westward, he rescued the\nJews from the town of Damethah, or, as it appears in the Syriac, Rametha.\nThis is probably identical with the modern town of Remtheh a little south\nof the Yarmuk on the great pilgrim highway from Damascus to Mecca. After\nmaking a detour to the south he crossed the Yarmuk and captured a series\nof towns lying to the north and northeast of this river. Returning he\napparently met his Ammonite foe, who had succeeded in rallying an army, at\nthe point where the pilgrim highway crosses the headwaters of the Yarmuk.\nHere Judas won a sweeping victory. Then collecting the many Jews of the\ndispersion who had settled near these upper waters of the Yarmuk, he\nreturned victoriously to Jerusalem. His brother Simon, who had been\ndespatched on a similar mission to Galilee, likewise came back bringing\nmany fellow-Jews and laden with spoils.\n\nAnticipating a renewal of the Syrian attack, Judas next made a rapid\ncampaign into the territory of the Idumeans, capturing the old Hebrew\ncapital of Hebron and carrying his victories as far as Ashdod on the\nwestern borders of the Philistine plain. Within a few months he had\noverrun and partially conquered a territory larger than the kingdom of\nDavid. In an incredibly short time this peasant warrior had won more\nvictories against greater odds than any other leader in Israel's\nhistory. The results of these victories were necessarily ephemeral. They\naccomplished, however, three things: (1) Judas intimidated his foes and\nestablished his prestige; (2) he was able to rescue thousands of Jews from\nthe hands of the heathen; and (3) by bringing them back to Judea he\nincreased its population and laid the foundations of that kingdom which\nrose as the result of his patriotic achievements.\n\nIV. The Battle of Beth-zacharias. There was still a Syrian outpost in\nthe heart of Judea: it was the citadel at Jerusalem, which looked down\nupon the temple area. This Judas attempted to capture, but in so doing\nincited to action the Syrian king, Antiochus Eupator, who had succeeded\nto the throne after the death of his father Antiochus Epiphanes. Under\nthe direction of his prime-minister Lysias he collected a huge army of one\nhundred thousand infantry and twenty thousand cavalry. To this was added\nthirty-two elephants with full military equipment--the heavy ordinance\nused in the warfare of the period. The approach from the plain was along\nthe valley of Elah and up past Bethsura, as in the last Syrian campaign.\nJudas, who was able at this time to rally an army of ten thousand men, met\nthe Syrian host near the town of Beth-zacharias, a little north of\nBethsura on the central highway from Hebron to Jerusalem. This time the\nnatural advantages were with the Syrians, one wing of whose army rested\nupon a declining hill and the other on the level plain. Thus they were\nable to utilize their entire fighting force and to launch against the\nvaliant Jews their elephants against which the heroism of an Eleazar was\nfruitless. For the first time during this struggle Judas was defeated and\nfell back upon Jerusalem, where he was closely besieged. Soon the Jews\nwere obliged to surrender, and the Maccabean cause would have been lost\nhad not complications at Antioch compelled the Syrians to retire.\n\nV. Victories Over Nicanor. In the treaty which followed the surrender\nof Jerusalem the religious liberty of the Jews was assured. This\nconcession satisfied the majority of the Hasideans, so that henceforth\nJudas found himself deserted by a great body of his followers. The\napostate high priest who was placed in control of the temple was supported\nby Syrian soldiery and Judas was obliged to resort again to outlaw life.\nHe succeeded, however, in winning two signal victories over Nicanor, the\nSyrian general. The one at Capharsalama was probably fought near the\nmodern town of Kefr Silwan, across the Kidron Valley from the City of\nDavid on the southern slope of Jerusalem. In the latter victory Nicanor\nwas slain, and Judas was left for the moment in control of Judea.\n\nVI. The Death of Judas. Soon another Syrian army invaded the land. The\nadvance was from the northwest up over the pass of Bethhoron. A little\neast of the road that ascends from Lower to Upper Bethhoron, near where he\nwon his first great battle and in sight of his home at Modein, the\nintrepid Jewish champion fought his last battle. Terror at the approach of\nthe enemy had thinned his ranks until he was obliged to meet them with\nonly eight hundred men at his back. Even against these great odds he was\non the eve of victory when he was slain. At the sight of their fallen\nleader his followers fled. This disastrous ending of his career as a\nwarrior obscured to a great extent the character and quality of Judas's\nservices for his people. In brief (1) he taught them to fight for their\nrights; (2) he helped them to save their law and traditions; (3) he\nsecured for them religious freedom; (4) he restored many of the Jews of\nthe dispersion and thus prepared the way for the consolidated kingdom\nwhich later rose with Jerusalem as the centre; (5) he inspired his\ncountrymen with ambitions for political independence; and (6) he set them\na noble example of courage, patriotism, and practical piety. While\nmeasured by the higher standards of a later day Judas is not without his\nfaults, yet he is unquestionably one of the great heroes of Israel's\nhistory and an example to all of unselfish and devoted patriotism.\n\nVII. The Dissensions in the Syrian Court. The Jews ultimately attained\npolitical independence not primarily through their own efforts, but\nbecause the protracted contests between the rival claimants for the Syrian\nthrone gave them opportunities which they quickly improved. In 152 B.C. a\nyouth known as Alexander Balas, who claimed to be a son of Antiochus\nEpiphanes, raised the standard of revolt against the reigning Syrian king,\nDemetrius I. The kings of southwestern Asia and Egypt at first lent their\nsupport to this impostor. By 150 B.C. he had succeeded in defeating and\nputting to death Demetrius I. Two years later, however, Demetrius II, the\nson of the deposed king, appeared with a large body of Cretan mercenaries\nto contest the throne of his father. Many of the Syrian cities at once\nespoused his cause. Ptolemy Philometor, of Egypt, finally turned against\nAlexander Balas; and in 145 B.C. this strange adventurer was slain near\nAntioch by his own followers. Soon after his death, however, one of his\ngenerals, Tryphon, appeared with an infant son of Alexander whom he sought\nto place on the Syrian throne, thus perpetuating the feud that was\nconstantly undermining the power of the Seleucid kingdom.\n\nVIII. Concessions to Jonathan. The Jews profited by each turn in these\ntortuous politics. In 158 B.C., after a period of outlawry in the\nwilderness east of Judea, Jonathan and his followers were allowed by\nDemetrius I to settle again within the bounds of Judea. Jonathan\nEstablished his head-quarters at Michmash, the fortress famous for the\nachievement of Saul's valiant son Jonathan. Here he ruled over the Jews as\na vassal of Demetrius, who retained immediate control over the citadel at\nJerusalem and the fortified cities that had been built along the borders\nof Judea. On the appearance of Alexander Balas in 152 B.C. Demetrius I, in\norder to retain the loyalty of the Jews, permitted Jonathan to maintain a\nsmall standing army and to rebuild the fortifications of Jerusalem. To\noutbid his rival the impostor Alexander Balas conferred upon Jonathan the\ncoveted honor of the high priesthood, thus making him both the civil and\nreligious head of the Jewish state. Disregarding his promises to Demetrius\nand the contemptible character of Alexander, Jonathan at once proceeded to\nestablish his new authority. He was doubtless more acceptable to the\nmajority of the Jews than the apostate high priests whom he succeeded, but\nthe stricter Hasideans naturally regarded it as a sacrilege that a man\nwhose hands were stained with war and bloodshed should perform the holiest\nduties in the temple service.\n\nUnder Alexander Balas Jonathan's power rapidly increased. He was made\ngovernor of Judea, and, under pretence of supporting the waning fortunes\nof Alexander, he captured in succession the Philistine cities of Joppa,\nAzotus (Ashdod), Ascalon, and Akron. When Demetrius II became master of\nSyria, Jonathan succeeded by rich gifts and diplomacy in so far gaining\nthe support of the new king that part of the territory of Samaria was\njoined to Judea. In return for three hundred talents they were also\npromised exemption from taxation. Furthermore, membership in one of the\nroyal orders was conferred upon the Maccabean leader. Thus by good fortune\nand by often questionable diplomacy the Jews finally secured in the days\nof Jonathan that freedom for which they had fought and which they had\npartially won under the valiant Judas.\n\n\n\nSection CXII. PEACE AND PROSPERITY UNDER SIMON\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 11:38-40]\nAnd when King Demetrius saw that the land was quiet before him and that\nno resistance was made to him, he sent all his forces, each one to his own\nhome, except the foreign mercenaries, whom he had enlisted from the isles\nof the heathen. All the troops, however, who had served his father hated\nhim. Now Tryphon was one of those who had formerly belonged to Alexander's\nparty, and when he saw that all the troops were murmuring against\nDemetrius, he went to Yamliku, the Arabian who was bringing up Antiochus,\nthe young child of Alexander, and importuned him that he should deliver\nhim to him, that he might reign in his father's place. And he told him all\nthat Demetrius had done, and the hatred which his troops bore him. And he\nstayed there a long time.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 11:54-56]\nNow after this Tryphon returned, and with him the young child Antiochus,\nand he assumed the sovereignty and put on the diadem. And there were\ngathered to him all the forces which Demetrius had sent away in disgrace,\nand they fought against him, and he fled and was defeated. And Tryphon\ntook the elephants and became master of Antioch.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 12:39-47]\nThen Tryphon tried to get the sovereignty over Asia and to put on the\ndiadem and to engage in hostilities against Antiochus the king. But he\nwas afraid lest perhaps Jonathan might not allow him, and that he might\nfight against him. So he sought a way to take him, that he might destroy\nhim. And he set out and came to Bethshan. Then Jonathan went out to meet\nhim with forty thousand picked soldiers and came to Bethshan. And when\nTryphon saw that he came with a great army, he was afraid to attack him,\nand he received him honorably and commended him to all his Friends and\ngave him gifts, and commanded his forces to be obedient to him as to\nhimself. And he said to Jonathan, Why have you put all this people to\ntrouble, since that there is no war between us? Now therefore send them\naway to their homes, retaining for yourself only a few men who shall be\nwith you, and come with me to Ptolemais, and I will give it to you with\nthe rest of the strongholds and the rest of the forces and all the king's\nofficers, and I will set out on my way back, for this is the cause of my\ncoming. Then he trusted him and did even as he said, and sent away his\nforces so that they departed into the land of Judah. But he reserved for\nhimself three thousand men, of whom he left two thousand in Galilee, while\none thousand went with him.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 12:48-53]\nNow as soon as Jonathan entered Ptolemais, the people of Ptolemais shut\nthe gates and laid hands on him, and they slew with the sword all who came\nin with him. And Tryphon sent forces and horsemen into Galilee, and into\nthe great plain, to destroy all of Jonathan's men. But they perceived\nthat he had been taken and had perished, and those who were with him, and\nthey encouraged one another and marched in closed ranks, prepared to\nfight. And when those who were pursuing them saw that they were ready to\nfight for their lives, they turned back again. Thus they all came safely\ninto the land of Judah, and they mourned for Jonathan and those who were\nwith him, and they were greatly afraid. And all Israel mourned bitterly.\nThen all the heathen who were round about them sought to destroy them\nutterly, for they said, They have no ruler nor any to help them, now\ntherefore let us fight against them and wipe out the memory of them from\namong men.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 13:1-11]\nNow when Simon heard that Tryphon had collected a vast army to come into\nthe land of Judah to destroy it utterly, and saw that the people trembled\nand were greatly afraid, he went up to Jerusalem and gathered the people\ntogether, and encouraged them and said to them, You yourselves know all\nthe things that I and my brothers, and my father's house, have done for\nthe laws and the sanctuary, and the battles and times of distress through\nwhich we have passed. In this cause all my brothers have perished for\nIsrael's sake, and I alone am left. And now be it far from me that I\nshould spare my own life, in any time of affliction; for I am not better\nthan my brothers. Rather I will take revenge for my nation, and for the\nsanctuary, and for our wives and children, because all the heathen are\ngathered to destroy us out of pure hatred. And the courage of the people\nrose as they heard these words. And they answered with a loud voice,\nsaying, You are our leader instead of Judas and Jonathan your brothers.\nFight our battles, and we will do all that you command. So he gathered\ntogether all the warriors and made haste to finish the walls of Jerusalem,\nand fortified the entire length of it. And he sent Jonathan the son of\nAbsalom at the head of a large army to Joppa, and he drove out those who\nwere in it, and stayed there in it.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 13:20-22]\nAnd after this Tryphon came to invade the land and destroy it, and he went\nround about by the way that goes to Adora; and Simon and his army marched\nopposite and abreast of him to every place wherever he went. And the\npeople of the citadel sent to Tryphon ambassadors urging him to come by\nforced marches through the wilderness to them and to send them supplies.\nSo Tryphon made ready all his cavalry to go. But that night a very deep\nsnow fell, so that he did not come because of the snow.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 13:23-30]\nThen he set out and came to the country of Gilead, and when he came near\nto Bascama, he slew Jonathan, and he was buried there. But when Tryphon\nwent back into his own land, Simon sent and took the bones of Jonathan his\nbrother, and buried them at Modein, his ancestral city. And all Israel\nmade great lamentation over him and mourned for him for many days. And\nSimon built a monument upon the sepulchre of his father and his brothers,\nand raised it aloft to the sight, with polished stone on the back and\nfront sides. He also set up seven pyramids, one opposite another, for his\nfather and his mother and his four brothers. And for these he made\nartistic designs, setting about them great pillars, and upon the pillars\nhe fashioned different kinds of arms as an everlasting memorial, and\nbeside the arms ships carved, that they should be seen by all who sail on\nthe sea. This is the sepulchre which he made at Modein, which stands there\nat the present time.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 13:33, 43-48]\nThen Simon built the strongholds of Judea and fenced them about with high\ntowers and great walls and gates and bars, and laid up stores in the\nstrongholds. In those days he laid siege to Gazara, and surrounded it with\narmies, and made an engine of siege and brought it up to the city, and\nsmote a tower and captured it. And those who were in the engine leaped\nforth into the city, and there was a great tumult in the city. And the\npeople of the city tore their garments, and went up on the walls with\ntheir wives and children, and cried with a loud voice, requesting Simon to\nmake peace with them. And they said, Do not deal with us according to our\nwickednesses but according to your mercy. So Simon was reconciled to them\nand did not fight against them. But he expelled them from the city and\ncleansed the houses in which the idols were, and so entered into it with\nsinging and praise. And when he had put all uncleanness out of it, he\nplaced in it such men as would keep the law and made it stronger than it\nwas before, and built a dwelling place for himself in it.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 13:49-53]\nBut those who were in the citadel at Jerusalem were prevented from going\nout and from going into the country, and from buying and selling, so that\nthey suffered exceedingly from hunger, and a great number of them perished\nthrough famine. Then they cried out to Simon to make peace with them. He\ndid so, but put them out from there, and cleansed the citadel from its\npollutions. And he entered it on the twenty-third day of the second month\nin the one hundred and seventy-first year, with praise and palm branches,\nwith harps, with cymbals, with viols, with hymns, and with songs, because\na great enemy was destroyed out of Israel. And he ordained that they\nshould observe that day each year with gladness. And the temple mount,\nwhich was beside the citadel, he made stronger than before, and there he\ndwelt with his men. And Simon saw that John his son had grown to manhood,\nand so he made him commander of all his forces. And he lived in Gazara.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 14:16-18]\nNow when they heard at Rome and at Sparta that Jonathan was dead, they\nwere very sorry. But as soon as they learned that his brother Simon had\nbeen made high priest in his place and ruled the country and its cities,\nthey wrote to him on brass tablets, to renew with him the friendship and\nthe treaty which they had made with Judas and Jonathan his brothers.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 14:38-47]\nMoreover King Demetrius confirmed to him the high priesthood according to\nthese things, and made him one of his Friends, and bestowed great honor\nupon him, for he had heard that the Jews had been called friends and\nallies and brothers by the Romans, and that they had met the ambassadors\nof Simon with honor, and that the Jews and the priests were well pleased\nthat Simon should be their governor and high priest forever, until there\nshould arise a faithful prophet; and that he should be commander over\nthem, and should take charge of the sanctuary, to appoint men on his own\nauthority over their works and over the country and over the arms and over\nthe forts, and that he should be obeyed by all, and that all documents\ndrawn up in the country should be written in his name, and that he should\nbe clothed in purple, and wear gold; and that it should not be lawful for\nany of the people or of the priests to nullify any of these things, or to\nresist the commands that he should issue, or to gather an assembly in the\ncountry without his permission, or to be clothed in purple or to wear a\ngolden buckle. But whoever should do otherwise, or act in defiance of any\nof these things, should be liable to punishment. All the people agreed to\nordain that Simon should act according to these regulations. And Simon\naccepted and consented to be high priest and to be general and governor of\nthe Jews and of the priests and to be protector of all.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 14:48, 49]\nAnd they gave orders to put this writing on brass tablets and to set them\nup within the precinct of the sanctuary in a conspicuous place, and also\nto put the copies of it in the treasury in order that Simon and his sons\nmight have them.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 15:4-8]\nSo the land had rest all the days of Simon,\nAnd he sought the good of his nation.\nHis authority and his glory were well-pleasing to them all his days.\nAnd amid all his glory he took Joppa for a haven,\nAnd made it a way to the isles of the sea,\nAnd he enlarged the boundaries of his nation,\nAnd became master of the land.\nHe also brought many captives together,\nAnd made himself master of Gazara and Bethsura, and the citadel.\nMoreover he took away from it its uncleannesses;\nAnd there was none who resisted him.\nAnd they tilled their land in peace,\nAnd the earth gave her increase,\nAnd the trees of the plains their fruit.\n\n[Sidenote: 15:9-15]\nThe old men sat in the streets,\nThey talked together of the common good,\nAnd the young men put on glorious, fine apparel.\nHe provided food for the cities,\nAnd furnished them with means of fortification,\nUntil his famous name was known to the end of the earth.\nHe made peace in the land,\nAnd Israel rejoiced with great joy,\nEveryone sat under his own vine and fig tree,\nAnd there was no one to make them afraid,\nAnd none who warred against them was left upon the earth,\nFor the kings were utterly crushed in those days.\nAnd he strengthened all the distressed of his people,\nHe was full of zeal for the law,\nAnd every lawless and wicked person he banished.\nHe made the sanctuary glorious,\nAnd multiplied the vessels of the temple.\n\nI. Capture and Death of Jonathan. It was not strange in that corrupt age\nthat Jonathan, who had risen to power largely by intrigue, should himself\nin the end fall a prey to treachery. Tryphon, the general who secretly\naspired to the Syrian throne, by lies succeeded in misleading even the\nwily Jewish leader. His object was to gain possession of southern\nPalestine, and he evidently believed that by capturing Jonathan he would\neasily realize his ambition. He overlooked the fact, however, that Simon,\nnext to Judas the ablest of the sons of Mattathias, still remained to\nrally and lead the Jewish patriots. The natural barriers of Judea again\nproved insurmountable, for when Tryphon tried repeatedly on the west,\nsouth, and east to invade the central uplands, he found the passes\nguarded by Simon and his experienced warriors. Thus baffled, the\ntreacherous Tryphon vented his disappointment upon Jonathan, whom he\nslew in Gilead. As the would-be usurper advanced northward, where he\nultimately met the fate which he richly deserved, Simon and his followers\nbore the body of Jonathan back to Modein, and there they reared over it\nthe fourth of those tombs which testified to the warlike spirit and\ndevotion of the sons of Mattathias.\n\nII. Character and Policy of Simon. Simon, who was at this crisis called\nto the leadership of the Jewish race, had been famed from the first for\nhis moderation and wise counsel. In many campaigns he had also shown the\nmilitary skill and courage that had characterized his younger brothers. In\nhim the noble spirit of Judas lived again. He was devoted to the law,\nintent upon building up the state, and at the same time was deeply and\ngenuinely interested in all members of his race, whether in Judea or in\ndistant nations. Like David and Josiah, he was a true father of his people\nand set an example which unfortunately his descendants failed to follow.\nHe still recognized the authority of Demetrius II, but the Syrian kingdom\nwas so weak that Simon succeeded in securing a definite promise of the\nremission of all taxes, and ruled practically as an independent sovereign.\nTo strengthen his position he sent an embassy laden with rich gifts to\nRome. During a later crisis in his rule its prestige proved of great\nvalue, but Simon in following the example of his brothers gave to Rome\nthat claim upon Judea that was destined within less than a century to put\nan end to Jewish independence. In still further consolidating and\ndeveloping the resources of his people and in preparing for future\nexpansion, Simon laid the foundations for the later Jewish kingdom. His\npolicy also brought to Palestine that peace and prosperity which made his\nrule one of the few bright spots in Israel's troubled history.\n\nIII. His Conquests. The chief conquest of Simon was the capture of\nGazara, the ancient Gezer. This lay on the western side of the plain of\nAjalon. It guarded the approaches to Judea from the west, and above all\nthe highway that ran from Joppa and along which passed the commerce of the\nMediterranean. After a stubborn resistance he captured the town, deported\npart of its heathen population, and settled Jewish colonists in their\nplace. Joppa also was under Simon's control. Thus he also prepared the\nway for that commercial expansion which was necessary if the Jewish state\nwas to survive in the midst of its many powerful foes. Early in his reign\nSimon laid siege to the Syrian garrison in Jerusalem, and finally, amidst\nthe rejoicing of the people, captured this stronghold and delivered Judea\nfrom the presence of the hated foreigners. The temple area was also\nfortified. Simon's victories, and especially his conquest of the Greek\ncities on the plain, aroused the Syrian king, Antiochus Sidetes, the son\nof Demetrius I, to demand heavy indemnity. When Simon refused to pay the\ntribute a Syrian army was sent to enforce the claim, but were defeated by\na Jewish force under John Hyrcanus. This victory left Simon during the\nremainder of his reign practically independent of outside authority.\n\nIV. Simon's Authority. Simon, with commendable moderation, refrained\nfrom attempting to secure for himself the title of king. He did, however,\nissue coins in his own name, although that right was ordinarily the\nprerogative only of kings. Upon him was conferred by the grateful people\nthe authority that had first been given Jonathan by the shameless\nAlexander Balas. In return for Simon's many services and as a tribute\nto the achievements of his family he was proclaimed by the Jews not only\ncivil governor and military leader, but also high priest. He thus became\ntheir rightful leader both in peace and war, and the representative of the\nnation in the sacred services of the temple. In all but name he was king,\nand Jewish history would have doubtless flowed in calmer channels had his\ndescendants been contented with these substantial honors.\n\nV. Completion of the Psalter. The reign of Simon probably witnessed the\ncompletion of the Psalter. Many of the psalms, especially those in the\nlatter half of the book, bear the unmistakable marks of the Maccabean\nstruggle. In Psalms 74 and 89, for example, there are clear references to\nthe desecration of the temple and the bitter persecutions of Antiochus.\nThey voice the wails of despair which then rose from the lips of many\nJews. Many other psalms, as, for example, the one hundred and eighteenth,\nexpress that intense love and devotion to the law which was from this time\non in many ways the most prominent characteristic of Judaism. The\nprevailingly prominent liturgical element that characterizes the\nconcluding psalms of the Psalter suggest their original adaptation to the\nsong services of the temple. Under the reign of Simon the temple choir was\nprobably extended and greater prominence given to this form of the\ntemple service. The peace and prosperity in the days of Simon gave the\nopportunity and the incentive to put in final form the earlier collections\nof psalms and probably to add the introduction found in Psalms 1-2 and the\nconcluding doxology in Psalm 150. The Psalter appears to have been the\nlast to be completed of all the Old Testament books, so that probably\nbefore the close of Simon's reign all of the present Old Testament\nbooks were written. Discussions regarding the value of such books as\nEcclesiastes, Song of Solomon, and Esther continued until nearly the\nclose of the first Christian century, when at last the canon of the Old\nTestament was completed.\n\nVI. The Religious Life Reflected in the Later Psalms. The prevailing\nnote in the psalms found in the latter part of the Psalter is joyous. A\ndeep sense of gratitude to Jehovah for deliverance pervades them. The Jews\nfelt that Jehovah had indeed delivered them \"as a bird from the snare of\nthe fowler\" (Psalm 124). In the near background were the dark days of\npersecution. Hostile foes still encircled Israel, but trust in Jehovah's\npower and willingness to deliver triumphed over all fear.\n\nOh, give thanks to Jehovah for he is good,\nFor his mercy endureth forever.\nHe hath delivered us from our enemies;\nOh, give thanks to the God of heaven,\nFor his mercy endureth forever,\n\nwas the oft-repeated refrain that was sung in the temple service by the\nwarriors when they returned victorious from battle and by the people as\nthey went about their tasks. The sense of constant danger and of great\nachievement bound together the Jews of this period as perhaps never\nbefore since the days of the exile. The same experiences developed a\npowerful religious consciousness. Jehovah had repeatedly and signally\ndemonstrated that he was in their midst. Without his strong hand they\nwere helpless against their foes. The apostates had been expelled, and\nthe classes that remained were bound closely together by their desire to\npreserve their hard-won liberties, by their devotion to the temple and its\nservices and by a profound respect for the authority of their scriptures.