{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_20660/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_20660","id":"gutenberg_20660","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/20660","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Religion/Spirituality","Islam"],"text":"Produced by Michael Ciesielski, Keith Edkins and the Online\nDistributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This\nfile was produced from images generously made available\nby The Internet Archive)\n\n\n\n\n\nTranscriber's note: A few typographical errors have been corrected: they\nare listed at the end of the text. Original page numbers are shown as {99}.\n\nTHE\n\nFAITH OF ISLAM:\n\nBY\n\nTHE REV. EDWARD SELL,\nFELLOW OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MADRAS.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nTRUeBNER & CO., LONDON. ADDISON & CO., MADRAS. 1880.\n\n_All rights reserved._\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nMADRAS:\nPRINTED BY ADDISON AND CO., MOUNT ROAD.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nPREFACE.\n\nThe following pages embody a study of Islam during a residence of fifteen\nyears in India, the greater part of which time I have been in daily\nintercourse with Musalmans. I have given in the footnotes the authorities\nfrom which I quote. I was not able to procure in Madras a copy of the\nArabic edition of Ibn Khaldoun's great work, but the French translation by\nBaron M. de Slane, to which I so frequently refer, is thoroughly reliable.\nThe quotations from the Quran are made from Rodwell's translation. The\noriginal has been consulted when necessary.\n\nA few slight and occasional errors in transliteration have occurred, such\nas Sulat for Salat, Munkar for Munkir, &c., but in no case is the meaning\naffected.\n\nIn some words, such as Khalif, Khalifate, and Omar, I have retained the\nanglicised form instead of using the more correct terms, Khalifa, Khilafat,\n'Umr. The letter Q has been used to distinguish the Kaf-i-Karashat from the\nKaf-i-Tazi.\n\nE. S.\n\n      MADRAS,\n  _December 1st, 1880._\n\n{v}\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\nIntroduction. ... PAGE ix\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nTHE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAM.\n\nThe Quran--Its revelation--Miraculous nature--Arrangement of Quran--Osman's\nrecension. The Sunnat--The authority of Sunnat--Tradition--Bid'at or\ninnovation--Shia'h Traditions. Ijma'--Ijtihad--Four orthodox Imams, Hanifa,\nMalik, Shafa'i and Hanbal. Qias--Established by the early\nMujtahidin--Sterility of Islam ... PAGE 1\n\nNote to Chapter I. Ijtihad ... PAGE 32\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nEXEGESIS OF THE QURAN AND THE TRADITIONS.\n\nInspiration--The seven readings--Work of a Commentator--Words and Sentences\nof the Quran--Use of the words--Deductions of arguments from the\nQuran--Divisions of the Quran--Abrogation--Creation of the Quran--Hadis or\nTradition--Collections of Traditions--Classification of Traditions ... PAGE\n37\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nTHE SECTS OF ISLAM.\n\nThe Shia'hs--The Imamat--Kharigites--Nur-i-Muhammadi--Imam--Isma,ilians and\nImamites--Ghair-i-Mahdis--Da,iri--Mahmudiah--Khalifate--Sufiism--Persian\nPoetry--Darwishes--Omar Khayyam--Wahhabis--their rise--spread in\nIndia--doctrines and influence ... PAGE 73\n\nNote to Chapter III. Wahhabiism ... PAGE 114\n\n{vi}\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nTHE CREED OF ISLAM\n\nIman--God--Attributes of God--Discussions on the nature of God--The rise of\nthe Mutazilites--The Sifatians--Mushabihites--Names of God--Creation of the\nQuran. Angels--Recording Angels--Harut and Marut--Munkir and Nakir--Jinn.\nThe Books--Abrogation--Tahrif. The Prophets--Rank and inspiration of\nprophets--Nabi and Rasul--Sinlessness of prophets--The\nAnbiya-ulul-'Azm--Miracles of prophets--The Mi'raj. The Resurrection and\nthe last day--The Trumpets--Descent of the\nbooks--Balances--Bridge--Al-A'raf--Al-Barzakh--Intercession of\nMuhammad--Heaven--Hell. The Predestination of good and\nevil--Jabrians--Qadrians--Ash'arians--Free-will--Apostacy ... PAGE 116\n\nNote to Chapter IV. Muslim Philosophy ... PAGE 181\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\nTHE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLAM.\n\nFarz, wajib, sunnat, mustahab and mubah actions--Haram or unlawful acts.\nTashahhud. Salat--Wazu--Ghusl--Tayammum--Namaz--Farz, sunnat, witr and nafl\nrak'ats--Appointed hours of prayer--Friday Namaz and sermon--Namaz on a\njourney and in time of war--Namaz in Ramazan, during an eclipse and in time\nof drought--Funeral service--Its ritual and prayers. Fasting--Its time and\nnature. Zakat--Nisab--Proportion of property to be given as\nalms--Recipients of the Zakat. The Hajj--Farz, sunnat, wajib and mustahab\nduties connected with the Hajj--Time for the Hajj--Arrival of the Haji at\nMecca--Tawaf--Ceremonies of the Hajj--Conclusion of the Hajj--Formal nature\nof Islam ... PAGE 187\n\nNote to Chapter V. Fatva on the Namaz ... PAGE 233\n\n{vii}\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nTHE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLAM.\n\nMuharram--'Ashur Khana--Marsiya--Waqi'a Khan--'Alams--Ceremonies of the\n'Ashura--Fatihas for 'Ali, for Hasan and Husain--Akhir-i-char Shamba--Bara\nWafat--Jashn-i-milad-i-Sharif--Asar-i-Sharif--Shab Barat--Ramazan and\n'Id-ul-Fitr--'Itikaf--Sadqa--Sermon on the 'Id-ul-Fitr--Baqr-'Id or\n'Id-uz-Zuha--Sermon on the 'Id-uz-Zuha--The Qurban or Sacrifice--Festival\nof Madar--Festival of Salar Mas'ud Ghazi--Festival of Khaja Khizr--Feast of\nPir Dastgir Sahib--Festival of Qadir Wali Sahib ... PAGE 237\n\nIndex of Technical Terms ... PAGE 265\n\n{ix}\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\nIt is necessary to enter into some explanation as regards the contents of\nthis work. It does not fall in with its plan to enter into an account\neither of the life of Muhammad or of the wide and rapid spread of the\nsystem founded by him. The first has been done by able writers in England,\nFrance and Germany. I could add nothing new to this portion of the subject,\nnor throw new light upon it. The political growth of Muslim nations has\nalso been set forth in various ways.\n\nIt seems to me that the more important study at this time is that of the\nreligious system which has grown out of the Prophet's teaching, and of its\neffect upon the individual and the community. What the Church in her\nmissionary enterprise has to deal with, what European Governments in the\npolitical world have to do with is Islam as it is, and as it now influences\nthose who rule and those who are ruled under it.\n\nI have, therefore, tried to show from authentic sources, and from a\npractical knowledge of it, what the Faith of Islam really is, and how it\ninfluences men and nations in the present day. I think that recent Fatvas\ndelivered by the 'Ulama in Constantinople show how firmly a Muslim State is\nbound in the fetters of an unchangeable Law, whilst the present practice of\northodox Muslims all the world {x} over is a constant carrying out of the\nprecepts given in the Quran and the Sunnat, and an illustration of the\nprinciples I have shown to belong to Islam. On this subject it is not too\nmuch to say that there is, except amongst Oriental scholars, much\nmisconception.\n\nAgain, much that is written on Islam is written either in ignorant\nprejudice, or from an ideal standpoint. To understand it aright, one should\nknow its literature and live amongst its people. I have tried faithfully to\nprove every statement I have made; and if, now and again, I have quoted\nEuropean authors, it is only by way of illustration. I rest my case\nentirely upon Musalman authorities themselves. Still more, I have\nascertained from living witnesses that the principles I have tried to show\nas existing in Islam, are really at work now and are as potent as at any\nprevious period.\n\nI have thus traced up from the very foundations the rise and development of\nthe system, seeking wherever possible to link the past with the present. In\norder not to interfere with this unity of plan, I have had to leave many\nsubjects untouched, such as those connected with the civil law, with\nslavery, divorce, jihad or religious wars, &c. A good digest of Muhammadan\nLaw[1] will give all necessary information on these points. The basis of\nthe Law which determines these questions is what I have described in my\nfirst chapter. Ijtihad, for example, rules quite as effectually in a\nquestion of domestic {xi} economy or political jurisprudence as on points\nof dogma. It was not, therefore, necessary for me to go into details on\nthese points.\n\nWhen I have drawn any conclusion from data which Muhammadan literature, and\nthe present practice of Muslims have afforded me, I have striven to give\nwhat seems to me a just and right one. Still, I gladly take this\nopportunity of stating that I have found many Muslims better than their\ncreed, men with whom it is a pleasure to associate, and whom I respect for\nmany virtues and esteem as friends. I judge the system, not any individual\nin it.\n\nIn India, there are a number of enlightened Muhammadans, ornaments to\nnative society, useful servants of the State, men who show a laudable zeal\nin all social reforms, so far as is consistent with a reputation for\northodoxy. Their number is far too few, and they do not, in many cases,\nrepresent orthodox Islam, nor do I believe their counterpart would be found\namongst the 'Ulama of a Muslim State. The fact is that the wave of\nscepticism which has passed over Europe has not left the East untouched.\nHindu and Muslim alike have felt its influence, but to judge of either the\none system or the other from the very liberal utterances of a few men who\nexpound their views before English audiences is to yield oneself up to\ndelusion on the subject.\n\nIslam in India has also felt the influence of contact with other races and\ncreeds, though, theologically speaking, the Iman and the Din, the faith and\nthe practice, are unchanged, and remain as I have {xii} described them in\nchapters four and five. If Islam in India has lost some of its original\nfierceness, it has also adopted many superstitious practices, such as those\nagainst which the Wahhabis protest. The great mass of the Musalman people\nare quite as superstitious, if not more so, than their heathen neighbours.\nStill the manliness, the suavity of manner, the deep learning, after an\noriental fashion, of many Indian Musalmans render them a very attractive\npeople. It is true there is a darker side--much bigotry, pride of race,\nscorn of other creeds, and, speaking generally, a tendency to inertness. It\nis thus that in Bengal, Madras and perhaps in other places, they have\nfallen far behind the Hindus in educational status, and in the number of\nappointments they hold in the Government service. Indeed, this subject is a\nserious one and deserves the special attention of the Indian Government. In\nBengal the proportion of Musalmans to Hindus in the upper ranks of the\nUncovenanted Civil Service in 1871 was 77 to 341. In the year 1880 it had\ndeclined to 53 to 451. The state of affairs in Madras is equally bad. Yet\nan intelligent Muslim, as a rule, makes a good official.\n\nLooking at the subject from a wider stand-point, I think the Church has\nhardly yet realised how great a barrier this system of Islam is to her\nonward march in the East. Surely special men with special training are\nrequired for such an enterprise as that of encountering Islam in its own\nstrongholds. No better pioneers of the Christian {xiii} faith could be\nfound in the East than men won from the Crescent to the Cross.\n\nAll who are engaged in such an enterprise will perhaps find some help in\nthis volume, and I am not without hope that it may also throw some light on\nthe political questions of the day.\n\n{1}\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nTHE FAITH OF ISLAM.\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nTHE FOUNDATIONS OF ISLAM.\n\nThe creed of Islam, \"La-ilaha-il-lal-lahu wa Muhammad-ur-Rasul-Ullah,\"\n(There is no deity but God, and Muhammad is the Apostle of God) is very\nshort, but the system itself is a very dogmatic one. Such statements as:\n\"The Quran is an all-embracing and sufficient code, regulating everything,\"\n\"The Quran contains the _entire_ code of Islam--that is, it is not a book\nof religious precepts merely, but it governs all that a Muslim does,\" \"The\nQuran contains the whole religion of Muhammad,\" \"The Quran which contains\nthe whole Gospel of Islam\" are not simply misleading, they are erroneous.\nSo far from the Quran alone being the _sole_ rule of faith and practice to\nMuslims, there is not one single sect amongst them whose faith and practice\nis based on it alone. No one among them disputes its authority or casts any\ndoubt upon its genuineness. Its voice is supreme in all that it concerns,\nbut its exegesis, the whole system of legal jurisprudence and of\ntheological science, is largely founded on the Traditions. Amongst the\northodox Musalmans, the foundations of the Faith are four in number, the\nQuran, Sunnat, Ijma' and Qias. The fact that all the sects do not agree\nwith the orthodox--the Sunnis--in this matter illustrates another important\nfact in Islam--the want of unity amongst its followers. {2}\n\n1. THE QURAN.--The question of the inspiration will be fully discussed, and\nan account of the laws of the exegesis of the Quran will be given in the\nnext chapter. It is sufficient now to state that this book is held in the\nhighest veneration by Muslims of every sect. When being read it is kept on\na stand elevated above the floor, and no one must read or touch it without\nfirst making a legal ablution.[2] It is not translated unless there is the\nmost urgent necessity, and even then the Arabic text is printed with the\ntranslation. It is said that God chose the sacred month of Ramazan in which\nto give all the revelations which in the form of books have been vouchsafed\nto mankind. Thus on the first night of that month the books of Abraham came\ndown from heaven; on the sixth the books of Moses; on the thirteenth the\nInjil, or Gospel, and on the twenty-seventh the Quran. On that night, the\nLaylut-ul-Qadr, or \"night of power,\" the whole Quran is said to have\ndescended to the lowest of the seven heavens, from whence it was brought\npiecemeal to Muhammad as occasion required.[3] \"Verily we have caused it\n(the Quran) to descend on the night of power.\" (Sura xcvii. 1.) That night\nis called the blessed night, the night better than a thousand months, the\nnight when angels came down by the permission of their Lord, the night\nwhich bringeth peace and blessings till the rosy dawn. Twice on that night\nin the solitude of the cave of Hira the voice called, twice though pressed\nsore \"as if a fearful weight had been laid upon him,\" the prophet struggled\n{3} against its influence. The third time he heard the words:--\n\n \"Recite thou, in the name of thy Lord who created--\n  Created man from clots of blood.\" (Sura xcvi. 5.)\n\n\"When the voice had ceased to speak, telling how from minutest beginnings\nman had been called into existence, and lifted up by understanding and\nknowledge of the Lord, who is most beneficent, and who by the pen had\nrevealed that which man did not know, Muhammad woke up from his trance and\nfelt as if \"a book had been written in his heart.\" He was much alarmed.\nTradition records that he went hastily to his wife and said--\"O Khadija!\nwhat has happened to me!\" He lay down and she watched by him. When he\nrecovered from his paroxysm, he said \"O Khadija! he of whom one would not\nhave believed (_i.e._, himself) has become either a soothsayer (kahin) or\nmad.\" She replied, \"God is my protection, O Ab-ul-kasim. He will surely not\nlet such a thing happen unto thee, for thou speakest the truth, dost not\nreturn evil for evil, keepest faith, art of a good life and art kind to thy\nrelatives and friends, and neither art thou a talker abroad in the bazaars.\nWhat has befallen thee? Hast thou seen aught terrible?\" Muhammad replied\n\"Yes.\" And he told her what he had seen. Whereupon she answered and\nsaid:--\"Rejoice, O dear husband and be of good cheer. He in whose hands\nstands Khadija's life, is my witness that thou wilt be the Prophet of this\npeople.\"[4] The next Sura, the 74th, was revealed at Mecca, after which\nthere seems to have been an intermission, called the Fatrah. It was during\nthis time that the Prophet gained some knowledge of the contents of the\nJewish and the Christian Scriptures.\n\nGabriel is believed to have been the medium of communication. This fact,\nhowever, is only once stated in the Quran:--\"Say, whoso is the enemy of\nGabriel--For he it is {4} who by God's leave hath caused the Quran to\ndescend on thy heart\" (Sura ii. 91.) This Sura was revealed some years\nafter the Prophet's flight to Madina. The other references to the\nrevelation of the Quran are:--\"Verily from the Lord of the worlds hath this\nbook come down; the Faithful Spirit (Ruh-ul-Amin) hath come down with it\"\n(Sura xxvi. 192.) \"The Quran is no other than a revelation revealed to him,\none terrible in power (Shadid-ul-Qua) taught it him.\" (Sura liii. 5.) These\nlatter passages do not state clearly that Gabriel was the medium of\ncommunication, but the belief that he was is almost, if not entirely,\nuniversal, and the Commentators say that the terms \"Ruh-ul-Amin\" and\n\"Shadid-ul-Qua\" refer to no other angel or spirit. The use of the word\n\"taught\" in the last Sura quoted, and the following expression in Sura\nlxxv. 18. \"When we have _recited it_, then follow thou the recital,\" show\nthat the Quran is entirely an objective revelation and that Muhammad was\nonly a passive medium of communication. The Muhammadan historian, Ibn\nKhaldoun, says on this point:--\"Of all the divine books the Quran is the\nonly one of which the text, words and phrases have been communicated to a\nprophet by an audible voice. It is otherwise with the Pentateuch, the\nGospel and the other divine books: the prophets received them under the\nform of ideas.\"[5] This expresses the universal belief on this point--a\nbelief which reveals the essentially mechanical nature of Islam.\n\nThe Quran thus revealed is now looked upon as the standing miracle of\nIslam. Other divine books, it is admitted, were revelations received under\nthe form of ideas, but the Quran is far superior to them all for the actual\ntext was revealed to the ear of the prophet. Thus we read in Sura lxxv.\n16-19:--\n\n{5}\n\n \"Move not thy tongue in haste to follow and master this revelation;\n  For we will see to the collecting and recital of it;\n  _But when we have recited it_, then follow thou the recital;\n  And verily it shall be ours to make it clear to thee.\"\n\nThe Quran is, then, believed to be a miraculous revelation of divine\neloquence, as regards both _form_ and _substance_, arrangement of words,\nand its revelation of sacred things. It is asserted that each\nwell-accredited prophet performed miracles in that particular department of\nhuman skill or science most flourishing in his age. Thus in the days of\nMoses magic exercised a wide influence, but all the magicians of Pharaoh's\ncourt had to submit to the superior skill of the Hebrew prophet. In the\ndays of Jesus the science of medicine flourished. Men possessed great skill\nin the art of healing; but no physician could equal the skill of Jesus, who\nnot only healed the sick, but raised the dead. In the days of Muhammad the\nspecial and most striking feature of the age was the wonderful power of the\nArabs in the art of poetry. Muhammad-ud-Damiri says:--\"Wisdom hath alighted\non three things--the brain of the Franks, the hands of the Chinese and the\ntongue of the Arabs.\" They were unrivalled for their eloquence, for the\nskill with which they arranged their material and gave expression to their\nthoughts. It is in this very particular that superior excellence is claimed\nfor the Quran.[6] It is to the Muhammadan mind a sure evidence of its\nmiraculous origin that it should excel in this respect. Muslims say that\nmiracles have followed the revelations given to other prophets in order to\nconfirm the divine message. In this case the Quran is both a revelation and\na miracle. {6} Muhammad himself said:--\"Each prophet has received manifest\nsigns which carried conviction to men: but that which I have received is\nthe revelation. So I hope to have a larger following on the day of\nresurrection than any other prophet has.\" Ibn Khaldoun says that \"by this\nthe Prophet means that such a wonderful miracle as the Quran, which is also\na revelation, should carry conviction to a very large number.\"[7] To a\nMuslim the fact is quite clear, and so to him the Quran is far superior to\nall the preceding books. Muhammad is said to have convinced a rival, Lebid,\na poet-laureate, of the truth of his mission by reciting to him a portion\nof the now second Sura. \"Unquestionably it is one of the very grandest\nspecimens of Koranic or Arabic diction.... But even descriptions of this\nkind, grand as they be, are not sufficient to kindle and preserve the\nenthusiasm and the faith and the hope of a nation like the Arabs.... The\npoets before him had sung of valour and generosity, of love and strife and\nrevenge ... of early graves, upon which weeps the morning cloud, and of the\nfleeting nature of life which comes and goes as the waves of the desert\nsands, as the tents of a caravan, as a flower that shoots up and dies away.\nOr they shoot their bitter arrows of satire right into the enemy's own\nsoul. Muhammad sang of none of these. No love-minstrelsy his, not the joys\nof the world, nor sword, nor camel, nor jealousy, nor human vengeance, not\nthe glories of tribe or ancestor. He preached Islam.\" The very fierceness\nwith which this is done, the swearing such as Arab orator, proficient\nthough he may have been in the art, had never made, the dogmatic certainty\nwith which the Prophet proclaimed his message have tended, equally with the\npassionate grandeur of his utterances, to hold the Muslim world spell-bound\nto the letter and imbued with all the narrowness of the book.\n\nSo sacred is the text supposed to be that only the {7} Companions[8] of the\nProphet are deemed worthy of being commentators on it. The work of learned\ndivines since then has been to learn the Quran by heart and to master the\ntraditions, with the writings of the earliest commentators thereon. The\nrevelation itself is never made a subject of investigation or tried by the\nordinary rules of criticism. If only the Isnad, or chain of authorities for\nany interpretation, is good, that interpretation is unhesitatingly accepted\nas the correct one. It is a fundamental article of belief that no other\nbook in the world can possibly approach near to it in thought or\nexpression. It deals with positive precepts rather than with principles.\nIts decrees are held to be binding not in the spirit merely but in the very\nletter on all men, at all times and under every circumstance of life. This\nfollows as a natural consequence from the belief in its eternal nature.\n\nThe various portions recited by the Prophet during the twenty-three years\nof his prophetical career were committed to writing by some of his\nfollowers, or treasured up in their memories. As the recital of the Quran\nformed a part of every act of public worship, and as such recital was an\nact of great religious merit, every Muslim tried to remember as much as he\ncould. He who could do so best was entitled to the highest honour, and was\noften the recipient of a substantial reward.[9] The Arab love for poetry\nfacilitated the exercise of this faculty. When the Prophet died the\nrevelation ceased. There was no distinct copy of the whole, nothing to show\nwhat was of transitory importance, what of permanent value. There is\nnothing which proves that the Prophet took any special care of any\nportions. There seems to have been no definite order in which, when the\nbook was {8} compiled, the various Suras were arranged, for the Quran, as\nit now exists, is utterly devoid of all historical or logical sequence. For\na year after the Prophet's death nothing seems to have been done; but then\nthe battle of Yemana took place in which a very large number of the best\nQuran reciters were slain. Omar took fright at this, and addressing the\nKhalif Abu Bakr, said, \"The slaughter may again wax hot amongst the\nrepeaters of the Quran in other fields of battle, and much may be lost\ntherefrom. Now, therefore, my advice is that thou shouldest give speedy\norders for the collection of the Quran.\" Abu Bakr agreed, and said to Zeid\nwho had been an amanuensis of the Prophet:--\"Thou art a young man, and\nwise, against whom no one amongst us can cast an imputation; and thou wert\nwont to write down the inspired revelations of the Prophet of the Lord,\nwherefore now search out the Quran and bring it all together.\" Zeid being\nat length pressed to undertake the task proceeded to gather the Quran\ntogether from \"date leaves, and tablets of white stone, and from the hearts\nof men.\" In course of time it was all compiled in the order in which the\nbook is now arranged. This was the authorized text for some twenty-three\nyears after the death of Muhammad. Owing, however, either to different\nmodes of recitation, or to differences of expression in the sources from\nwhich Zeid's first recension was made, a variety of different readings\ncrept into the copies in use. The Faithful became alarmed and the Khalif\nOsman was persuaded to put a stop to such a danger. He appointed Zeid with\nthree of the leading men of the Quraish as assistants to go over the whole\nwork again. A careful recension was made of the whole book which was then\nassimilated to the Meccan dialect, the purest in Arabia. After this all\nother copies of the Quran were burnt by order of the Khalif, and new\ntranscripts were made of the revised edition which was now the only\nauthorised copy. As it is a fundamental tenet of Islam that the Quran is\nincorruptible and absolutely free {9} from error, no little difficulty has\nbeen felt in explaining the need of Osman's new and revised edition and of\nthe circumstances under which it took place; but as usual a Tradition has\nbeen handed down which makes it lawful to read the Quran in seven dialects.\nThe book in its present form may be accepted as a genuine reproduction of\nAbu Bakr's edition with authoritative corrections. We may rest assured that\nwe have in the Quran now in use the record of what Muhammad said. It thus\nbecomes a fundamental basis of Islam. It was a common practice of the early\nMuslims when speaking of the Prophet to say:--\"His character is the Quran.\"\nWhen people curious to know details of the life of their beloved master\nasked 'Ayesha, one of his widows, about him, she used to reply:--\"Thou hast\nthe Quran, art thou not an Arab and readest the Arab tongue? Why dost thou\nask me, for the Prophet's disposition is no other than the Quran?\"\n\nWhether Muhammad would have arranged the Quran as we now have it is a\nsubject on which it is impossible to form an opinion. There are Traditions\nwhich seem to show that he had some doubts as to its completeness. I give\nthe following account on the authority of M. Caussin de Percival. When\nMuhammad felt his end draw near he said:--\"Bring ink and paper: I wish to\nwrite to you a book to preserve you always from error.\" But it was too\nlate. He could not write or dictate and so he said:--\"May the Quran always\nbe your guide. Perform what it commands you: avoid what it prohibits.\" The\ngenuineness of the first part of this Tradition is, I think, very doubtful,\nthe latter is quite in accordance with the Prophet's claim for his\nteaching. The letter of the book became, as Muhammad intended it should\nbecome, a despotic influence in the Muslim world, a barrier to freethinking\non the part of all the orthodox, an obstacle to innovation in all\nspheres--political, social, intellectual and moral. There are many topics\nconnected with it which can be better explained in the next chapter. All\n{10} that has now to be here stated is that the Quran is the first\nfoundation of Islam. It is an error to suppose it is the only one: an error\nwhich more than anything else has led persons away from the only position\nin which they could obtain a true idea of the great system of Islam.\n\nThe Shia'hs maintain, without good reason, that the following verses\nfavourable to the claims of 'Ali and of the Shia'h faction were omitted in\nOsman's recension.\n\n    \"O Believers! believe in the two lights. (Muhammad and 'Ali).\n\n    'Ali is of the number of the pious, we shall give him his right in the\n    day of judgment; we shall not pass over those who wish to deceive him.\n    We have honoured him above all this family. He and his family are very\n    patient. Their enemy[10] is the chief of sinners.\n\n    We have announced to thee a race of just men, men[11] who will not\n    oppose our orders. My mercy and peace are on them living[12] or dead.\n\n    As to those who walk in their way, my mercy is on them; they will\n    certainly gain the mansions of Paradise.\"\n\n2. THE SUNNAT.--The second foundation of Islam is based on the Hadis\n(plural Ahadis) or Tradition. Commands from God given in the Quran are\ncalled 'farz' and 'wajib.' A command given by the Prophet or an example set\nby him is called 'sunnat,' a word meaning a rule. It is then technically\napplied to the basis of religious faith and practice, which is founded on\ntraditional accounts of the sayings and acts of Muhammad.[13] It is the\nbelief common to all Musalmans, that the Prophet in all that he _did_, and\nin all that he _said_, was supernaturally guided, and that his words and\nacts are to all time and to all his followers a divine rule of faith and\npractice. \"We should know that God Almighty has given commands and\nprohibitions to his {11} servants, either by means of the Quran, or by the\nmouth of His Prophet.\"[14] Al-Ghazali, a most distinguished theologian,\nwrites:--\"Neither is the faith according to His will, complete by the\ntestimony to the Unity alone, that is, by simply saying, 'There is but one\nGod,' without the addition of the further testimony to the Apostle, that\nis, the statement, 'Muhammad is the apostle of God.'\" This belief in the\nProphet must extend to all that he has said concerning the present and the\nfuture life, for, says the same author, \"A man's faith is not accepted till\nhe is fully persuaded of those things which the Prophet hath affirmed shall\nbe after death.\"\n\nIt is often said that the Wahhabis reject Tradition. In the ordinary sense\nof the word Tradition they may; but in Muslim Theology the term Hadis,\nwhich we translate Tradition, has a special meaning. It is applied only to\nthe sayings of the Prophet, not to those of some uninspired divine or\nteacher. The Wahhabis reject the Traditions handed down by men who lived\nafter the time of the Companions, but the Hadis, embodying the sayings of\nthe Prophet, they, in common with _all_ Muslim sects, hold to be an\ninspired revelation of God's will to men. It would be as reasonable to say\nthat Protestants reject the four Gospels as to say that the Wahhabis reject\nTradition.[15] An orthodox Muslim places the Gospels in the same rank as\nthe Hadis, that is, he looks upon them as a record of what Jesus said and\ndid handed down to us by His Companions. \"In the same way as other Prophets\nreceived their books under the form of ideas, so our Prophet has in the\nsame way received a great number of communications which are found in the\ncollections of the {12} Traditions (Ahadis).[16] This shows that the Sunnat\nmust be placed on a level with the Jewish and Christian Scriptures; whilst\nthe Quran is a revelation superior to them all. To no sect of Musalmans is\nthe Quran alone the rule of faith. The Shia'hs, it is true, reject the\nSunnat, but they have in their own collection of Traditions an exact\nequivalent.\n\nThe nature of the inspiration of the Sunnat and its authoritative value are\nquestions of the first importance, whether Islam is viewed from a\ntheological or a political stand-point.\n\n\"Muhammad said that seventy-three sects would arise, of whom only one would\nbe worthy of Paradise. The Companions inquired which sect would be so\nhighly favoured. The Prophet replied:--'The one which remains firm in my\nway and in that of my friends.' It is certain that this must refer to the\nAhl-i-Sunnat wa Jama'at.\" (Sunnis.)[17]\n\nIt is laid down as a preliminary religious duty that obedience should be\nrendered to the Sunnat of the Prophet. Thus in the fourth Sura of the Quran\nit is written: \"O true believers! obey God and obey the apostle.\" \"We have\nnot sent any apostle but that he might be obeyed by the permission of God.\"\nFrom these and similar passages the following doctrine is deduced: \"It is\nplain that the Prophet (on whom and on whose descendants be the mercy and\npeace of God!) is free from sin in what he ordered to be done, and in what\nhe prohibited, in all his words and acts; for were it otherwise how could\nobedience rendered to him be accounted as obedience paid to God?\"[18]\nBelievers are exhorted to render obedience to God by witnessing to His\ndivinity, and to the Prophet by bearing witness to his prophetship; this is\na sign of love, and love is the cause of nearness to God. The Prophet\nhimself is reported to have {13} said, \"Obey me that God may regard you as\nfriends.\" From this statement the conclusion is drawn that \"the love of God\n(to man) is conditional on obedience to the Prophet.\" Belief in and\nobedience to the Prophet are essential elements of the true faith, and he\nwho possesses not both of these is in error.[19]\n\nIn order to show the necessity of this obedience, God is said to have\nappointed Muhammad as the Mediator between Himself and man. In a lower\nsense, believers are to follow the \"Sunnat\" of the four Khalifs, Abu Bakr,\nOmar, Osman, and 'Ali, who are true guides to men.\n\nTo the Muslim all that the Prophet did was perfectly in accord with the\nwill of God. Moral laws have a different application when applied to him.\nHis jealousy, his cruelty to the Jewish tribes, his indulgence in\nlicentiousness, his bold assertion of equality with God as regards his\ncommands, his every act and word, are sinless, and a guide to men as long\nas the world shall last. It is easy for an apologist for Muhammad to say\nthat this is an accretion, something which engrafted itself on to a simpler\nsystem. It is no such thing. It is rather one of the essential parts of the\nsystem. Let Muhammad be his own witness:--\"He who loves not my Sunnat is\nnot my follower.\" \"He who revives my Sunnat revives me, and will be with me\nin Paradise.\" \"He who in distress holds fast to the Sunnat will receive the\nreward of a hundred martyrs.\" As might be expected, the setting up of his\nown acts and words as an infallible and unvarying rule of faith accounts\nmore than anything else for the immobility of the Muhammadan world, for it\nmust be always remembered that in Islam Church and State are one. The Arab\nproverb, \"Al mulk wa din tawamini\"--country and religion are twins--is the\npopular form of expressing the unity of Church and State. {14} To the mind\nof the Musalman the rule of the one is the rule of the other,--a truth\nsometimes forgotten by politicians who look hopefully on the reform of\nTurkey or the regeneration of the House of Osman. The Sunnat as much as the\nQuran covers all law, whether political, social, moral, or religious. A\nmodern writer who has an intimate acquaintance with Islam says:--\"If Islam\nis to be a power for good in the future, it is imperatively necessary to\ncut off the social system from the religion. The difficulty lies in the\nclose connection between the religious and social ordinances in the Kuran,\nthe two are so intermingled that it is hard to see how they can be\ndisentangled without destroying both.\" I believe this to be impossible, and\nthe case becomes still more hopeless when we remember that the same remark\nwould apply to the Sunnat. To forget this is to go astray, for Ibn Khaldoun\ndistinctly speaks of \"the Law derived from the Quran and the Sunnat,\" of\nthe \"maxims of Musalman Law based on the text of the Quran and the teaching\nof the Traditions.\"[20]\n\nThe Prophet had a great dread of all innovation. The technical term for\nanything new is \"bida't,\" and of it, it is said: \"Bida't is the changer of\nSunnat.\" In other words, if men seek after things new, if fresh forms of\nthought arise, and the changing condition of society demands new modes of\nexpression for the Faith, or new laws to regulate the community, if in\ninternals or externals, any new thing (bida't) is introduced, it is to be\nshunned. The law as revealed in the Quran and the Sunnat is perfect.\nEverything not in accordance with the precepts therein contained is\ninnovation, and all innovation is heresy. Meanwhile some {15} \"bida't\" is\nallowable, such as the teaching of etymology and syntax, the establishment\nof schools, guest-houses, &c., which things did not exist in the time of\nthe Prophet; but it is distinctly and clearly laid down that compliance\nwith the least Sunnat (_i.e._ the obeying the least of the orders of the\nProphet, however trivial) is far better than doing some new thing, however\nadvantageous and desirable it may be.\n\nThere are many stories which illustrate the importance the Companions of\nthe Prophet attached to Sunnat. \"The Khalif Omar looked towards the black\nstone at Mecca, and said, 'By God, I know that thou art only a stone, and\ncanst grant no benefit, canst do no harm. If I had not known that the\nProphet kissed thee, I would not have done so, but on account of that I do\nit.'\" Abdullah-Ibn-'Umr was seen riding his camel round and round a certain\nplace. In answer to an inquiry as to his reason for so doing he said: \"I\nknow not, only I have seen the Prophet do so here.\" Ahmad-Ibn-Hanbal, one\nof the four great Imams, and the founder of the Hanbali school of\ninterpretation, is said to have been appointed on account of the care with\nwhich he observed the Sunnat. One day when sitting in an assembly he alone\nof all present observed some formal custom authorised by the practice of\nthe Prophet. Gabriel at once appeared and informed him that now, and on\naccount of his act, he was appointed an Imam.[21] In short, it is\ndistinctly laid down that the best of all works is the following of the\npractice of Muhammad. The essence of religion has been stated by a learned\ntheologian to consist of three things: first, to follow the Prophet in\nmorals and in acts; secondly, to eat only lawful food; thirdly, to be\nsincere in all actions.\n\n{16}\n\nThe Sunnat is now known to Musalmans through the collections of Traditions\ngathered together by the men whose names they now bear. The whole are\ncalled Sihah-Sittah, or \"six correct books.\" Not one of these collectors\nflourished until the third century of the Hijra, and so, as may be easily\nsupposed, their work has not passed unchallenged. There is by no means an\nabsolute consensus of opinion among the Sunnis as to the exact value of\neach Tradition, yet all admit that a 'genuine Tradition' must be obeyed.\nWhether the Prophet spoke what in the Traditions is recorded as spoken by\nhim under the influence of the highest kind of inspiration is, as will be\nshown in the next chapter, a disputed point; but it matters little.\nWhatever may have been the degree, it was according to Muslim belief a real\ninspiration, and thus his every act and word became a law as binding upon\nhis followers as the example of Christ is upon Christians.\n\nThe Shia'hs do not acknowledge the Sihah-Sittah, the six correct books of\nthe Sunnis, but it by no means follows that they reject Tradition. They\nhave five books of Traditions, the earliest of which was compiled by Abu\nJa'far Muhammad A.H. 329, or a century later than the Sahih-i-Bukhari, the\nmost trustworthy of the Sunni set. Thus all Musalman sects accept the first\nand second ground of the faith--the Quran and the Sunnat--as the inspired\nwill of God; the Shia'hs substituting in the place of the Traditions on\nwhich the Sunnat is based, a collection of their own. What it is important\nto maintain is this, that the Quran alone is to no Musalman an\nall-sufficient guide.\n\n3. IJMA'.--The third foundation of the Faith is called Ijma', a word\nsignifying to be collected or assembled. Technically it means the unanimous\nconsent of the leading theologians, or what in Christian theology would be\ncalled the \"unanimous consent of the Fathers.\" Practically it is a\ncollection of the opinions of the Companions, the Tabi'in and the\nTaba-i-Tabi'in. \"The Law,\" says Ibn Khaldoun {17} \"is grounded on the\ngeneral accord of the Companions and their followers.\" The election of Abu\nBakr to the Khalifate is called Ijma'-i-Ummat, the unanimous consent of the\nwhole sect. The Companions of the Prophet had special knowledge of the\nvarious circumstances under which special revelations had been made; they\nalone knew which verses of the Quran abrogated others, and which verses\nwere thus abrogated. The knowledge of these matters and many other details\nthey handed on to their successors, the Tabi'in, who passed the information\non to their followers, the Taba-i-Tabi'in. Some Muslims, the Wahhabis for\nexample, accept only the Ijma' of the Companions; and by all sects that is\nplaced in the first rank as regards authority; others accept that of the\n'Fugitives' who dwelt at Madina; and there are some amongst the orthodox\nwho allow, as a matter of theory, that Ijma' may be collected at any time,\nbut that practically it is not done because there are now no Mujtahidin.\nThe highest rank a Muslim Theologian could reach was that of a Mujtahid, or\none who could make an Ijtihad, a word which, derived from the same root as\nJihad (a Crescentade), means in its technical sense a logical deduction. It\nis defined as the \"attaining to a certain degree of authority in searching\ninto the principles of jurisprudence.\" The origin of Ijtihad was as\nfollows:--Muhammad wished to send a man named Mu'az to Yaman to receive\nsome money collected for alms, which he was then to distribute to the poor.\nOn appointing him he said: \"O Mu'az, by what rule will you act?\" He\nreplied, \"by the Law of the Quran.\" \"But if you find no direction therein?\"\n\"Then I will act according to the Sunnat of the Prophet.\" \"But what if that\nfails?\" \"Then I will make an Ijtihad and act on that.\" The Prophet raised\nhis hands and said, \"Praise be to God who guides the messenger of His\nProphet in what He pleases.\"[22] This is considered a proof of the\nauthority of Ijtihad for the Prophet clearly sanctioned it.\n\n{18}\n\nWhen the Prophet was alive men could go to him with their doubts and fears:\nan infallible authority was always present ready to give an inspired\ndirection. The Khalifs who succeeded the Prophet had only to administer the\nLaw according to the opinions which they knew Muhammad had held. They were\nbusily engaged in carrying on the work of conquest; they neither attempted\nany new legislation, nor did they depart from the practice of him whom they\nrevered. \"In the first days of Islam, the knowledge of the Law was purely\nTraditional. In forming their judgments they had no recourse either to\nspeculation, to private opinion, or to arguments founded upon analogy.\"[23]\nHowever, as the Empire grew, new conditions of life arose, giving rise to\nquestions, concerning which Muhammad had given no explicit direction. This\nnecessitated the use of Ijtihad. During the Khalifates of Abu Bakr, Omar,\nOsman and 'Ali--the Khulafa-i-Rashidin, or the Khalifs who could guide men\nin the right way, the custom was for the Faithful to consult them as to the\ncourse of action to be pursued under some new development of circumstances;\nfor they knew as none other did the Prophet's sayings and deeds, they could\nrecall to their memories a saying or an act from which a decision could be\ndeduced. In this way all Muslims could feel that in following their\njudgments and guidance they were walking in the right path. But after the\ndeath of 'Ali, the fourth Khalif, civil war and hostile factions imperilled\nthe continuance of the Faith in its purity. At Madina, where Muhammad's\ncareer as a recognised Prophet was best known, devout men commenced to\nlearn by heart the Quran, the Sunnat, and the analogical judgments\n(Ijtihad) of the four Khalifs. These men were looked up to as authorities,\nand their decisions were afterwards known as the 'Customs of Madina.'\n\nIt is not difficult to see that a system, which sought to regulate all\ndepartments of life, all developments of men's ideas and energies by the\nSunnat and analogical deductions {19} therefrom, was one which not only\ngave every temptation a system could give to the manufacture of Tradition,\nbut one which would soon become too cumbersome to be of practical use.\nHence, it was absolutely necessary to systematize all this incoherent mass\nof Tradition, of judgments given by Khalifs and Mujtahidin. This gave rise\nto the systems of jurisprudence, founded by the four orthodox Imams, to one\nor other of which all Muslims, except the Shia'hs, belong. These Imams, Abu\nHanifa, Ibn Malik, As-Shafi'i and Ibn Hanbal were all Mujtahidin of the\nhighest rank. After them it is the orthodox belief that there has been no\nMujtahid. Thus in a standard theological book much used in India it is\nwritten: \"Ijma' is this, that it is not lawful to follow any other than the\nfour Imams.\" \"In these days the Qazi must make no order, the Mufti give no\nfatva (_i.e._ a legal decision), contrary to the opinion of the four\nImams.\" \"To follow any other is not lawful.\" So far then as orthodoxy is\nconcerned, change and progress are impossible.\n\nImam Abu Hanifa was born at Basra (A.H. 80), but he spent the greater part\nof his life at Kufa. He was the founder and teacher of the body of legists\nknown as 'the jurists of Irak.' His system differs considerably from that\nof the Imam Malik who, living at Madina, confined himself chiefly to\nTradition as the basis of his judgments. Madina was full of the memories of\nthe sayings and acts of the Prophet; Kufa, the home of Hanifa, on the\ncontrary, was not founded till after the Prophet's death and so possessed\nnone of his memories. Islam there came into contact with other races of\nmen, but from them it had nothing to learn. If these men became Muslims,\nwell and good: if not, the one law for them as for the Faithful was the\nteaching of Muhammad. Various texts of the Quran are adduced to prove the\ncorrectness of this position. \"For to thee have we sent down the book which\ncleareth up every thing.\" (Sura xvi. 91) \"Nothing have we passed over in\nthe book.\" (Sura vi. {20} 38.) \"Neither is there a grain in the darkness of\nthe earth nor a thing green or sere, but it is noted in a distinct\nwriting.\" (Sura vi. 59). These texts were held to prove that all law was\nprovided for by anticipation in the Quran. If a verse could not be found\nbearing on any given question, analogical deduction was resorted to. Thus:\n\"He it is who created _for you_ all that is on earth.\" (Sura ii. 27).\nAccording to the Hanifite jurists, this is a deed of gift which annuls all\nother rights of property. The 'you' refers to Muslims. The earth[24] may be\nclassified under three heads:--(1) land which never had an owner; (2) land\nwhich had an owner and has been abandoned; (3) the person and property of\nthe Infidels. From the last division the same legists deduce the lawfulness\nof slavery, piracy and constant war against the unbelievers. To return to\nAbu Hanifa. He admitted very few Traditions as authoritative in his system,\nwhich claims to be a logical development from the Quran. \"The merit of\nlogical fearlessness cannot be denied to it. The wants and wishes of men,\nthe previous history of a country--all those considerations, in fact, which\nare held in the West to be the governing principles of legislation, are set\naside by the legists of Irak as being of no account whatever. Legislation\nis not a science inductive and experimental, but logical and\ndeductive.\"[25]\n\nImam Ibn Malik was born at Madina (A.H. 93) and his system of jurisprudence\nis founded, as might be expected from his connection with the sacred city,\non the \"Customs of Madina.\" His business was to arrange and systematize the\nTraditions current in Madina, and to form out of them and the \"Customs\" a\nsystem of jurisprudence embracing the whole sphere of life. The treatise\ncomposed by him was called the \"Muwatta\" or \"The Beaten Path.\" The greater\npart of its contents are legal maxims and opinions {21} delivered by the\nCompanions. His system of jurisprudence, therefore, has been described as\nhistorical and traditional. In an elegy on his death by Abu Muhammad Ja'far\nit is said: \"His Traditions were of the greatest authority; his gravity was\nimpressive; and when he delivered them, all his auditors were plunged in\nadmiration.\"[26] The Traditions were his great delight. \"I delight,\" said\nhe, \"in testifying my profound respect for the sayings of the Prophet of\nGod, and I never repeat one unless I feel myself in a state of perfect\npurity,\"[27] (_i.e._, after performing a legal ablution.) As death\napproached, his one fear was lest he should have exercised his private\njudgment in delivering any legal opinion. In his last illness a friend went\nto visit him, and enquiring why he wept, received the following answer:\n\"Why should I not weep, and who has more right to weep than I? By Allah! I\nwish I had been flogged and reflogged for every question of law on which I\npronounced an opinion founded on my own private judgment.\"[28]\n\nImam As-Shafa'i, a member of the Quraish tribe, was born A.H. 150. He\npassed his youth at Mecca but finally settled in Cairo where he died (A.H.\n204). Ibn Khallikan relates of him that he was unrivalled for his knowledge\nof the Quran, the Sunnat, and the sayings of the Companions. \"Never,\" said\nImam Ibn Hanbal, \"have I passed a night without praying for God's mercy and\nblessing upon As-Shafi'i.\" \"Whosoever pretends,\" said Abu Thaur, \"that he\nsaw the like of As-Shafi'i for learning is a liar.\" Having carefully\nstudied the systems of the two preceding Imams he then proceeded on an\neclectic system to form his own. It was a reaction against the system of\nAbu Hanifa. As-Shafi'i follows rather the traditional plan of Ibn Malik.\nThe Hanifite will be satisfied if, in the absence of a clear and a direct\nstatement, he finds one {22} passage in the Quran, or one Tradition from\nwhich the required judgment may be deduced. The Shafi'ite in the same\ncircumstances, if Tradition is the source of his deduction, will require a\nconsiderable number of Traditions from which to make it.\n\nImam Ibn Hanbal was the last of the four Orthodox Imams. He was born at\nBaghdad (A.H. 164). His system is a distinct return to Traditionalism. He\nlived at Baghdad during the reign of the Khalif Mamun, when Orthodox Islam\nseemed in danger of being lost amid the rationalistic speculations, (that\nis, from an Orthodox Muslim stand-point), and licentious practices of the\nCourt. The jurists most in favour at Court were followers of Abu Hanifa.\nThey carried the principle of analogical deduction to dangerous lengths in\norder to satisfy the latitudinarianism of the Khalif. Human speculation\nseemed to be weakening all the essentials of the Faith. Ibn Hanbal met the\ndifficulty by discarding altogether the principle of analogical deduction.\nAt the same time he saw that the Maliki system, founded as it was on the\n\"Customs of Madina,\" was ill-suited to meet the wants of a great and\ngrowing Empire. It needed to be supplemented. What better, what surer\nground could he go upon than the Traditions. These at least were inspired,\nand thus formed a safer foundation on which to build a system of\njurisprudence than the analogical deductions of Abu Hanifa did. The system\nof Ibn Hanbal has almost ceased to exist. There is now no Mufti of this\nsect at Mecca, though the other three are represented there. Still his\ninfluence is felt to this day in the importance he attached to Tradition.\n\nThe distinction between the four Imams has been put in this way. Abu Hanifa\nexercised his own judgment. Malik and Hanbal preferred authority and\nprecedent. As-Shafi'i entirely repudiated reason. They differ, too, as\nregards the value of certain Traditions, but to each of them an authentic\nTradition is an incontestable authority. Their {23} opinion on points of\ndoctrine and practice forms the third basis of the Faith.\n\nThe Ijma' of the four Imams is a binding law upon all Sunnis. It might be\nsupposed that as the growing needs of the Empire led to the formation of\nthese schools of interpretation; so now the requirements of modern, social\nand political life might be met by fresh Imams making new analogical\ndeductions. This is not the case. The orthodox belief is, that since the\ntime of the four Imams there has been no Mujtahid who could do as they did.\nIf circumstances should arise which absolutely require some decision to be\narrived at, it must be given in full accordance with the 'mazhab,' or\nschool of interpretation, to which the person framing the decision\nbelongs.[29] This effectually prevents all change, and by excluding\ninnovation, whether good or bad, keeps Islam stationary. Legislation is now\npurely deductive. Nothing must be done contrary to the principles contained\nin the jurisprudence of the four Imams. \"Thus, in any Muhammadan State\nlegislative reforms are simply impossible. There exists no initiative. The\nSultan, or Khalif can claim the allegiance of his people only so long as he\nremains the exact executor of the prescriptions of the Law.\"\n\nThe question then as regards the politics of the \"Eastern {24} Question\" is\nnot whether Muhammad was a deceiver or self-deceived, an apostle or an\nimpostor; whether the Quran is on the whole good or bad; whether Arabia was\nthe better or the worse for the change Muhammad wrought; but what Islam as\na religious and political system has become and is, how it now works, what\nOrthodox Muslims believe and how they act in that belief. The essence of\nthat belief is, that the system as taught by Prophet, Khalifs and Imams is\nabsolutely perfect.[30] Innovation is worse than a mistake. It is a crime,\na sin. This completeness, this finality of his system of religion and\npolity, is the very pride and glory of a true Muslim. To look for an\nincrease of light in the knowledge of his relation to God and the unseen\nworld, in the laws which regulate Islam on earth is to admit that\nMuhammad's revelation was incomplete, and that admission no Muslim will\nmake.\n\nIt has been stated on high authority that all that is required for the\nreform of Turkey is that the Qanuns or orders of the Sultan should take the\nplace of the Shari'at or law of Islam. Precisely so; if this could be done,\nTurkey might be reformed; but Islam would cease to be the religion of the\nState. That the law as formulated by the Imam Abu Hanifa ill suits the\nconditions of modern life is more than probable; but it is the very\nfunction of the Khalif of Islam, {25} which the Sultan claims to be, to\nmaintain it. He is no Mujtahid, for such there are not now amongst the\nSunnis, to which sect the Turks belong. If through stress of circumstances\nsome new law must be made, orthodoxy demands that it should be strictly in\naccordance with the opinions of the Imams. The Shia'hs, in opposition to\nthe Sunnis, hold that there are still Mujtahidin, but this opinion arises\nfrom their peculiar doctrine of the Imamat, a subject we shall discuss a\nlittle later on. At first sight it would seem that if there can be\nMujtahidin who are now able to give authoritative opinions, there may be\nsome hope of enlightened progress amongst Shia'h people--the Persians for\nexample. There is doubtless amongst them more religious unrest, more\nmysticism, more heresy, but they are no further on the road of progress\nthan their neighbours; and the apparent advantage of the presence of a\nMujtahid is quite nullified by the fact that all his decisions must be\nstrictly in accordance with the Quran and the Sunnat, or rather with what\nto the Shia'h stands in the place of the Sunnat. The Shia'h, as well as the\nSunni, must base all legislation on the fossilized system of the past, not\non the living needs of the present. Precedent rules both with an iron sway.\nThe Wahhabis reject all Ijma' except that of the Companions, but that they\naccept; so when they are called the Puritans of Islam, it must be\nremembered that they accept as a rule of faith not only the Quran, but the\nSunnat, and some Ijma'.\n\nIn order to make Ijma' binding, it is necessary that the Mujtahidin should\nhave been unanimous in their opinion or in their practice.\n\nThe whole subject of Ijtihad is one of the most important in connection\nwith the possibility of reforms in a Muslim state. A modern Muhammadan\nwriter[31] seeking to show that Islam does possess a capacity for progress\nand that so far from being a hard and fast system, it is able to adapt\nitself to new circumstances, because the Prophet ushered in {26} \"an age of\nactive principles,\" uses the story I have already related when describing\nthe origin of Ijtihad (Ante. p. 17) to prove the accuracy of his statement.\nHe makes Mu'az to say:--\"I will look first to the Quran, then to precedents\nof the Prophet, and lastly rely upon my _own judgment_.\" It is true that\nIjtihad literally means 'great effort,' it is true that the Companions and\nMujtahidin of the first class had the power of exercising their judgment in\ndoubtful cases, and of deciding them according to their sense of the\nfitness of things, provided always, that their decision contravened no law\nof the Quran or the Sunnat; but this in no way proves that Islam has any\ncapacity for progress, or that \"an age of active principles\" was ushered in\nby Muhammad, or that his \"words breathe energy and force, and infuse new\nlife into the dormant heart of humanity.\" For, though the term Ijtihad\nmight, in reference to the men I have mentioned, be somewhat freely\ntranslated as \"one's own judgment,\" it can have no such meaning now. It is\na purely technical term, and its use and only use now is to express the\n\"referring of a difficult case to some analogy drawn from the Quran and the\nSunnat.\" But even were the meaning not thus restricted, even though it\nmeant now as it sometimes meant at first, \"one's own judgment;\" still Syed\nAmir 'Ali's position would remain to be proved for, since the days of the\nfour Imams, the orthodox believe that there has been no Mujtahid of the\nfirst class, and to none but men of this rank has such power ever been\naccorded. Thus granting, for the sake of argument merely, that the Syed's\ntranslation is grammatically and technically correct, all that results from\nit is that the \"age of active principles\" lasted only for two centuries. I\ndo not admit that there ever was such an age in Islam, and certainly\nneither its theological development, nor its political growth negative the\nopposite assertion, _viz._, that Muhammad gave precepts rather than\nprinciples. The Turks are included in \"the dormant heart of humanity,\" but\nit is difficult to see what \"energy and {27} force\" is breathed, what \"new\nlife is infused\" into them by the \"wonderful words\" of the Prophet, or what\nlasting good the \"age of active principles\" has produced.\n\n4. QIAS is the fourth foundation of Islam. The word literally means\nreasoning, comparing. It is in common use in Hindustani and Persian in the\nsense of guessing, considering, &c. Technically, it means the analogical\nreasoning of the learned with regard to the teaching of the Quran, the\nSunnat and the Ijma'. For example, the Quran says:--\"Honour thy father and\nthy mother and be not a cause of displeasure to them.\" It is evident from\nthis that disobedience to parents is prohibited, and prohibition implies\npunishment if the order is disobeyed. Again, if the Quran and the Sunnat\nhold children responsible, according to their means, for the debts of their\nfather, does it not follow that the elder ones ought to fulfil for their\nparents all those obligations which for some reason or other the parents\nmay not be able to perform, such as the pilgrimage to Mecca, &c. A\nTradition said to come from the Companions runs thus:--\"One day, a woman\ncame to the Prophet and said, 'my father died without making the\nPilgrimage.' The Prophet said, 'If thy father had left a debt what wouldest\nthou do,' 'I would pay the debt.' 'Good, then pay this debt also.'\" The\nQuran forbids the use of Khamar, an intoxicating substance, and so it is\nargued that wine and opium are unlawful, though not forbidden by name. The\nWahhabis would extend the prohibition to the use of tobacco.\n\nFrom cases such as these, many jurisconsults hold that the Mujtahidin of\nthe earliest age established this fourth foundation of the faith which they\ncall Qias. It is also called I'tibar-ul-Amsal, or \"imitation of an\nexample.\" The idea is taken from the verse: \"Profit by this example, ye who\nare men of insight\" (Sura lix. 2). There are strict rules laid down which\nregulate Qias, of which the most important is, that in all cases it must be\nbased on the Quran, the Sunnat, and the Ijma'. In fact, the fundamental\nidea of Islam {28} is that a perfect law has been given, even unto details,\nof social and political life. The teaching of Muhammad contains the\nsolution of every difficulty that can arise. Every law not provided by the\nProphet must be deduced analogically. This produces uniformity after a\nfashion, but only because intellectual activity in higher pursuits ceases\nand moral stagnation follows. Thus all who come within the range of this\nsystem are bound down to political servitude. Whatever in feeling or\nconviction goes beyond the limits of an out-worn set of laws is swept away.\nThere is a wonderful family likeness in the decay of all Musalman States,\nwhich seems to point to a common cause. All first principles are contained\nin the Quran and the Sunnat; all that does not coincide with them must be\nwrong. They are above all criticism.\n\nQias, then, affords no hope of enlightened progress, removes no fetter of\nthe past, for in it there must be no divergence in principle from a\nlegislation imperfect in its relation to modern life and stationary in its\nessence.[32] In the Nihayat-ul-Murad it is written:--\"We are shut up to\nfollowing the four Imams.\" In the Tafsir-i-Ahmadi we read:--\"To follow any\nother than the four Imams is unlawful.\" An objector may say that such\nrespect is like the reverence the heathen pay to their ancestors. To this\nan answer is given in the preface to the Tarjuma-i-Sharh-i-Waqayah. The\nwriter there says that it is nothing of the kind. \"The Mujtahidin are not\nthe source of the orders of the Law, but they are the medium by which we\nobtain the Law. Thus Imam Abu Hanifa said: 'We select first from the Quran,\nthen from the Traditions, then from the decrees of the Companions; we act\non what the Companions agreed upon; where they doubt, we doubt.' The\nCommentator Jelal-ud-din Mahli says, 'The common people and others who have\n{29} not reached the rank of a Mujtahid, must follow one of the four\nImams.' Then when he enters one Mazhab (sect) he must not change. Again, it\nmay be objected that God gave no order about the appointment of four Imams.\nNow, it is recorded in a Tradition that the Prophet said, 'Follow the way\nof the great company; whosoever departs from it will enter hell.' The\nFollowers of the Imams are a great company.\" It is moreover the unanimous\nopinion, the \"Ijma'-i-Ummat,\" that the Imams rightly occupy the position\naccorded to them. It is a great blessing, as we read in the\nTafsir-i-Ahmadi: \"It is of the grace of God, that we are shut up to these\nfour Imams. God approves of this, and into this matter proofs and\nexplanations do not enter.\" Should any one further object that, in the days\nof the Prophet, there were no Mujtahidin, that each man acted on a \"saying\"\nas he heard it, that he did not confine his belief or conduct to the\ndeductions made by some \"appointed Companion,\" he may be answered\nthus:--\"For a long time after the death of the Prophet many Companions were\nalive, and consequently the Traditions then current were trustworthy; but\nnow it is not so, hence the need for the Imams and their systems.\"\n\nThese four foundations,--the QURAN, the SUNNAT, IJMA' and QIAS--form in\northodox Muslim opinion and belief a perfect basis of a perfect religion\nand polity. They secure the permanence of the system, but they repress an\nintelligent growth. The bearing of all this on modern politics is very\nplain. Take again the case of Turkey. The constitution of the Government is\ntheocratic. The germs of freedom are wanting there as they have never been\nwanting in any other country in Europe. The ruling power desires no change;\noriginality of thought, independence of judgment is repressed. Nothing good\nhas the Turk ever done for the world.[33] This rule has been one continued\ndisplay of brute {30} force unrelieved by any of the reflected glory which\nshone for a while in Cordova and in Baghdad. No nation can possibly\nprogress, the foundations of whose legal and theocratic system are what has\nbeen described in this chapter. When brought into diplomatic and commercial\nintercourse with States possessing the energy and vigour of a national life\nand liberal constitution, Muslim kingdoms must, in the long run, fail and\npass away. It has been well said that \"Spain is the only instance of a\ncountry once thoroughly infused with Roman civilisation which has been\nactually severed from the empire; and even then the severance, though of\nlong duration, was but partial and temporary. After a struggle of nearly\neight centuries, the higher form of social organisation triumphed over the\nlower and the usurping power of Islam was expelled.\" So it ought to be, and\nso indeed it must ever be, for despotism must give way to freedom; the life\nlatent in the subject Christian communities must sooner or later cast off\nthe yoke of a barbarian rule, which even at its best is petrified and so is\nincapable of progress. However low a Christian community may have fallen,\nthere is always the possibility of its rising again. A lofty ideal is\nplaced before it. All its most cherished beliefs point forward and upward.\nIn Islam there is no regenerative power. Its golden age was in the past.\nWhen the work of conquest is done, when a Muhammadan nation has to live by\nindustry, intelligence and thrift, it always miserably fails.\n\nIn this chapter which must now draw to a close, I have tried to prove from\nauthentic and authoritative sources that {31} the Quran alone is to no\nMuslim the sole guide of life. The fetters of a dogmatic system fasten\nalike around the individual and the community. Islam is sterile, it gives\nno new birth to the spirit of a man, leads him not in search of new forms\nof truth, and so it can give no real life, no lasting vitality to a\nnation.[34]\n\n{32}\n\n    NOTE TO CHAPTER I.\n\n    IJTIHAD.\n\n    Questions connected with Ijtihad are so important in Islam, that I\n    think it well to give in the form of a note a fuller and more technical\n    account of it, than I could do in the Chapter just concluded. This\n    account which I shall now give is that of a learned Musalman, and is,\n    therefore, of the highest value. It consists of extracts from an\n    article in the Journal Asiatique, Quatrieme Serie, tome, 15, on \"Le\n    Marche et les Progres de la Jurisprudence parmi les Sectes orthodoxes\n    Musalmanes\" by Mirza Kazim Beg, Professor in the University of St.\n    Petersburg. It entirely supports all that has been said of the rigid\n    character of Muhammadan Law, and of the immobility of systems founded\n    thereon.\n\n    \"Orthodox Musalmans admit the following propositions as axioms.\n\n    1. God the only legislator has shown the way of felicity to the people\n    whom He has chosen, and in order to enable them to walk in that way He\n    has shown to them the precepts which are found, partly in the eternal\n    Quran, and partly in the sayings of the Prophet transmitted to\n    posterity by the Companions and preserved in the Sunnat. That way is\n    called the \"Shari'at.\" The rules thereof are called Ahkam.\n\n    2. The Quran and the Sunnat, which since their manifestation are the\n    primitive sources of the orders of the Law, form two branches of study,\n    _viz._, Ilm-i-Tafsir, or the interpretation of the Quran and\n    Ilm-i-Hadis, or the study of Tradition.\n\n    3. All the orders of the Law have regard either to the actions (Din),\n    or to the belief (Iman) of the Mukallifs.[35]\n\n    4. As the Quran and the Sunnat are the principal sources from whence\n    the precepts of the Shari'at have been drawn, so the rules recognized\n    as the principal elements of actual jurisprudence are the subject of\n    Ilm-i-Fiqh, or the science of Law.\n\n    Fiqh in its root signifies conception, comprehension. Thus Muhammad\n    prayed for Ibn Mas'ud: \"May God make him {33} comprehend (Faqqihahu),\n    and make him know the interpretation of the Quran.\" Muhammad in his\n    quality of Judge and chief of the Believers decided, without appeal or\n    contradiction, all the affairs of the people. His sayings served as a\n    guide to the Companions. After the death of the Prophet the first\n    Khalifs acted on the authority of the Traditions. Meanwhile the Quran\n    and the Sunnat, the principal elements of religion and legislation,\n    became little by little the subject of controversy. It was then that\n    men applied themselves vigorously to the task of learning by heart the\n    Quran and the Traditions, and then that jurisprudence became a separate\n    science. No science had as yet been systematically taught, and the\n    early Musalmans did not possess books which would serve for such\n    teaching. A change soon, however, took place. In the year in which the\n    great jurisconsult of Syria died (A.H. 80) N'iman bin Sabit, surnamed\n    Abu Hanifa was born. He is the most celebrated of the founders of the\n    schools of jurisprudence, a science which ranks first in all Muslim\n    seats of learning. Until that time and for thirty years later the\n    Mufassirs,[36] the Muhaddis,[37] and the Fuqiha,[38] had all their\n    knowledge by heart, and those who possessed good memories were highly\n    esteemed. Many of them knew by heart the whole Quran with the comments\n    made on it by the Prophet and by the Companions; they also knew the\n    Traditions and their explanations, and all the commands (Ahkam) which\n    proceed from the Quran, and the Sunnat. Such men enjoyed the right of\n    Mujtahidin. They transmitted their knowledge to their scholars orally.\n    It was not till towards the middle of the second century A.H. that\n    treatises on the different branches of the Law were written, after\n    which six schools (Mazhabs) of jurisprudence were formed. The founders,\n    all Imams of the first class, were Abu Hanifa, the Imam-i-A'zam or\n    great Imam (A.H. 150),[39] Safian As-Sauri (A.H. 161), Malik (A.H.\n    179), As-Shafa'i (A.H. 204), Hanbal (A.H. 241) and Imam Daud Az-Zahari\n    (A.H. 270). The two sects founded by Sauri and Zahari became extinct in\n    the eighth century of the Hijra. The other four still remain. These men\n    venerated one another. The younger ones speak with great respect of the\n    elder. Thus Shafa'i said:--\"No one in the world was so well versed in\n    jurisprudence as Abu Hanifa was, and he who has read neither his works,\n    nor those of his disciples knows nothing of jurisprudence.\" Hanbal when\n    sick wore a shirt which had belonged to Shafa'i, in order that he might\n    be cured of his malady; but all this {34} did not prevent them starting\n    schools of their own, for the right of Ijtihad is granted to those who\n    are real Mujtahidin. There are three degrees of Ijtihad.