{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_32066/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_32066","id":"gutenberg_32066","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/32066","summary":null,"tags":["Calendar","Calendar -- Mexico","Category: Archaeology & Anthropology","Category: History - Ancient","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Civilization -- History","Mayas -- Antiquities","Mythology","Swastikas"],"text":"The Fundamental Principles\n\n                                    Of\n\n                     Old and New World Civilizations\n\nA Comparative Research Based on a Study of the Ancient Mexican Religious,\n                  Sociological, and Calendrical Systems.\n\n                                    By\n\n                              Zelia Nuttall\n\n Honorary Special Assistant of the Peabody Museum; Fellow of the American\n Association for the Advancement of Science; Member of the Philosophical\nSociety, Philadelphia; Honorary Member of the Archaeological Association,\n    Univ. of Pennsylvania; Corresponding Member of the Antiquarian and\n  Numismatic Society of Philadelphia; of the Anthropological Society of\n  Washington; of the Societ\u00e1 Italiana d\u2019Antropologia; of the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de\nG\u00e9ographie de Gen\u00e8ve; of the Sociedad Cientifico \u201cAntonio Alzate,\u201d Mexico;\n              and of the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des Am\u00e9ricanistes de Paris.\n\n                  Archaeological and Ethnological Papers\n\n                                  Of The\n\n                              Peabody Museum\n\n                            Harvard University\n\n                                 Vol. II.\n\n                             Cambridge, Mass.\n\n          Peabody Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology.\n\n                               March, 1901.\n\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\n\nEditorial Note.\nAuthor\u2019s Preface.\nThe Fundamental Principles Of Old And New World Civilizations.\nAppendix I. Comparative Table of some Quechua, Nahuatl and Maya Words.\nAppendix II. A Prayer-meeting of the Star-worshippers.\nAppendix III. Comparative Lists of Words.\nIndex.\nNote.\nFootnotes\n\n\n\n\n\n\nEDITORIAL NOTE.\n\n\nThe author of this volume explains in her preface how she came to be led\nbeyond her special field of research into a comparative study of the early\ncivilizations of the Old World; and how she traced the origin of the\nswastika, in Mexico, to an astronomical source and, in all countries\nalike, found its use as a sacred symbol accompanied by evidences of a\ncertain phase of culture based on pole-star worship, and the recognition\nof the fixed laws of nature, which found expression in the ideal of\ncelestial kingdoms or states organized on a set numerical plan and\nregulated by the apparent revolutions of circumpolar constellations.\n\nThe results of the author\u2019s researches seem to justify her summary of\nconclusions; but she distinctly states that she does not wish to propound\nany theory. She invites further study and discussion by Orientalists and\nAmericanists before drawing final conclusions from the facts she has\ngathered. The publication of this paper will open anew the consideration\nof pre-Columbian visits to the New World, shown, as many have believed, by\nidentities too many and too close to be considered as mere resemblances or\nas the natural results of independent intellectual development.\n\nThe illustrations are nearly all from drawings by the author. The\nanalytical Index has been prepared by Miss Mead. It will be seen, by the\nnumbering at the bottom of each page, that it was at first intended to\ninclude this paper in Volume I of the Archaeological and Ethnological\nPapers of the Museum; but the addition of the text relating to the Old\nWorld made too bulky a volume, and it is therefore issued as Volume II of\nthe series.\n\nTo Mrs. Nuttall for the gift of her work, the results of years of\nresearch, and to the several generous friends who have provided the means\nfor publishing this volume, the editor expresses his gratitude in behalf\nof the Museum.\n\nF. W. PUTNAM,\nCurator of the Peabody Museum.\nHarvard University,\nMarch 1, 1901.\n\n\n\n\n\nAUTHOR\u2019S PREFACE.\n\n\nIn February, 1898, while engaged upon the translation and commentary of\nthe anonymous Hispano Mexican MS. of the Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale\nLibrary, of Florence, my interest was suddenly and unexpectedly diverted\nfrom my self-imposed task by the circumstances described in the opening\npages of the present publication.\n\nLaying my work aside, as I then supposed, for a few days only, I seized\nthe new thread of investigation with a keen and enthusiastic interest,\nlittle knowing that it, in turn, was not only to hold me fast for nearly\nthree years, but was to lead me out of my original field of research, into\ndistant, and to me, hitherto untrodden realms, in close pursuit of facts\nrelating to the oldest forms of religion, social organization, and\nsymbolism.\n\nThe first portion of the present publication was planned as a short\nmonograph of forty-one pages, treating of the origin of the native\nswastika or cross symbols, and was written in July, 1898, its outcome\nbeing the unforeseen conclusion that the cosmical conceptions of the\nancient Mexicans were identical with those of the Zu\u00f1is. I next traced the\nsame fundamental set of ideas in Yucatan, Central America and Peru and\nformed the wish to add this investigation to the preceding. The result has\nbeen the portion of the work extending from page 41, paragraph 2, to page\n284, which was printed in 1899.\n\nHaving once launched into a course of comparative research, the deep\ninterest I have always taken in the question of Asiatic contact led me to\ncarry my investigation of the same subject into China. It then seemed\nimpossible not to extend researches from Eastern to Western Asia, and from\nAsia Minor to Egypt, Greece, Rome and Western Europe. It is in this\nunpremeditated way that the scope of the present investigation enlarged\nitself of its own accord, for the simple reason that the most interesting\nand precious facts fell into my way as I advanced and all I had to do was\nto pick them up and add them to my collection of evidence.\n\nOne serious disadvantage, arising from the circumstance that the present\ninvestigation has been in press for nearly three years, is my inability to\nmake any alteration, amendment, or addition, in the earlier portions,\nwhich stand as written at different times. It is a matter of regret to me\nthat I was not acquainted with O\u2019Neil\u2019s \u201cNight of the Gods\u201d and Hewitt\u2019s\n\u201cRuling Races of Prehistoric Times,\u201d at an earlier stage of my\ninvestigation, as through them my publication would have been enriched by\nmany valuable additions which I could have incorporated in the body of my\nwork without unduly sacrificing its unity of form.\n\nIn the line of Maya investigation notable advances have been made since I\nwrote (on page 221), about the \u201cseptenary set of signs\u201d described by Mr.\nA. P. Maudslay in 1886, and about the inscription on the tablet of the\nTemple of the Cross at Palenque (pp. 237-39). Since that time an important\npublication on the Tablet of the Cross, to which I should have liked to\nrefer, has been issued by the much esteemed Nestor of Maya investigations,\nHerr Geheimrath Dr. F\u00f6rstemann. My attention has also been drawn by the\nbest versed of American students of the Maya Codices, Mr. Charles P.\nBowditch, to the fact that Mr. Maudslay now recognizes the general\nrecurrence of an eighth sign in combination with the septenary group,\ncausing this to consist of an initial glyph, followed by seven instead of\nsix signs. Referring the reader to pp. 221 and 222, I point out that the\nemployment of an initial glyph, representing the synopsis of a whole,\nfollowed by seven signs, appears even more strongly to corroborate my view\nthat the inhabitants of Copan were acquainted with the septenary, cosmical\ndivision I have traced.\n\nMy fellow archaeologists will understand the disadvantage of issuing an\ninvestigation partly written a few years previously, and will realize\nthat, had I, at the outset, been in possession of all the facts I have\nsince learned, the present work would have been very differently planned\nand executed. On the other hand, as it partakes somewhat of the nature of\na log-book, the reader is able to follow closely my blundering course, and\nwill recognize and appreciate some of its perils and difficulties. It\nbeing, unfortunately, impossible to re-write the book. I shall have to be\nresigned to incur some criticism and blame for omissions, which could have\nbeen averted. I shall, however, be content if my prolonged study of\nancient Mexican archaeology and the present research open out new lines of\ninvestigation, and conclusively prove that primitive cross-symbols and the\nswastika are universally accompanied by vestiges of a certain set of\ncosmical conceptions and schemes of organization, which can be traced back\nto an original pole-star worship. I can but think that the material I have\ncollected will also lead to a recognition that the r\u00f4le of the Ph\u0153nicians,\nas intermediaries of ancient civilization, was greater than has been\nsupposed, and that it is imperative that future research be devoted to a\nfresh study and examination of those indications which appear to show that\nAmerica must have been intermittently colonized by the intermediation of\nMediterranean seafarers.\n\nTo me the most interesting result of the present investigation is the fact\nthat, having once started on an unpremeditated course of study, I found an\nunsuspected wealth of material and finally attained one main, totally\nundreamed-of conclusion, concerning the law governing the evolution of\nreligion and civilization. This leads me to think that, as I groped in\ndarkness, searching for light, I unwittingly struck the true key-note of\nthat great universal theme which humanity, with a growing perception of\nexisting, universal harmony, has ever been striving to seize and\nincorporate into their lives. The fact that many of the transcriptions of\nthe original harmony have been and are discordant, and that they\ntemporarily obscure, instead of rendering, its sublime grandeur, unity and\nnoble simplicity, appears as the inevitable result of the mental activity,\ningenuity and creative imagination to which mankind also owes its\nintellectual and spiritual progress.\n\nIn conclusion I regret my inability to express adequately my grateful\nappreciation of the unfailing loyalty of those true friends, in particular\nProf. F. W. Putnam, who, trusting in the earnestness of my purpose and\nendeavor, have constantly encouraged and cheered me as they patiently\nawaited the long-delayed completion of my work.\n\nZ. N.\nCAMBRIDGE, MASS.,\nDECEMBER 31, 1900.\n\n\n\n\n\nTHE FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF OLD AND NEW WORLD CIVILIZATIONS.\n\n\nOne evening, in February, 1898, I left my desk and, stepping to the\nwindow, looked out at Polaris and the circumpolar region of the sky, with\na newly awakened and eager interest.\n\nFor thirteen years I had been studying and collecting material with the\nhope of obtaining some understanding of the calendar, religion and\ncosmogony of the ancient Mexicans, but had hitherto purposely refrained\nfrom formulating or expressing any conclusions on the latter subjects\nhaving felt unable to extract a clear and satisfactory understanding of\nthe native beliefs from the chaotic mass of accumulated data under which\nthey lay like the ruin of an ancient temple. Though frequently\ndiscouraged, I had, however, never ceased to pursue my research and to\nnote carefully the slightest indication or suggestion which might prove of\nultimate value. Becoming utterly absorbed in the collection of such notes,\nI found no time to publish anything during the past four years, though\nrealizing, with regret, that those interested in my work might be\ndisappointed at my delay in issuing the papers announced, in 1894, as\nspeedily forthcoming. Slowly but steadily, however, I was gaining ground.\nVarious excursions along new lines of research increased my experience\nand, in crossing and re-crossing the field of ancient Mexico, I frequently\nhad occasion to observe certain familiar landmarks, from a new point of\nview, and illuminated by rays of fresh light proceeding from recently\nacquired sources. It was remarkable how often facts, which had seemed so\nhopelessly complicated, finally appeared to be quite simple and\ncomprehensible. This was noticeably the case with the Aztec deities which,\nfor years, had seemed to me as numberless. After closely studying their\nrespective symbols, attributes and names, during several consecutive\nmonths, and subjecting them to a final minute analysis, I found that their\nnumber dwindled in a remarkable way and also verified the truth of the\nstatement made by the anonymous author of the Biblioteca Nazionale\nmanuscript which I was editing, that the Mexicans painted one and the same\ngod under a different aspect \u201cwith different colours,\u201d according to the\nvarious names they gave him in each instance.\n\nIt was particularly interesting to find that, in assuming that certain\nnames designated different native deities, the early Spanish writers had\ncommitted a mistake as great as though someone, reading the litany of the\nVirgin in a Catholic prayer-book, for the first time, inferred that it was\na series of invocations addressed to distinct divinities, amongst whom\nfigured the \u201cmorning star,\u201d a \u201cmirror of justice,\u201d and a \u201cmystical rose,\u201d\netc. An examination of the texts of several native prayers preserved,\nestablished that the Mexicans addressed their prayers to a supreme Creator\nand ruler, whom they termed \u201cinvisible, incomprehensible and impalpable,\u201d\nand revered as \u201cthe father and mother of all.\u201d Some of their so-called\nidols were, after all, either attempts to represent in objective form, the\nattributes of the divine power, the forces of nature, the elements, etc.,\nor rebus figures. As these \u201cgods\u201d or \u201cidols\u201d are enumerated farther on and\nare exhaustively treated in my commentary of the Biblioteca Nazionale\nmanuscript, now in press, it suffices for my present purpose merely to\nmention here that the most mysterious figure of Mexican cosmogony,\nTezcatlipoca, whose symbolical name literally means \u201cshining mirror,\u201d\nproved to be identical with Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the underworld,\nwhose title may also be interpreted as \u201cthe ruler or regent of the North,\u201d\nsince Mictlampa is the name of this cardinal point.\n\nThe Codex Fuenleal (Anales del Museo Nacional, Mexico, tomo II, p. 88)\npreserves an important myth relating how Tezcatlipoca, after having been\nthe sun, was cast down from this supreme position by Huitzilopochtli,\n\u201cdescended to the water,\u201d but had arisen again in the shape of an ocelot,\nand transformed himself into the constellation of Ursa Major.\n\nAccording to Sahagun the native name of this star-group was Citlal-Colotl\nor \u201cstar scorpion.\u201d Reference to Nahuatl dictionaries revealed that this\ninsect had doubtlessly been named colotl on account of its habit of\nrecurving its tail when enraged.\n\nThe Nahuatl verb coloa means, to bend over or twist something, the\nadjective coltic is applied to something bent over or recurved. The noun\ncolotli, which is almost identical with colotl, means \u201cthe cross-beams,\nthe mounting, branch or handle of a cross\u201d (\u201carmadura de manga de cruz.\u201d\nSee Molina\u2019s dictionary).\n\nThe above facts show that the idea underlying the name for Ursa Major is\nprimarily that of \u201csomething bent over or recurved.\u201d It is obvious that\nthe form of the constellation answers to this description. It is,\nmoreover, extremely significant to find, in the Maya language also, a\ncertain resemblance between the words for scorpion and for a cross. This,\nin Maya, is zin-che and that for a scorpion is zin-au. The above data\njustify the induction that the native conception of a cross was connected\nwith the idea of its arms being bent over or recurved, as in the Mexican\ncalendar-swastika.\n\nIt is important to find the scorpion figured as one of several symbols of\nMictlantecuhtli, the lord of the North, in his sculptured effigy preserved\nat the National Museum of Mexico (fig. 19).\n\nIt is more significant that the verb coloa, besides meaning \u201cto bend over\nor twist something,\u201d also expressed the action \u201cof describing or\nperforming a circle by walking around something.\u201d Now this is precisely\nwhat Tezcatlipoca (the Ursa Major) is represented as doing on page 77 of\nthe B.N. manuscript, since he figures there, surrounded by a circle of\nfootsteps. I could but note that this fact showed that the name of Colotl,\napplied to the constellation, was not incompatible with its identification\nwith Tezcatlipoca. Once my attention had been drawn to the action of\nwalking, performed by this god, I naturally considered, with fresh\ninterest, the peculiar fact that he is usually represented with one foot\nonly. The circumstances under which he had been deprived of this member\nare set forth in several of the Codices wherein we see that, after he\n\u201cdescended to the water,\u201d he had an encounter with an alligator, who had\nviciously bitten off his foot and carried it away. (See F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary Codex,\npp. 3 and 74. Vatican, II, p. 74.) Pictures representing Tezcatlipoca,\nafter this event, display the broken end of the tibia exposed and the\ntransverse section of the bone forming a ring, usually painted either\nwhite or red. Special pains seem to have been taken to accentuate the\nhollowness of the bone ring, since its centre is usually painted blue, the\nsymbolical color of air, and conventionalized puffs of breath or air are\nshown as issuing from it (fig. 1). In some cases, as on the sculptured\nmonolith called \u201cthe Stone of Tizoc,\u201d these symbols of breath, issuing\nfrom the broken tibia, are figured in such a way that modern writers,\nignoring what they were meant to represent, were led to identify them as\nsome animal\u2019s tail attached to the foot of the deity. The hollow circle\nand puffs of air, constantly associated with the god, frequently figure as\nhis ear ornament when his broken tibia is concealed (fig. 2, no. 3).\nBesides certain fanciful interpretations which have been given to this\nsymbol, it has been explained as being a hieroglyph conveying the name\nTezcatlipoca, and consisting of an obsidian mirror=tezcatl, and\nsmoke=poctli. A possible objection to this assertion might be that in\nMexican pictography, the mirror is invariably represented as jet-black, in\na white or red frame. In the Codex Telleriano Remensis, a combination of\nsymbols (of water, fire and a serpent) are figured as issuing from the\nbase of the bone (fig. 1, nos. 5, 6). Having taken particular pains to\ncollect all representations of the footless god, I was specially\ninterested in one (F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary, p. 1) in which he is figured as standing on\nthe cross-shaped symbol ollin, the accepted meaning of which is Four\nMovements. The most remarkable and puzzling picture I found, however, is\nthat (fig. 1, no. 2) in which the jaws of a tecpatl, the symbol of the\nNorth, are represented as holding one of Tezcatlipoca\u2019s ankles in a tight\ngrip and practically fastening him thus to the centre of a diagonal cross.\nIn this and other pictures (Codex F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary, 41, 43 and 96) it is obvious\nthat the artists had endeavored to convey the idea of a person permanently\nattached to one spot by one foot. The only form of locomotion possible to\nhim would be to describe a circle by hobbling on one foot around the\nother, which would serve as an axis or pivot. The association of this\npeculiarity with the symbols of the North impressed me deeply and\ninvoluntarily caused me to think of a title bestowed in the Codex Fuenleal\nupon the supreme divinity, namely, \u201cThe Wheel of the Winds;\u201d as well as of\nan expression employed by Tezozomoc (Cronica, p. 574). Referring to the\nconstellations revered by the natives, he mentions \u201cthe North and its\nwheel.\u201d\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                 Figure 1\n\n\nRealizing that some definite and important meaning must underlie the\nremarkable representations of Tezcatlipoca, I resorted to all possible\nmeans to gain an understanding of them. Referring to Nahuatl dictionaries,\nI found a variety of synonymous names for a person who limped or was lame\nor maimed. Amongst them was Popoztequi from poztequi, the verb, \u201cto break\na leg.\u201d Other names were xopuztequi, xotemol and Icxipuztequi\n(icxitl=foot). The latter name happened to be familiar to me, for the\ncommentator of the Vatican Codex, Padre Rios, gives it as the name of a\ngod and translates it as \u201cthe lame devil.\u201d He records it immediately after\nMictlantecuhtli, the lord of the North, and designates it as the name of\none of the four principal and primitive gods of the Mexicans.\n\nThe commentator of the Telleriano-Remensis Codex, moreover, records that\nthese four gods were \u201csaid to have been stars and had fallen from the\nheavens. At the present time there are stars in the firmament named after\nthem\u201d (Kingsborough, vol. v, pp. 132 and 162).\n\nOther synonymous terms for lame persons were icxinecuiltic and\nxonecuiltic. Tzimpuztequi, on the other hand, besides meaning lame, also\nsignified something crooked, bent or incurvated. The second name furnished\nme with an important clue, for Sahagun distinctly records that the native\nname for the constellation Ursa Minor was Xonecuilli and that it was\nfigured as an S (Historia, 1. VII, cap. 3). Besides, the Academia MS. of\nhis monumental work contains the native drawing of this star-group\nreproduced as fig. 16, no. 1. He also states that S-shaped loaves of bread\nnamed xonecuilli were made at a certain festival in honor of this\nconstellation, while the B.N. MS. records that a peculiar recurved weapon,\nfigured in the hands of deities, was named xonequitl (fig. 16, nos. 2 and\n3).\n\nThe above data furnished me with indisputable evidence of the existence,\nin ancient Mexico, of a species of star cult connected with the\ncircumpolar constellations and with Tezcatlipoca, the lord of the North,\nthe central figure of the native cosmogony. It was puzzling to find this\ngod connected not only with the Ursa Major but also with Ursa Minor, but\nan indication suggesting a possible explanation or reconciliation of these\napparent inconsistencies is furnished by the descriptions of the strange\nritual performance, which was annually repeated at the festival\nTlacaxipehualiztli and was evidently the dramatization of a sacred myth.\n\nAs an illustration and a description of this rite are contained in the\nB.N. MS. and the subject is fully treated in my commentary, I shall but\nallude here to its salient features. It represented a mortal combat\nbetween a prisoner, attached by a short piece of cord to the centre of a\nlarge circular stone, and five warriors, who fought him singly. The fifth,\nwho was masked as an ocelot and always obtained victory in the unequal\ncontest, fought with his left hand, being \u201cleft-handed,\u201d a peculiarity\nascribed to Huitzilopochtli. It was he who subsequently wore the skin of\nthe flayed victim, an action which obviously symbolized a metamorphosis.\nOne point is obvious: this drama exhibits the victor as a warrior who was\nable to circumscribe the stone freely and was masked as an\nocelot\u2014Tezcatlipoca\u2014the Ursa Major, but was endowed, at the same time,\nwith the left-handedness identified with Huitzilopochtli. This mythical\npersonage vanquishes and actually wears the skin of the man attached to\nthe stone; becomes his embodiment, in point of fact, and obtains the\nsupremacy for which he had fought so desperately. In the light shed by the\nCodex Fuenleal, before cited, it was easy to see that the entire\nperformance dramatized the mythical combat between Tezcatlipoca and\nHuitzilopochtli for the position of the ruling power, in the heavens\u2014the\nsun. At the same time it was decidedly puzzling to find celestial\nsupremacy personified by a man, firmly fastened to one spot, the centre of\na stone circle. It was impossible not to perceive the identity of thought\nunderlying the representation of this prisoner and the pictures of\nTezcatlipoca, the one-footed or lame god\u2014Xonecuilli the Ursa Minor. It was\nmoreover of extreme interest to note the existence of traditional records,\npreserved in the native myths, of changes in the relative positions of\ncelestial bodies and of the Ursa Major in particular.\n\nWhilst dwelling upon the striking analogy existing between the\nrepresentations of Tezcatlipoca held fast by the symbol of the North and\nthe prisoner attached to what is described either as \u201ca temalacatl, stone\nwhorl\u201d or \u201can image of the sun,\u201d my gaze fell on a small model of the\ncalendar-stone of Mexico, hanging above my desk, and rested on the symbol\nOllin in its centre. The learned director of the National Museum of\nMexico, Se\u00f1or Troncoso (Anales del Museo Nacional, vol. II), had expressed\nhis view that this symbol was an actual figurative representation of the\nannual apparent movements of the sun, and recorded its positions at the\nsolstitial and equinoctial periods. I had, moreover, submitted a drawing\nof this same figure to the eminent English astronomer, Prof. Norman\nLockyer, and he had corroborated this view and established its\ncorrectness. On the other hand, I had long noted that the _Ollin_ was\nusually figured with an eye, the symbol for star, in its centre (fig. 2,\nnos. 1, 3), and had also paid particular attention to the fact that the\nMexicans had conceived the ideas of two suns, a young day sun and an\nancient night or black sun. In the B. N. MS., on the mantas worn at their\nrespective festivals, the day sun is depicted in a somewhat fanciful\nmanner, in blue and red on a white field. The black sun is, however,\nrepresented in classical style, so to speak, as on the sculptured\ncalendar-stone, with four larger and four smaller V-shaped rays issuing\nfrom it. In this connection it is well to recall here that the Mexicans\nhad no specific name for the sun, beyond _Tonatiuh_, which merely means\n\u201cthat which sheds light\u201d and could equally apply to the stars. In the\npicture-writings the image of the sun was employed to convey the word\n_Teotl_. But we find that this word, assumed to be equivalent to their\n\u201cDios\u201d by the Spaniards, was also a reverential title bestowed upon\nchieftains and superiors and was constantly employed in the composition of\nwords to signify something divine, supremely beautiful, etc. Whilst I was\npondering on the possibility that the symbol _Ollin_ might have\nrepresented the movements of the luminaries of night as well as the orb of\nday, my attention became fixed upon the four numerals in each of the ends\nof the symbol and I was struck by a certain resemblance between their\npositions and those of the four stars which form the body of the bear in\nthe constellation of Ursa Major. It was then that it occurred to me, as\nmentioned in the opening sentence of this introduction, to look at the\nfamiliar constellations, with a view to verifying the resemblance noted\nabove. As my gaze sought \u201cthe pointers\u201d in Ursa Major, and then\nmechanically turned to Polaris, I thought of some passages I had recently\nre-read, in Professor Lockyer\u2019s Dawn of Astronomy, realizing that his\nobservations, dealing with the latitude 26\u00b0 (taking Thebes as representing\nEgypt), could equally apply to Mexico as this country stretches from\nlatitude 15\u00b0 to 31\u00b0.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                 Figure 2\n\n\n\u201cThe moment primitive man began to observe anything, he must have taken\nnote of the stars, and as soon as he began to talk about them he must have\nstarted by defining, in some way or other, the particular star he\nmeant.... Observers would first consider the brightest stars and separate\nthem from the dimmer ones; they would then discuss the stars which never\nset (the circumpolar constellations) and separate them from those which\ndid rise and set. Then they would naturally, in a northern clime, choose\nout the constellation of the Great Bear or Orion, and for small groups,\nthe Pleiades (_op. cit._ p. 132).... A few years\u2019 observation would have\nappeared to demonstrate the absolute changelessness of the places of the\nrising and setting of the same stars. It is true that this result would\nhave been found to be erroneous when a long period of time had elapsed and\nwhen observation became more accurate, but for hundreds of years the stars\nwould certainly appear to represent fixity, while the movements of the\nsun, moon and planets would seem to be bound by no law ... would appear\nerratic, so long as the order of their movements was not known.\u201d\n\nThe reflection that Ursa Major was probably the first constellation which\nmade any deep impression upon the mind of prehistoric man in America, as\nelsewhere, lent an additional interest to the star-group, as I\nconcentrated my mind upon its form and endeavored to imagine it in four\nequidistant positions, corresponding to the numerals in the symbol _Ollin_\nof the calendar-stone of Mexico (fig. 2, no. 2).\n\nI succeeded in obtaining, in succession, mental images of the\nconstellation in four opposite positions. This effort led to an unforeseen\nresult which surprised me. In a flash of mental vision I perceived a\nquadrupled image of the entire constellation, standing out in\nscintillating brilliancy from the intense darkness of the wintry sky (fig.\n3, no. 3). At the same moment I saw that it bore the semblance of a\nsymmetrical swastika of giant proportions. This fact, so unexpectedly\nrealized, gave rise to such an absorbing train of new ideas and\ninterpretations of the data I had accumulated, that I left my window, on\nthat memorable night, with a growing perception of the deep and powerful\ninfluence the prolonged observation of Polaris and the circumpolar\nconstellations would naturally have exerted upon the mind of primitive\nman. Deeply impressed with the striking resemblance between the composite\nimage of Polaris, Ursa Major, and certain forms of the swastika, I started\non a fresh line of investigation, and devoted myself to the study of\nprimitive astronomy and its influence upon the intellectual development of\nmankind in general and the American races in particular. After having\nworked, during thirteen years, without any preconceived ideas about the\nancient Mexican civilization and without formulating any general\nconclusion concerning it, I saw all the knowledge I had slowly acquired\nfall into rank and file and organize itself into a simple and harmonious\nwhole.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                 Figure 3\n\n\nRealizing this I perceived how, with the origin of the swastika, I had\nfound the origin of the set of primeval ideas which had governed the human\nrace from its infancy and which, in Mexican and Central American\ncivilizations, ultimately developed into their ingenious system of\ngovernment and social organization.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n  Plate I. Chart of the Polar Constellations. I: Just After Sunset. II:\n                   Midnight.  III: Just Before Sunrise.\n\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                 Plate II. Various Forms of the Swastika.\n\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                 Figure 4\n\n\nThe sequel to the above episode was that, with the aid of my movable\nstar-chart, I made the following notes of the apparent positions of the\ncircumpolar constellations at the times of sunrise, midnight and sunset,\nchoosing the periods of the solstices and equinoxes in order to obtain an\nexact division of the year (pl. I). Whilst studying these I realized that\nthe midnight position was the only stable one, since the actual visibility\nof the constellations before dawn and after dusk would be subject to\nconsiderable variation, according to seasons, latitudes and atmospherical\nconditions. Having noted these positions, I next combined them separately,\nobtaining the remarkable results given in fig. 4. The combined midnight\npositions of the Ursa Major or Minor, at the four divisions of the year,\nyielded symmetrical swastikas, the forms of which were identical with the\ndifferent types of swastika or cross-symbols (the normal, ogee and volute,\netc.), which have come down to us from remote antiquity and are reproduced\nhere for comparison (pl. II, _a-f_). Reflection showed me that such\ncomposite pictures of the Ursa constellations constituted an exact record\nof their annual rotation, and afforded a perfect sign for the period of a\nyear. I moreover perceived how the association of rotatory motion with the\nadvance of time, and its division into fixed periods or cycles, would be\nthe natural outcome of the recognition of the annual rotation of the\nstar-groups.\n\nThe Calendar-Swastika, or cross of ancient Mexico (pl. II, _g_)\nconstitutes an absolute proof of the native association of the\ncross-symbol with the ideas of rotatory motion and the progress of time,\nand furnishes an indication that, in an analogous manner, the swastika may\nhave been primarily and generally employed by primitive races, as a sign\nfor a year or cycle. A close scrutiny of the respective forms of the\ncrosses yielded by Urs\u00e6 Major and Minor shows that the normal swastika and\nsuavastika may be explained as the separate representations of the two\nconstellations\u2014the angular break in the outline of Ursa Major suggesting\nthe direction of the bend to the right of the arms of the normal swastika,\nwhilst the form of Ursa Minor obviously suggests the bend to the left\nwhich is characteristic of the suavastika.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                 Figure 5\n\n\nMy growing conviction that the Bear constellations had furnished the\narchetype of the different forms of swastika and cross-symbols, found\nsubsequent support when I referred to the map showing the geographical\ndistribution of the ancient symbol published by Prof. Thomas Wilson in his\nvaluable and comprehensive monograph on the subject,(1) to which I am\nindebted for much information and several illustrations (pl. II, _a-f_,\netc.). The map, reproduced here (fig. 5), proves that, with two\nexceptions, which can be attributed to a migration southward, the\nemployment of the swastika has been confined to the northern hemisphere,\n_i. e._, precisely to that portion of our globe from which the circumpolar\nconstellations are visible.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n    Figure 6. Star-Map, Representing The Precessional Movement Of The\nCelestial Pole From The Year 4000 B.C. To The Year 2000 A.D. (_From Piazzi\n                                 Smyth_.)\n\n\nThe interesting possibility of being able to determine, approximately, the\ndate in the world\u2019s history when the swastika began to be employed as a\nsymbol, next occurred to me. Piazzi Smyth\u2019s star-map, discussed and\nreproduced in Professor Lockyer\u2019s work already cited (fig. 6), illustrates\nthe changes of direction of the earth\u2019s axis in space, which gives rise to\nwhat is called the precession of the equinoxes and has a cycle of\nsomething like 25,000 or 26,000 years. Reference to this star-map (fig. 6)\nproved that the observations, leading to the adoption of the swastika as a\nsymbol, could not possibly have been made until after Ursa Major had\nbecome circumpolar, about 4,000 B.C. At that period, when Draconis was the\npole-star, the circle described about it by Ursa Major was considerably\ncloser than it is at present. The accompanying illustrations (fig. 7),\nsubject to correction, demonstrate the relative distance of the\nconstellation about 2,770 B.C., 1,800 B.C., and 2,000 A.D., and show how\nmuch more strikingly impressive the polar region of the heavens was in\nremote antiquity.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 7.\n\n\nLet us now briefly review some of the ideas which would naturally suggest\nthemselves to the mind of the primitive observer, after he had recognized\nthe apparent immovability of the polar-star, concentrated his attention\nupon this feature, and contrasted it with the varying motions of all other\ncelestial bodies in general and with the rotation of the circumpolar\nstar-groups in particular.\n\nThis recognition would lead to his gradually learning to utilize Polaris\nas a means of ascertaining direction. His appreciation of valuable\nguidance rendered in perilous wanderings would develop feelings of trust,\ndependence and gratitude towards the one changeless star which permanently\nrendered valuable services and under whose guidance difficult and\nessential nocturnal expeditions could be safely undertaken. Superiority\nand, eventually, extensive supernatural power would more and more be\nattributed to it, as knowledge was gained of the laws of motion from which\nit alone seemed to be exempt. This exemption would cause it to be viewed\nas superior to all other heavenly bodies and even to the sun, and it is\neasy to see how this idea, becoming predominant, might cause the cult of\nthe pole-star to disestablish an organized sun-cult amongst some tribes.\nHistorical evidence, to which I shall revert more fully proves, indeed,\nthat a native American ruler and reformer actually employed the following\nreasoning in order to convert his council and people from the worship of\nthe sun to that of a superior divinity which could have been no other but\nPolaris: \u201cIt is not possible that the sun should be the God who created\nall things, for if so he would sometimes rest and light up the whole world\nfrom one spot. Thus it cannot be otherwise but that there is someone who\ndirects him and this truly is the true Creator.\u201d\n\nThese words shed a whole flood of light upon primitive religious ideas at\nan early stage of development. They prove that the association of repose\nand immovability with the supreme power signified a radical change of\nthought, based upon prolonged astronomical observation, and indicated\nintellectual advancement. Attempts to render the new idea objective, to\nexpress it and impress it upon the multitude, would naturally end in the\nproduction of images of the supernatural power, representing or typifying\nimmovability, changelessness, strength combined with absolute repose.\n\nIt is thus rendered evident what a deep significance may be embodied in\nthe rudest images of supernatural beings in attitudes of repose, since a\nprolonged course of astronomical observation and reasoning may have\npreceded their production.\n\nSimultaneously with the recognition of Polaris as an immutable centre of\naxial energy, the rotatory movement of Ursa Major must have excited\ninterest and observation. It was inevitable that star-gazers should\ngradually recognize a constant agreement between certain positions of Ursa\nMajor and Cassiopeia after dusk for instance, and the annual recurrence of\nrain, verdure and bountiful food-supplies.\n\nThe members of a tribe who, more observant than others, had learned to\nassociate certain positions of these constellations with the seasons and,\nas a consequence, were able to decide when expeditions to distant\nlocalities, in quest of game or fruit, might be successfully undertaken,\nwould naturally assume leadership and command obedience and respect.\n\nThe sense of responsibility, superiority and, possibly, rivalry would act\nupon such individuals as a powerful incentive to further observation and\nthought and it is evident that, as their mental faculties expanded and one\ngeneration transmitted its store of accumulated knowledge to the next, a\nregular caste of astronomer-leaders would develop, with a tendency to\nconceal the secrets of their power from the ignorant majority. A broken\nline, carved on a rock by one of these primitive observers, would have\nconstituted a valuable secret note of the position of Ursa Major on a\nmemorable occasion and would be looked upon as a mystic or magical sign by\nthe uninitiated. A series of such inscriptions might represent the store\nof astronomical knowledge accumulated by several generations of observers,\nand it is interesting to recognize that such astronomical records as these\nwere probably the first which men were impelled to perpetuate in a lasting\nform; since it was absolutely necessary that they should be permanently\navailable for reference at prolonged intervals of time. What is more, the\nmere fact of being obliged to refer to these inscriptions would cause the\nastronomers to reside permanently in one locality. The habit of consulting\nthe prophet or oracle before undertaking important steps, involving the\nwelfare of the tribe, would gradually cause the rocks or cavern in which\nhe resided to be invested with a certain sacredness.\n\nIt is thus evident that the first men, who rudely scratched the outline of\nUrsa Major or Minor on a rock, took what was probably one of the most\nmomentous steps in the history of the human race, and it is easy to see\nhow a variety of combinations of circumstances would have led many men, in\nwidely-separated localities and at different periods of the world\u2019s\nhistory, to perform precisely the same action. In some cases, under\nfavorable surroundings, the rudimentary attempt would mark the starting\npoint for a long line of patient observation and study, which would\ninevitably lead to the creation of centres of intellectual growth, to the\nassociation of the different positions of the constellation with the\nseasons and culminate in the habitual employment of a swastika as the sign\nfor a year, or cycle of time.(2)\n\nThe idea of rotation, associated with calendar signs and periods, finds\nits most striking and convincing exemplification in the following\ndescription of the ancient Mexican game \u201cof those who fly,\u201d translated\nfrom Clavigero (op. et ed. cit. p. 236). This performance, which furnished\na diversion to the Spaniards after the Conquest, had evidently been,\noriginally, connected with religious ideas. \u201cThe Indians selected a tall,\nstout and straight tree, and, lopping off its branches, planted it firmly\nin the centre of the great square\u201d (which was always situated in the\ncentre of the city and had four roads leading to it from the four\nquarters). \u201cOn the summit they placed a large cylinder of wood, the shape\nof which was compared by the Spaniards to that of a mortar. Four strong\nropes hung from this and supported a square frame composed of four wooden\nbeams. Four other ropes were fastened by one end to the pole itself and\nwound around it thirteen times. Their loose ends were passed through holes\nin the middle of each beam and hung from these. Four Indians, masked as\neagles or other birds, ascended the pole singly, by means of certain loops\nof cord, and mounting on the cylinder they performed in this perilous\nposition a few dance-like movements. Each man then attached himself to the\nloose end of one of the hanging ropes, and then, with a violent jerk and\nat the same moment, the four men cast themselves into space from their\npositions on the beams. This simultaneous movement caused the frame and\ncylinder to revolve and uncoil the ropes to which the men were fastened\nand these descended to the ground after performing a series of widening\ncircles in the air. Meanwhile a fifth individual, who had mounted the\nwooden cylinder after the others, stood on this as it revolved, beating a\nsmall drum with one hand, whilst he held a banner aloft with the other.\u201d\nWhilst it is obvious that this peculiar and dangerous performance clearly\nsymbolized axial rotation, typified by the revolving pivot and the four\nmen in a\u00ebrial motion, its full meaning and intention are only made clear\nby the following explanation recorded by Clavigero. \u201cThe essential point\nin this game was to calculate so exactly the height of the pole and the\nlength of the ropes, that the men should describe precisely thirteen\ncircles each before reaching the ground, so as to represent the cycle (of\n4\u00d713=)52 years.\u201d\n\nThis passage constitutes absolute proof that the Mexican Calendar system\nwas intimately associated with axial rotation and ideas such as could only\nhave been derived from observation of Polaris and of the circumpolar\nconstellations. The game itself was a beautiful and well-conceived\nillustration of the flight of time, typified by the a\u00ebrial circles\nperformed by the men masked as birds, and of its methodical division into\nfixed periods.\n\nLeaving the subject of the calendar for the present we must revert to my\ntables recording the apparent annual and nocturnal axial rotation of the\ncircumpolar constellations.\n\nWhilst studying these the reflection naturally arose, that the people who\nobserved Ursa Major must have paid equal attention to Cassiopeia and\nnoticed that these constellations ever occupied opposite positions to each\nother as they circled around the pole. Dwelling on the fact that in\nancient Mexico Ursa Major was associated with an ocelot, I remembered the\nmany representations in which an ocelot is represented as confronting an\neagle, usually in mortal combat. Mexican war-chiefs were classed into two\nequally honorable grades, designated as the \u201cocelots and the quauhtlis,\n_i. e._, eagles.\u201d The constellation of Cassiopeia presents to me, a marked\nresemblance to the image of a bird with outspread wings, whose head is\nturned toward Polaris. The fact that when this star-group seems to be\nabove, Ursa Major seems to be below, and _vice versa_, would obviously\nsuggest the idea of an eternal combat between two adversaries who\nalternately succumbed and resuscitated. It was interesting on reasoning\nfurther, to note that once the above idea had taken root it must have been\nimpossible not to associate in course of time, the quadruped and the bird\nwith the elements to which they seemed to pertain, and gradually to\nconceive the idea of an everlasting antagonism between the powers of the\nsky and of the earth, or light and darkness, and other opposites which\nsuggested themselves naturally, or were artificially created, by the\nfertile mind of man. In this connection it should be observed that the\nmythical adversary of Tezcatlipoca, the ocelot, designated as Ursa Major,\nis Huitzilopochtli, whose idol, in the Great Temple of Mexico, represented\nhim masked as a hummingbird (see Atlas Duran). The special reason why this\nbird became associated with the god is explained by the following passage\nin Gomara (Histoire g\u00e9n\u00e9rale des Indes. Paris, 1584, chap. 96, p. 190):\n\u201cThis bird died, or rather fell asleep in the month of October and\nremained attached by its feet to a twig. It awakened again in April when\nthe flowers blossomed. For this reason, in the language of the country it\nis named Huitzitzilin, the resuscitated.\u201d We therefore see that whilst it\nis stated in the myth that the ocelot arose again after having been cast\ndown from the sky by Huitzilopochtli, the very name of the latter\nbetokened that the bird-god had also only just \u201cresuscitated\u201d from a\npresumably similar defeat.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 8.\n\n\nAs one and the same object may suggest several resemblances at the same\ntime or consecutively, and thus give rise to a group of associations\naround a single figure, I venture to point out that the zigzag form of\nCassiopeia may well have been compared to forked lightning and caused the\nidea of lightning and thunder to become indissolubly connected with the\nconception of a great celestial bird. Again there is the possibility that\nthe same star-group may have more strikingly suggested, to other people,\nthe idea of the winding body of a serpent describing a perpetual circle\naround a central star. In Mexico, as elsewhere, we find the serpent\nclosely associated with the idea of time. It is represented as encircling\nthe calendar wheel published by Clavigero (fig. 8). Four loops, formed of\nits body, mark the four divisions of the year. Twin serpents, whose heads\nand tails almost meet, are sculptured around the famous calendar-stone of\nMexico. Four serpents whose bent bodies form a large swastika and whose\nheads are directed towards a central figure, are represented in the Codex\nBorgia in association with calendar-signs (fig. 9, _cf._ F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary, p.\n24). I shall have occasion to refer in detail to Mexican serpent-symbolism\nfurther on.\n\nMeanwhile I would submit the interesting results obtained on combining the\npositions apparently assumed by the circumpolar constellations during a\nsingle night. The tables exhibit four composite groups representing the\npositions at the solstitial and equinoctial periods (fig. 10).\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 9.\n\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 10.\n\n\nThe night of the winter solstice, the longest of the year, yielded alone a\nsymmetrical figure. It resembled the well-known triskelion, the\ncompanion-symbol of  the swastika (figs. 10 and 11). Just as this had\nproved to be the most natural of year symbols, so the triskelion revealed\nitself as a natural sign of the winter solstice, the period recognized and\ncelebrated by most inhabitants of the northern hemisphere as the\nturning-point of the year. In a climate like that of Mexico and Central\nAmerica, however, where the year divided itself naturally into a dry and a\nrainy season, it is evident that the winter solstice would be less\nobserved and that the ardently-desired recurrence of the rainy season,\nafter a long and trying period of drought, should be regarded as the\nannual event of utmost importance. Indeed, if carefully looked into, the\nentire religious cult of these people seems to express but one great\nstruggling cry to the God of Nature for life-giving rain, and a hymn of\nthanksgiving for the annual, precious, but uncertain gift of water.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 11.\n\n\nTo these supplicants the winter solstice betokened little or nothing and\nit is not surprising to find no proofs of the employment of the triskelion\nas a sacred symbol in ancient Mexico. On the other hand, it has been\ntraced by Mr. Willoughby on pottery from Arkansas, and in Scandinavia,\nwhere the circumpolar constellations have doubtlessly been observed from\nremote times, and the winter solstice has ever been hailed as the herald\nof coming spring, the triskelion is often found associated with the\nswastika.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 12.\n\n\nI am indebted to Prof. Thomas Wilson\u2019s work already cited for the two\nfollowing illustrations of objects exhibiting this association. The first\nis a spearhead found in Brandenburg, Germany (fig. 12). The second is a\nbronze brooch from Scandinavia, to which I shall presently revert (fig.\n13). It exhibits, besides the triskelion, swastika and circle, the\nS-shaped figure which was, as I shall show further on, the sign actually\nemployed by the ancient Mexicans and Mayas as the image of the\nconstellation Ursa Minor, whose outline it indeed effectually reproduces.\n\nBefore referring to the Mexican and Maya representations of the\nstar-group, I would next demonstrate that the sacred numbers of Mexico,\nand of other countries situated in the northern hemisphere, coincide\nexactly with the number of stars in the circumpolar constellations\nthemselves and in simple combinations of the same.\n\nUrsa Major and Ursa Minor each contains seven stars, and the number seven\nis the most widely-spread sacred number. Ancient traditions record that\nthe race inhabiting Mexico consisted of seven tribes who traced their\nseparate origins to seven caves, situated in the north. In memory of\nthese, at the time of the Conquest, there were seven places of sacrifice\nin the city of Mexico. I shall recur to the number seven further on, in\ndiscussing the native social organization, and now direct attention to the\nfive stars of Cassiopeia and to the fact that the combination of the stars\nin this constellation with Polaris and Ursa Major yields the number\nthirteen. This result is specially interesting since the entire\nCalendar-system of Mexico and Yucatan is based on the combination of the\nnumerals 13+7=20, the latter again being 4\u00d75.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 13.\n\n\nOn the other hand the same number, 13, is also obtained by the combination\nof the Urs\u00e6 star-groups with Polaris. The number 5 is constantly yielded\nby Cassiopeia and the four-fold repetitions of the groups supply the\nsuggestion of the number 4. The combination of Ursa Minor and Cassiopeia\nyields 12. The accompanying figure exhibits swastikas composed of Ursa\nMinor accompanied by Ursa Major and Cassiopeia separated and combined\n(fig. 14). I next direct attention to the peculiar difference in the\nnumerical values of the Urs\u00e6 swastikas.\n\nIn the first, the central star, surrounded by four repetitions of the\nseven-star constellation, yielded a total of twenty-nine stars\u20144x5+9.\nFurther combinations will be seen by a glance at the Ursa Major swastika\n(fig. 4). The analysis of the Ursa Minor swastika is not so simple and\noccasions a certain perplexity.\n\nWhen I had first combined the four positions of this constellation, I had,\nnaturally, and without further thought, figured Polaris but once, as the\nfixed centre, whereas I had repeated the other stars of the compact group\nfour times. It was not until I began to count the stars in the swastika\nthat I realized how I had, unconsciously, made one central star stand for\nfour, and thus deprived the composite group of the numerical value of\nthree stars. On the other hand, if I repeated the entire constellation\nfour times, I obtained a swastika with four repetitions of Polaris in the\nmiddle. In this way, however, Polaris became displaced, and the idea of a\nfixed centre was entirely lost. A third possible method of composing the\nswastika was to allow one central star for each cross-arm. But this gave\ntwo central stars, each of which would represent two stars. Unless\nenclosed in a circle and considered as a central group by themselves, the\nfour and the two repetitions of Polaris could not convey the idea of a\npivot or fixed centre. The three respective numerical values obtained from\nthese experimental combinations were 4\u00d76+1=25, 4\u00d77=28, and finally 2\u00d713 or\n4\u00d76+2=26. In each swastika the central star forcibly stood for and\nrepresented two or four (fig. 15).\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 14.\n\n\nIn the triskelions the same perplexity arose: if Polaris was repeated, the\nidea of a fixed centre was lost (fig. 15); if figured singly, it\nnevertheless necessarily and inevitably stood as an embodiment of three\nstars. Reasoning from my own experience, I could but perceive, in the\nforegoing facts, a fruitful and constant source of mental suggestions, the\nnatural outcome of which would be the association of the central star with\nan enhanced numerical value, and a familiarity with the idea of one star\nbeing an embodiment of two, three or four.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 15.\n\n\nAs the evolution of religious thought and symbolism progressed, this idea\nwould obviously lead to the conception of a single being uniting several\nnatures in his person. In this connection it is certainly extremely\ninteresting to find the serpent associated with the Calendar in Mexico and\nYucatan, its Nahuatl name being homonymous for twin, _i. e._ two, and the\nMaya for serpent, _can_ or _cam_, being homonymous for the number four.\nThe serpent was, therefore, in both countries the most suggestive and\nappropriate symbol which could possibly have been employed in pictography,\nto convey the idea of dual or quadruple natures embodied in a single\nfigure.(3) Added to this the circumstance that, to the native mind, the\nserpent, upon merely shedding its skin, lived again, we can understand why\nthe ancient Mexicans not only employed it as a symbol of an eternal\nrenewal or continuation of time and of life, but also combined it with the\nidea of fecundity and reproductiveness. In Yucatan where the Maya for\nserpent, _can_, is almost homonymous with _caan_=sky or heaven and the\nadjective _caanlil_=celestial, divine, the idea of a divine or celestial\nserpent would naturally suggest itself. It is therefore not surprising to\nfind, in both countries, the name of _serpent_ bestowed as a title upon a\nsupreme, celestial embodiment of the forces of nature and its image\nemployed to express this association in objective form. In Yucatan one of\nthe surnames of Itzamn\u00e1, the supreme divinity, was Canil, a name clearly\nrelated to _caanlil_=divine and _can_=serpent.\n\nIn Mexico the duality and generative force implied by the word \u201ccoatl\u201d are\nclearly recognizable in the native invocations addressed to \u201cOur lord\nQuetzalcoatl the Creator and Maker or Former, who dwells in heaven and is\nthe lord of the earth [Tlaltecuhtli]; who is our celestial father and\nmother, great lord and great lady, whose title is Ome-Tecuhtli [literally,\ntwo-lord=twin lord] and Ome-Cihuatl [literally, two-lady=twin lady\u201d]\n(Sahagun, book VI, chaps. 25, 32 and 34).\n\nThe following data will suffice to render it quite clear that the Mexicans\nand Mayas employed the serpent as an expressive symbol merely, signifying\nthe generative force of the Creator to whom alone they rendered homage. It\nis no less an authority than Friar Bartholomew de las Casas who maintained\nthat \u201cin many parts of the [American] Continent, the natives had a\nparticular knowledge of the true God; they believed that He created the\nUniverse and was its Lord and governed it. And it was to Him they\naddressed their sacrifices, their cult and homage, in their\nnecessities...\u201d (Historia Apologetica, chap. 121).\n\nFriar Bartholomew specially adds that this was the case in Mexico\naccording to the authority of Spanish missionaries and no one can doubt\nthat this was the case when they read that in the native invocations,\npreserved by Sahagun, the supreme divinity is described as \u201cinvisible and\nintangible, like the air, like the darkness of night,\u201d or as the \u201clord who\nis always present in all places, who is [as impenetrable as] an abyss, who\nis named the wind [air or breath] and the night.\u201d \u201cAll things obey him,\nthe order of the universe depends upon his will\u2014he is the creator,\nsustainer, the omnipotent and omniscient.\u201d He is termed \u201cthe father and\nmother of all,\u201d \u201cthe great god and the great goddess,\u201d \u201cour lord and\nprotector who is most powerful and most humane,\u201d\u2014\u201cour lord in whose power\nit is to bestow all contentment, sweetness, happiness, wealth and\nprosperity, because thou alone art the lord of all things.\u201d One prayer\nconcludes thus: \u201cLive and reign forever in all peace and repose thou who\nart our lord, our shelter, our comfort, who art most kind, most bountiful,\ninvisible and impalpable!\u201d (Sahagun, book VI, on the rhetoric, moral\nphilosophy and theology of the Mexicans, chaps. 1-40). It is related that,\nin gratitude for the birth of a son, the ruler of Texcoco, Nezahual-coyotl\nerected a temple to the Unknown God.... It consisted of nine stories, to\nsymbolize the nine heavens. The exterior of the tenth, which formed the\ntop of the nine other stories, was painted black with stars. Its interior\nwas encrusted with gold, precious stones and feathers and held \u201cthe said\ngod, who was unknown, unseen, shapeless and formless\u201d (Ixtlilxochitl,\nHistoria Chichimeca ed. Chavero, p. 227; see also p. 244). A passage in\nSahagun (book VI, chap. VII) states that \u201cthe invisible and imageless god\nof the Chichimecs was named Yoalli-ehecatl [literally, night-air or wind],\nwhich means the invisible and impalpable god ... by whose virtue all live,\nwho directs by merely exerting his wisdom and will.\u201d In the Codex Fuenleal\n(chap. 1) the remarkable title of \u201cwheel of the winds=Yahualliehecatl,\u201d is\nrecorded as \u201canother name for Quetzalcoatl.\u201d This undeniably proves that\nthe Mexicans not only figured the Deity by the image of a serpent but also\nthought of him as a wheel which obviously symbolized centrical force,\nrotation, lordship over the four quarters, _i. e._, universal rulership.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 16.\n\n\nReturning from these ideas of later development to the primitive source of\ntheir suggestion, let us now examine the native picture of Xonecuilli,\nUrsa Minor, preserved in the unpublished Academia MS. of Sahagun\u2019s\nHistoria, in Madrid (fig. 16, no. 1). It is an exact representation of the\nstar-group. The fact that the seven stars are figured of the same size in\naccurate relation to each other, either proves that the eyesight of the\nnative astronomers was extremely keen and their atmosphere remarkably\nclear, or that possibly, the minor stars of the group were more brilliant\nin ancient times, than they are now. Astronomers tell us, for instance,\nthat as late as the seventeenth century the star in the body of Ursa Major\nnearest to the tail, was as bright as the others, while it is now of the\nfourth magnitude only.\n\nIt must be admitted that the shape of the constellation resembles an S. An\nSS sign is mentioned by Sahagun (Historia, book VIII, chap. 8) as\noccurring frequently, as a symbolical design on native textile fabrics. It\nfigures as such, in the black garments of the female consort of\nMictlantecuhtli in the Vienna Codex, pp. 23 and 33. He denounces it as\nsuspect and hints that it was intimately connected with the ancient\nreligion.\n\nS-shaped sacred cakes, called Xonecuilli, were made during the feast of\nMacuilxochitl=five flowers, and are figured (fig. 16, no. 2) in the B. N.\nMS. (p. 69) with a four-cornered cross-shaped cake of a peculiar form\n(fig. 20, III), which is found associated with five dots or circles in the\nCodices and also with the Tecpatl-symbol of the North (fig. 20, I and II).\n\nA recurved staff, which is held in the hand of a deity in the B. N. MS. is\ndesignated in the text as a _xonoquitl_ (fig. 16, no. 3). Amongst the\ninsignia of the \u201cgods,\u201d sent as presents by Montezuma to Cort\u00e9s upon his\nlanding at Vera Cruz, were three such recurved \u201csceptres,\u201d the\ndescriptions of which I have collated and translated in my paper on the\nAtlatl or Spear-thrower of the Ancient Mexicans (Peabody Museum Papers,\nvol. 1, no. 3, Cambridge, 1891, p. 22). In this work I presented my\nreasons for concluding that these recurved sceptres were ceremonial forms\nof the atlatl. I now perceive that they were endowed with deeper\nsignificance and meaning. The Nahuatl text of Sahagun\u2019s Laurentian MS. of\nthe Historia de la Conquista (lib. XII, chap. IV) records the name of one\nof these staffs as \u201checaxonecuilli,\u201d literally \u201cthe curved or bent over,\nair or wind,\u201d and describes it as made of \u201cbent or curved wood, inlaid\nwith stars formed of white jade=chalchihuite.\u201d This passage authorizes the\nconclusion that four representations in the B. N. MS. of black recurved\nsceptres, exhibiting a series of white dots, are also heca-xonoquitl,\ninlaid with stars, and that all of these are none other but conventional\nrepresentations of the constellation Xonecuilli, the Ursa Minor. In each\ncase the deity, carrying the star-image, also displays the ecacozcatl the\n\u201cjewel of the wind,\u201d the well-known symbol of the wind-god. In one of\nthese pictures (p. 50) he not only bears in his hand the star-image, but\nalso exhibits a star-group on his head-dress, consisting of a\ncentral-star, on a dark ground, surrounded by a blue ring. Attached to\nthis against a dark ground, six other stars are depicted, making seven in\nall. In connection with this star-group it is interesting to note that the\nhieroglyph, designated by Fra Diego de Landa as \u201cthe character with which\nthe Mayas began their count of days or calendar and named Hun-Imix,\u201d\nfurnishes a case of an identical though inverted group (Relacion de las\nCosas de Yucatan, ed. B. de Bourbourg, p. 237). Enclosed in a black ring,\nthe glyph displays, above, a large black dot with six smaller ones grouped\nin a semicircle about it, and below, four perpendicular bars.\n\nSubject to correction, I am inclined to interpret this glyph as a hieratic\nsign for the constellation Ursa Minor and its four movements, and to\nconsider it as furnishing a valuable proof of the origin of the Maya\nCalendar.\n\nThe seemingly inappropriate procedure of figuring shining stars by black\ndots actually furnishes the strongest proof that a star group is thus\nrepresented; for, in the Maya language, \u201cek\u201d is a homonym for star and\nblack, and a black spot was, in consequence, the most expressive sign for\na star. This fact affords a valuable explanation of the reason why the\nocelot, whose skin is spotted with black, was employed as the figure of\nthe nocturnal sky, and clearly proves that the Mexicans adopted this\nsymbol and its meaning from the Mayas.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 17.\n\n\nWe will now revert to the S-shaped sign. Its association with images of\nstar is further exemplified in Mexican Codices. It occurs on the wall of a\ntemple, in combination with symbols for stars and the North-Mictlan, which\nconsist in this case, of skulls and cross-bones (fig. 17, II).\n\nIn the Dresden Codex, of Maya origin, there is an extremely important page\non which the S-sign occurs in connection with twin deities, besides rain\nand cross symbols (fig. 17, I). A careful examination of the group shows\nthat one of the seated figures is accompanied by a downpour of water\n(painted blue in the original), besides the S-symbol which is also\nrepeated above the head of his companion. Higher up, on the same page, the\nS occurs again in a group of glyphs alongside of twin-seated figures.\nThese, as well as the single-seated form beneath them, have an eye or a\nlarge black spot surmounted by dots instead of a head (Vocabulaire de\nl\u2019\u00e9criture hi\u00e9ratique de Yucatan, p. 38). Monsieur L\u00e9on de Rosny has\nidentified this figure, which also occurs in the Codex Troano, as the\nimage of the supreme divinity of the Mayas, of whom more anon, one of\nwhose titles was Kin-ich-ahau, literally Sun-eye lord.\n\nA similar sign consisting of the lower half of a human body seated, with a\nlarge eye on its knees is repeated several times in the Borgian Codex.\nThis form is also figured as seated in a temple, without the eye-star, but\nthree stars are on the roof and the S-sign is on the lower wall of the\nbuilding (Borgian Codex, p. 16).\n\nThe above facts demonstrate that, in both MSS. derived from different\nsources, the same association of ideas is expressed.(4) The S sign appears\nin connection with twin- or single-seated forms, surmounted by a symbol\nfor star. It is unnecessary for me to lay further stress upon the obvious\nfacts: that the only celestial body which could possibly have been\nassociated with a seated form, suggesting repose, was Polaris. It is,\nmoreover, only by assuming that the sign of the seated star represents the\nstationary pole-star that its combination in the Codices with the\nS-sign\u2014Xonecuilli\u2014Ursa Minor, can be understood. I likewise draw attention\nto the possibility that the S, or single representation of the\nconstellation, may well have been employed as a sign for the summer\nsolstice, since, in some localities, during the shortest night of the\nyear, Ursa Minor may have been visible in one position only. Assuming that\nthe triskelion was the sign for the winter solstice we should thus have\nnatural signs for the two nights marking the turning-points of light and\ndarkness in the year.\n\nReverting to fig. 17, I, from the Codex Dresdenis, I draw attention that\nit furnishes definite proof that the Mayas associated the idea of the\nimmovable seated star with twin deities and that they connected the\nS-symbol with cross and rain symbols. A striking combination of the latter\nsymbols is represented under the principal seated figures. It consists of\na diagonal cross traversed perpendicularly by a band of blue water.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 18.\n\n\nFurther Maya cross-symbols should be cursorily examined here, viz: fig.\n18, I, II, III, VI, VII and VIII. They will be found to consist of\nvariations of two fundamental types, often figured alongside of each other\nand enclosed in a square, or circle. One type consists of two diagonally\ncrossed bars, plain or representing cross bones (I). A rectilinear cross\nwith interlaced circle (II) is also found. The other type exhibits a small\ncross, square, circle or dot in the centre of the square with a circle in\neach corner. In some cases these are united by a series of dots to the\ncentral circle and thus form a diagonal cross (VI and VIII) which is\nsometimes figured as contained in a flower with four petals, such as is\nalso found in Mexican symbolism. The diagonal, dotted cross is frequently\ncombined with four pairs of black bars, placed in the middle of each side\nof the square, pointing towards the centre. Similar pairs of black bars\nare figured in the B. N. MS. (p. 3) on the manta of Mictlantecuhtli, with\nstars, around one of his symbols, a spider. They likewise recur on two of\nseveral sacrificial papers on p. 69, amongst which one exhibits a diagonal\ncross, another the S-sign, while others display realistic drawings of\nstars with six or eight points.\n\nThe pairs of bars figure in the hieroglyph designated by Maya scholars as\nthe sign for _Kin_, the sun, which may be seen in the centre of large\ndiagonal cross-symbols in fig. 18, VII, VIII, from the Dresden Codex: The\ncross, of fig. 18, VII, is composed of two bones and two arrowpoints, a\nparticularly interesting combination considering that in the Maya a bone\nis _bak_, an arrow is _kab-cheil_ and the name given to the gods of the\nfour quarters \u201cthe sustainers of the world,\u201d is _Bakab_. It cannot be\ndenied that the phonetic elements of this name occur in the words for\nbones and arrows which form the cross, symbolic of the four quarters. In\nfig. 18, VIII, the cross may be composed of four bones, but of this I am\nnot certain. In both cases, however, the crosses rest on a curious double\nand parti-colored symbol and are associated with serpent signs, in which\nthe open jaws and teeth are prominent features. It is noteworthy that\nwhile \u201ccan\u201d or \u201ccam\u201d is the Maya for serpent, the word \u201ccamach\u201d means jaw.\nThe figure consisting of the upper jaw only of a serpent, in the left hand\ncorner of the band above, fig. 18, VIII, proves, therefore, to be a\ncursive phonetic sign for serpent.\n\nThe parti-colored symbol combined with the cross obviously signifies a\nduality, such as light and darkness, the Above and the Below and a series\nof dualities\u2014possibly the two divisions of the year, the dry and rainy\nseasons. In Mexico we are authorized by documentary evidence, to give a\nwider and deeper interpretation to the symbol of duality, for it can be\nabsolutely proven that the Mexican philosophers divided the heavens into\ntwo imaginary portions, and respectively identified these with the male\nand female principles.\n\nIn Nahuatl the West was designated as Cihuatlampa, \u201cthe place or part of\nthe women.\u201d The souls of the women who had earned immortality were\nsupposed to dwell there, whilst the souls of the men resided in the East.\nIn the appendix to book III of Sahagun\u2019s Historia, it is described how,\naccording to the native belief, the souls of the male warriors hailed the\ndaily appearance of the sun above the eastern horizon, and escorted it to\nNepantla, the zenith. Here the souls of the women awaited it and assumed\nthe duty of escorting the sun to the western horizon, the symbol for which\nwas calli=the house. The above passage indicates that the native\nphilosophers imagined across the middle of the sky a line of demarcation,\nseparating the portions of the heaven respectively allotted to the male\nand female souls. For four years after death these souls retained their\nhuman form, and then, after passing through nine successive heavens,\nentered into the celestial paradise where they assumed the forms of\ndifferent kinds of butterflies and humming-birds. The names of these are\nenumerated in the Nahuatl text of Sahagun\u2019s Laurentian MS. (book III).(5)\nThe symbolism of the humming-bird has already been explained by a passage\ncited from Gomara\u2019s Historia. In this connection it is extremely\ninteresting to find the humming-bird represented in the B. N. MS., as\nsucking honey from a flower, which is attached by a cord, covered with\nbird\u2019s down, to a bone, the symbol of death.\n\nThis peculiar but expressive group of symbols figures only on the\nhead-dresses of deities wearing certain other symbols, amongst which we\nfind the Eca-cozcatl and Eca-xonequilli the image of Ursa Minor, already\ndescribed.\n\nThe merest indication of the association of a circumpolar constellation\nwith the idea of death (disappearance) and resurrection (re-appearance) is\nof special interest, since the ancient Mexicans located the Underworld,\nthe \u201cplace of the dead,\u201d in the North. Reflection showed, however, that\nsuch an association could only have suggested itself to the minds of\nstar-observers living in southern latitudes, approximate to the equator,\nor in localities where the northern horizon was more or less shut off from\nview by intervening mountains. In such places Polaris would appear\ncomparatively close to the boundary-line of the northern sky so that the\nUrsa constellations and Cassiopeia would be invisible to the local\nastronomers at midnight during that period of the year when one or the\nother of the star-groups seemingly stretched between Polaris and the\nnorthern horizon. A glance at plate I shows that, at the present time, it\nis about the period of the autumnal equinox that Ursa Minor would be\ninvisible at midnight, in such localities, while Ursa Major would\ngradually disappear from view towards midnight, during a certain number of\nnights, according to latitude and locality, between the autumnal equinox\nand the winter solstice whilst Cassiopeia would seem to hover above the\nhorizon. The total or partial alternate periodical disappearance of the\ntwo most familiar star-groups in the extreme North and their re-appearance\nafter sometimes regular intervals of time could but have made a profound\nimpression upon primitive astronomers and thinkers. Whilst the mere\nperiodical reversal of the positions of Cassiopeia and Ursa Major\nsuggested alternate victory and defeat, the actual though brief and\npartial disappearance of either star-group must have appeared to be a\ndescent into an under-ground space, associated with darkness and death,\nfollowed by a resurrection. In his Cronica, Tezozomoc records, besides\nMictlan (the land of the dead), another name for the underworld,\nOpochcal-ocan, literally, the place of the house to the left. This\nappellation can only be understood when it is realized that, in a\nsufficiently southern latitude, an observer, watching the setting of a\ncircumpolar constellation below the horizon, would always see it disappear\nto his left and subsequently rise to his right. It is evident that in time\nthis fact would give rise to the association of the left with the\nunderworld, the lower region, and the right with the region above. The\nnative idea of a dwelling in the underworld is further demonstrated by the\nbestowal of the symbol _calli_=house, upon the western horizon below which\nall heavenly bodies were seen to disappear. A definite connection between\nthe West and one half of the North being thus established, it would\nnaturally result that a corresponding union of the South and East would be\nthought of in time, and that these quarters would become associated with\nthe rising of celestial bodies, _i. e._, with light, the Above, while the\nopposite quarters became identified with their setting, _i. e._, with\ndarkness, the Below.\n\nPausing to review the foregoing conclusions, which I have shown to be the\nnatural and inevitable result of simple but prolonged astronomical\nstudies, observation and plain reasoning, we see that they led to a\nconception of the Cosmos as divided into seven parts, _i. e._, the fixed\nCentre, the pivot, primarily suggested by Polaris who was regarded as the\ncreative, generative and ruling power of the universe; the Four Quarters,\nseemingly ruled by the central force and associated with the elements; the\nAbove and the Below, suggested by the rising and setting of celestial\nbodies and associated with light and darkness, sky and earth, etc., etc.\n\nMany of my readers will doubtless recognize at once that the above\norganization of the Cosmos into the Centre or Middle, the Above and the\nBelow, and the Four Quarters, is precisely that which the Zu\u00f1i priests\ntaught Mr. Frank Cushing, when they initiated him into their secret\nbeliefs. Other explorers have recorded the same conception amongst\ndifferent native American tribes and with these proofs that this set of\nideas is still held on our Continent at the present time, I point out the\nfact that the Maya figures (fig. 18, VII and VIII, from the Dresden Codex)\nbecome perfectly intelligible only when interpreted as representing the\nCentre, the Four Quarters, the Above and the Below, the latter figured by\nthe dark and light halves of the dual sign. Furthermore, I can demonstrate\nthat this fundamental set of elementary, abstract ideas, furnishing the\nfirst principles of organization, is plainly visible under the surface of\nthe ancient Mexican civilization and can be traced not only in Yucatan and\nCentral America, but also in Peru. In these countries, as I shall show, it\nassumed an absolute dominion over the minds of the native sages, directly\nsuggesting the forms of government and social organization existing at the\ntime of the Conquest and faintly surviving to the present day. It entirely\ncontrolled the development of aboriginal religious cult and philosophical\nspeculations and pervaded not only the native architecture and decorative\nart, but also all superstitious rites and ceremonies, and entered into the\nvery games and pastimes of the people.\n\nThe following table presents the bare outline of the scheme of\norganization exposed in the preceding text. In making it I have, after due\nconsideration, definitely adopted the assignment of the Mexican symbols\nand colors to the cardinal points given by Friar Duran in the\nCalendar-swastika contained in his atlas and reproduced (pl. II, _g_).\n\n\n    Each of these is North; West; South; then East.\n    Symbols: Tecpatl, Flint; Calli, House; Acatl, Cane; Tochtli,\n    Rabbit.\n    Colors: Red; Yellow; Blue; Green.\n    Elements: Fire; Earth; Air; Water.\n    Warmth; Darkness; Breath; Rain.\n\n    Together, North and West are The Below, the \u201cfemale\u201d region.\n    TEZCATLIPOCA=MICTLANTECUHTLI.\n\n    South and East are The Above, the \u201cmale\u201d region, HUITZILOPOCHTLI.\n\n    Combined, they are The Centre.\n    The dual, generative, ruling and directive Force.\n    QUETZALCOATL.\n    The Divine Twin.\n\n\nBefore proceeding to examine more closely the great edifice of human\nthought which was reared, in the course of centuries, on the ground plan\ndesignated above, we must retrace our steps and consider what a deep\nimpression the gradual realization of the changes in the relative\npositions of Polaris and certain familiar star-groups must have produced\nupon those who were the first to realize them. Transporting ourselves back\nto the gray dawn of civilization, let us endeavor to understand the\nposition of the native priest astronomers who, having received and\ntransmitted a set of religious and cosmical ideas, based on the assumption\nof the absolute and eternal immutability of the centre of the heaven,\nPolaris, gradually became aware that it also was subject to change,\nevidently obeyed an unseen higher power and that the ancient order of\nthings, recorded by their predecessors, had actually passed away.\n\nIt is obvious that, in all centres of astronomical observation and\nintellectual culture, a complete revolution of fundamental doctrine or\nthought must have taken place. A period of painful misgivings and doubt\nmust have been passed through, during which an earnest and anxious\nobservation of all celestial bodies must have seemed imperative and\nobligatory. Under such circumstances astronomy must have made great\nstrides and astronomical observation become the foremost and highest duty\nof the intellectual leaders of the native races. Pyramids and temples\nwould be built for the purpose of verifying and recording the positions of\nsun, moon, planets and stars, and the orientation of these buildings would\nbe carefully planned accordingly. Before obtaining glimpses of the great\nevolution of religious thought which progressed on our Continent in olden\ntimes, it is well to realize, by means of Piazzi Smyth\u2019s map (fig. 6) that\nthe world ceased to possess a brilliantly conspicuous, absolutely\nimmovable pole-star for a prolonged period of time, stretching somewhere\nbetween 500 B.C. and 1200 A.D.\n\nThe ancient native chronicles record that under \u201cdivine\u201d leadership great\nmigrations of tribes took place within this period, the purpose of which\nwas to find a locality which fulfilled certain ardently-desired conditions\nconnected with religious cult.\n\nFrom various centres of civilization in Mexico and Central America we also\nhear different accounts of how, at different times, small bands of earnest\nmen, under a leader of superior intelligence, bent on a peaceable but\nunexplained errand, arrived from distant regions and departed for an\nunknown goal, after delaying just long enough to teach social organization\nand impart a higher civilization to the tribes encountered on their\npassage.\n\nThese preserved the memory of the _title_ of the leader, in their\ndifferent languages and he became the culture-hero of their tribe. The\nfact that, in each case, these sages taught the ignorant tribes the\ndivision of time and instituted the calendar, proves that they were\nskilled in astronomy.\n\nFrom a sentence uttered by Montezuma to the native astronomers whom he\ntermed \u201cthe Sons of the Night,\u201d we learn that it was their custom \u201cto\nclimb mountains\u201d so as \u201cto study the stars.\u201d When one considers the full\nimport of the problems which had to be faced by these ancient sages, who\nearnestly endeavored to account for the great changes which had taken\nplace in the heavens, within the memory of man, it seems natural to\nsuppose that many an expedition was undertaken for the purpose of\nacquiring further astronomical knowledge, of finding, perhaps, the\nimmovable star which had been revered in past ages by the ancestors of the\nnative race.\n\nThe cult of Polaris may well have made such expeditions assume the aspect\nof an imperative religious duty and sacred pilgrimage. As all expeditions\nacross Mexico and Central America would necessarily be limited by the\noceans and be fruitless as far as Polaris was concerned, it is obvious\nthat the line of exploration which would be ultimately adopted, would run\nfrom south to north and _vice versa_. A small band of enthusiasts, setting\nforth under the leadership of some of the most advanced thinkers of the\ntime, would undoubtedly have been prepared to devote their entire lives to\nthe object in view. As long as a single member of such an expedition\nexisted, he would be a powerful and active agent in spreading the\nfundamental set of ideas derived from the observation of Polaris. In lapse\nof time, by transmission, its influence might travel to a region too\nremote perhaps for direct contact to have taken place.\n\nIf I have indulged in the foregoing line of conjecture and surmise, it is\nbecause it is my purpose also to demonstrate, by absolute proof, that the\ndominion of the above set of ideas extended over Yucatan, Honduras,\nGuatemala and even reached Peru, where its influence is distinctly\nvisible.\n\nIt also extended far to the north in prehistoric times, for certain carved\nshell-gorgets which have been found in prehistoric graves in Illinois,\nMissouri and Tennessee exhibit emblems which have definite meanings in the\nMaya language, spoken in Yucatan.\n\nIn order to maintain this assertion I must make a slight digression from\nthe main subject and revert to the myth already cited, recording the\ncasting down from heaven of Tezcatlipoca who arose and ascended again in\nthe form of an ocelot. There are interesting native pictures of this\ncombat and the fall of the ocelot in the Vatican Codex II, p. 34, the\nF\u00e9j\u00e9rvary Codex, p. 56, and others equally important, representing the\nfall or descent of an eagle from the sky, to which I shall revert.\n\nIt is moreover recorded by Mendieta (p. 82) that Tezcatlipoca likewise\ndescended or let himself down from the sky by a spider\u2019s thread, and in\nthe Bodleian MS. (p. 12) there are two curious pictures one of an ocelot\nand a cobweb, the other of an ocelot, descending head foremost from stars.\nThe same incident is also pictured in the Vienna Codex (p. 9) where the\nocelot, attached by the tail, is connected by a cord with star-emblems.\n\nThere are two facts of special interest in regard to the above descent of\nTezcatlipoca by a spider\u2019s thread. The first is that the title\nTzontemoc=\u201che who descends head foremost\u201d is recorded in the Codex\nFuenleal immediately after the name Mictlantecuhtli. The second is that\nthe spider is figured on the manta of Mictlantecuhtli in the B. N. MS. and\nis sculptured in the centre, above his forehead, in his sculptured image,\nidentified as such by Se\u00f1or Sanchez (Anales del Museo Nacional III, p.\n299) and reproduced here (fig. 19). It represents \u201cthe lord of the North\nor Underworld\u201d descending, head foremost, with a tecpatl or flint knife\nissuing from his mouth and with outspread limbs, the outlines of which are\nalmost lost under the multitude of symbols which are grouped around him.\nThese symbols are carefully analyzed in my commentary on the B. N. MS. in\nwhich I also describe other known carved representations of the same\nconception and point out analogous pictures in the Maya Codices. The\nposition of the limbs of the descending figure is best understood by a\nglance at fig. 20, II, from the Dresden Codex. It represents a bar with\ncross symbols from which a human body is descending. The feet rest on dual\nsymbols, about which more could be written than the scope of the present\npaper allows. A tecpatl or flint knife, attached to the body by a double\nbow with ends, may be seen between the dual symbols, and its presence is\nof utmost importance since it proves that the Mayas also associated the\nflint with the same figure. Instead of a head the body exhibits a sort of\nequidistant cross with four circles. Strange to say, the only analogous\ncross-figures I have been able to find in all the Codices are those\nreproduced in fig. 20, I, III, and IV. The latter exhibits a curious,\nconventionalized flower growing on the top of a pyramid. Its stem and\nleaves are painted brown and are spotted, resembling the skin of an\nocelot. As there is a Mexican flower, the Tigridia, of which the native\nname was ocelo-xochitl, it may be that it is this which is thus\nrepresented. Fig. 20, III, from the B. N. MS., figures as a sacred cake,\nalongside of the S-shaped xonecuilli breads which were made in honor of\nUrsa Minor at a certain feast. Finally, fig. 20, I, represents a certain\nkind of ceremonial staff which is inserted between the two peaks of a\nmountain\u2014a favorite method employed by the native scribes, to convey the\nidea that the object figured was in the exact centre. This kind of staff\noccurs frequently in certain Codices, sometimes being carried by a high\npriest. It invariably exhibits a flower-like figure with five circles and\nis surmounted by a tecpatl or flint knife. Without pausing to discuss the\nsubject fully I merely point out here that, collectively, these symbols\nexplain each other and convey the idea of the Centre and the Four Quarters\nevidently associated with the tecpatl, the symbol of the north, and the\nocelot and xonecuilli=Ursa Minor. It is particularly interesting to note\nthat the outspread human body is made to serve as a sort of cross-symbol.\nA careful study of the conventional representation of the face of \u201cthe\nlord of the North,\u201d in fig. 19, gives the impression that it was also used\nto convey the idea of duality, or the union of two in one. The upper half\nof the face exhibits a numeral on either cheek under the eyes, seeming to\nconvey the idea of dualities. The two circular ear ornaments, united by a\nband above the head, and the two nostrils united in one nose, seem to\nconvey the idea of the union of the dualities, whilst the lower half of\nthe face, which is rendered strikingly different to the upper, by being in\nhigher relief and marked with perpendicular lines, exhibits a mouth from\nwhich a flint knife, with symbolical eye and fangs carved on it, is\nhanging like a tongue. I have already shown that the flint knife was\nregarded as the sacred producer of the \u201cvital spark.\u201d I may add here that\nI have also found, in the Codices, tecpatl-symbols on which the curved\nsymbol of air or breath was figured. To my idea the sculptured face is\nmeant to symbolize the dual creator, the dispenser of the spark and breath\nof life, whilst the human skull on his back betokens that he is also the\ngiver of death. Though unable to enter fully into the subject here, I\nwould nevertheless state that I can produce further data to prove that the\nhuman face was frequently employed for a symbolical purpose by the native\nAmerican races who were evidently entirely under the dominion of the idea\nof duality, of the Above and Below and the life-producing union of both.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 19.\n\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 20.\n\n\nThe question why the spider, named \u201ctocatl\u201d in Nahuatl, should have been\nadopted as the chief symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, occupied me much until I\nfound the clue to its significance in the Maya language. In this the word\nfor North is _Aman_ and the name for \u201cthe spider whose bite is mortal,\u201d is\n_Am_. This striking fact may be interpreted as a positive proof that the\nspider-symbol, employed by the Mexicans, must have originated in Yucatan,\nfrom the mere homonymy of two Maya words.\n\nOn the other hand shell-gorgets exhibiting the effigy of a spider, and\nobviously intended to be worn with its head turned downwards, have not\nonly been found in Illinois but also in Tennessee and Missouri. On the\ngorgets from the latter States a cross is carved on the body of the spider\n(fig. 22, _a_). As certain spiders exhibit cross-markings, it is, of\ncourse, possible that it was chosen as a cross-symbol for this reason\nonly, in some localities, just as the butterfly was evidently adopted in\nMexico, as an apt image of the Centre and the Four Quarters on account of\nits shape and its possession of four wings. The conventionalized figure of\na butterfly, with a star on its body and four balls, painted with the\ncolors of the quarters, was a sacred symbol which is minutely described by\nSahagun and is figured on a manta in the B. N. MS. A glance at its\nreproduction (fig. 21, no. 13) shows how the form of the insect has been\nconventionalized so as to resemble the ollin (no. 12) and other Mexican\ncross-symbols (nos. 2, 4, 11, 14 etc.). The eye or star in its centre,\nlike that in the ollin, and circle (no. 4), signify Polaris; the\nconventionalized head and antenn\u00e6 are obviously made to convey the idea of\n\u201ctwo in one,\u201d of the Above and Below united in the Centre.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 21.\n\n\nI venture to suggest that the dragon-fly was employed as a cross-symbol in\nan analogous manner, on the Algonquin garment preserved at the Riksmuseum,\nStockholm, and described by Dr. Hjalmar Stolpe in his admirable study on\nAmerican art (Amerikansk Ornamentik, Stockholm, 1896, p. 30). As I shall\nrevert to it later on, I now draw special attention to the circumstance\nthat instead of the cross, on a spider-gorget from Tennessee, there is a\nround hole which, when the shell-disc is held aloft, lets a ray of light\nshine through and furnishes an apt presentation of a star. This and the\ncross furnish analogies to the Mexican and Maya symbols of Polaris which\nare too obvious to need to be emphasized. Nor do these gorgets alone\nfurnish an undeniable indication that an identical symbolism extended from\nYucatan to Illinois. Other gorgets, also figured in Mr. Wm. H. Holmes\u2019\nmonograph \u201cArt in Shell,\u201d several of which are in the Peabody Museum, from\nthe stone graves in Tennessee, exhibit variously carved representations of\na serpent. In all specimens the identical idea is carried out: the eye of\nthe serpent forms the centre of the design on the disc and four circles on\nthe body of the reptile, or four solid bars, interrupting a hollow line\nencircling the central motif, emphasized a division of the disc into four\nequal parts. The idea of the Serpent in repose, the Centre and the Four\nQuarters is thoroughly carried out and the true meaning of the design is\nonly appreciated by the light of the Maya and Mexican symbolism which has\nalready been so fully discussed.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 22.\n\n\nThe third Tennessee gorget reproduced here (fig. 22, _c_), from Mr.\nHolmes\u2019 work, exhibits a combination of numerals which is particularly\ninteresting if confronted with the sacred numbers of the Mexicans and\nMayas. From a central circle three curved lines issue in a fashion\nresembling those on fig. 21, no. 2, but the fact that the circular band\nexhibits seven double circles and the outer edge is divided into thirteen\nparts, is of special moment. Still another design, on a shell-gorget from\nTennessee, not only exhibits the peculiarity, pointed out by Mr. Holmes,\nof a square with loops, resembling certain figures in Mexican Codices, but\nalso other significant details which I shall point out (fig. 22, _b_). The\ncross in the centre occupies the centre of a star with eight rays and the\nfour birds\u2019 heads at the sides of the square illustrate rotation from\nright to left. I am inclined to view in this gorget an emblem of Polaris\nwith Cassiopeia in rotation around it, figured as a bird, but whether this\nis the case or not it must be conceded that it is indeed remarkable to\nfind a set of symbols, consisting of the spider, the cross, the serpent\nand the bird, carved on prehistoric gorgets found in the United States\nwhilst the deep meaning of these identical symbols is furnished by Maya\nand Mexican records. I venture to remark here that no more expressive and\nappropriate ornament than these shell-gorgets could have been designed, or\nworn by the ancient Maya or Mexican priests, prophets and leaders who, in\na remote past, had guided themselves by the light of Polaris and\ninstituted its cult as the basis of their native religion.\n\nOn realizing the above-mentioned identity of symbolism, it is impossible\nnot to conclude that the prehistoric race which inhabited certain parts of\nthe United States was under the dominion of the same ideas as were the\nMexicans and Mayas. The indications point, in fact, to the probability\nthat the origin of the employment of the spider-symbol originated in\nYucatan, and if this be admitted then there is no reason to deny the\npossibility that the serpent-symbol came from there also, since the Maya\nlanguage suggests an affinity between the serpent, _can_, and the\nsky=_caan_, and the numeral 4=_can_. I refrain, for the present, from\nexpressing any final conclusion on this subject, which will doubtless\nafford ample food for reflection and argument to all interested in the\nimportant problem as to where the cradle of ancient American civilization\nwas situated. But these symbolic gorgets go far towards substantiating\nProfessor Putnam\u2019s oft-expressed conclusions that the ancient peoples of\nthe central and southern portions of the United States were, to a certain\nextent, offshoots of the ancient Mexicans.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 23.\n\n\nBefore abandoning the subject of native symbolism and star-emblems I\nshould like to present, as a curiosity, with an appeal to specialists to\nenlighten me as to the astronomical knowledge of the Eskimos, an Eskimo\ndrawing from Professor Wilson\u2019s instructive and useful monograph. It is\nsaid to represent a \u201cflock of birds,\u201d but so closely resembles Cassiopeia\nand Polaris that I am tempted to view it as an indication that the Eskimos\nmay also have associated the idea of a celestial bird, or birds, wheeling\naround a central point, with the constellation and the pole-star (fig.\n23). Having once ventured so far afield, I cannot refrain from presenting\nhere an interesting set of aboriginal star-symbols, reproduced from\nProfessor Wilson\u2019s comprehensive work (fig. 24), each composed of a cross\ncombined, with a single exception, with a circle. I draw attention to the\nstriking resemblance of some of these signs to those painted on the finely\ndecorated pottery found on the hacienda of Don Jos\u00e9 Luna, in Nicaragua,\nand described by J. F. Brandsford, M.D. (Archaeological Researches in\nNicaragua, Smithsonian Inst., 1881, p. 30, B), and suggest that, in both\nlocalities, the symbol may be a rudimentary swastika, and represent\nPolaris and circumpolar rotation.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\nPlate III. 1. Shell gorget, Missouri. 2, 5-14. Pottery vessels, Arkansas.\n    3, 4, 15-17, 19-28. Pottery vessels, Missouri. 18. Pottery vessel,\n Kentucky. 6. National Museum. 3, 16, 17, 21, 24, 25. St. Louis Academy.\n   All others Peabody Museum. Willoughby, \u201cPottery from the Mississippi\n       Valley.\u201d Journal of American Folk-lore, January-March, 1897.\n\n\nIn conclusion I refer the reader to Mr. C. C. Willoughby\u2019s valuable and\nmost interesting \u201cAnalysis of the decorations upon pottery from the\nMississippi Valley\u201d (Journal Amer. Folk-lore, vol. X, 1897), in which he\nfigures the remarkable specimens preserved in the Peabody Museum,\nCambridge, the designs on which, as he states, \u201care mostly of symbolic\norigin and have been in use among various tribes within the historic\nperiod from the Great Lakes to Mexico.\u201d With the kind permission of the\neditor of the Journal, I reproduce some of Mr. Willoughby\u2019s illustrations\non Plate III.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n    Figure 24. Crosses And Circles Representing Star Symbols, Arizona.\n\n\nReturning to consider the probable result of the gradual diffusion of\nstar-cult owing to natural causes and of the consequent divergence from\nthe idea of the Centre, which had so deeply influenced the minds of\nprimitive men during many centuries, with earnest, and extended\nastronomical observation, keeping pace with the development of the idea of\nthe Above and Below, it is obvious that the utmost attention would be next\ngiven to the conspicuous star groups and planets which are visible at\ncertain times and then seem to have departed or descended into the under\nworld. Any one who has read the interesting communications by Herr Richard\nAndree (Globus. bd. LXIV, nr. 22), On the relation of the Pleiades to the\nbeginning of the year amongst primitive people, followed by a note by Herr\nKarl von den Steinen on the same subject, will realize that\nwidely-separated tribes of men, by dint of simple observation, knew the\nexact length of the periodical appearance and disappearance of this star\ngroup and regulated their year accordingly. Herr Andree cites, for\ninstance, that \u201cin the Society islands, the year was divided into two\nportions, the first of which was named Matari-i-inia=the Pleiades above.