\nThe voice of the living prophet was silent. The priests had ceased to\nteach and were simply ministers at the altar, and in the turmoil of the\nMaccabean struggle the teaching of the wise had practically come to an\nend. Instead the Jews became in every sense the people of the book. It\nwas at this time and as a result of the forces at work in this age that\nthe scribes attained their place as the chief teachers of the people. It\nwas natural that they who copied, edited, and above all interpreted the\nrevered Law and the Prophets should have the ear of the masses and\nshould be regarded more and more as the authorized teachers of the\nJewish race. Judaism had at last attained its maturity.\n\n\n\nSection CXIII. THE RULE OF JOHN HYRCANUS AND ARISTOBULUS\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 16:11-17]\nNow Ptolemy the son of Abubus had been appointed commander over the plain\nof Jericho. He possessed much silver and gold, for he was the high\npriest's son-in-law. Then he grew ambitious and determined to make himself\nmaster of the country. So he formed treacherous plots against Simon and\nhis sons, to make away with them. Now Simon was visiting the cities that\nwere in the country and providing for their good management. And he went\ndown to Jericho with Mattathias and Judas his sons, in the one hundred and\nseventy-seventh year, in the eleventh month, that is the month Sebat. Then\nthe son of Abubus received them treacherously in a little stronghold that\nis called Dok, which he had built, and made them a great banquet, and his\nmen were there. And when Simon and his sons were drunk, Ptolemy and his\nmen rose up and took their weapons, and rushing in upon Simon in the\nbanquet hall, they slew him and his two sons, and some of his servants.\nThus he committed a great act of treachery and paid back evil for good.\n\n[Sidenote: I Macc. 16:18-22]\nThen Ptolemy wrote what had happened, and asked the king to send forces to\naid him, and promised to hand over to him their country and the cities.\nAnd he sent others to Gazara to make away with John. And to the officers\ncommanding thousands he sent letters to come to him, that he might give\nthem silver and gold and gifts. And others he sent to take possession of\nJerusalem and the temple-mount. But some ran before to Gazara and told\nJohn that his father and brothers had perished, and they said, He has sent\nto slay you too. And when he heard, he was dumb with amazement, but he\nseized the men who came to destroy him, and slew them, for he saw that\nthey were seeking to destroy him.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 2:3c-4b]\nNow when Hyrcanus had received the high priesthood which his father had\nheld before him and had offered sacrifice to God, he made haste to attack\nPtolemy, that he might relieve his mother and brothers. So he laid siege\nto the fortress and was superior to Ptolemy in other respects; but he was\ndefeated through his natural affection. For when Ptolemy was distressed,\nhe brought Hyrcanus's mother and his brothers and set them upon the wall\nand beat them with rods in the sight of all and threatened that unless\nHyrcanus went away immediately, he would throw them down headlong. At this\nsight Hyrcanus's pity and concern overcame his anger.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 2:4d]\nAnd since the siege was delayed in this way, the year of rest came on,\nduring which the Jews rest every seventh year as they do on every seventh\nday. In this year, therefore, Ptolemy was freed from being besieged. He\nalso slew the brothers of Hyrcanus with their mother, and fled to Zeno,\nwho was the tyrant of Philadelphia.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 2:5]\nAnd now Antiochus [Sidetes] was so angry at what he had suffered from\nSimon that he made an expedition into Judea and laid siege to Jerusalem\nand shut up Hyrcanus. But Hyrcanus opened the tomb of David, who was the\nrichest of all kings, took from there more than three thousand talents of\nmoney and induced Antiochus upon the promise of three thousand talents to\nraise the siege. Moreover he was the first of the Jews who had plenty of\nmoney, and so began to hire foreign mercenaries.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 2:6]\nAt another time, when Antiochus had gone upon an expedition against the\nMedes and thus given Hyrcanus an opportunity to be revenged upon him,\nHyrcanus made an attack upon the cities of Syria, thinking, as proved to\nbe the case, that he would find them empty of good troops. So he took\nMedeba and Samaga with their surrounding towns; likewise Shechem and Mount\nGerizim.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XIII, 9:1d, e]\nHyrcanus also took Dora and Marissa, cities of Idumea, and subdued all the\nIdumeans. He permitted them to stay in their country, if they would\nundergo circumcision and conform to the Jewish laws. They were so desirous\nof living in the country of their fathers that they submitted to\ncircumcision and the other Jewish ways of living. From this time on,\ntherefore, they were none other than Jews.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 2:7a-b]\nHyrcanus also proceeded as far as Samaria and invested it on all sides\nwith a wall, and placed his sons, Aristobulus and Antigonus in charge of\nthe siege. They pushed it with such vigor that a famine prevailed within\nthe city, so that the inhabitants were forced to eat what was never before\nregarded as food. They also invited Antiochus to come to their assistance\nand he readily responded to their invitation, but he was beaten by\nAristobulus and Antigonus, and he was pursued as far as Scythopolis by\nthese brothers and fled away from them. So they returned to Samaria and\nshut up the multitude within the wall again, and when they had taken the\ncity, they tore it down and made slaves of its inhabitants.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XIII, 10:5]\nHowever the prosperity of Hyrcanus caused the Jews to envy him; and they\nwho were worst disposed to him were the Pharisees. Now Hyrcanus was one of\ntheir disciples and had been greatly beloved by them. But once when he\ninvited them to a feast and entertained them kindly and saw them in a good\nhumor, he began to say to them that they knew that he desired to be a\nrighteous man and do all things by which he might please God and them, for\nthe Pharisees are philosophers. However, he desired, if they observed him\noffending in any respect or departing from the right way, that they would\ncall him back and correct him. When they testified that he was entirely\nvirtuous he was well pleased with their approval. But one of his guests,\nEleazar by name, was a man malignant by nature, who delighted in\ndissension. This man said: \"Since you wish to know the truth, if you\nreally desire to do what is right, lay down the high priesthood and\ncontent yourself with the civil government of the people.\" And when\nHyrcanus desired to know for what cause he ought to lay down the high\npriesthood, the other replied: \"We have heard from old men that your\nmother was a captive in the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes.\" This story was\nfalse, and Hyrcanus was provoked against him. All the Pharisees likewise\nwere very indignant with him.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XIII, 10:6a-c]\nNow there was a certain Jonathan, a great friend of Hyrcanus, but of the\nsect of the Sadducees, whose ideas are the opposite of those of the\nPharisees. He told Hyrcanus that Eleazar had cast that slur upon him\naccording to the common opinion of all the Pharisees and that this would\nbe made clear if he would ask them the question, What punishment they\nthought this man deserved? For in this way he might be sure that the slur\nwas not laid on him with their approval, if they advised punishing him as\nthe crime deserved. Therefore when Hyrcanus asked this question, the\nPharisees answered that the man deserved stripes and imprisonment, but it\ndid not seem right to punish a slur with death. And indeed the Pharisees\nordinarily are not apt to be severe in punishment. At this mild sentence\nHyrcanus was very angry and thought that this man reproved him with their\napproval. It was this Jonathan who influenced him so far that he made him\njoin the Sadducees and leave the party of the Pharisees and abolish the\ndecrees that they had thus imposed on the people and punish those who\nobeyed them. This was the source of the hatred with which he and his sons\nwere regarded by the multitude.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XIII, 10:7]\nBut when Hyrcanus had put an end to this sedition, he afterward lived\nhappily and administered the government in the best manner for thirty-one\nyears and then died, leaving behind him five sons. He was esteemed by God\nworthy of the three highest honors, the rulership of his nation, the high\npriesthood, and prophecy, for God was with him and enabled him to predict\nthe future.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XIII, 11:1a-c, 8a]\nNow when Hyrcanus was dead, his eldest son Aristobulus, intent upon\nchanging the government into a monarchy, was the first to put a diadem on\nhis head. This Aristobulus loved his next brother Antigonus and treated\nhim as an equal, but the others he kept in bonds. He also cast his mother\ninto prison because she disputed the government with him, for Hyrcanus had\nleft her in control of everything. He also proceeded to that degree of\nbarbarity that he killed her in prison with hunger. Moreover he was\nestranged from his brother Antigonus by false charges and also slew him,\nalthough he seemed to have a great affection for him and had shared the\nkingdom with him. But Aristobulus immediately repented of the slaughter of\nhis brother; on which account his disease grew upon him.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XIII, 11:3e]\nThen Aristobulus died, after having reigned a year. He was called a lover\nof the Greeks and conferred many benefits on his country. He also made a\nwar against Iturea [Galilee], and added a great part of it to Judea and\ncompelled the inhabitants, if they wished to remain in that country, to be\ncircumcised and to live according to the Jewish laws.\n\nI. Murder of Simon. Even his moderation and kindly rule did not deliver\nSimon from the violent death that overtook all the sons of Mattathias.\n\nHis murderer was his son-in-law, a certain Ptolemy, who was governor of\nthe Jordan Valley, the resources of which had been developed under Simon.\nPtolemy trusted to the support of the Syrian court, but he failed to\nreckon with two things: (1) the loyalty of the people to their Maccabean\nleaders; and (2) the ability of Simon's son, John Hyrcanus. Instead of\nfalling a victim to Ptolemy's plot, John at once went to Jerusalem where\nhe was made the high priest and governor by the people. Ptolemy, who was\nbesieged in the castle of Dok, saved his miserable life only by shameless\nperfidy.\n\nII. The Syrian Invasion. Antiochus Sidetes proved the ablest Syrian king\nof this period. Although his first attack had been repelled by Simon,\nhe again attempted, on the accession of Hyrcanus, to reestablish\nhis authority in Palestine. Josephus, in his account, obscures this\nhumiliating chapter in Jewish history. The statement that Hyrcanus took\nfrom the tomb of David vast wealth and thus purchased immunity from Syrian\nattack has all the characteristics of an Oriental tale. Instead, Antiochus\nSidetes not only besieged but captured Jerusalem, and doubtless compelled\nthe Jews to pay heavy tribute. Preferring, however, to retain their\nloyalty rather than to crush them, he left John Hyrcanus in control of\nJudea, and Jerusalem escaped destruction. In the disastrous campaign\nagainst the Parthians in which Antiochus lost his life John Hyrcanus\naccompanied him with a following of Jewish soldiers. The death of\nAntiochus Sidetes in 129 B.C. at last left the Jews free to develop their\nkingdom without further fear of Syrian interference. This event marks for\nthe Jews the attainment of absolute political freedom--a privilege which\nthey continued to enjoy for a little over half a century.\n\nIII. John's Military Policy and Conquests. John possessed the\ncharacteristic ambitions and energy of his family. In his policy he also\nseems to have been strongly influenced by the achievements of Israel's\nearly conquering king, David. His aim was to build up a small empire,\nand by crushing the ancient foes of Israel to secure immunity from\nfurther attack. In employing foreign mercenaries he also followed the\nexample of King David. Doubtless he was influenced in doing so by his\nexperiences in the Parthian campaign. This policy, however, was far\nremoved from the spirit of the early Maccabean leaders who had unsheathed\nthe sword in behalf of their principles. John's first campaign was\nagainst the cities to the east of the Jordan, and resulted in the conquest\nof the towns of Medeba and Samaga and the territory subject to them. The\nconquest of Shechem and southern Samaria was undoubtedly prompted both by\nhereditary hatred toward the Samaritans and by the desire to provide an\noutlet for the growing Jewish population. After standing for two\ncenturies, the Samaritan temple on Mount Gerizim was destroyed by the\nJews. This sacrilegious act naturally intensified that hatred between Jew\nand Samaritan which burned so fiercely during the early part of the first\nChristian century. Marissa and Dora, the chief cities of the Idumeans,\nwere next conquered. With strange inconsistency, John Hyrcanus, whose\nancestors had first taken up the sword in defence of religious liberty,\ncompelled the descendants of their old foes, the Edomites, to give up\ntheir national religion or else go into exile. This policy was fraught\nwith far-reaching consequences, for among those appointed to rule over the\nconquered Edomites was Antipater, the ancestor of Herod, who was destined\nto rule the Jews and to initiate that long series of disasters that\nculminated in the destruction of the Jewish state. Last of all, John\nHyrcanus advanced to the conquest of the Greek city of Samaria. Because of\nits natural strength and formidable defences a year was required for the\nsiege, and it was ultimately captured only through famine. The sons of\nJohn Hyrcanus succeeded in holding at bay the Syrian armies that were sent\nto relieve the besieged. The conquered inhabitants were sold as slaves,\nand the city was left for a time in complete ruins. The conquest of\nScythopolis, the ancient Bethshean, extended the bounds of John's kingdom\nto the southern hills of Galilee. Thus he became master of a small empire\nextending out toward the desert on the east, to the South Country on the\nsouth, touching the sea at Joppa, and including the entire territory of\nancient Samaria on the north. While not as large as the kingdom of David,\nit was a more perfect political unit, and offered superior opportunities\nfor commerce and internal development.\n\nIV. The Break with the Pharisees. The successes of John Hyrcanus\nblinded the majority of the nation to the real issues at stake. But a\npowerful group, which during the Maccabean period appeared for the first\ntime under the name of Pharisees, began to withdraw their allegiance and\nsilently, at least, to protest against a high priest whose chief ambition\nwas conquest. The story which Josephus tells to explain the defection\nof the Pharisees may be simply a popular tradition, but it is indicative\nof that division within Judaism which ultimately wrecked the Maccabean\nstate. From the days of John Hyrcanus, the Maccabean rulers, with only one\nexception, were compelled to meet the silent but strong opposition of the\nPharisees. As a result they turned to the rising party of the Sadducees\nwhich henceforth identified itself with the interests of the reigning\nfamily. Thus in the year of its greatest triumph the Jewish state became a\nhouse divided against itself. Estranged from the better-minded religious\nleaders of the nation, John Hyrcanus and his successors followed an\nincreasingly secular, selfish policy until they completely forgot the\nnoble ideals for which their fathers had striven.\n\nV. The Reign of Aristobulus. The accession of Aristobulus marks a\ntriumph of that Hellenism against which Judas and Simon had unsheathed\nthe sword. Like many an Oriental monarch, he established his position on\nthe throne by the murder of all members of his family who might contest\nhis power. His inhuman cruelty to his mother and the suspicions which led\nhim to murder his brother reveal a barbarous spirit that can only be\nexplained as a result of the wrong ambitions that had already taken\npossession of Israel's rulers. Aristobulus's brief reign of one year is\nmarked by two significant acts. The first is the assumption of the title\nof king. On his own initiative, and apparently without the consent of the\npeople, he placed the diadem upon his head. The other important act was\nthe conquest of part of the territory of Iturea, which was known in later\ntimes as Galilee. He found it occupied by a mixed Syrian and Greek\npopulation in which were probably a few descendants of the ancient\nIsraelites. Following the policy of his family, he doubtless at once\ninaugurated a system of colonization which carried to Galilee a strong\nJewish population. Henceforth, by virtue of race, language, and religion,\nGalilee was closely bound to Judea.\n\n\n\nSection CXIV. THE PHARISEES, SADDUCEES, AND ESSENES\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XVIII, 1:2, 3a-c]\nThe Jews have three sects of philosophy: the Essenes, the Sadducees, and\nthose called Pharisees. The Pharisees do not yield to luxury but despise\nthat kind of life; and they follow the guidance of reason, and what that\nprescribes to them as good, they do. They also pay respect to those\nadvanced in years nor are they so bold as to contradict them in anything\nwhich they have introduced. While they believe that all things are done by\npredestination, they do not take away from a man the choice of acting as\nhe deems proper, for they believe that it is God's will that an event be\ndecided for good or evil both by the divine counsel and by the man who is\nwilling to accede to it. They also believe that souls possess immortal\npower and that under the earth there will be rewards or punishments\naccording as men have lived virtuously or viciously in this life, and that\nthe vicious are to be detained in an everlasting prison and that the\nvirtuous shall have the power to live again.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XVIII, 1:3d]\nOn account of this doctrine they have great influence with the people, and\nwhatsoever they do in connection with the divine worship, prayers and\nsacrifices, they perform in accordance with the direction of the Pharisees.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XVIII, 1:4a, Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:14c]\nBut the doctrine of the Sadducees is that souls die with the bodies, nor\ndo they give heed to anything beyond these things which the law enjoins.\nThey deny predestination entirely and assert that God exercises no\noversight over any evil doing and they say that good or evil lies before\nman to choose, and, according to each man's inclination, he chooses the\none or the other.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XVIII, 1:4b]\nThey also think it virtuous to dispute with those teachers of philosophy\nwhich they follow. This doctrine, however, is accepted by only a few, but\nthese are of the highest rank, They are able to accomplish almost nothing\nby themselves; for when they come to power, unwillingly but perforce, they\naccede to the Pharisaic doctrine, for otherwise they would not be\ntolerated by the multitude.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XVIII, 1:5a, b]\nThe doctrine of the Essenes is that all things are best left to God. They\nteach the immortality of souls and think that the rewards of righteousness\nare to be earnestly striven for; and when they send what they have\ndedicated to God to the temple, they offer their sacrifices in accordance\nwith the special law of purity which they observe. On this account they\nare excluded from the common court of the temple but themselves offer\ntheir sacrifices. Yet their course of life is far better than that of\nother men and they devote themselves wholly to agriculture.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:2, 13a]\nThe Essenes seem to have a greater affection for each other than do the\nother sects. They reject pleasure as an evil, but regard self-restraint\nand the conquest of passions as a virtue. They despise marriage and choose\nout other people's children, while they are impressionable and teachable,\nand they regard them as their own kindred, and conform them to their own\ncustoms. They do not absolutely repudiate marriage. There is also another\norder of Essenes, who agree with the rest in regard to their way of\nliving, customs and laws, but differ from them in regard to marriage, for\nthey think that by not marrying they will cut off the most important\nelement in human life, which is the succession of mankind.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:3, 4]\nThese men are despisers of riches and are wonderfully communistic among\nthemselves. No one is to be found among them who has more than the others,\nfor it is a law among them that those who join their sect must share with\nthem what they have, so that among them all there is no evidence of\npoverty or excess of riches, but everyone's possessions are shared in\ncommon, so there is, as it were, but one property among all the brothers.\nThey also have directors appointed by vote to manage their common affairs.\nThese have no other interest, but each devotes himself to the needs of\nall. They possess no one city, but many of them dwell in every city, and\nif any of their sect come from other places, what they have lies open for\nthem, just as if it were their own. They do not change garments or sandals\nuntil they first are entirely torn to pieces or worn out by time. Nor do\nthey either buy or sell anything to each other, but every one of them\ngives to him who wants it and receives from him again in return for it\nwhat he wants; and even though no return is made, they are free to take\nwhat they want from whom they wish.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:5]\nAnd their piety toward God is very extraordinary; for before sunrise they\nspeak not a word about profane matters, but offer up certain inherited\nprayers as if they made a supplication to it for its rising. After this\neveryone is sent away by their directors to engage in some of those arts\nin which they are skilled, and at which they labor with great diligence\nuntil the fifth hour; after which they assemble again in one place. And\nwhen they have clad themselves in linen coverings, they bathe their bodies\nin cold water. After this purification is over they meet together in an\napartment of their own in which none of another sect is permitted to\nenter. Then they go ceremonially pure into the dining room, as if into a\ntemple. And when they have quietly sat down, the baker lays loaves in\norder for them, and a cook also brings a single plate of one kind of food\nand sets it before each of them. And a priest offers a prayer before\neating. It is unlawful for any one to taste the food before the prayer.\nWhen he has dined he offers prayer again. When they begin and when they\nend they praise God as the giver of the necessities of life. After this\nthey lay aside their garments as though they were sacred, and devote\nthemselves to their labor again until evening. Then they return home to\ndine in the same manner and if any strangers be there they sit down with\nthem. There is never any clamor or disturbance to pollute their household,\nbut they give everyone permission to speak in turn. The silence of the\ninmates appears to outsiders like some awful mystery.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:6]\nThey do nothing except in accordance with the injunctions of their\ndirectors. Only these two things are done among them as each wishes,\nnamely, they assist the needy and show mercy; but they cannot assist their\nkindred without the permission of their directors. They dispense their\nanger justly and restrain their passion. They are eminent for fidelity and\nare the advocates of peace. Also whatever they say is mightier than an\noath, but swearing is avoided by them, and they regard it worse than\nperjury, for they say that he who cannot be believed without swearing by\nGod is already condemned. They also devote great attention to the study of\nthe works of the ancients and select from them those things that are\nprofitable for soul and body. Also they seek out such roots as may be\neffective for the cure of their diseases and inquire into the properties\nof stones.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:7]\nTo one who desires to enter their sect, admission is not immediately\ngranted; but he is prescribed the same method of living as they use for a\nyear during which he is still excluded, and they give him a small hatchet,\nand girdle and the white garment. And when during that time he has given\nevidence of self-control, he approaches nearer to their way of living and\nis allowed to share the waters of purification. However, he is not even\nnow allowed to live with them, for after this demonstration of his\nfortitude, his character is tried two years more, and if he appears to be\nworthy, they then admit him into the society. But before he is allowed to\ntouch their common food, he is obliged to swear to them awful oaths that\nin the first place he will show piety toward God and then that he will\nobserve justice toward men, and that he will do no harm to any one either\nvoluntarily or at the command of others, and that he will always hate the\nwicked, and help the righteous, and that he will show fidelity to all men\nand especially to those in authority, that he will be a lover of truth and\ndenounce those who tell lies, and that he will keep his hands clean from\ntheft, and his soul from unlawful gain. Moreover he swears to communicate\ntheir doctrines to no one otherwise than he received them himself, and\nthat he will abstain from robbery, and that he will faithfully preserve\nthe books of their sect and the names of the angels.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:8a, 9a-c]\nThose who are caught in any heinous sins they cast out of their society;\nand he who is thus expelled often dies miserably. And in the judgments\nthey pronounce they are most exacting and just, nor do they pass sentence\nby the votes of a court having less than one hundred members, and what is\ndetermined by them is unalterable. What they most of all honor, after God\nhimself, is the name of their legislator [Moses], whom, if any one\nblasphemes, he is punished by death. They also think it a good thing to\nobey their elders and the majority. They are stricter than any others of\nthe Jews in resting from their labors on the seventh day, for they not\nonly prepare their food the day before, that they may not be obliged to\nkindle a fire on that day, but they will not venture to move any vessel\nout of its place.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:10b, c, 11b]\nThey are also long-lived, insomuch that most of them live over a hundred\nyears because of the simplicity of their diet and as a result of their\nregular course of life. They despise the miseries of life and are above\npain because of their noble thoughts. And as for death, if it come with\nglory, they regard it as better than immortality. They think also, like\nthe Greeks, that the good have their habitation beyond the ocean in a\nregion that is never oppressed by storms of rain or of snow, or with heat,\nand that this place is refreshed by the gentle breath of the west wind\nthat is continually blowing from the ocean; while they allot to the bad a\ndark and cold den which is never free from unceasing punishment.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, II, 8:12]\nThere are also those among them who undertake to foretell things to\ncome by reading the holy books, by using several different forms of\npurifications and by being constantly familiar with discourses of the\nprophets; and it is only seldom that they fail in their predictions.\n\nI. Influences that Gave Rise to the Jewish Parties. The Maccabean period\nwitnessed the birth of the great parties that henceforth distinguished\nJudaism. They represented the crystallizing of the different currents of\nthought that were traceable in the Greek period and even earlier. These\ndiverse points of view were in part the result of that democratic spirit\nwhich has always characterized Israel's life. In the striking antithesis\nbetween the idealists and the legalists and the practical men of affairs\nit is also possible to detect the potent influence which the prophets had\nexerted upon the thought of their nation. In the Greek period the\nChronicler and certain of the psalmists, with their intense devotion to\nthe temple and its services to the practical exclusion of all other\ninterests, were the forerunners of the later Pharisees. Ben Sira, with his\nhearty appreciation of the good things of life, with his devotion to the\nscriptures of his race, with his evident failure to accept the new\ndoctrine of individual immortality, and with his great admiration for the\nhigh priests, was an earlier type of the better class of Sadducees. The\npersecutions of Antiochus Epiphanes developed these parties. As has\nalready been noted, the Hasideans who followed Judas in the struggle to\nrestore the law and the temple service were the immediate predecessors\nof the early Pharisees. The word \"Pharisees\" means separatists, and is\nused first in the days of Jonathan (Jos. _Ant_. III 5:9) In the same\nconnection Josephus refers to the Sadducees. The name of this second party\nis probably derived, not from the Hebrew word sadik, meaning righteous,\nbut from Zadok (later written Sadok or Sadduk), who was placed by\nSolomon in charge of the Jerusalem temple. It was thus the designation\nof the aristocratic, high-priestly party. In the Persian and Greek\nperiods the high priests had ruled the Judean state without opposition.