{"collection":"philosophy-ethics","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_28696/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_28696","id":"gutenberg_28696","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/28696","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Logic, Symbolic and mathematical","Philosophy"],"text":"Produced by Tony Browne, Geetu Melwani, Greg Weeks, L.\nLynn Smith and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team\nat https://www.pgdp.net\n\n\n\n\n\n\n pg-i\n\nSYMBOLIC LOGIC\n\nBy Lewis Carroll\n pg-ii\n pg-iii\n pg-iv\n\nA Syllogism worked out.\n\nThat story of yours, about your once meeting the sea-serpent, always\nsets me off yawning;\n\nI never yawn, unless when I'm listening to something totally devoid of\ninterest.\n\nThe Premisses, separately.\n\n .---------------. .---------------.\n |( ) | ( )| | | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | (#) | | | | |( )| |\n |---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---|\n | | | | | | | |( )| |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | |\n .---------------. .---------------.\n\nThe Premisses, combined.\n\n .---------------.\n |( ) | ( )|\n | .---|---. |\n | |(#)|( )| |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | | |( )| |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nThe Conclusion.\n\n .-------.\n |(#)|( )|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nThat story of yours, about your once meeting the sea-serpent, is totally\ndevoid of interest.\n\n pg-v\n\n\n SYMBOLIC LOGIC\n\n\n _PART I_\n\n ELEMENTARY\n\n\n\n BY\n\n LEWIS CARROLL\n\n\n SECOND THOUSAND\n\n FOURTH EDITION\n\n\n _PRICE TWO SHILLINGS_\n\n\n London\n MACMILLAN AND CO., LIMITED\n NEW YORK: THE MACMILLAN COMPANY\n 1897\n\n _All rights reserved_\n\n\n pg-vi\n\n RICHARD CLAY AND SONS, LIMITED,\n LONDON AND BUNGAY\n\n pg-vii\n\n\nADVERTISEMENT.\n\n\nAn envelope, containing two blank Diagrams (Biliteral and Triliteral)\nand 9 counters (4 Red and 5 Grey), may be had, from Messrs. Macmillan,\nfor 3_d._, by post 4_d._\n\n * * * * *\n\nI shall be grateful to any Reader of this book who will point out any\nmistakes or misprints he may happen to notice in it, or any passage\nwhich he thinks is not clearly expressed.\n\n * * * * *\n\nI have a quantity of MS. in hand for Parts II and III, and hope to be\nable----should life, and health, and opportunity, be granted to me, to\npublish them in the course of the next few years. Their contents will be\nas follows:--\n\n_PART II. ADVANCED._\n\nFurther investigations in the subjects of Part I. Propositions of other\nforms (such as \"Not-all x are y\"). Triliteral and Multiliteral\nPropositions (such as \"All abc are de\"). Hypotheticals. Dilemmas. &c.\n&c.\n\n_Part III. TRANSCENDENTAL._\n\nAnalysis of a Proposition into its Elements. Numerical and Geometrical\nProblems. The Theory of Inference. The Construction of Problems. And\nmany other _Curiosa Logica_.\n\n pg-viii\n\n\nPREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION.\n\n\nThe chief alterations, since the First Edition, have been made in the\nChapter on 'Classification' (pp. 2, 3) and the Book on 'Propositions'\n(pp. 10 to 19). The chief additions have been the questions on words and\nphrases, added to the Examination-Papers at p. 94, and the Notes\ninserted at pp. 164, 194.\n\nIn Book I, Chapter II, I have adopted a new definition of\n'Classification', which enables me to regard the whole Universe as a\n'Class,' and thus to dispense with the very awkward phrase 'a Set of\nThings.'\n\nIn the Chapter on 'Propositions of Existence' I have adopted a new\n'normal form,' in which the Class, whose existence is affirmed or\ndenied, is regarded as the _Predicate_, instead of the _Subject_, of the\nProposition, thus evading a very subtle difficulty which besets the\nother form. These subtle difficulties seem to lie at the root of every\nTree of Knowledge, and they are _far_ more hopeless to grapple with than\nany that occur in its higher branches. For example, the difficulties of\nthe Forty-Seventh Proposition of Euclid are mere child's play compared\nwith the mental torture endured in the effort to think out the essential\nnature of a straight Line. And, in the present work, the difficulties of\nthe \"5 Liars\" Problem, at p. 192, are \"trifles, light as air,\" compared\nwith the bewildering question \"What is a Thing?\"\n\nIn the Chapter on 'Propositions of Relation' I have inserted a new\nSection, containing the proof that a Proposition, beginning with \"All,\"\nis a _Double_ Proposition (a fact that is quite independent of the\narbitrary rule, laid down in the next Section, that such a Proposition\nis to be understood as implying the actual _existence_ of its Subject).\nThis proof was given, in the earlier editions, incidentally, in the\ncourse of the discussion of the Biliteral Diagram: but its _proper_\nplace, in this treatise, is where I have now introduced it.\n pg-ix\nIn the Sorites-Examples, I have made a good many verbal alterations, in\norder to evade a difficulty, which I fear will have perplexed some of\nthe Readers of the first three Editions. Some of the Premisses were so\nworded that their Terms were not Specieses of the Univ. named in the\nDictionary, but of a larger Class, of which the Univ. was only a\nportion. In all such cases, it was intended that the Reader should\nperceive that what was asserted of the larger Class was thereby asserted\nof the Univ., and should ignore, as superfluous, all that it asserted of\nits _other_ portion. Thus, in Ex. 15, the Univ. was stated to be \"ducks\nin this village,\" and the third Premiss was \"Mrs. Bond has no gray\nducks,\" i.e. \"No gray ducks are ducks belonging to Mrs. Bond.\" Here the\nTerms are _not_ Specieses of the Univ., but of the larger Class \"ducks,\"\nof which the Univ. is only a portion: and it was intended that the\nReader should perceive that what is here asserted of \"ducks\" is thereby\nasserted of \"ducks in this village.\" and should treat this Premiss as if\nit were \"Mrs. Bond has no gray ducks in this village,\" and should\nignore, as superfluous, what it asserts as to the _other_ portion of the\nClass \"ducks,\" viz. \"Mrs. Bond has no gray ducks _out of_ this village\".\n\nIn the Appendix I have given a new version of the Problem of the \"Five\nLiars.\" My object, in doing so, is to escape the subtle and mysterious\ndifficulties which beset all attempts at regarding a Proposition as\nbeing its own Subject, or a Set of Propositions as being Subjects for\none another. It is certainly, a most bewildering and unsatisfactory\ntheory: one cannot help feeling that there is a great lack of\n_substance_ in all this shadowy host----that, as the procession of\nphantoms glides before us, there is not _one_ that we can pounce upon,\nand say \"_Here_ is a Proposition that _must_ be either true or\nfalse!\"----that it is but a Barmecide Feast, to which we have been\nbidden----and that its prototype is to be found in that mythical island,\nwhose inhabitants \"earned a precarious living by taking in each others'\nwashing\"! By simply translating \"telling 2 Truths\" into \"taking _both_\nof 2 condiments (salt and mustard),\" \"telling 2 Lies\" into \"taking\n_neither_ of them\" and \"telling a Truth and a Lie (order not specified)\"\ninto \"taking only _one_ condiment (it is not specified _which_),\" I have\nescaped all those metaphysical puzzles, and have produced a Problem\nwhich, when translated into a Set of symbolized Premisses, furnishes the\nvery same _Data_ as were furnished by the Problem of the \"Five Liars.\"\n pg-x\nThe coined words, introduced in previous editions, such as \"Eliminands\"\nand \"Retinends\", perhaps hardly need any apology: they were\nindispensable to my system: but the new plural, here used for the first\ntime, viz. \"Soriteses\", will, I fear, be condemned as \"bad English\",\nunless I say a word in its defence. We have _three_ singular nouns, in\nEnglish, of plural _form_, \"series\", \"species\", and \"Sorites\": in all\nthree, the awkwardness, of using the same word for both singular and\nplural, must often have been felt: this has been remedied, in the case\nof \"series\" by coining the plural \"serieses\", which has already found\nits way into the dictionaries: so I am no rash innovator, but am merely\n\"following suit\", in using the new plural \"Soriteses\".\n\nIn conclusion, let me point out that even those, who are obliged to\nstudy _Formal_ Logic, with a view to being able to answer\nExamination-Papers in that subject, will find the study of _Symbolic_\nLogic most helpful for this purpose, in throwing light upon many of the\nobscurities with which Formal Logic abounds, and in furnishing a\ndelightfully easy method of _testing_ the results arrived at by the\ncumbrous processes which Formal Logic enforces upon its votaries.\n\nThis is, I believe, the very first attempt (with the exception of my own\nlittle book, _The Game of Logic_, published in 1886, a very incomplete\nperformance) that has been made to _popularise_ this fascinating\nsubject. It has cost me _years_ of hard work: but if it should prove, as\nI hope it may, to be of _real_ service to the young, and to be taken up,\nin High Schools and in private families, as a valuable addition to their\nstock of healthful mental recreations, such a result would more than\nrepay ten times the labour that I have expended on it.\n\n L. C.\n\n29, BEDFORD STREET, STRAND.\n _Christmas, 1896._\n\n pg-xi\n\n\nINTRODUCTION.\n\n_TO LEARNERS._\n\n[N.B. Some remarks, addressed to _Teachers_, will be found in the\nAppendix, at p. 165.]\n\n\nThe Learner, who wishes to try the question _fairly_, whether this\nlittle book does, or does not, supply the materials for a most\ninteresting mental recreation, is _earnestly_ advised to adopt the\nfollowing Rules:--\n\n(1) Begin at the _beginning_, and do not allow yourself to gratify a\nmere idle curiosity by dipping into the book, here and there. This would\nvery likely lead to your throwing it aside, with the remark \"This is\n_much_ too hard for me!\", and thus losing the chance of adding a very\n_large_ item to your stock of mental delights. This Rule (of not\n_dipping_) is very _desirable_ with _other_ kinds of books----such as\nnovels, for instance, where you may easily spoil much of the enjoyment\nyou would otherwise get from the story, by dipping into it further on,\nso that what the author meant to be a pleasant surprise comes to you as\na matter of course. Some people, I know, make a practice of looking into\nVol. III first, just to see how the story ends: and perhaps it _is_ as\nwell just to know that all ends _happily_----that the much-persecuted\nlovers _do_ marry after all, that he is proved to be quite innocent of\nthe murder, that the wicked cousin is completely foiled in his plot and\ngets the punishment he deserves, and that the rich uncle in India (_Qu._\nWhy in _India_? _Ans._ Because, somehow, uncles never _can_ get rich\nanywhere else) dies at exactly the right moment----before taking the\ntrouble to read Vol. I. This, I say, is _just_ permissible with a\n_novel_, where Vol. III has a _meaning_, even for those who have not\nread the earlier part of the story; but, with a _scientific_ book, it is\nsheer insanity: you will find the latter part _hopelessly_\nunintelligible, if you read it before reaching it in regular course.\n pg-xii\n(2) Don't begin any fresh Chapter, or Section, until you are certain\nthat you _thoroughly_ understand the whole book _up to that point_, and\nthat you have worked, correctly, most if not all of the examples which\nhave been set. So long as you are conscious that all the land you have\npassed through is absolutely _conquered_, and that you are leaving no\nunsolved difficulties _behind_ you, which will be sure to turn up again\nlater on, your triumphal progress will be easy and delightful.\nOtherwise, you will find your state of puzzlement get worse and worse as\nyou proceed, till you give up the whole thing in utter disgust.\n\n(3) When you come to any passage you don't understand, _read it again_:\nif you _still_ don't understand it, _read it again_: if you fail, even\nafter _three_ readings, very likely your brain is getting a little\ntired. In that case, put the book away, and take to other occupations,\nand next day, when you come to it fresh, you will very likely find that\nit is _quite_ easy.\n\n(4) If possible, find some genial friend, who will read the book along\nwith you, and will talk over the difficulties with you. _Talking_ is a\nwonderful smoother-over of difficulties. When _I_ come upon\nanything----in Logic or in any other hard subject----that entirely\npuzzles me, I find it a capital plan to talk it over, _aloud_, even when\nI am all alone. One can explain things so _clearly_ to one's self! And\nthen, you know, one is so _patient_ with one's self: one _never_ gets\nirritated at one's own stupidity!\n\nIf, dear Reader, you will faithfully observe these Rules, and so give my\nlittle book a really _fair_ trial, I promise you, most confidently, that\nyou will find Symbolic Logic to be one of the most, if not _the_ most,\nfascinating of mental recreations! In this First Part, I have carefully\navoided all difficulties which seemed to me to be beyond the grasp of an\nintelligent child of (say) twelve or fourteen years of age. I have\nmyself taught most of its contents, _viva voce_, to _many_ children, and\nhave found them take a real intelligent interest in the subject. For\nthose, who succeed in mastering Part I, and who begin, like Oliver,\n\"asking for more,\" I hope to provide, in Part II, some _tolerably_ hard\nnuts to crack----nuts that will require all the nut-crackers they happen\nto possess!\n pg-xiii\nMental recreation is a thing that we all of us need for our mental\nhealth; and you may get much healthy enjoyment, no doubt, from Games,\nsuch as Back-gammon, Chess, and the new Game \"Halma\". But, after all,\nwhen you have made yourself a first-rate player at any one of these\nGames, you have nothing real to _show_ for it, as a _result!_ You\nenjoyed the Game, and the victory, no doubt, _at the time_: but you have\nno _result_ that you can treasure up and get real _good_ out of. And,\nall the while, you have been leaving unexplored a perfect _mine_ of\nwealth. Once master the machinery of Symbolic Logic, and you have a\nmental occupation always at hand, of absorbing interest, and one that\nwill be of real _use_ to you in _any_ subject you may take up. It will\ngive you clearness of thought----the ability to _see your way_ through a\npuzzle----the habit of arranging your ideas in an orderly and\nget-at-able form----and, more valuable than all, the power to detect\n_fallacies_, and to tear to pieces the flimsy illogical arguments, which\nyou will so continually encounter in books, in newspapers, in speeches,\nand even in sermons, and which so easily delude those who have never\ntaken the trouble to master this fascinating Art. _Try it._ That is all\nI ask of you!\n\n L. C.\n\n29, BEDFORD STREET, STRAND.\n _February 21, 1896._\n\n pg-xiv\n pg-xv\n\nCONTENTS.\n\n\n=BOOK I.=\n\n=THINGS AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES.=\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_INTRODUCTORY._\n\n PAGE\n'=Things=' 1\n\n'=Attributes=' \"\n\n'=Adjuncts=' \"\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_CLASSIFICATION._\n\n'=Classification=' 1 1/2\n\n'=Class=' \"\n\n'=Peculiar=' Attributes \"\n\n'=Genus=' \"\n\n'=Species=' \"\n\n'=Differentia=' \"\n\n'=Real=' and '=Unreal=', or '=Imaginary=', Classes 2\n\n'=Individual=' \"\n\nA Class regarded as a single Thing 2 1/2\n\n pg-xvi\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_DIVISION._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\n'=Division=' 3\n\n'=Codivisional=' Classes \"\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Dichotomy._\n\n'=Dichotomy=' 3 1/2\n\nArbitrary limits of Classes \"\n\nSubdivision of Classes 4\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n_NAMES._\n\n'=Name=' 4 1/2\n\n'=Real=' and '=Unreal=' Names \"\n\nThree ways of expressing a Name \"\n\nTwo senses in which a plural Name may be used 5\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\n_DEFINITIONS._\n\n'=Definition=' 6\n\nExamples worked as models \"\n\n pg-xvii\n=BOOK II.=\n\n=PROPOSITIONS.=\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_PROPOSITIONS GENERALLY._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\nTechnical meaning of \"some\" 8\n\n'=Proposition=' \"\n\n'=Normal form=' of a Proposition \"\n\n'=Subject=', '=Predicate=', and '=Terms=' 9\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Normal form of a Proposition._\n\nIts four parts:--\n\n (1) '=Sign of Quantity=' 9\n\n (2) Name of Subject \"\n\n (3) '=Copula=' \"\n\n (4) Name of Predicate \"\n\n\nSec. 3.\n\n_Various kinds of Propositions._\n\nThree kinds of Propositions:--\n\n (1) Begins with \"Some\". Called a '=Particular=' Proposition:\n also a Proposition '=in I=' 10\n\n (2) Begins with \"No\". Called a '=Universal Negative='\n Proposition: also a Proposition '=in E=' \"\n\n (3) Begins with \"All\". Called a '=Universal Affirmative='\n Proposition: also a Proposition '=in A=' \"\n pg-xviii\nA Proposition, whose Subject is an Individual, is to be\nregarded as Universal \"\n\nTwo kinds of Propositions, 'Propositions of Existence',\nand 'Propositions of Relation' \"\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_PROPOSITIONS OF EXISTENCE._\n\n\n'=Proposition of Existence =' 11\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_PROPOSITIONS OF RELATION._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\n'=Proposition of Relation=' 12\n\n'=Universe of Discourse=,' or '=Univ.=' \"\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Reduction of a Proposition of Relation\nto Normal form._\n\nRules 13\n\nExamples worked \"\n\n\nSec. 3.\n\n_A Proposition of Relation, beginning with \"All\",\nis a Double Proposition._\n\nIts equivalence to _two_ Propositions 17\n\n pg-xix\nSec. 4.\n\n_What is implied, in a Proposition of Relation,\nas to the Reality of its Terms?_\n\nPropositions beginning with \"Some\" 19\n\n \" \" \"No\" \"\n\n \" \" \"All\" \"\n\n\nSec. 5.\n\n_Translation of a Proposition of Relation into\none or more Propositions of Existence._\n\nRules 20\n\nExamples worked \"\n\n\n=BOOK III.=\n\n=THE BILITERAL DIAGRAM.=\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_SYMBOLS AND CELLS._\n\nThe Diagram assigned to a certain Set of Things, viz. our\nUniv. 22\n\nUniv. divided into 'the x-Class' and 'the x'-Class' 23\n\nThe North and South Halves assigned to these two Classes \"\n\nThe x-Class subdivided into 'the xy-Class' and 'the xy'-Class' \"\n\nThe North-West and North-East Cells assigned to these\ntwo Classes \"\n\nThe x'-Class similarly divided \"\n\nThe South-West and South-East Cells similarly assigned \"\n\nThe West and East Halves have thus been assigned to\n'the y-Class' and 'the y'-Class' 24\n\n=Table I.= Attributes of Classes, and Compartments, or\nCells, assigned to them 25\n\n pg-xx\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_COUNTERS._\n\n\nMeaning of a Red Counter placed in a Cell 26\n\n \" \" \" \" on a Partition \"\n\nAmerican phrase \"=sitting on the fence=\" \"\n\nMeaning of a Grey Counter placed in a Cell \"\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_REPRESENTATION OF PROPOSITIONS._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\nThe word \"Things\" to be henceforwards omitted 27\n\n'=Uniliteral=' Proposition \"\n\n'=Biliteral=' do. \"\n\nProposition '=in terms of=' certain Letters \"\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Representation of Propositions of Existence._\n\nThe Proposition \"Some x exist\" 28\n\nThree other similar Propositions \"\n\nThe Proposition \"No x exist\" \"\n\nThree other similar Propositions 29\n\nThe Proposition \"Some xy exist\" \"\n\nThree other similar Propositions \"\n\nThe Proposition \"No xy exist\" \"\n\nThree other similar Propositions \"\n\nThe Proposition \"No x exist\" is _Double_, and is equivalent\nto the two Propositions \"No xy exist\" and \"No xy' exist\" 30\n\n pg-xxi\nSec. 3.\n\n_Representation of Propositions of Relations._\n\nThe Proposition \"Some x are y\" \"\n\nThree other similar Propositions \"\n\nThe Proposition \"Some y are x\" 31\n\nThree other similar Propositions \"\n\nTrio of equivalent Propositions, viz.\n\"Some xy exist\" = \"Some x are y\" = \"Some y are x\" \"\n\n'=Converse=' Propositions, and '=Conversion=' \"\n\nThree other similar Trios 32\n\nThe Proposition \"No x are y\" \"\n\nThree other similar Propositions \"\n\nThe Proposition \"No y are x\" \"\n\nThree other similar Propositions \"\n\nTrio of equivalent Propositions, viz.\n\"No xy exist\" = \"No x are y\" = \"No y are x\" 33\n\nThree other similar Trios \"\n\nThe Proposition \"All x are y\" is _Double_, and is equivalent\nto the two Propositions \"Some x are y\" and \"No x are _y'_\" \"\n\nSeven other similar Propositions 34\n\n=Tables II, III.= Representation of Propositions of\nExistence and Relation 34, 35\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n_INTERPRETATION OF BILITERAL DIAGRAM, WHEN MARKED WITH COUNTERS._\n\n .-------.\n |(.)| |\nInterpretation of |---|---| 36\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nAnd of three other similar arrangements \"\n pg-xxii\n .-------.\n |( )| |\nInterpretation of |---|---| \"\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nAnd of three other similar arrangements \"\n\n .-------.\n | (.) |\nInterpretation of |---|---| 37\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nAnd of three other similar arrangements \"\n\n .-------.\n |(.)|(.)|\nInterpretation of |---|---| \"\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nAnd of three other similar arrangements \"\n\n .-------.\n |( )|( )|\nInterpretation of |---|---| \"\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nAnd of three other similar arrangements \"\n\n .-------.\n |(.)|( )|\nInterpretation of |---|---| \"\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nAnd of seven other similar arrangements 38\n\n\n=BOOK IV.=\n\n=THE TRILITERAL DIAGRAM.=\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_SYMBOLS AND CELLS._\n\nChange of Biliteral into Triliteral Diagram 39\n\nThe xy-Class subdivided into 'the xym-Class' and\n'the xym'-Class' 40\n pg-xxiii\nThe Inner and Outer Cells of the North-West Quarter\nassigned to these Classes \"\n\nThe xy'-Class, the x'y-Class, and the\nx'y'-Class similarly subdivided \"\n\nThe Inner and Outer Cells of the North-East, the South-West,\nand the South-East Quarter similarly assigned \"\n\nThe Inner Square and the Outer Border have thus been assigned\nto 'the m-Class' and 'the _m'_-Class' \"\n\nRules for finding readily the Compartment, or Cell,\nassigned to any given Attribute or Attributes \"\n\n=Table IV.= Attributes of Classes, and Compartments,\nor Cells, assigned to them 42\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_REPRESENTATION OF PROPOSITIONS IN TERMS\nOF x AND m, OR OF y AND m._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Representation of Propositions of Existence in terms\nof x and m, or of y and m._\n\nThe Proposition \"Some xm exist\" 43\n\nSeven other similar Propositions \"\n\nThe Proposition \"No xm exist\" 44\n\nSeven other similar Propositions \"\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Representation of Propositions of Relation in terms\nof x and m, or of y and m._\n\nThe Pair of Converse Propositions\n\"Some x are m\" = \"Some m are x\" \"\n\nSeven other similar Pairs \"\n\nThe Pair of Converse Propositions\n\"No x are m\" = \"No m are x\" \"\n\nSeven other similar Pairs \"\n\nThe Proposition \"All x are m\" 45\n\nFifteen other similar Propositions \"\n\n=Tables V, VI, VII, VIII.= Representations of\nPropositions in terms of x and m, or of\ny and m 46 to 49\n\n pg-xxiv\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_REPRESENTATION OF TWO PROPOSITIONS\nOF RELATION, ONE IN TERMS OF x AND m,\nAND THE OTHER IN TERMS OF y AND m,\nON THE SAME DIAGRAM._\n\nThe Digits \"I\" and \"O\" to be used instead of Red and\nGrey Counters 50\n\nRules \"\n\nExamples worked \"\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n_INTERPRETATION, IN TERMS OF x AND y,\nOF TRILITERAL DIAGRAM, WHEN MARKED\nWITH COUNTERS OR DIGITS._\n\nRules 53\n\nExamples worked 54\n\n\n=BOOK V.=\n\n=SYLLOGISMS.=\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_INTRODUCTORY._\n\n'=Syllogism=' 56\n\n'=Premisses=' \"\n\n'=Conclusion=' \"\n\n'=Eliminands=' 57\n\n'=Retinends=' \"\n\n'=Consequent=' \"\n\nThe Symbol \".'.\" \"\n\nSpecimen-Syllogisms \"\n\n pg-xxv\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_PROBLEMS IN SYLLOGISMS._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\n'=Concrete=' and '=Abstract=' Propositions 59\n\nMethod of translating a Proposition from concrete into\nabstract form \"\n\nTwo forms of Problems \"\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Given a Pair of Propositions of Relation, which contain\nbetween them a Pair of codivisional Classes, and which are\nproposed as Premisses: to ascertain what Conclusion, if any,\nis consequent from them._\n\nRules 60\n\nExamples worked fully \"\n\nThe same worked briefly, as models 64\n\n\nSec. 3.\n\n_Given a Trio of Propositions of Relation, of which every\ntwo contain a Pair of codivisional Classes, and which are\nproposed as a Syllogism: to ascertain whether the proposed\nConclusion is consequent from the proposed Premisses,\nand, if so, whether it is complete._\n\nRules 66\n\nExamples worked briefly, as models \"\n\n pg-xxvi\n=BOOK VI.=\n\n=THE METHOD OF SUBSCRIPTS.=\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_INTRODUCTORY._\n\nMeaning of x_{1}, xy_{1}, &c. 70\n\n'=Entity=' \"\n\nMeaning of x_{0}, xy_{0}, &c. \"\n\n'=Nullity=' \"\n\nThe Symbols \"+\" and \">\" \"\n\n'=Like=' and '=unlike=' Signs \"\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_REPRESENTATION OF PROPOSITIONS OF RELATION._\n\nThe Pair of Converse Propositions\n\"Some x are y\" = \"Some y are x\" 71\n\nThree other similar Pairs \"\n\nThe Pair of Converse Propositions\n\"No x are y\" = \"No y are x\" \"\n\nThree other similar Pairs \"\n\nThe Proposition \"All x are y\" 72\n\nThe Proposition \"All x are y\" is _Double_,\nand is equivalent to the two Propositions \"Some x\nexist\" and \"No x and y'\" \"\n\nSeven other similar Propositions \"\n\nRule for translating \"All x are y\" from abstract\ninto subscript form, and _vice versa_ \"\n\n pg-xxvii\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_SYLLOGISMS._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Representation of Syllogisms._\n\nRules 73\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Formulae for Syllogisms._\n\nThree Formulae worked out:--\n\n Fig. I. xm_{0} + ym'_{0} > xy_{0} 75\n\n its two Variants (a) and (b) \"\n\n Fig. II. xm_{0} + ym_{1} > x'y_{1} 76\n\n Fig. III. xm_{0} + ym_{0} + m_{1} > x'y'_{1} 77\n\n=Table IX.= Formulae and Rules 78\n\nExamples worked briefly, as models \"\n\n\nSec. 3.\n\n_Fallacies._\n\n'=Fallacy=' 81\n\nMethod of finding Forms of Fallacies 82\n\nForms best stated in _words_ \"\n\nThree Forms of Fallacies:--\n\n (1) Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist \"\n\n (2) Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss 83\n\n (3) Fallacy of two Entity-Premisses \"\n\n\nSec. 4.\n\n_Method of proceeding with a given Pair of Propositions._\n\nRules 84\n\n pg-xxviii\n=BOOK VII.=\n\n=SORITESES.=\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_INTRODUCTORY._\n\n\n'=Sorites=' 85\n\n'=Premisses=' \"\n\n'=Partial Conclusion=' \"\n\n'=Complete Conclusion=' (or '=Conclusion=') \"\n\n'=Eliminands=' \"\n\n'=Retinends=' \"\n\n'=consequent=' \"\n\nThe Symbol \".'.\" \"\n\nSpecimen-Soriteses 86\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_PROBLEMS IN SORITESES._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\nForm of Problem 87\n\nTwo Methods of Solution \"\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Solution by Method of Separate Syllogisms._\n\nRules 88\n\nExample worked \"\n\n pg-xxix\nSec. 3.\n\n_Solution by Method of Underscoring._\n\n'=Underscoring=' 91\n\nSubscripts to be omitted \"\n\nExample worked fully 92\n\nExample worked briefly, as model 93\n\nSeventeen Examination-Papers 94\n\n\n=BOOK VIII.=\n\n=EXAMPLES, WITH ANSWERS AND SOLUTIONS.=\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_EXAMPLES._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Propositions of Relation, to be reduced to normal form_ 97\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Pairs of Abstract Propositions, one in terms of x and m,\nand the other in terms of y and m, to be represented on\nthe same Triliteral Diagram_ 98\n\n\nSec. 3.\n\n_Marked Triliteral Diagrams, to be interpreted in terms\nof x and y_ 99\n\n\nSec. 4.\n\n_Pairs of Abstract Propositions, proposed as Premisses:\nConclusions to be found_ 100\n\n pg-xxx\nSec. 5.\n\n_Pairs of Concrete Propositions, proposed as Premisses:\nConclusions to be found_ 101\n\n\nSec. 6.\n\n_Trios of Abstract Propositions, proposed as Syllogisms:\nto be examined_ 106\n\n\nSec. 7.\n\n_Trios of Concrete Propositions, proposed as Syllogisms:\nto be examined_ 107\n\n\nSec. 8.\n\n_Sets of Abstract Propositions, proposed as Premisses for\nSoriteses: Conclusions to be found_ 110\n\n\nSec. 9.\n\n_Sets of Concrete Propositions, proposed as Premisses for\nSoriteses: Conclusions to be found_ 112\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_ANSWERS._\n\nAnswers to\n\n Sec. 1 125\n\n Sec. 2 126\n\n Secs. 3, 4 127\n\n Sec. 5 128\n\n Sec. 6 130\n\n Sec. 7 131\n\n Secs. 8, 9 132\n\n pg-xxxi\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_SOLUTIONS._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Propositions of Relation reduced to normal form._\n\nSolutions for Sec. 1 134\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Method of Diagrams._\n\nSolutions for\n\n Sec. 4 Nos. 1 to 12 136\n\n Sec. 5 \" 1 to 12 138\n\n Sec. 6 \" 1 to 10 141\n\n Sec. 7 \" 1 to 6 144\n\n\nSec. 3.\n\n_Method of Subscripts._\n\nSolutions for\n\n Sec. 4 146\n\n Sec. 5 Nos. 13 to 24 147\n\n Secs. 6, 7, 8, 9 148 to 157\n\n\n=NOTES= 164\n\n\n=APPENDIX, ADDRESSED TO TEACHERS= 165\n\n\n=NOTES TO APPENDIX= 195\n\n\n=INDEX.=\n\n Sec. 1. Tables 197\n\n Sec. 2. Words &c. explained \"\n pg-xxxii\n pg001\n\n\nBOOK I.\n\nTHINGS AND THEIR ATTRIBUTES.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_INTRODUCTORY._\n\n\nThe Universe contains '=Things=.'\n\n [For example, \"I,\" \"London,\" \"roses,\" \"redness,\" \"old English\n books,\" \"the letter which I received yesterday.\"]\n\nThings have '=Attributes=.'\n\n [For example, \"large,\" \"red,\" \"old,\" \"which I received\n yesterday.\"]\n\nOne Thing may have many Attributes; and one Attribute may belong to many\nThings.\n\n [Thus, the Thing \"a rose\" may have the Attributes \"red,\"\n \"scented,\" \"full-blown,\" &c.; and the Attribute \"red\" may belong\n to the Things \"a rose,\" \"a brick,\" \"a ribbon,\" &c.]\n\nAny Attribute, or any Set of Attributes, may be called an '=Adjunct=.'\n\n [This word is introduced in order to avoid the constant\n repetition of the phrase \"Attribute or Set of Attributes.\"\n\n Thus, we may say that a rose has the Attribute \"red\" (or the\n Adjunct \"red,\" whichever we prefer); or we may say that it has\n the Adjunct \"red, scented and full-blown.\"]\n\n pg001 1/2\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_CLASSIFICATION._\n\n\n'Classification,' or the formation of Classes, is a Mental Process, in\nwhich we imagine that we have put together, in a group, certain Things.\nSuch a group is called a '=Class=.'\n\nThis Process may be performed in three different ways, as follows:--\n\n(1) We may imagine that we have put together all Things. The Class so\nformed (i.e. the Class \"Things\") contains the whole Universe.\n\n(2) We may think of the Class \"Things,\" and may imagine that we have\npicked out from it all the Things which possess a certain Adjunct _not_\npossessed by the whole Class. This Adjunct is said to be '=peculiar=' to\nthe Class so formed. In this case, the Class \"Things\" is called a\n'=Genus=' with regard to the Class so formed: the Class, so formed, is\ncalled a '=Species=' of the Class \"Things\": and its peculiar Adjunct is\ncalled its '=Differentia='.\n pg002\nAs this Process is entirely _Mental_, we can perform it whether there\n_is_, or _is not_, an _existing_ Thing which possesses that Adjunct. If\nthere _is_, the Class is said to be '=Real='; if not, it is said to be\n'=Unreal=', or '=Imaginary=.'\n\n [For example, we may imagine that we have picked out, from the\n Class \"Things,\" all the Things which possess the Adjunct\n \"material, artificial, consisting of houses and streets\"; and we\n may thus form the Real Class \"towns.\" Here we may regard\n \"Things\" as a _Genus_, \"Towns\" as a _Species_ of Things, and\n \"material, artificial, consisting of houses and streets\" as its\n _Differentia_.\n\n Again, we may imagine that we have picked out all the Things\n which possess the Adjunct \"weighing a ton, easily lifted by a\n baby\"; and we may thus form the _Imaginary_ Class \"Things that\n weigh a ton and are easily lifted by a baby.\"]\n\n(3) We may think of a certain Class, _not_ the Class \"Things,\" and may\nimagine that we have picked out from it all the Members of it which\npossess a certain Adjunct _not_ possessed by the whole Class. This\nAdjunct is said to be '=peculiar=' to the smaller Class so formed. In\nthis case, the Class thought of is called a '=Genus=' with regard to the\nsmaller Class picked out from it: the smaller Class is called a\n'=Species=' of the larger: and its peculiar Adjunct is called its\n'=Differentia='.\n\n [For example, we may think of the Class \"towns,\" and imagine\n that we have picked out from it all the towns which possess the\n Attribute \"lit with gas\"; and we may thus form the Real Class\n \"towns lit with gas.\" Here we may regard \"Towns\" as a _Genus_,\n \"Towns lit with gas\" as a _Species_ of Towns, and \"lit with gas\"\n as its _Differentia_.\n\n If, in the above example, we were to alter \"lit with gas\" into\n \"paved with gold,\" we should get the _Imaginary_ Class \"towns\n paved with gold.\"]\n\nA Class, containing only _one_ Member is called an '=Individual=.'\n\n [For example, the Class \"towns having four million inhabitants,\"\n which Class contains only _one_ Member, viz. \"London.\"]\n pg002 1/2\nHence, any single Thing, which we can name so as to distinguish it from\nall other Things, may be regarded as a one-Member Class.\n\n [Thus \"London\" may be regarded as the one-Member Class, picked\n out from the Class \"towns,\" which has, as its Differentia,\n \"having four million inhabitants.\"]\n\nA Class, containing two or more Members, is sometimes regarded as _one\nsingle Thing_. When so regarded, it may possess an Adjunct which is\n_not_ possessed by any Member of it taken separately.\n\n [Thus, the Class \"The soldiers of the Tenth Regiment,\" when\n regarded as _one single Thing_, may possess the Attribute\n \"formed in square,\" which is _not_ possessed by any Member of it\n taken separately.]\n\n pg003\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_DIVISION._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\n'Division' is a Mental Process, in which we think of a certain Class of\nThings, and imagine that we have divided it into two or more smaller\nClasses.\n\n [Thus, we might think of the Class \"books,\" and imagine that we\n had divided it into the two smaller Classes \"bound books\" and\n \"unbound books,\" or into the three Classes, \"books priced at\n less than a shilling,\" \"shilling-books,\" \"books priced at more\n than a shilling,\" or into the twenty-six Classes, \"books whose\n names begin with _A_,\" \"books whose names begin with _B_,\" &c.]\n\nA Class, that has been obtained by a certain Division, is said to be\n'codivisional' with every Class obtained by that Division.\n\n [Thus, the Class \"bound books\" is codivisional with each of the\n two Classes, \"bound books\" and \"unbound books.\"\n\n Similarly, the Battle of Waterloo may be said to have been\n \"contemporary\" with every event that happened in 1815.]\n\nHence a Class, obtained by Division, is codivisional with itself.\n\n [Thus, the Class \"bound books\" is codivisional with itself.\n\n Similarly, the Battle of Waterloo may be said to have been\n \"contemporary\" with itself.]\n\n pg003 1/2\nSec. 2.\n\n_Dichotomy._\n\nIf we think of a certain Class, and imagine that we have picked out from\nit a certain smaller Class, it is evident that the _Remainder_ of the\nlarge Class does _not_ possess the Differentia of that smaller Class.\nHence it may be regarded as _another_ smaller Class, whose Differentia\nmay be formed, from that of the Class first picked out, by prefixing the\nword \"not\"; and we may imagine that we have _divided_ the Class first\nthought of into _two_ smaller Classes, whose Differentiae are\n_contradictory_. This kind of Division is called '=Dichotomy='.\n\n [For example, we may divide \"books\" into the two Classes whose\n Differentiae are \"old\" and \"not-old.\"]\n\nIn performing this Process, we may sometimes find that the Attributes we\nhave chosen are used so loosely, in ordinary conversation, that it is\nnot easy to decide _which_ of the Things belong to the one Class and\n_which_ to the other. In such a case, it would be necessary to lay down\nsome arbitrary _rule_, as to _where_ the one Class should end and the\nother begin.\n\n [Thus, in dividing \"books\" into \"old\" and \"not-old,\" we may say\n \"Let all books printed before A.D. 1801, be regarded as 'old,'\n and all others as 'not-old'.\"]\n\nHenceforwards let it be understood that, if a Class of Things be divided\ninto two Classes, whose Differentiae have contrary meanings, each\nDifferentia is to be regarded as equivalent to the other with the word\n\"not\" prefixed.\n\n [Thus, if \"books\" be divided into \"old\" and \"new\" the Attribute\n \"old\" is to be regarded as equivalent to \"not-new,\" and the\n Attribute \"new\" as equivalent to \"not-old.\"]\n pg004\nAfter dividing a Class, by the Process of _Dichotomy_, into two smaller\nClasses, we may sub-divide each of these into two still smaller Classes;\nand this Process may be repeated over and over again, the number of\nClasses being doubled at each repetition.\n\n [For example, we may divide \"books\" into \"old\" and \"new\" (i.e.\n \"_not_-old\"): we may then sub-divide each of these into\n \"English\" and \"foreign\" (i.e. \"_not_-English\"), thus getting\n _four_ Classes, viz.\n\n (1) old English;\n (2) old foreign;\n (3) new English;\n (4) new foreign.\n\n If we had begun by dividing into \"English\" and \"foreign,\" and\n had then sub-divided into \"old\" and \"new,\" the four Classes\n would have been\n\n (1) English old;\n (2) English new;\n (3) foreign old;\n (4) foreign new.\n\n The Reader will easily see that these are the very same four\n Classes which we had before.]\n\n pg004 1/2\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n_NAMES._\n\n\nThe word \"Thing\", which conveys the idea of a Thing, _without_ any idea\nof an Adjunct, represents _any_ single Thing. Any other word (or\nphrase), which conveys the idea of a Thing, _with_ the idea of an\nAdjunct represents _any_ Thing which possesses that Adjunct; i.e., it\nrepresents any Member of the Class to which that Adjunct is _peculiar_.\n\nSuch a word (or phrase) is called a '=Name='; and, if there be an\nexisting Thing which it represents, it is said to be a Name of that\nThing.\n\n [For example, the words \"Thing,\" \"Treasure,\" \"Town,\" and the\n phrases \"valuable Thing,\" \"material artificial Thing consisting\n of houses and streets,\" \"Town lit with gas,\" \"Town paved with\n gold,\" \"old English Book.\"]\n\nJust as a Class is said to be _Real_, or _Unreal_, according as there\n_is_, or _is not_, an existing Thing in it, so also a Name is said to be\n_Real_, or _Unreal_, according as there _is_, or _is not_, an existing\nThing represented by it.\n\n [Thus, \"Town lit with gas\" is a _Real_ Name: \"Town paved with\n gold\" is an _Unreal_ Name.]\n\nEvery Name is either a Substantive only, or else a phrase consisting of\na Substantive and one or more Adjectives (or phrases used as\nAdjectives).\n\nEvery Name, except \"Thing\", may usually be expressed in three different\nforms:--\n\n (_a_) The Substantive \"Thing\", and one or more\n Adjectives (or phrases used as Adjectives) conveying\n the ideas of the Attributes;\n pg005\n (_b_) A Substantive, conveying the idea of a Thing with\n the ideas of _some_ of the Attributes, and one or more\n Adjectives (or phrases used as Adjectives) conveying\n the ideas of the _other_ Attributes;\n\n (_c_) A Substantive conveying the idea of a Thing with\n the ideas of _all_ the Attributes.\n\n [Thus, the phrase \"material living Thing, belonging to the\n Animal Kingdom, having two hands and two feet\" is a Name\n expressed in Form (_a_).\n\n If we choose to roll up together the Substantive \"Thing\" and the\n Adjectives \"material, living, belonging to the Animal Kingdom,\"\n so as to make the new Substantive \"Animal,\" we get the phrase\n \"Animal having two hands and two feet,\" which is a Name\n (representing the same Thing as before) expressed in Form (_b_).\n\n And, if we choose to roll up the whole phrase into one word, so\n as to make the new Substantive \"Man,\" we get a Name (still\n representing the very same Thing) expressed in Form (_c_).]\n\nA Name, whose Substantive is in the _plural_ number, may be used to\nrepresent either\n\n (1) Members of a Class, _regarded as separate Things_;\n or (2) a whole Class, _regarded as one single Thing_.\n\n [Thus, when I say \"Some soldiers of the Tenth Regiment are\n tall,\" or \"The soldiers of the Tenth Regiment are brave,\" I am\n using the Name \"soldiers of the Tenth Regiment\" in the _first_\n sense; and it is just the same as if I were to point to each of\n them _separately_, and to say \"_This_ soldier of the Tenth\n Regiment is tall,\" \"_That_ soldier of the Tenth Regiment is\n tall,\" and so on.\n\n But, when I say \"The soldiers of the Tenth Regiment are formed\n in square,\" I am using the phrase in the _second_ sense; and it\n is just the same as if I were to say \"The _Tenth Regiment_ is\n formed in square.\"]\n\n pg006\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\n_DEFINITIONS._\n\n\nIt is evident that every Member of a _Species_ is _also_ a Member of the\n_Genus_ out of which that Species has been picked, and that it possesses\nthe _Differentia_ of that Species. Hence it may be represented by a Name\nconsisting of two parts, one being a Name representing any Member of the\n_Genus_, and the other being the _Differentia_ of that Species. Such a\nName is called a '=Definition=' of any Member of that Species, and to\ngive it such a Name is to '=define=' it.\n\n [Thus, we may define a \"Treasure\" as a \"valuable Thing.\" In this\n case we regard \"Things\" as the _Genus_, and \"valuable\" as the\n _Differentia_.]\n\nThe following Examples, of this Process, may be taken as models for\nworking others.\n\n [Note that, in each Definition, the Substantive, representing a\n Member (or Members) of the _Genus_, is printed in Capitals.]\n\n1. Define \"a Treasure.\"\n\n_Ans._ \"a valuable THING.\"\n\n2. Define \"Treasures.\"\n\n_Ans._ \"valuable THINGS.\"\n\n3. Define \"a Town.\"\n\n_Ans._ \"a material artificial THING, consisting of houses and streets.\"\n pg007\n4. Define \"Men.\"\n\n_Ans._ \"material, living THINGS, belonging to the Animal Kingdom, having\ntwo hands and two feet\";\n\nor else\n\n\"ANIMALS having two hands and two feet.\"\n\n5. Define \"London.\"\n\n_Ans._ \"the material artificial THING, which consists of houses and\nstreets, and has four million inhabitants\";\n\nor else\n\n\"the TOWN which has four million inhabitants.\"\n\n [Note that we here use the article \"the\" instead of \"a\", because\n we happen to know that there is only _one_ such Thing.\n\n The Reader can set himself any number of Examples of this\n Process, by simply choosing the Name of any common Thing (such\n as \"house,\" \"tree,\" \"knife\"), making a Definition for it, and\n then testing his answer by referring to any English Dictionary.]\n\n pg008\n\n\nBOOK II.\n\nPROPOSITIONS.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_PROPOSITIONS GENERALLY._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\nNote that the word \"some\" is to be regarded, henceforward, as meaning\n\"one or more.\"\n\nThe word 'Proposition,' as used in ordinary conversation, may be applied\nto _any_ word, or phrase, which conveys any information whatever.\n\n [Thus the words \"yes\" and \"no\" are Propositions in the ordinary\n sense of the word; and so are the phrases \"you owe me five\n farthings\" and \"I don't!\"\n\n Such words as \"oh!\" or \"never!\", and such phrases as \"fetch me\n that book!\" \"which book do you mean?\" do not seem, at first\n sight, to convey any _information_; but they can easily be\n turned into equivalent forms which do so, viz. \"I am surprised,\"\n \"I will never consent to it,\" \"I order you to fetch me that\n book,\" \"I want to know which book you mean.\"]\n\nBut a '=Proposition=,' as used in this First Part of \"Symbolic Logic,\"\nhas a peculiar form, which may be called its '=Normal form='; and if any\nProposition, which we wish to use in an argument, is not in normal form,\nwe must reduce it to such a form, before we can use it.\n pg009\nA '=Proposition=,' when in normal form, asserts, as to certain two\nClasses, which are called its '=Subject=' and '=Predicate=,' either\n\n (1) that _some_ Members of its Subject are Members\n of its Predicate;\n\n or (2) that _no_ Members of its Subject are Members\n of its Predicate;\n\n or (3) that _all_ Members of its Subject are Members\n of its Predicate.\n\nThe Subject and the Predicate of a Proposition are called its '=Terms=.'\n\nTwo Propositions, which convey the _same_ information, are said to be\n'=equivalent='.\n\n [Thus, the two Propositions, \"I see John\" and \"John is seen by\n me,\" are equivalent.]\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Normal form of a Proposition._\n\nA Proposition, in normal form, consists of four parts, viz.--\n\n (1) The word \"some,\" or \"no,\" or \"all.\" (This word,\n which tells us _how many_ Members of the Subject\n are also Members of the Predicate, is called the\n '=Sign of Quantity=.')\n\n (2) Name of Subject.\n\n (3) The verb \"are\" (or \"is\"). (This is called the\n '=Copula=.')\n\n (4) Name of Predicate.\n\n pg010\nSec. 3.\n\n_Various kinds of Propositions._\n\nA Proposition, that begins with \"Some\", is said to be '=Particular=.' It\nis also called 'a Proposition =in I=.'\n\n [Note, that it is called 'Particular,' because it refers to a\n _part_ only of the Subject.]\n\nA Proposition, that begins with \"No\", is said to be '=Universal\nNegative=.' It is also called 'a Proposition =in E=.'\n\nA Proposition, that begins with \"All\", is said to be '=Universal\nAffirmative=.' It is also called 'a Proposition =in A=.'\n\n [Note, that they are called 'Universal', because they refer to\n the _whole_ of the Subject.]\n\nA Proposition, whose Subject is an _Individual_, is to be regarded as\n_Universal_.\n\n [Let us take, as an example, the Proposition \"John is not well\".\n This of course implies that there is an _Individual_, to whom\n the speaker refers when he mentions \"John\", and whom the\n listener _knows_ to be referred to. Hence the Class \"men\n referred to by the speaker when he mentions 'John'\" is a\n one-Member Class, and the Proposition is equivalent to \"_All_\n the men, who are referred to by the speaker when he mentions\n 'John', are not well.\"]\n\nPropositions are of two kinds, 'Propositions of Existence' and\n'Propositions of Relation.'\n\nThese shall be discussed separately.\n\n pg011\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_PROPOSITIONS OF EXISTENCE._\n\n\nA '=Proposition of Existence=', when in normal form, has, for its\n_Subject_, the Class \"existing Things\".\n\nIts Sign of Quantity is \"Some\" or \"No\".\n\n [Note that, though its Sign of Quantity tells us _how many_\n existing Things are Members of its Predicate, it does _not_ tell\n us the _exact_ number: in fact, it only deals with _two_\n numbers, which are, in ascending order, \"0\" and \"1 or more.\"]\n\nIt is called \"a Proposition of Existence\" because its effect is to\nassert the _Reality_ (i.e. the real _existence_), or else the\n_Imaginariness_, of its Predicate.