{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_11897/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_11897","id":"gutenberg_11897","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/11897","summary":null,"tags":["Category: History - Religious","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Jaina sects","Jainism"],"text":"ON\n                      THE INDIAN SECT\n                            OF\n                        THE JAINAS\n\n                              BY\n        JOHANN GEORG B\u00dcHLER C.I.E., LLD., PH.D.\n Member of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Vienna.\n\n            TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN.\n\n    EDITED with an OUTLINE of JAINA MYTHOLOGY\n  \n                              BY\n       JAS. BURGESS, C.I.E., LL.D., F.R.S.E.\n\n                             1903.\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe late Dr. Georg B\u00fchler's essay _Ueber die Indische Secte der\nJaina_, read at the anniversary meeting of the Imperial Academy of\nSciences of Vienna on the 26th May 1887, has been for some time out of\nprint in the separate form. Its value as a succinct account of the\n\u015ar\u00e2vaka sect, by a scholar conversant with them and their religious\nliterature is well known to European scholars; but to nearly all educated\nnatives of India works published in German and other continental languages\nare practically sealed books, and thus the fresh information which they\nare well able to contribute is not elicited. It is hoped that the\ntranslation of this small work may meet with their acceptance and that of\nEuropeans in India and elsewhere to whom the original is either unknown or\nwho do not find a foreign language so easy to read as their own.\n\nThe translation has been prepared under my supervision, and with a few\nshort footnotes. Professor B\u00fchler's long note on the authenticity of the\nJaina tradition I have transferred to an appendix (p. 48) incorporating\nwith it a summary of what he subsequently expanded in proof of his thesis.\n\nTo Colebrooke's account of the Tirtha\u1e45karas reverenced by the Jainas,\nbut little has been added since its publication in the ninth volume of the\n_Asiatic Researches_; and as these are the centre of their worship,\nalways represented in their temples, and surrounded by attendant\nfigures,\u2014I have ventured to add a somewhat fuller account of them and a\nsummary of the general mythology of the sect, which may be useful to the\narchaeologist and the student of their iconography.\n\n  Edinburgh, April 1903.  J. BURGESS.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\nTHE INDIAN SECT OF THE JAINAS, by Dr. J. G. B\u00dcHLER.\n\nAppendix:\u2014Epigraphic testimony to the continuity of the Jaina\ntradition\n\nSKETCH OF JAINA MYTHOLOGY, by J. BURGESS.\n\n\n\n\nTHE INDIAN SECT OF THE JAINAS.\n\nThe _Jaina_ sect is a religious society of modern India, at variance\nto Brahmanism, and possesses undoubted claims on the interest of all\nfriends of Indian history. This claim is based partly on the peculiarities\nof their doctrines and customs, which present several resemblances to\nthose of Buddhism, but, above all, on the fact that it was founded in the\nsame period as the latter.\n\nLarger and smaller communities of _Jainas_ or _Arhata_,\u2014that is\nfollowers of the prophet, who is generally called simply the\n_Jina_\u2014'the conqueror of the world',\u2014or the _Arhat_\u2014'the holy\none',\u2014are to be found in almost every important Indian town, particularly\namong the merchant class. In some provinces of the West and North-west, in\nGujar\u00e2t, R\u00e2jput\u00e2na, and the Panj\u00e2b, as also in the Dravidian districts in\nthe south,\u2014especially in Kanara,\u2014they are numerous; and, owing to the\ninfluence of their wealth, they take a prominent place. They do not,\nhowever, present a compact mass, but are divided into two rival\nbranches\u2014the _Digambara_ and _\u015avet\u00e2mbara_ [Footnote: In notes\non the Jainas, one often finds the view expressed, that the _Digambaras_\nbelong only to the south, and the _\u015avet\u00e2mbaras_ to the north. This is\nby no means the case. The former in the Panj\u00e2b, in eastern R\u00e2jput\u00e2na and\nin the North West Provinces, are just as numerous, if not more so, than\nthe latter, and also appear here and there in western R\u00e2jput\u00e2na and\nGujar\u00e2t: see _Indian Antiquary_, vol. VII, p. 28.]\u2014each of which is\nsplit up into several subdivisions. The Digambara, that is, \"those whose\nrobe is the atmosphere,\" owe their name to the circumstance that they\nregard absolute nudity as the indispensable sign of holiness, [Footnote:\nThe ascetics of lower rank, now called Pa\u1e47\u1e0dit, now-a-days wear the\ncostume of the country. The Bha\u1e6d\u1e6d\u00e2raka, the heads of the sect,\nusually wrap themselves in a large cloth (_chadr_). They lay it off\nduring meals. A disciple then rings a bell as a sign that entrance is\nforbidden (_Ind. Ant._ loc. cit.). When the present custom first\narose cannot be ascertained. From the description of the Chinese pilgrim\nHiuen Tsiang (St. Julien, _Vie._ p. 224), who calls them Li-hi, it\nappears that they were still faithful to their principles in the beginning\nof the seventh century A.D. \"The Li-hi (Nirgranthis) distinguish\nthemselves by leaving their bodies naked and pulling out their hair. Their\nskin is all cracked, their feet are hard and chapped: like rotting trees\nthat one sees near rivers.\"]\u2014though the advance of civilization has\ncompelled them to depart from the practice of their theory. The\n\u015avet\u00e2mbara, that is, \"they who are clothed in white\"\u2014do not claim this\ndoctrine, but hold it as possible that the holy ones, who clothe\nthemselves, may also attain the highest goal. They allow, however, that\nthe founder of the Jaina religion and his first disciples disdained to\nwear clothes. They are divided, not only by this quarrel, but also by\ndifferences about dogmas and by a different literature. The separation\nmust therefore be of old standing. Tradition, too, upholds this\u2014though\nthe dates given do not coincide. From inscriptions it is certain that the\nsplit occurred before the first century of our era. [Footnote: See below\np. 44.] Their opposing opinions are manifested in the fact that they do\nnot allow each other the right of intermarriage or of eating at the same\ntable,\u2014the two chief marks of social equality. In spite of the age of the\nschism, and the enmity that divides the two branches, they are at one as\nregards the arrangement of their communities, doctrine, discipline, and\ncult,\u2014at least in the more important points; and, thus, one can always\nspeak of the Jaina religion as a whole.\n\nThe characteristic feature of this religion is its claim to universality,\nwhich it holds in common with Buddhism, and in opposition to Brahmanism.\nIt also declares its object to be to lead all men to salvation, and to\nopen its arms\u2014not only to the noble Aryan, but also to the low-born\n\u015a\u00fbdra and even to the alien, deeply despised in India, the Mlechcha.\n[Footnote: In the stereotyped introductions to the sermons of Jina it is\nalways pointed out that they are addressed to the Aryan and non-Aryan.\nThus in the _Aupap\u00e2tika S\u00fbtra_ \u00a7 56. (Leumann) it runs as follows:\n_tesi\u1e41 savvesi\u1e41 \u00e2\u1e5biyaman\u00e2riyana\u1e41 agil\u00e2e dhammat\u1e41\n\u00e2ikkhai_ \"to all these, Aryans and non-Aryans, he taught the law\nuntiringly\". In accordance with this principle, conversions of people of\nlow caste, such as gardeners, dyers, etc., are not uncommon even at the\npresent day. Muhammadans too, regarded as Mlechcha, are still received\namong the Jaina communities. Some cases of the kind were communicated to\nme in A\u1e25mad\u00e2b\u00e2d in the year 1876, as great triumphs of the Jainas.\nTales of the conversion of the emperor Akbar, through the patriarch\nH\u00eeravijaya (_Ind. Antiq._ Vol. XI, p. 256), and of the spread of the\nDigambara sect in an island Jainabhadri, in the Indian Ocean (_Ind.\nAnt._ Vol. VII, p. 28) and in Arabia, shew that the Jainas are familiar\nwith the idea of the conversion of non-Indians. Hiuen Tsiang's note on the\nappearance of the Nirgrantha or Digambara in Kiapishi (Beal,\n_Si-yu-ki_, Vol. I, p. 55), points apparently to the fact that they\nhad, in the North West at least, spread their missionary activity beyond\nthe borders of India.] As their doctrine, like Buddha's, is originally a\nphilosophical ethical system intended for ascetics, the disciples, like\nthe Buddhists, are, divided into ecclesiastics and laity. At the head\nstands an order of ascetics, originally Nirgrantha \"they, who are freed\nfrom all bands,\" now usually called Yatis\u2014\"Ascetics\", or S\u00e2dhus\u2014\"Holy\",\nwhich, among the \u015avet\u00e2mbara also admits women, [Footnote: Even the\ncanonical works of the \u015avet\u00e2mbara, as for example, the _\u00c2ch\u00e2r\u00e2\u1e45ga\n(Sacred Books of the East_, Vol. XXII, p. 88-186) contain directions\nfor nuns. It seems, however, that they have never played such an important\npart as in Buddhism. At the present time, the few female orders among the\n\u015avet\u00e2mbara consist entirely of virgin widows, whose husbands have died\nin childhood, before the beginning of their life together. It is not\nnecessary to look upon the admission of nuns among the \u015avet\u00e2mbara as an\nimitation of Buddhist teaching, as women were received into some of the\nold Brahmanical orders; see my note to _Manu_, VIII, 363, (_Sac.\nBks. of the East_, Vol. XXV, p. 317). Among the Digambaras, exclusion\nof women was demanded from causes not far to seek. They give as their\nreason for it, the doctrine that women are not capable of attaining\n_Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a_; see Peterson, _Second Report_, in _Jour. Bom.\nBr. R. As. Soc._ Vol. XVII, p. 84.] and under them the general\ncommunity of the Up\u00e2saka \"the Worshippers\", or the \u015ar\u00e2vaka, \"the\nhearers\".\n\nThe ascetics alone are able to penetrate into the truths which Jina\nteaches, to follow his rules and to attain to the highest reward which he\npromises. The laity, however, who do not dedicate themselves to the search\nafter truth, and cannot renounce the life of the world, still find a\nrefuge in Jainism. It is allowed to them as hearers to share its\nprinciples, and to undertake duties, which are a faint copy of the demands\nmade on the ascetics. Their reward is naturally less. He who remains in\nthe world cannot reach the highest goal, but he can still tread the way\nwhich leads to it. Like all religions of the Hind\u00fbs founded on\nphilosophical speculation, Jainism sees this highest goal in\n_Nirv\u00e2na_ or _Moksha_, the setting free of the individual from\nthe _Sa\u1e41s\u00e2ra_,\u2014the revolution of birth and death. The means of\nreaching it are to it, as to Buddhism, the three Jewels\u2014the right Faith,\nthe right Knowledge, and the right Walk. By the right Faith it understands\nthe full surrender of himself to the teacher, the Jina, the firm\nconviction that he alone has found the way of salvation, and only with him\nis protection and refuge to be found. Ask who Jina is, and the Jaina will\ngive exactly the same answer as the Buddhist with respect to Buddha. He is\noriginally an erring man, bound with the bonds of the world, who,\u2014not by\nthe help of a teacher, nor by the revelation of the Vedas\u2014which, he\ndeclares, are corrupt\u2014but by his own power, has attained to omniscience\nand freedom, and out of pity for suffering mankind preaches and declares\nthe way of salvation, which he has found. Because he has conquered the\nworld and the enemies in the human heart, he is called Jina \"the Victor\",\nMah\u00e2v\u00eera, \"the great hero\"; because he possesses the highest knowledge, he\nis called Sarvaj\u00f1a or Kevalin, the \"omniscient\", Buddha, the\n\"enlightened\"; because he has freed himself from the world he receives the\nnames of Mukta \"the delivered one\", Siddha and Tath\u00e2gata, \"the perfected\",\nArhat \"the holy one\"; and as the proclaimer of the doctrine, he is the\nT\u00eerthakara \"the finder of the ford\", through the ocean of the\n_Sa\u1e41s\u00e2ra_. In these epithets, applied to the founder of their\ndoctrine, the Jainas agree almost entirely with the Buddhists, as the\nlikeness of his character to that of Buddha would lead us to expect. They\nprefer, however, to use the names Jina and Arhat, while the Buddhists\nprefer to speak of Buddha as Tath\u00e2gata or Sugata. The title T\u00eerthakara is\npeculiar to the Jainas. Among the Buddhists it is a designation for false\nteachers. [Footnote: The titles Siddha, Buddha and Mukta are certainly\nborrowed by both sects from the terminology of the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47s, which they\nused, even in olden times, to describe those saved during their lifetimes\nand used in the \u015aaivite doctrine to describe a consecrated one who is\non the way to redemption. An Arhat, among the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47s, is a man\ndistinguished for his knowledge and pious life (comp. for example\n\u00c2pastamba, _Dharmas\u00fbtra._ I, 13, 13; II, 10, I.) and this idea is so\nnear that of the Buddhists and the Jainas that it may well be looked upon\nas the foundation of the latter. The meaning of T\u00eerthakara \"prophet,\nfounder of religion\", is derived from the Br\u00e2hmanic use of _t\u00eertha_\nin the sense of \"doctrine\". Comp. also H. Jacobi's Article on the Title of\nBuddha and Jina, _Sac. Books of the East_. Vol. XXII, pp. xix, xx.]\n\nThe Jaina says further, however, that there was more than one Jina. Four\nand twenty have, at long intervals, appeared and have again and again\nrestored to their original purity the doctrines darkened by evil\ninfluences. They all spring from noble, warlike tribes. Only in such, not\namong the low Br\u00e2hma\u1e47s, can a Jina see the light of the world. The\nfirst Jina \u1e5ai\u0310shabha,\u2014more than 100 billion oceans of years\nago,\u2014periods of unimaginable length, [Footnote: A S\u00e2gara or S\u00e2garopam\u00e2 of\nyears is == 100,000,000,000,000 Palya or Palyopama. A Palya is a period in\nwhich a well, of one or, according to some, a hundred _yojana_, i.e.\nof one or a hundred geographical square miles, stuffed full of fine hairs,\ncan be emptied, if one hair is pulled out every hundred years: Wilson,\n_Select. Works_, Vol. I, p. 309; Colebrooke, _Essays_, Vol. II,\np. 194. ed. Cowell.]\u2014was born as the son of a king of Ayodhy\u00e2 and lived\neight million four hundred thousand years. The intervals between his\nsuccessors and the durations of their lives became shorter and shorter.\nBetween the twenty third, P\u00e2r\u015bva and the twenty fourth Vardham\u00e2na,\nwere only 250 years, and the age of the latter is given as only\nseventy-two years. He appeared, according to some, in the last half of\nthe sixth century, according to others in the first half of the fifth\ncentury B.C. He is of course the true, historical prophet of the Jainas\nand it is in his doctrine, that the Jainas should believe. The dating\nback of the origin of the Jaina religion again, agrees with the\npretensions of the Buddhists, who recognise twenty-five Buddhas who\ntaught the same system one after the other. Even with Brahmanism, it seems\nto be in some distant manner connected, for the latter teaches in its\ncosmogony, the successive appearance of Demiurges, and wise men\u2014the\nfourteen Manus, who, at various periods helped to complete the work of\ncreation and proclaimed the Brahmanical law. These Brahmanical ideas may\npossibly have given rise to the doctrines of the twenty-five Buddhas and\ntwenty-four Jinas, [Footnote: For the list of these Jinas, see below.]\nwhich, certainly, are later additions in both systems.\n\nThe undoubted and absolutely correct comprehension of the nine truths\nwhich the Jina gives expression to, or of the philosophical system which\nthe Jina taught, represents the second Jewel\u2014the true Knowledge. Its\nprincipal features are shortly as follows. [Footnote: More complete\nrepresentations are to be found in Colebrooke's _Misc. Essays_. Vol.\nI, pp. 404, 413, with Cowell's Appendix p. 444-452; Vol. II, pp. 194, 196,\n198-201; H. H. Wilson's _Select Works_, Vol. I, pp. 297-302, 305-317;\nJ. Stevenson, _Kalpas\u00fbtra_, pp. xix-xxv; A. Barth, _Religions de\nl'Inde_, pp. 84-91.]