\nIt was the rise of the party of the Pharisees that apparently developed\nthat of the Sadducees. This party included the hereditary nobles who\nsupported and sympathized with the Maccabean leaders. The Essenes\nevidently represent a reaction against the prevailing moral corruption.\nIn many respects they were simply extreme Pharisees. They were zealots in\nreligion, just as the later party of the Zealots were extremists in their\nhatred of Rome and in the methods which they were ready to use in order to\nattain their ends.\n\nII. Character and Beliefs of the Pharisees. Originally the Pharisees\nwere not a political but a religious party. The opposition of the\nSadducees in time led them to enter public life. In politics they were\nconservatives. They had little sympathy with the popular ambition for\npolitical independence, and probably regarded with alarm the tendency\ntoward national expansion. Alliances with the heathen nations seemed\nto them disloyalty to Jehovah. In belief they were progressives. While\nthey stood squarely on the ancient law, they recognized the importance\nof interpreting it so as to meet the many questions that rose in public\nand private life. To this great and practically endless task much of\ntheir time was devoted. They thus recognized the fact that Israel's law\nwas still in process of development. To their later interpretations of\nthe law they attributed great authority. One of their maxims was: \"It\nis a worse offence to teach things contrary to the ordinances of the\nscribes than to teach things contrary to the written law.\" Naturally their\nattempt to anticipate by definite regulations each individual problem led\nthem to absurd extremes and in time obscured the real intent of the older\nlaws, but the spirit which actuated it was progressive. They also did not\nhesitate to accept the growing popular belief in angels and spirits. Like\nthe earlier prophets, they recognized the presence of Jehovah directing\nthe life of the nation and of the individual. They accepted the new-born\nbelief in the immortality of the individual, clinging, however, to the\nhope of a bodily resurrection. They also held to the popular messianic\nhopes which became more and more prominent during the Maccabean and Roman\nperiods.\n\nThe Pharisees were the most democratic party in Judaism. While\nfor their own members they insisted upon a most rigorous ceremonial\nregime, they allowed the common people to ally themselves with them\nas associates. In their acceptance of the popular hopes and in their\nendeavor to adapt Israel's law to the life of the nation and thus\nestablish a basis for the realization of Israel's hopes they appealed to\nthe masses and exerted over them a powerful influence. Josephus asserts\nthat so great was the influence of the Pharisees with the people that the\nSadducees, in order to carry through their policies, were obliged,\nnominally, at least, to adopt the platform of their rivals. The Pharisees\nwere also zealous in teaching the people and thus kept in close touch with\nthe masses. They, therefore, stood as the true representatives of Judaism.\nTheir principles have survived and are still the foundations of orthodox\nJudaism.\n\n\nIII. Character and Beliefs of the Sadducees. The Sadducees were few in\nnumbers compared with the Pharisees. They represented, on the one side,\nthe old priestly aristocracy, and on the other the new nobility that\nrallied about the Maccabean leaders. They depended for their authority\nupon their wealth, their inherited prestige, and the support of the\nthrone. They were in reality a political rather than a religious party.\nIn politics they were progressives and opportunists. Any policy that\npromised to further their individual or class interests was acceptable to\nthem. As is usually the case with parties that represent wealth and\nhereditary power, they were conservatives in belief. They stood squarely\non the earlier scriptures of their race and had no sympathy with the later\nPharisaic interpretations and doctrines. Whether or not, as Josephus\nasserts, they entirely rejected fate, that is, the providential direction\nof human affairs, is not clear. Probably in this belief they did not\ndepart from the earlier teachings of priests and prophets. Their selfish\nand often unscrupulous acts suggest a basis for Josephus's claim, even\nthough allowance must be made for his hostile attitude toward them. While\nthey were conservatives in theory, the Sadducees were of all classes in\nJudaism most open to Greek and heathen influence, for foreign alliances\nand Hellenic culture offered opportunities for advancement and power.\n\nIV. Character and Beliefs of the Essenes. Less important but even more\ninteresting are the Essenes. They were a sect, or monastic order, rather\nthan a political or religious party. Josephus, who asserts that for a time\nhe was associated with them, has given a full account of their peculiar\ncustoms. They evidently represented a strong reaction against the\nprevailing corruption and a return to the simple life. Their spirit of\nhumility, fraternity, and practical charity are in marked contrast to the\naims of the Sadducees and the later Maccabean rulers. In their beliefs\nthey were idealists. Their invocation of the sun, their extreme emphasis\non ceremonial cleanliness, their tendency toward celibacy, and their\ndistinction between soul and body, all suggest the indirect if not the\ndirect influence of the Pythagorean type of philosophy. If the Essenes\nrepresented simply an extreme type of Pharisaism, the peculiar form of its\ndevelopment was undoubtedly due to the Greek atmosphere amidst which it\nflourished. The Essenes do not appear to have had any direct influence in\nthe politics of their day. They were a current apart from the main stream\nof Judaism, and yet they could not fail to exert an indirect influence.\nMany of their ideals and doctrines were closely similar to the teachings\nof John the Baptist and Jesus. Yet there is a fundamental difference\nbetween Essenism and primitive Christianity, for one sought to attain\nperfection apart from life and the other in closest contact with the\ncurrents of human thought and activity. While according to Josephus the\nparty of the Essenes at one time numbered four thousand, like all ascetic\nmovements it soon disappeared or else was deflected into that greater\nstream of monasticism which rose in the early Christian centuries.\n\n\n\nSection CXV. THE LIFE AND FAITH OF THE JEWS OF THE DISPERSION\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XII, 3:1a]\nThe Jews obtained honor from the kings of Asia when they became their\nauxiliaries; for Seleucus Nicator made them citizens of those cities which\nhe built in Asia and in lower Syria, and in Antioch, the metropolis, and\ngave them privileges equal to those of the Macedonians and the Greeks who\nwere its inhabitants.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, VII, 3:3a]\nFor the Jewish race is widely dispersed among the inhabitants of all the\nworld; and especially was it intermingled with the population of Syria,\nbecause of the nearness of that country. Above all, in Antioch, because of\nthe size of the city, it had great numbers. There the kings who followed\nAntiochus gave the Jews a place where they might live in the most\nundisturbed security; for although Antiochus, who was called Epiphanes,\nlaid waste Jerusalem and plundered the temple, the kings who succeeded him\nrestored all the gifts of brass that had been made to the Jews of Antioch,\nand dedicated them to their synagogue.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, VII, 3:3b]\nThe succeeding kings also treated them in the same way, so that they\nbecame very numerous, and adorned their temple with ornaments and at\ngreat expense with those things which had been given them. They also\ncontinued to attract a great many of the Greeks to their services, making\nthem in a sense part of themselves.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, VII, 10:2d-3e]\nNow Onias, the son of Simon, one of the Jewish high priests, fled from\nAntiochus [Epiphanes] the king of Syria, when he made war with the Jews,\nand came to Alexandria. And after Ptolemy [Philometor] received him very\nkindly on account of his hatred to Antiochus, Onias assured him that if he\nwould comply with his proposal, he would bring all the Jews to his\nassistance. Now when the king agreed to do whatever he was able, Onias\ndesired him to give him permission to build a temple somewhere in Egypt\nand to worship God according to the customs of his own nation. So Ptolemy\ncomplied with his proposals and gave them a place about twenty miles\ndistant from Memphis. That province was called the province of Heliopolis.\nThere Onias built a fortress and a temple like that at Jerusalem except\nthat it resembled a tower. He built it of large stones to the height of\nsixty cubits, but he made the structure of the altar an imitation of that\nin his own country. In like manner also he adorned it with gifts,\nexcepting that he did not make a candlestick but had a single lamp\nhammered out of a beaten piece of gold, which illuminated the place with\nits rays, and which he hung by a chain of gold. The entire temple was\nsurrounded by a wall of burnt brick, although it had a gateway of stone.\nThe king also gave him a large territory for a revenue in money, that both\nthe priests might have plentiful provision for themselves, and that God\nmight have abundance of those things which were necessary for his worship.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XIII, 10:4]\nNow in the days of John Hyrcanus, not only did the Jews in Jerusalem and\nJudea enjoy prosperity but also those who were at Alexandria in Egypt and\nCyprus. For Cleopatra the queen was at variance with her son Ptolemy, who\nis called Lathyrus, and appointed as her generals Chelcias and Ananias,\nthe son of that Onias who built the temple in the province of Heliopolis\nsimilar to that of Jerusalem. Cleopatra intrusted these men with her army\nand did nothing without their advice. Strabo of Cappadocia also attests\nthat only those who were called Onias's party, being Jews, continued\nfaithful to Cleopatra because their countrymen, Chelcias and Ananias, were\nin highest favor with the queen.\n\n[Sidenote: Wisd. of Sol. 6:12-16]\nWisdom is brilliant and fades not away,\nAnd she is easily seen by those who love her,\nAnd found by those who seek her.\nShe anticipates those who desire her, making herself first known.\nHe who eagerly seeks her shall have no toil,\nFor he shall find her sitting at his gates.\nFor thinking upon her brings perfect wisdom,\nAnd he who lies awake for her sake shall quickly be free from care.\nFor she herself goes about seeking those who are worthy of her,\nAnd in their paths she graciously appears to them,\nAnd in every purpose she meets them.\n\n[Sidenote: Wisd. of Sol. 7:25-8:1, 7]\nFor she is breath of the power of God,\nAnd a clear effluence of the glory of the Almighty;\nTherefore nothing defiled can find entrance into her.\nFor she is a reflection of everlasting light,\nAnd a spotless mirror of the working of God,\nAnd an image of his goodness.\nAnd though she is but one, she has power to do all things;\nAnd remaining the same renews all things,\nAnd from generation to generation passing into holy souls,\nShe makes them friends of God and prophets.\nFor God loves nothing except him who dwells with wisdom.\nFor she is fairer than the sun,\nAnd surpasses all the order of the stars;\nCompared with light, she is found to be superior to it.\nFor night succeeds the light of day,\nBut evil does not prevail against wisdom.\nBut she reaches from one end of the world to the other,\nAnd she directs all things graciously.\nThe fruits of her labors are virtues;\nFor she teaches moderation and good sense,\nJustice and fortitude,\nAnd nothing in life is more profitable for men than these.\n\n[Sidenote: Wisd. of Sol. 1:1-8]\nLove righteousness, O rulers of the earth,\nThink of the Lord with sincerity,\nAnd seek him in singleness of heart.\nFor he is found by those who do not tempt him,\nAnd manifests himself to those who do not distrust him.\nFor perverse thoughts separate from God,\nAnd his power, when it is tried, convicts the foolish;\nFor wisdom will not enter into a soul that devises evil,\nNor dwell in a body that is pledged to sin.\nFor a holy spirit which disciplines will flee deceit,\nAnd will start away from senseless thoughts,\nAnd will be frightened away when unrighteousness comes in.\nFor wisdom is a spirit that loves man,\nAnd she will not absolve a blasphemer for his words,\nBecause God is a witness of his innermost feelings,\nAnd a true overseer of his heart,\nAnd a hearer of his tongue.\nFor the spirit of the Lord hath filled the world,\nAnd that which holdeth all things together knoweth every voice.\nTherefore no one who speaks unrighteous things can be hid,\nNor will justice, when it convicts, pass him by.\n\n[Sidenote: Wisd. of Sol. 1:12-15]\nDo not court death by leading an erring life,\nAnd do not by the deeds of your hands draw destruction upon yourselves.\nFor God did not make death,\nAnd he hath no pleasure when the living perish;\nFor he created all things that they might exist,\nAnd the created things of the world are not baneful.\nAnd there is no destructive poison in them,\nNor has Hades dominion on earth,\nFor righteousness is immortal.\n\n[Sidenote: Wisd. of Sol. 2:23-3:1]\nFor God created man for incorruption,\nAnd made him an image of his own peculiar nature;\nBut through the envy of the devil death entered into the world,\nAnd they who belong to him experience it.\nBut the souls of the righteous are in the hand of God,\nAnd no torment can touch them.\n\n[Sidenote: Wisd. of Sol. 5:15, 16]\nBut the righteous live forever,\nAnd in the Lord is their reward,\nAnd the care for them with the Most High.\nTherefore they shall receive the glorious kingdom,\nAnd the diadem of beauty from the Lord's hand;\nBecause he will cover them with his right hand,\nAnd with his arm he will shield them.\n\n[Sidenote: Wisd. of Sol. 11:21-12:2]\nFor thou, O Lord, lovest all things that are,\nAnd thou dost not abhor any of the things which thou hast made,\nFor thou wouldest never have formed anything that thou didst hate.\nAnd how would anything have endured, if thou didst not wish it?\nOr how could that which was not called into being by thee have been\n  preserved?\nBut thou sparest all things, because they are thine,\nO Sovereign Lord, thou lover of men's lives!\nFor thine incorruptible spirit is in all things.\nTherefore thou convictest the fallen little by little,\nAnd, reminding them of the things in which they sin, thou dost warn them,\nThat freed from wickedness, they may believe on thee, O Lord.\n\n[Sidenote: Wisd. of Sol. 15:1-3]\nBut thou, our God, art gracious and true,\nLong suffering, and in mercy directing all things.\nFor even if we sin, we are thine, since we know thy might.\nBut we shall not sin, knowing that we have been counted as thine;\nFor to know thee is perfect righteousness,\nAnd to know thy might is the root of immortality.\n\nI. Conditions of the Jews in Antioch and Asia Minor. Seleucus Nicanor,\nwho in 311 B.C. founded the city of Antioch, like Alexander, granted many\nprivileges to the Jewish colonies whom he thus sought to attract hither.\nThey not only possessed the rights of citizenship, but lived in their\nseparate quarter. Their synagogue was one of the architectural glories of\nthe city. There they engaged in trade and undoubtedly grew rich, taking on\nlargely the complexion of that opulent Hellenic city. Later the Jewish\ncolony was enlarged by the apostates who fled from Judea when the\nMaccabean rulers gained the ascendancy. The corrupt and materialistic\natmosphere of Antioch doubtless explains why its Jewish citizens\napparently contributed little to the development of the thought and faith\nof later Judaism. Similar colonies were found throughout the great\ncommercial cities of Asia Minor. In many of these cities--for example,\nTarsus--they seem to have enjoyed the same privileges as those at Antioch.\n\nII. The Jews in Egypt. The chief intellectual and religious center of\nthe Jews of the dispersion, however, was in Alexandria. It is probable\nthat fully a million Jews were to be found in Egypt during the latter\npart of the Maccabean period. Industry and commerce had made many of them\nextremely wealthy and had given them the leisure to study not only their\nown scriptures but also the literature of the Greeks. The prevailingly\nfriendly way in which the Ptolemaic rulers treated the Jews naturally led\nthem to take a more favorable attitude toward Greek culture. Alexandria\nitself was the scene of an intense intellectual activity. Attracted by the\nmunificence of the Ptolemies and by the opportunities offered by its great\nlibrary, many of the most famous Greek philosophers and rhetoricians of\nthe age found their home in the Egyptian capital. Public lectures, open\ndiscussions, and voluminous literature were only a few of the many forms\nin which this intellectual life was expressed. Hence it was at Alexandria\nthat Hebrew and Greek thought met on the highest plane and mingled most\nclosely.\n\nIII. The Jewish Temple at Leontopolis. After the murder of his father\nOnias III near Antioch, whither he had fled from the persecutions of\nAntiochus Epiphanes, Onias IV sought refuge in Egypt. Here, as the\nlegitimate head of the Jewish high-priesthood, he was favorably received\nby Ptolemy and granted territory in the Nile Delta to the north of Memphis\nin which to rear a temple to Jehovah. In the light of recent discoveries\nat Elephantine it is evident that this step was not without precedent\n(Section XCI:vii). Ptolemy's object was to please his Jewish subjects and\nto attract others to the land of the Nile. Josephus's statement in _The\nJewish War_, VII, 10:4 favors the conclusion that the temple was built\ntwo hundred and forty-three years (not 343) before its final destruction\nin 73 A.D., that is, in 170 B.C. In any case it was probably built between\n170 and 160 B.C., at the time when the persecutions of Antiochus\nEpiphanes made pilgrimages to the Jerusalem temple impossible, and\nthreatened its continued existence. The plan of the Leontopolis temple\nindicates that it was not intended to be a rival to the Jerusalem\nsanctuary, but rather a common place of meeting for the Egyptian\nJews and of defence in case of attack. It never seriously rivalled the\nJerusalem sanctuary, although in later days it was viewed with jealousy\nby the Jews of Palestine.\n\nIV. Translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. Far more\nsignificant than the building of the Leontopolis temple was the\ntranslation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. The tradition preserved\nby Josephus that the translation was made in seventy-two days by\nseventy-two scholars, sent from Jerusalem by Eleazar the high priest at\nthe request of Ptolemy, is clearly unhistorical. The impossibility of\ncompleting so vast a task in this limited time is obvious. Moreover, the\ncharacter of the translation indicates that it was the work not of\nPalestinian but of Alexandrian Jews familiar with the peculiar Greek of\nEgypt and the lands of the dispersion. It was also the work not of one\nbut of many different groups of translators, as is shown by the variant\nsynonyms employed in different books to translate the same Hebrew words\nand idioms. In the case of several books the work of two or more distinct\ntranslators is readily recognized. The quality of the translation also\nvaries greatly in different books. It is probable that the one historical\nfact underlying the tradition is that the work of translation was begun in\nthe days of Ptolemy Philadelphus, who may have encouraged his Jewish\nsubjects in their undertaking. From the character of the translations and\nthe nature of the situation it is probable that the first books to be\ntranslated were certain historical writings, as Samuel-Kings and the books\nof the Law. The remaining books were probably translated by the end of the\nsucceeding century (between 250 and 150 B.C.), for the grandson of Ben\nSira implies in his prologue that he was acquainted with the Law, the\nProphets, and the other writings in their Greek version.\n\nThe primary aim of this Greek translation was to put the Hebrew scriptures\nthemselves into the hands of their Greek persecutors as the best possible\nanswer to their false and malicious charges. Evidence of this apologetic\npurpose is found in the fact that glaring inconsistencies and expressions,\nwhere Jehovah is described in the likeness of a human being, were usually\nleft out. Where the Hebrew text was corrupt the translators restored or\nelse freely paraphrased what they thought was the original meaning. In\ntime, however, the translation gained a new importance, for the Jews of\nEgypt soon began to forget the language of their fathers and so became\nincreasingly dependent for a knowledge of their scriptures upon the Greek\ntranslation. In the end it almost completely superseded the original\nHebrew version not only in the lands of the dispersion, but even in\nPalestine itself. A large proportion of the quotations from the Old\nTestament in the New are from the Greek rather than the Hebrew text.\nAlthough it is only a translation, the Greek version, or Septuagint (the\nVersion of the Seventy), as it is popularly known, still possesses a great\nvalue for the modern translator, inasmuch as it is based upon Hebrew texts\ncenturies older than any which now exists. At many points, especially in\nthe historical prophetic books it makes possible the restoration of the\noriginal reading where the Hebrew has become corrupt in the long process\nof transmission.\n\nV. Apologetic Jewish Writings. During the centuries immediately\npreceding the Christian era the Jews of the dispersion, and especially of\nEgypt, were the object of constant attack. Manetho, an Egyptian priest,\nwrote a history purporting to give the origin and the early experiences of\nthe Jews. Portions of this have been preserved and reveal the bitter and\nunjust spirit with which this race was regarded by the Greek and Egyptian\nscholars of the day. To defend themselves from these attacks the Jews not\nonly translated their scriptures, but employed many different types of\nwriting. A certain Jew by the name of Demetrius about 215 B.C. wrote a\ncommendatory history of the Jewish kings. Aristobulus, the teacher of\nPtolemy Philometor, wrote an \"Explanation of the Mosaic Laws,\" in which he\nanticipated, in many ways, the modern interpretation of the early\ntraditions found in the opening books of the Old Testament. Like all\nAlexandrian scholars, however, he overshot the mark under the influence of\nthe allegorical or symbolic type of interpretation. Other Jewish\nwriters appealed to the older Greek historians and poets. Adopting the\nunprincipled methods of their persecutors, they expanded the original\nwritings of such historians as Hecataeus, who had spoken in a commendatory\nway of the Jews. They even went so far as to insert long passages into the\nwritings of the famous Greek poets, such as Orpheus, Hesiod, Aeschylus,\nSophocles, and Menander, so as to transform them into ardent champions of\nthe persecuted race. The culmination of this illegitimate form of defence\nwas to insert in the famous Sibylline Books (III) a long passage\ndescribing the glories of the Jewish race and voicing the hopes with which\nthey regarded the future. It was in this atmosphere and under the\ninfluence of these methods that the anti-Semitic spirit was born in\nancient Alexandria. Thence it was transmitted, as a malign heritage, to\nthe Christian church.\n\nVI. The Wisdom of Solomon. The noblest literary product of the Jews of\nthe dispersion was the apocryphal book known as the Wisdom of Solomon. It\nwas so called because the author assumed the point of view of Solomon. In\nso doing he did not intend to deceive his contemporaries, but rather\nfollowed the common tendency of his day. Although the book has many\ncharacteristic Hebrew idioms, which are due to its Jewish authorship, it\nwas without doubt originally written in Greek. Its author was evidently\nacquainted with the writings of many of the Greek poets and philosophers.\nHe accepted Plato's doctrine of the pre-existence of the soul (8:19, 20),\nof the limitations of the body (9:15), and of the creation of the world\nout of formless matter (11:17). He was especially influenced by the\nbeliefs of the Epicureans and Stoics. He was acquainted with Hellenic art,\nastronomy, and science (7:17-29) and throughout shows the influence of\nGreek methods of thinking. His rejection of the teachings of the book of\nEcclesiastes, his wide learning and his conception of immortality indicate\nthat he lived some time after the beginning of the Maccabean struggle. His\nreference in 3:1-4 is probably to the persecutions through which the Jews\nof Egypt passed during the reign of Ptolemy Psycon (140-117 B.C.). On the\nother hand the book clearly antedates the writings of the Jewish\nphilosopher Philo, who lived during the latter part of the first century\nB.C. The Wisdom of Solomon, therefore, may be dated somewhere between 100\nand 50 B.C.\n\nVII. Its Important Teachings. The author of the Wisdom of Solomon aimed,\nfirst, to commend Israel's faith to the heathen by showing that it was in\nsubstantial accord with the noblest doctrines of the Greek philosophers,\nand second, to furnish the Jews of the dispersion, who were conversant\nwith Hellenic thought and yet trained in the religion of their race, a\nworking basis for their thought and practice. From the first it appears to\nhave been highly esteemed by the Jews outside Palestine, although it never\nfound a place in the Palestinian canon. Like most wisdom books, it\ndescribes at length the beauty and value of wisdom. The figure of Proverbs\n8 and 9 is still further developed under the influence of the Greek\ntendency to personify abstract qualities. In the mind of the author,\nhowever, wisdom is simply an attribute of the Deity which he shares in\ncommon with men. The book is unique in two respects: (1) it contains the\nearliest references in Jewish literature to a personal devil and\nidentifies him with the serpent that tempted the woman in the garden\n(2:24, cf. Gen. 3) Elsewhere, however, the author traces sin and evil to\nmen's voluntary acts (e.g., 1:16). (2) It teaches the immortality\nof righteousness and hence, by implication, the immortality of the\nindividual. \"God created man for incorruption,\" and \"the souls of the\nrighteous are in his hand.\" The doctrine here presented is ethical and\nspiritual rather than the belief in a bodily resurrection already\nformulated in the twelfth chapter of Daniel. It also teaches that\nboth the good and bad will be rewarded according to their deeds. Its\nconceptions of God are exalted. He is the incorruptible spirit in all\nthings, just and yet merciful, the lover of men. The book also places side\nby side with the Jewish teachings regarding men's duties to God and their\nfellow-men the Greek virtues of moderation, good sense, justice, and\ncourage or fortitude. It also teaches that, like God, each of his children\nshould be a lover of men. Thus the book unites most effectively that\nwhich is best in the thought of Judaism and Hellenism and is an earnest\nof that still nobler union that was later realized in the thought and\nteachings of Christianity.\n\n\n\nSection CXVI. THE DECLINE OF THE MACCABEAN KINGDOM\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 4:1]\nAfter Aristobulus died, his wife Salome, who by the Greeks was called\nAlexandra, released his brothers from prison (for Aristobulus had kept\nthem in confinement), and made Alexander Janneus, who was the oldest,\nking.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 4:2]\nNow there was a battle between him and Ptolemy, who was called Lathyrus,\nwho had taken the city of Asochis. He indeed slew many of his enemies, but\nthe victory rather inclined to Ptolemy. But when this Ptolemy was pursued\nby his mother, Cleopatra, and retired into Egypt, Alexander besieged and\ntook Gadara and Amathus, which was the strongest of all the fortresses\nthat were beyond the Jordan, and the most valued of all the possessions of\nTheodorus, the son of Zeno, were therein. Thereupon Theodorus marched\nsuddenly against him and took what belonged to himself, and slew ten\nthousand of the Jews. Alexander, however, recovered from this blow and\nturned his force toward the maritime districts and took Gaza, Raphia, and\nAnthedon.