\nIt began and lasted during the time when these constellations were visible\nclose to the horizon after sunset. The second period, named\nMatarii-i-raro=the Pleiades below, began and lasted for the time during\nwhich the star-group was invisible after sunset\u201d (W. Ellis, Polynesian\nResearches, vol. II, p. 419, London 1829). That the ancient Mexicans had\nlikewise observed the Pleiades and been deeply impressed by them is proven\nby the well-known fact that the ceremony of the kindling of the sacred\nfire, which betokened the commencement of a new cycle, was performed \u201cwhen\nthe Pleiades attained the zenith at midnight precisely.\u201d In my complete\nmonograph in the ancient Mexican calendar-system it will be my endeavor to\npresent all the data I have collected concerning the degree of elementary\nastronomical knowledge attained by the native astronomers. I shall,\ntherefore, content myself with pointing out here that besides the\nforegoing testimony about the Pleiades, the native name for which was the\nmiec=the many, or the tianquiztli=the marketplace, there are records\nproving that the cult of the planet Venus was a firmly established feature\nof the native religion at the time of the Conquest. Sahagun records that\nthe Nahuatl names for this planet were citlalpul or hueycitlallin both\nsignifying \u201cthe great star.\u201d \u201cIn the great temple of Mexico an edifice\nnamed ilhuicatitlan [literally, the land of the sky] consisted of a great,\nhigh column, on which the morning star was painted.... Captives were\nsacrificed in front of this column annually, at the period when the star\nre-appeared\u201d (_op. cit._ appendix to book II).\n\nWith regard to the connection of the Pleiades with the beginning of the\nMexican cycle, it is interesting to note Herr Andree\u2019s statements that the\nmost intimate connection of the star-group with the thoughts of primitive\npeople, would naturally take place in such localities where its periodical\nmovements coincided with the changes of season, wind and weather which\naffected agriculture. A survey of the data presented by Herr Andree shows\nthat the cult of the Pleiades attained its greatest development amongst\ntribes inhabiting a southerly latitude. It was in South America, indeed,\nthat the Peruvians, alongside of their highly developed sun-cult, rendered\nhomage and offered sacrifices to the Pleiades. In Mexico, the cult of the\nPleiades appears as intimately associated with that of the sun and to have\nassumed importance only in historical and comparatively recent times,\nprobably when the periodicity of the sun\u2019s movements had been taught or\nrecognized and the sign _ollin_, which is an exact presentation of the\nannual course of the sun, had been invented and adopted as a symbol. I\nhave already pointed out that this sign occurs on the calendar-stone, for\ninstance, which has a human face in its centre, bearing two numerals on\nthe forehead and obviously symbolizing the union of two in one. In other\ninstances the centre displays the eye, or star symbol and conveys the\nsuggestion that the \u201cfour movements\u201d of the circumpolar constellations\nwere thereby symbolized. It may be that, in ancient Mexico, the two\nsymbols, respectively referring to the movements of the sun and of the\ncircumpolar star-groups, were emblematic of the two different cults or\nreligions which existed alongside of each other. The first, the cult of\nthe Above, of the Blue Sky, was directed towards the sun and the planets\nand stars intimately associated with sunrise and sunset, amongst them the\nPleiades. The cult of the Below, of the Nocturnal Heaven, was directed\ntowards the moon, Polaris and the circumpolar constellations\u2014also to the\nstars and planets during the period of their disappearance and possibly in\nthe same way to the enigmatical \u201cBlack Sun,\u201d figured in the B. N. MS.\nwhich may have been the sun during its nightly stay in the House of the\nUnderworld, whose door was in the west. In order to obtain an idea of the\nimmense proportions ultimately assumed by these two diverging cults and\nthe enormous influence they exerted upon the entire native civilization,\nit will be necessary to examine the form of the social organization in\nMontezuma\u2019s time.\n\nIn order to comprehend this, however, it is first necessary to study\ncarefully the myths relating to its origin. Torquemada (lib. VI, chap. 41)\ncites the authority of Friar Andreas de Olmos for the following native\naccount of the creation of man, which was differently recounted to him in\neach province. He states that the majority of the natives, however, agreed\nthat \u201cthere was in heaven a god named \u2018Shining Star\u2019 (Citlal-Tonac) and a\ngoddess named \u2018She of the starry skirt\u2019 (Citlal-Cue), who gave birth to a\nflint knife (Tecpatl). Their other children, startled at this, cast the\nflint down from the sky. It fell to earth at the place named \u2018Seven caves\u2019\nand \u2018produced 1,600 gods and goddesses,\u2019 \u201d a figure of speech which\nevidently expressed the idea that, in coming in forcible contact with the\nsoil the flint gave forth sparks innumerable which conveyed vitality to\nnumberless beings. It is evidently the same idea of \u201clife sparks\u201d being\ncalled into existence by the union of heaven and earth which underlies the\nTexcocan version of the creation of man recorded as follows by Torquemada\n(_op. et loc. cit._). \u201cThe sun ... shot an arrow towards the land of\nAcolma near the boundary of Texcoco. This made a hole in the ground whence\nissued the first man....\u201d\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 25.\n\n\nThe illustrated version of the above myths, given in the Vatican Codex I,\ndesignates the celestial progenitor of human life as Quetzalcoatl, also\nnamed Tonaca-Tecuhtli=the lord of our subsistence, Chicome-xochitl=\u201cSeven\nroses or flowers\u201d and Citlalla-Tonalla=\u201cThe Milky Way,\u201d literally, The\nshining stars. The dual divinity is figured (fig. 25, no. 4) as two\npersons with the shaft of an arrow over each of their heads and with the\nsymbol Tecpatl=flint, between them as the issue of their union. In the\nBorgian Codex (fig. 25, no. 1), a barbed arrowpoint, instead of the\nTecpatl, figures between the celestial parents. Their union is symbolized\nby a covering, the shape of which, in further representations (fig. 25,\nnos. 3 and 5) in the same MS., offers resemblance to the tau-shaped\nwindows which are such a common feature in Maya and also in Pueblo\narchitecture (fig. 25, no. 2_b_). The preceding data, which could be\namplified, seem to show that the natives associated the tau-shape not\nmerely with the idea of the Male and Female principles, but also with the\nAbove and the Below, or Heaven (air and water) and Earth (earth and fire).\nI shall have occasion, further on, to refer again to the symbolism of the\nnative tau.\n\nThe above illustrations, however, definitely prove that the flint knife\nand the arrow (with a flint point, presumably), were indiscriminately\ndesignated as the medium by means of which the spark of life was created\nand imparted to earth-born beings.\n\nIt will be proved further that, at the period of the Conquest, the arrow\nwas revered as an image of life-producing force in Yucatan and Mexico. The\nflint knife cased in wrappings was called \u201cthe son\u201d of Cihuacoatl, the\nearth-mother, and was regarded as her special symbol. It is significant,\ntherefore, to find that it was the emblem of office of one of the two high\npriests, who alone employed it, as a sacrificial knife, in performing his\nawful duty of immolating human victims.\n\nThe fact that the cane-shaft of an arrow figures above the head of the\ncelestial couple in the Vatican Codex is particularly interesting because\nthe name Ome-Acatl=Two-Cane, is given as the name of a divinity by Sahagun\n(book I, chap. 15) and that the ceremony of kindling the New Fire, at the\ncommencement of a cycle of years was also associated with the calendar\nsign Ome-Acatl (Sahagun, book VII, chap. 10).\n\nAt a certain festival images of Omacatl were manufactured and carried by\nthe devout to their houses in order to receive from them \u201cblessings and\nmultiplication of possessions\u201d (Sahagun, book II, chap. 19).\n\nI draw attention to the fact that life is supposed to have proceeded from\nthe union of stellar divinities, that the Tecpatl and flint are the\nwell-known symbols for the North and Fire and that the Vatican commentator\nidentifies the celestial parent as \u201cSeven-Flowers.\u201d What is more, Duran\n(vol. I, pp. 8 and 9) relates that the native race was organized into\nseven separate tribes and that these \u201cclaimed to have come out of \u2018seven\ncaves\u2019 (Chicom-oztoc) which were situated in Teo-Culhuacan or Aztlan \u2018a\nland of which all men know that it is in the North.\u2019 \u201d Now Teo-Culhuacan\nis composed of the word Teotl, which designated the stars, the sun, the\ngods and, by extension, something divine or celestial. Culhua (_cf._\nColoa) means something bent over or recurved, or the action of describing\na circle by moving around something, and _can_ means \u201cthe place of\u201d in\nNahuatl. This locality is represented in the picture-writings by a strange\nand impossible mountain with a recurved summit (fig. 26, no. 1). Aztlan\nliterally means \u201cthe land of whiteness, brightness, light.\u201d In Duran\u2019s\nAtlas the seven caves are represented as containing men and women\u2014the\nprogenitors of the seven tribes. The order in which these are described,\nin the Mexican myth, as having issued from the caves, is instructive and\nsheds light upon the provenance and purpose of the tradition. It\nrepresents the Mexicans as the superior predestined race who remained in\ntheir cave the \u201clongest, by divine command,\u201d their \u201cgod having promised\nthem this land.\u201d The tradition relates that six tribes reached and settled\ndown in the central plateau of Mexico, 302 years before the Aztecs\narrived, under the leadership of Huitzilopochtli an oracular divinity,\nwhose commandments were transmitted to the people by four priests (Duran,\nchap. II).\n\nIn my opinion it is impossible to study the above and supplementary data\nwithout realizing that the native race assigned its origin to a dual\nstar-divinity, associated with the Tecpatl, the symbol for the North and\nfor Fire. The peculiarity that the divinity is designated as\nSeven-flowers, and that there were seven tribes, indicates that the native\nidea was that each tribe came from one of the seven stars in Ursa Major or\nMinor. The Aztecs seem to have claimed for themselves the descent from the\nsuperior star, the central one, and to have thus justified or supported\ntheir ultimate establishment of a central government which ruled over the\nother six tribes.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 26.\n\n\nThe assumption that the native race claimed descent from the Ursa Major or\nMinor constellation is further supported by the fact that the shape of the\nmythical recurved mountain and the name Aztlan=land of light or brightness\nare simultaneously explained, as well as the number of caves and tribes.\nIt does not seem to be a mere coincidence that in two totally different\nCodices (the Selden MS. p. 7, Kingsborough, vol. 1, and the B. N. MS., p.\n70) a sacred dance is represented as executed by seven individuals who\nmove around a central seated personage. In the latter MS. the seated\nfigure wears a head-dress surmounted by flint knives and his face is\npainted _red_ the color assigned to the North. Moreover the dance is\ntaking place before an image of Mictlan-Tecuhtli, the lord of the North,\nwhose raiment is strewn with cross-symbols. Referring to other native\ndances we find that the most sacred of all dances was performed at the\nfestival of the god of fire by priests only, who, smeared with black paint\nto typify darkness and night, carried two torches in each hand and first\nsat, then slowly moved, in a circle, around the \u201cdivine brazier,\u201d and\nfinally cast their torches into it (Duran II, p. 174). This, probably the\nmost ancient of sacred dances, must have been extremely impressive and\nsignificative to those who witnessed it, at night-time, from the base of\nthe pyramid and heard the distant solemn chant of the dancers. To watchers\nfrom afar, the fire and the lighted torches revolving around must have\nseemed like a great central star with other stars wheeling about it.\n\nFurther on, it will be shown that the earliest form under which the Deity\nwas revered was that of fire and the foregoing description fully explains\nwhy it was first chosen as the most fitting image of the central immovable\nstar. It has already been shown that, in the popular game of \u201cthe flyers,\u201d\na high pole surmounted by one man served as the pivot for the\ncircumvolation of the four performers, who \u201cacted\u201d the \u201cflight of time.\u201d\nThe idea of an extended rule, proceeding from a central dual force, was,\nhowever, carried out on a grand scale in the most solemn of all public\ndances named the Mitotiliztli. Duran (II, p. 85) states that as many as\n\u201c8,600 persons danced in a wheel in the courtyard of the Great Temple,\nwhich had four doorways, facing the cardinal points and opening out on to\nthe four principal high roads leading to the capital. The doorways were\nrespectively named after the four principal gods and were spoken of as\n\u2018the doorway of such and such a god.\u2019 \u201d\n\nClavigero, to whose work (Historia, ed. Mora, Mexico, 1844, p. 234) I\nrefer the reader for further details, describes the dances at the time of\nthe Conquest as having been most beautiful, and relates that the natives\nwere exercised in these, from their childhood, by the priests. This\nauthority also relates that the Mitotiliztli was performed by hundreds of\ndancers at certain solemn festivals, in the great central square of the\ncity or in the courtyard of the temple, and gives the following\ndescription:\n\nThe centre of the space was occupied by two individuals (designated\nelsewhere as high priests) who beat measure on sacred drums of two kinds.\nOne, the large huehuetl, emitted an extremely loud, deep tone, which could\nbe heard for miles and was usually employed in the temples as a means of\nsummoning to worship, etc. The second, the teponaztle, was a small\nportable wooden drum which was usually worn suspended from the neck by the\nleader in warfare and emitted the shrill piercing note he employed as a\nsignal. The chieftains (each of which personified a god) surrounded the\ntwo musicians, forming several concentric circles, close to each other. At\na certain distance from the outer one of these, the persons of an inferior\nclass were placed in circles and these were separated by another interval\nof space, from the outermost circles, composed of young men and boys. The\nillustration given by Clavigero records the order and disposition of this\nsacred dance, which represented a kind of wheel, the centre of which was\noccupied by the instruments and their players. The spokes of the wheel\nwere as many as there were chieftains in the innermost circle. All moved\nin a circle while dancing and strictly adhered to their respective\npositions. Those who were nearest the centre, the chieftains and elders,\nmoved slowly, with gravity, having a smaller circle to perform. The\ndancers forming the outer circles were, however, forced to move with\nextreme rapidity, so as to preserve the straight line radiating from the\ncentre and headed by the chieftains. The measure of the dance and of the\nchorus chanted by the participants was beaten by the drums and the\nmusicians asserted their absolute control of the great moving wheel of\nhuman beings, by alternately quickening or slackening the measure. The\nperfect harmony of the dance, which successive sets of dancers kept going\nfor eight or more hours, was only disturbed occasionally by certain\nindividuals who pushed their way through the lines of dancers and amused\nthese by indulging in all sorts of buffoonery. No one, on reading the\nabove description of the most ancient and sacred of native dances can fail\nto recognize that it was an actual representation of axial rotation and\nthat no more effective method of rendering the apparent differences in the\ndegrees of velocity in the movements of the circumpolar and equatorial\nstars, could possibly have been devised. The fact that this dance was a\nmost solemn and sacred rite, whose performance was obligatory to the\nentire population, indicates that it constituted an act of general\nobedience and homage and a public acknowledgment of the absolute dominion\nof a central dual, ruling power.\n\nIt is particularly interesting that, in this dance, the latter is\nrepresented by two individuals who respectively employ the sacred drum of\nthe priesthood, and that used by war chieftains only (the one instrument\nemitting a low and the other a high tone); for the culture hero of the\nTzendals, Votan, who, with the aid of his followers, taught this tribe the\ncivil laws of government and the religious ceremonials, was entitled \u201cthe\nMaster of the sacred Drum.\u201d (See Brinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 214.)\n\nReverting to the organization of the native race into seven tribes and the\nwandering of the seventh and principal division, under the leadership of\nHuitzilopochtli: according to Tezozomoc (Cronica, p. 23), Huitzilopochtli\nwas accompanied by \u201ca woman who was called his sister and was carried by\nfour men. She was a powerful sorceress, possessed the power of assuming\nthe shape of an eagle, had made herself greatly feared and caused herself\nto be adored as a goddess.\u201d Indignant at her arrogance the priests\ncounselled a course which was adopted by the Mexicans. The woman and her\nfamily were left behind at Malinalco where they settled and populated a\ntown, whilst the other portion of the tribe, under strictly masculine\nrule, advanced towards Tula where they established themselves. \u201cThis was\nthe second division which had taken place, amongst the Mexicans or Aztecs\n... and when they reached Tula they found their number greatly\ndiminished.\u201d This same incident is related with greater detail by\nTorquemada (vol. I, chap. II) from which we learn what a great animosity\nwas felt against the woman. On one occasion, which I shall not pause to\ndescribe, two war chiefs menaced her. The \u201ctalk\u201d she gave them in return\nis so remarkable that it deserves to be quoted in full; for it affords a\ndeep insight into the native mode of expression, teaches us the titles of\nthe woman and shows that her position was undoubtedly one of powerful\nauthority.\n\n\u201cI am Quilaztli, your sister and of your tribe ... you know this and yet\nyou think that the dispute or difference you have with me is like an\nordinary one, such as you might wage with any ordinary base woman, who\npossessed little spirit or courage. If you indulge in this thought you are\ndeceiving yourselves, for I am valiant and manly and my titles will oblige\nyou to acknowledge this. For besides the ordinary name of Quilaztli, by\nwhich you know me, I also possess four titles, by which I know myself: the\nfirst of these is Cihuacoatl=the Woman-serpent (or twin); the second is\nQuauh-Cihuatl=the Eagle-woman; the third is Yao-Cihuatl=the Woman-warrior\nand the fourth is Tzitzimi-Cihuatl, the Woman of the Underworld. From the\nproperties or qualities conveyed by these titles you can appreciate who I\nam; what power I yield and what harm I can do you and if you want to test\nthe truth of this, here is my challenge!\u201d\n\n\u201cThe two brave captains, undaunted by the arrogant words by which she\nattempted to terrify them, responded: \u2019If you are as valiant as you\ndescribe yourself to be, we are not less so; but you are a woman and it is\nnot meet that it should be said of us that we took up arms against women;\u2019\nand without speaking further they left her, much affronted that a woman\nshould challenge and defy them. And they kept silence about this\noccurrence so that their people should not know of it.\u201d Se\u00f1or Alfredo\nChavero (appendix, p. 125, to Duran\u2019s Historia, Mexico, 1880), commenting\nupon this passage, says: \u201cIt is impossible to doubt that this tradition\nrefers to an important event in the history of the Aztec tribe.... I think\nit contains the record of a religious struggle.\u201d\n\nThe full significance of the narrative will become clear, I think, when\nthe following points are dwelt upon. One thing is certain: here is a\nhistorical personage, a woman, who was termed _the sister_ of\nHuitzilopochtli, who evidently exerted a high authority and whose titles\nwere actually the names of the highest female divinity. Sahagun (book VI,\nchap. 37) states that Quilaztli, a goddess, the same as Cihuacoatl, was\nthe mother of all and was also named Tonant-zin=\u201cour mother.\u201d What is more\nsignificant still is that, in all historical records antedating the\nConquest, a man bearing the feminine title of Cihuacoatl=serpent woman, is\ndistinctly and repeatedly mentioned as the coadjutor of the Mexican ruler.\nMr. Ad. Bandelier, in his careful study \u201cOn the social organization and\nmode of government of the Ancient Mexicans\u201d (Twelfth Annual Report of the\nPeabody Museum of Am. Arch, and Ethn., Cambridge, 1879) to which I refer\nthe reader, discusses the relative positions of Montezuma and the\nCihuacoatl and states: \u201cthere is no doubt about their _equality_ of rank\nthough their duties were somewhat different\u201d (p. 665). This equality is\nillustrated by the records that both rulers shared the same privileges\nregarding dress. Thus they alone wore sandals and the Cihuacoatl is termed\n\u201cthe second or double of the king, his coadjutor\u201d (Duran, chap. XXXII, p.\n255 and Tezozomoc, chap. XL, p. 66). The latter author, however, gives the\nfull \u201csacred title\u201d as Tlil-Potonqui Cihuacoatl, literally, \u201cthe\nblack-powdered woman-serpent\u201d and we thus learn that, whilst Montezuma\u2019s\ngarments were habitually blue like Huitzilopochtli, his coadjutor, like\nTezcatlipoca, was associated with black. It is well known that some of the\nMexican priests always smeared their bodies with black, which was\ntherefore their special mark.\n\nTo my idea the foregoing data, with circumstantial evidence too diffuse to\nbe conveniently produced, clearly indicate that at one time, in the early\nhistory of the Aztec race, it had been governed jointly by a male and a\nfemale ruler on a footing of perfect equality, the one being the living\nrepresentative of the Above or masculine elements and the other\npersonifying the Below or feminine elements. The fact that Cihuacoatl is\nnamed \u201cthe sister\u201d of Huitzilopochtli shows that the female ruler was not\nnecessarily his wife, although she was his coadjutor in her own right.\nBoth rulers were respectively served by four persons presumably of their\nrespective sex. Besides these Duran (chap. 3) records that \u201cthere were\nalso other seven teotls=lords, who were much reverenced on account of the\nseven caves out of which the seven tribes had come.\u201d\n\nWe thus perceive that at one time the chief authority was vested in a man\nand a woman, his sister, who enjoyed a perfect equality. Four persons\nadministered the government of each ruler and each of the seven tribes had\n\u201cits honoured representative.\u201d For how long this organization had existed\nit is impossible to tell. Dissension arose and division supervened, but to\nthe time of the Conquest the identical form of government was in force\nwith the remarkable difference that the title and office of the\nCihuacoatl, originally held by a woman, were held by a man, whom I do not\nhesitate to identify as one of the two \u201csupreme pontiffs,\u201d whose emblem of\noffice was the flint knife, the offspring of Cihuacoatl, the earth-mother.\n\nHistorical evidence shows that this alteration had not been made without\nbloodshed and renewed difficulties. Thus it is related that, long after\nthe Mexicans had separated from the sister of Huitzilopochtli and her\nadherents, they were induced to \u201cask the daughter of the ruler of\nCulhuacan to become the Queen of the Mexicans and mother of their god. She\nconformed with their request but was subsequently killed by her subjects,\nwho flayed her body and dressed a youth in her skin [a figure of native\nspeech which symbolized his assumption of her office]. Under this form she\nwas revered as a goddess, was named our grandmother and \u2018the mother of the\ngod,\u2019 etc.\u201d These and the following details, taken from well-known\nauthentic native sources, are attractively rendered in the \u201cNewe Welt und\nAmerikanische Historien\u201d (Johann Ludwig Gottfriedt. Frankfurt-a.-M., 1613,\npp. 54 and 55).\n\nAgain, after the Mexicans had been settled at Tenochtitlan for some time,\nthey desired to make an alliance with the King of Culhuacan and therefore\n\u201cchose to nominate, as their ruler, Acamapichtli, who was the son of a\nMexican chieftain by a daughter of the Culhuacan ruler\u201d and evidently\nlived with the latter. For it is related that, on giving his consent, the\nking of Culhuacan stated that if only a _woman_ (of his family) had been\nnominated he would have refused (to trust her to the Mexicans). The\nfarewell words he addressed to Acamapichtli are worthy of quotation: \u201cGo\nmy son, serve thy god, be his representative. Rule the creatures of the\ngod by whom we live; the god of day, of the night and of the winds. Go and\nbe the lord of the water and land owned by the Mexicans.\u201d\n\nAs it is subsequently stated that Acamapichtli _and his queen_ were\nreceived at Tenochtitlan with great honors, it would seem as though the\nMexicans who, from some deeply-rooted religious idea, considered it\nessential to have a female ruler of the line of the king of Culhuacan,\nobtained their desire only by accepting a male member of her family as a\nprotection and safeguard for her sacred person. It may be that for the\nreasons of safety and preservation the female ruler, who was the living\nrepresentative of the Cihuacoatl, gradually retired into absolute\nseclusion whilst a man of her kin assumed, in public, her title and\nprerogatives.\n\nUnless it is assumed that this was the case, it seems impossible to\nexplain why Acamapichtli is designated in the Codex Mendoza (Kingsborough,\nvol. I, pl. II) as having begun to rule in the year I Tecpatl or flint\n(approximately corresponding to A.D. 1364) with the title of\n\u201cWoman-serpent\u201d=Cihuacoatl. From this date the title seems always to have\nbeen borne by a man. When human sacrifices had become a prominent feature\nof the native cult and it became a duty of the Cihuacoatl to perform the\nbloody rite, it is obvious that it became impossible for a woman to fill\nthe position.\n\nWe obtain, however, glimpses of the shadowy form of an invisible and\nvenerable female ruler who is at the head of the \u201cHouse of Women,\u201d watches\nover the welfare of the women of the tribe and officiates as a priestess,\nwith her assistants, at births, baptisms and marriages. In order to\naccount for the obscurity which surrounds her, it should be noticed that\nthe mere fact that the ideas of darkness and seclusion became indelibly\nassociated with the female sex, would naturally and inevitably cause women\nto be housed up, veiled and condemned to comparative inaction and\nimmobility. A primitive stage in the growth of the above idea is shown in\nthe case of the Huaxtecas, the women of which tribe wore abundant covering\nwhilst the men, on religious principle, wore none. A careful study of the\nconditions surrounding the Cihuacoatl or high priest shows that he also\nconformed to the exigencies of his position when he acted as the\nrepresentative of the hidden forces of Nature, of the female principle. He\nand the entire priesthood smeared their bodies with black, cultivated long\nhair, and wore, during the performance of certain religious ceremonies, a\nwide and long garment reaching to the ground. It is noticeable that the\ndesigns on the garments of the priests, in the B. N. MS., are invariably\nexecuted in red and yellow, the symbolical colors of the north and west,\ncombined with black the symbol of the union of both, the Below. In this\nconnection it is noteworthy that in Mexican pictography the faces of women\nare usually painted yellow\u2014the color of the West=the female region. The\nassociation of darkness, concealment and secrecy, with the female\nprinciple, is exemplified by the fact that a building in the enclosure of\nthe Great Temple of Mexico, named the \u201chouse of darkness,\u201d was dedicated\nto the earth-mother=Cihuacoatl (Sahagun, appendix to book II). Other\ntemples of hers are described as being cave-like, underground, dark, with\na single low entrance, the door of which was sometimes sculptured in the\nform of the great open jaws of a serpent. Only priests were allowed to\npenetrate into these mysterious chambers where sacred and secret rites\nwere performed and a sacred fire was also kept burning in an adjoining\nchamber. Evidence, which I shall produce further on, establishes that the\nhigh-priest Cihuacoatl dwelt, at times, in a house named \u201cplace of\ndarkness\u201d and annually sacrificed a human victim in honor of the lord of\nthe underworld, in an edifice called \u201cthe navel of the earth.\u201d\n\nThe religious cult of one-half of the Mexican hierarchy was distinctly\nnocturnal. The chief duties of certain priests were astronomical\nobservation and the supervision of the sacred fire, which was kept\nperpetually burning on the summit of each temple-crowned pyramid, in what\nwas termed \u201cthe sacred or divine brazier\u201d of sculptured stone. Two priests\njointly watched by night and day and received and transmitted to the\nflames the incense offerings of the devout. The temple fires were\nextinguished only at the expiration of a cycle of fifty-two years and were\nthen rekindled by the high priest at midnight precisely, with impressive\nsolemnity.\n\nIn ancient Mexico, it should however be observed, although the logical\nassociation of women with the hidden forces of nature, the underworld and\nthe Below, had exerted a certain influence over her practical existence,\nit had not yet given rise to the idea of her inferiority as compared to\nman, the associate of the Heaven, the Above, the visible and active forces\nof nature. The native sages did not identify her so intimately with the\nearth as to deny her the possession of a soul\u2014the celestial spark. On the\nother hand it is curious to note that the Nahuatl word for wife is\nCihua-tlan-tli and for husband is Te-o-quichtli. Is it possible that the\nparticle _tlan_ in the first and _Teo_ in the second may have contributed\nto strengthen the association of the woman with earth=tlalli (tlan=land\nof) and the man with Teotl, the sun, something divine and celestial? In\ncourse of time it doubtlessly would have transpired, in Mexico as\nelsewhere, that the set of primitive ideas which, during untold centuries,\nimposed upon women seclusion, obscurity and inactivity and thus hindered\nher development of strength of body and mind, would have directly induced\nan inferiority. This has been subsequently proclaimed, as we know, in many\ncountries, as a direct proof of her lower nature and of her affinity with\nthe element earth. The assumed and actual inferiority of woman may\ntherefore be regarded as the logical, inevitable but artificial result of\nprimordial classification and association. Suggested by the same natural\nphenomena which were visible to all inhabitants of the same latitudes,\nthese ideas occurred to all people at a certain stage of their development\nand exerted a dominating influence over the subsequent growth of their\nintelligence. It is but now, that, unconsciously, mankind is beginning to\nemerge from the leading strings of its infancy, which became an iron\nbondage to its prolonged childhood. In Mexico, at the period of the\nConquest, the absolute equality of the male and female principles was\ntheoretically maintained. At the same time it is possible to discern\ncertain agencies at work which were tending to connect the Below, the\nfemale principle, with harm and evil. From time immemorial it had been the\ncustom of the Chichimecs, who, according to Sahagun (book XII, chap. 12,\npar. 5), inhabited an extremely poor and barren region of Mexico, to\nsacrifice the first animal killed in a hunting expedition and to offer it\nto \u201cthe Sun whom they called father and to the earth their mother.\u201d They\nsevered its head and raised this as though offering it to the sun. They\n_then tilled the earth where the blood had been spilt_ and left the animal\nwhich had been sacrificed, on the spot (Ixtlilxochitl, Historia Chichimeca\nchap. VI and Relaciones p. 335). This passage, establishing the\ncultivation of the soil where the blood had been spilt, sheds a flood of\nlight on the origin of the offerings of human blood and the sacrifices of\nhuman life, which were such a prominent and hideous feature of the Aztec\nreligion.\n\nAt the beginning of the sixteenth century, instead of the blood being\nspilt directly upon the earth, to insure and increase the fruitfulness of\nthe soil, a human being was stretched across a conical stone which became\nthus the image of the earth-mother, his heart was extracted and offered to\nthe sun, the Above, and his blood was then smeared on the mouth of certain\nidols representing the Below. In the B. N. MS. an interesting illustration\nand account are given of an idol of the earth-mother who is figured as\nstanding on a pedestal adorned with skulls and cross-bones with\noutstretched tongue which signified, \u201cthat she always had great thirst for\nhuman blood\u201d and \u201cnever refused sacrifices offered to her.\u201d\n\nTwo priests are likewise pictured in the act of offering bowls containing\nhuman blood to the idol and a third, mounted on a ladder, is pouring the\ncontents of another bowl over its head. It is obvious how the constant\nassociations of the earth-mother with sanguinary sacrifices and\nbloodthirstiness would, in time, give rise to the idea of a hostile,\nmaleficent power, linked with darkness and devouring fire, who, under the\naspect of the serpent-woman, waged an eternal warfare on the human race\nand clamored for victims and bloody sacrifices. The natural sequence to\nthe above associations is that in ancient Mexico the powers exerting fatal\ninfluence upon the human race are all represented as female, viz.: the\nCihuacoatl or woman-serpent, the Ciuapipiltin and the Tzit-zime, etc.\nThese and various other personifications of the female principle are\ndescribed in detail in my notes and commentary to the B. N. MS.\n\nAfter considering the foregoing data it seems impossible not to conclude\nthat it must have taken centuries of time for the idea of duality, or of\nthe Above and Below to have taken such a deep hold upon the native mind\nand to have produced such a growth of symbolism and association in so many\nramifications of thought. Let us endeavor to obtain a further insight into\nthe native mode of thought by carefully studying some significant details\nconcerning the social organization of the Mexicans from the time of\nAcamapichtli to that of Montezuma and the influences it had been subjected\nto gradually. This, the first ruler, unquestionably ruled as the\nCihuacoatl, a name which means either Woman-serpent or Female-twin. This\nfact in itself testifies to an epoch-making change in the organization of\nthe Mexican government, in the making of which a concession was made to a\npreviously existing order of things, by the retention of the female title\nby a male ruler.\n\nHaving carefully studied the question for many years, I have long\nconsidered it proven that when the Mexicans settled in the valley of\nMexico they came under a series of influences emanating from an ancient\nand highly cultured centre of civilization situated in the south, which\nhad followed, during untold centuries, the same lines of primitive thought\nwhich have been stated. This question of contact and influence from an\nolder civilization is so important and the material I have collected on\nthe subject is so extensive and complex, that it cannot be adequately\ntreated here. Further on I shall discuss at length certain historical data\nthrowing light on ancient contact and influences. Meanwhile I may as well\nstate here that, having carefully weighed all testimony, I accept as amply\nproven and well supported, the testimony of Las Casas, Torquemada,\nMendieta and others, who record that the Mexican culture-hero Quetzalcoatl\nwas an actual person who had come to Mexico from Yucatan twice and had\nfinally returned thither, leaving a small colony of his vassals behind him\nwhose influence upon the religious and social organization and symbolism\nof the tribes, inhabiting the central plateau, can be plainly discerned.\nMontezuma himself, in his famous speech to Cort\u00e9s, which the latter\ncarefully reported to the Emperor Charles V, states that: \u201cwe [the Mexican\nrulers] were brought here by a lord, whose vassals all of our predecessors\nwere, and who returned from here to his native land. He afterwards came\nhere again, after a long time, during which many of his followers who had\nremained, had married native women of this land, raised large families and\nfounded towns in which they dwelt. He wished to take them away from here\nwith him, but they did not want to go, nor would they receive or adopt him\nas their ruler, and so he departed. Hut we have always thought that his\ndescendants would surely come to subjugate this country and claim us as\ntheir vassals....\u201d (Historia de Nueva Espa\u00f1a. Hernan Cort\u00e9s, ed.\nLorenzana, p. 81; see also p. 96). I do not see how it is possible to\nconstrue such plain, unadorned statements of simple, common-place facts\ninto the assumption that Montezuma was recounting a mythical account of\nthe disappearance of the Light-god from the sky, as upheld by some modern\nwriters, who interpret the whole episode as a sun-myth or legend.\n\nI have already shown that the meaning of the ocelot-skin and the spider,\nemployed as symbols by the Mexicans, is apparent only when studied by\nmeans of the Maya language of Yucatan, the land whence the culture-hero is\nsaid to have come by the foregoing authorities. I will add here that in\nthe Maya chronicles, it is stated that the culture-hero had ruled in\nChichen-Itza, the first part of which name, _Chichen_, means _red_. In\nMexican records it is described that he departed by water from the Mexican\ncoast and travelled directly east, bound for Tlapallan\u2014a name which means\n_red_-land. I draw attention to the fact that any one sailing from the\nmouth of the Panuco river, for instance, in a straight line towards the\neast, would inevitably land on the coast of Yucatan, not far from the\nmodern Merida and the ancient ruins of Chichen-Itza.\n\nI shall also produce evidence, further on, to show that the meaning of the\nmuch-discussed name of the culture-hero\u2019s home, Tullan, is also furnished\nby the Maya language. From more than one source, we learn, moreover, that\nthere were several Tullans on the American continent. The conception of\n_Twin-brothers_ as the personification of the Above and Below had been\nadopted in Yucatan and it is to the influence emanating from that source\nthat I attribute the movement made in Mexico, to substitute male\ntwin-rulers in the place of the man and woman, who had previously and\njointly ruled the ancient Mexicans.\n\nLet us now analyze the Maya title Kukulcan, of which Quetzalcoatl is the\nMexican equivalent. As already stated, the word _can_ means serpent and\nthe numeral 4 and is almost homonymous with the word for sky or\nheaven=_caan_. The image of a serpent, therefore, directly suggested and\nexpressed the idea of something quadruple incorporated in one celestial\nbeing and appropriately symbolized the divine ruler of the four quarters.\nIn the word Kukulcan the noun _can_ is qualified by the prefix _kukul_. In\nthe compiled Maya dictionary published by Brasseur de Bourbourg (appendix\nto de Landa\u2019s Relacion) the adjective _ku_ or _kul_ is given as \u201cdivine or\nholy.\u201d Kukulcan may therefore be analyzed as \u201cthe divine serpent\u201d or the\n\u201cDivine Four.\u201d When Maya sculptors or scribes began to represent this\nsymbol of the divinity they must have searched for some object, easy to\ndepict, the sound of whose name resembled that of ku or kul. The Maya\nadjective \u201cfeathered\u201d being _kukum_, the artists evidently devised the\nplan of representing, as an effigy of the divinity, a serpent decorated\nwith feathers and to this simple attempt at representing the \u201cdivine\nserpent\u201d in sculpture or pictography is due, in my opinion, the origin of\nthe \u201cfeathered serpent\u201d effigies found in Yucatan and Mexico, which have\nso puzzled archaeologists.\n\nOf Kukulcan, the culture-hero of the Mayas, it is recounted that he had\nbeen one of four brothers who originally ruled at Chichen-Itza, over four\ntribes. \u201cThese brothers chose no wives but lived chastely and ruled\nrighteously, until, at a certain time, one died or departed and two began\nto act unjustly and were put to death. The one remaining was Kukulcan. He\nappeased the strife which his brothers\u2019 acts had aroused, directed the\nminds of the people to the arts of peace and caused to be built various\nedifices. After he had completed his work at Chichen-Itza he founded the\ngreat city of Mayapan, destined to be the capital of the confederacy of\nthe Mayas.\u201d (See Brinton, Hero-myths, p. 162.) Friar Diego de Landa\nrelates that the current opinion amongst the Indians of Yucatan was that\nthis ruler had gone to Mexico where, after his return (departure?) he was\nnamed Cezalcouatl and revered as one of their gods (Relacion, ed. Brasseur\nde Bourbourg, p. 36). Before analyzing the Nahuatl rendering of Kukulcan\u2019s\nname I would point out the noteworthy coincidence that, during his reign\nat Chichen-Itza and Mayapan, he practically united in his person and\nassumed the offices formerly fulfilled by four rulers, of which he had\nbeen only one.\n\nI would, moreover, draw attention to the remarkable, sculptured columns\nwhich support the main portal of the main pyramid-temple called El\nCastillo at Chichen-Itza. These represent gigantic feathered serpents and\nare figured on pl. XIV of Mr. Wm. Holmes\u2019 most instructive and useful\n\u201cArchaeological Studies,\u201d Part I, \u201cMonuments of Yucatan.\u201d The feathers\ncarved on the massive columns are evidently the precious tail feathers of\nthe quetzal, which have the peculiarity of exhibiting, according to the\nway the light falls upon them, blue, red, yellow and green\ncolors\u2014precisely those assigned to the four quarters by the Mexicans and\nfor all we know to the contrary, by the Mayas. Whether this feather was\nchosen for this peculiarity or for its beauty only, as that with which to\ndeck the effigy of the divinity, can, of course, only be conjectured. In\nMexico numberless effigies of feathered serpents exist. The resemblance of\nthe sound of the Nahuatl words: feather=ihuitl, and heaven or\nsky=ilhui-\u00e7atl, should be recorded here as a possible reason for the\nassociation of feathers with the serpent and as a means of conveying the\nidea of its divinity. It should also be noted that quetzal, the name of\nthe most precious feathers the natives possessed, resembles in sound, the\nsecond part of the Nahuatl words for flame=tle-cue\u00e7al-lotl, or for \u201ctongue\nof fire\u201d=tle-cue\u00e7al-nenepilli. That the feathered serpent was an image of\nthe divinity is finally proven, I think, by the following passage from\nSahagun which establishes that the earliest form, under which the divinity\nwas revered by the Mexicans, was that of fire: \u201cOf all the gods the [most]\nancient one is the God of Fire, who dwells in the midst of flowers, in an\nabode surrounded by four walls and _is covered with shining feathers like\nwings_\u201d (_op. cit._ book VI, chap. IV). It is thus shown that whilst the\nword ihuitl=feather suggested something divine, the word quetzal, besides\nbeing the name of a particular kind of feather, conveyed the idea of\nsomething resplendent or shining [like fire]. The name for serpent, coatl,\nsignified twin; thus there is a profound analogy between the Maya and\nMexican symbol, pointing, however, to the Yucatan form as the most\nancient.\n\nLet us see how the name Quetzal-coatl occurs in Mexico. It is given as the\nname of the \u201csupreme god whose substance was as invisible and intangible\nas air,\u201d but who was also revered as the god of fire. The constant\nreference to air in connection with the supreme divinity caused him to be\nalso adored as the god of air and of the four winds. On the other hand,\nthe divine title of Quetzal-coatl was carried by the culture-hero whose\npersonality has been discussed and who was a Yucatec ruler and high\npriest. Sahagun (_op. cit._ book III, chap. IX) informs us that\n\u201cQuequet-zalcoa,\u201d the plural form of the word Quetzalcoatl, was employed\nto designate \u201c_the high priests_ (elsewhere designated as the \u2018supreme\npontiffs\u2019) _who were the successors of Quetzalcoatl_.\u201d He also states that\n\u201cthe high priest of the temple was [the representative of] the god\nQuetzalcoatl\u201d (book I, chap. 5). \u201cThe priest who was most perfect in his\nconduct and in wisdom was elected to be high priest and assumed the name\nof Quetzalcoatl.... There were two such high priests equal in rank and\nhonours.... One of these, the Quetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui, was in the\nservice of Huitzilopochtli.\u201d Without pausing here to analyze this title\nsince it will be discussed in detail in another publication I will only\nrepeat that, after years of careful research, I have obtained the\ncertainty that the foregoing title and office were those held by Montezuma\nat the time of the Conquest. What is more, I can produce ample evidence to\nprove that he was the living personification of Huitzilopochtli one of the\n\u201cdivine twins\u201d and of the Above. He was not the first Mexican ruler who\nhad filled this exalted r\u00f4le, for it is recorded that Axayacatl, one of\nAcamapichtli\u2019s successors, had represented, in life, \u201cour god\nHuitzilopochtli.\u201d After his death his effigy \u201cwas first covered with a\nfine robe representing Huitzilopochtli; over this was hung the dress of\nTlaloc ... the next garment was that of Youalahua [=the lord of the wheel]\nand the fourth was that of Quetzalcoatl\u201d (Duran, vol. I, chap. 39, pp. 304\nand 306).\n\nLet us now see how Montezuma\u2019s personification of Huitzilopochtli was\ncarried out by his life and his surroundings. According to Bernal Diaz, an\neye-witness, when the great Montezuma came forth in state to meet Cort\u00e9s,\nhe was conveyed on a sumptuous litter, being thus raised above the\nearth.(6) When he descended from this and walked, the golden soles of his\nsandals prevented his feet from coming into direct contact with the\nground; he was supported, _i. e._ partially held up, by his four principal\nlords, and a baldachin adorned with light greenish-blue feathers, gold,\npearls and jade representing the xoxouhqui-ilhuicatl=\u201cthe verdant or blue\nsky\u201d (which was, by the way, a title of Huitzilopochtli), was carried over\nhis head. Other lords preceded him, \u201csweeping the ground and spreading\nblankets upon it so that he should not tread upon the earth. All of these\nlords did not dare to think of raising their eyes to look at his face\u2014only\nthe four lords, his cousins, who supported him, possessed this privilege\u201d\n(Bernal Diaz, Historia Verdadera de la Conquista. Madrid, 1632, p. 65). A\nfeature, the origin of which can be directly traced back to the\nassociation of the star-god, Polaris, with repose and immovability, was\nthat Montezuma, like his predecessors, was the only person privileged to\nsit on state occasions, on a throne or raised seat with a high back and\nrest whilst all other individuals stood or moved about him.\n\nFrom several sources we know that Montezuma habitually wore blue or white\nattire, which sometimes was of open network. He employed gold, precious\nblue and green feathers, turquoise, pearls and emeralds for his personal\nornaments. His diadem with a high point in front, was incrusted with\nturquoise or was made of burnished gold. He sometimes wore a crown made of\nfeatherwork, with a bird\u2019s head of gold above his forehead. His emblem was\nthe sun, the orb of day, and he presided over its cult which had developed\nitself simultaneously with the cult of the Above, a feature of which was\nthe offering of \u201cbirds, butterflies and flowers.\u201d Sometimes he wore,\n\u201cattached to his sandals, small wings, named tzi-coyolli, resembling the\nwing of a bird. These produced a sound like that of tiny gold bells when\nhe walked\u201d (Tezozomoc, Cronica, p. 594).\n\nIt must be admitted, on reading the foregoing descriptions gleaned from\nSahagun\u2019s Historia, that it would be impossible to carry out, more\nperfectly and completely, the idea that Montezuma was the earthly\nrepresentative of the Upper regions, the blue heaven. By pushing symbolism\nso far that he actually wore wings on his feet and avoided contact with\nthe ground, it is not surprising that Montezuma\u2019s adversaries, amongst\nneighboring tribes, should accuse him of exacting divine honors for his\nown person. At the same time there is no doubt that his own subjects\nrevered him merely as a temporary representative and mouth-piece of the\nimpersonal dual divinity. This idea is clearly conveyed by some native\nharangues, to which I refer the reader, and from which I extract the\nfollowing passages:\n\nAfter his election, the ruler is solemnly addressed by one of the chief\nlords who says to him: \u201cOh! our humane, pious and beloved lord, who\ndeserves to be more highly esteemed than all precious stones and feathers,\nyou are here present because our sovereign god has placed thee [above us]\nas our lord.... You possess the seat and throne which was given [to your\npredecessors] by our lord god\u201d ... \u201cyou are the image of our lord god and\nrepresent his person. He reposes in you and he employs you like a flute\nthrough which he speaks and he hears with your ears.... Oh, lord king! God\nsees what the persons do who rule over his domains and when they err in\ntheir office he laughs at them, but in silence, for he is god, and is\nomnipotent and can mock at whom he will. For he holds all of us in the\npalm of his hand and rocks us about, and we are like balls or round globes\nin his hands and we go rolling from one side to the other and make him\nlaugh, and he serves himself of us as we go moving about on the palm of\nhis hand!\u201d\n\n\u201cAlthough thou art our neighbour and friend and son and brother, we are no\nmore thy equals, nor do we consider you as a man, for now you have the\nperson, the image, the conversation and the communion of our lord god. He\nspeaks inside of you and instructs you and lets himself be heard through\nyour mouth\u2014his tongue is your tongue, and your face is his face ... he has\nadorned you with his authority and has given you fangs and claws so that\nyou should be feared and reverenced ...\u201d (Sahagun, book VI, chap. 10).\n\nThe foregoing figure of speech in which fangs and claws are alluded to as\nsymbols of fear-inspiring power affords as valuable an insight into the\nnative modes of thought and expression as do the similes employed in the\nfollowing address to the newly-elected ruler by the spokesman of his\nvassals.\n\n\u201cOh lord! may you live many years to fill your office prosperously; submit\nyour shoulders to the very heavy and troublesome load; extend your wings\nand breast as a shelter to your subjects whom you have to carry as a load.\nOh, lord! let your town and vassals enter under your shadow, for you are\n[unto them] like the tree named puchotl or aueuetl, which casts a great\ncircle or wheel of shade, under which many are gathered in shelter\u201d (_op.\ncit._ book VI, chap. II).\n\nThe admonition also addressed to the ruler, \u201cNever to laugh and joke again\nas he had done previously to his election, and to assume the heart of an\nold, grave and severe man,\u201d explains the true significance of the name of\nMontezuma or Mo-tecuh-zoma; which was an honorific title literally\nmeaning, \u201cour angry or wrathy [looking] lord.\u201d\n\nWhilst the above data establish beyond a doubt that the Mexican\nQuetzalcoatl was regarded as the visible representative of the celestial\nruler of the universe and that divine honors were voluntarily accorded to\nhim, it is interesting to read Montezuma\u2019s explanation to Cort\u00e9s\nconcerning this question. The latter writes: \u201cseated on a raised seat\nMontezuma discoursed as follows: ... \u2018I know that you have been told by my\nenemies that I am, or have made myself a god.\u2019... Raising his robes he\nshowed me his body saying: \u2018Here you see that I am made of flesh and bone,\nlike yourself or like any one, and that I am mortal and tangible.\u2019\nGrasping his arms and his body with his hands he continued: \u2018see how they\nhave like to you.\u2019 \u201d... (Historia, Hernan Cort\u00e9s, ed. Lorenzana, p. 82).\nBetter than all dissertations, the above words convey an idea of the na\u00eff\nsimplicity of the man who uttered them.\n\nReferring the reader to Mr. Ad. Bandelier\u2019s study, \u201cOn the social\norganization and mode of government of the ancient Mexicans,\u201d for further\ndetails concerning the duties respectively filled by Montezuma and his\ncoadjutor, I shall only explain here the conclusion I have reached that\nthe former was the high priest of the cult of the sun and heaven, the\nvisible ruler, the war lord, and the administrator of justice. As stated\nin a native harangue: \u201cthe supreme lord is like unto the heart of the\npopulation ... he is aided by two senators in all concerning the\nadministration of the government: one of these was a \u2018pilli\u2019 and was named\ntlaca-tecuhtli; the other was a warrior and was entitled tlacoch-tecuhtli.\nTwo other chieftains aided the supreme lord in the militia: one, entitled\ntlaca-teccatl, was a \u2018pilli\u2019 and warrior; the other, named\ntlacoch-calcatl, was not a \u2018pilli.\u2019 Such is the government or\nadministration of the republic ... and these four officers did not occupy\nthese positions by inheritance but by election\u201d (Sahagun, book VI, chap.\n20).\n\nThe following account of the republic of Tlaxcalla throws further light\nupon the form of government which prevailed throughout Mexico and Central\nAmerica at the period of the Conquest. \u201cThe Captains of Tlaxcalla, each of\nwhom had his just portion or number of soldiers ... divided their soldiers\ninto four Battails, the one to Tepeticpac, another to Oco-telulco, the\nthird to Tizatlan and the fourth to Quiahuiztlan, that is to say, the men\nof the Mountains, the men of the Limepits, the men of the Pinetrees, and\nthe Watermen; all these four sorts of men did make the body of the\nCommonwealth of Tlaxcallan, and commanded both in Peace and War ... The\nGeneral of all the whole army was called Xico-tencatl, who was of the\nLimepits ... the Lieutenant General was Maxix-catzin....\u201d (A new survey of\nthe West-Indies ... Thomas Gage, London, 1655, p. 31). In Mexico we find\nthat the four executive officers were the chiefs or representatives of the\nfour quarters of the City of Mexico. In each of these quarters there was a\nplace where periodical offerings were made in reverence of one of the\nsigns: acatl, tecpatl, callii and tochtli, which were the symbols of the\ncardinal-points, the elements, and served as day and year signs in the\ncalendar (Sahagun, book II, chap. 26).\n\nAn interesting indication that the entire dominion of Mexico was also\ndivided into four equal quarters, the rule administration of which was\nattended to by four lords, inhabiting towns situated within a\ncomparatively short distance from the capital, is furnished by Bernal Diaz\n(_op. cit._ p. 65). He relates that the four lords who supported Montezuma\nwhen he walked in state to meet Cort\u00e9s were the lords of Texcoco,\nIztapalapa, Tacuba and Coyoacan. These towns, which were minor centres of\ngovernment, were respectively situated at unequal distances to the\nnortheast, southeast, northwest and southwest of the capital.\n\nThese facts and the knowledge that \u201call lords, in life, represented a god\u201d\njustify the inference that, just as Montezuma represented the central\npower of the Above or Heaven, the four lords who accompanied him were the\npersonified rulers of the four quarters, associated with the elements. In\nancient Mexico and Maya records the gods of the four quarters, also named\n\u201cthe four principal and most ancient Gods\u201d are designated as \u201cthe\nsustainers of the Heaven\u201d and it cannot be denied that, on the solemn\noccasion described, the four lords actually fulfilled the symbolical\noffice of supporting Montezuma, the personification of the Heaven. This\nstriking illustration is but one of a number I could cite in proof of the\ndeeply ingrained mental habit of the native sages to introduce, into every\ndetail of their life, the symbolism of the Centre, the Above and Below and\nthe Four Quarters. I shall but mention here that it can be proven how, in\ntheir respective cities the lords of the cardinal points were central\nrulers who, in turn, directed the administration of the government by\nmeans of four dignitaries. Each of these was also the embodiment of a\ndivine attribute or principle, \u201cAll noblemen did represent idols and\ncarried the name of one\u201d (Acosta, Naturall and Morall Historie, lib. 5, p.\n349).\n\nEach wore a special kind of symbolical costume and was the ruler or\n\u201cadvocate,\u201d as he is termed, of a distinct class of people. \u201cFor to each\nkind or class of persons they gave a Teotl [=God or Lord] as an advocate.\nWhen a person died and was about to be buried, they clothed him with the\ndiverse Insignia of the god to whom he belonged\u201d (Mendieta lib. II, chap.\n40). It being established that each of the four year-symbols, acatl,\ntecpatl, calli and tochtli, ruled four minor symbols, it seems evident\nthat, just as the four lords of the cardinal-points would correspond to\nthe above symbols, each of the minor lords and the category of people they\nrepresented would also be associated with the minor symbols. The obvious\nresult of this classification would be the division of the entire\npopulation of the commonwealth into 4\u00d75=20 categories of people, grouped\nunder twenty local and four central governments, whose representatives in\nturn were under the rule of the supreme central dual powers. Having thus\nsketched, in a brief and preliminary way, the expansion of the idea of\ndividing all things into four parts, the bud of which was the swastika,\nlet us examine the Mexican application of the idea of duality, pausing\nfirst to review the data relating to the Cihuacoatl, the personification\nof the Earth, the Below and the coadjutor of Montezuma.\n\nNothing has been definitely recorded about his personality, for he seems\nto have lived in absolute seclusion during the first occupation of Mexico\nby the Spaniards. He is frequently alluded to, however, and Cort\u00e9s,\nHerrera, Torquemada and others, inform us that he had acted as Montezuma\u2019s\nsubstitute and led the native troops against the Spaniards. It is\ninteresting to find that after the Conquest Cort\u00e9s appointed him as\ngovernor of the City of Mexico. \u201cI gave him the charge of re-peopling the\ncapital and in order to invest him with greater authority, I reinstated\nhim in the same position, that of Cihuacoatl, which he had held in the\ntime of Montezuma\u201d (Carta Cuarta, Veytia I, p. 110).\n\nQuite indirectly, it is possible to learn what sort of military equipment\nhad been adopted by the Cihuacoatl when he acted as war-chief. Amongst\ncertain presents, which were sent by Cort\u00e9s to Charles V and are minutely\ndescribed in vol. XII of the \u201cDocumentas ineditas del Archivio de Indias,\u201d\np. 347, there are several suits of armor, which could only have been\nappropriately worn by the \u201cwoman serpent.\u201d One suit consisted of a\n\u201ccorselet with plates of gold and with woman\u2019s breasts\u201d and a skirt with\nblue bands. Another suit, instead of the breasts, exhibited a great wound\nin the chest, like that of a person who had been sacrificed. In another\nlist (by Diego de Soto, p. 349) a shield is described \u201cwhich displayed a\nsacrificed man, in gold, with a gaping wound in his breast, from which\nblood was streaming....\u201d It is obvious that the first of these suits of\narmor conveyed figuratively the name and the second the office of the\nCihuacoatl of whom Duran speaks as follows:\n\n\u201cHe whose office it was to perform the rite of killing [the victim] was\nrevered as the supreme pontiff and his name or title and pontifical robes\nvaried according to the different periods [of the year] and the ceremonies\nwhich he had to perform. On the present occasion his title was Topiltzin,\none of the names of the great lord ... (Quetzalcoatl) and he appeared\ncarrying a large flint knife in his hand ...\u201d (_op. cit._, chap. LXXXI).\nThe following passage shows definitely that Montezuma\u2019s coadjutor, his\nQuetzalcoatl or divine twin, had an equal share of divine honors accorded\nto him. \u201cThe head priest of the temple, named Quetzalcoatl, never came out\nof the temple or entered into any house whatever, because he was very\nvenerable and very grave and was esteemed as a god. He only went into the\nroyal palace\u201d (Sahagun, book VI, chap. 39). The same authority designates\nthe second \u201cdivine twin\u201d as the Tlalocan-tlamacazqui or,\nTlalocan-tlenamacac and states that he served the Tlalocan-tecuhtli.\n\nBefore proceeding further, let us pause and inquire into the reason why\nthe name Tlaloc, which is formed of tlalli=earth and is defined by Duran,\nfor instance, as meaning \u201can underground passage or a great cave\u201d (_op.\ncit._, chap. 84), should be the well-known title of the \u201cgod of rain.\u201d The\nexplanation is to be found in the text of the Vatican Codex, A.\nKingsborough, V, p. 190. This teaches us that the last syllable of the\nname Tlaloc does not represent oc=inside of, but stands for octli, the\nname of the native wine now known as pulque, which is obtained from the\nagave plant. Tlaloc thus meant \u201cearth-wine\u201d and \u201cby this metaphor they\nwanted to express that just as the fumes of wine make mankind gay and\nhappy, so the earth when saturated with water, is gay and fresh and\nproduces its fruits and cereals.\u201d By the light of this explanation we see\nthat the titles conferred upon Montezuma\u2019s coadjutor were literally \u201cthe\npriest or lord, or dealer-of-fire in the place of the earth-wine.\u201d \u201cThe\nclouds, rain, thunder and lightning were attributed to the lord Tlaloc who\nhad many tlalocs and priests under him, who cultivated all foods necessary\nfor the body, such as maize, beans, etc., and sent the rains so that the\nearth should give birth to all of its products. During their festival in\nspringtime the priests went through the streets dancing and singing and\ncarrying a shoot of green maize in one hand and a pot with a handle in the\nother. In this way they went asking for the [ceremonial] boiled maize and\nall fanners gave them some\u201d ... (Sahagun, book VI, chap. 5).\n\nThe above and many scattered allusions throw light upon the group of ideas\nassociated with the Cihuacoatl and clearly indicate what were his duties.\nTo him devolved the care of the earth and his one thought was to secure\nabundance of rain and of crops. In order to ensure the proper cultivation\nof the ground, he had, under him, innumerable agents, who strictly\nsuperintended the cultivation of all food-plants, the irrigation of barren\nlauds, etc. These agents, who also resorted to ceremonial usages in order\nto bring rain or avert hail-storms and other disasters, were collectively\nnamed \u201cthe 400 pulque or octli-gods\u201d\u2014an appellation which developed into\ntochtli-gods, when the rabbit (=tochtli) had become the pictograph\nhabitually employed to convey the sound of the word octli, and had been\nadopted as the symbol of the earth and of prolific reproduction in\nconnection with this. The latter idea is born out of the female title,\nthat of the earth-mother, who \u201calways brought forth twins.\u201d The Cihuacoatl\nthus stands out as the representative of the bountiful mother-earth and as\nthe lord of agriculture, one of whose duties was the careful collection,\nstorage and distribution of all food products. He presided over the cult\nof the fertility of the earth, of the nocturnal heaven, of the stars and\nmoon, which were associated with the female principle and with growth in\ngeneral. The following record proves that amongst his other duties he\noffered sacrifices to the invisible hidden powers of darkness and earth.\n\u201cDuring the night, in the feast Tititl, the high priest named Tlillan\ntlenamacac [=the dealer with fire in the land of darkness=tlilli=black,\nevidently a title analogous to that of Tlill-potonqui-cihuacoatl, given by\nTezozomoc, in Cronica, chap. 33], sacrificed a victim in honour of the god\nof the Underworld\u201d (Sahagun, book II, appendix). In this, as on similar\noccasions, he was assisted by four priests who succeeded him in rank.\n\nMr. Bandelier has already recognized that judicial sentences were\nultimately referred to the \u201cwoman-serpent,\u201d who pronounced the \u201cfinal\nsentence, which admitted of no appeal.\u201d There are more reasons than can\nconveniently be presented here, proving that in Mexico, as in Guatemala,\nthe priest of the Below, the personification of Tezcatli-poca=Shining\nMirror, employed an actual mirror made of polished obsidian, as an aid in\npronouncing final judgment on criminals.\n\nThe Cakchiquel procedure is described by Fuentes of Guzman, who is quoted\nby Dr. Otto Stoll in his most instructive and valuable work on the\nEthnology of the Indian Tribes of Guatemala (Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr\nEthnographie, band I, supplement I, 1888): \u201cA road leads [from the ancient\ncity of Guatemala] to a hill [figured with a large tree growing from it];\non its top there is a flat circular cement floor, enclosed by a low wall.\nIn the centre is a pedestal, polished and shining like glass. No one knows\nof what substance it is made. This was the tribunal or court of the\nCakchiquel Indians, where public trials were held and where the sentences\nwere executed. The judges sat in a circle on the low wall. After the\nsentence had been pronounced, it had to be confirmed or vetoed by another\nauthority. Three messengers, acting as deputies of the council, went to a\ndeep ravine situated to the north of the palace, where, in a sort of\nhermitage or prayer-house, there was the oracle of the devil, which was a\nblack, transparent stone, like glass, but more costly than [ordinary]\nobsidian. In this stone the devil revealed to the messengers, the sentence\nto be executed. If it agreed with the judgment pronounced, this was\nimmediately executed upon the central pedestal [of the hill of justice] on\nwhich the criminal was also tortured, at times.\u201d If nothing was seen in\nthe mirror, and it gave no sign, the prisoner was pronounced free.\n\nThis oracle was also consulted before wars were undertaken ... \u201cDuring the\nfirst years of the Spanish occupation, when the bishop Marroquin heard\nabout this stone, he had it cut out and consecrated it as an altar, which\nis still in use in the convent of San Francisco in the capital. It is a\nprecious stone of great beauty and is half a vara long.\u201d\n\nA picture in the Vatican Codex B (p. 48) represents a temple, on the\nsummit of which a large obsidian mirror is standing on its edge. Inside\nthe doorway there are many small black spots, which obviously represent\nsmall mirrors and convey the idea that the interior walls were incrusted\nwith such. These illustrations would prove that sacred edifices were\nassociated with obsidian mirrors even if Sahagun did not mention, as he\ndoes (book II, appendix), no less than three sacred edifices in the great\ntemple of Mexico, which were associated with obsidian mirrors. It is,\nmoreover, stated by Duran that \u201cin Mexico the image of the god\nTezcatlipoca was a stone, which was very shining and black, like jet. It\nwas of the same stone of which the natives make razors and knives,\u201d _i.\ne._, obsidian (Duran II, p. 98).\n\nWhat is more, Bernal Diaz relates that the image of Tezcatlipoca, which he\nsaw beside the idol of Huitzilopochtli in the hall of the great temple of\nMexico, had shining eyes which were made of the native mirrors=tezcatl.\n\u201cIn connection with the shining eyes\u201d of the god it is interesting to note\nthat when, as Duran states, he was represented under another form, his\nidol \u201ccarried in its hand a sort of fan made of precious feathers. These\nsurmounted a circular gold disc which was very brilliant and polished like\na mirror. This meant that, in this mirror, he saw all that went on in the\nworld. In the native language they named it \u2018itlachiayan,\u2019 which means,\nthat in which he looks or sees\u201d (Duran, _op. cit._, vol. II, p. 99).\n\nSahagun mentions an analogous sceptre which consisted of \u201ca gold disc\npierced in the centre, and surmounted by two balls, the upper and smaller\nof which supported a pointed object. This sceptre was called tlachieloni,\nwhich means \u2018that through which one looks or observes;\u2019 because with it\none covered or hid one\u2019s face and looked through the hole in the middle of\nthe gold plate.\u201d This kind of sceptre is not exclusively associated with\nTezcatlipoca in the native picture writings, for it figures in the hand of\nChalchiuhtlycue \u201cthe sister\u201d of Tlaloc and of Omacatl whose attributes,\nthe reeds and chalchiuite or jade beads, prove him to be also associated\nwith the water. On the other hand the same sceptre is also assigned by\nSahagun to the god of fire.\n\nA clue to the truth and significance of this emblematic sceptre is\nfurnished by the fact that, in order to express the divine title\nTlachiuale, meaning \u201cthe Maker or Lord of all creatures or of young life,\u201d\nthe native scribes were naturally obliged to employ the verb tlachia=to\nlook or see, in order to convey its sound. It is obvious that they\ncleverly agreed to express this verb by picturing some object which could\nbe or was looked through. They therefore adopted a sceptre with a hollow\ndisc, as an emblem, which was carried by the living representative of\ncertain divinities, whose entire costume was in reality a sort of rebus,\nand in the case of Tlaloc, the lord of earthwine and fertility and the\nTlachiuale or \u201cCreator of young life,\u201d par excellence, they once and for\nall designated his title by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings,\naccentuating thereby the action of seeing or looking. But this probably\nconveyed even more than the above title, for there is a Nahuatl noun\ntlachiuhtli, which means, \u201csomething made or formed or engendered,\u201d or\n\u201cearth which is ploughed and sown.\u201d Then there is the verb tlachipaua\nwhich means, \u201cthe smile of dawn, the break of day, the clearing up of the\nweather,\u201d also the purification and cleansing, all of which were supposed\nto be under the dominion of the rain-god and of his living representatives\non earth, the rain-priests. The seemingly conflicting fact that the\ntlachieloni sceptre was also assigned to the god of fire is explained by\nthe existence of the verb tiachinoa=to burn up the fields or forests, and\nof the noun tlachi-noliztli=the act of burning up or scorching the fields\nor forests, and finally, metaphorically, tlachinoli-teuotl=war or\nbattle=destruction. It is only when we thus realize all the natives could\nexpress by the image of an eye, looking through a circle, that we begin to\ngrasp its full meaning when employed as a symbol in their picture\nwritings.\n\nAs to the obsidian mirror, which undoubtedly was the symbol of\nTezcatlipoca and, consequently, must have pertained to his representative,\nthe priest of the Night, we find that it played a most prominent r\u00f4le in\nthe cult he presided over. In the first case it appears as though it was\nresorted to in Mexico as in the conquered province of Guatemala, as the\noracle which rendered final judgment. A series of illustrations, etc., to\nbe published in my final work on the Calendar System, will prove\nsatisfactorily that the Mexican astronomers extensively employed black\nobsidian mirrors as an aid to astronomical observations, by means of\nreflection. Besides mirrors on the summits of temples and mountains,\ncertain square columns, placed on an elevation and faced with a broad band\nof polished obsidian, are pictured in some Codices. It is obvious that the\nlatter in particular, if carefully oriented, would have served as an\nadmirable means of registering the periodical return of planets, stars or\nconstellations to certain positions; they would then be reflected on the\npolished surface, as in a frame. In certain Codices the double, tau-shaped\ncourtyard or enclosure surrounded by a high wall with battlements, which\nwas employed in the daytime for the national game of ball, figures in\ncombination with obsidian mirrors. I draw attention to the fact that the\nname of these courtyards was tlach-tli, which literally means the looking\nplace=the observatory and that, amongst the edifices of the great temple,\na tezca-tlachtli=obsidian-mirror-observatory, is described. I shall\ndemonstrate more fully, on another occasion, that the chief purpose of\nthese enclosures was to serve as astronomical observatories. Dr. Brinton,\nSe\u00f1or Troncoso and other authorities have already observed that the game\nof ball itself was intended to represent the idea of the perpetual motion\nof the heavenly bodies. (See American Hero-myths, p. 119.)\n\nReturning to re\u00ebxamine the divine title Tezcatlipoca we see that, when\ninterpreted as \u201cthe lord of the shining obsidian mirror,\u201d it was the most\nappropriate title of the lord of the Nocturnal Heaven, which myriads of\nmirrors reflected each night, throughout the land. It is easy to see how\nthe habit of referring to the Temple Minor, in order to ascertain the\npositions of the stars, would naturally lead to its being consulted more\nextensively as an oracle later on. We thus clearly perceive how the lord\nof the Night, whose priests called themselves \u201cthe sons of the Night,\u201d\nbecame intimately associated with divination and how the idea of a\ndefinite connection between the movements of the stars or human destinies\nwould, in the lapse of centuries, make a deep and indelible impression\nupon the minds of men.\n\nIf the obsidian mirror was the symbol, par excellence, of Mexican star\ncult, there are evidences that the small mirror of polished pyrites was\nthat of the sun-cult. The latter seems to have been employed, in some way\nor other, for the concentration of the rays of the sun required for the\nlighting of the sacred fire, at noon, on the days of the vernal equinox\nand summer solstice. As in Peru, this duty devolved upon the high priest\nof the Above or the Son of the Sun, a title which undoubtedly pertained\nalso to the Mexican ruler, though not employed so ostentatiously as in\nPeru. A keen emulation, which may almost be termed an intense rivalry,\nseems to have existed between the two cults, which Sahagun even goes so\nfar as to designate as two religions. From a chapter of his Historia we\neven learn that the entire population of Mexico was divided into two\nhalves who respectively belonged to one or the other religion, a fact\nwhich naturally affected the position of the two classes of people and had\ncreated the native ideas, of an upper and a lower class or caste which\nwill be further discussed.\n\nSahagun\u2019s informants explained to him that, when a child was born, its\nparents, according to their class, registered it at one of the two\neducational establishments for the young and took vows to have it educated\nthere as soon as it attained a suitable age. The lower class took their\noffspring to the Telpuchcalli, where they were dedicated to the service of\nthe community and to warfare, _i. e._, the ruling class. \u201cThe \u2018Lords,\nchieftains or elders,\u2019 offered their sons to the Calmecac to be educated\nfor the priesthood.\u201d\n\nIt being impossible to present here in full the data showing how certain\nprimitive conceptions had developed further and how some human occupations\nhad become associated with the Above and others with the Below, I will but\npoint out the important fact that the city of Mexico, divided into four\nquarters, each of which had five subdivisions (calpullis), actually\nconsisted of two distinct parts. One of these was Mexico proper, where the\nGreat Temple stood and where Montezuma and the lords resided; the other\nwas Tlatelolco, where the lower classes dwelt and the merchant class\nprevailed. After a certain revolt the inhabitants of this portion of the\ncity were, we are told, \u201cdegraded to the rank of women\u201d (see Bandelier,\n_op. et loc. cit._). From this it would seem evident that their affairs or\nlawsuits were settled in the official house named the Cihua-tecpaneca,\nwhilst the affairs of the nobility, residing in Mexico proper, were\ndisposed of in the Tlaca-tecpaneca (see Duran, chap. 3). Knowledge of the\nprevalence of the division of the population into two parts is gained\nthrough a passage of Ixtl-ilxo-chitl\u2019s Historia (chap. XXXV, p. 241): \u201cTo\nQuetzalmemalitzin was given the lordship of Teotihuacan ... with the title\nof Captain-general of the dominion of the noblemen. All affairs or\nlawsuits of the lords and the nobility belonging to the towns of the\nprovinces situated in the plain, were to be attended to and settled in his\ntown. The same title was bestowed upon Quechaltecpantzin of Otompan, with\nthe difference that he was the captain-general of the commoners and\nattended to the affairs and claims of the commoners and populace of the\nprovinces in the plains.\u201d\n\nA further detail concerning the position of the ancient capital of Mexico\nshould not be omitted, for it is described as follows by the English friar\nThomas Gage, who visited it in 1625: \u201cThe situation of this city is much\nlike that of Venice, but only differs in this, that Venice is built upon\nthe sea-water, and Mexico upon a lake, which seeming one is indeed two;\none part whereof is standing water, the other ebbeth and floweth according\nto the wind that bloweth. That part which standeth is wholesome, good and\nsweet, and yieldeth store of small fish. That part which ebbeth and\nfloweth is a saltish bitter and pestiferous water, yielding no kind of\nfish, small or great\u201d (p. 43). Added to other data, this detail seems to\nindicate that the geographical position of the capital had been chosen\nwith utmost care and profound thought, so that, built on a dual island on\na dual lake, it should be in itself an image or illustration of the ideas\nof organization which I have shown to have dominated the entire native\ncivilization. If it be admitted, as I think is evident, that the site of\nthe capital was chosen and mapped out in accordance with these ideas, then\nwe undoubtedly have, in ancient Mexico, not only one of the most\nremarkable \u201cHoly Cities\u201d ever built by mankind, but also the most\nconvincing proof of the great antiquity and high development of the\ncivilization under whose influence one of the greatest capitals of ancient\nAmerica was founded.\n\nIt is impossible to read the following descriptions without recognizing\nthat the identical fundamental ideas had undoubtedly determined the native\ntopography of capitals situated in other parts of the continent. Beginning\nwith Guatemala, which formed a part of ancient Mexico, I refer to the plan\nof the ancient capital and its description by Fuentes of Guzman, published\nby Dr. Otto Stoll in his work already cited: \u201cA deep ditch, running from\nnorth to south, divided the town into two portions. One of these, situated\nto the east, was inhabited by the nobility; whilst the commoners\n(Macehuales) lived in the western division.\u201d I pause here to call\nattention to the intentional coincidence that the association of the east\nwith the Above, and the west with the Below, is exemplified here,\ntopographically. The plan shows that the eastern half contained, in its\ncentre, a great, oblong enclosure, surrounded by a high wall. A wall,\nrunning from east to west, divided this enclosure into two distinct\ncourtyards with wide separate entrances from the west. The northern\ncourtyard, designated as the \u201cPlace of the Palace,\u201d contains several\nbuildings. The southern one, named the \u201cPlace of the Temple,\u201d contains an\nedifice on a terraced mound and several others. It is noticeable that, in\nthe exact middle of the central wall, there is a seemingly double,\nunfortunately indistinguishable object, or building, which marks the exact\nmiddle of the entire dual enclosure. It is particularly interesting that\nthe East City is divided into two portions by a wall running from the\nsoutheast angle of the wall of the Temple courtyard to the outer wall of\nthe city. The southern half, in which the \u201cTribunal or hill of justice is\nto be seen, is designated as containing the houses of the Ahauas or heads\nof the Calpuls.\u201d The northern half, containing many houses, lacks\ndesignation. The West city is likewise divided into two distinct portions\nby a broad street, enclosed by a hill wall and conducting from the western\nand only entrance to the city directly to the Place of the Temple. A deep\ntrench or ditch encloses the entire city, whilst nine watch-towers, on\nsmall hills, are placed at equal distances around it.\n\nIf this precious document clearly reveals the ground plan on which the\nnative capitals were built, in accordance with the dominant idea, the\nfollowing native map shows that the ancient dominion of Yucatan, for\ninstance, was figured as an integral whole with form of a flat disc\ndivided into four quarters, Ho, the modern Merida, in its centre. This\nmap, copied from the native Codex Chumazel, has been published by Se\u00f1or\nCrescencio Carillo of Ancona in the Anales del Museo Nacional de Mexico,\nvol. II, p. 43, as showing the territorial division of Yucatan before the\nConquest (fig. 27). According to Herrera and Diego de Landa, the unity of\nthe dominion was destroyed about two centuries before the Conquest by the\ndestruction of the capital, Mayapan. The land then remained divided\namongst many independent chiefs or Bacabs. Se\u00f1or Carillo renders the Maya\ndescriptive text written under the map, as follows: \u201cHere is Mani. The\nbeginning of the land, or its entrance, is Campeche. The extremity of the\nwing of the land is Calkini; the (chun) place where the wing grows or\nbegins, is Izamal. The half of the wing is Zaci; the tip of the wing is\nCumkal. The head of the land is the city, the capital Ho.\u201d\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 27.\n\n\nThe foregoing text shows that, notwithstanding the circular shape in which\nit is figured, the dominion was evidently thought of as in the form of a\nbird, the head of which was the capital.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 28.\n\n\nThis figure of speech seems to have been prevalent in Mexico also and to\nbe conveyed by the representation, in the Vienna Codex, of a double\ntau-shape to which the head, wings and claw, and tail of a quetzal are\nattached (fig. 28, no. 8). As I shall have occasion to demonstrate further\non, the double tau signifies the Above and the Below and their union\nforming an integral whole. The following Nahuatl terms explain by\nthemselves the symbolism of the bird-figure: cuitlapilli=the tail of an\nanimal or bird, atlapalli=the wings of a bird, or the leaves of a tree,\ncuitlapalli atlapalli=vassals, the populace or lower classes, the\nlaborers.\n\nThese words furnish irrefutable evidence that the lower class was\nfamiliarly known in Mexico as \u201cthe wings and the tail\u201d of the commonwealth\nor state, or the leaves \u201con the trees\u201d of the tribe. Sahagun states, on\nthe other hand, that the Mexicans employed the metaphor of \u201ca bird with\nwings and a tail\u201d to designate a lord, governor or ruler. He also records\nthat the terms hair, nails, a thorn, a spine, beard and eyelashes, were\nused to signify \u201csomeone who was noble, generous or of the lineage of the\nlords.\u201d Such metaphors as these may well cause us to despair at arriving\nat a complete understanding of the native imagery and symbolism. The\nsymbolism of the bird\u2019s claw yet remains to be looked into. The Nahuatl\nfor the same is xo-maxaltic, xo-tzayanqui or cho-cholli.\n\nIn one of the ancient Mexican harangues, previously quoted, it is said of\nthe supreme ruler that he had been given \u201cfangs and nails\u201d in order to\ninspire fear and reverence. Scattered evidence and the fact that in the\nCodex Mendoza the decorated claws of an eagle, for instance, appear as a\nmilitary device on the shields of certain war chiefs, seem to indicate\nthat the warriors were spoken of, metaphorically, as \u201cthe claws or nails\u201d\nof the state. The following passage finally proves that the tlachtli or\ncourtyard the shape of which was a double tau, as in fig. 28, no. 8, was\nregarded by the Mexicans as an image of the state itself. In another\nnative harangue it was said of the newly-elected ruler: \u201cHe is now placed\nor put into the Tlachtli, he has been invested with the leathern gloves,\nso that he can govern and throw back the ball to the one who throws it to\nhim in the game. For the business of governing very much resembles this\ngame and the game of dice\u201d (Sahagun, book VI, chap. xiii). The latter game\nalluded to, the patolli, was played on a mat in the shape of a cross,\nmarked off with divisions, with stone markers, the moves of which were\ndecided by the numbers obtained on casting the dice, which consisted of\nbeans with marks on them. It is interesting to find that the word pat-olli\nseems to be connected with the verb pat-cayotia=to be substituted in the\nplace of another, or to succeed another in office or dignity. The above\ncomparison of the game to the business of governing indicates that a\nfeature of the government was a methodical succession or rotation in\noffice or dignity, a point to which I draw special attention, as I shall\nrefer to it later.\n\nThe evidence that the Mexicans regarded the form of the courtyard, named\ntlachtli, as that of the state itself is noteworthy. On the other hand,\nthe native map contained in the Codex Mendoza, p. 1, shows us that they\nfigured their territory as a square, surrounded by water and divided into\nfour equal parts by diagonal cross-streams or canals. As in the Maya map\nthe centre of this is occupied by the well-known hieroglyph or rebus of\nTe-noch-ti-tlan, the ancient capital, which consisted of Mexico and\nTlatelolco. In three of the four triangular divisions, two chieftains are\nfigured, whilst in one there are four, the complete number of chieftains\nthus being ten. The incontrovertible evidence that the dominion of the\nMexicans, as well as that of the Mayas, was figured and regarded as an\nintegral whole has seemed to me to be of extreme importance, because it\npoints to a fresh interpretation of the much-discussed meaning of the name\nTullan, \u201cthe glorious centre of culture where the high priest\nQuetzalcoatl, had dwelt and whence he had been driven by the wiles of his\nenemies. It is a place that we hear of in the oldest myths and legends of\nmany and different races. Not only the Aztecs, but the Mayas of Yucatan\nand the Kiches and Cakchiquels of Guatemala, bewailed in woful songs, the\nloss of that beautiful land and counted its destruction as the common\nstarting-point in their annals.... According to the ancient Cakchiquel\nlegends, however, ... \u2018there were four Tullans, as the ancient men have\ntold us.\u2019 The most venerable traditions of the Maya race claimed for them\na migration from Tullan in Zuyva.\u201d... \u201cWhen it happened to me,\u201d says Friar\nDuran, \u201cto ask a [Mexican] Indian who cut this pass through the mountains\nor who opened that spring of water or who built that old ruin? the answer\nwas: The Tultecs, the disciples of Papa,\u201d _i. e._, Quetzalcoatl. (See\nBrinton, American Hero-Myths, p. 88.) Considering that the identity of\nTullan has not yet been satisfactorily established, that several Tullans\nare said to have existed and that a small town, about a dozen leagues to\nthe northeast of Mexico, is named Tullan-tzinco=little Tullan, I should\nlike to direct the attention of Americanists to the following Maya words:\nTul-um=fortification, edifice, wall and enclosure. Tula-cal, Tuliz,\nadjectives=whole, entire, undivided, integral. Tul-ul, adjective=general,\nuniversal. Tul-tic, verb=to belong, to correspond to something. Tul=all\naround or full. Tul=in composition, to have abundance. Tulnah=to be too\nfull, to overflow, to proceed, to issue, abound, high-tide. Tulaan=past\nparticiple of tul.\n\nI am of opinion that, after carefully examining the foregoing words and\ntheir meanings, we must admit that an intelligible and satisfactory\nderivation and signification of the much-discussed Tula of the Mexicans,\nwhich has been vainly sought in the Nahuatl language, are obtained if we\nconnect it with the Maya words for fortress, or stronghold, an enclosed\nplace, an integral whole, an overflowing source of abundance and plenty.\nIf we do this, then the problematic term Tolteca, given by Mexicans to the\nsuperior people from whom they had derived their culture and knowledge,\nmeans nothing more than such persons who had belonged (Maya verb tultic)\nor were members of a highly cultured commonwealth or ancient centre of\ncivilization, such as had flourished during countless centuries, in\nYucatan and the present Chiapas, Honduras and Guatemala.\n\nReserving this subject for future, more detailed, discussion, I point out\nthat the name Ho, given to the capital, which is designated in the map as\nthe \u201chead of the land,\u201d is obviously derived from the Maya hol, hool, or\nhoot, which means not only head but also chieftain. The circumstance that\na single word, Ho, conveyed the triple meaning of a capital, a chieftain\nand a head, is particularly noteworthy, as it affords not only important\nclues to native symbolism, which I shall trace later on, but also shows\nthat the presence of the syllable Ho or O, in certain native names of\nlocalities, may possibly indicate that it was a capital, the residence of\na chieftain. Further light is shed upon the following native association\nof ideas when the following words are studied. The ancient Maya name for a\npyramid or artificial mound was ho-m and the pyramidal elevations on which\ntemples or palaces were built were designated as ho-mul or o-mul (see\nVocabulary, Brasseur de Bourbourg). The title Holpop was moreover that of\nthe \u201cchieftain of the mat,\u201d whose prerogative it was to sit on a mat and\nto beat the sacred drum during the public dances or ritual performances\n(Cogolludo). The ancient word for vase, vessel or cup in general was\nho-och, whilst o-och meant food or maintenance (Arte de la lengua Maya,\nFray Beltram de Santa Rosa, ed. Espinosa, Merida, 1859). If the foregoing\ndata be summarized we find that the word ho, the ancient name of the head\nof the land, which is figured in its centre, is not only homonymous with\ncapital and chieftain, but also with pyramid, vase or receptacle and\nmaintenance, and finally with the numeral 5, also \u201cho.\u201d We shall see that\nthe identical ideas were similarly associated in ancient Mexico.\n\nReferring once more to the ancient map of Yucatan and to the peculiarity\nthat the head of the figurative bird, the capital, Ho, is supposed to\noccupy the centre of the state, I point out nos. 1 and 5 (fig. 28) from\nthe Bodleian and Selden MSS. as somewhat analogous representations of a\ncentral capital or chief, and nos. 3 and 6 as possibly being images of a\nterritorial subdivision of the state, resembling a spider\u2019s web. In an\nunpublished Mexican MS., which has been recently brought to light, the\nmiddle of the concentric circles is painted blue and suggests the idea of\na system of distribution or irrigation, proceeding from a central supply\nof water and radiating in all directions. An accentuation of centrality is\nbrought into relief in fig. 28, no. 6, where the spider\u2019s web is placed in\nthe middle, between the two peaks of a mountain. In no. 2 a small\nquadruple sign, which frequently occurs in the Vienna Codex, always\npainted in the colors of the four quarters and united by a cross-band\nacross the centre (no. 4). also figures between two peaks, above two feet,\nthe significance of which I do not venture to determine. A remarkable\ncircular disc resembling the Maya map, and also divided into four parts by\ncross lines, but exhibiting footsteps denoting rotation, is represented in\nthe entrance of a temple, in the Vienna Codex (fig. 28, no. 7). These\nfigures will be referred to again further on.\n\nLet us now bestow attention upon the names of the Mexican capital and\nfirst note that the edifice of the Great Temple, in which the Cihuacoatl\nperformed an annual ceremony already mentioned, was called tlal-xic-co,\nliterally \u201cin the navel of the earth or land\u201d (from tlalli=earth, land or\ncountry, xictli=navel and co=in) (Sahagun, book II, appendix). Besides\nthis edifice there was, in the middle of the lagoon of Chalco, an island,\nwhich, to this day, bears the name of Xico=in the navel or centre. This\nindicates the curious circumstance that the edifice and island had\napparently been regarded as forming \u201cideal centres,\u201d and shows that the\nname of Mexico itself may have been associated with the same conception\nbeing, as it was, the central seat of government. Gomara states that \u201cthe\ncity was divided into two halves or parts, one named Tlal-telolco=small\nisland (literally, \u2018in the earth-mound\u2019) and the other named Mexico, which\nmeans \u2018something which flows,\u2019 \u201d (Histoire G\u00e9n\u00e9ralle des Indes, Paris,\n1634, chap. 38). The Nahuatl word alluded to can be no other than the verb\nmemeya which, according to Molina, signifies \u201cwater, or something liquid\nwhich issues or flows in many directions.\u201d I have already pointed out that\nthe Maya words to express water which rises and overflows, high tide and,\nby extension, abundance and plenty, are tul, tulnah and, finally, tulaan,\npast participle of tul. If the particle \u201cme\u201d conveyed the above idea, its\ncombination with xico would cause the name Mexico to be replete with\nsignificance and to mean \u201cthe figurative centre whence all maintenance\nproceeded and flowed in all directions, throughout the land.\u201d\n\nThe Borgian Codex furnishes representations of identical meaning. On page\n4 a human body, the centre of which forms a large red disc, is stretched\nacross the double tau-shaped tlachtli which obviously represents the four\nquarters, being painted with their four symbolic colors. It is\nparticularly noteworthy that the limbs of the central figure are\nrepresented as wearing the green skin of a lizard, while its face is\nenclosed in the open jaws of the reptile. It should also be noted here\nthat whilst the Nahuatl names are cuetz-palin and topitzin, the Maya term\nfor lizard is mech or ix-mech. On the same page a similar, but smaller,\nfigure is depicted on a background representing the nocturnal heaven. On\nthe following page the figure of a dead woman is stretched on a red disc\nwhilst a priest is drilling the fire-stick into a circular symbol, with\nfour balls, which is the well-known symbol for chalchiuitl=jade. As the\nname of the female water goddess is Chalchiutlycue, this detail is\nsignificant and will be referred to later on. It is noteworthy that on\nboth pages 5 and 6 the performance of the above rite is accompanied by the\nimage of the goddess of the earth and underworld, represented with a\ndeath\u2019s head, and with her hair strewn with stars. Her body is that of a\ngreen lizard, and she carries ears and blossoms of maize and holds a blue\ngarment on which the chalchihuitl symbol figures.\n\nIn connection with representatives of the human form outstretched in\nsacrifice, on whose body the rite of kindling the sacred fire or of\nextracting the heart is being performed, it seems evident that, under the\ndominion of the fundamental ideas I have been discussing, the native sages\nregarded and utilized the human form as an image of the Middle and Four\nQuarters. It is well known that the number 20 was termed \u201cone count\u201d and\nconnected with the number of fingers and toes, distributed equally on his\nfour extremities. The human victim thus formed a living swastika or cross\nand became not only the consecrated image of the supreme, creative,\ncentral divinity who controlled the Four Quarters, but also an image of\nthe central government with its supreme ruler; whilst the four chiefs of\nthe Quarters were symbolized by the four limbs. Each of these terminated\nin a symbolized group consisting of a hand, maitl, with a thumb (=touey\nmapilli or vei mapilli, literally, the great finger, or our great finger)\nand four fingers (mapilli); or of a great toe, touei xopil or topec-xopil\n(literally, our great toe, or our lord toe) and of four toes=xopilli.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 29.\n\n\nThe above association of ideas was doubtlessly accentuated by the fact\nthat the word pilli means a nobleman, a chieftain; thence he terms\npilconetl=the son of a nobleman and pilhua=he who has sons (pil in this\ncase meaning son and hua=possessor of). This latter fact could have been\nvery aptly conveyed in the picture-writings by employing fingers to\nexpress the sound \u201cpilli.\u201d The number of sons a chieftain had could thus\nbe easily expressed by his exhibiting a corresponding number of fingers. I\nshall revert to this possibility presently, and now referring to fig. 29,\nno. 2, direct attention to the obvious intention to express the idea that\nthe fire produced was distributed to the four quarters by means of the\nfigures, painted in symbolical colors, three of which are visible. Another\npicture in the same Codex represents four similar figures springing\ntowards the cardinal points from a source or fountain of water, whilst a\npriest above a triangular cloak(7) holds a pair of weapons (?) in his\nhands (fig. 29, no. 1). If carefully studied, these groups seem to\ncorroborate the derivation of the name Mexico, given above. What is more,\nthe first group affords an explanation of the meaning and purpose of three\nstrange recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessels, which have been\nrespectively found in Mexico, Tlaxcala and Chichen-Itza and are now\npreserved at the National Museum in Mexico. They furnish the most\nconvincing proof that an identical cult and symbolism had existed in these\nwidely-separated localities. The conclusion I have previously expressed,\nthat an actual connection had been established between Chichen-Itza and\nMexico by the Maya high priest Kukulcan, or Quetzalcoatl, is thus\ncorroborated by undeniable evidence, which will be supplemented later on.\n\nThe three monoliths have been described and illustrated in the Anales del\nMuseo Nacional, Mexico, vol. 1, p. 270, by the late Se\u00f1or Jesus Sanchez,\nand are here reproduced. The statue exhumed at Chichen-Itza by Dr. Le\nPlongeon (pl. IV, fig. 1) closely resembles that found at Tlaxcalla in\nMexico (pl. III, fig. 2). Dr. Brinton, who erroneously describes the\nChichen-Itza statue as representing \u201ca sleeping god,\u201d points out the\nextremely important fact that there was a divinity worshipped in Yucatan\ncalled Cum-ahau, \u201cthe lord of the vase,\u201d who is designated in a MS.\ndictionary as \u201cLucifer (the lord of the underworld) the principal native\ndivinity.\u201d He adds there is good ground to suppose that this lord of the\nvase ... was the god of fertility common to the Maya and Mexican cult\n(Hero-Myths, p. 165). Considering that the great market-place in the\ncapital was actually the centre to which the entire product of the land\nwas periodically carried from its remotest confines, was there classified,\nexchanged or distributed far and wide, the comparison to a central flowing\nsource of maintenance was most appropriate.