\n\n [Thus, the Proposition \"Some existing Things are honest men\"\n asserts that the Class \"honest men\" is _Real_.\n\n This is the _normal_ form; but it may also be expressed in any\n one of the following forms:--\n\n (1) \"Honest men exist\";\n (2) \"Some honest men exist\";\n (3) \"The Class 'honest men' exists\";\n (4) \"There are honest men\";\n (5) \"There are some honest men\".\n\n Similarly, the Proposition \"No existing Things are men fifty\n feet high\" asserts that the Class \"men 50 feet high\" is\n _Imaginary_.\n\n This is the _normal_ form; but it may also be expressed in any\n one of the following forms:--\n\n (1) \"Men 50 feet high do not exist\";\n (2) \"No men 50 feet high exist\";\n (3) \"The Class 'men 50 feet high' does not exist\";\n (4) \"There are not any men 50 feet high\";\n (5) \"There are no men 50 feet high.\"]\n\n pg012\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_PROPOSITIONS OF RELATION._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\nA =Proposition of Relation=, of the kind to be here discussed, has, for\nits Terms, two Specieses of the same Genus, such that each of the two\nNames conveys the idea of some Attribute _not_ conveyed by the other.\n\n [Thus, the Proposition \"Some merchants are misers\" is of the\n right kind, since \"merchants\" and \"misers\" are Specieses of the\n same Genus \"men\"; and since the Name \"merchants\" conveys the\n idea of the Attribute \"mercantile\", and the name \"misers\" the\n idea of the Attribute \"miserly\", each of which ideas is _not_\n conveyed by the other Name.\n\n But the Proposition \"Some dogs are setters\" is _not_ of the\n right kind, since, although it is true that \"dogs\" and \"setters\"\n are Specieses of the same Genus \"animals\", it is _not_ true that\n the Name \"dogs\" conveys the idea of any Attribute not conveyed\n by the Name \"setters\". Such Propositions will be discussed in\n Part II.]\n\nThe Genus, of which the two Terms are Specieses, is called the\n'=Universe of Discourse=,' or (more briefly) the '=Univ.='\n\nThe Sign of Quantity is \"Some\" or \"No\" or \"All\".\n\n [Note that, though its Sign of Quantity tells us _how many_\n Members of its Subject are _also_ Members of its Predicate, it\n does not tell us the _exact_ number: in fact, it only deals with\n _three_ numbers, which are, in ascending order, \"0\", \"1 or\n more\", \"the total number of Members of the Subject\".]\n\nIt is called \"a Proposition of Relation\" because its effect is to assert\nthat a certain _relationship_ exists between its Terms.\n\n pg013\nSec. 2.\n\n_Reduction of a Proposition of Relation to Normal form._\n\nThe Rules, for doing this, are as follows:--\n\n(1) Ascertain what is the _Subject_ (i.e., ascertain what Class we are\n_talking about_);\n\n(2) If the verb, governed by the Subject, is _not_ the verb \"are\" (or\n\"is\"), substitute for it a phrase beginning with \"are\" (or \"is\");\n\n(3) Ascertain what is the _Predicate_ (i.e., ascertain what Class it is,\nwhich is asserted to contain _some_, or _none_, or _all_, of the Members\nof the Subject);\n\n(4) If the Name of each Term is _completely expressed_ (i.e. if it\ncontains a Substantive), there is no need to determine the 'Univ.'; but,\nif either Name is _incompletely expressed_, and contains _Attributes_\nonly, it is then necessary to determine a 'Univ.', in order to insert\nits Name as the Substantive.\n\n(5) Ascertain the _Sign of Quantity_;\n\n(6) Arrange in the following order:--\n\n Sign of Quantity,\n Subject,\n Copula,\n Predicate.\n\n [Let us work a few Examples, to illustrate these Rules.\n\n\n (1)\n\n \"Some apples are not ripe.\"\n\n (1) The Subject is \"apples.\"\n\n (2) The Verb is \"are.\"\n\n (3) The Predicate is \"not-ripe * * *.\" (As no Substantive is\n expressed, and we have not yet settled what the Univ. is to be,\n we are forced to leave a blank.)\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"fruit.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"some.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"Some | apples | are | not-ripe fruit.\"\n\n pg014\n (2)\n\n \"None of my speculations have brought me as much as 5 per cent.\"\n\n (1) The Subject is \"my speculations.\"\n\n (2) The Verb is \"have brought,\" for which we substitute the\n phrase \"are * * * that have brought\".\n\n (3) The Predicate is \"* * * that have brought &c.\"\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"transactions.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"none of.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"None of | my speculations | are | transactions\n that have brought me as much as 5 per cent.\"\n\n\n (3)\n\n \"None but the brave deserve the fair.\"\n\n To begin with, we note that the phrase \"none but the brave\" is\n equivalent to \"no _not_-brave.\"\n\n (1) The Subject has for its _Attribute_ \"not-brave.\" But no\n _Substantive_ is supplied. So we express the Subject as\n \"not-brave * * *.\"\n\n (2) The Verb is \"deserve,\" for which we substitute the phrase\n \"are deserving of\".\n\n (3) The Predicate is \"* * * deserving of the fair.\"\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"persons.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"no.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"No | not-brave persons | are | persons deserving\n of the fair.\"\n\n\n (4)\n\n \"A lame puppy would not say \"thank you\" if you offered to lend\n it a skipping-rope.\"\n\n (1) The Subject is evidently \"lame puppies,\" and all the rest of\n the sentence must somehow be packed into the Predicate.\n\n (2) The Verb is \"would not say,\" &c., for which we may\n substitute the phrase \"are not grateful for.\"\n\n (3) The Predicate may be expressed as \"* * * not grateful for\n the loan of a skipping-rope.\"\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"puppies.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"all.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"All | lame puppies | are | puppies not grateful\n for the loan of a skipping-rope.\"\n\n pg015\n (5)\n\n \"No one takes in the _Times_, unless he is well-educated.\"\n\n (1) The Subject is evidently persons who are not well-educated\n (\"no _one_\" evidently means \"no _person_\").\n\n (2) The Verb is \"takes in,\" for which we may substitute the\n phrase \"are persons taking in.\"\n\n (3) The Predicate is \"persons taking in the _Times_.\"\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"persons.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"no.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"No | persons who are not well-educated | are |\n persons taking in the _Times_.\"\n\n\n (6)\n\n \"My carriage will meet you at the station.\"\n\n (1) The Subject is \"my carriage.\" This, being an 'Individual,'\n is equivalent to the Class \"my carriages.\" (Note that this Class\n contains only _one_ Member.)\n\n (2) The Verb is \"will meet\", for which we may substitute the\n phrase \"are * * * that will meet.\"\n\n (3) The Predicate is \"* * * that will meet you at the station.\"\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"things.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"all.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"All | my carriages | are | things that will meet\n you at the station.\"\n\n\n (7)\n\n \"Happy is the man who does not know what 'toothache' means!\"\n\n (1) The Subject is evidently \"the man &c.\" (Note that in this\n sentence, the _Predicate_ comes first.) At first sight, the\n Subject seems to be an '_Individual_'; but on further\n consideration, we see that the article \"the\" does _not_ imply\n that there is only _one_ such man. Hence the phrase \"the man\n who\" is equivalent to \"all men who\".\n\n (2) The Verb is \"are.\"\n\n (3) The Predicate is \"happy * * *.\"\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"men.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"all.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"All | men who do not know what 'toothache'\n means | are | happy men.\"\n\n pg016\n (8)\n\n \"Some farmers always grumble at the weather, whatever it may\n be.\"\n\n (1) The Subject is \"farmers.\"\n\n (2) The Verb is \"grumble,\" for which we substitute the phrase\n \"are * * * who grumble.\"\n\n (3) The Predicate is \"* * * who always grumble &c.\"\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"persons.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"some.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"Some | farmers | are | persons who always\n grumble at the weather, whatever it may be.\"\n\n\n (9)\n\n \"No lambs are accustomed to smoke cigars.\"\n\n (1) The Subject is \"lambs.\"\n\n (2) The Verb is \"are.\"\n\n (3) The Predicate is \"* * * accustomed &c.\"\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"animals.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"no.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"No | lambs | are | animals accustomed to smoke\n cigars.\"\n\n\n (10)\n\n \"I ca'n't understand examples that are not arranged in regular\n order, like those I am used to.\"\n\n (1) The Subject is \"examples that,\" &c.\n\n (2) The Verb is \"I ca'n't understand,\" which we must alter, so\n as to have \"examples,\" instead of \"I,\" as the nominative case.\n It may be expressed as \"are not understood by me.\"\n\n (3) The Predicate is \"* * * not understood by me.\"\n\n (4) Let Univ. be \"examples.\"\n\n (5) The Sign of Quantity is \"all.\"\n\n (6) The Proposition now becomes\n\n \"All | examples that are not arranged in regular\n order like those I am used to | are | examples not\n understood by me.\"]\n\n pg017\nSec. 3.\n\n_A Proposition of Relation, beginning with \"All\", is a Double\nProposition._\n\nA Proposition of Relation, beginning with \"All\", asserts (as we already\nknow) that \"_All_ Members of the Subject are Members of the Predicate\".\nThis evidently contains, as a _part_ of what it tells us, the smaller\nProposition \"_Some_ Members of the Subject are Members of the\nPredicate\".\n\n [Thus, the Proposition \"_All_ bankers are rich men\" evidently\n contains the smaller Proposition \"_Some_ bankers are rich men\".]\n\nThe question now arises \"What is the _rest_ of the information which\nthis Proposition gives us?\"\n\nIn order to answer this question, let us begin with the smaller\nProposition, \"_Some_ Members of the Subject are Members of the\nPredicate,\" and suppose that this is _all_ we have been told; and let us\nproceed to inquire what _else_ we need to be told, in order to know that\n\"_All_ Members of the Subject are Members of the Predicate\".\n\n [Thus, we may suppose that the Proposition \"_Some_ bankers are\n rich men\" is all the information we possess; and we may proceed\n to inquire what _other_ Proposition needs to be added to it, in\n order to make up the entire Proposition \"_All_ bankers are rich\n men\".]\n\nLet us also suppose that the 'Univ.' (i.e. the Genus, of which both the\nSubject and the Predicate are Specieses) has been divided (by the\nProcess of _Dichotomy_) into two smaller Classes, viz.\n\n (1) the Predicate;\n\n (2) the Class whose Differentia is _contradictory_ to that of\n the Predicate.\n\n [Thus, we may suppose that the Genus \"men,\" (of which both\n \"bankers\" and \"rich men\" are Specieses) has been divided into\n the two smaller Classes, \"rich men\", \"poor men\".]\n pg018\nNow we know that _every_ Member of the Subject is (as shown at p. 6) a\nMember of the Univ. Hence _every_ Member of the Subject is either in\nClass (1) or else in Class (2).\n\n [Thus, we know that _every_ banker is a Member of the Genus\n \"men\". Hence, _every_ banker is either in the Class \"rich men\",\n or else in the Class \"poor men\".]\n\nAlso we have been told that, in the case we are discussing, _some_\nMembers of the Subject are in Class (1). What _else_ do we need to be\ntold, in order to know that _all_ of them are there? Evidently we need\nto be told that _none_ of them are in Class (2); i.e. that _none_ of\nthem are Members of the Class whose Differentia is _contradictory_ to\nthat of the Predicate.\n\n [Thus, we may suppose we have been told that _some_ bankers are\n in the Class \"rich men\". What _else_ do we need to be told, in\n order to know that _all_ of them are there? Evidently we need to\n be told that _none_ of them are in the Class \"_poor_ men\".]\n\nHence a Proposition of Relation, beginning with \"All\", is a _Double_\nProposition, and is '=equivalent=' to (i.e. gives the same information\nas) the _two_ Propositions\n\n (1) \"_Some_ Members of the Subject are Members of the\n Predicate\";\n\n (2) \"_No_ Members of the Subject are Members of the\n Class whose Differentia is _contradictory_ to that of\n the Predicate\".\n\n [Thus, the Proposition \"_All_ bankers are rich men\" is a\n _Double_ Proposition, and is equivalent to the _two_\n Propositions\n\n (1) \"_Some_ bankers are rich men\";\n\n (2) \"_No_ bankers are _poor_ men\".]\n\n pg019\nSec. 4.\n\n_What is implied, in a Proposition of Relation, as to the Reality of its\nTerms?_\n\nNote that the rules, here laid down, are _arbitrary_, and only apply to\nPart I of my \"Symbolic Logic.\"\n\nA Proposition of Relation, beginning with \"Some\", is henceforward to be\nunderstood as asserting that there are _some existing Things_, which,\nbeing Members of the Subject, are also Members of the Predicate; i.e.\nthat _some existing Things_ are Members of _both_ Terms at once. Hence\nit is to be understood as implying that _each_ Term, taken by itself, is\n_Real_.\n\n [Thus, the Proposition \"Some rich men are invalids\" is to be\n understood as asserting that _some existing Things_ are \"rich\n invalids\". Hence it implies that _each_ of the two Classes,\n \"rich men\" and \"invalids\", taken by itself, is _Real_.]\n\nA Proposition of Relation, beginning with \"No\", is henceforward to be\nunderstood as asserting that there are _no existing Things_ which, being\nMembers of the Subject, are also Members of the Predicate; i.e. that _no\nexisting Things_ are Members of _both_ Terms at once. But this implies\nnothing as to the _Reality_ of either Term taken by itself.\n\n [Thus, the Proposition \"No mermaids are milliners\" is to be\n understood as asserting that _no existing Things_ are\n \"mermaid-milliners\". But this implies nothing as to the\n _Reality_, or the _Unreality_, of either of the two Classes,\n \"mermaids\" and \"milliners\", taken by itself. In this case as it\n happens, the Subject is _Imaginary_, and the Predicate _Real_.]\n\nA Proposition of Relation, beginning with \"All\", contains (see Sec. 3) a\nsimilar Proposition beginning with \"Some\". Hence it is to be understood\nas implying that _each_ Term, taken by itself, is _Real_.\n\n [Thus, the Proposition \"All hyaenas are savage animals\" contains\n the Proposition \"Some hyaenas are savage animals\". Hence it\n implies that _each_ of the two Classes, \"hyaenas\" and \"savage\n animals\", taken by itself, is _Real_.]\n\n pg020\nSec. 5.\n\n_Translation of a Proposition of Relation into one or more Propositions\nof Existence._\n\nWe have seen that a Proposition of Relation, beginning with \"Some,\"\nasserts that _some existing Things_, being Members of its Subject, are\n_also_ Members of its Predicate. Hence, it asserts that some existing\nThings are Members of _both_; i.e. it asserts that some existing Things\nare Members of the Class of Things which have _all_ the Attributes of\nthe Subject and the Predicate.\n\nHence, to translate it into a Proposition of Existence, we take\n\"existing Things\" as the new _Subject_, and Things, which have _all_ the\nAttributes of the Subject and the Predicate, as the new Predicate.\n\nSimilarly for a Proposition of Relation beginning with \"No\".\n\nA Proposition of Relation, beginning with \"All\", is (as shown in Sec. 3)\nequivalent to _two_ Propositions, one beginning with \"Some\" and the\nother with \"No\", each of which we now know how to translate.\n\n [Let us work a few Examples, to illustrate these Rules.\n\n (1)\n\n \"Some apples are not ripe.\"\n\n Here we arrange thus:--\n\n \"Some\" _Sign of Quantity_.\n \"existing Things\" _Subject_.\n \"are\" _Copula_.\n \"not-ripe apples\" _Predicate_.\n\n or thus:--\n\n \"Some | existing Things | are | not-ripe apples.\"\n pg021\n (2)\n\n \"Some farmers always grumble at the weather, whatever\n it may be.\"\n\n Here we arrange thus:--\n\n \"Some | existing Things | are | farmers who always\n grumble at the weather, whatever it may be.\"\n\n (3)\n\n \"No lambs are accustomed to smoke cigars.\"\n\n Here we arrange thus:--\n\n \"No | existing Things |are | lambs accustomed to\n smoke cigars.\"\n\n (4)\n\n \"None of my speculations have brought me as much\n as 5 per cent.\"\n\n Here we arrange thus:--\n\n \"No | existing Things | are | speculations of mine,\n which have brought me as much as 5 per cent.\"\n\n (5)\n\n \"None but the brave deserve the fair.\"\n\n Here we note, to begin with, that the phrase \"none but the\n brave\" is equivalent to \"no not-brave men.\" We then arrange\n thus:--\n\n \"No | existing Things | are | not-brave men deserving\n of the fair.\"\n\n (6)\n\n \"All bankers are rich men.\"\n\n This is equivalent to the two Propositions \"Some bankers are\n rich men\" and \"No bankers are poor men.\"\n\n Here we arrange thus:--\n\n \"Some | existing Things | are | rich bankers\";\n and\n \"No | existing Things | are | poor bankers.\"]\n\n\n [Work Examples Sec. =1=, 1-4 (p. 97).]\n\n pg022\n\n\nBOOK III.\n\nTHE BILITERAL DIAGRAM.\n\n .-------------.\n | | |\n | xy | xy' |\n | | |\n |------|------|\n | | |\n | x'y | x'y' |\n | | |\n .-------------.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_SYMBOLS AND CELLS._\n\n\nFirst, let us suppose that the above Diagram is an enclosure assigned to\na certain Class of Things, which we have selected as our 'Universe of\nDiscourse.' or, more briefly, as our 'Univ'.\n\n [For example, we might say \"Let Univ. be 'books'\"; and we might\n imagine the Diagram to be a large table, assigned to all\n \"books.\"]\n\n [The Reader is strongly advised, in reading this Chapter, _not_\n to refer to the above Diagram, but to draw a large one for\n himself, _without any letters_, and to have it by him while he\n reads, and keep his finger on that particular _part_ of it,\n about which he is reading.]\n pg023\nSecondly, let us suppose that we have selected a certain Adjunct, which\nwe may call \"x,\" and have divided the large Class, to which we have\nassigned the whole Diagram, into the two smaller Classes whose\nDifferentiae are \"x\" and \"not-x\" (which we may call \"x'\"), and that we\nhave assigned the _North_ Half of the Diagram to the one (which we may\ncall \"the Class of x-Things,\" or \"the x-Class\"), and the _South_ Half to\nthe other (which we may call \"the Class of x'-Things,\" or \"the\nx'-Class\").\n\n [For example, we might say \"Let x mean 'old,' so that x' will\n mean 'new',\" and we might suppose that we had divided books into\n the two Classes whose Differentiae are \"old\" and \"new,\" and had\n assigned the _North_ Half of the table to \"_old_ books\" and the\n _South_ Half to \"_new_ books.\"]\n\nThirdly, let us suppose that we have selected another Adjunct, which we\nmay call \"y\", and have subdivided the x-Class into the two Classes whose\nDifferentiae are \"y\" and \"y'\", and that we have assigned the North-_West_\nCell to the one (which we may call \"the xy-Class\"), and the North-_East_\nCell to the other (which we may call \"the xy'-Class\").\n\n [For example, we might say \"Let y mean 'English,' so that y'\n will mean 'foreign'\", and we might suppose that we had\n subdivided \"old books\" into the two Classes whose Differentiae\n are \"English\" and \"foreign\", and had assigned the North-_West_\n Cell to \"old _English_ books\", and the North-_East_ Cell to \"old\n _foreign_ books.\"]\n\nFourthly, let us suppose that we have subdivided the x'-Class in the\nsame manner, and have assigned the South-_West_ Cell to the x'y-Class,\nand the South-_East_ Cell to the x'y'-Class.\n\n [For example, we might suppose that we had subdivided \"new\n books\" into the two Classes \"new _English_ books\" and \"new\n _foreign_ books\", and had assigned the South-_West_ Cell to the\n one, and the South-_East_ Cell to the other.]\n\nIt is evident that, if we had begun by dividing for y and y', and had\nthen subdivided for x and x', we should have got the _same_ four\nClasses. Hence we see that we have assigned the _West_ Half to the\ny-Class, and the _East_ Half to the y'-Class.\n pg024\n [Thus, in the above Example, we should find that we had assigned\n the _West_ Half of the table to \"_English_ books\" and the _East_\n Half to \"_foreign_ books.\"\n\n .-------------------.\n | old | old |\n | English | foreign |\n | books | books |\n |---------|---------|\n | new | new |\n | English | foreign |\n | books | books |\n .-------------------.\n\n We have, in fact, assigned the four Quarters of the table to\n four different Classes of books, as here shown.]\n\nThe Reader should carefully remember that, in such a phrase as \"the\nx-Things,\" the word \"Things\" means that particular _kind_ of Things, to\nwhich the whole Diagram has been assigned.\n\n [Thus, if we say \"Let Univ. be 'books',\" we mean that we have\n assigned the whole Diagram to \"books.\" In that case, if we took\n \"x\" to mean \"old\", the phrase \"the x-Things\" would mean \"the old\n books.\"]\n\nThe Reader should not go on to the next Chapter until he is _quite\nfamiliar_ with the _blank_ Diagram I have advised him to draw.\n\nHe ought to be able to name, _instantly_, the _Adjunct_ assigned to any\nCompartment named in the right-hand column of the following Table.\n\nAlso he ought to be able to name, _instantly_, the _Compartment_\nassigned to any Adjunct named in the left-hand column.\n\nTo make sure of this, he had better put the book into the hands of some\ngenial friend, while he himself has nothing but the blank Diagram, and\nget that genial friend to question him on this Table, _dodging_ about as\nmuch as possible. The Questions and Answers should be something like\nthis:--\n\n pg025\n TABLE I.\n\n .----------------------------------------.\n | _Adjuncts_ | _Compartments, or Cells,_ |\n | _of_ | _assigned to them._ |\n | _Classes._ | |\n |------------|---------------------------|\n | x | North Half. |\n | x' | South \" |\n | y | West \" |\n | y' | East \" |\n |------------|---------------------------|\n | xy | North-West Cell. |\n | xy' | \" East \" |\n | x'y | South-West \" |\n | x'y' | \" East \" |\n .----------------------------------------.\n\n Q. \"Adjunct for West Half?\"\n A. \"y.\"\n Q. \"Compartment for xy'?\"\n A. \"North-East Cell.\"\n Q. \"Adjunct for South-West Cell?\"\n A. \"x'y.\"\n &c., &c.\n\nAfter a little practice, he will find himself able to do without the\nblank Diagram, and will be able to see it _mentally_ (\"in my mind's eye,\nHoratio!\") while answering the questions of his genial friend. When\n_this_ result has been reached, he may safely go on to the next Chapter.\n\n pg026\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_COUNTERS._\n\n\nLet us agree that a _Red_ Counter, placed within a Cell, shall mean\n\"This Cell is _occupied_\" (i.e. \"There is at least _one_ Thing in it\").\n\nLet us also agree that a _Red_ Counter, placed on the partition between\ntwo Cells, shall mean \"The Compartment, made up of these two Cells, is\n_occupied_; but it is not known _whereabouts_, in it, its occupants\nare.\" Hence it may be understood to mean \"At least _one_ of these two\nCells is occupied: possibly _both_ are.\"\n\nOur ingenious American cousins have invented a phrase to describe the\ncondition of a man who has not yet made up his mind _which_ of two\npolitical parties he will join: such a man is said to be \"=sitting on\nthe fence=.\" This phrase exactly describes the condition of the Red\nCounter.\n\nLet us also agree that a _Grey_ Counter, placed within a Cell, shall\nmean \"This Cell is _empty_\" (i.e. \"There is _nothing_ in it\").\n\n [The Reader had better provide himself with 4 Red Counters and 5\n Grey ones.]\n\n pg027\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_REPRESENTATION OF PROPOSITIONS._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\nHenceforwards, in stating such Propositions as \"Some x-Things exist\" or\n\"No x-Things are y-Things\", I shall omit the word \"Things\", which the\nReader can supply for himself, and shall write them as \"Some x exist\" or\n\"No x are y\".\n\n [Note that the word \"Things\" is here used with a special\n meaning, as explained at p. 23.]\n\nA Proposition, containing only _one_ of the Letters used as Symbols for\nAttributes, is said to be '=Uniliteral='.\n\n [For example, \"Some x exist\", \"No y' exist\", &c.]\n\nA Proposition, containing _two_ Letters, is said to be ='Biliteral'=.\n\n [For example, \"Some xy' exist\", \"No x' are y\", &c.]\n\nA Proposition is said to be '=in terms of=' the Letters it contains,\nwhether with or without accents.\n\n [Thus, \"Some xy' exist\", \"No x' are y\", &c., are said to be _in\n terms of_ x and y.]\n\n pg028\nSec. 2.\n\n_Representation of Propositions of Existence._\n\nLet us take, first, the Proposition \"Some x exist\".\n\n [Note that this Proposition is (as explained at p. 12)\n equivalent to \"Some existing Things are x-Things.\"]\n\nThis tells us that there is at least _one_ Thing in the North Half; that\nis, that the North Half is _occupied_. And this we can evidently\nrepresent by placing a _Red_ Counter (here represented by a _dotted_\ncircle) on the partition which divides the North Half.\n\n .-------.\n | (.) |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n [In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would be \"Some old\n books exist\".]\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Propositions \"Some x'\nexist\", \"Some y exist\", and \"Some y' exist\".\n\n [The Reader should make out all these for himself. In the\n \"books\" example, these Propositions would be \"Some new books\n exist\", &c.]\n\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"No x exist\".\n\nThis tells us that there is _nothing_ in the North Half; that is, that\nthe North Half is _empty_; that is, that the North-West Cell and the\nNorth-East Cell are both of them _empty_. And this we can represent by\nplacing _two Grey_ Counters in the North Half, one in each Cell.\n\n .-------.\n |( )|( )|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n [The Reader may perhaps think that it would be enough to place a\n _Grey_ Counter on the partition in the North Half, and that,\n just as a _Red_ Counter, so placed, would mean \"This Half is\n _occupied_\", so a _Grey_ one would mean \"This Half is _empty_\".\n\n This, however, would be a mistake. We have seen that a _Red_\n Counter, so placed, would mean \"At least _one_ of these two\n Cells is occupied: possibly _both_ are.\" Hence a _Grey_ one\n would merely mean \"At least _one_ of these two Cells is empty:\n possibly _both_ are\". But what we have to represent is, that\n both Cells are _certainly_ empty: and this can only be done by\n placing a _Grey_ Counter in _each_ of them.\n\n In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would be \"No old books\n exist\".]\n pg029\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Propositions \"No x' exist\",\n\"No y exist\", and \"No y' exist\".\n\n [The Reader should make out all these for himself. In the\n \"books\" example, these three Propositions would be \"No new books\n exist\", &c.]\n\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"Some xy exist\".\n\nThis tells us that there is at least _one_ Thing in the North-West Cell;\nthat is, that the North-West Cell is _occupied_. And this we can\nrepresent by placing a _Red_ Counter in it.\n\n .-------.\n |(.)| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n [In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would be \"Some old\n English books exist\".]\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Propositions \"Some xy'\nexist\", \"Some x'y exist\", and \"Some x'y' exist\".\n\n [The Reader should make out all these for himself. In the\n \"books\" example, these three Propositions would be \"Some old\n foreign books exist\", &c.]\n\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"No xy exist\".\n\nThis tells us that there is _nothing_ in the North-West Cell; that is,\nthat the North-West Cell is _empty_. And this we can represent by\nplacing a _Grey_ Counter in it.\n\n .-------.\n |( )| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n [In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would be \"No old\n English books exist\".]\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Propositions \"No xy'\nexist\", \"No x'y exist\", and \"No x'y' exist\".\n\n [The Reader should make out all these for himself. In the\n \"books\" example, these three Propositions would be \"No old\n foreign books exist\", &c.]\n pg030\nWe have seen that the Proposition \"No x exist\" may be represented by\nplacing _two Grey_ Counters in the North Half, one in each Cell.\n\n .-------.\n |( )|( )|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nWe have also seen that these two _Grey_ Counters, taken _separately_,\nrepresent the two Propositions \"No xy exist\" and \"No xy' exist\".\n\nHence we see that the Proposition \"No x exist\" is a _Double_\nProposition, and is equivalent to the _two_ Propositions \"No xy exist\"\nand \"No xy' exist\".\n\n [In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would be \"No old books\n exist\".\n\n Hence this is a _Double_ Proposition, and is equivalent to the\n _two_ Propositions \"No old _English_ books exist\" and \"No old\n _foreign_ books exist\".]\n\n\nSec. 3.\n\n_Representation of Propositions of Relation._\n\nLet us take, first, the Proposition \"Some x are y\".\n\nThis tells us that at least _one_ Thing, in the _North_ Half, is also in\nthe _West_ Half. Hence it must be in the space _common_ to them, that\nis, in the _North-West Cell_. Hence the North-West Cell is _occupied_.\nAnd this we can represent by placing a _Red_ Counter in it.\n\n .-------.\n |(.)| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n [Note that the _Subject_ of the Proposition settles which _Half_\n we are to use; and that the _Predicate_ settles in which\n _portion_ of it we are to place the Red Counter.\n\n In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would be \"Some old\n books are English\".]\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Propositions \"Some x are\ny'\", \"Some x' are y\", and \"Some x' are y'\".\n\n [The Reader should make out all these for himself. In the\n \"books\" example, these three Propositions would be \"Some old\n books are foreign\", &c.]\n pg031\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"Some y are x\".\n\nThis tells us that at least _one_ Thing, in the _West_ Half, is also in\nthe _North_ Half. Hence it must be in the space _common_ to them, that\nis, in the _North-West Cell_. Hence the North-West Cell is _occupied_.\nAnd this we can represent by placing a _Red_ Counter in it.\n\n .-------.\n |(.)| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n [In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would be \"Some English\n books are old\".]\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Propositions \"Some y are\nx'\", \"Some y' are x\", and \"Some y' are x'\".\n\n [The Reader should make out all these for himself. In the\n \"books\" example, these three Propositions would be \"Some English\n books are new\", &c.]\n\nWe see that this _one_ Diagram has now served to represent no less than\n_three_ Propositions, viz.\n\n (1) \"Some xy exist;\n (2) Some x are y;\n (3) Some y are x\".\n\n .-------.\n |(.)| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nHence these three Propositions are equivalent.\n\n [In the \"books\" example, these Propositions would be\n\n (1) \"Some old English books exist;\n (2) Some old books are English;\n (3) Some English books are old\".]\n\nThe two equivalent Propositions, \"Some x are y\" and \"Some y are x\", are\nsaid to be '=Converse=' to each other; and the Process, of changing one\ninto the other, is called '=Converting=', or '=Conversion='.\n\n [For example, if we were told to convert the Proposition\n\n \"Some apples are not ripe,\"\n\n we should first choose our Univ. (say \"fruit\"), and then\n complete the Proposition, by supplying the Substantive \"fruit\"\n in the Predicate, so that it would be\n\n \"Some apples are not-ripe fruit\";\n\n and we should then convert it by interchanging its Terms, so\n that it would be\n\n \"Some not-ripe fruit are apples\".]\n pg032\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Trios of equivalent\nPropositions; the whole Set of _four_ Trios being as follows:--\n\n (1) \"Some xy exist\" = \"Some x are y\" = \"Some y are x\".\n (2) \"Some xy' exist\" = \"Some x are y'\" = \"Some y' are x\".\n (3) \"Some x'y exist\" = \"Some x' are y\" = \"Some y are x'\".\n (4) \"Some x'y' exist\" = \"Some x' are y'\" = \"Some y' are x'\".\n\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"No x are y\".\n\nThis tell us that no Thing, in the _North_ Half, is also in the _West_\nHalf. Hence there is _nothing_ in the space _common_ to them, that is,\nin the _North-West Cell_. Hence the North-West Cell is _empty_. And this\nwe can represent by placing a _Grey_ Counter in it.\n\n .-------.\n |( )| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n [In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would be \"No old books\n are English\".]\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Propositions \"No x are y'\",\nand \"No x' are y\", and \"No x' are y'\".\n\n [The Reader should make out all these for himself. In the\n \"books\" example, these three Propositions would be \"No old books\n are foreign\", &c.]\n\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"No y are x\".\n\nThis tells us that no Thing, in the _West_ Half, is also in the _North_\nHalf. Hence there is _nothing_ in the space _common_ to them, that is,\nin the _North-West Cell_. That is, the North-West Cell is _empty_. And\nthis we can represent by placing a _Grey_ Counter in it.\n\n .-------.\n |( )| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n [In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would be \"No English\n books are old\".]\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Propositions \"No y are x'\",\n\"No y' are x\", and \"No y' are x'\".\n\n [The Reader should make out all these for himself. In the\n \"books\" example, these three Propositions would be \"No English\n books are new\", &c.]\n pg033\n .-------.\n |( )| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nWe see that this _one_ Diagram has now served to present no less than\n_three_ Propositions, viz.\n\n (1) \"No xy exist;\n (2) No x are y;\n (3) No y are x.\"\n\nHence these three Propositions are equivalent.\n\n [In the \"books\" example, these Propositions would be\n\n (1) \"No old English books exist;\n (2) No old books are English;\n (3) No English books are old\".]\n\nThe two equivalent Propositions, \"No x are y\" and \"No y are x\", are said\nto be 'Converse' to each other.\n\n [For example, if we were told to convert the Proposition\n\n \"No porcupines are talkative\",\n\n we should first choose our Univ. (say \"animals\"), and then\n complete the Proposition, by supplying the Substantive \"animals\"\n in the Predicate, so that it would be\n\n \"No porcupines are talkative animals\", and we should then\n convert it, by interchanging its Terms, so that it would be\n\n \"No talkative animals are porcupines\".]\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Trios of equivalent\nPropositions; the whole Set of _four_ Trios being as follows:--\n\n (1) \"No xy exist\" = \"No x are y\" = \"No y are x\".\n (2) \"No xy' exist\" = \"No x are y'\" = \"No y' are x\".\n (3) \"No x'y exist\" = \"No x' are y\" = \"No y are x'\".\n (4) \"No x'y' exist\" = \"No x' are y'\" = \"No y' are x'\".\n\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"All x are y\".\n\nWe know (see p. 17) that this is a _Double_ Proposition, and equivalent\nto the _two_ Propositions \"Some x are y\" and \"No x are y'\", each of\nwhich we already know how to represent.\n\n .-------.\n |(.)|( )|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n [Note that the _Subject_ of the given Proposition settles which\n _Half_ we are to use; and that its _Predicate_ settles in which\n _portion_ of that Half we are to place the Red Counter.]\n\n pg034\n TABLE II.\n\n .-----------------------------------------------------.\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | | | (.) | | | |( )|( )| |\n | Some x exist | |---|---| | No x exist | |---|---| |\n | | | | | | | | | | |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |---------------|-----------|-------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | | | | | | | | | | |\n | Some x' exist | |---|---| | No x' exist | |---|---| |\n | | | (.) | | | |( )|( )| |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |---------------|-----------|-------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | | | | | | | |( )| | |\n | Some y exist | |(.)|---| | No y exist | |---|---| |\n | | | | | | | |( )| | |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |---------------|-----------|-------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | | | | | | | | |( )| |\n | Some y' exist | |---|(.)| | No y' exist | |---|---| |\n | | | | | | | | |( )| |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n .-----------------------------------------------------.\n\nSimilarly we may represent the seven similar Propositions \"All x are\ny'\", \"All x' are y\", \"All x' are y'\", \"All y are x\", \"All y are x'\",\n\"All y' are x\", and \"All y' are x'\".\n\nLet us take, lastly, the Double Proposition \"Some x are y and some are\ny'\", each part of which we already know how to represent.\n\n .-------.\n |(.)|(.)|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Propositions, \"Some x' are\ny and some are y'\", \"Some y are x and some are x'\", \"Some y' are x and\nsome are x'\".\n\nThe Reader should now get his genial friend to question him, severely,\non these two Tables. The _Inquisitor_ should have the Tables before him:\nbut the _Victim_ should have nothing but a blank Diagram, and the\nCounters with which he is to represent the various Propositions named by\nhis friend, e.g. \"Some y exist\", \"No y' are x\", \"All x are y\", &c. &c.\n\n pg035\n TABLE III.\n\n .-------------------------------------------------------------.\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | Some xy exist | |(.)| | | | |(.)|( )| |\n | = Some x are y | |---|---| | All x are y | |---|---| |\n | = Some y are x | | | | | | | | | |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |------------------|-----------|------------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | Some xy' exist | | |(.)| | | |( )|(.)| |\n | = Some x are y' | |---|---| | All x are y' | |---|---| |\n | = Some y' are x | | | | | | | | | |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |------------------|-----------|------------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | Some x'y exist | | | | | | | | | |\n | = Some x' are y | |---|---| | All x' are y | |---|---| |\n | = Some y are x' | |(.)| | | | |(.)|( )| |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |------------------|-----------|------------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | Some x'y' exist | | | | | | | | | |\n | = Some x' are y'| |---|---| | All x' are y' | |---|---| |\n | = Some y' are x'| | |(.)| | | |( )|(.)| |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n .-------------------------------------------------------------.\n\n .-------------------------------------------------------------.\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | No xy exist | |( )| | | | |(.)| | |\n | = No x are y | |---|---| | All y are x | |---|---| |\n | = No y are x | | | | | | |( )| | |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |------------------|-----------|------------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | No xy' exist | | |( )| | | |( )| | |\n | = No x are y' | |---|---| | All y are x' | |---|---| |\n | = No y' are x | | | | | | |(.)| | |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |------------------|-----------|------------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | No x'y exist | | | | | | | |(.)| |\n | = No x' are y | |---|---| | All y' are x | |---|---| |\n | = No y are x' | |( )| | | | | |( )| |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |------------------|-----------|------------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | No x'y' exist | | | | | | | |( )| |\n | = No x' are y' | |---|---| | All y' are x' | |---|---| |\n | = No y' are x' | | |( )| | | | |(.)| |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n .-------------------------------------------------------------.\n\n .-------------------------------------------------------------.\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | | |(.)|(.)| | | |(.)| | |\n | Some x are y, | |---|---| | Some y are x | |---|---| |\n | and some are y' | | | | | and some are x' | |(.)| | |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n |------------------|-----------|------------------|-----------|\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n | | | | | | | | |(.)| |\n | Some x' are y, | |---|---| | Some y' are x | |---|---| |\n | and some are y' | |(.)|(.)| | and some are x' | | |(.)| |\n | | .-------. | | .-------. |\n .-------------------------------------------------------------.\n\n pg036\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n_INTERPRETATION OF BILITERAL DIAGRAM WHEN MARKED WITH COUNTERS._\n\n\nThe Diagram is supposed to be set before us, with certain Counters\nplaced upon it; and the problem is to find out what Proposition, or\nPropositions, the Counters represent.\n\nAs the process is simply the reverse of that discussed in the previous\nChapter, we can avail ourselves of the results there obtained, as far as\nthey go.\n\nFirst, let us suppose that we find a _Red_ Counter placed in the\nNorth-West Cell.\n\n .-------.\n |(.)| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nWe know that this represents each of the Trio of equivalent Propositions\n\n\"Some xy exist\" = \"Some x are y\" = \"Some y are x\".\n\nSimilarly we may interpret a _Red_ Counter, when placed in the\nNorth-East, or South-West, or South-East Cell.\n\nNext, let us suppose that we find a _Grey_ Counter placed in the\nNorth-West Cell.\n\n .-------.\n |( )| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nWe know that this represents each of the Trio of equivalent Propositions\n\n\"No xy exist\" = \"No x are y\" = \"No y are x\".\n\nSimilarly we may interpret a _Grey_ Counter, when placed in the\nNorth-East, or South-West, or South-East Cell.\n pg037\nNext, let us suppose that we find a _Red_ Counter placed on the\npartition which divides the North Half.\n\n .-------.\n | (.) |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nWe know that this represents the Proposition \"Some x exist.\"\n\nSimilarly we may interpret a _Red_ Counter, when placed on the partition\nwhich divides the South, or West, or East Half.\n\n * * * * *\n\nNext, let us suppose that we find _two Red_ Counters placed in the North\nHalf, one in each Cell.\n\n .-------.\n |(.)|(.)|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nWe know that this represents the _Double_ Proposition \"Some x are y and\nsome are y'\".\n\nSimilarly we may interpret _two Red_ Counters, when placed in the South,\nor West, or East Half.\n\n * * * * *\n\nNext, let us suppose that we find _two Grey_ Counters placed in the\nNorth Half, one in each Cell.\n\n .-------.\n |( )|( )|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nWe know that this represents the Proposition \"No x exist\".\n\nSimilarly we may interpret _two Grey_ Counters, when placed in the\nSouth, or West, or East Half.\n\n * * * * *\n\nLastly, let us suppose that we find a _Red_ and a _Grey_ Counter placed\nin the North Half, the _Red_ in the North-_West_ Cell, and the _Grey_ in\nthe North-_East_ Cell.\n\n .-------.\n |(.)|( )|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nWe know that this represents the Proposition, \"All x are y\".\n\n [Note that the _Half_, occupied by the two Counters, settles\n what is to be the _Subject_ of the Proposition, and that the\n _Cell_, occupied by the _Red_ Counter, settles what is to be its\n _Predicate_.]\n pg038\nSimilarly we may interpret a _Red_ and a _Grey_ counter, when placed in\nany one of the seven similar positions\n\n Red in North-East, Grey in North-West;\n Red in South-West, Grey in South-East;\n Red in South-East, Grey in South-West;\n Red in North-West, Grey in South-West;\n Red in South-West, Grey in North-West;\n Red in North-East, Grey in South-East;\n Red in South-East, Grey in North-East.\n\nOnce more the genial friend must be appealed to, and requested to\nexamine the Reader on Tables II and III, and to make him not only\n_represent_ Propositions, but also _interpret_ Diagrams when marked with\nCounters.\n\nThe Questions and Answers should be like this:--\n\n Q. Represent \"No x' are y'.\"\n A. Grey Counter in S.E. Cell.\n Q. Interpret Red Counter on E. partition.\n A. \"Some y' exist.\"\n Q. Represent \"All y' are x.\"\n A. Red in N.E. Cell; Grey in S.E.\n Q. Interpret Grey Counter in S.W. Cell.\n A. \"No x'y exist\" = \"No x' are y\" = \"No y are x'\".\n &c., &c.\n\nAt first the Examinee will need to have the Board and Counters before\nhim; but he will soon learn to dispense with these, and to answer with\nhis eyes shut or gazing into vacancy.\n\n\n [Work Examples Sec. =1=, 5-8 (p. 97).]\n\n pg039\n\n\nBOOK IV.\n\nTHE TRILITERAL DIAGRAM.\n\n\n .-----------------. .-----------------.\n | | | | xy | xy' |\n | | | | m' | m' |\n | xy | xy' | | .----|----. |\n | | | | | xy | xy'| |\n | | | | | m | m | |\n |--------|--------| |---|----|----|---|\n | | | | |x'y |x'y'| |\n | | | | | m | m | |\n | x'y | x'y' | | .----|----. |\n | | | | x'y | x'y' |\n | | | | m' | m' |\n .-----------------. .-----------------.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_SYMBOLS AND CELLS._\n\n\nFirst, let us suppose that the above _left_-hand Diagram is the\nBiliteral Diagram that we have been using in Book III., and that we\nchange it into a _Triliteral_ Diagram by drawing an _Inner Square_, so\nas to divide each of its 4 Cells into 2 portions, thus making 8 Cells\naltogether. The _right_-hand Diagram shows the result.\n\n [The Reader is strongly advised, in reading this Chapter, _not_\n to refer to the above Diagrams, but to make a large copy of the\n right-hand one for himself, _without any letters_, and to have\n it by him while he reads, and keep his finger on that particular\n _part_ of it, about which he is reading.]\n pg040\nSecondly, let us suppose that we have selected a certain Adjunct, which\nwe may call \"m\", and have subdivided the xy-Class into the two Classes\nwhose Differentiae are m and m', and that we have assigned the N.W.\n_Inner_ Cell to the one (which we may call \"the Class of xym-Things\", or\n\"the xym-Class\"), and the N.W. _Outer_ Cell to the other (which we may\ncall \"the Class of xym'-Things\", or \"the xym'-Class\").\n\n [Thus, in the \"books\" example, we might say \"Let m mean 'bound',\n so that m' will mean 'unbound'\", and we might suppose that we\n had subdivided the Class \"old English books\" into the two\n Classes, \"old English bound books\" and \"old English unbound\n books\", and had assigned the N.W. _Inner_ Cell to the one, and\n the N.W. _Outer_ Cell to the other.]\n\nThirdly, let us suppose that we have subdivided the xy'-Class, the\nx'y-Class, and the x'y'-Class in the same manner, and have, in each\ncase, assigned the _Inner_ Cell to the Class possessing the Attribute m,\nand the _Outer_ Cell to the Class possessing the Attribute m'.\n\n [Thus, in the \"books\" example, we might suppose that we had\n subdivided the \"new English books\" into the two Classes, \"new\n English bound books\" and \"new English unbound books\", and had\n assigned the S.W. _Inner_ Cell to the one, and the S.W. _Outer_\n Cell to the other.]\n\nIt is evident that we have now assigned the _Inner Square_ to the\nm-Class, and the _Outer Border_ to the m'-Class.\n\n [Thus, in the \"books\" example, we have assigned the _Inner\n Square_ to \"bound books\" and the _Outer Border_ to \"unbound\n books\".]