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 4:3]\nBut when he had enslaved all these cities, the Jews made an insurrection\nagainst him at a festival and it looked as though he would not have been\nable to escape the plot they had laid for him, had not his foreign\nauxiliaries come to his aid. And when he had slain more than six thousand\nof the rebels, he invaded Arabia, and when he had conquered the Gileadites\nand Moabites, he commanded them to pay him tribute and returned to Amathus\nand took the fortress and demolished it.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 4:4, 5]\nHowever, when he fought with Obedas, king of the Arabians, who had laid an\nambush for him near Golan, he lost his entire army, which was crowded\ntogether in a deep valley and trampled to pieces by the multitude of\ncamels. And fleeing to Jerusalem because of the greatness of the calamity\nthat had overtaken him, he provoked the multitude, which had hated him\nbefore, to make an insurrection against him. He was, however, too strong\nfor them in the various battles that were fought between them and he slew\nno fewer than fifty thousand of the Jews in the interval of six years. Yet\nhe had no reason to rejoice in these victories, since he did but consume\nhis own country, until he at length ceased fighting and desired to come to\nan agreement with them. But his changeability and the irregularity of his\nconduct made them hate him still more. And when he asked them why they so\nhated him and what he should do to appease them they said, \"Die.\"\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 4:4c, 5c, 6a, c]\nAt the same time they invited Demetrius to assist them, and as he readily\ncomplied with their request and came with his army, the Jews joined with\nthese their auxiliaries about Shechem. In the battle which followed,\nDemetrius was the conqueror, although Alexander's mercenaries performed\nthe greatest exploits. Nevertheless the outcome of this battle proved\ndifferent from what was expected by both sides, for those who had invited\nDemetrius to come to them did not continue loyal to him although he was\nthe conqueror, and six thousand Jews out of pity because of the change in\nAlexander's condition, when he fled to the mountains, went over to him.\nDemetrius, supposing that all the nation would run to Alexander, left the\ncountry and went his way. The rest of the Jewish multitude, however, did\nnot lay aside their quarrels with Alexander when the auxiliaries were\ngone, but had perpetual war with them until he had slain the greater part\nof them. Then such a terror seized the people that eight thousand of his\nopponents fled away the following night out of all Judea and did not\nreturn until Alexander died.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 4:8c, d]\nAlexander also subdued Golan, Seleucia, and what was called the Valley of\nAntiochus; besides which he took the strong fortress of Gamala. Then he\nreturned into Judea after he had spent three years on this expedition. Now\nhe was gladly received by the nation because of his success. So when he\nwas at rest from war, he fell ill and died, terminating his troubles after\nhe had reigned twenty-seven years.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 5:1]\nNow Alexander left the kingdom to Alexandra, his wife, and trusted the\nJews would readily submit to her, for in opposing his habitual violation\nof their laws she gained the good-will of the people. Nor was he mistaken\nin his hopes, for this woman retained the rulership because of her\nreputation for piety. For she chiefly studied the ancient customs of her\ncountry and cast those men out of the government who offended against\ntheir holy laws. And as she had two sons by Alexander, she made the older,\nHyrcanus, high priest, on account of his age and also on account of his\ninactive temperament.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 5:2, 3a, b]\nAnd the Pharisees joined themselves to her in the government and Alexandra\nhenceforth hearkened to them to a great degree. But these Pharisees\nartfully insinuated themselves into her favor little by little and\npresently became the real administrators of public affairs. They banished\nand recalled whom they pleased. While she governed the people, the\nPharisees governed her. Accordingly, they slew Diogenes, a person\nof prominence, because he had been a friend of Alexander; they also\nurged Alexandra to put the rest of those to death who had stirred up\nAlexander against them. But the chief of those who were in danger fled\nto Aristobulus. He persuaded his mother to spare the men on account of\ntheir rank, but to expel them from the city. So when they were given their\nfreedom, they were dispersed over all the country.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 5:4-6:1b]\nIn the meantime Alexandra fell sick and Aristobulus, her younger son,\nseized this opportunity to get possession of all the fortresses. He also\nused the sums of money he found in them to gather together a number of\nmercenaries and to set himself up as king. But Alexandra, after she had\nlived nine years, died before she could punish Aristobulus. Hyrcanus was\nheir to the kingdom and to him his mother intrusted it while she was\nliving. But Aristobulus was superior to him in ability and spirits, and\nwhen there was a battle between them near Jericho to decide the dispute\nabout the kingdom, the majority deserted Hyrcanus and went over to\nAristobulus. But they came to an agreement that Aristobulus should be the\nking, and that Hyrcanus should resign, but retain all the rest of his\ndignities.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 6:2, 3]\nNow the others who opposed Aristobulus were afraid, when he thus\nunexpectedly came to power. This was especially true of Antipater, whom\nAristobulus hated of old. He was by birth an Idumean and one of the chief\nmen of that nation on account of his ancestry and riches and other\nauthority that belonged to him. He urged Hyrcanus to flee to Aretas, king\nof Arabia, and to retrieve the kingdom. When he had prepared them both\nbeforehand he took Hyrcanus by night away from the city and escaped to\nPetra, which is the royal capital of Arabia. Here he put Hyrcanus into\nAretas's care. He prevailed with him to give him an army to restore him to\nhis kingdom. This army consisted of fifty thousand footmen and horsemen\nwhich Aristobulus was not able to withstand, but was defeated in the first\nencounter and was driven out of Jerusalem. He would have been taken by\nforce, if Scaurus, the Roman general, had not come and opportunely raised\nthe siege. This was the Scaurus who was sent into Syria from Armenia by\nPompey the Great when he was fighting against Tigranes. As soon,\ntherefore, as Scaurus arrived in the country, ambassadors came from both\nthe brothers, each of them desiring his assistance. But Aristobulus's\nthree hundred talents blocked the way of justice. When Scaurus had\nreceived this sum, he sent a herald to Hyrcanus and the Arabians, and\nthreatened them with the resentment of the Romans and Pompey unless they\nraised the siege. So Aretas was terrified and retired from Judea to\nPhiladelphia.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 6:4-5]\nWhen Hyrcanus and Antipater were thus deprived of their hopes from the\nArabians, they fled to Pompey for assistance and besought him to show his\ndisapproval of the violent action of Aristobulus and to restore to him the\nkingdom, as it justly belonged to him. Aristobulus was also there himself,\ndressed in regal attire, but Pompey was indignant at his behavior. When\nHyrcanus's friends also interceded strongly with Pompey, he took not only\nhis Roman forces but also many of his Syrian auxiliaries and marched\nagainst Aristobulus. But when he had passed by Pella and Scythopolis\nand had come to Korea, he heard that Aristobulus had fled to Alexandrium,\nwhich was a stronghold fortified with the greatest magnificence, and\nsituated upon a high mountain, and he sent to him and commanded him to\ncome down. So Aristobulus came down to Pompey and when he had made a long\ndefence of the justness of his rule, he returned to the fortress. Pompey\nhowever commanded him to give up his fortified places and forced him to\nwrite to each of his governors to surrender. Accordingly he did what he\nwas ordered to do, but being displeased, he retired to Jerusalem and\nprepared to fight with Pompey.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 6:6-7:2b]\nBut Pompey gave him no time to make any preparations and followed at his\nheels. And Aristobulus was so frightened at his approach that he came and\nmet him as a suppliant. He also promised him money and to deliver up both\nhimself and the city. Yet he did not keep any one of his promises. At this\ntreatment Pompey was very angry and took Aristobulus into custody. And\nwhen he had entered the city he looked about to see where he might make\nhis attack, for he saw that the walls were so firm that it would be hard\nto overcome them and the valley before the walls was terrible and the\ntemple which was in that valley was itself surrounded by such a strong\nwall that if the city was taken the temple would be a second place of\nrefuge for the enemy. Inasmuch as Pompey deliberated a long time, a\nsedition arose among the people within the city. Aristobulus's party was\nwilling to fight to save their king, while the party of Hyrcanus was ready\nto open the gates to Pompey. Then Aristobulus's party was defeated and\nretired into the temple and cut off the communications between the temple\nand the city by breaking down the bridge which joined them together, and\nthey prepared to resist to the utmost.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 7:3]\nPompey himself filled up the ditch which was on the north side of the\ntemple and the entire valley also, the army being obliged to carry the\nmaterial for this purpose. Indeed, it was difficult to fill up that valley\nbecause of its great depth and especially as the Jews from their superior\nposition used all possible means to repel them. As soon as Pompey had\nfilled up the valley, he erected high towers upon the bank.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 7:4, 5]\nNow Pompey admired not only the other examples of the Jews' fortitude, but\nespecially that they did not at all intermit their religious services,\neven when they were surrounded with darts on all sides; for, as if the\ncity were in full peace, their daily sacrifices and purifications and all\ntheir religious rites were still carried out before God with the utmost\nexactness. Nor when the temple was taken and they were slain about the\naltar daily, did they cease from those things that are appointed by their\nlaw to be observed. For it was in the third month of the siege before the\nRomans could even with a great struggle overthrow one of the towers and\nget into the temple. The greater part of the Jews were slain by their\nown countrymen of the opposite faction and an innumerable multitude threw\nthemselves down from the walls. Of the Jews twelve thousand were slain,\nbut of the Romans very few, although a greater number were wounded.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 7:6a, b]\nBut there was nothing that affected the nation so much in the calamities\nwhich they then suffered as that their holy place, hitherto unseen, should\nbe laid open to strangers. For Pompey and those who were about him went\ninto the temple itself, where it was lawful for the high priest alone to\nenter, and saw what was deposited therein; but he commanded the ministers\nabout the temple to purify it and to perform their accustomed sacrifices.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. War, I, 7:7]\nMoreover he reappointed Hyrcanus high priest, by which he acted the part\nof a good general and reconciled the people to him rather by kindness than\nby terrorizing them. He took away from the nation all those cities that\nthey had formerly taken and reduced Judea to its own bounds. Then he made\nall the haste he could to go through Cilicia on his way to Rome, taking\nAristobulus and his two children along with him as captives. One of\nAristobulus's sons, Alexander, ran away on the journey, but the younger,\nAntigonus, with his sisters, was carried to Rome.\n\nI. The Character and Policy of Alexander Janneus. For the picture of the\ncharacter of Alexander Janneus we are chiefly dependent upon Josephus, and\nit is not clear how far this late Jewish historian was influenced by the\nprevailing prejudices against that ruler who figured as the arch enemy of\nthe Pharisees. The incidents recorded reveal, however, a most sinister\ncharacter. He was ambitious, but his ambitions were selfish and low.\nHe was energetic and tireless, but his energy was wasted in futile\nundertakings. Furthermore, he was unscrupulous, vindictive, and merciless.\nThere is not the slightest indication that he was actuated by any worthy\nideal of service. To the Jewish state and race it was a great calamity\nthat a man of this type should gain control of the nation at the moment\nwhen it had attained its greatest material strength. Under the kindly and\nwise guidance of Simon the subsequent history of the Jewish state would\ndoubtless have been far different. Janneus's first aim was to establish\nhis power as an absolute despot. He ardently accepted the ideal of an\nOriental ruler that had been imposed upon the Jews during the short reign\nof his brother Aristobulus. In realizing this ambition he met, as did\nevery other king in Israel's history, the strong opposition of the people\nand a bold assertion of their inherited liberties. His second aim was to\nbreak completely the power of the Pharisees. They were the party of the\npeople and had no sympathy with his policies. In them, therefore, he\nrecognized his chief opponents. His third ambition was to extend the\nterritory of the Jewish state to its farthest natural bounds. Soon after\nthe beginning of his reign he succeeded in arousing the bitter hostility\nof the Greek cities on his eastern and western borders, of the reigning\nkings of Egypt, and of the rising Arabian power to the south of the Dead\nSea. The objects for which he strove were comparatively petty: possession\nof the cities of Ptolemais and Gaza and of certain east-Jordan cities,\nsuch as Gadara and Amathus. He was more often defeated than victorious,\nbut his love of struggle and adventure and lust for conquest ever goaded\nhim on. In desperation his subjects even ventured to call in Demetrius,\nthe governor of Damascus, but when Alexander was driven away in defeat the\nnation's gratitude and loyalty to the Maccabean house reasserted itself\nand he was recalled. Instead of granting a general armistice and thus\nconciliating his distracted people, he treacherously used his new-won\npower to crucify publicly eight hundred of the Pharisees. Horror and fear\nseized the survivors, so that, according to Josephus, eight thousand of\nthem fled into exile. After six years of civil war and the loss of fifty\nthousand lives, Alexander Janneus finally realized his first ambition and\nbecame absolute master of his kingdom. In achieving his ambitions,\nhowever, he well earned the title by which his contemporaries described\nhim, \"the Son of a Thracian,\" that is, Barbarian.\n\nII. The Effects of His Rule. The disastrous effects of the reign of\nAlexander Janneus may be briefly recapitulated. They were: (1) the\ndestruction of the loyalty of the majority of the Jews to the Maccabean\nhouse; (2) the intensifying of the opposition between Pharisees and\nSadducees to the point of murderous hate; (3) the extension of the sphere\nof Jewish influence from the Mediterranean on the west to the desert on\nthe east, and from the Lebanons to the southern desert; but (4) the\ndraining of the life-blood and energies of the Jewish kingdom, so that it\nwas far weaker and more disorganized than when Janneus came to the throne.\n\nIII. Alexandra's Reign (78-69 B.C.). Alexandra was the second queen who\nreigned in Israel's history. Her policy, unlike that of Athaliah of old,\nwas on the whole constructive. Although she was the wife of Janneus, she\nreversed his policy, and placed the Pharisees in control. The return of\nthe exiles and the restoration of the prophetic party promised peace and\nprosperity. The ancient law was expanded and rigorously enforced.\nAccording to the Talmud it was during this period that elementary schools\nwere introduced in connection with each synagogue. Their exact nature is\nnot known, but it is probable that the law was the subject studied and\nthat the scribes were the teachers. This change of policy was undoubtedly\nvery acceptable to the people, but the Pharisees made the grave mistake of\nusing their new power to be revenged upon the Sadducean nobles who had\nsupported the bloody policy of Alexander Janneus. They soon suffered the\nevil consequences of attempting to right wrong by wrong. The Sadducees\nfound in Aristobulus, the ambitious and energetic younger son of Janneus,\nan effective champion. Alexandra, in permitting them to take possession of\nthe many strongholds throughout the land, also committed a fatal error,\nfor it gave them control of the military resources of the kingdom.\nAristobulus was not slow in asserting his power, with the result that even\nbefore Alexandra died he had seized seventy-two of the fortresses and had\naroused a large part of the people to revolt. While her reign was on the\nwhole peaceful, it was but the lull before the great storm that swept over\nthe nation.\n\nIV. Quarrels between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. Unfortunately Alexandra's\nolder son, Hyrcanus, was indolent and inefficient. He had been appointed\nhigh priest and, when Aristobulus assumed the title of king, he compelled\nHyrcanus II to be content with this humbler title. Aristobulus's reign\nmight have been comparatively peaceful had not at this time a new and\nsinister influence appeared in the troubled politics of Palestine. It was\none of the results of John Hyrcanus's forcible judaizing of the Idumeans.\nAntipater, the son of the Idumean whom Alexander Janneus had made governor\nof Idumea, recognized in the rivalry between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus an\nopportunity to mount to power. He first persuaded Hyrcanus to flee to\nPetra. Then, with the aid of the Arabian king, Aretas, he finally\ncompelled Aristobulus and his followers to seek refuge on the temple hill\nin Jerusalem. The picture of the Jews divided into two hostile camps and\nengaged in bitter civil war in the very precincts of the temple under the\nleadership of the great-grandsons of the patriotic Simon presents a sad\ncontrast to the noble spirit and valiant achievements of the founders of\nthe Maccabean kingdom who had first taken up the sword in defence of the\ntemple and its service.\n\nV. Rome's Intervention. This situation gave Rome its desired opportunity\nfor intervention. Pompey in 70 B.C. made a successful campaign against\nMithridates, king of Pontus, and against Tigranes, king of Armenia. Rome's\npolicy was to conquer all of southwestern Asia as far as the Euphrates.\nIgnoring the peril of the situation, both Aristobulus and Hyrcanus\nappealed to Pompey's lieutenant, Scaurus. As a result the Arabians were\nordered to withdraw, and Aristobulus for a brief time was left master of\nthe situation. In the spring of 63 B.C., however, when Pompey came to\nDamascus, there appeared before him three embassies, one representing the\ncause of Aristobulus, another that of Hyrcanus, and still a third\npresented the request of the Pharisees that Rome assume political control\nof Palestine and leave them free to devote themselves to the study and\napplication of the their law. The fall of Aristobulus hastened what was\nnow inevitable. Although he was held a prisoner by Pompey, his followers\nremained intrenched on the temple hill and were conquered only after a\nprotracted siege and the loss of many lives. Aristobulus and his family\nwere carried off captives to Rome to grace Pompey's triumph, and the\nrequest of the Pharisees was granted: Rome henceforth held Palestine under\nits direct control. Thus after a little more than a century (165-63 B.C.)\nthe Jews again lost their independence, and the Maccabean kingdom became\nonly a memory, never to be revived save for a brief moment.\n\nVI. Causes of the Fall of the Jewish Kingdom. The Jewish kingdom fell as\nthe result of causes which can be clearly recognized. It was primarily\nbecause the ideals and ambitions of the Maccabean leaders themselves\nbecame material and selfish. They proved unable to resist the temptations\nof success. Greed for power quenched their early patriotism. The material\nspirit of their age obscured the nobler ideals of their spiritual\nteachers. The result was a tyranny and corruption that made the later\nkings misleaders rather than true leaders of their nation. Parallel to the\nbitter struggle between the kings and their subjects was the bitter feud\nbetween the Sadducees and the Pharisees. Normal party rivalry grew into\nmurderous hatred, and in taking revenge upon each other they brought ruin\nupon the commonwealth. The final end was hastened by the suicidal\nfeud between the brothers Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, fomented by the\nunprincipled machinations of the Idumean Antipater. In the final crisis\nthe Pharisaic policy of submission and of peace at any cost paved the way\nfor the realization of Rome's ambition and made the ultimate conquest of\nPalestine practically inevitable. Thus the kingdom, founded in the face of\nalmost insuperable obstacles and consecrated with the life-blood of many\nheroes, fell ignominiously as the result of the same causes that\nthroughout the ages have proved the ruin of even stronger empires.\n\nVII. Political, Intellectual, and Religious Effects of the Maccabean\nStruggle. This century of valiant achievement, colossal errors, and\noverwhelming failure left its deep impression upon the Jewish race. It\nwitnessed the return of many Jews of the dispersion to Jerusalem and Judea\nand the development of a strong sense of racial unity. Henceforth the Jews\nthroughout the world looked to Jerusalem as their true political and\nreligious capital. The events of this period intensified the ancient feud\nbetween Jew and Samaritan and gave the latter ample reason for that\nhostility toward their southern kinsmen which appears in the Gospel\nnarratives. It was during this age that the parties of the Pharisees and\nSadducees finally crystallized and formulated those tenets and policies\nwhich guided them during the next century. At this time the foundations\nwere laid for the rule of the house of Herod which exerted such a baleful\ninfluence upon the fortunes and destinies of the Jews. It likewise marked\nthe beginning and culmination of Rome's influence over the lands of the\neastern Mediterranean and that subjection of the Jews to Gentile rulers\nwhich has continued until the present.\n\nThe Maccabean period gave to the Jews a greatly enlarged intellectual\nvision and led them to adopt many of the ideas of their Greek conquerors.\nIn their literature it is easy to recognize the influence of the more\nlogical Greek methods of reasoning and of the scientific attitude toward\nthe universe. It was during this period that the wise were transformed\ninto scribes, and the rule of the scribal method of thinking and\ninterpretation began. The struggles through which the Jews passed\nintensified their love for the law and the temple services. Duty was\nmore and more defined in the terms of ceremonial, and the Pharisees\nentered upon that vast and impossible task of providing rules for man's\nevery act. Out of the struggles of the Maccabean period came that fusion\nof Hellenic and Jewish ideas that has become an important factor in all\nhuman thought. At last under the influence of the great crises through\nwhich they had passed, the belief in individual immortality gained wide\nacceptance among the Jews. Side by side with this came the belief in a\npersonal devil and a hierarchy of demons opposed to the divine hierarchy\nat whose head was Jehovah. Last of all the taste of freedom under a Jewish\nruler brought again to the front the kingly messianic hopes of the race,\nand led them to long and struggle for their realization. Thus in this\nbrief century Judaism attained in many ways its final form, and only in\nthe light of this process is it possible fully to understand and\nappreciate the background of the New Testament history.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTHE RULE OF ROME\n\nSection CXVII. THE RISE OF THE HERODIAN HOUSE\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 8:2]\nNow Alexander, that son of Aristobulus who ran away from Pompey, after a\ntime gathered together a considerable body of men and made a strong attack\nupon Hyrcanus, and overran Judea, and was on the point of dethroning him.\nAnd indeed he would have come to Jerusalem, and would have ventured to\nrebuild its wall that had been thrown down by Pompey, had not Gabinius,\nwho was sent as Scaurus's successor in Syria, showed his bravery by making\nan attack on Alexander. Alexander, being afraid at his approach, assembled\na larger army composed of ten thousand armed footmen and fifteen hundred\nhorsemen.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 8:4a, 5]\nNow when Gabinius came to Alexandrium, finding a great many encamped\nthere, he tried by promising them pardon for their former offences to\nattach them to him before it came to fighting; but when they would listen\nto nothing reasonable, he slew a great number of them and shut up the rest\nin the citadel. Therefore when Alexander despaired of ever obtaining the\nrulership, he sent ambassadors to Gabinius and besought him to pardon his\noffences. He also surrendered to him the remaining fortresses, Hyrcanium\nand Macherus. After this Gabinius brought Hyrcanus back to Jerusalem and\nput him in charge of the temple. He also divided the entire nation into\nfive districts, assigning one to Jerusalem, another to Gadara, another to\nAmathus, a fourth to Jericho, and the fifth to Sepphoris, a city of\nGalilee.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 8:6]\nNot long after Aristobulus became the cause of new disturbances by fleeing\nfrom Rome. He again assembled many of the Jews who were desirous of a\nchange and those who were devoted to him of old; and when he had taken\nAlexandrium in the first place, he attempted to build a wall about it. But\nthe Romans followed him, and when it came to battle, Aristobulus's party\nfor a long time fought bravely, but at last they were overcome by the\nRomans and of them five thousand fell. Aristobulus was again carried to\nRome by Gabinius.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 8:7]\nNow when Gabinius set out to make war against the Parthians, Antipater\nfurnished him with money and weapons and corn and auxiliaries, but during\nGabinius's absence the other parts of Syria were in insurrection, and\nAlexander, the son of Aristobulus, stirred the Jews again to revolt. But\nat the battle fought near Mount Tabor ten thousand of them were slain and\nthe rest of the multitude scattered in flight. So Gabinius came to\nJerusalem and settled the government as Antipater desired.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 8:8]\nNow this Antipater married a wife of an eminent family among the Arabians,\nwhose name was Cypros. And she bore him four sons, Phasaelus and Herod,\nwho was afterward king, and besides these Joseph and Pheroras. And he had\na daughter by the name of Salome.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 9:1]\nBut after the flight of Pompey and of the senate beyond Ionian Sea, Caesar\ngained possession of Rome and of the Empire and released Aristobulus from\nhis bonds. He also intrusted two legions to him and sent him in haste into\nSyria, hoping that by his efforts he would easily conquer that country\nand the territory adjoining Judea. But he was poisoned by Pompey's\nsympathizers.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 9:3a, c, 4a, c, 5a]\nNow after Pompey died, Antipater changed sides and cultivated a friendship\nwith Caesar. And when Mithridates of Pergamus with the force he led\nagainst Egypt was shut out from the roads about Pelusium and was forced to\nstay at Ascalon, Antipater persuaded the Arabians among whom he had lived\nto assist him and came himself at the head of three thousand armed Jews.\nHe also urged the men of power in Syria to come to his assistance. In the\nattack on Pelusium Antipater distinguished himself pre-eminently, for he\npulled down that part of the wall which was opposite him and leaped first\nof all into the city with the men who were about him. Thus was Pelusium\ntaken. Moreover, as he was marching on, those Jews who inhabited the\ndistrict called Onias stopped him, but Antipater not only persuaded them\nnot to hinder but also to supply provisions for their army. Thereupon in\nthe Delta Antipater fell upon those who pursued Mithridates and slew many\nof them and pursued the rest till he captured their camp, while he lost no\nmore than eighty of his own men. Thereupon Caesar encouraged Antipater to\nundertake other hazardous enterprises for him by giving him great\ncommendations and hopes of reward. In all these enterprises Antipater\nshowed himself a most venturesome warrior, and he had many wounds almost\nall over his body as proofs of his courage.