\n\nThat some particular spot in or near the city should have gradually\nassumed importance and sanctity as marking the exact centre of the\nmetropolis, _i. e._, of the integral whole of the Mexican \u201cempire\u201d is but\nnatural and it is not surprising to find that solemn rites were performed\non this spot. In one of the chronicles to which I shall revert, it is\nstated that the New Fire was at times kindled on the prostrate body of a\nslave, and this curious statement is corroborated by a picture in the\nBorgian Codex, showing a priest producing fire from a circular vessel\nplaced on the body of a victim beneath whom a face enclosed in the open\njaws of a reptile, is visible (fig. 29).\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Plate IV.\n\n\nDr. Le Plongeon, to whom much credit is due for its discovery, identified\nthe Chichen-Itza statue, for reasons not fully explained, as a portrait of\nChac-Mool, or Lord Tiger, and relates that it was found at a depth of\neight metres, not far from the base of the Great Pyramid Temple. A statue\nof a standing tiger, with a human head and a shallow depression in its\nback, was also found near the same spot. I have seen other sculptured\nfigures of human beings holding a vase, as at the hacienda near\nXochicalco, Mexico, and of tigers, with circular depressions on their\nbacks, and hope to be able to reproduce their photographs on another\noccasion.\n\nThe most elaborately sculptured recumbent statue is undoubtedly that which\nwas found in or near the city of Mexico (pl. IV, fig. 3). The under\nsurface of its base (pl. IV, fig. 5) is entirely covered with zigzag water\nlines and representations of roots of plants, figured as in the Codices;\nshells, one kind of which is the well-known symbol of parturition, and\nfrogs which are intimately associated with water symbolism. On the hair of\nthe statue a flower-like ornament is carved (pl. IV, fig. 4) in connection\nwith which it should be noted that the Nahuatl for flower is xochitl,\npronounced hoochitl, resembling the Maya hooch=vase. The small groups of\nfive dots forming a border around the circular vessel are noteworthy, as\nthey are likewise sculptured on the calendar-stone. The characteristic\nscrolls about the eyes of the figure show that it personates tlaloc, or\nearth-wine. The fertility of the earth, caused by rain, is symbolized by\nthe wreath of ears of corn and reeds (Nahuatl, _tollin_) which is\nsculptured around the base of this, one of the most remarkable of ancient\nAmerican monuments.\n\nSe\u00f1or Sanchez cites Torquemada (Monarquia Indiana, vol. II, p. 52) as the\nonly authority who mentions a recumbent image or idol and relates that,\n\u201cin the city of Tula, there was preserved in the great temple, an image of\nQuetzalcoatl ... he was figured as lying down, as though going to\nsleep.... Out of reverence the image was covered with mantles or\ncloths.... They said that when sterile women made offerings or sacrifices\nto the god Quetzalcoatl, he immediately caused them to become\npregnant....\u201d He was the god of the Winds which he sent to sweep or clear\nthe way for the tlaloques=\u201cthe earth-wine\u201d gods.\n\nSe\u00f1or Sanchez also quotes Gama, who, basing himself upon Torquemada\u2019s\nauthority, maintains that Tezcatzon-catl, the principal rain or octli-god,\nwas figured as lying in an intoxicated condition, holding a vase of pulque\nin his hands. To the above data I add the description by Bernal Diaz, of a\n\u201cfigure in sculpture\u201d he saw on the summit of the great temple of Mexico:\n\u201cIt was half man and half lizard (lagarto), was encrusted with precious\nstones and one-half of it was covered with cloths. They said that half of\nit was full of all the kinds of seeds that were produced in the entire\nland, and told [me] that it was the god of sown land, of seeds and fruits.\nI do not remember his name....\u201d (Historia Verdadera, p. 71). It may be as\nwell to note, that the Nahuatl names for lizard, cuetz-palin and topitzin,\napproximately convey the sound of the first syllables of the name of the\nculture-hero Quetzalcoatl, and of the title \u201ctopiltzin\u201d bestowed upon him.\nIt must, of course, remain a matter of conjecture whether the lizard was\npossibly employed in the above case as a pictograph, to express the sound\nof its name. One thing seems certain, that the Tula image of Quetzalcoatl,\nto which divinity barren women directed their invocations, and the statue\ndescribed by Bernal Diaz as that \u201cof the god of seeds, fruits and\ncultivated land,\u201d were undoubtedly analogous to the sculptured recumbent\nfigure found in Mexico, and exhibiting the symbols of Tlaloc, or\nearth-wine, of maize, and of parturition. Bernal Diaz further relates that\nthe said image was kept on the uppermost terrace of the Great Temple, in\none of five \u201cconcavities surrounded by barbacans or low walls the\nwood-work of which was very richly carved\u201d (_op. et loc. cit._).\n\nThe inference to be drawn from the foregoing data is that the Mexicans and\nthe Mayas habitually kept, on the summit of their principal temple, in\ntheir centres of government, a statue holding a circular vessel and\nfiguratively representing the \u201cnavel or centre of the land.\u201d The group of\nideas already traced in the Maya ho=capital, hom=pyramid, ho-och=vessel,\no-och=maintenance, ho=5, thus proves to be completely carried out, for, on\nthis consecrated spot, which emblematized the source whence all life\nproceeded, sacred emblematic rites were performed, the purpose of which\nwas to typify the union, in the centre, of the four elements requisite for\nthe productiveness of the earth.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 30.\n\n\nThe ground plan of the Caracol or Round Temple of Chichen-Itza, which was\nbuilt, according to tradition, by the high priest Quetzalcoatl, carries\nout the idea of the middle and of the four quarters in so obvious a manner\nthat it may safely be assumed that it represented the supposed centre of a\ndominion (fig. 30). Referring the reader to the interesting description of\nthis remarkable edifice in Mr. William Holmes\u2019 valuable work already\ncited, I note that round temples, dedicated to Quetzalcoatl, are recorded\nto have also existed in Mexico. It seems probable that, at certain\nfestivals, the living representatives of the Above and Below performed\ncertain sacred rites on the summit of one of these circular edifices. It\nis obvious that such rites could only have been fitly performed by the\nco\u00f6peration of both twin rulers or Quequetzalcoas, each of whom\npersonified two elements. The appropriate season for such rites would be\nthat when the necessity of insuring a successful harvest would seem most\nurgent. It is a recorded fact that the most solemn festivals of the year\nwere held between the vernal equinox, on which date the ritual year began,\nand the fall of the first rain which usually occurs about the middle of\nMay. It is extremely significant that at this precise period the festival\ntoxcatl took place (_cf._ Maya thoaxol or thoxol=distribution, giving each\none a little, and o-och=food or maintenance) during which Tezcatlipoca and\nHuitzilopochtli were jointly honored. During this festival the \u201csacred\ndough,\u201d named tzoalli, was a prominent feature of the ritual and it was\nundoubtedly associated with the idea of the life-giving union of the four\nelements, the Above and Below, or the male and female principles.\n\nIt can, moreover, be directly connected with the recumbent statues\nrepresenting the centre; for, whilst Bernal Diaz recorded that the statue\non the summit of the Great Temple held a collection of all the seeds of\nthe land, Cort\u00e9s, in his descriptive letter, gives us an important detail\nwhich evidently applied to the identical statue. He relates that \u201cthe\nbodies of the idols are made of a dough consisting of all the kinds of\nseeds and vegetables that these people ate. These are ground, mixed with\neach other and then moistened with the blood of the hearts of human\nvictims ...\u201d (_op. cit._ p. 105). Sahagun relates that an image of the\nearth goddess, under the title of Seven-serpents or twins, was made of\nthis sacred dough and that offerings of all kinds of maize, beans, etc.,\nwere made before it \u201cbecause she is the author and giver of all these\nthings which sustain the life of the people\u201d (book II, 4). It is well\nknown that the dough images were broken into small pieces and these were\ndistributed to the priests and people, who partook of the substance after\nhaving prepared themselves by fasting, for the sacred rite. I draw\nattention to the fact that the above sacred substance is but the natural\noutcome of the primitive notion already mentioned, which led the hunters\nto spill blood upon the earth, to obtain its increased fruitfulness. An\ninsight having been thus obtained of the origin of blood sacrifices in\nancient America, it is possible to understand the meaning of certain\nrepresentations showing the performance of ritual blood-offerings.\n\nOn the well-known bas-relief preserved in the National Museum of Mexico,\nand illustrated in the Anales (vol. I, p. 63), the two historical rulers\nof ancient Mexico, who figure as Quequetzalcoas, or divine twins, in\nexactly the same costume, are sculptured with blood flowing from their\nshins and in the act of piercing their ears with a sharp bone instrument.\nTwo streams of blood descend from these and meet before falling into the\nopen jaws figured beneath an altar, on which two conventionalized flowers\nappear. The two rows of teeth=tlantli, convey the sound of the affix\ntlan=land of, or tlalli=earth. But the most remarkable and striking\ninstance of the group of ideas we have been studying is found on p. 62 of\nthe Borgian Codex. On a background formed by a pool of water, there is a\ngroup which represents the \u201cearth-mother\u201d lying on a band of lizard-skin,\nwith two maize plants issuing from her body and growing into a large\ntwo-branched tree, in the centre of which is a flint-knife or tecpatl. A\nbird stands on its summit and its branches terminate in maize plants. Its\ngrowth is being furthered by the two streams of blood which proceed from\ntwo human figures, standing at each side of the tree. One is painted black\nand evidently represents the Lord of the Below; the other is painted\nblue-green and represents the Lord of the Above. The blood-sacrifice they\nare jointly offering is that mentioned in the \u201cLyfe of the Indians,\u201d as\nperformed in order to obtain generation. Unquestionably this symbolical\ngroup would have been equally intelligible to Mayas or Mexicans, since the\nideas it expressed were held in common by both people.\n\nBefore proceeding further it is necessary to state that after the native\nphilosophers had, for an indefinite period of time, been satisfied with\nthe artificial division of all things into four quarters, corresponding to\nthe cardinal points and elements, the idea of the Above and Below\ngradually grew in importance, whilst prolonged thought and observation\ndisclosed that the above classification demanded revision. On carefully\ninvestigating the attributes of the principal ancient Mexican deities or\npersonifications of the elements we see that the native thinkers had found\nthemselves obliged to make a distinction between the different forms of\neach element, having realized, for instance, that water not only fell to\nearth from the heaven, but also issued from the depths of the earth in the\nform of springs or fountains, and formed rivers and lakes. The final\nconclusions they reached in this instance are best explained by the fact\nthat the name of the god Tlaloc means earth-wine or rain only, and that\nhis sister \u201cChalchiuhtlycue\u201d appears as the personification of wells,\nsprings, rivers and lakes. It is evident that the classification of the\nocean or sea must have given rise to much serious thought. We know how the\nproblem was solved by the fact that the Nahuatl name for the ocean is\n\u201cilhuica-atl\u201d=heaven-water. Accordingly, the rain and the ocean pertained\nto the heaven, the Above and male principle, whilst the wells, springs,\nrivers, etc., belonged to the earth, the Below, the female principle.\n\nAs in this case, so it was with the other elements, each of which was\nfinally personified by a male deity and his female counterpart, which, in\nsome cases, tended to represent its distinctive and beneficent properties.\nAs these deities are separately treated in my commentary of the \u201cLyfe of\nthe Indians\u201d and lack of space forbids my discussing them here, I shall\nbut mention that the ultimate native systematization of the elements, each\nof which was thought of as an attribute only of supreme and central\ndivinity, corresponds exactly to that held by the Zu\u00f1is of to-day and set\nforth in the following account given by Mr. Frank H. Cushing and quoted in\nDr. Brinton\u2019s \u201cNative Calendar of Central America and Mexico\u201d (p. 8). In\nquoting it I draw special attention to the numerical divisions given, as\nthis is absolutely essential for the understanding of the statements I\nshall make, further on, concerning the origin of the native\nCalendar-systems.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 31.\n\n\n\u201cIn the ceremonies of the Zu\u00f1is the complete terrestrial sphere is\nsymbolized by pointing or blowing the smoke to the four cardinal points,\nto the zenith and nadir, the individual himself making the seventh number.\nWhen the celestial is also symbolized, only the six directions are added\nto this seven, because the individual remains the same, so that the number\ntypifying the universe, terrestrial and celestial, becomes 13. When, on\nthe other hand, in their ceremonies, the rite requires the officiant to\ntypify the supra- and intra-terrestrial spheres, that is, the upper and\nlower worlds [the Above and the Below], the same number 13 results, as it\nis held that in each the sun stands for the individual, being in turn the\nday sun and night sun, the light and dark sun, but ever the same and\ntherefore counts but once.\u201d\n\nAfter having gained this knowledge of native speculative philosophy, let\nus penetrate still further into their modes of thinking by studying, first\nof all, a series of symbols of the earth-mother taken from one of the most\nvaluable of Mexican MSS., the Vienna Codex (fig. 31). In these the idea of\nthe vase, bowl or receptacle and of the serpent predominates. It is\ninstructive of native thought to find the vase represented as containing a\nchild (no. 1), an agave plant (no. 7), a fire, denoting warmth (no. 3), a\nflower (no. 12), and a bunch of hair, the numerical symbol for\nmultiplicity=the number 400 (no. 5). In no. 2, the hollow between two\nrecurved peaks conveys the idea of a central vase; a band with eyes rests\nupon the peaks and denotes the heaven. No. 4 shows a double vase, enclosed\nin a similar representation of the nocturnal heaven\u2014the idea to be\nconveyed being evidently that of a receptacle hidden in darkness. No. 9\ndisplays an open jaw, two claws, a human heart and a stream of blood\nissuing from it. Nos. 10 and 11 present different shapes of the serpent\u2019s\njaw, the symbol of the earth.\n\nThe double-headed serpent forming a vase containing a flower (no. 12) is\nparticularly interesting because the flower=xoch-itl in Nahuatl, seems to\nsuggest an intentional likeness to the Maya word for \u201cvase, vessel or cup\nin general,\u201d ho-och (Arte de la lengua Maya, Fray Pedro Beltran de Santa\nRosa, ed. Espinosa, M\u00e9rida, 1859) as well as hoch or o-och=\u201cfood and\nmaintenance.\u201d The symbolical vase-like opening in the core of the agave\nplant, (no. 8) is such as is made to this day, in order to collect the\njuice, which, when fermented, constitutes the sacred wine of the ancient\nMexicans, octli, now better known as pulque.(8) As will be shown the\nMexicans considered this as \u201cthe drink of life.\u201d Its use was rigidly\nregulated and supervised by the \u201coctli-lords\u201d or \u201crain-priests\u201d who\ndistributed it at certain dances, in order to induce a state of mild\nintoxication amongst the participants.\n\nAs in the case of the Zu\u00f1is and Tarahumari Indians of the present day,\nreferred to by W J McGee, in his valuable and instructive article on \u201cThe\nbeginning of Marriage\u201d (the American Anthropologist, vol. IX, no. 11, p.\n371), \u201ccertain ceremonials typifying the fecundity of the earth and of the\nleading people thereof\u201d were performed by the ancient Mexicans. These\npublic ceremonials had also been \u201capparently developed to the end that the\ntribes and peoples might be encouraged to increase and multiply and\npossess the fecund earth.\u201d They took place at the period of the year when\nthe heaven and earth were also supposed to unite, _i. e._, at the\nbeginning of the rainy season. During this the ordinary out-door\noccupations of the agriculturist and hunter were forcibly interrupted and\nthe regular and periodical transportations of produce and tribute to the\ncapital became impossible, owing to torrential rain, swollen rivers and\nimpassable roads. This period of enforced shelter and confinement indoors\nseems to have become the definite mating season of the aborigines. At the\nsame time the union of the sexes had obviously assumed a sort of\nconsecration since it was intimately associated with the cosmical,\nphilosophical and religious ideas and coincided with what was regarded as\nthe annual union of the elements or of the Above and Below, the heaven and\nearth.\n\nAt that period of its history, when the Aztec race was jointly governed by\na priest, personifying the heaven and a priestess, \u201chis wife and sister,\u201d\nwho personified the earth, some form of sacred marriage rite must have\nbeen annually performed. The consecrated character of their union must\nhave naturally caused their offspring to be regarded as of a holy and\nalmost divine origin. It is easy to realize, therefore, how, in ancient\nMexico, the artificial idea of \u201csuperior birth\u201d came into existence, how a\nfamily or caste of rulers gradually developed, the members of which were\nentitled \u201cteotl\u201d=divine, whilst the men were regarded as \u201cthe sons of\nHeaven\u201d and the women \u201cthe daughters of Earth.\u201d It is obvious from this\nthat the periodical union of the sexes, accompanied as it was, by sacred\ndances and the distribution of sacred wine, must have gradually assumed a\nsemi-religious character, whilst the ritual nuptials of the \u201cdivine\u201d\nrulers, typifying, as it obviously did, the grand and impressive\nphenomenon of the rainy season, must have caused this marriage to assume\nthe character of a hallowed rite and surrounded it with the most elevated\nand intense religious sentiments of which the native mind was capable.\n\nAfter this recognition of the diverging influences which guided the\ndevelopment of primitive marriage institutions, we will return to the\nrain-priests or \u201coctli-lords,\u201d of whom it is repeatedly stated that there\nwere four hundred, a number corresponding to an assignment of 100 or 5\u00d720\nto each of the four provinces or divisions of the commonwealth. Their\nemblem was the sacred vase or receptacle and in the \u201cLyfe of the Indians\u201d\nthis will be seen figured on their mantas and shields (no. 6_a_). A small\ngold plate, of the same shape, is represented as worn by these \u201clords,\u201d\nattached to the nose (no. 6_b_); and, in the same MS., the symbolical\nornament is also carried by the \u201csister of Tlaloc.\u201d It was evidently worn,\nlike similar ornaments in other countries, hanging from the septum of the\nnose, and seems to have indicated a consecration of the breath as the\nsubstance of life. As an inference, merely based on an insight gained into\nthe native modes of thought, I suggest that the explanation for the\nadoption of this ornament may have been the religious idea that the breath\nof life, dividing itself as it issues through the nostrils and uniting\nwhen inhaled, appeared to the native thinkers as a marvellous illustration\nof unity and duality, both ideas having constantly been present in their\nminds.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 32.\n\n\nIn the Vienna Codex there is a remarkable picture of the earth-vase\nresting on a slab with five divisions. A profusion of puffs or breaths of\nair or vapor issue from it and, branching off in two directions, form what\nis like the conventional tree of life, also met with in Maya bas-reliefs\nand documents. At the extremities of the branches which turn downwards, a\nserpent\u2019s eye is visible and a forked-tongue issues above the middle (fig.\n32, no. 1). The intention to express an exuberant vitality and growth\nissuing from the symbolical vase in the centre of the earth, seems\nobvious. This idea is still more clearly conveyed, however, in two\nsymbolic pictures on pp. 21 and 29 of the Codex Borgia, which are\nreproduced as nos. 1 and 4 in fig. 1 of this publication. The first\nrepresents the vase overflowing with water and containing a flint-knife,\nthe generator of the vital spark. The central group is surrounded by water\nand by sun-rays and obviously symbolizes the union of air, light and\nwater, constituting the Above, with the flint the emblem of the\nearth-mother and of Tezcatlipoca, the lord of the Under-world. Fig. 1, no.\n4, represents the vase overflowing with a liquid, which is designated as\nbeing the sacred octli or earth-wine by the presence of the rabbit, which\nexpresses the sound of its name=tochtli. This rebus is surrounded by the\nnocturnal heaven strewn with stars and the reference to the union of rain\nor earth-wine with earth and darkness is evident. It has been generally\nassumed that these images of the vase, containing the rabbit or\nflint-knife, represented the moon. As the latter was intimately associated\nwith the cult of night, of the earth-mother and ideas of growth, it is not\nimpossible that by an extension of symbolism, this was the case, but only\nin the same way as the sun was the emblem of the cult of the Above. On the\nother hand the native drawings of the moon in Sahagun\u2019s Academia MS.\nrepresent it as a crescent with a human profile on the inner side, and in\na specimen preserved at the Trocad\u00e9ro Museum, Paris, it is similarly\ncarved in rock crystal.\n\nBefore proceeding to investigate the symbol further, I would point out the\ngeneral resemblance of the vase, especially as a conventionalized\nserpent\u2019s jaw, to the \u201chorse-shoe\u201d shape of the problematical stone\n\u201cyokes\u201d which have been so thoroughly studied by Dr. Hermann Strebel of\nHamburg (Studien ueber Steinjoche aus Mexico and Mittel-Amerika.\nInternationales Archiv, bd. III, 1890). Mr. Francis Parry has advanced a\nview concerning the meaning of these curious \u201csacred stones.\u201d(9) This is\nsomewhat corroborated, as will be shown, by my recent studies, which seem\nto indicate pretty clearly that these symbolical objects pertained to the\ncult of the earth-mother. A fact of unquestionable importance, cited by\nMr. Parry, is the certified existence and use, amongst southern\nCalifornian Indians of the present day, of a rudely worked stone of the\nsame shape, in a native religious rite. The owner of one of these stones,\nMr. Horatio Rust, a pioneer resident of Pasadena, southern California,\nexhibited it in the Anthropological Section of the World\u2019s Columbian\nExposition, at Chicago, 1893, and informed me how he had observed that,\noccasionally, a native assembly took place at a certain spot on a mountain\nside, during which invocations and offerings were made. He ascertained\nthat the ceremony on one occasion was the equivalent of the puberty-dances\nof similar California tribes. Having visited and examined the spot after\none of these celebrations, in which six young girls, decorated with\ngarlands of flowers, were the chief participants, he found the \u201csacred\nstone,\u201d concealed and surrounded by offerings of corn, meal and pieces of\nmoney. The version published by Mr. Parry is slightly different to this\naccount, which was given me by Mr. Rust himself.\n\nIn order fully to appreciate the close analogy between the Californian\nceremonial offering of maize and meal to the emblematic stone and the\nancient Mexican ritual offerings of seeds to an idol, holding a bowl or\nvase, it is necessary to read the following data. At the same time I would\nlike to mention here that amongst the Hupa Indians of California, who have\nbeen termed \u201cthe Romans of Northern California by reason of their valour\nand far reaching dominions,\u201d we find that \u201cflakes or knives of obsidian or\njasper, sometimes measuring 15 inches or more in length, are employed for\nsacred purposes and are carried aloft in the hand in certain ceremonial\ndances, wrapped with skin or cloth. Such knives are esteemed so sacred\nthat the Indians would on no account part with them, and Mr. Stephen\nPowers found that they could not be purchased at any price.\u201d(10)\n\nIt is scarcely necessary to recall here that the flint-knife was a\nwell-known ancient Mexican emblem, nor to point out the importance of the\nconclusion that two well-defined symbols which played an important r\u00f4le in\nthe Mexican and Mayan cult of the Below and of the Earth-mother, are\nactually found in use amongst Californian Indians at the present day.\n\nA whole flood of light is thrown upon native symbolism, however, by the\ninformation obtained from the Zu\u00f1i Indians by Mr. F. H. Cushing. The\nfollowing passage, from their Creation myth, affords the most positive\nconfirmation of the foregoing conclusion, that the bowl or vase was the\nnative emblem of the earth-mother. The Zu\u00f1i speaker said: \u201cIs not the bowl\nthe emblem of the Earth, our Mother? For from her we draw both food and\ndrink, just as the babe draws nourishment from the breast of its mother.\nAnd round, as is the rim of the bowl, so is the horizon....\u201d(11)\nInteresting as this explanation of the native symbolism undoubtedly is, it\nbecomes most important when its full significance is realized and we\nrecognize that originally earthenware bowls themselves were looked upon as\nsacred emblems formed indeed out of the material of the earth itself. This\nfact places the invention and manufacture of earthen vessels in an\nentirely new light and enables us to conjecture and understand why, quite\napart from their utility, so much care and decoration were lavished upon\nthem and why, indeed, they were constantly buried with the dead. They\nobviously served as sacred emblems of the earth-mother, to whose care the\ndead body was confided, and originally the intention probably was to\npropitiate her by the beauty of the sacred vessels, which, to be\nsymbolical of her bounty, necessarily contained food and drink.\n\nWithout pausing to discuss how easily this custom would have gradually\ngiven birth to the belief that the food and drink thus offered were\nintended for the use of the dead body itself, or its soul, I would point\nout that, in the absence of clay vessels, a stone, rough or worked, would\nhave also served as an appropriate emblem of the earth-mother, being as it\nwere, of her own substance. It is well known that in ancient Mexico this\ncustom prevailed. There we also find that the bowl- or vase-shaped grave\nwas employed, with a deeply religious and symbolical meaning. This is\nclearly revealed by a native drawing in the \u201cLyfe of the Indians,\u201d\nrepresenting a native burial. The deceased, represented by his skull only,\nhas been placed in a deep hole, figured as a large inverted horse-shoe,\npainted brown and covered with small \u201chorse-shoe\u201d marks. The same\nreligious symbolism which led to the adoption of a definite form of\nsepulchre, typifying the element earth, would evidently account for the\nadoption for burial purposes, of large clay vessels into which the remains\nof the dead were placed. In some localities these clay burial urns were,\nas we know, made large enough to contain the dead body itself. The\ndifficulty of manufacturing these would naturally have led to the general\nadoption of cremation, simply as a means of reducing the remains so that\nthey could repose in the sacred image of the earth. Cremation would,\nmoreover, be a rite full of meaning since, to the native mind, earth was\ninseparable from its twin element fire, and both together constituted the\n\u201cBelow.\u201d\n\nIt is significant to find, however, that the ashes of Montezuma\u2019s\npredecessors had not been finally consigned to the earth. In strict\naccordance with their association with the Heaven and Above, their remains\nwere never allowed to come in contact with the earth, but were usually\npreserved inside of a hollow wooden effigy of the deceased, which was\ndressed in his insignia and placed in a high tower, built for the express\npurpose. Cort\u00e9s states that there were \u201cforty very high towers\u201d in the\nenclosure of the Great Temple of Mexico and that \u201call of these were\nsepulchres of the lords\u201d (Historia de Nueva-Espa\u00f1a, ed. Lorenzana, pp. 105\nand 106). Whilst it is evident that the remains of all lords and priests\nof heaven should thus be assigned a place of rest high above the earth, it\nis equally intelligible that the bodies of the lords and priests of the\nBelow and all women should be consigned to the interior of the earth and\nby preference in caves. The Codex F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary contains an interesting\npicture of the tied-up body of a woman, recognizable as such from the\nhead-dress and her instrument of labor, the metlatl, on which the maize is\nground. The mummy rests inside of a flat effigy of a serpent\u2019s head, which\nseems to be carved in wood or stone and closely resembles fig. 31, no. 11.\nIt is worth considering whether the carved stone-yokes may not have served\nin connection with the funeral rites of the consorts of rulers or high\npriestesses or priests of the Below.\n\nIf investigations of the vase or earth symbols are extended to countries\nlying south of Mexico, traces of the existence of an analogous cult are\nobservable. There undoubtedly exists a striking resemblance between the\nform of the characteristic and peculiar stone \u201cseats\u201d which have been\nfound in such numbers in Ecuador, to the vase, fig. 31, no. 3, for\ninstance. The employment of these symbolical stones as a consecrated\ncentral altar or, possibly, as the throne of the living representative of\nthe earth-mother, would have harmonized with the native ideas which have\nbeen traced on the preceding pages.\n\nIt was also extremely interesting to me to find the identical symbol in\nthe Maya day-sign Caban, which has been identified by Dr. Schellhas and\nGeheimrath F\u00f6rstemann as a symbol of the earth and is figured on p. 99 of\nDr. Brinton\u2019s Primer of Mayan Hieroglyphics. In the sign Caban, the\nhorse-shoe mark is accompanied by a series of dots which seem to indicate\nliquid trickling from the receptacle and permeating the soil, an idea\nwhich is strictly analogous to the much more elaborate Mexican images of\nthe vase full of rain or \u201cearth-wine,\u201d fig. 1, nos. 1 and 4, which, in\ncursive form, was employed as the emblem of the pulque, or octli lords,\nthe priests of the earth. It is strikingly significant to find that in the\nMaya Codices the drops issuing from the horse-shoe are sometimes figured\nas trickling into the mouths of \u201cdivinities\u201d whose faces also exhibit\nimages of the sacred vase, analogous to that of the Mexican \u201coctli-lords.\u201d\n\nThese Maya divinities have been designated by Dr. Schellhas as god L,\nwhose face is painted black and under whose eye a vase is painted, a\npeculiarity termed by Maya authorities \u201can ornamented eye\u201d and which may\nbe seen in fig. 33, iv; (2) as god M, \u201ca second black god,\u201d whose eye is\nlikewise enclosed in a vase and whose hieroglyph is a vase on a black\nground; and (3) as god C, of whom I shall subsequently speak in detail.\n(See Brinton\u2019s Primer, pp. 122 and 124.) In the case of god L, the two\nhorse-shoe marks from which drops are falling into the mouth of the god,\nare surmounted by the glyph imix, to which I shall revert.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 33.\n\n\nThe horse-shoe mark with drops likewise occurs in the design resembling\nthe akbal glyph, which has been interpreted as connected with akab=night.\nIt also occurs, in Maya Codices, on bands exhibiting cross-symbols,\nsometimes in an inverted position and hanging from above and sometimes\nstanding on two of the three mounds which are a feature of these\ninteresting glyphs. Postponing a detailed discussion of these, I will but\nemphasize here that, in the Maya Codices the vase, cursively drawn as a\n\u201chorse-shoe\u201d mark, is proved to be intimately connected with the ideas of\nliquid falling from above, and constituting the drink of divinities and\nsymbols associated with the sacred vase, night and darkness, all\nattributes of the Below. We shall next demonstrate that it was alternately\nplaced, on the Maya Caban glyph, with a curious sign consisting of a\npea-shaped black dot, to which a curved and wavy line is attached. This is\nalways figured as issuing from above the dot, then extending downwards and\nhalf around it and terminating in a descending, undulating line.\n\nI submit the following to the consideration of Maya specialists: It seems\nto me that this sign presents an extremely realistic drawing of the seed\nof a monocotyledonous plant, such as the maize or Indian corn, in its\nfirst stage of germination, when the radicle, having issued from the apex,\nturns downwards in characteristic fashion and penetrates into the earth.\nBesides the realism of the native drawing there can be no doubt that the\nimage of a sprouting maize-seed is the most expressive and appropriate\naccompaniment to the symbol of fertilizing rain, on an earth-symbol, and I\nam unable to understand how Drs. Cyrus Thomas, Seler, Schellhas and\nBrinton could have overlooked the realism in this image of a sprouting\nseed, and concluded that it was a portrayal of \u201cfermented liquor trickling\ndownward,\u201d a \u201cnose-ornament,\u201d or a \u201ctwisted lock of hair,\u201d \u201ca cork-screw\ncurl.\u201d The latter interpretation was made by Dr. Schellhas because he\nfound the sign in connection with female figures in the Codices, which\nundoubtedly is a fact of extreme interest, as it furnishes a valuable\nproof that the Mayas associated the earth with the female principle.\n\nDr. Schellhas, however, records his observation that the sign caban occurs\nas a symbol of fruit-bearing earth, in the Codex Troano, as it is figured\nwith leaves of maize (p. 33) or with climbing plants issuing from it and\nwinding themselves around a pole (p. 32). Geheimrath F\u00f6rstemann connects\nthe day-name caban with \u201ccab\u201d to which Perez, in his dictionary, attaches\nthe meaning of \u201cearth, world and soil\u201d (Die Tages g\u00f6tter der Mayas.\nGlobus, vol. LXXIII, no. 9) and adds that the hieroglyph decidedly\ndesignates the earth. At the same time he interprets what I regard as the\nmaize-grain and its radicle, as possibly representing a bird in its flight\nupwards, and he merely describes the accompanying inverted horse-shoe with\ndots, without attaching any positive meaning to it. It must be added that\nDr. F\u00f6rstemann himself states that he is not satisfied with his own\ninterpretation of these two symbols, the first of which, the seed and\nradicle, likewise occurs in the day-sign cib, to which I shall recur.\n\nIf any doubt remains as to the signification of the day-sign cab, I think\nit will be dispelled when it is shown that the name cab, or caban is\nobviously related to the adjective, adverb and preposition cabal or\ncablil, which signifies low, below, on the earth, in, beneath and under.\nThe frequent association of the cab glyph with the image of a bee, as in\nthe Codex Troano, is partially explained by the fact that the Maya word\nfor honey is cab, for honey-bee is yikil-cab. It affords at all events, an\ninstance, in Maya hieroglyphic writing, of a method of duplicating the\nsound of a word analogous to that which I detected in Mexican pictography,\nand named complementary signs in my communication on the subject,\npublished as an appendix to my essay on Ancient Mexican Shields\n(Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie, Leyden, 1892). On the other hand\nthe day name and sign cib, on which the sprouting grain is also figured,\nseems to be related to the verb cibah=to will, to occur, to happen, to\ntake place. The allusion contained in both glyphs is obviously the same\nand signifies, in the first place, the hidden process of germination which\ntakes place under the surface of the soil, and is associated with the idea\nof the female principle in Nature.\n\nThe seed and radicle, horse-shoe and rain-drops, are also distinguishable\non a vessel on page 35 of the Dresden Codex and on a small three-legged\nvase, which is figured by Doctor Brinton (Primer, 118) as the day sign\nch\u2019en. This vase is surmounted by two in-curving projections and offers a\nclose analogy to a sacred vase with superstructure (fig. 33, II) from\nwhich projects a peculiar open and double receptacle, into which a priest\nis sowing small seeds. The interior of this bowl is represented as hollow,\nand containing what I shall show further on to be a native symbol for\nEarth: three little mounds. On another bowl, in front of this one, a bird\nis sitting and presumably hatching. In another portion of the same MS. a\nsimilar bowl is figured containing three seed fruits and capsules,\nresembling pomegranates or poppy-heads (fig. 33, III).\n\nThe tree next to which the first two symbolical bowls are placed deserves\nto be carefully studied, for the trunk is crowned by four stems bearing\nsingle leaves and is encircled by a serpent, _can_, the homonym for the\nnumeral four=kan. A fringed mantle and a scroll hang from the coils of the\nserpent\u2019s body, two footsteps are painted on the scroll and, pointing\ndownwards, express \u201cdescent,\u201d as do also the falling drops of liquid on\nthe stems of the tree which grows from a peculiar glyph with subdivisions,\nwhich has points of resemblance with the glyph under the footless divinity\n(fig. 33, I). An obsidian mirror, with cross bars, is painted in front of\nthe latter, which displays the same descending footsteps on its mantle.\nThe head and eyes of a snail, the symbol of parturition, are above its\nface and a wreath of flowers crowns its head. Tedious as such a minute\nanalysis may seem, it is nevertheless necessary, in order to gain a\nperception of the extent to which symbolism was practised in the picture\nwritings found in the Maya MSS., accompanied by the cursive calculiform\nglyphs. It seems that, in no. II, we have a presentation of the Maya \u201ctree\nof life,\u201d and that scrolls, on which descending footsteps are depicted,\nare intended to convey the meaning that life is descending from Above into\nthe egg and seeds by virtue or decree of the celestial power. It should be\nnoted here that the phenomenon of a living bird issuing from the hard and\ninanimate egg-shell had made as deep an impression upon the ancient\nphilosophers in Mexico as elsewhere, and that the power \u201cto form the\nchicken in the shell\u201d was deemed one of the most marvellous attributes of\n\u201cthe divine Moulder or Former,\u201d as is further set forth in the \u201cLyfe of\nthe Indians.\u201d\n\nThe foregoing illustrations establish, at all events, that the Mayas, like\nthe Mexicans, associated the sacred vase with seeds and germination. The\nvase, illustrated by Doctor Brinton, exhibits the seed and radicle; and\nthis is also found on the symbol for earth, which, in the Cortesian Codex,\nis associated with the image of a serpent, possibly the equivalent of the\nMexican Cihuacoatl, or female serpent.\n\nIf, after mustering this close array of analogies, we next examine the\nglyph cib, we find that it exhibits the seed and radicle in the centre of\na square, three sides of which are decorated with what Doctor Brinton has\ntermed the \u201cpottery decoration(?).\u201d This consists of short lines, such as\nare employed in Mexican pictography, in the well-known sign for tlalli, or\nland, which is usually surrounded on three sides by a fringe, presumably\nsymbolizing plants and grass, a \u201cfringe\u201d of vegetation and verdure. In the\nglyph cib, already referred to, I am inclined to see but a cursive\nrendering of the same idea, with the seed and radicle in the centre and\nthe fringed border barely indicated by a few short lines. The same border\nis found repeated on three sides of the head of a frequently recurring\npersonage whom Doctor Schellhas designates as \u201cGod C, of the Ornamented\nface.\u201d In his extremely valuable work, Die G\u00f6ttergestalten der\nMayahandschriften, this careful investigator records the various\ncombinations in which this God C occurs in the Codices and impartially\nweighs the possibilities of its meaning. Geheimrath F\u00f6rstemann has made\nthe important observation that the figure of God C occurs in combination\nwith the day-sign, chuen, of the Maya calendar, which coincides with the\nMexican day-sign azomatli=monkey.\n\nI am unable to agree with my venerable friend in identifying God C, with\nPolaris. As Doctor Schellhas rightly observes, the fact that God C is\nfound in combination with the signs of all the four quarters disproves an\nidentification with Polaris. What is more, God C is frequently represented\nas receiving in his mouth drops of liquid falling from a cursive vase\nplaced above his head\u2014a detail which clearly connects him with earth and\nthe \u201cearth-wine.\u201d In the Mexican MSS. we find the monkey intimately\nconnected with the octli or earth-wine gods as, for instance, in the \u201cLyfe\nof the Indians.\u201d I therefore reserve a more detailed discussion of this\nsubject for my notes on this MS. and return to the glyphs caban and kan or\ncan.\n\nJust as it has been shown that the first may signify cabal=the Below, so\nit is evident that the second is connected with the preposition and adverb\ncanal, signifying \u201cabove, on top of, on high.\u201d Dr. Brinton sees in the kan\nsymbol a presentation of a polished stone, or shell pendant, or bead, and\ncites the Maya dictionary of Motul which gives kan as the name for \u201cbeads\nor stones which served the Indians as money and neck ornaments.\u201d In\nconnection with this important statement I revert to the carved\nshell-gorgets which have been found in the mounds and ancient graves in\nthe Mississippi valley and exhibit Maya influence. The greater number of\nthese exhibit a carved serpent (which in Maya is _kan_) in their centres\nand this fact affords a clue to the possible origin of the Maya name for a\nneck ornament given in the Motul dictionary. It is undeniable that all\nevidence unites in proving that the ancient peoples of the Mississippi\nvalley were in traffic, if not more intimately connected, with a\nMaya-speaking people and came under the influence of the ideas and\nsymbolism current in Yucatan.\n\nReturning to the employment of the glyph kan in Maya Codices, for more\nreasons than I am able to enumerate here, I conclude it served as an\nindicative of the Above or Heaven. It is a curious fact that the Maya word\nfor cord is kaan, whilst the name for sky is caan. I cannot but think,\ntherefore, that a carved pendant with a serpent effigy=a kan, worn on a\ncord=kaan, must have been associated by the Mayas with the Heaven or\nsky=caan, and that this linguistic coincidence must have been a strong\nfactor in the development of the symbolism attached to the glyph can or\nkan.\n\nAn interesting fact, which I shall demonstrate by a large series of\nillustration from native Codices in a chapter of my forthcoming work on\nthe ancient Calendar System, will show that in their hieratic writings,\nthe ancient Mexican scribes represented the nocturnal heaven or sky as a\ncircle composed of a cord, to which stars were attached, whilst the centre\nof the circle exhibited one or four stars. In my opinion the origin and\nexplanation of the association of the cord with stars are clearly\ntraceable to the above mentioned fact that in the Maya tongue the word for\ncord, kaan, closely resembles the sound of the word caan=sky. The presence\nof the cord in the Mexican symbols is, therefore, another indication of\ntheir Maya origin. A proof that the Mayas also employed the cord as a\nsymbol of the sky, or heaven, is furnished by the much-discussed\nlentil-shaped stone altar found at Copan, a small outline of which is\nrepresented in fig. 21, no. 1. In order fully to understand the meaning\nexpressed by this stone, it is necessary to bear in mind how indissolubly\nthe idea of something circular was associated by the Mayas and Mexicans\nwith their conception of the vault of heaven resting on the horizon, and\nof the Above, consisting of the two fluid elements, air and water.\n\nIt is scarcely necessary to refer again here to more than one authority\nfor the statement that the temples of the air (of the Above) were\ncircular, and the reason given by the natives for this was that \u201cjust as\nthe air circulates around the vault of the heaven, so its temple had to be\nof a round shape.\u201d(12) As a contrast to this conception, the influence of\nwhich is also obvious in the form of the round temples and towers of the\nruined cities of Central America, I would cite the allusions to the solid\nearth contained in the sacred books of the Mayas, the Popol Vuh, as being\n\u201cthe quadrated earth, four-cornered, four-sided, four-bordered.\u201d These\ndata establish the important fact, to which I shall recur, that the native\nphilosophers associated the Above, composed of air and water, with the\nrounded, and the Below, composed of fire and water, with the angular form.\n\nThe Copan stone altar exhibits the circular form and is surrounded by a\nsculptured cord which conveys the sound of its name kaan or caan=heaven.\nOn it a cup-shaped depression=ho-och, marks the sacred centre of the\nheaven, the counterpart to the terrestrial bowl whence all life-giving\nforce proceeded. Two curved lines diverge from this and divide the vaulted\ncircle into two parts. The curve in the lines may be interpreted as\nconveying motion or rotation whilst the division of the sky may have been\nintended to signify the eastern or male and the western or female portion\nof the heaven, the whole being an abstract image of central rulership and\nof a dual principle incorporating the four elements. It is obvious that\nthe meaning intended to be conveyed might also include the duality of the\nHeaven or Above, composed of the union of the elements air and water. By\npainting the stone in two or four colors either of these meanings could\nhave been expressed. In either case it will be recognized, however, that\nmuch as Dr. Ernest Hamy\u2019s deductions concerning this altar have been\ncriticised, the learned director of the Trocad\u00e9ro Museum, Paris, was\nundoubtedly right in recognizing that the stone is a cosmical symbol,\nintended to convey the idea of a two-fold division and analogous to the\nChinese tae-keih which it resembles, with the difference that the Copan\nsign is more complex exhibiting, as it does, a central bowl-shaped\ndepression. A glimpse at the other symbols in fig. 21 will show that the\nidentical idea is expressed in the Mexican signs exhibiting a central\ncircle, usually accompanied by a four-fold division.\n\nAn analogous attempt to express the same native idea is recognizable in\nthe peculiar mushroom-shaped stone figures, represented by a number of\nexamples at the Central American exposition recently held at\nGuatemala,(13) and recently described by the distinguished geologist and\nethnologist, Dr. Carl Sapper. The specimens had been collected in San\nSalvador and Guatemala and \u201cresemble great stone mushrooms\u201d inasmuch as\neach consists of three well-defined parts, a square pedestal from the\nmidst of which rises an almost cylindrical \u201cstem\u201d supporting a large\ncircular solid top, flat underneath and rounded above. The cylindrical\nsupport is carved in the rough semblance of a human form, which, in some\ninstances, has rays issuing from its head.\n\nAn acquaintance with the fundamental ideas of native cosmogony enables us\nto recognize that the square stone base typifies the solid part of the\nuniverse, the Below, whilst the vaulted circle above typifies the heaven,\nthe Above. The figure standing between both is evidently an image of a\ncentral lord and ruler, and the entire image is in accord with the native\nmode of thought as set forth in Mr. Frank H. Cushing\u2019s report already\ncited and in the symbols which have been figured.\n\nAfter reading Mr. Cushing\u2019s account of the native American philosophy,\npreserved to the present day by the Zu\u00f1is, it is impossible not to realize\nhow clearly the mushroom-images materialize the identical ideas which\nconstitute, indeed, the keynote of native thought and can be traced in\neach centre of ancient American civilization. I am inclined to think that\nthese stone images were, originally, painted with the colors assigned to\nthe four quarters, which would render the symbolism more apparent. The\nexistence of these images in a restricted area of territory, seems,\nmoreover, to indicate that they had been invented there, possibly under\nthe influence of a religious and political creed with particular reference\nto the union, in a single individual, of the power and attributes of the\nAbove and Below\u2014an idea which strongly contrasts with Mexico and Yucatan,\nwhere the idea of duality prevailed to such an extent that, by creating\ntwo distinct religions and governments, it ultimately led to the\ndisintegration of the greatest of native empires and its fall, from which\nit was only rallying at the time of the Conquest. It is also possible that\nthe Guatemala images are the expression of the reversion to a more ancient\nform of philosophy or government when it had been realized that dual\ngovernment led to dissensions and disintegration. At all events the rude\nmushroom figures testify that the conception of a single celestial or\nterrestrial ruler of the Above and the Below filled the minds of their\nmakers at a time, the exact date of which it would be of utmost importance\nto determine, if this were only possible. It is also interesting to note\nthe curious analogy presented by these figures to the well-known statement\nby Confucius that, \u201cthe sage is united to Heaven and Earth so as to form a\ntriad, consisting of Heaven, Earth and Man.\u201d\n\nThe association of the round form and of the peak with the Above and of\nthe square and bowl with the Below can be also detected in the form of\nnative American architecture, as exemplified, for instance, by the\ncontrasting shapes of two temples figured on page 75, of the Borgian Codex\n(fig. 34) which were obviously dedicated to the two prevailing cults. One\nof these is surmounted by a tau-shaped thatched roof with a flat top and\nturned-down ends. The dedication of this temple to Night or star-cult is\nconveyed in this case, by the sign for star on a black ground inserted in\nthe roof.(14)\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 34.\n\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 35.\n\n\nThe opposite temple exhibits a roof which rests on a black architrave and\noffers a general resemblance to an inverted tau. It rises in a tapering\nform and ends in a cone-shaped ornament. The existence and significance of\nthese two forms of temple-roofs might escape notice did the same not recur\nin two high caps or mitres figured in the Vienna Codex and obviously\nintended for the respective use of the Lords of the Above and of the Below\nat a religious ceremonial (fig. 35). The first of these ends in a high\npeak, the extremity of which is represented as capped with snow, in the\nsame conventional manner employed in figuring snow-mountains. An extremely\nsignificant feature of this cap is its exhibition of a curved and rounded\npattern only on its border. The second mitre ends in a horizontal line; it\nexhibits an angular pattern and two flaps hang down from it, which, as\nthey naturally concealed the ears of the wearer, seem to have been\nsymbolical of something hidden, and, perhaps, of silence and secrecy. A\nthird mitre is figured on the same page, which seems to unite the\ncharacteristics of both forms and is surmounted by a young maize-shoot,\nproceeding from a vase.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 36.\n\n\nThe association of the Above with a peak or point is further illustrated\nby a well-known peaked diadem always painted blue which was the symbol of\nthe visible ruler (fig. 36, no. 5). A peak also occurs on military shields\naccompanied by four bars (fig. 36, no. 3) and presents an analogy to no. 4\nfrom the \u201cLyfe of the Indians.\u201d The latter is given as the symbol of a\nsacred festival which I have demonstrated in a previous publication to\nhave coincided with the vernal equinox.(15) For further reasons which I\nshall present in my calendar monograph, I infer that we have in this\ndrawing a most valuable image of the gnomon and dial employed by the Sun\npriests for the observation of the equinoxes and solstices. The human\nvictim who was attached to the centre of the circular stone during the\nsame festival is usually represented with the same cone or point and eight\nappendages on his head (fig. 36, no. 2). Owing to the circumstance that\nthis peaked head-dress, or cone, was sometimes employed by the scribes for\nits phonetic value, as in fig. 36, no. 1, from the Codex Mendoza, in which\ninstance it is figured on a mountain and is usually painted blue, we know\npositively that its name was Yope or Yopi\u2014a valuable point since a temple\nand a sort of monastery in the courtyard of the Great Temple of Mexico\nwere both named Yopico (Sahagun). At the same time it should be noted that\nthe Maya name for \u201ca mitre,\u201d the symbol of a divine ruler, is Yop-at. In\nthe Mexican ollin-signs a cone or ascending point is usually placed above\nand opposite to a symbol consisting of a ring or loop. These evidently\nsignify the Above and Below, and in this connection it is worth noticing\nthat archaeologists have long puzzled over the curious forms of the two\nkinds of prehistoric stone objects which have most frequently been found\nin the island of Porto Rico. The first of these consists of an elongated\nstone, the centre of which rises in the shape of a cone, whilst the ends\nare respectively carved in the rough semblance of a head and of feet. The\nsecond form, which has frequently been found in caves, consists of a large\nstone ring, and is popularly termed \u201ca stone collar.\u201d I am inclined to\nregard the latter as being analogous to the \u201cstone yokes\u201d of ancient\nMexico and to infer that the aborigines of Porto Rico practised a form of\nthe same cult. It should be borne in mind that the high conical stone, on\nwhich the human victims were sacrificed, was a salient feature in an\nancient Mexican temple and that its form must have had some symbolical\nmeaning. The foregoing data indicate that it probably was emblematic of\nthe Above and Centre and was therefore regarded as the fitting place of\nsacrifice to the Sun and Heaven, whilst offerings to the Earth were most\nappropriately made in circular openings recalling the rim of the bowl and\nthe round line of the horizon. It will be seen further on that the cone\nrecurs in native architecture and that its use as a symbol, in the course\nof time, culminated in the pyramid.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 37.\n\n\nLet us return to it in its rudimentary stage, as a perpendicular line\narising from a medium level, forming an inverted tau. The widespread\nemployment amongst American peoples of the inverted and upright tau-shape\nas emblems of the Above and Below is abundantly proven and doubtlessly\narose as naturally as \u201cthe Chinese characters Shang=Above, employed as a\nsymbol for Heaven, and Lea=Below or Beneath, employed as a symbol for\nEarth. These are formed, in the one case, by placing a man (represented by\na vertical line) above the medium level (represented by a horizontal line)\nand in the other below it\u201d (Encyclopedia Britannica, art. China) fig. 37.\nAnother equally graphic presentation of the analogous thought is furnished\nby the familiar Egyptian sign which exhibits a loop or something rounded\nand hollow above and a perpendicular line beneath the medium level. It is\nwell known that the tau occurs in Scandinavia and is popularly named\nThor\u2019s hammer (fig. 38). Merely as a curious analogy I point out that in\nfig. 25, no. 2, from the Vienna Codex, we have an American instance of a\ntau-shaped object held in the hand in a ceremonial rite.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 38.\n\n\nThe late and lamented Baron Gustav Nordenskj\u00f6ld observed that the\nentrances to the ruined estufas of the ancient cliff-dwellers of Colorado\nwere in the shape of an upright tau and it is well known that this is also\nthe case amongst the Pueblo Indians of the present day. By means of a\nphotograph taken by Dr. A. Warburg of Berlin, whilst witnessing the\nHumis-katshina dance of the Moqui Indians at Oraibi, in May, 1896, I am\nable to affirm that the native dancers wear masks and high head-ornaments,\npartly of wood, on which reversed and upright tau-symbols are painted, the\nfirst in a light and the second in a dark color. As the name of the\nceremonial dance was explained to Dr. Warburg as signifying \u201chelping the\nsprouting or growing maize,\u201d and celebrated the advent of the rainy\nseason, it is obvious that the two forms of tau which were displayed in\nalternate order on the heads of the dancers in the procession symbolized\nthe juxtaposition of the Above and Below, of Heaven and Earth.\n\nIn the ruined temples of Central America, windows in the shape of upright\nand reversed taus also occur. The following series of architectural\nopenings (fig. 39) are copied from Mr. Alfred P. Maudslay\u2019s invaluable and\nsplendid work, which has not, as yet, met with the recognition it so\nrichly deserves.(16) They display besides the tau-shape (_g_ and _h_)\nother forms, the symbolism of which has been discussed. There are\ncross-shaped (_e_), square, round and oval windows (_d_, _j_, _b_ and\n_i_), the square obviously symbolical of the Earth and the round of the\nHeaven. Besides these there are openings in the form of a truncated cone\n(_a_ and _c_) and others ending in a narrow point (_k_). A striking form\nwhich recalls the Moorish arch and is shown in _f_, may, perhaps, be\nlooked upon as an attempt to express the idea of a union of the Above and\nBelow.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 39.\n\n\nIn connection with these architectural features it is interesting to study\ntheir names in the native languages. The Nahuatl names for windows are\nsingularly expressive of their uses: tlachialoyan=the watching place or\nlook-out; puchquiauatl=the smoke opening; tlanexillotl=a word which\nliterally means light and splendor, and to which the following words are\nrelated: tlanextia, verb=to shine, shed light and radiance;\ntlanextilla=something revealed, made manifest, found or discovered, newly\ninvented or formed (brought to light); tlanexcayotiliztli=figure,\nsignification or example; tlanexcayotilli=something figured or\nsignificative.\n\nThe meaning of the Maya name for window, ciznebna, is not clear, whilst\nthat for door, chi, is the same as for mouth, opening or entrance. At the\nsame time it is evident that, as in Mexico and elsewhere, the window\nopenings in the Maya temples must have been associated with the idea of\nlight, and the symbolical forms given to these besides their positions\nlead to the inference that they were actually regarded as mystic framed\nimages, so to speak, of the supreme, invisible deity, through which, the\nlight of day and the darkness of night alternately revealed themselves to\nthose inside the sacred buildings. A careful study of the positions and\norientations of these openings may yet prove that they also served for\nastronomical observation. The walls being usually pierced above reach,\nnothing but the sky could have been watched through them. But besides\nthese, the interiors of Maya ruins contain interesting examples of mural\nopenings and recesses which seem to have been carefully planned so that\nthey should appear dark even in daytime and, in more than one case, these\ndisplay the form of the upright tau, the symbol of darkness and the\nBelow.(17)\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 40.\n\n\nIt does not seem to have been generally recognized that the alternate\ncontraposition of upright and reversed taus produces the best known and\nmost widely spread primitive border-design, usually known as the Greek\nfret (fig. 40, no. 6). A plain demonstration of this is, oddly enough,\nvisible on the two side-projections of the Scandinavian brooch (fig. 13)\nall symbols on which, I venture to assert, would have been perfectly\nintelligible and full of meaning to an ancient Mexican. The evolution of\nthe fret, on the American continent, can be studied on the beautiful\nwooden clubs from Brazil and British Guiana, figured in Dr. Hjalmar\nStolpes\u2019 valuable work already referred to. As striking instances his fig.\n8, pl. 1, figs. 3_a_ and 3_c_, pl. XIII, and figs. 1_a_ and 1_b_, pl. V,\nshould be examined. The latter instance is extremely instructive as it not\nonly exhibits single taus of two forms, but the same in different\npositions, as well as two double-headed figures joined in one, which\nillustrate the native association already discussed, of duality and of the\ncurved lines as the opposite of the rectangular and both respectively\nfiguring the Above and Below.\n\nIt is impossible to study the decorations on these South American clubs\nwithout becoming convinced that their makers shared the same ideas as the\nancient Mexicans. They offer, indeed, a whole set of variations on the\nnative theme and idea of Heaven and Earth. Two instances (fig. 5_a_, pl.\nIX, and 6_a_, pl. XI) in which the union of two figures produces a third,\nor a single one produces two, elucidate the meaning sometimes expressed by\nthe designs. In the round or spiral forms, which are most frequently\naccompanied by a zigzag border, I am inclined to see a presentation of air\nand water, corresponding to the Mexican symbols of the Above.\n\nAs lack of space forbids my making here a more extended comparison of the\nnative symbols, I shall but point out how the tau, in juxtaposition and\ncontraposition painted in two colors, produces fig. 40, no. 3. The picture\nfrom the Codex Mendoza of a native tlachtli, the form of which is\nrepresented by two taus in contraposition, is partly painted black. The\nsame division of a single tau into two parts, colored differently,\ntransforms no. 3 into no. 4 and shows that a single tau could have been\nemployed cursively to symbolize union. 2 and 7 are but variants of 3 and\n4. If, instead of angles, curved lines be given to the taus, the first\nhalf of fig. 5 is the result. When spaces between the incurving hooks and\nthe border are filled out with color, the familiar design on the second\nhalf of 5 results. With exception of the latter, the South American clubs\nexhibit each of the above forms, as well as no. 8. It will be shown later\nthat these also occur in ancient Peru.\n\nThe foregoing examples of the employment of taus in upright and reversed\npositions is, however, by no means exhaustive. Fig. 41 teaches that the\nfamiliar checker-board or tartan design, symbolically employed in ancient\nMexico, was the simple result of taus in contraposition, the square spaces\nthus found being alternately filled with black and brown or gray. The\nsymbolism of this design only becomes evident when all the combinations in\nwhich it occurs have been carefully studied. It is represented in the\nCodices in the doorways and arches of certain sacred edifices which are\nshown to be estufas or temaz-calli by further illustrations which I could\nnot reproduce here, but which exhibit even the steam escaping from the\nbuilding and other unmistakable features.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 41.\n\n\nSahagun has recorded how these semi-sacred edifices were specially\nconsecrated to the \u201cMother of the gods and of us all, whose curative and\nlife-giving power was exerted in the temazcalli, also named xochicalli,\nthe place where she sees secret things, rectifies what has been deranged\nin human bodies, fructifies young and tender things, ... and where she\naids and cures....\u201d It was customary for pregnant women to resort to these\nbaths under the care of the medicine-woman who exhorted her patient on\nentering, with the words: \u201cEnter into it, my daughter, enter into the\nbosom of our Mother whose name is Yoalticitl ... warm thyself in the bath,\nwhich is the house of flowers of our god ...\u201d (Historia, book VI, chap.\nXXVII).\n\nThe Vienna Codex contains, besides pictures of temples (fig. 41, _a_ and\n_b_), two instances which elucidate the meaning of the design; _c_ of the\nsame figure displays the conventional symbol for land, fringed on three\nsides. Enclosed in this and seen, in profile, is a stratum of\nchecker-board design, above which is a sheet of water; d displays a\nconventionally drawn mountain, inside of which is the symbolical vase\nfilled with the design. From this steam or smoke ascends through the soil\nof the mountain, and forces its way through the surface, above which we\nsee two recurved puffs of smoke and a young blossoming maize shoot,\nconventionally drawn, such as may be seen worn by priestesses, as a\nsymbolical head decoration, on page 11 of the Vienna Codex. The seated\nfigure of a priest is represented as sheltering its growth with his\noutspread mantle. On his back he displays a symbol, composed of two rolls\nunited by a crossband, which is met with in Maya and Mexican Codices. In\nthe latter the four projecting ends are usually painted with the colors of\nthe four quarters. As these are figured as united into a single sign, it\nseems evident that this symbolized a union of the four elements deemed\nnecessary for the production of life by the ancient native philosophers.\n\nThe foregoing illustrations, to which more could be added, clearly\nestablish that the checkered design was associated with the symbols of\nearth, heat and water. It obviously expressed the idea embodied in the\nNahuatl word xotlac=the heated earth; literally, glowing embers, also\nbudding and opening flowers. It was emblematic of the fall of the rain or\nearth-wine upon the heated soil. In the temazcalli the same life-producing\nunion of the elements took place and aided human growth and health. It\nwould seem as though the appellation xoch-i-calli, bestowed upon the\nsweat-house by the native medicine-woman, expressed the same train of\nthought. Moreover, it is noteworthy, that the sound of the first part of\nthis name and of xo-tlac recurs in the Maya word for vase in general,\nho-och. The checker-board design would naturally have been employed in\nconnection with the festivals, associated with esoteric rites, which were\nheld in celebration of the union of the Heaven and Earth at the\ncommencement of the rainy season. It would, naturally, therefore, have\nbeen used as a decoration on the drinking vessels employed in the\ndistribution of fermented drinks for vivifying and curative purposes. It\nis met with on Peruvian drinking bowls, as proven by several examples in\nthe Royal Ethnographical Museum in Berlin, for instance.\n\nIt is curious to note as an interesting analogy that the same checkered\ndesign frequently adorns the ancient Egyptian drinking bowls represented\nin the hieroglyphic writings. I have also observed it in some ancient\nGreek drinking vessels, preserved at the Imperial Hermitage Museum at St.\nPetersburg, where it decorated the bowl itself or the garments of\nBacchantes figured thereupon. It is also met with in ancient Peruvian\ntextile fabrics, in black and white, as on one figure vase in the Berlin\nMuseum, and, needless to remark, it is a Scotch clan tartan. Its adoption\nas the basis for chess-boards of ancient Egypt seems to indicate that\nthere it also signified the Above and Below and that the game was thought\nof as an exemplification of the eternal contest between the powers of\nHeaven and Earth, light and darkness, etc. We look to specialists for\ninformation as to the origin, meaning and employment in Egypt and Greece\nof this primitive and almost universal design.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 42.\n\n\nIn ancient Mexico and possibly Peru, it obviously pertained to a set of\nideas which, in some communities, might easily have degenerated and led to\nthe institution of rites and ideas such as were prevalent in the Maya\ncolony which had established itself at the mouth of the Panuco river, on\nthe coast of Mexico, north of Vera Cruz, and from which the Huaxtecans of\nthe present day descend. It is interesting to note that the name of the\ncapital founded by the colonists, who seem to have emigrated owing to\nwell-founded religious persecution, was Tuch-pan, a word which signifies\nin the Maya tongue \u201cthe umbilicus,\u201d qualified by pan, meaning \u201cthat which\nis above or excels,\u201d etc., but which was expressed in Nahuatl\npicture-writings by a rabbit=tochtli and a banner=pantli.\n\nThe opposite of the checkered or xotlac design, was the native water and\nair pattern which has been pointed out as encircling the mitre of the Lord\nof the Above or Heaven. It likewise figures in native pictures on the\nmantles of some of Montezuma\u2019s predecessors. The history of its origin and\ndevelopment is best learned from the following native illustrations. Fig.\n42, nos. 1 and 2, represents sea-waves, the Maya name for which, by the\nway, is kukul-yaam, which admits of the interpretation \u201cdivine-water\u201d or,\nif we connect kukul with the Mexican coliuhqui, \u201ctwisted or bent water.\u201d A\nrepresentation of water, as figured on a mantle in the \u201cLyfe of the\nIndians,\u201d conveys the idea of water moved by the action of the wind, the\nblank curve reminding one also of the curves so often associated by native\nartists with serpents\u2019 heads, and with the wind and rain-gods. The\nwell-known symbol of the air-god is accompanied, as already shown (fig.\n26), by an ornament which forms a solid frame for a hollow curve\nconstituting an air-image. In the following image an analogous ear\nornament is figured and it is surrounded by puffs of air or wind,\nconventionally drawn (fig. 43).\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 43.\n\n\nWhilst the foregoing illustrations amply prove that the natives associated\nthe curved and rounded form with water as moved by air, it must be noticed\nthat in Mexico and Yucatan, as well as in Brazil and Guiana, plain water\nwas figured by a series of parallel zigzag or undulated lines. For these\nreasons I infer that the symbolical design, representing actual waves,\nalways expressed the union of air and water, and was therefore emblematic\nof the cult of the upper elements, or the Above. It is unfortunate that,\nin Mexico, no vestiges remain of the circular temples which were\nparticularly dedicated to Quetzalcoatl=the divine twin or lord of the twin\nupper elements=air and water. Doubtlessly they were appropriately\ndecorated with horizontal bands exhibiting the sacred design. The ruined\ncondition of Central American round temples scarcely justifies the hope\nthat such a verification can be made. At the same time the round temple on\na square base, with its peculiar ground plan, was, of itself, an image of\nthe Above and of central rule extending to the four quarters (fig. 30, p.\n97). That the air and water design was actually employed in America as a\nfrieze on sacred edifices is proven, however, by more than one\nillustration in the Vienna Codex and other native MSS. (fig. 35, _c_). We\nalso see the design decorating the painted drinking bowls named xicalli\nwhich were employed in the distribution of the sacred pulque or octli at\ncertain religious festivals. As the Mexican name given to the design\nitself is xical-coliuhqui, it seems as though it was most popularly known\nas the \u201ctwisted or winding pattern\u201d of the sacred drinking vessels.\n\nHaving originated, as I have shown, from the simplest observation of the\naction of air upon a surface of water, it is but natural that the same\ndesign should have independently originated in several localities. It is,\nnevertheless, worth mentioning here that the dome of one of the most\nbeautiful of ancient Greek remains, the choragic monument of Lysicrates,\nor lantern of Demosthenes at Athens, is surrounded by a band or fascia,\ncut into the water design. It is evident that, seen against the sky, this\ngraphically represented the curling waves of water \u201con summer seas,\u201d and\nthis was evidently the most primitive method of employing this form of\nsymbolical decoration which is more familiar when executed in solid\nmasonry stucco, as a frieze.\n\nThe identical process of development may be observed in Mexican\narchitecture. In the Vienna and other native Codices, countless temples\nare depicted as surmounted with fasci\u00e6 cut into rectangular designs in\nsuch a manner that the blank space left between each solid projection\nfigures its inverted image in the air (fig. 35, _a_-_d_). In these open\nfasci\u00e6 an intention to symbolize the solid or Earth, and the fluid or\nHeaven, is discernible, whilst the step-like projections seem to express\nor convey the idea of ascent and descent, perhaps the ascent of human\nsupplication and the descent of the much-prayed-for rain. From the other\nexamples of temple decorations (fig. 35, _f_ and _h_) it is evident that,\nin solid friezes, a light and a dark color were employed in the same\ndesigns, to convey the same idea.\n\nEvidence proving that the emblems on the roofs of the temples were replete\nwith meaning is furnished by several representations of roofs, on which\nrows of upstretched hands or of human hearts are depicted. My horror at\nthese seemingly ghastly emblems vanished as soon as I ascertained their\nactual meaning from a passage in Sahagun\u2019s Historia. Describing a certain\nsacred dance he records that \u201con the white garments of the girls who took\npart in it, hands and hearts were painted, signifying that they lifted\ntheir hearts and hands to heaven, praying for rain.\u201d Not only does this\nexplain the symbolism of the hands on the temples but also the native\ncustom observed, by modern pilgrims in Mexico and Yucatan, of painting\nuplifted hands on the outer walls of sanctuaries as an act of piety and\ndevotion.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 44.\n\n\nThe hideous necklaces of alternate hands and hearts which encircle the\nneck of a great monolithic idol in the city of Mexico and of an image in\nthe \u201cLyfe of the Indians\u201d are thus also proven to be the touching though\nuncouth and child-like expression of a devout prayer. Having gained this\ninsight into the deep significance of native emblems it is interesting to\nstudy the peculiar breast-ornament which is the emblem of Xiuhtecuhtli,\nliterally \u201cthe azure lord,\u201d or the lord of the year or of fire and of the\nCihuacoatl or woman-serpent. It consists of an oblong plaque, the narrow\nends of which are cut out so as to simulate two air pyramids with steps.\nThe name of this symbolical ornament is recorded by Sahagun as\nxiuh-tetelli, literally the turquoise or grass-green pyramid. It is\ninvariably painted blue and displays a round plate of burnished gold in\nits centre. For more reasons than I can pause to relate here, it can be\nshown that the plaque probably symbolized the Above, the blue sky, water\nand air, whilst the gold plate was an image of the central divinity. The\nsides of the square stool on which the god is seated are also cut out so\nas to convey the idea that he is resting above terraced air-pyramids (fig.\n44). His shield is surrounded by a cord and contains a cross-symbol with\nlines conveying the idea of rotation and four circles. The banner above\nthe shield named pantli conveys the sound of the word pan=above, whilst\nhis conical ear-ornament symbolizes the Centre and Above. These details\nare noteworthy because I am about to point out the striking analogy\nbetween a Zu\u00f1i idol or fetish and the ancient Mexican pictures of the lord\nof fire and the lord of the north or the underworld=Tezcatlipoca.\n\nThis Zu\u00f1i idol was sent to the Royal Ethnographical Museum at Berlin as\npart of a representative collection by Mr. Frank H. Cushing and has been\nfigured and described in the publications of the Museum, with notes by Dr.\nE. Seler.(18) It represents the Zu\u00f1i god \u00c4tchial\u00e4topa whose attributes are\nstone knives, who is the patron of the secret society, \u201cSmall fire\u201d and\nwho is identified with a great star. His fetish represents him as standing\non the centre of a cross, formed of four beams placed vertically and\nperforated with step-like perforations. The ends are cut out like those of\nXiuhtecuhtli\u2019s blue emblem. Two parallel bars, the upper one of which is\npainted blue, the color of heaven, and the lower painted green, the color\nof the earth, convey the ever-present native idea of the Above and Below.\nThe arms of the cross are painted red with yellow ends which, according to\nMr. Cushing, represent the light emanating, in four directions, from the\nstar. The arms are distinctly associated with the cardinal points and each\nsupports the effigies of a mountain lion and a bird\u2014typifying, evidently,\nas in Mexico, the Above and Below. This cross, with the figure standing on\nits centre, is suspended from above and, during a certain ceremony, it is\nset into rapid gyratory motion, from left to right by the officiating high\npriest.\n\nIt is impossible not to see, in this fetish, a swastika in substantial\nform and in actual rotation; whilst the figure of the god, decorated with\nstone knives, moves as on a pivot in the centre, presenting exactly the\nsame idea as in the Mexican image of the god held in the centre of a\ncross-symbol by the jaws of a tecpatl or flint knife. It is unnecessary to\nmention again here that the only star in the heaven, which could possibly\nhave been regarded as a centre of rotation, is Polaris; but I should like\nto draw attention to the fact that bunches of feathers are attached to the\nextremities of the cross-beams and to the summit of the terraced\nhead-dress of the fetish and recall the circumstance that, amongst the\nMexicans and Mayas, the names for feather were almost identical with those\nfor heaven or something celestial and divine.\n\nAs the Zu\u00f1i god is said to be standing on his red star (an mo-y\u00e4tchun\nthlana) and figures as a centre of rotation, I look upon this fetish as\naffording most striking confirmation of my conclusions concerning the\norigin of the swastika and cross symbols. If it is certain that, at the\npresent day, the Zu\u00f1is associate this star-god with Sirius and their cross\nsymbol with the morning star, then it is quite obvious that they have lost\nthe original meaning of the rotating-star fetish, which could never have\nbeen suggested by either of these or, indeed, by any other heavenly body\nbut Polaris. I regret that space does not permit me to consider here, more\nfully, other close analogies between ancient Mexican and modern Zu\u00f1i\nreligious ceremonies, etc., besides those which have been so well\ndescribed by Dr. J. Walter Fewkes.\n\nI cannot omit to note here for further reference that the national war\ngods of the Zu\u00f1is are the twin-brothers Ahaiiuta, the elder, whose altars\nwere situated _to the right_ or south and west of Zu\u00f1i, and Matsail\u00e9ma,\nthe younger, whose altars stood _to the left_ or north and east of the\nvillage. The secret society of the warriors and priests of the bow\ndedicated their cult to these brothers, whose counterparts we have already\nstudied in Mexico and Yucatan.\n\nReturning to the primitive designs which expressed the union of the Above\nand Below, I point out an interesting example from the \u201cLyfe of the\nIndians,\u201d which likewise symbolizes the four quarters, and their\nsubdivision and their relation to the whole (fig. 32, no. 3). A somewhat\nanalogous design, from Peru, presents an outline resembling a swastika\n(fig. 40, no. 9) which, when filled in with alternate colors, yields fig.\n40, no. 1, in which the idea of the Above and Below preponderates. Another\nexample of an analogous employment of a light and dark color is furnished\nby a shield in the Codex Mendoza, shown in fig. 1, no. 1, alongside of an\ninteresting image which gives us an insight into the depths of meaning\ncontained in the dualistic native designs. It consists of a disk, one-half\nof which represents the starry heaven and the other the sun, resting on a\nparti-colored support (no. 8). It is evident that day and night are thus\nsymbolized, and it is reasonable to infer that in some centres of thought\nespecially the ideas of light and darkness should have become associated\nwith the two different forms of cult the followers of which would be\nrespectively designated as the children of light and the children of\ndarkness. By means of a light and a dark color numberless variations of\nthe one theme were indeed obtained. In the native Codices, in textile\nfabrics and on pottery, there are also numerous examples of an extremely\nsimple design consisting of a single zigzag line running between two\nparallel lines and dividing the intervening space into two fields, the\nlower of which is filled out with black and the other with some light\ncolor. The dark upright and light inverted peaks were evidently employed\nas familiar and favorite emblems of earth and heaven.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 45.\n\n\nI am inclined to see in the serrated summit of the remarkable edifice,\nknown as the House of Doves at Uxmal, a rendering of the same symbolism on\na gigantic scale (fig. 45). It cannot but be recognized, moreover, that a\nhigh edifice presenting a regular series of cones, and extending from east\nto west, would have afforded an excellent means of registering the varying\npositions of heavenly bodies. To observers looking towards it from the\nnorth or south, at judiciously chosen distances, the entire span of the\nsky would have seemed divided into eight equal parts, seen as inverted air\npyramids between nine sections which rise in steps and terminate in\npoints, each gable being perforated with thirty window-like openings,\narranged in seven horizontal rows. The purpose of these gable-like piles\nhas been a riddle to the archaeologists, who have visited Uxmal. Dr. Wm.\nH. Holmes, from whose valuable works I cite the above descriptions,\nexpresses his wonder at \u201cthe great building, bearing upon its roof a\ncolossal masonry comb, built at an enormous expenditure of time and labor\n... which seemed to have been built exclusively for the purpose of\nembellishing the building and holding aloft its sculptured ornaments\u201d\n(Ancient cities of Mexico, pl. I, p. 95).\n\nI venture to maintain that this remarkable edifice not only afforded\nfacilities for astronomical observation but constituted in itself a great\nprayer for rain wrought in stone and addressed to the Lord of Heaven by a\ndevout people. In corroboration of this inference, besides the foregoing\ndata, I point out that to this day the Pueblo Indians associate the step\npyramid form with beneficent rain and even give this shape to the edges of\nthe sacred bowls which are carried in the ceremonial dances by the\n\u201crain-makers.\u201d According to Mr. Cushing the Zu\u00f1is compare the rim of such\nbowls to the line of the \u201chorizon, terraced with mountains, whence rise\nthe clouds.\u201d He was likewise informed that the terrace form represents\n\u201cthe ancient sacred place of the spaces,\u201d an expression which, though\nsomewhat vague, seems to corroborate my view of the Uxmal building. The\nZu\u00f1i statement that the terrace form figured mountains leads to the\nsubject of so-called \u201cmountain worship.\u201d In ancient Mexico, at the\napproach of the rainy season, religious ceremonies are performed in honor\nof the mountains which were looked upon as active agents in the production\nof rain, because they attracted and gathered the clouds around their\nsummits. The tops of mountains were thus regarded as the sacred place\nwhere the sky and heaven met and produced the showers which vivified the\nearth. Pilgrimages and offerings to mountain summits formed a part of the\nduties of the Mexican priesthood, but in the cities the pyramid temple\nserved as a convenient substitute for the mountain.\n\nThe close association of the terrace form with rain and water symbolism is\ncertainly exemplified in the Mexican design on a temple roof (fig. 35,\n_e_). The most remarkable application of the dualistic designs is,\nhowever, met with in Peru where, according to Wiener, the irrigation\ncanals which carried water to the maize fields were laid out so as to form\npattern bands like fig. 40, nos. 4 and 7, for instance. It is evident that\nthis system of irrigation must have been an extremely effective and\npractical one, but that it had been probably adopted from superstitious\nmotives as an illustration of the vivifying union of the celestial shower\nwith the seed-laden soil. The assumption that the ancient Peruvians shared\nthe same ideas as the Mexicans and Mayas will be found justified by the\nfollowing data.\n\nIt is now my intention to give a brief and bare outline sketch of the\nPeruvian civilization, by means of a series of quotations from the best\nauthorities.(19) Incomplete though this must necessarily be, it will,\nnevertheless, establish, beyond a doubt, that the founders of the great\nInca empire were under the dominion of the same set of ideas which I have\nbeen tracing throughout the American continent. The lucid records of the\nPeruvian chronicles and the purity with which the system had been\nmaintained by the Incas, enable us to recognize and appreciate its\nmanifold perfections as a mode of primitive government.\n\nThe best authorities agree that the inhabitants of the country, now known\nas Peru, lived in barbarism until civilization was introduced amongst them\nby the Incas. One tradition designates an island in the Titicaca lake,\nanother Tiahuanaco, as the place where, \u201cafter the deluge,\u201d a man or deity\nappeared, divided the land into four parts and distributed these to four\nbrothers, amongst whom was Manco Capac, to whom was assigned the province\nto the north. Each brother had a sister who was also his wife. Manco Capac\nand his sister and wife Mama-Ocllo or, according to other authorities, the\nthird Inca Lloque Yupanqui and his consort, founded Cuzco, also given as\nKosko or Kuska, a name which, according to Garcilaso de la Vega signifies\n\u201cnavel of the earth\u201d and was bestowed \u201cbecause the newly-founded capital\nwas to be the centre and point of all.\u201d The city was divided into two\nparts: Hanan Cuzco=the Above, which was ruled over by the Inca, and Hurin\nCuzco=the Below, which was governed by his wife and sister, who bore the\nhonorific title of Coya=queen and Mamanchic=our mother. The inhabitants\nconsequently became separated into two categories: the upper lineage and\nthe lower lineage, Hanan-ayllu and Hurin-ayllo. At the same time this\ndivision was not made so \u201cthat those of one-half should have an advantage\nover the other ... the command was that only one difference and\nacknowledgment of superiority was to be conceded to the inhabitants of the\nupper town. They were to be respected and looked upon as the first born\nand elder brothers, whilst the dwellers in the lower town were to be\nregarded as younger or second brothers. They were to rank as the right arm\nand the left arm in all offices or places where precedence was necessary.\nThe same division was subsequently carried out in all the towns, great or\nsmall, throughout the country, their inhabitants being constantly classed\ninto upper and lower lineages or classes.\u201d The empire itself was named\nTauantin-suyu, signifying the four in one, or the empire, which was\ndivided into four provinces: Anti-suyu=East; Cunti-suyu=West, on the road\nto which were two famous brooks of water named the silver serpents,\nCollquemachachuay; Chincha-suyu=North; Colla-suyu=South. It is recorded\nthat the Coya or queen went to the Colla-suyu or South and taught the\nwomen the art of weaving, of planting maize and of preparing it for food.\nIn connection with the name of female rule=Coya, and the South=Colla-suyu\nit is interesting to note that the name for granary was Coll-cana. Padre\nArriaga (quoted by Rivero and Tschudi, p. 163) describes a remarkable\nmonument which shows that the West was also associated with the female\nruler. \u201cThe monolithic statue [magnificently sculptured and placed on a\nsepulchral eminence near Hilavi] represented two monstrous figures\nstanding back to back. One, representing a man, faced to the East; the\nother, with a woman\u2019s face, looked towards the West.(20) Serpents were\nrepresented as crawling up the figures and these stood on other reptiles\nresembling frogs. In front of each of these idols there was a square slab\nof stone which seemed to have served as an altar.\u201d\n\nWith the dual division of the population the seeds of dissension were sown\nin Peru as elsewhere. At a certain festival the youths of the upper\nlineage encountered those of the lower lineage in trials of strength and\nprowess, which sometimes resulted in violence. A certain feeling of\nrivalry and opposition must have been thus fostered. Two forms of cult\nprevailed: the Inca lords and warriors were associated with the cult of\nthe Above of which the emblems were golden images of the Creator and of\nthe Sun, \u201cthe lord of day,\u201d to whose power rain and thunder were\nattributed. The silver huaca or image of the moon, called Quilla in\nQuechua and Pacsa in the Colla dialect, was in the figure of a woman and\nwas kept under the charge of women, the reason for this being \u201cthat the\nmoon was a woman.\u201d During the festival Situa, one day was dedicated to the\nCreator, the Sun and Thunder and another to \u201cthe Moon and Earth, when the\naccustomed sacrifices and prayers were offered up.\u201d We thus clearly\ndistinguish a cult of the Heaven and Day presided over by the Inca and a\ncult of Earth and Night, whose high priestess was the Coya. She, moreover,\nhad charge of the embalmed bodies of her predecessors, which were regarded\nas sacred and were solemnly carried forth in certain festivals, whilst the\nbodies of the defunct Incas were guarded by their successor. The emblems\nof both cults were, however, preserved in a single Great Temple, whose\nprincipal doorway looked to the north, a fact of special importance in\nconnection with what follows.\n\nAll authorities, indeed, designate the north as the quarter whence the\nforeign culture-heroes came to Peru. \u201cThe Incas had a knowledge of the\nCreator from the first,\u201d but it was not until the time of the Inca\nYupanqui that the ignorant sun-worship of the primitive inhabitants of the\ncountry was superseded by a firmly established new and superior religion.\n\n\u201cInca Yupanqui appears to have been the first to order and settle\nceremonies and religions. He it was who established the twelve months of\nthe year, giving a name to each and ordaining the ceremonies that were to\nbe observed in each. For although his ancestors used months and years\ncounted by the quippus, yet they were never previously regulated until the\ntime of this Lord. He was of such clear understanding that he reflected\nupon the respect and reverence shown by his ancestors to the Sun who\nworshipped it as a God. He observed that it never had any rest and that it\ndaily journeyed round the earth; and he said to those of his council that\n_it was not possible that the Sun could be the God who created all things,\nfor if he was he would not permit a small cloud to obscure his splendour;\nand that if he was creator of all things he would sometimes rest and light\nup the whole world from one spot. Thus it cannot be otherwise but that\nthere is someone who directs him and this is the Pacha-Yachachi, the\nCreator_, literally, the Teacher of the World.\u201d His predecessors had\nordered an oval plate of fine gold which was to serve as an image of the\nCreator of heaven and earth, and, in order to convey this meaning it was\nplaced between images of the sun and moon; a proof that the latter were\nemployed as symbols of heaven and earth.\n\nInca Yupanqui, however, also caused a statue of the Creator to be made of\nfine gold and of the size of a boy of ten years of age in order to convey\nthe idea of his eternal youth. \u201cIt was in the shape of a man standing up,\nthe right arm raised and the hand almost closed, the fingers and thumb\nraised as one who was giving an order.\u201d The second gold statue he had\nmade, a personification of the sun \u201cwhich was dressed like the Inca and\nwore all his insignia,\u201d shows he claimed to be and constituted himself as\nthe visible representative and Lord of the Above. The silver female statue\nof the Moon doubtlessly exhibited, in the same manner, the insignia of the\nCoya. Inca Yupanqui also ordered the houses and temple of Quisuar-cancha\nto be built and, at this spot, Sir Clements Markham observed an ancient\nwall, with serpents carved upon it. The name signifies, literally, \u201cthe\nplace of the Quisuar tree,\u201d and will be again referred to further on.\nWithout pausing to discuss the subject at length let us examine further\nthe scheme of government, etc., introduced by the Incas, the most striking\nfeature of which was the systematical classification of the people, their\nassignment to specified dwelling places and the distribution of labor\naccording to prescription.\n\nThe key to the entire gigantic system was the conception of a central\nimmutable supreme power which directed all visible and invisible\nmanifestations and which sent forth and re-absorbed all energy. In Cuzco\nand in the Inca Empire we have a minutely described instance of the\napplication, to terrestrial government, of the laws of fixed order,\nharmony, periodicity and rotation learned by earnest and patient observers\nof the northern heaven, during countless centuries of time. The centre of\nCuzco consisted of a great square whence four roads radiated to the\ncardinal points. In the centre of this stood a gold vase from which a\nfountain flowed. The Spaniards also found in Cuzco a large,\nbeautifully-polished stone-cross which evidently symbolized, as in Mexico,\nthe four quarters and must have been appropriately placed in the square.\nGarcilaso de la Vega states that the capital formed an actual image of the\nwhole empire, \u201cfor it was divided into four quarters and an extremely\nancient law rendered it obligatory that representatives of each province\nand of each class of population should reside there in homes, the location\nof which precisely corresponded to the geographical position of their\nrespective provinces. Each lineage was thus represented and occupied\nseparate dwellings, assigned to them by the governors of the quarters. All\npersons were obliged to adhere to the customs of their forefathers and\nalso wear the costumes of their ayllus or tribes (Cieza de Leon, Cronica\nchap. XCIII). For the Incas had decreed that the dresses worn by the\nmembers of each tribe should be different, so that the people might be\ndistinguished from each other as, down to that time, there had been no\nmeans of knowing to what locality or tribe an Indian belonged.\u201d... In\norder to avoid confusion the modes of wearing the hair were rigidly\nprescribed and the bands worn on the head by the vassals had to be black\nor of a single color only. The higher in rank a person was the more his\ncostume resembled that of the Inca, without, however, approaching it in\nlength and richness. \u201cThus, even in an assemblage of 100,000 persons it\nwas easy to recognize individuals of each tribe and of each rank by the\nsigns they wore on their heads.\u201d...\n\n\u201cIt was obligatory that each should permanently live in the province he\nbelonged to. Each province, each tribe and, in many parts each village,\nhad its own language which was different from that of its neighbors. Those\nwho understood each other by speaking the same language considered\nthemselves as related to each other and were friends and confederates....\nThe Incas employed a private language of their own which none but members\nof the royal lineage presumed or dared to learn.\u201d Garcilaso de la Vega,\nwho claimed royal descent, stated that unfortunately no records remained\nto enable one to form an idea of what the Inca language was like.\n\nThe autocratic, though peaceable way in which the novel scheme of\ngovernment was imposed upon the inhabitants of Peru by the foreign\nchieftains is best proven by the following passages from the Rites and\nLaws of the Incas (p. 77) and Garcilaso de la Vega (pp. 9 and 10). \u201cWith a\nview that each tribe should be clearly distinguishable and after assigning\na different costume to each they were ordered to choose their respective\npacariscas, a word meaning, literally, their birth and origin. They were\ntold to choose for themselves whence they were descended and whence they\ncame, and as the Indians were generally very dull and stupid, some chose\nto assign their origin to a lake, others to a spring, others a rock,\nothers a hill or ravine. But every lineage chose some object for its\npacarisca. Some tribes [subsequently] adored eagles because they boasted\nto have descended from them ... others adored fountains, rivers, the\nearth, which they call Mother, or air, fire, ... snow-mountains, maize,\nthe sea, named mother-sea.\u201d\n\nAccording to Garcilaso de la Vega \u201cthe Peruvian tribes subsequently\ninvented an infinity of fables concerning the origin of their different\nancestors.... An Indian does not consider himself honorable unless he can\ntrace his descent from a river, fountain, lake or the sea, or from some\nwild beast like the bear, puma, ocelot, eagle, etc.\u201d An example of a\ncertain amount of vain-glory was indeed set by the diplomatic Inca himself\nwho claimed, for himself and lineage, descent from the Sun and reserved\nburnished gold ornaments for his particular use. His successors\nsubsequently built a temple of the Sun at Cuzco and set up its image made\nof gold and precious stones. Around this, the royal \u201cpacarisca,\u201d they\nplaced the mummies of all the dead Incas. In another room there was an\nimage of \u201cthe moon, with a woman\u2019s face,\u201d and about it were the mummies of\nthe royal women. From this we learn that the latter assigned their origin\nto the moon and that it was their pacarisca or huaca. As an illustration\nof the way in which creation-myths are sometimes evolved from actual\noccurrences, it is interesting to study another account of the mode in\nwhich tribal regulations were introduced into Peru. Owing, most probably,\nto the fact that one of the titles given to the Creator was \u201cthe Teacher,\u201d\nwe find Molina attributing to the Creator himself the establishment of the\ntribal system and the assignment of totems and different costumes to each\ngroup or family. If we read his account and, with Garcilaso de la Vega and\nothers, attribute to the Incas the introduction of civilization into Peru,\nwe recognize the practical good sense with which they accomplished the\nrather difficult task of obliging each tribe to wear a different costume.\n\u201cIn Tiahuanaco ... he made one of each nation of clay and painted [these]\nwith the dresses that each one was to wear. Those who were to wear their\nhair, with hair; and those who were to be shorn, with hair cut ... when he\nhad finished making the nations and painting the said figures of clay, he\ngave life and soul to each one, as well man as woman ... each nation then\nwent to the place to which he ordered it to go.\u201d\n\nI confess that, until I studied the above record in full, I had very vague\nideas about the huacas or \u201cidols\u201d of the Peruvians. But when I found it\nstated, further on, that \u201ceach tribe wore the dress with which their huaca\nis invested,\u201d I began to realize what huacas might originally have been.