\n\nWhen the Reader has made himself familiar with this Diagram, he ought to\nbe able to find, in a moment, the Compartment assigned to a particular\n_pair_ of Attributes, or the Cell assigned to a particular _trio_ of\nAttributes. The following Rules will help him in doing this:--\n\n (1) Arrange the Attributes in the order x, y, m.\n pg041\n (2) Take the _first_ of them and find the Compartment\n assigned to it.\n\n (3) Then take the _second_, and find what _portion_ of that\n compartment is assigned to it.\n\n (4) Treat the _third_, if there is one, in the same way.\n\n [For example, suppose we have to find the Compartment assigned\n to ym. We say to ourselves \"y has the _West_ Half; and m has the\n _Inner_ portion of that West Half.\"\n\n Again, suppose we have to find the Cell assigned to x'ym'. We\n say to ourselves \"x' has the _South_ Half; y has the _West_\n portion of that South Half, i.e. has the _South-West Quarter_;\n and m' has the _Outer_ portion of that South-West Quarter.\"]\n\nThe Reader should now get his genial friend to question him on the Table\ngiven on the next page, in the style of the following specimen-Dialogue.\n\n Q. Adjunct for South Half, Inner Portion?\n A. x'm.\n Q. Compartment for m'?\n A. The Outer Border.\n Q. Adjunct for North-East Quarter, Outer Portion?\n A. xy'm'.\n Q. Compartment for ym?\n A. West Half, Inner Portion.\n Q. Adjunct for South Half?\n A. x'.\n Q. Compartment for x'y'm?\n A. South-East Quarter, Inner Portion.\n &c. &c.\n\n pg042\n TABLE IV.\n\n .-----------------------------------------------.\n | Adjunct | |\n | of | Compartments, or Cells, assigned |\n | Classes. | to them. |\n |----------|------------------------------------|\n | x | North Half. |\n | x' | South \" |\n | y | West \" |\n | y' | East \" |\n | m | Inner Square. |\n | m' | Outer Border. |\n |----------|------------------------------------|\n | xy | North-West Quarter. |\n | xy' | \" East \" |\n | x'y | South-West \" |\n | x'y' | \" East \" |\n | xm | North Half, Inner Portion. |\n | xm' | \" \" Outer \" |\n | x'm | South \" Inner \" |\n | x'm' | \" \" Outer \" |\n | ym | West \" Inner \" |\n | ym' | \" \" Outer \" |\n | y'm | East \" Inner \" |\n | y'm' | \" \" Outer \" |\n |----------|------------------------------------|\n | xym | North-West Quarter, Inner Portion. |\n | xym' | \" \" \" Outer \" |\n | xy'm | \" East \" Inner \" |\n | xy'm' | \" \" \" Outer \" |\n | x'ym | South-West \" Inner \" |\n | x'ym' | \" \" \" Outer \" |\n | x'y'm | \" East \" Inner \" |\n | x'y'm' | \" \" \" Outer \" |\n .-----------------------------------------------.\n\n pg043\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_REPRESENTATION OF PROPOSITIONS IN TERMS OF x AND m, OR OF y AND m._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Representation of Propositions of Existence in terms of x and m, or of\ny and m._\n\nLet us take, first, the Proposition \"Some xm exist\".\n\n [Note that the _full_ meaning of this Proposition is (as\n explained at p. 12) \"Some existing Things are xm-Things\".]\n\nThis tells us that there is at least _one_ Thing in the Inner portion of\nthe North Half; that is, that this Compartment is _occupied_. And this\nwe can evidently represent by placing a _Red_ Counter on the partition\nwhich divides it.\n\n .---------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | (.) | |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n [In the \"books\" example, this Proposition would mean \"Some old\n bound books exist\" (or \"There are some old bound books\").]\n\nSimilarly we may represent the seven similar Propositions, \"Some xm'\nexist\", \"Some x'm exist\", \"Some x'm' exist\", \"Some ym exist\", \"Some ym'\nexist\", \"Some y'm exist\", and \"Some y'm' exist\".\n pg044\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"No xm exist\".\n\nThis tells us that there is _nothing_ in the Inner portion of the North\nHalf; that is, that this Compartment is _empty_. And this we can\nrepresent by placing _two Grey_ Counters in it, one in each Cell.\n\n .---------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | |( )|( )| |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nSimilarly we may represent the seven similar Propositions, in terms of x\nand m, or of y and m, viz. \"No xm' exist\", \"No x'm exist\", &c.\n\n * * * * *\n\nThese sixteen Propositions of Existence are the only ones that we shall\nhave to represent on this Diagram.\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Representation of Propositions of Relation in terms of x and m, or of y\nand m._\n\nLet us take, first, the Pair of Converse Propositions\n\n \"Some x are m\" = \"Some m are x.\"\n\nWe know that each of these is equivalent to the Proposition of Existence\n\"Some xm exist\", which we already know how to represent.\n\n .---------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | (.) | |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nSimilarly for the seven similar Pairs, in terms of x and m, or of y and\nm.\n\nLet us take, next, the Pair of Converse Propositions\n\n \"No x are m\" = \"No m are x.\"\n\nWe know that each of these is equivalent to the Proposition of Existence\n\"No xm exist\", which we already know how to represent.\n\n .---------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | |( )|( )| |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nSimilarly for the seven similar Pairs, in terms of x and m, or of y and\nm.\n pg045\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"All x are m.\"\n\n .---------------.\n |( ) | ( )|\n | .---|---. |\n | | (.) | |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nWe know (see p. 18) that this is a _Double_ Proposition, and equivalent\nto the _two_ Propositions \"Some x are m\" and \"No x are m' \", each of\nwhich we already know how to represent.\n\nSimilarly for the fifteen similar Propositions, in terms of x and m, or\nof y and m.\n\nThese thirty-two Propositions of Relation are the only ones that we\nshall have to represent on this Diagram.\n\nThe Reader should now get his genial friend to question him on the\nfollowing four Tables.\n\nThe Victim should have nothing before him but a blank Triliteral\nDiagram, a Red Counter, and 2 Grey ones, with which he is to represent\nthe various Propositions named by the Inquisitor, _e.g._ \"No y' are m\",\n\"Some xm' exist\", &c., &c.\n pg046\n TABLE V.\n\n .---------------------------------------------------------.\n | .---------------. Some xm exist | .---------------. |\n | | | | = Some x are m | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | = Some m are x | | .---|---. | |\n | | | (.) | | | | |( )|( )| | |\n | |---|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | No xm exist | | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | = No x are m | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | = No m are x | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. Some xm' exist | .---------------. |\n | | (.) | = Some x are m' | |( ) | ( )| |\n | | .---|---. | = Some m' are x | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | |---|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | No xm' exist | | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | = No x are m' | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | = No m' are x | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. Some x'm exist | .---------------. |\n | | | | = Some x' are m | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | = Some m are x' | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | |---|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | (.) | | | No x'm exist | |( )|( )| | |\n | | .---|---. | | = No x' are m | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | = No m are x' | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. Some x'm' exist | .---------------. |\n | | | | = Some x' are m'| | | | |\n | | .---|---. | = Some m' are x'| | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | |---|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | No x'm' exist | | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | = No x' are m' | .---|---. | |\n | | (.) | | = No m' are x' |( ) | ( )| |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n .---------------------------------------------------------.\n pg047\n TABLE VI.\n\n .---------------------------------------------------------.\n | .---------------. Some ym exist | .---------------. |\n | | | | = Some y are m | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | = Some m are y | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | |( )| | | |\n | |---|(.)|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | No ym exist | |( )| | | |\n | | .---|---. | | = No y are m | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | = No m are y | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. Some ym' exist | .---------------. |\n | | | | = Some y are m' | |( ) | | |\n | | .---|---. | = Some m' are y | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | |(.)|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | No ym' exist | | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | = No y are m' | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | = No m' are y |( ) | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. Some y'm exist | .---------------. |\n | | | | = Some y' are m | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | = Some m are y' | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | |( )| | |\n | |---|---|(.)|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | No y'm exist | | |( )| | |\n | | .---|---. | | = No y' are m | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | = No m are y' | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. Some y'm' exist | .---------------. |\n | | | | = Some y' are m'| | | ( )| |\n | | .---|---. | = Some m' are y'| | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | |---|---|---|(.)| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | No y'm' exist | | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | = No y' are m' | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | = No m' are y' | | ( )| |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n .---------------------------------------------------------.\n pg048\n TABLE VII.\n\n .---------------------------------------------------------.\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n | |( ) | ( )| All x are m | | (.) | |\n | | .---|---. | | | .---|---. | |\n | | | (.) | | | | |( )|( )| | |\n | |---|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | All x are m' | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n | | | | All x' are m | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | |---|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | (.) | | | | |( )|( )| | |\n | | .---|---. | | All x' are m' | .---|---. | |\n | |( ) | ( )| | | (.) | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n | | | | All m are x | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | | .---|---. | |\n | | | (.) | | | | |( )|( )| | |\n | |---|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | |( )|( )| | | | | (.) | | |\n | | .---|---. | | All m are x' | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n | | (.) | All m' are x | |( ) | ( )| |\n | | .---|---. | | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | |---|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | All m' are x' | .---|---. | |\n | |( ) | ( )| | | (.) | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n .---------------------------------------------------------.\n pg049\n TABLE VIII.\n\n .---------------------------------------------------------.\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n | |( ) | | All y are m | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | |( )| | | |\n | |---|(.)|---|---| .-----------------. |(.)|---|---|---| |\n | | | | | | | | |( )| | | |\n | | .---|---. | | All y are m' | .---|---. | |\n | |( ) | | | | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n | | | ( )| All y' are m | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | |( )| | |\n | |---|---|(.)|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|(.)| |\n | | | | | | | | | |( )| | |\n | | .---|---. | | All y' are m' | .---|---. | |\n | | | ( )| | | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n | | | | All m are y | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | | .---|---. | |\n | | | |( )| | | | |( )| | | |\n | |---|(.)|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|(.)|---| |\n | | | |( )| | | | |( )| | | |\n | | .---|---. | | All m are y' | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n |---------------------------------------------------------|\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n | | | ( )| All m' are y | |( ) | | |\n | | .---|---. | | | .---|---. | |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | |(.)|---|---|---| .-----------------. |---|---|---|(.)| |\n | | | | | | | | | | | | |\n | | .---|---. | | All m' are y' | .---|---. | |\n | | | ( )| | |( ) | | |\n | .---------------. | .---------------. |\n .---------------------------------------------------------.\n\n pg050\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_REPRESENTATION OF TWO PROPOSITIONS OF RELATION, ONE IN TERMS OF x AND\nm, AND THE OTHER IN TERMS OF y AND m, ON THE SAME DIAGRAM._\n\n\nThe Reader had better now begin to draw little Diagrams for himself, and\nto mark them with the Digits \"I\" and \"O\", instead of using the Board and\nCounters: he may put a \"I\" to represent a _Red_ Counter (this may be\ninterpreted to mean \"There is at least _one_ Thing here\"), and a \"O\" to\nrepresent a _Grey_ Counter (this may be interpreted to mean \"There is\n_nothing_ here\").\n\nThe Pair of Propositions, that we shall have to represent, will always\nbe, one in terms of x and m, and the other in terms of y and m.\n\nWhen we have to represent a Proposition beginning with \"All\", we break\nit up into the _two_ Propositions to which it is equivalent.\n\nWhen we have to represent, on the same Diagram, Propositions, of which\nsome begin with \"Some\" and others with \"No\", we represent the _negative_\nones _first_. This will sometimes save us from having to put a \"I\" \"on a\nfence\" and afterwards having to shift it into a Cell.\n\n [Let us work a few examples.\n\n (1)\n\n \"No x are m';\n No y' are m\".\n\n Let us first represent \"No x are m'\". This gives us Diagram a.\n\n Then, representing \"No y' are m\" on the same Diagram, we get\n Diagram b.\n pg051\n a b\n .---------------. .---------------.\n |(O) | (O)| |(O) | (O)|\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | | | |(O)| |\n |---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---|\n | | | | | | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | |\n .---------------. .---------------.\n\n (2)\n\n \"Some m are x;\n No m are y\".\n\n If, neglecting the Rule, we were begin with \"Some m are x\", we\n should get Diagram a.\n\n And if we were then to take \"No m are y\", which tells us that\n the Inner N.W. Cell is _empty_, we should be obliged to take the\n \"I\" off the fence (as it no longer has the choice of _two_\n Cells), and to put it into the Inner N.E. Cell, as in Diagram c.\n\n This trouble may be saved by beginning with \"No m are y\", as in\n Diagram b.\n\n And _now_, when we take \"Some m are x\", there is no fence to sit\n on! The \"I\" has to go, at once, into the N.E. Cell, as in\n Diagram c.\n\n a b c\n .---------------. .---------------. .---------------.\n | | | | | | | | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | (I) | | | |(O)| | | | |(O)|(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---|\n | | | | | | |(O)| | | | |(O)| | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | | | | |\n .---------------. .---------------. .---------------.\n\n (3)\n\n \"No x' are m';\n All m are y\".\n\n Here we begin by breaking up the Second into the two\n Propositions to which it is equivalent. Thus we have _three_\n Propositions to represent, viz.--\n\n (1) \"No x' are m';\n (2) Some m are y;\n (3) No m are y'\".\n\n These we will take in the order 1, 3, 2.\n\n First we take No. (1), viz. \"No x' are m'\". This gives us\n Diagram a.\n pg052\n Adding to this, No. (3), viz. \"No m are y'\", we get Diagram b.\n\n This time the \"I\", representing No. (2), viz. \"Some m are y,\"\n has to sit on the fence, as there is no \"O\" to order it off!\n This gives us Diagram c.\n\n a b c\n .---------------. .---------------. .---------------.\n | | | | | | | | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | | | |(O)| | | | |(O)| |\n |---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---| |---|(I)|---|---|\n | | | | | | | |(O)| | | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n |(O) | (O)| |(O) | (O)| |(O) | (O)|\n .---------------. .---------------. .---------------.\n\n (4)\n\n \"All m are x;\n All y are m\".\n\n Here we break up _both_ Propositions, and thus get _four_ to\n represent, viz.--\n\n (1) \"Some m are x;\n (2) No m are x';\n (3) Some y are m;\n (4) No y are m'\".\n\n These we will take in the order 2, 4, 1, 3.\n\n First we take No. (2), viz. \"No m are x'\". This gives us Diagram\n a.\n\n To this we add No. (4), viz. \"No y are m'\", and thus get Diagram\n b.\n\n If we were to add to this No. (1), viz. \"Some m are x\", we\n should have to put the \"I\" on a fence: so let us try No. (3)\n instead, viz. \"Some y are m\". This gives us Diagram c.\n\n And now there is no need to trouble about No. (1), as it would\n not add anything to our information to put a \"I\" on the fence.\n The Diagram _already_ tells us that \"Some m are x\".]\n\n a b c\n .---------------. .---------------. .---------------.\n | | | |(O) | | |(O) | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | | | | | | | |(I)| | |\n |---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---|\n | |(O)|(O)| | | |(O)|(O)| | | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | |(O) | | |(O) | |\n .---------------. .---------------. .---------------.\n\n\n [Work Examples Sec. =1=, 9-12 (p. 97); Sec. =2=, 1-20 (p. 98).]\n\n pg053\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n_INTERPRETATION, IN TERMS OF x AND y, OF TRILITERAL DIAGRAM, WHEN MARKED\nWITH COUNTERS OR DIGITS._\n\n\nThe problem before us is, given a marked Triliteral Diagram, to\nascertain _what_ Propositions of Relation, in terms of x and y, are\nrepresented on it.\n\nThe best plan, for a _beginner_, is to draw a _Biliteral_ Diagram\nalongside of it, and to transfer, from the one to the other, all the\ninformation he can. He can then read off, from the Biliteral Diagram,\nthe required Propositions. After a little practice, he will be able to\ndispense with the Biliteral Diagram, and to read off the result from the\nTriliteral Diagram itself.\n\nTo _transfer_ the information, observe the following Rules:--\n\n (1) Examine the N.W. Quarter of the Triliteral Diagram.\n\n (2) If it contains a \"I\", in _either_ Cell, it is certainly\n _occupied_, and you may mark the N.W. Quarter of the\n Biliteral Diagram with a \"I\".\n\n (3) If it contains _two_ \"O\"s, one in _each_ Cell, it is\n certainly _empty_, and you may mark the N.W. Quarter of the\n Biliteral Diagram with a \"O\".\n pg054\n (4) Deal in the same way with the N.E., the S.W., and the\n S.E. Quarter.\n\n [Let us take, as examples, the results of the four Examples\n worked in the previous Chapters.\n\n (1)\n .---------------.\n |(O) | (O)|\n | .---|---. |\n | | |(O)| |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n In the N.W. Quarter, only _one_ of the two Cells is marked as\n _empty_: so we do not know whether the N.W. Quarter of the\n Biliteral Diagram is _occupied_ or _empty_: so we cannot mark\n it.\n\n .-------.\n | |(O)|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n In the N.E. Quarter, we find _two_ \"O\"s: so _this_ Quarter is\n certainly _empty_; and we mark it so on the Biliteral Diagram.\n\n In the S.W. Quarter, we have no information _at all_.\n\n In the S.E. Quarter, we have not enough to use.\n\n We may read off the result as \"No x are y'\", or \"No y' are x,\"\n whichever we prefer.\n\n (2)\n .---------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | |(O)|(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | |(O)| | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n In the N.W. Quarter, we have not enough information to use.\n\n In the N.E. Quarter, we find a \"I\". This shows us that it is\n _occupied_: so we may mark the N.E. Quarter on the Biliteral\n Diagram with a \"I\".\n\n .-------.\n | |(I)|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n In the S.W. Quarter, we have not enough information to use.\n\n In the S.E. Quarter, we have none at all.\n\n We may read off the result as \"Some x are y'\", or \"Some y' are\n x\", whichever we prefer.\n pg055\n (3)\n .---------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |(O)| |\n |---|(I)|---|---|\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. |\n |(O) | (O)|\n .---------------.\n\n In the N.W. Quarter, we have _no_ information. (The \"I\", sitting\n on the fence, is of no use to us until we know on _which_ side\n he means to jump down!)\n\n In the N.E. Quarter, we have not enough information to use.\n\n Neither have we in the S.W. Quarter.\n\n .-------.\n | | |\n |---|---|\n | |(O)|\n .-------.\n\n The S.E. Quarter is the only one that yields enough information\n to use. It is certainly _empty_: so we mark it as such on the\n Biliteral Diagram.\n\n We may read off the results as \"No x' are y'\", or \"No y' are\n x'\", whichever we prefer.\n\n (4)\n .---------------.\n |(O) | |\n | .---|---. |\n | |(I)| | |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. |\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\n The N.W. Quarter is _occupied_, in spite of the \"O\" in the Outer\n Cell. So we mark it with a \"I\" on the Biliteral Diagram.\n\n The N.E. Quarter yields no information.\n\n .-------.\n |(I)| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n The S.W. Quarter is certainly _empty_. So we mark it as such on\n the Biliteral Diagram.\n\n .-------.\n |(I)| |\n |---|---|\n |(O)| |\n .-------.\n\n The S.E. Quarter does not yield enough information to use.\n\n We read off the result as \"All y are x.\"]\n\n\n [Review Tables V, VI (pp. 46, 47). Work Examples Sec. =1=, 13-16\n (p. 97); Sec. =2=, 21-32 (p. 98); Sec. =3=, 1-20 (p. 99).]\n\n pg056\n\n\nBOOK V.\n\nSYLLOGISMS.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_INTRODUCTORY_\n\n\nWhen a Trio of Biliteral Propositions of Relation is such that\n\n (1) all their six Terms are Species of the same Genus,\n\n (2) every two of them contain between them a Pair of\n codivisional Classes,\n\n (3) the three Propositions are so related that, if the first\n two were true, the third would be true,\n\nthe Trio is called a '=Syllogism='; the Genus, of which each of the six\nTerms is a Species, is called its ='Universe of Discourse=', or, more\nbriefly, its '=Univ.='; the first two Propositions are called its\n'=Premisses=', and the third its '=Conclusion='; also the Pair of\ncodivisional Terms in the Premisses are called its '=Eliminands=', and\nthe other two its '=Retinends='.\n\nThe Conclusion of a Syllogism is said to be '=consequent=' from its\nPremisses: hence it is usual to prefix to it the word \"Therefore\" (or\nthe Symbol \".'.\").\n pg057\n [Note that the 'Eliminands' are so called because they are\n _eliminated_, and do not appear in the Conclusion; and that the\n 'Retinends' are so called because they are _retained_, and _do_\n appear in the Conclusion.\n\n Note also that the question, whether the Conclusion is or is not\n _consequent_ from the Premisses, is not affected by the _actual_\n truth or falsity of any of the Trio, but depends entirely on\n their _relationship to each other_.\n\n As a specimen-Syllogism, let us take the Trio\n\n \"No x-Things are m-Things;\n No y-Things are m'-Things.\n No x-Things are y-Things.\"\n\n which we may write, as explained at p. 26, thus:--\n\n \"No x are m;\n No y are m'.\n No x are y\".\n\n Here the first and second contain the Pair of codivisional\n Classes m and m'; the first and third contain the Pair x and x;\n and the second and third contain the Pair y and y.\n\n Also the three Propositions are (as we shall see hereafter) so\n related that, if the first two were true, the third would also\n be true.\n\n Hence the Trio is a _Syllogism_; the two Propositions, \"No x are\n m\" and \"No y are m'\", are its _Premisses_; the Proposition \"No x\n are y\" is its _Conclusion_; the Terms m and m' are its\n _Eliminands_; and the Terms x and y are its _Retinends_.\n\n Hence we may write it thus:--\n\n \"No x are m;\n No y are m'.\n .'. No x are y\".\n\n As a second specimen, let us take the Trio\n\n \"All cats understand French;\n Some chickens are cats.\n Some chickens understand French\".\n\n These, put into normal form, are\n\n \"All cats are creatures understanding French;\n Some chickens are cats.\n Some chickens are creatures understanding French\".\n\n Here all the six Terms are Species of the Genus \"creatures.\"\n\n Also the first and second Propositions contain the Pair of\n codivisional Classes \"cats\" and \"cats\"; the first and third\n contain the Pair \"creatures understanding French\" and \"creatures\n understanding French\"; and the second and third contain the Pair\n \"chickens\" and \"chickens\".\n pg058\n Also the three Propositions are (as we shall see at p. 64) so\n related that, if the first two were true, the third would be\n true. (The first two are, as it happens, _not_ strictly true in\n _our_ planet. But there is nothing to hinder them from being\n true in some _other_ planet, say _Mars_ or _Jupiter_--in which\n case the third would _also_ be true in that planet, and its\n inhabitants would probably engage chickens as\n nursery-governesses. They would thus secure a singular\n _contingent_ privilege, unknown in England, namely, that they\n would be able, at any time when provisions ran short, to utilise\n the nursery-governess for the nursery-dinner!)\n\n Hence the Trio is a _Syllogism_; the Genus \"creatures\" is its\n 'Univ.'; the two Propositions, \"All cats understand French\" and\n \"Some chickens are cats\", are its _Premisses_, the Proposition\n \"Some chickens understand French\" is its _Conclusion_; the Terms\n \"cats\" and \"cats\" are its _Eliminands_; and the Terms,\n \"creatures understanding French\" and \"chickens\", are its\n _Retinends_.\n\n Hence we may write it thus:--\n\n \"All cats understand French;\n Some chickens are cats;\n .'. Some chickens understand French\".]\n\n pg059\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_PROBLEMS IN SYLLOGISMS._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\nWhen the Terms of a Proposition are represented by _words_, it is said\nto be '=concrete='; when by _letters_, '=abstract=.'\n\nTo translate a Proposition from concrete into abstract form, we fix on a\nUniv., and regard each Term as a _Species_ of it, and we choose a letter\nto represent its _Differentia_.\n\n [For example, suppose we wish to translate \"Some soldiers are\n brave\" into abstract form. We may take \"men\" as Univ., and\n regard \"soldiers\" and \"brave men\" as _Species_ of the _Genus_\n \"men\"; and we may choose x to represent the peculiar Attribute\n (say \"military\") of \"soldiers,\" and y to represent \"brave.\" Then\n the Proposition may be written \"Some military men are brave\n men\"; _i.e._ \"Some x-men are y-men\"; _i.e._ (omitting \"men,\" as\n explained at p. 26) \"Some x are y.\"\n\n In practice, we should merely say \"Let Univ. be \"men\",\n x = soldiers, y = brave\", and at once translate \"Some soldiers\n are brave\" into \"Some x are y.\"]\n\nThe Problems we shall have to solve are of two kinds, viz.\n\n(1) \"Given a Pair of Propositions of Relation, which contain between\nthem a pair of codivisional Classes, and which are proposed as\nPremisses: to ascertain what Conclusion, if any, is consequent from\nthem.\"\n\n(2) \"Given a Trio of Propositions of Relation, of which every two\ncontain a pair of codivisional Classes, and which are proposed as a\nSyllogism: to ascertain whether the proposed Conclusion is consequent\nfrom the proposed Premisses, and, if so, whether it is _complete_.\"\n\nThese Problems we will discuss separately.\n\n pg060\nSec. 2.\n\n_Given a Pair of Propositions of Relation, which contain between them a\npair of codivisional Classes, and which are proposed as Premisses: to\nascertain what Conclusion, if any, is consequent from them._\n\nThe Rules, for doing this, are as follows:--\n\n(1) Determine the 'Universe of Discourse'.\n\n(2) Construct a Dictionary, making m and m (or m and m') represent the\npair of codivisional Classes, and x (or x') and y (or y') the other two.\n\n(3) Translate the proposed Premisses into abstract form.\n\n(4) Represent them, together, on a Triliteral Diagram.\n\n(5) Ascertain what Proposition, if any, in terms of x and y, is _also_\nrepresented on it.\n\n(6) Translate this into concrete form.\n\nIt is evident that, if the proposed Premisses were true, this other\nProposition would _also_ be true. Hence it is a _Conclusion_ consequent\nfrom the proposed Premisses.\n\n [Let us work some examples.\n\n (1)\n\n \"No son of mine is dishonest;\n People always treat an honest man with respect\".\n\n Taking \"men\" as Univ., we may write these as follows:--\n\n \"No sons of mine are dishonest men;\n All honest men are men treated with respect\".\n\n We can now construct our Dictionary, viz. m = honest; x = sons\n of mine; y = treated with respect.\n\n (Note that the expression \"x = sons of mine\" is an abbreviated\n form of \"x = the Differentia of 'sons of mine', when regarded as\n a Species of 'men'\".)\n\n The next thing is to translate the proposed Premisses into\n abstract form, as follows:--\n\n \"No x are m';\n All m are y\".\n\n pg061\n Next, by the process described at p. 50, we represent these on a\n Triliteral Diagram, thus:--\n\n .---------------.\n |(O) | (O)|\n | .---|---. |\n | | |(O)| |\n |---|(I)|---|---|\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n Next, by the process described at p. 53, we transfer to a\n Biliteral Diagram all the information we can.\n\n .-------.\n | |(O)|\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n The result we read as \"No x are y'\" or as \"No y' are x,\"\n whichever we prefer. So we refer to our Dictionary, to see which\n will look best; and we choose\n\n \"No x are y'\",\n\n which, translated into concrete form, is\n\n \"No son of mine fails to be treated with respect\".\n\n (2)\n\n \"All cats understand French;\n Some chickens are cats\".\n\n Taking \"creatures\" as Univ., we write these as follows:--\n\n \"All cats are creatures understanding French;\n Some chickens are cats\".\n\n We can now construct our Dictionary, viz. m = cats;\n x = understanding French; y = chickens.\n\n The proposed Premisses, translated into abstract form, are\n\n \"All m are x;\n Some y are m\".\n\n In order to represent these on a Triliteral Diagram, we break up\n the first into the two Propositions to which it is equivalent,\n and thus get the _three_ Propositions\n\n (1) \"Some m are x;\n (2) No m are x';\n (3) Some y are m\".\n\n The Rule, given at p. 50, would make us take these in the order\n 2, 1, 3.\n\n This, however, would produce the result\n\n .-----------------.\n | | |\n | .----|----. |\n | |(I)(I) | |\n | |----|----| |\n | |(O) | (O)| |\n | .----|----. |\n | | |\n .-----------------.\n\n pg062\n So it would be better to take them in the order 2, 3, 1. Nos.\n (2) and (3) give us the result here shown; and now we need not\n trouble about No. (1), as the Proposition \"Some m are x\" is\n _already_ represented on the Diagram.\n\n .---------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | |(I)| | |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n Transferring our information to a Biliteral Diagram, we get\n\n .-------.\n |(I)| |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\n This result we can read either as \"Some x are y\" or \"Some y are\n x\".\n\n After consulting our Dictionary, we choose\n\n \"Some y are x\",\n\n which, translated into concrete form, is\n\n \"Some chickens understand French.\"\n\n (3)\n\n \"All diligent students are successful;\n All ignorant students are unsuccessful\".\n\n Let Univ. be \"students\"; m = successful; x = diligent;\n y = ignorant.\n\n These Premisses, in abstract form, are\n\n \"All x are m;\n All y are m'\".\n\n These, broken up, give us the four Propositions\n\n (1) \"Some x are m;\n (2) No x are m';\n (3) Some y are m';\n (4) No y are m\".\n\n which we will take in the order 2, 4, 1, 3.\n\n Representing these on a Triliteral Diagram, we get\n\n .---------------.\n |(O) | (O)|\n | .---|---. |\n | |(O)|(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | |(O)| | |\n | .---|---. |\n |(I) | |\n .---------------.\n\n And this information, transferred to a Biliteral Diagram, is\n\n .-------.\n |(O)|(I)|\n |---|---|\n |(I)| |\n .-------.\n\n Here we get _two_ Conclusions, viz.\n\n \"All x are y';\n All y are x'.\"\n pg063\n And these, translated into concrete form, are\n\n \"All diligent students are (not-ignorant, i.e.) learned;\n All ignorant students are (not-diligent, i.e.) idle\".\n (See p. 4.)\n\n (4)\n\n \"Of the prisoners who were put on their trial at the last\n Assizes, all, against whom the verdict 'guilty' was\n returned, were sentenced to imprisonment;\n Some, who were sentenced to imprisonment, were also\n sentenced to hard labour\".\n\n Let Univ. be \"the prisoners who were put on their trial at the\n last Assizes\"; m = who were sentenced to imprisonment;\n x = against whom the verdict 'guilty' was returned; y = who were\n sentenced to hard labour.\n\n The Premisses, translated into abstract form, are\n\n \"All x are m;\n Some m are y\".\n\n Breaking up the first, we get the three\n\n (1) \"Some x are m;\n (2) No x are m';\n (3) Some m are y\".\n\n Representing these, in the order 2, 1, 3, on a Triliteral\n Diagram, we get\n\n .---------------.\n |(O) | (O)|\n | .---|---. |\n | | (I) | |\n |---|(I)|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n Here we get no Conclusion at all.\n\n You would very likely have guessed, if you had seen _only_ the\n Premisses, that the Conclusion would be\n\n \"Some, against whom the verdict 'guilty' was returned,\n were sentenced to hard labour\".\n\n But this Conclusion is not even _true_, with regard to the\n Assizes I have here invented.\n\n \"Not _true!_\" you exclaim. \"Then who _were_ they, who were\n sentenced to imprisonment and were also sentenced to hard\n labour? They _must_ have had the verdict 'guilty' returned\n against them, or how could they be sentenced?\"\n\n Well, it happened like _this_, you see. They were three\n ruffians, who had committed highway-robbery. When they were put\n on their trial, they _pleaded_ 'guilty'. So no _verdict_ was\n returned at all; and they were sentenced at once.]\n\nI will now work out, in their briefest form, as models for the Reader to\nimitate in working examples, the above four concrete Problems.\n pg064\n(1) [see p. 60]\n\n \"No son of mine is dishonest;\n People always treat an honest man with respect.\"\n\nUniv. \"men\"; m = honest; x = my sons; y = treated with respect.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n \"No x are m'; |(O) | (O)| | |(O)|\n All m are y.\" | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | | |(O)| | | | |\n |---|(I)|---|---| .-------.\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. \"No x are y'.\"\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. \"No son of mine ever fails to be treated with respect.\"\n\n(2) [see p. 61]\n\n \"All cats understand French;\n Some chickens are cats\".\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; m = cats; x = understanding French; y = chickens.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n \"All m are x; | | | |(I)| |\n Some y are m.\" | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(I)| | | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. \"Some y are x.\"\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. \"Some chickens understand French.\"\n\n(3) [see p. 62]\n\n \"All diligent students are successful;\n All ignorant students are unsuccessful\".\n\nUniv. \"students\"; m = successful; x = diligent; y = ignorant.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n \"All x are m; |(O) | (O)| |(O)|(I)|\n All y are m'.\" | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(O)|(I)| | |(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)| | |\n | .---|---. | .'. \"All x are y';\n |(I) | | All y are x'.\"\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. \"All diligent students are learned; and all ignorant students are\nidle\".\n pg065\n(4) [see p. 63]\n\n \"Of the prisoners who were put on their trial at the last\n Assizes, all, against whom the verdict 'guilty' was\n returned, were sentenced to imprisonment;\n\n Some, who were sentenced to imprisonment, were also\n sentenced to hard labour\".\n\nUniv. \"prisoners who were put on their trial at the last Assizes\",\nm = sentenced to imprisonment; x = against whom the verdict 'guilty' was\nreturned; y = sentenced to hard labour.\n\n .---------------.\n \"All x are m; |(O) | (O)|\n Some m are y.\" | .---|---. |\n | | (I) | |\n |---|(I)|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. | There is no\n | | | Conclusion.\n .---------------.\n\n\n [Review Tables VII, VIII (pp. 48, 49). Work Examples Sec. =1=,\n 17-21 (p. 97); Sec. =4=, 1-6 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 1-6 (p. 101).]\n\n pg066\nSec. 3.\n\n_Given a Trio of Propositions of Relation, of which every two contain a\nPair of codivisional Classes, and which are proposed as a Syllogism; to\nascertain whether the proposed Conclusion is consequent from the\nproposed Premisses, and, if so, whether it is complete._\n\nThe Rules, for doing this, are as follows:--\n\n (1) Take the proposed Premisses, and ascertain, by the process\n described at p. 60, what Conclusion, if any, is consequent\n from them.\n\n (2) If there be _no_ Conclusion, say so.\n\n (3) If there _be_ a Conclusion, compare it with the proposed\n Conclusion, and pronounce accordingly.\n\nI will now work out, in their briefest form, as models for the Reader to\nimitate in working examples, six Problems.\n\n(1)\n\n \"All soldiers are strong;\n All soldiers are brave.\n Some strong men are brave.\"\n\nUniv. \"men\"; m = soldiers; x = strong; y = brave.\n pg067\n .---------------. .-------.\n \"All m are x; | | | |(I)| |\n All m are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n Some x are y.\" | |(I)|(O)| | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. \"Some x are y.\"\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is right.\n\n(2)\n\n \"I admire these pictures;\n When I admire anything I wish to examine it thoroughly.\n I wish to examine some of these pictures thoroughly.\"\n\nUniv. \"things\"; m = admired by me; x = these pictures; y = things which\nI wish to examine thoroughly.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n \"All x are m; |(O) | (O)| |(I)|(O)|\n All m are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n Some x are y.\" | |(I)|(O)| | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. \"All x are y.\"\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is _incomplete_, the _complete_ one being \"I\nwish to examine _all_ these pictures thoroughly\".\n\n(3)\n\n \"None but the brave deserve the fair;\n Some braggarts are cowards.\n Some braggarts do not deserve the fair.\"\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = brave; x = deserving of the fair; y = braggarts.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n \"No m' are x; |(O) | (O)| | | |\n Some y are m'. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n Some y are x'.\" | | | | | |(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. | .'. \"Some y are x'.\"\n |(I) | |\n .---------------.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is right.\n pg068\n(4)\n\n \"All soldiers can march;\n Some babies are not soldiers.\n Some babies cannot march\".\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = soldiers; x = able to march; y = babies.\n\n .---------------.\n \"All m are x; | | |\n Some y are m'. | .---|---. |\n Some y are x'.\" | | (I) | |\n |(I)|---|---|---|\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | There is no\n | | | Conclusion.\n .---------------.\n\n(5)\n\n \"All selfish men are unpopular;\n All obliging men are popular.\n All obliging men are unselfish\".\n\nUniv. \"men\"; m = popular; x = selfish; y = obliging.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n \"All x are m'; |(O) | (I)| |(O)|(I)|\n All y are m. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n All y are x'.\" | |(O)|(O)| | |(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(I)| | |\n | .---|---. | .'. \"All x are y';\n |(O) | | All y are x'.\"\n .---------------.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is _incomplete_, the _complete_ one\ncontaining, in addition, \"All selfish men are disobliging\".\n\n(6)\n\n \"No one, who means to go by the train and cannot get a\n conveyance, and has not enough time to walk to the\n station, can do without running;\n\n This party of tourists mean to go by the train and cannot\n get a conveyance, but they have plenty of time to walk\n to the station.\n\n This party of tourists need not run.\"\n\nUniv. \"persons meaning to go by the train, and unable to get a\nconveyance\"; m = having enough time to walk to the station; x = needing\nto run; y = these tourists.\n pg069\n .---------------.\n \"No m' are x'; |(O) | |\n All y are m. | .---|---. |\n All y are x'.\" | | | | |\n |---|(I)|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. | There is no\n |(O) | (O)| Conclusion.\n .---------------.\n\n [Here is _another_ opportunity, gentle Reader, for playing a\n trick on your innocent friend. Put the proposed Syllogism before\n him, and ask him what he thinks of the Conclusion.\n\n He will reply \"Why, it's perfectly correct, of course! And if\n your precious Logic-book tells you it _isn't_, don't believe it!\n You don't mean to tell me those tourists _need_ to run? If _I_\n were one of them, and knew the _Premisses_ to be true, I should\n be _quite_ clear that I _needn't_ run--and I _should walk!_\"\n\n And _you_ will reply \"But suppose there was a mad bull behind\n you?\"\n\n And then your innocent friend will say \"Hum! Ha! I must think\n that over a bit!\"\n\n You may then explain to him, as a convenient _test_ of the\n soundness of a Syllogism, that, if circumstances can be invented\n which, without interfering with the truth of the _Premisses_,\n would make the _Conclusion_ false, the Syllogism _must_ be\n unsound.]\n\n\n [Review Tables V-VIII (pp. 46-49). Work Examples Sec. =4=, 7-12 (p.\n 100); Sec. =5=, 7-12 (p. 101); Sec. =6=, 1-10 (p. 106); Sec. =7=, 1-6\n (pp. 107, 108).]\n\n pg070\n\n\nBOOK VI.\n\nTHE METHOD OF SUBSCRIPTS.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_INTRODUCTORY._\n\n\nLet us agree that \"x_{1}\" shall mean \"Some existing Things have the\nAttribute x\", i.e. (more briefly) \"Some x exist\"; also that \"xy_{1}\"\nshall mean \"Some xy exist\", and so on. Such a Proposition may be called\nan '=Entity=.'\n\n [Note that, when there are _two_ letters in the expression, it\n does not in the least matter which stands _first_: \"xy_{1}\" and\n \"yx_{1}\" mean exactly the same.]\n\nAlso that \"x_{0}\" shall mean \"No existing Things have the Attribute x\",\ni.e. (more briefly) \"No x exist\"; also that \"xy_{0}\" shall mean \"No xy\nexist\", and so on. Such a Proposition may be called a '=Nullity='.\n\nAlso that \"+\" shall mean \"and\".\n\n [Thus \"ab_{1} + cd_{0}\" means \"Some ab exist and no cd exist\".]\n\nAlso that \">\" shall mean \"would, if true, prove\".\n\n [Thus, \"x_{0} > xy_{0}\" means \"The Proposition 'No x exist'\n would, if true, prove the Proposition 'No xy exist'\".]\n\nWhen two Letters are both of them accented, or both _not_ accented, they\nare said to have '=Like Signs=', or to be '=Like=': when one is\naccented, and the other not, they are said to have '=Unlike Signs=', or\nto be '=Unlike='.\n\n pg071\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_REPRESENTATION OF PROPOSITIONS OF RELATION._\n\n\nLet us take, first, the Proposition \"Some x are y\".\n\nThis, we know, is equivalent to the Proposition of Existence \"Some xy\nexist\". (See p. 31.) Hence it may be represented by the expression\n\"xy_{1}\".\n\nThe Converse Proposition \"Some y are x\" may of course be represented by\nthe _same_ expression, viz. \"xy_{1}\".\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Pairs of Converse\nPropositions, viz.--\n\n \"Some x are y'\" = \"Some y' are x\",\n \"Some x' are y\" = \"Some y are x'\",\n \"Some x' are y'\" = \"Some y' are x'\".\n\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"No x are y\".\n\nThis, we know, is equivalent to the Proposition of Existence \"No xy\nexist\". (See p. 33.) Hence it may be represented by the expression\n\"xy_{0}\".\n\nThe Converse Proposition \"No y are x\" may of course be represented by\nthe _same_ expression, viz. \"xy_{0}\".\n\nSimilarly we may represent the three similar Pairs of Converse\nPropositions, viz.--\n\n \"No x are y'\" = \"No y' are x\",\n \"No x' are y\" = \"No y are x'\",\n \"No x' are y'\" = \"No y' are x'\".\n pg072\nLet us take, next, the Proposition \"All x are y\".\n\nNow it is evident that the Double Proposition of Existence \"Some x exist\nand no xy' exist\" tells us that _some_ x-Things exist, but that _none_\nof them have the Attribute y': that is, it tells us that _all_ of them\nhave the Attribute y: that is, it tells us that \"All x are y\".\n\nAlso it is evident that the expression \"x_{1} + xy'_{0}\" represents this\nDouble Proposition.\n\nHence it also represents the Proposition \"All x are y\".\n\n [The Reader will perhaps be puzzled by the statement that the\n Proposition \"All x are y\" is equivalent to the Double\n Proposition \"Some x exist and no xy' exist,\" remembering that it\n was stated, at p. 33, to be equivalent to the Double Proposition\n \"Some x are y and no x are y'\" (i.e. \"Some xy exist and no xy'\n exist\"). The explanation is that the Proposition \"Some xy exist\"\n contains _superfluous information_. \"Some x exist\" is enough for\n our purpose.]\n\nThis expression may be written in a shorter form, viz. \"x_{1}y'_{0}\",\nsince _each_ Subscript takes effect back to the _beginning_ of the\nexpression.\n\nSimilarly we may represent the seven similar Propositions \"All x are\ny'\", \"All x' are y\", \"All x' are y'\", \"All y are x\", \"All y are x'\",\n\"All y' are x\", and \"All y' are x'\".\n\n [The Reader should make out all these for himself.]\n\nIt will be convenient to remember that, in translating a Proposition,\nbeginning with \"All\", from abstract form into subscript form, or _vice\nversa_, the Predicate _changes sign_ (that is, changes from positive to\nnegative, or else from negative to positive).\n\n [Thus, the Proposition \"All y are x'\" becomes \"y_{1}x_{0}\",\n where the Predicate changes from x' to x.\n\n Again, the expression \"x'_{1}y'_{0}\" becomes \"All x' are y\",\n where the Predicate changes for y' to y.]\n\n pg073\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_SYLLOGISMS._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Representation of Syllogisms._\n\n\nWe already know how to represent each of the three Propositions of a\nSyllogism in subscript form. When that is done, all we need, besides, is\nto write the three expressions in a row, with \"+\" between the Premisses,\nand \">\" before the Conclusion.\n\n [Thus the Syllogism\n\n \"No x are m';\n All m are y.\n .'. No x are y'.\"\n\n may be represented thus:--\n\n xm'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > xy'_{0}\n\n When a Proposition has to be translated from concrete form into\n subscript form, the Reader will find it convenient, just at\n first, to translate it into _abstract_ form, and _thence_ into\n subscript form. But, after a little practice, he will find it\n quite easy to go straight from concrete form to subscript form.]\n\n pg074\nSec. 2.\n\n_Formulae for solving Problems in Syllogisms._\n\nWhen once we have found, by Diagrams, the Conclusion to a given Pair of\nPremisses, and have represented the Syllogism in subscript form, we have\na _Formula_, by which we can at once find, without having to use\nDiagrams again, the Conclusion to any _other_ Pair of Premisses having\nthe _same_ subscript forms.