{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_15250/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_15250","id":"gutenberg_15250","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/15250","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Folklore","Legends -- China","Mythology","Mythology, Chinese","Tales -- China"],"text":"Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Jeroen Hellingman and the PG Online\nDistributed Proofreading Team.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n                        Myths & Legends of China\n\n                                   By\n\n                             E.T.C. Werner\n\n  H.B.M. Consul Foochow (Retired) Barrister-at-law Middle Temple Late\n    Member of The Chinese Government Historiographical Bureau Peking\n Author of \"Descriptive Sociology: Chinese\" \"China of the Chinese\" Etc.\n\n\n                      George G. Harrap & Co. Ltd.\n                          London Bombay Sydney\n\n\n\n\nIn Memoriam\n\n_Gladys Nina Chalmers Werner_\n\n\n\nPreface\n\nThe chief literary sources of Chinese myths are the _Li tai shen hsien\nt'ung chien_, in thirty-two volumes, the _Shen hsien lieh chuan_,\nin eight volumes, the _Feng shen yen i_, in eight volumes, and the\n_Sou shen chi_, in ten volumes. In writing the following pages I\nhave translated or paraphrased largely from these works. I have also\nconsulted and at times quoted from the excellent volumes on Chinese\nSuperstitions by Pere Henri Dore, comprised in the valuable series\n_Varietes Sinologiques_, published by the Catholic Mission Press\nat Shanghai. The native works contained in the Ssu K'u Ch'uean Shu,\none of the few public libraries in Peking, have proved useful for\npurposes of reference. My heartiest thanks are due to my good friend\nMr Mu Hsueeh-hsuen, a scholar of wide learning and generous disposition,\nfor having kindly allowed me to use his very large and useful library\nof Chinese books. The late Dr G.E. Morrison also, until he sold it\nto a Japanese baron, was good enough to let me consult his extensive\ncollection of foreign works relating to China whenever I wished, but\nowing to the fact that so very little work has been done in Chinese\nmythology by Western writers I found it better in dealing with this\nsubject to go direct to the original Chinese texts. I am indebted to\nProfessor H.A. Giles, and to his publishers, Messrs Kelly and Walsh,\nShanghai, for permission to reprint from _Strange Stories from a\nChinese Studio_ the fox legends given in Chapter XV.\n\nThis is, so far as I know, the only monograph on Chinese mythology\nin any non-Chinese language. Nor do the native works include any\nscientific analysis or philosophical treatment of their myths.\n\nMy aim, after summarizing the sociology of the Chinese as a\nprerequisite to the understanding of their ideas and sentiments,\nand dealing as fully as possible, consistently with limitations of\nspace (limitations which have necessitated the presentation of a\nvery large and intricate topic in a highly compressed form), with\nthe philosophy of the subject, has been to set forth in English dress\nthose myths which may be regarded as the accredited representatives\nof Chinese mythology--those which live in the minds of the people and\nare referred to most frequently in their literature, not those which\nare merely diverting without being typical or instructive--in short,\na true, not a distorted image.\n\n_Edward Theodore Chalmers Werner_\n\n_Peking_\n_February_ 1922\n\n\n\nContents\n\n\n\nChapter\n\nI.      The Sociology of the Chinese\nII.     On Chinese Mythology\nIII.    Cosmogony--P'an Ku and the Creation Myth\nIV.     The Gods of China\nV.      Myths of the Stars\nVI.     Myths of Thunder, Lightning, Wind, and Rain\nVII.    Myths of the Waters\nVIII.   Myths of Fire\nIX.     Myths of Epidemics, Medicine, Exorcism, Etc.\nX.      The Goddess of Mercy\nXI.     The Eight Immortals\nXII.    The Guardian of the Gate of Heaven\nXIII.   A Battle of the Gods\nXIV.    How the Monkey Became a God\nXV.     Fox Legends\nXVI.    Miscellaneous Legends\n        The Pronunciation of Chinese Words\n\n\n\n\n\n_Mais cet Orient, cette Asie, quelles en sont, enfin, les frontieres\nreelles?... Ces frontieres sont d'une nettete qui ne permet aucune\nerreur. L'Asie est la ou cesse la vulgarite, ou nait la dignite,\net ou commence l'elegance intellectuelle. Et l'Orient est la ou sont\nles sources debordantes de poesie._\n\n_Mardrus_,\n_La Reine de Saba_\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I\n\nThe Sociology of the Chinese\n\n\nRacial Origin\n\nIn spite of much research and conjecture, the origin of the Chinese\npeople remains undetermined. We do not know who they were nor whence\nthey came. Such evidence as there is points to their immigration\nfrom elsewhere; the Chinese themselves have a tradition of a Western\norigin. The first picture we have of their actual history shows us, not\na people behaving as if long settled in a land which was their home and\nthat of their forefathers, but an alien race fighting with wild beasts,\nclearing dense forests, and driving back the aboriginal inhabitants.\n\nSetting aside several theories (including the one that the Chinese\nare autochthonous and their civilization indigenous) now regarded\nby the best authorities as untenable, the researches of sinologists\nseem to indicate an origin (1) in early Akkadia; or (2) in Khotan,\nthe Tarim valley (generally what is now known as Eastern Turkestan),\nor the K'un-lun Mountains (concerning which more presently). The\nsecond hypothesis may relate only to a sojourn of longer or shorter\nduration on the way from Akkadia to the ultimate settlement in China,\nespecially since the Khotan civilization has been shown to have\nbeen imported from the Punjab in the third century B.C. The fact\nthat serious mistakes have been made regarding the identifications\nof early Chinese rulers with Babylonian kings, and of the Chinese\n_po-hsing_ (Cantonese _bak-sing_) 'people' with the Bak Sing or Bak\ntribes, does not exclude the possibility of an Akkadian origin. But\nin either case the immigration into China was probably gradual, and\nmay have taken the route from Western or Central Asia direct to the\nbanks of the Yellow River, or may possibly have followed that to the\nsouth-east through Burma and then to the north-east through what is\nnow China--the settlement of the latter country having thus spread\nfrom south-west to north-east, or in a north-easterly direction along\nthe Yangtzu River, and so north, instead of, as is generally supposed,\nfrom north to south.\n\n\nSouthern Origin Improbable\n\nBut this latter route would present many difficulties; it would seem\nto have been put forward merely as ancillary to the theory that the\nChinese originated in the Indo-Chinese peninsula. This theory is\nbased upon the assumptions that the ancient Chinese ideograms include\nrepresentations of tropical animals and plants; that the oldest and\npurest forms of the language are found in the south; and that the\nChinese and the Indo-Chinese groups of languages are both tonal. But\nall of these facts or alleged facts are as easily or better accounted\nfor by the supposition that the Chinese arrived from the north\nor north-west in successive waves of migration, the later arrivals\npushing the earlier farther and farther toward the south, so that the\noldest and purest forms of Chinese would be found just where they are,\nthe tonal languages of the Indo-Chinese peninsula being in that case\nregarded as the languages of the vanguard of the migration. Also, the\nideograms referred to represent animals and plants of the temperate\nzone rather than of the tropics, but even if it could be shown, which\nit cannot, that these animals and plants now belong exclusively to the\ntropics, that would be no proof of the tropical origin of the Chinese,\nfor in the earliest times the climate of North China was much milder\nthan it is now, and animals such as tigers and elephants existed in the\ndense jungles which are later found only in more southern latitudes.\n\n\nExpansion of Races from North to South\n\nThe theory of a southern origin (to which a further serious objection\nwill be stated presently) implies a gradual infiltration of Chinese\nimmigrants through South or Mid-China (as above indicated) toward\nthe north, but there is little doubt that the movement of the races\nhas been from north to south and not _vice versa_. In what are now\nthe provinces of Western Kansu and Ssuch'uan there lived a people\nrelated to the Chinese (as proved by the study of Indo-Chinese\ncomparative philology) who moved into the present territory of Tibet\nand are known as Tibetans; in what is now the province of Yuennan were\nthe Shan or Ai-lao (modern Laos), who, forced by Mongol invasions,\nemigrated to the peninsula in the south and became the Siamese; and in\nIndo-China, not related to the Chinese, were the Annamese, Khmer, Mon,\nKhasi, Colarains (whose remnants are dispersed over the hill tracts\nof Central India), and other tribes, extending in prehistoric times\ninto Southern China, but subsequently driven back by the expansion\nof the Chinese in that direction.\n\n\nArrival of the Chinese in China\n\nTaking into consideration all the existing evidence, the objections to\nall other theories of the origin of the Chinese seem to be greater\nthan any yet raised to the theory that immigrants from the Tarim\nvalley or beyond (_i.e._ from Elam or Akkadia, either direct or _via_\nEastern Turkestan) struck the banks of the Yellow River in their\neastward journey and followed its course until they reached the\nlocalities where we first find them settled, namely, in the region\ncovered by parts of the three modern provinces of Shansi, Shensi,\nand Honan where their frontiers join. They were then (about 2500 or\n3000 B.C.) in a relatively advanced state of civilization. The country\neast and south of this district was inhabited by aboriginal tribes,\nwith whom the Chinese fought, as they did with the wild animals and the\ndense vegetation, but with whom they also commingled and intermarried,\nand among whom they planted colonies as centres from which to spread\ntheir civilization.\n\n\nThe K'un-lun Mountains\n\nWith reference to the K'un-lun Mountains, designated in Chinese\nmythology as the abode of the gods--the ancestors of the Chinese\nrace--it should be noted that these are identified not with the range\ndividing Tibet from Chinese Turkestan, but with the Hindu Kush. That\nbrings us somewhat nearer to Babylon, and the apparent convergence\nof the two theories, the Central Asian and the Western Asian, would\nseem to point to a possible solution of the problem. Nue Kua, one of\nthe alleged creators of human beings, and Nue and Kua, the first two\nhuman beings (according to a variation of the legend), are placed\nin the K'un-lun Mountains. That looks hopeful. Unfortunately, the\nK'un-lun legend is proved to be of Taoist origin. K'un-lun is the\ncentral mountain of the world, and 3000 miles in height. There is\nthe fountain of immortality, and thence flow the four great rivers\nof the world. In other words, it is the Sumeru of Hindu mythology\ntransplanted into Chinese legend, and for our present purpose without\nhistorical value.\n\nIt would take up too much space to go into details of this interesting\nproblem of the origin of the Chinese and their civilization, the\ncultural connexions or similarities of China and Western Asia in\npre-Babylonian times, the origin of the two distinct culture-areas\nso marked throughout the greater part of Chinese history, etc., and\nit will be sufficient for our present purpose to state the conclusion\nto which the evidence points.\n\n\nProvisional Conclusion\n\nPending the discovery of decisive evidence, the following provisional\nconclusion has much to recommend it--namely, that the ancestors\nof the Chinese people came from the west, from Akkadia or Elam,\nor from Khotan, or (more probably) from Akkadia or Elam _via_\nKhotan, as one nomad or pastoral tribe or group of nomad or pastoral\ntribes, or as successive waves of immigrants, reached what is now\nChina Proper at its north-west corner, settled round the elbow of\nthe Yellow River, spread north-eastward, eastward, and southward,\nconquering, absorbing, or pushing before them the aborigines into\nwhat is now South and South-west China. These aboriginal races, who\nrepresent a wave or waves of neolithic immigrants from Western Asia\nearlier than the relatively high-headed immigrants into North China\n(who arrived about the twenty-fifth or twenty-fourth century B.C.),\nand who have left so deep an impress on the Japanese, mixed and\nintermarried with the Chinese in the south, eventually producing the\npronounced differences, in physical, mental, and emotional traits,\nin sentiments, ideas, languages, processes, and products, from the\nNorthern Chinese which are so conspicuous at the present day.\n\n\n\nInorganic Environment\n\nAt the beginning of their known history the country occupied by the\nChinese was the comparatively small region above mentioned. It was\nthen a tract of an irregular oblong shape, lying between latitude 34 deg.\nand 40 deg. N. and longitude 107 deg. and 114 deg. E. This territory round the\nelbow of the Yellow River had an area of about 50,000 square miles,\nand was gradually extended to the sea-coast on the north-east as far as\nlongitude 119 deg., when its area was about doubled. It had a population of\nperhaps a million, increasing with the expansion to two millions. This\nmay be called infant China. Its period (the Feudal Period) was in\nthe two thousand years between the twenty-fourth and third centuries\nB.C. During the first centuries of the Monarchical Period, which lasted\nfrom 221 B.C. to A.D. 1912, it had expanded to the south to such an\nextent that it included all of the Eighteen Provinces constituting\nwhat is known as China Proper of modern times, with the exception of\na portion of the west of Kansu and the greater portions of Ssuch'uan\nand Yuennan. At the time of the Manchu conquest at the beginning of the\nseventeenth century A.D. it embraced all the territory lying between\nlatitude 18 deg. and 40 deg. N. and longitude 98 deg. and 122 deg. E. (the Eighteen\nProvinces or China Proper), with the addition of the vast outlying\nterritories of Manchuria, Mongolia, Ili, Koko-nor, Tibet, and Corea,\nwith suzerainty over Burma and Annam--an area of more than 5,000,000\nsquare miles, including the 2,000,000 square miles covered by the\nEighteen Provinces. Generally, this territory is mountainous in the\nwest, sloping gradually down toward the sea on the east. It contains\nthree chief ranges of mountains and large alluvial plains in the north,\neast, and south. Three great and about thirty large rivers intersect\nthe country, their numerous tributaries reaching every part of it.\n\nAs regards geological features, the great alluvial plains rest upon\ngranite, new red sandstone, or limestone. In the north is found the\npeculiar loess formation, having its origin probably in the accumulated\ndust of ages blown from the Mongolian plateau. The passage from north\nto south is generally from the older to the newer rocks; from east to\nwest a similar series is found, with some volcanic features in the\nwest and south. Coal and iron are the chief minerals, gold, silver,\ncopper, lead, tin, jade, etc., being also mined.\n\nThe climate of this vast area is not uniform. In the north the winter\nis long and rigorous, the summer hot and dry, with a short rainy season\nin July and August; in the south the summer is long, hot, and moist,\nthe winter short. The mean temperature is 50.3 deg. F. and 70 deg. F. in the\nnorth and south respectively. Generally, the thermometer is low for\nthe latitude, though perhaps it is more correct to say that the Gulf\nStream raises the temperature of the west coast of Europe above the\naverage. The mean rainfall in the north is 16, in the south 70 inches,\nwith variations in other parts. Typhoons blow in the south between\nJuly and October.\n\n\nOrganic Environment\n\nThe vegetal productions are abundant and most varied. The rice-zone\n(significant in relation to the cultural distinctions above noted)\nembraces the southern half of the country. Tea, first cultivated\nfor its infusion in A.D. 350, is grown in the southern and central\nprovinces between the twenty-third and thirty-fifth degrees of\nlatitude, though it is also found as far north as Shantung, the chief\n'tea district,' however, being the large area south of the Yangtzu\nRiver, east of the Tungting Lake and great Siang River, and north of\nthe Kuangtung Province. The other chief vegetal products are wheat,\nbarley, maize, millet, the bean, yam, sweet and common potato, tomato,\neggplant, ginseng, cabbage, bamboo, indigo, pepper, tobacco, camphor,\ntallow, ground-nut, poppy, water-melon, sugar, cotton, hemp, and\nsilk. Among the fruits grown are the date, mulberry, orange, lemon,\npumelo, persimmon, lichi, pomegranate, pineapple, fig, coconut, mango,\nand banana, besides the usual kinds common in Western countries.\n\nThe wild animals include the tiger, panther, leopard, bear, sable,\notter, monkey, wolf, fox, twenty-seven or more species of ruminants,\nand numerous species of rodents. The rhinoceros, elephant, and tapir\nstill exist in Yuennan. The domestic animals include the camel and the\nwater-buffalo. There are about 700 species of birds, and innumerable\nspecies of fishes and insects.\n\n\nSociological Environment\n\nOn their arrival in what is now known as China the Chinese, as already\nnoted, fought with the aboriginal tribes. The latter were exterminated,\nabsorbed, or driven south with the spread of Chinese rule. The Chinese\n\"picked out the eyes of the land,\" and consequently the non-Chinese\ntribes now live in the unhealthy forests or marshes of the south,\nor in mountain regions difficult of access, some even in trees (a\nvoluntary, not compulsory promotion), though several, such as the Dog\nJung in Fukien, retain settlements like islands among the ruling race.\n\nIn the third century B.C. began the hostile relations of the Chinese\nwith the northern nomads, which continued throughout the greater\npart of their history. During the first six centuries A.D. there was\nintercourse with Rome, Parthia, Turkey, Mesopotamia, Ceylon, India,\nand Indo-China, and in the seventh century with the Arabs. Europe\nwas brought within the sociological environment by Christian\ntravellers. From the tenth to the thirteenth century the north\nwas occupied by Kitans and Nuechens, and the whole Empire was under\nMongol sway for eighty-eight years in the thirteenth and fourteenth\ncenturies. Relations of a commercial and religious nature were held\nwith neighbours during the following four hundred years. Regular\ndiplomatic intercourse with Western nations was established as a result\nof a series of wars in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Until\nrecently the nation held aloof from alliances and was generally averse\nto foreign intercourse. From 1537 onward, as a sequel of war or treaty,\nconcessions, settlements, etc., were obtained by foreign Powers. China\nhas now lost some of her border countries and large adjacent islands,\nthe military and commercial pressure of Western nations and Japan\nhaving taken the place of the military pressure of the Tartars already\nreferred to. The great problem for her, an agricultural nation, is\nhow to find means and the military spirit to maintain her integrity,\nthe further violation of which could not but be regarded by the student\nof sociological history as a great tragedy and a world-wide calamity.\n\n\nPhysical, Emotional, and Intellectual Characters\n\nThe physical characters of the Chinese are too well known to need\ndetailed recital. The original immigrants into North China all\nbelonged to blond races, but the modern Chinese have little left of\nthe immigrant stock. The oblique, almond-shaped eyes, with black iris\nand the orbits far apart, have a vertical fold of skin over the inner\ncanthus, concealing a part of the iris, a peculiarity distinguishing\nthe eastern races of Asia from all other families of man. The stature\nand weight of brain are generally below the average. The hair is black,\ncoarse, and cylindrical; the beard scanty or absent. The colour of\nthe skin is darker in the south than in the north.\n\nEmotionally the Chinese are sober, industrious, of remarkable\nendurance, grateful, courteous, and ceremonious, with a high sense\nof mercantile honour, but timorous, cruel, unsympathetic, mendacious,\nand libidinous.\n\nIntellectually they were until recently, and to a large extent\nstill are, non-progressive, in bondage to uniformity and mechanism\nin culture, imitative, unimaginative, torpid, indirect, suspicious,\nand superstitious.\n\nThe character is being modified by intercourse with other peoples\nof the earth and by the strong force of physical, intellectual,\nand moral education.\n\n\nMarriage in Early Times\n\nCertain parts of the marriage ceremonial of China as now existing\nindicate that the original form of marriage was by capture--of which,\nindeed, there is evidence in the classical _Book of Odes_. But a\nregular form of marriage (in reality a contract of sale) is shown\nto have existed in the earliest historical times. The form was not\nmonogamous, though it seems soon to have assumed that of a qualified\nmonogamy consisting of one wife and one or more concubines, the\nnumber of the latter being as a rule limited only by the means of the\nhusband. The higher the rank the larger was the number of concubines\nand handmaids in addition to the wife proper, the palaces of the\nkings and princes containing several hundreds of them. This form it\nhas retained to the present day, though associations now exist for\nthe abolition of concubinage. In early times, as well as throughout\nthe whole of Chinese history, concubinage was in fact universal,\nand there is some evidence also of polyandry (which, however, cannot\nhave prevailed to any great extent). The age for marriage was twenty\nfor the man and fifteen for the girl, celibacy after thirty and twenty\nrespectively being officially discouraged. In the province of Shantung\nit was usual for the wives to be older than their husbands. The\nparents' consent to the betrothal was sought through the intervention\nof a matchmaker, the proposal originating with the parents, and\nthe wishes of the future bride and bridegroom not being taken into\nconsideration. The conclusion of the marriage was the progress of the\nbride from the house of her parents to that of the bridegroom, where\nafter various ceremonies she and he worshipped his ancestors together,\nthe worship amounting to little more than an announcement of the union\nto the ancestral spirits. After a short sojourn with her husband the\nbride revisited her parents, and the marriage was not considered as\nfinally consummated until after this visit had taken place.\n\nThe status of women was low, and the power of the husband great--so\ngreat that he could kill his wife with impunity. Divorce was common,\nand all in favour of the husband, who, while he could not be\ndivorced by her, could put his wife away for disobedience or even\nfor loquaciousness. A widower remarried immediately, but refusal\nto remarry by a widow was esteemed an act of chastity. She often\nmutilated herself or even committed suicide to prevent remarriage,\nand was posthumously honoured for doing so. Being her husband's as\nmuch in the Otherworld as in this, remarriage would partake of the\ncharacter of unchastity and insubordination; the argument, of course,\nnot applying to the case of the husband, who by remarriage simply\nadds another member to his clan without infringing on anyone's rights.\n\n\nMarriage in Monarchical and Republican Periods\n\nThe marital system of the early classical times, of which the above\nwere the essentials, changed but little during the long period of\nmonarchical rule lasting from 221 B.C. to A.D. 1912. The principal\nobject, as before, was to secure an heir to sacrifice to the spirits of\ndeceased progenitors. Marriage was not compulsory, but old bachelors\nand old maids were very scarce. The concubines were subject to the\nwife, who was considered to be the mother of their children as well\nas her own. Her status, however, was not greatly superior. Implicit\nobedience was exacted from her. She could not possess property, but\ncould not be hired out for prostitution. The latter vice was common,\nin spite of the early age at which marriage took place and in spite\nof the system of concubinage--which is after all but a legalized\ntransfer of prostitutional cohabitation to the domestic circle.\n\nSince the establishment of the Republic in 1912 the 'landslide' in the\ndirection of Western progress has had its effect also on the domestic\ninstitutions. But while the essentials of the marriage contract remain\npractically the same as before, the most conspicuous changes have been\nin the accompanying ceremonial--now sometimes quite foreign, but in a\nvery large, perhaps the greatest, number of cases that odious thing,\nhalf foreign, half Chinese; as, for instance, when the procession,\notherwise native, includes foreign glass-panelled carriages, or the\nbridegroom wears a 'bowler' or top-hat with his Chinese dress--and\nin the greater freedom allowed to women, who are seen out of doors\nmuch more than formerly, sit at table with their husbands, attend\npublic functions and dinners, dress largely in foreign fashion,\nand play tennis and other games, instead of being prisoners of the\n'inner apartment' and household drudges little better than slaves.\n\nOne unexpected result of this increased freedom is certainly\nremarkable, and is one not likely to have been predicted by the most\nfar-sighted sociologist. Many of the 'progressive' Chinese, now that\nit is the fashion for Chinese wives to be seen in public with their\nhusbands, finding the uneducated, _gauche_, small-footed household\ndrudge unable to compete with the smarter foreign-educated wives\nof their neighbours, have actually repudiated them and taken unto\nthemselves spouses whom they can exhibit in public without 'loss\nof face'! It is, however, only fair to add that the total number\nof these cases, though by no means inconsiderable, appears to be\nproportionately small.\n\n\nParents and Children\n\nAs was the power of the husband over the wife, so was that of the\nfather over his children. Infanticide (due chiefly to poverty,\nand varying with it) was frequent, especially in the case of female\nchildren, who were but slightly esteemed; the practice prevailing\nextensively in three or four provinces, less extensively in others,\nand being practically absent in a large number. Beyond the fact that\nsome penalties were enacted against it by the Emperor Ch'ien Lung\n(A.D. 1736-96), and that by statute it was a capital offence to murder\nchildren in order to use parts of their bodies for medicine, it was\nnot legally prohibited. When the abuse became too scandalous in any\ndistrict proclamations condemning it would be issued by the local\nofficials. A man might, by purchase and contract, adopt a person\nas son, daughter, or grandchild, such person acquiring thereby all\nthe rights of a son or daughter. Descent, both of real and personal\nproperty, was to all the sons of wives and concubines as joint heirs,\nirrespective of seniority. Bastards received half shares. Estates were\nnot divisible by the children during the lifetime of their parents\nor grandparents.\n\nThe head of the family being but the life-renter of the family\nproperty, bound by fixed rules, wills were superfluous, and were used\nonly where the customary respect for the parents gave them a voice\nin arranging the details of the succession. For this purpose verbal\nor written instructions were commonly given.\n\nIn the absence of the father, the male relatives of the same surname\nassumed the guardianship of the young. The guardian exercised full\nauthority and enjoyed the surplus revenues of his ward's estate,\nbut might not alienate the property.\n\nThere are many instances in Chinese history of extreme devotion of\nchildren to parents taking the form of self-wounding and even of\nsuicide in the hope of curing parents' illnesses or saving their lives.\n\n\nPolitical History\n\nThe country inhabited by the Chinese on their arrival from the West\nwas, as we saw, the district where the modern provinces of Shansi,\nShensi, and Honan join. This they extended in an easterly direction\nto the shores of the Gulf of Chihli--a stretch of territory about 600\nmiles long by 300 broad. The population, as already stated, was between\none and two millions. During the first two thousand years of their\nknown history the boundaries of this region were not greatly enlarged,\nbut beyond the more or less undefined borderland to the south were\n_chou_ or colonies, nuclei of Chinese population, which continually\nincreased in size through conquest of the neighbouring territory. In\n221 B.C. all the feudal states into which this territory had been\nparcelled out, and which fought with one another, were subjugated\nand absorbed by the state of Ch'in, which in that year instituted the\nmonarchical form of government--the form which obtained in China for\nthe next twenty-one centuries.\n\nThough the origin of the name 'China' has not yet been finally decided,\nthe best authorities regard it as derived from the name of this feudal\nstate of Ch'in.\n\nUnder this short-lived dynasty of Ch'in and the famous Han dynasty\n(221 B.C. to A.D. 221) which followed it, the Empire expanded until\nit embraced almost all the territory now known as China Proper\n(the Eighteen Provinces of Manchu times). To these were added\nin order between 194 B.C. and A.D. 1414: Corea, Sinkiang (the\nNew Territory or Eastern Turkestan), Manchuria, Formosa, Tibet,\nand Mongolia--Formosa and Corea being annexed by Japan in 1895 and\n1910 respectively. Numerous other extra-China countries and islands,\nacquired and lost during the long course of Chinese history (at one\ntime, from 73 to 48 B.C., \"all Asia from Japan to the Caspian Sea was\ntributary to the Middle Kingdom,\" _i.e._ China), it is not necessary\nto mention here. During the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1280) the\nTartars owned the northern half of China, as far down as the Yangtzu\nRiver, and in the Yuean dynasty (1280-1368) they conquered the whole\ncountry. During the period 1644-1912 it was in the possession of\nthe Manchus. At present the five chief component peoples of China are\nrepresented in the striped national flag (from the top downward) by red\n(Manchus), yellow (Chinese), blue (Mongolians), white (Mohammedans),\nand black (Tibetans). This flag was adopted on the establishment of the\nRepublic in 1912, and supplanted the triangular Dragon flag previously\nin use. By this time the population--which had varied considerably at\ndifferent periods owing to war, famine, and pestilence--had increased\nto about 400,000,000.\n\n\nGeneral Government\n\nThe general division of the nation was into the King and the People,\nThe former was regarded as appointed by the will of Heaven and\nas the parent of the latter. Besides being king, he was also\nlaw-giver, commander-in-chief of the armies, high priest, and\nmaster of ceremonies. The people were divided into four classes: (1)\n_Shih_, Officers (later Scholars), consisting of _Ch'en_, Officials\n(a few of whom were ennobled), and _Shen Shih_, Gentry; (2) _Nung_,\nAgriculturists; (3) _Kung_, Artisans; and (4) _Shang_, Merchants.\n\nFor administrative purposes there were at the seat of central\ngovernment (which, first at P'ing-yang--in modern Shansi--was\nmoved eleven times during the Feudal Period, and was finally\nat Yin) ministers, or ministers and a hierarchy of officials,\nthe country being divided into provinces, varying in number from\nnine in the earliest times to thirty-six under the First Emperor,\n221 B.C., and finally twenty-two at the present day. At first these\nprovinces contained states, which were models of the central state,\nthe ruler's 'Middle Kingdom.' The provincial administration was\nin the hands of twelve Pastors or Lord-Lieutenants. They were the\nchiefs of all the nobles in a province. Civil and military offices\nwere not differentiated. The feudal lords or princes of states often\nresided at the king's court, officers of that court being also sent\nforth as princes of states. The king was the source of legislation\nand administered justice. The princes in their several states had\nthe power of rewards and punishments. Revenue was derived from a\ntithe on the land, from the income of artisans, merchants, fishermen,\nforesters, and from the tribute brought by savage tribes.\n\nThe general structure and principles of this system of administration\nremained the same, with few variations, down to the end of the\nMonarchical Period in 1912. At the end of that period we find the\nemperor still considered as of divine descent, still the head of\nthe civil, legislative, military, ecclesiastical, and ceremonial\nadministration, with the nation still divided into the same four\nclasses. The chief ministries at the capital, Peking, could in most\ncases trace their descent from their prototypes of feudal times, and\nthe principal provincial administrative officials--the Governor-General\nor Viceroy, governor, provincial treasurer, judge, etc.--had similarly\na pedigree running back to offices then existing--a continuous duration\nof adherence to type which is probably unique.\n\nAppointment to office was at first by selection, followed by an\nexamination to test proficiency; later was introduced the system of\npublic competitive literary examinations for office, fully organized\nin the seventeenth century, and abolished in 1903, when official\npositions were thrown open to the graduates of colleges established\non a modern basis.\n\nIn 1912, on the overthrow of the Manchu monarchy, China became a\nrepublic, with an elected President, and a Parliament consisting\nof a Senate and House of Representatives. The various government\ndepartments were reorganized on Western lines, and a large number\nof new offices instituted. Up to the present year the Law of the\nConstitution, owing to political dissension between the North and\nthe South, has not been put into force.\n\n\nLaws\n\nChinese law, like primitive law generally, was not instituted\nin order to ensure justice between man and man; its object was\nto enforce subordination of the ruled to the ruler. The laws were\npunitive and vindictive rather than reformatory or remedial, criminal\nrather than civil. Punishments were cruel: branding, cutting off the\nnose, the legs at the knees, castration, and death, the latter not\nnecessarily, or indeed ordinarily, for taking life. They included in\nsome cases punishment of the family, the clan, and the neighbours of\nthe offender. The _lex talionis_ was in full force.\n\nNevertheless, in spite of the harsh nature of the punishments, possibly\nadapted, more or less, to a harsh state of society, though the \"proper\nend of punishments\"--to \"make an end of punishing\"--was missed, the\nChinese evolved a series of excellent legal codes. This series began\nwith the revision of King Mu's _Punishments_ in 950 B.C., the first\nregular code being issued in 650 B.C., and ended with the well-known\n_Ta Ch'ing lue li_ (_Laws and Statutes of the Great Ch'ing Dynasty_),\nissued in A.D. 1647. Of these codes the great exemplar was the _Law\nClassic_ drawn up by Li K'uei (_Li K'uei fa ching_), a statesman\nin the service of the first ruler of the Wei State, in the fourth\ncentury B.C. The _Ta Ch'ing lue li_ has been highly praised by competent\njudges. Originally it sanctioned only two kinds of punishment, death\nand flogging, but others were in use, and the barbarous _ling ch'ih_,\n'lingering death' or 'slicing to pieces,' invented about A.D. 1000\nand abolished in 1905, was inflicted for high treason, parricide,\non women who killed their husbands, and murderers of three persons\nof one family. In fact, until some first-hand knowledge of Western\nsystems and procedure was obtained, the vindictive as opposed to the\nreformatory idea of punishments continued to obtain in China down to\nquite recent years, and has not yet entirely disappeared. Though the\ncrueller forms of punishment had been legally abolished, they continued\nto be used in many parts. Having been joint judge at Chinese trials\nat which, in spite of my protests, prisoners were hung up by their\nthumbs and made to kneel on chains in order to extort confession\n(without which no accused person could be punished), I can testify\nthat the true meaning of the \"proper end of punishments\" had no more\nentered into the Chinese mind at the close of the monarchical _regime_\nthan it had 4000 years before.\n\nAs a result of the reform movement into which China was forced as\nan alternative to foreign domination toward the end of the Manchu\nPeriod, but chiefly owing to the bait held out by Western Powers,\nthat extraterritoriality would be abolished when China had reformed\nher judicial system, a new Provisional Criminal Code was published. It\nsubstituted death by hanging or strangulation for decapitation, and\nimprisonment for various lengths of time for bambooing. It was adopted\nin large measure by the Republican _regime_, and is the chief legal\ninstrument in use at the present time. But close examination reveals\nthe fact that it is almost an exact copy of the Japanese penal code,\nwhich in turn was modelled upon that of Germany. It is, in fact, a\nWestern code imitated, and as it stands is quite out of harmony with\npresent conditions in China. It will have to be modified and recast\nto be a suitable, just, and practicable national legal instrument\nfor the Chinese people. Moreover, it is frequently overridden in a\nhigh-handed manner by the police, who often keep a person acquitted\nby the Courts of Justice in custody until they have 'squeezed' him\nof all they can hope to get out of him. And it is noteworthy that,\nthough provision was made in the Draft Code for trial by jury, this\nprovision never went into effect; and the slavish imitation of alien\nmethods is shown by the curiously inconsistent reason given--that \"the\nfact that jury trials have been abolished in Japan is indicative of the\ninadvisability of transplanting this Western institution into China!\"\n\n\nLocal Government\n\nThe central administration being a far-flung network of officialdom,\nthere was hardly any room for local government apart from it. We\nfind it only in the village elder and those associated with him, who\ntook up what government was necessary where the jurisdiction of the\nunit of the central administration--the district magistracy--ceased,\nor at least did not concern itself in meddling much.\n\n\nMilitary System\n\nThe peace-loving agricultural settlers in early China had at first\nno army. When occasion arose, all the farmers exchanged their\nploughshares for swords and bows and arrows, and went forth to\nfight. In the intervals between the harvests, when the fields were\nclear, they held manoeuvres and practised the arts of warfare. The\nking, who had his Six Armies, under the Six High Nobles, forming\nthe royal military force, led the troops in person, accompanied by\nthe spirit-tablets of his ancestors and of the gods of the land and\ngrain. Chariots, drawn by four horses and containing soldiers armed\nwith spears and javelins and archers, were much in use. A thousand\nchariots was the regular force. Warriors wore buskins on their legs,\nand were sometimes gagged in order to prevent the alarm being given to\nthe enemy. In action the chariots occupied the centre, the bowmen the\nleft, the spearmen the right flank. Elephants were sometimes used in\nattack. Spy-kites, signal-flags, hook-ladders, horns, cymbals, drums,\nand beacon-fires were in use. The ears of the vanquished were taken\nto the king, quarter being rarely if ever given.\n\nAfter the establishment of absolute monarchical government standing\narmies became the rule. Military science was taught, and soldiers\nsometimes trained for seven years. Chariots with upper storeys or\nspy-towers were used for fighting in narrow defiles, and hollow squares\nwere formed of mixed chariots, infantry, and dragoons. The weakness of\ndisunion of forces was well understood. In the sixth century A.D. the\nmassed troops numbered about a million and a quarter. In A.D. 627\nthere was an efficient standing army of 900,000 men, the term of\nservice being from the ages of twenty to sixty. During the Mongol\ndynasty (1280-1368) there was a navy of 5000 ships manned by 70,000\ntrained fighters. The Mongols completely revolutionized tactics and\nimproved on all the military knowledge of the time. In 1614 the Manchu\n'Eight Banners,' composed of Manchus, Mongolians, and Chinese, were\ninstituted. The provincial forces, designated the Army of the Green\nStandard, were divided into land forces and marine forces, superseded\non active service by 'braves' (_yung_), or irregulars, enlisted and\ndischarged according to circumstances. After the war with Japan in\n1894 reforms were seriously undertaken, with the result that the army\nhas now been modernized in dress, weapons, tactics, etc., and is by\nno means a negligible quantity in the world's fighting forces. A\nmodern navy is also being acquired by building and purchase. For\nmany centuries the soldier, being, like the priest, unproductive,\nwas regarded with disdain, and now that his indispensableness for\ndefensive purposes is recognized he has to fight not only any actual\nenemy who may attack him, but those far subtler forces from over the\nsea which seem likely to obtain supremacy in his military councils,\nif not actual control of his whole military system. It is, in my view,\nthe duty of Western nations to take steps before it is too late to\navert this great disaster.\n\n\nEcclesiastical Institutions\n\nThe dancing and chanting exorcists called _wu_ were the first Chinese\npriests, with temples containing gods worshipped and sacrificed\nto, but there was no special sacerdotal class. Worship of Heaven\ncould only be performed by the king or emperor. Ecclesiastical and\npolitical functions were not completely separated. The king was\n_pontifex maximus_, the nobles, statesmen, and civil and military\nofficers acted as priests, the ranks being similar to those of the\npolitical hierarchy. Worship took place in the 'Hall of Light,'\nwhich was also a palace and audience and council chamber. Sacrifices\nwere offered to Heaven, the hills and rivers, ancestors, and all the\nspirits. Dancing held a conspicuous place in worship. Idols are spoken\nof in the earliest times.\n\nOf course, each religion, as it formed itself out of the original\nancestor-worship, had its own sacred places, functionaries,\nobservances, ceremonial. Thus, at the State worship of Heaven, Nature,\netc., there were the 'Great,' 'Medium,' and 'Inferior' sacrifices,\nconsisting of animals, silk, grain, jade, etc. Panegyrics were sung,\nand robes of appropriate colour worn. In spring, summer, autumn,\nand winter there were the seasonal sacrifices at the appropriate\naltars. Taoism and Buddhism had their temples, monasteries, priests,\nsacrifices, and ritual; and there were village and wayside temples\nand shrines to ancestors, the gods of thunder, rain, wind, grain,\nagriculture, and many others. Now encouraged, now tolerated, now\npersecuted, the ecclesiastical _personnel_ and structure of Taoism and\nBuddhism survived into modern times, when we find complete schemes\nof ecclesiastical gradations of rank and authority grafted upon\nthese two priestly hierarchies, and their temples, priests, etc.,\nfulfilling generally, with worship of ancestors, State or official\n(Confucianism) and private or unofficial, and the observance of various\nannual festivals, such as 'All Souls' Day' for wandering and hungry\nghosts, the spiritual needs of the people as the 'Three Religions'\n(_San Chiao_). The emperor, as high priest, took the responsibility\nfor calamities, etc., making confession to Heaven and praying that\nas a punishment the evil be diverted from the people to his own\nperson. Statesmen, nobles, and officials discharged, as already noted,\npriestly functions in connexion with the State religion in addition\nto their ordinary duties. As a rule, priests proper, frowned upon as\nnon-producers, were recruited from the lower classes, were celibate,\nunintellectual, idle, and immoral. There was nothing, even in the\nelaborate ceremonies on special occasions in the Buddhist temples,\nwhich could be likened to what is known as 'public worship' and\n'common prayer' in the West. Worship had for its sole object either\nthe attainment of some good or the prevention of some evil.\n\nGenerally this represents the state of things under the Republican\n_regime_; the chief differences being greater neglect of ecclesiastical\nmatters and the conversion of a large number of temples into schools.\n\n\nProfessional Institutions\n\nWe read of physicians, blind musicians, poets, teachers, prayer-makers,\narchitects, scribes, painters, diviners, ceremonialists, orators,\nand others during the Feudal Period, These professions were of\necclesiastical origin, not yet completely differentiated from the\n'Church,' and both in earlier and later times not always or often\ndifferentiated from each other. Thus the historiographers combined the\nduties of statesmen, scholars, authors, and generals. The professions\nof authors and teachers, musicians and poets, were united in one\nperson. And so it continued to the present day. Priests discharge\nmedical functions, poets still sing their verses. But experienced\nmedical specialists, though few, are to be found, as well as women\ndoctors; there are veterinary surgeons, musicians (chiefly belonging\nto the poorest classes and often blind), actors, teachers, attorneys,\ndiviners, artists, letter-writers, and many others, men of letters\nbeing perhaps the most prominent and most esteemed.\n\n\n\nAccessory Institutions\n\nA system of schools, academies, colleges, and universities obtained in\nvillages, districts, departments, and principalities. The instruction\nwas divided into 'Primary Learning' and 'Great Learning.' There were\nspecial schools of dancing and music. Libraries and almshouses for\nold men are mentioned. Associations of scholars for literary purposes\nseem to have been numerous.\n\nWhatever form and direction education might have taken, it became\nstereotyped at an early age by the road to office being made to\nlead through a knowledge of the classical writings of the ancient\nsages. It became not only 'the thing' to be well versed in the sayings\nof Confucius, Mencius; etc., and to be able to compose good essays on\nthem containing not a single wrongly written character, but useless\nfor aspirants to office--who constituted practically the whole of the\nliterary class--to acquire any other knowledge. So obsessed was the\nnational mind by this literary mania that even infants' spines were\nmade to bend so as to produce when adult the 'scholarly stoop.' And\nfrom the fact that besides the scholar class the rest of the community\nconsisted of agriculturists, artisans, and merchants, whose knowledge\nwas that of their fathers and grandfathers, inculcated in the sons\nand grandsons as it had been in them, showing them how to carry on\nin the same groove the calling to which Fate had assigned them, a\ndeparture from which would have been considered 'unfilial'--unless,\nof course (as it very rarely did), it went the length of attaining\nthrough study of the classics a place in the official class, and thus\nshedding eternal lustre on the family--it will readily be seen that\nthere was nothing to cause education to be concerned with any but one\nor two of the subjects which are included by Western peoples under\nthat designation. It became at an early age, and remained for many\ncenturies, a rote-learning of the elementary text-books, followed by\na similar acquisition by heart of the texts of the works of Confucius\nand other classical writers. And so it remained until the abolition, in\n1905, of the old competitive examination system, and the substitution\nof all that is included in the term 'modern education' at schools,\ncolleges, and universities all over the country, in which there is\nrapidly growing up a force that is regenerating the Chinese people,\nand will make itself felt throughout the whole world.\n\nIt is this keen and shrewd appreciation of the learned, and this lust\nfor knowledge, which, barring the tragedy of foreign domination, will\nmake China, in the truest and best sense of the word, a great nation,\nwhere, as in the United States of America, the rigid class status and\nundervaluation, if not disdaining, of knowledge which are proving so\ndisastrous in England and other European countries will be avoided,\nand the aristocracy of learning established in its place.\n\nBesides educational institutions, we find institutions for poor relief,\nhospitals, foundling hospitals, orphan asylums, banking, insurance,\nand loan associations, travellers' clubs, mercantile corporations,\nanti-opium societies, co-operative burial societies, as well as many\nothers, some imitated from Western models.\n\n\nBodily Mutilations\n\nCompared with the practices found to exist among most primitive races,\nthe mutilations the Chinese were in the habit of inflicting were but\nfew. They flattened the skulls of their babies by means of stones, so\nas to cause them to taper at the top, and we have already seen what\nthey did to their spines; also the mutilations in warfare, and the\npunishments inflicted both within and without the law; and how filial\nchildren and loyal wives mutilated themselves for the sake of their\nparents and to prevent remarriage. Eunuchs, of course, existed in great\nnumbers. People bit, cut, or marked their arms to pledge oaths. But\nthe practices which are more peculiarly associated with the Chinese\nare the compressing of women's feet and the wearing of the queue,\nmisnamed 'pigtail.' The former is known to have been in force about\nA.D. 934, though it may have been introduced as early as 583. It did\nnot, however, become firmly established for more than a century. This\n'extremely painful mutilation,' begun in infancy, illustrates the\ntyranny of fashion, for it is supposed to have arisen in the imitation\nby the women generally of the small feet of an imperial concubine\nadmired by one of the emperors from ten to fifteen centuries ago\n(the books differ as to his identity). The second was a badge of\nservitude inflicted by the Manchus on the Chinese when they conquered\nChina at the beginning of the seventeenth century. Discountenanced by\ngovernmental edicts, both of these practices are now tending toward\nextinction, though, of course, compressed feet and 'pigtails' are\nstill to be seen in every town and village. Legally, the queue was\nabolished when the Chinese rid themselves of the Manchu yoke in 1912.\n\n\nFuneral Rites\n\nNot understanding the real nature of death, the Chinese believed\nit was merely a state of suspended animation, in which the soul\nhad failed to return to the body, though it might yet do so,\neven after long intervals. Consequently they delayed burial, and\nfed the corpse, and went on to the house-tops and called aloud\nto the spirit to return. When at length they were convinced that\nthe absent spirit could not be induced to re-enter the body, they\nplaced the latter in a coffin and buried it--providing it, however,\nwith all that it had found necessary in this life (food, clothing,\nwives, servants, etc.), which it would require also in the next (in\ntheir view rather a continuation of the present existence than the\nbeginning of another)--and, having inducted or persuaded the spirit\nto enter the 'soul-tablet' which accompanied the funeral procession\n(which took place the moment the tablet was 'dotted,' _i.e._ when\nthe character _wang_, 'prince,' was changed into _chu_, 'lord'),\ncarried it back home again, set it up in a shrine in the main hall,\nand fell down and worshipped it. Thus was the spirit propitiated,\nand as long as occasional offerings were not overlooked the power\nfor evil possessed by it would not be exerted against the surviving\ninmates of the house, whom it had so thoughtlessly deserted.\n\nThe latter mourned by screaming, wailing, stamping their feet,\nand beating their breasts, renouncing (in the earliest times) even\ntheir clothes, dwelling, and belongings to the dead, removing to\nmourning-sheds of clay, fasting, or eating only rice gruel, sleeping\non straw with a clod for a pillow, and speaking only on subjects of\ndeath and burial. Office and public duties were resigned, and marriage,\nmusic, and separation from the clan prohibited.\n\nDuring the lapse of the long ages of monarchical rule funeral rites\nbecame more elaborate and magnificent, but, though less rigid and\nceremonious since the institution of the Republic, they have retained\ntheir essential character down to the present day.\n\nFuneral ceremonial was more exacting than that connected with most\nother observances, including those of marriage. Invitations or\nnotifications were sent to friends, and after receipt of these _fu_,\non the various days appointed therein, the guest was obliged to send\npresents, such as money, paper horses, slaves, etc., and go and join\nin the lamentations of the hired mourners and attend at the prayers\nrecited by the priests. Funeral etiquette could not be _pu'd, i.e._\nmade good, if overlooked or neglected at the right time, as it could\nin the case of the marriage ceremonial.\n\nInstead of symmetrical public graveyards, as in the West, the\nChinese cemeteries belong to the family or clan of the deceased,\nand are generally beautiful and peaceful places planted with trees\nand surrounded by artistic walls enclosing the grave-mounds and\nmonumental tablets. The cemeteries themselves are the metonyms of the\nvillages, and the graves of the houses. In the north especially the\ngrave is very often surmounted by a huge marble tortoise bearing the\ninscribed tablet, or what we call the gravestone, on its back. The\ntombs of the last two lines of emperors, the Ming and the Manchu,\nare magnificent structures, spread over enormous areas, and always\nartistically situated on hillsides facing natural or artificial lakes\nor seas. Contrary to the practice in Egypt, with the two exceptions\nabove mentioned the conquering dynasties have always destroyed the\ntombs of their predecessors. But for this savage vandalism, China\nwould probably possess the most magnificent assembly of imperial\ntombs in the world's records.\n\n\n\nLaws of Intercourse\n\nThroughout the whole course of their existence as a social aggregate\nthe Chinese have pushed ceremonial observances to an extreme\nlimit. \"Ceremonies,\" says the _Li chi_, the great classic of ceremonial\nusages, \"are the greatest of all things by which men live.\" Ranks were\ndistinguished by different headdresses, garments, badges, weapons,\nwriting-tablets, number of attendants, carriages, horses, height of\nwalls, etc. Daily as well as official life was regulated by minute\nobservances. There were written codes embracing almost every attitude\nand act of inferiors toward superiors, of superiors toward inferiors,\nand of equals toward equals. Visits, forms of address, and giving\nof presents had each their set of formulae, known and observed by\nevery one as strictly and regularly as each child in China learned by\nheart and repeated aloud the three-word sentences of the elementary\n_Trimetrical Classic_. But while the school text-book was extremely\nsimple, ceremonial observances were extremely elaborate. A Chinese\nwas in this respect as much a slave to the living as in his funeral\nrites he was a slave to the dead. Only now, in the rush of 'modern\nprogress,' is the doffing of the hat taking the place of the 'kowtow'\n(_k'o-t'ou_).\n\nIt is in this matter of ceremonial observances that the East\nand the West have misunderstood each other perhaps more than in\nall others. Where rules of etiquette are not only different,\nbut are diametrically opposed, there is every opportunity for\nmisunderstanding, if not estrangement. The points at issue in\nsuch questions as 'kowtowing' to the emperor and the worshipping\nof ancestors are generally known, but the Westerner, as a rule, is\nignorant of the fact that if he wishes to conform to Chinese etiquette\nwhen in China (instead of to those Western customs which are in many\ncases unfortunately taking their place) he should not, for instance,\ntake off his hat when entering a house or a temple, should not shake\nhands with his host, nor, if he wishes to express approval, should he\nclap his hands. Clapping of hands in China (_i.e._ non-Europeanized\nChina) is used to drive away the _sha ch'i_, or deathly influence of\nevil spirits, and to clap the hands at the close of the remarks of a\nChinese host (as I have seen prominent, well-meaning, but ill-guided\nmen of the West do) is equivalent to disapproval, if not insult. Had\nour diplomatists been sociologists instead of only commercial agents,\nmore than one war might have been avoided.\n\n\nHabits and Customs\n\nAt intervals during the year the Chinese make holiday. Their public\nfestivals begin with the celebration of the advent of the new\nyear. They let off innumerable firecrackers, and make much merriment\nin their homes, drinking and feasting, and visiting their friends\nfor several days. Accounts are squared, houses cleaned, fresh paper\n'door-gods' pasted on the front doors, strips of red paper with\ncharacters implying happiness, wealth, good fortune, longevity, etc.,\nstuck on the doorposts or the lintel, tables, etc., covered with red\ncloth, and flowers and decorations displayed everywhere. Business\nis suspended, and the merriment, dressing in new clothes, feasting,\nvisiting, offerings to gods and ancestors, and idling continue pretty\nconsistently during the first half of the first moon, the vacation\nending with the Feast of Lanterns, which occupies the last three\ndays. It originated in the Han dynasty 2000 years ago. Innumerable\nlanterns of all sizes, shapes, colours (except wholly white, or rather\nundyed material, the colour of mourning), and designs are lit in front\nof public and private buildings, but the use of these was an addition\nabout 800 years later, _i.e._ about 1200 years ago. Paper dragons,\nhundreds of yards long, are moved along the streets at a slow pace,\nsupported on the heads of men whose legs only are visible, giving\nthe impression of huge serpents winding through the thoroughfares.\n\nOf the other chief festivals, about eight in number (not counting the\nfestivals of the four seasons with their equinoxes and solstices), four\nare specially concerned with the propitiation of the spirits--namely,\nthe Earlier Spirit Festival (fifteenth day of second moon), the\nFestival of the Tombs (about the third day of the third moon), when\ngraves are put in order and special offerings made to the dead, the\nMiddle Spirit Festival (fifteenth day of seventh moon), and the Later\nSpirit Festival (fifteenth day of tenth moon). The Dragon-boat Festival\n(fifth day of fifth moon) is said to have originated as a commemoration\nof the death of the poet Ch'ue Yuean, who drowned himself in disgust\nat the official intrigue and corruption of which he was the victim,\nbut the object is the procuring of sufficient rain to ensure a good\nharvest. It is celebrated by racing with long narrow boats shaped to\nrepresent dragons and propelled by scores of rowers, pasting of charms\non the doors of dwellings, and eating a special kind of rice-cake,\nwith a liquor as a beverage.\n\nThe fifteenth day of the eighth moon is the Mid-autumn Festival, known\nby foreigners as All Souls' Day. On this occasion the women worship the\nmoon, offering cakes, fruit, etc. The gates of Purgatory are opened,\nand the hungry ghosts troop forth to enjoy themselves for a month on\nthe good things provided for them by the pious. The ninth day of the\nninth moon is the Chung Yang Festival, when every one who possibly\ncan ascends to a high place--a hill or temple-tower. This inaugurates\nthe kite-flying season, and is supposed to promote longevity. During\nthat season, which lasts several months, the Chinese people the sky\nwith dragons, centipedes, frogs, butterflies, and hundreds of other\ncleverly devised creatures, which, by means of simple mechanisms worked\nby the wind, roll their eyes, make appropriate sounds, and move their\npaws, wings, tails, etc., in a most realistic manner. The festival\noriginated in a warning received by a scholar named Huan Ching from\nhis master Fei Ch'ang-fang, a native of Ju-nan in Honan, who lived\nduring the Han dynasty, that a terrible calamity was about to happen,\nand enjoining him to escape with his family to a high place. On his\nreturn he found all his domestic animals dead, and was told that\nthey had died instead of himself and his relatives. On New Year's Eve\n(_Tuan Nien_ or _Chu Hsi_) the Kitchen-god ascends to Heaven to make\nhis annual report, the wise feasting him with honey and other sticky\nfood before his departure, so that his lips may be sealed and he be\nunable to 'let on' too much to the powers that be in the regions above!\n\n\nSports and Games\n\nThe first sports of the Chinese were festival gatherings for purposes\nof archery, to which succeeded exercises partaking of a military\ncharacter. Hunting was a favourite amusement. They played games of\ncalculation, chess (or the 'game of war'), shuttlecock with the feet,\npitch-pot (throwing arrows from a distance into a narrow-necked jar),\nand 'horn-goring' (fighting on the shoulders of others with horned\nmasks on their heads). Stilts, football, dice-throwing, boat-racing,\ndog-racing, cock-fighting, kite-flying, as well as singing and dancing\nmarionettes, afforded recreation and amusement.\n\nMany of these games became obsolete in course of time, and new ones\nwere invented. At the end of the Monarchical Period, during the Manchu\ndynasty, we find those most in use to be foot-shuttlecock, lifting of\nbeams headed with heavy stones--dumb-bells four feet long and weighing\nthirty or forty pounds--kite-flying, quail-fighting, cricket-fighting,\nsending birds after seeds thrown into the air, sauntering through\nfields, playing chess or 'morra,' or gambling with cards, dice, or\nover the cricket- and quail-fights or seed-catching birds. There were\nnumerous and varied children's games tending to develop strength,\nskill, quickness of action, parental instinct, accuracy, and\nsagacity. Theatricals were performed by strolling troupes on stages\nerected opposite temples, though permanent theatres also existed,\nfemale parts until recently being taken by male actors. Peep-shows,\nconjurers, ventriloquists, acrobats, fortune-tellers, and story-tellers\nkept crowds amused or interested. Generally, 'young China' of the\npresent day, identified with the party of progress, seems to have\nadopted most of the outdoor but very few of the indoor games of\nWestern nations.\n\n\nDomestic Life\n\nIn domestic or private life, observances at birth, betrothal, and\nmarriage were elaborate, and retained superstitious elements. Early\nrising was general. Shaving of the head and beard, as well as cleaning\nof the ears and massage, was done by barbers. There were public\nbaths in all cities and towns. Shops were closed at nightfall, and,\nthe streets being until recent times ill-lit or unlit, passengers or\ntheir attendants carried lanterns. Most houses, except the poorest,\nhad private watchmen. Generally two meals a day were taken. Dinners to\nfriends were served at inns or restaurants, accompanied or followed\nby musical or theatrical performances. The place of honour is stated\nin Western books on China to be on the left, but the fact is that the\nplace of honour is the one which shows the utmost solicitude for the\nsafety of the guest. It is therefore not necessarily one fixed place,\nbut would usually be the one facing the door, so that the guest might\nbe in a position to see an enemy enter, and take measures accordingly.\n\nLap-dogs and cage-birds were kept as pets; 'wonks,' the _huang kou_,\nor 'yellow dog,' were guards of houses and street scavengers. Aquaria\nwith goldfish were often to be seen in the houses of the upper and\nmiddle classes, the gardens and courtyards of which usually contained\nrockeries and artistic shrubs and flowers.\n\nWhiskers were never worn, and moustaches and beards only after forty,\nbefore which age the hair grew, if at all, very scantily. Full,\nthick beards, as in the West, were practically never seen, even on\nthe aged. Snuff-bottles, tobacco-pipes, and fans were carried by both\nsexes. Nails were worn long by members of the literary and leisured\nclasses. Non-Manchu women and girls had cramped feet, and both Manchu\nand Chinese women used cosmetics freely.\n\n\nIndustrial Institutions\n\nWhile the men attended to farm-work, women took care of the\nmulberry-orchards and silkworms, and did spinning, weaving, and\nembroidery. This, the primitive division of labour, held throughout,\nthough added to on both sides, so that eventually the men did most\nof the agriculture, arts, production, distribution, fighting, etc.,\nand the women, besides the duties above named and some field-labour,\nmended old clothes, drilled and sharpened needles, pasted tin-foil,\nmade shoes, and gathered and sorted the leaves of the tea-plant. In\ncourse of time trades became highly specialized--their number being\nlegion--and localized, bankers, for instance, congregating in Shansi,\ncarpenters in Chi Chou, and porcelain-manufacturers in Jao Chou,\nin Kiangsi.\n\nAs to land, it became at an early age the property of the sovereign,\nwho farmed it out to his relatives or favourites. It was arranged on\nthe _ching_, or 'well' system--eight private squares round a ninth\npublic square cultivated by the eight farmer families in common for the\nbenefit of the State. From the beginning to the end of the Monarchical\nPeriod tenure continued to be of the Crown, land being unallodial, and\nmostly held in clans or families, and not entailed, the conditions\nof tenure being payment of an annual tax, a fee for alienation,\nand money compensation for personal services to the Government,\ngenerally incorporated into the direct tax as scutage. Slavery,\nunknown in the earliest times, existed as a recognized institution\nduring the whole of the Monarchical Period.\n\nProduction was chiefly confined to human and animal labour, machinery\nbeing only now in use on a large scale. Internal distribution\nwas carried on from numerous centres and at fairs, shops, markets,\netc. With few exceptions, the great trade-routes by land and sea have\nremained the same during the last two thousand years. Foreign trade was\nwith Western Asia, Greece, Rome, Carthage, Arabia, etc., and from the\nseventeenth century A.D. more generally with European countries. The\nusual primitive means of conveyance, such as human beings, animals,\ncarts, boats, etc., were partly displaced by steam-vessels from\n1861 onward.\n\nExchange was effected by barter, cowries of different values being the\nprototype of coins, which were cast in greater or less quantity under\neach reign. But until within recent years there was only one coin,\nthe copper cash, in use, bullion and paper notes being the other\nmedia of exchange. Silver Mexican dollars and subsidiary coins came\ninto use with the advent of foreign commerce. Weights and measures\n(which generally decreased from north to south), officially arranged\npartly on the decimal system, were discarded by the people in ordinary\ncommercial transactions for the more convenient duodecimal subdivision.\n\n\nArts\n\nHunting, fishing, cooking, weaving, dyeing, carpentry, metallurgy,\nglass-, brick-, and paper-making, printing, and book-binding were\nin a more or less primitive stage, the mechanical arts showing much\nservile imitation and simplicity in design; but pottery, carving,\nand lacquer-work were in an exceptionally high state of development,\nthe articles produced being surpassed in quality and beauty by no\nothers in the world.\n\n\nAgriculture and Rearing of Livestock\n\nFrom the earliest times the greater portion of the available land was\nunder cultivation. Except when the country has been devastated by war,\nthe Chinese have devoted close attention to the cultivation of the\nsoil continuously for forty centuries. Even the hills are terraced for\nextra growing-room. But poverty and governmental inaction caused much\nto lie idle. There were two annual crops in the north, and five in two\nyears in the south. Perhaps two-thirds of the population cultivated the\nsoil. The methods, however, remained primitive; but the great fertility\nof the soil and the great industry of the farmer, with generous but\ncareful use of fertilizers, enabled the vast territory to support an\nenormous population. Rice, wheat, barley, buckwheat, maize, kaoliang,\nseveral millets, and oats were the chief grains cultivated. Beans,\npeas, oil-bearing seeds (sesame, rape, etc.), fibre-plants (hemp,\nramie, jute, cotton, etc.), starch-roots (taros, yams, sweet potatoes,\netc.), tobacco, indigo, tea, sugar, fruits, were among the more\nimportant crops produced. Fruit-growing, however, lacked scientific\nmethod. The rotation of crops was not a usual practice, but grafting,\npruning, dwarfing, enlarging, selecting, and varying species were well\nunderstood. Vegetable-culture had reached a high state of perfection,\nthe smallest patches of land being made to bring forth abundantly. This\nis the more creditable inasmuch as most small farmers could not afford\nto purchase expensive foreign machinery, which, in many cases, would\nbe too large or complicated for their purposes.\n\nThe principal animals, birds, etc., reared were the pig, ass, horse,\nmule, cow, sheep, goat, buffalo, yak, fowl, duck, goose, pigeon,\nsilkworm, and bee.\n\nThe Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce, the successor to the Board\nof Agriculture, Manufactures, and Commerce, instituted during recent\nyears, is now adapting Western methods to the cultivation of the\nfertile soil of China, and even greater results than in the past may\nbe expected in the future.\n\n\nSentiments and Moral Ideas\n\nThe Chinese have always shown a keen delight in the beautiful--in\nflowers, music, poetry, literature, embroidery, paintings,\nporcelain. They cultivated ornamental plants, almost every house,\nas we saw, having its garden, large or small, and tables were often\ndecorated with flowers in vases or ornamental wire baskets or fruits or\nsweetmeats. Confucius made music an instrument of government. Paper\nbearing the written character was so respected that it might not\nbe thrown on the ground or trodden on. Delight was always shown in\nbeautiful scenery or tales of the marvellous. Commanding or agreeable\nsituations were chosen for temples. But until within the last few\nyears streets and houses were generally unclean, and decency in public\nfrequently absent.\n\nMorality was favoured by public opinion, but in spite of early\nmarriages and concubinage there was much laxity. Cruelty both\nto human beings and animals has always been a marked trait in\nthe Chinese character. Savagery in warfare, cannibalism, luxury,\ndrunkenness, and corruption prevailed in the earliest times. The\nattitude toward women was despotic. But moral principles pervaded the\nclassical writings, and formed the basis of law. In spite of these,\nthe inferior sentiment of revenge was, as we have seen, approved and\npreached as a sacred duty. As a result of the universal _yin-yang_\ndualistic doctrines, immorality was leniently regarded. In modern\ntimes, at least, mercantile honour was high, \"a merchant's word\nis as good as his bond\" being truer in China than in many other\ncountries. Intemperance was rare. Opium-smoking was much indulged in\nuntil the use of the drug was forcibly suppressed (1906-16). Even now\nmuch is smuggled into the country, or its growth overlooked by bribed\nofficials. Clan quarrels and fights were common, vendettas sometimes\ncontinuing for generations. Suicide under depressing circumstances\nwas approved and honoured; it was frequently resorted to under the\nsting of great injustice. There was a deep reverence for parents\nand superiors. Disregard of the truth, when useful, was universal,\nand unattended by a sense of shame, even on detection. Thieving was\ncommon. The illegal exactions of rulers were burdensome. In times\nof prosperity pride and satisfaction in material matters was not\nconcealed, and was often short-sighted. Politeness was practically\nuniversal, though said to be often superficial; but gratitude was a\nmarked characteristic, and was heartfelt. Mutual conjugal affection\nwas strong. The love of gambling was universal.\n\nBut little has occurred in recent years to modify the above\ncharacters. Nevertheless the inferior traits are certainly being\nchanged by education and by the formation of societies whose members\nbind themselves against immorality, concubinage, gambling, drinking,\nsmoking, etc.\n\n\nReligious Ideas\n\nChinese religion is inherently an attitude toward the spirits or gods\nwith the object of obtaining a benefit or averting a calamity. We\nshall deal with it more fully in another chapter. Suffice it to say\nhere that it originated in ancestor-worship, and that the greater\npart of it remains ancestor-worship to the present day. The State\nreligion, which was Confucianism, was ancestor-worship. Taoism,\noriginally a philosophy, became a worship of spirits--of the souls of\ndead men supposed to have taken up their abode in animals, reptiles,\ninsects, trees, stones, etc.--borrowed the cloak of religion from\nBuddhism, which eventually outshone it, and degenerated into a system\nof exorcism and magic. Buddhism, a religion originating in India, in\nwhich Buddha, once a man, is worshipped, in which no beings are known\nwith greater power than can be attained to by man, and according to\nwhich at death the soul migrates into anything from a deified human\nbeing to an elephant, a bird, a plant, a wall, a broom, or any piece\nof inorganic matter, was imported ready made into China and took the\nside of popular superstition and Taoism against the orthodox belief,\nfinding that its power lay in the influence on the popular mind of its\ndoctrine respecting a future state, in contrast to the indifference\nof Confucianism. Its pleading for compassion and preservation of life\nmet a crying need, and but for it the state of things in this respect\nwould be worse than it is.\n\nReligion, apart from ancestor-worship, does not enter largely\ninto Chinese life. There is none of the real 'love of God' found,\nfor example, in the fervent as distinguished from the conventional\nChristian. And as ancestor-worship gradually loses its hold and dies\nout agnosticism will take its place.\n\n\nSuperstitions\n\nAn almost infinite variety of superstitious practices, due to the\nbelief in the good or evil influences of departed spirits, exists in\nall parts of China. Days are lucky or unlucky. Eclipses are due to a\ndragon trying to eat the sun or the moon. The rainbow is supposed to be\nthe result of a meeting between the impure vapours of the sun and the\nearth. Amulets are worn, and charms hung up, sprigs of artemisia or\nof peach-blossom are placed near beds and over lintels respectively,\nchildren and adults are 'locked to life' by means of locks on chains\nor cords worn round the neck, old brass mirrors are supposed to cure\ninsanity, figures of gourds, tigers' claws, or the unicorn are worn\nto ensure good fortune or ward off sickness, fire, etc., spells of\nmany kinds, composed mostly of the written characters for happiness\nand longevity, are worn, or written on paper, cloth, leaves, etc.,\nand burned, the ashes being made into a decoction and drunk by the\nyoung or sick.\n\nDivination by means of the divining stalks (the divining plant,\nmilfoil or yarrow) and the tortoiseshell has been carried on from\ntime immemorial, but was not originally practised with the object of\nascertaining future events, but in order to decide doubts, much as\nlots are drawn or a coin tossed in the West. _Feng-shui_, \"the art of\nadapting the residence of the living and the dead so as to co-operate\nand harmonize with the local currents of the cosmic breath\" (the _yin_\nand the _yang_: see Chapter III), a doctrine which had its root in\nancestor-worship, has exercised an enormous influence on Chinese\nthought and life from the earliest times, and especially from those\nof Chu Hsi and other philosophers of the Sung dynasty.\n\n\nKnowledge\n\nHaving noted that Chinese education was mainly literary, and why it\nwas so, it is easy to see that there would be little or no demand\nfor the kind of knowledge classified in the West under the head of\nscience. In so far as any demand existed, it did so, at any rate at\nfirst, only because it subserved vital needs. Thus, astronomy, or more\nproperly astrology, was studied in order that the calendar might be\nregulated, and so the routine of agriculture correctly followed, for\non that depended the people's daily rice, or rather, in the beginning,\nthe various fruits and kinds of flesh which constituted their means of\nsustentation before their now universal food was known. In philosophy\nthey have had two periods of great activity, the first beginning with\nLao Tzu and Confucius in the sixth century B.C. and ending with the\nBurning of the Books by the First Emperor, Shih Huang Ti, in 213 B.C.;\nthe second beginning with Chou Tzu (A.D. 1017-73) and ending with Chu\nHsi (1130-1200). The department of philosophy in the imperial library\ncontained in 190 B.C. 2705 volumes by 137 authors. There can be no\ndoubt that this zeal for the orthodox learning, combined with the\nliterary test for office, was the reason why scientific knowledge was\nprevented from developing; so much so, that after four thousand or more\nyears of national life we find, during the Manchu Period, which ended\nthe monarchical _regime_, few of the educated class, giants though they\nwere in knowledge of all departments of their literature and history\n(the continuity of their traditions laid down in their twenty-four\nDynastic Annals has been described as one of the great wonders of the\nworld), with even the elementary scientific learning of a schoolboy\nin the West. 'Crude,' 'primitive,' 'mediocre,' 'vague,' 'inaccurate,'\n'want of analysis and generalization,' are terms we find applied to\ntheir knowledge of such leading sciences as geography, mathematics,\nchemistry, botany, and geology. Their medicine was much hampered\nby superstition, and perhaps more so by such beliefs as that the\nseat of the intellect is in the stomach, that thoughts proceed from\nthe heart, that the pit of the stomach is the seat of the breath,\nthat the soul resides in the liver, etc.--the result partly of the\nidea that dissection of the body would maim it permanently during\nits existence in the Otherworld. What progress was made was due to\nEuropean instruction; and this again is the _causa causans_ of the\ngreat wave of progress in scientific and philosophical knowledge\nwhich is rolling over the whole country and will have marked effects\non the history of the world during the coming century.\n\n\nLanguage\n\nOriginally polysyllabic, the Chinese language later assumed a\nmonosyllabic, isolating, uninflected form, grammatical relations\nbeing indicated by position. From the earliest forms of speech several\nsubordinate vernacular languages arose in various districts, and from\nthese sprang local dialects, etc. Tone-distinctions arose--_i.e._\nthe same words pronounced with a different intonation came to\nmean different things. Development of these distinctions led to\ncarelessness of articulation, and multiplication of what would be\nhomonyms but for these tones. It is incorrect to assume that the tones\nwere invented to distinguish similar sounds. So that, at the present\nday, anyone who says _ma_ will mean either an exclamation, hemp,\nhorse, or curse according to the quality he gives to the sound. The\nlanguage remains in a primitive state, without inflexion, declension,\nor distinction of parts of speech. The order in a sentence is: subject,\nverb, complement direct, complement indirect. Gender is formed by\ndistinctive particles; number by prefixing numerals, etc.; cases\nby position or appropriate prepositions. Adjectives precede nouns;\nposition determines comparison; and absence of punctuation causes\nambiguity. The latter is now introduced into most newly published\nworks. The new education is bringing with it innumerable words and\nphrases not found in the old literature or dictionaries. Japanese\nidioms which are now being imported into the language are making it\nless pure.\n\nThe written language, too well known to need detailed description, a\nthing of beauty and a joy for ever to those able to appreciate it, said\nto have taken originally the form of knotted cords and then of notches\non wood (though this was more probably the origin of numeration than of\nwriting proper), took later that of rude outlines of natural objects,\nand then went on to the phonetic system, under which each character is\ncomposed of two parts, the radical, indicating the meaning, and the\nphonetic, indicating the sound. They were symbols, non-agglutinative\nand non-inflexional, and were written in vertical columns, probably\nfrom having in early times been painted or cut on strips of bark.\n\n\nAchievements of the Chinese\n\nAs the result of all this fitful fever during so many centuries,\nwe find that the Chinese, after having lived in nests \"in order to\navoid the animals,\" and then in caves, have built themselves houses\nand palaces which are still made after the pattern of their prototype,\nwith a flat wall behind, the openings in front, the walls put in after\nthe pillars and roof-tree have been fixed, and out-buildings added on\nas side extensions. The _k'ang_, or 'stove-bed' (now a platform made\nof bricks), found all over the northern provinces, was a place scooped\nout of the side of the cave, with an opening underneath in which (as\nnow) a fire was lit in winter. Windows and shutters opened upward,\nbeing a survival of the mat or shade hung in front of the apertures\nin the walls of the primitive cave-dwelling. Four of these buildings\nfacing each other round a square made the courtyard, and one or more\ncourtyards made the compound. They have fed themselves on almost\neverything edible to be found on, under, or above land or water,\nexcept milk, but live chiefly on rice, chicken, fish, vegetables,\nincluding garlic, and tea, though at one time they ate flesh and\ndrank wine, sometimes to excess, before tea was cultivated. They\nhave clothed themselves in skins and feathers, and then in silks\nand satins, but mostly in cotton, and hardly ever in wool. Under\nthe Manchu _regime_ the type of dress adopted was that of this\nhorse-riding race, showing the chief characteristics of that noble\nanimal, the broad sleeves representing the hoofs, the queue the mane,\netc. This queue was formed of the hair growing from the back part\nof the scalp, the front of which was shaved. Unlike the Egyptians,\nthey did not wear wigs. They have nearly always had the decency to\nwear their coats long, and have despised the Westerner for wearing\nhis too short. They are now paradoxical enough to make the mistake\nof adopting the Westerner's costume.\n\nThey have made to themselves great canals, bridges, aqueducts, and\nthe longest wall there has ever been on the face of the earth (which\ncould not be seen from the moon, as some sinologists have erroneously\nsupposed, any more than a hair, however long, could be seen at a\ndistance of a hundred yards). They have made long and wide roads, but\nfailed to keep them in repair during the last few centuries, though\nmuch zeal, possibly due to commerce on oil- or electricity-driven\nwheels, is now being shown in this direction. They have built honorary\nportals to chaste widows, pagodas, and arched bridges of great beauty,\nnot forgetting to surround each city with a high and substantial wall\nto keep out unfriendly people. They have made innumerable implements\nand weapons, from pens and fans and chopsticks to ploughs and carts\nand ships; from fiery darts, 'flame elephants,' bows and spears,\nspiked chariots, battering-rams, and hurling-engines to mangonels,\ntrebuchets, matchlocks of wrought iron and plain bore with long\nbarrels resting on a stock, and gingals fourteen feet long resting on\na tripod, cuirasses of quilted cotton cloth covered with brass knobs,\nand helmets of iron or polished steel, sometimes inlaid, with neck-\nand ear-lappets. And they have been content not to improve upon these\nto any appreciable extent; but have lately shown a tendency to make\nthe later patterns imported from the West in their own factories.\n\nThey have produced one of the greatest and most remarkable\naccumulations of literature the world has ever seen, and the finest\nporcelain; some music, not very fine; and some magnificent painting,\nthough hardly any sculpture, and little architecture that will live.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II\n\nOn Chinese Mythology\n\n\nMythology and Intellectual Progress\n\nThe Manichaest, _yin-yang_ (dualist), idea of existence, to which\nfurther reference will be made in the next chapter, finds its\nillustration in the dual life, real and imaginary, of all the\npeoples of the earth. They have both real histories and mythological\nhistories. In the preceding chapter I have dealt briefly with the\nfirst--the life of reality--in China from the earliest times to the\npresent day; the succeeding chapters are concerned with the second--the\nlife of imagination. A survey of the first was necessary for a complete\nunderstanding of the second. The two react upon each other, affecting\nthe national character and through it the history of the world.