\nIt would seem that on assigning a different costume and distinctive name\nto each tribe, the founder of the new colony gave each chief as a model, a\ndifferent clay doll, painted with the distinctive marks he and his people\nwere to adopt. This figure would naturally have been kept for reference\nand treated as something sacred. On certain official occasions it would be\nproduced as a means of identification or proof that the prescribed\ncostumes had been strictly adhered to. To this practical and sensible plan\nthe origin of the so-called tribal and household idols of the Peruvians\nand of the Mexicans can doubtlessly be assigned. Invented as an aid in the\nestablishment of tribal-names and dress-regulations and intimately\nconnected with the entire system of government, these huacas gradually\nbecame the representative of the ancestor of the clan, its \u201ccanting\u201d arms\nand its sacred palladium. We are told that after the tribes had chosen\ntheir various ancestors or origins, such as caves, hills, fountains, etc.,\nthey settled in the land and multiplied. Then, on account of having\n\u201cissued or descended from stated localities, the people made huacas and\nplaces of worship of these, in memory of the origin of their lineage....\nThe huacas they use are in different shapes.... Some say the first of\ntheir lineages were turned into falcons, condors and other animals or\nbirds\u201d (Molina ed. Hakluyt, p. 5). A certain form of ancestor-cult was\nthus evolved in a natural manner. \u201cIdolatrous rites increased and people\ndevoted themselves to the worship of huacas ... each village had its\nhuaca. The cult assumed such proportions under Ccapac Yupanqui that he\nexclaimed: \u2018How many false gods are there in the land, to my sorrow and\nthe misfortune of my vassals! When shall we see these evils remedied?\u2019 \u201d\n\nAt the same time we find that clay or wooden figures continued to be\nemployed evidently as a method of keeping an accurate register of the\npopulation. In the capital, one building held duplicates of all the huacas\nthroughout the land. When a new province was conquered the Inca carried\nits principal huaca to Cuzco. One or more living representatives of the\nconquered tribe, wearing its characteristic dress, were obliged to reside\nin the capital. In ancient Mexico these \u201cliving images of the gods\u201d are\none of the most striking features of the native civilization and have been\npersistently misunderstood, especially by modern authorities. As these\n\u201cliving gods\u201d are specially treated in the \u201cLyfe of the Indians,\u201d I shall\nmerely point out here that small clay portraits or effigies of persons\nwere made in Mexico at certain stages of an individual\u2019s life and also\nafter his death. These seem to have been employed for statistical\npurposes.\n\nIn Mexico and Peru large numbers of small images were preserved in each\nhousehold and were under the charge of its chief or \u201colder brother,\u201d who\nwas obliged to guard and render account of them. Of course the Spanish\nconquerors took it for granted that all of these were idols and, in their\nignorance, destroyed them unmercifully. Once the native system of tribal\norganization is understood, it becomes evident that an accurate register\nof all members of a tribe was of utmost importance. By means of a group of\nmore or less skillfully-modelled figures or heads the size of a family\ncould be ascertained at a glance by the government recorder. In the light\nof this recognition it seems more than probable that the immense numbers\nof small clay heads of various kinds, found in the \u201cstreet of the dead\u201d at\nthe base of the great pyramids of Teotihuacan, and elsewhere, indicate\nthat, in these localities, a periodical and official registration of\ndeaths was carefully carried on. This assumption is fully corroborated by\nthe conclusions I reached, in 1886, after making a minute study of a large\nnumber of terra-cotta heads(21) and ascertaining that numbers of them were\nportraits of dead persons. The above inference is, moreover, confirmed by\nthe name of Teotihuacan, which means, literally, \u201cthe place of the lords\nor masters of the teotle.\u201d The term teotl was given to the head of a\ntribe, who constituted the living image of the tribal ancestor. When he\ndied he himself became one of the tribal ancestors and all dead lords were\ntermed teotle.\n\nThe foregoing data enlighten us as to the practical value of a sternly\nenforced system of division and differentiation for the control of the\npopulation, and of clay images of persons for statistical purposes. We\nhave seen that, during many centuries, the energy of the rulers was\ndirected towards making groups of people as distinct and different from\neach other as possible. They were rigidly kept apart and, in all\nassemblages, they occupied separate positions, in a fixed order of\nrelation to each other. \u201cAll the people of Cuzco came out according to\ntheir tribes and lineages ... and assembling in the great square ... sat\ndown on their benches, each man according to the rank he held, the\nHanan-Cuzco on one side and the Hurin-Cuzco on the other\u201d (Molina ed.\nHakluyt, p. 26). Beside this dual division of the entire population, under\nthe separate rulerships of the Inca and Coya, who were linked together,\nhowever, in a sacred and indissoluble union and respectively represented\nHeaven and Earth, let us study the executive administration of the\nreligious and civil governments.\n\nTwo sets, each consisting of four rulers, next in rank to the Inca and\nCoya, are described: Each quarter or Suyu was ruled over by a \u201cviceroy,\u201d\nor \u201cInca governor,\u201d entitled tucuyricoc=\u201che who sees all,\u201d or Capac. In\nthe days of the Inca Huayna Capac the names of the four \u201cviceroys\u201d are\nrecorded as having been Capac=Achachic, Capac=Larico, Capac=Yochi,\nCapac=Hualcaya. These were obviously members of the Inca family and next\nin rank to the Inca, who presided as supreme pontiff over the religious\ngovernment. The civil and tribal administration was executed by four\nCuracas, each of which had charge of 10,000 persons belonging to the\nayllus=tribes or lineages. The titles of these four Curacas are recorded\nas: Hunu-Camayu or Camayoc, Huaronca-Camayu or Camayoc, Pachaca-Camayu or\nCamayoc, Chunca-Camayu or Camayoc. As their titles show, they were the\nchief accountants or recorders of statistics, which were recorded by means\nof the quippus. Under them, in regular order there were officers, who\nrespectively had charge of 500, 100, 50 or 10 individuals. In the latter\ninstance it is expressly stated that it was always one man out of the ten\nwho governed and rendered account of the remaining nine. The four chief\nrecorders dwelt in Cuzco but \u201cleft it every year and returned in February\nto make their report ... bringing with them the tribute of the whole\nempire. They also reported upon the administration every year recording\nthe births and deaths that had occurred among men and flocks, the yield of\ncrops and all other details, with great minuteness\u201d (Polo de Ondegardo).\n\nFrom the recorded details of organization we learn that the governmental\nscheme introduced by the Incas was based on the assumption that the\nstandard population of the empire should number 40,000 individuals under\nthe civil rulership of 4 recorders, 40 first-grade officers, 400\nsecond-grade officers, 4,000 third-grade officers\u2014each of the last being\nresponsible for nine individuals besides himself. It is noteworthy that\nthe three grades of officers correspond to the threefold division of the\nentire produce of the land, between the Inca, the Huaca and the Ayllu,\nequivalent to the religious government, the civil government and the\npeople\u2014to the Above, Below and Middle. The minimal division of people into\ngroups of ten of which one was the governmental representative\ncorresponds, moreover, to the classification into the following ten\ncategories, according to their ages:\n\n1. Mosoc-aparic: baby, \u201cnewly begun,\u201d \u201cjust born.\u201d\n2. Saya-huarma: child, \u201cstanding boy,\u201d age 2-6.\n3  Macta-puric: \u201cchild that can walk,\u201d age 6-8.\n4. Itanta-requisic: \u201cbread-receiver,\u201d boy about 8.\n5. Pucllac-huarma: \u201cplaying boy,\u201d age 8-16.\n6. Cuca-pallac: \u201cCoca pickers,\u201d age 16-20.\n7. Yma-huayna: \u201cas a youth,\u201d light service,  age 20-25.\n8. Puric: \u201cable-bodied,\u201d tribute and service, age 25-50.\n9. Chaupi-rucca: elderly, light service, age 50-60.\n10. Pu\u00f1uc-rucca: dotage, no work, 60 upwards.(22)\n\nAlthough for statistical purposes, exact registers of each of these groups\nwere annually made by the recorders, it is evident that the purics or\n\u201cable-bodied\u201d men constituted the most important portion of the\npopulation. They naturally fell into two groups consisting of the nobility\nand commoners, but scattered evidence amply provides that they were\nstrictly classified according to the special service or tribute they\nrendered to the government. The best produce of each province was brought\nto Cuzco.\n\nThe inhabitants of each region were specially trained to render certain\nservices or to excel in particular industries\u2014by this means each tribe\ngradually became identified with its special industry or aptitude. The\nnecessity that the supply of their produce should be constant and regular,\nmust have necessitated the permanent maintenance of a fixed number of\nworkers at each branch of industry, a fact which would give rise to rigid\nlaws controlling the liberty of the individual, forcing children to adopt\ntheir parents\u2019 avocations and forbidding intermarriages between persons of\ndifferent provinces. As scattered mention is made of the following general\nclassification of the male population, I venture to note them as follows,\nprovisionally:\n\nNobility: Commoners.\n\n1. lords: shepherds (of lamas),\n2. priests: hunters,\n3. warriors: farmers,\n4. civil governors: artificers.\n\nThe female population was doubtlessly subdivided in an analogous manner,\nfor it is expressly recorded that all marriageable girls were kept in four\ndifferent houses. Those of the first class, qualified as \u201cthe white\nvirgins,\u201d were dedicated to the service of the Creator, the Sun and the\nInca; the second were given in marriage to the nobility; the third class\nmarried the Curacas or civil governors, and the last were qualified as\n\u201cblack,\u201d and pertained to the lower classes.\n\nCaste division was never lost sight of\u2014indeed one Inca went so far as to\norder that all the people of the Below \u201cshould flatten the heads of their\nchildren, so that they should be long and sloping from the front.\u201d Thus\nthey should ever be distinguishable from the nobility and \u201cyield them\nobedience.\u201d Although it is not expressly stated, it may be inferred from\nactual specimens of skulls which have been found that, in some localities,\nin order to differentiate the two classes still more, members of the\nnobility strove to mould the heads of their children in a high peak, so\nthat they too should perpetually bear the mark of their rank. Whether such\na procedure would exert a correspondingly elevating or abasing influence\nupon the intellectual development of the two classes is a problem for\nanthropologists.\n\nA very simple explanation of the reason why artificial deformation of the\nskull was ever adopted, is obtainable when the all-powerful dominion of a\ncertain set of ideas is recognized. Many other customs, still in practice\namongst American tribes, are likewise explained by the arbitrary division\nof population into classes and categories. The Peruvian custom of\nbestowing one name upon a child when it was one year old and another when\nit attained maturity is the direct outcome of the classification of\nindividuals by age. The ceremonial observances which accompanied the\nbestowal of these names were accompanied by a change of costume which\nconstituted the official enrolment or advancement into another class. The\nexistence of further systematic class-distinctions is proven by the\ndescription of the picturesque ceremony performed in the month of August\nat Cuzco and called \u201cthe driving out of sickness.\u201d In the centre of the\ngreat square around the urn of gold which typified the \u201ccentral fountain\u201d\n(precisely the idea expressed by the name of Mexico), four hundred\nwarriors assembled. One hundred, representing one of the four ayllus,\nfaced towards each cardinal point and subsequently ran at full speed in\nits direction, crying \u201cGo forth all evils!\u201d\n\nWe have now traced the idea of the Above and Below, Centre and Four\nQuarters in Ancient Peru. It remains to be noted that the capital itself,\nwhich was to be the image of the whole empire, was primarily divided into\ntwo halves and four quarters, and subdivided into 4\u00d73=12 wards the names\nof which doubtlessly corresponded with that of their inhabitants. When the\nsacred centre of the capital is added to these it is clear that the City\nof Cuzco was subdivided into as many parts as there were directions in\nspace, _i. e._ 13. It exemplified, therefore, an association of 2\u00d710=20\ncategories of people classified according to ages, with thirteen\ndirections in space, and a general subdivision of all classes into four\nparts. The Inca with the four Capacs and the Coya with the four Camayocs\nformed two groups of five each, which could well have been represented by\na large central figure surrounded by four smaller ones of equal size. By\ncoloring these with red, yellow, black and white, their assignment to the\ncardinal point could have been expressed. The central figure could be\npainted in four colors, for only the Inca and his lineage could wear\nmany-colored garments, these being indicative that they represented the\ncentre or union of the four quarters.\n\nTwo important features of the system remain to be discussed: We have\nstudied the minute and methodical classification of the entire population\ninto distinct groups without touching upon the practical reasons why this\nwas done. We have analyzed the great machinery of the Inca dominion as it\nlies broken and motionless. But endow the giant wheel with motion,\nintroduce systematical rotation into its every part, regulate the\noccupations of the people by a fixed series of work-days and holidays.\nSend them forth to their work and collect the products of their labor at\nset intervals, _institute a calendar_, and you will have set the machinery\nof state in motion and realized how the classification of individuals\naccording to rank, ages, and occupations was absolutely necessary in order\nto obtain a successful and harmonious result. It has already been shown\nthat the institution of the calendar and establishment of twelve festival\nperiods of thirty days each, in a year, succeeded the division of the\npeople into groups and their assignment to fixed places of abode.\n\n\u201cThey commenced to count the year in the middle of May, a few days more or\nless, on the first day of the Moon ... in this month they held the\nfestivals of the Sun\u201d (Molina ed. Hakluyt, p. 16). I direct particular\nattention to the fact that it was the new May moon which controlled the\nbeginning of the religious calendar, although the Incas observed the\nequinoxes and solstices and the cult of the Sun was under their special\ncare. The twelve divisions of the year accord with the twelve wards of\nCuzco surrounding the central enclosure which was always the place where\nthe festivals were held and the people congregated.\n\nI have as yet found no account of the lesser divisions of time in Peru,\nbut note that the period of thirty days consisted of six periods of five\ndays each, a subdivision which would obviously accord with native habits\nof thought if associated with the six terrestrial directions in space and\nif a reunion of people and collection of produce from four quarters took\nplace on every fifth day in the capital. In my special work on the\nCalendar systems of ancient America I shall be able to discuss more fully\ntheir intimate indissoluble relation to the regulation of labor and\ncontrol of the food supply absolutely requisite for the great capital.\n\nThe idea of rotation was carried out in a ceremony described by Molina.\nWhen the December moon was full, after having ploughed their fields during\ntwelve days, \u201call persons returned to Cuzco ... the people went to a house\ncalled moro-uco, near the houses of the Sun and took out a very long cable\nwhich was kept there, woven in four colors, black, white, red and yellow,\nat the end of which was a stout ball of red wool. Everyone took hold of\nit, the men on one side, the women on the other, performing the sacred\ndance called yaquayra. When they came to the square ... they went round\nand round until they were in the shape of a spiral shell. Then they\ndropped the cable on the ground and left it coiled up like a snake. The\npeople returned to their places and those who had charge of the cable took\nit back to its house.\u201d An extremely important instance of the application\nof the spiral is preserved in an illustration in the Account of the\nAntiquities of Peru by the native chronicler Salcamayhua (ed. Hakluyt, p.\n109). He relates that the Inca Huayna-Capac, when he reached the town of\nTumipampa, \u201cordered water to be brought from a river by boring through a\nmountain, and making the channel enter the city by curves in this way:\u201d\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 46.\n\n\nThe illustration, reproduced here (fig. 46), exhibits an extremely\ningenious mode of irrigation which divided the country surrounding the\ntown into nine zones of land lying between currents of water. These are\ncut through by an exit canal which, at the same time, presumably supplied\na direct water-way for traffic to and from the town. The association of\nthe spiral form with irrigation would not, perhaps, seem as important and\nsignificant did we not know that the ancient Peruvians, as proven by\nWiener, habitually laid out the irrigation canals in their maize-fields so\nas to form regular designs, some of which resembled those illustrated on\nfig. 40, nos. 2, 4, 6, 7, which have been shown to signify the union of\nthe Above and Below, or Heaven and Earth. In the Peruvian irrigation\ncanals the water supplied the light lines and the earth the dark, and when\nthe small canals were full and were observed in certain lights, they must\nhave resembled light blue or white patterns running through the dark\nearth. That their inventors and makers actually associated them with\nprofound meaning and laid them from superstitious as well as practical\nmotives is obvious; for, in Peru, as in Mexico, we find the periodical\nunion of the Heaven and Earth, of rain and earth celebrated with\nceremonial drinking of chicha, specially brewed for this period which\nseems to have been the regularly appointed time for juvenile match-making,\nby order of the Inca.\n\n\u201cWhen the Inca gave women as wives they were received because it was the\ncommand of the Inca ... because of this it was considered that she was\ntaken until death and she was received on this understanding and never\ndeserted\u201d (Molina). \u201cWhen the Inca Rocca married his sister, six thousand\npeople were married on the next day\u201d (Montesinos). In the festival called\nCcapac Raymi, maidens who had attained womanhood offered bowls of\nfermented chicha to the youths who had just been admitted to the ranks of\nthe warriors.\n\n\u201cDuring this festival the Priests of the Sun and of the Creator brought a\nquantity of fuel, tied together in handfuls, and dressed as a man and a\nwoman ... they were offered to the Creator, the Sun and the Inca and were\nburnt in their clothes together with a sheep\u201d (Molina).\n\nTowards the end of the same month (November), feasts were celebrated for\nthe flocks of the huacas, that they might multiply; for which sacrifices\nwere made throughout the kingdom. Ultimately \u201cpublic solemn sacrifices\nwere made to the Creator, the Sun, the Thunder and the Moon for all\nnations, that they might prosper and multiply\u201d (Molina). A few weeks\nlater, an exemption from ceremonial bondage, for three months, commenced.\nThroughout January, February and March no religious festival took place at\nCuzco\u2014the farmers attended to their land and the people were left at\nliberty to pursue their various avocations uninterruptedly (Molina ed.\nHakluyt, pp. 51 and 52). I have already shown that the same exemption from\nceremonial bondage during ninety to one hundred days of the year was\ncustomary in Mexico; and, in my note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar\nSystem, communicated to the Congress of Americanists at Stockholm in 1894\n(p. 16), I explained the reasons which had led me to infer that \u201cthe\nreligious festivals were concentrated in the ritual years of 260 days,\u201d\nwhich indeed forms a unit, consisting of a complete set of combinations of\nthe numbers 13 and 20.\n\nIn Dr. Franz Boas\u2019 admirable monograph on the Social Organization and\nsecret societies of the Kwakiutl Indians (Washington, 1897, p. 418), it is\nshown that at the present day the clan system is only in force during one\ndivision of the year. \u201cAt the beginning of the winter ceremonial the\nsocial system is completely changed. The period when the class system is\nin force is called b\u0101-xus. The period of the winter ceremonial is\ndesignated as \u2018the secrets,\u2019 \u2018making the heart good,\u2019 also \u2018brought down\nfrom Above.\u2019 The Indians express this alternating of seasons by saying\nthat in summer the b\u0101-xus is on top, the secrets below, and _vice versa_\nin winter. During this time the place of the clans is taken by a number of\nsecret societies: the spirits who had appeared to mythical ancestors give\nnew names to the men to whom they appear, but these names are only in use\nduring the time when the spirits dwell amongst the Indians, _i. e._, in\nthe winter.\u201d Therefore from the moment when the spirits are supposed to be\npresent, all the summer names are dropped and the members of the nobility\ntake their winter names. The winter ceremonial societies are arranged in\ntwo principal groups; these are subdivided into 2\u00d710=20 groups according\nto age and sex.\n\nDr. Boas distinguishes \u201cthree classes of tribal names and of clan names,\nviz., such as are collective forms of the names of the ancestors, names\ntaken from the region inhabited by the tribe or clan and names of\nhonour.... Each clan derives its origin from a mythical ancestor ... the\npresent system of tribes and clans is of recent growth ... their numbers\nhave undergone considerable changes in historical times.\u201d A careful study\nof the material presented by Dr. Boas shows, however, that the\nground-plans of the entire social fabric reared by the Kwakiutl Indians\nclosely resembles that on which the stately Maya, Mexican and Peruvian\ncivilizations were reared.\n\nReturning to Peru, it is particularly noteworthy that the above mentioned\nsolemn sacrifices to the Creator, the Sun and Thunder, and Moon and Earth,\nheld in November, were thus offered to them jointly in one consecrated\nplace, whereas, at other seasons, the cult was performed separately and on\ndifferent days, before the emblems of the Above and Below.\n\nNotwithstanding the moderation and tolerance which seem to have been\ncharacteristic of the Inca government, and the apparent equality and\naccord of the two cults, the heads of which were the Inca and Coya, we\nfind evidences of discord in the historical records. The Inca empire had\nscarcely been established for more than a few centuries(23) when we\ndiscern signs of a serious rebellion under the leadership of the\nChuchi-capac, the chief of the Southern province or Colla-suyu, pertaining\nto the Below. From the taunts he uttered in the presence of the Inca on a\nfestive occasion and which have been recorded verbally by Salcamayhua, it\nis clear that the chief of the Collas asserted that he (and the people of\nhis province) actually practised sun-cult although \u201chis throne was of\nsilver;\u201d that is to say, notwithstanding the fact that moon-cult pertained\nto the quarter to which he was assigned, namely, to the Below. He\njustifies his departure from moon-cult by taunting the Inca that he, in\nturn, did not adhere strictly to sun-cult but worshipped the impersonal\nCreator. This struggle between the ancient native sun-cult and star-cult\nand this religious dissension, the reason for which is apparent, initiated\nthe long period of internal strife and warfare which ultimately made the\nSpanish Conquest such an easy matter.\n\nDuring the course of these wars the Peruvian Inca, on one occasion,\navenged himself for a supposed insult by having drums made of the skins of\nsome of the enemies\u2019 messengers and by sending back others of these\n\u201cdressed as women,\u201d that is to say degraded from their positions as\nwarriors or noblemen to the ranks of the commoners. A similar degradation,\ninflicted upon the Tlatelolcan rebels by the Mexicans has already been\nmentioned and can only be fully understood when the class-system is\nrecognized.\n\nFrom this and analogous instances it is evident that, admirable as the\nscheme of government seems to have been as a means of laying the\nfoundations of civilization, and of teaching primitive people agriculture,\nstability, law and order, yet the very features which rendered it so\nefficient at first became, eventually, the cause of its gradual\ndisintegration, as soon as a certain degree of culture prosperity was\nattained by the community. One mode of avoiding the evils of\nover-population and of ridding the capital of its restless, and\nenterprising or troublesome members, was the system of Mitimaes or\ncolonists. This merits particular attention, because it formed an integral\npart of the marvellous and widespread scheme of organization we have been\nstudying, and therefore helps to an understanding of the customary means\nby which civilization was spread in past ages throughout the American\ncontinent.\n\nAs the population of Cuzco increased and greater food supplies were found\nnecessary, the Incas extended their dominions by a series of conquests.\n\u201cAs soon as they had made themselves lords of a province they left\nMitimaes or settlers there, who caused the natives to live in communities\u201d\nand established a small centre of local government on the pattern of\nCuzco. Mitimaes or colonists were also sent, from different provinces, to\nlive on the frontiers, bordering on hostile countries, so as to aid in\ndefending them against the enemies. The establishment of colonies in\ndistant districts was therefore a tried and familiar custom of those who\npossessed the wonderful governmental plan we have been studying.\n\nI have shown that the greater the prosperity of a civilized community\norganized on this plan, the more imperative the necessity of founding new\ncolonies would sometimes become. The urgent need of greater food supplies\nwould lead to the sending out of expeditions for the purpose of surveying\nthe surrounding country and ascertaining the quality of its produce. In\nhis MS. Noticia, Padre Oliva speaks of an exploring party which was sent\nout by the ancestor of the Incas with the injunction to return in a year.\nAfter a few years had passed and none of the party returned, a second\nexpedition was sent out in search of the first and this led to the final\nestablishment of the Inca dominion in a promising region. Sahagun recounts\nhow a Maya colony was established at Panuco; Montezuma himself related to\nCort\u00e9s that he and his lineage were descendants of colonists from distant\nparts; traditions of culture-heroes who established civilization amongst\nthem abound amongst Central American tribes; finally, Peru is shown to\nhave been civilized by rulers who carried out, systematically, a\nready-made plan in a comparatively short time. Whence did all these\nculture-heroes emanate, carrying the identical method and system into\nwidely separated districts and establishing centres of civilization in the\nrichest and most fertile parts of the American Continent?\n\nDocumentary evidence certainly justifies the inference that the\ncivilization of Peru itself was due to just such a deliberately executed\nplan of colonization, which gradually extended southwards and ultimately\ntook root and flourished in the most favorably situated locality.\n\nLeonce Angrand, who cites Acosta, Montesinos, Garcia, Boturini, Valera,\nGarcilaso de la Vega, Gomara, Balboa, Paz Soldan, d\u2019Orbigny, Zarate, Cieza\nde Leon, Torquemada, Herrera, Velasco, Rivero and Tschudi, Gibbon,\nStevenson, Castelnau, Desjardins, Villavicencio, Roman and others, unites\ntheir testimony in the following sentence: \u201cIt is therefore solely towards\nthe North, in the elevated mountainous region, that researches should be\ndirected [in order to ascertain the origin of the Peruvian civilization].\nAs soon as this is done innumerable proofs appear of the residence, in\nextremely ancient times, of people who can scarcely belong to other races\nthan those who founded Cuzco and Tiahuanaco. It is therefore, from the\nNorth that these hardy pioneers of humanity came, from distant\ncivilizations, and it is certainly by going northwards that one must look\nfor traces of one or the other current of civilization. The inexhaustible\nforce of expansion of the Inca Empire extended to the North as well as in\nother directions.\u201d\n\nAngrand also mentions a line \u201cof prehistoric ruins which extend northwards\nfrom Peru and display the essentially characteristic outlines of the\nMexican Teocallis or temples.\u201d(24)\n\nGarcilaso de la Vega, citing Padre Blas Valera, goes so far as to state\nthat the race, which introduced human sacrifices and ritualistic\ncannibalism into Peru, \u201chad come from the region of Mexico, peopled the\nregions of Panama and the Isthmus of Darien and all those great mountains\nwhich extend between Peru and the new kingdom of Granada\u201d (the present\nNicaragua).(25)\n\nAccording to Padre Anello Oliva, whose manuscript notes on Peru are\npreserved in the British Museum Library, the immediate ancestors of the\nIncas were colonists who came from unknown parts either by land or by sea,\nand settled at Caracas (Atlantic coast), whence they gradually spread\nsouthwards. As his authority for this statement, he cites original\nmanuscripts which had been placed in his hands by a Spanish missionary of\nhigh standing. Among these was a relation by a Quipucamayoc or \u201caccountant\nby means of quippus,\u201d named Catari, who had been a chronicler of the\nIncas. His forefathers had occupied the same post and had handed down the\nabove record as having been related to them by their predecessors.\n\nThis account does not disagree with that of Salcamayhua who states that\n\u201call the nations of the empire had come from beyond Potosi, in four or\nfive armies, arrayed for war and settled in the districts as they\nadvanced.\u201d\n\nWhatever opinions may be held of the relative reliability of the Spanish\nchroniclers one thing is certain: that not one ventures the statement that\nthe Inca civilization was gradually evolved by the native race of Peru and\nthat all agree in assigning its introduction to an alien race of rulers\nwho came from the North, and gradually united the scattered indigenous\ntribes together under a central government. Americanists will doubtless\nagree with me in stating that, until the past history, antiquities and\nlanguages of all tribes inhabiting South and Central America have been\nexhaustively studied, no absolutely satisfactory conclusion can be formed\nas to when and how civilization was carried to Peru.\n\nOn the other hand, even in the present preliminary stage of investigation,\nthere are certain undeniable facts which, if brought to notice at this\nearly date, may prove of inestimable value in directing future research.\nOne of these facts will doubtless appear to many as strange and\ninexplicable but as noteworthy as it appears to me.\n\nIn Cristoval de Molina\u2019s account of the fables and rites of the Incas(26)\nalready cited, a fable is related concerning the Inca Yupanqui, the\nConqueror, who extended the domain of the Peruvian empire and instituted\nthe worship of a creator who, unlike the sun, could rest and light up the\nworld from one spot.\n\n\u201cThey say that, before he succeeded [to rulership], he went one day to\nvisit his father Uiracocha Inca, who was at Sacsahuana, five leagues from\nCuzco. As he came up to a fountain called Susur-puquio, he saw a piece of\ncrystal fall into it, within which he beheld the figure of an Indian in\nthe following shape:\n\n\u201cOut of the back of his head there issued three very brilliant rays like\nthose of the Sun. Serpents were twined around his arms, and on his head\nthere was the llautu or royal fringe worn across the forehead of the Inca.\nHis ears were bored and he wore the same earpieces as the Inca, besides\nbeing dressed like him. The head of a lion came out from between his legs\nand on his shoulders was another lion whose legs appeared to join over the\nshoulders of the man. A sort of serpent also twined over the shoulders.\n\n\u201cOn seeing this figure the Inca Yupanqui fled, but the figure of the\napparition called him by his name from within the fountain saying, \u2018Come\nhither, my son, and fear not, for I am the Sun, thy father. Thou shalt\nconquer many nations: therefore be careful to pay great reverence to me\nand remember me in thy sacrifices.\u2019 The apparition then vanished, while\nthe piece of crystal remained. The Inca took care of it and they say that\nhe afterwards saw everything he wanted in it. As soon as he was Lord he\nordered a statue of the Sun to be made as nearly as possible resembling\nthe figure he had seen in the crystal. He gave orders to the heads of the\nprovinces in all the lands he had conquered, that they should make grand\ntemples, richly endowed, and he commanded all his subjects to adore and\nreverence the new Deity, as they had heretofore worshipped the Creator....\nIt is related that all his conquests were made in the name of the Sun, his\nFather, and of the Creator. This Inca also commanded all the nations they\nconquered to hold their huacas in great veneration....\u201d\n\nIt is a startling but undeniable fact that one of the beautiful\nbas-reliefs found at Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa near the western coast of\nGuatemala, about 1,200 miles to the north of the latitude of Cuzco,\nanswers in a most striking manner to the description given of Inca\nYupanqui\u2019s vision.(27)\n\nAmongst the thirteen sculptured slabs discovered at Santa Lucia, there are\nsix entire slabs and the fragment of another which are of almost uniform\nsize and may be ranked among the finest examples of aboriginal art which\nhave as yet been found on the American Continent. They represent seven\ndifferent renderings of the same theme. On each slab an individual wearing\nelaborate insignia is represented as standing with one arm raised and his\nhead thrown back in the act of gazing upwards towards a celestial figure\nwhich seems to be descending towards him. The arms and heads of these\nnobly conceived figures are visible, but in each case the faces seem to\nissue from a highly ornate symbol, which is different in each one, just as\nthe insignia of each individual also varies in detail. At the same time it\nis obvious that the seven slabs commemorate as it were an identical\ncircumstance,\u2014the apparition of the same divinity to seven different\nindividuals, six of which are represented with the sign of speech coming\nforth from their mouths in precisely the same manner. The general\nresemblance, notwithstanding the distinct individuality of each\nbas-relief, suggests that they commemorate the visions seen under similar\ncircumstances by seven distinct personages of the same rank and position.\nInvoluntarily one thinks of the period of enforced fast and vigil which\nmarks the attainment of manhood and is still obligatory amongst North\nAmerican tribes, amongst whom it only ends when they have entered into\ncommunion with their totemic ancestor. I am inclined to view these\ncommemorative tablets as commemorating an analogous rite and perpetuating\nthe visions of successive members of one ruling family, or clan. The\ndivinity, invariably associated with serpent symbols, seems to be\nQuetzalcoatl, the divine twin or serpent, exhibiting in some cases the\nemblem of the Sun, but evidently revealing itself to each personage under\na slightly different form.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 47.\n\n\nThe accompanying drawing (fig. 47) of one of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs,\nreproduced from Dr. Habel\u2019s work, will suffice to establish its\nresemblance to Padre Oliva\u2019s description of the apparition seen by the\nyouthful Inca Yupanqui. After a careful comparison of the text to the\nsculptured bas-relief, it must be admitted that a more graphic and\nimpressive illustration of the episode can scarcely be imagined. Its lower\nportion displays a youthful figure, looking upwards and exhibiting a\nnecklace, the circular ear-pieces and royal fringe or llautu of the Incas.\nFrom his shoulders hangs the skin of a puma or lion with its head\ndownwards. Molina relates that lion-skins with the heads were specially\nprepared for the ceremonial when youths were admitted into the ranks of\nknighthood, the last rite of which was the piercing of their ears and the\nenlargement of the orifice made.(28)\n\nThe youth wears a singular head-dress, or diadem, consisting of what\nappears to be an eye with conventionally drawn upper lid, surmounted by\nthree pointed rays, behind which some long wavy feathers are visible.(29)\n\nThe celestial apparition to which the youthful figure is looking up,\nlikewise exhibits the same necklace, pieces, and royal fringe of the\nIncas. Indistinctly though some of the details are given, it seems as\nthough intertwined serpents encircled its head and possibly its neck. The\nhead of the vision is surmounted by an enlarged rendering of the\nconventionally drawn eyelid and three pointed rays which form the diadem\nof the youthful knight. The face of the vision occupies, however, the\nplace of the eye on the diadem. In this connection it is interesting to\nnote that in the Nahuatl language, which, as (_op. et loc. cit._) proven\nby Buschmann, was spoken in Guatemala where the bas-relief was found, the\nword ixtli designates face, whilst ixtololotli signifies eye. Situated\nbetween the right elbow of the celestial figure and the diadem of the\nyouth, there is a diminutive reproduction of the eye, eyelid and three\nrays, with the addition that what appear like two (or three?) drops of\nwater or two eyes descend from it towards a square symbol which resembles\nthe Mexican sign for tlalli=earth, whilst the eye symbol is closely\nanalogous to a well-known Mexican sign which has been interpreted as a\nstar, and has, but not as yet satisfactorily, been identified with the\nplanet Venus. Without pausing to study this sign as it appears in ancient\nMexico I point out that the position and mode of representation of the\nupper figure in the bas-relief sufficiently show that it is an image of a\ncelestial being or vision in the act of receiving the supplication of a\nyouth who is wearing divine insignia. There being a possibility that some\nof these accessories may be somewhat indistinct in the original bas-relief\nnow preserved at the Royal Ethnographical Museum at Berlin, I do not\nventure to draw special attention to the possibility of further points of\nresemblance between the Peruvian tradition and this Guatemalan sculpture.\n\nAt the same time I shall not omit allusion to the wavy figure winding\nupwards from the waist of the supplicant, which recurs in four out of the\nseven slabs. It may yet prove to answer to the description of \u201ca sort of\nserpent,\u201d which is recorded as twining over the shoulders of the vision\nwho was \u201cdressed like the Inca.\u201d The lion\u2019s head which appears in the\ndrawing to cover the left hand of the supplicant and the fact that his\nleft foot only, in some cases, wears a sandal, are important and\ninteresting features to which I shall revert further on.\n\nWithout attempting to offer any explanation of the truly remarkable fact\nthat a bas-relief exhumed in Guatemala should so strikingly agree with a\ndescription preserved in a Peruvian tradition, I shall merely point out a\nsecond similar though much less remarkable case of agreement.\n\nPadre Oliva records two instances in which a \u201croyal eagle\u201d figures in\nconnection with members of the Inca dynasty. One of these relates to the\nancestors of Manco Capac, the reputed founder of Cuzco. His\ngreat-grandmother, being abandoned by her husband, attempted to sacrifice\nher young son to Pachacamac. A royal eagle descended, carried him away in\nhis talons and set him down in an island off the Pacific coast, named\nGuayan, \u201cbecause it was covered with willows.\u201d Oliva explains this\ntradition as a fanciful way of recording the fact that the youth\u2019s life\nwas probably endangered, and that he had fled and taken refuge on an\nisland. At the age of twenty-one he made his way back to the continent on\na raft, but was seized by hostile people. His life was, however, saved by\nthe daughter of a chieftain who returned with him to the island. Her name\nis given as Ciguar, a word strangely like the Nahuatl Cihuatl=woman. She\nbore him a son who was named Atau (_cf._ Ahau and Ahua=Maya and Mexican\nwords for lord or chief), who was, in time, the father of Manco Capac, the\nreputed founder of civilization in Peru. When the latter was a child \u201can\neagle approached him and never left him.\u201d In view of these traditions it\nis interesting to note that, on two of the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs figured\nby Habel and reproduced by Mr. Hermann Strebel in pl. II, fig. 13, of his\nextremely useful and comprehensive monograph on the bas-reliefs of Santa\nLucia, an eagle is represented in connection with a figure wearing divine\ninsignia.\n\nOn one of the seven analogous slabs representing a personage addressing a\nsupplication to a celestial apparition, a large eagle or vulture is\nactually sculptured behind the supplicant, being, as it were, his\nindividual totem (Strebel, Pl. II, fig. 5).\n\nA drawing of a part of another slab (Strebel, Pl. II, fig. 13) displays an\neagle or vulture holding in his beak the body of a bearded personage who\nwears a neck ornament and circular ear pieces, and from whose head two\nserpents hang. This last detail associates him with the celestial figure\nwhich usually displays knotted serpents on or above its head, suggesting\nits connection with Quetzalcoatl, the divine title of the Supreme Being\nand also of the supreme rulers of the Mexicans. It is curious to find in\nPeru a tradition recording that, when \u201cthe Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui\nundertook the conquest of the Antisuyus with 100,000 men, their Huaca sent\nforth fire and stopped the passage with a fierce serpent which destroyed\nmany people. The Inca raised his eyes to heaven and prayed for help with\ngreat sorrow, and a furious eagle descended, and seizing the head of the\nserpent raised it on high, and then hurled it to the ground. In memory of\nthis miracle the Inca ordered a snake to be carved in stone on the wall of\na terrace in this province, which was called Aucapirca.\u201d When divested of\nall fanciful details, the foregoing Peruvian traditions seem to show that\nthe eagle was the totem of one or more of the Incas and that the serpent\nwas the totem of a tribe which was conquered by the Incas. It is likewise\nrecorded by Padre Oliva that the Inca named Mayta Capac Amaru ordered his\nshield to be painted with weapons and a serpent=Amaru, \u201cbecause he had\nkilled one in the Andes and therefore took it for his surname.\u201d\n\nIt is impossible for any Mexicanist to read the foregoing texts without\nrecalling that, in the City of Mexico, there is an unexplained bas-relief\nwhich was put up by the Spaniards after the Conquest but evidently figures\na native tradition. It represents an eagle bearing in his talons a\npersonage, wearing a diadem, beneath whom is a group of native\nweapons.(30) The arms of Mexico representing an eagle holding a serpent in\nits talons and resting on a cactus, is too well known to require comment\nand recalls the Peruvian tradition of the eagle of the Incas conquering\nthe serpent-totem of a hostile people.\n\nStriking as these undeniable resemblances undoubtedly are, they would not,\nby themselves, justify the immediate conclusion that an actual direct\nconnection existed between the Peruvian traditions and the Guatemalan and\nMexican bas-reliefs which almost seem to illustrate the same or analogous\nincidents. At the same time they prove that, besides their scheme of\ngovernment, the Incas had certain myths or traditions in common with the\ncivilized tribes inhabiting Central America.\n\nIt is well to bear in mind that the situations of Cuzco in Peru and Santa\nLucia in Guatemala are both adjacent to the Pacific coast with an\nintervening distance of about 27-\u00bd degrees of latitude. But 15 degrees,\nhowever, lie between the northern boundary of modern Peru and the southern\nboundary of Nicaragua where, as proven by Buschmann, innumerable names of\nlocalities in the Nahuatl language testify to its ancient occupation by a\nNahuatl-speaking race.\n\nIt is noteworthy that this eminent philologist observed how the name\nemployed to designate the bamboo bed of the Cacique Agateite, in\nNicaragua, \u201cbarbacoa,\u201d was the same as that of the wooden bed or litter\nused by the Inca in Peru (_op. cit._ p. 756). Buschmann likewise\nidentified the word galpon=great hall or house. He also expressed the\nopinion that \u201cthe Quechua word _pampa_ resembles the Mexican _amilpampa\nehecatl_=the south wind, but the Mexican is formed by the affixes pan and\npa and the Quechua substantive means an even, open plain. At the same time\nthis meaning and form could be derived from the Mexican affixes\u201d\n(Buschmann, Ueber Aztekische Ortsnamen III, 7, p. 627).\n\nFollowing this precedent I have ventured to search for further\nresemblances between Nahuatl and Quechua words, and one of the remarkable\nresults I obtained was the discovery that the well-known Quechua name for\ncolonists=Mitimaes, the meaning of which, in Quechua, is not forthcoming,\nseems to be connected in sound and meaning with the Nahuatl Ce-mitime=sons\nof one mother (Molina\u2019s dictionary). It is superfluous to point out how\nappropriate this designation would have been for the colonists who\ninvariably founded fresh centres of civilization on the plan of the\ncentral metropolis. A brief comparative table, the result of an\ninvestigation which lays no claim to be more than a rudimentary attempt,\nis published as an appendix to this paper, with the hope that it may\nstimulate philologists to supersede it by exhaustive studies of the\nsubject. A careful examination of the table tends to prove that certain\nNahuatl, Quechua and Maya words had a common origin and shows that a\ncloser connection existed between the Nahuatl and Quechua languages than\nbetween Nahuatl and Maya or the Quechua and Maya.\n\nI shall have occasion to refer to several of the words I have tabulated.\nAt present I would draw attention to an analogy which bears directly on\nthe subject of this paper and is of utmost interest and importance. If\ncarefully studied it will be seen that the title \u201cPacha Yachachic,\u201d\napplied in Peru to the Creator, proves to be allied in sound and meaning\nto the Mexican title Yaca-tecuhtli, \u201cthe lord who guides or governs.\u201d\nAccording to Sahagun, this was \u201cthe god of the traders or\ntraveller-merchants.\u201d He had five divine brothers and one sister, each of\nwhich was separately worshipped by some travellers, whilst others, on\ntheir safe return from distant and dangerous expeditions, offered\nsacrifices to the whole group collectively. I leave it to each reader to\nmake his own inference as to whether this celestial \u201ctraveller\u2019s guide\u201d\nwith his six brethren can have been other than Polaris and Ursa Minor. The\ndifference in the magnitudes of this constellation would naturally give\nrise to the idea of a group composed of individuals of different ages and\nsizes; the \u201clittle sister\u201d probably being the smaller of the four\nintermediate stars of the constellation and suggesting tales of adventures\nrelating to the mythical sister of six brothers.\n\nIt is superfluous to emphasize how natural it would have been to offer a\nthanksgiving to the \u201ctraveller\u2019s star\u201d on returning from a distant voyage,\nbut I will point out that for coast navigation between Guatemala and\nNicaragua and Peru, the adoption of Polaris as a guide was and is a matter\nof course. It is well to bear in mind that we are dealing here with\nnavigation north and south, along a sheltered coast, for a distance not\nexceeding that of the coast-line between Gibraltar and Hamburg. An\ninstructive example of primitive navigation, under analogous\ncircumstances, has been communicated to me, from personal observation, by\nCommander Barber of the United States Navy.\n\nNative traders, who navigate north and south in small crafts along the\ncoast between Ceylon and Karashee, still use, at the present day, an\nextremely primitive method of estimating latitude, which is entirely based\nupon observations of the pole-star. Their contrivance consists of a piece\nof wood four inches square, through which a hole is bored and a piece of\ncord, with knots at intervals, is passed. The square is held at arm\u2019s\nlength and the end of the cord is held to the point of the navigator\u2019s\nnose in a horizontal line, the height being so adjusted that the pole-star\nis observed in contact with the upper edge of the piece of wood. There are\nas many knots in the cords as there are ports habitually visited, and\naccording to the length of the cord required for the observation of\nPolaris in the said position, the mariner knows to which port he is\nopposite.\n\nAccording to Sir Clements B. Markham,(31) the original inhabitants of the\nPeruvian coast fished in boats made of inflated sealskins. It is well\nknown that the coast-tribes of Mexico and Central America employed boats\nof various kinds and some of great size. The Mexican tradition relates\nthat the culture hero Quetzalcoatl departed in a craft he had constructed\nand which is designated as a coatlapechtli=coa=coatl=serpent or twin,\ntlapechtli=raft. It is open to conjecture whether this construction, \u201cin\nwhich he sat himself as in a boat,\u201d may be regarded as a sort of double or\ntwin raft, or a boat made of serpent or seal (?) skin. In order to form\nany opinion, the name for seal in the Nahuatl and other languages spoken\nby the coast tribes should first be ascertained and compared with the\nnative names for serpent.\n\nThe Maya colonists who founded the colony on the Mexican coast, and are\nknown as the Huaxtecans, are described as having transported themselves\nthither by boats from Yucatan. In the native Codices and in the sculptured\nbas-relief at Chichen-Itza, there are, moreover, illustrations of\nnavigation by boats. As dependent upon Polaris as their East Indian\ncolleagues of to-day, it is but natural that the ancient Mexican traders\nby land or sea expressed their gratitude by offerings to Polaris and Ursa\nMinor.\n\nLet us now return to Peru and examine whether there is any proof that the\n\u201cTeacher or Guide of the World,\u201d the Supreme Being of the Incas, was\nidentical with the \u201cLord who guides\u201d revered by the Mexican navigators.\n\nI have already demonstrated that in ancient America the native scheme of\nreligion and government was but the natural outcome of certain ideas\nsuggested by the observation of Polaris and the circumpolar\nconstellations. I have likewise quoted the remarkable qualification of a\nsupreme divinity made by Inca Yupanqui, who raised a temple in Cuzco to\nthe Creator who, superior to the sun, could rest and light the world from\none spot. It is an extremely important and significant fact that the\nprincipal doorway of this temple opened to the north,(32) and that the\n\u201ctrue Creator\u201d is alluded to as an invisible power, the knowledge of which\nwas transmitted by the Incas from father to son. Thus Salcamayhua records\nthat on one occasion the young Inca Ccapac Yupanqui exclaimed \u201cI now feel\nthat there is another Creator of all things [than that worshipped in the\nAndes], as my father Mayta Ccapas Inca has indeed told me.\u201d(33)\nConsidering that in the latitude of Cuzco, situated as it is 14\u00b0 below the\nequator, Polaris is invisible, the conditions thus recorded as existing in\nPeru are exactly those which might be expected to exist if a religion\nfounded on pole-star worship had been carried southward to a region in\nwhich the star itself was invisible. The orientation of the temple would\ndesignate the north as the sacred region and the star-god would become an\ninvisible power whose very existence would have become traditional and\nnecessarily be accepted on faith by native-born Peruvians and converted\nsun- and moon-worshippers.\n\nIt is a remarkable fact that a descendant of the Incas has furnished us\nwith actual proof that the Supreme Creator revered at Cuzco was not only\nassociated with a star, but also with the figure of a cross, each branch\nof which terminated in a star. We are indebted to the native chronicler\nSalcamayhua for some extremely curious drawings, which are reproduced here\nfrom his account of the Antiquities of Peru.(34) In treating of the\nprimitive astronomy in America in my special paper on the native calendar,\nI shall refer to these in greater detail. For my present purpose it\nsuffices to designate the following figures.\n\nSalcamayhua records that the founder of the Peruvian Empire, Manco Capac,\nordered the smiths to make a flat plate of fine gold, of oval shape, which\nwas set up as an image of the Creator (_op. cit._ p. 76). The Inca Mayta\nCcapac, \u201cwho despised all created things, including the sun and moon,\u201d and\n\u201cordered his people to pay no honour to them,\u201d caused the plate to be\nrenewed which his \u201cgreat grandfather had put up, fixing it afresh in the\nplace where it had been before. He rebuilt the \u2018house of gold\u2019 and they\nsay that he caused things to be placed round the plate, which I have\nshown, that it may be seen what these heathens thought.\u201d The central\nfigure on this plate consists of the oval image of the Creator, fig. 48,\n_c_. Close to its right are images designated by the text as representing\nthe sun and morning star. To the left are the moon and the evening star.\nAbove the oval and touching it, is a group of five stars forming a cross,\nwith one star in the centre. Below it is a cross figure formed by lines\nuniting four stars. In this case, instead of being in the middle, the\nfifth star is attached to the lower edge of the oval, which is designated\nas \u201cthe image of Uiracocha Pacha-Yachachic, the teacher of the World.\u201d\nOutside of the plate is what appears to be an attempt to explain more\nclearly the relative positions of the group of five stars to the oval\nplate (fig. 48, _a_). It represents the oval and one star in the centre of\na cross formed by four stars. The question naturally suggests itself\nwhether the group of five stars forming a cross may not represent the\nSouthern Cross, popularly called the pole-star of the south and which\nconsists of four principal stars, one of which is of the first and two of\nthe second magnitude. This possibility opens out a new field of inquiry,\nand calls for the statement of the following facts, which I quote from\nAmed\u00e9e Guillemin\u2019s Handbook of Popular Astronomy, edited by J. Norman\nLockyer and revised by Richard A. Proctor.(35)\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 48.\n\n\n\u201cIn [our] enumeration of the circumpolar constellations of the South, we\nhave said nothing of the stars situated at the Pole itself. The reason is\nsimple; there are none deserving mention, and with the exception of one\nstar in Hydr\u00e6, none approach the third magnitude. There is not then, in\nthe southern sky, any star analogous to Polaris in the northern heavens.\u201d\nM. Guillemin proceeds to explain, however, that this poverty of the polar\nregions is singularly compensated for by the stars of the equatorial zone.\nIt seems more than probable that primitive astronomers or their\ndescendants, who had been reared in a knowledge of the northern Polaris\nand of the periodical motion of the circumpolar constellations, should\ncontinue their observations in whatever latitude they found themselves. It\nseems possible that they may have observed the Southern Cross and\nrecognized its closeness to the pivot or centre of rotation; but from\npersonal experience and observation I can vouch for the fact that this\nconstellation could never have produced upon primitive man the powerful\nimpression caused by Ursa Major and Cassiopeia revolving around Polaris.\nIt is, of course, impossible to conclude to what extent the ancient\nPeruvians revered the Southern Cross. It suffices for the present to\nestablish the incontrovertible facts that the image of the motionless\nCreator, set up by the Incas, was associated with stars and with the cross\nand that the door of the Cuzco Temple, where this image was kept, faced\nthe north, the direction whence, according to native traditions, the\nculture-heroes had come to Peru.\n\nThe following data furnish further important proof that certain peculiar\nideas, symbols and metaphors were held in common by the civilizations of\nPeru, Central America and Mexico. Returning to the bas-relief (fig. 47), I\nrecur to an interesting feature, which I have already pointed out, namely,\nthat the left arm of the personage terminates in a tiger\u2019s or puma\u2019s head.\nIn connection with this peculiarity it is interesting to note that the\nnative historian Ixtlilxochitl cites his illustrious ancestor and\nnamesake, the Ome Tochtli Ixtlilxochitl of Texcoco, as addressing his\nyoung son Nezalhualcoyotl as \u201cmy dearly beloved son, tiger\u2019s arm.\u201d(36) As\nthe young prince is referred to in the same chapter as \u201cthe boy Acolmiztli\n[=tiger\u2019s arm] Nezalhualcoyotl,\u201d it is obvious that the metaphor\nconstituted a title preceding the actual name. It was Nezalhual-coyotl who\ninstituted the worship of Tloquenahuaque, the true Creator, and\ndiscountenanced human sacrifices.\n\nIf the other analogous Santa Lucia slabs be also examined it will be seen\nthat although the positions of the bodies and arms vary, and the form of\nthe head is different in each instance, it is invariably the left arm that\nterminates in the individual emblem. This sort of consecration of the left\nhand seems particularly significant for the following reason: Padre Anello\nOliva records that the Inca Yupanqui, the founder of Cuzco and the same\nwhose vision agrees so strangely with the bas-relief, was surnamed\nLloque=the left-handed,(37) and was noted for having visited the whole\nempire three times. His reign was long and prosperous, and he left a\nrecord as a conqueror and builder. He likewise sent his son Mayta-Capac to\nvisit the whole empire, accompanied by sages and councillors. I recall\nhere it was Yupanqui who proclaimed to the sun-worshippers of Peru, the\nexistence and superiority of an immutable Creator.\n\nI have already shown how, in Peru, it was a dictum that the upper division\nof the empire was to bear the same ideal relation to the lower as that of\nan elder brother to a younger or a right hand to the left. It is,\ntherefore, possible to infer that, on ceremonial occasions when it is\nrecorded that the Hanan Cuzco and Hurin Cuzco people were stationed at\neither side of the Inca, the Hanan or chieftains constituting the nobility\nwere to his right and the Hurin people or lower class, to his left.\n\nIt is truly remarkable that it is a passage in the Annals of the\nCakchiquels, the people now inhabiting the region of Guatemala where the\nSanta Lucia bas-reliefs were found, that contains the clearest statement\nregarding the division of a tribe into two classes and the relative\npositions assigned to each of these, according to ceremonial usage. The\npassage relates: \u201cWe, the 13 divisions of warriors, and the seven tribes\n... we came to the enclosure of Tulan, and coming, gave our tribute. The\nseven tribes were drawn up in order on the left of Tulan. On the right\nhand, were arranged the warriors. Firstly, the tribute was taken from the\nseven tribes, next from the warriors.\u201d(38)\n\nBuschmann has recorded the interesting fact that, in Nahuatl, the right\nhand is designated as \u201cthe good, clever or wise\u201d=yec-maitl or mayectli,\nalso ma-imatca or ma-nematca (from yectli=good and imati=to be clever or\nwise). Molina\u2019s dictionary furnishes us with the following Nahuatl names\nfor the left hand, etc.\n\nOpoch maitl, Opuch maitl, Opuch maye: left hand.\nOpochiuia=v. to do something with the left hand.\nTopuchcopa, the left, at the left hand, or side.\n\nIn Mexico the totemic lord of the chase was named Opochtli. The\nmuch-discussed name Huitzil-opochtli is considered by some to signify \u201cthe\nleft-handed humming-bird.\u201d\n\nThe foregoing proves that in Peru, Guatemala and Mexico a caste-division\nwas associated with left-handedness and that the expression \u201cleft-handed\u201d\nwas employed as an honorific or distinctive title. It is obvious that\nbefore reaching the point when the left hand would be invested by a\ndistinctive mark, as in the Santa Lucia bas-reliefs, the above ideas must\nhave been prevalent for a very long time.\n\nI have already pointed out that a striking similarity of ideas survives\namongst the Zu\u00f1i Indians of to-day.\n\nAs to the native tiger\u2019s head (puma or ocelot?) we find that it is the\nchief symbol of the central human figure on the great monolithic doorway\nof Tiahuanaco, Peru, a fact which testifies to a further community of\nthought.\n\nThis central figure exhibits two tigers\u2019 heads on each shoulder and six\naround its head, disposed as rays and interspersed with what resemble\ndrops of water. The transverse ornament carved on the breast exhibits four\ndivisions, each of which terminates with a tiger\u2019s head. Four similar\nheads, looking upwards, are on the central decoration beneath the figure\nand the broad band at the base terminates in two large tigers\u2019 heads. What\nis more, on the fragment of a finely carved hollow stone object, which is\npreserved at the British Museum and was found at Tiahuanaco by Mr. Richard\nInwards, there are the finest representations of the swastika which have\nas yet been found on the American Continent, and each of its branches\nterminates in a tiger\u2019s head, resembling those sculptured on the\nmonolithic doorway. The fragment consists of the half of what seems to me\nto have been the top or handle of a staff or sceptre. I am indebted to the\nkindness of Mr. C. H. Read of the British Museum, for a rubbing of the\ncarved fragment and for the permission to reproduce it here (fig. 49). The\ncentral swastika is angular and its form recalls that of the Mexican\nCalendar swastika (fig. 9). At each side of it are portions of what\noriginally were two rounded swastikas, which also terminate in tigers\u2019\nheads. These and the size of the fragment seem to justify the inference\nthat another square swastika was originally sculptured on the opposite\nside, making two rounded and two square swastikas in all.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 49.\n\n\nIt would be difficult to overestimate the importance of this fragment, for\nit proves to us that in Tiahuanaco, the swastika was a sacred symbol. Its\nassociation with the puma or ocelot, links it to the central figure on the\nmonolithic doorway and, possibly, connects this with the Mexican\nidentification of the ocelot with the Ursa Major, with \u201cthe lord who walks\naround,\u201d or the lord of the underworld, Tezcatlipoca. The two forms of\nswastika seem to testify that, in Tiahuanaco also, the idea of the Above\nand Below prevailed and that the angular form symbolized the subdivision\nof the earth and the rounded one that of the heavens. The rows of\npersonages sculptured on the doorway at each side of and facing the\ncentral figure seem to indicate that this commemorates an establishment of\ntribal organization.\n\nThe distribution of the sculptured figures is as follows:\n\n8 figures=2\u00d74 }                Central { 8 figures\n8 figures=2\u00d74 } 6\u00d74                    { 8 figures\n8 figures=2\u00d74 }                figure. { 8 figures.\n\nThe figures on the upper row to the right and left, making sixteen in all,\nare all alike\u2014so are the sixteen figures on the second and the sixteen on\nthe third rows.\n\nWithout attempting to describe all the insignia which characterize the\nfigures on each of the three rows, I refer the reader to the magnificent\nplates contained in Drs. St\u00fcbel and Uhle\u2019s monumental work on the Ruins of\nTiahuanaco, and merely note that each figure in the uppermost row exhibits\na bird\u2019s head in front of its head-dress. All figures in the second row\nare completely masked as condors. In the third row a tiger\u2019s head\ndecorates each head-dress. It is curious to find that whilst the birds\u2019\nand tigers\u2019 heads designate their wearers as heads or chieftains, these\nemblems strikingly coincide with the classification of the highest Mexican\nwarriors into two divisions, known as \u201cthe ocelots and the eagles.\u201d If\nattention is bestowed upon the number of emblems or figures and their\ndistribution it will be seen, in the first case, that the central figure\nexhibits on his person twelve tigers\u2019 heads in all, _i. e._, six on his\nhead, two on each arm and two on his breast-plate. Sixteen chieftains\nexhibit the same emblem and the carved fragment with the swastika appears\nto have originally exhibited sixteen tigers\u2019 heads, distributed into\nhomogeneous groups of four.\n\nIt cannot be denied that the forty-eight figures on the doorway are first\ndivided into two groups of twenty-four by being placed to the right and\nleft of the central figure. Each division of twenty-four is grouped as\n3\u00d78, which is also 6\u00d74, and yielding a total of 12\u00d74 or 4\u00d712 figures.\n\nCuriously enough the number 12 coincides not only with the number of heads\nexhibited by the central figure, but the entire bas-relief offers a\ncertain agreement with the numerical divisions of Cuzco which I have\nsummarized as having been divided into two halves and four quarters and\nsubdivided into 12 wards, the names of which doubtlessly corresponded with\nthose of their inhabitants. Personally I am inclined to consider that the\npurpose of the Tiahuanaco bas-relief was to establish a certain tribal\norganization and impose certain distinctive insignia upon each tribe. The\ninference that each sculptured figure was differentiated from the other by\nbeing painted in various colors is justified by Molina\u2019s account, already\ncited, that \u201cin Tiahuanaco the \u2018Creator\u2019 had his chief abode, hence the\nsuperb edifices in that place, on which edifices were painted many dresses\nof Indians ... thus each nation uses the dress with which they invest\ntheir huaca and they say that the first that was born [in Tiahuanaco] was\nthere turned into stones, others say that the first of their lineages were\nturned into falcons, condors and other animals and birds.\u201d\n\nIt is with deference, however, that I submit my conclusion and refer the\nquestion to the supreme authority of Drs. St\u00fcbel and Uhle and Mr.\nBandelier, whose attainments and exhaustive researches in the region of\nTiahuanaco qualify them to utter a final judgment upon this interesting\nsubject. According to Dr. Max Uhle the civilization established at\nTiahuanaco antedates that of the Incas. It may yet be proven that whilst\nTiahuanaco was settled in remote times by colonists from the North, the\nInca civilization was due to a later migration. It certainly appears that,\nin Tiahuanaco and Cuzco, the identical fundamental scheme of government\nand organization prevailed.\n\nI shall yet have occasion to point out that in Mexico and Yucatan and\nCentral America there are also monuments exhibiting multiples of 12 and 4\nand also 16 chieftains. Meanwhile it is worth while to note here briefly,\nsome analogies to Mexican and Maya antiquities found in Peru.\n\nI am much indebted to Sir Clements D. Markham, the President of the Royal\nGeographical Society, for the kind permission to reproduce here a hasty\ndrawing he made, in 1853, of a gold plaque (size 5-8/10 inches) found in\nCuzco (fig. 50). It was then in Lima, being the property of the President\nof Peru, General Echerrique. This curious relic exhibits the image of a\nmonstrous face surrounded by a band with subdivisions containing various\nsigns. The plaque was looked upon by its owner as a Calendar, but Sir\nClements Markham, after studying its subdivisions with a view of\nascertaining their agreement with the twelve divisions of the Peruvian\nyear, preferred to let his notes on the subject remain unpublished, not\nhaving come to a satisfactory conclusion on the subject. I am permitted,\nhowever, to state that Sir Clements Markham specially noted the\nresemblance of a sign, which is represented on the cheeks of the central\nfigure and recurs four times on the encircling band, to the well-known\nMaya glyph ahau=chief, lord.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 50.\n\n\nIt is, indeed, a cursive representation of a human head and moreover\nresembles those figured on the garment of a gigantic red sandstone statue\nfound at Ak-Kapana and figured in St\u00fcbel and Uhle\u2019s Tiahuanaco. On this\ngarment the heads alternate with squares and form a close design. This\nresemblance between the conventional faces on this archaic statue and\nthose on the gold plaque has made me attach more importance to the latter\nand at all events regard it as preserving ancient native symbolism. In\nconnection with these I wish to point out that the plaque itself offers a\ncertain resemblance to well-known Mexican calendars, the centre of which\nusually exhibits a face which is surrounded by a band with day or month\nsigns. It is remarkable that above each eye there are four dots,\nespecially as the Quechua word for eye=naui is homonymous with the Nahuatl\nnumeral four=nahui, and this is so constantly associated with an eye in\nthe Mexican sign Nahui ollin=four movements (_cf._ fig. 2). As strange a\ncoincidence as this is furnished by the mark on the forehead of the image,\nnot because the latter resembles the sect mark of the Vishnu worshippers,\nbut because it offers a marked analogy to the Mexican Acatl sign which is\nfrequently carved or painted as a cane standing in a square receptacle\nwith recurved ends. I am strongly tempted to interpret this symbol\naccording to the native mode of thought, as signifying the centre, the\nunion of the Above and Below and to regard the upper part of the face\nitself as a representation of the Above, the heaven, with its two eyes\n(the Moon and Sun), whilst the lower part and teeth, as in Mexico,\nsignified the Below, the earth and underworld. By means of the head on\neach cheek and the number four over each eye, the dual and quadruple\nrulerships of the empire could well have been expressed. Postponing a more\nthorough study of the gold plaque, I merely note here that it exhibits\ncurious analogies not only to Maya but also to Mexican symbolism.\n\nAnother instance of the same kind is furnished by a possibly modern but\ncurious small silver pendant of unquestionably native workmanship. It is\npreserved at the Ethnographical Museum at Vienna and is figured in the\nReport of the International Congress of Americanists which was held at\nBerlin in 1888 (pl. 1, fig. 4, p. 96). Reputed to be from Cuzco, it\nrepresents a figure of the sun surrounded by eight straight and\nintermediate undulating rays. Two serpents are figured beneath the sun;\ntheir bodies extend across the pendant and their heads with open jaws\nalmost meet in the centre. A figure, wearing a peculiar head-dress, is\nkneeling in worship beneath the symbols, which undoubtedly recall the\nMexican mode of representing two serpents meeting, as on the Calendar\nStone of Mexico, for instance.\n\nAs I am tracing analogies at present, I should like to ask the reader to\ncompare the symbols figured and designated by Salcamayhua as that of the\nearth (see his fig. _c_, pl. LXVI) with the sacred vase from the Maya MS.\n(his fig. II, pl. LIX) and the form of the Peruvian symbol for the sea\n(his fig. _e_, pl. LXVI) with the peculiar Mexican shell ornament (fig. 1,\nno. 10). Insufficient though the above analogies may seem in themselves,\nthey are valuable in conjunction with the other data presented and\nstrengthen the conclusion that the same symbolism prevailed in Peru as in\nCentral America, Yucatan and Mexico.\n\nLet us now rapidly journey northwards from Peru to these countries and\nbriefly record the traces of the existence of the same ideas and\nquadruplicate form of government which we may encounter en route. In the\nelevated plains of Bogota we find positive proof that the Muyscas held the\nsame ideas as their southern and northern neighbors. Their culture hero,\nBochica or Ida-can-zas, was the personification of the Above and of its\nsymbol, the Sun, whilst his wife was Chia, a name suspiciously like\nQuilla, the Quechua for moon. He was high-priest and ruler but counselled\nthe Muyscas to elect one of themselves, a chief named Hunc-Ahua, to be\ntheir Za-que or civil ruler. Ida-can-zas instituted the Calendar and\ntaught the Muyscas to appoint four chiefs of tribes whose names or titles\nare recorded as Gameza, Busbanca, Pesca and Toca. The institution of a\ndual government is indicated by the record that the high-priest dwelt at\nthe sacred town Aura-ca and the Za-que at Tunja.\n\nIt is extremely curious to notice that Ida-can-zas, in Bogota, did\nprecisely what Cort\u00e9s found it expedient to do after the Conquest of\nMexico. The latter assumed the supreme rulership over the nobility, became\nthe \u201clord of Heaven\u201d and instituted a native chieftain, bearing a female\ntitle, as his coadjutor, the lord of the earth, and the ruler of the\npeople of the lower class.\n\nIt may be worth making the passing remark that the title of the Muysca\nculture-hero contains the word \u201ccan\u201d and thus recalls the Maya Kukulcan\nand that the title Za-que offers a certain resemblance to the Maya title\nChac, whilst the name Hunc-ahua seems strangely similar to Hun-ahau which\nin Maya would signify \u201cone lord.\u201d It is for Muysca scholars to enlighten\nus as to the derivation and meaning of the above titles and name.\n\nRegretting the lack of time and documents which have prevented me from\nobtaining further data I now return to Guatemala and the vicinity of the\nSanta Lucia bas-reliefs. Referring to the introduction to their Annals(39)\nwe learn that the Cakchiquel tribe was but one of four allied nations,\neach of which had its capital, named Tecpan, as follows:\n\nNations: Capitals.\nCakchiquel: Tecpan Quauhtemallan,\nQuiche: Utatlan,\nTzutuhil: Atitlan,\nAkahal: Tezolotlan.\n\nAccording to Mr. A. P. Maudslay\u2019s authoritative statement, these nations\nwere engaged in warfare against each other at the time of the Conquest.\nTezolotlan was termed the \u201ctierra de guerra\u201d the land of war, and the\nprecise locality of its tecpan or former capital has not been traced,\nalthough it seems to have been close to Rabinal or in the valley of that\nname.\n\nIt is well known that, under the rulership of Tizoc, the Mexicans extended\ntheir conquests into Guatemala. Buschmann has, moreover, proven that the\nforegoing names of the capitals, of what were at one time four provinces,\nare pure Nahuatl, which fact establishes the existence of Nahua supremacy\nin these regions.\n\nIt is curious to find that one of the Santa Lucia slabs seems to\ncommemorate the existence of a central rulership and that of the four\nquarters. It is reproduced in Mr. Strebel\u2019s publication already cited and\nrepresents a central personage holding a head and a tecpatl, whilst four\nlesser personages, each carrying a head, are figured as walking away in\nfour opposed directions. As, according to native symbolism, the head is\nthe symbol for chieftain this slab seems to commemorate the establishment\nand at all events testifies to the existence in Guatemala of the scheme of\ngovernment now so familiar.\n\nIn their Annals, the Cakchiquels record, as I have already shown, that\nthey carried their tribute to \u201cthe enclosure of Tulan,\u201d a designation\nwhich supports my inference, previously maintained, that Tulan was derived\nfrom the Maya tulum,=a fortification, an enclosed place or that which is\nentire, whole, etc., and applied always to the metropolis of a state.\n\nAn ancient Cakchiquel legend relates, moreover, that, according to the\n\u201cancient men,\u201d there had been four Tulans: one in the east, one in the\nnorth, one in the west and one \u201cwhere the god dwells.\u201d This would\nobviously have been situated towards the south in order to accord with the\ngeneral scheme. I cannot but think that this record testifies to the\nexistence of an extremely ancient state which starting from one metropolis\nhad gradually developed into four great Tullans, to one of which the four\ntecpans of Guatemala pertained. The fact that the Spaniards found the four\nnations living close together, with capitals or tecpans bearing Nahuatl\nnames and in constant warfare with each other, seems to indicate the\ndestruction of their own ancient metropolis or Tullan by their Mexican\nconquerors and the consequent disintegration of their former\ngovernment.(40)\n\nThe Mendoza Codex teaches us that when the Mexicans conquered a land they\nfirst burnt and utterly destroyed the teocallis situated in the heart of\nits central capital. They razed this to the ground, and carried off to\ntheir own metropolis the totemic images of the rulers of the tribe. The\nbarbarous institution of human sacrifice, which was only practised to a\ngreat extent by the Mexicans when the necessity to obtain more plentiful\nfood supplies for their rapidly increasing population forced them to\nbecome a nation of warriors and conquerors, seems indeed to have been\nadopted as a fear-inspiring, symbolical rite commemorating the conquest\nand destruction of an integral government.\n\nThe victim, usually a chieftain taken prisoner in warfare and clad with\nhis insignia and the raiment of his people, was stretched on the stone of\nsacrifice and, figuratively speaking, represented his country and its four\nquarters. The tearing out of his heart by the high-priest, armed with the\ntecpatl, the emblem of supreme authority, signified the destruction of the\nindependent life of his tribe as much as did the burning of the teocalli,\nand of its capital. It would seem as though the horrible custom of\nannually sacrificing one or more representatives of each conquered tribe,\nhad been adopted as a means of upholding the assumed authority, inspiring\nawe and terror and impressing the realization of conquest and utter\nsubjection. It is known that sometimes a member of a conquered tribe\nvoluntarily offered himself as a victim in order to release his people\nfrom their obligation, and thus earned for himself immortality.\n\nAn insight into the native association of ideas is afforded by Sahagun\u2019s\nnote that the lord or chieftain was \u201cthe heart of his Pueblo,\u201d which means\ntown as well as population. The death of the sacrificed chief, therefore,\nactually conveyed the idea of the destruction of the tribal government to\nhis vanquished subjects. It remains to be seen whether the subsequent\npartition of portions of his dead body amongst the priesthood and their\nritual cannibalism did not signify the absorption of the conquered\npopulation into the communal life of their victors. The preservation of\nthe victim\u2019s skull on the Tzompantli, as a register of the conquest of a\nchieftain, would also be the logical outcome of the native line of thought\nand symbolism.\n\nAt the risk of making a somewhat lengthy digression I will again refer\nhere to a point I have already touched upon, namely, the Mexican\nemployment of the human figure as an allegorical image of their Empire or\nState, the idea being that the four limbs represented its four\ngovernmental and territorial divisions and that these were governed by the\nhead=the lord of the Above or heaven, and the heart=the lord of the Below\nor earth. A careful study of the native Codices has shown me that such was\nthe native allegory which indeed can be further traced. The territory of a\nstate reproduced the organization of the human body with its four limbs,\neach of these terminating in minor groups of five.\n\nAccording to the same set of ideas the cursive image of a state could be\nconveyed by a main group of five dots, situated in the centre of four\nminor similar groups. Cross-lines expressing the partition into four\nquarters would complete such a graphic and cursive presentation of the\nscheme and not only signify its territorial but also its governmental\nfeatures. It is noteworthy that, in Nahuatl as in the Quechua, the title\nfor minor chief is homonymous with the word for fingers.\n\nThe Nahuatl pilli is a title for a chieftain or lord and also signifies\nchild and fingers or toes. A finger is ma-pilli, the prefix ma, from\nmaitl=hand, designating the fingers as the children of the hand. The thumb\nis qualified by the prefix uei=great.\n\nHaving gained a recognition of the above facts it is not difficult to\nunderstand the meaning of certain sceptres in the form of an open hand\nwhich occur as symbols of authority borne by chieftains in the native\nCodices.(41) I know of one important instance, indeed, where an arm with\nan open hand is represented as standing upright in the centre of a circle\ndivided into sections and zones (similar to fig. 28, nos. 1, 3, 5, and 6).\n\nThe above mentioned examples, which I shall illustrate later, have led me\nto infer that whilst the arm symbolized one of the four divisions of the\nState, the hand symbolized its capital, the thumb its central ruler and\nthe fingers his four officers or pilli, the rulers of the four quarters of\nthe minor seat of government. In another publication I shall produce\nillustrations showing that the foot was also employed as an emblem of rule\nand that Mexico, Yucatan and Central America furnish us with actual proofs\nthat the hands and the feet respectively symbolized the upper and lower\ndivisions of the State.\n\nIt is thus curious to compare the name for thumb=uei-ma-pilli and the name\nUei-mac (literally, great hand) which Sahagun gives as that of the\n\u201ctemporal\u201d coadjutor of the Mexican culture-hero Quetzalcoatl, as well as\nthe term, our toe=totecxopilli with the well-known title Totec=our chief\nor lord. In Yucatan the word for hand=kab is, as I shall demonstrate\nfurther on, actually incorporated in the title of the lords of the four\nquarters=Bakab. I am almost inclined to find a trace of a similar\nassociation in the Quechua word for fingers=pallca and the title palla\nbestowed upon noble women.\n\nI have already mentioned in the preceding pages that the natural basis of\nthe all-pervading native numerical division into 4\u00d75=20 was the finger and\ntoe count. The following table exhibits the general custom to designate 20\nas one man or one count.(42)\n\nWord for Man.                          Word for 20.\nNahuatl.      tlacatl.                cem-poualli=one count.\nQuich\u00e9     }\nand        }  uinay=one man.                uinay=  \"    \"\nCakchiquel }\nTzendal.      hun-uinic=one man.        hun-uinic=  \"    \"\nMaya.         uinic.                      hun-kal=  \"    \"\n\nIn the latter case the affix kal seems to be derived from the same source\nas the verb kal=to close up or fasten something, and to signify something\ncomplete or finished. At the same time the Maya uinal is the Maya name for\nthe twenty calendar-signs, and the same association is demonstrated as\nexisting in Mexico by the well-known picture in the Vatican Codex I (p.\n75), which represents a man surrounded by the twenty Mexican\ncalendar-signs.\n\nAs I shall treat of the same subject more fully in another publication, I\nshall but briefly touch upon the intimate connection there existed between\nthese calendar-signs and the twenty classes into which the population was\nstrictly divided. It is known that an individual received the name of the\nday on which he was born and it is possible to prove that this determined\nhis position in the commonwealth, his class and his future occupation.\nEach child was formally registered by the priestly statisticians at birth,\nand at about the age of six, when his name was sometimes changed, he\nentered one of the two educational establishments where he was brought up\nby the State, under the absolute control of the priesthood and rulers. It\ncan be gleaned that one of the chief cares of the latter was to maintain\nthe same average number of individuals in the distinct classes, to which\nthe various forms of labor were allotted and who became in time identified\nwith these. In order to keep the machinery of state in perfect adjustment,\nindividuals had sometimes to be transferred from the class into which they\nwere born, to another. In some cases this seems to have been arbitrarily\nordered by the authorities, but the latter appear to have guided\nthemselves by the position of the parents and to have established the\ncustom that an individual might alternatively be transferred into the\npaternal or maternal class, but not into any other. As each class was,\nmoreover, divided into an upper and lower one, it was possible for each\nperson to elevate himself from the lower to the higher by individual merit\nor to incur abasement, for unworthy conduct, and being, as we have already\nseen, \u201creduced to the official rank of women.\u201d\n\nThe direct outcome of such a form of organization was stringent laws\ngoverning marriage, it being expedient that certain classes only should\nintermarry, not only to avoid complications but also to ensure a certain\ndegree of co\u00f6peration conducive to the prosperity of the State. In the\ntribal laws still existing amongst the native tribes of North America, I\nsee the logical survivals of an ancient scheme of organization.\n\nAfter gaining the above recognition of some of the actual duties of the\npriest-rulers of ancient Mexico, it is possible to understand the meaning\nof the native sentence, noted by Sahagun, that the native games of patolli\nand tlachtli constituted a practice in \u201cthe art of government.\u201d From this\nit is clear that the former, played by two individuals with dice and\nmarkers upon a mat in the shape of a cross, and symbolical of the Four\nQuarters, was originally invented by the priest-rulers for an eminently\npractical purpose. The mat being an image of the quadruple state and its\nsubdivisions, it was possible to make it serve as a register-board\nexhibiting the distribution of the population, the number of individuals\nin each class and its death and birth rates. We are informed that when\nparents, according to the inflexible law, carried their newborn child to\nthe priest, he consulted his books full of day-signs and foretold what its\nfuture was to be.\n\nA proof that it was the positions of the stars which determined the season\nand furnished the means of fixing a date, is furnished by the fact that\nthe stars were also \u201cconsulted\u201d and believed to exert an influence upon\nthe destiny of the child.\n\nThe implicit faith in the predictions of the priests and in the absolute\ninfluence of the position of the heavenly bodies and the date of its birth\nupon the individual indicates that the parents were kept in ignorance as\nto the workings of the machinery of state and that the priesthood were\nreverenced for their power of prophecy. The belief that they could\npersonally exercise a favorable influence over the destiny of the child\nseems also to have been encouraged in the parents, since an offering of\ngifts at the period of registration was customary. After the Conquest,\nwhen the native government had been completely broken up, and the enforced\nregistration of birth and the prediction of the priest had utterly lost\ntheir original significance, native parents still consulted the surviving\nmembers of the priest-rulers; and these ancient statisticians, in order to\ngain a livelihood, continued to consult their books and uttered\npredictions as of yore, although their power to control their fulfilment\nhad vanished forever. Ancient Mexico thus furnishes us with an interesting\nand instructive explanation of the origin of divinatory practices,\nprognostication at birth, etc. It shows us that, under the ancient form of\nestablished government, the sign of the date of a child\u2019s birth actually\ndid control his future destiny, while it was unquestionably in the power\nof the priesthood, not only to predict his future, but also to exert a\nfavorable or unfavorable influence upon it.\n\nThe above facts help us to understand the origin not only of divination,\npropitiation and the belief in the influence of day-signs, but also of the\nnative games which became popular after the Conquest, when their original\nuse and meaning had become obsolete.\n\nDeferring further discussion of this interesting matter I will but draw\nattention to Mr. Stewart Culin\u2019s important study of \u201cAmerican Indian\nGames,\u201d(43) which clearly establishes their \u201cinterrelation\u201d and at the\nsame time proves that they were based, as first distinctly insisted upon\nby Dr. Daniel G. Brinton, on the central idea and that of the four\nquarters of the world. Mr. Culin has gone so far as to fix the place of\norigin of the \u201cplatter or dice class of games which he has found recorded\nas existing among some 61 American tribes, in the arid region of the\nsouthwestern United States and Northern or Central Mexico,\u201d and to\nconceive that \u201cin ancient Mexico we find traces of its highest\ndevelopment.\u201d\n\nI place the utmost value upon Mr. Culin\u2019s painstaking and conscientious\nresearches and regard them as strongly corroborating my views exposed in\nthe preceding pages. His identification of the pictured diagram in the\nF\u00e9j\u00e9rvary Codex, as the counting circuit of the Four Quarters, with a\npresiding god in the middle, as in Zu\u00f1i, does credit to his perspicacity.\nI agree with him in considering that this chart could have been employed\nafter the Conquest for a game or for divination, but trust that, upon\nperusal of this paper, he will admit that primarily the F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary diagram\nexpressed the native scheme of government and the calendar, which was no\nother than a means of ruling the classes by binding each of these to a\nspecial day and totemic sign. Each of the twenty classes or clans had its\nday, known by a particular sign which was also its totemic mark. As the\nday-signs recurred periodically, the chief or head of each clan became its\nliving representative, assumed a totemistic costume and became the \u201cliving\nimage of the ancestral teotl,\u201d or god of his people, of whose activity he\nrendered account to the central government. It is significant that the\ncommon native title for lords or chieftains was \u201ctlatoque,\u201d literally,\n\u201cthe speakers,\u201d and that they were closely designated as the spokesmen of\nhis people, who habitually kept silence in his presence.\n\nThe fact that the names and signs of the days are identical with the\ntotemic tribal distinctions imposed for governmental reasons, is one which\nI shall proceed to demonstrate more fully. Meanwhile attention is now\ndrawn to the chapter on the 7-day period in Dr. Daniel G. Brinton\u2019s\n\u201cNative Calendar of Central America and Mexico,\u201d in which he surmises that\nthe tribal divisions of the Cakchiquels \u201cwere drawn from the numbers of\nthe Calendar.\u201d\n\nAccording to the native records the institution of the Calendar was\nsimultaneous with that of tribal organization and a minute study of both\nfeatures reveals that it could not have been otherwise.\n\nFrom the dawn of their history the Cakchiquels, as I have already shown,\nwere divided into thirteen divisions of warriors (Khob, constituting the\nupper class) and seven tribes (Amag, constituting the lower class). A\ntotem and a day being assigned to each division and tribe, they were, once\nand for all time, placed in a definite position towards each other and\ntowards the state, and the order in which their chieftains were to sit in\ngeneral council, and to assume or perform certain duties, was thus\ninstituted. The 20-day period thus constituted a \u201ccomplete count\u201d and\nsynopsis of the \u201cthirteen divisions of warriors and seven tribes,\u201d but it\nalso fulfilled other not less important purposes.\n\nThe day-signs were so ordered that the first, eleventh and sixteenth were\nmajor signs employed to designate the years, and identified with the four\nquarters, elements and their respective colors. The 20-day period,\nconsisting as it also did of 4 major signs and of 4\u00d74=16 minor signs, was\nas closely linked to the idea of the Four Quarters as it was to the Above\nand Below, represented by the 13+7 division. It is therefore evident that\na simultaneous reckoning of periods consisting of 5, 7, 13, and 20 days\nwas ingeniously combined. I shall show in my special treatise how \u201cthe\nlords of the Night\u201d employed in their astronomical calendar, 9-night and\n9-moon periods for purposes of their own and how these also served to\ncarry out certain ideas of organization, controlling persons. Although it\nembodied the results of long-standing primitive astronomical observation\nand accorded with the seasons and movements of the celestial bodies, the\nnative Calendar was primarily a governmental institution, designed to\ncontrol the actions of human beings and bring their communal life in\naccord with the periodical movements of the heavenly bodies.\n\nIn my Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System, communicated to the\nInternational Congress of Americanists at Stockholm, in 1894, I stated\ncertain historical and astronomical facts which showed that the New Cycle,\nwhich began in 1507 with the year Acatl, had commenced on March 14th three\ndays after the vernal equinox and that this delay had obviously been\nintentional, in order to wait for the new moon, which fell on March 13th\nat 11.40 A. M., and the planet Venus, \u201cwhich was possibly visible both as\nmorning and evening star between March 14th and 18th.\u201d The above facts,\nwhich have remained unchallenged since their publication, afford an\ninsight into the astronomical attainments of the sun-priests and moon and\nstar-priests and show an evident desire to begin a new era at a favorable\ntime, when there was a conjunction of the heavenly bodies. Thus the terms\nof office of the lords of the Above and Below were entered upon and the\nmachinery of state set into motion, in unison with striking celestial\nphenomena. It is impossible not to realize how great must be the antiquity\nof a system which, evolving from the rudimentary, ceremonial division of a\ntribe into seven parts, as a consequence of its primitive observation of\nthe Septentriones, developed into a great and complex government dominated\nand pervaded by the abstract conceptions of the seven-fold divisions of\nthe Above, Below, Middle and Four Quarters.\n\nDeferring further comment I will proceed to demonstrate the practical\nvalue, for governmental purposes, of the classification of a community\ninto twenty divisions with as many representative heads, their\nlocalizations at given points of the compass, and association with a\ncalendar-sign and day, and will only refer to what I have already\npublished in my Note on the Calendar, namely, how, by means of the\ncombination of 13 numerals with the 20 signs, a unit of 260 days was\nobtained, and how each sign was combined but once with the same number,\nand a perfect system of rotation of periods, regulating office, labor,\netc., was instituted. It is not possible for me to enlarge here upon the\nfeatures and merits of the system which I do not hesitate to term one of\nthe most admirable and perfect achievements of the human intellect. My\npresent purpose is to lay stress upon the fact that, in Mexico, the major\ncalendar-signs were borne as titles by the rulers of the four quarters who\npresided in rotation over a year\u2014the name of this and of their title being\nalways in correspondence.\n\nNezahualcoyotl, the lord of Tezcoco, is recorded as possessing the title\nOme Tochtli=2 Rabbit, and would obviously have presided over the calendar\nperiods of that name. This inference is undoubtedly corroborated by Nu\u00f1ez\nde la Vega\u2019s following statement, quoted by Boturini:(44)\n\n\u201cInstead of the Mexican signs Acatl, Tecpatl, Calli and Tochtli, the\nTzendals, inhabiting Chiapas, employed in their Calendar the names of four\nof their chieftains: Votan, Lambat, Been and Chinax.... They also figured\na man named Coslahuntax, as seated in a chair....\u201d Boturini remarks that\nthis person should more correctly be named Imos or Max and was \u201cthe head\nof the 20 lords who were the symbols of the 20 days of the Calendar. Being\nthe principal and initial sign, Coslahuntax represented in himself the\nperiod of thirteen days.\u201d As Dr. Brinton rightly notes(45) the name of the\npersonage should be Oxlaghun tax, literally signifying \u201cthe thirteen\ndivisions or parts.\u201d\n\nWe thus see that, whilst the names of the chiefs of the four quarters\nconstituted the four major calendar-signs, one supreme lord embodied the\nattributes or \u201cpowers\u201d of the 13 divisions of warriors and principal\ndivision. Thus the 13 divisions seem to have been regarded as 12 plus an\nall-embracing 1.\n\nNu\u00f1ez de la Vega continues: \u201cIn the representations of their calendar they\npainted seven black persons, corresponding to the seven days of their\nreckoning.\u201d Boturini adds: these seven black men were no other than the\nprincipal priest-rulers of this nation.... \u201cThey held in great veneration\nthe \u2018lord of the black men,\u2019 who was entitled Yal-ahua.\u201d Boturini comments\non this utterance and explains that the latter was no other than the\nhigh-priest.\n\nI point out the evident identity of Yal-ahua to the Mexican\nYoal-tecuhtli=the lord of the Night, one of the titles given to Polaris\nand to his earthly representative, the high priest of the Earth and\nnocturnal cult. As already explained this personage bore in Mexico the\nfemale title, Cihuacoatl=Woman-serpent; but we also find this name for the\nearth-mother alternating with Chicome-coatl=literally, seven serpents. In\nBeltran de la Rosa\u2019s \u201cArte Maya\u201d we find the word \u201cAhaucchapat,\u201d\ntranslated as \u201cSerpent with seven heads\u201d and are thus led to infer that\nthe Mexicans and Mayas had conceived the image of a \u201cserpent with seven\nheads\u201d as an allegory of the seven tribal divisions united in one body and\nbestowed this title to the representative of the Earth-cult, the high\npriest of the Below. It follows that, just as the number 13 resolves\nitself into 12+1, so the mystic number 7 proves to have been considered as\n6+1, precisely what might be expected as the natural sequence of the\nderivation of the number from a circumpolar constellation, consisting of\nseven stars, one of which was Polaris. Nu\u00f1ez de la Vega and Boturini\u2019s\ntestimony teaches us that the Tzendals were organized into twenty\ndivisions and that thirteen of these were embodied in one chief, while the\nseven others, associated with black, were personified by the high priest.\nThe information that one individual was thus believed to unite in his\nperson the attributes of several classes and that the lords of the four\nquarters and each of the twenty divisions bore names which were also\ncalendar-signs, gain in value when it is realized that, in the opinion of\nDrs. Schellhas and Brinton, the invention of the native Calendar system\nmay probably be assigned to the ancient inhabitants of Chiapas, where the\nTzendals now dwell.(46) In treating of the ruins of Palenque situated in\nthis region, I shall again refer to the Tzendals.\n\nMeanwhile, let us examine the Cakchiquel tradition about Cucumatz, the\nsorcerer chief of the Quich\u00e9s, since it also treats of the 7-day period.\nWe are told that he \u201cascended to heaven for seven days and descended into\nthe under world for seven days and then assumed, in rotation, four\ndifferent animal forms during as many periods of seven days.