{"collection":"philosophy-ethics","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_25457/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_25457","id":"gutenberg_25457","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/25457","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Human beings","Progress"],"text":"*Manhood Of Humanity*\n\n                          The Science and Art of\n\n                            Human Engineering\n\n                                    By\n\n                             Alfred Korzybski\n\n                                 New York\n\n                          E. P. Dutton & Company\n\n                             681 Fifth Avenue\n\n                                   1921\n\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\n\nAcknowledgement\nPreface\n   Chapter I. Introduction\n   Chapter II. Childhood of Humanity\n   Chapter III. Classes of Life\n   Chapter IV. What Is Man?\n   Chapter V. Wealth\n   Chapter VI. Capitalistic Era\n   Chapter VII. Survival of the Fittest\n   Chapter VIII. Elements Of Power\n   Chapter IX. Manhood Of Humanity\n   Chapter X. Conclusion\n   Appendix I. Mathematics And Time-Binding\n   Appendix II. Biology And Time-Binding\n   Appendix III. Engineering And Time-Binding\nFootnotes\n\n\n\n\n\n\nACKNOWLEDGEMENT\n\n\nThe author and the publishers acknowledge with gratitude the following\npermissions to make use of copyright material in this work:\n\nMessrs. D. C. Heath & Company, for permission to quote from \u201cUnified\nMathematics,\u201d by Louis C. Karpinski, Harry Y. Benedict and John W.\nCalhoun.\n\nMessrs. G. P. Putnam\u2019s Sons, New York and London, for permission to quote\nfrom \u201cOrganism as a Whole\u201d and \u201cPhysiology of the Brain,\u201d by Jacques Loeb.\n\nMessrs. Harper & Brothers, for permission to quote from \u201cFrom the Life,\nImaginary Portraits of Some Distinguished Americans,\u201d by Harvey O\u2019Higgins.\n\nMessrs. D. Appleton & Company, for permission to quote from \u201cCorporation\nFinance,\u201d by E. S. Mead.\n\nMessrs. J. B. Lippincott Company, for permission to quote from \u201cForced\nMovements,\u201d by Jacques Loeb.\n\nPrinceton University Press, for permission to quote from \u201cHeredity and\nEnvironment,\u201d by Edwin Grant Conklin.\n\nColumbia University Press, for permission to quote from \u201cThe Human Worth\nof Rigorous Thinking,\u201d by C. J. Keyser.\n\nThe Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, for permission to quote\nfrom _The Journal of Experimental Medicine_, Vol. 27.\n\nThe New School for Social Research, for permission to quote from \u201cAn\nOutline of the History of the Western European Mind,\u201d by James Harvey\nRobinson.\n\nThe Engineering Magazine Company, for permission to quote from \u201cMastering\nPower Production,\u201d by Walter N. Polakov.\n\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE\n\n\nThis book is primarily a study of Man and ultimately embraces all the\ngreat qualities and problems of Man. As a study of Man it takes into\nconsideration _all_ the characteristics which make Man what he is. If some\nreaders do note the absence of certain expressions familiar to them, it\ndoes not mean that the author does not feel or think as many other\npeople\u2014he does\u2014and very much so; but in this book an effort has been made\nto approach the problem of Man from a scientific-mathematical point of\nview, and therefore great pains have been taken _not_ to use words\ninsufficiently defined, or words with many meanings. The author has done\nhis utmost to use such words as convey only the meaning intended, and in\nthe case of some words, such as \u201cspiritual,\u201d there has been superadded the\nword \u201cso-called,\u201d not because the author has any belief or disbelief in\nsuch phenomena; there is no need for _beliefs_ because some such phenomena\nexist, no matter what we may think of them or by what name we call them;\nbut because the word \u201cspiritual\u201d is not scientifically defined, and every\nindividual understands and uses this word in a _personal_ and private way.\nTo be _im_personal the author has had to indicate this element by adding\n\u201cso-called.\u201d I repeat once again that this book is not a \u201cmaterialistic\u201d\nor a \u201cspiritualistic\u201d book\u2014it is a study of \u201cMan\u201d and therefore does and\n_should_ include materialistic as well as spiritual phenomena because only\nthe complex of these phenomena constitutes the complex of Man.\n\nThe problem has not been approached from the point of view of any private\ndoctrine or creed, but from a mathematical, an engineering, point of view,\nwhich is impersonal and passionless. It is obvious that to be able to\nspeak about the great affairs of Man, his spiritual, moral, physical,\neconomic, social or political status, it must first be ascertained what\nMan is\u2014what is his real nature and what are the basic laws of his nature.\nIf we succeed in finding the laws of human nature, all the rest will be a\ncomparatively easy task\u2014the ethical, social, economic and political status\nof Man should be in accord with the laws of his nature; then civilization\nwill be a human civilization\u2014a permanent and peaceful one\u2014not before.\n\nIt is useless to argue if electricity be \u201cnatural\u201d or \u201c_super_natural,\u201d of\n\u201cmaterial\u201d or of \u201cspiritual\u201d origin. As a matter of fact we do not ask\nthese questions in studying electricity; we endeavor to find out the\nnatural laws governing it and in handling live wires we do not argue or\nspeculate about them\u2014we use rubber gloves, etc. It will be the same with\nMan and the great affairs of Man\u2014we have, first of all, to know what Man\nis.\n\nThough this book has been written with scrupulous care to avoid words or\nterms of vague meaning\u2014and though it often may seem coldly critical of\nthings metaphysical, it has not been written with indifference to that\ngreat, perhaps the greatest, urge of the human heart\u2014the craving for\nspiritual truth\u2014our yearning for the higher potentialities of that which\nwe call \u201cmind,\u201d \u201csoul\u201d and \u201cspirit\u201d\u2014but it has been written with the deep\ndesire to find the source of these qualities, their scientific\nsignificance and a scientific proof of them, so that they may be\napproached and studied by the best minds of the world without the\ndigressions, and misinterpretations that are caused by the color and the\nconfusion of personal emotions; and if the book be read with care, it will\nbe seen that, though the clarifying definition of the classes of life has\nbeen chiefly used in the book for its great carrying power in the\n_practical_ world, its greatest help will ultimately be in guiding the\ninvestigation, the right valuation and especially the control and use of\nthe higher human powers.\n\nIn writing this book I have been not only introducing new ideas and new\nmethods of analysis, but I have been using a tongue new to me. The\noriginal manuscript was very crude and foreign in form, and I am greatly\nindebted to various friends for their patient kindness in correcting the\nmany errors of my poor English.\n\nI am also under great obligations to Walter Polakov, Doctor of\nEngineering, for his exceedingly helpful suggestions, not only in giving\nme a thorough criticism from the point of view of the Engineer, but also\nin devoting his energies to organizing the first \u201cTime-binding Club\u201d where\nthese problems have been discussed and criticized, with great practical\nresults.\n\nTo all those who have read and criticized the manuscript or helped\notherwise\u2014Professors E. H. Moore, C. J. Keyser, J. H. Robinson, Burges\nJohnson, E. A. Ross, A. Petrunkevitch; and Doctors J. Grove-Korski,\nCharles P. Steinmetz, J. P. Warbasse; Robert B. Wolf, Vice-President of\nthe American Society of Mechanical Engineers; Champlain L. Riley,\nVice-President of the American Society of Heating and Ventilating\nEngineers; Miss Josephine Osborn; to the authors, L. Brandeis, E. G.\nConklin, C. J. Keyser, J. Loeb, E. S. Mead, H. O\u2019Higgins, W. Polakov, J.\nH. Robinson, R. B. Wolf, for their kind permission to quote them, I wish\nto express my sincere appreciation.\n\nI wish also to acknowledge the deepest gratitude to my wife, formerly Mira\nEdgerly, who has found in this discovery of the natural law for the human\nclass of life, the solution of her life long search, and who, because of\nher interest in my work, has given me incomparably inspiring help and\nvaluable criticism. It is not an exaggeration to state that except for her\nsteady and relentless work and _her time, which saved my time_, this book\ncould not have been produced in such a comparatively short time.\n\nMr. Walter Polakov of New York City, Industrial Counsellor and Industrial\nEngineer in New York City, has kindly consented at my request to act, with\nmy authority, as my representative to whom any further queries should be\naddressed in my absence from America.\n\nTo all other friends who have helped in many personal ways I express\nthankfulness, as I wish also to thank John Macrae, Esq., the\nVice-President of E. P. Dutton & Co., for his unusual attitude toward\npublishing the book.\n\nA. K.\n_January 17, 1921_\n_New York City._\n\n\n\n\nChapter I. Introduction. Method and Processes of Approach to a New Concept\nof Life\n\n\n    \u201cFor a while he trampled with impunity on laws human and divine\n    but, as he was obsessed with the delusion that two and two makes\n    five, he fell, at last a victim to the relentless rules of humble\n    Arithmetic.\n\n    \u201cRemember, O stranger, Arithmetic is the first of the sciences and\n    the mother of safety.\u201d\n\n    BRANDEIS.\n\n\nIt is the aim of this little book to point the way to a new science and\nart\u2014the science and art of Human Engineering. By Human Engineering I mean\nthe science and art of directing the energies and capacities of human\nbeings to the advancement of human weal. It need not be argued in these\ntimes that the establishment of such a science\u2014the science of human\nwelfare\u2014is an undertaking of immeasurable importance. No one can fail to\nsee that its importance is supreme.\n\nIt is evident that, if such a science is to be established it must be\nfounded on ascertained facts\u2014it must accord with what is _characteristic_\nof Man\u2014it must be based upon a just conception of what Man is\u2014upon a right\nunderstanding of Man\u2019s place in the scheme of Nature.\n\nNo one need be told how indispensable it is to have true ideas\u2014just\nconcepts\u2014correct notions\u2014of the things with which we humans have to deal;\neveryone knows for example, that to mistake solids for surfaces or lines\nwould wreck the science and art of geometry; anyone knows that to confuse\nfractions with whole numbers would wreck the science and art of\narithmetic; everyone knows that to mistake vice for virtue would destroy\nthe foundation of ethics; everyone knows that to mistake a desert mirage\nfor a lake of fresh water does but lure the fainting traveler to dire\ndisappointment or death. Now, it is perfectly clear that of all the things\nwith which human beings have to deal, the most important by far is Man\nhimself\u2014humankind\u2014men, women and children. It follows that for us human\nbeings nothing else can be quite so important as a clear, true, just,\nscientific concept of Man\u2014a right understanding of what we as human beings\nreally are. For it requires no great wisdom, it needs only a little\nreflection, to see that, if we humans radically misconceive the nature of\nman\u2014if we regard man as being something which he is not, whether it be\nsomething higher than man or lower\u2014we thereby commit an error so\nfundamental and far reaching as to produce every manner of confusion and\ndisaster in individual life, in community life and in the life of the\nrace.\n\nThe question we have, therefore, to consider first of all is\nfundamentally: What is Man? What is a man? What is a human being? What is\nthe defining or characteristic mark of humanity? To this question two\nanswers and only two have been given in the course of the ages, and they\nare both of them current to-day. One of the answers is biological\u2014man is\nan animal, a certain kind of animal; the other answer is a mixture partly\nbiological and partly mythological or partly biological and partly\nphilosophical\u2014man is a combination or _union_ of animal with something\nsupernatural. An important part of my task will be to show that both of\nthese answers are radically wrong and that, beyond all things else, they\nare primarily responsible for what is dismal in the life and history of\nhumankind. This done, the question remains: What is Man? I hope to show\nclearly and convincingly that the answer is to be found in the patent fact\nthat human beings possess in varying degrees a certain natural faculty or\npower or capacity which serves at once to give them their appropriate\ndignity as human beings and to discriminate them, not only from the\nminerals and the plants but also from the world of animals, this peculiar\nor characteristic human faculty or power or capacity I shall call the\n_time-binding_ faculty or _time-binding_ power or _time-binding_ capacity.\nWhat I mean by time-binding will be clearly and fully explained in the\ncourse of the discussion, and when it has been made clear, the\nquestion\u2014What Is Man?\u2014will be answered by saying that man is a being\nnaturally endowed with time-binding capacity\u2014that a human being is a\ntime-binder\u2014that men, women and children constitute the time-binding class\nof life.\n\nThere will then remain the great task of indicating and in a measure\nsketching some of the important ways in which the true conception of man\nas man will transform our views of human society and the world, affect our\nhuman conduct and give us a growing body of scientific wisdom regarding\nthe welfare of mankind including all posterity.\n\nThe purpose of this introductory chapter is to consider certain general\nmatters of a preliminary nature\u2014to indicate the spirit of the\nundertaking\u2014to provide a short course of approach and preparation\u2014to clear\nthe deck, so to speak, and make ready for action.\n\nThere are two ways to slide easily through life: Namely, to believe\neverything, or to doubt everything; both ways save us from thinking. The\nmajority take the line of least resistance, preferring to have their\nthinking done for them; they accept ready-made individual, private\ndoctrines as their own and follow them more or less blindly. Every\ngeneration looks upon its own creeds as true and permanent and has a\nmingled smile of pity and contempt for the prejudices of the past. For two\nhundred or more generations of our historical past this attitude has been\nrepeated two hundred or more times, and unless we are very careful our\nchildren will have the same attitude toward us.\n\nThere can be no doubt that humanity belongs to a class of life which to a\nlarge extent determines its own destinies, establishes its own rules of\neducation and conduct, and thus influences every step we are free to take\nwithin the structure of our social system. But the power of human beings\nto determine their own destinies is limited by natural law, Nature\u2019s law.\nIt is the counsel of wisdom to discover the laws of nature, including the\nlaws of human nature, and then to live in accordance with them. The\nopposite is folly.\n\nA farmer must know the natural laws that govern his wheat, or corn, or\ncow, as otherwise he will not have satisfactory crops, or the quality and\nabundance of milk he desires, whereas the knowledge of these laws enables\nhim to produce the most favorable conditions for his plants and animals,\nand thereby to gain the desired results.\n\nHumanity must know the natural laws for humans, otherwise humans will not\ncreate the conditions and the customs that regulate human activities which\nwill make it possible for them to have the most favorable circumstances\nfor the fullest human development in life; which means the release of the\nmaximum natural-creative energy and expression in mental, moral, material\nand spiritual and all the other great fields of human activities,\nresulting in happiness in life and in work\u2014collectively and\nindividually\u2014because the conditions of the earning of a livelihood\ninfluence and shape all our mental processes and activities, the quality\nand the form of human inter-relationship.\n\nEvery human achievement, be it a scientific discovery, a picture, a\nstatue, a temple, a home or a bridge, has to be conceived in the mind\nfirst\u2014the plan thought out\u2014before it can be made a reality, and when\nanything is to be attempted that involves any number of\nindividuals\u2014methods of coordination have to be considered\u2014the methods\nwhich have proven to be the best suited for such undertakings are\nengineering methods\u2014the engineering of _an idea_ toward a complete\n_realization_. Every engineer has to know the materials with which he has\nto work and the natural laws of these materials, as discovered by\nobservation and experiment and formulated by mathematics and mechanics;\nelse he can not calculate the forces at his disposal; he can not compute\nthe resistance of his materials; he can not determine the capacity and\nrequirements of his power plant; in short, he can not make the most\nprofitable use of his resources. Lately in all industries and particularly\nduring the late World War, which was itself a gigantic industrial process,\nanother factor manifested itself and proved to be of the utmost\nimportance: namely, the human factor, which is not material but is mental,\nmoral, psychological. It has been found that maximum production may be\nattained when and only when the production is carried on in conformity\nwith certain psychological laws, roughly determined by the analysis of\nhuman nature.\n\nExcept for productive human labor, our globe is too small to support the\nhuman population now upon it. Humanity must produce or perish.\n\nProduction is essentially a task for engineers; it essentially depends\nupon the discovery and the application of natural laws, including the laws\nof human nature. It is, therefore, not a task for old fashioned\nphilosophical speculation nor for barren metaphysical reasoning _in\nvacuo_; it is a scientific task and involves the coordination and\ncooperation of all the sciences. This is why it is an engineering task.\n\nFor engineering, rightly understood, is the coordinated sum-total of human\nknowledge gathered through the ages, with mathematics as its chief\ninstrument and guide. Human Engineering will embody the theory and\npractice\u2014the science and art\u2014of all engineering branches united by a\ncommon aim\u2014the understanding and welfare of mankind.\n\nHere I want to make it very clear that mathematics is not what many people\nthink it is; it is not a system of mere formulas and theorems; but as\nbeautifully defined by Professor Cassius J. Keyser, in his book _The Human\nWorth of Rigorous Thinking_ (Columbia University Press, 1916), mathematics\nis the science of \u201cExact thought or rigorous thinking,\u201d and one of its\ndistinctive characteristics is \u201cprecision, sharpness, completeness of\ndefinitions.\u201d This quality alone is sufficient to explain why people\ngenerally do not like mathematics and why even some scientists bluntly\nrefuse to have anything to do with problems wherein mathematical reasoning\nis involved. In the meantime, mathematical philosophy has very little, if\nanything, to do with mere calculations or with numbers as such or with\nformulas; it is a philosophy wherein precise, sharp and rigorous thinking\nis essential. Those who deliberately refuse to think \u201crigorously\u201d\u2014that is\nmathematically\u2014in connections where such thinking is possible, commit the\nsin of preferring the worse to the better; they deliberately violate the\nsupreme law of intellectual rectitude.\n\nHere I have to make it clear that for the purpose of Human Engineering the\nold concepts of matter, space and time are sufficient to start with; they\nare sufficient in much the same way as they have been sufficient in the\nold science of mechanics. Figuratively speaking Human Engineering is a\nhigher order of bridge engineering\u2014it aims at the spanning of a gap in\npractical life as well as in knowledge. The old meanings of matter, space\nand time were good enough to prevent the collapse of a bridge; the same\nunderstanding of space and time as used in this book will protect society\nand humanity from periodical collapses. The old mechanics lead directly to\nsuch a knowledge of the intrinsic laws governing the universe as to\nsuggest the new mechanics. Human Engineering will throw a new light on\nmany old conceptions and will help the study and understanding of matter,\nspace and time in their relative meanings, and perhaps will ultimately\nlead to an understanding of their absolute meanings.\n\nPhilosophy in its old form could exist only in the absence of engineering,\nbut with engineering in existence and daily more active and far reaching,\nthe old verbalistic philosophy and metaphysics have lost their reason to\nexist. They were no more able to understand the \u201cproduction\u201d of the\nuniverse and life than they are now able to understand or grapple with\n\u201cproduction\u201d as a means to provide a happier existence for humanity. They\nfailed because their venerated method of \u201cspeculation\u201d can not _produce_,\nand its place must be taken by mathematical thinking. Mathematical\nreasoning is displacing metaphysical reasoning. Engineering is driving\nverbalistic philosophy out of existence and humanity gains decidedly\nthereby. Only a few parasites and \u201cspeculators\u201d will mourn the\ndisappearance of their old companion \u201cspeculation.\u201d The world of\nproducers\u2014the predominating majority of human beings\u2014will welcome a\nphilosophy of ordered thought and production.\n\nThe scientists, all of them, have their duties no doubt, but they do not\nfully use their education if they do not try to broaden their sense of\nresponsibility toward all mankind instead of closing themselves up in a\nnarrow specialization where they find their pleasure. Neither engineers\nnor other scientific men have any right to prefer their own personal peace\nto the happiness of mankind; their place and their duty are in the front\nline of struggling humanity, not in the unperturbed ranks of those who\nkeep themselves aloof from life. If they are indifferent, or discouraged\nbecause they feel or think that they know that the situation is hopeless,\nit may be proved that undue pessimism is as dangerous a \u201creligion\u201d as any\nother blind creed. Indeed there is very little difference in kind between\nthe medieval fanaticism of the \u201choly inquisition,\u201d and modern intolerance\ntoward new ideas. All kinds of intellect must get together, for as long as\nwe presuppose the situation to be hopeless, the situation will indeed be\nhopeless. The spirit of Human Engineering does not know the word\n\u201chopeless;\u201d for engineers know that wrong methods are alone responsible\nfor disastrous results, and that every situation can be successfully\nhandled by the use of proper means. The task of engineering science is not\nonly to know but to know how. Most of the scientists and engineers do not\nyet realize that their united judgment would be invincible; no system or\nclass would care to disregard it. Their knowledge is the very force which\nmakes the life of humanity pulsate. If the scientists and the engineers\nhave had no common base upon which to unite, a common base must be\nprovided. To-day the pressure of life is such that we cannot go forward\nwithout their coordinating guidance. But first there must be the desire to\nact. One aim of this book is to furnish the required stimulus by showing\nthat Human Engineering will rescue us from the tangle of private opinions\nand enable us to deal with all the problems of life and human society upon\na scientific basis.\n\nIf those who know why and how neglect to act, those who do not know will\nact, and the world will continue to flounder. The whole history of mankind\nand especially the present plight of the world show only too sadly how\ndangerous and expensive it is to have the world governed by those who do\nnot know.\n\nIn paying the price of this war, we have been made to realize that even\nthe private individual can not afford to live wrapped up in his own life\nand not take his part in public affairs. He must acquire the habit of\ntaking his share of public responsibility. This signifies that a very\ngreat deal of very simple work, all pointing in the direction of a greater\nwork, must be done in the way of educating, not engineers and scientific\nmen only, but the general public to cooperate in establishing the practice\nof Human Engineering in all the affairs of human society and life.\n\nIn writing this book I have had to wrestle with tremendous difficulties in\nexpressing new thoughts and in indicating new methods. The reader who\nstops to criticize words or expressions because of their more or less\nhappy or unhappy use will miss the whole point of the work. The reading of\nit should be done with a view to seeing how much can be found in it of\nwhat is new and good that may be elaborated further, and put into better\nform. This new enterprise is too difficult and too vast for the unaided\nlabor of one man\u2014life is too short.\n\nThe method used in this book in analysing life phenomena is essentially an\nengineering method, and as physics and mechanics always suggest to\nmathematicians new fields for analysis, it is not improbable that Human\nEngineering will give mathematicians new and interesting fields for\nresearch. The humblest r\u00f4le of mathematicians in Human Engineering may be\nlikened to that of \u201cPublic accountants\u201d who put _in order_ the affairs of\nbusiness.\n\nIn relation to mathematics Bertrand Russell has said: \u201cLogic is the youth\nof mathematics, mathematics is the manhood of logic.\u201d This brilliant _mot_\nof the eminent philosopher of mathematics is no doubt just and is\nprofoundly significant; the least it can teach us is that it is useless to\ntry to find a dividing line between logic and mathematics, for no such\nline exists; to seek for one serves merely to betray one\u2019s ignorance of\nmathematical philosophy. Elsewhere Mr. Russell says: \u201cThe hope of\nsatisfaction to our more human desires, the hope of demonstrating that the\nworld has this or that ethical characteristic, is not one which, so far as\nI can see, philosophy can do anything whatever to satisfy.\u201d By\n\u201cphilosophy\u201d he means mathematical philosophy\u2014a philosophy that is\nrigorously scientific, not vaguely speculative. I am entirely unable to\nagree with him that such a philosophy can make no contribution to ethics.\nOn the contrary, I contend, and in this book I hope to show, that by\nmathematical philosophy, by rigorously scientific thinking, we can arrive\nat the true conception of what a human being really is and that in thus\ndiscovering the characteristic nature of man we come to the secret and\nsource of ethics. Ethics as a science will investigate and explain the\nessential nature of man and the obligations which the essential nature of\nman imposes upon human beings. It will be seen that to live righteously,\nto live ethically, is to live in accordance with the laws of human nature;\nand when it is clearly seen that man is a natural being, a part of nature\nliterally, then it will be seen that the laws of human nature\u2014the only\npossible rules for ethical conduct\u2014are no more _super_natural and no more\n_man_-made than is the law of gravitation, for example, or any other\nnatural law.\n\nIt is no cause for wonder that mathematical thinking should lead to such a\nresult; for Man is a _natural_ being, man\u2019s mind is a _natural agency_,\nand the results of rigorous thinking, far from being artificial fictions,\nare natural facts\u2014natural revelations of natural law.\n\nI hope I have not given the impression, by repeated allusion to\nmathematical science, that this book is to be in any technical sense a\nmathematical treatise. I have merely wished to indicate that the task is\nconceived and undertaken in the mathematical spirit, which must be the\nguiding spirit of Human Engineering; for no thought, if it be\nnon-mathematical in spirit, can be trusted, and, although mathematicians\nsometimes make mistakes, the spirit of mathematics is always right and\nalways sound.\n\nWhilst I do not intend to trouble the reader with any highly technical\nmathematical arguments, there are a few simple mathematical considerations\nwhich anyone of fair education can understand, which are of exceedingly\ngreat importance for our purpose, and to which, therefore, I ask the\nreader\u2019s best attention. One of the ideas is that of an _arithmetical\nprogression_; another one is that of a _geometrical progression_. Neither\nof them involves anything more difficult than the most ordinary arithmetic\nof the secondary school or the counting house, but it will be seen that\nthey throw a flood of light upon many of the most important human\nconcerns.\n\nBecause we are human beings we are all of us interested in what we call\nprogress\u2014progress in law, in government, in jurisprudence, in ethics, in\nphilosophy, in the natural sciences, in economics, in the fine arts, in\nthe practical arts, in the production and distribution of wealth, in all\nthe affairs affecting the welfare of mankind. It is a fact that all these\ngreat matters are interdependent and interlocking; it is therefore a fact\nof the utmost importance that progress in each of the cardinal matters\nmust keep abreast of progress in the other cardinal matters in order to\nkeep a just equilibrium, a proper balance, and so to maintain the\nintegrity and continued prosperity of the whole complex body of our social\nlife; it is a fact, a fact of observation, that in some of the great\nmatters progress proceeds in accordance with one law and one rate of\nadvancement and in others in accordance with a very different law and\nrate; it is a fact, a fact of observation and sad experience, a fact\nattested by all history and made evident by reason, that owing to the\nwidely differing laws and rates of progress in the great essential\nconcerns of humanity, the balance and equilibrium among the parts is\ndisturbed, the strain gradually increases until a violent break ensues in\nthe form of social conflicts, insurrections, revolutions and war; it is a\nfact that the readjustment that follows, as after an earthquake, does\nindeed establish a kind of new equilibrium, but it is an equilibrium born\nof violence, and it is destined to be again disturbed periodically without\nend, unless by some science and art of Human Engineering progress in all\nthe great matters essential to human weal can be made to proceed in\naccordance with one and the same law having its validity in the nature of\nman.\n\nTaken in combination, the facts just stated are so extremely important\nthat they deserve to be stated with the utmost emphasis and clarity. To\nthis end I beg the reader to consider very carefully and side by side the\ntwo following series of numbers. The first one is a simple geometrical\nprogression\u2014denoted by (_GP_); the second one is a simple arithmetical\nprogression\u2014denoted by (_AP_):\n\n_GP_: 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, etc.;\n_AP_: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, etc.\n\nFor convenience of comparison I let them begin with the same number and\nfor simplicity I have taken 2 for this initial term; observe that in the\n(_GP_) each term is got from the preceding term by _multiplying_ by 2 and\nthat in the (_AP_) each term is got from its predecessor by adding 2; in\nthe first series the multiplier 2 is called the common _ratio_ and in the\nsecond series the repeatedly added 2 is called the common _difference_; it\nis again for the convenience of comparison that I have chosen the same\nnumber for both common ratio and common difference and for the sake of\nsimplicity that I have taken for this number the easy number 2. Other\nchoices would be logically just as good.\n\nWhy have I introduced these two series? Because they serve to illustrate\nperfectly two widely different _laws of progress_\u2014two laws representing\nvastly different _rates_ of growth, increase, or _advancement_.\n\nDo not fail to observe in this connection the following two facts. One of\nthem is that the magnitude of the terms of any geometric progression whose\nratio (no matter how small) is 2 or more will overtake and surpass the\nmagnitude of the corresponding terms of any arithmetical progression, no\nmatter how large the common difference of the latter may be. The other\nfact to be noted is that the greater the ratio of a geometric progression,\nthe more rapidly do its successive terms increase; so that the terms of\none geometric progression may increase a thousand or a million or a\nbillion times faster than the corresponding terms of another geometric\nprogression. As any geometric progression (of ratio equal to 2 or more),\nno matter how slow, outruns every arithmetic progression, no matter how\nfast, so one geometric progression may be far swifter than another one of\nthe same type.\n\nTo every one it will be obvious that the two progressions differ in pace;\nand that the difference between their corresponding terms becomes\nincreasingly larger and larger the farther we go; for instance, the sum of\nthe first six terms of the geometrical progression is 126, whereas the sum\nof the first six terms of the arithmetical progression is only 42, the\ndifference between the two sums being 84; the sum of 8 terms is 510 for\nthe (_GP_) and 72 for the (_AP_), the difference between these sums (of\nonly 8 terms each) being 438, already much larger than before; if now we\ntake the sums of the first 10 terms, they will be 2046 and 110 having a\ndifference of 1936; etc., etc.\n\nConsider now any two matters of great importance for human\nweal\u2014jurisprudence for example, and natural science\u2014or any other two major\nconcerns of humanity. It is as plain as the noon-day sun that, if progress\nin one of the matters advances according to the law of a geometric\nprogression and the other in accordance with a law of an arithmetical\nprogression, progress in the former matter will very quickly and ever more\nand more rapidly outstrip progress in the latter, so that, if the two\ninterests involved be interdependent (as they always are), a strain is\ngradually produced in human affairs, social equilibrium is at length\ndestroyed; there follows a period of readjustment by means of violence and\nforce. It must not be fancied that the case supposed is merely\nhypothetical. The whole history of mankind and especially the present\ncondition of the world unite in showing that far from being merely\nhypothetical, the case supposed has always been actual and is actual\nto-day on a vaster scale than ever before. My contention is that while\nprogress in some of the great matters of human concern has been long\nproceeding in accordance with the law of a rapidly increasing geometric\nprogression, progress in the other matters of no less importance has\nadvanced only at the rate of an arithmetical progression or at best at the\nrate of some geometric progression of relatively slow growth. To see it\nand to understand it we have to pay the small price of a little\nobservation and a little meditation.\n\nSome technological invention is made, like that of a steam engine or a\nprinting press, for example; or some discovery of scientific method, like\nthat of analytical geometry or the infinitesimal calculus; or some\ndiscovery of natural law, like that of falling bodies or the Newtonian law\nof gravitation. What happens? What is the effect upon the progress of\nknowledge and invention? The effect is stimulation. Each invention leads\nto new inventions and each discovery to new discoveries; invention breeds\ninvention, science begets science, the children of knowledge produce their\nkind in larger and larger families; the process goes on from decade to\ndecade, from generation to generation, and the spectacle we behold is that\nof advancement in scientific knowledge and technological power according\nto the law and rate of a rapidly increasing geometric progression or\nlogarithmic function.\n\nAnd now what must we say of the so-called sciences\u2014the pseudo sciences\u2014of\nethics and jurisprudence and economics and politics and government? For\nthe answer we have only to open our eyes and behold the world. By virtue\nof the advancement that has long been going on with ever accelerated\nlogarithmic rapidity in invention, in mathematics, in physics, in\nchemistry, in biology, in astronomy and in applications of them, time and\nspace and matter have been already conquered to such an extent that our\nglobe, once so seemingly vast, has virtually shrunken to the dimensions of\nan ancient province; and manifold peoples of divers tongues and traditions\nand customs and institutions are now constrained to live together as in a\nsingle community. There is thus demanded a new ethical wisdom, a new legal\nwisdom, a new economical wisdom, a new political wisdom, a new wisdom in\nthe affairs of government. For the new visions our anguished times cry\naloud but the only answers are reverberated echoes of the wailing cry\nmingled with the chattering voices of excited public men who know not what\nto do. Why? What is the explanation? The question is double: Why the\ndisease? And why no remedy at hand? The answer is the same for both. And\nthe answer is that the so-called sciences of ethics and jurisprudence and\neconomics and politics and government have not kept pace with the rapid\nprogress made in the other great affairs of man; they have lagged behind;\nit is because of their lagging that the world has come to be in so great\ndistress; and it is because of their lagging that they have not now the\nneeded wisdom to effect a cure.\n\nDo you ask why it is that the \u201csocial\u201d sciences\u2014the so-called sciences of\nethics, etc.\u2014have lagged behind? The answer is not far to seek nor\ndifficult to understand. They have lagged behind, partly because they have\nbeen hampered by the traditions and the habits of a bygone world\u2014they have\nlooked backward instead of forward; they have lagged behind, partly\nbecause they have depended upon the barren methods of verbalistic\nphilosophy\u2014they have been metaphysical instead of scientific; they have\nlagged behind, partly because they have been often dominated by the lusts\nof cunning \u201cpoliticians\u201d instead of being led by the wisdom of enlightened\nstatesmen; they have lagged behind, partly because they have been\npredominantly concerned to protect \u201cvested interests,\u201d upon which they\nhave in the main depended for support; the _fundamental_ cause, however,\nof their lagging behind is found in the astonishing fact that, despite\ntheir being by their very nature most _immediately_ concerned with the\naffairs of mankind, they have not discovered what Man really is but have\nfrom time immemorial falsely regarded human beings either as animals or\nelse as combinations of animals and something supernatural. With these two\nmonstrous conceptions of the essential nature of man I shall deal at a\nlater stage of this writing.\n\nAt present I am chiefly concerned to drive home the fact that it is the\ngreat _disparity_ between the rapid progress of the natural and\ntechnological sciences on the one hand and the slow progress of the\nmetaphysical, so-called social \u201csciences\u201d on the other hand, that sooner\nor later so disturbs the equilibrium of human affairs as to result\nperiodically in those social cataclysms which we call insurrections,\nrevolutions and wars. The reader should note carefully that such\ncataclysmic changes\u2014such \u201cjumps,\u201d as we may call them\u2014such violent\nreadjustments in human affairs and human relationships\u2014are recorded\nthroughout the history of mankind. And I would have him see clearly that,\nbecause the _disparity_ which produces them increases as we pass from\ngeneration to generation\u2014from term to term of our progressions\u2014the \u201cjumps\u201d\nin question occur not only with increasing violence but with increasing\nfrequency. This highly significant fact may be graphically illustrated in\nthe following figure:\n\n[ A horizontal line, with numbers 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 above, and markings\n_a\u2019_, _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_ in the corresponding locations below. ]\n\nGeometric evolution of the natural and technological sciences.\u2014Peaceful\nprogress.\n\n\n[ A horizontal line, again marked with numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, but with\ngaps between 6 and (unprinted) 7, 8 and (unprinted) 9, 10 and (unprinted)\n11. Above are markings: _A\u2019_ above 2 and _A_ above 4; _B_ above 6 and _C_\nabove 7; _D_ above 8 and _E_ above 9; _F_ above 10 and _G_ at the far\nright end.  The steady progress areas, 2 to 4, 7 to 8, 9 to 10, are marked\n\u201cPeaceful\u201d, while the gaps are labeled \u201cJump, Revolution or War.\u201d ]\n\nArithmetical evolution of the so-called social \u201csciences,\u201d accelerated by\nviolent \u201cjumps.\u201d\u2014Non-peaceful social progress.\n\n\n_a\u20192_, _2a_, _ab_, _bc_, _cd_, represent the geometrical law of\nprogression in the natural and technological sciences (peaceful\nevolution).\n\n_A\u20192_, _2A_, _AB_, _CD_, _EF_, represent the lagging arithmetical law of\nprogression in the so-called social sciences (peaceful evolution).\n\nBoth of these during the same periods of time.\n\n_BC_, _DE_, _FG_, represent revolutions or wars, with the aftermath of\nrevolution of ideas\u2014the \u201cjump\u201d\u2014violent readjustment of ideas to\nfacts\u2014forced by events.\n\n_ab_, _bc_, _cd_, and _AB_, _CD_, _EF_, take the same amount of time, but\nthe second progression being much slower than the first one, the \u201cjumps\u201d\nor revolutions occur at shorter intervals as time goes on and thus more\nfrequently force us to coordinate our ideas to facts. Periods of peace or\nseeming peace alternate more and more frequently with periods of violence;\nthe mentioned _disparity_ of progress in peaceful times is the hatching\nseed of future violence.(1)\n\nAs a matter of fact these few mathematical considerations can hardly be\ncalled mathematics or mathematical philosophy; nevertheless, without\nbringing attention to these very simple mathematical ideas we should not\nbe able to proceed any further than in the past. Our life problems have\nalways been \u201csolved\u201d by verbalists and rhetorical metaphysicians who\ncleverly played with vague words and who always ignored the supremely\nimportant matter of dimensions because they were ignorant of it. There was\nno possible way to arrive at an agreement on the significance of words, or\neven the understanding of them. Let us take, for instance, such words as\n\u201cgood\u201d or \u201cbad\u201d or \u201ctruth;\u201d volumes upon volumes have been written about\nthem; no one has reached any result universally acceptable; the effect has\nbeen to multiply warring schools of philosophy\u2014sectarians and partisans.\nIn the meantime _something_ corresponding to each of the terms \u201cgood,\u201d\n\u201cbad,\u201d \u201ctruth\u201d exists as matter of fact; but what that something is still\nawaits scientific determination. If only these three words could be\nscientifically defined, philosophy, law, ethics and psychology would cease\nto be \u201cprivate theories\u201d or verbalism and they would advance to the rank\nand dignity of sciences.\n\nHere I may quote a characteristic of life as expressed by one of the\n\u201cheroes\u201d of my esteemed friend Harvey O\u2019Higgins, in his book, _From the __\nLife, Imaginary Portraits of Some Distinguished Americans_ (Harper, N.\nY.).\n\n\n    \u201cWarren never philosophized; he handled facts as an artisan\n    handles his tools; but if he _had_ philosophized, his theory of\n    life would probably have been something like this: \u2018There is no\n    justice, there is no morality, in nature or in natural laws;\n    justice and morality are laws only of human society. But society,\n    natural life, and all civilization are subject in their larger\n    aspects to natural laws\u2014which contradict morality and outrage\n    justice\u2014and the statesman has to move with those laws and direct\n    his people in accordance with them, despite the lesser by-laws of\n    morality and justice.\u2019 \u201d\n\n\nIf such are the creeds of \u201cdistinguished people\u201d anywhere, what better can\nwe expect than that which we see in the history of humanity?\n\nBut the fact that the old philosophy, law, ethics, psychology, politics\nand sociology could not solve the practical problems of humanity, is not\nany reason whatsoever why we should despair. The problems can be solved.\n\nTo follow the reasoning of this book, it is not necessary to be a highly\ntrained specialist; the only qualifications required are candor, an open\nmind, freedom from blinding prejudice, thoughtfulness, a real desire for\ntruth, and enough common sense to understand that to talk of adding three\nquarts of milk to three-quarters of a mile is to talk nonsense.\n\n\n\n\nChapter II. Childhood of Humanity\n\n\nThe conclusion of the World War is the closing of the period of the\nchildhood of humanity. This childhood, as any childhood, can be\ncharacterized as devoid of any real understanding of values, as is that of\na child who uses a priceless chronometer to crack nuts.\n\nThis childhood has been unduly long, but happily we are near to the end of\nit, for humanity, shaken by this war, is coming to its senses and must\nsoon enter its manhood, a period of great achievements and rewards in the\nnew and real sense of values dawning upon us.\n\nThe sacred dead will not have died for naught; the \u201cred wine of youth,\u201d\nthe wanton waste of life, has shown us the price of life, and we will have\nto keep our oath to make the future worthy of their sweat and blood.\n\nEarly ideas are not necessarily true ideas.\n\nThere are different kinds of interpretations of history and different\nschools of philosophy. All of them have contributed something to human\nprogress, but none of them has been able to give the world a basic\nphilosophy embracing the whole progress of science and establishing the\nlife of man upon the abiding foundation of Fact.\n\nOur life is bound to develop according to evident or else concealed laws\nof nature. The evident laws of nature were the inspiration of genuine\nscience in its cradle; and their interpretations or misinterpretations\nhave from the earliest times formed systems of law, of ethics, and of\nphilosophy.\n\nHuman intellect, be it that of an individual or that of the race, forms\nconclusions which have to be often revised before they correspond\napproximately to facts. What we call progress consists in coordinating\nideas with realities. The World War has taught something to everybody. It\nwas indeed a great reality; it accustomed us to think in terms of reality\nand not in those of phantom speculation. Some unmistakable truths were\nrevealed. Facts and force were the things that counted. Power had to be\nproduced to destroy hostile power; it was found that the old political and\neconomic systems were not adequate to the task put upon them. The world\nhad to create new economic conditions; it was obliged to supplement the\nold systems with special boards for food, coal, railroads, shipping,\nlabor, etc. The World War emergency compelled the nations to organize for\nproducing greater power in order to conquer power already great.\n\nIf there is anything which this war has proved, it is the fact that the\nmost important asset a nation or an individual can have, is the ability\n\u201cto do things.\u201d\n\n\u201cIn Flanders Fields the poppies blow ...,\u201d that is too true; they blow and\nthey are strong and red. But the purpose of this writing is not the\ncelebration of poetry, but the elucidation and right use of facts.\n\nNormally, thousands of rabbits and guinea pigs are used and killed, in\nscientific laboratories, for experiments which yield great and tangible\nbenefits to humanity. This war butchered millions of people and ruined the\nhealth and lives of tens of millions. Is this climax of the pre-war\ncivilization to be passed unnoticed, except for the poetry and the\nmanuring of the battle fields, that the \u201cpoppies blow\u201d stronger and better\nfed? Or is the death of ten men on the battle field to be of as much worth\nin knowledge gained as is the life of one rabbit killed for experiment? Is\nthe great sacrifice worth analysing? There can be only one answer\u2014yes.\nBut, if truth be desired, the analysis must be scientific.\n\nIn science, \u201copinions\u201d are tolerated when and only when facts are lacking.\nIn this case, we have all the facts necessary. We have only to collect\nthem and analyse them, rejecting mere \u201copinions\u201d as cheap and unworthy.\nSuch as understand this lesson will know how to act for the benefit of\nall.\n\nAt present the future of mankind is dark. \u201cStop, look, and listen\u201d\u2014the\nprudent caution at railroad crossings\u2014must be amended to read \u201cstop, look,\nlisten, and THINK\u201d; not for the saving of a few lives in railroad\naccidents, but for the preservation of the life of humanity. Living\norganisms, of the lower and simpler types, in which the differentiation\nand the integration of the vital organs have not been carried far, can\nmove about for a considerable time after being deprived of the appliances\nby which the life force is accumulated and transferred, but higher\norganisms are instantly killed by the removal of such appliances, or even\nby the injury of minor parts of them; even more easily destroyed are the\nmore advanced and complicated _social_ organizations.\n\nThe first question is: what are to be the scientific methods that will\neliminate diverse opinions and creeds from an analysis of facts and ensure\ncorrect deductions based upon them? A short survey of facts concerning\ncivilization will help to point the way.\n\nHumanity, in its cradle, did not have science; it had only the faculties\nof observation and speculation. In the early days there was much\nspeculative thinking, but it was without any sufficient basis of facts.\nTheology and philosophy flourished; their speculations were often very\nclever, but all their primitive notions about facts\u2014such as the structure\nof the heavens, the form of the earth, mechanical principles,\nmeteorological or physiological phenomena\u2014were almost all of them wrong.\n\nWhat is history? What is its significance for humanity? Dr. J. H. Robinson\ngives us a precise answer: \u201cMan\u2019s abject dependence on the past gives rise\nto the continuity of history. Our convictions, opinions, prejudices,\nintellectual tastes; our knowledge, our methods of learning and of\napplying for information we owe, with slight exceptions, to the past\u2014often\nto the remote past. History is an expansion of memory, and like memory it\nalone can explain the present and in this lies its most unmistakable\nvalue.\u201d(2)\n\nThe savage regards every striking phenomenon or group of phenomena as\ncaused by some personal agent, and from remotest antiquity the mode of\nthinking has changed only as fast as the relations among phenomena have\nbeen established.(3)\n\nHuman nature was always asking \u201cwhy\u201d? and not being able to answer why,\nthey found their answer through another factor \u201cwho.\u201d The unknown was\ncalled, Gods or God. But with the progress of science the \u201cwhy\u201d became\nmore and more evident, and the question came to be \u201chow.\u201d From the early\ndays of humanity, dogmatic theology, law, ethics, and science in its\ninfancy, were the monopolies of one class and the source of their\npower.(4)\n\nThe first to break this power were the exact sciences. They progressed too\nrapidly to be bound and limited by obscure old writings and prejudices;\nlife and realities were their domain. Science brushed aside all sophistry\nand became a reality. Ethics is too fundamentally important a factor in\ncivilization to depend upon a theological or a legal excuse; ethics must\nconform to the _natural_ laws of human _nature_.\n\nLaws, legal ideas, date from the beginning of civilization. Legal\nspeculation was wonderfully developed in parallel lines with theology and\nphilosophy before the natural and exact sciences came into existence. Law\nwas always made by the few and in general for the purpose of preserving\nthe \u201cexisting order,\u201d or for the reestablishment of the old order and the\npunishment of the offenders against it.