\n\n [Thus, the expression\n\n xm_{0} + ym'_{0} > xy_{0}\n\n is a Formula, by which we can find the Conclusion to any Pair of\n Premisses whose subscript forms are\n\n xm_{0} + ym'_{0}\n\n For example, suppose we had the Pair of Propositions\n\n \"No gluttons are healthy;\n No unhealthy men are strong\".\n\n proposed as Premisses. Taking \"men\" as our 'Universe', and\n making m = healthy; x = gluttons; y = strong; we might translate\n the Pair into abstract form, thus:--\n\n \"No x are m;\n No m' are y\".\n\n These, in subscript form, would be\n\n xm_{0} + m'y_{0}\n\n which are identical with those in our _Formula_. Hence we at\n once know the Conclusion to be\n\n xy_{0}\n\n that is, in abstract form,\n\n \"No x are y\";\n\n that is, in concrete form,\n\n \"No gluttons are strong\".]\n\nI shall now take three different forms of Pairs of Premisses, and work\nout their Conclusions, once for all, by Diagrams; and thus obtain some\nuseful Formulae. I shall call them \"Fig. I\", \"Fig. II\", and \"Fig. III\".\n pg075\nFig. I.\n\nThis includes any Pair of Premisses which are both of them Nullities,\nand which contain Unlike Eliminands.\n\nThe simplest case is\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n xm_{0} + ym'_{0} |(O) | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(O)|(O)| | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. | .'. xy_{0}\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\nIn this case we see that the Conclusion is a Nullity, and that the\nRetinends have kept their Signs.\n\nAnd we should find this Rule to hold good with _any_ Pair of Premisses\nwhich fulfil the given conditions.\n\n [The Reader had better satisfy himself of this, by working out,\n on Diagrams, several varieties, such as\n\n m_{1}x_{0} + ym'_{0} (which > xy_{0})\n xm'_{0} + m_{1}y_{0} (which > xy_{0})\n x'm_{0} + ym'_{0} (which > x'y_{0})\n m'_{1}x'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} (which > x'y'_{0}).]\n\nIf either Retinend is asserted in the _Premisses_ to exist, of course it\nmay be so asserted in the _Conclusion_.\n\nHence we get two _Variants_ of Fig. I, viz.\n\n(a) where _one_ Retinend is so asserted;\n\n(b) where _both_ are so asserted.\n\n [The Reader had better work out, on Diagrams, examples of these\n two Variants, such as\n\n m_{1}x_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} (which proves y_{1}x_{0})\n x_{1}m'_{0} + m_{1}y_{0} (which proves x_{1}y_{0})\n x'_{1}m_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} (which proves x'_{1}y_{0} + y_{1}x'_{0}).]\n\nThe Formula, to be remembered, is\n\n xm_{0} + ym'_{0} > xy_{0}\n\nwith the following two Rules:--\n\n (1) _Two Nullities, with Unlike Eliminands, yield a Nullity,\n in which both Retinends keep their Signs._\n pg076\n (2) _A Retinend, asserted in the Premisses to exist, may be\n so asserted in the Conclusion._\n\n [Note that Rule (1) is merely the Formula expressed in words.]\n\n\nFig. II.\n\nThis includes any Pair of Premisses, of which one is a Nullity and the\nother an Entity, and which contain Like Eliminands.\n\nThe simplest case is\n\n xm_{0} + ym_{1}\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n | | | | | |\n | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(O)|(O)| | |(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(I)| | |\n | .---|---. | .'. x'y_{1}\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nIn this case we see that the Conclusion is an Entity, and that the\nNullity-Retinend has changed its Sign.\n\nAnd we should find this Rule to hold good with _any_ Pair of Premisses\nwhich fulfil the given conditions.\n\n [The Reader had better satisfy himself of this, by working out,\n on Diagrams, several varieties, such as\n\n x'm_{0} + ym_{1} (which > xy_{1})\n x_{1}m'_{0} + y'm'_{1} (which > x'y'_{1})\n m_{1}x_{0} + y'm_{1} (which > x'y'_{1}).]\n\nThe Formula, to be remembered, is,\n\n xm_{0} + ym_{1} > x'y_{1}\n\nwith the following Rule:--\n\n _A Nullity and an Entity, with Like Eliminands, yield an\n Entity, in which the Nullity-Retinend changes its Sign._\n\n [Note that this Rule is merely the Formula expressed in words.]\n\n pg077\nFig. III.\n\nThis includes any Pair of Premisses which are both of them Nullities,\nand which contain Like Eliminands asserted to exist.\n\nThe simplest case is\n\n xm_{0} + ym_{0} + m_{1}\n\n [Note that \"m_{1}\" is here stated _separately_, because it does\n not matter in which of the two Premisses it occurs: so that this\n includes the _three_ forms \"m_{1}x_{0} + ym_{0}\", \"xm_{0} +\n m_{1}y_{0}\", and \"m_{1}x_{0} + m_{1}y_{0}\".]\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n | | | | | |\n | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(O)|(O)| | | |(I)|\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)|(I)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. x'y'_{1}\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nIn this case we see that the Conclusion is an Entity, and that _both_\nRetinends have changed their Signs.\n\nAnd we should find this Rule to hold good with _any_ Pair of Premisses\nwhich fulfil the given conditions.\n\n [The Reader had better satisfy himself of this, by working out,\n on Diagrams, several varieties, such as\n\n x'm_{0} + m_{1}y_{0} (which > xy'_{1})\n m'_{1}x_{0} + m'y'_{0} (which > x'y_{1})\n m_{1}x'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} (which > xy_{1}).]\n\nThe Formula, to be remembered, is\n\n xm_{0} + ym_{0} + m_{1} > x'y'_{1}\n\nwith the following Rule (which is merely the Formula expressed in\nwords):--\n\n _Two Nullities, with Like Eliminands asserted to exist, yield\n an Entity, in which both Retinends change their Signs._\n\n * * * * *\n\nIn order to help the Reader to remember the peculiarities and Formulae of\nthese three Figures, I will put them all together in one Table.\n pg078\n TABLE IX.\n _______________________________________________________\n | |\n | Fig. I. |\n | |\n | xm_{0} + ym'_{0} > xy_{0} |\n | |\n | Two Nullities, with Unlike Eliminands, yield a |\n | Nullity, in which both Retinends keep their Signs. |\n | |\n | A Retinend, asserted in the Premisses to exist, may |\n | be so asserted in the Conclusion. |\n |_______________________________________________________|\n | |\n | Fig. II. |\n | |\n | xm_{0} + ym_{1} > x'y_{1} |\n | |\n | A Nullity and an Entity, with Like Eliminands, |\n | yield an Entity, in which the Nullity-Retinend |\n | changes its Sign. |\n |_______________________________________________________|\n | |\n | Fig. III. |\n | |\n | xm_{0} + ym_{0} + m_{1} > x'y'_{1} |\n | |\n | Two Nullities, with Like Eliminands asserted |\n | to exist, yield an Entity, in which both Retinends |\n | change their Signs. |\n |_______________________________________________________|\n\nI will now work out, by these Formulae, as models for the Reader to\nimitate, some Problems in Syllogisms which have been already worked, by\nDiagrams, in Book V., Chap. II.\n\n(1) [see p. 64]\n\n \"No son of mine is dishonest;\n People always treat an honest man with respect.\"\n\nUniv. \"men\"; m = honest; x = my sons; y = treated with respect.\n\n xm'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > xy'_{0} [Fig. I.\n\n_i.e._ \"No son of mine ever fails to be treated with respect.\"\n pg079\n(2) [see p. 64]\n\n \"All cats understand French;\n Some chickens are cats.\"\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; m = cats; x = understanding French; y = chickens.\n\n m_{1}x'_{0} + ym_{1} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.\n\n_i.e._ \"Some chickens understand French.\"\n\n(3) [see p. 64]\n\n \"All diligent students are successful;\n All ignorant students are unsuccessful.\"\n\nUniv. \"students\"; m = successful; x = diligent; y = ignorant.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + y_{1}m_{0} > x_{1}y_{0} + y_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (b).\n\n_i.e._ \"All diligent students are learned; and all ignorant students are\nidle.\"\n\n(4) [see p. 66]\n\n \"All soldiers are strong;\n All soldiers are brave.\n Some strong men are brave.\"\n\nUniv. \"men\"; m = soldiers; x = strong; y = brave.\n\n m_{1}x'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > xy_{1} [Fig. III.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is right.\n\n(5) [see p. 67]\n\n \"I admire these pictures;\n When I admire anything, I wish to examine it thoroughly.\n I wish to examine some of these pictures thoroughly.\"\n\nUniv. \"things\"; m = admired by me; x = these; y = things which I wish to\nexamine thoroughly.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > x_{1}y'_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n\nHence proposed Conclusion, xy_{1}, is _incomplete_, the _complete_ one\nbeing \"I wish to examine _all_ these pictures thoroughly.\"\n pg080\n(6) [see p. 67]\n\n \"None but the brave deserve the fair;\n Some braggarts are cowards.\n Some braggarts do not deserve the fair.\"\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = brave; x = deserving of the fair; y = braggarts.\n\n m'x_{0} + ym'_{1} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is right.\n\n(7) [see p. 69]\n\n \"No one, who means to go by the train and cannot get a\n conveyance, and has not enough time to walk to the\n station, can do without running;\n\n This party of tourists mean to go by the train and cannot\n get a conveyance, but they have plenty of time to\n walk to the station.\n\n This party of tourists need not run.\"\n\nUniv. \"persons meaning to go by the train, and unable to get a\nconveyance\"; m = having enough time to walk to the station; x = needing\nto run; y = these tourists.\n\nm'x'_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} do not come under any of the three Figures. Hence\nit is necessary to return to the Method of Diagrams, as shown at p. 69.\n\nHence there is no Conclusion.\n\n\n [Work Examples Sec. =4=, 12-20 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 13-24 (pp. 101,\n 102); Sec. =6=, 1-6 (p. 106); Sec. =7=, 1-3 (pp. 107, 108). Also read\n Note (A), at p. 164.]\n\n pg081\nSec. 3.\n\n_Fallacies._\n\nAny argument which _deceives_ us, by seeming to prove what it does not\nreally prove, may be called a '=Fallacy=' (derived from the Latin verb\n_fallo_ \"I deceive\"): but the particular kind, to be now discussed,\nconsists of a Pair of Propositions, which are proposed as the Premisses\nof a Syllogism, but yield no Conclusion.\n\nWhen each of the proposed Premisses is a Proposition in _I_, or _E_, or\n_A_, (the only kinds with which we are now concerned,) the Fallacy may\nbe detected by the 'Method of Diagrams,' by simply setting them out on a\nTriliteral Diagram, and observing that they yield no information which\ncan be transferred to the Biliteral Diagram.\n\nBut suppose we were working by the 'Method of _Subscripts_,' and had to\ndeal with a Pair of proposed Premisses, which happened to be a\n'Fallacy,' how could we be certain that they would not yield any\nConclusion?\n\nOur best plan is, I think, to deal with _Fallacies_ in the same was as\nwe have already dealt with _Syllogisms_: that is, to take certain forms\nof Pairs of Propositions, and to work them out, once for all, on the\nTriliteral Diagram, and ascertain that they yield _no_ Conclusion; and\nthen to record them, for future use, as _Formulae for Fallacies_, just as\nwe have already recorded our three _Formulae for Syllogisms_.\n pg082\nNow, if we were to record the two Sets of Formulae in the _same_ shape,\nviz. by the Method of Subscripts, there would be considerable risk of\nconfusing the two kinds. Hence, in order to keep them distinct, I\npropose to record the Formulae for _Fallacies_ in _words_, and to call\nthem \"Forms\" instead of \"Formulae.\"\n\nLet us now proceed to find, by the Method of Diagrams, three \"Forms of\nFallacies,\" which we will then put on record for future use. They are as\nfollows:--\n\n (1) Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n (2) Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n (3) Fallacy of two Entity-Premisses.\n\nThese shall be discussed separately, and it will be seen that each fails\nto yield a Conclusion.\n\n(1) _Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist._\n\nIt is evident that neither of the given Propositions can be an _Entity_,\nsince that kind asserts the _existence_ of both of its Terms (see p.\n20). Hence they must both be _Nullities_.\n\nHence the given Pair may be represented by (xm_{0} + ym_{0}), with or\nwithout x_{1}, y_{1}.\n\nThese, set out on Triliteral Diagrams, are\n\n xm_{0} + ym_{0} x_{1}m_{0} + ym_{0}\n .---------------. .---------------.\n | | | | (I) |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | |(O)|(O)| | | |(O)|(O)| |\n |---|---|---|---| |---|---|---|---|\n | |(O)| | | | |(O)| | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | |\n .---------------. .---------------.\n\n xm_{0} + y_{1}m_{0} x_{1}m_{0} + y_{1}m_{0}\n .---------------. .---------------.\n | | | | (I) |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | |(O)|(O)| | | |(O)|(O)| |\n |(I)|---|---|---| |(I)|---|---|---|\n | |(O)| | | | |(O)| | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | |\n .---------------. .---------------.\n pg083\n(2) _Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss._\n\nHere the given Pair may be represented by (xm_{0} + ym'_{1}) with or\nwithout x_{1} or m_{1}.\n\nThese, set out on Triliteral Diagrams, are\n\n xm_{0} + ym'_{1} x_{1}m_{0} + ym'_{1} m_{1}x_{0} + ym'_{1}\n .---------------. .---------------. .---------------.\n | | | | (I) | | | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | |(O)|(O)| | | |(O)|(O)| | | |(O)|(O)| |\n |(I)|---|---|---| |(I)|---|---|---| |(I)|---|---|---|\n | | | | | | | | | | | | (I) | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | | | | |\n .---------------. .---------------. .---------------.\n\n(3) _Fallacy of two Entity-Premisses._\n\nHere the given Pair may be represented by either (xm_{1} + ym_{1}) or\n(xm_{1} + ym'_{1}).\n\nThese, set out on Triliteral Diagrams, are\n\n xm_{1} + ym_{1} xm_{1} + ym'_{1}\n .---------------. .---------------.\n | | | | | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | (I) | | | | (I) | |\n |---|(I)|---|---| |(I)|---|---|---|\n | | | | | | | | | |\n | .---|---. | | .---|---. |\n | | | | | |\n .---------------. .---------------.\n\n pg084\nSec. 4.\n\n_Method of proceeding with a given Pair of Propositions._\n\nLet us suppose that we have before us a Pair of Propositions of\nRelation, which contain between them a Pair of codivisional Classes, and\nthat we wish to ascertain what Conclusion, if any, is consequent from\nthem. We translate them, if necessary, into subscript-form, and then\nproceed as follows:--\n\n(1) We examine their Subscripts, in order to see whether they are\n\n (a) a Pair of Nullities;\n or (b) a Nullity and an Entity;\n or (c) a Pair of Entities.\n\n(2) If they are a Pair of Nullities, we examine their Eliminands, in\norder to see whether they are Unlike or Like.\n\nIf their Eliminands are _Unlike_, it is a case of Fig. I. We then\nexamine their Retinends, to see whether one or both of them are asserted\nto _exist_. If one Retinend is so asserted, it is a case of Fig. I (a);\nif both, it is a case of Fig. I (b).\n\nIf their Eliminands are Like, we examine them, in order to see whether\neither of them is asserted to exist. If so, it is a case of Fig. III.;\nif not, it is a case of \"Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to\nexist.\"\n\n(3) If they are a Nullity and an Entity, we examine their Eliminands, in\norder to see whether they are Like or Unlike.\n\nIf their Eliminands are Like, it is a case of Fig. II.; if _Unlike_, it\nis a case of \"Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\"\n\n(4) If they are a Pair of Entities, it is a case of \"Fallacy of two\nEntity-Premisses.\"\n\n\n [Work Examples Sec. =4=, 1-11 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 1-12 (p. 101);\n Sec. =6=, 7-12 (p. 106); Sec. =7=, 7-12 (p. 108).]\n\n pg085\n\n\nBOOK VII.\n\nSORITESES.\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_INTRODUCTORY._\n\n\nWhen a Set of three or more Biliteral Propositions are such that all\ntheir Terms are Species of the same Genus, and are also so related that\ntwo of them, taken together, yield a Conclusion, which, taken with\nanother of them, yields another Conclusion, and so on, until all have\nbeen taken, it is evident that, if the original Set were true, the last\nConclusion would _also_ be true.\n\nSuch a Set, with the last Conclusion tacked on, is called a '=Sorites=';\nthe original Set of Propositions is called its '=Premisses='; each of\nthe intermediate Conclusions is called a '=Partial Conclusion=' of the\nSorites; the last Conclusion is called its '=Complete Conclusion=,' or,\nmore briefly, its '=Conclusion='; the Genus, of which all the Terms are\nSpecies, is called its '=Universe of Discourse=', or, more briefly, its\n'=Univ.='; the Terms, used as Eliminands in the Syllogisms, are called\nits '=Eliminands='; and the two Terms, which are retained, and therefore\nappear in the Conclusion, are called its '=Retinends='.\n\n [Note that each _Partial_ Conclusion contains one or two\n _Eliminands_; but that the _Complete_ Conclusion contains\n _Retinends_ only.]\n\nThe Conclusion is said to be '=consequent=' from the Premisses; for\nwhich reason it is usual to prefix to it the word \"Therefore\" (or the\nsymbol \".'.\").\n\n [Note that the question, whether the Conclusion is or is not\n _consequent_ from the Premisses, is not affected by the _actual_\n truth or falsity of any one of the Propositions which make up\n the Sorites, by depends entirely on their _relationship to one\n another_.\n pg086\n As a specimen-Sorites, let us take the following Set of 5\n Propositions:--\n\n (1) \"No a are b';\n (2) All b are c;\n (3) All c are d;\n (4) No e' are a';\n (5) All h are e'\".\n\n Here the first and second, taken together, yield \"No a are c'\".\n\n This, taken along with the third, yields \"No a are d'\".\n\n This, taken along with the fourth, yields \"No d' are e'\".\n\n And this, taken along with the fifth, yields \"All h are d\".\n\n Hence, if the original Set were true, this would _also_ be true.\n\n Hence the original Set, with this tacked on, is a _Sorites_; the\n original Set is its _Premisses_; the Proposition \"All h are d\"\n is its _Conclusion_; the Terms a, b, c, e are its _Eliminands_;\n and the Terms d and h are its _Retinends_.\n\n Hence we may write the whole Sorites thus:--\n\n \"No a are b';\n All b are c;\n All c are d;\n No e' are a';\n All h are e'.\n .'. All h are d\".\n\n In the above Sorites, the 3 Partial Conclusions are the\n Positions \"No a are e'\", \"No a are d'\", \"No d' are e'\"; but, if\n the Premisses were arranged in other ways, other Partial\n Conclusions might be obtained. Thus, the order 41523 yields the\n Partial Conclusions \"No c' are b'\", \"All h are b\", \"All h are\n c\". There are altogether _nine_ Partial Conclusions to this\n Sorites, which the Reader will find it an interesting task to\n make out for himself.]\n\n pg087\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_PROBLEMS IN SORITESES._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\nThe Problems we shall have to solve are of the following form:--\n\n\"Given three or more Propositions of Relation, which are proposed as\nPremisses: to ascertain what Conclusion, if any, is consequent from\nthem.\"\n\nWe will limit ourselves, at present, to Problems which can be worked by\nthe Formulae of Fig. I. (See p. 75.) Those, that require _other_ Formulae,\nare rather too hard for beginners.\n\nSuch Problems may be solved by either of two Methods, viz.\n\n (1) The Method of Separate Syllogisms;\n (2) The Method of Underscoring.\n\nThese shall be discussed separately.\n\n pg088\nSec. 2.\n\n_Solution by Method of Separate Syllogisms._\n\nThe Rules, for doing this, are as follows:--\n\n (1) Name the 'Universe of Discourse'.\n\n (2) Construct a Dictionary, making a, b, c, &c. represent\n the Terms.\n\n (3) Put the Proposed Premisses into subscript form.\n\n (4) Select two which, containing between them a pair of\n codivisional Classes, can be used as the Premisses of a\n Syllogism.\n\n (5) Find their Conclusion by Formula.\n\n (6) Find a third Premiss which, along with this Conclusion,\n can be used as the Premisses of a second Syllogism.\n\n (7) Find a second Conclusion by Formula.\n\n (8) Proceed thus, until all the proposed Premisses have\n been used.\n\n (9) Put the last Conclusion, which is the Complete\n Conclusion of the Sorites, into concrete form.\n\n [As an example of this process, let us take, as the proposed Set\n of Premisses,\n\n (1) \"All the policemen on this beat sup with our cook;\n (2) No man with long hair can fail to be a poet;\n (3) Amos Judd has never been in prison;\n (4) Our cook's 'cousins' all love cold mutton;\n (5) None but policemen on this beat are poets;\n (6) None but her 'cousins' ever sup with our cook;\n (7) Men with short hair have all been in prison.\"\n\n Univ. \"men\"; a = Amos Judd; b = cousins of our cook; c = having\n been in prison; d = long-haired; e = loving cold mutton;\n h = poets; k = policemen on this beat; l = supping with our cook\n pg089\n We now have to put the proposed Premisses into _subscript_ form.\n Let us begin by putting them into _abstract_ form. The result is\n\n (1) \"All k are l;\n (2) No d are h';\n (3) All a are c';\n (4) All b are e;\n (5) No k' are h;\n (6) No b' are l;\n (7) All d' are c.\"\n\n And it is now easy to put them into _subscript_ form, as\n follows:--\n\n (1) k_{1}l'_{0}\n (2) dh'_{0}\n (3) a_{1}c_{0}\n (4) b_{1}e'_{0}\n (5) k'h_{0}\n (6) b'l_{0}\n (7) d'_{1}c'_{0}\n\n We now have to find a pair of Premisses which will yield a\n Conclusion. Let us begin with No. (1), and look down the list,\n till we come to one which we can take along with it, so as to\n form Premisses belonging to Fig. I. We find that No. (5) will\n do, since we can take k as our Eliminand. So our first syllogism\n is\n\n (1) k_{1}l'_{0}\n (5) k'h_{0}\n .'. l'h_{0} ... (8)\n\n We must now begin again with l'h_{0} and find a Premiss to go\n along with it. We find that No. (2) will do, h being our\n Eliminand. So our next Syllogism is\n\n (8) l'h_{0}\n (2) dh'_{0}\n .'. l'd_{0} ... (9)\n\n We have now used up Nos. (1), (5), and (2), and must search\n among the others for a partner for l'd_{0}. We find that No. (6)\n will do. So we write\n\n (9) l'd_{0}\n (6) b'l_{0}\n .'. db'_{0} ... (10)\n\n Now what can we take along with db'_{0}? No. (4) will do.\n\n (10) db'_{0}\n (4) b_{1}e'_{0}\n .'. de'_{0} ... (11)\n pg090\n Along with this we may take No. (7).\n\n (11) de'_{0}\n (7) d'_{1}c'_{0}\n .'. c'e'_{0} ... (12)\n\n And along with this we may take No. (3).\n\n (12) c'e'_{0}\n (3) a_{1}c_{0}\n .'. a_{1}e'_{0}\n\n This Complete Conclusion, translated into _abstract_ form, is\n\n \"All a are e\";\n\n and this, translated into _concrete_ form, is\n\n \"Amos Judd loves cold mutton.\"\n\n In actually _working_ this Problem, the above explanations\n would, of course, be omitted, and all, that would appear on\n paper, would be as follows:--\n\n (1) k_{1}l'_{0}\n (2) dh'_{0}\n (3) a_{1}c_{0}\n (4) b_{1}e'_{0}\n (5) k'h_{0}\n (6) b'l_{0}\n (7) d'_{1}c'_{0}\n\n\n (1) k_{1}l'_{0}\n (5) k'h_{0}\n .'. l'h_{0} ... (8)\n\n (8) l'h_{0}\n (2) dh'_{0}\n .'. l'd_{0} ... (9)\n\n (9) l'd_{0}\n (6) b'l_{0}\n .'. db'_{0} ... (10)\n\n (10) db'_{0}\n (4) b_{1}e'_{0}\n .'. de'_{0} ... (11)\n\n (11) de'_{0}\n (7) d'_{1}c'_{0}\n .'. c'e'_{0} ... (12)\n\n (12) c'e'_{0}\n (3) a_{1}c_{0}\n .'. a_{1}e'_{0}\n\n Note that, in working a Sorites by this Process, we may begin\n with _any_ Premiss we choose.]\n\n pg091\nSec. 3.\n\n_Solution by Method of Underscoring._\n\nConsider the Pair of Premisses\n\n xm_{0} + ym'_{0}\n\nwhich yield the Conclusion xy_{0}\n\nWe see that, in order to get this Conclusion, we must eliminate m and\nm', and write x and y together in one expression.\n\nNow, if we agree to _mark_ m and m' as eliminated, and to read the two\nexpressions together, as if they were written in one, the two Premisses\nwill then exactly represent the _Conclusion_, and we need not write it\nout separately.\n\nLet us agree to mark the eliminated letters by _underscoring_ them,\nputting a _single_ score under the _first_, and a _double_ one under the\n_second_.\n\nThe two Premisses now become\n\n xm_{0} + ym'_{0}\n - =\n\nwhich we read as \"xy_{0}\".\n\nIn copying out the Premisses for underscoring, it will be convenient to\n_omit all subscripts_. As to the \"0's\" we may always _suppose_ them\nwritten, and, as to the \"1's\", we are not concerned to know _which_\nTerms are asserted to _exist_, except those which appear in the\n_Complete_ Conclusion; and for _them_ it will be easy enough to refer to\nthe original list.\n pg092\n [I will now go through the process of solving, by this method,\n the example worked in Sec. 2.\n\n The Data are\n\n 1 2 3 4\n k_{1}l'_{0} + dh'_{0} + a_{1}c_{0} + b_{1}e'_{0} +\n\n 5 6 7\n k'h_{0} + b'l_{0} + d'_{1}c'_{0}\n\n The Reader should take a piece of paper, and write out this\n solution for himself. The first line will consist of the above\n Data; the second must be composed, bit by bit, according to the\n following directions.\n\n We begin by writing down the first Premiss, with its numeral\n over it, but omitting the subscripts.\n\n We have now to find a Premiss which can be combined with this,\n _i.e._, a Premiss containing either k' or l. The first we find\n is No. 5; and this we tack on, with a +.\n\n To get the _Conclusion_ from these, k and k' must be eliminated,\n and what remains must be taken as one expression. So we\n _underscore_ them, putting a _single_ score under k, and a\n _double_ one under k'. The result we read as l'h.\n\n We must now find a Premiss containing either l or h'. Looking\n along the row, we fix on No. 2, and tack it on.\n\n Now these 3 Nullities are really equivalent to (l'h + dh'), in\n which h and h' must be eliminated, and what remains taken as one\n expression. So we _underscore_ them. The result reads as l'd.\n\n We now want a Premiss containing l or d'. No. 6 will do.\n\n These 4 Nullities are really equivalent to (l'd + b'l). So we\n underscore l' and l. The result reads as db'.\n\n We now want a Premiss containing d' or b. No. 4 will do.\n\n Here we underscore b' and b. The result reads as de'.\n\n We now want a Premiss containing d' or e. No. 7 will do.\n\n Here we underscore d and d'. The result reads as c'e'.\n\n We now want a Premiss containing c or e. No. 3 will do--in fact\n _must_ do, as it is the only one left.\n\n Here we underscore c' and c; and, as the whole thing now reads\n as e'a, we tack on e'a_{0} as the _Conclusion_, with a >.\n\n We now look along the row of Data, to see whether e' or a has\n been given as _existent_. We find that a has been so given in\n No. 3. So we add this fact to the Conclusion, which now stands\n as > e'a_{0} + a_{1}, _i.e._ > a_{1}e'_{0}; i.e. \"All a are e.\"\n\n If the Reader has faithfully obeyed the above directions, his\n written solution will now stand as follows:--\n\n 1 2 3 4\n k_{1}l'_{0} + dh'_{0} + a_{1}c_{0} + b_{1}e'_{0} +\n\n 5 6 7\n k'h_{0} + b'l_{0} + d'_{1}c'_{0}\n\n 1 5 2 6 4 7 3\n kl' + k'h + dh' + b'l + be' + d'c' + ac\n -- = - -= - = = = - =\n\n > e'a_{0} + a_{1}\n\n\n _i.e._ > a_{1}e'_{0};\n\n _i.e._ \"All a are e.\"\n pg093\n The Reader should now take a second piece of paper, and copy the\n Data only, and try to work out the solution for himself,\n beginning with some other Premiss.\n\n If he fails to bring out the Conclusion a_{1}e'_{0}, I would\n advise him to take a third piece of paper, and _begin again_!]\n\nI will now work out, in its briefest form, a Sorites of 5 Premisses, to\nserve as a model for the Reader to imitate in working examples.\n\n (1) \"I greatly value everything that John gives me;\n (2) Nothing but this bone will satisfy my dog;\n (3) I take particular care of everything that I greatly\n value;\n (4) This bone was a present from John;\n (5) The things, of which I take particular care, are\n things I do _not_ give to my dog\".\n\nUniv. \"things\"; a = given by John to me; b = given by me to my dog;\nc = greatly valued by me; d = satisfactory to my dog; e = taken\nparticular care of by me; h = this bone.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n a_{1}c'_{0} + h'd_{0} + c_{1}e'_{0} + h_{1}a'_{0} + e_{1}b_{0}\n\n 1 3 4 2 5\n ac' + ce' + ha' + h'd + eb > db_{0}\n -- =- -= = =\n\ni.e. \"Nothing, that I give my dog, satisfies him,\" or, \"My dog is not\nsatisfied with _anything_ that I give him!\"\n\n [Note that, in working a Sorites by this process, we may begin\n with _any_ Premiss we choose. For instance, we might begin with\n No. 5, and the result would then be\n\n 5 3 1 4 2\n eb + ce' + ac' + ha' + h'd > bd_{0}]\n - -= -= -= =\n\n\n [Work Examples Sec. =4=, 25-30 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 25-30 (p. 102);\n Sec. =6=, 13-15 (p. 106); Sec. =7=, 13-15 (p. 108); Sec. =8=, 1-4, 13,\n 14, 19, 24 (pp. 110, 111); Sec. =9=, 1-4, 26, 27, 40, 48 (pp. 112,\n 116, 119, 121).]\n\n pg094\nThe Reader, who has successfully grappled with all the Examples hitherto\nset, and who thirsts, like Alexander the Great, for \"more worlds to\nconquer,\" may employ his spare energies on the following 17\nExamination-Papers. He is recommended not to attempt more than _one_\nPaper on any one day. The answers to the questions about words and\nphrases may be found by referring to the Index at p. 197.\n\n I. Sec. =4=, 31 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 31-34 (p. 102); Sec. =6=, 16, 17 (p.\n 106); Sec. =7=, 16 (p. 108); Sec. =8=, 5, 6 (p. 110); Sec. =9=, 5, 22,\n 42 (pp. 112, 115, 119). What is 'Classification'? And what is\n a 'Class'?\n\n II. Sec. =4=, 32 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 35-38 (pp. 102, 103); Sec. =6=, 18\n (p. 107); Sec. =7=, 17, 18 (p. 108); Sec. =8=, 7, 8 (p. 110);\n Sec. =9=, 6, 23, 43 (pp. 112, 115, 119). What are 'Genus',\n 'Species', and 'Differentia'?\n\n III. Sec. =4=, 33 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 39-42 (p. 103); Sec. =6=, 19, 20 (p.\n 107); Sec. =7=, 19 (p. 109); Sec. =8=, 9, 10 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 7,\n 24, 44 (pp. 113, 116, 120). What are 'Real' and 'Imaginary'\n Classes?\n\n IV. Sec. =4=, 34 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 43-46 (p. 103); Sec. =6=, 21 (p.\n 107); Sec. =7=, 20, 21 (p. 109); Sec. =8=, 11, 12 (p. 111); Sec. =9=,\n 8, 25, 45 (pp. 113, 116, 120). What is 'Division'? When are\n Classes said to be 'Codivisional'?\n\n V. Sec. =4=, 35 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 47-50 (p. 103); Sec. =6=, 22, 23 (p.\n 107); Sec. =7=, 22 (p. 109); Sec. =8=, 15, 16 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 9,\n 28, 46 (pp. 113, 116, 120). What is 'Dichotomy'? What\n arbitrary rule does it sometimes require?\n pg095\n VI. Sec. =4=, 36 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 51-54 (p. 103); Sec. =6=, 24 (p.\n 107); Sec. =7=, 23, 24 (p. 109); Sec. =8=, 17 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 10,\n 29, 47 (pp. 113, 117, 120). What is a 'Definition'?\n\n VII. Sec. =4=, 37 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 55-58 (pp. 103, 104); Sec. =6=, 25,\n 26 (p. 107); Sec. =7=, 25 (p. 109); Sec. =8=, 18 (p. 111); Sec. =9=,\n 11, 30, 49 (pp. 113, 117, 121). What are the 'Subject' and\n the 'Predicate' of a Proposition? What is its 'Normal' form?\n\n VIII. Sec. =4=, 38 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 59-62 (p. 104); Sec. =6=, 27 (p.\n 107); Sec. =7=, 26, 27 (p. 109); Sec. =8=, 20 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 12,\n 31, 50 (pp. 113, 117, 121). What is a Proposition 'in _I_'?\n 'In _E_'? And 'in _A_'?\n\n IX. Sec. =4=, 39 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 63-66 (p. 104); Sec. =6=, 28, 29 (p.\n 107); Sec. =7=, 28 (p. 109); Sec. =8=, 21 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 13, 32,\n 51 (pp. 114, 117, 121). What is the 'Normal' form of a\n Proposition of Existence?\n\n X. Sec. =4=, 40 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 67-70 (p. 104); Sec. =6=, 30 (p.\n 107); Sec. =7=, 29, 30 (p. 109); Sec. =8=, 22 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 14,\n 33, 52 (pp. 114, 117, 122). What is the 'Universe of\n Discourse'?\n\n XI. Sec. =4=, 41 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 71-74 (p. 104); Sec. =6=, 31, 32 (p.\n 107); Sec. =7=, 31 (p. 109); Sec. =8=, 23 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 15, 34,\n 53 (pp. 114, 118, 122). What is implied, in a Proposition of\n Relation, as to the Reality of its Terms?\n\n XII. Sec. =4=, 42 (p. 100); Sec. =5=, 75-78 (p. 105); Sec. =6=, 33 (p.\n 107); Sec. =7=, 32, 33 (pp. 109, 110); Sec. =8=, 25 (p. 111);\n Sec. =9=, 16, 35, 54 (pp. 114, 118, 122). Explain the phrase\n \"sitting on the fence\".\n\n XIII. Sec. =5=, 79-83 (p. 105); Sec. =6=, 34, 35 (p. 107); Sec. =7=, 34 (p.\n 110); Sec. =8=, 26 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 17, 36, 55 (pp. 114, 118,\n 122). What are 'Converse' Propositions?\n\n XIV. Sec. =5=, 84-88 (p. 105); Sec. =6=, 36 (p. 107); Sec. =7=, 35, 36 (p.\n 110); Sec. =8=, 27 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 18, 37, 56 (pp. 114, 118,\n 123). What are 'Concrete' and 'Abstract' Propositions?\n pg096\n XV. Sec. =5=, 89-93 (p. 105); Sec. =6=, 37, 38 (p. 107); Sec. =7=, 37 (p.\n 110); Sec. =8=, 28 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 19, 38, 57 (pp. 115, 118,\n 123). What is a 'Syllogism'? And what are its 'Premisses' and\n its 'Conclusion'?\n\n XVI. Sec. =5=, 94-97 (p. 106); Sec. =6=, 39 (p. 107); Sec. =7=, 38, 39 (p.\n 110); Sec. =8=, 29 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 20, 39, 58 (pp. 115, 119,\n 123). What is a 'Sorites'? And what are its 'Premisses',\n its 'Partial Conclusions', and its 'Complete Conclusion'?\n\n XVII. Sec. =5=, 98-101 (p. 106); Sec. =6=, 40 (p. 107); Sec. =7=, 40 (p.\n 110); Sec. =8=, 30 (p. 111); Sec. =9=, 21, 41, 59, 60 (pp. 115,\n 119, 124). What are the 'Universe of Discourse', the\n 'Eliminands', and the 'Retinends', of a Syllogism? And of a\n Sorites?\n\n pg097\n\n\nBOOK VIII.\n\nEXAMPLES, ANSWERS, AND SOLUTIONS.\n\n [N.B. Reference tags for Examples, Answers & Solutions will be\n found in the right margin.]\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n_EXAMPLES._\n\n\nSec. 1. EX1\n\n_Propositions of Relation, to be reduced to normal form._\n\n 1. I have been out for a walk.\n\n 2. I am feeling better.\n\n 3. No one has read the letter but John.\n\n 4. Neither you nor I are old.\n\n 5. No fat creatures run well.\n\n 6. None but the brave deserve the fair.\n\n 7. No one looks poetical unless he is pale.\n\n 8. Some judges lose their tempers.\n\n 9. I never neglect important business.\n\n10. What is difficult needs attention.\n\n11. What is unwholesome should be avoided.\n\n12. All the laws passed last week relate to excise.\n\n13. Logic puzzles me.\n\n14. There are no Jews in the house.\n\n15. Some dishes are unwholesome if not well-cooked.\n\n16. Unexciting books make one drowsy.\n\n17. When a man knows what he's about, he can detect a sharper.\n\n18. You and I know what we're about.\n\n19. Some bald people wear wigs.\n\n20. Those who are fully occupied never talk about their grievances.\n\n21. No riddles interest me if they can be solved.\n\n pg098\nSec. 2. EX2\n\n_Pairs of Abstract Propositions, one in terms of x and m, and the other\nin terms of y and m, to be represented on the same Triliteral Diagram._\n\n 1. No x are m;\n No m' are y.\n\n 2. No x' are m';\n All m' are y.\n\n 3. Some x' are m;\n No m are y.\n\n 4. All m are x;\n All m' are y'.\n\n 5. All m' are x;\n All m' are y'.\n\n 6. All x' are m';\n No y' are m.\n\n 7. All x are m;\n All y' are m'.\n\n 8. Some m' are x';\n No m are y.\n\n 9. All m are x';\n No m are y.\n\n10. No m are x';\n No y are m'.\n\n11. No x' are m';\n No m are y.\n\n12. Some x are m;\n All y' are m.\n\n13. All x' are m;\n No m are y.\n\n14. Some x are m';\n All m are y.\n\n15. No m' are x';\n All y are m.\n\n16. All x are m';\n No y are m.\n\n17. Some m' are x;\n No m' are y'.\n\n18. All x are m';\n Some m' are y'.\n\n19. All m are x;\n Some m are y'.\n\n20. No x' are m;\n Some y are m.\n\n21. Some x' are m';\n All y' are m.\n\n22. No m are x;\n Some m are y.\n\n23. No m' are x;\n All y are m'.\n\n24. All m are x;\n No y' are m'.\n\n25. Some m are x;\n No y' are m.\n\n26. All m' are x';\n Some y are m'.\n\n27. Some m are x';\n No y' are m'.\n\n28. No x are m';\n All m are y'.\n\n29. No x' are m;\n No m are y'.\n\n30. No x are m;\n Some y' are m'.\n\n31. Some m' are x;\n All y' are m;\n\n32. All x are m';\n All y are m.\n\n pg099\nSec. 3. EX3\n\n_Marked Triliteral Diagrams, to be interpreted in terms of x and y._\n\n 1\n.---------------.\n|(O) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(I)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 2\n.---------------.\n|(O) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(O)| |\n|---|---|---|(I)|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 3\n.---------------.\n| | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(I)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 4\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)| | |\n|---|---|(I)|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 5\n.---------------.\n| | (I)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 6\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(I) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 7\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(I)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 8\n.---------------.\n|(I) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)| | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(I)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 9\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)| | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(I)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 10\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(I)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 11\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | (I) | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 12\n.---------------.\n|(O) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|(I)|---|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | (I)|\n.---------------.\n\n 13\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (I)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 14\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| (I) |\n.---------------.\n\n 15\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(I)| | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 16\n.---------------.\n|(I) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 17\n.---------------.\n| | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(I)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(I) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 18\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(I)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(I) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 19\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(I)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (I)|\n.---------------.\n\n 20\n.---------------.\n|(O) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(I)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n pg100\nSec. 4. EX4\n\n_Pairs of Abstract Propositions, proposed as Premisses: Conclusions to\nbe found._\n\n 1. No m are x';\n All m' are y.\n\n 2. No m' are x;\n Some m' are y'.\n\n 3. All m' are x;\n All m' are y'.\n\n 4. No x' are m';\n All y' are m.\n\n 5. Some m are x';\n No y are m.\n\n 6. No x' are m;\n No m are y.\n\n 7. No m are x';\n Some y' are m.\n\n 8. All m' are x';\n No m' are y.\n\n 9. Some x' are m';\n No m are y'.\n\n10. All x are m;\n All y' are m'.\n\n11. No m are x;\n All y' are m'.\n\n12. No x are m;\n All y are m.\n\n13. All m' are x;\n No y are m.\n\n14. All m are x;\n All m' are y.\n\n15. No x are m;\n No m' are y.\n\n16. All x are m';\n All y are m.\n\n17. No x are m;\n All m' are y.\n\n18. No x are m';\n No m are y.\n\n19. All m are x;\n All m are y'.\n\n20. No m are x;\n All m' are y.\n\n21. All x are m;\n Some m' are y.\n\n22. Some x are m;\n All y are m.\n\n23. All m are x;\n Some y are m.\n\n24. No x are m;\n All y are m.\n\n25. Some m are x';\n All y' are m'.\n\n26. No m are x';\n All y are m.\n\n27. All x are m';\n All y' are m.\n\n28. All m are x';\n Some m are y.\n\n29. No m are x;\n All y are m'.\n\n30. All x are m';\n Some y are m.\n\n31. All x are m;\n All y are m.\n\n32. No x are m';\n All m are y.\n\n33. No m are x;\n No m are y.\n\n34. No m are x';\n Some y are m.\n\n35. No m are x;\n All y are m.\n\n36. All m are x';\n Some y are m.\n\n37. All m are x;\n No y are m.\n\n38. No m are x;\n No m' are y.\n\n39. Some m are x';\n No m are y.\n\n40. No x' are m;\n All y' are m.\n\n41. All x are m';\n No y are m'.\n\n42. No m' are x;\n No y are m.\n\n pg101\nSec. 5. EX5\n\n_Pairs of Concrete Propositions, proposed as Premisses: Conclusions to\nbe found._\n\n 1. I have been out for a walk;\n I am feeling better.\n\n 2. No one has read the letter but John;\n No one, who has _not_ read it, knows what it is about.\n\n 3. Those who are not old like walking;\n You and I are young.\n\n 4. Your course is always honest;\n Your course is always the best policy.\n\n 5. No fat creatures run well;\n Some greyhounds run well.\n\n 6. Some, who deserve the fair, get their deserts;\n None but the brave deserve the fair.\n\n 7. Some Jews are rich;\n All Esquimaux are Gentiles.\n\n 8. Sugar-plums are sweet;\n Some sweet things are liked by children.\n\n 9. John is in the house;\n Everybody in the house is ill.\n\n 10. Umbrellas are useful on a journey;\n What is useless on a journey should be left behind.\n\n 11. Audible music causes vibration in the air;\n Inaudible music is not worth paying for.\n\n 12. Some holidays are rainy;\n Rainy days are tiresome.\n\n 13. No Frenchmen like plumpudding;\n All Englishmen like plumpudding.\n\n 14. No portrait of a lady, that makes her simper or scowl, is\n satisfactory;\n No photograph of a lady ever fails to make her simper or scowl.\n\n 15. All pale people are phlegmatic;\n No one looks poetical unless he is pale.\n\n 16. No old misers are cheerful;\n Some old misers are thin.\n\n 17. No one, who exercises self-control, fails to keep his temper;\n Some judges lose their tempers.\n pg102\n 18. All pigs are fat;\n Nothing that is fed on barley-water is fat.\n\n 19. All rabbits, that are not greedy, are black;\n No old rabbits are free from greediness.\n\n 20. Some pictures are not first attempts;\n No first attempts are really good.\n\n 21. I never neglect important business;\n Your business is unimportant.\n\n 22. Some lessons are difficult;\n What is difficult needs attention.\n\n 23. All clever people are popular;\n All obliging people are popular.\n\n 24. Thoughtless people do mischief;\n No thoughtful person forgets a promise.\n\n 25. Pigs cannot fly;\n Pigs are greedy.\n\n 26. All soldiers march well;\n Some babies are not soldiers.\n\n 27. No bride-cakes are wholesome;\n What is unwholesome should be avoided.\n\n 28. John is industrious;\n No industrious people are unhappy.\n\n 29. No philosophers are conceited;\n Some conceited persons are not gamblers.\n\n 30. Some excise laws are unjust;\n All the laws passed last week relate to excise.\n\n 31. No military men write poetry;\n None of my lodgers are civilians.\n\n 32. No medicine is nice;\n Senna is a medicine.\n\n 33. Some circulars are not read with pleasure;\n No begging-letters are read with pleasure.\n\n 34. All Britons are brave;\n No sailors are cowards.\n\n 35. Nothing intelligible ever puzzles _me_;\n Logic puzzles me.\n\n 36. Some pigs are wild;\n All pigs are fat.\n pg103\n 37. All wasps are unfriendly;\n All unfriendly creatures are unwelcome.\n\n 38. No old rabbits are greedy;\n All black rabbits are greedy.\n\n 39. Some eggs are hard-boiled;\n No eggs are uncrackable.\n\n 40. No antelope is ungraceful;\n Graceful creatures delight the eye.\n\n 41. All well-fed canaries sing loud;\n No canary is melancholy if it sings loud.\n\n 42. Some poetry is original;\n No original work is producible at will.\n\n 43. No country, that has been explored, is infested by dragons;\n Unexplored countries are fascinating.\n\n 44. No coals are white;\n No niggers are white.\n\n 45. No bridges are made of sugar;\n Some bridges are picturesque.\n\n 46. No children are patient;\n No impatient person can sit still.\n\n 47. No quadrupeds can whistle;\n Some cats are quadrupeds.\n\n 48. Bores are terrible;\n You are a bore.\n\n 49. Some oysters are silent;\n No silent creatures are amusing.\n\n 50. There are no Jews in the house;\n No Gentiles have beards a yard long.\n\n 51. Canaries, that do not sing loud, are unhappy;\n No well-fed canaries fail to sing loud.\n\n 52. All my sisters have colds;\n No one can sing who has a cold.\n\n 53. All that is made of gold is precious;\n Some caskets are precious.\n\n 54. Some buns are rich;\n All buns are nice.\n\n 55. All my cousins are unjust;\n All judges are just.\n pg104\n 56. Pain is wearisome;\n No pain is eagerly wished for.\n\n 57. All medicine is nasty;\n Senna is a medicine.\n\n 58. Some unkind remarks are annoying;\n No critical remarks are kind.\n\n 59. No tall men have woolly hair;\n Niggers have woolly hair.\n\n 60. All philosophers are logical;\n An illogical man is always obstinate.\n\n 61. John is industrious;\n All industrious people are happy.\n\n 62. These dishes are all well-cooked;\n Some dishes are unwholesome if not well-cooked.\n\n 63. No exciting books suit feverish patients;\n Unexciting books make one drowsy.\n\n 64. No pigs can fly;\n All pigs are greedy.\n\n 65. When a man knows what he's about, he can detect a sharper;\n You and I know what we're about.\n\n 66. Some dreams are terrible;\n No lambs are terrible.\n\n 67. No bald creature needs a hairbrush;\n No lizards have hair.\n\n 68. All battles are noisy;\n What makes no noise may escape notice.\n\n 69. All my cousins are unjust;\n No judges are unjust.\n\n 70. All eggs can be cracked;\n Some eggs are hard-boiled.\n\n 71. Prejudiced persons are untrustworthy;\n Some unprejudiced persons are disliked.\n\n 72. No dictatorial person is popular;\n She is dictatorial.\n\n 73. Some bald people wear wigs;\n All your children have hair.\n\n 74. No lobsters are unreasonable;\n No reasonable creatures expect impossibilities.\n pg105\n 75. No nightmare is pleasant;\n Unpleasant experiences are not eagerly desired.\n\n 76. No plumcakes are wholesome;\n Some wholesome things are nice.\n\n 77. Nothing that is nice need be shunned;\n Some kinds of jam are nice.\n\n 78. All ducks waddle;\n Nothing that waddles is graceful.\n\n 79. Sandwiches are satisfying;\n Nothing in this dish is unsatisfying.\n\n 80. No rich man begs in the street;\n Those who are not rich should keep accounts.\n\n 81. Spiders spin webs;\n Some creatures, that do not spin webs, are savage.\n\n 82. Some of these shops are not crowded;\n No crowded shops are comfortable.\n\n 83. Prudent travelers carry plenty of small change;\n Imprudent travelers lose their luggage.\n\n 84. Some geraniums are red;\n All these flowers are red.\n\n 85. None of my cousins are just;\n All judges are just.\n\n 86. No Jews are mad;\n All my lodgers are Jews.\n\n 87. Busy folk are not always talking about their grievances;\n Discontented folk are always talking about their grievances.\n\n 88. None of my cousins are just;\n No judges are unjust.\n\n 89. All teetotalers like sugar;\n No nightingale drinks wine.\n\n 90. No riddles interest me if they can be solved;\n All these riddles are insoluble.\n\n 91. All clear explanations are satisfactory;\n Some excuses are unsatisfactory.\n\n 92. All elderly ladies are talkative;\n All good-tempered ladies are talkative.\n\n 93. No kind deed is unlawful;\n What is lawful may be done without scruple.\n pg106\n 94. No babies are studious;\n No babies are good violinists.\n\n 95. All shillings are round;\n All these coins are round.\n\n 96. No honest men cheat;\n No dishonest men are trustworthy.\n\n 97. None of my boys are clever;\n None of my girls are greedy.\n\n 98. All jokes are meant to amuse;\n No Act of Parliament is a joke.\n\n 99. No eventful tour is ever forgotten;\n Uneventful tours are not worth writing a book about.\n\n100. All my boys are disobedient;\n All my girls are discontented.