\n\nMythology is the science of the unscientific man's explanation\nof what we call the Otherworld--itself and its denizens, their\nmysterious habits and surprising actions both there and here, usually\nincluding the creation of this world also. By the Otherworld he does\nnot necessarily mean anything distant or even invisible, though the\nthings he explains would mostly be included by us under those terms. In\nsome countries myths are abundant, in others scarce. Why should this\nbe? Why should some peoples tell many and marvellous tales about their\ngods and others say little about them, though they may say a great deal\nto them? We recall the 'great' myths of Greece and Scandinavia. Other\nraces are 'poor' in myths. The difference is to be explained by the\nmental characters of the peoples as moulded by their surroundings and\nhereditary tendencies. The problem is of course a psychological one,\nfor it is, as already noted, in imagination that myths have their\nroot. Now imagination grows with each stage of intellectual progress,\nfor intellectual progress implies increasing representativeness of\nthought. In the lower stages of human development imagination is feeble\nand unproductive; in the highest stages it is strong and constructive.\n\n\nThe Chinese Intellect\n\nThe Chinese are not unimaginative, but their minds did not go on to the\nconstruction of any myths which should be world-great and immortal;\nand one reason why they did not construct such myths was that their\nintellectual progress was arrested at a comparatively early stage. It\nwas arrested because there was not that contact and competition\nwith other peoples which demands brain-work of an active kind as the\nalternative of subjugation, inferiority, or extinction, and because,\nas we have already seen, the knowledge required of them was mainly\nthe parrot-like repetition of the old instead of the thinking-out of\nthe new [1]--a state of things rendered possible by the isolation\njust referred to. Confucius discountenanced discussion about the\nsupernatural, and just as it is probable that the exhortations of Wen\nWang, the virtual founder of the Chou dynasty (1121-255 B.C.), against\ndrunkenness, in a time before tea was known to them, helped to make\nthe Chinese the sober people that they are, so it is probable--more\nthan probable--that this attitude of Confucius may have nipped in\nthe bud much that might have developed a vigorous mythology, though\nfor a reason to be stated later it may be doubted if he thereby\ndeprived the world of any beautiful and marvellous results of the\nhighest flights of poetical creativeness. There are times, such as\nthose of any great political upheaval, when human nature will assert\nitself and break through its shackles in spite of all artificial\nor conventional restraints. Considering the enormous influence of\nConfucianism throughout the latter half of Chinese history--_i.e._\nthe last two thousand years--it is surprising that the Chinese dared\nto think about supernatural matters at all, except in the matter of\npropitiating their dead ancestors. That they did so is evidence not\nonly of human nature's inherent tendency to tell stories, but also\nof the irrepressible strength of feeling which breaks all laws and\ncommandments under great stimulus. On the opposing unaesthetic side\nthis may be compared to the feeling which prompts the unpremeditated\nassassination of a man who is guilty of great injustice, even though\nit be certain that in due course he would have met his deserts at\nthe hands of the public executioner.\n\n\nThe Influence of Religion\n\nApart from this, the influence of Confucianism would have been even\ngreater than it was, but for the imperial partiality periodically\nshown for rival doctrines, such as Buddhism and Taoism, which threw\ntheir weight on the side of the supernatural, and which at times\nwere exalted to such great heights as to be officially recognized as\nState religions. These, Buddhism especially, appealed to the popular\nimagination and love of the marvellous. Buddhism spoke of the future\nstate and the nature of the gods in no uncertain tones. It showed\nmen how to reach the one and attain to the other. Its founder was\nvirtuous; his commandments pure and life-sustaining. It supplied in\ngreat part what Confucianism lacked. And, as in the fifth and sixth\ncenturies A.D., when Buddhism and Taoism joined forces and a working\nunion existed between them, they practically excluded for the time\nall the \"chilly growth of Confucian classicism.\"\n\nOther opponents of myth, including a critical philosopher of great\nability, we shall have occasion to notice presently.\n\n\nHistory and Myth\n\nThe sobriety and accuracy of Chinese historians is proverbial. I\nhave dilated upon this in another work, and need add here only what\nI inadvertently omitted there--a point hitherto unnoticed or at least\nunremarked--that the very word for history in Chinese (_shih_) means\nimpartiality or an impartial annalist. It has been said that where\nthere is much myth there is little history, and _vice versa_, and\nthough this may not be universally true, undoubtedly the persistently\ntruthful recording of facts, events, and sayings, even at the risk\nof loss, yea, and actual loss of life of the historian as the result\nof his refusal to make false entries in his chronicle at the bidding\nof the emperor (as in the case of the historiographers of Ch'i in\n547 B.C.), indicates a type of mind which would require some very\nstrong stimulus to cause it to soar very far into the hazy realms of\nfanciful imagination.\n\n\nChinese Rigidity\n\nA further cause, already hinted at above, for the arrest of\nintellectual progress is to be found in the growth of the nation\nin size during many centuries of isolation from the main stream\nof world-civilization, without that increase in heterogeneity\nwhich comes from the moulding by forces external to itself. \"As\niron sharpeneth iron, so a man sharpeneth the countenance of his\nfriend.\" Consequently we find China what is known to sociology as an\n'aggregate of the first order,' which during its evolution has parted\nwith its internal life-heat without absorbing enough from external\nsources to enable it to retain the plastic condition necessary to\nfurther, or at least rapid, development. It is in a state of rigidity,\na state recognized and understood by the sociologist in his study of\nthe evolution of nations.\n\n\nThe Prerequisites to Myth\n\nBut the mere increase of constructive imagination is not sufficient\nto produce myth. If it were, it would be reasonable to argue that\nas intellectual progress goes on myths become more numerous, and the\ngreater the progress the greater the number of myths. This we do not\nfind. In fact, if constructive imagination went on increasing without\nthe intervention of any further factor, there need not necessarily be\nany myth at all. We might almost say that the reverse is the case. We\nconnect myth with primitive folk, not with the greatest philosophers\nor the most advanced nations--not, that is, with the most advanced\nstages of national progress wherein constructive imagination makes\nthe nation great and strong. In these stages the philosopher studies\nor criticizes myth, he does not make it.\n\nIn order that there may be myth, three further conditions must be\nfulfilled. There must, as we have seen, be constructive imagination,\nbut, nevertheless, there must not be too much of it. As stated above,\nmythology, or rather myth, is the _unscientific_ man's explanation. If\nthe constructive imagination is so great that it becomes self-critical,\nif the story-teller doubts his own story, if, in short, his mind is\nscientific enough to see that his explanation is no explanation at all,\nthen there can be no myth properly so called. As in religion, unless\nthe myth-maker believes in his myth with all his heart and soul and\nstrength, and each new disciple, as it is cared for and grows under\nhis hands during the course of years, holds that he must put his shoes\nfrom off his feet because the place whereon he treads is holy ground,\nthe faith will not be propagated, for it will lack the vital spark\nwhich alone can make it a living thing.\n\n\nStimulus Necessary\n\nThe next condition is that there must be a stimulus. It is not ideas,\nbut feelings, which govern the world, and in the history of mythology\nwhere feeling is absent we find either weak imitation or repetition\nof the myths of other peoples (though this must not be confused\nwith certain elements which seem to be common to the myths of all\nraces), or concoction, contamination, or \"genealogical tree-making,\"\nor myths originated by \"leisurely, peaceful tradition\" and lacking\nthe essential qualities which appeal to the human soul and make their\npossessors very careful to preserve them among their most loved and\nvalued treasures. But, on the other hand, where feeling is stirred,\nwhere the requisite stimulus exists, where the people are in great\ndanger, or allured by the prize of some breathless adventure, the\ncontact produces the spark of divine poetry, the myths are full of\nartistic, philosophic, and religious suggestiveness, and have abiding\nsignificance and charm. They are the children, the poetic fruit, of\ngreat labour and serious struggles, revealing the most fundamental\nforces, hopes, and cravings of the human soul. Nations highly strung,\nundergoing strenuous emotion, intensely energized by constant conflict\nwith other nations, have their imagination stimulated to exceptional\npoetic creativeness. The background of the Danaids is Egyptian,\nnot Greek, but it was the danger in which the Greeks were placed in\ntheir wars with the sons of the land of the Pharaohs that stimulated\nthe Greek imagination to the creation of that great myth.\n\nThis explains why so many of the greatest myths have their staging,\nnot in the country itself whose treasured possessions they are, but\nwhere that country is 'playing the great game,' is carrying on wars\ndecisive of far-reaching national events, which arouse to the greatest\npitch of excitement the feelings both of the combatants and of those\nwho are watching them from their homes. It is by such great events,\nnot by the romance-writer in his peaceful study, that mythology, like\nliterature, is \"incisively determined.\" Imagination, we saw, goes\n_pari passu_ with intellectual progress, and intellectual progress,\nin early times, is furthered not so much by the mere contact as\nby the actual conflict of nations. And we see also that myths may,\nand very frequently do, have a character quite different from that\nof the nation to which they appertain, for environment plays a most\nimportant part both in their inception and subsequent growth--a truth\ntoo obvious to need detailed elaboration.\n\n\nPersistent Soul-expression\n\nA third condition is that the type of imagination must be persistent\nthrough fairly long periods of time, otherwise not only will there\nbe an absence of sufficient feeling or momentum to cause the myths\nto be repeated and kept alive and transmitted to posterity, but the\ninducement to add to them and so enable them to mature and become\ncomplete and finished off and sufficiently attractive to appeal to\nthe human mind in spite of the foreign character they often bear will\nbe lacking. In other words, myths and legends grow. They resemble not\nso much the narrative of the story-teller or novelist as a gradually\ndeveloping art like music, or a body of ideas like philosophy. They\nare human and natural, though they express the thought not of any one\nindividual mind, but of the folk-soul, exemplifying in poetical form\nsome great psychological or physiographical truth.\n\n\nThe Character of Chinese Myth\n\nThe nature of the case thus forbids us to expect to find the Chinese\nmyths exhibiting the advanced state and brilliant heterogeneity of\nthose which have become part of the world's permanent literature. We\nmust expect them to be true to type and conditions, as we expect the\nother ideas of the Chinese to be, and looking for them in the light\nof this knowledge we shall find them just where we should expect to\nfind them.\n\nThe great sagas and eddas exalted among the world's literary\nmasterpieces, and forming part of the very life of a large number of\nits inhabitants, are absent in China. \"The Chinese people,\" says one\nwell-known sinologist, \"are not prone to mythological invention.\" \"He\nwho expects to find in Tibet,\" says another writer, \"the poetical\ncharm of Greek or Germanic mythology will be disappointed. There is\na striking poverty of imagination in all the myths and legends. A\ngreat monotony pervades them all. Many of their stories, taken from\nthe sacred texts, are quite puerile and insipid. It may be noted\nthat the Chinese mythology labours under the same defect.\" And\nthen there comes the crushing judgment of an over-zealous Christian\nmissionary sinologist: \"There is no hierarchy of gods brought in to\nrule and inhabit the world they made, no conclave on Mount Olympus,\nnor judgment of the mortal soul by Osiris, no transfer of human love\nand hate, passions and hopes, to the powers above; all here is ascribed\nto disembodied agencies or principles, and their works are represented\nas moving on in quiet order. There is no religion [!], no imagination;\nall is impassible, passionless, uninteresting.... It has not, as in\nGreece and Egypt, been explained in sublime poetry, shadowed forth in\ngorgeous ritual and magnificent festivals, represented in exquisite\nsculptures, nor preserved in faultless, imposing fanes and temples,\nfilled with ideal creations.\" Besides being incorrect as to many\nof its alleged facts, this view would certainly be shown by further\nstudy to be greatly exaggerated.\n\n\nPeriods Fertile in Myth\n\nWhat we should expect, then, to find from our philosophical study of\nthe Chinese mind as affected by its surroundings would be barrenness of\nconstructive imagination, except when birth was given to myth through\nthe operation of some external agency. And this we do find. The period\nof the overthrow of the Yin dynasty and the establishment of the\ngreat house of Chou in 1122 B.C., or of the Wars of the Three States,\nfor example, in the third century after Christ, a time of terrible\nanarchy, a medieval age of epic heroism, sung in a hundred forms of\nprose and verse, which has entered as motive into a dozen dramas,\nor the advent of Buddhism, which opened up a new world of thought and\nlife to the simple, sober, peace-loving agricultural folk of China,\nwere stimuli not by any means devoid of result. In China there are gods\nmany and heroes many, and the very fact of the existence of so great\na multitude of gods would logically imply a wealth of mythological\nlore inseparable from their apotheosis. You cannot--and the Chinese\ncannot--get behind reason. A man is not made a god without some\ncause being assigned for so important and far-reaching a step; and\nin matters of this sort the stated cause is apt to take the form of\na narrative more or less marvellous or miraculous. These resulting\nmyths may, of course, be born and grow at a later time than that\nin which the circumstances giving rise to them took place, but,\nif so, that merely proves the persistent power of the originating\nstimulus. That in China these narratives always or often reach the\nhighest flights of constructive imagination is not maintained--the\nmaintenance of that argument would indeed be contradictory; but even\nin those countries where the mythological garden has produced some of\nthe finest flowers millions of seeds must have been sown which either\ndid not spring up at all or at least failed to bring forth fruit. And\nin the realm of mythology it is not only those gods who sit in the\nhighest seats--creators of the world or heads of great religions--who\ndominate mankind; the humbler, though often no less powerful gods\nor spirits--those even who run on all fours and live in holes in the\nground, or buzz through the air and have their thrones in the shadow\nof a leaf--have often made a deeper impress on the minds and in the\nhearts of the people, and through that impress, for good or evil, have,\nin greater or less degree, modified the life of the visible universe.\n\n\nSources of Chinese Myth\n\n\"So, if we ask whence comes the heroic and the romantic, which supplies\nthe story-teller's stock-in-trade, the answer is easy. The legends and\nhistory of early China furnish abundance of material for them. To the\nChinese mind their ancient world was crowded with heroes, fairies, and\ndevils, who played their part in the mixed-up drama, and left a name\nand fame both remarkable and piquant. Every one who is familiar with\nthe ways and the language of the people knows that the country is full\nof common objects to which poetic names have been given, and with many\nof them there is associated a legend or a myth. A deep river's gorge is\ncalled 'the Blind Man's Pass,' because a peculiar bit of rock, looked\nat from a certain angle, assumes the outline of the human form, and\nthere comes to be connected therewith a pleasing story which reaches\nits climax in the petrifaction of the hero. A mountain's crest shaped\nlike a swooping eagle will from some one have received the name of\n'Eagle Mountain,' whilst by its side another shaped like a couchant\nlion will have a name to match. There is no lack of poetry among the\npeople, and most striking objects claim a poetic name, and not a few\nof them are associated with curious legends. It is, however, to their\nnational history that the story-teller goes for his most interesting\nsubjects, and as the so-called history of China imperceptibly passes\ninto the legendary period, and this again fades into the mythical,\nand as all this is assuredly believed by the masses of the people,\nit is obvious that in the national life of China there is no dearth\nof heroes whose deeds of prowess will command the rapt attention of\nthe crowds who listen.\" [2]\n\nThe soul in China is everywhere in evidence, and if myths have \"first\nand foremost to do with the life of the soul\" it would appear strange\nthat the Chinese, having spiritualized everything from a stone to the\nsky, have not been creative of myth. Why they have not the foregoing\nconsiderations show us clearly enough. We must take them and their\nmyths as we find them. Let us, then, note briefly the result of their\nmental workings as reacted on by their environment.\n\n\nPhases of Chinese Myth\n\nWe cannot identify the earliest mythology of the Chinese with that of\nany primitive race. The myths, if any, of their place of origin may\nhave faded and been forgotten in their slow migration eastward. We\ncannot say that when they came from the West (which they probably\ndid) they brought their myths with them, for in spite of certain\nconjectural derivations from Babylon we do not find them possessed\nof any which we can identify as imported by them at that time. But\nresearch seems to have gone at least as far as this--namely, that\nwhile we cannot say that Chinese myth was derived from Indian myth,\nthere is good reason to believe that Chinese and Indian myth had a\ncommon origin, which was of course outside of China.\n\nTo set forth in detail the various phases through which Chinese myth\nhas passed would involve a technical description foreign to the purpose\nof a popular work. It will sufficiently serve our present purpose to\noutline its most prominent features.\n\nIn the earliest times there was an 'age of magic' followed by an\n'heroic age,' but myths were very rare before 800 B.C., and what is\nknown as primitive mythology is said to have been invented or imitated\nfrom foreign sources after 820 B.C. In the eighth century B.C. myths\nof an astrological character began to attract attention. In the age\nof Lao Tzu (604 B.C.), the reputed founder of the Taoist religion,\nfresh legends appear, though Lao Tzu himself, absorbed in the abstract,\nrecords none. Neither did Confucius (551-479 B.C.) nor Mencius, who\nlived two hundred years later, add any legends to history. But in the\nPeriod of the Warring States (500-100 B.C.) fresh stimuli and great\nemotion prompted to mythological creation.\n\n\nTso-ch'iu Ming and Lieh Tzu\n\nTso-ch'iu Ming, commentator on Confucius's _Annals_, frequently\nintroduced legend into his history. Lieh Tzu (fifth and fourth\ncenturies B.C.), a metaphysician, is one of the earliest authors who\ndeal in myths. He is the first to mention the story of Hsi Wang Mu, the\nWestern Queen, and from his day onward the fabulists have vied with one\nanother in fantastic descriptions of the wonders of her fairyland. He\nwas the first to mention the islands of the immortals in the ocean,\nthe kingdoms of the dwarfs and giants, the fruit of immortality, the\nrepairing of the heavens by Nue Kua Shih with five-coloured stones,\nand the great tortoise which supports the universe.\n\n\nThe T'ang and Sung Epochs\n\nReligious romance began at this time. The T'ang epoch (A.B. 618-907)\nwas one of the resurrection of the arts of peace after a long period of\ndissension. A purer and more enduring form of intellect was gradually\novercoming the grosser but less solid superstition. Nevertheless the\nintellectual movement which now manifested itself was not strong\nenough to prevail against the powers of mythological darkness. It\nwas reserved for the scholars of the Sung Period (A.D. 960-1280)\nto carry through to victory a strong and sustained offensive against\nthe spiritualistic obsessions which had weighed upon the Chinese mind\nmore or less persistently from the Han Period (206 B.C.-A.D. 221)\nonward. The dogma of materialism was specially cultivated at this\ntime. The struggle of sober reason against superstition or imaginative\ninvention was largely a struggle of Confucianism against Taoism. Though\nmany centuries had elapsed since the great Master walked the earth,\nthe anti-myth movement of the T'ang and Sung Periods was in reality the\nlong arm and heavy fist of Confucius emphasizing a truer rationalism\nthan that of his opponents and denouncing the danger of leaving the\nfirm earth to soar into the unknown hazy regions of fantasy. It was\nSung scholarship that gave the death-blow to Chinese mythology.\n\nIt is unnecessary to labour the point further, because after the Sung\nepoch we do not meet with any period of new mythological creation,\nand its absence can be ascribed to no other cause than its defeat at\nthe hands of the Sung philosophers. After their time the tender plant\nwas always in danger of being stunted or killed by the withering blast\nof philosophical criticism. Anything in the nature of myth ascribable\nto post-Sung times can at best be regarded only as a late blossom\nborn when summer days are past.\n\n\nMyth and Doubt\n\nIt will bear repetition to say that unless the myth-builder firmly\nbelieves in his myth, be he the layer of the foundation-stone or one\nof the raisers of the superstructure, he will hardly make it a living\nthing. Once he believes in reincarnation and the suspension of natural\nlaws, the boundless vistas of space and the limitless aeons of time are\nopened to him. He can perform miracles which astound the world. But\nif he allow his mind to inquire, for instance, why it should have been\nnecessary for Elijah to part the waters of the Jordan with his garment\nin order that he and Elisha might pass over dryshod, or for Bodhidharma\nto stand on a reed to cross the great Yangtzu River, or for innumerable\nImmortals to sit on 'favourable clouds' to make their journeys through\nspace, he spoils myth--his child is stillborn or does not survive to\nmaturity. Though the growth of philosophy and decay of superstition\nmay be good for a nation, the process is certainly conducive to the\ndestruction of its myth and much of its poetry. The true mythologist\ntakes myth for myth, enters into its spirit, and enjoys it.\n\nWe may thus expect to find in the realm of Chinese mythology a large\nnumber of little hills rather than a few great mountains, but the\nlittle hills are very good ones after their kind; and the object of\nthis work is to present Chinese myth as it is, not as it might have\nbeen had the universe been differently constituted. Nevertheless, if,\nas we may rightly do, we judge of myth by the sentiments pervading\nit and the ideals upheld and taught by it, we shall find that Chinese\nmyth must be ranked among the greatest.\n\n\nMyth and Legend\n\nThe general principles considered above, while they explain the paucity\nof myth in China, explain also the abundance of legend there. The six\nhundred years during which the Mongols, Mings, and Manchus sat upon\nthe throne of China are barren of myth, but like all periods of the\nChinese national life are fertile in legend. And this chiefly for the\nreason that myths are more general, national, divine, while legends are\nmore local, individual, human. And since, in China as elsewhere, the\nlower classes are as a rule less educated and more superstitious than\nthe upper classes--have a certain amount of constructive imagination,\nbut not enough to be self-critical--legends, rejected or even ridiculed\nby the scholarly class when their knowledge has become sufficiently\nscientific, continue to be invented and believed in by the peasant and\nthe dweller in districts far from the madding crowd long after myth,\nproperly so called, has exhaled its last breath.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III\n\nCosmogony-p'an Ku and the Creation Myth\n\n\nThe Fashioner of the Universe\n\nThe most conspicuous figure in Chinese cosmogony is P'an Ku. He it was\nwho chiselled the universe out of Chaos. According to Chinese ideas,\nhe was the offspring of the original dual powers of Nature, the _yin_\nand the _yang_ (to be considered presently), which, having in some\nincomprehensible way produced him, set him the task of giving form\nto Chaos and \"making the heavens and the earth.\"\n\nSome accounts describe him as the actual creator of the universe--\"the\nancestor of Heaven and earth and all that live and move and have their\nbeing.\" 'P'an' means 'the shell of an egg,' and 'Ku' 'to secure,'\n'solid,' referring to P'an Ku being hatched from out of Chaos and\nto his settling the arrangement of the causes to which his origin\nwas due. The characters themselves may, however, mean nothing more\nthan 'Researches into antiquity,' though some bolder translators\nhave assigned to them the significance if not the literal sense of\n'aboriginal abyss,' or the Babylonian Tiamat, 'the Deep.'\n\nP'an Ku is pictured as a man of dwarfish stature clothed in bearskin,\nor merely in leaves or with an apron of leaves. He has two horns on\nhis head. In his right hand he holds a hammer and in his left a chisel\n(sometimes these are reversed), the only implements he used in carrying\nout his great task. Other pictures show him attended in his labours\nby the four supernatural creatures--the unicorn, phoenix, tortoise,\nand dragon; others again with the sun in one hand and the moon in the\nother, some of the firstfruits of his stupendous labours. (The reason\nfor these being there will be apparent presently.) His task occupied\neighteen thousand years, during which he formed the sun, moon, and\nstars, the heavens and the earth, himself increasing in stature day\nby day, being daily six feet taller than the day before, until, his\nlabours ended, he died that his works might live. His head became the\nmountains, his breath the wind and clouds, his voice the thunder,\nhis limbs the four quarters of the earth, his blood the rivers,\nhis flesh the soil, his beard the constellations, his skin and hair\nthe herbs and trees, his teeth, bones, and marrow the metals, rocks,\nand precious stones, his sweat the rain, and the insects creeping\nover his body human beings, who thus had a lowlier origin even than\nthe tears of Khepera in Egyptian cosmology. [3]\n\nThis account of P'an Ku and his achievements is of Taoist origin. The\nBuddhists have given a somewhat different account of him, which is\na late adaptation from the Taoist myth, and must not be mistaken for\nBuddhist cosmogony proper. [4]\n\n\nThe Sun and the Moon\n\nIn some of the pictures of P'an Ku he is represented, as already noted,\nas holding the sun in one hand and the moon in the other. Sometimes\nthey are in the form of those bodies, sometimes in the classic\ncharacter. The legend says that when P'an Ku put things in order in\nthe lower world, he did not put these two luminaries in their proper\ncourses, so they retired into the Han Sea, and the people dwelt in\ndarkness. The Terrestrial Emperor sent an officer, Terrestrial Time,\nwith orders that they should come forth and take their places in\nthe heavens and give the world day and night. They refused to obey\nthe order. They were reported to Ju Lai; P'an Ku was called, and,\nat the divine direction of Buddha, wrote the character for 'sun'\nin his left hand, and that for 'moon' in his right hand; and went to\nthe Han Sea, and stretched forth his left hand and called the sun,\nand then stretched forth his right hand and called the moon, at the\nsame time repeating a charm devoutly seven times; and they forthwith\nascended on high, and separated time into day and night. [5]\n\nOther legends recount that P'an Ku had the head of a dragon and\nthe body of a serpent; and that by breathing he caused the wind,\nby opening his eyes he created day, his voice made the thunder, etc.\n\n\nP'an Ku and Ymer\n\nThus we have the heavens and the earth fashioned by this wonderful\nbeing in eighteen thousand years. With regard to him we may adapt\nthe Scandinavian ballad:\n\n\n    It was Time's morning\n    When P'an Ku lived;\n    There was no sand, no sea,\n    Nor cooling billows;\n\n\n\n    Earth there was none,\n    No lofty Heaven;\n    No spot of living green;\n    Only a deep profound.\n\n\nAnd it is interesting to note, in passing, the similarity between this\nChinese artificer of the universe and Ymer, the giant, who discharges\nthe same functions in Scandinavian mythology. Though P'an Ku did not\nhave the same kind of birth nor meet with the violent death of the\nlatter, the results as regards the origin of the universe seem to\nhave been pretty much the same. [6]\n\n\nP'an Ku a Late Creation\n\nBut though the Chinese creation myth deals with primeval things it\ndoes not itself belong to a primitive time. According to some writers\nwhose views are entitled to respect, it was invented during the fourth\ncentury A.D. by the Taoist recluse, Magistrate Ko Hung, author of the\n_Shen hsien chuan_ (_Biographies of the Gods_). The picturesque person\nof P'an Ku is said to have been a concession to the popular dislike\nof, or inability to comprehend, the abstract. He was conceived, some\nChinese writers say, because the philosophical explanations of the\nCosmos were too recondite for the ordinary mind to grasp. That he\ndid fulfil the purpose of furnishing the ordinary mind with a fairly\neasily comprehensible picture of the creation may be admitted; but,\nas will presently be seen, it is over-stating the case to say that he\nwas conceived with the set purpose of furnishing the ordinary mind with\na concrete solution or illustration of this great problem. There is\nno evidence that P'an Ku had existed as a tradition before the time\nwhen we meet with the written account of him; and, what is more,\nthere is no evidence that there existed any demand on the part of\nthe popular mind for any such solution or illustration. The ordinary\nmind would seem to have been either indifferent to or satisfied\nwith the abstruse cosmogonical and cosmological theories of the\nearly sages for at least a thousand years. The cosmogonies of the _I\nching_, of Lao Tzu, Confucius (such as it was), Kuan Tzu, Mencius,\nChuang Tzu, were impersonal. P'an Ku and his myth must be regarded\nrather as an accident than as a creation resulting from any sudden\nflow of psychological forces or wind of discontent ruffling the\nplacid Chinese mind. If the Chinese brought with them from Babylon\nor anywhere else the elements of a cosmogony, whether of a more or\nless abstruse scientific nature or a personal mythological narrative,\nit must have been subsequently forgotten or at least has not survived\nin China. But for Ko Hung's eccentricity and his wish to experiment\nwith cinnabar from Cochin-China in order to find the elixir of life,\nP'an Ku would probably never have been invented, and the Chinese mind\nwould have been content to go on ignoring the problem or would have\nquietly acquiesced in the abstract philosophical explanations of the\nlearned which it did not understand. Chinese cosmogony would then\nhave consisted exclusively of the recondite impersonal metaphysics\nwhich the Chinese mind had entertained or been fed on for the nine\nhundred or more years preceding the invention of the P'an Ku myth.\n\n\nNue Kua Shih, the Repairer of the Heavens\n\nIt is true that there exist one or two other explanations of the\norigin of things which introduce a personal creator. There is,\nfor instance, the legend--first mentioned by Lieh Tzu (to whom we\nshall revert later)--which represents Nue Kua Shih (also called Nue\nWa and Nue Hsi), said to have been the sister and successor of Fu\nHsi, the mythical sovereign whose reign is ascribed to the years\n2953-2838 B.C., as having been the creator of human beings when\nthe earth first emerged from Chaos. She (or he, for the sex seems\nuncertain), who had the \"body of a serpent and head of an ox\" (or a\nhuman head and horns of an ox, according to some writers), \"moulded\nyellow earth and made man.\" Ssu-ma Cheng, of the eighth century A.D.,\nauthor of the _Historical Records_ and of another work on the three\ngreat legendary emperors, Fu Hsi, Shen Nung, and Huang Ti, gives\nthe following account of her: \"Fu Hsi was succeeded by Nue Kua, who\nlike him had the surname Feng. Nue Kua had the body of a serpent and\na human head, with the virtuous endowments of a divine sage. Toward\nthe end of her reign there was among the feudatory princes Kung Kung,\nwhose functions were the administration of punishment. Violent and\nambitious, he became a rebel, and sought by the influence of water\nto overcome that of wood [under which Nue Kua reigned]. He did battle\nwith Chu Jung [said to have been one of the ministers of Huang Ti,\nand later the God of Fire], but was not victorious; whereupon he\nstruck his head against the Imperfect Mountain, Pu Chou Shan, and\nbrought it down. The pillars of Heaven were broken and the corners of\nthe earth gave way. Hereupon Nue Kua melted stones of the five colours\nto repair the heavens, and cut off the feet of the tortoise to set\nupright the four extremities of the earth. [7] Gathering the ashes\nof reeds she stopped the flooding waters, and thus rescued the land\nof Chi, Chi Chou [the early seat of the Chinese sovereignty].\"\n\nAnother account separates the name and makes Nue and Kua brother\nand sister, describing them as the only two human beings in\nexistence. At the creation they were placed at the foot of the K'un-lun\nMountains. Then they prayed, saying, \"If thou, O God, hast sent us to\nbe man and wife, the smoke of our sacrifice will stay in one place;\nbut if not, it will be scattered.\" The smoke remained stationary.\n\nBut though Nue Kua is said to have moulded the first man (or the first\nhuman beings) out of clay, it is to be noted that, being only the\nsuccessor of Fu Hsi, long lines of rulers had preceded her of whom no\naccount is given, and also that, as regards the heavens and the earth\nat least, she is regarded as the repairer and not the creator of them.\n\nHeaven-deaf (T'ien-lung) and Earth-dumb (Ti-ya), the two attendants\nof Wen Ch'ang, the God of Literature (see following chapter), have\nalso been drawn into the cosmogonical net. From their union came the\nheavens and the earth, mankind, and all living things.\n\nThese and other brief and unelaborated personal cosmogonies, even if\nnot to be regarded as spurious imitations, certainly have not become\nestablished in the Chinese mind as the explanation of the way in which\nthe universe came to be: in this sphere the P'an Ku legend reigns\nsupreme; and, owing to its concrete, easily apprehensible nature,\nhas probably done so ever since the time of its invention.\n\n\nEarly Cosmogony Dualistic\n\nThe period before the appearance of the P'an Ku myth may be divided\ninto two parts; that from some early unknown date up to about the\nmiddle of the Confucian epoch, say 500 B.C., and that from 500 B.C. to\nA.D. 400. We know that during the latter period the minds of Chinese\nscholars were frequently occupied with speculations as to the origin\nof the universe. Before 500 B.C. we have no documentary remains\ntelling us what the Chinese believed about the origin of things;\nbut it is exceedingly unlikely that no theories or speculations at\nall concerning the origin of themselves and their surroundings were\nformed by this intelligent people during the eighteen centuries or\nmore which preceded the date at which we find the views held by them\nput into written form. It is safe to assume that the dualism which\nlater occupied their philosophical thoughts to so great an extent\nas almost to seem inseparable from them, and exercised so powerful\nan influence throughout the course of their history, was not only\nformulating itself during that long period, but had gradually reached\nan advanced stage. We may even go so far as to say that dualism, or\nits beginnings, existed in the very earliest times, for the belief in\nthe second self or ghost or double of the dead is in reality nothing\nelse. And we find it operating with apparently undiminished energy\nafter the Chinese mind had reached its maturity in the Sung dynasty.\n\n\n\nThe Canon of Changes\n\nThe Bible of Chinese dualism is the _I ching_, the _Canon of Changes_\n(or _Permutations_). It is held in great veneration both on account\nof its antiquity and also because of the \"unfathomable wisdom which\nis supposed to lie concealed under its mysterious symbols.\" It is\nplaced first in the list of the classics, or Sacred Books, though\nit is not the oldest of them. When exactly the work itself on which\nthe subsequent elaborations were founded was composed is not now\nknown. Its origin is attributed to the legendary emperor Fu Hsi\n(2953-2838 B.C.). It does not furnish a cosmogony proper, but merely\na dualistic system as an explanation, or attempted explanation,\nor even perhaps only a record, of the constant changes (in modern\nphilosophical language the \"redistribution of matter and motion\")\ngoing on everywhere. That explanation or record was used for purposes\nof divination. This dualistic system, by a simple addition, became\na monism, and at the same time furnished the Chinese with a cosmogony.\n\n\nThe Five Elements\n\nThe Five Elements or Forces (_wu hsing_)--which, according to\nthe Chinese, are metal, air, fire, water, and wood--are first\nmentioned in Chinese literature in a chapter of the classic _Book\nof History_. [8] They play a very important part in Chinese thought:\n'elements' meaning generally not so much the actual substances as the\nforces essential to human, life. They have to be noticed in passing,\nbecause they were involved in the development of the cosmogonical\nideas which took place in the eleventh and twelfth centuries A.D.\n\n\n\nMonism\n\nAs their imagination grew, it was natural that the Chinese should\nbegin to ask themselves what, if the _yang_ and the _yin_ by\ntheir permutations produced, or gave shape to, all things, was it\nthat produced the _yang_ and the _yin_. When we see traces of this\ninquisitive tendency we find ourselves on the borderland of dualism\nwhere the transition is taking place into the realm of monism. But\nthough there may have been a tendency toward monism in early times, it\nwas only in the Sung dynasty that the philosophers definitely placed\nbehind the _yang_ and the _yin_ a First Cause--the Grand Origin,\nGrand Extreme, Grand Terminus, or Ultimate Ground of Existence. [9]\nThey gave to it the name _t'ai chi_, and represented it by a concrete\nsign, the symbol of a circle. The complete scheme shows the evolution\nof the Sixty-four Diagrams (_kua_) from the _t'ai chi_ through the\n_yang_ and the _yin_, the Four, Eight, Sixteen, and Thirty-two\nDiagrams successively. This conception was the work of the Sung\nphilosopher Chou Tun-i (A.D. 1017-73), commonly known as Chou Tzu,\nand his disciple Chu Hsi (A.D. 1130-1200), known as Chu Tzu or Chu\nFu Tzu, the famous historian and Confucian commentator--two of the\ngreatest names in Chinese philosophy. It was at this time that the\ntide of constructive imagination in China, tinged though it always\nwas with classical Confucianism, rose to its greatest height. There\nis the philosopher's seeking for causes. Yet in this matter of the\nFirst Cause we detect, in the full flood of Confucianism, the potent\ninfluence of Taoist and Buddhist speculations. It has even been said\nthat the Sung philosophy, which grew, not from the _I ching_ itself,\nbut from the appendixes to it, is more Taoistic than Confucian. As it\nwas with the P'an Ku legend, so was it with this more philosophical\ncosmogony. The more fertile Taoist and Buddhist imaginations led to the\npreservation of what the Confucianists, distrusting the marvellous,\nwould have allowed to die a natural death. It was, after all, the\nmystical foreign elements which gave point to--we may rightly say\nrounded off--the early dualism by converting it into monism, carrying\nphilosophical speculation from the Knowable to the Unknowable, and\nfurnishing the Chinese with their first scientific theory of the\norigin, not of the changes going on in the universe (on which they\nhad already formed their opinions), but of the universe itself.\n\n\nChou Tzu's \"T'ai Chi T'u\"\n\nChou Tun-i, appropriately apotheosized as 'Prince in the Empire of\nReason,' completed and systematized the philosophical world-conception\nwhich had hitherto obtained in the Chinese mind. He did not ask his\nfellow-countrymen to discard any part of what they had long held in\nhigh esteem: he raised the old theories from the sphere of science to\nthat of philosophy by unifying them and bringing them to a focus. And\nhe made this unification intelligible to the Chinese mind by his famous\n_T'ai chi t'u_, or Diagram of the Great Origin (or Grand Terminus),\nshowing that the Grand Original Cause, itself uncaused, produces the\n_yang_ and the _yin_, these the Five Elements, and so on, through\nthe male and female norms (_tao_), to the production of all things.\n\n\nChu Hsi's Monistic Philosophy\n\nThe writings of Chu Hsi, especially his treatise on _The Immaterial\nPrinciple [li] and Primary Matter [ch'i]_, leave no doubt as to the\nmonism of his philosophy. In this work occurs the passage: \"In the\nuniverse there exists no primary matter devoid of the immaterial\nprinciple; and no immaterial principle apart from primary matter\";\nand although the two are never separated \"the immaterial principle\n[as Chou Tzu explains] is what is previous to form, while primary\nmatter is what is subsequent to form,\" the idea being that the two\nare different manifestations of the same mysterious force from which\nall things proceed.\n\nIt is unnecessary to follow this philosophy along all the different\nbranches which grew out of it, for we are here concerned only with\nthe seed. We have observed how Chinese dualism became a monism, and\nhow while the monism was established the dualism was retained. It is\nthis mono-dualistic theory, combining the older and newer philosophy,\nwhich in China, then as now, constitutes the accepted explanation of\nthe origin of things, of the universe itself and all that it contains.\n\n\nLao Tzu's \"Tao\"\n\nThere are other cosmogonies in Chinese philosophy, but they need not\ndetain us long. Lao Tzu (sixth century B.C.), in his _Tao-te ching,\nThe Canon of Reason and Virtue_ (at first entitled simply _Lao Tzu_),\ngave to the then existing scattered sporadic conceptions of the\nuniverse a literary form. His _tao_, or 'Way,' is the originator\nof Heaven and earth, it is \"the mother of all things.\" His Way,\nwhich was \"before God,\" is but a metaphorical expression for the\nmanner in which things came at first into being out of the primal\nnothingness, and how the phenomena of nature continue to go on,\n\"in stillness and quietness, without striving or crying.\" Lao Tzu is\nthus so far monistic, but he is also mystical, transcendental, even\npantheistic. The way that can be walked is not the Eternal Way; the\nname that can be named is not the Eternal Name. The Unnameable is the\noriginator of Heaven and earth; manifesting itself as the Nameable,\nit is \"the mother of all things.\" \"In Eternal Non-Being I see the\nSpirituality of Things; in Eternal Being their limitation. Though\ndifferent under these two aspects, they are the same in origin;\nit is when development takes place that different names have to be\nused. It is while they are in the condition of sameness that the\nmystery concerning them exists. This mystery is indeed the mystery\nof mysteries. It is the door of all spirituality.\"\n\nThis _tao_, indefinable and in its essence unknowable, is \"the\nfountain-head of all beings, and the norm of all actions. But it is\nnot only the formative principle of the universe; it also seems to be\nprimordial matter: chaotic in its composition, born prior to Heaven\nand earth, noiseless, formless, standing alone in its solitude, and\nnot changing, universal in its activity, and unrelaxing, without being\nexhausted, it is capable of becoming the mother of the universe.\" And\nthere we may leave it. There is no scheme of creation, properly so\ncalled. The Unwalkable Way leads us to nothing further in the way of\na cosmogony.\n\n\nConfucius's Agnosticism\n\nConfucius (551-479 B.C.) did not throw any light on the problem of\norigin. He did not speculate on the creation of things nor the end\nof them. He was not troubled to account for the origin of man, nor\ndid he seek to know about his hereafter. He meddled neither with\nphysics nor metaphysics. There might, he thought, be something on\nthe other side of life, for he admitted the existence of spiritual\nbeings. They had an influence on the living, because they caused\nthem to clothe themselves in ceremonious dress and attend to the\nsacrificial ceremonies. But we should not trouble ourselves about\nthem, any more than about supernatural things, or physical prowess,\nor monstrosities. How can we serve spiritual beings while we do not\nknow how to serve men? We feel the existence of something invisible\nand mysterious, but its nature and meaning are too deep for the\nhuman understanding to grasp. The safest, indeed the only reasonable,\ncourse is that of the agnostic--to leave alone the unknowable, while\nacknowledging its existence and its mystery, and to try to understand\nknowable phenomena and guide our actions accordingly.\n\nBetween the monism of Lao Tzu and the positivism of Confucius on\nthe one hand, and the landmark of the Taoistic transcendentalism of\nChuang Tzu (fourth and third centuries B.C.) on the other, we find\nseveral \"guesses at the riddle of existence\" which must be briefly\nnoted as links in the chain of Chinese speculative thought on this\nimportant subject.\n\n\nMo Tzu and Creation\n\nIn the philosophy of Mo Ti (fifth and fourth centuries B.C.),\ngenerally known as Mo Tzu or Mu Tzu, the philosopher of humanism and\nutilitarianism, we find the idea of creation. It was, he says, Heaven\n(which was anthropomorphically regarded by him as a personal Supreme\nBeing) who \"created the sun, moon, and innumerable stars.\" His system\nclosely resembles Christianity, but the great power of Confucianism as\na weapon wielded against all opponents by its doughty defender Mencius\n(372-289 B.C.) is shown by the complete suppression of the influence\nof Mo Tzuism at his hands. He even went so far as to describe Mo Tzu\nand those who thought with him as \"wild animals.\"\n\n\nMencius and the First Cause\n\nMencius himself regarded Heaven as the First Cause, or Cause of Causes,\nbut it was not the same personal Heaven as that of Mo Tzu. Nor does\nhe hang any cosmogony upon it. His chief concern was to eulogize the\ndoctrines of the great Confucius, and like him he preferred to let\nthe origin of the universe look after itself.\n\n\nLieh Tzu's Absolute\n\nLieh Tzu (said to have lived in the fifth century B.C.), one\nof the brightest stars in the Taoist constellation, considered\nthis nameable world as having evolved from an unnameable absolute\nbeing. The evolution did not take place through the direction of\na personal will working out a plan of creation: \"In the beginning\nthere was Chaos [_hun tun_]. It was a mingled potentiality of Form\n[_hsing_], Pneuma [_ch'i_], and Substance [_chih_]. A Great Change\n[_t'ai i_] took place in it, and there was a Great Starting [_t'ai\nch'u_] which is the beginning of Form. The Great Starting evolved a\nGreat Beginning [_t'ai shih_], which is the inception of Pneuma. The\nGreat Beginning was followed by the Great Blank [_t'ai su_], which\nis the first formation of Substance. Substance, Pneuma, and Form\nbeing all evolved out of the primordial chaotic mass, this material\nworld as it lies before us came into existence.\" And that which\nmade it possible for Chaos to evolve was the Solitary Indeterminate\n(_i tu_ or the _tao_), which is not created, but is able to create\neverlastingly. And being both Solitary and Indeterminate it tells us\nnothing determinate about itself.\n\n\nChuang Tzu's Super-tao\n\nChuang Chou (fourth and third centuries B.C.), generally known\nas Chuang Tzu, the most brilliant Taoist of all, maintained with\nLao Tzu that the universe started from the Nameless, but it was if\npossible a more absolute and transcendental Nameless than that of\nLao Tzu. He dwells on the relativity of knowledge; as when asleep he\ndid not know that he was a man dreaming that he was a butterfly, so\nwhen awake he did not know that he was not a butterfly dreaming that\nhe was a man. [10] But \"all is embraced in the obliterating unity of\nthe _tao_, and the wise man, passing into the realm of the Infinite,\nfinds rest therein.\" And this _tao_, of which we hear so much in\nChinese philosophy, was before the Great Ultimate or Grand Terminus\n(_t'ai chi_), and \"from it came the mysterious existence of God\n[_ti_]. It produced Heaven, it produced earth.\"\n\n\nPopular Cosmogony still Personal or Dualistic\n\nThese and other cosmogonies which the Chinese have devised, though\nit is necessary to note their existence in order to give a just idea\nof their cosmological speculations, need not, as I said, detain us\nlong; and the reason why they need not do so is that, in the matter\nof cosmogony, the P'an Ku legend and the _yin-yang_ system with its\nmonistic elaboration occupy virtually the whole field of the Chinese\nmental vision. It is these two--the popular and the scientific--that\nwe mean when we speak of Chinese cosmogony. Though here and there a\nstern sectarian might deny that the universe originated in one or the\nother of these two ways, still, the general rule holds good. And I\nhave dealt with them in this order because, though the P'an Ku legend\nbelongs to the fourth century A.D., the _I ching_ dualism was not,\nrightly speaking, a cosmogony until Chou Tun-i made it one by the\npublication of his _T'ai chi t'u_ in the eleventh century A.D. Over\nthe unscientific and the scientific minds of the Chinese these two\nare paramount.\n\nApplying the general principles stated in the preceding chapter,\nwe find the same cause which operated to restrict the growth of\nmythology in general in China operated also in like manner in this\nparticular branch of it. With one exception Chinese cosmogony is\nnon-mythological. The careful and studiously accurate historians\n(whose work aimed at being _ex veritate_, 'made of truth'), the\nsober literature, the vast influence of agnostic, matter-of-fact\nConfucianism, supported by the heavy Mencian artillery, are\nindisputable indications of a constructive imagination which grew too\nquickly and became too rapidly scientific to admit of much soaring\ninto the realms of fantasy. Unaroused by any strong stimulus in\ntheir ponderings over the riddle of the universe, the sober, plodding\nscientists and the calm, truth-loving philosophers gained a peaceful\nvictory over the mythologists.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV\n\nThe Gods of China\n\n\nThe Birth of the Soul\n\nThe dualism noted in the last chapter is well illustrated by the\nChinese pantheon. Whether as the result of the co-operation of the\n_yin_ and the _yang_ or of the final dissolution of P'an Ku, human\nbeings came into existence. To the primitive mind the body and its\nshadow, an object and its reflection in water, real life and dream\nlife, sensibility and insensibility (as in fainting, etc.), suggest the\nidea of another life parallel with this life and of the doings of the\n'other self' in it. This 'other self,' this spirit, which leaves the\nbody for longer or shorter intervals in dreams, swoons, death, may\nreturn or be brought back, and the body revive. Spirits which do not\nreturn or are not brought back may cause mischief, either alone, or by\nentry into another human or animal body or even an inanimate object,\nand should therefore be propitiated. Hence worship and deification.\n\n\nThe Populous Otherworld\n\nThe Chinese pantheon has gradually become so multitudinous that there\nis scarcely a being or thing which is not, or has not been at some time\nor other, propitiated or worshipped. As there are good and evil people\nin this world, so there are gods and demons in the Otherworld: we find\na polytheism limited only by a polydemonism. The dualistic hierarchy is\nalmost all-embracing. To get a clear idea of this populous Otherworld,\nof the supernal and infernal hosts and their organizations, it needs\nbut to imagine the social structure in its main features as it existed\nthroughout the greater part of Chinese history, and to make certain\nadditions. The social structure consisted of the ruler, his court,\nhis civil, military, and ecclesiastical officials, and his subjects\n(classed as Scholars--officials and gentry--Agriculturists, Artisans,\nand Merchants, in that order).\n\n\nWorship of Shang Ti\n\nWhen these died, their other selves continued to exist and to hold\nthe same rank in the spirit world as they did in this one. The _ti_,\nemperor, became the _Shang Ti_, Emperor on High, who dwelt in _T'ien_,\nHeaven (originally the great dome). [11] And Shang Ti, the Emperor\non High, was worshipped by _ti_, the emperor here below, in order to\npacify or please him--to ensure a continuance of his benevolence on\nhis behalf in the world of spirits. Confusion of ideas and paucity\nof primitive language lead to personification and worship of a thing\nor being in which a spirit has taken up its abode in place of or in\naddition to worship of the spirit itself. Thus Heaven (T'ien) itself\ncame to be personified and worshipped in addition to Shang Ti, the\nEmperor who had gone to Heaven, and who was considered as the chief\nruler in the spiritual world. The worship of Shang Ti was in existence\nbefore that of T'ien was introduced. Shang Ti was worshipped by the\nemperor and his family as their ancestor, or the head of the hierarchy\nof their ancestors. The people could not worship Shang Ti, for to do so\nwould imply a familiarity or a claim of relationship punishable with\ndeath. The emperor worshipped his ancestors, the officials theirs,\nthe people theirs. But, in the same way and sense that the people\nworshipped the emperor on earth, as the 'father' of the nation,\nnamely, by adoration and obeisance, so also could they in this way\nand this sense worship Shang Ti. An Englishman may take off his hat\nas the king passes in the street to his coronation without taking any\npart in the official service in Westminster Abbey. So the 'worship'\nof Shang Ti by the people was not done officially or with any special\nceremonial or on fixed State occasions, as in the case of the worship\nof Shang Ti by the emperor. This, subject to a qualification to be\nmentioned later, is really all that is meant (or should be meant)\nwhen it is said that the Chinese worship Shang Ti.\n\nAs regards sacrifices to Shang Ti, these could be offered officially\nonly by the emperor, as High Priest on earth, who was attended or\nassisted in the ceremonies by members of his own family or clan or\nthe proper State officials (often, even in comparatively modern times,\nmembers of the imperial family or clan). In these official sacrifices,\nwhich formed part of the State worship, the people could not take part;\nnor did they at first offer sacrifices to Shang Ti in their own homes\nor elsewhere. In what way and to what extent they did so later will\nbe shown presently.\n\n\nWorship of T'ien\n\nOwing to T'ien, Heaven, the abode of the spirits, becoming personified,\nit came to be worshipped not only by the emperor, but by the people\nalso. But there was a difference between these two worships, because\nthe emperor performed his worship of Heaven officially at the great\naltar of the Temple of Heaven at Peking (in early times at the altar\nin the suburb of the capital), whereas the people (continuing always\nto worship their ancestors) worshipped Heaven, when they did so\nat all--the custom being observed by some and not by others, just\nas in Western countries some people go to church, while others stay\naway--usually at the time of the New Year, in a simple, unceremonious\nway, by lighting some incense-sticks and waving them toward the sky\nin the courtyards of their own houses or in the street just outside\ntheir doors.\n\n\nConfusion of Shang Ti and T'ien\n\nThe qualification necessary to the above description is that, as\ntime went on and especially since the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280),\nmuch confusion arose regarding Shang Ti and T'ien, and thus it came\nabout that the terms became mixed and their definitions obscure. This\nconfusion of ideas has prevailed down to the present time. One result\nof this is that the people may sometimes state, when they wave their\nincense-sticks or light their candles, that their humble sacrifice\nis made to Shang Ti, whom in reality they have no right either to\nworship or to offer sacrifice to, but whom they may unofficially pay\nrespect and make obeisance to, as they might and did to the emperor\nbehind the high boards on the roadsides which shielded him from their\nview as he was borne along in his elaborate procession on the few\noccasions when he came forth from the imperial city.\n\nThus we find that, while only the emperor could worship and sacrifice\nto Shang Ti, and only he could officially worship and sacrifice to\nT'ien, the people who early personified and worshipped T'ien, as\nalready shown, came, owing to confusion of the meanings of Shang Ti\nand T'ien, unofficially to 'worship' both, but only in the sense and to\nthe extent indicated, and to offer 'sacrifices' to both, also only in\nthe sense and to the extent indicated. But for these qualifications,\nthe statement that the Chinese worship and sacrifice to Shang Ti and\nT'ien would be apt to convey an incorrect idea.\n\nFrom this it will be apparent that Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler on High,\nand T'ien, Heaven (later personified), do not mean 'God' in the sense\nthat the word is used in the Christian religion. To state that they\ndo, as so many writers on China have done, without pointing out the\nessential differences, is misleading. That Chinese religion was or is\n\"a monotheistic worship of God\" is further disproved by the fact that\nShang Ti and T'ien do not appear in the list of the popular pantheon at\nall, though all the other gods are there represented. Neither Shang Ti\nnor T'ien mean the God of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, or the Father,\nSon, and Holy Ghost of the New Testament. Did they mean this, the\nefforts of the Christian missionaries to convert the Chinese would be\nlargely superfluous. The Christian religion, even the Holy Trinity,\nis a monotheism. That the Chinese religion (even though a summary\nof extracts from the majority of foreign books on China might point\nto its being so) is not a monotheism, but a polytheism or even a\npantheism (as long as that term is taken in the sense of universal\ndeification and not in that of one spiritual being immanent in all\nthings), the rest of this chapter will abundantly prove.\n\nThere have been three periods in which gods have been created in\nunusually large numbers: that of the mythical emperor Hsien Yuean\n(2698-2598 B.C.), that of Chiang Tzu-ya (in the twelfth century B.C.),\nand that of the first emperor of the Ming dynasty (in the fourteenth\ncentury A.D.).\n\n\nThe Otherworld Similar to this World\n\nThe similarity of the Otherworld to this world above alluded to is\nwell shown by Du Bose in his _Dragon, Image, and, Demon_, from which\nI quote the following passages:\n\n\"The world of spirits is an exact counterpart of the Chinese Empire,\nor, as has been remarked, it is 'China ploughed under'; this is the\nworld of light; put out the lights and you have Tartarus. China has\neighteen [now twenty-two] provinces, so has Hades; each province has\neight or nine prefects, or departments; so each province in Hades\nhas eight or nine departments; every prefect or department averages\nten counties, so every department in Hades has ten counties. In\nSoochow the Governor, the provincial Treasurer, the Criminal Judge,\nthe Intendant of Circuit, the Prefect or Departmental Governor, and\nthe three District Magistrates or County Governors each have temples\nwith their apotheoses in the other world. Not only these, but every\n_yamen_ secretary, runner, executioner, policeman, and constable\nhas his counterpart in the land of darkness. The market-towns have\nalso mandarins of lesser rank in charge, besides a host of revenue\ncollectors, the bureau of government works and other departments,\nwith several hundred thousand officials, who all rank as gods beyond\nthe grave. These deities are civilians; the military having a similar\ngradation for the armies of Hades, whose captains are gods, and whose\nbattalions are devils.\n\n\"The framers of this wonderful scheme for the spirits of the dead,\nhaving no higher standard, transferred to the authorities of\nthat world the etiquette, tastes, and venality of their correlate\nofficials in the Chinese Government, thus making it necessary to\nuse similar means to appease the one which are found necessary to\nmove the other. All the State gods have their assistants, attendants,\ndoor-keepers, runners, horses, horsemen, detectives, and executioners,\ncorresponding in every particular to those of Chinese officials of\nthe same rank.\" (Pp. 358-359.)\n\nThis likeness explains also why the hierarchy of beings in the\nOtherworld concerns itself not only with the affairs of the Otherworld,\nbut with those of this world as well. So faithful is the likeness\nthat we find the gods (the term is used in this chapter to include\ngoddesses, who are, however, relatively few) subjected to many of\nthe rules and conditions existing on this earth. Not only do they, as\nalready shown, differ in rank, but they hold _levees_ and audiences\nand may be promoted for distinguished services, just as the Chinese\nofficials are. They \"may rise from an humble position to one near the\nPearly Emperor, who gives them the reward of merit for ruling well the\naffairs of men. The correlative deities of the mandarins are only of\nequal rank, yet the fact that they have been apotheosized makes them\ntheir superiors and fit objects of worship. Chinese mandarins rotate in\noffice, generally every three years, and then there is a corresponding\nchange in Hades. The image in the temple remains the same, but the\nspirit which dwells in the clay tabernacle changes, so the idol has\na different name, birthday, and tenant. The priests are informed by\nthe Great Wizard of the Dragon Tiger Mountain, but how can the people\nknow gods which are not the same to-day as yesterday?\" (Pp. 360-361.)\n\nThe gods also indulge in amusements, marry, sin, are punished, die,\nare resurrected, or die and are transformed, or die finally. [12]\n\n\nThe Three Religions\n\nWe have in China the universal worship of ancestors, which constitutes\n(or did until A.D. 1912) the State religion, usually known as\nConfucianism, and in addition we have the gods of the specific\nreligions (which also originally took their rise in ancestor-worship),\nnamely, Buddhism and Taoism. (Other religions, though tolerated,\nare not recognized as Chinese religions.) It is with a brief account\nof this great hierarchy and its mythology that we will now concern\nourselves.\n\nBesides the ordinary ancestor-worship (as distinct from the State\nworship) the people took to Buddhism and Taoism, which became\nthe popular religions, and the _literati_ also honoured the gods\nof these two sects. Buddhist deities gradually became installed in\nTaoist temples, and the Taoist immortals were given seats beside the\nBuddhas in their sanctuaries. Every one patronized the god who seemed\nto him the most popular and the most lucrative. There even came to\nbe united in the same temple and worshipped at the same altar the\nthree religious founders or figure-heads, Confucius, Buddha, and Lao\nTzu. The three religions were even regarded as forming one whole,\nor at least, though different, as having one and the same object:\n_san erh i yeh_, or _han san wei i_, \"the three are one,\" or \"the\nthree unite to form one\" (a quotation from the phrase _T'ai chi han\nsan wei i_ of Fang Yue-lu: \"When they reach the extreme the three are\nseen to be one\"). In the popular pictorial representations of the\npantheon this impartiality is clearly shown.\n\n\nThe Super-triad\n\nThe toleration, fraternity, or co-mixture of the three\nreligions--ancestor-worship or Confucianism, Chinese Buddhism,\nand Taoism--explains the compound nature of the triune head of\nthe Chinese pantheon. The numerous deities of Buddhism and Taoism\nculminate each in a triad of gods (the Three Precious Ones and the\nThree Pure Ones respectively), but the three religions jointly have\nalso a triad compounded of one representative member of each. This\ngeneral or super-triad is, of course, composed of Confucius, Lao Tzu,\nand Buddha. This is the officially decreed order, though it is varied\noccasionally by Buddha being placed in the centre (the place of honour)\nas an act of ceremonial deference shown to a 'stranger' or 'guest'\nfrom another country.\n\n\nWorship of the Living\n\nBefore proceeding to consider the gods of China in detail, it is\nnecessary to note that ancestor-worship, which, as before stated,\nis worship of the ghosts of deceased persons, who are usually but\nnot invariably relatives of the worshipper, has at times a sort of\npreliminary stage in this world consisting of the worship of living\nbeings. Emperors, viceroys, popular officials, or people beloved for\ntheir good deeds have had altars, temples, and images erected to them,\nwhere they are worshipped in the same way as those who have already\n\"shuffled off this mortal coil.\" The most usual cases are perhaps those\nof the worship of living emperors and those in which some high official\nwho has gained the gratitude of the people is transferred to another\npost. The explanation is simple. The second self which exists after\ndeath is identical with the second self inhabiting the body during\nlife. Therefore it may be propitiated or gratified by sacrifices\nof food, drink, etc., or theatricals performed in its honour, and\ncontinue its protection and good offices even though now far away.\n\n\n\nConfucianism\n\nConfucianism (_Ju Chiao_) is said to be the religion of the learned,\nand the learned were the officials and the _literati_ or lettered\nclass, which includes scholars waiting for posts, those who have failed\nto get posts (or, though qualified, prefer to live in retirement), and\nthose who have retired from posts. Of this 'religion' it has been said:\n\n\"The name embraces education, letters, ethics, and political\nphilosophy. Its head was not a religious man, practised few religious\nrites, and taught nothing about religion. In its usual acceptation the\nterm Confucianist means 'a gentleman and a scholar'; he may worship\nonly once a year, yet he belongs to the Church. Unlike its two sisters,\nit has no priesthood, and fundamentally is not a religion at all;\nyet with the many rites grafted on the original tree it becomes a\nreligion, and the one most difficult to deal with. Considered as a\nChurch, the classics are its scriptures, the schools its churches, the\nteachers its priests, ethics its theology, and the written character,\nso sacred, its symbol.\" [13]\n\n\nConfucius not a God\n\nIt should be noted that Confucius himself is not a god, though he\nhas been and is worshipped (66,000 animals used to be offered to him\nevery year; probably the number is about the same now). Suggestions\nhave been made to make him the God of China and Confucianism the\nreligion of China, so that he and his religion would hold the same\nrelative positions that Christ and Christianity do in the West. I\nwas present at the lengthy debate which took place on this subject\nin the Chinese Parliament in February 1917, but in spite of many\nlong, learned, and eloquent speeches, chiefly by scholars of the\nold school, the motion was not carried. Nevertheless, the worship\naccorded to Confucius was and is (except by 'new' or 'young' China)\nof so extreme a nature that he may almost be described as the great\nunapotheosized god of China. [14] Some of his portraits even ascribe to\nhim superhuman attributes. But in spite of all this the fact remains\nthat Confucius has not been appointed a god and holds no _exequatur_\nentitling him to that rank.\n\nIf we inquire into the reason of this we find that, astonishing\nthough it may seem, Confucius is classed by the Chinese not as a god\n(_shen_), but as a demon (_kuei_). A short historical statement will\nmake the matter clear.\n\nIn the classical _Li chi, Book of Ceremonial_, we find the categorical\nassignment of the worship of certain objects to certain subjective\nbeings: the emperor worshipped Heaven and earth, the feudal princes the\nmountains and rivers, the officials the hearth, and the _literati_\ntheir ancestors. Heaven, earth, mountains, rivers, and hearth\nwere called _shen_ (gods), and ancestors _kuei_ (demons). This\ndistinction is due to Heaven being regarded as the god and the\npeople as demons--the upper is the god, the lower the evil spirit or\ndemon. Though _kuei_ were usually bad, the term in Chinese includes\nboth good and evil spirits. In ancient times those who had by their\nmeritorious virtue while in the world averted calamities from the\npeople were posthumously worshipped and called gods, but those who were\nworshipped by their descendants only were called spirits or demons.\n\nIn the worship of Confucius by emperors of various dynasties (details\nof which need not be given here) the highest titles conferred on him\nwere _Hsien Sheng_, 'Former or Ancestral Saint,' and even _Win Hsuean\nWang_, 'Accomplished and Illustrious Prince,' and others containing\nlike epithets. When for his image or idol there was (in the eleventh\nyear--A.D. 1307--of the reign-period Ta Te of the Emperor Ch'eng\nTsung of the Yuean dynasty) substituted the tablet now seen in the\nConfucian temples, these were the inscriptions engraved on it. In the\ninscriptions authoritatively placed on the tablets the word _shen_\ndoes not occur; in those cases where it does occur it has been\nplaced there (as by the Taoists) illegally and without authority\nby too ardent devotees. Confucius may not be called a _shen_, since\nthere is no record showing that the great ethical teacher was ever\napotheosized, or that any order was given that the character _shen_\nwas to be applied to him.\n\n\nThe God of Literature\n\nIn addition to the ancestors of whose worship it really consists,\nConfucianism has in its pantheon the specialized gods worshipped by\nthe _literati_. Naturally the chief of these is Wen Ch'ang, the God of\nLiterature. The account of him (which varies in several particulars\nin different Chinese works) relates that he was a man of the name\nof Chang Ya, who was born during the T'ang dynasty in the kingdom of\nYueeh (modern Chekiang), and went to live at Tzu T'ung in Ssuch'uan,\nwhere his intelligence raised him to the position of President of the\nBoard of Ceremonies. Another account refers to him as Chang Ya Tzu,\nthe Soul or Spirit of Tzu T'ung, and states that he held office in the\nChin dynasty (A.D. 265-316), and was killed in a fight. Another again\nstates that under the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280), in the third year\n(A.D. 1000) of the reign-period Hsien P'ing of the Emperor Chen Tsung,\nhe repressed the revolt of Wang Chuen at Ch'eng Tu in Ssuch'uan. General\nLei Yu-chung caused to be shot into the besieged town arrows to which\nnotices were attached inviting the inhabitants to surrender. Suddenly\na man mounted a ladder, and pointing to the rebels cried in a loud\nvoice: \"The Spirit of Tzu T'ung has sent me to inform you that the\ntown will fall into the hands of the enemy on the twentieth day of\nthe ninth moon, and not a single person will escape death.\" Attempts\nto strike down this prophet of evil were in vain, for he had already\ndisappeared. The town was captured on the day indicated. The general,\nas a reward, caused the temple of Tzu T'ung's Spirit to be repaired,\nand sacrifices offered to it.\n\nThe object of worship nowadays in the temples dedicated to Wen Ch'ang\nis Tzu T'ung Ti Chuen, the God of Tzu T'ung. The convenient elasticity\nof dualism enabled Chang to have as many as seventeen reincarnations,\nwhich ranged over a period of some three thousand years.\n\nVarious emperors at various times bestowed upon Wen Ch'ang honorific\ntitles, until ultimately, in the Yuean, or Mongol, dynasty, in the reign\nYen Yu, in A.D. 1314, the title was conferred on him of Supporter of\nthe Yuean Dynasty, Diffuser of Renovating Influences, Ssu-lu of Wen\nCh'ang, God and Lord. He was thus apotheosized, and took his place\namong the gods of China. By steps few or many a man in China has\noften become a god.\n\n\nWen Ch'ang and the Great Bear\n\nThus we have the God of Literature, Wen Ch'ang Ti Chuen, duly installed\nin the Chinese pantheon, and sacrifices were offered to him in the\nschools.\n\nBut scholars, especially those about to enter for the public\ncompetitive examinations, worshipped as the God of Literature, or as\nhis palace or abode (Wen Ch'ang), the star K'uei in the Great Bear,\nor Dipper, or Bushel--the latter name derived from its resemblance in\nshape to the measure used by the Chinese and called _tou_. The term\nK'uei was more generally applied to the four stars forming the body\nor square part of the Dipper, the three forming the tail or handle\nbeing called Shao or Piao. How all this came about is another story.\n\nA scholar, as famous for his literary skill as his facial deformities,\nhad been admitted as first academician at the metropolitan\nexaminations. It was the custom that the Emperor should give with\nhis own hand a rose of gold to the fortunate candidate. This scholar,\nwhose name was Chung K'uei, presented himself according to custom to\nreceive the reward which by right was due to him. At the sight of\nhis repulsive face the Emperor refused the golden rose. In despair\nthe miserable rejected one went and threw himself into the sea. At\nthe moment when he was being choked by the waters a mysterious fish\nor monster called _ao_ raised him on its back and brought him to the\nsurface. K'uei ascended to Heaven and became arbiter of the destinies\nof men of letters. His abode was said to be the star K'uei, a name\ngiven by the Chinese to the sixteen stars of the constellation or\n'mansion' of Andromeda and Pisces. The scholars quite soon began\nto worship K'uei as the God of Literature, and to represent it on a\ncolumn in the temples. Then sacrifices were offered to it. This star\nor constellation was regarded as the palace of the god. The legend\ngave rise to an expression frequently used in Chinese of one who\ncomes out first in an examination, namely, _tu chan ao t'ou_, \"to\nstand alone on the sea-monster's head.\" It is especially to be noted\nthat though the two K'ueis have the same sound they are represented\nby different characters, and that the two constellations are not the\nsame, but are situated in widely different parts of the heavens.\n\nHow then did it come about that scholars worshipped the K'uei in\nthe Great Bear as the abode of the God of Literature? (It may be\nremarked in passing that a literary people could not have chosen\na more appropriate palace for this god, since the Great Bear,\nthe 'Chariot of Heaven,' is regarded as the centre and governor\nof the whole universe.) The worship, we saw, was at first that of\nthe star K'uei, the apotheosized 'homely,' successful, but rejected\ncandidate. As time went on, there was a general demand for a sensible,\nconcrete representation of this star-god: a simple character did not\nsatisfy the popular taste. But it was no easy matter to comply with the\ndemand. Eventually, guided doubtless by the community of pronunciation,\nthey substituted for the star or group of stars K'uei (1),\nvenerated in ancient times, a new star or group of stars K'uei (2),\nforming the square part of the Bushel, Dipper, or Great Bear. But for\nthis again no bodily image could be found, so the form of the written\ncharacter itself was taken, and so drawn as to represent a _kuei_\n(3) (disembodied spirit, or ghost) with its foot raised, and bearing\naloft a _tou_ (4) (bushel-measure). The adoration was thus misplaced,\nfor the constellation K'uei (2) was mistaken for K'uei (1), the proper\nobject of worship. It was due to this confusion by the scholars that\nthe Northern Bushel came to be worshipped as the God of Literature.\n\n\nWen Ch'ang and Tzu T'ung\n\nThis worship had nothing whatever to do with the Spirit of Tzu T'ung,\nbut the Taoists have connected Chang Ya with the constellation in\nanother way by saying that Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, entrusted Chang\nYa's son with the management of the palace of Wen Ch'ang. And scholars\ngradually acquired the habit of saying that they owed their success\nto the Spirit of Tzu T'ung, which they falsely represented as being an\nincarnation of the star Wen Ch'ang. This is how Chang Ya came to have\nthe honorific title of Wen Ch'ang, but, as a Chinese author points\nout, Chang belonged properly to Ssuch'uan, and his worship should\nbe confined to that province. The _literati_ there venerated him as\ntheir master, and as a mark of affection and gratitude built a temple\nto him; but in doing so they had no intention of making him the God of\nLiterature. \"There being no real connexion between Chang Ya and K'uei,\nthe worship should be stopped.\" The device of combining the personality\nof the patron of literature enthroned among the stars with that of the\ndeified mortal canonized as the Spirit of Tzu T'ung was essentially a\nTaoist trick. \"The thaumaturgic reputation assigned to the Spirit of\nChang Ya Tzu was confined for centuries to the valleys of Ssuch'uan,\nuntil at some period antecedent to the reign Yen Yu, in A.D. 1314,\na combination was arranged between the functions of the local god\nand those of the stellar patron of literature. Imperial sanction\nwas obtained for this stroke of priestly cunning; and notwithstanding\nprotests continually repeated by orthodox sticklers for accuracy in the\nreligious canon, the composite deity has maintained his claims intact,\nand an inseparable connexion between the God of Literature created by\nimperial patent and the spirit lodged among the stars of Ursa Major is\nfully recognized in the State ceremonial of the present day.\" A temple\ndedicated to this divinity by the State exists in every city of China,\nbesides others erected as private benefactions or speculations.\n\nWherever Wen Ch'ang is worshipped there will also be found a separate\nrepresentation of K'uei Hsing, showing that while the official deity\nhas been allowed to 'borrow glory' from the popular god, and even\nto assume his personality, the independent existence of the stellar\nspirit is nevertheless sedulously maintained. The place of the latter\nin the heavens above is invariably symbolized by the lodgment of his\nidol in an upper storey or tower, known as the K'uei Hsing Ko or K'uei\nHsing Lou. Here students worship the patron of their profession with\nincense and prayers. Thus the ancient stellar divinity still largely\nmonopolizes the popular idea of a guardian of literature and study,\nnotwithstanding that the deified recluse of Tzu T'ung has been added in\nthis capacity to the State pantheon for more than five hundred years.\n\n\nHeaven-deaf and Earth-dumb\n\nThe popular representations of Wen Ch'ang depict the god himself and\nfour other figures. The central and largest is the demure portrait of\nthe god, clothed in blue and holding a sceptre in his left hand. Behind\nhim stand two youthful attendants. They are the servant and groom\nwho always accompany him on his journeys (on which he rides a white\nhorse). Their names are respectively Hsuean T'ung-tzu and Ti-mu, 'Sombre\nYouth' and 'Earth-mother'; more commonly they are called T'ien-lung,\n'Deaf Celestial,' and Ti-ya, 'Mute Terrestrial,' or 'Deaf as Heaven'\nand 'Mute as Earth.' Thus they cannot divulge the secrets of their\nmaster's administration as he distributes intellectual gifts, literary\nskill, etc. Their cosmogonical connexion has already been referred\nto in a previous chapter.\n\n\nImage of K'uei Hsing\n\nIn front of Wen Ch'ang, on his left, stands K'uei Hsing. He is\nrepresented as of diminutive stature, with the visage of a demon,\nholding a writing-brush in his right hand and a _tou_ in his left,\none of his legs kicking up behind--the figure being obviously intended\nas an impersonation of the character _k'uei_ (2). [16] He is regarded\nas the distributor of literary degrees, and was invoked above all\nin order to obtain success at the competitive examinations. His\nimages and temples are found in all towns. In the temples dedicated\nto Wen Ch'ang there are always two secondary altars, one of which is\nconsecrated to his worship.\n\n\nMr Redcoat\n\nThe other is dedicated to Chu I, 'Mr Redcoat.' He and K'uei Hsing\nare represented as the two inseparable companions of the God of\nLiterature. The legend related of Chu I is as follows:\n\nDuring the T'ang dynasty, in the reign-period Chien Chung (A.D. 780-4)\nof the Emperor Te Tsung, the Princess T'ai Yin noticed that Lu Ch'i,\na native of Hua Chou, had the bones of an Immortal, and wished to\nmarry him.\n\nMa P'o, her neighbour, introduced him one day into the Crystal\nPalace for an interview with his future wife. The Princess gave him\nthe choice of three careers: to live in the Dragon Prince's Palace,\nwith the guarantee of immortal life, to enjoy immortality among the\npeople on the earth, or to have the honour of becoming a minister of\nthe Empire. Lu Ch'i first answered that he would like to live in the\nCrystal Palace. The young lady, overjoyed, said to him: \"I am Princess\nT'ai Yin. I will at once inform Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler.\" A moment\nlater the arrival of a celestial messenger was announced. Two officers\nbearing flags preceded him and conducted him to the foot of the flight\nof steps. He then presented himself as Chu I, the envoy of Shang Ti.\n\nAddressing himself to Lu Ch'i, he asked: \"Do you wish to live in the\nCrystal Palace?\" The latter did not reply. T'ai Yin urged him to give\nhis answer, but he persisted in keeping silent. The Princess in despair\nretired to her apartment, and brought out five pieces of precious\ncloth, which she presented to the divine envoy, begging him to have\npatience a little longer and wait for the answer. After some time,\nChu I repeated his question. Then Lu Ch'i in a firm voice answered:\n\"I have consecrated my life to the hard labour of study, and wish to\nattain to the dignity of minister on this earth.\"\n\nT'ai Yin ordered Ma P'o to conduct Lu Ch'i from the palace. From that\nday his face became transformed: he acquired the lips of a dragon,\nthe head of a panther, the green face of an Immortal, etc. He took\nhis degree, and was promoted to be Director of the Censorate. The\nEmperor, appreciating the good sense shown in his advice, appointed\nhim a minister of the Empire.\n\nFrom this legend it would seem that Chu I is the purveyor of official\nposts; however, in practice, he is more generally regarded as the\nprotector of weak candidates, as the God of Good Luck for those who\npresent themselves at the examinations with a somewhat light equipment\nof literary knowledge. The special legend relating to this _role_\nis known everywhere in China. It is as follows:\n\n\nMr Redcoat nods his Head\n\nAn examiner, engaged in correcting the essays of the candidates,\nafter a superficial scrutiny of one of the essays, put it on one\nside as manifestly inferior, being quite determined not to pass the\ncandidate who had composed it. The essay, moved by some mysterious\npower, was replaced in front of his eyes, as if to invite him to\nexamine it more attentively. At the same time a reverend old man,\nclothed in a red garment, suddenly appeared before him, and by a nod\nof his head gave him to understand that he should pass the essay. The\nexaminer, surprised at the novelty of the incident, and fortified by\nthe approval of his supernatural visitor, admitted the author of the\nessay to the literary degree.\n\nChu I, like K'uei Hsing, is invoked by the _literati_ as a powerful\nprotector and aid to success. When anyone with but a poor chance of\npassing presents himself at an examination, his friends encourage\nhim by the popular saying: \"Who knows but that Mr Redcoat will nod\nhis head?