\n\nDogmatic theology is, by its very nature, unchangeable. The same can be\nsaid in regard to the spirit of the law. Law was and is to protect the\npast and present status of society and, by its very essence, must be very\nconservative, if not reactionary. Theology and law are both of them static\nby their nature.(5)\n\nPhilosophy, law and ethics, to be effective in a dynamic world must be\ndynamic; they must be made vital enough to keep pace with the progress of\nlife and science. In recent civilization ethics, because controlled by\ntheology and law, which are static, could not duly influence the dynamic,\nrevolutionary progress of technic and the steadily changing conditions of\nlife; and so we witness a tremendous downfall of morals in politics and\nbusiness. Life progresses faster than our ideas, and so medieval ideas,\nmethods and judgments are constantly applied to the conditions and\nproblems of modern life. This discrepancy between facts and ideas is\ngreatly responsible for the dividing of modern society into different\nwarring classes, which do not understand each other. Medieval legalism and\nmedieval morals\u2014the basis of the old _social_ structure\u2014being by their\nnature conservative, reactionary, opposed to change, and thus becoming\nmore and more unable to support the mighty social burden of the modern\nworld, must be adjudged responsible in a large measure for the\ncircumstances which made the World War inevitable.\n\nUnder the flash of explosives some of the workings of those antiquated\nideas were exposed or crushed. The World War has profoundly changed\neconomic conditions and made it necessary to erect new standards of\nvalues. We are forced to realize that evolution by transformation is a\ncosmic process and that reaction, though it may retard it, can not\nentirely stop it.(6)\n\nThe idea that organic species are results of special creation has no\nscientific standard whatever. There is not one fact tending to prove\nspecial or separate creation; the evidence, which is overwhelming, is all\nof it on the other side. The hypothesis of special creation is a mere\nfossil of the past. Evolution is the only theory which is in harmony with\nfacts and with all branches of science: life is dynamic, not static.\n\nPhilosophy, as defined by Fichte, is the \u201cscience of sciences.\u201d Its aim\nwas to solve the problems of the world. In the past, when all exact\nsciences were in their infancy, philosophy had to be purely speculative,\nwith little or no regard to realities. But if we regard philosophy as a\nMother science, divided into many branches, we find that those branches\nhave grown so large and various, that the Mother science looks like a hen\nwith her little ducklings paddling in a pond, far beyond her reach; she is\nunable to follow her growing hatchlings. In the meantime, the progress of\nlife and science goes on, irrespective of the cackling of metaphysics.\nPhilosophy does not fulfill her initial aim to bring the results of\nexperimental and exact sciences together and to solve world problems.\nThrough endless, scientific specialization scientific branches multiply,\nand for want of coordination the great world-problems suffer. This failure\nof philosophy to fulfill her boasted mission of scientific coordination is\nresponsible for the chaos in the world of general thought. The world has\nno collective or organized higher ideals and aims, nor even fixed general\npurposes. Life is an accidental game of private or collective ambitions\nand greeds.(7)\n\nSystematic study of chemical and physical phenomena has been carried on\nfor many generations and these two sciences now include: (1) knowledge of\nan enormous number of facts; (2) a large body of natural laws; (3) many\nfertile working hypotheses respecting the causes and regularities of\nnatural phenomena; and finally (4) many helpful theories held subject to\ncorrection by further testing of the hypotheses giving rise to them. When\na subject is spoken of as a science, it is understood to include all of\nthe above mentioned parts. Facts alone do not constitute a science any\nmore than a pile of stones constitutes a house, not even do facts and laws\nalone; there must be facts, hypotheses, theories and laws before the\nsubject is entitled to the rank of a science.\n\nThe primal function of a science is to enable us to anticipate the future\nin the field to which it relates. Judged by this standard, neither\nphilosophy nor its kindred\u2014the so-called social sciences\u2014have in the past\nbeen very effective. There was, for example, no official warning of the\ncoming of the World War\u2014the greatest of catastrophes. The future was not\nanticipated because political philosophers did not possess the necessary\nbasis of knowledge. To be just we must admit that philosophy has been but\nlittle aided financially because it is commonly regarded as unnecessary.\nThe technical branches of science have been strongly backed and generally\nsupported by those to whom they have brought direct profit; and so they\nhave had better opportunities for development.\n\nEthics in the stifling grip of myth and legalism is not convincing enough\nto exercise controlling influence. Such is the situation in which we find\nourselves. Being still in our childhood and thinking like savages, we\nlooked upon the World War as a personal creation of a \u201cwar-lord,\u201d because\nthose interested in it told us so. We neglected to use our common sense\nand look deeper into its origins; to perform for ourselves the duty which\npolitical philosophy did not perform for us\u2014the duty of thinking in terms\nof facts and not in terms of metaphysical speculations. Knowledge of facts\nwould have told us that the war lords were only the representatives of the\nruling classes. A system of social and economic order built exclusively on\nselfishness, greed, \u201csurvival of the fittest,\u201d and ruthless competition,\nmust cease to exist, or exist by means of war. The representatives of this\nsystem determined to continue to exist, and so war was the consequence.\nThe ruling classes carried the whole system under which they lived to its\nlogical conclusion and natural issue, which is \u201cgrab what you can.\u201d This\nmotto is not peculiar to any one country; it is the motto of our whole\ncivilization and is the inevitable outcome of our stupid philosophy\nregarding the characteristic nature of man and the proper potentialities\nof human life. Where are we to find the true doctrines? Where the true\nphilosophy? If we go back over the history of civilization, we find that\nin all \u201csciences,\u201d except the exact ones, private opinions and theories\nhave shaped our beliefs, colored our mental processes and controlled our\ndestinies; we see, for example, pessimism opposed to optimism, materialism\nto spiritualism, realism to idealism, capitalism to socialism, and so on\nendlessly. Each of the disputatious systems has a large number of\nfollowers and each faction looks upon the others as deprived of truth,\ncommon sense and knowledge. All of them play with the words \u201cnatural law\u201d\nwhich they ignorantly presume to have as the basis and content of their\nown particular doctrine.\n\nIt is the same in the realm of religions; there are approximately 291\nmillion Confucianists, or Taoists, 261 million Roman Catholics, 211\nmillion Mohammedans, 209 million Hindus, 177 million Protestants, 157\nmillion Animists, 137 million Buddhists, 115 million Orthodox\nChristians\u2014to speak only of the most important religions. Each group, and\nthey are rather large groups, believes its theory or its faith to be\ninfallible and all the others to be false.\n\nBacon seems a bit remote, but the idols and medieval fetishes which he so\nmasterfully describes are equally venerated to-day.\n\n\n    (_Novum Organum_, by Francis Bacon.)\n\n    34. \u201cFour species of idols beset the human mind, to which (for\n    distinction\u2019s sake) we have assigned names, calling the first\n    Idols of the Tribe, the second Idols of the Den, the third Idols\n    of the Market, the fourth Idols of the Theatre.\n\n    40. \u201cThe information of notions and axioms on the foundation of\n    true induction is the only fitting remedy by which we can ward off\n    and expel these idols. It is, however, of great service to point\n    them out; for the doctrine of idols bears the same relation to the\n    interpretation of nature as that of the confutation of sophisms\n    does to common logic.\n\n    41. \u201cThe idols of the tribe are inherent in human nature and the\n    very tribe or race of man; for man\u2019s sense is falsely asserted to\n    be the standard of things; on the contrary, all the perceptions\n    both of the senses and the mind bear reference to man and not to\n    the Universe, and the human mind resembles these uneven mirrors\n    which impart their own properties to different objects, from which\n    rays are emitted and distort and disfigure them.\n\n    42. \u201cThe idols of the den are those of each individual; for\n    everybody (in addition to the errors common to the race of man)\n    has his own individual den or cavern, which intercepts and\n    corrupts the light of nature, either from his own peculiar and\n    singular disposition, or from his education and intercourse with\n    others, or from his reading, and the authority acquired by those\n    whom he reverences and admires, or from the different impressions\n    produced on the mind, as it happens to be preoccupied and\n    predisposed, or equable and tranquil, and the like; so that the\n    spirit of man (according to its several dispositions), is\n    variable, confused, and, as it were, actuated by chance; and\n    Heraclitus said well that men search for knowledge in lesser\n    worlds, and not in the greater or common world.\n\n    43. \u201cThere are also idols formed by the reciprocal intercourse and\n    society of man with man, which we call idols of the market, from\n    the commerce and association of men with each other; for men\n    converse by means of language, but words are formed at the will of\n    the generality, and there arises from a bad and unapt formation of\n    words a wonderful obstruction to the mind. Nor can the definitions\n    and explanations with which learned men are wont to guard and\n    protect themselves in some instances afford a complete\n    remedy\u2014words still manifestly force the understanding, throw\n    everything into confusion, and lead mankind into vain and\n    innumerable controversies and fallacies.\n\n    44. \u201cLastly, there are idols which have crept into men\u2019s minds\n    from the various dogmas of peculiar systems of philosophy, and\n    also from the perverted rules of demonstration, and these we\n    denominate idols of the theatre: for we regard all the systems of\n    philosophy hitherto received or imagined, as so many plays brought\n    out and performed, creating fictitious and theatrical worlds. Nor\n    do we speak only of the present systems, or of the philosophy and\n    sects of the ancients, since numerous other plays of a similar\n    nature can be still composed and made to agree with each other,\n    the causes of the most opposite errors being generally the same.\n    Nor, again, do we allude merely to general systems, but also to\n    many elements and axioms of sciences which have become inveterate\n    by tradition, implicit credence, and neglect.\u201d(8)\n\n\nMetaphysical speculation and its swarming progeny of blind and selfish\npolitical philosophies, private opinions, private \u201ctruths,\u201d and private\ndoctrines, sectarian opinions, sectarian \u201ctruths\u201d and sectarian doctrines,\nquerulous, confused and blind\u2014such is characteristic of the _childhood_ of\nhumanity. The period of humanity\u2019s _manhood_ will, I doubt not, be a\nscientific period\u2014a period that will witness the gradual extension of\nscientific method to all the interests of mankind\u2014a period in which man\nwill discover the essential nature of man and establish, at length, the\nscience and art of directing human energies and human capacities to the\nadvancement of human weal in accordance with the laws of human nature.\n\n\n\n\nChapter III. Classes of Life\n\n\nThe problems to be dealt with in this chapter are not easy, but they are\nexceedingly important. To classify phenomena correctly, they must be\ncorrectly analysed and clearly defined. For the sake of clearness I will\nuse the simplest illustrations and, avoiding as much as possible the\ndifficulties of technical terms, will use language easily to be understood\nby every one. In some cases the words will indeed have a technical meaning\nand it will be necessary to exercise great care against the danger of\ngiving false impressions; for clear ideas are essential to sound thinking.\nAs a matter of fact our common daily speech is ill adapted for the precise\nexpression of thought; even so-called \u201cscientific\u201d language is often too\nvague for the purpose and requires further refining. Some may say that it\nis useless and unnecessary to lay so much stress on correct thinking and\nprecise expression; that it has no practical value; for they say that\n\u201cbusiness\u201d language is good enough to \u201ctalk business,\u201d or to put\n\u201csomething over\u201d the other fellow. But a little explanation will show that\nprecision is often of the greatest importance.\n\nHumanity is a peculiar class of life which, in some degree, determines its\nown destinies; therefore in practical life _words_ and _ideas_ become\n_facts_\u2014facts, moreover, which bring about important practical\nconsequences. For instance, many millions of human beings have defined a\nstroke of lightning as being the \u201cpunishment of God\u201d of evil men; other\nmillions have defined it as a \u201cnatural, casual, periodical phenomenon\u201d;\nyet other millions have defined it as an \u201celectric spark.\u201d What has been\nthe result of these \u201cnon-important\u201d definitions in practical life? In the\ncase of the first definition, when lightning struck a house, the\npopulation naturally made no attempt to save the house or anything in it,\nbecause to do so would be against the \u201cdefinition\u201d which proclaims the\nphenomenon to be a \u201cpunishment for evil,\u201d any attempt to prevent or check\nthe destruction would be an impious act; the sinner would be guilty of\n\u201cresisting the supreme law\u201d and would deserve to be punished by death.\n\nNow in the second instance, a stricken building is treated just as any\ntree overturned by storm; the people save what they can and try to\nextinguish the fire. In both instances, the behavior of the populace is\nthe same in one respect; if caught in the open by a storm they take refuge\nunder a tree\u2014a means of safety involving maximum danger but the people do\nnot know it.\n\nNow in the third instance, in which the population have a scientifically\ncorrect definition of lightning, they provide their houses with lightning\nrods; and if they are caught by a storm in the open they neither run nor\nhide under a tree; but when the storm is directly over their heads, they\nput themselves in a position of minimum exposure by lying flat on the\nground until the storm has passed.\n\nSuch examples could be given without end, but there is another example of\nsufficient vital importance to be given here, as it has to do with our\nconception of the social and economic system, and the state. If our\ninstitutions are considered \u201cGod-given\u201d\u2014sacred and therefore static\u2014every\nreformer or advocate of change should be treated as a criminal or \u201ca\ndanger to the existing order\u201d and hanged or at least put in jail for life.\nBut now, if our institutions are \u201cman made,\u201d imperfect and often foolish,\nand subject to change all the time steadily and dynamically in obedience\nto some known or unknown law; then of course all reactionaries would be a\n\u201cdanger to the natural order\u201d and they should be treated the same way. The\nimportance of definitions can be seen in all other fields of practical\nlife; definitions create conditions. To know the world in which we live,\nwe have to analyse facts by help of such facts as we know in daily\npractice and such facts as are established in scientific laboratories\nwhere men do not jump to conclusions. In some places it will be necessary\nto make statements that will have to await full justification at a later\nstage of the discussion. This will be necessary to indicate the trend of\nthe analysis.\n\nThe aim of the analysis is to give us just conceptions, correct\ndefinitions, and true propositions. The process is slow, progressive, and\nendless. The problems are infinitely many, and it is necessary to select.\nFortunately the solution of a few leads automatically to the solution of\nmany others. Some of the greatest and most far-reaching scientific\ndiscoveries have been nothing else than a few correct definitions, a few\njust concepts and a few true propositions. Such, for example, was the work\nof Euclid, Newton and Leibnitz\u2014a few correct definitions, a few just\nconcepts, a few true propositions; but these have been extended and\nmultiplied, sometimes by men of creative genius, and often almost\nautomatically by men of merely good sense and fair talent.\n\nThe matter of definition, I have said, is very important. I am not now\nspeaking of _nominal_ definitions, which for convenience merely give names\nto known objects. I am speaking of such definitions of phenomena as result\nfrom correct analysis of the phenomena. Nominal definitions are mere\nconveniences and are neither true nor false; but analytic definitions are\ndefinitive _propositions_ and are true or else false. Let us dwell upon\nthe matter a little more.\n\nIn the illustration of the definitions of lightning, there were three; the\nfirst was the most mistaken and its application brought the most harm; the\nsecond was less incorrect and the practical results less bad; the third\nunder the present conditions of our knowledge, was the \u201ctrue one\u201d and it\nbrought the maximum benefit. This lightning illustration suggests the\nimportant idea of _relative_ truth and _relative_ falsehood\u2014the idea, that\nis, of degrees of truth and degrees of falsehood. A definition may be\nneither absolutely true nor absolutely false; but of two definitions of\nthe same thing, one of them may be truer or falser than the other.\n\nIf, for illustration\u2019s sake, we call the first \u201ctruth\u201d _A_, (alpha 1), the\nsecond one _A_2 (alpha 2), the third one _A_3 (alpha 3), we may suppose\nthat a genius appears who has the faculty to surpass all the other\nrelative truths _A_1, _A_2, _A_3, ... _A_n and gives us an absolute or\nfinal truth, VALID IN INFINITY (_A_infinity) say a final definition, that\nlightning is so ... and so ..., a kind of energy which flows, let us say,\nthrough a glass tube filled with charcoal. Then of course this definition\nwould immediately make obvious what use could be made of it. We could\nerect glass towers filled with charcoal and so secure an unlimited flow of\navailable free energy and our whole life would be affected in an untold\ndegree. This example explains the importance of correct definitions.\n\nBut to take another example: there is such a thing as a phenomenon called\nthe \u201ccolor\u201d red. Imagine how it might be defined. A reactionary would call\nit a \u201cBolshevik\u201d (_A_1); a Bolshevik would say \u201cMy color\u201d (_A_2); a\ncolor-blind person would say \u201csuch a thing does not exist\u201d (_A_3); a\nDaltonist would say \u201cthat is green\u201d (_A_4); a metaphysician would say\n\u201cthat is the soul of whiskey\u201d (_A_5); an historian would say \u201cthat is the\ncolor of the ink with which human history has been written\u201d (_A_6); an\nuneducated person would say \u201cthat is the color of blood\u201d (_A_7); the\nmodern scientist would say \u201cit is the light of such and such wave length\u201d\n(_A_8). If this last definition be \u201cvalid in infinity\u201d or not we do not\nknow, but it is, nevertheless, a \u201cscientific truth\u201d in the present\ncondition of our knowledge.\n\nThis final but unknown \u201ctruth valid in infinity\u201d is somehow perceived or\nfelt by us as an ideal, for in countless years of observation we have\nformed a series of less and less false, more and more nearly true \u201cideas\u201d\nabout the phenomenon. The \u201cideas\u201d are _reflexes_ of the phenomenon,\nreflected in our midst as in a mirror; the reflexes may be distorted, as\nin a convex or concave mirror, but they suggest an ideal reflex valid in\ninfinity. It is of the utmost importance to realize that the words which\nare used to express the ideas and the ideals are THE MATERIALIZATION of\nthe ideas and ideal; it is only by words that we are enabled to give to\nother human beings an exact or nearly exact impression which we have had\nof the phenomenon.\n\nIt may be helpful to illustrate this process by an example. Let us suppose\nthat a man makes an experiment of doing his own portrait from a mirror,\nwhich may be plane, concave or convex. If he looks into a plane mirror, he\nwill see his true likeness; even so, if he be a poor designer, he will\ndraw the likeness badly. Let us suppose that the man has beautiful\nfeatures but because the drawing is very poor, it will not convey the\nimpression that the features of the original were beautiful. If this poor\ndesigner were to look into and work from a concave or convex mirror, the\ndrawing of his likeness would have practically no resemblance to his\noriginal features.\n\nFor correct analysis and true definitions of the cardinal classes of life\nin our world it is necessary to have some just ideas about dimensions or\ndimensionality. The Britannica gives us some help in this connection. I\nwill explain briefly by an example. Measurable entities of different kinds\ncan not be compared directly. Each one must be measured in terms of a unit\nof its own kind. A line can have only length and therefore is of one\ndimension: a surface has length and width and is therefore said to have\ntwo dimensions; a volume has length, width and thickness and is,\ntherefore, said to have three dimensions. If we take, for example, a\nvolume\u2014say a cube\u2014we see that the cube has surfaces and lines and points,\nbut a volume is not a surface nor a line nor a point. Just these\ndimensional differences have an enormous unrealized importance in\npractical life, as in the case of taking a line of five units of length\nand building upon it a square, the measure of this square (surface) will\nnot be 5, it will be 25; and the 25 will not be 25 linear units but 25\nsquare or surface units. If upon this square we build a cube, this cube\nwill have neither 5 nor 25 for its measure; it will have 125, and this\nnumber will not be so many units of length nor of surface but so many\nsolid or cubic units.\n\nIt is as plain as a pike staff that, if we confused _dimensions_ when\ncomputing lengths and areas and volumes, we would wreck all the\narchitectural and engineering structures of the world, and at the same\ntime show ourselves stupider than block-heads.\n\nTo analyse the classes of life we have to consider two very different\nkinds of phenomena: the one embraced under the collective name\u2014Inorganic\nchemistry\u2014the other under the collective name\u2014Organic chemistry, or the\nchemistry of hydro-carbons. These divisions are made because of the\npeculiar properties of the elements chiefly involved in the second class.\nThe properties of matter are so distributed among the elements that three\nof them\u2014Oxygen, Hydrogen, and Carbon\u2014possess an ensemble of unique\ncharacteristics. The number of reactions in inorganic chemistry are\nrelatively few, but in organic chemistry\u2014in the chemistry of these three\nelements the number of different compounds is practically unlimited. Up to\n1910, we knew of more than 79 elements of which the whole number of\nreactions amounted to only a few hundreds, but among the remaining three\nelements\u2014Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen\u2014the reactions were known to be\npractically unlimited in number and possibilities; this fact must have\nvery far reaching consequences. As far as energies are concerned, we have\nto take them as nature reveals them to us. Here more than ever,\nmathematical thinking is essential and will help enormously. The reactions\nin inorganic chemistry always involve the phenomenon of heat, sometimes\nlight, and in some instances an unusual energy is produced called\nelectricity. Until now, the radioactive elements represent a group too\ninsufficiently known for an enlargement here upon this subject.\n\nThe organic compounds being unlimited in number and possibilities and with\ntheir unique characteristics, represent of course, a different class of\nphenomena, but being, at the same time, _chemical_ they include the basic\nchemical phenomena involved in all chemical reactions, but being unique in\nmany other respects, they also have an infinitely vast field of unique\ncharacteristics. Among the energetic phenomena of organic chemistry,\nbesides the few mentioned above there are NEW AND UNIQUE energetic\nphenomena occurring in this dimension.\n\nOf these phenomena, mention may be made of the phenomenon \u201clife,\u201d the\nphenomenon of the \u201cinstincts\u201d and of the \u201cmind\u201d in general. These\nenergetic phenomena are unique for the unique chemistry of the three\nunique elements. It is obvious that this \u201cuniqueness\u201d is the reason why\nthese phenomena must be classified as belonging to or having a higher\ndimensionality than belongs to the phenomena of inorganic chemistry just\nas the uniqueness of the properties of a volume as compared with surface\nproperties depends upon the fact that a volume has a higher dimensionality\nthan a surface. Just as this difference of dimensions makes the whole\ndifference between the geometry of volumes and the geometry of surfaces,\nthe difference between the two chemistries involves a difference of\ndimensionality.\n\nThe higher energies of the chemistries of the higher dimensionality are\nvery difficult to define; my descriptions are no better than the\ndescription of life given by Professor Wilhelm Roux, in his _Der Kampf der\nTeile im Organismus_, Leipzig, 1881, which are equally unsatisfactory. In\nwant of a better, I quote him. He defines a living being as a natural\nobject which possesses the following nine characteristic autonomous\nactivities: Autonomous change, Autonomous excretion, Autonomous ingestion,\nAutonomous assimilation, Autonomous growth, Autonomous movement,\nAutonomous multiplication, Autonomous transmission of hereditary\ncharacteristics and Autonomous development. The words \u201cAutonomous\nactivities\u201d are important because they hint at the dimensional differences\nof these energies. But a better word should be found to define the\ndimensional differences between the activities found in inorganic\nchemistry and those found in organic chemistry. We see it is a mistake to\nspeak about \u201clife\u201d in a crystal, in the same sense in which we use the\nword life to name the curious AUTONOMOUS phenomenon of ORGANIC CHEMISTRY,\nWHICH IS OF ANOTHER DIMENSION than the activities in inorganic chemistry.\nFor the so-called life in the crystals\u2014the _not_ AUTONOMOUS (or\nanautonomous) activities of crystals\u2014another word than life should be\nfound. In the theory of crystals the term life is purely rhetorical: its\nuse there is very injurious to sound science. These old ideas of \u201clife\u201d in\ncrystals are profoundly unscientific and serve as one of the best examples\nof the frequent confusion or intermixing of dimensions\u2014a confusion due to\nunmathematical, logically incorrect ways of thinking. If crystals \u201clive,\u201d\nthen _volumes are surfaces_, and 125 cubic units=25 square\nunits\u2014absurdities belonging to the \u201cchildhood of humanity.\u201d\n\n\n    \u201cCrystals can grow in a proper solution, and can regenerate their\n    form in such a solution when broken or injured; it is even\n    possible to prevent or retard the formation of crystals in a\n    supersaturated solution by preventing \u2018germs\u2019 in the air from\n    getting into the solution, an observation which was later utilized\n    by Schroeder and Pasteur in their experiments on spontaneous\n    generation. However, the analogies between a living organism and a\n    crystal are merely superficial and it is by pointing out the\n    fundamental differences between the behavior of crystals and that\n    of living organisms that we can best understand the specific\n    difference between non-living and living matter. It is true that a\n    crystal can grow, but it will do so only in a supersaturated\n    solution of its own substance. Just the reverse is true for living\n    organisms. In order to make bacteria or the cells of our body\n    grow, solutions of the split products of the substances composing\n    them and not the substances themselves must be available to the\n    cells; second, these solutions must not be supersaturated, on the\n    contrary, they must be dilute; and third, growth leads in living\n    organisms to cell division as soon as the mass of the cell reaches\n    a certain limit. This process of cell division can not be claimed\n    even metaphorically to exist in a crystal. A correct appreciation\n    of these facts will give us an insight into the specific\n    difference between non-living and living matter. The formation of\n    living matter consists in the synthesis of the proteins, nucleins,\n    fats, and carbohydrates of the cells, from split products....\n\n    \u201cThe essential difference between living and non-living matter\n    consists then in this: the living cell synthesizes its own\n    complicated specific material from indifferent or non-specific\n    simple compounds of the surrounding medium, while the crystal\n    simply adds the molecules found in its supersaturated solution.\n    This synthetic power of transforming small \u2018building stones\u2019 into\n    the complicated compounds specific for each organism is the\n    \u2018secret of life\u2019 or rather one of the secrets of life.\u201d (_The\n    Organism as a Whole_, by Jacques Loeb.)\n\n\nIt will be explained later that one of the energetic phenomena of organic\nchemistry\u2014the \u201cmind,\u201d which is one of the energies characteristic of this\nclass of phenomena, is \u201cautonomous,\u201d is \u201cself-propelling\u201d and true to its\ndimensionality. If we analyse the classes of life, we readily find that\nthere are three cardinal classes which are radically distinct in function.\nA short analysis will disclose to us that, though minerals have various\nactivities, they are not \u201cliving.\u201d The plants have a very definite and\nwell known function\u2014the transformation of solar energy into organic\nchemical energy. They are a class of life which appropriates one kind of\nenergy, converts it into another kind and stores it up; in that sense they\nare a kind of storage battery for the solar energy; and so I define THE\nPLANTS AS THE CHEMISTRY-BINDING class of life.\n\nThe animals use the highly dynamic products of the _chemistry-binding_\nclass\u2014the plants\u2014as food, and those products\u2014the results of\nplant-transformation\u2014undergo in animals a further transformation into yet\nhigher forms; and the animals are correspondingly a more dynamic class of\nlife; their energy is kinetic; they have a remarkable freedom and power\nwhich the plants do not possess\u2014I mean the freedom and faculty to move\nabout in _space_; and so I define ANIMALS AS THE SPACE-BINDING CLASS OF\nLIFE.\n\nAnd now what shall we say of _human_ beings? What is to be our definition\nof Man? Like the animals, human beings do indeed possess the\n_space-binding_ capacity but, over and above that, human beings possess a\nmost remarkable capacity which is entirely peculiar to them\u2014I mean the\ncapacity to summarise, digest and appropriate the labors and experiences\nof the past; I mean the capacity to use the fruits of past labors and\nexperiences as intellectual or spiritual capital for developments in the\npresent; I mean the capacity to employ as instruments of increasing power\nthe accumulated achievements of the all-precious lives of the past\ngenerations spent in trial and error, trial and success; I mean the\ncapacity of human beings to conduct their lives in the ever increasing\nlight of inherited wisdom; I mean the capacity in virtue of which man is\nat once the heritor of the by-gone ages and the trustee of posterity. And\nbecause humanity is just this magnificent natural agency by which the past\nlives in the present and the present for the future, I define HUMANITY, in\nthe universal tongue of mathematics and mechanics, to be the TIME-BINDING\nCLASS OF LIFE.\n\nThese definitions of the cardinal classes of life are, it will be noted,\nobtained from direct observation; they are so simple and so important that\nI cannot over-emphasize the necessity of grasping them and most especially\nthe definition of Man. For these simple definitions and especially that of\nHumanity will profoundly transform the whole conception of human life in\nevery field of interest and activity; and, what is more important than\nall, the definition of Man will give us a starting point for discovering\nthe _natural_ laws of human nature\u2014of the human class of life. The\ndefinitions of the classes of life represent the different classes as\ndistinct in respect to dimensionality; and this is extremely important for\nno measure or rule of one class can be applied to the other, _without\nmaking grave mistakes_. For example, to treat a human being as an\nanimal\u2014as a mere space-binder\u2014because humans have certain animal\npropensities, is an error of the same type and grossness as to treat a\ncube as a surface because it has surface properties. It is absolutely\nessential to grasp that fact if we are ever to have a science of human\nnature.\n\nWe can represent the different classes of life in three life coordinates.\nThe minerals, with their inorganic activities would be the Zero (0)\ndimension of \u201clife\u201d\u2014that is the _lifeless_ class\u2014here represented by the\npoint _M_.\n\nThe plants, with their \u201cautonomous\u201d growth, to be represented by the ONE\nDIMENSIONAL line _MP_.\n\nThe animals, with their \u201cautonomous\u201d capacity to grow and to be active in\nspace by the TWO DIMENSIONAL plane _PAM_.\n\nThe humans, with their \u201cautonomous\u201d capacity to grow, to be active in\nspace AND TO BE ACTIVE IN TIME, by the THREE DIMENSIONAL region _MAPH_.\n\n[ A drawing, like labeling the axes of a three-dimensional space. At the\ncenter is \u201c(Minerals) M\u201d. At the top of the Z axis is \u201cH (Humans)\u201d. At the\nend of the X axis is \u201cP (Plants)\u201d. At the end of the Y axis is \u201cA\n(Animals)\u201d. ]\n\nSuch diagrammatic illustrations must not be taken too literally; they are\nlike figures of speech\u2014helpful if understood\u2014harmful if not understood.\nThe reader should reflect upon the simple idea of dimensions until he sees\nclearly that the idea is not merely a thing of interest or of convenience,\nbut is absolutely essential as a means of discriminating the cardinal\nclasses of life from one another and of conceiving each class to be what\nit is instead of mixing it confusedly with something radically different.\nIt will greatly help the reader if he will retire to the quiet of his\ncloister and there meditate about as follows. A line has one dimension; a\nplane has two; a plane contains lines and so it has line\nproperties\u2014_one_-dimensional properties\u2014but it has other\nproperties\u2014_two_-dimensional properties\u2014and it is these that are peculiar\nto it, give it its own character, and make it what it is\u2014a plane and not a\nline. So animals have some plant properties\u2014they grow, for example\u2014but\nanimals have other properties\u2014autonomous mobility, for example,\u2014properties\nof higher dimensionality or type\u2014and it is these that make animals\n_animals_ and not plants. Just so, human beings have certain animal\nproperties\u2014autonomous mobility, for example, or physical appetites\u2014but\nhumans have other properties or propensities\u2014ethical sense, for example,\nlogical sense, inventiveness, progressiveness\u2014properties or propensities\nof higher dimensionality, level, or type\u2014and it is these propensities and\npowers that make human beings _human_ and _not_ animal. When and only when\nthis fact is clearly seen and keenly realized, there will begin the\n_science of man_\u2014the science and art of _human nature_\u2014for then and only\nthen we shall begin to escape from the age-long untold immeasurable evils\nthat come from regarding and treating human beings as animals, as mere\nbinders of space, and we may look forward to an ethics, a jurisprudence\nand economics, a governance\u2014a science and art of human life and\nsociety\u2014based upon the laws of human nature because based upon the just\nconception of humanity as the time-binding class of life, creators and\nimprovers of good, destined to endless advancement, in accord with the\npotencies of Human Nature.(9)\n\nHumanity is still in its childhood; we have \u201cbound\u201d so little time in the\ncourse of the centuries, which are so brief in the scheme of the universe.\nAt the bottom of every human activity, historical fact or trend of\ncivilization, there lies some doctrine or conception of so-called \u201ctruth.\u201d\nApples had fallen from trees for ages, but without any important results\nin the economy of humanity. The fact that a fallen apple hit Newton, led\nto the discovery of the theory of gravitation; this changed our whole\nworld conception, our sciences and our activities; it powerfully\nstimulated the development of all the branches of natural and\ntechnological knowledge. Even in the event of the Newtonian laws being\nproved to be not quite correct, they have served a great purpose in\nenabling us to understand natural phenomena in a sufficiently approximate\nway to make it possible to build up modern technology and to develop our\nphysical science to the point where it was necessary and possible to make\na correction of the Newtonian laws.\n\nA similar organic change in our conception of human life and its phenomena\nis involved in the foregoing definitions of the classes of life; they will\nreplace basic errors with scientific truths of fundamental importance;\nthey will form the basis for scientific development of a permanent\ncivilization in place of the periodically convulsive so-called\ncivilizations of the past and present. To know the cause of evil and error\nis to find the cure.\n\n\n\n\nChapter IV. What Is Man?\n\n\nMan has ever been the greatest puzzle to man. There are many and important\nreasons for this fact. As the subject of this book is not a theoretical,\nacademic study of man, of which too many have already been written, I will\nnot recount the reasons, but will confine myself to the more pressing\nmatters of the task in hand, which is that of pointing the way to the\nscience and art of Human Engineering. The two facts which have to be dealt\nwith first, are the two which have most retarded human progress: (1) there\nhas never been a true definition of man nor a just conception of his r\u00f4le\nin the curious drama of the world; in consequence of which there has never\nbeen a proper principle or starting point for a science of humanity. It\nhas never been realized that man is a being of a dimension or type\ndifferent from that of animals and the characteristic nature of man has\nnot been understood; (2) man has always been regarded either as an animal\nor as a supernatural phenomenon. The facts are that man is not\n_super_natural but is literally a part of nature and that human beings are\nnot animals. We have seen that the animals are truly characterized by\ntheir autonomous mobility\u2014their space-binding capacity\u2014animals are\nspace-binders. We have seen that human beings are characterized by their\ncreative power, by the power to make the past live in the present and the\npresent for the future, by their capacity to bind time\u2014human beings are\ntime-binders. These concepts are basic and impersonal; arrived at\nmathematically, they are mathematically correct.\n\nIt does not matter at all _how_ the first man, the first time-binder, was\nproduced; the fact remains that he was somewhere, somehow produced. To\nknow anything that is to-day of fundamental interest about man, we have to\nanalyse man in three coordinates\u2014in three capacities; namely, his\nchemistry, his activities in space, and especially his activities in time;\nwhereas in the study of animals we have to consider only two factors:\ntheir chemistry and their activities in space.\n\nLet us imagine that the aboriginal\u2014original human specimen was one of two\nbrother apes, _A_ and _B_; they were alike in every respect; both were\nanimal space-binders; but something strange happened to _B_; he became the\nfirst time-binder, a human. No matter how, this \u201csomething\u201d made the\nchange in him that lifted him to a higher dimension; it is enough that in\nsome-wise, over and above his animal capacity for binding space, there was\nsuperadded the marvelous new capacity for binding-time. He had thus a new\nfaculty, he belonged to a new dimension; but, of course, he did not\nrealize it; and because he had this new capacity he was able to analyze\nhis brother \u201c_A_\u201d; he observed \u201c_A_ is my brother; he is an animal; but he\nis my brother; therefore, _I_ AM AN ANIMAL.\u201d This fatal first conclusion,\nreached by false analogy, by neglecting a fact, has been the chief source\nof human woe for half a million years and it still survives. The\ntime-binding capacity, first manifest in _B_, increased more and more,\nwith the days and each generation, until in the course of centuries man\nfelt himself increasingly somehow different from the animal, but he could\nnot explain. He said to himself, \u201cIf I am an animal there is also in me\nsomething higher, a spark of some thing _super_natural.\u201d\n\nWith this conclusion he estranged himself, as something apart from nature,\nand formulated the impasse, which put him in a cul-de-sac of a double\nlife. He was neither true to the \u201csupernatural\u201d which he could not know\nand therefore, could not emulate, nor was he true to the \u201canimal\u201d which he\nscorned. Having put himself outside the \u201cnatural laws,\u201d he was not really\ntrue to any law and condemned himself to a life of hypocrisy, and\nestablished speculative, artificial, unnatural laws.\n\n\u201cHow blind our familiar assumptions make us! Among the animals, man, at\nleast, has long been wont to regard himself as a being quite apart from\nand not as part of the cosmos round about him. From this he has detached\nhimself in thought, he has estranged and objectified the world, and lost\nthe sense that he is of it. And this age-long habit and point of view,\nwhich has fashioned his life and controlled his thought, lending its\ncharacteristic mark and color to his whole philosophy and art and\nlearning, is still maintained, partly because of its convenience, no\ndoubt, and partly by force of inertia and sheer conservatism, in the very\nteeth of the strongest probabilities of biological science. Probably no\nother single hypothesis has less to recommend it, and yet no other so\ncompletely dominates the human mind.\u201d (Cassius J. Keyser, loc. cit.) And\nthis monstrous conception is current to-day: millions still look upon man\nas a mixture of animal and something supernatural.\n\nThere is no doubt that the engineering of human society is a difficult and\ncomplicated problem of tremendous ethical responsibility, for it involves\nthe welfare of mankind throughout an unending succession of generations.\nThe science of Human Engineering can not be built upon false conceptions\nof human nature. It can not be built on the conception of man as a kind of\nanimal; it can not be built on the conception of man as a mixture of\nnatural and supernatural. It must be built upon the conception of man as\nbeing at once natural and higher in dimensionality than the animals. It\nmust be built upon the scientific conception of mankind as characterized\nby their time-binding capacity and function. This conception radically\nalters our whole view of human life, human society, and the world.\n\nIt must be obvious to any one that time-binding is the only natural\ncriterion and standard for the time-binding class of life. This mighty\nterm\u2014time-binding\u2014when comprehended, will be found to embrace the WHOLE of\nthe natural laws, the natural ethics, the natural philosophy, the natural\nsociology, the natural economics, the natural governance, to be brought\ninto the education of time-binders; then really peaceful and progressive\ncivilization, without periodical collapses and violent readjustments, will\ncommence; not before. Everything which is really \u201ctime-binding\u201d _is in_\nthe HUMAN DIMENSION; therefore, it will represent every quality that is\nimplied in such words as\u2014_good_, _just_, _right_, _beautiful_; while\neverything that is merely space-binding will be classified as \u201canimal\u201d and\nbe thus assessed at its proper value. Those ignorant \u201cmasters of our\ndestinies\u201d who regard humans as animals or as monstrous hybrids of natural\nand supernatural must be dethroned by scientific education.\n\nHumans can be literally poisoned by false ideas and false teachings. Many\npeople have a just horror at the thought of putting poison into tea or\ncoffee, but seem unable to realize that, when they teach false ideas and\nfalse doctrines, they are poisoning the time-binding capacity of their\nfellow men and women. One has to stop and think! There is nothing mystical\nabout the fact that ideas and words are energies which powerfully affect\nthe physico-chemical base of our time-binding activities. Humans are thus\nmade untrue to \u201chuman nature.\u201d Hypnotism is a known fact. It has been\nproved that a man can be so hypnotized that in a certain time which has\nbeen suggested to him, he will murder or commit arson or theft; that,\nunder hypnotic influence, the personal morale of the individual has only a\nsmall influence upon his conduct; the subject obeys the hypnotic\nsuggestions, no matter how immoral they are. The conception of man as a\nmixture of animal and supernatural has for ages kept human beings under\nthe deadly spell of the suggestion that, animal selfishness and animal\ngreediness are their essential character, and the spell has operated to\nsuppress their REAL HUMAN NATURE and to prevent it from expressing itself\nnaturally and freely.\n\nOn the other hand, when human beings are educated to a lively realization\nthat they are by _nature_ time-binding creatures, then they will\nspontaneously live in accordance with their time-binding nature, which, as\nI have said, is the source and support of the highest ideals.\n\nWhat is achieved in blaming a man for being selfish and greedy if he acts\nunder the influence of a social environment and education which teach him\nthat he is an animal and that selfishness and greediness are of the\nessence of his nature?\n\nEven so eminent a philosopher and psychologist as Spencer tells us: \u201cOf\nself-evident truths so dealt with, the one which here concerns us is that\na creature must live before it can act ... Ethics has to recognize the\ntruth that egoism comes before altruism.\u201d This is true for ANIMALS,\nbecause animals die out from lack of food when their natural supply of it\nis insufficient because they have NOT THE CAPACITY TO PRODUCE\nARTIFICIALLY. But it is not true for the HUMAN DIMENSION.\n\nWhy not? Because humans through their time-binding capacity are first of\nall _creators_ and so their number is not controlled by the supply of\nunaided nature, but only by men\u2019s artificial productivity, which is THE\nMATERIALIZATION OF THEIR TIME-BINDING CAPACITY\n\nMan, therefore, by the very intrinsic character of his being, MUST ACT\nFIRST, IN ORDER TO BE ABLE TO LIVE (through the action of parents\u2014or\nsociety) which is not the case with animals. The misunderstanding of this\nsimple truth is largely accountable for the evil of our ethical and\neconomic systems or lack of systems. As a matter of fact, if humanity were\nto live in _complete_ accord with the animal conception of man, artificial\nproduction\u2014time-binding production\u2014would cease and ninety per cent of\nmankind would perish by starvation. It is just because human beings are\nnot animals but are time-binders\u2014not mere finders but creators of food and\nshelter\u2014that they are able to live in such vast numbers.\n\nHere even the blind must see the effect of higher dimensionality, and this\neffect becomes in turn the cause of other effects which produce still\nothers, and so on in an endless chain. WE LIVE BECAUSE WE PRODUCE, BECAUSE\nWE ARE ACTING IN TIME AND ARE NOT MERELY ACTING IN SPACE\u2014BECAUSE MAN IS\nNOT A KIND OF ANIMAL. It is all so simple, if only we apply a little sound\nlogic in our thinking about human nature and human affairs. If human\nethics are to be human, are to be in the human dimension, the postulates\nof ethics must be changed; FOR HUMANITY IN ORDER TO LIVE MUST ACT FIRST;\nthe laws of ethics\u2014the laws of right living\u2014are _natural_ laws\u2014laws of\nhuman nature\u2014laws having their whole source and sanction in the\ntime-binding capacity and time-binding activity peculiar to man. Human\nexcellence is excellence in time-binding, and must be measured and\nrewarded by time-binding standards of worth.\n\nHumanity, in order to live, must produce creatively and therefore must be\nguided by applied science, by technology; and this means that the\nso-called social sciences of ethics, jurisprudence, psychology, economics,\nsociology, politics, and government must be emancipated from medieval\nmetaphysics; they must be made scientific; they must be _technologized_;\nthey must be made to progress and to function in the proper dimension\u2014the\nhuman dimension and not that of animals: they must be made time-binding\nsciences.\n\nCan this be done? I have no doubt that it can. For what is human life\nafter all?\n\nTo a general in the battlefield, human life is a factor which, if properly\nused, can destroy the enemy. To an engineer human life is an equivalent to\nenergy, or a capacity to do work, mental or muscular, and the moment\nsomething is found to be a source of energy and to have the capacity of\ndoing work, the first thing to do, from the engineer\u2019s point of view, is\nto analyse the generator with a view to discovering how best to conserve\nit, to improve it, and bring it to the level of maximum productivity.\nHuman beings are very complicated energy-producing batteries differing\nwidely in quality and magnitude of productive power. Experience has shown\nthat these batteries are, first of all, chemical batteries producing a\nmysterious energy. If these batteries are not supplied periodically with a\nmore or less constant quantity of some chemical elements called food and\nair, the batteries will cease to function\u2014they will die. In the\nexamination of the structure of these batteries we find that the chemical\nbase is very much accentuated all through the structure. This chemical\ngenerator is divided into branches each of which has a very different r\u00f4le\nwhich it must perform in harmony with all the others. The mechanical parts\nof the structure are built in conformity to the rules of mechanics and are\nautomatically furnished with lubrication and with chemical supplies for\nautomatically renewing worn-out parts. The chemical processes not only\ndeposit particles of mass for the structure of the generator but produce\nsome very powerful unknown kinds of energies or vibrations which make all\nthe chemical parts function; we find also a mysterious apparatus with a\ncomplex of wires which we call brain glands, and nerves; and, finally,\nthese human batteries have the remarkable capacity of reproduction.\n\nThese functions are familiar to everybody. From the knowledge of other\nphysical, mechanical and chemical phenomena of nature, we must come to the\nconclusion, that this human battery is the most perfect example of a\ncomplex engine; it has all the peculiarities of a chemical battery\ncombined with a generator of a peculiar energy called life; above all, it\nhas mental or spiritual capacities; it is thus equipped with both mental\nand mechanical means for producing work. The parts and functions of this\nmarvelous engine have been the subject of a vast amount of research in\nvarious special branches of science. A very noteworthy fact is that both\nthe physical work and the mental work of this human engine are always\naccompanied by both physical and chemical changes in the structure of its\nmachinery\u2014corresponding to the wear and tear of non-living engines. It\nalso presents certain sexual and spiritual phenomena that have a striking\nlikeness to certain phenomena, especially wireless phenomena, to\nelectricity and to radium. This human engine-battery is of unusual\nstrength, durability and perfection; and yet it is very liable to damage\nand even wreckage, if not properly used. The controlling factors are very\ndelicate and so the engine is very capricious. Very special training and\nunderstanding are necessary for its control.