\n\n101. No unexpected pleasure annoys me;\n Your visit is an unexpected pleasure.\n\n\nSec. 6. EX6\n\n_Trios of Abstract Propositions, proposed as Syllogisms: to be\nexamined._\n\n 1. Some x are m; No m are y'. Some x are y.\n\n 2. All x are m; No y are m'. No y are x'.\n\n 3. Some x are m'; All y' are m. Some x are y.\n\n 4. All x are m; No y are m. All x are y'.\n\n 5. Some m' are x'; No m' are y. Some x' are y'.\n\n 6. No x' are m; All y are m'. All y are x'.\n\n 7. Some m' are x'; All y' are m'. Some x' are y'.\n\n 8. No m' are x'; All y' are m'. All y' are x.\n\n 9. Some m are x'; No m are y. Some x' are y'.\n\n10. All m' are x'; All m' are y. Some y are x'.\n\n11. All x are m'; Some y are m. Some y are x'.\n\n12. No x are m; No m' are y'. No x are y'.\n\n13. No x are m; All y' are m. All y' are x'.\n\n14. All m' are x'; All m' are y. Some y are x'.\n\n15. Some m are x'; All y are m'. Some x' are y'.\n\n16. No x' are m; All y' are m'. Some y' are x.\n\n17. No m' are x; All m' are y'. Some x' are y'.\n pg107\n18. No x' are m; Some m are y. Some x are y.\n\n19. Some m are x; All m are y. Some y are x'.\n\n20. No x' are m'; Some m' are y'. Some x are y'.\n\n21. No m are x; All m are y'. Some x' are y'.\n\n22. All x' are m; Some y are m'. All x' are y'.\n\n23. All m are x; No m' are y'. No x' are y'.\n\n24. All x are m'; All m' are y. All x are y.\n\n25. No x are m'; All m are y. No x are y'.\n\n26. All m are x'; All y are m. All y are x'.\n\n27. All x are m; No m are y'. All x are y.\n\n28. All x are m; No y' are m'. All x are y.\n\n29. No x' are m; No m' are y'. No x' are y'.\n\n30. All x are m; All m are y'. All x are y'.\n\n31. All x' are m'; No y' are m'. All x' are y.\n\n32. No x are m; No y' are m'. No x are y'.\n\n33. All m are x'; All y' are m. All y' are x'.\n\n34. All x are m'; Some y are m'. Some y are x.\n\n35. Some x are m; All m are y. Some x are y.\n\n36. All m are x'; All y are m. All y are x'.\n\n37. No m are x'; All m are y'. Some x are y'.\n\n38. No x are m; No m are y'. No x are y'.\n\n39. No m are x; Some m are y'. Some x' are y'.\n\n40. No m are x'; Some y are m. Some x are y.\n\n\nSec. 7. EX7\n\n_Trios of Concrete Propositions, proposed as Syllogisms: to be\nexamined._\n\n 1. No doctors are enthusiastic;\n You are enthusiastic.\n You are not a doctor.\n\n 2. Dictionaries are useful;\n Useful books are valuable.\n Dictionaries are valuable.\n\n 3. No misers are unselfish;\n None but misers save egg-shells.\n No unselfish people save egg-shells.\n\n 4. Some epicures are ungenerous;\n All my uncles are generous.\n My uncles are not epicures.\n pg108\n 5. Gold is heavy;\n Nothing but gold will silence him.\n Nothing light will silence him.\n\n 6. Some healthy people are fat;\n No unhealthy people are strong.\n Some fat people are not strong.\n\n 7. \"I saw it in a newspaper.\"\n \"All newspapers tell lies.\"\n It was a lie.\n\n 8. Some cravats are not artistic;\n I admire anything artistic.\n There are some cravats that I do not admire.\n\n 9. His songs never last an hour;\n A song, that lasts an hour, is tedious.\n His songs are never tedious.\n\n10. Some candles give very little light;\n Candles are _meant_ to give light.\n Some things, that are meant to give light, give very little.\n\n11. All, who are anxious to learn, work hard;\n Some of these boys work hard.\n Some of these boys are anxious to learn.\n\n12. All lions are fierce;\n Some lions do not drink coffee.\n Some creatures that drink coffee are not fierce.\n\n13. No misers are generous;\n Some old men are ungenerous.\n Some old men are misers.\n\n14. No fossil can be crossed in love;\n An oyster may be crossed in love.\n Oysters are not fossils.\n\n15. All uneducated people are shallow;\n Students are all educated.\n No students are shallow.\n\n16. All young lambs jump;\n No young animals are healthy, unless they jump.\n All young lambs are healthy.\n\n17. Ill-managed business is unprofitable;\n Railways are never ill-managed.\n All railways are profitable.\n\n18. No Professors are ignorant;\n All ignorant people are vain.\n No professors are vain.\n pg109\n19. A prudent man shuns hyaenas;\n No banker is imprudent.\n No banker fails to shun hyaenas.\n\n20. All wasps are unfriendly;\n No puppies are unfriendly.\n Puppies are not wasps.\n\n21. No Jews are honest;\n Some Gentiles are rich.\n Some rich people are dishonest.\n\n22. No idlers win fame;\n Some painters are not idle.\n Some painters win fame.\n\n23. No monkeys are soldiers;\n All monkeys are mischievous.\n Some mischievous creatures are not soldiers.\n\n24. All these bonbons are chocolate-creams;\n All these bonbons are delicious.\n Chocolate-creams are delicious.\n\n25. No muffins are wholesome;\n All buns are unwholesome.\n Buns are not muffins.\n\n26. Some unauthorised reports are false;\n All authorised reports are trustworthy.\n Some false reports are not trustworthy.\n\n27. Some pillows are soft;\n No pokers are soft.\n Some pokers are not pillows.\n\n28. Improbable stories are not easily believed;\n None of his stories are probable.\n None of his stories are easily believed.\n\n29. No thieves are honest;\n Some dishonest people are found out.\n Some thieves are found out.\n\n30. No muffins are wholesome;\n All puffy food is unwholesome.\n All muffins are puffy.\n\n31. No birds, except peacocks, are proud of their tails;\n Some birds, that are proud of their tails, cannot sing.\n Some peacocks cannot sing.\n\n32. Warmth relieves pain;\n Nothing, that does not relieve pain, is useful in toothache.\n Warmth is useful in toothache.\n pg110\n33. No bankrupts are rich;\n Some merchants are not bankrupts.\n Some merchants are rich.\n\n34. Bores are dreaded;\n No bore is ever begged to prolong his visit.\n No one, who is dreaded, is ever begged to prolong his visit.\n\n35. All wise men walk on their feet;\n All unwise men walk on their hands.\n No man walks on both.\n\n36. No wheelbarrows are comfortable;\n No uncomfortable vehicles are popular.\n No wheelbarrows are popular.\n\n37. No frogs are poetical;\n Some ducks are unpoetical.\n Some ducks are not frogs.\n\n38. No emperors are dentists;\n All dentists are dreaded by children.\n No emperors are dreaded by children.\n\n39. Sugar is sweet;\n Salt is not sweet.\n Salt is not sugar.\n\n40. Every eagle can fly;\n Some pigs cannot fly.\n Some pigs are not eagles.\n\n\nSec. 8. EX8\n\n_Sets of Abstract Propositions, proposed as Premisses for Soriteses:\nConclusions to be found._\n\n [N.B. At the end of this Section instructions are given for\n varying these Examples.]\n\n\n 1.\n 1. No c are d;\n 2. All a are d;\n 3. All b are c.\n\n 2.\n 1. All d are b;\n 2. No a are c';\n 3. No b are c.\n\n 3.\n 1. No b are a;\n 2. No c are d';\n 3. All d are b.\n\n 4.\n 1. No b are c;\n 2. All a are b;\n 3. No c' are d.\n\n 5.\n 1. All b' are a';\n 2. No b are c;\n 3. No a' are d.\n\n 6.\n 1. All a are b';\n 2. No b' are c;\n 3. All d are a.\n\n 7.\n 1. No d are b';\n 2. All b are a;\n 3. No c are d'.\n\n 8.\n 1. No b' are d;\n 2. No a' are b;\n 3. All c are d.\n pg111\n 9.\n 1. All b' are a;\n 2. No a are d;\n 3. All b are c.\n\n 10.\n 1. No c are d;\n 2. All b are c;\n 3. No a are d'.\n\n 11.\n 1. No b are c;\n 2. All d are a;\n 3. All c' are a'.\n\n 12.\n 1. No c are b';\n 2. All c' are d';\n 3. All b are a.\n\n 13.\n 1. All d are e;\n 2. All c are a;\n 3. No b are d';\n 4. All e are a'.\n\n 14.\n 1. All e are b;\n 2. All a are e;\n 3. All d are b';\n 4. All a' are c;\n\n 15.\n 1. No b' are d;\n 2. All e are c;\n 3. All b are a;\n 4. All d' are c'.\n\n 16.\n 1. No a' are e;\n 2. All d are c';\n 3. All a are b;\n 4. All e' are d.\n\n 17.\n 1. All d are c;\n 2. All a are e;\n 3. No b are d';\n 4. All c are e'.\n\n 18.\n 1. All a are b;\n 2. All d are e;\n 3. All a' are c';\n 4. No b are e.\n\n 19.\n 1. No b are c;\n 2. All e are h;\n 3. All a are b;\n 4. No d are h;\n 5. All e' are c.\n\n 20.\n 1. No d are h';\n 2. No c are e;\n 3. All h are b;\n 4. No a are d';\n 5. No b are e'.\n\n 21.\n 1. All b are a;\n 2. No d are h;\n 3. No c are e;\n 4. No a are h';\n 5. All c' are b.\n\n 22.\n 1. All e are d';\n 2. No b' are h';\n 3. All c' are d;\n 4. All a are e;\n 5. No c are h.\n\n 23.\n 1. All b' are a';\n 2. No d are e';\n 3. All h are b';\n 4. No c are e;\n 5. All d' are a.\n\n 24.\n 1. All h' are k';\n 2. No b' are a;\n 3. All c are d;\n 4. All e are h';\n 5. No d are k';\n 6. No b are c'.\n\n 25.\n 1. All a are d;\n 2. All k are b;\n 3. All e are h;\n 4. No a' are b;\n 5. All d are c;\n 6. All h are k.\n\n 26.\n 1. All a' are h;\n 2. No d' are k';\n 3. All e are b';\n 4. No h are k;\n 5. All a are e;\n 6. No b' are d.\n\n 27.\n 1. All c are d';\n 2. No h are b;\n 3. All a' are k;\n 4. No c are e';\n 5. All b' are d;\n 6. No a are c'.\n\n 28.\n 1. No a' are k;\n 2. All e are b;\n 3. No h are k';\n 4. No d' are c;\n 5. No a are b;\n 6. All c' are h.\n\n 29.\n 1. No e are k;\n 2. No b' are m;\n 3. No a are c';\n 4. All h' are e;\n 5. All d are k;\n 6. No c are b;\n 7. All d' are l;\n 8. No h are m'.\n\n 30.\n 1. All n are m;\n 2. All a' are e;\n 3. No c' are l;\n 4. All k are r';\n 5. No a are h';\n 6. No d are l';\n 7. No c are n';\n 8. All e are b;\n 9. All m are r;\n10. All h are d.\n\n [N.B. In each Example, in Sections 8 and 9, it is possible to\n begin with _any_ Premiss, at pleasure, and thus to get as many\n different Solutions (all of course yielding the _same_ Complete\n Conclusion) as there are Premisses in the Example. Hence Sec. 8\n really contains 129 different Examples, and Sec. 9 contains 273.]\n\n pg112\nSec. 9. EX9\n\n_Sets of Concrete Propositions, proposed as Premisses for Soriteses:\nConclusions to be found._\n\n =1.=\n\n(1) Babies are illogical;\n\n(2) Nobody is despised who can manage a crocodile;\n\n(3) Illogical persons are despised.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = able to manage a crocodile; b = babies;\nc = despised; d = logical.\n\n =2.=\n\n(1) My saucepans are the only things I have that are made of tin;\n\n(2) I find all _your_ presents very useful;\n\n(3) None of my saucepans are of the slightest use.\n\nUniv. \"things of mine\"; a = made of tin; b = my saucepans; c = useful;\nd = your presents.\n\n =3.=\n\n(1) No potatoes of mine, that are new, have been boiled;\n\n(2) All my potatoes in this dish are fit to eat;\n\n(3) No unboiled potatoes of mine are fit to eat.\n\nUniv. \"my potatoes\"; a = boiled; b = eatable; c = in this dish; d = new.\n\n =4.=\n\n(1) There are no Jews in the kitchen;\n\n(2) No Gentiles say \"shpoonj\";\n\n(3) My servants are all in the kitchen.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = in the kitchen; b = Jews; c = my servants;\nd = saying \"shpoonj.\"\n\n =5.=\n\n(1) No ducks waltz;\n\n(2) No officers ever decline to waltz;\n\n(3) All my poultry are ducks.\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; a = ducks; b = my poultry; c = officers; d = willing\nto waltz.\n\n =6.=\n\n(1) Every one who is sane can do Logic;\n\n(2) No lunatics are fit to serve on a jury;\n\n(3) None of _your_ sons can do Logic.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = able to do Logic; b = fit to serve on a jury;\nc = sane; d = your sons.\n pg113\n =7.=\n\n(1) There are no pencils of mine in this box;\n\n(2) No sugar-plums of mine are cigars;\n\n(3) The whole of my property, that is not in this box, consists of\n cigars.\n\nUniv. \"things of mine\"; a = cigars; b = in this box; c = pencils;\nd = sugar-plums.\n\n =8.=\n\n(1) No experienced person is incompetent;\n\n(2) Jenkins is always blundering;\n\n(3) No competent person is always blundering.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = always blundering; b = competent; c = experienced;\nd = Jenkins.\n\n =9.=\n\n(1) No terriers wander among the signs of the zodiac;\n\n(2) Nothing, that does not wander among the signs of the zodiac, is a\n comet;\n\n(3) Nothing but a terrier has a curly tail.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; a = comets; b = curly-tailed; c = terriers;\nd = wandering among the signs of the zodiac.\n\n=10.=\n\n(1) No one takes in the _Times_, unless he is well-educated;\n\n(2) No hedge-hogs can read;\n\n(3) Those who cannot read are not well-educated.\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; a = able to read; b = hedge-hogs; c = taking in the\nTimes; d = well-educated.\n\n=11.=\n\n(1) All puddings are nice;\n\n(2) This dish is a pudding;\n\n(3) No nice things are wholesome.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; a = nice; b = puddings; c = this dish; d = wholesome.\n\n=12.=\n\n(1) My gardener is well worth listening to on military subjects;\n\n(2) No one can remember the battle of Waterloo, unless he is very old;\n\n(3) Nobody is really worth listening to on military subjects, unless he\n can remember the battle of Waterloo.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = able to remember the battle of Waterloo; b = my\ngardener; c = well worth listening to on military subjects; d = very\nold.\n pg114\n=13.=\n\n(1) All humming-birds are richly coloured;\n\n(2) No large birds live on honey;\n\n(3) Birds that do not live on honey are dull in colour.\n\nUniv. \"birds\"; a = humming-birds; b = large; c = living on honey;\nd = richly coloured.\n\n=14.=\n\n(1) No Gentiles have hooked noses;\n\n(2) A man who is a good hand at a bargain always makes money;\n\n(3) No Jew is ever a bad hand at a bargain.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = good hands at a bargain; b = hook-nosed; c = Jews;\nd = making money.\n\n=15.=\n\n(1) All ducks in this village, that are branded 'B,' belong to Mrs.\n Bond;\n\n(2) Ducks in this village never wear lace collars, unless they are\n branded 'B';\n\n(3) Mrs. Bond has no gray ducks in this village.\n\nUniv. \"ducks in this village\"; a = belonging to Mrs. Bond; b = branded\n'B'; c = gray; d = wearing lace-collars.\n\n=16.=\n\n(1) All the old articles in this cupboard are cracked;\n\n(2) No jug in this cupboard is new;\n\n(3) Nothing in this cupboard, that is cracked, will hold water.\n\nUniv. \"things in this cupboard\"; a = able to hold water; b = cracked;\nc = jugs; d = old.\n\n=17.=\n\n(1) All unripe fruit is unwholesome;\n\n(2) All these apples are wholesome;\n\n(3) No fruit, grown in the shade, is ripe.\n\nUniv. \"fruit\"; a = grown in the shade; b = ripe; c = these apples;\nd = wholesome.\n\n=18.=\n\n(1) Puppies, that will not lie still, are always grateful for the loan\n of a skipping-rope;\n\n(2) A lame puppy would not say \"thank you\" if you offered to lend it a\n skipping-rope.\n\n(3) None but lame puppies ever care to do worsted-work.\n\nUniv. \"puppies\"; a = caring to do worsted-work; b = grateful for the\nloan of a skipping-rope; c = lame; d = willing to lie still.\n pg115\n=19.=\n\n(1) No name in this list is unsuitable for the hero of a romance;\n\n(2) Names beginning with a vowel are always melodious;\n\n(3) No name is suitable for the hero of a romance, if it begins with a\n consonant.\n\nUniv. \"names\"; a = beginning with a vowel; b = in this list;\nc = melodious; d = suitable for the hero of a romance.\n\n=20.=\n\n(1) All members of the House of Commons have perfect self-command;\n\n(2) No M.P., who wears a coronet, should ride in a donkey-race;\n\n(3) All members of the House of Lords wear coronets.\n\nUniv. \"M.P.'s\"; a = belonging to the House of Commons; b = having\nperfect self-command; c = one who may ride in a donkey-race; d = wearing\na coronet.\n\n=21.=\n\n(1) No goods in this shop, that have been bought and paid for, are still\n on sale;\n\n(2) None of the goods may be carried away, unless labeled \"sold\";\n\n(3) None of the goods are labeled \"sold,\" unless they have been bought\n and paid for.\n\nUniv. \"goods in this shop\"; a = allowed to be carried away; b = bought\nand paid for; c = labeled \"sold\"; d = on sale.\n\n=22.=\n\n(1) No acrobatic feats, that are not announced in the bills of a circus,\n are ever attempted there;\n\n(2) No acrobatic feat is possible, if it involves turning a quadruple\n somersault;\n\n(3) No impossible acrobatic feat is ever announced in a circus bill.\n\nUniv. \"acrobatic feats\"; a = announced in the bills of a circus;\nb = attempted in a circus; c = involving the turning of a quadruple\nsomersault; d = possible.\n\n=23.=\n\n(1) Nobody, who really appreciates Beethoven, fails to keep silence\n while the Moonlight-Sonata is being played;\n\n(2) Guinea-pigs are hopelessly ignorant of music;\n\n(3) No one, who is hopelessly ignorant of music, ever keeps silence\n while the Moonlight-Sonata is being played.\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; a = guinea-pigs; b = hopelessly ignorant of music;\nc = keeping silence while the Moonlight-Sonata is being played;\nd = really appreciating Beethoven.\n pg116\n=24.=\n\n(1) Coloured flowers are always scented;\n\n(2) I dislike flowers that are not grown in the open air;\n\n(3) No flowers grown in the open air are colourless.\n\nUniv. \"flowers\"; a = coloured; b = grown in the open air; c = liked by\nme; d = scented.\n\n=25.=\n\n(1) Showy talkers think too much of themselves;\n\n(2) No really well-informed people are bad company;\n\n(3) People who think too much of themselves are not good company.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = good company; b = really well-informed; c = showy\ntalkers; d = thinking too much of one's self.\n\n=26.=\n\n(1) No boys under 12 are admitted to this school as boarders;\n\n(2) All the industrious boys have red hair;\n\n(3) None of the day-boys learn Greek;\n\n(4) None but those under 12 are idle.\n\nUniv. \"boys in this school\"; a = boarders; b = industrious; c = learning\nGreek; d = red-haired; e = under 12.\n\n=27.=\n\n(1) The only articles of food, that my doctor allows me, are such as are\n not very rich;\n\n(2) Nothing that agrees with me is unsuitable for supper;\n\n(3) Wedding-cake is always very rich;\n\n(4) My doctor allows me all articles of food that are suitable for\n supper.\n\nUniv. \"articles of food\"; a = agreeing with me; b = allowed by my\ndoctor; c = suitable for supper; d = very rich; e = wedding-cake.\n\n=28.=\n\n(1) No discussions in our Debating-Club are likely to rouse the British\n Lion, so long as they are checked when they become too noisy;\n\n(2) Discussions, unwisely conducted, endanger the peacefulness of our\n Debating-Club;\n\n(3) Discussions, that go on while Tomkins is in the Chair, are likely to\n rouse the British Lion;\n\n(4) Discussions in our Debating-Club, when wisely conducted, are always\n checked when they become too noisy.\n\nUniv. \"discussions in our Debating-Club\"; a = checked when too noisy;\nb = dangerous to the peacefulness of our Debating-Club; c = going on\nwhile Tomkins is in the chair; d = likely to rouse the British Lion;\ne = wisely conducted.\n pg117\n=29.=\n\n(1) All my sons are slim;\n\n(2) No child of mine is healthy who takes no exercise;\n\n(3) All gluttons, who are children of mine, are fat;\n\n(4) No daughter of mine takes any exercise.\n\nUniv. \"my children\"; a = fat; b = gluttons; c = healthy; d = sons;\ne = taking exercise.\n\n=30.=\n\n(1) Things sold in the street are of no great value;\n\n(2) Nothing but rubbish can be had for a song;\n\n(3) Eggs of the Great Auk are very valuable;\n\n(4) It is only what is sold in the street that is really _rubbish_.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; a = able to be had for a song; b = eggs of the Great\nAuk; c = rubbish; d = sold in the street; e = very valuable.\n\n=31.=\n\n(1) No books sold here have gilt edges, except what are in the front\n shop;\n\n(2) All the _authorised_ editions have red labels;\n\n(3) All the books with red labels are priced at 5s. and upwards;\n\n(4) None but _authorised_ editions are ever placed in the front shop.\n\nUniv. \"books sold here\"; a = authorised editions; b = gilt-edged;\nc = having red labels; d = in the front shop; e = priced at 5s. and\nupwards.\n\n=32.=\n\n(1) Remedies for bleeding, which fail to check it, are a mockery;\n\n(2) Tincture of Calendula is not to be despised;\n\n(3) Remedies, which will check the bleeding when you cut your finger,\n are useful;\n\n(4) All mock remedies for bleeding are despicable.\n\nUniv. \"remedies for bleeding\"; a = able to check bleeding;\nb = despicable; c = mockeries; d = Tincture of Calendula; e = useful\nwhen you cut your finger.\n\n=33.=\n\n(1) None of the unnoticed things, met with at sea, are mermaids;\n\n(2) Things entered in the log, as met with at sea, are sure to be worth\n remembering;\n\n(3) I have never met with anything worth remembering, when on a voyage;\n\n(4) Things met with at sea, that are noticed, are sure to be recorded in\n the log;\n\nUniv. \"things met with at sea\"; a = entered in log; b = mermaids;\nc = met with by me; d = noticed; e = worth remembering.\n pg118\n=34.=\n\n(1) The only books in this library, that I do _not_ recommend for\n reading, are unhealthy in tone;\n\n(2) The bound books are all well-written;\n\n(3) All the romances are healthy in tone;\n\n(4) I do not recommend you to read any of the unbound books.\n\nUniv. \"books in this library\"; a = bound; b = healthy in tone;\nc = recommended by me; d = romances; e = well-written.\n\n=35.=\n\n(1) No birds, except ostriches, are 9 feet high;\n\n(2) There are no birds in this aviary that belong to any one but _me_;\n\n(3) No ostrich lives on mince-pies;\n\n(4) I have no birds less than 9 feet high.\n\nUniv. \"birds\"; a = in this aviary; b = living on mince-pies; c = my;\nd = 9 feet high; e = ostriches.\n\n=36.=\n\n(1) A plum-pudding, that is not really solid, is mere porridge;\n\n(2) Every plum-pudding, served at my table, has been boiled in a cloth;\n\n(3) A plum-pudding that is mere porridge is indistinguishable from soup;\n\n(4) No plum-puddings are really solid, except what are served at _my_\n table.\n\nUniv. \"plum-puddings\"; a = boiled in a cloth; b = distinguishable from\nsoup; c = mere porridge; d = really solid; e = served at my table.\n\n=37.=\n\n(1) No interesting poems are unpopular among people of real taste;\n\n(2) No modern poetry is free from affectation;\n\n(3) All _your_ poems are on the subject of soap-bubbles;\n\n(4) No affected poetry is popular among people of real taste;\n\n(5) No ancient poem is on the subject of soap-bubbles.\n\nUniv. \"poems\"; a = affected; b = ancient; c = interesting; d = on the\nsubject of soap-bubbles; e = popular among people of real taste;\nh = written by you.\n\n=38.=\n\n(1) All the fruit at this Show, that fails to get a prize, is the\n property of the Committee;\n\n(2) None of my peaches have got prizes;\n\n(3) None of the fruit, sold off in the evening, is unripe;\n\n(4) None of the ripe fruit has been grown in a hot-house;\n\n(5) All fruit, that belongs to the Committee, is sold off in the\n evening.\n\nUniv. \"fruit at this Show\"; a = belonging to the Committee; b = getting\nprizes; c = grown in a hot-house; d = my peaches; e = ripe; h = sold off\nin the evening.\n pg119\n=39.=\n\n(1) Promise-breakers are untrustworthy;\n\n(2) Wine-drinkers are very communicative;\n\n(3) A man who keeps his promises is honest;\n\n(4) No teetotalers are pawnbrokers;\n\n(5) One can always trust a very communicative person.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = honest; b = pawnbrokers; c = promise-breakers;\nd = trustworthy; e = very communicative; h = wine-drinkers.\n\n=40.=\n\n(1) No kitten, that loves fish, is unteachable;\n\n(2) No kitten without a tail will play with a gorilla;\n\n(3) Kittens with whiskers always love fish;\n\n(4) No teachable kitten has green eyes;\n\n(5) No kittens have tails unless they have whiskers.\n\nUniv. \"kittens\"; a = green-eyed; b = loving fish; c = tailed;\nd = teachable; e = whiskered; h = willing to play with a gorilla.\n\n\n=41.=\n\n(1) All the Eton men in this College play cricket;\n\n(2) None but the Scholars dine at the higher table;\n\n(3) None of the cricketers row;\n\n(4) _My_ friends in this College all come from Eton;\n\n(5) All the Scholars are rowing-men.\n\nUniv. \"men in this College\"; a = cricketers; b = dining at the higher\ntable; c = Etonians; d = my friends; e = rowing-men; h = Scholars.\n\n=42.=\n\n(1) There is no box of mine here that I dare open;\n\n(2) My writing-desk is made of rose-wood;\n\n(3) All my boxes are painted, except what are here;\n\n(4) There is no box of mine that I dare not open, unless it is full of\n live scorpions;\n\n(5) All my rose-wood boxes are unpainted.\n\nUniv. \"my boxes\"; a = boxes that I dare open; b = full of live\nscorpions; c = here; d = made of rose-wood; e = painted;\nh = writing-desks.\n\n=43.=\n\n(1) Gentiles have no objection to pork;\n\n(2) Nobody who admires pigsties ever reads Hogg's poems;\n\n(3) No Mandarin knows Hebrew;\n\n(4) Every one, who does not object to pork, admires pigsties;\n\n(5) No Jew is ignorant of Hebrew.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = admiring pigsties; b = Jews; c = knowing Hebrew;\nd = Mandarins; e = objecting to pork; h = reading Hogg's poems.\n pg120\n=44.=\n\n(1) All writers, who understand human nature, are clever;\n\n(2) No one is a true poet unless he can stir the hearts of men;\n\n(3) Shakespeare wrote \"Hamlet\";\n\n(4) No writer, who does not understand human nature, can stir the hearts\n of men;\n\n(5) None but a true poet could have written \"Hamlet.\";\n\nUniv. \"writers\"; a = able to stir the hearts of men; b = clever;\nc = Shakespeare; d = true poets; e = understanding human nature;\nh = writer of 'Hamlet.'\n\n=45.=\n\n(1) I despise anything that cannot be used as a bridge;\n\n(2) Everything, that is worth writing an ode to, would be a welcome gift\n to me;\n\n(3) A rainbow will not bear the weight of a wheel-barrow;\n\n(4) Whatever can be used as a bridge will bear the weight of a\n wheel-barrow;\n\n(5) I would not take, as a gift, a thing that I despise.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; a = able to bear the weight of a wheel-barrow;\nb = acceptable to me; c = despised by me; d = rainbows; e = useful as a\nbridge; h = worth writing an ode to.\n\n=46.=\n\n(1) When I work a Logic-example without grumbling, you may be sure\n it is one that I can understand;\n\n(2) These Soriteses are not arranged in regular order, like the examples\n I am used to;\n\n(3) No easy example ever make my head ache;\n\n(4) I ca'n't understand examples that are not arranged in regular order,\n like those I am used to;\n\n(5) I never grumble at an example, unless it gives me a headache.\n\nUniv. \"Logic-examples worked by me\"; a = arranged in regular order, like\nthe examples I am used to; b = easy; c = grumbled at by me; d = making\nmy head ache; e = these Soriteses; h = understood by me.\n\n=47.=\n\n(1) Every idea of mine, that cannot be expressed as a Syllogism, is\n really ridiculous;\n\n(2) None of my ideas about Bath-buns are worth writing down;\n\n(3) No idea of mine, that fails to come true, can be expressed as a\n Syllogism;\n\n(4) I never have any really ridiculous idea, that I do not at once refer\n to my solicitor;\n\n(5) My dreams are all about Bath-buns;\n\n(6) I never refer any idea of mine to my solicitor, unless it is worth\n writing down.\n\nUniv. \"my ideas\"; a = able to be expressed as a Syllogism; b = about\nBath-buns; c = coming true; d = dreams; e = really ridiculous\nh = referred to my solicitor; k = worth writing down.\n pg121\n=48.=\n\n(1) None of the pictures here, except the battle-pieces, are valuable;\n\n(2) None of the unframed ones are varnished;\n\n(3) All the battle-pieces are painted in oils;\n\n(4) All those that have been sold are valuable;\n\n(5) All the English ones are varnished;\n\n(6) All those in frames have been sold.\n\nUniv. \"the pictures here\"; a = battle-pieces; b = English; c = framed;\nd = oil-paintings; e = sold; h = valuable; k = varnished.\n\n=49.=\n\n(1) Animals, that do not kick, are always unexcitable;\n\n(2) Donkeys have no horns;\n\n(3) A buffalo can always toss one over a gate;\n\n(4) No animals that kick are easy to swallow;\n\n(5) No hornless animal can toss one over a gate;\n\n(6) All animals are excitable, except buffaloes.\n\nUniv. \"animals\"; a = able to toss one over a gate; b = buffaloes;\nc = donkeys; d = easy to swallow; e = excitable; h = horned;\nk = kicking.\n\n=50.=\n\n(1) No one, who is going to a party, ever fails to brush his hair;\n\n(2) No one looks fascinating, if he is untidy;\n\n(3) Opium-eaters have no self-command;\n\n(4) Every one, who has brushed his hair, looks fascinating;\n\n(5) No one wears white kid gloves, unless he is going to a party;\n\n(6) A man is always untidy, if he has no self-command.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = going to a party; b = having brushed one's hair;\nc = having self-command; d = looking fascinating; e = opium-eaters;\nh = tidy; k = wearing white kid gloves.\n\n=51.=\n\n(1) No husband, who is always giving his wife new dresses, can be a\n cross-grained man;\n\n(2) A methodical husband always comes home for his tea;\n\n(3) No one, who hangs up his hat on the gas-jet, can be a man that is\n kept in proper order by his wife;\n\n(4) A good husband is always giving his wife new dresses;\n\n(5) No husband can fail to be cross-grained, if his wife does not keep\n him in proper order;\n\n(6) An unmethodical husband always hangs up his hat on the gas-jet.\n\nUniv. \"husbands\"; a = always coming home for his tea; b = always giving\nhis wife new dresses; c = cross-grained; d = good; e = hanging up his\nhat on the gas-jet; h = kept in proper order; k = methodical.\n pg122\n=52.=\n\n(1) Everything, not absolutely ugly, may be kept in a drawing-room;\n\n(2) Nothing, that is encrusted with salt, is ever quite dry;\n\n(3) Nothing should be kept in a drawing-room, unless it is free from\n damp;\n\n(4) Bathing-machines are always kept near the sea;\n\n(5) Nothing, that is made of mother-of-pearl, can be absolutely ugly;\n\n(6) Whatever is kept near the sea gets encrusted with salt.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; a = absolutely ugly; b = bathing-machines; c = encrusted\nwith salt; d = kept near the sea; e = made of mother-of-pearl; h = quite\ndry; k = things that may be kept in a drawing-room.\n\n=53.=\n\n(1) I call no day \"unlucky,\" when Robinson is civil to me;\n\n(2) Wednesdays are always cloudy;\n\n(3) When people take umbrellas, the day never turns out fine;\n\n(4) The only days when Robinson is uncivil to me are Wednesdays;\n\n(5) Everybody takes his umbrella with him when it is raining;\n\n(6) My \"lucky\" days always turn out fine.\n\nUniv. \"days\"; a = called by me 'lucky'; b = cloudy; c = days when people\ntake umbrellas; d = days when Robinson is civil to me; e = rainy;\nh = turning out fine; k = Wednesdays.\n\n=54.=\n\n(1) No shark ever doubts that it is well fitted out;\n\n(2) A fish, that cannot dance a minuet, is contemptible;\n\n(3) No fish is quite certain that it is well fitted out, unless it has\n three rows of teeth;\n\n(4) All fishes, except sharks, are kind to children;\n\n(5) No heavy fish can dance a minuet;\n\n(6) A fish with three rows of teeth is not to be despised.\n\nUniv. \"fishes\"; a = able to dance a minuet; b = certain that he is well\nfitted out; c = contemptible; d = having 3 rows of teeth; e = heavy;\nh = kind to children; k = sharks.\n\n=55.=\n\n(1) All the human race, except my footmen, have a certain amount of\n common-sense;\n\n(2) No one, who lives on barley-sugar, can be anything but a mere baby;\n\n(3) None but a hop-scotch player knows what real happiness is;\n\n(4) No mere baby has a grain of common sense;\n\n(5) No engine-driver ever plays hop-scotch;\n\n(6) No footman of mine is ignorant of what true happiness is.\n\nUniv. \"human beings\"; a = engine-drivers; b = having common sense;\nc = hop-scotch players; d = knowing what real happiness is; e = living\non barley-sugar; h = mere babies; k = my footmen.\n pg123\n=56.=\n\n(1) I trust every animal that belongs to me;\n\n(2) Dogs gnaw bones;\n\n(3) I admit no animals into my study, unless they will beg when told to\n do so;\n\n(4) All the animals in the yard are mine;\n\n(5) I admit every animal, that I trust, into my study;\n\n(6) The only animals, that are really willing to beg when told to do so,\n are dogs.\n\nUniv. \"animals\"; a = admitted to my study; b = animals that I trust;\nc = dogs; d = gnawing bones; e = in the yard; h = my; k = willing to beg\nwhen told.\n\n=57.=\n\n(1) Animals are always mortally offended if I fail to notice them;\n\n(2) The only animals that belong to _me_ are in that field;\n\n(3) No animal can guess a conundrum, unless it has been properly trained\n in a Board-School;\n\n(4) None of the animals in that field are badgers;\n\n(5) When an animal is mortally offended, it always rushes about wildly\n and howls;\n\n(6) I never notice any animal, unless it belongs to me;\n\n(7) No animal, that has been properly trained in a Board-School, ever\n rushes about wildly and howls.\n\nUniv. \"animals\"; a = able to guess a conundrum; b = badgers; c = in that\nfield; d = mortally offended; e = my; h = noticed by me; k = properly\ntrained in a Board-School; l = rushing about wildly and howling.\n\n=58.=\n\n(1) I never put a cheque, received by me, on that file, unless I am\n anxious about it;\n\n(2) All the cheques received by me, that are not marked with a cross,\n are payable to bearer;\n\n(3) None of them are ever brought back to me, unless they have been\n dishonoured at the Bank;\n\n(4) All of them, that are marked with a cross, are for amounts of over\n L100;\n\n(5) All of them, that are not on that file, are marked \"not negotiable\";\n\n(6) No cheque of yours, received by me, has ever been dishonoured;\n\n(7) I am never anxious about a cheque, received by me, unless it should\n happen to be brought back to me;\n\n(8) None of the cheques received by me, that are marked \"not\n negotiable,\" are for amounts of over L100.\n\nUniv. \"cheques received by me\"; a = brought back to me; b = cheques that\nI am anxious about; c = honoured; d = marked with a cross; e = marked\n'not negotiable'; h = on that file; k = over L100; l = payable to\nbearer; m = your.\n pg124\n=59.=\n\n(1) All the dated letters in this room are written on blue paper;\n\n(2) None of them are in black ink, except those that are written in the\n third person;\n\n(3) I have not filed any of them that I can read;\n\n(4) None of them, that are written on one sheet, are undated;\n\n(5) All of them, that are not crossed, are in black ink;\n\n(6) All of them, written by Brown, begin with \"Dear Sir\";\n\n(7) All of them, written on blue paper, are filed;\n\n(8) None of them, written on more than one sheet, are crossed;\n\n(9) None of them, that begin with \"Dear Sir,\" are written in the\n third person.\n\nUniv. \"letters in this room\"; a = beginning with \"Dear Sir\";\nb = crossed; c = dated; d = filed; e = in black ink; h = in third\nperson; k = letters that I can read; l = on blue paper; m = on one\nsheet; n = written by Brown.\n\n=60.=\n\n (1) The only animals in this house are cats;\n\n (2) Every animal is suitable for a pet, that loves to gaze at the moon;\n\n (3) When I detest an animal, I avoid it;\n\n (4) No animals are carnivorous, unless they prowl at night;\n\n (5) No cats fails to kill mice;\n\n (6) No animals ever take to me, except what are in this house;\n\n (7) Kangaroos are not suitable for pets;\n\n (8) None but carnivora kill mice;\n\n (9) I detest animals that do not take to me;\n\n(10) Animals, that prowl at night, always love to gaze at the moon.\n\nUniv. \"animals\"; a = avoided by me; b = carnivora; c = cats;\nd = detested by me; e = in this house; h = kangaroos; k = killing mice;\nl = loving to gaze at the moon; m = prowling at night; n = suitable for\npets; r = taking to me.\n\n pg125\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\n_ANSWERS._\n\n\n_Answers to Sec. 1._ AN1\n\n 1. \"All\" _Sign of Quantity._\n \"persons represented by the Name 'I'\" (or \"I's\") _Subject._\n \"are\" _Copula._\n \"persons who have been out for a walk\" _Predicate._\n\n or, more briefly,\n\n \"All | 'I's | are | persons who have been out for a walk\".\n\n 2. \"All | 'I's | are | persons who feel better\".\n\n 3. \"No | persons who are not 'John' | are | persons who have read the\n letter\".\n\n 4. \"No | Members of the Class 'you and I' | are | old persons\".\n\n 5. \"No | fat creatures | are | creatures that run well\".\n\n 6. \"No | not-brave persons | are | persons deserving of the fair\".\n\n 7. \"No | not-pale persons | are | persons who look poetical\".\n\n 8. \"Some | judges | are | persons who lose their tempers\".\n\n 9. \"All | 'I's | are | persons who do not neglect important business\".\n\n10. \"All | difficult things | are | things that need attention\".\n\n11. \"All | unwholesome things | are | things that should be avoided\".\n\n12. \"All | laws passed last week | are | laws relating to excise\".\n\n13. \"All | logical studies | are | things that puzzle me\".\n\n14. \"No | persons in the house | are | Jews\".\n\n15. \"Some | not well-cooked dishes | are | unwholesome dishes\".\n\n16. \"All | unexciting books | are | books that make one drowsy\".\n\n17. \"All | men who know what they're about | are | men who can detect\n a sharper\".\n\n18. \"All | Members of the Class 'you and I' | are | persons who know\n what they're about\".\n\n19. \"Some | bald persons | are | persons accustomed to wear wigs\".\n\n20. \"All | fully occupied persons | are | persons who do not talk about\n their grievances\".\n\n21. \"No | riddles that can be solved | are | riddles that interest me\".\n\n pg126\n_Answers to Sec. 2._ AN2\n\n 1\n.---------------.\n|(O) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 2\n.---------------.\n|(I) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 3\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)| | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(I)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 4\n.---------------.\n|(O) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (I) | |\n|---|---|---|(I)|\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 5\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (I)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 6\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| (I) |\n.---------------.\n\n 7\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(I)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (I)|\n.---------------.\n\n 8\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)| | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| (I) |\n.---------------.\n\n 9\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(I)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 10\n.---------------.\n|(O) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 11\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)| | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 12\n.---------------.\n| | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | (I) | |\n|---|---|(I)|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 13\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(I)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 14\n.---------------.\n| (I) |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(O)| |\n|---|(I)|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 15\n.---------------.\n|(O) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|(I)|---|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 16\n.---------------.\n| (I) |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 17\n.---------------.\n|(I) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 18\n.---------------.\n| (I) |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|(I)|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 19\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(I)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 20\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(I)| | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 21\n.---------------.\n| | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|(I)|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(I) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 22\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(I)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 23\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)| | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(I) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 24\n.---------------.\n| | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | (I) | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (O)|\n.---------------.\n pg127\n 25\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(I)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 26\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(I) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 27\n.---------------.\n| | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| | (I) | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 28\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)| | |\n|---|---|(I)|---|\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 29\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 30\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|(I)|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 31\n.---------------.\n|(I) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | | | |\n|---|---|(I)|---|\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 32\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (I)|\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n|---|---|---|---|\n| |(I)| | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n\n_Answers to Sec. 3._ AN3\n\n 1. Some xy exist, or some x are y, or some y are x.\n\n 2. No information.\n\n 3. All y' are x'.\n\n 4. No xy exist, &c.\n\n 5. All y' are x.\n\n 6. All x' are y.\n\n 7. All x are y.\n\n 8. All x' are y', and all y are x.\n\n 9. All x' are y'.\n\n10. All x are y'.\n\n11. No information.\n\n12. Some x'y' exist, &c.\n\n13. Some xy' exist, &c.\n\n14. No xy' exist, &c.\n\n15. Some xy exist, &c.\n\n16. All y are x.\n\n17. All x' are y, and all y' are x.\n\n18. All x are y', and all y are x'.\n\n19. All x are y, and all y' are x'.\n\n20. All y are x'.\n\n\n_Answers to Sec. 4._ AN4\n\n 1. No x' are y'.\n\n 2. Some x' are y'.\n\n 3. Some x are y'.\n\n 4. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 5. Some x' are y'.\n\n 6. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 7. Some x are y'.\n\n 8. Some x' are y'.\n\n 9. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n10. All x are y, and all y' are x'.\n\n11. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n12. All y are x'.\n\n13. No x' are y.\n\n14. No x' are y'.\n\n15. No x are y.\n\n16. All x are y', and all y are x'.\n pg128\n17. No x are y'.\n\n18. No x are y.\n\n19. Some x are y'.\n\n20. No x are y'.\n\n21. Some y are x'.\n\n22. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n23. Some x are y.\n\n24. All y are x'.\n\n25. Some y are x'.\n\n26. All y are x.\n\n27. All x are y, and all y' are x'.\n\n28. Some y are x'.\n\n29. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n30. Some y are x'.\n\n31. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n32. No x are y'.\n\n33. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n34. Some x are y.\n\n35. All y are x'.\n\n36. Some y are x'.\n\n37. Some x are y'.\n\n38. No x are y.\n\n39. Some x' are y'.\n\n40. All y' are x.\n\n41. All x are y'.\n\n42. No x are y.\n\n\n_Answers to Sec. 5._ AN5\n\n 1. Somebody who has been out for a walk is feeling better.\n\n 2. No one but John knows what the letter is about.\n\n 3. You and I like walking.\n\n 4. Honesty is sometimes the best policy.\n\n 5. Some greyhounds are not fat.\n\n 6. Some brave persons get their deserts.\n\n 7. Some rich persons are not Esquimaux.\n\n 8. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 9. John is ill.\n\n 10. Some things, that are not umbrellas, should be left behind on a\n journey.\n\n 11. No music is worth paying for, unless it causes vibration in the\n air.\n\n 12. Some holidays are tiresome.\n\n 13. Englishmen are not Frenchmen.\n\n 14. No photograph of a lady is satisfactory.\n\n 15. No one looks poetical unless he is phlegmatic.\n\n 16. Some thin persons are not cheerful.\n\n 17. Some judges do not exercise self-control.\n\n 18. Pigs are not fed on barley-water.\n\n 19. Some black rabbits are not old.\n pg129\n 20. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 21. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 22. Some lessons need attention.\n\n 23. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 24. No one, who forgets a promise, fails to do mischief.\n\n 25. Some greedy creatures cannot fly.\n\n 26. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 27. No bride-cakes are things that need not be avoided.\n\n 28. John is happy.\n\n 29. Some people, who are not gamblers, are not philosophers.\n\n 30. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 31. None of my lodgers write poetry.\n\n 32. Senna is not nice.\n\n 33. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 34. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 35. Logic is unintelligible.\n\n 36. Some wild creatures are fat.\n\n 37. All wasps are unwelcome.\n\n 38. All black rabbits are young.\n\n 39. Some hard-boiled things can be cracked.\n\n 40. No antelopes fail to delight the eye.\n\n 41. All well-fed canaries are cheerful.\n\n 42. Some poetry is not producible at will.\n\n 43. No country infested by dragons fails to be fascinating.\n\n 44. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 45. Some picturesque things are not made of sugar.\n\n 46. No children can sit still.\n\n 47. Some cats cannot whistle.\n\n 48. You are terrible.\n\n 49. Some oysters are not amusing.\n\n 50. Nobody in the house has a beard a yard long.\n\n 51. Some ill-fed canaries are unhappy.\n\n 52. My sisters cannot sing.\n\n 53. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 54. Some rich things are nice.\n\n 55. My cousins are none of them judges, and judges are none of them\n cousins of mine.\n\n 56. Something wearisome is not eagerly wished for.\n\n 57. Senna is nasty.\n\n 58. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 59. Niggers are not any of them tall.\n\n 60. Some obstinate persons are not philosophers.\n\n 61. John is happy.\n\n 62. Some unwholesome dishes are not present here (i.e. cannot be\n spoken of as \"these\").\n\n 63. No books suit feverish patients unless they make one drowsy.\n\n 64. Some greedy creatures cannot fly.\n\n 65. You and I can detect a sharper.\n\n 66. Some dreams are not lambs.\n pg130\n 67. No lizard needs a hairbrush.\n\n 68. Some things, that may escape notice, are not battles.\n\n 69. My cousins are not any of them judges.\n\n 70. Some hard-boiled things can be cracked.\n\n 71. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 72. She is unpopular.\n\n 73. Some people, who wear wigs, are not children of yours.\n\n 74. No lobsters expect impossibilities.\n\n 75. No nightmare is eagerly desired.\n\n 76. Some nice things are not plumcakes.\n\n 77. Some kinds of jam need not be shunned.\n\n 78. All ducks are ungraceful.\n\n 79. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 80. No man, who begs in the street, should fail to keep accounts.\n\n 81. Some savage creatures are not spiders.\n\n 82. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 83. No travelers, who do not carry plenty of small change, fail to lose\n their luggage.\n\n 84. [No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 85. Judges are none of them cousins of mine.\n\n 86. All my lodgers are sane.\n\n 87. Those who are busy are contented, and discontented people are not\n busy.\n\n 88. None of my cousins are judges.\n\n 89. No nightingale dislikes sugar.\n\n 90. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 91. Some excuses are not clear explanations.\n\n 92. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 93. No kind deed need cause scruple.\n\n 94. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 95. [No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n 96. No cheats are trustworthy.\n\n 97. No clever child of mine is greedy.\n\n 98. Some things, that are meant to amuse, are not Acts of Parliament.\n\n 99. No tour, that is ever forgotten, is worth writing a book about.\n\n100. No obedient child of mine is contented.\n\n101. Your visit does not annoy me.\n\n\n_Answers to Sec. 6._ AN6\n\n 1. Conclusion right.\n\n 2. No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n 3. Concl. right.\n\n 4. Concl. right.\n\n 5. Concl. right.\n\n 6. No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n 7. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n 8. Concl. right.