\"\n\n\nMr Golden Cuirass\n\nChu I is sometimes accompanied by another personage, named Chin Chia,\n'Mr Golden Cuirass.' Like K'uei Hsing and Chu I he has charge of the\ninterests of scholars, but differs from them in that he holds a flag,\nwhich he has only to wave in front of a house for the family inhabiting\nit to be assured that among their descendants will be some who will\nwin literary honours and be promoted to high offices under the State.\n\nThough Chin Chia is the protector of scholars, he is also the\nredoubtable avenger of their evil actions: his flag is saluted as a\ngood omen, but his sword is the terror of the wicked.\n\n\nThe God of War\n\nStill another patron deity of literature is the God of War. \"How,\"\nit may be asked, \"can so peaceful a people as the Chinese put so\npeaceful an occupation as literature under the patronage of so warlike\na deity as the God of War?\" But that question betrays ignorance of the\ncharacter of the Chinese Kuan Ti. He is not a cruel tyrant delighting\nin battle and the slaying of enemies: he is the god who can _avert\nwar and protect the people from its horrors_.\n\nA youth, whose name was originally Chang-sheng, afterward changed to\nShou-chang, and then to Yuen-chang, who was born near Chieh Liang,\nin Ho Tung (now the town of Chieh Chou in Shansi), and was of an\nintractable nature, having exasperated his parents, was shut up in a\nroom from which he escaped by breaking through the window. In one of\nthe neighbouring houses he heard a young lady and an old man weeping\nand lamenting. Running to the foot of the wall of the compound, he\ninquired the reason of their grief. The old man replied that though\nhis daughter was already engaged, the uncle of the local official,\nsmitten by her beauty, wished to make her his concubine. His petitions\nto the official had only been rejected with curses.\n\nBeside himself with rage, the youth seized a sword and went and killed\nboth the official and his uncle. He escaped through the T'ung Kuan, the\npass to Shensi. Having with difficulty avoided capture by the barrier\nofficials, he knelt down at the side of a brook to wash his face;\nwhen lo! his appearance was completely transformed. His complexion\nhad become reddish-grey, and he was absolutely unrecognizable. He\nthen presented himself with assurance before the officers, who asked\nhim his name. \"My name is Kuan,\" he replied. It was by that name that\nhe was thereafter known.\n\n\nThe Meat-seller's Challenge\n\nOne day he arrived at Chu-chou, a dependent sub-prefecture of Peking,\nin Chihli. There Chang Fei, a butcher, who had been selling his meat\nall the morning, at noon lowered what remained into a well, placed\nover the mouth of the well a stone weighing twenty-five pounds, and\nsaid with a sneer: \"If anyone can lift that stone and take my meat,\nI will make him a present of it!\" Kuan Yue, going up to the edge of\nthe well, lifted the stone with the same ease as he would a tile,\ntook the meat, and made off. Chang Fei pursued him, and eventually\nthe two came to blows, but no one dared to separate them. Just then\nLiu Pei, a hawker of straw shoes, arrived, interposed, and put a stop\nto the fight. The community of ideas which they found they possessed\nsoon gave rise to a firm friendship between the three men.\n\n\nThe Oath in the Peach-orchard\n\nAnother account represents Liu Pei and Chang Fei as having entered\na village inn to drink wine, when a man of gigantic stature pushing\na wheelbarrow stopped at the door to rest. As he seated himself,\nhe hailed the waiter, saying: \"Bring me some wine quickly, because\nI have to hasten to reach the town to enlist in the army.\"\n\nLiu Pei looked at this man, nine feet in height, with a beard two feet\nlong. His face was the colour of the fruit of the jujube-tree, and\nhis lips carmine. Eyebrows like sleeping silkworms shaded his phoenix\neyes, which were a scarlet red. Terrible indeed was his bearing.\n\n\"What is your name?\" asked Liu Pei. \"My family name is Kuan, my own\nname is Yue, my surname Yuen Chang,\" he replied. \"I am from the Ho Tung\ncountry. For the last five or six years I have been wandering about\nthe world as a fugitive, to escape from my pursuers, because I killed\na powerful man of my country who was oppressing the poor people. I\nhear that they are collecting a body of troops to crush the brigands,\nand I should like to join the expedition.\"\n\nChang Fei, also named Chang I Te, is described as eight feet in\nheight, with round shining eyes in a panther's head, and a pointed\nchin bristling with a tiger's beard. His voice resembled the rumbling\nof thunder. His ardour was like that of a fiery steed. He was a native\nof Cho Chuen, where he possessed some fertile farms, and was a butcher\nand wine-merchant.\n\nLiu Pei, surnamed Hsuean Te, otherwise Hsien Chu, was the third member\nof the group.\n\nThe three men went to Chang Fei's farm, and on the morrow met together\nin his peach-orchard, and sealed their friendship with an oath. Having\nprocured a black ox and a white horse, with the various accessories\nto a sacrifice, they immolated the victims, burnt the incense of\nfriendship, and after twice prostrating themselves took this oath:\n\n\"We three, Liu Pei, Kuan Yu, and Chang Fei, already united by mutual\nfriendship, although belonging to different clans, now bind ourselves\nby the union of our hearts, and join our forces in order to help each\nother in times of danger.\n\n\"We wish to pay to the State our debt of loyal citizens and give peace\nto our black-haired compatriots. We do not inquire if we were born\nin the same year, the same month, or on the same day, but we desire\nonly that the same year, the same month, and the same day may find us\nunited in death. May Heaven our King and Earth our Queen see clearly\nour hearts! If any one of us violate justice or forget benefits,\nmay Heaven and Man unite to punish him!\"\n\nThe oath having been formally taken, Liu Pei was saluted as elder\nbrother, Kuan Yue as the second, and Chang Fei as the youngest. Their\nsacrifice to Heaven and earth ended, they killed an ox and served\na feast, to which the soldiers of the district were invited to the\nnumber of three hundred or more. They all drank copiously until they\nwere intoxicated. Liu Pei enrolled the peasants; Chang Fei procured\nfor them horses and arms; and then they set out to make war on the\nYellow Turbans (Huang Chin Tsei). Kuan Yue proved himself worthy\nof the affection which Liu Pei showed him; brave and generous, he\nnever turned aside from danger. His fidelity was shown especially\non one occasion when, having been taken prisoner by Ts'ao Ts'ao,\ntogether with two of Liu Pei's wives, and having been allotted a common\nsleeping-apartment with his fellow-captives, he preserved the ladies'\nreputation and his own trustworthiness by standing all night at the\ndoor of the room with a lighted lantern in his hand.\n\nInto details of the various exploits of the three Brothers of the\nPeach-orchard we need not enter here. They are written in full in the\nbook of the _Story of the Three Kingdoms_, a romance in which every\nChinese who can read takes keen delight. Kuan Yue remained faithful to\nhis oath, even though tempted with a marquisate by the great Ts'ao\nTs'ao, but he was at length captured by Sun Ch'uean and put to death\n(A.D. 219). Long celebrated as the most renowned of China's military\nheroes, he was ennobled in A.D. 1120 as Faithful and Loyal Duke. Eight\nyears later he had conferred on him by letters patent the still more\nglorious title of Magnificent Prince and Pacificator. The Emperor Wen\n(A.D. 1330-3) of the Yuean dynasty added the appellation Warrior Prince\nand Civilizer, and, finally, the Emperor Wan Li of the Ming dynasty,\nin 1594, conferred on him the title of Faithful and Loyal Great _Ti_,\nSupporter of Heaven and Protector of the Kingdom. He thus became a god,\na _ti_, and has ever since received worship as Kuan Ti or Wu Ti, the\nGod of War. Temples (1600 State temples and thousands of smaller ones)\nerected in his honour are to be seen in all parts of the country. He\nis one of the most popular gods of China. During the last half-century\nof the Manchu Period his fame greatly increased. In 1856 he is said\nto have appeared in the heavens and successfully turned the tide of\nbattle in favour of the Imperialists. His portrait hangs in every tent,\nbut his worship is not confined to the officials and the army, for\nmany trades and professions have elected him as a patron saint. The\nsword of the public executioner used to be kept within the precincts\nof his temple, and after an execution the presiding magistrate would\nstop there to worship for fear the ghost of the criminal might follow\nhim home. He knew that the spirit would not dare to enter Kuan Ti's\npresence.\n\nThus the Chinese have no fewer than three gods of literature--perhaps\nnot too many for so literary a people. A fourth, a Taoist god, will\nbe mentioned later.\n\n\nBuddhism in China\n\nBuddhism and its mythology have formed an important part of Chinese\nthought for nearly two thousand years. The religion was brought\nto China about A.D. 65, ready-made in its Mahayanistic form, in\nconsequence of a dream of the Emperor Ming Ti (A.D. 58-76) of the\nEastern Han dynasty in or about the year 63; though some knowledge\nof Buddha and his doctrines existed as early as 217 B.C. As Buddha,\nthe chief deity of Buddhism, was a man and became a god, the religion\noriginated, like the others, in ancestor-worship. When a man dies, says\nthis religion, his other self reappears in one form or another, \"from a\nclod to a divinity.\" The way for Buddhism in China was paved by Taoism,\nand Buddhism reciprocally affected Taoism by helpful development of\nits doctrines of sanctity and immortalization. Buddhism also, as it has\nbeen well put by Dr De Groot, [17] \"contributed much to the ceremonial\nadornment of ancestor-worship. Its salvation work on behalf of the\ndead saved its place in Confucian China; for of Confucianism itself,\npiety and devotion towards parents and ancestors, and the promotion of\ntheir happiness, were the core, and, consequently, their worship with\nsacrifices and ceremonies was always a sacred duty.\" It was thus that\nit was possible for the gods of Buddhism to be introduced into China\nand to maintain their special characters and fulfil their special\nfunctions without being absorbed into or submerged by the existing\nnative religions. The result was, as we have seen, in the end a\npartnership rather than a relation of master and servant; and I say\n'in the end' because, contrary to popular belief, the Chinese have\nnot been tolerant of foreign religious faiths, and at various times\nhave persecuted Buddhism as relentlessly as they have other rivals\nto orthodox Confucianism.\n\n\nBuddha, the Law, and the Priesthood\n\nAt the head of the Buddhist gods in China we find the triad\nknown as Buddha, the Law, and the Church, or Priesthood, which are\npersonified as Shih-chia Fo (Shakya), O-mi-t'o Fo (Amita), and Ju-lai\nFo (Tathagata); otherwise Fo Pao, Fa Pao, and Seng Pao (the _San Pao_,\n'Three Precious Ones')--that is, Buddha, the prophet who came into the\nworld to teach the Law, Dharma, the Law Everlasting, and Samgha, its\nmystical body, Priesthood, or Church. Dharma is an entity underived,\ncontaining the spiritual elements and material constituents of the\nuniverse. From it the other two evolve: Buddha (Shakyamuni), the\ncreative energy, Samgha, the totality of existence and of life. To the\npeople these are three personal Buddhas, whom they worship without\nconcerning themselves about their origin. To the priests they are\nsimply the Buddha, past, present, or future. There are also several\nother of these groups or triads, ten or more, composed of different\ndeities, or sometimes containing one or two of the triad already\nnamed. Shakyamuni heads the list, having a place in at least six.\n\nThe legend of the Buddha belongs rather to Indian than to Chinese\nmythology, and is too long to be reproduced here. [18]\n\nThe principal gods of Buddhism are Jan-teng Fo, the Light-lamp\nBuddha, Mi-lo Fo (Maitreya), the expected Messiah of the Buddhists,\nO-mi-t'o Fo (Amitabha or Amita), the guide who conducts his devotees\nto the Western Paradise, Yueeh-shih Fo, the Master-physician Buddha,\nTa-shih-chih P'u-sa (Mahastama), companion of Amitabha, P'i-lu Fo\n(Vairotchana), the highest of the Threefold Embodiments, Kuan Yin,\nthe Goddess of Mercy, Ti-tsang Wang, the God of Hades, Wei-t'o\n(Viharapala), the Deva protector of the Law of Buddha and Buddhist\ntemples, the Four Diamond Kings of Heaven, and Bodhidharma, the first\nof the six Patriarchs of Eastern or Chinese Buddhism.\n\n\nDiamond Kings of Heaven\n\nOn the right and left sides of the entrance hall of Buddhist temples,\ntwo on each side, are the gigantic figures of the four great _Ssu Ta\nChin-kang_ or _T'ien-wang_, the Diamond Kings of Heaven, protectors\nor governors of the continents lying in the direction of the four\ncardinal points from Mount Sumeru, the centre of the world. They are\nfour brothers named respectively Mo-li Ch'ing (Pure), or Tseng Chang,\nMo-li Hung (Vast), or Kuang Mu, Mo-li Hai (Sea), or To Wen, and Mo-li\nShou (Age), or Ch'ih Kuo. The _Chin kuang ming_ states that they bestow\nall kinds of happiness on those who honour the Three Treasures, Buddha,\nthe Law, and the Priesthood. Kings and nations who neglect the Law\nlose their protection. They are described and represented as follows:\n\nMo-li Ch'ing, the eldest, is twenty-four feet in height, with a beard\nthe hairs of which are like copper wire. He carries a magnificent\njade ring and a spear, and always fights on foot. He has also a magic\nsword, 'Blue Cloud,' on the blade of which are engraved the characters\n_Ti, Shui, Huo, Feng_ (Earth, Water, Fire, Wind). When brandished,\nit causes a black wind, which produces tens of thousands of spears,\nwhich pierce the bodies of men and turn them to dust. The wind is\nfollowed by a fire, which fills the air with tens of thousands of\ngolden fiery serpents. A thick smoke also rises out of the ground,\nwhich blinds and burns men, none being able to escape.\n\nMo-li Hung carries in his hand an umbrella, called the Umbrella of\nChaos, formed of pearls possessed of spiritual properties. Opening\nthis marvellous implement causes the heavens and earth to be covered\nwith thick darkness, and turning it upside down produces violent\nstorms of wind and thunder and universal earthquakes.\n\nMo-li Hai holds a four-stringed guitar, the twanging of which\nsupernaturally affects the earth, water, fire, or wind. When it is\nplayed all the world listens, and the camps of the enemy take fire.\n\nMo-li Shou has two whips and a panther-skin bag, the home of a creature\nresembling a white rat, known as Hua-hu Tiao. When at large this\ncreature assumes the form of a white winged elephant, which devours\nmen. He sometimes has also a snake or other man-eating creature,\nalways ready to obey his behests.\n\n\n\nLegend of the Diamond Kings\n\nThe legend of the Four Diamond Kings given in the _Feng shen yen i_\nis as follows: At the time of the consolidation of the Chou dynasty\nin the twelfth and eleventh centuries B.C., Chiang Tzu-ya, chief\ncounsellor to Wen Wang, and General Huang Fei-hu were defending\nthe town and mountain of Hsi-ch'i. The supporters of the house of\nShang appealed to the four genii Mo, who lived at Chia-meng Kuan,\npraying them to come to their aid. They agreed, raised an army\nof 100,000 celestial soldiers, and traversing towns, fields, and\nmountains arrived in less than a day at the north gate of Hsi-ch'i,\nwhere Mo-li Ch'ing pitched his camp and entrenched his soldiers.\n\nHearing of this, Huang Fei-hu hastened to warn Chiang Tzu-ya of the\ndanger which threatened him. \"The four great generals who have just\narrived at the north gate,\" he said, \"are marvellously powerful genii,\nexperts in all the mysteries of magic and use of wonderful charms. It\nis much to be feared that we shall not be able to resist them.\"\n\nMany fierce battles ensued. At first these went in favour of the\n_Chin-kang_, thanks to their magical weapons and especially to Mo-li\nShou's Hua-hu Tiao, who terrorized the enemy by devouring their\nbravest warriors.\n\n\nHua-hu Tiao devours Yang Chien\n\nUnfortunately for the _Chin-kang_, the brute attacked and swallowed\nYang Chien, the nephew of Yue Huang. This genie, on entering the body\nof the monster, rent his heart asunder and cut him in two. As he could\ntransform himself at will, he assumed the shape of Hua-hu Tiao, and\nwent off to Mo-li Shou, who unsuspectingly put him back into his bag.\n\nThe Four Kings held a festival to celebrate their triumph, and having\ndrunk copiously gave themselves over to sleep. During the night Yang\nChien came out of the bag, with the intention of possessing himself of\nthe three magical weapons of the _Chin-kang_. But he succeeded only in\ncarrying off the umbrella of Mo-li Hung. In a subsequent engagement\nNo-cha, the son of Vadjra-pani, the God of Thunder, broke the jade\nring of Mo-li Ch'ing. Misfortune followed misfortune. The _Chin-kang_,\ndeprived of their magical weapons, began to lose heart. To complete\ntheir discomfiture, Huang T'ien Hua brought to the attack a matchless\nmagical weapon. This was a spike 7 1/2 inches long, enclosed in a\nsilk sheath, and called 'Heart-piercer.' It projected so strong a\nray of light that eyes were blinded by it.\n\nHuang T'ien Hua, hard pressed by Mo-li Ch'ing, drew the mysterious\nspike from its sheath, and hurled it at his adversary. It entered\nhis neck, and with a deep groan the giant fell dead.\n\nMo-li Hung and Mo-li Hai hastened to avenge their brother, but ere\nthey could come within striking distance of Huang Ti'en Hua his\nredoubtable spike reached their hearts, and they lay prone at his feet.\n\nThe one remaining hope for the sole survivor was in Hua-hu Tiao. Mo-li\nShou, not knowing that the creature had been slain, put his hand into\nthe bag to pull him out, whereupon Yang Chien, who had re-entered the\nbag, bit his hand off at the wrist, so that there remained nothing\nbut a stump of bone.\n\nIn this moment of intense agony Mo-li Shou fell an easy prey to Huang\nT'ien Hua, the magical spike pierced his heart, and he fell bathed\nin his blood. Thus perished the last of the _Chin-kang_.\n\n\n\nThe Three Pure Ones\n\nTurning to the gods of Taoism, we find that the triad or trinity,\nalready noted as forming the head of that hierarchy, consists of\nthree Supreme Gods, each in his own Heaven. These three Heavens,\nthe _San Ch'ing_, 'Three Pure Ones' (this name being also applied\nto the sovereigns ruling in them), were formed from the three airs,\nwhich are subdivisions of the one primordial air.\n\nThe first Heaven is Yue Ch'ing. In it reigns the first member of\nthe Taoist triad. He inhabits the Jade Mountain. The entrance to\nhis palace is named the Golden Door. He is the source of all truth,\nas the sun is the source of all light.\n\nVarious authorities give his name differently--Yuean-shih T'ien-tsun,\nor Lo Ching Hsin, and call him T'ien Pao, 'the Treasure of Heaven,'\nSome state that the name of the ruler of this first Heaven is Yue\nHuang, and in the popular mind he it is who occupies this supreme\nposition. The Three Pure Ones are above him in rank, but to him, the\nPearly Emperor, is entrusted the superintendence of the world. He has\nall the power of Heaven and earth in his hands. He is the correlative\nof Heaven, or rather Heaven itself.\n\nThe second Heaven, Shang Ch'ing, is ruled by the second person of\nthe triad, named Ling-pao T'ien-tsun, or Tao Chuen. No information is\ngiven as to his origin. He is the custodian of the sacred books. He has\nexisted from the beginning of the world. He calculates time, dividing\nit into different epochs. He occupies the upper pole of the world, and\ndetermines the movements and interaction, or regulates the relations\nof the _yin_ and the _yang_, the two great principles of nature.\n\nIn the third Heaven, T'ai Ch'ing, the Taoists place Lao Tzu, the\npromulgator of the true doctrine drawn up by Ling-pao T'ien-tsun. He\nis alternatively called Shen Pao, 'the Treasure of the Spirits,'\nand T'ai-shang Lao-chun, 'the Most Eminent Aged Ruler.' Under various\nassumed names he has appeared as the teacher of kings and emperors,\nthe reformer of successive generations.\n\nThis three-storied Taoist Heaven, or three Heavens, is the result of\nthe wish of the Taoists not to be out-rivalled by the Buddhists. For\nBuddha, the Law, and the Priesthood they substitute the _Tao_, or\nReason, the Classics, and the Priesthood.\n\nAs regards the organization of the Taoist Heavens, Yue Huang has on his\nregister the name of eight hundred Taoist divinities and a multitude\nof Immortals. These are all divided into three categories: Saints\n(_Sheng-jen_), Heroes (_Chen-jen_), and Immortals (_Hsien-jen_),\noccupying the three Heavens respectively in that order.\n\n\nThe Three Causes\n\nConnected with Taoism, but not exclusively associated with that\nreligion, is the worship of the Three Causes, the deities presiding\nover three departments of physical nature, Heaven, earth, and\nwater. They are known by various designations: _San Kuan_, 'the Three\nAgents'; _San Yuean_, 'the Three Origins'; _San Kuan Ta Ti_, 'the Three\nGreat Emperor Agents'; and _T'ai Shang San Kuan_, 'the Three Supreme\nAgents.' This worship has passed through four chief phases, as follows:\n\nThe first comprises Heaven, earth, and water, _T'ien, Ti, Shui_,\nthe sources of happiness, forgiveness of sins, and deliverance from\nevil respectively. Each of these is called King-emperor. Their names,\nwritten on labels and offered to Heaven (on a mountain), earth (by\nburial), and water (by immersion), are supposed to cure sickness. This\nidea dates from the Han dynasty, being first noted about A.D. 172.\n\nThe second, _San Yuean_ dating from A.D. 407 under the Wei dynasty,\nidentified the Three Agents with three dates of which they were\nrespectively made the patrons. The year was divided into three unequal\nparts: the first to the seventh moon; the seventh to the tenth; and\nthe tenth to the twelfth. Of these, the fifteenth day of the first,\nseventh, and tenth moons respectively became the three principal dates\nof these periods. Thus the Agent of Heaven became the principal patron\nof the first division, honoured on the fifteenth day of the first moon,\nand so on.\n\nThe third phase, _San Kuan_, resulted from the first two being found\ntoo complicated for popular favour. The _San Kuan_ were the three\nsons of a man, Ch'en Tzu-ch'un, who was so handsome and intelligent\nthat the three daughters of Lung Wang, the Dragon-king, fell in\nlove with him and went to live with him. The eldest girl was the\nmother of the Superior Cause, the second of the Medium Cause, and the\nthird of the Inferior Cause. All these were gifted with supernatural\npowers. Yuean-shih T'ien-tsun canonized them as the Three Great Emperor\nAgents of Heaven, earth, and water, governors of all beings, devils\nor gods, in the three regions of the universe. As in the first phase,\nthe _T'ien Kuan_ confers happiness, the _Ti Kuan_ grants remission\nof sins, and the _Shui Kuan_ delivers from evil or misfortune.\n\nThe fourth phase consisted simply in the substitution by the priests\nfor the abstract or time-principles of the three great sovereigns\nof ancient times, Yao, Shun, and Yue. The _literati_, proud of the\napotheosis of their ancient rulers, hastened to offer incense to them,\nand temples, _San Yuean Kung_, arose in very many parts of the Empire.\n\nA variation of this phase is the canonization, with the title of _San\nYuean_ or Three Causes, of _Wu-k'o San Chen Chuen_, 'the Three True\nSovereigns, Guests of the Kingdom of Wu.' They were three Censors\nwho lived in the reign of King Li (Li Wang, 878-841 B.C.) of the Chou\ndynasty. Leaving the service of the Chou on account of Li's dissolute\nliving, they went to live in Wu, and brought victory to that state in\nits war with the Ch'u State, then returned to their own country, and\nbecame pillars of the Chou State under Li's successor. They appeared\nto protect the Emperor Chen Tsung when he was offering the _Feng-shan_\nsacrifices on T'ai Shan in A.D. 1008, on which occasion they were\ncanonized with the titles of Superior, Medium, and Inferior Causes,\nas before, conferring upon them the regencies of Heaven, earth,\nand water respectively.\n\n\nYuean-shih T'ien-tsun\n\nYuean-shih T'ien-tsun, or the First Cause, the Highest in Heaven,\ngenerally placed at the head of the Taoist triad, is said never\nto have existed but in the fertile imagination of the Lao Tzuist\nsectarians. According to them Yuean-shih T'ien-tsun had neither origin\nnor master, but is himself the cause of all beings, which is why he\nis called the First Cause.\n\nAs first member of the triad, and sovereign ruler of the First Heaven,\nYue Ch'ing, where reign the saints, he is raised in rank above all\nthe other gods. The name assigned to him is Lo Ching Hsin. He was\nborn before all beginnings; his substance is imperishable; it is\nformed essentially of uncreated air, air _a se_, invisible and without\nperceptible limits. No one has been able to penetrate to the beginnings\nof his existence. The source of all truth, he at each renovation of\nthe worlds--that is, at each new _kalpa_--gives out the mysterious\ndoctrine which confers immortality. All who reach this knowledge\nattain by degrees to life eternal, become refined like the spirits,\nor instantly become Immortals, even while upon earth.\n\nOriginally, Yuean-shih T'ien-tsun was not a member of the Taoist\ntriad. He resided above the Three Heavens, above the Three Pure\nOnes, surviving the destructions and renovations of the universe,\nas an immovable rock in the midst of a stormy sea. He set the stars\nin motion, and caused the planets to revolve. The chief of his secret\npolice was Tsao Chuen, the Kitchen-god, who rendered to him an account\nof the good and evil deeds of each family. His executive agent was\nLei Tsu, the God of Thunder, and his subordinates. The seven stars\nof the North Pole were the palace of his ministers, whose offices\nwere on the various sacred mountains. Nowadays, however, Yuean-shih\nT'ien-tsun is generally neglected for Yue Huang.\n\n\nAn Avatar of P'an Ku\n\nAccording to the tradition of Chin Hung, the God of T'ai Shan\nof the fifth generation from P'an Ku, this being, then called\nYuean-shih T'ien-wang, was an avatar of P'an Ku. It came about in\nthis wise. In remote ages there lived on the mountains an old man,\nYuean-shih T'ien-wang, who used to sit on a rock and preach to the\nmultitude. He spoke of the highest antiquity as if from personal\nexperience. When Chin Hung asked him where he lived, he just raised\nhis hand toward Heaven, iridescent clouds enveloped his body, and he\nreplied: \"Whoso wishes to know where I dwell must rise to impenetrable\nheights.\" \"But how,\" said Chin Hung, \"was he to be found in this\nimmense emptiness?\" Two genii, Ch'ih Ching-tzu and Huang Lao, then\ndescended on the summit of T'ai Shan and said: \"Let us go and visit\nthis Yuean-shih. To do so, we must cross the boundaries of the universe\nand pass beyond the farthest stars.\" Chin Hung begged them to give\nhim their instructions, to which he listened attentively. They then\nascended the highest of the sacred peaks, and thence mounted into the\nheavens, calling to him from the misty heights: \"If you wish to know\nthe origin of Yuean-shih, you must pass beyond the confines of Heaven\nand earth, because he lives beyond the limits of the worlds. You must\nascend and ascend until you reach the sphere of nothingness and of\nbeing, in the plains of the luminous shadows.\"\n\nHaving reached these ethereal heights, the two genii saw a bright\nlight, and Hsuean-hsuean Shang-jen appeared before them. The two\ngenii bowed to do him homage and to express their gratitude. \"You\ncannot better show your gratitude,\" he replied, \"than by making my\ndoctrine known among men. You desire,\" he added, \"to know the history\nof Yuean-shih. I will tell it you. When P'an Ku had completed his\nwork in the primitive Chaos, his spirit left its mortal envelope\nand found itself tossed about in empty space without any fixed\nsupport. 'I must,' it said, 'get reborn in visible form; until I can\ngo through a new birth I shall remain empty and unsettled,' His soul,\ncarried on the wings of the wind, reached Fu-yue T'ai. There it saw\na saintly lady named T'ai Yuean, forty years of age, still a virgin,\nand living alone on Mount Ts'u-o. Air and variegated clouds were\nthe sole nourishment of her vital spirits. An hermaphrodite, at\nonce both the active and the passive principle, she daily scaled the\nhighest peak of the mountain to gather there the flowery quintessence\nof the sun and the moon. P'an Ku, captivated by her virgin purity,\ntook advantage of a moment when she was breathing to enter her mouth\nin the form of a ray of light. She was _enceinte_ for twelve years,\nat the end of which period the fruit of her womb came out through her\nspinal column. From its first moment the child could walk and speak,\nand its body was surrounded by a five-coloured cloud. The newly-born\ntook the name of Yuean-shih T'ien-wang, and his mother was generally\nknown as T'ai-yuean Sheng-mu, 'the Holy Mother of the First Cause.'\"\n\n\nYue Huang\n\nYue Huang means 'the Jade Emperor,' or 'the Pure August One,' jade\nsymbolizing purity. He is also known by the name Yue-huang Shang-ti,\n'the Pure August Emperor on High.'\n\nThe history of this deity, who later received many honorific titles\nand became the most popular god, a very Chinese Jupiter, seems to be\nsomewhat as follows: The Emperor Ch'eng Tsung of the Sung dynasty\nhaving been obliged in A.D. 1005 to sign a disgraceful peace with\nthe Tunguses or Kitans, the dynasty was in danger of losing the\nsupport of the nation. In order to hoodwink the people the Emperor\nconstituted himself a seer, and announced with great pomp that he\nwas in direct communication with the gods of Heaven. In doing this\nhe was following the advice of his crafty and unreliable minister\nWang Ch'in-jo, who had often tried to persuade him that the pretended\nrevelations attributed to Fu Hsi, Yue Wang, and others were only pure\ninventions to induce obedience. The Emperor, having studied his part\nwell, assembled his ministers in the tenth moon of the year 1012,\nand made to them the following declaration: \"In a dream I had a visit\nfrom an Immortal, who brought me a letter from Yue Huang, the purport\nof which was as follows: 'I have already sent you by your ancestor\nChao [T'ai Tsu] two celestial missives. Now I am going to send him in\nperson to visit you.'\" A little while after his ancestor T'ai Tsu,\nthe founder of the dynasty, came according to Yue Huang's promise,\nand Ch'eng Tsung hastened to inform his ministers of it. This is the\norigin of Yue Huang. He was born of a fraud, and came ready-made from\nthe brain of an emperor.\n\n\nThe Cask of Pearls\n\nFearing to be admonished for the fraud by another of his ministers,\nthe scholar Wang Tan, the Emperor resolved to put a golden gag in his\nmouth. So one day, having invited him to a banquet, he overwhelmed\nhim with flattery and made him drunk with good wine. \"I would like\nthe members of your family also to taste this wine,\" he added, \"so I\nam making you a present of a cask of it.\" When Wang Tan returned home,\nhe found the cask filled with precious pearls. Out of gratitude to the\nEmperor he kept silent as to the fraud, and made no further opposition\nto his plans, but when on his death-bed he asked that his head be\nshaved like a priest's and that he be clothed in priestly robes so\nthat he might expiate his crime of feebleness before the Emperor.\n\nK'ang Hsi, the great Emperor of the Ch'ing dynasty, who had already\ndeclared that if it is wrong to impute deceit to a man it is still\nmore reprehensible to impute a fraud to Heaven, stigmatized him as\nfollows: \"Wang Tan committed two faults: the first was in showing\nhimself a vile flatterer of his Prince during his life; the second\nwas in becoming a worshipper of Buddha at his death.\"\n\n\nThe Legend of Yue Huang\n\nSo much for historical record. The legend of Yue Huang relates that in\nancient times there existed a kingdom named Kuang Yen Miao Lo Kuo,\nwhose king was Ching Te, his queen being called Pao Yueeh. Though\ngetting on in years, the latter had no son. The Taoist priests were\nsummoned by edict to the palace to perform their rites. They recited\nprayers with the object of obtaining an heir to the throne. During\nthe ensuing night the Queen had a vision. Lao Chuen appeared to her,\nriding a dragon, and carrying a male child in his arms. He floated down\nthrough the air in her direction. The Queen begged him to give her the\nchild as an heir to the throne. \"I am quite willing,\" he said. \"Here\nit is.\" She fell on her knees and thanked him. On waking she found\nherself _enceinte_. At the end of a year the Prince was born. From\nan early age he showed himself compassionate and generous to the\npoor. On the death of his father he ascended the throne, but after\nreigning only a few days abdicated in favour of his chief minister,\nand became a hermit at P'u-ming, in Shensi, and also on Mount Hsiu Yen,\nin Yuennan. Having attained to perfection, he passed the rest of his\ndays in curing sickness and saving life; and it was in the exercise\nof these charitable deeds that he died. The emperors Ch'eng Tsung\nand Hui Tsung, of the Sung dynasty, loaded him with all the various\ntitles associated with his name at the present day.\n\nBoth Buddhists and Taoists claim him as their own, the former\nidentifying him with Indra, in which case Yue Huang is a Buddhist deity\nincorporated into the Taoist pantheon. He has also been taken to be\nthe subject of a 'nature myth.' The Emperor Ching Te, his father,\nis the sun, the Queen Pao Yueeh the moon, and the marriage symbolizes\nthe rebirth of the vivifying power which clothes nature with green\nplants and beautiful flowers.\n\n\nT'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu\n\nIn modern Taoism T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu is regarded as the first of\nthe Patriarchs and one of the most powerful genii of the sect. His\nmaster was Hung-chuen Lao-tsu. He wore a red robe embroidered with\nwhite cranes, and rode a _k'uei niu_, a monster resembling a buffalo,\nwith one long horn like a unicorn. His palace, the Pi Yu Kung, was\nsituated on Mount Tzu Chih Yai.\n\nThis genie took the part of Chou Wang and helped him to resist Wu\nWang's armies. First, he sent his disciple To-pao Tao-jen to Chieh-p'ai\nKuan. He gave him four precious swords and the plan of a fort which\nhe was to construct and to name Chu-hsien Chen, 'the Citadel of all\nthe Immortals.'\n\nTo-pao Tao-jen carried out his orders, but he had to fight a battle\nwith Kuang Ch'eng-tzu, and the latter, armed with a celestial seal,\nstruck his adversary so hard that he fell to the ground and had to\ntake refuge in flight.\n\nT'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu came to the defence of his disciple and to\nrestore the morale of his forces. Unfortunately, a posse of gods\narrived to aid Wu Wang's powerful general, Chiang Tzu-ya. The first\nwho attacked T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was Lao Tzu, who struck him several\ntimes with his stick. Then came Chun T'i, armed with his cane. The\nbuffalo of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu stamped him under foot, and Chun\nT'i was thrown to the earth, and only just had time to rise quickly\nand mount into the air amid a great cloud of dust.\n\nThere could be no doubt that the fight was going against T'ung-t'ien\nChiao-chu; to complete his discomfiture Jan-teng Tao-jen cleft the air\nand fell upon him unexpectedly. With a violent blow of his 'Fix-sea'\nstaff he cast him down and compelled him to give up the struggle.\n\nT'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu then prepared plans for a new fortified camp\nbeyond T'ung Kuan, and tried to take the offensive again, but again\nLao Tzu stopped him with a blow of his stick. Yuean-shih T'ien-tsun\nwounded his shoulder with his precious stone Ju-i, and Chun-t'i\nTao-jen waved his 'Branch of the Seven Virtues.' Immediately the\nmagic sword of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was reduced to splinters, and\nhe saved himself only by flight.\n\nHung-chuen Lao-tsu, the master of these three genii, seeing his three\nbeloved disciples in the _melee_, resolved to make peace between\nthem. He assembled all three in a tent in Chiang Tzu-ya's camp, made\nthem kneel before him, then reproached T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu at length\nfor having taken the part of the tyrant Chou, and recommended them\nin future to live in harmony. After finishing his speech, he produced\nthree pills, and ordered each of the genii to swallow one. When they\nhad done so, Hung-chuen Lao-tsu said to them: \"I have given you these\npills to ensure an inviolable truce among you. Know that the first\nwho entertains a thought of discord in his heart will find that the\npill will explode in his stomach and cause his instant death.\"\n\nHung-chuen Lao-tsu then took T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu away with him on\nhis cloud to Heaven.\n\n\n\nImmortals, Heroes, Saints\n\nAn Immortal, according to Taoist lore, is a solitary man of the\nmountains. He appears to die, but does not. After 'death' his body\nretains all the qualities of the living. The body or corpse is for\nhim only a means of transition, a phase of metamorphosis--a cocoon\nor chrysalis, the temporary abode of the butterfly.\n\nTo reach this state a hygienic regimen both of the body and mind must\nbe observed. All luxury, greed, and ambition must be avoided. But\nnegation is not enough. In the system of nourishment all the elements\nwhich strengthen the essence of the constituent _yin_ and _yang_\nprinciples must be found by means of medicine, chemistry, gymnastic\nexercises, etc. When the maximum vital force has been acquired the\nmeans of preserving it and keeping it from the attacks of death\nand disease must be discovered; in a word, he must spiritualize\nhimself--render himself completely independent of matter. All\nthe experiments have for their object the storing in the pills of\nimmortality the elements necessary for the development of the vital\nforce and for the constitution of a new spiritual and super-humanized\nbeing. In this ascending perfection there are several grades:\n\n(1) The Immortal (_Hsien_). The first stage consists in bringing\nabout the birth of the superhuman in the ascetic's person, which\nreaching perfection leaves the earthly body, like the grasshopper\nits sheath. This first stage attained, the Immortal travels at will\nthroughout the universe, enjoys all the advantages of perfect health\nwithout dreading disease or death, eats and drinks copiously--nothing\nis wanting to complete his happiness.\n\n(2) The Perfect Man, or Hero (_Chen-jen_). The second stage is a higher\none. The whole body is spiritualized. It has become so subtile, so\nspiritual, that it can fly in the air. Borne on the wings of the wind,\nseated on the clouds of Heaven, it travels from one world to another\nand fixes its habitation in the stars. It is freed from all laws of\nmatter, but is, however, not completely changed into pure spirit.\n\n(3) The Saint (_Sheng-jen_). The third stage is that of the superhuman\nbeings or saints. They are those who have attained to extraordinary\nintelligence and virtue.\n\n\nThe God of the Immortals\n\nMu Kung or Tung Wang Kung, the God of the Immortals, was also called\nI Chuen Ming and Yue Huang Chuen, the Prince Yue Huang.\n\nThe primitive vapour congealed, remained inactive for a time, and\nthen produced living beings, beginning with the formation of Mu Kung,\nthe purest substance of the Eastern Air, and sovereign of the active\nmale principle _yang_ and of all the countries of the East. His\npalace is in the misty heavens, violet clouds form its dome, blue\nclouds its walls. Hsien T'ung, 'the Immortal Youth,' and Yue Nue,\n'the Jade Maiden,' are his servants. He keeps the register of all\nthe Immortals, male and female.\n\n\nHsi Wang Mu\n\nHsi Wang Mu was formed of the pure quintessence of the Western Air,\nin the legendary continent of Shen Chou. She is often called the\nGolden Mother of the Tortoise.\n\nHer family name is variously given as Hou, Yang, and Ho. Her own name\nwas Hui, and first name Wan-chin. She had nine sons and twenty-four\ndaughters.\n\nAs Mu Kung, formed of the Eastern Air, is the active principle of\nthe male air and sovereign of the Eastern Air, so Hsi Wang Mu, born\nof the Western Air, is the passive or female principle (_yin_) and\nsovereign of the Western Air. These two principles, co-operating,\nengender Heaven and earth and all the beings of the universe, and\nthus become the two principles of life and of the subsistence of all\nthat exists. She is the head of the troop of genii dwelling on the\nK'un-lun Mountains (the Taoist equivalent of the Buddhist Sumeru), and\nfrom time to time holds intercourse with favoured imperial votaries.\n\n\nThe Feast of Peaches\n\nHsi Wang Mu's palace is situated in the high mountains of the snowy\nK'un-lun. It is 1000 _li_ (about 333 miles) in circuit; a rampart of\nmassive gold surrounds its battlements of precious stones. Its right\nwing rises on the edge of the Kingfishers' River. It is the usual\nabode of the Immortals, who are divided into seven special categories\naccording to the colour of their garments--red, blue, black, violet,\nyellow, green, and 'nature-colour.' There is a marvellous fountain\nbuilt of precious stones, where the periodical banquet of the\nImmortals is held. This feast is called P'an-t'ao Hui, 'the Feast of\nPeaches.' It takes place on the borders of the Yao Ch'ih, Lake of Gems,\nand is attended by both male and female Immortals. Besides several\nsuperfine meats, they are served with bears' paws, monkeys' lips,\ndragons' liver, phoenix marrow, and peaches gathered in the orchard,\nendowed with the mystic virtue of conferring longevity on all who\nhave the good luck to taste them. It was by these peaches that the\ndate of the banquet was fixed. The tree put forth leaves once every\nthree thousand years, and it required three thousand years after that\nfor the fruit to ripen. These were Hsi Wang Mu's birthdays, when all\nthe Immortals assembled for the great feast, \"the occasion being more\nfestive than solemn, for there was music on invisible instruments,\nand songs not from mortal tongues.\"\n\n\nThe First Taoist Pope\n\nChang Tao-ling, the first Taoist pope, was born in A.D. 35, in the\nreign of the Emperor Kuang Wu Ti of the Han dynasty. His birthplace\nis variously given as the T'ien-mu Shan, 'Eye of Heaven Mountain,'\nin Lin-an Hsien, in Chekiang, and Feng-yang Fu, in Anhui. He devoted\nhimself wholly to study and meditation, declining all offers to enter\nthe service of the State. He preferred to take up his abode in the\nmountains of Western China, where he persevered in the study of alchemy\nand in cultivating the virtues of purity and mental abstraction. From\nthe hands of Lao Tzu he received supernaturally a mystic treatise,\nby following the instructions in which he was successful in his search\nfor the elixir of life.\n\nOne day when he was engaged in experimenting with the 'Dragon-tiger\nelixir' a spiritual being appeared to him and said: \"On Po-sung\nMountain is a stone house in which are concealed the writings of the\nThree Emperors of antiquity and a canonical work. By obtaining these\nyou may ascend to Heaven, if you undergo the course of discipline\nthey prescribe.\"\n\nChang Tao-ling found these works, and by means of them obtained\nthe power of flying, of hearing distant sounds, and of leaving\nhis body. After going through a thousand days of discipline, and\nreceiving instruction from a goddess, who taught him to walk about\namong the stars, he proceeded to fight with the king of the demons,\nto divide mountains and seas, and to command the wind and thunder. All\nthe demons fled before him. On account of the prodigious slaughter of\ndemons by this hero the wind and thunder were reduced to subjection,\nand various divinities came with eager haste to acknowledge their\nfaults. In nine years he gained the power to ascend to Heaven.\n\n\nThe Founder of Modern Taoism\n\nChang Tao-ling may rightly be considered as the true founder of modern\nTaoism. The recipes for the pills of immortality contained in the\nmysterious books, and the invention of talismans for the cure of all\nsorts of maladies, not only exalted him to the high position he has\nsince occupied in the minds of his numerous disciples, but enabled\nthem in turn to exploit successfully this new source of power and\nwealth. From that time the Taoist sect began to specialize in the art\nof healing. Protecting or curing talismans bearing the Master's seal\nwere purchased for enormous sums. It is thus seen that he was after\nall a deceiver of the people, and unbelievers or rival partisans of\nother sects have dubbed him a 'rice-thief'--which perhaps he was.\n\nHe is generally represented as clothed in richly decorated garments,\nbrandishing with his right hand his magic sword, holding in his\nleft a cup containing the draught of immortality, and riding a tiger\nwhich in one paw grasps his magic seal and with the others tramples\ndown the five venomous creatures: lizard, snake, spider, toad,\nand centipede. Pictures of him with these accessories are pasted\nup in houses on the fifth day of the fifth moon to forfend calamity\nand sickness.\n\n\n\nThe Peach-gathering\n\nIt is related of him that, not wishing to ascend to Heaven too soon,\nhe partook of only half of the pill of immortality, dividing the\nother half among several of his admirers, and that he had at least two\nselves or personalities, one of which used to disport itself in a boat\non a small lake in front of his house. The other self would receive\nhis visitors, entertaining them with food and drink and instructive\nconversation. On one occasion this self said to them: \"You are unable\nto quit the world altogether as I can, but by imitating my example in\nthe matter of family relations you could procure a medicine which would\nprolong your lives by several centuries. I have given the crucible\nin which Huang Ti prepared the draught of immortality to my disciple\nWang Ch'ang. Later on, a man will come from the East, who also will\nmake use of it. He will arrive on the seventh day of the first moon.\"\n\nExactly on that day there arrived from the East a man named Chao\nSheng, who was the person indicated by Chang Tao-ling. He was\nrecognized by a manifestation of himself he had caused to appear\nin advance of his coming. Chang then led all his disciples, to the\nnumber of three hundred, to the highest peak of the Yuen-t'ai. Below\nthem they saw a peach-tree growing near a pointed rock, stretching\nout its branches like arms above a fathomless abyss. It was a large\ntree, covered with ripe fruit. Chang said to his disciples: \"I will\ncommunicate a spiritual formula to the one among you who will dare\nto gather the fruit of that tree.\" They all leaned over to look,\nbut each declared the feat to be impossible. Chao Sheng alone had\nthe courage to rush out to the point of the rock and up the tree\nstretching out into space. With firm foot he stood and gathered the\npeaches, placing them in the folds of his cloak, as many as it would\nhold, but when he wished to climb back up the precipitous slope,\nhis hands slipped on the smooth rock, and all his attempts were in\nvain. Accordingly, he threw the peaches, three hundred and two in all,\none by one up to Chang Tao-ling, who distributed them. Each disciple\nate one, as also did Chang, who reserved the remaining one for Chao\nSheng, whom he helped to climb up again. To do this Chang extended\nhis arm to a length of thirty feet, all present marvelling at the\nmiracle. After Chao had eaten his peach Chang stood on the edge of\nthe precipice, and said with a laugh: \"Chao Sheng was brave enough\nto climb out to that tree and his foot never tripped. I too will make\nthe attempt. If I succeed I will have a big peach as a reward.\" Having\nspoken thus, he leapt into space, and alighted in the branches of the\npeach-tree. Wang Ch'ang and Chao Sheng also jumped into the tree and\nstood one on each side of him. There Chang communicated to them the\nmysterious formula. Three days later they returned to their homes;\nthen, having made final arrangements, they repaired once more to the\nmountain peak, whence, in the presence of the other disciples, who\nfollowed them with their eyes until they had completely disappeared\nfrom view, all three ascended to Heaven in broad daylight.\n\n\nChang Tao-ling's Great Power\n\nThe name of Chang Tao-ling, the Heavenly Teacher, is a household\nword in China. He is on earth the Vicegerent of the Pearly Emperor\nin Heaven, and the Commander-in-Chief of the hosts of Taoism. He, the\nchief of the wizards, the 'true [_i.e._ ideal] man,' as he is called,\nwields an immense spiritual power throughout the land. The present\npope boasts of an unbroken line for three-score generations. His\nfamily obtained possession of the Dragon-tiger Mountain in Kiangsi\nabout A.D. 1000. \"This personage,\" says a pre-Republican writer,\n\"assumes a state which mimics the imperial. He confers buttons like\nan emperor. Priests come to him from various cities and temples to\nreceive promotion, whom he invests with titles and presents with\nseals of office.\"\n\n\nKings of Heaven\n\nThe Four Kings of Heaven, Ssu Ta T'ien-wang, reside on Mount Sumeru\n(Hsue-mi Shan), the centre of the universe. It is 3,360,000 _li_--that\nis, about a million miles--high. [19] Its eastern slope is of gold, its\nwestern of silver, its south-eastern of crystal, and its north-eastern\nof agate. The Four Kings appear to be the Taoist reflection of the\nfour _Chin-kang_ of Buddhism already noticed. Their names are Li,\nMa, Chao, and Wen. They are represented as holding a pagoda, sword,\ntwo swords, and spiked club respectively. Their worship appears to\nbe due to their auspicious appearance and aid on various critical\noccasions in the dynastic history of the T'ang and Sung Periods.\n\n\nT'ai I\n\nTemples are found in various parts dedicated to T'ai I, the Great\nOne, or Great Unity. When Emperor Wu Ti (140-86 B.C.) of the Han\ndynasty was in search of the secret of immortality, and various\nsuggestions had proved unsatisfactory, a Taoist priest, Miao Chi,\ntold the Emperor that his want of success was due to his omission to\nsacrifice to T'ai I, the first of the celestial spirits, quoting the\nclassical precedent of antiquity found in the _Book of History_. The\nEmperor, believing his word, ordered the Grand Master of Sacrifices to\nre-establish this worship at the capital. He followed carefully the\nprescriptions of Miao Chi. This enraged the _literati_, who resolved\nto ruin him. One day, when the Emperor was about to drink one of\nhis potions, one of the chief courtiers seized the cup and drank the\ncontents himself. The Emperor was about to have him slain, when he\nsaid: \"Your Majesty's order is unnecessary; if the potion confers\nimmortality, I cannot be killed; if, on the other hand, it does not,\nyour Majesty should recompense me for disproving the pretensions of\nthe Taoist priest.\" The Emperor, however, was not convinced.\n\nOne account represents T'ai I as having lived in the time of\nShen Nung, the Divine Husbandman, who visited him to consult with\nhim on the subjects of diseases and fortune. He was Hsien Yuean's\nmedical preceptor. His medical knowledge was handed down to future\ngenerations. He was one of those who, with the Immortals, was invited\nto the great Peach Assembly of the Western Royal Mother.\n\nAs the spirit of the star T'ai I he resides in the Eastern Palace,\nlistening for the cries of sufferers in order to save them. For this\npurpose he assumes numberless forms in various regions. With a boat\nof lotus-flowers of nine colours he ferries men over to the shore of\nsalvation. Holding in his hand a willow-branch, he scatters from it\nthe dew of the doctrine.\n\nT'ai I is variously represented as the Ruler of the Five Celestial\nSovereigns, Cosmic Matter before it congealed into concrete shapes, the\nTriune Spirit of Heaven, earth, and T'ai I as three separate entities,\nan unknown Spirit, the Spirit of the Pole Star, etc., but practically\nthe Taoists confine their T'ai I to T'ai-i Chen-jen, in which Perfect\nMan they personify the abstract philosophical notions. [20]\n\n\nGoddess of the North Star\n\nTou Mu, the Bushel Mother, or Goddess of the North Star, worshipped\nby both Buddhists and Taoists, is the Indian Maritchi, and was made a\nstellar divinity by the Taoists. She is said to have been the mother\nof the nine Jen Huang or Human Sovereigns of fabulous antiquity,\nwho succeeded the lines of Celestial and Terrestrial Sovereigns. She\noccupies in the Taoist religion the same relative position as Kuan\nYin, who may be said to be the heart of Buddhism. Having attained to\na profound knowledge of celestial mysteries, she shone with heavenly\nlight, could cross the seas, and pass from the sun to the moon. She\nalso had a kind heart for the sufferings of humanity. The King of Chou\nYue, in the north, married her on hearing of her many virtues. They\nhad nine sons. Yuean-shih T'ien-tsun came to earth to invite her, her\nhusband, and nine sons to enjoy the delights of Heaven. He placed\nher in the palace Tou Shu, the Pivot of the Pole, because all the\nother stars revolve round it, and gave her the title of Queen of the\nDoctrine of Primitive Heaven. Her nine sons have their palaces in\nthe neighbouring stars.\n\nTou Mu wears the Buddhist crown, is seated on a lotus throne, has\nthree eyes, eighteen arms, and holds various precious objects in her\nnumerous hands, such as a bow, spear, sword, flag, dragon's head,\npagoda, five chariots, sun's disk, moon's disk, etc. She has control\nof the books of life and death, and all who wish to prolong their\ndays worship at her shrine. Her devotees abstain from animal food on\nthe third and twenty-seventh day of every month.\n\nOf her sons, two are the Northern and Southern Bushels; the latter,\ndressed in red, rules birth; the former, in white, rules death. \"A\nyoung Esau once found them on the South Mountain, under a tree,\nplaying chess, and by an offer of venison his lease of life was\nextended from nineteen to ninety-nine years.\"\n\n\nSnorter and Blower\n\nAt the time of the overthrow of the Shang and establishment of the Chou\ndynasty in 1122 B.C. there lived two marshals, Cheng Lung and Ch'en\nCh'i. These were Heng and Ha, the Snorter and Blower respectively.\n\nThe former was the chief superintendent of supplies for the armies of\nthe tyrant emperor Chou, the Nero of China. The latter was in charge\nof the victualling department of the same army.\n\nFrom his master, Tu O, the celebrated Taoist magician of the K'un-lun\nMountains, Heng acquired a marvellous power. When he snorted, his\nnostrils, with a sound like that of a bell, emitted two white columns\nof light, which destroyed his enemies, body and soul. Thus through him\nthe Chou gained numerous victories. But one day he was captured, bound,\nand taken to the general of Chou. His life was spared, and he was\nmade general superintendent of army stores as well as generalissimo\nof five army corps. Later on he found himself face to face with the\nBlower. The latter had learnt from the magician how to store in his\nchest a supply of yellow gas which, when he blew it out, annihilated\nanyone whom it struck. By this means he caused large gaps to be made\nin the ranks of the enemy.\n\nBeing opposed to each other, the one snorting out great streaks of\nwhite light, the other blowing streams of yellow gas, the combat\ncontinued until the Blower was wounded in the shoulder by No-cha,\nof the army of Chou, and pierced in the stomach with a spear by Huang\nFei-hu, Yellow Flying Tiger.\n\nThe Snorter in turn was slain in this fight by Marshal Chin Ta-sheng,\n'Golden Big Pint,' who was an ox-spirit and endowed with the mysterious\npower of producing in his entrails the celebrated _niu huang_,\nox-yellow, or bezoar. Facing the Snorter, he spat in his face, with\na noise like thunder, a piece of bezoar as large as a rice-bowl. It\nstruck him on the nose and split his nostrils. He fell to the earth,\nand was immediately cut in two by a blow from his victor's sword.\n\nAfter the Chou dynasty had been definitely established Chiang Tzu-ya\ncanonized the two marshals Heng and Ha, and conferred on them the\noffices of guardians of the Buddhist temple gates, where their gigantic\nimages may be seen.\n\n\nBlue Dragon and White Tiger\n\nThe functions discharged by Heng and Ha at the gates of Buddhist\ntemples are in Taoist temples discharged by Blue Dragon and White\nTiger.\n\nThe former, the Spirit of the Blue Dragon Star, was Teng Chiu-kung,\none of the chief generals of the last emperor of the Yin dynasty. He\nhad a son named Teng Hsiu, and a daughter named Ch'an-yue.\n\nThe army of Teng Chiu-kung was camped at San-shan Kuan, when he\nreceived orders to proceed to the battle then taking place at Hsi\nCh'i. There, in standing up to No-cha and Huang Fei-hu, he had his\nleft arm broken by the former's magic bracelet, but, fortunately for\nhim, his subordinate, T'u Hsing-sun, a renowned magician, gave him\na remedy which quickly healed the fracture.\n\nHis daughter then came on the scene to avenge her father. She had a\nmagic weapon, the Five-fire Stone, which she hurled full in the face\nof Yang Chien. But the Immortal was not wounded; on the other hand,\nhis celestial dog jumped at Ch'an-yue and bit her neck, so that she\nwas obliged to flee. T'u Hsing-sun, however, healed the wound.\n\nAfter a banquet, Teng Chiu-kung promised his daughter in marriage to\nT'u Hsing-sun if he would gain him the victory at Hsi Ch'i. Chiang\nTzu-ya then persuaded T'u's magic master, Chue Liu-sun, to call his\ndisciple over to his camp, where he asked him why he was fighting\nagainst the new dynasty. \"Because,\" he replied, \"Chiu-kung has promised\nme his daughter in marriage as a reward of success.\" Chiang Tzu-ya\nthereupon promised to obtain the bride, and sent a force to seize\nher. As a result of the fighting that ensued, Chiu-kung was beaten,\nand retreated in confusion, leaving Ch'an-yue in the hands of the\nvictors. During the next few days the marriage was celebrated with\ngreat ceremony in the victor's camp. According to custom, the bride\nreturned for some days to her father's house, and while there she\nearnestly exhorted Chiu-kung to submit. Following her advice, he went\nover to Chiang Tzu-ya's party.\n\nIn the ensuing battles he fought valiantly on the side of his former\nenemy, and killed many famous warriors, but he was eventually attacked\nby the Blower, from whose mouth a column of yellow gas struck him,\nthrowing him from his steed. He was made prisoner, and executed by\norder of General Ch'iu Yin. Chiang Tzu-ya conferred on him the kingdom\nof the Blue Dragon Star.\n\nThe Spirit of the White Tiger Star is Yin Ch'eng-hsiu. His father,\nYin P'o-pai, a high courtier of the tyrant Chou Wang, was sent to\nnegotiate peace with Chiang Tzu-ya, but was seized and put to death by\nMarquis Chiang Wen-huan. His son, attempting to avenge his father's\nmurder, was pierced by a spear, and his head was cut off and carried\nin triumph to Chiang Tzu-ya.\n\nAs compensation he was, though somewhat tardily, canonized as the\nSpirit of the White Tiger Star.\n\n\nApotheosized Philosophers\n\nThe philosophers Lieh Tzu, Huai-nan Tzu, Chuang Tzu, Mo Tzu, etc.,\nhave also been apotheosized. Nothing very remarkable is related\nof them. Most of them had several reincarnations and possessed\nsupernatural powers. The second, who was a king, when taken by\nthe Eight Immortals to the genii's Heaven forgot now and then to\naddress them as superiors, and but for their intercession with\nYue Ti, the Pearly Emperor, would have been reincarnated. In order\nto humiliate himself, he thereafter called himself Huai-nan Tzu,\n'the Sage of the South of the Huai.' The third, Chuang Tzu, Chuang\nSheng, or Chuang Chou, was a disciple of Lao Tzu. Chuang Tzu was in\nthe habit of sleeping during the day, and at night would transform\nhimself into a butterfly, which fluttered gaily over the flowers in\nthe garden. On waking, he would still feel the sensation of flying in\nhis shoulders. On asking Lao Tzu the reason for this, he was told:\n\"Formerly you were a white butterfly which, having partaken of the\nquintessence of flowers and of the _yin_ and the _yang_, should have\nbeen immortalized; but one day you stole some peaches and flowers in\nWang Mu Niang-niang's garden. The guardian of the garden slew you,\nand that is how you came to be reincarnated.\" At this time he was\nfifty years of age.\n\n\nFanning the Grave\n\nOne of the tales associated with him describes how he saw a young\nwoman in mourning vigorously fanning a newly made grave. On his asking\nher the reason of this strange conduct, she replied: \"I am doing this\nbecause my husband begged me to wait until the earth on his tomb was\ndry before I remarried!\" Chuang Tzu offered to help her, and as soon\nas he waved the fan once the earth was dry. The young widow thanked\nhim and departed.\n\nOn his return home, Chuang Sheng related this incident to his\nwife. She expressed astonishment at such conduct on the part of a\nwife. \"There's nothing to be surprised at,\" rejoined the husband;\n\"that's how things go in this world.\" Seeing that he was poking fun\nat her, she protested angrily. Some little time after this Chuang\nSheng died. His wife, much grieved, buried him.\n\n\nHusband and Wife\n\nA few days later a young man named Ch'u Wang-sun arrived with the\nintention, as he said, of placing himself under the instruction of\nChuang Sheng. When he heard that he was dead he went and performed\nprostrations before his tomb, and afterward took up his abode in an\nempty room, saying that he wished to study. After half a month had\nelapsed, the widow asked an old servant who had accompanied Wang-sun\nif the young man was married. On his replying in the negative, she\nrequested the old servant to propose a match between them. Wang-sun\nmade some objections, saying that people would criticize their\nconduct. \"Since my husband is dead, what can they say?\" replied\nthe widow. She then put off her mourning-garments and prepared for\nthe wedding.\n\nWang-sun took her to the grave of her husband, and said to her:\n\"The gentleman has returned to life!\" She looked at Wang-sun and\nrecognized the features of her husband. She was so overwhelmed with\nshame that she hanged herself. Chuang Sheng buried her in an empty\ntomb, and then began to sing.\n\nHe burnt his house, went away to P'u-shui, in Hupei, and occupied\nhimself in fishing. From there he went on to Chung-t'iao Shan, where\nhe met Feng Hou and her teacher Hsuean Nue, the Mother of Heaven. In\ntheir company he visited the palaces of the stars. One day, when he\nwas attending a banquet at the palace of Wang-mu, Shang Ti gave him as\nhis kingdom the planet Jupiter, and assigned to him as his palace the\nancient abode of Mao Meng, the stellar god reincarnated during the Chou\ndynasty. He had not yet returned, and had left his palace empty. Shang\nTi had cautioned him never to absent himself without his permission.\n\n\nCanonized Generalissimos\n\nA large number of military men also have been canonized as celestial\ngeneralissimos. A few will serve as examples of the rest.\n\n\n\nThe Three Musical Brothers\n\nThere were three brothers: T'ien Yuean-shuai, the eldest; T'ien Hung-i,\nthe second; and T'ien Chih-piao, the youngest. They were all musicians\nof unsurpassed talent.\n\nIn the K'ai-yuean Period (A.D. 713-42) the Emperor Hsuean Tsung, of\nthe T'ang dynasty, appointed them his music masters. At the sound of\ntheir wonderful flute the clouds in the sky stopped in their courses;\nthe harmony of their songs caused the odoriferous _la mei_ flower to\nopen in winter. They excelled also in songs and dances.\n\nThe Emperor fell sick. He saw in a dream the three brothers\naccompanying their singing on a mandolin and violin. The harmony of\ntheir songs charmed his ear, and on waking he found himself well\nagain. Out of gratitude for this benefit he conferred on each the\ntitle of marquis.\n\nThe Grand Master of the Taoists was trying to stay the ravages\nof a pestilence, but he could not conquer the devils which caused\nit. Under these circumstances he appealed to the three brothers and\nasked their advice as to what course to adopt. T'ien Yuean-shuai had a\nlarge boat built, called 'Spirit-boat.' He assembled in it a million\nspirits, and ordered them to beat drums. On hearing this tumult all\nthe demons of the town came out to listen. T'ien Yuean-shuai, seizing\nthe opportunity, captured them all and, with the help of the Grand\nMaster, expelled them from the town.\n\nBesides the canonization of the three T'ien brothers, all the members\nof their families received posthumous titles.\n\n\n\nThe Dragon-boat Festival\n\nThis is said to be the origin of the dragon-boats which are to be\nseen on all the waterways of China on the fifth day of the fifth\nmoon. [21] The Festival of the Dragon-boats, held on that day, was\ninstituted in memory of the statesman-poet Ch'ue Yuean (332-296 B.C.),\nwho drowned himself in the Mi-lo River, an affluent of the Tung-t'ing\nLake, after having been falsely accused by one of the petty princes\nof the State. The people, out of pity for the unfortunate courtier,\nsent out these boats in search of his body.\n\n\nChiang Tzu-ya\n\nIn the wars which resulted in the overthrow of the tyrant Chou Wang\nand his dynasty and the establishment of the great Chou dynasty,\nthe most influential generalissimo was Chiang Tzu-ya. His family name\nwas Chiang, and his own name Shang, but owing to his descent from one\nof the ministers of the ancient King Yao, whose heirs owned the fief\nof Lue, the family came to be called by that name, and he himself was\nknown as Lue Shang. His honorific title was T'ai Kung Wang, 'Hope of\nT'ai Kung,' given him by Wen Wang, who recognized in the person of\nChiang Tzu-ya the wise minister whom his father T'ai Kung had caused\nhim to expect before his death.\n\n\nThe Battle of Mu Yeh\n\nChiang Tzu-ya was originally in the service of the tyrant Chou Wang,\nbut transferred his services to the Chou cause, and by his wonderful\nskill enabled that house finally to gain the victory. The decisive\nbattle took place at Mu Yeh, situated to the south of Wei-hui Fu,\nin 1122 B.C. The soldiers of Yin, 700,000 in number, were defeated,\nand Chou, the tyrant, shut himself up in his magnificent palace, set\nit alight, and was burned alive with all his possessions. For this\nachievement Chiang Tzu-ya was granted by Wu Wang the title of Father\nand Counsellor, and was appointed Prince of Ch'i, with perpetual\nsuccession to his descendants.\n\n\nA Legend of Chiang Tzu-ya\n\nThe _Feng shen yen i_ contains many chapters describing in detail the\nvarious battles which resulted in the overthrow of the last tyrant\nof the Shang dynasty and the establishment of the illustrious Chou\ndynasty on the throne of China. This legend and the following one\nare epitomized from that work.\n\n\nNo-cha defeats Chang Kuei-fang\n\nThe redoubtable No-cha having, by means of his Heaven-and-earth\nBracelet, vanquished Feng Lin, a star-god and subordinate officer of\nChang Kuei-fang, in spite of the black smoke-clouds which he blew\nout of his nostrils, the defeated warrior fled and sought the aid\nof his chief, who fought No-cha in some thirty to forty encounters\nwithout succeeding in dislodging him from his Wind-fire Wheel,\nwhich enabled him to move about rapidly and to perform prodigious\nfeats, such as causing hosts of silver flying dragons like clouds of\nsnow to descend upon his enemy. During one of these fights No-cha\nheard his name called three times, but paid no heed. Finally, with\nhis Heaven-and-earth Bracelet he broke Chang Kuei-fang's left arm,\nfollowing this up by shooting out some dazzling rays of light which\nknocked him off his horse.\n\nWhen he returned to the city to report his victory to Tzu-ya,\nthe latter asked him if during the battle Kuei-fang had called\nhis name. \"Yes,\" replied No-cha, \"he called, but I took no heed\nof him.\" \"When Kuei-fang calls,\" said Tzu-ya, \"the _hun_ and the\n_p'o_ [_anima_ and _umbra_] become separated, and so the body\nfalls apart.\" \"But,\" replied No-cha, \"I had changed myself into a\nlotus-flower, which has neither _hun_ nor _p'o_, so he could not\nsucceed in getting me off my magic wheel.\"\n\n\nTzu-ya goes to K'un-lun\n\nTzu-ya, however, still uncertain in mind about the finality of No-cha's\nvictories, went to consult Wu Wang (whose death had not yet taken\nplace at this time). After the interview Tzu-ya informed Wu Wang of\nhis wish to visit K'un-lun Mountain. Wu Wang warned him of the danger\nof leaving the kingdom with the enemy so near the capital; but Tzu-ya\nobtained his consent by saying he would be absent only three days\nat most. So he gave instructions regarding the defence to No-cha,\nand went off in his spirit chariot to K'un-lun. On his arrival at the\nUnicorn Precipice he was much enraptured with the beautiful scenery,\nthe colours, flowers, trees, bridges, birds, deer, apes, blue lions,\nwhite elephants, etc., all of which seemed to make earth surpass\nHeaven in loveliness.\n\n\nHe receives the List of Immortals\n\nFrom the Unicorn Precipice he went on to the Jade Palace of\nAbstraction. Here he was presented to Yuean-shih. From him he received\nthe List of Promotions to Immortals, which Nan-chi Hsien-weng,\n'Ancient Immortal of the South Pole,' had brought, and was told to\ngo and erect a Feng Shen T'ai (Spirits' Promotion Terrace) on which\nto exhibit it. Yuean-shih also warned him that if anyone called him\nwhile he was on the way he was to be most careful not to answer. On\nreaching the Unicorn Precipice on his way back, he heard some one\ncall: \"Chiang Tzu-ya!\" This happened three times without his paying\nany heed. Then the voice was heard to say: \"Now that you are Prime\nMinister, how devoid of feeling and forgetful of bygone benefits you\nmust be not to remember one who studied with you in the Jade Palace\nof Abstraction!\" Tzu-ya could not but turn his head and look. He\nthen saw that it was Shen Kung-pao. He said: \"Brother, I did not know\nit was you who were calling me, and I did not heed you as Shih-tsun\ntold me on no account to reply.\" Shen Kung-pao said: \"What is that\nyou hold in your hand?\" He told him it was the List of Promotions\nto Immortals. Shen Kung-pao then tried to entice Tzu-ya from his\nallegiance to Chou. Among Shen's tactics was that of convincing\nTzu-ya of the superiority of the magical arts at the disposal of\nthe supporters of Chou Wang. \"You,\" he said, \"can drain the sea,\nchange the hills, and suchlike things, but what are those compared\nwith my powers, who can take off my head, make it mount into space,\ntravel 10,000,000 _li_, and return to my neck just as complete as\nbefore and able to speak? Burn your List of Promotions to Immortals\nand come with me.\" Tzu-ya, thinking that a head which could travel\n10,000,000 _li_ and be the same as before was exceedingly rare, said:\n\"Brother, you take your head off, and if in reality it can do as you\nsay, rise into space and return and be as before, I shall be willing to\nburn the List of Promotions to Immortals and return with you to Chao\nKo.\" Shen Kung-pao said: \"You will not go back on your word?\" Tzu-ya\nsaid: \"When your elder brother has spoken his word is as unchangeable\nas Mount T'ai, How can there be any going back on my word?\"\n\n\nThe Soaring Head\n\nShen Kung-pao then doffed his Taoist cap, seized his sword, with his\nleft hand firmly grasped the blue thread binding his hair, and with\nhis right cut off his head. His body did not fall down. He then took\nhis head and threw it up into space. Tzu-ya gazed with upturned face\nas it continued to rise, and was sorely puzzled. But the Ancient\nImmortal of the South Pole had kept a watch on the proceedings. He\nsaid: \"Tzu-ya is a loyal and honest man; it looks as if he has been\ndeceived by this charlatan.\" He ordered White Crane Youth to assume\nquickly the form of a crane and fetch Shen Kung-pao's head.\n\n\nThe Ancient Immortal saves the Situation\n\nTzu-ya was still gazing upward when he felt a slap on his back\nand, turning round, saw that it was the Ancient Immortal of the\nSouth Pole. Tzu-ya quickly asked: \"My elder brother, why have you\nreturned?\" Hsien-weng said: \"You are a fool. Shen Kung-pao is a\nman of unholy practices. These few small tricks of his you take as\nrealities. But if the head does not return to the neck within an hour\nand three-quarters the blood will coagulate and he will die. Shih-tsun\nordered you not to reply to anyone; why did you not hearken to\nhis words? From the Jade Palace of Abstraction I saw you speaking\ntogether, and knew you had promised to burn the List of Promotions to\nImmortals. So I ordered White Crane Youth to bring me the head. After\nan hour and three-quarters Shen Kung-pao will be recompensed.\"\n\nTzu-ya said: \"My elder brother, since you know all you can pardon\nhim. In the Taoist heart there is no place where mercy cannot be\nexercised. Remember the many years during which he has faithfully\nfollowed the Path.\"\n\nEventually the Ancient Immortal was persuaded, but in the meantime\nShen Kung-pao, finding that his head did not return, became very much\ntroubled in mind. In an hour and three-quarters the blood would stop\nflowing and he would die. However, Tzu-ya having succeeded in his\nintercession with the Ancient Immortal, the latter signed to White\nCrane Youth, who was flying in space with the head in his beak, to\nlet it drop. He did so, but when it reached the neck it was facing\nbackward. Shen Kung-pao quickly put up his hand, took hold of an ear,\nand turned his head the right way round. He was then able to open\nhis eyes, when he saw the Ancient Immortal of the South Pole. The\nlatter arraigned him in a loud voice saying: \"You as-good-as-dead\ncharlatan, who by means of corrupt tricks try to deceive Tzu-ya and\nmake him burn the List of Immortals and help Chou Wang against Chou,\nwhat do you mean by all this? You should be taken to the Jade Palace\nof Abstraction to be punished!\"\n\nShen Kung-pao, ashamed, could not reply; mounting his tiger, he made\noff; but as he left he hurled back a threat that the Chou would yet\nhave their white bones piled mountains high at Hsi Ch'i. Subsequently\nTzu-ya, carefully preserving the precious List, after many adventures\nsucceeded in building the Feng Shen T'ai, and posted the List up on\nit. Having accomplished his mission, he returned in time to resist\nthe capture of Hsi Ch'i by Chang Kuei-fang, whose troops were defeated\nwith great slaughter.\n\n\n\nCh'iung Hsiao's Magic Scissors\n\nIn another of the many conflicts between the two rival states Lao Tzu\nentered the battle, whereupon Ch'iung Hsiao, a goddess who fought for\nthe house of Shang (Chou), hurled into the air her gold scaly-dragon\nscissors. As these slowly descended, opening and closing in a most\nominous manner, Lao Tzu waved the sleeve of his jacket and they fell\ninto the sea and became absolutely motionless. Many similar tricks\nwere used by the various contestants. The Gold Bushel of Chaotic\nOrigin succumbed to the Wind-fire Sphere, and so on. Ch'iung Hsiao\nresumed the attack with some magic two-edged swords, but was killed\nby a blow from White Crane Youth's Three-precious Jade Sceptre, hurled\nat her by Lao Tzu's orders. Pi Hsiao, her sister, attempted to avenge\nher death, but Yuean-shih, producing from his sleeve a magical box,\nthrew it into the air and caught Pi Hsiao in it. When it was opened\nit was found that she had melted into blood and water.\n\n\nChiang Tzu-ya defeats Wen Chung\n\nAfter this Lao Tzu rallied many of the skilful spirits to help Chiang\nTzu-ya in his battle with Wen Chung, providing them with the Ancient\nImmortal of the South Pole's Sand-blaster and an earth-conquering light\nwhich enabled them to travel a thousand _li_ in a day. From the hot\nsand used the contest became known as the Red Sand Battle. Jan Teng,\non P'eng-lai Mountain, in consultation with Tzu-ya, also arranged\nthe plan of battle.\n\n\nThe Red Sand Battle\n\nThe fight began with a challenge from the Ancient Immortal of the\nSouth Pole to Chang Shao. The latter, riding his deer, dashed into\nthe fray, and aimed a terrific blow with his sword at Hsien-weng's\nhead, but White Crane Youth warded it off with his Three-precious Jade\nSceptre. Chang then produced a two-edged sword and renewed the attack,\nbut, being disarmed, dismounted from his deer and threw several\nhandfuls of hot sand at Hsien-weng. The latter, however, easily\nfanned them away with his Five-fire Seven-feathers Fan, rendering\nthem harmless. Chang then fetched a whole bushel of the hot sand and\nscattered it over the enemy, but Hsien-weng counteracted the menace\nby merely waving his fan. White Crane Youth struck Chang Shao with\nhis jade sceptre, knocking him off his horse, and then dispatched\nhim with his two-edged sword.\n\nAfter this battle Wu Wang was found to be already dead. Jan Teng\non learning this ordered Lei Chen-tzu to take the corpse to Mount\nP'eng and wash it. He then dissolved a pill in water and poured the\nsolution into Wu Wang's mouth, whereupon he revived and was escorted\nback to his palace.\n\n\nFurther Fighting\n\nPreparations were then made for resuming the attack on Wen\nChung. While the latter was consulting with Ts'ai-yuen Hsien-tzu and\nHan Chih-hsien, he heard the sound of the Chou guns and the thunder of\ntheir troops. Wen Chung, mounting his black unicorn, galloped like a\nwhiff of smoke to meet Tzu-ya, but was stopped by blows from two silver\nhammers wielded by Huang T'ien-hua. Han Chih-hsien came to Wen's aid,\nbut was opposed by Pi Hsiang-yang. Ts'ai-yuen Hsien-tzu dashed into\nthe fray, but No-cha stepped on to his Wind-fire Wheel and opposed\nhim. From all sides other Immortals joined in the terrific battle,\nwhich was a turmoil of longbows and crossbows, iron armour and brass\nmail, striking whips and falling hammers, weapons cleaving mail and\nmail resisting weapons. In this fierce contest, while Tzu-ya was\nfighting Wen Chung, Han Chih-hsien released a black wind from his\nmagic wind-bag, but he did not know that the Taoist Barge of Mercy\n(which transports departed souls to the land of bliss), sent by\nKuan Yin, the Goddess of Mercy, had on board the Stop-wind Pearl,\nby which the black storm was immediately quelled. Thereupon Tzu-ya\nquickly seized his Vanquish-spirits Whip and struck Han Chih-hsien\nin the middle of the skull, so that the brain-fluid gushed forth and\nhe died. No-cha then slew Ts'ai-yuen Hsien-tzu with a spear-thrust.\n\nThus the stern fight went on, until finally Tzu-ya, under cover\nof night, attacked Wen Chung's troops simultaneously on all four\nsides. The noise of slaughter filled the air. Generals and rank and\nfile, lanterns, torches, swords, spears, guns, and daggers were one\nconfused _melee_; Heaven could scarcely be distinguished from earth,\nand corpses were piled mountains high.\n\nTzu-ya, having broken through seven lines of the enemy's ranks,\nforced his way into Wen Chung's camp. The latter mounted his unicorn,\nand brandishing his magic whip dashed to meet him. Tzu-ya drew\nhis sword and stopped his onrush, being aided by Lung Hsue-hu, who\nrepeatedly cast a rain of hot stones on to the troops. In the midst\nof the fight Tzu-ya brought out his great magic whip, and in spite\nof Wen Chung's efforts to avoid it succeeded in wounding him in the\nleft arm. The Chou troops were fighting like dragons lashing their\ntails and pythons curling their bodies. To add to their disasters,\nthe Chou now saw flames rising behind the camp, and knew that their\nprovisions were being burned by Yang Chien.\n\nThe Chou armies, with gongs beating and drums rolling, advanced for a\nfinal effort, the slaughter being so great that even the devils wept\nand the spirits wailed. Wen Chung was eventually driven back seventy\n_li_ to Ch'i Hill. His troops could do nothing but sigh and stumble\nalong. He made for Peach-blossom Range, but as he approached it he\nsaw a yellow banner hoisted, and under it was Kuang Ch'eng-tzu. Being\nprevented from escaping in that direction he joined battle, but by\nuse of red-hot sand, his two-edged sword, and his Turn-heaven Seal\nKuang Ch'eng-tzu put him to flight. He then made off toward the\nwest, followed by Teng Chung. His design was to make for Swallow\nHill, which he reached after several days of weary marching. Here\nhe saw another yellow banner flying, and Ch'ih Ching-tzu informed\nhim that Jan Teng had forbidden him to stop at Swallow Hill or to\ngo through the Five Passes. This led to another pitched battle,\nWen Chung using his magic whip and Ch'ih his spiritual two-edged\nsword. After several bouts Ch'ih brought out his _yin-yang_ mirror,\nby use of which irresistible weapon Wen was driven to Yellow Flower\nHill and Blue Dragon Pass, and so on from battle to battle, until he\nwas drawn up to Heaven from the top of Dead-dragon Mountain.\n\n\nThousand-li Eye and Favourable-wind Ear\n\nCh'ien-li Yen, 'Thousand-_li_ Eye,' and Shun-feng Erh, 'Favourable-wind\nEar,' were two brothers named Kao Ming and Kao Chio. On account\nof their martial bearing they found favour with the tyrant emperor\nChou Wang, who appointed them generals, and sent them to serve with\nGeneralissimo Yuean Hung (who was a monkey which had taken human form)\nat Meng-ching.\n\nKao Ming was very tall, with a blue face, flaming eyes, a large mouth,\nand prominent teeth like those of a rhinoceros.\n\nKao Chio had a greenish face and skin, two horns on his head, a red\nbeard, and a large mouth with teeth shaped like swords.\n\nOne of their first encounters was with No-cha, who hurled at them his\nmystic bracelet, which struck Kao Chio on the head, but did not leave\neven a scratch. When, however, he seized his fire-globe the brothers\nthought it wiser to retreat.\n\nFinding no means of conquering them, Yang Chien, Chiang Tzu-ya, and\nLi Ching took counsel together and decided to have recourse to Fu\nHsi's trigrams, and by smearing them with the blood of a fowl and a\ndog to destroy their spiritual power.\n\nBut the two brothers were fully informed of what was\ndesigned. Thousand-_li_ Eye had seen and Favourable-wind Ear had\nheard everything, so that all their preparations proved unavailing.\n\nYang Chien then went to Chiang Tzu-ya and said to him: \"These\ntwo brothers are powerful devils; I must take more effectual\nmeasures.\" \"Where will you go for aid?\" asked Chiang Tzu-ya. \"I\ncannot tell you, for they would hear,\" replied Yang. He then\nleft. Favourable-wind Ear heard this dialogue, and Thousand-_li_\nEye saw him leave. \"He did not say where he was going,\" they said\nto each other, \"but we fear him not.\" Yang Chien went to Yue-ch'uean\nShan, where lived Yue-ting Chen-jen, 'Hero Jade-tripod.' He told him\nabout their two adversaries, and asked him how they were to conquer\nthem. \"These two genii,\" replied the Chen-jen, \"are from Ch'i-p'an\nShan, Chessboard Mountain. One is a spiritual peach-tree, the other\na spiritual pomegranate-tree. Their roots cover an area of thirty\nsquare _li_ of ground. On that mountain there is a temple dedicated to\nHuang-ti, in which are clay images of two devils called Ch'ien-li Yen\nand Shun-feng Erh. The peach-tree and pomegranate-tree, having become\nspiritual beings, have taken up their abode in these images. One has\neyes which can see objects distinctly at a distance of a thousand _li_,\nthe other ears that can hear sounds at a like distance. But beyond\nthat distance they can neither see nor hear. Return and tell Chiang\nTzu-ya to have the roots of those trees torn up and burned, and the\nimages destroyed; then the two genii will be easily vanquished. In\norder that they may neither see nor hear you during your conversation\nwith Chiang Tzu-ya, wave flags about the camp and order the soldiers\nto beat tom-toms and drums.\"\n\n\nHow the Brothers were Defeated\n\nYang Chien returned to Chiang Tzu-ya. \"What have you been doing?\" asked\nthe latter. Before replying Yang Chien went to the camp and ordered\nsoldiers to wave large red flags and a thousand others to beat the\ntom-toms and drums. The air was so filled with the flags and the\nnoise that nothing else could be either seen or heard. Under cover of\nthis device Yang Chien then communicated to Chiang Tzu-ya the course\nadvised by the Chen-jen.\n\nAccordingly Li Ching at the head of three thousand soldiers proceeded\nto Ch'i-p'an Shan, pulled up and burned the roots of the two trees,\nand broke the images to pieces. At the same time Lei Chen-tzu was\nordered to attack the two genii.\n\nThousand-_li_ Eye and Favourable-wind Ear could neither see nor hear:\nthe flags effectually screened the horizon and the infernal noise of\nthe drums and gongs deadened all other sound. They did not know how\nto stop them.\n\nThe following night Yuean Hung decided to take the camp of Chiang\nTzu-ya by assault, and sent the brothers in advance. They were,\nhowever, themselves surprised by Wu Wang's officers, who surrounded\nthem. Chiang Tzu-ya then threw into the air his 'devil-chaser' whip,\nwhich fell on the two scouts and cleft their skulls in twain.\n\n\nCelestial Ministries\n\nThe dualistic idea, already referred to, of the Otherworld being\na replica of this one is nowhere more clearly illustrated than in\nthe celestial Ministries or official Bureaux or Boards, with their\nchiefs and staffs functioning over the spiritual hierarchies. The Nine\nMinistries up aloft doubtless had their origin in imitation of the Six,\nEight, or Nine Ministries or Boards which at various periods of history\nhave formed the executive part of the official hierarchy in China. But\ntheir names are different and their functions do not coincide.