\n\nThe world (by which we are to understand, not only the visible, but also\nimaginary continents depicted with the most extravagant fancy, heavens and\nhells of the Brahmanical Cosmology, extended by new discoveries) is\nuncreated. It exists, without ruler, only by the power of its elements,\nand is everlasting. The elements of the world are six substances\u2014souls,\n_Dharma_ or moral merit, _Adharma_ or sin, space, time,\nparticles of matter. From the union of the latter spring four\nelements\u2014earth, fire, water, wind\u2014and further, bodies and all other\nappearances of the world of sense and of the supernatural worlds. The\nforms of the appearances are mostly unchangeable. Only the bodies of men\nand their age increase or decrease in consequence of the greater or less\ninfluence of sin or merit, during immeasurably long periods,\u2014the\n_Avasarpi\u1e47i_ and the _Utsarpi\u1e47i_. Souls are, each by\nitself, independent, real existences whose foundation is pure\nintelligence, and who possess an impulse to action. In the world they are\nalways chained to bodies. The reason of this confinement is that they give\nthemselves up to the stress of activity, to passions, to influences of the\nsenses and objects of the mind, or attach themselves to a false belief.\nThe deeds which they perform in the bodies are _Karman_, merit and\nsin. This drives them\u2014when one body has passed away, according to the\nconditions of its existence\u2014into another, whose quality depends on the\ncharacter of the _Karman_, and will be determined especially by the\nlast thoughts springing from it before death. Virtue leads to the heavens\nof the gods or to birth among men in pure and noble races. Sin consigns\nthe souls to the lower regions, in the bodies of animals, in plants, even\ninto masses of lifeless matter. For\u2014according to the Jaina\ndoctrine\u2014souls exist not only in organic structures, but also in\napparently dead masses, in stones, in lumps of earth, in drops of water,\nin fire and in wind. Through union with bodies the nature of the soul is\naffected. In the mass of matter the light of its intelligence is\ncompletely concealed; it loses consciousness, is immovable, and large or\nsmall, according to the dimensions of its abode. In organic structures it\nis always conscious; it depends however, on the nature of the same,\nwhether it is movable or immovable and possessed of five, four, three,\ntwo, or one organ of sense.\n\nThe bondage of souls, if they inhabit a human body, can be abolished by\nthe suppression of the causes which lead to their confinement and by the\ndestruction of the _Karman_. The suppression of the causes is\naccomplished by overcoming the inclination to be active and the passions,\nby the control of the senses, and by steadfastly holding to the right\nfaith. In this way will be hindered the addition of new _Karman_, new\nmerit or new guilt. The destruction of _Karman_ remaining from\nprevious existences can be brought about either spontaneously by the\nexhaustion of the supply or by asceticism. In the latter case the final\nstate is the attainment to a knowledge which penetrates the universe, to\n_Kevala, J\u00f1\u00e2na_ and _Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a_ or _Moksha_: full\ndeliverance from all bonds. These goals may be reached even while the soul\nis still in its body. If however the body is destroyed then the soul\nwanders into the \"No-World\" _(al\u00f4ka)_ as the Jain says, i.e. into the\nheaven of Jina 'the delivered', lying outside the world. [Footnote: On the\nJaina Paradise see below. Dr. B\u00fchler seems here to have confounded\nthe _Al\u00f4ka_ or Non-world, 'the space where only things without life\nare found', with the heaven of the Siddhas; but these are living beings\nwho have crossed the boundary] There it continues eternally in its pure\nintellectual nature. Its condition is that of perfect rest which nothing\ndisturbs. These fundamental ideas are carried out in the particulars with\na subtilness and fantasy unexampled, even in subtile and fantastic India,\nin a scholarly style, and defended by the _sy\u00e2dv\u00e2da_\u2014the doctrine of\n\"It may be so\",\u2014a mode of reasoning which makes it possible to assert and\ndeny the existence of one and the same thing. If this be compared with the\nother Indian systems, it stands nearer the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47 than the Buddhist,\nwith which it has the acceptance in common of only four, not five\nelements. Jainism touches all the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47 religions and Buddhism in its\ncosmology and ideas of periods, and it agrees entirely with regard to the\ndoctrines of _Karman_, of the bondage, and the deliverance of souls.\nAtheism, the view that the world was not created, is common to it with\nBuddhism and the S\u00e2\u1e45khya philosophy. Its psychology approaches that of\nthe latter in that both believe in the existence of innumerable\nindependent souls. But the doctrine of the activity of souls and their\ndistribution into masses of matter is in accordance with the Ved\u00e2nta,\naccording to which the principle of the soul penetrates every thing\nexisting. In the further development of the soul doctrine, the conceptions\n'individual soul' and 'living being' to which the Jaina and the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47\ngive the same name,\u2014_j\u00eeva_, seem to become confounded. The Jaina\nidea of space and time as real substances is also found in the\nVai\u015beshika system. In placing _Dharma_ and _Adharma_ among\nsubstances Jainism stands alone.\n\nThe third jewel, the right Walk which the Jaina ethics contains, has its\nkernel in the five great oaths which the Jaina ascetic takes on his\nentrance into the order. He promises, just as the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47 penitent, and\nalmost in the same words, not to hurt, not to speak untruth, to\nappropriate nothing to himself without permission, to preserve chastity,\nand to practice self-sacrifice. The contents of these simple rules become\nmost extraordinarily extended on the part of the Jainas by the insertion\nof five clauses, in each of which are three separate active instruments of\nsin, in special relation to thoughts, words, and deeds. Thus, concerning\nthe oath not to hurt, on which the Jaina lays the greatest emphasis: it\nincludes not only the intentional killing or hurting of living beings,\nplants, or the souls existing in dead matter, it requires also the utmost\ncarefulness in the whole manner of life, in all movements, a watchfulness\nover all functions of the body by which anything living might be hurt.\n[Footnote: The Digambara sect, at least in southern India, do not seem to\nbe all quite so punctiliously careful in this as the \u015avet\u00e2mbara of\nwestern India.\u2014Ed.] It demands finally strict watch over the heart and\ntongue, and the avoidance of all thoughts and words which might lead to\ndispute and quarrel and thereby to harm. In like manner the rule of\nsacrifice means not only that the ascetic has no house or possessions, it\nteaches also that a complete unconcern toward agreeable and disagreeable\nimpressions is necessary, as also the sacrifice of every attachment to\nanything living or dead. [Footnote: On the five great vows see the\n_\u00c2ch\u00e2r\u00e2\u1e45ga S\u00fbtra_, II, 15: _S.B.E_. Vol. XXII, pp. 202-210.\nThe Sanskrit terms of the Jains are: 1. _ahi\u1e41s\u00e2_, 2.\n_s\u00fbnrita_, 3. _asteya_, 4. _brahm\u00e2ch\u00e2rya_, 5.\n_aparigraha_; those of the Brahmanical ascetics: 1. _ahi\u1e41sa_,\n2. _satya_, 3. _asteya_, 4. _brahm\u00e2ch\u00e2rya_,\n5. _ty\u00e2ga_.]\n\nBeside the conscientious observance of these rules, Tapas\u2014Asceticism, is\nmost important for the right walk of those, who strive to attain\n_Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a_. Asceticism is inward as well as outward. The former is\nconcerned with self-discipline, the cleansing and purifying of the mind.\nIt embraces repentance of sin, confession of the same to the teacher, and\npenance done for it, humility before teachers and all virtuous ones, and\nthe service of the same, the study and teaching of the faith or holy\nwriting, pious meditations on the misery of the world, the impurity of the\nbody, etc. and lastly, the stripping off of every thing pertaining to the\nworld. On the other hand, under the head of exterior Asceticism, the Jaina\nunderstands temperance, begging, giving up all savoury food, different\nkinds of self-mortification such as sitting in unnatural and wearying\npositions, hindering the action of the organs, especially by fasts, which,\nunder certain circumstances may be continued to starvation. Voluntary\ndeath by the withdrawal of nourishment is, according to the strict\ndoctrine of the Digambara, necessary for all ascetics, who have reached\nthe highest step of knowledge. The Kevalin, they say, eats no longer. The\nmilder \u015avet\u00e2mbara do not demand this absolutely, but regard it, as a\nsure entrance to _Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a_. In order, however, that this death may\nbear its fruits, the ascetic must keep closely to the directions for it,\notherwise he merely lengthens the number of rebirths. [Footnote: With\nreference to asceticism, comp. Leumann, _Aupap\u00e2tika S\u00fbtra_ \u00a7 30. The\ndeath of the wise ones by starvation is described, Weber, _Bhagavat\u00ee\nS\u00fbtra_, II, 266-267; Hoernle _Up\u00e2sakada\u015ba S\u00fbtra,_ pp. 44-62;\n_\u00c2ch\u00e2r\u00e2\u1e45ga S\u00fbtra_, in _S.B.E_. Vol. XXII, pp. 70-73. Among\nthe Digambara the heads of schools still, as a rule, fall victims to this\nfate. Even among the \u015avet\u00e2mbara, cases of this kind occur, see K.\nForbes, _R\u00e2s M\u00e2l\u00e2_, Vol. II, pp. 331-332, or 2nd ed. pp. 610-611.]\n\nFrom these general rules follow numerous special ones, regarding the life\nof the disciple of Jina. The duty of sacrifice forces him, on entrance\ninto the order, to give up his possessions and wander homeless in strange\nlands, alms-vessel in hand, and, if no other duty interferes, never to\nstay longer than one night in the same place. The rule of wounding nothing\nmeans that he must carry three articles with him, a straining cloth, for\nhis drinking water, a broom, and a veil before his mouth, in order to\navoid killing insects. It also commands him to avoid all cleansing and\nwashing, and to rest in the four months of the rainy season, in which\nanimal and plant life displays itself most abundantly. In order to\npractice asceticism, it is the rule to make this time of rest a period of\nstrictest fasts, most diligent study of the holy writings, and deepest\nmeditation. This duty also necessitates the ascetic to pluck out in the\nmost painful manner his hair which, according to oriental custom, he must\ndo away with at his consecration\u2014a peculiar custom of the Jainas, which\nis not found among other penitents of India.\n\nLike the five great vows, most of the special directions for the\ndiscipline of the Jain ascetic are copies, and often exaggerated copies,\nof the Br\u00e2hmanic rules for penitents. The outward marks of the order\nclosely resemble those of the Sanny\u00e2sin. The life of wandering during\neight months and the rest during the rainy season agree exactly; and in\nmany other points, for example in the use of confession, they agree with\nthe Buddhists. They agree with Br\u00e2hma\u1e47s alone in ascetic self-torture,\nwhich Buddhism rejects; and specially characteristic is the fact that\nancient Br\u00e2hmanism recommends starvation to its penitents as beneficial.\n[Footnote: An example may be found in Jacobi's careful comparison of the\ncustoms of the Br\u00e2hmanic and Jaina ascetics, in the beginning of his\ntranslation of the _\u00c2ch\u00e2r\u00e2\u1e45ga S\u00fbtra, S.B.E._, Vol. XXII, pp.\nxxi\u2014xxix. In relation to the death by starvation of Brahmanical hermits\nand Sanny\u00e2sin, see \u00c2pastamba, _Dharmas\u00fbtra_, in S.B.E. Vol. II, pp.\n154, 156, where (IT, 22, 4 and II, 23, 2) it, says of the penitents who\nhave reached the highest grade of asceticism: \"Next he shall live on water\n(then) on air, then on ether\".]\n\nThe doctrine of the right way for the Jaina laity differs from that for\nthe ascetics. In place of the five great vows appear mere echoes. He vows\nto avoid only serious injury to living beings, i.e. men and animals; only\nthe grosser forms of untruth\u2014direct lies; only the most flagrant forms of\ntaking, what is not given, that is, theft and robbery. In place of the\noath of chastity there is that of conjugal fidelity. In place of that of\nself-denial, the promise is not greedily to accumulate possessions and to\nbe contented. To these copies are added seven other vows, the\nmiscellaneous contents of which correspond to the special directions for\nthe discipline of ascetics. Their object is, partly to bring the outward\nlife of the laity into accordance with the Jaina teaching, especially with\nregard to the protection of living creatures from harm, and partly to\npoint the heart to the highest goal. Some contain prohibitions against\ncertain drinks, such as spirits; or meats, such as flesh, fresh butter,\nhoney, which cannot be enjoyed without breaking the vow of preservation of\nanimal life. Others limit the choice of businesses which the laity may\nenter; for example, agriculture is forbidden, as it involves the tearing\nup of the ground and the death of many animals, as Br\u00e2hmanism also holds.\nOthers have to do with mercy and charitableness, with the preserving of\ninward peace, or with the necessity of neither clinging too much to life\nand its joys nor longing for death as the end of suffering. To the laity,\nhowever, voluntary starvation is also recommended as meritorious. These\ndirections (as might be expected from the likeness of the circumstances)\nresemble in many points the Buddhist directions for the laity, and indeed\nare often identical with regard to the language used. Much is however\nspecially in accordance with Br\u00e2hmanic doctrines. [Footnote: The\n_Up\u00e2sakada\u015b\u00e2 S\u00fbtra_ treats of the right life of the laity,\nHoernle, pp. 11-37 (Bibl. Ind.), and Hemachandra, _Yogas\u00fbtra_,\nPrak\u00e2sa ii and iii; Windisch, _Zeitschrift der Deutsch Morg. Ges._\nBd. XXVIII, pp. 226-246. Both scholars have pointed out in the notes to\ntheir translations, the relationship between the precepts and terms, of\nthe Jainas and Buddhists. The Jainas have borrowed a large number of rules\ndirectly from the law books of the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47s. The occupations forbidden\nto the Jaina laity are almost all those forbidden by the Br\u00e2hmanic law to\nthe Br\u00e2hma\u1e47, who in time of need lives like a Va\u012b\u015bya.\nHemachandra, _Yoga\u015b\u00e2stra_, III, 98\u2014112 and _Up\u00e2sakada\u015b\u00e2\nS\u00fbtra_, pp. 29-30, may be compared with Manu, X, 83-89, XI, 64 and 65,\nand the parallel passages quoted in the synopsis to my translation\n(_S.B.E._ Vol. XXV).] In practical life Jainism makes of its laity\nearnest men who exhibit a stronger trait of resignation than other Indians\nand excel in an exceptional willingness to sacrifice anything for their\nreligion. It makes them also fanatics for the protection of animal life.\nWherever they gain influence, there is an end of bloody sacrifices and of\nslaughtering and killing the larger animals.\n\nThe union of the laity with the order of ascetics has, naturally,\nexercised a powerful reaction on the former and its development, as well\nas on its teaching, and is followed by similar results in Jainism and\nBuddhism. Then, as regards the changes in the teaching, it is no doubt to\nbe ascribed to the influence of the laity that the atheistic Jaina system,\nas well as the Buddhist, has been endowed with a cult. The ascetic, in his\nstriving for _Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a_, endeavours to suppress the natural desire\nof man to worship higher powers. In the worldly hearer, who does not\nstrive after this goal exclusively, this could not succeed. Since the\ndoctrine gave no other support, the religious feeling of the laity clung\nto the founder of it: Jina, and with him his mythical predecessors, became\ngods. Monuments and temples ornamented with their statues were built,\nespecially at those places, where the prophets, according to legends, had\nreached their goal. To this is added a kind of worship, consisting of\nofferings of flowers and incense to Jina, of adoration by songs of praise\nin celebration of their entrance into _Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a_, of which the\nJaina makes a great festival by solemn processions and pilgrimages to the\nplaces where it has been attained. [Footnote: For the Jaina ritual, see\n_Indian Antiquary_. Vol. XIII, pp. 191-196. The principal sacred\nplaces or Tirthas are\u2014Sameta \u015aikhara in Western Bengal, where twenty\nof the Jinas are said to have attained Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a; \u015aatru\u00f1jaya and\nGirn\u00e2r in K\u00e2thi\u00e2w\u00e2\u1e0d sacred respectively to \u1e5aishabhan\u00e2tha and\nNemin\u00e2tha; Chandrapuri where V\u00e2sup\u00fbjya died; and P\u00e2w\u00e2 in Bengal at which\nVardham\u00e2na died.