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 9:5b]\nAnd when Caesar had settled the affairs of Egypt and returned again into\nSyria, he gave Antipater the rights of a Roman citizen and freedom from\ntaxes, and made him an object of admiration because of the other honors\nand marks of friendship that he bestowed upon him. It was on this account\nthat he also confirmed Hyrcanus in the high priesthood.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 10:1, 2a, 3a]\nIt was about this time that Antigonus, the son of Aristobulus, came to\nCaesar and became in a surprising manner the cause of Antipater's further\nadvance. For he proceeded to denounce Hyrcanus and Antipater. Then\nAntipater threw off his garments and showed the many wounds he had, and\nsaid that regarding his good will to Caesar it was not necessary for him\nto say a word because his body cried aloud, though he himself said\nnothing. When Caesar heard this he declared Hyrcanus to be most deserving\nof the high priesthood, and Antipater was appointed procurator of all\nJudea and also obtained permission to rebuild those walls of his country\nthat had been thrown down.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 10:4]\nAs soon as Antipater had conducted Caesar out of Syria, he returned to\nJudea, and the first thing he did was to rebuild the walls of his own\ncountry. Then he went over the country and quieted the tumults therein.\nAnd at this time he settled the affairs of the country by himself, because\nhe saw that Hyrcanus was inactive and not capable of managing the affairs\nof the kingdom. So Antipater appointed his oldest son, Phasaelus, governor\nof Jerusalem and the surrounding territory. He also sent his second son,\nHerod, who was very young, with equal authority into Galilee.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 10:5a, b]\nNow Herod was a very active man and soon found a field for his energy.\nWhen, therefore, he found that Hezekias, leader of the robbers, overran\nthe adjoining parts of Syria with a great band of men, he caught him and\nslew him and many more of the robbers. This exploit was especially\npleasing to the Syrians, so that songs were sung in Herod's commendation\nboth in the villages and in the cities, because he had secured peace for\nthem and had preserved their possessions.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 11:1, 4]\nAt this time a mighty war arose among the Romans after the treacherous\nmurder of Caesar by Cassius and Brutus. Accordingly Cassius came into\nSyria and assumed command of the army, and went about exacting tribute of\nthe cities to such a degree that they were not able to endure it. During\nthe war between Cassius and Brutus on the one side, against the younger\nCaesar (Augustus) and Antony on the other, Cassius and Murcus gathered an\narmy out of Syria. And because Herod had furnished a great part of the\nnecessities, they made him procurator of all Syria and gave him an army of\ninfantry and cavalry. Cassius promised him also that after the war was\nover he would make him king of Judea. But it so happened that the power\nand hopes of his son became the cause of Antipater's destruction. For\ninasmuch as a certain Malichus was afraid of this, he bribed one of the\nking's cup-bearers to give a poisoned potion to Antipater. Thus he became\na sacrifice to Malichus's wickedness and died after the feast.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 11:6, 12:3]\nHerod, however, avenged himself upon Malichus. And those who hitherto did\nnot favor him now joined him because of his marriage into the family of\nHyrcanus, for he had formerly married a wife from his own country of noble\nblood, Doris by name, who bore to him Antipater. Now he planned to marry\nMariamne, the daughter of Alexander, the son of Aristobulus and the\ngrandson of Hyrcanus.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 12:4, 5]\nBut when Caesar and Antony had slain Cassius near Philippi and Caesar had\ngone to Italy and Antony to Asia, the great men of the Jews came and\naccused Phasaelus and Herod that they held the government by force and\nthat Hyrcanus had nothing more than an honorable name. Herod appeared\nready to answer this accusation, and having made Antony his friend by the\nlarge sums of money which he gave him, influenced him not to listen to the\ncharges spoken against him by enemies. After this a hundred of the\nprincipal men among the Jews came to Antony at Daphne near Antioch and\naccused Phasaelus and Herod. But Massala opposed them and defended the\nbrothers with the help of Hyrcanus. When Antony had heard both sides, he\nasked Hyrcanus which party was best fitted to govern. Hyrcanus replied\nthat Herod and his party were the best fitted. Therefore Antony appointed\nthe brothers tetrarchs, and intrusted to them the rulership of Judea.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 13:1a, Jos. Ant. XIV, 13:10]\nNow two years after, when Barzaphanes, a Parthian governor, and Pacorus,\nthe king's son, had captured Syria, they were persuaded by the promise of\na thousand talents and five hundred women to bring back Antigonus to his\nkingdom and to turn Hyrcanus out of it. Thus Antigonus was brought back\ninto Judea by the king of the Parthians, and received Hyrcanus and\nPhasaelus as prisoners. Being afraid that Hyrcanus, who was under the guard\nof the Parthians, might have his kingdom restored to him by the multitude,\nAntigonus cut off his ears and thereby guarded against the possibility\nthat the high priesthood would ever come to him again, inasmuch as he was\nmaimed, and the law required that this dignity should belong to none but\nthose who had all their members intact. Phasaelus, perceiving that he was\nto be put to death, dashed his head against a great stone and thereby took\naway his own life.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 13:7, 8c, 14:1b, 2]\nHerod, however, went off by night, taking those nearest related to him. As\nsoon as the Parthians perceived it, they pursued after him, but when at\nevery assault he had slain a great many of them, he came to the stronghold\nof Masada, and there he left eight hundred of his men to guard the women,\nand provisions sufficient for a siege; but he himself hastened to Petra in\nArabia. He was not able, however, to find any friendship among the\nArabians, for their king sent to him and commanded him to turn back\nimmediately from the country. So when Herod found that the Arabians were\nhis enemies, he turned back to Egypt. And when he came to Pelusium, he\ncould not obtain passage from those who lay with the fleet. Therefore he\nbesought their captains to let him go with them. So out of respect for the\nfame and rank of the man they carried him to Alexandria. And when he came\nto the city, he was received with great splendor by Cleopatra, who hoped\nhe might be persuaded to be the commander of her forces in the expedition\nshe was about to undertake. But he rejected the queen's entreaty and\nsailed for Rome, where first of all he went to Antony and laid before him\nthe calamities that had overtaken himself and his family.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 14:4]\nThereupon Antony's pity was aroused because of the change that had come\nabout in Herod's affairs, so he then resolved to have him made king of the\nJews. Herod found Caesar even more ready than Antony because he recalled\nthe campaigns through which he had gone with Herod's father, Antipater,\nin Egypt, and his hospitable treatment and good will in all things.\nBesides he recognized the energy of Herod. Accordingly he called the\nsenate together. There Messala, and after him Atratinus, introduced Herod\nto them and gave a full account of his father's merits and of his own good\nwill to the Romans. Antony also came in and told them that it was to their\nadvantage in the Parthian war that Herod should be king. So they all gave\ntheir votes for it. And when the senate disbanded, Antony and Caesar went\nout with Herod between them. Antony also made a feast for Herod on the\nfirst day of his reign.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 15:3a,b, 4, 16:1]\nHerod then sailed from Italy and came to Ptolemais. And as soon as he had\nassembled a considerable army of foreigners and of his own countrymen, he\nmarched through Galilee against Antigonus. The number of his forces\nincreased each day as he went along, and all Galilee with few exceptions\njoined him. After this Herod took Joppa, and then he marched to Masada to\nfree his kinsmen. Then he marched to Jerusalem, where the soldiers who\nwere with the Roman general Silo joined his own, as did many from the city\nbecause they feared his power. Herod did not lie idle, but seized Idumea\nand held it with two thousand footmen and four hundred horsemen. He also\nremoved his mother and all his kinsmen, who had been at Masada, to\nSamaria. And when he had settled them securely, he marched to capture the\nremaining parts of Galilee, and to drive away the garrisons of Antigonus.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 17:1]\nIn the meantime Herod's fortunes in Judea were not in a favorable\ncondition. He had left his brother Joseph with full authority, but had\ncommanded him to make no attacks against Antigonus until his return. But\nas soon as Joseph heard that his brother was at a great distance, he\ndisregarded the command he had received and marched toward Jericho with\nfive cohorts. But when his enemies attacked him in the mountains and in a\nplace where it was difficult to pass, he was killed as he was fighting\nbravely in the battle, and all the Roman cohorts were destroyed.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 17:8, 9]\nNow near the end of winter Herod marched to Jerusalem and brought his army\nup to its wall. This was the third year after he had been made king at\nRome. So he pitched his camp before the temple, for on that side it might\nbe besieged and there Pompey had formerly captured the city. Accordingly\nhe divided the work among the army and laid waste the suburbs, and gave\norders to raise three mounds and to build towers upon these mounds. But he\nhimself went to Samaria to marry the daughter of Alexander, the son of\nAristobulus, who had been betrothed to him before. And when he was thus\nmarried, he came back to Jerusalem with a greater army.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 18:1, 2c, 4a]\nNow the multitude of the Jews who were in the city were divided into\nseveral factions. For the people that crowded about the temple, being the\nweaker party, became fanatical and raved wildly over the situation. But\nsome of the bolder men gathered together in companies, and began robbing\nin many different ways and especially plundering the provisions that were\nabout the city, so that no food was left over for the horses or the men.\nAfter a siege of five months some of Herod's chosen men ventured upon the\nwall and fell into the city. They first captured the environs of the\ntemple, and as the army poured in there was a slaughter of vast multitudes\neverywhere, on account of the rage in which the Romans were because of the\nlength of the siege, and because the Jews who were about Herod were eager\nthat none of their opponents should remain. Thereupon Herod made those who\nwere on his side still more his friends by the honors he conferred upon\nthem; but those of Antigonus's party he slew.\n\nI. The Fruitless Struggle against Rome. The first quarter century of\nRoman rule was in many ways the most complex in Israel's intricate\nhistory. There were three chief actors in the drama: (1) Rome, represented\nfirst by the leaders of the Republic and later by Pompey, Caesar, and\ntheir successors; (2) the popular Jewish party led by Aristobulus and his\nson Alexander, and Antigonus; and (3) Antipater, supported by his able\nsons Phasaelus and Herod. Rome's general policy was to allow the Jews as\nmuch freedom as possible, but above all to hold Palestine under firm\ncontrol, for it lay on the eastern border and faced Parthia, the one foe\nthat had successfully defied the powerful mistress of the Mediterranean.\nThe popular Jewish party bitterly resented Rome's interference. True, the\nPharisees welcomed the relief from civil war, but they could not hold the\nmajority of the people in leash. The inoffensive Hyrcanus was left in\npossession of the high-priesthood and from time to time was elevated to\npositions of nominal civil authority, but he was little more than the\nplaything of circumstance and party intrigue. The ambitions of Aristobulus\nand his sons kept Palestine in a state of constant political ferment.\nThree times in five years they stirred the Jews to rebellion against Rome.\nThe first rebellion was in 57 B.C. and was led by Alexander. He was\nultimately driven by the Roman general to Alexandria, the fortress that\noverlooks the middle-Jordan Valley, and was finally forced to surrender.\nThe three great fortresses, Alexandria, Machaerus, and Hyrcanium, were\nthrown down, and the Jewish state was divided into five districts. Each of\nthese was under a local council consisting of the leading citizens. These\nreported directly to the Roman proconsul. To neutralize still further\nthe Jewish national spirit, the Hellenic cities in and about Palestine\nwere restored, given a large measure of independence, and placed directly\nunder the control of Rome's representative in the East.\n\nThe second rebellion followed quickly and was led by Aristobulus. He was\nsoon obliged, however, to take refuge in the fortress of Machaerus, east\nof the Dead Sea, where he was captured and sent back again as a captive to\nRome. The third rebellion was led by Alexander. It was more formidable,\nand in the end more disastrous, for the Jews were signally defeated in a\nbattle near Mount Tabor. The only permanent results of these uprisings\nwere the intensifying of Jewish hatred of Roman rule and the increasing of\nRome's suspicion of this rebellious people. It was this suspicion that\nmade it possible for the high-priestly party at a later time to force the\nRoman governor Pilate to put to death one whom he recognized to be an\ninoffensive Galilean peasant simply because he was accused of having\nassumed the historic title, King of the Jews.\n\nII. Antipater's Policy. Through the troublesome first quarter-century\nof Roman rule Antipater and his family prospered because they were able at\nevery turn in the political fortunes of Syria to make themselves\nincreasingly useful to Rome. At many critical periods he was able to save\nthe Jews from calamity and to secure for them valuable privileges. There\nis a certain basis for Josephus's over-enthusiastic assertion that he was\n\"a man distinguished for his piety, justice, and love of his country\"\n(Jos. Ant. XIV, 11:4c).\n\nAlthough Hyrcanus was but a tool in Antipater's hands, he never attempted\nto depose him, and apparently always treated him with respect. To steer\nsuccessfully through the stormy period during which Rome made the\ntransition from the republican to the monarchical form of government was\na difficult task. When Crassus came as the representative of the First\nTriumvirate, Antipater's gifts and tact were not sufficient to prevent the\nRoman from plundering the treasures of the temple.\n\nFortunately for the peace of Judea, during the civil war that followed\nbetween Pompey and Caesar, the deposed Jewish king Aristobulus and his son\nAlexander were both put to death. After the decisive battle of Pharsalia\nin 48 B.C. Antipater quickly espoused the cause of Caesar, and performed\nvaluable services for him at a time when the great Roman was threatened by\noverwhelming forces. By his influence with the people of Syria and Egypt\nand by his personal acts of bravery he won the favors that Caesar heaped\nupon him and upon the Jewish people. The old territorial division\ninstituted by Gabinius was abolished, Hyrcanus was confirmed in the\nhigh-priesthood, and Antipater was made procurator of Judea. Joppa was\nrestored to the Jewish state, the gerusia, the chief assembly of the Jews,\nwas given certain of its old judicial rights, and permission was granted\nto rebuild the wall of Jerusalem. The Jews were also freed from the duty\nof supporting Roman soldiers and of serving the Roman legions. The tribute\nwas also in part remitted on the sabbatical year, and the Jews of\nPalestine and throughout the Roman Empire were confirmed in their\nreligious privileges. Thus Caesar proved himself a friend of the Jews and\nestablished precedents to which they frequently appealed in later crises.\n\nIII. Herod's Early Record. Among the many rewards conferred upon\nAntipater was the appointment of his son Phasaelus as governor of\nJerusalem and his younger son Herod as governor of Galilee. Thus while\nstill a young man Herod was given an opportunity to demonstrate his\nability and energy. He at once took measures to put down the robber bands\nthat infested Galilee, and executed their leader, Hezekias. He won thereby\nthe gratitude of the Galileans and the approval of Rome. Hyrcanus and the\nsanhedrin at Jerusalem, however, viewed this assumption of authority with\nsuspicion and alarm. When Herod was summoned before them, he appeared in\nfull military armor and was accompanied by a military following. Provoked\nby his boldness, the sanhedrin would have sentenced him to death had not\nthe local Roman governor interfered. The action of the sanhedrin aroused\nHerod's spirit of revenge, and before long, gathering his forces, he\nmarched against Jerusalem and would have put to death the Jewish leaders\nhad not his father dissuaded him.\n\nThe assassination of Caesar in 44 B.C., followed by the battle of Philippi\nin 42, changed the political horizon of Palestine. Antipater and his sons,\nhowever, following their usual policy, pledged in succession their loyalty\nto Cassius and Antony, with the result that greater honors were conferred\nupon them. It was at this crisis that Malichus, a certain Jewish noble,\ninspired by jealousy and suspicion, treacherously murdered his rival,\nAntipater. Herod retaliated by instigating the assassination of the\nmurderer, but soon a series of calamities swept over Judea which\nthreatened to obliterate completely the house of Antipater.\n\nIV. The Parthian Conquest. During the struggle between Antony and the\nassassins of Julius Caesar Rome's eastern outposts were left exposed.\nTheir old foes, the Parthians, improved this opportunity to seize northern\nSyria. Encouraged by the presence of the Parthians, Antigonus, the younger\nson of Aristobulus, in 41 B.C. entered Palestine. With the aid of the\nParthians and of the Jews who were opposed to Herod he ultimately\nsucceeded in establishing himself as king. Antipater and Herod's brother\nPhasaelus became the victims of the Parthian treachery, and Herod after\nmany adventures succeeded in escaping with his family to the strong\nfortress of Masada at the southwestern end of the Dead Sea. Leaving them\nunder the care of his brother Joseph, Herod after many discouragements and\nvicissitudes finally found his way to Rome. Unfortunately for the cause of\nJewish independence, Antigonus lacked the essential qualities of\nleadership. Instead of arousing the loyalty of his subjects his chief\nconcern was to take vengeance upon Herod's followers and upon all who had\nsupported the house of Antipater.\n\nV. Herod Made King of the Jews. Herod went to Rome to urge the\nappointment of Aristobulus III, the grandson of Hyrcanus and the brother\nof Herod's betrothed wife Mariamne, as king of Judea. Antony and Octavian,\nto whom he appealed, were rightly suspicious of the survivors of the\nMaccabean house and appreciative of the services of Herod and his father\nAntipater. Therefore, to his complete surprise, they offered him the\nkingship, and their nomination was speedily confirmed by the senate.\nHistory presents no stranger nor more dramatic sight than Herod, the\nIdumean, accompanied by Antony and Octavian, going to the temple of\nJupiter on the Capitoline Hill to offer sacrifices in connection with his\nassumption of the historic title, King of the Jews. At first it was an\nempty title, but the energy of Herod and the resources of Rome sufficed in\ntime to make it real. In the spring of 39 B.C. Herod landed at Ptolemais\nand with the apathetic aid of the Roman generals in Palestine began to\norganize the Jews who rallied about him. Marching down the Mediterranean\ncoast, he succeeded at last in relieving his family, who were besieged at\nMasada. Idumea and Galilee were then brought into subjection, and after\ntwo years of fighting he won an important battle at Isana, a little north\nof Bethel, which gave him possession of all of Judea except Jerusalem. The\nfinal contest for the capital city continued through several months, for\nAntigonus and his followers realized that they could expect little mercy\nfrom Herod and the Romans. Thousands of Jews were slaughtered, but at last\nthe temple itself was captured, and Herod was in fact as well as in name\nKing of the Jews. Antigonus pled in vain for mercy. Departing from their\nusual policy of clemency toward native rulers, the Romans caused him first\nto be scourged as a common criminal and then ignominiously beheaded. Thus\nthe Maccabean dynasty, which had risen in glory, went down in shame, a\nsignal illustration of the eternal principle that selfish ambitions and\nunrestrained passions in an individual or family sooner or later bring\ndisgrace and destruction. While the siege of Jerusalem was still\nin progress, Herod went north to Samaria and there consummated his\nlong-delayed marriage with Mariamne, the daughter of Hyrcanus, thus in\npart attracting to himself the loyalty which the Jews had bestowed so\nlavishly and disastrously upon the unworthy sons of Alexander Janneus.\n\n\n\nSection CXVIII. HEROD'S POLICY AND REIGN\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 19:1, 2a]\nNow when the war about Actium broke out, Herod prepared to come to the\nassistance of Antony, but he was treacherously hindered from sharing the\ndangers of Antony by Cleopatra, for she persuaded Antony to intrust the\nwar against the Arabians to Herod. This plan, however, proved of advantage\nto Herod, for he defeated the army of the Arabians, although it offered\nhim strong resistance.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 20:1]\nNow Herod was immediately concerned about his entire fortunes because of\nhis friendship with Antony, who had been defeated at Actium by Caesar\n[Augustus]. Herod, however, resolved to face the danger: so he sailed to\nRhodes where Caesar was then staying, and came to him without his diadem\nand in the dress and guise of a private person, but in the spirit of a\nking. And he concealed nothing of the truth, but spoke straight out as\nfollows: \"O Caesar, I was made king of the Jews by Antony. I confess that\nI have been useful to him, nor will I conceal this added fact, that you\nwould certainly have found me in arms, and so showing my gratitude to him,\nhad not the Arabians hindered me. I have been overcome with Antony, and\nsharing the same fortune as his, I have laid aside my diadem. Now I have\ncome to you fixing my hopes of safety upon your virtue, and I ask that\nyou will consider how faithful a friend, and not whose friend, I have\nbeen.\"\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 20:2]\nCaesar answered him as follows: \"Nay, you shall not only be safe, but you\nshall reign more firmly than before, for you are worthy to reign over many\nsubjects because of the steadfastness of your friendship. Endeavor to be\nequally constant in your friendship to me in the hour of my success, since\nI have the brightest hopes because of your noble spirit. I therefore\nassure you that I will confirm the kingdom to you by decree. I will also\nendeavor to do you some further kindness hereafter, that you may not miss\nAntony.\"\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 20:3b-4a]\nAfter this, when Caesar went to Egypt through Syria, Herod received him\nlavishly and royally. It was, therefore, the opinion both of Caesar and\nhis soldiers that Herod's kingdom was too small a return for what he had\ndone. For this reason, when Caesar had returned from Egypt, he added to\nHerod's other honors, and also made an addition to his kingdom by giving\nhim not only the country which had been taken from him by Cleopatra, but\nalso Gadara, Hippos, and Samaria, and also the coast cities Gaza,\nAnthedon, Joppa, and Straton's Tower. He also made him a present of four\nhundred Gauls as a body-guard, which had before belonged to Cleopatra.\nMoreover he added to his kingdom Trachonitis and the adjacent Batanea, and\nthe district of Auranitis.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 21:13]\nNow Herod had a body suited to his soul and was ever a most excellent\nhunter, in which sport he generally had great success owing to his skill\nin riding, for in one day he once captured forty wild beasts. He was also\na warrior such as could not be withstood. Many also marvelled at his skill\nin his exercises when they saw him throwing the javelin and shooting the\narrow straight to the mark. In addition to these advantages of mind and\nbody, fortune was also very favorable to him, for he seldom failed in war,\nand when he failed, he was not himself the cause, but it happened either\nthrough the treachery of some one or else through the rashness of his own\nsoldiers.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 21:1b, 4a]\nHerod also built for himself at Jerusalem in the upper city a palace,\nwhich contained two very large and most beautiful apartments to which not\neven the temple could be compared. One apartment he named Caesareum and\nthe other Agrippeum [after his friends Caesar Augustus and Agrippa]. But\nhe did not preserve their memory by particular buildings only and the\nnames given them, but his generosity also went as far as entire cities.\nFor when he had built a most beautiful wall over two miles long about a\ncity in the district of Samaria and had brought six thousand inhabitants\ninto it and had allotted to them a most fertile territory and in the midst\nof this city had erected a large temple to Augustus, he called the city\nSebaste [from Sebastus, the Greek of Augustus]. And when Augustus had\nbestowed upon him additional territory, he built there also a temple of\nwhite marble in his honor near the fountains of the Jordan. The place is\ncalled Panium. The king erected other buildings at Jericho and named them\nafter the same friends. In general there was not any place in his kingdom\nsuited to the purpose that was allowed to remain without something in\nAugustus's honor.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 21:6a-8a]\nAnd when he observed that there was a city by the seaside that was much\ndecayed, called Straton's Tower, and that the place, because of its fair\nsituation, was capable of great improvements, through his love of honor he\nrebuilt it all of white stone and adorned it with magnificent palaces and\nin it showed his natural munificence. For all the seashore between Dora\nand Egypt (between which places the city is situated) had no good harbor,\nso that every one who sailed to Phoenicia from Egypt was obliged to toss\nabout in the sea because of the south wind that threatened them. But the\nking by great expense and liberality overcame nature and built a harbor\nlarger than was the Piraeus, and in its recesses built other deep\nroadsteads. He let down stones into one hundred and twenty-one feet of\nwater. And when the part below the sea was filled up, he extended the wall\nwhich was already above the sea until it was two hundred feet long. The\nentrance to the harbor was on the north, because the north wind was there\nthe most gentle of all the winds. At the mouth of the harbor on each side\nwere three colossi supported by pillars. And the houses, also built of\nwhite stone, were close to the harbor, and the narrow streets of the city\nled down to it, being built at equal distances from one another. And\nopposite the entrance of the harbor upon an elevation was the temple of\nCaesar Augustus, excellent both for beauty and size, and in it was a\ncolossal statue of Caesar Augustus as big as the Olympian Zeus, which it\nwas made to resemble, and a statue of Rome as big at that of Hera at\nArgos. And he dedicated the city to the province, and the harbor to those\nwho sailed there. But the honor of founding the city he ascribed to Caesar\nAugustus and accordingly called it Caesarea. He also built other edifices,\nthe amphitheater, the theater, and market-place in a manner worthy of that\nname.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 21:9a-10a]\nHerod was also a lover of his father, for he built as a memorial of his\nfather a city in the finest plain that was in his kingdom [the lower\nJordan valley], which had rivers and trees in abundance, and called it\nAntipatris. He also fortified a citadel that lay above Jericho and was\nvery strong and handsome, and dedicated it to his mother, and called it\nCypros. Moreover, he dedicated a tower at Jerusalem to his brother\nPhasaelus. He also built another city in the valley which leads north from\nJericho and named it Phasaelis. As a memorial for himself he built a\nfortress upon a mountain toward Arabia and called it after himself\nHerodium.