\n\nGenerally, the functions of the officers of the celestial Boards are\nto protect mankind from the evils represented in the title of the\nBoard, as, for example, thunder, smallpox, fire, etc. In all cases\nthe duties seem to be remedial. As the God of War was, as we saw, the\ngod who protects people from the evils of war, so the vast hierarchy\nof these various divinities is conceived as functioning for the good\nof mankind. Being too numerous for inclusion here, an account of them\nis given under various headings in some of the following chapters.\n\n\nProtectors of the People\n\nBesides the gods who hold definite official posts in these various\nMinistries, there are a very large number who are also protecting\npatrons of the people; and, though _ex officio_, in many cases quite\nas popular and powerful, if not more so. Among the most important\nare the following: She-chi, Gods of the Soil and Crops; Shen Nung,\nGod of Agriculture; Hou-t'u, Earth-mother; Ch'eng-huang, City-god;\nT'u-ti, Local Gods; Tsao Chuen, Kitchen-god; T'ien-hou and An-kung,\nGoddess and God of Sailors; Ts'an Nue, Goddess of Silkworms; Pa-ch'a,\nGod of Grasshoppers; Fu Shen, Ts'ai Shen, and Shou Hsing, Gods of\nHappiness, Wealth, and Longevity; Men Shen, Door-gods; and She-mo Wang,\netc., the Gods of Serpents.\n\n\nThe Ch'eng-huang\n\nCh'eng-huang is the Celestial Mandarin or City-god. Every fortified\ncity or town in China is surrounded by a wall, _ch'eng_, composed\nusually of two battlemented walls, the space between which is filled\nwith earth. This earth is dug from the ground outside, making a ditch,\nor _huang_, running parallel with the _ch'eng_. The Ch'eng-huang\nis the spiritual official of the city or town. All the numerous\nCh'eng-huang constitute a celestial Ministry of Justice, presided\nover by a Ch'eng-huang-in-chief.\n\nThe origin of the worship of the Ch'eng-huang dates back to the time\nof the great Emperor Yao (2357 B.C.), who instituted a sacrifice called\nPa Cha in honour of eight spirits, of whom the seventh, Shui Yung, had\nthe meaning of, or corresponded to, the dyke and rampart known later\nas Ch'eng-huang. Since the Sung dynasty sacrifices have been offered\nto the Ch'eng-huang all over the country, though now and then some\ntowns have adopted another or special god as their Ch'eng-huang, such\nas Chou Hsin, adopted as the Ch'eng-huang of Hangchou, the capital of\nChekiang Province. Concerning Chou Hsin, who had a \"face of ice and\niron,\" and was so much dreaded for his severity that old and young\nfled at his approach, it is related that once when he was trying a\ncase a storm blew some leaves on to his table. In spite of diligent\nsearch the tree to which this kind of leaf belonged could not be found\nanywhere in the neighbourhood, but was eventually discovered in a\nBuddhist temple a long way off. The judge declared that the priests\nof this temple must be guilty of murder. By his order the tree was\nfelled, and in its trunk was found the body of a woman who had been\nassassinated, and the priests were convicted of the murder.\n\n\nThe Kitchen-god\n\nTsao Chuen is a Taoist invention, but is universally worshipped by\nall families in China--about sixty millions of pictures of him are\nregularly worshipped twice a month--at new and full moon. \"His temple\nis a little niche in the brick cooking-range; his palace is often\nfilled with smoke; and his Majesty sells for one farthing.\" He is also\ncalled 'the God of the Stove.' The origin of his worship, according to\nthe legend, is that a Taoist priest, Li Shao-chuen by name, of the Ch'i\nState, obtained from the Kitchen-god the double favour of exemption\nfrom growing old and of being able to live without eating. He then\nwent to the Emperor Hsiao Wu-ti (140-86 B.C.) of the Han dynasty, and\npromised that credulous monarch that he should benefit by the powers\nof the god provided that he would consent to patronize and encourage\nhis religion. It was by this means, he added, that the Emperor Huang\nTi obtained his knowledge of alchemy, which enabled him to make gold.\n\nThe Emperor asked the priest to bring him his divine patron, and one\nnight the image of Tsao Chuen appeared to him.\n\nDeceived by this trick, dazzled by the ingots of gold which he too\nshould obtain, and determined to risk everything for the pill of\nimmortality which was among the benefits promised, the Emperor made\na solemn sacrifice to the God of the Kitchen.\n\nThis was the first time that a sacrifice had been officially offered\nto this new deity.\n\nLi Shao-chuen gradually lost the confidence of the Emperor and, at\nhis wits' end, conceived the plan of writing some phrases on a piece\nof silk and then causing them to be swallowed by an ox. This done,\nhe announced that a wonderful script would be found in the animal's\nstomach. The ox being killed, the script was found there as predicted,\nbut Li's unlucky star decreed that the Emperor should recognize\nhis handwriting, and he was forthwith put to death. Nevertheless,\nthe worship of the Kitchen-god continued and increased, and exists\nin full vigour down to the present day.\n\nThis deity has power over the lives of the members of each family\nunder his supervision, distributes riches and poverty at will, and\nmakes an annual report to the Supreme Being on the conduct of the\nfamily during the year, for which purpose he is usually absent for from\nfour to seven days. Some hold that he also makes these reports once or\ntwice or several times each month. Various ceremonies are performed on\nseeing him off to Heaven and welcoming him back. One of the former,\nas we saw, is to regale him with honey, so that only sweet words,\nif any, may be spoken by him while up aloft!\n\n\nTs'an Nue\n\nIn the kingdom of Shu (modern Ssuch'uan), in the time of Kao Hsing\nTi, a band of robbers kidnapped the father of Ts'an Nue. A whole year\nelapsed, and the father's horse still remained in the stable as he\nhad left it. The thought of not seeing her father again caused Ts'an\nNue such grief that she would take no nourishment. Her mother did\nwhat she could to console her, and further promised her in marriage\nto anyone who would bring back her father. But no one was found who\ncould do this. Hearing the offer, the horse stamped with impatience,\nand struggled so much that at length he broke the halter by which\nhe was tied up. He then galloped away and disappeared. Several days\nlater, his owner returned riding the horse. From that time the horse\nneighed incessantly, and refused all food. This caused the mother\nto make known to her husband the promise she had made concerning her\ndaughter. \"An oath made to men,\" he replied, \"does not hold good for\na horse. Is a human being meant to live in marital relations with\na horse?\" Nevertheless, however good and abundant food they offered\nhim, the horse would not eat. When he saw the young lady he plunged\nand kicked furiously. Losing his temper, the father discharged an\narrow and killed him on the spot; then he skinned him and spread the\nskin on the ground outside the house to dry. As the young lady was\npassing the spot the skin suddenly moved, rose up, enveloped her,\nand disappeared into space. Ten days later it was found at the foot\nof a mulberry-tree; Ts'an Nue changed into a silkworm, was eating the\nmulberry-leaves, and spinning for herself a silken garment.\n\nThe parents of course were in despair. But one day, while they were\noverwhelmed with sad thoughts, they saw on a cloud Ts'an Nue riding\nthe horse and attended by several dozens of servants. She descended\ntoward her parents, and said to them: \"The Supreme Being, as a reward\nfor my martyrdom in the cause of filial piety and my love of virtue,\nhas conferred on me the dignity of Concubine of the Nine Palaces. Be\nreassured as to my fate, for in Heaven I shall live for ever.\" Having\nsaid this she disappeared into space.\n\nIn the temples her image is to be seen covered with a horse's\nskin. She is called Ma-t'ou Niang, 'the Lady with the Horse's\nHead,' and is prayed to for the prosperity of mulberry-trees and\nsilkworms. The worship continues even in modern times. The goddess\nis also represented as a stellar divinity, the star T'ien Ssu; as\nthe first man who reared silkworms, in this character bearing the\nsame name as the God of Agriculture, Pasture, and Fire; and as the\nwife of the Emperor Huang Ti.\n\n\nThe God of Happiness\n\nThe God of Happiness, Fu Shen, owes his origin to the predilection\nof the Emperor Wu Ti (A.D. 502-50) of the Liang dynasty for dwarfs as\nservants and comedians in his palace. The number levied from the Tao\nChou district in Hunan became greater and greater, until it seriously\nprejudiced the ties of family relations. When Yang Ch'eng, _alias_\nYang Hsi-chi, was Criminal Judge of Tao Chou he represented to the\nEmperor that, according to law, the dwarfs were his subjects but not\nhis slaves. Being touched by this remark, the Emperor ordered the\nlevy to be stopped.\n\nOverjoyed at their liberation from this hardship, the people\nof that district set up images of Yang and offered sacrifices to\nhim. Everywhere he was venerated as the Spirit of Happiness. It was in\nthis simple way that there came into being a god whose portraits and\nimages abound everywhere throughout the country, and who is worshipped\nalmost as universally as the God of Riches himself.\n\nAnother person who attained to the dignity of God of Happiness (known\nas Tseng-fu Hsiang-kung, 'the Young Gentleman who Increases Happiness')\nwas Li Kuei-tsu, the minister of Emperor Wen Ti of the Wei dynasty,\nthe son of the famous Ts'ao Ts'ao, but in modern times the honour\nseems to have passed to Kuo Tzu-i. He was the saviour of the T'ang\ndynasty from the depredations of the Turfans in the reign of the\nEmperor Hsuean Tsung. He lived A.D. 697-781, was a native of Hua Chou,\nin Shensi, and one of the most illustrious of Chinese generals. He\nis very often represented in pictures clothed in blue official robes,\nleading his small son Kuo Ai to Court.\n\n\nThe God of Wealth\n\nAs with many other Chinese gods, the proto-being of the God of Wealth,\nTs'ai Shen, has been ascribed to several persons. The original and\nbest known until later times was Chao Kung-ming. The accounts of him\ndiffer also, but the following is the most popular.\n\nWhen Chiang Tzu-ya was fighting for Wu Wang of the Chou dynasty\nagainst the last of the Shang emperors, Chao Kung-ming, then a\nhermit on Mount O-mei, took the part of the latter. He performed\nmany wonderful feats. He could ride a black tiger and hurl pearls\nwhich burst like bombshells. But he was eventually overcome by the\nform of witchcraft known in Wales as _Ciurp Creadh_. Chiang Tzu-ya\nmade a straw image of him, wrote his name on it, burned incense and\nworshipped before it for twenty days, and on the twenty-first shot\narrows made of peach-wood into its eyes and heart. At that same\nmoment Kung-ming, then in the enemy's camp, felt ill and fainted,\nand uttering a cry gave up the ghost.\n\nLater on Chiang Tzu-ya persuaded Yuean-shih T'ien-tsun to release from\nthe Otherworld the spirits of the heroes who had died in battle,\nand when Chao Kung-ming was led into his presence he praised his\nbravery, deplored the circumstances of his death, and canonized him\nas President of the Ministry of Riches and Prosperity.\n\nThe God of Riches is universally worshipped in China; images and\nportraits of him are to be seen everywhere. Talismans, trees of which\nthe branches are strings of cash, and the fruits ingots of gold,\nto be obtained merely by shaking them down, a magic inexhaustible\ncasket full of gold and silver--these and other spiritual sources\nof wealth are associated with this much-adored deity. He himself\nis represented in the guise of a visitor accompanied by a crowd of\nattendants laden with all the treasures that the hearts of men, women,\nand children could desire.\n\n\nThe God of Longevity\n\nThe God of Longevity, Shou Hsing, was first a stellar deity, later on\nrepresented in human form. It was a constellation formed of the two\nstar-groups Chio and K'ang, the first two on the list of twenty-eight\nconstellations. Hence, say the Chinese writers, because of this\nprecedence, it was called the Star of Longevity. When it appears the\nnation enjoys peace, when it disappears there will be war. Ch'in Shih\nHuang-ti, the First Emperor, was the first to offer sacrifices to this\nstar, the Old Man of the South Pole, at She Po, in 246 B.C. Since then\nthe worship has been continued pretty regularly until modern times.\n\nBut desire for something more concrete, or at least more personal,\nthan a star led to the god's being represented as an old man. Connected\nwith this is a long legend which turns on the point that after the\nfather of Chao Yen had been told by the celebrated physiognomist\nKuan Lo that his son would not live beyond the age of nineteen, the\ntransposition from _shih-chiu_, nineteen, to _chiu-shih_, ninety,\nwas made by one of two gamblers, who turned out to be the Spirit of\nthe North Pole, who fixes the time of decease, as the Spirit of the\nSouth Pole does that of birth.\n\nThe deity is a domestic god, of happy mien, with a very high\nforehead, usually spoken of as Shou Hsing Lao T'ou Tzu, 'Longevity\nStar Old-pate,' and is represented as riding a stag, with a flying bat\nabove his head. He holds in his hand a large peach, and attached to his\nlong staff are a gourd and a scroll. The stag and the bat both indicate\n_fu_, happiness. The peach, gourd, and scroll are symbols of longevity.\n\n\nThe Door-gods\n\nAn old legend relates that in the earliest times there grew on\nMount Tu Shuo, in the Eastern Sea, a peach-tree of fabulous size\nwhose branches covered an area of several thousand square _li_. The\nlowest branches, which inclined toward the north-east, formed the\nDoor of the Devils (_kuei_), through which millions of them passed\nin and out. Two spirits, named Shen Shu (or Shu Yue) and Yue Lue, had\nbeen instructed to guard this passage. Those who had done wrong to\nmankind were immediately bound by them and given over to be devoured\nby tigers. When Huang Ti heard of this he had the portraits of the\ntwo spirits painted on peach-wood tablets and hung above the doors to\nkeep off evil spirits. This led to the suspension of the small figures\nor plaques on the doors of the people generally. Gradually they were\nsupplanted by paintings on paper pasted on the doors, showing the two\nspirits armed with bows, arrows, spears, etc., Shen Shu on the left,\nYue Lue on the right.\n\nIn later times, however, these Door-gods were supplanted in popular\nfavour by two ministers of the Emperor T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty,\nby name Ch'in Shu-pao and Hu Ching-te. T'ai Tsung had fallen sick, and\nimagined that he heard demons rampaging in his bedroom. The ministers\nof State, on inquiring as to the nature of the malady, were informed\nby the physician that his Majesty's pulse was feverish, that he seemed\nnervous and saw visions, and that his life was in danger.\n\nThe ministers were in great fear. The Empress summoned other physicians\nto a consultation, and after the sick Emperor had informed them that,\nthough all was quiet during the daytime, he was sure he saw and heard\ndemons during the night, Ch'in Shu-pao and Hu Ching-te stated that\nthey would sit up all night and watch outside his door.\n\nAccordingly they posted themselves, fully armed, outside the palace\ngate all night, and the Emperor slept in peace. Next day the Emperor\nthanked them heartily, and from that time his sickness diminished. The\ntwo ministers, however, continued their vigils until the Emperor\ninformed them that he would no longer impose upon their readiness\nto sacrifice themselves. He ordered them to paint their portraits\nin full martial array and paste these on the palace doors to see if\nthat would not have the same effect. For some nights all was peace;\nthen the same commotion was heard at the back gates of the palace. The\nminister Wei Cheng offered to stand guard at the back gates in the\nsame way that his colleagues had done at the front gates. The result\nwas that in a few days the Emperor's health was entirely restored.\n\nThus it is that Wei Cheng is often associated with the other two\nDoor-gods, sometimes with them, sometimes in place of them. Pictures\nof these _men shen_, elaborately coloured, and renewed at the New Year,\nare to be seen on almost every door in China.\n\n\nChinese Polytheism\n\nThat the names of the gods of China are legion will be readily\nconceded when it is said that, besides those already described,\nthose still to be mentioned, and many others to whom space will not\npermit us to refer, there are also gods, goddesses, patrons, etc.,\nof wind, rain, snow, frost, rivers, tides, caves, trees, flowers,\ntheatres, horses, oxen, cows, sheep, goats, dogs, pigs, scorpions,\nlocusts, gold, tea, salt, compass, archery, bridges, lamps, gems,\nwells, carpenters, masons, barbers, tailors, jugglers, nets, wine,\nbean-curd, jade, paper-clothing, eye, ear, nose, tongue, teeth,\nheart, liver, throat, hands, feet, skin, architecture, rain-clothes,\nmonkeys, lice, Punch and Judy, fire-crackers, cruelty, revenge, manure,\nfornication, shadows, corners, gamblers, oculists, smallpox, liver\ncomplaint, stomach-ache, measles, luck, womb, midwives, hasteners\nof child-birth, brigands, butchers, furnishers, centipedes, frogs,\nstones, beds, candle-merchants, fishermen, millers, wig-merchants,\nincense-merchants, spectacle-makers, cobblers, harness-makers,\nseedsmen, innkeepers, basket-makers, chemists, painters, perfumers,\njewellers, brush-makers, dyers, fortune-tellers, strolling singers,\nbrothels, varnishers, combs, etc., etc. There is a god of the light\nof the eye as well as of the eye itself, of smallpox-marks as well as\nof smallpox, of 'benign' measles as well as of measles. After reading\na full list of the gods of China, those who insist that the religion\nof China was or is a monotheism may be disposed to revise their belief.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V\n\nMyths of the Stars\n\n\nAstrological Superstitions\n\nAccording to Chinese ideas, the sun, moon, and planets influence\nsublunary events, especially the life and death of human beings, and\nchanges in their colour menace approaching calamities. Alterations\nin the appearance of the sun announce misfortunes to the State or its\nhead, as revolts, famines, or the death of the emperor; when the moon\nwaxes red, or turns pale, men should be in awe of the unlucky times\nthus fore-omened.\n\nThe sun is symbolized by the figure of a raven in a circle, and\nthe moon by a hare on its hind-legs pounding rice in a mortar, or\nby a three-legged toad. The last refers to the legend of Ch'ang O,\ndetailed later. The moon is a special object of worship in autumn,\nand moon-cakes dedicated to it are sold at this season. All the\nstars are ranged into constellations, and an emperor is installed\nover them, who resides at the North Pole; five monarchs also live\nin the five stars in Leo, where is a palace called Wu Ti Tso, or\n'Throne of the Five Emperors.' In this celestial government there are\nalso an heir-apparent, empresses, sons and daughters, and tribunals,\nand the constellations receive the names of men, animals, and other\nterrestrial objects. The Great Bear, or Dipper, is worshipped as the\nresidence of the Fates, where the duration of life and other events\nrelating to mankind are measured and meted out. Fears are excited by\nunusual phenomena among the heavenly bodies.\n\nBoth the sun and the moon are worshipped by the Government in\nappropriate temples on the east and west sides of Peking.\n\n\nVarious Star-gods\n\nSome of the star-gods, such as the God of Literature, the Goddess of\nthe North Star, the Gods of Happiness, Longevity, etc., are noticed\nin other parts of this work. The cycle-gods are also star-gods. There\nare sixty years in a cycle, and over each of these presides a special\nstar-deity. The one worshipped is the one which gave light on the\nbirthday of the worshipper, and therefore the latter burns candles\nbefore that particular image on each succeeding anniversary. These\ncycle-gods are represented by most grotesque images: \"white, black,\nyellow, and red; ferocious gods with vindictive eyeballs popping out,\nand gentle faces as expressive as a lump of putty; some looking like\nmen and some like women.\" In one temple one of the sixty was in the\nform of a hog, and another in that of a goose. \"Here is an image\nwith arms protruding out of his eye-sockets, and eyes in the palms\nof his hands, looking downward to see the secret things within the\nearth. See that rabbit, Minerva-like, jumping from the divine head;\nagain a mud-rat emerges from his occipital hiding-place, and lo! a\nsnake comes coiling from the brain of another god--so the long line\nserves as models for an artist who desires to study the fantastic.\"\n\n\nShooting the Heavenly Dog\n\nIn the family sleeping-apartments in Chinese houses hang pictures\nof Chang Hsien, a white-faced, long-bearded man with a little boy by\nhis side, and in his hand a bow and arrow, with which he is shooting\nthe Heavenly Dog. The dog is the Dog-star, and if the 'fate' of the\nfamily is under this star there will be no son, or the child will be\nshort-lived. Chang Hsien is the patron of child-bearing women, and was\nworshipped under the Sung dynasty by women desirous of offspring. The\nintroduction of this name into the Chinese pantheon is due to an\nincident in the history of Hua-jui Fu-jen, a name given to Lady Fei,\nconcubine of Meng Ch'ang, the last ruler of the Later Shu State,\nA.D. 935-964. When she was brought from Shu to grace the harem of\nthe founder of the Sung dynasty, in A.D. 960, she is said to have\npreserved secretly the portrait of her former lord, the Prince of Shu,\nwhose memory she passionately cherished. Jealously questioned by her\nnew consort respecting her devotion to this picture, she declared it\nto be the representation of Chang Hsien, the divine being worshipped\nby women desirous of offspring. Opinions differ as to the origin\nof the worship. One account says that the Emperor Jen Tsung, of the\nSung dynasty, saw in a dream a beautiful young man with white skin\nand black hair, carrying a bow in his hand. He said to the Emperor:\n\"The star T'ien Kou, Heavenly Dog, in the heavens is hiding the\nsun and moon, and on earth devouring small children. It is only my\npresence which keeps him at bay.\"\n\nOn waking, the Emperor at once ordered the young man's portrait to\nbe painted and exhibited, and from that time childless families would\nwrite the name Chang Hsien on tablets and worship them.\n\nAnother account describes Chang Hsien as the spirit of the star\nChang. In the popular representations Chang Hsien is seen in the\nform of a distinguished personage drawing a bow. The spirit of the\nstar Chang is supposed to preside over the kitchen of Heaven and to\narrange the banquets given by the gods.\n\n\nThe Sun-king\n\nThe worship of the sun is part of the State religion, and the officials\nmake their offerings to the sun-tablet. The moon also is worshipped. At\nthe harvest moon, the full moon of the eighth month, the Chinese\nbow before the heavenly luminary, and each family burns incense as\nan offering. Thus \"100,000 classes all receive the blessings of the\nicy-wheel in the Milky Way along the heavenly street, a mirror always\nbright.\" In Chinese illustrations we see the moon-palace of Ch'ang O,\nwho stole the pill of immortality and flew to the moon, the fragrant\ntree which one of the genii tried to cut down, and a hare pestling\nmedicine in a mortar. This refers to the following legend.\n\nThe sun and the moon are both included by the Chinese among the\nstars, the spirit of the former being called T'ai-yang Ti-chuen,\n'the Sun-king,' or Jih-kung Ch'ih-chiang, 'Ch'ih-chiang of the Solar\nPalace,' that of the latter T'ai-yin Huang-chuen, 'the Moon-queen,'\nor Yueeh-fu Ch'ang O, 'Ch'ang O of the Lunar Palace.'\n\nCh'ih-chiang Tzu-yue lived in the reign of Hsien-yuean Huang-ti, who\nappointed him Director of Construction and Furnishing.\n\nWhen Hsien-yuean went on his visit to O-mei Shan, a mountain in\nSsuch'uan, Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yue obtained permission to accompany\nhim. Their object was to be initiated into the doctrine of immortality.\n\nThe Emperor was instructed in the secrets of the doctrine by T'ai-i\nHuang-jen, the spirit of this famous mountain, who, when he was about\nto take his departure, begged him to allow Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yue to\nremain with him. The new hermit went out every day to gather the\nflowering plants which formed the only food of his master, T'ai-i\nHuang-jen, and he also took to eating these flowers, so that his body\ngradually became spiritualized.\n\n\nThe Steep Summit\n\nOne day T'ai-i Huang-jen sent him to cut some bamboos on the summit of\nO-mei Shan, distant more than three hundred _li_ from the place where\nthey lived. When he reached the base of the summit, all of a sudden\nthree giddy peaks confronted him, so dangerous that even the monkeys\nand other animals dared not attempt to scale them. But he took his\ncourage in his hands, climbed the steep slope, and by sheer energy\nreached the summit. Having cut the bamboos, he tried to descend, but\nthe rocks rose like a wall in sharp points all round him, and he could\nnot find a foothold anywhere. Then, though laden with the bamboos, he\nthrew himself into the air, and was borne on the wings of the wind. He\ncame to earth safe and sound at the foot of the mountain, and ran with\nthe bamboos to his master. On account of this feat he was considered\nadvanced enough to be admitted to instruction in the doctrine.\n\n\nThe Divine Archer\n\nThe Emperor Yao, in the twelfth year of his reign (2346 B.C.), one day,\nwhile walking in the streets of Huai-yang, met a man carrying a bow\nand arrows, the bow being bound round with a piece of red stuff. This\nwas Ch'ih-chiang Tzu-yue. He told the Emperor he was a skilful archer\nand could fly in the air on the wings of the wind. Yao, to test his\nskill, ordered him to shoot one of his arrows at a pine-tree on the\ntop of a neighbouring mountain. Ch'ih shot an arrow which transfixed\nthe tree, and then jumped on to a current of air to go and fetch\nthe arrow back. Because of this the Emperor named him Shen I, 'the\nDivine Archer,' attached him to his suite, and appointed him Chief\nMechanician of all Works in Wood. He continued to live only on flowers.\n\n\nVanquishes the Wind-spirit\n\nAt this time terrible calamities began to lay waste the land. Ten\nsuns appeared in the sky, the heat of which burnt up all the crops;\ndreadful storms uprooted trees and overturned houses; floods overspread\nthe country. Near the Tung-t'ing Lake a serpent, a thousand feet long,\ndevoured human beings, and wild boars of enormous size did great\ndamage in the eastern part of the kingdom. Yao ordered Shen I to go\nand slay the devils and monsters who were causing all this mischief,\nplacing three hundred men at his service for that purpose.\n\nShen I took up his post on Mount Ch'ing Ch'iu to study the cause of the\ndevastating storms, and found that these tempests were released by Fei\nLien, the Spirit of the Wind, who blew them out of a sack. As we shall\nsee when considering the thunder myths, the ensuing conflict ended\nin Fei Lien suing for mercy and swearing friendship to his victor,\nwhereupon the storms ceased.\n\n\nDispels the Nine False Suns\n\nAfter this first victory Shen I led his troops to the banks of the\nHsi Ho, West River, at Lin Shan. Here he discovered that on three\nneighbouring peaks nine extraordinary birds were blowing out fire and\nthus forming nine new suns in the sky. Shen I shot nine arrows in\nsuccession, pierced the birds, and immediately the nine false suns\nresolved themselves into red clouds and melted away. Shen I and his\nsoldiers found the nine arrows stuck in nine red stones at the top\nof the mountain.\n\n\nMarries the Sister of the Water-spirit\n\nShen I then led his soldiers to Kao-liang, where the river had risen\nand formed an immense torrent. He shot an arrow into the water,\nwhich thereupon withdrew to its source. In the flood he saw a man\nclothed in white, riding a white horse and accompanied by a dozen\nattendants. He quickly discharged an arrow, striking him in the left\neye, and the horseman at once took to flight. He was accompanied\nby a young woman named Heng O [22], the younger sister of Ho Po,\nthe Spirit of the Waters. Shen I shot an arrow into her hair. She\nturned and thanked him for sparing her life, adding: \"I will agree\nto be your wife.\" After these events had been duly reported to the\nEmperor Yao, the wedding took place.\n\n\nSlays Various Dangerous Creatures\n\nThree months later Yao ordered Shen I to go and kill the great\nTung-t'ing serpent. An arrow in the left eye laid him out stark and\ndead. The wild boars also were all caught in traps and slain. As a\nreward for these achievements Yao canonized Shen I with the title of\nMarquis Pacifier of the Country.\n\n\nBuilds a Palace for Chin Mu\n\nAbout this time T'ai-wu Fu-jen, the third daughter of Hsi Wang Mu,\nhad entered a nunnery on Nan-min Shan, to the north of Lo-fou Shan,\nwhere her mother's palace was situated. She mounted a dragon to\nvisit her mother, and all along the course left a streak of light in\nher wake. One day the Emperor Yao, from the top of Ch'ing-yuen Shan,\nsaw this track of light, and asked Shen I the cause of this unusual\nphenomenon. The latter mounted the current of luminous air, and\nletting it carry him whither it listed, found himself on Lo-fou Shan,\nin front of the door of the mountain, which was guarded by a great\nspiritual monster. On seeing Shen I this creature called together\na large number of phoenixes and other birds of gigantic size and\nset them at Shen I. One arrow, however, settled the matter. They\nall fled, the door opened, and a lady followed by ten attendants\npresented herself. She was no other than Chin Mu herself. Shen I,\nhaving saluted her and explained the object of his visit, was admitted\nto the goddess's palace, and royally entertained.\n\n\"I have heard,\" said Shen I to her, \"that you possess the pills of\nimmortality; I beg you to give me one or two.\" \"You are a well-known\narchitect,\" replied Chin Mu; \"please build me a palace near this\nmountain.\" Together they went to inspect a celebrated site known as\nPai-yue-kuei Shan, 'White Jade-tortoise Mountain,' and fixed upon it\nas the location of the new abode of the goddess. Shen I had all the\nspirits of the mountain to work for him. The walls were built of jade,\nsweet-smelling woods were used for the framework and wainscoting,\nthe roof was of glass, the steps of agate. In a fortnight's time\nsixteen palace buildings stretched magnificently along the side of\nthe mountain. Chin Mu gave to the architect a wonderful pill which\nwould bestow upon him immortality as well as the faculty of being\nable at will to fly through the air. \"But,\" she said, \"it must not\nbe eaten now: you must first go through a twelve months' preparatory\ncourse of exercise and diet, without which the pill will not have all\nthe desired results.\" Shen I thanked the goddess, took leave of her,\nand, returning to the Emperor, related to him all that had happened.\n\n\nKills Chisel-tooth\n\nOn reaching home, the archer hid his precious pill under a rafter,\nlest anyone should steal it, and then began the preparatory course\nin immortality.\n\nAt this time there appeared in the south a strange man named Tso Ch'ih,\n'Chisel-tooth.' He had round eyes and a long projecting tooth. He\nwas a well-known criminal. Yao ordered Shen I and his small band\nof brave followers to deal with this new enemy. This extraordinary\nman lived in a cave, and when Shen I and his men arrived he emerged\nbrandishing a padlock. Shen I broke his long tooth by shooting an\narrow at it, and Tso Ch'ih fled, but was struck in the back and laid\nlow by another arrow from Shen I. The victor took the broken tooth\nwith him as a trophy.\n\n\nHeng O flies to the Moon\n\nHeng O, during her husband's absence, saw a white light which seemed\nto issue from a beam in the roof, while a most delicious odour filled\nevery room. By the aid of a ladder she reached up to the spot whence\nthe light came, found the pill of immortality, and ate it. She suddenly\nfelt that she was freed from the operation of the laws of gravity\nand as if she had wings, and was just essaying her first flight when\nShen I returned. He went to look for his pill, and, not finding it,\nasked Heng O what had happened.\n\nThe young wife, seized with fear, opened the window and flew out. Shen\nI took his bow and pursued her. The moon was full, the night clear,\nand he saw his wife flying rapidly in front of him, only about the\nsize of a toad. Just when he was redoubling his pace to catch her up\na blast of wind struck him to the ground like a dead leaf.\n\nHeng O continued her flight until she reached a luminous sphere,\nshining like glass, of enormous size, and very cold. The only\nvegetation consisted of cinnamon-trees. No living being was to be\nseen. All of a sudden she began to cough, and vomited the covering\nof the pill of immortality, which was changed into a rabbit as white\nas the purest jade. This was the ancestor of the spirituality of the\n_yin_, or female, principle. Heng O noticed a bitter taste in her\nmouth, drank some dew, and, feeling hungry, ate some cinnamon. She\ntook up her abode in this sphere.\n\nAs to Shen I, he was carried by the hurricane up into a high\nmountain. Finding himself before the door of a palace, he was invited\nto enter, and found that it was the palace of Tung-hua Ti-chuen,\notherwise Tung Wang Kung, the husband of Hsi Wang Mu.\n\n\nThe Sun-palace and the Bird of Dawn\n\nThe God of the Immortals said to Shen I: \"You must not be annoyed\nwith Heng O. Everybody's fate is settled beforehand. Your labours\nare nearing an end, and you will become an Immortal. It was I who\nlet loose the whirlwind that brought you here. Heng O, through having\nborrowed the forces which by right belong to you, is now an Immortal\nin the Palace of the Moon. As for you, you deserve much for having\nso bravely fought the nine false suns. As a reward you shall have\nthe Palace of the Sun. Thus the _yin_ and the _yang_ will be united\nin marriage.\" This said, Tung-hua Ti-chuen ordered his servants to\nbring a red Chinese sarsaparilla cake, with a lunar talisman.\n\n\"Eat this cake,\" he said; \"it will protect you from the heat of the\nsolar hearth. And by wearing this talisman you will be able at will\nto visit the lunar palace of Heng O; but the converse does not hold\ngood, for your wife will not have access to the solar palace.\" This is\nwhy the light of the moon has its birth in the sun, and decreases in\nproportion to its distance from the sun, the moon being light or dark\naccording as the sun comes and goes. Shen I ate the sarsaparilla cake,\nattached the talisman to his body, thanked the god, and prepared to\nleave. Tung Wang Kung said to him: \"The sun rises and sets at fixed\ntimes; you do not yet know the laws of day and night; it is absolutely\nnecessary for you to take with you the bird with the golden plumage,\nwhich will sing to advise you of the exact times of the rising,\nculmination, and setting of the sun.\" \"Where is this bird to be\nfound?\" asked Shen I. \"It is the one you hear calling _Ia! Ia!_\nIt is the ancestor of the spirituality of the _yang_, or male,\nprinciple. Through having eaten the active principle of the sun,\nit has assumed the form of a three-footed bird, which perches on the\n_fu-sang_ tree [a tree said to grow at the place where the sun rises]\nin the middle of the Eastern Sea. This tree is several thousands of\nfeet in height and of gigantic girth. The bird keeps near the source\nof the dawn, and when it sees the sun taking his morning bath gives\nvent to a cry that shakes the heavens and wakes up all humanity. That\nis why I ordered Ling Chen-tzu to put it in a cage on T'ao-hua Shan,\nPeach-blossom Hill; since then its cries have been less harsh. Go\nand fetch it and take it to the Palace of the Sun. Then you will\nunderstand all the laws of the daily movements.\" He then wrote a\ncharm which Shen I was to present to Ling Chen-tzu to make him open\nthe cage and hand the golden bird over to him.\n\nThe charm worked, and Ling Chen-tzu opened the cage. The bird of\ngolden plumage had a sonorous voice and majestic bearing. \"This\nbird,\" he said, \"lays eggs which hatch out nestlings with red combs,\nwho answer him every morning when he starts crowing. He is usually\ncalled the cock of heaven, and the cocks down here which crow morning\nand evening are descendants of the celestial cock.\"\n\n\nShen I visits the Moon\n\nShen I, riding on the celestial bird, traversed the air and reached\nthe disk of the sun just at mid-day. He found himself carried into\nthe centre of an immense horizon, as large as the earth, and did not\nperceive the rotatory movement of the sun. He then enjoyed complete\nhappiness without care or trouble. The thought of the happy hours\npassed with his wife Heng O, however, came back to memory, and, borne\non a ray of sunlight, he flew to the moon. He saw the cinnamon-trees\nand the frozen-looking horizon. Going to a secluded spot, he found\nHeng O there all alone. On seeing him she was about to run away,\nbut Shen I took her hand and reassured her. \"I am now living in the\nsolar palace,\" he said; \"do not let the past annoy you.\" Shen I cut\ndown some cinnamon-trees, used them for pillars, shaped some precious\nstones, and so built a palace, which he named Kuang-han Kung, 'Palace\nof Great Cold.' From that time forth, on the fifteenth day of every\nmoon, he went to visit her in her palace. That is the conjunction of\nthe _yang_ and _yin_, male and female principles, which causes the\ngreat brilliancy of the moon at that epoch.\n\nShen I, on returning to his solar kingdom, built a wonderful palace,\nwhich he called the Palace of the Lonely Park.\n\nFrom that time the sun and moon each had their ruling sovereign. This\n_regime_ dates from the forty-ninth year (2309 B.C.) of Yao's reign.\n\nWhen the old Emperor was informed that Shen I and his wife had both\ngone up to Heaven he was much grieved to lose the man who had rendered\nhim such valuable service, and bestowed upon him the posthumous title\nof Tsung Pu, 'Governor of Countries.' In the representations of this\ngod and goddess the former is shown holding the sun, the latter the\nmoon. The Chinese add the sequel that Heng O became changed into a\ntoad, whose outline is traceable on the moon's surface.\n\n\nStar-worship\n\nThe star-deities are adored by parents on behalf of their children;\nthey control courtship and marriage, bring prosperity or adversity in\nbusiness, send pestilence and war, regulate rainfall and drought, and\ncommand angels and demons; so every event in life is determined by the\n'star-ruler' who at that time from the shining firmament manages the\ndestinies of men and nations. The worship is performed in the native\nhomes either by astrologers engaged for that purpose or by Taoist\npriests. In times of sickness, ten paper star-gods are arranged,\nfive good on one side and five bad on the other; a feast is placed\nbefore them, and it is supposed that when the bad have eaten enough\nthey will take their flight to the south-west; the propitiation of\nthe good star-gods is in the hope that they will expel the evil stars,\nand happiness thus be obtained.\n\nThe practical effect of this worship is seen in the following\nexamples taken from the Chinese list of one hundred and twenty-nine\nlucky and unlucky stars, which, with the sixty cycle-stars and the\ntwenty-eight constellations, besides a vast multitude of others, make\nup the celestial galaxy worshipped by China's millions: the Orphan\nStar enables a woman to become a man; the Star of Pleasure decides\non betrothals, binding the feet of those destined to be lovers with\nsilver cords; the Bonepiercing Star produces rheumatism; the Morning\nStar, if not worshipped, kills the father or mother during the year;\nthe Balustrade Star promotes lawsuits; the Three-corpse Star controls\nsuicide, the Peach-blossom Star lunacy; and so on.\n\n\nThe Herdsman and the Weaver-girl\n\nIn the myths and legends which have clustered about the observations of\nthe stars by the Chinese there are subjects for pictorial illustration\nwithout number. One of these stories is the fable of Aquila and Vega,\nknown in Chinese mythology as the Herdsman and the Weaver-girl. The\nlatter, the daughter of the Sun-god, was so constantly busied with her\nloom that her father became worried at her close habits and thought\nthat by marrying her to a neighbour, who herded cattle on the banks\nof the Silver Stream of Heaven (the Milky Way), she might awake to\na brighter manner of living.\n\nNo sooner did the maiden become wife than her habits and character\nutterly changed for the worse. She became not only very merry and\nlively, but quite forsook loom and needle, giving up her nights\nand days to play and idleness; no silly lover could have been more\nfoolish than she. The Sun-king, in great wrath at all this, concluded\nthat the husband was the cause of it, and determined to separate the\ncouple. So he ordered him to remove to the other side of the river of\nstars, and told him that hereafter they should meet only once a year,\non the seventh night of the seventh month. To make a bridge over the\nflood of stars, the Sun-king called myriads of magpies, who thereupon\nflew together, and, making a bridge, supported the poor lover on\ntheir wings and backs as if on a roadway of solid land. So, bidding\nhis weeping wife farewell, the lover-husband sorrowfully crossed the\nRiver of Heaven, and all the magpies instantly flew away. But the two\nwere separated, the one to lead his ox, the other to ply her shuttle\nduring the long hours of the day with diligent toil, and the Sun-king\nagain rejoiced in his daughter's industry.\n\nAt last the time for their reunion drew near, and only one fear\npossessed the loving wife. What if it should rain? For the River\nof Heaven is always full to the brim, and one extra drop causes a\nflood which sweeps away even the bird-bridge. But not a drop fell;\nall the heavens were clear. The magpies flew joyfully in myriads,\nmaking a way for the tiny feet of the little lady. Trembling with joy,\nand with heart fluttering more than the bridge of wings, she crossed\nthe River of Heaven and was in the arms of her husband. This she did\nevery year. The husband stayed on his side of the river, and the\nwife came to him on the magpie bridge, save on the sad occasions\nwhen it rained. So every year the people hope for clear weather,\nand the happy festival is celebrated alike by old and young.\n\nThese two constellations are worshipped principally by women, that\nthey may gain cunning in the arts of needlework and making of fancy\nflowers. Water-melons, fruits, vegetables, cakes, etc., are placed\nwith incense in the reception-room, and before these offerings are\nperformed the kneeling and the knocking of the head on the ground in\nthe usual way.\n\n\nThe Twenty-eight Constellations\n\nSacrifices were offered to these spirits by the Emperor on the marble\naltar of the Temple of Heaven, and by the high officials throughout\nthe provinces. Of the twenty-eight the following are regarded as\npropitious--namely, the Horned, Room, Tail, Sieve, Bushel, House,\nWall, Mound, Stomach, End, Bristling, Well, Drawn-bow, and Revolving\nConstellations; the Neck, Bottom, Heart, Cow, Female, Empty, Danger,\nAstride, Cock, Mixed, Demon, Willow, Star, Wing, are unpropitious.\n\nThe twenty-eight constellations seem to have become the abodes of gods\nas a result of the defeat of a Taoist Patriarch T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu,\nwho had espoused the cause of the tyrant Chou, when he and all his\nfollowers were slaughtered by the heavenly hosts in the terrible\ncatastrophe known as the Battle of the Ten Thousand Immortals. Chiang\nTzu-ya as a reward conferred on them the appanage of the twenty-eight\nconstellations. The five planets, Venus, Jupiter, Mercury, Mars, and\nSaturn, are also the abodes of stellar divinities, called the White,\nGreen, Black, Red, and Yellow Rulers respectively. Stars good and\nbad are all likewise inhabited by gods or demons.\n\n\nA Victim of Ta Chi\n\nConcerning Tzu-wei Hsing, the constellation Tzu-wei (north circumpolar\nstars), of which the stellar deity is Po I-k'ao, the following legend\nis related in the _Feng shen yen i_.\n\nPo I-k'ao was the eldest son of Wen Wang, and governed the kingdom\nduring the seven years that the old King Was detained as a prisoner of\nthe tyrant Chou. He did everything possible to procure his father's\nrelease. Knowing the tastes of the cruel King, he sent him for his\nharem ten of the prettiest women who could be found, accompanied by\nseven chariots made of perfumed wood, and a white-faced monkey of\nmarvellous intelligence. Besides these he included in his presents\na magic carpet, on which it was necessary only to sit in order to\nrecover immediately from the effects of drunkenness.\n\nUnfortunately for Po I-k'ao, Chou's favourite concubine, Ta\nChi, conceived a passion for him and had recourse to all sorts\nof ruses to catch him in her net; but his conduct was throughout\nirreproachable. Vexed by his indifference, she tried slander in order\nto bring about his ruin. But her calumnies did not at first have\nthe result she expected. Chou, after inquiry, was convinced of the\ninnocence of Po. But an accident spoiled everything. In the middle\nof an amusing _seance_ the monkey which had been given to the King\nby Po perceived some sweets in the hand of Ta Chi, and, jumping on\nto her body, snatched them from Her. The King and his concubine were\nfurious, Chou had the monkey killed forthwith, and Ta Chi accused Po\nI-k'ao of having brought the animal into the palace with the object\nof making an attempt on the lives of the King and herself. But the\nPrince explained that the monkey, being only an animal, could not\ngrasp even the first idea of entering into a conspiracy.\n\nShortly after this Po committed an unpardonable fault which changed\nthe goodwill of the King into mortal enmity. He allowed himself to\ngo so far as to suggest to the King that he should break off his\nrelations with this infamous woman, the source of all the woes which\nwere desolating the kingdom, and when Ta Chi on this account grossly\ninsulted him he struck her with his lute.\n\nFor this offence Ta Chi caused him to be crucified in the palace. Large\nnails were driven through his hands and feet, and his flesh was cut\noff in pieces. Not content with ruining Po I-k'ao, this wretched\nwoman wished also to ruin Wen Wang. She therefore advised the King to\nhave the flesh of the murdered man made up into rissoles and sent as\na present to his father. If he refused to eat the flesh of his own\nson he was to be accused of contempt for the King, and there would\nthus be a pretext for having him executed. Wen Wang, being versed in\ndivination and the science of the _pa kua_, Eight Trigrams, knew that\nthese rissoles contained the flesh of his son, and to avoid the snare\nspread for him he ate three of the rissoles in the presence of the\nroyal envoys. On their return the latter reported this to the King,\nwho found himself helpless on learning of Wen Wang's conduct.\n\nPo I-k'ao was canonized by Chiang Tzu-ya, and appointed ruler of the\nconstellation Tzu-wei of the North Polar heavens.\n\n\nMyths of Time\n\nT'ai Sui is the celestial spirit who presides over the year. He\nis the President of the Ministry of Time. This god is much to\nbe feared. Whoever offends against him is sure to be destroyed. He\nstrikes when least expected to. T'ai Sui is also the Ministry itself,\nwhose members, numbering a hundred and twenty, are set over time,\nyears, months, and days. The conception is held by some writers to\nbe of Chaldeo-Assyrian origin.\n\nThe god T'ai Sui is not mentioned in the T'ang and Sung rituals, but in\nthe Yuean dynasty (A.D. 1280-1368) sacrifices were offered to him in the\nCollege of the Grand Historiographer whenever any work of importance\nwas about to be undertaken. Under this dynasty the sacrifices were\noffered to T'ai Sui and to the ruling gods of the months and of the\ndays. But these sacrifices were not offered at regular times: it\nwas only at the beginning of the Ch'ing (Manchu) dynasty (1644-1912)\nthat it was decided to offer the sacrifices at fixed periods.\n\n\nThe Planet Jupiter\n\nT'ai Sui corresponds to the planet Jupiter. He travels across the\nsky, passing through the twelve sidereal mansions. He is a stellar\ngod. Therefore an altar is raised to him and sacrifices are offered\non it under the open sky. This practice dates from the beginning of\nthe Ming dynasty, when the Emperor T'ai Tsu ordered sacrifices to\nthis god to be made throughout the Empire. According to some authors,\nhe corresponds to the god of the twelve sidereal mansions. He is also\nvariously represented as the moon, which turns to the left in the sky,\nand the sun, which turns to the right. The diviners gave to T'ai Sui\nthe title of Grand Marshal, following the example of the usurper Wang\nMang (A.D. 9-23) of the Western Han dynasty, who gave that title to\nthe year-star.\n\n\nLegend of T'ai Sui\n\nThe following is the legend of T'ai Sui.\n\nT'ai Sui was the son of the Emperor Chou, the last of the Yin\ndynasty. His mother was Queen Chiang. When he was born he looked\nlike a lump of formless flesh. The infamous Ta Chi, the favourite\nconcubine of this wicked Emperor, at once informed him that a monster\nhad been born in the palace, and the over-credulous sovereign ordered\nthat it should immediately be cast outside the city. Shen Chen-jen,\nwho was passing, saw the small abandoned one, and said: \"This is an\nImmortal who has just been born.\" With his knife he cut open the caul\nwhich enveloped it, and the child was exposed.\n\nHis protector carried him to the cave Shui Lien, where he led the\nlife of a hermit, and entrusted the infant to Ho Hsien-ku, who acted\nas his nurse and brought him up.\n\nThe child's hermit-name was Yin Ting-nu, his ordinary name Yin\nNo-cha, but during his boyhood he was known as Yin Chiao, _i.e._\n'Yin the Deserted of the Suburb,' When he had reached an age when he\nwas sufficiently intelligent, his nurse informed him that he was not\nher son, but really the son of the Emperor Chou, who, deceived by the\ncalumnies of his favourite Ta Chi, had taken him for an evil monster\nand had him cast out of the palace. His mother had been thrown down\nfrom an upper storey and killed. Yin Chiao went to his rescuer and\nbegged him to allow him to avenge his mother's death. The Goddess\nT'ien Fei, the Heavenly Concubine, picked out two magic weapons from\nthe armoury in the cave, a battle-axe and club, both of gold, and\ngave them to Yin Chiao. When the Shang army was defeated at Mu Yeh,\nYin Chiao broke into a tower where Ta Chi was, seized her, and brought\nher before the victor, King Wu, who gave him permission to split her\nhead open with his battle-axe. But Ta Chi was a spiritual hen-pheasant\n(some say a spiritual vixen). She transformed herself into smoke and\ndisappeared. To reward Yin Chiao for his filial piety and bravery\nin fighting the demons, Yue Ti canonized him with the title T'ai Sui\nMarshal Yin.\n\nAccording to another version of the legend, Yin Chiao fought on\nthe side of the Yin against Wu Wang, and after many adventures was\ncaught by Jan Teng between two mountains, which he pressed together,\nleaving only Yin Chiao's head exposed above the summits. The general\nWu Chi promptly cut it off with a spade. Chiang Tz[u)]-ya subsequently\ncanonized Yin Chiao.\n\n\nWorship of T'ai Sui\n\nThe worship of T'ai Sui seems to have first taken place in the reign\nof Shen Tsung (A.D. 1068-86) of the Sung dynasty, and was continued\nduring the remainder of the Monarchical Period. The object of the\nworship is to avert calamities, T'ai Sui being a dangerous spirit\nwho can do injury to palaces and cottages, to people in their houses\nas well as to travellers on the roads. But he has this peculiarity,\nthat he injures persons and things not in the district in which he\nhimself is, but in those districts which adjoin it. Thus, if some\nconstructive work is undertaken in a region where T'ai Sui happens\nto be, the inhabitants of the neighbouring districts take precautions\nagainst his evil influence. This they generally do by hanging out the\nappropriate talisman. In order to ascertain in what region T'ai Sui\nis at any particular time, an elaborate diagram is consulted. This\nconsists of a representation of the twelve terrestrial branches\nor stems, _ti chih_> and the ten celestial trunks, _t'ien kan,_\nindicating the cardinal points and the intermediate points, north-east,\nnorth-west, south-east, and south-west. The four cardinal points are\nfurther verified with the aid of the Five Elements, the Five Colours,\nand the Eight Trigrams. By using this device, it is possible to find\nthe geographical position of T'ai Sui during the current year, the\nposition of threatened districts, and the methods to be employed to\nprovide against danger.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI\n\nMyths of Thunder, Lightning, Wind, and Rain\n\n\nThe Ministry of Thunder and Storms\n\nAs already noted, affairs in the Otherworld are managed by official\nBureaux or Ministries very similar to those on earth. The _Feng shen\nyen i_ mentions several of these, and gives full details of their\nconstitution. The first is the Ministry of Thunder and Storms. This\nis composed of a large number of officials. The principal ones are\nLei Tsu, the Ancestor of Thunder, Lei Kung, the Duke of Thunder, Tien\nMu, the Mother of Lightning, Feng Po, the Count of Wind, and Y['u]\nShih, the Master of Rain. These correspond to the Buddhist Asuras,\nthe \"fourth class of sentient beings, the mightiest of all demons,\ntitanic enemies of the Devas,\" and the Vedic Maruta, storm-demons. In\nthe temples Lei Tsu is placed in the centre with the other four to\nright and left. There are also sometimes represented other gods of\nrain, or attendants. These are Hsing T'ien Chuen and T'ao T'ien Chuen,\nboth officers of Wen Chung, or Lei Tsu, Ma Yuean-shuai, Generalissimo\nMa, whose exploits are referred to later, and others.\n\n\nThe President of the Ministry of Thunder\n\nThis divinity has three eyes, one in the middle of his forehead, from\nwhich, when open, a ray of white light proceeds to a distance of more\nthan two feet. Mounted on a black unicorn, he traverses millions of\nmiles in the twinkling of an eye.\n\nHis origin is ascribed to a man named Wen Chung, generally known\nas Wen Chung T'ai-shih, 'the Great Teacher Wen Chung,' He was\na minister of the tyrant king Chou (1154-1122 B.C.), and fought\nagainst the armies of the Chou dynasty. Being defeated, he fled\nto the mountains of Yen, Yen Shan, where he met Ch'ih Ching-tzu,\none of the alleged discoverers of fire, and joined battle with him;\nthe latter, however, flashed his _yin-yang_ mirror at the unicorn,\nand put it out of action. Lei Chen-tzu, one of Wu Wang's marshals,\nthen struck the animal with his staff, and severed it in twain.\n\nWen Chung escaped in the direction of the mountains of Chueeh-lung Ling,\nwhere another marshal, Yuen Chung-tzu, barred his way. Yuen's hands had\nthe power of producing lightning, and eight columns of mysterious fire\nsuddenly came out of the earth, completely enveloping Wen Chung. They\nwere thirty feet high and ten feet in circumference. Ninety fiery\ndragons came out of each and flew away up into the air. The sky was\nlike a furnace, and the earth shook with the awful claps of thunder. In\nthis fiery prison Wen Chung died.\n\nWhen the new dynasty finally proved victorious, Chiang Tzu-ya, by\norder of Yuean-shih T'ien-tsun, conferred on Wen Chung the supreme\ndirection of the Ministry of Thunder, appointing him celestial prince\nand plenipotentiary defender of the laws governing the distribution of\nclouds and rain. His full title was Celestial and Highly-honoured Head\nof the Nine Orbits of the Heavens, Voice of the Thunder, and Regulator\nof the Universe. His birthday is celebrated on the twenty-fourth day\nof the sixth moon.\n\n\nThe Duke of Thunder\n\nThe Spirit of Thunder, for whom Lei Tsu is often mistaken, is\nrepresented as an ugly, black, bat-winged demon, with clawed feet,\nmonkey's head, and eagle's beak, who holds in one hand a steel\nchisel, and in the other a spiritual hammer, with which he beats\nnumerous drums strung about him, thus producing the terrific noise\nof thunder. According to Chinese reasoning it is the sound of these\ndrums, and not the lightning, which causes death.\n\nA. Gruenwedel, in his _Guide to the Lamaist Collection of Prince\nUchtomsky,_ p. 161, states that the Chino-Japanese God of Thunder,\nLei Kung, has the shape of the Indian divine bird Garuda. Are we to\nsuppose, then, that the Chinese Lei Kung is of Indian origin? In modern\npictures the God of Thunder is depicted with a cock's head and claws,\ncarrying in one hand the hammer, in the other the chisel. We learn,\nhowever, from Wang Ch'ung's _Lun Heng_ that in the first century B.C.,\nwhen Buddhism was not yet introduced into China, the 'Thunderer' was\nrepresented as a strong man, not as a bird, with one hand dragging\na cluster of drums, and with the other brandishing a hammer. Thus\nLei Kung existed already in China when the latter received her first\nknowledge of India. Yet his modern image may well owe its wings to the\nIndian rain-god Vajrapani, who in one form appears with Garuda wings.\n\nLei Kung P'u-sa, the avatar of Lei Kung (whose existence as the Spirit\nof Thunder is denied by at least one Chinese writer), has made various\nappearances on the earth. One of these is described below.\n\n\nLei Kung in the Tree\n\nA certain Yeh Ch'ien-chao of Hsin Chou, when a youth, used to climb\nthe mountain Chien-ch'ang Shan for the purpose of cutting firewood and\ncollecting medicinal herbs. One day when he had taken refuge under\na tree during a rain-storm there was a loud clap of thunder, and he\nsaw a winged being, with a blue face, large mouth, and bird's claws,\ncaught in a cleft of the tree. This being addressed Yeh, saying:\n\"I am Lei Kung. In splitting this tree I got caught in it; if you\nwill free me I will reward you handsomely.\" The woodcutter opened the\ncleft wider by driving in some stones as wedges, and liberated the\nprisoner. \"Return to this spot to-morrow,\" said the latter, \"and I\nwill reward you.\" The next day the woodcutter kept the appointment,\nand received from Lei Kung a book. \"If you consult this work,\" he\nexplained, \"you will be able at will to bring thunder or rain, cure\nsickness, or assuage sorrow. We are five brothers, of whom I am the\nyoungest. When you want to bring rain call one or other of my brothers;\nbut call me only in case of pressing necessity, because I have a bad\ncharacter; but I will come if it is really necessary.\" Having said\nthese words, he disappeared.\n\nYeh Ch'ien-chao, by means of the prescriptions contained in the\nmysterious book, could cure illnesses as easily as the sun dissipates\nthe morning mist. One day, when he was intoxicated and had gone to\nbed in the temple of Chi-chou Ssu, the magistrate wished to arrest and\npunish him. But when he reached the steps of the _yamen_, Ch'ien-chao\ncalled Lei Kung to his aid. A terrible clap of thunder immediately\nresounded throughout the district. The magistrate, nearly dead with\nfright, at once dismissed the case without punishing the culprit. The\nfour brothers never failed to come to his aid.\n\nBy the use of his power Ch'ien-chao saved many regions from famine\nby bringing timely rain.\n\n\n\nThe Mysterious Bottle\n\nAnother legend relates that an old woman living in Kiangsi had her arm\nbroken through being struck by lightning, when a voice from above was\nheard saying: \"I have made a mistake.\" A bottle fell out of space, and\nthe voice again said: \"Apply the contents and you will be healed at\nonce.\" This being done, the old woman's arm was promptly mended. The\nvillagers, regarding the contents of the bottle as divine medicine,\nwished to take it away and hide it for future use, but several of\nthem together could not lift it from the ground. Suddenly, however,\nit rose up and disappeared into space. Other persons in Kiangsi were\nalso struck, and the same voice was heard to say: \"Apply some grubs\nto the throat and they will recover.\" After this had been done the\nvictims returned to consciousness none the worse for their experience.\n\nThe worship of Lei Kung seems to have been carried on regularly from\nabout the time of the Christian era.\n\n\nLei Chen-tzu\n\nAnother Son of Thunder is Lei Chen-tzu, mentioned above, whose name\nwhen a child was Wen Yue, who was hatched from an egg after a clap\nof thunder and found by the soldiers of Wen Wang in some brushwood\nnear an old tomb. The infant's chief characteristic was its brilliant\neyes. Wen Wang, who already had ninety-nine children, adopted it as\nhis hundredth, but gave it to a hermit named Yuen Chung-tzu to rear\nas his disciple. The hermit showed him the way to rescue his adopted\nfather from the tyrant who held him prisoner. In seeking for some\npowerful weapon the child found on the hillside two apricots, and\nate them both. He then noticed that wings had grown on his shoulders,\nand was too much ashamed to return home.\n\nBut the hermit, who knew intuitively what had taken place, sent a\nservant to seek him. When they met the servant said: \"Do you know that\nyour face is completely altered?\" The mysterious fruit had not only\ncaused Lei Chen-tzu to grow wings, known as Wings of the Wind and\nThunder, but his face had become green, his nose long and pointed,\nand two tusks protruded horizontally from each side of his mouth,\nwhile his eyes shone like mirrors.\n\nLei Chen-tzu now went and rescued Wen Wang, dispersing his enemies\nby means of his mystical power and bringing the old man back on his\nshoulders. Having placed him in safety he returned to the hermit.\n\n\nThe Mother of Lightning\n\nThis divinity is represented as a female figure, gorgeously apparelled\nin blue, green, red, and white, holding in either hand a mirror from\nwhich proceed two broad streams or flashes of light. Lightning, say\nthe Chinese, is caused by the rubbing together of the _yin_ and the\n_yang_, just as sparks of fire may be produced by the friction of\ntwo substances.\n\n\nThe Origin of the Spirit of Lightning\n\nTung Wang Kung, the King of the Immortals, was playing at pitch-pot\n[23] with Yue Nue. He lost; whereupon Heaven smiled, and from its\nhalf-open mouth a ray of light came out. This was lightning; it is\nregarded as feminine because it is supposed to come from the earth,\nwhich is of the _yin_, or female, principle.\n\n\nThe God of the Wind\n\nFeng Po, the God of the Wind, is represented as an old man with a\nwhite beard, yellow cloak, and blue and red cap. He holds a large\nsack, and directs the wind which comes from its mouth in any direction\nhe pleases.\n\nThere are various ideas regarding the nature of this deity. He is\nregarded as a stellar divinity under the control of the star Ch'i,\n[24] because the wind blows at the time when the moon leaves that\ncelestial mansion. He is also said to be a dragon called Fei Lien, at\nfirst one of the supporters of the rebel Ch'ih Yu, who was defeated\nby Huang Ti. Having been transformed into a spiritual monster, he\nstirred up tremendous winds in the southern regions. The Emperor\nYao sent Shen I with three hundred soldiers to quiet the storms and\nappease Ch'ih Yu's relatives, who were wreaking their vengeance on the\npeople. Shen I ordered the people to spread a long cloth in front of\ntheir houses, fixing it with stones. The wind, blowing against this,\nhad to change its direction. Shen I then flew on the wind to the top\nof a high mountain, whence he saw a monster at the base. It had the\nshape of a huge yellow and white sack, and kept inhaling and exhaling\nin great gusts. Shen I, concluding that this was the cause of all\nthese storms, shot an arrow and hit the monster, whereupon it took\nrefuge in a deep cave. Here it turned on Shen I and, drawing a sword,\ndared him to attack the Mother of the Winds. Shen I, however, bravely\nfaced the monster and discharged another arrow, this time hitting it\nin the knee. The monster immediately threw down its sword and begged\nthat its life might be spared.\n\nFei Lien is elsewhere described as a dragon who was originally one of\nthe wicked ministers of the tyrant Chou, and could walk with unheard-of\nswiftness. Both he and his son O Lai, who was so strong that he could\ntear a tiger or rhinoceros to pieces with his hands, were killed when\nin the service of Chou Wang. Fei Lien is also said to have the body\nof a stag, about the size of a leopard, with a bird's head, horns,\nand a serpent's tail, and to be able to make the wind blow whenever\nhe wishes.\n\n\nThe Master of Rain\n\nYue Shih, the Master of Rain, clad in yellow scale-armour, with a blue\nhat and yellow busby, stands on a cloud and from a watering-can pours\nrain upon the earth. Like many other gods, however, he is represented\nin various forms. Sometimes he holds a plate, on which is a small\ndragon, in his left hand, while with his right he pours down the\nrain. He is obviously the Parjanya of Vedism.\n\nAccording to a native account, the God of Rain is one Ch'ih Sung-tzu,\nwho appeared during a terrible drought in the reign of Shen Nung\n(2838-2698 B.C.), and owing to his reputed magical power was requested\nby the latter to bring rain from the sky. \"Nothing is easier,\" he\nreplied; \"pour a bottleful of water into an earthen bowl and give it\nto me.\" This being done, he plucked from a neighbouring mountain a\nbranch of a tree, soaked it in the water, and with it sprinkled the\nearth. Immediately clouds gathered and rain fell in torrents, filling\nthe rivers to overflowing. Ch'ih Sung-tzu was then honoured as the God\nof Rain, and his images show him holding the mystic bowl. He resides\nin the K'un-lun Mountains, and has many extraordinary peculiarities,\nsuch as the power to go through water without getting wet, to pass\nthrough fire without being burned, and to float in space.\n\nThis Rain-god also assumes the form of a silkworm chrysalis in\nanother account. He is there believed to possess a concubine who has\na black face, holds a serpent in each hand, and has other serpents,\nred and green, reposing on her right and left ears respectively;\nalso a mysterious bird, with only one leg, the _shang yang_, which\ncan change its height at will and drink the seas dry. The following\nlegend is related of this bird.\n\n\nThe One-legged Bird\n\nAt the time when Hsuean-ming Ta-jen instructed Fei Lien in the secrets\nof magic, the latter saw a wonderful bird which drew in water with its\nbeak and blew it out again in the shape of rain. Fei lien tamed it,\nand would take it about in his sleeve.\n\nLater on a one-legged bird was seen in the palace of the Prince of\nCh'i walking up and down and hopping in front of the throne. Being\nmuch puzzled, the Prince sent a messenger to Lu to inquire of Confucius\nconcerning this strange behaviour. \"This bird is a _shang yang_\" said\nConfucius; \"its appearance is a sign of rain. In former times the\nchildren used to amuse themselves by hopping on one foot, knitting\ntheir eyebrows, and saying: 'It will rain, because the _shang yang_\nis disporting himself.' Since this bird has gone to Ch'i, heavy rain\nwill fall, and the people should be told to dig channels and repair\nthe dykes, for the whole country will be inundated.\" Not only Ch'i, but\nall the adjacent kingdoms were flooded; all sustained grievous damage\nexcept Ch'i, where the necessary precautions had been taken. This\ncaused Duke Ching to exclaim: \"Alas! how few listen to the words of\nthe sages!\"\n\n\nMa Yuean-shuai\n\nMa Yuean-shuai is a three-eyed monster condemned by Ju Lai to\nreincarnation for excessive cruelty in the extermination of evil\nspirits. In order to obey this command he entered the womb of Ma\nChin-mu in the form of five globes of fire. Being a precocious youth,\nhe could fight when only three days old, and killed the Dragon-king\nof the Eastern Sea. From his instructor he received a spiritual work\ndealing with wind, thunder, snakes, etc., and a triangular piece of\nstone which he could at will change into anything he liked. By order of\nYue Ti he subdued the Spirits of the Wind and Fire, the Blue Dragon,\nthe King of the Five Dragons, and the Spirit of the Five Hundred\nFire Ducks, all without injury to himself. For these and many other\nenterprises he was rewarded by Yue Ti with various magic articles\nand with the title of Generalissimo of the West, and is regarded as\nso successful an interceder with Yue Ti that he is prayed to for all\nsorts of benefits.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII\n\nMyths of the Waters\n\n\nThe Dragons\n\nThe dragons are spirits of the waters. \"The dragon is a kind of being\nwhose miraculous changes are inscrutable.\" In a sense the dragon\nis the type of a man, self-controlled, and with powers that verge\nupon the supernatural. In China the dragon, except as noted below,\nis not a power for evil, but a beneficent being producing rain and\nrepresenting the fecundating principle in nature. He is the essence\nof the _yang_, or male, principle. \"He controls the rain, and so\nholds in his power prosperity and peace.\" The evil dragons are those\nintroduced by the Buddhists, who applied the current dragon legends\nto the _nagas_ inhabiting the mountains. These mountain _nagas_, or\ndragons (perhaps originally dreaded mountain tribes), are harmful,\nthose inhabiting lakes and rivers friendly and helpful. The dragon,\nthe \"chief of the three hundred and sixty scaly reptiles,\" is most\ngenerally represented as having the head of a horse and the tail of a\nsnake, with wings on its sides. It has four legs. The imperial dragon\nhas five claws on each foot, other dragons only four. The dragon is\nalso said to have nine 'resemblances': \"its horns resemble those of\na deer, its head that of a camel, its eyes those of a devil, its neck\nthat of a snake, its abdomen that of a large cockle, its scales those\nof a carp, its claws those of an eagle, the soles of its feet those of\na tiger, its ears those of an ox;\" but some have no ears, the organ of\nhearing being said to be in the horns, or the creature \"hears through\nits horns.\" These various properties are supposed to indicate the\n\"fossil remnants of primitive worship of many animals.\" The small\ndragon is like the silk caterpillar. The large dragon fills the Heaven\nand the earth. Before the dragon, sometimes suspended from his neck,\nis a pearl. This represents the sun. There are azure, scaly, horned,\nhornless, winged, etc., dragons, which apparently evolve one out\nof the other: \"a horned dragon,\" for example, \"in a thousand years\nchanges to a flying dragon.\"\n\nThe dragon is also represented as the father of the great emperors\nof ancient times. His bones, teeth, and saliva are employed as a\nmedicine. He has the power of transformation and of rendering himself\nvisible or invisible at pleasure. In the spring he ascends to the\nskies, and in the autumn buries himself in the watery depths. Some are\nwingless, and rise into the air by their own inherent power. There is\nthe celestial dragon, who guards the mansions of the gods and supports\nthem so that they do not fall; the divine dragon, who causes the winds\nto blow and produces rain for the benefit of mankind; the earth-dragon,\nwho marks out the courses of rivers and streams; and the dragon of the\nhidden treasures, who watches over the wealth concealed from mortals.\n\nThe Buddhists count their dragons in number equal to the fish of the\ngreat deep, which defies arithmetical computation, and can be expressed\nonly by their sacred numerals. The people have a more certain faith\nin them than in most of their divinities, because they see them so\noften; every cloud with a curious configuration or serpentine tail\nis a dragon. \"We see him,\" they say. The scattering of the cloud is\nhis disappearance. He rules the hills, is connected with _feng-shui_\n(geomancy), dwells round the graves, is associated with the Confucian\nworship, is the Neptune of the sea, and appears on dry land.\n\n\nThe Dragon-kings\n\nThe Sea-dragon Kings live in gorgeous palaces in the depths of the\nsea, where they feed on pearls and opals. There are five of these\ndivinities, the chief being in the centre, and the other four occupying\nthe north, the west, the south, and the east. Each is a league in\nlength, and so bulky that in shifting its posture it tosses one\nmountain against another. It has five feet, one of them being in the\nmiddle of its belly, and each foot is armed with five sharp claws. It\ncan reach into the heavens, and stretch itself into all quarters of\nthe sea. It has a glowing armour of yellow scales, a beard under its\nlong snout, a hairy tail, and shaggy legs. Its forehead projects over\nits blazing eyes, its ears are small and thick, its mouth gaping,\nits tongue long, and its teeth sharp. Fish are boiled by the blast of\nits breath, and roasted by the fiery exhalations of its body. When it\nrises to the surface the whole ocean surges, waterspouts foam, and\ntyphoons rage. When it flies, wingless, through the air, the winds\nhowl, torrents of rain descend, houses are unroofed, the firmament\nis filled with a din, and whatever lies along its route is swept away\nwith a roar in the hurricane created by the speed of its passage.\n\nThe five Sea-dragon Kings are all immortal. They know each other's\nthoughts, plans, and wishes without intercommunication. Like all the\nother gods they go once a year to the superior Heavens, to make an\nannual report to the Supreme Ruler; but they go in the third month,\nat which time none of the other gods dare appear, and their stay\nabove is but brief. They generally remain in the depths of the ocean,\nwhere their courts are filled with their progeny, their dependents,\nand their attendants, and where the gods and genii sometimes visit\nthem. Their palaces, of divers coloured transparent stones, with\ncrystal doors, are said to have been seen in the early morning by\npersons gazing into the deep waters.\n\n\nThe Foolish Dragon\n\nThe part of the great Buddha legend referring to the dragon is\nas follows:\n\nIn years gone by, a dragon living in the great sea saw that his wife's\nhealth was not good. He, seeing her colour fade away, said: \"My dear,\nwhat shall I get you to eat?\" Mrs Dragon was silent. Just tell me and\nI will get it,\" pleaded the affectionate husband. \"You cannot do it;\nwhy trouble?\" quoth she. \"Trust me, and you shall have your heart's\ndesire,\" said the dragon. \"Well, I want a monkey's heart to eat.\" \"Why,\nMrs Dragon, the monkeys live in the mountain forests! How can I get\none of their hearts?\" \"Well, I am going to die; I know I am.\"\n\nForthwith the dragon went on shore, and, spying a monkey on the top\nof a tree, said: \"Hail, shining one, are you not afraid you will\nfall?\" \"No, I have no such fear.\" \"Why eat of one tree? Cross the\nsea, and you will find forests of fruit and flowers.\" \"How can I\ncross?\" \"Get on my back.\" The dragon with his tiny load went seaward,\nand then suddenly dived down. \"Where are you going?\" said the monkey,\nwith the salt water in his eyes and mouth. \"Oh! my dear sir! my wife\nis very sad and ill, and has taken a fancy to your heart.\" \"What\nshall I do?\" thought the monkey. He then spoke, \"Illustrious friend,\nwhy did not you tell me? I left my heart on the top of the tree;\ntake me back, and I will get it for Mrs Dragon.\" The dragon returned\nto the shore. As the monkey was tardy in coming down from the tree,\nthe dragon said: \"Hurry up, little friend, I am waiting.\" Then the\nmonkey thought within himself, \"What a fool this dragon is!\"\n\nThen Buddha said to his followers: \"At this time I was the monkey.\"\n\n\nThe Ministry of Waters\n\nIn the spirit-world there is a Ministry which controls all things\nconnected with the waters on earth, salt or fresh. Its main\ndivisions are the Department of Salt Waters, presided over by four\nDragon-kings--those of the East, South, West, and North--and the\nDepartment of Sweet Waters, presided over by the Four Kings (_Ssu\nTu_) of the four great rivers--the Blue (Chiang), Yellow (Ho), Huai,\nand Ch'i--and the Dragon-spirits who control the Secondary Waters, the\nrivers, springs, lakes, pools, rapids. Into the names and functions of\nthe very large number of officials connected with these departments\nit is unnecessary to enter. It will be sufficient here to refer only\nto those whose names are connected with myth or legend.\n\n\nAn Unauthorized Portrait\n\nOne of these legends relates to the visit of Ch'in Shih Huang-ti,\nthe First Emperor, to the Spirit of the Sea, Yang Hou, originally\na marquis (_bou_) of the State Yang, who became a god through being\ndrowned in the sea.\n\nPo Shih, a Taoist priest, told the Emperor that an enormous oyster\nvomited from the sea a mysterious substance which accumulated in the\nform of a tower, and was known as 'the market of the sea' (Chinese for\n'mirage'). Every year, at a certain period, the breath from his mouth\nwas like the rays of the sun. The Emperor expressed a wish to see\nit, and Po Shih said he would write a letter to the God of the Sea,\nand the next day the Emperor could behold the wonderful sight.\n\nThe Emperor then remembered a dream he had had the year before in\nwhich he saw two men fighting for the sun. The one killed the other,\nand carried it off. He therefore wished to visit the country where\nthe sun rose. Po Shih said that all that was necessary was to throw\nrocks into the sea and build a bridge across them. Thereupon he\nrang his magic bell, the earth shook, and rocks began to rise up;\nbut as they moved too slowly he struck them with his whip, and blood\ncame from them which left red marks in many places. The row of rocks\nextended as far as the shore of the sun-country, but to build the\nbridge across them was found to be beyond the reach of human skill.\n\nSo Po Shih sent another messenger to the God of the Sea, requesting\nhim to raise a pillar and place a beam across it which could be used\nas a bridge. The submarine spirits came and placed themselves at the\nservice of the Emperor, who asked for an interview with the god. To\nthis the latter agreed on condition that no one should make a portrait\nof him, he being very ugly. Instantly a stone gangway 100,000 feet\nlong rose out of the sea, and the Emperor, mounting his horse, went\nwith his courtiers to the palace of the god. Among his followers was\none Lu Tung-shih, who tried to draw a portrait of the god by using\nhis foot under the surface of the water. Detecting this manoeuvre,\nthe god was incensed, and said to the Emperor: \"You have broken your\nword; did you bring Lu here to insult me? Retire at once, or evil will\nbefall you.\" The Emperor, seeing that the situation was precarious,\nmounted his horse and galloped off. As soon as he reached the beach,\nthe stone cause-way sank, and all his suite perished in the waves. One\nof the Court magicians said to the Emperor: \"This god ought to be\nfeared as much as the God of Thunder; then he could be made to help\nus. To-day a grave mistake has been made.\" For several days after\nthis incident the waves beat upon the beach with increasing fury. The\nEmperor then built a temple and a pagoda to the god on Chih-fu Shan\nand Wen-teng Shan respectively; by which act of propitiation he was\napparently appeased.\n\n\nThe Shipwrecked Servant\n\nOnce the Eight Immortals (see Chapter XI) were on their way to\nCh'ang-li Shan to celebrate the birthday anniversary of Hsien Weng,\nthe God of Longevity. They had with them a servant who bore the\npresents they intended to offer to the god. When they reached the\nseashore the Immortals walked on the waves without any difficulty,\nbut Lan Ts'ai-ho remarked that the servant was unable to follow them,\nand said that a means of transport must be found for him. So Ts'ao\nKuo-chiu took a plank of cypress-wood and made a raft. But when they\nwere in mid-ocean a typhoon arose and upset the raft, and servant\nand presents sank to the bottom of the sea.\n\nRegarding this as the hostile act of a water-devil, the Immortals said\nthey must demand an explanation from the Dragon-king, Ao Ch'in. Li\nT'ieh-kuai took his gourd, and, directing the mouth toward the bottom\nof the sea, created so brilliant a light that it illuminated the whole\npalace of the Sea-king. Ao Ch'in, surprised, asked where this powerful\nlight originated, and deputed a courier to ascertain its cause.\n\nTo this messenger the Immortals made their complaint. \"All we want,\"\nthey added, \"is that the Dragon-king shall restore to us our servant\nand the presents.\" On this being reported to Ao Ch'in he suspected\nhis son of being the cause, and, having established his guilt,\nseverely reprimanded him. The young Prince took his sword, and,\nfollowed by an escort, went to find those who had made the complaint\nto his father. As soon as he caught sight of the Immortals he began\nto inveigh against them.\n\n\nA Battle and its Results\n\nHan Hsiang Tzu, not liking this undeserved abuse, changed his flute\ninto a fishing-line, and as soon as the Dragon-prince was within reach\ncaught him on the hook, with intent to retain him as a hostage. The\nPrince's escort returned in great haste and informed Ao Ch'in of\nwhat had occurred. The latter declared that his son was in the wrong,\nand proposed to restore the shipwrecked servant and the presents. The\nCourt officers, however, held a different opinion. \"These Immortals,\"\nthey said, \"dare to hold captive your Majesty's son merely on account\nof a few lost presents and a shipwrecked servant. This is a great\ninsult, which we ask permission to avenge.\" Eventually they won\nover Ao Ch'in, and the armies of the deep gathered for the fray. The\nImmortals called to their aid the other Taoist Immortals and Heroes,\nand thus two formidable armies found themselves face to face.\n\nSeveral attempts were made by other divinities to avert the conflict,\nbut without success. The battle was a strenuous one. Ao Ch'in received\na ball of fire full on his head, and his army was threatened with\ndisaster when Tz'u-hang Ta-shih appeared with his bottle of lustral\nwater. He sprinkled the combatants with this magic fluid, using a\nwillow-branch for the purpose, thus causing all their magic powers\nto disappear.\n\nShui Kuan, the Ruler of the Watery Elements, then arrived, and\nreproached Ao Ch'in; he assured him that if the matter were to\ncome to the knowledge of Shang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, he would not\nonly be severely punished, but would risk losing his post. Ao Ch'in\nexpressed penitence, restored the servant and the presents, and made\nfull apology to the Eight Immortals.\n\n\nThe Dragon in the Pond\n\nOne day Chang Tao-ling, the 'father of modern Taoism,' was on\nHo-ming Shan with his disciple Wang Ch'ang. \"See,\" he said, \"that\nshaft of white light on Yang Shan yonder! There are undoubtedly\nsome bad spirits there. Let us go and bring them to reason.\" When\nthey reached the foot of the mountain they met twelve women who had\nthe appearance of evil spirits. Chang Tao-ling asked them whence\ncame the shaft of white light. They answered that it was the _yin_,\nor female, principle of the earth. \"Where is the source of the salt\nwater?\" he asked again. \"That pond in front of you,\" they replied,\n\"in which lives a very wicked dragon.\" Chang Tao-ling tried to force\nthe dragon to come out, but without success. Then he drew a phoenix\nwith golden wings on a charm and hurled it into the air over the\npond. Thereupon the dragon took fright and fled, the pond immediately\ndrying up. After that Chang Tao-ling took his sword and stuck it in\nthe ground, whereupon a well full of salt water appeared on the spot.\n\n\nThe Spirits of the Well\n\nThe twelve women each offered Chang Tao-ling a jade ring, and asked\nthat they might become his wives. He took the rings, and pressing\nthem together in his hands made of them one large single ring. \"I\nwill throw this ring into the well,\" he said, \"and the one of you\nwho recovers it shall be my wife.\" All the twelve women jumped into\nthe well to get the ring; whereupon Chang Tao-ling put a cover over\nit and fastened it down, telling them that henceforth they should be\nthe spirits of the well and would never be allowed to come out.\n\nShortly after this Chang Tao-ling met a hunter. He exhorted him not\nto kill living beings, but to change his occupation to that of a\nsalt-burner, instructing him how to draw out the salt from salt-water\nwells. Thus the people of that district were advantaged both by being\nable to obtain the salt and by being no longer molested by the twelve\nfemale spirits. A temple, called Temple of the Prince of Ch'ing Ho,\nwas built by them, and the territory of Ling Chou was given to Chang\nTao-ling in recognition of the benefits he had conferred upon the\npeople.