\u201d\n\nIt is impossible not to recognize from this that, like the Zu\u00f1is of\nto-day, the Quich\u00e9s \u201csymbolized the terrestrial sphere by referring to the\nfour cardinal points, to the zenith and nadir, the individual himself\nmaking the seventh number,\u201d and that Cucumatz, who was evidently the high\npriest and head of the seven tribes, assumed the totemistic attributes of\neach of these, in rotation, for periods of seven days each. In this case\nwe have an interesting and suggestive variant of the scheme and it\nsuggests the possibility that, possibly actuated by ambition, Cucumatz had\ngrasped and united in his person the prerogatives of the chiefs or heads\nof each tribe. On the other hand, it may be that it was the original\ncustom for the high priest to be a sort of animated calendar sign in\nunison with the separate chiefs of each tribe, who represented, in\nrotation, the totemistic ancestors of their people.\n\nHaving shown how the lords of the Four Quarters were indissolubly linked\nto the four major calendar-signs which also symbolized the elements, let\nus examine the data establishing that the capital of each of the four\nprovinces was named a tecpan. From Duran I have already quoted that in the\nMexican metropolis there were two tecpans or official houses in which the\naffairs of the government were attended to and councils held. It is\nsignificant that one of these was named \u201cthe tecpan of men\u201d and the other\n\u201cthe tecpan of women.\u201d Whilst the metropolis, the seat of the dual\ngovernment, thus had its two tecpans which were presided over by the two\nsupreme rulers, we have learned from other sources of the four tecpans in\nGuatemala and that Texcoco, near the city of Mexico, was also termed a\ntecpan and that its ruler bore as a title one of the four major\ncalendar-signs. These facts explain his position and the reason why the\n\u201clord of Texcoco\u201d was one of four lords who supported Montezuma when he\nmet Cort\u00e9s in full state. A careful investigation of the derivation and\ntrue significance of the word tecpan yields interesting results.\nCen-tecpan-tli means, a count of twenty persons; the verb tecpana\nsignifies, \u201cto establish something in concerted order; to establish order\namongst people.\u201d The verb tecpancapoa means, to count something in regular\norder.\n\nThe Maya verb tepal=to govern or reign, or to be \u201cone who mediates,\u201d\nappears to be allied to the above Nahuatl words and it is not unlikely\nthat the employment of the flint-knife or tecpatl as an emblem of office\nhad been suggested by the fact that its Nahuatl name resembles, in sound,\nthe above words formed with tecpan, and also the Maya verb tepal. It thus\nconstituted a bilingual rebus, expressing the sense=to govern, to rule, to\nregulate, etc., and, employed as the symbol of the North and Polaris, it\nconveyed the idea that the latter was not only the producer of life but\nthe regulator of the Universe.\n\nFrom the fact that a tecpan constituted a minor integral whole and\ncomprised the rule over twenty classes of people, we see that whilst the\nfour provincial tecpans were in themselves miniature reproductions of the\nmetropolis, they but filled the same position in relation to this as the\nfour limbs to the body of a man or quadruped. A final proof of how\ncompletely this analogy was recognized by the native rulers is furnished\nby the Maya titles which embody the word kab=arm and hand.\n\nIt has already been mentioned in the preceding pages that the rulers of\nthe four quarters were entitled Ba-cab and that in the Dresden Codex an\nimage of the four quarters was figured by four bones. The word for bone\nbeing bac and for arm being kab, it is obvious that the arm-bone or\nhumerus would furnish a rebus, expressing the title of the four Bacabs\u2014a\nconclusion which throws light upon the signification of the cross-bones of\nnative pictography and also of the incised and decorated human arm and leg\nbones which have been found in Mexico and Yucatan.\n\nAt the same time the word kab also recurs in the title Ah-Cuch-Cab which\nsignifies \u201cthe ruler or chief of a town or place,\u201d Cuchil being the name\nof the latter. Both of these words so closely resemble cuxabal and cuxtal,\nthe word for \u201clife,\u201d that it is not impossible that the native mind often\nassociated the town as a centre of life, and thought of their chief as one\nwhose symbol was a \u201clife-dispensing hand.\u201d In order to grasp the full\nsignificance of the symbol of the hand in Maya sculptured and written\nrecords it is necessary to bear these facts in mind.\n\nIn 1895 Mr. Teobert Maler unearthed in the centre of the public square at\n\u201cEl Seibal,\u201d Guatemala, a sculptured stela exhibiting the figures of a\nchieftain over whose head an open hand was carved. It is impossible not to\ninterpret this as a mark that the chieftain had once been the ruler of a\ntown and that this, in turn, was one of four minor capitals belonging to a\ncentral metropolis. A hand, enclosed in quadrangular lines and represented\non the garment of a chieftain, was found by Dr. Le Plongeon at Uxmal, and\nI believe that this should be interpreted in the same manner.\n\nIn my essay on Ancient Mexican Shields (Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr\nEthnographie, band V, 1892) I reproduced two interesting instances of the\nemployment, as the name-sign of a ruler in native pictography, of a hand\non the palm of which an eye is depicted. The effigy of a hand, the sacred\nKab-ul, which was kept in a place in Yucatan to which people from all\nquarters resorted regularly in great numbers, resolves itself into the\nsymbol of an ancient capital to which great high-roads led from the\ncardinal points. But important as this capital may have been, its\nconnection with the hand-symbol proves that it was originally one of four\nminor centres and formed but a part of a greater whole. It would\ncorrespond to the image, in one of the native Codices, of a subdivided\ncircle with an arm and hand standing in its middle, and its Bacab would\nundoubtedly have carried a sceptre in the shape of an open hand, such as\ndepicted in the Codices as a staff of office.\n\nWhile we thus find the human figure distinctly associated with the lords\nof the four quarters of the Above we find the four lords of the Below,\nentitled Chac, symbolized by the quadruped figure of the native\njaguar=chacoh, associated with the color red=chac and with rain, storms,\nthunder and lightning, all of which phenomena were, singly and\ncollectively, termed Ch\u00e1c.\n\nIf ever there has been an instance where language or the resemblance in\nsound of certain words has caused certain symbols to amalgamate with a\nname or title, it is surely this, and light is thereby thrown upon the\ndevelopment of symbolism and associations of thought amongst primitive\npeople.\n\nThe Chacs of Yucatan were identical with the Tlalocs, the octli or rain\nlords of Mexico, whose function, as votaries of earth-cult, was the\nregulation of agriculture, irrigation and the collection and distribution\nof all products of the soil. It is interesting to trace that, in other\nregions of Yucatan, presumably where no chacohs or jaguars existed, the\nminor rulers of provinces seem to have been termed ocelots=Balam, a title\nfound associated with Maya rulership.\n\nWith the foregoing data in mind it is easy to grasp the meaning of the\ntalon of a beast of prey, employed as an emblem of rank or office in the\nnative Codices or bas-reliefs and to perceive that this was the symbol of\na Chac or Balam, one of the four lords of the earth or Below, just as the\nhand was that of the lords of the Above. The complete image of the dual\nState is thus shown to have consisted at one time of an ideal group\nconsisting of a man with a beast of prey, a jaguar or ocelot. In Mexico we\nhave the man-bird and the man-ocelot respectively representing the rulers\nof the two great divisions of the State.\n\nAt Chichen-Itza and elsewhere in Yucatan sculptured figures of ocelots\nsupporting circular vessels have been found and there are interesting\ninstances of the combination of the human figure with ocelot=Balam\nattributes. One monolithic figure, discovered at Chichen-Itza by Mr. A. P.\nMaudslay, and belonging to the category of the recumbent statues bearing\ncircular vase-like receptacles, already described, exhibits a human head\nand form, whilst the body is covered with a spotted skin. In the\nsculptured image of Mictlan-tecuhtli (fig. 19) a human head is accompanied\nby limbs of equal length-terminating in wild beasts\u2019 talons. The positions\nof the limbs are better understood when compared with the following\nillustration, to which I shall revert (fig. 51). Meanwhile, I shall merely\nremark that in both of these curious bas-reliefs we seem to have images of\nthe quadruple terrestrial and celestial governments. Fig. 51, which is a\ncorrected drawing of one of those contained in Leon y Gama\u2019s \u201cDescripcion\nde las dos Piedras,\u201d furnishes an interesting example, in accord with the\nimage of Mictlantecuhtli, of the employment of the group of five as a\nsymbol of the centre and four quarters, and exhibits four limbs associated\nwith four heads (the quarters and their chiefs), while the hands hold two\nother heads, symbolical of the dual rulers of the State.\n\nTwo facts which throw an interesting light upon the growth of native\nsymbolism are worth mentioning here. As a symbol on the head of\nMictlan-tecuhtli, the lord of the North, two representations of a\ncentipede are distinguishable. In Nahuatl the name of this is\n\u201ccentzonmaye,\u201d literally, four hundred hands. It can thus be seen that the\nidea of one body with a multitude of hands had occurred to the native\nphilosophers as a suitable allegory for their conception of a central\ncelestial and terrestrial rule which guided the activity of innumerable\nappointed hands and dispensed, through these, not only life and favors but\nalso death or chastisement.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 51.\n\n\nBefore proceeding farther we must consider tree-symbolism in ancient\nAmerica. According to Molina the Inca Yupanqui (surnamed the left-handed)\nordered the temple of Quisuar-cancha to be made: quisuar=a tree, the\n_Buddleia Incana_, cancha=place of. Salcamayhua (_op. cit._, p. 77), who\nattributes the building of this temple to Manco Capac, states that these\ntwo trees, which were in the temple, \u201ctypified his father and mother ...\nand he ordered that they should be adorned with roots of gold and silver\nand with golden fruit. Hence they were called Ccurichachac Collquechachac\nTampu Yracan, which means that the two trees typified his parents, that\nthe Incas proceeded from them like fruit from the trees, and that the two\ntrees were as the roots and stems of the Incas. All these things were\nexecuted to record their greatness.\u201d This passage is of utmost value, for\nit conveys to us not only that the Incas kept a record of their male and\nfemale ancestry and respectively associated the male and female elements\nwith gold and silver, but also establishes the important point that the\ntree was employed as an emblem of the life and growth of a lineage or\nrace.\n\nThis fact is particularly interesting if collated with the Mexican\ntree-symbols. In the F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary diagram (fig. 52), we find a different kind\nof tree and two totemic figures assigned to each quarter, which indicates\nthat the inhabitants of each of the four provinces were regarded as of a\ndistinct race. The top of each tree spreads itself into two branches and,\nwith one exception, each of these bears three blossoms or leaves denoting,\nit would seem, the division of a tribe into 2\u00d73=6 parts.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                Figure 52. Copy of p. 44, F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary Codex.\n\n\nThe majority of tree-symbols, however, exhibit a quadruplicate division as\nin fig. 53, nos. 1, 4 and 7. At the same time it is impossible not to\nrecognize that each example renders in a graphic manner the organization\nof a tribe. In nos. 2 and 8, for instance, we find that each of the four\nbranches was again subdivided, yielding eight subdivisions instead of\nfour. In no. 3, we have quadruple branches, a pair of recurved spikes with\nbuds and a central bud, the idea of duality repeating itself in the trunk\nof the tree, one-half of which above ground is white, whilst the other\nbelow ground is dark. The obvious allusion is to the Above and Below and\nthis idea is further symbolized by the head of the coatl=serpent or twin.\nIn this figure there is a hint of the existence of an idea I have found\nexpressed in other cases, namely, that a mystic line of demarcation\nexisted at the base of a tree, which separated its upward from its\ndownward growth. This was the seat of the life of the tree, which sent its\ntrunk and crown heavenwards and its roots and rootlets earthwards. The\nfact that the juice of the agave or maguey was collected from the core of\nthe plant seems to be at the bottom of its adoption as the sacred and\nceremonial \u201cdrink of life,\u201d which was, subsequently, carefully prepared\nand fermented. The idea that a tree enclosed male and female elements\nseems to have been also a strong one and would, in course of time,\ndoubtlessly have led to the conception of superhuman beings in human form,\ndwelling in trees. What is more, the adoption by each tribe of a\nparticular sort of tree, a custom amply proven, would naturally lead to a\nspecies of tree-cult or veneration which, amongst the uninitiated, might\nlead to a form of worship of the tree itself.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 53.\n\n\nThe ceremonial presentation of single leaves of the same kinds as those\nrepresented on the trees, as in fig. 53, no. 6, proves that underlying\nthese picture-writings there is far more meaning than has heretofore been\nsuspected or recognized. It is not possible for me to present here all the\nmaterial I have collected on this subject which will be set forth in a\nfuture monograph. I will, however, direct attention to the peculiar\ntreatment in fig. 53, no. 1, of the tree trunk which is enlarged and forms\na quadriform figure. In no. 4, the trunk enlarges to the shape of a head;\nin no. 2 the tree grows from a human head and two young shoots issue from\neach side of the trunk, seemingly indicating a fresh growth in tribal\nlife. In no. 5, we have an example of a human figure lying at the base of\na tree and a fifth leaf growing in the centre of the treetop. Directing\nattention to the evident care taken in representing an equal number of\nbranches pointing upwards and downwards I would cite here an extremely\ninteresting representation of a tree in the Borgian Codex. In this case\nthe trunk issues from a conventionally drawn heart, figured in the centre\nof the symbol for sky or heaven. As the Nahuatl for heart is yul-lotl,\nfrom the verb yuli=to live, to resuscitate, the idea is distinctly\nconveyed that the tree was that of life=yuli and proceeded from the\ncelestial centre of life, Polaris or the Heart of Heaven, a native title\nfor the Supreme Being.(47)\n\nIn the Telleriano-Remensis MS., a \u201ctree of Paradise,\u201d so termed in the\ntext, is figured, and there are, in other Codices, various examples of\ntrees encircled with serpents, where it is obvious that this combination\nwas made in order to express, phonetically, that a celestial tree was\nintended, the word kan=serpent, being made to express kaan=heaven. A\ncelestial tree, situated at the pole and bearing in some cases seven and\nin others five blossoms, was frequently depicted and its symbolism is\nobvious. In my commentary on the Hispano-Mexican MS. \u201cThe Lyfe of the\nIndians,\u201d the \u201cGods,\u201d \u201cFive Flowers,\u201d and \u201cSeven Flowers,\u201d will be treated\nin detail.\n\nFrom Sahagun and Olmos we learn that the Mexicans employed the image of a\ntree, metaphorically, to signify a lord, governor, progenitor, first\nancestor. Relations are designated as \u201cissuing from one trunk.\u201d A branch\nis literally termed \u201cthe arm of the tree,\u201d kab-ch\u00e9. Two kinds of trees,\nthe Puchutl and Aueuetl, signified, metaphorically, \u201ca father, mother,\nlord, captain or governor who were, or are, like shade-giving, sheltering\ntrees\u201d (Olmos).\n\nThe above metaphors explain the frequent association of a head, the symbol\nof a chief or lord, with the tree symbols. It is noteworthy that in\nNahuatl, the name for head=quaitl, is singularly like quauitl=tree, and\nalso recalls the word for serpent=coatl, facts which may have somewhat\nguided the choice and association of these symbols. The native metaphors\nrecorded by Olmos, moquauhtia=an honored person or lord who has vassals or\ndependents, and atlapalli=literally, leaf=a person of the lower class, a\nworker, initiate us still further into the meaning of the native symbolism\nand prove the antiquity of this, since the designation of a chief as a\ntree and a vassal as a leaf was in current use. The presentation of the\ntree issuing from a heart=yul-lotl is moreover, in perfect keeping with\nnative thought, since the chieftain or lord was entitled \u201cthe heart, or\nlife of the town or population.\u201d\n\nThe meaning of the bird, which is represented as perched on each of the\nfour trees in the F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary diagram, is likewise explained by the\nmetaphors recorded by Olmos who states that, \u201ca son or child or a much\nbeloved lord or chieftain was compared to a beautiful and precious bird,\nsuch as the Quetzal, the Roseate Spoonbill, the Blue-bird, etc., etc.\u201d\nSurmounting the tribal trees in the diagram, the birds therefore typify\nthe lords of the four provinces and this is corroborated by the fact that\neach different bird is figured again in the corner-loops in combination\nwith the symbols of the cardinal points. The association of the symbols\nfor lord or chief=the head, and the precious bird with the tribal tree\nalso explains the frequent representation, in the native Codices, of one\nor two serpents entwined around the tree, since the serpent was the symbol\nin Mexico of the dual rulers or high-priests of the Above and Below. There\nis ample proof, which shall be presented in full in my monograph on this\nsubject, that the above metaphorical images were as intelligible to the\nMayas and other tribes, as to the Mexicans themselves, for the identical\nmetaphors and imagery were in widespread general use. The following data\nwill corroborate this statement.\n\nA Maya native drawing, copied by Cogolludo in 1640 from the MS. of the\nChilan Balam or Sacred Book of Man, which relates the history of the\nMayas, has been recently reproduced in Dr. Daniel G. Brinton\u2019s Primer of\nMaya Hieroglyphics, p. 47. It displays a rectangular stone slab like a\ntable, on the centre of which rests a circular bowl, the symbol, as I have\nshown, of the earth and centre. Growing from this is a spreading tree.\n\nIt is a curious and undeniable fact that the Maya name for table is mayac,\nand that the dictionaries contain the words mayac-tun, stone-table, and\nmayac-ch\u00e9, wooden, literally, tree-table. Familiarity with the native\nmodes of rebus-writing leads to the inference that this picture of a tree\nand table, expressing the sounds mayac-ch\u00e9, actually signified the tree of\nthe Mayas and therefore figured in the book relating their history. Bishop\nLanda records that the Mayas believed in a beautiful celestial tree,\nresembling the ceiba and named yax-ch\u00e9, literally, green tree, under whose\nshade they would repose in after-life. Abb\u00e9 Brasseur de Bourbourg surmises\nthat this tree was the same as the beautiful shade tree which grows in\nYucatan and Mexico and is named, in the latter country,\ntonacaz-quahuital=tree of our subsistence, _i. e._, life.\n\nA Maya name for the \u201ctree of life,\u201d ua-hom-ch\u00e9, next claims our\nattention.(48) A valuable old manuscript dictionary of the Maya language,\nquoted by Dr. Brinton, records that the word uah means \u201ca certain kind of\nlife.\u201d The word _hom_ is an ancient term for an artificial elevation,\nmound or pyramid, hence _homul_, the pyramid on which a temple was built.\nCombined with ch\u00e9, tree, the word seems to signify \u201cthe elevated or high\ntree of life,\u201d the idea of the celestial tree \u201con high,\u201d being possibly\nintended. In connection with this it is interesting to re\u00ebxamine fig. 20,\nIV, which represents a flat pyramid from which grows a four-petalled\nflower on a stalk with two leaves, the symbolism of which is apparent.\n\nI am inclined to connect another native name translated in the\ndictionaries by \u201ccross\u201d=zin-ch\u00e9 with zihil=to be born, to commence,\nzihnal=original, primitive, and zian=origin, generation, ancestry, and to\ninterpret it \u201cthe tree of ancestral or tribal life.\u201d On the other hand,\nthere is the adjective zinil=mighty, great, and the meaning of zin-ch\u00e9 may\nmerely mean \u201cthe mighty tree.\u201d In treating of the \u201ccross tablet\u201d of\nPalenque in the following pages, reference will be made to Dr. Brinton\u2019s\nidentification of the \u201ccross\u201d as a tree and tree symbolism referred to\nagain. Although unable to produce here all the data I have collected on\nthe subject, I think that the foregoing prove that the Peruvians, Mexicans\nand Mayas, employed the four-branched tree as an image of the organization\nand growth of their communal life, and utilized it in pictography as a\nmeans of recording changes of organization and statistics of increase or\ndecrease of population. The Maya word for \u201cone generation of men,\u201d uinay,\nliterally meaning \u201cone growth,\u201d seems to reveal that each generation was\npopularly thought of as one growth of leaves on the tree of state\u2014a simile\nwhich is worthy of note.\n\nOne more point remains to be considered in reference to the organization\nof the population into four parts, each of which consisted of four minor\nparts and so on; namely, the employment of color as a means of\ndifferentiation.\n\nIn Peru each person wore on the head a twisted cord, of the color of its\nquarter, whilst the Inca alone wore these colors combined, in the band\nwhich encircled his brow, as a sign that, in his person he united the\nrulership over the four provinces. Molina records the colors of these as\nred, yellow, white and black. In the titles of the Maya Bacabs, or lords\nof the provinces, as given by Landa, the words for yellow, red, white and\nblack, are found to be incorporated and prove to be identical with the\narrangement in Peru. In Mexico, on the other hand, we find red, yellow,\ngreen and blue as the colors of the Four Quarters, white and black being\nassigned to the Above and Below. All colors combined are to be found\nunited in symbols of the Centre and it is known that the use of\ncentzon-tilmatli and quachtli=mantles of four hundred colors=multicolored\nwere supplied as tributes to the capital, for the use of a privileged\ncaste. A somewhat similar arrangement to the Mexican is that of the Zu\u00f1is\nat the present time. According to Mr. Cushing, they assign yellow, blue,\nred and white to the cardinal points, speckled and black to the\nAbove=zenith and Below=nadir, and \u201call colours to the Middle or Centre.\u201d\n\nIn Peru, Mexico and Yucatan I have found scattered notices proving that\nindividuals habitually painted their bodies with their respective colors.\nThe Mexican \u201clords of the night\u201d smeared themselves with black. A passage\nin Sahagun (book I, chap. V) speaks of the whitening of the \u201cface, arms,\nhands and legs with \u2018ti\u00e7atl\u2019 \u201d=chalk, as though this were a habit of the\n\u201cnoblewomen.\u201d In the Codices some women are, in fact, represented with\nwhite faces, whilst those of the majority are painted yellow and it is\nknown that yellow ochre was employed in reality. I have, in preparation, a\nbrief, illustrated monograph showing the various modes of painting the\nface represented in the native pictorial records. In these, men painted\nred are of frequent occurrence, and it is known that the \u201cred man\u201d owed\nhis appellation to the custom of using red pigment on his body.\n\nLet us now briefly consider some of the results which inevitably followed\nthe establishment of two diverging cults which were the outcome of the\nprimitive recognition of duality and the artificial association of sex\nwith Heaven and Earth, Day and Night, etc. On pp. 60-62 I have cited\nevidence showing that at one time in the past history of the Aztecs,\nserious differences arose between the male and female rulers, and led to a\nseparation of the tribe and the establishment of two distinct centres of\ngovernment.\n\nThe native languages furnish strong indications that, in ordinary tribal\nlife, the separation of the sexes must have been generally enforced from\nremote antiquity and that male and female communities existed in various\nportions of the continent. It is well known that, to this day, the Nahuatl\ntongue spoken by the men is different from that spoken by the women, and\nthat the same duality of language prevails among other American tribes.\nWhen the male and female portions of the native states separated and\nfounded separate capitals it is obvious that each would have still further\ncultivated a separate language and that the institution of two distinct\ncults would have accentuated their differences and given a fresh impetus\nto their development. As will be shown, the Maya chronicles reveal that,\nin Yucatan, the nocturnal cult of the female principle degenerated into\nsuch abominations that the incensed population actually rose in revolt,\nmurdered the high-priests and scattered their votaries.\n\nIt was obviously owing to a recognition of the degradation attendant upon\nthe abuse of intoxicating drinks, which had played such a r\u00f4le in the cult\nof the earth-mother, that such stern laws were enforced in Mexico, at the\ntime of the Conquest, restricting and regulating the use of pulque. This\nwas distributed by the priests at certain festivals only. These and other\nrigid measures evidently dictated by a spirit of reform, as well as the\nclose union of both cults, seem to have efficiently maintained a certain\nequilibrium. At the same time two different moral standards were thus\ninevitably evolved by the votaries of both cults and naturally profoundly\naffected the position of woman. The dangers and evils attendant upon the\nearth-cult became irretrievably associated with the female sex and the\nvotaries of Heaven naturally came to regard woman as a source of\ntemptation and degradation. In ancient Mexico and Peru the celibacy of the\nsun-priests and of a certain number of noblewomen, \u201cthe Virgins of the\nSun,\u201d was enforced; thus, whilst the position of woman was being lowered\nin one caste by an artificial set of ideas, it was raised in the other by\nan equally fictitious association with the Above, which led, however, to\nher real elevation of mind and character and finally enforced a\nrecognition of her individuality. The consecration of her person, which\ncaused her to assume a position commanding universal homage, relieved her\nfrom heavy labor but caused her to be guarded and protected. She was thus\ncondemned to a still greater seclusion, the primary object of which was to\nremove her from possible contact with members of the lower earthly caste.\nFor, whilst ceremonial usage even required that the male members of the\nupper caste should associate in certain symbolical rites with the chief\nwomen of the lower order, it was a crime and a desecration for a man of\nthe latter caste to approach a woman of the nobility. These could only\nmarry in their own caste or remain celibate and were kept aloof from all\ndebasing influences, inside of protecting walls.\n\nReflection shows that such conditions would inevitably lead to the\nformation of a nobility whose ideal was celibacy and whose \u201cVirgins of the\nSun,\u201d by virtue of their consecration, ranked highest amongst the women of\nthe \u201ccelestial caste.\u201d Those who married did so in their own caste, led a\nlife of seclusion and always maintained a position of superiority over all\nwomen of the \u201cearthly caste.\u201d The latter, on the other hand, had the\nprerogative of being the representatives of their caste, since the cult of\nthe earth-mother necessitated a female representative, high-priestesses\nand also female chiefs in their own rights. We know that, in ancient\nMexico, an independent gynocracy had been founded at one time. From\ncertain native manuscripts and monuments we have positive evidence that a\nnumber of independent female chieftains ruled over minor communities and\nrepresented them officially, their rank and insignia being equal to that\nof the chiefs of male communities. At the same time, from the standpoint\nof the \u201cupper caste,\u201d the position and moral code of these \u201cvotaries of\nthe earth,\u201d were always viewed as inferior.\n\nAnother factor also exerted a marked and growing influence upon the\nrelative positions of the two classes of women. The enforced seclusion of\nthe noblewomen rendering out-door occupations or work impossible, it\nbecame necessary to relegate such to members of the lower caste who\ngradually constituted a class of domestic slaves, dedicated to the service\nof the nobility. In ancient Mexico, as a punishment for various crimes,\nsuch as murder, theft, etc., an individual, even of the upper class, was\nreduced to slavery as a punishment for his crime. The ranks of slaves were\nalso recruited from prisoners of war. On the other hand, the laws\nregulating slavery were just and mild, the children of slaves were born\nfree and various modes of regaining freedom were afforded to those held in\nbondage as an expiation for crime. The introduction of slaves\nnecessitating, as it did, their classification with the lower class, now\nassociated servitude with the female division of the community, and the\nidea arose that women and the lower class existed for the benefit of the\nmale element of the state and a favored minority of consecrated women.\n\nIf slavery and bondage came to be regarded on the one hand as a just\npunishment for crime, the idea of liberty shone as an incentive to good\nconduct. An eloquent proof of the high estimate in which personal freedom\nwas regarded by the ancient Mexicans, is furnished by the Nahuatl word,\nrecorded by Olmos, for \u201cfree man\u201d=xoxouhqui-yollotl, literally, \u201cfresh or\ngreen heart.\u201d This expression is of particular interest because it\nexplains a strange mortuary custom which consisted in placing a piece of\njade, chal-chihuitl, or precious green stone, in the mouth of a noble\nperson, after death, saying that it was \u201chis heart.\u201d In the case of the\nlower class a stone of little value, named texaxoctli, was employed. In\nancient Mexico, therefore, the presence of jade or any green stone, in a\ngrave, proved that the body was that of a free member of the upper caste.\nIt is evident that the employment of this significant emblem was suggested\nby the Nahuatl word for \u201cfreeman,\u201d and constituted a sort of rebus\nexpressing this title or rank.\n\nIn the Peabody Museum there are several specimens of jade celts, collected\nby Dr. Earl Flint in Nicaragua, which had been cut into two or more\npieces. Professor Putnam had the satisfaction of discovering that these\npieces from different graves fitted together. His inference that the stone\nmust have been rare and highly prized, probably from some motive connected\nwith native ritual, is fully supported by the explanation afforded by the\nexistence of the Nahuatl word. It is evident that, in order to provide a\ndead kinsman with the mark of his rank, a living chief would gladly have\ndivided his own celt of jade, if, for some reason or other, no other green\nstone was forthcoming at the time of burial.\n\nLet us now rapidly enumerate a few facts which prove that not only burial\ncustoms but also social organization and numerical divisions were carried\nnorthward from the southern cradle of ancient American civilization. I\nshall make two statements only, hoping that competent authorities on North\nAmerican tribal organization, and amongst them, my esteemed friend and\ncolleague, Miss Alice C. Fletcher, will supply a number of authoritative\nreports on these matters.\n\nReferring to the writings of Horatio Hale, whose comparatively recent loss\nwill long be deeply felt by all students of aboriginal history and\nlanguages, I quote the following sentences from his interesting pamphlet\non \u201cFour Huron Wampum records,\u201d published, with notes and addenda by Prof.\nE. B. Tylor of Oxford, in 1897.\n\n\u201cThe surviving members of the Huron nation, even in its present broken,\ndispersed and half extinct condition, still retain the memory of their\nancient claim to the headship of all the aboriginal tribes of America\nnorth of Mexico.... The Hurons or Wendat, as they should be properly\nstyled, belonged to the important group or linguistic stock, commonly\nknown, from its principal branch, as the Iroquoian family and which\nincludes, besides the Huron and Iroquois nations, the Attiwendaronks, the\nEries, Andastes, Tuscaroras and Cherokees, all once independent and\npowerful nations.\u201d (I draw attention to the detail that these nations were\nseven in number.) Gallatin, in his \u201cSynopsis of the Indian tribes,\u201d\nnotices the remarkable fact that while the \u201cFive Nations\u201d or Iroquois\nproper were found by Champlain, on his arrival in Canada, to be engaged in\ndeadly warfare with all the Algonquian tribes within their reach, the\nHurons, another Iroquoian nation, were the head and principal support of\nthe Algonquian confederacy. In the \u201cFall of Hochelaga,\u201d Horatio Hale sets\nforth the reasons which led to the division of the Hurons and Iroquois,\nwho had formerly dwelt together in friendly unison. The latter, retreating\nto the south and augmented by other refugees, became the \u201cFive Confederate\nNations.\u201d\n\nThe \u201ckingdom of Hochelaga,\u201d as Cartier styles it, comprised, besides the\nfortified city of that name, the important town of Stadacon\u00e9 (commonly\nknown to its people as Canada or \u201cthe town\u201d) and eight or nine other towns\nalong the great river. According to their tradition the name of their\nleader, Sut-staw-ra-tse, had been kept up by descent for seven or eight\nhundred years.\n\n\u201cTowards the conclusion of a long and deadly warfare between the Iroquois\nconfederates and Canada as well as the Hurons a remarkable change had\ntaken place in their character; a change which recalls that which is\nbelieved to have been developed in the character of the Spartans under the\ninstitutions of Lycurgus, and the similar change which is known to have\nappeared in the character of the Arabians under the influence of\nMohammedan precepts. A great reformer had arisen in the person of the\nOnondaga chief, Hiawatha, who, imbued with an overmastering idea, had\ninspired his people with a spirit of self-sacrifice, which stopped at no\nobstacle in the determination of carrying into effect their teacher\u2019s\nsublime purpose. This purpose was the establishment of universal peace....\nThe Tionontat\u00e9 or Tobacco Nation seem to have made an alliance with the\nHuron nation....\n\n\u201cEight clans or gentes composed the Huron people and were found in\ndifferent proportions in all the tribes. These clans, called by the\nAlgonquians \u2018totems,\u2019 all bore the names of certain animals, with which\nthe Indians held themselves to be mythologically connected\u2014the bear, wolf,\ndeer, porcupine, snake, hawk, large tortoise and small tortoise. Each clan\nwas more numerous in some towns than in others, as it was natural that\nnear kindreds should cluster together.\n\n\u201cThe five Iroquois nations also had eight clans.... The Iroquois league is\nspoken of in their Book of Rites as kanasta-tsi-koma, \u2018the great\nframework\u2019 and the large, bent frame-poles of their council-house, the\nexact original shape of which is not known, were named kan-asta.\u201d\n\nAn examination of the signs woven in the famous wampum belts of the Hurons\nand Iroquois reveals some curious facts.\n\nOne of these treaty belts, described by Horatio Hale, commemorates an\nalliance formed between four nations. It exhibits four squares (fig. 54,\n_a_) \u201cwhich indicate, in the Indian hieroglyphic system, either towns or\ntribes with their territory.\u201d(49) This mode of representing a nation is of\nutmost interest, not only because it coincides with the Maya conception of\n\u201cthe quadrated\u201d earth but because it also reveals that, in North America,\nthe Indians associated a tribal organization with a quadriform. What is\nmore, an older belt, which is unfortunately incomplete, exhibits a central\noval (fig. 54, _b_) between a bird and a quadruped and three crosses with\na circle uniting their branches. The cross and circle, being a native\nsymbol for \u201can integral state,\u201d as definitely proven by the Maya map,\njustifies the suggestion that this symbol on the wampum belt may have had\nthe significance of \u201cnation\u201d and central government. It is remarkable that\nthe Iroquois central capital, Ho-che-laga, can be analyzed in the Maya\ntongue, as meaning five=_ho_, tree=_ch\u00e9_ or _hoch_=vase (symbol of centre)\nwhilst the terminal _laga_ might possibly be a form of _lacan_=banner, an\nobject so frequently associated with names of towns in Mexico, where it\nyields the sound pan and means on or above something.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 54.\n\n\nIt will be interesting and important to learn what \u201cHochelaga\u201d means in\nthe Iroquois language. The resemblance between the Maya and Iroquois\nsymbols for nation and tribal territory and of the names for capital might\neven be overlooked and treated as a coincidence merely, if the Iroquois\nname for the confederacy, kan-asta-tsik-o-ma did not also begin with the\nword kan, the Maya for four and for serpent. The same particle recurs in\nthe Iroquois name for the town=can-ada, a word which, in Maya, would\ndescribe a metropolis divided into four quarters.\n\nThe question naturally suggests itself whether the affix can, frequently\nmet with in Mexico combined with names of localities, was not of Maya\norigin and expressed also a centre of quadruple government. It occurs in\nthe Nahuatl name for metropolis to-tec-ua can and in Teoti-hua can, for\ninstance. The Nahuatl scholars have rendered its meaning as \u201cplace of.\u201d\n\nMr. Hale tells us that, amongst the \u201cFive Nations,\u201d the tradition exists\nthat the confederacy was originally divided into \u201cseven tribes,\u201d each of\nwhich was composed of 2\u00d74=8 gentes or clans. Another wampum belt he\nfigures exhibits a heart between 2\u00d72=4 squares, a symbol which would be\ninterpreted by a Mexican or Maya as well as by a Huron or Iroquois, as\nmeaning \u201cfour nations, one heart,\u201d the latter being as common a symbol for\nunion of rule or government or for chieftain, as a \u201chead.\u201d\n\nCombined with other testimony it seems impossible to evade the question\nwhether in remote times the Iroquois and Hurons had not shared in some way\nor other the civilization of the Mayas. If so the ancient\nearthwork-builders of the Ohio valley, who are authoritatively regarded as\nof southern origin by Professor Putnam, and whose art exhibits a strong\nresemblance to that of the Mayas, seem to constitute the missing link\nbetween the northeastern and the southeastern tribes. It is curious to\nfind that the terminal ch\u00e9, which occurs in the name Quich\u00e9 and which\nsignifies in Maya, tree, and, by extension, tribe, is preserved in the\nnames of the Nat-ch\u00e9-z tribe still inhabiting the Mississippi valley. It\nis also present in Coman-ch\u00e9, Apa-che, etc.\n\nIt is to be hoped that, before long, authorities who have made special\nstudies of the above tribes will make searching comparisons of their\nlanguages, social organization and symbolism with that of the Mayas, in\nparticular, it seeming evident that the coast communication along the gulf\nof Mexico, from Yucatan to the mouth of the Mississippi river, was not\nonly easy but was favored by sea-currents.\n\nIt is interesting to note that if we now proceed to the southwest of the\nUnited States and study the Pueblo people, we seem to find not only more\ndistinctly marked affinities between their customs, etc., and those of the\nMexicans, but also traces of similarity with certain Maya symbols.\n\nIn several important publications Dr. J. Walter Fewkes has made the\nvaluable observation that there are marked \u201cresemblances between a\nceremony practised [at the time of the Conquest] in the heart of Mexico\nand one still kept up in Arizona,\u201d and states that these \u201clead one to look\nfor likenesses in symbolism, especially that pertaining to the\nmythological Snake among the two peoples.\u201d He continues as follows: \u201cFrom\nthe speculative side it seems probable that there is an intimate\nresemblance between some of the ceremonials, the symbolism and\nmythological systems of the Indians of Tusayan and those of the more\ncultured stocks of Central America.... The facts here recorded look as if\nthe Hopi practise a ceremonial form of worship with strong affinities to\nthe Nahuatl and Maya.... I have not yet seen enough evidence to convince\nme that the Hopi derived their cult and ceremonials from the Zu\u00f1ians or\nfrom any other single people. It is probably composite. I am not sure that\nportions of it were not brought up from the far south, perhaps from the\nSalado and Gila by the Bat-kin-ya-m\u00fbh=\u2018Water people,\u2019 whose legendary\nhistory is quite strong that they came from the south.\u201d(50)\n\nDr. Fewkes frankly states that he \u201cknows next to nothing of the symbolic\ncharacters of the Mexican deities ...\u201d and quotes Mr. Bandelier\u2019s opinion\nthat \u201cthere are traces or tracks of the same mythological system and\nsymbolism amongst the Indians of the southwestern United States and the\naborigines of Central America.\u201d\n\nUnder the leadership of Mr. Frank H. Cushing let us now enter into the\nlife and thoughts of the modern Zu\u00f1is. After having traced certain ideas\nin Mexico and Peru, it is possible to recognize them again when we find\nthem in Mr. Cushing\u2019s valuable work, from which I shall quote somewhat at\nlength, referring the reader, however, to the original, for a fuller\nrealization of existing resemblances.(51)\n\nThe Zu\u00f1i creation-myth relates how the light of the Sun-father and a\nfoam-cap on the sea, caused the Earth-mother to give birth to\ntwin-brothers, Uanam Achi Piah-_koa_, \u201cthe Beloved Twain who descended.\u201d\nThe first was Uanam Ehkona=the beloved Preceder, the second Uanam Yaluna,\nthe beloved Follower; they were twin-brothers of light, yet elder and\nyounger, the right and left, like to question and answer in deciding and\ndoing.... The Sun-father gave them the thunderbolts of the four quarters,\ntwo apiece.... On their cloud-shield, even as a spider in her web\ndescendeth, they descended into the underworld ... (p. 381).\n\nPausing here for a moment, we note the curious fact that in the Zu\u00f1i name\nfor the twins we find _koa_, resembling the Nahuatl coatl=twin or serpent;\nthat the name of one brother Ehk-ona recalls the Mexican ec-atl=air, wind\nor breath, and the Maya ik=air, wind, breath, courage, spirit. The\nallotment of two quarters to each and the image of a spider employed to\nexpress their descent from heaven have counterparts in Nahuatl lore.\n\nThe \u201cTwain\u201d ... guided men upwards to become the fathers of six kinds of\nmen (yellow or tawny, grey, red, white, mingled and black).... The nation\ndivided itself into the winter or Macaw and the summer or Raven people....\n\u201cThe Twain beloved gathered in council for the naming and selection of man\ngroups and creature kinds, spaces and things. They determined that the\ncreatures and things of summer and the southern space pertained to the\nsouthern people or children of the producing Earth-mother; and those of\nthe winter and northern space to the winter people or children of the\nForcing or Quickening Sky-father.\u201d\n\nIt is impossible to do more than refer the reader to Mr. Cushing\u2019s account\nof the origin of totem clans and creature-kinds which bears such an\naffinity to the Peruvian, and obviously arose for the same practical\nreason, to serve as distinction marks for identification and\nclassification. \u201cAt first ... there were four bands of priest-keepers of\nthe mysteries: the Shiwana-kwe=priesthood of the priest-people;\nSa\u2019niah\u2019-ya-kwe=priesthood of the Hunt; Ach-iahya-kwe=great Knife people;\nNewe-kwe=keepers of the magic medicines.\u201d Out of these four divisions \u201call\nsocieties were formed, both that of the Middle and the twain for each of\nall six regions, constituting the tabooed and sacred 13.\u201d In another\npassage account is given of the marriage of a brother and sister, which\nproduced twelve children, the first of which, Hlamon, was man and woman\ncombined\u2014the 12 thus constituting in reality 13.\n\nOne of the most interesting portions of the Zu\u00f1i narrative is one which\nelucidates the motive which led to the migration of peoples in ancient\nAmerica. We are told how generations of the forefathers of the Zu\u00f1is\nwandered about in search of the stable middle of the earth, on which they\nwished to found their sacred city. The tribe divided; the winter-clan\njourneyed to the northeast and the summer-clan to the southwest, a reunion\nof the people took place, and a council was held for the determination of\nthe true Middle.... According to a myth the Sun-father requested the\nwater-skate to determine the Middle. This mythical monster lifted himself\nup, stretched out and then settled downward, calling out: \u201cWhere my heart\nand navel rest beneath them mark ye the spot and then build ye a town of\nthe midmost, for there shall be the midmost of the Earth-mother, even the\nnavel.... And when he descended squatting, his belly rested over the plain\nand valley of Zu\u00f1i and when he drew in his finger-legs, lo! there were the\ntrail roads leading out and in like the stays of a spider\u2019s net, into and\nforth from the place he had covered.\u201d\n\nPausing to point out that fig. 28, reproduced from Mexican Codices, shows\ncurious topographical drawings resembling a spider\u2019s net, I will not\nrecount the many disappointments of the wanderers, who were evidently\ndriven away from several places of settlement by earthquakes, but will\nrefer to the Zu\u00f1i custom of \u201cannually testing the stability of the Middle\nin middle time ... when the sun reached the middle between winter and\nsummer ... a shell was laid by the sacred fire of the north.... When\nduring solemn chanting no trembling of the earth ensued, the priests cast\nnew fire and ... dwelt happily feeling sure that their sacred things were\nresting in the stable middle of the world.\u201d\n\nAt the beginning of this paper I referred to the powerful hold that the\nrealization of the fixity of the pole star would naturally have exerted\nupon the mind of primitive man, and I can produce no more striking\nillustration of this and of my view that the idea of central government\nand organization had been suggested by Polaris, than this account of the\nearnest and prolonged search of these ancient people for the stable centre\nof the earth, on which to found a permanent centre of terrestrial rule or\nthe plan of the celestial government. At the same time it seems to me that\nthe longing for a stable and fixed residence would naturally have been\nmost intense amongst people who had experienced terrible earthquakes and\nbeen driven out of their original abodes by their repeated destruction. It\nis unnecessary to mention the well-known fact that whilst earthquakes\nprevail throughout North and Central America, the most impressive trace of\ncatastrophes of the kind are connected with the gigantic volcanoes of\nCentral Mexico and Guatemala.\n\nWith a sympathetic insight into the disasters which seem to have driven\nthe wandering tribes from one region to another and filled them with a\npassionate yearning for a centre of rest, let us now learn from Mr.\nCushing how they planned their metropolis and organized themselves, when\nthey had found the long-looked-for goal, in the Zu\u00f1i valley and \u201csettling\nthere, built seven great cities therein.\n\n\u201cAll their subtribes and lesser tribes were distinctively related to and\nruled from a central tribe and town through priest chiefs representatives\nof each of these, sitting under supreme council or septuarchy of the\n\u2018Master priests of the house\u2019 in the central town itself, much as were the\ndivisions and cities of the great Inca dominion in South America\nrepresented at and ruled from Cuzco, the central city and power of them\nall.\n\n\u201cZu\u00f1i is divided, not always clearly to the eye, but very clearly in the\nestimation of the people themselves, into seven parts, corresponding not\nperhaps in arrangement topographically, but in scheme to their\nsubdivisions of the worlds or world-quarters of this world. Thus one\ndivision of the town is supposed to be related to the north and to be\ncentred in its kiva or estufa which may or may not be at its centre;\nanother division represents the west, another the south, another the east;\nyet another the upper world and another the lower world; while a final\ndivision represents the middle or mother and synthetic combination of the\nall in the world.\n\n\u201cBy reference to the early Spanish history of the pueblos, it may be seen\nthat when discovered the Ashiwis or Zu\u00f1is were living in seven quite\nwidely separated towns the celebrated seven cities of Cibola and that this\ntheoretic subdivision of the only one of these towns now remaining is in\nsome manner a survival of the original subdivision of the tribes into\nseven into as many towns. It is evident that in both cases, however, the\narrangement was and is, if we may call it such, a mythic organization;\nhence my use of the term of mytho-sociologic organization of the tribe. At\nall events this is the key to their sociology as well as to their mythic\nconception of space and universe.\n\n\u201c... There were nineteen clans, grouped in threes, to correspond to the\nmythic subdivision. Three to north, west, south, east, Upper, Lower. The\n_single_ clan of Macaw is midmost or of middle and also as the all\ncontaining and mother clan of the entire tribe, for in it is \u2018the seed of\nthe priesthood of houses\u2019 supposed to be preserved.(52)\n\n\u201cFinally, as produced from all the clans and as representative alike of\nall the clans and through a tribal septuarchy of all the regions and\ndivisions of the midmost and, finally, as representative of all the cult\nsocieties above mentioned, is the Kaka or A\u2019k\u00e2k\u00e2-kwe or Mythic Dance drama\npeople or organization.\n\n\u201cIt may be seen of these mytho-sociologic organizations that they are a\nsystem within a system and that it contains systems within systems all\nfounded on the classification according to the six-fold division of things\nand in turn the six-fold division of each of these divisions of things ...\nThe tribal division made up of the clans of the north take precedence\nceremonially, occupying the position of elder brother or the oldest\nancestor. The west is the younger brother to this and the south of the\nwest, the east of south, etc.... while the middle is supposed to be a\nrepresentative being, the heart and name of all of the brothers of the\nregions, the first and last, as well as elder and younger.\n\n\u201cTo such an extent indeed, is this tendency to classify according to the\nnumber of the six regions with its seventh synthesis of them all (the\nlatter sometimes apparent, sometimes non-appearing) that not only are the\nsubdivisions of the societies also again subdivided according to this\narrangement, but each clan is subdivided, both according to the six-fold\narrangement and according to the subsidiary relations of the six parts of\nits totem....\n\n\u201cIn each clan is to be found a set of names, called the names of\nchildhood. These names are more of titles than of cognomens. They are\ndetermined upon by sociological divinistic modes and are bestowed in\nchildhood as the \u2018verity names\u2019 or titles of the children to whom given.\nBut the body of names relating to any one totem, for instance, to one of\nthe beast totems, will not be the name of the totem-beast itself but will\nbe the names of both of the totems and its various conditions and of the\nvarious parts of the totem or of its functions, or of its attributes,\nactual or mythical.\n\n\u201cNow these parts or functions, or attributes of the parts or functions,\nare subdivided also in a six-fold manner, so that the name relating to one\nmember of the totem, for example, like the right leg or arm of the animal\nthereof, would correspond to the north and would be the first in honor in\na clan (not itself of the northern group); then the name relating to\nanother member, say the left leg and its powers, etc., would pertain to\nthe west and would be second in honor, ... the right foot, pertaining to\nthe south, would be third in honor, ... the tail to the lower regions and\nbe sixth in honor; while the heart and navel and centre of the being would\nbe first as well as last in honor.... In addressing each other the word\nsymbol for elder or younger is always used.\n\n\u201cWith such a system of arrangement as all this maybe seen to be, with such\na facile device for symbolizing the arrangement (not only according to the\nnumber of regions, and their subdivisions in their relative succession and\nthe succession of their elements and seasons, but also in the colors\nattributed to them) and, finally, with such an arrangement of names,\ncorrespondingly classified and of terms of relation significant of rank\nrather than of consanguineal connection, mistake in the order of a\nceremonial, a procession or a council is simply impossible and the people\nemploying these devices may be said to have written and to be writing\ntheir statutes and laws in all their daily relationship and utterances.\u201d\n\nIf this precious exposition of the Zu\u00f1i social organization teaches us\nmore about native method and system than all of the writings of the\nSpanish chroniclers put together, there is one important point which,\nstrangely enough, is not touched upon, namely, the regulation of time. All\ninformation concerning native astronomy, and the subdivision of the years,\nthe festival periods and the names of days, seems to have been withheld\nfrom Mr. Cushing by the Zu\u00f1i priesthood, if we are to assume that they\npossess a calendar.\n\nIn Mexico, as I have already set forth, the calendar system is bound up in\nthe scheme of social organization and it is impossible to separate them. I\ncannot but think that it must be the same with the Zu\u00f1is but that, as in\nancient Mexico, only the priesthood were acquainted with the existence of\na systematic calendar, and kept it a profound secret from the multitude,\nalthough the entire communal life and activities of the people were guided\naccordingly by their rulers, who had arranged a suitable time for all\nthings, at proper seasons.\n\nHaving obtained through Mr. Cushing invaluable material for the making of\na composite image of the ancient American civilization let us now proceed\nto Yucatan, bearing in mind the native mode of thought and master-passion\nfor systematization.\n\nA careful perusal of Cogolludo and Landa\u2019s work affords such interesting\nglimpses into the past history of the inhabitants of the Yucatan\npeninsula, that they merit presentation in a separate publication. Suffice\nit for the present to refer more fully to a few leading facts which will\nbe found to illustrate the development of the ancient civilization in the\npreceding pages.\n\nThe native opinion already cited was that a great chief or lord, named\nKukulcan, reigned at Chichen-Itza, Yucatan, whilst this was occupied by\nthe Itza tribe, which was driven from it in about 270 A.D. by the\nTutul-xius who were entitled \u201choly men.\u201d Their name justifies Brasseur de\nBourbourg\u2019s inference that the conquerors may have been a Nahuatl tribe\nwhose name was that of the much-prized blue-bird, Xiuh-tototl.\n\nAt the same time the fact that the Maya word for supreme lord and Master\n(also applied to the divinity) is _Ciu-mil_ seems to indicate that there\nmay be a deeper origin and that the Xiuh-tototl may have only been a rebus\nemployed by the Mexicans to convey the sound of a Maya title, possibly\n\u201cKukul-Ciu,\u201d if the above title \u201choly men\u201d is to be regarded as a\ntranslation of Tutul-xiu.\n\n\u201cKukulcan had no wife or children and was venerated in Yucatan as a god\nbecause he was a great republican, as was shown by the order he instituted\nin Yucatan after the death of the native rulers. He went to Mexico whence\nhe returned. He was there named Quetzalcoatl and was venerated by the\nMexicans as one of their gods.\u201d When he had entered into treaty with the\nnative chiefs inhabiting the country, they agreed to join him in founding\nand peopling a city which was named Mayapan, but was also known by the\nnatives as Ichpa, meaning \u201cinside of the circles.\u201d(53) \u201cThey proceeded,\nindeed, to build a circular walled enclosure with two entrances only. In\nits centre, the principal temple was erected and it was circular, with\nfour doors opening to the cardinal points, like one which had been built\nby Kukulcan at Chichen-Itza. The walled circle also contained other sacred\nedifices and houses intended to be inhabited by the lords only, who\ndivided up the entire land amongst themselves. Towns were assigned to each\naccording to the antiquity of his lineage and personal distinction.\nKukulcan lived in this town for some years with these lords and leaving\nthem in amity and peace returned to Mexico by the same way as on his\nvisit, lingering on the way in order to build a quadriform temple on an\nisland off the coast.\u201d\n\nI know of no more instructive account of aboriginal history than this\nsimple native record preserved by Landa, which so clearly reveals amongst\nother details that the Mexican culture-hero was an actual personage, a\nMaya high-priest who had been a ruler at Chichen-Itza. In this connection\nit is interesting to collate another chapter of Landa\u2019s work in which he\nreports what the oldest Indians narrated to him about Chichen-Itza, of\nwhich I give the following somewhat abbreviated translation: Three\nbrothers came there in olden times from the west and having assembled\ntogether a large number of people, ruled them for some years with much\njustice and peace.(54) They paid great honor to their god and built many\nbeautiful edifices.... They lived without wives in purity and virtue and\nas long as they did this they were esteemed and obeyed by all. In course\nof time one of them possibly died, but is said by the Indians to have gone\nout of the country. Whatever may have been the cause of his absence the\nremaining rulers immediately began to show partiality and to institute\nsuch licentious and abominable customs that they were finally execrated by\nthe people who rebelled and killed them, and then disbanded and abandoned\nthe capital, \u201calthough this was most beautiful and was surrounded by\nfertile provinces.\u201d(55)\n\nThe principal edifice at Chichen-Itza was a pyramid temple which had four\nstairways facing the cardinal points. It contained a circular temple which\nwas named after the builder Kukulcan and had four doorways opening to the\nfour quarters of heaven.\n\nIf I have dwelt again upon Kukulcan=Quetzalcoatl, it is because, between\nthe writers who interpret the records concerning him as a sun or star-myth\nand those who identify him as the abstract deity whose name he bore as a\ntitle only, or as St. Thomas or a mythical Norseman, ancient America is\nbeing deprived of its most remarkable historical personage.\n\nCollated with the Maya traditional records, the Mexican accounts agree and\nsupply missing evidence. Whilst the Mayas state that their ruler and\nlegislator went to Mexico and even record his Mexican name, Montezuma\ninforms Cort\u00e9s that \u201chis ancestors had been conducted to Mexico by a\nruler, Quetzalcoatl, whose vassals they were and who having established\nthem in a colony returned to his native land. Later on he returned and\nwished them to leave with him but they chose to remain, having married\nwomen of the country, raised families and built towns. Nor would they\ninstitute him again as their lord, so he went away again toward the east,\nwhence he had come.\u201d It seems nearly proven that Kukulcan was one of the\nthree rulers who came to Yucatan from the east. The Mexican tradition that\nhe was driven into exile by his enemies, the followers of Tezcatlipoca,\nthe lord of the Below, appears to be corroborated by the Maya record that,\nafter his restraining presence had been removed, they committed such\nexcesses that the indignant population arose and murdered their two rulers\nat Chichen-Itza. Quetzalcoatl\u2019s continued efforts to assemble scattered\ntribes, to organize them peacefully under central governments, to found\ncapitals and erect in the centre of these quadriform pyramids and circular\ntemples, prove how completely he was possessed by the idea of spreading\nthe well-known scheme of civilization. His very name in Maya signified\n\u201cthe divine Four\u201d and this more profound signification was hidden under\nthe image of the \u201cfeathered serpent\u201d employed as a rebus to express the\ntitle of the supreme Being and the high-priest, his earthly\nrepresentative.\n\nThe Mexican records state that the culture-hero\u2019s white robes were covered\nwith red crosses, and that he set up cross-emblems. Evidence showing how\ncompletely this builder and founder of cities carried out the idea of the\nFour Quarters, in the temples he erected in Mexico, is preserved by the\nrecord that for prayer, penitence and fasting, he prepared four rooms\nwhich he occupied in rotation. These were respectively decorated in blue,\ngreen, red and yellow, by means of precious stones, feather-work and gold.\nAs these were the colors assigned to the Four Quarters their symbolism and\nmeaning are obvious, and it may be inferred that the same method of\ndecorating the sides of buildings or doorways, with these four colors, may\nhave been carried out in square sacred edifices oriented to the cardinal\npoints.\n\nIt is curious to detect the quadruplicate idea in the title Holcan given\nto certain war-chiefs. This name signifies, literally, \u201cthe head of four,\u201d\nbut could be expressed by the rebus of a \u201cserpent\u2019s head,\u201d which would\nobviously have been employed in pictography to express the title and rank.\nThe existence of the title \u201cFour-head,\u201d or \u201cthe head of four,\u201d obviously\nrelates to the rulership of the Four Quarters, united in one person; and\nin this connection the Tiahuanaco swastika (fig. 48), terminating in four\npumas\u2019 heads, seems to gain in significance as the expressive symbol of a\ncentral ruler. The recorded custom to cover the body of the Mexican ruler\nwith the raiment of the \u201cfour principal gods,\u201d proves the prevalence of\nanalogous symbolism.\n\nFrom the following data we gain an interesting view of the events which\ntranspired in former times in the Yucatan peninsula. Resuming Landa\u2019s\naccount we see that, after Kuculcan had departed for Mexico, the lords of\nMayapan decided to confer supreme rulership upon the Cocomes, this being\nthe most ancient and the wealthiest lineage and its chief being\ndistinguished for bravery. They then decided that the inner circle should\nhold only the temples and houses for the lords and high-priest. In\nconnection with this it is well to insert here how Landa states, in\nanother passage, that there were \u201ctwelve priests or lords at Mayapan,\u201d\nwhich with the high-priest constituted the sacred 13. \u201cOutside the wall\nthey built houses where each lord kept some servitors and where his people\nor vassals could resort when they came on business to the town. Each of\nthese houses had its steward, entitled Caluac, who bore a staff of office\nand he kept an account with the towns and with their local rulers. The\nCaluac always went to his lord\u2019s house, saw what he required and obtained\nfrom the vassals all he needed in the way of provisions, clothing, etc.\u201d\n(_op. cit._, pp. 34-44).\n\nThe chronicle goes on to relate how the lords of the inner circle devoted\ntheir time to the affairs of government, the regulation of the calendar\nand the study of writing, medicine, and the sciences.(56)\n\nIt seems significant that, throughout Central America, two ruined cities\nof about equal size are usually found in comparatively close proximity to\neach other, and seemingly pertaining to the same culture. Thus we have\nQuirigua, in the valley of the Motagua river, and Copan its sister-city,\nsituated at a distance of about twenty-five miles, but nearly 1,800 feet\nabove it, in the wooded hills. Between Palenque and Mench\u00e9 (Lorillard\nCity) there are about fifty miles, whilst Tikal and Ixkun are forty miles\napart. In Yucatan, as we have learned from Bishop Landa\u2019s \u201cRelacion,\u201d\nthere were Mayapan and Zilan, and as the latter name also signified\n\u201cembroidery\u201d it looks as though it had been a noted centre of female\nindustry.\n\nThen, after a lapse of years, \u201ca large number of tribes, with their lords,\ncame to Yucatan from the south.\u201d Bishop Landa conjectures that, although\nhis informants did not know this for certain, \u201cthese tribes must have come\nfrom Chiapas, many words and the conjugation of some verbs being the same\nin Yucatan as in Chiapas where there existed great signs showing that\nancient capitals had been devastated and abandoned,\u201d possibly by\nearthquakes, famine, disease or warfare. It has been surmised that the\nvenerable Bishop alluded, in this sentence, to the ruins of Palenque in\nChiapas.\n\nAlthough not mentioned by Cogolludo or Lizana it is accepted that the\nnew-comers were the Tutul-xius. According to an ancient Maya chronicle,\n\u201cat a date corresponding to 401 A.D., the four Tutul-xius had fled from\nthe house of Nonoual, to the west of Zuiva and came from the land of\nTulapan. Four eras passed before they reached the peninsula of Yucatan\nnamed Chac-noui-tan under their chieftain, Holon-Chan-Tepeuh,\u201d a name\nwhich is equally intelligible in Maya, Tzendal and Nahuatl and means\nHead-Serpent and \u201clord of the mountain,\u201d according to Brasseur de\nBourbourg, who states that the latter was a sovereign title amongst the\nQuich\u00e9s.\n\nLanda relates that, after wandering about Yucatan for forty years\n(possibly in search of the stable centre) these tribes settled near\nMayapan, subjected themselves to its laws and lived in peaceful friendship\nwith the Cocomes. The new-comers brought with them the atlatl or\nspear-thrower which is minutely described but is evidently regarded as a\nweapon of the chase.(57) The chronicle goes on to narrate that the Cocom\ngovernor, having become ambitious for riches, entered into a treaty with\nMexican warriors who were garrisoned at Tabasco and Xicalango by the\nMexican ruler and induced them to come to Mayapan and to aid him in\noppressing the native lords. The latter and the Tutul-xius rebelled\nagainst this action and, having observed the Mexicans and become experts\nin the art of using their bow and arrow, lance, hatchet, shield and other\ndefensive armor, they \u201cceased to admire and fear the Mexicans and began to\nmake little of them, and in this condition they remained for some years.\u201d\n\nA lapse of years passed and another Cocom chief formed a fresh league with\nthe Tabasco people. More Mexican warriors came to Mayapan and supported\nhim in tyrannizing and making slaves of the lower class. Then the Tutulxiu\nlords assembled and decided to murder the Cocom ruler. Having done so they\nalso killed all his sons with the exception of one who was absent; burnt\ntheir houses and seized their plantations of cocoa and other fruits,\nsaying that these compensated for what had been stolen from them. The\ndifferences which subsequently arose between the Cocome and the Xius\npeople resulted in the final destruction and abandonment of Mayapan after\nan occupation of more than five hundred years, both tribes returning to\ntheir countries.\n\n\u201cThe lords who destroyed Mayapan (about 120 years before the Conquest)\ncarried away with them their books of science.... The son of the Cocom\nlord, who being absent had escaped death, returned and gathered his\nrelations and vassals together and founded a capital.... Many towns were\nbuilt by them in the hills and many families descended from these Cocomes.\nThese lords of Mayapan did not revenge themselves upon the Mexican\nwarriors but generously exonerated them from blame because they were\nstrangers and had been persuaded to come into the land by its former\nruler. They allowed them to remain unmolested in the country and to found\na city on condition that they kept to themselves and married in their own\ntribe only. These Mexicans decided to settle in Yucatan and peopled the\nprovince of Can-ul which was assigned to them and they continued to live\nthere until the second invasion of the Spaniards.\u201d\n\nAt Chichen-Itza, situated at about twenty-three leagues from the ancient\nsite of Mayapan, there exists substantial evidence of the existence of\nthese Aztec warriors, with indications that they pertained to the Mexican\nwarrior-caste of the ocelots or tigers. It is a recognized fact that the\nremarkable bas-reliefs, which still cover the walls of the \u201ctemple of the\ntigers\u201d at Chichen-Itza, are strikingly Aztec in every detail. The exact\ncounterparts of the Atlatls, they hold, are visible on the so-called\n\u201cStone of Tizoc\u201d in the city of Mexico. Sculptured on the wall opposite\nthe entrance of the temple there are about thirty-six war-chiefs grouped\nin three parallel rows of twelve each, the majority of whom are apparently\nrendering some form of homage to a seated personage surrounded by rays,\nwhile others are having an encounter with a monstrous serpent. On the side\nwalls and slanting roofs more warriors are figured, many accompanied by a\nrebus or hieroglyph which evidently records, in Mexican style, individual\nnames. The total number of sculptured warriors seems to have been about\none hundred. If each of these represented, as may be supposed, a \u201ccount of\nmen,\u201d it is evident that a large force of Aztec soldiers must have lived\nin Yucatan at one time.\n\nOther interesting monuments at Chichen-Itza deserve a passing mention. Mr.\nTeobert Maler (Yukatekische Forschungen, Globus, 1895, p. 284) relates\nthat there are two pyramid-temples in the terraces of which the remains of\ngreat stone tables have been found. He states that one of these tables was\noriginally supported by two rows of seven sculptured caryatids and by a\ncentral row of plain columns with flat, square tops. Traces of paint\nshowed that the figures had been painted, that a yellow-brown color had\npredominated, but that all ornaments or accessories were either blue or\ngreen. The caryatids exhibited a variety of costume and of size and each\nshowed a marked individuality. The second table standing in a larger\ntemple, was originally painted red and supported by twenty-four caryatid\nfigures which resemble each other closely, show no individuality and which\nseem to have been disposed in two rows of twelve each. Mr. Maler infers\nfrom this that, being more highly conventionalized, they were of a later\ndate than the previous examples. If it were not for the circumstance that\nboth tables had the same number of supports their numeral 24 might pass\nunobserved. As it is, I shall recur to it on mentioning other monuments\nwith figures yielding the same number and disposed, in one case, as 6\u00d74.\nIn connection with these stone tables I recall the fact that, in the Maya\nlanguage, they were called Mayac-tun.\n\nMr. W. H. Holmes (_op. cit._, p. 134) tells us that in one case the\ncontinuous table had been formed by a series of limestone tablets\naveraging three feet square and five or six inches thick, each slab having\nbeen supported by two of the dwarfish figures which stand with both hands\naloft, giving a broad surface of support. He ascertained that \u201cthese slabs\nwere wonderfully resonant and when struck lightly with a hammer or stone,\ngive out tones closely resembling those of a deeply resonant bell, and the\nechoes awakened in the silent forest are exceedingly impressive.\u201d Mr.\nHolmes\u2019 account of these resonant stone tables is of particular value to\nme because it throws an interesting light upon the following Maya words: I\nhave already stated that the native name for table is Mayac, and that a\nstone table is Mayac-tun. The word _tun_, however, not only signifies\nstone, but also sound and noise. From this it would seem that stone tables\nsuch as Mr. Holmes describes were made expressly for the purpose of\nemitting sound and employed like the huehuetl or wooden drums of the\nancient Mexicans to summon the people to the temple and to guide the\nsacred dances.\n\nThe existence of the word tun-kul, which is either \u201cstone-bowl\u201d or\n\u201csound-bowl,\u201d seems likewise to indicate that hollow stone vessels were\nused at one time as gongs. At the present day the Mayas name the small\nwooden drum of the Mexicans a \u201ctunkul,\u201d whereas its Nahuatl name is\n\u201cte-ponaxtli,\u201d the prefix of which, curiously enough, seems also to be\nconnected with tetl=stone. A curious light is shed upon the possible use\nof some of the many stone vessels found in Mexico and Yucatan by the above\nlinguistic evidence.\n\nIn conclusion I quote Mr. Maler\u2019s authority for two points concerning\nChichen-Itza which are not generally known. First, that its name should be\npronounced \u201cTsitsen-itsa,\u201d and, second, that he saw there no less than\nfive recumbent statues, holding circular vessels. Each of these figures\nexhibits the same form of breast-plate as the Le Plongeon example now at\nthe National Museum of Mexico (pl. IV, fig. 1). Mr. Maler states that it\nseems to have been the tribal mark of the Cocomes, the whilom rulers at\nChichen-Itza; but it is interesting to note the general resemblance of\nthis ornament to the blue plaque worn by the Mexican \u201cBlue Lord,\u201d the Lord\nof the Year and of Fire, \u201cXiuhtecuhtli,\u201d who is also usually represented\nwith a Xiuh-tototl or \u201cblue-bird\u201d on the front of his head-dress.\n\nThese facts seem to indicate that the characteristic breast-plate, instead\nof being a mark of the Cocomes, may have been that of the Tutul-Xius, and\nthat this title has some connection with that of Xiuh-tecuhtli, the\nMexican \u201cLord of Fire.\u201d It has been already set forth in the preceding\npages that the sacred fire was kindled in the stone vase held by the\nrecumbent figures, a fact indicating that the identical form of cult was\npractised in Mexico and at Chichen-Itza. This identity is satisfactorily\naccounted for and explained if we accept the simple native records of the\ninvitation extended to Mexican warriors by a Maya chieftain and their\nsubsequent permanent residence in Yucatan.\n\nThe limitations of my subject do not allow me to do more than mention two\nother important ruined cities of Yucatan, Izamal and Uxmal. I will however\nnote that, judging from the illustrations I have seen, Uxmal seems to be\nthe \u201cSerpent-city\u201d of America, par excellence, its buildings exhibiting\nthe most elaborate and profuse employment of the serpent for symbolical\ndecoration. One inference from this might be that the serpent was the\ntotemic animal of the ancient builders of this city. The foregoing rapid\nreview of the native chronicles of Yucatan shows that even the foundation\nof Mayapan was comparatively recent; that the peninsula had, in turn,\nharbored powerful tribes who had drifted thence from the southwest and\nMexican warriors whose aid had been sought by consecutive rulers of\nChichen-Itza. We see that Yucatan was the meeting ground for Maya- and\nNahuatl-speaking people and that the tendency was to leave the peninsula\nin search of a more favorable soil and climate as soon as opportunity was\nafforded.\n\nSince the cradle of the Maya civilization is evidently not to be looked\nfor in Yucatan, let us follow the clue afforded by the native traditions,\ntransport ourselves to some of the most important ruined cities of Central\nAmerica and endeavor to wrest from their monuments some knowledge of the\nsocial organization of their ancient inhabitants. In order to institute\nthis search under the most favorable circumstances, I ventured to apply\nfor guidance to Mr. A. P. Maudslay who has made a more thorough, prolonged\nand extensive study and exploration of these ruined cities than any other\nperson. Upon my request to formulate his opinion as to the respective\nantiquity and chief characteristics of the most noted sites, this\ndistinguished explorer has most kindly authorized me to publish the\nfollowing note.\n\n\u201cBut for a brief note in Nature (28th April, 1892), I have never\nclassified the ruins or attempted to give proofs of differences in age of\nthe monuments, but roughly you may safely class them as follows: I am\ninclined to look on the Motagua river group as the oldest. The Yucatan\ngroup is certainly the youngest. Of course there are many other smaller\ndifferences between the groups and much overlapping. Whichever group may\nbe the oldest the art is there already advanced and the decoration has\ntaken forms which must have occupied many kinds of workers to\nconventionalize from natural objects.\u201d\n\n1. On Motagua River, Quirigua, Copan. Large monolithic stel\u00e6 and altars\nwith figures and inscriptions carved on all four sides in rather high\nrelief, some groups pictographic. No weapons of war portrayed in the\nsculpture.\n\n2. On Usumacinto River, Mench\u00e9, Tinamit, Palenque, Ixkun. Stel\u00e6 are\nusually flat slabs carved with figures and inscriptions in low relief on\none side only. External ornament of the buildings usually moulded in\nstucco. War-like weapons but very scarce.\n\n3. Tikal. Intermediate between Nos. 2 and 4, but somewhat different and\ndistinct from either.\n\n4. Yucatan. Chichen-Itza, Uxmal, etc. Stel\u00e6 very few in number and poorly\ncarved. Inscriptions carved in stone are very scarce. Inscriptions were\nprobably _painted_ on the walls of the temples. External ornament of\nbuildings formed by a mosaic of cut stones somewhat resembling Zapotec or\nAztec style. Every man portrayed as a warrior [on the bas-reliefs].\n\nBy means of the magnificent set of casts which Mr. A. P. Maudslay has\ngenerously presented to the South Kensington Museum, London, and with the\naid of his monumental and splendidly illustrated work on the Archaeology\nof Central America, which has been appearing as a part of the Biologia\nCentrali-Americana, edited by Messrs. Godman and Salvin, I have been able\nto verify the following facts which will be found to throw light on the\npurpose and meaning of some of the ancient monuments.\n\nBefore examining the great, elaborately carved stel\u00e6 which are\ncharacteristic of Quirigua and Copan, let us search the native chronicles\nfor some clue explanatory of the purpose for which they were erected.\n\nBishop Landa has transmitted to us some details about the destroyed\nmetropolis of Mayapan given to him by Yucatec informants who stated that\n\u201cin the central square of that city there still were 7 or 8 stones, about\nten feet high, rounded on one side and well sculptured, which exhibit\nseveral rows of the native characters, but were so worn that they had\nbecome illegible. It is supposed, however, that they are the record of the\nfoundation and destruction of that capital. Similar, but higher monuments,\nare at Zilan, a town on the coast. Interrogated as to the meaning of these\nmonoliths the natives answered: It had been or was customary to erect\nsimilar stones at intervals of 20 years which was the number by which they\ncounted their eras.\u201d Bishop Landa subsequently remarks that \u201cthis\nstatement is not consistent,\u201d for, according to this \u201cthere should be many\nmore such stones in existence, and none exist in any other pueblo but\nMayapan and Zilan.\u201d(58)\n\nDisagreeing with the venerable Bishop, I find in the above statements the\nmost valuable indications of the former existence of two centres of\nculture in Yucatan. There is a curious affinity between the name Zilan\n(pronounced Dzilan) and Chilan given as \u201cthe title of a priestly office\nwhich consisted of a juridistic astrology and divination,\u201d by Landa. There\nmay even be a connection between zilan and zian=origin, commencement;\nzihnal=original and primitive, which may be worthy of consideration in\nassociation with the well-known statement, quoted by Dr. Brinton, that\n\u201cthe most venerable traditions of the Maya race claimed for them a\nmigration from Tollan in Zu-iva\u2014thence we all came forth together, there\nwas the common parent of our race; thence came we from amongst the Yagui\nmen, whose god is Yolcuatl Quetzalcoatl.\u201d Dr. Brinton adds that \u201cthis\nTollan is certainly none other than the abode of Quetzalcoatl named in an\nAztec manuscript as \u2018Zivena Uitzcatl.\u2019 \u201d Vague as any conjecture must\nnecessarily be, I cannot but deem it of utmost importance that systematic\nexcavations be made, some day, at Zilan, for the purpose of bringing to\nlight the stel\u00e6 referred to by the native informants of Bishop Landa.\n\nAccording to Brasseur de Bourbourg \u201cZilan, situated at about 20-\u00bd leagues\nfrom Merida belonged to the Cheles people.(59) It is the seaport of Izamal\nand contains the ruins of one of the greatest pyramids or artificial\nmounds (omul) in Yucatan,\u201d a fact which corroborates the view that it was\nan ancient important capital. The northern coast of Yucatan is extremely\nremarkable for it is divided from the Gulf of Mexico by a continuous strip\nof land between which and the mainland there is a narrow channel of water.\nThere are two openings only in this zone of land which afford a passage\ninto the navigable channel. One of these openings is situated almost\nopposite to Zilan and is known as the Boca de Zilan. At a short distance\nto the east there is a second such \u201cboca\u201d opposite to the mouth of the Rio\nLagartos, which is a large estuary and the only river on the northern\ncoast of Yucatan.(60)\n\nLet us now transport ourselves, mentally, south of the peninsula to\nHonduras and, leaving the coast, ascend the Motagua valley to the ruins of\nQuirigua and Copan,(61) which have impressed Mr. Maudslay as being of\ngreat antiquity. Before examining such of these monuments as seem to yield\nthe testimony we are seeking, let us again recall Landa\u2019s record that the\nMayas erected stel\u00e6 as memorials of each 20-year period. To this statement\nshould be added, at full length, Cogolludo\u2019s record that \u201cthe Mayas\nemployed eras of 20 years and lesser periods of 4 years.(62) The first of\nthese four years was assigned to the east and was named Cuch-haab; the\nsecond, Hiix, to the west; the third, Cavac, to the south and the fourth\nMuluc, to the north, and this served as a \u2018Dominical letter.\u2019 When five of\nthese four-year periods had passed, which form twenty years, they called\nit a Katun and placed one sculptured stone over another sculptured stone\nand fixed them with lime and sand [mortar] to the walls of their temples\nand houses of the priests.\u201d(63)\n\nThe term katun is closely linked to the said employment of memorial\nstones, for tun is the Maya for stone and ka seems to stand for kal or\nkaal=20. The word hun-kaal=20, means literally, \u201cone complete count,\u201d or\n\u201ca count which is closed,\u201d since the verb kaal means to close, shut, or\nfasten something. According to the above a katun literally means \u201cthe 20\n(year) stone;\u201d but we know that, by extension, it designated the era\nitself as well as war and battle. Thus we find the verb katun-tal=to\nfight.\n\nCogolludo continues: \u201cIn a town named Tixuala-tun, which signifies \u2018the\nplace where they place one stone above another,\u2019 they say that they kept\ntheir archive, containing records of all events.... In current speech\nkatun signified era and when a person wished to say he was sixty years of\nage, he used the expression to have three eras of years or three stones.\nFor seventy they said three and a half stones or four less one-half stone.\nFrom this it may be seen that they were not too barbarous, for it is said\nthat [by this system] they were able to keep such exact records that they\nnot only certified an event but also the month and day on which it took\nplace.\u201d\n\nBy referring to Maya and Spanish dictionaries we gain supplementary\nvaluable information about native memorial stones. We find the name\namaytun given as that of \u201ca square stone on which the ancient Indians used\nto carve the 20 years of the period ahau-katun, because the four remaining\nyears which completed the epoch, were placed underneath, so as to form a\nsort of pedestal which was called, for this reason, lath oc katun or chek\noc katun. By extension, painted representations [of the epoch] were also\nnamed amaytun.\u201d The dictionary further informs us that amayt\u00e9 was the name\nfor the first twenty years of the ahau katun, which were carved on the\nsquare stone and we see that amayt\u00e9 also means \u201csomething square or with\ncorners\u201d and is formed of amay=corner.\n\nEquipped with the foregoing knowledge of the sort of memorial it was\ncustomary for the Mayas to erect, let us now see whether the ruins of\nCopan furnish any monuments which would answer to the description and\npurpose of \u201camay-t\u00e9s\u201d and \u201cka-tuns.\u201d Referring the reader to parts I-III\nof Mr. A. P. Maudslay\u2019s work already cited, I draw special attention to\nthe following stel\u00e6 and altars which are so admirably figured therein.\n\nStela F, which stands at the east side of the Great Plaza at Copan and\nfaces west, is in a particularly bad state of preservation. It exhibits a\nstanding figure on one side whose head is surmounted by an indescribable\ncombination of a mask, a seated figure and much elaborate feather-work. A\nnoteworthy feature, which recurs on other stel\u00e6 in Copan and Quirigua, is\nan appendage which appears like an artificial beard attached to the chin\nof the personage. At the sides of the stela serpents\u2019 heads alternate with\ndiminutive grotesque figures. On the back, or east side of the stela, two\ncords are represented which appear to have been brought over from the\nfront and which are tied together so as to form five open loops, in each\nof which, as in a frame, there is a group consisting of four calculiform\nglyphs. The cord, which is knotted together at the base of the stela,\nappears to pass around it. It is impossible not to recognize that this\nrepresentation of twenty glyphs, as divided into five groups of four,\nexactly agrees with Cogolludo\u2019s records that the Mayas employed 20-year\nand 4-year eras and that when five of the 4-year periods had passed they\ncalled it a ka-tun, and made a carved memorial of it. As Landa tells us\nthat they erected stel\u00e6 to commemorate the 20-year period, the inference\nto which the Copan Stela F leads us is that it is a katun and that the\ntwenty glyphs carved on it are year-signs. Examination, however, shows\nthat, whereas the Maya Calendar had but four year-signs which would\nnaturally be bound to repeat themselves in each group of four years, no\ntwo glyphs on the Stela F are alike. It is obvious, therefore, that the\nglyphs are not the four calendar year-signs and reflection shows, indeed,\nthat it would have been quite superfluous to carve these repeatedly on a\nstela. As each year-sign was identified with a cardinal point and an\nelement and was permanently associated with a particular color, the mere\nemployment of the latter would suffice to convey this association of\nideas. What is more, the relative positions of the four glyphs composing\neach group would also indicate the four year-signs and thus the sculptor\nof the stela would have been at liberty to record by the shape of his\nglyphs any fact he chose to connect with each year of the era. A curious\nlinguistic fact must also be taken into consideration: The Maya name for\nthe four year-signs was Ah-cuch-haab and the title for a chief or ruler of\na town was Ah-cuch-cab. The mere presence on the stela, of the figure of\nthe ruler, would suffice to convey the certainty that the count of the\nfour year-signs was understood to be present. On Stel\u00e6 F and M, each of\nwhich displays twenty glyphs and one sculptured personage, the latter is\nparticularly characterized by being associated with head-dresses and\nemblems consisting of elaborate conventionalized plumed serpents\u2019 heads.\nThe inference naturally is that the serpent symbolism, which recurs in\nsome form or other on every stela effigy, expresses or conveys that the\nrank and title of the personage were that of a Kukul-can, the high-priest\nruler who impersonated the \u201cDivine Four,\u201d or of some lord=Ahau, who was\nalso \u201cruler of the four regions.\u201d\n\nIt must be recognized that a stone stela, on which is sculptured the image\nof a lord and a count of 20, answers exactly to the memorial stone named\nAhau-ka-tun, literally, lord, 20 stone, and it is easy to see how the\nperiod or era of twenty-four years should come to be called by the name of\nthe stone which commemorated it, and each era to be differentiated by\nbeing designated by the personal name of the ruler who held office during\nits course. The result would be practically the same as the allusion to a\nparticular reign in a nation\u2019s history, with the seeming difference that\nall ancient American rulers and their subordinates held fixed terms of\noffice, coinciding with the various periods of the calendar.\n\nThe inscriptions on the foregoing stel\u00e6 are made of glyphs of a uniform\ncharacter. Other stel\u00e6 at Copan display the interesting set of 6+1=7 signs\nwhich recur on so many Central American monuments and strikingly coincide\nin number with the all-pervading division into six parts plus the middle\nand synopsis of all. Of this \u201cseptenary set of signs,\u201d six are uniform in\nsize and character whilst the first is more elaborate and important in\nevery respect and, as I shall set forth by a series of illustrations in\nanother publication, actually does symbolize the union of the Above and\nBelow. It is to Mr. Maudslay that we owe the recognition of the existence\nof this septenary set of glyphs, which he announced as follows to the\nRoyal Geographical Society in 1886:\n\n\u201cA number of Central American inscriptions are headed by what I shall call\nan initial scroll (the style of which is permanent throughout many\nvariations) and begin with the same formula, usually extending through six\nsquares of hieroglyphic writing, the sixth square, or sometimes the latter\nhalf of the sixth square, being a human face, usually in profile, enclosed\nin a frame or cartouche\u201d (Proceedings, p. 583).\n\nThe septenary group occurs on Stel\u00e6 A, B, C, E, I, P. It is curious to\nfind that the initial sign is sometimes, as on two sides of Stela P,\nfollowed not by 6 glyphs only, but by 4\u00d76=24 glyphs. On the east side of\nStela P, it is succeeded by 22 glyphs and a carved design which seems to\nindicate the beginning or end of the count. On Stela I the initial is also\nfollowed by 4\u00d76=24 glyphs, and on Stela A by 12 double (=24) glyphs on\nside 1, whilst side 2 displays 13 and side 3, 2\u00d713=26. On Stela B two\nsides exhibit 13 glyphs each and the back 2+ the initial. On two sides of\nStela C the initial is followed by 2\u00d77=14 glyphs. It cannot be denied that\nthe foregoing stel\u00e6 collectively yield counts of 4\u00d75, 7, 13, 20 and 24,\nwhich undoubtedly coincide with the well-known numerical organization and\nprove that this dominated the people who erected them.\n\nThe certainty that the ancient inhabitants of Copan associated the idea of\na central ruler with quadruple power is afforded by a remarkable\nbas-relief which Mr. Maudslay has kindly allowed me to reproduce here\n(fig. 55), from a drawing made by Miss Annie Hunter.(64)\n\nThis carved slab, the size of which is 5\u2019 by 4\u2019 6\", was found in four\npieces in the western court of the main structure of Copan and according\nto Mr. Maudslay\u2019s opinion, \u201cformed part of the exterior ornament of temple\n11 or the slope on which it stood.\u201d It undoubtedly claims a minute\nexamination, as it strikingly illustrates how the native ideas, I have\nbeen setting forth in the preceding pages, were originally suggested by\nthe observation of Polaris. Seated cross-legged, and resting on the centre\nof the foliated swastika, is the figure of a personage whose titles are\nclearly discernible.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 55.\n\n\nHe is designated as a ruler, not only by his attitude of repose, but by\nthe fact that he wears a breast ornament in the form of a face or head (of\nthe sun) and holds in his hand (_i. e._ governs) a vase or bowl (see p.\n72). Those show him to be the chief or head of all and the Cum-ahau, or\nlord of the sacred vase or bowl (see p. 93). As the latter contains what\nappears to be a variant of the glyph ik and the word ik signifies breath,\nair and wind, by extension life, we realize that he is designated as the\nlord of breath and life. The glyph which covers his face bears a native\ncross-symbol and this, as well as the cruciform figure, the centre of\nwhich he occupies, conveys the idea of quadruplicate power. The double and\nbent arms of the cross-symbol strikingly resemble the conventionalized\npuffs of breath or air which are so frequently depicted in Mexican\nCodices, as issuing from the mouths of speakers. Almost identical\nrepresentations of curved puffs are figured as issuing from open serpents\u2019\njaws in a bas-relief at Palenque, of which more anon.\n\nMr. Maudslay has pointed out that on stel\u00e6 from Copan and Quirigua a\nprofusion of analogous curved signs occurs also in connection with\nserpents\u2019 heads. A special feature of the curved puffs of breath on the\nCopan \u201cswastika,\u201d as it has been named, are small seed-like balls which\nare distributed in detached groups of threes along their inner and outer\nedges, and are usually accompanied by what resembles the small calyx of a\nflower, making four small objects in all. These balls, which also recur in\nthe Palenque symbol, forcibly recall a passage of the Zu\u00f1i creation myth\nrecounted by Mr. Cushing.\n\nIt relates that, at a certain stage of the creation, \u201cthe most perfect of\nall priests and fathers named Yan\u00e1uluha ... brought up from the\nunderworld, the water of the inner ocean and the seeds of life production\u201d\n... Subsequently, on a feathered staff he carried, \u201cappeared 4 round\nthings, seeds of moving beings, mere eggs they were; two blue like the sky\nand two red like the flesh of the earth-mother.\u201d...\n\nI cannot but think that these words from a purely native source explain\nthe Copan sculpture more correctly than any inference that could be made,\nand authorize the explanation that the central figure represents the \u201cfour\ntimes lord,\u201d or \u201clord of the four winds,\u201d titles which were applied in\nMexico to Quetzalcoatl and Xiuhtecuhtli. At the same time the bas-relief\nteaches us that \u201cthe four winds\u201d had a deeper meaning than has been\nrealized, for it represents life-giving breath carrying with it the seeds\nof the four vital elements, emanating from the central lord of life,\nspreading to the four quarters and dividing itself so as to disseminate\nvitality throughout the universe. The title Kukulcan=the Divine Four, also\nserpent, proves to be even more expressive of this conception of a central\ndivinity than the Mexican Divine Twin, or serpent. I am therefore inclined\nto consider that it originated with a Maya-speaking people, to whom, more\ngraphically than to any one else, this bas-relief would have served, as a\njoint image of the star-god, the heart of heaven, named Hura-kan; of the\nterrestrial lord Ah-cuch-cab, the heart or life of the State; of the\nState, with its hun-kaal or one count of twenty subdivisions of people and\nits quadruple head and body and, finally, of the native cosmology.\n\nThe Copan swastika enables us to come to another interesting conclusion.\nIt is a refined representation of the set of thoughts suggested by\nPolaris, the idea of a stable centre being graphically rendered. Movement\nin four directions is also symbolized. As, in the latitude of Copan, Ursa\nMinor is the only circumpolar constellation which could have been observed\nin four opposite positions, it is obvious that Ursa Minor with Polaris\nmust have constituted the Maya Celestial Heart or Life=cuxabal. The\nfollowing points remain to be discussed in connection with the Copan\nswastika.\n\n1. To be complete and in keeping with native modes of representation it\nmust have originally been painted with the symbolical colors of the Four\nQuarters.\n\n2. It is on a wooden club from Brazil or Guiana that, strange to say, I\nfind a cross symbol with bifurcated branches, which most closely resembles\nthe Copan type. Directing the readers to the illustration of this club as\nfig. 8, pl. XV, in Dr. Stolpe\u2019s work already cited, I would ask them to\nexamine also his fig. 7, with a design expressing dual and quadruple\ndivisions; fig. 9_b_, with circles containing cross lines; 9_a_, with what\nresembles somewhat a Maltese cross but also conveys duality; fig. 11_b_\nwith a cross in a scalloped circle and a curious disc between four signs,\nwith a band of alternate black and white squares and its reverse 11_a_,\nwith triangles, to which I shall revert; and figs. 10_c_ and _d_, each\nwith a mound from which a tree is growing. Though tempted to refer to many\nother symbols I shall limit myself to pointing out that his fig. 1, pl.\nXIV, exhibits a group of five circles in a circle which strikingly recall\nthe Mexican examples and the Maya ho=5. As each of the foregoing symbols\nis intelligible and belongs to a group of ideas which I have shown to have\nbeen general throughout America, but to have necessarily originated in the\nnorthern hemisphere, it seems pretty clear that they must have gradually\nfound their way to Brazil and Guiana from the north by means of coast\nnavigation and traffic.\n\n3. Concerning the bowl in the hand of the figure occupying the middle of\nthe swastika a few remarks should be added to those already given on pp.\n72 and 93.\n\nFormed of clay the bowl was an expressive symbol of the earth. Placed in\nelevated positions on the terraces of the temples, and filled by the first\nannual showers which fell upon the parched earth, the bowl of celestial\nwater naturally became invested with peculiar sanctity, and was gradually\nregarded as containing particular life-giving qualities. One use to which\nbowls full of water were put, in ancient Mexico, seems to explain further\nthe ideas associated with them. It is well known that bowls of water were\nused at night for divination purposes, just as were black obsidian\nmirrors. This seems to prove that the latter were a subsequent invention\nwhich was adopted because it permanently afforded a surface for purposes\nof reflection.\n\nIn the native Maya chronicles the reflection of a star upon the trembling\nand moving surface of the water, is given as the image of the Creator and\nFormer, the Heart of Heaven, and it was believed that the divine essence\nof life was thus conveyed to earth by light shining on and into the\nwaters. It is well known that it was customary for the priests of the\nGreat Temple of Mexico to bathe at midnight after fasting, in a sacred\npool so deep that the water appeared to be black. This\nartificially-produced peculiarity would have rendered its surface\nparticularly useful for the observation and registration of the movements\nof stars by their reflections.\n\nThomas Gage quaintly tells us, moreover, that at the consecration of a\ncertain idol \u201cmade of all kinds of seeds that grow in the country ... a\ncertain vessell of water was blessed with many words and ceremonies, and\nthat water was preserved very religiously at the foot of the Altar for to\nconsecrate the King when he was crowned and also to blesse any Captain\nGenerall, when he should be elected for the Warres, with only giving him a\ndraught of that water\u201d (_op. cit._, p. 53). It is well known that infants\nalso underwent a form of baptism.