\n\nThe reader may wish to ask: What is the essence of the time-binding power\nof Man? Talk of essences is metaphysical\u2014it is not scientific. Let me\nexplain by an example.\n\nWhat is electricity? The scientific answer is: electricity is that which\nexhibits such and such phenomena. Electricity means nothing but a certain\ngroup of phenomena called electric. We are studying electricity when we\nare studying those phenomena. Thus it is in physics\u2014there is no talk of\nessences. So, too, in Human Engineering\u2014we shall not talk of the _essence_\nof time-binding but only of the phenomena and the laws thereof. What has\nled to the development of electric appliances is knowledge of electrical\nphenomena\u2014not metaphysical talk about the electrical essence. And what\nwill lead to the science and art of Human Engineering is knowledge of\ntime-binding phenomena\u2014not vain babble about an essence of time-binding\npower. There is no mystery about the word time-binding. Some descriptive\nterm was necessary to indicate that human capacity which discriminates\nhuman beings from animals and marks man as man. For that use\u2014the\nappropriateness of the term time-binding becomes more and more manifest\nupon reflection.\n\nWhat are the conditions of life upon this earth? Is there war or peace in\ndaily life? All living beings require food; they multiply in a geometrical\nratio; and so the _natural_ productivity of the soil becomes increasingly\ninadequate. The tendency to increase in geometrical ratio is true of all\nlife\u2014vegetable, animal and human, but the tendency is checked by various\ncounteracting influences, natural and artificial. A short time ago these\nchecks had so operated to annul the law of increase as almost to stop the\ngrowth of human population. It is only by the time-binding capacity of\nman\u2014by scientific progress and technological invention\u2014that the checks\nhave been overcome. And so in the last century the population of Europe\nincreased more than it had increased in several centuries before.\nImpoverished soil, excessive heat or cold, excessive moisture, the lack of\nrain-fall, and many other factors are hostile to life. It is evident,\ntherefore, that human life must especially struggle for existence; it must\ncarry on a perpetual contest for self preservation. It seems obvious that,\nif there is perpetual war in every-day life, war methods must be applied.\n\nWe have just passed through a tremendous world-wide _military_ war and we\ndeveloped special ways of producing power to overcome the enemy. We were\nthus driven to discover some of the hidden sources of power and all of our\nold habits and ideas were bent toward military methods and military\ntechnology. The war of every-day life against hostile elements is war for\nthe subjugation of physical nature and not for the conquest of people. It\nis a war carried on by the time-binding power of men pitted against\nnatural obstacles, and its progressive triumph means progressive\nadvancement in human weal.\n\nThe lesson of the World War should not be missed through failure to\nanalyse it. When nations war with nations, the normal daily war of\nmillions and millions of individuals to subjugate natural resources to\nhuman uses is interrupted, and the slow-gathered fruits of measureless\ntoil are destroyed.\n\nBut peaceful war, war for the conquest of nature, involves the use of\nmethods of technology and, what is even more important, technological\nphilosophy, law and ethics.\n\nWhat I want to emphasize in this little book, is the need of a\nthoroughgoing revision of our ideas; and the revision must be made by\nengineering minds in order that our ideas may be made to match facts. If\nwe are ill, we consult a physician or a surgeon, not a charlatan. We must\nlearn that, when there is trouble with the producing power of the world,\nwe have to consult an engineer, an expert on power. Politicians,\ndiplomats, and lawyers do not understand the problem. What I am advocating\nis that we must learn to ask those who know how to produce things, instead\nof asking those whose profession is to fight for the division of things\nproduced by nature or by other human beings.\n\nAs a matter of fact our civilization has been for a long time disorganized\nto the point of disease. Lately through the whirl of changing conditions,\ndue to the great release of power in the new-born giant technology, the\ndisorganization has become acute. The sick seldom know the cure for\nthemselves. If the cure is to be enduring, we have to go to the source,\nand this can be done only by men familiar, not only with effects but also\nwith the causes.\n\nMoney is not the wealth of a nation, but production is wealth; so _ordered\nproduction_ is the main object for humanity. But to have the maximum of\nproduction, it is necessary to have production put on a sound basis. No\nmere preaching of brotherly love, or class hatred, will produce one single\nbrick for the building of the future temple of human victory\u2014the temple of\n_human_ civilization. Ordered production demands analysis of basic facts.\n\nThis era is essentially an industrial era. To produce we have to have: (1)\nraw material or soil; (2) instruments for production\u2014tools and machines;\nand (3) the application of power.\n\nThe three requirements may be briefly characterized and appraised as\nfollows:\n\n(1) Raw material and soil are products of nature; humanity simply took\nthem and had the use of them for nothing, because it is impossible to call\na prayer of thanksgiving (if any) addressed to a \u201ccreator\u201d as payment to\ngods or men. But raw material and soil, in the conditions in which nature\nproduces them, are of very little immediate benefit to humanity, because\nunfilled soil produces very little food for humans, and raw material such\nas wood, coal, oil, iron, copper, etc., are completely useless to humanity\nuntil after human work is applied to them. It is necessary to cut a tree\nfor the making of timber; it is necessary to excavate the minerals, and\neven then, only by applying further human work is it possible to make them\navailable for any human use. So, it is obvious that even raw materials in\nthe form in which nature has produced them, are mostly of no value and\nunavailable for use, unless reproduced through the process of \u201chuman\ncreative production.\u201d Therefore, we may well conclude that \u201craw material\u201d\nmust be divided into two very distinct classes: (_a_) raw material as\nproduced by nature\u2014nature\u2019s free gift\u2014which in its original form and place\nhas practically no use-value; and (_b_) raw material reproduced by man\u2019s\nmental and muscular activities, by his \u201ctime-binding\u201d capacities. Raw\nmaterials of the second class have an enormous use-value; indeed they make\nthe existence of humanity possible.\n\nAs to the second requirement for production, namely:\n\n(2) Tools and machines, it is obvious that \u201ctools and machines\u201d are made\nof raw material by human work, mental and muscular.\n\nAnd, finally:\n\n(3) The application of power. Different sources of natural energy and\npower are known. The most important available source of energy for this\nglobe is the sun\u2014the heat of the sun. This solar heat is the origin of\nwater power, of wind power, and of the power bound up in coal, of the\nchemistry, growth and transforming agency of plants.(10)\n\nAll foods which the animals as well as the humans use are, already, the\nresult of the solar energy transformed into what may be called chemical\nenergy. Transformation of energies is building up of life.\n\nIt is to be clearly seen that the only source of energy which can be\ndirectly appropriated and used by man or animal is vegetable food found in\nthe wilderness; no other sources of power are available for _direct_ use;\nthey have first to be mastered and directed by human brain. The same is\ntrue in regard to the getting of animal food, the creation of a water- or\nwindmill, or a steam engine, or the art of using a team of horses, or a\nbushel of wheat; these are not available except by the use of the human\n\u201ctime-binding\u201d power.\n\nThis short survey of facts, known to everybody, brings us to the\nconclusion that all problems of production come ultimately to the analysis\nof\n\n(1) Natural resources of raw material and natural energy, freely supplied\nby nature, which, as we have seen, in the form as produced by nature\nalone, have very little or no value for humanity;\n\n(2) The activity of the human brain (because human muscles are always\ndirected by the brain) which gives value to the otherwise useless raw\nmaterials and energies.\n\nHence, to understand the processes of production, it is essential to\nrealize that humanity is able to survive only by virtue of the capacity of\nhumans to exploit natural resources\u2014to convert the products of nature into\nforms available for human needs. If humanity had only the capacity of\napes, depending exclusively on wild fruits and the like, they would be\nconfined to those comparatively small regions of the globe where the\nclimate and the fertility of the soil are specially favorable. But in the\ncase supposed, humans would not be humans, they would not be\ntime-binders\u2014they would be animals\u2014mere space-binders.\n\nThere are other facts which must be kept constantly in mind. One of them\nis that, in the world in which we live, there are natural laws of\ninorganic as well as organic phenomena. Another of the facts is, as before\nsaid, that the human class of life has the peculiar capacity of\nestablishing the social laws and customs which regulate and influence its\ndestinies, which help or hinder the processes of production upon which the\nlives and happiness of mankind essentially and fundamentally depend.\n\nIt must not be lost sight of in this connection that the human class of\nlife is a part and a product of nature, and that, therefore, there must be\n_fundamental laws which are natural for this class of life_. A stone obeys\nthe natural laws of stones; a liquid conforms to the natural law of\nliquids; a plant, to the natural laws of plants; an animal, to the natural\nlaws of animals; it follows inevitably that there _must_ be natural laws\nfor humans.\n\nBut here the problem becomes more complicated; for the stone, the plant\nand the animal do not possess the intellectual power to create and\ninitiate and so must blindly obey the laws that are natural for them; they\nare not free to determine their own destinies. Not so with man; man has\nthe capacity and he can, through ignorance or neglect or mal-intent,\ndeviate from, or misinterpret, the natural laws for the human class of\nlife. Just therein lies the secret and the source of human chaos and woe\u2014a\nfact of such tremendous importance that it cannot be over-emphasized and\nit seems impossible to evade it longer. To discover the nature of Man and\nthe laws of that _nature_, marks the summit of human enterprises. For to\nsolve this _problem is to open the way to everything which can be of\nimportance to humanity_\u2014to human welfare and happiness.\n\nThe great problem has been felt as a powerful impulse throughout the ages\nof human striving, for in all times it has been evident to thinkers that\nupon the right solution of the problem must forever depend the welfare of\nmankind. Many \u201csolutions\u201d have been offered; and, though they have\ndiffered widely, they agree in one respect\u2014they have had a common fate\u2014the\nfate of being false. What has been the trouble? The trouble has been, in\nevery instance, a radical misconception of what a human being really is.\nThe problem is to discover the natural laws of the human class of life.\nAll the \u201csolutions\u201d offered in the course of history and those which are\ncurrent to-day are of two and only two kinds\u2014_zoological_ and\n_mythological_. The zoological solutions are those which grow out of the\nfalse conception according to which human beings are animals; if humans\nare animals, the laws of human nature are the laws of animal nature; and\nso the social \u201csciences\u201d of ethics, law, politics, economics, government\nbecome nothing but branches of zoology; as sciences, they are the studies\nof animal life; as arts, they are the arts of managing and controlling\nanimals; according to this zoological philosophy, human wisdom about human\nbeings is animal wisdom about animals.\n\nThe mythological \u201csolutions\u201d are those which start with the monstrous\nconception according to which human beings have no proper place in nature\nbut are mixtures of natural and _super_natural\u2014unions or combinations of\nanimality and divinity. Such \u201csolutions\u201d contain no conception of\n_natural_ law; scientifically judged, they are mythological\nabsurdities\u2014muddle-headed chattering of crude and irresponsible\nmetaphysics\u2014well-meaning no doubt, but silly, and deadly in their effects\nupon the interests of mankind, vitiating ethics, law, economics, politics\nand government.\n\nSuch have been and still are the regnant philosophies of human nature.\nWhat is the remedy? How are the laws of human nature to be discovered?\n\nIt is evident that the enterprise, like all other scientific enterprises,\nmust be based upon and guided by realities. It is essential to realize\nthat the great, central, dominant, all-embracing reality is the reality of\n_human nature_. If we misconceive this fundamental matter, the enterprise\nmust fail; that is both logically clear and clear in the sad light of\nhistory; but if we conceive it aright, we may confidently expect the\nenterprise to prosper. That is why, in the chapter on \u201cThe Classes of\nLife,\u201d I have laid so much stress on the absolute necessity of conceiving\nMan as being what he really is, and not something else. And we have\ndiscovered what man is: we have discovered that man is characterized by\nthe capacity or power to bind time, and so we have _defined_ humanity as\nthe time-binding class of life. That concept is fundamental. It contains\nthe germ of the science and art of Human Engineering. The problem of\ndiscovering and applying the \u201claws of human nature\u201d is the problem of\ndiscovering and applying to the conduct of life the laws of\ntime-binding\u2014of time-binding activity\u2014of time-binding _energy_. This fact\nmust be firmly seized and kept steadily in mind.\n\nEnergy, we have noted, is the capacity to do work. In human economy work\nmay be (1) _useful_ or (2) _neutral_ or (3) _harmful_. These words have no\nsignificance except in human economy. The energy of the human intellect is\na time-binding energy, for it is able to direct, to use, to transform\nother energies. This time-binding energy is of higher rank\u2014of higher\ndimensionality\u2014than the other natural energies which it directs, controls,\nuses, and transforms. This higher energy\u2014which is commonly called the\nmental or spiritual power of man\u2014_is_ time-binding because it makes past\nachievements live in the present and present activities in time-to-come.\nIt is an energy that initiates; it is an energy that creates; it is an\nenergy that can understand the past and foretell the future\u2014it is both\nhistorian and prophet; it is an energy that loads _abstract_ time\u2014the\nvehicle of events\u2014with an ever-increasing burden of intellectual\nachievements, of spiritual wealth, destined for the civilization of\nposterity. And what is the natural law of the increase? What is the\nnatural law of human advancements in all great matters of human concern?\n\nThe question is of utmost importance both theoretically and practically,\nfor the law\u2014whatever it be\u2014is a _natural_ law\u2014a law of human nature\u2014a law\nof the time-binding energy of man. What _is_ the law? We have already\nnoted the law of arithmetical progression and the law of geometric\nprogression; we have seen the immense difference between them; and we have\nseen that the natural law of human progress in each and every cardinal\nmatter is a law like that of a rapidly increasing geometric progression.\nIn other words, the natural law of human progress\u2014the natural law of\namelioration in human affairs\u2014the fundamental law of human nature\u2014the\nbasic law of the time-binding energy peculiar to man\u2014is a Logarithmic\nlaw\u2014a law of logarithmic increase. I beg the reader not to let the term\nbewilder him but to make it his own. It is easy to understand; and its\nsignificance is mighty and everlasting. Even its mathematical formulation\ncan be understood by boys and girls. Let us see how the formulation looks.\n\nSuppose _PR_ to denote the amount of progress made in some important field\nby a given generation\u2014which we may call the \u201cfirst\u201d generation; where _R_\ndenotes the common ratio\u2014the ratio of improvement\u2014that is, the number by\nwhich the progress of one generation must be multiplied to give the amount\nof progress made by the next generation; then the amount of progress made\nby the second generation will be _PR__2_; that made by the third\ngeneration will be _PR__3_; and so on; now denote by _T_ the number of\ngenerations, counting the first one and all that follow in endless\nsuccession. Then the following series will show the law of human progress\nin the chosen field:\n\n_PR, PR__2__, PR__3__, PR__4__, PR__5__, ..., PR__T__, PR__T+1__, ..._;\n\nnotice how it goes; the first generation ends with PR; the second\ngeneration starts with _PR_, adds _PR__2_, and ends with _PR + PR__2_; the\nthird generation starts with _PR + PR__2_, adds _PR__3_ and ends with _PR\n+ PR__2__ + PR__3_; and so on and on; the _gain_ made in the _T__th_\ngeneration is _PR__T_; _the total gain_ made in _T_ generations is\n\n_PR + PR__2__ + PR__3__ + ... + PR__T_;\n\nthis total gain is given by the formula,\n\nTotal gain in T generations = (R \u00f7 R-1) (PRT-P).\n\nIf we take _R_ to be 2 (which is a very small ratio, requiring the\nprogress of each generation to be merely double that of the preceding one)\nand if we take _T_ to be (say) 10, then we see that the progress made by\nthe single 10th generation is _P_ \u00d7 210, which is 1024 times the progress\nmade in the \u201cfirst\u201d generation; and we readily compute that the total gain\nin 10 generations is 2046 times the progress made in the \u201cfirst\u201d\ngeneration. Moreover, to gain a just sense of the impressiveness of this\nlaw, the reader must reflect upon the fact that it operates, not merely on\none field, but in all fields of human interest. \u201cOperates in all fields\u201d I\nhave just now said; as a matter of fact, as before pointed out, it does\nnot so operate _now_ in _all_ fields nor has it ever done so. My point is\nthat it _will_ so operate when we once acquire sense enough to let it do\nso. That sense we shall have when and only when we discover that by nature\nwe are time-binders and that the _effectiveness_ of our time-binding\ncapacity is not only a function of time but is, as I have explained, a\nlogarithmic or exponential function of time\u2014a function in which time (_T_)\nenters as an _exponent_, as in the expression _PR__T_, so that we humans\nare, unlike animals, naturally qualified not only to progress, but to\nprogress more and more rapidly, with an always _accelerating\nacceleration_, as the generations pass.\n\nThis great fact is to be at once the basis, the regulator and guide in the\nscience and art of Human Engineering. Whatever squares with that law of\ntime-binding human energy, is right and makes for human weal; whatever\ncontravenes it, is wrong and makes for human woe.\n\nAnd so I repeat that the world will have uninterrupted, peaceful progress\nwhen and only when the so-called social \u201csciences\u201d\u2014the life-regulating\n\u201csciences\u201d of ethics, law, philosophy, economics, religion, politics, and\ngovernment\u2014are technologized; when and only when they are made genuinely\nscientific in spirit and method; for then and only then will they advance,\nlike the natural, mathematical and technological sciences, in conformity\nto the fundamental exponential law of the time-binding nature of man; then\nand then only, by the equal pace of progress in all cardinal matters, the\nequilibrium of social institutions will remain stable and social\ncataclysms cease.\n\n\n\n\nChapter V. Wealth\n\n\nI beg the reader to allow me to begin this chapter with a word of warning.\nThe reader is aware that Criticism\u2014by which I mean Thought\u2014may be any one\nof three kinds: it may be purely destructive; it may be purely\nconstructive; or it may be both destructive and constructive at the same\ntime. Purely destructive criticism is sometimes highly useful. If an old\nidea or a system of old ideas be false and therefore harmful, it is a\ngenuine service to attack it and destroy it even if nothing be offered to\ntake its place, just as it is good to destroy a rattlesnake lurking by a\nhuman pathway, even if one does not offer a substitute for the snake. But,\nhowever useful destructive criticism may be, it is not an easy service to\nrender; for old ideas, however false and harmful, are protected alike by\nhabit and by the inborn conservatism of many minds. Now, habit indeed is\nexceedingly useful\u2014even indispensable to the effective conduct of life\u2014for\nit enables us to do many useful things automatically and therefore easily,\nwithout conscious thinking, and thus to save our mental energy for other\nwork; but for the same reason, habit is often very harmful; it makes us\nprotect false ideas automatically, and so when the destructive critic\nendeavors to destroy such ideas by reasoning with us, he finds that he is\ntrying to reason with automats\u2014with machines. Such is the chief difficulty\nencountered by destructive criticism. On the other hand, purely\nconstructive criticism\u2014purely constructive thought\u2014consists in introducing\nnew ideas of a kind that do not clash, or do not seem to clash, with old\nones. Is such criticism or thought easy? Far from it. It has difficulties\nof its own. These are of two varieties: the difficulty of showing people\nwho are content with their present stock of old ideas that the new ones\nare interesting or important; and the great difficulty of making _new_\nideas clear and intelligible, for the art of being clear and perfectly\nintelligible is very, very hard to acquire and to practise. The third kind\nof criticism\u2014the third kind of thought\u2014the kind that is at once both\ndestructive and constructive\u2014has a double aim\u2014that of destroying old ideas\nthat are false and that of replacing them with new ideas that are true;\nand so the third kind of criticism or thought is the most difficult of\nall, for it has to overcome both the difficulty of destructive criticism\nand that of constructive thought.\n\nThe reader, therefore, if he will be good enough to reflect a little upon\nthe matter, can not fail to appreciate the tremendous difficulties which\nbeset the writing of this little book, for he must perceive, not only that\nthe work belongs to the third kind of critical thought, but\u2014what is much\nmore\u2014the errors it aims to destroy are fundamental, world-wide and old,\nwhile the true ideas it seeks to substitute for them are fundamental and\nnew. This great difficulty, felt at _every_ stage of this writing, is, for\na reason to be presently explained, greatly enhanced and felt with\nespecial keenness in the present chapter. I therefore beg the reader to\ngive me here very special cooperation\u2014the cooperation of open-mindedness,\ncandor and critical attention. It is essential to keep in mind the nature\nof our enterprise as a whole, which is that of pointing the way to the\nscience and art of Human Engineering and laying the foundations thereof;\nwe have seen Human Engineering, when developed, is to be the science and\nart of so directing human energies and capacities as to make them\ncontribute most effectively to the advancement of human welfare; we have\nseen that this science and art must have its basis in a true conception of\nhuman nature\u2014a just conception of what Man really is and of his natural\nplace in the complex of the world; we have seen that the ages-old and\nstill current conceptions of man\u2014zoological and mythological conceptions,\naccording to which human beings are either animals or else hybrids of\nanimals and gods\u2014are mainly responsible for the dismal things in human\nhistory; we have seen that man, far from being an animal or a compound of\nnatural and supernatural, is a perfectly natural being characterized by a\ncertain capacity or power\u2014the capacity or power to bind time; we have seen\nthat humanity is, therefore, to be rightly conceived and scientifically\ndefined as the time-binding class of life; we have seen that, therefore,\nthe laws of time-binding energies and time-binding phenomena are the laws\nof human nature; we have seen that this conception of man\u2014which must be\nthe basic concept, the fundamental principle and the perpetual guide and\nregulator of Human Engineering\u2014is bound to work a profound transformation\nin all our views on human affairs and, in particular, must radically alter\nthe so-called social \u201csciences\u201d\u2014the life-regulating \u201csciences\u201d of ethics,\nsociology, economics, politics and government\u2014advancing them from their\npresent estate of pseudo sciences to the level of genuine sciences and\ntechnologizing them for the effective service of mankind. I call them\n\u201clife-regulating,\u201d not because they play a more important part in human\naffairs than do the genuine sciences of mathematics, physics, chemistry,\nastronomy and biology, for they are not more important than these, but\nbecause they are, so to say, closer, more immediate and more obvious in\ntheir influence and effects. These life-regulating sciences are, of\ncourse, not independent; they depend ultimately upon the genuine sciences\nfor much of their power and ought to go to them for light and guidance;\nbut what I mean here by saying they are not independent is that they are\ndependent upon each other, interpenetrating and interlocking in\ninnumerable ways. To show _in detail_ how the so-called sciences will have\nto be transformed to make them accord with the right conception of man and\nqualify them for their proper business will eventually require a large\nvolume or indeed volumes.\n\nIn this introductory work I cannot deal fully with one of those \u201csciences\u201d\nnor in suitable outline with each of them separately. I must be content\nhere to deal, very briefly, with one of them by way of illustration and\nsuggestion. Which one shall it be?\n\nNow among these life-regulating \u201csciences\u201d there is one specially marked\nby the importance of its subject, by its central relation to the others\nand by its prominence in the public mind. I mean Economics\u2014the \u201cdismal\nscience\u201d of Political Economy. For that reason I have chosen to deal with\neconomics. In the present chapter I shall discuss three of its principal\nterms\u2014Wealth, Capital and Money\u2014with a view to showing that the current\nmeanings and interpretations of these familiar terms must be very greatly\ndeepened, enlarged and elevated if they are to accord with facts and laws\nof human nature and if the so-called \u201cscience\u201d which employs them is to\nbecome a genuine science properly qualified to be a branch of Human\nEngineering. It is to be shown that the meanings currently attached by\npolitical economists and others to the terms in question belong to what I\nhave called the period of humanity\u2019s childhood; and it is to be shown that\nthe new meanings which the terms must receive belong to the period of\nhumanity\u2019s manhood. It will be seen that the new meanings differ so\nradically from the old ones as to make it desirable for the sake of\nclarity to give the new meanings new names. But this, however\nscientifically desirable, is impracticable because the old terms\u2014wealth,\ncapital, money\u2014are so deeply imbedded in the speech of the world. And here\ncomes into view the very special difficulty alluded to above and which led\nme to request the reader\u2019s special cooperation in this chapter. The\ndifficulty is not merely that of destroying old ideas that are false; it\nis not merely that of replacing them with true ideas that are new; it is\nthat of causing people habitually to associate meanings that are new and\ntrue with terms associated so long, so universally, so uniformly with\nmeanings that are false.\n\nThe secret of philosophy, said Leibnitz, is to treat familiar things as\nunfamiliar. By the secret of \u201cphilosophy\u201d Leibnitz meant the secret of\nwhat we call science. Let us apply this wholesome maxim in our present\nstudy; let us, in so far as we can, regard the familiar terms\u2014wealth,\ncapital and money\u2014as unfamiliar; let us deal with them afresh; let us\nexamine openmindedly the facts\u2014the phenomena\u2014to which the terms relate and\nascertain scientifically the significance the terms must have in a genuine\nscience of human economy. Examine \u201cthe facts\u201d I say\u2014examine \u201cthe\nphenomena\u201d\u2014for bending facts to theories is a vital danger, while bending\ntheories to facts is essential to science and the peaceful progress of\nsociety.\n\nHuman beings have always had some sense of values\u2014some perception or\ncognition of values. In order to express or measure values, it was\nnecessary to introduce units of measure, or units of exchange. People\nbegan to measure values by means of agricultural and other products, such\nas cattle, for example. The Latin word for cattle was _pecus_, and the\nword _pecunia_, which came to signify money, accounts for the meaning of\nour familiar word pecuniary. The earliest units for measuring became\nunsuited to the increasing needs of growing trade, \u201cbusiness,\u201d or traffic.\nFinally a unit called money was adopted in which the base was the value of\nsome weight of gold. Thus we see that money came to mean simply the\naccepted unit for measuring, representing and expressing values of and in\nwealth.\n\nBut what is wealth? I have said that the old conceptions of wealth,\ncapital and money\u2014the conceptions that are still current throughout the\nworld\u2014belong to the period of humanity\u2019s childhood\u2014they are childish\nconceptions. I have said that they must be replaced by scientific\nconceptions\u2014by conceptions fit for humanity\u2019s manhood. The change that\nmust be made in our conceptions of the great terms is tremendous. It is\nnecessary to analyse the current conceptions of wealth, capital, and\nmoney\u2014the childish conceptions of them\u2014in order to reveal their falseness,\nstupidity and folly. To do this we must enter the field of Political\nEconomy\u2014a field beset with peculiar difficulties and dangers. All the\nFuries of private interests are involved. One gains the impression that\nthere is little or no real desire to gain a true conception\u2014a scientific\nconception\u2014of wealth. Everybody seems to prefer an emotional definition\u2014a\ndefinition that suits his personal love of wealth or his hatred of it.\nMany definitions of wealth, capital and money are to be found in modern\nbooks of political economy\u2014definitions and books belonging to humanity\u2019s\nchildhood. For the purpose of this writing they all of them look\nalike\u2014they sufficiently agree\u2014they are all of them childish. Mill, for\nexample, tells us that wealth consists of \u201cuseful or agreeable things\nwhich possess exchangeable value.\u201d Of capital one of the simplest\ndefinitions is this:\n\n\n    \u201cCapital is that part of wealth which is devoted to obtaining\n    further wealth.\u201d (Alfred Marshall, _Economics of Industry_.)\n\n\nWalker (in his _Money, Trade and Industry_) defines money as follows:\n\n\n    \u201cMoney is that which passes freely from hand to hand throughout\n    the community in final discharge of debts and full payment for\n    commodities, being accepted equally without reference to the\n    character or credit of the person who offers it, and without the\n    intention of the person who receives it to consume it, or to enjoy\n    it, or apply it to any other use than, in turn, to tender it to\n    others in discharge of debts or full payment for commodities.\u201d\n\n\nPolitical economy has many different schools of thought and methods of\nclassification. Its reasonings are mainly speculative, metaphysical, and\nlegalistic; its ethics is zoological ethics, based on the zoological\nconception of man as an animal. The elements of natural logic and natural\nethics are absent. The sophisticated ideas about the subject of political\neconomy, bluntly do not correspond to facts. Our primitive forefather in\nthe jungle would have died from hunger, cold, heat, blood poisoning or the\nattacks of wild animals, if he had not used his brain and muscles to take\nsome stone or a piece of wood to knock down fruit from trees, to kill an\nanimal, so as to use his hide for clothes and his meat for food, or to\nbreak wood and trees for a shelter and to make some weapons for defense\nand hunting.\n\n\n    \u201cIn the first stone which he (the savage) flings at the wild\n    animal he pursues, in the first stick that he seizes to strike\n    down the fruit which hangs above his reach, we see the\n    appropriation of one article for the purpose of aiding in the\n    acquisition of another and thus we discover the origin of\n    capital.\u201d (R. Torrens, _An Essay on the Production of Wealth_.)\n\n\nOur primitive forefather\u2019s first acquaintance with fire was probably\nthrough lightning; he discovered, probably by chance, the possibility of\nmaking fire by rubbing together two pieces of wood and by striking\ntogether two pieces of stone; he established one of the first facts in\ntechnology; he felt the warm effect of fire and also the good effect of\nbroiling his food by finding some roasted animals in a fire. Thus nature\nrevealed to him one of its great gifts, the stored-up energy of the sun in\nvegetation and its primitive beneficial use. He was already a time-binding\nbeing; evolution had brought him to that level. Being a product of nature,\nhe was reflecting those natural laws that belong to his class of life; he\nhad ceased to be static\u2014he had become dynamic\u2014progressiveness had got into\nhis blood\u2014he was above the estate of animals.\n\nWe also observe that primitive man produced commodities, acquired\nexperiences, made observations, and that some of the produced commodities\nhad a use-value for other people and remained good for use, even after his\ndeath.\n\nThe produced commodities were composed of raw material, freely supplied by\nnature, combined with some mental work which gave him the conception of\nhow to make and to use the object, and some work on his part which finally\nshaped the thing; all of this mental and manual work consumed an amount of\ntime. It is obvious that all of these elements are indispensable to\nproduce anything of any value, or of any use-value. His child not only\ndirectly received some of the use-values produced by him, but was\ninitiated into all of his experiences and observations. (As we know,\npower, as defined in mechanics, means the ratio of work done to the time\nused in doing it.)\n\nAll those things are time-binding phenomena produced by the time-binding\ncapacity of man; but man has _not_ known that _this capacity_ was his\n_defining mark_. We must notice the strange fact that, from the\nengineering point of view, humanity, though very developed in some ways,\nis childishly undeveloped in others. Humanity has some conceptions about\ndimensions and talks of the world in which we live as having three\ndimensions; yet even in its wildest imagination it can not picture\ntangibly a _fourth_ dimension; nay, humanity has not learned to grasp the\nreal meanings of things that are basic or fundamental. All of our\nconceptions are relative and comparative; all of them are based upon\nmatters which we do not yet understand; for example, we talk of time,\nspace, electricity, gravity, and so on, but no one has been able to define\nthem in terms of the data of sensation; nevertheless\u2014and it is a fact of\nthe greatest importance\u2014we learn how to use many things which we do not\nfully understand and are not yet able to define.\n\nIn political economy the meagreness of our understanding is especially\nremarkable; we have not yet grasped the obvious fact\u2014a fact of\nimmeasurable import for all of the social sciences\u2014that with little\nexception the wealth and capital possessed by a given generation are not\nproduced by its own toil but are the inherited fruit of dead men\u2019s toil\u2014a\nfree gift of the past. We have yet to learn and apply the lesson that not\nonly our material wealth and capital but our science and art and learning\nand wisdom\u2014all that goes to constitute our civilization\u2014were produced, not\nby our own labor, but by the time-binding energies of past generations.\n\nPrimitive man used natural laws without knowing them or understanding\nthem, but he was able to cause nature to express itself, by finding a way\nto release nature\u2019s stored up energy. Through the work of his brain and\nits direction in the use of his muscles, he found that some of his\nappliances were not good; he made better ones, and thus slowly at first,\nthe progress of humanity went on. I will not enlarge upon the history of\nthe evolution of civilization because it is told in many books.\n\nIn the earliest times the religious, philosophical, legal and ethical\nsystems had not been invented. The morale at that time was a natural\nmorale. Humans knew that they did not create nature. They did not feel it\n\u201cproper\u201d to \u201cexpropriate the creator\u201d and legalistically appropriate the\nearth and its treasure for themselves. They felt, in their unsophisticated\nmorale, that being called into existence they had a natural right to exist\nand to use freely the gifts of nature in the preservation of their life;\nand that is what they did.\n\nAfter the death of a man, some of the objects produced by him still\nsurvived, such as weapons, fishing or hunting instruments, or the caves\nadapted for living; a baby had to be nourished for some years by its\nparents or it would have died. Those facts had important consequences;\nobjects made by someone for some particular use could be used by someone\nelse, even after the death of one or more successive users; again the\nexperiences acquired by one member of a family or a group of people were\ntaught by example or precept to others of the same generation and to the\nnext generation. Such simple facts are the corner stones of our whole\ncivilization and they are the direct result of the HUMAN CAPACITY OF\nTIME-BINDING.\n\nThe world to-day is full of controversy about wealth, capital, and money,\nand because humanity, through its peculiar time-binding power, binds this\nelement \u201ctime\u201d in an ever larger and larger degree, the controversy\nbecomes more and more acute. Civilization as a process is the process of\nbinding time; progress is made by the fact that each generation adds to\nthe material and spiritual wealth which it inherits. Past achievements\u2014the\nfruit of bygone time\u2014thus live in the present, are augmented in the\npresent, and transmitted to the future; the process goes on; time, the\nessential element, is so involved that, though it increases\narithmetically, its fruit, civilization, advances geometrically.\n\nBut there is another peculiarity in wealth and money: If a wooden or iron\n\u201cinch\u201d be allowed to rot or rust quietly on some shelf, this \u201cinch\u201d does\nnot represent anything besides this piece of wood or iron. But if we take\nthe MENTAL value of an inch, this unit of one of the measures of space,\nand use it, with other quantities, in the contemplation of the skies for\nthe solving of an astronomical problem, it gives a prophetic answer that,\nin a certain place there is a star; this star, may be for years looked for\nin vain. Was it that the calculation was wrong? No, for after further\nsearch with telescopes of greater power, the star is found and the\ncalculation thus verified.\n\nIt is obvious that the \u201cunit\u201d\u2014inch\u2014has no value by itself, but is very\nprecious as a unit for measuring the phenomenon of length, which it\nperfectly represents, and that is why it was introduced.\n\nIt is exactly the same with money if the term be rightly understood.\nUnderstood aright, money, being the measure and representative of wealth,\nis in the main, the measure and the representative of dead men\u2019s toil;\nfor, rightly understood, wealth is almost entirely the product of the\nlabor of by-gone generations. This product, we have seen, involves the\nelement of time as the chief factor. And so we discover how money,\nproperly understood, is connected with time\u2014the main function of money is\nto measure and represent the accumulated products of the labor of past\ngenerations. Hoarded money is like an iron \u201cinch\u201d upon a shelf\u2014a useless\nlump; but when used as a measure and representative of wealth rightly\nunderstood, money renders invaluable service, for it then serves to\nmeasure and represent the living fruit of dead men\u2019s toil.\n\nFor this reason, it is useless to argue who is the more important, the\ncapitalist who has legal possession of most of the material fruit of dead\nmen\u2019s toil, or the laborer who has legal possession of but little of it.\nIn the laborer, we do not now really look for his physical muscular labor\nALONE; for this is replaced by mechanical or animal power as soon as it\ncan be. What we do need from labor, and what we will always need, is his\nBRAIN\u2014HIS TIME-BINDING POWER.\n\nThe population of the world may be divided into different classes; if the\nclasses are not here enumerated in the customary way, it is because it is\nnecessary to classify human beings, as nearly as possible according to\ntheir \u201cpower-value.\u201d There is no assertion that this is an ideal\nclassification, but if someone is moved to exclaim\u2014\u201cwhat a foolish,\nunscientific division!\u201d\u2014I will answer by saying: \u201cI grant that the\ndivision is foolish and unscientific; but IT IS THE ONLY DIVISION WHICH\nCORRESPONDS TO FACTS IN LIFE, and it is not the writer\u2019s fault. By this\n\u2018foolishness\u2019 some good may be accomplished.\u201d\n\nFrom an engineer\u2019s point of view humanity is apparently to be divided into\nthree classes; (1) the intellectuals; (2) the rich; and (3) the poor. This\ndivision would seem to be contrary to all the rules of logic, but it\ncorresponds to facts. Of course some individuals belong to two of the\nclasses or even to all three of them, an after-war product, but\nessentially, they belong to the one class in proportion to the\ncharacteristic which is the most marked in their life; that is, in the\nsense of social classes\u2014BASED ON MAGNITUDE OF VALUES.\n\n(1) The intellectuals are the men and women who possess the knowledge\nproduced by the labor of by-gone generations but do not possess the\nmaterial wealth thus produced. In mastering and using this inheritance of\nknowledge, they are exercising their time-binding energies and making the\nlabor of the dead live in the present and for the future.\n\n(2) The rich are those who have possession and control of most of the\n_material_ wealth produced by the toil of bygone generations\u2014wealth that\nis dead unless animated and transformed by the time-binding labor of the\nliving.\n\n(3) The poor are those who have neither the knowledge possessed by the\nintellectuals nor the material wealth possessed by the rich and who,\nmoreover, because nearly all their efforts, under present conditions, are\nlimited to the struggle for mere existence, have little or no opportunity\nto exercise their time-binding capacity.\n\nLet us now try to ascertain the r\u00f4le of the time-binding class of life as\na whole. We have by necessity, to go back to the beginning\u2014back to the\nsavage. We have seen what were the conditions of his work and progress; we\nsaw that for each successful achievement he often had to wrestle with a\nvery large number of unsuccessful achievements, and his lifetime being so\nlimited, the total of his successful achievements was very limited, so\nthat he was able to give to his child only a few useful objects and the\nsum of his experience. Generally speaking, each successor did not start\nhis life at the point where his father started; he started somewhere near\nwhere his father left off. His father gave, say, fifty years to discover\ntwo truths in nature and succeeded in making two or three simple objects;\nbut the son does not need to give fifty years to discover and create the\nsame achievements, and so he has time to achieve something _new_. He thus\nadds his own achievements to those of his father in tools and experience;\nthis is the mathematical equivalent of adding his parent\u2019s years of life\nto his own. His mother\u2019s work and experience are of course included\u2014the\nname father and son being only used representatively.\n\nThis stupendous fact is the definitive mark of humanity\u2014the power to roll\nup continuously the ever-increasing achievements of generation after\ngeneration endlessly. We have seen that this time-binding power is an\nexponential power or function of time. Time flows on, increasing in\narithmetical progression, adding generation unto generation; but the\nresults of human energies working in time do not go on arithmetically;\nthey pile up or roll up more and more rapidly, augmenting in accordance\nwith the law of a more and more rapidly increasing geometric progression.\nThe typical term of the progression is _PR__T_ where _PR_ denotes the\nending progress made in the generation with which we agree to start our\nreckoning, _R_ denotes the ratio increase, and _T_ denotes the number of\ngenerations after the chosen \u201cstart.\u201d The quantity, _PR__T_ of progress\nmade in the _Tth_ generation contains _T_ as an exponent, and so the\nquantity, varying as time _T_ passes, is called an exponential function of\nthe time.\n\nNature is the source of all energy. Plants, the lowest form of life, have\na definite r\u00f4le to perform in the economy of nature. Their function is the\nforming of albuminoids and other substances for higher purposes. All of\ntheir nitrates are high-explosives, or low explosives, but explosives\nanyway. They are powerful sources of some new energy. Animal life uses\nthese \u201cexplosives\u201d as food and is correspondingly more dynamic, but in\nanimal life time does not play the r\u00f4le it plays in human life. Animals\nare limited by death permanently. If animals make any progress from\ngeneration to generation, it is so small as to be negligible. A beaver,\nfor example, is a remarkable builder of dams, but he does not progress in\nthe way of inventions or further development. A beaver dam is always a\nbeaver dam.\n\nFinally humanity, the highest known class of life, has time-binding\ncapacity as its characteristic, its discriminant, its peculiar and\ndefinitive mark. It is an unrealized fact that in this higher class of\nlife, _the law of organic growth develops into the law of\nenergy-growth\u2014the mind\u2014the time-binding energy\u2014an increasing exponential\nfunction of time._ That fact is of basic importance for the science and\nart of Human Engineering. In mechanics we have the well-known formula\n\n(1) Work \u00f7 Time = Power.\n\nWe have seen that, in accordance with the law of geometric progression,\n_PR__T_ represents the progress made\u2014the work done\u2014in the _Tth_ generation\n(_T_ being counted from some generation taken as starting point of\nreckoning); this progress, achievement, or _work_, being done in _one_\ngeneration, we have by (1)\n\n(2) ( Work = PRT ) / ( Time = 1) = Power,\n\nthat is, _PR__T_ = Power; this means that the number _PR__T_, which\nmeasures the work done in a given generation, is also the measure of the\npower that does the work. Now, the total work, _W_, done in the _T_\ngenerations is\n\n(3) _W = PR__1__ + PR__2__ + PR__3__ + ... + PR__T_;\n\nthat is,\n\n(4) _W_ = _R_ \u00f7 (_R_-1) \u00d7 (_PR_T - _P_)\n\nIt should be noticed that by (2) this expression for _W_ may also be\nregarded as the sum of _T_ different powers _PR_, _PR__2_, etc., each\nworking during one and only one generation; if we divided this sum by _T_,\nthe quotient would be a power that would have to act through _T_\ngenerations to produce _W_. The reader should not fail to notice very\ncarefully that the expression (4) for _W_ is an expression for the total\nprogress made\u2014the total work done\u2014the total wealth produced\u2014in the course\nof _T_ generations and he should especially note how the expression\ninvolves the exponential function of time (_T_), namely _PR__T_.\n\nThe formula makes mathematically evident the time-binding capacity\ncharacteristic of the human class of life. Properly understood, _wealth_\nconsists of the fruits or products of this time-binding capacity of man.\nAnimals do not produce wealth; it is produced by Man and only Man. The\nforegoing basic formulation should lead to further similar developments\nthrowing much light upon the process of civilization and serving to\neliminate \"private opinion\" from the conduct of human affairs. (In this\nwriting it is not important to look deeper into these proposed series. The\nfact remains that _P_, as well as _R_, are peculiarly increasing series of\na geometrical character\u2014the precise form will be developed in another\nwriting.)\n\nHuman achievements and progress, because cumulative, are knocking out the\nbarriers of time. This fact is the vital and dynamic difference between\nanimal life and human life. As plants gather in and store up solar energy\ninto sheaves for the use and growth of animal and man\u2014so humans are\ngathering and binding the knowledge of past centuries into sheaves for the\nuse and development of generations yet unborn.\n\nWe have seen that the term wealth, rightly understood, means the fruit of\nthe time-binding work of humanity. Wealth is of two kinds: one is\nmaterial; the other is knowledge. Both kinds have use-value. The first\nkind perishes\u2014the commodities composing it deteriorate and become useless.\nThe other is permanent in character; it is imperishable; it may be lost or\nforgotten but it does not wear out.\n\nThe one is limited in time; the other, unlimited in time; the former I\ncall POTENTIAL USE-VALUE; the latter, KINETIC USE-VALUE. Analysis will\njustify the names. The energy of a body which is due to its position, is\ncalled potential energy. The energy of a body which is due to its motion,\nis called kinetic energy. Here the material use-value has value through\nits position, shape and so forth; it is immobile if not used, and has not\nthe capacity to progress. Mental use-values are not static but permanently\ndynamic; one thought, one discovery, is the impulse to others; they follow\nthe law of an increasing _potential_ function of time. (See app. II.) This\nis why these names correspond to the two names of the two mentioned\nclasses of energy.\n\nHere I must return to the current conceptions of wealth and capital,\nbefore cited. \u201cWealth,\u201d we are told, \u201cis any useful or agreeable thing\nwhich possesses _ex_change_able value_.\u201d And we are told that \u201cCapital is\nthat part of wealth which is devoted to obtaining further wealth.\u201d I have\nsaid that such conceptions\u2014such definitions\u2014of wealth and capital are\nchildish\u2014they belong to the period of humanity\u2019s childhood. That they are\nindeed childish conceptions the reader can not fail to see if he will\nreflect upon them and especially if he will compare them with the\nscientific conception according to which wealth consists of those\nthings\u2014whether they be material commodities or forms of knowledge and\nunderstanding\u2014that have been produced by the time-binding energies of\nhumanity, and according to which _nearly all the wealth of the world at\nany given time_ is the _accumulated fruit of the toil of past\ngenerations_\u2014the living work of the dead. It seems unnecessary to warn the\nreader against confusing the \u201c_making_\u201d of money by hook or crook, by\ntrick or trade, with the _creating_ of wealth, by the product of labor. In\ncalling the old conceptions childish, I do not mean that they contain no\nelement of truth whatever; I mean that they are shallow, scientifically or\nspiritually meagre, narrow in their vision, wrong in their accent; I\nespecially mean that they are dumb, because they are blind, regarding the\ncentral matter that wealth is the natural offspring of Time and Human\nToil. The old conceptions do indeed imply that wealth and capital involve\nboth potential and kinetic use-values, and in so far they are right. But\nhow do such use-values arise?