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 21:11a]\nAnd when he had built so much, he showed the greatness of his soul to many\nforeign cities. He built gymnasiums at Tripolis, Damascus, and Ptolemais.\nHe built a wall around Byblus, and arcades, colonnades, temples, and\nmarket-places at Berytus and Tyre, and theaters at Sidon and Damascus. He\nalso built an aqueduct for those Laodiceans, who lived by the seaside; and\nfor the inhabitants of Ascalon he built baths and costly fountains, as\nalso encircling colonnades that were admirable for their workmanship and\nsize.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 22:1a, c-2b]\nHerod, however, began to be unhappy on account of his wife, of whom he was\nvery fond. For when he attained the kingship, he divorced her whom he had\nmarried when he was a private person, a native of Jerusalem by the name of\nDoris, and married Mariamne, the daughter of Alexander, the son of\nAristobulus. Because of Mariamne disturbances arose in his family, and\nthat very soon, but chiefly after his return from Rome. For the sake of\nhis sons by Mariamne he banished Antipater, the son of Doris. After this\nhe slew his wife's grandfather, Hyrcanus, when he returned to him out of\nParthia, on suspicion of plotting against him. Now of the five children\nwhich Herod had by Mariamne two of them were daughters and three were\nsons. The youngest of these sons died while he was being educated at Rome,\nbut the two elder sons he treated as princes because of their mother's\nhonorable rank and because they had been born after he became king. But\nwhat was stronger than all this was the love he bore to Mariamne.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 22:2c-4]\nBut Mariamne's hatred toward him was as great as his love for her. She,\nindeed, had a just cause for indignation for what he had done, while her\nfreedom of speech was the result of his affection for her. So she openly\nreproached him for what he had done to her grandfather Hyrcanus and to her\nbrother Aristobulus. For he had not spared this Aristobulus, though he was\nbut a lad, for after he had given him the high priesthood at the age of\nseventeen, Herod caused him to be slain immediately after he had conferred\nthat honor upon him; for when Aristobulus had put on the holy garments and\nhad approached to the altar at a festival, the assembled multitude wept\nfor joy. Thereupon the lad was sent by night to Jericho, and there in a\nswimming-pool at Herod's command was held under water by the Gauls until\nhe was drowned. For these reasons Mariamne reproached Herod, and railed at\nhis sister and his mother most abusively. He was dumb on account of his\naffection for her, but the women were vexed exceedingly at her and charged\nher with being false to him, for they thought that this would be most\nlikely to arouse Herod's anger. When, therefore, he was about to take a\njourney abroad, he intrusted his wife to Joseph, his sister Salome's\nhusband. He also gave him a secret injunction that, if Antony should slay\nhim [Herod], Joseph should slay Mariamne. But Joseph without any evil\nintention and in order to demonstrate the king's love for his wife\ndisclosed this secret to her. And when Herod came back, and when they\ntalked together, he confirmed his love to her by many oaths and assured\nher that he had never loved any other woman as he had her. \"To be sure,\"\nsaid she, \"you proved your love to me by the injunctions you gave Joseph\nwhen you commanded him to kill me!\" When Herod heard that this secret was\ndiscovered, he was like a distracted man, and said that Joseph would never\nhave disclosed his injunction unless he had seduced her. Made insane by\nhis passion and leaping out of bed, he ran about the palace in a wild\nmanner. Meantime his sister Salome improved the opportunity for false\naccusations and to confirm the suspicion about Joseph. So in his\nungovernable jealousy and rage Herod commanded both of them to be slain\nimmediately. But as soon as his passion was over, he repented for what he\nhad done; and indeed his passionate desire for Mariamne was so ardent that\nhe could not think that she was dead, but in his distress he talked to her\nas if she were still alive.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 23:1a, d, 2a, c-3a]\nNow Mariamne's sons inherited their mother's hate; and when they\nconsidered the greatness of Herod's crime toward her, they were as\nsuspicious of their father as of an enemy. This state of theirs increased\nas they grew to be men. And when Herod had been poisoned with calumnies\nagainst them, he recalled Antipater, his son by Doris, from exile as a\ndefence against his other sons, and began to treat him in every way with\nmore distinction than them. But these sons were not able to bear this\nchange, for when they saw Antipater, who was the son of a private woman,\nadvanced, the nobility of their own birth made them unable to restrain\ntheir indignation. For Antipater was already publicly named in his\nfather's will as his successor. The two weapons which he employed against\nhis brothers were flattery and calumny, whereby he brought matters\nprivately to such a point that the king thought of putting his sons to\ndeath. So Herod dragged Alexander with him as far as Rome and charged him\nbefore Augustus with attempting to poison him, but Alexander very ably\ncleared himself of the calumnies laid against him and brought Augustus to\nthe point of rejecting the accusation and of reconciling Herod to his sons\nat once. After this the king returned from Rome and seemed to have\nacquitted his sons of these charges, but still he was not without some\nsuspicion of them, for Antipater, who was the cause of the hatred,\naccompanied them. But he did not openly show his enmity toward them, for\nhe stood in awe of the one who had reconciled them. But the dissensions\nbetween the brothers still accompanied them, and the suspicions they had\nof one another grew worse.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 24:1a, 27:1, 2a, 6b]\nAlexander and Aristobulus were much vexed that the privilege of the\nfirst-born was confirmed to Antipater, and Antipater was very angry\nbecause his brothers were to succeed him. Moreover, Salome incited Herod's\ncruelty against his sons, for Aristobulus was desirous of bringing her who\nwas his mother-in-law and aunt into the same dangers as himself. So he\nsent to her to advise her to save herself, and told her that the king was\npreparing to put her to death. Then Salome came running to the king and\ninformed him of the warning. Thereupon Herod could restrain himself no\nlonger, but caused both of his sons to be bound, and kept them apart from\none another, and speedily sent to Augustus written charges against them.\nAugustus was greatly troubled in regard to the young men, but he did not\nthink he ought to take from a father the power over his sons. So he wrote\nback to him, and gave him full authority over his sons, and said he would\ndo well to make an examination of the plot by means of a common council\nconsisting of his own kinsmen and the governors of his province, and if\nhis sons were found guilty to put them to death. With these directions\nHerod complied. Then he sent his sons to Sebaste and ordered them there to\nbe strangled, and his orders being executed immediately, he commanded\ntheir bodies to be brought to the fortress of Alexandrium.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 28:1a, 29:2c]\nBut an unconquerable hatred against Antipater rose up in the nation now\nthat he had an indisputable title to the succession, because they well\nknew that he was the person who had contrived all the calumnies against\nhis brothers. Later he secured permission by means of his Italian friends\nto go and live at Rome. For when they wrote that it was proper for\nAntipater to be sent to Augustus after some time, Herod made no delay but\nsent him with a splendid retinue and a large amount of money, and gave him\nhis testament to carry in which Antipater was inscribed as king.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 30:5a, 31:1a]\nAnd after the death of Herod's brother Pheroras, the king devoted himself\nto examining his son Antipater's steward; and upon torturing him he\nlearned that Antipater had sent for a potion of deadly poison for him from\nEgypt, and that the uncle of Antipater had received it from him and\ndelivered it to Pheroras, for Antipater had charged him to destroy his\nfather the king, while [Antipater] was at Rome, and so free him from the\nsuspicion of doing it himself. Antipater's freedman was also brought to\ntrial, and he was the concluding proof of Antipater's designs. This man\ncame and brought another deadly potion of the poison of asps and of other\nserpents, that if the first potion did not accomplish its end, Pheroras\nand his wife might be armed with this also against the king.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Jew. War, I, 33:1, 7, 8a]\nNow Herod's illness became more and more severe because his various\nailments attacked him in his old age and when he was in a melancholy\nstate, for he was already almost seventy years of age and was depressed by\nthe calamities that had happened to him in connection with his children,\nso that he had no pleasure in life even when he was in health. The fact\nthat Antipater was still alive aggravated his disease, and he preferred to\ndestroy him, not incidentally but by crushing him completely. When letters\ncame from his ambassadors at Rome containing the information that\nAntipater was condemned to death, Herod for a little while was restored to\ncheerfulness; but presently being overcome by his pains, he endeavored to\nanticipate destiny, and this because he was weakened by want of food and\nby a convulsive cough. Accordingly he took an apple and asked for a knife,\nfor he used to pare his apples before eating them. He then looked around\nto see that there was no one to hinder him and lifted up his right hand as\nif to stab himself. But Achiabus, his cousin, ran up to him and, holding\nhis hand, hindered him from so doing. Immediately a great lamentation was\nraised in the palace, as if the king was dying, and as soon as Antipater\nheard that, he took courage and with joy in his looks besought his keepers\nfor a sum of money to loose him and let him go. But the head keeper of the\nprison not only prevented that but also ran and told the king what his\ndesign was. Thereupon the king cried louder than his disease could well\nbear, and immediately sent some of his body-guards and had Antipater\nslain. He also gave orders to have him buried at Hyrcanium, and altered\nhis testament again and therein made Archelaus, his eldest son, and the\nbrother of Antipas, his successor, and made Antipas tetrarch. Herod, after\nsurviving the death of his son only five days, died, having reigned\nthirty-four years, since he had obtained control of affairs; but it was\nthirty-seven years since he had been made king by the Romans.\n\nI. Herod's Character. The character of Herod is comparatively easy to\nunderstand, for it is elemental and one that constantly recurs in history.\nWe in America are familiar with this type which is represented by our\nunscrupulous captains of industry or political bosses--energetic,\nphysically strong, shrewd, relentless toward all who threaten to thwart\ntheir plans, skilful in organization, not troubled about the rightness of\ntheir methods, provided they escape the toils of the law, able to command\nmen and successfully to carry through large policies. They are not without\ntheir personal attractions, for it is instinctive to admire that which is\nbig and able to achieve. Many of them also make permanent contributions to\nthe upbuilding of the nation. Oriental history is also full of analogies:\nNebuchadrezzar, Cyrus, Alexander, and in more recent times Mohammed Ali of\nEgypt. Herod was largely the product of his inheritance and training. His\nfather, Antipater, had taught him to regard the Jews with secret but\nwell-concealed contempt, and to hate Aristobulus and his ambitious sons.\nHis religion was loyalty to Rome, for this meant wealth and success. He\ndelighted in public approval, and his ambition was to be known as a great\nbuilder. As is true with this type of man, he was a natural tyrant. Power\nwas his ruling passion, and he regarded with extreme suspicion any who\nmight take it from him. In this respect the contemporary rulers of the\nRoman Empire set an example which he was not slow to follow. His Idumean\nand Arabian blood coursed hot and fierce through his veins. It was an age\nwhen moral standards were exceedingly low, and Herod never learned to rule\nhis passions. The Oriental institution of the harem gave him full license,\nand he lived and loved as he fought and reigned--vehemently. Such a man is\nespecially susceptible to the weaknesses and crimes that come from\njealousy, and the influences of his family and court intensified these\nfatal faults.\n\nHerod is not without his attractive qualities. A man who is able to\nexecute on a large scale and win the title Great is never commonplace.\nIn giving Palestine the benefits of a strong and stable government he\nperformed a real service. In his love for Mariamne and for the sons she\nbore him he was mastered by a passion that for a time ennobled him.\nLike every man, moreover, who fails to taste the joys of disinterested\nservice for his fellow-men, Herod paid the bitter penalty for his own\nunrestrained selfishness. He awakes pity rather than denunciation. He\nnever found life, because he never learned to lose his life in the service\nof his people.\n\nII. His Attitude toward Rome. Herod's policy was loyalty at any cost to\nthe man who at the moment ruled Rome. During the first part of his reign\nAntony's power on the eastern Mediterranean was still in the ascendancy.\nNotwithstanding the powerful intrigues of Cleopatra, Herod succeeded in\nretaining the favor of his patron. When the battle of Actium in 32 B.C.\nrevealed Antony's weakness, Herod forthwith cast off his allegiance, and\nhis treachery was one of the chief forces that drove Antony to suicide.\nOctavian, who henceforth under the title of Augustus attained to the\ncomplete control of Rome, recognized in Herod a valuable servant. Herod's\ntitle as king of the Jews was confirmed, and Augustus gradually increased\nhis territory until it included practically all of Palestine with the\nexception of certain Greek cities along the coast and east of the Jordan.\nHerod's task was to preserve peace in the land thus intrusted to him and\nto guard the eastern border of the empire against its Parthian foes. This\ntask he faithfully performed.\n\nIII. His Building Activity. The spirit and policy of Augustus were\nclearly reflected in Herod's court and kingdom. When his position was\nfirmly established, Herod devoted himself to magnificent building\nenterprises. In Antioch, Athens, and Rhodes, he reared great public\nbuildings. Jerusalem, his capital, was provided with a theatre and\namphitheatre, and other buildings that characterize the Graeco-Roman\ncities of the period. The two crowning achievements of Herod's reign were\nthe rebuilding of Samaria and Caesarea, as its port on the Mediterranean\ncoast. Both of these cities were renamed in honor of his patron Augustus.\nOn the acropolis of Samaria he built a huge Roman temple, the foundations\nof which have recently been uncovered by the American excavators. The city\nitself was encircled by a colonnade, over a mile long, consisting of\npillars sixteen feet in height. Caesarea, like Samaria, was adorned with\nmagnificent public buildings, including a temple, a theatre, a palace, and\nan amphitheatre. The great breakwater two hundred feet wide that ran out\ninto the open sea was one of the greatest achievements of that building\nage. By these acts Herod won still further the favor of Augustus and the\nadmiration of the Eastern world.\n\nIV. His Attitude toward His Subjects. The peace which Herod brought to\nPalestine was won at the point of the sword. The fear which he felt for\nhis subjects was surpassed only by the fear which he inspired in them. He\nwas unscrupulous and merciless in cutting down all possible rivals. The\ntreacherous murder of Aristobulus III, the grandson of Hyrcanus, and last\nof all the murder of the inoffensive and maimed Hyrcanus, are among the\ndarkest deeds in Herod's bloody reign. The power of the sanhedrin, the\nJewish national representative body, was almost completely crushed.\nFollowing the policy of Augustus, Herod developed a complex system of\nspies, or espionage, so that, like an Oriental tyrant, he ruled his\nsubjects by means of two armies, the spies who watched in secret and the\nsoldiers who guarded them openly. His lavish building enterprises led him\nto load his people with an almost intolerable burden of taxation, and yet\nfor the common people Herod's reign was one of comparative peace and\nprosperity. At last they were delivered from destructive wars and free to\ndevelop the great agricultural and commercial resources of the land. While\noutside of Judea Herod built heathen temples, he faithfully guarded the\ntemple of Jerusalem, and was careful not to override the religious\nprejudices of his subjects. His measures to relieve their suffering in\ntime of famine reveal a generosity which under better environment and\ntraining might have made him a benign ruler.\n\nV. The Tragedy of His Domestic Life. The weakness of Herod's character\nis most glaringly revealed in his domestic life. Undoubtedly he loved the\nbeautiful Maccabean princess, Mariamne, with all the passion of his\nviolent nature. It was a type of love, however, which passes over easily\ninto insensate jealousy. Accordingly, when he left Judea just before the\nbattle of Actium, and later when he went to meet Octavian, he had his wife\nMariamne shut up in a strong fortress. Unfortunately Herod, like most\ndespots, was unable to command the services of loyal followers. The\ndiscovery of Herod's suspicions toward her aroused the imperious spirit of\nMariamne. She was also the victim of the plots of his jealous family.\nHuman history presents no greater tragedy than that of Herod putting to\ndeath the one woman whom he truly loved, and later a victim of his own\nsuspicions and of the intrigues of his son Antipater, finally obtaining\nroyal permission to put to death the two noble sons whom Mariamne had\nborne to him. It is difficult to find in all history a more pitiable sight\nthan Herod in his old age, hated by most of his subjects, misled by the\nmembers of his own family, the murderer of those whom he loved best,\nfinding his sole satisfaction in putting to death his son Antipater, who\nhad betrayed him, and in planning in his last hours how he might by the\nmurder of hundreds of his subjects arouse wide-spread lamentation.\n\nVI. Effects of Herod's Reign. One of the chief results of Herod's policy\nand reign was the complete extinction of the Maccabean house. Herod's\nmotive and method were thoroughly base, but for the Jewish people the\nresult was beneficial, for it removed one of the most active causes of\nthose suicidal rebellions that had resulted disastrously for the Jews and\nbrought them under the suspicion and iron rule of Rome. With his heavy\nhand Herod also put a stop to the party strife that had undermined the\nnative Jewish kingdom and brought loss and suffering to thousands of Jews.\nThe Pharisees and Sadducees at last were taught the lesson of not\nresorting to arms, however widely they might differ. By removing the\nPharisees from public life Herod directed their energies to developing\ntheir ceremonial regulations and to instructing the people. Thus the\ninfluence of the Pharisees became paramount with the great majority of the\nJews. As Herod extended his rule over all Palestine, he brought into close\nrelations the Jews scattered throughout its territory and so strengthened\nthe bonds of race and religion. In building the temples he also emphasized\nthe ceremonial side of their religious life and centralized it so that\neven the Jews of the dispersion henceforth paid their yearly temple tax,\nmade frequent pilgrimages to Jerusalem, and regarded themselves as a part\nof the nation. Furthermore, Herod brought peace and prosperity to his\npeople and gave the Jews an honorable place in the r\u00f4le of nations. Thus,\nwhile his career is marked by many unpardonable crimes, he proved on the\nwhole an upbuilder and a friend rather than a foe of the Jews.\n\n\n\nSection CXIX. HEROD'S TEMPLE\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XV, 11:1a]\nNow Herod, in the eighteenth year of his reign, undertook a very great\nwork, that is, to rebuild the temple of God at his own expense, and to\nmake it larger in circumference and to raise it to a more magnificent\nheight. He thought rightly that to bring the temple to perfection would be\nthe most glorious of all his works, and that it would suffice as an\neverlasting memorial.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XV, 11:2c]\nSo he prepared a thousand wagons to bring stones, chose ten thousand of\nthe most skilful workmen, bought a thousand priestly garments for as many\nof the priests, and had some of them taught how to work as builders, and\nothers as carpenters. Then he began to build, but not until everything\nwas well prepared for the work.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XV, 11:3a-c]\nAnd Herod took up the old foundations, and laid others. He erected a\ntemple upon these foundations: its length was one hundred cubits and its\nheight twenty additional cubits. Now the temple was built of stones that\nwere white and strong. Each was about twenty-five cubits long, eight\ncubits high, and twelve cubits wide. The whole temple enclosure on the\nsides was on much lower ground, as were also the royal colonnades; but the\ntemple itself was much higher, being visible for many furlongs in the\ncountry round about. It had doors at its entrance as high as the temple\nitself with lintels over them. These doors were adorned with variegated\nveils, into which were interwoven pillars and purple flowers. Over these,\nbut under the crown-work, was spread out a golden vine, with its branches\nhanging far down, the great size and fine workmanship of which was a\nmarvel to those who saw it.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XV, 11:3f-l]\nHerod also built very large colonnades all around the temple, making them\nin proportion. He exceeded all who had gone before him in his lavish\nexpenditure of money. There was a large wall about the colonnades. The\nhill, on which the temple stood, was rocky, ascending gradually toward\nthe east of the city to its highest point. At the bottom, which was\nsurrounded by a deep valley, he laid rocks that were bound together with\nlead. He also cut away some of the inner parts, carrying the wall to a\ngreat height, until the size and height of the square construction was\nimmense, and until the great size of the stones in front were visible on\nthe outside. The inward parts were fastened together with iron and the\njoints were preserved immovable for all time. When this work was joined\ntogether to the very top of the hill, he finished off its upper surface\nand filled up the hollow places about the wall and made it level and\nsmooth on top. Within this wall, on the very top, was another wall of\nstone that had on the east a double colonnade of the same length as the\nwall. Inside was the temple itself. This colonnade faced the door of the\ntemple and had been decorated by many kings before. Around about the\nentire temple were fixed the spoils taken from the barbarous nations. All\nthese were dedicated to the temple by Herod, who added those that had been\ntaken from the Arabians.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XV, 11:4a, d]\nNow in an angle on the north side of the temple was built a citadel, well\nfortified and of extraordinary strength. This citadel had been built\nbefore Herod by the kings and high priests of the Hasmonean race, and\nthey called it the Tower. In it were deposited the garments of the high\npriest, which he put on only at the time when he was to offer sacrifice.\nHerod fortified this tower more strongly than before, in order to guard\nthe temple securely, and gave the tower the name of Antonia to gratify\nAntony, who was his friend and a Roman ruler.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XV, 11:5a-g]\nIn the western side of the temple enclosure were four gates; one led to\nthe king's palace, two others led to the suburbs of the city, and the\nfourth led by many steps down into the valley and up on the other side to\nthe entrance to the other part of the city. The fourth front of the\ntemple, that on the south, had gates in the middle; before this front were\nthe three royal colonnades, which reached from the valley on the east to\nthat on the west. These colonnades were especially remarkable for their\ngreat height, which seemed more because the hill at their base dropped\nabruptly into a very deep valley. There were four rows of pillars, placed\nside by side. The fourth was built into the stone wall. Each pillar was\nabout twenty-seven feet high, with a double spiral at the base, and was so\nthick that three men joining hands could just reach around it. The number\nof the pillars was one hundred and sixty-two. The columns had Corinthian\ncapitals, which aroused great admiration in those who saw them because of\ntheir beauty. These four rows of pillars made three parallel spaces for\nwalking. Two of these parallel walks were thirty feet wide, six hundred\nand six feet in length, and fifty feet in height, while the middle walk\nwas half as wide again and twice as high. The roofs were adorned with\ndeep sculptures in wood, representing many different things; the middle\nwas much higher than the rest, and the front wall, which was of polished\nstone, was adorned with beams set into the stone on pillars.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XV, 11:5h, i]\nThe second enclosure, which was reached by ascending a few steps, was not\nvery far within the first. This inner enclosure had a stone wall for a\npartition. Upon this wall it was forbidden any foreigner to enter under\npenalty of death. This inner enclosure had on its northern and southern\nsides three gates at intervals from each other. On the east, however,\nthere was one large gate, through which those of us who were ceremonially\npure could enter with our wives. Within this enclosure was another\nforbidden to women. Still further in there was a third court, into which\nonly the priest could go. Within this court was the temple itself; before\nthat was the altar, upon which we offer sacrifices and burnt-offerings to\nGod.\n\n[Sidenote: Jos. Ant. XV, 11:5k, 6]\nHerod himself took charge of the work upon the colonnades and outer\nenclosures; these he built in eight years. But the temple itself was\nbuilt by the priest in a year and five months. Thereupon all the people\nwere filled with joy and returned thanks, in the first place to God for\nthe speed with which it was finished, and in the second place for the\nzeal which the king had shown. They feasted and celebrated this rebuilding\nof the temple; the king sacrificed three hundred oxen to God, as did the\nothers, each according to his ability. The time of this celebration of the\nwork about the temple also fell upon the day of the king's inauguration,\nwhich the people customarily observed as a festival. The coincidence of\nthese anniversaries made the festival most notable.\n\nI. Herod's Motives. It is not difficult to appreciate the reasons which\ninfluenced Herod to begin the rebuilding of the temple. Chief among these\nwas doubtless the desire to win still further the approval of his master\nAugustus. It is also a characteristic of a man of Herod's type to seek to\ngain popular approval by the munificence of his public gifts. Throughout\nhis reign he was painfully aware of the suspicions of his Jewish subjects.\nHe trusted, and the event proved the wisdom of his judgment, that he might\nconciliate them by giving them that about which their interest most\nnaturally gathered. The methods which he employed in building the temple\nclearly indicate that this was one of his leading motives. He also\ngratified that love of construction which had found expression in many of\nthe cities of Palestine and the eastern Mediterranean. He desired to rear\na great memorial for himself, and in this hope he was not disappointed,\nfor later generations continued to think of him with gratitude because of\nthe temple which bore his name.\n\nII. Preparations for the Rebuilding of the Temple. Herod's temple was\nbegun in 20 or 19 B.C. and was not entirely completed until a few years\nbefore its destruction in 70 A.D. The task in itself was a difficult one,\nfor on the north the city prevented the extension of the temple area, and\non the south the hill rapidly descended toward the juncture of the\nTyropoean and Kidron valleys. Herod met the difficulty by filling in to\nthe south with vast stone constructions which rose to the height of\nseventy to ninety feet above the virgin rock. To economize building\nmaterials he built the huge underground vaults and arches known to-day\nas Solomon's Stables. Thus with a vast expense of labor and wealth he\nextended the temple area to the south until it was double that which\nsurrounded Solomon's temple. It was also important to regard in every\ndetail the ceremonial scruples of the Jews. To this end a small army of\npriests were trained as masons and carpenters in order to do the work in\nthe immediate proximity of the temple. To bring the ancient temple into\nproportions with the rest of his buildings, a huge porch or facade was\nreared in front of it on the east, rising, according to Josephus, to the\nheight of one hundred and twenty feet. For the roof that covered the\nporches he apparently brought cedar from the distant Lebanons. Only with\nall the resources of the kingdom at his command was it possible to carry\nthrough this vast enterprise.