\n\n    1. Al-Ijtihad fi'l Shari': absolute independence in legislation\n\n    2. Al-Ijtihad fi'l Mazhab: authority in the judicial systems founded by\n    the Mujtahidin of the first class.\n\n    3. Al-Ijtihad fi'l Masail: authority in cases which have not been\n    decided by the authors of the four systems of jurisprudence.\n\n    The first is called a complete and absolute authority, the second\n    relative, the third special.\n\n    THE FIRST DEGREE OF IJTIHAD.\n\n    Absolute independence in legislation is the gift of God. He to whom it\n    is given when seeking to discover the meaning of the Divine Law is not\n    bound to follow any other teacher. He can use his own judgment. This\n    gift was bestowed on the jurisconsults of the first, and to some in the\n    second and third centuries. The Companions, however, who were closely\n    connected with the Prophet, having transmitted immediately to their\n    posterity the treasures of legislation, are looked upon as Mujtahidin\n    of much higher authority than those of the second and third centuries.\n    Thus Abu Hanifa says:--\"That which comes to us from the Companions is\n    on our head and eyes (_i.e._, to be received with respect): as to that\n    which comes from the Tabi'in, they are men and we are men.\"\n\n    Since the time of the Tabi'in this degree of Ijtihad has only been\n    conferred on the six great Imams. Theoretically any Muslim can attain\n    to this degree, but it is one of the principles of jurisprudence that\n    the confirmation of this rank is dependent on many conditions, and so\n    no one now gains the honour. These conditions are:--\n\n    1. The knowledge of the Quran and all that is related to it; that is to\n    say, a complete knowledge of Arabic literature, a profound acquaintance\n    with the orders of the Quran and all their sub-divisions, their\n    relationship to each other and their connection with the orders of the\n    Sunnat. The candidate should know when, and why each verse of the Quran\n    was written, he should have a perfect acquaintance with the literal\n    meaning of the words, the speciality or generality of each clause, the\n    abrogating and abrogated sentences. He should be able to make clear the\n    meaning of the 'obscure' passages (Mutashabih), to discriminate between\n    the literal and the allegorical, the universal and the particular.\n\n    2. He must know the Quran by heart with all the Traditions and\n    explanations. {35}\n\n    3. He must have a perfect knowledge of the Traditions, or at least of\n    three thousand of them.\n\n    He must know their source, history, object and their connection with\n    the laws of the Quran. He should know by heart the most important\n    Traditions.\n\n    4. A pious and austere life.\n\n    5. A profound knowledge of all the sciences of the Law.\n\n    Should any one _now_ aspire to such a degree another condition would be\n    added, _viz_:--\n\n    6. A complete knowledge of the four schools of jurisprudence.\n\n    The obstacles, then, are almost insurmountable. On the one hand, there\n    is the severity of the 'Ulama, which requires from the candidate things\n    almost impossible; on the other, there is the attachment of the 'Ulama\n    to their own Imams, for should such a man arise no one is bound now to\n    listen to him. Imam Hanbal said:--\"Draw your knowledge from whence the\n    Imams drew theirs, and do not content yourself with following others\n    for that is certainly blindness of sight\". Thus the schools of the four\n    Imams remain intact after a thousand years have passed, and so the\n    'Ulama recognise since the time of these Imams no Mujtahid of the first\n    degree. Ibn Hanbal was the last.\n\n    The rights of the man who attained to this degree were very important.\n    He was not bound to be a disciple of another, he was a mediator between\n    the Law and his followers, for whom he established a system of\n    legislation, without any one having the right to make any objection. He\n    had the right to explain the Quran, the Sunnat and the Ijma' according\n    as he understood them. He used the Prophet's words, whilst his\n    disciples only used his. Should a disciple find some discrepancy\n    between a decision of his own Imam and the Quran or Traditions, he must\n    abide by the decision of the Imam. The Law does not permit him to\n    interpret after his own fashion. When once the disciple has entered the\n    sect of one Imam he cannot leave it and join another. He loses the\n    right of private judgment, for only a Mujtahid of the first class can\n    dispute the decision of one of the Imams. Theoretically such Mujtahidin\n    may still arise; but, as we have already shown, practically they do\n    not.\n\n    THE SECOND DEGREE OF IJTIHAD.\n\n    This degree has been granted to the immediate disciples of the great\n    Imams who have elaborated the systems of their masters. They enjoyed\n    the special consideration of the contemporary 'Ulama, and of their\n    respective Imams who in some cases have allowed them {36} to retain\n    their own opinion.' The most famous of these men are the two disciples\n    of Abu Hanifa, Abu Yusuf and Muhammad bin al Hasan. In a secondary\n    matter their opinion carries great weight. It is laid down as a rule\n    that a Mufti may follow the unanimous opinion of these two even when it\n    goes against that of Abu Hanifa.\n\n    THE THIRD DEGREE OF IJTIHAD.\n\n    This is the degree of special independence. The candidates for it\n    should have a perfect knowledge of all the branches of jurisprudence\n    according to the four schools of the Arabic language and literature.\n    They can solve cases which come before them, giving reasons for their\n    judgment, or decide on cases which have not been settled by previous\n    Mujtahidin; but in either case their decisions must always be in\n    absolute accordance with the opinions of the Mujtahidin of the first\n    and second classes, and with the principles which guided them. Many of\n    these men attained great celebrity during their lifetime, but to most\n    of them this rank is not accorded till after their death. Since Imam\n    Qazi Khan died (A.H. 592), no one has been recognised by the Sunnis as\n    a Mujtahid even of the third class.\n\n    There are three other inferior classes of jurists, called Muqallidin,\n    or followers of the Mujtahidin; but all that the highest in rank\n    amongst them can do is to explain obscure passages in the writings of\n    the older jurisconsults. By some of the 'Ulama they are considered to\n    be equal to the Mujtahidin of the third class. If there are several\n    conflicting legal opinions on any point, they can select one opinion on\n    which to base their decision. This a mere Qazi cannot do. In such a\n    case he would have to refer to those men, or to their writings for\n    guidance. They seem to have written commentaries on the legal systems\n    without originating anything new. The author of the Hidayah, who lived\n    at the end of the sixth century, was a Muqallid.\n\n    Such is Mirza Kazim Beg's account. The whole article, of which I have\n    only given the main points, is worthy of the closest study. It shows\n    how \"the system, as a whole, rejects experience as a guide to deeper\n    insight or wider knowledge; tramples upon the teaching of the past;\n    pays no heed to differences of climate, character, or history; but\n    regards itself as a body of absolute truth, one jot or tittle of which\n    cannot be rejected without incurring the everlasting wrath of God.\"[40]\n\n{37}\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nEXEGESIS OF THE QURAN AND THE TRADITIONS.\n\nThe following account of this branch of Muslim theology, technically called\n'Ilm-i-Usul, may be introduced by a few remarks on the nature of\ninspiration according to Islam, though that is not strictly speaking a\nportion of this study.\n\nThere are two terms used to express different degrees of inspiration, Wahi\nand Ilham. Wahi is the term applied to the inspiration of the Quran, and\nimplies that the very words are the words of God. It is divided into Wahi\nZahir (external inspiration), and Wahi Batin (internal inspiration). The\nwhole book was prepared in heaven. Muhammad, instructed by Gabriel, is\nsimply the medium through which the revelation of Wahi Zahir reaches man.\nThe Wahi Quran, _i.e._, the highest form of inspiration, always came to the\near of the Prophet through the instrumentality of Gabriel. In Muhammadan\ntheology, this is the special work of Gabriel. Thus in the Traditions it is\nrelated that he appeared to Adam twelve times, to Enoch four, to Noah\nfifty, to Abraham forty-two, to Moses four hundred, to Jesus ten times, to\nMuhammad twenty-four thousand times.\n\nIlham means the inspiration given to a saint or to a prophet when he,\nthough rightly guided, delivers the subject matter out of his own mind, and\nis not a mere machine to reproduce the messages of Gabriel. There is a\nlower form of Wahi Zahir, which is called Isharat-ul-Malak (literally,\n\"sign of the Angel.\") This expresses what Muhammad meant when he said: \"The\nHoly Ghost has entered into my heart.\" In other words, he received the\ninspiration through {38} Gabriel, but not by word of mouth. This form of\ninspiration is higher than that possessed by saints, and is usually applied\nto the inspiration of the Traditions. This is denied by some, who say that\nexcept when delivering the Quran Muhammad spoke by Ilham and not by Wahi.\nThe practical belief is, however, that the Traditions were Wahi\ninspiration, and thus they come to be as authoritative as the Quran.\nSharastani speaks of \"the signs (sayings) of the Prophet which have the\nmarks of Wahi.\"[41] This opinion is said by some Muslim theologians to be\nsupported by the first verse of the fifty-third Sura, entitled the Star.\n\"By the Star when it setteth; your companion Muhammad _erreth not_, nor is\nhe _led astray_, neither doth he _speak of his own will_. It is none other\nthan a revelation which hath been revealed to him.\" In any case the\ninspiration of Muhammad is something quite different from the Christian\nidea of inspiration, which is to Musalmans a very imperfect mode of\ntransmitting a revelation of God's will.\n\nThat there should be a human as well as a divine side to inspiration is an\nidea not only foreign, but absolutely repugnant to Muhammadans. The Quran\nis not a book of principles. It is a book of directions. The Quran\ndescribes the revelation given to Moses thus:--\"We wrote for him upon the\ntables a monition concerning every matter and said: 'Receive them thyself\nwith steadfastness, and command thy people to receive them for the\nobservance of its most goodly precepts.'\" (Sura vii. 142). It is such an\ninspiration as this the Quran claims for itself. Muhammad's idea was that\nit should be a complete and final code of directions in every matter for\nall mankind. It is not the word of a prophet enlightened by God. It\nproceeds immediately from God, and the word 'say' or 'speak' precedes, or\nis understood to precede, every sentence. This to a Muslim is the highest\nform of inspiration; this alone stamps a book as {39} divine. It is\nacknowledged that the Injil--the Gospel--was given by Jesus; but as that,\ntoo, according to Muslim belief, was brought down from heaven by the angel\nGabriel during the month of Ramazan, it is now asserted that it has been\nlost, and that the four Gospels of the New Testament are simply Traditions\ncollected by the writers whose names they bear. Their value is, therefore,\nthat of the second foundation of the Islamic system.\n\nThe question next arises as to the exact way in which Gabriel made known\nhis message to Muhammad. The Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, a standard theological\nwork, gives some details on this point.[42] Though the Quran is all of God,\nboth as to matter and form, yet it was not all made known to the Prophet in\none and the same manner. The following are some of the modes:--\n\n1. It is recorded on the authority of 'Ayesha, one of Muhammad's wives,\nthat a brightness like the brightness of the morning came upon the Prophet.\nAccording to some commentators this brightness remained six months. In some\nmysterious way Gabriel, through this brightness or vision, made known the\nwill of God.\n\n2. Gabriel appeared in the form of Dahiah, one of the Companions of the\nProphet, renowned for his beauty and gracefulness. A learned dispute has\narisen with regard to the abode of the soul of Gabriel when he assumed the\nbodily form of Dahiah. At times, the angelic nature of Gabriel overcame\nMuhammad, who was then translated to the world of angels. This always\nhappened when the revelation was one of bad news, such as denunciations or\npredictions of woe. At other times, when the message brought by Gabriel was\none of consolation and comfort, the human nature of the Prophet overcame\nthe angelic nature of the angel, who, in such case, having assumed a human\nform, proceeded to deliver the message. {40}\n\n3. The Prophet heard at times the noise of the tinkling of a bell. To him\nalone was known the meaning of the sound. He alone could distinguish in,\nand through it, the words which Gabriel wished him to understand. The\neffect of this mode of Wahi was more marvellous than that of any of the\nother ways. When his ear caught the sound his whole frame became agitated.\nOn the coldest day, the perspiration, like beads of silver, would roll down\nhis face. The glorious brightness of his countenance gave place to a\nghastly hue, whilst the way in which he bent down his head showed the\nintensity of the emotion through which he was passing. If riding, the camel\non which he sat would fall to the ground. The Prophet one day, when\nreclining with his head in the lap of Zeid, heard the well known sound:\nZeid, too, knew that something unusual was happening, for so heavy became\nthe head of Muhammad that it was with the greatest difficulty he could\nsupport the weight.\n\n4. At the time of the Mi'raj, or night ascent into heaven, God spoke to the\nProphet without the intervention of an angel. It is a disputed point\nwhether the face of the Lord was veiled or not.\n\n5. God sometimes appeared in a dream, and placing his hands on the\nProphet's shoulders made known his will.\n\n6. Twice, angels having each six hundred wings, appeared and brought the\nmessage from God.\n\n7. Gabriel, though not appearing in bodily form, so inspired the heart of\nthe Prophet that the words he uttered under its influence were the words of\nGod. This is technically called Ilka, and is by some supposed to be the\ndegree of inspiration to which the Traditions belong.\n\nAbove all, the Prophet was not allowed to remain in any error; if, by any\nchance, he had made a wrong deduction from any previous revelation, another\nwas always sent to rectify it. This idea has been worked up to a science of\nabrogation, according to which some verses of the Quran abrogate others.\nMuhammad found it necessary to shift {41} his stand-point more than once,\nand thus it became necessary to annul earlier portions of his revelation.\n\nThus in various ways was the revelation made known to Muhammad. At first\nthere seems to have been a season of doubt (Ante p. 3), the dread lest\nafter all it might be a mockery. But as years rolled on confidence in\nhimself and in his mission came. At times, too, there is a joyousness in\nhis utterances as he swears by heaven and earth, by God and man; but more\noften the visions were weird and terrible. Tradition says:--\"He roared like\na camel, the sound as of bells well-nigh rent his heart in pieces.\" Some\nstrange power moved him, his fear was uncontrollable. For twenty years or\nmore the revelations came, a direction on things of heaven and of earth, to\nthe Prophet as the spiritual guide of all men,[43] to the Warrior-Chief, as\nthe founder of political unity among the Arab tribes.\n\nA Muhammadan student, after passing through a course of instruction in\ngrammar, rhetoric, logic, law, and dogmatics, at length reaches the stage\nwhen he is permitted to enter upon the study of \"'Ilm-i-usul,\" or the\nexegesis of the Quran, and the inspired sayings of the Prophet. This done,\nhe can henceforth read the approved commentaries in order to learn what the\nFathers of Islam have to say. This science in one way fits him to be a\ncommentator, for the work of a Muslim divine now is, not to bring things\n\"new and old\" out of the sacred book, but to hand down to others the things\nold. There is no indwelling spirit in the Church of Islam which can reveal\nto the devout mind new views of truth, or lead the pious scholar on to\ndeeper and more profound knowledge.\n\nThe greatest proficient in theology is the man who can repeat the Quran by\nheart, who knows also and can reproduce at will what the early commentators\nhave said, who can remember, and quote in the most apposite manner, the\n{42} Prophet's sayings preserved in the Traditions handed down by the\nCompanions, their followers, and their followers' followers, who can point\nout a flaw in the Isnad (_i.e._ chain of narrators) of a Tradition quoted\nby an opponent, or maintain, by repeating the long list of names, the\nauthority of the Isnad of the Tradition he quotes himself. A good memory,\nnot critical acumen, is the great desideratum in a Muslim theologian. The\nchief qualification of a Hafiz, a man who can repeat the whole Quran by\nheart, is not that he shall understand its meaning, but that he shall be\nable to pronounce each word correctly. By men who are not Arabs by birth,\nthis is only to be attained after years of practice from childhood. The\nSunnis say that no Shia'h can ever become a Hafiz, from which fact they\ndraw the conclusion that the Shia'hs are heretics. In the early days of\nIslam, the great authorities on the question of the correct pronunciation\nof the Quran were the Khalifs Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman, and 'Ali, and ten of\nthe Companions, who learned from the Prophet himself the exact way in which\nGabriel had spoken. The Arabic of heaven was the Arabic of Islam. The\neffort, however, to preserve one uniform method of repeating the Quran\nfailed. Men of other lands could not acquire the pure intonation of Mecca,\nand so no less than seven different ways of reading the sacred book became\ncurrent. Here was a great difficulty, but it proved surmountable. Abu Ibn\nKab, one of the Companions, had become so famous as a reader that the\nProphet himself said: \"read the Quran under Abu Ibn Kab.\" These men\nremembered that Abu Ibn Kab had stated, that one day when scandalized at\nman after man who entered the mosque repeating the Quran in different ways,\nhe spoke to Muhammad about it. His Highness said: \"O Abu Ibn Kab!\nintelligence was sent to me to read the Quran in one dialect, and I was\nattentive to the Court of God, and said: 'make easy the reading of the\nQuran to my sects.' These instructions were sent to me a second time\nsaying: 'read the {43} Quran in two dialects.' Then I turned myself to the\nCourt of God saying: 'make easy the reading of the Quran to my sects.' Then\na voice was sent to me the third time saying: 'read the Quran in seven\ndialects.'\"\n\nThis removed all difficulty, and the foresight displayed by the Prophet in\nthus obtaining a divine sanction for the various ways of reading was looked\nupon as a proof of his inspiration. Thus arose the \"haft qira,at,\" or seven\nreadings of the Quran, now recognised.\n\nIn the Quran compiled by the order of the Khalif Osman there were no\nvowel-points, but when men of other countries embraced Islam they found\ngreat difficulty in mastering Arabic. Khalid bin Ahmad, a great grammarian,\nthen invented the short vowels and other diacritical marks. The seven\nfamous \"Readers\" whose names have been given to the various modes of\nreading, are Imam Nafi of Madina, Imam Ibn-i-Kasir of Mecca, Imam Abu 'Umr\nof Basra, Imam Hamza of Kufa, Imam Ibn 'Amir of Syria, Imam 'Asim of Kufa,\nImam Kisae of Kufa.[44] These learned men affixed different vowel-points in\nmany places in the Quran, and thus slight differences of meaning arose. In\nIndia the \"qira,at--reading,--of Imam 'Asim is followed by both Sunnis and\nShia'hs. There are three readings of lesser note allowable when reading the\nQuran privately, but not when reading any part in a liturgical service.\nDuring the month of Ramazan the Quran is repeated every night in the\nmosque, it being so arranged that one-thirtieth part shall be recited each\nnight. The Imam of the mosque, or public Reader, (Qari) who commences\naccording to one of the seven recognised readings (qira,at), must keep to\nthe same all the month. As he has to recite without a book this involves a\ngreat exercise of the memory. A good Hafiz will know the whole seven\nvarieties. The various readings thus introduced, though {44} unimportant in\ntheir nature,[45] amount to about five hundred in number. The following are\na few illustrations. In the second Sura Abu 'Umr reads: \"Nor shall ye be\nquestioned concerning that which _they_ have done;\" but 'Asim reads: \"That\nwhich _ye_ have done.\" This is caused by putting two dots above the line\ninstead of below it. Again 'Asim reads: \"_Enter ye_ the gates of hell\"\n(Sura xxxix. 73), but Nafi reads: \"_Ye will be made to enter_ hell,\"--that\nis, by a slight change the passive is substituted for the active voice.\nThese are fair samples of the rest. No doctrine, so far as I know, is\ntouched, but the way in which Tradition records the Prophet's anticipation\nof the difficulty is instructive to the student of Islam. At times, too,\nfierce disputes have arisen between the followers of the seven famous\nReaders whose names I have given above. In the year 935 A.H., Ibn Shanabud,\na resident of Baghdad, ventured to introduce some different readings in his\nrecital of the Quran. The people of Baghdad, not knowing these, were\nfurious, and the Khalif was compelled to cast the offender into prison. A\nCouncil of divines was called together, before whom the unhappy Ibn\nShanabud was produced. For a while he maintained the correctness of his\n\"readings,\" but after being whipped seven times he said: \"I renounce my\nmanner of reading, and in future I shall follow no other than that of the\nmanuscript drawn up by the Khalif Osman, and that which is generally\nreceived.\"[46]\n\nClosely connected with this subject is the history of the rise of the\nscience of grammar. As Islam spread, it became necessary to expound the\nQuran to persons unacquainted with Arabic. The science of grammar then\nbecame an important branch of study, and the collection of Traditions a\nnecessary duty. The Faithful were for a long time in {45} doubt as to the\nlawfulness of applying the laws of grammar to so sacred a book. There was\nno command in the book itself to do so, nor had the Prophet given any\ndirections on this point. It was then neither \"farz\" nor \"sunnat,\" that is,\nneither a command based on the Quran nor one based on any saying or act of\nthe Prophet. The Traditions, however, solve the difficulty.\n\nAl Mamun, the distinguished though heretical Khalif of Baghdad, was a\npatron of Al Farra, the chief of grammarians. A distinguished pupil of his,\nAbu'l 'Abbas Thalub, on his death-bed expressed his belief in the fact that\nthe Quranists, the Traditionists, and others, had gained their heavenly\nreward, but he had been only a grammarian, and grammar after all was, in\nconnection with the Quran, a science of doubtful legality. The friend to\nwhom he told his doubts and fears went home and saw a vision. It is\nrecorded that he had a vision in his sleep that very night, in which he saw\nthe blessed Prophet, who said to him: \"Give my greeting to Abu'l 'Abbas\nThalub, and say, 'thou art master of the superior science.'\" The Prophet\nhad now spoken, and henceforth grammar became a lawful study in Islam.\nMuslims now quote the Quran as a perfect model of style; it may be well to\nremember that the rules have been made for it, and that, therefore, it is\nbut natural that it should be perfect according to the present canons of\nArabic grammar.[47]\n\nThe question of the interpretation of the text speedily became a very\nimportant branch of the \"'Ilm-i-usul.\" It is said that the Quran was\nbrought from Paradise by Gabriel to Muhammad as occasion required. The\nProphet was reproached for not having a complete revelation, and {46}\nanswered the reproach by the following verse, sent for the purpose. \"The\ninfidels say, 'unless the Quran be sent down to him all at once'--but in\nthis way we establish thy heart in it, _in parcels have we parcelled it out\nto thee_\" (Sura xxv. 34). The revelation thus given is entirely objective;\nit came to the ear of the Prophet through the teaching of Gabriel. \"Yet it\nis a glorious Quran, _written on the preserved Table_.\" (Sura lxxxv. 22).\nGabriel addresses the Prophet thus: \"When we have _recited_ it then follow\nthou the _recital_.\" (Sura lxxv. 18). The external mode in which it came is\nreferred to in the verse: \"We have _sent down_ to thee an Arabic Quran.\"\n(Sura xx. 112). The fragmentary way in which the Quran was given[48] was\nnot without its difficulties. Some passages contradicted others, some were\ndifficult to understand. To the Prophet alone was the solution known. The\nknowledge he communicated to his immediate followers, the Companions, as\nthey are called, thus: \"To thee have we sent down this book of monitions,\nthat _thou mayest make clear to men_ what hath been sent down to them.\"\n(Sura xvi. 46).\n\nIbn Khaldoun says: \"The Prophet unfolded the meaning, distinguished between\nabrogated and abrogating verses, {47} and communicated this knowledge to\nhis Companions. It was from his mouth that they knew the meaning of the\nverses and the circumstances which led to each distinct revelation being\nmade.\"[49] The Companions thus instructed became perfectly familiar with\nthe whole revelation. This knowledge they handed down by word of mouth to\ntheir followers, the Taba'in, who in their turn passed it on to their\nfollowers the Taba-i-Taba'in. The art of writing then became common, and\nthe business of the commentator henceforth was to collect together the\nsayings of the Companions thus handed down. Criticism of a passage in the\nQuran was not his duty, criticism of a comment made on it by a Companion\nwas beyond his province: the first was too sacred to be touched, the second\nmust be accepted if only the chain of narrators of the statement were\nperfect. Thus early in the history of Islam were the principles of exegesis\nfixed and settled. Every word, every sentence, has now its place and class.\nThe commentator has now only to reproduce what was written before,[50]\nthough he may in elucidation of the point, bring forth some Tradition\nhitherto unnoticed, which would, however, be a difficult thing to do. It\nwill thus be seen that anything like the work of a Christian commentator,\nwith all its fresh life and new ideas, is not to be had in Islam. The\nperfection of its exegesis is its dogmatic and antique nature--\n\n \"While as the world rolls on from age to age,\n  And realms of thought expand,\n  The letter stands without expanse or range,\n  Stiff as a dead man's hand.\"\n\nThe technical terms which the student must know, and {48} the definitions\nof which he must understand, are those which relate to the nature of the\nwords, the sentences, the use of the words of the Quran, and the deduction\nof arguments from passages in the book.\n\nI. The words of the Quran are divided into four classes.\n\n1. _Khass_, or special words. These are sub-divided into three classes.\nFirst, words which relate to genus, _e.g._ mankind. Secondly, words which\nrelate to species, _e.g._ a man, which refers to men as distinguished from\nwomen. Thirdly, words which relate to special individuality, _e.g._ Zeid,\nwhich is the name of a special individual.\n\n2. _'Amm_, or common or collective names, such as \"people.\"\n\n3. _Mushtarik_, or words which have several significations, as the Arabic\nword \"'ain,\" which may mean an eye, a fountain, or the sun. Again, the word\n\"Sulat,\" if connected with God, may mean mercy, as \"Sulat Ullah,\" the mercy\nof God; if with man, it may mean either \"namaz,\" a stated liturgical\nservice, or \"du'a,\" prayer in its ordinary sense, _e.g._ Sulat-ul-Istisqa\n(prayer in time of drought) is du'a, not namaz.\n\n4. _Muawwal_, words which have several significations, all of which are\npossible, and so a special explanation is required. For example, Sura\ncviii. 2, reads thus in Sale's translation. \"Wherefore pray unto the Lord\nand _slay_ (the victims).\" The word translated \"slay\" is in Arabic \"nahr,\"\nwhich has many meanings. The followers of the great Legist Abu Hanifa\nrender it, \"sacrifice,\" and add the words (the \"victims\"). The followers of\nIbn Shafa'i say it means \"placing the hands on the breast in prayer.\"\n\nThis illustrates the difference between Mushtarik and Muawwal. In the\nformer, only one meaning is allowable, and that meaning the context\nsettles; in the latter both meanings are allowable and both right.\n\nThese divisions of words having been well mastered and the power of\ndefining any word in the Quran gained, the {49} student passes on to\nconsider the nature of the sentences. These are divided into two great\nclasses,--the \"Obvious,\" and the \"Hidden.\"\n\nThis division is referred to in the following passage of the Quran. \"He it\nis who hath sent down to thee the book. Some of its signs are of themselves\n_perspicuous_; these are the basis (literally \"mother\") of the book, and\nothers are _figurative_. But they whose hearts are given to err follow its\nfigures, craving discord, craving an interpretation; yet none know its\ninterpretation, but God.[51] And the stable in knowledge say: 'We believe\nin it, it is all from God.'\" (Sura iii. 3).\n\nThis has given rise to the division of the whole book into literal and\nallegorical statements. In order to explain these correctly the commentator\nmust know (1) the reason why, (2) the place where, (3) the time when, the\nparticular passage he is expounding was revealed; he must know whether it\nabrogates or is abrogated, whether it is in its proper order and place or\nnot; whether it contains its meaning within itself or needs the light which\nthe context throws upon it; he must know all the Traditions which bear upon\nit, and the authority for each such Tradition. This effectually confines\nthe order of commentators in the strict sense of the word to the\nCompanions, and supplies the reason why commentators since then simply\nreproduce their opinions.[52] But to return from this digression. Sentences\nare Zahir--\"Obvious,\" or Khafi--\"Hidden.\" Obvious sentences are divided\ninto four classes.\n\nI. (1). _Zahir_, or obvious, the meaning of which is so clear that he who\nhears it at once understands its meaning {50} without seeking for any\nexplanation. This kind of sentence may be abrogated. Unless abrogated,\naction in accordance with it is to be considered as the express command of\nGod. All penal laws and the rules regulating the substitution of one\nreligious act for another, _e.g._ almsgiving instead of fasting, must be\nbased on this, the clearest of the obvious sentences.\n\n(2). _Nass_, a word commonly used for a text of the Quran, but in its\ntechnical meaning here expressing what is meant by a sentence, the meaning\nof which is made clear by some word which occurs in it. The following\nsentence illustrates both Zahir and Nass: \"Take in marriage of such other\nwomen as please you, two, three, four.\" This sentence is Zahir, because\nmarriage is here declared lawful; it is Nass, because the words \"one, two,\nthree, four,\" which occur in the sentence, show the unlawfulness of having\nmore than four wives.\n\n(3). _Mufassir_, or explained. This is a sentence which needs some word in\nit to explain it and make it clear. Thus: \"And the angels prostrated\nthemselves, all of them with one accord, save Iblis (Satan).\" Here the\nwords \"save Iblis,\" show that he did not prostrate himself. This kind of\nsentence may be abrogated.\n\n(4). _Mukham_, or perspicuous. This is a sentence as to the meaning of\nwhich there can be no doubt, and which cannot be controverted, thus: \"God\nknoweth all things.\" This kind of sentence cannot be abrogated. To act on\nsuch sentences without departing from the literal sense is the highest\ndegree of obedience to God's command.\n\nThe difference between these sentences is seen when there is a real or\napparent contradiction between them. If such should occur, the first must\ngive place to the second, and so on. Thus Mukham cannot be abrogated or\nchanged by any of the preceding, or Mufassir by Nass, &c.\n\nThe other great division of sentences is that of\n\nII. (1). _Khafi_ or hidden. Such are those sentences in {51} which other\npersons or things are hidden beneath the plain meaning of a word or\nexpression contained therein, as: \"as for a thief, whether male or female,\ncut ye off their hands in recompense for their doings.\" (Sura v. 42). The\nword for thief is \"Sariq,\" and in this passage it is understood to include\nhighwaymen, pickpockets, plunderers of the dead, &c. These meanings are\nKhafi or hidden under it.\n\n(2). _Muskhil_, or ambiguous, The following is given as an illustration:\n\"And (their attendants) shall go round about them with vessels of silver\nand goblets. The bottles shall be bottles of silver.\" The difficulty here\nis that bottles are not made of silver, but of glass. The commentators say,\nhowever, that glass is dull in colour, though it has some lustre, whilst\nsilver is white, and not so bright as glass. Now it may be, that the\nbottles of Paradise will be like glass bottles as regards their lustre, and\nlike silver as regards their colour. But anyhow, it is very difficult to\nascertain the meaning.\n\n(3.) _Mujmal._ These are, first, sentences which may have a variety of\ninterpretations, owing to the words in them being capable of several\nmeanings; in that case the meaning which is given to the sentence in the\nTraditions relating to it should be acted on and accepted. Secondly, the\nsentence may contain some very rare word, and thus its meaning may be\ndoubtful, as: \"Man truly is by creation hasty.\" (Sura lxx. 19.) In this\nverse the word \"halu'\"--hasty--occurs. It is very rarely used, and had it\nnot been for the following words, \"when evil toucheth him, he is full of\ncomplaint; but when good befalleth him, he becometh niggardly,\" its meaning\nwould not have been at all easy to understand.\n\nThe following is an illustration of the first kind of _Mujmal_ sentences:\n\"Stand for prayer (salat) and give alms,\" (zakat.) Both salat and zakat are\n'Mushtarik' words. The people, therefore, did not understand this verse, so\nthey applied to Muhammad for an explanation. He explained to them that\n\"salat\" might mean the ritual of public prayer, {52} standing to say the\nwords \"God is great,\" or standing to repeat a few verses of the Quran; or\nit might mean private prayer. The primitive meaning of \"zakat\" is growing.\nThe Prophet, however, fixed the meaning here to that of \"almsgiving,\" and\nsaid, \"Give of your substance one-fortieth part.\"\n\n(4.) _Mutashabih._ These are sentences so difficult that men cannot\nunderstand them, a fact referred to in Sura iii. 3. (Ante. p. 49), nor will\nthey do so until the day of resurrection. The Prophet, however, knew their\nmeaning. Such portions are the letters A, L, M; A, L, R; Y, A at the\ncommencement of some of the Suras.[53] Such expressions also as \"God's\nhand,\" \"The face of God,\" \"God sitteth,\" &c., come under this category.\n\nThe next point to be considered is the _use_ of words in the Quran, and\nhere again the same symmetrical division into four classes is found,\n_viz_:--\n\n(1.) _Haqiqat_, that is, words which are used in their literal meaning, as\n\"ruku',\" a prostration, and \"salat\" in the sense of prayer.\n\n(2.) _Majaz_, or words which are used in a figurative sense, as \"salat\" in\nthe sense of \"namaz\" a liturgical service.\n\n(3.) _Sarih_, or words the meaning of which is quite evident, as, \"Thou art\n_divorced_,\" \"Thou art _free_.\"\n\n(4.) _Kinayah_, or words which, being used in a metaphorical sense, require\nthe aid of the context to make their meaning clear, as: \"Thou art\nseparated,\" which may, as it {53} stands alone, mean \"Thou art divorced.\"\nThis class also includes all pronouns the meaning of which is only to be\nknown from the context, _e.g._ one day the Prophet not knowing who knocked\nat his door said, \"Who art thou?\" The man replied, \"It is I.\" Muhammad\nanswered, \"Why dost thou say I, I? Say thy name that I may know who thou\nart.\" The pronoun \"I\" is here 'kinayah.'\n\nThe most important and most difficult branch of exegesis is \"istidlal,\" or\nthe science of deducing arguments from the Quran. This too is divided into\nfour sections, as follows:--\n\n(1.) _Ibarat_, or the plain sentence. \"Mothers, after they are divorced,\nshall give suck unto their children two full years, and the father shall be\nobliged to maintain them and clothe them according to that which is\nreasonable.\" (Sura ii. 233.) From this verse two deductions are made.\nFirst, from the fact that the word \"them\" is in the feminine plural, it\nmust refer to the mothers and not to the children; secondly, as the duty of\nsupporting the mother is incumbent on the father, it shows that the\nrelationship of the child is closer with the father than with the mother.\nPenal laws may be based on a deduction of this kind.\n\n(2.) _Isharat_, that is, a sign or hint which may be given from the order\nin which the words are placed.\n\n(3.) _Dalalat_, or the argument which may be deduced from the use of some\nspecial word in the verse, as: \"say not to your parents, \"Fie\" (Arabic\n\"uff\") (Sura xvii. 23). From the use of the word \"uff,\" it is argued that\nchildren may not beat or abuse their parents. Penal laws may be based on\n\"dalalat,\" thus: \"Their aim will be to abet disorder on the earth; but God\nloveth not the abettors of disorder.\" (Sura v. 69.) The word translated\n\"aim\" is in Arabic literally yasa'una, \"they run.\" From this the argument\nis deduced that as highwaymen wander about, they are included amongst those\nwhom \"God loveth not,\" and that, therefore, the severest punishment may be\ngiven to {54} them, for any deduction that comes under the head of\n\"dalalat\" is a sufficient basis for the formation of the severest penal\nlaws.\n\n(4.) _Iqtiza._ This is a deduction which demands certain conditions:\n\"whosoever killeth a believer by mischance, shall be bound to free a\nbeliever from slavery.\" (Sura iv. 94). As a man has no authority to free\nhis neighbour's slave, the condition here required, though not expressed,\nis that the slave should be his own property.\n\nThe Quran is divided into:--\n\n(1). _Harf_ (plural _Huruf_), letters. The numbers given by different\nauthorities vary. In one standard book it is said that there are 338,606\nletters.\n\n(2). _Kalima_ (plural _Kalimat_), words, stated by some to amount to\n79,087; by others to 77,934.\n\n(3). _Ayat_ (plural _Ayat_), verses. Ayat really means a sign, and was the\nname given by Muhammad to short sections or verses of the Quran. The end of\na verse is determined by the position of a small circle (.). The early\nQuran Readers did not agree as to the position of these circles, and so\nfive different ways of arranging them have arisen. This accounts for a\nvariation in the number of verses in various editions. The varieties are:--\n\n(1). _Kufa_ verses. The Readers in the city of Kufa say that they followed\nthe custom of 'Ali. Their way of reckoning is generally adopted in India.\nThey reckon 6,239 verses.\n\n(2). _Basra_ verses. The Readers of Basra follow 'Asim bin Hajjaj, a\nCompanion. They reckon 6,204.\n\n(3). _Shami_ verses. The Readers in Syria (Sham) followed Abd-ullah bin\n'Umr, a Companion. They reckon 6,225 verses.\n\n(4). _Mecca_ verses. According to this arrangement there are 6,219 verses.\n\n(5). _Madina_ verses. This way of reading contains 6,211 verses.\n\n{55}\n\nIn each of the above varieties the verse \"Bismillah\" (in the name of God)\nis not reckoned. It occurs 113 times in the Quran.\n\nThis diversity of punctuation does not generally affect the meaning of any\nimportant passage. The third verse of the third Sura is an important\nexception. The position of the circle (.), the symbol denoting a full stop,\nin that verse is of the highest importance in connection with the rise of\nscholasticism ('Ilm-i-kalam) in Islam.\n\nMost of the cases, however, are like the following:--\n\nIn Sura xxvii. an account is given of the Queen of Sheba's receiving a\nletter from King Solomon. Addressing her nobles she said: \"Verily, Kings,\nwhen they enter a city (by force) waste the same, and abase the most\npowerful of the inhabitants hereof: and so will (these) do (with us).\" Many\nReaders put the full stop after the word \"hereof,\" and say that God is the\nspeaker of the words \"and so will they do.\"\n\n(4). _Sura_, or chapter. The word Sura means a row or series, such as a\nline of bricks arranged in a wall, but it is now exclusively used for\nchapters in the Quran. These are one hundred and fourteen in number. The\nSuras are not numbered in the original Arabic, but each one has some\napproximate name, (as Baqr--the cow, Nisa--women, &c.,) generally taken\nfrom some expression which occurs in it. They are not arranged in\nchronological order, but according to their length. As a general rule, the\nshorter Suras which contain the theology of Islam, belong to the Meccan\nperiod of the Prophet's career,[54] and the longer ones relating chiefly to\nsocial duties and relationships, to the organisation of Islam as a civil\npolity, to the time when he was consolidating his power at Madina. The best\nway, therefore, to {56} read the Quran, is to begin at the end. The attempt\nto arrange the Suras in due order, is a very difficult one, and, after all,\ncan only be approximately correct.[55] Carlyle referring to the confused\nmass of \"endless iterations, long windedness, entanglement, most crude,\nincondite\" says: \"nothing but a sense of duty could carry any European\nthrough the Quran.\" When re-arranged the book becomes more intelligible.\nThe chief tests for such re-arrangement are the style and the matter. There\nis a very distinct difference in both of these respects between the earlier\nand later Suras. The references to historical events sometimes give a clue.\nIndividual Suras are often very composite in their character, but, such as\nthey are, they have been from the beginning. The recension made by Zeid, in\nthe reign of the Khalif Osman, has been handed down unaltered in its form.\nThe only variations (qira'at) now to be found in the text have been already\nnoticed. They in no way affect the arrangements of the Suras.\n\n5. _Sipara_ a thirtieth portion. This is a Persian word derived from _si_,\nthirty, and _para_, a portion. The Arabs call each of these divisions a\n_Juz_. Owing to this division, a pious man can recite the whole Quran in a\nmonth, taking one Sipara each day. Musalmans never quote the Quran as we do\nby Sura and Ayat, but by the Sipara and Ruku', a term I now proceed to\nexplain.\n\n6. _Ruku'_ (plural _Rukuat_). This word literally means a prostration made\nby a worshipper in the act of saying the prayers. The collection of verses\nrecited from the Quran, ascriptions of praise offered to God, and various\nritual acts connected with these, constitute one act of worship called a\n\"rak'at.\" After reciting some verses in this form of prayer, the worshipper\nmakes a _Ruku'_, or prostration, the {57} portion then recited takes the\nname of _Ruku'_. Tradition states that the Khalif Osman, when reciting the\nQuran during the month of Ramazan, used to make twenty rak'ats each\nevening. In each rak'at he introduced different verses of the Quran,\nbeginning with the first chapter and going steadily on. In this way he\nrecited about two hundred verses each evening; that is, about ten verses in\neach rak'at. Since then, it has been the custom to recite the Quran in this\nway in Ramazan, and also to quote it by the ruku', _e.g._, \"such a passage\nis in such a Sipara and in such a ruku'.\"\n\nThe following account of a rak'at will make the matter plain. When the\nFaithful are assembled in the mosque, the Imam, or leader, being in front\nfacing the Qibla, the service commences thus:--Each worshipper stands and\nsays the Niyyat (literally \"intention\"), a form of words declaring his\nintention to say his prayers. He then says: \"God is great.\" After this,\nlooking downwards, he says: \"Holiness to Thee, O God! and praise be to\nThee, Great is Thy name, Great is Thy greatness, there is no deity but\nThee.\" Then follows: \"I seek from God refuge from cursed Satan.\" Then the\nTasmiyah is repeated: \"In the name of God, the Compassionate and Merciful.\"\nThen follows the Fatiha, that is, the short chapter at the commencement of\nthe Quran. After this has been recited, the Imam proceeds, on the first\nnight of the month Ramazan, with the first verse of the second chapter.[56]\nAfter saying a few verses, he makes a ruku'; that is, he bends his head and\nbody down, and places his hands on his knees. In this position he says:\n\"God is great.\" Then he repeats three times the words: \"I extol the\nholiness of my Lord, the Great.\" He then stands up and says: \"God hears him\nwho praises Him.\" To this the people respond: \"O Lord, thou art praised.\"\nAgain, falling on his knees, the worshipper says: \"God is great.\" Then he\nputs first his nose, and then his forehead on the {58} ground and says\nthree times: \"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High.\" Then sitting\non his heels, he says: \"God is great;\" and again repeats as before: \"I\nextol, etc.\" He then rises and says: \"God is great.\" This is one rak'at. On\neach night in the month of Ramazan this is gone through twenty times, the\nonly variation being that after the Fatiha and before the first\nprostration, fresh verses of the Quran are introduced. The whole is, of\ncourse, done in Arabic, in whatever country the worshippers may be. The\nname of the prostration (ruku') has been transferred to the portion of the\nQuran recited just before it is made. There are altogether 557 Rukuat.\n\n(7). The other divisions are not important. They are, a _Sumn_, _Ruba'_,\n_Nisf_, _Suls_, that is one-eighth, one-fourth, one-half, one-third of a\nSipara respectively.\n\nIn reciting the Quran the worshipper must be careful to say the \"Takbir,\"\n_i.e._ \"God is great,\" after the several appointed places. Such a place is\nafter the recital of the 93rd Sura. The custom arose in this way. The\nhypocrites came to the Prophet and asked him to relate the story of the\n\"Seven Sleepers.\" He said: \"I will tell you to-morrow;\" but he forgot to\nadd the words \"if God will.\" By way of warning, God allowed no inspiration\nto descend upon him for some days. Then the hypocrites began to laugh and\nsay: \"God has left him.\" As it was not God's purpose to put his messenger\nto ridicule, the Sura entitled \"The brightness\" (xciii) was immediately\nbrought by the ever-ready Gabriel. It begins: \"By the brightness of the\nmorning, and by the night when it groweth dark, _thy Lord hath not forsaken\nthee_, neither doth He hate thee.\" In remembrance of this signal\ninterposition of Providence on his behalf, the Prophet always concluded the\nrecital of this Sura with the words: \"God is great.\" The practice thus\nbecame a \"Sunnat\" obligation; that is, it should be done because the\nProphet did it.\n\nThe doctrine of abrogation is a very important one in {59} connection with\nthe study of the Quran. It is referred to in the verses: \"Whatever verses\nwe cancel or cause thee to forget, we give thee better in their stead, or\nthe like thereof.\" (Sura ii. 100). This is a Madina Sura. \"What He pleaseth\nwill God abrogate or confirm; for with Him is the source of revelation.\"\n(Sura xiii. 39). Some verses which were cancelled in the Prophet's\nlife-time are not now extant. Abdullah Ibn Masud states that the Prophet\none day recited a verse, which he immediately wrote down. The next morning\nhe found it had vanished from the material on which it had been written.\nAstonished at this, he acquainted Muhammad with the fact, and was informed\nthat the verse in question had been revoked. There are, however, many\nverses still in the Quran, which have been abrogated. It was an exceedingly\nconvenient doctrine, and one needed to explain the change of front which\nMuhammad made at different periods of his career. Certain rules have been\nlaid down to regulate the practice. The verse which abrogates is called\n_Nusikh_, and the abrogated verse _Mansukh_. _Mansukh_ verses are of three\nkinds:--first, where the words and the sense have both been abrogated;\nsecondly, where the letter only is abrogated and the sense remains;\nthirdly, where the sense is abrogated though the letter remains. Imam Malik\ngives as an instance of the first kind the verse: \"If a son of Adam had two\nrivers of gold, he would covet yet a third; and if he had three he would\ncovet yet a fourth. Neither shall the belly of a son of Adam be filled, but\nwith dust. God will turn unto him who shall repent.\" The Imam states that\noriginally this verse was in the Sura (ix.) called Repentance. The verse,\ncalled the \"verse of stoning\" is an illustration of the second kind. It\nreads: \"Abhor not your parents for this would be ingratitude in you. If a\nman and woman of reputation commit adultery, ye shall stone them both; it\nis a punishment ordained by God; for God is mighty and wise.\" The Khalif\nOmar says this verse was extant in Muhammad's life-time but that it {60} is\nnow lost. But it is the third class which practically comes into\n'Ilm-i-usul. Authorities differ as to the number of verses abrogated. Sale\nstates that they have been estimated at two hundred and twenty-five. The\nprincipal ones are not many in number, and are very generally agreed upon.\nI give a few examples. It is a fact worthy of notice that they occur\nchiefly, if not almost entirely, in Suras delivered at Madina. There, where\nMuhammad had to confront Jews and Christians, he was at first politic in\nhis aim to win them over to his side, and then, when he found them\nobstinate, the doctrine of abrogation came in conveniently. This is seen\nplainly in the following case. At Mecca Muhammad and his followers did not\nstand facing any particular direction when at prayer, a fact to which the\nfollowing passage refers:--\"To God belongeth the east and west; therefore,\nwhithersoever ye turn yourselves to pray there is the face of God.\" (Sura\nii. 109). When Muhammad arrived at Madina, he entered into friendship with\nthe Jews and tried to win them to his side. The Qibla (sanctuary) towards\nwhich the worshippers now invariably turned at prayer was Jerusalem. This\nwent on for a while, but when Muhammad claimed to be not merely a Prophet\nfor the Arabs, but the last and the greatest of all the Prophets, when he\nasserted that Moses had foretold his advent, and that his revelations were\nthe same as those contained in their own Scriptures, they utterly refused\nallegiance to him. In the first half of the second year of the Hijra the\nbreach between them was complete. It was now time to reconcile the leaders\nof the Quraish tribe at Mecca. So the verse quoted above was abrogated by:\n\"We have seen thee turning thy face towards heaven, but we will have thee\nturn to a Qibla, which shall please thee. Turn then thy face toward the\nHoly Temple (of Mecca), and wherever ye be, turn your faces toward that\npart.\" (Sura ii. 139.) The Faithful were consoled by the assurance that\nthough they had not done so hitherto, yet God would not let their {61}\nfaith be fruitless, \"for unto man is God merciful, gracious.\" (v. 138.) The\ndoctrine of abrogation is brought in for a more personal matter in the\nfollowing case: \"It is not permitted to thee to take other wives hereafter,\nnor to change thy present wives for other women, though their beauty charm\nthee, except slaves, whom thy right hand shall possess.\" (Sura xxxiii. 52.)\nThis is said by Beidawi, and other eminent Muslim divines, to have been\nabrogated by a verse which though placed before it in the arrangement of\nverses, was really delivered after it. The verse is: \"O Prophet, we allow\nthee thy wives whom thou hast dowered, and the slaves which thy right hand\npossesseth out of the booty which God hath granted thee; and the daughters\nof thy uncle, and the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father's side,\nand on thy mother's side, who have fled with thee (to Madina), and any\nother believing woman, who hath given herself up to the Prophet; if the\nProphet desireth to wed her, it is a peculiar privilege for thee, above the\nrest of the Faithful.\" (Sura xxxiii. 49.)\n\nThe Moghul Emperor Akbar, wishing to discredit the 'Ulama, in one of the\nmeetings so frequently held for discussion during his long reign,\npropounded the question as to how many free born women a man might marry.\nThe lawyers answered that four was the number fixed by the Prophet. \"Of\nother women who seem good in your eyes marry two and two, and three and\nthree, and four and four.\" (Sura iv. 3.) The Emperor said that he had not\nrestricted himself to that number, and that Shaikh 'Abd-un-Nabi had told\nhim that a certain Mujtahid had had nine wives. The Mujtahid in question,\nIbn Abi Lailah reckoned the number allowed thus 2+3+4=9. Other learned men\ncounted in this way 2+2, 3+3, 4+4=18. The Emperor wished the meeting to\ndecide the point.\n\nAgain, the second verse of Sura lxxiii reads: \"Stand up all night, except a\nsmall portion of it, for prayer.\" According to a Tradition handed down by\n'Ayesha the last verse {62} of this Sura was revealed a year later. It\nmakes the matter much easier. \"God measureth the night and the day; he\nknoweth that ye cannot count its hours aright, and therefore turneth to you\nmercifully. Recite _then so much of the Quran as may be easy to you_.\" (v.\n20.)\n\nThe following is an illustration of a verse abrogated, though there is no\nverse to prove its abrogation. However, according to the Ijma' it has been\nabrogated. \"But alms are only to be given to the poor and the needy and to\nthose who collect them, and to those whose hearts are won to Islam.\" (Sura\nix. 60.) The clause--\"to those whose hearts are won to Islam\"--is now\ncancelled.[57] Muhammad, to gain the hearts of those, who lately enemies,\nhad now become friends, and to confirm them in the faith, gave them large\npresents from the spoils he took in war; but when Islam spread and became\nstrong, the 'Ulama agreed that such a procedure was not required and said\nthat the order was \"mansukh.\"\n\nThe other verses abrogated relate to the Ramazan fast, to Jihad, the law of\nretaliation, and other matters of social interest.\n\nThe doctrine of abrogation is now almost invariably applied by Musalman\ncontroversialists to the Old and New Testaments, which they say are\nabrogated by the Quran. \"His (Muhammad's) law is the abrogator of every\nother law.\"[58] This is not, however, a legitimate use of the doctrine.\nAccording to the best and most ancient Muslim divines, abrogation refers\nentirely to the Quran and the Traditions, and even then is confined to\ncommands and prohibitions. \"Those who imagine it to be part of the\nMuhammadan creed that one law has totally repealed another, are utterly\nmistaken--we hold no such doctrine.\"[59] In the Tafsir-i-Itifaq it is\nwritten: \"Abrogation affects those {63} matters which God has confined to\nthe followers of Muhammad, and one of the chief advantages of it is that\nthe way is made easy.\" In the Tafsir-i-Mazhiri we find: \"Abrogation refers\nonly to commands and prohibitions, not to facts or historical\nstatements.\"[60] Again, no verse of the Quran, or a Tradition can be\nabrogated unless the abrogating verse is distinctly opposed to it in\nmeaning. If it is a verse of the Quran, we must have the authority of\nMuhammad himself for the abrogation; if a Tradition, that of a Companion.\nThus \"the word of a commentator or a Mujtahid is not sufficient unless\nthere is a 'genuine Tradition' (Hadis-i-Sahih), to show the matter clearly.\nThe question of the abrogation of any previous command depends on\nhistorical facts with regard to the abrogation, not on the mere opinion of\na commentator.\" It cannot be shown that either Muhammad or a Companion ever\nsaid that the Bible was abrogated. This rule, whilst it shows that the\nassertion of modern controversialists on this point is void of foundation,\nalso illustrates another point to which I have often called attention,\n_viz._; that in Islam all interpretation must be regulated by\ntraditionalism.\n\nAdditions were occasionally made. Thus when it was revealed that those who\nstay at home were not before God as those who go forth to war, Abdullah and\nIbn Um-Maktum said: 'and what if they were blind.' The Prophet asked for\nthe shoulder-blade on which the verse was written. He then had a spasmodic\nconvulsion. After his recovery he made Zeid add the words, \"free from\ntrouble.\" So now the whole verse reads thus: \"Those believers who sit at\nhome _free from trouble_ (_i.e._, bodily infirmity), and those who do\nvaliantly in the cause of God, with their substance and their persons,\nshall not be treated alike.\" (Sura iv. 97). Years after, Zeid said: \"I\nfancy I see the words now on the shoulder-blade near a crack.\"\n\n{64}\n\nThe question of the eternal nature of the Quran does not properly come\nunder the head of 'Ilm-i-usul, but it is a dogma fondly cherished by many\nMuslims. In the days of the Khalif Al-Mamun this question was fiercely\ndebated. The Freethinkers, whilst believing in the Mission of Muhammad,\nasserted that the Quran was created, by which statement they meant that the\nrevelation came to him in a subjective mode, and that the language was his\nown. The book was thus brought within the reach of criticism. In the year\n212, A.H. the Khalif issued a decree to the effect that all who held the\nQuran to be uncreated were to be declared guilty of heresy. But the Khalif\nhimself was a notorious rationalist, and so the orthodox, though they\nremained quiet, remained unconvinced. The arguments used on the orthodox\nside are, that both the words and their pronunciation are eternal, that the\nattempt to draw a distinction between the word as it exists in the Divine\nMind and as it appears in the Quran is highly dangerous. In vain do their\nopponents argue that, if the Quran is uncreated, two Eternal Beings are in\nexistence. To this it is answered: \"This is the honourable Quran, written\nin the preserved Tablet.\" (Sura lvi. 76). A Tradition is also adduced which\nstates: \"God wrote the Thora (Law) with His own hand, and with His own hand\nHe created Adam; and also in the Quran it is written, 'and We wrote for him\nupon the tables a monition concerning every matter,' in reference to the\ntables of the Law given to Moses.\" If God did this for former prophets and\ntheir works, how much more, it is argued, should he not have done it for\nthe last and greatest of the prophets, and the noble Quran? It is not easy\nto get a correct definition of the term \"the uncreated Quran,\" but it has\nbeen put thus: \"The Word as it exists in the mind of God is 'Kalam-i-Nafsi'\n(spiritual word), something unwritten and eternal. It is acknowledged by\nthe Ijma'-i-Ummat (consent of the Faithful), the Traditions, and by other\nprophets that God {65} speaks. The Kalam-i-Nafsi then is eternal, but the\nactual words, style, and eloquence are created by God; so also is the\narrangement and the miraculous nature of the book.\" This seems to be a\nreasonable account of the doctrine, though there are theologians who hold\nthat the very words are eternal. The doctrine of abrogation clashes with\nthis idea, but they meet the objection by their theory of absolute\npredestination. This accounts for the circumstances which necessitated the\nabrogation, for the circumstances, as well as the abrogated verses, were\ndetermined on from all eternity.\n\nThis concludes the consideration of the exegesis of the Quran, a book\ndifficult and uninteresting for a non-Muslim to read, but one which has\nengaged and is still engaging the earnest thoughts of many millions of the\nhuman race. Thousands of devout students in the great theological schools\nof Cairo, Stamboul, Central Asia and India are now plodding through this\nvery subject of which I have here been treating; soon will they go forth as\nteachers of the book they so much revere. How utterly unfit that training\nis to make them wise men in any true sense of the word, how calculated to\nrender them proud, conceited, and scornful of other creeds, its rigid and\nexclusive character shows. Still, it is a marvellous book; for twelve\nhundred years and more it has helped to mould the faith, animate the\ncourage, cheer the despondency of multitudes, whether dwellers in the wild\nuplands of Central Asia, in Hindustan, or on the shores of the\nMediterranean. The Turanian and the Aryan, the Arab and the Negro, alike\nlearn its sonorous sentences, day by day repeat its opening clauses, and\npray in its words as their fathers prayed before them.\n\nNext to the act of testifying to the unity of God, the Quran is the great\nbond of Islam. No matter from what race the convert may have come, no\nmatter what language he may speak, he must learn in Arabic, and repeat by\nrote portions of the Quran in every act of public worship.\n\nThe next subject for consideration is that of the {66} Traditions, or the\nsecond branch of the science of 'Ilm-i-usul. The Traditions contain the\nrecord of all that Muhammad did and said. It is the belief of every Muslim,\nto whatever sect he belongs, that the Prophet not only spake but also acted\nunder a divine influence. The mode of the inspiration is different from\nthat of the Quran. There the revelation was objective. In the Prophet's\nsayings recorded in the Traditions the inspiration is subjective, but still\na true inspiration. This belief places the Traditions in a place second\nonly to the Quran; it makes them a true supplement to that book, and thus\nthey not only throw light on its meaning, but themselves form the basis on\nwhich doctrines may be established. Without going so far as to say that\nevery Tradition by itself is to be accepted as an authority in Islam, it\nmay be distinctly asserted that there can be no true conception formed of\nthat system if the Traditions are not studied and taken into account. So\nimportant a branch of Muslim theology is it, that the study of the\nTraditions is included in the 'Ilm-i-usul, or science of exegesis. Some\naccount of them, therefore, naturally forms part of this chapter.\n\nThe first four Khalifs were called the Khulafa-i-Rashidin that is, those\nwho could guide others aright. They had been friends and Companions of the\nProphet, and the Faithful could always appeal to them in cases of doubt.\nThe Prophet had declared that Islam must be written in the hearts of men.\nThere was therefore an unwillingness to commit his sayings to writing. They\nwere handed down by word of mouth. As no argument was so effectual in a\ndispute as \"a saying\" of the Prophet, the door was opened by which spurious\nTraditions could be palmed off on the Faithful. To prevent this, a number\nof strict rules were framed, at the head of which stands the Prophet's\nsaying, itself a Tradition: \"Convey to other persons none of my words\nexcept those which ye know of a surety. Verily, he who purposely represents\nmy {67} words wrongly will find a place for himself nowhere but in fire.\"\nTo enforce this rule, it was laid down that the relator of a Tradition must\nalso repeat its \"Isnad,\" or chain of authorities, as: \"I heard from such an\none, who heard from such an one,\" and so on, until the chain reaches the\nProphet himself. Each person, too, in this \"Isnad,\" must have been well\nknown for his good character and retentive memory. This failed, however, to\nprevent a vast number of manifestly false Traditions becoming current; so\nmen set themselves to the work of collecting and sifting the great mass of\nTradition that in the second century of Islam had begun to work untold\nevil. These men are called \"Muhadisin,\" or \"collectors of Tradition.\" The\nSunnis and the Wahhabis recognise six such men, and their collections are\nknown as the \"Sihah-Sittah,\" or six correct books. They are the\nfollowing:--\n\n(1). The _Sahih-i-Bukhari_, called after Abu Abdullah Muhammad\nIbn-i-Isma'il, a native of Bukhara. He was born A.H. 194. He was a man of\nmiddle height, spare in frame, and as a boy totally blind. The grief of his\nfather was on this account intense; but one day in a dream he saw the\nPatriarch Abraham, who said to him: \"God on account of thy grief and sorrow\nhas granted sight to thy son.\" The sight being thus restored, at the age of\nten he went to school, and began to learn the Traditions by heart. After\nhis education was finished, a famous Muhadis named Dakhli came to Bukhara.\nOne day the youthful Bukhari ventured to correct the famous man. It was an\nastounding piece of audacity, but the youth was proved to be in the right.\nThis set him on the work of collecting and sifting the Traditions. At the\nearly age of sixteen he was able to remember fifteen thousand. In course of\ntime he collected 600,000 Traditions. The result of his examination and\nselection was that he approved of seven thousand two hundred and\nseventy-five. These are now recorded in his great work, the\nSahih-i-Bukhari. It {68} is said that he never sat down to examine a\nTradition without first performing a legal ablution, and repeating two\nrak'at prayers. He then said: \"O Lord, let me not make a mistake.\" For\nsixteen years he lived in a mosque and died much respected at the age of\nsixty-four.\n\n(2). _Sahih-i-Muslim._ Muslim Ibn-i-Hajjaj was born at Nishapur, a city of\nKhorasan. He collected about 300,000 Traditions, from which he made his\ncollection. He is said to have been a very just man, and willing to oblige\nall who sought his advice. In fact, this willingness to oblige was the\nindirect cause of his death. One day he was sitting as usual in the mosque\nwhen some people came to ask him about a Tradition. As he could not\ndiscover it in the books he had with him, he went to his house to search\nthere. The people brought him a basket of dates. He went on eating and\nsearching, but unfortunately he ate so many dates that he died. (A.H. 261.)\n\n(3). _Sunan-i-Abu Daud._ Abu Daud Sajistani, a native of Seistan, was born\nA.H. 202. He was a great traveller, and went to all the chief places of\nMusalman learning. In knowledge of the Traditions, in devotion, in piety,\nhe was unrivalled. He collected about 500,000 Traditions, of which he\nselected four thousand eight hundred for his book.\n\n(4). _Jami'-i-Tirmizi._ Abu Isa' Muhammad Tirmizi was born at Tirmiz in the\nyear A.H. 209. He was a disciple of Bukhari. Ibn Khallikan says this work\nis \"the production of a well-informed man: its exactness is\nproverbial.\"[61]\n\n(5). _Sunan-i-Nasai._ Abu Abd-ur-Rahman Nasai was born at Nasa, in\nKhorasan, in the year A.H. 214, and died A.H. 303. It is recorded of him,\nwith great approbation, that he fasted every other day, and had four wives\nand many slaves. This book is considered of great value. He met with his\ndeath in rather a sad way. He had compiled a book on the virtues of 'Ali,\nand as the people of {69} Damascus were at that time inclined to the heresy\nof the Kharigites, he wished to read his book in the mosque of that place.\nAfter he had read a little way, a man arose and asked him whether he knew\naught of the praises of Muavia, 'Ali's deadly enemy. He replied that he did\nnot. This answer enraged the people, who beat him so severely that he died\nsoon after.\n\n(6). _Sunan-i-Ibn Majah._ Ibn Majah[62] was born at 'Irak A.H. 209. This\nwork contains 4,000 Traditions.\n\nThe Shia'hs reject these books and substitute five books[63] of their own\ninstead. They are of a much later date, the last one, indeed, having been\ncompiled more than four hundred years after the Hijra.\n\nThe belief which underlies the question of the authority of the Traditions\nis that before the Throne of God there stands a 'preserved Table,' on which\nall that can happen, and all that has ever entered, or will enter, the mind\nof man is 'noted in a distinct writing.' Through the medium of Gabriel, the\nProphet had access to this. It follows then that the words of the Prophet\nare the words of God.\n\nOf the four great \"Canonical Legists\" of Islam, Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was the\ngreatest collector of Traditions. It is said that he knew by heart no less\nthan one million. Of these he incorporated thirty thousand into his system\nof jurisprudence. That system is now almost obsolete. Abu Hanifa, who is\nsaid to have accepted only eighteen Traditions as authentic, founded a\nsystem which is to this day the most powerful in Islam. The Hanifites,\nhowever, as well as other Muslims, acknowledge the six standard collections\nof Traditions as direct revelations of the will of {70} God. They range\nover a vast number of subjects, and furnish a commentary on the Quran. The\nProphet's personal appearance, his mental and moral qualities, his actions,\nhis opinions, are all recorded over and over again. Many questions of\nreligious belief are largely founded on the Traditions, and it is to them\nwe must go for an explanation of much of the ritual of Islam. It is very\ndifficult for any one, who has not lived in long and friendly intercourse\nwith Muslims, to realize how much their religious life and opinions, their\nthought and actions, are based on the Traditions.\n\nHaving thus shown the importance of the Traditions, I now proceed to enter\na little into detail on the question of the rules framed concerning them.\nThe classification adopted by different authors may vary in some\nsubordinate points; but the following account is adopted from a standard\nMuhammadan work. A Tradition may be Hadis-i-Quali, that is, an account of\nsomething the Prophet said; or Hadis-i-Fa'li, a record of something which\nhe did; or Hadis-i-Taqriri, a statement of some act performed by other\npersons in his presence, and which action he did not forbid.\n\nThe Traditions may be classed under two general heads:--\n\nFirst.--_Hadis-i-Mutawatir_, that is, \"an undoubted Tradition,\" the Isnad,\nor chain of narrators of which is perfect, and in which chain each narrator\npossessed all the necessary qualifications for his office.[64] Some\nauthorities say there are only a few of these Traditions extant, but most\nallow that the following is one: \"There are no good works except with\nintention,\" for example, a man may fast, but, unless he has the intention\nof fasting firmly in his mind, he gains no spiritual reward by so doing.\n\nSecond.--_Hadis-i-Ahad._ The authority of this class is {71} theoretically\nsomewhat less than that of the first, but practically it is the same.\n\nThis class is again sub-divided into two:--\n\n(1). _Hadis-i-Sahih_, or a genuine Tradition. It is not necessary to go\ninto the sub-divisions of this sub-division. A Tradition is Sahih if the\nnarrators have been men of pious lives, abstemious in their habits, endowed\nwith a good memory, free from blemish, and persons who lived at peace with\ntheir neighbours. The following also are Sahih, though their importance as\nauthorities varies. I arrange them in the order of their value. Sahih\nTraditions are those which are found in the collections made by Bukhari and\nMuslim, or in the collection of either of the above, though not in both;\nor, if not mentioned by either of these famous collectors, if it has been\nretained in accordance with their canons for the rejection or retention of\nTraditions; or lastly, if retained in accordance with the rules of any\nother approved collector. For each of these classes there is a distinct\nname.