\n\n\nThe Dragon-king's Daughter\n\nA graduate named Liu I, in the reign-period I Feng (A.D. 676-679)\nof the Emperor Kao Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, having failed in\nhis examination for his licentiate's degree, when passing through\nChing-yang Hsien, in Ch'ang-an, Shensi, on his way home, saw a\nyoung woman tending goats by the roadside. She said to him: \"I am the\nyoungest daughter of the Dragonking of the Tung-t'ing Lake. My parents\nmarried me to the son of the God of the River Ching, but my husband,\nmisled by the slanders of the servants, repudiated me. I have heard\nthat you are returning to the Kingdom of Wu, which is quite close\nto my native district, so I want to ask you to take this letter to\nmy father. To the north of the Tung-t'ing Lake you will find a large\norange-tree, called by the natives Protector of the Soil. Strike it\nthree times with your girdle and some one will appear.\"\n\nSome months later the graduate went to the spot, found the orange-tree,\nand struck it three times, whereupon a warrior arose from the lake\nand, saluting him, asked what he wanted. \"I wish to see your great\nKing,\" the graduate replied. The warrior struck the waters, opening\na passage for Liu I, and led him to a palace. \"This,\" he said, \"is\nthe palace of Ling Hsue.\" In a few minutes there appeared a person\ndressed in violet-coloured clothes and holding in his hand a piece\nof jade. \"This is our King,\" said the warrior. \"I am your Majesty's\nneighbour,\" replied Liu I. \"I spent my youth in Ch'u and studied in\nCh'in. I have just failed in my licentiate examination. On my way\nhome I saw your daughter tending some goats; she was all dishevelled,\nand in so pitiable a condition that it hurt me to see her, She has\nsent you this letter.\"\n\n\nGolden Dragon Great Prince\n\nOn reading the letter the King wept, and all the courtiers followed\nhis example. \"Stop wailing,\" said the King, \"lest Ch'ien-t'ang\nhear.\" \"Who is Ch'ien-t'ang?\" asked Liu I. \"He is my dear brother,\"\nreplied the King; \"formerly he was one of the chief administrators of\nthe Ch'ien-t'ang River; now he is the chief God of Rivers.\" \"Why are\nyou so afraid that he might hear what I have just told you?\" \"Because\nhe has a terrible temper. It was he who, in the reign of Yao, caused\na nine-years flood.\"\n\nBefore he had finished speaking, a red dragon, a thousand feet long,\nwith red scales, mane of fire, bloody tongue, and eyes blazing\nlike lightning, passed through the air with rapid flight and\ndisappeared. Barely a few moments had elapsed when it returned with\na young woman whom Liu I recognized as the one who had entrusted him\nwith the letter. The Dragon-king, overjoyed, said to him: \"This is my\ndaughter; her husband is no more, and she offers you her hand.\" Liu\ndid not dare to accept, since it appeared that they had just killed\nher husband. He took his departure, and married a woman named Chang,\nwho soon died. He then married another named Han, who also died. He\nthen went to live at Nanking, and, his solitude preying upon his\nspirits, he decided to marry yet again. A middleman spoke to him of a\ngirl of Fang Yang, in Chihli, whose father, Hao, had been Magistrate\nof Ch'ing Liu, in Anhui. This man was always absent on his travels,\nno one knew whither. The girl's mother, Cheng, had married her two\nyears before to a man named Chang of Ch'ing Ho, in Chihli, who had\njust died. Distressed at her daughter being left a widow so young,\nthe mother wished to find another husband for her.\n\nLiu I agreed to marry this young woman, and at the end of a year\nthey had a son. She then said to her husband: \"I am the daughter\nof the King of the Tung-t'ing Lake. It was you who saved me from\nmy miserable plight on the bank of the Ching, and I swore I would\nreward you. Formerly you refused to accept my hand, and my parents\ndecided to marry me to the son of a silk-merchant. I cut my hair,\nand never ceased to hope that I might some time or other be united\nto you in order that I might show you my gratitude.\"\n\nIn A.D. 712, in the reign-period K'ai-yuean of the Emperor Hsuean Tsung\nof the T'ang dynasty, they both returned to the Tung-t'ing Lake;\nbut the legend says nothing further with regard to them.\n\nShang Ti, the Supreme Ruler, conferred on Liu I the title of Chin\nLung Ta Wang, 'Golden Dragon Great Prince.'\n\n\nThe Old Mother of the Waters\n\nThe Old Mother of the Waters, Shul-mu Niang-niang, is the legendary\nspirit of Ssu-chou, in Anhui. To her is popularly ascribed the\ndestruction of the ancient city of Ssu-chou, which was completely\nsubmerged by the waters of the Hung-tse Lake in A.D. 1574.\n\nOne author states that this Goddess of the Waters is the younger\nsister of the White Spiritual Elephant, a guardian of the Door of\nBuddha. This elephant is the \"subtle principle of metamorphosed water.\"\n\nIn his _Recherches sur Us Superstitions en Chine_, Pere Henri Dore,\nS.J., relates the legends he had heard with regard to this deity. One\nof these is as follows:\n\nShui-mu Niang-niang inundated the town of Ssu-chou almost every year. A\nreport was presented to Yu Huang, Lord of the Skies, begging him to\nput an end to the scourge which devastated the country and cost so\nmany lives. The Lord of the Skies commanded the Great Kings of the\nSkies and their generals to raise troops and take the field in order\nto capture this goddess and deprive her of the power of doing further\nmischief. But her tricks triumphed over force, and the city continued\nto be periodically devastated by inundations.\n\nOne day Shui-mu Niang-niang was seen near the city gate carrying two\nbuckets of water. Li Lao-chuen suspected some plot, but, an open attack\nbeing too risky, he preferred to adopt a ruse. He went and bought\na donkey, led it to the buckets of water, and let it drink their\ncontents. Unfortunately the animal could not drink all the water,\nso that a little remained at the bottom of the buckets. Now these\nmagical buckets contained the sources of the five great lakes, which\nheld enough water to inundate the whole of China. Shui-mu Niang-niang\nwith her foot overturned one of the buckets, and the water that had\nremained in it was enough to cause a formidable flood, which submerged\nthe unfortunate town, and buried it for ever under the immense sheet\nof water called the Lake of Hung-tse.\n\nSo great a crime deserved an exemplary punishment, and accordingly Yue\nHuang sent reinforcements to his armies, and a pursuit of the goddess\nwas methodically organized.\n\n\nThe Magic Vermicelli\n\nSun Hou-tzu, the Monkey Sun, [25] the rapid courier, who in a\nsingle skip could traverse 108,000 _li_ (36,000 miles), started in\npursuit and caught her up, but the astute goddess was clever enough\nto slip through his fingers. Sun Hou-tzu, furious at this setback,\nwent to ask Kuan-yin P'u-sa to come to his aid. She promised to do\nso. As one may imagine, the furious race she had had to escape from\nher enemy had given Shui-mu Niang-niang a good appetite. Exhausted\nwith fatigue, and with an empty stomach, she caught sight of a woman\nselling vermicelli, who had just prepared two bowls of it and was\nawaiting customers. Shui-mu Niang-niang went up to her and began\nto eat the strength-giving food with avidity. No sooner had she\neaten half of the vermicelli than it changed in her stomach into\niron chains, which wound round her intestines. The end of the chain\nprotruded from her mouth, and the contents of the bowl became another\nlong chain which welded itself to the end which stuck out beyond her\nlips. The vermicelli-seller was no other than Kuan-yin P'u-sa herself,\nwho had conceived this stratagem as a means of ridding herself of\nthis evil-working goddess. She ordered Sun Hou-tzu to take her down\na deep well at the foot of a mountain in Hsue-i Hsien and to fasten\nher securely there. It is there that Shui-mu Niang-niang remains in\nher liquid prison. The end of the chain is to be seen when the water\nis low.\n\n\nHsue, the Dragon-slayer\n\nHsue Chen-chuen was a native either of Ju-ning Fu in Honan, or of\nNan-ch'ang Fu in Kiangsi. His father was Hsue Su. His personal name\nwas Ching-chih, and his ordinary name Sun.\n\nAt forty-one years of age, when he was Magistrate of Ching-yang,\nnear the modern Chih-chiang Hsien, in Hupei, during times of drought\nhe had only to touch a piece of tile to turn it into gold, and thus\nrelieve the people of their distress. He also saved many lives by\ncuring sickness through the use of talismans and magic formulae.\n\nDuring the period of the dynastic troubles he resigned and joined\nthe famous magician Kuo P'o. Together they proceeded to the minister\nWang Tun, who had risen against the Eastern Chin dynasty. Kuo P'o's\nremonstrances only irritated the minister, who cut off his head.\n\nHsue Sun then threw his chalice on the ridgepole of the room, causing\nit to be whirled into the air. As Wang Tun was watching the career of\nthe chalice, Hsue disappeared and escaped. When he reached Lu-chiang\nK'ou, in Anhui, he boarded a boat, which two dragons towed into the\noffing and then raised into the air. In an instant they had borne it\nto the Lue Shan Mountains, to the south of Kiukiang, in Kiangsi. The\nperplexed boatman opened the window of his boat and took a furtive\nlook out. Thereupon the dragons, finding themselves discovered by an\ninfidel, set the boat down on the top of the mountain and fled.\n\n\nThe Spiritual Alligator\n\nIn this country was a dragon, or spiritual alligator, which transformed\nitself into a young man named Shen Lang, and married Chia Yue, daughter\nof the Chief Judge of T'an Chou (Ch'ang-sha Fu, capital of Hunan). The\nyoung people lived in rooms below the official apartments. During\nspring and summer Shen Lang, as dragons are wont to do, roamed in the\nrivers and lakes. One day Hsue Chen-chuen met him, recognized him as a\ndragon, and knew that he was the cause of the numerous floods which\nwere devastating Kiangsi Province. He determined to find a means of\ngetting rid of him.\n\nShen Lang, aware of the steps being taken against him, changed himself\ninto a yellow ox and fled. Hsue Chen-chuen at once transformed himself\ninto a black ox and started in pursuit. The yellow ox jumped down a\nwell to hide, but the black ox followed suit. The yellow ox then jumped\nout again, and escaped to Ch'ang-sha, where he reassumed a human form\nand lived with Ms wife in the home of his father-in-law, Hsue Sun,\nreturning to the town, hastened to the _yamen,_ and called to Shen\nLang to come out and show himself, addressing him in a severe tone\nof voice as follows: \"Dragon, how dare you hide yourself there under\na borrowed form?\" Shen Lang then reassumed the form of a spiritual\nalligator, and Hsue Sun ordered the spiritual soldiers to kill him. He\nthen commanded his two sons to come out of their abode. By merely\nspurting a mouthful of water on them he transformed them into young\ndragons. Chia Yue was told to vacate the rooms with all speed, and\nin the twinkling of an eye the whole _yamen_ sank beneath the earth,\nand there remained nothing but a lake where it had been.\n\nHsue Chen-chuen, after his victory over the dragon, assembled the members\nof his family, to the number of forty-two, on Hsi Shan, outside the\ncity of Nan-ch'ang Fu, and all ascended to Heaven in full daylight,\ntaking with them even the dogs and chickens. He was then 133 years\nold. This took place on the first day of the eighth moon of the second\nyear (A.D. 374) of the reign-period Ning-K'ang of the reign of the\nEmperor Hsiao Wu Ti of the Eastern Chin dynasty.\n\nSubsequently a temple was erected to him, and in A.D. 1111 he was\ncanonized as Just Prince, Admirable and Beneficent.\n\n\nThe Great Flood\n\nThe repairing of the heavens by Nue Kua, elsewhere alluded to, is also\nattributed to the following incident.\n\nBefore the Chinese Empire was founded a noble and wonderful queen\nfought with the chief of the tribes who inhabited the country round\nabout O-mei Shan. In a fierce battle the chief and his followers met\ndefeat; raging with anger at being beaten by a woman, he rushed up\nthe mountain-side; the Queen pursued him with her army, and overtook\nhim at the summit; finding no place to hide himself, he attempted in\ndesperation both to wreak vengeance upon his enemies and to end his\nown life by beating his head violently against the cane of the Heavenly\nBamboo which grew there. By his mad battering he at last succeeded in\nknocking down the towering trunk of the tree, and as he did so its\ntop tore great rents in the canopy of the sky, through which poured\ngreat floods of water, inundating the whole earth and drowning all the\ninhabitants except the victorious Queen and her soldiers. The floods\nhad no power to harm her or her followers, because she herself was\nan all-powerful divinity and was known as the 'Mother of the Gods,'\nand the 'Defender of the Gods.' From the mountain-side she gathered\ntogether stones of a kind having five colours, and ground them into\npowder; of this she made a plaster or mortar, with which she repaired\nthe tears in the heavens, and the floods immediately ceased.\n\n\nThe Marriage of the River-god\n\nIn Yeh Hsien there was a witch and some official attendants who\ncollected money from the people yearly for the marriage of the\nRiver-god.\n\nThe witch would select a pretty girl of low birth, and say that she\nshould be the Queen of the River-god. The girl was bathed, and clothed\nin a beautiful dress of gay and costly silk. She was then taken to\nthe bank of the river, to a monastery which was beautifully decorated\nwith scrolls and banners. A feast was held, and the girl was placed\non a bed which was floated out upon the tide till it disappeared\nunder the waters.\n\nMany families having beautiful daughters moved to distant places,\nand gradually the city became deserted. The common belief in Yeh was\nthat if no queen was offered to the River-god a flood would come and\ndrown the people.\n\nOne day Hsi-men Pao, Magistrate of Yeh Hsien, said to his attendants:\n\"When the marriage of the River-god takes place I wish to say farewell\nto the chosen girl.\"\n\nAccordingly Hsi-men Pao was present to witness the ceremony. About\nthree thousand people had come together. Standing beside the old\nwitch were ten of her female disciples, \"Call the girl out,\" said\nHsi-men Pao. After seeing her, Hsi-men Pao said to the witch: \"She\nis not fair. Go you to the River-god and tell him that we will find\na fairer maid and present her to him later on.\" His attendants then\nseized the witch and threw her into the river.\n\nAfter a little while Hsi-men Pao said: \"Why does she stay so long? Send\na disciple to call her back.\" One of the disciples was thrown into the\nriver. Another and yet another followed. The magistrate then said:\"\nThe witches are females and therefore cannot bring me a reply.\" So\none of the official attendants of the witch was thrown into the river.\n\nHsi-men Pao stood on the bank for a long time, apparently awaiting\na reply. The spectators were alarmed. Hsi-men Pao then bade his\nattendants send the remaining disciples of the witch and the other\nofficial attendants to recall their mistress. The wretches threw\nthemselves on their knees and knocked their heads on the ground,\nwhich was stained with the blood from their foreheads, and with tears\nconfessed their sin.\n\n\"The River-god detains his guest too long,\" said Hsi-men Pao at\nlength. \"Let us adjourn.\"\n\nThereafter none dared to celebrate the marriage of the River-god.\n\n\nLegend of the Building of Peking\n\nWhen the Mongol Yuean dynasty had been destroyed, and the Emperor\nHung Wu had succeeded in firmly establishing that of the Great Ming,\nTa Ming, he made Chin-ling, the present Nanking, his capital, and held\nhis Court there with great splendour, envoys from every province within\nthe 'Four Seas' (the Chinese Empire) assembling there to witness his\ngreatness and to prostrate themselves before the Dragon Throne.\n\nThe Emperor had many sons and daughters by his different consorts and\nconcubines, each mother, in her inmost heart, fondly hoping that her\nown son would be selected by his father to succeed him.\n\nAlthough the Empress had a son, who was the heir-apparent, yet she felt\nenvious of those ladies who had likewise been blessed with children,\nfor fear one of the princes should supplant her son in the affection\nof the Emperor and in the succession. This envy displayed itself on\nevery occasion; she was greatly beloved by the Emperor, and exerted\nall her influence with him, as the other young princes grew up,\nto get them removed from Court. Through her means most of them were\nsent to the different provinces as governors; those provinces under\ntheir government being so many principalities or kingdoms.\n\n\n\nChu-ti\n\nOne of the consorts of Hung Wu, the Lady Weng, had a son named\nChu-ti. This young prince was very handsome and graceful in his\ndeportment; he was, moreover, of an amiable disposition. He was the\nfourth son of the Emperor, and his pleasing manner and address had made\nhim a great favourite, not only with his father, but with every one\nabout the Court. The Empress noticed the evident affection the Emperor\nevinced for this prince, and determined to get him removed from the\nCourt as soon as possible. By a judicious use of flattery and cajolery,\nshe ultimately persuaded the Emperor to appoint the prince governor of\nthe Yen country, and thenceforth he was styled Yen Wang, Prince of Yen.\n\n\nThe Sealed Packet\n\nThe young Prince, shortly after, taking an affectionate leave of\nthe Emperor, left Chin-ling to proceed to his post. Ere he departed,\nhowever, a Taoist priest, called Liu Po-wen, who had a great affection\nfor the Prince, put a sealed packet into his hand, and told him to\nopen it when he found himself in difficulty, distress, or danger; the\nperusal of the first portion that came to his hand would invariably\nsuggest some remedy for the evil, whatever it was. After doing so,\nhe was again to seal the packet, without further looking into its\ncontents, till some other emergency arose necessitating advice or\nassistance, when he would again find it. The Prince departed on his\njourney, and in the course of time, without meeting with any adventures\nworth recording, arrived safely at his destination.\n\n\n\nA Desolate Region\n\nThe place where Peking now stands was originally called Yu Chou; in the\nT'ang dynasty it was called Pei-p'ing Fu; and afterward became known\nas Shun-t'ien Fu--but that was after the city now called Peking was\nbuilt. The name of the country in which this place was situated was\nYen. It was a mere barren wilderness, with very few inhabitants; these\nlived in huts and scattered hamlets, and there was no city to afford\nprotection to the people and to check the depredations of robbers.\n\nWhen the Prince saw what a desolate-looking place he had been appointed\nto, and thought of the long years he was probably destined to spend\nthere, he grew very melancholy, and nothing his attendants essayed\nto do in hope of alleviating his sorrow succeeded.\n\n\nThe Prince opens the Sealed Packet\n\nAll at once the Prince bethought himself of the packet which the old\nTaoist priest had given him; he forthwith proceeded to make search for\nit--for in the bustle and excitement of travelling he had forgotten\nall about it--in hope that it might suggest something to better the\nprospects before him. Having found the packet, he hastily broke it\nopen to see what instructions it contained; taking out the first\npaper which came to hand, he read the following:\n\n\"When you reach Pei-p'ing Fu you must build a city there and name\nit No-cha Ch'eng, the City of No-cha. [26] But, as the work will\nbe costly, you must issue a proclamation inviting the wealthy to\nsubscribe the necessary funds for building it. At the back of this\npaper is a plan of the city; you must be careful to act according to\nthe instructions accompanying it.\"\n\nThe Prince inspected the plan, carefully read the instructions, and\nfound even the minutest details fully explained. He was struck with\nthe grandeur of the design of the proposed city, and at once acted on\nthe instructions contained in the packet; proclamations were posted up,\nand large sums were speedily subscribed, ten of the wealthiest families\nwho had accompanied him from Chin-ling being the largest contributors,\nsupporting the plan not only with their purses, by giving immense sums,\nbut by their influence among their less wealthy neighbours.\n\n\nThe City is Founded\n\nWhen sufficient money had been subscribed, a propitious day was chosen\non which to commence the undertaking. Trenches where the foundations\nof the walls were to be were first dug out, according to the plan\nfound in the packet. The foundations themselves consisted of layers\nof stone quarried from the western hills; bricks of an immense size\nwere made and burnt in the neighbourhood; the moat was dug out, and\nthe earth from it used to fill in the centre of the walls, which,\nwhen complete, were forty-eight _li_ in circumference, fifty cubits in\nheight, and fifty in breadth; the whole circuit of the walls having\nbattlements and embrasures. Above each of the nine gates of the city\nimmense three-storied towers were built, each tower being ninety-nine\ncubits in height.\n\nNear the front entrance of the city, facing each other, were built the\nTemples of Heaven and of Earth. In rear of it the beautiful 'Coal Hill'\n(better known as 'Prospect Hill') was raised; while in the square in\nfront of the Great Gate of the palace was buried an immense quantity\nof charcoal (that and the coal being stored as a precaution in case\nof siege).\n\nThe palace, containing many superb buildings, was built in a style of\nexceeding splendour; in the various enclosures were beautiful gardens\nand lakes; in the different courtyards, too, seventy-two wells were\ndug and thirty-six golden tanks placed. The whole of the buildings\nand grounds was surrounded by a lofty wall and a stone-paved moat,\nin which the lotus and other flowers bloomed in great beauty and\nprofusion, and in the clear waters of which myriads of gold and silver\nfish disported themselves.\n\nThe geomancy of the city was similar to that of Chin-ling, When\neverything was completed the Prince compared it with the plan and\nfound that the city tallied with it in every respect. He was much\ndelighted, and called for the ten wealthy persons who had been\nthe chief contributors, and gave each of them a pair of 'couchant\ndragon' silk- or satin-embroidered cuffs, and allowed them great\nprivileges. Up to the present time there is the common saying:\n\"Since then the 'dragon-cuffed' gentlefolks have flourished.\"\n\n\nGeneral Prosperity\n\nAll the people were loud in praise of the beauty and strength of the\nnewly built city. Merchants from every province hastened to Peking,\nattracted by the news they heard of its magnificence and the prospect\nthere was of profitably disposing of their wares. In short, the people\nwere prosperous and happy, food was plentiful, the troops brave, the\nmonarch just, his ministers virtuous, and all enjoyed the blessings\nof peace.\n\n\nA Drought and its Cause\n\nWhile everything was thus tranquil, a sudden and untoward event\noccurred which spread dismay and consternation on all sides. One day\nwhen the Prince went into the hall of audience one of his ministers\nreported that \"the wells are thirsty and the rivers dried up\"--there\nwas no water, and the people were all in the greatest alarm. The\nPrince at once called his counsellors together to devise some means\nof remedying this disaster and causing the water to return to the\nwells and springs, but no one could suggest a suitable plan.\n\nIt is necessary to explain the cause of this scarcity of water. There\nwas a dragon's cave outside the east gate of the city at a place\ncalled Lei-chen K'ou, 'Thunder-clap Mouth' or 'Pass' (the name of a\nvillage). The dragon had not been seen for myriads of years, yet it\nwas well known that he lived there.\n\nIn digging out the earth to build the wall the workmen had broken into\nthis dragon's cave, little thinking of the consequences which would\nresult. The dragon was exceedingly wroth and determined to shift his\nabode, but the she-dragon said: \"We have lived here thousands of years,\nand shall we suffer the Prince of Yen to drive us forth thus? If we\n_do_ go we will collect all the water, place it in our _yin-yang_\nbaskets [used for drawing water], and at midnight we will appear in a\ndream to the Prince, requesting permission to retire. If he gives us\npermission to do so, and allows us also to take our baskets of water\nwith us, he will fall into our trap, for we shall take the waler with\nhis own consent,\"\n\n\n\nThe Prince's Dream\n\nThe two dragons then transformed themselves into an old man and\nan old woman, went to the chamber of the Prince, who was asleep,\nand appeared to him in a dream. Kneeling before him, they cried:\n\"O Lord of a Thousand Years, we have come before you to beg leave to\nretire from this place, and to beseech you out of your great bounty\nto give us permission to take these two baskets of water with us.\"\n\nThe Prince readily assented, little dreaming of the danger he was\nincurring. The dragons were highly delighted, and hastened out of\nhis presence; they filled the baskets with all the water there was\nin Peking, and carried them off with them.\n\nWhen the Prince awoke he paid no attention to his dream till he\nheard the report of the scarcity of water, when, reflecting on the\nsingularity of his dream, he thought there might be some hidden meaning\nin it. He therefore had recourse to the packet again, and discovered\nthat his dream-visitors had been dragons, who had taken the waters of\nPeking away with them in their magic baskets; the packet, however,\ncontained directions for the recovery of the water, and he at once\nprepared to follow them.\n\n\nThe Pursuit of the Dragons\n\nIn haste the Prince donned his armour, mounted his black steed, and,\nspear in hand, dashed out of the west gate of the city. He pressed on\nhis horse, which went swift as the wind, nor did he slacken speed till\nhe came up with the water-stealing dragons, who still retained the\nforms in which they had appeared to him in his dream. On a cart were\nthe two identical baskets he had seen; in front of the cart, dragging\nit, was the old woman, while behind, pushing it, was the old man.\n\n\nAn Unexpected Flood\n\nWhen the Prince saw them he galloped up to the cart, and, without\npausing, thrust his spear into one of the baskets, making a great hole,\nout of which the water rushed so rapidly that the Prince was much\nfrightened. He dashed off at full speed to save himself from being\nswallowed up by the waters, which in a very short time had risen more\nthan thirty feet and had flooded the surrounding country. On galloped\nthe Prince, followed by the roaring water, till he reached a hill,\nup which he urged his startled horse. When he gained the top he found\nthat it stood out of the water like an island, completely surrounded;\nthe water was seething and swirling round the hill in a frightful\nmanner, but no vestige could he see of either of the dragons.\n\n\nThe Waters Subside\n\nThe Prince was very much alarmed at his perilous position, when\nsuddenly a Buddhist priest appeared before him, with clasped hands and\nbent head, who bade him not be alarmed, as with Heaven's assistance\nhe would soon disperse the water. Hereupon the priest recited a short\nprayer or spell, and the waters receded as rapidly as they had risen,\nand finally returned to their proper channels.\n\n\nThe Origin of Chen-shui T'a\n\nThe broken basket became a large deep hole, some three _mu_ (about\nhalf an English acre) in extent, in the centre of which was a fountain\nwhich threw up a vast body of clear water. From the midst of this\nthere arose a pagoda, which rose and fell with the water, floating on\nthe top like a vessel; the spire thrusting itself far up into the sky,\nand swaying about like the mast of a ship in a storm.\n\nThe Prince returned to the city filled with wonder at what he\nhad seen, and with joy at having so successfully carried out the\ndirections contained in the packet. On all sides he was greeted by\nthe acclamations of the people, who hailed him as the saviour of\nPeking. Since that time Peking has never had the misfortune to be\nwithout water.\n\nThe pagoda is called the Pagoda on the Hill of the Imperial Spring\n(Yue Ch'uean Shan T'a; more commonly Chen-shui T'a, 'Water-repressing\nPagoda'). [27] The spring is still there, and day and night,\nunceasingly, its clear waters bubble up and flow eastward to Peking,\nwhich would now be a barren wilderness but for Yen Wang's pursuit of\nthe water.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII\n\nMyths of Fire\n\n\nThe Ministry of Fire\n\nThe celestial organization of Fire is the fifth Ministry, and is\npresided over by a President, Lo Hsuean, whose titular designation is\nHuo-te Hsing-chuen, 'Stellar Sovereign of the Fire-virtue,' with five\nsubordinate ministers, four of whom are star-gods, and the fifth a\n\"celestial prince who receives fire\": Chieh-huo T'ien-chuen. Like so\nmany other Chinese deities, the five were all ministers of the tyrant\nemperor Chou.\n\nIt is related that Lo Hsuean was originally a Taoist priest known as\nYen-chung Hsien, of the island Huo-lung, 'Fire-dragon.' His face was\nthe colour of ripe fruit of the jujube-tree, his hair and beard red,\nthe former done up in the shape of a fish-tail, and he had three\neyes. He wore a red cloak ornamented with the _pa kua_; his horse\nsnorted flames from its nostrils and fire darted from its hoofs.\n\nWhile fighting in the service of the son of the tyrant emperor,\nLo Hsuean suddenly changed himself into a giant with three heads and\nsix arms. In each of his hands he held a magic weapon. These were a\nseal which reflected the heavens and the earth, a wheel of the five\nfire-dragons, a gourd containing ten thousand fire-crows, and, in\nthe other hands, two swords which floated like smoke, and a column\nof smoke several thousands of _li_ long enclosing swords of fire.\n\n\nA Conflagration\n\nHaving arrived at the city of Hsi Ch'i, Lo Hsuean sent forth his\nsmoke-column, the air was filled with swords of fire, the ten thousand\nfire-crows, emerging from the gourd, spread themselves over the town,\nand a terrible conflagration broke out, the whole place being ablaze\nin a few minutes.\n\nAt this juncture there appeared in the sky the Princess Lung Chi,\ndaughter of Wang-mu Niang-niang; forthwith she spread over the\ncity her shroud of mist and dew, and the fire was extinguished by a\nheavy downpour of rain. All the mysterious mechanisms of Lo Hsuean\nlost their efficacy, and the magician took to his heels down the\nside of the mountain. There he was met by Li, the Pagoda-bearer,\n[28] who threw his golden pagoda into the air. The pagoda fell on Lo\nHsuean's head and broke his skull.\n\n\nC'ih Ching-tzu\n\nOf the various fire-gods, Ch'ih Ching-tzu, the principle of spiritual\nfire, is one of the five spirits representing the Five Elements. He\nis Fire personified, which has its birth in the south, on Mount\nShih-t'ang. He himself and everything connected with him--his skin,\nhair, beard, trousers, cloak of leaves, etc.--are all of the colour of\nfire, though he is sometimes represented with a blue cap resembling\nthe blue tip of a flame. He appeared in the presence of Huang Lao\nin a fire-cloud. He it was who obtained fire from the wood of the\nmulberry-tree, and the heat of this fire, joined with the moisture\nof water, developed the germs of terrestrial beings.\n\n\nThe Red Emperor\n\nChu Jung, though also otherwise personified, is generally regarded as\nhaving been a legendary emperor who made his first appearance in the\ntime of Hsien Yuan (2698-2598 B.C.). In his youth he asked Kuang-shou\nLao-jen, 'Old Longevity,' to grant him immortality. \"The time has\nnot yet come,\" replied Old Longevity; \"before it does you have to\nbecome an emperor. I will give you the means of reaching the end you\ndesire. Give orders that after you are dead you are to be buried on\nthe southern slope of the sacred mountain Heng Shan; there you will\nlearn the doctrine of Ch'ih Ching-tzu and will become immortal.\"\n\nThe Emperor Hsien Yuean, having abdicated the throne, sent for Chu Jung,\nand bestowed upon him the crown. Chu Jung, having become emperor,\ntaught the people the use of fire and the advantages to be derived\ntherefrom. In those early times the forests were filled with venomous\nreptiles and savage animals; he ordered the peasants to set fire to the\nbrushwood to drive away these dangerous neighbours and keep them at a\ndistance. He also taught his subjects the art of purifying, forging,\nand welding metals by the action of fire. He was nicknamed Ch'ih Ti,\n'the Red Emperor.' He reigned for more than two hundred years, and\nbecame an Immortal, His capital was the ancient city of Kuei, thirty\n_li_ north-east of Hsin-cheng Hsien, in the Prefecture of K'ai-feng\nFu, Honan. His tomb is on the southern slope of Heng Shan. The peak\nis known as Chu Jung Peak. His descendants, who went to live in the\nsouth, were the ancestors of the Directors of Fire.\n\n\nHui Lu\n\nThe most popular God of Fire, however, is Hui Lu, a celebrated\nmagician who, according to the _Shen hsien t'ung chien_, lived some\ntime before the reign of Ti K'u (2436-2366 B.C.), the father of Yao\nthe Great, and had a mysterious bird named Pi Fang and a hundred other\nfire-birds shut up in a gourd. He had only to let them out to set up\na conflagration which would extend over the whole country.\n\nHuang Ti ordered Chu Jung to fight Hui Lu and also to subdue the\nrebel Chih Yu. Chu Jung had a large bracelet of pure gold--a most\nwonderful and effective weapon. He hurled it into the air, and it\nfell on Hui Lu's neck, throwing him to the ground and rendering him\nincapable of moving. Finding resistance impossible, he asked mercy\nfrom his victor and promised to be his follower in the spiritual\ncontests. Subsequently he always called himself Huo-shih Chih T'u,\n'the Disciple of the Master of Fire.'\n\n\nThe Fire-emperor\n\nShen Nung, the God of Agriculture, also adds to his other functions\nthose appertaining to the God of Fire, the reason being that when\nhe succeeded the Emperor Fu Hsi on the throne he adopted fire as\nthe emblem of his government, just as Huang Ti adopted the symbol\nof Earth. Thus he came to be called Huo Ti, the 'Fire-emperor.' He\ntaught his subjects the use of fire for smelting metals and making\nimplements and weapons, and the use of oil in lamps, etc. All the\ndivisions of his official hierarchy were connected in some way with\nthis element; thus, there were the Ministers of Fire generally, the\nofficers of Fire of the North, South, etc. Becoming thus doubly the\npatron of fire, a second fire symbol (_huo_) was added to his name,\nchanging it from Huo Ti, 'Fire-emperor,' to Yen Ti, 'Blazing Emperor,'\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX\n\nMyths of Epidemics, Medicine, Exorcism, Etc.\n\n\nThe Ministry of Epidemics\n\nThe gods of epidemics, etc., belong to the sixth, ninth, second,\nand third celestial Ministries. The composition of the Ministry of\nEpidemics is arranged differently in different works as Epidemics\n(regarded as epidemics on earth, but as demons in Heaven) of the\nCentre, Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter, or as the marshals clothed\nin yellow, green, red, white, and blue respectively, or as the Officers\nof the East, West, South, and North, with two additional members:\na Taoist who quells the plague, and the Grand Master who exhorts\npeople to do right.\n\nWith regard to the Ministry of Seasonal Epidemics, it is related that\nin the sixth moon of the eleventh year (A.D. 599) of the reign of Kao\nTsu, founder of the Sui dynasty, five stalwart persons appeared in\nthe air, clothed in robes of five colours, each carrying different\nobjects in his hands: the first a spoon and earthenware vase, the\nsecond a leather bag and sword, the third a fan, the fourth a club,\nthe fifth a jug of fire. The Emperor asked Chang Chue-jen, his Grand\nHistoriographer, who these were and if they were benevolent or evil\nspirits. The official answered: \"These are the five powers of the five\ndirections. Their appearance indicates the imminence of epidemics,\nwhich will last throughout the four seasons of the year.\" \"What\nremedy is there, and how am I to protect the people?\" inquired the\nEmperor. \"There is no remedy,\" replied the official, \"for epidemics\nare sent by Heaven.\" During that year the mortality was very great. The\nEmperor built a temple to the five persons, and bestowed upon them the\ntitle of Marshals to the Five Spirits of the Plague. During that and\nthe following dynasty sacrifices were offered to them on the fifth\nday of the fifth moon.\n\n\nThe President of the Ministry\n\nThe following particulars are given concerning the President of the\nMinistry, whose name was Lue Yueeh. He was an old Taoist hermit, living\nat Chiu-lung Tao, 'Nine-dragon Island,' who became an Immortal. The\nfour members of the Ministry were his disciples. He wore a red garment,\nhad a blue face, red hair, long teeth, and three eyes. His war-horse\nwas named the Myopic Camel. He carried a magic sword, and was in the\nservice of Chou Wang, whose armies were concentrated at Hsi Ch'i. In\na duel with Mu-cha, brother of No-cha, he had his arm severed by a\nsword-cut. In another battle with Huang T'ien-hua, son of Huang Fei-hu,\nhe appeared with three heads and six arms. In his many hands he held\nthe celestial seal, plague microbes, the flag of plague, the plague\nsword, and two mysterious swords. His faces were green, and large\nteeth protruded from his mouths. Huang T'ien-hua threw his magic\nweapon, Huo-lung Piao, and hit him on the leg. Just at that moment\nChiang Tzu-ya arrived with his goblin-dispelling whip and felled him\nwith a blow. He was able, however, to rise again, and took to flight.\n\n\nThe Plague-disseminating Umbrellas\n\nResolved to avenge his defeat, he joined General Hsue Fang, who was\ncommanding an army corps at Ch'uan-yuen Kuan. Round the mountain he\norganized a system of entrenchments and of infection against their\nenemies. Yang Chien released his celestial hound, which bit Lue Yueeh\non the crown of his head. Then Yang Jen, armed with his magic fan,\npursued Lue Yueeh and compelled him to retreat to his fortress. Lue\nYueeh mounted the central raised part of the embattled wall and opened\nall his plague-disseminating umbrellas, with the object of infecting\nYang Jen, but the latter, simply by waving his fan, reduced all the\numbrellas to dust, and also burned the fort, and with it Lue Yueeh.\n\nSimilar wonderful achievements are related in short notices in the\n_Feng shen yen i_ of the four other officers of the Ministry.\n\nLi P'ing, the sixth officer of the Ministry, met a like fate to that\nof Lue Yueeh after having failed to induce the latter to abandon the\ncause of the Shang dynasty for that of Chou.\n\n\nThe Five Graduates\n\nIn Pere Henri Dore's _Recherches sur les Superstitions en Chine_\nis given an interesting legend concerning five other gods of\nepidemics. These gods are called the Wu Yueeh, 'Five Mountains,'\nand are worshipped in the temple San-i Ko at Ju-kao, especially in\noutbreaks of contagious diseases and fevers. A sufferer goes to the\ntemple and promises offerings to the gods in the event of recovery. The\ncustomary offering is five small wheaten loaves, called _shao ping_,\nand a pound of meat.\n\nThe Wu Yueeh are stellar devils whom Yue Huang sent to be reincarnated on\nearth. Their names were T'ien Po-hsueeh, Tung Hung-wen, Ts'ai Wen-chue,\nChao Wu-chen, and Huang Ying-tu, and they were reincarnated at\nNan-ch'ang Fu, Chien-ch'ang Fu, Yen-men Kuan, Yang Chou, and Nanking\nrespectively. They were all noted for their brilliant intellects,\nand were clever scholars who passed their graduate's examination\nwith success.\n\nWhen Li Shih-min ascended the throne, in A.D. 627, he called together\nall the _literati_ of the Empire to take the Doctor's Examination\nin the capital. Our five graduates started for the metropolis, but,\nlosing their way, were robbed by brigands, and had to beg help in\norder to reach the end of their journey. By good luck they all met in\nthe temple San-i Ko, and related to each other the various hardships\nthey had undergone. But when they eventually reached the capital\nthe examination was over, and they were out in the streets without\nresources. So they took an oath of brotherhood for life and death. They\npawned some of the few clothes they possessed, and buying some musical\ninstruments formed themselves into a band of strolling musicians.\n\nThe first bought a drum, the second a seven-stringed guitar, the\nthird a mandolin, the fourth a clarinet, and the fifth and youngest\ncomposed songs.\n\nThus they went through the streets of the capital giving their\nconcerts, and Fate decreed that Li Shih-min should hear their\nmelodies. Charmed with the sweet sounds, he asked Hsue Mao-kung\nwhence came this band of musicians, whose skill was certainly\nexceptional. Having made inquiries, the minister related their\nexperiences to the Emperor. Li Shih-min ordered them to be brought\ninto his presence, and after hearing them play and sing appointed them\nto his private suite, and henceforth they accompanied him wherever\nhe went.\n\n\nThe Emperors Strategy\n\nThe Emperor bore malice toward Chang T'ien-shih, the Master of\nthe Taoists, because he refused to pay the taxes on his property,\nand conceived a plan to bring about his destruction. He caused a\nspacious subterranean chamber to be dug under the reception-hall of\nhis palace. A wire passed through the ceiling to where the Emperor\nsat. He could thus at will give the signal for the music to begin\nor stop. Having stationed the five musicians in this subterranean\nchamber, he summoned the Master of the Taoists to his presence and\ninvited him to a banquet. During the course of this he pulled the wire,\nand a subterranean babel began.\n\nThe Emperor pretended to be terrified, and allowed himself to fall\nto the ground. Then, addressing himself to the T'ien-shih, he said:\n\"I know that you can at will catch the devilish hobgoblins which\nmolest human beings. You can hear for yourself the infernal row they\nmake in my palace. I order you under penalty of death to put a stop\nto their pranks and to exterminate them.\"\n\n\nThe Musicians are Slain\n\nHaving spoken thus, the Emperor rose and left. The Master of the\nTaoists brought his projecting mirror, and began to seek for the\nevil spirits. In vain he inspected the palace and its precincts;\nhe could discover nothing. Fearing that he was lost, he in despair\nthrew his mirror on the floor of the reception-hall.\n\nA minute later, sad and pensive, he stooped to pick it up; what was\nhis joyful surprise when he saw reflected in it the subterranean room\nand the musicians! At once he drew five talismans on yellow paper,\nburned them, and ordered his celestial general, Chao Kung-ming, to\ntake his sword and kill the five musicians. The order was promptly\nexecuted, and the T'ien-shih informed the Emperor, who received the\nnews with ridicule, not believing it to be true. He went to his seat\nand pulled the wire, but all remained silent. A second and third time\nhe gave the signal, but without response. He then ordered his Grand\nOfficer to ascertain what had happened. The officer found the five\ngraduates bathed in their blood, and lifeless.\n\nThe Emperor, furious, reproached the Master of the Taoists. \"But,\"\nreplied the T'ien-shih, \"was it not your Majesty who ordered me under\npain of death to exterminate the authors of this pandemonium?\" Li\nShih-min could not reply. He dismissed the Master of the Taoists and\nordered the five victims to be buried.\n\n\nThe Emperor Tormented\n\nAfter the funeral ceremonies, apparitions appeared at night in the\nplace where they had been killed, and the palace became a babel. The\nspirits threw bricks and broke the tiles on the roofs.\n\nThe Emperor ordered his uncomfortable visitors to go to the T'ien-shih\nwho had murdered them. They obeyed, and, seizing the garments of the\nMaster of the Taoists, swore not to allow him any rest if he would\nnot restore them to life.\n\nTo appease them the Taoist said: \"I am going to give each of you a\nwonderful object. You are then to return and spread epidemics among\nwicked people, beginning in the imperial palace and with the Emperor\nhimself, with the object of forcing him to canonize you.\"\n\nOne received a fan, another a gourd filled with fire, the third a\nmetallic ring to encircle people's heads, the fourth a stick made of\nwolves' teeth, and the fifth a cup of lustral water.\n\nThe spirit-graduates left full of joy, and made their first experiment\non Li Shih-min. The first gave him feverish chills by waving his\nfan, the second burned him with the fire from his gourd, the third\nencircled his head with the ring, causing him violent headache, the\nfourth struck him with his stick, and the fifth poured out his cup\nof lustral water on his head.\n\nThe same night a similar tragedy took place in the palace of the\nEmpress and the two chief imperial concubines.\n\nT'ai-po Chin-hsing, however, informed Yue Huang what had happened,\nand, touched with compassion, he sent three Immortals with pills and\ntalismans which cured the Empress and the ladies of the palace.\n\n\nThe Graduates Canonized\n\nLi Shih-min, having also recovered his health, summoned the five\ndeceased graduates and expressed his regret for the unfortunate issue\nof his design against the T'ien-shih. He proceeded: \"To the south of\nthe capital is the temple San-i Ko. I will change its name to Hsiang\nShan Wu Yueeh Shen, 'Fragrant Hill of the Five Mountain Spirits.' On\nthe twenty-eighth day of the ninth moon betake yourselves to that\ntemple to receive the seals of your canonization.\" He conferred upon\nthem the title of Ti, 'Emperor.'\n\n\nThe Ministry of Medicine\n\nThe celestial Ministry of Medicine is composed of three main\ndivisions comprising: (1) the Ancestral Gods of the Chinese race;\n(2) the King of Remedies, Yao Wang; and (3) the Specialists. There\nis a separate Ministry of Smallpox. This latter controls and cures\nsmallpox, and the establishment of a separate celestial Ministry is\nsignificant of the prevalence and importance of the affliction. The\nravages of smallpox in China, indeed, have been terrific: so much so,\nthat, until recent years, it was considered as natural and inevitable\nfor a child to have smallpox as for it to cut its teeth. One of the\nceremonial questions addressed by a visitor to the parent of a child\nwas always _Ch'u la hua'rh mei yu_? \"Has he had the smallpox?\" and a\nchild who escaped the scourge was often, if not as a rule, regarded\nwith disfavour and, curiously enough, as a weakling. Probably the\ntrain of thought in the Chinese mind was that, as it is the fittest\nwho survive, those who have successfully passed through the process of\n\"putting out the flowers\" have proved their fitness in the struggle\nfor existence. Nowadays vaccination is general, and the number of\npockmarked faces seen is much smaller than it used to be--in fact,\nthe pockmarked are now the exception. But, as far as I have been\nable to ascertain, the Ministry of Smallpox has not been abolished,\nand possibly its members, like those of some more mundane ministries,\ncontinue to draw large salaries for doing little or no work.\n\n\nThe Medicine-gods\n\nThe chief gods of medicine are the mythical kings P'an Ku, Fu Hsi,\nShen Nung, and Huang Ti. The first two, being by different writers\nregarded as the first progenitor or creator of the Chinese people,\nare alternatives, so that Fu Hsi, Shen Nung, and Huang Ti may be said\nto be a sort of ancestral triad of medicine-gods, superior to the\nactual God or King of Medicine, Yao Wang. Of P'an Ku we have spoken\nsufficiently in Chapter III, and with regard to Fu Hsi, also called\nT'ien Huang Shih, 'the Celestial Emperor,' the mythical sovereign\nand supposed inventor of cooking, musical instruments, the calendar,\nhunting, fishing, etc., the chief interest for our present purpose\ncentres in his discovery of the _pa kua_, or Eight Trigrams. It is on\nthe strength of these trigrams that Fu Hsi is regarded as the chief\ngod of medicine, since it is by their mystical power that the Chinese\nphysicians influence the minds and maladies of their patients. He\nis represented as holding in front of him a disk on which the signs\nare painted.\n\n\nThe Ministry of Exorcism\n\nThe Ministry of Exorcism is a Taoist invention and is composed of seven\nchief ministers, whose duty is to expel evil spirits from dwellings\nand generally to counteract the annoyances of infernal demons. The\ntwo gods usually referred to in the popular legends are P'an Kuan and\nChung K'uei. The first is really the Guardian of the Living and the\nDead in the Otherworld, Feng-tu P'an Kuan (Feng-tu or Feng-tu Ch'eng\nbeing the region beyond the tomb). He was originally a scholar named\nTs'ui Chio, who became Magistrate of Tz'u Chou, and later Minister\nof Ceremonies. After his death he was appointed to the spiritual post\nabove mentioned. His best-known achievement is his prolongation of the\nlife of the Emperor T'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty by twenty years by\nchanging _i_, 'one,' into _san_, 'three,' in the life-register kept\nby the gods. The term P'an Kuan is, however, more generally used as\nthe designation of an officer or civil or military attendant upon\na god than of any special individual, and the original P'an Kuan,\n'the Decider of Life in Hades,' has been gradually supplanted in\npopular favour by Chung K'uei, 'the Protector against Evil Spirits.'\n\n\nThe Exorcism of 'Emptiness and Devastation'\n\nThe Emperor Ming Huang of the T'ang dynasty, also known as T'ang\nHsuean Tsung, in the reign-period K'ai Yuean (A.D. 712-742), after an\nexpedition to Mount Li in Shensi, was attacked by fever. During a\nnightmare he saw a small demon fantastically dressed in red trousers,\nwith a shoe on one foot but none on the other, and a shoe hanging from\nhis girdle. Having broken through a bamboo gate, he took possession\nof an embroidered box and a jade flute, and then began to make a\ntour of the palace, sporting and gambolling. The Emperor grew angry\nand questioned him. \"Your humble servant,\" replied the little demon,\n\"is named Hsue Hao, 'Emptiness and Devastation,'\" \"I have never heard\nof such a person,\" said the Emperor. The demon rejoined, \"Hsue means to\ndesire Emptiness, because in Emptiness one can fly just as one wishes;\nHao, 'Devastation,' changes people's joy to sadness. \"The Emperor,\nirritated by this flippancy, was about to call his guard, when suddenly\na great devil appeared, wearing a tattered head-covering and a blue\nrobe, a horn clasp on his belt, and official boots on his feet. He\nwent up to the sprite, tore out one of his eyes, crushed it up, and ate\nit. The Emperor asked the newcomer who he was. \"Your humble servant,\"\nhe replied, \"is Chung K'uei, Physician of Tung-nan Shan in Shensi. In\nthe reign-period Wu Te (A.D. 618-627) of the Emperor Kao Tsu of the\nT'ang dynasty I was ignominiously rejected and unjustly defrauded\nof a first class in the public examinations. Overwhelmed with shame,\nI committed suicide on the steps of the imperial palace. The Emperor\nordered me to be buried in a green robe [reserved for members of the\nimperial clan], and out of gratitude for that favour I swore to protect\nthe sovereign in any part of the Empire against the evil machinations\nof the demon Hsue Hao.\" At these words the Emperor awoke and found\nthat the fever had left him. His Majesty called for Wu Tao-tzu (one\nof the most celebrated Chinese artists) to paint the portrait of the\nperson he had seen in his dream. The work was so well done that the\nEmperor recognized it as the actual demon he had seen in his sleep,\nand rewarded the artist with a hundred taels of gold. The portrait is\nsaid to have been still in the imperial palace during the Sung dynasty.\n\nAnother version of the legend says that Chung K'uefs essay was\nrecognized by the examiners as equal to the work of the best authors\nof antiquity, but that the Emperor rejected him on account of his\nextremely ugly features, whereupon he committed suicide in his\npresence, was honoured by the Emperor and accorded a funeral as if\nhe had been the successful first candidate, and canonized with the\ntitle of Great Spiritual Chaser of Demons for the Whole Empire.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER X\n\nThe Goddess of Mercy\n\n\nThe Guardian Angel of Buddhism\n\nAs Mary is the guiding spirit of Rome, so is Kuan Yin of the Buddhist\nfaith.\n\nAccording to a beautiful Chinese legend, Kuan Yin. when about to\nenter Heaven, heard a cry of anguish rising from the earth beneath\nher, and, moved by pity, paused as her feet touched the glorious\nthreshold. Hence her name 'Kuan (Shih) Yin' (one who notices or hears\nthe cry, or prayer, of the world).\n\nKuan Yin was at one time always represented as a man; but in the\nT'ang dynasty and Five Dynasties we find him represented as a woman,\nand he has been generally, though not invariably, so represented\nsince that time.\n\nIn old Buddhism Shakyamuni was the chief god, and in many temples\nhe still nominally occupies the seat of honour, but he is completely\neclipsed by the God or Goddess of Mercy.\n\n\"The men love her, the children adore her, and the women chant her\nprayers. Whatever the temple may be, there is nearly always a chapel\nfor Kuan Yin within its precincts; she lives in many homes, and in\nmany, many hearts she sits enshrined. She is the patron goddess of\nmothers, and when we remember the relative value of a son in Chinese\nestimation we can appreciate the heartiness of the worship. She\nprotects in sorrow, and so millions of times the prayer is offered,\n'Great mercy, great pity, save from sorrow, save from suffering,' or,\nas it is in the books, 'Great mercy, great pity, save from misery,\nsave from evil, broad, great, efficacious, responsive Kuan Yin Buddha,'\nShe saves the tempest-tossed sailor, and so has eclipsed the Empress\nof Heaven, who, as the female Neptune, is the patroness of seamen;\nin drought the mandarins worship the Dragon and the Pearly Emperor,\nbut if they fail the bronze Goddess of Mercy from the hills brings\nrain. Other gods are feared, she is loved; others have black,\nscornful faces, her countenance is radiant as gold, and gentle as\nthe moon-beam; she draws near to the people and the people draw near\nto her. Her throne is upon the Isle of Pootoo [P'u T'o], to which\nshe came floating upon a water-lily. She is the model of Chinese\nbeauty, and to say a lady or a little girl is a 'Kuan Yin' is the\nhighest compliment that can be paid to grace and loveliness. She is\nfortunate in having three birthdays, the nineteenth of the second,\nsixth, and ninth moons.\" There are many metamorphoses of this goddess.\n\n\nThe Buddhist Saviour\n\n\"She is called Kuan Yin because at any cry of misery she 'hears the\nvoice and removes the sorrow.' Her appellation is 'Taking-away-fear\nBuddha,' If in the midst of the fire the name of Kuan Yin is called,\nthe fire cannot burn; if tossed by mountain billows, call her name,\nand shallow waters will be reached. If merchants go across the sea\nseeking gold, silver, pearls, and precious stones, and a storm comes\nup and threatens to carry the crew to the evil devil's kingdom,\nif one on board calls on the name of Kuan Yin, the ship will be\nsaved. If one goes into a conflict and calls on the name of Kuan\nYin, the sword and spear of the enemy fall harmless. If the three\nthousand great kingdoms are visited by demons, call on her name,\nand these demons cannot with an evil eye look on a man. If, within,\nyou have evil thoughts, only call on Kuan Yin, and your heart will\nbe purified, Anger and wrath may be dispelled by calling on the name\nof Kuan Yin. A lunatic who prays to Kuan Yin will become sane. Kuan\nYin gives sons to mothers, and if the mother asks for a daughter she\nwill be beautiful. Two men--one chanting the names of the 6,200,000\nBuddhas, in number like the sands of the Ganges, and the other simply\ncalling on Kuan Yin--have equal merit. Kuan Yin may take the form of\na Buddha, a prince, a priest, a nun, a scholar, any form or shape,\ngo to any kingdom, and preach the law throughout the earth.\"\n\n\nMiao Chuang desires an Heir\n\nIn the twenty-first year of the reign of Ta Hao, the Great Great\nOne, of the Golden Heavenly Dynasty, a man named P'o Chia, whose\nfirst name was Lo Yue, an enterprising kinglet of Hsi Yii, seized the\nthrone for twenty years, after carrying on a war for a space of three\nyears. His kingdom was known as Hsing Lin, and the title of his reign\nas Miao Chuang.\n\nThe kingdom of Hsing Lin was, so says the Chinese writer, situated\nbetween India on the west, the kingdom of T'ien Cheng on the south,\nand the kingdom of Siam on the north, and was 3000 _li_ in length. The\nboundaries differ according to different authors. Of this kingdom\nthe two pillars of State were the Grand Minister Chao Chen and the\nGeneral Ch'u Chieh. The Queen Pao Te, whose maiden name was Po Ya, and\nthe King Miao Chuang had lived nearly half a century without having\nany male issue to succeed to the throne. This was a source of great\ngrief to them. Po Ya suggested to the King that the God of Hua Shan,\nthe sacred mountain in the west, had the reputation of being always\nwilling to help; and that if he prayed to him and asked his pardon\nfor having shed so much blood during the wars which preceded his\naccession to the throne he might obtain an heir.\n\nWelcoming this suggestion, the King sent for Chao Chen and ordered\nhim to dispatch to the temple of Hua Shan the two Chief Ministers of\nCeremonies, Hsi Heng-nan and Chih Tu, with instructions to request\nfifty Buddhist and Taoist priests to pray for seven days and seven\nnights in order that the King might obtain a son. When that period\nwas over, the King and Queen would go in person to offer sacrifices\nin the temple.\n\n\nPrayers to the Gods\n\nThe envoys took with them many rare and valuable presents, and for\nseven days and seven nights the temple resounded with the sound of\ndrums, bells, and all kinds of instruments, intermingled with the\nvoices of the praying priests. On their arrival the King and Queen\noffered sacrifices to the god of the sacred mountain.\n\nBut the God of Hua Shan knew that the King had been deprived of a\nmale heir as a punishment for the bloody hecatombs during his three\nyears' war. The priests, however, interceded for him, urging that the\nKing had come in person to offer the sacrifices, wherefore the God\ncould not altogether reject his prayer. So he ordered Ch'ien-li Yen,\n'Thousand-_li_ Eye,' and Shun-feng Erh, 'Favourable-wind Ear,' [29]\nto go quickly and ascertain if there were not some worthy person who\nwas on the point of being reincarnated into this world.\n\nThe two messengers shortly returned, and stated that in India, in the\nChiu Ling Mountains, in the village of Chih-shu Yuean, there lived a\ngood man named Shih Ch'in-ch'ang, whose ancestors for three generations\nhad observed all the ascetic rules of the Buddhists. This man was the\nfather of three children, the eldest Shih Wen, the second Shih Chin,\nand the third Shih Shan, all worthy followers of the great Buddha.\n\n\nThe Murder of the Tais\n\nWang Che, a brigand chief, and thirty of his followers, finding\nthemselves pursued and harassed by the Indian soldiers, without\nprovisions or shelter, dying of hunger, went to Shih Wen and begged for\nsomething to eat. Knowing that they were evildoers, Shih Wen and his\ntwo brothers refused to give them anything; if they starved, they said,\nthe peasants would no longer suffer from their depredations. Thereupon\nthe brigands decided that it was a case of life for life, and broke\ninto the house of a rich family of the name of Tai, burning their\nhome, killing a hundred men, women, and children, and carrying off\neverything they possessed.\n\nThe local _t'u-ti_ at once made a report to Yue Huang.\n\n\"This Shih family,\" replied the god, \"for three generations has\ngiven itself up to good works, and certainly the brigands were not\ndeserving of any pity. However, it is impossible to deny that the\nthree brothers Shih, in refusing them food, morally compelled them to\nloot the Tai family's house, putting all to the sword or flames. Is\nnot this the same as if they had committed the crime themselves? Let\nthem be arrested and put in chains in the celestial prison, and let\nthem never see the light of the sun again.\"\n\n\"Since,\" said the messenger to the God of Hua Shan, \"your gratitude\ntoward Miao Chuang compels you to grant him an heir, why not ask Yue\nHuang to pardon their crime and reincarnate them in the womb of the\nQueen Po Ya, so that they may begin a new terrestrial existence and\ngive themselves up to good works?\" As a result, the God of Hua Shan\ncalled the Spirit of the Wind and gave him a message for Yue Huang.\n\n\nA Message for Yue Huang\n\nThe message was as follows: \"King Miao Chuang has offered sacrifice\nto me and begged me to grant him an heir. But since by his wars he\nhas caused the deaths of a large number of human beings, he does not\ndeserve to have his request granted. Now these three brothers Shih\nhave offended your Majesty by constraining the brigand Wang Che to be\nguilty of murder and robbery. I pray you to take into account their\npast good works and pardon their crime, giving them an opportunity\nof expiating it by causing them all three to be reborn, but of the\nfemale sex, in the womb of Po Ya the Queen. [30] In this way they\nwill be able to atone for their crime and save many souls.\" Yue Huang\nwas pleased to comply, and he ordered the Spirit of the North Pole\nto release the three captives and take their souls to the palace of\nKing Miao Chuang, where in three years' time they would be changed\ninto females in the womb of Queen Po Ya.\n\n\nBirth of the Three Daughters\n\nThe King, who was anxiously expecting day by day the birth of an heir,\nwas informed one morning that a daughter had been born to him. She was\nnamed Miao Ch'ing. A year went by, and another daughter was born. This\none was named Miao Yin. When, at the end of the third year, another\ndaughter was born, the King, beside himself with rage, called his\nGrand Minister Chao Chen and, all disconsolate, said to him, \"I am\npast fifty, and have no male child to succeed me on the throne. My\ndynasty will therefore become extinct. Of what use have been all my\nlabours and all my victories?\" Chao Chen tried to console him, saying,\n\"Heaven has granted you three daughters: no human power can change this\ndivine decree. When these princesses have grown up, we will choose\nthree sons-in-law for your Majesty, and you can elect your successor\nfrom among them. Who will dare to dispute his right to the throne?\"\n\nThe King named the third daughter Miao Shan. She became noted for her\nmodesty and many other good qualities, and scrupulously observed all\nthe tenets of the Buddhist doctrines. Virtuous living seemed, indeed,\nto be to her a second nature.\n\n\nMiao Shan's Ambition\n\nOne day, when the three sisters were playing in the palace garden of\nPerpetual Spring, Miao Shan, with a serious mien, said to her sisters,\n\"Riches and glory are like the rain in spring or the morning dew;\na little while, and all is gone. Kings and emperors think to enjoy to\nthe end the good fortune which places them in a rank apart from other\nhuman beings; but sickness lays them low in their coffins, and all\nis over. Where are now all those powerful dynasties which have laid\ndown the law to the world? As for me, I desire nothing more than a\npeaceful retreat on a lone mountain, there to attempt the attainment\nof perfection. If some day I can reach a high degree of goodness,\nthen, borne on the clouds of Heaven, I will travel throughout the\nuniverse, passing in the twinkling of an eye from east to west. I\nwill rescue my father and mother, and bring them to Heaven; I will\nsave the miserable and afflicted on earth; I will convert the spirits\nwhich do evil, and cause them to do good. That is my only ambition.\"\n\n\nHer Sisters Marry\n\nNo sooner had she finished speaking than a lady of the Court came to\nannounce that the King had found sons-in-law to his liking for his two\nelder daughters. The wedding-feast was to be the very next day. \"Be\nquick,\" she added, \"and prepare your presents, your dresses, and so\nforth, for the King's order is imperative.\" The husband chosen for Miao\nCh'ing was a First Academician named Chao K'uei. His personal name was\nTe Ta, and he was the son of a celebrated minister of the reigning\ndynasty. Miao Yin's husband-elect was a military officer named Ho\nFeng, whose personal name was Ch'ao Yang. He had passed first in the\nexamination for the Military Doctorate. The marriage ceremonies were\nof a magnificent character. Festivity followed festivity; the newly-wed\nwere duly installed in their palaces, and general happiness prevailed.\n\n\nMiao Shan's Renunciation\n\nThere now remained only Miao Shan. The King and Queen wished to find\nfor her a man famous for knowledge and virtue, capable of ruling the\nkingdom, and worthy of being the successor to the throne. So the\nKing called her and explained to her all his plans regarding her,\nand how all his hopes rested on her.\n\n\"It is a crime,\" she replied, \"for me not to comply with my father's\nwishes; but you must pardon me if my ideas differ from yours.\"\n\n\"Tell me what your ideas are,\" said the King.\n\n\"I do not wish to marry,\" she rejoined. \"I wish to attain to perfection\nand to Buddhahood. Then I promise that I will not be ungrateful\nto you.\"\n\n\"Wretch of a daughter,\" cried the King in anger, \"you think you can\nteach me, the head of the State and ruler of so great a people! Has\nanyone ever known a daughter of a king become a nun? Can a good woman\nbe found in that class? Put aside all these mad ideas of a nunnery,\nand tell me at once if you will marry a First Academician or a Military\nFirst Graduate.\"\n\n\"Who is there,\" answered the girl, \"who does not love the royal\ndignity?--what person who does not aspire to the happiness of\nmarriage? However, I wish to become a nun. With respect to the riches\nand glory of this world, my heart is as cold as a dead cinder, and\nI feel a keen desire to make it ever purer and purer.\"\n\nThe King rose in fury, and wished to cast her out from his\npresence. Miao Shan, knowing she could not openly disobey his orders,\ntook another course. \"If you absolutely insist upon my marrying,\"\nshe said, \"I will consent; only I must marry a physician.\"\n\n\"A physician!\" growled the King. \"Are men of good family and talents\nwanting in my kingdom? What an absurd idea, to want to marry a\nphysician!\"\n\n\"My wish is,\" said Miao Shan, \"to heal humanity of all its ills; of\ncold, heat, lust, old age, and all infirmities. I wish to equalize all\nclasses, putting rich and poor on the same footing, to have community\nof goods, without distinction of persons. If you will grant me my wish,\nI can still in this way become a Buddha, a Saviour of Mankind. There\nis no necessity to call in the diviners to choose an auspicious day. I\nam ready to be married now.\"\n\n\nShe is Exiled to the Garden\n\nAt these words the King was mad with rage. \"Wicked imbecile!\" he\ncried, \"what diabolical suggestions are these that you dare to make\nin my presence?\"\n\nWithout further ado he called Ho T'ao, who on that day was officer\nof the palace guard. When he had arrived and kneeled to receive the\nKing's commands, the latter said: \"This wicked nun dishonours me. Take\nfrom her her Court robes, and drive her from my presence. Take her\nto the Queen's garden, and let her perish there of cold: that will\nbe one care less for my troubled heart.\"\n\nMiao Shan fell on her face and thanked the King, and then went with\nthe officer to the Queen's garden, where she began to lead her retired\nhermit life, with the moon for companion and the wind for friend,\ncontent to see all obstacles overthrown on her way to Nirvana, the\nhighest state of spiritual bliss, and glad to exchange the pleasures\nof the palace for the sweetness of solitude.\n\n\nThe Nunnery of the White Bird\n\nAfter futile attempts to dissuade her from her purpose by the Court\nladies, her parents, and sisters, the King and Queen next deputed\nMiao Hung and Ts'ui Hung to make a last attempt to bring their\nmisguided daughter to her senses. Miao Shan, annoyed at this renewed\nsolicitation, in a haughty manner ordered them never again to come and\ntorment her with their silly prattle. \"I have found out,\" she added,\n\"that there is a well-known temple at Ju Chou in Lung-shu Hsien. This\nBuddhist temple is known as the Nunnery of the White Bird, Po-ch'iao\nCh'an-ssu. In it five hundred nuns give themselves up to the study\nof the true doctrine and the way of perfection. Go then and ask the\nQueen on my behalf to obtain the King's permission for me to retire\nthither. If you can procure me this favour, I will not fail to reward\nyou later.\"\n\nMiao Chuang summoned the messengers and inquired the result of their\nefforts. \"She is more unapproachable than ever,\" they replied; \"she has\neven ordered us to ask the Queen to obtain your Majesty's permission\nto retire to the Nunnery of the White Bird in Lung-shu Hsien.\"\n\nThe King gave his permission, but sent strict orders to the nunnery,\ninstructing the nuns to do all in their power to dissuade the Princess\nwhen she arrived from carrying out her intention to remain.\n\n\nHer Reception at the Nunnery\n\nThis Nunnery of the White Bird had been built by Huang Ti, and\nthe five hundred nuns who lived in it had as Superior a lady named\nI Yu, who was remarkable for her virtue. On receipt of the royal\nmandate, she had summoned Cheng Cheng-ch'ang, the choir-mistress,\nand informed her that Princess Miao Shan, owing to a disagreement\nwith her father, would shortly arrive at the temple. She requested\nher to receive the visitor courteously, but at the same time to do\nall she could to dissuade her from adopting the life of a nun. Having\ngiven these instructions, the Superior, accompanied by two novices,\nwent to meet Miao Shan at the gate of the temple. On her arrival\nthey saluted her. The Princess returned the salute, but said: \"I\nhave just left the world in order to place myself under your orders:\nwhy do you come and salute me on my arrival? I beg you to be so good\nas to take me into the temple, in order that I may pay my respects to\nthe Buddha.\" I Yu led her into the principal hall, and instructed the\nnuns to light incense-sticks, ring the bells, and beat the drums. The\nvisit to the temple finished, she went into the preaching-hall, where\nshe greeted her instructresses. The latter obeyed the King's command\nand endeavoured to persuade the Princess to return to her home, but,\nas none of their arguments had any effect, it was at length decided to\ngive her a trial, and to put her in charge of the kitchen, where she\ncould prepare the food for the nunnery, and generally be at the service\nof all. If she did not give satisfaction they could dismiss her.\n\n\nShe makes Offering to the Buddha\n\nMiao Shan joyfully agreed, and proceeded to make her humble submission\nto the Buddha. She knelt before Ju Lai, and made offering to him,\npraying as follows: \"Great Buddha, full of goodness and mercy, your\nhumble servant wishes to leave the world. Grant that I may never\nyield to the temptations which will be sent to try my faith.\" Miao\nShan further promised to observe all the regulations of the nunnery\nand to obey the superiors.\n\n\nSpiritual Aid\n\nThis generous self-sacrifice touched the heart of Yue Huang, the Master\nof Heaven, who summoned the Spirit of the North Star and instructed\nhim as follows: \"Miao Shan, the third daughter of King Miao Chuang,\nhas renounced the world in order to devote herself to the attainment of\nperfection. Her father has consigned her to the Nunnery of the White\nBird. She has undertaken without grumbling the burden of all the work\nin the nunnery. If she is left without help, who is there who will be\nwilling to adopt the virtuous life? Do you go quickly and order the\nThree Agents, the Gods of the Five Sacred Peaks, the Eight Ministers\nof the Heavenly Dragon, Ch'ieh Lan, and the _t'u-ti_ to send her help\nat once. Tell the Sea-dragon to dig her a well near the kitchen,\na tiger to bring her firewood, birds to collect vegetables for the\ninmates of the nunnery, and all the spirits of Heaven to help her in\nher duties, that she may give herself up without disturbance to the\npursuit of perfection. See that my commands are promptly obeyed.\" The\nSpirit of the North Star complied without delay.\n\n\nThe Nunnery on Fire\n\nSeeing all these gods arrive to help the novice, the Superior, I Yu,\nheld consultation with the choir-mistress, saying: \"We assigned to\nthe Princess the burdensome work of the kitchen because she refused to\nreturn to the world; but since she has entered on her duties the gods\nof the eight caves of Heaven have come to offer her fruit, Ch'ieh Lan\nsweeps the kitchen, the dragon has dug a well, the God of the Hearth\nand the tiger bring her fuel, birds collect vegetables for her, the\nnunnery bell every evening at dusk booms of itself, as if struck by\nsome mysterious hand. Obviously miracles are being performed. Hasten\nand fetch the King, and beg his Majesty to recall his daughter.\"\n\nCheng Cheng-ch'ang started on her way, and, on arrival, informed\nthe King of all that had taken place. The King called Hu Pi-li,\nthe chief of the guard, and ordered him to go to the sub-prefecture\nof Lung-shu Hsien at the head of an army corps of 5000 infantry and\ncavalry. He was to surround the Nunnery of the White Bird and burn it\nto the ground, together with the nuns. When he reached the place the\ncommander surrounded the nunnery with his soldiers, and set fire to\nit. The five hundred doomed nuns invoked the aid of Heaven and earth,\nand then, addressing Miao Shan, said: \"It is you who have brought\nupon us this terrible disaster.\"\n\n\"It is true,\" said Miao Shan. \"I alone am the cause of your\ndestruction.\" She then knelt down and prayed to Heaven: \"Great\nSovereign of the Universe, your servant is the daughter of King Miao\nChuang; you are the grandson of King Lun. Will you not rescue your\nyounger sister? You have left your palace; I also have left mine. You\nin former times betook yourself to the snowy mountains to attain\nperfection; I came here with the same object. Will you not save us\nfrom this fiery destruction?\"\n\nHer prayer ended, Miao Shan took a bamboo hairpin from her hair,\npricked the roof of her mouth with it, and spat the flowing blood\ntoward Heaven. Immediately great clouds gathered in all parts of the\nsky and sent down inundating showers, which put out the fire that\nthreatened the nunnery. The nuns threw themselves on their knees and\nthanked her effusively for having saved their lives.\n\nHu Pi-li retired, and went in haste to inform the King of this\nextraordinary occurrence. The King, enraged, ordered him to go back\nat once, bring his daughter in chains, and behead her on the spot.\n\n\nThe Execution of Miao Shan\n\nBut the Queen, who had heard of this new plot, begged the King to grant\nher daughter a last chance. \"If you will give permission,\" she said,\n\"I will have a magnificent pavilion built at the side of the road\nwhere Miao Shan will pass in chains on the way to her execution, and\nwill go there with our two other daughters and our sons-in-law. As\nshe passes we will have music, songs, feasting, everything likely\nto impress her and make her contrast our luxurious life with her\nmiserable plight. This will surely bring her to repentance.\"\n\n\"I agree,\" said the King, \"to counter-order her execution until your\npreparations are complete.\" Nevertheless, when the time came, Miao\nShan showed nothing but disdain for all this worldly show, and to all\nadvances replied only: \"I love not these pompous vanities; I swear\nthat I prefer death to the so-called joys of this world.\" She was then\nled to the place of execution. All the Court was present. Sacrifices\nwere made to her as to one already dead. A Grand Minister pronounced\nthe sacrificial oration.\n\nIn the midst of all this the Queen appeared, and ordered the officials\nto return to their posts, that she might once more exhort her daughter\nto repent. But Miao Shan only listened in silence with downcast eyes.\n\nThe King felt great repugnance to shedding his daughter's blood, and\nordered her to be imprisoned in the palace, in order that he might make\na last effort to save her. \"I am the King,\" he said; \"my orders cannot\nbe lightly set aside. Disobedience to them involves punishment, and\nin spite of my paternal love for you, if you persist in your present\nattitude, you will be executed to-morrow in front of the palace gate.\"\n\nThe _t'u-ti_, hearing the King's verdict, went with all speed to Yue\nHuang, and reported to him the sentence which had been pronounced\nagainst Miao Shan. Yue Huang exclaimed: \"Save Buddha, there is none in\nthe west so noble as this Princess. To-morrow, at the appointed hour,\ngo to the scene of execution, break the swords, and splinter the lances\nthey will use to kill her. See that she suffers no pain. At the moment\nof her death transform yourself into a tiger, and bring her body to\nthe pine-wood. Having deposited it in a safe place, put a magic pill\nin her mouth to arrest decay. Her triumphant soul on its return from\nthe lower regions must find it in a perfect state of preservation in\norder to be able to re-enter it and animate it afresh. After that,\nshe must betake herself to Hsiang Shan on P'u T'o Island, where she\nwill reach the highest state of perfection.\"\n\nOn the day appointed, Commander Hu Pi-li led the condemned Princess\nto the place of execution. A body of troops had been stationed\nthere to maintain order. The _t'u-ti_ was in attendance at the\npalace gates. Miao Shan was radiant with joy. \"To-day,\" she said,\n\"I leave the world for a better life. Hasten to take my life, but\nbeware of mutilating my body.\"\n\nThe King's warrant arrived, and suddenly the sky became overcast and\ndarkness fell upon the earth. A bright light surrounded Miao Shan,\nand when the sword of the executioner fell upon the neck of the\nvictim it was broken in two. Then they thrust at her with a spear,\nbut the weapon fell to pieces. After that the King ordered that she be\nstrangled with a silken cord. A few moments later a tiger leapt into\nthe execution ground, dispersed the executioners, put the inanimate\nbody of Miao Shan on his back, and disappeared into the pine-forest. Hu\nPi-li rushed to the palace, recounted to the King full details of\nall that had occurred, and received a reward of two ingots of gold.\n\n\nMiao Shan visits the Infernal Regions\n\nMeantime, Miao Shan's soul, which remained unhurt, was borne on\na cloud; when, waking as from a dream, she lifted her head and\nlooked round, she could not see her body. \"My father has just had\nme strangled,\" she sighed. \"How is it that I find myself in this\nplace? Here are neither mountains, nor trees, nor vegetation; no sun,\nmoon, nor stars; no habitation, no sound, no cackling of a fowl nor\nbarking of a dog. How can I live in this desolate region?\"\n\nSuddenly a young man dressed in blue, shining with a brilliant light,\nand carrying a large banner, appeared and said to her: \"By order of\nYen Wang, the King of the Hells, I come to take you to the eighteen\ninfernal regions.\"\n\n\"What is this cursed place where I am now?\" asked Miao Shan.\n\n\"This is the lower world, Hell,\" he replied. \"Your refusal to marry,\nand the magnanimity with which you chose an ignominious death rather\nthan break your resolutions, deserve the recognition of Yue Huang,\nand the ten gods of the lower regions, impressed and pleased at your\neminent virtue, have sent me to you. Fear nothing and follow me.\"\n\nThus Miao Shan began her visit to all the infernal regions. The Gods\nof the Ten Hells came to congratulate her.\n\n\"Who am I,\" asked Miao Shan, \"that you should deign to take the\ntrouble to show me such respect?\"\n\n\"We have heard,\" they replied, \"that when you recite your prayers\nall evil disappears as if by magic. We should like to hear you pray.\"\n\n\"I consent,\" replied Miao Shan, \"on condition that all the condemned\nones in the ten infernal regions be released from their chains in\norder to listen to me.\"\n\nAt the appointed time the condemned were led in by Niu T'ou ('Ox-head')\nand Ma Mien ('Horse-face'), the two chief constables of Hell, and\nMiao Shan began her prayers. No sooner had she finished than Hell was\nsuddenly transformed into a paradise of joy, and the instruments of\ntorture into lotus-flowers.\n\n\nHell a Paradise\n\nP'an Kuan, the keeper of the Register of the Living and the Dead,\npresented a memorial to Yen Wang stating that since Miao Shan's\narrival there was no more pain in Hell; and all the condemned were\nbeside themselves with happiness. \"Since it has always been decreed,\"\nhe added, \"that, in justice, there must be both a Heaven and a Hell,\nif you do not send this saint back to earth, there will no longer be\nany Hell, but only a Heaven.\"\n\n\"Since that is so,\" said Yen Wang, \"let forty-eight flag-bearers\nescort her across the Styx Bridge [Nai-ho Ch'iao], that she may be\ntaken to the pine-forest to reenter her body, and resume her life in\nthe upper world.\"\n\nThe King of the Hells having paid his respects to her, the youth\nin blue conducted her soul back to her body, which she found lying\nunder a pine-tree. Having reentered it, Miao Shan found herself alive\nagain. A bitter sigh escaped from her lips. \"I remember,\" she said,\n\"all that I saw and heard in Hell. I sigh for the moment which will\nfind me free of all impediments, and yet my soul has re-entered my\nbody. Here, without any lonely mountain on which to give myself up\nto the pursuit of perfection, what will become of me?\" Great tears\nwelled from her eyes.\n\n\nA Test of Virtue\n\nJust then Ju Lai Buddha appeared. \"Why have you come to this place?\" he\nasked. Miao Shan explained why the King had put her to death, and\nhow after her descent into Hell her soul had re-entered her body. \"I\ngreatly pity your misfortune,\" Ju Lai said, \"but there is no one to\nhelp you. I also am alone. Why should we not marry? We could build\nourselves a hut, and pass our days in peace. What say you?\" \"Sir,\"\nshe replied, \"you must not make impossible suggestions. I died and\ncame to life again. How can you speak so lightly? Do me the pleasure\nof withdrawing from my presence.\"\n\n\"Well,\" said the visitor, \"he to whom you are speaking is no other\nthan the Buddha of the West. I came to test your virtue. This place\nis not suitable for your devotional exercises; I invite you to come\nto Hsiang Shan.\"\n\nMiao Shan threw herself on her knees and said: \"My bodily eyes deceived\nme. I never thought that your Majesty would come to a place like\nthis. Pardon my seeming want of respect. Where is this Hsiang Shan?\"\n\n\"Hsiang Shan is a very old monastery,\" Ju Lai replied, \"built in\nthe earliest historical times. It is inhabited by Immortals. It is\nsituated in the sea, on P'u T'o Island, a dependency of the kingdom\nof Annam. There you will be able to reach the highest perfection.\"\n\n\"How far off is this island?\" Miao Shan asked. \"More than three\nthousand _li_,\" Ju Lai replied. \"I fear,\" she said, \"I could not bear\nthe fatigue of so long a journey.\" \"Calm yourself,\" he rejoined. \"I\nhave brought with me a magic peach, of a kind not to be found in any\nearthly orchard. Once you have eaten it, you will experience neither\nhunger nor thirst; old age and death will have no power over you:\nyou will live for ever.\"\n\nMiao Shan ate the magic peach, took leave of Ju Lai, and started\non the way to Hsiang Shan. From the clouds the Spirit of the North\nStar saw her wending her way painfully toward P'u T'o. He called the\nGuardian of the Soil of Hsiang Shan and said to him: \"Miao Shan is\non her way to your country; the way is long and difficult. Do you\ntake the form of a tiger, and carry her to her journey's end.\"\n\nThe _t'u-ti_ transformed himself into a tiger and stationed himself\nin the middle of the road along which Miao Shan must pass, giving\nvent to ferocious roars.\n\n\"I am a poor girl devoid of filial piety,\" said Miao Shan when she\ncame up. \"I have disobeyed my father's commands; devour me, and make\nan end of me.\"\n\nThe tiger then spoke, saying: \"I am not a real tiger, but the Guardian\nof the Soil of Hsiang Shan. I have received instructions to carry\nyou there. Get on my back.\"\n\n\"Since you have received these instructions,\" said the girl, \"I will\nobey, and when I have attained to perfection I will not forget your\nkindness.\"\n\nThe tiger went off like a flash of lightning, and in the twinkling\nof an eye Miao Shan found herself at the foot of the rocky slopes of\nP'u T'o Island.\n\n\n\nMiao Shan attains to Perfection\n\nAfter nine years in this retreat Miao Shan had reached the acme\nof perfection. Ti-tsang Wang then came to Hsiang Shan, and was so\nastonished at her virtue that he inquired of the local _t'u-ti_ as to\nwhat had brought about this wonderful result. \"With the exception of Ju\nLai, in all the west no one equals her in dignity and perfection. She\nis the Queen of the three thousand P'u-sa's and of all the beings on\nearth who have skin and blood. We regard her as our sovereign in all\nthings. Therefore, on the nineteenth day of the eleventh moon we will\nenthrone her, that the whole world may profit by her beneficence.\"\n\nThe _t'u-ti_ sent out his invitations for the ceremony. The Dragon-king\nof the Western Sea, the Gods of the Five Sacred Mountains, the\nEmperor-saints to the number of one hundred and twenty, the thirty-six\nofficials of the Ministry of Time, the celestial functionaries in\ncharge of wind, rain, thunder, and lightning, the Three Causes, the\nFive Saints, the Eight Immortals, the Ten Kings of the Hells--all\nwere present on the appointed day. Miao Shan took her seat on the\nlotus-throne, and the assembled gods proclaimed her sovereign of\nHeaven and earth, and a Buddha. Moreover, they decided that it was\nnot meet that she should remain alone at Hsiang Shan; so they begged\nher to choose a worthy young man and a virtuous damsel to serve her\nin the temple.