\n\nThe potential use-values in wealth are created by human work operating in\ntime upon raw material given by nature. The use-values are produced by\ntime-taking transformations of the raw materials; these transformations\nare wrought by human brain labor and human muscular labor directed by the\nhuman brain acting in time. The kinetic use-values of wealth are also\ncreated by human toil\u2014mainly by the intellectual labor of observation,\nexperimentation, imagination, deduction and invention, all consuming the\nprecious time of short human lives. It is obvious that in the creation of\nuse-values whether potential or kinetic, the element of _time_ enters as\nan absolutely essential factor. The fundamental importance of time as a\nfactor in the production of wealth\u2014the fact that wealth and the use-values\nof wealth are literally the natural offspring of the spiritual union of\ntime with toil\u2014has been completely overlooked, not only by the economics,\nbut by the ethics, the jurisprudence and the other branches of speculative\nreasoning, throughout the long period of humanity\u2019s childhood. In the\ncourse of the ages there has indeed been much \u201ctalk\u201d about time, but there\nhas been no recognition of the basic significance of time as essential in\nthe conception and in the very constitution of human values.\n\nIt is often said that \u201cTime is Money\u201d; the statement is often false; but\nthe proposition that Money is Time is always true. It is always true in\nthe profound sense that Money is the measure and symbol of Wealth\u2014the\nproduct of Time and Toil\u2014the crystallization of the time-binding human\ncapacity. IT IS THUS TRUE THAT MONEY IS A VERY PRECIOUS THING, THE MEASURE\nAND SYMBOL OF WORK\u2014IN PART THE WORK OF THE LIVING BUT, IN THE MAIN, THE\nLIVING WORK OF THE DEAD.\n\nNature\u2019s laws are supreme; we cannot change them; we can deviate from them\nfor a while, but the end is evil. That is the lesson we must learn from\nthe history of Humanity\u2019s childhood. False conceptions of Man\u2014ignorance of\nthe laws of human nature\u2014have given us unscientific economies,\nunscientific ethics, unscientific law, unscientific politics, unscientific\ngovernment. These have made human history the history of social\ncataclysms\u2014insurrections, wars, revolutions\u2014sad tokens not so much of\nhuman lust as of human ignorance of the laws of human nature. There is but\none remedy, one hope\u2014a science and art of Human Engineering based upon the\njust conception of humanity as the time-binding class of life and\nconforming to the laws of nature including the laws of human nature.\n\n\n\n\nChapter VI. Capitalistic Era\n\n\nThe immortal work done by Descartes, Newton and Leibnitz was to discover\npowerful methods for mathematics\u2014the only fit language for expressing the\nlaws of nature.\n\nHuman Engineering will be the science by which the great social problems\nwill be solved. For the first time since the first day of man, humanity\nwill really understand its own nature and status; and will learn to direct\nscientifically the living and the non-living forces for construction,\navoiding unnecessary destruction and waste.\n\nIt may seem strange but it is true that the time-binding exponential\npowers, called humans, do not die\u2014their bodies die but their achievements\nlive forever\u2014a permanent source of power. All of our precious\npossessions\u2014science, acquired by experience, accumulated wealth in all\nfields of life\u2014are kinetic and potential use-values created and left by\nby-gone generations; they are humanity\u2019s treasures produced mainly in the\npast, and conserved for our use, by that peculiar function or power of man\nfor the binding of time. That the natural trend of life and the progress\nof the development of this treasury is so often checked, turned from its\nnatural course, or set back, is due to ignorance of human nature, to\nmetaphysical speculation and sophistry. Those who, with or without\nintention, keep the rate of humanity\u2019s mental advancement down to that of\nan arithmetic progression are the real enemies of society; for they keep\nthe life-regulating \u201csciences\u201d and institutions far behind the gallop of\nlife itself. The consequence is periodic social violence\u2014wars and\nrevolutions.\n\nLet us carry the analysis of potential and kinetic use-values a little\nfurther. All potential use-values left to us by the dead are temporal and\ndiffer in utility. Many potential use-values are found in museums and have\nvery limited value to-day in practical life. On the other hand some roads\nor water-ways built by the ancients have use-value to-day; and an almost\nendless list of modern potential use-values have or will have use-values\nfor a long time to come, such as buildings, improved lands, railroad\ntracks, certain machines or tools; the use-value of some such items of\nmaterial wealth will last for more than one generation. Kinetic use-values\nare permanent in their character, for, though they may become antiquated,\nthey yet serve as the foundation for the developments that supersede them,\nand so they continue to live in that to which they lead.\n\nI would draw attention at this point to one of the most important kinetic\nand potential use-values produced by humanity\u2014the invention of the steam\nengine. Through this invention, humanity has been able to avail itself,\nnot only of the living fruits of dead men\u2019s toil, but also of the\ninconceivably vast amounts of solar energy and time bound up in the growth\nof vegetable life and conserved for use in the form of coal and other\nfuels of vegetable origin. This invention has revolutionized our life in\ncountless directions. To be brief, I will analyse only the most salient\neffects. Human Engineering has never existed except in the most embryonic\nform. In remote antiquity the conception and knowledge of natural law was\nwholly absent or exceedingly vague. Before the invention of the steam\nengine, people depended mainly upon human powers\u2014that is, upon \u201cliving\npowers\u201d\u2014the powers of living men, and the living fruits of the labor of\nthe dead. Even then there were manifold complications.\n\nThe invention of the steam engine released for human use a new power of\ntremendous magnitude\u2014the stored-up power of solar energy and ages of time.\nBut we must not fail to note carefully that we to-day are enabled to use\nthis immense new power of bound-up solar energy and time by a human\ninvention, a product of the dead.\n\nThe full significance of the last statement requires reflection. The now\ndead inventor of the steam engine could not have produced his ingenious\ninvention except by using the living powers of other dead men\u2014except by\nusing the material and spiritual or mental wealth created by those who had\ngone before. In the inventor\u2019s intellectual equipment there was actively\npresent the kinetic use-value of \u201cbound-up-time,\u201d enabling him to discover\nthe laws of heat, water, and steam; and he employed both the potential and\nkinetic use-values of mechanical instruments, methods of work, and\nscientific knowledge of his time and generation\u2014use-values of wealth\ncreated by the genius and toil of by-gone generations. This invention was\nnot produced, let us say 6000 years ago, because civilization was not then\nsufficiently advanced: mathematically considered, the production of this\ngreat use-value had to await all the accumulated work of six thousand\nyears of human ingenuity and human labor. So, if we choose, the steam\nengine may be considered a kinetic use-value in which the factor of time\nis equal to something like 6000 years, or let us say roughly 200\ngenerations.\n\nIt is obvious that, in one life time, even a genius of the highest order,\ncould not, in aboriginal conditions, have invented and built a steam\nengine, when everything, even iron, was unknown. Of course if the same\ninventor could have had a life of several thousands of years and could\nhave consecutively followed up all the processes, unhampered by the\nprejudices of those days, and been able to make all of these inventions by\nhimself, he would represent in himself all the progress of civilization.\n\nBy this illustration we see the profound meaning of the words\u2014the living\npowers of the dead; we see the grave importance in human life of the\nfactor TIME; we behold the significance of the time-binding capacity of\nman. The steam engine is to be seen anew, as in the main the accumulated\nproduction of dead-men\u2019s work. The life of one generation is short, and\nwere it not for our human capacity to inherit the material and spiritual\nfruit of dead men\u2019s toil, to augment it a little in the brief span of our\nown lives, and to transmit it to posterity, the process of civilization\nwould not be possible and our present estate would be that of aboriginal\nman. Civilization is a creature, its creator is the time-binding power of\nman. Animals have it not, because they belong to a lower type or dimension\nof life.\n\nSophistry avails nothing here; a child, left in the woods, would be and\nremain a savage, matching his wits with gorillas. He becomes a civilized\nman only by the accumulation of, and acquaintance with dead men\u2019s work;\nfor then and only then can he start where the preceding generation left\noff. This capacity is peculiar to men; the fact can not be repeated too\noften.\n\nIt is untrue to say that _A_ started his life aided exclusively by the\nachievements of (say) his father, for his father\u2019s achievements depended\non the achievements of _his_ immediate predecessors; and so on all the way\nback through the life of humanity. This fact, of supreme ethical\nimportance, applies to _all_ of us; none of us may speak or act as if the\nmaterial or spiritual wealth we have were produced by us; for, if we be\nnot stupid, we must see that what we call _our_ wealth, _our_\ncivilization, everything we use or enjoy, is in the main the product of\nthe labor of men now dead, some of them slaves, some of them \u201cowners\u201d of\nslaves. The metal spoon or the knife which we use daily is a product of\nthe work of many generations, including those who discovered the metal and\nthe use of it, and the utility of the spoon.\n\nAnd here arises a most important question: Since the wealth of the world\nis in the main the free gift of the past\u2014the fruit of the labor of the\ndead\u2014to whom does it of right belong? The question can not be evaded. Is\nthe existing monopoly of the great inherited treasures produced by dead\nmen\u2019s toil a normal and natural evolution?\n\nOr is it an artificial status imposed by the few upon the many? Such is\nthe crux of the modern controversy.\n\nIt is generally known that the invention of the steam engine and other\ncombustion engines which release sun-power for mechanical use, has\nrevolutionized the economic system; for the building of engines in the\nscale of modern needs, it is necessary to concentrate a great number of\nliving men in one place, to build factories, to set up machines used in\nproducing the engines, and all this requires the use of vast amounts of\nmoney. That is why this era is called the capitalistic era. But it is\nnecessary to stop here and analyse the factors of value in the engine to\nbe made and in the money used for the purpose of making use of the\nstored-up energies of the sun. We have found that the major part of the\nengine and all factors connected with its production are the combined\npower of dead men\u2019s labor. We have found that wealth or capital and its\nsymbol, money, are also, in the main, the bound-up power of dead men\u2019s\nlabor; so that the only way to obtain the benefit in the release of\nsun-power, is by using the product of the toil of the dead. It is further\nobvious that only the men or organizations that are able to concentrate\nthe largest amounts of money, representing the work of the dead, can have\nthe fullest use of the stored-up energies of time and the ancient sun.\nThus the monopoly of the stored-up energies of the sun arises from\nmonopolizing the accumulated fruits of dead men\u2019s toil. These problems\nwill, in the future, be the concern of the science and art of Human\nEngineering.\n\nLet us glance briefly at the problems from another angle. The power\ndeveloped in the combustion of one pound of coal is theoretically equal to\n11,580,000 foot pounds. But by our imperfect methods of utilization, not\nmore than 1,500,000 foot pounds are made available. This is about the\namount of physical power exerted by a man of ordinary strength during a\nday\u2019s work. Hence 300 pounds of coal will represent the labor of a man for\na year. The current production of coal in the world is about 500,000,000\ntons (1906). If we suppose that only half of this coal goes for mechanical\nuse, this will give us approximately the number as 1,600,000,000\nman-powers that are producers but not consumers.\n\nLet us take a still broader view of resources; we have approximately\n1,600,000,000 living human beings (all censuses available between 1902 and\n1906); a wealth of approximately $357,000,000,000 (_Social Progress_,\n1906, page 221) which in our analysis is dead men\u2019s work; and sun-power\nequal, in work, to the work of our whole living population, or equal to\n1,600,000,000 sun man-powers. Taking, for simplicity\u2019s sake, $35.70 as the\naverage living expenses per annum for each one of the _world\u2019s_\npopulation, we will have:\n\n(1) 1,600,000,000 living men.\n\n(2) 10,000,000,000 living man-powers of the dead.\n\n(3) 1,600,000,000 sun man-powers.\n\nSuch classification needs a reflection: man is intrinsically an increasing\nexponential power and always produces two use-values\u2014the potential and the\nkinetic. All living men have in some degree this type of power; _they are\nable to direct and use basic powers_.\n\nSo we see that this world is really populated to-day by three different\npopulations, all of them dynamic and active: to wit, 1,600,000,000 living\nmen; 10,000,000,000 living man-powers of the dead; 1,600,000,000 sun\nman-powers.\n\nThus it is obvious beyond any argument, _that this additional producing\nbut not consuming_ population, has been produced mainly by the work of all\nour past generations. It is said \u201cmainly\u201d because, if we were the first\ngeneration, we would be just aboriginal savages having nothing and\nprogressing very slowly. The reason why we progress very rapidly, in this\nstage of civilization, is explained very clearly by the mathematical law\nof a geometrical progression, with an ever increasing number of terms, the\nmagnitude of the terms increasing more rapidly all the time.(11)\n\nThis fact is the reason why the old unscientific and artificial social\nsystem requires and must undergo profound transformation. Human progress,\nin many directions, is so far advanced that social institutions can not\nmuch longer continue to lag so far behind. Static ethics, static\njurisprudence, static economics, and the rest must become dynamic; if they\ndo not continue to progress peacefully in accordance with the law of the\nprogress of science, they will be forced by violent readjustments,\nrecurring with ever increasing frequency.\n\nHere we have a problem of very high importance and enormous magnitude. To\nserve 1,600,000,000 living men, we have 11,600,000,000 dead man-powers and\nall the sun man-powers\u2014SEVEN SERVANTS TO EACH LIVING MAN, WOMAN AND CHILD\nincluded. It looks like the millennium. It would be so if we but used all\nthis power in a constructive way, eliminating waste and controversy and\nall those factors which hamper production and progress. The present\neconomic system does not realize even the beginning of the magnitude of\nthis truth and the tremendous results which are to be achieved through the\nadjustment of it. The problem will be solved by Human Engineering, for\nthis will establish the right understanding of values and will show how to\nmanage world problems scientifically; it will give a scientific foundation\nto Political Economy and transform so-called \u201cscientific shop management\u201d\ninto genuine \u201cscientific world management.\u201d(12)\n\nThere is a chasm between \u201cCapital\u201d and \u201cLabor,\u201d but nature does not know\n\u201cCapital\u201d or \u201cLabor\u201d at all. Nature knows only matter, energy, \u201cspace,\u201d\n\u201ctime,\u201d potential and kinetic use-values, forces in all their direct and\nindirect expression, the energies of living men, living powers of dead\nmen, and the bound-up powers of Time and the ancient Sun. Nature made man\nan increasing exponential function of time, a time-binder, a power able to\ntransform and direct basic powers. Sometimes we hypocritically like to\ndelude ourselves, if our delusions are agreeable\u2014and profitable. We call\nhuman work \u201cmanual labor\u201d and we pretend that we need the laborer for his\nmuscular service, but when we thus speak, we are thoughtless, stupid, or\ninsincere. What we look for in the worker is his _control_ of his muscles;\nmechanical work is or can be replaced almost entirely by machinery. What\nwe will never be able to replace by machinery is a Man, because man\nbelongs to the level of a dimension above machinery. Engine-power, sun\nman-power, and capital\u2014mainly the work of the dead\u2014are inanimate; they\nbecome productive only when quickened by the time-binding energies of\nliving men and women. Then only are the results proportional to the ever\ngrowing magnitude of exponential power. In nature\u2019s economy the\ntime-binders are the intelligent forces. There is none else known to us,\nand from the engineer\u2019s point of view, Edison and the simplest laborer,\nSmith or Jones, are basically the same; their powers or capacities are\nexponential, and, though differing in degree, are the same in kind. This\nmay seem optimistic but all engineers are optimists. They deal only with\nfact and truth. If they make mistakes, if their bridges break down, then,\nno matter how clever their sophistry, they are adjudged criminal. Like\nseverity must be made the rule and practice toward all those who control\nthe institutions and great affairs of human society. Periodical\nbreak-downs must be prevented. The engineers of human society must be held\nresponsible, as the bridge engineer is held to-day.\n\nThings are often simpler than they appear at the first glance. There may\nbe fire and plenty of coal in a stove, yet no heat; the fire does not burn\nwell; an engineer will remove the natural causes of obstruction of the\nnatural process; even such a simple thing as the removal of ashes may\nsolve the problem. It seems simple enough. The truth is often clear and\nsimple, if only it be not obscured and complicated by sophistry.\n\n\u201cCapitalistic\u201d reasoning and \u201cSocialistic\u201d reasoning\u2014Nature does not know\nsuch things. Nature has only one \u201creasoning\u201d in all its functions. Our\nfalsifying of nature\u2019s laws makes the controversy. Socialism exists as an\n_ism_ because Capitalism exists as an _ism_; the clash is only an\nexpression of the eternal law of action and reaction.\n\nWe are living in a world of wealth, a world enriched by many generations\nof dead men\u2019s toil; between the lust of the one to _keep_ and the lust of\nothers to _get_, there is little to choose; such contentions of lust\nagainst lust are _sub_-human\u2014animalistic; such ethics is zoological\nethics\u2014the righteousness of tooth and claw; below the human dimensions of\nlife, utterly unworthy of the creative energy\u2014the time-binding capacity\u2014of\nhumanity. Socialism feels keenly and sees dimly that human affairs are not\nconducted in conformity with natural laws. Capitalism neither sees it nor\nkeenly feels it. Neither the one nor the other stops to investigate\nnatural laws\u2014nature\u2019s laws\u2014laws of human nature\u2014scientifically. They both\nof them use the same speculative methods in their arguments, and there can\nbe no issue. Against one old-fashioned, speculative argument, there is\nalways a speculative answer. They both speak about the truth, but their\nmethods can not find the truth nor their language express it. They speak\nof \u201cjustice,\u201d \u201cright\u201d and so forth, not knowing that their conceptions of\nthose terms are based on a wrong understanding of values. There is one and\nbut one remedy, and that remedy consists in applying scientific method to\nthe study of the subject. Sound reasoning, once introduced, will overrun\nhumanity as the fields turn green in the spring; it will eliminate the\nwaste of energy in controversies; it will attract all forces toward\nconstruction and the exploitation of nature for the common weal.\n\nThere are capitalists and capitalists; there are socialists and\nsocialists. Among the capitalists there are those who want wealth\u2014mainly\nthe fruit of dead men\u2019s toil\u2014for themselves. Among the socialists there\nare those\u2014the orthodox socialists\u2014who seek to disperse it. The former do\nnot perceive that the product of the labor of the dead is itself dead if\nnot quickened by the energies of living men. The orthodox socialists do\nnot perceive the tremendous benefits that accrue to mankind from the\naccumulation of wealth, if _rightly used_.\n\nWhether we be capitalists or socialists or neither, we must learn that to\nprey upon the treasury left by the dead is to live, not the life of a\nhuman being, but that of a _ghoul_. Legalistic title\u2014documentary\nownership\u2014does not alter the fact. Neither does lust for the same.\n\nWhen we have acquired the just conception of what a human being is we\nshall get away from the Roman conception according to which a human being\nis _instrumentum vocale_; an animal, _instrumentum semivocale_: and a\ntool, _instrumentum mutum_. To regard human beings as tools\u2014as\ninstruments\u2014for the use of other human beings is not only unscientific but\nit is repugnant, stupid and short sighted. Tools are made by man but have\nnot the autonomy of their maker\u2014they have not man\u2019s time-binding capacity\nfor initiation, for self-direction, and self-improvement In their own\nnature, tools, instruments, machines belong to a dimension far lower than\nthat of man.\n\nTalk of dimensions or dimensionality is by no means theoretical rubbish.\nThe right understanding of dimensions is of life-and-death importance in\npractical life. The intermixing of dimensions leads to wrong conclusions\nin our thought and wrong conclusions lead to disasters.\n\nConsider the classes of life as representing three dimensions (as\nexplained in an earlier chapter), then human production belongs\nessentially to the human or as I call it the third dimension. With the\nbase of (say) 5, we produce in the third dimension a result of 125 units,\nand so when humans are paid but 25 units in accordance with the standards\nof the second dimension (that of animals), humanity is deprived of the\nbenefit of 100 units of produced wealth. That is an illustration of what a\npart dimensions play in practical life. The reflective reader may analyse\nfor himself what effect these same rules would have, if expressed and\napplied in the human \u201ctime-binding\u201d dimension, time being the supreme\ntest. The following table gives the visual shock:\n\n1st Dimension   2nd Dimension   3rd Dimension\n5               25              125\n10              100             1,000\n100             10,000          1,000,000\n1,000           1,000,000       1,000,000,000\n\nThis explains why the intermixing of dimensions is the source of\ntremendous evil.\n\nWho can now assert that the problem of dimensions is one only of theory?\nIt is not even a question of limitation of mind, but it becomes a question\nof limitation of eyesight, not to be able to see the overwhelming\ndifferences between the laws of development of the first, second, and the\nthird dimension.\n\nDollars, or pounds sterling, or other units of money follow the same\nrules: the strength and in fact the source of power of modern capitalism,\nis found in just this difference in dimensions\u2014in the difference between\nwhat is given and what is taken, in the difference between what is earned\nand what is \u201cmade.\u201d The problem of dimensions is, therefore, a key which\nunlocks the secrets of the power of capitalism and opens the door to a new\ncivilization where the understanding of dimensions will establish order\nout of the chaos.\n\nWe have seen that kinetic and potential use-values, produced mainly by the\ndead, are bound up in wealth, which is measured and symbolized by money.\nThis being true, it is obvious that money is a measure and symbol of\npower, of work done, of bound-up time.\n\nThe _space_-binding _animal_ standard of miscivilization has brought us to\nan impasse\u2014a blind alley\u2014for the simple physical reason that there is no\nmore space to \u201cbind.\u201d Practically all the habitable lands, and practically\nall the natural resources, are already divided among private legalistic\nowners. What hope is there for the ever increasing population?\n\nBut we have these 1,600,000,000 living men; 10,000,000,000 living\nman-powers of the dead; and 1,600,000,000 sun man-powers: that is indeed a\ntremendous power to PRODUCE WEALTH FOR ALL, IF WISELY DIRECTED, but to-day\nit is ignorantly and shamefully misdirected, because human beings are not\ntreated in accordance with their nature as the time-binding class of life.\n\nMuch more is to be gained in exploiting nature aimfully, all the time,\nwith a full mobilization of our living, dead, and sun-powers, than by\nexploiting man all the time and nature occasionally. Selfishness and\nignorance\u2014is it these that prevent full mobilization of the producing\npowers of the world?\n\nSuch as contribute most to human progress and human enlightenment\u2014men like\nGutenberg, Copernicus, Newton, Leibnitz, Watts, Franklin, Mendeleieff,\nPasteur, Sklodowska-Curie, Edison, Steinmetz, Loeb, Dewey, Keyser,\nWhitehead, Russell, Poincar\u00e9, William Benjamin Smith, Gibbs, Einstein, and\nmany others\u2014consume no more bread than the simplest of their fellow\nmortals. Indeed such men are often in want. How many a genius has perished\ninarticulate because unable to stand the strain of social conditions where\nanimal standards prevail and \u201csurvival of the fittest\u201d means, not survival\nof the \u201cfittest in time-binding capacity,\u201d but survival of the strongest\nin ruthlessness and guile\u2014in space-binding competition!\n\nWealth is produced by those who work with hand or brain and by no others.\nThe great mass of the wealth of the world has been thus produced by\ngenerations that have gone. We know that the greatest wealth\nproducers\u2014immeasurably the greatest\u2014have been and are scientific men,\ndiscoverers and inventors. If an invention, in the course of a few years\nafter it is made, must become public property, then the wealth produced by\nthe _use_ of the invention should also become public property in the\ncourse of a like period of years after it is thus produced. Against this\nproposition no sophistry can avail.\n\nOne of the greatest powers of modern times is the Press; it commands the\nresources of space and time; it affects in a thousand subtle ways the form\nof our thoughts. It controls the exchange of news throughout the world.\nUnfortunately the press is often controlled by exploiters of the \u201cliving\npowers of the dead,\u201d and so what is presented as news is frequently so\nlimited, colored and distorted by selfish interests as to be falsehood in\nthe guise of truth. Honest, independent papers are frequently starved by\nselfish conspirators and forced to close down. Thus the press, which is\nitself the product in the main of dead men\u2019s toil, is made a means for the\ndeception and exploitation of the living. Indeed the bitter words of\nVoltaire seem to be too true: \u201cSince God created man in his own image, how\noften has man endeavored to render similar service to God.\u201d Those who want\nto use such \u201cGod-like\u201d powers to rule the world are modern Neros, who in\ntheir wickedness and folly fancy themselves divine. To deceive, and\nthrough deception, to exploit, rob and subjugate living men and women, and\nto do it by prostituting the living powers created by the dead, is the\nwork, I will not say of men, but of _mad_ men, greedy, ignorant and blind.\nWhat is the remedy? Revolution? Revolution is also mad. The only remedy is\nenlightenment\u2014knowledge, knowledge of nature, knowledge of human nature,\nscientific education, science applied to all the affairs of man\u2014the\nscience and art of Human Engineering.\n\n\n\n\nChapter VII. Survival of the Fittest\n\n\nHumanity is a dynamic affair, nay, the most dynamic known, because it is\nable to transform and direct basic powers. Where power is produced there\nmust be an issue for it. Power must perforce express itself in some form.\nElectricity produced in the skies comes down in an often disastrous\nmanner. Electricity, produced aimfully, runs our railroads; just so the\nenormous power produced by humanity must be used aimfully, in a\nconstructive way or it will burst into insurrections, revolutions and\nwars.\n\nHitherto we have been guided by those bottomless sciences having only\nmythological ideas of power\u2014by ideas moulded by personal ambitions,\npersonal interests, or downright ignorance. Periodically we have had all\nthe evils of the lack of a common aim and scientific guidance. Power has\nbeen held by the \u201cGod-given\u201d or the \u201ccleverest\u201d; seldom has the power been\ngiven to the \u201cfittest\u201d in the sense of the most capable \u201cto do.\u201d Those who\nspeak of the \u201csurvival of the fittest,\u201d as in the Darwinian theory of\nanimals, bark an animal language. This rule, being natural only in the\nlife of plants and animals and appropriate only to the lower forms of\nphysical life, cannot, except with profound change of meaning, be applied\nto the time-binding class of life, without disaster.\n\nThe modern vast accumulation of wealth for private purposes, justifies\nitself by using the argument of the \u201csurvival of the fittest.\u201d Very well,\nwhere there is a \u201csurvival,\u201d there must be victims; where there are\nvictims, there has been fighting. Is this what the users of this argument\nmean? Like the Kaiser, they talk peace and make war. This method of doing\nthings is not in any way new. The world has been accustomed to it for a\nvery long while.\n\nPersonally I believe that most of the masters of speculative\nsemi-sciences, such as economics, law, ethics, politics and government are\nhonest in their beliefs and speculations. Simply the right man believes in\nthe wrong thing; if shown the right way out of the mess he will cease to\nhamper progress; he will be of the greatest value to the new world built\nby Human Engineers, where human capacities, exponential functions of time,\nwill operate naturally; where economy, law, ethics, politics and\ngovernment will be _dynamic_, not _static_. There is a world of difference\nbetween these two words.\n\nThe immediate object of this writing is to show the way to directing the\ntime-binding powers of mankind for the benefit of all. Human technology,\nas an art and science, does not yet exist; some basic principles were\nrequired as a foundation for such a science. Especially was it necessary\nto establish a _human_ standard, and thus make it certain and clear that\n\u201cspace-binders\u201d\u2014the members of the _animal_ world\u2014are \u201coutside of the\nhuman law\u201d\u2014outside the natural laws for the human class of life.\n\nPresent civilization is a very complicated affair; although many of our\nsocial problems are very badly managed, sudden changes could not be made\nwithout endangering the welfare and life of all classes of society. In the\nmeantime, changes must be made because the world can not proceed much\nlonger under pre-war conditions; they have been too well exposed by facts\nfor humanity to allow itself to be blindly led again.\n\nIn the World War humanity passed through a tremendous trial and for those\nyears was under the strain of an extensive mobilization campaign. The\nnecessity of increasing power was manifest; the importance of a common\nbase or aim became equally manifest. In this case the base, the common\naim, was found in \u201cwar patriotism.\u201d This common base enabled all the\nstates to add up individual powers and build maximum efficiency into a\n_collective_ power. This expression is used, not only as a social truth,\nbut as a known mathematical truth. Those high ideals, which were given\n\u201cUrbi et orbi\u201d in thousands of speeches and in millions of propaganda\npapers, had a much greater educational importance and influence than most\npeople are aware of. People have been awakened and have acquired the taste\nfor those higher purposes which in the past were available only for the\nfew.\n\nMany old worn-out idols, ideas and ideals have fallen; but what is going\nto take their place? We witness an unrest which will not be eliminated\nuntil something essential is done to adjust it. Calm often betokens a\ncoming storm. The coming storm is not the work of any \u201cbad man,\u201d but it is\nthe inevitable consequence of a \u201cbad system.\u201d It is dangerous to hide our\nheads in the sand, like an ostrich, and fancy we are safe.\n\n\u201cSurvival of the fittest\u201d in the commonly used animal sense is not a\ntheory or principle for a \u201ctime-binding\u201d being. This theory is only for\nthe physical bodies of animals; its effect upon humanity is sinister and\ndegrading (see App. II). We see the principle at work all about us in\ncriminal exploitation and profiteering. As a matter of fact, the ages-long\napplication of this animal principle to human affairs has degraded the\nwhole human morale in an inconceivably far-reaching way. Personal greed\nand selfishness are brazenly owned as principles of conduct. We shrug our\nshoulders in acquiescence and proclaim greed and selfishness to be the\nvery core of human nature, take it all for granted, and let it pass at\nthat. We have gone so far in our degradation that the prophet of\ncapitalistic principles, Adam Smith, in his famous _Wealth of Nations_,\narrives at the laws of wealth, not from the phenomena of wealth nor from\nstatistical statements, but from the phenomena of selfishness\u2014a fact which\nshows how far-reaching in its dire influence upon all humanity is the\ntheory that human beings are \u201canimals.\u201d Of course the effect is very\ndisastrous. The preceding chapters have shown that the theory is false; it\nis false, not only because of its unhappy effects, but it belies the\ncharacteristic nature of man. Human nature, this time-binding power, not\nonly has the peculiar capacity for perpetual progress, but it has, over\nand above all animal propensities, certain qualities constituting it a\ndistinctive dimension or type of life. Not only our whole collective life\nproves a love for higher ideals, but even our dead _give_ us the rich\nheritage, material and spiritual, of all their toils. There is nothing\nmystical about it; to call SUCH a class a _naturally_ selfish class is not\nonly nonsensical but monstrous.\n\nThis capacity for higher ideals does not originate in some\n\u201c_super_natural\u201d outside factor; it is _not_ of extraneous origin, it is\nthe expression of the time-binding element which we _inherently_ possess,\nindependently of our \u201cwill\u201d; it is an inborn capacity\u2014a _gift_ of nature.\nWe simply are made this way and not in any other. There is indeed a fine\nsense in which we can, if we choose, apply the expression\u2014survival of the\nfittest\u2014to the activity of the time-binding energies of man. Having the\npeculiar capacity to survive in our deeds, we have an inclination to use\nit and we survive in the deeds of our creation; and so there is brought\nabout the \u201csurvival in time\u201d of higher and higher ideals. The moment we\nconsider Man in his proper dimension\u2014active in TIME\u2014these things become\nsimple, stupendous, and beautiful.\n\n\n    \u201cNote the radical character of the transformation to be effected.\n    The world shall no longer be beheld as an alien thing, beheld by\n    eyes that are not its own. Conception of the whole and by the\n    whole shall embrace _us_ as _part_, really, literally,\n    consciously, as the latest term, it may be, of an advancing\n    sequence of developments, as occupying the highest rank perhaps in\n    the ever-ascending hierarchy of being, but, at all events, as\n    emerged and still emerging _natura naturata_ from some propensive\n    source within. I grant that the change in point of view is hard to\n    make\u2014old habits, like walls of rock, tending to confine the tides\n    of consciousness within their accustomed channels\u2014but it can be\n    made and, by assiduous effort, in the course of time, maintained.\n    Suppose it done. By that reunion, the whole regains, while the\n    part retains, the consciousness the latter purloined.... In the\n    whole universe of events, none is more wonderful than the birth of\n    wonder, none more curious than the nascence of curiosity itself,\n    nothing to compare with the dawning of consciousness in the\n    ancient dark and the gradual extension of psychic life and\n    illumination throughout a cosmos that before had only _been_. An\n    eternity of blindly acting, transforming, unconscious existence,\n    assuming at length, through the birth of sense and intellect,\n    without loss or break of continuity, the abiding form of fleeting\n    time.\u201d (C. J. Keyser, loc. cit.)\n\n\nIt must be emphasized that the development of higher ideals is due to the\n_natural_ capacity of humanity; the impulse is simply time-binding\nimpulse. As we have seen, by analysing the functions of the different\nclasses of life, every class of life has an impulse to exercise its\npeculiar capacity or function. Nitrogen resists compound combinations and\nif found in such combinations it breaks away as quickly as ever it can.\nBirds have wings\u2014they fly. Animals have feet\u2014they run. Man has the\ncapacity of time-binding\u2014he binds time. It does not matter whether we\nunderstand the very \u201cessence\u201d of the phenomenon or not, any more than we\nunderstand the \u201cessence\u201d of electricity or any other \u201cessence.\u201d Life shows\nthat man has time-binding capacity as a natural gift and is naturally\nimpelled to use it. One of the best examples is procreation. Conception is\na completely incomprehensible phenomenon in its \u201cessence,\u201d nevertheless,\nhaving the capacity to procreate we use it without bothering about its\n\u201cessence.\u201d Indeed neither life nor science bothers about \u201cessences\u201d\u2014they\nleave \u201cessences\u201d to metaphysics, which is neither life nor science. It is\nsufficient for our purpose that idealization is in fact a natural process\nof time-binding human energy. And however imperfect ethics has been owing\nto the prevalence of animal standards, such merits as our ethics has had\nwitness to the natural presence of \u201cidealization\u201d in time-binding human\nlife.\n\n\n    \u201cIt is thus evident that ideals are not things to gush over or to\n    sigh and sentimentalize about; they are not what would be left if\n    that which is hard in reality were taken away; ideals are\n    themselves the very flint of reality, beautiful no doubt and\n    precious, without which there would be neither dignity nor hope\n    nor light; but their aspect is not sentimental and soft; it is\n    hard, cold, intellectual, logical, austere. Idealization consists\n    in the conception or the intuition of ideals and in the pursuit of\n    them. And ideals, I have said, are of two kinds. Let us make the\n    distinction clearer. Every sort of human activity\u2014shoeing horses,\n    abdominal surgery, or painting profiles\u2014admits of a peculiar type\n    of excellence. No sort of activity can escape from its own type\n    but within its type it admits of indefinite improvement. For each\n    type there is an ideal\u2014a dream of perfection\u2014an unattainable limit\n    of an endless sequence of potential ameliorations within the type\n    and on its level. The dreams of such unattainable perfections are\n    as countless as the types of excellence to which they respectively\n    belong and they together constitute the familiar world of our\n    human ideals. To share in it\u2014to feel the lure of perfection in one\n    or more types of excellence, however lowly\u2014is to be human; not to\n    feel it is to be sub-human. But this common kind of idealization,\n    though it is very important and very precious, does not produce\n    the great events in the life of mankind. These are produced by the\n    kind of idealization that corresponds to what we have called in\n    the mathematical prototype, limit-begotten generalization\u2014a kind\n    of idealization that is peculiar to creative genius and that, not\n    content to pursue ideals within established types of excellences,\n    creates new types thereof in science, in art, in philosophy, in\n    letters, in ethics, in education, in social order, in all the\n    fields and forms of the spiritual life of man.\u201d (Quoted from the\n    manuscript of the forthcoming book, _Mathematical Philosophy_, by\n    Cassius J. Keyser.)\n\n\n\u201cSurvival of the fittest\u201d has a different form for different classes of\nlife. Applying animal standards to time-binding beings is like applying\ninches to measuring weight. As a matter or fact, we cannot raise one class\nto a higher class, unless we add an entirely new function to the former;\nwe can only improve their lower status; but if we apply the reverse\nmethod, we can degrade human standards to animal standards.\n\nAnimal standards belong to a class of life whose capacity is _not_ an\n_exponential_ function of _Time_. There is nothing theological or\nsentimental in this fact; it is a purely mathematical truth.\n\nIt is fatal to apply the \u201csurvival of the fittest\u201d theory in the same\nsense to two radically different classes of life. The \u201csurvival of the\nfittest\u201d for animals\u2014for _space_-binders\u2014is survival _in space_, which\nmeans fighting and other brutal forms of struggle; on the other hand,\n\u201csurvival of the fittest\u201d for human beings _as such_\u2014that is, for\n_time-binders_\u2014is survival _in time_, which means intellectual or\nspiritual competition, struggle for excellence, for making the _best_\nsurvive. The-fittest-in-time\u2014those who make the best survive\u2014are those who\ndo the most in producing values for all mankind including _posterity_.\nThis is the scientific base for natural ethics, and ethics from which\nthere can be no side-stepping, or escape.\n\nTherefore time-binders can not use \u201c_animal_\u201d logic without degrading\nthemselves from their proper status as human beings\u2014their status as\nestablished by nature. \u201cAnimal\u201d logic leads to \u201canimal\u201d ethics and\n\u201canimal\u201d economics; it leads inevitably to a brutalized industrial system\nin which cunning contrives to rob the living of the fruit of the dead.\n\n_Human_ logic points to human ethics and human economics; it will lead to\na humanized industrial system in which competition will be competition in\nscience, in art, in justice: a competition and struggle for the attainment\nof excellence in human life. The time-binding capacity, which manifests\nitself in drawing from the PAST, through the PRESENT for the FUTURE gives\nhuman beings the means of attaining a precious kind of immortality; it\nenables them to fulfill the law of their own class of life and to survive\neverlastingly in the fruits of their toil, a perpetual blessing to endless\ngenerations of the children of men. This is the truth we instinctively\nrecognize when we call a great man \u201cimmortal.\u201d We mean that he has done\ndeeds that _survive in time_ for the perpetual weal of mankind.\n\nHuman logic\u2014mathematical logic, the logic _natural_ for man\u2014will thus show\nus that \u201cgood\u201d and \u201cjust\u201d and \u201cright\u201d are to have their significance\ndefined and understood entirely in terms of human _nature_. Human\nnature\u2014not animal nature\u2014is to be the basis and guide of Human\nEngineering. Thus based and guided, Human Engineering will eliminate\n\u201cwild-cat schemers,\u201d gamblers and \u201cpoliticians.\u201d It will put an end to\nindustrial violence, strikes, insurrections, war and revolutions.\n\nThe present system of social life is largely built upon misconceptions or\nmisrepresentations. For all work we need the human brain, the human\ntime-binding power, yet we continue to call it \u201chand-labor\u201d and treat it\nas such. Even in mechanical science, in the use of the term \u201chorse-power,\u201d\nwe are incorrect in this expression. How does this \u201chorse\u201d look in\nreality? Let us analyse this \u201chorse.\u201d All science, all mechanical\nappliances have been produced by \u201cman\u201d and man alone. Everything we\npossess is the production of either dead men\u2019s or living men\u2019s work. The\nenslavement of the solar man-power is purely a human invention in theory\nand practice. Everything we have is evidently therefore a time-binding\nproduct. What perfect nonsense to call a purely human achievement the\nequivalent of so much \u201chorse-power\u201d! Of course it does not matter\nmathematically what name we give to a unit of power; we may call it a Zeus\nor a Zebra; but there is a very vicious implication in using the name of\nan animal to denote a purely human product. Everything in our civilization\nwas produced by MAN; it seems only reasonable that this unit of power\nwhich is the direct product of Man\u2019s work, should be correctly named after\nhim. The educational effect would be wholesome and tremendous. The human\nvalue in work would be thus emphasized again and again, and respect for\nhuman work would be taught, from the beginning in the schools. This\n\u201chorse-power\u201d unit causes us to forget the human part in it and it\ndegrades human work to the level of a commodity. This is an example of the\ndegrading influence of wrong conceptions and wrong language. I said\n\u201ceducational\u201d because even our subconscious mind is affected by this. (See\nApp. II.)\n\nHuman Engineering will not interfere with any scientific research; on the\ncontrary, it will promote it in many ways. Grown-ups, it is to be hoped,\nwill stop the nonsense of intermixing dimensions, for which we chastise\nchildren. It is the same kind of blundering as when we intermix\nphenomena\u2014measuring \u201cGod\u201d by human standards, or human beings by animal\nstandards. The relationship, if any, between these phenomena or the\noverlapping of different classes, is interesting and important; but in\nstudying such relationships of classes, it is fatal to mix the classes;\nfor example, if we are studying the relations between surfaces and solids,\nit is fatal to mistake solids for surfaces; just so, too, if we stupidly\nconfuse humans with animals.\n\nIn the reality of life, we are interested only in the values of the\nfunction of the phenomena by themselves and to arrive at right conclusions\nwe have to use units appropriate to the phenomena. The intermixing of\nunits gives us a wrong conception of the values of each phenomenon; the\nresults of our calculations are wrong and the outcome is a misconception\nof the process of human life. The fact once realized, we will cease\napplying animal measures to man; even theology will abandon the monstrous\nhabit.\n\nAnimal units and standards are to be applied to animals, human standards\nto man, \u201cDivine\u201d standards to \u201cGod.\u201d\n\nIn the dark ages, with the complete innocence or misunderstanding of\nscience, the \u201cwhy\u201d of things was explained by the \u201cwho\u201d of things; therein\ninvestigation culminated; man was regarded as _homo sapiens_ and homo\nsapiens = animal \u00d7 spark of _super_natural; this monstrous formula was\naccepted as a final truth\u2014as an answer to the question: What is Man? This\ntype of answer became in the hands of church and state a powerful\ninstrument for keeping the people in subjection.\n\nThe tendency of the masses to let others think for them is not really a\n_natural_ characteristic\u2014quite the opposite. The habit of not thinking for\none\u2019s self is the result of thousands of years of subjection. Those in\nauthority, in general, used their ingenuity to keep the people from\nthinking. The most vital reason why many humans appear to be, and are\noften called, \u201cstupid,\u201d is that they have been spoken to in a language of\nspeculation which they instinctively dislike and distrust; thus there\narose the proverb that speech was made to conceal the truth. It is no\nwonder that they appear \u201cstupid,\u201d the wonder is that they are not more\n\u201cstupid.\u201d The truth is that they will be found to be far less stupid when\naddressed in the natural language of ascertainable fact. My whole theory\nis based upon, and is in harmony with, the natural feelings of man. The\nconceptions I introduce are based on human _nature_. Natural language\u2014so\ndifferent from the speech of metaphysical speculation\u2014will lead to mutual\nunderstanding and the disappearance of warring factions.\n\n\n    \u201cDiscrimination, as the proverb rightly teaches, is the beginning\n    of mind. The first psychic product of that initial psychic act is\n    _numerical_: to discriminate is to produce _two_, the simplest\n    possible example of multiplicity. The discovery, or better the\n    invention, better still the production, best of all the creation,\n    of multiplicity with its correlate of number, is, therefore, the\n    most primitive achievement or manifestation of mind.... Let us,\n    then, trust the arithmetic instinct as fundamental and, for\n    instruments of thought that shall not fail, repair at once to the\n    domain of number.\u201d (C. J. Keyser, Loc. Cit.)\n\n\nThe thinking few knew the power there is in \u201cthinking\u201d; they wanted to\nhave it and to keep the advantage of it for themselves; witness the late\nintroduction of public schools. Belief in the inferiority of the masses\nbecame the unwritten law of the \u201cprivileged classes\u201d; it was forced upon,\nrubbed into, the subconscious mind of the masses by church and state\nalike, and was humbly and dumbly accepted by the \u201clower orders\u201d as their\n\u201cdestiny.\u201d Ignorance was proclaimed as a bliss.\n\nAs time went on, this \u201ccoefficient of ignorance\u201d became so useful to some\npeople and some classes of people that no effort was spared to keep the\nworld in ignorance. It gave a legalistic excuse to imprison, burn and hang\npeople for expressing an opinion which the ruling classes did not like.\nThe elimination from church, from school, from universities, of any\nteacher, any professor or any minister who dared to exemplify or encourage\nfearless investigation and freedom of speech became very common. It is\nless common in our generation, but there remains much to win in the way of\nfreedom.\n\nFreedom, rightly understood, is the aim of Human Engineering. But freedom\nis not license, it is not licentiousness. Freedom consists in _lawful_\nliving\u2014in living in accord with the laws of human _nature_\u2014in accord with\nthe _natural_ laws of Man. A plant is free when it is not prevented from\nliving and growing according to the natural laws of plant life; an animal\nis free when it is not prevented from living according to the natural laws\nof animal life; human beings are free when and only when they are not\nprevented from living in accord with the natural laws of human life. I say\n\u201cwhen not prevented,\u201d for human beings will live _naturally_ and,\ntherefore, in freedom, when they are not prevented from thus living by\nignorance of what human nature is and by artificial social systems\nestablished, maintained, and protected by such ignorance. Human freedom\nconsists in exercising the time-binding energies of man in accordance with\nthe natural laws of such natural energies. Human freedom is thus the aim\nof Human Engineering because Human Engineering is to be the science of\nhuman nature and the art of conducting human affairs in accordance with\nthe laws of human nature. Survival of the fittest, where _fittest_ means\n_strongest_, is a _natural_ law for brutes, for animals, for the class of\nmere _space_-binders. Survival of the fittest, where _fittest_ means\n_best_ in science and art and wisdom, is a _natural_ law for mankind, the\ntime-binding class of life.