\n\n(2). _Hadis-i-Hasan._ The narrators of this class are not of such good\nauthority as those of the former with regard to one or two qualities; but\nthese Traditions should be received as of equal authority as regards any\npractical use.[65] It is merely as a matter of classification that they\nrank second.\n\nIn addition to these names, there are a number of other technical terms\nwhich have regard to the personal character of the narrators, the Isnad,\nand other points. A few may be mentioned.\n\n(1). _Hadis-i-Z'aif_, or a weak Tradition. The narrators of it have been\npersons whose characters were not above reproach, whose memories were bad,\nor who, worse still, were addicted to \"bid'at,\" innovation, a habit now, as\nthen, a crime in the eyes of all true Muslims. All agree that a {72} \"weak\nTradition\" has little force; but few rival theologians agree as to which\nare, and which are not, \"weak Traditions.\"\n\n(2). _Hadis-i-Mua'llaq_, or a Tradition in the Isnad of which there is some\nbreak. If it begins with a Tabi' (one in the generation after that of the\nCompanions), it is called \"_Mursal_\" the one link in the chain, the\nCompanion, being wanting. If the first link in the chain of narrators\nbegins in a generation still later, it has another name, and so on.\n\n(3). Traditions which have various names, according as the narrator\nconcealed the name of his Imam, or where different narrators disagree, or\nwhere the narrator has mixed some of his own words with the Tradition, or\nhas been proved to be a liar, an evil liver, or mistaken; but into an\naccount of these it is not necessary to enter, for no Tradition of this\nclass would be considered as of itself sufficient ground on which to base\nany important doctrine.[66]\n\nIt is the universally accepted rule, that no authentic Tradition can be\ncontrary to the Quran. The importance attached to Tradition has been shown\nin the preceding chapter, an importance which has demanded the formation of\nan elaborate system of exegesis. To an orthodox Muslim the Book and the\nSunnat, God's word direct and God's word through the mind of the Prophet,\nare the foundation and sum of Islam, a fact not always taken into account\nby modern panegyrists of the system.\n\n{73}\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nTHE SECTS OF ISLAM.\n\nIt is a commonly received but nevertheless an erroneous opinion, that the\nMuhammadan religion is one remarkable for the absence of dogma and the\nunanimity of its professors. In this chapter I propose to show how the\ngreat sects differ in some very important principles of the faith, and\ntheir consequent divergence in practice. There is much that is common\nground to all, and of that some account was given in the first chapter on\nthe \"Foundations of Islam.\"\n\nIt was there shown that all Muslim sects are not agreed as to the essential\nfoundations of the Faith. The Sunnis recognise four foundations, the\nWahhabis two; whilst the Shia'hs reject altogether the Traditions held\nsacred by both Sunni and Wahhabi. The next chapter will contain a full\naccount of the doctrines held by the Sunnis, and so no account of this, the\northodox sect, is given in this chapter.\n\nThe first breach in Islam arose out of a civil war. The story has been so\noften told that it need not be reproduced here at any length. 'Ali, the\nson-in-law of Muhammad, was the fourth Khalif of Islam. He is described as\n\"the last and worthiest of the primitive Musalmans who imbibed his\nreligious enthusiasm from companionship with the Prophet himself, and who\nfollowed to the last the simplicity of his character.\" He was a man\ncalculated by his earnest devotion to the Prophet and his own natural\ngraces to win, as he has done, the admiration of succeeding generations. A\nstrong opposition, however, arose, and 'Ali was assassinated in a mosque at\nKufa. It is not easy, amid the conflicting statements of historians of the\nrival sects, to arrive at the truth in all the details of the events which\nhappened then; {74} but the generally received opinion is, that after the\nassassination of 'Ali, Hasan, his son, renounced his claim to the Khalifate\nin favour of his father's rival, Muavia. Hasan was ultimately poisoned by\nhis wife, who, it is said, was instigated by Muavia to do the deed, in\norder to leave the coast clear for his son Yezid. The most tragic event has\nyet to come. Yezid, who succeeded his father, was a very licentious and\nirreligious man. The people of Kufa, being disgusted at his conduct, sent\nmessengers to Husain, the remaining son of 'Ali, with the request that he\nwould assume the Khalifate. In vain the friends of Husain tried to persuade\nhim to let the people of Kufa first revolt, and thus show the reality of\ntheir wishes by their deeds. In an evil hour Husain started with a small\nband of forty horsemen and one hundred foot-soldiers. On the plain of\nKarbala he found his way barred by a force of three thousand men. \"We are\nfew in number,\" said Husain, \"and the enemy is in force. I am resolved to\ndie. But you--I release you from your oath of allegiance; let all those who\nwish to do so leave me.\" \"O Son of the Apostle of God!\" was the reply,\n\"what excuse could we give to thy grandfather on the day of resurrection\ndid we abandon thee to the hands of thine enemies?\" One by one these brave\nmen fell beneath the swords of the enemy, until Husain and his infant son\nalone were left. Weary and thirsty, Husain sat upon the ground. The enemy\ndrew near, but no one dared to kill the grandson of the Prophet. An arrow\npierced the ear of the little boy and he died. \"We came from God, and we\nreturn to him,\" were the pathetic words of Husain, as with a sorrowful\nheart he laid the dead body of his son on the sand. He then stooped down to\ndrink some water from the river Euphrates. Seeing him thus stooping, the\nenemy discharged a flight of arrows, one of which wounded him in the mouth.\nHe fought bravely for a while, but at last fell covered with many wounds.\nThe schism between the Sunni and the Shia'h was now complete. {75}\n\nThe ceremonies celebrated during the annual fast of Muharram refer to these\nhistorical facts, and help to keep alive a bitter feud; but to suppose that\nthe only difference between the Shia'h and the Sunni is a mere dispute as\nto the proper order of the early Khalifs would be a mistake. Starting off\nwith a political quarrel, the Shia'hs have travelled into a very distinct\nreligious position of their own. The fundamental tenet of the Shia'h sect\nis the \"divine right\" of 'Ali the Chosen and his descendants. From this it\nfollows that the chief duty of religion consists in devotion to the Imam\n(or Pontiff); from which position some curious dogmas issue. The whole\nquestion of the Imamat is a very important one. The word Imam comes from an\nArabic word meaning to aim at, to follow after. The term Imam then becomes\nequal to the word leader or exemplar. It is applied in this sense to\nMuhammad as the leader in all civil and religious questions, and to the\nKhalifs, his successors. It is also, in its religious import only, applied\nto the founders of the four orthodox schools of jurisprudence, and in a\nrestricted sense to the leader of a congregation at prayer in a mosque. It\nis with the first of these meanings that we have now to deal. It is so used\nin the Quran--\"When his Lord made trial of Abraham by commands which he\nfulfilled, He said: 'I am about to make of thee an Imam to mankind;' he\nsaid: 'Of my offspring also?' 'My covenant,' said God, 'embraceth not the\nevil-doers.'\" (Sura ii. 118.) From this verse two doctrines are deduced.\nFirst, that the Imam must be appointed by God, for if this is not the case,\nwhy did Abraham say \"of my offspring also?\" Secondly, the Imam is free from\nsin, for God said: \"My covenant embraceth not the evil-doer.\"\n\nThe first dispute about the Imamat originated with the twelve thousand who\nrevolted from 'Ali after the battle of Siffin (657 A.D.), because he\nconsented to submit to arbitration the dispute between himself and Muavia.\nSome years after they were nearly all destroyed by 'Ali. A few {76}\nsurvivors, however, fled to various parts. Two at last settled in Oman, and\nthere preached their distinctive doctrines. In course of time the people of\nOman adopted the doctrine that the Imamat was not hereditary but elective,\nand that in the event of misconduct the Imam might be deposed.\n'Abdullah-ibn-Ibadh (744 A.D.) was a vigorous preacher of this doctrine,\nand from him the sect known as the 'Ibadhiyah takes its rise. The result of\nthis teaching was the establishment of the power and jurisdiction of the\nImam of Oman. The 'Ibadhiyah seem to have always kept themselves\nindependent of the Sunni Khalifs of Baghdad, and, therefore, would consider\nthemselves free from any obligation to obey the Sultan of Turkey. From the\nordinary Shia'hs they differ as regards the \"divine right\" of 'Ali and his\nchildren. The curious in such matters will find the whole subject well\ntreated in Dr. Badger's \"Seyyids of Oman.\"\n\nThe term Kharigite (Separatist) has since become the generic name for a\ngroup of sects which agree as to the need of an Imam, though they differ as\nto the details of the dogma. In opposition to this heresy of the Kharigite\nstands what may be termed the orthodox doctrine of the Shia'h. The Shia'hs\nhold that the Imamat must continue in the family of 'Ali, and that religion\nconsists mainly in devotion to the Imam. The tragic end of 'Ali and his\nsons invested them with peculiar interest. When grieving for the sad end of\ntheir leaders, the Shi'ahs found consolation in the doctrine which soon\nfound development, _viz._, that it was God's will that the Imamat should\ncontinue in the family of 'Ali. Thus a tradition relates that the Prophet\nsaid: \"He of whom I am master has 'Ali also for a master.\" \"The best judge\namong you is 'Ali.\" Ibn Abbas, a Companion says: \"I heard the Prophet say:\n'He who blasphemes my name blasphemes the name of God; he who blasphemes\nthe name of 'Ali blasphemes my name.'\" A popular Persian hymn shows to what\nan extent this feeling deepened. {77}\n\n \"Mysterious being! none can tell\n  The attributes in thee that dwell;\n  None can thine essence comprehend;\n  To thee should every mortal bend--\n  For 'tis by thee that man is given\n  To know the high behests of heaven.\"\n\nThe general idea is, that long before the creation of the world, God took a\nray of light from the splendour of His own glory and united it to the body\nof Muhammad, to which He said: \"Thou art the elect, the chosen, I will make\nthe members of thy family the guides to salvation.\" Muhammad said: \"The\nfirst thing which God created was my light, and my spirit.\"[67] The body of\nthe Prophet was then in some mysterious way hidden. In due time the world\nwas created, but not until the birth of Muhammad did this ray of glory\nappear. It is well known to all Musalmans as the \"Nur-i-Muhammadi\"--light\nof Muhammad.\n\nThis \"Nur\" is said to be of four kinds. From the first kind God created His\nThrone, from the second the Pen of Fate, from the third Paradise, and from\nthe fourth the state, or place of Spirits and all created beings. According\nto a statement made by 'Ali, Muhammad said that he was created from the\nlight of God, whilst all other created beings were formed from the \"light\nof Muhammad.\"[68]\n\nThis \"light\" descended to 'Ali, and from him passed on to the true Imams,\nwho alone are the lawful successors of the Prophet. Rebellion against them\nis sin; devotion to them the very essence of religion.\n\nThe doctrine of the Imamat has given rise to endless discussion and\ndissension, as the numerous sub-divisions of the Shia'h sect will show.\nThey are said to be thirty-two in number. The Shia'h proper is the largest\nand most influential of them. The following are the Shi'ah tenets regarding\nthe Imam, based on one of their standard books of {78} divinity.[69] The\nImam is the successor of the Prophet, adorned with all the qualities which\nhe possessed. He is wiser than the most learned men of the age, holier than\nthe most pious. He is the noblest of the sons of men and is free from all\nsin original or actual: hence the Imam is called ma'sum (innocent.)[70] God\nrules the world by wisdom, hence the sending forth of prophets was a\nnecessity; but it was equally necessary to establish the Imamat. Thus the\nImam is equal to a prophet. 'Ali said: \"In me is the glory of every prophet\nthat has ever been.\" The authority of the Imam is the authority of God, for\n(I quote the Hyat-un-Nafis) \"his word is the word of God and of the\nProphet, and obedience to his order is incumbent.\" The nature of the Imam\nis identical with the nature of Muhammad, for did not 'Ali say: \"I am\nMuhammad, and Muhammad is me.\" This probably refers to the possession by\nthe Imam of the \"light of Muhammad.\" The bodies of the Imams are so pure\nand delicate that they cast no shadow.[71] They {79} are the beginning and\nthe end of all things. To know the Imams is the very essence of the\nknowledge which men can gain of God. \"The Holy God calls the Imams His\nword, His hands, His signs, His secret. Their commands and prohibitions,\ntheir actions too, He recognises as His own.\" As mediums between God and\nman they hold a far higher position than the prophets, for \"the grace of\nGod, without their intervention, reaches to no created being.\" These\nextravagant claims for the Imams culminate in the assertion that \"for them\na pillar of light has been fixed between the earth and heaven, by which the\nactions of the Faithful are made known to them.\" The Imam is the supreme\nPontiff, the Vicar of God on earth. The possession of an infallible book is\nnot sufficient. The infallible guide is needed. Such wisdom and discernment\nas such a guide would require can only be found amongst the descendants of\nthe Prophet. It is no longer, then, a matter of wonder, that in some cases,\nalmost, if not entirely, divine honour is paid to 'Ali and his\ndescendants.[72]\n\nThe Usul, or fundamental tenets of the Shia'h sect are five in number. (1)\nTo believe in the unity of God, (2) To admit that He is just, (3) To\nbelieve in the divine mission of all the prophets, and that Muhammad is the\nchief of all, (4) To consider 'Ali the Khalif next in order after Muhammad,\n(5) To believe 'Ali's descendants from Hasan to Mahdi, the twelfth Imam, to\nbe his true successors, and to consider all of them in character, position\nand dignity as raised far above all other Muslims. This is the doctrine of\nthe Imamat.\n\n{80}\n\nThe first principal divisions of the Shia'h sect are the Isma'ilians and\nthe Imamites. The latter believe in twelve Imams, reckoning 'Ali as the\nfirst.[73] The last of the twelve Abu'l-Qasim, is supposed to be alive\nstill, though hidden in some secret place. He bears the name of Al-Mahdi,\n\"the guided.\" It is expected that he will reappear at the second advent of\nChrist. They say that he was born near Baghdad in the year 258 A.H. He\nafterwards mysteriously disappeared. When he was born the words, \"Say:\n'truth is come and falsehood is vanished: Verily falsehood is a thing that\nvanisheth,'\" (Sura xvii. 83) were found written on his right arm. When he\ncame into the world, he pointed with his fingers to heaven, sneezed, and\nsaid: 'Praise be to God, the Lord of the world.' A person one day visited\nImam Hasan 'Askari (the eleventh Imam) and said: 'O son of the Prophet who\nwill be Khalif and Imam after thee?' He brought out a child and said: 'if\nthou hadst not found favour in the eyes of God, He would not have shown\nthee this child; his name is that of the Prophet, and so is his\npatronymic,' (Abu 'l-Qasim). The sect who believe Mahdi to be alive at\npresent, say that he rules over cities in the far west, and he is even said\nto have children. God alone knows the truth.[74]\n\nThe other large division, the Isma'ilians, agree with the Imamites in all\nparticulars save one. They hold that after Sadiq, the sixth Imam, commenced\nwhat is called the succession of the \"concealed Imams.\" They believe that\nthere never can be a time when there shall be no Imam, but that he is now\nin seclusion. This idea has given rise to all sorts of secret societies,\nand has paved the way for a mystical religion, which often lands its\nvotaries in atheism.[75] {81}\n\nThe Ghair-i-Mahdi (literally \"without Mahdi\") are a small sect who believe\nthat Al-Mahdi will not reappear. They say that one Syed Muhammad of Jeypore\nwas the real Mahdi, the twelfth Imam, and that he has now gone never more\nto return. They venerate him as highly as they do the Prophet, and consider\nall other Musalmans to be unbelievers. On the night called Lailat-ul-Qadr,\nin the month of Ramazan, they meet and repeat two rak'at prayers. After\nthat act of devotion is over, they say: \"God is Almighty, Muhammad is our\nProphet, the Quran and Mahdi are just and true. Imam Mahdi is come and\ngone. Whosoever disbelieves this is an infidel.\" They are a very fanatical\nsect.\n\nThere is another small community of Ghair-i-Mahdis called the Da,iri,\nsettled in the province of Mysore, who hold peculiar views on this point.\nAbout four hundred years ago, a man named Syed Ahmad collected some\nfollowers in the dominions of the Nizam of Hyderabad. He called himself the\nImam Mahdi, and said that he was superior to any prophet. He and his\ndisciples, being bitterly persecuted by the orthodox Musalmans, fled to a\nvillage in the adjoining district of Mysore where their descendants,\nfifteen hundred in number, now reside. It is said that they do not\nintermarry with other Musalmans. The usual Friday service in the mosque is\nended by the leader saying: \"Imam Mahdi came and went away,\" to which the\npeople respond: \"He who does not believe this is a Kafir\" (infidel).\n\nThere are several Traditions which refer to the latter days. \"When of time\none day shall be left, God shall raise up a man from among my descendants,\nwho shall fill the world with justice, just as before him the world was\nfull of oppression.\" And again: \"The world shall not come to an end till\nthe king of the earth shall appear, who is a man of my family, and whose\nname is the same as mine.\" When Islam entered upon the tenth century of its\nexistence, there was throughout Persia and India a millenarian movement.\nMen {82} declared that the end was drawing near, and various persons arose\nwho claimed to be Al-Mahdi. I have already mentioned two. Amongst others\nwas Shaikh 'Alai of Agra. (956 A.H.) Shaikh Mubarak, the father of\nAbu'l-Fazl--the Emperor Akbar's famous vizier, was a disciple of Shaikh\n'Alai and from him imbibed Mahdavi ideas. This brought upon him the wrath\nof the 'Ulama who, however, were finally overcome by the free-thinking and\nheretical Emperor and his vizier. There never was a better ruler in India\nthan Akbar, and never a more heretical one as far as orthodox Islam is\nconcerned. The Emperor delighted in the controversies of the age. The Sufis\nand Mahdavis were in favour at Court. The orthodox 'Ulama were treated with\ncontempt. Akbar fully believed that the millennium had come. He started a\nnew era, and a new religion called the 'Divine Faith.' There was toleration\nfor all except the bigoted orthodox Muslims. Abu'l-Fazl and others like\nhim, who professed to reflect Akbar's religious views, held that all\nreligions contained truth. Thus:--\n\n \"O God, in every temple I see people that seek Thee, and in every language\n     I hear spoken, people praise Thee!\n      Polytheism and Islam feel after Thee,\n      Each religion says, 'Thou art one, without equal.'\n  If it be a mosque, people murmur the holy prayer, and if it be a\n      Christian Church, people ring the bell from love to Thee,\n      Sometimes I frequent the Christian cloister, and sometimes the\n          mosque,\n      But it is Thou whom I search from temple to temple.\"\n\nIn this reign one Mir Sharif was promoted to the rank of a Commander of a\nthousand, and to an appointment in Bengal. His chief merit in Akbar's eyes\nwas that he taught the doctrine of the transmigration of souls and the\nclose advent of the millennium. He was a disciple of Mahmud of Busakhwan,\nthe founder of the Nuqtawiah sect. As this is another offshoot of the\nShia'hs I give a brief account of them here. Mahmud lived in the reign of\nTimur and {83} professed to be Al-Mahdi. He also called himself the\nShakhs-i-Wahid--the Individual one. He used to quote the verse, \"It may be\nthat thy Lord will raise thee up to a glorious (mahmud) station.\" (Sura\nxvii. 81). From this he argued that the body of man had been advancing in\npurity since the creation, and that on its reaching to a certain degree,\none Mahmud (glorious) would arise, and that then the dispensation of\nMuhammad would come to an end. He claimed to be the Mahmud. He also taught\nthe doctrine of transmigration, and that the beginning of everything was\nthe Nuqtah-i-khak--earth atom. It is on this account that they are called\nthe Nuqtawiah sect. They are also known by the names Mahmudiah and\nWahidiah. Shah 'Abbas king of Persia expelled them from his dominions, but\nAkbar received the fugitives kindly and promoted some amongst them to high\noffices of State.\n\nThis Mahdavi movement, arising as it did out of the Shia'h doctrine of the\nImamat, is a very striking fact. That imposters should arise and claim the\nname and office of Al-Mahdi is not to be wondered at, but that large bodies\nof men should follow them shows the unrest which dwelt in men's hearts, and\nhow they longed for a personal leader and guide.\n\nThe whole of the Shia'h doctrine on this point seems to show that there is\nin the human heart a natural desire for some Mediator--some Word of the\nFather, who shall reveal Him to His children. At first sight it would seem,\nas if the doctrine of the Imamat might to some extent reconcile the\nthoughtful Shia'h to the Christian doctrine of the Incarnation and\nMediation of Jesus Christ, to His office as the perfect revealer of God's\nwill; and as our Guide in life; but alas! it is not so. The mystic lore\nconnected with Shia'h doctrine has sapped the foundation of moral life and\nvigour. A system of religious reservation, too, is a fundamental part of\nthe system in its mystical developments, whilst all Shia'hs may lawfully\npractise \"takia,\" or religious {84} compromise in their daily lives. It\nthus becomes impossible to place dependence on what a Shia'h may profess,\nas pious frauds are legalised by his system of religion. If he becomes a\nmystic, he looks upon the ceremonial and the moral law as restrictions\nimposed by an Almighty Power. The omission of the one is a sin almost, if\nnot quite, as bad as a breach, of the other. The advent of Mahdi is the\ngood time when all such restrictions shall be removed, when the utmost\nfreedom shall be allowed. Thus the moral sense, in many cases, becomes\ndeadened to an extent such as those who are not in daily contact with these\npeople can hardly credit. The practice of \"takia,\" religious compromise,\nand the legality of \"muta'h\" or temporary marriages, have done much to\ndemoralise the Shia'h community. The following words of a recent author\ndescriptive of the Shia'h system are in the main true, though they do not\napply to each individual in that system:--\n\n    \"There can be no stronger testimony of the corrupting power and the\n    hard and hopeless bondage of the orthodox creed, than that men should\n    escape from it into a system which established falsehood as the supreme\n    law of conduct, and regarded the reduction of men to the level of swine\n    as the goal of human existence.\"[76]\n\nThe Mutazilites, or Seceders, were once an influential body. They do not\nexist as a separate sect now. An account of them will be given in the next\nchapter.\n\nIn the doctrine of the Imamat, common to all the offshoots of the Shia'h\nsect, is to be found the chief point of difference between the Sunni and\nthe Shia'h, a difference so great that there is no danger of even a\npolitical union between these two great branches of Islam. I have already\ndescribed, too, how the Shia'hs reject the Sunnat, though they do not\nreject Tradition. A good deal of ill-blood is still kept up by the\nrecollection--a recollection kept alive by the annual recurrence of the\nMuharram fast--of the sad {85} fate of 'Ali and his sons. The Sunnis are\nblamed for the work of their ancestors in the faith, whilst the Khalifs Abu\nBakr, Omar, and Osman are looked upon as usurpers. Not to them was\ncommitted the wonderful ray of light. In the possession of that alone can\nany one make good a claim to be the Imam, the Guide of the Believers. The\nterrible disorders of the early days of Islam can only be understood when\nwe realise to some extent the passionate longing which men felt for a\nspiritual head--an Imam. It was thought to be impossible that Muhammad, the\nlast--the seal--of the prophets should leave the Faithful without a guide,\nwho would be the interpreter of the will of Allah.\n\nWe here make a slight digression to show that this feeling extends beyond\nthe Shia'h sect, and is of some importance in its bearing upon the Eastern\nQuestion. Apart from the superhuman claims for the Imam, what he is as a\nruler to the Shia'h, the Khalif is to the Sunni--the supreme head in Church\nand State, the successor of the Prophet, the Conservator of Islam as made\nknown in the Quran, the Sunnat and the Ijma' of the early Mujtahidin. To\nadminister the laws, the administrator must have a divine sanction. Thus\nwhen the Ottoman ruler, Selim the First, conquered Egypt, (A.D. 1516) he\nsought and obtained, from an old descendant of the Baghdad Khalifs, the\ntransfer of the title to himself, and in this way the Sultans of Turkey\nbecame the Khalifs of Islam. Whether Mutawakal Billal, the last titular\nKhalif of the house of 'Abbas, was right or wrong in thus transferring the\ntitle is not my purpose now to discuss. I only adduce the fact to show how\nit illustrates the feeling of the need of a Pontiff--a divinely appointed\nRuler. Strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, the Sultans are not\nKhalifs, for it is clearly laid down in the Traditions that the Khalif (or\nthe Imam) must be of the tribe of the Quraish, to which the Prophet himself\nbelonged.\n\nIbn-i-Umr relates that the Prophet said:--\"The Khalifs shall be in the\nQuraish tribe as long as there are two {86} persons in it, one to rule and\nanother to serve.\"[77] \"It is a necessary condition that the Khalif should\nbe of the Quraish tribe.\"[78] Such quotations might be multiplied, and they\ntend to show that it is not at all incumbent on orthodox Sunnis, other than\nthe Turks, to rush to the rescue of the Sultan, whilst to the Shia'hs he is\nlittle better than a heretic. Certainly they would never look upon him as\nan Imam, which personage is to them in the place of a Khalif. In countries\nnot under Turkish rule, the Khutbah, or prayer for the ruler, said on\nFridays in the mosques, is said for the \"ruler of the age,\" or for the\nAmir, or whatever happens to be the title of the head of the State. Of late\nyears it has become more common in India to say it for the Sultan. This is\nnot, strictly speaking, according to Muhammadan law, which declares that\nthe Khutbah can only be said with the permission of the ruler, and as in\nIndia that ruler is the British Government, the prayers should be said for\nthe Queen. Evidently the law never contemplated large bodies of Musalmans\nresiding anywhere but where the influence of the Khalif extended.\n\nIn thus casting doubt on the legality of the claim made by Turkish Sultans\nto the Khalifate of Islam, I do not deny that the Law of Islam requires\nthat there should be a Khalif. Unfortunately for Islam, there is nothing in\nits history parallel to the conflict of Pope and Emperor, of Church and\nState. \"The action and re-action of these powerful and partially\nindependent forces, their resistance to each other, and their ministry to\neach other, have been of incalculable value to the higher activity and life\nof Christendom.\" In Islam the Khalif is both Pope and Emperor. Ibn Khaldoun\nstates that the difference between the Khalif and any other ruler is that\nthe former rules according to divine, the latter according to human law.\nThe Prophet in transmitting his sacred authority to the Khalifs, his\nsuccessors, conveyed to {87} them absolute powers. Khalifs can be\nassassinated, murdered, banished, but so long as they reign anything like\nconstitutional liberty is impossible. It is a fatal mistake in European\npolitics and an evil for Turkey to recognize the Sultan as the Khalif of\nIslam, for, if he be such, Turkey can never take any step forward to\nnewness of political life.[79]\n\nThis, however, is a digression from the subject of this chapter.\n\nThere has been from the earliest ages of Islam a movement which exists to\nthis day. It is a kind of mysticism, known as Sufiism. It has been\nespecially prevalent among the Persians. It is a re-action from the burden\nof a rigid law, and a wearisome ritual. It has now existed for a thousand\nyears, and if it has the element of progress in it, if it is the salt of\nIslam some fruit should now be seen. But what is Sufiism? The term Sufi is\nmost probably derived from the Arabic word Suf, \"wool,\" of which material\nthe garments worn by Eastern ascetics used to be generally made. Some\npersons, however, derive it from the Persian, Suf, \"pure,\" or the Greek\n[Greek: sophia], \"wisdom.\" Tasawwuf, or Sufiism, is the abstract form of\nthe word, and is, according to Sir W. Jones, and other learned\norientalists, a figurative mode, borrowed mainly from the Indian\nphilosophers of the Vedanta school, of expressing the fervour of devotion.\nThe chief idea is that the souls of men differ in degree, but not {88} in\nkind, from the Divine Spirit, of which they are emanations, and to which\nthey will ultimately return. The Spirit of God is in all He has made, and\nit in Him. He alone is perfect love, beauty, etc.--hence love to him is the\nonly _real_ thing; all else is illusion. Sa'di says: \"I swear by the truth\nof God, that when He showed me His glory all else was illusion.\" This\npresent life is one of separation from the beloved. The beauties of nature,\nmusic, and art revive in men the divine idea, and recall their affections\nfrom wandering from Him to other objects. These sublime affections men must\ncherish, and by abstraction concentrate their thoughts on God, and so\napproximate to His essence, and finally reach the highest stage of\nbliss--absorption into the Eternal. The true end and object of human life\nis to lose all consciousness of individual existence--to sink \"in the ocean\nof Divine Life, as a breaking bubble is merged into the stream on the\nsurface of which it has for a moment risen.\"[80]\n\nSufis, who all accept Islam as a divinely established religion, suppose\nthat long before the creation of the world a contract was made by the\nSupreme Soul with the assembled world of spirits, who are parts of it. Each\nspirit was addressed separately, thus: \"Art thou not with thy Lord?\" that\nis, bound to him by a solemn contract. To this they all answered with one\nvoice, \"Yes.\"\n\nAnother account says that the seed of theosophy (m'arifat) was placed in\nthe ground in the time of Adam; that the plant {89} came forth in the days\nof Noah, was in flower when Abraham was alive and produced fruit before\nMoses passed away. The grapes of this noble plant were ripe in the time of\nJesus, but it was not till the age of Muhammad that pure wine was made from\nthem. Then those intoxicated with it, having attained to the highest degree\nof the knowledge of God, could forget their own personality and\nsay:--\"Praise to me, is there any greater than myself? I am the Truth.\"\n\nThe following verse of the Quran is quoted by Sufis in support of their\nfavourite dogma--the attaining to the knowledge of God: \"When God said to\nthe angels, 'I am about to place a viceregent on the earth,' they said:\n'Wilt Thou place therein one who shall commit abomination and shed blood?\nNay; we celebrate Thy praise and holiness.' God answered them, 'Verily I\nknow that ye wot not of.'\" (Sura ii. 28.) It is said that this verse proves\nthat, though the great mass of mankind would commit abomination, some would\nreceive the divine light and attain to a knowledge of God. A Tradition\nstates that David said: \"'Oh Lord! why hast Thou created mankind?' God\nreplied, 'I am a hidden treasure, and I would fain become known.'\" The\nbusiness of the mystic is to find this treasure, to attain to the Divine\nlight and the true knowledge of God.\n\nThe earlier Muhammadan mystics sought to impart life to a rigid and formal\nritual, and though the seeds of Pantheism were planted in their system from\nthe first, they maintained that they were orthodox. \"Our system of\ndoctrine,\" says Al-Junaid, \"is firmly bound up with the dogmas of the\nfaith, the Quran and the Traditions.\" There was a moral earnestness about\nmany of these men which frequently restrained the arm of unrighteous power,\nand their sayings, often full of beauty, show that they had the power of\nappreciating the spiritual side of life. Some of these sentences are worthy\nof any age. \"As neither meat nor drink,\" says one, \"profit the diseased\nbody, so no warning avails {90} to touch the heart full of the love of this\nworld.\" \"The work of a holy man doth not consist in this, that he eats\ngrain, and clothes himself in wool, but in the knowledge of God and\nsubmission to His will.\" \"Thou deservest not the name of a learned man till\nthy heart is emptied of the love of this world.\" \"Hide thy good deeds as\nclosely as thou wouldst hide thy sins.\" A famous mystic was brought into\nthe presence of the Khalif Harun-ur-Rashid who said to him: \"How great is\nthy abnegation?\" He replied, \"Thine is greater.\" \"How so?\" said the Khalif.\n\"Because I make abnegation of this world, and thou makest abnegation of the\nnext.\" The same man also said: \"The display of devotional works to please\nmen is hypocrisy, and acts of devotion done to please men are acts of\npolytheism.\"\n\nBut towards the close of the second century of the Hijra, this earlier\nmysticism developed into Sufiism. Then Al-Hallaj taught in Baghdad thus: \"I\nam the Truth. There is nought in Paradise but God. I am He whom I love, and\nHe whom I love is I; we are two souls dwelling in one body. When thou seest\nme, thou seest Him; and when thou seest Him thou seest me.\" This roused the\nopposition of the orthodox divines by whom Al-Hallaj was condemned to be\nworthy of death. He was then by order of the Khalif flogged, tortured and\nfinally beheaded. Thus died one of the early martyrs of Sufiism, but it\ngrew in spite of bitter persecution.\n\nIn order to understand the esoteric teaching of Sufiistic poetry, it is\nnecessary to remember that the perceptive sense is the traveller, the\nknowledge of God the goal, the doctrines of this ascent, or upward progress\nis the Tarikat, or the road. The extinction of self is necessary before any\nprogress can be made on that road. A Sufi poet writes:--\n\n \"Plant one foot upon the neck of self,\n  The other in thy Friend's domain;\n  In everything His presence see,\n  For other vision is in vain.\"\n\n{91}\n\nSa'di in the Bustan says: \"Art thou a friend of God? Speak not of self, for\nto speak of God and of self is infidelity.\" Shaikh Abu'l-Faiz, a great poet\nand a friend of the Emperor Akbar, from whom he received the honourable\ntitle of Malik-ush-Shu'ara--Master of the Poets, says: \"Those who have not\nclosed the door on existence and non-existence reap no advantage from the\ncalm of this world and of the world to come.\" Khusrau, another well-known\npoet says:--\n\n \"I have become Thou: Thou art become I,\n  I am the body, Thou the soul;\n  Let no one henceforth say\n  That I am distinct from Thee, and Thou from me.\"\n\nThe fact is, that Persian poetry is almost entirely Sufiistic. It is\ndifficult for the uninitiated to arrive at the esoteric meaning of these\nwritings. Kitman, or the art of hiding from the profane religious beliefs,\noften contrary to the revealed law, has always been a special quality of\nthe East. Pantheistic doctrines are largely inculcated.[81] Thus:--\n\n \"I was, ere a name had been named upon earth;\n  Ere one trace yet existed of aught that has birth;\n  When the locks of the Loved One streamed forth for a sign,\n  And Being was none, save the Presence Divine!\n  Named and name were alike emanations from Me,\n  Ere aught that was 'I' existed, or 'We.'\"\n\nThe poet then describes his fruitless search for rest and peace in\nChristianity, Hinduism, and the religion of the Parsee. Even Islam gave him\nno satisfaction, for--\n\n \"Nor above nor beneath came the Loved One to view,\n  I toiled to the summit, wild, pathless and lone,\n  Of the globe-girding Kaf[82]:--but the 'Anka[83] had flown!\n  {92}\n  The sev'nth heaven I traversed--the sev'nth heaven explored,\n  But in neither discern'd I the court of the Lord!\n  I question'd the Pen and the Tablet of Fate,\n  But they whisper'd not where He pavilions His state;\n  My vision I strain'd; but my God-scanning eye\n  No trace, that to Godhead belongs, could descry.\n  My glance I bent inward; within my own breast,\n  Lo, the vainly sought elsewhere, the Godhead confess'd!\n  In the whirl of its transport my spirit was toss'd,\n  _Till each atom of separate being I lost_.\"\n\nThese are the words of the greatest authority among the Sufis, the famous\nMaulana Jelal-ud-din Rumi, founder of the order of the Maulavi Darwishes.\nHe also relates the following story: \"One knocked at the door of the\nbeloved, and a voice from within said: 'Who is there?' Then he answered,\n'_It is I._' The voice replied, 'This house will not hold _me_ and _thee_!'\nSo the door remained shut. The lover retired to a wilderness, and spent\nsome time in solitude, fasting, and prayer. One year elapsed, when he again\nreturned, and knocked at the door. 'Who is there?' said the voice. The\nlover answered, '_It is thou._' Then the door was opened.\"\n\nThe great object of life, then, being to escape from the hindrances to pure\nlove and to a return to the divine essence, the Talib, or seeker, attaches\nhimself to a Murshid, or teacher. If he prosecutes his studies according to\nSufiistic methods he now often enters one of the many orders of Darwishes.\nAfter due preparation under his Murshid, he is allowed to enter on the\nroad. He then becomes a Salik, or traveller, whose business henceforth is\nsuluk that is, devotion to one idea--the knowledge of God. In this road\nthere are eight stages. (1) Service. Here he must serve God and obey the\nLaw for he is still in bondage. (2) Love. It is supposed that now the\nDivine influence has so attracted his soul that he really loves God. (3)\nSeclusion. Love having expelled all worldly desires, he arrives at this\nstage, and passes his time in meditation on the deeper doctrines {93} of\nSufiism regarding the Divine nature. (4) Knowledge. The meditation in the\npreceding stage, and the investigation of the metaphysical theories\nconcerning God, His nature, His attributes and the like make him an\n'Arif--one who knows. (5) Ecstasy. The mental excitement caused by such\ncontinued meditation on abstruse subjects produces a kind of frenzy, which\nis looked upon as a mark of direct illumination of the heart from God. It\nis known as Hal--the state; or Wajd--ecstasy. Arrival at this stage is\nhighly valued, for it is the certain entrance to the next. (6) Haqiqat--the\nTruth. Now to the traveller is revealed the true nature of God, now he\nlearns the reality of that which he has been for so long seeking. This\nadmits him to the highest stage in his journey, as far as this life is\nconcerned. (7) That stage is Wasl--union with God.\n\n \"There was a door to which I found no key;\n  There was a veil past which I could not see:\n  Some little talk of Me and Thee\n  There seemed--and then no more of Thee and Me.\"\n\nHe cannot, in this life, go beyond that, and very few reach that exalted\nstage. Thus arose a \"system of Pantheism, which represents joy and sorrow,\ngood and evil, pleasure and pain as manifestations of one changeless\nessence.\" Religion, as made known by an outward revelation, is, to the few\nwho reach this stage, a thing of the past. Even its restraints are not\nneeded. The soul that is united to God can do no evil. The poet Khusrau\nsays: \"Love is the object of my worship, what need have I of Islam?\"\n\nDeath ensues and with it the last stage is reached. (8) It is\nFana--extinction. The seeker after all his search, the traveller after all\nhis wearisome journey passes behind the veil and finds--nothing! As the\ntraveller proceeds from stage to stage, the restraints of an objective\nrevelation and of an outward system are less and less heeded. \"The {94}\nreligion of the mystic consists in his immediate communication with God,\nand when once this has been established, the value of ecclesiastical forms,\nand of the historical part of religion, becomes doubtful.\" What law can\nbind the soul in union with God, what outward system impose any trammels on\none who, in the \"Ecstasy,\" has received from Him, who is the Truth, the\ndirect revelation of His own glorious nature? Moral laws and ceremonial\nobservances have only an allegorical signification. Creeds are but fetters\ncunningly devised to limit the flight of the soul; all that is objective in\nreligion is a restraint to the reason of the initiated.[84]\n\nPantheistic in creed, and too often Antinomian in practice, Sufiism\npossesses no regenerative power in Islam. \"It is not a substantive religion\nsuch as shapes the life of races or of nations, it is a state of opinion.\"\nNo Muslim State makes a national profession of Sufiism.\n\nIn spite of all its dogmatic utterances, in spite of much that is sublime\nin its idea of the search after light and truth, Sufiism ends in utter\nnegation of all separate existence. The pantheism of the Sufis, this\nesoteric doctrine of Islam, as a moral doctrine leads to the same\nconclusions as materialism, \"the negation of human liberty, the\nindifference to actions and the legitimacy of all temporal enjoyments.\"\n\nThe result of Sufiism has been the establishment of a large number of\nreligious orders known as Darwishes.[85] These men are looked upon with\ndisfavour by the {95} orthodox; but they flourish nevertheless, and in\nTurkey at the present day have great influence. There are in Constantinople\ntwo hundred Takiahs, or monasteries. The Darwishes are not organized with\nsuch regularity, nor subject to discipline so severe as that of the\nChristian Monastic orders; but they surpass them in number. Each order has\nits own special mysteries and practices by which its members think they can\nobtain a knowledge of the secrets of the invisible world. They are also\ncalled Faqirs--poor men, not, however, always in the sense of being in\ntemporal want, but as being poor in the sight of God. As a matter of fact\nthe Darwishes of many of the orders do not beg, and many of the Takiahs are\nrichly endowed. They are divided into two great classes, the Ba Shara'\n(with the Law) Darwishes; and the Be Shara' (without the Law). The former\nprefer to rule their conduct according to the law of Islam and are called\nthe Salik--travellers on the path (tariqat) to heaven; the latter though\nthey call themselves Muslims do not conform to the law, and are called Azad\n(free), or Majzub (abstracted), a term which signifies their renunciation\nof all worldly cares and pursuits.\n\nThe Salik Darwishes are those who perform the Zikrs.[86] What little hope\nthere is of these professedly religious men working any reform in Islam\nwill be seen from the following account of their doctrines.[87]\n\n1. God only exists,--He is in all things, and all things are in Him.\n\"Verily we are _from_ God, and _to_ Him shall we return.\" (Sura ii. 151.)\n\n{96}\n\n2. All visible and invisible beings are an emanation from Him, and are not\nreally distinct from Him. Creation is only a pastime with God.\n\n3. Paradise and Hell, and all the dogmas of positive religions, are only so\nmany allegories, the spirit of which is only known to the Sufi.\n\n4. Religions are matters of indifference; they, however, serve as a means\nof reaching to realities. Some, for this purpose, are more advantageous\nthan others. Among which is the Musalman religion, of which the doctrine of\nthe Sufis is the philosophy.\n\n5. There is not any real difference between good and evil, for all is\nreduced to unity, and God is the real author of the acts of mankind.\n\n6. It is God who fixes the will of man. Man, therefore, is not free in his\nactions.\n\n7. The soul existed before the body, and is now confined within it as in a\ncage. At death the soul returns to the Divinity from which it emanated.\n\n8. The principal occupation of the Sufi is to meditate on the unity, and so\nto attain to spiritual perfection--unification with God.\n\n9. Without the grace of God no one can attain to this unity; but God does\nnot refuse His aid to those who are in the right path.\n\nThe power of a Sheikh, a spiritual leader, is very great. The following\naccount of the admission of a Novice, called Tawakkul Beg, into an Order,\nand of the severe tests applied, will be of some interest.[88] Tawakkul Beg\nsays:--\"Having been introduced by Akhund Moolla Muhammad to Sheikh Moolla\nShah, my heart, through frequent intercourse with him, was filled with such\na burning desire to arrive at a true knowledge of the mystical science that\nI found no sleep by night, nor rest by day. When the initiation commenced,\n{97} I passed the whole night without sleep, and repeated innumerable times\nthe Surat-ul-Ikhlas:--\n\n \"Say: He is God alone:\n  God the eternal:\n  He begetteth not, and He is not begotten;\n  And there is none like unto Him.\" (Sura cxii.)\n\nWhosoever repeats this Sura one hundred times can accomplish all his vows.\nI desired that the Sheikh should bestow on me his love. No sooner had I\nfinished my task than the heart of the Sheikh became full of sympathy for\nme. On the following night I was conducted to his presence. During the\nwhole of that night he concentrated his thoughts on me, whilst I gave\nmyself up to inward meditation. Three nights passed in this way. On the\nfourth night the Sheikh said:--'Let Moolla Senghim and Salih Beg, who are\nvery susceptible to ecstatic emotions, apply their spiritual energies to\nTawakkul Beg.'\n\nThey did so, whilst I passed the whole night in meditation, with my face\nturned toward Mecca. As the morning drew near, a little light came into my\nmind, but I could not distinguish form or colour. After the morning\nprayers, I was taken to the Sheikh who bade me inform him of my mental\nstate. I replied that I had seen a light with my inward eye. On hearing\nthis, the Sheikh became animated and said: 'Thy heart is dark, but the time\nis come when I will show myself clearly to thee.' He then ordered me to sit\ndown in front of him, and to impress his features on my mind. Then having\nblindfolded me, he ordered me to concentrate all my thoughts upon him. I\ndid so, and in an instant by the spiritual help of the Sheikh my heart\nopened. He asked me what I saw. I said that I saw another Tawakkul Beg and\nanother Moolla Shah. The bandage was then removed, and I saw the Sheikh in\nfront of me. Again they covered my face, and again I saw him with my inward\neye. Astonished, I cried; 'O master! whether I look with my bodily eye, or\nwith my spiritual {98} sight, it is always you I see.' I then saw a\ndazzling figure approach me. The Sheikh told me to say to the apparition,\n'What is your name?' In my spirit I put the question, and the figure\nanswered to my heart: 'I am 'Abd-ul-Qadir Jilani, I have already aided\nthee, thy heart is opened.' Much affected, I vowed that in honour of the\nsaint, I would repeat the whole Quran every Friday night.\n\nMoolla Shah then said: 'The spiritual world has been shown to thee in all\nits beauty.' I then rendered perfect obedience to the Sheikh. The following\nday I saw the Prophet, the chief Companions, and legions of saints and\nangels. After three months, I entered the cheerless region in which the\nfigures appeared no more. During the whole of this time, the Sheikh\ncontinued to explain to me the mystery of the doctrine of the Unity and of\nthe knowledge of God; but as yet he did not show me the absolute reality.\nIt was not until a year had passed that I arrived at the true conception of\nunity. Then in words such as these I told the Sheikh of my inspiration. 'I\nlook upon the body as only dust and water, I regard neither my heart nor my\nsoul, alas! that in separation from Thee (God) so much of my life has\npassed. Thou wert I and I knew it not.' The Sheikh was delighted, and said\nthat the truth of the union with God was now clearly revealed to me. Then\naddressing those who were present, he said: 'Tawakkul Beg learnt from me\nthe doctrine of the Unity, his inward eye has been opened, the spheres of\ncolours and of images have been shown to him. At length, he entered the\ncolourless region. He has now attained to the Unity, doubt and scepticism\nhenceforth have no power over him. No one sees the Unity with the outward\neye, till the inward eye gains strength and power.'\"\n\nI cannot pass from this branch of the subject without making a few remarks\non Omar Khayyam, the great Astronomer-Poet of Persia. He is sometimes\nconfounded with the Sufis, for there is much in his poetry which is similar\n{99} in tone to that of the Sufi writers. But his true position was that of\na sceptic. He wrote little, but what he has written will live. As an\nastronomer he was a man of note. He died in the year 517 A.H. There are two\nthings which may have caused his scepticism. To a man of his intelligence\nthe hard and fast system of Islam was an intolerable burden. Then, his\nscientific spirit had little sympathy with mysticism, the earnest\nenthusiasts of which were too often followed by hollow impostors. It is\ntrue, that there was much in the spirit of some of the better Sufis that\nseemed to show a yearning for something higher than mere earthly good;\nabove all, there was the recognition of a Higher Power. But with all this\ncame spiritual pride, the world and its duties became a thing of evil, and\nthe religious and the secular life were completely divorced, to the ruin of\nboth. The Pantheism which soon pervaded the system left no room for man's\nwill to act, for his conscience to guide. So the moral law become a dead\nletter. Irreligious men, to free themselves from the bondage and restraints\nof law, assumed the religious life. \"Thus a movement, animated at first by\na high and lofty purpose, has degenerated into a fruitful source of ill.\nThe stream which ought to have expanded into a fertilising river has become\na vast swamp, exhaling vapours charged with disease and death.\"\n\nOmar Khayyam saw through the unreality of all this. In vain does he try, by\nan assumed air of gaiety, to hide from others the sadness which fills his\nheart, as all that is bright is seen passing away into oblivion.\n\n  One moment in annihilation's waste,\n  One moment, of the well of life to taste--\n  The stars are setting and the Caravan\n  Starts for the dawn of nothing--oh, make haste!\n\n  Ah, fill the cup:--what boots it to repeat\n  How Time is slipping underneath our feet:\n  Unborn To-morrow, and dead Yesterday,\n  Why fret about them if To-day be sweet.\n\n{100}\n\nOmar held to the earthly and the material. For him there was no spiritual\nworld. Chance seemed to rule all the affairs of men. A pitiless destiny\nshaped out the course of each human being.\n\n \"'Tis all a chequer-board of nights and days\n  Where destiny with men for pieces plays:\n  Hither and thither moves, and mates, and slays,\n  And one by one back in the closet lays.\n\n  The moving finger writes; and, having writ,\n  Moves on: nor all thy piety nor wit\n  Shall lure it back to cancel half a line,\n  Nor all thy tears wash out a word of it.\"\n\nNeither from earth nor heaven could he find any answer to his cry. With\nsages and saints he discussed, and heard, \"great argument, but evermore\ncame out by the same door as in he went.\" He left the wise to talk, for one\nthing alone was certain, and all else was lies,--\"the flower that once has\nblown for ever dies.\" Leaving men he turned to nature, but it was all the\nsame.\n\n \"Up from earth's centre through the seventh gate\n  I rose, and on the throne of Saturn sate,\n  And many knots unravell'd by the road;\n  But not the knot of human death and fate.\n\n  And that inverted bowl we call the sky,\n  Where under crawling coop'd we live and die,\n  Lift not thy hands to it for help--for it\n  Rolls impotently on as thou or I.\"\n\nOmar has with justice been compared to Lucretius. Both were materialists,\nboth believed not in a future life. \"Lucretius built a system for himself\nin his poem ... it has a professed practical aim--to explain the world's\nself-acting machine to the polytheist, and to disabuse him of all spiritual\nideas.\" Omar builds up no system, he only shows forth his own doubts and\ndifficulties, \"he loves to balance antitheses of belief, and settle himself\nin the equipoise of the sceptic.\" {101}\n\nThe fact that there is no hereafter gives Lucretius no pain, but Omar who,\nif only his reason could let him, would believe, records his utter despair\nin words of passionate bitterness. He is not glad that there is no help\nanywhere.[89] And though he calls for the wine-cup, and listens to the\nvoice within the tavern cry,\n\n \"Awake, my little ones, and fill the cup\n  Before Life's liquor in its cup be dry,\"\n\nyet he also looks back to the time, when he consorted with those who\nprofessed to know, and could say:\n\n \"With them the seed of wisdom did I sow,\n  And with my own hand laboured it to grow.\"\n\nThe founder of the Wahhabi sect was Muhammad-ibn-Abd-ul-Wahhab, who was\nborn at a village in Nejd in the year 1691 A.D. The Wahhabis speak of\nthemselves as Muwahhid--Unitarians; but their opponents have given to them\nthe name of the father of the founder of their sect and call them Wahhabis.\nMuhammad was a bright intelligent youth, of a strong constitution and\ngenerous spirit. After going through a course of Arabic literature he\nstudied jurisprudence under a teacher of the Hanifi school. He then set out\nin company with his father to perform the Hajj. At Madina he received\nfurther instruction in the Law. He spent sometime at Ispahan in the society\nof learned men. Full of {102} knowledge, he returned to his native village\nof Ayina where he assumed the position of a religious teacher. He was\nshocked to see how the Arabs had departed from what seemed to him the\nstrict unchanging precepts of the Prophet. Luxury in the form of rich\ndresses and silken garments, superstition in the use of omens, auguries,\nand the like, in the pilgrimages to shrines and tombs seemed to be altering\nthe character of the religion as given by the Apostle of God. He saw, or\nthought he saw, that in the veneration paid to saints and holy men, the\ngreat doctrine of the \"Unity\" was being obscured. The reason was very\nplain. The Quran and the Traditions of the Companions had been neglected,\nwhilst the sayings of men of lesser note, and the jurisprudence of the four\ngreat Imams had been too readily followed. Here was work to do. He would\nreform the Church of Islam, and restore men to their allegiance to the Book\nand the Sunnat, as recorded by the Companions. It is true, that the Sunnis\nwould rise up in opposition, for thus the authority of the four Imams, the\n\"Canonical Legists\" of the orthodox sect, would be set aside; but what of\nthat? Had he not been a follower of Abu Hanifa? Now he was prepared to let\nAba Hanifa go, for none but a Companion of the Prophet could give an\nauthoritative statement with regard to the Sunnat--the Prophet's words and\nacts. He must break a lance with the glorious Imam, and start a school of\nhis own.\n\nHe said: \"The Muslim pilgrims adore the tomb of the Prophet, and the\nsepulchre of 'Ali, and of other saints who have died in the odour of\nsanctity. They run there to pay the tribute of their fervent prayers. By\nthis means they think that they can satisfy their spiritual and temporal\nneeds, From what do they seek this benefit? From walls made of mud and\nstones, from corpses deposited in tombs. If you speak to them they will\nreply, 'We do not call these monuments God; we turn to them in prayer, and\nwe pray the saints to intercede for us on high.' Now, the true {103} way of\nsalvation is to prostrate one's self before Him who is ever present, and to\nvenerate Him--the one without associate or equal.\" Such outspoken language\nraised up opposition, and he had to seek the protection of\nMuhammad-Ibn-Saud, a chief of some importance, who now vigorously supported\nthe Wahhabi movement. He was a stern and uncompromising man. \"As soon as\nyou seize a place,\" he said to his soldiers, \"put the males to the sword.\nPlunder and pillage at your pleasure, but spare the women and do not strike\na blow at their modesty.\" On the day of battle he used to give each soldier\na paper, a safe conduct to the other world. This letter was addressed to\nthe Treasurer of Paradise. It was enclosed in a bag which the warrior\nsuspended to his neck. The soldiers were persuaded that the souls of those\nwho died in battle would go straight to heaven, without being examined by\nthe angels Munkar and Nakir in the grave. The widows and orphans of all who\nfell were supported by the survivors. Nothing could resist men who, fired\nwith a burning zeal for what they deemed the truth, received a share of the\nbooty, if conquerors; who went direct to Paradise if they were slain. In\ncourse of time, Muhammad-Ibn-Saud married the daughter of Ibn-Abd-ul-Wahhab\nand founded the Wahhabi dynasty which to this day rules at Ryadh.[90]\n\nSuch was the origin of this great movement, which spread, in course of\ntime, over Central and Eastern Arabia, and in the beginning of this century\nfound acceptance in India. In the year 1803 A.D. both Mecca and Madina fell\ninto the hands of the Wahhabis. A clean sweep was made of all things, the\nuse of which was opposed to Wahhabi principles. Not only rosaries and\ncharms, but silk robes and pipes were consigned to the flames, for smoking\nis a {104} deadly sin. On this point there is a good story told by\nPalgrave--\"'Abd-ul-Karim said: 'The first of the great sins is the giving\ndivine honours to a creature.' Of course I replied, 'The enormity of such a\nsin is beyond all doubt. But if this be the first, there must be a second;\nwhat is it?' 'Drinking the shameful!' (in English idiom, 'smoking tobacco')\nwas the unhesitating answer. 'And murder, and adultery, and false witness?'\nI suggested. 'God is merciful and forgiving,' rejoined my friend; that is,\nthese are merely little sins.\"[91]\n\nAfter holding possession of the holy cities for nine years they were driven\nout by the Turkish forces. 'Abdullah, the fourth Wahhabi ruler, was\ncaptured by Ibrahim Pasha, and afterwards executed in the square of St.\nSophia (1818 A.D.) The political power of the Wahhabis has since been\nconfined to parts of Arabia; but their religious opinions have widely\nspread.\n\nThe leader of the Wahhabi movement in India was Sayyid Ahmad, a reformed\nfreebooter. He was now born at Rai Bareili, in Oudh, 1786 A.D. When about\nthirty years of age he gave up his wild way of living and settled down in\nDelhi as a student of the Law of Islam. After a while, he went on\npilgrimage to Mecca, but his opinions, so similar to those of the noted\nWahhabi, attracted the attention of the orthodox theologians, through whose\ninfluence he was expelled from the sacred city. Persecution deepened his\nreligious convictions, and he returned to India a pronounced Wahhabi. He\nsoon gained a large number of disciples, and in 1826 A.D. he preached a\nJihad against the Sikhs. This war was not a success. In the year 1831 the\nWahhabis were suddenly attacked by the Sikhs, under Sher Singh, and Sayyid\nAhmad was slain. This did not, however, prevent the spread of Wahhabi\nprinciples, for he had the good fortune to leave behind him an enthusiastic\ndisciple. This man, {105} Muhammad Isma'il, was born near Delhi in the year\n1781 A.D. He was a youth of good abilities and soon mastered the subjects\nwhich form the curriculum of a liberal education amongst Musalmans. His\nfirst preaching was in a Mosque at Delhi on Tauhid (Unity), and against\nShirk (Polytheism). He now met with Sayyid Ahmad who soon acquired great\ninfluence over his new disciple. Isma'il told him one evening that he could\nnot offer up his prayers with Huzur-i-Kalb, presence of heart. The Sayyid\ntook him to his room where he instructed him to repeat the first of the\nprayers after him, and then to conclude them alone. He did so, and was able\nto so abstract himself in the contemplation of God that he remained engaged\nin prayer till the morning. Henceforward he was a devoted adherent of his\nspiritual teacher. In the public discussions, which now often took place,\nnone were a match for Isma'il. This fervent preacher of Wahhabiism is now\nchiefly remembered by his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Iman, the book from\nwhich the account of Wahhabi doctrine given in this chapter is taken. If I\nmake no special reference to the quotations given, it will be known that my\nauthority for the statements thus made is Muhammad Isma'il, the most famous\nof all Sayyid Ahmad's disciples. This book was followed by the\nSirat-ul-Mustaqim, said to have been written by one of Isma'il's followers.\nWahhabi doctrines are now spread throughout India. In the South there is\nnot much religious excitement or inquiry, yet Wahhabis are to be found\nthere.[92] It was and is a remarkable movement. In one sense it is a\nstruggle against the traditionalism of later ages, but in no sense can it\nbe said that the Wahhabis reject Tradition. They acknowledge as the\nfoundation of the faith--first, the Quran; secondly, the Traditions which\nare recorded on the authority of the Companions, and also the Ijma' of the\nCompanions, that is, all things on which they were unanimous in opinion\n{106} or in practice. Thus to the Wahhabi as to the Sunni, Muhammad is in\nall his _acts_ and _words_ a perfect guide.\n\nSo far from Wahhabiism being a move onward because it is a return to first\nprinciples, it rather binds the fetters of Islam more tightly. It does not\noriginate anything new, it offers no relaxation from a system which looks\nupon the Quran and the Traditions as a perfect and complete law, social and\npolitical, moral and religious.\n\nThe Wahhabi places the doctrine of the \"Tauhid,\" or Unity, in a very\nprominent position. It is true that all Musalman sects put this dogma in\nthe first rank, but Wahhabis set their faces against practices common to\nthe other sects, because they consider that they obscure this fundamental\ndoctrine. It is this which brings them into collision with other Musalmans.\nThe greatest of all sins is Shirk (_i.e._ the ascribing of plurality to the\nDeity). A Mushrik (Polytheist) is one who so offends. All Musalmans\nconsider Christians to be Polytheists, and all Wahhabis consider all other\nMusalmans also to be Polytheists, because they look to the Prophet for\nintercession, pray to saints, visit shrines, and do other unlawful acts.\n\nThe Takwiat-ul-Iman says that \"two things are necessary in religion--to\nknow God as God, and the Prophet as the Prophet.\" The two fundamental bases\nof the faith are the \"Doctrine of the Tauhid (Unity) and obedience to the\nSunnat.\" The two great errors to be avoided are Shirk (Polytheism) and\nBida't (Innovation). As Bida't is looked upon as evil, it is somewhat\ndifficult to see what hope of progress can be placed upon this latest phase\nof Muhammadan revival.\n\nShirk is defined to be of four kinds: Shirk-ul-'Ilm, ascribing knowledge to\nothers than God; Shirk-ut-tasarruf, ascribing power to others than God;\nShirk-ul-'Ibadat, offering worship to created things; Shirk-ul-'adat, the\nperformance of ceremonies which imply reliance on others than God. {107}\n\nThe first, Shirk-ul-'Ilm, is illustrated by the statement that prophets and\nholy men have no knowledge of secret things unless as revealed to them by\nGod. Thus some wicked persons made a charge against 'Ayesha. The Prophet\nwas troubled in mind, but knew not the truth of the matter till God made it\nknown to him. To ascribe, then, power to soothsayers, astrologers, and\nsaints is Polytheism. \"All who pretend to have a knowledge of hidden\nthings, such as fortune-tellers, soothsayers and interpreters of dreams, as\nwell as those who profess to be inspired are all liars.\" Again, \"should any\none take the name of any saint, or invoke his aid in the time of need,\ninstead of calling on God, or use his name in attacking an enemy, or read\npassages to propitiate him, or make him the object of contemplation--it is\nShirk-ul-'Ilm.\"\n\nThe second kind, Shirk-ut-tasarruf, is to suppose that any one has power\nwith God. He who looks up to any one as an intercessor with God commits\nShirk. Thus: \"But they who take others beside Him as lords, saying, 'We\nonly serve them that they may bring us near God,'--God will judge between\nthem (and the Faithful) concerning that wherein they are at variance.\"\n(Sura xxxix. 4.) Intercession may be of three kinds. For example, a\ncriminal is placed before the King. The Vizier intercedes. The King, having\nregard to the rank of the Vizier, pardons the offender. This is called\nShafa'at-i-Wajahat, or 'intercession from regard.' But to suppose that God\nso esteems the rank of any one as to pardon a sinner merely on account of\nit is Shirk. Again, the Queen or the Princes intercede for the criminal.\nThe King, from love to them, pardons him. This is called\nShafa'at-i-muhabbat, or 'intercession from affection.' But to consider that\nGod so loves any one as to pardon a criminal on his account is to give that\nloved one power, and this is Shirk, for such power is not possible in the\nCourt of God. \"God may out of His bounty confer on His favourite servants\nthe epithets of Habib--favourite, or Khalil--friend, {108} &c.; but a\nservant is but a servant, no one can put his foot outside the limits of\nservitude, or rise beyond the rank of a servant.\" Again, the King may\nhimself wish to pardon the offender, but he fears lest the majesty of the\nlaw should be lowered. The Vizier perceives the King's wish, and\nintercedes. This intercession is lawful. It is called\nShafa'at-i-ba-izn--intercession by permission, and such power Muhammad will\nhave at the day of Judgment. Wahhabis hold that he has not that power now,\nthough all other Musalmans consider that he has, and in consequence (in\nWahhabi opinion) commit the sin of Shirk-ut-tasarruf. The Wahhabis quote\nthe following passages in support of their view. \"Who is he that can\nintercede with Him but by _His own permission_.\" (Sura ii. 256) \"Say:\nIntercession is wholly with God! His the kingdoms of the heavens and of the\nearth.\" (Sura xxxix. 46). They also say: \"whenever an allusion is made in\nthe Quran, or the Traditions to the intercession of certain prophets or\napostles, it is this kind of intercession and no other that is meant.\"\n\nThe third Shirk is prostration before any created beings with the idea of\nworshipping it. It also includes perambulating the shrines of departed\nsaints. Thus: \"Prostration, bowing down, standing with folded arms,\nspending money in the name of an individual, fasting out of respect to his\nmemory, proceeding to a distant shrine in a pilgrim's garb and calling out\nthe name of the saint whilst so going is Shirk-ul-'Ibadat.\" It is wrong \"to\ncover the grave with a sheet (ghilaf), to say prayers at the shrine, to\nkiss any particular stone, to rub the mouth and breast against the walls of\nthe shrine, &c.\" This is a stern condemnation of the very common practice\nof visiting the tombs of saints and of some of the special practices of the\npilgrimage to Mecca. All such practices as are here condemned are called\nIshrak fi'l 'Ibadat--'association in worship.'\n\nThe fourth Shirk is the keeping up of superstitious customs, such as the\nIstikhara--seeking guidance from beads {109} &c., trusting to omens, good\nor bad, believing in lucky and unlucky days, adopting such names as\n'Abd-un-Nabi (slave of the Prophet), and so on. In fact, the denouncing of\nsuch practices and calling them Shirk brings Wahhabiism into daily contact\nwith the other sects, for scarcely any people in the world are such\nprofound believers in the virtue of charms and the power of astrologers as\nMusalmans. The difference between the first and fourth Shirk, the\nShirk-ul-'Ilm and the Shirk-ul-'adat, seems to be that the first is the\n_belief_, say in the knowledge of a soothsayer, and the second the _habit_\nof consulting him.\n\nTo swear by the name of the Prophet, of 'Ali, of the Imams, or of Pirs\n(Leaders) is to give them the honour due to God alone. It is Ishrak fi'l\nadab--'Shirk in association.'\n\nAnother common belief which Wahhabis oppose is that Musalmans can perform\nthe Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), say prayers, read the Quran, abide in\nmeditation, give alms, and do other good works, the reward of which shall\nbe credited to a person already dead.[93] Amongst other Musalmans it is a\ncommon practice to read the Quran in the belief that, if done with such an\nintention, the reward will pass to the deceased object of the desire.\nWahabis entirely object to this.\n\nThe above technical exposition of Wahhabi tenets shows how much stress they\nlay on a rigid adherence to the doctrine of the \"Unity.\" \"La-il-laha,\nIl-lal-la-hu\" (there is no God but God) is an eternal truth. Yet to the\nMusalman God is a Being afar off. In rejecting the Fatherhood of God he has\naccepted as the object of his worship, hardly of his affections, a Being\ndespotic in all He does, arbitrary in all His ways. He has accepted the\nposition of a slave instead of that of a son. Wahhabiism emphasizes the\nideas which flow from the first article of the Muslim creed. But {110} on\nthis subject we prefer to let Palgrave speak. He of all men knew the\nWahhabi best, and he, at least, can be accused of no sectarian bias. The\nextract is rather long, but will repay perusal; indeed, the whole passage\nfrom which this extract is taken should be read.\n\n    \"'There is no God but God,' are words simply tantamount in English to\n    the negation of any deity save one alone; and thus much they certainly\n    mean in Arabic, but they imply much more also. Their full sense is, not\n    only to deny absolutely and unreservedly all plurality whether of\n    nature or of person in the Supreme Being, not only to establish the\n    unity of the Unbegetting and the Unbegot, in all its simple and\n    incommunicable oneness, but besides this, the words, in Arabic and\n    among Arabs, imply that this one Supreme Being is the only Agent, the\n    only Force, the only Act existing throughout the universe, and leave to\n    all beings else, matter or spirit, instinct or intelligence, physical\n    or moral, nothing but pure unconditional passiveness, alike in movement\n    or in quiescence, in action or in capacity. Hence in this one sentence\n    is summed up a system which, for want of a better name, I may be\n    permitted to call the 'Pantheism of Force.' 'God is One in the totality\n    of omnipotent and omnipresent action, which acknowledges no rule,\n    standard, or limit, save one sole and absolute will. He communicates\n    nothing to His creatures, for their seeming power and act ever remain\n    His alone, and in return He receives nothing from them.' 'It is His\n    singular satisfaction to let created beings continually feel that they\n    are nothing else than His slaves, that they may the better acknowledge\n    His superiority.' 