\u2014Ed.] This influence of the laity has become, in course\nof time, of great importance to Indian art, and India is indebted to it\nfor a number of its most beautiful architectural monuments, such as the\nsplendid temples of \u00c2bu, Girn\u00e2r and \u015aatru\u00f1jaya in Gujar\u00e2t. It has also\nbrought about a change in the mind of the ascetics. In many of their hymns\nin honour of Jina, they appeal to him with as much fervour as the\nBr\u00e2hma\u1e47 to his gods; and there are often expressions in them, contrary,\nto the original teaching, ascribing to Jina a creative power. Indeed a\nJaina description of the six principal systems goes so far as to number\nJainism\u2014as also Buddhism\u2014among the theistic religions. [Footnote: The\nlatter assertion is to be found In the _Sha\u1e0ddar\u015banasamuchchaya_\nVers. 45, 77-78. A creative activity is attributed to the Jinas even in\nthe Kuh\u00e2on inscription which is dated 460-461 A.D. (_Ind. Antiq_.\nVol. X, p. 126). There they are called _\u00e2dikartri_ the 'original\ncreators'. The cause of the development of a worship among the Jainas was\nfirst rightly recognised by Jacobi, _S.B.E._ Vol. XXII, p. xxi. The\nJaina worship differs in one important point from that of the Buddhists.\nIt recognised no worship of relics.]\n\nBut in other respects also the admission of the laity has produced\ndecisive changes in the life of the clergy. In the education of worldly\ncommunities, the ascetic\u2014whose rules of indifference toward all and every\nthing, make him a being concentrated entirely upon himself and his\ngoal\u2014is united again to humanity and its interests. The duty of educating\nthe layman and watching over his life, must of necessity change the\nwandering penitents into settled monks\u2014who dedicate themselves to the\ncare of souls, missionary activity, and the acquisition of knowledge, and\nwho only now and again fulfil the duty of changing their place of\nresidence. The needs of the lay communities required the continual\npresence of teachers. Even should these desire to change from time to\ntime, it was yet necessary to provide a shelter for them. Thus the\nUp\u00e2\u015braya or places of refuge, the Jaina monasteries came into\nexistence, which exactly correspond to the Buddhist Sangh\u00e2r\u00e2ma. With the\nmonasteries and the fixed residence in them appeared a fixed membership of\nthe order, which, on account of the Jaina principle of unconditional\nobedience toward the teacher, proved to be much stricter than in Buddhism.\nOn the development of the order and the leisure of monastic life, there\nfollowed further, the commencement of a literary and scientific activity.\nThe oldest attempt, in this respect, limited itself to bringing their\ndoctrine into fixed forms. Their results were, besides other lost works,\nthe so-called _A\u1e45ga_,\u2014the members of the body of the law, which\nwas perhaps originally produced in the third century B.C. Of the\n_A\u1e45ga_ eleven are no doubt preserved among the \u015avet\u00e2mbaras from\na late edition of the fifth or sixth century A.D. These works are not\nwritten in Sanskrit, but in a popular Pr\u00e2krit dialect: for the Jina, like\nBuddha, used the language of the people when teaching. They contain partly\nlegends about the prophet and his activity as a teacher, partly fragments\nof a doctrine or attempts at systematic representations of the same.\nThough the dialect is different they present, in the form of the tales and\nin the manner of expression, a wonderful resemblance to the sacred\nwritings of the Buddhists. [Footnote: A complete review of the\n_A\u1e45ga_ and the canonical works which were joined to it later, is\nto be found in A. Weber's fundamental treatise on the sacred writings of\nthe Jainas in the _Indische Studien_, Bd. XVI, SS. 211-479 and Bd.\nXVIII, SS. 1-90. The _\u00c2ch\u00e2r\u00e1\u1e45ga_ and the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_\nare translated by H. Jacobi in the _S.B.E_ Vol. XXII, and a part of\nthe _Up\u00e2sakadas\u00e2 S\u00fbtra_ by R. Hoernle in the _Bibl. Ind._ In the\nestimates of the age of the _A\u1e45ga_ I follow H. Jacobi, who has\nthroughly discussed the question _S.B.E._ Vol. XXII, pp.\nxxxix-xlvii.] The Digambaras, on the other hand, have preserved nothing of\nthe _A\u1e45ga_ but the names. They put in their place later systematic\nworks, also in Pr\u00e2krit, and assert, in vindication of their different\nteaching, that the canon of their rivals is corrupted. In the further\ncourse of history, however, both branches of the Jainas have, like the\nBuddhists, in their continual battles with the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47s, found it\nnecessary to make themselves acquainted with the ancient language of the\nculture of the latter. First the Digambara and later the \u015avet\u00e2mbara\nbegan to use Sanskrit. They did not rest content with explaining their\nown teaching in Sanskrit works: they turned also to the secular sciences\nof the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47s. They have accomplished so much of importance, in\ngrammar, in astronomy, as well as in some branches of letters, that they\nhave won respect even from their enemies, and some of their works are\nstill of importance to European science. In southern India, where they\nworked among the Dravi\u1e0dian tribes, they also advanced the development\nof these languages. The Kanarese literary language and the Tamil and\nTelugu rest on the foundations laid by the Jaina monks. This activity led\nthem, indeed, far from their proper goal, but it created for them an\nimportant position in the history of literature and culture.\n\nThe resemblance between the Jainas and the Buddhists, which I have had so\noften cause to bring forward, suggests the question, whether they are to\nbe regarded as a branch of the latter, or whether they resemble the\nBuddhists merely because, as their tradition asserts, [Footnote: The later\ntradition of the Jainas gives for the death of their prophet the dates\n545, 527 and 467 B.C. (see Jacobi, _Kalpas\u00fbtra_ introd. pp. vii\u2014ix\nand xxx). None of the sources in which these announcements appear are\nolder than the twelfth century A.D. The latest is found in Hemachandra who\ndied in the year 1172 A.D. The last is certainly false if the assertion,\naccepted by most authorities, that Buddha's death falls between the years\n482 and 472 B.C. is correct. For the Buddhist tradition maintains that the\nlast Jaina T\u00eerhakara died during Buddha's lifetime (see p. 34).] they\nsprang from the same period and the same religious movement in opposition\nto Br\u00e2hmanism. This question, was formerly, and is still sometimes,\nanswered in agreement with the first theory, pointing out the undoubted\ndefects in it, to justify the rejection of the Jaina tradition, and even\ndeclaring it to be a late and intentional fabrication. In spite of this\nthe second explanation is the right one, because the Buddhists themselves\nconfirm the statements of the Jainas about their prophet. Old historical\ntraditions and inscriptions prove the independent existence of the sect of\nthe Jainas even during the first five centuries after Buddha's death, and\namong the inscriptions are some which clear the Jaina tradition not only\nfrom the suspicion of fraud but bear powerful witness to its honesty.\n[Footnote: Apart from the ill-supported supposition of Colebrooke,\nStevenson and Thomas, according to which Buddha was a disloyal disciple of\nthe founder of the Jainas, there is the view held by H. H. Wilson, A.\nWeber, and Lassen, and generally accepted till twenty-five years ago, that\nthe Jainas are an old sect of the Buddhists. This was based, on the one\nhand, upon the resemblance of the Jaina doctrines, writings, and\ntraditions to those of the Buddhists, on the other, on the fact that the\ncanonical works of the Jainas show a more modern dialect than those of the\nBuddhists, and that authentic historical proofs of their early existence\nare wanting. I was myself formerly persuaded of the correctness of this\nview and even thought I recognised the Jainas in the Buddhist school of\nthe Sammat\u00eeya. On a more particular examination of Jaina literature, to\nwhich I was forced on account of the collection undertaken for the English\nGovernment in the seventies, I found that the Jainas had changed their\nname and were always, in more ancient times, called Nirgrantha or\nNiga\u1e47\u1e6dha. The observation that the Buddhists recognise the\nNiga\u1e47\u1e6dha and relate of their head and founder, that he was a rival\nof Buddha's and died at P\u00e2v\u00e2 where the last T\u00eerthakara is said to have\nattained _Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a_, caused me to accept the view that the Jainas\nand the Buddhists sprang from the same religious movement. My supposition\nwas confirmed by Jacobi, who reached the like view by another course,\nindependently of mine (see _Zeitschrift der Deutsch Morg. Ges_. Bd.\nXXXV, S. 669. Note 1), pointing out that the last T\u00eerthakara in the Jaina\ncanon bears the same name as among the Buddhists. Since the publication of\nour results in the _Ind. Ant_. Vol. VII, p. 143 and in Jacobi's\nintroduction to his edition of the _Kalpas\u00fbtra,_ which have been\nfurther verified by Jacobi with great penetration, views on this question\nhave been divided. Oldenberg, Kern, Hoernle, and others have accepted this\nnew view without hesitation, while A Weber (_Indische Studien_ Bd.\nXVI, S. 240) and Barth (_Revue de l'Histoire des Religions_, tom.\nIII, p. 90) keep to their former standpoint. The latter do not trust the\nJaina tradition and believe it probable that the statements in the same\nare falsified. There are certainly great difficulties in the way of\naccepting such a position especially the improbability that the Buddhists\nshould have forgotten the fact of the defection of their hated enemy.\nMeanwhile, this is not absolutely impossible as the oldest preserved Jaina\ncanon had its first authentic edition only in the fifth or sixth century\nof our era, and as yet the proof is wanting that the Jainas, in ancient\ntimes, possessed a fixed tradition. The belief that I am able to insert\nthis missing link in the chain of argument and the hope of removing the\ndoubts of my two honoured friends has caused me to attempt a connected\nstatement of the whole question although this necessitates the repetition\nof much that has already been said, and is in the first part almost\nentirely a recapitulation of the results of Jacobi's researches.]\n\nThe oldest canonical books of the Jaina, apart from some mythological\nadditions and evident exaggerations, contain the following important notes\non the life of their last prophet. [Footnote: The statement that\nVardham\u00e2na's father was a mighty king belongs to the manifest\nexaggerations. This assertion is refuted by other statements of the Jainas\nthemselves. See Jacobi, _S.B.E._ Vol. XXII, pp. xi-xii.] Vardham\u00e2na\nwas the younger son of Siddh\u00e2rtha a nobleman who belonged to the Kshatriya\nrace, called in Sanskrit J\u00f1\u00e2ti or J\u00f1\u00e2ta, in Prakrit N\u00e2ya, and, according\nto the old custom of the Indian warrior caste, bore the name of a\nBr\u00e2hmanic family the K\u00e2\u015byapa. His mother, who was called Tri\u015bal\u00e2,\nbelonged to the family of the governors of Videha. Siddh\u00e2rtha's residence\nwas Ku\u1e47\u1e0dapura, the Basukund of to-day, a suburb of the wealthy town\nof Vai\u015b\u00e2l\u00ee, the modern Besarh, in Videha or Tirhut. [Footnote: Dr.\nB\u00fchler by a slip had here \"Magadha oder Bih\u00e2r\".\u2014J. B.] Siddh\u00e2rtha was\nson-in-law to the king of Vai\u015b\u00e2l\u00ee. Thirty years, it seems, Vardham\u00e2na\nled a worldly life in his parents' house. He married, and his wife\nYa\u015bod\u00e2 bore him a daughter Anojj\u00e2, who was married to a noble of the\nname of Jam\u00e2li, and in her turn had a daughter. In his thirty-first year\nhis parents died. As they were followers of P\u00e2r\u015bva the twenty-third\nJina, they chose, according to the custom of the Jainas, the death of the\nwise by starvation. Immediately after this Vardham\u00e2na determined to\nrenounce the world. He got permission to take this step from his elder\nbrother Nandivardhana, and the ruler of his land divided his possessions\nand became a homeless ascetic. He wandered more than twelve years, only\nresting during the rainy season, in the lands of the L\u00e2\u1e0dha, in\nVajjabh\u00fbmi and Subbhabh\u00fbmi, the R\u00e2rh of to-day in Bengal, and learned to\nbear with equanimity great hardships and cruel ill treatment at the hands\nof the inhabitants of those districts. Besides these he imposed upon\nhimself the severest mortifications; after the first year he discarded\nclothes and devoted himself to the deepest meditation. In the thirteenth\nyear of this wandering life he believed he had attained to the highest\nknowledge and to the dignity of a holy one. He then appeared as a prophet,\ntaught the Nirgrantha doctrine, a modification of the religion of\nP\u00e2r\u015bva, and organised the order of the Nirgrantha ascetics. From that\ntime he bore the name of the venerable ascetic Mah\u00e2v\u00eera. His career as a\nteacher lasted not quite thirty years, during which he travelled about, as\nformerly, all over the country, except during the rainy seasons. He won\nfor himself numerous followers, both of the clergy and the lay class,\namong whom, however, in the fourteenth year of his period of teaching, a\nsplit arose\u2014caused by his son-in-law Jam\u00e2li.\n\nThe extent of his sphere of influence almost corresponds with that of the\nkingdoms of Sr\u00e2vast\u00ee or Kosala, Vidcha, Magadha, and A\u1e45ga,\u2014the modern\nOudh, and the provinces of Tirhut and Bih\u00e2r in Western Bengal. Very\nfrequently he spent the rainy season in his native place Vai\u015b\u00e2l\u00ee and in\nR\u00e2jag\u1e5biha. Among his contemporaries were, a rival teacher Gos\u00e2la the\nson of Ma\u1e41khali\u2014whom he defeated in a dispute, the King of\nVideha\u2014Bhambhas\u00e2ra or Bibbhis\u00e2ra called Sre\u1e47ika, and his sons\nAbhayakum\u00e2ra and the parricide Aj\u00e1ta\u015batru or K\u00fb\u1e47ika, who\nprotected him or accepted his doctrine, and also the nobles of the\nLichchhavi and Mallaki races. The town of P\u00e2p\u00e2 or P\u00e2v\u00e2, the modern\nPadraona [Footnote: This is General Cunningham's identification and a\nprobable one.\u2014Ed.] is given as the place of his death, where he dwelt\nduring the rainy season of the last year of his life, in the house of the\nscribe of king Hastip\u00e2la. Immediately after his death, a second split took\nplace in his community. [Footnote: Notes on Mah\u00e2v\u00eera's life are to be\nfound especially in _\u00c2ch\u00e2r\u00e2\u1e45ga S\u00fbtra_ in _S.B.E._ Vol. XXII,\npp. 84-87, 189-202; _Kalpas\u00fbtra,_ ibid. pp. 217-270. The above may\nbe compared with Jacobi's representation, ibid. pp. x-xviii. where most of\nthe identifications of the places named are given, and _Kalpas\u00fbtra_\nintrod. p. ii. We have to thank Dr. Hoernle for the important information\nthat Vardham\u00e2na's birthplace Ku\u1e47\u1e0dapura is still called Vasukund:\n_Up\u00e2sakada\u015b\u00e2 S\u00fbtra_ p. 4. Note 3. The information on the schisms of\nthe Jainas is collected by Lemmann in the _Indische Studien_, Bd.\nXVII, S. 95 ff.]\n\nOn consideration of this information, it immediately strikes one, that the\nscene of Vardham\u00e2na's activity is laid in the same part of India as Buddha\nlaboured in, and that several of the personalities which play a part in\nthe history of Buddha also appear in the Jaina legend. It is through the\nkingdoms of Kosala, Videha and Magadha, that Buddha is said to have\nwandered preaching, and their capitals \u015ar\u00e2vast\u00ee and R\u00e2jag\u1e5biha are\njust the places named, where he founded the largest communities. It is\nalso told of the inhabitants of Vai\u015b\u00e2l\u00ee that many turned to his\ndoctrine. Many legends are told of his intercourse and friendship with\nBimbis\u00e2ra or \u015are\u1e47ika, king of Videha, also of the murder of the\nlatter by his son Aj\u00e2ta\u015batru, who, tortured with remorse, afterwards\napproached Buddha; mention is also made of his brother Abhayakum\u00e2ra,\nlikewise Makkhali Gos\u00e2la is mentioned among Buddha's opponents and rivals.\nIt is thus clear that the oldest Jaina legend makes Vardham\u00e2na a fellow\ncountryman and contemporary of Buddha, and search might be suggested in\nthe writings of the Buddhists for confirmation of these assumptions. Such\nindeed are to be found in no small number.\n\nEven the oldest works of the Singalese Canon,\u2014which date apparently from\nthe beginning of the second century after Buddha's death, or the fourth\ncentury B.C., and which at any rate had their final edition in the\nthird,\u2014frequently mention an opposing sect of ascetics, the\nNiga\u1e47\u1e6dha, which the northern texts, written in Sanskrit, recognise\namong the opponents of Buddha, under the name Nirgrantha, whom an old\n_S\u00fbtra_ [Footnote: The _Mah\u00e2parinibb\u00e2\u1e47a Sutta_, in\n_S.B.E_. Vol. XI, p. 106.] describes as \"heads of companies of\ndisciples and students, teachers of students, well known, renowned,\nfounders of schools of doctrine, esteemed as good men by the multitude\".