\n\nThe preceding and other evidence, which is scarcely required, enables us\nto realize the full significance which the symbol of a bowl surmounted by\nthe glyph ik=life, breath, soul, was intended to express and convey.\n\nThe collection of rain-water in vessels, exposed so as to receive the\nreflection of the one immovable star-god, was doubtlessly employed as a\ntest of the stability of the Middle of the Earth by many generations of\npriest-astronomers. The sanctity attached to this water, as having\nabsorbed the divine essence of light and the attribution of life-giving\nproperties to it, was but the natural sequence of such star-observation.\nAs the title \u201cthe lord of the vase or bowl\u201d=Cum-ahau, indicates, the\nsupreme priest of Heaven alone seems to have attended to all rites\nconcerning the sacred bowl and the distribution of its celestial\nlife-giving contents. The symbolical decoration of many native bowls will\nbe found to corroborate this view of their employment and of the virtue\nattributed to their contents.\n\nBy this time I trust that my readers will realize with me that, at Copan,\nthe native set of ideas had long taken deep root and flourished. We have\nseen that the identical numerical divisions of time and tribes and the\nsame symbolism prevailed as have been traced in Peru, Guatemala, Mexico,\nYucatan, Zu\u00f1i, etc. The following monuments will still further establish\nthis kinship of thought. Copan contains two stone slabs which answer to\nthe description of an amay-tun, inasmuch as they are square and appear to\nbe memorial stones. Let us see whether some clue to their purpose can be\nobtained from the carvings upon them.\n\nOn each of the four sides of altar K four personages are carved, all\nseeming to be of equal rank. Of these 4\u00d74=16 chieftains, eight wear a\nbreast ornament in the form of a double serpent, whilst the remaining\neight wear a somewhat plainer kind. On the west side the two central\nfigures face each other and two diminutive glyphs are carved in the space\nbetween them. The most striking feature about the representation of these\npersonages is, that each of them is seated, cross-legged, on a different\ncomposite glyph; some of these exhibit animal forms. This is a fact of\nutmost importance, for it definitely connects distinct personalities,\nobviously chieftains with composite glyphs, some composite parts of which\nare obviously totemic. On the upper surface of this monolith there are\n6\u00d76=36 single glyphs, which yield 9 groups of 4. If these 9\u00d74 be added to\nthe 4\u00d74 glyphs on which the chieftains are respectively seated, we obtain\n13 groups of 4, equivalent to 52. It is superfluous to repeat that there\nare fifty-two years in the Mexican cycle and that just as this square\naltar has 16 figures carved around it, the great monolithic Stone of Tizoc\nin the City of Mexico has 16 groups. In the latter case each group is\naccompanied by the name of a tribe and its capital. It looks very much as\nthough the glyphs on which the chieftains on Altar K are seated also\nexpress tribal names.\n\nA careful study of the other square monolith at Copan, known as the\nAlligator altar, will enable us to form a better estimate of the probable\nmeaning of glyphs, employed as seats by chieftains. The Alligator altar\ntakes its name from the sculptured animal which is stretched over its\nupper surface. Human figures are represented as connected with the\ndifferent parts of the animal\u2019s body, in a way which forcibly recalls Mr.\nCushing\u2019s explanation of how the various members of a tribe were\nassociated with a part only of their totemic animal and bore the name of\nthis part as their title of honor, according to a strict order of\nprecedence.\n\nAccording to Mr. Maudslay\u2019s description: \u201cUpon the upper surface of the\nmonument are two apparently human figures seated upon the arms of the\nalligator. Both figures are much weather worn; each has what appears to be\na glyph in its hand, which is outstretched toward the alligator\u2019s head.\nBetween the alligator\u2019s arms and legs four human figures are seated in\nsimilar positions, two on each side of the body. These figures have large\nmask head-dresses and carry offerings in their hands. There are two\nfigures on the north side of the monument, one on either side of the tail\nof the alligator; each is seated on a glyph. The figures are human, but in\nplace of a human head each figure is surmounted by a glyph. Each figure\nholds a glyph with the numeral ten attached to it in its outstretched\nhand.\u201d\n\nSince the above partial description of the altar was written, Mr. Maudslay\nhas found that one of the above glyphs is \u201cMol\u201d and the other \u201cZip,\u201d and\nhas identified the glyph used as a head for each figure as the day-sign\nCabal. This fact is of particular interest as the meaning of this sign\nseems to be connected with Caban=the Below, and the two figures with Cabal\nheads are sculptured at each side of the alligator\u2019s tail which is the\npart of least honor, not only according to Zu\u00f1i etiquette, but also\naccording to Mexican ideas, the word for tail being employed,\nmetaphorically, for vassals.\n\nTo this description I would add that a careful study of the cast of this\nmonument in the South Kensington Museum, and of the illustrations in Mr.\nMaudslay\u2019s work reveals that, of the four figures on the west side, one\nonly has a human head, whilst two have human bodies with animal heads and\none a semi-human face and the body of a bird. Of the four figures on the\neast side, the first represents a man seated on a glyph, the second a\nhuman body with an animal head and the third and fourth semi-animal, bird\nand human figures. Amongst the recognizable animal forms represented, we\ndistinguish an ocelot, an unmistakable alligator\u2019s head and the head of a\nmonster with huge jaw and serrated teeth which strongly resembles the\nMexican sign Cipactli, a nondescript \u201cmarine monster.\u201d One detail is\nworthy of special notice: the left hand of one of the figures on the east\nside terminates in a serpent\u2019s head, in a fashion recalling that of the\nSanta Lucia bas-reliefs.\n\nThe following r\u00e9sum\u00e9 will make the distribution of the figures and glyphs\non the altar quite clear. Top: outstretched alligator body, whose legs and\nclaws are sculptured over the corners of the altar. On each shoulder 1\nfigure with glyph=2. On each knee 2 figures=4, making a total of 6 figures\non the top. On east and west sides respectively, 4 figures; on north side\n2 figures, on the south side 4 figures on composite glyphs=14. The total\nnumber of figures on top and sides is 20, each of which is intimately\nassociated with a glyph. Under the snout of the alligator, on the south\nside, there are 2\u00d74=8 glyphs.\n\nWhen carefully analyzed we ultimately find that the surface of the altar\nexhibits in the first case two chieftains of equal rank, but respectively\nseated on the right and left forelegs of the tribal totem. To my idea this\ndemonstrates that the dual rulership, such as existed elsewhere, prevailed\nat Copan, and that two lords of the alligator tribe were entitled the\nright and left forelegs or \u201carms\u201d of the animal totem. It should be noted\nhere that the Maya name for alligator is chiuan or ain. The dictionaries\ncontain also the following names for the same or allied species:\nSea-lizard, alligator (?), ixbaan; lizard in general=ix-mech, or mech,\nix-be-bech, ixzeluoh and ix-tulub. Obviously occupying positions of less\nhonor there are 2\u00d72=4 chiefs of equal rank but seated, respectively, on\nthe right and left hind legs of the totem. These again are evidently\nequivalent to the four sub-rulers of Mexico and Yucatan, the Maya Bacabs\nor Chacs.\n\nLastly, the twenty different figures, connected with particular glyphs,\nare equivalent to the division of the tribe into as many portions, minus\nthe head. The eight glyphs associated with this added to the twelve\nglyph-figures, complete the numeric organization into twenty. From this\nmonument, the sides of which were probably painted, originally, in four\ncolors, it would seem that the alligator clan, ruled by two chiefs and\nfour lesser rulers, was organized into twelve divisions of people and\neight classes of another kind. A circular tablet at Quirigua, which I\nshall describe further on, exhibits a subdivision into 2\u00d76=12+5+3=20.\n\nIt is not necessary to emphasize how remarkably the Copan altar conforms\nto the Zu\u00f1i method of clan-organization. It suffices for my present\npurpose merely to establish the community of thought which existed\nthroughout, but which found its highest artistic expression and\ndevelopment in Central America.\n\nThere are several other smaller carved monoliths, one of which usually\nlies in front of a stela. For this reason they have been popularly named\n\u201caltars,\u201d just as the stel\u00e6 have been called \u201cidols.\u201d The majority of\nthese \u201caltars\u201d contradict this appellation by their utterly unsuitable\nshapes and profuse carvings on their upper, often irregular, rounded\nsurfaces. Some of these monoliths consist of a monstrous head, the shape\nof which is almost lost under an indescribable mass of ornamentation. In\nsome cases, however, they recall the semblance of the large glyphs on\nwhich chieftains are represented as seated on the carved sides of the\nsquare monoliths just described. So strongly do some of these resemble\ncertain forms, that I venture to express my belief that, on ceremonial\noccasions, these carved heads may have served as the seats or stools of\nhonor for chieftains of the rank of those portrayed on the bas-reliefs.\nThe Maya word tem, the plural form for which is tetem, seems to be\napplicable to such totemistic carved stones. It is translated as stone\naltar, seat or bench (_cf._ Nahuatl word te-tl=stone). Other minor\nmonoliths are carved with glyphs. \u201cAltar G,\u201d illustrated in Mr. Maudslay\u2019s\nwork, exhibits four glyphs only\u2014an interesting number, replete with\nsignificance to the native mind.\n\nThe number 24 occurs on Altar R on which the glyphs are disposed as\n2\u00d74=8+2\u00d78=24. The number 24 recurs on the top of Altar U, where the glyphs\nare disposed in 3 rows of 8 each. At the same time the back of this altar\nexhibits 5\u00d710=50 and its sides 2\u00d72=4 glyphs, which may possibly constitute\nseparate records. In the majority of foregoing cases the glyphs are single\nand comparatively simple. On Altar S, however, we have double and\nquadruple glyphs, the latter obviously being a highly developed cursive\nmethod of recording facts, rendered possible by the minute classification\nof all things in the State into definite divisions with fixed\nrelationships to each other.\n\nHaving lingered so long in Copan we can but glance at Quirigua and note\nits most remarkable features. This ruined city lies on Motagua river,\n1,800 feet below and at about a distance of twenty-five to thirty miles\nfrom Copan. It is now subjected to almost annual inundations from the\nriver and its situation in marshy surroundings renders it extremely\nunhealthy. It may have been partly on this account that the neighboring\ncapital of Copan was founded in an elevated and salubrious position.\n\nAn interesting fact has been pointed out to me by Mr. Maudslay, namely,\nthat the ground plan of both groups of ruins is almost exactly the same,\nCopan being only somewhat the larger of the two. This identity proves that\nthe same distinct scheme of orientation was carried out in both places and\nthat importance was undoubtedly attached to the relative positions of the\npyramid-temples, courts and buildings.(65) A proof that two distinct\ncastes of rulers existed and were respectively associated with the\nnorthern and southern regions of the capital is furnished by a\ncircumstance communicated to me by Mr. Maudslay. In Copan, as well as at\nQuirigua, some of the individuals sculptured on the stel\u00e6 are beardless,\nwhilst others have beards which seem to be sometimes artificial. These\nstel\u00e6 usually stood at the sides of the great courts, and at the bases of\nthe pyramid-temples. Mr. Maudslay has observed that in both places, all of\nthe bearded effigies are situated to the north of the beardless ones. The\nfirst, for instance, occupy the northern and the second the southern side\nof a court; their respective positions being clearly intentional since it\nrecurs in both cases. This circumstance furnishes additional proof that,\nin these capitals as elsewhere, the same great primary division into the\nAbove and Below prevailed and shows that the representative rulers of\nthese two castes respectively wore beards or none.\n\nThe beard, as an insignia of rank, occurs in several Mexican MSS. and\ncareful observation shows that it is most frequently represented as worn\nby a high-priest, usually painted black and sometimes wearing the skin of\nan ocelot. It is found associated with advanced age and with red, the\ncolor of the north, a fact which coincides with the position assigned to\nbearded effigies at Copan and Quirigua. In Mexican Codices the culture\nhero, Quetzalcoatl, is figured with a beard, and tradition records that\nthis was his distinctive feature. Images of Quetzalcoatl=the air-god,\nrepresent him with a beard, and the calendar-sign Ehecatl=wind, is\ncomposed of an elongated mouth and chin to which a beard is attached.\n\nSeveral of the monuments at Quirigua are the largest of the kind which\nhave been found on the American continent. Stel\u00e6 E and F are twenty-two\nand twenty-five feet high respectively, and both exhibit two human\neffigies standing back to back. In point of fact, with a few exceptions,\namongst which are female effigies, the majority of stel\u00e6 at Quirigua are\ndouble, namely, A, C, D, E, F, K, in Mr. Maudslay\u2019s work, part XI. I\ncannot but regard this as a proof that in a peaceful, flourishing and\nlong-established state, the dual form of government maintained itself\nsuccessfully for an extended period of time. On Stela E is one of the most\nremarkable ancient American portrait-statues that has yet been discovered.\nIt portrays a man with noble and strongly marked features, an aquiline\nnose and a narrow chin beard, like a goatee.\n\nThe Maya dictionaries supply us with the clue to the meaning attached to\nthe beard in pictorial art. The word for beard is meex and for \u201cbearded\nman,\u201d ah-meex, or ah-meexnal, if the beard was long. On the other hand,\nah-mek-tancal is the Maya name for \u201cgovernor and ruler of people or of a\ntown,\u201d and ah-mektanpixan means high priest. The first two syllables of\nthese titles, being identical with the word for a \u201cbearded man,\u201d seem to\nexplain the reason for the association of rank with a beard, and _vice\nversa_. Added to preceding data it aids in forming the conclusion that the\nbearded personages on the stel\u00e6 were \u201chigh-priests or rulers of people and\nof towns,\u201d that the beard or goatee was the mark of supreme rank and that\nartificial ones were sometimes worn.\n\nThe beardless effigies, on the other hand, obviously represent individuals\nbelonging to a different caste; and the fact that stel\u00e6 exist at Copan and\nQuirigua on which two figures are carved, back to back, proves that the\nassignment of the effigies of the two types to separate sides of the\ncourts was preceded by a time when a closer unity prevailed between the\ndual rulers. The existence of stel\u00e6 with female figures proves that here,\nas well as in Mexico and Peru, there had been a period when \u201cthe Below and\nthe cult of the Earth-mother were presided over by a woman.\u201d\n\nOn each side of the great Stela F is carved the initial followed by 6\u00d76=36\nglyphs, which fact seems to indicate that six glyphs pertained to each of\nthe six regions and recorded facts relating thereunto. On the sides of\nStela F, each initial is followed by 34 glyphs only, the count being\nshorter than that of Stela E by 2\u00d72=4. One side of Stela C exhibits the\ninitial followed by 2\u00d713 glyphs grouped in parallel lines, then a\nhorizontal band with 4 glyphs; the other side the initial followed by\n4\u00d76=24 and a group of 4 glyphs. Stela D is particularly remarkable on\naccount of the six squares of pictorial glyphs which follow the \u201cInitial\u201d\nwhich, in this case, exhibits the head and body of a jaguar in its centre.\nI refer to Mr. Maudslay\u2019s interesting conclusion that these pictorial\nglyphs preceded, in date, the more cursive method of representing the\ninitial series. In consequence of this jaguar initial, Stela A becomes\nparticularly noticeable, because one of the personages upon it has a\nbeard, whilst the other is masked as an ocelot or jaguar.\n\nA vivid sense of the actuality of the bond that existed between the\nancient dwellers at Copan and Quirigua, their totemic animals and symbolic\ncoloring, is obtained on reading Mr. Maudslay\u2019s following description of\nthe excavation of mound 4 at Copan (Report Proceedings Geographical\nSociety, 1886, p. 578).... \u201cThe excavation was then continued ... when\nmore traces of [human] bones were found mixed with red powder and sand....\nContinuing the excavation ... a skeleton of a jaguar was found lying under\na layer of charcoal ... the teeth and part of the skeleton had been\npainted red. At about 100 yards to the south of this mound I shortly\nafterwards opened another ... mound ... and found a few small fragments of\nhuman bones, two small stone axes and portions of another jaguar\u2019s\nskeleton and some dog\u2019s teeth, showing that the interment of animals was\nnot a matter of chance.\u201d\n\nIf we add this to the accumulation of evidence I have presented, showing\nthat in Mexico and Yucatan the ocelot was associated with the north, the\ncolor red, the underworld, the nocturnal cult and with bearded priests, we\nmust admit that there is hope that, some day, we may be as familiar with\nthe life and customs of the ancient Americans as we are now with those of\nthe ancient Egyptians, Greeks and Romans.\n\nStrange animal effigies in stone have been found at Quirigua: one (B)\nsomewhat resembles a dragon and exhibits complex glyphs; another (G) has\nbeen named an armadillo and has 2\u00d78=16 glyphs carved on its lower and\n2\u00d720=40 on its upper sides.\n\nA circular slab deserves special mention: in its centre is a seated\nfigure. Forming a band around the edge, to the right of the figure are 6\nglyphs and 6 others are to his left=12 in all. Above him to his left are 5\nand to his left are 3 glyphs. This peculiar distribution of 20 glyphs is\nof peculiar interest.\n\nThe crowning glory of Quirigua, however, is the gigantic block of stone,\ncompletely covered with intricate carvings and glyphs, which is known as\nthe \u201cGreat Turtle,\u201d and of which splendid casts, made from Mr. Maudslay\u2019s\nmoulds, are now exhibited in the South Kensington Museum, London, and in\nthe American Museum of Natural History, New York. Of the many features of\nthis remarkable monument, which can be studied in Mr. Maudslay\u2019s\nforthcoming part XI of the Biologia Centrali-Americana, the seated figure,\noccupying a prominent place and obviously representing the central ruler,\ndeserves special mention. In his right hand he holds a peculiar sceptre\nsimilar to that held by the personage on Stela E. His left hand is\nconcealed under a carved face, a detail which recalls the Santa Lucia\nbas-reliefs.\n\nPalenque and its group of sister cities now claim our notice. Of the\nlatter Men-ch\u00e9 particularly arrests our attention on account of its name,\nthe second part of which means tree and by extension, tribe. The word\n_men_ is of particular interest, for it is not only the name of a dog in\nthe Maya Calendar but signifies precisely the same as the Mexican word\ntoltecatl, namely, master-builder, artificer or artisan, an adept in\nmanufacture. The habitual form of employing the word would be ah-men,\nmeaning he who is a master builder, etc.; while men-ah or men-yah\nsignifies work or production of manual labor. The first part of the\nNahuatl word aman-teca, signifying artisan, artificer, seems to be a\ncorrupt rendering of the Maya ah-men. That Men-ch\u00e9, which is also known as\nLorillard City, was a centre of the highest development of\nnative-sculpture and art seems proven by the truly admirable and\nexquisitely fine workmanship of the bas-reliefs obtained there by Mr.\nMaudslay, and now exhibited at the British Museum. In execution and finish\nthey undoubtedly surpass any specimens of ancient American art I have ever\nseen.\n\nA search for the possible derivation of the word men leads to mehen, the\nname for \u201csons or nephews in the male line,\u201d mehen-ob, the descendants,\nmehen-tzilaan=genealogy and parentage (a word which sheds some light on\nthe meaning of the ancient capital Tzilan in Yucatan). Mehen is also\nemployed as meaning something little, small or minute.\n\nFrom the above data it may be inferred that Men-ch\u00e9 may have originally\nsignified \u201cthe tree or tribe of the sons or nephews in the male line,\u201d and\nthat these people may have so identified themselves with the arts of\nbuilding and working in precious metals and stone, etc., that their title\nwas used as a designation for these industries. It is certainly remarkable\nthat, situated at an easy distance on the same river Usumacinto, there is\nthe great ruined city of Palenque(66) (pronounced by the natives\nPa-lem-ke) which seems also to have originally terminated in ch\u00e9=tree or\ntribe and to be derived from palil, pal or palal=vassal, servant, subject,\nalso small child. Let us see how far the monuments of Palenque justify and\nsupport this translation of its name.\n\nReferring the reader to Mr. Maudslay\u2019s Biologia, and to Mr. Holmes\u2019\nArch\u00e6ological Studies, Pt. II, and other well-known works on the ruins of\nPalenque, I shall confine myself to a cursory examination of the four\nprincipal isolated pyramid-temples, known, respectively, as the temples of\nthe Inscriptions, of the Sun, of the Cross and of the Cross No. 2.\nAlthough the orientation of these edifices is not accurate they may be\nroughly said to face the cardinal points as follows:\u2014\n\nThe temple \u201cof the Inscriptions\u201d faces the north, that \u201cof the Sun\u201d the\neast, whilst the temple \u201cof the Cross\u201d faces the south and that \u201cof Cross\n2,\u201d the west. Dr. Brinton has already shown that the well-known symbol on\nthe famous \u201cTablet of the Cross\u201d is not a cross, but the conventional\nsymbol for \u201ctree\u201d of the type I have illustrated in the preceding fig. 53.\nAs Cross No. 2 unquestionably belongs to the same category, it results\nthat these two temples would be more correctly designated as \u201cof the Tree\u201d\nand that they furnish us with an interesting parallel of the Peruvian\nquisuar can-cha, or \u201cplace of the tree,\u201d where the Inca erected two trees\nwhich typified his father and mother and were \u201cas the root and stems of\nthe Incas.\u201d The Palenque \u201ctrees,\u201d moreover, closely resemble those on the\nMexican F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary chart (fig. 52) inasmuch as, in each case, the tree is\nsurmounted by a bird and is flanked by two human figures.\n\nIt has already been shown in the preceding pages that in ancient America\nthe tree was generally employed as a symbol for tribe and that the Maya\nword for tree=ch\u00e9 occurs as an affix signifying tribe or people not only\nin Qui-ch\u00e9, Man-ch\u00e9 (the latter a tribe inhabiting the region of Mench\u00e9\nand Palenque) etc., but also in the names of tribes inhabiting the\nsouthern regions of North America.\n\nAssuming, therefore, upon convincing and substantial evidence which will\nbe further corroborated, that the \u201cTablet of the Cross\u201d represents a tree,\nthe symbol of tribal life, the next step is to interpret the bird perched\nupon it and generally acknowledged to be a quetzal (pronounced kay-tzal)\nas the totem of the tribe, which also probably expresses its name. The\ntree is represented as associated with serpent symbolism and as growing\nfrom a vase=ho-och placed on a monstrous head=ho-ol, the idea conveyed\nbeing that it flourished in the centre or middle, while the head\nsignifies, as has been shown, the capital and also the chief. On the vase\nis carved a symbol to which I draw special attention, as it recurs on the\nright hand end of the carved band below the tree, is met with in Maya\ncalculiform glyphs and is also frequently employed in ancient Mexico. It\nrepresents the corolla of a four-petalled flower which obviously\nsymbolized the Four-in-One, which permeated the native civilizations.\n\nThe word for \u201cflower\u201d being nic in Maya and xochitl (pronounced hoochitl)\nin Nahuatl, it must be admitted that the symbol of a vase with a flower\nseems to afford an instance of a bilingual rebus, as the Maya hooch is\nidentical in sound to the Nahuatl xoch-itl. Even without this, however,\nthe meaning of the tree and serpent, the bird, the vase, the quadripartite\nflower, and the head, would have been generally and equally intelligible\nto native tribes, being familiar symbols constantly employed in\nmetaphorical speech.\n\nMr. Maudslay has pointed out and illustrated in his work (Biologia, pl.\n92, pt. X) that the side branches of the \u201ccross\u201d simulate bearded\nserpents\u2019 heads, whilst their recurved upper jaws are covered with what\nresemble buds of flowers, seeds or beads. The Palenque \u201ccross\u201d is indeed\ncharacterized by being profusely decorated with \u201cbead or seed-like\nornaments and appendages\u201d some of which resemble beads or seeds, figured\nin some instances, like those on the Copan swastika, the meaning of which\nseems supplied by the previously cited Zu\u00f1i text. It does not appear to be\na mere matter of chance that the following Maya words, culled from the\ndictionaries, are so closely connected: yax-ch\u00e9=a sort of ceiba tree, the\nemblem of celestial life of the Mayas; yax-chumil and\nyax-pa-ibe=adjectives primitive, original; adverb firstly, at the\nbeginning; yaxil, verb=to make something new, to commence, begin;\nyaxil-tun=bead or pearl; yax-mehen-tzil=eldest son.\n\nAccording to this incontrovertible evidence we find that the sacred tree\nof life of the Mayas was designated by the word yax, signifying first,\noriginal, new, etc.; that the same root enters into the composition of the\nword for eldest son and finally for \u201cbead.\u201d The latter curious agreement\nis accentuated by the well-known fact that the Mexicans employed in\nmetaphorical speech the word cuzcatl=bead made of some precious stone, to\ndesignate \u201cfather, mother, lord, captain, governor; those who are like a\nsheltering tree to the people\u201d (Olmos, cap. VIII). A term of particular\nendearment for a son was \u201cgold-bead\u201d (teocuitla-cuzcatl). Olmos moreover\nrecords no less than eight metaphorical designations for a \u201cTree, or first\nfather, origin of generation, lord or governor,\u201d and appellations for\ntwenty-nine \u201cRelatives who issue from one stem or trunk.\u201d\n\nCollectively, the evidence set forth in the preceding pages identifies the\nimage on the famous \u201cTablet of the Cross,\u201d as a symbolical representation\nof the \u201cTree of Life of the Eldest Sons,\u201d chiefs or nobility of a tribe,\nwhose totemic bird was the quetzal.(67) Before completing the description\nof this tablet, the analogous representation of a tree on the \u201cTemple of\nthe Cross 2\u201d should be examined. This is generally known as the foliated\nCross and like its counterpart it issues from a vase with a quadriform\nemblem, and a monstrous head. Its branches are composed of\nconventionalized maize plants on which human heads and faces occupy the\nplaces of the corn-cobs whilst their hanging hair simulates the tassels of\nthe ripe corn. The maize-leaves are decorated with groups of seed-like\nbeads amongst which distinct representations of maize seeds are\ndiscernible. These form, indeed, the leading motif of the seed decorations\nand indicate that the \u201cappendages\u201d to the groups of seed-like beads on the\nCopan swastika were but conventionalized maize-seeds. The branches of the\nmaize-tree are surmounted by a conventionally ornamented head from which\nhangs a necklace of beads with a medallion consisting of a face surrounded\nby a beaded frame. Above the head the totemic quetzal bird is repeated\nunder almost precisely the same form but in a reversed position. It is\ninteresting to note that the Maya name for maize is ixim, which added to\nthe ch\u00e9=tree, yields ixim-ch\u00e9, a word which actually occurs as the local\nname of the ancient capital of Guatemala, named \u201cIximch\u00e9-tecpan.\u201d To this\ncurious fact should be also added that \u201cix\u201d is the prefix employed to\ndesignate the feminine gender and that Ix-chel is \u201cthe name of the Maya\ngoddess of medicine and of child-birth.\u201d\n\nAn extremely interesting composite symbol is carved under the feet of the\npersonage standing next to the \u201cmaize-tree,\u201d to the right of the\nspectator. It consists of the realistically carved large convolute\nsea-shell such as constituted the Mexican symbol of parturition. An almost\ngrotesque human figure is represented as issuing from it and holding in\nits hand a maize plant which bends upwards and curves over the shell. Its\nleaves are drawn with maize-seeds on and amongst them, in the same\nconventional way that has been noticed on the central tree, and human\nheads again simulate the corn-cob. An acquaintance with Mexican and Zu\u00f1i\nsymbolism enables us to grasp the significance of this composite symbol\nwhich figuratively expresses the common birth and growth of the substance\nof plant and human life. The personage who stands over this symbol, facing\nthe tree and the tail of the bird which surmounts it, holds a curiously\ndecorated emblem in his hand, of which more anon. A small twig bearing\nthree terminal leaves issues from his head. Behind him are 4 perpendicular\ncolumns with 17 glyphs in each; whilst a detached series, consisting of 13\nsmaller glyphs, is carved in front and above him.\n\nAt the opposite side of the tree, facing the almost unrecognizable head of\nthe bird, a personage stands on an elaborately carved monstrous head,\ncovered with a maize-plant. He is wearing a necklace and medallion like\nthat on the tree itself. His head is surmounted by a high cap bearing a\nconventionalized flower-bud. A belt in the form of a serpent with open\njaws, encircles his waist and he is holding aloft in his hands, a\nminiature, human, seated figure with folded arms, a bead necklace and an\nindescribable head-dress and masked face. His attitude indicates that, by\noffering this figure, he is performing some rite. On the other hand, a\nconventionalized sign for water seems to be issuing from the bird\u2019s head\nand descending upon the figure whilst puffs of breath and seeds issuing\nfrom its beak seem to be directed towards the tiny effigy of a human\nbeing.\n\nReverting now to the \u201cTablet of the Cross I,\u201d we find precisely analogous\nfigures at its sides, only in reversed positions. To the right of the\nspectator stands the priest with a tall hat surmounted by the flower-bud,\nsomewhat resembling a fleur-de-lis. The small human figure he is offering\nis recumbent and is being held out so as to come in contact with the\npendant issuing from the bird\u2019s head.\n\nThe figure on the opposite side, with the head-dress and twig with three\nleaves, is facing the central tree and holding a staff which, in this case\nalthough combined with other emblems, clearly appears to represent a young\nmaize plant, with its roots below, and growing shoot with leaves above. As\non the other tablets there are columns of glyphs behind each figure,\nwhilst the personage holding the maize-plant is associated with a detached\ngroup, in two portions, consisting of 10+4 glyphs, and is standing on a\nlarge glyph associated with a numeral.\n\nHaving thus cursorily brought out some special points observable on both\n\u201cCross Tablets,\u201d let us now glance at the tablet in the \u201cTemple of the\nSun.\u201d On this we again find columns of glyphs and a personage at each side\nof a central figure. The same peculiarities and differences of costume are\nobservable here as on the preceding tablets; but each personage holds a\nsmall, grotesque human figure with a long nose, and each stands on the\nback of a human being, that to the left of the spectator especially\nappearing to be a conquered enemy.(68)\n\nTwo over-burdened-looking seated figures, one of which is clothed in a\nspotted ocelot\u2019s skin, occupy the centre and support, on their bowed\nshoulders, a curious emblem terminating in open serpents\u2019 jaws. The large\nhead (of a jaguar?) is in the centre and above this issue two puffs of\nbreath with seeds, forming a double recurved figure so identical in shape\nand detail to a single branch of the Copan swastika that one might imagine\nit was carved by the same hand. On this tablet, instead of a tree, the\ncentre is occupied by a shield, exhibiting a face and having tufts of\nfeathers at its four rounded corners. This rests on two crossed lances\nwith decorated handles surmounted by large points.\n\nIn this connection it is interesting and important to note that, in\nancient Mexico, lands conquered and acquired in warfare were termed \u201cmil\nchimalli,\u201d literally, \u201cfield of the shield,\u201d a metaphor which was also\nprobably known to the Mayas.\n\nGlancing next at the \u201cTemple of Inscriptions,\u201d the fourth of the large\ndetached temples of Palenque, we find that its interior is characterized\nby the most extensive mural inscriptions found in America, consisting\nentirely of hieroglyphics. Four exterior free pillars, however, \u201ccontain\non their outer faces, modelled in bold relief, life-sized figures of women\nholding children in their arms\u201d (Holmes).\n\nHaving brought out the particular point that, in each of the four temples\ndescribed, adults are represented in the act of carrying or offering\nchildren or diminutive and strangely grotesque conventionalized effigies\nof human beings, I would note that the only analogous grotesque figures\nwith long noses, I know of, are those on the sceptres held in the hand by\nthe seated personage on the \u201cGreat Turtle\u201d and by the individual carved on\nStela E at Quirigua. It is noteworthy that the left hand of the latter\npersonage holds a shield displaying a face and recalling that carved on\nthe tablet of the Palenque \u201cTemple of the Sun.\u201d Analogous grotesque\nfigures also surround the personage carved on Stela F at Copan. These\nfacts indicate that the Quirigua \u201cGreat Turtle,\u201d the stel\u00e6 at Quirigua and\nCopan and the Palenque tablets, were erected by people sharing the same\ncult and ritual observance, one feature of which was the carrying of\ndiminutive human effigies, with exaggerated and almost grotesque noses.\n\nA clue to the significance of this rite is supplied by the text of the\nCodex Telleriano-Remensis (Kingsborough, vol. V, p. 134) relating to the\nMexican 20-day period Iz-calli, the last of the year. \u201cIt was the feast of\nFire, because at this season the trees became warmed and began to bud. In\nit was celebrated the festival Pil-quixtia, meaning \u2018human life or nature\nwhich had always escaped destruction although the world itself had been\ndestroyed several times.\u2019 \u201d\n\n\u201cIzcalli signifies as much as liveliness, and in this 20-day period all\nmothers lifted their children by their heads and holding them aloft called\nout, Izcalli, Izcalli, as though they said \u2019aviva\u2019=live, live.... This was\nthe period of production ... thanks were rendered to the nature which is\nthe cause of the production.... Every four years they feasted for 8 days\nin memory of the three times that the world was destroyed. They name this\n\u2018four times Lord,\u2019 because this escaped destruction, although all was\ndestroyed. They designated the festival as that of \u2018renovation\u2019 and said\nthat when it and the fast came to an end the bodies of men became like\nthose of children. Therefore, in order to figure [or symbolize] this\nfestival, adults led certain children by the hand, in the sacred dance.\u201d\n\nSlightly incoherent though this text may be, it furnishes a most valuable\nsupplement to the descriptions of the same festival by other authorities.\nAs this is exhaustively treated in my forthcoming text to the \u201cLife of the\nIndians \u201d in which all available authorities are quoted and collated, I\nshall confine myself here to some facts which bear a special relation to\nthe subject of this paper. In Mexico another name for the festival period\nIzcalli, was Xilomaniztli=the birth or sprouting of the young maize.\nAccording to Duran, izcalli signified \u201cthe creating or bringing up\u201d and in\norder to make the growth of children coincide with that of the young\nmaize, parents, during this period, stretched the limbs and every part of\nthe bodies of all infants of tender age.\n\nAnother observance which was held at this time was in anticipation of the\nNew Year and consisted in the raising and planting of high poles or wands\nwith branches, in the courtyards of the temples and in the streets. These\ntypified the new life; \u201cthe budding and rejoicing of the trees.\u201d Another\nNew Year custom was that of carrying budding branches or young shoots of\nmaize in the hand, on a particular day named Xiuh-Tzitzquilo, literally,\n\u201cthe taking of the year in one\u2019s hands.\u201d The explanation of this metaphor\nis given by Duran who states that \u201cthe natives consider that the year,\nwith its months and days, is like a branch with its twigs and leaves.\u201d\n\nA passing mention must be moreover made of the two movable festivals\ncelebrated by the Mexicans, in which they scattered broken egg-shells on\nthe roads and streets as a rite of thanksgiving for \u201cthe life bestowed\nupon the chicken in the shell\u201d by the divine power. In the image of this\nfestival contained in the \u201cLife of the Indians,\u201d the egg-shells are\nrepresented at the foot of a tree bearing seven blossoms; the seated\ndivinity in front of this wears a bird-mask and carries a staff with a\nheart in his hand. These festivals were named respectively, seven flowers\nand one flower.\n\nBriefly summarizing the foregoing data, we find it proven that, deeply\nimpressed with the wonderful renewal of life in nature, the ancient\nMexicans rendered periodical thanksgiving for this in its various forms.\nThe budding tree, the young shoots of the maize, all seedlings, the broken\negg-shells from which the young chickens had emerged, were adopted as\nemblems of the renewal of life. The child was likewise looked upon as the\nrenewal of the human race and every four years a thanksgiving festival \u201cof\nrenovation\u201d was solemnized in which children took a special part. In my\nwork on the Calendar system I shall show how far this festival \u201cof new\nbirth\u201d coincided with astronomical phenomena. From Landa we learn that in\nthe Maya months \u201cChen or Yax,\u201d on a day designated by the priest, a\nfestival was celebrated named Ocna: \u201cthe renovation of the temple in\nhonour of the Chacs, the gods of the maize-fields.\u201d This was held each\nyear ... all idols and incense-burners were renewed and if necessary the\nbuilding was rebuilt or renovated and, \u201cin commemoration of this, an\ninscription in the native characters was fixed to the walls.\u201d\n\nReferring to other chapters of Landa\u2019s work we find that, as in Mexico,\nthe Yucatec children received a \u201cchild\u2019s name\u201d at birth which was changed\nwhen, having accomplished the third year, they were \u201creborn\u201d and received\na new name, _i. e._ the combined name of their father and mother. On\nattaining puberty they obtained an individual name which they preserved\nduring life-time. A knowledge of the social organization of these people\nenables one to grasp the full importance and significance of these changes\nof name, which were accompanied by ritual observances and betokened the\nenrolment of the children into their respective classes and sub-classes\nand a consequent reorganization of certain departments of the State. It\nappears that in ancient times the ceremonial of the \u201cnew birth,\u201d or\nre-naming of the children, took place every four years, simultaneously\nwith the thanksgiving feast for the \u201ccontinuation of the human race.\u201d\n\nA careful analysis of native words and metaphors tends to show, moreover,\nthat the children born within each four-year-period were collectively\nregarded as \u201ca fresh growth upon the tribal tree.\u201d In Mexico the word for\nleaf=atlapalli, was employed as a metaphor for the lower class, whilst in\nPeru the male and female descendants of the Incas were represented by gold\nand silver fruits upon the trees of their male and female ancestry. The\ncollection of such scattered scraps of testimony enables us to reconstruct\nthe drift of native thought and realize that the registration of\nindividuals was associated with the conception of a tribal tree bearing\nfour branches and covered with blossoms, fruits and leaves which faded and\nfell but were replaced by fresh growths.\n\nWe learn from Duran that so careful a record was kept of the population,\nby the Mexican priesthood, \u201cthat not even a newborn babe could escape\ndetection.\u201d The reason for this strict vigilance is clear, for the welfare\nof the community and the harmonious working of the complex machinery of\nstate depended upon the constant renewal of vacancies caused by deaths in\neach department of industry and government.\n\nAfter this excursion into the realm of native thought let us now return to\nthe Palenque tablets, placed in detached temples which approximately face\nthe four cardinal points. On the tablet of the \u201cTemple of the Cross\u201d we\nhave a tribal tree with symbols of the Middle and of the Four Quarters and\nof duality. A priest with a flower on his head presents a diminutive human\nfigure to the totemic bird perched on the tree. Another, with a leafy\nbranch on his head-dress, holds a conventional sceptre simulating a young\ngrowing shoot of maize. Behind each figure are rows of glyphs and in the\nupper corner to the left of the spectator is the septenary series headed\nby the initial-sign.\n\nIn the \u201cTemple of Cross II\u201d we have a variant of the identical\nrepresentation in which the maize plant and the sea shell are prominent.\nIf I may hazard a suggestion of the meaning of these two tablets, I should\nsay that they appear to be tribal registers most probably relating to the\nincrease and decrease of the male and female population in all divisions\nand classes, during a fixed period of time. Both seem to commemorate the\n\u201crenovation\u201d or \u201cnew growth\u201d of the tribal tree in a mode which would have\nbeen as intelligible to a Mexican, for instance, as to a Maya. The fact\nthat the \u201cTemple of the Sun\u201d and that of the \u201cInscriptions\u201d obviously held\nanalogous registers, points to the alternative possibilities (1) that each\ntemple was destined to preserve the register of the population and social\norganization, etc., of one of the four quarters of the capital and state,\naccording to years; (2) that the trees in the \u201cCross temples\u201d figured the\nmale and female lineages of the ruling caste, whilst the tablet in the\n\u201cTemple of the Sun\u201d recorded the numbers of conquered people reduced to\nslavery and the \u201cTemple of Inscriptions\u201d preserved the register of female\nchildren or of vassals; (3) that each of the four temples preserved a\ncomplete register of the entire state and had been erected consecutively\nat the conclusion or beginning of eras, the difference observable in the\ncentral motif conveying the salient feature or event marking each special\nepoch and recording, according to years, the organization of the state\nduring its course.\n\nIn the face of this possibility as well as the probability that each glyph\nwas painted and implied a year, it is interesting to note that, including\nthe initial glyph, the \u201cTablet of the Cross\u201d exhibits 108 glyphs on the\nside to the left and 124 on the side to the right of the spectator=a total\nof 232; the \u201cTablet of the Cross II\u201d exhibits 76 to the left and 83 to the\nright=159; and that in the \u201cTemple of the Sun,\u201d 70 to the left, 159 to the\nright and 12 in the middle=241. The \u201cTemple of Inscriptions\u201d exhibits the\ninitial series (see Maudslay, Biologia, pt. X, pl. 82) and entire walls\ncovered with glyphs, some of which, as on the tablets enumerated above,\nare accompanied by numerals whilst others are not.\n\nIn a future publication I shall submit illustrations of these monuments\nwith the ripened results of my investigations concerning them. For my\npresent purpose it suffices to have produced substantial proofs that the\nancient dwellers in Palenque employed the same metaphors, the same cursive\nmethod of registration and held the same fundamental principles of\norganization that have been shown to underlie the civilizations of Peru,\nGuatemala, Yucatan, and Mexico and still survive amongst the Zu\u00f1is and\nmore northern tribes. It is obvious that, at Palenque and the neighboring\nMench\u00e9 and Ixkun, an integral civilization, based on these principles, had\nexisted for an incalculable length of time. Strangely enough it seems to\nform so close a link between Maya and Mexican culture that it almost seems\njustifiable to surmise that both Maya and Nahuatl languages were spoken in\nthese ancient ruined cities.\n\nProceeding mentally northwards we will not linger at the ruins of Mitla,\nthe name of which seems to indicate that it had lain to the north of a\ngreat ancient centre of government, since Mictlan in Nahuatl and Mitnal in\nMaya both designate the region of the underworld and the north.\n\nReaching the ultimate stage of our mental exploration of the American\nContinent we now transport ourselves to the Valley of Mexico and, on the\nsite of the ancient capital of Montezuma and his coadjutor, face the three\ngreat monolithic monuments which are popularly known as the Calendar\nStone, the Stone of Tizoc and Huitzilopochtli. In 1886, at the Buffalo\nMeeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, I\npresented a \u201cPreliminary Note of an Analysis of the Mexican Codices and\nGraven Inscriptions,\u201d in which the opinion was advanced that the \u201cCalendar\nStone\u201d was identical with the \u201ccircular elaborately carved tablets which,\naccording to Padre Duran, were erected in each market-place in ancient\nMexico, and were held in great veneration. They were frequently consulted\nand by them the market-days were regulated.\u201d\n\n\u201cAll writers concur in stating that the market was held on each fifth day,\nwhen all adults were obliged by law to resort to the appointed\nmarket-place. The entire produce and manufacture of the state were brought\nthere, even from great distances, severe penalties being incurred by those\nwho bartered the products of agriculture or manual labor on the highway or\nelsewhere. On the broad, straight, cemented roads which led from the four\nquarters to the heart of the capital, \u2018resting places\u2019 for the wayfarers\nand carriers were provided at fixed intervals. The enormous concourse of\npeople, the variety of produce exhibited in the market-places of\nMontezuma\u2019s capital filled the conquerors with wonder and admiration. From\nCort\u00e9s, Bernal Diaz, Sahagun and others we learn that the market was a\nspecial charge of the supreme chief of Mexico; that appointed officers\npresided in state over it whilst others moved among the throng\nsuperintending the traffic. Standard measures were kept and rigorous\npunishment awaited those who sold by false measure or bartered stolen\nproperty.\u201d\n\nAfter making the preceding statements I advanced the opinion \u201cthat the\nperiodical market-day was the most important regulator of the Mexican\nsocial organization and that the monolith generally known as the\nCalendar-stone was the Market-stone of the City of Mexico. It bears the\nrecord of fixed market days; and I venture to suggest that from these the\nformation of the Mexican Calendar system originated. The stone shows the\nexistence of communal property and of an equal division of general\ncontributions into certain portions....\u201d\n\nI concluded the above communication with the statement: \u201cBefore publishing\nmy final results I shall submit them to a searching and prolonged\ninvestigation. An examination of the originals of many of the Codices\nreproduced in Lord Kingsborough\u2019s \u2018Mexican Antiquities\u2019 will be necessary\nto determine important points and during the forthcoming year my line of\nresearches will be in this direction.\u201d In my youthful enthusiasm and\ninexperience I little foresaw, when I wrote the above sentences, that I\nshould spend thirteen years in diligent research before I felt ready to\nexpress my ripened conclusions concerning the Calendar-stone. Although the\nresults I am about to submit are final they are necessarily incomplete,\ntheir full presentation with adequate illustrations being included in my\nforthcoming special work on the Social and Calendaric system of ancient\nAmerica. For the present I have limited myself to the reproduction of the\noutline drawing of the monolith made by the late Dionysio Abadiano of\nMexico and published in his somewhat fanciful work on this subject.(69) No\none, however, had studied the Calendar-stone more carefully than he; and,\nbesides being extremely accurate in outline, his drawing has the merit of\nincluding the eight deep circular holes which were drilled at regular\nintervals outside of the worked border of the stone as well as the groups\nof smaller circular and shallow depressions which Se\u00f1or Abadiano\ndiscovered on the outer unworked portion of the monolithic block. Without\ndiscussing here the question whether the eight drill holes were intended\nto support a species of gnomon, as Leon y Gama first maintained, or merely\nserved for the guidance of those who carved this marvel of accurate\nworkmanship and symmetrical design, I shall merely point out that,\nalthough the group of circular depressions in the block, in the lower\ncorner to the left of the spectator, offers a certain resemblance to the\nform of the constellation of Ursa Major, this may be merely the result of\nchance.\n\nFacing the problem of the meaning and purpose of the \u201cCalendar-stone,\u201d\nafter thirteen years of assiduous study, I find that the interpretation I\nsuggested in 1886, is substantially strengthened and corroborated by\nfreshly accumulated evidence. The difference is that I now lay less stress\nupon the phonetic elements and values of the symbols, although, as I shall\nset forth in the special publication alluded to, no study of the monument\ncan be considered complete unless these be carefully analyzed and\nunderstood. The one great stride in advance that I think I have made is\nthe recognition that the monolith is an image of the Great Plan or Scheme\nof Organization which has been expounded in the preceding pages and which\npermeated every branch of native thought.\n\nThe monument represents the high-water mark reached in the evolution of a\nset of ideas, which were suggested to primitive man by long-continued\nobservation of the phenomena of Nature and by the momentous recognition of\nthe\n\n\n                            \u201cnorthern star,\n    Of whose true-fixed, and resting quality,\n    There is no fellow in the firmament.\n    The skies are painted with unnumber\u2019d sparks,\n    They are all fire, and every one doth shine;\n    But there\u2019s but one in all doth hold his place.\u201d(70)\n\n\nThis inscribed tablet, which constitutes one of the most important\ndocuments in the history of the human race, is as clearly an image of the\nnocturnal heaven as it is of a vast terrestrial state which once existed\nin the valley of Mexico, and had been established as a reproduction upon\nearth of the harmonious order and fixed laws which apparently governed the\nheavens.\n\nThe monument exposes these laws, the dominion of which probably extended\nthroughout the American Continent, and still faintly survive in some\nexisting aboriginal communities. It not only sets forth the organization\nof state government and the subdivision of the people into classes bearing\na fixed relation to each other, but also serves as a chart of the\nterritory of the State, its capital and its four provinces, and minor\ntopographical divisions. Finally, it reveals that the progress of time,\nthe succession of days, years and epochs, _i. e._ the Calendar, was\nconceived as a reproduction of the wheel of sinistral revolution described\nby the circumpolar constellations around Polaris. The Septentriones served\nas an indicator, composed of stars, the motive power of which emanated\nfrom the central luminary. This marked not only the march of time each\nnight, but also the progress of the season by the four contrapositions\napparent in the course of a year, if observed at a fixed hour of the\nnight.\n\nThe twenty familiar day and year signs of the native calendar are carved\non a band which encircles the central figure on the stone. I am now in a\nposition to prove satisfactorily that these signs were not merely\ncalendaric and that they equally designated four principal and 4\u00d74=16\nminor groups of stars; four chiefs and 4\u00d74=16 minor tribal groups or\ndivisions of men.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 56.\n\n\nMerely a few indications will suffice to prove how completely and\nunmistakably the symmetrical design on the monolith (fig. 56) expounds the\ngreat plan which had impressed itself so deeply and indelibly upon the\nminds of the native philosophers and influenced all their thoughts and\nspeculations.\n\nThe head and face in the middle of the monument conveys the idea of\nduality, being masked, _i. e._ doubled-faced and bearing the number 2\ncarved on its forehead. It conveyed the conception of a divine power who\nruled heaven and earth from a changeless and fixed centre in the heaven;\nexpressed the dual government of the earth by twin-rulers who dwelt in a\ncentral capital. It typified light and the heaven itself with its two\neyes; the sun and moon and darkness and the earth by the mouth; whilst the\nsymbols for breath issuing from both nostrils and the tongue protruding\nfrom the mouth denoted the power of speech, which was so indissolubly\nconnected with the idea of chieftainship by the Mexicans that a title for\nthe chief was \u201cthe Speaker.\u201d The central head likewise denoted a \u201ccomplete\ncount\u201d=one man, and was expressive of a great era of time, embodying\ntwenty epochs.\n\nAs a synopsis of the whole, the following titles recorded in the\nchronicles would be applicable to the central ruler, celestial or\nterrestrial: the two lord, the divine twin; the two-lord and two lady; the\nquadruple lord, \u201cHe who looks in four directions;\u201d the lord of the\nthirteen powers; the one lord, _i. e._ embodying a complete count=20; the\nlord of five (_i. e._ of the Middle and Four Quarters); of seven, _i. e._\nof the Middle, Above, Below, and Four Quarters; of thirteen, _i. e._ of\nthe duplication or male and female or celestial and terrestrial divisions\nof the Above, Below and Four Quarters plus the Middle.\n\nSurrounding the central head are four square divisions arranged in two\nseparate parts, each of which includes what appears to be in one case the\nright, and in the other the left, conventionalized claw (forepaw?) of an\nanimal armed with hooked nails, such as Mictlantecuhtli, the lord of the\nNorth, is represented with.\n\nThe square compartments contain symbols of the four elements so disposed\nthat air and water are appropriately associated with the hand to the right\n(=male region) and fire and earth with the hand to the left side (=the\nfemale region) of the central head. But this is not all, for another\ncarefully devised relation between the elements likewise appears upon\ncareful examination. In the middle, carved above the central face and\nbetween the symbols for air and fire, is the conventionalized \u201cray of the\nSun,\u201d or pyramid which typifies \u201cthat which ascends or is above\u201d the upper\nelements and the Above. As its opposite we find below, situated between\nthe symbols of earth and water, a ring with a concentric circle\nrepresenting the drop of water=\u201cthat which descends.\u201d As the Moon was\ninseparably associated with water and the Below, it is doubtlessly\nincluded in the symbolism.\n\nOne more point which will receive due attention in my monograph remains to\nbe briefly noticed. As the symbol for air=east is situated to the right of\nthe symbol for north, and the earth=west is to its left, it is clear that\nthe central face is conceived as looking down from above upon the\nspectator. It is only when the stone is considered as placed face downward\nthat the symbols assume their proper positions as regards the cardinal\npoints. This reversal, which is the natural result of the association of\nthe east and south with the right hand of the middle personage, suggests\nthat the monolith may have been originally designed to be let into the\nflat or slanting ceiling of a building. As a parallel instance I will\nstate that, some years ago, Se\u00f1or Troncoso pointed out to me a fact he had\nnoticed, namely, that the relative positions of the cardinal points on the\nF\u00e9j\u00e9rvary chart were reversed and that it must have been intended to be\nlooked at from underneath.\n\nEach of the element symbols is accompanied by four numerals placed in the\nangles of the squares, with one exception, where one numeral was obviously\ndislodged from its proper position by an encroaching emblematic ornament.\nThe positions of these numerals and of their square enclosures are what\nrecalled to my mind the opposite positions assumed by Ursa Major in its\nannual rotation around the axis of the heaven. Just as the central face\nprimarily represented Polaris, so these squares figured the four\ncontrapositions of the great constellation. The peculiar, almost\ncross-shaped figure resulting from the union and association of the\nsymbols of the Centre, and of the Above, Below, Right, Left=Four Quarters,\nis a well-known conventional sign, generally known as a \u201cnahui-ollin.\u201d The\naccepted translation of this name is \u201cfour movements,\u201d from olinia,\nverb=to move, and no name could be more appropriate for a symbol which, to\nmy idea, like the swastika, actually represents the movement of the most\nconspicuous of septentrional constellations to four opposite places.\n\nAt the same time, as the nahui-ollin on the stone encloses symbols of the\nfour elements, the union of which was believed by the native philosophers\nto be essential for the production and maintenance of life, I was led to\nobserve also the fact that the words for life and heart, and the verbs to\nbe alive, to live, to resuscitate, etc., are all derivatives from the root\nyuli, or yoli, which undoubtedly has a common origin with the verb\nolinia=to move. It therefore not only appears that, to the native mind,\nmotion and life were indissolubly linked together, but that the name\nnahui-ollin must have signified four-fold life as well as movement. It\nlikewise typified the four sides of the great pyramid which formed the\nnucleus of the capital and was crowned by two temples, respectively\noccupied by symbolical images of the \u201cDivine Twins.\u201d It is impossible not\nto realize that, in ancient Mexico, the pyramid constituted an image of\nthe entire system.\n\nEach of its sides obviously pertained to one of the four regions and was\nprobably painted with its symbolical color.(71) It seems safe to assume\nthat the pyramid was originally erected by the co\u00f6peration of people from\nthe four quarters of the capital and state and was possibly added to at\nfixed intervals so that it represented not only the constitution of the\ncommonwealth, but testified to its age and growth. The widely-prevalent\nprimitive custom that each individual should add one or more stones to a\nheap of stones, as an individual contribution, may have been carried out\nin the building of pyramids, the origin of which will be discussed further\non.\n\nAlthough it is almost superfluous to do so, as by this time the set of\nassociated ideas must be familiar to the reader, I shall briefly summarize\nsome of the chief four-fold division or organization of which the\nnahui-ollin was the graphic symbol. It represented:\n\n1. The four elements or substances and kinds of life.\n\n2. The four regions of the heaven, each composed, in turn, of four\nsub-regions.\n\n3. The four provinces of the state, each containing four districts.\n\n4. The four quarters of the capital, each of which had four wards.\n\nLike the nahui-ollin the pyramid was an image or embodiment of the\nfundamental all-pervading principle. Both therefore equally expressed\nfurther meanings which I shall proceed to enumerate.\n\n5. Four stars and also four star-groups or planets which seem to have been\nassociated with the cardinal points and are indicated by four discs\nexhibiting two concentric circles and four glyphs placed around them.\nAlthough at a disadvantage, not being able to substantiate my statement\nhere, I shall mention that, amongst the above, the Pleiades and the\nplanets Venus and Jupiter doubtlessly figure, the latter as two evening\nand two morning stars.\n\n6. The human lords of the four regions who respectively governed the four\ndivisions of the population, who were classified as the Fire, Air, Water\nand Earth people, the identical classification being applied in turn to\neach class and so on _ad infinitum_.\n\n7. Rotation or a movement encircling the four quarters imagined as\n\u201cquadruple motion.\u201d This was not confined to the Septentriones, for the\nancient Mexican astronomers had recognized what they termed the \u201cfour\nmovements of the Sun\u201d\u2014namely, its apparent rising in the east and progress\nto the north; and setting in the west and progress to the south. According\nto Leon y Gama, the first to describe the stone in 1832, the central\n\u201cnahui ollin\u201d portrayed the \u201cfour movements of the sun\u201d and recorded the\nsolstices and equinoxes. His opinion has since been shared by other\nwriters, amongst whom I cite Se\u00f1or Troncoso. According to Sir Norman\nLockyer, moreover, the symbol does correctly and appropriately figure the\nannual course of the sun. It must be admitted that the invention of a\nfigurative symbol which not only records the annual rotation of the\ncircumpolar star-groups but also the annual apparent course of the sun is\nan achievement which has never been surpassed in primitive astronomy and\nmerits admiration and recognition. The record of the periodical movements\nof the heavenly bodies, constitutes, at the same time naturally a register\nof the four seasons.\n\n8. Simultaneously with the division of the year into four equal parts, the\nollin (and pyramid) typified the division of the 20-day period into four\nquarters as well as the four 13 year periods which constituted the epoch\nof fifty-two years. As the Calendar periods will be discussed in my\nmonograph on the subject, I shall only mention here a fact showing how\ncompletely the quadruplicate idea had influenced native speculation. The\nMexicans believed that four great eras had passed since the creation of\nthe world and designated these as the earth, air, fire and water eras.\nThey believed that, although humanity had always escaped utter\nannihilation, the world had been almost completely destroyed by three of\nthe elements in succession at the end of three of these eras. At the time\nof the Conquest, the Mexicans supposed themselves to be living in a fourth\nage which was doomed to perish by fire.\n\n9. According to the distinguished Mexican scholar Se\u00f1or Alfredo Chavero,\nthe symbols in the nahui-ollin commemorated the four epochs of the world\u2019s\nhistory and I readily accept this as one of the many significations of the\nquadruplicate figure.\n\nLeaving the nahui-ollin for the present, let us next consider the band,\nwith compartments, which encloses it and exhibits the twenty symbols\nhitherto only known as calendaric signs,\u2014four of which were year- as well\nas day-signs, whilst sixteen were day-signs only. Their relative positions\nshow that they were intended to be read from right to left.\n\nA profusion of evidence, however, exists showing that individuals bore the\nday-names as personal appellations, not only in Mexico but also in Central\nAmerica. Amongst the Quich\u00e9s for instance, members of the \u201cRoyal house of\nCavek\u201d are designated in the Popol Vuh, as three deer, nine dog, etc.\n\nIt thus follows that the twenty signs were not merely names of years and\ndays, but also designated the tribes and clans. The element-symbols which\nmarked every fifth day and the years and constitute the major signs,\nlikewise were the names of the four great divisions of the people, and of\ntheir respective chieftains. On the other hand the 4\u00d74=16 minor signs,\napplied not only to days but to the 4\u00d74=16 clans. At the same time the\nelement names conveyed in a general way the occupation of each of the four\ndivisions of people as well as their places of abode in reference to the\ncapital. Accordingly, the earth people would specially attend to\nagriculture, mining, the manufacture of pottery, etc.; water people to\nirrigation, the furnishing of drinks, fishing, etc.; the fire people to\nall occupations which had to do with fire: the procuring of combustibles\nfor fire and lighting, cooking, the working in metals, etc.\n\nAs on the stone, the sign calli=house is in juxtaposition to the symbol\nfor air, it may be inferred that the air people were the builders, the\nmasons, the artificers, the Nahuatl name for which was \u201ctoltecatl.\u201d As the\nair symbol occupies the place of highest honor in reference to the central\nface, namely, above the right hand, it is evident that the builders, or\n\u201ctoltecas,\u201d were the caste which enjoyed the highest consideration. Their\ntotem was the bird, the inhabitant of the air. The second rank in honor\nwas held by the fire people placed to the left, above. Their totem was the\nocelot.\n\nWithout going further into details for the present, I merely point out\nthat the identical division of the members of each community and\nassociation with the elements, etc., was carried out throughout the state.\nThis method clearly established the relation and also determined the\ngeographical position of each class of people in reference to the whole.\n\nThe carved band on the Calendar-stone, with its twenty signs, determined\nonce and for all time the exact position to be taken up in all public\nassemblages, in councils, sacred dances, and likewise controlled the\nexposition of the products of the land in the great market-place. What is\nmore: each division of the people, by reason of its indissoluble union to\none element and one region, also had its own season during which it led in\nceremonial observances. So skilfully was the lunar ceremonial or religious\nyear devised that each sign, without any distinction, ruled a period of\nthirteen days. At the same time the period fell into four divisions headed\nby the four principal or element signs.\n\nIn the solar or civil year, each sign had its day, but as the computation\nof years passed by, each sign in due rotation ruled during one year. It\nwas only when each sign had had an equal rule that the cycle completed\nitself, and, in turn, became a part of a greater cycle of time. To realize\nthe marvellous ingenuity with which the rotation of days and consequently\nthe working of the entire machinery of state was carried on, it is\nnecessary to have before one\u2019s eyes, a series of reconstructive tables,\nsuch as I have prepared for my paper on the subject. For the present,\nhowever, I trust that some idea of the harmonious organization of the\nstate may have been conveyed to the reader.\n\nOne important feature remains for consideration. As already mentioned, one\nof the four annual midnight positions of the Bear star-groups, and\npresumably a \u201croyal star,\u201d pertained to each cardinal-point and\nconsequently to each of the four divisions of people. To this statement,\nwhich can be supported by substantial evidence, I must add that each of\nthe sixteen minor signs likewise designated constellations, of which there\nwere thus four in each region of the heaven. The twenty familiar day-signs\nthus actually constituted also the native zodiac. As the region to which\neach constellation pertains is clearly designated by the cardinal-point\nsigns, their identification is merely a matter of time. Since ten of the\nsigns represent animals, and these were the clan totems, it is easy to\nrealize how animal forms, composed of stars, came to be traced in the\nheavens.\n\nDeferring further discussion of the native zodiac I will but point out\nwhat an intimate relation was thus established and maintained between\nstar-groups and human beings; and how the periodical rotation and stations\nof the celestial bodies actually guided or, at all events, coincided with\nthe periods of human activity in various branches.\n\nI am not, as yet, prepared to formulate a final opinion on the meaning of\nthe narrow band that surrounds the zodiacal belt, which is at the same\ntime the list of years and days and of tribes and clans, but shall merely\nnote that it exhibits four large and four lesser rays which designate the\nquarters and half-quarters of the whole. A few words concerning the\nsymbolism of these rays should find place here. In Nahuatl the ray was\nnamed \u201ctona-mitl,\u201d literally \u201cthe shining arrow,\u201d \u201cshaft of light.\u201d\nIxtlilxochitl tells us that it was an ancient custom of his people on\ntaking possession of new territory \u201cto shoot with utmost force four\narrows, in the directions of the four regions of the world.\u201d(72) This\ninteresting passage shows us that the rays, _i. e._ arrows of light,\ncarved on the stone, conveyed the idea of possession of the four regions\nand four sub-regions by the central power.\n\nReturning to an examination of the concentric band to which the rays are\nattached: It exhibits also 4\u00d710 groups of five dots, two of which groups\nare almost concealed by star-symbols on the recurved open jaws of the\nserpents\u2019 heads which meet at the bottom of the stone. Above this band and\nplaced exactly between the larger and lesser rays are single compartments\nwith five-dot groups. It has been interesting to detect the reason why two\nfive-dot groups were carved, as I have already pointed out, immediately\nunder the central head. They evidently supply the missing groups whose\nplaces are filled up by the recurved upper jaws of the serpents, heads at\nthe bottom of the monolith. From the care taken to preserve a visible\nrecord of these two groups, it is obvious that a special importance was\nattached to the recording of eight five-dot groups besides the forty in\nthe band, making a total of 4\u00d712=48 groups, or 10+2=12 to each quarter.\n\nAs the Mexican name for market was macuil-tianquiztli, literally the \u201cFive\n(day) market\u201d and the Maya word for capital was homonymous with five=ho,\nit is evident that these five dot groups would have conveyed the idea of\n\u201cmarket,\u201d market-day and possibly market-town, to a Mexican. To a\nMaya-speaking people they would have appeared to express practically the\nsame thought, since all capitals, large or small, were market-places and\nabsorbed and redistributed the product of quadruple provinces within the\nradius of its jurisdiction. The inference that the five-dot groups may\nhave served as a topographical register of the larger and minor capitals\nexisting in each quarter of the state, is substantiated by more evidence\nthan can be produced here. I have moreover found indications that this\nbelt may have served as a sort of moon-calendar which was also an attempt\nat an adjustment of lunar to solar periods.(73) Before, however, an\nestimate can be made of the full meaning of this belt formed by the two\ngreat serpents which encircle the entire monument, more time and labor\nwill have to be expended.\n\nOne point about the twin serpents is clear; they are represented as\nspringing from a square enclosing the symbol Acatl accompanied by 13 which\nhas been generally interpreted as a calendar date. It seems to me to be\nmore deeply significant than a mere date, especially as it appears to\ndesignate the point of departure for the progressive movement of the two\nserpents whose open jaws enclose human heads in profile which together\nform one face. The upper jaws end in two recurved appendages, each\nexhibiting seven star symbols. As these obviously typify night or darkness\nand the open jaws seem to threaten to absorb or engulf the ray of the sun\npointing downwards, it appears as though these typified a disappearance of\nlight into the underworld of darkness and destruction.\n\nThe symbolical surroundings of the downward ray are in striking contrast\nto its opposite, the upward ray, which reaches to the 13 Acatl sign and\npoints to what appears to be the place of origin or birth of the twin\nserpents. It certainly seems that this all-embracing and enfolding twin\npair are designed to typify the dual forces of nature under a form which\nwould also express quadruplication. By what must be termed a stroke of\ngenius the designer of the monolith chose to represent the forms of two\nserpents, relying upon the fact that Nahuatl-speaking people would see in\neach serpent (=coatl) a twin (=coatl). Did he not also realize that to a\nMaya each serpent (=can) would mean 4 (=can) and that the pair would\nappear to embody or express the numerals 4 and also 8?\n\nIt is noteworthy that each serpent is represented with one claw and that\nthese two added to those contained in the central nahui-ollin complete the\nfour-limbed figure which was essentially the image of a complete count=the\nstate, the nation, the era, etc. In this monument, as elsewhere, it is\npossible to follow the development of the symbolism expressed by two heads\nwhich form but one, twin-bodies which mean four and of four limbs which\nrepresent the digital count=20.\n\nUnder different aspects the same theme repeats itself again and again upon\nthe stone, which proves that the master minds who planned and wrought it\ndestined it to be the image of a plan based on the idea of a central and\nyet all-embracing, dual, yet quadruple force or power.\n\nThe preceding rapid sketch I have given of the wide-reaching significance\nof this remarkable monument will, I hope, be found to amply support and\ncorroborate the view I advanced in 1886, when I pointed out that the\n\u201cCalendar-stone\u201d answered to the description given by Duran, of the\n\u201ccircular elaborately carved tablets which were kept in each market-place\nand were held in great veneration.\u201d I trust that it is now clear why it\nshould have been frequently consulted and why the market-days were\nregulated according to the carved indications upon the surface. Engraved\nupon it were the Great Plan and its laws of organization and rotation. It\nclearly determined, once and for all, the sequence of the days; the\nrelation of all classes of the population to each other and to the whole,\nand set forth not only the place each group should occupy in the\nmarket-place, but also the product or industry with which it was\nassociated and the periods when its contributions to the commonwealth\nshould be forthcoming in regular rotation. The stone was therefore not\nonly the tablet but the wheel of the law of the State and it can be\nconjectured that its full interpretation was more or less beyond the\ncapacity of all but an initiated minority, consisting of the elders,\nchiefs and priests.\n\nPostponing for the present further discussion of this, the most precious\nand remarkable monument which has ever been unearthed on the American\nContinent, let us briefly bestow attention upon the two other monoliths\nwhich may be said to be its companions and obviously belong to the same\nperiod and civilization. In 1886, in the preliminary note cited above, I\nadvanced the view that the first of these, generally known as the\n\u201cSacrificial stone,\u201d was a \u201claw-stone of a similar nature [to the\nCalendar-stone] which recorded, however, the periodical collection of\ncertain tributes paid by subjugated tribes and others whose obligation it\nwas to contribute to the commonwealth of Mexico.\u201d I pointed out that the\n\u201cfrieze around the stone consists of groups, placed at intervals, of the\nflint-knives (tecpatl) with conventionally carved teeth (tlantli) giving\nin combination the word \u2018tecpatlantli.\u2019 This occurs in Sahagun\u2019s Historia,\nas the name given to the \u2018lands of the tecpan or palace,\u2019 and in one of\nthe native works I find designated the four channels into which the\nproduce of these lands was diverted.\u201d I likewise noted that \u201cthe periods\nindicated on it differ from those on the Calendar-stone,\u201d which might more\nappropriately be designated as the ancient Mexican wheel of the law or of\nthe Great Universal Plan.\n\nThirteen years of painstaking research have only served to strengthen me\nin my interpretation of the \u201cSacrificial-stone.\u201d The frieze around it\nexhibits sixteen groups, each consisting of the repeated representation of\na warrior characterized by having one foot only. In each case he is\nfigured as seizing by the hair a different individual, who bows his head\nand offers the weapon he holds in his right hand to his victor. Amongst\nthe sixteen subjugated personages are two women and above each are\nhieroglyphs expressing the names of well-known localities, some of which\nare mentioned in native chronicles as having been conquered in historical\ntimes by Mexican rulers.\n\nIn my account of the Plan of the Ancient City of Mexico, I shall\nillustrate these hieroglyphs, locate the places to which they refer and\nfurther discuss this monument. Meanwhile I shall but state that it\nundoubtedly belongs to the same category of monuments as the tablets in\nthe \u201cTemple of the Sun\u201d at Palenque; the bas-relief at Ixkun and that in\nthe house of the \u201cTennis-court\u201d at Chichen-Itza where warriors in a\nprocession render homage to a seated personage, by presenting their\nspear-throwers to him in precisely the same manner as shown on the Mexican\nTribute-Stone.\n\nThe upper surface of this exhibits the same division into eight parts,\nmarked by four large and four smaller rays, pointing to the quarters and\nhalf-quarters. Observation shows that of the sixteen localities four were\nassigned to each quarter and it is evident that the monument determined\nthe time and the order in which the tribute for each was paid and\ncollected at the capital. The one-footed man again graphically symbolizes\naxial rotation and conveys the idea of a central ruler who in turn seizes\nand exerts control upon 4\u00d74 tribal chiefs. The monument establishes,\nmoreover, the interesting fact that amongst the subjugated communities\nwere two gynocracies, represented by women who, instead of spear-throwers,\npresent their weaving shuttle to the victor.\n\nWe shall next consider a monument whose uncouth and ugly form embodies a\ndeep and nobly planned conception of the \u201cdivine twin,\u201d or \u201cdivine Four,\u201d\nthat so completely dominated the minds of the native philosophers.\n\nLet us now carefully examine the monolith now preserved in the National\nMuseum of Mexico (fig. 57). Leon y Gama, having observed that what\nappeared to be the foundation of the statue was carved and that massive\nprojections existed under its so-called arms, logically concluded that the\noriginal design had been to support the figure from the sides, so that its\nbase was lifted from the ground and the figure upon it exposed to view\nfrom underneath. His inference is borne out by the carving on the base\nwhich belongs to the same category as the image of Mictlan-tecuhtli, and\nrepresents a semi-human body, of quadriform shape soaring downward.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 57.\n\n\nThe centre (fig. 51) exhibits on a square the five-dot figure, and the\nsquare, in turn, is enclosed in a circle; the whole symbolism relating to\nthe now well-worn theme of the centre and four quarters and the union of\nthe earth=the square and the heaven=the circle. It clearly exhibits a\nskull attached to each limb, typifying the four quarters or the clans and\ntheir chiefs, whilst the hands hold the larger heads, emblematic of\nsupreme dual rulership. It is interesting to find that the above carving,\nunder the feet of the sculptured figure, embodies the entire meaning of\nthe statue, which is but a variation of the native philosophical theme of\n\u201cDivine Twain\u201d or Quetzalcoatl. Two serpents\u2019 heads surmount a semi-human\nbody and meeting form the semblance of two single faces turned to the\nfront and back of the statue. By this ingenious device the unity, yet\nduality of the divine twin is graphically rendered and one-half of each\ncountenance is represented as belonging to each serpent. These are thus\nshown to be indissolubly linked together, yet distinct. Their single, yet\ndual head has four eyes, eight fangs and two forked tongues. The figure\nand skirt composed of intertwined rattlesnakes, constitute feminine\nattributes given to the symbolical figure of the \u201ctwin-lord and\ntwin-lady,\u201d the \u201cfather and mother of all.\u201d Instead of hands the arms\nterminate in serpents\u2019 heads and the huge feet in great claws.\n\nBetween these, in the front and at the back, a rattlesnake\u2019s body and head\nappear. The belt consists of a large snake whose head and tail hang down\nin front, as the ends of a bow. A skull is attached to the front and\nanother to the back of the belt. In the latter case it surmounts a\nfan-shaped, curiously plaited ornamental appendage partly decorated with\nfeathers. Forming a sort of necklace in front are four hands, _i. e._\n4\u00d75=20 and two conventionalized hearts. At the back there are two hands\nand two hearts and an intricate knot which fastens the necklace, the real\nmeaning of which is far from what it may appear to be. It probably\nsignified the same as the painted hearts and hands on ceremonial garments\nof which Sahagun tells us that \u201cthey meant that the people who wore them\nlifted their hearts and hands to the Creator to implore for rain and\nfood.\u201d At the same time, the arrangement in front clearly reveals the\nsculptor\u2019s allusion to the head, two hearts, four hands and twenty\nfingers, which symbolize these familiar numerical divisions. An indication\nthat this symbolical statue was probably designed and executed by the same\nmaster who made the circular stone of the Great Plan, is furnished by the\ncalendar sign 13 Acatl, which is carved under the skull at the back of the\nfigure.\n\nDeferring an investigation of the significance of this date, I shall now\ndraw attention to what is to me the most interesting and important feature\nof the whole image. The view of the top of the two heads, as may be seen\nby the accompanying reproduction from a photograph (fig. 58) exhibits, at\ntheir line of union, a small square with diagonal cross-lines. The\nposition of this symbol which resembles the top view of a pyramid and\nforms, as it were, the apex of the statue, every detail of which is deeply\nsymbolical, clearly reveals the sanctity and importance attached to this\ngraphic image of the Centre, the union of four in one or _vice versa_, the\ntheme on which the native mind played numberless and endless variations.\n\nA reflection, again forced upon one in studying the monumental composite\nimage of the dual and quadruple forces of nature, is that it must have\nbeen as intelligible to a Maya as to a Mexican, and conveyed the\nconception of Kukulcan to the one and Quetzalcoatl to the other. Several\nfacts point, however, to the greater probability that the original\nconception of the monument must have arisen amongst Maya-speaking people.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 58.\n\n\nThe divided square, simulating a pyramid and so obviously a symbol of\nfour=can, carved on the head of a serpent=can, throws an interesting light\nupon the probable derivation of the affix=can, which occurs in certain\nnames of localities in Mexico, and in some cases distinctly stands for\n\u201cmountain.\u201d It is a fact which has already been cited in Se\u00f1or Antonio\nPenafiel\u2019s useful work on the Geographical names of Mexico that, in the\npictographic hieroglyphs of localities the affix can signifies a town,\nbeing synonymous with the _tepec_, _i. e._ tepetl, the Nahuatl name for\nmountain or town. One of many similar instances, which could be produced,\nis illustrated in his fig. XXIII, 1, where _can_ obviously stands for the\nmountain which is represented as twisted or bent over (colhua), in the\nhieroglyph for Colhuacan. The hieroglyphs for the towns Acayocan and\nTenayocan, furnish a similar employment of the mountain to express the\nsound can. The sense of the affix _can_, meaning a town, only becomes\nclear when we interpret it as the name of the artificial mountain with\nfour sides, the pyramid, which was the symbol of four=the Maya _can_, and\nwas the emblem of a central capital. This is convincingly proven by the\nCodex Mendoza for instance, in which it is shown that the Mexican mode of\nrecording the conquest of a tribe was to paint their hieroglyphic name and\na picture of the destruction of the pyramid temple which had stood in the\ncentre of their capital. In other words, the conquered town ceased to be a\ncentre of rule\u2014its captive chieftain was taken to the capital, where the\nhorrible rite of sacrifice performed upon him and the tearing out of his\nheart likewise symbolized the destruction of the independent life of the\ntribe or integral whole he represented in his person. It was thus brought\nhome to the conquered people that they had ceased to exist as an\nindependent body, and the distribution of the chieftain\u2019s flesh to the\nritualistic cannibals graphically symbolized its absorption into the great\ncentral state. It is necessary to emphasize here that these horrible rites\nwere of comparatively recent origin and had been invented by the Mexicans\nfor the purpose of intimidating their vassals, after a prolonged period of\nwars and bloodshed, which menaced the very existence of the integral\nstate. The presence in Mexico of numerous names of towns, ending in can,\nseems to indicate the influence, in ancient times, of the Maya-speaking\ncivilization to which the origin of the pyramid must be assigned. The\nassociation of the latter with the word _can_ is strikingly illustrated in\nthe name of Teotihua-Can, where stand the ruins of two of the largest and\nmost imposing pyramids of ancient America. The base of the larger of the\ntwo has been estimated at about 700 feet square, it being impossible to\ntake an exact measurement owing to the mass of accumulated d\u00e9bris which\ncovers the lower part of the structure.\n\nThe base of the second pyramid measures about 475 feet square. The sides\nof both pyramids rose at an angle of about 45 degrees and were in each\ncase interrupted by four terraces. This double application of a quadruple\ndivision merits special attention, as it produced besides the four great\n4\u00d74 lesser sections, the sacred centre of the terraces, which crowned each\nstructure. Historical tradition relates that the larger pyramid, known as\nthe \u201cEnclosure of the Sun (=Tonatiuh-I-Tzacual),\u201d originally bore on its\nsummit a colossal image of the sun, covered with plates of gold, whilst\nthe other, the \u201cEnclosure of the Moon\u201d exhibited a similar image, covered\nwith silver. The distinguished and reliable historian Orozco y Berra\nquotes this tradition adding that the soldiers of Cort\u00e9s despoiled the\nimages of their precious metals and that the Bishop Zumarraga ordered a\nfurther destruction of all monuments at Teotihuacan.\n\nThe tradition which records the existence of a silver and of a gold image,\ncannot be dismissed as unfounded, because it meets with a certain amount\nof corroboration by other data. In the first case the so-called \u201cbattered\ngoddess,\u201d a mutilated stone image, which was found in the courtyard at the\nbase of the \u201cPyramid of the Moon,\u201d looks as though it may have been the\nvery monument which was once plated with silver. Traces of concentric\nbands of ornamentation seem to indicate that its round face had originally\noccupied the centre of a sculptured disc, in which case this must have had\na diameter of about twelve feet. In Peru, as already stated, a silver\nimage of the moon, associated with the female sovereign, was the\ncomplement to the golden effigy of the sun, associated with the Inca.\n\nEven if data had not already been produced which establishes the existence\nof two religious cults in ancient Mexico, the respective symbols of which\nwere the sun and the moon, the presence of two pyramids at Teotihuacan\nwould suggest the existence of a division of some sort. The origin of\nthese great and imposing structures is shrouded in mystery, but it is\ngenerally conceded that they must have been built long before the\ncomparatively modern inhabitants of the valley of Mexico, the wandering\nAztecs, had taken up their abode in the midst of the salt lagoons. The\nerection of two pyramids, however, proves that their builders had already\npractised the cult of the middle of heaven and earth, or Above and Below,\nand of the Four Quarters for so long a time, that there had been a\nseparation of religions and government into two almost independent parts,\neach complete in itself. In the light of the testimony produced it is safe\nto infer that for an indefinite time the rival cults developed side by\nside until dissension and consequent disintegration followed. The Mexican\nstate was the outcome of a later effort to reorganize and rebuild an\nintegral whole on the ancient plan, the knowledge of which had been\npreserved and handed down. As time went on it was inevitable that the same\ncauses which had caused the more ancient and greater state to crumble\naway, should be actively at work on the second.\n\nIt has already been shown that two religions existed in Montezuma\u2019s time\nthe respective embodiments of which were Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca.\nIt is an interesting fact, related by Bernal Diaz, that the idols of both\nstood together in one tower at the summit of the great temple and were\nalike, \u201cbecause they were brothers.\u201d At the same time whilst\nTezcatlipoca\u2019s image was decorated with obsidian (=tezcatl)\nHuitzilopochtli\u2019s was encrusted with turquoises. It is curious to note how\nclosely the old soldier\u2019s description of these idols answers to that of\nthe great dualistic statue which has been discussed in the preceding\npages. His account contains the following details: \u201cIn this hall were what\nresembled two altars with very richly [ornamented or carved] platforms on\nthe top of the roof or ceiling. On each altar was a statue, as of a giant,\nvery tall in body and very stout. The first, which represented\nHuitzilopochtli, had a very wide, deformed or monstrous face and forehead,\nand terrifying eyes ... around his neck were faces of Indians and what\nwere hearts. These were of gold whilst the former were of silver inlaid\nwith blue mosaic-work. The entire body was covered with mosaic-work, gold\nand beads and misshapen pearls, all fastened to it with a kind of cement\nor glue. Encircling the body were what were like huge serpents made of\ngold and mosaic.... The idol was of Tezcatlipoca, and its eyes were made\nof shining black stone [obsidian] called Tezcat. The statues were alike\nbecause they were said to be brothers. Tezcatlipoca was the lord of the\nUnderworld ... and around his body were figures like small devils with\ntails like serpents.\u201d(74) But for the fact that Bernal Diaz mentions a\nplurality of faces in Huitzilopochtli\u2019s necklace, whereas our monument\nexhibits but one skull, in front, his description strikingly coincides\nwith the monolith now existing. Considering that thirty years had elapsed\nbefore he wrote this description allowance must be made for this and other\nslight lapses. On the other hand, dual statues, exactly alike, but with\ndifferently colored ornamentation, are precisely what we should expect to\nfind on the summit of the great pyramid-temple of Mexico. With our present\nknowledge and comprehension of native symbolism, moreover, we see that two\nstatues, each of which figured twin-serpents, would best express the\nnative idea of the dual and quadruple principles and elements. What is\nmore, two dual statues, each surmounted by a square, diagonally crossed,\nlike a pyramid, would correspond, in symbolism, to the two great pyramids\nof Teotihuacan and carry out, on a small scale, the idea of a dual\ngovernment.\n\nValuable and reliable evidence, showing to what an extent the Mexicans\nregarded their government as dual and quadruple, can be gleaned from the\nrecords of the presents sent by Montezuma to Cort\u00e9s, under the impression\nthat the bearded Spaniards were the descendants of the ancient founders of\ntheir civilization. The native ruler sent the complete ceremonial dress of\nthe four lords of the four regions denoting by that act of homage that he\nacknowledged Cort\u00e9s as his equal, _i. e._ the supreme central lord who\nunited the four-fold power in his person. \u201cHe likewise sent him a large\nwheel of pure gold, covered with designs and with the image of a monster\nin its centre.\u201d Its weight was estimated at 3,800 \u201cpesas\u201d and it was\nconsidered \u201cthe finest and best of all the presents.\u201d It was accompanied\nby \u201ca large wheel of silver,\u201d weighing forty-eight marcos. By the light of\nour present knowledge it may be that both \u201cwheels\u201d were images of the\nGreat Plan and that whilst the gold one set forth the constitution and\norganization of the Upper division of the State and possibly conveyed the\nstatistics of its members, the silver wheel was a record of the Lower\ndivision. The gift of these tablets must have been intended as an act of\nsubservience and an acknowledgment of Cort\u00e9s as the lord of the Above and\nBelow, as well as of the Four Quarters. The utter lack of understanding\nfor the symbolism of these gifts on the part of the recipient, can\nscarcely have escaped the notice of Montezuma\u2019s messengers and must have\nsorely puzzled their unfortunate master.\n\nThe existence in Mexico at the time of the Conquest, of a dual state,\nsuggests the possibility that, in some way, the pyramids of Teotihuacan\ncontinued to be connected with the opposite and rival cults of the Sun and\nthe Nocturnal Heaven, although their origin was shrouded in the past. It\nis known that their site was venerated: besides, the name Teotihuacan,\nwhich Orozco y Berra translated as \u201cthe place of the masters as keepers of\nthe gods\u201d or \u201cthe place where the gods were adored,\u201d most probably really\nmeant \u201cthe divine four-sided mountains or pyramids\u201d or, possibly, \u201cthe\nsacred pyramids of the lords.\u201d\n\nUntil an extensive, carefully-planned and systematical exploration has\nbeen carried out at Teotihuacan, it is impossible to form any definite\nconclusions concerning its past history. Cherishing the hope that such an\nexploration may yet be made during my lifetime, I shall merely make a few\nremarks concerning the ruins, which I visited many years ago. Approaching\nthem from the south one enters a broad straight road, several miles in\nlength and about 250 feet wide, which is bordered at each side by a series\nof irregular mounds, probably covering ruined structures. This imposing\nroad leads directly into the vast courtyard which stretches across the\nbase of the great pyramid of the Moon. As the City of Mexico lies to the\nsouth of Teotihuacan it is significant to find that this road leads from\nthat direction to a vast pyramid situated at the north, which was,\naccording to the ancient Mexicans, the region of the Underworld, darkness\nand death. It is not surprising, therefore, to find that the ancient\nnative name which still clings to the roadway is \u201cthe path of the dead.\u201d\nThe presence, moreover, of innumerable small clay heads which are,\nundoubtedly, portraits or effigies of persons represented as dead, points\nto the alternative that Teotihuacan may have been the necropolis of an\nancient civilization or that it was, even at the time of the Conquest, the\nplace where a register of deaths was kept by the priest-rulers, by means\nof small clay effigies.\n\nConsidering the native idea, it seems more than probable that all matters\npertaining to the dead should be relegated to the northern region and the\nfact that the road from the south leads to a pyramid which tradition\nassociates with the moon, the symbol of the nocturnal cult of the \u201cBelow,\u201d\nlends color to these views.\n\nThere is a temptation to imagine that possibly after the adoption of two\ndistinct cults of which the second pyramid seems to furnish\nincontrovertible proof, a further divergence ensued resulting in the\nultimate abandonment of the capital by the votaries of the Sun, the male\nprinciple and the Above. As the native civilizations were based on such a\nplan that dissension and disorganization inevitably led to utter downfall\nand ruin, it is easy to see that a gynocracy and the cult of the earth and\nunderworld should gradually become extinct. At the zenith of its power,\nhowever, it may safely be inferred, that Teotihuacan was a great centre\nwhere astronomical observation and agriculture flourished, these being the\nnatural outcome of the cult of mother-earth and the nocturnal heaven.\nWhilst all conjecture must necessarily be hypothetical, it is a comfort to\nreflect that, locked in the ruins themselves, lies guarded the past\nhistory of Teotihuacan, which was shrouded in a mist of uncertainty even\nat the time of the Conquest.\n\nThe pyramids themselves, however, openly reveal the fact, that their\nbuilders possessed a knowledge of the great plan, and that, at some time,\na single central pyramid not being sufficient, two, of unequal sizes,\narose to bear lasting testimony not only of past greatness, but of\nlong-forgotten rivalry and dissension. Finally, there is one thing\ncertain, namely, that the building of the pyramids at Teotihuacan must\nhave been preceded by an extremely long period during which the native\nideas, of which they were the expression and image, had developed and\ntaken definite shape. If Teotihuacan yields evidence of an advanced stage\nin the history of the intellectual development of the native race, it also\nmarks the beginning of the disintegration of the state of which it was the\ncentral capital. On the other hand, at Cholula, also situated in the high\nplateau of Mexico, to the east of its present capital stands, in ruined\nsolitary grandeur, the largest pyramid on the American continent, whose\nbase is twice as large as that of the pyramid of Cheops in Egypt.\n\nThe name of the ancient capital of which it formed the nucleus was Tullan\nCholollan Tlachiuhaltepec.(75) Boturini (_op. cit._ p. 113) cites an old\nnative manuscript on which a picture of the pyramid of Cholula was painted\nwith the note that, in ancient times, it was named Tultecatl Chalchihuatl\nOn Azia Ecatepec, which he translates as \u201cthe monument or precious jade\nstone of the Toltecs, which rears itself in the region of the air.\u201d As\neca-tepec literally means air-mountain, Boturini\u2019s translation may seem\nsomewhat exaggerated; on the other hand, the Spaniards, who knew the\nNahuatl language best, repeatedly state that its words were so replete\nwith significance that it would sometimes require several Spanish\nsentences to set forth the meaning of a single native word. Boturini, who\nhad exceptional opportunities for obtaining information, adds to the above\nthe following translation of a Nahuatl inscription which had been written\nby the native scribe below the drawing which unfortunately is now lost.\n\u201cNobles and Lords: Here you have your documents, the mirror of your past,\nthe history of your ancestors who, out of fear for a deluge, constructed\nthis place of refuge or asylum for the possibility of the recurrence of\nsuch a calamity.