'He Himself, sterile in His inaccessible height,\n    neither loving nor enjoying aught save His own and self-measured\n    decree, without son, companion, or councillor, is no less barren for\n    Himself than for His creatures, and His own barrenness and lone egoism\n    in Himself is the cause and rule of His indifferent and unregarding\n    despotism around.'[94]\n\nPalgrave allows that such a notion of the Deity is monstrous, but maintains\nthat it is the \"truest mirror of the mind and scope of the writer of the\nBook\" (Quran), and that, as such, it is confirmed by authentic Tradition\nand learned commentaries. At all events, Palgrave possessed {111} the two\nessential qualifications for a critic of Islam--a knowledge of the\nliterature, and intercourse with the people. So far as my experience goes I\nhave never seen any reason to differ from Palgrave's statement. Men are\noften better than their creeds. Even the Prophet was not always consistent.\nThere are some redeeming points in Islam. But the root idea of the whole is\nas described above, and from it no system can be deduced which will grow in\ngrace and beauty as age after age rolls by.\n\nThe Arab proverb states that \"The worshipper models himself on what he\nworships.\"[95] Thus a return to \"first principles,\" sometimes proclaimed as\nthe hope of Turkey, is but the \"putting back the hour-hand of Islam\" to the\nplace where indeed Muhammad always meant it to stay, for\n\n    \"Islam is in its essence stationary, and was framed thus to remain.\n    Sterile, like its God, lifeless like its first Principle and supreme\n    Original in all that constitutes true life--for life is love,\n    participation, and progress, and of these the Quranic Deity has\n    none--it justly repudiates all change, all advance, all\n    development.\"[96]\n\nMuhammad Ibn 'Abd-ul Wahhab was a man of great intellectual power and\nvigour. He could pierce through the mists of a thousand years, and see with\nan eagle eye how one sect and another had laid accretions on the Faith. He\nhad the rare gift of intuition, and could see that change (Bida't) and\nprogress were alien to the truth. This recognition of his ability is due to\nhim; but what a sad prostration of great gifts it was to seek to arrest, by\nthe worship of the letter, all hope of progress, and to make \"the\nstarting-point of Islam its goal.\" That he was a good Musalman in so doing\nno one can doubt, but that his work gives any hope of the rise of an\nenlightened form of Islam no one who really has studied Islam can believe.\n\nWahhabiism simply amounts to this, that while it denounces all other\nMusalmans as polytheists, it enforces the {112} Sunnat of the Prophet with\nall its energy.[97] It breaks down shrines, but insists on the necessity of\na pilgrimage to a black stone at Mecca. It forbids the use of a rosary, but\nattaches great merit to counting the ninety-nine names of God on the\nfingers. It would make life unsocial. The study of the Fine Arts with the\nexception of Architecture can find no place in it. Isma'il quotes with\napproval the following Tradition. \"'Ayesha said: 'I purchased a carpet on\nwhich were some figures. The Prophet stood in the doorway and looked\ndispleased.' I said: 'O messenger of God, I repent to God and His\nMessenger; what fault have I committed that you do not enter?' His Highness\nthen said: 'What is this carpet?' I replied; 'I have bought it for you to\nsit and rest upon.' Then the messenger of God replied: 'Verily, the maker\nof pictures will be punished on the day of resurrection, when God will\ndesire them to bring them to life. A house which contains pictures is not\nvisited by the angels.'\" In a Tradition quoted by Ibn 'Abbas, the Prophet\nclasses artists with murderers and parricides. Wahhabiism approves of all\nthis, and thus by forbidding harmless enjoyments it would make society \"an\norganised hypocrisy.\" It would spread abroad a spirit of contempt for all\nmankind except its own followers, and, where it had the power, it would\nforce its convictions on others at the point of the sword.\n\nWahhabiism was reform after a fashion, in one direction; in the history of\nIslam there have been attempts at reform in other directions; there will\nyet be such attempts, but so long as the Quran and the Sunnat (or, in the\ncase of the Shia'h, its equivalent) are to form, as they have hitherto\n{113} done for every sect, the sole law to regulate all conditions and\nstates of life, enlightened and continued progress is impossible. The\ndeadening influence of Islam is the greatest obstacle the Church of God has\nto overcome in her onward march; its immobility is the bane of many lands;\nconnection with it is the association of the living with the dead; to speak\nof it, as some do, as if it were a sort of sister religion to Christianity,\nis but to show deplorable ignorance where ignorance is inexcusable. Thus it\nis plain that Musalmans are not all of one heart and soul.[98] In the next\nchapter I hope to show that Islam is a very dogmatic and complex system in\nspite of the simple form of its creed.\n\n{114}\n\n    NOTE TO CHAPTER III.\n\n    WAHHABIISM.\n\n    In the Journal Asiatique, 4me Serie, tome 11, a curious account is\n    given of the voyage of Mirza Muhammad 'Ali Khan, some time Persian\n    Ambassador in Paris. This gentleman states that in one of his voyages\n    from Persia to India he met with a Wahhabi, who had in his possession a\n    tract written by the founder of the sect. This small pamphlet he\n    allowed Mirza Muhammad to copy. I give the substance of the pamphlet in\n    this note. The original Arabic will be found in the Journal Asiatique.\n    It is of considerable interest as a protest against idolatry. It is as\n    follows:--I know that God is merciful, that the sect of Abu Hanifa is\n    orthodox and identical with the religion of Abraham. After thou hast\n    known that God has created His servants for the purpose of being served\n    by them, know also that this service or devotion is to worship God, One\n    and alone; just as prayer (Salat) is not prayer (Salat), unless it is\n    accompanied with the legal purification. God Most High has said: \"It is\n    not for the votaries of other gods with God, witnesses against\n    themselves of infidelity, to visit the temples of God. These! vain\n    their works: and in the fire shall they abide for ever!\" (Sura ix. 17.)\n\n    Those who in their prayers, address any other than God, in the hope of\n    obtaining by them that which God alone can give--those bring unto their\n    prayers the leaven of idolatry and make them of none effect, \"and who\n    erreth more than he who, beside God, calleth upon that which shall not\n    answer him until the day of resurrection.\" (Sura xlvi. 4) On the\n    contrary, when the day of resurrection comes, they will become their\n    enemies and treat them as infidels for having served others than God.\n    \"But the gods whom ye call on beside Him have no power over the husk of\n    a date-stone! If ye cry to them they will not hear your cry; and if\n    they heard they would not answer you, and in the day of resurrection\n    they will disown your joining them with God.\" (Sura xxxv. 14,15.)\n\n    He who says: \"O thou Prophet of God! O 'Ibn 'Abbas! O 'Abd-ul-Qadir!\"\n    &c. with the persuasion that the souls of these blessed ones can obtain\n    from God that of which the suppliant has need, or that they can protect\n    him, is an infidel whose blood any one may shed, and whose goods any\n    one may appropriate with impunity unless he repent. There are four\n    different classes of idolaters.\n\n    {115}\n\n    First, the infidels against whom the Prophet made war. These\n    acknowledge that God is the creator of the world, that He supports all\n    living creatures, that in wisdom He rules over all. \"Say: who supplieth\n    you from the heavens and the earth? who hath power over hearing and\n    sight? and who bringeth forth the living from the dead, and bringeth\n    forth the dead from the living? who ruleth all things? they will surely\n    say: 'God,' then say: 'What! will ye not therefore fear Him.'\" (Sura x.\n    32.) It is difficult to distinguish idolatry of this kind; but under an\n    outwardly orthodox appearance they go astray; for they have recourse to\n    divinities of their own choosing and pray to them.\n\n    Secondly, there are idolaters who say that they only call upon these\n    intermediary powers to intercede in their favour with God, and that\n    what they desire they seek from God. The Quran furnishes a proof\n    against them. \"They worship beside God what cannot hurt or help them,\n    and say, these are our advocates with God! say: will ye inform God of\n    aught in the heavens and in the earth which He knoweth not?\" (Sura x.\n    19.)\n\n    Thirdly, those are idolaters who choose one idol as their patron, or\n    rather those who, renouncing the worship of idols, become attached to\n    one saint, as Jesus or His Mother, and put themselves under the\n    protection of Guardian Angels. Against them we cite the verse: \"Those\n    whom ye call on, themselves desire union with their Lord, striving\n    which of them shall be nearest to Him; they also hope for His mercy,\n    and fear His chastisement.\" (Sura xvii. 59.) We see here that the\n    Prophet drew no distinction between the worship of an idol and the\n    worship of such and such a saint; on the contrary, he treated them all\n    as infidels, and made war upon them in order to consolidate the\n    religion of God upon a firm basis.\n\n    Fourthly, those who worship God sincerely in the time of trouble, but\n    at other times call on other Gods are idolaters. Thus: \"Lo! when they\n    embark on board a ship, they call upon God, vowing Him sincere worship,\n    but when He bringeth them safe to land, behold they join partners with\n    Him.\" (Sura xxix. 65.)\n\n    In the age in which we live, I could cite still worse heresies. The\n    idolaters, our contemporaries, pray to and invoke the lower divinities\n    when they are in distress. The idolaters of the Prophet's time were\n    less culpable than those of the present age are. They, at least, had\n    recourse to God in time of great evil; these in good and evil states,\n    seek the aid of their patrons, other than God, and pray to them.\n\n{116}\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nTHE CREED OF ISLAM.[99]\n\nFaith is defined by Muslim theologians as: \"Confession with the tongue and\nbelief with the heart.\"[100] It is said to \"stand midway between hope and\nfear.\" It is sub-divided into Iman-i-mujmal and Iman-i-mufassal. The former\nis an expression of the following faith: \"I believe in God, His names and\nattributes, and accept all His commands.\"[101] The latter is the acceptance\nof the following dogmas: \"I believe in God, Angels, Books, Prophets, the\nLast Day, the Predestination by the Most High God of good and evil and the\nResurrection after death.\"[102] These form the articles of faith which\nevery Muslim must believe, to which belief, in order to render it perfect,\nhe must add the performance of the \"acts of practice,\" _viz._: (1) \"The\nrecital of the Kalima or creed:--'There is no deity but God, and Muhammad\nis the Apostle of God.' (2) Sulat. The five daily prayers. (3) Roza. The\nthirty days fast of Ramazan. (4) Zakat. The legal alms. (5) Hajj, or the\npilgrimage to Mecca.\" This chapter will contain an account of the Iman--the\ndogmas of Islam. An account of the Din--the practical duties, will be given\nin the next chapter. {117}\n\n1. GOD.--This article of the faith includes a belief in the existence of\nGod, His unity and attributes, and has given rise to a large number of\nsects. Some acquaintance with the various controversies which have thus\narisen is necessary to a correct knowledge of Islam. I commence the\nconsideration of this subject by giving the substance of a Sunni, or\northodox treatise known as the Risala-i-Berkevi. The learned orientalist M.\nGarcin de Tassy, considered it to be of such authority that in his\n\"L'Islamisme d'apres le Coran\" he has inserted a translation of the\nRisala.[103] Muhammad Al-Berkevi, speaking of the Divine attributes,\nsays:--\n\n    (1). Life. (Hyat). God Most High is alone to be adored. He has neither\n    associate nor equal. He is free from the imperfections of humanity. He\n    is neither begotten nor does He beget. He is invisible. He is without\n    figure, form, colour or parts. His existence has neither beginning nor\n    end. He is immutable. If He so wills, He can annihilate the world in a\n    moment of time and, if it seem good to Him, recreate it in an instant.\n    Nothing is difficult to Him, whether it be the creation of a fly or\n    that of the seven heavens. He receives neither profit nor loss from\n    whatever may happen. If all the Infidels became Believers and all the\n    irreligious pious, He would gain no advantage. On the other hand, if\n    all Believers became Infidels, He would suffer no loss.\n\n    (2). Knowledge. ('Ilm). He has knowledge of all things hidden or\n    manifest, whether in heaven or on earth. He knows the number of the\n    leaves of the trees, of the grains of wheat and of sand. Events past\n    and future are known to Him. He knows what enters into the heart of man\n    and what he utters with his mouth. He alone, except those to whom He\n    has revealed them, knows the invisible things. He is free from\n    forgetfulness, negligence and error. His knowledge is eternal: it is\n    not posterior to His essence.\n\n    (3). Power. (Qudrat). He is Almighty. If He wills, He can raise the\n    dead, make stones talk, trees walk, annihilate the heavens and the\n    earth and recreate of gold or of silver thousands similar to those\n    destroyed. He can transport a man in a moment of time from the east to\n    the west, or from the west to the east, or to the seventh heaven. His\n    power is eternal a priori and a posteriori. It is not posterior to His\n    essence.\n\n    {118}\n\n    (4). Will (Iradah). He can do what He wills, and whatever He wills\n    comes to pass. He is not obliged to act. Everything, good or evil, in\n    this world exists by His will. He wills the faith of the believer and\n    the piety of the religious. If He were to change His will there would\n    be neither a true believer nor a pious man. He willeth also the\n    unbelief of the unbeliever and the irreligion of the wicked and,\n    without that will, there would neither be unbelief nor irreligion. All\n    we do we do by His will: what He willeth not does not come to pass. If\n    one should ask why God does not will that all men should believe we\n    answer: \"We have no right to enquire about what God wills and does. He\n    is perfectly free to will and to do what He pleases.\" In creating\n    unbelievers, in willing that they should remain in that state; in\n    making serpents, scorpions and pigs: in willing, in short, all that is\n    evil God has wise ends in view which it is not necessary that we should\n    know. We must acknowledge that the will of God is eternal and that it\n    is not posterior to His essence.\n\n    (5). Hearing. (Sama'). He hears all sounds whether low or loud. He\n    hears without an ear for His attributes are not like those of men.\n\n    (6). Seeing. (Basr). He sees all things, even the steps of a black ant\n    on a black stone in a dark night; yet He has no eye as men have.\n\n    (7). Speech. (Kalam). He speaks, but not with a tongue as men do. He\n    speaks to some of His servants without the intervention of another,\n    even as He spoke to Moses, and to Muhammad on the night of the\n    ascension to heaven. He speaks to others by the instrumentality of\n    Gabriel, and this is the usual way in which He communicates His will to\n    the prophets. It follows from this that the Quran is the word of God,\n    and is eternal and uncreated.\n\nThese are the \"haft sifat,\" or seven attributes of God. There is unanimity\nof opinion as to the number of attributes, but not as regards their nature\nand the extent of the knowledge concerning them to which men can attain.\nThus some say that the knowledge of God is the first thing to acquire; but\nImam Shafa'i and the Mutazilites say that a man must first attain to the\n_idea_ of the knowledge of God. The meaning of the expression \"Knowledge of\nGod\" is the ascertaining the truth of His existence, and of His positive\nand privative attributes, as far as the human understanding can enter into\nthese matters. The unity is not a mere numerical unity but absolute, for\nthe number one is the first of a series and implies a second, but God has\nnot a {119} second. He is \"singular without anything like Him, separate\nhaving no equal;\" for, \"had there been either in heaven or earth gods\nbeside God, both surely had gone to ruin.\" (Sura xxi. 22). God is not a\nsubstance, for substance has accidents, but God has none: otherwise His\nnature would be that of \"dependent existence.\" God is without parts, for\notherwise he would not exist till all the parts were formed, and His\nexistence would depend on the parts, that is, on something beside Himself.\n\nThe orthodox strictly prohibit the discussion of minute particulars, for\nsay they, \"just as the eye turning to the brightness of the sun finds\ndarkness intervene to prevent all observation, so the understanding finds\nitself bewildered if it attempts to pry into the nature of God.\" The\nProphet said: \"We did not know the reality of the knowledge of Thee;\" and\nto his followers he gave this advice: \"Think of God's gifts, not of His\nnature: certainly you have no power for that.\" The Khalif Akbar is reported\nto have said: \"to be helpless in the search of knowledge is knowledge and\nto enquire into the nature of God is Shirk (infidelity).\"[104] A moderate\nacquaintance with Muslim theology shows that neither the injunction of the\nProphet nor the warning of the Khalif has been heeded.\n\nAccording to the early Muslims, the Companions and their followers,\nenquiries into the nature of God and His attributes were not lawful. The\nProphet knowing what was good for men, had plainly revealed the way of\nsalvation and had taught them:--\n\n \"Say: He is God alone:\n  God the eternal!\n  He begetteth not, and He is not begotten;\n  And there is none like unto Him.\" (Sura cxii)\n\nThis was sufficient for them to know of the mystery of the Godhead. God is\nfar beyond the reach of the human {120} understanding. He alone embraces\nall in His comprehension. Men should therefore mistrust their own\nperceptive faculties and notions and should obey the inspired legislator\nMuhammad, who loving them better than they love themselves, and knowing\nbetter than they do what is truly useful, has revealed both what they ought\nto believe and what they ought to do. It is true that men must exercise\ntheir reason, but they must not do so with regard to the divine\nattributes.[105]\n\nDogma is divided into two portions, usul and faru'--(_i.e._, roots and\nbranches.) The former include the doctrine about God; the latter, as the\nname implies, consist of truths which result from the acceptance of the\nformer. The orthodox belief is that reason has only to do with the \"faru',\"\nfor the usul being founded on the Quran and Sunnat have an objective basis.\n\nDifferences of opinion about various branches of the \"faru',\" led to\ndiscussions which did not stop there but went on to the \"usul,\" and so\npaved the way for the rise of scholastic theology ('Ilm-i-kalam.) I have\nalready in the chapter on the exegesis of the Quran explained the\ndifference in meaning between muhkam (obvious) verses and mutashabih\n(intricate) ones. This difference lies at the very foundation of the\npresent subject. It is, therefore, necessary to enter a little into detail.\n\nThe question turns very much on the interpretation of the 5th verse of the\n3rd Sura: \"He it is who hath sent down to thee 'the Book.' Some of its\nsigns are of themselves perspicuous (muhkam): these are the basis of the\n{121} Book--and others are figurative (mutashabih.) But they whose hearts\nare given to err, follow its figures, craving discord, craving an\ninterpretation; yet none knoweth its interpretation but God. And the stable\nin knowledge say, 'We believe in it: it is all from our Lord.' But none\nwill bear this in mind, save men endued with understanding.\" Here it is\nclearly stated (1) that no one except God can know the interpretation of\nmutashabih verses, and (2) that wise men though they know not their\ninterpretation, yet believe them all. Many learned men, however, say that\nthe full stop should not be placed after the word \"God\" but after\n\"knowledge,\" and so this portion of the verse would read thus: \"None\nknoweth its interpretation but God and the stable in knowledge. They say:\n'we believe, &c.'\" On this slight change in punctuation, which shows that\nthe 'stable in knowledge' can interpret the mutashabih verses, opposite\nschools of theology have arisen in Islam.\n\nThe latter reading opens the way to a fearless investigation of subjects\nwhich all the early Muslims avoided as beyond their province. In the early\ndays of Islam it was held that all parts of the Quran, except the muhkam\nverses and the purely narrative portions, were mutashabih; that is, all\nverses which related to the attributes of God, to the existence of angels\nand genii, to the appearance of Antichrist, the period and signs of the day\nof judgment, and generally all matters which are beyond the daily\nexperience of mankind. It was strongly felt that not only must there be no\ndiscussion on them,[106] but no attempt should be made to understand or act\non them. Ibn 'Abbas, a Companion, says: \"One must believe the mutashabih\nverses, but not take them for a rule of conduct.\" Ibn Jubair was once {122}\nasked to put the meaning of the Quran into writing. He became angry and\nsaid: \"I should rather be palsied in one-half of my body than do so.\"[107]\n'Ayesha said: \"Avoid those persons who dispute about the meaning of the\nQuran, for they are those whom God has referred to in the words, 'whose\nhearts are given to err.'\"\n\nThe first reading is the one adopted by the Ashab, the Tabi'in and the\nTaba-i-Tabi'in and the great majority of Commentators. The Sunnis\ngenerally, and, according to the testimony of Fakr-ud-din Razi (A.H.\n544-606), the Shafa'i sect are of the same opinion.\n\nThose who take the opposite view are the Commentators Mujahid (died A.H.\n101), Rabi' bin Ans and others. The scholastic theologians[108]\n(Mutakalliman) generally adopt the latter reading.[109] They argued thus:\nhow could men believe what they did not know; to which their opponents\nanswered, that the act of belief in the unknown is the very thing here\npraised by God. The scholastics then enquired why, since the Quran was sent\nto be a guide and direction to men, were not all its verses muhkam? The\nanswer was, that the Arabs acknowledged two kinds of eloquence. One kind\nwas to arrange words and ideas in a plain and simple style so that the\nmeaning might be at once apparent, the other was to speak in figurative\nlanguage. Now, if the Quran had not contained both these styles of\ncomposition, it could not have claimed the position it does as a book\nabsolutely perfect in form as well as in matter.[110]\n\nBearing in mind this fundamental difference of opinion, we can now pass on\nto the consideration of the attributes.\n\n{123} The essential attributes are Life, Knowledge, Power, Will, for\nwithout these the others could not exist. Then the attributes of Hearing,\nSeeing, Speech give us a further idea of perfection. These are the\n\"Sifat-i-Sabutiah,\" or affirmative attributes, the privation of which would\nimply loss; there are also Sifat-i-Salbiah, or privative attributes, such\nas--God has no form, is not limited by place, has no equal, &c. The acts of\nsitting, rising, descending, the possession of face, hands, eyes, &c.,\nbeing connected with the idea of corporeal existences imply imperfection\nand apparently contradict the doctrine of \"exemption\" (tenzih) according to\nwhich God is, in virtue of His essence, in no way like the creatures He has\nmade. This was a difficulty, but the four great Imams all taught that it\nwas impious to enquire into these matters for all such allusions were\nmutashabih. \"The Imam Hanbal and other early divines followed in the path\nof the early Muslims and said: 'We believe in the Book and the Sunnat, and\ndo not desire explanations. We know that the High God is not to be compared\nto any created object: nor any creature with Him.'\"[111] Imam As-Shafa'i\nsaid that a man who enquired into such matters should be tied to a stake,\nand carried about, and that the following proclamation should be made\nbefore him: \"This is the reward of him who left the Quran and the\nTraditions for the study of scholastic theology.\" Imam Hanbal says:\n\"Whosoever moves his hand when he reads in the Quran the words, 'I have\ncreated with my hand,' ought to have his hand cut off; and whoever\nstretches forth his finger in repeating the saying of Muhammad, 'The heart\nof the believer is between two fingers of the Merciful,' deserves to have\nhis finger cut off.\" At-Tirmizi when consulted about the statement of the\nProphet that God had descended to the lowest of the seven heavens, said:\n\"The descent is intelligible, the manner how is unknown; the belief therein\n{124} is obligatory; and the asking about it is a blameable innovation.\"\nBut all such attempts to restrain discussion and investigation failed.\n\nThe two main points in the discussion of this question are (1) whether the\nattributes of God are internal or external, whether they are part of His\nessence or not, and (2) whether they are eternal or not.\n\nThe two leading Sects were the Sifatians (or Attributists) and the\nMutazilites. The Sifatians whom the early orthodox Muslims follow, taught\nthat the attributes of God are eternally inherent in His essence without\nseparation or change. Every attribute is conjoined with Him as life with\nknowledge, or knowledge with power. They also taught that the mutashabih\nverses were not to be explained, and such were those which seemed to show a\nresemblance between God and His creatures. So at first they did not attempt\nto give the meaning of the terms, \"hands, eyes, face, &c.,\" when applied to\nGod. They simply accepted them as they stood. In course of time, as will be\nseen, differences of opinion on this point led to some sub-divisions of\nthis sect.\n\nThe Mutazilites were the great opponents of the Sifatians. They rejected\nthe idea of eternal attributes, saying that eternity was the formal\nattribute of the essence of God. \"If,\" said they, \"we admit the eternal\nexistence of an attribute then we must recognize the multiplicity of\neternal existences.\" They also rejected the attributes of hearing, seeing\nand speech, as these were accidents proper to corporeal existences. They\nlooked upon the divine attributes as mental abstractions, and not as having\na real existence in the divine essence. The Mutazilites were emphatically\nthe Free thinkers of Islam. The origin of the sect was as follows: Al\nHasan, a famous divine, was one day seated in the Mosque at Basra when a\ndiscussion arose on the question whether a believer who committed a mortal\nsin became thereby an unbeliever. The Kharigites (Ante p. 76) {125}\naffirmed that it was so. The orthodox denied this, saying that, though\nguilty of sin, yet that as he believed rightly he was not an infidel.[112]\nOne of the scholars Wasil Ibn Ata, (who was born at Madina A.H. 80), then\nrose up and said: \"I maintain that a Muslim who has committed a mortal sin\nshould be regarded neither as a believer nor an unbeliever, but as\noccupying a middle station between the two.\" He then retired to another\npart of the Mosque where he was joined by his friend 'Umr Ibn Obaid and\nothers. They resumed the discussion. A learned man, named Katada, entering\nthe Mosque, went up to them, but on finding that they were not the party in\nwhich Al Hasan was, said 'these are the Seceders (Al-Mutazila).' Al Hasan\nsoon expelled them from his school. Wasil then founded a school of his own\nof which, after the death of his master, 'Umr Ibn Obaid became the head.\n\nWasil felt that a believer, though sinful, did not merit the same degree of\npunishment as an infidel, and thus starting off on the question of\n_degrees_ of punishment, he soon opened up the whole subject of man's\nresponsibility and the question of free-will. This soon brought him into\nconflict with the orthodox on the subject of predestination and that again\nto the subject of the inspiration, the interpretation and the eternity of\nthe Quran, and of the divine attributes. His followers rejected the\ndoctrine of the \"divine right\" of the Imam, and held that the entire body\nof the Faithful had the right to elect the most suitable person, who need\nnot necessarily be a man of the Quraish tribe, to fill that office. The\nprinciples of logic and the teaching of philosophy were brought to bear on\nthe precepts of religion. According to Shahrastani the Mutazilites hold:--\n\n    \"That God is eternal; and that eternity is the peculiar property of His\n    essence; but they deny the existence of any eternal attributes (as\n    distinct from His nature). For they say, He is Omniscient as to {126}\n    His nature; Living as to His nature; Almighty as to His nature; but not\n    through any knowledge, power or life existing in Him as eternal\n    attributes; for knowledge, power and life are part of His essence,\n    otherwise, if they are to be looked upon as eternal attributes of the\n    Deity, it will give rise to a multiplicity of eternal entities.\"\n\n    \"They maintain that the knowledge of God is as much within the province\n    of reason as that of any other entity; that He cannot be beheld with\n    the corporeal sight; and with the exception of Himself everything else\n    is liable to change or to suffer extinction. They also maintain that\n    Justice is the animating principle of human actions: Justice according\n    to them being the dictates of Reason and the concordance of the\n    ultimate results of this conduct of man with such dictates.\"\n\n    \"Again, they hold that there is no eternal law as regards human\n    actions; that the divine ordinances which regulate the conduct of men\n    are the results of growth and development; that God has commanded and\n    forbidden, promised and threatened by a law which grew gradually. At\n    the same time, say they, he who works righteousness merits rewards and\n    he who works evil deserves punishment. They also say, that all\n    knowledge is attained through reason, and must necessarily be so\n    obtained. They hold that the cognition of good and evil is also within\n    the province of reason; that nothing is known to be right or wrong\n    until reason has enlightened us as to the distinction; and that\n    thankfulness for the blessings of the Benefactor is made obligatory by\n    reason, even before the promulgation of any law upon the subject. They\n    also maintain that man has perfect freedom; is the author of his\n    actions both good and evil, and deserves reward or punishment hereafter\n    accordingly.\"\n\nDuring the reigns of the 'Abbasside Khalifs Mamun, Mutasim and Wathik\n(198-232 A.H.) at Baghdad, the Mutazilites were in high favour at Court,\nUnder the 'Abbasside dynasty[113] the ancient Arab Society was\nrevolutionized, Persians filled the most important offices of State;\nPersian doctrines took the place of Arab ones. The orthodox suffered bitter\npersecution. The story of that persecution will be told later on. The\nKhalif Wathik at length relented. {127} An old man, heavily chained, was\none day brought into his presence. The prisoner obtained permission to put\na few questions to Ahmad Ibn Abu Da,ud, a Mutazilite and the President of\nthe Court of Inquisition. The following dialogue took place. \"Ahmad,\" said\nthe prisoner, \"what is the dogma which you desire to have established.\"\n\"That the Quran is created,\" replied Ahmad. \"This dogma, then, is without\ndoubt an essential part of religion, insomuch that the latter cannot\nwithout it be said to be complete?\" \"Certainly.\" \"Has the Apostle of God\ntaught this to men or has he left them free?\" \"He has left them free.\" \"Was\nthe Apostle of God acquainted with this dogma or not?\" \"He was acquainted\nwith it.\" \"Wherefore, then, do you desire to impose a belief regarding\nwhich the Apostle of God has left men free to think as they please?\" Ahmad\nremaining silent, the old man turned to Wathik and said, \"O Prince of\nBelievers, here is my first position made good.\" Then turning to Ahmad, he\nsaid, \"God has said, 'This day have I perfected religion for you, and have\nfilled up the measures of my favours upon you; and it is my pleasure that\nIslam be your religion.' (Sura v. 5). But according to you Islam is not\nperfected unless we adopt this doctrine that the Quran is created. Which\nnow is most worthy of credence--God, when He declares Islam to be complete\nand perfect, or you when you announce the contrary?\" Ahmad was still\nsilent. \"Prince of Believers,\" said the old man, \"there is my second point\nmade good.\" He continued, \"Ahmad, how do you explain the following words of\nGod in His Holy Book?--'O Apostle! proclaim all that hath been sent down to\nthee from thy Lord; for if thou dost not, thou hast not proclaimed His\nmessage at all.' Now this doctrine that you desire to spread among the\nFaithful, has the Apostle taught it, or has he abstained from doing so?\"\nAhmad remained silent. The old man resumed, \"Prince of Believers, such is\nmy third argument.\" Then turning to Ahmad he said: \"If the Prophet was\nacquainted with the doctrine {128} which you desire to impose upon us, had\nhe the right to pass by it in silence?\" \"He had the right.\" \"And did the\nsame right appertain to Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and 'Ali?\" \"It did,\" \"Prince\nof Believers,\" said the prisoner, \"God will, in truth, be severe on us, if\nHe deprives us of a liberty which He accorded to the Prophet and his\nCompanions.\" The Khalif assented, and at once restored the old man to\nliberty. So ended one of the fiercest persecutions the orthodox have ever\nhad to endure, but so also ended the attempt to break through the barriers\nof traditionalism.[114] The next Khalif, Al Mutawakhil, a ferocious and\ncruel man, restored the orthodox party to place and power. He issued a\nfatva (decree) declaring that the dogma that the Quran was created was an\nutter falsehood. He instituted severe measures against Christians, Jews,\nShia'hs and Mutazilites. Ahmad Ibn Abu Da,ud was one of the first to be\ndisgraced. Heresy and latitudinarianism were banished.\n\nThe final blow to the Mutazilites, however, came not from the Khalif but a\nlittle later on from Abu Hasan-al-Ash'ari (270-340 A.H.)\n\nThe Mutazilites expelled from power in Baghdad, still flourished at Basra\nwhere one day the following incident occurred. Abu 'Ali Al-Jubbai, a\nMutazilite doctor, was lecturing to his students when Al-Ash'ari propounded\nthe following case to his master: \"There were three brothers, one of whom\nwas a true believer, virtuous and pious; the second an infidel, a debauchee\nand a reprobate; and the third an infant; they all died. What became of\nthem?\" Al-Jubbai answered: \"The virtuous brother holds a high station in\nParadise, the infidel is in the depths of hell, and the child is among\nthose who have obtained salvation.\" {129} \"Suppose now,\" said Al-Ash'ari,\n\"that the child should wish to ascend to the place occupied by his virtuous\nbrother, would he be allowed to do so?\" \"No,\" replied Al-Jubbai, \"it would\nbe said to him: 'thy brother arrived at this place through His numerous\nworks of obedience to God, and thou hast no such works to set forward.'\"\n\"Suppose then,\" said Al-Ash'ari, \"that the child should say: 'this is not\nmy fault, you did not let me live long enough, neither did you give me the\nmeans of proving my obedience.'\" \"In that case,\" said Al-Jubbai, \"the\nAlmighty would say: 'I knew that if I allowed thee to live, thou wouldest\nhave been disobedient and have incurred the punishment of hell: I acted,\ntherefore, for thy advantage.'\" \"Well,\" said Al-Ash'ari, \"and suppose the\ninfidel brother were here to say: 'O God of the Universe! since Thou\nknowest what awaited him, Thou must have known what awaited me; why then\ndidst Thou act for his advantage and not for mine?'\"[115] Al-Jubbai was\nsilent, though very angry with his pupil, who was now convinced that the\nMutazilite dogma of man's free-will was false, and that God elects some for\nmercy and some for punishment without any motive whatever. Disagreeing with\nhis teacher on this point, he soon began to find other points of\ndifference, and soon announced his belief that the Quran was not created.\nThis occurred on a Friday in the Great Mosque at Basra. Seated in his chair\nhe cried out in a loud voice: \"They who know me know who I am; as for those\nwho do not know me I shall tell them; I am 'Ali Ibn Isma'il Al-Ash'ari, and\nI used to hold that the Quran was created, that the eyes (of men) shall not\nsee God, and that we ourselves are the authors of our evil deeds; now, I\nhave returned to the truth: I renounce these opinions, and I take the\nengagement to refute the Mutazilites and expose their infamy and\nturpitude.\"[116]\n\nHe then, adopting scholastic methods, started a school of {130} thought of\nhis own, which was in the main a return to orthodoxy. The Ash'arian\ndoctrines differ slightly from the tenets of the Sifatians of which sect\nAl-Ash'ari's disciples form a branch. The Ash'arians hold--\n\n(i.) That the attributes of God are distinct from His essence, yet in such\na way as to forbid any comparison being made between God and His creatures.\nThey say they are not \"_'ain_ nor _ghair_:\" not of His essence, nor\ndistinct from it: _i.e.,_ they cannot be compared with any other things.\n\n(ii.) That God has one eternal will from which proceed all things, the good\nand the evil, the useful and the hurtful. The destiny of man was written on\nthe eternal table before the world was created. So far they go with the\nSifatians, but in order to preserve the moral responsibility of man they\nsay that he has power to convert will into action. But this power cannot\ncreate anything new for then God's sovereignty would be impaired; so they\nsay that God in His providence so orders matters that whenever \"a man\ndesires to do a certain thing, good or bad, the action corresponding to the\ndesire is, there and then, created by God, and, as it were, fitted on to\nthe desire.\" Thus it seems as if it came naturally from the will of the\nman, whereas it does not. This action is called Kasb (acquisition) because\nit is acquired by a special creative act of God. It is an act directed to\nthe obtaining of profit, or the removing of injury: the term is, therefore,\ninapplicable to the Deity. Abu Bakr-al-Bakillani, a disciple of Al-Ash'ari,\nsays: \"The essence or substance of the action is the effect of the power of\nGod, but its being an action of obedience, such as prayer, or an action of\ndisobedience, such as fornication, are qualities of the action, which\nproceed from the power of man.\" The Imam Al-Haramain (419-478 A.H.) held\n\"that the actions of men were effected by the power which God has created\nin man.\" Abu Ishaq al Isfarayain says: \"That which maketh impression, or\nhath influence on action, is a compound of the power of God and the power\nof man.\" {131}\n\n(iii.) They say that the word of God is eternal, though they acknowledge\nthat the vocal sounds used in the Quran, which is the manifestation of that\nword, are created. They say, in short, that the Quran contains (1) the\neternal word which existed in the essence of God before time was; and (2)\nthe word which consists of sounds and combinations of letters. This last\nthey call the created word.\n\nThus Al-Ash'ari traversed the main positions of the Mutazilites, denying\nthat man can by the aid of his reason alone rise to the knowledge of good\nand evil. He must exercise no judgment but accept all that is revealed. He\nhas no right to apply the moral laws which affect men to the actions of\nGod. It cannot be asserted by the human reason that the good will be\nrewarded, or the bad punished in a future world. Man must always approach\nGod as a slave, in whom there is no light or knowledge to judge of the\nactions of the Supreme. Whether God will accept the penitent sinner or not\ncannot be asserted, for He is an absolute Sovereign, above all law.[117]\n\nThe opinions of the more irrational sub-divisions of the Sifatians need not\nbe entered into at any length.\n\nThe Mushabihites (or Assimilators), interpreting some of the mutashabih\nverses literally, held that there is a resemblance between God and His\ncreatures; and that the Deity is capable of local motion, of ascending,\ndescending, &c. These they called \"declarative attributes.\" The\nMujassimians (or Corporealists) declared God to be corporeal, by which some\nof them meant, a self-subsisting body, whilst others declared the Deity to\nbe finite. They are acknowledged to be heretics.\n\n{132}\n\nThe Jabrians gave great prominence to the denial of free agency in man, and\nthus opposed the Mutazilites, who in this respect are Kadrians, that is,\nthey deny \"Al-Kadr,\" God's absolute sovereignty, and recognize free will in\nman.\n\nThese and various other sub-divisions are not now of much importance. The\nSunnis follow the teaching of Al-Ash'ari, whilst the Shi'ahs incline to\nthat of the Mutazilites.\n\nConnected with the subject of the attributes of God is that of the names to\nbe used when speaking of Him. All sects agree in this, that the names \"The\nLiving, the Wise, the Powerful, the Hearer, the Seer, the Speaker,\" &c.,\nare to be applied to God; but the orthodox belief is that all such names\nmust be \"tauqifi,\" that is dependent on some revelation. Thus it is not\nlawful to apply a name to God expressive of one of His attributes, unless\nthere is some statement made, or order given by Muhammad to legalize it.\nGod is rightly called Shafi (Healer), but He cannot be called Tabib which\nmeans much the same thing, for the simple reason that the word Tabib is\nnever applied in the Quran or the Traditions to God. In like manner the\nterm 'Alim (Knower) is lawful, but not so the expression 'Aqil (Wise). The\nMutazilites say that if, in the Quran or Traditions, there is any praise of\nan attribute, then the adjective formed from the name of that attribute can\nbe applied to God even though the actual word does not occur in any\nrevelation. Al-Ghazzali (A.H. 450-505), who gave in the East the death-blow\nto the Muslim philosophers, says: \"The names of God not given in the Law,\nif expressive of His glory, may be used of Him, but only as expressive of\nHis attributes, not of His nature.\" On the ground that it does not occur in\nthe Law, the Persian word \"Khuda\" has been objected to, an objection which\nalso holds good with regard to the use of such terms as God, Dieu, Gott,\n&c. To this it is answered, that as \"Khuda\" means \"one who comes by\nhimself\" it is equivalent to the term Wajib-ul-Wajud, {133} \"one who has\nnecessary existence,\" and therefore so long as it is not considered as the\n\"Ism-i-Zat (name of His nature) it may with propriety be used.\"[118]\n\nThe current belief now seems to be that the proper name equal to the term\nAllah, current in a language, can be used, provided always that such a name\nis not taken from the language of the Infidels; so God, Dieu, &c, still\nremain unlawful. The names of God authorised by the Quran and Traditions\nare, exclusive of the term Allah, ninety-nine in number. They are called\nthe Asma-i-Husna[119] (noble names); but in addition to these there are\nmany synonyms used on the authority of Ijma'. Such are Hanan, equal to\nRahim (Merciful) and Manan, \"one who puts another under an obligation.\" In\nthe Tafsir-i-Bahr it is stated that there are three thousand names of God;\none thousand of which are known to angels; one thousand to prophets; whilst\none thousand are thus distributed, _viz._, in the Pentateuch there are\nthree hundred, in the Psalms three hundred, in the Gospels three hundred,\nin the Quran ninety-nine, and one still hidden.\n\nThe following texts of the Quran are adduced to prove the nature of the\ndivine attributes:--\n\n(1). Life. \"There is no God but He, the Living, the Eternal.\" (Sura ii.\n256). \"Put thy trust in Him that liveth and dieth not.\" (Sura xxv. 60).\n\n(2). Knowledge. \"Dost thou not see that God knoweth all that is in the\nheavens, and all that is in the earth.\" (Sura lviii. 8). \"With Him are the\nkeys of the secret things; none knoweth them but He: He knoweth whatever is\non the land and in the sea; and no leaf falleth but He knoweth it; neither\nis there a grain in the darknesses of the earth, nor a thing green or sere,\nbut it is noted in a distinct writing.\" (Sura vi. 59).\n\n{134}\n\n(3). Power. \"If God pleased, of their ears and of their eyes would He\nsurely deprive them. Verily God is Almighty.\" (Sura ii. 19). \"Is He not\npowerful enough to quicken the dead.\" (Sura lxxv. 40). \"God hath power over\nall things.\" (Sura iii. 159.)\n\n(4). Will. \"God is worker of that He willeth.\" (Sura lxxxv. 16). \"But if\nGod pleased, He would surely bring them, one and all, to the guidance.\"\n(Sura vi. 35). \"God misleadeth whom He will, and whom He will He\nguideth--God doeth His pleasure.\" (Sura xiv. 4, 32).\n\nAs this attribute is closely connected with the article of the Creed which\nrefers to Predestination, the different opinions regarding it will be\nstated under that head.\n\nThere has never been any difference of opinion as to the existence of these\nfour attributes so clearly described in the Quran: the difference is with\nregard to the mode of their existence and their operation. There is, first,\nthe ancient Sifatian doctrine that the attributes are eternal and of the\nessence of God: secondly, the Mutazilite theory that they are not eternal;\nand, thirdly, the Ash'arian dogma that they are eternal, but distinct from\nHis essence.\n\nThere is also great difference of opinion with regard to the next three\nattributes--hearing, sight, speech. For the existence of the two first of\nthese the following verses are quoted, \"He truly heareth and knoweth all\nthings.\" (Sura xliv. 5). \"No vision taketh in Him, but He taketh in all\nvision.\" (Sura vi. 103).\n\nThe use of the terms sitting, rising, &c., hands, face, eyes, and so on,\ngave rise as I have shown to several sub-divisions of the Sifatians.\nAl-Ghazzali says: \"He sits upon His throne after that manner which He has\nHimself described and in that sense which He Himself means, which is a\nsitting far remote from any notion of contact or resting upon, or local\nsituation.\" This is the Ash'arian idea, but between the Ash'arians and\nthose who fell into the error of the {135} Mujassimians,[120] there was\nanother school. The followers of Imam Ibn Hanbal say that such words\nrepresent the attributes existing in God. The words \"God sits on His\nthrone\" mean that He has the power of sitting. Thus, they say, \"We keep the\nliteral meaning of the words, we allow no figurative interpretation. To do\nso is to introduce a dangerous principle of interpretation, for the\nnegation of the apparent sense of a passage may tend to weaken the\nauthority of revelation. At the same time we do not pretend to explain the\nact, for it is written: 'There is none like unto Him.' (Sura cxii.) 'Nought\nis there like Him.' (Sura xlii. 9.) 'Unworthy the estimate they form of\nGod.'\" (Sura xxii. 73.) To prove that God occupies a place they produce the\nfollowing Tradition: \"Ibn-al-Hakim wished to give liberty to a female slave\nSaouda and consulted the Prophet about it. Muhammad said to her, 'Where is\nGod?' 'In heaven,' she replied. 'Set her at liberty, she is a true\nbeliever.'\" Not, say the Commentators, because she believed that God\noccupied a place but because she took the words in their literal\nsignification. The Shi'ahs consider it wrong to attribute to God movement,\nquiescence, &c, for these imply the possession of a body. They hold, too,\nin opposition to the orthodox that God will never be seen, for that which\nis seen is limited by space.\n\nThe seventh attribute--speech--has been fruitful of a very long and\nimportant controversy connected with the nature of the Quran, for the word\n\"Kalam\" means not mere speech, but revelation and every other mode of\ncommunicating intelligence. Al-Ghazzali says:--\n\n    \"He doth speak, command, forbid, promise, and threaten by an eternal\n    ancient word, subsisting in His essence. Neither is it like to the word\n    of the creatures, nor doth it consist in a voice arising from the\n    commotion of the air and the collision of bodies, nor letters {136}\n    which are separated by the joining together of the lips or the motion\n    of the tongue. The Quran, the Law, the Gospel and the Psalter are books\n    sent down by Him to His Apostles, and the Quran, indeed, is read with\n    tongues written in books, and is kept in hearts; yet, as subsisting in\n    the essence of God, it doth not become liable to separation and\n    division whilst it is transferred into the hearts and on to paper. Thus\n    Moses also heard the word of God without voice or letter, even as the\n    saints behold the essence of God without substance or accident.\"\n\nThe orthodox believe that God is really a speaker: the Mutazilites deny\nthis, and say that He is only called a speaker because He is the originator\nof words and sounds.\n\nThey also bring the following objections to bear against the doctrine of\nthe eternity of the Quran. (1) It is written in Arabic, it descended, is\nread, is heard, and is written. It was the subject of a miracle. It is\ndivided into parts and some verses are abrogated by others. (2) Events are\ndescribed in the past tense, but if the Quran had been eternal the future\ntense would have been used. (3) The Quran contains commands and\nprohibitions; if it is eternal who were commanded and who were admonished?\n(4) If it has existed from eternity it must exist to eternity, and so even\nin the last day, and in the next world, men will be under the obligation of\nperforming the same religious duties as they do now, and of keeping all the\noutward precepts of the law. (5) If the Quran is eternal, then there are\ntwo eternals.\n\nThe position thus assailed was not at first a hard and fast dogma of Islam.\nIt was more a speculative opinion than anything else, but the opposition of\nthe Mutazilites soon led all who wished to be considered orthodox to become\nnot only stout assertors of the eternity of the Quran, but to give up their\nlives in defence of what they believed to be true. The Mutazilites by\nasserting the subjective nature of the Quranic inspiration brought the book\nitself within the reach of criticism. This was too much for orthodox Islam\nto bear even though the Khalif Mamun in the {137} year 212 A.H. issued a\nfatva declaring that all who asserted the eternity of the Quran were guilty\nof heresy. Some six years after this, the Imam Ahmad Ibn Hanbal was\nseverely beaten, and then imprisoned because he refused to assent to the\ntruth of the decree issued by the Khalif. Al Buwaiti, a famous disciple of\nAs-Shafa'i, used an ingenious argument to fortify his own mind when being\npunished by the order of the Khalif. He was taken all the way from Cairo to\nBaghdad and told to confess that the Quran was created. On his refusal, he\nwas imprisoned at Baghdad and there remained in chains till the day of his\ndeath. As Ar-Rabi Ibn Sulaiman says: \"I saw Al Buwaiti mounted on a mule:\nround his neck was a wooden collar, on his legs were fetters, from these to\nthe collar extended an iron chain to which was attached a clog weighing\nfifty pounds. Whilst they led him on he continued repeating these words,\n'Almighty God created the world by means of the word _Be!_ Now, if that\nword was created, one created thing would have created another.'\"[121] Al\nBuwaiti here refers to the verse, \"Verily our speech unto a thing when we\nwill the same, is that we only say to it, 'Be,' and it is,--Kun fayakuna.\"\n(Sura xxxvi. 82). This, in the way Al Buwaiti applied it, is a standing\nargument of the orthodox to prove the eternity of the Quran.\n\nWhen times changed men were put to death for holding the opposite opinion.\nThe Imam As-Shafa'i held a public disputation in Baghdad with Hafs, a\nMutazilite preacher, on this very point. Shafa'i quoted the verse, \"God\nsaid _be, and it was_,\" and asked, \"Did not God create all things by the\nword _be?_\" Hafs assented. \"If then the Quran was created, must not the\nword _be_ have been created with it?\" Hafs could not deny so plain a\nproposition. \"Then,\" said Shafa'i, \"All things, according to you, were\ncreated by a created being, which is a gross inconsistency and manifest\n{138} impiety.\" Hafs was reduced to silence, and such an effect had\nShafa'i's logic on the audience that they put Hafs to death as a pestilent\nheretic. Thus did the Ash'arian opinions on the subject of the Divine\nattributes again gain the mastery.[122]\n\nThe Mutazilites failed, and the reason why is plain. They were, as a rule,\ninfluenced by no high spiritual motives; often they were mere quibblers.\nThey sought no light in an external revelation. Driven to a reaction by the\nrigid system they combated, they would have made reason alone their chief\nguide. The nobler spirits among them were impotent to regenerate the faith\nthey professed to follow. It was, however, a great movement, and at one\ntime, it threatened to change the whole nature of Islam. This period of\nMuslim history, famed as that in which the effort was made to cast off the\nfetters of the rigid system which Islam was gradually tightening by the\nincreased authority given to traditionalism, and to the refinements of the\nfour Imams, was undoubtedly a period of, comparatively speaking, high\ncivilization. Baghdad, the capital of the Khalifate, was a busy, populous,\nwell-governed city. This it mainly owed to the influence of the Persian\nfamily of the Barmecides, one of whom was Vizier to the Khalif\nHarun-ur-Rashid. Harun's fame as a good man is quite undeserved. It is true\nthat he was a patron of learning, that his Empire was extensive, that he\ngained many victories, that his reign was the culminating point of Arab\ngrandeur. But for all that, he was a morose despot, a cruel man, thoroughly\ngiven up to pleasures of a very questionable nature. Drunkenness and\ndebauchery were common at court. Plots and intrigues were ever at work.\nSuch was the state of one of the greatest, if not the greatest, periods\n{139} of Muslim rule. This, too, was at a time most favourable for the\ndevelopment of any good which Islam might have possessed. It should be\nremembered that whatever glory is rightly attached to this period is\nconnected with an epoch when heresy was specially prevalent, when orthodoxy\nwas weak in Baghdad. The culture of the time was in spite of, not on\naccount of, the influence of orthodox Islam.\n\n2. ANGELS.--Of this article of the creed Muhammad Al-Berkevi says:--\n\n    \"We must confess that God has angels who act according to His order and\n    who do not rebel against Him. They neither eat nor drink, nor is there\n    amongst them any difference of sex. Some are near the throne of God;\n    those are His messengers. Each one has his particular work. Some are on\n    earth, some in heaven, some are always standing, some always prostrate\n    themselves and some laud and praise God. Others have charge of men and\n    record all their actions. Some angels are high in stature and are\n    possessed of great power. Such an one is Gabriel (Jibra,il) who in the\n    space of one hour can descend from heaven to earth, and who with one\n    wing can lift up a mountain.\n\n    We must believe in 'Izra,il who receives the souls of men when they\n    die, and in Israfil into whose charge is committed the trumpet. This\n    trumpet he has actually in his hand, and placed to his mouth ready to\n    blow when God gives the order. When he receives that order he will blow\n    such a terrible blast that all living things will die.[123] This is the\n    commencement of the last day. The world will remain in this state of\n    death forty years. Then God Most High will revive Israfil who will blow\n    a second blast, at the sound of which all the dead will rise to\n    life.\"[124]\n\nThis confession of faith makes no mention of Mika,il (Michael), the fourth\nof the archangels. His special duty is to see that all created beings have\nwhat is needful for them. He has charge of the rain-fall, plants, grain and\nall that is required for the sustenance of men, beasts, fishes, &c.\nGabriel's special charge is the communication of God's will to prophets.\nThe words \"one terrible in power\" (Sura liii. 5) {140} are generally\napplied to him. He is honoured with the privilege of nearness to God.\nTradition says that on the night of the Mi'raj, the Prophet saw that\nGabriel had six hundred wings, and that his body was so large that from one\nshoulder to the other the distance was so great that a swift flying bird\nwould require five hundred years to pass over it.\n\nNine-tenths of all created beings are said to be angels who are formed of\nlight. Their rank is stationary, and each is content with the position he\noccupies. Their one desire is to love and to know God. Whatever he commands\nthey do. \"All beings in the heaven and on the earth are His: and they who\nare in His presence disdain not His service, neither are they wearied: they\npraise Him day and night.\" (Sura xxi. 19, 20.) They are free from all\nsin.[125] It is true that they did not wish for the creation of Adam, and\nthis may seem like a want of confidence in God. It is said, however, that\ntheir object was not to oppose God, but to relieve their minds of the\ndoubts they had in the matter. Thus \"when the Lord said to the angels,\n'Verily, I am about to place one in my stead on earth,' they said: 'Wilt\nThou place there one who will do ill therein, and shed blood when we\ncelebrate thy praise and extol thy holiness.' God said: 'Verily I know what\nye know not.'\" It is true that Iblis was disobedient, but then he belonged\nnot to the angelic order but to that of the jinn. \"When we said to the\nangels, 'prostrate yourselves before Adam,' they all prostrated themselves\nsave Iblis, who was of the jinn, and revolted from his Lord's behest.\"\n(Sura xviii. 48.) (See also Sura ii. 33.)\n\nAngels appear in human form on special occasions, but usually they are\ninvisible. It is a common belief that animals can see angels and devils.\nThis accounts for the saying, \"If you hear a cock crow, pray for mercy, for\nit has seen an angel; but if you hear an ass bray, take refuge with God,\nfor it has seen a devil.\"\n\n{141}\n\nThe angels intercede for man: \"The angels celebrate the praise of their\nLord and ask forgiveness for the dwellers on earth.\" (Sura xlii. 3.) They\nalso act as guardian angels: \"Each hath a succession of angels before him\nand behind him who watch over him by God's behest.\" (Sura xiii. 12.) \"Is it\nnot enough for you that your Lord aideth you with three thousand angels\nsent down from on high?\" (Sura iii. 120.) \"Supreme over His servants He\nsendeth forth guardians who watch over you, until when death overtaketh any\none of you our messengers take his soul and fail not.\" (Sura vi. 61.)\n\nIn the Traditions it is said that God has appointed for every man two\nangels to watch over him by day, and two by night. The one stands on the\nright hand side of the man, the other on his left. Some, however, say that\nthey reside in the teeth, and that the tongue of the man is the pen and the\nsaliva of the mouth the ink.[126] They protect the actions of men and\nrecord them all whether good or bad. They are called the Mua'qqibat,\n_i.e._, those who succeed one another. They also bear the name of\nKiram-ul-Katibin, \"the exalted writers.\" They are referred to in the Quran.\n\"Think they that we hear not their secrets and their private talk? Yes, and\nour angels who are at their sides write them down.\" (Sura xliii. 80).\n\nThere are eight angels who support the throne of God. \"And the angels shall\nbe on its sides, and over them on that day eight shall bear up the throne\nof thy Lord.\" (Sura lxix. 17). Nineteen have charge of hell. \"Over it are\nnineteen. None but angels have we made guardians of the fire.\" (Sura lxxiv.\n30).\n\nThere is a special arrangement made by Providence to mitigate the evils of\nSatanic interference. \"Iblis,\" says Jabir Maghrabi, \"though able to assume\nall other forms is not permitted to appear in the semblance of the Deity,\nor {142} any of His angels, or prophets. There would otherwise be much\ndanger to human salvation, as he might, under the appearance of one of the\nprophets, or of some superior being, make use of this power to seduce men\nto sin. To prevent this, whenever he attempts to assume such forms, fire\ncomes down from heaven and repulses him.\"\n\nThe story of Harut and Marut is of some interest from its connection with\nthe question of the impeccability of the angels. Speaking of those who\nreject God's Apostle the Quran says: \"And they followed what the Satans\nread in the reign of Solomon; not that Solomon was unbelieving, but the\nSatans were unbelieving. Sorcery did they teach to men, and what had been\nrevealed to the two angels Harut and Marut at Babel. Yet no man did these\ntwo teach until they had said, 'We are only a temptation. Be not thou an\nunbeliever.'\" (Sura ii. 96). Here it is quite clear that two angels teach\nsorcery, which is generally allowed to be an evil. Some explanation has to\nbe given. Commentators are by no means reticent on this subject. The story\ngoes that in the time of the prophet Enoch when the angels saw the bad\nactions of men they said: \"O Lord! Adam and his descendants whom Thou has\nappointed as Thy vice-regents on earth act disobediently.\" To which the\nLord replied: \"If I were to send you on earth, and to give you lustful and\nangry dispositions, you too would sin.\" The angels thought otherwise; so\nGod told them to select two of their number who should undergo this ordeal.\nThey selected two, renowned for devotion and piety. God having implanted in\nthem the passions of lust and anger said: \"All day go to and fro on the\nearth, put an end to the quarrels of men, ascribe no equal to Me, do not\ncommit adultery, drink no wine, and every night repeat the Ism-ul-A'zam,\nthe exalted name (of God) and return to heaven.\" This they did for some\ntime, but at length a beautiful woman named Zuhra (Venus) led them astray.\nOne day she brought them a cup of wine. One said: {143} \"God has forbidden\nit;\" the other, \"God is merciful and forgiving.\" So they drank the wine,\nkilled the husband of Zuhra, to whom they revealed the \"exalted name,\" and\nfell into grievous sin. Immediately after, they found that the \"name\" had\ngone from their memories and so they could not return to heaven as usual.\nThey were very much concerned at this and begged Enoch to intercede for\nthem. The prophet did so, and with such success that the angels were\nallowed to choose between a present or a future punishment. They elected to\nbe punished here on earth. They were then suspended with their heads\ndownwards in a well at Babel. Some say that angels came and whipped them\nwith rods of fire, and that a fresh spring ever flowed just beyond the\nreach of their parched lips. The woman was changed to a star. Some assert\nthat it was a shooting star which has now passed out of existence. Others\nsay that she is the star Venus.\n\nIt is only right to state that the Qazi 'Ayaz, Imam Fakhr-ud-din Razi\n(544-606 A.H.), Qazi Nasir-ud-din Baidavi (620-691 A.H.) and most\nscholastic divines deny the truth of this story. They say that angels are\nimmaculate, but it is plain that this does not meet the difficulty which\nthe Quran itself raises in connection with Harut and Marut. They want to\nknow how beings in such a state can teach, and whether it is likely that\nmen would have the courage to go near such a horrible scene. As to the\nwoman, they think the whole story absurd, not only because the star Venus\nwas created before the time of Adam, but also because it is inconceivable\nthat one who was so wicked should have the honour of shining in heaven for\never. A solution, however, they are bound to give, and it is this. Magic is\na great art which God must allow mankind to know. The dignity of the order\nof prophets is so great that they cannot teach men what is confessedly\nhurtful. Two angels were therefore sent, and so men can now distinguish\nbetween the miracles of prophets, the signs of {144} saints, the wonders of\nmagicians and others. Then Harut and Marut always discouraged men from\nlearning magic. They said to those who came to them: \"We are only a\ntemptation. Be not thou an unbeliever.\" Others assert that it is a Jewish\nallegory in which the two angels represent reason and benevolence, the\nwoman the evil appetites. The woman's ascent to heaven represents death.\n\nTo this solution of the difficulty, however, the great body of the\nTraditionists do not agree. They declare that the story is a Hadis-i-Sahih,\nand that the Isnad is sound and good. I name only a few of the great\ndivines who hold this view. They are Imam Ibn Hanbal, Ibn Ma'sud, Ibn 'Umr,\nIbn 'Abbas, Hafiz 'Asqallani[127] and others. Jelal-ud-din Syuti in his\ncommentary the Durr-i-Mashur, has given all the Traditions in order and,\nthough there is some variety in the details, the general purport accords\nwith the narrative as I have related it. The Traditionists answer the\nobjections of the Scholastics thus. They say that angels are immaculate\nonly so long as they remain in the angelic state; that, though confined,\nHarut and Marut can teach magic, for a word or two is quite sufficient for\nthat purpose; that some men have no fear and, if they have, it is quite\nconceivable that the two angels may teach through the instrumentality of\ndevils or jinn. With regard to the woman Zuhra they grant that to be\nchanged into a bright star is of the nature of a reward; but they say the\ndesire to learn the \"exalted name\" was so meritorious an act that the good\nshe desired outweighs the evil she did. With regard to the date of the\ncreation of the star Venus, it is said that all our astronomical knowledge\nis based on observations made since the Flood, whereas this story relates\nto the times of Enoch who lived before the days of Noah. So the dispute\ngoes on and men of great repute for learning and knowledge believe in the\nstory.\n\n{145}\n\nMunkir and Nakir are two fierce-looking black angels with blue eyes who\nvisit every man in his grave, and examine him with regard to his faith in\nGod and in Muhammad. The dead are supposed to dwell in 'Alam-i-barzakh, a\nstate of existence intervening between the present life and the life of\nmankind after the resurrection.[128] This is the meaning of the word\n\"grave\" when used in this connection. Unbelievers and wicked Muslims suffer\ntrouble in that state; true believers who can give a good answer to the\nangels are happy. Some suppose that a body of angels are appointed for this\npurpose and that some of them bear the name of Munkir, and some that of\nNakir and that, just as each man has two recording angels during his\nlifetime, two from this class are appointed to examine him after death.\nThere is a difference of opinion with regard to children. The general\nbelief is that the children of believers will be questioned, but that the\nangels will teach them to say: \"Allah is my Lord, Islam my religion, and\nMuhammad my Prophet.\" With regard to the children of unbelievers being\nquestioned, Imam Abu Hanifa hesitated to give an opinion. He also doubted\nabout their punishment. Some think they will be in A'raf, a place between\nheaven and hell; others suppose that they will be servants to the true\nbelievers in Paradise.\n\nDistinct from the angels there is another order of beings made of fire\ncalled jinn (genii.) It is said that they were created thousands of years\nbefore Adam came into existence. \"We created man of dried clay, of dark\nloam moulded, and the jinn had been before created of subtle fire.\" (Sura\nxv. 26, 27.) They eat, drink, propagate their species and are subject to\ndeath, though they generally live many centuries. They dwell chiefly in the\nKoh-i-Kaf, a chain of mountains supposed to encompass the world:[129] {146}\nsome are believers in Islam; some are infidels, and will be punished. \"I\nwill wholly fill hell with jinn and men.\" (Sura xi. 120.) The Sura called\nSurat-ul-Jinn (lxxii.) refers to their belief in Islam. The passage is too\nlong to quote. They try to hear[130] what is going on in heaven. \"We guard\nthem (_i.e._, men) from every stoned Satan, save such as steal a hearing.\"\n(Sura xv. 18.) They were under the power of Solomon and served him. (Sura\nxxxviii. 36.) An 'Ifrit of the jinn said, \"I will bring it thee (Solomon)\nere thou risest from thy place: I have power for this and am trusty.\" (Sura\nxxvii. 39.) At the last day the jinn also will be questioned. Imam Hanifa\ndoubted whether the jinn who are Muslims will be rewarded. The unbelieving\njinn will assuredly be punished. Tradition classifies them in the following\norder: (1) Jann, (2) Jinn, (3) Shaitan, (4) 'Ifrit, (5) Marid. Many fables\nhave been invented concerning these beings, and though intelligent Muslims\nmay doubt these wonderful accounts, yet a belief in the order of jinn is\nimperative, at least, as long as there is belief in the Quran. Those who\nwish to know more of this subject will find a very interesting chapter on\nit in Lane's Modern Egyptians.\n\n3. THE BOOKS.--Al Berkevi says:--\n\n    \"It is necessary to believe that the books of God have been sent\n    through the instrumentality of Gabriel, to prophets upon the earth. The\n    books are never sent except to prophets. The Quran was sent to Muhammad\n    portion by portion during a space of 23 years. The Pentateuch came to\n    Moses, the Injil to Jesus, the Zabur to David, and the other books to\n    other prophets. The whole number of the Divine books is 104. The Quran,\n    the last of all, is to be followed till the day of judgment. It can\n    neither be abrogated nor changed. Some laws of the previous books have\n    been abrogated by the Quran and ought not to be followed.\"\n\nThe one hundred and four books were sent from heaven in the following\norder:--To Adam, ten; to Seth, fifty; to Enoch (Idris), thirty; to Abraham,\nten; to Moses, the {147} Taurat (Pentateuch); to David, the Zabur (Psalms);\nto Jesus, the Injil; to Muhammad, the Quran. The one hundred to which no\ndistinctive name is given are known as the \"Suhuf-ul-Anbiya,\"--Books of the\nProphets. The Quran is also known as the Furqan, the distinguisher; the\nQuran-i-Sharif, noble Quran; the Quran-i-Majid, glorious Quran; the Mushaf,\nthe Book. It is said to be the compendium of the Taurat, Zabur and\nInjil[131]; so Muslims do not require to study these books.[132] The\northodox belief is that they are entirely abrogated by the Quran,[133]\nthough Syed Ahmad denounces as ignorant and foolish those Musalmans who say\nso.[134] Be that as it may, their inspiration is considered to be of a\nlower order than that of the Quran. A large {148} portion of the Injil is\nconsidered to be mere narrative. The actual words of Christ only are looked\nupon as the revelation which descended from heaven. It is so in the case of\nthe Old Testament Prophets. \"However, it was the rule to call a book by the\nname of the prophet, whether the subject-matter was pure doctrine only, or\nwhether it was mixed up with narrative also.\" \"It is to be observed that,\nin the case of our own Prophet, the revelations made to him were intended\nto impart a special miracle of eloquence and they were written down,\nliterally and exactly, in the form in which they were communicated without\nany narrative being inserted in them.