\nTheir leader is also named; he is called in P\u00e2li N\u00e2taputta, in Sanskrit\nJ\u00f1\u00e2tiputra, that is the son of J\u00f1\u00e2ti or N\u00e2ta. The similarity between these\nwords and the names of the family J\u00f1\u00e2ti, J\u00f1\u00e2ta or Naya, to which\nVardham\u00e2na belonged is apparent. Now since in older Buddhist literature,\nthe title 'the son of the man of the family N. N.' is very often used\ninstead of the individual's name, as for example, 'the son of the S\u00e2kiya'\nis put for Buddha-S\u00e2kiyaputta, so that it is difficult not to suppose that\nN\u00e2taputta or J\u00f1\u00e2tiputra, the leader of the Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha or Nirgrantha\nsect, is the same person as Vardham\u00e2na, the descendant of the J\u00f1\u00e2ti family\nand founder of the Nirgrantha or Jaina sect. If we follow up this idea,\nand gather together the different remarks of the Buddhists about the\nopponents of Buddha, then it is apparent that his identity with Vardham\u00e2na\nis certain. A number of rules of doctrine are ascribed to him, which are\nalso found among the Jainas, and some events in his life, which we have\nalready found in the accounts of the life of Vardham\u00e2na, are related.\n\nIn one place in the oldest part of the Singalese canon, the assertion is\nput into the mouth of Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha N\u00e2taputta, that the\n_Kiriy\u00e2v\u00e2da_\u2014the doctrine of activity, separates his system from\nBuddha's teaching. We shall certainly recognise in this doctrine, the rule\nof the _Kiriy\u00e2_, the activity of souls, upon which Jainism places so\ngreat importance. [Footnote: Jacobi, _Zeitschrift der Deutsch. Morg.\nGes._ Bd. XXXIV, S. 187; _Ind. Antiq._ Vol. IX, p. 159.] Two other\nrules from the doctrine of souls are quoted in a later work, not\ncanonical: there it is stated, in a collection of false doctrines which\nBuddha's rivals taught, that Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha asserts that cold water was\nliving. Little drops of water contained small souls, large drops, large\nsouls. Therefore he forbade his followers, the use of cold water. It is\nnot difficult, in these curious rules to recognise the Jaina dogma, which\nasserts the existence of souls, even in the mass of lifeless elements of\nearth, water, fire, and wind. This also proves, that the Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha\nadmitted the classification of souls, so often ridiculed by the\nBr\u00e2hma\u1e47s, which distinguishes between great and small. This work, like\nothers, ascribes to Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha the assertion, that the so-called three\n_da\u1e47\u1e0da_\u2014the three instruments by which man can cause injury to\ncreatures\u2014thought, word, and body, are separate active causes of sin. The\nJaina doctrine agrees also in this case, which always specially represents\nthe three and prescribes for each a special control. [Footnote: Jacobi,\n_Ind. Antiq._ Vol. IX, p. 159.]\n\nBesides these rules, which perfectly agree with one another, there are\nstill two doctrines of the Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha to be referred to which seem to,\nor really do, contradict the Jainas; namely, it is stated that N\u00e2taputta\ndemanded from his disciples the taking of four, not as in Vardham\u00e2na's\ncase, of five great vows. Although this difficulty may seem very important\nat first glance, it is, however, set aside by an oft repeated assertion in\nthe Jaina works. They repeatedly say that P\u00e0r\u015bva, the twenty-third Jina\nonly recognised four vows, and Vardham\u00e2na added the fifth. The Buddhists\nhave therefore handed down a dogma which Jainism recognises. The question\nis merely whether they or the Jainas are the more to be trusted. If the\nlatter, and it is accepted that Vardham\u00e2na was merely the reformer of an\nold religion, then the Buddhists must be taxed with an easily possible\nconfusion between the earlier and later teachers. If, on the other hand,\nthe Jaina accounts of their twenty-third prophet are regarded as mythical,\nand Vardham\u00e2na is looked upon as the true founder of the sect,\u2014then the\ndoctrine of the four vows must be ascribed to the latter, and we must\naccept as a fact that he had changed his views on this point. In any case,\nhowever, the Buddhist statement speaks for, rather than against, the\nidentity of Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha with Jina. [Footnote: Jacobi, _loc. cit._.\np. 160, and Leumann, _Actes du Vli\u00e8me Congr\u00e8s Int. des Or_. Sect.\nAry. p. 505. As the Jaina accounts of the teaching of P\u00e2r\u015bva and the\nexistence of communities of his disciples, sound trustworthy, we may\nperhaps accept, with Jacobi, that they rest on a historical foundation.]\n\nVardham\u00e2na's system, on the other hand, is quite irreconcilable with\nN\u00e2taputta's assertion that virtue as well as sin, happiness as well as\nunhappiness is unalterably fixed for men by fate, and nothing in their\ndestiny can be altered by the carrying out of the holy law. It is,\nhowever, just as irreconcilable with the other Buddhist accounts of the\nteaching of their opponent; because it is absolutely unimaginable, that\nthe same man, who lays vows upon his followers, the object of which is to\navoid sin, could nevertheless make virtue and sin purely dependent upon\nthe disposition of fate, and preach the uselessness of carrying out the\nlaw. The accusation that N\u00e2taputta embraced fatalism must therefore be\nregarded as an invention and an outcome of sect hatred as well as of the\nwish to throw discredit on their opponents. [Footnote: Jacobi _loc.\ncit._. p. 159-160.]\n\nThe Buddhist remarks on the personality and life of N\u00e2taputta are still\nmore remarkable. They say repeatedly that he laid claim to the dignity of\nan Arhat and to omniscience which the Jainas also claim for their prophet,\nwhom they prefer simply to call 'the Arhat' and who possesses the\nuniverse-embracing '_Kevala_' knowledge. [Footnote: See for example\nthe account in the _Chullavagga_, in _S.B.E_. Vol. XX. p. 78-79;\n_Ind. Antiq._ Vol. VIII, p. 313.] A history of conversions, tells us\nfurther that N\u00e2taputta and his disciples disdained to cover their bodies;\nwe are told just the same of Vardham\u00e2na. [Footnote: Spence Hardy,\n_Manual of Budhism_, p. 225.] A story in the oldest part of the\nSingalese canon gives an interesting and important instance of his\nactivity in teaching. Buddha, so the legend runs, once came to the town\nVai\u015b\u00e2l\u00ee, the seat of the Kshatriya of the Lichchhavi race. His name,\nhis law, his community were highly praised by the nobles of the Lichchhavi\nin the senate-house. S\u00eeha, their general, who was a follower of the\nNiga\u1e47\u1e6dha, became anxious to know the great teacher. He went to his\nmaster N\u00e2taputta, who happened to be staying in Vai\u015b\u00e2l\u00ee just then, and\nasked permission to pay the visit. Twice N\u00e2taputta refused him. Then S\u00eeha\ndetermined to disobey him. He sought Buddha out, heard his teaching and\nwas converted by him. In order to show his attachment to his new teacher\nhe invited Buddha and his disciples to eat with him. On the acceptance of\nthe invitation, S\u00eeha commanded his servants to provide flesh in honour of\nthe occasion. This fact came to the ears of the followers of the\nNiga\u1e47\u1e6dha. Glad to have found an occasion to damage Buddha, they\nhurried in great numbers through the town, crying out, that S\u00eeha had\ncaused a great ox to be killed for Buddha's entertainment; that Buddha had\neaten of the flesh of the animal although he knew it had been killed on\nhis account, and was, therefore guilty of the death of the animal. The\naccusation was brought to Siha's notice and was declared by him to be a\ncalumny. Buddha, however preached a sermon after the meal, in which he\nforbade his disciples to partake of the flesh of such animals as had been\nkilled on their account. The legend also corroborates the account in the\nJaina works, according to which Vardham\u00e2na often resided in Vai\u015b\u00e2l\u00ee and\nhad a strong following in that town. It is probably related to show that\nhis sect was stricter, as regards the eating of flesh, than the Buddhists,\na point, which again agrees with the statutes of the Jainas. [Footnote:\n_S.B.E_. Vol. XVII, pp. 108-117.]\n\nThe account of N\u00e2taputta's death is still more important. \"Thus I heard\nit\", says an old book of the Singalese canon, the _S\u00e2mag\u00e2ma Sutta_,\n\"once the Venerable one lived in S\u00e2mag\u00e2ma in the land of the S\u00e2kya. At\nthat time, however, certainly the Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha N\u00e2taputta had died in\nP\u00e2v\u00e2. After his death the Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha wandered about disunited,\nseparate, quarrelling, fighting, wounding each other with words.\"\n[Footnote: The passage is given in the original by Oldenberg,\n_Leitsch. der D. Morg. Ges_. Bd. XXXIV, S. 749. Its significance\nin connection with the Jaina tradition as to their schisms has been\noverlooked until now. It has also been unnoticed that the assertion, that\nVardham\u00e2na died during Buddha's lifetime, proves that the latest account\nof this occurrence given by traditions 467 B.C. is false: Later Buddhist\nlegends (Spence Hardy, _Manual of Budhism_, pp. 266-271) treat of\nN\u00e2taputta's death in more detail. In a lengthy account they give as the\ncause of the same the apostacy of one of his disciples, Up\u00e2li who was\nconverted by Buddha. After going over to Buddhism, Up\u00e2li treated his\nformer master with scorn, and presumed to relate a parable which should\nprove the foolishness of those who believed in false doctrines. Thereupon\nthe Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha fell into despair. He declared his alms-vessel was\nbroken, his existence destroyed, went to P\u00e2va, and died there. Naturally\nno importance is to be given to this account and its details. They are\napparently the outcome of sect-hatred.] Here we have complete confirmation\nof the statement of the Jaina canon as to the place where Vardham\u00e2na\nentered _Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a_, as well as of the statement that a schism\noccurred immediately after his death.\n\nThe harmony between the Buddhist and Jaina tradition, as to the person of\nthe head of the Nirgrantha is meanwhile imperfect. It is disturbed by the\ndescription of N\u00e2taputta as a member of the Br\u00e2hmanic sect of the\n\u00c2gnive\u015by\u00e2yana, whilst Vardham\u00e2na belonged to the K\u00e2\u015byapa. The point\nis however so insignificant, that an error on the part of the Buddhists is\neasily possible. [Footnote: According to Jacobi's supposition,\n_S.B.E_. Vol. XXII, p. xvi, the error was caused, by the only\ndisciple of Vardham\u00e2na, who outlived his master, Sudharman being an\n\u00c2gnive\u015by\u00e2yana.] It is quite to be understood that perfect exactness is\nnot to be expected among the Buddhists or any other sect in describing the\nperson of a hated enemy. Enmity and scorn, always present, forbid that.\nThe most that one can expect is that the majority and most important of\nthe facts given may agree.\n\nThis condition is undoubtedly fulfilled in the case on hand. It cannot,\ntherefore be denied, that, in spite of this difference, in spite also of\nthe absurdity of one article of the creed ascribed to him, Vardham\u00e2na\nJ\u00f1\u00e2tiputra, the founder of the Nirgrantha\u2014or Jaina community is none\nother than Buddha's rival. From Buddhist accounts in their canonical works\nas well as in other books, it may be seen that this rival was a dangerous\nand influential one, and that even in Buddha's time his teaching had\nspread considerably. Their legends about conversions from other sects very\noften make mention of Nirgrantha sectarians, whom Buddha's teaching or\nthat of his disciples had alienated from their faith. Also they say in\ntheir descriptions of other rivals of Buddha, that these, in order to gain\nesteem, copied the Nirgrantha and went unclothed, or that they were looked\nupon by the people as Nirgrantha holy ones, because they happened to have\nlost their clothes. Such expressions would be inexplicable if Vardham\u00e2na's\ncommunity had not become of great importance. [Footnote: See for the\nhistory of S\u00eeha related above, Spence Hardy, _Manual of Budhism_, pp.\n226, 266, and Jacobi, _Ind. Antiq._ Vol. VIII, p. 161]\n\nThis agrees with several remarks in the Buddhist chronicles, which assert\nthe existence of the Jainas in different districts of India during the\nfirst century after Buddha's death. In the memoirs of the Chinese Buddhist\nand pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang, who visited India in the beginning of the\nseventh century of our era, is to be found an extract from the ancient\nannals of Magadha, which proves the existence of the Nirgrantha or Jainas\nin their original home from a very early time. [Footnote: Beal,\n_Si-yu-ki._ Vol. II, p. 168.] This extract relates to the building of\nthe great monastry at N\u00e2land\u00e2, the high school of Buddhism in eastern\nIndia, which was founded shortly after Buddha's _Nirv\u00e2\u1e47a_, and\nmentions incidentally that a Nirgrantha who was a great astrologer and\nprophet had prophesied the future success of the new building. At almost\nas early a period the _Mah\u00e2van\u0304sa_, composed in the fifth century\nA.D., fixes the appearance of the Nirgrantha in the island of Ceylon. It\nis said that the king Pa\u1e47\u1e0duk\u00e2bhaya, who ruled in the beginning of\nthe second century after Buddha, from 367-307 B.C. built a temple and a\nmonastery for two Nirgranthas. The monastery is again mentioned in the\nsame work in the account of the reign of a later king Va\u1e6d\u1e6d\u00e2g\u00e2mini,\ncir. 38-10 B.C. It is related that Va\u1e6d\u1e6d\u00e2g\u00e2mini being offended by the\ninhabitants, caused it to be destroyed after it had existed during the\nreigns of twenty one kings, and erected a Buddhist Sa\u1e45gh\u00e2r\u00e2ma in its\nplace. The latter piece of information is found also in the\n_D\u00eepavan\u0304sa_ of more than a century earlier. [Footnote: Turnour,\n_Mah\u00e2va\u1e45sa_, pp. 66-67 and p. 203, 206: _D\u00eepavan\u0304sa_ XIX\n14; comp. also Kern, _Buddhismus_, Bd. I, S. 422. In the first\npassage in the _Mah\u00e2va\u1e45 sa_, three Nigha\u1e47\u1e6das are introduced\nby name, Jotiya, Giri, and Kumbha\u1e47\u1e0da. The translation incorrectly\nmakes the first a Br\u00e2hma\u1e47 and chief engineer.]\n\nNone of these works can indeed be looked upon as a truly historical\nsource. There are, even in those paragraphs which treat of the oldest\nhistory after Buddha's death, proofs enough that they simply hand down a\nfaulty historical tradition. In spite of this, their statements on the\nNirgrantha, cannot be denied a certain weight, because they are closely\nconnected on the one side with the Buddhist canon, and on the other they\nagree with the indisputable sources of history, which relate to a slightly\nlater period.\n\nThe first authentic information on Vardham\u00e2na's sect is given by our\noldest inscriptions, the religious edicts of the Maurya king A\u015boka,\nwho, according to tradition was anointed in the year 219 after Buddha's\ndeath, and\u2014as the reference to his Grecian contemporaries, Antiochos,\nMagas, Alexander, Ptolemaeus and Antigonas confirms,\u2014ruled, during the\nsecond half of the third century B.C. over the whole of India with the\nexception of the Dekhan. This prince interested himself not only in\nBuddhism, which he professed in his later years, but he took care, in a\nfatherly way, as he repeatedly relates, of all other religious sects in\nhis vast kingdom. In the fourteenth year of his reign, he appointed\nofficials, called law-superintendents, whose duty it was to watch over the\nlife of the different communities, to settle their quarrels, to control\nthe distribution of their legacies and pious gifts. He says of them in the\nsecond part of the seventh 'pillar' edict, which he issued in the\ntwenty-ninth year of his reign, \"My superintendents are occupied with\nvarious charitable matters, they are also engaged with all sects of\nascetics and householders; I have so arranged that they will also be\noccupied with the affairs of the _Sa\u1e41gha_; likewise I have\narranged that they will be occupied with the \u00c2j\u00eevika Br\u00e2hma\u1e47s; I have\narranged it that they will also be occupied with the Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha\".\n[Footnote: See Senart, _Inscriptions de Piyadasi_, tom. II, p. 82.