\n\n 9. Concl. right.\n\n10. Concl. right.\n\n11. Concl. right.\n\n12. Concl. right.\n\n13. Concl. right.\n\n14. Concl. right.\n\n15. Concl. right.\n pg131\n16. No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n17. Concl. right.\n\n18. Concl. right.\n\n19. Concl. right.\n\n20. Concl. right.\n\n21. Concl. right.\n\n22. Concl. wrong: the right one is \"Some x are y.\"\n\n23. Concl. right.\n\n24. Concl. right.\n\n25. Concl. right.\n\n26. Concl. right.\n\n27. Concl. right.\n\n28. No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n29. Concl. right.\n\n30. Concl. right.\n\n31. Concl. right.\n\n32. Concl. right.\n\n33. Concl. right.\n\n34. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n35. Concl. right.\n\n36. Concl. right.\n\n37. Concl. right.\n\n38. No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n39. Concl. right.\n\n40. Concl. right.\n\n\n_Answers to Sec. 7._ AN7\n\n 1. Concl. right.\n\n 2. Concl. right.\n\n 3. Concl. right.\n\n 4. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some epicures are not uncles of mine.\"\n\n 5. Concl. right.\n\n 6. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n 7. Concl. wrong: right one is \"The publication, in which I saw it,\n tells lies.\"\n\n 8. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n 9. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some tedious songs are not his.\"\n\n10. Concl. right.\n\n11. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n12. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some fierce creatures do not drink\n coffee.\"\n\n13. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n14. Concl. right.\n\n15. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some shallow persons are not students.\"\n\n16. No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n17. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some business, other than railways,\n is unprofitable.\"\n\n18. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some vain persons are not Professors.\"\n\n19. Concl. right.\n\n20. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Wasps are not puppies.\"\n\n21. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n22. No Concl. Same Fallacy.\n\n23. Concl. right.\n\n24. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some chocolate-creams are delicious.\"\n\n25. No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n26. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n27. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some pillows are not pokers.\"\n\n28. Concl. right.\n\n29. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n30. No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n31. Concl. right.\n\n32. No Concl. Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n33. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n pg132\n34. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some dreaded persons are not\n begged to prolong their visits.\"\n\n35. Concl. wrong: right one is \"No man walks on neither.\"\n\n36. Concl. right.\n\n37. No Concl. Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.\n\n38. Concl. wrong: right one is \"Some persons, dreaded by children,\n are not emperors.\"\n\n39. Concl. incomplete: the omitted portion is \"Sugar is not salt.\"\n\n40. Concl. right.\n\n\n_Answers to Sec. 8._ AN8\n\n 1. a_{1}b_{0} + b_{1}a_{0}.\n\n 2. d_{1}a_{0}.\n\n 3. ac_{0}.\n\n 4. a_{1}d_{0}.\n\n 5. cd_{0}.\n\n 6. d_{1}c_{0}.\n\n 7. a'c_{0}.\n\n 8. c_{1}a'_{0}.\n\n 9. c'd_{0}.\n\n10. b_{1}a_{0}.\n\n11. d_{1}b_{0}.\n\n12. a'd_{0}.\n\n13. e_{1}b_{0}.\n\n14. d_{1}e'_{0}.\n\n15. e_{1}a'_{0}.\n\n16. b'c_{0}.\n\n17. a_{1}b_{0}.\n\n18. d_{1}c_{0}.\n\n19. a_{1}d_{0}.\n\n20. ac_{0}.\n\n21. de_{0}.\n\n22. a_{1}b'_{0}.\n\n23. h_{1}c_{0}.\n\n24. e_{1}a_{0}.\n\n25. e_{1}c'_{0}.\n\n26. e_{1}c'_{0}.\n\n27. hk'_{0}.\n\n28. e_{1}d'_{0}.\n\n29. l'a_{0}.\n\n30. k_{1}b'_{0}.\n\n\n_Answers to Sec. 9._ AN9\n\n 1. Babies cannot manage crocodiles.\n\n 2. _Your_ presents to me are not made of tin.\n\n 3. All my potatoes in this dish are old ones.\n\n 4. My servants never say \"shpoonj.\"\n\n 5. My poultry are not officers.\n\n 6. None of _your_ sons are fit to serve on a jury.\n\n 7. No pencils of mine are sugar-plums.\n\n 8. Jenkins is inexperienced.\n\n 9. No comet has a curly tail.\n\n10. No hedge-hog takes in the _Times_.\n\n11. This dish is unwholesome.\n\n12. My gardener is very old.\n\n13. All humming-birds are small.\n\n14. No one with a hooked nose ever fails to make money.\n\n15. No gray ducks in this village wear lace collars.\n\n16. No jug in this cupboard will hold water.\n\n17. These apples were grown in the sun.\n\n18. Puppies, that will not lie still, never care to do worsted work.\n\n19. No name in this list is unmelodious.\n\n20. No M.P. should ride in a donkey-race, unless he has perfect\n self-command.\n\n21. No goods in this shop, that are still on sale, may be carried away.\n pg133\n22. No acrobatic feat, which involves turning a quadruple somersault, is\n ever attempted in a circus.\n\n23. Guinea-pigs never really appreciate Beethoven.\n\n24. No scentless flowers please me.\n\n25. Showy talkers are not really well-informed.\n\n26. None but red-haired boys learn Greek in this school.\n\n27. Wedding-cake always disagrees with me.\n\n28. Discussions, that go on while Tomkins is in the chair, endanger the\n peacefulness of our Debating-Club.\n\n29. All gluttons, who are children of mine, are unhealthy.\n\n30. An egg of the Great Auk is not to be had for a song.\n\n31. No books sold here have gilt edges, unless they are priced at 5s.\n and upwards.\n\n32. When you cut your finger, you will find Tincture of Calendula\n useful.\n\n33. _I_ have never come across a mermaid at sea.\n\n34. All the romances in this library are well-written.\n\n35. No bird in this aviary lives on mince-pies.\n\n36. No plum-pudding, that has not been boiled in a cloth, can be\n distinguished from soup.\n\n37. All _your_ poems are uninteresting.\n\n38. None of my peaches have been grown in a hot-house.\n\n39. No pawnbroker is dishonest.\n\n40. No kitten with green eyes will play with a gorilla.\n\n41. All _my_ friends dine at the lower table.\n\n42. My writing-desk is full of live scorpions.\n\n43. No Mandarin ever reads Hogg's poems.\n\n44. Shakespeare was clever.\n\n45. Rainbows are not worth writing odes to.\n\n46. These Sorites-examples are difficult.\n\n47. All my dreams come true.\n\n48. All the English pictures here are painted in oils.\n\n49. Donkeys are not easy to swallow.\n\n50. Opium-eaters never wear white kid gloves.\n\n51. A good husband always comes home for his tea.\n\n52. Bathing-machines are never made of mother-of-pearl.\n\n53. Rainy days are always cloudy.\n\n54. No heavy fish is unkind to children.\n\n55. No engine-driver lives on barley-sugar.\n\n56. All the animals in the yard gnaw bones.\n\n57. No badger can guess a conundrum.\n\n58. No cheque of yours, received by me, is payable to order.\n\n59. I cannot read any of Brown's letters.\n\n60. I always avoid a kangaroo.\n\n pg134\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n_SOLUTIONS._\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Propositions of Relation reduced to normal form._\n\n\n_Solutions for Sec. 1._ SL1\n\n1. The Univ. is \"persons.\" The Individual \"I\" may be regarded as a\nClass, of persons, whose peculiar Attribute is \"represented by the Name\n'I'\", and may be called the Class of \"I's\". It is evident that this\nClass cannot possibly contain more than one Member: hence the Sign of\nQuantity is \"all\". The verb \"have been\" may be replaced by the phrase\n\"are persons who have been\". The Proposition may be written thus:--\n\n\"All\" _Sign of Quantity_.\n\"I's\" _Subject_.\n\"are\" _Copula_.\n\"persons who have been out for a walk\" _Predicate_.\n\nor, more briefly,\n\n \"All | I's | are | persons who have been out for a walk\".\n\n2. The Univ. and the Subject are the same as in Ex. 1. The Proposition\nmay be written\n\n \"All | I's | are | persons who feel better\".\n\n3. Univ. is \"persons\". The Subject is evidently the Class of persons\nfrom which John is _excluded_; _i.e._ it is the Class containing all\npersons who are _not_ \"John\".\n\nThe Sign of Quantity is \"no\".\n\nThe verb \"has read\" may be replaced by the phrase \"are persons who have\nread\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"No | persons who are not 'John' | are | persons who have read the\n letter\".\n\n4. Univ. is \"persons\". The Subject is evidently the Class of persons\nwhose only two Members are \"you and I\".\n\nHence the Sign of Quantity is \"no\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"No | Members of the Class 'you and I' | are | old persons\".\n pg135\n5. Univ. is \"creatures\". The verb \"run well\" may be replaced by the\nphrase \"are creatures that run well\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"No | fat creatures | are | creatures that run well\".\n\n6. Univ. is \"persons\". The Subject is evidently the Class of persons who\nare _not_ brave.\n\nThe verb \"deserve\" may be replaced by the phrase \"are deserving of\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"No | not-brave persons | are | persons deserving of the fair\".\n\n7. Univ. is \"persons\". The phrase \"looks poetical\" evidently belongs to\nthe _Predicate_; and the _Subject_ is the Class, of persons, whose\npeculiar Attribute is \"_not_-pale\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"No | not-pale persons | are | persons who look poetical\".\n\n8. Univ. is \"persons\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"Some | judges | are | persons who lose their tempers\".\n\n9. Univ. is \"persons\". The phrase \"never neglect\" is merely a stronger\nform of the phrase \"am a person who does not neglect\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"All | 'I's' | are | persons who do not neglect important business\".\n\n10. Univ. is \"things\". The phrase \"what is difficult\" (_i.e._ \"that\nwhich is difficult\") is equivalent to the phrase \"all difficult things\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"All | difficult things | are | things that need attention\".\n\n11. Univ. is \"things\". The phrase \"what is unwholesome\" may be\ninterpreted as in Ex. 10.\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"All | unwholesome things | are | things that should be avoided\".\n\n12. Univ. is \"laws\". The Predicate is evidently a Class whose peculiar\nAttribute is \"relating to excise\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"All | laws passed last week | are | laws relating to excise\".\n\n13. Univ. is \"things\". The Subject is evidently the Class, of studies,\nwhose peculiar Attribute is \"logical\"; hence the Sign of Quantity is\n\"all\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"All | logical studies | are | things that puzzle me\".\n\n14. Univ. is \"persons\". The Subject is evidently \"persons in the house\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"No | persons in the house | are | Jews\".\n\n15. Univ. is \"dishes\". The phrase \"if not well-cooked\" is equivalent to\nthe Attribute \"not well-cooked\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"Some | not well-cooked dishes | are | unwholesome dishes\".\n pg136\n16. Univ. is \"books\". The phrase \"make one drowsy\" may be replaced by\nthe phrase \"are books that make one drowsy\".\n\nThe Sign of Quantity is evidently \"all\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"All | unexciting books | are | books that make one drowsy\".\n\n17. Univ. is \"men\". The Subject is evidently \"a man who knows what he's\nabout\"; and the word \"when\" shows that the Proposition is asserted of\n_every_ such man, _i.e._ of _all_ such men. The verb \"can\" may be\nreplaced by \"are men who can\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"All | men who know what they're about | are | men who can detect a\n sharper\".\n\n18. The Univ. and the Subject are the same as in Ex. 4.\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"All | Members of the Class 'you and I' | are | persons who know\n what they're about\".\n\n19. Univ. is \"persons\". The verb \"wear\" may be replaced by the phrase\n\"are accustomed to wear\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"Some | bald persons | are | persons accustomed to wear wigs\".\n\n20. Univ. is \"persons\". The phrase \"never talk\" is merely a stronger\nform of \"are persons who do not talk\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"All | fully occupied persons | are | persons who do not talk about\n their grievances\".\n\n21. Univ. is \"riddles\". The phrase \"if they can be solved\" is equivalent\nto the Attribute \"that can be solved\".\n\nThe Proposition may be written\n\n \"No | riddles that can be solved | are | riddles that interest me\".\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Method of Diagrams._\n\n\n_Solutions for Sec. 4, Nos. 1-12._ SL4-A\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n 1. No m are x'; | | (O)| | | |\n All m' are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | | | | | | |(O)|\n |(I)|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. No x' are y'.\n | | (O)|\n .---------------.\n pg137\n .---------------. .-------.\n 2. No m' are x; |(O) | (O)| | | |\n Some m' are y'. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | | | | | | |(I)|\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x are y'.\n | | (I)|\n .---------------.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n 3. All m' are x; |(O) | (I)| | |(I)|\n All m' are y'. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | | | | | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x are y'.\n |(O) | (O)|\n .---------------.\n\n .---------------.\n 4. No x' are m'; | | (O)|\n All y' are m. | .---|---. |\n | | | | |\n |---|---|(I)|---| There is no Conclusion.\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n |(O) | (O)|\n .---------------.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n 5. Some m are x'; | | | | | |\n No y are m. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(O)| | | | |(I)|\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)|(I)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x' are y'.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n .---------------.\n 6. No x' are m; | | |\n No m are y. | .---|---. |\n | |(O)| | |\n |---|---|---|---| There is no Conclusion.\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n 7. No m are x'; | | | | |(I)|\n Some y' are m. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | | |(I)| | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x are y'.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n 8. All m' are x'; |(O) | (O)| | | |\n No m' are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | | | | | | |(I)|\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x' are y'.\n |(O) | (I)|\n .---------------.\n pg138\n .---------------.\n 9. Some x' are m'; | | |\n No m are y'. | .---|---. |\n | | |(O)| |\n |---|---|---|---| There is no Conclusion.\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. |\n | (I) |\n .---------------.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n10. All x are m; |(O) | (O)| |(I)|(O)|\n All y' are m'. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(I)|(O)| | | |(I)|\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. All x are y;\n | | (I)| All y' are x'.\n .---------------.\n\n .---------------.\n11. No m are x; | | |\n All y' are m'. | .---|---. |\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n |---|---|---|(I)| There is no Conclusion.\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n12. No x are m; |(O) | | |(O)| |\n All y are m. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(O)|(O)| | |(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(I)| | |\n | .---|---. | .'. All y are x'.\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\n\n_Solutions for Sec. 5, Nos. 1-12._ SL5-A\n\n 1. I have been out for a walk;\n I am feeling better.\n\nUniv. is \"persons\"; m = the Class of I's; x = persons who have been out\nfor a walk; y = persons who are feeling better.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n All m are x; | | | |(I)| |\n All m are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(I)|(O)| | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x are y.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. Somebody, who has been out for a walk, is feeling better.\n pg139\n 2. No one has read the letter but John;\n No one, who has _not_ read it, knows what it is about.\n\nUniv. is \"persons\"; m = persons who have read the letter; x = the Class\nof Johns; y = persons who know what the letter is about.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n No x' are m; |(O) | | | | |\n No m' are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | | | | | |(O)| |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. No x' are y.\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. No one, but John, knows what the letter is about.\n\n 3. Those who are not old like walking;\n You and I are young.\n\nUniv. is \"persons\"; m = old; x = persons who like walking; y = you and\nI.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n All m' are x; |(I) | | |(I)| |\n All y are m'. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(O)| | | |(O)| |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)| | |\n | .---|---. | .'. All y are x.\n |(O) | (O)|\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. You and I like walking.\n\n 4. Your course is always honest;\n Your course is always the best policy.\n\nUniv. is \"courses\"; m = your; x = honest; y = courses which are the best\npolicy.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n All m are x; | | | |(I)| |\n All m are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(I)|(O)| | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x are y.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. Honesty is sometimes the best policy.\n\n 5. No fat creatures run well;\n Some greyhounds run well.\n\nUniv. is \"creatures\"; m = creatures that run well; x = fat;\ny = greyhounds.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n No x are m; | | | | | |\n Some y are m. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(O)|(O)| | |(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(I)| | |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some y are x'.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. Some greyhounds are not fat.\n pg140\n 6. Some, who deserve the fair, get their deserts;\n None but the brave deserve the fair.\n\nUniv. is \"persons\"; m = persons who deserve the fair; x = persons who\nget their deserts; y = brave.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n Some m are x; | | | |(I)| |\n No y' are m. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(I)|(O)| | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some y are x.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. Some brave persons get their deserts.\n\n 7. Some Jews are rich;\n All Esquimaux are Gentiles.\n\nUniv. is \"persons\"; m = Jews; x = rich; y = Esquimaux.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n Some m are x; | | | | |(I)|\n All y are m'. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(O)|(I)| | | | |\n |(I)|---|---|---| .-------.\n | |(O)| | |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x are y'.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. Some rich persons are not Esquimaux.\n\n 8. Sugar-plums are sweet;\n Some sweet things are liked by children.\n\nUniv. is \"things\"; m = sweet; x = sugar-plums; y = things that are liked\nby children.\n\n .---------------.\n All x are m; |(O) | (O)|\n Some m are y. | .---|---. |\n | | (I) | |\n |---|(I)|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nThere is no Conclusion.\n\n 9. John is in the house;\n Everybody in the house is ill.\n\nUniv. is \"persons\"; m = persons in the house; x = the Class of Johns;\ny = ill.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n All x are m; |(O) | (O)| |(I)|(O)|\n All m are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(I)|(O)| | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. All x are y.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. John is ill.\n pg141\n10. Umbrellas are useful on a journey;\n What is useless on a journey should be left behind.\n\nUniv. is \"things\"; m = useful on a journey; x = umbrellas; y = things\nthat should be left behind.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n All x are m; |(O) | (O)| | | |\n All m' are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | | (I) | | |(I)| |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x' are y.\n |(I) | (O)|\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. Some things, that are not umbrellas, should be left behind on a\njourney.\n\n11. Audible music causes vibration in the air;\n Inaudible music is not worth paying for.\n\nUniv. is \"music\"; m = audible; x = music that causes vibration in the\nair; y = worth paying for.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n All m are x; |(O) | | | | |\n All m' are y'. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | | (I) | | |(O)| |\n |---|---|---|(I)| .-------.\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. No x' are y.\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. No music is worth paying for, unless it causes vibration in the\nair.\n\n12. Some holidays are rainy;\n Rainy days are tiresome.\n\nUniv. is \"days\"; m = rainy; x = holidays; y = tiresome.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n Some x are m; | | | |(I)| |\n All m are y. | .---|---. | |---|---|\n | |(I)|(O)| | | | |\n |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x are y.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\ni.e. Some holidays are tiresome.\n\n\n_Solutions for Sec. 6, Nos. 1-10._ SL6-A\n\n 1.\n\nSome x are m; No m are y'. Some x are y.\n\n.---------------. .-------.\n| | | |(I)| |\n| .---|---. | |---|---|\n| |(I)|(O)| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---| .-------.\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. | Hence proposed Conclusion is right.\n| | |\n.---------------.\n pg142\n 2.\n\nAll x are m; No y are m'. No y are x'.\n\n.---------------.\n|(O) | (O)|\n| .---|---. |\n| | (I) | |\n|---|---|---|---| There is no Conclusion.\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. |\n|(O) | |\n.---------------.\n\n 3.\n\nSome x are m'; All y' are m. Some x are y.\n\n.---------------. .-------.\n|(I) | (O)| |(I)| |\n| .---|---. | |---|---|\n| | | | | | | |\n|---|---|(I)|---| .-------.\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. | Hence proposed Conclusion is right.\n| | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 4.\n\nAll x are m; No y are m. All x are y'.\n\n.---------------. .-------.\n|(O) | (O)| |(O)|(I)|\n| .---|---. | |---|---|\n| |(O)|(I)| | | | |\n|---|---|---|---| .-------.\n| |(O)| | |\n| .---|---. | Hence proposed Conclusion is right.\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n 5.\n\nSome m' are x'; No m' are y. Some x' are y'.\n\n.---------------. .-------.\n|(O) | | | | |\n| .---|---. | |---|---|\n| | | | | | |(I)|\n|---|---|---|---| .-------.\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. | Hence proposed Conclusion is right.\n|(O) | (I)|\n.---------------.\n\n 6.\n\nNo x' are m; All y are m'. All y are x.\n\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| |(O)| | |\n|(I)|---|---|---| There is no Conclusion.\n| |(O)|(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |\n.---------------.\n pg143\n 7.\n\nSome m' are x'; All y' are m'. Some x' are y'.\n\n.---------------.\n| | |\n| .---|---. |\n| | |(O)| |\n|---|---|---|(I)| There is no Conclusion.\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. |\n| (I) |\n.---------------.\n\n 8.\n\nNo m' are x'; All y' are m'. All y' are x.\n\n.---------------. .-------.\n| | (I)| | |(I)|\n| .---|---. | |---|---|\n| | |(O)| | | |(O)|\n|---|---|---|---| .-------.\n| | |(O)| |\n| .---|---. | Hence proposed Conclusion is right.\n|(O) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n 9.\n\nSome m are x'; No m are y. Some x' are y'.\n\n.---------------. .-------.\n| | | | | |\n| .---|---. | |---|---|\n| |(O)| | | | |(I)|\n|---|---|---|---| .-------.\n| |(O)|(I)| |\n| .---|---. | Hence proposed Conclusion is right.\n| | |\n.---------------.\n\n10.\n\nAll m' are x'; All m are y. Some y are x'.\n\n.---------------. .-------.\n|(O) | (O)| | | |\n| .---|---. | |---|---|\n| | | | | |(I)| |\n|---|---|---|---| .-------.\n| | | | |\n| .---|---. | Hence proposed Conclusion is right.\n|(I) | (O)|\n.---------------.\n\n pg144\n_Solutions for Sec. 7, Nos. 1-6._ SL7-A\n\n1.\n\nNo doctors are enthusiastic;\nYou are enthusiastic.\n You are not a doctor.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = enthusiastic; x = doctors; y = you.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n |(O) | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | |---|---|\n No x are m; | |(O)|(O)| | |(I)| |\n All y are m. |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n All y are x'. | |(I)| | |\n | .---|---. | .'. All y are x'.\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is right.\n\n2.\n\nAll dictionaries are useful;\nUseful books are valuable.\n Dictionaries are valuable.\n\nUniv. \"books\"; m = useful; x = dictionaries; y = valuable.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n |(O) | (O)| |(I)|(O)|\n | .---|---. | |---|---|\n All x are m; | |(I)|(O)| | | | |\n All m are y. |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n All x are y. | | |(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. All x are y.\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is right.\n\n3.\n\nNo misers are unselfish;\nNone but misers save egg-shells.\n No unselfish people save egg-shells.\n\nUniv. \"people\"; m = misers; x = selfish; y = people who save egg-shells.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n |(O) | | | | |\n | .---|---. | |---|---|\n No m are x'; | | | | | |(O)| |\n No m' are y. |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n No x' are y. | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. No x' are y.\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is right.\n pg145\n4.\n\nSome epicures are ungenerous;\nAll my uncles are generous.\n My uncles are not epicures.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = generous; x = epicures; y = my uncles.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n |(O) | (I)| | |(I)|\n | .---|---. | |---|---|\n Some x are m'. | | | | | | | |\n All y are m. |---|(I)|---|---| .-------.\n All y are x'. | | | | |\n | .---|---. | .'. Some x are y'.\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is wrong, the right one being \"Some epicures\nare not uncles of mine.\"\n\n5.\n\nGold is heavy;\nNothing but gold will silence him.\n Nothing light will silence him.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; m = gold; x = heavy; y = able to silence him.\n\n .---------------. .-------.\n |(O) | | | | |\n | .---|---. | |---|---|\n All m are x; | | (I) | | |(O)| |\n No m' are y. |---|---|---|---| .-------.\n No x' are y. | |(O)|(O)| |\n | .---|---. | .'. No x' are y.\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\nHence proposed Conclusion is right.\n\n6.\n\nSome healthy people are fat;\nNo unhealthy people are strong.\n Some fat people are not strong.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = healthy; x = fat; y = strong.\n\n .---------------.\n |(O) | |\n | .---|---. |\n Some m are x; | | (I) | |\n No m' are y. |---|---|---|---| There is no Conclusion.\n Some x are y'.| | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n |(O) | |\n .---------------.\n\n pg146\nSec. 3.\n\n_Method of Subscripts._\n\n\n_Solutions for Sec. 4._ SL4-B\n\n 1. mx'_{0} + m'_{1}y'_{0} > x'y'_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x' are y'.\"\n\n 2. m'x_{0} + m'y'_{1} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x' are y'.\"\n\n 3. m'_{1}x'_{0} + m'_{1}y_{0} > xy'_{1} [Fig. III.\n i.e. \"Some x are y'.\"\n\n 4. x'm'_{0} + y'_{1}m'_{0} > nothing.\n [Fallacy of Like Eliminands\n not asserted to exist.]\n\n 5. mx'_{1} + ym_{0} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x' are y'.\"\n\n 6. x'm_{0} + my_{0} > nothing.\n [Fallacy of Like Eliminands\n not asserted to exist.]\n\n 7. mx'_{0} + y'm_{1} > xy'_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x are y'.\"\n\n 8. m'_{1}x_{0} + m'y_{0} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. III.\n i.e. \"Some x' are y'.\"\n\n 9. x'm'_{1} + my_{0} > nothing.\n [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands\n with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n10. x_{1}m'_{0} + y'_{1}m_{0} > x_{1}y'_{0} + y'_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (b).\n i.e. \"All x are y, and all y' are x'.\"\n\n11. mx_{0} + y'_{1}m_{0} > nothing.1\n [Fallacy of Like Eliminands\n not asserted to exist.]\n\n12. xm_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > y_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n i.e. \"All y are x'.\"\n\n13. m'_{1}x'_{0} + ym_{0} > x'y_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x' are y.\"\n\n14. m_{1}x'_{0} + m'_{1}y'_{0} > x'y'_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x' are y'.\"\n\n15. xm_{0} + m'y_{0} > xy_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x are y.\"\n\n16. x_{1}m_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > (x_{1}y_{0} + y_{1}x_{0}) [Fig. I (b).\n i.e. \"All x are y' and all y are x'.\"\n\n17. xm_{0} + m'_{1}y'_{0} > xy'_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x are y'.\"\n\n18. xm'_{0} + my_{0} > xy_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x are y.\"\n\n19. m_{1}x'_{0} + m_{1}y_{0} > xy'_{1} [Fig. III.\n i.e. \"Some x are y'.\"\n\n20. mx_{0} + m'_{1}y'_{0} > xy'_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x are y'.\"\n\n21. x_{1}m'_{0} + m'y_{1} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x' are y.\"\n\n22. xm_{1} + y_{1}m'_{0} > nothing.\n [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands\n with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n23. m_{1}x'_{0} + ym_{1} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x are y.\"\n\n24. xm_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > y_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n i.e. \"All y are x'.\"\n\n25. mx'_{1} + my'_{0} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x' are y.\"\n\n26. mx'_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > y_{1}x'_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n i.e. \"All y are x.\"\n\n27. x_{1}m_{0} + y'_{1}m'_{0} > (x_{1}y'_{0} + y'_{1}x_{0}) [Fig. I (b).\n i.e. \"All x are y, and all y' are x'.\"\n\n28. m_{1}x_{0} + my_{1} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x' are y.\"\n\n29. mx_{0} + y_{1}m_{0} > nothing.\n [Fallacy of Like Eliminands\n not asserted to exist.]\n\n30. x_{1}m_{0} + ym_{1} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some y are x'.\"\n\n31. x_{1}m'_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > nothing.\n [Fallacy of Like Eliminands\n not asserted to exist.]\n pg147\n32. xm'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > xy'_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x are y'.\"\n\n33. mx_{0} + my_{0} > nothing.\n [Fallacy of Like Eliminands\n not asserted to exist.]\n\n34. mx'_{0} + ym_{1} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x are y.\"\n\n35. mx_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > y_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n i.e. \"All y are x'.\"\n\n36. m_{1}x_{0} + ym_{1} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x' are y.\"\n\n37. m_{1}x'_{0} + ym_{0} > xy'_{1} [Fig. III.\n i.e. \"Some x are y'.\"\n\n38. mx_{0} + m'y_{0} > xy_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x are y.\"\n\n39. mx'_{1} + my_{0} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. II.\n i.e. \"Some x' are y'.\"\n\n40. x'm_{0} + y'_{1}m'_{0} > y'_{1}x'_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n i.e. \"All y' are x.\"\n\n41. x_{1}m_{0} + ym'_{0} > x_{1}y_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n i.e. \"All x are y'.\"\n\n42. m'x_{0} + ym_{0} > xy_{0} [Fig. I.\n i.e. \"No x are y.\"\n\n\n_Solutions for Sec. 5, Nos. 13-24._ SL5-B\n\n13. No Frenchmen like plumpudding;\n All Englishmen like plumpudding.\n\nUniv. \"men\"; m = liking plumpudding; x = French; y = English.\n\n xm_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > y_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n\ni.e. Englishmen are not Frenchmen.\n\n14. No portrait of a lady, that makes her simper or scowl, is\n satisfactory;\n No photograph of a lady ever fails to make her simper or scowl.\n\nUniv. \"portraits of ladies\"; m = making the subject simper or scowl;\nx = satisfactory; y = photographic.\n\n mx_{0} + ym'_{0} > xy_{0} [Fig. I.\n\ni.e. No photograph of a lady is satisfactory.\n\n15. All pale people are phlegmatic;\n No one looks poetical unless he is pale.\n\nUniv. \"people\"; m = pale; x = phlegmatic; y = looking poetical.\n\n m_{1}x'_{0} + m'y_{0} > x'y_{0} [Fig. I.\n\ni.e. No one looks poetical unless he is phlegmatic.\n\n16. No old misers are cheerful;\n Some old misers are thin.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = old misers; x = cheerful; y = thin.\n\n mx_{0} + my_{1} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.\n\ni.e. Some thin persons are not cheerful.\n\n17. No one, who exercises self-control, fails to keep his temper;\n Some judges lose their tempers.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = keeping their tempers; x = exercising self-control;\ny = judges.\n\n xm'_{0} + ym'_{1} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.\n\ni.e. Some judges do not exercise self-control.\n pg148\n18. All pigs are fat;\n Nothing that is fed on barley-water is fat.\n\nUniv. is \"things\"; m = fat; x = pigs; y = fed on barley-water.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + ym_{0} > x_{1}y_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n\ni.e. Pigs are not fed on barley-water.\n\n19. All rabbits, that are not greedy, are black;\n No old rabbits are free from greediness.\n\nUniv. is \"rabbits\"; m = greedy; x = black; y = old.\n\n m'_{1}x'_{0} + ym'_{0} > xy'_{1} [Fig. III.\n\ni.e. Some black rabbits are not old.\n\n20. Some pictures are not first attempts;\n No first attempts are really good.\n\nUniv. is \"things\"; m = first attempts; x = pictures; y = really good.\n\n xm'_{1} + my_{0} > nothing.\n\n[Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n21. I never neglect important business;\n Your business is unimportant.\n\nUniv. is \"business\"; m = important; x = neglected by me; y = your.\n\n mx_{0} + y_{1}m_{0} > nothing.\n\n[Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n22. Some lessons are difficult;\n What is difficult needs attention.\n\nUniv. is \"things\"; m = difficult; x = lessons; y = needing attention.\n\n xm_{1} + m_{1}y'_{0} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.\n\ni.e. Some lessons need attention.\n\n23. All clever people are popular;\n All obliging people are popular.\n\nUniv. is \"people\"; m = popular; x = clever; y = obliging.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > nothing.\n\n[Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n24. Thoughtless people do mischief;\n No thoughtful person forgets a promise.\n\nUniv. is \"persons\"; m = thoughtful; x = mischievous; y = forgetful of\npromises.\n\n m'_{1}x'_{0} + my_{0} > x'y_{0}\n\ni.e. No one, who forgets a promise, fails to do mischief.\n\n\n_Solutions for Sec. 6._ SL6-B\n\n 1. xm_{1} + my'_{0} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.] Concl. right.\n\n 2. x_{1}m'_{0} + ym'_{0} Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n 3. xm'_{1} + y'_{1}m'_{0} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.] Concl. right.\n pg149\n 4. x_{1}m'_{0} + ym_{0} > x_{1}y_{0} [Fig. I (a).] Concl. right.\n\n 5. m'x'_{1} + m'y_{0} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. II.] \"\n\n 6. x'm_{0} + y_{1}m_{0} Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n 7. m'x'_{1} + y'_{1}m_{0} Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an\n Entity-Premiss.\n\n 8. m'x'_{0} + y'_{1}m_{0} > y'_{1}x'_{0} [Fig. I (a).] Concl. right.\n\n 9. mx'_{1} + my_{0} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. II.] \"\n\n10. m'_{1}x_{0} + m'_{1}y'_{0} > x'y_{1} [Fig. III.] \"\n\n11. x_{1}m_{0} + ym_{1} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.] \"\n\n12. xm_{0} + m'y'_{0} > xy'_{0} [Fig. I.] \"\n\n13. xm_{0} + y'_{1}m'_{0} > y'_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).] \"\n\n14. m'_{1}x_{0} + m'_{1}y'_{0} > x'y_{1} [Fig. III.] \"\n\n15. mx'_{1} + y_{1}m_{0} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. II.] \"\n\n16. x'm_{0} + y'_{1}m_{0} Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n17. m'x_{0} + m'_{1}y_{0} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. III.] Concl. right.\n\n18. x'm_{0} + my_{1} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.] \"\n\n19. mx'_{1} + m_{1}y'_{0} > x'y_{1} [ \" ] \"\n\n20. x'm'_{0} + m'y'_{1} > xy'_{1} [ \" ] \"\n\n21. mx_{0} + m_{1}y_{0} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. III.] \"\n\n22. x'_{1}m'_{0} + ym'_{1} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.] Concl. wrong:\n the right one is \"Some x are y.\"\n\n23. m_{1}x'_{0} + m'y'_{0} > x'y'_{0} [Fig. I.] Concl. right.\n\n24. x_{1}m_{0} + m'_{1}y'_{0} > x_{1}y'_{0} [Fig. I (a).] \"\n\n25. xm'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > xy'_{0} [Fig. I.] \"\n\n26. m_{1}x_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > y_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).] \"\n\n27. x_{1}m'_{0} + my'_{0} > x_{1}y'_{0} [ \" ] \"\n\n28. x_{1}m'_{0} + y'm'_{0} Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to\n exist.\n\n29. x'm_{0} + m'y'_{0} > x'y'_{0} [Fig. I.] Concl. right.\n\n30. x_{1}m'_{0} + m_{1}y_{0} > x_{1}y_{0} [Fig. I (a).] \"\n\n31. x'_{1}m_{0} + y'm'_{0} > x'_{1}y'_{0} [ \" ] \"\n\n32. xm_{0} + y'm'_{0} > xy'_{0} [Fig. I.] \"\n\n33. m_{1}x_{0} + y'_{1}m'_{0} > y'_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).] \"\n\n34. x_{1}m_{0} + ym'_{1} Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an\n Entity-Premiss.\n\n35. xm_{1} + m_{1}y'_{0} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.] Concl. right.\n\n36. m_{1}x_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > y_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).] \"\n\n37. mx'_{0} + m_{1}y_{0} > xy'_{1} [Fig. III.] \"\n\n38. xm_{0} + my'_{0} Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.\n\n39. mx_{0} + my'_{1} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. II.] Concl. right.\n\n40. mx'_{0} + ym_{1} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.] \"\n\n pg150\n_Solutions for Sec. 7._ SL7-B\n\n 1. No doctors are enthusiastic;\n You are enthusiastic.\n You are not a doctor.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = enthusiastic; x = doctors; y = you.\n\n xm_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > y_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n\nConclusion right.\n\n 2. Dictionaries are useful;\n Useful books are valuable.\n Dictionaries are valuable.\n\nUniv. \"books\"; m = useful; x = dictionaries; y = valuable.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > x_{1}y'_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n\nConclusion right.\n\n 3. No misers are unselfish;\n None but misers save egg-shells.\n No unselfish people save egg-shells.\n\nUniv. \"people\"; m = misers; x = selfish; y = people who save egg-shells.\n\n mx'_{0} + m'y_{0} > x'y_{0} [Fig. I.\n\nConclusion right.\n\n 4. Some epicures are ungenerous;\n All my uncles are generous.\n My uncles are not epicures.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = generous; x = epicures; y = my uncles.\n\n xm'_{1} + y_{1}m'_{0} > xy'_{1} [Fig. II.\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"Some epicures are not uncles of mine.\"\n\n 5. Gold is heavy;\n Nothing but gold will silence him.\n Nothing light will silence him.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; m = gold; x = heavy; y = able to silence him.\n\n m_{1}x'_{0} + m'y_{0} > x'y_{0} [Fig. I.\n\nConclusion right.\n\n 6. Some healthy people are fat;\n No unhealthy people are strong.\n Some fat people are not strong.\n\nUniv. \"people\"; m = healthy; x = fat; y = strong.\n\n mx_{1} + m'y_{0}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 7. I saw it in a newspaper;\n All newspapers tell lies.\n It was a lie.\n\nUniv. \"publications\"; m = newspapers; x = publications in which I saw\nit; y = telling lies.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > x_{1}y'_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"The publication, in which I saw it,\ntells lies.\"\n pg151\n 8. Some cravats are not artistic;\n I admire anything artistic.\n There are some cravats that I do not admire.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; m = artistic; x = cravats; y = things that I admire.\n\n xm_{1} + m_{1}y_{0}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n 9. His songs never last an hour.\n A song, that lasts an hour, is tedious.\n His songs are never tedious.\n\nUniv. \"songs\"; m = lasting an hour; x = his; y = tedious.\n\n x_{1}m_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > x'y_{1} [Fig. III.\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"Some tedious songs are not his.\"\n\n10. Some candles give very little light;\n Candles are meant to give light.\n Some things, that are meant to give light, give very little.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; m = candles; x = giving &c.; y = meant &c.\n\n mx_{1} + m_{1}y'_{0} > xy_{1} [Fig. II.\n\nConclusion right.\n\n11. All, who are anxious to learn, work hard.\n Some of these boys work hard.\n Some of these boys are anxious to learn.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = hard-working; x = anxious to learn; y = these boys.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + ym_{1}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n12. All lions are fierce;\n Some lions do not drink coffee.\n Some creatures that drink coffee are not fierce.\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; m = lions; x = fierce; y = creatures that drink\ncoffee.\n\n m_{1}x'_{0} + my'_{1} > xy'_{1} [Fig. II.\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"Some fierce creatures do not drink\ncoffee.\"\n\n13. No misers are generous;\n Some old men are ungenerous.\n Some old men are misers.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = generous; x = misers; y = old men.\n\n xm_{0} + ym'_{1}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n14. No fossil can be crossed in love;\n An oyster may be crossed in love.\n Oysters are not fossils.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; m = things that can be crossed in love; x = fossils;\ny = oysters.\n\n xm_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > y_{1}x_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n\nConclusion right.\n pg152\n15. All uneducated people are shallow;\n Students are all educated.\n No students are shallow.\n\nUniv. \"people\"; m = educated; x = shallow; y = students.\n\n m'_{1}x'_{0} + y_{1}m'_{0} > xy'_{1} [Fig. III.\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"Some shallow people are not students.\"\n\n16. All young lambs jump;\n No young animals are healthy, unless they jump.\n All young lambs are healthy.\n\nUniv. \"young animals\"; m = young animals that jump; x = lambs;\ny = healthy.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + m'y_{0}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n17. Ill-managed business is unprofitable;\n Railways are never ill-managed.\n All railways are profitable.\n\nUniv. \"business\"; m = ill-managed; x = profitable; y = railways.\n\n m_{1}x_{0} + y_{1}m_{0} > x'y'_{1} [Fig. III.\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"Some business, other than railways, is\nprofitable.\"\n\n18. No Professors are ignorant;\n All ignorant people are vain.\n No Professors are vain.\n\nUniv. \"people\"; m = ignorant; x = Professors; y = vain.\n\n xm_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > x'y_{1} [Fig. III.\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"Some vain persons are not Professors.\"\n\n19. A prudent man shuns hyaenas.\n No banker is imprudent.\n No banker fails to shun hyaenas.\n\nUniv. \"men\"; m = prudent; x = shunning hyaenas; y = bankers.\n\n m_{1}x'_{0} + ym'_{0} > x'y_{0} [Fig. I.\n\nConclusion right.\n\n20. All wasps are unfriendly;\n No puppies are unfriendly.\n No puppies are wasps.\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; m = friendly; x = wasps; y = puppies.\n\n x_{1}m_{0} + ym'_{0} > x_{1}y_{0} [Fig. I (a).\n\nConclusion incomplete: complete one is \"Wasps are not puppies\".\n\n21. No Jews are honest;\n Some Gentiles are rich.\n Some rich people are dishonest.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = Jews; x = honest; y = rich.\n\n mx_{0} + m'y_{1}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n pg153\n22. No idlers win fame;\n Some painters are not idle.\n Some painters win fame.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = idlers; x = persons who win fame; y = painters.\n\n mx_{0} + ym'_{1}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n23. No monkeys are soldiers;\n All monkeys are mischievous.\n Some mischievous creatures are not soldiers.\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; m = monkeys; x = soldiers; y = mischievous.\n\n mx_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > x'y_{1} [Fig. III.\n\nConclusion right.\n\n24. All these bonbons are chocolate-creams;\n All these bonbons are delicious.\n Chocolate-creams are delicious.\n\nUniv. \"food\"; m = these bonbons; x = chocolate-creams; y = delicious.\n\n m_{1}x'_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > xy_{1} [Fig. III.\n\nConclusion wrong, being in excess of the right one, which is \"Some\nchocolate-creams are delicious.\"\n\n25. No muffins are wholesome;\n All buns are unwholesome.\n Buns are not muffins.\n\nUniv. \"food\"; m = wholesome; x = muffins; y = buns.\n\n xm_{0} + y_{1}m_{0}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n26. Some unauthorised reports are false;\n All authorised reports are trustworthy.\n Some false reports are not trustworthy.\n\nUniv. \"reports\"; m = authorised; x = true; y = trustworthy.\n\n m'x'_{1} + m_{1}y'_{0}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n27. Some pillows are soft;\n No pokers are soft.\n Some pokers are not pillows.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; m = soft; x = pillows; y = pokers.\n\n xm_{1} + ym_{0} > xy'_{1} [Fig. II.\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"Some pillows are not pokers.\"\n\n28. Improbable stories are not easily believed;\n None of his stories are probable.\n None of his stories are easily believed.\n\nUniv. \"stories\"; m = probable; x = easily believed; y = his.\n\n m'_{1}x_{0} + ym_{0} > xy_{0} [Fig. I.\n\nConclusion right.\n pg154\n29. No thieves are honest;\n Some dishonest people are found out.\n Some thieves are found out.\n\nUniv. \"people\"; m = honest; x = thieves; y = found out.\n\n xm_{0} + m'y_{1}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n30. No muffins are wholesome;\n All puffy food is unwholesome.\n All muffins are puffy.\n\nUniv. is \"food\"; m = wholesome; x = muffins; y = puffy.\n\n xm_{0} + y_{1}m_{0}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n31. No birds, except peacocks, are proud of their tails;\n Some birds, that are proud of their tails, cannot sing.\n Some peacocks cannot sing.\n\nUniv. \"birds\"; m = proud of their tails; x = peacocks; y = birds that\ncannot sing.\n\n x'm_{0} + my'_{1} > xy'_{1} [Fig. II.\n\nConclusion right.\n\n32. Warmth relieves pain;\n Nothing, that does not relieve pain, is useful in toothache.\n Warmth is useful in toothache.\n\nUniv. \"applications\"; m = relieving pain; x = warmth; y = useful in\ntoothache.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + m'y_{0}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Like Eliminands not asserted to exist.]\n\n33. No bankrupts are rich;\n Some merchants are not bankrupts.\n Some merchants are rich.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = bankrupts; x = rich; y = merchants.