\"[135] The writings of the Apostles\nare not considered to be inspired books. \"We do not consider that the Acts\nof the Apostles, or the various Epistles, although unquestionably very good\nbooks, are to be taken as part and parcel of the New Testament itself;\nnevertheless we look upon the writings of the Apostles in the same light as\nwe do the writings of the Companions of our own Prophet; that is to say, as\nentitled to veneration and respect.\"[136] There are many verses in the\nQuran which speak of previous revelations, thus: \"We also caused Jesus, the\nson of Mary, to follow the footsteps of the prophets, confirming the law\n(Taurat) which was sent before him, and we gave him the Injil with its\nguidance and light, confirmatory of the preceding law; a guidance and a\nwarning to those that fear God.\" (Sura v. 50). \"We believe in God, and that\nwhich hath been sent down to us, and that which hath been sent down to\nAbraham and Isaac and Jacob and the tribes, and that which hath been given\nto Moses and to Jesus, and that which was given to the prophets from their\nLord. No difference do we make between any of them: and to God are we\nresigned.\" (Sura ii. 130). \"In truth hath He sent down to thee the Book,\nwhich confirmeth those that precede it, for He had sent down the {149} Law\nand the Injil aforetime, as man's guidance; and now hath He sent down the\nFurqan.\" (Sura iii. 2).[137]\n\nPractically, Musalmans reject the Old and New Testaments. To do so is\nmanifestly against the letter of the Quran, and, as some reason for this\nneglect of previous Scriptures must be given, Muslim divines say that the\nJewish and Christian Scriptures have been corrupted. The technical\nexpression is \"tahrif,\" a word signifying, to change, to turn aside\nanything from the truth. Then tahrif may be of two kinds, tahrif-i-m'anavi,\na change in the meaning of words; tahrif-i-lafzi, an actual change of the\nwritten words. Most Musalmans maintain that the latter kind of corruption\nhas taken place, and so they do not feel bound to read or study the\nprevious revelations so frequently referred to in the Quran. The charge\nbrought against the Jews of corrupting their Scriptures is based on the\nfollowing verse of the Quran: \"Some truly are there among you who torture\nthe Scriptures with their tongues, in order that ye may suppose it to be\nfrom the Scripture, yet it is not from the Scripture. And they say: 'this\nis from God,' yet it is not from God; and they utter a lie against God, and\nthey know they do so.\" (Sura iii. 72.) All the ancient commentators assert\nthat this only proved tahrif-i-m'anavi; that is, that the Jews referred to\neither misinterpreted what they read, or, whilst professing to read from\nthe Scripture, used expressions not found therein. It does not mean that\nthey altered the text of their Scriptures. This, however, does not excuse\nMusalmans for their neglect of the previous Scriptures, and so the orthodox\ndivines of modern times maintain that the greater corruption--the\ntahrif-i-lafzi, has taken place. The question is fully discussed, and the\nopinion of the earlier commentators endorsed by Syed Ahmad in his\nCommentary on the Bible.[138]\n\n{150}\n\n4. PROPHETS.--Muhammad Al Berkevi says:--\n\n    \"It is necessary to confess that God has sent prophets; that Adam is\n    the first of the prophets and the father of all men; that Muhammad is\n    the last of the prophets; that between Adam and Muhammad there were a\n    great number of prophets; that Muhammad is the most excellent of all\n    and that his people are the best of all peoples; that each of the\n    preceding prophets was sent to a special people, some with books, some\n    without, but that Muhammad was sent to all men and also to the genii;\n    that his law will remain until the end of the world, that his miracles\n    are many in number, that by his blessed finger he made waters flow,\n    that he divided the moon into two parts, that animals, trees, and\n    stones said to him: 'Thou art a true prophet.'\n\n    We must also believe that one night he was transported from Mecca to\n    Jerusalem, and from thence to heaven, where he saw both paradise and\n    hell, conversed with the Most High and returned to Mecca before\n    morning. After him no other prophet will come, for he is the seal of\n    the prophets.\"\n\nThe number of prophets sent by God to make known His will varies according\nto the Tradition which records it. About two hundred thousand is the usual\nnumber stated. Twenty-five are mentioned by name in the Quran, of whom six\nare distinguished by special titles. Adam, Sufi Ullah, the chosen of God;\nNoah, Nabi Ullah, the prophet of God; Abraham, Khalil Ullah, the friend of\nGod; Moses, Kalim Ullah, the speaker with God; Jesus, Ruh Ullah, the spirit\nof God; Muhammad, Rasul Ullah, the messenger of God. These are called the\nAnbiya-ulul-'Azm (possessors of purpose) because they were the heads of\ntheir respective dispensations, and because they will be permitted by God\nto intercede in the day of judgment for their followers. They are the\ngreatest and most exalted of the prophets.[139]\n\nThere are degrees of rank amongst the prophets, for \"Some of the Apostles\nhave We endowed more highly than others. Those to whom God hath spoken, He\nhath raised to the loftiest grade, and to Jesus, the Son of Mary We gave\n{151} manifest signs, and We strengthened him with the Holy Spirit.\" (Sura\nii. 254). The Anbiya-ulul-'Azm are ranked in the following order: Noah,\nJesus, Moses, Abraham and as the chief of all, Muhammad, of whom it is\nsaid: \"He is the Apostle of God and the seal of the prophets.\" (Sura\nxxxiii. 40).\n\nA Tradition, as usual, supports his position. \"I am the chief of the sons\nof men.\" \"Adam and all beside him will be ranged under my flag in the\njudgment day.\"[140] It is said that the law given by Moses was harsh and\nsevere; that by Christ was mild and gracious; but that the law given by\nMuhammad is perfect, for it combines both the quality of strictness and\nthat of graciousness; according to the Tradition: \"I always laugh and by\nlaughing kill.\"[141] Each prophet is said to have been sent to his own\ntribe, but Muhammad was sent for all men. A Tradition is adduced to support\nthis statement: \"I was raised up for all men whether white or black, other\nprophets were not except for their own tribe.\" The Quran also states: \"We\nhave sent thee (Muhammad) for all men.\"\n\nThere is some difference of opinion as to whether the prophets are superior\nto the angels. The Hanifites hold that the prophets amongst men are\nsuperior to the prophets amongst angels, who in their turn are superior to\nthe ordinary run of men, to whom again the angels, other than prophets, are\ninferior. The Mutazilites say that the angels are superior to the prophets.\nThe Shia'hs assert that the twelve Imams are superior to prophets.\n\nThe way in which Muhammad received inspiration has been shown in a previous\nchapter; but Ibn Khaldoun gives such an interesting account of prophetic\ninspiration that I give the substance of his remarks here. He speaks\nsomewhat as follows.[142] If we contemplate the world and the creatures it\ncontains we shall recognize a perfect order, a regular {152} system, a\nsequence of cause and effect, a connexion between different categories of\nexistence, and a transformation of beings from one category of existence to\nanother. Then the phenomena of the visible world indicate to us the\nexistence of an agent whose nature is different from that of the body, who\nis in fact a spiritual existence. This agent, which is the soul, must on\nthe one hand be in contact with the existences of this world and, on the\nother, with the existences in the next category of superiority, and one\nwhose essential qualities are pure perception and clear intelligence. Such\nare the angels. It follows, then, that the human soul has a tendency\ntowards the angelic world. All this is quite in accordance with the idea\nthat, according to a regular order, all the categories of existences in the\nuniverse are in mutual contact by means of their faculties and on account\nof their nature.\n\nThe souls of men may be divided into three classes. The first kind of soul\nis too feeble by nature to attain to a perception of the spiritual: it has\nto content itself with moving in the region of sense and imagination. Thus\nit can understand concepts and affirmations. It can raise itself high in\nits own category but cannot pass its limit.\n\nThe souls of the second class are carried by a reflective movement and a\nnatural disposition towards a spiritual intelligence. They can enter into a\nstate of contemplation which results in ecstasy. This is the intuition of\nthe Saints (Auliya)[143] to whom God has given this divine knowledge.\n\nThe souls of the third class are created with the power of disengaging\nthemselves altogether from their human bodies in order that they may rise\nto the angelic state where they become like angels. In a moment of time\nsuch {153} a soul perceives the sublime company (of angels) in the sphere\nwhich contains them. It, there and then, hears the speech of the soul and\nthe divine voice. Such are the souls of the prophets. God has given to\nthese souls the power of leaving the human body. Whilst thus separate from\nit God gives to them His revelation. The prophets are endowed by God with\nsuch a purity of disposition, such an instinct of uprightness, that they\nare naturally inclined to the spiritual world. They are animated by an\nardour quite peculiar to their order. When they return from the angelic\nstate they deliver to men the revelations they have received. Sometimes the\nrevelation comes to the prophet as the humming of confused discourse. He\ngrasps the ideas and, as soon as the humming ceases, he comprehends the\nmessage; sometimes an angel in human form communicates the revelation, and\nwhat he says the prophet learns by heart. The journey to, the return from\nthe angelic state, and the comprehension of the revelation received there\noccupy less time than the twinkling of an eye. So rapidly do the souls of\nprophets move. So instantaneously do they receive and understand God's\nrevelations. This is why inspiration is called Wahi, a word which,\naccording to Ibn Khaldoun, means to make haste.\n\nThe first way of delivering a message is adopted when he who receives it is\nonly a Nabi (prophet), and not a Rasul (apostle or messenger.) The second\nmode is employed towards a Rasul who, on the principle that the greater\ncontains the less, is also a Nabi. A Hadis records that Muhammad said:\n\"Revelation came to me sometimes like the ticking of a clock and fatigued\nme much. When it stopped I learnt the meaning of what had been delivered to\nme. Sometimes an angel in human form spoke to me and, whilst he was\nspeaking, I learnt what was said.\" That a prophet should feel oppressed on\nsuch occasions is hinted at in \"With measured tone intone the Quran, for we\nshall devolve on thee mighty words.\" (Sura lxxiii. 5.)\n\n{154}\n\nA Nabi, (who must be a wise and a free man, that is, one who is not a slave\nof another, and one also who is free from imperfection either of body or\nmind), receives Wahi but has not necessarily to deliver to men the orders\nof God. A Rasul who must possess the same qualifications as a Nabi, is one\nwho is commanded to deliver God's message to men, though he does not\nnecessarily abrogate what preceding Rasuls have delivered. Neither is it\nnecessary that he should bring a book or even a new law. Some Rasuls do so,\nbut the distinguishing mark of the Rasul is that he delivers to men\ncommands direct from God, and is specially commissioned so to do. Thus\nevery Rasul is a Nabi, whilst every Nabi is not a Rasul.\n\nThe question of the sinlessness of the prophets is one to which\nconsiderable attention has been paid by Muslim theologians. The orthodox\nbelief is that they are free from sin. Some think that their freedom from\nsin is because the grace of God being ever in them in the richest fulness\nthey are kept in the right path. The Ash'arians believe that the power of\nsinning is not created in them.[144] The Mutazilites deny this, but admit\nthe existence of some quality which keeps them from evil. These theories do\nnot agree with actual facts. Prophets like other men commit faults, but\nhere comes in the Muslim distinction of sins into gunah-i-kabira \"great\nsins,\" and gunah-i-saghira \"little sins.\" The gunah-i-kabira are, murder,\nadultery, disobedience to God and to parents, robbing of orphans, to accuse\nof adultery, to avoid fighting against infidels, drunkenness, to give or to\ntake usury, to neglect the Friday prayers and the Ramazan fast, tyranny,\nbackbiting, untrustworthiness, forgetting the Quran after reading it, to\navoid giving true or to give false witness, lying without sufficient\nreason,[145] to swear falsely or to swear by any other than God, flattery\nof tyrants, false judgments, giving short weight or measure, {155} magic,\ngambling, approval of the ceremonies of infidels, boasting of one's piety,\ncalling on the names of deceased persons and beating the breast at such\ntimes,[146] dancing, music, neglect when opportunity offers of warning\nother persons with regard to the \"commands and prohibitions\" of God,\ndisrespect to a Hafiz, to shave the beard, to omit saying the \"darud\"\n(_i.e._ on whom and on whose family be the peace and mercy of God) whenever\nthe name of Muhammad is mentioned.[147] These are all \"great sins\" and can\nonly be forgiven after due repentance: the \"little sins\" are forgiven if\nsome good actions are done. \"Observe prayer at early morning, at the close\nof day, and at the approach of night; for the _good deeds drive away the\nevil deeds_.\" (Sura xi. 116).\n\nMen may commit sin wittingly or unwittingly. It is the universal belief\nthat a prophet never commits the greater sins in either way; but there is a\ndifference of opinion with regard to the lesser sins. Some hold that they\ncan do them unwittingly, though even then it is not in any thing connected\nwith their office. Others again limit even this frailty to the period\nbefore \"wahi\" (inspiration) comes upon them. The general opinion, however,\nis that they are free from all sin, whether great or small. The frailties\nwhich they show are merely reckoned as faults and slight imperfections not\namounting to sin.\n\nThis, to the Muslim mind at once disposes of a difficulty the Quran itself\nraises on this point. With the exception of Jesus Christ, the\nAnbiya-ulul-'Azm are spoken of as doing what every one except an orthodox\nMuslim would call sin. Adam's transgression[148] is referred to in Sura ii.\n29-37 and {156} in Sura vii. 10-24. I quote only one verse: \"They said, 'O\nour Lord! with ourselves have we dealt unjustly; if Thou forgive us not and\nhave not pity on us, we shall surely be of those that perish.'\" The sin of\nNoah is not specified in the Quran, yet it is plainly hinted at. \"To Thee\nverily, O my Lord, do I repair lest I ask that of Thee wherein I have no\nknowledge: unless Thou forgive me and be merciful to me I shall be one of\nthe lost.\" (Sura xi. 49). There is also a similar request in Sura lxxi. 29.\nAbraham is represented as saying to his people: \"They whom ye worship, ye\nand your fathers of early days, are my foes; but not so the Lord of the\nworlds, who hath created me, and guideth me, who giveth me food and drink;\nand when I am sick, he healeth me, and who will cause me to die and again\nquicken me, and who, I hope, will forgive me my sins in the day of\nreckoning.\" (Sura xxvi. 75-82). Moses is described as having done \"a work\nof Satan\" in killing a man, and as saying: \"'O my Lord, I have sinned to my\nown hurt; forgive me.' So God forgave him; for He is the forgiving, the\nmerciful. He said: 'Lord, because thou hast showed me this grace, I will\nnever again be the helper of the wicked.'\" (Sura xxviii. 15, 16).\n\nThe following passages refer to Muhammad. \"Be thou steadfast and patient;\nfor true is the promise of God; and seek pardon for thy fault.\"[149] (Sura\nxl. 57). \"Ask pardon for thy sin, and for believers, both men and women.\"\n(Sura xlvii. 21). The scandal caused by the Prophet's conduct with the wife\nof Zeid, and with the Egyptian slave Mary, necessitated a pretended\nrevelation of God's will in reference to these events. The circumstances\nwill be found fully detailed in Sura xxxiii. 36-38 and in Sura lxvi. 1-5.\n\nOne of the most important verses is: \"Verily, we have won for thee an\nundoubted victory, in token that God forgiveth thy earlier and later\nfault.\" (Sura xlviii. 1-2). {157} It is not quite clear what victory is\nhere referred to. According to the Tafsir-i-Husaini, some commentators say\nthat it is the taking of Mecca, the past tense being prophetically used for\nthe future. The following explanations are given of the expression \"earlier\nand later fault.\" (1) God has forgiven thy sin committed before and after\nthe descent of wahi, (2) before and after the taking of Mecca, or (3)\nbefore the descent of this Sura. (4) The commentator Salmi says: \"The\nearlier sin refers to the sin of Adam committed when Muhammad was in the\nloins of his great ancestor and thus connected with him; the later sin\nrefers to the followers of the Prophet, and in that way is connected with\nhim, just as the sin of Adam was the predecessor and the cause of their\nsin.\" (5) Imam Abu'l-Lais says: \"The words refer to the sin of Adam, and to\nthose of the followers of the Prophet. Both are connected with Muhammad,\nbecause the former is forgiven by the blessing, and the latter by the\nintercession of Muhammad.\"[150]\n\nFrom these extracts from the Quran it appears that sin is imputed to\nprophets, though Muslims evade the charge by the casuistry I have already\nreferred to. Be that as it may, it is a striking fact that the one sinless\nmember of the Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, the one sinless prophet of Islam, is none\nother than Jesus Christ. There is no passage in the Quran which hints at\nsin, even in the modified form in which Muslims attribute it to other\nprophets, being committed by him: no passage which speaks of His seeking\nfor pardon.\n\nIt is the universal belief that prophets work miracles, (mu'jizat). A\nmiracle is defined to be \"Kharq-i-'adat,\" that is, something contrary to\nthe usual course of nature.\n\nThe object for which a miracle is performed must be a moral one, and\nchiefly to attest the truth of the statements made by the prophet. Although\nMuhammad makes, in the {158} Quran, no distinct claim to the power of\nworking miracles,[151] his followers maintain that in this, as in all other\nrespects he was equal to all and superior to some prophets, and produce\nvarious passages of the Quran in support of their view. Thus, according to\nShaikh Jelal-ud-din Syuti, if to Adam was given the power of naming every\nthing, Muhammad also possessed the same power. Enoch was exalted on high,\nbut Muhammad was taken to the 'Baqab-i-qausain,' the 'two bows' length,'\nwhere Gabriel, \"one mighty in power,\" appeared to him. (Sura liii. 5-9).\nIshmael was ready to be sacrificed, but Muhammad endured the splitting of\nhis chest;[152] Joseph was to some extent handsome, but Muhammad was the\nvery perfection of beauty; Moses brought water from the rock, but Muhammad\nproduced it from his fingers. The sun was stayed on its course by Joshua\nand so it was by Muhammad. Solomon had a great kingdom, Muhammad a greater,\nfor he possessed the keys of the treasuries of the earth. Wisdom was given\nto John the Baptist whilst yet a child, so also were wisdom and\nunderstanding granted to Muhammad at an early period of his life. Jesus\ncould raise the dead, so also could Muhammad. In addition to all these, the\nspecial miracles of the Prophet are the splitting of the moon asunder, the\nMi'raj, the coming of a tree into his presence, and above all the wonderful\nmiracle of the Quran.[153]\n\nThe splitting of the moon in sunder is referred to in, {159} \"The hour of\njudgment approacheth; and the moon hath been split in sunder.\" (Sura liv.\n1). Imam Zahid says that Abu Jahl and a Jew visited the Prophet, and\ndemanded a sign from him on pain of death. The Prophet made a sign with his\nlittle finger, and at once the moon separated into two parts: one of which\nremained in the sky, the other went off to a long distance. The Jew\nbelieved in Islam forthwith. Abu Jahl ascribed the affair to magic, but on\nmaking enquiry from various travellers ascertained that they, on this very\nnight, distinctly saw the moon in two parts.[154] Some, however, refer the\npassage to the future, as they consider the splitting of the moon to be one\nof the signs of the last day.\n\nThe Mi'raj, or night ascent, is mentioned in, \"Glory be to Him who carried\nHis servant by night from the sacred temple (of Mecca) to the temple that\nis more remote, whose precinct We have blessed, that We might show him of\nour signs.\" (Sura xvii. 1). Muslim writers, who are fond of the marvellous,\nnarrate at length the wonderful things the Prophet saw and did on this\neventful night;[155] but some maintain that it was only a vision, and quote\nthe words: \"We ordained the vision which we showed thee,\" in proof of this\nassertion.[156] Be that as it may, all orthodox Muslims maintain the\nsuperiority of Muhammad, as a worker of miracles, over all other prophets.\n\n5. THE RESURRECTION AND THE LAST DAY.--These two articles of the faith may\nbe considered together. The {160} following is a summary of the remarks of\nMuhammad Al Berkevi on this point. It is necessary to acknowledge:--\n\n    1. That the torments of the tomb are real and certain and that Munkir\n    and Nakir (Ante p. 145) will come and interrogate the dead person\n    concerning his God, his Prophet, his faith and his Qibla. The faithful\n    will reply: \"our God is God; our Prophet is Muhammad; our religion,\n    Islam; our Qibla, the Ki-'adataba.\n\n    2. That all the signs of the last day mentioned by the Prophet will\n    come to pass; such as, the appearance of Dajjal, or Antichrist; the\n    descent of Jesus from heaven; the appearance of Imam Mahdi and of Gog\n    and Magog; the rising of the sun from the west, &c.\n\n    3. That all living things will die; that the mountains will fly in the\n    air like birds; that the heavens will melt away; that after some time\n    has thus passed God most High will set the earth in order and raise the\n    dead; that prophets, saints, doctors of the law, and the faithful will\n    find near them the robes and the horses of Paradise. They will put on\n    the robes, and mount the horses and go into the shade of the throne of\n    God. Other men, hungry, thirsty, and naked will go on foot. The\n    Faithful will go to the right, the Infidels to the left.\n\n    4. That there will be a balance, in which the good and bad actions of\n    men will be weighed. Those whose good deeds outweigh the bad will go to\n    Paradise; if the bad predominate, they will go into the fire, unless\n    God has mercy on them, or the prophets or saints intercede for them.\n    If, however, they were not Muslims there will be no intercession for\n    them, nor will they come out from the fire. The Muslims who enter the\n    fire will, after having purged their crimes, enter Paradise.\n\n    5. That the bridge Sirat, which is sharper than a sword, is raised\n    above the fire; that all men must pass over this. Some will pass over\n    with the speed of lightning, some like a horse that runs, some, their\n    backs laden with their sins, will go very slowly over; others will fall\n    and certainly enter into the fire.\n\n    6. That each prophet has a pool where he, with his people, will quench\n    their thirst before entering Paradise; that the pool of Muhammad is the\n    largest of all, for it is a month's march from one side thereof to the\n    other. Its water is sweeter than honey, whiter than milk.\n\n    7. That Paradise and Hell actually exist; that the chosen remain for\n    ever in the former; they neither die, nor grow aged. They experience no\n    kind of change. The Houris and the females are exempted {161} from the\n    infirmities of their sex. They will no longer bear children. The elect\n    will find there the meat and the drink they require, without taking\n    upon themselves any trouble. The ground of Paradise is of musk; the\n    bricks of its edifices are of gold and of silver.\n\n    The unbelievers and the demons will remain for ever in hell, tormented\n    by serpents as thick as the neck of a camel, by scorpions as large as\n    mules, by fire and by scalding water. Their bodies will burn, till they\n    become reduced to a coal, when God will revive them so that they may\n    endure fresh torments. This will last for ever.\"\n\nThe following additional remarks are based on the Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami.\nThey fall under four heads.\n\n(1). The sounding of the trumpets. (Nafkhatain-i-Sur). This will not take\nplace until wickedness spreads over all the earth. The Prophet said: \"The\nresurrection will not come to pass, till some of the sects among my\nfollowers mix up with the Mushriks (those who associate others with God)\nand till others commence to worship monuments.\" Again, \"The last hour will\nnot be till no one is found who calls on God.\" Then \"There shall be a blast\non the trumpet, and all who are in the heavens and all who are in the earth\nshall expire, save those whom God shall vouchsafe to live. There shall be\nanother blast on it, and lo! arising they shall gaze around them.\" (Sura\nxxxix. 68). Abu Huraira, a Companion, relates that the Prophet speaking of\nthe trumpet stated as follows: \"After the creation of the heavens and the\nearth God created the trumpet and gave it to Israfil who, with his mouth\nplaced to it, is ever looking up and waiting for the order to blow it. He\nwill blow three times.[157] The first time, the blast of consternation, to\nterrify; the second, the blast of examination, to slay; the third, the\nblast of resurrection, to quicken the dead.\" Most persons believe that\neverything, save God and His attributes, will perish. The Karamians and\nsome other sects deny this.\n\n{162}\n\nThe resurrection of the body is clearly proved by the Quran. Thus, \"They\nsay, 'Who will bring us back?' Say: 'He who created you at first.'\" (Sura\nxvii. 53). \"'Who shall give life to bones when they are rotten?' Say: 'He\nshall give life to them who gave them being at first, for in all creation\nis He skilled.'\" (Sura xxxvi. 79). \"Man saith: 'What! after I am dead,\nshall I in the end be brought forth alive?' Doth not man bear in mind that\nwe made him at first, when he was nought?\" (Sura xix. 68). \"The infidels\nwill say, 'shall we indeed be restored as at first? What! When we have\nbecome rotten bones?' 'This then,' say they, 'will be a return to loss.'\nVerily, it will be but a single blast, and lo! they are on the surface of\nthe earth.\" (Sura lxxix. 10-14). \"Is He not powerful enough to quicken the\ndead?\" (Sura lxxv. 40). This resurrection will be to judgment. \"'Never,'\nsay the unbelievers, 'will the hour come upon us.' Say: 'Yea, by my Lord\nwho knoweth the unseen, it will surely come upon you, ... to the intent\nthat God may reward those who have believed, ... but as for those who aim\nto invalidate our signs, a chastisement of painful torment awaiteth them.'\"\n(Sura xxxiv. 3, 4). \"A terrible chastisement doth await them _on the Day_\nwhen faces shall turn white, and faces shall turn black. 'What! after your\nbelief have ye become infidels? Taste, then, the chastisement for that ye\nhave been unbelievers.' And as to those whose faces shall have become\nwhite, they shall be within the mercy of God.\" (Sura iii, 102). The Prophet\nknew not the time when all this would take place. \"They will ask thee of\nthe 'Hour,' when will be its fixed time? But what knowledge hast thou of\nit? Its period is known only to thy Lord; and thou art charged with the\nwarning of those who fear it.\" (Sura lxxix. 41-45.) These and similar texts\nshow the certainty of the resurrection. According to the Ijma' of the\nFaithful, he who has any doubts on this article of the faith is an infidel.\nThe {163} Mutazilites show from reason that a resurrection of the body is\nnecessary in order that rewards and punishment may be bestowed. The\northodox agree with the conclusion, but hesitate to base it on reason.[158]\n\nThe Karamians hold that the different parts of the body will not cease to\nbe, but that at the last God will gather them together. \"Thinketh man that\nwe shall not re-unite his bones? Aye! his very finger tips we are able\nevenly to replace.\" (Sura lxxv. 3, 4.) The orthodox, however, hold that\nthis verse does not disprove the fact of previous annihilation, a belief\nsupported by the Prophet's saying, \"All the sons of men will be\nannihilated.\" It will be a re-creation though the body will return to its\nformer state.\n\nThe learned are not agreed as to the state of the soul during this period\nof the death of the body, and therefore disagree with regard to its\nrevival. Some assert that it is wrong to speak of a resurrection of the\nsoul, for it exists in the body as \"fire in coal,\" hence its revival is\nincluded in the resurrection of the body; others maintain that as it is a\ndistinct entity, it is not annihilated with the body. The scholastics\nfavour the first idea. Practically the result seems the same in both cases.\nThe resurrection body has a soul. Wise and foolish, devils and beasts,\ninsects and birds--all will rise at the last day. Muhammad will come first\nin order and be the first to enter Paradise.\n\n(2). The descent of the Books (Tatair-i-saha,if). After the resurrection,\nmen will wander about for forty years, during which time the \"Books of\nActions\" will be given to them. These books contain the record kept by the\nKiram-ul-Katibin, (Ante p. 141). Traditions recorded by Abu Huraira state:\n\"Men will rise up naked, and confused; some will walk about, some stand for\nforty years. All will be constantly looking up toward the heavens (_i.e._\nexpecting the books.) They will perspire profusely through {164} excess of\nsorrow.[159] Then God will say to Abraham, 'put on clothes.' He will put on\na robe of Paradise. Then He will call Muhammad for whose benefit a fountain\nwill flow forth not far from Mecca. The people, too, shall thirst no more.\"\nThe Prophet said: \"I will also put on a dress and will stand near the\nthrone, where no one else will be allowed to stand and God will say: 'Ask\nand it shall be granted to thee; intercede, thy intercession shall be\naccepted.'\" Each book flies from the treasury under the Throne of God and\nis given to its proper owner. \"Every man's fate have We fastened about his\nneck; and on the day of resurrection will We bring forth to him (every man)\na book which shall be proffered to him wide open: 'Read thy book, there\nneedeth none but thyself to make out an account against thee this day.'\"\n(Sura xvii. 15). \"He into whose _right_ hand his book shall be given, shall\nbe reckoned, with an easy reckoning, and shall turn, rejoicing, to his\nkindred. But he whose book shall be given behind his back (_i.e._ into his\n_left_ hand) shall invoke destruction.\" (Sura lxxxiv. 8-11.) \"He, who shall\nhave his book given into his _left_ hand will say: 'O that my book had\nnever been given me! and that I had not known my reckoning.'\" (Sura lxix.\n25). It is always said that wicked Musalmans will be seized by the _right_\nhand before they are cast into the fire, which is a proof that they are not\nalways to remain there. Some hold that the expression \"Read thy book\"\nimplies a literal reading; others that it is a metaphorical expression\nwhich simply means that all the past actions will be known. Those who\nbelieve in a literal reading say that each believer will read the account\nof his faults only, and that other persons will read that of his good\ndeeds. The face of the believer as he reads will shine resplendently, but\nblack will be the face of the infidel.\n\n{165}\n\n(3). The Balances (Mizan). This belief is based on the authority of the\nQuran, Sunnat and the Ijma'; no Muslim, therefore, can have any doubt about\nit. Thus: \"They whose balances shall be heavy, shall be the blest; but they\nwhose balances shall be light,--these are they who shall lose their souls,\nabiding in hell for ever.\" (Sura xxiii. 104). \"As to him whose balances are\nheavy, his shall be a life that shall please him well: and as to him whose\nbalances are light, his dwelling-place shall be the pit. And who shall\nteach thee what the pit (Al-Hawia) is? A raging fire!\" (Sura ci. 5-8). The\nTraditions on this point are very numerous. The Ijma' is also strong on the\nreality, the objective existence, of a balance with scales, &c., complete.\nThey also state that the \"Books of Actions\" (Saha,if-i-A'mal) will be\nweighed. In the Sahih-i-Bukhari it is said that the Believers will not be\nweighed in the balances, for \"God will say, 'O Muhammad make those of thy\npeople, from whom no account is taken, enter into Paradise.'\" Prophets and\nangels will also be exempt. Such a test also is not required for the\nunbelievers, for their state is very evident; \"By their tokens shall the\nsinners be known, and they shall be seized by their forelocks and their\nfeet.\" (Sura lv. 41). Thus it is evident that, with regard to true\nbelievers and unbelievers, the works of such only as God may choose need be\nweighed. Some, however, maintain that no unbeliever will have this test\napplied to his case and quote: \"Vain therefore, are their works; and no\nweight will we allow them on the day of resurrection.\" (Sura xviii. 105).\nTo this it is answered, that all that is here denied is the fact of \"a\nweighing in _their favour_.\" The place where the weighing will take place\nis situated midway between heaven and hell. Gabriel standing by watches the\nmovement of the scales and Michael guards the balance. The orthodox are not\nagreed as to whether there will be a separate balance for each tribe of\nmen, and also for each of the 'good works' {166} of the believers. Those\nwho hold that there will be a balance for prayer, another for fasting and\nso on, adduce the use of the plural form, balances (muwazin) in proof of\ntheir statement. There is also a difference of opinion as to whether the\n\"works\" themselves, or the books (saha,if) will be weighed. The latter\nopinion is supported by a Tradition recorded by Tirmizi. \"The Prophet said:\n'Ninety-nine registers will be distributed. Each register will extend as\nfar as the eye can reach. God will say: 'What! dost thou deny this, or have\nthe recording angels treated thee unjustly?' Each will say: 'No! O Lord.'\n'Hast thou then any excuse?' 'No! O Lord.' Then God will display a cloth on\nwhich the Kalima is written. This will be put into one scale, and God will\nsay: 'To thee will be no evil if thou hast a register in this scale, and\nthis cloth in the other, for the first scale will be light.'\" This is\nconsidered conclusive testimony with regard to the weighing of the Saha,if.\nThe Mutazilites objected to statements such as these, for said they:\n\"actions are accidents, and the qualities of lightness and heaviness cannot\nbe attributed to accidents.\" They explained the verses of the Quran and the\nstatements of the Traditions on this point, as being a figurative way of\nsaying that perfect justice will be done to all in the Day of Judgment.\n\n(4). The Bridge (Sirat). The meaning of the word Sirat is a road, a way. It\nis so used in the Quran. In connection with the Day of Judgment it is said:\n\"If we pleased we would surely put out their eyes: yet even then would they\nspeed on with rivalry in their path (Sirat).\" (Sura xxxvi. 66). \"Gather\ntogether those who have acted unjustly, and their consorts (demons), and\nthe gods whom they have adored beside God; and guide them to the road\n(Sirat) for hell.\" (Sura xxxvii. 23). It is nowhere in the Quran called a\nbridge, but Tradition is very clear on this point. The Prophet said: \"There\nwill be a bridge sharper than the edge of a sword, finer than a hair,\nsuspended over {167} hell. Iron spikes on it will pierce those whom God\nwills. Some will pass over it in the twinkling of an eye, some like a flash\nof lightning, others with the speed of a swift horse. The angels will call\nout, 'O Lord! save and protect.' Some Muslims will be saved, some will fall\nheadlong into hell.\" Bukhari relates a similar Tradition. The infidels will\nall fall into hell and there remain for ever. Muslims will be released\nafter a while.\n\nThe Mutazilites deny the existence of such a bridge. \"If we admit it,\" say\nthey, \"it would be a trouble for the believers, and such there is not for\nthem in the Day of Judgment.\" To this the orthodox reply that the believers\npass over it to show how they are saved from fire, and that thus they may\nbe delighted with Paradise, and also that the infidels may feel chagrin at\nthose who were with them on the bridge being now safe for ever.\n\nAl A'raf is situated between heaven and hell. It is described thus: \"On\n(the wall) Al A'raf shall be men who know all, by their tokens,[160] and\nthey shall cry to the inhabitants of Paradise, 'Peace be on you!' but they\nshall not yet enter it, although they long to do so. And when their eyes\nare turned towards the inmates of the fire, they shall say, 'O our Lord!\nplace us not with offending people &c.'\" (Sura vii. 44, 45). Sale's summary\nof the opinions regarding Al A'raf in his Preliminary Discourse is\nexceedingly good. It is as follows:--\n\n    \"They call it Al Orf, and more frequently in the plural, Al Araf, a\n    word derived from the verb _Arafa_, which signifies to distinguish\n    between things, or to part them; though some commentators give another\n    reason for the imposition of this name, because, say they, those who\n    stand on this partition will _know_ and _distinguish_ the blessed from\n    the damned, by their respective marks or characteristics: and others\n    way the word properly intends anything that is _high raised_ or\n    _elevated_, as such a wall of separation must be supposed to {168} be.\n    Some imagine it to be a sort of _limbo_ for the patriarchs and\n    prophets, or for the martyrs and those who have been most eminent for\n    sanctity. Others place here such whose good and evil works are so equal\n    that they exactly counterpoise each other, and therefore deserve\n    neither reward nor punishment; and these, say they, will on the last\n    day be admitted into Paradise, after they shall have performed an act\n    of adoration, which will be imputed to them as a merit, and will make\n    the scale of their good works to overbalance. Others suppose this\n    intermediate space will be a receptacle for those who have gone to war,\n    without their parents' leave, and therein suffered martyrdom; being\n    excluded from Paradise for their disobedience, and escaping hell\n    because they are martyrs.\"\n\nThere is also an interval, between the death of the body in this world and\nthe Last Day, called Al-Barzakh. \"Behind them shall be a barrier (barzakh),\nuntil the day when they shall be raised again.\" (Sura xxiii. 102). When\ndeath takes place, the soul is separated from the body by the Angel of\ndeath; in the case of the good with ease, in that of the wicked with\nviolence. It then enters into Al-Barzakh.[161]\n\nIt is a doctrine founded on Ijma', that God will not pardon Shirk, that is,\nthe ascribing plurality to the Divine Being. The Mushrik, one who does so,\nwill remain in hell for ever, for as Kufr, infidelity, is an eternal crime,\nits punishment must also be eternal. \"The unbelievers among the people of\nthe Book, and among the Polytheists shall go into the fire of Gehenna to\nabide therein for aye. Of all creatures are they the worst?\" (Sura xcviii.\n5). \"Cast into Hell every infidel, every hardened one, the hinderer of the\ngood, the transgressor, the doubter who set up other Gods with God. Cast ye\nhim into the fierce torment.\" (Sura 1. 23-25.)\n\nMuslims who commit great (Kabira) sins, though they die unrepentant, will\nnot remain in hell for ever, for, \"whosoever shall have wrought an atom's\nweight of good shall {169} behold it.\" (Sura xcix. 7). It is asserted that\nthe fact of believing in Islam is a good work and merits a reward: this\ncannot be given before the man enters hell to be punished for his sins, and\ntherefore he must be, after a while, released from punishment. \"Perfect\nfaith (Iman-i-Kamil) consists in believing with sincerity of heart and\nacting in accordance thereto, but the actions are not the faith itself.\nGreat sins, therefore, prevent a man from having \"perfect faith,\" but do\nnot destroy faith (Iman), nor make the Muslim an infidel, but only a\nsinner.\"[162] The Mutazilites teach that the Muslim who enters hell will\nremain there for ever. They maintain that the person who, having committed\ngreat sins, dies unrepentant, though not an infidel, ceases to be a\nbeliever and hence suffers as the infidels do.\n\nThe orthodox belief is that Muhammad is now an Intercessor and will be so\nat the Last Day. The intercession then is of several kinds. There is the\n'great intercession' to which the words, \"it may be that thy Lord will\nraise thee to a _glorious station_,\" (Sura xvii. 81) are supposed to refer.\nThe Maqam-i-mahmud, (glorious station), is said to be the place of\nintercession in which all persons will praise the Prophet.[163] In the\nZad-ul-Masir it is said that the Maqam-i-mahmud refers to the fact that God\nwill place the Prophet on His Throne. Others say that it is a place in\nwhich a standard will be given to the Prophet, around whom all the other\nprophets will then gather to do him honour. The first interpretation is,\nhowever, the ordinary one. The people will be in great fear. Muhammad will\nsay: \"O my people! I am appointed for intercession.\" Their fear will then\npass away. The second intercession is made so that they may enter into\nParadise without rendering an account. The authorities differ with regard\nto this. The third intercession is on behalf of those Muslims who {170}\nought to go to hell. The fourth for those who are already there. No one but\nthe Prophet can make these intercessions. The fifth intercession is for an\nincrease of rank to those who are in Paradise. The Mutazilites maintained\nthat there would be no intercession for Muslims guilty of great sins, and\nadduced in favour of their opinion the verse: \"Fear ye the day when soul\nshall not satisfy for soul at all, nor shall any intercession be accepted\nfrom them, nor shall any ransom be taken, neither shall they be helped.\"\n(Sura ii. 45). The orthodox bring in reply this Hadis-i-Sahih: \"The Prophet\nsaid: 'my intercession is for the men of my following who have committed\ngreat sins.'\" If this Tradition is disputed, they then say that the verse\nin the Quran just quoted does not refer to Muslims at all, but to the\nInfidels.[164]\n\nAccording to a Tradition related by Anas the Prophet said: \"In the day of\nresurrection Musalmans will not be able to move, and they will be greatly\ndistressed and say: 'would to God that we had asked Him to create some one\nto intercede for us, that we might be taken from this place, and be\ndelivered from tribulation and sorrow.'\" The Tradition goes on to state how\nthey sought help from Adam and the prophets of the old dispensation, who,\none and all, excused themselves on account of their own sinfulness. At\nlength Moses told them to go to Jesus, the Apostle of God, the Spirit of\nGod and the Word of God. They did so and Jesus said: \"Go to Muhammad who is\na servant, whose sins God has forgiven both first and last.\" The Prophet\ncontinued, according to the Tradition, \"then the Musalmans will come to me,\nand I will ask permission to go into God's presence and intercede for\nthem.\"[165]\n\nThe second advent of Christ is a sign of the last day. \"Jesus is no more\nthan a servant whom We favoured ... {171} and he shall be a sign of the\nlast hour.\" (Sura xliii. 61). He will not, according to the Quran, come as\na judge, but like other prophets to be judged. \"We formed with them (_i.e._\nprophets) a strict covenant, that God may question the men of truth as to\ntheir truth, (_i.e._ how they have discharged their prophetic functions).\"\n(Sura xxxiii. 7, 8). He will come to bear witness against the Jews who\nreject him: \"In the day of resurrection, He will be a witness against\nthem.\" (Sura iv. 158).\n\nIt is necessary to believe in the pond of the Prophet called Kausar. This\nfaith is founded on the verse \"Truly we have given thee an _abundance_.\"\n(Sura cviii. 1). Bukhari says: \"The meaning of Kausar is the 'abundance of\ngood' which God gives to the Prophet. Abu Bash said to one Sa'id, 'the\npeople think that Kausar is a river of Paradise.' Sa'id replied, 'Kausar is\na river in which there is abundance of good.'\" According to the same\nauthority Muhammad said: \"My pond is square, its water is whiter than milk,\nits perfume better than that of musk, whosoever drinks thereof will thirst\nno more.\"\n\nThere are many degrees of felicity in heaven to which the believers are\nadmitted. The Prophet, according to Tirmizi, said there were one hundred.\nSome of these may possibly be meant by the eight names they give to\nParadise. (1.) Jannat-ul-Khuld. \"Say: Is this, or the _Garden of Eternity_\nwhich was promised to the God-fearing, best?\" (Sura xxv. 16.) (2.)\nJannat-us-Salam. \"For them is a _Dwelling of Peace_ with their Lord.\" (Sura\nvi. 127.) (3.) Dar-ul-Qarar. \"The life to come is the _Mansion which\nabideth_.\" (Sura xl. 42.) (4.) Jannat-ul-'Adan. \"To the Faithful, both men\nand women, God promiseth gardens and goodly mansions in the _Garden of\nEden_.\" (Sura ix. 73.) (5.) Jannat-ul-Mawa. \"Near which is the _Garden of\nRepose_.\" (Sura liii. 15.) (6) Jannat-un-Na'im. \"Amid _delights_ shall the\nrighteous dwell.\" (Sura lxxxii. 13.) (7) Jannat-ul-Illiyun. \"The register\nof the righteous is {172} in _Illiyun_.\" (Sura lxxxiii. 18,) (8.)\nJannat-ul-Firdaus. \"Those who believe and do the things that are right,\nthey shall have the _Gardens of Paradise_ for their abode.\" (Sura xviii.\n107.)\n\nHell is said to have seven divisions. The Quran, though it mentions the\nnames of these divisions, does not state what classes of persons will be\nsent to each; but Muslim Commentators have supplied the needed information.\nThey classify them thus:--(1.) Jahannam, for sinners who die without\nrepentance. (2.) Lazwa, for the infidels (_i.e._, Christians.) (3.) Hutama,\na fire for Jews, and according to some for Christians. (4.) Sa'ir, for\ndevils, the descendants of Iblis. (5.) Saqar, for the magians: also for\nthose who neglect prayer. (6.) Jahim, a boiling caldron for idolaters: also\nfor Gog and Magog. (7.) Hawia, a bottomless pit for hypocrites. It is said\nthat heaven has one division more than hell to show that God's mercy\nexceeds His justice.\n\nThe Muhammadan writers give very full and minute accounts of the events\nconnected with the resurrection, judgment and future state of those who are\nlost, and of those who are saved. Sale gives such an excellent summary of\nthese opinions, that it is not necessary to enter into details here. The\northodox belief is that the statements in the Quran and the Traditions\nregarding the pleasures of Paradise are to be taken literally.[166]\n\n6. THE PREDESTINATION OF GOOD AND EVIL.--I have already in the section in\nwhich the attribute \"will\" is described (p. 118) given some account of the\ndogmatic statements concerning the doctrine of predestination; but as it\nalways forms a distinct chapter in Musalman books, I treat it separately\nhere. Having, however, in the passage referred {173} to, given Al Berkevi's\nwords on the attribute \"will,\" it is only necessary to make a short extract\nfrom his dogmatic statement concerning Predestination. He says:--\n\n    \"It is necessary to confess that good and evil take place by the\n    predestination and predetermination of God, that all that has been and\n    all that will be was decreed in eternity, and written on the _preserved\n    table_;[167] that the faith of the believer, the piety of the pious and\n    good actions are foreseen, willed, predestinated, decreed by the\n    writing on the _preserved table_, produced and approved by God; that\n    the unbelief of the unbeliever, the impiety of the impious and bad\n    actions come to pass with the fore-knowledge, will, predestination and\n    decree of God, but not with His satisfaction and approval. Should any\n    ask why God willeth and produceth evil, we can only reply that He may\n    have wise ends in view which we cannot comprehend.\"\n\nAnother confession of faith has:--\n\n    \"Whoever shall say, that God is not delighted with virtue and faith,\n    and is not wroth with vice and infidelity, or that God has decreed good\n    and evil with equal complacency is an infidel.\"\n\nThere are three well-defined schools of thought on the subject:--\n\nFirst.--The Jabrians, so called from the word \"_jabr_\" compulsion, deny all\nfree agency in man and say that man is necessarily constrained by the force\nof God's eternal and immutable decree to act as he does.[168] They hold\nthat as {174} God is the absolute Lord, He can, if He so wills, admit all\nmen into Paradise, or cast all into hell. This sect is one of the branches\nof the Ash'arians with whom on most points they agree.\n\nSecondly.--The Qadrians, who deny _Al-Qadr_, or God's absolute decree, say\nthat evil and injustice ought not to be attributed to God but to man, who\nis altogether a free agent. God has given him the power to do or not to do\nan act. This sect is generally considered to be a branch of the Mutazilite\nbody, though in reality it existed before Wasil quitted the school of his\nmaster Hasan (Ante. p. 125). As Wasil, however, followed the opinions of\nMabad-al-Johni, the leading Kadrian divine, the Mutazilites and Qadrians\nare practically one and the same.\n\nThirdly.--The Ash'arians, of whom I have already given some account,\nmaintain that God has one eternal will which is applied to whatsoever He\nwilleth, both of His own actions and those of men; that He willeth that\nwhich He knoweth and what is written on the _preserved table_; that He\nwilleth both good and evil. So far they agree with the Jabrians; but then\nthey seem to allow some power to man, a tenet I have already explained when\ndescribing their idea of \"Kasb\" (Ante. p. 130). The orthodox, or Sunni\nbelief is theoretically Ash'arian, but practically the Sunnis are confirmed\nJabrians. The Mutazilite doctrines are looked upon as quite heretical.\n\nNo subject has been more warmly discussed in Islam than that of\npredestination. The following abstract of some lengthy discussions will\npresent the points of difference.\n\nThe Ash'arians, who in this matter represent in the main orthodox views,\nformulate their objections to the Mutazilite system thus:--\n\n(i). If man is the causer of an action by the force of his own will, then\nhe should also have the power of controlling the result of that action.\n\n(ii). If it be granted that man has the power to _originate_ {175} an act\nit is necessary that he should know all acts, because a creator should be\nindependent in act and choice. Intention must be conditioned by knowledge.\nTo this the Mutazilites well reply that a man need not know the length of a\nroad before he walks, or the structure of the throat before he talks.\n\n(iii). Suppose a man wills to move his body and God at the same time wills\nit to be steady, then if both intentions come to pass there will be a\ncollection of opposites; if neither, a removal of opposites; if the\nexaltation of the first, an unreasonable preference.\n\n(iv). If man can create an act, some of his works will be better than some\nof the works of God, _e.g._ a man determines to have faith: now faith is a\nbetter thing than reptiles, which are created by God.\n\n(v). If man is free to act, why can he not make at once a human body; why\ndoes he need to thank God for grace and faith?\n\n(vi). But better far than all argument, the orthodox say, is the testimony\nof the Book. \"All things have we created under a fixed decree.\" (Sura liv.\n49). \"When God created you and _that ye make_.\" (Sura xxxvii. 94). \"Some of\nthem there were whom God guided and there were others decreed to err.\"\n(Sura xvi. 38). As God decrees faith and obedience He must be the causer of\nit, for \"on the hearts of these hath God graven the Faith.\" (Sura lviii.\n22). \"It is he who causeth you to laugh and weep, to die and make alive.\"\n(Sura liii. 44). \"If God pleased He would surely bring them, one and all,\nto the guidance.\" (Sura vi. 36). \"Had God pleased, He had guided you all\naright.\" (Sura vi. 150). \"Had the Lord pleased, He would have made mankind\nof one religion.\" (Sura xi. 120). \"God will mislead whom he pleaseth, and\nwhom He pleaseth He will place upon the straight path.\" (Sura vi. 39.)\nTradition records that the Prophet said: \"God is the maker of all makers\nand of their actions.\"[169]\n\n{176}\n\nThe Mutazilites took up the opposite side of this great question and\nsaid:--\n\n(i). If man has no power to will or to do, then what is the difference\nbetween praising God and sinning against Him; between faith and infidelity;\ngood and evil; what is the use of commands and prohibitions; rewards and\npunishments; promises and threats; what is the use of prophets, books, &c.\n\n(ii). Some acts of men are bad, such as tyranny and polytheism. If these\nare created by God, it follows that to tyrannise and to ascribe plurality\nto the Deity is to render obedience. To this the Ash'arians reply that\norders are of two kinds, immediate and mediate. The former which they call\n\"Amr-i-takwiti,\" is the order, \"Be and it was.\" This comprehends all\nexistences, and according to it whatever is ordered must come to pass. The\nlatter they call \"Amr-i-tashri'i,\" an order given in the Law. This comes to\nmen through prophets and thus is to be obeyed. True obedience is to act\naccording to that which is revealed, not according to the secret intentions\nof God, for that we know not.\n\n(iii). If God decrees the acts of men, He should bear the name of that\nwhich he decrees. Thus the causer of infidelity is an infidel; of tyranny a\ntyrant, and so on; but to speak thus of God is blasphemy.\n\n(iv). If infidelity is decreed by God He must wish it; but a prophet\ndesires faith and obedience and so is opposed to God. To this the orthodox\nreply, that God knows by His eternal knowledge that such a man will die an\ninfidel. {177} If a prophet intends by bringing the message of salvation to\nsuch an one to make God's knowledge become ignorance, he would be doing\nwrong; but as he does not know the secret decrees of God, his duty is to\ndeliver his message according to the Hadis: \"A prophet has only to deliver\nthe clear message.\"\n\n(v). The Mutazilites claimed as on their side all verses of the Quran, in\nwhich the words to do, to construct, to renew, to create, &c., are applied\nto men. Such are the verses: \"Whatever is in the heavens and in the earth\nis God's that He may reward those who _do_ evil according to their deeds:\nand those who _do_ good will He reward with good things.\" (Sura liii. 32).\n\"Whoso shall have _wrought_ evil shall not be recompensed but with its\nlike: but whoso shall have _done_ the things that are right, whether male\nor female and is a believer, these shall enter Paradise.\" (Sura xl. 43).\nSay: \"the truth is from the Lord; let him then who will believe; and let\nhim who will, be an infidel.\" (Sura xviii. 28).[170] \"Those who add Gods to\nGod will say: 'If God had pleased neither we nor our fathers had given Him\ncompanions.' Say: 'Verily ye follow only a conceit, ye utter lies.'\" (Sura\nvi. 149). The Hadis is also very plain. \"All good is in Thy hands and evil\nis not to Thee.\" (Al-khair kuluhu fi yadaika wash-sharru laisa 'alaika.)\n\nThe Ash'arians have one famous text which they bring to bear against all\nthis reasoning and evidence. It is: \"This truly is a warning; and whoso\nwilleth, taketh the way of his Lord; but _will it ye shall not_, unless God\nwill it, for God is knowing, wise.\" (Sura lxxvi. 29, 30). To the Hadis they\nreply (1) that there is a difference between acquiescence in evil and\ndecreeing it. Thus the expression \"God willeth not tyranny for His\nservants,\" does not mean {178} that God hath not decreed it, but that\ntyranny is not one of His attributes: so \"evil is not to Thee\" means it is\nnot an attribute of God; and (2) the Hadis must be explained in accordance\nwith the teaching of the Quran.\n\nThe Muslim philosophers tried to find a way out of the difficulty. Averhoes\nsays: \"We are free to act in this way or that, but our will is always\ndetermined by some exterior cause. For example, we see something which\npleases us, we are drawn to it in spite of ourselves. Our will is thus\nbound by exterior causes. These causes exist according to a certain order\nof things which is founded on the general laws of nature. God alone knows\nbefore hand the necessary connection which to us is a mystery. The\nconnection of our will with exterior causes is determined by the laws of\nnature. It is this which in theology we call, 'decrees and\npredestination.'\"[171]\n\nI have already shown how, as Islam grew into a system, the Muslims fell\ninto a Cabbalism, and a superstitious reverence for the mere letters and\nwords of the Quran. With this declension came a still more distorted view\nof the character of God. The quotations made from the Quran in the last few\npages will have shown that whilst some passages seem to attribute freedom\nto man and speak of his consequent responsibility, others teach a clear and\ndistinct fatalism. The great strength of Islam lay in the energy with which\nMuhammad preached the doctrine that God was a divine Ruler, one who would\ndeal righteous judgment, who \"taught man that which he knew not.\" As the\nsystem became more complex and dogmatic--a very necessary result of its\nfirst principles--men lost the sense of the nearness of God. He became an\nunapproachable being. A harsh unfeeling Fate took the place of the\nOmnipotent Ruler. It is this dark fatalism which, whatever the Quran may\nteach on the subject, is the ruling principle in all Muslim {179}\ncommunities. It is this which makes all Muhammadan nations decay. Careless\nof self-improvement,[172] heedless of the need of progress, the Muslim\nnations, still independent, are in all that relates to the higher aspects\nof intellectual and civilized life far behind the nations of the west.\n\nThe subject of _'Ilm-i-Aqaid_, or the science of dogma properly ends here,\nbut most Muslim treatises include in this branch of the subject a few\npractical remarks. I therefore add a summary of them here. The believer who\ncommits murder, fornication, &c., does not cease to be a Muslim provided\nthat he does not say that these are allowed: should he die unrepentant, God\ncan punish him for a while in hell, or forgive him without punishment. The\nHadd, a punishment based on a Zahir, or obvious sentence of the Quran\nrequires that a Muslim who apostatizes shall be put to death.[173] In the\ncase of an apostate woman, Imam Abu Hanifa ruled that she should be\nimprisoned and beaten every day. The other three Imams, Malik, Shafa'i and\nHanbal said that she should be put to death in accordance with the\nTradition which says: \"He who changes his religion, kill.\" The Arabic word\n\"man,\" usually translated \"He who\" is of common gender, and so these Imams\ninclude women in the list of those who, after apostasy, are to be\nkilled.[174] God does not pardon polytheism and infidelity; but He can, if\nHe willeth, pardon all other crimes. If any one is asked, \"dost thou\nbelieve?\" he should reply, \"I am truly a believer,\" and not say: \"If God\n{180} willeth.\"[175] If any one says to him: \"Wilt thou die in the faith?\"\nhe should reply: \"I do not know, God knows.\" Except when speaking of\nprophets, or of those of whom the Prophets have spoken, such as Abu Bakr,\nOmar, Osman and 'Ali, it must not be said of any one, \"he is gone to\nParadise,\" for God only knows his state. Prayer should be made for a\ndeceased Muslim whether he was a good or bad man. To give alms, to read the\nQuran, to perform other good works, and to apply the merit thus gained to\nthe souls of the dead is a pious and beneficial act.\n\n{181}\n\n    NOTE TO CHAPTER IV.\n\n    MUSLIM PHILOSOPHY.\n\n    I have shown in the preceding chapter how the earlier scholastics, or\n    the Mutazilites, as they are called, were finally crushed by the\n    orthodox party. The later scholastics, or the philosophers, form the\n    subject of this note. The Khalif Mamun (813-833 A.D.), a notorious\n    free-thinker, was the first to give an impulse to philosophic\n    researches. It was then that Greek philosophical works were translated\n    into Arabic. The Greek author most patronized was Aristotle, partly,\n    because his empirical method accorded with the positive tendencies of\n    the Arab mind better than the pure idealism of Plato; and, partly,\n    because his system of logic was considered an useful auxiliary in the\n    daily quarrels between the rival theological schools. It was quite\n    natural that Aristotle should be thus followed. \"The Musalman mind was\n    trained in habits of absolute obedience to the authority of fixed\n    dogmas. The Muslims did not so much wish to discover truth as to\n    cultivate their own intellect. For that purpose, a sharp and subtle\n    systematist like Aristotle was the very man they required.\"[176] Some\n    idea of the range of subjects then discussed may be gained from an\n    account given by the Arab historian, Masoudi, of a meeting held under\n    the Presidentship of Yahya, one of the famous Barmecide family.[177]\n    Yahya thus addressed the meeting: \"You have discussed at length the\n    theory of concealment (Al-Kumun) and manifestation (Al-Zahur), of\n    pre-existence and creation, of duration and stability, of movement and\n    quiescence, of the union and separation (of the Divine substance), of\n    existence and non-existence, of bodies and accidents, of the approval\n    and the refutation (of the Isnads of the Traditions), of the absence or\n    the existence of attributes in God, of potential and active force, of\n    substance, quantity, modality and relation, of life and annihilation.\n    You have examined the question as to whether the Imam rules by divine\n    right, or by popular election; you have had an exhaustive discussion on\n    metaphysical subjects, in their principles and corollaries. Occupy\n    yourselves to-day with the subject of love,\" &c.\n\n    The translation of the works of Aristotle, as indeed of all the Greek\n    authors, was made by Syrian and Chaldean Christians, and {182}\n    especially by the Nestorians who, as physicians, were in high favour\n    with the liberal Khalifs of the 'Abbasside dynasty. In some cases the\n    translation into Arabic was made from Syriac versions, for in the time\n    of the Emperor Justinian many Greek works had been translated into the\n    latter language. The most celebrated translator was the historian\n    physician Honein-Ibn-Ishak (died 876 A.D.), a man profoundly acquainted\n    with the Syriac, Greek and Arabic languages. He was at the head of a\n    school of interpreters in Baghdad, to which his son Ishak-ben-Honein\n    and his nephew Hobeisch-Al-Asam also belonged. In the tenth century\n    (A.D.) Yahya-ben-Adi and Isa-ben-Zara'a translated some works and\n    corrected earlier translations of others. It is to these men that the\n    Arabs owe their chief acquaintance with Plato.\n\n    The study of Aristotle spread rapidly amongst the Muslim people,\n    especially amongst the heretical sects. The orthodox looked with grave\n    suspicion on the movement, but could not for a while stay the impulse.\n    The historian Makrizi says: \"The doctrine of the Philosophers has\n    worked amongst the Muslims evils most fatal. It serves only to augment\n    the errors of the heretics and to increase their impiety.\"[178] It came\n    into contact with Muslim dogmas in such subjects as the creation of the\n    world, the special providence of God and the nature of the divine\n    attributes. To a certain extent the Mutazilites were supported by the\n    philosophical theories they embraced, but this did not diminish the\n    disfavour with which the orthodox looked upon the study of philosophy.\n    Still it grew, and men in self defence had to adopt philosophic\n    methods. Thus arose a later system of scholasticism. The earlier system\n    was confined mainly to matters of religion; the later school occupied\n    itself with the whole range of philosophic investigation, and thus went\n    farther and farther away from orthodox Islam.\n\n    The Muslims themselves did not write books on philosophy in the earlier\n    period. Men of liberal tendencies imbibed its teaching, but orthodoxy\n    finally gained the day over the earlier scholastics, and in the form\n    known as that of the Ash'arian School became again supreme.[179] The\n    great intellectual movement of the Philosophers proper, the later\n    scholastics (Mutakalliman), lasted longer, but by the end of the\n    twelfth century (A.D.) the whole Muhammadan world had again become\n    orthodox. Salah-ud-din (Saladin) and his successors in Egypt were\n    strong supporters of the Ash'arians.\n\n    {183}\n\n    The period now under review was one prolific of authors on grammar,\n    rhetoric, logic, exegesis, traditions and the various branches of\n    philosophy; but the men who stand out most prominently as philosophers\n    were then, and are now, considered heretics.[180]\n\n    Al-Kendi, was born at Basra, on the Persian Gulf. He died about 870\n    A.D. He was a very scientific man, but a thorough rationalist in\n    theology. He composed commentaries on the logic of Aristotle. In his\n    great work on the unity of God he has strayed far away from Muslim\n    dogmas.\n\n    Al Farabi, another philosopher patronized by the 'Abbassides, seems to\n    have denied not only the rigid and formal Islamic view of inspiration,\n    but any objective revelation at all. He held that intuition was a true\n    inspiration, and that all who had acquired intuitive knowledge were\n    real prophets. This is the only revelation he admits. He received his\n    philosophical training at Baghdad, where for a while he taught; but\n    finally he went to Damascus, where he died 950 A.D.\n\n    Ibn Sina, better known as Avicenna, a man of Persian origin, was a\n    Philosopher of great note, but of him it is said that in spite of the\n    concessions he made to the religious ideas of his age, he could not\n    find favour for his opinions, which ill accord with the principles of\n    Islam. He was born near Bukhara, in the year 980 A.D. For a while he\n    taught medicine and philosophy in Ispahan.\n\n    Ibn Badja, (Avempace) was one of the most celebrated Muslim\n    Philosophers of Spain. He was born at Saragossa towards the end of the\n    eleventh century. He is distinguished for having opposed the mystical\n    tendencies of the teaching of Al-Ghazzali, and for maintaining that\n    speculative science alone was capable of leading man to a true\n    conception of his own proper nature. He was violently attacked by the\n    orthodox divines who declared that all philosophical teaching was \"a\n    calamity for religion and an affliction to those who were in the good\n    way.\"\n\n    Al-Ghazzali was born A.D. 1059 in Khorasan. He was a famous Muslim\n    divine. He adopted scholastic methods. For a while he was President of\n    the Nizamiah College at Baghdad. He travelled much, and wrote many\n    books to prove the superiority of Islam over all other religions and\n    over philosophy. The first result of his wide and extensive study of\n    the writings of the philosophers, and of the heretics was that he fell\n    into a state of scepticism with regard to religion and philosophy. From\n    this he emerged into Sufiism, in {184} which his restless spirit found\n    satisfaction. On Sufiism, however, he exercised no very notable\n    influence; but the scepticism which he still retained as regards\n    philosophy rendered him a very formidable opponent to those who were\n    trying to bring Islam into accord with philosophic theories. His works,\n    \"Tendency of Philosophers,\" and \"Destruction of the Philosophers\" had\n    an immense influence. In the preface to the latter book, he speaks of\n    \"those who arrogate to themselves a superior intelligence, and who, in\n    their pride, mistaking the precepts of religion, take as a guide the\n    authority of certain great men, instead of revealed religion.\" It is,\n    however, and with some show of reason supposed that Al-Ghazzali did not\n    really object to all that he condemned, but that to gain the orthodox\n    he wrote what he did. Indeed, Moses of Narbonne states that Ghazzali\n    later on in life wrote a book, circulated only amongst a few select\n    friends, in which he withdrew many of the objections he had raised in\n    the \"Destruction of Philosophers.\" Be that as it may, it is\n    acknowledged that he dealt a blow to philosophy from which in the East\n    it has never recovered; that is, as far as the Muslim world is\n    concerned. His course marks a reaction of the exclusively religious\n    principle of Islam against philosophical speculation, which in spite of\n    all accommodation never made itself orthodox.\n\n    In Spain philosophy still found an ardent defender in Ibn Rashid,\n    better known as Averhoes. This celebrated man was born at Cordova in\n    the year 1126 A.D., or about 520 of the Muhammadan era. He came of a\n    noble and learned family, whilst he himself must ever occupy a\n    distinguished place amongst the Muslim Philosophers. \"Without dispute\n    he was one of the most learned men of the Muslim world, and one of the\n    profoundest commentators of Aristotle. He knew all the sciences then\n    accessible to the Muslims and was a most prolific writer.\"[181] One of\n    his most famous works was the \"Refutation of the destruction of\n    Philosophers.\" Notwithstanding his philosophical opinions Averhoes\n    claimed to pass for a good Muslim. He held that the philosophic truths\n    are the highest object of research; but that only a few men could by\n    speculation arrive at them, and that, therefore, a divine revelation\n    through the medium of prophets was necessary for spreading amongst men\n    the eternal verities which are proclaimed alike by philosophy and\n    religion. He held, it is true, that the orthodox had paid too much\n    attention to the letter, and too little to the spirit, and that false\n    interpretations had educed principles not really to be found in\n    religion. This {185} profession and a rigid adherence to outward forms\n    of worship, however, did not save him from suspicion. He was accused of\n    preaching philosophy and the ancient sciences to the detriment of\n    religion. He was deprived of his honours and banished by the Khalif\n    Al-Mansur to Lucena, near Cordova. In his disgrace he had to suffer\n    many insults from the orthodox. One day on entering the mosque with his\n    son he was forcibly expelled by the people. He died at Morocco in 1198\n    A.D. Thus passed away in disgrace the last of the Muslim Philosophers\n    worthy of the name.[182] In Spain a strict prohibition was issued\n    against the study of Greek philosophy, and many valuable works were\n    committed to the flames. Soon after the rule of the Moors in Spain\n    began to decline. The study of philosophy came to an end, and liberal\n    culture sank under the pressure of the hard and fast dogmatic system of\n    Islam. In Spain,[183] as in Baghdad, orthodoxy gained the day. There\n    was much of doubtful value in the speculations of the Muslim\n    Philosophers, but they were Muslims, and if they went too far in their\n    efforts to rationalize Islam, they also tried to cast off what to them\n    seemed accretions, added on by the Traditionalists and the Canonical\n    Legists. They failed because like the earlier scholastics they had no\n    gospel to proclaim to men, no tidings to give of a new life which could\n    enable wearied humanity to bear the ills to which it was subject.