\nEd. VIII, l. 4. My translation differs from Senart's in some points\nespecially in relation to the construction. Conf. _Epigraphia\nIndiea_, vol. II, pp. 272f.] The word _Sa\u1e41gha_ serves here as\nusual for the Buddhist monks. The \u00c2j\u00edvikas, whose name completely\ndisappears later, are often named in the sacred writings of the Buddhists\nand the Jainas as an influential sect. They enjoyed the special favour of\nA\u015boka, who, as other inscriptions testify, caused several caves at\nBar\u00e0bar to be made into dwellings for their ascetics. [Footnote: See\n_Ind. Antiquary_, vol. XX, pp. 361 ff.] As in the still older writings\nof the Buddhist canon, the name Niga\u1e47\u1e6dha here can refer only to the\nfollowers of Vardham\u00e2na. As they are here, along with the other two\nfavourites, counted worthy of special mention, we may certainly conclude\nthat they were of no small importance at the time. Had they been without\ninfluence and of small numbers A\u015boka would hardly have known of them,\nor at least would not have singled them out from the other numerous\nnameless sects of which he often speaks. It may also be supposed that they\nwere specially numerous in their old home, as A\u015boka's capital\nP\u00e2\u1e6daliputra lay in this land. Whether they spread far over these\nboundaries, cannot be ascertained.\n\nOn the other hand we possess two documents from the middle of the next\ncentury which prove that they advanced into south-eastern India as far as\nKali\u1e45ga. These are the inscriptions at Kha\u1e47\u1e0dagiri in Orissa, of\nthe great King Kh\u00e2ravela and his first wife, who governed the east coast\nof India from the year 152 to 165 of the Maurya era that is, in the first\nhalf of second century B.C.\n\nThe larger inscription, unfortunately very much disfigured, contains an\naccount of the life of Kh\u00e2ravela from his childhood till the thirteenth\nyear of his reign. It begins with an appeal to the Arhat and Siddha, which\ncorresponds to the beginning of the five-fold form of homage still used\namong the Jainas, and mentions the building of temples in honour of the\nArhat as well as an image of the first Jina, which was taken away by a\nhostile king. The second and smaller inscription asserts that Kh\u00e2ravela's\nwife caused a cave to be prepared for the ascetics of Kalinga, \"who\nbelieved on the Arhat.\" [Footnote: The meaning of these inscriptions,\nwhich were formerly believed to be Buddhist, was first made clear by Dr.\nBhangv\u00e2nl\u00e2l's Indr\u00e2ji's careful discussion in the _Actes du Vli\u00e8me\nCongr\u00e8s Internat. des Orientalistes_ Sect. Ary. pp. 135-159. H; first\nrecognised the true names of the King Kh\u00e2ravela and his predecessors and\nshewed that Kh\u00e2ravela and his wife were patrons of the Jainas. We have to\nthank him for the information that the inscription contains a date in the\nMaurya Era. I have thoroughly discussed his excellent article in the\n_Oesterreichischen Monatsschrift_, Bd. X, S. 231 ff. and have there\ngiven my reasons for differing from him on an important point, namely, the\ndate of the beginning of the Maurya Era, which, according to his view\nbegins with the conquest of Kali\u1e45ga by A\u015boka about 255 B. C. Even\nyet I find it impossible to accept that the expression, \"in the hundred\nand sixty fifth year of the era of the Maurya Kings\", can mean anything\nelse than that 164 years have passed between the thirteenth year of the\nrule of Kh\u00e2ravela and the anointing of the first Maurya King Chandrugupta.\nUnfortunately it is impossible to fix the year of the latter occurrence,\nor to say more than that it took place between the years 322 and 312 B.C.\nThe date given in Kh\u00e2ravela's inscription cannot therefore be more closely\nfixed than that it lies between 156 and 147 B.C. I now add to my former\nremarks\u2014that appeals to the Arhat and Siddha appear also in Jaina\ninscriptions from Mathur\u00e2 and may be taken as a certain mark of the sect.\nThus it is worthy of note that even in Hiuen Tsiang's time, (Beal,\n_Si-yu-ki_, Vol. II, p. 205) Kalinga was one of the chief seats of\nthe Jainas.]\n\nFrom a somewhat later period, as the characters show, from the first\ncentury B.C. comes a dedicatory inscription which has been found far to\nthe west of the original home of the Jainas, in Mathur\u00e0 on the Jamn\u00e2. It\ntells of the erection of a small temple in honour of the Arhat Vardham\u00e2na,\nalso of the dedication of seats for the teachers, a cistern, and a stone\ntable. The little temple, it says, stood beside the temple of the guild of\ntradesmen, and this remark proves, that Mathur\u00e2, which, according to the\ntradition of the Jainas, was one of the chief scats of their religion,\npossessed a community of Jainas even before the time of this inscription.\n[Footnote: This inscription also was first made known by Dr Bhagwanlal\nIndiaji, _loc. cit_. p. 143.]\n\nA large member of dedicatory inscriptions have come to light, which are\ndated from the year 5 to 98 of the era of the Indo-Skythian kings,\nKanishka, Huvishka, and V\u00e2sudeva (Bazodeo) and therefore belong at latest\nto the end of the first and to the second century A.D. They are all on the\npedestals of statues, which are recognisable partly by the special mention\nof the names of Vardham\u00e2na and the Arhat Mah\u00e2v\u00edra, partly by absolute\nnudity and other marks. They show, that the Jaina community continued to\nflourish in Mathur\u00e2 and give besides extraordinarily important\ninformation, as I found in a renewed research into the ancient history of\nthe sect. In a number of them, the dedicators of the statues give not only\ntheir own names, but also those of the religious teachers to whose\ncommunities they belonged. Further, they give these teachers their\nofficial titles, still used among the Jainas: _v\u00e2chaka_, 'teacher',\nand _ga\u1e47in_, 'head of a school'. Lastly they specify the names of\nthe schools to which the teachers belonged, and those of their\nsubdivisions. The schools are called, _ga\u1e47a_, 'companies'; the\nsubdivisions, _kula_, 'families' and _\u015b\u00e2kh\u00e0_, 'branches'.\nExactly the same division into _ga\u1e47a, \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e0_, and _kula_\nis found in a list in one of the canonical works, of the \u015avet\u00e2mbaras,\nthe _Kalpas\u00fbtra_, which gives the number of the patriarchs and of the\nschools founded by them, and it is of the highest importance, that, in\nspite of mutilation and faulty reproduction of the inscriptions, nine of\nthe names, which appear in the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_ are recognisable in them,\nof which part agree exactly, part, through the fault of the stone-mason or\nwrong reading by the copyist, are somewhat defaced. According to the\n_Kalpas\u00fbtra_, Sushita, the ninth successor to Vardham\u00e2na In the\nposition of patriarch, together with his companion Supratibuddha, founded\nthe 'Ko\u1e0diya' or 'Kautika _ga\u1e47a_, which split up into four\n'_s\u00e2kh\u00e0_, and four '_kula_'. Inscription No. 4. which is dated\nin the year 9 of the king Kanishka or 87. A.D. (?) gives us a somewhat\nancient form of the name of the _ga\u1e47a Ko\u1e6diya_ and that of one\nof its branches exactly corresponding to the _Vairi \u015b\u00e0kh\u00e2_.\nMutilated or wrongly written, the first word occurs also in inscriptions\nNos. 2, 6 and 9 as _koto-, ke\u1e6d\u1e6diya_, and _ka_ ..., the\nsecond in No. 6 as _Vor\u00e2_. One of the families of this\n_ga\u1e47a_, the _V\u00e2\u1e47iya kula_ is mentioned in No. 6, and\nperhaps in No. 4. The name of a second, the _Pra\u015bnav\u00e0ha\u1e47aka_,\nseems to have appeared in No. 19. The last inscription mentions also\nanother branch of the Ko\u1e6diya ga\u1e47a, the _Majhim\u00e2 s\u00e2kh\u00e2_, which,\naccording to the _Kalpas\u00fbtra,_ was founded by Priyagantha the second\ndisciple of Susthita. Two still older schools which, according to\ntradition, sprang from the fourth disciple of the eighth patriarch, along\nwith some of their divisions appear in inscriptions Nos. 20 and 10. These\nare the _Aryya-Udehik\u00eeya ga\u1e47a_, called the school of the\n\u00c2rya-Roha\u1e47a in the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_, to which belonged the\n_Parih\u00e2saka kula_ and the _P\u00fbrnap\u00e2trik\u00e2 \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2,_ as also the\n_Char\u00e2\u1e47a ga\u1e47a_ with the _Pr\u00eetidharmika kula._ Each of\nthese names is, however, somewhat mutilated by one or more errata in\nwriting. [Footnote: Dr. B\u00fchler's long note (p. 48) on these inscriptions\nwas afterwards expanded in the _Wiener Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des\nMorgenlandes_ Bd. I, S. 165-180; Bd. II, S. 141-146. Bd. III, S.\n233-240; and Bd. IV, S. 169-173. The argument of these papers is\nsummarised in. Appendix. A, pp. 48 ff.\u2014Ed.] The statements in the\ninscriptions about the teachers and their schools are of no small\nimportance in themselves for the history of the Jainas. If, at the end of\nthe first century A.D.(?) many separate schools of Jaina ascetics existed,\na great age and lively activity, as well as great care as regards the\ntraditions of the sect, may be inferred. The agreement of the inscriptions\nwith the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_ leads still further however: it proves on the\none side that the Jainas of Mathur\u00e2 were \u015avet\u00e2mbara, and that the\nschism, which split the sect into two rival branches occurred long before\nthe beginning of our era. On the other hand it proves that the tradition\nof the Svet\u00e2mbara really contains ancient historic elements, and by no\nmeans deserves to be looked upon with distrust. It is quite probable that,\nlike all traditions, it is not altogether free from error. But it can no\nlonger be declared to be the result of a later intentional\nmisrepresentation, made in order to conceal the dependence of Jainism on\nBuddhism. It is no longer possible to dispute its authenticity with regard\nto those points which are confirmed by independent statements of other\nsects, and to assert, for example, that the Jaina account of the life of\nVardham\u00e2na, which agrees with the statements of the Buddists, proves\nnothing as regards the age of Jainism because in the late fixing of the\ncanon of the \u015avet\u00e2mbaras in the sixth century after Christ it may have\nbeen drawn from Buddhist works. Such an assertion which, under all\ncircumstances, is a bold one, becomes entirely untenable when it is found\nthat the tradition in question states correctly facts which lie not quite\nthree centuries distant from Vardham\u00e2na's time, and that the sect, long\nbefore the first century of our era kept strict account of their internal\naffairs. [Footnote: See Weber's and Barth's opinions quoted above in note\nI, p. 23.]\n\nUnfortunately the testimony to the ancient history of the Jainas, so far\nas made known by means of inscriptions, terminates here. Interesting as it\nwould be to follow the traces of their communities in the later\ninscriptions, which become so numerous from the fifth century A.D. onwards\nand in the description of his travels by Hiuen Tsiang, who found them\nspread through the whole of India and even beyond its boundaries, it would\nbe apart from our purpose. The documents quoted suffice, however, to\nconfirm the assertion that during the first five centuries after Buddha's\ndeath both the statements of Buddhist tradition and real historical\nsources give evidence to the existence of the Jainas as an important\nreligious community independent of Buddhism, and that there are among the\nhistorical sources some which entirely clear away the suspicion that the\ntradition of the Jainas themselves is intentionally falsified.\n\nThe advantage gained for Indian history from the conclusion that Jainism\nand Buddhism are two contemporary sects\u2014having arisen in the same\ndistrict,\u2014is no small one. First, this conclusion shows that the\nreligious movement of the sixth and fifth centuries B.C. in eastern India\nmust have been a profound one. If not only one, but certainly two, and\nperhaps more reformers, appeared at the same time, preaching teachers, who\nopposed the existing circumstances in the same manner, and each of whom\ngained no small number of followers for their doctrines, the desire to\noverthrow the Brahmanical order of things must have been generally and\ndeeply felt. This conclusion shows then that the transformation of the\nreligious life in India was not merely the work of a religious community.\nMany strove to attain this object although separated from one another. It\nis now recognisable, though preliminarily, in one point only, that the\nreligious history of India from the fifth century B.C. to the eighth or\nninth A.D. was not made up of the fight between Brahmanism and Buddhism\nalone. This conclusion allows us, lastly, to hope that the thorough\ninvestigation of the oldest writings of the Jainas and their relations\nwith Buddhism on the one hand and with Brahmanism on the other will afford\nmany important ways of access to a more exact knowledge concerning the\nreligious ideas which prevailed in the sixth and fifth centuries B.C., and\nto the establishment of the boundaries of originality between the\ndifferent systems.\n\n\n\n\nAPPENDIX A.\n\nCopies of the mutilated inscriptions referred to, were published by\nGeneral Sir A. Cunningham in his _Archaeological Survey Reports_,\nvol. III, plates xiii-xv. Unfortunately they have been presented from\n'copies' and are therefore full of errors, which are due for the most\npart, doubtless, to the copyist and not to the sculptor. It is not\ndifficult, however, in most cases under consideration here, to restore the\ncorrect reading. Usually only vowel signs are omitted or misread and,\nhere, and there, consonants closely resembling one another as _va_\nand _cha, va_, and _dha, ga_ and _\u015ba, la_ and _na_\nare interchanged.\n\nThe formulae of the inscriptions are almost universally the same. First\ncomes the date, then follows the name of a reverend teacher, next, the\nmention of the school and the subdivision of it to which he belonged. Then\nthe persons, who dedicated the statues are named (mostly women), and who\nbelonged to the community of the said teacher. The description of the gift\nforms the conclusion. The dialect of the inscriptions shows that curious\nmixture of Sansk\u1e5b\u012dt and Pr\u00e2k\u1e5b\u012dt which is found in almost all\ndocuments of the Indo-Skythian kings, and whichas Dr. Hoernle was the\nfirst to recognise\u2014was one of the literary languages of northern and\nnorthwestern India during the first centuries before and after the\ncommencement of our era.\n\nIn the calculation of dates, I use the favourite starting point for the\nera of the Indo-Skythian kings, which unfortunately, is not certainly\ndetermined, and assume that it is identical with the _Saka_ era of\n78-1/4 A.D. The rule of these princes could not have fallen later: in my\nopinion it was somewhat earlier. [Footnote: What follows is from the\nauthor's later and fuller paper in _Wiener Zeitschrift f\u00fcr die Kunde des\nMorgenlandes_, Bd. I, S. 170 f., but abridged.\u2014Ed.] I give here\ntranscripts and restorations of such inscriptions as mention Jaina schools\nor titles.\n\n1. The inscription which is the most important for my purpose and at the\nsame time one of the best preserved, is Sir A. Cunningham's No. 6, plate\nxiii, which was found on the base of a Jaina image (_Arch. Sur. Rep_.\nvol. III, p. 31). The copy compared with a rubbing gives the following\nreading, (the letters within parentheses are damaged):\n\n  L. 1. _Siddha\u1e41 sa\u1e41 20 gram\u00e2 1 di 10 + 5 ko(\u1e6di)yato ga\u1e47ato\n  (V\u00e2)\u1e47iyato kulato V(ai)r(i)to \u015b\u00e2k\u00e2to \u015airik\u00e2to_\n\n  2. _(bha)ttito v\u00e2chakasya Aryya-Sa\u1e45ghasihasya nir(v)varttana\u1e41\n  Dattilasya.... Vi_.-\n\n  3. _lasya ko(\u1e6dhu)bi(ki)ya Jayav\u00e2lasya Devad\u00e2sasya N\u00e2gadinasya cha\n  N\u00e2gadin\u00e2ye cha (m\u00e2)tu_.\n\n  4. _\u015br\u00e2(vi)k\u00e2ye (D)i-_\n\n  5. _(n\u00e2)ye d\u00e2na\u1e41. i_\n\n  6. _Varddham\u00e2na pra_-\n\n  7. _tim\u00e2_|\n\nThe lacuna in line 2, after _Dattilasya_, probably contained the word\n_duhituye_ or _dh\u00fbtuye_ and part of a male name of which only\nthe letter _vi_ is visible. In l. 3, possibly _ko\u1e6dhabiniye_\nis to be read instead of _ko\u1e6dhubikiye_. As there is room for one\nmore letter at the end of the line, I propose to read _m\u00e2tuye_. In l.\n5, _Din\u00e2ye_ would stand for _Datt\u00e2y\u00e2\u1e25_ and be the genitive of\na female name _Dinn\u00e2_ or _Datt\u00e2_, which has been shortened\n_bh\u00e2m\u00e2vat_. There can be no doubt that the word _\u015br\u00ee_, or\n_\u015biri_, which is required, has stood before _Vardham\u00e2na_.