\n\nThe _t'u-ti_ was entrusted with the task of finding them. While making\nsearch, he met a young priest named Shan Ts'ai. After the death of\nhis parents he had become a hermit on Ta-hua Shan, and was still a\nnovice in the science of perfection.\n\nMiao Shan ordered him to be brought to her. \"Who are you?\" she asked.\n\n\"I am a poor orphan priest of no merit,\" he replied. \"From my earliest\nyouth I have led the life of a hermit. I have been told that your\npower is equalled only by your goodness, so I have ventured to come\nto pray you to show me how to attain to perfection.\"\n\n\"My only fear,\" replied Miao Shan, \"is that your desire for perfection\nmay not be sincere.\"\n\n\"I have now no parents,\" the priest continued, \"and I have come more\nthan a thousand _li_ to find you. How can I be wanting in sincerity?\"\n\n\"What special degree of ability have you attained during your course\nof perfection?\" asked Miao Shan.\n\n\"I have no skill,\" replied Shan Ts'ai, \"but I rely for everything\non your great pity, and under your guidance I hope to reach the\nrequired ability.\"\n\n\"Very well,\" said Miao Shan, \"take up your station on the top of\nyonder peak, and wait till I find a means of transporting you.\"\n\n\nA Ruse\n\nMiao Shan called the _t'u-ti_ and bade him go and beg all the Immortals\nto disguise themselves as pirates and to besiege the mountain, waving\ntorches, and threatening with swords and spears to kill her. \"Then\nI will seek refuge on the summit, and thence leap over the precipice\nto prove Shan Ts'ai's fidelity and affection.\"\n\nA minute later a horde of brigands of ferocious aspect rushed up\nto the temple of Hsiang Shan. Miao Shan cried for help, rushed\nup the steep incline, missed her footing, and rolled down into the\nravine. Shan Ts'ai, seeing her fall into the abyss, without hesitation\nflung himself after her in order to rescue her. When he reached her,\nhe asked: \"What have you to fear from the robbers? You have nothing\nfor them to steal; why throw yourself over the precipice, exposing\nyourself to certain death?\"\n\nMiao Shan saw that he was weeping, and wept too. \"I must comply with\nthe wish of Heaven,\" she said.\n\n\nThe Transformation of Shan Ts'ai\n\nShan Ts'ai, inconsolable, prayed Heaven and earth to save his\nprotectress. Miao Shan said to him: \"You should not have risked\nyour life by throwing yourself over the precipice, I have not yet\ntransformed you. But you did a brave thing, and I know that you have\na good heart. Now, look down there.\" \"Oh,\" said he, \"if I mistake\nnot, that is a corpse.\" \"Yes,\" she replied, \"that is your former\nbody. Now you are transformed you can rise at will and fly in the\nair.\" Shan Ts'ai bowed low to thank his benefactress, who said to him:\n\"Henceforth you must say your prayers by my side, and not leave me\nfor a single day.\"\n\n\n'Brother and Sister'\n\nWith her spiritual sight Miao Shan perceived at the bottom of the\nSouthern Sea the third son of Lung Wang, who, in carrying out his\nfather's orders, was cleaving the waves in the form of a carp. While\ndoing so, he was caught in a fisherman's net, taken to the market\nat Yueeh Chou, and offered for sale. Miao Shan at once sent her\nfaithful Shan Ts'ai, in the guise of a servant, to buy him, giving\nhim a thousand cash to purchase the fish, which he was to take to\nthe foot of the rocks at P'u T'o and set free in the sea. The son\nof Lung Wang heartily thanked his deliverer, and on his return to\nthe palace related to his father what had occurred. The King said:\n\"As a reward, make her a present of a luminous pearl, so that she\nmay recite her prayers by its light at night-time.\"\n\nLung Nue, the daughter of Lung Wang's third son, obtained her\ngrandfather's permission to take the gift to Miao Shan and beg that\nshe might be allowed to study the doctrine of the sages under her\nguidance. After having proved her sincerity, she was accepted as a\npupil. Shan Ts'ai called her his sister, and Lung Nue reciprocated\nby calling him her dear brother. Both lived as brother and sister by\nMiao Shan's side.\n\n\nThe King's Punishment\n\nAfter King Miao Chuang had burned the Nunnery of the White Bird and\nkilled his daughter, Ch'ieh Lan Buddha presented a petition to Yue Huang\npraying that the crime be not allowed to go unpunished. Yue Huang,\njustly irritated, ordered P'an Kuan to consult the Register of the\nLiving and the Dead to see how long this homicidal King had yet to\nlive. P'an Kuan turned over the pages of his register, and saw that\naccording to the divine ordinances the King's reign on the throne of\nHsing Lin should last for twenty years, but that this period had not\nyet expired. [31] \"That which has been decreed is immutable,\" said\nYue Huang, \"but I will punish him by sending him illness.\" He called\nthe God of Epidemics, and ordered him to afflict the King's body with\nulcers, of a kind which could not be healed except by remedies to be\ngiven him by his daughter Miao Shan.\n\nThe order was promptly executed, and the King could get no rest by day\nor by night. His two daughters and their husbands spent their time in\nfeasting while he tossed about in agony on his sick-bed. In vain the\nmost famous physicians were called in; the malady only grew worse, and\ndespair took hold of the patient. He then caused a proclamation to be\nmade that he would grant the succession to the throne to any person who\nwould provide him with an effectual remedy to restore him to health.\n\n\nThe Disguised Priest-doctor\n\nMiao Shan had learnt by revelation at Hsiang Shan all that was taking\nplace at the palace. She assumed the form of a priest-doctor, clothed\nherself in a priest's gown, with the regulation headdress and straw\nshoes, and attached to her girdle a gourd containing pills and other\nmedicines. In this apparel she went straight to the palace gate,\nread the royal edict posted there, and tore it down. Some members of\nthe palace guard seized her, and inquired angrily: \"Who are you that\nyou should dare to tear down the royal proclamation?\"\n\n\"I, a poor priest, am also a doctor,\" she replied. \"I read the edict\nposted on the palace gates. The King is inquiring for a doctor who\ncan heal him. I am a doctor of an old cultured family, and propose\nto restore him to health.\"\n\n\"If you are of a cultured family, why did you become a priest?\" they\nasked. \"Would it not have been better to gain your living honestly\nin practising your art than to shave your head and go loafing about\nthe world? Besides, all the highest physicians have tried in vain to\ncure the King; do you imagine that you will be more skilful than all\nthe aged practitioners?\"\n\n\"Set your minds at ease,\" she replied. \"I have received from my\nancestors the most efficacious remedies, and I guarantee that I\nshall restore the King to health,\" The palace guard then consented\nto transmit her petition to the Queen, who informed the King, and in\nthe end the pretended priest was admitted. Having reached the royal\nbed-chamber, he sat still awhile in order to calm himself before\nfeeling the pulse, and to have complete control of all his faculties\nwhile examining the King. When he felt quite sure of himself, he\napproached the King's bed, took the King's hand, felt his pulse,\ncarefully diagnosed the nature of the illness, and assured himself\nthat it was easily curable.\n\n\nStrange Medicine\n\nOne serious difficulty, however, presented itself, and that was that\nthe right medicine was almost impossible to procure. The King showed\nhis displeasure by saying: \"For every illness there is a medical\nprescription, and for every prescription a specific medicine; how\ncan you say that the diagnosis is easy, but that there is no remedy?\"\n\n\"Your Majesty,\" replied the priest, \"the remedy for your illness is\nnot to be found in any pharmacy, and no one would agree to sell it.\"\n\nThe King became angry, believed that he was being imposed upon,\nand ordered those about him to drive away the priest, who left smiling.\n\nThe following night the King saw in a dream an old man who said to\nhim: \"This priest alone can cure your illness, and if you ask him he\nhimself will give you the right remedy.\"\n\nThe King awoke as soon as these words had been uttered, and begged\nthe Queen to recall the priest. When the latter had returned, the\nKing related his dream, and begged the priest to procure for him the\nremedy required. \"What, after all, is this remedy that I must have\nin order to be cured?\" he asked.\n\n\"There must be the hand and eye of a living person, from which to\ncompound the ointment which alone can save you,\" answered the priest.\n\nThe King called out in indignation: \"This priest is fooling me! Who\nwould ever give his hand or his eye? Even if anyone would, I could\nnever have the heart to make use of them.\"\n\n\"Nevertheless,\" said the priest, \"there is no other effective remedy.\"\n\n\"Then where can I procure this remedy?\" asked the King.\n\n\"Your Majesty must send your ministers, who must observe the Buddhist\nrules of abstinence, to Hsiang Shan, where they will be given what\nis required.\"\n\n\"Where is Hsiang Shan, and how far from here?\"\n\n\"About three thousand or more _li_, but I myself will indicate the\nroute to be followed; in a very short time they will return.\"\n\nThe King, who was suffering terribly, was more contented when he\nheard that the journey could be rapidly accomplished. He called his\ntwo ministers, Chao Chen and Liu Ch'in, and instructed them to lose\nno time in starting for Hsiang Shan and to observe scrupulously the\nBuddhist rules of abstinence. He ordered the Minister of Ceremonies\nto detain the priest in the palace until their return.\n\n\nA Conspiracy that Failed\n\nThe two sons-in-law of the King, Ho Feng and Chao K'uei, who had\nalready made secret preparations to succeed to the throne as soon as\nthe King should breathe his last, learned with no little surprise\nthat the priest had hopes of curing the King's illness, and that\nhe was waiting in the palace until the saving remedy was brought\nto him. Fearing that they might be disappointed in their ambition,\nand that after his recovery the King, faithful to his promise,\nwould give the crown to the priest, they entered into a conspiracy\nwith an unscrupulous courtier named Ho Li. They were obliged to act\nquickly, because the ministers were travelling by forced marches,\nand would soon be back. That same night Ho Li was to give to the\nKing a poisoned drink, composed, he would say, by the priest with\nthe object of assuaging the King's pain until the return of his\ntwo ministers. Shortly after, an assassin, Su Ta, was to murder the\npriest. Thus at one stroke both the King and the priest would meet\ntheir death, and the kingdom would pass to the King's two sons-in-law.\n\nMiao Shan had returned to Hsiang Shan, leaving in the palace the bodily\nform of the priest. She saw the two traitors Ho Feng and Chao K'uei\npreparing the poison, and was aware of their wicked intentions. Calling\nthe spirit Yu I, who was on duty that day, she told him to fly to\nthe palace and change into a harmless soup the poison about to be\nadministered to the King and to bind the assassin hand and foot.\n\nAt midnight Ho Li, carrying in his hand the poisoned drink, knocked\nat the door of the royal apartment, and said to the Queen that the\npriest had prepared a soothing potion while awaiting the return of\nthe ministers. \"I come,\" he said, \"to offer it to his Majesty.\" The\nQueen took the bowl in her hands and was about to give it to the King,\nwhen Yu I arrived unannounced. Quick as thought he snatched the bowl\nfrom the Queen and poured the contents on the ground; at the same\nmoment he knocked over those present in the room, so that they all\nrolled on the floor.\n\nAt the time this was happening the assassin Su Ta entered the priest's\nroom, and struck him with his sword. Instantly the assassin, without\nknowing how, found himself enwrapped in the priest's robe and thrown\nto the ground. He struggled and tried to free himself, but found\nthat his hands had been rendered useless by some mysterious power,\nand that flight was impossible. The spirit Yu I, having fulfilled the\nmission entrusted to him, now returned to Hsiang Shan and reported\nto Miao Shan.\n\n\nA Confession and its Results\n\nNext morning, the two sons-in-law of the King heard of the turn things\nhad taken during the night. The whole palace was in a state of the\ngreatest confusion.\n\nWhen he was informed that the priest had been killed, the King called\nCh'u Ting-lieh and ordered him to have the murderer arrested. Su Ta\nwas put to the torture and confessed all that he knew. Together with\nHo Li he was condemned to be cut into a thousand pieces.\n\nThe two sons-in-law were seized and ordered to instant execution,\nand it was only on the Queen's intercession that their wives were\nspared. The infuriated King, however, ordered that his two daughters\nshould be imprisoned in the palace.\n\n\nThe Gruesome Remedy\n\nMeantime Chao Chen and Liu Ch'in had reached Hsiang Shan. When they\nwere brought to Miao Shan the ministers took out the King's letter and\nread it to her. \"I, Miao Chuang, King of Hsing Lin, have learned that\nthere dwells at Hsiang Shan an Immortal whose power and compassion\nhave no equal in the whole world. I have passed my fiftieth year, and\nam afflicted with ulcers that all remedies have failed to cure. To-day\na priest has assured me that at Hsiang Shan I can obtain the hand and\neye of a living person, with which he will prepare an ointment able\nto restore me to my usual state of health. Relying upon his word\nand upon the goodness of the Immortal to whom he has directed me,\nI venture to beg that those two parts of a living body necessary to\nheal my ulcers be sent to me. I assure you of my everlasting gratitude,\nfully confident that my request will not be refused.\"\n\nThe next morning Miao Shan bade the ministers take a knife and cut\noff her left hand and gouge out her left eye. Liu Ch'in took the\nknife offered him, but did not dare to obey the order. \"Be quick,\"\nurged the Immortal; \"you have been commanded to return as soon as\npossible; why do you hesitate as if you were a young girl?\" Liu\nCh'in was forced to proceed. He plunged in the knife, and the red\nblood flooded the ground, spreading an odour like sweet incense. The\nhand and eye were placed on a golden plate, and, having paid their\ngrateful respects to the Immortal, the envoys hastened to return.\n\nWhen they had left, Miao Shan, who had transformed herself in order to\nallow the envoys to remove her hand and eye, told Shan Ts'ai that she\nwas now going to prepare the ointment necessary for the cure of the\nKing. \"Should the Queen,\" she added, \"send for another eye and hand,\nI will transform myself again, and you can give them to her.\" No sooner\nhad she finished speaking than she mounted a cloud and disappeared\nin space. The two ministers reached the palace and presented to the\nQueen the gruesome remedy which they had brought from the temple. She,\novercome with gratitude and emotion, wept copiously. \"What Immortal,\"\nshe asked, \"can have been so charitable as to sacrifice a hand and eye\nfor the King's benefit?\" Then suddenly her tears gushed forth with\nredoubled vigour, and she uttered a great cry, for she recognized\nthe hand of her daughter by a black scar which was on it.\n\n\nHalf-measures\n\n\"Who else, in fact, but his child,\" she continued amid her sobs,\n\"could have had the courage to give her hand to save her father's\nlife?\" \"What are you saying?\" said the King. \"In the world there are\nmany hands like this.\" While they thus reasoned, the priest entered\nthe King's apartment. \"This great Immortal has long devoted herself\nto the attainment of perfection,\" he said. \"Those she has healed\nare innumerable. Give me the hand and eye.\" He took them and shortly\nproduced an ointment which, he told the King, was to be applied to his\nleft side. No sooner had it touched his skin than the pain on his left\nside disappeared as if by magic; no sign of ulcers was to be seen on\nthat side, but his right side remained swollen and painful as before.\n\n\"Why is it,\" asked the King, \"that this remedy, which is so efficacious\nfor the left side, should not be applied to the right?\" \"Because,\"\nreplied the priest, \"the left hand and eye of the saint cures only\nthe left side. If you wish to be completely cured, you must send\nyour officers to obtain the right eye and right hand also.\" The King\naccordingly dispatched his envoys anew with a letter of thanks, and\nbegging as a further favour that the cure should be completed by the\nhealing also of his right side.\n\n\nThe King Cured\n\nOn the arrival of the envoys Shan Ts'ai met them in the mutilated form\nof Miao Shan, and he bade them cut off his right hand, pluck out his\nright eye, and put them on a plate. At the sight of the four bleeding\nwounds Liu Ch'in could not refrain from calling out indignantly:\n\"This priest is a wicked man, thus to make a martyr of a woman in\norder to obtain the succession!\"\n\nHaving thus spoken, he left with his companion for the kingdom of\nHsing Lin. On their return the King was overwhelmed with joy. The\npriest quickly prepared the ointment, and the King, without delay,\napplied it to his right side. At once the ulcers disappeared like the\ndarkness of night before the rising sun. The whole Court congratulated\nthe King and eulogized the priest. The King conferred upon the latter\nthe title Priest of the Brilliant Eye. He fell on his face to return\nthanks, and added: \"I, a poor priest, have left the world, and have\nonly one wish, namely, that your Majesty should govern your subjects\nwith justice and sympathy and that all the officials of the realm\nshould prove themselves men of integrity. As for me, I am used to\nroaming about. I have no desire for any royal estate. My happiness\nexceeds all earthly joys.\"\n\nHaving thus spoken, the priest waved the sleeve of his cloak, a cloud\ndescended from Heaven, and seating himself upon it he disappeared\nin the sky. From the cloud a note containing the following words was\nseen to fall: \"I am one of the Teachers of the West. I came to cure\nthe King's illness, and so to glorify the True Doctrine.\"\n\n\n\nThe King's Daughter\n\nAll who witnessed this miracle exclaimed with one voice: \"This priest\nis the Living Buddha, who is going back to Heaven!\" The note was taken\nto King Miao Chuang, who exclaimed: \"Who am I that I should deserve\nthat one of the rulers of Heaven should deign to descend and cure me\nby the sacrifice of hands and eyes?\"\n\n\"What was the face of the saintly person like who gave you the\nremedy?\" he then asked Chao Chen.\n\n\"It was like unto that of your deceased daughter, Miao Shan,\"\nhe replied.\n\n\"When you removed her hands and eyes did she seem to suffer?\"\n\n\"I saw a great flow of blood, and my heart failed, but the face of\nthe victim seemed radiant with happiness.\"\n\n\"This certainly must be my daughter Miao Shan, who has attained to\nperfection,\" said the King. \"Who but she would have given hands\nand eyes? Purify yourselves and observe the rules of abstinence,\nand go quickly to Hsiang Shan to return thanks to the saint for this\ninestimable favour. I myself will ere long make a pilgrimage thither\nto return thanks in person.\"\n\n\nThe King and Queen taken Prisoners\n\nThree years later the King and Queen, with the grandees of their\nCourt, set out to visit Hsiang Shan, but on the way the monarchs were\ncaptured by the Green Lion, or God of Fire, and the White Elephant,\nor Spirit of the Water, the two guardians of the Temple of Buddha,\nwho transported them to a dark cavern in the mountains. A terrific\nbattle then took place between the evil spirits on the one side and\nsome hosts of heavenly genii, who had been summoned to the rescue,\non the other. While its issue was still uncertain, reinforcements\nunder the Red Child Devil, who could resist fire, and the Dragon-king\nof the Eastern Sea, who could subdue water, finally routed the enemy,\nand the prisoners were released.\n\n\nThe King's Repentance\n\nThe King and Queen now resumed their pilgrimage, and Miao Shan\ninstructed Shan Ts'ai to receive the monarchs when they arrived\nto offer incense. She herself took up her place on the altar, her\neyes torn out, her hands cut off, and her wrists all dripping with\nblood. The King recognized his daughter, and bitterly reproached\nhimself; the Queen fell swooning at her feet. Miao Shan then spoke and\ntried to comfort them. She told them of all that she had experienced\nsince the day when she had been executed, and how she had attained\nto immortal perfection. She then went on: \"In order to punish you\nfor having caused the deaths of all those who perished in the wars\npreceding your accession to the throne, and also to avenge the burning\nof the Nunnery of the White Bird, Yue Huang afflicted you with those\ngrievous ulcers. It was then that I changed myself into a priest in\norder to heal you, and gave my eyes and hands, with which I prepared\nthe ointment that cured you. It was I, moreover, who procured your\nliberty from Buddha when you were imprisoned in the cave by the Green\nLion and the White Elephant.\"\n\n\nSackcloth and Ashes\n\nAt these words the King threw himself with his face on the ground,\noffered incense, worshipped Heaven, earth, the sun, and the moon,\nsaying with a voice broken by sobs: \"I committed a great crime in\nkilling my daughter, who has sacrificed her eyes and hands in order\nto cure my sickness.\"\n\nNo sooner were these words uttered than Miao Shan reassumed her\nnormal form, and, descending from the altar, approached her parents\nand sisters. Her body had again its original completeness; and in the\npresence of its perfect beauty, and at finding themselves reunited\nas one family, all wept for joy.\n\n\"Well,\" said Miao Shan to her father, \"will you now force me to marry\nand prevent my devoting myself to the attainment of perfection?\"\n\n\"Speak no more of that,\" replied the King. \"I was in the wrong. If you\nhad not reached perfection, I should not now be alive. I have made up\nmy mind to exchange my sceptre for the pursuit of the perfect life,\nwhich I wish to lead henceforth together with you.\"\n\n\nThe King renounces the Throne\n\nThen, in the presence of all, he addressed his Grand Minister Chao\nChen, saying: \"Your devotion to the service of the State has rendered\nyou worthy to wear the crown: I surrender it to you.\" The Court\nproclaimed Chao Chen King of Hsing Lin, bade farewell to Miao Chuang,\nand set out for their kingdom accompanied by their new sovereign.\n\n\nPardon of the Green Lion and the White Elephant\n\nBuddha had summoned the White Elephant and the Green Lion, and\nwas on the point of sentencing them to eternal damnation when the\ncompassionate Miao Shan interceded for them. \"Certainly you deserve\nno forgiveness,\" he said, \"but I cannot refuse a request made by\nMiao Shan, whose clemency is without limit. I give you over to her,\nto serve and obey her in everything. Follow her.\"\n\n\nMiao Shan becomes a Buddha\n\nThe guardian spirit on duty that day then announced the arrival of a\nmessenger from Yue Huang. It was T'ai-po Chin-hsing, who was the bearer\nof a divine decree, which he handed to Miao Shan. It read as follows:\n\"I, the august Emperor, make known to you this decree: Miao Chuang,\nKing of Hsing Lin, forgetful alike of Heaven and Hell, the six virtues,\nand metempsychosis, has led a blameworthy life; but your nine years\nof penitence, the filial piety which caused you to sacrifice your own\nbody to effect his cure, in short, all your virtues, have redeemed\nhis faults. Your eyes can see and your ears can hear all the good\nand bad deeds and words of men. You are the object of my especial\nregard. Therefore I make proclamation of this decree of canonization.\n\n\"Miao Shan will have the title of Very Merciful and Very Compassionate\nP'u-sa, Saviour of the Afflicted, Miraculous and Always Helpful\nProtectress of Mortals. On your lofty precious lotus-flower throne,\nyou will be the Sovereign of the Southern Seas and of P'u T'o Isle.\n\n\"Your two sisters, hitherto tainted with earthly pleasures, will\ngradually progress till they reach true perfection.\n\n\"Miao Ch'ing will have the title of Very Virtuous P'u-sa, the\nCompletely Beautiful, Rider of the Green Lion.\n\n\"Miao Yin will be honoured with the title of Very Virtuous and\nCompletely Resplendent P'u-sa, Rider of the White Elephant.\n\n\"King Miao Chuang is raised to the dignity of Virtuous Conquering\nP'u-sa, Surveyor of Mortals.\n\n\"Queen Po Ya receives the title of P'u-sa of Ten Thousand Virtues,\nSurveyor of Famous Women.\n\n\"Shan Ts'ai has bestowed upon him the title of Golden Youth.\n\n\"Lung Nue has the title of Jade Maiden.\n\n\"During all time incense is to be burned before all the members of\nthis canonized group.\"\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XI\n\nThe Eight Immortals\n\n\nPa Hsien\n\nEither singly or in groups the Eight Immortals, Pa Hsien, of the Taoist\nreligion are one of the most popular subjects of representation in\nChina; their portraits are to be seen everywhere--on porcelain vases,\nteapots, teacups, fans, scrolls, embroidery, etc. Images of them are\nmade in porcelain, earthenware, roots, wood, metals. The term 'Eight\nImmortals' is figuratively used for happiness. The number eight has\nbecome lucky in association with this tradition, and persons or things\neight in number are graced accordingly. Thus we read of reverence shown\nto the 'Eight Genii Table' (_Pa Hsien Cho_), the 'Eight Genii Bridge'\n(_Pa Hsien Ch'iao_), 'Eight Genii Vermicelli' (_Pa Hsien Mien_), the\n'Eight Genii of the Wine-cup' (_Tin Chung Pa Hsien_)--wine-bibbers of\nthe T'ang dynasty celebrated by Tu Fu, the poet. They are favourite\nsubjects of romance, and special objects of adoration. In them we see\n\"the embodiment of the ideas of perfect but imaginary happiness which\npossess the minds of the Chinese people.\" Three of them (Chung-li\nCh'uean, Chang Kuo, and Lue Yen) were historical personages; the others\nare mentioned only in fables or romances. They represent all kinds\nof people--old, young, male, female, civil, military, rich, poor,\nafflicted, cultured, noble. They are also representative of early,\nmiddle, and later historical periods.\n\nThe legend of the Eight Immortals is certainly not older than the time\nof the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960-1280), and is probably to be assigned\nto that of the Yuean dynasty (1280-1368). But some, if not all, of\nthe group seem to have been previously celebrated as Immortals in the\nTaoist legends. Their biographies are usually arranged in the order\nof their official eminence or seniority in age. Here I follow that\nadopted in _Hsiu hsiang Pa Hsien tung yu chi_ [32] in which they are\ndescribed in the order in which they became Immortals.\n\n\nLi T'ieh-kuai\n\nLi T'ieh-kuai, depicted always with his crutch and gourd full of\nmagic medicines, was of the family name of Li, his own name being\nLi Yuean (Hs'uean, now read Yuean). He is also known as K'ung-mu. Hsi\nWang Mu cured him of an ulcer on the leg and taught him the art of\nbecoming immortal. He was canonized as Rector of the East. He is\nsaid to have been of commanding stature and dignified mien, devoting\nhimself solely to the study of Taoist lore. Hsi Wang Mu made him a\npresent of an iron crutch, and sent him to the capital to teach the\ndoctrine of immortality to Han Chung-li.\n\nHe is also identified with Li Ning-yang, to whom Lao Tzu descended\nfrom Heaven in order to instruct him in the wisdom of the gods. Soon\nafter he had completed his course of instruction his soul left his\nbody to go on a visit to Hua Shan. Some say he was summoned by Lao\nTzu, others that Lao Tzu engaged him as escort to the countries of\nHsi Yue. He left his disciple Lang Ling in charge of his body, saying\nthat if he did not return within seven days he was to have the body\ncremated. Unfortunately, when only six days had elapsed the disciple\nwas called away to the death-bed of his mother. In order to be able\nto leave at once he cremated the body forthwith, and when the soul\nreturned it found only a heap of ashes. Some say the body was not\ncremated, but only became devitalized through neglect or through\nbeing uninhabited for so long a time. The object of the setting of\nthe watch was not only to prevent injury to or theft of the body,\nbut also to prevent any other soul from taking up its abode in it.\n\nIn a forest near by a beggar had just died of hunger. Finding this\ncorpse untenanted, the wandering spirit entered it through the\ntemples, and made off. When he found that his head was long and\npointed, his face black, his beard and hair woolly and dishevelled,\nhis eyes of gigantic size, and one of his legs lame, he wished to\nget out of this vile body; but Lao Tzu advised him not to make the\nattempt and gave him a gold band to keep his hair in order, and an\niron crutch to help his lame leg. On lifting his hand to his eyes,\nhe found they were as large as buckles. That is why he was called Li\nK'ung-mu, 'Li Hollow Eyes.' Popularly he is known as Li T'ieh-kuai,\n'Li with the Iron Crutch.' No precise period seems to be assigned\nto his career on earth, though one tradition places him in the Yuean\ndynasty. Another account says that he was changed into a dragon,\nand in that form ascended to Heaven.\n\nElsewhere it is related that T'ieh-kuai, after entering the body of\nthe lame beggar, benevolently proceeded to revive the mother of Yang,\nhis negligent disciple. Leaning on his iron staff and carrying a gourd\nof medicines on his back he went to Yang's house, where preparations\nwere being made for the funeral. The contents of the gourd, poured\ninto the mouth, revived the dead woman. He then made himself known,\nand, giving Yang another pill, vanished in a gust of wind. Two hundred\nyears later he effected the immortalization of his disciple.\n\nDuring his peregrinations on earth he would hang a bottle on the\nwall at night and jump into it, emerging on the following morning. He\nfrequently returned to earth, and at times tried to bring about the\ntransmigration of others.\n\nAn example is the case of Ch'ao Tu, the watchman. T'ieh-kuai walked\ninto a fiery furnace and bade Ch'ao follow. The latter, being afraid\nof imitating an act evidently associated with the supernatural world\nof evil spirits, refused to do so. T'ieh-kuai then told Ch'ao to step\non to a leaf floating on the surface of the river, saying that it was\na boat that would bear him across safely. Again the watchman refused,\nwhereupon T'ieh-kuai, remarking that the cares of this world were\nevidently too weighty for him to be able to ascend to immortality,\nstepped on to the leaf himself and vanished.\n\n\nChung-li Ch'uean\n\nRegarding the origin and life of this Immortal several different\naccounts are given. One states that his family name was Chung-li,\nand that he lived in the Han dynasty, being therefore called Han\nChung-li. His cognomen was Ch'uean, his literary appellation Chi Tao,\nand his pseudonyms Ho-ho Tzu and Wang-yang Tzu; his style Yuen-fang.\n\nHe was born in the district of Hsien-yang Hsien (a sub-prefecture of\nthe ancient capital Hsi-an Fu) in Shensi. He became Marshal of the\nEmpire in the cyclic year 2496. In his old age he became a hermit\non Yang-chio Shan, thirty _li_ north-east of I-ch'eng Hsien in the\nprefecture of P'ing-yang Fu in Shansi. He is referred to by the title\nof King-emperor of the True Active Principle.\n\nAnother account describes Chung-li Ch'uean as merely a vice-marshal\nin the service of Duke Chou Hsiao. He was defeated in battle, and\nescaped to Chung-nan Shan, where he met the Five Heroes, the Flowers\nof the East, who instructed him in the doctrine of immortality. At\nthe end of the T'ang dynasty Han Chung-li taught this same science of\nimmortality to Lue Tung-pin (see p. 297), and took the pompous title\nof the Only Independent One Under Heaven.\n\nOther versions state that Han Chung-li is not the name of a person,\nbut of a country; that he was a Taoist priest Chung Li-tzu; and that\nhe was a beggar, Chung-li by name, who gave to one Lao Chih a pill of\nimmortality. No sooner had the latter swallowed it than he went mad,\nleft his wife, and ascended to Heaven.\n\nDuring a great famine he transmuted copper and pewter into silver\nby amalgamating them with some mysterious drug. This treasure he\ndistributed among the poor, and thousands of lives were thus saved.\n\nOne day, while he was meditating, the stone wall of his dwelling in the\nmountains was rent asunder, and a jade casket exposed to view. This was\nfound to contain secret information as to how to become an Immortal.\n\nWhen he had followed these instructions for some time, his room was\nfilled with many-coloured clouds, music was heard, and a celestial\nstork came and bore him away on its back to the regions of immortality.\n\nHe is sometimes represented holding his feather-fan, Yue-mao Shan;\nat other times the peach of immortality. Since his admission to\nthe ranks of the gods, he has appeared on earth at various times as\nthe messenger of Heaven. On one of these occasions he met Lue Yen,\nas narrated on p. 297.\n\n\n\nLan Ts'ai-ho\n\nLan Ts'ai-ho is variously stated to have been a woman and an\nhermaphrodite. She is the strolling singer or mountebank of the\nImmortals. Usually she plays a flute or a pair of cymbals. Her origin\nis unknown, but her personal name is said to have been Yang Su,\nand her career is assigned to the period of the T'ang dynasty. She\nwandered abroad clad in a tattered blue gown held by a black wooden\nbelt three inches wide, with one foot shoeless and the other shod,\nwearing in summer an undergarment of wadded material, and in winter\nsleeping on the snow, her breath rising in a brilliant cloud like\nthe steam from a boiling cauldron. In this guise she earned her\nlivelihood by singing in the streets, keeping time with a wand three\nfeet long. Though taken for a lunatic, the doggerel verse she sang\ndisproved the popular slanders. It denounced this fleeting life and\nits delusive pleasures. When given money, she either strung it on\na cord and waved it to the time of her song or scattered it on the\nground for the poor to pick up.\n\nOne day she was found to have become intoxicated in an inn at Feng-yang\nFu in Anhui, and while in that state disappeared on a cloud, having\nthrown down to earth her shoe, robe, belt, and castanets.\n\nAccording to popular belief, however, only one of the Eight Immortals,\nnamely, Ho Hsien-ku, was a woman, Lan Ts'ai-ho being represented as a\nyoung person of about sixteen, bearing a basket of fruit. According\nto the _Hsiu hsiang Pa Hsien tung yu chi_, he was 'the Red-footed\nGreat Genius,' Ch'ih-chiao Ta-hsien incarnate. Though he was a man,\nadds the writer, he could not understand how to be a man (which is\nperhaps the reason why he has been supposed to be a woman).\n\n\n\nChang Kuo\n\nThe period assigned to Chang Kuo is the middle or close of the seventh\nto the middle of the eighth century A.D. He lived as a hermit on\nChung-t'iao Shan, in the prefecture of P'ing-yang Fu in Shansi. The\nEmperors T'ai Tsung and Kao Tsung of the T'ang dynasty frequently\ninvited him to Court, but he persistently refused to go. At last,\npressed once more by the Empress Wu (A.D. 684-705), he consented\nto leave his retreat, but was struck down by death at the gate of\nthe Temple of the Jealous Woman. His body began to decay and to be\neaten by worms, when lo! he was seen again, alive and well, on the\nmountains of Heng Chou in P'ing-yang Fu. He rode on a white mule,\nwhich carried him thousands of miles in a day, and which, when the\njourney was finished, he folded up like a sheet of paper and put away\nin his wallet. When he again required its services, he had only to\nspurt water upon the packet from his mouth and the animal at once\nassumed its proper shape. At all times he performed wonderful feats\nof necromancy, and declared that he had been Grand Minister to the\nEmperor Yao (2357-2255 B.C.) during a previous existence.\n\nIn the twenty-third year (A.D. 735) of the reign-period K'ai Yuean\nof the Emperor Hsuean Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, he was called to\nLo-yang in Honan, and elected Chief of the Imperial Academy, with\nthe honourable title of Very Perspicacious Teacher.\n\nIt was just at this time that the famous Taoist Yeh Fa-shan, thanks\nto his skill in necromancy, was in great favour at Court. The Emperor\nasked him who this Chang Kuo Lao (he usually has the epithet Lao,\n'old,' added to his name) was. \"I know,\" replied the magician;\n\"but if I were to tell your Majesty I should fall dead at your feet,\nso I dare not speak unless your Majesty will promise that you will\ngo with bare feet and bare head to ask Chang Kuo to forgive you, in\nwhich case I should immediately revive.\" Hsuean Tsung having promised,\nFa-shan then said: \"Chang Kuo is a white spiritual bat which came out\nof primeval chaos.\" No sooner had he spoken than he dropped dead at\nthe Emperor's feet.\n\nHsuean Tsung, with bare head and feet, went to Chang Kuo as he had\npromised, and begged forgiveness for his indiscretion. The latter then\nsprinkled water on Fa-shan's face and he revived. Soon after Chang fell\nsick and returned to die in the Heng Chou Mountains during the period\nA.D. 742-746. When his disciples opened his tomb, they found it empty.\n\nHe is usually seen mounted on his white mule, sometimes facing its\nhead, sometimes its tail. He carries a phoenix-feather or a peach\nof immortality.\n\nAt his interviews with the Emperor Ming Huang in A.D. 723 (when he\nwas alive still) Chang Kuo \"entertained the Emperor with a variety of\nmagical tricks, such as rendering himself invisible, drinking off a\ncup of aconite, and felling birds or flowers by pointing at them. He\nrefused the hand of an imperial princess, and also declined to have\nhis portrait placed in the Hall of Worthies.\"\n\nA picture of Chang Kuo sitting on a donkey and offering a descendant\nto the newly married couple is often found in the nuptial chamber. It\nseems somewhat incongruous that an old ascetic should be associated\nwith matrimonial happiness and the granting of offspring, but the\nexplanation may possibly be connected with his performance of wonderful\nfeats of necromancy, though he is said not to have given encouragement\nto others in these things during his lifetime.\n\n\n\nHo Hsien Ku\n\nA maiden holding in her hand a magic lotus-blossom, the flower of\nopen-heartedness, or the peach of immortality given her by Lue Tung-pin\nin the mountain-gorge as a symbol of identity, playing at times the\n_sheng_ or reed-organ, or drinking wine--this is the picture the\nChinese paint of the Immortal Ho Hsien Ku.\n\nShe was the daughter of Ho T'ai, a native of Tseng-ch'eng Hsien in\nKuangtung. Others say her father was a shopkeeper at Ling-ling in\nHunan. She lived in the time of the usurping empress Wu (A.D. 684-705)\nof the T'ang dynasty. At her birth six hairs were found growing on\nthe crown of her head, and the account says she never had any more,\nthough the pictures represent her with a full head of hair. She\nelected to live on Yuen-mu Ling, twenty _li_ west of Tseng-ch'eng\nHsien. On that mountain was found a stone called _yuen-mu shih_,\n'mother-of-pearl.' In a dream she saw a spirit who ordered her to\npowder and eat one of these stones, by doing which she could acquire\nboth agility and immortality. She complied with this injunction, and\nalso vowed herself to a life of virginity. Her days were thenceforth\npassed in floating from one peak to another, bringing home at night\nto her mother the fruits she collected on the mountain. She gradually\nfound that she had no need to eat in order to live. Her fame having\nreached the ears of the Empress, she was invited to Court, but while\njourneying thither suddenly disappeared from mortal view and became\nan Immortal. She is said to have been seen again in A.D. 750 floating\nupon a cloud of many colours at the temple of Ma Ku, the famous female\nTaoist magician, and again, some years later, in the city of Canton.\n\nShe is represented as an extremely beautiful maiden, and is remarkable\nas occupying so prominent a position in a cult in which no system of\nfemale asceticism is developed.\n\n\nLue Tung-pin\n\nLue Tung-pin's family name was Lue; his personal name Tung-pin; also Yen;\nand his pseudonym Shun Yang Tzu. He was born in A.D. 798 at Yung-lo\nHsien, in the prefecture of Ho-chung Fu in Shansi, a hundred and twenty\n_li_ south-east of the present sub-prefecture of Yung-chi Hsien (P'u\nChou). He came of an official family, his grandfather having been\nPresident of the Ministry of Ceremonies, and his father Prefect of\nHai Chou. He was 5 feet 2 inches in height, and at twenty was still\nunmarried. At this time he made a journey to Lu Shan in Kiangsi,\nwhere he met the Fire-dragon, who presented him with a magic sword,\nwhich enabled him at will to hide himself in the heavens.\n\nDuring his visit to the capital, Ch'ang-an in Shensi, he met\nthe Immortal Han Chung-li, who instructed him in the mysteries of\nalchemy and the elixir of life. When he revealed himself as Yuen-fang\nHsien-sheng, Lue Yen expressed an ardent desire to aid in converting\nmankind to the true doctrine, but was first exposed to a series of\nten temptations. These being successfully overcome, he was invested\nwith supernatural power and magic weapons, with which he traversed\nthe Empire, slaying dragons and ridding the earth of divers kinds\nof evils, during a period of upward of four hundred years. Another\nversion says that Han Chung-li was in an inn, heating a jug of\nrice-wine. Here Lue met him, and going to sleep dreamed that he\nwas promoted to a very high office and was exceptionally favoured\nby fortune in every way. This had gone on for fifty years when\nunexpectedly a serious fault caused him to be condemned to exile,\nand his family was exterminated. Alone in the world, he was sighing\nbitterly, when he awoke with a start. All had taken place in so short\na space of time that Han Chung-li's wine was not yet hot. This is the\nincident referred to in Chinese literature in the phrase 'rice-wine\ndream.' Convinced of the hollowness of worldly dignities, he followed\nHan Chung-li to the Ho Ling Mountains at Chung-nan in Shensi, where\nhe was initiated into the divine mysteries, and became an Immortal.\n\nIn A.D. 1115 the Emperor Hui Tsung conferred on him the title of Hero\nof Marvellous Wisdom; and later he was proclaimed King-emperor and\nStrong Protector.\n\nThere are various versions of the legend of Lue Tung-pin. One of these\nadds that in order to fulfil his promise made to Chung-li to do what\nhe could to aid in the work of converting his fellow-creatures to the\ntrue doctrine, he went to Yuech Yang in the guise of an oil-seller,\nintending to immortalize all those who did not ask for additional\nweight to the quantity of oil purchased. During a whole year he met\nonly selfish and extortionate customers, with the exception of one\nold lady who alone did not ask for more than was her due. So he went\nto her house, and seeing a well in the courtyard threw a few grains\nof rice into it. The water miraculously turned into wine, from the\nsale of which the dame amassed great wealth.\n\nHe was very skilful in fencing, and is always represented with his\nmagic Excalibur named Chan-yao Kuai, 'Devil-slaying Sabre,' and in\none hand holds a fly-whisk, Yuen-chou, or 'Cloud-sweeper,' a symbol\ncommon in Taoism of being able to fly at will through the air and to\nwalk on the clouds of Heaven.\n\nLike Kuan Kung, he is shown bearing in his arms a male\nchild--indicating a promise of numerous progeny, including _literati_\nand famous officials. Consequently he is one of the spiritual beings\nhonoured by the _literati_.\n\n\nHan Hsiang Tzu\n\nHan Hsiang Tzu, who is depicted with a bouquet of flowers or a basket\nof peaches of immortality, is stated to have been a grand-nephew of\nHan Yue (A.D. 768-824), the great statesman, philosopher, and poet of\nthe T'ang dynasty, and an ardent votary of transcendental study. His\nown name was Ch'ing Fu. The child was entrusted to his uncle to\nbe educated and prepared for the public examinations. He excelled\nhis teacher in intelligence and the performance of wonderful feats,\nsuch as the production from a little earth in a flower-pot of some\nmarvellous flowering plants, on the leaves of which were written in\nletters of gold some verses to this effect:\n\n\n    The clouds hide Mount Ch'in Ling.\n      Where is your abode?\n    The snow is deep on Lan Kuan;\n      Your horse refuses to advance.\n\n\n\"What is the meaning of these verses?\" asked Han Yue. \"You will see,\"\nreplied Han Hsiang Tzu.\n\nSome time afterward Han Yue was sent in disgrace to the prefecture of\nCh'ao-chou Fu in Kuangtung. When he reached the foot of Lan Kuan the\nsnow was so deep that he could not go on. Han Hsiang Tzu appeared, and,\nsweeping away the snow, made a path for him. Han Yue then understood\nthe prophecy in his pupil's verses.\n\nWhen Han Hsiang Tzu was leaving his uncle, he gave him the following\nin verse:\n\nMany indeed are the eminent men who have served their country, but\nwhich of them surpasses you in his knowledge of literature? When\nyou have reached a high position, you will be buried in a damp and\nfoggy land.\n\nHan Yue also gave his pupil a farewell verse:\n\nHow many here below allow themselves to be inebriated by the love\nof honours and pelf! Alone and watchful you persevere in the right\npath. But a time will come when, taking your flight to the sky,\nyou will open in the ethereal blue a luminous roadway.\n\nHan Yue was depressed at the thought of the damp climate of his place\nof exile. \"I fear there is no doubt,\" he said, \"that I shall die\nwithout seeing my family again.\"\n\nHan Hsiang Tzu consoled him, gave him a prescription, and said: \"Not\nonly will you return in perfect health to the bosom of your family,\nbut you will be reinstated in your former offices.\" All this took\nplace exactly as he had predicted.\n\nAnother account states that he became the disciple of Lue Tung-pin, and,\nhaving been carried up to the supernatural peach-tree of the genii,\nfell from its branches, but during his descent attained to the state\nof immortality. Still another version says that he was killed by the\nfall, was transformed, and then underwent the various experiences\nwith Han Yue already related.\n\n\nTs'ao Kuo-chiu\n\nTs'ao Kuo-chiu was connected with the imperial family of the Sungs,\nand is shown with the tablet of admission to Court in his hand. He\nbecame one of the Eight Immortals because the other seven, who\noccupied seven of the eight grottos of the Upper Spheres, wished to\nsee the eighth inhabited, and nominated him because \"his disposition\nresembled that of a genie.\" The legend relates that the Empress\nTs'ao, wife of the Emperor Jen Tsung (A.D. 1023-64), had two younger\nbrothers. The elder of the two, Ching-hsiu, did not concern himself\nwith the affairs of State; the younger, Ching-chih, was notorious for\nhis misbehaviour. In spite of all warnings he refused to reform, and\nbeing at last guilty of homicide was condemned to death. His brother,\nashamed at what had occurred, went and hid in the mountains, where he\nclothed his head and body with wild plants, resolved to lead the life\nof a hermit. One day Han Chung-li and Lue Tung-pin found him in his\nretreat, and asked him what he was doing. \"I am engaged in studying\nthe Way,\" he replied. \"What way, and where is it?\" they asked. He\npointed to the sky. \"Where is the sky?\" they went on. He pointed to\nhis heart. The two visitors smiled and said: \"The heart is the sky,\nand the sky is the Way; you understand the origin of things.\" They\nthen gave him a recipe for perfection, to enable him to take his\nplace among the Perfect Ones. In a few days only he had reached this\nmuch-sought-after condition.\n\nIn another version we find fuller details concerning this\nImmortal. A graduate named Yuean Wen-cheng of Ch'ao-yang Hsien, in\nthe sub-prefecture of Ch'ao-chou Fu in Kuangtung, was travelling with\nhis wife to take his examinations at the capital. Ts'ao Ching-chih,\nthe younger brother of the Empress, saw the lady, and was struck with\nher beauty. In order to gratify his passion he invited the graduate\nand his young wife to the palace, where he strangled the husband and\ntried to force the wife to cohabit with him. She refused obstinately,\nand as a last resort he had her imprisoned in a noisome dungeon. The\nsoul of the graduate appeared to the imperial Censor Pao Lao-yeh,\nand begged him to exact vengeance for the execrable crime. The\nelder brother, Ching-hsiu, seeing the case put in the hands of the\nupright Pao Lao-yeh, and knowing his brother to be guilty of homicide,\nadvised him to put the woman to death, in order to cut off all sources\nof information and so to prevent further proceedings. The young\nvoluptuary thereupon caused the woman to be thrown down a deep well,\nbut the star T'ai-po Chin-hsing, in the form of an old man, drew her\nout again. While making her escape, she met on the road an official\nprocession which she mistook for that of Pao Lao-yeh, and, going up to\nthe sedan chair, made her accusation. This official was no other than\nthe elder brother of the murderer. Ching-hsiu, terrified, dared not\nrefuse to accept the charge, but on the pretext that the woman had\nnot placed herself respectfully by the side of the official chair,\nand thus had not left a way clear for the passage of his retinue, he\nhad her beaten with iron-spiked whips, and she was cast away for dead\nin a neighbouring lane. This time also she revived, and ran to inform\nPao Lao-yeh. The latter immediately had Ts'ao Ching-hsiu arrested,\ncangued, and fettered. Without loss of time he wrote an invitation to\nthe second brother, Ts'ao Ching-chih, and on his arrival confronted him\nwith the graduate's wife, who accused him to his face. Pao Lao-yeh had\nhim put in a pit, and remained deaf to all entreaties of the Emperor\nand Empress on his behalf. A few days later the murderer was taken to\nthe place of execution, and his head rolled in the dust. The problem\nnow was how to get Ts'ao Ching-hsiu out of the hands of the terrible\nCensor. The Emperor Jen Tsung, to please the Empress, had a universal\namnesty proclaimed throughout the Empire, under which all prisoners\nwere set free. On receipt of this edict, Pao Lao-yeh liberated Ts'ao\nChing-hsiu from the cangue, and allowed him to go free. As one risen\nfrom the dead, he gave himself up to the practice of perfection,\nbecame a hermit, and, through the instruction of the Perfect Ones,\nbecame one of the Eight Immortals.\n\n\nPa Hsien Kuo Hai\n\nThe phrase _Pa Hsien kuo hai_, 'the Eight Immortals crossing the sea,'\nrefers to the legend of an expedition made by these deities. Their\nobject was to behold the wondrous things of the sea not to be found\nin the celestial sphere.\n\nThe usual mode of celestial locomotion--by taking a seat on a\ncloud--was discarded at the suggestion of Lue Yen who recommended that\nthey should show the infinite variety of their talents by placing\nthings on the surface of the sea and stepping on them.\n\nLi T'ieh-kuai threw down his crutch, and scudded rapidly over the\nwaves. Chung-li Ch'uean used his feather-fan, Chang Kuo his paper\nmule, Lue Tung-pin his sword, Han Hsiang Tzu his flower-basket, Ho\nHsien Ku her lotus-flower, Lan Ts'ai-ho his musical instrument, and\nTs'ao Kuo-chiu his tablet of admission to Court. The popular pictures\noften represent most of these articles changed into various kinds\nof sea-monsters. The musical instrument was noticed by the son of\nthe Dragon-king of the Eastern Sea. This avaricious prince conceived\nthe idea of stealing the instrument and imprisoning its owner. The\nImmortals thereupon declared war, the details of which are described at\nlength by the Chinese writers, the outcome being that the Dragon-king\nwas utterly defeated. After this the Eight Immortals continued their\nsubmarine exploits for an indefinite time, encountering numberless\nadventures; but here the author travels far into the fertile region\nof romance, beyond the frontiers of our present province.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XII\n\nThe Guardian of the Gate of Heaven\n\n\nLi, the Pagoda-bearer\n\nIn Buddhist temples there is to be seen a richly attired figure of\na man holding in his hand a model of a pagoda. He is Li, the Prime\nMinister of Heaven and father of No-cha.\n\nHe was a general under the tyrant Chou and commander of Ch'en-t'ang\nKuan at the time when the bloody war was being waged which resulted\nin the extinction of the Yin dynasty.\n\nNo-cha is one of the most frequently mentioned heroes in Chinese\nromance; he is represented in one account as being Yue Huang's\nshield-bearer, sixty feet in height, his three heads with nine\neyes crowned by a golden wheel, his eight hands each holding a\nmagic weapon, and his mouth vomiting blue clouds. At the sound of\nhis Voice, we are told, the heavens shook and the foundations of the\nearth trembled. His duty was to bring into submission all the demons\nwhich desolated the world.\n\nHis birth was in this wise. Li Ching's wife, Yin Shih, bore him three\nsons, the eldest Chin-cha, the second Mu-cha, and the third No-cha,\ngenerally known as 'the Third Prince.'\n\nYin Shih dreamed one night that a Taoist priest entered her room. She\nindignantly exclaimed: \"How dare you come into my room in this\nindiscreet manner?\" The priest replied: \"Woman, receive the child of\nthe unicorn!\" Before she could reply the Taoist pushed an object to\nher bosom.\n\nYin Shih awoke in a fright, a cold sweat all over her body. Having\nawakened her husband, she told him what she had dreamed. At that moment\nshe was seized with the pains of childbirth. Li Ching withdrew to an\nadjoining room, uneasy at what seemed to be inauspicious omens. A\nlittle later two servants ran to him, crying out: \"Your wife has\ngiven birth to a monstrous freak!\"\n\n\nAn Avatar of the Intelligent Pearl\n\nLi Ching seized his sword and went into his wife's room, which he found\nfilled with a red light exhaling a most extraordinary odour. A ball\nof flesh was rolling on the floor like a wheel; with a blow of his\nsword he cut it open, and a babe emerged, surrounded by a halo of red\nlight. Its face was very white, a gold bracelet was on its right wrist,\nand it wore a pair of red silk trousers, from which proceeded rays\nof dazzling golden light. The bracelet was 'the horizon of Heaven and\nearth,' and the two precious objects belonged to the cave Chin-kuang\nTung of T'ai-i Chen-jen, the priest who had bestowed them upon him\nwhen he appeared to his mother during her sleep. The child itself\nwas an avatar of Ling Chu-tzu, 'the Intelligent Pearl.'\n\nOn the morrow T'ai-i Chen-jen returned and asked Li Ching's permission\nto see the new-born babe. \"He shall be called No-cha,\" he said,\n\"and will become my disciple.\"\n\n\nA Precocious Youth\n\nAt seven years of age No-cha was already six feet in height. One day\nhe asked his mother if he might go for a walk outside the town. His\nmother granted him permission on condition that he was accompanied\nby a servant. She also counselled him not to remain too long outside\nthe wall, lest his father should become anxious.\n\nIt was in the fifth moon: the heat was excessive. No-cha had not gone\na _li_ before he was in a profuse perspiration. Some way ahead he saw\na clump of trees, to which he hastened, and, settling himself in the\nshade, opened his coat, and breathed with relief the fresher air. In\nfront of him he saw a stream of limpid green water running between\ntwo rows of willows, gently agitated by the movement of the wind, and\nflowing round a rock. The child ran to the banks of the stream, and\nsaid to his guardian: \"I am covered with perspiration, and will bathe\nfrom the rock.\" \"Be quick,\" said the servant; \"if your father returns\nhome before you he will be anxious.\" No-cha stripped himself, took his\nred silk trousers, several feet long, and dipped them in the water,\nintending to use them as a towel. No sooner were the magic trousers\nimmersed in the stream than the water began to boil, and Heaven and\nearth trembled. The water of this river, the Chiu-wan Ho, 'Nine-bends\nRiver,' which communicated with the Eastern Sea, turned completely\nred, and Lung Wang's palace shook to its foundations. The Dragon-king,\nsurprised at seeing the walls of his crystal palace shaking, called\nhis officers and inquired: \"How is it that the palace threatens to\ncollapse? There should not be an earthquake at this time.\" He ordered\none of his attendants to go at once and find out what evil was giving\nrise to the commotion. When the officer reached the river he saw that\nthe water was red, but noticed nothing else except a boy dipping a\nband of silk in the stream. He cleft the water and called out angrily:\n\"That child should be thrown into the water for making the river red\nand causing Lung Wang's palace to shake.\"\n\n\"Who is that who speaks so brutally?\" said No-cha. Then, seeing that\nthe man intended to seize him, he jumped aside, took his gold bracelet,\nand hurled it in the air. It fell on the head of the officer, and\nNo-cha left him dead on the rock. Then he picked up his bracelet and\nsaid smiling: \"His blood has stained my precious horizon of Heaven\nand earth.\" He then washed it in the water.\n\n\nThe Slaying of the Dragon-king's Son\n\n\"How is it that the officer does not return?\" inquired Lung Wang. At\nthat moment attendants came to inform him that his retainer had been\nmurdered by a boy.\n\nThereupon Ao Ping, the third son of Lung Wang, placing himself at the\nhead of a troop of marines, his trident in his hand, left the palace\nprecincts. The warriors dashed into the river, raising on every side\nwaves mountains high. Seeing the water rising, No-cha stood up on\nthe rock and was confronted by Ao Ping mounted on a sea-monster.\n\n\"Who slew my messenger?\" cried the warrior.\n\n\"I did,\" answered No-cha.\n\n\"Who are you?\" demanded Ao Ping.\n\n\"I am No-cha, the third son of Li Ching of Ch'en-t'ang Kuan. I came\nhere to bathe and refresh myself; your messenger cursed me, and I\nkilled him. Then--\"\n\n\"Rascal! do you not know that your victim was a deputy of the King\nof Heaven? How dare you kill him, and then boast of your crime?\"\n\nSo saying, Ao Ping thrust at the boy with his trident. No-cha, by a\nbrisk move, evaded the thrust.\n\n\"Who are you?\" he asked in turn.\n\n\"I am Ao Ping, the third son of Lung Wang.\"\n\n\"Ah, you are a blusterer,\" jeered the boy; \"if you dare to touch me\nI will skin you alive, you and your mud-eels!\"\n\n\"You make me choke with rage,\" rejoined Ao Ping, at the same time\nthrusting again with his trident.\n\nFurious at this renewed attack, No-cha spread his silk trousers in\nthe air, and thousands of balls of fire flew out of them, felling Lung\nWang's son. No-cha put his foot on Ao Ping's head and struck it with\nhis magic bracelet, whereupon he appeared in his true form of a dragon.\n\n\"I am now going to pull out your sinews,\" he said, \"in order to make\na belt for my father to use to bind on his cuirass.\"\n\nNo-cha was as good as his word, and Ao Ping's escort ran and informed\nLung Wang of the fate of his son. The Dragon-king went to Li Ching\nand demanded an explanation.\n\nBeing entirely ignorant of what had taken place, Li Ching sought\nNo-cha to question him.\n\n\nAn Unruly Son\n\nNo-cha was in the garden, occupied in weaving the belt of\ndragon-sinew. The stupefaction of Li Ching may be imagined. \"You\nhave brought most awful misfortunes upon us,\" he exclaimed. \"Come\nand give an account of your conduct.\" \"Have no fear,\" replied No-cha\nsuperciliously; \"his son's sinews are still intact; I will give them\nback to him if he wishes.\"\n\nWhen they entered the house he saluted the Dragon-king, made a curt\napology, and offered to return his son's sinews. The father, moved\nwith grief at the sight of the proofs of the tragedy, said bitterly\nto Li Ching: \"You have such a son and yet dare to deny his guilt,\nthough you heard him haughtily admitting it! To-morrow I shall report\nthe matter to Yue Huang.\" Having spoken thus, he departed.\n\nLi Ching was overwhelmed at the enormity of his son's crime. His\nwife, in an adjoining room, hearing his lamentations, went to her\nhusband. \"What obnoxious creature is this that you have brought into\nthe world?\" he said to her angrily. \"He has slain two spirits, the\nson of Lung Wang and a steward sent by the King of Heaven. To-morrow\nthe Dragon-king is to lodge a complaint with Yue Huang, and two or\nthree days hence will see the end of our existence.\"\n\nThe poor mother began to weep copiously. \"What!\" she sobbed, \"you whom\nI suffered so much for, you are to be the cause of our ruin and death!\"\n\nNo-cha, seeing his parents so distracted, fell on his knees. \"Let me\ntell you once for all,\" he said, \"that I am no ordinary mortal. I am\nthe disciple of T'ai-i Chen-jen; my magic weapons I received from him;\nit is they which brought upon me the undying hatred of Lung Wang. But\nhe cannot prevail. To-day I will go and ask my master's advice. The\nguilty alone should suffer the penalty; it is unjust that his parents\nshould suffer in his stead.\"\n\n\nDrastic Measures\n\nHe then left for Ch'ien-yuean Shan, and entered the cave of his master\nT'ai-i Chen-jen, to whom he related his adventures. The master dwelt\nupon the grave consequences of the murders, and then ordered No-cha to\nbare his breast. With his finger he drew on the skin a magic formula,\nafter which he gave him some secret instructions. \"Now,\" he said, \"go\nto the gate of Heaven and await the arrival of Lung Wang, who purposes\nto accuse you before Yue Huang. Then you must come again to consult me,\nthat your parents may not be molested because of your misdeeds.\"\n\nWhen No-cha reached the gate of Heaven it was closed. In vain he sought\nfor Lung Wang, but after a while he saw him approaching. Lung Wang did\nnot see No-cha, for the formula written by T'ai-i Chen-jen rendered\nhim invisible. As Lung Wang approached the gate No-cha ran up to him\nand struck him so hard a blow with his golden bracelet that he fell\nto the ground. Then No-cha stamped on him, cursing him vehemently.\n\nThe Dragon-king now recognized his assailant and sharply reproached him\nwith his crimes, but the only reparation he got was a renewal of kicks\nand blows. Then, partially lifting Lung Wang's cloak and raising his\nshield, No-cha tore off from his body about forty scales. Blood flowed\ncopiously, and the Dragon-king, under stress of the pain, begged his\nfoe to spare his life. To this No-cha consented on condition that he\nrelinquished his purpose of accusing him before Yue Huang.\n\n\"Now,\" went on No-cha, \"change yourself into a small serpent that I\nmay take you back without fear of your escaping.\"\n\nLung Wang took the form of a small blue dragon, and followed No-cha\nto his father's house, upon entering which Lung Wang resumed his\nnormal form, and accused No-cha of having belaboured him. \"I will go\nwith all the Dragon-kings and lay an accusation before Yue Huang,\"\nhe said. Thereupon he transformed himself into a gust of wind,\nand disappeared.\n\n\n\nNo-cha draws a Bow at a Venture\n\n\"Things are going from bad to worse,\" sighed Li Ching, His son,\nhowever, consoled him: \"I beg you, my father, not to let the future\ntrouble you. I am the chosen one of the gods. My master is T'ai-i\nChen-jen, and he has assured me that he can easily protect us.\"\n\nNo-cha now went out and ascended a tower which commanded a view of\nthe entrance of the fort. There he found a wonderful bow and three\nmagic arrows. No-cha did not know that this was the spiritual weapon\nbelonging to the fort. \"My master informed me that I am destined\nto fight to establish the coming Chou dynasty; I ought therefore to\nperfect myself in the use of weapons. This is a good opportunity.\" He\naccordingly seized the bow and shot an arrow toward the south-west. A\nred trail indicated the path of the arrow, which hissed as it flew. At\nthat moment Pi Yuen, a servant of Shih-chi Niang-niang, happened to be\nat the foot of K'u-lou Shan (Skeleton Hill), in front of the cave of\nhis mistress. The arrow pierced his throat, and he fell dead, bathed\nin his blood. Shih-chi Niang-niang came out of her cave, and examining\nthe arrow found that it bore the inscription: \"Arrow which shakes the\nheavens.\" She thus knew that it must have come from Ch'en-t'ang Kuan,\nwhere the magic bow was kept.\n\n\nAnother Encounter\n\nThe goddess mounted her blue phoenix, flew over the fort, seized Li\nChing, and carried him to her cave. There she made him kneel before\nher, and reminded him how she had protected him that he might gain\nhonour and glory on earth before he attained to immortality. \"It is\nthus that you show your gratitude--by killing my servant!\"\n\nLi Ching swore that he was innocent; but the tell-tale arrow was\nthere, and it could not but have come from the fortress. Li Ching\nbegged the goddess to set him at liberty, in order that he might find\nthe culprit and bring him to her. \"If I cannot find him,\" he added,\n\"you may take my life.\"\n\nOnce again No-cha frankly admitted his deed to his father, and followed\nhim to the cave of Shih-chi Niang-niang. When he reached the entrance\nthe second servant reproached him with the crime, whereupon No-cha\nstruck him a heavy blow. Shih-chi Niang-niang, infuriated, threw\nherself at No-cha, sword in hand; one after the other she wrenched\nfrom him his bracelet and magic trousers.\n\nDeprived of his magic weapons, No-cha fled to his master, T'ai-i\nChen-jen. The goddess followed and demanded that he be put to\ndeath. A terrible conflict ensued between the two champions, until\nT'ai-i Chen-jen hurled into the air his globe of nine fire-dragons,\nwhich, falling on Shih-chi Niang-niang, enveloped her in a whirlwind\nof flame. When this had passed it was seen that she was changed\ninto stone.\n\n\"Now you are safe,\" said T'ai-i Chen-jen to No-cha, \"but return\nquickly, for the Four Dragon-kings have laid their accusation before\nYue Huang, and they are going to carry off your parents. Follow my\nadvice, and you will rescue your parents from their misfortune.\"\n\n\nNo-cha commits Hara-Kiri\n\nOn his return No-cha found the Four Dragon-kings on the point of\ncarrying off his parents. \"It is I,\" he said, \"who killed Ao Ping, and\nI who should pay the penalty. Why are you molesting my parents? I am\nabout to return to them what I received from them. Will it satisfy\nyou?\"\n\nLung Wang agreed, whereupon No-cha took a sword, and before their eyes\ncut off an arm, sliced open his stomach, and fell unconscious. His\nsoul, borne on the wind, went straight to the cave of T'ai-i Chen-jen,\nwhile his mother busied herself with burying his body.\n\n\"Your home is not here,\" said his master to him; \"return to Ch'en-t'ang\nKuan, and beg your mother to build a temple on Ts'ui-p'ing Shan,\nforty _li_ farther on. Incense will be burned to you for three years,\nat the end of which time you will be reincarnated.\"\n\n\nA Habitation for the Soul\n\nDuring the night, toward the third watch, while his mother was in a\ndeep sleep, No-cha appeared to her in a dream and said: \"My mother,\npity me; since my death, my soul, separated from my body, wanders about\nwithout a home. Build me, I pray you, a temple on Ts'ui-p'ing Shan,\nthat I may be reincarnated.\" His mother awoke in tears, and related\nher vision to Li Ching, who reproached her for her blind attachment\nto her unnatural son, the cause of so much disaster.\n\nFor five or six nights the son appeared to his mother, each time\nrepeating his request. The last time he added: \"Do not forget that by\nnature I am ferocious; if you refuse my request evil will befall you.\"\n\nHis mother then sent builders to the mountain to construct a temple\nto No-cha, and his image was set up in it. Miracles were not wanting,\nand the number of pilgrims who visited the shrine increased daily.\n\n\n\nLi Ching destroys his Son's Statue\n\nOne day Li Ching, with a troop of his soldiers, was passing this\nmountain, and saw the roads crowded with pilgrims of both sexes. \"Where\nare these people going?\" he asked. \"For six months past,\" he was told,\n\"the spirit of the temple on this mountain has continued to perform\nmiracles. People come from far and near to worship and supplicate him.\"\n\n\"What is the name of this spirit?\" inquired Li Ching.\n\n\"No-cha,\" they replied.\n\n\"No-cha!\" exclaimed the father. \"I will go and see him myself.\"\n\nIn a rage Li Ching entered the temple and examined the statue, which\nwas a speaking image of his son. By its side were images of two of\nhis servants. He took his whip and began to beat the statue, cursing\nit all the while. \"It is not enough, apparently, for you to have been\na source of disaster to us,\" he said; \"but even after your death you\nmust deceive the multitude.\" He whipped the statue until it fell to\npieces; he then kicked over the images of the servants, and went back,\nadmonishing the people not to worship so wicked a man, the shame and\nruin of his family. By his orders the temple was burnt to the ground.\n\nWhen he reached Ch'en-t'ang Kuan his wife came to him, but he received\nher coldly. \"You gave birth to that cursed son,\" he said, \"who has been\nthe plague of our lives, and after his death you build him a temple in\nwhich he deceives the people. Do you wish to have me disgraced? If I\nwere to be accused at Court of having instituted the worship of false\ngods, would not my destruction be certain? I have burned the temple,\nand intend that that shall settle the matter once for all; if ever\nyou think of rebuilding it I will break off all relations with you.\"\n\n\nNo-cha consults his Master\n\nAt the time of his father's visit No-cha was absent from the temple. On\nhis return he found only its smoking remnants. The spirits of his\ntwo servants ran up lamenting. \"Who has demolished my temple?\" he\nasked. \"Li Ching,\" they replied. \"In doing this he has exceeded his\npowers,\" said No-cha. \"I gave him back the substance I received from\nhim; why did he come with violence to break up my image? I will have\nnothing more to do with him.\"\n\nNo-cha's soul had already begun to be spiritualised. So he determined\nto go to T'ai-i Chen-jen and beg for his help. \"The worship rendered\nto you there,\" replied the Taoist, \"had nothing in it which should\nhave offended your father; it did not concern him. He was in the\nwrong. Before long Chiang Tzu-ya will descend to inaugurate the new\ndynasty, and since you must throw in your lot with him I will find\na way to aid you.\"\n\n\nA New No-cha\n\nT'ai-i Chen-jen had two water-lily stalks and three lotus-leaves\nbrought to him. He spread these on the ground in the form of a human\nbeing and placed the soul of No-cha in this lotus skeleton, uttering\nmagic incantations the while. There emerged a new No-cha full of\nlife, with a fresh complexion, purple lips, keen glance, and sixteen\nfeet of height. \"Follow me to my peach-garden,\" said T'ai-i Chen-jen,\n\"and I will give you your weapons.\" He handed him a fiery spear, very\nsharp, and two wind-and-fire wheels which, placed under his feet,\nserved as a Vehicle. A brick of gold in a panther-skin bag completed\nhis magic armament. The new warrior, after thanking his master,\nmounted his wind-and-fire wheels and returned to Ch'en-t'ang Kuan.\n\n\nA Battle between Father and Son\n\nLi Ching was informed that his son No-cha had returned and was\nthreatening vengeance. So he took his weapons, mounted his horse,\nand went forth to meet him. Having cursed each other profusely, they\njoined battle, but Li Ching was worsted and compelled to flee. No-cha\npursued his father, but as he was on the point of overtaking him Li\nChing's second son, Mu-cha, came on the scene, and keenly reproached\nhis brother for his unfilial conduct.\n\n\"Li Ching is no longer my father,\" replied No-cha. \"I gave him back\nmy substance; why did he burn my temple and smash up my image?\"\n\nMu-cha thereupon prepared to defend his father, but received on his\nback a blow from the golden brick, and fell unconscious. No-cha then\nresumed his pursuit of Li Ching.\n\nHis strength exhausted, and in danger of falling into the hands\nof his enemy, Li Ching drew his sword and was about to kill\nhimself. \"Stop!\" cried a Taoist priest. \"Come into my cave, and I\nwill protect you.\"\n\nWhen No-cha came up he could not see Li Ching, and demanded his\nsurrender from the Taoist. But he had to do with one stronger than\nhimself, no less a being than Wen-chu T'ien-tsun, whom T'ai-i Chen-jen\nhad sent in order that No-cha might receive a lesson. The Taoist,\nwith the aid of his magic weapon, seized No-cha, and in a moment he\nfound a gold ring fastened round his neck, two chains on his feet,\nand he was bound to a pillar of gold.\n\n\nPeace at the Last\n\nAt this moment, as if by accident, T'ai-i Chen-jen appeared upon the\nscene. His master had No-cha brought before Wen-chu T'ien-tsun and\nLi Ching, and advised him to live at peace with his father, but he\nalso rebuked the father for having burned the temple on Ts'ui-p'ing\nShan. This done, he ordered Li Ching to go home, and No-cha to return\nto his cave. The latter, overflowing with anger, his heart full of\nvengeance, started again in pursuit of Li Ching, swearing that he would\npunish him. But the Taoist reappeared and prepared to protect Li Ching.\n\nNo-cha, bristling like a savage cat, threw himself at his enemy\nand tried to pierce him with his spear, but a white lotus-flower\nemerged from the Taoist's mouth and arrested the course of the\nweapon. As No-cha continued to threaten him, the Taoist drew from\nhis sleeve a mysterious object which rose in the air, and, falling\nat the feet of No-cha, enveloped him in flames. Then No-cha prayed\nfor mercy. The Taoist exacted from him three separate promises: to\nlive in harmony with his father, to recognize and address him as his\nfather, and to throw himself at his, the Taoist's, feet, to indicate\nhis reconciliation with himself.\n\nAfter this act of reconciliation had been performed, Wen-chu T'ien-tsun\npromised Li Ching that he should leave his official post to become an\nImmortal able to place his services at the disposal of the new Chou\ndynasty, shortly to come into power. In order to ensure that their\nreconciliation should last for ever, and to place it beyond No-cha's\npower to seek revenge, he gave Li Ching the wonderful object by whose\nagency No-cha's feet had been burned, and which had been the means\nof bringing him into subjection. It was a golden pagoda, which became\nthe characteristic weapon of Li Ching, and gave rise to his nickname,\nLi the Pagoda-bearer. Finally, Yue Huang appointed him Generalissimo\nof the Twenty-six Celestial Officers, Grand Marshal of the Skies,\nand Guardian of the Gate of Heaven.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIII\n\nA Battle of the Gods\n\n\nMultifarious Versatile Divinities\n\nThe _Feng shen yen i_ describes at length how, during the wars which\npreceded the accession of the Chou dynasty in 1122 B.C., a multitude\nof demigods, Buddhas, Immortals, etc., took part on one side or the\nother, some fighting for the old, some for the new dynasty. They were\nwonderful creatures, gifted with marvellous powers. They could at will\nchange their form, multiply their heads and limbs, become invisible,\nand create, by merely uttering a word, terrible monsters who bit and\ndestroyed, or sent forth poison gases, or emitted flames from their\nnostrils. In these battles there is much lightning, thunder, flight\nof fire-dragons, dark clouds which vomit burning hails of murderous\nweapons; swords, spears, and arrows fall from the sky on to the heads\nof the combatants; the earth trembles, the pillars of Heaven shake.\n\n\nChun T'i\n\nOne of these gifted warriors was Chun T'i, a Taoist of the Western\nParadise, who appeared on the scene when the armies of the rival\ndynasties were facing each other. K'ung Hsuean was gallantly holding\nthe pass of the Chin-chi Ling; Chiang Tzu-ya was trying to take it\nby assault--so far without success.\n\nChun T'i's mission was to take K'ung Hsuean to the abode of the blest,\nhis wisdom and general progress having now reached the required\ndegree of perfection. This was a means of breaking down the invincible\nresistance of this powerful enemy and at the same time of rewarding\nhis brilliant talents.\n\nBut K'ung Hsuean did not approve of this plan, and a fight took\nplace between the two champions. At one moment Chun T'i was seized\nby a luminous bow and carried into the air, but while enveloped in a\ncloud of fire he appeared with eighteen arms and twenty-four heads,\nholding in each hand a powerful talisman.\n\n\nThe One-eyed Peacock\n\nHe put a silk cord round K'ung Hsuean's neck, touched him with his\nwand, and forced him to reassume his original form of a red one-eyed\npeacock. Chun T'i seated himself on the peacock's back, and it\nflew across the sky, bearing its saviour and master to the Western\nParadise. Brilliantly variegated clouds marked its track through space.\n\n\nArrangements for the Siege\n\nOn the disappearance of its defender the defile of Chin-chi Ling\nwas captured, and the village of Chieh-p'ai Kuan, the bulwark of the\nenemy's forces, reached. This place was defended by a host of genii\nand Immortals, the most distinguished among them being the Taoist\nT'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, whose specially effective charms had so far\nkept the fort secure against every attempt upon it.\n\nLao Tzu himself had deigned to descend from dwelling in happiness,\ntogether with Yuean-shih T'ien-tsun and Chieh-yin Tao-jen, to take\npart in the siege. But the town had four gates, and these heavenly\nrulers were only three in number. So Chun T'i was recalled, and each\nmember of the quartette was entrusted with the task of capturing one\nof the gates.\n\n\n\nImpediments\n\nChun T'i's duty was to take the Chueeh-hsien Men, defended by\nT'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu. The warriors who had tried to enter the town by\nthis gate had one and all paid for their temerity with their lives. The\nmoment each had crossed the threshold a clap of thunder had resounded,\nand a mysterious sword, moving with lightning rapidity, had slain him.\n\n\nOffence and Defence\n\nAs Chun T'i advanced at the head of his warriors terrible lightning\nrent the air and the mysterious sword descended like a thunderbolt\nupon his head. But Chun T'i held on high his Seven-precious Branch,\nwhereupon there emerged from it thousands of lotus-flowers, which\nformed an impenetrable covering and stopped the sword in its fall. This\nand the other gates were then forced, and a grand assault was now\ndirected against the chief defender of the town.\n\nT'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, riding his ox and surrounded by his warriors,\nfor the last time risked the chance of war and bravely faced his four\nterrible adversaries. With his sword held aloft, he threw himself on\nChieh-yin Tao-jen, whose only weapon was his fly-whisk. But there\nemerged from this a five-coloured lotus-flower, which stopped the\nsword-thrust. While Lao Tzu struck the hero with his staff, Yuean-shih\nT'ien-tsun warded off the terrible sword with his jade _ju-i_.\n\nChun T'i now called to his help the spiritual peacock, and took the\nform of a warrior with twenty-four heads and eighteen arms. His\nmysterious weapons surrounded T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, and Lao Tzu\nstruck the hero so hard that fire came out from his eyes, nose,\nand mouth. Unable to parry the assaults of his adversaries, he next\nreceived a blow from Chun T'i's magic wand, which felled him, and he\ntook flight in a whirlwind of dust.\n\nThe defenders now offered no further resistance, and Yuean-shih\nT'ien-tsun thanked Chun T'i for the valuable assistance he had rendered\nin the capture of the village, after which the gods returned to their\npalace in the Western Heaven.\n\n\nAttempts at Revenge\n\nT'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, vanquished and routed, swore to have his\nrevenge. He called to his aid the spirits of the twenty-eight\nconstellations, and marched to attack Wu Wang's army. The honour of\nthe victory that ensued belonged to Chun T'i, who disarmed both the\nImmortal Wu Yuen and T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu.\n\nWu Yuen, armed with his magic sword, entered the lists against Chun\nT'i; but the latter opened his mouth and a blue lotus-flower came\nout and stopped the blows aimed at him. Other thrusts were met by\nsimilar miracles.\n\n\"Why continue so useless a fight?\" said Chun T'i at last. \"Abandon\nthe cause of the Shang, and come with me to the Western Paradise. I\ncame to save you, and you must not compel me to make you resume your\noriginal form.\"\n\nAn insulting flow of words was the reply; again the magic sword\ndescended like lightning, and again the stroke was averted by a timely\nlotus-flower. Chun T'i now waved his wand, and the magic sword was\nbroken to bits, the handle only remaining in Wu Yuen's hand.\n\n\n\nThe Golden-bearded Turtle\n\nMad with rage, Wu Yuen seized his club and tried to fell his enemy. But\nChun T'i summoned a disciple, who appeared with a bamboo pole. This he\nthrust out like a fishing-rod, and on a hook at the end of the line\nattached to the pole dangled a large golden-bearded turtle. This\nwas the Immortal Wu Yuen, now in his original form of a spiritual\nturtle. The disciple seated himself on its back, and both, disappearing\ninto space, returned to the Western Heavens.\n\n\nThe Battle Won\n\nTo conquer T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu was more difficult, but after a long\nfight Chun T'i waved his Wand of the Seven Treasures and broke his\nadversary's sword. The latter, disarmed and vanquished, disappeared\nin a cloud of dust. Chun T'i did not trouble to pursue him. The battle\nwas won.\n\n\nBuddhahood\n\nA disciple of T'ung-t'ien Chiao-chu, P'i-lu Hsien, 'the Immortal\nP'i-lu,' seeing his master beaten in two successive engagements,\nleft the battlefield and followed Chun T'i to the Western Paradise,\nto become a Buddha. He is known as P'i-lu Fo, one of the principal\ngods of Buddhism.\n\nChun T'i's festival is celebrated on the sixth day of the third\nmoon. He is generally shown with eight hands and three faces, one of\nthe latter being that of a pig.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIV\n\nHow the Monkey Became a God\n\n\nThe Hsi Yu Chi\n\nIn dealing with the gods of China we noticed the monkey among them. Why\nand in what manner he attained to that exalted rank is set forth in\ndetail in the _Hsi yu chi_ [33]--a work the contents of which have\nbecome woven into the fabric of Chinese legendary lore and are known\nand loved by every intelligent native. Its pages are filled with\nghosts, demons, and fairies, good and bad, but \"it contains no more\nthan the average Chinese really believes to exist, and his belief in\nsuch manifestations is so firm that from the cradle to the grave he\nlives and moves and has his being in reference to them.\" Its characters\nare said to be allegorical, though it may be doubted whether these\nimplications may rightly be read into the Chinese text. Thus:\n\nHsuean (or Yuean) Chuang, or T'ang Seng, is the pilgrim of the _Hsi yu\nchi_, who symbolizes conscience, to which all actions are brought for\ntrial. The priestly garment of Hsuean Chuang symbolizes the good work\nof the rectified human nature. It is held to be a great protection\nto the new heart from the myriads of evil beings which surround it,\nseeking its destruction.\n\nSun Hou-tzu, the Monkey Fairy, represents human nature, which is prone\nto all evil. His unreasonable vagaries moved Hsuean Chuang to compel\nhim to wear a Head-splitting Helmet which would contract upon his head\nin moments of waywardness. The agonizing pressure thus caused would\nbring him to his senses, irrespective of his distance from his master.\n\nThe iron wand of Sun Hou-tzu is said to represent the use that can be\nmade of doctrine. It was useful for all purposes, great or small. By\na word it could be made invisible, and by a word it could become long\nenough to span the distance between Heaven and earth.\n\nChu Pa-chieh, the Pig Fairy, with his muck-rake, stands for the\ncoarser passions, which are constantly at war with the conscience in\ntheir endeavours to cast off all restraint.\n\nSha Ho-shang, Priest Sha, is a good representation of Mr Faithful\nin _The Pilgrim's Progress_. In the _Hsi yu chi_ he stands for the\nhuman character, which is naturally weak and which needs constant\nencouragement.\n\n\nLegend of Sun Hou-tzu\n\nThe deeds of this marvellous creature, the hero of the _Hsi yu chi_,\nare to be met with continually in Chinese popular literature, and they\nare very much alive in the popular mind. In certain parts a regular\nworship is offered to him, and in many temples representations of or\nlegends concerning him are to be seen or heard.\n\nOther names by which Sun Hou-tzu is referred to are: Sun Hsing-che,\nSun Wu-k'ung, Mei Hou-wang, Ch'i-t'ien Ta Sheng, and Pi-ma Wen, the\nlast-mentioned being a title which caused him annoyance by recalling\nthe derisive dignity conferred upon him by Yue Huang. [34] Throughout\nthe remainder of this chapter Sun Hou-tzu will be shortly referred\nto as 'Sun.'