\n    Another strong reason was that the orthodoxy against which they strove\n    was a logical development of the foundations of Islam, and these\n    foundations are too strongly laid for any power other than a spiritual\n    one to uproot. They were men of good position in life, voluminous\n    writers, profound admirers of Aristotle, and \"more or less devoted to\n    science, especially to medicine.\" Yet they did not advance philosophy,\n    and science they left much as they found it. They preserved something\n    of what Grecian thought had achieved, and so far their labour is not\n    lost.\n\n    Thus Islam has, as a religion, no right to claim any of the glory which\n    Muslim philosophers are supposed to have shed around it. {186} The\n    founders of Islam, the Arabs, produced but one philosopher of\n    note.[184] The first impetus to the study was given by heretical\n    Khalifs employing Christians at Baghdad to translate Greek books;\n    whilst in Spain, where philosophy most flourished, it was due largely\n    to the contact of intelligent Muslims with learned Jews. Even there,\n    the philosophers were, as a rule, the objects of bitter persecution.\n    Now and again, a liberal minded Khalif arose, but a system such as\n    Islam survives the liberal tendencies of a generation. From the close\n    of the twelfth century (A.D.) downwards it would be difficult to point\n    to any Muslim Philosopher, much more to an Arab one, whose work is of\n    any real value to the human race. For four hundred years the contest\n    raged, a contest such as Islam has never since seen. This great effort\n    to bring it into accordance with the main stream of human thought, to\n    introduce into it some element of progress utterly failed. The lesson\n    is plain. Any project of reform in Islam which admits in any degree its\n    fundamental principles must fail. Revolution, not reform, is the only\n    hope for the permanence of an independent Muslim state when it enters\n    into the circle of civilized nations.\n\n{187}\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\nTHE PRACTICAL DUTIES OF ISLAM.\n\nThe portion of the creed considered in the last chapter was connected with\nIman (faith); the remaining portion is connected with Din (practical\nreligion). The five principal acts are called Irkan-i-Din, pillars of\nreligion. They are: (1) The recital of the Kalima, or short confession of\nfaith; (2) Sulat, the five stated periods of prayer; (3) Roza, the thirty\ndays' fast of Ramazan; (4) Zakat, legal alms; (5) Hajj, the pilgrimage to\nMecca. These are all _farz_ duties, being based on a Nass-i-Zahir, or\n\"obvious,\" sentence of the Quran, a proof derived from which is called\ndalil-i-qata'i. This is the strongest of all kinds of proofs.\n\nThe authorities, however, specify other religious duties which good Muslims\nshould perform. Such are the seven duties which are _wajib_, or duties\nbased on the more obscure texts of the Quran, called Khafi, or \"hidden\"\nsentences, a proof derived from which is called dalil-i-zani. These duties\nare: (1) To make the 'Umra, or Pilgrimage to Mecca in addition to the Hajj;\n(2) obedience to parents; (3) the obedience of a wife to her husband; (4)\nthe giving of alms after a fast; (5) the offering of sacrifice; (6) the\nsaying of Namaz-i-witr, a term which will be explained later on; (7) the\nsupport of relatives. The duties numbered as (4) and (5) are _wajib_ orders\nto the rich; but only _mustahab_ to the poor: that is, it is meritorious if\nthey perform them, but not sinful if they leave them undone.\n\nThe duties next in order as regards authority are the _sunnat_ ones. They\nare three in number and are based either on the practice of the Prophet, or\nare _fitrat_, that is practices of previous prophets, the continuance of\nwhich {188} Muhammad did not forbid. They are (1) circumcision; (2) shaving\noff the hair from the head and the body; (3) the paring of the nails. In\naddition to these there are actions which are _mustahab_. They are those\nwhich Muhammad sometimes did and sometimes omitted. There is a still lower\nclass of action which are _mubah_. These are works of supererogation. If\nomitted there is no fear of punishment.\n\nIt may be mentioned in passing that unlawful actions and things are (1)\n_Haram_, actions and food forbidden either in the Quran or the Traditions;\n(2) _Mahruh_, actions the unlawfulness of which is not absolutely certain,\nbut which are generally considered wrong; (3) _Mufsid_, actions corrupting\nor pernicious. It is necessary to bear these terms in mind as they will now\nfrequently occur.\n\n1. TASHAHHUD.--This is the recital of a confession of faith. There are\nseveral forms of this. A common one is: \"I testify that there is no deity\nbut God, I testify to His unity and that He has no partner; I testify that\nMuhammad is His servant and His messenger.\" The shorter form is: \"There is\nno deity but God and Muhammad is the apostle of God.\" The power contained\nin this latter confession is extraordinary. It embodies the very spirit of\nIslam. \"It has led everywhere the march of its armies, it has rung for\ntwelve centuries in the morning air from its minarets, it has been passed\nfrom lip to lip, as no other word has ever been passed, by thousands of\nmillions of the human race.\" The power of Islam, its proclamation of the\nUnity, is here seen in the closest contact with what is to Muslim\ntheologians the equally fundamental truth--the apostleship of Muhammad, a\ndogma which retards the healthy development, explains the narrowness, and\ncauses the prostration of Islam, as the world around grows luminant with\nthe light of science and truth, of faith and reason.\n\n2. SULAT.[185]--All the books on Fiqh (Law) which treat of {189} these\nIrkan-i-din, give in connection with Sulat the rules regarding the\nnecessary purifications. It will be convenient to follow the same order.\n\nTaharat or legal purification is of three kinds: (1) Wazu, the lesser\nlustration; (2) Ghusl, the greater lustration; (3) Tayammum, or\npurification by sand.\n\n(1). Wazu is an ablution made before saying the appointed prayers. Those\nwhich are 'farz' are four in number, viz:--to wash (1) the face from the\ntop of the forehead to the chin, and as far as each ear; and (2) the hands\nand arms up to the elbow; (3) to rub (masah) with the wet hand a fourth\npart of the head; also (4) the feet to the ankles. The authority for these\nactions is the text: \"O Believers! when ye address yourselves to prayer,\nwash your hands up to the elbow, and wipe your heads, and your feet to the\nankles\" (Sura v. 8). The Sunnis wash the feet: the Shia'hs are apparently\nmore correct, for they only wipe, or rather rub, (masah) them. In these\nablutions, if the least portion of the specified part is left untouched,\nthe whole act becomes useless and the prayer which follows is vain.\n\nThe act of making wazu, however, has not been allowed to remain in this\nsimple form. The Sunnat regulations regarding it are fourteen in number.\nThey are, (1) to make the intention of wazu, thus: I make this wazu for the\npurpose of putting away impurity; (2) to wash the hand up to the wrist, but\ncare must be taken not to put the hands entirely into the water, until each\nhas been rubbed three times with water poured on it; (3) to say one of the\nnames of God at the commencement of the wazu[186] thus: \"In the name of the\nGreat God,\" or \"Thanks be to God for the religion of Islam;\" (4) to clean\nthe teeth; (5) to rinse the mouth three times; (6) to put water into the\n{190} nostrils three times; (7) to do all the above in proper order; (8) to\ndo all without any delay between the various acts; (9) each part is to be\npurified three times; (10) the space between the fingers of one hand must\nbe rubbed with the wet fingers of the other; (11) the beard must be combed\nwith the fingers; (12) the whole head must be rubbed once; (13) the ears\nmust be washed with the water remaining on the fingers after the last\noperation; (14) to rub under and between the toes with the little finger of\nthe left hand, drawing it from the little toe of the right foot and between\neach toe in succession. Imam Shafa'i holds that (1) and (7) are farz duties\nand that (12) should be done three times. Imam Malik considers (8) to be\nfarz.\n\nThe actions may be done in silence, or prayer may be repeated. Such a\nrecital is a mustahab, not a sunnat or farz order. It is not obligatory. A\nspecimen of these prayers is given in a note.[187]\n\n(2). Ghusl is an ablution of the whole body after certain legal\ndefilements, and should be made as follows. The person should put on clean\nclothes and perform the wazu, then he should say: \"I make ghusl to put away\nimpurity.\" All being ready he should wash himself in the following order.\nHe must pour water over the right shoulder three times, then over the left\nthree times and, lastly, on his head {191} also the same number of times.\nThe three farz conditions are that (1) the mouth must be rinsed, (2) water\nbe put into the nostrils, and (3) the whole body be washed. If one hair\neven is left dry the whole act is rendered vain and useless. All other\nparticulars are sunnat or mustahab.\n\nThere are obvious reasons why an explanation of the causes which vitiate a\npurification, or of the cases in which ghusl is required, cannot be given\nhere. Every standard Muslim work on Fikh, or law, deals fully with the\nsubject. Nothing is more calculated to show the student of Islam how much\nthe Sunnat rules in the practical life of Muslims. The Traditions have\nraised the most trivial ceremonial observances into duties of the greatest\nimportance. That there may be spiritually minded men in Islam is not to be\ndenied; but a system of religion which declares that the virtue of prayer\ndepends practically on an ablution, and that that ablution is useless\nunless done in the order prescribed, is one well calculated to make men\nformalists and nothing more. It comes to this, that, if a man when making\nwazu washes his left hand before his right, or his nose before his teeth,\nhe cannot lawfully say the daily Namaz enjoined on all Muslims. None but\nthose who have studied Muslim treatises on the subject can conceive of the\npuerile discussions which have taken place on points apparently trivial,\nbut which from their connection with the Sunnat are deemed by learned\nMuslims of great importance.\n\n(3). Tayammum, or purification by sand, is allowable under the following\ncircumstances. (1) When water cannot be procured except at a distance of\none kos (about 2 miles); (2) in case of sickness when the use of water\nmight be injurious; (3) when water cannot be obtained without incurring\ndanger from an enemy, a beast or a reptile; and (4) when on the occasion of\nthe Namaz of a Feast day or the Namaz at a funeral, the worshipper is late\nand has no time to perform the wazu. On ordinary days this substitution of\ntayammum for wazu is not allowable.\n\n{192}\n\nThe ceremony is performed as follows. The person says: \"I make tayammum to\nput away impurity;\" then, \"I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan. I\ncommence in the name of God, most Merciful and most High, whose praises are\nin the religion of Islam.\" He then strikes the sand with open hands, rubs\nhis mouth and, at last, the arms to the elbows. Not one hair must be left\nuntouched or the whole ceremony is useless. The farz acts are to make the\nintention of tayammum, to rub the mouth and the hands. \"If ye are sick, or\non a journey, or if one of you come from the place of retirement, or if ye\nhave touched women, and ye find no water, then take clean sand and rub your\nfaces and your hands with it.\" (Sura v. 9.)\n\nMinute regulations are laid down with regard to the water which may be used\nfor purification. The following kinds of water are lawful:--rain, sea,\nriver, fountain, well, snow and ice-water. Ice is not lawful. The first\nkind is authorized by the Quran. \"He sent you down water from heaven that\nHe might thereby cleanse you, and cause the pollution of Satan to pass from\nyou.\" (Sura viii. 11.) The use of the others is sanctioned by the\nTraditions. I give one illustration. A man one day came to the Prophet and\nsaid: \"I am going on a voyage and shall only have a small supply of fresh\nwater; if I use it for ablutions I shall have none wherewith to quench my\nthirst, may I use sea water?\" The Prophet replied: \"The water of the sea is\npure.\" Tirmizi states that this is a Hadis-i-Sahih. Great difference of\nopinion exists with regard to what constitutes impurity in water, and so\nrenders it unfit for ablutions. It would be wearisome to the reader to\nenter into all details, but I may briefly say that, amongst the orthodox,\nit is generally held that if a dead body or any unclean thing falls into\nflowing water, or into a reservoir more than 15 feet square it can be used,\nprovided always that the colour, smell and taste are not changed. It is for\nthis reason that the pool near a mosque is never less than ten cubits\nsquare. If of {193} that size, it is called a _dah dar dah_, (literally 10\nx 10). It may be, and commonly is, larger than this. It should be about one\nfoot deep.\n\nThe necessary ablutions having been made, the worshipper can commence the\nNamaz.\n\n(4). Salat or Namaz. The Namaz can be said either in private or in public.\nAll that is required is that the clothes and person of the worshipper\nshould be clean, the place free from all impurity, and that the face be\nturned towards Mecca. Whether the Namaz is said in public or in private, it\nmust be preceded by wazu, except when tayammum is allowed. If the\nNamaz[188] is said in a mosque which is considered to be more meritorious\nthan repeating it in private, it must be preceded by the Azan, or call to\nprayers, and the Iqamat. Minute particulars regarding the exact attitude in\nwhich the Musalli, one who says the Salat, must stand and the words he is\nto say are given in Muslim books. The following account will give some idea\nof a Namaz, or Service.[189]\n\nThe Mu,azzin[190] calls out loudly in Arabic:--\n\n\"Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar[191]!\"\n\nAll who hear it respond:--\n\n\"Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar! Allahu Akbar!\"\n\nThe Mu,azzin says:--\n\n\"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God.\"\n\nEach of his auditors replies:--\n\n\"I confess there is no God but God, I confess there is no God but God.\"\n\n{194}\n\nMu,azzin:--\"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God.\"\n\nAuditor:--\"I confess Muhammad is the apostle of God.\"\n\nMu,azzin:--\"Come to prayer.\"\n\nAuditor:--\"I have no power or strength but from God most High and Great.\"\n\nMu,azzin:--\"Come to do good.\"\n\nAuditor:--\"What God wills will be; what He wills not will not be.\"\n\nIf it is the time of morning prayer, the Mu,azzin adds the words: \"Prayer\nis better than sleep,\" to which the response is given: \"Thou hast spoken\nwell.\" \"Allahu Akbar,\" and \"There is no God but God\" are then repeated\ntwice and so the Azan ends.\n\nThe Iqamat (literally, \"causing to stand\") is a repetition of the Azan, but\nafter the words, \"come to do good,\" the statement \"prayer has commenced\" is\nmade.\n\nThese preliminaries being now over, the Namaz can commence. It is as\nfollows:\n\nThe Musalli, or worshipper, stands with his hands close to his side and\nsays in a low voice the Niyyat (intention):--\n\n\"I have purposed to offer up to God only, with a sincere heart this morning\n(or as the case may be), with my face Qibla-wards, two (or as the case may\nbe) rak'at prayers, farz (or sunnat or nafl, as the case may be).\"\n\nThen follows the Takbir-i-Tahrimah, said with the thumbs touching the lobes\nof the ears. The palms of the hands are placed towards the Qibla. The\nfingers are slightly separated from each other. In this position the\nMusalli says:--\"Allahu Akbar!\"\n\nThe Qiam, or standing position. The palm of the right hand being placed on\nthe back of the left, the thumb and little finger of the former seize the\nwrist of the latter. Both hands are then placed below the navel,[192] the\neyes are {195} directed towards the spot where the head of the worshipper\nwill touch the ground in prostration, and the Sana is said. It is:--\n\n \"Holiness to Thee O God! and praise be to Thee!\n  Great is Thy name! Great is thy Greatness!\n  There is no God but Thee!\"\n\nThe Ta'awwuz is then said:--\n\n \"I seek refuge near God from cursed Satan.\"\n\nThen follows the Tasmiyah:--\n\n \"In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.\"\n\nThen follows the Fatiha,[193] or first chapter of the Quran:--\n\n\"Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds! the Compassionate, the Merciful!\nKing on the day of reckoning! Thee only do we worship, and to Thee do we\ncry for help. Guide Thou us on the straight path: the path of those to whom\nThou hast been gracious: with whom Thou art not angry, and who go not\nastray.\"\n\nAfter this the worshipper can repeat as many chapters of the Quran as he\nlikes.[194] Some verses he must repeat.\n\nThe Surat-ul-Ikhlas (Sura 112) is generally said:--\n\n\"Say: He is God alone: God the Eternal, He begetteth not, and is not\nbegotten; and there is none like unto Him.\"\n\nThe Takbir-i-ruku'--Allahu Akbar!--is said whilst the Musalli makes an\ninclination of the head and body, and separating the fingers a little,\nplaces his hands upon his knees.\n\nThe Tasbih-i-ruku' is said in the same position. It is:--\n\n \"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!\n  I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!\n  I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Great!\"\n\nThe Tasmia' is then said with the body erect, but with the hands placed on\neither side. Thus:--\n\n{196}\n\n\"God hears him who praises Him: O Lord, Thou art praised[195].\"\n\nThe Takbir-i-Sijdar--Allahu Akbar!--is said as the worshipper drops on his\nknees.\n\nThe Musalli then kneeling down, places his hands, with the fingers close to\neach other, upon the ground. He must rest upon his toes, not on the side of\nthe feet which must be kept straight behind him. The elbow must not touch\nthe side, nor the stomach the thigh, nor the thigh the calf of the leg. The\neyes must be kept bent downwards. Then he touches the ground first with his\nnose, and then with his forehead, taking care that the thumbs just touch\nthe lobe of the ears.[196] All this being carefully attended to, the\nMusalli can say the Tasbih-i-Sijda thus:--\n\n \"I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!\n  I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!\n  I extol the holiness of my Lord, the Most High!\"\n\nHe then raises his head and body, sinks backwards upon his heels, places\nhis hands a little above his knees, and whilst doing so says the\nTakbir-i-Jalsa[197]--\"Allahu Akbar!\"\n\nAfter a slight pause, a second prostration, or Sijda is made and the\nTakbir-i-Sijda and the Tasbih-i-Sijda are repeated as before. Then when in\nthe act of rising up the Musalli says the Takbir-i-Qiam--\"Allahu Akbar!\"\n\nThis concludes one rak'at. The second rak'at begins with the Fatiha, so\nthat after saying the Takbir-i-Qiam a Musalli would have to begin again at\nthat place (p. 195) and repeat all that he had just finished; the only\nchange being that after the Fatiha, he recites different verses of the\nQuran to those he said in the first rak'at. After two rak'ats have been\nsaid, and after the last, though it be an odd number, the {197} Musalli,\nunless he is a Shia'h, places his left foot under him and sits upon it. He\nthen places his hands above his knees, as for the Takbir-i-Jalsa, and with\nhis eyes directed towards his lap says the Attahiyat:--\n\n\"The adorations of the tongue are for God, and also the adorations of the\nbody, and almsgiving! Peace be on thee O Prophet! with the mercy of God and\nHis blessing. Peace be on us and upon God's righteous servants!\"\n\nThen raising the first finger of the right hand he says the\nTashahhud[198]:--\n\n\"I testify that there is no deity but God; and I testify that Muhammad is\nthe servant of God and the messenger of God.\"\n\nThen at the end of all the rak'ats the Musalli, whilst in the same posture,\nsays the Darud:--\n\n\"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and his descendants[199]; as Thou didst have\nmercy on Abraham and his descendants, Thou art to be praised and Thou art\ngreat. O God! bless Muhammad and his descendants, as Thou didst bless\nAbraham and his descendants. Thou art to be praised and Thou art great.\"\n\nThen comes the Du'a, which may be in the worshipper's own words though he\nusually says[200]:--\n\n\"O God our Lord, give us the blessings of this life, and also the blessings\nof life everlasting. Save us from the torments of hell.\"\n\nThen turning the head to the right the Musalli repeats the Salam:--\n\n\"The peace and mercy of God be with you.\"\n\nThen turning the head to the left he says:--\n\n\"The peace and mercy of God be with you.\"\n\nAt the close of the whole ceremony, the worshipper raises {198} his hands\nas high as his shoulders, with the palm towards heaven, or towards his own\nface, and offers up a Munajat, or supplication, either in Arabic or in the\nvernacular. The hands are then drawn over the face, as if to convey the\nblessing received from above to every part of the body.\n\nThe appointed periods of prayer are five in number, in proof of which the\nfollowing text is quoted: \"Glorify God when ye reach the evening (masa),\nand when ye rise at morn (subh); and to Him be praise in the heavens and in\nthe earth,--and at twilight ('ashi) and when ye rest at noon (zuhr).\" (Sura\nxxx. 17). The Commentators say that masa includes both sunset and the\nperiod after sunset; that is both the Salat-ul-Maghrib and the\nSalat-ul-'Isha. There is also a reference to a stated period of prayer in\nthe following verse: \"Observe prayer at early morning, at the close of the\nday, and at the approach of night.\" (Sura xi. 116).\n\nThese daily Namaz are farz, sunnat, witr and nafl prayers. Farz are those\ndistinctly ordained by God, such as the five stated periods of prayer.\n\nSunnat, a certain number of rak'ats which are added, because it is said the\nProphet repeated them.\n\nWitr rak'ats are an odd number of rak'ats, 3, 5 or 7, which may be said\nafter the last prayer at night, and before the dawn of day. Usually they\nare added to the Salat-ul-'Isha. Imam Abu Hanifa says they are wajib, that\nis ordered by God. They are not authorised by any text in the Quran, but by\nTraditions each of which is generally received as a Hadis-i-Sahih, and so\nwitr rak'ats are regarded as being of divine authority. Imam Shafa'i,\nhowever, considers them to be sunnat only, a term already explained.\n\nThe Traditions referred to are: \"God has added to your Namaz one Namaz\nmore: know that it is witr, say it between the Salat-ul-'Isha and dawn.\" On\nthe authority of Buzar, a Traditionist, it is recorded that the Prophet\n{199} said: \"Witr is wajib upon Muslims,\" and in order to enforce the\npractice he added: \"Witr is right, he who does not observe it is not my\nfollower.\" The Prophet, the Companions, the Taba'in and the Taba-i-Taba'in\nall observed it. The word witr literally means \"odd number.\" A Tradition\nsays: \"God is odd, He loves the odd.\" (Allahu witrun yuhibbu'l-witra).\nMusalmans pay the greatest respect to an odd number. It is considered\nunlucky to begin any work, or to commence a journey on a day, the date of\nwhich is an even number. The number of lines in a page of a book is nearly\nalways an odd number.\n\nNafl are voluntary prayers the performance of which is considered mustahab,\nor meritorious, but they are not of divine obligation. It must be\nunderstood that all these prayers are precisely the same in form. They\nsimply consist in the repetition of a number of rak'ats, of which I have\nalready given a single illustration in full. A Muslim who says the five\ndaily prayers with the full number of rak'ats will repeat the Service I\nhave described fifty times in one day. If in addition to these he observes\nthe three voluntary periods of prayers, he must add twenty-five more\nrak'ats, making a grand total of seventy-five. It is, however, usual to\nomit some of the Sunnat rak'ats; still there is a vast amount of\nrepetition, and as the whole must be said in Arabic it becomes very\nmechanical.\n\nA Muslim who ventured to say that a Namaz might be recited in Hindustani\nwas publicly excommunicated in the principal Mosque at Madras on Friday,\nFebruary 13th, 1880.[201]\n\nThe table on the next page will make the matter clear.[202] The optional\nSunnat rak'ats are called {200} 'Sunnat-i-ghair-i-maukadda'; the Sunnat\nrak'ats before the farz are 'Sun-nat-i-maukadda' and should be said.\n\n---+------------------+-----------------------------------+----------------\nNo.| Time.            |  THE NAMES OF THE TIME OF PRAYER. | THE NUMBER OF\n   |                  |                                   | RAK'ATS SAID.\n   |                  +-----------+-----------------------+----------------\n   |                  |           |                                    Witr\n   |                  |           |--------------------------------------+\n   |                  |           |                                  Nafl|\n   |                  |           |-----------------------------------+  |\n   |                  |           |                  Sunnat after Farz|  |\n   |                  |           |--------------------------------+  |  |\n   |                  |           |                            Farz|  |  |\n   |                  |           |-----------------------------+  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |          Sunnat-i-mau-kadda'|  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |--------------------------+  |  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |  Sunnat-i-ghair-maukadda'|  |  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |-----------+-----------+  |  |  |  |  |\n   |                  | Arabic    | Persian   | Urdu      |  |  |  |  |  |\n---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+-\n 1 | From dawn to     | Salat-ul- | Namaz-i-  | Fajr Ki   |  | 2|  |  |  |\n   | sunrise.         |  Fajr.    |  Subh.    | Namaz.    |  |  |  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |           |           |  |  |  |  |  |\n 2 | When the sun     | Salat-uz- | Namaz-i-  | Zuhr Ki   |  | 4| 4| 2| 2|\n   | has begun to     |  Zuhr.    |  Peshin.  | Namaz.    |  |  |  |  |  |\n   | decline.         |           |           |           |  |  |  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |           |           |  |  |  |  |  |\n 3 | Midway between   | Salat-ul- | Namaz-i-  | 'Asr Ki   | 4|  | 4|  |  |\n   | No. 2 and 4.     |   'Asr.   |  Digar.   | Namaz.    |  |  |  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |           |           |  |  |  |  |  |\n 4 | A few minutes    | Salat-ul- | Namaz-i-  | Maghrib   |  |  | 3| 2| 2|\n   | after sunset.    |  Maghrib. |  Sham.    | Ki Namaz. |  |  |  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |           |           |  |  |  |  |  |\n 5 | When the night   | Salat-ul- | Namaz-i-  | 'Isha Ki  | 4|  | 4| 2| 2|7\n   | has closed in.   |  'Isha.   |  Khuftan. | Namaz.    |  |  |  |  [203]\n   |                  |           |           |           |  |  |  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |           |           |  |  |  |  |  |\n 1 | When the sun     | Salat-ul- | Namuz-i-  | Ishraq Ki |  |  |  |  | 8|\n   | has well risen.  |  Ishraq.  |  Ishraq.  | Namaz.    |  |  |  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |           |           |  |  |  |  |  |\n 2 | About 11 o'clock | Salat-uz- | Namaz-i-  | Zuha Ki   |  |  |  |  | 8|\n   | A.M.             |  Zuha.    |  Chast.   | Namaz.    |  |  |  |  |  |\n   |                  |           |           |           |  |  |  |  |  |\n 3 | After mid-night. | Salat-ut- | Namaz-i-  | Tahajjud  |  |  |  |  | 9|\n   |                  |  Tahajjud.|  Tahajjud.| Ki Namaz. |  |  |  |  |  |\n---+------------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+--+--+--+--+--+-\n\nIn addition to these there are several kinds of Namaz which have to be said\nat different times, or under special circumstances.\n\n(i). Salat-ul-Juma'--The Friday Namaz. This is a farz duty. It has the\nthreefold authority of the Quran, the Sunnat, and the Ijma'. Thus: \"O ye\nwho believe! When ye are summoned to prayer on the _day of the assembly_\n(Friday), haste ye to the commemoration of God, and quit your traffic.\"\n(Sura lxii. 9.) The Prophet also said: \"Juma' is farz,\" and, \"God will make\na mark on the heart of him who misses the Salat-ul-Juma'[204].\" There are,\nhowever, eight kind of persons on whom it is not incumbent, _viz_: a\ntraveller, a sick person, a slave, a woman, a young child, a mad {201}\nperson, a blind or a lame person. The conditions which make this Namaz\nobligatory are:--\n\n(1). That the place in which it is said be a town in which a Qazi (judge)\ndwells.\n\n(2). There must be in the town a ruler or his deputy.\n\n(3). It must take the place of the Salat-uz-Zuhr, with which it agrees,\nexcept that two farz rak'ats instead of four are recited. The nafl rak'ats\nare omitted. The four sunnat rak'ats which precede, and the two which\nfollow the farz ones are said.\n\n(4). One, or according to the followers of Imam Shafa'i two Khutbas, or\nsermons are preached. These are delivered by the Imam after the four sunnat\nrak'ats are recited, and before the two farz ones. The Khutba should\nconsist of the praise of God, prayer and injunctions to piety.\n\n(5). There must be a congregation of three persons besides the Imam. The\nShafa'ites say there should be at least forty worshippers.\n\n(6). The Azan, or call to prayers, must be made to all without distinction\nof rank.\n\nAny person who is qualified to act as Imam at the other prayers can conduct\nthis Namaz. The Imam and Khatib (preacher) is usually, but not necessarily,\none and the same person. The Khutbas should not be long, for Muhammad said\nthat long sermons and short prayers would be a sign of the degeneracy of\nthe latter days. When two Khutbas are said, the Imam sits down to rest\nbefore the delivery of the second. The worshippers may then offer up a\nDu'a, or private prayer. Some, however, say that this practice is bid'at,\n(innovation) and consider it a very bad act. According to the\nTraditionists, Bukhari, Abu Daud and Tirmizi, it is a mustahab act to wear\nclean clothes on Friday.\n\nThe preacher standing on the second step of the Mimbar, or pulpit, with a\nlarge club or staff in his hand, delivers his sermon.[205]\n\n{202}\n\nThe following is a specimen of the Khutbas.\n\n    SERMON ON THE EXCELLENCE OF FRIDAY.\n\n    In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.\n\n    Praise be to God, the King, the Holy, the Great, the Knower. He has\n    opened our hearts through the blessing of Islam. He has made Friday the\n    best of days. We testify that there is no God but God, the One, without\n    partner. This confession saves those who make it from danger and from\n    darkness. We testify that our Lord Muhammad is His servant and His\n    Apostle sent to all mankind. May the mercy and peace of God be on him,\n    his descendants and on his Companions. O men! O believers of God! I\n    advise you and my own soul thus: \"Obey God!\" Know, O servants of God!\n    that when Friday commences the angels assemble in the fourth heaven,\n    and Gabriel, (on whom be peace) is the Mu,azzin, Mika,il the Khatib,\n    Israfil the Imam and 'Izra,il the Mukabbir[206] and all the angels join\n    in the Namaz. When it is over Gabriel says: \"I give the reward due to\n    me as Mu,azzin to the Mu,azzins of the sect of Islam;\" Mika,il: \"I give\n    mine to the Khatibs;\" Israfil: \"I give mine to the Imams;\" 'Izra,il: \"I\n    give mine to the Mukabbirs.\" The angels say: \"We give ours to the\n    company of the Muslims.\" The Prophet said: \"The night and day of Friday\n    last twenty-four hours, and each hour God releases a thousand souls\n    from hell. Whosoever makes 'ghusl' on Friday, God will give him for\n    every hair on his body the reward of ten good deeds. Whosoever dies on\n    a Friday meets with the reward of a martyr.\"\n\n    Certainly the best and most eloquent speech is the Holy Quran, the Word\n    of God,--the King, the Great, the Knower. His word is true and\n    righteous. When thou readest the Quran say: \"O God! protect me from\n    cursed Satan.\"\n\n    In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.\n\n    \"When ye are summoned to prayer on the day of the assembly, haste to\n    the commemoration of God and quit your traffic. This, if ye knew it,\n    will be best for you. And when the prayer is ended, then disperse\n    yourselves abroad and go in quest of the bounties of God; and that it\n    may be well with you, oft remember God. But when they get a sight of\n    merchandize or sport, they disperse after, and leave thee standing\n    alone. Say: 'God hath in reserve what is better than sport or wares.\n    God is the best provider.'\" (Sura lxii. 9-11.) God {203} by means of\n    the Holy Quran will bless us and you. And by its verses and teaching\n    will reward us and you. God is Almighty, Generous, Merciful, Eternal,\n    Holy, Clement.\n\nHere ends the first sermon; after a short pause the preacher commences the\nsecond.\n\n    In the name of God the Compassionate, the Merciful.\n\n    Praise be to God, the Creator of the earth and heavens, the Maker of\n    light and darkness. I testify that there is no God but God. He is one.\n    He has no partner. Know, O believers! that this confession will save\n    you from trouble and calamity. I testify that Muhammad, who wipes out\n    error and infidelity, is the servant and Apostle of God. The mercy of\n    God be on our Lord Muhammad, the Lord of Creation; and on his\n    descendants; and on his Companions be grace and honour. O servants of\n    God! I advise you and my own soul thus: Obey God! Fear God, who created\n    life and death and who scrutinizes our good actions. O God! be pleased\n    with Abu Bakr, the righteous, the Sahib-ul-Ghar,[207] and with Omar\n    Ibn-ul-Khattab, the chief of the holy men; and with Osman the possessor\n    of two lights, who was martyred when reading the Holy Quran, and upon\n    'Ali Murtuza, the destroyer of infidels and sinners. O God! be pleased\n    with the great Imams Hasan and Husain. Be pleased with their mother\n    Fatimat-uz-Zuhra, the chief of women, and with Hamza and 'Abbas, the\n    uncles of the Prophet. Also be pleased with all the Ashab (Companions).\n    O God! help those who help the religion of Muhammad, and make us of\n    their number. Make those wretched who corrupt it, and keep us aloof\n    from all such. O believers! truly God orders you to do justice and to\n    show kindness to your kindred. He orders you to abstain from infidelity\n    and from the greater and the lesser sins. God warns you. God is the\n    Most High, the Most Glorious. God is Great!\"\n\nThe collection of Khutbas from which the above have been translated\ncontains a considerable number on a variety of subjects, such as prayer,\nthe resurrection, worldliness, the various feast and fast days, &c. The\nform in all is very similar. The exordium and the conclusion are\npractically the same. A few sentences in the middle refer to the special\nsubject of the sermon. The second of the two {204} sermons is always the\nsame; it is practically an invocation of blessings on certain persons. Both\nare said in Arabic. What would answer to our idea of a sermon, such as an\nexplanation of some doctrine, or an exposition of some passages in the\nQuran, is not part of the public worship in the mosque, but would be done\nin an ordinary assembly, in any convenient place, by a Moolla, or any\nlearned man who could collect an audience.\n\n(ii). Salat-ul-Musafir.--Prayers said by a traveller. A person who makes a\njourney which lasts three days or three nights is, for this purpose,\nconsidered a traveller.[208] The length of a day's journey is estimated at\nthe distance a camel can march in that period of time. If a traveller\nintends to stay in a certain place fifteen days, he must repeat the usual\nNamaz; if less than fifteen days, or when actually on the journey, he can\nshorten it. He is then permitted to say only two farz rak'ats. He may omit\nthe sunnat and nafl rak'ats if he chooses; but the three witr rak'ats he\nmust recite at the Salat-ul-'Isha. If a traveller passing through a place\nis, for the time being, the most suitable person to act as Imam, he being a\ntraveller will only recite two rak'ats. The rest of the worshippers then\ncomplete the Namaz. In the case where a permanent resident of the place is\nthe Imam and the traveller only a worshipper, the Imam is bound to recite\nthe whole number of rak'ats and the traveller must also repeat the whole\nafter him. The principle on which this is based is that the worshippers\nmust not recite less than the Imam.[209]\n\n(iii). Salat-ul-Khauf.--Prayers of fear. This is a Namaz said during the\ntime of war. When there is imminent danger from the approach of an enemy\nthe Imam should divide the army into two bodies; one of which should be\nplaced in a position towards the enemy, the other should recite, if they\nare on the march, one rak'at; if stationary {205} in a place, two rak'ats.\nThis division will then march towards the enemy and the first division will\nrecite as many rak'ats as may be required to complete the Namaz. The Salam\n(Ante. p. 197) will be recited by the Imam alone. The first division of\ntroops will not say the qir,at, _i.e._ the Fatiha and the other verses of\nthe Quran recited after it (Ante. p. 195); but the second division will\nsupply the omission. If the enemy are so near that the cavalry dare not\ndismount, then each man will recite a rak'at or rak'ats for himself, and\nmake the ruku' and sijda by means of signs. If he cannot turn towards the\nQibla, he is, under the circumstances, allowed to face any direction most\nconvenient. During the recital of the Namaz he must not fight, or allow his\nhorse to move, lest the prayer should be rendered void. \"When ye go forth\nto war in the land, it shall be no crime in you to cut short your prayers,\nif ye fear lest the infidels come upon you. Verily, the infidels are your\nundoubted enemies! And when thou, O Apostle! shalt be among them, and shalt\npray with them, then let a party of them rise up with thee, but let them\ntake their arms; and when they shall have made their prostrations, let them\nretire to your rear: then let another party that hath not prayed come\nforward, and let them pray with you.\" (Sura iv. 102, 103).\n\n(iv). Salat-ut-Tarawih.--This is a special set of twenty rak'ats recited\nevery night during the month of Ramazan. They must be said after the farz\nand sunnat, and before the witr rak'ats at the time of the Salat-ul-'Isha.\nThe Salat-ut-Tarawih is considered of sunnat obligation. The practice dates\nfrom the time of the Khalif Omar. Abd-ur-Rahman, a Traditionist, states\nthat one night in Ramazan he went with Omar to the Mosque. They saw some\npersons saying the Namaz alone and some reciting it in groups. Omar said:\n\"If I gather them all together, so that they may recite it after one Imam\nit will be good.\" He did so, and the next night the people of their own\naccord came in great numbers and united together. Then said Omar: \"this\n{206} bid'at is good.\" This is good authority for the institution, for the\nProphet said: \"Follow my Sunnat and that of the Khulafa-i-Rashidin.\" There\nis also a Hadis-i-Sahih to the effect that \"God has made the fast of\nRamazan farz, and its qiam[210] sunnat.\" (Kutiba 'alaikum siamu Ramazana wa\nsunna qiamuhu). The Prophet was anxious lest the Tirawih Namaz should\nbecome farz and, therefore, after going to the Mosque on two successive\nnights in Ramazan, he stayed away on the third, giving as his reason for so\ndoing that he feared that, if he went every night, it might be considered a\nfarz and not a sunnat duty.[211] The number of rak'ats is fixed at twenty,\nas that was the number recited by Muhammad and by the Khalif Omar. The\nShia'hs do not say these prayers or even enter the Mosque on such\noccasions, as after every four rak'ats an eulogium is repeated on the four\nKhalifs--the first three of whom they hate.\n\n(v). Salat-ul-Kusuf and Salat-ul-Khusuf--Prayer said when an eclipse of the\nsun, or of the moon takes place. In the former case, the Imam recites with\nthe congregation in the Mosque two rak'ats. The Azan and the Iqamat are\nboth omitted. No Khutba is said. In each rak'at one ruku' is read. The\nShafa'ites read two. After the rak'ats are completed those present remain\nin prayer (Du'a) until the eclipse is at an end. The Namaz during an\neclipse of the moon is the same as that during an eclipse of the sun, with\nthis exception that the rak'ats need not be recited in a congregation. Each\nMuslim can say the Namaz privately in his own house. The practice is\nfounded on the Prophet's saying: \"When you see an eclipse then remember\nGod, pray (Du'a) and recite the Namaz until it becomes light again.\"\n\n(vi). Salat-ul-Istisqa.--Prayer in time of drought. When {207} there is a\nscarcity of water each person should, with face Qibla-wards, offer up\nprayer to God. They can be said at home and in private. Care must be taken\nthat no Zimmi[212] is present. The reason given is that this is a prayer\nfor a blessing; but God sends no blessing on a company in which a Zimmi is\npresent.\n\nThese prayers are simple Du'a and not a Namaz. There is no\nwell-authenticated Tradition to the effect that the Prophet ever said Namaz\non such an occasion; whilst there are many which show that he made Du'a.\nThis is a very good example of the use of the term Salat as a _Mushtarik_\nword, _i.e._ one which has several significations. Its ordinary meaning is\nNamaz; here it means Du'a.\n\n(vii). Salat-ul-Janaza.--Prayers at a Funeral. When a person is about to\ndie, the attendants should place him on his right side with his face\nQibla-wards. In that position he should repeat the \"Kalima-i-Shahadat,\" the\ncreed of testimony: \"I confess that God is one, without a partner; that\ntruly Muhammad is His servant and His Apostle.\" After death has taken\nplace, the corpse is laid out, incense is burnt, and the shroud is perfumed\nan _odd_ number of times. A tradition states that an odd number is fixed\nupon, because the number one which represents the unity of God is odd and\nnot even. The lesser lustration (wazu) is then made. The head and beard are\nwashed with a decoction made of some flowers, after which the greater\nlustration (ghusl) is made. The members of the body used when making sijda\n(prostration) _i.e._, forehead, nose, hands, knees, feet, are then rubbed\nwith camphor.\n\nTo recite the Salat-ul-Janaza is a duty called Farz-i-kifaya, that is, if\nsome few persons in the assembly say it, all need not do so; whilst if no\none repeats it all will be guilty of sin. To prove that this Namaz is farz\nthe following verse is quoted: \"Take alms of their substance, that thou\nmayest {208} cleanse and purify them thereby, and pray for them; for thy\nprayers shall assure their minds: and God heareth, knoweth.\" (Sura ix.\n104.) The proof that it is not Farz-i-'ain (_i.e._, incumbent on all), but\nFarz-i-kifaya is drawn from an account given in a Hadis, to the effect that\nthe Prophet one day did not recite the Namaz over one of his deceased\nfollowers. Now, if the Namaz had been Farz-i-'ain even the Prophet could\nnot have omitted it. His Sunnat, or practice, has decided the nature of the\nfarz command contained in the verse of the Quran just quoted.\n\nThe Namaz can only be said when the corpse is present. It is recited in the\nopen space in front of the Mosque, or in some neighbouring spot: never in\nthe graveyard.\n\nWhen all are assembled the Imam or leader says: \"Here begins the Namaz for\nthe dead.\"\n\nThe company present then stand up in rows with faces turned in the\ndirection of Mecca. The Imam stands a little in front, near the head or\nwaist of the corpse according as it is that of a male or female. Then all\nassume the Qiam, or standing position, and recite the Niyyat as follows:--\n\n\"I recite Namaz for the sake of God, and offer prayers (Du'a) for this\ndeceased person, and I follow the Imam (who is about to officiate.)\"\n\nThen all at the first[213] Takbir put the hands to the lobe of the ears and\nsay: \"God is Great!\"\n\nThen they say the Sana (Ante, p. 195.):--\n\n\"Holiness to Thee O God! And to Thee be praise! Great is Thy Name! Great is\nThy greatness! Great is Thy praise! There is no God but Thee!\"\n\nThen follows the second Takbir: \"God is Great!\"\n\nThen all say the Darud-i-Ibrahim:--\n\n\"O God! have mercy on Muhammad and upon his descendants, as Thou didst\nbestow mercy, and peace, and blessing, and compassion, and great kindness\nupon {209} Abraham and upon his descendants.\" \"Thou art praised, and Thou\nart Great!\" \"O God, bless Muhammad and his descendants as Thou didst bless,\nand didst have compassion and great kindness upon Abraham and upon his\ndescendants.\"\n\nThen follows the third Takbir: \"God is Great!\"\n\nThe Du'a is then repeated:--\n\n\"O God, forgive our living and our dead, and those oL us who are present,\nand those who are absent, and our children and our full grown persons, our\nmen and our women. O God, those whom Thou dost keep alive amongst us, keep\nalive in Islam, and those whom Thou causest to die, let them die in the\nFaith.\"[214]\n\nThen follows the fourth Takbir: \"God is Great!\"\n\nThen all say:--\n\n\"O God, give us good in this world and in the next, and save us by Thy\nmercy from the troubles of the grave and of hell.\"\n\nThen each one in a low voice says the Salam, as in an ordinary Namaz.\n(Ante, p. 197.)[215]\n\nThe Namaz is now over and the people make another Du'a thus:--\n\n\"'O our Lord! suffer not our hearts to go astray after that Thou hast once\nguided us; and give us mercy from before Thee; for verily Thou art He who\ngiveth.' (Sura iii. 6.) O God, Thou art his[216] Master, and Thou createdst\nhim, and Thou didst nourish him, and didst guide him toward Islam, and Thou\nhast taken his life, and Thou knowest well his inner and outer life.\nProvide intercessors for us. Forgive him, for Thou art the Forgiver, the\nmost Merciful.\"\n\n{210}\n\nThen going towards the head of the corpse, they say:--\n\n\"No doubt is there about this Book (Quran.) It is a guidance to the\nGod-fearing, who believe in the unseen,[217] who observe prayer (salat),\nand out of what we have bestowed on them, expend (for God), and who believe\nin that which hath been sent down to thee (Muhammad), and in what hath been\nsent down before thee; and full faith have they in the life to come: these\nare guided by their Lord; and with these it shall be well.\" (Sura ii. 1-4).\n\nThen coming towards the feet of the corpse, they say:--\n\n\"The Apostle believeth in that which hath been sent down from his Lord, as\ndo the faithful also. Each believeth in God, and His angels, and His Books\nand His Apostles: we make no distinction between any of His Apostles.[218]\nAnd they say: 'We have heard and we obey. (We implore) Thy mercy, Lord; for\nunto Thee must we return.' God will not burden any soul beyond its power.\nIt shall enjoy the good which it hath acquired, and shall bear the evil for\nthe acquirement of which it laboured. O our Lord! punish us not if we\nforget, or fall into sin; O our Lord! and lay not on us a load like that\nwhich Thou hast laid on those who have been before us[219]; O our Lord! and\nlay not on us that for which we have no strength: but blot out our sins and\nforgive us, and have pity on us. Thou art our protector; give us victory\ntherefore over the infidel nations.\" (Sura ii. 285, 286).\n\n{211}\n\nThe chief mourner then gives the Izn-i-'Amm, that is, he says:--\n\n\"All have permission to depart.\"\n\nSome then proceed homewards, others go with the corpse to the graveyard.\nWhen the bier is lifted up, or when it is placed down near the grave, the\npeople say:--\n\n\"We commit thee to earth in the name of God and in the religion of the\nProphet.\"\n\nIf the ground is very hard, a recess (lahad) is dug out in the side of the\ngrave. This must be high enough to allow the corpse to sit up when Munkir\nand Nakir come to interrogate it. If the ground is soft a small grave is\nexcavated at the bottom of the larger one. The corpse is then placed in the\nlower one. The idea in both cases is that the corpse must be in such a\nposition that it can have free movement. The body is placed with the face\ntowards Mecca. When the bands of the shroud have been loosened the people\nsay:--\n\n\"O God deprive us not of the heavenly reward of the deceased, place us not\nin trouble.\"\n\nEach person then takes seven clods of earth, and over each clod says;\n\"Bismillah\" (in the name of God), and the Surat-ul-Iklas (Sura cxii) and\nthen places each clod by the head of the corpse. Unburnt bricks, bamboos or\nboards having then been placed over the smaller grave, the persons present\nwith both hands throw clods of earth three times into the grave. The first\ntime they say: \"From it (earth) We created you\"; the second time, \"and into\nit will We return you;\" the third time, \"and out of it will We bring you a\nsecond time.\" (Sura xx. 57).\n\nThen they say this Du'a: \"O God I beseech Thee for the sake of Muhammad not\nto trouble the deceased.\"\n\nWhen the attendants are filling up the grave they say:--\n\n\"O God, defend the deceased from Shaitan (devil) and from the torments of\nthe grave.\"\n\nWhen the grave is completely filled up, one man pours {212} water three, or\nfive, or seven times over it and then plants a green branch on it.[220]\n\nOne of the mourners then draws near the middle of the grave and recites the\nTalqin (instruction):--\n\n\"O servant of God, and child of a female servant of God.\n\nO son of (such an one),[221] remember the faith you professed on earth to\nthe very last; that is, your witness that there is no God but God, and that\ncertainly Muhammad is His Apostle, and that Paradise and Hell and the\nResurrection from the dead are real; that there will be a day of judgment,\nand say: 'I confess that God is my Lord, Islam my religion, Muhammad (on\nwhom be the mercy and peace of God) my Prophet, the Quran my guide, the\nK'aba my Qibla, and that Muslims are my brethren.' O God, keep him (the\ndeceased) firm in this faith, and widen his grave, and make his examination\n(by Munkir and Nakir) easy, and exalt him and have mercy on him, O Thou\nmost Merciful.\"\n\nThe other persons present then offer a Fatiha.[222]\n\nAfter this, they may, if they like to do so, read the Surat-ul-Ya Sin\n(xxxvi) and the Surat-ul-Mulk (lxvii.) It is not common to do so. Then\nretiring forty paces from the grave they again offer a Fatiha, for by this\ntime the examination of the deceased has commenced. The first night is one\nof great trouble to the deceased, so alms should be given liberally that\nnight in his name. In order to relieve him as much as possible, two nafl\nrak'ats of a Namaz should be said. After the Fatiha in each rak'at the\nworshipper should repeat the Ayat-ul-Kursi {213} (Throne-verse)[223] three\ntimes; then the Surat-ut-Takisur (102) eleven times; then the\nSurat-ul-Iklas (112) three times.\n\nAfter the Salam and the Darud the worshipper lifts up both hands, and with\ngreat humility prays that the reward of the service just concluded may be\nbestowed on the deceased.\n\n(viii). Salat-ul-Istikhara.--This is a Namaz said before undertaking any\nspecial work. The person recites two rak'at prayers. After each rak'at he\nsays the following Du'a: \"O God, make me know what is best for me, and keep\nme from evil, and bestow good upon me, for I have no power to know what is\nbest for me.\" He then goes to sleep, during which period be expects to\nreceive a special inspiration (Ilham) which will give him the needed\ndirections and guide him aright as to the matter in hand.\n\n(ix). Salat-ut-Tarawih.--This consists of twenty rak'ats recited each\nevening during the month of Ramazan. An account of these will be given in\nthe next chapter when the ceremonies connected with the Ramazan fast are\ndescribed.\n\n3. ROZA, THE THIRTY DAYS' FAST OF RAMAZAN.--Fasting is defined to be\nabstinence from food, drink and cohabitation from sunrise to sunset. There\nmust also be in the mind the intention of keeping a fast. The person should\nsay: \"O Lord, I intend to fast to-morrow for Thy sake. Forgive my past and\nfuture sin.\" When the fast is ended he says: \"O God I fasted for Thy sake\nand had faith in Thee, and confided in Thee and now I break (iftar) the\nfast with the food Thou givest. Accept this act.\"\n\nIt is a farz duty to keep the fast during the thirty days of the month\nRamazan. This is laid down in the words: \"O believers! a fast is prescribed\nto you as it was prescribed to those before you.\" \"As to the month Ramazan,\nin which the Quran was sent down to be man's guidance, and an explanation\nof that guidance, and of that {214} illumination, as soon as any one of you\nobserveth the moon, let him set about the fast.\" (Sura ii. 179-181). The\nIjma' is also unanimous on this point. Young children and idiots are\nexcused. Sick persons and travellers may postpone the fast to another time.\n\"He who is sick, or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days.\nGod wisheth you ease, but wisheth not your discomfort, and that you fulfil\nthe number of days.\" (Sura ii. 181). This is called a qaza fast, that is, a\nfast kept at another time in lieu of one which has been omitted.\n\nIf a person makes a vow that, if God grants a certain request, he will fast\n(roza-i-nazr), or if he fasts by way of atonement for some sin committed\n(roza-i-kafara), in both cases it is a wajib duty to keep the fast. Some\nhold that the former is a farz duty and base their assertion on the verse:\n\"Let them bring the neglect of their persons to a close, and let them pay\ntheir vows.\" (Sura xxii. 30).\n\nAll other kinds of fasts are nafl, a term already explained (p. 199). Such\nare the fasts kept on the 10th day of Muharram, on the Aiyam-i-Biz (bright\ndays)--the 13th, 14th and 15th day of any month, on the 15th of Sh'aban,\nthat is, the day following the night called Shab-Barat, and on the 30th of\neach month in which there are thirty days. A nafl fast may be broken if the\nperson who intended to keep it receives an invitation to a feast. According\nto Bukhari, a woman may not make a nafl fast without the consent of her\nhusband. The reverse is not the case, for \"Men are superior to women on\naccount of the qualities with which God hath gifted the one above the\nother, and on account of the outlay they make from their substance for\nthem.\" (Sura iv. 38). It is said that one day a woman came to the Prophet\nand said that her husband had slapped her. The Prophet wished to punish him\nfor doing so improper an act, but he was prevented by the descent from\nheaven of the verse just quoted, which is held to be conclusive evidence of\nthe inferiority of women. The verse also contains the words \"chide those\n{215} (wives) for whose refractoriness ye have cause to fear; remove them\ninto beds apart, and scourge them.\" It is mustahab to fast some days in the\nmonth Shawwal, for Muhammad is reported to have said: \"Whosoever keeps the\nfast of Ramazan and some seven days in the preceding month of Shawwal, it\nis as if his whole life were a fast.\"\n\nIf on account of dull weather, or of dust storms the new moon is not\nvisible, it is sufficient to act on the testimony of a trustworthy person\nwho declares that Ramazan has commenced. Imam Shafa'i requires two, but the\nfollowing Tradition is quoted against him: \"An Arab came to the Prophet and\nsaid: 'I have seen the new moon.' His Excellency said: 'Dost thou believe\nthat there is no God but God? Dost thou confess that Muhammad is His\nApostle?' 'Yes,' replied the man. The Prophet calling Billal, the Mu,azzin,\nsaid: 'Tell the people to commence the fast.'\" This proves that the\nevidence of one good Muslim is sufficient testimony in the matter.\n\nThe fast is destroyed in the following cases:--if when cleansing the teeth\na little water should pass into the throat, if food is eaten under\ncompulsion, if an enema is used, if medicine is put into the ears, nose or\na wound in the head, if a meal has been taken on the supposition that it\nwas night when it was really day, if the niyyat (intention) in the Ramazan\nfast was not properly made, if after a meal taken during the night a\nportion of food larger than a grain of corn remains between the teeth or in\na cavity of a tooth, lastly, if food is vomited. In each of these cases a\nqaza fast must be kept in lieu of the one thus broken.\n\nIn the case where the fast is deliberately broken, the person must atone\nfor his sin by setting a slave at liberty; if from any cause that cannot be\ndone, he must fast every day for two months; if that cannot be done, he\nmust give sixty persons two full meals each, or give one man such meals\ndaily for sixty days.\n\nThe fast is not broken by merely tasting anything, by {216} applying\nantimony to the eyes, and oil to the beard, by cleansing the teeth, or by\nkissing a person; but it is considered better not to do these things during\nthe day-time. The Imam As-Shafa'i declared that it was very wrong indeed to\ndo either of these actions after noon. He used to repeat the following\nTradition handed down by Tabrani. \"The Prophet said: 'when you fast,\ncleanse the teeth in the early morning, because when the lips of him who\nfasts become dry and parched, they will be for him a light in the day of\njudgment.'\"\n\nIf a person through the infirmity of old age is not able to keep the fast,\nhe must perform sadqa, that is, he must feed a poor person. This opinion is\nbased on a sentence in the Quran, which has caused a good deal of dispute:\n\"As for those who are able (_to keep it and yet break it_), the expiation\nof this shall be the maintenance of a poor man.\" (Sura ii. 180). This seems\nto make fasting a matter of personal option, and some Commentators admit\nthat at first it was so, but they say that the words have been\nabrogated[224] by the following sentence which occurs in the next verse:\n\"As soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set about the fast.\"\nOthers say that the negative particle \"not\" must be understood before\n\"able,\" in which case the words in italics must be omitted. Others explain\nthe expression \"those who are able\" as equivalent to \"those who have great\ndifficulty therein,\" such as aged and infirm persons. This seems to be the\nbest interpretation and is the one which practically is acted on.\n\nIn the case of women with child, mothers giving suck to their children,\nsick persons whom fasting at this particular time might injure, it is\nsufficient if they keep it at another time; that is, they must when\nconvenient make a qaza fast. {217} In these cases the sadqa or feeding of\nthe poor is not required. Thus Abu Daud says: \"The Prophet said, 'God\nallows travellers to shorten the Namaz and to postpone the fast. Women also\nare allowed to fast another time.'\" The Quran is also clear on the point:\n\"He who is sick or upon a journey, shall fast a like number of other days.\"\n(Sura ii. 181). There are five days in the year in which it is unlawful to\nfast. These are, 'Id-ul-Fitr, Baqr-'id and the three following days, _viz_:\nthe 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja. If during the month of Ramazan, a\nperson arrives at maturity, or an Infidel becomes a Muslim, each must keep\nthe fast during the remaining days of the month.\n\nTo take the Sahra, or meal taken just before sunrise in the month of\nRamazan, is a Sunnat act. The great Traditionists, Bukhari, Muslim and\nTirmizi, all agree that the Prophet said: \"Eat Sahra because there is a\nblessing in it. The difference between our fast and that of the men of the\nBook (Christians) is the partaking of Sahra.\"\n\nThe meal eaten immediately after sunset is called Iftar, or the breaking of\nthe fast. In India it is the custom to eat a date first, or if that fruit\nis not procurable to drink a little water. In Turkey an olive is chosen as\nthe fruit with which the fast should be broken.\n\nThe distinctive feature of a Muhammadan fast is, that it is a fast during\nthe day only. The rich classes by turning day into night avoid much of its\nrigour.\n\nThey, however, frequently break the fast, though any such action must be\ndone in secret, for popular opinion all over the Musalman world is strongly\nagainst a man who does not outwardly, at least, observe the fast of\nRamazan. In this matter it may be said\n\n \"Pecher en secret, n'est pas pecher,\n  Ce n'est que l'eclat qui fait le crime.\"\n\nThose who have to work for their living find the observance of the fast\nvery difficult, for however laborious may be their occupation they must not\nswallow any liquid; yet as {218} a rule the lower classes observe it\nstrictly.[225] In hot climates this is often exceedingly distressing. In\nsuch circumstances the evening twilight is anxiously looked for, as then\nthe Iftar can be commenced. The month of Ramazan brings with it other\nduties than that of fasting. These will be described in the next chapter.\n\n4. ZAKAT.--There are two terms in use to express almsgiving. The first is\nZakat (literally, \"purification\") or the legal alms due, with certain\nexceptions, from every Muslim. The second is Sadqa, or offerings on the\nfeast day known as 'Id-ul-Fitr, or alms in general.[226] It is the first of\nthese that has now to be considered.\n\nOn the authority of the Quran and the Ijma'-i-Ummat it is declared to be a\nfarz duty for every Muslim of full age, after the expiration of a year, to\ngive the Zakat on account of his property; provided that, he has sufficient\nfor his subsistence and is a Sahib-i-Nisab, or one who possesses an income\nequivalent to about L5 per annum. The Quran says: \"Observe prayer (Salat)\nand the legal impost (Zakat).\" (Sura ii. 40). The Khalif 'Umr Ibn\n'Abd-ul-'Aziz used to say: \"Prayer carries us half way to God, fasting\nbrings us to the door of His palace, and alms procure us admission.\" The\nthree conditions without which Zakat would not be compulsory are Islam,\nHurriat (freedom) and Nisab (stock). The reason for this is, that Zakat is\nsaid to be a fundamental part of 'Ibadat (worship), and that, as the\nInfidels cannot perform acceptable worship, they have nothing to do with\nZakat. Freedom is necessary, for slaves hold no {219} property. Nisab is\nrequired, for so the Prophet has decreed. When the Nisab is required for\ndaily use the zakat is not taken from it; such as a slave retained for\npersonal service, grain for food, weapons, tools, books, household\nfurniture, wearing apparel, horses for riding, &c., for one Tradition\nrecords that the Prophet specially exempted all these, whilst another given\non the authority of Bukhari states that for slaves employed in domestic\nservice only the Sadqa-i-fitr[227] should be given. If a person owes a\ndebt, the amount necessary for its liquidation must be deducted from his\nproperty and the Zakat given on the balance. If it is a debt due to God,\nsuch as an offering due on a vow or to be given in atonement for the\nneglect of some religious duty, it must not be so deducted from the\nproperty on which Zakat is due.\n\nThe amount of gold which constitutes a Nisab is 20 miskats, or of silver\n200 dirhems (=L5 4s.). Whether these metals are in coin or not,\none-fortieth part is due. Some say that gold and silver ornaments are\nexempt, but Imam Shafa'i does not admit this, and quotes from Abu Daud the\nfollowing Tradition: \"A woman with a child, on whose arms were heavy golden\nbracelets, came to the Prophet. He enquired if the Zakat had been given for\nthem. On receiving a reply in the negative he said: 'It is easy for God in\nthe day of judgment to make thee wear bracelets of fire.' The girl then\ntook them off and said: 'These are for the service of God and of His\nProphet.'\" On all treasure known as rikaz, that is, buried treasure found\nby any one, and on valuable metals extracted from mines, one-fifth of the\nvalue must be paid, whether the land be Khariji, rented at its proper\nmarket value; or 'Ushari possessed by the payment of a tithe. If the rikaz\nis found in Dar-ul-Harb, a country under a non-Muslim Government, the whole\nbelongs to the finder, if it is on his own land, or if on unclaimed {220}\nland he must pay the one-fifth. If the coins found bear the mint stamp of a\nMusalman Government, the finder must, if he can, find the owner and return\nthem to him; if they were coined in a mint belonging to the Infidels, after\nhaving given one-fifth as Zakat, he may retain four-fifths for himself.\n\nPearls, amber and turquoise are not subject to any deduction, for the\nProphet said: \"There is no Zakat for stones.\"\n\nAs regards cattle the following rules have been laid down. For sheep and\ngoats nothing is given when the number is under forty. The owner must give\none for one hundred and twenty, two for the next eighty and one for every\nhundred after. The scale for buffaloes is the same as that for sheep.\n\nFor camels the rule is as follows: from 5 to 24 in number, one sheep or\ngoat must be given; from 25 to 35, one yearling female camel\n(bint-i-mukhaz); from 36 to 45, one two-year old female camel\n(bint-i-labun); from 46 to 60, one three-year old female camel (hiqqah);\nfrom 61 to 75, one four-year old female camel (jaz'ah); from 76 to 90, two\nbint-i-labun; from 91 to 120, two hiqqah; and from 121 upwards, either a\nbint-i-labun for every forty or a hiqqah for every fifty. Horses follow\nthis scale, or two and a half per cent on the value may be given instead.\nFor 30 cows a one-year old female calf (tabi'a) must be given; for 40, a\ntwo-year old female calf (musinna), and after that one calf for every ten\ncows.\n\nDonkeys and mules are exempt, for the Prophet said: \"No order has come down\n(from heaven) to me about them.\"\n\nIf a stock of merchandize exceeds the Nisab (L5 4s.), Zakat must be given\non it and on the profits at the rate of one in forty, or two-and-a-half per\ncent. The Hanifites do not count a fraction of the forty. The Shafa'ites\ncount such a fractional part as forty and require the full Zakat to be paid\non it.\n\nHoney, fruit, grain, &c., although less than five camel {221} loads,[228]\nmust according to Imam Abu Hanifa pay one-tenth; but the Sahibain and Imam\nShafa'i say that if there is less than the five camel loads no Zakat is\nrequired. The Prophet said: \"If produced on land naturally watered\none-tenth is due, if on land artificially irrigated one-twentieth.\" As he\nsaid nothing about the quantity, the Hanifites adduce the fact of the\nomission as a proof on their side.\n\nThe Zakat should be given to the classes of person mentioned in the\nfollowing verse. \"Alms are to be given to the poor and the needy, and to\nthose who collect them, _and to those whose hearts are won to Islam_, and\nfor ransoms, and for debtors, and for the cause of God, and for the\nwayfarer.\" (Sura ix. 60). The words italicised, according to the\nTafsir-i-Husaini, are now cancelled (mansukh). The reference is to the Arab\nChiefs who were beaten by the Prophet at the battle of Honein (A.H. 8).\nThis victory is referred to in the 25th verse of this Sura. \"God hath\nhelped you in many battle fields, and on the day of Honein.\" Abu Bakr\nabolished this giving of Zakat to converts, and the Khalif Omar said to\nthese or similar persons: \"This Zakat was given to incline your hearts\ntoward Islam. Now God has prospered Islam. If you be converted it is well;\nif not, a sword is between us.\" No Companion has denied this statement, and\nso the authority for the cancelling of this clause is that of the\nIjma'-i-Ummat (unanimous consent). It is well that an appeal to unworthy\nmotives should be abolished, but no commentator so far as I know makes that\na reason for the cancelling of this order. It is always placed on the\nground of the triumphant nature of Islam which now needs no such support.\nContemptuous indifference, not any high moral motive was the cause of the\nchange.\n\nIn addition to the persons mentioned in the verse just quoted, Zakat may be\ngiven to assist a Mukatib, or slave {222} who is working in order to\npurchase his freedom. Persons who are too poor to go on a Jihad or to make\nthe Hajj must be assisted.\n\nThe Zakat must not be given for building mosques,[229] for funeral\nexpenses, liquidating the debts of a deceased person, or to purchase a\nslave in order to set him free. It is not lawful to give the Zakat to\nparents or grand-parents, children or grandchildren; or for a husband to\ngive it to his wife, or a wife to her husband; or a master to his slave.\nThe Sahibain[230] maintain that a wife can apply the Zakat to her husband's\nwants and quote this Tradition: \"A woman asked the Prophet if she could\ngive the Zakat to her husband. He answered 'give; such an act has two\nrewards, one for the giving of charity and one for the fulfilment of the\nduties of relationship.'\" It should not be given to a rich man, nor to his\nson, nor to his slave. The descendants of Hasham and the descendants of the\nProphet should not be the recipients of the Zakat. The Prophet said: \"O\nAhl-i-Beit (men of the house), it is not lawful for you to receive Zakat,\nfor you get the one-fifth share of my fifth portion of the booty.\" So some\nsay that Syeds are excluded; but they demur and reply that they do not now\nget a portion of the spoil of the Infidels. Zakat must not be given to a\nZimmi (a non-muslim subject).\n\nIn Muhammadan countries there are officers whose duty it is to collect the\nZakat; in India the payment is left to each person's conscience. Whilst\nthere is not much regularity in the payment, due credit must be given for\nthe care which Musalmans take of their poor.\n\nThe Sadqa (charitable offerings) form a different branch of this subject. A\nfull account of it will be given in the section of the next chapter which\ntreats of the 'Id-ul-Fitr.\n\n{223}\n\n5. THE HAJJ.--The Hajj, or pilgrimage to Mecca, is a farz duty, and he who\ndenies this fact is considered to be an infidel. \"The pilgrimage to the\ntemple is a service due to God from those who are able to journey thither:\nand as to him who believeth not--verily God can afford to dispense with all\ncreatures.\" (Sura iii. 91, 92.) On the authority of Ibn 'Abbas the\nfollowing Tradition has been handed down. \"The Prophet said: 'God has made\nthe Hajj farz.' Then Aqra' bin Habis, standing up, said: 'O Prophet is it\nto be made every year?' His Excellency said: 'If I say--yes, it will be a\nwajib duty to do it annually; but that ye are not able to bear, so the Hajj\nis necessary only once; whatever pilgrimage may be made to Mecca in\naddition is nafl.'\"\n\nThe Hajj must be made by every free Muslim, who is sound in body, and of\nfull age, when he has sufficient means to pay his expenses, after duly\nproviding for the support of his household till his return. If a slave, or\na child should make the Hajj, the former on attaining freedom, and the\nlatter on coming of age must again go on pilgrimage. If a woman, whose\nresidence is at a distance of more than three days' journey from Mecca,\ngoes on pilgrimage, she must be accompanied by her husband or by a near\nrelative. Imam As Shafa'i denies the necessity of such attendance, stating\nthat the verse already quoted makes no such restriction. His objection is,\nhowever, met as usual by a Tradition. \"A certain man came to the Prophet\nand said: 'My wife is about to make the Hajj, but I am called to go on a\nwarlike expedition.' The Prophet said: 'Turn away from the war and\naccompany thy wife in the Hajj.'