\nWith these restorations the translation is as follows:\n\n  \"Success! The year 20, summer (_month_) I, day 15. An image of\n  glorious Vardham\u00e2na, the gift of the female lay-disciple Din\u00e2\n  [_i. e_. Dinn\u00e2 or Datt\u00e2], the [_daughter_] of Attila, the wife\n  of Vi..la, the mother of Jayav\u00e2la [Jayap\u00e2la], of Devad\u00e2sa and N\u00e2gadina\n  [_i. e_. N\u00e2gadinna or N\u00e2gadatta] and of N\u00e2gadina [_i.e._ of\n  N\u00e2gadinn\u00e2 or N\u00e2gadatt\u00e2]\u2014(_this statue being_) the _nirvartana_\n  [Footnote: The word _nirvartana_ has the meaning of 'in obedience\n  to the order', or 'in consequence of the request'. It occurs again in\n  the Prakrit form _nivatana\u1e41_ below, in No. 10 (pl. xiv) and it\n  has stood in No. 4, and at the end of l. 2 of No. 7, where the rubbing\n  has _nirva_. It is also found in the next: _Arch. Sur. Rep._\n  vol. XX, pl. v, No. 6.] of the preacher Aryya-Sa\u1e45ghasiha [_i.e._\n  \u00c2rya-Sa\u1e45ghasi\u1e41ha], out of the Ko\u1e6diya school, the V\u00e2niya race,\n  the Vairi branch, the \u015airik\u00e2 division\".\n\nThe inscription given _Arch. Sur. Rep_. vol. XX, plate v, No. 6\nreads, according to an excellent rubbing:\n\n  L. 1. _Namo Araha\u1e41t\u00e2nain namo Siddh\u00e2na sa\u1e41_ 60 [Footnote:\n  In reading the first figure as 60, I follow Sir A. Cunningham. I have\n  never seen the sign, in another inscription. The characters of the\n  inscription are so archaic that this date may refer to an earlier\n  epoch than the Indo-Skythian.] + 2\n\n  2. _gra 3 di 5 et\u00e2ye purv\u00e2ye R\u00e2rakasya Aryakakasaghastasya_\n\n  3. _\u015bishy\u00e2 \u00c2tapikogahabaryasya nirvartana chatnuvarnasya\n  sa\u1e41ghasya_\n\n  4. _y\u00e2 dinn\u00e2 pa\u1e6dibh\u00e2[bho?]ga_ 1 (?) | (?) _Vaihik\u00e2ya datti_|\n\n  \"Adoration to the Arhats, adoration to the Siddhas! The year 62, the\n  summer (_month_) 3, the day 5; on the above date a _y\u00e2_. was\n  given to the community, which includes four classes, as an enjoyment\n  (_or_ one share for each) (_this being_) the _nirvartana_\n  of Atapikogahabarya, the pupil of Arya-Kakasaghasta\n  (\u00c2rya-Karka\u015bagharshita), a native of R\u00e2r\u00e2 (R\u00e2\u1e0dh\u00e2). The gift of\n  Vaihik\u00e2 (_or_, Vaihit\u00e2).\"\n\n2. With the inscription No. 6 of the year 20, No. 4 (plate xiii) agrees;\nit was also found on a Jaina pedestal. With better readings from a rubbing\nof the first side only, I propose for the other portions, of which I have\nno rubbings, the following emendations,\u2014l. 1, _V\u00e2niyato kulato,\ns\u00e2kh\u00e2to_; l. 2, _ku\u1e6dumbimye_; I also note that the lacuna in\nline 2, 3th and 4th sides, would be filled exactly by _ye\n\u015br\u00ee-Vardham\u00e2nasya pratim\u00e2 k\u00e2rit\u00e2 sarvasattv\u00e2_. The former existence\nof the first and last seven letters may be considered certain. My\nrestoration of the whole is,\u2014\n\n  L. 1 (1st side) _Siddha\u1e41 mah\u00e2r\u00e2jasya Kanishkasya r\u00e2jye\n  sa\u1e41vatsare navame_ [Footnote: _Sac. Bks. East_, vol. XXII\n  p. 292.] (2nd side).. _m\u00e2sc pratha_ 1 _divase_ 5\n  _a-(3rd)[sy\u00e2\u1e41] purvv\u00e2ye Ko\u1e6diyato ga\u1e47ato V\u00e2niya[to]_\n  (4th) _[ku]lato Vairito \u015b\u00e2k\u00e2to v\u00e2chaka_-\n\n  2. (1st side) _[sya] [N]\u00e2gana\u1e43disa ni[rva]r[ta]na\u1e41 Brah[ma]_ ...\n  _[dh\u00fb-(2nd)tuye] Bha\u1e6d\u1e6dumitasa ku\u1e6du[\u1e41]bi[n]i[ye]\n  Vika\u1e6d\u00e2-(3rd)[ye \u015br\u00ee Vardham\u00e2nasya pratim\u00e2 k\u00e2rit\u00e2 sarva_-(4th)\n  _satv\u00e2]na\u1e41 hita_-\n\n  3. _[sukh\u00e2ye]_;\n\nand the translation:\u2014\n\n  \"Success! During the reign of the great king Kanishka, in the ninth\n  year, 9, in the first month, 1, of ..., on the day 5,\u2014on the above\n  date [an image of glorious Vardham\u00e2na has been caused to be made] for\n  the welfare [and happiness] of [all created beings] by Vikat\u00e2, the\n  house-wife of Bha\u1e6d\u1e6dimita (Bhat\u1e6dimitra) and [daughter of]\n  Br\u00e2hma ...\u2014(this statue being) the _nirvartana_ of the preacher\n  N\u00e2gana\u1e41idi, out of the Ko\u1e6diya school (_ga\u1e47a_), the\n  V\u00e2\u1e47iya line (_kula_), (and) the Vairi branch (_\u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2_).\"\n\n\nIf we now turn to the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_, we find that Su\u1e6d\u1e6dhiya or\nSusthita, the eighth successor of Vardham\u00e2na, founded the Kau\u1e6dika or\nKo\u1e0diya ga\u1e47a, which split up into four \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2s and four kulas. The\nthird of the former was the Vajr\u00ee or Vair\u00ee, and the third of the latter\nwas the V\u00e2\u1e47\u00eeya or V\u00e2\u1e47ijja. It is evident that the names of the\n_ga\u1e47a, kula_, and _\u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2_ agree with those mentioned in the\ntwo inscriptions, Ko\u1e6diya being a somewhat older form of Ko\u1e0diya. But\nit is interesting to note that the further subdivision of the Vair\u00ee\n\u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2\u2014the \u015airik\u00e2 bhatti (Srik\u00e2 bhakti) which inscription No. 6\nmentions, is not known to the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_. This is a gap such as may\nby be expected to occur in a list handed down by oral tradition.\n\n3. The Ko\u1e6dika ga\u1e47a is again mentioned in the badly mutilated\ninscription No. 19, plate xv. A complete restoration is impossible.\n\n  L. 1. _Sa\u1e41valsare 90 va...sya ku\u1e6dubani. vad\u00e2nasya vodhuya_...\n\n  2. _K|o\u1e6diyato| ga\u1e47ato |Pra\u015bna|v\u00e2ha|na|kato kulato\n  Majham\u00e2to \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2to...sa nik\u00e2ye bhati g\u00e2l\u00e2e thab\u00e2ni_...\n\nIt may, however, be inferred from the fragments of the first line that the\ndedication was made by a woman who was described as the wife\n(_ku\u1e6dumbin\u00ee_) of one person and as the daughter-in-law\n(_vadhu_) of another. The first part of line 2, restored as above\ngives\u2014\"in the congregation of ... out of the Ko\u1e6diya school, the\nPra\u015bnav\u00e2hanaka line and the Majham\u00e2 branch....\" The restoration of the\ntwo names Ko\u1e6diya and Pra\u015bnav\u00e2hanaka seems to me absolutely certain,\nbecause they exactly fill the blanks in the inscription, and because the\ninformation in the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_ (S. B. E. vol. XXII, p. 293)\nregarding the Madhyam\u00e2\u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2 points in that direction. The latter work\ntells us that Priyagantha, the second pupil of Susthita and Supratibuddha,\nfounded a \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2, called Madhyam\u00e2 or Majhim\u00e2.\n\nAs our inscriptions show that Professor Jacobi's explanation of the terms\n_ga\u1e47a, kula_ and _\u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2_ [Footnote: _S. B. E_. vol.\nXXII, p. 288, note 2.] is correct and that the first denotes the school,\nthe second the line of teachers, and the third a branch which separated\nfrom such a line, it follows that the \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2s named in the\n_Kalpas\u00fbtra_ without the mention of a _ga\u1e47a_ and _kula_,\nmust belong to the last preceding _ga\u1e47a_ and derive their origin\nfrom one of its _kulas_. Hence the Madhyam\u00e2 \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2 doubtless was\nincluded in the Kau\u1e6dika ga\u1e47a, and an offshoot of one of its\n_kulas_, the fourth of which is called Pra\u015bnav\u00e2hanaka or\nPa\u1e47hav\u00e2ha\u1e47aya. The correctness of these inferences is proved by\nR\u00e2ja\u015bckhara's statement regarding his spiritual descent at the end of\nthe _Prabandha kosha_, which he composed in Vik. sa\u1e41 1405. He\ninforms us that he belonged to the Ko\u1e6dika ga\u1e47a, the Pra\u015bnav\u00e2hana\nkula, the Madhyam\u00e2 \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2, the Harshapur\u00eeya gachha and the Maladh\u00e2ri\nsamt\u00e2na, founded by the illustrious Abhayas\u00fbri.\n\nFor the last words of l. 2 I do not dare to propose an emendation; I\nmerely note that the gift seems to have consisted of pillars,\n_thab\u00e2ni_, i. e. _stambh\u00e2\u1e25_.\n\n4. The Ko\u1e6diya ga\u1e47a seems finally to be mentioned\nin pl. xiii, No. 2, where the copy of line 1, 2nd\nside may be corrected as,\u2014\n\n  _Siddha\u2014sa 5 he 1 di 10 + 2 asy\u00e2 purvv\u00e2ye Ko\u1e6d(iya)_.\n\n5.  Names of an older _ga\u1e47a_ and of one of its\n_kulas_ occur in No. 10 plate xiv, where the copy,\nwhich is faulty, may allow the following partial\nrestoration,\u2014-\n\n  L. 1. _Sa 40 + 7 gra 2 di 20 etasy\u00e2 purvv\u00e2ye\n  V\u00e2ra\u1e47e ga\u1e47e Petidhamikakulav\u00e2chakasya Rohanadisya\n  s\u00eesasya Senasya nivatanam s\u00e2vaka-Da_\n\n  2. ..._pash\u00e2\u1e47avadhaya Giha..ka.bha..\n  prap\u00e2 [di]n\u00e2..m\u00e2 ta_...\n\nwhich I translate\u2014\n\n  \"The year 47, the summer (month) 2, the day 20,\u2014on the above date a\n  drinking fountain was given by ..., the ... of the lay-disciple Da ...\n  (this being) the _nivatana_ of Sena the pupil of Rohanadi\n  (Rohanandi) and preacher of the Petidhamika (Praitidharmika) line, in\n  the V\u00e2ra\u1e47a school.\"\n\n_Varane_ must be a mistake for the very similar word _Ch\u00e2rane_.\nThe second _kula_ of this _ga\u1e47a_ which, according to the\n_Kalpas\u00fbtra_ (_S.B.E_. vol. XXII, p. 291) was founded by\n\u015ar\u00eegupta, the fifth pupil of \u00c2rya Suhastin, is the Pr\u00eetidharmika\n(p. 292). It is easy to see that a similar name is hidden in the compound\n_Petivamikakutav\u00e2chakasya_ 'of the preacher of the Petiv\u00e2mika line';\nand an inscription excavated by Dr. Fuhrer at Mathur\u00e2 mentions the\nPetiv\u00e2mika (_kula_) of the V\u00e2rana _ga\u1e47a_. With the second\nline little can be done: if the letters _prap\u00e2_ are correct and form\na word, one of the objects dedicated must have been a drinking fountain.\n\n6. The inscription No. 20, plate xv offers likewise slightly corrupt and\nmutilated names of a _ga\u1e47a_, a _kula_ and a _s\u00e2kh\u00e2_,\nmentioned in the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_. In the lithographed copy lines 3-7 are\nhopeless and there is no rubbing to help. The word _thitu_ 'of a\ndaughter' in line 6, and the following _ma.uya_ which is probably a\nmisreading of _m\u00e2tuye_ 'of the mother' show that this dedication also\nwas made by a female. The last four syllables _vato maho_ are\nprobably the remnant of another namask\u00e2ra\u2014_namo bhagavato\nMah\u00e2v\u00eerasya._ As regards the proper names, Aryya Rehiniya is an\nimpossible form; but on comparison with the next inscription to be\nmentioned, it is evident that the stone must have read\n_Aryvodchikiy\u00e2to_ or _Aryyadehikiy\u00e2to ga\u1e47\u00e2[to]_. [Footnote:\n_Wiener Zeitshe. f. d. Kunde der Morgenl._, Bd. II, S. 142 f.]\nAccording to the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_ (_S.B.E_. vol. XXII, p. 291)\n\u00c2rya-Roha\u1e47a was the first pupil of \u00c2rya Suhastin and founded the Uddeha\nga\u1e47a. The latter split up into four \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2s and into six kulas. The\nname of its fourth \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2, P\u00fbr\u1e47apatrik\u00e2, closely\nresembles\u2014especially in its consonantal elements\u2014that of the inscription,\n_Petaputrik\u00e2_, and I do not hesitate in correcting the latter to\n_Ponapatrik\u00e2_ which would be the equivalent of Sansk.\nPaur\u1e47apatrik\u00e2. Among the six kulas is the Parih\u00e2saka, and considering\nthe other agreements, I believe it probable that the mutilated name read\nas _Puridha.ka_ is a misreading of _Parih\u00e2ka_, We may emend the\nfirst two times and read as follows,\u2014\n\n  L. 1. _Siddha|m| namo arahato Mah\u00e2vir|a|sya devan\u00e2\u015basya\n  | r\u00e2j\u00f1a  V\u00e2sudevasya sa\u1e41vatsare 90 + 8\n  varsham\u00e2se + divase 10 | 1 etasy\u00e2_.\n\n  2. _purvv|\u00e2|y|e| Aryyo-D|e|h|i|kiy\u00e2to ga\u1e47\u00e2|to|\n  P|a|vi|h\u00e2sa|k|a|kula|to| P|ou|ap|a|trik\u00e2t|o| \u015b\u00e2k\u00e2to ga\u1e47|i|sya\n  Aryya-Devadatta|sya| na_... ...\n\n  3. _ryya-Kshemasya_\n\n  4. _prakagiri\u1e47e_\n\n  5. _kihadiye praj\u00e2_\n\n  6. _tasya Pravarakasya dhitu Vara\u1e47asya gatvakasya\n  ma|t|uya Mitra(?)sa ...datta g\u00e2_\n\n  7. _ye..|namo bhaga|vato mah|\u00e2v\u00eerasya|_\n\nand the translation (so far) will be,\u2014\n\n  \"Success! Adoration to the Arhat Mah\u00e2vir\u00e2, the destroyer(?) of the gods.\n  In the year of king V\u00e2sudeva, 98, in the month 4 of the rainy season, on\n  the day 11\u2014on the above date ... of the chief of the school\n  (_ga\u1e47in_) Aryya-Devadata (Devadatta) out of the school\n  (_ga\u1e47a_) of the Aryya-Udehik\u00eeya (\u00c2rya-Uddehikiya), out of the\n  Parih\u00e2saka line (_kula_), out of the Ponapatrik\u00e2 (Paur\u1e47apatrik\u00e2)\n  branch (_\u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2_).\" [Footnote: At a later date Dr. B\u00fchler added\n  other proofs from inscriptions of the authenticity of the Jaina\n  tradition, in the _Vienna Oriental Journal_, vol. II, pp. 141-146;\n  vol. III, pp. 233-240; vol. IV, pp. 169-173, 313-318; vol. V, pp.\n  175-180; and in _Epigraphia Indica_, vol. I pp. 371-397; vol. II,\n  pp. 195-212, 311. The paragraphs given above are chiefly from his first\n  paper in the _Vienna Oriental Journal_ (vol. I, pp. 165-180), which\n  appears to be an extended revision of the long footnote in the original\n  paper on the Jainas, but it is here corrected in places from readings in\n  his later papers.\u2014J. B.]\n\nThese and many other statements in the inscriptions, about the teachers\nand their schools are of no small importance in themselves for the early\nhistory of the Jainas. The agreement of the above with the\n_Kalpas\u00fbtra_ can best be shown by placing the statements in question\nagainst one another. The inscriptions prove the actual existence of twenty\nof the subdivisions mentioned in the Sthavir\u00e2vali of the\n_Kalpas\u00fbtra_. Among its eight ga\u1e47as we can certainly trace three,\npossibly four\u2014the Uddchika, V\u00e2ra\u1e47a, Ve\u015bav\u00e2\u1e0diya(?) and Ko\u1e0diya.\n\n                    Inscriptions:\u2014\n\n              1. Ko\u1e6d\u1e6diya (Ko\u1e0diya) Gana\n                                |\n            .\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014.\n            |                                      |\n       Bramad\u00e2sika kula               Uchchen\u00e2gar\u00ee \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2\n       Th\u00e2niya kula                      Vair\u00ee, Vairiy\u00e2 \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2\n       P[a\u1e47ha]vahu[\u1e47aya]ku[la]        Majham\u00e2 \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2\n\n\nThe Sthavir\u00e2val\u00ee of the _Kalpas\u00fbtra_ (_Sac. Bks. of the East_,\nvol. XXII, p. 292) states that Sus\u1e6dhita and Supratibuddha founded the\u2014\n\n              Ko\u1e6diya or Kau\u1e6daka Ga\u1e47a\n                              |\n        .\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014.\n        |                                                |\n       kulas                                           \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2s\n  1. _Bambhalijja_                      1. _Uchchan\u00e2gar\u00ee_\n  2. Vachchhalijja                              2. _Vijj\u00e2har\u00ee_\n  3. _V\u00e2\u1e47\u00eeya_ or _V\u00e2\u1e47\u00eejja_              3. Vajr\u00ee\n  4. Panhav\u00e2hanaya                             4. _Majjhim\u00e1ka_\n     or Pra\u015bnav\u00e2hanaka                        5. Majjh\u00eema\n                                                   (scholar of the two\n                                                   teachers.\n                                                   founded by\n                                                   Priyagantha the second)\n\n\n                    Inscriptions:\u2014\n\n                    2. V\u00e2ra\u1e47a Ga\u1e47a\n                              |\n               .\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014.\n               |                              |\n              kulas                        \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2s\n            Petivamika                V\u00e2jan\u00e2gar\u00ee\n            \u00c1ryya H\u00e2\u1e6dikiya          Har\u00eetam\u00e2laka\u1e0dh\u00ee\n            Pu\u015byamitr\u00eeya\n            Aryya-Che\u1e6diya\n            Kaniyasika\n\n\nThe _Kalpas\u00fbtra_ states that \u015ar\u00eegupta of the H\u00e2ritagotra founded\nthe Ch\u00e2ra\u1e47a ga\u1e47a, which was divided into four _\u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2s_ and\ninto seven _kulas_:\n\n                     Ch\u00e2ra\u1e47a-ga\u1e47a\n                              |\n               .\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014-.