\n\n\n\n\nChapter VIII. Elements Of Power\n\n\nIn the World War Germany displayed tremendous _power_. Restraining our\nemotions as much as possible, let us endeavor to analyse that power with\nmathematical dispassionateness.\n\nWhy did Germany display more power than any other single nation? Because\nin the establishment of her \u201cethics,\u201d her political system, and her\neconomic structure, Germany availed herself, in larger measure than any\nother nation, of scientific achievements and scientific methods. It is a\nvery common, very erroneous, and very harmful belief that war was created\nsolely by a \u201cwar-lord.\u201d Every idea or movement doubtless originates with\nsomebody but back of such \u201coriginations\u201d or initiations there are favoring\nconditions, forces and impulsions. The stage is set by life and the ages;\nthe actor enters and the show begins. In the instance in question, the\nstage was set by our whole modern system of civilization. The war lords\nwere the \u201cDeus ex machina\u201d\u2014the show was a real one\u2014a tragedy.\n\nThe true origin of this war must be looked for in the economic field. Our\neconomic system is the very complicated result of all our creeds,\nphilosophies and social customs. It is therefore impossible to understand\nthe working of the economic forces without understanding the foundation\nupon which this system of forces is based. A short list of works on the\nsubject is given at the end of this book. A plain statement here will be\nenough.\n\nGermany was committed to a policy of indefinite industrial expansion. This\nartificial expansion had reached its limits. Germany was on the verge of\nbankruptcy. Only a victorious war could avoid a national catastrophe; she\nplayed her last card, and lost despite her gigantic power, the greatest\never displayed by any nation. The leading European states were not able to\noverpower her for a long time. This writing is not intended as an apology\nfor Germany, much less to praise her or her war lords. German purposes\nwere nationally narrow and nationally selfish to the root; her methods\nwere inhuman but Germany displayed power; and without the understanding of\npower, Human Engineering is impossible.\n\nIt is possibly a fault of the writer\u2019s military training, but it seems to\nhim that the \u201cGeneral Staff\u201d point of view has as much claim to\nconsideration as any other among the many different interpretations of\nhistory\u2014perhaps it has more. It is not the primary aim of the general\nstaff to \u201cfight,\u201d very far from it. Their primary aim is \u201cvictory\u201d and all\nthe better if victory be possible without a fight. Strategy, brain-work,\nintelligence, knowledge of facts\u2014these are the chief weapons; brutal\nfighting is only a last resort. It is highly important to bear that in\nmind. Soldiers and engineers do not argue\u2014they act. Germany affords the\nfirst example of a philosophy or a society having for its main purpose the\ngenerating of power to \u201cdo things.\u201d It seems only reasonable and\nintelligent to analyse the history of the war from the engineer\u2019s point of\nview, which, in this case, happens to coincide with the military point of\nview. It must be clearly understood that the modern general staff, or\nmilitary, point of view has very little or nothing to do with the romance\nor poetry of war. War to-day is a grim business\u2014but \u201cbusiness\u201d before all\nelse. It has to mobilize all the resources of a nation and generate power\nto the limit of its capacity. The conduct of war to-day is a technological\naffair\u2014its methods have to be engineering methods. To crush an obstacle,\nthere is need of a giant hammer, and the more mass that can be given it\nand the greater the force put behind it, the more deadly will be the blow.\nPrior to the World War technology had not been mobilized on so vast a\nscale nor confronted with a task so gigantic. Mobilized technology has\nrevealed and demonstrated the fact that it is possible to generate almost\nunlimited power and has shown the way to do it; at the same time it has\ndemonstrated the measureless potency of engineering and our utter\nhelplessness without it. Technology is comparatively a new science; by\nsome it is called a \u201csemi-science\u201d because it deals primarily with the\napplication of science to practical issues. But when it became necessary\n\u201cto do things,\u201d an engineer had to be called; the general staff had to\nadopt his view, and all other practices and traditions were bent to his\nideas.\n\nI have already repeatedly pointed out that the progress of technology\nproceeds according to a law like that of a rapidly increasing geometrical\nprogression, and I have stressed the danger of inattention to any\nphenomena, force or movement that conforms to such a law. We have only to\nrecollect the story of the simple but very greedy farmer who was very\nhappy to make a contract with a laborer for a month\u2019s work, paying him\nonly one cent the first day, twice as much the second, twice for the\nthird, and so on to the end. Behold! The bill for the month ran into\nmillions of dollars and the farmer was ruined. Such is the deadly secret\nof the geometrical progression. Violent readjustments await any society\nwhose ethics, jurisprudence and the like do not keep pace with the\ndevelopments of engineering.\n\nEngineers are the wizards who, using the results of scientific research,\ncan subjugate or release the concealed powers of nature. The supreme\nfactor is the use of the mind\u2014the exponential function of time\u2014the\ntime-binding energy of man. From that we have to take our start because\nthat is the source of human power.\n\nThe German philosophy, as a whole, has its definite place in the history\nof philosophy; and the first thing to consider are those philosophic\nwriters who directly and indirectly have contributed to the building up of\nGerman power. Hegel greatly affected the building up of the German\nmind\u2014strange as it may seem; but Hegel was greatly under the influence of\nthe work of Fichte, and Fichte in turn under that of Spinoza. All of them\nwere, in a way, mathematicians in their methods and philosophy, as much as\nthey could be in their time. I said \u201cstrange,\u201d because it is significant\nthat the mathematical part of their philosophy was just the part which\nbuilt up the German power. But if we look into it, it is not strange.\n\nIt had to be so, because mathematical and mechanical methods are the only\nones by which power can be understood and built. Hegel in 1805 lectured on\nhistory of philosophy, pure mathematics and natural law. It would be hard\nto find a better combination for a philosophy of power. That is precisely\nwhat this philosophy was. It influenced not only German philosophy but\neven German theology, and through these channels it sank deep into the\nnational consciousness. It affected every phase of life. An immense cult\nof disciples arose. Each one added something to that philosophy of power.\nOne of the most brilliant representatives of this movement is Professor\nOswald, who in his _Monist Sermons_ gave the famous advice: \u201cDo not waste\nenergy but give it value.\u201d The German understanding of the great value of\ntechnology directly applied that principle to their philosophy, law,\nethics, politics, and so on.\n\nWith increase of population, the problem of the State becomes more and\nmore pressing. There are many theories about the state. For the purpose of\nthe moment it is important to realize that a state is the governing center\nof an accumulation of human beings\u2014of time-binding powers\u2014increasing\nexponential functions of time. These powers, though the same in kind,\ndiffer in degree and in respect of individuality. If they are to be united\nso as to constitute a whole, they must be given a common aim; they must,\nso to speak, be reduced to a common base; if they be respectively _X__m_,\n_Y__n_, _Z__p_, and so on, we can not unite them and compute the whole by\nadding the exponents; but if we give them a common base\u2014a common aim or\npurpose\u2014then we can readily represent the magnitudes of the whole\nconstituted by them; if we take _X_ to be their common aim or base, then,\nif _Y_ = _aX_, _Z_ = _bX_, and so on, we shall have:\n\n_X__m_ \u00d7 _Y__n_ \u00d7 _Z__p_ ... = _X__m_ \u00d7 _a__n_ \u00d7 _X__n_ \u00d7 _b__p_ \u00d7 _X__p_\n... = (_a__n_ \u00d7 _b__p_ ...)_X__m+n+p_ ...\n\nThe last expression, where the parenthetical coefficient is the product of\nindividualities, serves to represent the united powers of all in terms of\n_X_, the common base, purpose or aim.\n\nLet us look at the matter in another way. One mechanical \u201chorse-power\u201d is\nless than the power of one living horse. One living horse can do more work\nthan one mechanical horse-power, but in using more than one living horse\nat one time we get less work than by using the same number of mechanical\nhorse-powers; the reason is very obvious. The mechanical horse-powers are\nthe same in kind, equal, and constant, but living horses differ in\ncharacter, they are not equal, and each one is a variable. Hence\nmechanical horse-powers can be added or multiplied arithmetically, but the\npowers of living horses can not, except very roughly; the living horses of\na team interfere with each other; they do not pull together, as we say,\nand energy is lost.\n\nThe German mathematical philosophy or theory of the state did not express\nitself in just this way, but the foregoing gives a clue to it. Germany\nunited the powers of living men and women and children; it gave them a\ncommon base; it gave them one common \u201csocial\u201d mood and aim; they all\nbecame consolidated in service of that which is called the State; they\nstudied and taught for the State; they worked, lived and died for the\nState: the State was their idol, King and God.\n\nSuch was the aim of German philosophy, theology, law and science. The\nestablishment of ONE AIM for all was the decisive factor. It is obvious\nthat if we want to inspire 60 Millions of individuals with one aim, this\naim can not be private or personal. It must be a higher aim, collective,\ngeneral, impersonal, in some way uniting and including all personal aims.\nI shall call it simply a _collective_ aim. But collective aims may differ\nprofoundly in kind; out of personal or egoistic aims there grows a series\nof collective aims, increasing in generality, such as: (1) Family aims;\n(2) association, congregation, club aims; (3) class or professional aims;\n(4) national or race aims; and finally (5) HUMAN AIMS\u2014the natural aims for\nthe time-binding class of life. The fatal error of German political\nphilosophy was an error of aim\u2014her aim was too low\u2014too narrow\u2014the welfare\nof a state instead of the welfare of Humanity.\n\nIn the case of Germany, the national aim was equivalent to the state aim.\nGerman philosophy made the \u201cstate\u201d equivalent to the \u201cgood\u201d and equivalent\nto \u201cpower.\u201d Of course such philosophy influenced the whole national life\nin every detail; in consequence Germany proclaimed herself the first\nnation of the world, and this soon evolved into a plan for the conquest of\nthe world. The German General Staff as an institution had, par excellence,\nas its aim and first object, \u201cpower,\u201d \u201cconcentration of power\u201d and\n\u201cefficiency.\u201d It took the leadership in all branches of life and industry.\nMilitarism and industrialism are almost synonymous from the mechanical\npoint of view; they are both of them power. They both have to use the same\nscientific methods and in the _present_ conditions of the world they are\ndependent upon each other, for war cannot be waged without strong\nindustries. Here we have to face the fact that geometrically progressing\nindustry can not live without new markets, which under present conditions\nhave been largely acquired, directly or indirectly, by the power of the\narmy; and this has been the case with Germany. If we curse Germany for\nbeing a \u201cmilitary nation\u201d we can, with no less justice, curse her for\nbeing a _completely_ \u201cindustrialized nation.\u201d If we add to that her\nnationally selfish and narrow national aim, we will readily understand\nthis \u201cworld peach.\u201d Those who have tasted it know something of its\nsweetness.\n\nThere is no need to go into further details. Special books give us all the\ndata. That which is of interest is the impersonal fact that what was the\n_strength_ and _power_ of Germany is the best possible illustration we\nhave had of what science and a sort of mathematical philosophy are able to\naccomplish, even when directed, not to the welfare of Humanity, but to\nthat of a relatively small group of people. The above-cited political\nphilosophies had a very pronounced effect upon Marx. One of the branches\nof socialism is the so-called state socialism. State socialists, as the\nname indicates, believe that the state should assume the most important\nfunctions in society. It is obvious that in monarchical countries where\n\u201cgod-given\u201d rulers represent the state, such a theory is not unwelcome, as\nit gives the rulers an opportunity to show a sort of \u201cadvanced\nliberalism,\u201d which serves to strengthen their power. The astute Bismarck\ncan not be suspected of being a progressionist in the modern sense but,\nbeing a product of German culture and philosophy, all his ideals were\nthose of a strong state. He was a proclaimed advocate of state socialism.\nSince 1879 at least, Bismarck was considered almost the leading spirit of\npaternal state socialism. He was a believer and promoter of the close\nrelation of the state and the railways, keeping always in view a thorough\nnationalization which he finally accomplished. This fact eliminated from\nGerman public life all that phase of corruption which private ownership of\nrailroads brings in any country, the railroad being the very life of any\ncountry.\n\nTo sum up: Germany applied the most scientific methods to build up her\nnational power; she understood the elements of \u201cpower,\u201d for they were\ndisclosed to her by her science and her philosophy. She applied\ntechnological methods in every part of her civil life, and thus built her\ngigantic power. Her industrial life followed the military way; her\nmilitary strength was built on industrial power. And so the vicious\ncircle. Germany adopted a _collective_ aim instead of a personal\nindividualistic aim, and because of this broader aim, she was able to\nmobilize and to keep mobilized all her moral, political and industrial\nforces for long years before the war. The direct effect of this system of\ncontinuous mobilization was over-production. For this she desperately\nneeded new markets. The cheapest and quickest way to acquire them, if they\nwere not to be grabbed otherwise, was to conquer them by a victorious war.\nHer plans progressed according to the program, all except the victory in\nthe battle fields.\n\nThis war was a calamity of unprecedented magnitude for the world and it is\nour duty to study it dispassionately and learn the lesson of it, if we do\nnot want to be moral accomplices of this great modern crime, by letting\nthe world drift into an even worse catastrophe. We have to arouse\nourselves from our inertia and go to the bottom of this problem and\nanalyse it ruthlessly, no matter whether the analysis be pleasant or not.\nWe must value everyone of our \u201cten sacred dead\u201d at least as much as we\nvalue one rabbit killed in scientific laboratories, and take the lesson to\nheart or be prepared for a repetition of world slaughter.\n\nIf Human Engineering had been established long ago our social system would\nhave been different, our civilization would have been much higher, this\nwar would have been avoided. We do not need to delude ourselves. The World\nWar was the result of badly balanced social and economic forces. The world\nneeds other \u201cbalances of power\u201d than such as are devised by lawyers and\npoliticians, by single-selfish or group-selfish interests. Humanity is\nreaching out for a science and art of human guidance based upon a right\nunderstanding of human nature.\n\n\n\n\nChapter IX. Manhood Of Humanity\n\n\nIn a previous chapter I have said that the World War marks the end of one\nvast period in the life of humankind and marks the beginning of another.\nIt marks the end of Humanity\u2019s Childhood and the beginning of Humanity\u2019s\nManhood.\n\nOur human Past is a mighty fact of our world. Many facts are unstable,\nimpermanent, and evanescent\u2014they are here to-day, and to-morrow they are\ngone. Not so with the great fact of our human Past. Our past abides.\n\n\n    \u201cIt is permanent. It can be counted on. It is nearly eternal as\n    the race of man. Out of that past we have come. Into it we are\n    constantly returning. Meanwhile, it is of the utmost importance to\n    our lives. It contains the _roots_ of all we are, and of all we\n    have of wisdom, of science, of philosophy, of art, of\n    jurisprudence, of customs and institutions. It contains the record\n    or ruins of all the experiments that man has made during a quarter\n    or a half million years in the art of living in this world.\u201d\n    (Keyser, _Human Worth of Rigorous Thinking_.)\n\n\nIn our relation to the past there are three wide-open ways in which one\nmay be a fool. One of the ways is the way of ignoring the past\u2014the way of\nremaining blankly ignorant of the human past as the animals are blankly\nignorant of _their_ past and so of drifting through life as animals do,\nwithout reference to the experience of bygone generations. Fools of this\ntype may be called drifting fools or Drifters. Another way to be a fool\u2014a\nvery alluring way\u2014is that of falsifying the past by _idealizing_ it\u2014by\nstupidly disregarding its vices, misery, ignorance, slothfulness, and\nfolly, and stupidly magnifying its virtues, happiness, knowledge,\nachievements and wisdom; it is the way of the self-complacent\u2014the way of\nthose who, being comfortably situated and prosperous, are opposed to\nchange; the past, they say, was wise for it produced the present and the\npresent is good\u2014let us alone. Fools of this type may be called idolatrous\nfools, worshiping the Past; or static fools, contented with the Present;\nor cowardly fools, opposed to change, fearful of the Future. A third way\nto be a fool\u2014which is also alluring\u2014is the opposite of the foregoing; it\nis the way of those who falsify the past by stupidly and contemptuously\ndisregarding its virtues, its happiness, its knowledge, its great\nachievements, and its wisdom, and by stupidly or dishonestly magnifying\nits vices, its misery, its ignorance, its great slothfulness, and its\nfolly; it is apt to be the way of the woeful, the unprosperous, the\ndesperate\u2014especially the way of such as find escape from the bore of\nroutine life in the excitements of unrest, turbulence, and change; the\npast, they say, was all wrong, for it produced the present and the present\nis thoroughly bad\u2014let us destroy it, root and branch. Fools of this type\nmay be called scorning fools, Scorners of the Past; or destroying fools,\nDestroyers of the Present; or dynamic fools, Revelers in the excitements\nof Change.\n\nSuch are the children of folly: (1) Drifting fools\u2014ignorers of the\npast\u2014disregarders of race experience\u2014thoughtless floaters on the shifting\ncurrents of human affairs; (2) Static fools\u2014idealizers of the\npast\u2014complacent lovers of the present\u2014enemies of change\u2014fearful of the\nfuture; (3) Dynamic fools\u2014scorners of the past\u2014haters of the\npresent\u2014destroyers of the works of the dead\u2014most _modest_ of fools, each\nof them saying: \u201cWhat ought to be begins with _Me_; I will make the world\na paradise; but my genius must be free; _now_ it is hampered by the\nexisting \u2018order\u2019\u2014the bungling work of the past; I will destroy it; I will\nstart with chaos; we need light\u2014the Sun casts shadows\u2014I will begin by\nblotting out the Sun; then the world will be full of glory\u2014the light of my\ngenius.\u201d\n\nIn striking contrast with that three-fold division of Folly, the counsel\nof Wisdom is one, and it is one with the sober counsel of Common Sense.\nWhat is that counsel? What is the united counsel of wisdom and common\nsense respecting the past? The answer is easy and easy to understand. The\ncounsel is this: Do not ignore the past but study it\u2014study it diligently\nas being the mightiest factor among the great factors of our human world;\nendeavor to view the past justly, to contemplate it as it was and is, to\nsee it _whole_\u2014to see it in true perspective\u2014magnifying neither its good\nnor its evil, neither its knowledge nor its ignorance, neither its\nenterprise nor its slothfulness, neither its achievements nor its\nfailures; as the salient facts are ascertained, endeavor to account for\nthem, to find their causes, their favoring conditions, to explain the\nfacts to understand them, applying always the question _Why?_ Centuries of\ncenturies of cruel superstition\u2014Why? Centuries of centuries of almost\ncomplete ignorance of natural law\u2014Why? Centuries of centuries of monstrous\nmisconceptions of human nature\u2014Why? Measureless creations, wastings and\ndestructions of wealth\u2014Why? Endless rolling cycles of enterprise,\nstagnation, and decay\u2014Why? Interminable alterations of peace and war,\nenslavements and emancipations\u2014Why? Age after age of world-wide worship of\nman-made gods, silly, savage, enthroned by myth and magic, celebrated and\nsupported by poetry and the wayward speculations of ignorant \"sages\"\u2014Why?\nAge upon age of world-wide slow developments of useful inventions,\ncraftsmanship, commerce, and art\u2014Why? Ages of dark impulsive groping\nbefore the slow discovery of reason, followed by centuries of belief in\nthe sufficiency of ratiocination unaided by systematic observation and\nexperiment\u2014Why? At length the dawn of scientific method and science, the\ngrowth of natural knowledge, immeasurable expansion of the universe _in\nTime_ and _in Space_, belief in the lawfulness of Nature, rapidly\nincreasing subjugation of natural forces to human control, growing faith\nin the limitless progressibility of human knowledge and in the limitless\nperfectibility of human welfare\u2014Why? The widely diverse peoples of the\nworld constrained by scientific progress to live together as in one\ncommunity upon a greatly shrunken and rapidly shrinking planet, the\nunpreparedness of existing ethics, law, philosophy, economics, politics\nand government to meet the exigencies thus arising\u2014Why?\n\nSuch I take to be the counsel of wisdom\u2014the simple wisdom of sober common\nsense. To ascertain the salient facts of our immense human past and then\nto explain them in terms of their causes and conditions is not an easy\ntask. It is an exceedingly difficult one, requiring the labor of many men,\nof many generations; but it must be performed; for it is only in\nproportion as we learn to know the great facts of our human past and their\ncauses that we are enabled to understand our human present, for the\npresent is the child of the past; and it is only in proportion as we thus\nlearn to understand the present that we can face the future with\nconfidence and competence. Past, Present, Future\u2014these can not be\nunderstood singly and separately\u2014they are welded together indissolubly as\n_one_.\n\nThe period of humanity\u2019s childhood has been long\u2014300,000 to 500,000 years,\naccording to the witness of human relics, ruins and records of the caves\nand the rocks\u2014a stretch of time too vast for our imaginations to grasp. Of\nthat immense succession of ages, except a minute fraction of it including\nour own time, we have, properly speaking, no history; we have only a rude,\ndim, broken outline. Herodotus, whom we call \u201cthe father of history\u201d\nproper, lived less than 2500 years ago. What is 2500 years compared with\nthe whole backward stretch of human time? We have to say that the father\nof human history lived but yesterday\u2014a virtual contemporary of those now\nliving. Our humankind groped upon this globe for probably 400,000 years\nbefore the writing of what we call history had even begun. If we regard\nhistory as a kind of _racial memory_, what must we say of our race\u2019s\nmemory? It is like that of a man of 20 years whose recollection extends\nback less than 3 months or like that of a man of 60 years whose\nrecollection fails to reach any event of the first 59 years of his life.\nOwing to the work of geologists, paleontologists, ethnologists and their\nco-workers, the history of prehistoric man will grow, just as we know\nto-day more about the life of mankind in the time of Herodotus than\nHerodotus himself knew. Meanwhile we must try to make the best use of such\nhistorical knowledge of man as we now possess.\n\nEven if the story of humanity\u2019s childhood were fully recorded in the\nlibraries of the world, it would not be possible in this brief writing to\nrecount the story in even the most summary fashion. Except the tale of\nrecent years, the story is known as I have said, only in outline, rude,\ndim and broken, but for the present purpose this will suffice. Countless\nmultitudes of details are lost\u2014most of them doubtless forever. But we need\nnot despair. The really great facts of our racial childhood\u2014the massive,\ndominant, outstanding facts\u2014are sufficiently clear for our guidance in the\npresent enterprise. And what do we know?\n\nWe know that the period of our human childhood has been inconceivably\nlong; we know that in the far distant time, the first specimens of\nhumankind\u2014the initial members of the time-binding race of man\u2014were\nabsolutely without human knowledge of the hostile world in which they\nfound themselves; we know that they had no conception of what they\nthemselves were; we know that they had neither speech nor art nor\nphilosophy nor religion nor science nor tools nor human history nor human\ntradition; we know, though we to-day can hardly imagine it, that their\n_sole_ equipment for _initiating_ the career of the human race was that\npeculiar faculty which made them human\u2014the capacity of man for binding\ntime; we know that they actually did that work of initiation, without any\nguidance or example, maxim or precedent; and we know that they were able\nto do it just because the power of initiation\u2014the power to originate\u2014is a\ntime-binding power.\n\nWhat else do we know of the earliest part of humanity\u2019s childhood? We know\nthat in that far-distant age, our ancestors\u2014being, not animals, but human\ncreatures\u2014not only _began_ to live in the human dimension of life\u2014forever\nabove the level of animals\u2014but _continued_ therein, taking not only the\nfirst step, but the second, the third, and so on indefinitely; we know, in\nother words, that they were progressive creatures, that they made\nadvancement; we know that their progress was _natural_ to them\u2014as natural\nas swimming is to fishes or as flying is to birds\u2014for both the impulse and\nthe ability to progress\u2014to make improvement\u2014to do greater things by help\nof things already done\u2014are of the very nature of the time-binding capacity\nwhich makes humans human.\n\nWe know that time-binding capacity\u2014the capacity for accumulating racial\nexperience, enlarging it, and transmitting it for future expansion\u2014is the\npeculiar power, the characteristic energy, the definitive nature, the\ndefining mark, of man; we know that the mental power, the time-binding\ncapacity, of our pre-historic ancestors, was the same in _kind_ as our\nown, if not in degree; we know that it is natural for this capacity, the\nhighest known agency of Nature, to produce ideas, inventions, insights,\ndoctrines, knowledge and other forms of wealth; we know that progress in\nwhat we call civilization, which is nothing but progress in the production\nand right use of material and spiritual wealth, has been possible and\nactual simply and solely because the products of time-binding work not\nonly _survive_, but naturally tend to propagate their kind\u2014ideas begetting\nideas, inventions leading to other inventions, knowledge breeding\nknowledge; we therefore, know that the amount of progress which a single\ngeneration can make, if it have an adequate supply of raw material and be\nunhampered by hostile circumstances, depends, not only upon its native\ncapacity for binding time, but also\u2014and this is of the utmost\nimportance\u2014upon the total progress made by preceding generations\u2014upon the\ninherited fruit, that is, of the time-binding toil of the dead;\naccordingly we know that the amount of progress a single generation can\nthus make is what mathematicians call an increasing function of time, and\nnot only an increasing function but an increasing _exponential_ function\nof time\u2014a function like _PR__T_, as already explained; we know, too, that\nthe _total_ progress which _T_ successive generations can thus make is:\n\n_R/R-1_(_PR__T-P_)\n\nwhich is also an increasing exponential function of time; we know from the\ndifferential calculus that these functions\u2014which represent natural laws,\nlaws of human _nature_, laws of the time-binding energies of man\u2014are very\nremarkable functions\u2014not only do they increase with time but their _rates_\nof increase are also exponential functions of time and so the rates of\nincrease themselves increase at rates which are, again, exponential\nfunctions, and so on and on without limit; that, I say, is a marvelous\nfact, and it is for us a fact of immeasurable significance; for it means\nthat the time-binding power of man is such that, if it be allowed to\noperate naturally, civilization\u2014the production and right use of material\nand spiritual wealth\u2014will not only grow towards infinity (as\nmathematicians say), but will thus grow with a _swiftness_ which is not\nconstant but which itself grows towards infinity with a swiftness which,\nagain, is not constant but increases according to the same law, and so on\nindefinitely. We thus see, if we will only retire to our cloisters and\ncontemplate it, that the proper life of man _as man_ is not life-in-space\nlike that of animals, but is life-in-time; we thus see that in\ndistinctively human life, in the life of man as man, the past is present\nand the dead survive destined to greet and to bless the unborn\ngenerations: time, bound-up time, is literally of the core and substance\nof civilization. So it has been since the beginning of man.\n\nWe know that the total progress made in the long course of humanity\u2019s\nchildhood, though it is absolutely great, is relatively small; we know\nthat, compared with no-civilization, our present civilization is vast and\nrich in many ways; we know, however, that, if the time-binding energies of\nhumanity had been always permitted to operate unhampered by hostile\ncircumstances, they would long ere now have produced a state of\ncivilization compared with which our present estate would seem mean,\nmeagre, savage. For we know that those peculiar energies\u2014the\ncivilization-producing energies of man\u2014far from being always permitted to\noperate according to the laws of their nature, have _never_ been permitted\nso to operate, but have always been hampered and are hampered to-day by\nhostile circumstances. And, if we reflect, we may know well enough what\nthe enemies\u2014the hostile circumstances\u2014have been and are. We know that in\nthe beginning of humanity\u2019s childhood\u2014in its babyhood, so to speak\u2014there\nwas, as already said, no _capital_ whatever to start with\u2014no material\nwealth\u2014no spiritual wealth in the form of knowledge of the world or the\nnature of man\u2014no existing fruit of dead men\u2019s toil\u2014no bound-up\ntime\u2014nothing but wild and raw material, whose very location, properties\nand potencies had all to be discovered; even now, because we have\ninherited so much bound-up time and because our imaginations have been so\nlittle disciplined to understand realities, we can scarcely picture to\nourselves the actual conditions of that far-off time of humanity\u2019s\nbabyhood; still less do we realize that present civilization has hardly\nbegun to be that of enlightened men. We know, moreover, that the\ntime-binding energies of our remote ancestors were hampered and baulked,\nin a measure too vast for our imaginations, by immense geologic and\nclimatic changes, both sudden and secular, unforeseen and irresistible\u2014by\nearthquake and storm, by age-long seasons of flood and frost and heat and\ndrought, not only destroying both natural resources and the slowly\naccumulated products of by-gone generations but often extinguishing the\npeople themselves with the centers and abodes of struggling civilization.\n\nOf all the hostile circumstances, of all the causes which throughout the\nlong period of humanity\u2019s childhood have operated to keep civilization and\nhuman welfare from progressing in full accord with the natural laws of the\ntime-binding energies of man, the most potent cause and most disastrous, a\ncause still everywhere in operation, remains to be mentioned. I mean human\nignorance. I do not mean ignorance of physical facts and the laws of\nphysical nature for this latter ignorance is in large measure the effect\nof the cause I have in mind. The ignorance I mean is far more fundamental\nand far more potent. I mean human ignorance of _Human Nature_\u2014I mean man\u2019s\nignorance of what Man is\u2014I mean false conceptions of the rightful place of\nman in the scheme of life and the order of the world. What the false\nconceptions are I have already pointed out. They are two. One of them is\nthe conception according to which human beings are animals. The other one\nis the conception according to which human beings have no place in Nature\nbut are hybrids of natural and _super_natural, animals combined with\nsomething \u201cdivine.\u201d Both of them are characteristic of humanity\u2019s\nchildhood; both of them are erroneous, and both of them have done infinite\nharm in a thousand ways. Whose is the fault? In a deep sense, it is the\nfault of none. Man started with no capital\u2014on knowledge\u2014with nothing but\nhis physical strength and the natural stirring within of the capacity for\nbinding time; and so he had to grope. It is not strange that he was\npuzzled by himself. It is not strange that he thought himself an animal;\nfor he has animal propensities as a cube has surfaces, and his animal\npropensities were so obtrusive, so very evident to physical sense\u2014he was\nborn, grew, had legs and hair, ate, ran, slept, died\u2014all just like\nanimals\u2014while his distinctive mark, his time-binding capacity, was subtle;\nit was spiritual; it was not a _visible organ_ but an _invisible\nfunction_; it was the energy called intellect or mind, which the physical\nsenses do not perceive; and so I say it is not strange\u2014it is indeed very\nsad and very pathetic\u2014but it is not to be wondered at that human beings\nhave falsely believed themselves to be animals. So, too, of the rival\nbelief\u2014the belief that humans are neither natural nor supernatural but are\nboth at once, at once brutal and divine, hybrid offspring of beast and\ngod. The belief is monstrous, it is very pathetic and very sad, but its\norigin is easy to understand; once invented, it became a powerful\ninstrument for evil men, for impostors, but it was not invented by them;\nit was only an erroneous result of an honest effort to understand and to\nexplain. For the obvious facts created a real puzzle to be explained: On\nthe one hand, men, women and children\u2014animal-hunting and animal-hunted\nhuman beings\u2014certainly resembled animals physically in a hundred\nunmistakable ways; on the other hand, it became more and more evident that\nthe same animal-resembling human beings could do many things which animals\nnever did and could not do. Here was a puzzle, a mystery. Time-binding\ncuriosity demanded an explanation. What was it to be? Natural science had\nnot yet arisen; critical conception\u2014conception that avoids the mixing of\ndimensions\u2014was in the state of feeble infancy. It is easy to understand\nwhat the answer had to be\u2014childish and mythical; and so it was\u2014humans are\nneither animals nor gods, neither natural nor _super_natural, they are\nboth at once, a mixture, a mysterious union of animal with something\n\u201cdivine.\u201d\n\nSuch, then, are the two rival answers which, in the long dark, groping\ncourse of humanity\u2019s childhood, human beings have given to the most\nimportant of all questions\u2014the question: What is Man? I have said that the\nanswers, no matter how sincere, no matter how honestly arrived at, are\nerroneous, false to fact, and monstrous. I have said, and I repeat, that\nthe misconceptions involved in them have done more throughout the by-gone\ncenturies, and are doing more to-day, than all other hindering causes, to\nhamper and thwart the _natural_ activity of the time-binding energies of\nman and thus to retard the _natural_ progress of civilization. It is not\nmerely our privilege, it is our high and solemn duty, to examine them. To\nperform the great duty is not an easy task. The misconceptions in question\nhave come down to us from remote antiquity; they have not come down\nsingly, separately, clean-cut, clear and well-defined; they have come\n_entangled_ in the complicated mesh of traditional opinions and creeds\nthat constitute the vulgar \u201cphilosophy\u201d\u2014the mental fog\u2014of our time. If we\nare to perform the duty of examining them we have first of all to draw\nthem forth, to disengage them from our inherited tangle of beliefs and\nframe them in suitable words; we have next to bring ourselves to realize\nvividly and keenly that the conceptions, thus disentangled and framed, are\nin fact, whether they be true or false, at the very heart of the social\nphilosophy of the world; we have in the third place to detect the\nfundamental character of the blunder involved in them\u2014to see clearly and\ncoldly wherein they are wrong and why they are ruinous; we have, finally,\nto trace, if we can, their deadly effects both in the course of human\nhistory and in the present status of our human world.\n\nThe task of disengaging the two monstrous misconceptions from the tangled\nskein of inherited beliefs and framing them in words, I have already\nrepeatedly performed. Let us keep the results in mind. Here they are in\ntheir nakedness: (1) Human beings\u2014men, women, and children\u2014are animals\n(and so they are natural): (2) human beings are neither natural nor\n_super_natural, neither wholly animal nor wholly \u201cdivine,\u201d but are _both_\nnatural and _super_natural _at once_\u2014a sort of mysterious hybrid compound\nof brute and gods.\n\nThe second part of our task\u2014which is the reader\u2019s task as much as mine\u2014is\nnot so easy; and the reason is evident. It is this: The false creeds in\nquestion\u2014the fatal misconceptions they involve\u2014are so _familiar_ to\nus\u2014they have been so long and so deeply imbedded in our thought and speech\nand ways of life\u2014we have been so thoroughly _bred_ in them by home and\nschool and church and state\u2014that we _habitually_ and _unconsciously_ take\nthem for granted and have to be virtually _stung_ into an awareness of the\nfact that we do actually hold them and that they do actually reign to-day\nthroughout the world and have so reigned from time immemorial. We have,\ntherefore, to shake ourselves awake, to _prick_ ourselves into a\nrealization of the truth.\n\nI assume that the reader is at once hard-headed, rational, I mean, and\ninterested in the welfare of mankind. If he is not, he will not be a\n\u201creader\u201d of this book. He, therefore, knows that the third task\u2014the task\nof detecting and exposing the fundamental error of the misconceptions in\nquestion\u2014is a task of the utmost importance. What is that error? It is, I\nhave said, an error in logic. But logical errors are not all alike\u2014they\nare of many kinds. What is the \u201ckind\u201d of _this_ one? It is the kind that\nconsists in what mathematicians call \u201cconfusion of types,\u201d or \u201cmixing of\ndimensions.\u201d The answer can not be made too clear nor too emphatic, for\nits importance in the criticism of _all_ our thinking is great beyond\nmeasure. There are millions of examples that help to make the matter\nclear. I will again employ the simplest of them\u2014one so simple that a child\ncan understand it. It is a mathematical example, as it ought to be, for\nthe whole question of logical types, or dimensions, is a mathematical one.\nI beg the reader not to shy at, or run away from, the mere word\nmathematical, for, although most of us have but little mathematical\n_knowledge_, we all of us have the mathematical _spirit_, for else we\nshould not be human\u2014we are all of us mathematicians _at heart_. Let us,\nthen, proceed confidently and at once to our simple example. Here is a\n_surface_, say a _plane_ surface. It has length and breadth\u2014and so it has,\nwe say, _two_ dimensions; next consider a _solid_, say a _cube_. It has\nlength, breadth and thickness\u2014and so _it_ has, we say, _three_ dimensions.\nNow we notice that the cube _has_ surfaces and so _has certain surface\nproperties_. Do we, therefore, say that a solid _is_ a surface? That the\ncube is a member of the class of surfaces? If we did, we should be\nfools\u2014type-confusing fools\u2014dimension-mixing fools. That is evident. Or\nsuppose we notice that solids have certain _surface_ properties and\ncertain properties that surfaces do _not_ have; and suppose we say the\n_surface_ properties of solids are _natural_ but the other properties are\nso mysterious that they must be \u201c_super_natural\u201d or somehow \u201cdivine\u201d; and\nsuppose we then say that solids are unions, mixtures, compounds or hybrids\nof surfaces and something divine or _super_natural; is it not evident\nthat, if we did that, we should be again blundering like fools?\nType-confusing fools? Dimension-mixing fools? That such would be the case\nany one can see. Let us now consider animals and human beings, and let us\nlook squarely and candidly at the facts. To get a start, think for a\nmoment of plants. Plants are living things; they take, transform and\nappropriate the energies of sun, soil, and air, but they have _not_ the\n_autonomous_ power to move about in space; we may say that plants\nconstitute the lowest order or class or type or dimension of life\u2014the\ndimension _one_; plants, we see are binders of the _basic_ energies of the\nworld. What of animals? Like the plants, animals, too, take in, transform\nand appropriate the energies of sun, soil and air, though in large part\nthey take them in forms already prepared by the plants themselves; but,\n_unlike_ the plants, animals possess the _autonomous_ power to move about\nin space\u2014to creep or crawl or run or swim or fly\u2014it is thus evident that,\ncompared with plants, animals belong to a higher order, or higher class,\nor higher type, or higher dimension of life; we may therefore say that the\ntype of animal life is a type of _two_ dimensions\u2014a two-dimensional type;\nI have called them space-binders because they are distinguished, or\nmarked, by their autonomous power to move about in space, to abandon one\nplace and occupy another and so to appropriate the natural fruits of many\nlocalities; the life of animals is thus a life-in-space in a sense\nevidently not applicable to plants. And now what shall we say of _Man_?\nLike the animals, human beings have indeed the power of mobility\u2014the\nautonomous power to move\u2014the capacity for binding space, and it is obvious\nthat, if they possessed no capacity of higher order, men, women and\nchildren would indeed be animals. But what are the facts? The facts, if we\nwill but note them and reflect upon them, are such as to show us that the\nchasm separating human nature from animal nature is even wider and deeper\nthan the chasm between animal life and the life of plants. For man\nimproves, animals do not; man progresses, animals do not; man invents more\nand more complicated tools, animals do not; man is a creator of material\nand spiritual wealth, animals are not; man is a builder of civilization,\nanimals are not; man makes the _past live in the present and the present\nin the future_, animals do not; man is thus a _binder of time_, animals\nare not. In the light of such considerations, if only we will attend to\ntheir mighty significance, it is as clear as anything can be or can\nbecome, that the life of man\u2014the time-binder\u2014is as radically distinct from\nthat of animals\u2014mere space-binders\u2014as animal life is distinct from that of\nplants or as the nature of a solid is distinct from that of a surface, or\nthat of a surface from that of a line. It is, therefore, perfectly\nmanifest that, when we regard human beings as animals or as mixtures of\nanimal nature with something mysteriously _super_natural, we are guilty of\nthe same _kind_ of blunder as if we regarded animals as plants or as\nplants touched by \u201cdivinity\u201d\u2014the same _kind_ of blunder as that of\nregarding a solid as a surface or as a surface miraculously transfigured\nby some mysterious influence from outside the universe of space. It is\nthus evident that our guilt in the matter is the guilt of a blunder that\nis _fundamental_\u2014a confusing of types, a mixing of dimensions.\n\nNothing can be more disastrous. For what are the consequences of that kind\nof error? Let the reader reflect. He knows that, if our ancestors had\ncommitted that kind of error regarding lines and surfaces and solids,\nthere would to-day be no science of geometry; and he knows that, if there\nwere no geometry, there would be no architecture in the world, no\nsurveying, no railroads, no astronomy, no charting of the seas, no\nsteamships, no engineering, nothing whatever of the now familiar\nworld-wide affairs made possible by the scientific conquest of space. I\nsay again, let the reader reflect; for if he does not, he will here miss\nthe gravity of a most momentous truth. He readily sees, in the case\nsupposed, how very appalling the consequences would have been if,\nthroughout the period of humanity\u2019s childhood, there had occurred a\ncertain confusion of types, a certain mixing of dimensions, and he is\n_enabled_ to see it just because, happily, the blunder was _not_ made or,\nif made, was not persisted in, for, if it had been made and persisted in,\nthen the great and now familiar things of which it would have deprived the\nworld would not be here; we should not now be able even to imagine them,\nand so we could not now compute even roughly the tremendous magnitude of\nthe blunder\u2019s disastrous consequences. Let the reader not deviate nor\nfalter nor stagger here; let him shoulder the burden of the mighty\nargument and bear it to the goal. He easily perceives the truly appalling\nconsequences that _would_ have inevitably followed from the error of\nconfusing types\u2014the error of mixing dimensions\u2014in the matter of lines and\nsurfaces and solids, _if_ that error had been committed and persisted in\nthroughout the centuries; he _can_ perceive those consequences just\nbecause the error was _not_ made and hence the great things of which (had\nthe blunder been made) it would have deprived the world are here, so that\nhe can say: \u201cBehold those splendid things\u2014the science of geometry and its\nmanifold applications everywhere shining in human affairs\u2014imagine all of\nthem gone, imagine the world if they had never been, and you will have a\nmeasure of the consequences that would have followed violation of the law\nof types, the law of dimensions, in the matter of lines, surfaces and\nsolids.\u201d But, now, in regard to the exactly similar error respecting the\nnature of man, the situation is reversed; for this blunder, unlike the\nother one, is not merely hypothetical; we have seen that it was actually\ncommitted and has been actually persisted in from time immemorial; not\nmerely for years or for decades or for centuries but for _centuries_ of\n_centuries_ including our own day, it has lain athwart the course of human\nprogress; age after age it has hampered and baulked the natural activity\nof the time-binding energies\u2014the civilization-producing energies\u2014of\nhumanity. How are we to estimate its consequences? Let the reader keep in\nmind that the error is fundamental\u2014a type-confusing blunder (like that\nsupposed regarding geometric entities); let him reflect, moreover, that it\naffects, not merely one of our human concerns, but _all_ of them, since it\nis an error regarding the _center_ of them all\u2014regarding the very _nature_\nof man himself; and he will know, as well as anything can be known, that\nthe consequences of the ages-old blunder have been and are very momentous\nand very terrible. Their measure is indeed beyond our power; we cannot\ndescribe them adequately, we cannot delineate their proportions, for we\ncannot truly imagine them; and the reason is plain: it is that those\nadvancements of civilization, those augmentations of material and\nspiritual wealth, all of the glorious achievements of which the tragic\nblunder has deprived the world, are none of them here; they have not been\nproduced; and so we cannot say, as in the other case: \u201cLook upon these\nsplendid treasures of bound-up time, imagine them taken away, and your\nsense of the appalling loss will give you the measure required.\u201d It is\nevident that the glories of which the misconceptions of human nature have\ndeprived manhood must long remain, perhaps forever, in the sad realm of\ndreams regarding great and noble things that might have been.\n\nI have said that the duty of examining the misconceptions imposes upon us\nfour obligations. Three of these we have performed: we have disengaged the\nbeliefs in question from the complicated tangle of opinions in which they\nhave come down to us from remote antiquity; we have recognized the\nnecessity and the duty of virtually stinging ourselves into an awareness\nof the fact that we have actually held them for true and that from time\nimmemorial they have poured their virus into the heart of ethics,\neconomics, politics and government throughout the world; we have seen not\nonly that the beliefs are false but that their falseness is due to a\nblunder of the most fundamental kind\u2014the blunder of mixing dimensions or\nconfusing types. As already said, the fourth one of the mentioned tasks is\nthat of tracing, if we can, the blunder\u2019s deadly effects both in human\nhistory and in the present status of the world. We have just reached the\nconclusion that this task cannot be _fully_ performed; for there can be no\ndoubt, as we have seen, that, if the blunder had not been committed and\npersisted in, the world would now possess a civilization so far advanced,\nso rich in the spiritual fruits of time and toil, as to be utterly beyond\nour present power to conceive or imagine it.\n\nBut, though we cannot perform the task fully, our plight is far from\nhopeless. The World War has goaded us into thinking as we never thought\nbefore. It has constrained us to think of realities and especially to\nthink of the supreme reality\u2014the reality of Man. That is why the great\nCatastrophe marks the close of humanity\u2019s childhood. The period has been\nlong and the manner of its end is memorable forever\u2014a sudden, flaming,\nworld-wide cataclysmic demonstration of fundamental ignorance\u2014human\nignorance of human nature. It is just that tragic _demonstration_, brutal\nas an earthquake, pitiless as fate or famine, that gives us ground for\nfuture hope. It has forced us to think of realities and it is thought of\nreality that will heal the world. And so I say that these days, despite\ntheir fear and gloom, are the beginning of a new order in human\naffairs\u2014the order of permanent peace and swift advancement of human weal.