\" Imam Abu Yusuf considered that a man who\npossessed the means should go to Mecca, and held that if he delayed more\nthan a year in making the Hajj he was a sinner. Imam Muhammad, and most\nothers think that a person may postpone the Hajj for some years, but if\ndeath should overtake the man before he has made {224} the pilgrimage, he\nwill be accounted a sinner. So practically all agree that delay is\ndangerous.\n\nConnected with the Hajj there are three actions which are farz, and five\nwhich are wajib; all the rest are sunnat or mustahab. The farz requisites\nare: (1) to wear no other garment except the Ihram,[231] two seamless\nwrappers, one of which is worn round the loins, the other thrown over the\nshoulder; (2) to stand in 'Arfat; (3) to make the Tawaf, that is to go\nround the K'aba seven times.\n\nThe wajib duties are: (1) to stay in Muzdalifah; (2) to run between Mount\nSafa and Mount Marwah; (3) to perform the Rami-ul-Jamar, or the casting of\nthe pebbles; (4) if the pilgrims are non-Meccans they must make an extra\nTawaf; (5) to shave the head after the pilgrimage is over.\n\nThe Hajj must be made at the appointed season. \"Let the pilgrimage (Hajj)\nbe made in the months already known.\" (Sura ii. 193). These months are\nShawwal, Zu'l-q'ada, and the first ten days of Zu'l-Hajja. The actual Hajj\nmust be in the month Zu'l-Hajja, but the preparations for, and the niyyat,\nor intention of the Hajj can be made in the two preceding months. The\n'Umrah, or ordinary pilgrimage, can be done at any time of the year except\non the ninth, and four succeeding days of Zu'l-Hajja. On each of the\nvarious roads leading to Mecca, there are at a distance of about five or\nsix miles from the city stages called Miqat. The following are the names.\nOn the Madina road, the stage (manzil) is called Zu'l-Halifah; on the 'Iraq\nroad, Zat-i-'Arq; on the Syrian road, Hujfah; on the Najd road, Qarn; on\nthe Yaman road, Yalamlam.[232]\n\n{225}\n\nThe Hajis from all parts of the Muslim world at length arrive weary and\nworn at one of these stages. They then divest themselves of their ordinary\nclothing, and after a legal ablution, and after saying a Namaz of two nafl\nrak'ats they put on the Ihram. The Haji, having now really entered upon the\nHajj, faces Mecca and makes the niyyat (intention), and says: \"O God, I\npurpose to make the Hajj; make this service easy to me and accept it from\nme.\" He then says the Talbiyah[233]: \"Here I am! O Allah! Here I am! Here I\nam! There is no God but Thee! Truly, praise and bounty, and the kingdom are\nto Thee! No partner hast Thou! Here am I!\"\n\nThe persons who reside permanently in any of these Miqat can assume the\npilgrim's garb in a place called Hal, near to Mecca, or in the city itself;\nwhilst the inhabitants of Mecca can put on the Ihram in the precincts of\nthe temple.\n\nThe Haji having assumed the Ihram must now abstain from worldly affairs,\nand devote himself entirely to the duties of the Hajj. He is not allowed to\nhunt, though he may catch fish if he can. \"O Believers, kill no game while\nye are on pilgrimage.\" (Sura v. 96). The Prophet also said: \"He who shows\nthe place where game is to be found is equally as bad as the man who kills\nit.\" The Haji must not scratch himself, lest vermin be destroyed, or a hair\nbe uprooted. Should he feel uncomfortable, he must rub himself with the\nopen palm of his hand.[234] The face and head must be left uncovered, the\nhair on the head and beard unwashed and uncut. \"Shave not your heads until\nthe {226} offering reach the place of sacrifice.\" (Sura ii, 192). On\narriving at an elevated place, on descending a valley, on meeting any one,\non entering the city of Mecca or the Musjid-ul-Haram[235] the Haji should\ncontinually repeat the word \"Labbaik, Labbaik.\"\n\nAs soon as he sees the K'aba[236] he must say the Takbir and the Tahlil.\nThe Traditionist 'Ata says that at this stage the Prophet used to lift up\nhis hands and pray.\n\nOn entering the enclosure, the Haji says the Labbaik, Takbir and the\nTahlil, then a Du'a. A Namaz of two rak'ats is then said at the station of\none of the four great Imams. On arriving near the Hajr-ul-Aswad (black\nstone) the Haji again says the Takbir and the Tahlil, after which he kisses\nthe stone. If, on account of the crowd, he cannot get near enough to do\nthis, he must touch it with his hand or with a stick, and kiss that with\nwhich he has thus touched the stone. At the same time he says: \"O Allah, (I\ndo this) in Thy belief, and in verification of Thy book, and in pursuance\nof Thy Prophet's example--may Allah bless and preserve him. O accept Thou\nmy supplication, diminish my obstacles, pity my humiliation and graciously\ngrant me Thy pardon.\" Then he again repeats the Takbir and the {227}\nTahlil, the Darud and the Tahrif (prayer for, and praise of Muhammad). He\nthen encompasses the K'aba seven times, in accordance with the niyyat he\nhad made, thus: \"In the name of Allah, and Allah is Omnipotent! I purpose\nto make the circuit seven times.\"[237] This is called the Tawaf. The Haji\nruns round three times at a rapid pace (Tarammul), and four times he\nproceeds slowly (Taammul). A permanent resident in Mecca will not perform\nthe Tawaf. The Haji then presses his stomach, chest and right cheek against\nthe portion of the K'aba wall, called Al-Multazim, and raising up his arms\non high says: \"O Allah, Lord of the Ancient House, free my neck from\nhell-fire, and preserve me from every evil deed; make me contented with\nthat daily bread which Thou hast given to me, and bless me in all Thou hast\ngranted!\" He then says the Istigfar--\"I beg pardon of Allah, the Most High,\nthe Living, the Eternal, and to Him I repent.\"\n\nThe Haji next proceeds to the Maqam-i-Ibrahim[238] (place of Abraham) and\nthen recites two rak'ats[239] called Sunnat-ut-Tawaf. Some water from the\nsacred well Zemzem is then drunk, after which the Haji returns to the\nHajr-ul-Aswad, and again kisses it.\n\nHaji Burton thus describes one shaut or circuit:--\n\n    \"We began the prayer 'O Allah (I do this) in Thy belief and in\n    verification of Thy Book, and in faithfulness to Thy covenant and after\n    the example of Thy Prophet Muhammad. May Allah bless and preserve him!'\n    till we reached the place Al-Multazim, between the corner of the black\n    stone and the K'aba door. Here we ejaculated, 'O Allah, Thou hast\n    rights, so pardon my transgressing them.' Opposite the door we\n    repeated, 'O Allah, verily the house is Thy house, and the sanctuary\n    Thy sanctuary, and the safeguard Thy {228} safeguard, and this is the\n    place of Him who flees to Thee from (hell) fire.' At the building\n    called Maqam-i-Ibrahim, we said: 'O Allah, verily this is the place of\n    Abraham, who took refuge with, and fled to Thee from the fire! O deny\n    my flesh and blood, my skin and bones to the (eternal) flames.' As we\n    paced slowly round the north or Irak corner of the K'aba we exclaimed,\n    'O Allah, verily I take refuge with Thee from polytheism, and\n    disobedience, and hypocrisy, and evil conversation, and evil thoughts\n    concerning family, and property and progeny.' When we passed from the\n    Mizab, or spout, we repeated the words, 'O Allah, verily I beg of Thee\n    faith which shall not decline, and a certainty which shall not perish,\n    and the good aid of Thy Prophet Muhammad--may Allah bless and preserve\n    him! O Allah, shadow me in Thy shadow, on the day when there is no\n    shadow by Thy shadow; and cause me to drink from the cup of Thy Prophet\n    Muhammad--may Allah bless and preserve him--that pleasant draught,\n    after which is no thirst to all eternity, O Lord of honour and glory.'\n    Turning to the west corner, or the Rukn el Shami, we exclaimed: 'O\n    Allah, make it an acceptable pilgrimage, and a forgiveness of sins, and\n    a laudable endeavour, and a pleasant action (in Thy sight), and a store\n    which perisheth not, O Thou Glorious, O Thou Pardoner!' This was\n    repeated thrice, till we arrived at the Yemani, or southern corner,\n    where the crowd being less importunate, we touched the wall with the\n    right hand, after the example of the Prophet, and kissed the\n    finger-tips. Between the south angle and that of the black stone, where\n    our circuit would be completed, we said: 'O Allah, verily I take refuge\n    with Thee from infidelity, and I take refuge with Thee from want, and\n    from the tortures of the tomb, and from the troubles of life and death.\n    And I fly to Thee from ignominy in this world and the next, and implore\n    Thy pardon for the present and the future. O Lord, grant to me in this\n    life prosperity, and in the next life prosperity, and save me from the\n    punishment of fire.'\"\n\nThe next important step is the running between the Mounts Safa and Marwah.\nStarting from the former, the Haji runs seven times between the two\nsummits. He runs, moving the shoulders, and with head erect, like soldiers\ncharging in battle. The reason for this is, that the infidel Meccans mocked\nthe Companions of the Prophet, and said that the climate of Madina had made\nthem weak. This bold way of running was adopted to disprove the {229}\ncalumny and so has become a Sunnat practice. The prayer to be said during\nthe S'ai (running) is: \"O my Lord, pardon and pity, and pass over that\n(sin) which Thou knowest. Verily Thou knowest what is not known, and verily\nThou art the most Glorious, the most Generous. O, our Lord, grant us in\nboth worlds prosperity, and save us from fire.\" The Haji should also quote\npassages from the Quran. This S'ai must be done after an important Tawaf,\neither the first, or a later one. On the seventh day the Imam must preach\nin Mecca, and instruct the pilgrims in the ritual of the Hajj. He preaches\nagain on the ninth and eleventh days.\n\nOn the eighth day, (Ruz-i-Tarwiah), the Haji goes to Mina, a place three\nmiles distant from Mecca, where with all the other Hajis he says the usual\nNamaz, and there spends the night.[240] This is a sunnat observance. On the\nmorning of the ninth day, starting after the Salat-ul-Fajr, the Haji goes\nto 'Arifat.[241] On arriving there he says: \"O God, I turn to Thee, I put\nmy trust on Thee, I desire Thee, pardon my sin, accept my Hajj, show mercy\nto me, supply my need in 'Arifat, Thou art powerful over all.\" He then says\nLabbaik, the Takbir and the Tahlil.\n\nThe noontide, and the afternoon Namaz are said together there: they are\nthus shortened.[242] This done he should stand upon the mountain, if\npossible at or near the place the Prophet {230} is said to have occupied.\nThis is called the Wukuf or (standing), a necessary part of the Hajj. He\nmust also listen to the sermon delivered by the Imam, explaining what still\nremains of the ritual of the Hajj, _i.e._, how the Hajis are to stand in\nMuzdalifah, to throw the stones in Mina, to make the sacrifice, &c.\n\nAll the time the Haji should constantly shout out the Talbiyah, and the\nTahlil, and weep bitterly.\n\nThe Haji then proceeds to Muzdalifah, a place situated about half-way\nbetween Mina and 'Arifat, where he should pass a portion of the night.\nAfter a visit to the Mosque Mashar al Haram, he should collect seven\npebbles and proceed to Mina.\n\nWhen the morning of the tenth day, the 'Id-ul-Azha arrives, he again goes\nto Mina, where there are three different pillars, called respectively the\nJamrat-ul-Akabah, commonly known as the Shaitan-ul-Kabir[243] (great\ndevil), the Wusta, or middle pillar, and the Al Ula, or first one. Holding\nthe jamar, or pebble, between the thumb and forefinger of the right hand,\nthe Haji throws it a distance of not less than fifteen feet and says: \"In\nthe name of Allah, and Allah is Almighty, (I do this) in hatred of the\nFiend and to his shame.\" The remaining six stones are thrown in like\nmanner. The object is to confound the devils who are supposed to be there.\nThe stones are small lest the pilgrims should be hurt. Before each stone is\nthrown the Takbir must be said. This ceremony is called Rami-ul-Jamar, the\nthrowing of stones. It is also known as Hasal Khazaf. It is said that this\nceremony has been performed since the time of Abraham, and that the stones\nare miraculously removed. Ibn 'Abbas, a Companion, says that if the\npilgrimage of a Haji is approved of by God, the stones are secretly\nremoved. Mujahid, a well known Traditionist, {231} says that he put a mark\non his stones and afterwards searched, but found them not. The pilgrim then\nreturns to Mina, and there offers the usual sacrifice of the 'Id-ul-Azha.\nAn account of this will be given in the next chapter. This act strictly\nspeaking, concludes the Hajj. The Haji can now shave his head, pare his\nnails and remove the Ihram.\n\nThe remaining three days, the 11th, 12th and 13th of Zu'l-Hajja are called\nthe Aiyam-ut-Tashriq \"days of drying flesh\" because now the pilgrims\nprepare provisions for the return journey, by cutting slices from the\nvictims offered in sacrifice and drying them in the sun. The Haji should\nspend this time at Mina, and each day throw seven pebbles at each of the\npillars. This ceremony duly over, he returns to Mecca and makes the\nTawaf-ul-Wida' (circuit of farewell). He should also drink some water from\nthe well of Zemzem. Tradition says that when Ishmael was thirsty Gabriel\nstamped with his foot and a spring gushed forth. This is now the far-famed\nwell Zemzem. Finally, the Haji kisses the threshold, and then, with hands\nuplifted laying hold of the covering of the K'aba, and weeping bitterly, he\nprays most humbly, and expresses regret that he will soon have to depart\nfrom a place so dear as the sacred K'aba. Retiring backwards, he makes his\nexit and the Hajj is complete.[244] The Umrah or little pilgrimage can be\nmade at any time except the eighth, ninth and tenth of Zu'l-Hajja. It is\nusually done before pilgrims start homewards. Its ceremonies differ but\nslightly from the Hajj. The Ihram must {232} be put on, and the obligations\nof abstinence which it entails must be observed.\n\nThe usual course is then to make the Ziarat, or visit to the tomb of the\nProphet at Madina. Henceforth the pilgrim assumes the honorable title of\nHaji and so is, ever after, a person of some consequence among the\ncommunity in which he dwells. The Hajj cannot be performed by proxy, though\nit is esteemed a 'good work,' if someone who can afford it, sends a pilgrim\nwho otherwise could not go.\n\nThis account of the Irkan-i-din, or five pillars of religion, must now draw\nto a close. They illustrate well the fixed and formal nature of Islam,\nwhilst the constant reference to the Prophet's sayings and practice, as an\nauthority for many of the details, shows how largely Islam is based on the\nSunnat. With regard to the differences of opinion which the great Imams\nhold on some of the details, it is most difficult to decide which side\nholds the correct view. Such opinions are always based on some Tradition,\nthe value of which it is impossible to determine. The opponent says it is a\nweak (z'aif) Tradition--a statement it would puzzle any one to prove or to\ndisprove. It is sometimes said in praise of Musalmans that they are not\npriest-ridden; but no people in the world are so Tradition-ridden, if one\nmay use such an expression. Until this chain of superstition is broken\nthere can be no progress and no enlightenment; but when it is so broken\nIslam will cease to be Islam, for this foundation of the Faith and the\nedifice erected on it are so welded together that the undermining of the\none will be the fall of the other.\n\n{233}\n\n    NOTE TO CHAPTER V.\n\n    _The following Fatva was publicly given in the Great Mosque,\n    Triplicane, Madras, February 13th, 1880._\n\n    In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.\n\n    QUESTION.\n\n    \"O 'Ulama of the religion, and Muftis of the enlightened Law, what is\n    your opinion in this matter? A person having translated a juz\n    (one-thirtieth part) of the noble Quran into the Hindustani language\n    has printed it. The translation is defective: moreover the Arabic text\n    is not given. In order to give the translation the same authority as\n    the original, he has retained the usual signs and marks of the Arabic\n    editions; such as--toi, qif, jim, la, mim, and (.).[245] At the end of\n    the juz he has added a translation of the Tashshahud, Qanud, Sana,\n    Ta'awwuz, Tasmi, Tashibat, ruku' and Sujud, and has said that all these\n    must be read in Hindustani. He further states that in the translation\n    he has retained the rhythm of the original, and that in eloquence and\n    style it is equal to the Arabic. He has also added rubrical directions\n    as to the ritual of the Namaz, and has stated that to those who do not\n    know Arabic, it is a wajib and a farz duty to recite the translation;\n    otherwise they commit sin and the Namaz is vain. As regards the past,\n    he considers that the ignorant are forgiven, but he maintains that the\n    'Ulama of these days must answer for the neglect they show in not\n    telling the people to use translations of the Quran. Further, in\n    support of his views he adduces a Hadis-i-Sahih, according to which the\n    Prophet said to a Companion, Salman-i-Farsi: \"Read a translation of the\n    Quran in the Namaz.\" He claims, as on his side, the four great Imams.\n    He himself understands Arabic, yet he says his Namaz in Hindustani and\n    influences others to do likewise. He has been spoken to, but he takes\n    no heed and strives to spread his sect all over India.\n\n    Now, what is the order of the noble Law with regard to such a person,\n    and what is the decree in the case of those who follow {234} him, or\n    who circulate his opinions, or who consider him a religious man and a\n    guide, or who consider the translation to which reference has been made\n    to be the Holy Quran, or who teach it to their children? O learned men,\n    state the Law in this matter and merit a good reward.\"\n\n    THE ANSWER.\n\n    \"After praising God, and after imploring His mercy and peace on\n    Muhammad, be it known that the person referred to is an infidel, an\n    atheist and a wanderer from the truth. He also causes others to wander.\n    His assertion that his opinions are in accordance with those of the\n    four Imams is utterly false, because according to Imam Shafa'i, Imam\n    Malik, and Imam Hanbal it is illegal to use a translation of the Quran\n    when saying the Namaz, whether the worshipper is ignorant of Arabic or\n    not. Thus Imam Navari, a disciple of Shafa'i says: \"It is unlawful in\n    any case to use Persian[246] in the Namaz.\" Faqi 'Ali, a disciple of\n    Malik says: \"Persian is unlawful.\" To these opinions Kafi, a disciple\n    of Hanbal adds his testimony: \"To recite in the Namaz from a\n    translation of the Quran is unlawful.\" Moreover from the Quran itself,\n    the recital of it in Arabic is proved to be a divine command (farz).\n    The term Quran, too, means an Arabic Quran, for God speaks of it as a\n    revelation in Arabic. The words \"recite so much of the Quran as may be\n    easy to you\" prove the duty of reciting it; whilst the words \"an Arabic\n    Quran have we sent it down\" show that the Quran to be used is an Arabic\n    one. Imam Abu Hanifa and his disciples, the Sahibain (Imam Muhammad and\n    Imam Abu Yusuf), consider that, if a person can recite only a short\n    verse in Arabic, it is not lawful for such an one to use a translation.\n    If he cannot read the Arabic character, he must learn by heart such a\n    sentence as \"Praise be to God, Lord of the people.\" Until he learns\n    this he may use a translation.[247] In the Tanwir-ul-Absar it is\n    written: \"It is a farz duty to read one verse, and to learn it by heart\n    is farz-i-'ain\" (_i.e._, incumbent on all). In the Masih-ul-Azhar it is\n    written: \"If a person says the Namaz in a language other than Arabic,\n    he is a madman or an atheist.\" With regard to the statement made by\n    Imam Abu Hanifa that a person might use for a {235} time a translation,\n    it is well known that he afterwards recalled that opinion. The\n    statement made by the person complained of regarding Sulman-i-Farsi is\n    not correct. In the Nihayah (commentary on the Hidayah) it is written\n    that some Persians wrote to Sulman, and requested him to send them a\n    Persian translation of Surat-ul-Fatiha. He complied with their request\n    and they used it in the Namaz, _until they could pronounce Arabic\n    properly_. The Prophet on hearing of this circumstance made no remark.\n    This account, however, is not trustworthy; but granting that it is\n    true, all that it proves is that, until some Arabic words can be\n    remembered, a translation may be used. No Imam has ever allowed that to\n    read a translation is farz or wajib. So if the person referred to says\n    that it is farz to read his own translation, then it follows that to\n    read the original Arabic will not be farz, but will be unlawful. Now\n    such an opinion is infidelity. The person is a Kafir, for he tries to\n    make out that the 'Ulama of all preceding ages who have instructed the\n    people, from the days of the Prophet till now, to read Arabic in the\n    Namaz are sinners. Further, he rejects the statement made by learned\n    canonists and listens now to no advice. He reads his translation in the\n    Namaz and causes others to read it. He boasts that his translation is\n    equal in style to the original. He has translated the Du'a-i-qunut,\n    Sana, and the Tasbihat of the ruku' and Sujud, and has said that these\n    translations should be used in the Namaz. Thus, it is plain that he\n    wants to abolish the use of Arabic in the prayers. The result of such a\n    course would be that soon a number of different translations would be\n    circulated, and the text like that of the Taurait, and the Injil would\n    be corrupted. In the Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri it is written: \"Whosoever\n    considers that the unlawful is lawful or _vice versa_ is a Kafir.\" \"If\n    any one without apparent cause has enmity with one of the 'Ulama, his\n    orthodoxy is doubtful.\" \"A man who after committing a fault declines to\n    repent, though requested to do so, is an infidel.\" In the\n    Tahqiq-i-Sharh-i-Husaini it is written; \"To translate the Quran into\n    Persian and to read that is unlawful.\" In the\n    Fatawa-i-Matlub-ul-Muminin it is said: \"Whosoever intends to write the\n    Quran in Persian must be strictly forbidden.\" In the Itqan it is\n    written: \"According to Ijma', it is wrong to speak of the Quran as\n    having rhymes.\"[248] In the Fatawa-i-Tatar Khania it is said: \"To\n    translate the Arabic into Persian is an act of infidelity.\"\n\n    Our decision then is that the usual salutations should not be made to\n    this person. If he dies he must not be buried in a Musalman {236}\n    cemetery. His marriages are void and his wives are at liberty,\n    according to the rule laid down in the Miftah-us-S'adat. To doubt of\n    the infidelity of such a person is itself infidelity. As by the proofs\n    of the law here adduced, the 'Ulama have declared such a person to be\n    an infidel, it follows that all those who assist him or who consider\n    his claim just, or who circulate his opinions, or who consider him to\n    be a religious person and a fit guide for men, are also infidels. To\n    send children to be taught by him, to purchase newspapers which\n    advocate his views, and to continue to read his translation is\n    unlawful. In the Fatawa-i-'Alamgiri in the chapter entitled Murtad it\n    is written: \"Whosoever has doubts of the present infidelity and of the\n    future punishment of such an one is an infidel.\" God says in the Quran:\n    \"Be helpful to one another according to goodness and piety, but be not\n    helpful for evil and malice; and fear ye God.\" (Sura v. 3). In another\n    place God says: \"Whosoever acts not according to God's order is an\n    infidel.\" Now, what greater disobedience can there be than this, that a\n    person should say that the recital of the Arabic Quran in the Namaz is\n    not lawful, and that the recital of his own Hindustani translation of\n    it is incumbent (farz).\n\n    \"Our duty is to give information to Musalmans, and God is the best\n    Knower.\"\n\n    This was written by a learned Moulvie, and signed by twenty-four other\n    leading Moulvies of the city of Madras.\n\n    This Fatva, an authentic copy of which is in my possession, is of very\n    considerable importance as showing how unyielding the law of Islam is\n    to the varied circumstances of the countries in which it exists. The\n    law enjoining the Arabic language as a medium of worship was suited for\n    the Arab people, and the principle involved would seem to be that the\n    vernacular language of a country should be used by the Muslims of that\n    country for the purposes of devotion; but, as I have repeatedly shown,\n    precepts, not principles are the ruling power in Islam. It further\n    demonstrates that all such matters must be regulated, not by the needs\n    of the age or country, but by an antiquated law which, to say the\n    least, is an anachronism in the world's history. The authority paid to\n    the statements made by the four chief Imams, and the fact that the\n    Fatva is based on their decisions, and on previous Fatvas in which\n    their authority has been adduced, show how even to the present day they\n    are regarded as the Mujtahidin of Islam. The Fatva is thus manifestly\n    orthodox, and corroborates most fully all I have said in the first\n    chapter on the \"Foundations of Islam.\"\n\n{237}\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nTHE FEASTS AND FASTS OF ISLAM.\n\n1. MUHARRAM.--Muharram, the name of the first month of the Muhammadan year,\nhas now become the name by which are known the days of mourning spent by\nthe Shia'hs in commemoration of the martyrdoms of 'Ali and of his two sons\nHasan and Husain. The historical events thus referred to have been already\ndescribed in the third chapter, so that it is only necessary now to give an\naccount of the ceremonies connected with the Muharram. They differ in\ndifferent countries. The following is a description of an Indian Muharram.\n\nSome days previous to the feast, the 'Ashur Khana (literally, ten-day\nhouse) is prepared. As soon as the new moon appears, the people gather\ntogether in the various 'Ashur Khanas, and offer a Fatiha over some sherbet\nor some sugar in the name of Husain. The Fatiha concludes thus: \"O God,\ngrant the reward of this to the soul of Husain.\" The sherbet and sugar are\nthen given to the poor. Then they mark a spot for the Allawa, or hole for\nthe bonfire which is to be lit. Every night during the festival these fires\nare kindled, and the people, both old and young, fence across the fire with\nswords or sticks, and jump about calling out: \"'Ali! Noble Husain! Noble\nHusain! Dulha! Dulha! Bridegroom! Bridegroom! Friend! &c.\" These words they\nrepeat hundreds of times.\n\nIn some parts of the country they erect an Imam Bara (Imam-house). This is\noften a substantial building, frequently used afterwards as a mausoleum for\nthe founder and his family. In South India the 'Ashur Khana only is known.\nThis is generally a temporary structure, or {238} some large hall fitted up\nfor the occasion. Sometimes the walls are draped with black cloth, bordered\nwith texts of the Quran written in a large and elegant style. The place is\nbrilliantly illuminated. On one side stands the Taziahs or\nTabuts--structures made of bamboos covered with tinsel and profusely\nornamented. They are intended to represent the mausoleum erected on the\nplains of Karbala over the remains of Husain. Sometimes the Taziah is\nconstructed to represent the Prophet's tomb at Madina. Large sums of money\nare spent on these Taziahs, which when lighted up have a very elegant\nappearance. At the back of the Taziahs are laid the several articles\nsimilar to those supposed to have been used by Husain at Karbala,--a turban\nof gold, a rich sword, a shield, a bow and arrow. The Mimbar, or pulpit is\nso placed that the speaker can face Mecca. The 'Alams, or standards, which\nare commonly made of copper and brass, though occasionally of gold or of\nsilver, are placed against the walls. The usual standard is that of a hand\nplaced on a pole. This is emblematic of the five members who compose the\nfamily of the Prophet, and is the special standard of the Shia'hs. These\nstandards have many different names, such as--the standard of the palm of\n'Ali, the Lady Fatima's standard, the standard of the Horse-shoe, to\nrepresent the shoe of Husain's swift horse, and others too numerous to\nmention. Mirrors, chandeliers and coloured lanterns add lustre to the\nscene.\n\nEvery evening large crowds of people assemble in these 'Ashur Khanas. In\nthe centre, on a slightly raised platform a band of singers chant the\nMarsiya, an elegiac poem in honour of the martyred Husain. It is a\nmonotonous performance lasting about an hour; but it has a wonderful effect\non the audience, who, seated on the ground, listen patiently and\nattentively. At each pause the hearers beat their breasts, and say Husain!\nHusain! Real or stimulated grief often finds expression in groans and\ntears, though the more violent expression of the anguish felt is reserved\nfor a later ceremony.\n\n{239}\n\nThis over, the Waqi'a Khan (literally, narrator of events) ascends the\nMimbar, or pulpit, and seats himself on the top, or on a lower step. He\nproceeds to relate the historical facts, adding many curious stories\ngathered from the vast heap of Traditions which have cast such a halo of\nglory around the martyr. Sometimes he becomes very excited, and the\naudience is stirred up to great enthusiasm. The following account is that\nof an eye-witness who passed an evening in an 'Ashur Khana. \"The first\nWaqi'a Khan was a Persian who delivered a very eloquent oration in his own\ntongue. It was calm but effective. He was succeeded by an eloquent old\ngentleman who spoke rapidly in Hindustani at the top of his voice, then\nrose up, ran down the steps, and casting off his turban rushed in and out\namongst the audience, vociferating vigorously all the while. The effect was\nmarvellous, old and venerable men wept like little children, whilst from\nthe adjoining Zanana was heard the bitter weeping of the women who, though\nnot exposed to view, could hear all that was said. After a while, the\nassembly rose and formed two lines facing each other. A boy then chanted a\nfew words and the whole assembly began, slowly at first, to sway their\nbodies to and fro, calling out 'Ali! 'Ali! Husain! Husain! Each one then\nbegan to beat his breast vigorously. The excitement at last became intense\nand the men in the rows looked like so many wild creatures.\"\n\nIn some cases blood has been known to flow from the breast, so severe is\nthe self-inflicted beating. This continues till they are well-nigh\nexhausted, when the whole company goes away to repeat the performance over\nagain in some other 'Ashur Khana. A devout person will visit several each\nevening. During the day some pious Shia'hs recite the Quran.\n\nDuring this season women who can read, visit the Zananas and chant Marsiyas\nto the ladies of the Harem, by whom this season of Muharram is celebrated\nwith great earnestness.\n\nFor the first six days, nothing else takes place, but on the {240} seventh\nday the 'Alam-i-Qasim is taken out in public procession. This is to\nrepresent the marriage of Qasim, the son of Hasan, to the favourite\ndaughter of Husain, just before the death of the latter. The event is now\ncommemorated by the bearing of Qasim's standard in procession. It is\nusually borne by a man on horseback. If it is carried by a man on foot, he\nreels about like a drunken man to show his grief. The crowd shout out:\nBridegroom! Bridegroom! After perambulating the principal thoroughfares,\nthe people bring the standard back to its own 'Ashur Khana. As the standard\nwhich represents Qasim is supposed to be a martyr, it is then laid down,\ncovered over, and treated as a corpse. Lamentation is made over it as for\none dead. Sherbet is then produced, and a Fatiha is said, after which the\nstandard is again set up in its own place.\n\nThe Neza, a lance or spear, with a lime on the top, to recall to\nremembrance the fact that Yezid caused Husain's head to be thus carried\nabout, is taken in procession from one place to another. The Na'l Sahib\n(literally, Mr. Horse-shoe) is the representation of a horse shoe, and is\nmeant to remind the people of the swift horse of Husain. Vows are\nfrequently made to this standard. Thus a woman may say to it: \"Should I\nthrough your favour be blessed with offspring, I shall make it run in your\nprocession.\" If she attains her wish, the child when seven or eight years\nold has a small parasol placed in its hand and is made to run after the\nNa'l Sahib.\n\nIf two 'Alams, or standards, meet, they embrace each other, that is they\nare made to touch. Fatiha is then said and the respective processions pass\non their way. The Buraq, supposed to be a fac-simile of the horse sent by\nGabriel for Muhammad to make the night ascent to heaven (Ante. p. 159) is\nalso taken out.\n\nOn the evening before the tenth day, which according to the Muslim mode of\ncomputing time is the tenth night, the whole of the Tazias and the 'Alams\nare taken out in {241} procession. It is a scene of great confusion, for\nmen and boys disguised in all sorts of quaint devices run about. It is the\ncarnival of the Musalman year.\n\nOn the following day, the 'Ashura, they kindle the fires in the Allawas,\nand say a Fatiha in each 'Ashur Khana. After this the 'Alams and the Tazias\nare taken away to a large open spot near water, which represents the plain\nof Karbala. Another Fatiha is said, the ornaments and decorations are taken\noff the Tazias, the frameworks of which are then cast into the water.[249]\nSometimes they are reserved for use the following year. The water reminds\nthe people of the parching thirst which Husain felt before his death. Only\nthe 'Alams, not the Buraqs nor the Na'l Sahibs, are immersed. The people\nthen burn incense, recite the Marsiyas, return home and say Fatiha over the\n'Alams, Buraqs, &c. On the evening of the 12th, they sit up all night\nreading the Quran, reciting Marsiyas and verses in the praise of Husain. On\nthe 13th day, a quantity of food is cooked which, when a Fatiha has been\nsaid over it, is distributed to the poor. Some very pious Shia'hs celebrate\nthe fortieth day after the first of Muharram. It is on this day, according\nto some accounts, that the head and body of Husain were reunited. It is\nknown as the 'Id-i-sar wa tan (head and body feast).\n\nThe Sunnis do not, except as spectators, take any part in the Muharram\nceremonies. Indeed, where the ruling power is not strong, there is often\nmuch ill-feeling aroused by the enthusiasm excited for all that concerns\n'Ali and his family. The three first Khalifs are often well abused, and\nthat no Sunni can bear with patience. The breach between the Sunni and the\nShia'h is very wide, and the annual recurrence of the Muharram feast tends\nto keep alive the distinction.\n\n{242}\n\nThe tenth day--the 'Ashura is, however, a Sunnat feast and, as such, is\nobserved by all Sunnis. It is considered to be a most excellent day, for on\nit God is said to have created Adam and Eve, His throne, heaven, hell, the\nseat of judgment, the tablet of decree, the pen, fate, life and death.\n\nThe Sunnis about three o'clock in the afternoon of this day prepare sherbet\nand khichri--a dish composed of boiled rice and pulse mixed with clarified\nbutter and spices. A Fatiha in the name of Husain and of those who were\nmartyred with him is then said. The food is disposed of as usual in such\ncases. A Namaz of some nafl rak'ats is said and sometimes a Du'a is added.\nOn this day also they go to the burial grounds and place flowers on, and\nsay Fatiha over the graves of their friends.\n\nIndian Musalmans have copied in their feast many Hindu ceremonies. The\nprocession of the Tazias, and the casting of them into the water is very\nsimilar to the procession at the Hindu feast of the Durga Puja,[250] when\non the tenth day the Hindus cast the idol Durga, the wife of Siva, into the\nGanges. The oblations offered at different shrines are similar to those\noffered by the Hindus, such as rice, clarified butter and flowers.\n\nThe Muhammadan form of worship was too simple for a country, in which an\nallegorical and idolatrous religion predominated, addressing itself to the\nsenses and the imaginations rather than to the understanding and the heart;\nconsequently the Musalman festivals have borrowed from it a variety of\npagan rites, and a pompous and splendid ceremonial. While this has done\nmuch to add to the superstition of the Musalmans in India, it has no doubt\nsoftened their intolerant spirit. Though the Sunnis consider the Shia'h\nobservances as impious, they look on with the contempt of indifference. The\nfact that the British Government punishes all who break {243} the peace may\nhave something to do with this. Still the Sunni and the Shia'h in India\nlive on much better terms, and have more respect for each other than the\nTurk has for the Persian, or the Persian for the Turk. Some Musalman poets,\nindeed, are both Sunnis and Shia'hs. Thus Wali, begins his poem with a\nbrief encomium on the four first Khalifs, and then bestows an eulogy on\n'Ali and his sons Hasan and Husain whom he calls \"Imams of the world.\"\n\nThe following is a prayer used in a Fatiha for 'Ali:--\n\n    I pray, \"That God may deign for the sake of that pure soul, the\n    ornament of the book of nature, the first of mortals after the Prophet,\n    the star of mortals, the most precious jewel of the jewel-box of\n    virtue, the lord of the high and the low, he who occupies a\n    distinguished place on the bridge of eternity, the mihrab[251] of the\n    faith, he who sits upon the throne of the palace of the law, the ship\n    of the sea of religion, the sun of the firmament of glory, the power of\n    the arm of the Prophet, he who has merited access to the tabernacle of\n    the Divine Unity, the most profound of all religious people, the\n    resplendent brightness of the marvels of God, the father of victory,\n    the Imam of the gate of heaven, the cup-bearer of the water of Kausar,\n    he who has merited the praise of Muhammad, he who is the best of men,\n    the holy martyr, the chief of Believers, the Imam of the Faithful,\n    'Ali, son of Abu Talib, 'Ali the victorious lion of the Most High. I\n    pray that God for the sake of this holy Khalif may favourably hear the\n    vows which I offer to Him.\"\n\nThe following prayer occurs in a Fatiha said for Hasan and Husain:--\n\n    I pray, \"That the eternal God may deign to accept the vows which I make\n    for the repose of the glorious souls of the two brave Imams, the\n    martyrs well-beloved by God, the innocent victims of wickedness, the\n    blessed Abu Muhammad Al-Hasan and Abu 'Abd-Allah Al-Husain, and for the\n    twelve Imams, and the fourteen[252] pure ones, and for the seventy-two\n    martyrs of the plain of Karbala.\"\n\n{244}\n\n2. AKHIR-I-CHAR SHAMBA.--This feast is held on the last Wednesday of the\nmonth Safar. It is kept in commemoration of the fact, that, as on this day,\nthe Prophet experienced some mitigation of the disorder which in the next\nmonth terminated his life. Sweet cakes are prepared, and Fatihas in the\nname of the Prophet are said over them; but the most extraordinary custom\nis the drinking of the seven Salams. A plantain, or a mango tree leaf, or a\npiece of paper is taken to a Mulla, or a religious teacher, who writes\nseven short sentences from the Quran upon it. The writing whilst still wet\nis washed off, and the mixture drunk by the person for whom it was written.\nPeace and happiness are thus ensured for the future. The seven Salams are:\n(1) \"Peace! shall be the word on the part of a merciful Lord.\" (Sura xxxvi.\n58). (2) \"Peace be on Noah throughout the worlds.\" (Sura xxxvii. 77). (3)\n\"Peace be on Abraham.\" (Sura xxxvii. 109). (4) \"Peace be on Moses and\nAaron.\" (Sura xxxvii. 120). (5) \"Peace be on Elias.\" (Sura xxxvii. 130).\n(6) \"Peace be on you, ye have been good; enter into Paradise.\" (Sura xxxix.\n73). (7) \"It is peace till the breaking of the morn.\" (Sura xcvii. 5). The\nShia'hs consider this an unlucky day. They call it \"Char\nShamba-i-Suri.\"--The \"Wednesday of the Trumpet;\" that is, of the trumpet of\nthe last day. The Sunnis, on the other hand, rejoice in the day, and esteem\nit an excellent and auspicious season.\n\n3. BARA WAFAT.--This feast is held on the twelfth day of the month\nRabi'-ul-Awwal. The name is derived from bara, twelve and wafat, death,\nbecause many suppose that on this day the Prophet died. According to a\nwell-known Muslim writer \"the terrific intelligence, circulating throughout\nthe world, produced universal consternation, and all hastened to offer to\nGod their vows and prayers for the repose of the Prophet's soul.\" Others,\nhowever, maintain that he died on the second of the month and, as there is\nsome doubt on the subject, many persons make a Fatiha {245} every day, from\nthe first to the twelfth of the month inclusive. Those who keep the feast\nas Bara Wafat observe the ceremony called Sandal on the previous evening,\nand the 'Urs, that is, the prayers and the oblations, on the twelfth. The\nSandal consists in making a perfumed embrocation from sandal wood. This is\nthen placed into a vessel and carried in procession to the 'Id-gah,[253] or\nto the place where Fatiha will be said. It is then distributed to the\npeople. It is a sort of public notice on the eve of a Feast day, or of a\nSaint's day, that on the morrow the usual prayers and offerings will be\nmade in such and such a place. On the morning of the twelfth, the Quran is\nread in the Mosque, or in private houses: then food is cooked and Fatihas\nare said.\n\nSome persons possess a Qadam-i-Rasul, or footstep of the Prophet. This is a\nstone with the impression of a footstep on it. It is a sacred thing and on\nthis day the place in which it is kept is elegantly decorated. When a\ncompany has assembled, some persons appointed for the purpose, repeat the\nstory of the birth, miracles and death of the Prophet. Portions of the\nQuran are read and the Darud is said.[254]\n\nIn Madras, and in some other parts, it is more customary to keep this day,\nnot as the anniversary of the death of the Prophet, but as the\n\"'Jashn-i-milad-i-Sharif,\" the \"Feast of the noble birth.\" The practical\nduties are the same. Instead of the Qadam-i-Rasul, the Asar-i-Sharif is\nexhibited. This is supposed to be a real portion of the hair of the\nProphet's beard and moustache. It is said to possess {246} the miraculous\nproperty of growing again when a portion is broken off. On this day it is\nput into rose water which those present then drink and rub on their eyes.\nGreat virtue is attached to this proceeding. In the Asar Khana, or house in\nwhich this hair is kept Fatihas, Daruds, &c., are repeated.\n\nThe observance of this festival is neither wajib nor sunnat, but mustahab.\nIt is generally kept, and it is a very rare thing to meet a person who does\nnot believe in the miraculous growth of the Asar-i-Sharif.\n\n4. SHAB BARAT.--This feast, the name of which signifies the \"night of the\nrecord,\" is held on the fourteenth day of the month Sh'aban. The 'Arfa, or\nvigil is kept on the preceding day.[255] It is commonly but erroneously\ncalled Shab-i-Barat.\n\nThe word Barat signifies a book or record. It is said that God on this\nnight registers in the Barat all the actions men are to perform during the\nensuing year. On the thirteenth day food is prepared for the poor and a\nFatiha for the benefit of deceased ancestors and relatives is said over it.\nWhen all in the house are assembled, the Surat-ul-Fatiha is read once, the\nSurat-ul-Iklas (112) three times, the Ayat-ul-Kursi once, and then the\nDarud. After this a prayer is offered, in which God is asked to transfer\nthe reward of this Service, and of the charity shown in the gift of food to\nthe poor, to the souls of deceased relatives and friends of this family.\nThis petition is offered in the name of the Prophet. The men then go to the\nMosque and after the Namaz-i-'Isha they repeat a number of nafl rak'ats.\nThis over, the Surat-ul-Ya Sin is read three times. It must be done with\nthe niyyat, intention. The first time, the intention is that the worshipper\nmay have a long life; the second time, that his means of subsistence may be\nincreased; the third time, that he may be protected from evil. {247} The\nSura-i-Dukhan (144) is then read with the same intentions. Any other\nportions may then be read. After this those present rise, and go to the\nvarious cemeteries. On the way they purchase flowers which are afterwards\nstrewn on the graves. A Fatiha is then said. If the worshipper has no\nrelatives or friends buried there, prayer is offered for the benefit of the\nArwah-i-Qubur, the souls of those there buried. The very pious spend the\nwhole night in going from one cemetery to another.\n\nThese observances are neither farz, nor sunnat, but nawafil, (sing. nafl),\nworks of supererogation. Still though they are bid'at, yet they are\nesteemed good and so are called bid'at-i-Hasana, or \"excellent innovation.\"\nThe general merry-making of the fourteenth day has no religious\nsignification. The night of the fifteenth is the Guy Fawkes night of Islam.\nLarge sums of money are spent on fireworks, of which more are let off on\nthis feast than at any other.\n\nThe following prayer occurs in the Fatiha: \"O our God, by the merits of the\nApostleship of Muhammad, grant that the lamps which are lit up on this holy\nnight may be for the dead a pledge of the light eternal, which we pray Thee\nto shed on them. O God, admit them, we beseech Thee, unto the abode of\neternal felicity.\"\n\n5. RAMAZAN AND 'ID-UL-FITR--It is one of the five pillars of the practical\nreligious duties to fast during the thirty days of the month Ramazan. The\nsubject of fasting has been fully treated of in the preceding chapter; and\nso it is only necessary now to describe the other ceremonies connected with\nthe religious observance of this month.\n\nFrom the earliest days of Islam this month has been held in the greatest\nesteem by Muslims, for it was in this month that Muhammad used to retire\nfor meditation, year after year, to the cave of Hira, situated on a low\nhill some few miles distant from Mecca. In the second year of the Hijra, or\nflight from Mecca, it was ordained that the month of Ramazan should be kept\nas a fast. \"As to the month {248} Ramazan, in which the Quran was sent down\nto be man's guidance, and an explanation of that guidance, and of that\nillumination, as soon as any one of you observeth the moon, let him set\nabout the fast.\" (Sura ii. 181).\n\nThe Muslims had hitherto observed as the principal fast the 'Ashura, the\ntenth of Muharram. This fast was probably connected with the Jewish fast on\nthe tenth day of the seventh month. \"Also on the tenth day of this seventh\nmonth there shall be a day of atonement: it shall be an holy convocation\nunto you; and ye shall afflict your souls, &c.\" (Leviticus xxiii. 27). Now,\nwhen Muhammad first went to Madina he had great hopes of winning over the\nJews to his side; but when he failed he took every opportunity of making\nIslam differ as much as possible from Judaism. This was the reason why the\nQibla was changed (Ante. p. 60), and that in the second year of his\nresidence at Madina the fast of Ramazan was appointed. The reasons assigned\nby learned Muslims for the selection of this month, are that in Ramazan God\ngave to the previous prophets the revelations connected with their names,\nand that in this month the Quran was sent down from the Secret Tablet in\nthe seventh heaven to the first or lowest, and that on the Laylut-ul-Qadr,\nor 'night of power' the first revelation was made to Muhammad. \"Verily we\nhave caused it (Quran) to descend on the 'night of power.' And who shall\nteach thee what the night of power is? The night of power excelleth a\nthousand nights.\" (Sura xcvii. 1-3). To illustrate the sacredness of this\nmonth the Prophet used to say that in it \"the gates of Paradise are open,\nand the gates of hell are shut, and the devils are chained by the leg.\"\n\"Only those who observe it will be allowed to enter by the gate of heaven\ncalled Rayyan.\" Those who keep the fast \"will be pardoned all their past\nvenial sins.\"[256]\n\nIn making the fast one for the day, and none for the night, {249} Muhammad\ndoubtless had reference to the verse: \"God wisheth you ease, but wisheth\nnot your discomfort.\" (Sura ii. 181).\n\nThe special ceremonies connected with the Ramazan are the Tarawih Namaz and\n'Itikaf (retirement). The Tarawih prayers have been described already (p.\n205). Each night in Ramazan one-thirtieth part (sipara) of the Quran is\nrecited in the Mosque. The duty of performing the 'Itikaf is a\nSunnat-ul-maukadda, a very strict duty. The Mu'takif, one who makes\n'Itikaf, must remain apart in a Mosque used for public services, and there\nmeditate. Bukhari says that the Prophet made 'Itikaf the last ten days of\neach Ramazan, and that the practice was continued by his wives after his\ndeath. Usually a man should thus sit and meditate one of the days between\nthe twentieth and the thirtieth of Ramazan. If his meditation is disturbed\nby any illegal interruption, another day should be devoted to it; but Imam\nMuhammad says: \"The least legal time is one hour.\" Some theologians hold\nthat 'Itikaf is farz-i-kifaya, that is, if one person of a community does\nit the obligation does not rest on the others. If, however, a person makes\na vow in Ramazan, then 'Itikaf is considered wajib. 'Itikaf can be\nperformed at any time other than the last ten days of Ramazan, but then it\nis only mustahab, a work of supererogation. All the sects except the\nShafa'ites hold that the Mu'takif must fast. He should also make the\nnizzat, or intention, of performing what he is about to do. The Mu'takif\nmust not go out of the Mosque except for obviously necessary purposes, and\nfor making the legal wazu and ghusl (purifications). At night he may eat,\ndrink and sleep in the Mosque: acts quite unlawful at other times. He may\nspeak with others on religious matters, and if a man of business, he may\ngive orders with regard to the purchase and sale of merchandize, but on no\naccount must any goods be brought to him. It is highly meritorious for him\nto read the Quran in an audible voice. By such an act he becomes {250} a\nman of penetration, whose words are as powerful as a sharp sword.[257]\n\nWhen the thirty days have passed the fast is broken. This act is called\nIftar, and the first day on which food is taken is called the\n'Id-ul-Fitr--the 'Feast of the breaking of the fast.' On that day the\nSadqa, or alms are given before the Namaz is said in the Mosque. The Sadqa\nof the 'Id-ul-Fitr is confined to Muslims: no other persons receive it. If\nany one neglects to give these alms before the Namaz is said, he will not\nmerit so great a reward as he otherwise would. The reason assigned for this\nis that, unless they are given early in the day, the poor cannot refresh\nthemselves before coming to the Mosque for the Namaz. The Sadqa are given\nfor the good of one's own soul, for that of young children, slaves male and\nfemale--Muslim or Infidel; but not for the spiritual benefit of one's wife\nor elder children.\n\nIn South India, the Sadqa consists of a gift of sufficient rice to feed one\nperson. When this has been done the people go to the Mosque saying, 'God is\ngreat! God is great!' The Namaz is like that of a Friday, except that only\ntwo rak'ats are said, and the Khutba which is said after the Namaz is\nsunnat; whereas the Friday Khutba is said before the farz rak'ats, and is\nitself of farz obligation. After hearing the sermon, the people disperse,\nvisit each other and thoroughly enjoy themselves.\n\nA very usual form of the Khutba of the 'Id-ul-Fitr which is preached in\nArabic is as follows:--\n\n    SERMON ON THE 'ID-UL-FITR.\n\n    In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.\n\n    \"Holy is God who has opened the door of mercy for those who fast, and\n    in mercy and kindness has granted them the right of entrance into\n    heaven. God is greater than all. There is no God save Him. God is\n    great! God is great! and worthy of praise. It {251} is of His grace and\n    favour that He rewards those who keep the fast. He has said: 'I will\n    give in the future world houses and palaces, and many excellent\n    blessings to those who fast. God is great! God is great! Holy is He who\n    certainly sent the Quran to our Prophet in the month of Ramazan, and\n    who sends angels to grant peace to all true believers. God is great!\n    and worthy of all praise. We praise and thank Him for the 'Id-ul-Fitr,\n    that great blessing; and we testify that beside Him there is no God. He\n    is alone. He has no partner. This witness which we give to His Unity\n    will be a cause of our safety here, and finally gain us an entrance to\n    Paradise. Muhammad (on whom be the mercy and peace of God) and all\n    famous prophets are His slaves. He is the Lord of genii and of men.\n    From Him comes mercy and peace upon Muhammad and his family, so long as\n    the world shall last. God is greater than all. There is none beside\n    Him. God is great! God is great! and worthy of all praise. O company of\n    Believers, O congregation of Muslims, the mercy of the True One is on\n    you. He says that this Feast day is a blessing to you, and a curse to\n    the unbelievers. Your fasting will not be rewarded, and your prayers\n    will be stayed in their flight to heaven until you have given the\n    sadqa.[258] O congregation of Believers, to give alms is to you a wajib\n    duty. Give to the poor some measures of grain or its money equivalent.\n    Your duty in Ramazan was to say the Tarawih prayers, to make\n    supplication to God, to sit and meditate ('Itikaf) and to read the\n    Quran. The religious duties of the first ten days of Ramazan gain the\n    mercy of God, those of the second ten merit His pardon; whilst those of\n    the last ten save those who do them from the punishment of hell. God\n    has declared that Ramazan is a noble month, for is not one of its\n    nights, the Laylut-ul-Qadr, better than a thousand months? On that\n    night Gabriel and the angels descended from heaven: till the morning\n    breaks it is full of blessing. Its eloquent interpreter, and its\n    clearest proof is the Quran, the Word of God, most Gracious. Holy is\n    God who says in the Quran: \"This word of God comes down in the month of\n    Ramazan.\" This is a guide for men, a distinguisher between right and\n    wrong. O Believers, in such a month be present, obey the order of your\n    God and fast; but let the sick and the travellers substitute some other\n    days on which to fast so that no days be lost, and say: \"God is great!\"\n    and praise Him. God has made the fast easy for you. O Believers, God\n    will bless you and us by the grace of the Holy Quran. Every verse of it\n    is a benefit to us and fills us with wisdom. God is the Bestower, the\n    {252} Holy King, the Munificent, the Kind, the Nourisher, the Merciful,\n    the Clement.\"[259]\n\n\"The assemblies of the ladies on this 'Id are marked by all the amusements\nand indulgences they can possibly invent or enjoy in their secluded state.\nSome receiving, others paying visits in covered conveyances; all doing\nhonour to the day by wearing their best jewellery and splendid dress. The\nZanana rings with festive songs and loud music, the cheerful meeting of\nfriends, the distribution of presents to dependents, and remembrances to\nthe poor; all is life and joy, cheerful bustle and amusement, on this happy\nday of 'Id, when the good lady of the Mansion sits in state to receive\npresents from inferiors and to grant proofs of her favour to others.\"[260]\n\n6. The Baqr-'Id.--This is the most important Feast in the whole year. It is\nalso known as the 'Id-i-Qurban, and as the 'Id-ul-Azha, commonly called the\nId-uz-Zuha, the feast of sacrifice. In Turkey and in Egypt it is called\nBairam. Its origin was as follows: A few months after the Hijra, or flight\nfrom Mecca, Muhammad, dwelling in Madina, observed that the Jews kept, on\nthe tenth day of the seventh month, the great fast of the Atonement. A\nTradition records that the Prophet asked them why they kept this fast. He\nwas informed that it was a memorial of the deliverance of Moses and the\nchildren of Israel from the hands of Pharaoh. \"We have a greater right in\nMoses than they,\" said Muhammad, so he fasted with the Jews and commanded\nhis followers to fast also. This was at the period of his mission when\nMuhammad was friendly with the Jews of Madina, who occasionally came to\nhear him preach. The Prophet also occasionally attended the synagogue. Then\ncame the change of the Qibla from Jerusalem to Mecca, for the Jews were not\nso ready to change their {253} creed as Muhammad had at first hoped. In the\nsecond year of the Hijra, Muhammad and his followers did not participate in\nthe Jewish fast, for the Prophet now instituted the feast of the Baqr-'Id.\nThe idolatrous Arabs had been in the habit of making an annual pilgrimage\nto Mecca at this season of the year. The offering of animals in sacrifice\nformed a part of the concluding ceremony of that pilgrimage. That\nportion--the sacrifice of animals--Muhammad adopted in the feast which now,\nat Madina, he substituted for the Jewish fast. This was well calculated to\nattract the attention of the Meccans and to gain the goodwill of the Arabs.\nMuhammad could not then make the pilgrimage to Mecca, for as yet there was\na hostile feeling between the inhabitants of the two cities; but on the\ntenth day of the month Zu'l-Hajja, at the very time when the Arabs at Mecca\nwere engaged in sacrificing victims, Muhammad went forth from his house at\nMadina, and assembling his followers instituted the Id-uz-Zuha or Baqr-'Id.\nTwo young kids were brought before him. One he sacrificed and said: \"O\nLord! I sacrifice this for my whole people, all those who bear witness to\nThy unity and to my mission. O Lord! this is for Muhammad and for the\nfamily of Muhammad.\"\n\nGreat merit is obtained by all who keep this feast. 'Ayesha relates how the\nProphet once said: \"Man hath not done anything on the 'Id-ul-Azha more\npleasing to God than spilling blood; for verily the animal sacrificed will\ncome on the day of resurrection with its horns, hair and hoofs, and will\nmake the scale of his good actions very heavy. Verily its blood reached the\nacceptance of God before it falleth upon the ground, therefore be joyful in\nit.\"\n\nMusalmans say that the Patriarch Abraham was ordered to sacrifice Ishmael,\nand that he made several ineffectual attempts to cut the throat of his son.\nIshmael then said to his father: \"It is through pity and compassion for me\nthat you allow the knife to miss: blindfold yourself and then sacrifice\nme.\" Abraham acted upon this advice, {254} blindfolded himself, drew his\nknife, repeated the Bismillah, and, as he thought, cut the throat of his\nson; but, behold, in the meantime Gabriel had substituted a sheep for the\nlad. This event is commemorated in this feast.\n\nOn the day before the feast, the Arfa, or vigil, is kept. Food of various\nkinds is prepared, over which a Fatiha is offered, first, in the name of\nthe Prophet; secondly, in the names of deceased relatives, and of others\nfor whom a blessing is desired, or from whom some favor is expected. The\nfood is then sent as a present to friends.\n\nOn the morning of the feast day, the devout Muslims proceed to the 'Id-gah\nor, if there is no 'Id-gah, to the principal Mosque, repeating on the way\nthe Takbir \"God is Great!\" and \"There is no other God save the one true\nGod, God is great, praise be to God.\" At the time of making wazu, the\nworshipper should say: \"O God, make this (_i.e._ the sacrifice I shall\noffer to-day) an atonement for my sin, and purify my religion and take evil\naway from me.\"\n\nThe Service at the 'Id-gah, or in the Mosque consists of two farz rak'ats,\nas in the Salat-ul-Juma (p. 201), after the Khutba is delivered. It will,\nhowever, be seen from the following sermon that it is mustahab to say four\nmore rak'ats.\n\n    SERMON ON THE 'ID-UZ-ZUHA.\n\n    In the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful.\n\n    Allahu Akbar! God is Great. There is no God but God. God is Great! God\n    is Great and worthy of all praise. He is Holy. Day and night we should\n    praise Him. He is without partner, without equal. All praise be to Him.\n    Holy is He, Who makes the rich generous, Who provides the sacrifice for\n    the wise. He is Great, without an equal. All praise be to Him. Listen!\n    I testify that there is no God but God. He is alone, without partner.\n    This testimony is as bright as the early dawn, as brilliant as the\n    glorious feast day. Muhammad is His servant who delivered His message.\n    On Muhammad, and on his family, and on his Companions may the peace of\n    God rest. On you who are present, O congregation of Muslimin, may the\n    {255} mercy of God for ever rest. O servants of God! our first duty is\n    to fear God and to be kind. God has said: \"I will be with those who\n    fear Me and are kind.\"\n\n    Know O servants of God! that to rejoice on the feast day is the sign\n    and mark of the pure and good. Exalted will be the rank of such in\n    Paradise (Dar-ul-Qarar), especially on the day of resurrection will\n    they obtain dignity and honour. Do not on this day foolish acts. It is\n    no time for amusements and negligence. This is the day on which to\n    utter the praises of God. (Tasbih.) Read the Kalima, the Takbir and the\n    Tamhid. This is a high festival season and the feast of sacrifice. Read\n    now the Takbir-ut-Tashriq. God is great! God is great! There is no God\n    but God! God is great! God is great! All praise be to Him! From the\n    morning of the 'Arfa, after every farz rak'at it is good (mustahab) for\n    a person to repeat the Takbir-ut-Tashriq. The woman before whom is a\n    man as Imam, and the traveller whose Imam is a permanent resident\n    (Muqim) should also repeat this Takbir. It should be said at each Namaz\n    until the Salat-ul-'Asr of the Feast day (10th). Some, however, say\n    that it should be recited every day till the afternoon ('Asr) of the\n    thirteenth day, as these are the days of the Tashriq (p. 231).[261] If\n    the Imam forgets to recite, let not the worshipper forget. Know, O\n    believers, that every free man who is a Sahib-i-Nisab (_i.e._ worth Rs.\n    52) should offer sacrifice on this day, provided that this sum is\n    exclusive of his horse, his clothes, his tools, and his household goods\n    and slaves. It is wajib for every one to offer sacrifice for himself,\n    but it is not a wajib order that he should do it for his children.[262]\n    A goat, a ram or a cow should be offered in sacrifice for every seven\n    persons. The victim must not be one-eyed, blind, lame or very thin.\n\n    If you sacrifice a fat animal it will serve you well, and carry you\n    across the Sirat. O Believers, thus said the Prophet, on whom be the\n    mercy and peace of God, \"Sacrifice the victim with your own hands, this\n    was the Sunnat of Ibrahim, on whom be peace.\"\n\n    In the Kitab-uz-zad-ut-Taqwa, it is said that on the 'Id-ul-Fitr and\n    the 'Id-uz-Zuha, four nafl rak'ats should be said after the farz Namaz\n    {256} of the 'Id. In the first rak'at after the Surat-ul-Fatiha recite\n    the Surat-ul-A'la (Sura lxxvii); in the second, the Surat-ush-Shams\n    (Sura xci); in the third, the Surat-uz-Zuha (Sura xciii); in the\n    fourth, the Surat-ul-Ikhlas (cxii).\n\n    O Believers, if ye do so, God will pardon the sins of fifty years which\n    are past and of fifty years to come. The reading of these Suras are\n    equal as an act of merit to the reading of all the books God has sent\n    by His prophets.\n\n    May God include us amongst those who are accepted by Him, who act\n    according to the Law, whose desire will be granted at the last day. To\n    all such there will be no fear in the day of resurrection; no sorrow in\n    the examination at the day of judgment. The best of all books is the\n    Quran. O believers! May God give to us, and to you a blessing for ever\n    by the grace of the Noble Quran. May its verses be our guide, and may\n    its wise mention of God direct us aright. I desire that God may pardon\n    all believers, male and female, the Muslimin and the Muslimat. O\n    believers, also seek for pardon. Truly God is the Forgiver, the\n    Merciful, the Eternal King, the Compassionate, the Clement. O\n    believers, the Khutba is over. Let all desire that on Muhammad Mustafa\n    the mercy and peace of God may rest.\n\nThe worshippers then return to their respective homes and offer up the\nsacrifice,[263] for it is a wajib order that every Muslim should keep this\nfeast, and sacrifice an animal for himself. He need not fear though he has\nto incur debt for the purchase of an animal, for it is said that God will\nin some way help him to pay the debt. If a camel is sacrificed, it should\nbe one not less than five years of age, if a cow or sheep it should at\nleast be in its second year, though the third year is better; if a goat it\nmust not be less than six months old. All of these animals must be without\na blemish, or defect of any kind. It is a sunnat order that the head of the\nhousehold should himself slay the victim. If, however, from any cause, he\ncannot do so, he may call in a butcher; but in that case he must place his\nhand upon that of the butcher when the operation is performed. If the {257}\nvictim is a camel, it must be placed with the head towards Mecca. Its front\nlegs being bandaged together the sacrificer must stand on the right hand\nside of the victim, and plunge the knife into its throat with such force\nthat the animal may fall at once. Any other mode of slaying it is unlawful.\nOther animals must be slain in the same way. Just before slaying the victim\nthe following verse of the Quran should be repeated: \"Say! my prayers, and\nmy worship, and my life and my death are unto God, the Lord of the worlds.\nHe hath no associate. This am I commanded, and I am the first of the\nMuslims.\" (Sura vi. 163). The operator also adds: \"O God, from Thee, and to\nThee (I do this), in the name of God, God is Great!\" Then having slain the\nvictim he says: \"O God accept this for me.\" The first meal taken should be\nprepared from the flesh of the animal just slaughtered, after which the\nmembers of the family, the neighbours, and the poor should receive some\nportions.\n\nIt is considered highly meritorious to sacrifice one animal for each member\nof the family; but as that would involve an expenditure few could bear, it\nis allowable to sacrifice one victim for the household. In extreme cases\nmen may combine together and make one sacrifice do for the whole, but the\nnumber of persons so combining must not exceed seventy. Some authorities\nlimit the number to seven. This feast is strictly observed by all Muslims\nwherever they may be.\n\nThe Baqr-'Id and the 'Id-ul-Fitr constitute the 'Idain, the two great\nFeasts of Islam. A country in which Musalmans could not observe them both\nwould at once become Dar-ul-Harb, or House of Enmity, in which it would be\nthe bounden duty of every Muslim to join in a Jihad, against the Infidel\nrulers of the land.\n\nThis completes the principal Feasts of the Muslim year.\n\nAmong other practices borrowed from the Hindus must be placed the\npilgrimage made by Indian Musalmans to the {258} shrines of Saints, the\nceremonies connected with them and the festivals instituted in their\nhonour. Properly speaking, the Sunnis have but two festivals--the Baqr-'Id\nand the 'Id-ul-Fitr, but many others are now observed. Of these I have\ndescribed several. It only remains to notice a few of the festival days\nwhich are peculiar to India. The title of Pir given to a Musalman devotee\nis equivalent to the term Guru amongst the Hindus. A man who seeks to be a\n'religious' takes a Pir as a spiritual guide. \"Follow,\" says the poet Wali,\n\"the footsteps of thy Pir, like a shadow.\" After death these Pirs are\nvenerated as Walis or Saints. The Pirs when alive, are frequently resorted\nto for a ta'wiz, or charm, and the aid of their prayers is often invoked.\nThe sepulchre of a Wali is called a Dargah, shrine; Mazar, place of\npilgrimage; Rauza, garden. The professional reciter of the Quran, and the\nNamaz at such places is called a Rauza Khan. As a rule, processions are\nmade to the shrines, and flowers, sweetmeats and food over which a Fatiha\nhas been said are offered. Usually the Fatiha is _for_ the Saint, not _to_\nthe Saint. It is considered a very meritorious act to give land for the\nerection of such shrines and to endow them. An account of many of these\nSaints is given in the Bara Masa by Jawan and the Arayish-i-Mahfil by\nAfsos. The following selection will give an idea of the customs\nprevalent:--\n\n1. FESTIVAL OF MADAR.--Sayyid Badr-ud-din Kutb-ul-Madar is said to have\ndescended from the Imam Husain. He was born at Aleppo about A.D. 1050, and\nreceived from Muhammad permission to \"hold his breath\" (Habs-i-dam). Thus\nhe was able to live to a good old age. He is said to have had 1,442 sons,\nand to have died when upwards of 300 years old. More rational people\nexplain the number of his sons by saying they were his spiritual children.\nThe length of his life is explained by saying that as each man has to make\na certain number of inspirations, the less frequently he does it the longer\nhe will live. Jawan in his account of {259} the festival states: \"The tomb\nof Madar is at Makanpur, a place about forty miles from Cawnpore.\" On the\nseventeenth of the month Jamadi-ul-Awwal an immense crowd fills the village\nwhich is illuminated at night. Fires are lighted, around which Fakirs\ndance, and through which they leap calling out \"Dam Madar, Dam Madar,\"\n(breath of Madar.) An order of Fakirs, called Madaria, look to this Saint\nas their patron. In distant places where this feast is kept they set up an\nAlam, or standard in honour of the Saint, and perform ceremonies common to\nsuch days. The nights are spent in celebrating his praises, &c.\n\n2. FESTIVAL OF MU'IN-UD-DIN CHISTI.[264]--The tomb of this Saint is in\nAjmir. He was a Syed descended from Husain, the son of 'Ali, and was born\nin Sajistan about the year 537 A.H. His father died when he was about\nfifteen years old. Soon after this he fell in with a famous Fakir, Ibrahim\nQanduzi, through whose influence he began to seek the Tariqat, or mystical\nroad to the knowledge of God. When he was twenty years of age he received\nfurther instruction from the famous 'Abd-ul-Qadir Jilani. After the\nconquest of Hindustan by Shahab-ud-din Ghori, Mu'in-ud-din retired to\nAjmir, where he died in the odour of sanctity 636 A.H. Pilgrimages to this\ntomb have been and are very popular. Emperors and people vied with each\nother in doing honour to the memory of this saint. Even Akbar, sceptic\nthough he was as regards orthodox Islam, made a pilgrimage to this shrine,\nand offered vows that he might have a son who would live to manhood. Hindus\nalso visit this tomb and presents from rich men of this class are not\nunusual.\n\n3. FESTIVAL OF SALAR MAS'UD GHAZI.--There is some doubt as to the\nnationality of this Saint. Some say he was a Husaini Syed, others that he\nwas a Pathan, and a martyr. His tomb is situated in Oude. Afsos thus\ndescribes the {260} pilgrimage. \"Once a year great crowds of people gather\nfrom all parts. They carry red lances, and beat thousands of tambourines.