\n\n mx_{0} + ym'_{1}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n34. Bores are dreaded;\n No bore is ever begged to prolong his visit.\n No one, who is dreaded, is ever begged to prolong his visit.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = bores; x = dreaded; y = begged to prolong their\nvisits.\n\n m_{1}x'_{0} + my_{0} > xy'_{1} [Fig. III.\n\nConclusion wrong: the right one is \"Some dreaded persons are not begged\nto prolong their visits.\"\n\n35. All wise men walk on their feet;\n All unwise men walk on their hands.\n No man walks on both.\n\nUniv. \"men\"; m = wise; x = walking on their feet; y = walking on their\nhands.\n\n m_{1}x'_{0} + m'_{1}y'_{0} > x'y'_{0} [Fig. I.\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"No man walks on neither.\"\n pg155\n36. No wheelbarrows are comfortable;\n No uncomfortable vehicles are popular.\n No wheelbarrows are popular.\n\nUniv. \"vehicles\"; m = comfortable; x = wheelbarrows; y = popular.\n\n xm_{0} + m'x_{0} > xy_{0} [Fig. I.\n\nConclusion right.\n\n37. No frogs are poetical;\n Some ducks are unpoetical.\n Some ducks are not frogs.\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; m = poetical; x = frogs; y = ducks.\n\n xm_{0} + ym'_{1}\n\nNo Conclusion. [Fallacy of Unlike Eliminands with an Entity-Premiss.]\n\n38. No emperors are dentists;\n All dentists are dreaded by children.\n No emperors are dreaded by children.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; m = dentists; x = emperors; y = dreaded by children.\n\n xm_{0} + m_{1}y'_{0} > x'y_{1} [Fig. III.\n\nConclusion wrong: right one is \"Some persons, dreaded by children, are\nnot emperors.\"\n\n39. Sugar is sweet;\n Salt is not sweet.\n Salt is not sugar.\n\nUniv. \"things\"; m = sweet; x = sugar; y = salt.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + y_{1}m_{0} > (x_{1}y_{0} + y_{1}x_{0}) [Fig. I (b).\n\nConclusion incomplete: omitted portion is \"Sugar is not salt.\"\n\n40. Every eagle can fly;\n Some pigs cannot fly.\n Some pigs are not eagles.\n\nUniv. \"creatures\"; m = creatures that can fly; x = eagles; y = pigs.\n\n x_{1}m'_{0} + ym'_{1} > x'y_{1} [Fig. II.\n\nConclusion right.\n\n\n_Solutions for Sec. 8._ SL8\n\n 1 2 3\n 1. cd_{0} + a_{1}d'_{0} + b_{1}c'_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\n cd + ad' + bc' > ab_{0} + a_{1} + b_{1}\n -- = =\n\n i.e. > a_{1}b_{0} + b_{1}a_{0}\n\n 1 2 3\n 2. d_{1}b'_{0} + ac'_{0} + bc_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\n db' + bc + ac' > da_{0} + d_{1} i.e. > d_{1}a_{0}\n - =- =\n\n 1 2 3\n 3. ba_{0} + cd'_{0} + d_{1}b'_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\n ba + db' + cd' > ac_{0}\n - -= =\n\n 1 2 3\n 4. bc_{0} + a_{1}b'_{0} + c'd_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\n bc + ab' + c'd > ad_{0} + a_{1} i.e. > a_{1}d_{0}\n -- = =\n pg156\n 1 2 3 1 2 3\n 5. b'_{1}a_{0} + bc_{0} + a'd_{0}; b'a + bc + a'd > cd_{0}\n - - = =\n\n 1 2 3\n 6. a_{1}b_{0} + b'c_{0} + d_{1}a'_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\n ab + b'c + da' > cd_{0} + d_{1} i.e. > d_{1}c_{0}\n -- = =\n\n 1 2 3 1 2 3\n 7. db'_{0} + b_{1}a'_{0} + cd'_{0}; db' + ba' + cd' > a'c_{0}\n -- = =\n\n 1 2 3\n 8. b'd_{0} + a'b_{0} + c_{1}d'_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\n b'd + a'b + cd' > a'c_{0} + c_{1} i.e. > c_{1}a'_{0}\n - - = =\n\n 1 2 3\n 9. b'_{1}a'_{0} + ad_{0} + b_{1}c'_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\n b'a' + ad + bc' > dc'_{0}\n - - = =\n\n 1 2 3\n10. cd_{0} + b_{1}c'_{0} + ad'_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\n cd + bc' + ad' > ba_{0} + b_{1} i.e. > b_{1}a_{0}\n -- = =\n\n 1 2 3\n11. bc_{0} + d_{1}a'_{0} + c'_{1}a_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\n bc + c'a + da' > bd_{0} + d_{1} i.e. > d_{1}b_{0}\n - = - =\n\n 1 2 3\n12. cb'_{0} + c'_{1}d_{0} + b_{1}a'_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\n cb' + c'd + ba' > da'_{0}\n -- = =\n\n 1 2 3 4\n13. d_{1}e'_{0} + c_{1}a'_{0} + bd'_{0} + e_{1}a_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\n de' + bd' + ea + ca' > bc_{0} + c_{1} i.e. > c_{1}b_{0}\n -- = =- =\n\n 1 2 3 4\n14. c_{1}b'_{0} + a_{1}e'_{0} + d_{1}b_{0} + a'_{1}c'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\n cb' + db + a'c' + ae' > de'_{0} + d_{1} i.e. > d_{1}e'_{0}\n -- = - = =\n\n 1 2 3 4\n15. b'd_{0} + e_{1}c'_{0} + b_{1}a'_{0} + d'_{1}c_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\n b'd + ba' + d'c + ec' > a'e_{0} + e_{1} i.e. > e_{1}a'_{0}\n - - = = - =\n\n 1 2 3 4\n16. a'e_{0} + d_{1}c_{0} + a_{1}b'_{0} + e'_{1}d'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\n a'e + ab' + e'd' + dc > b'c_{0}\n - - = = - =\n\n 1 2 3 4\n17. d_{1}c'_{0} + a_{1}e'_{0} + bd'_{0} + c_{1}e_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\n dc' + bd' + ce + ae' > ba_{0} + a_{1} i.e. > a_{1}b_{0}\n -- = =- =\n\n 1 2 3 4\n18. a_{1}b'_{0} + d_{1}e'_{0} + a'_{1}c_{0} + be_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\n ab' + a'c + be + de' > cd_{0} + d_{1} i.e. > d_{1}c_{0}\n -- = =- =\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n19. bc_{0} + e_{1}h'_{0} + a_{1}b'_{0} + dh_{0} + e'_{1}c'_{0};\n\n 1 3 5 2 4\n bc + ab' + e'c' + eh' + dh > ad_{0} + a_{1}\n -- = - = =- =\n\n i.e. > a_{1}d_{0}\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n20. dh'_{0} + ce_{0} + h_{1}b'_{0} + ad'_{0} + be'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 5 2\n dh' + hb' + ad' + be' + ce > ac_{0}\n -- =- = =- =\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n21. b_{1}a'_{0} + dh_{0} + ce_{0} + ah'_{0} + c'_{1}b'_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 5 3\n ba' + ah' + dh + c'b' + ce > de_{0}\n -- =- = - = =\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n22. e_{1}d_{0} + b'h'_{0} + c'_{1}d'_{0} + a_{1}e'_{0} + ch_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 5 2\n ed + c'd' + ae' + ch + b'h' > ab'_{0} + a_{1}\n -- - = = =- =\n\n i.e. > a_{1}b_{0}\n pg157\n 1 2 3 4 5\n23. b'_{1}a_{0} + de'_{0} + h_{1}b_{0} + ce_{0} + d'_{1}a'_{0};\n\n 1 3 5 2 4\n b'a + hb + d'a' + de' + ce\n - - = - = =- =\n\n > hc_{0} + h_{1} i.e. > h_{1}c_{0}\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\n24. h'_{1}k_{0} + b'a_{0} + c_{1}d'_{0} + e_{1}h_{0} + dk'_{0} + bc'_{0};\n\n 1 4 5 3 6 2\n h'k + eh + dk' + cd' + bc' + b'a > ea_{0} + e_{1}\n - - = -= -= -= =\n\n i.e. > e_{1}a_{0}\n\n 1 2 3 4\n25. a_{1}d'_{0} + k_{1}b'_{0} + e_{1}h'_{0} + a'b_{0}\n\n 5 6\n + d_{1}c'_{0} + h_{1}k'_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 5 6 3\n ad' + a'b + kb' + dc' + hk' + eh' > c'e_{0} + e_{1}\n -- = - -= = -= =\n\n i.e. > e_{1}c'_{0}\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n26. a'_{1}h'_{0} + d'k'_{0} + e_{1}b_{0} + hk_{0} + a_{1}c'_{0}\n 6\n + b'd_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 5 6 3\n a'h' + hk + d'k' + ac' + b'd + eb > c'e_{0} + e_{1}\n - - =- - = = - = =\n\n i.e. > e_{1}c'_{0}\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n27. e_{1}d_{0} + hb_{0} + a'_{1}k'_{0} + ce'_{0} + b'_{1}d'_{0}\n\n 6\n + ac'_{0};\n\n 1 4 5 2 6 3\n ed + ce' + b'd' + hb + ac' + a'k' > hk'_{0}\n -- -= - = = -= =\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n28. a'k_{0} + e_{1}b'_{0} + hk'_{0} + d'c_{0} + ab_{0}\n\n 6\n + c'_{1}h'_{0};\n\n 1 3 5 2 6 4\n a'k + hk' + ab + eb' + c'h' + d'c > ed'_{0} + e_{1}\n - - -= =- = - = =\n\n i.e. > e_{1}d'_{0}\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n29. ek_{0} + b'm_{0} + ac'_{0} + h'_{1}e'_{0} + d_{1}k'_{0}\n\n 6 7 8\n + cb_{0} + d'_{1}l'_{0} + hm'_{0};\n\n 1 4 5 7 8 2 6 3\n ek + h'e' + dk' + d'l' + hm' + b'm + cb + ac'\n -- - = -= = =- - = -= =\n\n > l'a_{0}\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\n30. n_{1}m'_{0} + a'_{1}e'_{0} + c'l_{0} + k_{1}r_{0} + ah'_{0}\n\n 6 7 8 9 10\n + dl'_{0} + cn'_{0} + e_{1}b'_{0} + m_{1}r'_{0} + h_{1}d'_{0};\n\n 1 7 3 6 9 4 10 5 2 8\n nm' + cn' + c'l + dl' + mr' + kr + hd' + ah' + a'e' + eb'\n -- -= = - -= =- = -= -= = - =\n\n > kb'_{0} + k_{1} i.e. > k_{1}b'_{0}\n\n\n_Solutions for Sec. 9._ SL9\n\n 1.\n\n 1 2 3\nb_{1}d_{0} + ac_{0} + d'_{1}c'_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\nbd + d'c' + ac > ba_{0} + b_{1}, i.e. > b_{1}a_{0}\n - = - =\n\ni.e. Babies cannot manage crocodiles.\n\n 2.\n\n 1 2 3\na_{1}b'_{0} + d_{1}c'_{0} + bc_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\nab' + bc + dc' > ad_{0} + d_{1}, i.e. > d_{1}a_{0}\n - =- =\n\ni.e. _Your_ presents to me are not made of tin.\n pg158\n 3.\n\n 1 2 3\nda_{0} + c_{1}b'_{0} + a'b_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\nda + a'b + cb' > dc_{0} + c_{1}, i.e. > c_{1}d_{0}\n - = - =\n\ni.e. All my potatoes in this dish are old ones.\n\n 4.\n\n 1 2 3\nba_{0} + b'd_{0} + c_{1}a'_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\nba + b'd + ca' > dc_{0} + c_{1}, i.e. > c_{1}d_{0}\n-- = =\n\ni.e. My servants never say \"shpoonj.\"\n\n 5.\n\n 1 2 3\nad_{0} + cd'_{0} + b_{1}a'_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\nad + cd' + ba' > cb_{0} + b_{1}, i.e. > b_{1}c_{0}\n-- = =\n\ni.e. My poultry are not officers.\n\n 6.\n\n 1 2 3 1 2 3\nc_{1}a'_{0} + c'b_{0} + da_{0}; ca' + c'b + da > bd_{0}\n -- = =\n\ni.e. None of your sons are fit to serve on a jury.\n\n 7.\n\n 1 2 3 1 3 2\ncb_{0} + da_{0} + b'_{1}a'_{0}; cb + b'a' + da > cd_{0}\n - = - =\n\ni.e. No pencils of mine are sugarplums.\n\n 8.\n\n 1 2 3\ncb'_{0} + d_{1}a'_{0} + ba_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\ncb' + ba + da' > cd_{0} + d_{1}, i.e. > d_{1}c_{0}\n - =- =\n\ni.e. Jenkins is inexperienced.\n\n 9.\n\n 1 2 3 1 2 3\ncd_{0} + d'a_{0} + c'b_{0}; cd + d'a + c'b > ab_{0}\n -- = =\n\ni.e. No comet has a curly tail.\n\n10.\n\n 1 2 3 1 3 2\nd'c_{0} + ba_{0} + a'_{1}d_{0}; d'c + a'd + ba > cb_{0}\n - - = =\n\ni.e. No hedgehog takes in the _Times_.\n\n11.\n\n 1 2 3\nb_{1}a'_{0} + c_{1}b'_{0} + ad_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\nba' + cb' + ad > cd_{0} + c_{1}, i.e. > c_{1}d_{0}\n-- = =\n\ni.e. This dish is unwholesome.\n\n12.\n\n 1 2 3\nb_{1}c'_{0} + d'a_{0} + a'c_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\nbc' + a'c + d'a > bd'_{0} + b_{1}, i.e. > b_{1}d'_{0}\n - - = =\n\ni.e. My gardener is very old.\n\n13.\n\n 1 2 3\na_{1}d'_{0} + bc_{0} + c'_{1}d_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\nad' + c'd + bc > ab_{0} + a_{1}, i.e. > a_{1}b_{0}\n - - = =\n\ni.e. All humming-birds are small.\n pg159\n14.\n\n 1 2 3 1 3 2\nc'b_{0} + a_{1}d'_{0} + ca'_{0}; c'b + ca' + ad' > bd'_{0}\n - =- =\n\ni.e. No one with a hooked nose ever fails to make money.\n\n15.\n\n 1 2 3 1 2 3\nb_{1}a'_{0} + b'_{1}d_{0} + ca_{0}; ba' + b'd + ca > dc_{0}\n -- = =\n\ni.e. No gray ducks in this village wear lace collars.\n\n16.\n\n 1 2 3 1 2 3\nd_{1}b'_{0} + cd'_{0} + ba_{0}; db' + cd' + ba > ca_{0}\n -- = =\n\ni.e. No jug in this cupboard will hold water.\n\n17.\n\n 1 2 3\nb'_{1}d_{0} + c_{1}d'_{0} + ab_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\nb'd + cd' + ab > ca_{0} + c_{1}, i.e. > c_{1}a_{0}\n- - = =\n\ni.e. These apples were grown in the sun.\n\n18.\n\n 1 2 3\nd'_{1}b'_{0} + c_{1}b_{0} + c'a_{0};\n\n 1 2 3\nd'b' + cb + c'a > d'a_{0} + d'_{1}, i.e. > d'_{1}a_{0}\n - -= =\n\ni.e. Puppies, that will not lie still, never care to do worsted-work.\n\n19.\n\n 1 2 3 1 3 2\nbd'_{0} + a_{1}c'_{0} + a'd_{0}; bd' + a'd + ac' > bc'_{0}\n - - = =\n\ni.e. No name in this list is unmelodious.\n\n20.\n\n 1 2 3 1 3 2\na_{1}b'_{0} + dc_{0} + a'_{1}d'_{0}; ab' + a'd' + dc > b'c_{0}\n - = - =\n\ni.e. No M.P. should ride in a donkey-race, unless he has perfect\nself-command.\n\n21.\n\n 1 2 3 1 3 2\nbd_{0} + c'a_{0} + b'c_{0}; bd + b'c + c'a > da_{0}\n - = - =\n\ni.e. No goods in this shop, that are still on sale, may be carried away.\n\n22.\n\n 1 2 3 1 3 2\na'b_{0} + cd_{0} + d'a_{0}; a'b + d'a + cd > bc_{0}\n - - = =\n\ni.e. No acrobatic feat, which involves turning a quadruple somersault,\nis ever attempted in a circus.\n\n23.\n\n 1 2 3\ndc'_{0} + a_{1}b'_{0} + bc_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\ndc' + bc + ab' > da_{0} + a_{1}, i.e. > a_{1}d_{0}\n - -= =\n\ni.e. Guinea-pigs never really appreciate Beethoven.\n pg160\n24.\n\n 1 2 3 1 3 2\na_{1}d'_{0} + b'_{1}c_{0} + ba'_{0}; ad' + ba' + b'c > d'c_{0}\n - -= =\n\ni.e. No scentless flowers please me.\n\n25.\n\n 1 2 3\nc_{1}d'_{0} + ba'_{0} + d_{1}a_{0};\n\n 1 3 2\ncd' + da + ba' > cb_{0} + c_{1}, i.e. > c_{1}b_{0}\n - =- =\n\ni.e. Showy talkers are not really well-informed.\n\n26.\n\n 1 2 3 4\nea_{0} + b_{1}d'_{0} + a'_{1}c_{0} + e'b'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\nea + a'c + e'b' + bd' > cd'_{0}\n-- = = - =\n\ni.e. None but red-haired boys learn Greek in this school.\n\n27.\n\n 1 2 3 4\nb_{1}d_{0} + ac'_{0} + e_{1}d'_{0} + c_{1}b'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\nbd + ed' + cb' + ac' > ea_{0} + e_{1}, i.e. > e_{1}a_{0}\n-- = -= =\n\ni.e. Wedding-cake always disagrees with me.\n\n28.\n\n 1 2 3 4\nad_{0} + e'_{1}b'_{0} + c_{1}d'_{0} + e_{1}a'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\nad + cd' + ea' + e'b' > cb'_{0} + c_{1}, i.e. > c_{1}b'_{0}\n-- = -= =\n\ni.e. Discussions, that go on while Tomkins is in the chair, endanger the\npeacefulness of our Debating-Club.\n\n29.\n\n 1 2 3 4\nd_{1}a_{0} + e'c_{0} + b_{1}a'_{0} + d'e_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\nda + ba' + d'e + e'c > bc_{0} + b_{1}, i.e. > b_{1}c_{0}\n-- = = - =\n\ni.e. All gluttons in my family are unhealthy.\n\n30.\n\n 1 2 3 4\nd_{1}e_{0} + c'a_{0} + b_{1}e'_{0} + c_{1}d'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\nde + be' + cd' + c'a > ba_{0} + b_{1}, i.e. > b_{1}a_{0}\n-- = -= =\n\ni.e. An egg of the Great Auk is not to be had for a song.\n\n31.\n\n 1 2 3 4\nd'b_{0} + a_{1}c'_{0} + c_{1}e'_{0} + a'd_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 3\nd'b + a'd + ac' + ce' > be'_{0}\n- - = =- =\n\ni.e. No books sold here have gilt edges unless they are priced at 5s.\nand upwards.\n\n32.\n\n 1 2 3 4\na'_{1}c'_{0} + d_{1}b_{0} + a_{1}e'_{0} + c_{1}b'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\na'c' + ae' + cb' + db > e'd_{0} + d_{1}, i.e. > d_{1}e'_{0}\n- - = =- =\n\ni.e. When you cut your finger, you will find Tincture of Calendula\nuseful.\n\n33.\n\n 1 2 3 4\nd'b_{0} + a_{1}e'_{0} + ec_{0} + d_{1}a'_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 3\nd'b + da' + ae' + ec > bc_{0}\n- =- =- =\n\ni.e. _I_ have never come across a mermaid at sea.\n pg161\n34.\n\n 1 2 3 4\nc'_{1}b_{0} + a_{1}e'_{0} + d_{1}b'_{0} + a'_{1}c_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\nc'b + db' + a'c + ae' > de'_{0} + d_{1}, i.e. > d_{1}e'_{0}\n- - = - = =\n\ni.e. All the romances in this library are well-written.\n\n35.\n\n 1 2 3 4\ne'd_{0} + c'a_{0} + eb_{0} + d'c_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\ne'd + eb + d'c + c'a > ba_{0}\n- - = = - =\n\ni.e. No bird in this aviary lives on mince-pies.\n\n36.\n\n 1 2 3 4\nd'_{1}c'_{0} + e_{1}a'_{0} + c_{1}b_{0} + e'd_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 2\nd'c' + cb + e'd + ea' > ba'_{0}\n- - = - = =\n\ni.e. No plum-pudding, that has not been boiled in a cloth, can be\ndistinguished from soup.\n\n37.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nce'_{0} + b'a'_{0} + h_{1}d'_{0} + ae_{0} + bd_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 5 3\nce' + ae + b'a' + bd + hd' > ch_{0} + h_{1}, i.e. > h_{1}c_{0}\n - -= - = =- =\n\ni.e. All _your_ poems are uninteresting.\n\n38.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nb'_{1}a'_{0} + db_{0} + he'_{0} + ec_{0} + a_{1}h'_{0};\n\n 1 2 5 3 4\nb'a' + db + ah' + he' + ec > dc_{0}\n- - = =- =- =\n\ni.e. None of my peaches have been grown in a hothouse.\n\n39.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nc_{1}d_{0} + h_{1}e'_{0} + c'_{1}a'_{0} + h'b_{0} + e_{1}d'_{0};\n\n 1 3 5 2 4\ncd + c'a' + ed' + he' + h'b > a'b_{0}\n-- = -= -= =\n\ni.e. No pawnbroker is dishonest.\n\n40.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nbd'_{0} + c'h_{0} + e_{1}b'_{0} + da_{0} + e'c_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 5 2\nbd' + eb' + da + e'c + c'h > ah_{0}\n-- -= = = - =\n\ni.e. No kitten with green eyes will play with a gorilla.\n\n41.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nc_{1}a'_{0} + h'b_{0} + ae_{0} + d_{1}c'_{0} + h_{1}e'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 5 2\nca' + ae + dc' + he' + h'b > db_{0} + d_{1}, i.e. > d_{1}b_{0}\n-- =- = -= =\n\ni.e. All _my_ friends in this College dine at the lower table.\n\n42.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nca_{0} + h_{1}d'_{0} + c'_{1}e'_{0} + b'a'_{0} + d_{1}e_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 5 2\nca + c'e' + b'a' + de + hd' > b'h_{0} + h_{1},\n-- = - = -= =\n\ni.e. > h_{1}b'_{0}\n\ni.e. My writing-desk is full of live scorpions.\n\n43.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nb'_{1}e_{0} + ah_{0} + dc_{0} + e'_{1}a'_{0} + bc'_{0}\n\n 1 4 2 5 3\nb'e + e'a' + ah + bc' + dc > hd_{0}\n- - = - = =- =\n\ni.e. No Mandarin ever reads Hogg's poems.\n pg162\n44.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\ne_{1}b'_{0} + a'd_{0} + c_{1}h'_{0} + e'a_{0} + d'h_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 5 3\neb' + e'a + a'd + d'h + ch' > b'c_{0} + c_{1},\n- = - = - = - =\n\ni.e. > c_{1}b'_{0}\n\ni.e. Shakespeare was clever.\n\n45.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\ne'_{1}c'_{0} + hb'_{0} + d_{1}a_{0} + e_{1}a'_{0} + c_{1}b_{0};\n\n 1 4 3 5 2\ne'c' + ea' + da + cb + hb' > dh_{0} + d_{1}, i.e. > d_{1}h_{0}\n- - =- = =- =\n\ni.e. Rainbows are not worth writing odes to.\n\n46.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nc'_{1}h'_{0} + e_{1}a_{0} + bd_{0} + a'_{1}h_{0} + d'c_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 5 3\nc'h' + a'h + ea + d'c + bd > eb_{0} + e_{1}, i.e. > e_{1}b_{0}\n- - - = = - = =\n\ni.e. These Sorites-examples are difficult.\n\n47.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\na'_{1}e'_{0} + bk_{0} + c'a_{0} + eh'_{0} + d_{1}b'_{0} + k'h_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 6 2 5\na'e' + c'a + eh' + k'h + bk + db' > c'd_{0} + d_{1},\n- - = =- - = -= =\n\ni.e. > d_{1}c'_{0}\n\ni.e. All my dreams come true.\n\n48.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\na'h_{0} + c'k_{0} + a_{1}d'_{0} + e_{1}h'_{0} + b_{1}k'_{0} + c_{1}e'_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 6 2 5\na'h + ad' + eh' + ce' + c'k + bk' > d'b_{0} + b_{1},\n- - = -= -= = - =\n\ni.e. > b_{1}d'_{0}\n\ni.e. All the English pictures here are painted in oils.\n\n49.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\nk'_{1}e_{0} + c_{1}h_{0} + b_{1}a'_{0} + kd_{0} + h'a_{0} + b'_{1}e'_{0};\n\n 1 4 6 3 5 2\nk'e + kd + b'e' + ba' + h'a + ch > dc_{0} + c_{1},\n- - = - = =- - = =\n\ni.e. > c_{1}d_{0}\n\ni.e. Donkeys are not easy to swallow.\n\n50.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\nab'_{0} + h'd_{0} + e_{1}c_{0} + b_{1}d'_{0} + a'k_{0} + c'_{1}h_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 5 6 3\nab' + bd' + h'd + a'k + c'h + ec > ke_{0} + e_{1},\n-- =- - = = - = =\n\ni.e. > e_{1}k_{0}\n\ni.e. Opium-eaters never wear white kid gloves.\n\n51.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\nbc_{0} + k_{1}a'_{0} + eh_{0} + d_{1}b'_{0} + h'c'_{0} + k'_{1}e'_{0};\n\n 1 4 5 3 6 2\nbc + db' + h'c' + eh + k'e' + ka' > da'_{0} + d_{1},\n-- = - = -= - = =\n\ni.e. > d_{1}a'_{0}\n\ni.e. A good husband always comes home for his tea.\n\n52.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\na'_{1}k'_{0} + ch_{0} + h'k_{0} + b_{1}d'_{0} + ea_{0} + d_{1}c'_{0}\n\n 1 3 2 6 4 5\na'k' + h'k + ch + dc' + bd' + ea > be_{0} + b_{1},\n- - - = -= -= = =\n\ni.e. > b_{1}e_{0}\n\ni.e. Bathing-machines are never made of mother-of-pearl.\n pg163\n53.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nda'_{0} + k_{1}b'_{0} + c_{1}h_{0} + d'_{1}k'_{0} + e_{1}c'_{0}\n\n 6\n+ a_{1}h'_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 6 3 5\nda' + d'k' + kb' + ah' + ch + ec'\n-- = - = =- -= =\n\n> b'e_{0} + e_{1}, i.e. > e_{1}b'_{0}\n\ni.e. Rainy days are always cloudy.\n\n54.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\nkb'_{0} + a'_{1}c'_{0} + d'b_{0} + k'_{1}h'_{0} + ea_{0} + d_{1}c_{0};\n\n 1 3 4 6 2 5\nkb' + d'b + k'h' + dc + a'c' + ea\n-- - = = =- - = =\n\n> h'e_{0}\n\ni.e. No heavy fish is unkind to children.\n\n55.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\nk'_{1}b'_{0} + eh'_{0} + c'd_{0} + hb_{0} + ac_{0} + kd'_{0};\n\n 1 4 2 6 3 5\nk'b' + hb + eh' + kd' + c'd + ac > ea_{0}\n- - -= = =- - = =\n\ni.e. No engine-driver lives on barley-sugar.\n\n56.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5\nh_{1}b'_{0} + c_{1}d'_{0} + k'a_{0} + e_{1}h'_{0} + b_{1}a'_{0}\n\n 6\n+ k_{1}c'_{0};\n\n 1 4 5 3 6 2\nhb' + eh' + ba' + k'a + kc' + cd'\n-- = =- - = =- =\n\n> ed'_{0} + e_{1}, i.e. > e_{1}d'_{0}\n\ni.e. All the animals in the yard gnaw bones.\n\n57.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\nh'_{1}d'_{0} + e_{1}c'_{0} + k'a_{0} + cb_{0} + d_{1}l'_{0} + e'h_{0}\n\n 7\n+ kl_{0};\n\n 1 5 7 3 6 2 4\nh'd' + dl' + kl + k'a + e'h + ec' + cb > ab_{0}\n- - =- -= = - = =- =\n\ni.e. No badger can guess a conundrum.\n\n58.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\nb'h_{0} + d'_{1}l'_{0} + ca_{0} + d_{1}k'_{0} + h'_{1}e'_{0} + mc'_{0}\n\n 7 8\n+ a'b_{0} + ek_{0};\n\n 1 5 7 3 6 8 4 2\nb'h + h'e' + a'b + ca + mc' + ek + dk' + d'l' > ml'_{0}\n- - = - - = -= = =- -= =\n\ni.e. No cheque of yours, received by me, is payable to order.\n\n59.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\nc_{1}l'_{0} + h'e_{0} + kd_{0} + mc'_{0} + b'_{1}e'_{0} + n_{1}a'_{0}\n\n 7 8 9\n+ l_{1}d'_{0} + m'b_{0} + ah_{0};\n\n 1 4 7 3 8 5 2 9 6\ncl' + mc' + ld' + kd + m'b + b'e' + h'e + ah + na'\n-- -= =- = = - = - - = -= =\n\n> kn_{0}\n\ni.e. I cannot read any of Brown's letters.\n\n60.\n\n 1 2 3 4 5 6\ne_{1}c'_{0} + l_{1}n'_{0} + d_{1}a'_{0} + m'b_{0} + ck'_{0} + e'r_{0}\n\n 7 8 9 10\n+ h_{1}n_{0} + b'k_{0} + r'_{1}d'_{0} + m_{1}l'_{0};\n\n 1 5 6 8 4 9 3 10 2 7\nec' + ck' + e'r + b'k + m'b + r'd' + da' + ml' + ln' + hn\n-- =- = - - = - = = - = =- =- =\n\n> a'h_{0} + h_{1}, i.e. > h_{1}a'_{0}\n\ni.e. I always avoid a kangaroo.\n\n pg164\n\n\nNOTES.\n\n(A) [See p. 80].\n\n\nOne of the favourite objections, brought against the Science of Logic by\nits detractors, is that a Syllogism has no real validity as an argument,\nsince it involves the Fallacy of _Petitio Principii_ (i.e. \"Begging the\nQuestion\", the essence of which is that the whole Conclusion is involved\nin _one_ of the Premisses).\n\nThis formidable objection is refuted, with beautiful clearness and\nsimplicity, by these three Diagrams, which show us that, in each of the\nthree Figures, the Conclusion is really involved in the _two_ Premisses\ntaken together, each contributing its share.\n\nThus, in Fig. I., the Premiss xm_{0} empties the _Inner_ Cell of the\nN.W. Quarter, while the Premiss ym_{0} empties its _Outer_ Cell. Hence\nit needs the _two_ Premisses to empty the _whole_ of the N.W. Quarter,\nand thus to prove the Conclusion xy_{0}.\n\nAgain, in Fig. II., the Premiss xm_{0} empties the Inner Cell of the\nN.W. Quarter. The Premiss ym_{1} merely tells us that the Inner Portion\nof the W. Half is _occupied_, so that we may place a 'I' in it,\n_somewhere_; but, if this were the _whole_ of our information, we should\nnot know in _which_ Cell to place it, so that it would have to 'sit on\nthe fence': it is only when we learn, from the other Premiss, that the\n_upper_ of these two Cells is _empty_, that we feel authorised to place\nthe 'I' in the _lower_ Cell, and thus to prove the Conclusion x'y_{1}.\n\nLastly, in Fig. III., the information, that m _exists_, merely\nauthorises us to place a 'I' _somewhere_ in the Inner Square----but it\nhas large choice of fences to sit upon! It needs the Premiss xm_{0} to\ndrive it out of the N. Half of that Square; and it needs the Premiss\nym_{0} to drive it out of the W. Half. Hence it needs the _two_\nPremisses to drive it into the Inner Portion of the S.E. Quarter, and\nthus to prove the Conclusion x'y'_{1}.\n\n pg165\n\n\nAPPENDIX,\n\nADDRESSED TO TEACHERS.\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Introductory._\n\n\nThere are several matters, too hard to discuss with _Learners_, which\nnevertheless need to be explained to any _Teachers_, into whose hands\nthis book may fall, in order that they may thoroughly understand what my\nSymbolic Method _is_, and in what respects it differs from the many\nother Methods already published.\n\nThese matters are as follows:--\n\n The \"Existential Import\" of Propositions.\n The use of \"is-not\" (or \"are-not\") as a Copula.\n The theory \"two Negative Premisses prove nothing.\"\n Euler's Method of Diagrams.\n Venn's Method of Diagrams.\n My Method of Diagrams.\n The Solution of a Syllogism by various Methods.\n My Method of treating Syllogisms and Sorites.\n Some account of Parts II, III.\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_The \"Existential Import\" of Propositions._\n\n\nThe writers, and editors, of the Logical text-books which run in the\nordinary grooves----to whom I shall hereafter refer by the (I hope\ninoffensive) title \"The Logicians\"----take, on this subject, what seems\nto me to be a more humble position than is at all necessary. They speak\nof the Copula of a Proposition \"with bated breath\", almost as if it were\na living, conscious Entity, capable of declaring for itself what it\nchose to mean, and that we, poor human creatures, had nothing to do but\nto ascertain _what_ was its sovereign will and pleasure, and submit to\nit.\n pg166\nIn opposition to this view, I maintain that any writer of a book is\nfully authorised in attaching any meaning he likes to any word or phrase\nhe intends to use. If I find an author saying, at the beginning of his\nbook, \"Let it be understood that by the word '_black_' I shall always\nmean '_white_', and that by the word '_white_' I shall always mean\n'_black_',\" I meekly accept his ruling, however injudicious I may think\nit.\n\nAnd so, with regard to the question whether a Proposition is or is not\nto be understood as asserting the existence of its Subject, I maintain\nthat every writer may adopt his own rule, provided of course that it is\nconsistent with itself and with the accepted facts of Logic.\n\nLet us consider certain views that may _logically_ be held, and thus\nsettle which of them may _conveniently_ be held; after which I shall\nhold myself free to declare which of them _I_ intend to hold.\n\nThe _kinds_ of Propositions, to be considered, are those that begin with\n\"some\", with \"no\", and with \"all\". These are usually called Propositions\n\"in _I_\", \"in _E_\", and \"in _A_\".\n\nFirst, then, a Proposition in _I_ may be understood as asserting, or\nelse as _not_ asserting, the existence of its Subject. (By \"existence\" I\nmean of course whatever kind of existence suits its nature. The two\nPropositions, \"_dreams_ exist\" and \"_drums_ exist\", denote two totally\ndifferent kinds of \"existence\". A _dream_ is an aggregate of ideas, and\nexists only in the _mind of a dreamer_: whereas a _drum_ is an aggregate\nof wood and parchment, and exists in _the hands of a drummer_.)\n\nFirst, let us suppose that _I_ \"asserts\" (i.e. \"asserts the existence of\nits Subject\").\n\nHere, of course, we must regard a Proposition in _A_ as making the\n_same_ assertion, since it necessarily _contains_ a Proposition in _I_.\n\nWe now have _I_ and _A_ \"asserting\". Does this leave us free to make\nwhat supposition we choose as to _E_? My answer is \"No. We are tied down\nto the supposition that _E_ does _not_ assert.\" This can be proved as\nfollows:--\n\nIf possible, let _E_ \"assert\". Then (taking x, y, and z to represent\nAttributes) we see that, if the Proposition \"No xy are z\" be true, some\nthings exist with the Attributes x and y: i.e. \"Some x are y.\"\n pg167\nAlso we know that, if the Proposition \"Some xy are z\" be true, the same\nresult follows.\n\nBut these two Propositions are Contradictories, so that one or other of\nthem _must_ be true. Hence this result is _always_ true: i.e. the\nProposition \"Some x are y\" is _always_ true!\n\n_Quod est absurdum._ (See Note (A), p. 195).\n\nWe see, then, that the supposition \"_I_ asserts\" necessarily leads to\n\"_A_ asserts, but _E_ does not\". And this is the _first_ of the various\nviews that may conceivably be held.\n\nNext, let us suppose that _I_ does _not_ \"assert.\" And, along with this,\nlet us take the supposition that _E_ _does_ \"assert.\"\n\nHence the Proposition \"No x are y\" means \"Some x exist, and none of them\nare y\": i.e. \"_all_ of them are _not_-y,\" which is a Proposition in _A_.\nWe also know, of course, that the Proposition \"All x are not-y\" proves\n\"No x are y.\" Now two Propositions, each of which proves the other, are\n_equivalent_. Hence every Proposition in _A_ is equivalent to one in\n_E_, and therefore \"_asserts_\".\n\nHence our _second_ conceivable view is \"_E_ and _A_ assert, but _I_ does\nnot.\"\n\nThis view does not seen to involve any necessary contradiction with\nitself or with the accepted facts of Logic. But, when we come to _test_\nit, as applied to the actual _facts_ of life, we shall find I think,\nthat it fits in with them so badly that its adoption would be, to say\nthe least of it, singularly inconvenient for ordinary folk.\n\nLet me record a little dialogue I have just held with my friend Jones,\nwho is trying to form a new Club, to be regulated on strictly _Logical_\nprinciples.\n\n_Author._ \"Well, Jones! Have you got your new Club started yet?\"\n\n_Jones_ (_rubbing his hands_). \"You'll be glad to hear that some of the\nMembers (mind, I only say '_some_') are millionaires! Rolling in gold,\nmy boy!\"\n\n_Author._ \"That sounds well. And how many Members have entered?\"\n\n_Jones_ (_staring_). \"None at all. We haven't got it started yet. What\nmakes you think we have?\"\n\n_Author._ \"Why, I thought you said that some of the Members----\"\n pg168\n_Jones_ (_contemptuously_). \"You don't seem to be aware that we're\nworking on strictly _Logical_ principles. A _Particular_ Proposition\ndoes _not_ assert the existence of its Subject. I merely meant to say\nthat we've made a Rule not to admit _any_ Members till we have at least\n_three_ Candidates whose incomes are over ten thousand a year!\"\n\n_Author._ \"Oh, _that's_ what you meant, is it? Let's hear some more of\nyour Rules.\"\n\n_Jones._ \"Another is, that no one, who has been convicted seven times of\nforgery, is admissible.\"\n\n_Author._ \"And here, again, I suppose you don't mean to assert there\n_are_ any such convicts in existence?\"\n\n_Jones._ \"Why, that's exactly what I _do_ mean to assert! Don't you know\nthat a Universal Negative _asserts_ the existence of its Subject? _Of\ncourse_ we didn't make that Rule till we had satisfied ourselves that\nthere are several such convicts now living.\"\n\nThe Reader can now decide for himself how far this _second_ conceivable\nview would fit in with the facts of life. He will, I think, agree with\nme that Jones' view, of the 'Existential Import' of Propositions, would\nlead to some inconvenience.\n\nThirdly, let us suppose that neither _I_ nor _E_ \"asserts\".\n\nNow the supposition that the two Propositions, \"Some x are y\" and \"No x\nare not-y\", do _not_ \"assert\", necessarily involves the supposition that\n\"All x are y\" does _not_ \"assert\", since it would be absurd to suppose\nthat they assert, when combined, more than they do when taken\nseparately.\n\nHence the _third_ (and last) of the conceivable views is that neither\n_I_, nor _E_, nor _A_, \"asserts\".\n\nThe advocates of this third view would interpret the Proposition \"Some x\nare y\" to mean \"If there _were_ any x in existence, some of them _would_\nbe y\"; and so with _E_ and _A_.\n\nIt admits of proof that this view, as regards _A_, conflicts with the\naccepted facts of Logic.\n\nLet us take the Syllogism _Darapti_, which is universally accepted as\nvalid. Its form is\n\n \"All m are x;\n All m are y.\n .'. Some y are x\".\n pg169\nThis they would interpret as follows:--\n\n \"If there were any m in existence, all of them would be x;\n If there were any m in existence, all of them would be y.\n .'. If there were any y in existence, some of them\n would be x\".\n\nThat this Conclusion does _not_ follow has been so briefly and clearly\nexplained by Mr. Keynes (in his \"Formal Logic\", dated 1894, pp. 356,\n357), that I prefer to quote his words:--\n\n\"_Let no proposition imply the existence either of its subject or of its\npredicate._\n\n\"Take, as an example, a syllogism in _Darapti_:--\n\n '_All M is P_,\n _All M is S_,\n _.'. Some S is P_.'\n\n\"Taking S, M, P, as the minor, middle, and major terms respectively, the\nconclusion will imply that, if there is an S, there is some P. Will the\npremisses also imply this? If so, then the syllogism is valid; but not\notherwise.\n\n\"The conclusion implies that if S exists P exists; but, consistently\nwith the premisses, S may be existent while M and P are both\nnon-existent. An implication is, therefore, contained in the conclusion,\nwhich is not justified by the premisses.\"\n\nThis seems to _me_ entirely clear and convincing. Still, \"to make\nsicker\", I may as well throw the above (_soi-disant_) Syllogism into a\nconcrete form, which will be within the grasp of even a _non_-logical\nReader.\n\nLet us suppose that a Boys' School has been set up, with the following\nsystem of Rules:--\n\n\"All boys in the First (the highest) Class are to do French, Greek, and\nLatin. All in the Second Class are to do Greek only. All in the Third\nClass are to do Latin only.\"\n\nSuppose also that there _are_ boys in the Third Class, and in the\nSecond; but that no boy has yet risen into the First.\n\nIt is evident that there are no boys in the School doing French: still\nwe know, by the Rules, what would happen if there _were_ any.\n pg170\nWe are authorised, then, by the _Data_, to assert the following two\nPropositions:--\n\n \"If there were any boys doing French, all of them would\n be doing Greek;\n If there were any boys doing French, all of them would\n be doing Latin.\"\n\nAnd the Conclusion, according to \"The Logicians\" would be\n\n \"If there were any boys doing Latin, some of them would\n be doing Greek.\"\n\nHere, then, we have two _true_ Premisses and a _false_ Conclusion (since\nwe know that there _are_ boys doing Latin, and that _none_ of them are\ndoing Greek). Hence the argument is _invalid_.\n\nSimilarly it may be shown that this \"non-existential\" interpretation\ndestroys the validity of _Disamis_, _Datisi_, _Felapton_, and\n_Fresison_.\n\nSome of \"The Logicians\" will, no doubt, be ready to reply \"But we are\nnot _Aldrichians_! Why should _we_ be responsible for the validity of\nthe Syllogisms of so antiquated an author as Aldrich?\"\n\nVery good. Then, for the _special_ benefit of these \"friends\" of mine\n(with what ominous emphasis that name is sometimes used! \"I must have a\nprivate interview with _you_, my young _friend_,\" says the bland Dr.\nBirch, \"in my library, at 9 a.m. tomorrow. And you will please to be\n_punctual_!\"), for their _special_ benefit, I say, I will produce\n_another_ charge against this \"non-existential\" interpretation.\n\nIt actually invalidates the ordinary Process of \"Conversion\", as applied\nto Proposition in '_I_'.\n\n_Every_ logician, Aldrichian or otherwise, accepts it as an established\nfact that \"Some x are y\" may be legitimately converted into \"Some y are\nx.\"\n\nBut is it equally clear that the Proposition \"If there _were_ any x,\nsome of them _would_ be y\" may be legitimately converted into \"If there\n_were_ any y, some of them would be x\"? I trow not.\n\nThe example I have already used----of a Boys' School with a non-existent\nFirst Class----will serve admirably to illustrate this new flaw in the\ntheory of \"The Logicians.\"\n pg171\nLet us suppose that there is yet _another_ Rule in this School, viz. \"In\neach Class, at the end of the Term, the head boy and the second boy\nshall receive prizes.\"\n\nThis Rule entirely authorises us to assert (in the sense in which \"The\nLogicians\" would use the words) \"Some boys in the First Class will\nreceive prizes\", for this simply means (according to them) \"If there\n_were_ any boys in the First Class, some of them _would_ receive\nprizes.\"\n\nNow the Converse of this Proposition is, of course, \"Some boys, who will\nreceive prizes, are in the First Class\", which means (according to \"The\nLogicians\") \"If there _were_ any boys about to receive prizes, some of\nthem _would_ be in the First Class\" (which Class we know to be _empty_).\n\nOf this Pair of Converse Propositions, the first is undoubtedly _true_:\nthe second, _as_ undoubtedly, _false_.\n\nIt is always sad to see a batsman knock down his own wicket: one pities\nhim, as a man and a brother, but, as a _cricketer_, one can but\npronounce him \"Out!\"\n\nWe see, then, that, among all the conceivable views we have here\nconsidered, there are only _two_ which can _logically_ be held, viz.\n\n _I_ and _A_ \"assert\", but _E_ does not.\n _E_ and _A_ \"assert\", but _I_ does not.\n\nThe _second_ of these I have shown to involve great practical\ninconvenience.\n\nThe _first_ is the one adopted in this book. (See p. 19.)\n\nSome further remarks on this subject will be found in Note (B), at p.\n196.\n\n\nSec. 3.\n\n_The use of \"is-not\" (or \"are-not\") as a Copula._\n\n\nIs it better to say \"John _is-not_ in-the-house\" or \"John _is_\nnot-in-the-house\"? \"Some of my acquaintances _are-not_\nmen-I-should-like-to-be-seen-with\" or \"Some of my acquaintances _are_\nmen-I-should-_not_-like-to-be-seen-with\"? That is the sort of question\nwe have now to discuss.\n pg172\nThis is no question of Logical Right and Wrong: it is merely a matter of\n_taste_, since the two forms mean exactly the same thing. And here,\nagain, \"The Logicians\" seem to me to take much too humble a position.\nWhen they are putting the final touches to the grouping of their\nProposition, just before the curtain goes up, and when the\nCopula----always a rather fussy 'heavy father', asks them \"Am _I_ to\nhave the 'not', or will you tack it on to the Predicate?\" they are much\ntoo ready to answer, like the subtle cab-driver, \"Leave it to _you_,\nSir!\" The result seems to be, that the grasping Copula constantly gets a\n\"not\" that had better have been merged in the Predicate, and that\nPropositions are differentiated which had better have been recognised as\nprecisely similar. Surely it is simpler to treat \"Some men are Jews\" and\n\"Some men are Gentiles\" as being both of them, _affirmative_\nPropositions, instead of translating the latter into \"Some men are-not\nJews\", and regarding it as a _negative_ Propositions?\n\nThe fact is, \"The Logicians\" have somehow acquired a perfectly _morbid_\ndread of negative Attributes, which makes them shut their eyes, like\nfrightened children, when they come across such terrible Propositions as\n\"All not-x are y\"; and thus they exclude from their system many very\nuseful forms of Syllogisms.\n\nUnder the influence of this unreasoning terror, they plead that, in\nDichotomy by Contradiction, the _negative_ part is too large to deal\nwith, so that it is better to regard each Thing as either included in,\nor excluded from, the _positive_ part. I see no force in this plea: and\nthe facts often go the other way. As a personal question, dear Reader,\nif _you_ were to group your acquaintances into the two Classes, men that\nyou _would_ like to be seen with, and men that you would _not_ like to\nbe seen with, do you think the latter group would be so _very_ much the\nlarger of the two?\n\nFor the purposes of Symbolic Logic, it is so _much_ the most convenient\nplan to regard the two sub-divisions, produced by Dichotomy, on the\n_same_ footing, and to say, of any Thing, either that it \"is\" in the\none, or that it \"is\" in the other, that I do not think any Reader of\nthis book is likely to demur to my adopting that course.\n\n pg173\nSec. 4.\n\n_The theory that \"two Negative Premisses prove nothing\"._\n\n\nThis I consider to be _another_ craze of \"The Logicians\", fully as\nmorbid as their dread of a negative Attribute.\n\nIt is, perhaps, best refuted by the method of _Instantia Contraria_.\n\nTake the following Pairs of Premisses:--\n\n \"None of my boys are conceited;\n None of my girls are greedy\".\n\n \"None of my boys are clever;\n None but a clever boy could solve this problem\".\n\n \"None of my boys are learned;\n Some of my boys are not choristers\".\n\n(This last Proposition is, in _my_ system, an _affirmative_ one, since I\nshould read it \"are not-choristers\"; but, in dealing with \"The\nLogicians,\" I may fairly treat it as a _negative_ one, since _they_\nwould read it \"are-not choristers\".)\n\nIf you, dear Reader, declare, after full consideration of these Pairs of\nPremisses, that you cannot deduce a Conclusion from _any_ of\nthem----why, all I can say is that, like the Duke in Patience, you \"will\nhave to be contented with our heart-felt sympathy\"! [See Note (C), p.\n196.]\n\n\nSec. 5.\n\n_Euler's Method of Diagrams._\n\n\nDiagrams seem to have been used, at first, to represent _Propositions_\nonly. In Euler's well-known Circles, each was supposed to contain a\nclass, and the Diagram consisted of two circles, which exhibited the\nrelations, as to inclusion and exclusion, existing between the two\nClasses.\n\n _____\n _/ ___ \\_\n / / y \\ \\\n | \\___/ |\n \\_ x _/\n \\_____/\n\nThus, the Diagram, here given, exhibits the two Classes, whose\nrespective Attributes are x and y, as so related to each other that the\nfollowing Propositions are all simultaneously true:--\"All x are y\", \"No\nx are not-y\", \"Some x are y\", \"Some y are not-x\", \"Some not-y are\nnot-x\", and, of course, the Converses of the last four.\n pg174\n _____\n _/ ___ \\_\n / / y \\ \\\n | \\___/ |\n \\_ x _/\n \\_____/\n\nSimilarly, with this Diagram, the following Propositions are true:--\"All\ny are x\", \"No y are not-x\", \"Some y are x\", \"Some x are not-y\", \"Some\nnot-x are not-y\", and, of course, the Converses of the last four.\n\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_ _/ \\_\n / \\ / \\\n | x | | y |\n \\_ _/ \\_ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\nSimilarly, with this Diagram, the following are true:--\"All x are\nnot-y\", \"All y are not-x\", \"No x are y\", \"Some x are not-y\", \"Some y are\nnot-x\", \"Some not-x are not-y\", and the Converses of the last four.\n\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_/ \\_\n / / \\ \\\n | x | | y |\n \\_ \\_/ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\nSimilarly, with this Diagram, the following are true:--\"Some x are y\",\n\"Some x are not-y\", \"Some not-x are y\", \"Some not-x are not-y\", and of\ncourse, their four Converses.\n\nNote that _all_ Euler's Diagrams assert \"Some not-x are not-y.\"\nApparently it never occured to him that it might _sometimes_ fail to be\ntrue!\n\nNow, to represent \"All x are y\", the _first_ of these Diagrams would\nsuffice. Similarly, to represent \"No x are y\", the _third_ would\nsuffice. But to represent any _Particular_ Proposition, at least _three_\nDiagrams would be needed (in order to include all the possible cases),\nand, for \"Some not-x are not-y\", all the _four_.\n\n\nSec. 6.\n\n_Venn's Method of Diagrams._\n\n\nLet us represent \"not-x\" by \"x'\".\n\nMr. Venn's Method of Diagrams is a great advance on the above Method.\n\nHe uses the last of the above Diagrams to represent _any_ desired\nrelation between x and y, by simply shading a Compartment known to be\n_empty_, and placing a + in one known to be _occupied_.\n\nThus, he would represent the three Propositions \"Some x are y\", \"No x\nare y\", and \"All x are y\", as follows:--\n\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_/ \\_\n / / \\ \\\n | | + | |\n \\_ \\_/ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_/ \\_\n / /#\\ \\\n | |###| |\n \\_ \\#/ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n _____ _____\n _/#####\\_/ \\_\n /#######/ \\ \\\n |#######| + | |\n \\#######\\_/ _/\n \\#####/ \\_____/\n pg175\nIt will be seen that, of the _four_ Classes, whose peculiar Sets of\nAttributes are xy, xy', x'y, and x'y', only _three_ are here provided\nwith closed Compartments, while the _fourth_ is allowed the rest of the\nInfinite Plane to range about in!\n\nThis arrangement would involve us in very serious trouble, if we ever\nattempted to represent \"No x' are y'.\" Mr. Venn _once_ (at p. 281)\nencounters this awful task; but evades it, in a quite masterly fashion,\nby the simple foot-note \"We have not troubled to shade the outside of\nthis diagram\"!\n\nTo represent _two_ Propositions (containing a common Term) _together_, a\n_three_-letter Diagram is needed. This is the one used by Mr. Venn.\n\n _____\n _/ \\_\n _/___ x ___\\_\n _/| \\_/ |\\_\n / \\_ / \\ _/ \\\n | \\|___|/ |\n \\_ m \\_/ y _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\nHere, again, we have only _seven_ closed Compartments, to accommodate\nthe _eight_ Classes whose peculiar Sets of Attributes are xym, xym', &c.\n\n\"With four terms in request,\" Mr. Venn says, \"the most simple and\nsymmetrical diagram seems to me that produced by making four ellipses\nintersect one another in the desired manner\". This, however, provides\nonly _fifteen_ closed compartments.\n\n b ____ ____ c\n / \\ / \\\n a ___/___ \\/ ___\\___ d\n / \\ \\ /\\ / / \\\n / \\ \\/ \\/ / \\\n \\ \\ /\\ /\\ / /\n \\ \\/ \\/ \\/ /\n \\ /\\ /\\ /\\ /\n \\ \\ \\/ \\/ / /\n \\ \\/\\ /\\/ /\n \\ /\\_\\/_/\\ /\n \\__\\______/__/\n\nFor _five_ letters, \"the simplest diagram I can suggest,\" Mr. Venn says,\n\"is one like this (the small ellipse in the centre is to be regarded as\na portion of the _outside_ of c; i.e. its four component portions are\ninside b and d but are no part of c). It must be admitted that such a\ndiagram is not quite so simple to draw as one might wish it to be; but\nthen consider what the alternative is of one undertakes to deal with\nfive terms and all their combinations--nothing short of the disagreeable\ntask of writing out, or in some way putting before us, all the 32\ncombinations involved.\"\n\n b c d\n ______ ____ ______\n ______/_ \\/ \\/ _\\______\n a / / \\ /\\ /\\ / \\ \\ e\n / / \\ / \\ / \\ / \\ \\\n / \\ \\/ \\/ \\/ / \\\n / \\ /\\ /\\ /\\ / \\\n / \\ / \\ / \\ / \\ / \\\n | \\/ \\/ __ \\/ \\/ |\n | /\\ /\\/ \\/\\ /\\ |\n | / \\ / /\\ /\\ \\ / \\ |\n | | \\/ | \\/ | \\/ | |\n | | /\\ | /\\ | /\\ | |\n | \\ / \\ \\/ \\/ / \\ / |\n \\ \\/ \\/\\__/\\/ \\/ /\n \\ /\\ /\\ /\\ /\\ /\n \\ / \\ / \\ / \\ / \\ /\n \\ / \\/ \\/ \\/ \\ /\n \\ \\ /\\ /\\ /\\ / /\n \\ \\ / \\ / \\ / \\ / /\n \\ \\/ \\/ \\/ \\/ /\n \\ /\\____/\\____/\\____/\\ /\n \\ / \\ /\n \\| |/\n \\____________________/\n pg176\nThis Diagram gives us 31 closed compartments.\n\nFor _six_ letters, Mr. Venn suggests that we might use _two_ Diagrams,\nlike the above, one for the f-part, and the other for the not-f-part, of\nall the other combinations. \"This\", he says, \"would give the desired 64\nsubdivisions.\" This, however, would only give 62 closed Compartments,\nand _one_ infinite area, which the two Classes, a'b'c'd'e'f and\na'b'c'd'e'f', would have to share between them.\n\nBeyond _six_ letters Mr. Venn does not go.\n\n\nSec. 7.\n\n_My Method of Diagrams._\n\n\nMy Method of Diagrams _resembles_ Mr. Venn's, in having separate\nCompartments assigned to the various Classes, and in marking these\nCompartments as _occupied_ or as _empty_; but it _differs_ from his\nMethod, in assigning a _closed_ area to the _Universe of Discourse_, so\nthat the Class which, under Mr. Venn's liberal sway, has been ranging at\nwill through Infinite Space, is suddenly dismayed to find itself\n\"cabin'd, cribb'd, confined\", in a limited Cell like any other Class!\nAlso I use _rectilinear_, instead of _curvilinear_, Figures; and I mark\nan _occupied_ Cell with a 'I' (meaning that there is at least _one_\nThing in it), and an _empty_ Cell with a 'O' (meaning that there is _no_\nThing in it).\n\nFor _two_ letters, I use this Diagram, in which the North Half is\nassigned to 'x', the South to 'not-x' (or 'x''), the West to y, and the\nEast to y'. Thus the N.W. Cell contains the xy-Class, the N.E. Cell the\nxy'-Class, and so on.\n\n .-------.\n | | |\n |---|---|\n | | |\n .-------.\n\nFor _three_ letters, I subdivide these four Cells, by drawing an _Inner_\nSquare, which I assign to m, the _Outer_ Border being assigned to m'. I\nthus get _eight_ Cells that are needed to accommodate the eight Classes,\nwhose peculiar Sets of Attributes are xym, xym', &c.