\n\nIII. The Approaches to the Temple. The entire temple area was\nrectangular in form, about twelve hundred feet in length and six hundred\nfeet wide. Its chief approaches were on the south and west. A small gate\nthrough which sacrificial animals were introduced immediately into the\ntemple precincts opened from the north. The one gate on the east, which\nopened into the Kidron Valley, was apparently opposite the eastern\nentrance to the temple. The two gates on the south opened toward the City\nof David. The one was a double gate with an incline leading into the\ntemple area, and the other farther to the east was a triple gate. The main\napproaches were from the west. The southern of these was a low viaduct\nspanning the Kidron Valley and thence by steps or inclined approach\nascending to the temple area. Remnants of the arches that spanned the\nvalley at this point and a little farther north are still traceable on the\npresent walls of the temple area far down in the Tyropoean Valley. The\nthird approach farther to the north was probably also a viaduct leading\ndirectly into the temple area, while the extreme northern approach,\naccording to Josephus, led from the palace of Herod directly to the\ntemple. The entire temple area was encircled by a colonnade. One row of\npillars was built into the high wall that surrounded the area. On the\nsouth was found the royal porch with its four rows of columns, the first\nand second about thirty feet apart, the second and third forty-five, and\nthe third and fourth thirty. The pillars on the sides were about\ntwenty-seven feet in height, while the two rows in the middle were double\nthis height. Each of these colonnades was covered with a richly ornamented\ncedar roof, thus affording grateful shelter from the sun and storm. The\ngreat space at the south of the temple area was the Court of the Gentiles,\nthe common park of the city where all classes of its population freely\ngathered. The colonnade on the east of the temple area bore the name of\nSolomon's Porch, and from it the steps led up to the raised platform of\nnative rock twenty or more feet above the Court of the Gentiles. Somewhere\nto the east of the temple was found the famous Beautiful Gate. The series\nof steps led into the so-called Court of the Women. West of this was the\nCourt of the Israelites, to which only men were admitted. Thence a broad,\nhigh door led to the open space before the temple. Surrounding the altar\nand cutting off approach to the temple proper was a stone balustrade.\nThe space within this was known as the Court of the Priests. Here no\nlaymen were admitted except as the ritual of private sacrifice required.\nThese inner courts were surrounded by a high wall and adjoining chambers\nfor the storing of the paraphernalia used in connection with the\nsacrifice and for the residence of the priests. On the southern side of\nthe temple was the room where the national council, the sanhedrin, held\nits public meetings. Four gates on the north and four gates on the\nsouth led from the temple court to the lower Court of the Gentiles.\n\nIV. The Organization of the Temple Service. At the head of the temple\norganization was the high priest. Since the deposition of the ill-fated\nHyrcanus the high priests had been appointed by Herod, for to them was\nintrusted large civil as well as religious authority. The one duty which\nthe high priests could not neglect, unless prevented by illness, was to\nperform the sacrifice in behalf of the people and to enter the Holy of\nHolies on the day of atonement. Frequently he also offered the sacrifice\nor presided at the special services on the sabbath, the new moons, or at\nthe great annual festivals. Otherwise the temple duties were performed by\nthe army of priests and assistants who were associated with the temple.\nAccording to Josephus there were twenty thousand priests. They were\ndivided into twenty-four courses. Each course included certain priestly\nfamilies to which were intrusted for a week the performing of the\nsacrifices. Corresponding to the twenty-four courses of the priests were\nthe courses of the people, who were represented by certain of their number\nat each of the important services. The priests not only performed the\nsacrifices but also guarded the temple treasures and the private wealth\nplaced in their keeping. The Levites attended to the more menial duties in\nconnection with the temple service. They aided the priests in preparing\nthe sacrifices and in caring for the utensils that were used in connection\nwith the sacrifice. Some of them were doorkeepers. Probably from the\nLevites were drafted the temple police at whose head was the captain of\nthe temple. Their task was to preserve order and to prevent Gentiles from\nentering the sacred precincts of the temple. The singers constituted a\nthird group of Levites.\n\nTwo public services were held each day, the first, at sunrise, consisted\nin the offering of a sacrificial ram with the accompaniment of prayer\nand song. The same rites were repeated at sunset. After the morning\nsacrifice the private offerings were presented. On the sabbaths, new\nmoons, and great festivals, the number of sacrifices was greatly increased\nand the ritual made more elaborate. Upon the Jews, instructed in the\nsynagogue in the details of the law and taught to regard the temple and\nits services with deepest reverence, the elaborate ceremonies of this\ngreat and magnificent sanctuary must have made a profound impression.\nAs the people streamed up to Jerusalem by thousands at the great feasts,\ntheir attention was fixed more and more upon the ritual and the truths\nwhich it symbolized. Herod's temple also strengthened the authority of the\nJewish hierarchy with the people, and gave the scribes and Pharisees the\ncommanding position which they later occupied in the life and thought of\nJudaism.\n\n\n\nSection CXX. THE MESSIANIC HOPES AND THE RELIGIOUS BELIEFS OF JUDAISM\n\n[Sidenote: Sibyl. Oracles, III 767-784]\nThen a kingdom over all mankind for all times shall God raise up, who once\ngave the holy law to the pious, for whom he pledged to open every land,\nthe world and the portals of the blessed, and all joys, and an eternal,\nimmortal spirit and a joyous heart. And out of every land they shall bring\nfrankincense and gifts to the house of the great God. And to men there\nshall be no other house where men may learn of the world to be than that\nwhich God hath given for faithful men to honor; for mortals shall call it\nthe temple of the mighty God. And all pathways of the plain and rough\nhills and high mountains and wild waves of the deep shall be easy in those\ndays for crossing and sailing; for perfect peace for the good shall come\non earth. And the prophets of the mighty God shall remove the sword; for\nthey are the rulers of mortals and the righteous kings. And there shall be\nrighteous wealth among mankind; for this is the judgment and rule of the\nmighty God.\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. Sol. 7:23-35a]\nBehold, O Lord, and raise up to them their king, the son of David, in the\ntime which thou, O God, knowest, that he may reign over Israel thy\nservant; and gird him with strength that he may break in pieces those who\nrule unjustly. Purge Jerusalem with wisdom and with righteousness, from\nthe heathen who trample her down to destroy her. He shall thrust out the\nsinners from the inheritance, utterly destroy the proud spirit of the\nsinners, and as potters' vessels he shall break in pieces with a rod of\niron all their substance. He shall destroy the ungodly nations with the\nword of his mouth, so that at his rebuke the nations will flee before him,\nand he shall convict the sinners in the thoughts of their hearts. And he\nshall gather together a holy people, whom he shall lead in righteousness;\nand shall judge the tribes of the people that has been sanctified by the\nLord his God. And he shall not suffer iniquity to lodge in their midst;\nand none that knoweth wickedness shall dwell with them. For he shall take\nknowledge of them, that they are all the sons of their God, and shall\ndivide them upon earth according to their tribes, and the sojourner and\nthe stranger shall dwell with them no more. He shall judge the nations and\nthe peoples with the wisdom of his righteousness. And he shall possess the\nnations of the heathen to serve him beneath his yoke; and he shall glorify\nthe Lord in a place to be seen by the whole earth; and he shall purge\nJerusalem and make it holy, even as it was in the days of old.\n\n[Sidenote: Ps. Sol. 7:35b-46]\nAnd a righteous king and taught of God is he who reigneth over them; and\nthere shall be no iniquity in his days in their midst, for all shall be\nholy and their king is the Lord Messiah. For he shall not put his trust in\nhorse and rider and bow, nor shall he multiply unto himself gold and\nsilver for war, nor by ships shall he gather confidence for the day of\nbattle. The Lord himself is his King, and the hope of him who is strong in\nthe hope of God. And he shall have mercy upon all the nations that come\nbefore him in fear. For he shall smite the earth with the word of his\nmouth, even for evermore. He shall bless the people of the Lord with\nwisdom and gladness. He himself also is pure from sin, so that he may rule\na mighty people, and rebuke princes and overthrow sinners by the might of\nhis word. And he shall not faint all his days, because he leaneth\nupon his God; for God shall cause him to be mighty through the spirit\nof holiness, and wise through the counsel of understanding, with might and\nrighteousness. And the blessing of the Lord is with him in might, and his\nhope in the Lord shall not faint. And who can stand up against him; he is\nmighty in his works and strong in the fear of God, tending the flock of\nthe Lord with faith and righteousness. And he shall allow none of them to\nfaint in their pasture. In holiness shall he lead them all, and there\nshall be no pride among them that any should be oppressed.\n\n[Sidenote: Enoch 46:1-3]\nAnd there I saw One who had a head of days, and his head was white like\nwool, and with him was another being whose countenance had the appearance\nof a man, and his face was full of graciousness, like one of the holy\nangels. And I asked the angel who went with me and showed me all the\nhidden things, concerning that Son of Man, who he was, and whence he was,\nand why he went with the Head of Days? And he answered and said to me,\n\"This is the Son of Man who hath righteousness, with whom dwelleth\nrighteousness, and who reveals all the treasures of that which is hidden,\nbecause the Lord of Spirits hath chosen him, and his lot before the Lord\nof Spirits hath surpassed everything in uprightness for ever.\"\n\n[Sidenote: Enoch 48:3-6]\nBefore the sun and the signs were created, before the stars of the heaven\nwere made, his name was named before the Lord of Spirits. He will be a\nstaff to the righteous on which they will support themselves and not fall,\nand he will be the light of the Gentiles, and the hope of those whose\nhearts are troubled. All who dwell on earth will fall down and bow the\nknee before him and will bless and laud and magnify with song the Lord of\nSpirits. And for this reason hath he been chosen and hidden before him\nbefore the creation of the world and for evermore.\n\n[Sidenote: Enoch 49:27-29]\nAnd he sat on the throne of his glory, and the sum of judgment was\ncommitted to him, and the Son of Man caused the sinners and those who have\nled the world astray to pass away and be destroyed from off the face of\nthe earth. With chains they shall be bound, and in their assembling-place\nof destruction shall they be imprisoned, and all their works will vanish\nfrom the face of the earth. And henceforth there will be nothing that is\ncorruptible; for the Son of Man hath appeared and sitteth on the throne of\nhis glory, and all evil will pass away before his face and depart; but the\nword of the Son of Man will be strong before the Lord of Spirits.\n\n[Sidenote: Enoch 51:1, 2]\nAnd in those days will the earth also give back those who are treasured up\nwithin it, and Sheol also will give back that which it has received, and\nhell will give back that which it owes. And he will choose the righteous\nand holy from among them; for the day of their redemption is at hand.\n\nI. The Growth of Israel's Messianic Hopes. Eternal hopefulness is a\nmarked characteristic of the Hebrew race. Throughout most of their history\nthe greater the calamities that overtook them the greater was their\nassurance that these were but the prelude to a glorious vindication and\ndeliverance. This hopefulness was not merely the result of their natural\noptimism, but of the belief, formed by their experiences in many a\nnational crisis, that a God of justice was overruling the events of\nhistory, and that he was working not for man's destruction but for his\nhighest happiness and well-being. It was their insight into the divine\npurpose that led the Hebrew prophets to break away from the popular\ntraditions that projected backward to the beginnings of history the\nrealization of man's fondest hopes. Instead they proclaimed that the\ngolden era lay in the future rather than the past. The hopes of Israel's\nprophets regarding that future took many different forms. Often the form\nwas determined by the earlier experiences of the nation. At many periods\nthe people looked for a revival of the glories of the days of David. In\nlater days, when they were oppressed by cruel persecutions, they revived\nin modified form the dreams that had been current in the childhood of the\nSemitic race, and thought of a supernatural kingdom that was to be\ninaugurated after Jehovah and his attendant angels, like Marduk in the old\nBabylonian tradition of the creation, had overcome Satan and the fallen\nangels. Israel's messianic hopes were also shaped and broadened by the\nteachings of the great ethical prophets. A growing realization of the\nimperfections of the existing order led them to look ever more expectantly\nto the time when the prophetic ideals of justice and mercy would be\nrealized in society, as well as in the character of the individual. These\ndifferent expectations regarding the future are broadly designated as\nmessianic prophecies. The word \"messianic,\" like its counterpart \"Messiah\"\n(Greek, \"Christ\"), comes from the Hebrew word meaning to smear or to\nanoint. It designated in ancient times the weapons consecrated for battle\nor the king chosen and thus symbolically set aside to lead the people as\nJehovah's representative, or a priest called to represent the people in\nthe ceremonial worship. The common underlying idea in the word is that of\nconsecration to a divine purpose. In its narrower application it describes\nsimply the agent who is to realize God's purpose in history, but in its\nbroader and prevailing usage it designates all prophecies that described\nthe ideal which Jehovah is seeking to perfect in the life of Israel and of\nhumanity, and the agents or agencies, whether individual or national,\nmaterial or spiritual, natural or supernatural, by which he is to realize\nthat ideal.\n\nII. The Kingly, Nationalistic Type of Messianic Hope. The messianic\nprophecies of the Old Testament seem only confusing and contradictory\nuntil the three distinct types are recognized. These different types of\nmessianic prophecy naturally shade into each other, and yet they are\nfundamentally distinct and were represented throughout Israel's history by\ndifferent classes of thinkers. The first is the kingly, nationalistic type\nof hope. It came into existence as soon as Israel became a nation, and may\nbe traced in the Balaam oracles in Numbers 24:17-19, where the seer is\nrepresented as beholding Israel's victorious king smiting its foes, the\nMoabites and Edomites, and ruling gloriously over a triumphant people. It\nis echoed in II Samuel 7:10-16 in the promise that the house of David\nshould rule peacefully and uninterruptedly through succeeding generations.\nEzekiel, in his picture of the restored nation in 37:21-28, declares in\nthe name of Jehovah that \"my servant David shall be king over them and\nthey shall dwell in the land that I have given to my servant Jacob wherein\ntheir fathers dwelt, and they shall dwell therein, they and their sons\nforever, and David my servant shall be their prince forever.\" In such\npassages as Isaiah 9 and 11 the Davidic ruler is represented as reigning\nnot despotically or selfishly, but in accordance with the principles of\njustice and mercy, bringing peace to all his subjects. As has already been\nnoted, in the prophecies of Haggai and Zechariah and in connection with\nthe rebuilding of the second temple Israel's kingly, nationalistic hope\nreached its culmination, but through the victories of Darius was rudely\ncast to the ground (Section XCV:vi). For the next three centuries and a\nhalf, throughout the Persian and Greek periods, this type of Israel's\nmessianic hope was apparently silenced. The Maccabean struggles and\nvictories, however, and the oppressive rule of Rome stirred this\nsmouldering hope into a flame and gave it wide currency among the people\nat the beginning of the Christian era. Again the nation came to the\nforefront. In the beautiful prophecy of Zechariah 9:9, 10, which\napparently comes from the earlier part of the Maccabean era, is found the\nnoble picture of a peasant king, humble yet victorious, establishing with\nthe sword a world-wide kingdom. Memories of the glorious achievements of\nthe Maccabean leaders kindled the popular imagination. When in 63 B.C.\nRome's iron hand closed upon Palestine, the eyes of the Jews looked\nexpectantly for the advent of a champion like David of old, who would\ncrush the heathen, convict the sinful Jews, and gather the faithful\npeople, ruling over them in justice and with tender care. These hopes are\nmost plainly expressed in the Psalms of Solomon, which were written near\nthe beginning of the Roman period. These expectations in their more\nmaterial form inspired the party of the Zelots during the earlier part of\nthe first Christian century repeatedly to unsheathe the sword in the vain\neffort to overthrow Rome and to establish at once the rule of the Messiah.\nIt was because this type of hope was so strong in the minds of the common\npeople that the false messiahs who rose from time to time were able\nquickly to gather thousands about them in the vain expectation that the\nmoment of deliverance had at last arrived.\n\nIII. The Apocalyptic, Catastrophic Type of Messianic Hope. Another class\nof thinkers in Israel looked not for a temporal but for a supernatural\nkingdom. It is usually described in the symbolic language of the\napocalypse. The inauguration of this kingdom was not dependent upon man's\nactivity but solely upon the will of God. The exact time and manner of its\ninstitution was clothed in mystery. Traces of this belief are found in\nthe references in Amos to the popular expectations regarding the day of\nJehovah. Evidently the Northern Israelites lived in anticipation of a\ngreat universal judgment day, in which their heathen foes would be\nsuddenly destroyed and they themselves would be exalted. It was a belief\nwhich Amos and the ethical prophets who followed him strongly combated,\nfor they were fully aware of the fundamental weakness in the apocalyptic\nor catastrophic type of prophecy: it took away from the nation and\nindividual all personal responsibility. Furthermore, its roots went back\nto the old Semitic mythology. This type of hope, however, was too firmly\nfixed in the popular mind to be dispelled even by the preaching of\nIsrael's greatest prophets. As a result of the calamities that gathered\nabout the fall of the Hebrew state it was revived. It is found in Ezekiel,\nZechariah, and Joel. Each of these prophets looked forward to the time\nwhen Jehovah would miraculously overthrow their heathen foes, restore his\nscattered people, and establish for them a world-wide, eternal kingdom. In\nthe closing chapters of the book of Daniel this form of belief attains its\nfullest expression in the Old Testament. In the Similitudes of Enoch\n(37-71), which come either from the latter part of the Maccabean era or\nelse from the days of Herod, these messianic hopes are still further\ndeveloped. Instead of Israel's guardian angel Michael, represented as\ncoming on the clouds from heaven and in appearance like a son of man, a\nheavenly Messiah is introduced. He is known by the title of the Messiah,\nthe Elect One, and the Son of Man (probably taken from the book of\nDaniel). In Enoch the term Son of Man has evidently become, as in IV\nEsdras, the title of a personal Messiah. He is described as pre-existent\nand gifted with the divine authority. When he appears, the dead are to\nrise, and angels, as well as men, are to be tried before his tribunal. The\nsinners and the fallen angels he will condemn to eternal punishment. All\nsin and wrong shall be driven from the earth. Heaven and earth shall be\ntransformed, and an eternal kingdom shall be established in which all the\nrighteous, whether dead or living, shall participate. This was evidently\nthe type of messianic hope held by the Pharisees as well as the Essenes.\nAs the result of the teaching of the Pharisees it was held widely by the\nJews of the first Christian century. It was clearly in the minds of Jesus'\ndisciples when he made his last journey to Jerusalem. It was both the\nbackground and the barrier to all his work. It is the key to the\ninterpretation of Paul's conception of the Christ, or the Messiah, for he\nhad been educated a Pharisee. This apocalyptic type of messianic hope\npowerfully influenced the life and thought of the early Christian Church\nand even permeated the Gospel narratives. The question of how far Jesus\nhimself was influenced by it is one of the most vital and difficult\nproblems of early Christian history.\n\nIV. The Ethical and Universalistic Type of Messianic Prophecy.\nFar removed from the kingly, messianic hopes of the people and the\nsupernatural visions of the apocalypses were the plain, direct, practical\nideals of Israel's great ethical prophets. Amos, Hosea, Isaiah, and\nJeremiah all united in declaring that the realization of Jehovah's purpose\nin history depended primarily upon the response of his people. They\nregarded the kingdom of God as a natural growth. It represented the\ngradual transformation of the characters of men under the influence\nof God's truth and spirit working in their minds. They hoped and labored\nto see the nation Israel living in full accord with the demands of\njustice, mercy, and service. The II Isaiah, under the influences which\ngrew out of the destruction of the temple and the closer contact with the\nheathen world, voiced this type of messianic hope in its broadest and\nmost spiritualized form. He declared that the Israelites had been called\nand trained for a unique service and that that service was to be performed\nby them quietly and unostentatiously, as prophets and teachers of men. He\nalso presented most clearly Israel's missionary ideal, and showed that its\ntask was not to destroy but to bring light to the Gentile world. He and\nthe more enlightened prophets who followed him saw an ever-widening\nkingdom established without the aid of the sword and freed from all racial\nbarriers--the eternal, universal, spiritual kingdom of God on earth. It is\nevident that in contrast to the other types of messianic prophecy this\nform was comprehensible, practicable, and alone capable of realization.\n\nV. The Messianic Hopes of Judaism at the Beginning of the Christian Era.\nUnfortunately, as a result of the varied experiences through which Judaism\npassed in the centuries immediately preceding the Christian era, its\nethical and universal messianic hopes were largely eclipsed. The ideal of\nthe suffering servant appears to have been almost forgotten. As the later\nJews read the earlier scriptures of their race in order to determine what\nthe future held in store for them, they fixed their eyes upon the\nkingly and apocalyptic prophecies. Regarding all scriptures as equally\nauthoritative, they attempted the impossible task of blending these\nfundamentally different types of prophecy. The result was that their\nbeliefs became, indeed, a complex labyrinth with paths leading in opposite\ndirections. Later events have proved beyond question that these popular\ntypes were the dreams of religious enthusiasts rather than true pictures\nof the way in which the divine purpose was to be perfected in human\nhistory, and yet the apocalyptic type of prophecy was not without its\nsignificance. It tended to correct the narrow national hopes of the Jews\nand to lift them to the consideration of that which was spiritual and\neternal. It also led them to appreciate the unity of all history, and in\ntimes of distress it kept alive their faith in a God who was wisely\nguiding their destinies. Underlying all these different types of prophecy\nis the appreciation of the broad truth that God was working out in the\nlives of men and nations a definite purpose, and that that purpose was\ngood, and that the God back of all history was a God not only of power but\nalso of love. It was inevitable that the ethical and more spiritual\nexpectations of the early Hebrew prophets should find the fullest response\nin the heart and life of the Great Teacher. In the face of opposition from\nthe leaders of his race, from the multitudes that gathered about him, and\neven from the disciples who loved and followed him, he proclaimed that the\nkingdom of God would not come by observation, but that its growth would be\nnatural and gradual like that of the mustard seed, that it was not\nexternal but within the hearts of men, that membership in that kingdom\ndepended not upon the arbitrary will of God, but upon men's acting in\naccord with that will in the every-day relations of life. Thus Jesus\nprepared the way for the complete fulfillment of all that was noblest and\nbest in Israel's messianic hopes, and in his character and teachings far\nsurpassed the highest expectations of the inspired teachers of his race.\n\n\n\nAPPENDIX\n\nI\n\nA PRACTICAL REFERENCE LIBRARY\n\nBooks for Constant Reference. The complete text of the biblical writings\nof the post-exilic period are found in Volumes II to VI of the _Student's\nOld Testament_. A careful, thorough r\u00e9sum\u00e9 of the history is contained in\nRiggs's _History of the Jewish People during the Maccabean and Roman\nPeriods_. Professor Bevan, in his _Jerusalem Under the High Priests_,\npresents, especially from the ecclesiastical point of view, a fresh\nsurvey of the history during the Greek and Maccabean periods. The\ngeographical background may be studied either in George Adam Smith's\n_Historical Geography of the Holy Land_ or in Kent's _Biblical Geography\nand History_.\n\nAdditional Books of Reference: Introductions and Commentaries. In\naddition to the standard Old Testament introductions by McFadyen, Cornill,\nand Driver, the collection of monographs in Professor Torrey's _Ezra\nStudies_ will be found especially valuable. The introduction, as well as\nthe critical notes, in the brief yet scholarly volumes of the _New Century\nBible_ are exceedingly useful for the general reader. More fundamental are\nthe volumes in the _International Critical Commentary._ The introductions\nto the different books in Hastings' _Dictionary of the Bible_ and the\n_Encyclopedia Biblica_ are clear, concise, and written from the modern\npoint of view.\n\nJewish and Contemporary History. The thorough student of this period\nwill find a wealth of suggestive material in Smith's _Old Testament\nHistory_ and in Sch\u00fcrer's monumental work, _A History of the Jewish People\nin the Time of Jesus Christ_. The later development of Israel's religion\nis presented in Marti's _Religion of the Old Testament_, in the first part\nof Toy's _Judaism and Christianity_, in Bousset's _Judaism_, and in\nCharles's _Eschatology, Hebrew, Jewish and Christian_. An excellent survey\nof the contemporary history of the period is to be found in the _History\nof the Ancient World_ by Goodspeed or in Meyer's _Ancient History._ A more\ndetailed treatment of the contemporary history will be found in the\n_History of Greece_ by Curtius or by Holm. The _History of Rome_ is fully\ntraced in the monumental works of Mommsen or Gibbon or the more recent\nstudy in _The Greatness and Decline of Rome_ by Ferrero. Briefer but\nequally reliable histories of Rome are those by Botsford, Horton, and\nSeignobos.\n\n\n\nII\n\nGENERAL QUESTIONS AND SUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH\n\nThe General Questions, as in the preceding volumes, follow the main\ndivisions of the book, and are intended to guide the student in\ncollecting and co-ordinating the more important facts presented in the\nbiblical text or in the notes.