\nFor we know at length what human beings are, and the knowledge can be\ntaught to men and women and children by home and school and church and\npress throughout the world; we know at length, and we can teach the world,\nthat man is neither an animal nor a miraculous mixture of angel and beast;\nwe know at length, and we can teach, that, throughout the centuries, these\nmonstrous misconceptions have made countless millions mourn and that they\nare doing so to-day, for, though we cannot compute the _good_ of which\nthey have _deprived_ mankind, we can trace the dark ramifications of their\npositive _evil_ in a thousand ways; we know at length, and we can teach,\nthat man, though he is not an animal, is a natural being, having a\ndefinite place, a rank of his own, in the hierarchy of natural life; we\nknow at length, and we can teach the world, that what is _characteristic_\nof the human class of life\u2014that which makes us _human_\u2014is the power to\ncreate material and spiritual wealth\u2014to beget the light of reasoned\nunderstanding\u2014to produce civilization\u2014it is the unique capacity of man for\nbinding time, uniting past, present and future in a _single growing\nreality_ charged at once with the surviving creations of the dead, with\nthe productive labor of the living, with the rights and hopes of the yet\nunborn; we know at length, and we can teach, that the _natural_ rate of\nhuman progress is the rate of a swiftly increasing exponential function of\ntime; we know, and we can teach, that what is good in _present_\ncivilization\u2014all that is precious in it, sacred and holy\u2014is the fruit of\nthe time-binding toil struggling blindly through the ages against the\nperpetual barrier of human ignorance of human nature; we know at length,\nwe can teach, and the world will understand, that in proportion as we rid\nour ethics and social philosophy of monstrous misrepresentations of human\nnature, the time-binding energies of humanity will advance civilization in\naccordance with their natural law _PR__T_, the forward-leaping function of\ntime.\n\nSuch knowledge and such teaching will inaugurate the period of humanity\u2019s\nmanhood. It can be made an endless period of rapid developments in True\ncivilization. All the developments must grow out of the true conception of\nhuman beings as constituting the time-binding class of life, and so the\nwork must begin with a campaign of education wide enough to embrace the\nworld. The cooperation of all educational agencies\u2014the home, the school,\nthe church, the press\u2014must be enlisted to make known the fundamental truth\nconcerning the nature of man so that it shall become the guiding _light_\nand _habit_ of men, women, and children everywhere. Gradual indeed but\nprofound will be the transformations wrought in all the affairs of\nmankind, but especially and first of all in the so-called arts and\nsciences of ethics, economics, politics and government.\n\nThe ethics of humanity\u2019s manhood will be neither \u201canimal\u201d ethics nor\n\u201c_super_natural\u201d ethics. It will be a natural ethics based upon a\nknowledge of the laws of human nature. It will not be a branch of zoology,\nthe ethics of tooth and claw, the ethics of profiteering, the ethics of\nspace-binding beasts fighting for \u201ca place in the sun.\u201d It will be a\nbranch of humanology, a branch of Human Engineering; it will be a\ntime-binding ethics, the ethics of the entirely natural\ncivilization-producing energies of humanity. Whatever accords with the\nnatural activity of those energies will be _right_ and _good_; whatever\ndoes not, will be _wrong_ and _bad_. \u201cSurvival of the fittest\u201d in the\nsense of the _strongest_ is a space-binding standard, the ethical standard\nof beasts; in the ethics of humanity\u2019s manhood survival of the fittest\nwill mean survival of the _best_ in competitions for excellence, and\nexcellence will mean time-binding excellence\u2014excellence in the production\nand right use of material and spiritual wealth\u2014excellence in science, in\nart, in wisdom, in justice, in promoting the weal and protecting the\nrights both of the living and of the unborn. The ethics that arose in the\ndark period of humanity\u2019s childhood from the conception of human beings as\nmysterious unions of animality and divinity gave birth to two repulsive\nspecies of traffic\u2014traffic in men regarded as animals, fit to be slaves,\nand traffic in the \u201csupernatural,\u201d in the sale of indulgences in one form\nor another and the \u201cdivine wisdom\u201d of ignorant priests. It is needless to\nsay that in the natural ethics of humanity\u2019s manhood those species of\ncommerce will not be found.\n\nAnd what shall we say in particular of economics, of \u201cindustry,\u201d \u201cbusiness\nas usual,\u201d and the \u201cfinance\u201d of \u201cnormalcy\u201d? There lies before me an\nestablished handbook of _Corporation Finance_, by Mr. E. S. Mead, Ph.D.\n(Appleton, N. Y.), whose purpose is not that of adverse criticism but is\nthat of showing the generally accepted \u201csound\u201d bases for prosperous\nbusiness. I can hardly do better than to ask the reader to ponder a few\nextracts from that work, showing the established, and amazing theories,\nfor then I have only to say that in the period of humanity\u2019s manhood the\nmoral blindness of such \u201cprinciples,\u201d their space-binding spirit of\ncalculating selfishness and greed, will be regarded with utter loathing as\nslavery is regarded to-day. Behold the picture:\n\n\n    \u201cSince the bondholder is solely interested in the security of his\n    principal, and regular payment of his interest, and since both\n    security and interest depend upon the permanence of income, other\n    things being equal the companies with the most stable earnings or\n    a market ... furnish the best security for bonds. Stability of\n    earnings depends upon (1) the possession of a monopoly....\n    _Monopoly is exclusive or dominant control over a market. The more\n    complete this control, the more valuable is the monopoly._ The\n    advantage of monopoly lies in the fact that the prices of services\n    or commodities are controlled by the producers (_meaning\n    owners\u2014Author_), rather than by the consumer.... Monopolies are of\n    various origins. The most familiar are (1) franchises, the right\n    to use _public property_ for _private purposes_, for example, the\n    furnishing of light, water and transportation, (2) _control of\n    sources of raw material_ ... , (3) patents, ... (4) high cost of\n    duplicating plant.... In manufacturing industries, for example,\n    those enterprises which _produce raw materials_ and the\n    _necessities of life_ have a more stable demand.... Railroads\n    furnish perhaps the best basis of bond issue because of the\n    stability of the demand for the transportation service ... the\n    high cost of duplicating the railroad plant, ... enables them to\n    fix their rates on freight and passenger traffic.... The security\n    of the creditors is here the profitableness of the business _which\n    is carried on in the factory_. Furthermore, a business is not an\n    aggregate of physical property but consists of physical\n    property\u2014buildings, boilers, machine tools\u2014plus an industrial\n    opportunity, plus the organization and ability to operate\n    business.\u201d (Italics indicated by the author.)\n\n\nThere we see the animal standards in their studied perfection. Comment\nwould be superfluous.\n\nIn the period of humanity\u2019s manhood, the so-called \u201cscience\u201d of economics,\nthe \u201cdismal science\u201d of political economy, will become a genuine science\nbased upon the laws of the time-binding energies of humanity; it will\nbecome the light of Human Engineering\u2014promoter, guardian, and guide of\nhuman weal. For it will discover, and will teach that a _human_ life, a\ntime-binding life, is not merely a _civilized_ life but a _civilizing_\nlife; it will know and will teach that a civilizing life is a life devoted\nto the production of potential and kinetic use-values\u2014to the creation,\nthat is, of material and spiritual wealth; it will know and will teach\nthat wealth\u2014both material and spiritual wealth\u2014is a natural\nphenomenon\u2014offspring of the marriage of Time and human Toil; it will know\nand will teach that the wealth in the world at any given moment is almost\nwholly the _inherited_ fruit of time and the labor of the dead; and so it\nwill ask: To whom does the inheritance rightly belong? Does it of right\nbelong to Smith and Brown? If so, _why_? Or does it of right belong to\nman\u2014to humanity? If so, _why_? And what does \u201chumanity\u201d include? Only the\nliving, who are relatively few? Or both the living and unborn? The\nEconomics of humanity\u2019s manhood will not only ask these questions but it\nwill answer them and answer them aright. In seeking the answers, it will\ndiscover some obvious truths and many old words will acquire new meanings\nconsistent with the time-binding nature of man. It will discover and will\nteach that the time-binders of a given generation are _posterity_ and\n_ancestry_ at once\u2014posterity of the dead, ancestry of all the generations\nto come; it will discover and will teach that in this time-binding double\nrelationship uniting past and future in a single living growing Reality,\nare to be found the obligations of time-binding ethics and the seat of its\nauthority; economics will know and will teach that _human_\nposterity\u2014time-binding posterity\u2014can not inherit the fruits of time and\ndead men\u2019s toil _as animals inherit the wild fruits of the earth, to fight\nabout them and to devour them_, but only as _trustees_ for the generations\nto come; it will know and will teach that \"capitalistic\" lust to _keep_\nfor SELF and \u201cproletarian\u201d lust to _get_ for SELF are both of them\n_space-binding_ lust\u2014animal lust\u2014beneath the level of time-binding life.\nThe economics of humanity\u2019s manhood will know and will teach that the\ncharacteristic energies of man as man are by _nature_ civilizing energies,\nwealth-producing energies, time-binding energies, the peaceful energies of\ninventive mind, of growing knowledge and understanding and skill and\nlight; it will know and will teach that these energies of existing men\nunited with one billion six hundred million available \u201csun-man\u201d powers\nunited with the ten billion living \u201cman-powers of the dead,\u201d if they be\nnot wasted by ignorance and selfishness, by conflict and competition\ncharacteristic of beasts, are more than sufficient to produce a high order\nof increasing prosperity everywhere throughout the world; in the period of\nits manhood economics will discover and will teach that to produce world\nprosperity, cooperation\u2014not the fighting of man against man\u2014but the\npeaceful cooperation of all is both _necessary_ and sufficient; it will\nknow and will teach that such cooperation demands _scientific_ leadership\nand a common _aim_; it will know, however, and will teach, for the lesson\nof Germany is plain, that scientific knowledge and a common aim are not\nalone sufficient; it will know and teach and all will understand that the\ncommon aim, the unifying principle, the basis of cooperation, cannot be\nthe welfare of a family nor that of a province or a state or a race, but\nmust be the welfare of _all_ mankind, the prosperity of humanity, the weal\nof the world\u2014the peaceful production of Wealth without the destruction of\nWar.\n\nIn humanity\u2019s manhood, patriotism\u2014the love of country\u2014will not perish\u2014far\nfrom it\u2014it will grow to embrace the world, for your country and mine will\nbe the world. Your \u201cstate\u201d and mine will be the Human State\u2014a Cooperative\nCommonwealth of Man\u2014a democracy in fact and not merely in name. It will be\na natural organic embodiment of the civilizing energies\u2014the\nwealth-producing energies\u2014characteristic of the human class of life. Its\nlarger affairs will be guided by the science and art of Human\nEngineering\u2014not by ignorant and grafting \u201cpoliticians\u201d\u2014but by scientific\nmen, by honest men who _know_.\n\nIs it a dream? It _is_ a dream, but the dream will come true. It is a\nscientific dream and science will make it a living reality.\n\nHow is the thing to be done? No one can foresee all the details, but in\ngeneral outline the process is clear. Violence is to be avoided. There\nmust be a period of transition\u2014a period of adjustment. A natural first\nstep would probably be the establishment of a new institution which might\nbe called a Dynamic Department\u2014Department of Coordination or a Department\nof Cooperation\u2014the name is of little importance, but it would be the\n_nucleus_ of the new civilization. Its functions would be those of\nencouraging, helping and protecting the people in such cooperative\nenterprises as agriculture, manufactures, finance, and distribution.\n\nThe Department of Cooperation should include various sections, which might\nbe as follows:\n\n(1) _The Section of Mathematical Sociology_ or _Humanology_: composed of\nat least one sociologist, one biologist, one mechanical engineer, and one\nmathematician. Their work would be the development of human engineering\nand mathematical sociology or humanology; promoting the progress of\nscience; providing and supervising instruction in the theory of values and\nthe rudiments of humanology for elementary schools and the public at\nlarge. _The members of the section would be selected by the appropriate\nscientific societies for a term fixed by the selectors._\n\n(2) _The Section of Mathematical Legislation_: composed of (say) one\nlawyer, one mathematician, one mechanical engineer, selected as above.\nTheir task would be to recommend legislation, to provide means for\neliminating \u201cLegalism\u201d from the theory and practice of law, and to bring\njurisprudence into accord with the laws of time-binding human nature and\nthe changing needs of human society. Their legislative proposals, if\nratified in a joint session of sections (1) and (2), would then be\nrecommended to the appropriate legislative bodies.\n\n(3) _The Educational Section_: composed of two or three teachers, one\nsociologist, one mechanical engineer, one mathematician, selected as\nabove. They would elaborate educational projects and revise school methods\nand books; their decisions being subject to the approval of the joint\nsession of sections (1), (2), and (3).\n\n(4) _The Cooperative Section_: composed of mechanical engineers, chemical\nengineers, production engineers, expert bookkeepers, accountants, business\nmanagers, lawyers and other specialists in their respective lines. This\nsection would be an \u201cIndustrial Red Cross\u201d (Charles Ferguson) giving\nexpert advice when asked for by any cooperative society.\n\n(5) _The Cooperative Banking Section_: composed of financial experts,\nsociologists, and mathematicians; its task being to help with expert\nadvice new cooperative people\u2019s banks.\n\n(6) _The Promoters\u2019 Section_: composed of engineers whose duty would be to\nstudy all of the latest scientific facts, collect data, and elaborate\nplans. Those plans would be published, and no private person, but only\ncooperative societies, would be permitted by law to use them. The\ndepartment would also study and give advice respecting the general\nconditions of the market and the needs in the various lines of production.\nThis section would regulate the duplication of production.\n\n(7) _The Farming Section_: composed of specialists in scientific and\ncooperative agriculture.\n\n(8) _The Foreign Section_: for inter-cooperative foreign relations.\n\n(9) _The Commercial Section_.\n\n(10) _The News Section_: to edit a large daily paper giving _true_,\n_uncolored_ news with a special supplement relating to progress in the\nwork of Human Engineering. This paper would give daily news about the\nwhole cooperative movement, markets, etc., etc.\n\nAll men selected to the places for this work should be the very best men\nin the nation. They should be well paid to enable them to give their full\nenergy and time to their duties. All the selections for this work should\nbe made in the same manner as mentioned above\u2014through proven merits not\nclever oratory. Such appointments should be considered the highest honor\nthat a country can offer to its citizens. Every selection should be a\ndemonstration that the person selected was a person of the highest\nattainments in the field of his work.\n\nThe outline of this plan is vague; it aims merely at being suggestive. Its\nprincipal purpose is to accentuate the imperative necessity of\nestablishing a national time-binding agency\u2014a Dynamic Department for\nstimulating, guiding and guarding the civilizing energies, the wealth\nproducing energies, the time-binding energies, in virtue of which human\nbeings are human. For then and only then human welfare, unretarded by\nmonstrous misconceptions of human nature, by vicious ethics, vicious\neconomics and vicious politics, will advance peacefully, continuously, and\nrapidly, under the leadership of human engineering, happily and without\nfear, in accord with the exponential law\u2014the _natural_ law\u2014of the\ntime-binding energies of Man.\n\n\n\n\nChapter X. Conclusion\n\n\n    \u201cIn Europe we know that an age is dying. Here it would be easy to\n    miss the signs of coming changes, but I have little doubt that it\n    will come. A realization of the _aimlessness_ of life lived to\n    labor and to die, having achieved nothing but avoidance of\n    starvation, and the birth of children also doomed to the weary\n    treadmill, has seized the minds of millions.\u201d _Sir Auckland\n    Geddes, British Ambassador to the U. S. 1920._\n\n\nIn conclusion let me say very briefly, as I said in the beginning, that\nthis little book has aimed to be only a sketch. The Problem of Life is\nold. I have endeavored to approach it afresh, with a new method, in a new\nspirit, from a new point of view. The literature of the subject is vast.\nIt displays great knowledge and skill. Much of it is fitted to inform and\nto inspire such as really read with a genuine desire to understand. Its\nweakness is due to the absence of a true conception of what human beings\nare. That is what I miss in it and it is that lack of fundamental and\ncentral thought that I have striven to supply. If I have succeeded in\nthat, I have no fear\u2014all else will follow quickly, inevitably, as a matter\nof course. For a fundamental conception, once it is formed and expressed,\nhas a strange power\u2014the power of enlisting the thought and cooperation of\nmany minds. And no conception can have greater power in our human world\nthan a _true_ conception of the nature of Man. For that most important of\ntruths the times are ripe; the world is filled with the saddest of\nmemories, with gloom, forebodings and fear. Without the truth in this\nmatter, there can be no rational hope\u2014history must go on in its dismal\ncourse; but _with_ the truth, there is not only hope but certitude that\nthe old order has passed and that humanity\u2019s manhood dates from the\npresent day. That I have here presented the truth in this matter\u2014the true\nconception of the human class of life\u2014I have personally no doubt; and I\nhave no doubt that that conception is to be the base, the guide, the\nsource of light, of a new civilization. Whether I am mistaken or not, time\nwill decide. I feel as Buckle felt in writing his _History of\nCivilization_:\n\n\n    \u201cWhether or not I have effected anything of real value ... is a\n    question for competent judges to decide. Of this, at least, I feel\n    certain, that whatever imperfections may be observed, the fault\n    consists, not in the method proposed, but in the extreme\n    difficulty of any single man putting into full operation all the\n    parts of so vast a scheme. It is on this point, and on this alone,\n    that I feel the need of great indulgence. But, as to the plan\n    itself, I have no misgivings. Of defects in its execution I am not\n    unconscious. I can only plead the immensity of the subject, the\n    shortness of a single life and the imperfection of every single\n    enterprise. I, therefore, wish this work to be estimated, not\n    according to the finish of its separate parts, but according to\n    the way in which those parts have been fused into a complete and\n    symmetrical whole. This, in an undertaking of such novelty and\n    magnitude, I have a right to expect, and I would moreover, add,\n    that if the reader has met with opinions adverse to his own, he\n    should remember, that his views are, perhaps, the same as those\n    which I too once held, and which I have abandoned, because, after\n    a wider range of study, I found them unsupported by solid proof,\n    subversive of the interest of Man, and fatal to the progress of\n    his knowledge. To examine the notions in which we have been\n    educated, and to turn aside from those which will not bear the\n    test, is a task so painful, that they who shrink from the\n    sufferings should pause before they reproach those by whom the\n    suffering is undergone.... Conclusions arrived at in this way are\n    not to be overturned by stating that they endanger some other\n    conclusions; nor can they be even affected by allegation against\n    their supposed tendency. The principles which I advocate are based\n    upon distinct arguments supported by well ascertained facts. The\n    only points, therefore, to be ascertained, are, whether the\n    arguments are fair, and whether the facts are certain. If these\n    two conditions have been obeyed, the principles follow by an\n    inevitable inference.\u201d\n\n\nAnd why have I sought throughout to follow the spirit of mathematics?\nBecause I have been dealing with ideas and have desired, above all things\nelse, to be right and clear. Ideas have a character of their own\u2014they are\nright or wrong independently of our hopes and passions and will. In the\nconnection of ideas there is an unbreakable thread of destiny. That is why\nin his _Mathematical Philosophy_ Professor Keyser has truly said:\n\n\n    \u201cMathematics is the study of Fate\u2014not fate in a physical sense,\n    but in the sense of the binding thread that connects thought with\n    thought and conclusions with their premises. Where, then, is our\n    freedom? What do you love? Painting? Poetry? Music? The muses are\n    _their_ fates. Whoso loves them is free. Logic is the muse of\n    Thought.\u201d\n\n\nNo doubt mathematics is truly impersonal in method; too impersonal maybe\nto please the sentimentalists before they take the time to think;\nmathematical analysis of life phenomena elevates our point of view above\npassion, above selfishness in any form, and, therefore, it is the only\nmethod which can tell us genuine truths about ourselves. Spinosa even in\nthe 17th Century had well realized this fact and although imperfect in\nmany ways, his was an effort in the right direction and this quoted\nconclusion may well be a conclusion for ourselves in the 20th century:\n\n\n    \u201cThe truth might forever have remained hid from the human race, if\n    mathematics, which looks not to the final cause of figures, but to\n    their essential nature and the properties involved in it, had not\n    set another type of knowledge before them.... When I turned my\n    mind to this subject, I did not propose to myself any novel or\n    strange aim, but simply to demonstrate by certain and indubitable\n    reason, those things which agree best with practice. And in order\n    that I might enquire into the matters of the science with the same\n    freedom of mind with which we are wont to treat lines and surfaces\n    in mathematics; I determined not to laugh or to weep over the\n    actions of men, but simply to understand them; and to contemplate\n    their affections and passions, such as love, hate, anger, envy,\n    arrogance, pity and all other disturbances of soul not as vices of\n    human nature, but as properties pertaining to it in the same way\n    as heat, cold, storm, thunder pertain to the nature of the\n    atmosphere. For these, though troublesome, are yet necessary, and\n    have certain causes through which we may come to understand them,\n    and thus, by contemplating them in their truth, gain for our minds\n    much joy as by the knowledge of things that are pleasing to the\n    senses.\u201d\n\n\nIf only this little book will _initiate_ the scientific study of Man, I\nshall be happy; for then we may confidently expect a science and art that\nwill know how to direct the energies of man to the advancement of human\nweal.\n\nWhat else? Many topics have not even been broached. Time-binding\nenergy\u2014what may it not achieve in course of the aeons to come? What light\nmay it not yet throw upon such fundamental phenomena as _Space_, _Time_,\n_Infinity_, and so on? What, if any, are the limits of Time-binding? In it\nare somehow involved all the higher functions of mind. Is Time identical\nwith Intelligence? Is either of them the other\u2019s cause? Is Time _in_ the\nCosmos or is the latter in the former? Is the Cosmos intelligent? Many no\ndoubt and marvelous are the fields which the scientific study of man will\nopen for research.\n\n\n\n\nAppendix I. Mathematics And Time-Binding\n\n\nThe purpose of this appendix is to give an expression of some new ideas\nwhich evolve directly out of the fact that humans are time-binders and\nwhich may serve as suggestions for the foundation of _scientific\npsychology_. The problem is of exceeding difficulty to give expression to\nin any form and therefore much more difficult to express in any exact or\ncorrect form, and so I beg the reader\u2019s patience in regard to the language\nbecause some of the ideas are in themselves correct and sometimes very\nsuggestive in spite of the language used. I am particularly interested\nthat mathematicians, physicists and metaphysicians should read it\ncarefully, forgive me the form, and look into the suggestions, because\nscientific psychology if such a science is to exist, would by necessity\nhave to be a branch of physics. I particularly beg the mathematicians and\nphysicists not to discard this appendix with too hasty a judgment of \u201cOh!\nmetaphysics,\u201d and also the metaphysicians not to do the same with an\nequally hasty judgment \u201cOh! mathematics.\u201d I hope that if this appendix is\nsympathetically understood, mathematicians and physicists will be moved to\ninvestigate the problem. If mathematicians and physicists would be more\ntolerant toward metaphysics and if metaphysicians would be moved to study\nmathematics, both would find tremendous fields to work in.\n\nSome scientists are very pedantic and therefore intolerant in their\npedantry and they may say \u201cthe fellow should learn first how to express\nhimself and then ask our attention.\u201d My answer is that the problems\ninvolved are too pressing, too vital, too fundamental for humankind, to\npermit me to delay for perhaps long years before I shall be able to\npresent the subject in a correct and satisfactory form, and also that the\nproblems involved cover too vast a field for a single man to work it\nconclusively. It seems best to give the new ideas to the public in a\nsuggestive form so that many people may be led to work on them more fully.\n\nThe old word \u201cmetaphysics\u201d is an illegitimate child of ignorance and an\nunnecessary word in the scientific study of nature. Every phenomenon of\nnature can be classed and studied in physics or chemistry or mathematics;\nthe problem, therefore, is not in any way _super_natural or\n_super_physical, but belongs rather to an unknown or an undeveloped branch\nof physics. The problem, therefore, may be not that of some _new_ science,\nbut rather that of a new branch of mathematics, or physics, or chemistry,\netc., or all combined.\n\nIt is pathetic that only after many aeons of human existence the\ndimensionality of man has been discovered and his proper status in\n_nature_ has been given by the definition of \u201ctime-binder.\u201d The old\nmetaphysics, in spite of its being far from exact, accomplished a great\ndeal. What prevented metaphysics from achieving more was its use of\nunmathematical method, or, to be more explicit, its failure to understand\nthe importance of dimensions. Metaphysics used words and conceptions of\nmulti-dimensional meanings which of necessity resulted in hopeless\nconfusion, in \u201ca talking\u201d about words, in mere verbalism. An example will\nserve to make this clear. If we were to speak of a cow, a man, an\nautomobile, and a locomotive as \u201cpullers,\u201d and if we were not to use any\nother names in connection with them, what would happen? If we\ncharacterized these things or beings, by one common characteristic,\nnamely, \u201cto pull,\u201d havoc would be introduced into our conceptions and in\npractical life; we would try to milk an automobile or we would try to\nextract gasoline from a cow, or look for a screw in a man, or we would\nspeculate about any or all of these things. Too obviously nonsensical\u2014but\nexactly the same thing happens, in a much more subtle way, when we use\nsuch words as \u201clife in a crystal\u201d or \u201cmemory in animals\u201d; we are thus\nmentally making a mistake no less nonsensical than the talk of \u201cmilking an\nautomobile\u201d would be. Laymen are baffled by the word dimension. They\nimagine that dimensions are applicable only to space, which is three\ndimensional, but they are mistaken; a moving object is\nfour-dimensional\u2014that is, it has three dimensions as any object at rest,\nbut, when the object is moving, a fourth dimension is necessary to give\nits _position_ at any one instant. We see, therefore, that a moving body\nhas four dimensions, and so on. As a matter of fact, scientific psychology\nwill very much need mathematics, but a special _humanized_ mathematics.\nCan this be produced? It seems to me that it can.\n\nIt is a well known fact that experimental sciences bring us to face facts\nwhich require further theoretical elaboration; in this way experimental\nsciences are a permanent source of inspiration to mathematicians because\nnew facts bring about the need of new methods of analysis.\n\nIn this book a new and experimental fact has been disclosed and analysed.\nIt is the fact that humanity is a time-binding class of life where the\ntime-binding capacity or the time-binding ENERGY is the highest function\nof humanity, including all the so-called mental, spiritual, will, etc.,\npowers. In using the words mental, spiritual, and will powers, I\ndeliberately accept and use them in the popular, ordinary sense without\nfurther analysing them.\n\nOnce the word and concept _Time_ enters, the ground for analysis and\nreasoning at once becomes very slippery. Mathematicians, physicists, etc.,\nmay feel that the expression is just a \u201cwell adapted one,\u201d and they may\nnot be very much inclined to look closer into it or attentively to analyse\nit. Theologians and metaphysicians probably will speculate a great deal\nabout it vaguely, with undefined terms and incoherent ideas with\nincoherent results; which will not lead us toward a scientific or true\nsolution, but will keep us away from the discovery of truth.\n\nIn the meantime two facts remain facts: namely, mathematicians and\nphysicists have almost all agreed with Minkowski \u201cthat space by itself and\ntime by itself, are mere shadows, and only a kind of blend of the two\nexists in its own right.\u201d The other fact\u2014psychological fact\u2014is that _time_\nexists psychologically by itself, undefined and not understood. One chief\ndifficulty is always that humans have to sit in judgment upon their own\ncase. The psychological time as such, is our own human time; scientific\ntime as such, is also our own human time. Which one of them is the best\nconcept\u2014which one more nearly corresponds to the truth about \u201ctime\u201d? What\nis time (if any) anyway? Until now we have gone from \u201cCosmos\u201d to \u201cBios,\u201d\nfrom \u201cBios\u201d to \u201cLogos,\u201d now we are confronted with the fact that\n\u201cLogos\u201d\u2014Intelligence\u2014and Time-binding are dangerously near to akin to each\nother, or may be identical. Do we in this way approach or go back to\n\u201cCosmos\u201d? Such are the crucial questions which arise out of this new\nconcept of Man. One fact must be borne in mind, that \u201cthe principles of\ndynamics appeared first to us, as experimental truths; but we have been\nobliged to use them as definitions. It is by definition that force is\nequal to the product of mass by acceleration, or that action is equal to\nreaction.\u201d (_The Foundation of Science_, by Henri Poincar\u00e9); and\nmathematics also has its whole foundation in a few axioms, \u201cself evident,\u201d\nbut _psychological facts_. It must be noted that the time-binding\nenergy\u2014the higher or highest energies of man (one of its branches anyway,\nfor sake of discrimination let us call it \u201c_M_\u201d) when it works properly,\nthat is, mathematically, does _not_ work _psychologically_ but works\nABSTRACTLY: the higher the abstraction the less there is of the\npsychological element and the more there is, so to say, of the pure,\nimpersonal time-binding energy (_M_). The definition of a man as a\ntime-binder\u2014a definition based on facts\u2014suggests many reflections. One of\nthem is the possibility that one of the functions of the time-binding\nenergy in its pure form, in the highest abstraction (_M_), works\nautomatically\u2014machine-like, as it were, shaping _correctly_ the product of\nits activity, but whether _truly_ is another matter. Mathematics does not\npresume that its conclusions are true, but it does assert that its\nconclusions are correct; that is the inestimable value of mathematics.\nThis becomes a very comprehensive fact if we approach and analyse the\nmathematical processes as some branch (_M_) of the time-binding process,\nwhich they are; then this process at once becomes impersonal and cosmic,\nbecause of the time-binding involved in it, no matter what _time_ is (if\nthere is such a thing as time).\n\nIs the succession of cosmos, bios, logos, time-binding taking us right\nback to cosmos again? Now if we put _psychological_ axioms into the\ntime-binding apparatus, it will thrash out the results _correctly_, but\nwhether the results are _true_ is another question.\n\nTo be able to talk about these problems I have to introduce three new\ndefinitions, which are introduced only for practical purposes. It may\nhappen that after some rewording these definitions may become scientific.\n\nI will try to define \u201ctruth\u201d and for this purpose I will divide the\nconcept \u201ctruth\u201d into three types:\n\n(1) Psychological, or private, or relative truth, by which I will mean\nsuch conceptions of the truth as any one person possesses, but different\nfrom other types of truth (\u03b11, \u03b12, ... \u03b1n)\n\n(2) Scientific truth (\u03b1s), by which I will mean a psychological truth when\nit is approved by the time-binding faculties or apparatus in the present\nstage of our development. This scientific truth represents the\n\u201cbound-up-time\u201d in our present knowledge; and finally,\n\n(3) The absolute truth, which will be the _final definition_ of a\nphenomenon based upon the final knowledge of _primal causation valid in\ninfinity_.\n\nFor simplicity\u2019s sake I will use the signs \u03b11, \u03b12, ... \u03b1n for the\n\u201cpsychological,\u201d \u201cprivate,\u201d or \u201crelative\u201d truths, between which, for the\nmoment, I will not discriminate.\n\n\u03b1s1, \u03b1s2, ... \u03b1sn, will be used for scientific truths, and finally\n\u03b1infinity for the absolute truth valid in infinity.\n\nTo make it easier to explain, I will illustrate the suggestions by an\nexample. Let us suppose that the human time-binding capacities or energies\nin the _organic_ chemistry correspond to radium in the _inorganic_\nchemistry; being of course of different dimensions and of absolutely\ndifferent character. It may happen, for it probably is so, that the\ncomplex time-binding energy has many different stages of development and\ndifferent kinds of \u201crays\u201d _A_, _B_, _C_, ... _M_....\n\nLet us suppose that the so-called mental capacities are the _M_ rays of\nthe time-binding energy; the \u201cspiritual\u201d capacities, the _A_ rays; the\n\u201cwill\u201d powers, the _B_ rays; and so on. Psychological truths will then be\na function of all rays together, namely _A_ _B_ _C_ ... _M_ ... or _f_\n(_A_ _B_ _C_ ... _M_ ...), the character of any \u201ctruth\u201d in question will\nlargely depend upon which of these elements prevail.\n\nIf it were possible to isolate completely from the other rays the \u201cmental\u201d\nprocess\u2014the \u201clogos\u201d\u2014the _M_ rays\u2014and have a complete abstraction (which in\nthe present could only be in mathematics), then the work of _M_ could be\ncompared to the work of an impersonal machine which always gives the same\n_correctly_ shaped product _no matter what is_ the material put into it.\n\nIt is a fact that mathematics is correct\u2014impersonal\u2014passionless. Again, as\na matter of fact, all the basic axioms which underlie mathematics are\n\"psychological axioms\"; therefore it may happen that these \"axioms\" are\nnot of the \u03b1infinity type but are of the _f_ (_A_ _B_ _C_ ...) personal\ntype and this may be why mathematics cannot account for psychological\nfacts. If psychology is to be an _exact science_ it must be mathematical\nin principle. And, therefore, mathematics must find a way to embrace\npsychology. Here I will endeavor to outline a way in which this can be\ndone. To express it correctly is more than difficult: I beg the\nmathematical reader to tolerate the form and look for the sense or even\nthe feelings in what I attempt to express. To make it less shocking to the\near of the pure mathematician, I will use for the \u201cinfinitesimals\u201d the\nwords \u201cvery small numbers,\u201d for the \u201cfinite\u201d the words \u201cnormal numbers\u201d\nand for the \u201ctransfinite\u201d the words \u201cvery great numbers.\u201d Instead of using\nthe word \u201cnumber\u201d I will sometimes use the word \u201cmagnitude\u201d and under the\nword \u201cinfinity\u201d I will understand the meaning as \u201climitless.\u201d The base of\nthe whole of mathematics or rather the starting point of mathematics was\n\u201cpsychological truths,\u201d axioms concerning normal numbers, and magnitudes\nthat were tangible for the senses. Here to my mind is to be found the\nkernel of the whole trouble. The _base_ of mathematics was _f_ (_A_ _B_\n_C_ ... _M_ ...); the _work_, or the development, of mathematics is _f_\n(_M_); this is the reason for the \u201cghosts\u201d in the background of\nmathematics. The _f_ (_M_) evolved from this _f_ (_A_ _B_ _C_ ... _M_ ...)\n_base_ a wonderful abstract theory absolutely correct for the normal, the\nvery small, and for the very great numbers. But the rules which govern the\nsmall numbers, the normal, or psychological numbers, and the great\nnumbers, are not the same. As a matter of fact, in the meantime, the\nphysical world, the psychological world, is composed exclusively of very\ngreat numbers and of very small magnitudes (atoms, electrons, etc.). It\nseems to me that, if we want really to understand the world and man, we\nshall have to start from the beginning, from 0, then take the next very\nsmall number as the first _finite_ or \u201cnormal number\u201d; then the old\nfinites or the normal numbers would become very great numbers and the old\nvery-great numbers would become the very great of the second order and so\non. Such transposed mathematics would become psychological and philosophic\nmathematics and mathematical philosophy would become philosophic\nmathematics. The immediate and most vital effect would be, that the\n_start_ would be made not somewhere in the middle of the magnitudes but\nfrom the beginning, or from the limit \u201czero,\u201d from the \u201c0\u201d\u2014from the\nintrinsic \u201cto be or not to be\u201d\u2014and the next to it would be the very first\nsmall magnitude, the physical and therefore psychological continuum (I use\nthe words physical continuum in the way Poincar\u00e9 used them) would become a\nmathematical continuum in this new philosophic mathematics. This new\nbranch of philosophic, psychological mathematics would be absolutely\nrigorous, correct and _true_ in addition to which, maybe, it would change\nor enlarge and make humanly tangible for the layman, the concept of\nnumbers, continuum, infinity, space, time and so on. Such a mathematics\nwould be the mathematics for the time-binding psychology. Mathematical\nphilosophy is the highest philosophy in existence; nevertheless, it could\nbe changed to a still higher order in the way indicated here and become\nphilosophic or psychological mathematics. This new science, of course,\nwould not change the ordinary mathematics for ordinary purposes. It would\nbe a special mathematics for the study of Man dealing only with the\n\u201cnatural finites\u201d (the old infinitesimals) and great numbers of different\norders (including the normal numbers), but starting from a real, common\nbase\u2014from 0, and next to it very small number, which is a common\n_tangible_ base for _psychological_ as well as _analytical_ truths.\n\nThis new philosophic mathematics would eliminate the concept of\n\u201cinfinitesimals\u201d as such, which is an _artificial_ concept and is not as a\n_concept_ an element of Nature. The so-called _infinitesimals are Nature\u2019s\nreal, natural finites_. In mathematics the infinitesimals were an\nanalytical\u2014an \u201c_M_\u201d\u2014time-binding\u2014necessity, because of our starting point.\nI repeat once again that this transposition of our starting point would\nnot affect the normal mathematics for normal purposes; it would build\nrather a new philosophic mathematics rigorously correct where analytical\nfacts would be also psychological facts. This new mathematics would not\nonly give correct results but also _true_ results. Keeping in mind _both_\nconceptions of time, the scientific time and the psychological time, we\nmay see that the human capacity of \u201cTime-binding\u201d is a very practical one\nand that this time-binding faculty is a _functional_ name and definition\nfor what we broadly mean by human \u201cintelligence\u201d; which makes it obvious\nthat time (in any understanding of the term) is somehow very closely\nrelated to intelligence\u2014the mental and spiritual activities of man. _All\nwe know about _\u201ctime\u201d_ will explain to us a great deal about Man, and all\nwe know about Man will explain to us a great deal about time_, if we\nconsider _facts_ alone. The \u201cghosts\u201d in the background will rapidly vanish\nand become intelligible facts for philosophic mathematics. The most vital\nimportance, nevertheless, is that taking zero as the limit and the next to\nit very small magnitude for the real starting point, it will give us a\nmathematical science from a natural base where _correct_ formulas will be\nalso true formulas and will correspond to psychological truths.\n\nWe have found that man is an exponential function where time enters as an\nexponent. If we compare the formula for organic growth _y==e__kt_, with\nthe formula \u201c_P R__T_,\u201d we see that they are of the same type and the _law\nof organic growth_ applies to the human _time-binding energy_. We see,\ntoo, that the time-binding energy is also \u201c_alive_\u201d and multiplying in\nlarger and larger families. The formula for the decomposing of radium is\nthe same\u2014only the exponent is negative instead of positive. This fact is\nindeed very curious and suggestive. Procreation, the organic growth, is\nalso some function of time. I call \u201ctime-linking\u201d for the sake of\ndifference. Whether the energy of procreation or that of \u201ctime-linking\u201d\ncan be accounted for in units of chemical energy taken up in food, I do\nnot know. Not so with the mind\u2014this \u201ctime-binding,\u201d higher exponential\nenergy, \u201cable to direct basic powers.\u201d If we analyse this energy, free\nfrom any speculation, we will find that this higher energy which is\nsomehow directly connected with \u201ctime\u201d\u2014no matter what time is\u2014is able to\n_produce_, by transformation or by drawing on other sources of energy, new\nenergies unknown to nature. Thus the solar energy transformed into coal\nis, for instance, transformed into the energy of the drive of a piston, or\nthe rotary energy in a steam engine, and so on. It is obvious that no\namount of _chemical_ energy in food can account for such an energy as the\ntime-binding energy. There is only one supposition left, namely, that the\ntime-binding apparatus has a source for its tremendous energy in the\n_transformation of organic atoms_, and\u2014what is very characteristic\u2014the\nresults are _time_-binding energies.\n\nThis supposition is almost a certainty because it seems to be the only\npossible supposition to account for that energy. This supposition, which\nseems to be the only supposition, would bring us to face striking facts,\nnamely, the transformation of organic atoms, which means a direct drawing\nupon the cosmic energy; and this cosmic energy\u2014time\u2014and intelligence are\nsomehow connected\u2014if not indeed equivalent. Happily these things can be\nverified in scientific laboratories. Radium was discovered only a few\nyears ago and is still very scarce, but the results for science and life\nare already tremendous because scientific methods were applied in the\nunderstanding and use of it. We did not use any zoological or theological\nmethods, but just direct, correct and scientific methods. There is no\nscarcity in \u201chuman radium,\u201d but, to my knowledge, physicists have never\nattempted to study this energy from that point of view. I am confident\nthat, if once they start, there will be results in which all the so-called\n\u201csupernatural, spiritual, psychic\u201d phenomena, such as are not fakes, will\nbecome scientifically understood and will be consciously utilized. Now\nthey are mostly wasted or only played with. It may happen that the science\nof Man\u2014as the science of time-binding\u2014will disclose to us the inner and\nfinal secrets\u2014the final truth\u2014of nature, valid in infinity.\n\nIt is very difficult to give in such a book as this an adequate list of\nthe literature which may help to orient the reader in a general way in the\ngreat advance science has made in the last few years. This book is a\npioneer book in its own way, and so there are no books dealing directly\nwith its subject. There are two branches of science and one art which are\nfundamental for the further development of the subject; these two sciences\nare (1) Mathematical philosophy and (2) Scientific biology, the art is the\nart of creative engineering.\n\nIn mathematical philosophy there are to my knowledge only four great\nmathematical writers who treat the subject as a distinct science. They are\ntwo English scientists, Bertrand Russell and A. N. Whitehead; one\nFrenchman, Henri Poincar\u00e9 (deceased); and one American, Professor C. J.\nKeyser. Messrs. Russell and Whitehead approach the problems from a purely\nlogical point of view and therein lies the peculiar value of their work.\nHenri Poincar\u00e9 was a physicist (as well as a mathematician) and,\ntherefore, approaches the problems somewhat from a physicist\u2019s point of\nview, a circumstance giving his philosophy its particular value. Professor\nKeyser approaches the problems from both the logical and the warmly human\npoints of view; in this is the great human and practical value of his\nwork.\n\nThese four scientists are unique in their respective elaborations and\nelucidations of mathematical philosophy. It is not for me to advise the\nreader what selections to make, for if a thorough knowledge of the subject\nis desired the reader should read all these books, but not all readers are\nwilling to make that effort toward clear thinking (which in the meantime\nwill remain of the _highest_ importance in science). Some readers will\nwish to select for themselves and to facilitate their selection I will lay\nout a \u201cMenu\u201d of this intellectual feast by giving in some cases the\nchapter heads.\n\nFor many temporary reasons I was not able, before going into print, to\ngive a fuller list of the writings of those four unique men; but there is\nno stroke of their pen but which should be read with great\nattention\u2014besides which there is a very valuable literature about their\nwork.\n\n\n\n(1) The purely mathematical foundation:\n\n\nRUSSELL, BERTRAND.\n\n\n\u201cThe Principles of Mathematics.\u201d Cambridge University, 1903.\n\n(I am not giving any selections from the contents of this book because\nthis book should, without doubt, be read by every one interested in\nmathematical philosophy.)\n\n\u201cThe Problems of Philosophy.\u201d H. Holt & Co., N. Y., 1912.\n\n\u201cOur Knowledge of the External World, as a Field for Scientific Method in\nPhilosophy.\u201d Chicago, 1914.\n\n\u201cIntroduction to Mathematical Philosophy.\u201d Macmillan, N. Y.\n\nSelection from contents: Definition of number. The Definition of order.\nKinds of relations. Infinite cardinal numbers. Infinite series and\nordinals. Limits and continuity. The axiom of infinity and logical types.\nClasses. Mathematics and logic.\n\n\u201cMysticism and Logic.\u201d Longmans Green & Co. 1919. N. Y.\n\nSelection from contents: Mathematics and the metaphysicians. On scientific\nmethod in philosophy. The ultimate constituents of matter. On the notion\nof cause.\n\n\nWHITEHEAD, ALFRED N.\n\n\n\u201cAn Introduction to Mathematics.\u201d Henry Holt & Co. 1911. N. Y.\n\n\u201cThe Organization of Thought Educational and Scientific.\u201d London, 1917.\n\nSelections from contents: The principles of mathematics in relation to\nelementary teaching. The organization of thought. The anatomy of some\nscientific ideas. Space, time, and relativity.\n\n\u201cAn Enquiry Concerning the Principles of Natural Knowledge.\u201d Cambridge,\n1919.\n\nSelection from contents: The traditions of science. The data of science.\nThe method of extensive abstraction. The theory of objects.\n\n\u201cThe Concept of Nature.\u201d Cambridge, 1920.\n\nSelection from contents: Nature and thought. Time. The method of extensive\nabstraction. Space and motion. Objects. The ultimate physical concepts.\n\n\u201cPrincipia Mathematica.\u201d By A. N. Whitehead and Bertrand Russell.\nCambridge, 1910-1913.\n\nThis monumental work stands alone. \u201cAs a work of constructive criticism it\nhas never been surpassed. To every one and especially to philosophers and\nmen of natural science, it is an amazing revelation of how the familiar\nterms with which they deal plunge their roots far into the darkness\nbeneath the surface of common sense. It is a noble monument to the\ncritical spirit of science and to the idealism of our time.\u201d\n\n\u201cHuman Worth of Rigorous Thinking.\u201d C. J. Keyser.\n\n\n\n(2) The physicist\u2019s point of view:\n\n\nPOINCAR\u00c9, HENRI.\n\n\n\u201cThe Foundations of Science.\u201d The Science Press, N. Y., 1913.\n\nSelection from contents: Science and hypothesis. Number and magnitude.\nSpace. Force. Nature. II. The value of science. The mathematical sciences.\nThe physical sciences. The objective value of science. III. Science and\nmethod. Science and the scientist. Mathematical reasoning. The new\nmechanics. Astronomic science.\n\n\n\n(3) The human, civilizing, practical life, point of view:\n\n\nKEYSER, CASSIUS J.\n\n\n\u201cScience and Religion: The Rational and the Super-rational.\u201d The Yale\nUniversity Press.\n\n\u201cThe New Infinity and the Old Theology.\u201d The Yale University Press.\n\n\u201cThe Human Worth of Rigorous Thinking.\u201d Essays and Addresses. Columbia\nUniversity Press, 1916.\n\nSelection from contents: The human worth of rigorous thinking. The human\nsignificance of mathematics. The walls of the world; or concerning the\nfigure and the dimensions of the Universe of space. The universe and\nbeyond. The existence of the hypercosmic. The axiom of infinity: A new\npresupposition of thought. Research in American Universities. Mathematical\nproductivity in the United States.\n\n\u201cMathematical Philosophy, the Study of Fate and Freedom. Lectures for\nEducated Laymen.\u201d Forthcoming Book.\n\nSelection from contents of general interest: The mathematical obligations\nof philosophy. Humanistic and industrial education. Logic the muse of\nthought. Radiant aspects of an over-world.\u2014Verifiers and falsifiers.\nSignificance and nonsense.\u2014Distinction of logical and psychological. A\ndiamond test of harmony.\u2014Distinction of doctrine and method.\u2014Theoretical\nand practical doubt.\u2014Mathematical philosophy in the r\u00f4le of critic. A\nworld uncriticised\u2014the garden of the devil. \u201cSupersimian\u201d Wisdom.\nAutonomous truth and autonomous falsehood. Other Varieties of truth and\nuntruth. Mathematics as the study of fate and freedom. The prototype of\nreasoned discourse often disguised as in the Declaration of Independence,\nthe Constitution of the United States, the Origin of Species, the Sermon\non the Mount.