\n\nBeyond the seas, in the Eastern continent, in the kingdom of Ao-lai,\nis the mountain Hua-kuo Shan. On the steep sides of this mountain there\nis a rocky point 36 feet 5 inches high and 24 feet in circumference. At\nthe very top an egg formed, and, fructified by the breath of the wind,\ngave birth to a stone monkey. The newly-born saluted the four points\nof the horizon; from his eyes shone golden streaks of lightning,\nwhich filled the palace of the North Pole Star with light. This light\nsubsided as soon as he was able to take nourishment.\n\n\"To-day,\" said Yue Huang to himself, \"I am going to complete the\nwonderful diversity of the beings engendered by Heaven and earth. This\nmonkey will skip and gambol to the highest peaks of mountains, jump\nabout in the waters, and, eating the fruit of the trees, will be the\ncompanion of the gibbon and the crane. Like the deer he will pass\nhis nights on the mountain slopes, and during the day will be seen\nleaping on their summits or in their caverns. That will be the finest\nornament of all for the mountains!\"\n\nThe creature's exploits soon caused him to be proclaimed king\nof the monkeys. He then began to try to find some means of\nbecoming immortal. After travelling for eighteen years by land\nand sea he met the Immortal P'u-t'i Tsu-shih on the mountain\nLing-t'ai-fang-ts'un. During his travels the monkey had gradually\nacquired human attributes; his face remained always as it had been\noriginally, but dressed in human apparel he began to be civilized. His\nnew master gave him the family name of Sun, and personal name of\nWu-k'ung, 'Discoverer of Secrets.' He taught him how to fly through\nthe air, and to change into seventy-two different forms. With one\nleap he could cover 108,000 _li_ (about 36,000 miles).\n\n\n\nA Rod of Iron\n\nSun, after his return to Hua-kuo Shan, slew the demon Hun-shih Mo-wang,\nwho had been molesting the monkeys during his long absence. Then he\norganized his subjects into a regular army, 47,000 all told. Thus the\npeace of the simian kingdom was assured. As for himself, he could\nnot find a weapon to suit him, and went to consult Ao Kuang, the\nLung Wang, or Dragon-king of the Eastern Sea, about it. It was from\nhim that he obtained the formidable rod of iron, formerly planted in\nthe ocean-bed by the Great Yue (Yue Wang) to regulate the level of the\nwaters. He pulled it out, and modified it to suit his tastes. The\ntwo extremities he bound round with gold bands, and on it engraved\nthe words: 'Gold-bound Wand of my Desires.' This magic weapon could\naccommodate itself to all his wishes; being able to assume the most\nincredible proportions or to reduce itself to the form of the finest of\nneedles, which he kept hidden in his ear. He terrorized the Four Kings\nof the sea, and dressed himself at their expense. The neighbouring\nkings allied themselves with him. A splendid banquet with copious\nlibations of wine sealed the alliance of friendship with the seven\nkings; but alas! Sun had partaken so liberally that when he was seeing\nhis guests off, no sooner had he taken a few steps than he fell into a\ndrunken sleep. The undertakers of Yen Wang, the King of the Hells, to\nwhom Lung Wang had accused him as the disturber of his watery kingdom,\nseized his soul, put chains round its neck, and led it down to the\ninfernal regions. Sun awoke in front of the gate of the kingdom of\nthe dead, broke his fetters, killed his two custodians, and, armed\nwith his magic staff, penetrated into the realm of Yen Wang, where\nhe threatened to carry out general destruction. He called to the ten\ninfernal gods to bring him the Register of the Living and the Dead,\ntore out with his own hand the page on which were written his name\nand those of his monkey subjects, and then told the King of the Hells\nthat he was no longer subject to the laws of death. Yen Wang yielded,\nthough with bad grace, and Sun returned triumphant from his expedition\nbeyond the tomb.\n\nBefore long Sun's escapades came to the knowledge of Yue Huang. Ao\nKuang and Yen Wang each sent deputies to the Master of Heaven, who\ntook note of the double accusation, and sent T'ai-po Chin-hsing to\nsummon before him this disturber of the heavenly peace.\n\n\nGrand Master of the Heavenly Stables\n\nIn order to keep him occupied, Sun was appointed Grand Master of the\nHeavenly Stables, and was entrusted with the feeding of Yue Huang's\nhorses; his official celestial title being Pi-ma Wen. Later on,\nlearning the object of the creation of this derisory appointment,\nhe overturned the Master's throne, seized his staff, broke down the\nSouth Gate of Heaven, and descended on a cloud to Hua-kuo Shan.\n\n\nGrand Superintendent of the Heavenly Peach-garden\n\nYue Huang in great indignation organized a siege of Hua-kuo Shan,\nbut the Kings of Heaven and the generals with their celestial armies\nwere repulsed several times. Sun now arrogated to himself the pompous\ntitle of Grand Saint, Governor of Heaven. He had this emblazoned on\nhis banners, and threatened Yue Huang that he would carry destruction\ninto his kingdom if he refused to recognize his new dignity. Yue\nHuang, alarmed at the result of the military operations, agreed to\nthe condition laid down by Sun. The latter was then appointed Grand\nSuperintendent of the Heavenly Peach-garden, the fruit of which\nconferred immortality, and a new palace was built for him.\n\n\nDouble Immortality\n\nHaving made minute observations on the secret properties of the\npeaches, Sun ate of them and was thus assured against death. The\ntime was ripe for him to indulge in his tricks without restraint,\nand an opportunity soon presented itself. Deeply hurt at not having\nbeen invited to the feast of the Peach Festival, P'an-t'ao Hui, given\nperiodically to the Immortals by Wang-mu Niang-niang, the Goddess of\nthe Immortals, he resolved upon revenge. When the preparations for the\nfeast were complete he cast a spell over the servants, causing them\nto fall into a deep sleep, and then ate up all the most juicy meats\nand drank the fine wines provided for the heavenly guests. Sun had,\nhowever, indulged himself too liberally; with heavy head and bleary\neye he missed the road back to his heavenly abode, and came unaware\nto the gate of Lao Chuen, who was, however, absent from his palace. It\nwas only a matter of a few minutes for Sun to enter and swallow the\npills of immortality which Lao Chuen kept in five gourds. Thus Sun,\ndoubly immortal, riding on the mist, again descended to Hua-kuo Shan.\n\n\nSun Hou-tzu Captured\n\nThese numerous misdeeds aroused the indignation of all the gods and\ngoddesses. Accusations poured in upon Yue Huang, and he ordered the Four\nGods of the Heavens and their chief generals to bring Sun to him. The\narmies laid siege to Hua-kuo Shan, a net was spread in the heavens,\nfantastic battles took place, but the resistance of the enemy was as\nstrenuous and obstinate as before.\n\nLao Chuen and Erh-lang, nephew of Yue Huang, then appeared on the\nscene. Sun's warriors resisted gallantly, but the forces of Heaven\nwere too much for them, and at length they were overcome. At this\njuncture Sun changed his form, and in spite of the net in the sky\nmanaged to find a way out. In vain search was made everywhere, until\nLi T'ien-wang, by the help of his devil-finding mirror, detected the\nquarry and informed Erh-lang, who rushed off in pursuit. Lao Chuen\nhurled his magic ring on to the head of the fugitive, who stumbled\nand fell. Quick as lightning, the celestial dog, T'ien Kou, who was\nin Erh-lang's service, threw himself on him, bit him in the calf,\nand caused him to stumble afresh. This was the end of the fight. Sun,\nsurrounded on all sides, was seized and chained. The battle was won.\n\n\nSun escapes from Lao Chuen's Furnace\n\nThe celestial armies now raised the siege, and returned to their\nquarters. But a new and unexpected difficulty arose. Yue Huang condemned\nthe criminal to death, but when they went to carry out the sentence\nthe executioners learned that he was invulnerable; swords, iron,\nfire, even lightning, could make no impression on his skin. Yue Huang,\nalarmed, asked Lao Chuen the reason of this. The latter replied that\nthere was nothing surprising about it, seeing that the knave had\neaten the peaches of life in the garden of Heaven and the pills of\nimmortality which he had composed. \"Hand him over to me,\" he added. \"I\nwill distil him in my furnace of the Eight Trigrams, and extract from\nhis composition the elements which render him immortal.\"\n\nYue Huang ordered that the prisoner be handed over, and in the sight\nof all he was shut up in Lao Chuen's alchemical furnace, which for\nforty-nine days was heated white-hot. But at an unguarded moment\nSun lifted the lid, emerged in a rage, seized his magic staff, and\nthreatened to destroy Heaven and exterminate its inhabitants. Yue Huang,\nat the end of his resources, summoned Buddha, who came and addressed\nSun as follows: \"Why do you wish to possess yourself of the Kingdom\nof the Heavens?\"\n\n\"Have I not power enough to be the God of Heaven?\" was the arrogant\nreply.\n\n\"What qualifications have you?\" asked Buddha. \"Enumerate them.\"\n\n\"My qualifications are innumerable,\" replied Sun. \"I am invulnerable,\nI am immortal, I can change myself into seventy-two different forms,\nI can ride on the clouds of Heaven and pass through the air at will,\nwith one leap I can traverse a hundred and eight thousand _li_.\"\n\n\"Well,\" replied Buddha, \"have a match with me; I wager that in one\nleap you cannot even jump out of the palm of my hand. If you succeed\nI will bestow upon you the sovereignty of Heaven.\"\n\n\nBroad-jump Competition\n\nSun rose into space, flew like lightning in the great vastness, and\nreached the confines of Heaven, opposite the five great red pillars\nwhich are the boundaries of the created universe. On one of them\nhe wrote his name, as irrefutable evidence that he could reach this\nextreme limit; this done, he returned triumphant to demand of Buddha\nthe coveted inheritance.\n\n\"But, wretch,\" said Buddha, \"you never went out of my hand!\"\n\n\"How is that?\" rejoined Sun. \"I went as far as the pillars of Heaven,\nand even took the precaution of writing my name on one of them as\nproof in case of need.\"\n\n\"Look then at the words you have written,\" said Buddha, lifting\na finger on which Sun read with stupefaction his name as he had\ninscribed it.\n\nBuddha then seized Sun, transported him out of Heaven, and changed\nhis five fingers into the five elements, metal, wood, water, fire,\nand earth, which instantly formed five high mountains contiguous to\neach other. The mountains were called Wu Hsing Shan, and Buddha shut\nSun up in them.\n\n\nConditions of Release\n\nThus subdued, Sun would not have been able to get out of his stone\nprison but for the intercession of Kuan Yin P'u-sa, who obtained\nhis release on his solemn promise that he would serve as guide,\nphilosopher, and friend to Hsuean Chuang, the priest who was to\nundertake the difficult journey of 108,000 _li_ to the Western\nHeaven. This promise, on the whole, he fulfilled in the service\nof Hsuean Chuang during the fourteen years of the long journey. Now\nfaithful, now restive and undisciplined, he was always the one to\ntriumph in the end over the eighty-one fantastical tribulations which\nbeset them as they journeyed.\n\n\n\nSha Ho-shang\n\nOne of the principal of Sun's fellow-servants of the Master was\nSha Ho-shang.\n\nHe is depicted wearing a necklace of skulls, the heads of the nine\nChinese deputies sent in former centuries to find the Buddhist canon,\nbut whom Sha Ho-shang had devoured on the banks of Liu-sha River when\nthey had attempted to cross it.\n\nHe is also known by the name of Sha Wu-ching, and was originally\nGrand Superintendent of the Manufactory of Stores for Yue Huang's\npalace. During a great banquet given on the Peach Festival to all\nthe gods and Immortals of the Chinese Olympus he let fall a crystal\nbowl, which was smashed to atoms. Yue Huang caused him to be beaten\nwith eight hundred blows, drove him out of Heaven, and exiled him to\nearth. He lived on the banks of the Liu-sha Ho, where every seventh\nday a mysterious sword appeared and wounded him in the neck. Having\nno other means of subsistence, he used to devour the passers-by.\n\n\nSha Ho-shang becomes Baggage-coolie\n\nWhen Kuan Yin passed through that region on her way to China to find\nthe priest who was predestined to devote himself to the laborious\nundertaking of the quest of the sacred Buddhist books, Sha Ho-shang\nthrew himself on his knees before her and begged her to put an end\nto all his woes.\n\nThe goddess promised that he should be delivered by the priest,\nher envoy, provided he would engage himself in the service of the\npilgrim. On his promising to do this, and to lead a better life,\nshe herself ordained him priest. In the end it came about that Hsuean\nChuang, when passing the Sha Ho, took him into his suite as coolie\nto carry his baggage. Yue Huang pardoned him in consideration of the\nservice he was rendering to the Buddhist cause.\n\n\nChu Pa-chieh\n\nChu Pa-chieh is a grotesque, even gross, personage, with all the\ninstincts of animalism. One day, while he was occupying the high office\nof Overseer-general of the Navigation of the Milky Way, he, during a\nfit of drunkenness, vilely assaulted the daughter of Yue Huang. The\nlatter had him beaten with two thousand blows from an iron hammer,\nand exiled to earth to be reincarnated.\n\nDuring his transition a mistake was made, and entering the womb of\na sow he was born half-man, half-pig, with the head and ears of a\npig and a human body. He began by killing and eating his mother, and\nthen devoured his little porcine brothers. Then he went to live on the\nwild mountain Fu-ling Shan, where, armed with an iron rake, he first\nrobbed and then ate the travellers who passed through that region.\n\nMao Erh-chieh, who lived in the cave Yuen-chan Tung, engaged him as\ncarrier of her personal effects, which she afterward bequeathed to him.\n\nYielding to the exhortations of the Goddess Kuan Yin, who, at the\ntime of her journey to China, persuaded him to lead a less dissolute\nlife, he was ordained a priest by the goddess herself, who gave him\nthe name of Chu (Pig), and the religious name of Wu-neng, 'Seeker\nafter Strength.' This monster was knocked down by Sun when the latter\nwas passing over the mountain accompanied by Hsuean Chuang, and he\ndeclared himself a disciple of the pilgrim priest. He accompanied him\nthroughout the journey, and was also received in the Western Paradise\nas a reward for his aid to the Buddhist propaganda.\n\n\n\nHsuean Chuang, the Master\n\nThe origin of this priest was as follows: In the reign of the Emperor\nT'ai Tsung of the T'ang dynasty, Ch'en Kuang-jui, a graduate of Hai\nChou, in his examination for the doctor's degree came out as _chuang\nyuean_, first on the list. Wen Chiao (also named Man-t'ang Chiao), the\ndaughter of the minister Yin K'ai-shan, meeting the young academician,\nfell in love with him, and married him. Several days after the wedding\nthe Emperor appointed Ch'en Kuang-jui Governor of Chiang Chou (modern\nChen-chiang Fu), in Kiangsu. After a short visit to his native town he\nstarted to take up his post. His old mother and his wife accompanied\nhim. When they reached Hung Chou his mother fell sick and they were\nforced to stay for a time at the Inn of Ten Thousand Flowers, kept\nby one Liu Hsiao-erh. Days passed; the sickness did not leave her,\nand as the time for her son to take over the seals of office was\ndrawing near, he had to proceed without her.\n\n\nThe Released Carp\n\nBefore his departure he noticed a fisherman holding in his hand a fine\ncarp; this he bought for a small sum to give to his mother. Suddenly\nhe noticed that the fish had a very extraordinary look, and, changing\nhis mind, he let it go in the waters of the Hung Chiang, afterward\ntelling his mother what he had done. She congratulated him on his\naction, and assured him that the good deed would not go unrewarded.\n\n\nThe Chuang Yuean Murdered\n\nCh'en Kuang-jui re-entered his boat with his wife and a servant. They\nwere stopped by the chief waterman, Liu Hung, and his assistant. Struck\nwith the great beauty of Ch'en Kuang-jui's wife, the former planned\na crime which he carried out with the help of his assistant. At the\ndead of night he took the boat to a retired spot, killed Ch'en and\nhis servant, threw their bodies into the river, seized his official\ndocuments of title and the woman he coveted, passed himself off as the\nreal _chuang yuean_, and took possession of the magistracy of Chiang\nChou. The widow, who was with child, had two alternatives--silence\nor death. Meantime she chose the former. Before she gave birth to her\nchild, T'ai-po Chin-hsing, the Spirit of the South Pole Star, appeared\nto her, and said he had been sent by Kuan Yin, the Goddess of Mercy,\nto present her with a son whose fame would fill the Empire. \"Above\nall,\" he added, \"take every precaution lest Liu Hung kill the child,\nfor he will certainly do so if he can.\" When the child was born the\nmother, during the absence of Liu Hung, determined to expose it rather\nthan see it slain. Accordingly she wrapped it up carefully in a shirt,\nand carried it to the bank of the Blue River. She then bit her finger,\nand with the blood wrote a short note stating the child's origin,\nand hid it in its breast. Moreover, she bit off the infant's left\nlittle toe, as an indelible mark of identity. No sooner had this been\ndone than a gust of wind blew a large plank to the river's edge. The\npoor mother tied her infant firmly to this plank and abandoned it to\nthe mercy of the waves. The waif was carried to the shore of the isle\nof Chin Shan, on which stands the famous monastery of Chin-shan Ssu,\nnear Chinkiang. The cries of the infant attracted the attention of\nan old monk named Chang Lao, who rescued it and gave it the name of\nChiang Liu, 'Waif of the River.' He reared it with much care, and\ntreasured the note its mother had written with her blood. The child\ngrew up, and Chang Lao made him a priest, naming him Hsuean Chuang on\nthe day of his taking the vows. When he was eighteen years of age,\nhaving one day quarrelled with another priest, who had cursed him and\nreproached him with having neither father nor mother, he, much hurt,\nwent to his protector Chang Lao. The latter said to him: \"The time has\ncome to reveal to you your origin.\" He then told him all, showed him\nthe note, and made him promise to avenge his assassinated father. To\nthis end he was made a roving priest, went to the official Court,\nand eventually got into touch with his mother, who was still living\nwith the prefect Liu Hung. The letter placed in his bosom, and the\nshirt in which he had been wrapped, easily proved the truth of his\nstatements. The mother, happy at having found her son, promised to\ngo and see him at Chin Shan. In order to do this, she pretended to\nbe sick, and told Liu Hung that formerly, when still young, she had\ntaken a vow which she had not yet been able to fulfil. Liu Hung himself\nhelped her to do so by sending a large gift of money to the priests,\nand allowed her to go with her servants to perform her devotions at\nChin-shan Ssu. On this second visit, during which she could speak\nmore freely with her son, she wished to see for herself the wound\nshe had made on his foot. This removed the last shadow of doubt.\n\n\nHsuean Chuang finds his Grandmother\n\nShe told Hsuean Chuang that he must first of all go to Hung Chou and\nfind his grandmother, formerly left at the Inn of Ten Thousand Flowers,\nand then on to Ch'ang-an to take to her father Yin K'ai-shan a letter,\nputting him in possession of the chief facts concerning Liu Hung,\nand praying him to avenge her.\n\nShe gave him a stick of incense to take to her mother-in-law. The old\nlady lived the life of a beggar in a wretched hovel near the city gate,\nand had become blind from weeping. The priest told her of the tragic\ndeath of her son, then touched her eyes with the stick of incense, and\nher sight was restored. \"And I,\" she exclaimed, \"have so often accused\nmy son of ingratitude, believing him to be still alive!\" He took her\nback to the Inn of Ten Thousand Flowers and settled the account, then\nhastened to the palace of Yin K'ai-shan. Having obtained an audience,\nhe showed the minister the letter, and informed him of all that had\ntaken place.\n\n\nThe Murderer Executed\n\nThe following day a report was presented to the Emperor, who gave\norders for the immediate arrest and execution of the murderer of\nCh'en Kuang-jui.\n\nYin K'ai-shan went with all haste to Chen-chiang, where he arrived\nduring the night, surrounded the official residence, and seized\nthe culprit, whom he sent to the place where he had committed the\nmurder. His heart and liver were torn out and sacrificed to the victim.\n\n\nThe Carp's Gratitude\n\nNow it happened that Ch'en Kuang-jui was not dead after all. The\ncarp released by him was in fact no other than Lung Wang, the God\nof the River, who had been going through his kingdom in that guise\nand had been caught in the fisherman's net. On learning that his\nrescuer had been cast into the river, Lung Wang had saved him, and\nappointed him an officer of his Court. On that day, when his son,\nwife, and father-in-law were sacrificing the heart of his assassin\nto his _manes_ on the river-bank, Lung Wang ordered that he return\nto earth. His body suddenly appeared on the surface of the water,\nfloated to the bank, revived, and came out full of life and health. The\nhappiness of the family reunited under such unexpected circumstances\nmay well be imagined. Ch'en Kuang-jui returned with his father-in-law\nto Chen-chiang, where he took up his official post, eighteen years\nafter his nomination to it.\n\nHsuean Chuang became the Emperor's favourite priest. He was held in\ngreat respect at the capital, and had innumerable honours bestowed upon\nhim, and in the end was chosen for the journey to the Western Paradise,\nwhere Buddha in person handed him the sacred books of Buddhism.\n\n\nPai Ma, the White Horse\n\nWhen he left the capital, Hsuean Chuang had been presented by the\nEmperor with a white horse to carry him on his long pilgrimage. One\nday, when he reached She-p'an Shan, near a torrent, a dragon emerged\nfrom the deep river-bed and devoured both the horse and its saddle. Sun\ntried in vain to find the dragon, and at last had to seek the aid of\nKuan Yin.\n\nNow Yue Lung San T'ai-tzu, son of Ao Jun, Dragonking of the Western\nSea, having burnt a precious pearl on the roof of his father's palace,\nwas denounced to Yue Huang, who had him beaten with three hundred blows\nand suspended in the air. He was awaiting death when Kuan Yin passed\non her way to China. The unfortunate dragon requested the goddess\nto have pity on him, whereupon she prevailed upon Yue Huang to spare\nhis life on condition that he served as steed for her pilgrim on the\nexpedition to the Western Paradise. The dragon was handed over to\nKuan Yin, who showed him the deep pool in which he was to dwell while\nawaiting the arrival of the priest. It was this dragon who had devoured\nHsuean Chuang's horse, and Kuan Yin now bade him change himself into a\nhorse of the same colour to carry the priest to his destination. He\nhad the honour of bearing on his back the sacred books that Buddha\ngave to T'ai Tsung's deputy, and the first Buddhist temple built at\nthe capital bore the name of Pai-ma Miao, 'Temple of the White Horse.'\n\n\nPerils by the Way\n\nIt is natural to expect that numberless exciting adventures should\nbefall such an interesting quartette, and indeed the _Hsi yu chi_,\nwhich contains a hundred chapters, is full of them. The pilgrims\nencountered eighty difficulties on the journey out and one on the\njourney home. The following examples are characteristic of the rest.\n\n\nThe Grove of Cypress-trees\n\nThe travellers were making their way westward through shining\nwaters and over green hills, where they found endless luxuriance\nof vegetation and flowers of all colours in profusion. But the way\nwas long and lonely, and as darkness came on without any sign of\nhabitation the Priest said: \"Where shall we find a resting-place for\nthe night?\" The Monkey replied: \"My Master, he who has left home\nand become a priest must dine on the wind and lodge on the water,\nlie down under the moon and sleep in the forest; everywhere is his\nhome; why then ask where shall we rest?\" But Pa-chieh, who was the\nbearer of the pilgrim's baggage, was not satisfied with this reply,\nand tried to get his load transferred to the horse, but was silenced\nwhen told that the latter's sole duty was to carry the Master.\n\nHowever, the Monkey gave Pai Ma a blow with his rod, causing him to\nstart forward at a great pace, and in a few minutes from the brow of\na hill Hsuean Chuang espied in the distance a grove of cypress-trees,\nbeneath the shade of which was a large enclosure. This seemed a\nsuitable place to pass the night, so they made toward it, and as\nthey approached observed in the enclosure a spacious and luxurious\nestablishment. There being no indications that the place was then\ninhabited, the Monkey made his way inside.\n\n\nA Proposal of Marriage\n\nHe was met by a lady of charming appearance, who came out of an inner\nroom, and said: \"Who is this that ventures to intrude upon a widow's\nhousehold?\" The situation was embarrassing, but the lady proved to\nbe most affable, welcomed them all very heartily, told them how she\nbecame a widow and had been left in possession of riches in abundance,\nand that she had three daughters, Truth, Love, and Pity by name. She\nthen proceeded to make a proposal of marriage, not only on behalf\nof herself, but of her three daughters as well. They were four men,\nand here were four women; she had mountain lands for fruit-trees,\ndry lands for grain, flooded fields for rice--more than five thousand\nacres of each; horses, oxen, sheep, pigs innumerable; sixty or seventy\nfarmsteads; granaries choked with grain; storehouses full of silks\nand satins; gold and silver enough to last several lifetimes however\nextravagantly they lived. Why should the four travellers not finish\ntheir journey there, and be happy ever afterward? The temptation was\ngreat, especially as the three daughters were ladies of surpassing\nbeauty as well as adepts at needlework and embroidery, well read,\nand able to sing sweetly.\n\nBut Hsuean Chuang sat as if listening to frogs after rain, unmoved\nexcept by anger that she should attempt to divert him from his heavenly\npurpose, and in the end the lady retired in a rage, slamming the door\nbehind her.\n\nThe covetous Pa-chieh, however, expressed himself in favour of\naccepting the widow's terms. Finding it impossible to do so openly,\nhe stole round to the back and secured a private interview. His\npersonal appearance was against him, but the widow was not altogether\nuncompliant. She not only entertained the travellers, but agreed\nto Pa-chieh retiring within the household in the character of a\nson-in-law, the other three remaining as guests in the guest-rooms.\n\n\nBlind Man's Buff\n\nBut a new problem now arose. If Pa-chieh were wedded to one of the\nthree daughters, the others would feel aggrieved. So the widow proposed\nto blindfold him with a handkerchief, and marry him to whichever\nhe succeeded in catching. But, with the bandage tied over his eyes,\nPa-chieh only found himself groping in darkness. \"The tinkling sound\nof female trinkets was all around him, the odour of musk was in his\nnostrils; like fairy forms they fluttered about him, but he could no\nmore grasp one than he could a shadow. One way and another he ran till\nhe was too giddy to stand, and could only stumble helplessly about.\"\n\nThe prospective mother-in-law then unloosed the bandage, and informed\nPa-chieh that it was not her daughters' 'slipperiness,' as he had\ncalled it, which prevented their capture, but the extreme modesty of\neach in being generous enough to forgo her claims in favour of one of\nher sisters. Pa-chieh thereupon became very importunate, urging his\nsuit for any one of the daughters or for the mother herself or for all\nthree or all four. This was beyond all conscience, but the widow was\nequal to the emergency, and suggested another solution. Each of her\ndaughters wore a waistcoat embroidered in jewels and gold. Pa-chieh\nwas to try these on in turn, and to marry the owner of the one which\nfitted him. Pa-chieh put one on, but as he was tying the cord round\nhis waist it transformed itself into strong coils of rope which bound\nhim tightly in every limb. He rolled about in excruciating agony,\nand as he did so the curtain of enchantment fell and the beauties\nand the palace disappeared.\n\nNext morning the rest of the party on waking up also found that all\nhad changed, and saw that they had been sleeping on the ground in the\ncypress-grove. On making search they found Pa-chieh bound fast to a\ntree. They cut him down, to pursue the journey a sadder and wiser Pig,\nand the butt of many a quip from his fellow-travellers.\n\n\nThe Lotus Cave\n\nWhen the party left the Elephant Country, seeing a mountain ahead,\nthe Master warned his disciples to be careful. Sun said: \"Master, say\nnot so; remember the text of the Sacred Book, 'So long as the heart is\nright there is nothing to fear.'\" After this Sun kept a close watch\non Pa-chieh, who, while professing to be on guard, slept most of the\ntime. When they arrived at Ping-ting Shan they were approached by a\nwoodcutter, who warned them that in the mountain, which extended for\n600 _li_ (200 miles), there was a Lotus Cave, inhabited by a band\nof demons under two chiefs, who were lying in wait to devour the\ntravellers. The woodcutter then disappeared. Accordingly, Pa-chieh\nwas ordered to keep watch. But, seeing some hay, he lay down and went\nto sleep, and the mountain demons carried him away to the Lotus Cave.\n\nOn seeing Pa-chieh, the second chief said: \"He is no good; you must\ngo in search of the Master and the Monkey.\" All this time the Monkey,\nto protect his Master, was walking ahead of the horse, swinging his\nclub up and down and to right and left. The Demon-king saw him from\nthe top of the mountain and said to himself: \"This Monkey is famous\nfor his magic, but I will prove that he is no match for me; I will\nyet feast on his Master.\" So, descending the mountain, he transformed\nhimself into a lame beggar and waited by the roadside. The Master,\nout of pity, persuaded the Monkey to carry him. While on the Monkey's\nback the Demon, by magic skill, threw Mount Meru on to Sun's head,\nbut the Monkey warded it off with his left shoulder, and walked\non. Then the Demon threw Mount O-mei on to Sun's head, and this\nhe warded off with his right shoulder, and walked on, much to the\nDemon's surprise. Lastly the Demon caused T'ai Shan to fall on to his\nhead. This at last stunned the Monkey. Sha Ho-shang now defended the\nMaster with his staff, which was, however, no match for the Demon's\nstarry sword. The Demon seized the Master and carried him under one\narm and Sha Ho-shang under the other to the Lotus Cave.\n\nThe two Demons then planned to take their two most precious things,\na yellow gourd and a jade vase, and try to bottle the Monkey. They\narranged to carry them upside down and call out the Monkey's name. If\nhe replied, then he would be inside, and they could seal him up,\nusing the seal of the great Ancient of Days, the dweller in the\nmansion of T'ai Sui. [35]\n\n\nThe Monkey under the Mountain\n\nWhen the Monkey found that he was being crushed under the mountain he\nwas greatly distressed about his Master, and cried out: \"Oh, Master,\nyou delivered me from under the mountain before, and trained me in\nreligion; how is it that you have brought me to this pass? If you\nmust die, why should Sha Ho-shang and Pa-chieh and the Dragon-horse\nalso suffer?\" Then his tears poured down like rain.\n\nThe spirits of the mountain were astonished at hearing these words. The\nguardian angels of the Five Religions asked: \"Whose is this mountain,\nand who is crushed beneath it?\" The local gods replied: \"The mountain\nis ours, but who is under it we do not know.\" \"If you do not know,\"\nthe angels replied, \"we will tell you. It is the Great Holy One,\nthe Equal of Heaven, who rebelled there five hundred years ago. He\nis now converted, and is the disciple of the Chinese ambassador. How\ndare you lend your mountain to the Demon for such a purpose?\" The\nguardian angels and local gods then recited some prayers, and the\nmountain was removed. The Monkey sprang up, brandishing his spear,\nand the spirits at once apologized, saying that they were under\nenforced service to the Demons.\n\nWhile they were speaking Sun saw a light approaching, and asked\nwhat it was. The spirits replied: \"This light comes from the Demons'\nmagic treasures. We fear they are bringing them to catch you.\" Sun\nthen said: \"Now we shall have some sport. Who is the Demon-chief's\nassociate?\" \"He is a Taoist,\" they replied, \"who is always occupied in\npreparing chemicals.\" The Monkey said: \"Leave me, and I will catch them\nmyself.\" He then transformed himself into a duplicate of the Taoist.\n\n\nThe Magic Gourd\n\nSun went to meet the Demons, and in conversation learnt from them that\nthey were on their way to catch the famous Monkey, and that the magic\ngourd and vase were for that purpose. They showed these treasures to\nhim, and explained that the gourd, though small, could hold a thousand\npeople. \"That is nothing,\" replied Sun. \"I have a gourd which can\ncontain all the heavens.\" At this they marvelled greatly, and made a\nbargain with him, according to which he was to give them his gourd,\nafter it had been tested as to its capacity to contain the heavens,\nin exchange for their precious gourd and vase. Going up to Heaven,\nthe Monkey obtained permission to extinguish the light of the sun,\nmoon, and stars for one hour. At noon the next day there was complete\ndarkness, and the Demons believed Sun when he stated that he had put\nthe whole heavens into his gourd so that there could be no light. They\nthen handed over to the Monkey their magic gourd and vase, and in\nexchange he gave them his false gourd.\n\n\n\nThe Magic Rope\n\nOn discovering that they had been deceived, the Demons made complaint\nto their chiefs, who informed them that Sun, by pretending to be one\nof the Immortals, had outwitted them. They had now lost two out of\ntheir five magic treasures. There remained three, the magic sword,\nthe magic palm fan, and the magic rope. \"Go,\" said they, \"and invite\nour dear grandmother to come and dine on human flesh.\" Personating\none of the Demons, Sun himself went on this errand. He told the old\nlady that he wanted her to bring with her the magic rope, with which\nto catch Sun. She was delighted, and set out in her chair carried by\ntwo fairies.\n\nWhen they had gone some few _li_, Sun killed the ladies, and then saw\nthat they were foxes. He took the magic rope, and thus had three of\nthe magic treasures. Having changed the dead so that they looked like\nliving creatures, he returned to the Lotus Cave. Many small demons came\nrunning up, saying that the old lady had been slain. The Demon-king,\nalarmed, proposed to release the whole party. But his younger brother\nsaid: \"No, let me fight Sun. If I win, we can eat them; if I fail,\nwe can let them go.\"\n\nAfter thirty bouts Sun lost the magic rope, and the Demon lassoed him\nwith it and carried him to the cave, and took back the magic gourd\nand vase. Sun now transformed himself into two false demons. One he\nplaced instead of himself in the lasso bound to a pillar, and then\nwent and reported to the second Demon-chief that Sun was struggling\nhard, and that he should be bound with a stronger rope lest he make\nhis escape. Thus, by this strategy, Sun obtained possession of the\nmagic rope again. By a similar trick he also got back the magic gourd\nand vase.\n\n\n\nThe Master Rescued\n\nSun and the Demons now began to wrangle about the respective merits\nof their gourds, which, each assured the other, could imprison men\nand make them obey their wishes. Finally, Sun succeeded in putting\none of the Demons into his gourd.\n\nThere ensued another fight concerning the magic sword and palm fan,\nduring which the fan was burnt to ashes. After more encounters Sun\nsucceeded in bottling the second Demon in the magic vase, and sealed\nhim up with the seal of the Ancient of Days. Then the magic sword\nwas delivered, and the Demons submitted. Sun returned to the cave,\nfetched his Master out, swept the cave clean of all evil spirits, and\nthey then started again on their westward journey. On the road they\nmet a blind man, who addressed them saying: \"Whither away, Buddhist\nPriest? I am the Ancient of Days. Give me back my magic treasures. In\nthe gourd I keep the pills of immortality. In the vase I keep the\nwater of life. The sword I use to subdue demons. With the fan I stir\nup enthusiasm. With the cord I bind bundles. One of these two Demons\nhad charge of the gold crucible. They stole my magic treasures and\nfled to the mundane sphere of mortals. You, having captured them,\nare deserving of great reward.\" But Sun replied: \"You should be\nseverely punished for allowing your servants to do this evil in the\nworld.\" The Ancient of Days replied: \"No, without these trials your\nMaster and his disciples could never attain to perfection.\"\n\nSun understood and said: \"Since you have come in person for the magic\ntreasures, I return them to you.\" After receiving them, the Ancient\nof Days returned to his T'ai Sui mansion in the skies.\n\n\n\nThe Red Child Demon\n\nBy the autumn the travellers arrived at a great mountain. They saw\non the road a red cloud which the Monkey thought must be a demon. It\nwas in fact a demon child who, in order to entrap the Master, had had\nhimself bound and tied to the branch of a tree. The child repeatedly\ncried out to the passers-by to deliver him. Sun suspected that it was\na trick; but the Master could no longer endure the pitiful wails; he\nordered his disciples to loose the child, and the Monkey to carry him.\n\nAs they proceeded on their way the Demon caused a strong whirlwind to\nspring up, and during this he carried off the Master. Sun discovered\nthat the Demon was an old friend of his, who, centuries before, had\npledged himself to eternal friendship. So he consoled his comrades\nby saying that he felt sure no harm would come to the Master.\n\n\nA Prospective Feast\n\nSoon Sun and his companions reached a mountain covered with\npine-forests. Here they found the Demon in his cave, intent upon\nfeasting on the Priest. The Demon refused to recognize his ancient\nfriendship with Sun, so the two came to blows. The Demon set fire to\neverything, so that the Monkey might be blinded by the smoke. Thus\nhe was unable to find his Master. In despair he said: \"I must get\nthe help of some one more skilful than myself.\" Pa-chieh was sent\nto fetch Kuan Yin. The Demon then seized a magic bag, transformed\nhimself into the shape of Kuan Yin, and invited Pa-chieh to enter the\ncave. The simpleton fell into the trap and was seized and placed in\nthe bag. Then the Demon appeared in his true form, and said: \"I am\nthe beggar child, and mean to cook you for my dinner. A fine man to\nprotect his Master you are!\" The Demon then summoned six of his most\ndoughty generals and ordered them to accompany him to fetch his father,\nKing Ox-head, to dine off the pilgrim. When they had gone Sun opened\nthe bag, released Pa-chieh, and both followed the six generals.\n\n\nThe Generals Tricked\n\nSun thought that as the Demon had played a trick on Pa-chieh, he\nwould play one on his generals. So he hurried on in front of them,\nand changed himself into the form of King Ox-head. The Demon and\nhis generals were invited into his presence, and Red Child said:\n\"If anyone eats of the pilgrim's flesh, his life will be prolonged\nindefinitely. Now he is caught and I invite you to feast on him.\" Sun,\npersonifying the father, said: \"No, I cannot come. I am fasting\nto-day. Moreover, Sun has charge of the pilgrim, and if any harm befall\nhim it will be the worse for you, for he has seventy-two magic arts. He\ncan make himself so big that your cave cannot contain him, and he\ncan make himself as small as a fly, a mosquito, a bee, or a butterfly.\"\n\nSun then went to Kuan Yin and appealed for help. She gave him a\nbottle, but he found he could not move it. \"No,\" said Kuan Yin,\n\"for all the forces of the ocean are stored in it.\"\n\nKuan Yin lifted it with ease, and said: \"This dew water is different\nfrom dragon water, and can extinguish the fire of passion. I will\nsend a fairy with you on your boat. You need no sails. The fairy\nneeds only to blow a little, and the boat moves along without any\neffort.\" Finally, the Red Child, having been overcome, repented and\nbegged to be received as a disciple. Kuan Yin received him and blessed\nhim, giving him the name of Steward.\n\n\nThe Demons of Blackwater River\n\nOne day the Master suddenly exclaimed: \"What is that noise?\" Sun\nreplied: \"You are afraid; you have forgotten the Heart Prayer,\naccording to which we are to be indifferent to all the calls of the\nsix senses--the eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, mind. These are the Six\nThieves. If you cannot suppress them, how do you expect to see the\nGreat Lord?\" The Master thought a while and then said: \"O disciple,\nwhen shall we see the Incarnate Model (Ju Lai) face to face?\"\n\nPa-chieh said: \"If we are to meet such demons as these, it will take\nus a thousand years to get to the West.\" But Sha Ho-shang rejoined:\n\"Both you and I are stupid; if we persevere and travel on, shoulder\nto shoulder, we shall reach there at last.\" While thus talking,\nthey saw before them a dark river in flood, which the horse could not\ncross. Seeing a small boat, the Master said: \"Let us engage that boat\nto take us across.\" While crossing the river in it, they discovered\nthat it was a boat sent by the Demon of Blackwater River to entrap\nthem in midstream, and the Master would have been slain had not Sun\nand the Western Dragon come to the rescue.\n\n\nThe Slow-carts Country\n\nHaving crossed the Blackwater River, they journeyed westward,\nfacing wind and snow. Suddenly they heard a great shout as of\nten thousand voices. The Master was alarmed, but Sun laughingly\nwent to investigate. Sitting on a cloud, he rose in the air, and\nsaw a city, outside of which there were thousands of priests and\ncarts laden with bricks and all kinds of building materials. This\nwas the city where Taoists were respected, and Buddhists were not\nwanted. The Monkey, who appeared among the people as a Taoist, was\ninformed that the country was called the Ch'e Ch'ih, 'Slow-carts\nCountry,' and for twenty years had been ruled by three Taoists who\ncould procure rain during times of drought. Their names were Tiger,\nDeer, and Sheep. They could also command the wind, and change stones\ninto gold. The Monkey said to the two leading Taoists: \"I wonder\nif I shall be so fortunate as to see your Emperor?\" They replied:\n\"We will see to that when we have attended to our business.\" The\nMonkey inquired what business the priests could have. \"In former\ntimes,\" they said, \"when our King ordered the Buddhists to pray for\nrain, their prayers were not answered. Then the Taoists prayed, and\ncopious showers fell. Since then all the Buddhist priests have been\nour slaves, and have to carry the building materials, as you see. We\nmust assign them their work, and then will come to you.\" Sun replied:\n\"Never mind; I am in search of an uncle of mine, from whom I have not\nheard for many years. Perhaps he is here among your slaves.\" They said:\n\"You may see if you can find him.\"\n\n\nRestraints on Freedom\n\nSun went to look for his uncle. Hearing this, many Buddhist priests\nsurrounded him, hoping to be recognized as his lost relative. After\na while he smiled. They asked him the reason. He said: \"Why do you\nmake no progress? Life is not meant for idleness.\" They said: \"We\ncannot do anything. We are terribly oppressed.\" \"What power have your\nmasters?\" \"By using their magic they can call up wind or rain.\" \"That\nis a small matter,\" said Sun. \"What else can they do?\" \"They can make\nthe pills of immortality, and change stone into gold.\"\n\nSun said: \"These are also small matters; many can do the same. How did\nthese Taoists deceive your King?\" \"The King attends their prayers night\nand day, expecting thereby to attain to immortality.\" \"Why do you not\nleave the place?\" \"It is impossible, for the King has ordered pictures\nof us to be hung up everywhere. In all the numerous prefectures,\nmagistracies, and market-places in Slow-carts Country are pictures of\nthe Buddhist priests, and any official who catches a runaway priest\nis promoted three degrees, while every non-official receives fifty\ntaels. The proclamation is signed by the King. So you see we are\nhelpless.\" Sun then said: \"You might as well die and end it all.\"\n\n\nImmortal for Suffering\n\nThey replied: \"A great number have died. At one time we numbered\nmore than two thousand. But through deaths and suicides there now\nremain only about five hundred. And we who remain cannot die. Ropes\ncannot strangle us, swords cannot cut us; if we plunge into the\nriver we cannot sink; poison does not kill us.\" Sun said: \"Then\nyou are fortunate, for you are all Immortals.\" \"Alas!\" said they,\n\"we are immortal only for suffering. We get poor food. We have only\nsand to sleep on. But in the night hours spirits appear to us and\ntell us not to kill ourselves, for an Arhat will come from the East\nto deliver us. With him there is a disciple, the Great Holy One,\nthe Equal of Heaven, most powerful and tender-hearted. He will put\nan end to these Taoists and have pity on us Buddhists.\"\n\n\nThe Saviour of the Buddhists\n\nInwardly Sun was glad that his fame had gone abroad. Returning to the\ncity, he met the two chief Taoists. They asked him if he had found\nhis relative. \"Yes,\" he replied, \"they are all my relatives!\" They\nsmiled and said: \"How is it that you have so many relatives?\" Sun\nsaid: \"One hundred are my father's relatives, one hundred my mother's\nrelatives, and the remainder my adopted relatives. If you will let\nall these priests depart with me, then I will enter the city with you;\notherwise I will not enter.\" \"You must be mad to speak to us in this\nway. The priests were given us by the King. If you had asked for a\nfew only, we might have consented, but your request is altogether\nunreasonable.\" Sun then asked them three times if they would liberate\nthe priests. When they finally refused, he grew very angry, took his\nmagic spear from his ear and brandished it in the air, when all their\nheads fell off and rolled on the ground.\n\n\nAnger of the Buddhist Priests\n\nThe Buddhist priests saw from a distance what had taken place,\nand shouted: \"Murder, murder! The Taoist superintendents are being\nkilled.\" They surrounded Sun, saying: \"These priests are our masters;\nthey go to the temple without visiting the King, and return home\nwithout taking leave of the King. The King is the high priest. Why\nhave you killed his disciples? The Taoist chief priest will certainly\naccuse us Buddhist priests of the murders. What are we to do? If we go\ninto the city with you they will make you pay for this with your life.\"\n\nSun laughed. \"My friends,\" he said, \"do not trouble yourselves over\nthis matter. I am not the Master of the Clouds, but the Great Holy\nOne, a disciple of the Holy Master from China, going to the Western\nParadise to fetch the sacred books, and have come to save you.\"\n\n\"No, no,\" said they, \"this cannot be, for we know him.\" Sun replied:\n\"Having never met him, how can you know him?\" They replied: \"We have\nseen him in our dreams. The spirit of the planet Venus has described\nhim to us and warned us not to make a mistake.\" \"What description did\nhe give?\" asked Sun. They replied: \"He has a hard head, bright eyes,\na round, hairy face without cheeks, sharp teeth, prominent mouth,\na hot temper, and is uglier than the Thunder-god. He has a rod of\niron, caused a disturbance in Heaven itself, but later repented,\nand is coming with the Buddhist pilgrim in order to save mankind from\ncalamities and misery.\" With mixed feelings Sun replied: \"My friends,\nno doubt you are right in saying I am not Sun. I am only his disciple,\nwho has come to learn how to carry out his plans. But,\" he added,\npointing with his hand, \"is not that Sun coming yonder?\" They all\nlooked in the direction in which he had pointed.\n\n\nSun bestows Talismans\n\nSun quickly changed himself from a Taoist priest, and appeared in\nhis natural form. At this they all fell down and worshipped him,\nasking his forgiveness because their mortal eyes could not recognize\nhim. They then begged him to enter the city and compel the demons to\nrepent. Sun told them to follow him. He then went with them to a sandy\nplace, emptied two carts and smashed them into splinters, and threw\nall the bricks, tiles, and timber into a heap, calling upon all the\npriests to disperse. \"Tomorrow,\" he said, \"I am going to see the King,\nand will destroy the Taoists!\" Then they said: \"Sir, we dare not go\nany farther, lest they attempt to seize you and cause trouble.\" \"Have\nno fear,\" he replied; \"but if you think so I will give you a charm to\nprotect you.\" He pulled out some hairs, and gave one to each to hold\nfirmly on the third finger. \"If anyone tries to seize you,\" he said,\n\"keep tight hold of it, call out 'Great Holy One, the Equal of Heaven,'\nand I will at once come to your rescue, even though I be ten thousand\nmiles away.\" Some of them tried the charm, and, sure enough, there\nhe was before them like the God of Thunder. In his hand he held a\nrod of iron, and he could keep ten thousand men and horses at bay.\n\n\nThe Magic Circle\n\nIt was now winter. The pilgrims were crossing a high mountain by\na narrow pass, and the Master was afraid of wild beasts. The three\ndisciples bade him fear not, as they were united, and were all good\nmen seeking truth. Being cold and hungry they rejoiced to see a fine\nbuilding ahead of them, but Sun said: \"It is another devil's trap. I\nwill make a ring round you. Inside that you will be safe. Do not wander\noutside it. I will go and look for food.\" Sun returned with his bowl\nfull of rice, but found that his companions had got tired of waiting,\nand had disappeared. They had gone forward to the fine building, which\nPa-chieh entered. Not a soul was to be seen, but on going upstairs\nhe was terrified to see a human skeleton of immense size lying on\nthe floor. At this moment the Demon of the house descended on them,\nbound the Master, and said: \"We have been told that if we eat of your\nflesh our white hair will become black again, and our lost teeth grow\nanew.\" So he ordered the small devils who accompanied him to bind the\nothers. This they did, and thrust the pilgrims into a cave, and then\nlay in wait for Sun. It was not long before the Monkey came up, when\na great fight ensued. In the end, having failed, notwithstanding the\nexercise of numerous magic arts, to release his companions, Sun betook\nhimself to the Spiritual Mountain and besought Ju Lai's aid. Eighteen\n_lohan_ were sent to help him against the Demon. When Sun renewed the\nattack, the _lohan_ threw diamond dust into the air, which blinded the\nDemon and also half buried him. But, by skilful use of his magic coil,\nhe gathered up all the diamond dust and carried it back to his cave.\n\nThe _lohan_ then advised Sun to seek the aid of the Ancient of\nDays. Accordingly, Sun ascended to the thirty-third Heaven, where\nwas the palace of the god. He there discovered that the Demon was\nnone other than one of the god's ox-spirits who had stolen the magic\ncoil. It was, in fact, the same coil with which Sun himself had at\nlast been subdued when he had rebelled against Heaven.\n\n\nHelp from Ju Lai\n\nThe Ancient of Days mounted a cloud and went with Sun to the cave. When\nthe Demon saw who had come he was terrified. The Ancient of Days then\nrecited an incantation, and the Demon surrendered the magic coil\nto him. On the recitation of a second incantation all his strength\nleft him, and he appeared as a bull, and was led away by a ring in\nhis nose. The Master and his disciples were then set at liberty,\nand proceeded on their journey.\n\n\nThe Fire-quenching Fan\n\nIn the autumn the pilgrims found themselves in the Ssu Ha Li Country,\nwhere everything was red--red walls, red tiles, red varnish on doors\nand furniture. Sixty _li_ from this place was the Flaming Mountain,\nwhich lay on their road westward.\n\nAn old man they met told them that it was possible to cross the\nFlaming Mountain only if they had the Magic Iron Fan, which, waved\nonce, quenched fire, waved a second time produced strong wind, and\nwaved a third time produced rain. This magic fan was kept by the\nIron-fan Princess in a cave on Ts'ui-yuen Shan, 1500 _li_ distant. On\nhearing this, Sun mounted a cloud, and in an instant was transported\nto the cave. The Iron-fan Princess was one of the _lochas_ (wives\nand daughters of demons), and the mother of the Red Child Demon, who\nhad become a disciple of Kuan Yin. On seeing Sun she was very angry,\nand determined to be revenged for the outwitting of her husband,\nKing Ox-head, and for the carrying away of her son. The Monkey said:\n\"If you lend me the Iron Fan I will bring your son to see you.\" For\nanswer she struck him with a sword. They then fell to fighting, the\ncontest lasting a long while, until at length, feeling her strength\nfailing, the Princess took out the Iron Fan and waved it. The wind\nit raised blew Sun to a distance of 84,000 _li_, and whirled him\nabout like a leaf in a whirlwind. But he soon returned, reinforced\nby further magic power lent him by the Buddhist saints. The Princess,\nhowever, deceived him by giving him a fan which increased the flames\nof the mountain instead of quenching them. Sun and his friends had\nto retreat more than 20 _li_, or they would have been burned.\n\nThe local mountain-gods now appeared, bringing refreshments, and urging\nthe pilgrims to get the Fan so as to enable them to proceed on their\njourney. Sun pointed to his fan and said: \"Is not this the Fan?\" They\nsmiled and said: \"No, this is a false one which the Princess has\ngiven you.\" They added: \"Originally there was no Flaming Mountain, but\nwhen you upset the furnace in Heaven five hundred years ago the fire\nfell here, and has been burning ever since. For not having taken more\ncare in Heaven, we have been set to guard it. The Demon-king Ox-head,\nthough he married the _locha_ Princess, deserted her some two years\nago for the only daughter of a fox-king. They live at Chi-lei Shan,\nsome three thousand _li_ from here. If you can get the true Iron\nFan through his help you will be able to extinguish the flames, take\nyour Master to the West, save the lives of many people round here,\nand enable us to return to Heaven once more.\"\n\nSun at once mounted a cloud and was soon at Chi-lei Shan. There\nhe met the Fox-princess, whom he upbraided and pursued back to\nher cave. The Ox-demon came out and became very angry with Sun\nfor having frightened her. Sun asked him to return with him to the\n_locha_ Princess and persuade her to give him the Magic Fan, This he\nrefused to do. They then fought three battles, in all of which Sun\nwas successful. He changed into the Ox-demon's shape and visited the\n_locha_ Princess. She, thinking he was the Ox-demon, gladly received\nhim, and finally gave him the Magic Fan; he then set out to return\nto his Master.\n\n\nThe Power of the Magic Fan\n\nThe Ox-demon, following after Sun, saw him walking along, joyfully\ncarrying the Magic Fan on his shoulder. Now Sun had forgotten to ask\nhow to make it small, like an apricot leaf, as it was at first. The\nOx-demon changed himself into the form of Pa-chieh, and going up to\nSun he said: \"Brother Sun, I am glad to see you back; I hope you have\nsucceeded.\" \"Yes,\" replied Sun, and described his fights, and how he\nhad tricked the Ox-demon's wife into giving him the Fan. The seeming\nPa-chieh said: \"You must be very tired after all your efforts; let\nme carry the Magic Fan for you.\" As soon as he had got possession of\nit he appeared in his true form, and tried to use it to blow Sun away\n84,000 _li_, for he did not know that the Great Holy One had swallowed\na wind-resisting pill, and was therefore immovable. He then put the\nMagic Fan in his mouth and fought with his two swords. He was a match\nfor Sun in all the magic arts, but through the aid of Pa-chieh and\nthe help of the local gods sent by the Master the Monkey was able\nto prevail against him. The Ox-demon changed himself many times into\na number of birds, but for each of these Sun changed himself into a\nswifter and stronger one. The Ox-demon then changed himself into many\nbeasts, such as tigers, leopards, bears, elephants, and an ox 10,000\nfeet long. He then said to Sun, with a laugh: \"What can you do to me\nnow?\" Sun seized his rod of iron, and cried: \"Grow!\" He immediately\nbecame 100,000 feet high, with eyes like the sun and moon. They fought\ntill the heavens and the earth shook with their onslaughts.\n\n\n\nDefeat of the Ox-demon\n\nThe Ox-demon being of so fierce and terrible a nature, both Buddha\nin Heaven and the Taoist Celestial Ruler sent down whole legions of\ncelebrated warriors to help the Master's servant. The Ox-demon tried\nto escape in every direction, one after the other, but his efforts\nwere in vain. Finally defeated, he was made to promise for himself and\nhis wife to give up their evil ways and to follow the holy precepts\nof the Buddhist doctrine.\n\nThe Magic Fan was given to Sun, who at once proceeded to test its\npowers. When he waved it once the fires on Flaming Mountain died\nout. When he waved it a second time a gentle breeze sprang up. When\nhe waved it a third time refreshing rain fell everywhere, and the\npilgrims proceeded on their way in comfort.\n\n\nThe Lovely Women\n\nHaving travelled over many mountains, the travellers came to a\nvillage. The Master said: \"You, my disciples, are always very kind,\ntaking round the begging-bowl and getting food for me. To-day I will\ntake the begging-bowl myself.\" But Sun said: \"That is not right; you\nmust let us, your disciples, do this for you.\" But the Master insisted.\n\nWhen he reached the village, there was not a man to be seen, but only\nsome lovely women. He did not think that it was right for him to speak\nto women. On the other hand, if he did not procure anything for their\nmeal, his disciples would make fun of him. So, after long hesitation,\nhe went forward and begged food of them. They invited him to their cave\nhome, and, having learnt who he was, ordered food for him, but it was\nall human flesh. The Master informed them that he was a vegetarian,\nand rose to take his departure, but instead of letting him go they\nsurrounded and bound him, thinking that he would be a fine meal for\nthem next day.\n\n\nAn Awkward Predicament\n\nThen seven of the women went out to bathe in a pool. There Sun, in\nsearch of his Master, found them and would have killed them, only he\nthought it was not right to kill women. So he changed himself into an\neagle and carried away their clothes to his nest. This so frightened\nthe women that they crouched in the pool and did not dare to come out.\n\nBut Pa-chieh, also in search of his Master, found the women bathing. He\nchanged himself into a fish, which the women tried to catch, chasing\nhim hither and thither round the pool. After a while Pa-chieh leapt\nout of the pool and, appearing in his true form, threatened the\nwomen for having bound his Master. In their fright the women fled to\na pavilion, round which they spun spiders' threads so thickly that\nPa-chieh became entangled and fell. They then escaped to their cave\nand put on some clothes.\n\n\nHow the Master was Rescued\n\nWhen Pa-chieh at length had disentangled himself from the webs, he saw\nSun and Sha Ho-shang approaching. Having learnt what had happened,\nthey feared the women might do some injury to the Master, so they\nran to the cave to rescue him. On the way they were beset by the\nseven dwarf sons of the seven women, who transformed themselves into\na swarm of dragon-flies, bees, and other insects. But Sun pulled out\nsome hairs and, changing them into seven different swarms of flying\ninsects, destroyed the hostile swarm, and the ground was covered a\nfoot deep with the dead bodies. On reaching the cave, the pilgrims\nfound it had been deserted by the women. They released the Master,\nand made him promise never to beg for food again. Having given the\npromise, he mounted his horse, and they proceeded on their journey.\n\n\nThe Spiders and the Extinguisher\n\nWhen they had gone a short distance they perceived a great building of\nfine architecture ahead of them. It proved to be a Taoist temple. Sha\nHo-shang said: \"Let us enter, for Buddhism and Taoism teach the\nsame things. They differ only in their vestments.\" The Taoist abbot\nreceived them with civility and ordered five cups of tea. Now he was\nin league with the seven women, and when the servant had made the tea\nthey put poison in each cup. Sun, however, suspected a conspiracy,\nand did not drink his tea. Seeing that the rest had been poisoned, he\nwent and attacked the sisters, who transformed themselves into huge\nspiders. They were able to spin ropes instead of webs with which to\nbind their enemies. But Sun attacked and killed them all.\n\nThe Taoist abbot then showed himself in his true form, a demon with\na thousand eyes. He joined battle with Sun, and a terrible contest\nensued, the result being that the Demon succeeded in putting an\nextinguisher on his enemy. This was a new trick which Sun did not\nunderstand. However, after trying in vain to break out through the\ntop and sides, he began to bore downward, and, finding that the\nextinguisher was not deep in the ground, he succeeded in effecting\nhis escape from below. But he feared that his Master and the others\nwould die of the poison. At this juncture, while he was suffering\nmental tortures on their behalf, a Bodhisattva, Lady Pi Lan, came\nto his rescue. By the aid of her magic he broke the extinguisher,\ngave his Master and fellow-disciples pills to counteract the poison,\nand so rescued them.\n\n\nShaving a Whole City\n\nThe summer had now arrived. On the road the pilgrims met an old\nlady and a little boy. The old lady said: \"You are priests; do not\ngo forward, for you are about to pass into the country known as the\nCountry that exterminates Religion. The inhabitants have vowed to\nkill ten thousand priests. They have already slain that number all\nbut four noted ones whose arrival they expect; then their number will\nbe complete.\"\n\nThis old lady was Kuan Yin, with Shen Tsai (Steward), who had come to\ngive them warning. Sun thereupon changed himself into a candle-moth\nand flew into the city to examine for himself. He entered an inn,\nand heard the innkeeper warning his guests to look after their own\nclothes and belongings when they went to sleep. In order to travel\nsafely through the city, Sun decided that they should all put on\nturbans and clothing resembling that of the citizens. Perceiving\nfrom the innkeeper's warning that thieving was common, Sun stole some\nclothing and turbans for his Master and comrades. Then they all came\nto the inn at dusk, Sun representing himself as a horse-dealer.\n\nFearing that in their sleep their turbans would fall off, and their\nshaven heads be revealed, Sun arranged that they should sleep in a\ncupboard, which he asked the landlady to lock.\n\nDuring the night robbers came and carried the cupboard away, thinking\nto find in it silver to buy horses. A watchman saw many men carrying\nthis cupboard, and became suspicious, and called out the soldiers. The\nrobbers ran away, leaving the cupboard in the open. The Master was very\nangry with Sun for getting him into this danger. He feared that at\ndaylight they would be discovered and all be executed. But Sun said:\n\"Do not be alarmed; I will save you yet!\" He changed himself into an\nant, and escaped from the cupboard. Then he plucked out some hairs\nand changed them into a thousand monkeys like himself. To each he\ngave a razor and a charm for inducing sleep. When the King and all\nthe officials and their wives had succumbed to this charm, the monkeys\nwere to shave their heads.\n\nOn the morrow there was a terrible commotion throughout the city,\nas all the leaders and their families found themselves shaved like\nBuddhists.\n\nThus the Master was saved again.\n\n\nThe Return to China\n\nThe pilgrims having overcome the predicted eighty difficulties of\ntheir outward journey, there remained only one to be overcome on the\nhomeward way.\n\nThey were now returning upon a cloud which had been placed at their\ndisposal, and which had been charged to bear them safely home. But\nalas! the cloud broke and precipitated them to the earth by the side\nof a wide river which they must cross. There were no ferry-boats or\nrafts to be seen, so they were glad to avail themselves of the kind\noffices of a turtle, who offered to take them across on his back. But\nin midstream the turtle reminded Hsuean Chuang of a promise he had made\nhim when on his outward journey, namely, that he would intercede for\nhim before the Ruler of the West, and ask his Majesty to forgive all\npast offences and allow him to resume his humanity again. The turtle\nasked him if he had remembered to keep his word. Hsuean Chuang replied:\n\"I remember our conversation, but I am sorry to say that under great\npressure I quite forgot to keep my promise.\" \"Then,\" said the turtle,\n\"you are at liberty to dispense with my services.\" He then disappeared\nbeneath the water, leaving the pilgrims floundering in the stream with\ntheir precious books. They swam the river, and with great difficulty\nmanaged to save a number of volumes, which they dried in the sun.\n\n\nThe Travellers Honoured\n\nThe pilgrims reached the capital of their country without further\ndifficulty. As soon as they appeared in sight the whole population\nbecame greatly excited, and cutting down branches of willow-trees\nwent out to meet them. As a mark of special distinction the Emperor\nsent his own horse for Hsuean Chuang to ride on, and the pilgrims were\nescorted with royal honours into the city, where the Emperor and his\ngrateful Court were waiting to receive them. Hsuean Chuang's queer\ntrio of converts at first caused great amusement among the crowds\nwho thronged to see them, but when they learned of Sun's superhuman\nachievements, and his brave defence of the Master, their amusement\nwas changed into wondering admiration.\n\nBut the greatest honours were conferred upon the travellers at\na meeting of the Immortals presided over by Mi-lo Fo, the Coming\nBuddha. Addressing Hsuean Chuang, the Buddha said, \"In a previous\nexistence you were one of my chief disciples. But for disobedience\nand for lightly esteeming the great teaching your soul was imprisoned\nin the Eastern Land. Now a memorial has been presented to me stating\nthat you have obtained the True Classics of Salvation, thus, by your\nfaithfulness, completing your meritorious labours. You are appointed\nto the high office of Controller of Sacrifices to his Supreme Majesty\nthe Pearly Emperor.\"\n\nTurning to Sun, the Buddha said, \"You, Sun, for creating a disturbance\nin the palace of Heaven, were imprisoned beneath the Mountain of\nthe Five Elements, until the fullness of Heaven's calamities had\ndescended upon you, and you had repented and had joined the holy\nreligion of Buddha. From that time you have endeavoured to suppress\nevil and cherish virtue. And on your journey to the West you have\nsubjugated evil spirits, ghosts, and demons. For your services you\nare appointed God of Victorious Strife.\"\n\nFor his repentance, and for his assistance to his Master, Chu Pa-chieh,\nthe Pig Fairy, was appointed Head Altar-washer to the Gods. This\nwas the highest office for which he was eligible, on account of his\ninherent greed.\n\nSha Ho-shang was elevated to the rank of Golden Body Perpetual Saint.\n\nPai Ma, the white horse who had patiently carried Hsuean Chuang and\nhis burden of books, was led by a god down the Spirit Mountain to\nthe banks of the Pool of Dragon-transformation. Pai Ma plunged in,\nwhen he changed at once into a four-footed dragon, with horns, scales,\nclaws, and wings complete. From this time he became the chief of the\ncelestial dragon tribe.\n\nSun's first thought upon receiving his promotion was to get rid of the\nHead-splitting Helmet. Accordingly he said to his Master, \"Now that\nI am, like yourself, a Buddha, I want you to relieve my head of the\nhelmet you imposed upon me during the years of my waywardness.\" Hsuean\nChuang replied, \"If you have really become a Buddha, your helmet\nshould have disappeared of itself. Are you sure it is still upon your\nhead?\" Sun raised his hand, and lo! the helmet was gone.\n\nAfter this the great assembly broke up, and each of the Immortals\nreturned in peace to his own celestial abode.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XV\n\nFox Legends\n\n\nThe Fox\n\nAmong the many animals worshipped by the Chinese, those at times\nseen emerging from coffins or graves naturally hold a prominent\nplace. They are supposed to be the transmigrated souls of deceased\nhuman beings. We should therefore expect such animals as the fox,\nstoat, weasel, etc., to be closely associated with the worship of\nghosts, spirits, and suchlike creatures, and that they should be the\nsubjects of, or included in, a large number of Chinese legends. This\nwe find. Of these animals the fox is mentioned in Chinese legendary\nlore perhaps more often than any other.\n\nThe subject of fox-lore has been dealt with exhaustively by\nmy respected colleague, the late Mr Thomas Watters (formerly\nH.B.M. Consul-General at Canton, a man of vast learning and extreme\nmodesty, insufficiently appreciated in his generation), in the _Journal\nof the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, viii, 45-65,\nto which the reader is referred for details. Generally, the fox is\na creature of ill omen, long-lived (living to eight hundred or even\na thousand years), with a peculiar virtue in every part of his body,\nable to produce fire by striking the ground with his tail, cunning,\ncautious, sceptical, able to see into the future, to transform himself\n(usually into old men, or scholars, or pretty young maidens), and\nfond of playing pranks and tormenting mankind.\n\n\nFox Legends\n\nMany interesting fox legends are to be found in a collection of stories\nentitled _Liao chai chih i_, by P'u Sung-ling (seventeenth century\nA.D.), part of which was translated into English many years ago by\nProfessor H.A. Giles and appeared in two fascinating volumes called\n_Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio_. These legends were related\nto the Chinese writer by various people as their own experiences.\n\n\nFriendship with Foxes\n\nA certain man had an enormous stack of straw, as big as a hill, in\nwhich his servants, taking what was daily required for use, had made\nquite a large hole. In this hole a fox fixed his abode, and would\noften show himself to the master of the house under the form of an\nold man. One day the latter invited the master to walk into his abode;\nhe at first declined, but accepted on being pressed; and when he got\ninside, lo! he saw a long suite of handsome apartments. They then\nsat down, and exquisitely perfumed tea and wine were brought; but\nthe place was so gloomy that there was no difference between night\nand day. By and by, the entertainment being over, the guest took his\nleave; and on looking back the beautiful rooms and their contents had\nall disappeared. The old man himself was in the habit of going away in\nthe evening and returning with the first streaks of morning; and as\nno one was able to follow him, the master of the house asked him one\nday whither he went. To this he replied that a friend invited him to\ntake wine; and then the master begged to be allowed to accompany him,\na proposal to which the old man very reluctantly consented. However,\nhe seized the master by the arm, and away they went as though riding\non the wings of the wind; and in about the time it takes to cook\na pot of millet they reached a city and walked into a restaurant,\nwhere there were a number of people drinking together and making a\ngreat noise. The old man led his companion to a gallery above, from\nwhich they could look down on the feasters below; and he himself went\ndown and brought away from the tables all kinds of nice food and wine,\nwithout appearing to be seen or noticed by any of the company. After\na while a man dressed in red garments came forward and laid upon\nthe table some dishes of cumquats; [36] the master at once requested\nthe old man to go down and get him some of these. \"Ah,\" replied the\nlatter, \"that is an upright man: I cannot approach him.\" Thereupon\nthe master said to himself, \"By thus seeking the companionship of a\nfox, I then am deflected from the true course. Henceforth I too will\nbe an upright man.\" No sooner had he formed this resolution than he\nsuddenly lost all control over his body, and fell from the gallery\ndown among the revellers below. These gentlemen were much astonished\nby his unexpected descent; and he himself, looking up, saw there was\nno gallery to the house, but only a large beam upon which he had\nbeen sitting. He now detailed the whole of the circumstances, and\nthose present made up a purse for him to pay his travelling expenses;\nfor he was at Yue-t'ai--a thousand _li_ from home.\n\n\nThe Marriage Lottery\n\nA certain labourer, named Ma T'ien-jung, lost his wife when he was\nonly about twenty years of age, and was too poor to take another. One\nday, when out hoeing in the fields, he beheld a nice-looking young\nlady leave the path and come tripping across the furrows toward\nhim. Her face was well painted, [37] and she had altogether such a\nrefined look that Ma concluded she must have lost her way, and began\nto make some playful remarks in consequence. \"You go along home,\"\ncried the young lady, \"and I'll be with you by and by.\" Ma doubted\nthis rather extraordinary promise, but she vowed and declared she\nwould not break her word; and then Ma went off, telling her that his\nfront door faced the north, etc. At midnight the young lady arrived,\nand then Ma saw that her hands and face were covered with fine hair,\nwhich made him suspect at once that she was a fox. She did not deny the\naccusation; and accordingly Ma said to her, \"If you really are one of\nthose wonderful creatures you will be able to get me anything I want;\nand I should be much obliged if you would begin by giving me some\nmoney to relieve my poverty.\" The young lady said she would; and next\nevening, when she came again, Ma asked her where the money was. \"Dear\nme!\" replied she, \"I quite forgot it.\" When she was going away Ma\nreminded her of what he wanted, but on the following evening she made\nprecisely the same excuse, promising to bring it another day. A few\nnights afterward Ma asked her once more for the money, and then she\ndrew from her sleeve two pieces of silver, each weighing about five\nor six ounces. They were both of fine quality, with turned-up edges,\n[38] and Ma was very pleased, and stored them away in a cupboard. Some\nmonths after this he happened to require some money for use, and took\nout these pieces; but the person to whom he showed them said they\nwere only pewter, and easily bit off a portion of one of them with\nhis teeth. Ma was much alarmed, and put the pieces away directly,\ntaking the opportunity when evening came of abusing the young lady\nroundly. \"It's all your bad luck,\" retorted she. \"Real gold would be\ntoo much for your inferior destiny.\" There was an end of that; but Ma\nwent on to say, \"I always heard that fox-girls were of surpassing\nbeauty; how is it you are not?\" \"Oh,\" replied the young lady,\n\"we always adapt ourselves to our company. Now you haven't the luck\nof an ounce of silver to call your own; and what would you do, for\ninstance, with a beautiful princess? My beauty may not be good enough\nfor the aristocracy; but among your big-footed, bent-backed rustics,\n[39] why, it may safely be called 'surpassing'!\"\n\nA few months passed away, and then one day the young lady came and\ngave Ma three ounces of silver, saying, \"You have often asked me for\nmoney, but in consequence of your bad luck I have always refrained\nfrom giving you any. Now, however, your marriage is at hand, and\nI here give you the cost of a wife, which you may also regard as a\nparting gift from me.\" Ma replied that he was not engaged, to which the\nyoung lady answered that in a few days a go-between would visit him\nto arrange the affair. \"And what will she be like?\" asked Ma. \"Why,\nas your aspirations are for 'surpassing' beauty,\" replied the young\nlady, \"of course she will be possessed of surpassing beauty.\" \"I hardly\nexpect that,\" said Ma; \"at any rate, three ounces of silver will not be\nenough to get a wife.\" \"Marriages,\" explained the young lady, \"are made\nin the moon; [40] mortals have nothing to do with them.\" \"And why must\nyou be going away like this?\" inquired Ma. \"Because,\" answered she,\n\"for us to meet only by night is not the proper thing. I had better\nget you another wife and have done with you.\" Then when morning came\nshe departed, giving Ma a pinch of yellow powder, saying, \"In case\nyou are ill after we are separated, this will cure you.\" Next day,\nsure enough, a go-between did come, and Ma at once asked what the\nproposed bride was like; to which the former replied that she was\nvery passable-looking. Four or five ounces of silver was fixed as the\nmarriage present, Ma making no difficulty on that score, but declaring\nhe must have a peep at the young lady. [41]  The go-between said she\nwas a respectable girl, and would never allow herself to be seen;\nhowever, it was arranged that they should go to the house together,\nand await a good opportunity. So off they went, Ma remaining outside\nwhile the go-between went in, returning in a little while to tell\nhim it was all right. \"A relative of mine lives in the same court,\nand just now I saw the young lady sitting in the hall. We have only\ngot to pretend we are going to see my relative, and you will be able\nto get a glimpse of her.\" Ma consented, and they accordingly passed\nthrough the hall, where he saw the young lady sitting down with her\nhead bent forward while some one was scratching her back. She seemed\nto be all that the go-between had said; but when they came to discuss\nthe money it appeared that the young lady wanted only one or two ounces\nof silver, just to buy herself a few clothes, etc., which Ma thought\nwas a very small amount; so he gave the go-between a present for her\ntrouble, which just finished up the three ounces his fox-friend had\nprovided. An auspicious day was chosen, and the young lady came over\nto his house; when lo! she was humpbacked and pigeon-breasted, with\na short neck like a tortoise, and feet which were fully ten inches\nlong. The meaning of his fox-friend's remarks then flashed upon him.\n\n\nThe Magnanimous Girl\n\nAt Chin-ling there lived a young man named Ku, who had considerable\nability, but was very poor; and having an old mother, he was very\nloth to leave home. So he employed himself in writing or painting\n[42] for people, and gave his mother the proceeds, going on thus\ntill he was twenty-five years of age without taking a wife. Opposite\nto their house was another building, which had long been untenanted;\nand one day an old woman and a young girl came to occupy it, but there\nbeing no gentleman with them young Ku did not make any inquiries as\nto who they were or whence they hailed. Shortly afterward it chanced\nthat just as Ku was entering the house he observed a young lady\ncome out of his mother's door. She was about eighteen or nineteen,\nvery clever and refined-looking, and altogether such a girl as one\nrarely sets eyes on; and when she noticed Mr Ku she did not run away,\nbut seemed quite self-possessed. \"It was the young lady over the way;\nshe came to borrow my scissors and measure,\" said his mother, \"and\nshe told me that there is only her mother and herself. They don't\nseem to belong to the lower classes. I asked her why she didn't get\nmarried, to which she replied that her mother was old. I must go and\ncall on her to-morrow, and find out how the land lies. If she doesn't\nexpect too much, you could take care of her mother for her.\" So next\nday Ku's mother went, and found that the girl's mother was deaf, and\nthat they were evidently poor, apparently not having a day's food in\nthe house. Ku's mother asked what their employment was, and the old\nlady said they trusted for food to her daughter's ten fingers. She\nthen threw out some hints about uniting the two families, to which\nthe old lady seemed to agree; but, on consultation with her daughter,\nthe latter would not consent. Mrs Ku returned home and told her son,\nsaying, \"Perhaps she thinks we are too poor. She doesn't speak or\nlaugh, is very nice-looking, and as pure as snow; truly no ordinary\ngirl.\" There ended that; until one day, as Ku was sitting in his\nstudy, up came a very agreeable young fellow, who said he was from a\nneighbouring village, and engaged Ku to draw a picture for him. The\ntwo youths soon struck up a firm friendship and met constantly,\nand later it happened that the stranger chanced to see the young\nlady of over the way. \"Who is that?\" said he, following her with\nhis eyes. Ku told him, and then he said, \"She is certainly pretty,\nbut rather stern in her appearance.\" By and by Ku went in, and his\nmother told him the girl had come to beg a little rice, as they had\nhad nothing to eat all day. \"She's a good daughter,\" said his mother,\n\"and I'm very sorry for her. We must try and help them a little.\" Ku\nthereupon shouldered a peck of rice, and, knocking at their door,\npresented it with his mother's compliments. The young lady received\nthe rice, but said nothing; and then she got into the habit of coming\nover and helping Ku's mother with her work and household affairs,\nalmost as if she had been her daughter-in-law, for which Ku was very\ngrateful to her, and whenever he had anything nice he always sent some\nof it in to her mother, though the young lady herself never once took\nthe trouble to thank him. So things went on until Ku's mother got an\nabscess on her leg, and lay writhing in agony day and night. Then the\nyoung lady devoted herself to the invalid, waiting on her and giving\nher medicine with such care and attention that at last the sick woman\ncried out, \"O that I could secure such a daughter-in-law as you to see\nthis old body into its grave!\" The young lady soothed her, and replied,\n\"Your son is a hundred times more filial than I, a poor widow's only\ndaughter.\" \"But even a filial son makes a bad nurse,\" answered the\npatient; \"besides, I am now drawing toward the evening of my life,\nwhen my body will be exposed to the mists and the dews, and I am\nvexed in spirit about our ancestral worship and the continuance of our\nline.\" As she was speaking Ku walked in; and his mother, weeping, said,\n\"I am deeply indebted to this young lady; do not forget to repay her\ngoodness.\" Ku made a low bow, but the young lady said, \"Sir, when you\nwere kind to my mother, I did not thank you; why then thank me?\" Ku\nthereupon became more than ever attached to her; but could never get\nher to depart in the slightest degree from her cold demeanour toward\nhimself. One day, however, he managed to squeeze her hand, upon which\nshe told him never to do so again; and then for some time he neither\nsaw nor heard anything of her. She had conceived a violent dislike\nto the young stranger above mentioned; and one evening, when he was\nsitting talking with Ku, the young lady appeared. After a while she\ngot angry at something he said, and drew from her robe a glittering\nknife about a foot long. The young man, seeing her do this, ran out\nin a fright and she after him, only to find that he had vanished. She\nthen threw her dagger up into the air, and _whish!_ a streak of light\nlike a rainbow, and something came tumbling down with a flop. Ku got\na light, and ran to see what it was; and lo! there lay a white fox,\nhead in one place and body in another. \"There is your _friend_,\"\ncried the girl; \"I knew he would cause me to destroy him sooner or\nlater.\" Ku dragged it into the house, and said, \"Let us wait till\nto-morrow to talk it over; we shall then be more calm.\" Next day the\nyoung lady arrived, and Ku inquired about her knowledge of the black\nart; but she told Ku not to trouble himself about such affairs, and\nto keep it secret or it might be prejudicial to his happiness. Ku\nthen entreated her to consent to their union, to which she replied\nthat she had already been as it were a daughter-in-law to his mother,\nand there was no need to push the thing further. \"Is it because I am\npoor?\" asked Ku. \"Well, I am not rich,\" answered she, \"but the fact\nis I had rather not.\" She then took her leave, and the next evening\nwhen Ku went across to their house to try once more to persuade her\nthe young lady had disappeared, and was never seen again.