\u201d\n\nAfter citing the opinions of various authors concerning the origin of the\npyramid, Orozco y Berra concludes that \u201cthere is no certainty about its\nage, but instinctively it is supposed to be extremely ancient and to\npertain to pre-historic times. According to my judgment the people who\nconstructed it belonged to the same civilization as the builders of\nTeotihuacan and possibly were their contemporaries. Cholollan was also a\nvenerated sanctuary, in which the religious idea predominated\u201d (_op. cit._\np. 363). \u201cAt the time of the Conquest a temple stood on the summit of the\npyramid and contained an image of Quetzalcoatl (the Divine Twain, the\nCreator, the Father and Mother of all) as well as an aerolite, shaped like\na frog which had fallen from heaven, wrapped in a ball of flame.\u201d In the\nVatican MS. of Padre Rios there is another version of the tradition that\nthe pyramid had been erected by giants after a deluge, which had destroyed\neverything, ... and that before it was finished, fire fell upon it causing\nthe death of its builders and the abandonment of the work.\n\nAllusion has already been made, in the preceding pages, to the native\ntraditions according to which, \u201cthere had been three memorable epochs in\nthe history of mankind, which lasted for centuries and were abruptly\nterminated, each time by a mighty convulsion of nature. The majority of\nhuman beings perished in each of these, but a remnant survived and thus\nthe race was preserved.\u201d\n\nThe periodical festival of thanksgiving, which was still observed at the\ntime of the Conquest by the native races, abundantly testifies to the\nreality of their belief in these great catastrophes and the preservation\nof their ancestors from utter extermination. It was doubtless in order to\nmake their past history conform with the quadruple organization of all\nepochs of their native Calendar that the native sages assigned their\nsuccessive destructions to the separate agencies of fire, water and air,\nin the form of violent tempests and cyclones. From descriptions contained\nin the Mexican Codex Chimalpopoca and in the Popol Vuh, the sacred book of\nthe Quich\u00e9s, it will be seen that the phenomena described are such as\nwould naturally accompany a volcanic outbreak on a great scale.\nConsidering that, in Mexico alone, there are no less than nine monster\nvolcanoes, of which two are not yet extinct, and that in Guatemala, in\nhistorical times, whole cities have been destroyed by earthquakes and\nvolcanic action, it is not at all astonishing to find traditions of great\ncatastrophes amongst the inhabitants of these regions.\n\nNo one can look upon the grand snow-clad peaks of the great volcanoes,\nwhich surround the high central plateau of Mexico, without realizing that\nmighty upheavals and disturbances, such as the world has seldom seen, must\nhave attended the formation of the huge craters next to which Vesuvius\nseems but a hillock. A volcanic outbreak amongst these elevated peaks,\nwhich range from 15,000 to 19,000 feet above the sea-level, would\nobviously be accompanied by great inundations caused by the melting of the\nmasses of snow which crown their heights. The valley of Mexico in which\nthe large lagoons lie, as in a basin without an outlet, and the plains\nwhich surround Cholula and stretch to the base of the volcanoes must\nrepeatedly have been the scene of ruin and desolation, lasting for many\ncenturies. As the Abb\u00e9 Bourbourg justly remarks: \u201cThe majority of the\nedifices in the City of Mexico are built of volcanic tufa, said to have\nbeen formed by the small volcanoes which lie at the southeast of the\nvalley of Mexico. At various periods of antiquity great masses of lava\nhave descended into this valley, in which one extensive ancient lava-field\nis now known as the \u2018Pedregal de San Augustin.\u2019 \u201d Another great flow of\nlava has actually been traced from its apparent source, the now extinct\nvolcano of Ajusco, at the south of the valley of Mexico, to Acapulco, on\nthe Pacific coast.\n\nThe Mexican chronicles describe as follows the destruction of the earth by\nfire: \u201c... there came a rain of fire: all that existed was burnt and a\nrain composed of sand-stone fell. It is said that whilst the sand-stone we\nnow see was being formed the tet-zontli [_i. e._ volcanic tufa], boiled\nwith great noise. Then the red mountains also lifted themselves up ... the\nsun consumed itself [was darkened], all houses were destroyed and all the\nlords or chiefs perished....\u201d\n\nThe same author relates how, after the repeated destruction by water,\nobscurity reigned for twenty-five years. This cataclysm is also described\nin the sacred book of the Quich\u00e9s as follows: \u201cThen ... the waters became\nswollen by the mere will of the Heart of Heaven and there came a great\ninundation from above and descended upon the people ... they were deluged\nand then a thick resinous substance fell from the sky. The face of the\nearth was obscured and a dark rain commenced and fell during the day and\nduring the night ... there was great sound of fire overhead. Then the\npeople ran pushing each other and filled with despair: they endeavoured to\nmount upon the houses and these, falling in, threw them again to earth.\nThey wished to climb the trees, but these swayed and cast the people from\nthem; they tried to enter caves, but these shut themselves before\nthem....\u201d It was after this universal ruin and destruction that, according\nto native tradition, the pyramid of Cholula was erected, as a place of\nrefuge for the remnant of the native race which had escaped destruction\nand returned to the scene of desolation, lured by the richness of the\nfertile soil, just as the Italian peasants return to their vineyards on\nVesuvius after each eruption. All things considered there seems to be no\nground for rejecting the native tradition which affirms that the great\npyramid of Cholula was erected as a place of refuge from inundations,\nespecially as no more plausible explanation of the origin of the pyramid\ncan be imagined. Any primitive people, inhabiting fertile plains which\nabounded in game and fish, and food-plants, but were exposed to frequent\ninundations, could not fail to recognize the advantages of an elevated\npiece of ground as a place of safety. It is easy to imagine the\nintermediate stages in the transition from this simple recognition to the\nfinal determination to build a compact, high and spacious elevation,\nwithin the reach of all inhabitants of a settlement, on which these could\nnot only find refuge from the dangers of floods and volcanic disturbances,\nbut also store their harvest, and possibly some form of raft or boat which\nthey might employ as a last means of escape.\n\nIrrefutable proof that the maize had been cultivated from remote antiquity\nin this region, and had even become identified with it, is furnished by\nthe fact that the name of the small republic of Tlaxcalla, which lies in\nthe neighboring foot-hills, signifies bread, and that its hieroglyphic\nsign consists of two hands holding a tortilla, or maize-cake.\n\nIt is well known that botanists have not yet succeeded in identifying,\namongst the native grasses of America, the ancestor of the cultivated\nmaize-plant. They assert, however, that the development of what is now the\nworld\u2019s largest cereal, from a wild native species, must have required\nincalculable time.\n\nIt must be admitted that no factor could possibly have more speedily\nimpressed upon primitive men the benefits of concerted action and of\norganization and communal life than the occasional recurrence of a great\nand imminent peril which was shared by all alike, and for which there was\nbut one visible means of escape. It is equally clear that, once a\nconcerted and united undertaking had been determined upon, some sort of\nplan and organization must have naturally evolved itself. The mere\nbuilding of such a gigantic structure as the pyramid of Cholula, which may\nwell have absorbed the energies of several generations of men, or, at all\nevents that of innumerable workmen, could well have been an abiding and\nmost powerful factor in establishing their social organization. Its\nerection must indeed have marked an epoch in the lives of the inhabitants\nof this region, because, during many years it created a bond of common\ninterest which, of itself, might well have laid the foundation of a\npermanent communal life, in which responsibility and labor were equally\ndistributed. The mere necessity to expend an equal amount of material and\nlabor upon the building of each side of the pyramid, would naturally lead\nto the formation of pathways traced by the feet of the carriers of earth\nand stone from different directions, and ultimately to a division of the\nworkers into four bands, each associated with a different cardinal point.\nPractice would demand that each band should be under leadership, and be\ndivided into those who collected and carried material, and those who\nplaced it in position, at each side of the pyramid. The necessity for\ngeneral supervision and directorship, extending over the four bands of\nworkers alike, would, of itself, create central rulership upon which would\ndevolve the duty of enforcing an equal division of labor, which would\ncreate, in turn, some form of systematic routine and rotation. It can thus\nbe understood how, by slow degrees, each side of the pyramid would become\npermanently identified with a cardinal point; and associated with a\ndivision of workmen under its leader and a fixed period of time. It may\nlikewise be seen how a separate caste would slowly develop itself,\nconsisting of the trained architects and builders, the descendants of the\nfirst organizers of human labor, and systematical rulers of men.(76)\n\nIt may thus be seen how the realization of frequent danger, the necessity\nto provide an escape and insure the safety of the race, aided by\nexperience, might lead to the conception of a vast pyramid, the mere\nbuilding of which would create and establish the fundamental principles of\norganization and government.\n\nThe simultaneous development of the ideas suggested by Polaris would\ninevitably lead to a comparison and association of the terrestrial centre\nof communal activity with the polar axis, and to the conception of an\nearthly government in which human affairs were adjusted so as to be in\nseeming harmony with the movements of celestial bodies. The blending of\nthe conclusions attained by the astronomer-priests, and the practical\nsystem adopted by the master builders, could not fail ultimately to cause\nthe pyramid to appear as the sacred visible sign or image of the single,\ncentral power and quadruple government which extended its rule throughout\nheaven and earth. I venture to point out that, if carefully analyzed, the\npyramid seems to be but a later development of precisely the same ideas\nwhich are expressed by the swastika.\n\nPausing now to review preceding data we find it demonstrated that the\ngeographical position of Tullan Cholollan and its pyramid designates it as\nan ancient seat of civilization where the native scheme of organization\nmay have evolved itself, and the source whence the native traditions\nconcerning successive destructive cataclysms and convulsions of nature may\nhave spread.\n\nWhat is more, the peculiar conditions existing at Tullan Cholollan,\nsituated in the heart of a volcanic region, would amply explain the\ntraditional destruction and abandonment of the most ancient centre of\nnative civilization and the spread throughout the continent of the\nidentical scheme of government, etc., it being most natural that each band\nof fugitives, on finding what appeared to be a favorably situated region,\nshould settle there and carry out the inherited plan of organization,\netc., which would naturally become slightly modified under altered\nconditions. Fresh colonies on the pattern of the ruined metropolis and\nintegral state would successively be founded far and wide and as examples\nof such I venture to designate Tulantzinco, literally the title Tullan,\nand possibly Teotihuacan, where the native civilization seems to have\nundergone its more advanced stages of evolution, and to have risen in\npower, developed divergent cults with separate languages (the Maya and the\nNahuatl) and instituted the two religions and dual rulership which\neventually led to dissension and the dissolution of the integral state at\na period anterior to historical times.\n\nThe assumption that the most ancient centre of native civilization lay in\na volcanic region affords a plausible explanation of how an inordinate\nvalue would naturally be placed on stability, _per se_, and the feelings\nof veneration for Polaris and a passionate longing for a place of\nterrestrial and celestial rest would become strongly developed. Indeed, it\nis only possible to understand the reason why various American tribes\nwandered about in ardent and earnest search for the stable middle of the\nearth, when it is assumed that they must have been driven from their\nformer place of residence by volcanic disturbances which made a firm piece\nof ground under foot seem to be the most desirable of all earthly\nbenefits. I venture to assert that this search and the ideal of stability\nwould not have been suggested so forcibly to people who had never\nexperienced a long succession of more or less terrible earthquakes.\n\nAlthough widely different opinions concerning the identification of the\nancient Tullan are held by American arch\u00e6ologists they will all\ndoubtlessly admit that at Cholollan we have, in the first case, a locality\nto which the natives assign the name of Tollan, and a pyramid, the largest\non the American continent, which testifies that, in prehistoric times,\nthis place was inhabited for a prolonged period, by a numerous and\norganized community.\n\nThe fertility of the surrounding plains now known as the Campi\u00f1a de Puebla\nand the ancient name of Tlaxcalla yield evidence that, from time\nimmemorial, this district was associated with maize cultivation.\n\nThe vicinity of the giant volcanoes of Popocatepetl, Iztaccihuatl and\nOrizaba(77) sufficiently demonstrate that they must repeatedly have been\nthe scene of violent disturbances which would fully account for the\ntradition of successive cataclysms which destroyed a vast state and almost\nannihilated the native race.\n\nThe foregoing unassailable facts undoubtedly justify the conclusion that\nthe giant pyramid of Cholula marks the site of the great and ancient\nTollan whose destruction was the theme of the plaintive native songs of\nlamentation even at the time of the Spanish Conquest. That the natives\nhave ever regarded Cholula as a place of particular sanctity is shown by\nthe following statement by Fray Geronimo Roman y Zamorra (1569-1575)\n(Republicas de Indias, ed. Suarez, Madrid, 1888): \u201cIt was Colola or\nCholola, which was the ancient metropolis or head of all the native\nreligion, so much so that all the great chiefs or lords had their own\nchapels and dwelling houses there because they used to perform pilgrimages\nto its great temple this being the most revered [in the _land_].\u201d\n\nIt is also reasonable to infer that the region of the high plateau and\nvalley of Mexico, possibly before the formation of the great lagoons, was\nthe cradle of ancient American civilization, where, during countless\ncenturies, the native race literally and figuratively cultivated its own\nmaize and simultaneously developed the set of ideas which formed the basis\nof its intellectual evolution.\n\nIn this connection it is interesting to reflect that, as clearly shown by\nceremonial usages which existed throughout our continent and survive to\nthe present day amongst the Pueblo Indians, it is to the fostering care,\nforethought and labor of countless generations of women, the \u201cCorn Maidens\nand Mothers,\u201d that America owes the priceless legacy of a food-plant which\nhas already sustained untold millions of lives. Thus, whilst the ancient\n\u201cDaughters of the Earth\u201d have given their country a gift which will last\nfor all time, the pyramids, temples and cities, reared by the \u201cSons of\nHeaven,\u201d have fallen into ruin, and the great edifice of human thought\nthat they reared, their complex social organization, government and\ncalendar now lie superseded under the dust of time.\n\nAt this point of investigation the question naturally arises, Whence came\nthe founders of the native civilization, who established themselves and\npeopled the central region of Mexico and doubtlessly dwelt there for a\nprolonged period prior to the first of the traditional cataclysms which\nnearly proved destructive to their race?\n\nIt is obvious that, before this interesting question can be satisfactorily\ndiscussed, a minute analysis and investigation should be made of all other\nancient civilizations of the world in which the swastika was employed as a\nsacred symbol. A comparative research on such a scale could only be\neffectively carried out with the active co\u00f6peration of orientalists,\narch\u00e6ologists and philologists in all departments of research. Taking, as\nan index, the presence in old centres of civilization of the most ancient\nsacred symbol of the world, the swastika, the aim of the joint\ninvestigation should be to trace how far it was accompanied, in each\ncountry, by pole-star worship and the set of ideas, symbols and words to\nwhich it is so indissolubly linked in ancient America and China. By this\nmeans only can a final conclusion be reached as to whether this symbol\nspread over the earth from one original centre of civilization, or whether\nit suggested itself to primitive observers of Septentriones in various\nlocalities and at different times, as the natural outcome of\nstar-observation. If the swastika and the septentrional set of ideas\nspread from one centre then we should expect to find them accompanied by\ntraces of a common language. I shall have contributed my share to the\njoint investigation when, in addition to the preceding data, I present the\nfollowing list of Maya and Mexican names intimately associated with the\nnative symbols and set of ideas. In presenting them I once more draw\nattention to the resemblance of sound in words which obviously influenced\nthe choice of certain symbols just as, for instance, loose-skinned oranges\nare now given as presents at New Year in China, because their native name\nhas exactly the same sound as the word meaning \u201cgood fortune.\u201d The use,\nespecially on porcelain, of the bat=fuh, to signify \u201chappiness,\u201d also fuh,\nand of the sonorous stone \u201cKing\u201d to emblematize \u201cprosperity,\u201d(78) are\nother instances which shed much light upon the origin of primitive\nsymbolism in China and elsewhere.\n\nSymbols And Names Connected With Middle Or Centre.\n\n_Maya._\n\nHo, or Ti-hoo=name of ancient capital of Yucatan.\n\nHo-m, or ho-mul=artificial mound or pyramid.\n\nHo-mtanil=belly.\n\nHo-bnel=entrails.\n\nHo=five, symbolized by hand=kab, also by five-dot group.\n\nCi-hom=sacred tree, the leaves of which were scattered in the temple\ncourt-yard at the baptism of children (Landa).\n\nHo-l=head (symbol).\n\nHo-och=vase in general.\n\nCuxabel=heart or life, _cf._ ah-cuch-cab=heart of the state, title of lord\nor chieftain.\n\nNic, or nic-t\u00e9=flower, usually represented as consisting of five parts,\n_i. e._, the centre and four petals.\n\nTem=the square altar.\n\nNames Of Symbols Connected With Four Quarters, Above And Below.\n\n_Maya._\n\nCan=four, serpent.\n\n{Caan=sky, cord.\n{Canalil=adj. grandeur, elevation.\n{Canal=on top of, on; also yellow.\n{Canal-cun-zaal=to exalt, elevate, aggrandize, praise.\n{Cananil=necessity, need.\n{Canaan=adj. necessary, needed.\n\nCh\u00e9=tree.\n\nZin-ch\u00e9=cross, literally tree of life or of power.\n\nZin-il=powerful, _cf._ zihnal=original, primitive.\n\nZihzabal=creation.\n\nZian=the beginning, origin, generation.\n\nZihil=to commence, or be born.\n\nZinan=scorpion, symbol.\n\nName And Symbol Of North.\n\n_Maya._\n\nAm=spider.\n\nAman=the north.\n\nStar-Names.\n\n_Maya._\n\nEk=star, black.\n\nEk-chuah=name of the patron divinity of travellers and traders, _i. e._,\nthe pole-star.\n\n_cf._ Ikal, native word adopted by Spanish missionaries to denote \u201ca\nspirit.\u201d\n\nI have already pointed out how a minute comparison of the equivalent\nMexican symbols and their names shows that the latter often seem to be\nmere translations from the Maya and that the same identity of sound does\nnot always exist between the Nahuatl symbol, its name and true\nsignificance. On the other hand in the much-used Mexican symbol for the\ncentre and four quarters, the flower, pronounced ho-chitl, but written\nxo-chitl, the archaic Maya syllable ho, so intimately connected with the\ncentre, recurs. It also appears in the name of the constellation Ursa\nMinor, xo-necuilli, in the word xoch-ayotl=tortoise, employed as a symbol,\nand in the name xolotl=something double or dual, sometimes employed as a\nsynonym of coatl=twin, serpent. The hand=maitl was employed to express the\nnumeral five=macuilli. It is particularly interesting to note that in\norder to express the word tlachi-ual-tepetl or \u201cartificial mound\u201d (the\nMaya hom) in Nahuatl, the scribes had to paint a mountain surmounted by an\neye, a symbol also employed to designate stars=the eyes of night. The\nNahuatl for tree=quahuitl is almost homonymous with quaitl=head and both\nwere employed as symbols of the centre.\n\nThe following Nahuatl words claim special attention. The first is teotl,\nwhich was adopted as the equivalent of the Greek Theos by the Spanish\nmissionaries, but which appears to have been originally used in the sense\nof a \u201cDivinity,\u201d or \u201cdivine lord,\u201d and was also applied to all lords or\nrulers. The second is the verb yoli or yolinia=to live and yollotl=heart.\nA special interest attaches itself, however, to the noun yauatl=circle and\nthe verb yaualoa=to go around in a circle many times, because there is\ngood ground for identifying, as the Ursa Major, the star-god mentioned as\nYoual-tecuhtli by Sahagun. As youalli means night, the title literally\nsignifies \u201cthe lord of the night,\u201d while yaual=tecuhtli would mean the\nlord of the circle or wheel, the most appropriate name for Ursa Major. The\nactual representation, in the \u201cLyfe of the Indians,\u201d of the \u201cLord of\nNight,\u201d within a wheel or circle composed of his own footsteps, so\nstrikingly corroborates this view, that further comment appears\nunnecessary (fig. 59).\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 59.\n\n\nIn conclusion the exact meaning of the most important native symbols is\nhere recapitulated so as to facilitate comparative research.\n\nTHE SWASTIKA OR CROSS\n\nthe most ancient of primitive symbols was primarily a graphic\nrepresentation of the annual rotation of the Septentriones around Polaris.\nIt thus constituted not only an image of the most impressive of celestial\nphenomena but also a year-symbol. The most highly-developed forms of the\nswastika found in Mexico are associated with calendar-signs. In Mexico and\nin the Ohio Valley it is linked with the serpent, to the symbolism of\nwhich reference should be made. In Copan the cross symbol is associated\nwith the image of a figure in repose, occupying the Middle, and four puffs\nof breath or air, laden with life-seeds, emanating from this.\n\nConsidering that the cross ultimately became the symbol of the union of\nthe four elements or two principles of nature in one and that the\nproduction of life-producing rain was attributed to the union of heaven\nand earth, it is evident why the Cozumel cross was described to its\nSpanish discoverers, by the natives, as a symbol of the \u201crain-god.\u201d\n\nTHE SACRED FIRE\n\nwhich was kept perpetually burning on the summit of the pyramid was the\ngraphic and appropriate image of the central light of heaven that most\nnaturally suggested itself to the native mind. Its origin was attributed\nto supernatural agency and it was under the special care of the\npriesthood. A deeply symbolical meaning was obviously attached to the\nceremonial kindling of the sacred fire by means of the reed fire-drill\nwhich was held perpendicularly and inserted into a horizontally-placed\npiece of dry wood. A noteworthy resemblance to a tau-shaped figure was\nthus formed, which is interesting in connection with the fact that the\nceremony of kindling the sacred fire was undoubtedly regarded by the\nancient Mexicans as emblematical of the productive and life-giving union\nof the dual principles of nature. The acatl or reedstalk, inserted into\nthe vase-like symbol of the earth, such as is carved on the centre of the\nupper edge of the calendar-stone, is but another hieratic form of the same\nsymbolism.\n\nThe annual re-distribution of the sacred fire to the entire population, a\nfresh gift from heaven obtained by the mediation of the high-priest, was\nparticularly impressive and emphasized the idea of all fire and light and\nlife proceeding from a common centre.\n\nIt is noticeable that the reed or acatl is also intimately associated with\nthe east, the masculine or life-giving region. The Maya name for\ntortoise=ac, is a curious homonym of the Nahuatl word ac-atl.\n\nTHE SERPENT\n\nemblematizes and expresses the sound of quadruple power in Maya and\nduality in Nahuatl. It was employed as an image or embodiment in a single\nform of the two principles of nature or the four elements. It was usually\naccompanied by the adjective heavenly or divine and symbolized\nreproduction, being the union of the masculine or heavenly and feminine or\nearthly principles. In this connection it should be noted that the numeral\ntwo in Nahuatl is ome, and in Maya, ca. A native mode of expressing\nduality, by means of two horn-like projections on the heads of allegorical\npersonages, is exemplified in fig. 29, p. 92.\n\nTHE TREE\n\nwas the emblem of life, of hidden and visible growth which extended\ndownward into the earth and upward into heaven and sent forth its four\nbranches towards the cardinal points. It typified tribal life because its\nvarious parts were identified with the different members of the community\nand, metaphorically, the lord was spoken of as the trunk or main stem; the\nminor chiefs as branches and twigs; the men or vassals as leaves; the\nmaidens as flowers, and the women as fruit, etc. The name \u201catlapalli\u201d was,\nfor instance, the current Nahuatl appellation for vassals.\n\nAs the conventionalized trees in the native picture-writings are usually\nfigured with four equal branches they formed an appropriate image of the\nliving state, and of all directions in space. The \u201ctree of life\u201d thus\nformed a swastika or cross and both symbols were indissolubly linked\ntogether. The names of two trees, considered particularly sacred by the\nMayas, were the ci-hom and the yax-ch\u00e9, a sort of ceiba which was termed\n\u201cthe tree of celestial life\u201d (Landa).\n\nTHE HUMAN FACE\n\nwas an image of the duality and unity of nature. The upper half of the\nface symbolized heaven with its two eyes, the sun and moon. The mouth and\nteeth, the Nahuatl name for which=tlan-tli was homonymous with the affix\ntlan=land or earth=tlalli, emblematized earth, darkness and the Below. The\nnose with its two nostrils emblematized inhalation and exhalation. The\nsanctity attached to this mystic union of two streams of breath led to the\nconsecration of the nose by the wearing of a symbolical ornament attached\nto it.\n\nTHE HUMAN FORM\n\nexpressed \u201ca complete count\u201d and was employed as an image of the entire\nconstitution, and of the calendar system; each part of the government\nadministration and calendar sign being identified with one of the twenty\ndigits, four limbs, body and head of the human form.\n\nTHE QUADRUPED\n\nusually the ocelot, or puma, was the symbol of the government of the Below\nand nocturnal cult of the earth as opposed to\n\nTHE BIRD OR EAGLE\n\nwhich typified the upper state and diurnal cult of Heaven. Chiefs, who\nunited dual powers in their persons, wore, as an emblem, the serpent, or a\ncombination of ocelot-skin and feather ornaments.\n\nTHE HAND\n\nexpressed _per se_, in Maya, the numeral ho=five, which was also the name\nof a state which invariably consisted of the central capital and four\nprovinces. As such it was carried as an emblem of power by the central\nruler, as may be seen in the native codices. The thumb being regarded as\nthe principal or ruling finger, the chief lord was metaphorically spoken\nof as the thumb, whilst the minor lords were entitled fingers=pilli.\n\nTHE PYRAMID AND SACRED MOUNTAIN\n\nwas primarily an artificial elevation destined to be a place of refuge in\ntimes of inundation; the pyramid ultimately symbolized: (1) the sacred\nstable centre of the world and the Four Quarters; (2) central power and\nits four manifestations or elements. The great pyramid of the ancient City\nof Mexico which was crowned by two chapels, respectively containing\nsymbolical images of the two principles of nature, is a striking\nillustration of the employment of the pyramid to express the dual centre\n(the Above and Below, etc.) and the quadruple organization of all things\nwhich was expressed not only by the four sides of the structure but by its\nfour superposed terraces. The fact recorded by Friar Duran, that the\nflight of steps which led to the summit of the pyramid on its eastern side\nconsisted of 365 steps, and that the annual ceremony of ascending these,\nperformed by a consecrated individual, \u201csignified the course of the sun in\na year,\u201d indicates that the pyramid was also associated with the idea of\nthe quadruplicate division of time which pervaded the entire calendar\nsystem.\n\nIt should also be borne in mind that in ancient Mexico the summits of high\nmountains were regarded as sacred, \u201cbecause it was there that Heaven and\nEarth met and generated fructifying showers.\u201d As religious cult developed,\nthe rites performed on the summit of the pyramid or artificial mound were\nfor the purpose of evoking rain and the renewal of life upon earth, and\nsymbolized the union of heaven and earth. To the native mind the pyramid\nthus represented the consecrated meeting-place of heaven and earth, the\nAbove and Below, the masculine and feminine elements, the \u201cdivine twins,\u201d\nas well as universal, all-pervading, quadruplicate organization. The\nmassive pyramid likewise typified, in an impressive manner, the main idea\nconnected with the Middle: that of stability, immutability, quietude and\nrepose, combined with power.\n\nIn some localities a remarkable rock or massive block of stone was adopted\nas the mark of the sacred centre and became the altar on which offerings\nor sacrifices were made, or the throne on which the terrestrial central\nruler seated himself on ceremonial occasions and assumed an attitude of\nabsolute repose. It is interesting to collate the Nahuatl words Te-otl,\ndivinity or divine lord, with te-tl=stone and the Maya te-m=stone seat or\naltar, of which many carved examples exist in the ruined Central American\ncities, and to observe that principal personages, such as are represented\non the carved altars and in the middle of the Copan swastika, are\nrepresented as seated cross-legged, as though this attitude were specially\nindicative of repose on the stable centre of the four quarters. As the\nnatives usually squat or sit on their heels, the cross-legged attitude is\nparticularly noteworthy in connection with the omnipresent set of ideas.\n\nTHE BOWL OR VASE\n\nwas the emblem of earth, the receptacle of fructifying showers, and of the\nterrestrial centre. Filled with rain-water, on the surface of which the\nradiance of a star\u2014the pole-star\u2014reflected itself, the bowl was supposed\nto typify the union of heaven and earth by means of the divine essence of\nlight and life, proceeding from the \u201cHeart of Heaven.\u201d\n\nTHE FLOWER\n\nwas another symbol of the earth and of the state and its divisions. It\noccurs as a composite flower consisting of a yellow centre surrounded by\nmulticolored petals. The usual form is of a flower with four equal petals,\nbearing a circle or dot in the centre and one on each petal, the Middle\nand Four Quarters being thus expressed.\n\n                  \u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\n\nA closing allusion should be briefly made to the native association of the\nsquare with the earth and the circle with the heaven and to the influence\nexerted by these ideas combined with those of light and darkness upon\nprimitive architecture and symbolical ornamental designs.\n\nPointing out that all of the above symbols are but variations on the\nfundamental theme of the \u201cMiddle, Four Quarters, Above and Below,\u201d I also\nemphasize the fact that, in ancient America, language powerfully\ninfluenced the choice of symbols, as may be particularly seen in the case\nof the serpent, the Nahuatl and Maya names for which are homonymous with\nduality and quadruplicity.\n\nThe origin and meaning of the ancient American symbols of the cross, the\nserpent, the tree, etc., are clearly apparent. It remains to be seen how\nfar this is the case in other countries where the identical symbols were\nor are employed, and it is to my fellow arch\u00e6ologists that I look for\nfinal authoritative statements on this important subject, in their special\nlines of research.\n\nMeanwhile I shall present some facts which are accessible to the general\nreader and suffice for the purpose of my present investigation.\n\nCHINA.\n\nPole-star worship and determination of time by Ursa Major existed in China\nfrom remote antiquity. The Chinese name for the pole-star is\nTeen-hwang-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of the Heaven. In\nChina \u201cthe pole-star, round which the entire firmament appears to turn,\nought to be considered as the Sovereign of the Heavens, and as the most\nvenerated divinity\u201d (G. Schlegel, Uranographie Chinoise, p. 524). The\nsacred central forbidden enclosure, at Peking, contains a temple of the\nNorth Star God. In the description of the imperial worship held at the\nwinter and summer solstices, in James Edkins\u2019 Religion in China (London,\n1878, p. 24) it is stated: \u201cOn the second terrace of the east side, the\ntablet of the Sun is placed, and also that of _the Great Bear_, the five\nof the 28 constellations and one for all the other stars.\u201d The following\npassage shows the origin of the Chinese year:\n\n1. \u201cThe months and seasons are determined by the revolution of Ursa Major\n(the Chinese name for which is Pek-tao the \u2018Seven Directors\u2019). The tail of\nthe constellation pointing to the east at nightfall announces the arrival\nof spring; pointing to the south the arrival of summer; pointing to the\nwest the arrival of autumn and pointing to the north the arrival of\nwinter. This means of calculating the seasons becomes more intelligible\nwhen it is remembered that in ancient times the Bear was much nearer the\nnorth pole than now and revolved around it like the hand of a clock\u201d\n(Prof. Rob. K. Douglass, China. London, 1887, p. 418). The Chinese zodiac\nis represented with the pole-star and circumpolar constellations in the\ncentre (Astronomy of the Chinese, Ancient China, W. H. Medhurst, Shanghae,\n1846).\n\n2. The determination and designation of six directions in space. In\nChinese the six ho or ki designate the limits of space, the zenith, nadir\nand four quarters (Mayer\u2019s Manual, pp. 306, 312 and 321). \u201cThe term Liu-ho\nalso applies to the six pairs of cyclical signs and means \u2018Universe,\u2019 that\nis, Heaven and Earth [being Above and Below] and the Four Quarters.\u201d(79)\n\nThe syllable ho also occurs in the following words which deserve to be\ncollated with the Maya list: H\u00f4=river, hu=lake. C-h\u00f3-o=master, _cf._ Maya\nhol=head. H\u00f3-o=resident, _cf._ Maya ho=capital. Sh\u00f3-o=tree, _cf._ Maya\nci-hom=tree. Pih-sh\u00f3-o=cypress. Kw\u00f3=country, _cf._ mouth, symbol for land\nor below. K\u00f2w=mouth, etc. Chow=name of ancient metropolis.\n\n3. The conception of the Above and Below=duality. The zenith is naturally\nassociated with heaven and the nadir with earth. Heaven is father and\nearth is mother. Heaven is figured by a circle and earth by a square. \u201cThe\nmarriage of Heaven and Earth produces all things.\u201d The association of\nheaven with the male and earth with the female principles is shown by (1)\nthe injunction: \u201cThou shalt honor thy father as the heaven and thy mother\nas the earth.\u201d (2) In Pekin, the Emperor, termed \u201cthe Son of Heaven,\u201d\ninhabits the \u201cPalace of Heaven\u201d whilst the Empress inhabits the \u201cPalace of\nEarth\u2019s repose.\u201d The sun is male and the \u201cTemple of the Sun\u201d is situated\nto the east. The moon is female and the \u201cTemple of the Moon\u201d is situated\nto the west in the sacred enclosure at Pekin. The emblematic color of the\nheaven is naturally azure; of the sun, red; of the earth, yellow; and of\nthe moon, white. It is thus evident that the cult of heaven and earth is\nindissolubly linked to that of the Yang and Yin, the male and the female\nprinciple, and that in China the following chains of association\nconcerning duality were formed:\n\nZenith.                Nadir.\nAbove.                 Below.\nTien=Heaven.           Tec=Earth.\nFather.                Mother.\nYang.                  Yin.\nColor: Azure.          Yellow.\nEmblem: Sun.           Moon.\nEast=place of          West, place of\nrising.                setting.\nLight.                 Darkness.\nDay.                   Night.\nPersonification: the   The Earth-Mother.\nShang-ti=\nEmperor=Above, The     The Empress=Below?\nLord of Heaven or\nUniverse.\nEarthly                The Empress? or\nrepresentative: the    Sombre Emperor?\nLight Emperor.\n\nAn interesting addition to this dual list is the view of a modern\nChinaman, that the Yang and Yin principles refer to positive and negative\nelectricity! (Legge). A striking result of the association of woman with\nthe nadir and earth is the fact that in Thibet, according to Rockhill,\nwoman is designated as Smanba or Manba: \u201clow creature.\u201d\n\nTHE MIDDLE AND FOUR QUARTERS.\n\nIt is well known that the Chinese designate their empire as the \u201cMiddle\nKingdom.\u201d Another native name for China is \u201cChung-ho-a,\u201d which I find\ntranslated as \u201cthe Flower of the Middle.\u201d The empire is likewise\ndesignated as \u201cthe Four Seas\u201d=ssu-hai and \u201cthe Four Mountains,\u201d and it was\nactually divided by the emperor Yaou or Y\u0101o (B.C. 2357) into four\nprovinces converging at the capital, the central enclosure of which was\nconsidered as the centre of heaven and earth. It is extremely significant\nthat, in this central enclosure there is a temple, consecrated to the god\nof the north star=The Imperial Ruler of Heaven, whereas altars only are\ndedicated to the sun and moon respectively. The existence in the central\nenclosure, or the \u201cCarnation prohibited city,\u201d of the Temple of Earth\u2019s\nRepose, reveals that the idea of stability was associated with this\nterrestrial centre. The fact that the Empress and the female portion of\nthe Imperial family resided in the \u201cPalace of Earth\u2019s Repose\u201d affords an\nexplanation of the possible origin of deforming the feet of noble women,\nthis being a means of enforcing comparative repose upon them, in keeping\nwith the symbolism of their surroundings.\n\nThe most striking structure in this sacred enclosure is \u201can artificial\nmound, nearly one hundred and fifty feet high, having five summits,\ncrowned with as many temples. Its height allows the spectator to overlook\nthe whole city, whilst, too, it is itself a conspicuous object from every\ndirection.\u201d This sacred mound or pyramid actually marks the centre of the\nempire. From the surrounding walls of the sacred city four roads diverge\ntowards the cardinal points, dividing the capital into four quarters. Each\nprovince was ruled by an official and both province and ruler seem to have\nbeen anciently designated by the term Mountain=Yo or Kan. A superior\nofficial, entitled the \u201cPresident of the Four Mountains\u201d is mentioned as\nthe counsellor of Emperor Yaou in the Shu King. One name for mountain is\nyo, another is kan, a word which resembles k\u2019an=water and kw\u0103n=earth,\nwhich forms the name of the earth mother=Kwan-yin. Without drawing any\nhasty conclusions, I merely note the curious fact that the title \u201cthe\nPresident of the Four Mountains,\u201d must sometimes have been rendered as Kan\nand as Yo, and that a variant the name of \u201cfour seas\u201d may well have been\n\u201cfour _ho_\u201d or lakes or rivers. The title kan, meaning mountain or\neminence, and the idea of four rivers flowing from a common centre or\nspring, may well have developed themselves among Chinese-speaking people.\nIt may be an odd coincidence only that the word kan=mountain, should be so\nintimately connected with the numeral four in the Chinese title; while it\nis a synonym for four in the Maya, it is also found employed in the\nhonorific Maya title Kukul-kan=the divine Kan, and as a synonym for\nmountain in certain names of localities in the valley of Mexico. An\ninteresting but little known fact is that the peak of the mighty Kulkun\nmountain in China is designated as the \u201cKing of Mountains, the summit of\nthe earth, the supporter of heaven and the axis which touches the pole\u201d\n(Meyer\u2019s Conversations-Lexikon).\n\nI should much like to know whether the name kul-kun is a variant of\nkul-kan, and literally signifies \u201cdivine mountain.\u201d In this case it would\nstrangely resemble the Maya Kukulkan and the Nahuatl Cul-hua-can, the name\nof the fabulous recurved mountain of Aztec tradition. Feeling that I am\nhere treading upon extremely dangerous ground I shall abandon further\ncomparisons and conclusions to philologists and Chinese scholars and\nmerely conclude by stating the certain facts, that in Chinese and Maya\nalike the syllable _ho_ seems to be associated with the Middle; while\n_can_ is connected with four-fold division. I may perhaps venture to add\nthat, in Chinese, Maya and Nahuatl alike, the particles te and ti seem\nclosely connected with Heaven; while the Chinese kwan=earth, offers a\ncertain resemblance to the Nahuatl affix tlan, meaning land, and kan,\nsometimes used for mountain.\n\nSince the Chow Dynasty, the empire was spoken of as having five instead of\nfour mountains, which leads to the inference that reference was thus made\nto the central metropolis also, the most sacred feature of which was its\ncentral artificial mountain or pyramid. It is obvious that the empire was\ngoverned from the central chief capital and from minor capitals situated\nin the four provinces and built on the pattern of Peking. In an extremely\ninteresting and clever paper(80) Mr. James Wickersham has recently\nremarked that \u201cthe arrangement of cities after the cardinal-points plan\nwas the rule not only in America but in China\u201d and gives the following\nquotations: \u201cMukden, the metropolis and ancient capital of Manchuria, was\na walled city like Peking. Main streets ran across the city from gate to\ngate, with narrow roads, called Hu-ting, intersecting them. The palace of\nthe early Manchu sovereigns occupies the centre\u201d (The Middle Kingdom,\nWilliams, vol. I, pp. 192-198). The Manchurian city of Kirin is also\ndivided into four quarters: \u201cTwo great streets cross each other at right\nangles, one of them running far out into the river on the west supported\nby piles.\u201d Peune, another large city, is similarly divided. \u201cIt consists\nof two main streets with the chief market [place] at their crossing. This\nplan is the rule in the cities of northern China; the large cities are\nwalled and divided by cross streets emerging from the city gates at the\ncardinal points\u201d (Coxe\u2019s Russia, pp. 316-17). The relation of the central\nseat of government to its provinces is thus recorded in the Canon of\nShun.(81) \u201cIn five years there was one tour of inspection (performed by\nthe emperor) and four appearances at court of the nobles. They set forth a\nreport of their government in words. This was clearly tested by their\nworks. They received chariots and robes according to their services.\u201d\n\nThe order of rotation in which the emperor visited in one year the capital\nof each quarter, returning after each absence to the metropolis, is given\nas follows: \u201cIn the second month the tour was to the east. In the fifth\nmonth ... to the south. In the eighth month ... to the west. In the\neleventh month ... to the north.\u201d During the next year the nobles of the\neastern province made their appearance at court, and the south, west and\nnorth provinces followed in turn, it being noticeable that, in each case,\nthe circle started at the east, the place of rising.\n\nThe institution of the calendar by the Emperor Yaou is described at length\nin the Shu King.(82) Confucius said of this remarkable personage, \u201cHeaven\nalone is great, but Yaou is able to imitate Heaven.\u201d\n\nThe Emperor Yaou \u201c... harmonized the various states of the empire and the\nblack-haired people, oh! how they were reformed by this cordial agreement.\nHe commanded He and Ho (officers superintending the calendar and\nastronomical instruments) in reverent accordance with the motions of the\nexpansive heavens, to arrange by numbers and represent the revolutions of\nthe sun and moon and stars with the lunar mansions and then respectfully\ncommunicate to the people the seasons adapted for labor. He then\nseparately directed He\u2019s younger brother to reside at Yu-e (the modern\nTang-chow in Shan-tung), called the Orient Valley, where he might\nrespectfully hail the rising sun, adjust and arrange the eastern (and\nvernal) undertakings and notice the equalization of days and whether the\nstar (culminating at nightfall) was the middle constellation of the bird,\nin order to hit the centre of mid-spring; he might also observe whether\nthe people began to disperse abroad and whether birds and beasts were\nbeginning to pair. He commanded He\u2019s third brother to reside at the\nsouthern border (the region of Cochin-China) and adjust and arrange the\nsouthern or summer transformation and respectfully notice the extreme\nlimit of the shadow when the days attain their utmost length and the star\nin the zenith that is denominated Fire (heart of Scorpio, culminated on\neve of summer solstice), in order to fix the exact period of mid-summer,\nwhen the people disperse themselves more widely and the birds and beasts\nbegin to moult and cast their skins. He then distinctly commanded Ho\u2019s\nyoungest brother to dwell in the west, at a place called the Dark Valley,\nwhere he might respectfully attend the setting sun and equalize and adjust\nthe western (or autumnal) completions, notice the equalizations of the\nnights and see whether the culminating star was Emptiness (Beta in\nAquarius, which culminated at autumnal equinox which was the period at the\ncentre of the dark principle in nature) in order to adjust the mid-autumn,\nwhen the people would be more at ease and the birds and beasts would be\nsleek and plump. He further directed Ho\u2019s third brother to dwell at the\nnorthern region, called the dismal city, where he might properly examine\nthe reiterations and alterations and see whether, when the days were\nshortest, the culminating star was Pleiades (this culminates in the\nevening at winter solstice, which is the extreme of dark principle in\nnature and midnight seat of that principle) in order to adjust midwinter,\nwhen the people would remain at home and the birds and beasts get their\ndown and hair. Thus careful was the sage in reverently observing heaven\nand labouring diligently for the people, in order that his plans might not\ncontradict the designs of heaven nor the government miss the proper season\nfor human labour.\u201d It is further said that \u201cthe bright influence (of\nYaou\u2019s qualities) was felt through the four quarters (of the land) and\nreached to (heaven) above and (earth) beneath\u201d (Shu King, book I, p. 32).\nLegge cites Pritchard\u2019s (Savilian Professor, Oxford University) chart as a\nproof of the correctness of the chronology which places Y\u00e2ou in the 24th\ncentury B.C. The precession of the equinoxes was not known in China until\nmore than 2,500 years after the time assigned to Yaou.\n\nPausing to renew the foregoing data, it is with particular satisfaction\nthat I point out how clearly they reveal the basis and origin of the\n\u201cQuadriform Constitution\u201d and idea of central government. In China the\npole star is designated as the Imperial Ruler of Heaven and a temple to\nthe God of the North Star stands in the sacred enclosure which marks the\ncentre of the empire. The opposite positions assumed by Ursa Major at\nnightfall divide the year into four quarters and this quadruplicate\ndivision caused by rotation, assuming absolute dominion over the native\nmind, is applied to heaven and earth and pervades every detail of civil\nand religious government, as in ancient America.\n\nForced to recognize that the primitive inhabitants of China and America\nderived their first principles of organization from the identical\nlight-giving source, a fact which also indicates a community of race and\nof place of origin, let us now review some data which prove that the two\ncivilizations must have been separated and isolated from each other at an\nextremely remote period of time.\n\nCertain conceptions, common to all primitive people, were shared by the\nChinese and Mexicans, one of these being the belief that the earth was\nflat and square. The name for a year in ancient Mexican was xiuitl,\nliterally, grass, and this was represented in the picture writings by a\nbunch of young blades of some sort of grass, possibly maize-shoots. \u201cThe\nearliest written Chinese character for a year represented a stalk of\nwheat.... In the ancient work entitled the San Fun, part of which was\nprobably written in the 23d century B.C., there is evidence that among\nsome of the aboriginal tribes of China the year, as among the Egyptians\nand some of the people of India, was divided into three periods, known as\nthe grass-springing, tree-reigning and tree-decaying periods. Under the\nhigher culture of the Chinese these divisions disappeared and the twelve\nmonths became the recognized parts of the year\u201d (Douglas, China, pp. 269\nand 310). Amongst the Mexican month-names there are also some which allude\nto such regularly recurring and impressive natural phenomena as the\nsprouting of trees and the appearance of verdure or springing of the\nmaize, etc.\n\nAn indication as to what was the most ancient and primitive method of\nrotation employed seems afforded by the Chinese description how, for\ngovernmental purposes, the five-year period was adopted, one year\npertaining to the emperor or central ruler and the following four to the\nquarters of the empire. An analogous employment of a quinary period as a\nmeans of obtaining a rotation of contribution from the four quarters of\nthe empire to its metropolis, identified with the first day, is\ndiscernible in the Mexican institution of the macuil-tianquiztli, or\nfive-day market, by which means the entire year was divided into five-day\ngroups.\n\nA study of the ancient Chinese calendar furnishes, moreover, an indication\nof the way in which the numeral 12 came to be recognized and adopted by\nprimitive people. It is obvious that the early astronomers, having\ndetermined the length of the year by observing Ursa Major at nightfall,\nrecognized that, during the period required for its annual complete\nrevolution around the pole star, there regularly appeared twelve new\nmoons. In China, at a remote period, a division of the year into \u201cmonths\nwas adopted, the early names of which have, according to the author of the\nearliest Chinese dictionary, the Urhye, been lost.\u201d \u201cThe modern Chinese\nyear is lunar in its divisions, though regulated by the sun in so far that\nNew Year\u2019s day is made to fall on the first new moon after the sun enters\nAquarius and varies between 21st January and 19th of February\u201d (Douglas,\n_op. cit._ p. 258). It would seem as though some fresh impulse, or\ninstitution of moon-cult, had influenced Shun, Yaou\u2019s successor, to\nreorganize the empire, which had been simply divided into quarters, and\nsubdivide it into 4\u00d73=12 districts.\n\nAnother interesting evolution of a numerical system, the origin of which\ncan be traced to the four positions and seven stars of Ursa Major, is\ndiscernible in the Chinese zodiac. This, the earliest division of the\necliptic in China, consists of \u201c28 lunar mansions, which are grouped\ntogether in four classes of seven each, assigned to the four quarters of\nheaven\u201d (Legge, vol. III, p. 24, Introduction to Shu-King). It is to the\nobservation of precisely the same impressive phenomena that the universal\nadoption of the numbers 12, 4 and 7 may safely be attributed. The further\ndivision, by Emperor Yu, of the Chinese Empire into five domains or zones,\nfinds an interesting parallelism in Mexico and Central America.\n\nMr. Wickersham describes Yu\u2019s division in the following concise manner:\n\u201cThe Imperial domain extended five hundred le in every direction from the\ncapital, north, south, east and west, and was therefore one thousand le\nsquare, with its sides facing the cardinal points; the domain of the\nNobles was an additional territory five hundred le broad on each of the\nfour sides; the Peace-securing domain was then added, beyond which came\nthe domain of Restraint, and at the greatest extremity the Wild domain. By\nthis arrangement, the sacred center, the capital where the \u2018Son of Heaven\u2019\nresided, was completely surrounded by loyal officials and subjects; the\nmost loyal were nearest the center while at the farthest extremity were\nthe wild and dangerous tribes and criminals undergoing the greater\nbanishment. By this square method of disposing of the population, the\nquiet and orderly members of society were required to reside near the\ncapital, while the turbulent were placed toward the outer limits, serving\nto free the center from turmoil and to act as a barrier to the inroads of\noutside barbarians.\u201d\n\nAmong the Zu\u00f1is and Mexicans the spider\u2019s web is met with as an image of\nthe division of their territory into quarters, half-quarters and\nconcentric circles.\n\nIn Peru a record exists of a system of irrigation by which means the\nterritory surrounding the capital was divided into alternate zones of land\nand water. Mexico and Central America furnish records too scattered to be\ncompiled here, showing that somewhat as in China, the territory of the\nstate was divided into the domains of the rulers, the lords, the people,\nand the territory of war.\n\nAfter having duly considered some salient points of fundamental agreement\nwhich are to be found underlying the widely different later growths of the\nChinese and ancient American systems, let us now examine and analyze some\nof the most remarkable points of divergence.\n\nThe following tables, placed in juxtaposition, afford an opportunity of\nrecognizing the striking and significant fact that, whereas the Mexicans\nand Zu\u00f1is classified air, water, fire and earth as \u201celements,\u201d the Chinese\nignored air and identified wood and metal as their fourth and fifth\nelements.\n\n             Mexico.           Zuni.             China.\n_North_.     Red, Fire.        Yellow, Air.      Black, Water.\n_West_.      Yellow, Earth.    Blue, Water.      White, Metal.\n_South_.     Blue, Air.        Red, Fire.        Red, Fire.\n_East_.      Green, Water.     White, Earth.     Blue, Wood.\n_Middle_.    Many colors.      Middle, All       Yellow, Earth.\n                               colors.\n\nA deep-seated analogy may, however, be traced between the Chinese\nassignment of \u201cwood\u201d to the Middle and the Maya-Mexican employment of the\ntree as a symbol of life proceeding from the centre, stretching above and\nbelow and spreading its branches to the four quarters. It remains to be\nseen how far the Chinese assignment of \u201cwood\u201d to the Middle approached the\nAmerican tree-symbolism.\n\nThe marked differentiation in the assignment of colors to the cardinal\npoints in the above comparative table leads to the conclusion that their\nchoice had been arbitrary and was possibly influenced by local\nenvironment, the possibility of obtaining certain pigments in given\ndirections, or by language, the names of certain colors or elements\nresembling in sound those of the cardinal points, etc.(83)\n\nAfter studying the above comparative lists it becomes clear that, whilst\nthe fundamental principle of the system was identical, the mode of\ncarrying it out was different in China and America, a fact which indicates\nindependence and isolation at the period when elements and colors, etc.,\nwere chosen and assigned to the directions in space. An analogous instance\nof divergence is shown in the following assignment of parts of the body to\nthe cardinal points:\n\nCHINESE.\n\nNorth        Kidneys.\nWest         Lungs.\nSouth        Heart.\nEast         Liver.\nMiddle       Stomach.\nZenith       \u2014\u2014\nNadir        \u2014\u2014\n\nAlthough it differs in detail, an analogous association of various parts\nof the body with the directions in space and the twenty calendar-signs,\nmay be seen in a Mexican Codex. In this case, however, it is clear that\nthe origin of this assignment was the natural association between the\n\u201ccomplete finger-and-toe count=a complete man=20=with the 20 or complete\ncount of the day signs.\u201d I have already produced evidences showing that\nthe human figure was employed in primitive times to represent \u201ca complete\ncount, or 20 years.\u201d When chieftains were elected for a term of twenty\nyears and their names were given to their period of office, the\nfull-length portrait of the chief was sculptured on a stela and he thus\nrepresented, primarily, \u201ca complete count,\u201d an epoch (see p. 221).\nPortraiture and accompanying inscriptions were obviously later\ndevelopments, but the primitive employment of the human form as a means of\nexpressing a fixed number, is one that claims consideration and will\nundoubtedly lead to a wider comprehension of the significance of the human\nform in aboriginal archaic sculpture. The curious conventionalized\nrepresentations of Mictlantecuhtli, in which the body and limbs almost\nsimulate a swastika, have already been discussed, as well as the inference\nthat they symbolized Polaris and the four positions of Ursa Major=the\nMiddle and Four Quarters.\n\nThe most striking confirmation of this inference is furnished by Mr.\nCushing\u2019s account that the Zu\u00f1is associated the directions in space with\nthe imaginary form of a quadruped as follows:\n\nZUNI.\n\nNorth        Right fore\n             foot.\nWest         Left fore foot.\nSouth        Right hind leg.\nEast         Left hind leg.\nMiddle       Heart.\nZenith       Head.\nNadir        Tail.\n\nIt is obvious from this that, to a Zu\u00f1i, the State and its subdivisions\nappear under the allegorical form of a quadruped and I have traced the\nidentical mode of thought in Mexico and Central America(84) where, owing\nto linguistic associations, an ocelot is in some instances employed as a\nsymbol for a State whilst in others the form of an eagle was adopted for\nthe same purpose (see Appendix I).\n\nTo sum up: in ancient America the human form was employed to represent\nquadripartite division and the complete finger-and-toe count=20, and as\nsuch became emblematic of the quadriform plan of universal application.\nOwing to a variety of circumstances and suggestions arising from language,\nthe figure of a quadruped=ocelot was adopted as a symbol of the State by\nsome tribes and the form of an eagle by others, the inference being that\nthe ocelot was identified with the cult of the earth and night and the\neagle with the cult of heaven and day. While the ocelot and eagle occur in\nthe codices as representative of two distinct classes or divisions of the\nState, there are some interesting and suggestive representations, to which\nI shall revert, of figures combining the form and claws of an ocelot with\nthe wings and head of a bird, evidently symbolical of a union of the Above\nand Below, or Heaven and Earth.\n\nHaving furnished the explanation that ancient America affords of the\norigin of the primitive employment of the human body, the quadruped and\nbird in allegory and the assignment of their various parts to points in\nspace, it is to Chinese scholars that I appeal for enlightenment as to the\norigin and development of the same idea in China. To me one point of\ndifference between the Chinese and American list is very striking. In\nAmerica although the navel was also regarded as a symbol, the heart,\nassociated with the Middle, had obviously been recognized as the centre or\nseat of life, and the tearing out of the heart had become the salient\nfeature in human sacrifices. In China the stomach is assigned to the\nMiddle, and death by disembowelling was customary.\n\nAn analysis of the Chinese and Mexican numerical systems likewise proves\nthat their ultimate development was strikingly different, although it is\neasy to recognize how both might have arisen from the same source. Thus\nwhilst the Mexican and Central American calendar (and social organization)\nis based on the combination of 20 characters with 13 numerals, the Chinese\n\u201ctook two sets of 12 and 10 characters respectively and combined them.\u201d\nThe outcome of the combination of 20 with 13 affords a marked contrast to\nthat of 12 with 10. In the Mexican calendar, as I have shown, there were\nfixed periods of 5 days (associated with the Middle and Four Quarters) and\nof 20 days, the latter being \u201cone complete count\u201d of days, based on the\nprimitive finger-and-toe count. In the Mexican social organization there\nwere 4 principal and 16 minor clans of people, known by 20 signs. Each of\nthese in turn was subdivided into 13 categories associated with the\ndirections in space. By mentioning a sign and a numeral, up to 13, the\nexact subdivision of a clan was clearly designated while the direction of\nits residence, as regards the capital, was likewise conveyed. A day was\nassociated with each of these 20 clans and their respective 13\nsubdivisions, and the unit of time produced by the combination of the 20\nday-signs and 13 numerals was the period of 260 days, which held 4\u00d765 days\nand was approximately equivalent to nine lunations and to the period of\nhuman gestation. The 260-day period, as will be more clearly shown in my\nmonograph on the Mexican Calendar System, constituted the religious year\nof the \u201cSons or Lords of Night\u201d in their cult of the Moon, the Nocturnal\nHeaven, Earth and the Female principle.\n\nSimultaneously with this lunar calendar, in which each moon had a\ndifferent name, a civil or solar calendar was employed consisting of 365\ndays, divided into 17 periods of 20 and 1 period of 25 days. These years\nbore the names of four different signs in rotation combined with 13\nnumerals.(85) The cycles, thus produced, consisted of 4\u00d713=52 years, 20,\nor a \u201ccomplete count\u201d of which, produced the great cycle of 1040 years.\n\nTotally different from this numerical system is that of the Chinese, who\n\u201cdivided the year into 12 months of 29 and 30 days each and as these\nperiods represent with sufficient exactness the lunar month, it follows\nthat the new moon falls on the 1st of every month and that on the 15th the\nmoon is at its full. The month is thus associated with the moon and is\ncalled by the same name and written with the same hieroglyphic.... The\nChinese also divide the year by seasons and recognize 8 main divisions and\n16 subsidiary ones, which correspond to the days on which the sun enters\nthe 1st and 15th degrees of a zodiacal sign ...\u201d (Douglas, China, p. 269).\nWhilst it is customary in China for years to be designated at times by the\nNeen-haou or title of an emperor and an event to be alluded to as having\noccurred in such or such a year of a certain ruler\u2019s reign, the mode of\ncomputing years is by reckoning by sexagenary cycles. According to native\nhistorians this system was introduced by the emperor Hwang-te in the year\n2637 B.C. which was the first year of the first cycle, and it has\ncontinued in use until the present day. In this system a group of ten\ncharacters, termed the \u201ccelestial stems\u201d and associated with the male\nprinciple, is combined with a group of twelve characters, named the\n\u201cterrestrial branches\u201d and associated with the female principle. An\nunbroken series of sixty-year cycles have thus been formed, in the\nseventy-sixth of which the Chinese are now living. According to Biot, the\ncalendar instituted by Hwang-te was a day-count only, and year-cycles were\nnot in use until after the Christian era, having been introduced from\nIndia.\n\nThere are indications which will be more fully discussed further on,\nshowing that the primitive day-count consisted of the seven-day period,\neach day being consecrated to one of the seven bright stars of Ursa Major,\ncalled the \u201cSeven Regulators.\u201d\n\nIt is well known that Taouism was founded by Laou-tsze, who was a\ncontemporary of Confucius and thus \u201clived in the sixth century before\nChrist, a hundred years later than Buddha and a hundred years earlier than\nSocrates. A mystery hangs over Laou-tsze\u2019s history ... and there is the\npossibility that he was a foreigner, or perhaps a member of an aboriginal\nfrontier tribe\u201d (Legge).\n\nThe Shoo-king, the national book of history edited by Confucius, enables\nus to follow the development of the state religion and government, the\nbasis of which was Heaven and its imperial ruler, the pole-star. The\nalmost mythical emperor Yaou, whose reign began in B.C. 2357, \u201cimitated\nHeaven, harmonized the various states of the empire and divided it into\nfour quarters.\u201d His successor, Shun, extended its organization, but it was\nY\u00fc, the third ruler, in the thirteenth year of his reign (B.C. 1121), who,\nacknowledging his ignorance of them \u201cwent to inquire of K\u00ea-tsze\u201d about\n\u201cthe great plan of the 9 classifications and the arrangement of the\ninvariable principles.\u201d It is also stated in the Shoo-King, that it was\n\u201cHeaven [who] gave to Y\u00fc the great plan and the 9 classifications, so that\nthe invariable principles were arranged, consisting of the 5 elements, the\n8 regulations, and the 5 arrangers.\u201d\n\nIn China the day is divided into periods equivalent to 120 minutes=2\nhours. \u201cIn speaking of these periods, however, the practice which was\noriginally introduced into China by the Mongols, of substituting for the\ntwelve stems, the names of the twelve animals which are supposed to be\nsymbolical of them, is commonly adopted. Thus the 1st period, that between\n11 P. M. and 1 A. M., is known as the Rat, period 2 as the Ox, 3 Tiger, 4\nHare, 5 Dragon, 6 Serpent, 7 Horse, 8 Sheep, 9 Monkey, 10 Cock, 11 Dog, 12\nBoar. The night is divided into five watches, each of two hours\nduration....\u201d (Douglas, China, p. 296).\n\nThe ancient Mexican priest-astronomers marked three divisions of the night\nby burning incense in honor of certain stars, after dusk, at midnight and\nat break of day.\n\nThe mention of the introduction into China of the Mongolian\nhour-computation leads to a consideration of the origin of what is known\nas the Chinese civilization. It is, of course, impossible to do more here\nthan touch upon the various and opposite views held on this important\nquestion by leading European and Chinese scholars. On the one hand, \u201cthe\nexistence of the Chinese civilization in the east of Asia, separated from\nearly centres by the whole width of Asia and intervening trackless\ndeserts, has seemed a problem to many students and led to the conclusion\nof its sporadic growth, an idea which is fostered by Chinese historians.\u201d\n(See Douglas on Chinese Culture and Civilization, 1890.) On the other\nhand, it is maintained that the Chinese entered China from Tartary and\nwere emigrants from Babylonia who abandoned their country when Nakhunte,\nking of Susiana, conquered Babylon in 2295 B.C.\n\nAccording to Legge, the Chinese came through central Asia about 2200 B.C.\nand founded colonies on the banks of the Yellow river and its tributaries.\nThese colonists founded a Middle Kingdom in China, a federation of states\nwith a chief supreme ruler, on the pattern of Babylonia. They introduced\nthe art of writing and established a calendar with a year of 360 days and\nan intercalary month.\n\nIt is stated that the names of the five planets of the Chinese, besides\nthe Sun and Moon, were called by the same names as in Babylon. (See Edkins\n_op. cit._, also The old Babylonian characters and their derivatives,\nTerrien de Lacouperie, Babylonian and Oriental Record, March, 1888.) Some\nauthorities are inclined to consider Chinese astronomy as derived from the\nChaldean; whilst others have instituted comparisons between it and the\nHindoo system. The results of the latter line of investigation are set\nforth by J. F. Davis in the following passage of his work on the Chinese\n(London, 1836, vol. II., p. 304): \u201cA comparison between the ancient system\nof the Chinese and of Hindoo astronomy is rendered somewhat perplexing by\nthe fact that, while there are some points of resemblance there are others\nin which they essentially differ. Both of them have twenty-eight lunar\nmansions and a cycle of sixty years, but a careful observation detects\nsome important distinctions: the Hindoo cycle is a cycle of Jupiter while\nthat of the Chinese is a solar cycle, and the twenty-eight constellations\nof the Hindoos are nearly all of them equal divisions of the great circle,\nconsisting of about 13\u00b0 each, while the Chinese constellations are\nextremely unequal, varying from 30\u00b0 to less than 1\u00b0. The author\u2019s father,\nin conjunction with Sir William Jones and Messrs. Colebrook and Bentley,\nproved that the Hindoo astronomy did not go farther than the calculation\nof eclipses and some other changes with the rules and tables for\nperforming the same. Besides their lunar zodiac of twenty-eight mansions,\nthe Hindoos (unlike the Chinese) have the solar, including twelve signs\nperfectly identical with ours, and demonstrating, in that respect, a\ncommon origin.\u201d\n\nAs we know from Herodotus, the Egyptians had a week of seven days and it\nis remarkable that the Hindoos had anciently the same, the planetary names\nbeing given to the days in exactly the same order as among ourselves,\nexcept that Friday was the first. The Chinese reckon five planets to the\nexclusion of the sun and moon, but they give the name of one of their\ntwenty-eight lunar mansions successively to each day of the year in a\nperpetual rotation, without regard to the moon\u2019s changes; so that the same\nfour out of the twenty-eight invariably fall on our Sundays and\nconstitute, as it were, perpetual _Sunday letters_. A native Chinese first\nremarked this odd fact to the author, and on examination it proved\nperfectly correct.\n\nTo the above it may be well to add the following comparison between the\nChinese, Tibetan and Indian systems: \u201cThe Tibetans received astronomical\nscience from India and China ... the Chinese taught them the science of\ndivination. Both systems are based upon a unit of sixty years, differing,\nhowever, in modes of denominating years. In these cycles of sixty years,\nwhen numbered according to the Indian principle, each year has a\nparticular name; but in the Chinese method the names used in the Chinese\nduodecimal cycle are used five times, coupled with the five elements or\ntheir respective colors, each of the latter introduced in the series twice\nin immediate succession\u201d (Schlagintweit, Buddhism in Thibet, p. 27).\nAccording to Humboldt, \u201cthe Tzihichen, or public calculators of Lhassa\ntake pride in the fact that years of the same name only return about every\ntwo centuries. They combine 15 signs: five masculine, five feminine and\nfive neuter, with twelve signs of the zodiac\u201d (Monuments des peuples de\nl\u2019Am\u00e9rique I, p. 386).\n\nWith regard to the ancient connection between China and India it is well\nto recall the well-known fact that Buddhism did not enter China from India\nuntil the first century of the Christian era and had a prolonged struggle\nfor existence and influence in the country during several centuries.\n\nThe Buddhist missionaries introduced the mode of calculating cycles of\nyears into China, according to Biot, who states that the primitive\ncalendar of the Chinese, instituted by Hwang-te, the first king of the\n\u201cFlowery land,\u201d was a day-count only.\n\nLet us briefly enumerate some bare facts bearing upon the age and\ndevelopment of the state, religion and government of ancient China. In\n2697 B.C. Hwang-te (the Babylonian?) erected a temple to the honor of\nShang-te, the deity associated with the earliest traditions of the Chinese\nrace. Upon the authority of a Chinaman of the present day it is stated\nthat \u201cthe word Shang-te means supreme ruler; but, as it is not lawful to\nuse this name lightly, Chinamen usually name the supreme ruler by his\nresidence, which is Tien=heaven\u201d (Edkins, _op. cit._ p. 71).\n\nAn extremely instructive light is thrown upon the Taouist conception of a\nsupreme being or ruler, by the following episode related by Mr. Edkins in\nhis \u201cReligion in China\u201d (p. 109). \u201cI met [in 1872] on one occasion a\nschoolmaster from the neighborhood of Chapoo.... The inquiry was put to\nhim, Who is the Lord of heaven and earth? He replied that he knew none but\nthe pole-star, called in the Chinese language Teen-hwang-ta-te, the great\nimperial ruler of heaven. It was stated to him that it was a matter very\nmuch to be regretted that he should hold such views as this of the Supreme\nBeing.\u201d\n\nIn this connection and with special reference to the title Tien=heaven,\nemployed by the Chinese in addressing the supreme ruler, I must quote T.\nde Lacouperie\u2019s opinion that the Akkadian name=Din-gira and symbol for\nGod, the eight-pointed star, was the origin of Ti, a Chinese character\nwith the same meaning and sound. Mr. C. J. Ball (The New Akkadian\nProceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology) explains the Akkadian\nDin-gira as composed of di=to shine and gira=heaven and that thus the\nAccadian name for God is \u201cthe shining one of heaven,\u201d which explains why\nthe ideogram is a star. According to Mr. K. Douglas (p. 171) \u201cMr. Ball has\npractically demonstrated that the Chinese and Akkadian are the same tongue\nand that everywhere in China we are reminded of that great centre of\ncivilization in Babylonia.\u201d\n\nAn investigation of the Taouist religion reveals that it consists chiefly\nof star-worship, stars being deemed \u201cdivine.\u201d \u201cAmong the liturgical works\nused by the priests of Taou, one of the commonest consists of prayers to\nTow-moo, a female divinity supposed to reside in the Great Bear. A part of\nthe same constellation is worshipped as a male spirit under the name of\nKwei-sing\u201d (Edkins).\n\nA name closely resembling the latter in sound, Tseih-ching, and meaning\nthe \u201cSeven Regulators\u201d is now applied to the Sun, Moon, Mercury, Venus,\nMars, Jupiter and Saturn. In ancient times, however, according to native\nauthorities, \u201cthis term was used to designate the seven bright stars of\nUrsa Major which subsequently, by an astrological device, were associated\nwith the seven planets; so, that, by metonymy, the latter became the\nestablished meaning.\u201d(86)\n\nThe association of the term \u201cRegulators\u201d with Septentriones is\nparticularly interesting because the seven-day period has been employed in\nChina from time immemorial, the seventh day being invariably marked by the\nancient character mih, which means \u201cquiet, secret or silent.\u201d In the\nmodern Chinese almanacs and astrological works \u201cthe mih days are marked by\nthe four constellations which correspond among the seven planets to the\nprincipal one among them, the Sun\u201d (_cf._ Wylie, On the Knowledge of a\nweekly Sabbath in China, _op. cit._ p. 86). I am strongly tempted to refer\nthe origin of the Chinese mih or quiet day, on which rest was generally\nobserved, to that remote period of time when, to primitive observers, one\nof the stars in Ursa Major would have appeared more closely associated\nwith immovability and nearer the polar axis than its companions (see pp.\n20 and 21).\n\nIf we pause here to review the preceding data we are particularly struck\nat the unanimity of evidence establishing that even the most ancient form\nof civilization and religion was not indigenous to China, but was carried\nthere by colonists from distant parts, presumably from Babylonia. The\nlatter conclusion finds a strong support in the undeniable fact that\nduring subsequent centuries a steady stream of emigration has carried\ncolonists of different nationalities into the heart of China.\n\nBuddhism entered China from India in the first century of the Christian\nera. Alexander Wylie tells us that \u201caccording to the testimony of one of\nthe stone tablets in the synagogue at Kai-fung foo, the Israelites first\nentered China during the Han dynasty\u201d and we are further told in the\nletters of the Jesuits that \u201cthey came during the reign of Ming-ti (A.D.\n58-75) from Si-yih, _i. e._ the western regions. It appears by all that\ncan be gathered from them that this western country is Persia and that\nthey came by Khorasan and Samarcand. They have many Persian words in their\nlanguage and they long preserved a great intercourse with that country\u201d\n(The Israelites in China, Wylie\u2019s Chinese Researches, Shanghai, 1897).\n\nSome other interesting facts related by Wylie deserve mention here. In\ntranslating the name of Jehovah into Chinese, the Israelites in China, to\nthe present day, say Teen, \u201cjust as the scholars of China do when they\nexplain their term Shang-te.\u201d We thus observe a growing practice in\nwestern Asia, among the Hebrews, of designating Jehovah as the God of\nHeaven and sometimes as Heaven. In Chinese history distinct mention is\nmade of a foreign sect distinguished as the \u201cworshippers of Heaven,\u201d\nspoken of as existing in China at the beginning of the sixth century.\nWylie has surmised that the Hebrews were thus designated and remarks \u201cthat\nthis name, as the designation of a foreign sect, is the more remarkable\ninasmuch as the state ritual of China has designated the Supreme by the\nname of Heaven, from the earliest times down to the present day.\u201d\n\nIt is a curious reflection that it may possibly have been due to a gross\nmisconception of the Hebrew religion on the part of the Chinese and a\nsupposed identity of worship that caused the Israelites to be treated with\nsuch tolerance and hospitality in China that their colony situated in the\nheart of the country still exists to the present day. It is, in fact,\nrelated of the Dowager Empress Ling, in the first half of the sixth\ncentury, that she \u201cabolished the various corrupt systems of religious\nworship, excepting that of the foreign tien-spirit.\u201d A strange insight\ninto the Chinese view of the Christian religion is likewise afforded by\nthe following native documents cited by Wylie: \u201cNow Jesus, the Lord of\nHeaven, is worshipped by the Europeans. They say that this is the ancient\nreligion of Ta-tsin (Syria).\u201d\n\nThe following remarkable passages occur on the famous Nestorian tablet,\ndated A.D. 781, which eulogizes the propagation of the \u201cIllustrious\n[Christian] Religion\u201d in China. This tablet was discovered by the Jesuit\nfathers in 1625 and, after its authenticity had been violently assailed,\nWylie\u2019s painstaking researches have now vindicated its genuineness.(87)\nThe following extracts are from the preface engraved upon it and composed\nby King-tsing, a priest of the Syrian Church: \u201c... Our eternal, true lord\nGod.... He appointed the cross as the means of determining the four\ncardinal points, he moved the original spirit and produced the two\nprinciples of nature; the sombre void was changed and heaven and earth\nwere opened out; the sun and moon revolved and day and night commenced;\nhaving perfected all inferior objects, he then made the first man ... the\nillustrious and honorable Messiah, veiling his true dignity, appeared in\nthe world as a man ... a bright star announced the felicitous event [of\nhis birth] ... he fixed the extent of the eight boundaries.... As a seal\n[his disciples] hold the cross, whose influence is reflected in every\ndirection uniting all without distinction. As they strike the wood the\nfame of their benevolence is diffused abroad; worshipping towards the east\nthey hasten on the way to life and glory ... they do not keep slaves, but\nput noble and mean all on an equality; they do not amass wealth but cast\nall their property into the common stock.\u201d\n\nReferring the matter to oriental scholars for further discussion I merely\nnote here the astonishing fact that in China, in the seventh century of\nour era, the supreme God of the Hebrews and Christians was spoken of as\nthe God of Heaven, or Heaven, that He is credited with having created the\ntwo principles of nature besides heaven and earth and instituted the cross\nas \u201ca means of determining the cardinal points.\u201d\n\nIt is likewise strange to find the \u201cHeen or Toen foreigners\u201d credited in a\nsixteenth-century native cyclop\u00e6dia, with having introduced into China a\nsystem of astronomy denominated the \u201cFour Heavens,\u201d and obviously based on\na quadruplicate division of the Heaven similar to the division of the\nempire instituted by Yaou (Wylie, Israelites in China, _op. cit._ p. 19).\n\nThe current Chinese name for Christians has been \u201cCross-worshippers,\u201d and\nit is odd to note that the ancient Chinese seem to have regarded the\nsymbolism of the Christian cross as closely identical with that of their\nswastika, and to have concluded that the foreign \u201cHeaven\u201d religion rested\non the same basis as theirs.\n\nReferring the reader to Wylie\u2019s valuable researches and Edkins\u2019 Religion\nin China for information concerning the establishment of colonies of\nManicheans, Mohammedans and of successive Christian missions, etc., in\nChina, I shall but quote the following passage from Marco Polo\u2019s travels\n(pp. 167 and 168) because it shows how the doctrine of the quadruplicate\ndivision of all things, celestial and terrestrial, led to a broad\ntolerance of opinion in the famous Tartar prince, Kubla Khan, who, in\n1260, at Kanbalu=Peking, honored the Christian festivals. \u201cAnd he observed\nthe same at the festivals of the Saracens, Jews and idolaters. Upon being\nasked his motive for this conduct, he said: \u2018There are four great Prophets\nwho are reverenced and worshipped by the different classes of mankind. The\nChristians regard Jesus Christ as their divinity; the Saracens, Mahomet;\nthe Jews, Moses; and the idolaters Sagomombarkan (Buddha) the most eminent\namongst their idols. I do honor and show respect to all of the four, and\ninvoke to my aid whichever of them is in truth supreme in heaven.\u2019 \u201d This\nattitude of mind and that of the Chinese towards the Christian Cross can\nonly be fully understood and appreciated when it is realized that their\n\u201cimperial ruler of Heaven\u201d was the pole-star and that the Ursa Major\ndescribed each year the sign of a cross in the heaven which ever impressed\nupon them quadruplicate division and differentiation and the union of four\nin one. It is doubtlessly owing to the same reason that the Chinaman of\ntoday finds it possible to believe in, at once, the three great national\nreligions which exist in China. Edkins has explained that, whereas\n\u201cConfucianism speaks to the moral nature, Taouism is materialistic and\nBuddhism is metaphysical; thus, they are supplemental to each other and\nare able to co-exist without being mutually destructive\u201d (_op. cit._ p.\n60). Somewhat apart from these three state religions and embodying the\nmost ancient ideas and traditions of the race, exists the elaborate and\nsolemn \u201cImperial worship,\u201d the study of which Edkins designates as\n\u201cspecially interesting because it takes us back to the early history of\nthe Chinese people and introduces us to many striking points of comparison\nwith the patriarchal religion of the Old Testament and with the worship of\nthe kings of Nineveh, Babylon and Egypt.\u201d The same authority states that\n\u201cthe account given by Herodotus of the religion of the ancient Persians\nshows that it consisted in much the same usages as those now found in\nChinese Imperial worship\u201d (_op. cit._ pp. 6, 22, 18 and 30). In the\npreceding pages it has been shown that the fundamental principles of the\nprimitive religions of China and America were identical, but that their\nsubsequent stages of development or evolution were strikingly divergent.\nThe following study of certain details connected with the \u201cImperial\nworship\u201d brings out a marked differentiation in the Chinese and Mexican\ncult of heaven and earth.\n\nThe altar of Heaven at Peking consists of three circular marble terraces,\nthe uppermost of which is paved with eighty-one stones arranged in\ncircles. It is on a round stone in the centre of these circles that the\nEmperor kneels and is considered to occupy the centre of the earth. In the\nworship of Heaven, offerings are made to the heavenly bodies, the Sun,\nMoon, the Pole-star, Great Bear, five planets and twenty-eight\nconstellations. The worship at the altar of Earth consists of offerings to\nthe mountains, rivers and seas.\n\nThis arrangement is strikingly unlike that of the ancient Mexicans, who\nassociated the sun only with the Above, the male principle and the blue\nheaven, and worshipped the nocturnal heaven, the moon and stars, with the\nearth, darkness and the female principle.\n\nIt is interesting to note the marked effect, produced by the two different\nmodes of classification, upon the subsequent development of the state\nreligions of China and Mexico. In the latter country where the contrast of\nlight and darkness and of the duality of nature seems to have been most\npowerfully felt, the gradual institution, on a footing of equality of a\ndiurnal masculine and nocturnal feminine cult or of a separate sun and\nmoon worship, led to the formation of two equally powerful castes of\npriest-astronomers who devised their respective calendars and cults and\nultimately stood in open rivalry and antagonism towards each other, as\nchildren of heaven and light: sun worshippers; and children of earth and\ndarkness: moon worshippers. In China, as the cult of earth was subordinate\nfrom the first and all heavenly bodies were included in the worship of\nHeaven, there was no opportunity for any rivalry to develop in the\nsuperior caste of astronomers who jointly ruled, instituted their calendar\nand altered it under influences emanating from India.\n\nHeaven and Earth were jointly worshipped at the same altar until A.D.\n1531, when it was decreed that there should be separate altars and that\nthe worship of Earth should be separately conducted (Edkins). At the same\ntime, while the Emperor acts as the high-priest of Heaven, we find\nassociated with him, from remote antiquity, the Empress, the\nrepresentative of the Earth-mother.\n\nThe fact that the roll of Chinese emperors records heavenly and earthly,\nlight and sombre, emperors, and that empresses have repeatedly occupied\nthe throne, seems to indicate that, in remote antiquity, a male and a\nfemale line of rulers, personifying the dual principles of nature,\nalternately assumed prominence in power. This natural outgrowth of the\ncult of heaven and earth, which has its parallel in Mexico, seems to\nafford an explanation of the usurpation and retention of power exercised\nby the present Empress of China, who is probably ruling in her own right,\nas the representative of the earth or dark principle. As such she is the\nexact equivalent to the ancient Mexican Cihua-coatl, or \u201cWoman-serpent;\u201d\nand modern China supplies us with an episode in the development of the\nfundamental set of ideas it holds in common with ancient America, closely\nresembling the historical dissension which led in ancient Mexico to a\nseparation of the two cults and the establishment of two separate\ngovernments, under their respective male and female rulers.\n\nAlthough the difference in primitive Chinese and Mexican definitions of\nheaven and earth worship is evidently accountable for this fact, it is\nnevertheless interesting to note that it was in A.D. 1531 only that the\nChinese cult of heaven and earth separated and the process of\ndisintegration began to be set into activity. From an evolutionary point\nof view, the imperial religion of China stands to-day at a far less\nadvanced stage of development than the prehistoric Mexican state religion.\nThis circumstance might be passed over without comment did it not\nstrikingly coincide with the undeniable fact that the essentially\ninorganic and monosyllabic Chinese language stands far lower in the scale\nof linguistic development than the incorporative and polysynthetic\nAmerican languages, the most perfected types of which are the Maya and the\nbeautiful and refined Nahuatl which abounds in delicate metaphors and\nformulas of exquisite politeness, indicative of the high degree of culture\nand antiquity of the native race.\n\nIf the preceding comparative study of the Chinese and ancient Mexican\ncivilizations be briefly summarized, the result is as follows: Both\ncivilizations alike rest on a foundation of pole-star worship and the set\nof ideas which naturally proceed from this _i. e._, central impartial\npower extending in constant rotation to the four quarters, figured by the\nswastika, and the recognition of the all-pervading duality of nature.\nThese primitive concepts and their inevitable outgrowths, which might\nnaturally occur to human beings of the same grade of intellect in similar\nconditions and circumstances and be most powerfully impressed upon the\nmind of man in circumpolar latitudes beside a few resemblances in names,\nwhich I shall proceed to point out, are nearly all that the Chinese and\nancient Mexicans may be safely said to have had in common. At a date\nobviously anterior to 2356 B.C., when they were formulated, the Chinese\nhad made definitions of heaven and earth and of the five elements which\nradically differ from those of the ancient Mexicans and Mayas.\n\nThe Chinese numerical system or calendar, though equally based on\nrotation, and known to have been modified by contact with India, is\nessentially different from the American. When carefully compared it must\nbe acknowledged that the Mexican is by far the more complex and highly\ndeveloped, and the same may be said of the social organization, which was\ncontrolled by the calendar. A comparison between the Chinese and American\nlanguages in general proves, moreover, that they differ not only in sound,\nbut in form and in grade of development, the Chinese being the lower in\nthe scale. To the above divergences we must add the fact that each people\nevolved distinct national customs and costumes, foods and drinks,\nindustries, arts and forms of architecture, so markedly characteristic as\nto be clearly distinguishable.\n\nIn conclusion a few words about the swastika in China (ouan). Its Chinese\nname is wan, which signifies \u201cten thousand,\u201d or \u201call,\u201d also \u201cmany,\u201d a\ngreat number. At the time of the Empress Wu (A.D. 684-704) the swastika in\na circle signified \u201cthe sun;\u201d half a swastika in the circle \u201cthe moon,\u201d\nand the plain circle \u201cthe star.\u201d Deferring comment I emphasize here the\nfact that the word wan resembles kwan=equal earth or land, and that it\nsignifies an entity composed of ten thousand parts. A proof that the wan\nwas also associated with the idea of time is given by the modern use of\nthe Chinese swastika to signify \u201clong life,\u201d \u201cmany years,\u201d _i. e._, a\ncomplete life, a complete cycle of years.\n\nA prolonged study of the most ancient civilization of America, which\ncentred in Mexico and Central America and thence spread northward and\nsouthward, has so deeply convinced me of its great antiquity, isolation\nand prolonged period of independent evolution that, when Asiatic origin\nand influence are discussed, I am tempted to take the national food-plant\nof America, the maize, and, placing it beside the rice-plant of China,\ninvite comparisons to be made between them.\n\nJAPAN.\n\nIt is a curious fact that, although it is recognized that the junks which\nhave been repeatedly driven by storms upon the Pacific coast have\ngenerally been Japanese, no searching comparison between the culture of\nancient America and that of Japan has as yet been published; although it\nis believed by many that it may have been to the occupants of the wrecked\njunks that the American race owed its civilization. The curious idea seems\nto prevail among some writers, that purely Chinese influence was conveyed\nby Japanese fishermen and sailors to the dwellers on American soil. It\ndoes not seem to be sufficiently recognized that the differences between\nJapanese and Chinese civilizations are as great as that between their\ndifferent languages and writings, and that direct influence derived from\nJapan, for many centuries back would have left traces so characteristic as\nto be easily distinguished from the effects of direct influence from\nChina.\n\nIn the third century of the Christian era the Japanese empire was founded\non a plan derived from Corea and soon became known to the Chinese and\ndwellers on the main land as Dschi-Poennkwo, or Zipanco, the \u201cland of the\neast, or of the rising sun.\u201d The Japanese themselves, however, regarded\ntheir empire as the \u201cgreat centre of the world,\u201d _i. e._ a \u201cMiddle\nKingdom.\u201d The mythical birthplace of the Japanese race and the cradle of\nits civilization is said to have been the island of the Congealed Drop,\nwhich was formerly at the North Pole, but subsequently removed to its\npresent position. How this happened is not told.(88)\n\nThe most superficial examination shows that the fundamental scheme of the\nJapanese empire was the same as that of China and other Asiatic countries.\nIts centre was the island Hon-shiu, Hondo or Nippon, on which was situated\nthe ancient Fu or capital, named Yedo; the modern Tokio in the vicinity of\nFusiyama, the sacred mountain and reputed centre of the world. The entire\nland or Han was originally divided into five provinces collectively named\nthe Go-kinai (the word go like the Maya ho, signifying five), the\nterritorial divisions and presumably consisting of four quarters and the\ncapital. Light is thrown upon the extent of this quinary organization by\nthe fact that, in ancient Japan, time was divided into five-day periods,\nby official days of rest, which fell on the 1st, 6th, 11th, 16th, 21st,\nand 26th days of each month. The computation of time by cycles, which will\nbe treated further in a separate monograph, also prevailed in Japan, as\nmight be expected, since this method was a main feature of the definite\nscheme on which the entire empire was founded.\n\nIn accord with this plan the population was divided into four classes,\nconsisting of the Haimin=the people; the warriors or Samurai, the Kazoku,\nliterally the flower of families, the nobility. All members of the\nimperial family formed a fourth caste and above all stood the Emperor, the\ncentral ruler, the divine descendant of the sun-goddess Amaterasu.\nEvidences that an extension and fresh territorial division of the empire\ntook place at one time seem preserved in the ancient Japanese name for\nJapan: Oya-shima=the eight islands. It is likewise related that the\nJapanese creators, Izanajo and Izanami, built, in the centre of the world,\nan octagonal palace around a central pillar, the octagonal form having\nreference to the eight holy corners or points, the \u201cHak-kaku,\u201d or the\ncardinal points and half cardinal points. It is impossible to overlook the\nfact that by a similar method, but by means of four larger and four\nsmaller rays, the field of the Mexican calendar star is divided into eight\nequal portions. It is a well-known fact that, in 1854, Japan was\npractically governed by two rulers: the Mikado or Tenno, of divine or\n\u201cheavenly\u201d descent, who led so secluded an existence that he was becoming\na shadowy and invisible ruler, and the Shogun, the civil governor, who had\nbecome the terrestrial ruler _par excellence_, and whose power was in the\nascendant. This state of affairs affords a most interesting object lesson,\nteaching how ancient empires gradually become divided and disintegrated\nunder dual government and under the influence of rival cults. The ancient\nstate religion or \u201cImperial worship\u201d of Japan, the Shinto, was becoming as\nobsolete as the worldly power of its high-priest the Mikado, next to the\ngrowing ascendancy of Buddhism, supported by the Shogunate. The original\nmeaning of the Shinto sacred symbols appears to be lost. The mirror,\nplaced on the altar, usually constituted the only visible sacred emblem.\nAnother was the sword. It is claimed that the swastika came into Japan\nwith Buddhism, but this is a point which demands a serious investigation\nof competent specialists. The above data, which are absurdly inadequate to\nthe interest and importance of Japan, the seat of the most intellectual\nand progressive culture of Asia, are sufficient to show that in Japan,\nwhere the swastika is found, the quadruplicate state organization and\nfundamental plan were also carried out. My full purpose will only be\nfulfilled when the present deficient notes shall have stimulated the\nenquiry and research of students and Japanese scholars and led to the\npublication of all traces extant of the most ancient scheme of\norganization, government and calendar, as compared with those of ancient\nAmerica.\n\nAs it is maintained that the Chinese and other eastern Asiatic people did\nnot originate, but received their civilization from Babylonia, or another\nancient centre, situated in western Asia, it obviously becomes an\nimperative necessity to carry the present investigation across the Asiatic\ncontinent into the heart of the Euphratean valley.\n\nINDIA.\n\nBeing one of the ancient centres of civilization from which the Chinese\nare said to have derived theirs, India, the country where the swastika\nabounds, first arrests our attention. In support of the assertion I have\nalready advanced, that the primitive symbol is always found accompanied by\na set of ideas almost as ancient as itself, I have pleasure in\ntranscribing the following detached but instructive and suggestive\nextracts from my note-book.\n\nThe fair Arya or Aryans, after about 2,000 B.C., penetrated India from the\nnorthwest. Arya means \u201cthose who command\u201d or \u201cthe venerable.\u201d The name\nHindu or Sindu was given to the Indian Aryans. Our knowledge of Hindu art\nbegins in the third century B.C. and none of the present popular forms of\nHindu religion are presumed to be earlier than the ninth century A.D. \u201cIt\nis well known that the Brahman system and faith were not developed by the\nHindus till they had conquered the Ganges, Western and Southern India and\nthere is no trace of this tradition or even of Brahma as a deity in the\nVedas.\u201d...\n\n\u201cThe supreme god of antiquity was Indra ... next to and above whom was the\nmysterious god Varuna, the creator, who gave eternal laws which god and\nmen were obliged to follow. He showed the stars their paths and gave each\ncreature his qualities.... He is the sun by day and the stars at\nnight\u201d.... From these statements the duality of the creator and his power\nover both light and darkness alike, stand out clearly.\n\nAnother form of the supreme being was the sun god Surya, who was also\nnamed Savitri, the generator, Pushan=the feeder and Mithra=the light-god,\nwho is called the watcher and ruler of the world and was associated with\nthe wheel, which is termed \u201cthe most ancient symbol of divine power and\ndominion.\u201d(89)\n\n\u201cIn India the wheel was, moreover, connected with the title of a\nchakrayartin (from chakra=a wheel), the title meaning a supreme ruler or\nuniversal monarch, who ruled the four quarters of the world and on his\ncoronation he had to drive his chariot or wheel to the four cardinal\npoints to signify his conquest of them\u201d (Wm. Simpson, Quarterly statement\nof Palestine Expl. Fund, 1895, p. 84). It is significant that \u201cMithra,\u201d\nthe god of the wheel, who was, as I shall show later on, likewise\nassociated with the serpent, is represented with a chariot pulled by seven\nhorses and thus to find the idea of centrifugal power, combined with the\nnumeral seven and the conception of central rulership extending to the\nfour quarters.