\u2014Nature of mathematical transformation. No transformation, no\nthinking. Transformation law essentially psychological, Relation function\nand transformation as three aspects of one thing. Its study, the common\nenterprise of science. The static and the dynamic worlds. The problem of\ntime and kindred problems. Importation of time and suppression of time as\nthe classic devices of sciences.\u2014The nature of invariance. The ages-old\nproblem of permanence and change. The quest of what abides in a fluctuant\nworld as the binding thread of human history. The tie of comradeship among\nthe enterprises of human spirit.\u2014The concept of a group. The notion simply\nexemplified in many fields, is \u201cMind\u201d a group. The philosophy of the\ncosmic year.\u2014Limits and limit processes omnipresent as ideals and\nidealization, in all thought and human aspiration. Ideals the flint of\nreality.\u2014Mathematical infinity, its dynamic and static aspects. Need of\nhistory of the Imperious concept. The r\u00f4le of infinity in a mighty\npoem.\u2014Meaning of dimensionality. Distinction of imagination and\nconception. Logical existence and sensuous existence. Open avenues to\nunimaginable worlds.\u2014The theory of logical types. A supreme application of\nit to definition of man, and the science of human welfare.\u2014The psychology\nof mathematics and the mathematics of psychology. Both of them in their\ninfancy. Consequent retardation of science. The symmetry of thought. The\nasymmetry of imagination.\u2014Science and engineering. Science as engineering\nin preparation. Engineering as science in action. Mathematics the guide of\nthe engineer. Engineering the guide of humanity. Humanity the civilizing\nor Time-Binding class of life. Qualities essential to engineering\nleadership. The ethics of the art. The engineer as educator, as scientist,\nas philosopher, as psychologist, as economist, as statesman, as\nmathematical thinker\u2014as a Man.\n\n\n\n\nAppendix II. Biology And Time-Binding\n\n\nThe life of one man is short, and to very few is it given to achieve much\nin their lifetime. Extensive achievements are made almost entirely by many\nmen taking up the work done by a discoverer. In such a case, we arrive at\na _complete_ \u201ctruth,\u201d not by the production of one man but by a chain of\nmen, but the initial discovery not only has to be produced but correctly\ndefined before it can be used and that is the important point to be made.\nWhat we do not realize is the tremendous amount of mental work that is\nlost by an incorrect use of words.\n\nHuman thought\u2014that unique, subtle and yet most energetic phenomenon of\nnature\u2014is in the main wantonly wasted, because we do not use, or take\npains to use, suitable language; at the same time, false definitions lead\nto consequences not merely wasteful but positively harmful. When ideas and\nfacts are falsely defined, they tend to bring us to false conclusions, and\nfalse conclusions lead us in wrong directions, and life and knowledge\ngreatly suffer in consequence. Our progress is not a well ordered pursuit\nafter truth, as pure chance plays too large a part in it.\n\nUntil lately, logic was supposed to be the science of correct thinking,\nbut modern thought has progressed so far that the old logic is not able to\nhandle the great accumulated volume\u2014the great complicated mass of existing\nideas and facts\u2014and so we are forced to look for another instrument much\nmore expedient and powerful. There is no need to establish a new science\nto replace logic; we simply have to look closer into the sciences at hand\nand realize the fact, which was with us all the time, namely, that\nmathematics and mathematical reasoning is nothing else than the true logic\nof nature\u2014nature\u2019s universal tongue\u2014the one means of expression that is\nthe same for all peoples. This is not a play on words, it is a fact which,\nafter investigation, everybody must admit. Everybody who wants to think\nlogically must think mathematically or give up any pretense of correct\nthinking\u2014there is no escape and all who refuse to investigate the justice\nof this statement put themselves outside the pale of logically thinking\npeople. The application of rigorous thinking to life will even\nrevolutionize scientific methods by the introduction of right definitions,\ncorrect classifications, just language, and so will lead to trustworthy\nresults. Very probably all our doctrines and creeds will have to be\nrevised; some rejected, some rectified, some broadened; bringing about\nunanimity of all sciences and thus greatly increasing their effectiveness\nin the pursuit of truth. This application of mathematics to life will even\nrevolutionize mathematics itself. In App. I it is suggested tentatively\nhow this may be accomplished.\n\nAs the seemingly ultimate and highest experimentally known energy is the\nhuman time-binding energy, this new concept may lead to a change in our\npresent concepts of matter, space and time, in much the same way as the\ndiscovery of radium has affected them. This problem can be solved only by\n_scientific_ experiments with the _time_-binding energy.\n\nIn many, even in most, of the cases, the analysis of these phenomena\npresents great technical difficulty, but why confuse our minds by being\nafraid of, or being a slave of words? If instead of calling wine _wine_,\nwe called it by its chemical formula, would this, in any way, change the\nquality of wine? Of course not. All the \u201cqualities\u201d will remain because\nthey are facts, and cannot be altered by words.\n\nA most pathetic picture of the havoc and chaos which wrong use of words\nbrings into life and science is exhibited in all fields of thought by the\nendless and bitter fighting over words not well defined. Mathematics has\nbeen able to make its most stupendous achievements because of its method\nof exact analysis of the continuum, dimensions, classes, relations,\nfunctions, transfinite numbers, etc., and also of space and time.\nHitherto, not all of these conceptions in their sharply defined form have\nhad direct application to our daily life or to our world conception. The\nthoughts expressed in App. I may suggest this \u201cmissing link\u201d\u2014connecting\nmathematics more intimately with life.\n\nModern science knows that all energies can be somehow transformed from one\nkind to another and that all of them represent one type of energetic\nphenomena, no matter what is the origin of each. For example, a galvanic\nor chemical battery produces the same kind of electricity as the\nmechanical process of friction or the interaction of cosmic laws as in the\ndynamo. In some instances, when our systems are suitably adjusted, the\ntransformations are reversible, that is, the energy results in a chemical\nprocess\u2014an accumulator; the chemical process results in electricity\u2014the\ngalvanic battery; motion results in electricity\u2014the dynamo; electricity\nresults in motion\u2014the electric motor; etc. We know all energies are\nsomehow related to each other, in that their transformation is possible.\nThe effects produced by the same type of energy are absolutely the same\u2014no\nmatter what its origin. The marvel of an electric lamp is the same marvel,\nwhether the origin of the electricity be chemical, mechanical or cosmic as\nin the dynamo. The experiments in scientific biology have proved this to\nbe true in living organisms and just this is the tremendous importance of\nthe discoveries in scientific biology. Light and other energies react on\norganisms in the same way as the chemical reactions and these phenomena\nare reversible. More than that, living complex organisms have been\nproduced which grew to maturity through a chemical or mechanical treatment\nof the egg, and this has been accomplished in the infancy of scientific\nbiology! (See _The Organisms as a Whole_, by Jacques Loeb.)\n\nAll phenomena _in nature_ are _natural_ and should be approached as\n_such_. The human mind is at least an energy which can direct other\nenergies; it is incorrect and misleading to call it _super_natural. It is\nof course true that we do not fully understand the nature of the human\nmind and we shall learn to understand it when and only when we acquire\nsense enough to recognize it as _natural_. If we persist in saying and\nbelieving that the \u201cspiritual evidences cannot be explained on a material\nbase,\u201d this statement should be equally applicable to electricity or\nradium. If this statement is false for these phenomena, it is equally\nfalse for the mind or the so-called spiritual and will powers. The\nscientific understanding of these phenomena will not \u201cdegrade\u201d these\nphenomena, _because that cannot be done. Facts remain facts and no\nscientific explanation of a phenomenon can lower or degrade that which is\na fact._ Electricity is electricity and nothing else, no matter what its\norigin; human time-binding energies (embracing all faculties) are the\nhighest of the known energies\u2014equally magnificent and astonishing\u2014no\nmatter what the base; and the scientific understanding of them will only\n_add_ to our respect for them and for ourselves; it will unmistakably help\nus to develop them indefinitely by mathematical analysis. The _base_ is\nnot the phenomenon\u2014sulphuric acid and zinc _are not_ electricity;\ntime-binding energies _are not_ a pound of beefsteak, although a pound of\nbeefsteak may help to save life and be therefore _instrumental_ in the\nproduction of a poem or of a sonata; but by no means can a beefsteak be\ntaken for either of them.\n\nI have attempted, with some measure of success I trust, to solve these\nproblems in science and life; the results are astonishing, as they lead us\nto a much higher and more embracing ethics than society has ever had. By\nthis analysis I prove that the understanding of this most stupendous but\nNATURAL phenomenon of human life brings us to the scientifical source of\nethics and I prove that the so-called \u201chighest ideals of humanity\u201d have\nnothing of \u201csentimentalism\u201d or of the \u201c_super_natural\u201d in them, but are\nexclusively the _fulfilment_ of the _natural laws_ for the _human class of\nlife_. The recognition of the fact that the phenomena of the human mind\nare natural and as such conform to natural law has the further advantage\nover the \u201csupernatural\u201d attitude in that we can no more evade a law of\nhuman nature than the law of gravity; in other words, human ethics will\nhave the validity of natural law. With the supernatural attitude, it was\nsimple enough to avoid the issues of life, by a simple statement\u2014\u201cI do not\nbelieve\u201d\u2014and that was enough to break all bonds and be free from the\n\u201csupernatural morale\u201d\u2014but to get away from the \u201cnatural morale\u201d and\n_remain_ HUMAN is IMPOSSIBLE. Whereas, with an artificially formulated\nmorale it was easy enough to break away by a simple mental speculation,\nand feel perfectly satisfied as long as one escaped the jail; with a\nmorale made clear that it is a NATURAL LAW for the human class of life,\nthe curtain of sophistry and speculation is removed and everyone who\nbreaks away from the NATURAL LAWS FOR HUMANS, WILL KNOW BY HIMSELF, THAT\nHE IS OUTSIDE THE LAW\u2014FOR HUMANS.\n\nEngineers are not metaphysicians, their field is not one of clever\nargument but one of proved facts; their work is not to befog the air with\ncloudy expressions or sophistry, but to create; their method is scientific\nand their tool is mathematics. It is known that in remote antiquity, in\nsome temples electrical phenomena were known and were used to keep the\nignorant masses in awe and obedience. Shall we follow the methods used by\nthose magicians or shall we squarely face facts? Shall we look upon life,\nand the usually so-called mental, spiritual phenomena, etc., as\n_super_natural, simply because we do not understand them? It seems evident\nthat everything which _exists in nature, is natural_, no matter how simple\nor complicated a phenomenon it is; and on no occasion can the so-called\n\u201c_super_natural\u201d be anything else than a completely natural law, though it\nmay, at the moment, be above or beyond our present understanding. The\nattitude of mind which admits the _super_natural blinds and frustrates any\nanalysis or any attempt at analysis. The unprejudiced analysis of the\nso-called \u201csupernatural\u201d does not _alter_ any part of the strange and high\nfunctions of it. The phenomena of the human time-binding energy are and\nwill remain the most precious, subtle and highest of known functions, no\nmatter what the origin. _Facts_ may not be _denied_ or _falsified_ if\nanalysis is to arrive at correct conclusions. The high dimensionality of\nthe human mind, the so-called spiritual and will powers, _are facts_ and\nmust be _accepted_ as such. It is about time to establish an exact science\nto deal with them. The problems of animal life were approached without\nprejudice, no supernatural \u201cspark\u201d was bothering us in our analysis\u2014an\nanimal was an animal and nothing else\u2014we did not intermix dimensions,\ntherefore we see that the \u201csocial structure\u201d of the animals on a farm\nnever breaks down as they are managed on a scientific base with an\nunderstanding of _their_ proper standards. Animals to-day live more\nhappily than man. We don\u2019t allow animals to practice the \u201csurvival of the\nfittest,\u201d or \u201ccompetition,\u201d which is far too destructive. Our present\nsocial system imposes these disastrous methods upon man alone, and the\nresult is that the hideous proverb \u201cHomo homini lupus\u201d has become true.\n\nIn modern science facts are not wanting, we have first but to know them.\nIf we take, for example, sulphuric acid and zinc and make what we call a\ngalvanic battery, we see that from two chemical substances a third\u2014a\nsalt\u2014is made in addition to which we have a peculiar energy produced\ncalled electricity. Who does not know the marvelous properties of this\nphenomenon?\n\nScientific biology has made tremendous progress lately; engineers cannot\nafford to ignore the facts established in laboratory researches. The\nproblem of \u201clife\u201d and of other energies, hitherto considered\n\u201c_super_natural,\u201d is well in hand, and proves to be none the less\nastonishing though entirely natural. A number of scientists all over the\nworld are working at this problem and the scientific facts which they have\nestablished, and which cannot now be denied, belong to-day to the realm of\npractical life. Engineers, of course, have to know these facts;\nmathematicians have to establish correct dimensions in the study of all\nthe sciences and people will have to study mathematical philosophy; only\nthen can the process of integration in any phase of thought be made\nwithout mistakes. There is no escape from that, if _truth_ is what we\nreally want. But here one objection may be raised, an objection which for\nsome is a serious one indeed; namely, what will take the place of the old\nphilosophy, law and ethics, if human life is nothing else than a\nphysico-chemical process? To quote Doctor Jacques Loeb from his\n_Mechanistic Conception of Life_: \u201cIf on the basis of a serious survey,\nthis question (_that all life phenomena can be unequivocally explained in\nphysico-chemical terms_\u2014Author) can be answered in the affirmative, our\nsocial and ethical life will have to be put on a scientific basis and our\nrules of conduct must be brought into harmony with the results of\nscientific biology. Not only is the mechanistic conception of life\ncompatible with ethics, it seems the only conception of life which can\nlead to an understanding of the source of ethics.\u201d\n\nI hope to have proved in this book that _scientific_ ethics is based on\nnatural laws for the human class of life; that it is based on the\nexperimentally proved fact that Man is a Time-binder, naturally active as\nsuch in time; and that this concept or definition of Man is rigorously\nscientific and accounts for the highest functions of man\u2014the highest of\nthe mental and spiritual perfections\u2014without the need of any\n\u201c_super_natural\u201d hypothesis.\n\nScientific biology proves the fact that life and all of its phenomena are\nthe results of some special physico-chemical processes, which manifest\nthemselves in some peculiar energies, of which the human mind is the\nhighest known form. These processes are known to be reversible, in that\nsome of these peculiar energies cause physico-chemical changes in their\nown base; the process involved I propose to call biolysis, as I propose to\ncall biolyte the substances produced. These phenomena have a parallel\nanalogy in inorganic chemistry\u2014in electricity\u2014the difference being only in\nthe scale or dimension. When an electric current is passed through a\nspecial battery called an accumulator or reversible battery, chemical\nchanges occur, in that new compounds are formed which possess a reversible\ncapacity; namely, in reproducing the former materials\u2014that is, electricity\nis generated. This process of forming chemical substances by the passing\nof an electrical current is called electrolysis and the product so\nproduced is called electrolyte. At the same time it is a known fact that\norganic chemistry is infinitely more complicated and variable than\ninorganic chemistry. The energy produced by the reactions of some organic\nchemical groups are, therefore, of a more complicated character and of\nanother dimension. One of these energies of organic chemistry which lately\nhas come into the scope of scientific analysis is called life\u2014its\nphysico-chemical base is the protoplasm, which _result_ I call the\n\u201ctime-linking\u201d capacity or energy. This name is important for the\nconsequences it will bring about later on. The time-binding capacity or\nenergy of man (no matter what time is\u2014if it is), which is unique to man,\nis a most subtle complex; it is the highest known energy and probably has\nmany subdivisions. Ears are sensitive to the vibration of the air. Eyes\nare sensitive to the more subtle vibrations of light; in a similar way,\nthe time-binding apparatus is sensitive to the most subtle energies;\nbesides which it has the capacity to register not only all of our\nsensations but also the time-binding energies of other people; and it\napparently has the capacity to register the energies of the universe.\n\nHere again we see the same continuity of phenomena; the protoplasm as a\ncomplex organic physico-chemical unit which has the peculiarity to \u201clive,\u201d\nto grow and multiply \u201cautonomously\u201d and this same autonomous peculiarity\n_applies_ to the _time-binding energy_; it grows and multiplies\n\u201cautonomously\u201d in its own dimension. The time-binding energy is a complex\nradiating energy somewhat like the emanations of radium and it probably\nalso has many different subdivisions. _Note that the transformation of the\natom_ or the transformation of _radio-active substances after passing\ndifferent stages, is not complete but probably ends in lead, whereas the\ntransformation which occurs in the production of the time-binding energy\nprobably is complete or nearly complete and is that which I call the\ntime-binding energy. (See _App. I_.)_ All the higher characteristics of\nman which it is customary to call the \u201cmental, spiritual and will powers,\u201d\netc., are embraced in this exact definition of energy\u2014in the capacity of\ntime-binding. A diagram will better explain the continuity, evolution and\nmechanism of this time-binding energy.\n\n[ A series of circles, connected by lines, the leftmost circle being C1,\nthen next C2, and so on to C7. The first is connected to the second by\nline T1, the second to the third by T2, etc. Each circle after the first\nhas within it an energy indication, E1, E2, etc. ]\n\nBiology and Time-Binding.\n\n\n_C__1_ is the physico-chemical base (for simplicity I represent the whole\ncomplex as one base) of the human time-binding energy. _T__1_ is the\nthought produced by a physico-chemical process (corresponding, for\nillustration\u2019s sake only, to electricity produced by a galvanic battery).\nThe thought _T__1_ in turn produces a physico-chemical effect _E__1_ on\nthe base _C__1_ (corresponding for the same reason to electrolysis and\nelectrolyte in electricity). _C__1_ and _E__1_ combined, or _C__2_\nproduces _T__2_ which again in turn affects the base and produces a\nphysico-chemical effect _E__2_, this new combination produces the energy\n_T__3_, and so on ... theoretically without limits, as long as there is\n_any source_ of energy upon which this special energy can draw. This\ntheory which I call the \u201cspiral theory\u201d represents a suggestive working\nmechanism of the time-binding energy and is in accord with the latest\nscientific discoveries. It explains the processes of all the mental and\nso-called spiritual energies which have been such a puzzle to humanity,\nand it also explains other phenomena which, until now, have had no\nscientific explanation whatever.\n\nThe animals are _not_ time-binding, they have _not_ the capacity of the\n\u201cspiral\u201d; therefore, they have not autonomous progress. At the same time,\nit will be obvious that if we teach humans false ideas, we affect their\ntime-binding capacities and energies very seriously, by affecting in a\nwrong way the physico-chemical base. This energy is so peculiar that it\nembraces, if I may use the old expression, the highest ideals (when the\ntime-binding energy is unobstructed and is allowed to work normally), and\nalso the most criminal ideas (when the time-binding energy is obstructed\nby false teachings and in consequence works abnormally). We cannot make\nanimals moral or immoral because they have not this time-binding capacity.\nWhereas human progress can be very seriously affected by false ideas; in\nother words, the biolyte of false teachings in the animal dimension must\nbe very different from the biolyte of true ideas in the human dimension.\nNature or nature\u2019s laws happily cannot be completely deviated from or\nviolated\u2014the time-binding energy cannot be completely suppressed in the\ntime-binding class of life. The false teachings that we are animals and\nessentially brutal and selfish can, of course, degrade human nature not\nonly down to the animal level but lower still. Happily now science can\nexplain and prove how fundamentally fiendish in effect are these teachings\nin the life and progress of human beings. It will be a shock to those who\nteach, preach and practice animal standards and in the same breath\ncontradict themselves in any talking about \u201cimmortality\u201d and \u201csalvation\u201d;\na little thought makes it perfectly clear that \u201canimal standards\u201d and\n\u201csalvation\u201d or \u201cimmortality\u201d simply exclude each other. With the natural\nlaw of time-binding realized, the way is open to entering scientifically\nupon the problem of immortality. The time-binding energies as well as\n\u201clife\u201d follow the same type of exponential function. \u201cThe constant\nsynthesis then of specific material from simple compounds of a\nnon-specific character is the chief feature by which living matter differs\nfrom non-living matter.... This problem of synthesis leads to the\nassumption of immortality of the living cell, since there is no _a priori_\nreason why this synthesis should ever come to a standstill of its own\naccord as long as enough food is available and the proper outside physical\nconditions are guaranteed.... The idea that the body cells are naturally\nimmortal and die only if exposed to extreme injuries such as prolonged\nlack of oxygen or too high a temperature helps to make one problem more\nintelligible. The medical student, who for the first time realizes that\nlife depends upon that one organ, the heart, doing its duty incessantly\nfor the seventy years or so allotted to man, is amazed at the\nprecariousness of our existence. It seems indeed uncanny that so delicate\na mechanism should function so regularly for so many years. The mysticism\nconnected with this and other phenomena of adaptation would disappear if\nwe would be certain that all cells are really immortal and that the fact\nwhich demands an explanation is not the continued activity but the\ncessation of activity in death. Thus we see that the idea of the\nimmortality of the body cell if it can be generalized may be destined to\nbecome one of the main supports for a complete physico-chemical analysis\nof life phenomena since it makes the durability of organisms\nintelligible....\u201d (_The Organism as a Whole_, by Jacques Loeb.)\n\nThe outlook for those who live and profess selfish, greedy, \u201cspace-binding\nanimal standards\u201d is not very promising as disclosed by the \u201cspiral,\u201d but\nunhappily we cannot help them; only time-binding\u2014only fulfilling the\nnatural laws for humans\u2014can give them the full benefit of their natural\ncapacities by which they will be able to raise themselves above animals\nand their fate.\n\nThe results obtained in scientific biological researches are growing very\nrapidly and every advance in their knowledge proves this theory to be\ntrue. If they differ in a few instances it is not because the principles\nof this theory are wrong, but because they intermix dimensions and use\nwords not sufficiently defined which always results in confusion and the\nchecking of the progress of science.\n\nMost of the problems touched upon in this appendix from a mathematical\npoint of view are based upon laboratory facts. We have only to collect\nthem and there is little need of imagination to see their general bearing.\nSince we have discovered the fact that Man is a time-binder (no matter\nwhat time is) and have introduced the sense of dimensionality into the\nstudy of life phenomena in general, a great many facts which were not\nclear before become very clear now.\n\nI wrote this book on a farm without any books at hand and I had been out\nof touch with the progress of science for the five years spent in the war\nservice and war duties. My friend Dr. Grove-Korski, formerly at Berkeley\nUniversity, drew my attention particularly to the books of Dr. Jacques\nLoeb. I found there a treasury of laboratory facts which illustrate as\nnothing better could, the correctness of my theory. I found with deep\nsatisfaction that the new \u201cscientific biology\u201d is scientific because it\nhas used mathematical methods with notable regard to dimensionality\u2014they\ndo not \u201cmilk an automobile.\u201d\n\nFor the mathematician and the engineer, the \u201ctropism theory of animal\nconduct,\u201d founded by Dr. J. Loeb, is of the greatest interest, because\nthis is a theory which analyses the functions and reactions of an organism\n_as a whole_ and therefore there is no chance for confusion of ideas or\nthe intermixing of dimensions.\n\n\n    \u201cPhysiologists have long been in the habit of studying not the\n    reactions of the whole organism but the reactions of isolated\n    segments; the so-called reflexes. While it may seem justifiable to\n    construct the reactions of the organism as a whole from the\n    individual reflexes, such an attempt is in reality doomed to\n    failure, since the reactions produced in an isolated element\n    cannot be counted upon to occur when the same element is part of\n    the whole, on account of the mutual inhibitions which the\n    different parts of the organism produce upon each other when in\n    organic connection; and it is, therefore, impossible to express\n    the conduct of a whole animal as the algebraic sum of the reflexes\n    of its isolated segments.... It would, therefore, be a\n    misconception to speak of tropism as of reflexes, since tropisms\n    are reactions of the organism as a whole, while reflexes are\n    reactions of isolated segments. Reflexes and tropisms agree,\n    however, in one respect, inasmuch as both are obviously of a\n    purely physico-chemical character.\u201d _Forced Movements\u2014Tropism and\n    Animal Conduct._ By Jacques Loeb.\n\n\nI will quote here only a very few passages, but these books are of such\nimportance that every mathematician and engineer should read them. They\nare, if I may say so, a \u201cmathematical biology\u201d\u2014the survey of a life long\nstudy of \u201ctropisms,\u201d which is the name given to express \u201cforced movements\u201d\nin organisms. They give the quintessence of laboratory experiments as to\nwhat are the effects of different energies such as light (heliotropism),\nelectricity (galvanotropism), gravity (geotropism), etc., in their\nreaction and influence upon the movements and actions of living organisms.\nThese experiments are conclusive and the conclusions arrived at cannot be\noverlooked or evaded. The tremendous practical results of such scientific\nmethods are based upon two principles, namely: that, (1) the scientists\nmust think mathematically, their studies of the phenomena must be in\n\u201csystems\u201d as a complex whole, and they must not intermix dimensions; (2)\nthey must see the danger and not be afraid of old words with wrong\nmeanings, but must use clear and rigorous thinking to eliminate the\nprejudices in science\u2014the poison of metaphysical speculating with words,\nor verbalism. These books give ample proofs of how misleading and\nobscuring are the words used and how basically wrong are the conclusions\narrived at by such scientists as still persist in using the\nanthropomorphic or teleological methods of analysis. If a sceptical or\ndoubtful reader is interested to see an ample proof of how deadly is the\neffect which an incorrect or unmathematical manner of thinking brings into\nscience and life\u2014he also may be referred to these books. The following\nquotations prove biologically that man is of a totally different\ndimension\u2014a totally different being than an animal. From Dr. Conklin I\nquote only from his _Heredity and Environment_ and to save a repetition of\nthe title of the book, I will indicate the quotations by using only his\nname. (All italics are indicated by A. K.)\n\n\n    \u201cIt would be of the greatest importance to show directly that the\n    _homologous proteins of different species are different_. _This\n    has been done_ for hemoglobins of the blood by Reichert and Brown,\n    who have shown by crystallographic measurements that the\n    hemoglobins of any species are definite substances for that\n    species.... The following sentences by Reichert and Brown seem to\n    indicate that this may be true for the crystals of hemoglobin.\n    \u2018_The hemoglobins of any species are different substances for that\n    species._ But upon comparing the corresponding substances\n    hemoglobins in different species of a genus it is generally found\n    that they differ the one from the other to a greater or less\n    degree; the differences being such that when complete\n    crystallographic data are available the different _species can be\n    distinguished_ by these _differences in their hemoglobins_\u2019....\n    The facts thus far reported imply the suggestion that heredity of\n    the genus is determined by the proteins of a definite constitution\n    differing from the proteins of other genera. This constitution of\n    the proteins would therefore be responsible for the genus\n    heredity. The different species of a genus have all the same genus\n    proteins, but the proteins of each species of the same genus are\n    apparently different again in chemical constitution and hence they\n    may give rise to the specific biological or immunity reactions.\u201d\n    _The Organism as a Whole_, by Jacques Loeb.\n\n    \u201c_All peculiarities which are characteristic of a race, species,\n    genus, order, class and phylum are of course inherited_, otherwise\n    there would be no constant characteristics of these groups and no\n    possibility of classifying organisms. The chief characters of\n    every living thing are unalterably fixed by heredity. Men do not\n    gather grapes of thorns nor figs of thistles. Every living thing\n    produces off-spring after its own kind, Men, horses, cattle;\n    birds, reptiles, fishes; insects, mollusks, worms; polyps,\n    sponges, micro-organisms,\u2014all of the million known species of\n    animals and plants differ from one another because of inherited\n    peculiarities, _because they have come from different kinds of\n    germ cells_.\u201d Conklin.\n\n    \u201cThe entire organism consisting of structures and functions, body\n    and mind, develops out of the germ, and the organization of the\n    germ determines all the possibilities of development of the mind\n    no less than of the body, though the actual realization of any\n    possibility is dependent also upon environmental stimuli.\u201d...\n    Conklin.\n\n    \u201cThe development of the mind _parallels that of the body_;\n    whatever the ultimate relation of the mind and body may be, there\n    can be _no_ reasonable _doubt_ that the two develop together from\n    the germ. It is a curious fact that many people who are seriously\n    disturbed by scientific teaching as to the evolution or gradual\n    development of the human race accept with equanimity the universal\n    observation as to the development of the human individual,\u2014mind as\n    well as body. The animal ancestry of the race is surely no more\n    disturbing to philosophical or religious beliefs than the germinal\n    origin of the individual, and yet the latter is a fact of\n    universal observation which cannot be relegated to the domain of\n    hypothesis or theory, and which can not be successfully denied....\n    Now we know that the child comes from the germ cells which are not\n    made by the bodies of the parents but have arisen by the division\n    of the antecedent germ cell. _Every cell comes from a pre-existing\n    cell_ by a process of division, and _every germ cell comes from a\n    pre-existing germ cell_. Consequently it is not possible to hold,\n    that the body generates germ cells, nor that the soul generates\n    souls. The only possible scientific position is that the _mind_ or\n    soul as well as the body develops from the _germ_.\n\n    \u201cNo fact in human experience is more certain than that the mind\n    develops by gradual and natural processes from a simple condition\n    which can scarcely be called mind at all; no fact in human\n    experience is fraught with greater practical and philosophical\n    significance than this, and yet no fact is more generally\n    disregarded.\u201d Conklin.\n\n    \u201cDoubtless the elements of which _consciousness_ develops are\n    _present in the germ cells_, in the same sense that the elements\n    of the other psychic processes or of the organs of the body are\n    there present; not as a miniature of the adult condition, but\n    rather in the form of elements or factors, which by long series of\n    combinations and transformations, due to interactions with one\n    another and with the environment, give rise to the fully developed\n    condition.... It is an interesting fact that in man, and in\n    several other animals which may be assumed to have a sense of\n    identity, the nerve cells, especially those of the _brain_, _cease\n    dividing_ at an early age, and these identical cells persist\n    throughout the remainder of life.\u201d...\n\n    \u201cThe hen does not produce the egg, but the egg produces the hen\n    and also other eggs. Individual traits are not transmitted from\n    the hen to the egg, but they develop out of germinal factors which\n    are carried along from _cell to cell, and from generation to\n    generation_....\u201d\n\n    \u201cThe germ is the undeveloped organism which forms the bond between\n    successive generations; the person is the developed organism which\n    arises from the germ under the influence of environmental\n    conditions, the person develops and dies in each generation; the\n    germ-plasm is the continuous stream of living substance which\n    connects all generations. The person nourishes and protects the\n    germ, and in this sense the person is merely the carrier of the\n    germ-plasm, the _mortal trustee_ of an immortal substance.\u201d\n    Conklin.\n\n\nThis is what I call \u201ctime-linking.\u201d (Author.)\n\n\n    \u201cThrough intelligence and social cooperation he is able to control\n    environment for particular ends, in a manner quite impossible in\n    other organisms.... Other animals develop much more rapidly than\n    man but that development sooner comes to an end. The children of\n    lower races of man develop more rapidly than those of higher races\n    but in such cases they also cease to develop at an earlier age.\n    The prolongation of the period of infancy and of immaturity in the\n    human race greatly increases the importance of environment and\n    training as _factors of development_.\u201d Conklin.\n\n\nAnother sidelight given on the \u201cSpiral theory.\u201d (Author.)\n\n\n    \u201cIn education also we are strangely blind to proper aims and\n    methods. Any education is bad which leads to the formation of\n    habits of idleness, carelessness, failure, instead of habits of\n    industry, thoroughness and success. Any religious or social\n    institution is bad which leads to habits of pious make-believe,\n    insincerity, slavish regard for authority and disregard for\n    evidence, instead of habits of sincerity, open-mindedness and\n    independence....\u201d\n\n    \u201cAll that man now is he has come to be without conscious human\n    guidance. If evolution has progressed from the am[oe]ba to man\n    without human interference, if the great progress from ape-like\n    men to the most highly civilized races has taken place without\n    conscious human control, the question may well be asked: Is it\n    possible to improve on the natural method of evolution? It may not\n    be possible to improve on the method of evolution and yet by\n    intelligent action it may be possible to facilitate that method.\n    _Man can not change a single law of nature but he can put himself\n    into such relations to natural laws that he can profit by them._\u201d\n    Conklin.\n\n\nThis proves the great importance of KNOWING THE NATURAL LAWS for the human\nclass of life, and making natural time-binding impulses conscious, for\nthen only will the spiral give a logarithmical accumulation of the right\nkind, otherwise the biolyte will be \u201canimal\u201d in substance as well as in\neffect. Here it is immaterial how the first \u201ctime-binder\u201d was produced;\nthe fact that he is of another dimension is of the greatest importance.\n\n\n    \u201cFrom sands to stars, from the immensity of the universe to the\n    minuteness of the electron, in living things no less than in\n    lifeless ones, science recognizes everywhere the inevitable\n    sequence of cause and effect, the universality of natural\n    processes, the reign of natural law. _Man also is a part of\n    Nature, a part of the great mechanism of the_ universe, and all\n    that he is and _does is limited and prescribed by laws of nature_.\n    Every human being comes into existence by a process of\n    development, every step of which is determined by antecedent\n    causes.... Our anatomical, physiological, psychological\n    possibilities were predetermined in the _germ cells_ from which we\n    came....\u201d Conklin.\n\n\nThis shows the importance of keeping the study of humans in their own\ndimensionality, and also the importance of finding the IMPERSONAL NATURAL\nLAWS for the human class of life. Now it can be realized that all the\nso-called human ideals are none else than the ever growing fulfillment of\nthe NATURAL \u201cTIME-BINDING\u201d LAWS. This understanding will enable man to\ndiscover new \u201ctime-binding\u201d laws for their conduct, their business\nrelations, their state, which will not be a contradiction of the real,\nNATURAL LAWS but will be in accord with them; then and only then human\nprogress will have a chance to develop peacefully.\n\n\n    \u201cAdult characteristics are potential and not actual in the germ,\n    and their actual appearance depends upon many complicated\n    reactions of the germinal units with one another and with the\n    environment. In short, our actual personalities are not\n    predetermined in the germ cells, but our possible personalities\n    are.... The influence of environment upon the minds and morals of\n    men is especially great. To a large extent our habits, words,\n    thoughts; our aspirations, ideals, satisfactions; our\n    responsibility, morality, religion are the results of the\n    environment and education of our early years....\u201d\n\n    \u201cOwing to this vastly greater power of memory, reflection and\n    inhibition man is much freer than any other animal. Animals which\n    learn little from experience have little freedom and the more they\n    learn the freer they become....\u201d Conklin.\n\n\nIt may be added here that the \u201cspiral theory\u201d explains how our reactions\ncan be accelerated and elaborated by ourselves, and how truly we are the\nmasters of our destinies.\n\n\n    \u201cBecause we can find no place in our philosophy and logic for self\n    determination shall we cease to be scientists and close our eyes\n    to the evidence? The first duty of science is to appeal to fact\n    and to settle later with logic and philosophy....\u201d Conklin.\n\n\nThere will be no difficulty in the settlement of facts with the new\nphilosophy of \u201cHuman Engineering.\u201d\n\n\n    \u201cThe analysis of instinct from a purely physiological point of\n    view ultimately furnishes the data for a scientific ethics. Human\n    happiness is based upon the possibility of a natural and\n    harmonious satisfaction of the instincts.... It is rather\n    remarkable that we should still be under the influence of an\n    ethics which considers the human instincts in themselves low and\n    their gratification vicious. That such an ethics must have had a\n    comforting effect upon the orientals, whose instincts were\n    inhibited or warped through the combined effects of an enervating\n    climate, despotism and miserable economic conditions is\n    intelligible, and it is perhaps due to a continuation of the\n    unsatisfactory economic conditions that this ethics still prevails\n    to some extent.... Lawyers, criminologists and philosophers\n    frequently imagine that only want makes man work. This is an\n    erroneous view. We are instinctively forced to be active in the\n    same way as ants or bees. The instinct of workmanship would be the\n    greatest source of happiness if it were not for the fact that our\n    present social and economic organization allows only a few to\n    satisfy this instinct. Robert Mayer has pointed out that any\n    successful display or setting free of energy is a source of\n    pleasure to us. This is the reason why the satisfaction of the\n    instinct of workmanship is of such importance in the economy of\n    life, for the play and learning of the child, as well as for the\n    scientists or commercial work of the man.... We can vary at will\n    the instincts of animals. A number of marine animals ... go away\n    from the light, can be forced to go to light in two ways, first by\n    lowering the temperature and second by increasing the\n    concentration of the sea water, whereby the cells of the animals\n    lose water. This instinct can be again reversed by raising the\n    temperature or by lowering the concentration of the sea water. I\n    have found repeatedly that by the same conditions by which\n    phenomena of growth and organization can be controlled the\n    instincts are controlled also. This indicates that there is a\n    common basis for both classes of life phenomena. This common base\n    is the physical and chemical character of the mixture of\n    substances which we call protoplasm.... _The greatest happiness in\n    life_ can be obtained only if _all instincts_, that of workmanship\n    included, can be maintained at a certain _optimal intensity_. But\n    while it is certain that the individual can ruin or diminish the\n    value of its life by a onesided development of its instincts,\n    e.g., dissipation, it is at the same time true that the _economic\n    and social conditions can ruin or diminish the value of life for a\n    great number of individuals_. It is no doubt true that in our\n    present social and economic conditions more than ninety per cent\n    of human beings lead an existence whose value is far below what it\n    should be. They are compelled by want to sacrifice a number of\n    instincts especially the most valuable among them, that of\n    workmanship, in order to save the lowest and most imperative, that\n    of eating. If those who amass immense fortunes could possibly\n    intensify their lives with their abundance, it might perhaps be\n    rational to let many suffer in order to have a few cases of true\n    happiness. But for an increase of happiness only that amount of\n    money is of service which can be used for the harmonious\n    development and satisfaction of inherited instincts. For this,\n    comparatively little is necessary. The rest is of no more use to a\n    man than the surplus of oxygen in the atmosphere. As a matter of\n    fact, the only true satisfaction a multimillionaire can possibly\n    get from increasing his fortunes, is the satisfaction of the\n    instinct of workmanship or the pleasure that is connected with a\n    successful display of energy. The scientist gets this satisfaction\n    without diminishing the value of life of his fellow being, and the\n    same should be true for the business man.... Although we recognize\n    no metaphysical free-will, we do not deny personal responsibility.\n    We can fill the memory of the young generation with such\n    associations as will prevent wrong doing or dissipation....\n    Cruelty in the penal code and the tendency to exaggerate\n    punishment are sure signs of a low civilization and of an\n    imperfect educational system.... It seems to me that we can no\n    more expect to unravel the mechanism of associative memory by\n    histological or morphological methods than we can expect to\n    unravel the dynamics of electrical phenomena by microscopic study\n    of cross-sections through a telegraph wire or by counting and\n    locating the telephone connections in a big city. If we are\n    anxious to develop a dynamic of the various life-phenomena, we\n    must remember that the colloidal substances are the machines which\n    produce the life phenomena, but the physics of these substances is\n    still a science of the future.... Physiology gives us no answer to\n    the latter question. The idea of specific energy has always been\n    regarded as the terminus for the investigation of the sense\n    organs. Mach expressed the opinion that chemical conditions lie at\n    the foundation of sensation in general....\u201d _Comparative\n    Physiology of the Brain_, by Jacques Loeb.\n\n\nHere it may be added that the \u201cInstinct of Workmanship\u201d in the animal\nclass, becomes in the time-binding class of life the instinct of\n_creation_, and is nothing else than the expression of the natural impulse\nof the \u201cTime-binding\u201d energy. In the present social and economic system\nvery few have a possibility to satisfy this instinct; scientific\nmanagement is or may be satisfying the animal instinct of workmanship, but\nit is not satisfactory to the instinct of creation. \u201cTime-binding\u201d in its\nlast analysis is creation and only such a social and economic system as\nwill satisfy this want\u2014this natural impulse\u2014will satisfy Humans\u2014the\n\u201cTime-binders\u201d\u2014and will bring about their fullest growth in work and\nhappiness.\n\n\u201cLAWS OF GROWTH\u201d (from _Unified Mathematics_, by Louis C. Karpinski,\nPh.D.). \u201c_Compound interest function_.\u2014The function _S_ = _P_(1 + _i_)_n_\nis of fundamental importance in other fields than in finance. Thus the\ngrowth of timber of a large forest tract may be expressed as a function of\nthis kind, the assumption being that in a large tract the rate of growth\nmay be taken as uniform from year to year. In the case of bacteria growing\nunder ideal conditions in a culture, _i.e._ with unlimited food supplied,\nthe increase in the number of bacteria per second is proportional to the\nnumber of bacteria present at the beginning of that second. Any function\nin which the rate of change or rate of growth at any instant _t_ is\ndirectly proportional to the value of the function at the instant _t_\nobeys what has been termed the \u2018law of organic growth,\u2019 and may be\nexpressed by the equation,\n\n_y = ce__kt_,\n\nwherein _c_ and _k_ are constants determined by the physical facts\ninvolved, and _e_ is a constant of nature analogous to \u03c0. The constant _k_\nis the proportionality constant and is negative when the quantity in\nquestion decreases; _c_ is commonly positive;\n\n_e_ = 2.178....\n\n\u201cThe values of the function of _x, ce__kx__, increase according to the\nterms of a geometrical progression as the variable x increases in\narithmetical progression_....\n\n\u201cThe most immediate application of a function in which the growth is\nproportional to the function itself is to the air. The decrease in the\npressure of the air at the distance _h_ above the earth\u2019s surface is\nproportional to _h_.\n\n\u201cThe expression _P = 760 e__-h/7990_ gives the numerical value of the\npressure in millimeters of mercury for _h_ measured in meters. The\nnegative exponent indicates that the pressure decreases as _h_ increases.\nIn inches as units of length of the mercury column, _h_ in feet,\n\n_P = 29.92e__-h/26200_\n\nThis is known as Halley\u2019s law.\n\n\u201cThe growth of bean plants within limited intervals and the growth of\nchildren, again between quite restricted limits, follow approximately the\nlaw of organic growth. Radium in decomposing follows the same law; the\nrate of decrease at any instant being proportional to the quantity. In the\ncase of vibrating bodies, like a pendulum, the rate of decrease of the\namplitude follows this law; similarly in the case of a noise dying down\nand in certain electrical phenomena, the rate of decrease is proportional\nat any instant to the value of the function at the instant....\n\n\u201c_The Curve of Healing of a Wound._\u2014Closely allied to the formulas\nexpressing the law of organic growth, _y = e__kt_, and the law of \u2018organic\ndecay,\u2019 _y = e__-kt_, is a recently discovered law which connects\nalgebraically by an equation and graphically by a curve, the surface-area\nof a wound, with time expressed in days, measured from the time when the\nwound is aseptic or sterile. When this aseptic condition is reached, by\nwashing and flushing continually with antiseptic solutions, two\nobservations at an interval commonly of four days give the \u2018index of the\nindividual,\u2019 and this index, and the two measurements of area of the\nwound-surface, enable the physician-scientist to determine the normal\nprogress of the wound-surface, the expected decrease in area, for this\nwound-surface of this individual. The area of the wound is traced\ncarefully on transparent paper, and then computed by using a mathematical\nmachine, called a planimeter, which measures areas.\n\n\u201cThe areas of the wound are plotted as ordinates with the respective times\nof observation measured in days as abscissas. After each observation and\ncomputation of area the point so obtained is plotted to the same axes as\nthe graph which gives the ideal or prophetic curve of healing.\n\n\u201cWhen the observed area is found markedly greater than that determined by\nthe ideal curve, the indication is that there is still infection in the\nwound.... A rather surprising and unexplained situation occurs frequently\nwhen the wound-surface heals more rapidly than the ideal curve would\nindicate; in this event secondary ulcers develop which bring the curve\nback to normal....\n\n\u201cThis application of mathematics to medicine is largely due to Dr. Alexis\nCarrel of the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research. He noted that the\nlarger the wound-surface, the more rapidly it healed, and that the rate of\nhealing seemed to be proportional to the area. This proportionality\nconstant is not the same for all values of the surface or we would have an\nequation of the form,\n\n_S = S__1__e__-kt_\n\nin which _S_, is the area at the time that the wound is rendered sterile\nand observations to be plotted really begin....\n\n\u201cThe data given are taken from the Journal of Experimental Medicine,\nreprints kindly furnished by Major George A. Stewart of the Rockefeller\nInstitute. The diagrams are reproduced from the issue of Feb. 1, 1918, pp.