\n\n .---------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | | | |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nThis last Diagram is the most complex that I use in the _Elementary_\nPart of my 'Symbolic Logic.' But I may as well take this opportunity of\ndescribing the more complex ones which will appear in Part II.\n pg177\nFor _four_ letters (which I call a, b, c, d) I use this Diagram;\nassigning the North Half to a (and of course the _rest_ of the Diagram\nto a'), the West Half to b, the Horizontal Oblong to c, and the Upright\nOblong to d. We have now got 16 Cells.\n\n .---------------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | | | |\n | .---|---|---|---. |\n | | | | | | |\n |--|---|---|---|---|--|\n | | | | | | |\n | .---|---|---|---. |\n | | | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------------.\n\nFor _five_ letters (adding e) I subdivide the 16 Cells of the previous\nDiagram by _oblique_ partitions, assigning all the _upper_ portions to\ne, and all the _lower_ portions to e'. Here, I admit, we lose the\nadvantage of having the e-Class all _together_, \"in a ring-fence\", like\nthe other 4 Classes. Still, it is very easy to find; and the operation,\nof erasing it, is nearly as easy as that of erasing any other Class. We\nhave now got 32 Cells.\n\n .---------------------.\n | / | / |\n | / .---|---. / |\n | / | / | / | / |\n | .---|---|---|---. |\n | | / | / | / | / | |\n |--|---|---|---|---|--|\n | | / | / | / | / | |\n | .---|---|---|---. |\n | / | / | / | / |\n | / .---|---. / |\n | / | / |\n .---------------------.\n\nFor _six_ letters (adding h, as I avoid _tailed_ letters) I substitute\nupright crosses for the oblique partitions, assigning the 4 portions,\ninto which each of the 16 Cells is thus divided, to the four Classes eh,\neh', e'h, e'h'. We have now got 64 Cells.\n\n #=============================#\n H | H | H\n H | #=====H=====# | H\n H | H | H | H | H\n H-----|--H--|--H--|--H--|-----H\n H | H | H | H | H\n H #=====H=====H=====H=====# H\n H H | H | H | H | H H\n H H--|--H--|--H--|--H--|--H H\n H H | H | H | H | H H\n H==H=====H=====H=====H=====H--H\n H H | H | H | H | H H\n H H--|--H--|--H--|--H--|--H H\n H H | H | H | H | H H\n H #=====H=====H=====H=====# H\n H | H | H | H | H\n H-----|--H--|--H--|--H--|-----H\n H | H | H | H | H\n H | #=====H=====# | H\n H | H | H\n #=============================#\n pg178\nFor _seven_ letters (adding k) I add, to each upright cross, a little\ninner square. All these 16 little squares are assigned to the k-Class,\nand all outside them to the k'-Class; so that 8 little Cells (into which\neach of the 16 Cells is divided) are respectively assigned to the 8\nClasses ehk, ehk', &c. We have now got 128 Cells.\n\n #=====================================================#\n H | H | H\n H | #===========H===========# | H\n H | H | H | H | H\n H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H\n H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H\n H-----|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|-----H\n H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H\n H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H\n H | H | H | H | H\n H #===========H===========H===========H===========# H\n H H | H | H | H | H H\n H H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H H\n H H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H H\n H H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H H\n H H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H H\n H H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H H\n H H | H | H | H | H H\n H==H===========H===========H===========H===========H==H\n H H | H | H | H | H H\n H H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H H\n H H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H H\n H H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H H\n H H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H H\n H H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H H\n H H | H | H | H | H H\n H #===========H===========H===========H===========# H\n H | H | H | H | H\n H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H\n H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H\n H-----|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|--H--|--|--|-----H\n H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H\n H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H\n H | H | H | H | H\n H | #===========H===========# | H\n H | H | H\n .=====================================================#\n\nFor _eight_ letters (adding l) I place, in each of the 16 Cells, a\n_lattice_, which is a reduced copy of the whole Diagram; and, just as\nthe 16 large Cells of the whole Diagram are assigned to the 16 Classes\nabcd, abcd', &c., so the 16 little Cells of each lattice are assigned to\nthe 16 Classes ehkl, ehkl', &c. Thus, the lattice in the N.W. corner\nserves to accommodate the 16 Classes abc'd'ehkl, abc'd'eh'kl', &c. This\nOctoliteral Diagram (see next page) contains 256 Cells.\n\nFor _nine_ letters, I place 2 Octoliteral Diagrams side by side,\nassigning one of them to m, and the other to m'. We have now got 512\nCells.\n pg179\n#=====================================================================#\nH | H | H\nH | #===============H===============# | H\nH | H | H | H | H\nH .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H\nH | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H\nH .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H\nH | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H\nH----|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|----H\nH | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H\nH .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H\nH | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H\nH .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H\nH | H | H | H | H\nH #===============H===============H===============H===============# H\nH H | H | H | H | H H\nH H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H H\nH H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H H\nH H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H H\nH H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H H\nH H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H H\nH H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H H\nH H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H H\nH H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H H\nH H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H H\nH H | H | H | H | H H\nH==H===============H===============H===============H===============H==H\nH H | H | H | H | H H\nH H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H H\nH H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H H\nH H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H H\nH H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H H\nH H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H H\nH H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H H\nH H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H H\nH H | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H H\nH H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H H\nH H | H | H | H | H H\nH #===============H===============H===============H===============# H\nH | H | H | H | H\nH .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H\nH | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H\nH .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H\nH | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H\nH----|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|-H-|--|--|--|--|----H\nH | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H | | | | | H\nH .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H .--|--|--|--. H\nH | | | H | | | H | | | H | | | H\nH .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H .--|--. H\nH | H | H | H | H\nH | #===============H===============# | H\nH | H | H\n#=====================================================================#\n\nFinally, for _ten_ letters, I arrange 4 Octoliteral Diagrams, like the\nabove, in a square, assigning them to the 4 Classes mn, mn', m'n, m'n'.\nWe have now got 1024 Cells.\n\n\nSec. 8.\n\n_Solution of a Syllogism by various Methods._\n\n\nThe best way, I think, to exhibit the differences between these various\nMethods of solving Syllogisms, will be to take a concrete example, and\nsolve it by each Method in turn. Let us take, as our example, No. 29\n(see p. 102).\n\n \"No philosophers are conceited;\n Some conceited persons are not gamblers.\n .'. Some persons, who are not gamblers, are not philosophers.\"\n\n pg180\n(1) _Solution by ordinary Method._\n\nThese Premisses, as they stand, will give no Conclusion, as they are\nboth negative.\n\nIf by 'Permutation' or 'Obversion', we write the Minor Premiss thus,\n\n 'Some conceited persons are not-gamblers,'\n\nwe can get a Conclusion in _Fresison_, viz.\n\n \"No philosophers are conceited;\n Some conceited persons are not-gamblers.\n .'. Some not-gamblers are not philosophers\"\n\nThis can be proved by reduction to _Ferio_, thus:--\n\n \"No conceited persons are philosophers;\n Some not-gamblers are conceited.\n .'. Some not-gamblers are not philosophers\".\n\nThe validity of _Ferio_ follows directly from the Axiom '_De Omni et\nNullo_'.\n\n\n(2) _Symbolic Representation._\n\nBefore proceeding to discuss other Methods of Solution, it is necessary\nto translate our Syllogism into an _abstract_ form.\n\nLet us take \"persons\" as our 'Universe of Discourse'; and let\nx = \"philosophers\", m = \"conceited\", and y = \"gamblers.\"\n\nThen the Syllogism may be written thus:--\n\n \"No x are m;\n Some m are y'.\n .'. Some y' are x'.\"\n\n\n(3) _Solution by Euler's Method of Diagrams._\n\nThe Major Premiss requires only _one_ Diagram, viz.\n\n 1\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_ _/ \\_\n / \\ / \\\n | x | | m |\n \\_ _/ \\_ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n pg181\nThe Minor requires _three_, viz.\n\n 2\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_ _/ \\_\n / \\ / \\\n | y | | m |\n \\_ _/ \\_ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 3\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_/ \\_\n / / \\ \\\n | y | | m |\n \\_ \\_/ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 4\n _____\n _/ ___ \\_\n / / y \\ \\\n | \\___/ |\n \\_ m _/\n \\_____/\n\nThe combination of Major and Minor, in every possible way requires\n_nine_, viz.\n\nFigs. 1 and 2 give\n\n 5\n _____ _____ _____\n _/ \\_ _/ \\_ _/ \\_\n / \\ / \\ / \\\n | x | | y | | m |\n \\_ _/ \\_ _/ \\_ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 6\n _____ _____ _____\n _/ \\_/ \\_ _/ \\_\n / / \\ \\ / \\\n | x | | y | | m |\n \\_ \\_/ _/ \\_ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 7\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_ _/ \\_\n / \\ / \\\n | xy | | m |\n \\_ _/ \\_ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 8\n _____ _____\n _/ ___ \\_ _/ \\_\n / / x \\ \\ / \\\n | \\___/ | | m |\n \\_ y _/ \\_ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 9\n _____ _____\n _/ ___ \\_ _/ \\_\n / / y \\ \\ / \\\n | \\___/ | | m |\n \\_ x _/ \\_ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\nFigs. 1 and 3 give\n\n 10\n _____ _____ _____\n _/ \\_ _/ \\_/ \\_\n / \\ / / \\ \\\n | x | | y | | m |\n \\_ _/ \\_ \\_/ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 11\n _____ _____ _____\n _/ \\_/ \\_/ \\_\n / / \\ / \\ \\\n | x | | y | | m |\n \\_ \\_/ \\_/ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 12\n _____ _____\n _/___ \\_/ \\_\n / / x \\ / \\ \\\n | \\___/| | m |\n \\_ y \\_/ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\nFigs. 1 and 4 give\n\n 13\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_ _/ ___ \\_\n / \\ / / y \\ \\\n | x | | \\___/ |\n \\_ _/ \\_ m _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\nFrom this group (Figs. 5 to 13) we have, by disregarding m, to find the\nrelation of x and y. On examination we find that Figs. 5, 10, 13 express\nthe relation of entire mutual exclusion; that Figs. 6, 11 express\npartial inclusion and partial exclusion; that Fig. 7 expresses\ncoincidence; that Figs. 8, 12 express entire inclusion of x in y; and\nthat Fig. 9 expresses entire inclusion of y in x.\n pg182\nWe thus get five Biliteral Diagrams for x and y, viz.\n\n 14\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_ _/ \\_\n / \\ / \\\n | x | | y |\n \\_ _/ \\_ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 15\n _____ _____\n _/ \\_/ \\_\n / / \\ \\\n | x | | y |\n \\_ \\_/ _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\n 16\n _____\n _/ \\_\n / \\\n | xy |\n \\_ _/\n \\_____/\n\n 17\n _____\n _/ ___ \\_\n / / x \\ \\\n | \\___/ |\n \\_ y _/\n \\_____/\n\n 18\n _____\n _/ ___ \\_\n / / y \\ \\\n | \\___/ |\n \\_ x _/\n \\_____/\n\nwhere the only Proposition, represented by them all, is \"Some not-y are\nnot-x,\" i.e. \"Some persons, who are not gamblers, are not\nphilosophers\"----a result which Euler would hardly have regarded as a\n_valuable_ one, since he seems to have assumed that a Proposition of\nthis form is _always_ true!\n\n\n(4) _Solution by Venn's Method of Diagrams._\n\nThe following Solution has been kindly supplied to me Mr. Venn himself.\n\n\"The Minor Premiss declares that some of the constituents in my' must be\nsaved: mark these constituents with a cross.\n\n _____\n _/ + \\_\n _/___ ___\\_\n _/|##+#\\_/ |\\_\n / \\###/#\\ _/ \\\n | + \\|_#_|/ |\n \\_ m \\_/ y _/\n \\_____/ \\_____/\n\nThe Major declares that all xm must be destroyed; erase it.\n\nThen, as some my' is to be saved, it must clearly be my'x'. That is,\nthere must exist my'x'; or eliminating m, y'x'. In common phraseology,\n\n'Some y' are x',' or, 'Some not-gamblers are not-philosophers.'\"\n\n pg183\n(5) _Solution by my Method of Diagrams._\n\nThe first Premiss asserts that no xm exist: so we mark the\nxm-Compartment as empty, by placing a 'O' in each of its Cells.\n\nThe second asserts that some my' exist: so we mark the my'-Compartment\nas occupied, by placing a 'I' in its only available Cell.\n\n .---------------.\n | | |\n | .---|---. |\n | |(O)|(O)| |\n |---|---|---|---|\n | | |(I)| |\n | .---|---. |\n | | |\n .---------------.\n\nThe only information, that this gives us as to x and y, is that the\nx'y'-Compartment is _occupied_, i.e. that some x'y' exist.\n\nHence \"Some x' are y'\": i.e. \"Some persons, who are not philosophers,\nare not gamblers\".\n\n\n(6) _Solution by my Method of Subscripts._\n\n xm_{0} + my'_{1} > x'y'_{1}\n\ni.e. \"Some persons, who are not philosophers, are not gamblers.\"\n\n\nSec. 9.\n\n_My Method of treating Syllogisms and Sorites._\n\n\nOf all the strange things, that are to be met with in the ordinary\ntext-books of Formal Logic, perhaps the strangest is the violent\ncontrast one finds to exist between their ways of dealing with these two\nsubjects. While they have elaborately discussed no less than _nineteen_\ndifferent forms of _Syllogisms_----each with its own special and\nexasperating Rules, while the whole constitute an almost useless\nmachine, for practical purposes, many of the Conclusions being\nincomplete, and many quite legitimate forms being ignored----they have\nlimited _Sorites_ to _two_ forms only, of childish simplicity; and these\nthey have dignified with special _names_, apparently under the\nimpression that no other possible forms existed!\n\nAs to _Syllogisms_, I find that their nineteen forms, with about a score\nof others which they have ignored, can all be arranged under _three_\nforms, each with a very simple Rule of its own; and the only question\nthe Reader has to settle, in working any one of the 101 Examples given\nat p. 101 of this book, is \"Does it belong to Fig. I., II., or III.?\"\n pg184\nAs to _Sorites_, the only two forms, recognised by the text-books, are\nthe _Aristotelian_, whose Premisses are a series of Propositions in A,\nso arranged that the Predicate of each is the Subject of the next, and\nthe _Goclenian_, whose Premisses are the very same series, written\nbackwards. Goclenius, it seems, was the first who noticed the startling\nfact that it does not affect the force of a Syllogism to invert the\norder of its Premisses, and who applied this discovery to a Sorites. If\nwe assume (as surely we may?) that he is the _same_ man as that\ntranscendent genius who first noticed that 4 times 5 is the same thing\nas 5 times 4, we may apply to him what somebody (Edmund Yates, I think\nit was) has said of Tupper, viz., \"here is a man who, beyond all others\nof his generation, has been favoured with Glimpses of the Obvious!\"\n\nThese puerile----not to say infantine----forms of a Sorites I have, in\nthis book, ignored from the very first, and have not only admitted\nfreely Propositions in _E_, but have purposely stated the Premisses in\nrandom order, leaving to the Reader the useful task of arranging them,\nfor himself, in an order which can be worked as a series of regular\nSyllogisms. In doing this, he can begin with _any one_ of them he likes.\n\nI have tabulated, for curiosity, the various orders in which the\nPremisses of the Aristotelian Sorites\n\n 1. All a are b;\n 2. All b are c;\n 3. All c are d;\n 4. All d are e;\n 5. All e are h.\n .'. All a are h.\n\nmay be syllogistically arranged, and I find there are no less than\n_sixteen_ such orders, viz., 12345, 21345, 23145, 23415, 23451, 32145,\n32415, 32451, 34215, 34251, 34521, 43215, 43251, 43521, 45321, 54321. Of\nthese the _first_ and the _last_ have been dignified with names; but the\nother _fourteen_----first enumerated by an obscure Writer on Logic,\ntowards the end of the Nineteenth Century----remain without a name!\n\n pg185\nSec. 10.\n\n_Some account of Parts II, III._\n\n\nIn Part II. will be found some of the matters mentioned in this\nAppendix, viz., the \"Existential Import\" of Propositions, the use of a\n_negative_ Copula, and the theory that \"two negative Premisses prove\nnothing.\" I shall also extend the range of Syllogisms, by introducing\nPropositions containing alternatives (such as \"Not-all x are y\"),\nPropositions containing 3 or more Terms (such as \"All ab are c\", which,\ntaken along with \"Some bc' are d\", would prove \"Some d are a'\"), &c. I\nshall also discuss Sorites containing Entities, and the _very_ puzzling\nsubjects of Hypotheticals and Dilemmas. I hope, in the course of Part\nII., to go over all the ground usually traversed in the text-books used\nin our Schools and Universities, and to enable my Readers to solve\nProblems of the same kind as, and far harder than, those that are at\npresent set in their Examinations.\n\nIn Part III. I hope to deal with many curious and out-of-the-way\nsubjects, some of which are not even alluded to in any of the treatises\nI have met with. In this Part will be found such matters as the Analysis\nof Propositions into their Elements (let the Reader, who has never gone\ninto this branch of the subject, try to make out for himself what\n_additional_ Proposition would be needed to convert \"Some a are b\" into\n\"Some a are bc\"), the treatment of Numerical and Geometrical Problems,\nthe construction of Problems, and the solution of Syllogisms and Sorites\ncontaining Propositions more complex than any that I have used in Part\nII.\n\nI will conclude with eight Problems, as a taste of what is coming in\nPart II. I shall be very glad to receive, from any Reader, who thinks he\nhas solved any one of them (more especially if he has done so _without_\nusing any Method of Symbols), what he conceives to be its complete\nConclusion.\n\nIt may be well to explain what I mean by the _complete_ Conclusion of a\nSyllogism or a Sorites. I distinguish their Terms as being of two\nkinds----those which _can_ be eliminated (e.g. the Middle Term of a\nSyllogism), which I call the \"Eliminands,\" and those which _cannot_,\nwhich I call the \"Retinends\"; and I do not call the Conclusion\n_complete_, unless it states _all_ the relations among the Retinends\nonly, which can be deduced from the Premisses.\n\n pg186\n1.\n\nAll the boys, in a certain School, sit together in one large room every\nevening. They are of no less than _five_ nationalities----English,\nScotch, Welsh, Irish, and German. One of the Monitors (who is a great\nreader of Wilkie Collins' novels) is very observant, and takes MS. notes\nof almost everything that happens, with the view of being a good\nsensational witness, in case any conspiracy to commit a murder should be\non foot. The following are some of his notes:--\n\n(1) Whenever some of the English boys are singing \"Rule Britannia\", and\nsome not, some of the Monitors are wide-awake;\n\n(2) Whenever some of the Scotch are dancing reels, and some of the Irish\nfighting, some of the Welsh are eating toasted cheese;\n\n(3) Whenever all the Germans are playing chess, some of the Eleven are\n_not_ oiling their bats;\n\n(4) Whenever some of the Monitors are asleep, and some not, some of the\nIrish are fighting;\n\n(5) Whenever some of the Germans are playing chess, and none of the\nScotch are dancing reels, some of the Welsh are _not_ eating toasted\ncheese;\n\n(6) Whenever some of the Scotch are _not_ dancing reels, and some of the\nIrish _not_ fighting, some of the Germans are playing chess;\n\n(7) Whenever some of the Monitors are awake, and some of the Welsh are\neating toasted cheese, none of the Scotch are dancing reels;\n\n(8) Whenever some of the Germans are _not_ playing chess, and some of\nthe Welsh are _not_ eating toasted cheese, none of the Irish are\nfighting;\n pg187\n(9) Whenever all the English are singing \"Rule Britannia,\" and some of\nthe Scotch are _not_ dancing reels, none of the Germans are playing\nchess;\n\n(10) Whenever some of the English are singing \"Rule Britannia\", and some\nof the Monitors are asleep, some of the Irish are _not_ fighting;\n\n(11) Whenever some of the Monitors are awake, and some of the Eleven are\n_not_ oiling their bats, some of the Scotch are dancing reels;\n\n(12) Whenever some of the English are singing \"Rule Britannia\", and some\nof the Scotch are _not_ dancing reels, * * * *\n\nHere the MS. breaks off suddenly. The Problem is to complete the\nsentence, if possible.\n\n [N.B. In solving this Problem, it is necessary to remember that\n the Proposition \"All x are y\" is a _Double_ Proposition, and is\n equivalent to \"Some x are y, and none are y'.\" See p. 17.]\n\n\n2.\n\n(1) A logician, who eats pork-chops for supper, will probably lose\nmoney;\n\n(2) A gambler, whose appetite is not ravenous, will probably lose money;\n\n(3) A man who is depressed, having lost money and being likely to lose\nmore, always rises at 5 a.m.;\n\n(4) A man, who neither gambles nor eats pork-chops for supper, is sure\nto have a ravenous appetite;\n\n(5) A lively man, who goes to bed before 4 a.m., had better take to\ncab-driving;\n\n(6) A man with a ravenous appetite, who has not lost money and does not\nrise at 5 a.m., always eats pork-chops for supper;\n\n(7) A logician, who is in danger of losing money, had better take to\ncab-driving;\n\n(8) An earnest gambler, who is depressed though he has not lost money,\nis in no danger of losing any;\n\n(9) A man, who does not gamble, and whose appetite is not ravenous, is\nalways lively;\n pg188\n(10) A lively logician, who is really in earnest, is in no danger of\nlosing money;\n\n(11) A man with a ravenous appetite has no need to take to cab-driving,\nif he is really in earnest;\n\n(12) A gambler, who is depressed though in no danger of losing money,\nsits up till 4 a.m.\n\n(13) A man, who has lost money and does not eat pork-chops for supper,\nhad better take to cab-driving, unless he gets up at 5 a.m.\n\n(14) A gambler, who goes to bed before 4 a.m., need not take to\ncab-driving, unless he has a ravenous appetite;\n\n(15) A man with a ravenous appetite, who is depressed though in no\ndanger of losing, is a gambler.\n\nUniv. \"men\"; a = earnest; b = eating pork-chops for supper;\nc = gamblers; d = getting up at 5; e = having lost money; h = having a\nravenous appetite; k = likely to lose money; l = lively; m = logicians;\nn = men who had better take to cab-driving; r = sitting up till 4.\n\n [N.B. In this Problem, clauses, beginning with \"though\", are\n intended to be treated as _essential_ parts of the Propositions\n in which they occur, just as if they had begun with \"and\".]\n\n\n3.\n\n(1) When the day is fine, I tell Froggy \"You're quite the dandy, old\nchap!\";\n\n(2) Whenever I let Froggy forget that L10 he owes me, and he begins to\nstrut about like a peacock, his mother declares \"He shall _not_ go out\na-wooing!\";\n\n(3) Now that Froggy's hair is out of curl, he has put away his gorgeous\nwaistcoat;\n\n(4) Whenever I go out on the roof to enjoy a quiet cigar, I'm sure to\ndiscover that my purse is empty;\n\n(5) When my tailor calls with his little bill, and I remind Froggy of\nthat L10 he owes me, he does _not_ grin like a hyaena;\n pg189\n(6) When it is very hot, the thermometer is high;\n\n(7) When the day is fine, and I'm not in the humour for a cigar, and\nFroggy is grinning like a hyaena, I never venture to hint that he's quite\nthe dandy;\n\n(8) When my tailor calls with his little bill and finds me with an empty\npurse, I remind Froggy of that L10 he owes me;\n\n(9) My railway-shares are going up like anything!\n\n(10) When my purse is empty, and when, noticing that Froggy has got his\ngorgeous waistcoat on, I venture to remind him of that L10 he owes me,\nthings are apt to get rather warm;\n\n(11) Now that it looks like rain, and Froggy is grinning like a hyaena, I\ncan do without my cigar;\n\n(12) When the thermometer is high, you need not trouble yourself to take\nan umbrella;\n\n(13) When Froggy has his gorgeous waistcoat on, but is _not_ strutting\nabout like a peacock, I betake myself to a quiet cigar;\n\n(14) When I tell Froggy that he's quite the dandy, he grins like a\nhyaena;\n\n(15) When my purse is tolerably full, and Froggy's hair is one mass of\ncurls, and when he is _not_ strutting about like a peacock, I go out on\nthe roof;\n\n(16) When my railway-shares are going up, and when it is chilly and\nlooks like rain, I have a quiet cigar;\n\n(17) When Froggy's mother lets him go a-wooing, he seems nearly mad with\njoy, and puts on a waistcoat that is gorgeous beyond words;\n\n(18) When it is going to rain, and I am having a quiet cigar, and Froggy\nis _not_ intending to go a-wooing, you had better take an umbrella;\n\n(19) When my railway-shares are going up, and Froggy seems nearly mad\nwith joy, _that_ is the time my tailor always chooses for calling with\nhis little bill;\n\n(20) When the day is cool and the thermometer low, and I say nothing to\nFroggy about his being quite the dandy, and there's not the ghost of a\ngrin on his face, I haven't the heart for my cigar!\n\n pg190\n4.\n\n(1) Any one, fit to be an M.P., who is not always speaking, is a public\nbenefactor;\n\n(2) Clear-headed people, who express themselves well, have had a good\neducation;\n\n(3) A woman, who deserves praise, is one who can keep a secret;\n\n(4) People, who benefit the public, but do not use their influence for\ngood purpose, are not fit to go into Parliament;\n\n(5) People, who are worth their weight in gold and who deserve praise,\nare always unassuming;\n\n(6) Public benefactors, who use their influence for good objects,\ndeserve praise;\n\n(7) People, who are unpopular and not worth their weight in gold, never\ncan keep a secret;\n\n(8) People, who can talk for ever and are fit to be Members of\nParliament, deserve praise;\n\n(9) Any one, who can keep a secret and who is unassuming, is a\nnever-to-be-forgotten public benefactor;\n\n(10) A woman, who benefits the public, is always popular;\n\n(11) People, who are worth their weight in gold, who never leave off\ntalking, and whom it is impossible to forget, are just the people whose\nphotographs are in all the shop-windows;\n\n(12) An ill-educated woman, who is not clear-headed, is not fit to go\ninto Parliament;\n\n(13) Any one, who can keep a secret and is not for ever talking, is sure\nto be unpopular;\n\n(14) A clear-headed person, who has influence and uses it for good\nobjects, is a public benefactor;\n\n(15) A public benefactor, who is unassuming, is not the sort of person\nwhose photograph is in every shop-window;\n\n(16) People, who can keep a secret and who use their influence for good\npurposes, are worth their weight in gold;\n\n(17) A person, who has no power of expression and who cannot influence\nothers, is certainly not a _woman_;\n pg191\n(18) People, who are popular and worthy of praise, either are public\nbenefactors or else are unassuming.\n\nUniv. \"persons\"; a = able to keep a secret; b = clear-headed;\nc = constantly talking; d = deserving praise; e = exhibited in\nshop-windows; h = expressing oneself well; k = fit to be an M.P.;\nl = influential; m = never-to-be-forgotten; n = popular; r = public\nbenefactors; s = unassuming; t = using one's influence for good objects;\nv = well-educated; w = women; z = worth one's weight in gold.\n\n\n5.\n\nSix friends, and their six wives, are staying in the same hotel; and\nthey all walk out daily, in parties of various size and composition. To\nensure variety in these daily walks, they have agree to observe the\nfollowing Rules:--\n\n(1) If Acres is with (i.e. is in the same party with) his wife, and\nBarry with his, and Eden with Mrs. Hall, Cole must be with Mrs. Dix;\n\n(2) If Acres is with his wife, and Hall with his, and Barry with Mrs.\nCole, Dix must _not_ be with Mrs. Eden;\n\n(3) If Cole and Dix and their wives are all in the same party, and Acres\n_not_ with Mrs. Barry, Eden must _not_ be with Mrs. Hall;\n\n(4) If Acres is with his wife, and Dix with his, and Barry _not_ with\nMrs. Cole, Eden must be with Mrs. Hall;\n\n(5) If Eden is with his wife, and Hall with his, and Cole with Mrs. Dix,\nAcres must _not_ be with Mrs. Barry;\n\n(6) If Barry and Cole and their wives are all in the same party, and\nEden _not_ with Mrs. Hall, Dix must be with Mrs. Eden.\n\nThe Problem is to prove that there must be, every day, at least _one_\nmarried couple who are not in the same party.\n\n pg192\n6.\n\nAfter the six friends, named in Problem 5, had returned from their tour,\nthree of them, Barry, Cole, and Dix, agreed, with two other friends of\ntheirs, Lang and Mill, that the five should meet, every day, at a\ncertain _table d'hote_. Remembering how much amusement they had derived\nfrom their code of rules for walking-parties, they devised the following\nrules to be observed whenever beef appeared on the table:--\n\n(1) If Barry takes salt, then either Cole or Lang takes _one_ only of\nthe two condiments, salt and mustard: if he takes mustard, then either\nDix takes neither condiment, or Mill takes both.\n\n(2) If Cole takes salt, then either Barry takes only _one_ condiment, or\nMill takes neither: if he takes mustard, then either Dix or Lang takes\nboth.\n\n(3) If Dix takes salt, then either Barry takes neither condiment or Cole\ntake both: if he takes mustard, then either Lang or Mill takes neither.\n\n(4) If Lang takes salt, then Barry or Dix takes only _one_ condiment: if\nhe takes mustard, then either Cole or Mill takes neither.\n\n(5) If Mill takes salt, then either Barry or Lang takes both condiments:\nif he takes mustard, then either Cole or Dix takes only _one_.\n\nThe Problem is to discover whether these rules are _compatible_; and, if\nso, what arrangements are possible.\n\n [N.B. In this Problem, it is assumed that the phrase \"if Barry\n takes salt\" allows of _two_ possible cases, viz. (1) \"he takes\n salt _only_\"; (2) \"he takes _both_ condiments\". And so with all\n similar phrases.\n\n It is also assumed that the phrase \"either Cole or Lang takes\n _one_ only of the two condiments\" allows _three_ possible cases,\n viz. (1) \"Cole takes _one_ only, Lang takes both or neither\";\n (2) \"Cole takes both or neither, Lang takes _one_ only\"; (3)\n \"Cole takes _one_ only, Lang takes _one_ only\". And so with all\n similar phrases.\n\n It is also assumed that every rule is to be understood as\n implying the words \"and _vice versa_.\" Thus the first rule would\n imply the addition \"and, if either Cole or Lang takes only _one_\n condiment, then Barry takes salt.\"]\n\n pg193\n7.\n\n(1) Brothers, who are much admired, are apt to be self-conscious;\n\n(2) When two men of the same height are on opposite sides in Politics,\nif one of them has his admirers, so also has the other;\n\n(3) Brothers, who avoid general Society, look well when walking\ntogether;\n\n(4) Whenever you find two men, who differ in Politics and in their views\nof Society, and who are not both of them ugly, you may be sure that they\nlook well when walking together;\n\n(5) Ugly men, who look well when walking together, are not both of them\nfree from self-consciousness;\n\n(6) Brothers, who differs in Politics, and are not both of them\nhandsome, never give themselves airs;\n\n(7) John declines to go into Society, but never gives himself airs;\n\n(8) Brothers, who are apt to be self-conscious, though not _both_ of\nthem handsome, usually dislike Society;\n\n(9) Men of the same height, who do not give themselves airs, are free\nfrom self-consciousness;\n\n(10) Men, who agree on questions of Art, though they differ in Politics,\nand who are not both of them ugly, are always admired;\n\n(11) Men, who hold opposite views about Art and are not admired, always\ngive themselves airs;\n\n(12) Brothers of the same height always differ in Politics;\n\n(13) Two handsome men, who are neither both of them admired nor both of\nthem self-conscious, are no doubt of different heights;\n\n(14) Brothers, who are self-conscious, and do not both of them like\nSociety, never look well when walking together.\n\n [N.B. See Note at end of Problem 2.]\n\n pg194\n8.\n\n(1) A man can always master his father;\n\n(2) An inferior of a man's uncle owes that man money;\n\n(3) The father of an enemy of a friend of a man owes that man nothing;\n\n(4) A man is always persecuted by his son's creditors;\n\n(5) An inferior of the master of a man's son is senior to that man;\n\n(6) A grandson of a man's junior is not his nephew;\n\n(7) A servant of an inferior of a friend of a man's enemy is never\npersecuted by that man;\n\n(8) A friend of a superior of the master of a man's victim is that man's\nenemy;\n\n(9) An enemy of a persecutor of a servant of a man's father is that\nman's friend.\n\nThe Problem is to deduce some fact about great-grandsons.\n\n [N.B. In this Problem, it is assumed that all the men, here\n referred to, live in the same town, and that every pair of them\n are either \"friends\" or \"enemies,\" that every pair are related\n as \"senior and junior\", \"superior and inferior\", and that\n certain pairs are related as \"creditor and debtor\", \"father and\n son\", \"master and servant\", \"persecutor and victim\", \"uncle and\n nephew\".]\n\n\n9.\n\n \"Jack Sprat could eat no fat:\n His wife could eat no lean:\n And so, between them both,\n They licked the platter clean.\"\n\nSolve this as a Sorites-Problem, taking lines 3 and 4 as the Conclusion\nto be proved. It is permitted to use, as Premisses, not only all that is\nhere _asserted_, but also all that we may reasonably understand to be\n_implied_.\n\n pg195\n\n\nNOTES TO APPENDIX.\n\n\n(A) [See p. 167, line 6.]\n\nIt may, perhaps, occur to the Reader, who has studied Formal Logic that\nthe argument, here applied to the Propositions I and E, will apply\nequally well to the Propositions I and A (since, in the ordinary\ntext-books, the Propositions \"All xy are z\" and \"Some xy are not z\" are\nregarded as Contradictories). Hence it may appear to him that the\nargument might have been put as follows:--\n\n\"We now have I and A 'asserting.' Hence, if the Proposition 'All xy are\nz' be true, some things exist with the Attributes x and y: i.e. 'Some x\nare y.'\n\n\"Also we know that, if the Proposition 'Some xy are not-z' be true the\nsame result follows.\n\n\"But these two Propositions are Contradictories, so that one or other of\nthem _must_ be true. Hence this result is always true: i.e. the\nProposition 'Some x are y' is _always_ true!\n\n\"_Quod est absurdum._ Hence I _cannot_ assert.\"\n\nThis matter will be discussed in Part II; but I may as well give here\nwhat seems to me to be an irresistable proof that this view (that _A_\nand _I_ are Contradictories), though adopted in the ordinary text-books,\nis untenable. The proof is as follows:--\n\nWith regard to the relationship existing between the Class 'xy' and the\ntwo Classes 'z' and 'not-z', there are _four_ conceivable states of\nthings, viz.\n\n (1) Some xy are z, and some are not-z;\n (2) \" \" none \"\n (3) No xy \" some \"\n (4) \" \" none \"\n\nOf these four, No. (2) is equivalent to \"All xy are z\", No. (3) is\nequivalent to \"All xy are not-z\", and No. (4) is equivalent to \"No xy\nexist.\"\n\nNow it is quite undeniable that, of these _four_ states of things, each\nis, _a priori_, _possible_, some _one must_ be true, and the other three\n_must_ be false.\n\nHence the Contradictory to (2) is \"Either (1) or (3) or (4) is true.\"\nNow the assertion \"Either (1) or (3) is true\" is equivalent to \"Some xy\nare not-z\"; and the assertion \"(4) is true\" is equivalent to \"No xy\nexist.\" Hence the Contradictory to \"All xy are z\" may be expressed as\nthe Alternative Proposition \"Either some xy are not-z, or no xy exist,\"\nbut _not_ as the Categorical Proposition \"Some y are not-z.\"\n\n pg196\n(B) [See p. 171, at end of Section 2.]\n\nThere are yet _other_ views current among \"The Logicians\", as to the\n\"Existential Import\" of Propositions, which have not been mentioned in\nthis Section.\n\nOne is, that the Proposition \"some x are y\" is to be interpreted,\nneither as \"Some x _exist_ and are y\", nor yet as \"If there _were_ any x\nin existence, some of them _would_ be y\", but merely as \"Some x _can be_\ny; i.e. the Attributes x and y are _compatible_\". On _this_ theory,\nthere would be nothing offensive in my telling my friend Jones \"Some of\nyour brothers are swindlers\"; since, if he indignantly retorted \"What do\nyou _mean_ by such insulting language, you scoundrel?\", I should calmly\nreply \"I merely mean that the thing is _conceivable_----that some of\nyour brothers _might possibly_ be swindlers\". But it may well be doubted\nwhether such an explanation would _entirely_ appease the wrath of Jones!\n\nAnother view is, that the Proposition \"All x are y\" _sometimes_ implies\nthe actual _existence_ of x, and _sometimes_ does _not_ imply it; and\nthat we cannot tell, without having it in _concrete_ form, _which_\ninterpretation we are to give to it. _This_ view is, I think, strongly\nsupported by common usage; and it will be fully discussed in Part II:\nbut the difficulties, which it introduces, seem to me too formidable to\nbe even alluded to in Part I, which I am trying to make, as far as\npossible, easily intelligible to mere _beginners_.\n\n\n(C) [See p. 173, Sec. 4.]\n\nThe three Conclusions are\n\n \"No conceited child of mine is greedy\";\n \"None of my boys could solve this problem\";\n \"Some unlearned boys are not choristers.\"\n\n pg197\n\n\nINDEX.\n\n\nSec. 1.\n\n_Tables._\n\n I. Biliteral Diagram. Attributes of Classes, and\n Compartments, or Cells, assigned to them 25\n\n II. do. Representation of Uniliteral Propositions of\n Existence 34\n\n III. do. Representation of Biliteral Propositions of\n Existence and of Relation 35\n\n IV. Triliteral Diagram. Attributes of Classes, and\n Compartments, or Cells, assigned to them 42\n\n V. do. Representation of Particular and Universal\n Negative Propositions, of Existence and of Relation,\n in terms of x and m 46\n\n VI. do. do., in terms of y and m 47\n\n VII. do. Representation of Universal Affirmative\n Propositions of Relation, in terms of x and m 48\n\nVIII. do. do. in terms of y and m 49\n\n IX. Method of Subscripts. Formulae and Rules for Syllogisms 78\n\n\nSec. 2.\n\n_Words &c. explained._\n\n'Abstract' Proposition 59\n\n'Adjuncts' 1\n\n'Affirmative' Proposition 10\n\n'Attributes' 1\n\n'Biliteral' Diagram 22\n\n \" Proposition 27\n\n'Class' 1 1/2\n\nClasses, arbitrary limits of 3 1/2\n\n \" , subdivision of 4\n pg198\n'Classification' 1 1/2\n\n'Codivisional' Classes 3\n\n'Complete' Conclusion of a Sorites 85\n\n'Conclusion' of a Sorites \"\n\n \" \" Syllogism 56\n\n'Concrete' Proposition 59\n\n'Consequent' in a Sorites 85\n\n \" \" Syllogism 56\n\n'Converse' Propositions 31\n\n'Conversion' of a Proposition \"\n\n'Copula' of a Proposition 9\n\n'Definition' 6\n\n'Dichotomy' 3 1/2\n\n'Differentia' 1 1/2\n\n'Division' 3\n\n'Eliminands' of a Sorites 85\n\n \" \" Syllogism 56\n\n'Entity' 70\n\n'Equivalent' Propositions 17\n\n'Fallacy' 81\n\n'Genus' 1 1/2\n\n'Imaginary' Class \"\n\n \" Name 4 1/2\n\n'Individual' 2\n\n'Like', and 'Unlike', Signs of Terms 70\n\n'Name' 4\n\n'Negative' Proposition 10\n\n'Normal' form of a Proposition 9\n\n \" \" of Existence 11\n\n \" \" of Relation 12\n\n'Nullity' 70\n\n'Partial' Conclusion of a Sorites 85\n\n'Particular' Proposition 9\n\n'Peculiar' Attributes 1 1/2\n\n'Predicate' of a Proposition 9\n\n \" of a Proposition of Existence 11\n\n \" \" Relation 12\n\n'Premisses' of a Sorites 85\n\n \" \" Syllogism 56\n pg199\n'Proposition' 8\n\n \" 'in _I_', 'in _E_', and 'in _A_' 9\n\n \" 'in terms of' certain Letters 27\n\n \" of Existence 11\n\n \" of Relation 12\n\n'Real' Class 1 1/2\n\n'Retinends' of a Sorites 85\n\n \" \" Syllogism 56\n\n'Sign of Quantity' in a Proposition 9\n\n'Sitting on the Fence' 26\n\n'Some', technical meaning of 8\n\n'Sorites' 85\n\n'Species' 1 1/2\n\n'Subject' of a Proposition 9\n\n \" \" of Existence 11\n\n \" \" of Relation 12\n\n'Subscripts' of Terms 70\n\n'Syllogism' 56\n\nSymbol \".'.\" \"\n\n \" \"+\" and \">\" 70\n\n'Terms' of a Proposition 9\n\n'Things' 1\n\nTranslation of Proposition from 'concrete' to 'abstract' 59\n\n \" \" 'abstract' to 'subscript' 72\n\n'Triliteral' Diagram 39\n\n'Underscoring' of letters 91\n\n'Uniliteral' Proposition 27\n\n'Universal' \" 10\n\n'Universe of Discourse' (or 'Univ.') 12\n\n'Unreal' Class 1 1/2\n\n'Unreal' Name 4 1/2\n\n\n pg200\n\n\nTHE END.\n\n\n\n px-1\n\n\n WORKS BY LEWIS CARROLL.\n\n * * * * *\n\n PUBLISHED BY\n MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD., LONDON.\n\n * * * * *\n\n\nALICE'S ADVENTURES IN WONDERLAND. 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Being a Facsimile of the original MS.\nBook, which was afterwards developed into \"Alice's Adventures in\nWonderland.\" With Thirty-seven Illustrations by the Author. (Begun, July\n1862; finished, Feb. 1863; first published, in facsimile, in 1886.)\nCrown 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, price 4_s._ net. Third Thousand.\n\n\nTHE NURSERY \"ALICE.\" Containing Twenty Coloured Enlargements from\nTENNIEL'S Illustrations to \"Alice's Adventures in Wonderland.\" With text\nadapted to Nursery Readers. Cover designed by E. GERTRUDE THOMSON.\n(First published in 1890.) 4to, boards, price 1_s._ net. Eleventh\nThousand.\n px-2\n\nTHROUGH THE LOOKING-GLASS, AND WHAT ALICE FOUND THERE. With Fifty\nIllustration by TENNIEL. (First published in 1871.) Cr. 8vo, cloth, gilt\nedges, price 6_s._ net. Sixty-first Thousand.\n\n\nTHROUGH THE LOOKING-GLASS, AND WHAT ALICE FOUND THERE; PEOPLE'S EDITION.\n(First published in 1887.) Crown 8vo, cloth, gilt edges, price 2_s._\n6_d._ net. 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EMBERLIN & SON, 4 Magdalene Street, Oxford.\nPrice 1_s._\n\nN.B.--If ordered by Post, an additional payment will be required, to\ncover cost of postage, as follows:--\n\nOne copy, 1 1/2_d._ Two or three do., 2_d._ Four do., 2 1/2_d._ Five to\nfourteen do., 3_d._ Each subsequent fourteen or fraction thereof, 1 1/2_d._\n\n\n\n * * * * *\n * * * * *\n\nTranscriber's Note\n\nThis book makes extensive use of page references. To assist the reader,\npage markers in the forms \"pg-ix\", \"pg193\" & \"px-3\" have been included\nin the right margin at points corresponding closely to the tops of the\noriginal pages. These may be searched for to locate the material\nreferred to. In the main section, these page markers are always given\nwith 3 digits including, if necessary, leading zeroes.\n\nThis book contains a large number of line drawn illustrations which are\nun-credited. As these cannot be rendered here in the original manner\nthey have been reproduced as well as possible in the manner known as\n\"ASCII art\".\n\nIn this ASCII file, the greater-than symbol (>) has bee substituted\nfor the Pilcrow symbol.\n\nA number of transcription errors were found in the original book. As\nthese were clearly not part of the Author's intention they have, as far\nas possible, been identified and corrected in accordance with the\nmethods given by the Author. These corrections are listed here below\nwith their locations and original text. In these notes the word\n'natural' identifies a letter symbol occurring without a prime mark.\n\nPage viii: \"189\" corrected to \"194\".\nPage viii: \"188\" corrected to \"192\".\nPage xv, '=Real=' and '=Unreal=', or '=Imaginary=', Classes: \"1 1/2\"\n corrected to \"2\".\nPage xix, Propositions beginning with \"Some\": \"18\" corrected to \"19\".\nPage xix, Rules: \"19\" corrected to \"20\".\nPage xix, The West and East Halves ...: \"24\" corrected to \"23\".\nPage xxi, The Proposition \"All x are y\" ...: was originally shown as\n occurring in page 34.\nPage xxii, And of three other similar arrangements: \"37\" corrected to\n \"36\".\nPage xxiii, The Proposition 'No xm exist': \"43\" corrected to \"44\".\nPage 060: \"contruct\" corrected to \"construct\".\nPage 094, Paper V: missing word \"it\" supplied.\nPage 111, #28: \"No h are k-natural\" corrected to \"No h are k-prime\".\nPage 111, #30: \"No a are h-natural\" corrected to \"No a are h-prime\".\nPage 111, #30: \"No c are n-natural\" corrected to \"No c are n-prime\".\nPage 123, #57 (d): \"mortally offended if I fail to notice them\"\n corrected to \"mortally offended\".\nPage 128, #34: \"Some x-prime are y\" corrected to \"Some x-natural are y\".\nPage 146, #30: \"x_{1}m-prime_{0}\" corrected to \"x_{1}m-natural_{0}\".\nPage 147, #32: \"xm-natural_{0}\" corrected to \"xm-prime_{0}\".\nPage 156, #18 (4/1): \"be\" corrected to \"be-sub:zero\".\nPage 156, #22 (5/1): \"ch\" corrected to \"ch-sub:zero\".\nPage 157, #23 (5/2): second underline corrected from single to double.\nPage 157, #23 (2/2): first underline corrected from single to double.\nPage 157, #23 (>2): \"h_{1}c\" corrected to \"h_{1}c-sub:zero\".\nPage 157, #26 (5/1): \"a_{1}c-natural_{0}\" corrected to\n \"a_{1}c-prime_{0}\".\nPage 157, #26 (>2): \"e_{1}c-natural_{0}\" corrected to\n \"e_{1}c-prime_{0}\".\nPage 157, #29 (8/2): first underline corrected from single to double.\nPage 161, #36 (4/2): \"e'd-prime\" corrected to \"e'd-natural\".\nPage 161, #39 (1/2): \"c-prime+d\" corrected to \"c-natural+d\".\nPage 161, #40: \"a\" and \"b\" interchanged.\nPage 161, #43 (1/1): \"b-natural_{1}e_{0}\" corrected to\n \"b-prime_{1}e_{0}\".\nPage 162, #52 (3/1): \"h'k-prime_{0}\" corrected to \"h'k-natural_{0}\".\nPage 163, #55 (3/2): \"c'd-prime\" corrected to \"c'd-natural\".\nPage 163, #57 (1/2): \"h-natural+d'\" corrected to \"h-prime+d'\".\n\n\nIn the original book at the top of page 97, the following text occurred:\n\n [N.B. The numbers at the foot of each page indicate the pages\n where the corresponding matter may be found.]\n\nIn accordance with the un-paged medium here this has been changed to:\n\n [N.B. Reference tags for Examples, Answers & Solutions will be\n found in the right margin.]\n\nThe part of the book to which this relates contains, by sections,\n\"Examples\" (Exercises for the student), \"Answers\" (to the Examples) &\n\"Solutions\" (Worked Answers). All Example sections have corresponding\nAnswer sections. For Sections 2 & 3, worked Solutions are not supplied;\nfor Sections 4-7, Solutions are given by 2 different methods. In\nassociation with this, the original text contained editorial notes at\nthe foot of each page giving the page numbers for the related Sections.\nIn this version, these notes are replaced with marginal tags such as\nEX3, AN4, SL5, & SL6-A and SL7-B which are placed at the top of each\nSection to identify the current location. As with page tags, these may\nbe searched for to locate the material refered to. (A search for \"SL4\"\nshould find successively both \"SL4-A\" & \"SL4-B\".) These tags are unique\nregardless of case.","title":"Symbolic Logic","tradition":"philosophy-ethics","translated_text":null,"word_count":66263}