\n               |                             |\n             kulas                       \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2s\n          1. Vachchhalijja           Sa\u1e41k\u00e2\u015bik\u00e2\n          2. _P\u00eedhammiya_\n          3. _H\u00e2lijja_                    _Vajjan\u00e2gar\u00ee_\n          4. _P\u00fbsamittijja_          Gavedhuk\u00e2\n          5. M\u00e2lijja\n          6. _\u00c2rya-Che\u1e0daya_       _H\u00e2riyam\u00e2lag\u00e2r\u00ee_\n          7. _Ka\u1e47hasaha_\n\n\n                    Inscriptions:\u2014\n\n                  3. Aryya-Udekiya Ga\u1e47a\n                              |\n                 .\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014.\n                 |                          |\n               kulas                      |\n             N\u00e1gabhatikiya    Petaputrik\u00e2 \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2.\n             Puridha..\n\n\nThe _Kalpas\u00fbtra_ says \u00c2rya-Rohana of the K\u00e2\u015byapa gotra founded the\n\n                       Uddeha Gana\n                               |\n       .\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014.\n       |                                                |\n    kulas                                         \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2s\n  1. _N\u00e2gabh\u00fbya_                             Udumbarijjiy\u00e2\n  2. Somabh\u00fbta                                M\u00e2sap\u00fbrik\u00e2\n  3. Ullagachchha (or \u00c2rdrakachchha?) Matipatrik\u00e2\n  4. Ilatthilijja\n  5. Nandijja                                   _Pu\u1e47\u1e47apattiy\u00e2_\n  6. _Parih\u00e2saka_\n\n\n                  Inscriptions:\u2014\n\n               4. [Ve\u015bav\u00e2diya Ga\u1e47a]\n                            |\n                    [Me]hika kula\n\n[Footnote: _Epigraphia Indica_, vol. I, pp. 382, 388.]\n\n\nThe _Kalpas\u00fbtra_:\u2014K\u00e2marddhi of the Ku\u1e47\u1e0dalagotra founded the\nVe\u015bav\u00e2\u1e6dika ga\u1e47a which was divided into four \u015b\u00e0kh\u00e2s, and into\nfour kulas:\u2014\n\n                 Ve\u015bav\u00e2\u1e6dika Ga\u1e47a\n                           |\n      .\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014\u2014.\n      |                                        |\n    kulas                                 \u015b\u00e2kh\u00e2s\n  Ga\u1e47ika                              \u015ar\u00e2vastik\u00e2\n  _Maighika_                        Rajjap\u00e2liy\u00e2\n  K\u00e2marddhika                     Antarijjiy\u00e2\n  Indrapuraka                      Khemalijjiy\u00e2\n\n[Footnote: For the above lists see _Wiener Zeitschi_. Bd. IV, S. 316\nff. and _Kalpas\u00fbtra_ in _S. B. E._ vol. XXII, pp. 290 f.]\n\nThe resemblance of most of these names is so complete that no explanation\nis necessary.\n\n\n\n\nJAINA MYTHOLOGY.\n\nThe mythology of the Jainas, whilst including many of the Hindu\ndivinities, to which it accords very inferior positions, is altogether\ndifferent in composition. It has all the appearance of a purely\nconstructed system. The gods are classified and subdivided into orders,\ngenera, and species; all are mortal, have their ages fixed, as well as\ntheir abodes, and are mostly distinguished by cognizances _chihnas_\nor _l\u00e2\u0144chha\u1e47as_. Their T\u00eerthakaras, T\u00ecrthamkaras, or perfected\nsaints, are usually known as twenty-four belonging to the present age. But\nthe mythology takes account also of a past and a future age or renovation\nof the world, and to each of these aeons are assigned twenty-four\nT\u00eerthakaras. But this is not all: in their cosmogony they lay down other\ncontinents besides Jamb\u00fbdv\u00eepa-Bharata or that which we dwell in. These are\nseparated from Jamb\u00fbdv\u00eepa by impassable seas, but exactly like it in every\nrespect and are called Dh\u00e2tuki-kanda and Pushkar\u00e2rddha; and of each of\nthese there are eastern, and western Bharata and Air\u00e0vata regions, whilst\nof Jamb\u00fbdv\u00eepa there is also a Bharata and an Air\u00e2vata region: these make\nthe following ten regions or worlds:\u2014\n\n 1. Jamb\u00fbdv\u00eepa-bharata-kshetra.\n 2. Dh\u00e2tuk\u00ee-kha\u1e47\u1e0da p\u00fbrva-bharata.\n 3. Dh\u00e2tuk\u00ee-kha\u1e47\u1e0da pa\u015bchima-bharata.\n 4. Pushkar\u00e2rddha p\u00fbrva-bharata.\n 5. Pushkaravaradv\u00eepa pa\u015bchima-bharata.\n 6. Jamb\u00fbdv\u00eepa air\u00e2vata-kshetra.\n 7. Dh\u00e2tuk\u00ee-kha\u1e47\u1e0da p\u00fbrva-air\u00e2vata.\n 8. Dh\u00e2tuk\u00ee-kha\u1e47\u1e0da pa\u015bchima-air\u00e2vata.\n 9. Pushkar\u00e2rdhadv\u00eepa p\u00fbrva-air\u00e2vata.\n10. Puskar\u00e2rddha pa\u015bchima-air\u00e2vata.\n\nTo each of these is allotted twenty four past, present and future At\u00eets or\nJinas,\u2014making in all 720 of this class, for which they have invented\nnames: but they are only names. [Footnote:  See _Ratnas\u00e2gara_, bh.\nII, pp. 696\u2014705.]\n\nOf the T\u00eerthakaras of the present age or _avasarpini_ in the\nBharata-varsha of Jamb\u00fbdv\u00eepa, however, we are supplied with minute\ndetails:\u2014their names, parents, stations, reputed ages, complexions,\nattendants, cognizances (_chihna_) or characteristics, etc. and these\ndetails are useful for the explanation of the iconography we meet with in\nthe shrines of Jaina temples. There the images of the T\u00eerthakaras are\nplaced on highly sculptured thrones and surrounded by other smaller\nattendant figures. In temples of the \u015avet\u00e2mbara sect the images are\ngenerally of marble\u2014white in most cases, but often black for images of\nthe 19th, 2Oth, 22nd and 23rd Jinas. On the front of the throne or\n_\u00e2sana_ are usually carved three small figures: at the proper right\nof the Jina is a male figure representing the Yaksha attendant or servant\nof that particular Jina; at the left end of the throne is the\ncorresponding female\u2014or Yakshin\u00ee, Yaksh\u00ee or \u015a\u00e2sanadev\u00ee; whilst in a\npanel in the middle there is often another dev\u00ee. At the base of the seat\nalso, are placed nine very small figures representing the _navagraha_\nor nine planets; that is the sun, moon, five planets, and ascending and\ndescending nodes.\n\nIn the Jaina _Pur\u00e2nas_, legends are given to account for the\nconnexion of the Yakshas and Yaksh\u00ees with their respective T\u00eerthakaras:\nthus, in the case of P\u00e2r\u015bvan\u00e2tha, we have a story of two brothers\nMarubh\u00fbti and Kama\u1e6dha, who in eight successive incarnations were always\nenemies, and were finally born as P\u00e2r\u015bvan\u00e2tha and Sambaradeva\nrespectively. A P\u00e2sha\u1e47\u1e0da or unbeliever, engaged in the\n_panch\u00e2gni_ rite, when felling a tree for his fire, against the\nremonstrance of P\u00e2r\u015bvan\u00e2tha, cut in pieces two snakes that were in it;\nthe Jina, however restored them to life by means of the\n_pa\u00f1chamantra_. They were then re-born in P\u00e2t\u00e2la-loka as\nDhara\u1e47endra or N\u00e2gendra-Yaksha and Padm\u00e2vat\u00ee-Yakshi\u1e47\u00ee. When\nSambaradeva or Meghakum\u00e2ra afterwards attacked the Arbat with a great\nstorm, whilst he was engaged in the _K\u00e2yotsarga_ austerity\u2014standing\nimmovable, exposed to the weather\u2014much in the way that M\u00e2ra attacked\n\u015a\u00e2kya Buddha at Bodh-gay\u00e2, Dhara\u1e47endra's throne in P\u00e2t\u00e2la thereupon\nshook, and the N\u00e2ga or Yaksha with his consort at once sped to the\nprotection of his former benefactor. Dhara\u1e47endra spread his many hoods\nover the head of the Arhata and the Yaksh\u1e45\u00ee Padm\u00e2vat\u00ee held a white\numbrella (_\u015bveta chhatri_) over him for protection. Ever after\nthey became his constant attendants, just as \u015aakra was to Buddha. The\nlegend is often represented in old-sculptures, in the cave-temples at\nB\u00e2d\u00e2mi, Elura, etc., and the figure of P\u00e2r\u015bva is generally carved with\nthe snake-hoods (_\u015aeshapha\u1e47i_) over him. [Footnote: _Cave\nTemples_, pp. 491, 496; _Arch. Sur. Westn. India_, vol. I, p. 25\nand pl. xxxvii; vol. V, p. 49; _Transactions, R. As. Soc._, vol. I,\np. 435. At R\u00e2npur in Godw\u00e2r, in the temple of Rishabhan\u00e2tha is a finely\ncarved slab representing P\u00e2r\u015bvan\u00e2tha in the K\u00e2yotsarga position,\nattended by snake divinities,\u2014_Archit. and Scenery in Gujar\u00e2t and\nR\u00e2jput\u00e2na_, p. 21. The story has variants: conf. _Ind. Ant_. vol.\nXXX, p. 302.]\n\nOther legends account for the attachment of each pair of \u015a\u00e2sanadevat\u00e2s\nto their respective Jinas.\n\nThe \u015avet\u00e2mbaras and Digambaras agree generally in the details\nrespecting the different T\u00eerthakaras; but, from information furnished from\nMaisur, they seem to differ as to the names of the Yakshi\u1e47is attached\nto the several T\u00eerthakaras, except the first and last two; they differ\nalso in the names of several of the Jinas of the past and the future\naeons. The Digambaras enlist most of the sixteen Vidy\u00e2devis or goddesses\nof knowledge among the Yakshi\u1e47\u00ees, whilst the other sect include\nscarcely a third of them.\n\nThese Vidy\u00e2dev\u00ees, as given by Hemachandra, are\u2014(1) Rohi\u1e47\u00ee; (2)\nPraj\u00f1apt\u00ee; (3) Vajras\u1e5bi\u0144khal\u00e2; (4) Kuli\u015b\u00e2nku\u015bc\u00e2\u2014probably the\nAnku\u015ba-Yaksh\u00ee of the \u015avet\u00e0mb\u00e2ra fourteenth Jina; (5) Chakre\u015bvar\u00ee;\n(6) Naradatt\u00e2 or Purushadatt\u00e2; (7) K\u00e2li or K\u00e2l\u00eek\u00e2; (8) Mah\u00e1k\u00e2l\u00ee;\n(9) Gaur\u00ee; (10) G\u00e2ndh\u00e2r\u00ee; (11) Sarv\u00e2stramah\u00e2jv\u00e2l\u00e2; (12) M\u00e2nav\u00ee;\n(13) Vairo\u1e6dy\u00e2; (14) Achchhupt\u00e2; (15) M\u00e2nas\u00ee; and (16) Mah\u00e2m\u00e2nasik\u00e2.\n\nThe images of the T\u00eerthakaras are always represented seated with their\nlegs crossed in front\u2014the toes of one foot resting close upon the knee\nof the other; and the right hand lies over the left in the lap. All are\nrepresented exactly alike except that P\u00e2r\u015bvan\u00e2tha, the twenty-third,\nhas the snake-hoods over him; and, with the Digambaras, Sup\u00e2r\u015bva\u2014the\nseventh, has also a smaller group of snake hoods. The Digambara images are\nall quite nude; those of the \u015avet\u00e2mbaras are represented as clothed,\nand they decorate them with crowns and ornaments. They are distinguished\nfrom one another by their attendant _Yakshas_ and _Yakshi\u1e47\u00ees_\nas well as by their respective _chihnas_ or cognizances which are\ncarved on the cushion of the throne.\n\nAll the Jinas are ascribed to the Ikshv\u00e2ku family (_kula_)except the\ntwentieth Munisuvrata and twenty-second Nemin\u00e2tha, who were of the\nHariva\u1e43\u015ba race.\n\nAll received _d\u00eeksh\u00e0_ or consecration at their native places; and all\nobtained _j\u0144\u00e2na_ or complete enlightenment at the same, except\n\u1e5aishabha who became a _Kevalin_ at Purimat\u00e0la, Nemi at Girn\u00e2r, and\nMah\u00e2v\u00eera at the Rijup\u00e0luk\u00e0 river; and twenty of them died or obtained\n_moksha_ (deliverance in bliss) on Sameta-\u015aikhara or Mount\nP\u00e2r\u015bvan\u00e2tha in the west of Bengal. But \u1e5aishabha, the first, died on\nAsh\u1e6d\u00e2pada\u2014supposed to be \u015aatru\u00f1ljaya in Gujar\u00e2t; V\u00e2sup\u00fbjya died at\nChamp\u00e2puri in north Bengal; Nemin\u00e2tha on mount Girn\u00e2r; and Mah\u00e2v\u00eera, the\nlast, at P\u00e2v\u00e2pur.\n\nTwenty-one of the T\u00eerthakaras are said to have attained Moksha in the\nK\u00e2yotsarga (Guj. _K\u00e2\u00fcsagga_) posture, and \u1e5aishabha, Nemi, and\nMah\u00e2vira on the _padm\u00e2sana_ or lotus throne.\n\nFor sake of brevity the following particulars for each Arhat are given\nbelow in serial order viz.:\u2014\n\n (1) The  _vim\u00e2na_ or _v\u00e2hana_ (heaven) from which he\n     descended for incarnation.\n\n (2) Birthplace, and place of consecration or _d\u00eeksh\u00e2_.\n\n (3) Names of father and mother.\n\n (4) Complexion.\n\n (5) Cognizance\u2014_chihna_ or _l\u00e2\u00f1chha\u1e47a_.\n\n (6) Height; and\n\n (7) Age.\n\n (8) D\u00eeksha-vriksha or Bodhi tree.\n\n (9) Yaksha and Yakshi\u1e47\u00ee, or attendant spirits.\n\n(10) First Ganadhara or leading disciple, and first\n     \u00c2ry\u00e2 or leader of the female converts.\n\nI. \u1e5aishabhadeva, V\u1e5bishabha, \u00c2dinth\u00e2 or Adi\u015bvara Bhagav\u00e2n:\u2014(I)\nSarv\u00e2rthasiddha; (2) Vinittanagar\u00ee in Ko\u015bal\u00e2 and Purimat\u00e2la;\n(3) N\u00e2bh\u00eer\u00e2j\u00e2 by Marudev\u00e2; (4) golden\u2014_var\u1e47a_-, (5)the\nbull,\u2014_v\u1e5bisha, balada;_ (6) 500 poles or _dhanusha_;\n(7) 8,400,000 p\u00fbrva or great years; (8) the Va\u1e6da or banyan tree;\n(9) Gomukha and Chakre\u015bvar\u00ee; (10) Pundar\u00eeka and Brahm\u00ee.\n\nII.  Ajitan\u00e2tha: (1) Vijayavim\u00e0na; (2) Ayodhy\u00e2; (3) Jita\u015batru by\nVijay\u00e2m\u00e2t\u00e2; (4) golden; (5) the elephant\u2014_gaja_ or _hasti_;\n(6) 450 poles; (7)7,200,000 p\u00fbrva years; (8) \u015a\u00e2la\u2014the Shorea robusta;\n(9) Mah\u00e2yaksha and Ajitabal\u00e2: with the Digambaras, the Yakshi\u1e47\u00ee is\nRohi\u1e47\u00ee-yaksh\u00ee; (10) \u015ai\u1e41hasena and Ph\u00e2lgu.\n\nIII. Sambhavan\u00e2tha: (1) Uvar\u00eemagraiveka;(2) S\u00e2vathi or \u015ar\u00e0vasti;\n(3) Jit\u00e2ri by Sen\u00e2m\u00e2t\u00e2; (4) golden; (5) the horse,\u2014_a\u015bva,\ngho\u1e0da_; (6) 400 poles; (7) 6,000,000 p\u00fbrva years; (8) the\nPray\u00e2la\u2014Buchanania latifolia; (9) Trimukha and Durit\u00e2r\u00ee\n(Digambara\u2014Praj\u00f1apt\u00ee); (10) Ch\u00e2ru and \u015ay\u00e2m\u00e2.\n\nIV. Abhinandana: (1) Jayantavim\u00e2na; (2) Ayodhy\u00e2; (3) Sambarar\u00e2j\u00e2 by\nSiddh\u00e2rth\u00e0; (4) golden; (5) the ape,\u2014_plavaga, v\u00e2nara_ or\n_kapi_; (6) 350 poles; (7) 5,000,000 p\u00fbrva years; (8) the Priya\u1e47gu\nor Panicum italicum; (9) N\u00e0yaka and K\u00e2l\u00eek\u00e2, and Digambara\u2014Yakshe\u015bvara\nand Vajra\u015b\u1e5bi\u1e45khal\u00e2; (10) Vajran\u00e2bha and Ajit\u00e2.\n\nV. Sumatin\u00e2tha: (1) Jayantavim\u00e2na; (2) Ayodhy\u00e2; (3) Megharaj\u00e2 by\nMa\u1e45gal\u00e2; (4) golden; (5) the curlew,\u2014_krau\u1e45cha_, (Dig.\n_chakravakap\u00e2ksh\u00e2_\u2014the Br\u00e2hmani or red goose); (6) 300 poles;\n(7) 4,000,000 p\u00fbrva years; (8) \u015a\u00e2la tree;  (9) Tu\u1e41buru and Mah\u00e2kal\u00ee\n(Dig. Purushadatt\u00e2); (10) Charama and K\u00e2\u015byap\u00ee.\n\nVI. Padmaprabha: (1) Uvar\u00eemagraiveka; (2) Kau\u015bamb\u00ee; (3) \u015ar\u00eedhara by\nSus\u00eem\u00e2; (4) red (_rakta_); (5) a lotus bud\u2014_padma, abja_, or\n_kamala_; (6) 250 poles; (7) 3,000,000 p\u00fbrva years; (8) the Chhatr\u00e2\n\u2014(Anethum sowa?); (9) Kusuma and \u015ay\u00e2m\u00e2 (Dig. Manoveg\u00e2 or Manogupt\u00ee);\n(10) Pradyotana and Rat\u00ee.\n\nVII. Sup\u00e2r\u015bvan\u00e2tha: (1) Madhyamagraiveka; (2) Var\u00e2\u1e47a\u015b\u00ee;\n(3) Pratish\u1e6dhar\u00e2j\u00e2 by P\u1e5bithv\u00ee; (4) golden; [Footnote: The\nDigambara describe the colours of the seventh and twenty-first Jinas as\n_marakada_ or emerald coloured.] (5) the swastika symbol; (6) 200\npoles; (7) 2,000,000 p\u00fbrva years; (8) the \u015air\u00eesha or Acacia sirisha;\n(9) M\u00e2ta\u1e45ga and \u015a\u00e2nt\u00e2;\u2014Digambara, Varanandi and K\u00e2l\u00ee; (10) Vidirbha\nand Som\u00e2.\n\nVIII.  Chandraprabha: (1) Vijayanta; (2) Chandrapura; (3) Mah\u00e2senar\u00e2j\u00e2 by\nLakshma\u1e47\u00e2; (4) white\u2014_dhavala, \u015bubhra_; (5) the\nmoon\u2014_chandr\u00e2 or \u015ba\u015b\u00ee_; (6) 150 poles; (7) 1,000,000 p\u00fbrva\nyears; (8) the N\u00e2ga tree; (9) Vijaya and Bh\u1e5biku\u1e6d\u00ee:\nDigambara\u2014\u015ay\u00e2ma or Vijaya and Jv\u00e2l\u00e2m\u00e2lin\u00ee; (10) Dinn\u00e2 and Suman\u00e2.\n\nIX. Suvidhin\u00e2tha or Pushpadanta: (1) \u00c2natadevaloka;\n(2) K\u00e2na\u1e47\u1e0d\u00eenagar\u00ee; (3) Sugr\u00eevar\u00e2ja by R\u00e2m\u00e2r\u00e2\u1e47\u00ee; (4) white;\n(5) the Makara (Dig. the crab\u2014_\u00ea\u1e0di_); (6) 100 poles;\n(7) 200,000 p\u00fbrva years; (8) the \u015a\u00e2l\u00ee; (9) Ajit\u00e2 and Sut\u00e2rak\u00e2:\nDigambara\u2014Ajit\u00e2 and Mah\u00e2k\u00e2l\u00ee or Ajit\u00e2; (10) Var\u00e2haka  and V\u00e2ru\u1e47\u00ee.\n\nX. \u015aitalan\u00e2tha: (1) Achyutadevaloka; (2)Bhadrapur\u00e2 or Bhadilapura;\n(3) D\u1e5bi\u0310\u1e0dharatha-r\u00e2j\u00e2 by Nand\u00e2; (4) golden; (5) the \u015ar\u00eevatsa\nfigure: (Dig. _\u015ari-vriksha_ the ficus religiosa); (6) 90 poles;\n(7) 100,000 p\u00fbrva years; (8) the Priya\u1e45gu tree; (9) Brahm\u00e2 and A\u015bok\u00e2\n(Dig. M\u00e2nav\u00ee); (10) Nand\u00e2 and Sujas\u00e2.\n\nXI. \u015arey\u00e2\u1e41\u015ban\u00e2tha or \u015areyasa: (1) Achyutadevaloka;\n(2) Si\u1e41hapur\u00ee; (3) Vish\u1e47ur\u00e2j\u00e2 by Vish\u1e47\u00e2; (4) golden; (5) the\nrhinoceros\u2014_kha\u1e0dga, ge\u1e45\u1e0d\u00e2_: (Dig. Garu\u1e0da); (6) 80 poles;\n(7) 8,400,000 common years; (8) the Ta\u1e47\u1e0duka tree; (9) Yakshe\u1e6d and\nM\u00e2nav\u00ee: Digambara\u2014\u00ce\u015bvara and Gauri; (10) Ka\u015byapa and Dh\u00e2ra\u1e47\u00ee.\n\nXII. V\u00e2sup\u00fbjya: (1) Pr\u00e2\u1e47atadevaloka; (2) Champ\u00e2pur\u00ee; (3) Vasup\u00fbjya by\nJay\u00e2; (4) ruddy\u2014_rakta_, Guj. _r\u00e2tu\u1e45_; (5) the female\nbuffalo\u2014_mahish\u00ee, p\u00e2d\u00e2_; (6) 70 poles; (7) 7,200,000 common years;\n(8) the P\u00e2\u1e6dala or Bignonia suaveolens; (9) Kum\u00e2ra and Cha\u1e47\u1e0d\u00e2\n(Dig. G\u00e2ndh\u00e2r\u00ee); (10) Subhuma and Dhara\u1e47\u00ee.