\n\nThe Subjects for Special Research are intended to guide the reader to\nfurther study in related lines, and, by means of detailed references, to\nintroduce him to the most helpful passages in the best English books of\nreference. In class-room work many of these topics may be profitably\nassigned for personal research and report. The references are to pages,\nunless otherwise indicated. Ordinarily, several parallel references are\ngiven that the student may be able to utilize the book at hand. More\ndetailed classified bibliographies will be found in the appendices of\nVolumes II-VI of the author's _Student's Old Testament_.\n\n\nTHE EXILE AND REVIVAL OF THE JUDEAN COMMUNITY\n\nSection XCI. The Jews in Palestine and Egypt. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\n1. What did the final destruction of Jerusalem in 586 mean to the\nJewish people? 2. Describe the structure and contents of the book of\nLamentations. 3. Its probable authorship and date. 4. Its theme and\nhistorical value. 5. The condition of the Jews who were left in Palestine.\n6. The numbers of the Jews in Egypt. 7. The life of the Jewish colony at\nElephantine. 8. The character and service of the\ntemple of Jahu.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The literary history of the book of\nLamentations. McFadyen, _Introd._, 294-7; Driver, _Lit. of the O.T._,\n456-65. 2. History of Egypt from 600 to 560 B.C. Breasted, _Hist, of the\nAncient Egyptians_, 404-18. 3. The discoveries at Elephantine. Sayce and\nCowley, _Aramaic Papyri Discovered at Assuan_; Sachau, _Drei aram\u00e4ische\nPapyrururkunden aus Elephantine_.\n\nSection XCII. Ezekiel's Message to His Scattered Countrymen. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: 1. Describe the situation of the Jewish colony in Babylon.\n2. Their opportunities and occupations. 3. Their religious life. 4. The\nprophecies of Ezekiel after the destruction of Jerusalem. 5. Meaning of\nhis description of the valley of dry bones in chapter 37. 6. His\nconception of the way in which the scattered exiles were to be restored.\n7. His plan of the restored temple. 8. The meaning and significance of\nthis detailed plan.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Babylon under Nebuchadrezzar.\nGoodspeed, _Hist. of Babs. and Assyrs_., 336-50; _En. Bib_., III,\n3369-71. 2. The religious institutions of the Babylonians. Goodspeed,\n_Hist. of Babs. and Assyrs._, 351-66; Jastrow, _Relig. of Bab. and\nAssyr._; Johns, _Bab. and Assyr. Laws, Letters, and Contracts_, 208-17.\n3. Influence of Babylonian institutions upon Ezekiel. Toy, _Ezek._\n(Introd.).\n\nSection XCIII. The Closing Years of the Babylonian Rule. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS. 1. Describe the different influences that transformed the Jews\ninto a literary people. 2. The nature of their literary activity.\n3. The Old Testament books that were written or re-edited during this\nperiod. 4. The general character of the Holiness Code. 5. The national\nhopes inspired by the liberation of Jehoiachin. 6. The character of\nNabonidus. 7. The effects of his rule. 8. The early conquests of Cyrus.\n9. His capture of Babylon. 10. His policy toward conquered peoples.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Contents and history of the Holiness\nCode. _St. O.T._, IV, 36-42; McFadyen, _Introd. to O.T._, 31-4. 2. The\nlast decade of Babylonian history. Goodspeed, _Hist. of Babs. and\nAssyrs._, 367-76; Kent, _Hist. J.P._, 66-77. 3. Character and reign\nof Cyrus. Herodotus, I, 95, 108-30, 177-214; Hastings, _D.B._, I,\n541-2; Rawlinson, _Anc. Monarchies_, IV, VII; Duncker, _Hist. of\nAntiq._, V.\n\nSection XCIV. The Rebuilding of the Temple. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\nDescribe the contents and literary history of the books of Ezra and\nNehemiah. 2. Their authorship. 3. The Chronicler's peculiar ideas\nregarding the restoration. 4. Revolutions in the Persian Empire that\naroused the Jews to action. 5. Haggai's appeal to the Judean community.\n6. Measures taken to stop the rebuilding of the temple. 7. Meaning of the\nrebuilding of the temple to the Jewish race.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The historical value of Ezra\nand Nehemiah. Torrey, _Composition and Historical Value of Ezra and\nNehemiah,_ or _Ezra Studies_, 62-251. 2. The first two decades of Persian\nhistory. Goodspeed, _Hist. of Ancient World_, 60-2; Ragozin, _The Story\nof Media_, II; Meyer, _Anc. Hist_., 88-93. 3. Evidence that there was\nno general return of the Jews in 536 B.C. Kent, _Hist. J.P._, 126-36;\nTorrey, _Ezra Studies_, 297-307.\n\nSection XCV. Zechariah's Visions and Encouraging Addresses. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: 1. Describe the evidence that Zechariah wrote from the point\nof view of a priest. 2. The structure and contents of his book. 3. The\nproblems of the Judean community. 4. Their hopes of a national revival.\n5. Zechariah's assurances. 6. The steps that were taken to make Zerubbabel\nking. 7. Evidence that the popular kingly hopes were disappointed.\n8. The content of Zechariah's later sermons. 9. The hopes which he\ninspired in his fellow-countrymen.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Origin of the apocalyptic type of\nprophecy. _Jewish Encyc._, I, 669-73; _St. O.T._, Ill, 42-3; Hastings,\n_D. B., I_, 109-10. 2. The popular messianic hopes of the period. _St.\nO.T._, III, 44-5, 472-86. 3. The establishment of Darius' authority.\nHerodotus, II, 67-86; Ragozin, _Media_, XIII; Hastings, _D. B._, I, 558.\n\nSection XCVI. Israel's Training and Destiny. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\n1. Describe the conditions in the Judean community during the seventy\nyears following the rebuilding of the temple. 2. The forces that kept\nalive the spiritual life of the Jews. 3. The indications that Isaiah 40-66\nwere written in Palestine. 4. The probable date of these chapters.\n5. Their distinctive literary characteristics. 6. The purpose for which\nthey were written.\n\nSUBJECTS FOE SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The organization of the Persian\nEmpire under Darius. Goodspeed, _Hist, of Anc. World_, 62-3; Ragozin,\n_Media_, 384-91; Sayce, _Anc. Empires_, 247-50; _En. Bib_., I, 1016-7.\n2. The Persian invasions of Europe. Goodspeed, _Anc. Hist._, 122-8;\nHerodotus, IV, 1-142; Ragozin, _Media_, 412-29; Bury, _Hist. of Greece_,\n265-96; Botsford, _Hist. of Greece_, 127-36. 3. Contents and literary\ncharacteristics of Isaiah 40-48. _St. O. T_., Ill, 27-30; Cobb, in\n_Jour, of Bib. Lit_., XXVII, 48-64; Box, _Isaiah_, 179-237.\n\nSection XCVII. Conditions and Problems in the Jewish Community.\nGENERAL QUESTIONS: I. What is the probable date of the book of\nMalachi? 2. Describe its teachings regarding the temple service.\n3. The need of a great moral awakening. 4. The doubts expressed by the\nfaithful in the community. 5. The encouraging promises held out to them.\n6. Presentation of the problem of the faithful in the psalms of the\nperiod.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Contemporary Greek history and\nliterature. Goodspeed, _Anc. Hist._, 159-96; Bury, _Hist. of Greece_,\n507-90; Jebb, _Greek Lit._, 109-20. 2. The earliest psalms. Briggs,\n_Psalms_, I, LXXXIX-XCII; Cobb, _Bk. of Pss._, XI-XIV; Driver, _Lit.\nof the O.T._, 371-2; McFadyen, _Introd. to O.T._, 238-50. 3. Psalm\nliterature among contemporary peoples. Breasted, _Hist. of Anc.\nEgyptians_, 273-7; Jastrow, _Relig. of Bab. and Assyr._, 294-327.\n\nSection XCVIII. The Problems and Teachings of the Book of Job.\nGENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the structure of the book of Job.\n2. The different literary units which have entered into it. 3. The\nprobable dates of these different sections. 4. Contents of the original\nprose story. 5. The theme and contents of the great poem in 3-31,\n38:1-42:6. 6. The different lines of progress in Job's thought. 7. The\nmeaning of the speeches of Jehovah. 8. The contribution of the book to the\nsolution of the problem of evil.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The Babylonian prototype of Job.\nJastrow, in _Jour. of Bib. Lit._, XXV, Pt. II, 135-91. 2. Comparison of\nJob with other great skeptical dramas. Owen, _The Five Great Skeptical\nDramas of History_. 3. The modern explanations of the problem of evil.\nRoyce, _Studies of Good and Evil_.\n\nSection XCIX. The Training and Mission of the True Servant of Jehovah.\nGENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the different characteristics of\nJehovah's servant in Isaiah 49-53. 2. What was the prophet's purpose in\npresenting this vivid portrait of Jehovah's ideal servant? 3. Describe the\nclass to whom the prophet appealed. 4. His interpretation of the task of\nthe servant. 5. His training. 6. The different methods whereby he was to\naccomplish his mission. 7. Did the prophet have in mind an individual, a\nclass, or simply an ideal character? 8. In what ways were his predictions\nfulfilled? 9. In what sense is his ideal of service of present-day\napplication?\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The meaning and history of the\ndifferent messianic titles. _St. O.T._, III, 39, 47; _En. Bib._, III,\n3057-61. 2. Contents and unity of Isaiah 49-55. _St. O.T._, III, 28-30;\nBox, _Isaiah_, 238-83. 3. How far was Jesus influenced by the ideal of the\nsuffering servant?\n\nSection C. Nehemiah's Work in Rebuilding the Walls of Jerusalem.\nGENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. What is the historical value of Nehemiah's\nmemoirs? 2. In what way was he informed of conditions in Jerusalem?\n3. How did he secure permission to go to Jerusalem? 4. Describe the\nobstacles that there confronted him. 5. His plan of work. 6. His\ndiplomacy in dealing with his opponents. 7. The task of rebuilding\nthe walls. 8. Their dedication. 9. The significance of the rebuilding\nof the walls.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Contemporary events in Greek history.\nGoodspeed, _Anc. Hist._, 141-72; Bury, _Hist, of Greece_, 336-75;\nBotsford, _Hist, of Greece_, 151-85. 2. The topography of Jerusalem.\nKent, _Sib. Geog. and Hist._, 64-72; Smith, _Jerusalem_, I, I-249;\nHastings, _D.B._, II, 591-6. 3. Recent excavations at Jerusalem.\n_Jerusalem Vol. of P. E. F. Memoirs_; Bliss and Dickey, _Excavations at\nJerusalem_; Smith, _Jerusalem_, I.\n\nSection CI. Nehemiah's Social and Religious Reforms. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: 1. Describe the cruel oppression of the leaders of the Jewish\ncommunity. 2. The effect upon the mass of the people. 3. The way in which\nNehemiah corrected these evils. 4. The evidence for and against the\nhistorical accuracy of Nehemiah 13. 5. Nehemiah's measures to improve the\ntemple service. 6. His emphasis upon Sabbath observance. 7. His opposition\nto foreign marriages. 8. The importance of his work as a whole.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: I. In what respects was Nehemiah a worthy\nsuccessor of the earlier Hebrew prophets? 2. The later Jewish laws\nregarding the Sabbath. _St. O.T._, IV, 263-4. 3. Regarding marriage with\nforeigners. _St. O.T._, IV, 54-5.\n\nSection CII. Traditional Account of the Adoption of the Priestly Law.\nGENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the present literary form of the\ntradition regarding Ezra. 2. Its probable history. 3. Its historical\nvalue. 4. The facts underlying it. 5. Origin of the later priestly laws.\n6. Their general purpose. 7. Their more important regulations. 8. Their\ntransforming influence upon the Jewish community.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The difficulties in accepting the\nEzra narrative as strictly historical. Torrey, _Ezra Studies_, 208-78;\nSmith, _O.T. Hist._, 390-8. 2. History of the later priestly codes. _St.\nO.T._, IV, 43-8. 3. Income and duties of the priests and Levites according\nto the late priestly codes. _St. O.T._, IV, 187-92, 197-202.\n\nSection CIII. The Jewish State during the Last Century of Persian Rule.\nGENERAL QUESTIONS: I. Describe the indications that the Judean community\nenjoyed unusual prosperity during the half-century following the work of\nNehemiah. 2. The effect of this prosperity upon the intellectual life of\nthe Jews. 3. The growth of the Psalter during this period. 4. The date of\nthe prophecy of Joel. 5. Its theme. 6. The hopes of the Jews at this time.\n7. Nature of the rule of the high priests. 8. The evidence regarding the\ndate of the Samaritan schism. 9. Its causes. 10. Its effect upon Judaism.\n\nSUBJECTS FOB SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. History of the Persian Empire between\n400 and 332 B.C. Cox, _The Greeks and the Persians_. 2. Contemporary\nevents in Greek history. Goodspeed, _Hist. of Anc. World_, 173-204; Meyer,\n_Anc. Hist._, 244-74. 3. The history of the Samaritans. _En. Bib._, IV,\n4256-64; Montgomery, _The Samaritans_.\n\n\nTHE GREEK AND MACCABEAN AGE\n\nSection CIV. The Jews under Their Greek Rulers. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\n1. Describe the character of the Jewish historian, Josephus. 2. The extent\nof his histories. 3. Their historical value. 4. Alexander's Asiatic\nconquests. 5. His attitude toward the Jews. 6. The Jews in Alexandria.\n7. The general character of the rule of the Ptolemies. 8. Their policy in\nthe treatment of the Jews. 9. Fortunes of the Jews of Palestine during the\nfirst century of Greek rule. 10. The Seleucid kingdom with its capital at\nAntioch. 11. The subjugation of Palestine by the Seleucids.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Josephus's rank as a historian.\nHastings, _D.B._, extra Vol., 461-73. 2. Alexander the Great. Mahaffy,\n_The Story of Alexander's Empire_, 1-11; Hogarth, _Philip and Alexander\nof Macedon_; Wheeler, _Alexander the Great_. 3. Character of the\nPtolemaic rulers. Bevan, _Jerusalem under the High Priests_, 21-30;\nMahaffy, _The Ptolemaic Dynasty_, Vol. IV of Petrie's _Hist. of Egypt_.\n\nSection CV. The Wise and Their Teachings. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\n1. Describe the literary structure of the book of Proverbs. 2. The\nevidence that it is the work of many different wise men. 3. The probable\ndate of the different collections. 4. The references to the wise in the\npre-exilic literature. 5. The influence of the Babylonian exile upon their\nactivity. 6. The reasons why they attained their greatest prominence in\nthe Greek period. 7. The character of the wise. 8. Their aims. 9. Their\nmethods. 10. Their important social and moral teachings.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The book of Proverbs. McFadyen,\n_Introd. to O.T._, 256-63; Driver, _L. O.T._, 392-407; Toy, _Proverbs_,\nIntrod. 2. The sages of Egypt and Greece. The Wisdom of Ptah-hotep, in\nthe _Wisdom of the East Series_; Symonds, _Studies of the Greek Poets_, I,\n161-273; Jebb, _Classical Greek Poetry_. 3. The social teachings of the\nbook of Proverbs. _St. O. T_., VI, _in loco_; Kent, _The Wise Men of\nAncient Israel and Their Proverbs_, 100-14, 158-75; Root, _The Profit of\nthe Many_, 17-126.\n\nSection CVI. The Different Currents of Thought in Judaism during the\nGreek Period. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Why were there many different\ncurrents of thought in Judaism during this period? 2. Describe the\ncharacter and aims of the ritualists. 3. Of the legalists. 4. Of those who\nlaid especial emphasis upon the teaching of the earlier prophets. 5. The\nevidence regarding the date of the book of Jonah. 6. The meaning of the\nstory. 7. Its teaching. 8. The history of the book of Ecclesiastes. 9. Its\npoint of view. 10. Its philosophy of life.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The Chronicler's conception of the\norigin of Israel's institutions. Curtis, _Chronicles_, Introd.; Torrey,\n_Ezra Studies_, 208-38; _St. O. T_., II, 22-8. 2. Greek myths parallel to\nthe story of Jonah. _En. Bib_., II, 2568-9; Taylor, _Primitive Culture_,\nI, 306. 3. A comparison of Koheleth's philosophy and teaching with those\nof the author of Omar Khayyam.\n\nSection CVII. The Teachings of Jesus the Son of Sirach. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: 1. Describe the evidence regarding the date of Jesus the son\nof Sirach. 2. The character of the man. 3. The history of his writings.\n4. The nature of the Greek translation. 5. The recovery of the Hebrew\noriginal. 6. Its picture of the Jewish life of the period. 7. Its\ndescription of the wise men and scribes. 8. Its social teachings.\n9. Its religious teachings.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The Hebrew fragments of Ben Sira.\nCowley and Neubauer, _The Original Heb. of a Portion of Ecclus._;\nSchechter and Taylor, _The Wisdom of Ben-Sira;_ Hastings, _D.B._, IV,\n546-9; _En. Bib._, II, 1166-9. 2. The character of Ben Sira as revealed\nin his writings. Hastings, _D.B._, IV, 550; _En. Bib._, II, 1175-8; Bevan,\n_Jerusalem under the High Priests_, 49-51. 3. A comparison of the moral\nand social teachings of Ben Sira with those of the book of Proverbs.\nBevan, _Jerusalem under the High Priests_, 52-68.\n\nSection CVIII. The Causes of the Maccabean Struggle. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: 1. Describe the general character of I Maccabees. 2. Its\nhistorical value. 3. II Maccabees. 4. The attractive and aggressive\nqualities in the contemporary Hellenic culture. 5. Its superiority to\nthe teachings of Judaism. 6. The elements in which Judaism was superior.\n7. The conquest of Hellenism in the ranks of Judaism. 8. The influence of\nthe apostate Jewish high priests. 9. The history and character of\nAntiochus Epiphanes. 10. Reasons why he attempted to hellenize the Jews.\n11. The measures which he adopted.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The characteristics of Greek religion.\nGulick, _Life of the Ancient Greeks_, 262-83; Dyer, _The Gods in Greece_;\nGoodspeed, _Hist. of Anc. World_, 148-51; Hastings, _D.B._, extra Vol.,\n109-56. 2. The historical value of II Maccabees. Hastings, _D.B._, III,\n189-92; _En. Bib._, III, 2869-79. 2. Contemporary portraits of Antiochus\nEpiphanes. _Livy_, XLI-XLV; _Polybius_, XXVI-XXXI; _Appian, Syr._, 45, 66;\n_Justin_, XXIV, 3.\n\nSection CIX. The Effect of Persecution on the Jews. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\n1. Describe the uprising led by Mattathias. 2. The methods adopted by the\nrebels. 3. The origin and political principles of the Hasideans or Pious.\n4. The evidence regarding the date of the visions in Daniel 7-12. 5. Their\nliterary character. 6. Their meaning and aims. 7. The identification of\nthe four heathen kingdoms. 8. The message of hope presented in these\nchapters. 9. Its effect upon the persecuted Jews.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The town of Modein. Kent, _Bib. Geog.\nand Hist._, 210-2; Smith, _Hist. Geog. of Holy Land_, 212. 2. Contents and\nliterary history of the book of Daniel. McFadyen, _Introd. to O.T._,\n316-31; Driver, _L. O.T._, 438-515; Hastings, _D.B._, I, 552-7.\n\nSection CX. The Victories that Gave the Jews Religious Liberty. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: 1. Describe the characteristics that fitted Judas to be a\ngreat political leader. 2. The odds against which he and the Jews\ncontended. 3. The physical contour of western Palestine. 4. The defeat of\nApollonius. 5. Of the Syrian army under Seron. 6. The details of the\nbattle of Emmaus. 7. The significance of the victory at Bethsura. 8. The\nrestoration of the temple service. 9. The effect of the persecutions upon\nthe Jews.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Greek military equipment and methods\nof warfare. Gulick, _Life of the Anc. Greeks_, 188-205. 2. The western\nheadlands of Judah. Kent, _Bib. Geog. and Hist._, 40-2; Smith, _Hist.\nGeog. of Holy Land_, 286-320. 3. Comparison of Judas with other great\nmilitary commanders. Conder, _Judas Maccabaeus_; Bevan, _Jer. under the\nHigh Priests_, 97-9; Smith, _O.T. Hist._, 465.\n\nSection CXI. The Long Contest for Political Independence. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: 1. Describe the attitude of the heathen nations toward the\nJews. 2. The political problems that confronted them. 3. The Jewish\nattitude toward the heathen reflected in the book of Esther. 4, Judas's\neast-Jordan campaign. 5. Results of the battle of Beth-zacharias. 6. The\nre-establishment of Syrian authority. 7. The victories over Nicanor.\n8. The causes which resulted in the death of Judas. 9. Conditions in the\nSyrian court which gave the Jews their great opportunity. 10. The\ncharacter and policy of Jonathan. 11. The honors and authority granted him\nby the rival Syrian kings.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The history and value of the book of\nEsther. Paton, _Esther_; Hastings, _D. B., I_, 773-6; _En. Bib._, II,\n1400-5. 2. The Syrian history of the period. Bevan, _Jer. under the High\nPriests_, 100-6; Smith, _O.T. Hist._, 465-9. 3. The scenes of Judas's\neast-Jordan campaign. Kent, _Bib. Geog. and Hist._, 214-7.\n\nSection CXII. Peace and Prosperity under Simon. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\n1. Describe the political intrigues which resulted in the death of\nJonathan. 2. The character and rule of Simon. 3. His extension of the\nJewish territory. 4. The authority granted him by the Jews. 5. His\ndevelopment of the temple service. 6. The causes that led to the\ncompletion of the Psalter. 7. The religious life and faith reflected in\nthe later psalms.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Compare the characters of the three\nbrothers, Judas, Jonathan, and Simon. 2. The guilds of temple singers.\nHastings, _D.B._, IV, 92-3; Wellhausen, _The Book of Psalms_ (in _S.B.\nO.T._), 217-9. 3. The evidence that many of the psalms come from the\nMaccabean period. Hastings, _D.B._, IV, 152-3; Cheyne, _Origin of the\nPsalter_.\n\nSection CXIII. The Rule of John Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: 1. Describe the intrigue that resulted in the death of Simon.\n2. The Syrian invasion under Antiochus Sidetes. 3. The character of John\nHyrcanus. 4. His military policy. 5. His conquests in the north and\nsouth. 6. The reasons why he lost the support of the Pharisees. 7. The\nsignificant events in the reign of Aristobulus.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Contemporary conditions in the Syrian\nkingdom. _En. Bib._, IV, 4356-60; Gardner, _The Seleucid Kings of Syria_.\n2. The history of the Idumeans. Hastings, _D.B._, I, 644-6; _En. Bib._,\nII, 1181-8; Buhl, _Edomites._ 3. Compare the policy of John Hyrcanus with\nthat of David.\n\nSection CXIV. The Pharisees, Sadducees, and Essenes. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: I. Describe the influences that gave rise to the party of\nthe Pharisees. 2. Of the Sadducees. 3. The characteristics and beliefs\nof the Pharisees. 4. Of the Sadducees. 5. The political influence of\nthese parties. 6. The characteristics of the sect of the Essenes.\n7. Their beliefs.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The party of the Pharisees. Hastings,\n_D.B._, III, 821-8; _En. Bib._, IV, 4321-9. 2. The Sadducees. Hastings,\n_D.B._, IV, 349-51; _En. Bib._, IV, 4234-40. 3. The points of contact\nbetween Essenism and Christianity. Hastings, _D.B._, I, 767-72; _En.\nBib._, II, 1396-1400; Thomson, _Books which Influenced Our Lord_, 75-122;\nCheyne, _Origin of the Psalter_, 418-21, 446-9.\n\nSection CXV. The Life and Faith of the Jews of the Dispersion. GENERAL\nQUESTIONS: 1. Describe the life of the Jews in Antioch and Asia Minor.\n2. The privileges granted them by the Syrian king. 3. The number of the\nJews in Egypt. 4. The privileges granted them by the Ptolemies. 5. The\nfounding of the Jewish temple at Leontopolis. 6. Its significance. 7. The\noccasion of the translation of the Hebrew scriptures into Greek. 8. The\nimportant apologetic Jewish writings. 9. The theme and date of the Wisdom\nof Solomon. 10. Its important teachings. 11. Its reflections of Greek and\nJewish thought.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Characteristics and value of the Greek\ntranslation of the Old Testament. Hastings, _D.B._, IV, 864-6; Swete,\n_Introd. to the Old Testament in Greek_; _En. Bib._, IV, 5016-22. 2. The\nhistory and contents of the Wisdom of Solomon. Hastings, _D.B._, IV,\n928-31; _En. Bib._, IV, 5336-49; Deane, _The Book of Wisdom_, 1-41; Gregg,\n_The Wisd. of Sol._\n\nSection CXVI. The Decline of the Maccabean Kingdom. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\n1. Describe the character of Alexander Janneus. 2. His military policy.\n3. His treatment of his subjects. 4. The extension of Jewish territory.\n5. The effects of his rule. 6. Alexandra's policy. 7. The fatal mistakes\nof the Pharisees. 8. The suicidal quarrels between her sons, Hyrcanus and\nAristobulus. 9. The intrigues of Antipater. 10. The appeal to Rome.\n11. Pompey's intervention and capture of Jerusalem. 12. The causes of the\nfall of the Maccabean kingdom. 13. The political effects of the Maccabean\nstruggle. 14. The impression which it made upon Israel's faith. 15. The\nnew spirit that it inspired in the Jews.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Rome's policy and campaigns in the\nEast. Goodspeed, _Hist. of Anc. World_, 311-9; Seignobos, _Hist. of Rom.\nPeople_, 126-30. 2. Rome's earlier relation to the Jewish kingdom. 3. The\ncharacter and career of Pompey. Goodspeed, _Hist. of Anc. World_, 343-9;\nBotsford, _Hist. of Rome_, 175-80, 183-9; Morey, _Outlines of Roman\nHist._, ch. 20.\n\n\nTHE RULE OF ROME\n\nSection CXVII. The Rise of the Herodian House. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\n1. Describe the repeated rebellions against Rome that were instigated and\nled by Aristobulus and his sons. 2. The reasons why the Jews rallied about\ntheir standard. 3. Antipater's character and policy. 4. Herod's career\nas governor of Galilee. 5. The Parthian conquest and the temporary\nrestoration of the Maccabean rule. 6. The immediate effect upon Herod and\nhis family. 7. Reasons why he was appointed king of the Jews by Antony and\nOctavian.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The fortresses of Alexandrium and\nMacherus. Smith, _Hist. Geog. of the Holy Land_, 352-3, 569-71; Kent,\n_Bib. Geog. and Hist._, 229, 244-5; Schurer, _H.J.P._, I, i, 250-1.\n2. The history of Rome from 60 to 40 B.C. Botsford, _Hist. of Rome_,\n183-97; Fowler, _Julius Caesar_; Mahaffy, _Gk. World under Roman Sway_,\nch. IV. 3. The Parthians. Hastings, _D.B._, III, 680-1.\n\nSection CXVIII. Herod's Policy and Reign. GENERAL QUESTIONS:\n1. Describe the strength and weakness of Herod's character. 2. The ways\nin which he won the favor of Augustus. 3. His building activity within\nhis kingdom. 4. Outside of Palestine. 5. His treatment of his subjects.\n6. His record as husband and father. 7. The effects of his reign.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. Rome under Augustus. Botsford, _Hist.\nof Rome_, 204-22; Bury, _Student's Rom. Emp._, chs. I-XIV; Capes, _Early\nEmpire_, chs. I-III, XII-XIX. 2. Herod's Caesarea. Smith, _Hist. Geog. of\nthe Holy Land_, 138-41; _En. Bib._, I, 617-8; Kent, _Bib. Geog. and\nHist._, 233. 3. The various sides of Herod's character. Hastings, _D.B._,\nII, 356-7; _En. Bib._, II, 2025-9; Bevan, _Jer. under the High Priests_,\n148-51.\n\nSection CXIX. Herod's Temple. GENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the\nmotives that inspired Herod to rebuild the temple at Jerusalem. 2. His\npreparations for the work. 3. The extension of the temple area. 4. The\ndifferent gates leading to it. 5. The surrounding porches. 6. The temple\nproper. 7. The temple officials. 8. The temple service.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The detailed plan and dimensions of\nHerod's temple. Hastings, _D.B._, IV, 711-6; _En Bib._, IV, 4943-7;\nWarren, _The Temple and the Tomb_; Smith, _Jerusalem_, II, 499-520. 2. The\nadministration of the temple finances. Hastings, _D.B._, IV, 92-7; _En.\nBib._, IV, 4949-51; Smith, _Jerusalem_, I, 351-66. 3. The inscription\nforbidding foreigners to enter the inner courts. Hastings, _D.B._, IV,\n713-4.\n\nSection CXX. The Messianic Hopes and Religious Beliefs of Judaism.\nGENERAL QUESTIONS: 1. Describe the influences that determined the growth\nof Israel's messianic hopes. 2. The different forms which these hopes\nassumed. 3. The kingly nationalistic type of messianic hope. 4. The\ncharacteristics and development of the apocalyptic, catastrophic type of\nhope. 5. The type proclaimed by the great ethical prophets. 6. The\nbroadening and universalizing of Israel's messianic hopes. 7. The\ninfluence of the Maccabean struggle upon Israel's messianic beliefs.\n8. The messianic expectations of the Jews at the beginning of the\nChristian era.\n\nSUBJECTS FOR SPECIAL RESEARCH: 1. The origin of Israel's messianic\nhopes. _St. O. T_., Ill, 39-48; Goodspeed, _Israel's Messianic Hope_;\nOesterley, _Evolution of the Messianic Idea_. 2. The Sibylline Oracles.\nDeane, _Pseudepigrapha_; Hastings, _D.B._, extra vol., 66-8. 3. The Psalms\nof Solomon. Ryle and James, _The Pss. of Sol._; Deane, _Pseudepigrapha_,\n25-48.","title":"The Makers and Teachers of Judaism: From the Fall of Jerusalem to the Death of Herod the Great","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":131089}