\n171 and 172, article by Dr. T. Tuffier and R. Desmarres, Auxiliary\nHospital 75, Paris....\n\n[ A graph, showing the progress of healing of a surface wound of the right\nleg of a 31-year-old patient. It shows that as time passes, the wounded\narea decreases. ]\n\nProgress of healing of a surface wound of the right leg, patient\u2019s age 31\nyears.\n\n\n\u201cWAVE MOTION. General.\u2014In nature there are two types of recurrent motion,\nsomewhat closely connected mathematically, in which repetition of motion\noccurs at regular intervals.\n\n\u201cOne type of this motion, in cycles as we may say, repeats the motion in\none place, and is in a sense stationary. The tuning fork in motion moves\nthrough the same space again and again; a similar movement is the motion\nof a vibrating string. Of this stationary type may be mentioned the\nheartbeats, the pulse, the respiration, the tides, and the rotation of a\nwheel about its axis.\n\n\u201cThe second type of recurrent motion transmits or carries the vibratory\nimpulse over an extent of space as well as time. The waves of the sea are\nof this character. Sound waves, electrical vibrations or waves, and\nradiant energy vibrations are transmitted by a process similar to that by\nwhich the waves of the sea are carried.\n\n\u201cBoth of these types of motion are representable mathematically by\nequations involving a sequence of trigonometric functions. To the\nfundamental and basic function involved, _y_ = sin _x_, we will direct our\nattention in the next section and to simple applications in other sections\nof this chapter....\n\n\u201cSound Waves.\u2014If a tuning fork for note lower C is set to vibrating, the\nfree bar makes 129 complete, back-and-forth, vibrations in one second. By\nattaching a fine point to the end of the bar and moving under this bar at\na uniform rate, as it vibrates, a smoke-blackened paper, a sinusoidal\ncurve is traced on the paper. Our curve is traced by a bar vibrating 50\ntimes in 1 second.\n\n[ A graph, showing a wavy line. \u201cTuning fork vibrations recorded on smoked\npaper.\u201d ]\n\nTuning fork vibrations recorded on smoked paper.\n\n\n\u201cCorresponding to each movement of the vibrating rod there is a movement\nof the air. As the bar moves to the right it compresses the layer of air\nto its right and that _compression_ is immediately communicated to the\nlayer of air to the right; as the bar moves back and to the left, the\npressure on the adjacent air is released and a _rarefaction_ takes place.\nIn 1/50 of 1 second you have the air adjacent to the rod _compressed_,\nback to normal, and _rarefied_; during this time the neighboring air is\naffected and the compression is communicated a distance which is the _wave\nlength_ of this given sound wave. In 1 second this disturbance is\ntransmitted 1100 feet at 44\u00b0 Fahrenheit. The wave length for this sound\nwave then is 1100/50 = 22 feet.\n\n\u201cThe wave length is commonly designated by \u03bb. If _V_ is the velocity, and\n_t_ the time of one vibration, \u03bb = _Vt_.\u201d\n\n[ A graph, showing five wavy lines, labeled \u201ca\u201d, \u201cou\u201d, \u201cr\u201d, \u201cE\u201d, and \u201ca\u201d.\n\u201cVibration records produced by the voice: \u2018a\u2019 as in \u2018ate\u2019; \u2018ou\u2019 as in\n\u2018about\u2019; \u2018r\u2019 in \u2018relay\u2019; \u2018e\u2019 in \u2018be\u2019; and \u2018a\u2019 in \u2018father\u2019. The tuning fork\nrecord, frequency 50 per second, gives the vibration frequencies.\u201d ]\n\n\u201cVibration records produced by the voice: \u2018a\u2019 as in \u2018ate\u2019; \u2018ou\u2019 as in\n\u2018about\u2019; \u2018r\u2019 in \u2018relay\u2019; \u2018e\u2019 in \u2018be\u2019; and \u2018a\u2019 in \u2018father\u2019. The tuning fork\nrecord, frequency 50 per second, gives the vibration frequencies.\u201d\n\n\nThis last drawing may help to visualize the fact in what manner wrong\nexpressions and untrue teachings hamper the true progress of humanity.\nEvery word has its energy and produces some physico-chemical effects in\nthe time-binding apparatus in accord with the idea which we associate with\nthe sound of the word. If we teach ideas which are untrue, then the\nphysico-chemical effects produced are not proper\u2014in other words the human\nmind does NOT WORK PROPERLY, that is, it does not work _naturally_ or\n_normally_ or true to the human dimension. There is every reason why the\nstandards in our civilization are so low, because we have \u201cpoisoned,\u201d in a\nliteral sense of the word, our minds with the physico-chemical effects of\nwrong ideas. This correct NATURAL APPROACH to the \u201cTime-binding\u201d energies\nwill make it obvious how unmeasured is the importance of the manner in\nwhich we handle this subtle mechanism, as the poisoning with wrong ideas\nor with careless or incorrect words does not in any way differ in\nconsequences from poisoning with any other stupor-producing or wrongly\nstimulating poison.\n\nMonographs on Experimental Biology and Physiology\n\nLOEB, J.: \u201cComparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative\nPsychology.\u201d New York, 1900.\n\nLOEB, J.: \u201cStudies in General Physiology.\u201d Chicago, 1905.\n\nLOEB, J.: \u201cThe Dynamics of Living Matter.\u201d New York, 1906.\n\nLOEB, J.: \u201cThe Mechanistic Conception of Life.\u201d Chicago, 1912.\n\nSelection from contents: I. The Mechanistic Conception of Life. II. The\nSignificance of Tropisms for Psychology. III. Some Fundamental Facts and\nConceptions concerning the Comparative Physiology of the Central Nervous\nSystem. IV. Pattern Adaptation of Fishes and the Mechanism of Vision. V.\nOn Some Facts and Principles of Physiological Morphology. VI. On the\nNature of the Process of Fertilization. VII. On the Nature of Formative\nStipulation (Artificial Parthenogenesis). VIII. The Prevention of the\nDeath of the Egg through the Act of Fertilization. IX. The R\u00f4le of Salts\nin the Preservation of Life. X. Experimental Study of the Influence of\nEnvironment on Animals.\n\nLOEB, J.: The Organism as a Whole. G. P. Putnam\u2019s Sons. New York, 1916.\n\nSelection from contents: I. Introductory Remarks. II. The Specific\nDifference between Living and Dead Matter and the Question of the Origin\nof Life. III. The Chemical Basis of Genus and Species: 1. The\nIncompatibility of Species not Closely Related. 2. The Chemical basis of\nGenus and Species and of Species Specificity. IV. Specificity in\nFertilization. V. Artificial Parthenogenesis. VI. Determinism in the\nFormation of an Organism from an Egg. VII. Regeneration. VIII.\nDetermination of Sex, Secondary Sexual Characters and Sexual Instincts: 1.\nThe Cytological Basis of Sex Determination. 2. The Physiological Basis of\nSex Determination. IX. Mendelian Heredity and its Mechanism. X. Animal\nInstincts and Tropisms. XI. The Influence of Environment. XII. Adaptation\nto Environment. XIII. Evolution. XIV. Death and Dissolution of the\nOrganism.\n\nLOEB, J.: \u201cForced Movements, Tropisms, and Animal Conduct.\u201d J. B.\nLippincott, Philadelphia, 1918.\n\nSelection from contents: I. Introduction. II. The Symmetry Relations of\nthe Animal Body as the Starting Point for the Theory of Animal Conduct.\nIII. Forced Movements. IV. Galvanotropism. V. Heliotropism. The Influence\nof One Source of Light. 1. General Facts. 2. Direct Proof of the Muscle\nTension Theory of Heliotropism in Motile Animals. 3. Heliotropism of\nUnicellular Organisms. 4. Heliotropism of Sessile Animals. VI. An\nArtificial Heliotropic Machine. VII. Asymmetrical Animals. VIII. Two\nSources of Light of Different Intensity. IX. The Validity of the\nBunsen-Roscoe Law for the Heliotropic Reactions of Animals and Plants. X.\nThe Effect of Rapid Changes in Intensity of Light. XI. The Relative\nHeliotropic Efficiency of Light of Different Wave Lengths. XII. Change in\nthe Sense of Heliotropism. XIII. Geotropism. XIV. Forced Movements Caused\nby Moving Retina Images: Rheotropism: Anemotropism. XV. Stereotropism.\nXVI. Chemotropism. XVII. Thermotropism. XVIII. Instincts. XIX. Memory\nImages and Tropisms.\n\nA list of _554 books on this subject_, in which any reader interested will\nfind a vast storehouse of exact knowledge in this line. Author.\n\nCONKLIN, EDWIN GRANT: \u201cHeredity and Environment in the Development of\nMen.\u201d Princeton University Press, 1915.\n\nSelection from contents: I. Facts and Factors of Development.\nIntroduction. A. Phenomena of Development. B. Factors of Development. II.\nCellular Basis of Heredity and Development. A. Introductory. B. The Germ\nCells. C. The Mechanism of Heredity. D. The Mechanism of Development. III.\nPhenomena of Inheritance. A. Observations on Inheritance. B. Statistical\nStudy of Inheritance. C. Experimental Study of Inheritance. IV. Influence\nof Environment. A. Relative Importance of Heredity and Environment. B.\nExperimental Modifications of Development. C. Functional Activity as a\nFactor of Development. D. Inheritance or Non-inheritance of Acquired\nCharacters. E. Applications to Human Development: Euthenics. V. Control of\nHeredity: Eugenics. A. Domesticated Animals and Cultivated Plants. B.\nControl of Human Heredity. VI. Genetics and Ethics.\n\n\n    Glossary of books on this subject; for those who desire to be more\n    fully acquainted with the subjects of heredity and development.\n    Author.\n\n\nMORGAN, T. H., \u201cPhysical Basis of Heredity.\u201d\n\nEAST, E. M., and JONES, D. F., \u201cInbreeding and Outbreeding,\u201d etc.\n\nPARKER, G. H., \u201cThe Elementary Nervous System.\u201d\n\nHARVEY, E. N., \u201cThe Nature of Animal Light.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nAppendix III. Engineering And Time-Binding\n\n\nThe Arts of Engineering, by their very nature, are derived from the work\nof dead men and destined to serve not only the present but the future.\nThey are freer than any other human activity from the errors of\nintermixing dimensions and from the fallacy of belief in individualistic\naccomplishment and pride. The simple steel structure of a bridge, familiar\nto us in every day life, is a clear reminder to us all of the arts of\nHeph\u00e6stus and the bound-up knowledge of countless generations of smiths\nand mechanics, metallurgists and chemists, mathematicians and builders,\nteachers and engineers who toiled for many thousands of years to make\npossible the riveted steel beams which are the elements of modern\nstructure. These structures do not collapse unless the natural laws for\ntheir construction are transgressed; which seldom happens\u2014for no one is\nentrusted with the work unless he has bound up in his knowledge the\naccumulated experience of the past; yet the transgressors of these natural\nlaws are punished with all the severity of the common law. When a bridge\nis opened and tested, the written laws in some countries and the unwritten\nin others, and the pride and the sense of responsibility of the designer\nand builder of the bridge demand that he, the creator of the bridge, be\nthe first to enter it and the last to leave it; and should the bridge\ncollapse, he has to take the immediate consequences of his neglect of the\ntime-binding laws.\n\nRarely are the affairs of engineering done with the entirely selfish\nmotive of merely acquiring immediate selfish gain, for even when this\ncould be traced\u2014this unworthy thought disappears in the halo of the glory\nof the accomplishment. Mr. Eiffel did not erect his tower to haunt Paris\nwith the sight of a steel skeleton towering over the city of daring\nthoughts. His tower stands to-day as a mechanical proof of mathematical\nformulas proving the possibility of erecting tall, self-supporting\nstructures and thereby serving future humanity. The Time-binding capacity\nof humans creates and formulates new values for the service of mankind.\nAgain, no student of the Arts of Engineering could ever forget himself to\nthe point of claiming his accomplishments, no matter how marvelous, all to\nhimself. No wondrous discovery of modern electricity, not even the talking\nfrom one hemisphere to another, is rightly the accomplishment of any one\nman, for the origin of the discovery can be traced at least as far back as\nthe days of that barefooted shepherd boy Magnus, who first observed the\nphenomena of magnetism.\n\nIn an attempt to trace and evaluate the time-binding faculties manifested\nin the Arts of Engineering, one is at once astonished, and bewildered, at\nthe confusion and contradictions unrealized in the mass of evidence, and\nhow pathetic and deplorable is the sight of hundreds of thousands of\nworkers in the field of engineering toil and creation who unconsciously\nsubmit to the degradation, in silent consent, of seeing their marvelous\ncollective achievements chained to space-binding aims.\n\nUpon the completion of this book I was astonished that there are such a\nsmall number of engineers who have the intuitive feeling of the greatness\nof the assets at their command and of the gravity of their liabilities\nconcerning affairs of humanity. I was eager to have my book read and\nanalysed by a few leading engineers. The late H. L. Gantt being no more\nwith us, I then turned to Walter N. Polakov, Doctor of Engineering;\nIndustrial Counselor; Chairman of Committee on Service and Information,\nFuels Section, A.S.M.E., and Robert B. Wolf, Vice-President of A.S.M.E. In\nthem I found, to the full, a very sympathetic understanding and my esteem\ngrew as I became more intimately acquainted with the character of their\nwork and their accomplishments. Both have done a most remarkable work in\ntheir respective lines. It will not be an exaggeration to say that their\nwork, together with the work of the late H. L. Gantt and Charles P.\nSteinmetz, may be considered as the first\u2014to my knowledge\u2014corner-stones of\nthe science and art of Human Engineering, and form the first few volumes\nand writings for the New Library of the Manhood of Humanity. These books\nand pamphlets are based on facts analysed scientifically, marking the\nparting of the way of engineering thought from the past subjection to\nspeculative fetishes.\n\nOf all the pure and applied sciences, engineering alone has the\ndistinction of being the first to have the _correct_ insight into the\nhuman problem. The task of engineers was to convert knowledge\u2014brain\nwork\u2014\u201cbound-up time\u201d\u2014into daily bread by means of conserving time and\neffort. This concept is naught else but the working out of the imperfect\nformulation of the time-binding principle. It was inevitable, therefore,\nthat some engineers had already beaten the path in the right direction.\nHow straight and how far this sense of dimensionality has led some of them\nin their practical work may be seen from the work of Walter N. Polakov, in\nhis _Mastering Power Production_, Engineering Magazine, N. Y., 1921.\n\n\n    \u201cIt was not my intention to compile a text book on power\n    engineering; it was rather my care to avoid the treatment of any\n    technical subject which could be found elsewhere in engineering\n    literature; but I could not avoid trespassing in the adjoining\n    fields of psychology and economics, for without familiarity with\n    these sciences the mastery of power production is a futile\n    attempt.\n\n    \u201cI do not hold that the principles upon which the method is laid\n    out are subject to choice or opinions, for they are based on\n    facts. Yet work of this character cannot be complete, or examples\n    may be illy chosen, for it deals with living and constantly\n    reshaping relations and applies to things in process of\n    development.\n\n    \u201cIf this work and its underlying idea will facilitate the solving\n    of some of the problems now in the course of rapid evolution in\n    our industrial relations, I shall feel that my own and my readers\u2019\n    time have not been altogether lost.\u201d\n\n\nIndeed the readers\u2019 time will not be lost. This book gives an engineering,\nscientific\u2014in the meantime practical\u2014analysis of all human problems. It is\na deep and practical treatise on all great questions concerning modern\nindustrialism and so-called economic problems and is a foundation for a\nnew scientific industrial philosophy. Another very clear outline of the\n_Principles of Industrial Philosophy_ was given by Mr. Polakov in his\npaper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of\nMechanical Engineers, December 7-10, 1920. Anyone who has anything to do\nwith industrial or economic problems cannot afford to overlook the\nimportant and fundamental work in this book.\n\nIt is obvious that a scientific knowledge of facts, is of the greatest\nimportance for anyone who cares to approach any problem in a serious way.\nStatistics which are up-to-date are therefore of primary importance. I had\nthe privilege of reading the manuscript of _Quo Vadis America_, the\nforthcoming book of Mr. Polakov, where a most valuable statistical picture\nof facts in modern America is given and the astonishing conclusions which\nare to be drawn therefrom. I can only regret that in Europe we have not\nsuch a knowledge written down concerning European conditions. If more such\nbooks had been written and _read_ by the public, many crises and\ncatastrophes would have been avoided.\n\nThe outstanding contribution of Mr. Robert B. Wolf to engineering was made\nin his study of physiology, biology, psychology and philosophy as applied\nto engineering.\n\n\n    \u201cIf anyone wishes to inquire into the forces which have led up to\n    the individual development of mankind, he will find himself at\n    once plunged into the realm of psychology and mental philosophy. I\n    can heartily recommend such a course as immensely profitable and\n    of practical value.\n\n    \u201cThe five important facts, however, that have to do with the\n    subject in hand are:\n\n    \u201c_1st._ That the human body is such a wonderful organization\n    because it is the product of the forces of creation, acting\n    through millions of years of evolution.\n\n    \u201c_2nd._ That its capacity for progress depends upon the\n    maintenance of the unity resulting from this creative evolution\n    and upon a conscious recognition of this unity.\n\n    \u201c_3d._ That this unity would not have been possible without the\n    development of the nervous system.\n\n    \u201c_4th._ That the conscious intelligent progress made by mankind\n    could not have reached its present level until in the process of\n    evolution a mechanism had been built up in the nervous system\n    itself capable of recording the various impressions which the\n    senses are constantly receiving.\n\n    \u201c_5th._ That the recording of past events, with the power of\n    consciously recalling them for the solution of problems\n    immediately confronting it, is absolutely essential to its\n    development.\n\n    \u201cNow, what I want to point out is that inasmuch as man\u2019s progress\n    depends upon the perfect co-ordination of his forces to produce\n    unity of action, we have no right to expect an industrial\n    organization to make progress which it must do as a unit without\n    the establishment of a conscious co-ordinating mechanism similar\n    to the nervous system in the human body.\u201d _Individuality in\n    Industry._ By Robert B. Wolf.\n\n\nDoctor Charles P. Steinmetz has given in his _America and the New Epoch_ a\nmost correct engineering picture of the political situation in the world,\nwith a fine characterization of the psychological peculiarities of the\ndifferent races. Although this book was written in 1916, that is, before\nthe end of the World War, it will be of permanent value; because of its\ndeep psychological analysis of the peoples and their institutions which\nultimately shape the development of any nation and which do not change\nwith victory or defeat.\n\n\n    \u201cMy tribute to the memory of Gantt will be, not only the homage of\n    a friend and admirer, but the proof that his philosophy is\n    scientifically true. A rigorous proof is necessary, because the\n    word \u2018service\u2019 belongs to that category of words, the meaning of\n    which can be completely reversed by the verb, be it \u2018give\u2019 or\n    \u2018take.\u2019 Gantt took \u2018rendering service\u2019 as an axiom; my\n    observation, shared with many others, is that our civilization had\n    quite another axiom, \u2018we preach give, we practice take.\u2019 The\n    problem which interested me, was how to find a way out of this\n    contradiction that would be irrefutable. If one of them is true\n    and natural law for humans, then the other is not; if our words\n    are true, then our deeds are not true, or if our deeds are true\n    then the words are camouflage. I found the solution, by applying\n    mathematically rigorous thinking. Mathematics, with its exact\n    concept of dimensions, gave me the method. The method we use in\n    studying phenomena is analysis, or speaking mathematically,\n    differentiation. I soon found, that the methods of differentiation\n    are mostly correct, but our synthesis, or process of integration\n    made by the use of metaphysics was faulty. The differentiation\n    correctly lowered the dimensions, but our faulty integration did\n    not restore the original dimensions. The investigation had to be\n    made from the beginning, by defining the phenomena of life, in a\n    specific way, which would not permit of any blunders in\n    dimensions.\n\n    \u201cI defined the classes of life by emphasizing their incontestable,\n    dimensional characteristics: plants are \u2018Chemistry-binding,\u2019\n    animals are \u2018Space-binding,\u2019 Humans are \u2018Time-binding\u2019 classes of\n    life.\n\n    \u201cThese definitions have the peculiarity that they make it obvious,\n    that: 1. The classes of life have different dimensions, and that\n    the intermixing of dimensions, as in mathematics it makes a\n    correct solution impossible, so in life, the results of such\n    elementary mistakes, produce tragic consequences.\n\n    \u201c2. The old formula on which our civilization is built, HUMAN\n    equal ANIMAL plus or multiplied by SPARK OF DIVINITY is basically\n    and elementarily wrong, and is mathematical nonsense, which is\n    identical to such an absurdity as _x_ square inches equal _y_\n    linear inches plus or multiplied by _z_ cubic inches.\n\n    \u201c3. A basically wrong formula on which our civilization rests, is\n    the cause of all the periodical collapses, wars and revolutions.\n\n    \u201c4. The old system was built on animal \u2018space-binding\u2019 standards,\n    and human \u2018time-binding\u2019 impulses were, all the time, in\n    rebellion.\n\n    \u201c5. As the theory of gravitation and the calculus made engineers\n    and mathematicians masters of inanimate nature, so these tangible\n    and incontestable definitions give them a positive base which will\n    enable them to approach and solve human living problems, by\n    establishing the mathematical fact that man is man, not an animal.\n\n    \u201c6. All of those who are blinded by traditions and refuse to\n    investigate, or to know these mathematical truths, are a danger to\n    humanity in directly helping to obscure issues, and in helping to\n    maintain the faulty structure which, as in the past, is bound to\n    collapse again and again in the future.\n\n    \u201c7. The duty of mathematically thinking people is to throw such\n    light on this problem as will stop the stupid, or willfully\n    destructive, and show whether they are working for, or against,\n    mankind.\n\n    \u201c8. For the \u2018time-binding\u2019 class of life, it is obvious then that\n    in this dimension, \u2018time-binding\u2019 is the natural law, and, if\n    understood and analysed, it is the highest human aim.\n\n    \u201c9. Such \u2018natural laws\u2019 as \u2018survival of the fittest\u2019 for animals,\n    which is the \u2018survival of the fittest in space,\u2019 result in fight,\n    or the survival of the strongest; whereas such a law to be a\n    NATURAL LAW FOR HUMANS, must be in the human dimension which\n    obviously would be the \u2018Survival of the fittest in TIME,\u2019\n    resulting in the survival of the best.\n\n    \u201c10. All known facts must be brought to the light, to be summed\n    up, and correlated by mathematicians and engineers with the\n    strictest attention to dimensionality.\n\n    \u201c11. All of our ideas have to be revised; the animal\n    \u2018space-binding\u2019 standards must be rejected as dangerous and\n    destructive, must be replaced by \u2018time-binding\u2019 standards, which\n    will correspond to the natural impulses and NATURAL LAWS for\n    humans.\n\n    \u201c12. The minds of mathematicians and engineers are by education\n    the first to see the far reaching importance of the facts\n    disclosed by these definitions, and just this realization will\n    bring about the readjustment of values in life to a human\n    dimension, wherein pending revolutions and wars could be turned\n    into evolution, destruction into construction, discord into accord\n    of a common aim.\n\n    \u201cWe are the masters of our own destinies, the responsibility is\n    ours to correct the mistakes of our ancestors and to establish a\n    scientific philosophy, scientifically true laws, scientifically\n    true ethics, and a scientific sociology, which will form one\n    unified science of man and his function in the universe, a science\n    which I propose to call \u2018Human Engineering.\u2019 Gantt\u2019s methods would\n    be the first practical application toward this end.\n\n    \u201cGantt\u2019s concept of rendering service is scientifically true\n    because it is \u2018time-binding,\u2019 and therefore true for the human\n    class of life and in human dimension. This is why Gantt\u2019s concepts\n    have counted for so much and will survive \u2018IN TIME.\u2019 \u201d Discussion\n    by Alfred Korzybski of Mr. W. N. Polakov\u2019s paper \u201cPrinciples of\n    Industrial Philosophy\u201d presented at the Annual Meeting of The\n    American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York, December 7-10,\n    1920.\n\n\nLITERATURE\n\nGANTT, H. L.:\n\n\u201cWork, Wages, and Profits.\u201d The Engineering Magazine Co., 1913. N. Y.\n\n\u201cIndustrial Leadership.\u201d Yale University Press. 1916.\n\n\u201cOrganizing for Work.\u201d Harcourt, Brace & Howe, 1919. N. Y.\n\nSelection from Contents: The Engineer as the Industrial Leader. Economics\nand Democracy. Democracy in Production. Democracy in the Shop. Democracy\nin Management. \u201cThe Religion of Democracy.\u201d\n\nPOLAKOV, WALTER N.:\n\n\u201cMastering Power Production.\u201d The Engineering Magazine Co. 1921. N. Y.\n\nSelection from Contents: The Descent of the Principle of Production for\nUse. The Power Industry as an Economic Factor. Mastering Labor Problems.\n(Conditions) Autonomous Co-operation. Aims of Labor. Right to be Lazy and\nthe Right to a Job. Qualification of Men. The Working Day. Fatigue.\nUNIVERSAL LABOR (_Corresponding exactly to Time-binding\u2014Author_). The\nPosition of an Engineer. Mastering Labor Problems. Compensation. The\nSocial Aspect. The Economic Aspect. The Basis of Wages. Incentive\nPayments. Profit Sharing. Premium Places. Rewarding Individual Efforts.\nTwo-rate wages. Energy as a Commodity.\n\n\u201cPrinciples of Industrial Philosophy.\u201d Presented at the Annual Meeting of\nthe A. S. of M. E., December, 1920.\n\n\u201cEquipment and Machinery.\u201d Y. M. C. A. Association Press. 1921. N. Y.\n\n\u201cOrganization and Management.\u201d Y. M. C. A. Association Press. 1921. N. Y.\n\n\u201cQuo Vadis America?\u201d In preparation.\n\nSTEINMETZ, CHARLES P.:\n\n\u201cAmerica and the New Epoch.\u201d Harper & Brothers. 1916. N. Y.\n\nSelection from Contents: The Individualistic Era: From Competition to\nCo-operation. England in the Individualistic Era. Germany in the\nIndividualistic Era. The Other European Nations in the Individualistic\nEra. America in the Individualistic Era. Evolution: Industrial Government.\n\n\u201cIncentive and Initiative.\u201d Y. M. C. A. Association Press. 1921. N. Y.\n\nWOLF, ROBERT B.: Pamphlets.\n\n\u201cIndividuality in Industry.\u201d Bulletin of the Society to promote the\nScience of Management. Vol. I. No. 4. August, 1915.\n\n\u201cThe Creative Workman.\u201d Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper\nIndustry. 1918. N. Y.\n\n\u201cNon-Financial Incentives.\u201d Presented at the Annual Meeting of the A. S.\nof M. E. December, 1918. N. Y.\n\n\u201cModern Industry and the Individual.\u201d A. W. Shaw & Co. 1919. N. Y.\n\n\u201cSecuring the Initiative of the Workman.\u201d American Economic Association.\n1919. N. Y.\n\n\u201cCreative Spirit in Industry.\u201d Y. M. C. A. Association Press. 1921. N. Y.\n\nMISCELLANEOUS LIST OF BOOKS\n\nVON BERNHARDI, General F.: \u201cGermany and the Next War.\u201d E. Arnold, London.\n1912.\n\nBRANDEIS, LOUIS: \u201cOther People\u2019s Money and How the Bankers Use it.\u201d F. A.\nStokes, N. Y. 1914.\n\nTHOMAS FARROW and WALTER CROTCH: \u201cThe Coming Trade War.\u201d Chapman & Hall,\nLondon. 1916.\n\nHUEFFER, FORD MADDOX: \u201cWhen Blood is Their Argument.\u201d Hodder & Stoughton.\n1915. N. Y.\n\nHAUSER, HENRY: \u201cGermany\u2019s Commercial Grip on the World, Her Business\nMethods Explained.\u201d E. Nash Co., London. 1917.\n\nLAUGHLIN, J. L.: \u201cCredit of the Nations.\u201d Scribner\u2019s Sons, N. Y. 1918.\n\nMAETZU, RAMIRO DE: \u201cAuthority, Liberty and Function in the Light of War.\u201d\nGeo. Allen and Unwin.\n\nDELAISI, FRANCIS: French Opinion, \u201cThe Inevitable War.\u201d Small, Maynard &\nCo., Boston. 1915.\n\nNEILSON, FRANCIS: English Opinion, \u201cHow Diplomats Make War.\u201d B. W.\nHuebsch. 1916.\n\nBY A GERMAN (German Opinion). \u201cJ\u2019Accuse!\u201d Hodder & Stoughton, London.\n1915.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n\n    1 To digress a bit, it may be interesting to add, that population and\n      the need of people increase in a geometrical progression; and also\n      that the growth of individuals is limited by the fact, that they\n      have to absorb their food through surfaces which as growth goes on\n      increase only as _squares_, while the bodies to be fed, being\n      volumes, increase in size as _cubes_ increase, as the cubes of the\n      same base grow faster than the squares,\n\n      22 = 4, 23 = 8, 32 = 9, 33 = 27, and so on,\n\n      it is obvious, that in the infancy of an organism only a part of the\n      food goes to maintain life, the larger part goes for growth; when\n      the organism becomes larger, the absorbing surfaces, growing\n      proportionally to the square, the food is spent to build the mass of\n      the volume of the body and is spent proportionally to the cube.\n      Suppose our organism has grown to a size twice as large, its\n      absorbing capacity has become four times larger, its volume eight\n      times larger. In case of 3 times, the difference will be 9 and 27.\n      It is obvious that at some point, all the absorbed food will be used\n      to maintain life and none will be left for growth, and this last\n      process will stop. This is another example which explains how the\n      theory of dimensions is vitally important in life and shows why it\n      is absolutely essential to take account of dimensions in the study\n      of life problems.\n\n_    2 An Outline of the History of the Western European Mind_, by James\n      Harvey Robinson. The New School for Social Research, New York, 1919.\n      This little volume gives condensed statements, as in a nutshell, of\n      the historical developments of the human mind and contains a long\n      list of the most substantial modern books on historical questions.\n      All the further historical quotations will be taken from this\n      exceptionally valuable little book, and for convenience they will\n      simply be marked by his initials\u2014J. H. R.\n\n    3 (J. H. R.) \u201cLate appearance of a definite theory of progress.\n      Excessive conservatism of primitive peoples. The Greeks speculated\n      on the origin of things, but they did not have a conception of the\n      possibility of indefinite progress ... Progress of man from the\n      earliest time till the opening of the 17th century almost altogether\n      unconscious.... Fundamental weakness of Hellenic learning. It was an\n      imposing collection of speculation, opinions, and guesses, which,\n      however brilliant and ingenious they might be, were based on a very\n      slight body of exact knowledge, and failed to recognize the\n      fundamental necessity of painful scientific research, aided by\n      apparatus. There was no steady accumulation of knowledge to offset\n      the growing emotional distrust of reason.... Unfulfilled promise of\n      Hellenistic science. Influence of slavery in checking the\n      development of science.... The deficiencies of Medieval culture. All\n      the weaknesses of the Hellenic reasoning, combined with those of the\n      Christian Fathers, underlay what appeared to be a most logically\n      elaborated and definitive system of thought. Defects of the\n      university education.... Little history of Natural science, in our\n      sense of the word, taught in the universities.... Copernicus, \u2018De\n      Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium.\u2019 Libri VI, 1543.... Copernicus\u2019\n      own introduction acknowledges his debt to ancient philosophers.\n      Still believed in fixed Starry Sphere. His discovery had little\n      immediate effect on prevailing notions. Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)\n      made it his chief business to think out and set forth in Latin and\n      Italian the implications of the discovery of Copernicus.... Bruno\n      burned by the Inquisition at Rome.... Keppler (1571-1630) and his\n      discovery of the elliptical orbits of the planets. Galileo\n      (1564-1642). His telescope speedily improved so as to magnify 32\n      diameters. His attitude toward the Copernican theory, which was\n      condemned by Roman Inquisition 1616.... Galileo\u2019s chief discoveries\n      were in physics and mechanics. Isaac Newton (1642-1727) proved that\n      the laws of falling bodies apply to the heavens. This made a deep\n      impression and finally the newer conceptions of the universe began\n      to be popularized.... Lord Bacon (1561-1626), the \u2018Buccinator\u2019 of\n      experimental and applied modern science.... His lively appreciation\n      of the existing obstacles to scientific advance; the idols of the\n      tribe, cave, market-place, and theatre.... Necessity of escaping\n      from the scholastic methods of \u2018tumbling up and down in our reasons\n      and conceits,\u2019 and studying the world about us. Undreamed of\n      achievements possible if only the right method of research be\n      followed ... the distrust of ancient authority.... Descartes\n      (1596-1650), ... he proposed to reach the truth through analysis and\n      clear ideas, on the assumption that God will not deceive.... His\n      fundamental interest in mathematics.... His claim to originality and\n      his rejection of all authority.... Obstacles to scientific advance;\n      the universities still dominated by Aristotle; the theological\n      faculties; the censorship of the press exercised by both church and\n      state; ...\u201d\n\n    4 (J. H. R.) \u201cPhases of religious complex. \u2018Religious,\u2019 a vague and\n      comprehensive term applied to: (1) certain classes of emotions (awe,\n      dependence, self-distrust, aspirations, etc.); (2) Conduct, which\n      may take the form of distinctive religious acts (ceremonies,\n      sacrifices, prayers, \u2018good works\u2019) or the observance of what in\n      primitive conditions are recognized as \u2018taboos\u2019; (3) Priestly, or\n      ecclesiastical organizations; (4) Beliefs about supernatural beings\n      and man\u2019s relations to them: the latter may take the form of\n      revelation and be reduced to creeds and become the subject of\n      elaborate theological speculations.\n\n      \u201cAssociation of religion with the supernatural; religion has always\n      had for its primary object the attainment of a satisfactory\n      adjustment to, or a successful control over, the supernatural....\n      The cultural mind viewed as the product of a long and hazardous\n      process of accumulation.... Spontaneous generation of superstitions.\n      Prevalence of symbolism, mana, animism, magic, fetishism, totemism;\n      the taboo (cf. our modern idea of \u2018principle\u2019), the sacred, clean\n      and unclean; \u2018dream logic\u2019\u2014spontaneous rationalizing or \u2018jumping at\n      conclusions\u2019;... The 16th book of the Theodosian Code contains\n      edicts relating to the Church issued by the Roman Emperors during\n      the 4th and 5th centuries. They make it a crime to disagree with the\n      Church; they provide harsh penalties for heretical teaching and\n      writing, and grant privileges to the orthodox clergy (exemptions\n      from regular taxes and benefit of the clergy).... Christianity\n      becomes a monopoly defended by the state.... Psychological power and\n      attraction in the elaborate symbolism and ritual of the church....\n      Allegory put an end to all literary criticism.... Flourishing of the\n      miraculous; any unusual or startling occurrence attributed to the\n      intervention of either God or the Devil.... Older conceptions of\n      disease as caused by the Devil.... Our legal expression \u2018act of God\u2019\n      confined to unforseeable natural disasters. How with a growing\n      appreciation for natural law and a chastened taste in wonders,\n      miracles have tended to become a source of intellectual distress and\n      bewilderment.... Protestants shared with Roman Catholics the horror\n      of \u2018rationalists\u2019 and \u2018free-thinkers.\u2019 The leaders of both parties\n      agreed in hampering and denouncing scientific discoveries....\n      Witchcraft in its modern form emerges clearly in the 15th\n      century.... Great prevalence of witchcraft during the 16th and 17th\n      centuries in Protestant and Catholic countries, alike.... Trial of\n      those suspected of sorcery. Tortures to force confession. The\n      witches\u2019 mark. Penalties, burning alive, strangling, hanging. Tens\n      of thousands of innocent persons perished.... Those who tried to\n      discredit witchcraft denounced as \u2018Sadducees\u2019 and atheists.... The\n      psychology of intolerance. Fear, vested interests, the comfortable\n      nature of the traditional and the habitual. The painful\n      appropriation of new ideas.... The intolerance of the Catholic\n      Church: a natural result of its state-like organization and\n      claims.... Its doctrine of exclusive salvation and its conception of\n      heresy both sanctioned by the state. Doubt and error regarded as\n      sinful.... Beginnings of censorship of the press after the invention\n      of printing, licensing of ecclesiastical and civil authorities....\n      Protestants of 16th century accept the theory of intolerance.\u201d\n\n    5 (J. H. R.) \u201cThe Socio-psychological foundations of conservatism:\n      Primitive natural reverence for the familiar and habitual greatly\n      reenforced by religion and law. Natural conservatism of all\n      professions. Those who suffer most from existing institutions\n      commonly, helplessly accept the situation as inevitable. Position of\n      the conservative; he urges the impossibility of altering \u2018human\n      nature\u2019 and warns against the disasters of revolution. Conservatism\n      in the light of history: History would seem to discredit\n      conservatism completely as a working principle in view of the past\n      achievements of mankind in the recent past and the possibilities\n      which opened before us.... Futility of the appeal of the\n      conservative to human nature as an obstacle to progress.... Culture\n      can not be transmitted hereditarily but can be accumulated through\n      education and modified indefinitely.\u201d\n\n    6 (J. H. R.) \u201cFormulation and establishment of the evolutionary\n      hypothesis. Discovery of the great age of the earth; ... gradual\n      development of the evolutionary theory.... Darwin\u2019s \u2018Origin of the\n      Species,\u2019 1859. Herbert Spencer (1820-1903).... Haeckel (1834-1919)\n      and others clarify, defend and popularize the new doctrine.\n      Subsequent development of the evolutionary doctrine by Mendel,\n      Weisman, DeVries and others. Weakening of the special creation\n      theory by other evidence such as archeology and biblical criticism.\n      The significance of the doctrine for intellectual history. Character\n      of the opposition to the evolutionary theory. Popular confusion of\n      \u2018Darwinism\u2019 with \u2018evolution.\u2019 Revolutionary effects of the new point\n      of view. Does away with conception of fixed species (Platonic ideas)\n      that had previously dominated speculation. The genetic method\n      adopted in all the organic sciences, including the newer social\n      sciences. Problem of adjusting history to the discoveries of the\n      past 50 years. Bearing of evolution on the theory of progress.\n      Organic evolution and social evolution.\u201d\n\n    7 (J. H. R.) \u201cThe Deists and philosophers destroy the older\n      theological anthropology and reassert the dignity of man; the growth\n      of criticism and liberalism has made the analysis of social\n      institutions somewhat less dangerous; the general growth of\n      knowledge has reacted in a stimulating way upon the sciences of\n      society; the great increase in the number, complexity and intensity\n      of social problems has proved a strong incentive to social science;\n      The Darwinian hypothesis has rendered preposterous any conception of\n      a wholly static social system. However, the modern social sciences\n      in our capitalistic order meet much the same resistance from the\n      \u2018vested interests\u2019 that theological radicalism encountered in the\n      Middle Ages, and social science has in no way approached the\n      objectivity and progressiveness of present day natural science....\n      Grave effects of vested rights in hampering experiments and\n      readjustments.... Obstacles to readjustment presented by consecrated\n      traditions.... Influence of modern commercialism in the inordinate\n      development of organization and regimentation in our present\n      educational system. Psychological disadvantages of our conventional\n      examination system. As yet our education has not been brought into\n      close relation with prevailing conditions of our ever increasing\n      knowledge.... Excellent aims and small achievements of sociology in\n      practical results. (_Because of absolute lack of any scientific\n      base._ Author.) General nature of the problem of social reform:\n      psychological problems involved in social reform movements: violent\n      resistance of the group to that criticism of the existing\n      institutions, which must precede any effective social reform....\u201d\n\n    8 (J. H. R.) \u201cDuring the past two centuries the application of the\n      scientific discoveries to daily life has revolutionized our methods\n      of supplying our economic needs, our social and intellectual life,\n      and the whole range of the relations of mankind. The impulse of\n      invention, iron, coal, and steam essential to the development of\n      machinery on a large scale; machinery has in turn begotten the\n      modern factory with its vast organized labor, the modern city and\n      finally, our well nigh perfect means of rapid human\n      inter-communication. The tremendous increase in the production of\n      wealth and the growing interdependence of nations has opened up a\n      vast range of speculation in regard to the betterment of mankind to\n      the abolition or reduction of poverty, ignorance, disease, and\n      war.... Man advances from a tool-using to a machine-controlling\n      animal. The rise of the factory system; the concentration and\n      localization of industry; increased division of labor and\n      specialization of industrial processes. The great increase in the\n      volume of capital and in the extent of investments; the separation\n      of capital and labor and the growth of impersonal economic\n      relationship. Problems of capital and labor; unemployment and the\n      labor of women and children; labor organizations. Increased\n      productivity and the expansion of commerce. Industrial processes\n      become dynamic and everchanging\u2014a complete reversal of the old\n      stability, repetition and isolation.\u201d\n\n    9 It may be contended by some that animals have been making \u201cprogress\u201d\n      or some may say that animals also \u201cbind-time.\u201d This use of words\n      would again become mere verbalism, a mere talking about words\u2014mere\n      speculation having nothing to do with _facts_ or with correct\n      thinking, in which there is no intermixing of dimensions. The\n      peculiar faculty belonging exclusively to humans which I designate\n      as \u201ctime-binding\u201d I have clearly defined as an _exponential\n      function_ of _time_ in the following chapter. If people are pleased\n      to talk about the \u201cprogress\u201d of animals, they can hardly fail to see\n      clearly that it differs both in function and in type or dimension\n      from what is rightly meant by human progress; human time-binding\n      capacity lies in an entirely different dimension from that of\n      animals. So, if any persons wish to talk of animal \u201cprogress\u201d or\n      animal \u201ctime-binding,\u201d they should invent a suitable word for it to\n      save them from the blunder of confusing types or mixing dimensions.\n\n      This mathematical discrimination between classes, types, dimensions\n      is of the utmost importance in the natural sciences, because of the\n      transmutation of species. To adjust the Darwin theory to\n      dimensionality is a somewhat more difficult problem; it involves the\n      concept of the \u201ccontinuum\u201d; but with the modern theory of de Vries,\n      these things are self evident. If animals really progress, which is\n      doubtful because they are an older form of life than humans and they\n      have not shown any noticeable progress to the knowledge of man,\n      their progress is so small in comparison with man\u2019s that it may be\n      said, in mathematical terms, to be _negligible_ as an infinitesimal\n      of higher order.\n\n   10 It must be remembered here that our world is, first of all, a\n      dynamic conglomeration of matter and energy, which to-day, as well\n      as in the first period of primitive organic life, took and takes\n      different known and unknown forms. One of these forms of energy is\n      the chemical energy, with its tendency to combinations and\n      exchanges. Different elements act in different ways. The history of\n      the earth and its life is simply the history of different chemical\n      periods, with different transformations of energy. A strange fact is\n      to be noticed about nitrogen. Nitrogen chemically has an exceptional\n      inertness toward most other substances, but once it is a component\n      part of a substance, almost all of these combinations are a very\n      powerful source of energy, and all of them have a very strong effect\n      upon organic life. Nitric acid acts through oxidation, the\n      substances are burned up by the oxygen given off from the acid.\n      Nitric acid occurs in nature, in a combination called nitrates. From\n      the soil the nitrates pass into the plant. Nitrite of amyl acts upon\n      our organs in a most violent and spasmodic way. Nitrous oxide is the\n      so-called laughing gas.\n\n      Alkaloids are compounds of a vegetable origin, generally of complex\n      composition and capable of producing marked effects upon animals.\n      They all contain nitrogen. Explosives which are a chemical means of\n      storing tremendous amounts of energy, are mostly of some nitrogenous\n      compound. Albumen is an organic compound of great importance in\n      life, which, besides being the characteristic ingredient in the\n      white of an egg, abounds in the serum of the blood and forms an\n      important part of the muscles and brain. Albuminoids play the most\n      vital r\u00f4le in plant life and are an extensive class of organic\n      bodies found in plants and animals, as they are found to form the\n      chief constituents of blood, nerves. All albuminoids found in\n      animals are produced by the processes fulfilled in plants. Their\n      exact constitution is not known; analysis shows that they contain\n      approximately: Carbon 50-55%, Hydrogen 6.9-7.5%, Nitrogen 15-19%,\n      Oxygen 20-24%, Sulphur 0.3-2.0%. Venous blood contains in 100\n      volumes: Nitrogen, 13; Carbonic Acid, 71.6; Oxygen, 15.3. Arterial\n      blood: Nitrogen, 14.5; Carbonic Acid, 62.3; Oxygen, 23.2.\n\n      \u201cNitrogenous compounds in general, are extremely prone to\n      decomposition; their decomposition often involving a sudden and\n      great evolution of force. We see that substances classed as ferments\n      ... are all nitrogenous ... and we see that even in organisms and\n      parts of organisms where the activities are least, such changes as\n      do take place are initiated by a substance containing nitrogen....\n      We see that organic matter is so constituted that small incidental\n      actions are capable of initiating great reaction and liberating\n      large quantities of power.... The seed of a plant contains\n      nitrogenous substances in a far higher ratio than the rest of the\n      plant; and the seed differs from the rest of the plant in its\n      ability to initiate ... extensive vital changes\u2014the changes\n      constituting germination. Similarly in the bodies of animals ... in\n      every living vegetal cell there is a certain part that contains\n      nitrogen. This part initiates these changes which constitute the\n      development of the cell.... It is a curious and significant fact\n      that, in technology, we not only utilize the same principle of\n      initiating extensive changes among comparatively stable compounds by\n      the help of compounds much less stable, but we employ for the\n      purpose compounds of the same general class. Our modern method of\n      firing a gun is to place in close proximity with the gunpowder which\n      we choose to decompose or explode, a small portion of fulminating\n      powder, which is decomposed or exploded with extreme facility, and\n      which on decomposing, communicates the consequent molecular\n      disturbances to the less easily decomposed gunpowder. When we ask\n      what this fulminating powder is composed of, we find that it is a\n      nitrogenous salt.\u201d\u2014Spencer.\n\n   11 Of course, the geometric progression does not represent _precisely_\n      the law of human progression; it is here employed because it is\n      familiar and serves, better perhaps than any other simple\n      mathematical means, to show _roughly_ how human progress goes on.\n      The essential elements of a progression are the first term _P_ and\n      the ratio _R_ and the number of the terms _T_; in the human\n      progression _PR__1__, PR__2__, PR__3__, ... PR__T__, P_ is the\n      starting status of the first generation, _R_ is the peculiar\n      capacity of humans to bind time and is a _free gift_ and _law_ of\n      _nature_, which it would be folly not to recognize and accept as\n      such, _T_ is time, or number of generations. It is obvious that the\n      magnitude, _PR__T_, is entirely dependent on the magnitudes of _PR_,\n      and _T_. The existence of _R_ and _T_ is independent of humans, _R_\n      being a law of nature, _T_ a gift of nature, _P_ the starting status\n      of the initial generation. With _P = 0_ or _R = 0_ THERE WOULD BE NO\n      PROGRESS or progression at all; each term in the case of human\n      progression is mainly dependent upon the time and the work done by\n      the dead. The existence of _R_ and _T_ is entirely beyond human\n      control. Humans can control only the MAGNITUDE of those elements by\n      education. Here comes the tremendous responsibility of education. It\n      is not necessary to use much imagination to see that if humanity had\n      always been rightly educated, science would have long ago discovered\n      the natural forces and laws essential to human welfare, and human\n      misery would to-day be relatively small.\n\n   12 See Appendix III.","title":"Manhood of Humanity.","tradition":"philosophy-ethics","translated_text":null,"word_count":66892}