\nThe 'Urs is held on the first Sunday of the month Jith (May-June). The\npeople believe that this was his wedding day, because it is said that he\nhad on wedding garments when he was killed. This belief once led a certain\noilman, a resident of Raduli, to send a bedstead, chair, and other marriage\npresents to the shrine at this time. The custom is still kept up by the\ndescendants of the oilman. The common people fasten ropes to the branches\nof the trees in the neighbourhood, and swing, some by the hands and some by\nthe heels, and assume various disguises. They thus hope to obtain what they\ndesire.\" The Hindus venerate this Saint very highly. The Musalmans look\nupon him as a most sacred person, for he slew many idolatrous Hindus, and\nso earned the title of Ghazi, the warrior: the Hindus consider that it was\nonly by the power of God that he could do so many acts of prowess.\n\n4. FESTIVAL OF THE BIRA OR OF KHAJA KHIZR.--Of this Saint, M. Garcin de\nTassy says: \"Khaja Khizr is a personage respecting whom the opinions of\norientals vary. Many consider him the same as Phineas, the grandson of\nAaron; others that he is the prophet Elias; and lastly, the Turks confound\nhim with St. George. In order to reconcile these conflicting opinions, some\nallege that the same soul has animated three different persons. Whatever be\nthe fact, Khizr, according to the Musalmans, discovered the source of the\nWater of Life of which he is the guardian. He is believed to be very clever\nin divination, and to be the patron of waters. As such a festival is held\nin his honour.\" Jawan describes it thus: \"In the month of Bhadun\n(August-September) all whose wishes have been fulfilled, make it a point of\nduty to set afloat the boat (nau) in honour of Khaja Khizr, and to make\naccording to their means offerings of milk and bruised grain to the holy\npersonage. On every Friday, and in some places on every Thursday, in the\nmonth {261} in question, the devotees having prepared the bira carry it at\nnight to the bank of the river, with many ceremonies. There great and\nsmall, having lighted lamps and tapers, make their respective oblations,\nwhilst a number of swimmers together jointly push the bira into the middle\nof the river.\" Sometimes a number of small biras, made of clay, are also\nlaunched, and as each carries a lamp the general effect is striking. It is\nsaid that the Musalman natives of the Maldive Islands annually launch a\nsmall vessel laden with perfumes, gum, and odoriferous flowers, and leave\nit to the mercy of the winds and waves as an offering to the god of the\nsea. There can be no doubt that this god of the sea is Khizr, the patron of\nthe waters.\n\nThe following prayer is recited in the Fatiha of Khizr: \"To obtain purity\nof heart, and the benediction of Him who hears the vows of mortals, and who\nalone can keep from them all evils, I rest upon the merits of Khaja Khizr,\nthe great prophet Elias.\"\n\n5. THE FEAST OF PIR DASTGIR SAHIB.--This is held on the eleventh day of the\nmonth of Rabi'-us-Sani. The Sunnis hold this Saint in great reverence. He\nhas no less than ninety-nine names. His tomb is at Baghdad. On the tenth of\nthe month the ceremony called Sandal (p. 245) is performed, followed on the\nnext day by the 'Urs, when the Maulad, or the account of the circumstances\nconnected with the birth of the saint is read; Qasa,id, or elegiac poems\nare recited; the Darud is repeated and Fatihas are said. The Quran is also\nread through. Vows are frequently made to this Saint and in time of any\nspecial visitation, such as cholera, a flag is carried about in honour of\nthis Pir by some of his devotees to whom presents of food, &c, are offered.\nFatiha is then said over them. He is said to appear to his followers during\ntheir sleep and to give them directions. Ja'far Sharif, the compiler of the\nQanun-i-Islam speaking, on this point relates his own experience thus: \"The\nauthor speaks from personal experience, for at the time of need, when he\n{262} was oppressed in mind concerning things which he desired, he used to\nrepeat constantly the ninety-nine names of the Pir and vow before the Holy\nGod, imploring His assistance by the soul of Dastgir; and through the mercy\nof the Almighty, his Excellency Ghaus-ul-A'zam (Dastgir) presented himself\nin his sleep, and relieved him of his perplexities and vouchsafed his\nbehests.\"\n\nSyed Ahmad Kabir Rafai, the founder of the Rafai Darwishes was a nephew of\nthis Saint.\n\n6. FESTIVAL OF QADIR WALI SAHIB.--This is the great saint of Southern\nIndia. The 'Urs is celebrated on the tenth day of Jamadi-us-Sani. The\nshrine is at Nagore, a town situated four miles north of Negapatam. The\nsandal and other ceremonies are similar to those described already. He is\nthe patron saint of sailors, who in times of difficulty vow that, if they\nreach the shore in safety, they will offer a Fatiha in the name of Qadir\nWali. The common people have a profound faith in the power of the saint to\nwork miracles. The story of the following one is frequently related: \"A\nvessel springing a leak was about to founder, when the Captain made a vow\nthat should Qadir Wali stop the leak, he would offer in his name the value\nof the cargo. At that time the saint was being shaved, but being\nmiraculously acquainted with the perilous position of the Captain he cast\naway the looking-glass which he held in his hand. This glass attached\nitself to the hole in the bottom of the ship which then came safely to\nland. The Captain, in due course, presented his offering to the saint who\nrequested him to return the glass to the barber. The Captain was astonished\nat this request and enquired what glass was meant. He was then directed to\nlook at the bottom of his ship. He did so, and discovered how the saint had\nsaved the ship.\"\n\nThe festival affords a curious illustration of the way in which Hindu\ninfluences have acted on Islam, and how even Hindus pay regard to Muslim\nSaints. Qadir Wali is said to {263} have been a Fakir who lived on the\ncharity of both Hindus and Musalmans. Indeed both parties claim him as\nbelonging to their respective religions, which may be accounted for by the\nfact that in his preaching to mixed audiences he suited his addresses to\nboth classes of his hearers. After his death a small Mosque was erected on\nor near his tomb. The fame of the Wali gradually grew, and a Hindu Rajah\nmade a vow that if he were blessed with the birth of a son, he would\nenlarge and beautify the Mosque. His wish was fulfilled, and the present\nelegant structure is the result. So famous has the shrine of the Saint now\nbecome that the Musalmans there say: \"First Mecca, then Nagore.\" The same\nreason which induced the Hindu Rajah to make a votive offering years ago,\nstill influences large numbers of people. On Thursday evenings, the\ncommencement of the Muhammadan Sabbath, many Hindu women resort to the\nshrine of the Saint. On the closing night of the Annual Feast, Tabuts are\ntaken in procession from Negapatam, and rich presents are sent from the\nTanjore Palace to the Nagore Mosque. Thus is the Hindu connection still\nkept up with the festival of this Musalman Saint.\n\nThere are many other Walis and Pirs to whose tombs pilgrimages are made,\nand in memory of whom many superstitious observances are still kept up; but\nall such pilgrimages to a Dargah (shrine) are no necessary part of Islam.\nIn all parts of the country there are the shrines of Saints who have a\nlocal reputation and whose annual festivals are more or less observed.\nStill it is not necessary for me to give a further account of these. This\nbrings me to the close of my subject.\n\nIn the preceding chapters, I have endeavoured to set forth the main\nfeatures of the Faith of Islam, and the religious duties it enjoins. I\nmight now go on to show its relation to Judaism and Christianity, the\nelements it has drawn from them, and the distortions it has made in the\nborrowing, as well as the protest it raised against much that was {264}\ncorrupt in the Christianity with which it came in contact. I might also\nenlarge upon its moral and social effects, and the character it produces in\nthe individual and the state. But these subjects would lead me far beyond\nmy present scope. I prefer to content myself with giving a representation\nof the Faith of Islam from its own authorities, and with leaving my readers\nto make comparisons and draw inferences for themselves.\n\nTHE END.\n\n{265}\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nINDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS.\n\n          A.\n\n  Aiyam-i-Biz, 214\n  Aiyam-ut-Tashriq, 231\n 'Alam, 238\n  Al-A'raf, 167\n  Al-Barzakh, 168\n  Al-Mahdi, 80\n  Akhir-Char Shambah, 244\n 'Amm, 48\n  Amr-i-Takwiti, 176\n  Anbiya-ulul-'Azm, 150\n  Asar-i-Sharif, 245\n  Ashab, 7\n 'Ashura, 241\n 'Ashur Khana, 237\n  Asma-i-Husna, 133\n  Attahiyat, 197\n  Auliya, 152\n  Ayat, 54\n  Ayat-ul-Kursi, 212\n  Azad, 95\n  Azan, 193\n\n          B.\n\n  Bara Wafat, 244\n  Baqab-i-Qausain, 158\n  Baqr-'id, 252\n  bid'at, 14\n  Buraq, 241\n\n          D.\n\n  Da,iri, 81\n  Dalalat, 53\n  Dalil-i-qata'i, 187\n  Dalil-i-zani, 187\n  Darwishes, 94\n  Dargah, 258\n  Du'a, 197\n\n          F.\n\n  Fana, 93\n  Faru', 120\n  Farz, 187\n  Farz-i-'ain, 208\n  Farz-i-kifaya, 207\n  Fatrah, 3\n  Fitrat, 187\n  Fuqiha, 33\n\n          G.\n\n  Ghair-i-Mahdi, 81\n  Ghusl, 190\n  Gunah-i-kabira, 154\n  Gunah-i-saghira, 154\n  {266}\n\n          H.\n\n  Hadis-i-Ahad, 70\n  Hadis-i-Hasan, 71\n  Hadis-i-Mua'llaq, 72\n  Hadis-i-Mursal, 72\n  Hadis-i-Mutawatir, 70\n  Hadis-i-Sahih, 71\n  Hadis-i-Z'aif, 71\n  Hadd, 179\n  Hafiz, 42\n  Haft Sifat, 118\n  Hajj, 223\n  Hajr-ul-Aswad, 226\n  Hal, 93\n  Haqiqat, 52, 93\n  Haram, 188\n  Harut, 142\n  Hasal Khazaf, 230\n\n          I.\n\n  Ibadhiyah, 76\n  Ibarat, 53\n  Iblis, 140\n 'Id-gah, 245\n 'Id-ul-Fitr, 247\n  Iftar, 250\n  Ihlal, 224\n  Ihram, 224\n  Ijma', 16\n  Ijma'-i-Ummat, 17\n  Ijtihad, 17, 26, 32\n  Ijtihad fi'l-Masa,il, 34\n  Ijtihad fi'l-Mazhab, 34\n  Ijtihad fi'l-Shari', 34\n  Ilham, 37\n  Ilka, 40\n 'Ilm-i-usul, 41\n  Imam, 75\n  Imam Abu Hanifa, 19\n  Imam Ibn Malik, 20\n  Imam As-Shafa'i, 21\n  Imam Ibn Hanbal, 22\n  Imamat, 75\n  Imam Bara, 237\n  Iman-i-mufassal, 116\n  Iman-i-mujmal, 116\n  Istidlal, 53\n  Isharat, 53\n  Ishrak fi'l-'ibadat, 108\n  Ishrak fi'l-adab, 109\n  Isnad, 67\n 'Itikaf, 249\n  Iqamat, 194\n  Iqtiza, 54\n  I'tibar-ul-Amsal, 27\n\n          J.\n\n  Jabrians, 132\n  Jahannum, 172\n  Jami'-i-Tirmizi, 86\n  Jamrat-ul-Akahah, 230\n  Jannat, 171\n  Jashn-i-milad-i-sharif, 245\n  Jinn, 145\n  Juz, 56\n\n          K.\n\n  K'aba, 227\n  Kalam, 135\n  {267}\n  Kalima, 54, 116\n  Karamians, 163\n  Kasb, 130\n  Kausar, 171\n  Kinayah, 52\n  Kiram-ul-Katibin, 141\n  Kitman, 91\n  Khafi, 50\n  Kharigites, 76\n  Khass, 48\n  Kharq-i-'adat, 157\n  Khulafa-i-Rashidin, 66\n  Khutba, 201\n\n          L.\n\n  Labbaik, 225\n  Lahad, 211\n  Lailat-ul-Qadr, 2\n\n          M.\n\n  Mahmudiah, 83\n  Majaz, 52\n  Majzub, 95\n  Maukadda', 200\n  Makruh, 188\n  Mansukh, 59\n  Maqam-i-Mahmud, 169\n  Marsiya, 238\n  Marut, 142\n  Mihrab, 243\n  Mimbar, 239\n  Miqat, 225\n  Mizan, 165\n  Mua'qqibat, 141\n  Muawwal, 48\n  Mu,azzin, 193\n  Mubah, 188\n  Mufassir, 33, 50\n  Mufsid, 188\n  Muhaddis, 67\n  Mujassimians, 131\n  Mu'jizat, 157\n  Mujmal, 51\n  Mujtahid, 17\n  Mukham, 50\n  Munkir, 145\n  Murshid, 92\n  Mutashabih, 52\n  Musalli, 193\n  Mushabihites, 131\n  Mus-haf, 147\n  Muharram, 237\n  Muskhil, 51\n  Mustahab, 188\n  Mu'takif, 249\n  Mustarik, 48\n  Muta'h, 84\n  Mutazilites, 125\n\n          N.\n\n  Nabi, 153\n  Nafkhatain-i-Sur, 161\n  Nafl, 199\n  Nakir, 145\n  Namaz, 193\n  Nass, 50\n  Nasikh, 59\n  Nisab, 218\n  Niyyat, 194\n  Nur-i-Muhammadi, 77\n  {268}\n\n          Q.\n\n  Qadam-i-Rasul, 245\n  Qadrians, 174\n  Qaza, 214\n  Qiam, 194\n  Qias, 27, 28\n  Qira,at, 43\n  Qari, 43\n\n          R.\n\n  Rak'at, 195\n  Ramazan, 247\n  Rami-ul-Jamar, 230\n  Rasul, 153\n  Rauza Khan, 258\n  Roza, 213\n  Roza-i-nazr, 214\n  Roza-i-kafara, 214\n  Ruh-ul-Amin, 4\n  Ruku', 56\n  Ruz-i-Tarwiah, 229\n\n          S.\n\n  Sadqa, 250\n  Saha,if-i-A'mal, 165\n  Sahih-i-Bukhari, 67\n  Sahih-i-Muslim, 68\n  S'ai, 229\n  Salat, 193\n  Salat-ul-'Asr, 200\n  Salat-ul-Fajr, 200\n  Salat-ul-'Isha, 200\n  Salat-ul-Ishraq, 200\n  Salat-ul-Istisqa, 206\n  Salat-ul-Istikhara, 213\n  Salat-ul-Janaza, 207\n  Salat-ul-Juma', 200\n  Salat-ul-Khauf, 204\n  Salat-ul-Khusuf, 206\n  Salat-ul-Kusuf, 205\n  Salat-ul-Maghrib, 200\n  Salat-ul-Musafir, 204\n  Salat-ut-Tarawih, 206\n  Salat-ul-Tahajjud, 200\n  Salat-uz-Zuha, 200\n  Salat-uz-Zuhr, 200\n  Salik, 92\n  Sarih, 52\n  Shafa'at-i-ba-izn, 108\n  Shafa'at-i-muhabbat, 107\n  Shafa'at-i-wajahat, 107\n  Shirk, 105\n  Shirk-ul-'Adat, 109\n  Shirk-ul-ibadat, 108\n  Shirk-ul-'ilm, 107\n  Shirk-ut-tasarruf, 107\n  Sifat-i-Salbiah, 123\n  Sifat-i-Sabutiah, 123\n  Sihah-Sittah, 67\n  Sipara, 56\n  Sirat, 166\n  Sufiism, 87-101\n  Sunan-i-Abu Daud, 68\n  Sunan-i-Nasai, 68\n  Sunan-i-Majah, 69\n  Sunnat, 10\n  Sura, 55\n\n          T.\n\n  Ta'awwuz, 195\n  {269}\n  Taba-i-Tabi'in, 7\n  Tabi'in, 7\n  Tabut, 238\n  Taharat, 189\n  Tahrif, 149\n  Takbir, 193\n  Takia, 84\n  Talbiyah, 225\n  Talqin, 212\n  Tasbih, 195\n  Tashahhud, 188\n  Tasmia', 195\n  Tasmiyah, 195\n  Tatair-i-Saha,if, 163\n  Tauhid, 106\n  Tauqifi, 132\n  Tawaf, 227\n  Tawaf-ul-Wida', 231\n  Tayammum, 190\n  Taziah, 238\n\n          U.\n\n  Usul, 120\n 'Umrah, 231\n\n          W.\n\n  Wahhabis, 101\n  Wahi, 37\n  Wajd, 93\n  Wajib, 187\n  Wajib-ul-Wajud, 132\n  Waqi'a Khan, 239\n  Wazu, 189\n  Witr, 198\n\n          Z.\n\n  Zakat, 218-222\n  Zahir, 49\n  Ziarat, 233\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nNOTES\n\n[1] There is an excellent one by Neil B. E. Baillie. The question of Jihad\nis fully discussed in Dr. Hunter's _Our Indian Musalmans_.\n\n[2] \"Let none touch it but the purified.\" (Sura lvi. 78.)\n\n[3] \"It was certainly an admirable and politic contrivance of his to bring\ndown the whole Koran at once to the lowest heaven only, and not to the\nearth, as a bungling prophet would have done; for if the whole had been\npublished at once, innumerable objections might have been made, which it\nwould have been very hard, if not impossible for him to solve; but as he\npretended to receive it by parcels, as God saw proper that they should be\npublished for the conversion and instruction of the people, he had a sure\nway to answer all emergencies, and to extricate himself with honour from\nany difficulty which might occur.\" (Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section\nIII.)\n\n[4] Literary Remains of Emmanuel Deutsch, p. 77.\n\n[5] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. p. 195.\n\n[6] \"The grandeur of the Quran consists, its contents apart, in its\ndiction. We cannot explain the peculiarly dignified, impressive, sonorous\nnature of Semitic sound and parlance; its sesquipedalia verba with their\ncrowd of affixes and prefixes, each of them affirming its own position,\nwhilst consciously bearing upon and influencing the central root--which\nthey envelope like a garment of many folds, or as chosen courtiers move\naround the anointed person of the king.\" Literary Remains of Emmanuel\nDeutsch, p. 122.\n\n[7] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 194.\n\n[8] Those who were in constant intercourse with the prophet are called\nAshab (Companions); their disciples are named Tabi'in (Followers); their\ndisciples are known as Taba-i-Tabi'in (Followers of the Followers).\"\n\n[9] \"Thus, after the usual distribution of the spoils taken on the field of\nCadesia (A.H. 14) the residue was divided among those who knew most of the\nCoran.\" Muir, vol. i. p. 5.\n\n[10] Muavia.\n\n[11] The twelve Imams.\n\n[12] Al-Mahdi is still supposed to be alive.\n\n[13] These are called (1) Sunnat-i-Fi'li; that which Muhammad himself did.\n(2) Sunnat-i-Qauli, that which he said should be practised. (3)\nSunnat-i-Taqriri, that which was done in his presence and which he did not\nforbid.\n\n[14] Risala-i-Berkevi.\n\n[15] The great Wahhabi preacher Muhammad Isma'il, of whom some account will\nbe given later on, says in the Takwiat-ul-Iman:--\"The best of all ways is\nto have for principles the words (holy writings) of God and _of His\nApostle_; to hold them alone as precedents, and not to allow our own\nopinion to be exercised.\"\n\n[16] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 195.\n\n[17] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 16.\n\n[18] Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, p. 285.\n\n[19] \"Les docteurs de la loi sont unaniment d'accord sur l'obligation de\nconformer ses actions a ce qui est indique dans les traditions attribuees\nau Prophete,\" Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 465.\n\n[20] In June 1827, A.D., Sultan Mahmud issued a manifesto protesting\nagainst interference in the affairs of the Ottoman Empire, \"the affairs of\nwhich are conducted upon the principles of _sacred legislation_, and all\nthe regulations of which are strictly connected with the principles of\nreligion.\" These principles still remain in force, for the famous Fatva\ngiven by the Council of the 'Ulama, in July 1879, anent Khair-ud-din's\nproposed reforms, speaks of \"the unalterable principles of the Sheri,\" or\nLaw.\n\n[21] \"The respect which modern Muslims pay to their Prophet is almost\nidolatrous. The Imam Ibn Hanbal would not even eat water-melons because\nalthough he knew the Prophet ate them, he could not learn whether he ate\nthem with or without the rind, or whether he broke, bit or cut them: and he\nforbade a woman, who questioned him as to the propriety of the act, to spin\nby the light of torches passing in the streets by night, because the\nProphet had not mentioned that it was lawful to do so.\" Lane's Modern\nEgyptians, vol. i. p. 354.\n\n[22] Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, p. 1009.\n\n[23] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 469.\n\n[24] Journal Asiatique 4me serie, tom. xii.\n\n[25] Osborn's Islam under the Khalifs, p. 29.\n\n[26] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii. p. 594.\n\n[27] Ibid., p. 546.\n\n[28] Ibid., vol. ii. p. 548.\n\n[29] In South India, the Muhammadan money-changer resorts to a curious\npiece of casuistry to reconcile the practice of his profession with the\nfaith he holds. It is wrong to gain money by money as a direct agency.\nSuppose, then, for example, that the charge for changing a shilling is one\nfarthing. It is unlawful for the money-changer to give four three-penny\npieces for one shilling plus one farthing, for then he will have sinned\nagainst the laws anent usury by gaining money (one farthing) by money; but\nif he gives three three-penny pieces plus two pence three farthings in\ncopper the transaction will be lawful, as his profit of one farthing is\nthen gained by selling as merchandize certain pieces of silver and copper\nfor one shilling, and not by exactly changing the shilling.\n\nAgain, pictures or representations of living creatures are unlawful; and\nso, when British rupees were first circulated in India, good Muslims\ndoubted whether they could use them, but after a long consultation the\n'Ulama declared that, as the eye of His Majesty was so small as not to be\nclearly visible, the use of such coins was legal. This kind of casuistry is\nvery common and very demoralizing; but it shows how rigid the law is.\n\n[30] \"Authority becomes sacred because sanctioned by heaven. Despotism,\nbeing the first form of consolidated political authority, is thus rendered\nunchangeable and identical in fact with Government at large.\" \"Supreme\nGovernment has four stages: (1) where the absolute Prince (Muhammad) is\namong them concentrating in his own person the four cardinal virtues, and\nthis we call the reign of wisdom; (2) where the Prince appears no longer,\nneither do these virtues centre in any single person: but are found in four\n(Abu Bakr, Omar, Osman and 'Ali), who govern in concert with each other, as\nif they were one, and this we call the reign of the pious; (3) where none\nof these is to be found any longer, but a chief (Khalif) arises with a\nknowledge of the rules propounded by the previous ones, and with judgment\nenough to apply and explain them, and this we call the reign of the Sunnat;\n(4) Where these latter qualities, again, are not to be met with in a single\nperson, but only in a variety who govern in concert; and this we call the\nreign of the Sunnat-followers.--Akhlak-i-Jalali, pp. 374. 378.\n\n[31] Life of Muhammad, by Syed Amir 'Ali, p. 289.\n\n[32] The Muslim 'Ulama are certainly much fettered by their religion in the\npursuit of some of the paths of learning; and superstition sometimes\ndecides a point which has been controverted for centuries. Lane's Modern\nEgyptians, vol. i. p. 269.\n\n[33] The Goth might ravage Italy, but the Goth came forth purified from the\nflames which he himself had kindled. The Saxon swept Britain, but the music\nof the Celtic heart softened his rough nature, and wooed him into less\nchurlish habits. Visigoth and Frank, Heruli and Vandal, blotted out their\nferocity in the very light of the civilisation they had striven to\nextinguish. Even the Hun, wildest Tartar from the Scythian waste, was\ntouched and softened in his wicker encampment amid Pannonian plains; but\nthe Turk--wherever his scymitar reached--degraded, defiled, and defamed;\nblasting into eternal decay Greek, Roman and Latin civilisation, until,\nwhen all had gone, he sat down, satiated with savagery, to doze for two\nhundred years into hopeless decrepitude. Lieut.-Col. W. F. Butler, C.B., in\n_Good Words_ for September 1880.\n\n[34] \"The Muslim everywhere, after a brilliant passage of prosperity, seems\nto stagnate and wither, because there is nothing in his system or his\nbelief which lifts him above the level of a servant, and on that level\nman's life in the long run must not only stagnate but decay. The Christian,\non the other hand, seems everywhere in the last extremity to bid\ndisorganization and decay defiance, and to find, Antaeus-like, in the earth\nwhich he touches, the spring of a new and fruitful progress. For there is\nthat in his belief, his traditions, and in the silent influences which\npervade the very atmosphere around him, which is ever moving him, often in\nways that he knows not, to rise to the dignity and to clothe himself with\nthe power which the Gospel proposes as the prize of his Christian calling.\nThe submissive servant of Allah is the highest type of Moslem perfection;\nthe Christian ideal is the Christ-like son.\"--_British Quarterly, No._\ncxxx.\n\n[35] A Mukallif is one who is subject to the Law. A Ghair-i-Mukallif is one\nnot so subject, such as a minor, an idiot, &c. The term Mukallif is thus\nequivalent to a consistent Muslim, one who takes trouble (taklif) in his\nreligious duties.\n\n[36] Commentators on the Quran.\n\n[37] The Traditionists.\n\n[38] Plural of Faqih, a theologian.\n\n[39] I have given the dates of their death.\n\n[40] Osborn's Islam under the Khalifs p. 72.\n\n[41] Dabistan, p. 214.\n\n[42] pp. 508-510.\n\n[43] \"It (the Quran) is simply an instruction for all mankind\" (Sura xii.\n104).\n\n[44] Zawabit-al-Quran, pp. 110, 111.\n\n[45] The opinion of Von Hammer, quoted by Sir W. Muir, in his life of\nMuhammad (vol. i. page 27) seems to be correct, \"We may hold the Quran to\nbe as surely Muhammad's words as the Muhammadans hold it to be the Word of\nGod.\"\n\n[46] Ibn Khallikan's Biographical Dictionary, vol. iii. p. 16.\n\n[47] \"Were we to examine the Quran by the rules of rhetoric and criticism\nas they are taught in Muslim schools, we should be obliged to acknowledge\nthat it is the perfection of thought and expression; an inevitable result\nas the Muslims drew their principles of rhetoric from that very\nbook.\"--Baron M. de Slane, in the introduction to Ibu Khallikan's\nBiographical Dictionary.\n\n[48] There are many Traditions which refer to this fact. Omar Ibn al\nKhattab said; \"I accorded with my cherisher (_i.e._, God) in three things.\nOne is that I said, 'O messenger of God! if we were to say our prayers in\nAbraham's place it would be better.' Then a revelation came down 'Take the\nplace of Abraham for a place of prayer.' The second is, that I said, 'O\nmessenger of God! good and bad people come to your house; and I do not see\nthat it is fitting; therefore, if you order your women to be shut up it\nwill be better.' Then the revelation for doing so came down. The third is,\nthat his Majesty's wives were all agreed in a story about his drinking\nhoney; and he had vowed never to drink it more. Then I said to his\nMajesty's wives, 'Should the Prophet divorce you, God will give him better\nin exchange.' Then a revelation, came down agreeing with what I said.\"\n\n'Ayesha said:--\"I was reflecting on those women who had given themselves to\nthe Prophet, and said 'What! does a woman give herself away?' Then the\nrevelation descended:, 'Thou mayest decline for the present whom thou wilt\nof them, and thou mayest take to thy bed her whom thou wilt, and whomsoever\nthou shalt long for of those thou shalt have before neglected: and this\nshall be no crime in thee.' (Sura xxxiii. 51). I said; 'I see nothing in\nwhich your God doth not hasten to please you: whatsoever you wish He\ndoeth.'\"\n\n[49] Les Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 459.\n\n[50] This includes even the orthography, for:--\"La generation suivante, je\nveux dire les Tabis (Taba'in), adopta l'orthographe des Compagnons du\nProphete et se fit un merite de ne point s'ecarter des formes adoptees par\nceux qui, apres Mahommed, etaient les plus excellent des hommes et qui\navaient recu de lui les revelations celestes, soit par ecrit, soit de vive\nvoix.\" Ibn Khaldoun, vol. ii. p. 397.\n\n[51] This interpretation God made known to the Prophet, who communicated it\nto the Companions, hence all orthodox opinion must be in strict accordance\nwith theirs. They were the sole depositaries of the inspired commentary\ngiven by Muhammad. There is now no room for, as there is no need of, any\nother.\n\n[52] Speaking on this very subject Ibn Khaldoun says:--\"Rien de tout cela\nn'a pu se connaitre que par des indications provenant des Compagnons et de\nleurs disciples.\" Vol. ii. p. 460.\n\n[53] Ibn Khaldoun says that Zamakchori, (a theologian of good repute for\nlearning in the sixth century A.H.), remarked on these letters as\nfollows:--They indicate that the style of the Quran is carried to such a\ndegree of excellence, that it defies every attempt to imitate it; for this\nbook which has been sent down to us from heaven is composed of letters. All\nmen know them all alike, but this power disappears when, in order to\nexpress their ideas, they want to use these same letters combined.\"\n\nOn this curious passage Baron de Slane remarks that the author is not very\nclear, and that the Turkish translator of Ibn Khaldoun gives the sense of\nthe passage as:--\"God has placed these letters in several Suras as a sort\nof defiance; as if He had said:--'Voila les elements dont se compose le\nCoran; prenez-les et faites-eu un livre qui l'egale par le style.'\" Ibn\nKhaldoun, vol. iii. p. 68.\n\n[54] The last verse revealed at Mecca was, \"This day have I perfected your\nreligion for you, and have filled up the measure of my favours upon you;\nand it is my pleasure that Islam be your religion; but whoso without wilful\nleanings to wrong shall be forced by hunger to transgress, to him, verily,\nwill God be indulgent, merciful.\" (Sura v. 5). Ibn Khaldoun vol. i. p. 206.\n\n[55] The arrangement made by Professor Th. Noeldeke in his \"Geschichte des\nQurans\" is considered by Stanley Lane Poole to be the best. Rodwell's\nEnglish version of the Quran is, with some exceptions, an example of this\norder.\n\n[56] On ordinary occasions any verses may be chosen. The 112th Sura is the\none generally repeated.\n\n[57] Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 216.\n\n[58] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 131.\n\n[59] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268.\nSee note on this in chapter 4. Section 'Prophets.'\n\n[60] Niaz Namah, by Maulavi Safdar 'Ali, p. 250.\n\n[61] Biographical Dictionary, vol. ii, p. 679.\n\n[62] \"He ranked as a high authority in the Traditions and was well versed\nin all the sciences connected with them.\" Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii. p. 680.\n\n[63] The Kafi, by Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 329. The\nMan-la-yastah-zirah-al-Faqih, by Shaikh 'Ali, A.H. 381. The Tahzib and the\nIstibsar by Shaikh Abu Ja'far Muhammad, A.H. 466. The Nahaj-ul-Balaghat by\nSayyud Razi A.H. 406.\n\n[64] If the Isnad is good, internal improbability carries with it little\nweight against the genuineness of a Tradition. There is a saying current to\nthis effect:--\"A relation made by Shafa'i on the authority of Malik, and by\nhim on the authority of Nafi, and by him on the authority of Ibn Omar, is\nreally the golden chain.\"\n\n[65] Nur-ul-Hidayah, p. 5.\n\n[66] A full account of these will be found in the preface to the\nNur-ul-Hidayah, the Urdu translation of the Sharh-i-Waqayah.\n\n[67] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 123.\n\n[68] Kisas-ul-Anbiya,--\"Lives of the Prophets.\"\n\n[69] Hyat-un-Nafis.\n\n[70] The Shia'hs in claiming freedom from sin for the infallible Imams are\nmore logical than the Romanists, thus:--\n\n\"If we are to believe in the inerrability of a person, or a body of\npersons, because it is, forsooth, necessary for the full preservation of\nthe truth, we must then also believe in all besides that can be shown to be\nneedful for the perfect attainment of that end. Now, the conservation of\nall spiritual truth is not a mere operation of the intellect. It requires\nthe faultless action of the perceiving power of the spirit. That is to say,\nit requires the exclusion of sin; and the man or body that is to be\ninfallible, must also be a sinless organ. It is necessary that the\ntainting, blinding, distorting power of sin should be shut out from the\nspiritual eye of the infallible judge.\" Gladstone's _Gleanings_, vol. iii.\np. 260.\n\n[71] It is a common Musalman belief that the body of a prophet casts no\nshadow. A similar idea regarding necromancers was widely spread over\nNorthern Europe. It is alluded to by Scott in the \"Lay of the Last\nMinstrel,\" where speaking of the father of the Ladye, who in Padua, \"had\nlearned the art that none might name,\" he says:--\n\n \"His form no darkening shadow traced\n  Upon the sunny wall.\"\n\nIt is said that at a certain stage of initiation candidates for magical\nhonours were in danger of being caught by the devil. Now if the devil could\nonly catch the shadow, and the man escaped, though so nearly captured, he\nbecame a great magician. This is evidently a legend to explain a previous\nbelief. Muhammadan ideas in the middle ages were prevalent in the\nUniversities of Southern Europe, and Salamanca and Padua were the\nuniversities, in which it was supposed that the greatest proficiency in\nmagic was obtained. The superstition has evidently some connection with the\nMusalman belief regarding the shadows of prophets.\n\n[72] The Sunnis esteem and respect the Imams, as Ahl-i-Beit--men of the\nHouse, (of the Prophet); but do not give them precedence over the duly\nappointed Khalifs.\n\n[73] The names are 'Ali, Hasan, Husain, Zain-ul-'Abid-din, Muhammad Baqr,\nJa'far Sadiq, Musa Kazim, 'Ali Musa Raza, Muhammad Taqi, Muhammad Naqi,\nHasan 'Askari, Abu 'l-Qasim (or Imam Mahdi).\n\n[74] Rauzat-ul-Aimmah by Sayyid 'Izzat 'Ali.\n\n[75] For a good account of this movement see, Osborn's Islam under the\nArabs, pp. 168-184.\n\n[76] Islam under the Khalifs, p. 139.\n\n[77] Miskat-ul-Musabih.\n\n[78] Hujjat-ullah-ul-Balaghah.\n\n[79] Nothing shows this more plainly than the Fatva pronounced by the\nCouncil of the 'Ulama in July 1879 anent Khair-ud-din's proposed reform,\nwhich would have placed the Sultan in the position of a constitutional\nsovereign. This was declared to be directly contrary to the Law. Thus:--\n\"The law of the Sheri does not authorize the Khalif to place beside him a\npower superior to his own. The Khalif ought to reign alone and govern as\nmaster. The Vakils (Ministers) should never possess any authority beyond\nthat of representatives, always dependent and submissive. It would\nconsequently be a transgression of the unalterable principles of the Sheri,\nwhich should be the guide of _all_ the actions of the Khalif, to transfer\nthe supreme power of the Khalif to one Vakil.\" This, the latest and most\nimportant decision of the jurists of Islam, is quite in accordance with all\nthat has been said about Muhammadan Law. It proves as clearly as possible\nthat so long as the Sultan rules as Khalif, he must oppose any attempt to\nset up a constitutional Government. There is absolutely no hope of reform.\n\n[80] It is instructive to compare the words of the Christian poet with the\nSufi idea of absorption into the Divine Being.\n\n \"That each who seems a separate whole\n  Should move his rounds, and fusing all\n  The skirts of self again, should fall\n  Remerging in the general soul,\n\n  Is faith as vague as all unsweet:\n  Eternal form shall still divide\n  The eternal soul from all beside;\n  And I shall know him when we meet.\"\n                  Tennyson's \"In Memoriam.\"\n\n[81] \"Le spiritualisme des Sofis, quoiqu'il soit le contraire du\nmaterialisme, lui est en realite identique. Mais si leur doctrine n'est pas\nplus raisonnable, elle est du moins plus elevee et plus poetique.\" Poesie\nPhilosophique et religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin De Tassy, p. 2.\n\n[82] Kaf--a chain of mountains supposed to encircle the earth.\n\n[83] 'Anka--the Phoenix.\n\n[84] \"Ils pensent que la Bible et le Coran ont ete seulement ecrits pour\nl'homme qui se contente de l'apparence des choses, qui s'occupe de\nl'exterieur, pour le _zahir parast_, comme ils le nomment, et non pour le\nsofi qui sonde le fond des choses.\" La Poesie Philosophique et religieuse\nchez les Persans, par M. Garcin de Tassy, p. 13.\n\n[85] The word Darvish, or Darwish, is of Persian origin. It is derived from\n'dar,' a door, and 'wiz' the root of the verb 'awikhtan,' to hang; hence\nthe idea of hanging about doors, or begging. The 'z' is changed into 'sh'\nand the word becomes 'Darwish.' Some Musalmans, however, do not like this\nidea of holy men being called by a name which implies the habit of begging,\nand so they propose another derivation. They derive it from \"dur,\" a pearl,\nand \"wish,\" like; and so a durwish is one 'like a pearl.' The wish is from\nwash, a lengthened form of wash, an affix of common use to express\nsimilitude; or the long vowel in wash may by a figure of speech, called\nImala, be changed into the i of wish. I think the first derivation the more\nprobable. A good Persian dictionary, the Ghias-ul-Lugbat, gives both\nderivations.\n\n[86] For a very interesting account of this religious ceremony, see Hughes'\nNotes on Muhammadanism, Chapter 51.\n\n[87] La Poesie Philosophique et Religieuse chez les Persans, par M. Garcin\nde Tassy, p. 7.\n\n[88] Sufi doctrines of the Moolla Shah by Tawakkul Beg. Journal Asiatique\n6me Serie, tom. 13.\n\n[89] \"That Omar in his impiety was false to his better nature we may\nreadily admit, while, at the same time, we may find some excuse for his\nerrors, if we remember the state of the world at that time. His clear\nstrong sense revolted from the prevailing mysticism where all the earnest\nspirits of his age found their refuge, and his honest independence was\nequally shocked by the hypocrites who aped their fervour and enthusiasm;\nand at that dark hour of man's history whither, out of Islam, was the\nthoughtful Muhammadan to repair? No missionary's step, bringing good\ntidings, had appeared on the mountains of Persia; the few Christians who\nmight cross his path in his native land, would only seem to him idolaters.\"\nSpeaking, too, of Sa'di's life the reviewer says: \"almost the only point of\ncontact with Christendom is his slavery under the Crusaders at Tripoli. The\nsame isolation runs through all the golden period of Persian\nLiterature\"--_Calcutta Review_, No. lix.\n\n[90] The following are the names of the Wahhabi chiefs:--Muhammad-Ibn-Saud,\ndied A.D. 1765; 'Abd-ul-Aziz, assassinated, 1803; Saud-Ibn-'Abd-ul-Aziz,\ndied 1814; 'Abd-Ullah-ibn-Saud, beheaded 1818; Turki, assassinated 1830;\nFayzul, died 1866; 'Abd-Ullah, still living. Hughes Notes, p. 221.\n\n[91] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. ii. p. 10.\n\n[92] According to the latest Census Report there are 4,000 in the Madras\nPresidency, where the total Musalman population is about 2,000,000.\n\n[93] Mudarij-un-Nabuwat, p. 149.\n\n[94] Palgrave's Arabia vol. i. p. 369.\n\n[95] Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p. 372.\n\n[96] Ibid, p. 372.\n\n[97] Muhammad Isma'il concludes his great work, the Takwiat-ul-Iman, with\nthe prayer--\"O Lord teach us by Thy grace, the meaning of the terms Bid'at\nand Sunnat, and the Law of the Prophet. Make us pure Sunnis and strictly\nsubmissive to the Sunnat.\" This is a clear and distinct proof that Wahhabis\ndo not reject Tradition as a basis of the Faith. It also shows their horror\nof innovation, and reveals the little hope there is of any real progress\nthrough their influence.\n\n[98] \"Mr. Finlay, the clever but partial author of \"The Byzantine Empire,\"\nhas declared in a sweeping way 'that there is no greater delusion than to\nspeak of the unity of the Christian Church.' However this may be, I can\naffirm the perfect applicability of this sentence to Islam in the East. In\nno part of the world is there more of secret division, aversion, misbelief\n(taking Muhammadanism as our standard), and unbelief than in those very\nlands which to a superficial survey, seem absolutely identified in the one\ncommon creed of the Quran and its author.\"--Palgrave's Arabia, vol. i. p.\n10.\n\n[99] Strictly speaking, this chapter should be entitled the 'Faith of\nIslam,' as the subject of it is technically called Iman, or faith. The\nKalima, or creed is, in the strict sense, the expression of belief in one\nGod, and in Muhammad as His apostle. I here use the word creed in the usual\nsense of a body of dogmas.\n\n[100] Iqrarun bil-lisani wa tasdiqun bil janani.\n\n[101] Amantu billahi kama hua bismaihi wa sifatihi wa qabiltu jami'a\nahkamihi.\n\n[102] Amantu billahi wa malaikatihi wa kutubihi wa rusulihi\nwal-youm-il-akhiri wal-qadri khairihi wa sharrihi min allahi ta'ala\nwal-ba'si ba'd al-mouti.\n\n[103] He speaks of it thus: \"l'ouvrage elementaire de la religion Musulmane\nle plus estime et le plus repandu en Turquie,\" p. 154.\n\n[104] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 27.\n\n[105] The above statements form the substance of several pages in the\n\"Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun,\" in which also occurs the following: \"Cela\nn'est pas toutefois un motif pour deprecier notre intelligence et nos\nfacultes perceptives: l'intelligence est une balance parfaitement juste:\nelle nous fournit des resultats certains sans nous tromper. Mais on ne doit\npas employer cette balance pour peser les choses qui se rattachent a\nl'unite de Dieu, a la vie future, a la nature du prophetisme, au veritable\ncaractere des attributs divine et a tout ce qui est au dela de sa portee.\nVouloir le faire, ce serait une absurdite.\" Vol. iii. p. 45.\n\n[106] \"Telle fut la regle suivie par les anciens musulmans a l'egard des\nverses motachabeh; ils l'appliquaient aussi aux expressions du meme genre\nqui se presentent dans la Sonna, parce qu'elles proviennent de la meme\nsource que celles du Coran.\" Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 67.\n\nThis passage is of some interest as maintaining the common source and\norigin of the Quran and the Sunnat.\n\n[107] Ibn Khallikan, vol. i. p. 565.\n\n[108] \"The Musulman Authors distinguish between the earlier and later\nMutakalliman. The former (of whom we here treat) were occupied with purely\nreligious questions; the latter, who arose after the introduction of the\nGreek philosophy amongst Muslims, embraced many philosophic notions, though\nthey tried to make them fit in with their religious opinions.\" Melanges de\nPhilosophie Juive et Arabe, p. 320.\n\n[109] Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 250.\n\n[110] Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 250.\n\n[111] Dabistan, p. 218.\n\n[112] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iii, p. 343.\n\n[113] \"C'etait l'epoque de la plus grande splendeur exterieure de l'empire\ndes Arabes, ou leur pouvoir, et en meme temps leur culture intellectuelle\net littaraire, atteignirent leur point culminant.\" Journal Asiatique 4me\nSerie, Tome xii. p. 104.\n\n[114] To understand the bearing of all the discussions that then took\nplace, the reader should have some acquaintance with the history of the\nKhalifs, and of the rise and progress of Muslim philosophy. The former can\nbe found in Osborn's \"Khalifs of Baghdad.\" A short review of the latter\nwill be found in a note at the end of this chapter.\n\n[115] Ibn Khallikan, vol. ii p. 669.\n\n[116] Ibid, p. 228.\n\n[117] Ibn Khaldoun says: \"L'etablissement des preuves (fondees sur la\nraison) fut adopte par les (premiers) scolastiques pour le sujet de leur\ntraites, mais il ne fut pas, comme chez les philosophes, une tentative pour\narriver a la decouverte de la verite et pour obtenir, au moyen de la\ndemonstration, la connaissance de ce qui etait ignore jusqu' alors. Les\nscolastiques recherchaient des preuves intellectuelles dans le but de\nconfirmer la verite des dogmes, de justifier les opinions des premiers\nMusalmans et de repousser les doctrines trompeuses que les novateurs\navaient emises.\" Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. iii. p. 169.\n\n[118] Sharh-i-Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 63\n\n[119] \"Most excellent titles has God: by these call ye on Him and stand\naloof from those who pervert His titles.\" (Sura vii. 179.)\n\n[120] \"The Mujassimians, or Corporealists not only admitted a resemblance\nbetween God and created beings, but declared God to be corporeal.\" Sale's\nPreliminary discourse, Section viii. para. 3.\n\n[121] Ibn Khallikan, vol. iv. p. 394.\n\n[122] \"The Freethinkers (Mutazilites) left no traces of themselves except\nin the controversial treatises which they had written. These were\ndestroyed, and with their destruction the last vestiges of the conflict\nbetween Free-thought and the spirit of Islam were obliterated.\" Osborn's\nKhalifs of Baghdad, p. 148.\n\n[123] Sura xxxix, 68, 69.\n\n[124] L'Islamisme d'apres le Coran, p. 135.\n\n[125] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 112.\n\n[126] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 187.\n\n[127] Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 58.\n\n[128] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 19.\n\n[129] \"From the beginning of history the Caucasus is to civilized nations,\nboth Greek and Oriental, the boundary of geographical knowledge--indeed,\nthe boundary of the world itself.\"--Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat, p.\n48.\n\n[130] See also Sura xxxviii. 89.\n\n[131] Sharh-Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 140.\n\n[132] Thus the famous Persian poet Sa'di says in the Bustan, \"Yetimi kih\nnakardah Quran darust, kutub khana-i-chand millat bashust.\"--\"The Perfect\none who, ere the whole of Gabriel's book he reads, has blotted out the\nlibrary of all the peoples' creeds.\"\n\n[133] Sharh-Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 147. Mansukh shud tilawatan wa Kitabatan,\n_i.e._ abrogated both as regards reading and writing--entirely abrogated.\nAlso Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 64. Din-i-wai Nasikh-i-jami'-i-adian ast.--\"His\nreligion abrogates all religions.\"\n\n[134] Commentary on the Holy Bible by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. p. 268.\nThis Commentary is written in Urdu, but the author has made a translation\nfor the benefit of the English reader. The passage referred to reads thus\nin English: \"Those who imagine it to be part of the Muhammadan creed that\none law has totally repealed another are utterly mistaken, and we do not\nbelieve that the Zuboor (Book of Psalms) abrogated the Taureit\n(Pentateuch); that the Taureit in turn gave way to the Injeel (New\nTestament) and that the New Testament was suppressed by the Holy Koran. We\nhold no such doctrine, and if any ignorant Muhammadan should assert to the\ncontrary, he simply knows nothing whatever about the doctrines and articles\nof his faith.\" The learned Syed here assumes the role of a liberal\nMusalman, but the English translation is different from his Urdu text\nwhich, literally translated, is as follows:--\"Now it should be considered\nthat those who imagine it to be part of the creed of Muslims that the\nTaurat by the coming of the Zabur, and the Zabur by the coming of the\nInjil, and the Injil by the coming of the Quran are abrogated _on account\nof the idea that there is any defect in them_ are utterly mistaken, &c.\"\n\nThe clause which I have italicised is entirely omitted in the English text;\nbut it alters the import of the whole passage. To his co-religionists the\nSyed says in effect: \"The books _are abrogated_ but not because they were\nimperfect.\" Now, as no Muslim would believe that a divine book was\ndefective, the Syed is simply asserting the fact of the abrogation of the\nprevious Scriptures and to the orthodox is orthodox. The leader of an\napparently liberal section of Indian Musalmans is, in this instance, at\nleast, as conservative as the most bigoted.\n\n[135] Syed Ahmad's Commentary on the Holy Bible, vol. i. p. 22.\n\n[136] Ibid, p. 31.\n\n[137] There are many other such passages. They are given in detail, with\nthe interpretation of approved commentators, in a small S. P. C. K.\npublication--The Koran--by Sir W. Muir.\n\n[138] Commentary on the Holy Bible, by Syed Ahmad, C.S.I., vol. i. pp.\n64-95.\n\n[139] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 59.\n\n[140] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 59.\n\n[141] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 65.\n\n[142] Prolegomenes d'Ibn Khaldoun, vol. i. pp. 196-205.\n\n[143] \"That the \"Auliya\" are distinguished above ordinary mortals is\nmaintained on the authority of:--\"Are not the friends (Auliya) of God,\nthose on whom no fear shall come, nor shall they be put to grief.\" (Sura x.\n63.)\n\n[144] Sharh-i-Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 125.\n\n[145] Sirat-ul-Islam, p. 18.\n\n[146] This is an orthodox blow at the Shia'h practices in the month of\nMuharram. Shia'hs consider this a good act.\n\n[147] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 18.\n\n[148] It is said Adam's sin was a mere slip but it brought good to the\nworld. Had he remained in Paradise the world would not have been peopled;\nand the word of God \"I have not created men and jinns, except for worship,\"\nwould not have been fulfilled.\n\n[149] That is, according to the commentator Beidawi,--\"Thy remissness in\npropagating Islam.\"\n\n[150] Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 332.\n\n[151] On the contrary, he seems to disclaim such a power. Thus the Quraish\nsaid: \"By no means will we believe on thee till thou cause a fountain to\ngush forth for us from the earth; or, till thou have a garden of palm-trees\nand grapes, and thou cause forth-gushing rivers to gush forth in its midst;\nor thou make the heaven to fall on us, as thou hast given out, in pieces;\nor thou bring God and the angels to vouch for thee, &c. Say: Am I more than\na man, an Apostle?\" (Sura xvii. 92-95). Former prophets, Muhammad used to\nsay, were sent to their own sect, but he was sent for all. Their miracles\nwere confined to their own times. The Quran the great miracle of Islam, was\nfor all ages. He needed no other sign than this.\n\n[152] \"Have We not opened thine heart for thee.\" (Sura xciv. 1). Tradition\nrelates that when young, two angels cut open his breast, and took out a\nblack drop; many other marvels are also connected with this event.\n\n[153] Sharh-i-Aqaid-i-Jami.\n\n[154] Tafsir-i-Husaini. p. 362\n\n[155] For a graphic account of these events see \"Literary Remains of\nEmmanuel Deutsch,\" pp. 99-112.\n\n[156] \"All that Muhammadans must believe respecting the Mi'raj is that the\nProphet saw himself, in a vision, transported from Mecca to Jerusalem, and\nthat in such a vision he really beheld some of the greatest signs of his\nLord.\" Essays by Syed Ahmad, Essay vi. p. 34. This, though a legitimate, is\nnot, however, an orthodox opinion; which is, that he who denies an actual\nbodily migration from Mecca to Jerusalem is a Kafir, (infidel) as he denies\nthe statement of a 'nass' or plain text of the Quran. He who denies the\nascension to heaven, and the wonderful account of the night's proceedings\npreserved in the Traditions is a \"fasiq,\" (sinner), though he remains a\nMuslim.\n\n[157] Some commentators make no distinction between the first and second\nblast, as only two are distinctly mentioned in the Quran.\n\n[158] Sharh-i-'Aqaid-i-Jami, p. 183.\n\n[159] According to Bukhari and to Muslim, this perspiration will flow to a\ndistance of seventy yards from, and reach up to the lobe of the ears of\nthose who perspire.\n\n[160] \"That is, they will know the inhabitants of Paradise by their\nwhiteness, and the people of Hell by the blackness of their faces.\"\n\n[161] For some curious opinions with regard to the state of the soul there\nsee Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv., p. 55.\n\n[162] Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 47.\n\n[163] Tafsir-i-Husaini, vol. i. p. 397.\n\n[164] Tafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 25.\n\n[165] Miskat-ul-Musabih, book xxiii. ch. 12.\n\n[166] \"Although some Muhammadans, whose understandings are too refined to\nadmit such gross conceptions, look on their Prophet's description as\nparabolical, and are willing to receive them in an allegorical or spiritual\nacceptation, yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is to\nbe strictly believed in the obvious and literal acceptance.\" Sale's\nPreliminary Discourse, Section iv. p. 73.\n\n[167] This, the Lauh-ul-Mahfuz, is referred to in Sura lxxxv. 22, as that\non which the Quran is written. In Sura xxxvi. 11, the actions of men are\nsaid to be written in \"the clear book of our decrees.\" This is called the\nImam-ul-Mubin, the clear prototype.\n\n[168] \"The Prophet of God said that Adam and Moses (in the world of\nSpirits) maintained a debate before God, and Adam got the better of Moses,\nwho said, \"Thou art that Adam, whom God created and breathed into thee His\nown Spirit, and made the angels bow down before thee, and placed thee in\nParadise; after which, thou threwest man upon the earth, from the fault\nwhich thou didst commit.' Adam replied, 'Thou art that Moses, whom God\nselected for His prophecy and to converse with, and He gave thee twelve\ntables, in which are explained everything, and he made thee His confidant\nand the bearer of His secrets; then how long was the Bible written before I\nwas created?' Moses said, 'Forty years.' Then said Adam, 'Didst thou see in\nthe Bible that Adam disobeyed God?' 'Yes.' 'Dost thou reproach me on a\nmatter, which God wrote in the Bible forty years before creating me?'\"\n\n[169] Ibn Kah, commenting on the verse, \"When thy Lord brought forth their\ndescendants from the reins of the sons of Adam and took them to witness\nagainst themselves, 'Am I not,' said He, 'your Lord,' They said: 'yes, we\nwitness it.'\" (Sura vii. 171), goes on to say: \"God formed all the prophets\nand saints into one class, and the martyrs into another. The pious men,\nalso, were separated into one, and the wicked into another. One class was\nformed of the obedient servants, while the unbelievers, _viz_., the Jews,\nthe Christians, the Majians, the Hindus, &c., were likewise divided into\nseveral parties; next, they were shaped into forms, that is, into the shape\nin which he was to appear in the world was predestined for each one.\" This\npassage is quoted with approval by the Wahhabi author of the\nTakwiyat-ul-Iman.\n\n[170] The orthodox Commentator 'Abbas says: \"This verse refers to the\ndecree, _e.g._ 'He whom God wills to believe certainly will do so, and whom\nHe wills to be an infidel will be one,' and not at all to man's free will.\"\nTafsir-Hisaini, vol. ii. page 9.\n\n[171] Melanges de Philosophe Juive et Arabe par S. Munk. p. 458.\n\n[172] Thus the poet Faizi says: \"Before thou and I were thought of, our\nfree will was taken from our hands; be without cares, for the Maker of both\nworlds settled our affairs long before we were made.\"\n\n[173] The punishment of death is sometimes decreed for lesser offences. In\nthe latter part of the year 1879, one of the Turkish 'Ulama, named Ahmad,\nwas condemned to death for having assisted Dr. Koelle, an English clergyman\nresiding in Constantinople, in the translation of the Book of Common\nPrayer, and a tract on 'Christ the Word of God.' Owing to the urgent\nrepresentations of the British Ambassador the Khojah's life was spared, but\nhe was banished to the island of Chio. The Porte promised to maintain his\nfamily whilst he was absent. It need scarcely be said that nothing of the\nkind has been done.\n\n[174] Journal Asiatique 4me Serie, tome 17, p. 582\n\n[175] This is the Shafa'ite form which the Hanifites consider wrong.\n\n[176] Kingsley's Alexandria and her Schools, p. 160.\n\n[177] Les Prairies D'or, tome sixieme, p. 368.\n\n[178] Melanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 315.\n\n[179] For a statement of the Ash'arian doctrines see pp. 130-131.\n\n[180] Strictly speaking, one should not speak of Arab but of Muslim\nphilosophy, for curiously enough only one famous Philosopher, Al-Kendi, was\nan Arab.\n\n[181] Melanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par S. Munk, p. 429.\n\n[182] \"Apres lui, nous ne trouvons plus chez les Arabes aucun philosophe\nveritablement digne de ce nom.\" Melanges de Philosophie Juive et Arabe, par\nS. Munk, p. 458.\n\n[183] Muslim rule in Spain is often referred to as an instance of the\nheight of culture and the liberality of sentiment which may exist in a\nMuhammadan state. I have shown that the culture was not due to the teaching\nof the Arab Prophet and his Companions, and with regard to the liberality\nit is well to remember the words of G. H. Lewes. He says: \"The Arabs,\nthough they conquered Spain, were too weak in numbers to hold that country\nin subjection otherwise than by politic concessions to the opinion and\ncustoms of the people.\" History of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 36.\n\n[184] \"There never was any Arabian science, strictly speaking. In the first\nplace, all the Philosophy and Science of the Muhammadans was Greek, Jewish,\nand Persian.... It really designates a reaction against Islamism, which\narose in the distant parts of the Empire, in Samarcand, Bokhara, Morocco,\nand Cordova. The Arabian language having become the language of the Empire,\nthis Philosophy is written in that language; but the ideas are not Arabian;\nthe spirit is not Arabian.\" History of Philosophy, by G. H. Lewes, vol. ii.\np. 34.\n\n[185] The Persian term for this is Namaz, a word in commoner use in India\nthan Sulat. Both terms will henceforth be employed.\n\n[186] There is a Tradition to the effect that \"the whole body of him who\nsays the name of God when making wazu will be clean; whereas, if he says it\nnot, only the part washed will be pure.\"\n\n[187] Before commencing the wazu, say: \"I am going to purify myself from\nall bodily uncleanness preparatory to commencing prayer, that holy act of\nduty, which will draw my soul near to the throne of the Most High. In the\nname of God, the Great and Mighty. Praise be to God who has given us grace\nto be Muslims. Islam is a truth and infidelity a falsehood.\"\n\nWhen cleaning the teeth say: \"Vouchsafe O God, as I clean my teeth, to\npurify me from my faults and accept my homage. O Lord, may the purity of my\nteeth be for me a pledge of the whiteness of my face at the day of\njudgment.\"\n\nWhen washing the nostrils say: \"O my God, if I am pleasing in Thy sight,\nperfume me with the odours of Paradise.\"\n\nWhen washing the right hand say: \"O my God, on the day of judgment, place\nthe book of my actions in my right hand, and examine my account with\nfavour.\"\n\nWhen washing the left hand, say: \"O my God, place not at the resurrection\nthe book of my actions in my left hand.\" Similar prayers are said at each\nact.\n\n[188] From the account which follows it will be seen that the term Namaz\nexpresses what we term a 'Service.' The word for prayer in the ordinary\nsense is 'Du'a.'\n\n[189] It is taken from the Sirat-un-Najat, pp. 30-33.\n\n[190] As the use of bells is unlawful a man is employed to call the people\nto prayers.\n\n[191] \"God is Great.\"\n\n[192] The followers of Imam As-Shafa'i and the women of all sects place the\nhands upon the breast. The feet should be about four inches apart; women\nstand with the feet close together.\n\n[193] The second rak'at begins here: all that precedes is only repeated at\nthe first rak'at.\n\n[194] A fixed portion is said in each rak'at during the nights of Ramazan,\nwhich portion is then called a ruku'. (Ante. p. 57.)\n\n[195] In a mosque the Imam says the first sentences alone; the people the\nsecond.\n\n[196] Women in the Sijda keep all the limbs of the body close together, and\nput both feet at right angles to the body. If their face is Qibla-wards it\nis sufficient.\n\n[197] Here the Shia'hs say:--\"I rise and sit by the power of God.\"\n\n[198] This is said at the close of every two rak'ats.\n\n[199] The Shia'hs stop here and omit the rest.\n\n[200] The Shia'hs omit the Du'a and say: \"Peace be on thee, O Prophet, with\nthe mercy of God and His blessing. Peace be on us and on God's righteous\nservants.\"\n\n[201] The Fatva, or decree, will be found in a note at the end of this\nchapter.\n\n[202] I am indebted to Hughes' Notes on Muhammadanism for this excellent\ntable.\n\n[203] The Musalli may say five or three witr rak'ats instead of seven.\n\n[204] Nur-ul-Hidaayat, p. 155.\n\n[205] In countries under Muslim rule he holds a wooden sword reversed.\n\n[206] One who says, \"Allahu Akbar--God is Great.\"\n\n[207] A reference to his presence with Muhammad in the cave (ghar) when\nthey fled from Mecca to Madina. See Sura ix. 40.\n\n[208] Nur-ul-Hidayat, p. 153.\n\n[209] Sirat-un-Najat, p. 40.\n\n[210] Qiam is one of the positions in a Namaz and is here used by\nsynecdoche for it. In Mecca the Salat-ut-Tarawih is called with reference\nto this Tradition the Salat-ul-Qiamiah.\n\n[211] Nur-ul-Hidayat, p. 141.\n\n[212] That is, a non-Muslim who is allowed to reside in a Musalman State on\npayment of a special tax.\n\n[213] The Shafa'ites raise the hands at the recital of each of the four\nTakbirs; the other sects do so only at the first.\n\n[214] If the deceased was a child or a mad person, they say:--\n\n\"O God, make him (or her, as the case may be) a guide for us, and make him\na cause of our gaining a future reward. O God, save him and make him an\nintercessor for us.\"\n\n[215] The Imam makes the Niyyat in his mind that the Salam may be on his\nguardian angels, and on the worshippers who are behind him; each worshipper\nmakes the Niyyat that the Salam may be on his guardian angels, on his\nfellow worshippers and on the Imam.\n\n[216] _i.e._, the deceased's.\n\n[217] Death, resurrection, judgment; &c.\n\n[218] This contradicts verse 254 of this Sura. Muslims explain it thus. We\naccept all prophets and as regards _faith_ in them make no difference,\nthough as regards _dignity_ we recognize the distinction indicated in the\n254th verse.\n\n[219] That is, the Jews and Christians, on whom, it is said by the Muslim\nCommentators, many strict ceremonial observances were incumbent. The word\noften used to express the idea of the burdensome nature of ceremonial\nobservance is taklilif, trouble. Practically, Muslims are not free from\nthese \"loads,\" a fact which finds expression in the word used for a pious\nman--a mukhallif, one who has to take trouble in the way of performing\nreligious duties.\n\n[220] In Madras, a branch of the pomegranate tree is usually stuck in.\n\n[221] The name of the mother is here inserted. The mother's name is chosen\nin preference to that of the father, as there can be no doubt as to the\nmaternity of the child. For the same reason it is said that at the Last Day\neach man will be summoned as such an one, son of such a mother. This simple\nfact reveals a sad state of morals, or, at least, a disbelief in the virtue\nof women.\n\n[222] The idea is that the reward of this act is transferred to the person\non whose behalf it is made.\n\n[223] Sura ii. 256.\n\n[224] There are others who maintain that this is a _mukham_ statement and\ncannot therefore be abrogated. They hold that it must be restricted to the\naged and to persons who have chronic diseases. Tafsir-i-Husaini, p. 30.\nTafsir-i-Faiz-ul-Karim, p. 120.\n\n[225] Burton says that, when in the disguise of a Musalman doctor he was in\nCairo making preparations for the Hajj, he had but one patient who would\nbreak his fast to save his life. All the others refused though death should\nbe the consequence.\n\n[226] \"The former are called Zakat, either because they increase a man's\nstore by drawing down a blessing on him and produce in his soul the virtue\nof liberality, or because they purify the remaining part of one's substance\nfrom pollution and the soul from the filth of avarice; the latter are\ncalled Sadqa because they are a proof of a man's sincerity in the worship\nof God.\" Sale's Preliminary Discourse, Section iv.\n\n[227] That is food or money sufficient to provide one meal for a poor\nperson.\n\n[228] The technical term is 5 wasq. A wasq is equal to 60 sa', and a sa' is\nequal to 8 ratal. A ratal is equal to 1 lb; so a wasq, a load for one\ncamel, is about 480 lb.\n\n[229] Mosques are usually endowed. The property thus set apart is called\nwaqf. This supports the various officials connected with a Mosque.\n\n[230] The two famous disciples of Imam Abu Hanifa, Abu Yusuf and Muhammad.\n\n[231] This ceremony is called Al-Ihram (_i.e._, making unlawful), because\nnow various actions and pursuits must be abstained from. The ceremony of\ndoffing the pilgrim's garb is called Al-Ihlal (_i.e._, making lawful), for\nnow the pilgrim returns to the ordinary pursuits and joys of a life in the\nworld.\n\n[232] This statement of names is taken from the Nur-ul-Hidayat p. 211, and\nthat of the distance from Hughes' Notes on Islam; but Burton speaks of Al\nZaribah, a place 47 miles distant from Mecca as a Miqat. It was there that\nhe assumed the Ihram. The explanation probably is that a Haji must not\napproach nearer to Mecca without the Ihram than the places named in the\ntext. The farther from Mecca it is assumed, provided that it be during one\nof the two months preceding Zu'l-Hajja, the more meritorious is the act.\n\n[233] Talbiyah means the repetition of \"Labbaik,\" a phrase equivalent to \"I\nam here.\" The Talbiyah can be said in any language, though Arabic is\npreferred. It usually is as follows: \"Labbaik, Allahumma, Labbaik! La\nSharika laka, Labbaik! Inna-l-hamda wa-n-ni'amata laka, w'-al-mulk! La\nSharika laka, Labbaik!\n\n[234] \"The object of these minute details is that the \"Truce of God\" may be\nkept.\" The five noxious creatures, however, may be slain, _viz._, a crow, a\nkite, a scorpion, a rat and a biting dog.\" (Burton).\n\n[235] The Musjid-ul-Haram is the large Mosque in Mecca. The K'aba (cube) is\na square stone building in the centre. This is also called the Qibla. The\nHajr-ul-Aswad is the black stone fixed in the corner of the K'aba.\n\n[236] It is said to have been rebuilt ten times. A full description will be\nfound in Burton's Pilgrimage to Madina and Mecca, vol. iii. ch. 26. It is\nfar too long to quote, and it cannot be condensed. The following extract is\nof some interest, as it states why the 'Ulama consider the K'aba so sacred\na place. They quote the verse: 'Verily the first house built for mankind\n(to worship in) is that in Beccah (Mecca)--Blessed and a salvation to human\nbeings. Therein are manifest signs, even the standing-place of Abraham, and\nhe who entereth is safe.' (Sura iii. 90). The word 'therein' is said to\nmean Mecca, and the \"manifest signs\" the K'aba, which contains such marvels\nas the footprints on Abraham's platform, and is the spiritual safeguard of\nall who enter it. In addition, other \"signs\" are the preservation of the\nblack stone, the miracles put forth to defend the House, the terrible death\nof the sacrilegious, and the fact that in the Flood the big fish did not\neat the little fish in the Haram. Invalids recover their health by rubbing\nthemselves against the Kiswat (the covering of the K'aba), and the black\nstone. One hundred thousand mercies descend on it every day, &c. Portions\nof the Kiswat are highly valued as markers for the Quran. Waistcoats made\nof it are supposed to render the combatant invulnerable in battle.\n\n[237] The whole seven are one Usbu'.\n\n[238] The Maqam-i-Ibrahim is a small building, supported, by six pillars\nabout eight feet high, four of which are surrounded from top to bottom by a\nfine iron railing, while the space between the two hinder pillars is left\nopen; within the railing is a frame about five feet square, said to contain\nthe sacred stone on which Abraham sat when he built the K'aba.\n\n[239] In the first rak'at, the chapter usually recited is Sura cix; in the\nsecond, Sura cxii.\n\n[240] \"Many find this inconvenient and so pass on to 'Arifat during the\nafternoon of the eighth day\" (Burton).\n\n[241] The following legend is current about 'Arifat. \"When our parents\nforfeited heaven by eating wheat, which deprived them of their primeval\npurity, they were cast down upon earth. The serpent descended at Ispahan,\nthe peacock at Cabul, Satan at Bilbays, Eve upon 'Arifat and Adam at\nCeylon. The latter determining to seek his wife, began a journey, to which\nthe earth owes its present mottled appearance. Wherever he placed his\nfoot--which was large--a town arose; between the strides will always be\ncountry. Wandering for many years he came to the Mountain of mercy, where\nour common mother was continually calling upon his name, and their\nrecognition gave the place the name of 'Arifat. They lived here till death\ntook place.\" (Burton).\n\n[242] The Shafa'i rules allow a traveller any time when on a journey of a\nnight and day to reduce the five Namaz to three by joining some. The Hanafi\ncode allows the shortened form only on this day.\n\n[243] \"The Shaitan-ul-Kabir is a dwarf buttress of rude masonry about eight\nfeet high, by two and a half broad, placed against a rough wall of stones.\"\n(Burton).\n\n[244] Most of the ceremonies connected with the Hajj, the Ihram, the\nshaving of the head, the going to Safa and Marwah, the throwing of the\nstones, the circuit of the K'aba, the kissing of the black stone, and the\nsacrifice were all pagan ceremonies performed by the idolatrous Arabs.\nMuhammad by his time-serving policy, adopted to gain the Meccans to his\nside, has confirmed an idolatrous practice which otherwise would probably\nhave been extinct long ago. Safa and Marwah were hills held in\nsuperstitious reverence by the Meccans. The early Muslims had some doubt\nabout retaining them as sacred places: then came the revelation to the\nProphet, \"Safa and Marwah are among the monuments of God, whosoever then\nmaketh a pilgrimage to the temple or visiteth it, shall not be to blame if\nhe go round about them both.\" (Sura ii. 153).\n\n[245] These are the letters contained in words which direct the reader when\nto pause. Thus toi stands for mutlaq (slight pause), qif (pause), jim for\nja,iz (freedom to pause, or not to pause), la for no (no pause), mim for\nla'zim (necessary to pause), (.) is a full stop.\n\n[246] Persian was the foreign language with which the early Muslims were\nbrought most into contact; but the objection applies equally to any other\nlanguage.\n\n[247] A concession of no practical value, as any one with the power of\nspeech could learn these words in a very short time.\n\n[248] This is because by so doing it would seem to ascribe to it similarity\nto human compositions.\n\n[249] During the first ten days they are supposed to contain the bodies of\nthe martyrs, but now being empty the Tazias become mere ordinary frames and\ncan be destroyed, Qanun-i-Islam, p. 146.\n\n[250] This feast is known in South India as the Dassara. The idol is thrown\ninto a tank.\n\n[251] The Mihrab is a niche in a wall which indicates the position of\nMecca. The face is always turned to it when prayers are said; so that the\nexpression in the prayer means that 'Ali is to be the object toward which\nthe faithful look.\n\n[252] The twelve Imams, Muhammad and Fatima.\n\n[253] The 'Id-gah is usually built outside of the town, and consists of a\nlong wall of masonry with two minarets and a large raised open court. There\nis a Mihrab in the wall: but no proper mimbar or pulpit, three raised steps\ndoing duty for it. Sometimes, however, a Mosque is used as an 'Id-gah.\n\n[254] Tradition records that the Prophet, after the battle of Ohud, was one\nday ascending a hill in a rage. The heat of his passion was such that the\nmountain softened into the consistence of wax and retained, some say\neighteen; others, forty impressions of his feet. When rebuked by Gabriel\nfor his anger the Prophet enquired the cause of his rebuke. Gabriel told\nhim to look around. The Prophet seeing these impressions of his feet on the\nstones was astonished. His anger instantly ceased. Qanun-i-Islam, p. 152.\n\n[255] The Baqr-'Id is the only other feast that has an 'Arfa.\n\n[256] Mishkat-ul-Musabih, Book vii. ch. 1.\n\n[257] That is, his blessing or his curse takes effect. Qanun-i-Islam p.\n170.\n\n[258] This is a warning to those who may have omitted this duty.\n\n[259] Khutbaha-i-Muhtarjam, p. 104.\n\n[260] \"Observations on the Musalmans of India.\" Mrs. Mir Husan 'Ali, p.\n192.\"\n\n[261] The opinion of the various Traditionists on this point is given in\nthe Nur-ul-Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 61.\n\n[262] Still it is mustahab, or a meritorious act so to do. It is also said\nthat, if a minor is possessed of property, his father or his guardian may\npurchase at his expense an animal and sacrifice it. The child may then eat\nas much as it can. The remainder of the meat must be exchanged for\nsomething which the child can use, such as clothes, shoes, &c.\nNur-ul-Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 60.\n\n[263] According to the Imams Shafa'i and Malik no one must offer up the\nsacrifice until the Imam who has officiated at the previous Namaz has slain\nhis victim. Nur-ul-Hidayah, vol. iv. p. 61.\n\n[264] Arayish-i-Mahfil p. 144.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nCorrections made to printed original.\n\nPage 29 \"It is moreover the unanimous opinion\" - 'moveover' in original.\n\nPage 33 \"the Imam-i-A'zam or great Imam\" - Imam-i-'Azam in original,\ncorrected by Errata.\n\nPage 40 \"This is technically called Ilka\" - Ilka in original, corrected by\nErrata.\n\nPage 91 \"Sa'di in the Bustan says\" - Bustun in original, corrected by\nErrata.\n\nPage 92 \"the famous Maulana Jelal-ud-din Rumi\" - Maolana in original,\ncorrected by Errata.\n\nPage 93 \"It is Fana--extinction.\" - Fana in original, corrected by Errata.\n\nPage 188 \"a still lower class of action which are mubah.\" - mubah in\noriginal, corrected by Errata.\n\nPage 190 \"(12) the whole head must be rubbed once\" - '(13)' in original.\n\nPage 192 \"A man one day came to the Prophet\" - 'come' in original.\n\nPage 218 \"Islam, Hurriat (freedom) and Nisab (stock).\" - Hurriat in\noriginal, corrected by Errata.\n\nNote 133 \"Also Takmil-ul-Iman, p. 64.\" - Tamil-ul-Iman in original,\ncorrected by Errata.","title":"The Faith of Islam","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":99468}