\n\nXIII.  Vimalan\u00e2tha: (1) Mahas\u00e2radevaloka; (2) Kamp\u00eelyapura;\n(3) K\u1e5bi\u0310tavarmar\u00e2ja by \u015ay\u00e2m\u00e2; (4) golden; (5) a\nboar\u2014_\u015b\u00e2kara, var\u00e2ha_; (6) 60 poles; (7) 6,000,000 years;\n(8) the J\u00e2mbu or Eugenia jambolana; (9) Sh\u00e2\u1e47mukha and Vidit\u00e2 (Dig.\nVair\u00f4\u1e6d\u00ee); (10) Mandara and Dhar\u00e2.\n\nXIV. Anantan\u00e2tha or Anantajit: (1) Pr\u00e2\u1e47atadevaloka; (2) Ayodhy\u00e2;\n(3) Si\u1e41hasena by Suya\u015b\u00e2\u1e25 or Sujas\u00e2; (4) golden; (5) a\nfalcon\u2014_\u015byena_ (Dig. _bhall\u00fbka_ a bear); (6) 50 poles;\n(7) 3,000,000 years; (8) the A\u015boka or Jonesia asoka; (9) P\u00e2t\u00e2la and\nAnku\u015b\u00e2 (Dig. Anantamat\u00ee); (10) Jasa and Padm\u00e2.\n\nXV.  Dharman\u00e2tha: (1) Vijayavim\u00e2na; (2) Ratnapur\u00ee; (3) Bh\u00e2nur\u00e2j\u00e2 by\nSuvrit\u00e2; (4) golden; (5) the thunderbolt\u2014_vajra_; (6) 45 poles;\n(7) 1,000,000 years; (8) Dadh\u00eepar\u1e47a tree (Clitoria ternatea?);\n(9) Kinnara and Kandarp\u00e2 (Dig. M\u00e2nas\u00ee); (10) Arish\u1e6da and \u00c2rtha\u015biv\u00e2.\n\nXVI. \u015a\u00e2ntin\u00e2th\u00e2: (1) Sarv\u00e2rthasiddha; (2) Gajapura or Hastinapur\u00ee;\n(3) Vi\u015bvasena by Achir\u00e2; (4) golden; (5) an antelope\u2014_m\u1e5biga,\nhara\u1e47a, hull\u0115_, (6)40 poles; (7) 100,000 years; (8) the Nand\u00ee or\nCedrela toona; (9) Garu\u1e0da and Nirv\u00e2\u1e47\u00ee (Dig. Kimpurusha and\nMah\u00e2m\u00e2nas\u00ee); (10) Chakr\u00e2yuddha and Such\u00ee.\n\nXVII.  Kunthtin\u00e2tha: (1) Sarv\u00e2rthasiddha; (2) Gajapura; (3) S\u00fbrar\u00e2j\u00e2 by\n\u015ar\u00eer\u00e2n\u00ee; (4) golden; (5) a goat\u2014_chh\u00e2ga_ or _aja_; (6) 35\npoles; (7) 95,000 years; (8) the Bhilaka tree; (9) Gandharva and Bal\u00e2\n(Dig. Vijay\u00e2); (10) S\u00e2mba and D\u00e2min\u00ee.\n\nXVIII. Aran\u00e2tha: (1) Sarv\u00e2rthasiddha; (2) Gajapura; (3) Sudar\u015bana by\nDev\u00eer\u00e2\u1e47\u00ee; (4) golden; (5) the Nandy\u00e2varta diagram, (Dig.\n_Mina_\u2014the zodiacal Pisces); (6) 30 poles; (7) 84,000 years;\n(8) \u00c2mb\u00e2 or Mango tree; (9) Yakshe\u1e6da and Dha\u1e47\u00e2 (Dig. Kendra and\nAjit\u00e2); (10) Kumbha and Rakshit\u00e2.\n\nXIX.  Mallin\u00e2tha: (1) Jayantadevaloka; (2) Mathur\u00e2; (3) Kumbhar\u00e2j\u00e2 by\nPrabh\u00e2vat\u00ee; (4) blue\u2014_n\u00eela_; (5) a jar\u2014_kumbham, kala\u015ba_ or\n_gha\u1e6da_; (6) 25 poles; (7) 55,000 years; (8) A\u015boka tree;\n(9) Kubera and Dhara\u1e47apriy\u00e2 (Dig. Apar\u00e2jit\u00e2); (10) Abhikshaka and\nBandhumat\u00ee.\n\nXX.  Munisuvrata, Suvrata or Muni: (1) Apar\u00e2jita-devaloka;\n(2) R[a`]jag\u1e5biha; (3) Sumitrar[a`]j\u00e2 by Padm\u00e2vat\u00ee;\n(4) black\u2014_\u015by\u00e2ma, asita_; (5) a tortoise\u2014_k\u00fbrma_;\n(6) 20 poles; (7) 30,000 years; (8) the Champaka, Michelia champaka;\n(9) Varu\u1e47a and Naradatt\u00e2, (Dig. Bahur\u00fbpi\u1e47\u00ee); (10) Malli and\nPushpavat\u00ee.\n\nXXI. Namin\u00e2tha, Nimi or Nime\u015bvara: (1) Pr\u00e2\u1e47atadevaloka; (2) Mathur\u00e2;\n(3) Vijayar\u00e2j\u00e2 by Vipr\u00e2r\u00e2\u1e47\u00ee; (4) yellow; (5) the blue\nwater-lily\u2014_n\u00eelotpala_, with the Digambaras, sometimes the A\u015boka\ntree; (6) 15 poles; (7) 10,000 years; (8) the Bakula or Mimusops elengi;\n(9) Bh\u1e5biku\u1e6di and Gandh\u00e2r\u00ee, (Dig. Ch\u00e2mu\u1e47\u1e0d\u00ee); (10) \u015aubha and\nAnil\u00e2.\n\nXXII. Nemin\u00e2tha or Arish\u1e6danemi: (1) Apar\u00e2jita; (2) Sauripura\n(Pr\u00e1krit\u2014Soriyapura) and Ujjinta or Mount Girn\u00e2r; (3) Samudravijaya by\n\u015aiv\u00e2devi; (4) black\u2014_\u015by\u00e2ma_; (5) a conch,\u2014_\u015ba\u1e45kha_;\n(6) 10 poles; (7) 1000 years; (8) the Ve\u1e6dasa; (9) Gomedha and Ambik\u00e2:\nwith the Digambaras, Sarv\u00e2h\u1e47a and K\u00fbshm\u00e2\u1e47\u1e0din\u00ee; (10) Varadatta and\nYakshadinn\u00e2.\n\nXXIII. P\u00e2r\u015bvan\u00e2tha: (1) Pr\u00e2\u1e47atadevaloka; (2) Var\u00e2\u1e47as\u00ee and\nSameta-\u015aikhara; (3) A\u015bvasenar\u00e2ja by V\u00e2m\u00e2dev\u00ee; (4) blue\u2014_n\u00eela_;\n(5) a serpent\u2014_sarpa_; (6) 9 hands; (7) 100 years; (8) the Dh\u00e2tak\u00ee\nor Grislea tomentosa; (9) P\u00e2r\u015bvayaksha or Dhara\u1e47endra and Padm\u00e2vat\u00ee;\n(10) \u00c2ryadinna and Pushpach\u00fb\u1e0d\u00e2.\n\nXXIV. \u015ari-Mah\u00e2v\u00eera, Vardham\u00e2na or V\u00eera, the \u015arama\u1e47a:\n(1) Pr\u00e2\u1e47 atadevaloka; (2) Ku\u1e47\u1e0dagr\u00e2ma or Chitrak\u00fb\u1e6da, and\n\u1e5aijup\u00e2luk\u00e2; (3) Siddh\u00e2rthar\u00e2ja, \u015arey\u00e2n\u015ba or Ya\u015basvin by\nTri\u015bal\u00e2 Vidchadinn\u00e2 or Priyak\u00e2ri\u1e47\u00ee; (4) yellow; (5) a\nlion\u2014_ke\u015bar\u00ee-simha_; (6) 7 hands or cubits; (7) 72 years; (8) the\n_\u015bala_ or teak tree; (9) M\u00e2ta\u1e41ga and Siddh\u00e2yik\u00e2;\n(10) Indrabh\u00fbti and Chandrab\u00e2l\u00e2.\n\nThe Tirthakuras may be regarded as the _dii majores_ of the Jainas,\n[Footnote: For an account of the ritual of the Svet\u00e2mbara sect of Jainas,\nsee my account in the _Indian Antiquary_, vol. XIII, pp. 191-196.]\nthough, having become Siddhas, emancipated from all concern, they can have\nno interest in mundane affairs. They and such beings as are supposed to\nhave reached perfection are divided into fifteen species:\n\n 1. T\u00eerthakarasiddhas;\n 2. At\u00eerthakarasiddhas;\n 3. T\u00eerthasiddhas;\n 4. Svali\u1e45gasiddas;\n 5. Anyali\u1e45gasiddhas;\n 6. Strili\u1e45gasiddhas;\n 7. Purushali\u1e45gasiddhas;\n 8. Napu\u1e41sakali\u1e45gasiddhas;\n 9. G\u1e5bihali\u1e45gasiddhas;\n10. T\u00eerthavyavachchhedasiddhas;\n11. Pratyekabuddhasiddhas;\n12. Svayambuddhasiddhas;\n13. Ekasiddas;\n14. Anekasiddhas;\n15. Buddhabodhietasiddllas.\n[Footnote: _Jour. Asiat_.  IXme Ser. tom. XIX, p. 260.]\n\nBut the gods are divided into four classes, and each class into several\norders: the four classes are:\u2014\n\n  I. Bhavan\u00e2dhipatis, Bhavanav\u00e2sins or Bhaumeyikas, of which there are ten\n  orders, viz.\u2014\n\n     1. Asurakum\u00e2ras;\n     2. N\u00e2gakum\u00e2ras;\n     3. Ta\u1e0ditkum\u00e2ras or Vidyutkum\u00e2ras;\n     4. Suvar\u1e47a- or Suparnaka-kum\u00e2ras;\n     5. Agnikum\u00e2ras;\n     6. Dv\u00eepakum\u00e2ras (D\u00eevakum\u00e2ras);\n     7. Udadhikum\u00e2ras;\n     8. Dikkum\u00e2ras;\n     9. Pavana- or V\u00e2ta-kum\u00e2ras;\n    10. Gha\u1e47ika- or Sanitakum\u00e2ras.\n\n  II. Vyantaras or V\u00e2\u1e47amantaras, who live\n  in woods are of eight classes:\u2014\n\n     1. Pi\u015b\u00e2chas;\n     2. Bh\u00fbtas;\n     3. Yakshas;\n     4. R\u00e2kshasas;\n     5. Kimnaras;\n     6. Kimpurushas;\n     7. Mahoragas;\n     8. Gandharvas.\n\n  III. The Jyotishkas are the inhabitants of;\n\n     1. Chandras or the moons;\n     2. S\u00fbryas or the suns;\n     3. Grahas or the planets;\n     4. Nakshatras or the constellations;\n     5. T\u00e2r\u00e2s or the hosts of stars.\n\n  And IV. The Vaim\u00e2nika gods are of two orders: (1) the Kalpabhavas, who\n  are born in the heavenly Kalpas; and (2) the Kalp\u00e2t\u00eetas, born in the\n  regions above the Kalpas.\n\n(1) The Kalpabhavas again are subdivided into twelve genera who live in\nthe Kalpas after which they are named; viz,\u2014\n\n 1. Saudharma;\n 2. \u00ce\u015b\u00e2na;\n 3. Sanatkum\u00e2ra;\n 4. M\u00e2hendra;\n 5. Brahmaloka;\n 6. L\u00e2ntaka;\n 7. \u015aukra or Mah\u00e2\u015bukla;\n 8. Sahasr\u00e2ra;\n 9.  \u00c2nata (\u00c2\u1e47aya);\n10. Pr\u00e2\u1e47ata (P\u00e2\u1e47aya);\n11. \u00c2ra\u1e47a;\n12. Achyuta.\n\n(2) The Kalp\u00e2t\u00eetas are subdivided into\u2014(a) the Graiveyakas, living on the\nupper part of the universe; and (b) the Anuttaras or those above whom\nthere are no others.\n\n  (a) The Graiveyakas are of nine species, viz.\u2014\n\n   1. Sudarsa\u1e47as;\n   2. Supratipandhas;\n   3. Ma\u1e47oramas;\n   4. Sarvabhadras;\n   5. Suvi\u015b\u00e2las;\n   6. Soma\u1e47asas;\n   7. Suma\u1e45kasas;\n   8. Pr\u00eeya\u1e45karas;\n   9. \u00c2dityas or Nandikaras.\n\n\n  (b) the Anuttara gods are of five orders: viz.\u2014\n\n   1. Vijayas;\n   2. Vaijayantas;\n   3. Jayantas;\n   4. Apar\u00e2jitas; and\n   5. Sarv\u00e2rthasiddhas.\n\n[Footnote: Conf. _Ratnas\u00e2gara_, bh. II, pp. 616, 617; _Jour.\nAsiat._ IXme Ser. tome XIX, p. 259; _Sac. Bks. E_. vol. XLV, p.\n226 f. See also _Rev. de l'Histoire des Relig_. tom. XLVII, pp.\n34-50, which has appeared since the above was written, for \"La doctrine\ndes \u00eatres vivants dans la Religion Jaina\".]\n\nThese Anuttara gods inhabit the highest heavens where they live for\nvarying lengths of time as the heavens ascend; and in the fifth or\nhighest\u2014the great Vim\u00e2na called Sarv\u00e2rthasiddha\u2014they all live\nthirty-three S\u00e2garopamas or periods of unimagiable duration. Still all the\ngods are mortal or belong to the _sa\u1e41s\u00e2ra_.\n\nAbove these is the paradise of the Siddhas or perfected souls, and the\n_Uttar\u00e2dhyana S\u00fbtra_ gives the following details of this realm of the\nperfected, or the paradise of the Jainas:\u2014[Footnote: See _ante_, p.\n11, note 10; The following extract is from _Sac. Books of the East_,\nvol. XLV, pp. 211-213.]\n\n  \"The perfected souls are those of women, men, hermaphrodites, of\n  orthodox, heterodox, and householders. Perfection is reached by people\n  of the greatest, smallest and middle size; [Footnote: The greatest\n  size\u2014_og\u00e2ha\u1e47\u00e2_\u2014of men is 500 dhanush or 2000 cubits, the\n  smallest is one cubit.] on high places, underground, on the surface of\n  the earth, in the ocean, and in waters (of rivers, etc.).\n\n  \"Ten hermaphrodites reach perfection at the same time, twenty women,\n  one hundred and eight men; four householders, ten heterodox, and one\n  hundred and eight orthodox monks.\n\n  \"Two individuals of the greatest size reach perfection\n  (simultaneously), four of the smallest size, and one hundred and eight\n  of the middle size. Four individuals reach perfection (simultaneously)\n  on high places, two in the ocean, three in water, twenty underground;\n  and where do they go on reaching perfection? Perfected souls are\n  debarred from the non-world (Aloka); they reside on the top of the\n  world; they leave their bodies here (below) and go there, on reaching\n  perfection.\n\n  \"Twelve _yojanas_ above the (Vim\u00e2na) Sarv\u00e2rtha is the place called\n  \u00ceshatpragbh\u00e2ra, which has the form of an umbrella; (there the\n  perfected souls go). It is forty-five hundred thousand _yojanas_\n  long, and as many broad, and it is somewhat more than three times as\n  many in circumference. Its thickness is eight _yojanas_, it is\n  greatest in the middle, and decreases towards the margin, till it is\n  thinner than the wing of a fly. This place, by nature pure, consisting\n  of white gold, resembles in form an open umbrella, as has been said by\n  the best of Jinas.\n\n  \"(Above it) is a pure blessed place (called \u015a\u00eet\u00e2), which is white\n  like a conch-shell, the _anka_-stone, and Kunda-flowers; [Footnote:\n  The gourd Lagenaria vulgaris.] a _yojana_ thence is the end of the\n  world. The perfected souls penetrate the sixth part of the uppermost\n  _kro\u015ba_ of the (above-mentioned) _yojana_. There, at the\n  top of the world reside the blessed perfected souls, rid of all\n  transmigration, and arrived at the excellent state of perfection. The\n  dimension of a perfected soul is two-thirds of the height which the\n  individual had in his last existence.\n\n  \"The perfected souls considered singly\u2014_\u00eagatt\u00ea\u1e47a_ (as\n  individuals)\u2014have a beginning but no end, considered\n  collectively\u2014_puhutt\u00ea\u1e47a_ (as a class)\u2014they have neither a\n  beginning nor an end. They have no (visible) form, they consist of\n  life throughout, they are developed into knowledge and faith, they\n  have crossed the boundary of the Sa\u1e41s\u00e2ra, and reached the excellent\n  state of perfection.\"\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nLike both the Br\u00e2hma\u1e47s and Buddhists, the Jainas have a series of\nhells\u2014N\u00e2rakas, numbering even which they name\u2014\n\n 1. Ratnaprabh\u00e2;\n 2. \u015aarkar\u00e2prabh\u00e2;\n 3. V\u00e2luk\u00e2prabh\u00e2;\n 4. Pa\u1e45kaprabh\u00e2;\n 5. Dh\u00fbmaprabh\u00e2;\n 6. Tamaprabh\u00e2;\n 7. Tamatamaprabh\u00e2.\n\n[Footnote: _Ratnas\u00e2gara_, bh. II, p. 607; _Jour. As_. u.s. p.  263.]\n\nThose who inhabit the seventh hell have a stature of 500 poles, and in\neach above that they are half the height of the one below it.\n\nEverything in the system as to stature of gods and living beings, their\nages and periods of transmigration is reduced to artificial numbers.\n\n\nThe Jaina Gachhas.\n\nAbout the middle of the tenth century there flourished a Jaina high priest\nnamed Uddyotana, with whose pupils the eighty four gachhas originated.\nThis number is still spoken of by the Jainas, but the lists that have been\nhitherto published are very discordant. The following was obtained from a\nmember of the sect as being their recognised list,\u2014and allowing for\ndifferences of spelling, nearly every name may be recognised in those\npreviously published by Mr. H. G. Briggs or Colonel Miles.\n\nThe Eighty four Gachchhas of the Jainas. [Footnote: Those names marked *\nare found in Col. Miles's list _Tr. R. A. S._ vol. III, pp. 358 f.\n363, 365, 370. Those marked \u2020 are included in H. G. Brigg's\nlist,\u2014_Cities of Gujarashtra_, p. 339.]\n\n 1. ? *\u2020                       43. Sop\u00e2r\u00eey\u00e2*\u2020\n 2. Osv\u00e2la*\u2020                  44. M\u00e2\u1e47\u1e0dal\u00eey\u00e2*\u2020\n 3. \u00c2\u1e45chala*                  45. Kochh\u00eepan\u00e2*\u2020\n 4. Jir\u00e2val\u00e2*\u2020               46. J\u00e2ga\u1e41na*\u2020\n 5. Kha\u1e0datara or Kharatara     47. L\u00e2parav\u00e2la*\u2020\n 6. Lonk\u00e2 or Richmati*\u2020       48. Vosara\u1e0d\u00e2*\u2020\n 7. Tap\u00e2*\u2020                    49. D\u00fc\u00eeva\u1e45dan\u00eey\u00e2*\u2020\n 8. Ga\u1e41ge\u015bvara*\u2020            50. Chitr\u00e2v\u00e2la*\u2020\n 9. Kora\u1e47\u1e6dav\u00e2la\u2020          51. Vega\u1e0d\u00e2\n10. \u00c2nandapura\u2020               52. V\u00e2pa\u1e0d\u00e2\n11. Bharaval\u00ee                   53. V\u00eejahar\u00e2, V\u00eejhar\u00e2*\u2020\n12. U\u1e0dhav\u00eey\u00e2*\u2020             54. K\u00e2\u00fcpur\u00ee\u2020\n13. Gud\u00e2v\u00e2*\u2020                 55. K\u00e2chala\n14. Dek\u00e2\u00fcp\u00e2 or Dek\u00e2w\u00e2*\u2020           56. Ha\u1e41dal\u00eey\u00e2\u2020\n15. Bh nm\u00e2l\u00e2\u2020                        57. Mahukar\u00e2\u2020\n16. Mahu\u1e0d\u00eey\u00e2*\u2020             58. Putaliy\u00e2*\u2020\n17. Gachhap\u00e2la*\u2020              59. Ka\u1e41nar\u00eesey\u2020\n18. Goshav\u00e2la\u2020                        60. Revar\u1e0di\u0310y\u00e2*\u2020\n19. Magatragagad\u00e2\u2020                    61. Dhandhuk\u00e2\u2020\n20. V\u1e5bihm\u00e2n\u00eey\u00e2\u2020                   62. Tha\u1e41bhan\u00eepa\u1e47\u00e2*\n21. T\u00e2l\u00e2r\u00e2*\u2020                        63. Pa\u1e41ch\u00eev\u00e2la\u2020\n22. V\u00eeka\u1e0d\u00eey\u00e2*\u2020            64. P\u00e2la\u1e47pur\u00e2*\n23. Mu\u00f1jh\u00eey\u00e2*\u2020              65. Ga\u1e41dh\u00e2r\u00eey\u00e2*\u2020\n24. Chitro\u1e0d\u00e2\u2020               66. Vel\u00eey\u00e2\u2020\n25. S\u00e2chor\u00e2*\u2020                67. S\u00e2\u1e0dhapunam\u00eey\u00e2\n26. Jacha\u1e47\u1e0d\u00eey\u00e2\u2020                  68. Nagarako\u1e6d\u00eey\u00e2*\u2020\n27. S\u00eedh\u00e2lav\u00e2*\u2020             69. H\u00e2sor\u00e2*\u2020\n28. M\u00eey\u00e2\u1e47\u1e47\u00eey\u00e2                    70. Bha\u1e6daner\u00e2*\u2020\n29. \u00c2gam\u00eey\u00e2\u2020                        71. Ja\u1e47ahar\u00e2*\u2020\n30. Maladh\u00e2r\u00ee*\u2020                      72. Jag\u00e2yana*\n31. Bh\u00e2var\u00eey\u00e2\u2020                      73. Bh\u00eemasena*\u2020\n32. Pal\u00eev\u00e2la*\u2020                       74. Taka\u1e0d\u00eey\u00e2\u2020\n33. N\u00e2gad\u00eege\u015bvara\u2020          75. Ka\u1e41boja*\u2020\n34. Dharmaghosha\u2020              76. Senat\u00e2\u2020\n35. N\u00e2gapur\u00e2*\u2020               77. Vagher\u00e2*\u2020\n36. Uchatav\u00e2la\u2020               78. Vahe\u1e0d\u00eey\u00e2*\n37. N\u00e2\u1e47\u1e47\u00e2v\u00e2la*\u2020         79. Siddhapura*\u2020\n38. S\u00e2\u1e0der\u00e2*\u2020               80. Ghoghar\u00ee*\u2020\n39. Ma\u1e47\u1e0dovar\u00e2*\u2020           81. N\u00eegam\u00eey\u00e2\n40. \u015aur\u00e2\u1e47\u00ee*\u2020                      82. Punam\u00eey\u00e2\n41. Kha\u1e41bh\u00e2vat\u00ee*\u2020          83. Varha\u1e0d\u00eey\u00e2\u2020\n42. P\u00e2\u00ebcha\u1e41da                84. N\u00e2m\u00eel\u00e2.\u2020","title":"On the Indian Sect of the Jainas","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":18884}