\n\n\nThe Boon-companion\n\nOnce upon a time there was a young man named Ch'e, who was not\nparticularly well off, but at the same time very fond of his wine;\nso much so that without his three stoups of liquor every night he was\nquite unable to sleep, and bottles were seldom absent from the head\nof his bed. One night he had woken up and was turning over and over,\nwhen he fancied some one was in the bed with him; but then, thinking\nit was only the clothes which had slipped off, he put out his hand\nto feel, and in doing so touched something silky like a cat. Striking\na light, he found it was a fox, lying in a drunken sleep like a dog;\nand then looking at his wine bottle he saw that it had been emptied. \"A\nboon-companion,\" said he, laughing, as he avoided startling the animal,\nand, covering it up, lay down to sleep with his arm across it, and the\ncandle alight so as to see what transformation it might undergo. About\nmidnight the fox stretched itself, and Ch'e cried, \"Well, to be sure,\nyou've had a nice sleep!\" He then drew off the clothes, and beheld an\nelegant young man in a scholar's dress; but the young man jumped up,\nand, making a low obeisance, returned his host many thanks for not\ncutting off his head. \"Oh,\" replied Ch'e, \"I am not averse to liquor\nmyself; in fact they say I'm too much given to it. If you have no\nobjection, we'll be a pair of bottle-and-glass chums.\" So they lay\ndown and went to sleep again, Ch'e urging the young man to visit him\noften, and saying that they must have faith in each other. The fox\nagreed to this, but when Ch'e awoke in the morning his bedfellow had\nalready disappeared. So he prepared a goblet of first-rate wine in\nexpectation of his friend's arrival, and at nightfall sure enough he\ncame. They then sat together drinking, and the fox cracked so many\njokes that Ch'e said he regretted he had not known him before. \"And\ntruly I don't know how to repay your kindness,\" replied the former,\n\"in preparing all this nice wine for me.\" \"Oh,\" said Ch'e, \"what's\na pint or so of wine?--nothing worth speaking of.\" \"Well,\" rejoined\nthe fox, \"you are only a poor scholar, and money isn't so easily to be\ngot. I must see if I can't secure a little wine capital for you.\" Next\nevening, when he arrived, he said to Ch'e, \"Two miles down toward\nthe south-east you will find some silver lying by the wayside. Go\nearly in the morning and get it.\" So on the morrow Ch'e set off,\nand actually obtained two lumps of silver, with which he bought some\nchoice morsels to help them out with their wine that evening. The fox\nnow told him that there was a vault in his backyard which he ought to\nopen; and when he did so he found therein more than a hundred strings\nof cash. [43] \"Now then,\" cried Ch'e, delighted, \"I shall have no more\nanxiety about funds for buying wine with all this in my purse!\" \"Ah,\"\nreplied the fox, \"the water in a puddle is not inexhaustible. I must\ndo something further for you.\" Some days afterward the fox said to\nCh'e, \"Buckwheat is very cheap in the market just now. Something is\nto be done in that line.\" Accordingly Ch'e bought over forty tons,\nand thereby incurred general ridicule; but by and by there was a bad\ndrought, and all kinds of grain and beans were spoilt. Only buckwheat\nwould grow, and Ch'e sold off his stock at a profit of 1000 per\ncent. His wealth thus began to increase; he bought two hundred acres\nof rich land, and always planted his crops, corn, millet, or what not,\nupon the advice of the fox secretly given him beforehand. The fox\nlooked on Ch'e's wife as a sister, and on Ch'e's children as his own;\nbut when subsequently Ch'e died it never came to the house again.\n\n\nThe Alchemist [44]\n\nAt Ch'ang-an there lived a scholar named Chia Tzu-lung, who one day\nnoticed a very refined-looking stranger; and, on making inquiries\nabout him, learned that he was a Mr Chen who had taken lodgings\nhard by. Accordingly, Chia called next day and sent in his card,\nbut did not see Chen, who happened to be out at the time. The same\nthing occurred thrice; and at length Chia engaged some one to watch\nand let him know when Mr Chen was at home. However, even then the\nlatter would not come forth to receive his guest, and Chia had to\ngo in and rout him out. The two now entered into conversation, and\nsoon became mutually charmed with each other; and by and by Chia sent\noff a servant to bring wine from a neighbouring wine-shop. Mr Chen\nproved himself a pleasant boon-companion, and when the wine was nearly\nfinished he went to a box and took from it some wine-cups and a large\nand beautiful jade tankard; into the latter he poured a single cup of\nwine, and immediately it was filled to the brim. They then proceeded\nto help themselves from the tankard; but however much they took out,\nthe contents never seemed to diminish. Chia was astonished at this,\nand begged Mr Chen to tell him how it was done. \"Ah,\" replied Mr Chen,\n\"I tried to avoid making your acquaintance solely because of your\none bad quality--avarice. The art I practise is a secret known to\nthe Immortals only: how can I divulge it to you?\" \"You do me wrong,\"\nrejoined Chia, \"in thus attributing avarice to me. The avaricious,\nindeed, are always poor.\" Mr Chen laughed, and they separated for that\nday; but from that time they were constantly together, and all ceremony\nwas laid aside between them. Whenever Chia wanted money Mr Chen would\nbring out a black stone, and, muttering a charm, would rub it on a tile\nor a brick, which was forthwith changed into a lump of silver. This\nsilver he would give to Chia, and it was always just as much as he\nactually required, neither more nor less; and if ever the latter asked\nfor more Mr Chen would rally him on the subject of avarice. Finally\nChia determined to try to get possession of this stone; and one day,\nwhen Mr Chen was sleeping off the fumes of a drinking-bout, he tried\nto extract it from his clothes. However, Chen detected him at once,\nand declared that they could be friends no more, and next day he\nleft the place altogether. About a year afterward Chia was one day\nwandering by the river-bank, when he saw a handsome-looking stone,\nmarvellously like that in the possession of Mr Chen; and he picked\nit up at once and carried it home with him. A few days passed away,\nand suddenly Mr Chen presented himself at Chia's house, and explained\nthat the stone in question possessed the property of changing anything\ninto gold, and had been bestowed upon him long before by a certain\nTaoist priest whom he had followed as a disciple. \"Alas!\" added he,\n\"I got tipsy and lost it; but divination told me where it was,\nand if you will now restore it to me I will take care to repay your\nkindness.\" \"You have divined rightly,\" replied Chia; \"the stone is\nwith me; but recollect, if you please, that the indigent Kuan Chung\n[45] shared the wealth of his friend Pao Shu.\" At this hint Mr Chen\nsaid he would give Chia one hundred ounces of silver; to which the\nlatter replied that one hundred ounces was a fair offer, but that he\nwould far sooner have Mr Chen teach him the formula to utter when\nrubbing the stone on anything, so that he might try the thing once\nhimself. Mr Chen was afraid to do this; whereupon Chia cried out,\n\"You are an Immortal yourself; you must know well enough that I\nwould never deceive a friend.\" So Mr Chen was prevailed upon to\nteach him the formula, and then Chia would have tried the art upon\nthe immense stone washing-block [46] which was lying near at hand\nhad not Mr Chen seized his arm and begged him not to do anything\nso outrageous. Chia then picked up half a brick and laid it on the\nwashing-block, saying to Mr Chen, \"This little piece is not too much,\nsurely?\" Accordingly Mr Chen relaxed his hold and let Chia proceed;\nwhich he did by promptly ignoring the half-brick and quickly rubbing\nthe stone on the washing-block. Mr Chen turned pale when he saw him\ndo this, and made a dash forward to get hold of the stone, but it was\ntoo late; the washing-block was already a solid mass of silver, and\nChia quietly handed him back the stone. \"Alas! alas!\" cried Mr Chen\nin despair, \"what is to be done now? For, having thus irregularly\nconferred wealth upon a mortal, Heaven will surely punish me. Oh,\nif you would save me, give away one hundred coffins [47] and one\nhundred suits of wadded clothes.\" \"My friend,\" replied Chia, \"my\nobject in getting money was not to hoard it up like a miser.\" Mr\nChen was delighted at this; and during the next three years Chia\nengaged in trade, taking care to fulfil always his promise to Mr\nChen. At the expiration of that time Mr Chen himself reappeared, and,\ngrasping Chia's hand, said to him, \"Trustworthy and noble friend,\nwhen we last parted the Spirit of Happiness impeached me before God,\n[48] and my name was erased from the list of angels. But now that you\nhave carried out my request that sentence has been rescinded. Go on\nas you have begun, without ceasing.\" Chia asked Mr Chen what office\nhe filled in Heaven; to which the latter replied that he was only\na fox who, by a sinless life, had finally attained to that clear\nperception of the truth which leads to immortality. Wine was then\nbrought, and the two friends enjoyed themselves together as of old;\nand even when Chia had passed the age of ninety years the fox still\nused to visit him from time to time.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVI\n\nMiscellaneous Legends\n\n\nThe Unnatural People\n\nThe _Shan hai ching_, or _Hill and River Classic_, contains\ndescriptions of some curious people supposed to inhabit the regions\non the maps represented on the nine tripod vases of the Great Yue,\nfirst emperor of the Hsia dynasty.\n\n\nThe Pygmies\n\nThe pygmies inhabit many mountainous regions of the Empire, but are\nfew in number. They are less than nine inches high, but are well\nformed. They live in thatched houses that resemble ants' nests. When\nthey walk out they go in companies of from six to ten, joining hands\nin a line for mutual protection against birds that might carry them\naway, or other creatures that might attack them. Their tone of voice\nis too low to be distinguished by an ordinary human ear. They occupy\nthemselves in working in wood, gold, silver, and precious stones, but\na small proportion are tillers of the soil. They wear clothes of a red\ncolour. The sexes are distinguishable by a slight beard on the men,\nand long tresses on the women, the latter in some cases reaching four\nto five inches in length. Their heads are unduly large, being quite\nout of proportion to their small bodies. A husband and wife usually\ngo about hand in hand. A Hakka charcoal-burner once found three of the\nchildren playing in his tobacco-box. He kept them there, and afterward,\nwhen he was showing them to a friend, he laughed so that drops of\nsaliva flew from his mouth and shot two of them dead. He then begged\nhis friend to take the third and put it in a place of safety before\nhe should laugh again. His friend attempted to lift it from the box,\nbut it died on being touched.\n\n\nThe Giants\n\nIn the Country of the Giants the people are fifty feet in height. Their\nfootprints are six feet in length. Their teeth are like those of a\nsaw. Their finger-nails present the appearance of hooked claws, while\ntheir diet consists wholly of uncooked animal food. Their eyebrows\nare of such length as to protrude from the front of the carts in\nwhich they ride, large though it is necessary for these vehicles to\nbe. Their bodies are covered with long black hair resembling that\nof the bear. They live to the advanced age of eighteen thousand\nyears. Though cannibals, they never eat members of their own tribe,\nconfining their indulgence in human flesh chiefly to enemies taken in\nbattle. Their country extends some thousands of miles along certain\nmountain ranges in North-eastern Asia, in the passes of which they\nhave strong iron gates, easy to close, but difficult to open; hence,\nthough their neighbours maintain large standing armies, they have\nthus far never been conquered.\n\n\nThe Headless People\n\nThe Headless People inhabit the Long Sheep range, to which their\nancestors were banished in the remote past for an offence against the\ngods. One of the said ancestors had entered into a controversy with\nthe rulers of the heavens, and they in their anger had transformed\nhis two breasts into eyes and his navel into a mouth, removed his\nhead, leaving him without nose and ears, thus cutting him off from\nsmell and sound, and banished him to the Long Sheep Mountains, where\nwith a shield and axe, the only weapons vouchsafed to the people of\nthe Headless Country, he and his posterity were compelled to defend\nthemselves from their enemies and provide their subsistence. This,\nhowever, does not in the least seem to have affected their tempers,\nas their bodies are wreathed in perpetual smiles, except when they\nflourish their warlike weapons on the approach of an enemy. They are\nnot without understanding, because, according to Chinese notions of\nphysiology, \"their bellies are full of wisdom.\"\n\n\nThe Armless People\n\nIn the Mountains of the Sun and Moon, which are in the Centre of the\nGreat Waste, are the people who have no arms, but whose legs instead\ngrow out of their shoulders. They pick flowers with their toes. They\nbow by raising the body horizontal with the shoulders, thus turning\nthe face to the ground.\n\n\nThe Long-armed and Long-legged People\n\nThe Long-armed People are about thirty feet high, their arms reaching\nfrom the shoulders to the ground. Once when a company of explorers\nwas passing through the country which borders on the Eastern Sea they\ninquired of an old man if he knew whether or not there were people\ndwelling beyond the waters. He replied that a cloth garment, in fashion\nand texture not unlike that of a Chinese coat, with sleeves thirty\nfeet in length, had been found in the sea. The explorers fitted out an\nexpedition, and the discovery of the Long-armed Country was the result.\n\nThe natives subsist for the most part on fish, which they obtain by\nwading in the water, and taking the fish with their hands instead of\nwith hooks or nets.\n\nThe arms of the Long-legged People are of a normal length, the legs\nare developed to a length corresponding to that of the arms of the\nLong-armed People.\n\nThe country of the latter borders on that of the Long-legs. The habits\nand food of the two are similar. The difference in their physical\nstructure makes them of mutual assistance, those with the long arms\nbeing able to take the shellfish of the shallow waters, while those\nwith the long legs take the surface fish from the deeper localities;\nthus the two gather a harvest otherwise unobtainable.\n\n\nThe One-eyed People and Others\n\nA little to the east of the Country of the Long-legs are to be found\nthe One-eyed People. They have but one eye, rather larger than the\nordinary human eye, placed in the centre of the forehead, directly\nabove the nose. Other clans or families have but one arm and one leg,\nsome having a right arm and left leg, others a left arm and right\nleg, while still others have both on the same side, and go in pairs,\nlike shoes. Another species not only has but one arm and one leg,\nbut is of such fashion as to have but one eye, one nostril, and beard\non but one side of the face, there being as it were rights and lefts,\nthe two in reality being one, for it is in this way that they pair. The\nLong-eared People resemble Chinese in all except their ears. They live\nin the far West among mountains and in caves. Their pendant, flabby\nears extend to the ground, and would impede their feet in walking if\nthey did not support them on their hands. They are sensitive to the\nfaintest sound. Still another people in this region are distinguished\nby having six toes on each foot.\n\n\n\nThe Feathered People, etc.\n\nThe Feathered People are very tall, and are covered with fluffy\ndown. They have wings in place of arms, and can fly short distances. On\nthe points of the wings are claws, which serve as hands. Their\nnoses are like beaks. Gentle and timid, they do not leave their own\ncountry. They have good voices, and like to sing ballads. If one\nwishes to visit this people he must go far to the south-east and then\ninquire. There is also the Land of the People with Three Faces, who\nlive in the centre of the Great Waste and never die; the Land of the\nThree-heads, east of the K'un-lun Mountains; the Three-body Country,\nthe inhabitants of which have one head with three bodies, three arms\nand but two legs; and yet another where the people have square heads,\nbroad shoulders, and three legs, and the stones on the land are all\ngold and jade.\n\n\nThe People of the Punctured Bodies\n\nAnother community is said to be composed of people who have holes\nthrough their chests. They can be carried about on a pole put through\nthe orifice, or may be comfortably hung upon a peg. They sometimes\nstring themselves on a rope, and thus walk out in file. They are\nharmless people, and eat snakes that they kill with bows and arrows,\nand they are very long-lived.\n\n\nThe Women's Kingdom\n\nThe Women's Kingdom, the country inhabited exclusively by women, is\nsaid to be surrounded by a sea of less density than ordinary water,\nso that ships sink on approaching the shores. It has been reached only\nby boats carried thither in whirlwinds, and but few of those wrecked\non its rocks have survived and returned to tell of its wonders. The\nwomen have houses, gardens, and shops. Instead of money they use gems,\nperforated and strung like beads. They reproduce their kind by sleeping\nwhere the south wind blows upon them.\n\n\nThe Land of the Flying Cart\n\nSituated to the north of the Plain of Great Joy, the Land of\nthe Flying Cart joins the Country of the One-armed People on the\nsouth-west and that of the Three-bodied People on the south-east. The\ninhabitants have but one arm, and an additional eye of large size in\nthe centre of the forehead, making three eyes in all. Their carts,\nthough wheeled, do not run along the ground, but chase each other in\nmid-air as gracefully as a flock of swallows. The vehicles have a\nkind of winged framework at each end, and the one-armed occupants,\neach grasping a flag, talk and laugh one to another in great glee\nduring what might be called their aerial recreation were it not for\nthe fact that it seems to be their sole occupation.\n\n\nThe Expectant Wife\n\nA curious legend is told regarding a solitary, weird figure which\nstands out, rudely weatherworn, from a hill-top in the pass called\nShao-hsing Gorge, Canton Province. This point of the pass is called\nLung-men, or Dragon's Mouth, and the hill the Husband-expecting\nHill. The figure itself, which is called the Expectant Wife, resembles\nthat of a woman. Her bent head and figure down to the waist are\nvery lifelike.\n\nThe story, widely known in this and the neighbouring province, runs as\nfollows. Centuries ago a certain poor woman was left by her husband,\nwho went on a journey into Kwangsi, close by, but in those days\nconsidered a wild and distant region, full of dangers. He promised\nto return in three years. The time went slowly and sadly past, for\nshe dearly loved her lord, but no husband appeared. He, ungrateful\nand unfaithful spouse, had fallen in love with a fair one in Kwangsi,\na sorceress or witch, who threw a spell over him and charmed him to\nhis destruction, turning him at length into stone. To this day his\nfigure may be seen standing near a cave close by the river which is\nknown by the name of the Detained Man Cave.\n\nThe wife, broken by grief at her husband's failure to return, was\nlikewise turned into a stone, and it is said that a supernatural\npower will one day bring the couple to life again and reward the\never-faithful wife. The legend receives entire credence from the\nsimple boatmen sad country people.\n\n\nThe Wild Men\n\nThe wild beasts of the mountain have a king. He is a wild man, with\nlong, thick locks, fiery red in colour, and his body is covered with\nhair. He is very strong: with a single blow of his huge fist, he can\nbreak large rocks to pieces; he also can pull up the trees of the\nforest by the root. His flesh is as hard as iron and is invulnerable\nto the thrusts of knife, spear, or sword. He rides upon a tiger when\nhe leaves his home; he rules over the wolves, leopards, and tigers, and\ngoverns all their affairs. Many other wild men, like him in appearance,\nlive in these mountains, but on account of his great strength he alone\nis king. These wild men kill and eat all human beings they meet, and\nother hill tribes live in terror of meeting them. Indeed, who of all\nthese mountain people would have been left alive had not some men,\nmore crafty than their fellows, devised a means of overpowering these\nfierce savages?\n\nThis is the method referred to: On leaving his home the herb-gatherer\nof the mountains arms himself with two large hollow bamboo tubes which\nhe slips over his wrists and arms; he also carries a jar of very\nstrong wine. When he meets one of the wild men he stands still and\nallows the giant to grasp him by the arm. As the giant holds him fast,\nas he supposes, in his firm grasp, he quietly and slowly withdraws\none arm from the bamboo cuff, and, taking the pot of wine from the\nother hand, quickly pours it down the throat of the stooping giant,\nwhose mouth is wide open with immoderate laughter at the thought of\nhaving captured a victim so easily. The potent draught of wine acts\nat once, causing the victim to drop to the ground in a dead sleep,\nwhereupon the herb-gatherer either dispatches him summarily with a\nthrust through the heart, or leaves the drunken tyrant to sleep off the\neffect of his draught, while he returns again to his work of collecting\nthe health-restoring herbs. In this way have the numbers of these wild\nmen become less and less, until at the present time but few remain.\n\n\nThe Jointed Snake\n\nThe people on O-mei Shan tell of a wonderful kind of snake that is\nsaid to live there. Part of its life is spent among the branches of\nthe trees; if by chance it falls to the ground it breaks up into two\nor more pieces. These separate segments later on come together again\nand unite.\n\nMany other marvellous and interesting tales are related of this\nmountain and its inhabitants.\n\n\n\nThe Casting of the Great Bell\n\nIn every province of China there is a legend relating to the casting\nof the great bell swung in the bell tower of the chief city. These\nlegends are curiously identical in almost every detail. The following\nis the one current in Peking.\n\nIt was in the reign of Yung Lo, the third monarch of the Ming dynasty,\nthat Peking first became the capital of China. Till that period the\n'Son of Heaven' had held his Court at Nanking, and Peking had been\nof comparatively little note. Now, however, on being honoured by the\n'Sacred Presence,' stately buildings arose in all directions for\nthe accommodation of the Emperor and his courtiers. Clever men from\nall parts of the Empire were attracted to the capital, and such as\npossessed talent were sure of lucrative employment. About this time the\nDrum Tower and the Bell Tower were built; both of them as 'look-out'\nand 'alarm' towers. The Drum Tower was furnished with a monster drum,\nwhich it still possesses, of such a size that the thunder of its tones\nmight be heard all over the city, the sound being almost enough to\nwaken the dead.\n\nThe Bell Tower had been completed some time before attempts were\nmade to cast a bell proportionate to the size of the building. At\nlength Yung Lo ordered Kuan Yu, a mandarin of the second grade, who\nwas skilled in casting guns, to cast a bell the sound of which should\nbe heard, on the least alarm, in every part of the city. Kuan Yu at\nonce commenced the undertaking. He secured the services of a great\nnumber of experienced workmen, and collected immense quantities of\nmaterial. Months passed, and at length it was announced to the Emperor\nthat everything was ready for the casting. A day was appointed; the\nEmperor, surrounded by a crowd of courtiers, and preceded by the\nCourt musicians, went to witness the ceremony. At a given signal,\nand to the crash of music, the melted metal rushed into the mould\nprepared for it. The Emperor and his Court then retired, leaving\nKuan Yu and his subordinates to await the cooling of the metal, which\nwould tell of failure or success. At length the metal was sufficiently\ncool to detach the mould from it. Kuan Yu, in breathless trepidation,\nhastened to inspect it, but to his mortification and grief discovered\nit to be honeycombed in many places. The circumstance was reported to\nthe Emperor, who was naturally vexed at the expenditure of so much\ntime, labour, and money with so unsatisfactory a result. However,\nhe ordered Kuan Yu to try again.\n\nThe mandarin hastened to obey, and, thinking the failure of the\nfirst attempt must have resulted from some oversight or omission on\nhis part, he watched every detail with redoubled care and attention,\nfully determined that no neglect or remissness should mar the success\nof this second casting.\n\nAfter months of labour the mould was again prepared, and the metal\npoured into it, but again with the same result. Kuan Yu was distracted,\nnot only at the loss of his reputation, but at the certain loss of\nthe Emperor's favour. Yung Lo, when he heard of this second failure,\nwas very wroth, and at once ordered Kuan Yu into his presence, and\ntold him he would give him a third and last trial, and if he did\nnot succeed this time he would behead him. Kuan Yu went home in a\ndespairing state of mind, asking himself what crime he or any of his\nancestors could have committed to have justified this calamity.\n\nNow Kuan Yu had an only daughter, about sixteen years of age, and,\nhaving no sons, the whole of his love was centred in this girl, for\nhe had hopes of perpetuating his name and fame through her marriage\nwith some deserving young nobleman. Truly she was worthy of being\nloved. She had \"almond-shaped eyes, like the autumn waves, which,\nsparkling and dancing in the sun, seem to leap up in very joy and\nwantonness to kiss the fragrant reeds that grow upon the rivers'\nbanks, yet of such limpid transparency that one's form could be\nseen in their liquid depths as if reflected in a mirror. These were\nsurrounded by long silken lashes--now drooping in coy modesty, anon\nrising in youthful gaiety and disclosing the laughing eyes but just\nbefore concealed beneath them. Eyebrows like the willow leaf; cheeks\nof snowy whiteness, yet tinged with the gentlest colouring of the\nrose; teeth like pearls of the finest water were seen peeping from\nbetween half-open lips, so luscious and juicy that they resembled\ntwo cherries; hair of the jettiest blackness and of the silkiest\ntexture. Her form was such as poets love to describe and painters\nlimn; there was grace and ease in every movement; she appeared to\nglide rather than walk, so light was she of foot. Add to her other\ncharms that she was skilful in verse-making, excellent in embroidery,\nand unequalled in the execution of her household duties, and we have\nbut a faint description of Ko-ai, the beautiful daughter of Kuan Yu.\"\n\nWell might the father be proud of and love his beautiful child,\nand she returned his love with all the ardour of her affectionate\nnature; often cheering him with her innocent gaiety when he returned\nfrom his daily vocations wearied or vexed. Seeing him now return\nwith despair depicted in his countenance, she tenderly inquired the\ncause, not without hope of being the means of alleviating it. When\nher father told her of his failures, and of the Emperor's threat, she\nexclaimed: \"Oh, my father, be comforted! Heaven will not always be thus\nunrelenting. Are we not told that 'out of evil cometh good'? These\ntwo failures will but enhance the glory of your eventual success,\nfor success _this_ time _must_ crown your efforts. I am only a girl,\nand cannot assist you but with my prayers; these I will daily and\nhourly offer up for your success; and the prayers of a daughter for\na loved parent _must_ be heard.\" Somewhat soothed by the endearments\nof Ko-ai, Kuan Yu again devoted himself to his task with redoubled\nenergy, Ko-ai meanwhile constantly praying for him in his absence,\nand ministering to his wants when he returned home. One day it\noccurred to the maiden to go to a celebrated astrologer to ascertain\nthe cause of these failures, and to ask what means could be taken to\nprevent a recurrence of them. She thus learned that the next casting\nwould also be a disappointment if the blood of a maiden were not\nmixed with the ingredients. She returned home full of horror at this\ninformation, yet inwardly resolving to immolate herself rather than\nallow her father to fail. The day for the casting at length came,\nand Ko-ai requested her father to allow her to witness the ceremony\nand \"to exult in his success,\" as she laughingly said. Kuan Yu gave\nhis consent, and accompanied by several servants she went, taking up\na position near the mould.\n\nEverything was prepared as before. An immense concourse assembled\nto witness the third and final casting, which was to result either\nin honour or degradation and death for Kuan Yu. A dead silence\nprevailed through the vast assemblage as the melted metal once more\nrushed to its destination; this was broken by a shriek, and a cry,\n\"For my father!\" and Ko-ai was seen to throw herself headlong into the\nseething, hissing metal. One of her servants attempted to seize her\nwhile in the act of plunging into the boiling fluid, but succeeded only\nin grasping one of her shoes, which came off in his hand. The father\nwas frantic, and had to be kept by force from following her example;\nhe was taken home a raving maniac. The prediction of the astrologer\nwas fulfilled, for, on uncovering the bell after it had cooled, it\nwas found to be perfect, but not a vestige of Ko-ai was to be seen;\nthe blood of a maiden had indeed been infused with the ingredients.\n\nAfter a time the bell was suspended by order of the Emperor,\nand expectation was at its height to hear it rung for the first\ntime. The Emperor himself was present. The bell was struck, and far\nand near was heard the deep tone of its sonorous boom. This indeed\nwas a triumph! Here was a bell surpassing in size and sound any\nother that had ever been cast! But--and the surrounding multitudes\nwere horror-struck as they listened--the heavy boom of the bell was\nfollowed by a low wailing sound like the agonized cry of a woman, and\nthe word _hsieh_ (shoe) was distinctly heard. To this day the bell,\neach time it is rung, after every boom appears to utter the word\n'hsieh,' and people when they hear it shudder and say, \"There's poor\nKo-ai's voice calling for her shoe.\"\n\n\nThe Cursed Temple\n\nThe reign of Ch'ung Cheng, the last monarch of the Ming dynasty,\nwas much troubled both by internal broils and by wars. He was\nconstantly threatened by Tartar hordes from without, though these\nwere generally beaten back by the celebrated general Wu San-kuei,\nand the country was perpetually in a state of anarchy and confusion,\nbeing overrun by bands of marauding rebels; indeed, so bold did\nthese become under a chief named Li Tzu-ch'eng that they actually\nmarched on the capital with the avowed intention of placing their\nleader on the Dragon Throne. Ch'ung Cheng, on the reception of this\nstartling news, with no one that he could trust in such an emergency\n(for Wu San-kuei was absent on an expedition against the Tartars),\nwas at his wits' end. The insurgents were almost in sight of Peking,\nand at any moment might arrive. Rebellion threatened in the city\nitself. If he went out boldly to attack the oncoming rebels his own\ntroops might go over to the enemy, or deliver him into their hands;\nif he stayed in the city the people would naturally attribute it to\npusillanimity, and probably open the gates to the rebels.\n\nIn this strait he resolved to go to the San Kuan Miao, an imperial\ntemple situated near the Ch'ao-yang Men, and inquire of the gods as\nto what he should do, and decide his fate by 'drawing the slip.' If he\ndrew a long slip, this would be a good omen, and he would boldly march\nout to meet the rebels, confident of victory; if a middle length one,\nhe would remain quietly in the palace and passively await whatever\nmight happen; but if he should unfortunately draw a short one he would\ntake his own life rather than suffer death at the hands of the rebels.\n\nUpon arrival at the temple, in the presence of the high officers of\nhis Court, the sacrifices were offered up, and the incense burnt,\nprevious to drawing the slip on which hung the destiny of an empire,\nwhile Ch'ung Cheng himself remained on his knees in prayer. At the\nconclusion of the sacrificial ceremony the tube containing the bamboo\nfortune-telling sticks was placed in the Emperor's hand by one of\nthe priests. His courtiers and the attendant priests stood round in\nbreathless suspense, watching him as he swayed the tube to and fro;\nat length one fell to the ground; there was dead silence as it was\nraised by a priest and handed to the Emperor. _It was a short one!_\nDismay fell on every one present, no one daring to break the painful,\nhorrible silence. After a pause the Emperor, with a cry of mingled\nrage and despair, dashed the slip to the ground, exclaiming: \"May this\ntemple built by my ancestors evermore be accursed! Henceforward may\nevery suppliant be denied what he entreats, as I have been! Those\nwho come in sorrow, may that sorrow be doubled; in happiness, may\nthat happiness be changed to misery; in hope, may they meet despair;\nin health, sickness; in the pride of life and strength, death! I,\nCh'ung Cheng, the last of the Mings, curse it!\"\n\nWithout another word he retired, followed by his courtiers, proceeded\nat once to the palace, and went straight to the apartments of the\nEmpress. The next morning he and his Empress were found suspended from\na tree on Prospect Hill. \"In their death they were not divided.\" The\nscenes that followed; how the rebels took possession of the city and\nwere driven out again by the Chinese general, assisted by the Tartars;\nhow the Tartars finally succeeded in establishing the Manchu dynasty,\nare all matters of history. The words used by the Emperor at the\ntemple were prophetic; he _was_ the last of the Mings. The tree on\nwhich the monarch of a mighty Empire closed his career and brought\nthe Ming dynasty to an end was ordered to be surrounded with chains;\nit still exists, and is still in chains. Upward of two hundred\nand seventy years have passed since that time, yet the temple is\nstanding as of old; but the halls that at one time were crowded with\nworshippers are now silent, no one ever venturing to worship there;\nit is the resort of the fox and the bat, and people at night pass it\nshudderingly--\"It is the cursed temple!\"\n\n\nThe Maniac's Mite\n\nAn interesting story is told of a lady named Ch'en, who was a\nBuddhist nun celebrated for her virtue and austerity. Between the\nyears 1628 and 1643 she left her nunnery near Wei-hai city and set\nout on a long journey for the purpose of collecting subscriptions for\ncasting a new image of the Buddha. She wandered through Shantung and\nChihli and finally reached Peking, and there--subscription-book in\nhand--she stationed herself at the great south gate in order to take\ntoll from those who wished to lay up for themselves treasures in the\nWestern Heaven. The first passer-by who took any notice of her was an\namiable maniac. His dress was made of coloured shreds and patches,\nand his general appearance was wild and uncouth. \"Whither away,\nnun?\" he asked. She explained that she was collecting subscriptions\nfor the casting of a great image of Buddha, and had come all the\nway from Shantung. \"Throughout my life,\" remarked the madman, \"I was\never a generous giver.\" So, taking the nun's subscription-book, he\nheaded a page with his own name (in very large characters) and the\namount subscribed. The amount in question was two cash, equivalent\nto a small fraction of a farthing. He then handed over the two small\ncoins and went on his way.\n\nIn course of time the nun returned to Wei-hai-wei with her\nsubscriptions, and the work of casting the image was duly begun. When\nthe time had come for the process of smelting, it was observed that\nthe copper remained hard and intractable. Again and again the furnace\nwas fed with fuel, but the shapeless mass of metal remained firm as a\nrock. The head workman, who was a man of wide experience, volunteered\nan explanation of the mystery. \"An offering of great value must be\nmissing,\" he said. \"Let the collection-book be examined so that it\nmay be seen whose subscription has been withheld.\" The nun, who was\nstanding by, immediately produced the madman's money, which on account\nof its minute value she had not taken the trouble to hand over. \"There\nis one cash,\" she said, \"and there is another. Certainly the offering\nof these must have been an act of the highest merit, and the giver\nmust be a holy man who will some day attain Buddhahood.\" As she said\nthis she threw the two cash into the midst of the cauldron. Great\nbubbles rose and burst, the metal melted and ran like the sap from\na tree, limpid as flowing water, and in a few moments the work was\naccomplished and the new Buddha successfully cast.\n\n\nThe City-god of Yen Ch'eng\n\nThe following story of the Ch'eng-huang P'u-sa of Yen Ch'eng (Salt\nCity) is told by Helena von Poseck in the _East of Asia Magazine_,\nvol. iii (1904), pp. 169-171. This legend is also related of several\nother cities in China.\n\nThe Ch'eng-huang P'u-sa is, as already noted, the tutelary god of a\ncity, his position in the unseen world answering to that of a _chih\nhsien_, or district magistrate, among men, if the city under his\ncare be a _hsien_; but if the city hold the rank of a _fu_, it has\n(or used to have until recently) two Ch'eng-huang P'u-sas, one a\nprefect, and the other a district magistrate. One part of his duty\nconsists of sending small demons to carry off the spirits of the\ndying, of which spirits he afterward acts as ruler and judge. He is\nsupposed to exercise special care over the _k'u kuei_, or spirits\nwhich have no descendants to worship and offer sacrifices to them,\nand on the occasion of the Seventh Month Festival he is carried round\nthe city in his chair to maintain order among them, while the people\noffer food to them, and burn paper money for their benefit. He is\nalso carried in procession at the Ch'ing Ming Festival, and on the\nfirst day of the tenth month.\n\nThe Ch'eng-huang P'u-sa of the city of Yen Ch'eng is in the extremely\nunfortunate predicament of having no skin to his face, which fact is\nthus accounted for:\n\nOnce upon a time there lived at Yen Ch'eng an orphan boy who was\nbrought up by his uncle and aunt. He was just entering upon his teens\nwhen his aunt lost a gold hairpin, and accused him of having stolen\nit. The boy, whose conscience was clear in the matter, thought of a\nplan by which his innocence might be proved.\n\n\"Let us go to-morrow to Ch'eng-huang P'u-sa's temple,\" he said, \"and\nI will there swear an oath before the god, so that he may manifest\nmy innocence.\"\n\nThey accordingly repaired to the temple, and the boy, solemnly\naddressing the idol, said:\n\n\"If I have taken my aunt's gold pin, may my foot twist, and may I\nfall as I go out of your temple door!\"\n\nAlas for the poor suppliant! As he stepped over the threshold his\nfoot twisted, and he fell to the ground. Of course, everybody was\nfirmly convinced of his guilt, and what could the poor boy say when\nhis own appeal to the god thus turned against him?\n\nAfter such a proof of his depravity his aunt had no room in her house\nfor her orphan nephew, neither did he himself wish to stay with people\nwho suspected him of theft. So he left the home which had sheltered\nhim for years, and wandered out alone into the cold hard world. Many\na hardship did he encounter, but with rare pluck he persevered in\nhis studies, and at the age of twenty odd years became a mandarin.\n\nIn course of time our hero returned to Yen Ch'eng to visit his uncle\nand aunt. While there he betook himself to the temple of the deity who\nhad dealt so hardly with him, and prayed for a revelation as to the\nwhereabouts of the lost hairpin. He slept that night in the temple,\nand was rewarded by a vision in which the Ch'eng-huang P'u-sa told\nhim that the pin would be found under the floor of his aunt's house.\n\nHe hastened back, and informed his relatives, who took up the boards\nin the place indicated, and lo! there lay the long-lost pin! The\nwomen of the house then remembered that the pin had been used in\npasting together the various layers of the soles of shoes, and, when\nnight came, had been carelessly left on the table. No doubt rats,\nattracted by the smell of the paste which clung to it, had carried\nit off to their domains under the floor.\n\nThe young mandarin joyfully returned to the temple, and offered\nsacrifices by way of thanksgiving to the Ch'eng-huang P'u-sa for\nbringing his innocence to light, but he could not refrain from\naddressing to him what one is disposed to consider a well-merited\nreproach.\n\n\"You made me fall down,\" he said, \"and so led people to think I was\nguilty, and now you accept my gifts. Aren't you ashamed to do such\na thing? _You have no face!_\"\n\nAs he uttered the words all the plaster fell from the face of the idol,\nand was smashed into fragments.\n\nFrom that day forward the Ch'eng-huang P'u-sa of Yen Ch'eng has had\nno skin on his face. People have tried to patch up the disfigured\ncountenance, but in vain: the plaster always falls off, and the face\nremains skinless.\n\nSome try to defend the Ch'eng-huang P'u-sa by saying that he was not\nat home on the day when his temple was visited by the accused boy and\nhis relatives, and that one of the little demons employed by him in\ncarrying off dead people's spirits out of sheer mischief perpetrated\na practical joke on the poor boy.\n\nIn that case it is certainly hard that his skin should so persistently\ntestify against him by refusing to remain on his face!\n\n\nThe Origin of a Lake\n\nIn the city of Ta-yeh Hsien, Hupei, there is a large sheet of water\nknown as the Liang-ti Lake. The people of the district give the\nfollowing account of its origin:\n\nAbout five hundred years ago, during the Ming dynasty, there was no\nlake where the broad waters now spread. A flourishing _hsien_ city\nstood in the centre of a populous country. The city was noted for its\nwickedness, but amid the wicked population dwelt one righteous woman,\na strict vegetarian and a follower of all good works. In a vision of\nthe night it was revealed to her that the city and neighbourhood would\nbe destroyed by water, and the sign promised was that when the stone\nlions in front of the _yamen_ wept tears of blood, then destruction\nwas near at hand. Like Jonah at Nineveh, the woman, known to-day\nsimply as Niang-tzu, walked up and down the streets of the city,\nwarning all of the coming calamity. She was laughed at and looked\nupon as mad by the careless people. A pork-butcher in the town,\na noted wag, took some pig's blood and sprinkled it round the eyes\nof the stone lions. This had the desired effect, for when Niang-tzu\nsaw the blood she fled from the city amid the jeers and laughter of\nthe inhabitants. Before many hours had passed, however, the face of\nthe sky darkened, a mighty earthquake shook the country-side, there\nwas a great subsidence of the earth's surface, and the waters of the\nYangtzu River flowed into the hollow, burying the city and villages\nout of sight. But a spot of ground on which the good woman stood,\nafter escaping from the doomed city, remained at its normal level,\nand it stands to-day in the midst of the lake, an island called\nNiang-tzu, a place at which boats anchor at night, or to which they\nfly for shelter from the storms that sweep the lake. They are saved\nto-day because of one good woman helped by the gods so long ago.\n\nAs a proof of the truth of the above story, it is asserted that on\nclear days traces of the buried city may be seen, while occasionally\na fisherman casting his net hauls up some household utensil or relic\nof bygone days.\n\n\nMiao Creation Legends\n\nIf the Miao have no written records, they have many legends in verse,\nwhich they learn to repeat and sing. The Hei Miao (or Black Miao, so\ncalled from their dark chocolate-coloured clothes) treasure poetical\nlegends of the Creation and of a deluge. These are composed in lines\nof five syllables, in stanzas of unequal length, one interrogative\nand one responsive. They are sung or recited by two persons or two\ngroups at feasts and festivals, often by a group of youths and a\ngroup of maidens. The legend of the Creation commences:\n\n\n    Who made Heaven and earth?\n    Who made insects?\n    Who made men?\n    Made male and made female?\n      I who speak don't know.\n\n\n\n\n    Heavenly King made Heaven and earth,\n    Ziene made insects,\n    Ziene made men and demons,\n    Made male and made female.\n      How is it you don't know?\n\n\n\n    How made Heaven and earth?\n    How made insects?\n    How made men and demons?\n    Made male and made female?\n      I who speak don't know.\n\n\n\n    Heavenly King was intelligent,\n    Spat a lot of spittle into his hand,\n    Clapped his hands with a noise,\n    Produced Heaven and earth,\n    Tall grass made insects,\n    Stories made men and demons,\n    Made male and made female.\n      How is it you don't know?\n\n\n\nThe legend proceeds to state how and by whom the heavens were\npropped up and how the sun was made and fixed in its place, but the\ncontinuation is exceedingly silly.\n\nThe legend of the Flood is another very silly composition, but it is\ninteresting to note that it tells of a great deluge. It commences:\n\n\n    Who came to the bad disposition,\n    To send fire and burn the hill?\n    Who came to the bad disposition,\n    To send water and destroy the earth?\n      I who sing don't know.\n\n\n\n    Zie did. Zie was of bad disposition,\n    Zie sent fire and burned the hill;\n    Thunder did. Thunder was of bad disposition,\n    Thunder sent water and destroyed the earth.\n      Why don't you know?\n\n\nIn this story of the flood only two persons were saved in a large\nbottle gourd used as a boat, and these were A Zie and his sister. After\nthe flood the brother wished his sister to become his wife, but she\nobjected to this as not being proper. At length she proposed that\none should take the upper and one the nether millstone, and going to\nopposite hills should set the stones rolling to the valley between. If\nthese should be found in the valley properly adjusted one above the\nother she would be his wife, but not if they came to rest apart. The\nyoung man, considering it unlikely that two stones thus rolled down\nfrom opposite hills would be found in the valley one upon another,\nwhile pretending to accept the test suggested, secretly placed two\nother stones in the valley one upon the other. The stones rolled from\nthe hills were lost in the tall wild grass, and on descending into\nthe valley A Zie called his sister to come and see the stones he had\nplaced. She, however, was not satisfied, and suggested as another test\nthat each should take a knife from a double sheath and, going again\nto the opposite hill-tops, hurl them into the valley below. If both\nthese knives were found in the sheath in the valley she would marry\nhim, but if the knives were found apart they would live apart. Again\nthe brother surreptitiously placed two knives in the sheath, and, the\nexperiment ending as A Zie wished, his sister became his wife. They\nhad one child, a misshapen thing without arms or legs, which A Zie\nin great anger killed and cut to pieces. He threw the pieces all\nover the hill, and next morning, on awaking, he found these pieces\ntransformed into men and women; thus the earth was repeopled.\n\n\nThe Dream of the South Branch\n\nThe dawn of Chinese romantic literature must be ascribed to the\nperiod between the eighth and tenth centuries of our era, when\nthe cultivation of the liberal arts received encouragement at the\nhands of sovereigns who had reunited the Empire under the sway of\na single ruler, and whose conquests and distant embassies attracted\nrepresentatives from every Asiatic nation to their splendid Court. It\nwas during this period that the vast bulk of Indian literature was\nsuccessfully attacked by a host of Buddhist translators, and that the\nalchemists and mechanicians of Central Asia, Persia, and the Byzantine\nEmpire introduced their varied acquirements to the knowledge of the\nChinese. With the flow of new learning which thus gained admittance to\nqualify the frigid and monotonous cultivation of the ancient classics\nand their commentators, there came also an impetus to indulgence in\nthe licence of imagination in which it is impossible to mistake the\ninfluence of Western minds. While the Sanskrit fables, on the one\nhand, passed into a Chinese dress, and contributed to the colouring\nof the popular mythology, the legends which circulated from mouth to\nmouth in the lively Arabian bazaars found, in like manner, an echo\nin the heart of China. Side by side with the mechanical efforts\nof rhythmical composition which constitute the national ideal of\npoetry there began, during the middle period of the T'ang dynasty\n(A.D. 618-907), to grow up a class of romantic tales in which the\nkinship of ideas with those that distinguish the products of Arabian\ngenius is too marked to be ignored. The invisible world appears\nsuddenly to open before the Chinese eye; the relations of the sexes\noverstep for a moment the chilling limit imposed by the traditions\nof Confucian decorum; a certain degree of freedom and geniality is,\nin a word, for the first time and only for a brief interval infused\ninto the intellectual expression of a nation hitherto closely cramped\nin the bonds of a narrow pedantry. It was at this period that the\ndrama began to flourish, and the germs of the modern novelist's art\nmade their first appearance. Among the works of imagination dating\nfrom the period in question which have come down to the present\nday there is perhaps none which better illustrates the effect of an\nexotic fancy upon the sober and methodical authorship of the Chinese,\nor which has left a more enduring mark upon the language, than the\nlittle tale which is given in translation in the following pages.\n\nThe _Nan k'o meng_, or _Dream of the South Branch_ (as the title,\nliterally translated, should read), is the work of a writer named\nLi Kung-tso, who, from an incidental mention of his own experiences\nin Kiangsi which appears in another of his tales, is ascertained\nto have lived at the beginning of the ninth century of our era. The\n_nan k'o_, or South Branch, is the portion of a _huai_ tree (_Sophora\nJapdonica_, a tree well known in China, and somewhat resembling the\nAmerican locust-tree) in which the adventures narrated in the story\nare supposed to have occurred; and from this narrative of a dream,\nrecalling more than one of the incidents recounted in the Arabian\nNights, the Chinese have borrowed a metaphor to enrich the vocabulary\nof their literature. The equivalent of our own phrase \"the baseless\nfabric of a vision\" is in Chinese _nan k'o chih meng_--a dream of\nthe south branch.\n\n\nCh'un-yue Fen enters the Locust-tree\n\nCh'un-yue Fen, a native of Tung-p'ing, was by nature a gallant who\nhad little regard for the proprieties of life, and whose principal\nenjoyment was found in indulgence in wine-bibbing in the society\nof boon-companions. At one time he held a commission in the army,\nbut this he lost through his dissipated conduct, and from that time\nhe more than ever gave himself up to the pleasures of the wine-cup.\n\nOne day--it was in the ninth moon of the seventh year of Cheng Yuean\n(A.D. 791)--after drinking heavily with a party of friends under a\nwide-spreading old locust-tree near his house, he had to be carried\nto bed and there left to recover, his friends saying that they would\nleave him while they went to bathe their feet. The moment he laid down\nhis head he fell into a deep slumber. In his dream appeared to him two\nmen clothed in purple, who kneeling down informed him that they had\nbeen sent by their master the King of Huai-an ('Locust-tree Peace') to\nrequest his presence. Unconsciously he rose, and, arranging his dress,\nfollowed his visitors to the door, where he saw a varnished chariot\ndrawn by a white horse. On each side were ranged seven attendants,\nby whom he was assisted to mount, whereupon the carriage drove off,\nand, going out of the garden gate, passed through a hole in the trunk\nof the locust-tree already spoken of. Filled with astonishment, but\ntoo much afraid to speak, Ch'un-yue noticed that he was passing by\nhills and rivers, trees and roads, but of quite a different kind from\nthose he was accustomed to. A few miles brought them to the walls\nof a city, the approach to which was lined with men and vehicles,\nwho fell back at once the moment the order was given. Over the gate\nof the city was a pavilion on which was written in gold letters \"The\nCapital of Huai-an.\" As he passed through, the guard turned out, and\na mounted officer, shouting that the husband of the King's daughter\nhad arrived, showed him the way into a hall where he was to rest\nawhile. The room contained fruits and flowers of every description,\nand on the tables was laid out a profuse display of refreshments.\n\nWhile Ch'un-yue still remained lost in astonishment, a cry was raised\nthat the Prime Minister was coming. Ch'un-yue got up to meet him,\nand the two received each other with every demonstration of politeness.\n\n\nHe marries the King's Daughter\n\nThe minister, looking at Ch'un-yue, said: \"The King, my master,\nhas brought you to this remote region in order to give his daughter\nin marriage to you.\" \"How could I, a poor useless wretch,\" replied\nCh'un-yue, \"have ever aspired to such honour?\" With these words both\nproceeded toward the audience-chamber, passing through a hall lined\nwith soldiers, among whom, to his great joy and surprise, Ch'un-yue\nrecognized an old friend of his former drinking days, to whom he\ndid not, however, then venture to speak; and, following the Prime\nMinister, he was ushered into the King's presence. The King, a man\nof noble bearing and imposing stature, was dressed in plain silk,\na jewelled crown reposing on his head. Ch'un-yue was so awe-stricken\nthat he was powerless even to look up, and the attendants on either\nside were obliged to remind him to make his prostrations. The King,\naddressing him, said: \"Your father, small as my kingdom is, did not\ndisdain to promise that you should marry my daughter.\" Ch'un-yue could\nnot utter a word; he merely lay prostrate on the ground. After a\nfew moments he was taken back to his apartments, and he busied his\nthoughts in trying to discover what all this meant. \"My father,\"\nhe said to himself, \"fought on the northern frontier, and was taken\nprisoner; but whether his life was saved or not I don't know. It may\nbe that this affair was settled while he was in those distant regions.\"\n\nThat same night preparations were made for the marriage; and the\nrooms and passages were filled with damsels who passed and repassed,\nfilling the air with the sound of their dancing and music. They\nsurrounded Ch'un-yue and kept up a constant fire of witty remarks,\nwhile he sat there overcome by their grace and beauty, unable to say\na word. \"Do you remember,\" said one of them, coming up to Ch'un-yue,\n\"the other day when with the Lady Ling-chi I was listening to the\nservice in the courtyard of a temple, and while I, with all the other\ngirls, was sitting on the window step, you came up to us, talking\nnonsense, and trying to get up a flirtation? Don't you remember how\nwe tied a handkerchief on the stem of a bamboo?\" Then she continued:\n\"Another time at a temple, when I threw down two gold hairpins and an\nivory box as an offering, you asked the priest to let you look at the\nthings, and after admiring them for a long time you turned toward me,\nand said that neither the gifts nor the donor were of this world;\nand you wanted to know my name, and where I lived, but I wouldn't\ntell you; and then you gazed on me so tenderly, and could not take\nyour eyes off me. You remember this, without doubt?\" \"I have ever\ntreasured the recollection in my heart; how could I possibly forget\nit?\" was Ch'un-yue's reply, whereat all the maidens exclaimed that they\nhad never expected to see him in their midst on this joyful occasion.\n\nAt this moment three men came up to Ch'un-yue and stated that they\nhad been appointed his ministers. He stepped up to one of them\nand asked him if his name was not Tzu-hua. \"It is,\" was the reply;\nwhereupon Ch'un-yue, taking him by the hands, recalled to him their\nold friendship, and questioned him as to how he had found his way\nto this spot. He then proceeded to ask him if Chou-pien was also\nhere. \"He is,\" replied the other, \"and holding very high office;\nhe has often used his influence on my behalf.\"\n\nAs they were talking, Ch'un-yue was summoned to the palace, and as he\npassed within, a curtain in front of him was drawn aside, disclosing\na young girl of about fourteen years of age. She was known as the\nPrincess of the Golden Stem, and her dazzling beauty was well in\nkeeping with her matchless grace.\n\n\nHe writes to his Father\n\nThe marriage was celebrated with all magnificence, and the young\ncouple grew fonder from day to day. Their establishment was kept up\nin princely style, their principal amusement being the chase, the King\nhimself frequently inviting Ch'un-yue to join him in hunting expeditions\nto the Tortoise-back Hill. As they were returning one day from one of\nthese excursions, Ch'un-yue said to the King: \"On my marriage day your\nMajesty told me that it was my father's desire that I should espouse\nyour daughter. My father was worsted in battle on the frontier, and\nfor seventeen years we have had no news of him. If your Majesty knows\nhis whereabouts, I would beg permission to go and see him.\"\n\n\"Your father,\" replied the King, \"is frequently heard of; you may\nsend him a letter; it is not necessary to go to him.\" Accordingly a\nletter and some presents were got ready and sent, and in due time a\nreply was received, in which Ch'un-yue's father asked many questions\nabout his relations, his son's occupation, but manifested no desire\nthat the latter should come to him.\n\n\nHe takes Office\n\nOne day Ch'un-yue's wife asked him if he would not like to hold\noffice. His answer was to the effect that he had always been a rolling\nstone, and had no experience of official affairs, but the Princess\npromised to give him her assistance, and found occasion to speak on the\nsubject to her father. In consequence the King one day told Ch'un-yue\nthat he was not satisfied with the state of affairs in the south of his\nterritory, that the present governor was old and useless, and that he\nwould be pleased if he would proceed thither. Ch'un-yue bowed to the\nKing's commands, and inwardly congratulated himself that such good\nfortune should have befallen a rover like him. He was supplied with a\nsplendid outfit, and farewell entertainments were given in his honour.\n\nBefore leaving he acknowledged to the King that he had no great\nconfidence in his own powers, and suggested that he should be allowed\nto take with him Chou-pien and Tzu-hua as commissioners of justice\nand finance. The King gave his consent, and issued the necessary\ninstructions. The day of departure having arrived, both the King\nand the Queen came to see Ch'un-yue and his wife off, and to Ch'un-yue\nthe King said: \"The province of Nan-k'o is rich and fertile; and the\ninhabitants are brave and prosperous; it is by kindness that you must\nrule them.\" To her daughter the Queen said: \"Your husband is violent\nand fond of wine. The duty of a wife is to be kind and submissive. Act\nwell toward him, and I shall have no anxiety. Nan-k'o, it is true,\nis not very far--only one day's journey; still, in parting from\nyou my tears will flow.\" Ch'un-yue and his bride waved a farewell,\nand were whirled away toward their destination, reaching Nan-k'o the\nsame evening.\n\nOnce settled in the place, Ch'un-yue set himself to become thoroughly\nacquainted with the manners and customs of the people, and to relieve\ndistress. To Chou-pien and Tzu-hua he confided all questions of\nadministration, and in the course of twenty years a great improvement\nwas to be noticed in the affairs of the province. The people showed\ntheir appreciation by erecting a monument to his honour, while the\nKing conferred upon him an estate and the dignity of a title, and in\nrecognition of their services promoted Chou-pien and Tzu-hua to very\nhigh posts. Ch'un-yue's children also shared their father's rewards;\nthe two sons were given office, while the two daughters were betrothed\nto members of the royal family. There remained nothing which could\nadd to his fame and greatness.\n\n\nHe meets with Disasters\n\nAbout this period the state of T'an-lo made an incursion on the\nprovince of Nan-k'o. The King at once commanded that Chou-pien should\nproceed at the head of 30,000 men to repel the enemy. Chou-pien,\nfull of confidence, attacked the foe, but sustained a disastrous\ndefeat, and, barely escaping with his life, returned to the capital,\nleaving the invaders to plunder the country and retire. Ch'un-yue threw\nChou-pien into prison, and asked the King what punishment should be\nvisited upon him. His Majesty granted Chou-pien his pardon; but that\nsame month he died of disease.\n\nA few days later Ch'un-yue's wife also fell ill and died, whereupon\nhe begged permission to resign his post and return to Court with his\nwife's remains. This request was granted, and Tzu-hua was appointed\nin his stead. As Ch'un-yue, sad and dejected, was leaving the city\nwith the funeral _cortege_, he found the road lined with people giving\nloud expression to their grief, and almost ready to prevent his taking\nhis departure.\n\n\n\nHe returns Home\n\nAs he neared the capital the King and Queen, dressed in mourning, were\nawaiting the bier in tears. The Princess, after a posthumous title\nhad been conferred upon her, was buried with great magnificence a few\nmiles to the east of the city, while Ch'un-yue remained in the capital,\nliving in such state, and gaining so much influence, that he excited\nthe King's jealousy; and when it was foretold, by means of signs in\nthe heavens, that ruin threatened the kingdom, that its inhabitants\nwould be swept away, and that this would be the work of an alien,\nthe prophecy seemed to point to ambitious designs on the part of\nCh'un-yue, and means were taken to keep him under restraint.\n\nCh'un-yue, conscious that he had faithfully filled a high office for\nmany years, felt greatly grieved by these calumnies--a result which\nthe King could not avoid noticing. He accordingly sent for Ch'un-yue,\nand said: \"For more than twenty years we have been connexions,\nalthough my poor daughter, unfortunately, has not been spared to be\na companion to you in old age. Her mother is now taking care of her\nchildren; your own home you have not seen for many years; return to\nsee your friends; your children will be looked after, and in three\nyears you will see them again.\" \"Is not this my home? Whither else am\nI to go?\" was Ch'un-yue's reply. \"My friend,\" the King said laughingly,\n\"you are a human being; you don't belong to this place.\" At these words\nCh'un-yue seemed to fall into a deep swoon, and he remained unconscious\nfor some time, after which he began to recall some glimpses of the\ndistant past. With tears in his eyes he begged that he might be\nallowed to return to his home, and, saying farewell, he departed.\n\nOutside the palace he found the same two officials in purple clothes\nwho had led the way so many years ago. A conveyance was also there,\nbut this time it was a mere bullock-cart, with no outriders. He took\nthe same road as before, and noticed the same hills and streams. The\ntwo officials were by no means imposing this time, and when he asked\nhow far was his destination they continued to hum and whistle and\npaid no attention to him. At last they passed through an opening, and\nhe recognized his own village, precisely as he had left it. The two\nofficials desired him to get down and walk up the steps before him,\nwhere, much to his horror, he saw himself lying down in the porch. He\nwas too much bedazed with terror to advance, but the two officials\ncalled out his name several times, and upon this he awoke. The\nservants were bustling about the house, and his two companions\nwere still washing their feet. Everything was as he had left it,\nand the lifetime he had lived in his dream had occupied only a few\nmoments. Calling out to his two friends, he made them follow him to\nthe locust-tree, and pointed out the opening through which he had\nbegun his journey in dream-land.\n\nAn axe was sent for, and the interior of the trunk thrown open,\nwhereupon a series of galleries was laid bare. At the root of the\ntree a mound of earth was discovered, in shape like a city, and\nswarming with ants. This was the capital of the kingdom in which\nhe had lived in his dream. A terrace surrounded by a guard of ants\nwas the residence of the King and Queen, two winged insects with\nred heads. Twenty feet or so along another gallery was found an\nold tortoise-shell covered with a thick growth of moss; it was the\nTortoise-back Hill of the dream. In another direction was found a\nsmall mound of earth round which was coiled a root in shape like a\ndragon's tongue; it was the grave of the King's daughter, Ch'un-yue's\nwife in the vision. As he recalled each incident of the dream he was\nmuch affected at discovering its counterpart in this nest of ants,\nand he refused to allow his companions to disturb it further. They\nreplaced everything as they had found it; but that night a storm of\nwind and rain came, and next morning not a vestige of the ants was\nto be seen. They had all disappeared, and here was the fulfilment of\nthe warning in the dream, that the kingdom would be swept away.\n\n\nCh'un-yue Regenerate\n\nAt this time Ch'un-yue had not seen Chou-pien and Tzu-hua for some\nten days. He sent a messenger to make inquiries about them, and the\nnews he brought back was that Chou-pien was dead and Tzu-hua lying\nill. The fleeting nature of man's existence revealed itself to him\nas he recalled the greatness of these two men in the ant-world. From\nthat day he became a reformed man; drink and dissipation were put\naside. After three years had elapsed he died, thus giving effect to\nthe promise of the ant-king that he should see his children once more\nat the end of three years.\n\n\nWhy the Jung Tribe have Heads of Dogs\n\nThe wave of conquest which swept from north to south in the earliest\nperiods of Chinese history [49] left on its way, like small islands\nin the ocean, certain remnants of aboriginal tribes which survived\nand continued to exist despite the sustained hostile attitude of the\nflood of alien settlers around them. When stationed at Foochow I saw\nthe settlements of one of these tribes which lived in the mountainous\ncountry not very many miles inland from that place. They were those\nof the Jung tribe, the members of which wore on their heads a large\nand peculiar headgear constructed of bamboo splints resting on a\npeg inserted in the chignon at the back of the head, the weight of\nthe structure in front being counterbalanced by a pad, serving as\na weight, attached to the end of the splints, which projected as\nfar down as the middle of the shoulders. This framework was covered\nby a mantilla of red cloth which, when not rolled up, concealed the\nwhole head and face, The following legend, related to me on the spot,\nexplains the origin of this unusual headdress.\n\n\nTwo Tribes at War\n\nIn early times the Chief of a Chinese tribe (another version says\nan Emperor of China) was at war with the Chief of another tribe who\ncame to attack his territory from the west. The Western Chief so badly\ndefeated the Chinese army that none of the generals or soldiers could\nbe induced to renew hostilities and endeavour to drive the enemy back\nto his own country. This distressed the Chinese Chief very much. As\na last resort he issued a proclamation promising his daughter in\nmarriage to anyone who would bring him the head of his enemy, the\nChief of the West.\n\n\nThe Chief's Promise\n\nThe people in the palace talked much of this promise made by the\nChief, and their conversation was listened to by a fine large white\ndog belonging to one of the generals. This dog, having pondered the\nmatter well, waited until midnight and then stole over to the tent\nof the enemy Chief. The latter, as well as his guard, was asleep;\nor, if the guard was not, the dog succeeded in avoiding him in the\ndarkness. Entering the tent, the dog gnawed through the Chief's\nneck and carried his head off in his mouth. At dawn he placed it at\nthe Chinese Chief's feet, and waited for his reward. The Chief was\nsoon able to verify the fact that his enemy had been slain, for the\nheadless body had caused so much consternation in the hostile army\nthat it had already begun to retreat from Chinese territory.\n\n\nA Strange Contract\n\nThe dog then reminded the Chief of his promise, and asked for his\ndaughter's hand in marriage. \"But how,\" said the Chief, \"can I possibly\nmarry my daughter to a dog?\" \"Well,\" replied the dog, \"will you agree\nto her marrying me if I change myself into a man?\" This seemed a safe\npromise to make, and the Chief agreed. The dog then stipulated that\nhe should be placed under a large bell and that no one should move\nit or look into it for a space of 280 days.\n\n\nThe Chiefs Curiosity\n\nThis was done, and for 279 days the bell remained unmoved, but on\nthe 280th day the Chief could restrain his curiosity no longer,\nand tilting up the bell saw that the dog had changed into a man\nall except his head, the last day being required to complete the\ntransformation. However, the spell was now broken, and the result was\na man with a dog's head. Since it was the Chief's fault that, through\nhis over-inquisitiveness, the dog could not become altogether a man,\nhe was obliged to keep his promise, and the wedding duly took place,\nthe bridegroom's head being veiled for the occasion by a red mantilla.\n\n\nThe Origin of a Custom\n\nUnfortunately the fruit of the union took more after their father\nthan their mother, and though comely of limb had exceedingly ugly\nfeatures. [50] They were therefore obliged to continue to wear the\nhead-covering adopted by their father at the marriage ceremony, and\nthis became so much an integral part of the tribal costume that not\nonly has it been worn ever since by their descendants, but a change\nof headgear has become synonymous with a change of husbands or a\ndivorce. One account says that at the original bridal ceremony the\nbride wore the red mantilla to prevent her seeing her husband's ugly\nfeatures, and that is why the headdress is worn by the women and not by\nthe men, or more generally by the former than the latter, though others\nsay that it was originally worn by the ugly children of both sexes.\n\n\nAnd of a Worship\n\nThis legend explains the dog-worship of the Jung tribe, which now\nconsists of four clans, with a separate surname (Lei, Chung, Lang,\nand Pan) to each, has a language of its own, and does not intermarry\nwith the Foochow natives. At about the time of the old Chinese New\nYear (somewhere in February) they paint a large figure of a dog on a\nscreen and worship it, saying it is their ancestor who was victorious\nover the Western invader.\n\n\n\nConclusion\n\nIf the greatness of nations is to be judged by the greatness of\ntheir myths (using the word 'great' in the sense of world-famous\nand of perennial influence), there would be few great nations, and\nChina would not be one of them. As stated in an earlier chapter, the\ndesign has been to give an account of Chinese myth as it is, and not\nas it might have been under imaginary conditions. But for the Chinese\nphilosophers we should in all probability have had more Chinese myths,\nbut philosophy is unifying, and without it we might have had a break-up\nof China and perhaps no myths at all, or none specially belonging to\nChina as a whole and separate independent nation. Had there been great,\nworld-stirring myths there could hardly but have been also more wars,\nmore cruelty, more wounding of the \"heart that weeps and trembles,\"\nmore saturating of the earth with human blood. It is not a small thing\nto have conquered myth with philosophy, especially at a time when the\nWestern world was still steeped in the grossest superstition. Therefore\nwe may be thankful that the Chinese were and are a peace-loving, sober,\nagricultural, industrial, non-military, non-priest-ridden, literary,\nand philosophical people, and that we have instead of great myths a\ngreat people.\n\nBut if the real test of greatness is purity and justice, then Chinese\nmyth must be placed among the greatest of all; for it is not obscene,\nand it is invariably just.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe Pronunciation of Chinese Words\n\nDuring the course of Chinese history the restriction of intercourse\ndue to mountain-chains or other natural obstacles between various\ntribes or divisions of the Chinese people led to the birth of a number\nof families of languages, which again became the parents of numerous\nlocal dialects. These dialects have in most cases restricted ranges,\nso that that of one district may be partially or wholly unintelligible\nto the natives of another situated at a distance of only a hundred\nmiles or less.\n\nThe Court or Government language is that spoken in Peking and the\nmetropolitan district, and is the language of official communication\nthroughout the country. Though neither the oldest nor the purest\nChinese dialect, it seems destined more than any other to come into\nuniversal use in China. The natives of each province or district will\nof course continue to speak to each other in their own particular\ndialect, and foreign missionaries or merchants, for example, whose\nspecial duties or transactions are connected with special districts\nwill naturally learn and use the dialects of those districts; but as\na means of intercommunication generally between natives of different\nprovinces, or between natives and foreigners, the Court language seems\nlikely to continue in use and to spread more and more over the whole\ncountry. It is to this that the following remarks apply.\n\nThe essentials of correct pronunciation of Chinese are accuracy of\nsound, tone, and rhythm.\n\n\nSound\n\n_Vowels and Diphthongs_\n\n_a_ as in _father_.\n\n_ai_ as in Italian _amai_.\n\n_ao_. Italian _ao_ in _Aosta_: sometimes _a-oo,_ the _au_ in _cauto_.\n\n_e_ in _eh_, _en_, as in _yet_, _lens_.\n\n_ei_. Nearly _ey_ in _grey_, but more as in Italian _lei_, _contei_.\n\n_e_. The vowel-sound in _lurk_.\n\n_ei_. The foregoing _e_ followed enclitically by _y_. _Money_ without\nthe _n_ = _mei_.\n\n_erh._ The _urr_ in _purr_.\n\n_i_. As a single or final syllable the vowel-sound in _ease_, _tree_;\nin _ih_, _in_, _ing_, as in _chick_, _thing_.\n\n_ia_ generally as in the Italian _Maria_.\n\n_iai_. The _iai_ in the Italian _vecchiaia_.\n\n_iao_ as in _ia_ and _ao_, with the terminal peculiarity of the latter.\n\n_ie_ as in the Italian _siesta_.\n\n_io_. The French _io_ in _pioche_.\n\n_iu_ as a final, longer than the English _ew_. In _liu, niu_, almost\n_leyew, neyew_. In _chiung, hsiung, iung_, is _eeyong_ (_o_ in _roll_).\n\n_o._ Between vowel-sound in _awe_ and that in _roll_.\n\n_ou._ Really _eo_; _ou_ in _round_.\n\n_ue._ The vowel-sound in the French _tu, eut_.\n\n_uea._ Only in _uean_, which in some tones is _ueen_. The _u_ as above;\nthe _an_ as       in _antic_.\n\n_uee_. The vowel-sounds in the French _tu es_.\n\n_ueo_. A disputed sound, used, if at all, interchangeably with _io_\nin certain       syllables.\n\n_u_. The _oo_ in _too_; in _un_ and _ung_ as in the Italian _punto_.\n\n_ua_. Nearly _ooa_, in many instances contracting to _wa_.\n\n_uai_ as in the Italian _guai_.\n\n_uei._ The vowel-sounds in the French _jouer_.\n\n_ue._ Only in final _uen_ = _u-un_; frequently _wen_ or _wun_.\n\n_ui._ The vowel-sounds in _screwy_; in some tones _uei_.\n\n_uo._ The Italian _uo_ in _fuori_; often _wo_, and at times nearly\n_oo_.\n\n_u._ Between the _i_ in _bit_ and the _u_ in _shut_.\n\n_Consonants_\n\n_ch_ as in _chair_; but before _ih_ softened to _dj_.\n\n_ch'_. A strong breathing. _Mu_ch-ha_rm_ without the italicized\nletters = _ch'a_.\n\n_f_ as in farm.\n\n_h_ as _ch_ in Scotch _loch_.\n\n_hs_. A slight aspirate preceding and modifying the sibilant, which is,\nhowever, the stronger of the two consonants; _e.g. hsing_ = _hissing_\nwithout the first _i_,\n\n_j_. Nearly the French _j_ in _jaune_; the English _s_ in _fusion_.\n\n_k_. _c_ in _car_, _k_ in _king_; but when following other sounds\noften softened to       _g_ in _go, gate_.\n\n_k'_. The aspirate as in _ch'_. _Ki_ck-ha_rd_ without the italicized\nletters =        _k'a_; and _ki_ck-he_r_ == _k'e_.\n\n_l_ as in English.\n\n_m_ as in English.\n\n_n_ as in English.\n\n_ng_. The italicized letters in the French mo_n ga_lant = _nga_;\nmo_n gai_llard = _ngai_; so_n go_sier = _ngo_.\n\n_p_ as in English.\n\n_p'_ The Irish pronunciation of _p_arty, _p_arliament. _Sla_p-ha_rd_\nwithout the italicized letters = _p'a_.\n\n_s_ as in English.\n\n_sh_ as in English.\n\n_ss_. Only in _ssu_. The object of employing _ss_ is to fix attention\non the peculiar vowel-sound _u_ (see above).\n\n_t_ as in English.\n\n_t'_ The Irish _t_ in _t_orment. _Hi_t-ha_rd_ without the italicized\nletters = _t'a_.\n\n_ts_ as in _jetsam_; after another word softened to _ds_ in _gladsome_.\n\n_ts'._ The aspirate intervening, as in _ch'_, etc. _Be_ts-ha_rd_\nwithout the italicized         letters = _ts'a_.\n\n_tz_. Employed to mark the peculiarity of the final _u_; hardly of\ngreater power than _ts_.\n\n_tz'_ like _ts'_. This, _tz_, and _ss_ used only before _u_.\n\n_w_ as in English; but very faint, or even non-existent, before _ue_.\n\n_y_ as in English; but very faint before _i_ or _ue_.\n\n\nTone\n\nThe correct pronunciation of the sound (_yin_) is not sufficient to\nmake a Chinese spoken word intelligible. Unless the tone (_sheng_),\nor musical note, is simultaneously correctly given, either the wrong\nmeaning or no meaning at all will be conveyed. The tone is the key in\nwhich the voice is pitched. Accent is a 'song added to,' and tone is\nemphasized accent. The number of these tones differs in the different\ndialects. In Pekingese there are now four. They are best indicated\nin transliteration by numbers added to the sound, thus:\n\n_pa_ (1) _pa_ (2) _pa_ (3) _pa_ (4)\n\nTo say, for example, _pa_ (3) instead of _pa_ (1) would be as great\na mistake as to say 'grasp' instead of 'trumpet.' Correctness of tone\ncannot be learnt except by oral instruction.\n\n\nRhythm\n\nWhat tone is to the individual sound rhythm is to the sentence. This\nalso, together with proper appreciation of the mutual modifications\nof tone and rhythm, can be correctly acquired only by oral instruction.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES\n\n[1] The inventions of the Chinese during a period of four thousand\nyears may be numbered on the fingers of one hand.\n\n[2] _East of Asia Magazine_, i, 15-16.\n\n[3] _Cf_. Aristotle's belief that bugs arose spontaneously from sweat.\n\n[4] For the Buddhist account see _China Review_, xi, 80-82.\n\n[5] Compare the Japanese legend, which relates that the Sun-goddess was\ninduced to come out of a cave by being tempted to gaze at herself in a\nmirror. See _Myths and Legends of Japan_, F. Hadland Davis, pp. 27-28.\n\n[6] See _Myths of the Norsemen_, by H. A. Guerber. These resemblances\nand the further one--namely, the dualism in the prechaotic epoch\n(a very interesting point in Scandinavian mythology)--illustrate the\ndanger of inferring identity of origin from similarity of physical,\nintellectual, or moral results. Several remarkable parallelisms of\nChinese religious and mythological beliefs with those recorded in\nthe Hebrew scriptures may also be briefly noted. There is an age\nof virtue and happiness, a garden with a tree bearing 'apples of\nimmortality,' guarded by a winged serpent (dragon), the fall of man,\nthe beginnings of lust and war (the doctrine of original sin), a great\nflood, virgin-born god-men who rescue man from barbarism and endow\nhim with superhuman attributes, discipleship, worship of a Virgin\nMother, trinities, monasticism, celibacy, fasting, preaching, prayers,\nprimeval Chaos, Paradise, etc. For details see _Chinese Repository,_\nvii, 520-521.\n\n[7] _Cf._ the dwarfs in the Scandinavian myth.\n\n[8] See Legge, _Shu ching_, ii, 320, note.\n\n[9] In order to avoid misunderstanding, it is as well to note that the\nmention of the _t'ai chi_ in the _Canon of Changes (I ching_) no more\nconstituted monism the philosophy of China than did the steam-driven\nmachinery mentioned by Hero of Alexandria constitute the first century\nB.C. the 'age of steam.' Similarly, to take another example, the idea\nof the earth's rotundity, though conceived centuries before Ptolemy\nin the second century, did not become established before the sixteenth\ncentury. It was, in fact, from the _I ching_ that the Chinese derived\ntheir _dualistic_ (not their monistic) conception of the world.\n\n[10] \"Formerly, I, Chuang Chou, dreamt that I was a butterfly, flying\nabout and feeling that it was enjoying itself. I did not know that\nit was Chou. Suddenly I awoke and was myself again, the veritable\nChou. I did not know whether it had formerly been Chou dreaming that\nhe was a butterfly, or whether it was now a butterfly dreaming that\nit was Chou.\" _Chuang Tzu_, Book II.\n\n[11] See the present writer's _China of the Chinese_, chapter viii.\n\n[12] See Du Bose, pp. 282, 286, 361, 409, 410, and _Journal of the\nNorth China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, xxxiv, 110-111.\n\n[13] Du Bose, p. 38.\n\n[14] He is sometimes represented as a reincarnation of Wen Chung;\nsee p. 198.\n\n[16] See footnote, p. 107.\n\n[17] _Religion_, p. 177.\n\n[18] See _Myths of the Hindus and Buddhists_, by Sister Nivedita and\nAnanda Coomaraswamy.\n\n[19] The native accounts differ on this point. _Cf._ p. 16.\n\n[20] For further details concerning T'ai I see _Babylonian and Oriental\nRecord_, vi, 145-150.\n\n[21] _Cf._ Chapter I.\n\n[22] She is the same as Ch'ang O, the name Heng being changed to\nCh'ang because it was the tabooed personal name of the Emperors Mu\nTsung of the T'ang dynasty and Chen Tsung of the Sung dynasty.\n\n[23] See p. 45.\n\n[24] In Sagittarius, or the Sieve; Chinese constellation of the\nLeopard.\n\n[25] See Chapter XIV.\n\n[26] See Chapter XII.\n\n[27] This pagoda is distant about twenty _li_ (seven miles) from\nPeking. It is on the top of the hill, while the spring is at the foot,\nhalf a _li_ distant. The imperial family used the water from this\nspring, whence it was carried to Peking in carts.\n\n[28] See Chapter XII.\n\n[29] See Chapter IV.\n\n[30] This has reference to the change of Kuan Yin from the masculine\nto the feminine gender, already mentioned.\n\n[31] There is evidently a mistake here, since the King was twenty\nwhen he ascended the throne and fifty at the birth of Miao Shan.\n\n[32] _An Illustrated Account of the Eight Immortals' Mission to\nthe East_.\n\n[33] A record of a journey to the Western Paradise to procure\nthe Buddhist scriptures for the Emperor of China. The work is a\ndramatization of the introduction of Buddhism into China.\n\n[34] See p. 329.\n\n[35] See p. 195.\n\n[36] Literally 'golden oranges.' These are skilfully preserved by\nthe Cantonese, and form a delicious sweetmeat for dessert.\n\n[37] Only slave-girls and women of the poorer classes and old women\nomit this very important part of a Chinese lady's toilet.\n\n[38] Alluding probably to the shape of the 'shoe' or ingot of silver.\n\n[39] Slave-girls do not have their feet compressed.\n\n[40] Wherein resides an old gentleman who ties together with a red cord\nthe feet of those destined to become man and wife. From this bond there\nis no escape, no matter what distance may separate the affianced pair.\n\n[41] This proceeding is highly improper, but is 'winked at' in a\nlarge majority of Chinese betrothals.\n\n[42] The usual occupation of poor scholars who are ashamed to go\ninto trade and who have not enterprise enough to start as doctors or\nfortune-tellers. Besides painting pictures and fans, and illustrating\nbooks, these men write fancy scrolls in the various ornamental styles\nso much prized by the Chinese; they keep accounts for people, and\nwrite or read business and private letters for the illiterate masses.\n\n[43] Say about L10.\n\n[44] Alchemy is first mentioned in Chinese history B.C. 133, and was\nwidely cultivated in China during the Han dynasty by priests of the\nTaoist religion.\n\n[45] Kuan Chung and Pao Shu are the Chinese types of friendship. They\nwere two statesmen of considerable ability who flourished in the\nseventh century B.C.\n\n[46] These are used, together with a heavy wooden _baton_, by the\nChinese washerman, the effect being most disastrous to a European\nwardrobe.\n\n[47] To provide coffins for poor people has ever been regarded as\nan act of transcendent merit. The tornado at Canton in April 1878,\nin which several thousand lives were lost, afforded an admirable\nopportunity for the exercise of this form of charity--an opportunity\nwhich was largely taken advantage of by the benevolent.\n\n[48] For usurping its prerogative by allowing Chia to obtain wealth.\n\n[49] See Chapter I.\n\n[50] Compare the legend of the tailed Miao Tzu tribes named Yao,\n'mountain-dogs' or 'jackals,' living on the mountain ranges in the\nnorth-west of Kuangtung Province, related in the _Jih chi so chih_.","title":"Myths and Legends of China","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":118854}