\n\nWhile the above passages afford an interesting insight into the ancient\nsignificance and symbolism of the chariot, the use of which, with that of\nthe throne was, originally, exclusively confined to the central supreme\nruler, they also furnish a curious parallelism to the Chinese tours of\ninspection performed, by the emperor, to the four provinces in rotation.\n\nThe general application of the quadruplicate system is moreover shown by\nthe fact that, from time immemorial, the population of India has been\ndivided into four great castes, and these are associated with distinctive\ncolors, the Sanscrit word for color, _varna_, signifying also caste.\nAccording to the native myth, Brahma created the Brahmin or ruling caste\nfrom his mouth, the warrior caste from his arms and hands, the merchant\nand agricultural caste from his hips and the artisan or lowest caste from\nthe soles of his feet. The warrior caste was named Kschatria; the people\nthe yellow, or Vaicya; the original, conquered inhabitants of India were\nnamed the black, or Sudra. The Brahman caste was above all these.\n\nConcerning the origin of the Brahmans, it is related that \u201cManu was\ncreated ... he, in turn created ten great sages, the ancestors of the\nBrahmans. These created _seven_ other Manus or spiritual princes, the\npreservers of moral orders in the world\u201d (Goodyear). Pointing out that the\nseven Manus evidently constituted a septarchy, let us now study the\nBrahmanistic conception of a supreme divinity. From various authorities we\nlearn that, in later times \u201cthe Brahmans invented a new god, the\nimpersonal Brahma, who only appears in the youngest portion of the Vedas.\u201d\nHe is described as \u201cthe supreme One who alone exists really and\nabsolutely,\u201d and is represented with four heads and four arms, the idea of\nfour-fold power and rule being thus expressed. The proof that, at the same\ntime, the idea of duality existed, is furnished by the invention of a\nfemale counterpart of Brahma, namely, his consort Sarawati and the later\ndevelopment of the rival religions which now exist side by side and divide\nthe population of India into halves. The cult of Vishnu, associated with\nthe male principle, though curiously blended with the principle of\npreservation, is obviously a parallel form of the American and Chinese\ncult of the Above or Heaven; while that of Siva, or the female principle,\nstrongly mingled with the idea of destruction, forms a parallel to the\ncult of the Earth-mother and of darkness and the nocturnal heaven. Brahma\nwas born of an egg and is also figured as springing from a lotus which, in\nturn rises from the navel of Vishnu or Narayana, \u201cthe Spirit moving on the\nwaters.\u201d...(90)\n\nIn modern Buddhism the identical fundamental ideas continue to exist in a\nslightly different form; the six directions in space are known and\nelaborately worshipped. The embodiment of central power is Buddha, seated\ncross-legged on a lotus flower. According to Birdwood, cited by Mr.\nGoodyear, \u201cIn the Hindu cosmogony the world is likened to a lotus flower,\nfloating in the centre of a shallow circular vessel, which has for its\nstalk an elephant and for its pedestal a tortoise. The seven petals of the\nlotus flower represent the seven divisions of the world as known to the\nancient Hindus and the tabular torus (_Nelumbium speciosum_) which rises\nfrom their centre represents Mount Meru, the Hindu Olympus.\u201d\n\nIn the statues of Buddha, thus associated with the centre of the world, we\nhave what may be termed the highest development of the idea of stability,\nquietude and absolute repose which impressed itself upon the human mind by\nthe observation of Polaris. The abstract conception of Nirvana, \u201cthe state\nin which all individuality and consciousness are lost, and life and death,\ngood and evil, and every other possible antithesis disappear in absolute\nunity,\u201d appears to me to be the natural ultimate outgrowth of the\nprimitive appreciation of stability and repose as the most desirable of\nconditions.\n\nAn ancient American priest-astronomer, imbued with the native ideas, would\ndoubtlessly see in the modern figures of Buddha a more perfect artistic\nrendition of the same conception which was expressed in the Copan\nswastika. He might remark that, in the statues of Buddha, the human form\nis intended to convey the idea of quadruple organization and that in\ncertain images the primitive symbols of the centre, \u201cthe belly and navel,\u201d\nare obviously emphasized. In the fakirs, who cultivate immobility, he\nmight see people who are under the absolute dominion of the ideal of\nstability and detect the origin of this suggestion from the fact that the\nswastika position of either arms or legs is a favorite one among Hindoo\nfanatics, just as, out of devotion, many persons have swastikas painted or\ntattooed upon their limbs.\n\nIt is interesting to note the peculiar result attained by the Buddhists in\ntheir development of the twin idea of permanence, _i. e._ immutability or\nimmortality, as shown in the following quotation: \u201cThere is a remarkable\ndistinction between the Buddhism of China and of Tibet. In regard to\nphilosophy there is little or no difference, but in Tibet there is a\nhierarchy which exercises political power. In China this could not be. The\nGrand Lama and many other lamas in Mongolia and Tibet assume the title of\n\u2018Living Buddha.\u2019 In him, most of all, Buddha is incarnate, as the people\nare taught to think. He never dies. When the body, in which Buddha is for\nthe time incarnate, ceases to perform its functions, some infant is chosen\nby the priests, who are intrusted with the duty of selecting, to become\nthe residence of Buddha until, in turn, it grows up to manhood and dies.\nNo Buddhist priest in China pretends to be a \u2018living Buddha\u2019 or to have a\nright to the exercise of political power. In Tibet, on the other hand, the\nGrand Lama, as chief of the \u2018living Buddhas,\u2019 not only holds the place of\nthe historical Buddha long since dead, acting as a sort of high-priest,\nbut he also exercises sovereignty over the country of Tibet ruling the\nlaity as well as the clergy and being only subordinate to the lord\nparamount, the Emperor of China\u201d (Edkins, Religion in China, p. 8).\n\n\u201cThe form of the Buddhist temples exemplifies in a striking manner the\nrelative positions of Buddha and the gods. Four kings of the gods are\nrepresented in the vestibule. Their office is to guard the door by which\nentrance is obtained to the presence of Buddha.... The central position is\nthat of Buddha, who is seated on the lotus flower in the attitude of a\nteacher....\u201d (Edkins). In this attitude an ancient American high-priest\nwould see the graphic representation of one of the titles of the star-god\nPolaris, \u201cthe teacher of the world.\u201d\n\nThe association of Buddha with the north and with the number seven is\ncuriously shown in the mythical account that \u201cwhen Buddha was born a lotus\nblossomed where he touched the ground; he stepped seven steps northward\nand a lotus marked each footfall.\u201d\n\nDistinct evidence of the ancient cult of Polaris is yielded by the Hindu\nmarriage custom, which I have found described thus in Meyer\u2019s\nconversations Lexikon: \u201cIn the evening the bride and bridegroom seat\nthemselves on the hide of a red ox, after making the usual offerings....\nThen the bridegroom points out the pole-star to the bride and says: \u2018the\nheaven is firm, also the earth; the universe is stedfast, so mayest thou\nbe stedfast in our family\u2019....\u201d The symbolism of the act of sharing the\nox-hide as a seat becomes apparent when it is realized that the name for\ncow or ox=go, also signifies possessions and riches, a conception which is\ntraceable to a period when cattle constituted the chief and most valued\npossession of pastoral tribes. The veneration accorded in India to the cow\nis well known and travellers have frequently described the sacred statue\nof a cow, which is seven feet in height and stands next to the sacred well\nof the temple at Benares.\n\nIn connection with the reference to the pole-star made by the Hindu\nbridegroom, it is noteworthy that the Sanscrit for star is stri, tara, for\nstara; Hindu sitara, tara and Bengal stara and that variants of the same\nword constitute the name for star in Latin, Greek, Gothic, Old and Anglo\nSaxon, Welsh, Icelandic, Swedish, Danish and Basque, in which language it\nappears as izarra, recalling the Hindu sitara and, if I may venture to say\nso, the Nahuatl word for star, citlallin.\n\nThe supreme veneration and importance accorded in India to the North, from\ntime immemorial, are shown by passages of the book of Manu, which\nprescribe the severe penances which were to be performed by the Brahmans\nwho attained advanced age. He \u201cis to inflict all sorts of tortures upon\nhimself and when he falls ill in consequence, he is to set out to walk to\nthe northwest, towards the holy mountain Meru, until his mortal frame\nbreaks down and he unites himself with Brahma.\u201d It is likewise stated that\nwhen a Brahman king grew old and ill he was obliged to abdicate in favor\nof his son and voluntarily seek death in battle or by starvation, whilst\nwandering towards the holy mountain Meru, in the northwest. I point out\nthe curious parallelism of this custom, which was carried out during\ncountless centuries and determined a periodical migration towards the\nnorthwest of venerable sages, presumably accompanied by faithful\nfollowers, and the search for the stable centre of the world which caused\nthe wanderings of American tribes under their chiefs.\n\nAccording to various encyclop\u00e6dias and general works of reference, Brahma\nis said to have made the world in two parts, _i. e._, heaven and earth;\nplaced air between both and made the eight regions, fire and the eternal\nwaters. The mythical mountain Meru, on the summit of which the supreme\npower is said to be enthroned in eternal majesty, is the traditional\nparadise and is supposed to lie somewhere in the northwest of the\nHimalayas. It is situated in the centre of the seven zones in which the\nearth is divided, thence its name Meru=the Middle. The association of the\ncentral mountain with divinity and eternal stability is further shown by\nthe statement that the sun, moon and stars circled about it and that it\nsupported the heaven.\n\nAs the natural complement to the above, I can cite the following evidences\nof an all-pervading quadruplicate division and organization, as set forth\nin an ancient manuscript which was brought from India by Count Angelo de\nGubernatis and exhibited in Florence in 1898, by Mr. Pull\u00e9, in an\nextremely instructive series of native maps of India: 1. In the oldest\nmaps, the empire of India was represented as a disk, divided into a number\nof concentric zones, in the centre of which arose the sacred mountain. 2.\nThese representations were, in several cases, accompanied by\nrepresentations of the swastika obviously representing quadruplicate\nterritorial division.\n\nOn Mount Meru itself there were four lakes respectively filled with milk,\nbutter, coagulated milk and sugar. Four great rivers flowed from the\nmountain towards the cardinal points, namely, the Ganges, issuing from the\nmouth of a cow, the Sita from the head of the elephant; the Bhadra from a\ntiger or lion and the Chaksu from a horse. According to Buddhistic\nmythology, the sacred mountain Meru, which constitutes the centre of the\nworld, is guarded by four hero \u201ckings of demons.\u201d Their names are as\nfollows: 1. Kubera or Vaisr\u0101nana, the god of wealth, who lives in the\nnorth, whose attributes are the lance and banner, the rat which throws\nforth jewels from its mouth. 2. Vir\u016bdhaka, who rules the south, and whose\nattributes are the helmet in the form of an elephant\u2019s head, and a long\nsword. 3. Vir\u016bp\u0101ksha, the guardian of the west: attributes, the jewel and\nthe serpent. 4 Dhrtar\u0101shtra, the ruler of the east: attribute, the\nmandoline.\n\nAn interesting parallelism is brought out by a comparison between the\nancient Mexican mode of producing the sacred fire by means of a reed and a\npiece of wood and its symbolism of the mystic union of the two principles\nof nature, to the origin of fire as told in the Veda and the ceremonial\nmode employed in India to produce the sacred fire by means of the mystic\narani and the pramantha. The difference between the ancient American and\nIndian apparatus should be noticed. The two arani, made of the wood of\n_Ficus religiosa_, were placed crosswise. \u201cAt their junction was a\nfossette or cup-like hole and there they placed a piece of wood upright,\nin the form of a lance (the pramantha), violent rotation of which by means\nof whipping, produced fire, as did Prometheus, the bearer of fire in\nGreece\u201d (Bournouf, Des Sciences et Religions and Prof. Thomas Wilson, The\nSwastika, p. 777). A remarkable relation unquestionably exists between the\ntwo mystic arani, which, crossed, form a four-branched cross from the\ncentre of which fire is produced by rotation and the almost universal\nidentification of Polaris and Ursa Major, as the central source of life,\npower extending to four directions, rotation and duality underlying\nquadruplicity. In my opinion no more graphic presentation of the rotation\nof Ursa Major around Polaris, the central ruler of heaven, could have been\ndevised than the cross figure from the centre of which fire was\nperpetually obtained.\n\nIt is all the more significant, therefore, to find it stated that the\nancient Aryan light-god, Mithra, was worshipped under the form of fire. I\npoint out that, in a representation published by Layard in his Culte de\nMithra and reproduced here (fig. 72, 1) from Mr. Goodyear\u2019s work, a man\nand a woman are represented as worshipping a star, the scene so strongly\nrecalling the portion of the Hindu marriage ceremony where the pole-star\nis pointed out, that an identity of scene suggests itself. Returning to\nthe swastika: its meaning in India appears to be forgotten; but, according\nto Professor Thomas Wilson, a follower of the Jain religion expressed the\nopinion that \u201cthe original idea was very high, but later on some persons\nthought the swastika represented only the combination of the male and\nfemale principles\u201d (Thomas Wilson, On the Swastika, p. 803).\n\nTo the Hindu, holding this view and also accustomed to associate the\npole-star with the marriage rite, there must exist a curious band of union\nand identity between Polaris and the swastika, both connected with the\ncombination of the male and female principles.\n\nTo treat of the Hindu calendar and division of time would be to transgress\nbeyond the limits of the present investigation which has already assumed\nunforeseen dimensions. As I shall discuss it in detail in my monograph on\nthe ancient Mexican Calendar system, it will suffice to recall here that\nHumboldt pointed out the resemblance between the latter and the Hindu\nsystem, and that this has been further dwelt upon for instance in the\narticle on the subject in the Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. In the same work of\nreference it is also stated that, \u201caccording to the conclusions of\nDelambre, the Hindoo knowledge of astronomy was greatly inferior to that\nof the Greeks, and it has been argued by Laplace, in opposition to the\nprevious opinions of Bailly, that the Indian astronomy is not of the\nhighest antiquity, but must have been imperfectly borrowed from the\nGreeks.\u201d I may as well state here, however, that, in India as in Mexico,\nthe divisions of time were in accordance with the general scheme, and\nenabled human activity and labor to be controlled and carried out by means\nof rotation, and with strict impartial law, order and harmony.\n\nPausing here and with a clear realization of probable omissions and\ndeficiencies of material, I venture to believe that the foregoing data\nsuffice to establish beyond a doubt the point which is the main object of\nthe present essay, namely, that in India the swastika is found accompanied\nby the primordial set of ideas which also form the basis of the Chinese\nand ancient American civilizations. The Middle is, moreover, associated in\nIndia with the idea of immovability, repose and centrifugal power and\nrule, incorporated in the supreme divinity whose symbol is the wheel and\nwho is represented as dual and quadruple in nature, _i. e._ with four\nhands (as two persons), and with four heads (four persons), the six\npersons thus symbolized being united in the person of the seventh, the\nsynopsis of them all. The seven-day period; the seven zones of the earth;\nthe seven divine footsteps towards the north; the seven councillors of the\nBrahmin king, etc., all prove that, whereas six directions in space were\nworshipped in India, they were inseparable from the sacred seventh which\nunited all of them. The mythical sacred mountain Meru, the throne of the\nsupreme eternal power, constituted the fixed centre of the world and\nstrikingly exemplified quadruplicate division and organization, being\nassociated with four lakes and four rivers; four mythical animals and four\nguardians. In consonance with this plan Brahma was endowed with four heads\nand four hands; the empire was divided into four quarters and seven zones,\nand the population into four castes identified with four colors, and\ngoverned by a king and seven councillors. The wheel, associated in the\ncase of Mithra with the serpent, constituted the emblem of supreme\ndominion and rule which was connected with the idea of an extension to the\nfour quarters. The swastika was but another expression of the same idea\nand represented also an image of the universal scheme. This sign and the\npole-star were both associated, in the native mind, with the\nlife-producing union of the male and female principles of nature and the\nsacred element fire, under which form the supreme god was anciently\nworshipped. The lotus flower symbolized the universe, its unity and\ncomplexity; the number of petals represented usually agreeing with the\nnumber of the cosmical divisions. Two points should further be briefly\nreferred to: The division of time into seven-day periods coincides with\nthe septenary scheme of organization resting upon the seven directions in\nspace. The sacred soma tree, the hom, was an object of cult in India. The\ncustom of planting a Bodhi tree wherever Buddhist missionaries established\ntheir doctrine indicates its association with the idea of an established\ncentre. The employment of wooden sticks for the production of the sacred\nfire under which form the supreme central god was anciently worshipped,\nalso connected wood and the tree with the sacred Centre. Deferring a\ndiscussion of the different and yet analogous way in which the fundamental\nset of ideas was worked out in America and India, I shall but mention here\nhow clearly, in each case, the ultimate results can be traced back to a\ncommon primitive and natural origin.\n\nMESOPOTAMIA.\n\nLet us now carry our research into that region whence civilization spread\nthrough western Asia, and is said to have been carried to Egypt, Greece\nand Rome. It may be a surprise to many to learn that, at the present day,\non the banks of the Euphrates, in Mesopotamia, pole-star worship, pure and\nsimple, is openly professed by the Manda\u00eftes who are reputed to be the\ndescendants of the famous Magi of ancient Chaldea, and are termed Sabba or\nSabans by the Moslems. It will be seen that these star-watchers have\npreserved intact an extremely ancient form of the archaic cult which\ncontains the living germ of all primitive religions and represents an\nevolutionary stage which they must all have undergone.\n\nIt is to the kindness of a friend that I owe the knowledge of an article\non a Manda\u00efte New Year festival which appeared in the \u201cStandard\u201d some\nyears ago and which I reproduce in full as Appendix II. As might be\nexpected, the Euphratean star-gazers, like the Chinese, determined\nmidnight by the position of the Great Bear. It is interesting to find,\nmoreover, that the spiritual head of the sect is entitled Gan-zivro, and\nis closely escorted by four young deacons, named sh-kan-dos, as well as by\nfour priests=tarmidos, and four sub-deacons. The circumstance that the\nconsecrated group of officiants consists of 12+1=13 individuals is\nparticularly suggestive. Not less so are the employment of the tau-shaped\ncross and the sacrifice of a quadruped to the lord of the underworld and\nhis companion (the lord of the upper world?). The ceremonial immersion in\nthe starlit river is a curious parallel to the midnight bathing in the\nsacred pool attached to the ancient Mexican temple.\n\nThe formulas employed in addressing the pole-star deserve special\nconsideration. In the designation of the stable centre of heaven as \u201cthe\nabode of the pious hereafter and the paradise of the elect,\u201d the natural\nlongings of the human race for stability, _i. e._ safety and repose, find\nan expression and in this we can detect the germ of thought whose extreme\ndevelopment, in India, produced the comparatively philosophical doctrine\nof Nirvana. The title of \u201cPrimitive Sun\u201d enlightens us as to the original\nuse of the word sun and the supreme importance accorded by the ancient\nstar-gazers to the \u201cImperial ruler of heaven,\u201d as the Chinese term the\npole-star. This application of the word sun will be found particularly\ninteresting to those who, having found the swastika termed a \u201csun-symbol,\u201d\nhave naturally been led to associate it with the diurnal sun, although\nthey found it difficult to understand its connection with the rotatory\nmotion so clearly discernible in the form of the primitive symbol.\n\nHaving ascertained that the Manda\u00efte pole-star worship of the present day\nembodies the cult of the sacred centre and of dual principles (one of\nwhich is designated as the lord of the underworld) and is associated with\nquadruple organization and a form of cross, let us now make a great stride\nbackwards and note some details concerning ancient Sab\u00e6an star-worship.\n\nARABIA.\n\nIn remote antiquity, star-worship prevailed throughout Arabia and one of\nits great centres was the flourishing land of Saba or Sheba, whose queen\nvisited Solomon at Jerusalem. The star-cult of the Sab\u00e6ans is acknowledged\nto have resembled that of the ancient inhabitants of Syria, Mesopotamia,\nPersia and India. We are told that a certain sect amongst them \u201cbelieved\nin a great cycle of time in which certain epochs of the world\u2019s history\nrecurred\u201d\u2014an idea akin to ancient Mexican speculative philosophy. It is\nalso stated that one of the chief centres of Sab\u00e6ism was the town of\nHarran in Mesopotamia and that, although surrounded by Christianity, this\nancient form of star-worship maintained itself here until the Middle Ages.\nThe possibility that the Manda\u00eftes of to-day may be the descendants of the\nancient inhabitants of Harran is naturally suggested by this historical\nfact. A curious detail concerning monarchical succession in Sheba has been\npreserved to us. The king was kept in an enforced seclusion in his palace\nand incurred the penalty of death if he left it. His office was not\nhereditary but fell to the first son who was born amongst the nobility,\nafter a king\u2019s accession to the throne. In this custom, a curious parallel\nof which is furnished by the Thibetan mode of electing the \u201cliving\nBuddha,\u201d some readers may be inclined to find an explanation for the\nmassacre of the babes ordered by Herod when he learned that the wise men\nof the East, guided by a star, had designated \u201ca young child\u201d as the\nfuture \u201cKing of the Jews.\u201d It is an interesting reflection that, to many\nof his contemporaries, the establishment of the \u201cKingdom of Heaven,\u201d\nannounced by the Messiah, may have appeared as a movement to revive the\nmost ancient form of government and to reinstate Jerusalem as the central\nmetropolis of an empire, the organization of which would have resembled\nthe Chinese and ancient American forms of \u201cMiddle Kingdoms,\u201d or \u201cCelestial\nEmpires.\u201d\n\nThe ideal of many of these descendants of ancient pole-star worshippers\nmay well have been the reversion to the primitive, pure type of single\ncentral, celestial and terrestrial rule which had been superseded in\nwestern Asia by the pernicious growth of the utterly abasing and\ndemoralizing separate cults of the dual principles of nature.\n\nA curious remnant of the worship of the Earth-mother and of the stable\ncentre of the world, recalling ancient American symbolism, exists in\nArabia and merits a passing notice. \u201cThe great holy place of Jiddah, the\nprincipal landing place of the pilgrims to Mecca, on the eastern coast of\nthe Red sea, is the singular tomb of \u2018our mother Eve\u2019 surrounded by the\nprincipal cemetery. The tomb is a walled enclosure said to represent the\ndimensions of the body about 200 paces long and 15 feet wide. At the head\nis a small erection where gifts are deposited and rather more than half\nway down a whitewashed dome encloses a small, dark chapel, within which is\nthe black stone known as el-surrah=the navel. The grave of Eve is\nmentioned by Edrisi but, except the black stone, nothing bears any aspect\nof antiquity\u201d (Encycl. Brit., article Jiddah).\n\nThe fact that the Arabian appellation for Mecca is om-el-kora=\u201cthe mother\nof cities\u201d deserves special attention. Exactly in the centre of the city\nis the mosque enclosing the kaaba, a structure the only door of which\nopens to the north. It contains the celebrated black sacred stone and a\ntrough, reputed to be of pure gold, which conducts freshly fallen rain\nwater to the interior of the building and pours it upon its floor of dark\nearth. The following details are given in a recently published account by\nan anonymous visitor:\n\n\u201cThe Moslems believe that the original Kaaba was built in heaven two\nthousand years before the creation of the world and that, at the command\nof the Almighty, angels walked around it in adoration. Furthermore, they\nsaid that Adam built the first Kaaba on earth on its present site,\ndirectly under the one in heaven.... Long before the time of Mahomet, the\nKaaba was a place of worship for the idolatrous Arabs and in it they had\nno less than 360 idols, one for each day of the Arabian year. These were\ndestroyed by Mahomet....\u201d Beside the pilgrimages to the Kaaba pious\nMussulmans also visit the sacred granite mountains the \u201cArafat where Adam\nis supposed to have met Eve after a long separation.\u201d\n\nSummarized, the preceding facts clearly show that, from a remote\nantiquity, the Arabians have preserved the conception of (1) a divine,\ncelestial, stable sanctuary around which \u201cangels\u201d walked in a circle. (2)\nA terrestrial sanctuary built by man directly beneath the heavenly one and\nassociated with the period of a year, _i. e._ 360 days. (3) In the sacred\nterrestrial kaaba the mystic union of rain and earth is made to take\nplace, while (4) Mount Arafat is connected with the traditional reunion of\nAdam and Eve.\n\nIt is unnecessary to point out the significant association of an annual\ncount of days with the stable centre and its importance as an indication\nthat the ancient Arabian star-gazers originally associated the year period\nwith circumpolar rotation. The analogy between the Arabian ideas\nconcerning the dual principles of nature and those of other nations is\nalso too marked to be easily overlooked.\n\nNor need I emphasize how strikingly the imagery of the celestial kaaba\nsuits Polaris and the circumpolar constellations. But I shall now proceed\nto point out that the word kaaba itself curiously resembles star-names\nwhich are given by Mr. Robert Brown in his recent valuable publication to\nwhich I shall revert, namely, the Akkadian name for constellation in\ngeneral=kakkab and the Babylonian and Assyrian name for the\npole-star=Kakkabu. In this connection and upon Professor Sayce\u2019s authority\nI cite the significant fact that the word for north and for the empire and\ncapital of northern Babylonia was Akkad, and that we thus find in North\nBabylonia a great centre of government the name of which contains the\nsyllables ak-ka which recur in the appellations for north and for Polaris.\n\nThe following star-names, given by Mr. Robert Brown, are of utmost\ninterest considering that a star in Draconis was the pole-star of 2170\nB.C. and that in general the serpent was indissolubly connected with the\npole-star. \u201cThe constellation Drakon is Ph\u0153nician=Kanaanite in origin and\nrepresented primarily the n\u00e2kk\u00e2sch qodmun (old serpent)=the guardian of\nthe stars (golden apples) which hang from the pole tree. It is called the\ncrooked serpent=nakkasch in Job XXVI:13 ...\u201d (_op. cit._, p. 29). I\nfurther cite Mr. Brown\u2019s authority for the fact that in Ph\u0153nicia A.D.,\n1200, the name for Ursa Major was Dubkabir and for Ursa Minor, Dub.\n\nBefore returning to the Euphratean valley let us note some facts\nconcerning the ancient religion of\n\nPERSIA.\n\nThe swastika is found in Persia as well as a sacred mountain, the Elburl.\nThe supreme divinity was the invisible Ahuramazda, the \u201ccreator of heaven\nand earth,\u201d who was associated with \u201ceternal light\u201d and appears to be\nidentical with the ancient Aryan god of light, Mithra, the watcher and\nruler of the world, who was worshipped under the form of fire.\n\nMithra and Ahuramazda alike are associated with six spirits named the\nAmesha-zpenta, who are said, in the first case, to be personifications of\nthe sun, moon, fire, earth, water and air, and in the second, of certain\nqualities of the supreme power, namely, law, power, goodness, piety,\nhealth and immortality, abstract conceptions which evidently pertain to a\nmore advanced intellectual stage. The septarchy thus formed by Mithra and\nhis Amesha appears to assign the Middle to him and to associate the sun\nwith the day, heaven, light and the Above, the moon with the night and\ndarkness and the Below, and the elements with the Four Quarters. It is\nsuggestive of four-fold rule and power to find, on a bas-relief found at\nthe ancient holy city Pasargada, the Persian king Cyrus represented with\nfour wings and a diadem with two ur\u00e6us serpents like that of Egyptian\nkings.\n\nThe most ancient Persian monarch is said to have been Haha-manis or\nAkhamanis, who was termed \u201cthe king of Anshan.\u201d Subsequent kings bore the\ntitle of Hakhamanisija, as for instance, Cyrus and Darius I (520-486\nB.C.). At the present day, the title Charkan is that employed to designate\nthe Shah, whereas goda or khoda signifies lord, master, prince or ruler.\n\nIn a bas-relief published by Spamer, whose work of reference will be\nreferred to again later on, Darius is represented as standing under the\nimage of Ahuramazda, the supreme deity, who, like the Assyrian god Assur,\nis figured as a king wearing the royal cap, and issuing from the centre of\na winged ring or circlet. In Persia the god holds another ring in his hand\n(fig. 71, 1). It seems impossible to emphasize more strongly or express\nmore clearly the idea that Ahuramazda was the lord of the circle and of\nthe Above, the wings being emblematic of air or heaven and of motion.\n\nThe signification of the symbolical representation of the supreme power\nand the adoption of fire by the founders of the ancient Parsee religion as\nthe most appropriate image of their highest god, become clear when\ninterpreted as the outcome of pole-star worship. Resisting the temptation\nto prolong the study of ancient Persia, let us now hasten to the reputed\ncradle of the civilization of Western Asia.\n\nBABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA.\n\n\u201cThe Babylonians were from the first a nation of star gazers.... The\ncuneiform character which denotes a god is the picture of a star\u201d (Sayce\n_op. cit._). \u201cThe Babylonian and Assyrian-name for Ursa Minor was Kakkabu;\nthe Hebrew, Kokh\u00e2bh; and the Euphratean, Kochab, which means, \u2018_the_ star\n_present_,\u2019 a title which reminds us of its former supreme importance as\nthe pole-star.... In various Babylonian tablets we meet a star-god called\nImina-bi=the seven-fold one.\u201d(91) Although Mr. Brown has reached no\ndefinite conclusion as to the identity of this star-god, I venture to\nmaintain that the original \u201cseven-fold one\u201d could have been no other than\nUrsa Major and that this and \u201cthe ever-present star\u201d are identical with\nwhat the Chinese termed \u201cthe Imperial Ruler of Heaven\u201d and the \u201cSeven\nRegulators.\u201d The following passages furnish ample evidence of the\nsuggestive influence that \u201cthe seven-fold one\u201d exerted upon the minds of\nthe ancient Babylonian star-gazers.\n\n\u201cThe institution of the sabbath went back to the Sumerian days of\nChaldea\u2014the name itself is Babylonian\u201d (Sayce, _op. cit._). \u201cThe seventh\nmonth (=Sept.-Oct.) in Akkadian is named Tul-ku=the holy altar.... The\nseventh month of Tasritutisri was also connected with the building of the\ntower of Babel, said to have been the special work of the \u2018King of the\nHoly Mound,\u2019 Sar-tuli-elli, and its erection placed in the seventh month\nat the autumnal equinox. It was a zikkur\u00e2t\u00fa with seven steps, a\ncircumstance connected with planetary [? stellar] symbolism. This style of\nbuilding is reduplicated in the oldest Egyptian pyramids, _e. g._ the\npyramid of Sakk\u00e2rah, which had seven steps like the Babylonian towers.\nThis circumstance, one amongst many such, supplies a most interesting\nillustration of the fact that the Egyptian civilization was mainly\nEuphratean in origin\u201d (Robert Brown, _op. cit._).\n\nThe following facts contained in Prof. Morris Jastrow\u2019s admirable hand\nbook on the \u201cReligion of Babylonia and Assyria,\u201d further establish the\npervading influence of the number seven. \u201cThe two most famous zikkurats of\nseven stages were those in Babylon and Borsippa, opposite Babylon. The\nlatter bears the significant name E-ur-imin-an-ki, _i. e._, \u2018the house of\nseven divisions of heaven and earth.\u2019 Two much older towers than those of\nBabylon and Borsippa bear names in which \u2018seven\u2019 is introduced. One of\nthese is the zikkurat to Nin-girsu at Lagash, which Gudea describes as\n\u2018the house of seven divisions of the world,\u2019 the other the tower at Uruk,\nwhich bore the name \u2018house of seven zones.\u2019 The reference in both cases\nis, as Jensen has shown, to the seven concentric zones into which the\nearth was divided by the Babylonians.\u201d\n\nIn a standard German book of reference (Spamer\u2019s Illustrierte\nWeltgeschichte I Theil, Alterthum, I Theil, s. 371), I find the statement\nthat the zikkurat of the temple I-zidda at Borsippa, was called \u201cthe\ntemple of the seven lights of heaven and earth,\u201d which seem to have been\nsymbolized also by the seven-branched candlestick of the Hebrews.\nConsidering that other sacred symbols which were employed in Solomon\u2019s\ntemple are believed by Professor Jastrow to be \u201cimitations of Babylonian\nmodels,\u201d it seems justifiable to endeavor to trace to the same source the\norigin of the Hebrew \u201cseven-branched candlestick,\u201d to which I shall revert\nlater on. Prof. Morris Jastrow offers the suggestion that the name \u201cseven\ndirections of heaven and earth\u201d may point to a conception of seven zones\ndividing the heavens as well as the earth, and states that the \u201cseven\ndivisions\u201d and \u201cseven zones\u201d are merely terms equivalent to universe. He\nexplains that the seven directions were interpreted by the Babylonian\ntheologians as a reference to the seven great celestial bodies, the sun\nand moon, Ishtar, Marduk, Ninib, Nergal and Nabu. To each of these one\nstory was supposed to be dedicated and the tower thus became a\ncosmological symbol. Moreover, from Herodotus\u2019 description of the seven\nconcentric walls of Ecbatana, in which each wall was distinguished by a\ncertain color, the conclusion has been drawn that the same colors\u2014white,\nblack, scarlet, blue, orange, silver and gold\u2014were employed by the\nBabylonians for the stages of their towers.\n\nProfessor Jastrow draws attention to the fact that the division of the\nearth into seven zones is a \u201cconception that we encounter in India and\nPersia, and that survives in the seven \u2018climates\u2019 into which the world was\ndivided by Greek and Arabic geographers. It seems clear that this\ninterpretation of the number seven is older than the one that identified\neach story with one of the planets. Both interpretations have a scholastic\naspect, however, and the very fact that there are two interpretations\njustifies the suspicion that neither furnishes the _real_ explanation why\nthe number seven was chosen ... it is because seven was popularly sacred\nthat the world was divided into seven zones and that the planets were\nfixed at seven, not _vice versa_\u201d (p. 620).\n\nThe preceding statements lead to the conclusion that, among Assyriologists\nthere is no current, generally-accepted view as to the origin of the\n\u201csacred seven\u201d of the Babylonians. The following details concerning the\nzikkurat and the sanctuaries of Babylon will be found to furnish evidence\nthat their builders were imbued with the identical primitive set of ideas\nor seven-fold division of the cosmos that is now so familiar to the reader\nand is traceable to the observation of Polaris and Septentriones.\n\nThe astronomical association and cosmological symbolism of the zikkurat\nbecome more and more evident when all evidence concerning it is carefully\nsifted. According to the cosmogony of the Babylonians the earth was\npictured as a huge mountain. Khar-sag-gal-kurkura=the mountain of all\nlands, is a designation for the earth. E-kur=mountain house, another name\nfor the earth, became one of the names for temple and, by extension, for\nthe sacred precinct which enclosed the zikkurat and sacred edifices.(92)\n\nA plural formed of the word E-kur,=Ekurrati, was used for divinities, and\nthis association of the word mountain with the name for a god is\nparticularly interesting when it is also remembered that the cuneiform\ncharacter for god is a star and that therefore either a mountain, or a\nstar, signified a god in Babylonian and Assyrian inscriptions. Bel, the\nsupreme star god of the Babylonians, whose name literally signifies merely\n\u201clord or king,\u201d and under the form Ah-baal became current throughout Asia\nMinor, was, as Professor Jastrow states (_op. cit._ p. 435), actually\nidentified with the polar star, and sometimes addressed as the \u201cgreat\nmountain.\u201d(93)\n\nThe famous temple, the E-kur of Babylonian history, is described by\nHerodotus, Strabo and other pagan authorities, as consisting of seven\nstories and being surmounted by a sanctuary which was under the charge of\na virgin priestess and contained a couch (resting-place) for the god.(94)\nIt is amply demonstrated, moreover, that the central zikkurat was regarded\nas the permanent resting and dwelling place of _the_ lord or god, par\nexcellence, and in this connection it is significant that among the names\nof sanctuaries enumerated by Professor Jastrow there occur such as \u201cthe\ntrue or fixed house,\u201d the house of the established seat, the sacred\ndwelling, the permanent dwelling, etc.\n\nThe Babylonian ideas connected with the supreme god and his temple are,\nmoreover, sufficiently apparent in the prayers to Marduk, from which I\nextract the following detached passages: \u201cMarduk, king of heaven and\nearth.... Look favorably upon the city, _O lord of rest_!... May the gods\nof heaven and earth speak to thee _O lord of rest_!... A resting-place for\nthe lord of E-sagila is thy house, E-sagila, the house of thy sovereignty,\nis thy house....\u201d\n\nThe sanctuary surmounting the zikkurat, is also termed \u201cthe high place par\nexcellence, or the lofty house, the high edifice, the tower of the great\ndwelling, the great palace, the house of the glorious mountain [or god]\nthe house of him who gives the sceptre of the world; also the house of\nlight, the house of great splendor, the house without rival, the gate of\nwidespread splendor, the light of Shamash, the heart of Shamash, the life\nof the world.\u201d\n\nThe idea that the \u201cmountain house\u201d or \u201chigh place\u201d was the consecrated\ncentre where the union of heaven and earth took place, is apparent from\nthe following names: \u201cthe house of heavenly construction, the heavenly\nhouse, the house reaching to heaven, the point of heaven and earth, the\nlink of heaven and earth, the foundation stone of heaven and earth.\u201d\n\n\u201cComplementing,\u201d as Professor Jastrow says, \u201cthe cosmological associations\nthat have been noted in connection with the zikkurat,\u201d we find the inner\nroom or sanctuary of the Babylonian and Assyrian temple named Papakhu,\nfrom the verb pakhu=to close. It was also known as the parakhu, from\npar\u00e2ku=to shut off, to lock. \u201cGudea describes the papakhu as \u2018the dark\nchamber.\u2019 Professor Jastrow states that it was regarded as an imitation of\na cosmical \u2018sacred chamber,\u2019 and from his book we learn that it was\nemployed as an assembly room, or council chamber by the priesthood. It was\nindeed termed \u2018the assembly room\u2019 the \u2018place of fates,\u2019 \u2018the court of the\nworld,\u2019 \u2018the house of oracle,\u2019 also as the \u2018sacred room where the gods\nassembled in solemn council\u2019 and \u2018the chamber of fates\u2019 where the chief\ngod sits on New Year\u2019s day and decides the fate of mankind for the ensuing\nyear\u201d (Jastrow, _op. cit._ p. 423).\n\nThe Babylonian and Assyrian kings were the living representatives of the\nchief god and Professor Jastrow states that \u201cit was into the papakhu that\nthe priests retired when they desired to obtain an oracle direct from the\ngod.... It is particularly interesting to collate the statements \u2018that the\nNew Year\u2019s day was the occasion of a symbolical marriage between a god and\ngoddess,\u2019 and that \u2018the New Year\u2019s festival came to be the season most\nappropriate for approaching the oracular chamber.\u2019 \u201d It thus appears that\nthe papakhu was the sacred and secret chamber where the ancient kings and\ntheir councillors united to confer upon the government of the nation and\ndecreed the irrevocable laws which decided the fate of individuals.\n\n\u201cThe \u2018decision of fates\u2019 is, in Babylonian theology, one of the chief\nfunctions of the gods. It constitutes the mainspring of their power. To\ndecide fates is to control the arrangement of the universe\u2014to establish\norder.\u201d The \u201ctablets of fate\u201d are repeatedly mentioned in the Assyrian\nepics where it is described how one god addressing another, \u201cgives him the\ntablets of fate, hangs them on his breast and dismisses him,\u201d with the\nwords: \u201cthy command be invincible, thy order authoritative\u201d (Jastrow, pp.\n420 and 424). It is evident that these words were supposed to convey the\npower to establish order and issue irrevocable laws.\n\nThe temple of Shamash (who, like Marduk, was evidently identical with\nBel), situated in Babylon, was termed \u201cthe house of the universal judge,\u201d\nand it is extremely interesting to find this \u201cgod\u201d(95) represented on a\nstone tablet found at Sippar, as seated on a low throne in the sanctuary\nor papakkhu, of the temple El-bab-bara, while in front of him on an altar\nrests what Professor Jastrow describes as \u201ca wheel with radiant spokes.\u201d\n\nA fine illustration of this tablet which bears an inscription by the king\nNabupaliddin (879-855 B.C.) being published in Spamer\u2019s standard work\nalready cited, I have been able to note the interesting fact that the\n\u201cwheel with radiant spokes\u201d exhibits four pointed rays, directed outwards\nand forming a cruciform figure, which, by the way, it is interesting to\ncompare with the Mexican Calendar stone and its four rays. Each of the\nspaces between these pointed rays is filled by a group of wavy lines which\nappears to simulate some fluid flowing from the centre, which is formed by\na series of concentric circles. The quadruplicate peculiar partition of\nthe disk assumes special importance when it is realized that, in the niche\nabove the head of Shamash, a miniature production of the _disk recurs\nbetween the familiar conventional images of the moon and a disk containing\neight rays or spokes_. According to Dr. Felix von Luschan (Mitth. aus der\nvorderasiat. Abth. der Kgl. Museen, Heft XI, p. 24), the inscription opens\nwith the invocation to \u201cilu Sin, ilu Shamash u ilu Ishtar,\u201d a fact of\ndouble interest, because Ishtar is termed the \u201ctwin-sister of Shamash\u201d in\nan Assyrian hymn, and because the inscription obviously identifies the\nmoon as the symbol of Sin, the four-spoked wheel as that of Shamash and\nthe eight-spoked wheel as that of Ishtar. As the king, in his inscriptions\nexpressly states that he has restored on the tablet the image of Shamash\naccording to an ancient model, for the guidance of future artists, it is\nevident that departures from the original cult of Shamash had taken place\nin his time and that he was making an attempt to re\u00ebstablish it. The\nextreme antiquity of the cult of Shamash may, indeed, be inferred from the\nfact that about B.C. 1850, the king, Shamsi-ramann, bore the god\u2019s name as\na divine title. About B.C. 1350, moreover, a temple was built to Shamash\nin Ashur.\n\nI shall treat, further on, of the evidences showing that the cult of\nPolaris gradually became a secret one known to the initiated only, while\npopular worship was directed to the sun, moon, and morning and evening\nstars, etc. Meanwhile the following passages from Professor Jastrow\u2019s\nhand-book will elucidate the Babylonian Assyrian cult of the Four\nQuarters.\n\n\u201cThe zikkurat was quadrangular in shape. The orientation of the four\ncorners towards the four cardinal points was approximate. Inasmuch as the\nrulers of Babylon from a very early period call themselves \u2018king of the\nfour regions,\u2019 it has been supposed that the quadrangular shape was chosen\ndesignedly.\u201d... \u201cThe title \u2018king of the four regions\u2019 was an old one that\npertained to the kings of Agade.... The city of Arbela, at one time the\nseat of the cult of Ishtar, was named \u2018the four-god city.\u2019 \u201d This name is\nparticularly interesting when it is remembered that the Babylonian and\nAssyrian word for god and mountain was identical and that this identity\nmay account for the Chinese employment of the term \u201cfour mountains,\u201d to\nexpress also the four provinces and their chiefs. Professor Jastrow\ninforms us, in a note, that the name Arbela is, more precisely, Arba-ilu,\nsignifying \u201ccity of the four-fold divinity\u201d or \u201cfour-god\u201d city and invites\ncomparison to the Palestinian form Kiryath-arba, \u201cfour-city.\u201d He suggests\nthat this name may perhaps likewise signify a city of four gods, but adds\nthat it has commonly been explained as meaning four roads or four quarters\n(_op. cit._ 203).\n\nThe ancient pagan authorities inform us that the ancient city of Babylon\nwas laid out in the form of a perfect square, the sides of which were\noriented to the cardinal points. A massive wall enclosed the entire city\nand the river Euphrates divided it into halves, united by a bridge, each\nhalf being again subdivided by the main street leading to the bridge. A\nseries of streets ran parallel to the river through the city and were\ncrossed at right angles by others, the result being that 625 blocks or\nsquares of building were thus formed.\n\nThere is positive evidence that the capital city of Lagash or Shir-pur-la\nwas divided into four sections, the separate names of which were Girsu,\nUru-alaga, Nin\u00e2 and Gish-Galla or Erim, the reading of the latter name\nbeing doubtful. The circumstance that each of these quarters had its\n\u201cdivinity\u201d and was ruled by its earthly representative, explains the term\n\u201cfour-god city\u201d or \u201cfour city\u201d found associated with other capitals of\nBabylonia.\n\nThe existence of a central ruler who exercised supreme authority over the\nfour quarters of the capital, and by extension over the \u201cfour provinces\u201d\nis amply proven by the title of the Babylonian kings, _i. e._, the \u201cking\nof the four regions.\u201d An interesting oracle, addressed to king Esar-Haddon\nis found to contain the statement that \u201cAshur has given him the four ends\nof the earth\u201d (Jastrow, _op. cit._ 345).\n\nEvidence that while the capital and entire state consisted of four\nquarters, the whole was also divided theoretically and practically into\nhalves, is furnished by the significant fact that, from remote antiquity,\nthe rulers of Babylonia also bore the title of \u201clord of Akkad and\nSumer\u201d=North and South, this term being, like that of \u201cFour Regions,\u201d a\ngeneral designation for the whole of Babylonia and the first being\nobviously analogous to the Egyptian royal title: \u201cKing of upper and lower\nEgypt.\u201d\n\nI can but briefly indicate here some facts which prove that this ancient\nBabylonian centre of civilization underwent precisely the same evolution\nas that I have traced in America and India.\n\nAssyriologists agree in stating that, at the beginning of Babylonian\nhistory, about 4,000 B.C., Akkad and Sumer, or North and South Babylonia,\nalready existed and were inhabited by two distinct races of people: the\nnon-Semitic Sumerians and the Semitic Akkadians or later Babylonians. In\nlater times we find the region embraced by the Euphrates and Tigris\ninhabited by descendants of both races and forming the Babylonian empire\nin the south, the Assyrian empire to the northeast, while in the\nnorthwestern part of Mesopotamia, was the seat of various empires that\nwere alternately the rivals and subjects of either Babylonia or Assyria\n(Jastrow, _op. cit._ 26).\n\nThree distinct and rival cults are indeed found associated with these\nthree centres of government, and when examined by the light of our\nknowledge of a parallel process of evolution elsewhere, their origin can\nbe traced back to elementary pole-star heaven and earth worship, and what\nis termed the establishment of the districts of Anu, Bel and Ea. That at\none period these separate cults peacefully existed alongside of each other\nis indicated by the joint worship of pairs and triads of divinities who\nwere personifications of central powers, of the upper and of the lower\nregions. In order to demonstrate this statement I shall briefly cite some\nreferences to such divinities from Professor Jastrow\u2019s hand-book, taking\nthem in the order in which they are enumerated in the famous Babylonian\nversion of the creation of the world, contained in the fragment known as\nthe \u201cCreation epic\u201d which begins thus:\n\n\u201cThere was a time where Above, the heaven, was not named. Below, the\nearth, bore no name. Apsu was there from the first, the source of both\n(_i. e._, heaven and earth). And raging Tiamat, the mother of both (_i.\ne._, heaven and earth).\u201d Apsu and Tiamat are synonymous and are\npersonifications of the watery deep or abyss. \u201cApsu represents the male\nand Tiamat the female principle of the prim\u00e6val universe ... the embrace\nof Apsu and Tiamat became a symbol of \u2018sexual\u2019 union.\u201d\n\nTiamat was popularly pictured as a huge serpent-like monster, a fact of\nutmost interest when connected with the name Nakkash, _i. e._, crooked\nserpent, bestowed upon the constellation Draconis which contained the\npole-star of 2170 B.C. Abstaining from comment I merely establish here the\ninteresting point that in ancient Babylonia the serpent is found\ndistinctly associated with Polaris as well as with the dual creative\nprinciple. The divine pairs Lakhmu and Lakhamu and Anshar and Kishar were\nthen created. By an arbitrary division of his name into An and shar, the\ndeity becomes the \u201cone that embraces all that is above.\u201d The element An is\nthe same that we have in Anu and is the ideographic form for \u201chigh\u201d and\n\u201cheaven.\u201d Ki is the ideographic form for earth and the natural consort to\nan all-embracing upper power is a power that \u201cembraces all that is below.\u201d\n\nIt is interesting thus to ascertain that on another tablet by the side of\nthese personifications of heaven and earth are enumerated a series of\nnames which certainly appear to be merely variations on the names or\ntitles of the divine pairs. Lakhumu and Lakhamu occur on the list, and\nAnshar and Kishar recur as Anshar-gal, \u201cgreat totality of what is on\nhigh,\u201d and Kishar-gal, \u201cgreat totality of what is below.\u201d Then there are\nEn-shar and Nin-shar, \u201clord and mistress\u201d and a \u201cFather-Mother of Anu,\u201d\ntitles which furnish an interesting comparison with the list printed on\npage 42 of this investigation.\n\nPagan authorities, cited by Professor Jastrow, relate that the first\nresult of the union of Apsu and Tiamat was the production of \u201cstrange\nmonsters, human beings with wings, beings with two heads, male and female,\nhybrid formations, half man, half animal, with horns of rams and horses\u2019\nhoofs, bulls with human faces, dogs with four-fold bodies ending in fish\ntails.\u201d Seen in the light of the present investigation these accounts and\nthe sculptured images of such monstrosities, many of which have been\npreserved to the present day, may be accounted for in a very simple and\nnatural manner. It is obvious that, once the Babylonian theologians had\ndefinitely adopted the theory and creed that the universe had been created\nby the union of the Above and Below, Male and Female principle, Heaven and\nEarth, or Upper and Lower Firmament, the production of allegorical images\npersonifying or symbolizing this union would inevitably follow in course\nof time. The somewhat na\u00efve but expressive combination of the form of a\nquadruped or serpent with that of a bird, and the adoption of winged\nbulls, lions and serpents, would have seemed a most appropriate rendering\nof the current idea of the dual, creative power, which might also be\nconveyed by two heads, or two horns. From Professor Jastrow\u2019s description\nof the case of a single monster, with four bodies and with attributes of\nthe elements earth and water, we learn that not only the union of heaven\nand earth but also of earth and water was at times the task imposed upon\nthe native artists by the fancy and imagination of minds dwelling upon the\nsubject of the creative first cause. Postponing further discussion of the\nBabylonian and Assyrian symbolism of the Middle, Above and Below and Four\nQuarters or the \u201cseven directions of Heaven and Earth,\u201d I shall now direct\nattention to the most famous triad of Babylonian cosmology which figures\nat the end of the Creation epic. It consisted of Anu, Ea and Bel(96) and\nobviously personified the Above and Below and the link or central meeting\nplace of these, the earth named Esharra, \u201cthe house of fertility\u201d or E-kur\n\u201cthe mountain house.\u201d We learn from Professor Jastrow\u2019s handbook that\nwhereas Bel=the polar star (the secret god) and Nibir=the planet Jupiter\n(the later popular personification of Bel) were associated with the North,\nEa was identified with the South (p. 435). Elsewhere we are told that Anu\nwas identified with the North, Bel with the equator and Ea with the South\n(p. 460), a fact to which I shall again recur in treating of the\nterritorial divisions of the state, which corresponded to the three\ndivisions of the universe, the Above, Middle and Below.\n\nThe following detached statements concerning Babylonian divinities drawn\nfrom Professor Jastrow\u2019s handbook, show with what activity the fundamental\nset of ideas was developed by the native theologians and philosophers.\nBel-arduk became the chief god of Babylon, the title \u201cBelu-rabu\u201d _i. e._,\n\u201cgreat lord,\u201d becoming identified with Marduk. As such he is termed \u201cthe\nking of heaven and earth\u201d and the \u201clord of the four regions.\u201d His dwelling\nwas on the sacred \u201cmountain-house,\u201d the zikkurat, and is represented \u201cwith\na crown with high horns, a symbol of dual rulership. As the supreme ruler,\nlife and death are in his hands and he guides the decrees of the deities\nof the Above and Below.\u201d \u201cThe first part of the name Marduk is also used\nto designate the \u2018young bullock,\u2019 and it is possible that the god was\npictured in this way.\u201d It should be remembered here, however, that on page\n89 Professor Jastrow tells us how Nannar=the one who furnishes light=the\nmoon, was invoked as \u201cthe powerful bull of Anu,\u201d _i. e._, heaven. In this\nconnection it is interesting to learn that in Canaan, Astarte, the goddess\nof night, was also worshipped under the form of a cow, and that in\nPh\u0153nicia she was sometimes figured with horns, symbolizing the moon. In\nAssyria, four horns, denoting four-fold rulership, usually encircle the\nhigh conical cap of sovereignty, which also crowns the human heads of the\nwinged bulls. It may be permissible to point out here what an appropriate\nand expressive embodiment of symbolism the winged bull appears to be; the\nform of the quadruped, combined with wings, clearly symbolizes a union of\nthe Above and Below; the control over both being expressed by the human\nhead which completes the allegorical figure. The high cap, with which the\nhead was crowned, exhibits the form of a mound, and combined or partly\nencircled by two or sometimes four horns, obviously symbolizes dual or\nquadruple rulership. It thus appears evident that the winged bull of\nAssyria expressed, almost as clearly as the seven-staged towers of\nBabylon, the \u201cseven directions of heaven and earth,\u201d and was as\nappropriate an allegorical image of Assur the god, as of Assur the state,\nand of the royal power which conferred upon the supreme lords of Babylonia\nand Assyria the titles: \u201clord of the holy mound,\u201d \u201clord of Akkad and\nSumer,\u201d and \u201clord of the four regions.\u201d\n\nThe idea that some of the Assyrian kings actually embodied seven-fold\npower, or ruled the \u201cseven divisions,\u201d is further conveyed by curious\ngroups of seven symbols, accompanied by the numeral seven, expressed by\nseven dots, which occur above their portraits on tablets which will be\ndescribed further on. Whilst analyzing the royal titles and insignia\nrepresented on the stel\u00e6 of Assyrian kings, I shall likewise show how\nthese complete the foregoing evidence and indicate that in Babylonia and\nAssyria, the seven-fold division was applied not only to the Cosmos, but\nto the territory of the State, to its social organization, to its\ncalendar; and that the seven-storied zikkurat, the winged bulls, etc., and\nindeed, the seven-branched candlestick, were apparently designed as\nexpressive of the general seven-fold scheme of organization.\n\nLet us now examine some data which shed light upon the various and curious\nphases of evolution undergone by the growing and diverging cults of Heaven\nand Earth in Babylonia and Assyria. Going back to the dawn of astronomy in\nBabylonia let us note some facts which show that, as elsewhere, in\nremotest antiquity the periodical disappearance and reappearance of the\nPleiades produced a deep impression upon the primitive star-gazers. These\nphenomena marked natural divisions of the year and the constellation\nappeared to belong alternately to the visible or upper world and to the\ninvisible or lower region. A recognition that the Pleaid was _the_\nconstellation at that remote period when Taurus led the year, may be\nestablished by the common Euphratean name by which it is said to have been\ndesignated: Kakkab-mul=_the_ constellation or star. The Akkadian and\nAssyrian names which had probably also originally designated Polaris\nsignified that it and the Hyades were the foundation stars or\nconstellations. In the Ptolemy star charts, the Pleiades are designated by\nthe name Ki mah (see Robert Brown, _op. cit._ p. 57). While it appears\nthat whereas the Pleiades long exerted its influence and, with Polaris and\nthe circumpolar constellations, regulated and marked the primitive year,\nits cult was gradually superseded by that of morning and evening stars and\nof the sun and moon which became the emblems of the rapidly developing\ndivergent cults of the diurnal and nocturnal heavens, of light and\ndarkness, of the Above and Below.(97)\n\nIn connection with the cult of the Pleiades I draw attention to R. G.\nHaliburton\u2019s interesting investigations on this particular subject, and to\nhis publication in the Proceedings of the A. A. A. S. 1895, on \u201cDwarf\nsurvivals and traditions as to pigmy races,\u201d which contains the following\nstatements: \u201cWe find that the Atlas dwarfs and the Nanos predict the\nfuture by watching the reflection of the \u2018Seven Stars\u2019 in a bowl. The\nfamous cup of Nestor, supposed to have been a divining cup, had two groups\nof Pleiades on its handle....\u201d On examining the archaic designs engraved\nin the centre of the fine collection of Ph\u0153nician and Assyrian bronze\nbowls, which were found in the S. E. Palace, Nimroud, and are exhibited at\nthe British Museum, I recently ascertained that they appear to be mostly\nvariations on the theme of the centre and four or seven-fold division,\nsome exhibiting a marked quadruplicate division, others a seven-pointed\nstar surrounded by seven smaller stars. In one case a face is repeated\nfour times, in opposite positions, on the central design which is\nsurrounded by four large and four lesser conventionally drawn mountains.\nThe head-dress with lappets which encloses each face recalls the familiar\nEgyptian form, and on two bowls images of scarabs are engraved. On one of\nthese the beetle is drawn in such a way that its four legs, two of which\nturn upwards and two downwards, suggest the form of a swastika.\n\nThe peculiarities of these designs and the knowledge that star-worship\nprevailed in Assyria and Ph\u0153nicia suggest the inference that the Nimroud\nPalace bowls were employed for the observation of the positions of certain\nstars which marked the seasons and regulated the calendar, by means of\nwhich the priest-kings controlled the working of the system of state.\nDoubtlessly the constellations originally and principally observed besides\nPolaris were the three great \u201cseven-fold ones,\u201d _i. e._ the Ursa Major\nwhich marked the Four Quarters; the Pleiades which pertained to the Above\nand Below and marked the division of the year into halves, and Orion which\nalso may well have appeared to be a composite image of the sacred, equal\nFour, and the central triad composed of the Above, Middle and Below.\n\nIt is interesting to note that in the Euphratean and other myths the\nantagonism between sun and moon, etc., coincides with traditions of actual\nwarfare between their earthly representatives and that it is the record of\na combat between the followers of light and of darkness that seems to have\nbeen thus preserved. The Babylonian Creation epic teaches us that, in\nremotest antiquity, the association of light and life with the male, and\ndarkness and death with the female principle had become current. A mighty\nwar takes place between the female serpent Tiamat, associated with evil,\nand the male god Marduk, the champion of the gods of the upper realm,\nwhich ends in her overthrow. It was then that Marduk \u201cestablished the\ndistricts or cities of Anu, Bel and Ea,\u201d identified with the North, Middle\nand South. It is remarkable that this mythical establishment of three\ncities exactly coincides with the conclusions reached by recent\ninvestigators as to the existence during centuries, of three rival states,\n_i. e._ Babylonia in the south and Assyria in the northeast, who, during\ncenturies, were in continual warfare with each other and with a third\ndisintegrated power inhabiting the northwest which was alternately rival\nor vassal. This condition of affairs, and the facts enumerated in\nProfessor Jastrow\u2019s handbook, chapter II, are precisely what would\nnaturally develop from the formation and adoption of three distinct cults\nand their ultimate separate establishment in as many centres of\ngovernment. The following data will suffice to reveal some of the curious\nresults obtained by the logical working out of certain associations of\nideas and these results are the more interesting and intelligible because\nthey are analogous to those I have traced elsewhere.\n\nOne point deserves special note: directly opposite views, not only as to\nthe relative supremacy of the Middle, Above and Below, but also as to the\nrelation of the sexes to the upper and lower worlds, seem to have been\nheld at different times and in different places; and this particular\ndivision of opinion appears to have given rise to endless dissension,\nstrife and warfare, to the separation of sectarians from the main state\nand the foundation of numberless minor centres of government on the old\nplan, but with fresh forms of cult embodying a new artificial combination\nof ideas.\n\nThe shifting of supremacy from one \u201cgod\u201d to another explains moreover the\ntransference of the title \u201cBel\u201d=Lord, or Chief of Gods, from the\npersonification of one region to another. \u201cIn remotest antiquity we find\nEn-lil designated as the \u2018lord of the lower world\u2019 and bearing the title\nBel. En-lil represents the unification of the various forces whose seat or\nsphere of action is among the inhabited parts of the globe, both on the\nsurface and beneath, for the term \u2018lower world\u2019 is here used in contrast\nto the upper or heavenly world.... As \u2018lord of the lower world,\u2019 En-lil is\ncontrasted to a god, Anu, who presides over heavenly bodies. The age of\nSargon (3800 B.C.), in whose inscriptions En-lil already occurs, is one of\nconsiderable culture and there can, therefore, be no objection against the\nassumption that at this early period a theological system should have been\nevolved which gave rise to beliefs in great powers whose dominion embraces\nthe \u2018upper\u2019 and \u2018lower\u2019 worlds\u201d (Jastrow, _op. cit._ pp. 52-55).\n\nA consort, Nin-lil, a \u201cmistress of the lower world,\u201d was assigned to\nEn-lil and was known also as Belit, the feminine form of Bel, _i. e._ the\nlady _par excellence_. She too had her temple at Nippur, the age of which\ngoes back, at least, to the first dynasty of Ur. She was also known as\nNin-khar-sag, the \u201clady of the high or great mountain,\u201d as the \u201cmother of\nthe gods.\u201d The assignment by Sargon, of the northern gates of his palace\nto Bel, who lays foundations, and Belit, who brings fertility, affords\nevidence that the goddess was the feminine form of Polaris. In Assyria,\nBelit appears, either as the wife of Bel, as the consort of Ashur, as the\nconsort of Ea, or simply as a designation for Ishtar, _i. e._ \u201cthe\ngoddess,\u201d the \u201cmistress of countries, or of mountains,\u201d in which\nconnection it is interesting to note that the ideographs for country and\nmountain are identical in Assyrian.\n\nIf the attributes of the goddesses of the Babylonian and Assyrian pantheon\nbe carefully examined, they will be found to associate the female\nprinciple with fertility, abundance and with water, the source of plant\nlife. Two divergent views appear to have influenced the artificial\nformation of personifications of the female principle in nature. According\nto one the goddess is termed the \u201clady of the deep, the mistress of the\nplace where the fish dwell\u201d (Sarpanitam-erua) and in other cases is linked\nto the lower firmament to subterraneous regions, to darkness, death,\ndestructiveness and hence to evil, thus representing the complement to the\nmale personification of the upper realm of daylight and the preservative\nand beneficent life-giving principles. The other tendency, which almost\nappears as a reaction or protest against the previous view, led to the\nultimate adoption of an ideal goddess of the nocturnal heaven, who was\n\u201cbountiful, offspring-producing, silvery bright\u201d and was in one instance\naddressed as \u201cthe lady of shining waters,\u201d of \u201cpurification\u201d and of\n\u201cincantations.\u201d In the period of Hammurabi, devotion went so far as to\ncause the goddess Gula, termed the \u201cbride of the earth,\u201d to be invoked as\nthe \u201ccreator of mankind,\u201d the \u201cgreat physician\u201d and \u201clife-giver\u201d and \u201cthe\none who leads the dead to a new life\u201d (Jastrow, _op. cit._ p. 175).\n\nAs an interesting outcome of an adjustment of both trains of thought\nstands Ishtar-Belit=the lady _par excellence_ and consequently, the\nfeminine personification of Polaris, the supreme goddess whom\nTiglath-pileser termed \u201cthe first among the gods.\u201d She is the mild and\ngracious mother of creation, \u201cloves the king and his priesthood,\u201d but is\nalso the mighty commanding goddess of war who clothes herself in fiery\nflame, appears as a violent destroyer and sends down streams of fire upon\nher enemies. \u201cThe distinguishing position of both the Babylonian and\nAssyrian Ishtar is her independent position. Though at times brought into\nclose contact with Ashur she is not regarded as the mere consort to any\ngod\u2014no mere reflection of a male deity, but ruling in her own right on a\nperfect par with the great gods of the pantheon. She is coequal in rank\nand splendor with Ashur. Her name becomes synonymous for goddess as Marduk\nbecomes the synonym for god. The female deities, both foreign and native,\ncame to be regarded as so many forms of Ishtar.\u201d\n\nA curious fact connected with Ishtar, which proves that she had developed\nfrom an original divinity, conceived as dual or bi-sexual, is that among\nSemites Ishtar appears both as a male and female deity. This seems to show\nthat at a certain stage of thought Ishtar was also a centralization of\nattributes, a fact which undoubtedly explains the supreme position\naccorded to this divinity at one time as the feminine form of Polaris. The\nmost striking illustration of this supremacy is furnished by the famous\nbas-relief figured by Layard (\u201cNinive and its remains\u201d I, 238), which\nrepresents Ishtar, the mother-goddess, the female form of Assur, as seated\non a throne which is borne on the back of a lion in the procession formed\nby the seven chief divinities of the Assyrian pantheon, six of whom are\nfigured as bearded men standing on different animals. On the fine stela of\nEsarhaddon, discovered by Dr. von Luschan at Sendschirli, the goddess,\naccompanied in this case by three standing gods, is likewise represented\nas seated on a throne holding a large ring or circle in her left hand.\n\nThe fact that the \u201cAll-mother, the female creator of mankind,\u201d is\nrepresented as the only occupant of the throne, reveals a distinct phase\nin the evolution of the Babylonian state religion, which curiously concurs\nwith the supremacy of female sovereignty at Babylon, at the period of its\ngreatest power under Semiramis. It may be safely assumed that it was at\nthis time, when the queen represented the goddess, that the cult of the\nfemale principle of nature reached its highest development.\n\nAt Nippur the clay images chiefly represent Bel and Belit either\nseparately or in combination, but figurines of Ishtar have also been\nfound, in some cases representing her as nursing a child (Jastrow, _op.\ncit._ p. 674). It is probable that the symbols of duality connected with\nIshtar had some reference to the mystic unity and duality of the mother\nand unborn child, and suggested the installation of the goddess as the\nmost appropriate personification of creative and life-giving central\npower.(98)\n\nIt is as interesting to follow the complex train of thought which created\nan Ishtar as it is to realize that curious fact that, contrary to views\nheld elsewhere, it was the male principle that was at one time most\ndistinctly associated with earth in Babylonia-Assyria, while femininity\nwas linked to the nocturnal heaven. It is probable that priesthood\nencouraged the popular adoption of Bel, the masculine Polaris, as an\nearth, sun and morning-star god, while his consort Belit became a heaven,\nmoon and evening-star goddess. Doubtlessly at an early period the cult of\nPolaris and the registration of circumpolar rotation was guarded in\nsecrecy by the astronomer-priests. Tempting as it is to linger among the\ngods and goddesses of the Babylonian-Assyrian pantheon and to follow the\nspread of their influence, I shall limit myself to pointing out the change\nof government that accompanied the development and establishment of\nvarious divergent cults.\n\nIndications that, as in China at the present day, a combined heaven and\nearth cult was practised in Babylonia-Assyria by male and female\nrepresentatives of heaven and earth, are furnished by various detached\npieces of information gleaned from Professor Jastrow\u2019s work. The\npriest-king was the \u201cchild\u201d of Bel, and his living representative. As such\nhe bore the divine titles of supreme lord, ruled the four regions of the\nearth, and became the representative of earth. Pagan authorities state\nthat a virgin priestess officiated at times in the sanctuary of Bel and\nthat there were three classes of priestesses devoted to the cult of\nIshtar. They were called \u201cthe sacred ones\u201d and carried out a mysterious\nritual which had, however, originated \u201cfrom na\u00efve conceptions connected\nwith the worship of the goddess of fertility.\u201d\n\nThe use of sacred water and of fermented intoxicating wine entered into\nthe cult of the life-giving principle and Babylonia ultimately becomes\nassociated with \u201cMystery\u201d and \u201cthe golden cup full of abominations\u201d\n(Revelations XVII). Large terra cotta vases or jars have been found at\nNippur and elsewhere, standing in front of the altar, and \u201cthe depth at\nwhich they were found is an indication of the antiquity and stability of\nthe forms of worship in Babylonian temples. It may be proper to recall\nthat, in the Solomonic temple likewise, there were a series of jars that\nstood near the great altar in the court\u201d (Jastrow, p. 653). One of the\noldest sacred basins found in the ruins of a Babylonian temple \u201chas a\nfrieze of female figures in it, holding in their outstretched hands\nflagons from which they pour water,\u201d a fact which establishes the\nritualistic association of female priestesses with water.\n\nThe later association of Ishtar with the moon and with the evening star,\n\u201cthe leader of the heavenly procession of stars,\u201d naturally exerted an\ninfluence over the ceremonial rites performed by the high priestess or\nqueen, the living image of the goddess. \u201cMythological associations appear\nto have played a part in identifying the planet Venus with the goddess....\nA widely spread nature myth, symbolizing the change of seasons, represents\nIshtar the personification of fertility, the great mother of all that\nmanifests life, as proceeding to the region of darkness and remaining\nthere for some time. The disappearance of the planet Venus at certain\nseasons ... [and re-appearance] ... suggested the identification of this\nplanet with Ishtar.\u201d The foregoing affords an explanation why Ishtar\nshould have become identified with the west and also naturally suggests\nthe probability that the cult of Ishtar gradually imposed upon its\npriestesses and its votaries of the female sex, the ceremonial observance\nof periods of retirement and seclusion, coinciding with the disappearance\nof the moon and evening star.\n\nA critical examination of the accounts preserved of the Ph\u0153nician or\nCanaanite religion reveals that it consisted of an idealistic development\nof the Ishtar cult of Assyria. The fact that, ultimately, in Ph\u0153nicia, the\ncult of the female Astarte almost superseded that of the male Baal and\nthat their joint cult, introduced into Palestine, seriously rivalled the\nmonotheism of the Israelites, furnishes another indication that we have to\ndeal here with the same marked divergence of cults which we have seen to\nresult from a common basis in ancient America. In studying the Ph\u0153nician\nconception of Astarte as recorded by various authors, one is struck by its\ncomparative refinement and ideality although, as in ancient America, the\ncult of the female principle of nature was also accompanied by secret\nlicentious ceremonials.\n\nIn the Astarte cult of Ph\u0153nicia we have precisely what might be expected\nto have been evolved by the descendants of an ancient race of\nstar-watchers who, powerfully impressed by the antithesis of light and\ndarkness and having become a nation of traders and seafarers, naturally\nadopted the nocturnal heaven and guiding stars as their chief object of\nworship. It does not seem improbable that it was to the less degrading\nassociation of the female principle with the nocturnal heaven(99) that\nwoman owed, in lapse of time, the higher position she was accorded in the\ncountries directly influenced by the Ph\u0153nician civilization, and notably\nin Greece and Rome.\n\nIn Ph\u0153nicia, Astarte-Ishtar became the goddess of love and marriage. In\nBabylonia-Assyria the high-priestess, the living representative of the\ngoddess, who, like the planet-goddess, periodically retired into darkness\nand seclusion and led a shadowy existence, appears to have originally\nshared equal honors with the \u201clord of earth\u201d and to have delivered\noracular utterances in subterraneous chambers. Throughout Babylonia, New\nYear\u2019s Day, which coincided with the beginning of the rainy season, was\nthe occasion of \u201cthe marriage of the god and the goddess\u201d _par\nexcellence_, a rite which symbolized the \u201cmeeting of Heaven and Earth.\u201d\nCircumstantial evidence seems to prove, moreover, that, as in Peru, the\nannual consecrated union of the male and female personification of heaven\nand earth was followed by the marriage of young persons throughout the\nland, a custom which furnishes another indication of the original\nexistence of an annual mating season for the human race. As it was at this\nperiod also that the priesthood approached the papakhu, the inner\nsanctuary, also termed the \u201cassembly-room,\u201d \u201cchamber of the oracle\u201d and\n\u201cof fates,\u201d and transmitted to the people the irrevocable decrees of\nMarduk, it seems as though these ancient rulers practised a similar\n\u201cabundance of lying and deceit for the advantage of the governed\u201d as that\nadvocated by Plato in his Republic;(100) exerted a stern control over the\nalliances formed and the number of marriages celebrated and endeavored to\nmake these, as far as possible, sacred. The mere record that the Assyrian\nking Ashurbanipal claims to be the offspring of a pair of divinities\npersonifying heaven and earth, appears to show that he was the offspring\nof the sacred divine union of the high priest and priestess, _i. e._ of\ndivine birth. It is interesting to collate a few disconnected facts which\nappear to illustrate the natural and inevitable result of the institution\nof two cults ruled by separate representatives.\n\nSin-Gashid, of the dynasty of Uruk, mentions a temple built for the god\nand his consort, as \u201cthe seat of their joy.\u201d At Babylon, the \u201cmother of\ngreat gods\u201d dwelt within the precincts of the temple on the east side of\nthe Euphrates known as Esagila, \u201cthe lofty house.\u201d When the city of\nBabylon extended as far as to include Borsippa, the temple known as Ezida,\n\u201cthe true house,\u201d was built for Marduk=Bel. At Lagash the temple of the\n\u201cgood lady\u201d and mother stood in one quarter known as the \u201cbrilliant town\u201d\nwhile the temple of her consort stood in the other of the two most ancient\nquarters of the town. The above facts acquire double significance when\ncollated with the well-known fact that the palace of Semiramis, the great\nqueen of Babylon, was built on the west bank of the Euphrates, opposite to\nthe ancient palace of the king. A bridge united these royal residences\nwhich were otherwise separated by the river.\n\nUnder Semiramis, Babylonia was a nation under a single female ruler and\nthis usurpation of power by a woman, accompanied as it was by the\npredominance of the originally na\u00efve cult which had unconsciously fostered\nand ministered to perversion and depravity, preceded the decadence,\ndisintegration and ultimate downfall of the empire. Many centuries\nprevious, the instalment of a female sovereign preceded the ruin of\nanother empire in what we may assume to have been precisely the same way.\n\nProfessor Sayce informs us that, \u201cabout 3800 B.C., in northern Babylonia\nand in the city of Agad\u00ea or Akkad, arose the empire of\nSargani-sarali=Sargon, and that Sargon\u2019s son, Naram-Sin, succeeded him in\n3750 B.C. and continued the conquests of his grandfather.... Naram-Sin\u2019s\nson was Bingam-sar-ali. A queen, Ellat-gula, seems to have sat upon the\nthrone not much later, and with her the dynasty may have come to an end.\nAt any rate the empire of Akkad is heard of no more. But it left behind it\na profound impression in western Asia, whose art and culture became\nBabylonian\u201d (_op. cit._).\n\nThe process of disintegration, which caused the Babylonian empire to\ncrumble away, was doubtlessly hastened by its division into four regions,\neach of which in latter times possessed its capital and became the centre\nof various independent forms of rival cults. During many centuries\nBabylonia was closely associated with the cult of Marduk-Bel, the \u201clord of\nrest;\u201d while Shamash, another form of the central supreme lord, was the\ndeity of Larsa and Sippar.\n\nAt one time Ur became the headquarters for the cult of the moon-god Sin or\nNannar. As, according to Babylonian notions, the sun does not properly\nbelong to the heavens and plays an insignificant part in the calendrical\nsystem in comparison with the moon, sun-worship proper does not seem to\nhave existed in Babylonia. At the same time it would seem as though when\nthe \u201cprimitive sun\u201d=Polaris became the hidden, secret god of the\npriest-astronomers, who determined the seasons by Ursa Major, the populace\nwas taught to regard Bel as the personification of the diurnal sun and of\nthe herald of day, the morning star.\n\nWhen it is borne in mind how, as the empire spread, new cities were\nfounded on the plan of the metropolis, that each of these must therefore\nhave been, in turn, governed by a pair of minor rulers, and had its own\nminor zikkurat, we can understand the various indications that exist\nshowing how the ancient sacred capital of the state became the place of\nreunion for the minor \u201cgods,\u201d who assembled there annually in the main\nsanctuary, and the fact that each minor chief necessarily required his\ndwelling place and tribal council-chamber, would account for the\n\u201creferences to zikkurats ... or special sanctuaries of some kind, which\nwere erected within the sacred precinct of the main capital ...\u201d (Jastrow,\np. 637).\n\nWhen it is realized that each zikkurat was an artificial \u201cmountain\u201d the\ndescription of Babylon in Revelations XVIII becomes clearly intelligible\nand is seen to apply to the seven-fold organization of the ancient empire\nwhich had become the centre of the debasing earth-worship ultimately\nidentified with a female goddess. \u201cAnd the woman which thou sawest is that\ngreat city which reigneth over the kings of the earth.... I saw a woman\nsit upon a scarlet colored beast ... having seven heads.... The seven\nheads are seven _mountains_, on which the woman sitteth ... and there are\nseven kings\u201d....\n\nFuture investigation will doubtlessly furnish us with exact knowledge\nconcerning the original relation of the governors of the \u201cfour regions\u201d to\nthe central ruler and of the \u201cseven divisions\u201d of the state to each other.\nIt would be desirable to establish whether each territorial division and\ntribe bore the name of its tribal ancestor and whether these names agree\nwith those of the seven chief \u201cgods\u201d of the pantheon, each of whom is\nassociated with a celestial body, a day of the seven-day period and, as\nshown in the bas-relief already cited, with a different animal. I am\nstrongly tempted to see in the latter traces of tribal totems and to\nconnect the days of the week with the seven divisions of the population\nand some established form of rotation, employed for the government of the\nstate, analogous to that I have found out in Ancient Mexico. With regard\nto the regulation of the calendar by certain officials, the following\nfacts are important: Professor Sayce tells us that, \u201cin Assyria, the\nhigh-priest was the equal of the king and the king himself was a priest\nand the adopted child of Bel.\u201d Under him were a number of grades of\nofficials and officers. The land was divided into provinces whose\n\u201cgovernors were selected from the highest aristocracy and who alone had\nthe privilege of sharing with the king the office of limmu or eponymous\narchon after whom the year was named.\u201d This office, which finds its\nanalogy in China and Central America, is more clearly explained in the\nfollowing passage: \u201cThe Assyrians were endowed with a keen sense of\nhistory and had invented a system of reckoning time by means of certain\nofficers called limmi, who gave their names to the year\u201d (Sayce, _op.\ncit._ p. 255).\n\nVenturing to make a general statement, as a suggestion for future\ninvestigation, I should say that the ultimate result of the institution of\ntwo cults which were bound to grow in opposite directions, was the fall of\nthe Babylonian empire under the degrading growth of perversion and\ndepravity, linked to the cult of earth and night and bi-sexuality, and the\nrise of the Assyrian empire with a cult in which the ideas of light and\ndarkness, night and day preponderated over those of sex. It may possibly\nhave been as a reaction and protest against the prevailing rites of\nBabylonia that influenced the Assyrians in their adoption of two male\nrulers, the high-priest and the king. On the other hand, there are\nindications showing that possibly, in order to evade the ceremonial\nobligations of their position as the representative of the principle of\nfertility, several \u201cgoddesses\u201d or female rulers of Babylonia transferred\ntheir seat of government, or placed the reins of government into the hands\nof a king. Thus Hammurabi tells us that he has restored the temple of the\n\u201clady\u201d or \u201cgreat lady\u201d of Hallabi, a town near Sippar and that she had\nconferred upon him supreme authority over the Babylonian states, then\nengaged in fighting with each other. It is obvious that, as soon as\nconcealment and mystery increasingly surrounded the cult of the female\nprinciple, and warfare became habitual, the power and r\u00f4le of the female\nruler must have become more and more \u201cshadowy\u201d and finally dwindled to the\nutterance of sacred oracles in dark concealed places of retirement and\nsafety. Ultimately the cult of Ishtar appears to have become absolutely\nsecret and hidden and shrouded in mystery and darkness. Its priestesses\nbecame the most famous oracle-givers of Assyria who imparted \u201cdivine\nknowledge concealed from men.\u201d In the eighth century B.C., Arbela became\nthe centre of the cult of Ishtar and \u201cdeveloped a special school of\ntheology marked by the attempt to accord a superior position to the\ngoddess. In a series of eight oracles addressed to Esarhaddon six are\ngiven forth by women\u201d (Jastrow, p. 342).\n\nInevitable as was the disintegration of the original state and religion,\ncontinual efforts appear to have been made even in Babylonia itself, to\ncheck the growth of a debasing ritual and the constant increase of the\ngods and goddesses which were installed as the rulers of each new town\nthat was founded on the plan of the metropolis. Professor Jastrow tells us\nthat \u201cwhenever the kings in their inscriptions mention the regular\nsacrifices, it is in almost all cases with reference to their\nre-institution of an old custom that had been allowed to fall into neglect\n(owing to the political disturbances which always affected the temples)\nand not as an innovation\u201d ... (_op. cit._ p. 667). The tablet of Sippara,\non which the image of Shamash is restored by the king on an ancient model,\nhas already been described and on it appears the four-spoked wheel, the\nexpressive symbol of a \u201cprimitive Sun.\u201d The primeval conception of a\nsingle, stable, changeless and central celestial power was evidently\nadhered to in ancient Babylonia by a small but faithful minority, and the\nconstant growth of debasing practices and the manufacture of symbolical\nimages to which reverence was paid and which were ultimately worshipped,\nawakened its constant disapproval and abhorrence. At a remote period we\nfind the adherents to a stern monotheism establishing the Babylonian\nprovince of\n\nCANAAN.\n\nThe following account of the Hebrew religion, translated from Spamer\u2019s\nwork (p. 297) already cited, will be found instructive:\n\n\u201cOriginally there was no difference between the religion of the Hebrews\nand that of the neighboring tribes. The lord=Baal of Moab was named\nKamosh, that of the Hebrews Yahwe. Yahwe was the national god, above all\nthe god of battle.... Altars made of earth or unhewn stone were erected\nfor him on mountains, hills or under green trees; next to the altar stood\neither a stone column (Masseba) or a sacred tree (Ashera). In the temple\nthe image of Yahwe represented him in human form or, as in Dan or Bethel,\nin that of a bull. Next to Yahwe were other gods: first, Baal, the supreme\nlord of the world, who had a special temple in Jerusalem; secondly,\nAstarte, to whom Solomon built an altar near Jerusalem.\n\n\u201cSolomon had also built altars to Kamosh, the god of the Moabites, to\nMilkom, the god of the Ammonites and in his temple other gods beside Yahwe\nwere worshipped; amongst them a demi-god and a serpent of brass\n(Neshushtan) which was abolished later on by Hiskia. All of these gods,\nwho were also worshipped by the neighbors of the enemies of Israel, became\nsecondary to the tribal god to whom Israel owed its greatness.\n\n\u201cYahwe becomes the first and mightiest, and is identified with El, the\nsupreme god of the Semites, whose individuality is vague. On the other\nhand \u2018the Baal,\u2019 the principal god of all neighboring people, especially\nof the Ph\u0153nicians, possesses a marked individuality which excludes his\nidentification with other gods. He is worshipped in separate centres of\ncult and becomes the rival of Yahwe....\u201d The rivalry and the struggle for\nreligious and political supremacy between the priests, prophets and\nfollowers of Yahwe, the god of heaven, and Baal, the lord of earth,\nculminated in about B.C. 837, when the temple of the latter was destroyed\nand his priesthood killed.\n\n\u201cIt was not until about 750 B.C., however, that the national god Yahwe\nbecame the acknowledged sole god of the universe next to whom all other\ngods were as mere phantoms.... A remarkable transformation took place\nabout this time in the conception of a divinity and of morality; the moral\nprecepts of religion were developed and clearly formulated and the ten\ncommandments promulgated. As time progressed the voices of prophets and\npriesthood became more and more loud in condemnation of the use of idols\nand symbols of divinity. Hosea especially denounced the cult of Yahwe\nunder the form of a bull; Jeremias went so far as to disapprove of the\nholy ark itself which stood in the temple of Jerusalem.\n\n\u201cLater on, when, about B.C. 621, one of the most important events in the\nhistory of mankind had taken place and the book of the law, the Sepher\nHathora, was discovered by the high priest in the temple of Jerusalem,\nduring its restoration, the Hebrew religion was reformed, reorganized and\nre\u00ebstablished on lines which favored the development of more refined and\nelevated religious teachings. All idols and symbols were abolished. Naught\ncould destroy, however, the deeply rooted idea that it was in Jerusalem\nalone, or Mount Sion, that Yahwe was to be worshipped. This was the chosen\nsite to which offerings and tithes were to be carried. As the chosen\npeople of Yahwe, Israel was also to be a holy nation which was to\ndistinguish itself by its superior religion and morality and, in order to\ndo so, was to keep itself rigidly apart and aloof from other people.\n\n\u201cThus this little nation cultivated and perfected the religious\ncapabilities of the human race and laid the foundation for Christianity\nand the Islam.\u201d\n\nJerusalem, the ancient capital, occupied almost the centre of Canaan and\nwas founded on Mount Zion, the highest elevation in the district. From\ntime immemorial Jerusalem has indeed contained a spot reputed to mark the\ncentre of the world and a sacred stone is also venerated there to this day\nand is now associated, in a curious way, with the biblical account of\nJacob\u2019s dream of a ladder reaching from earth to heaven.\n\nIt was obviously as a result of their deeply ingrained ideal of central\npower that the Israelites who migrated from Ur, the seat of moon-worship,\nand wandered into Palestine, engaged in a long struggle which ended in\ntheir successful capture, in 1050 B.C., of Jerusalem, the sacred city,\nsituated in the centre of the land. The importance of this conquest to the\nIsraelites can only be rightly estimated when it is realized that, during\ncountless centuries, this single branch of the Semitic race had adhered to\nthe cult of the central, changeless, ever-present and light-giving guiding\nstar, and gradually developed the higher conception of an invisible,\nomnipotent and omniscient God. It will be seen that, while other branches\nof their race gradually developed separate cults of the dual principles of\nnature, they had remained faithful to the primeval recognition of a single\npole-star and, rising to a loftier conception, constituted themselves the\nchampions of a pure monotheism, disconnected from the cult of heaven and\nearth or sun and moon which, associated with dual reproductive principles,\njustly became the horror and abomination of the Israelites. It is\ninteresting to recall the fact that, about 908 B.C., Jezebel, the wife of\nAhab and daughter of the king of Tyre, set up the cult of the dual\nprinciples of nature in Israel and, destroying the priests and prophets of\nJehovah, built a temple to Baal and Astarte and appointed 450 priests and\n500 prophets to the respective service of these divinities. This\nhistorical incident furnishes a striking instance of the united cult of\nthe Above and Below in direct antagonism to that of the Centre which had\nalready developed into a definite and pure monotheism.(101)\n\nASSYRIA.\n\nA study of the Assyrian symbols of royalty, which I recently had an\nopportunity of making at the British Museum, has led me to the conclusion\nthat, in Assyria, during many centuries, a perfect equilibrium was\nmaintained throughout the state which, by a strict co\u00f6rdination of all its\nparts, represented a harmonious entity.\n\nAn observation I have made, which may be worth noting, is that Assyria\nseems to occupy, in relation to Babylonia, somewhat the same position as\nPeru to the more ancient and greater centres of culture in Mexico and\nCentral America. In the latter the original ground-plan of the archaic\ncivilization seems to be lost and hidden under the ruin and devastation\ncaused by the growth of diverging cults. In Peru and Assyria alike we seem\nto have examples of organizations starting afresh on the old plan or\nreversions to the primitive type of civil and religious government in\nwhich simplicity, order, balance and harmony were again restored and\nmaintained. If I may venture to hazard a general observation about the\nancient civilizations of Western Asia I should say that, whereas the\nprimeval centre of primitive pole-star worship in Babylonia had, in course\nof time, brought forth as its highest development the monotheism of the\nIsraelites, and as its lowest the cults of Ishtar and Bel, it also appears\nto have given birth to a reproduction of its former self, to the Assyrian\nempire, in which the most ancient form of culture was preserved intact,\nand in time spread its influence not only to other nations but also back\nto Babylonia itself.\n\nAs in Peru, it appears to have been the policy of the kings of Assyria,\nwho had before them the results of an opposite course pursued at\nBabylonia, to discountenance the manufacture of symbolical images and the\nestablishment of minor centres of government, the leading motive being to\nmaintain the ideal of an absolute centralization of temporal and spiritual\ngovernment and power. It is the opinion of leading Assyriologists that\nAssyria was a colony founded by Semitic Babylonians and this conclusion is\ncorroborated by the view I have advanced, namely, that, as Babylonia\ndegenerated and abandoned the primeval ideas which nourished the germ of\nmonotheism, those who adhered to this ideal after prolonged struggles\nseparated themselves from their ancient mother, and founded new colonies,\nthe administration and religion of which they established according to\ntheir wider experience and more advanced intellectual and moral\ndevelopment. A characteristic of Assyria seems to have been the\ninstitution of two male rulers, the high-priest and the king and the cult\nof the diurnal and nocturnal heaven, of day and night. As these features\nare in marked contrast to the Babylonian male and female rulers and the\ncult of heaven and earth and the reproductive principles, it would seem as\nthough they had developed themselves from a prolonged cult of heaven alone\nby the inhabitants of Northern Babylonia, or that they were the result of\na reform led about by the abuses to which the Babylonian cult had led. A\ncurious development worth mentioning, even out of its chronological order,\nwas when the Assyrian king Esarhaddon placed his two sons as single rulers\nupon the thrones of Babylonia and Assyria. It is known that these two\nbrothers ruled in peace during twenty years and that then a great\nrebellion against the Assyrian rule took place, which ended in the\nconquest and destruction of Babylonia and the death of its king, whose\nhalf-brother, the Assyrian ruler Asurbanipal, thus became the sole ruler\nof Assyria and Babylonia.\n\nProfessor Jastrow tells us that, \u201cas compared with Babylonia, Assyria was\npoor in the number of her temples.... The Assyrian rulers were much more\nconcerned in rearing grand edifices for themselves. While the gods were\nnot neglected in Assyria, one hears much more of the magnificent palaces\nerected by the kings than of temples and shrines.\u201d\n\nThe above data suffice to show that the tendency of the Assyrian monarchs\nwas to indulge in self-glorification and to forget what some of his\nsubjects never could: that his position had originally been that of an\nearthly representative only of a higher central, celestial power. As among\nsome branches of the Semitic race, the conception of a divinity became\nmore and more elevated until it reached the ideal of the Yahwe, \u201cthe only\ntrue god who was jealous of other gods and could brook none beside him.\u201d\nTo these uncompromising adherents of pure monotheism the royal titles of\nthe Assyrian kings who styled themselves the rulers of the centre, of the\nfour quarters of the earth and of the heavens, must indeed have appeared\nas a sacrilege.\n\nThe existence of such opposite views clearly explains the ultimate\noutbreak of hatred and war between monotheistic Israel and Juda and the\nancient empires of Western Asia which shared, with them, a remote but\ncommon origin.\n\nReturning to Assyria we find that this empire also, as it extended its\nfour-fold capital Assur into four provinces and developed the cult of the\nhigh central power and the Heaven and Earth, gradually prepared in turn\nits own downfall by an inevitable process of disintegration. In time two\ngreat capitals grew up, situated to the northeast and northwest of the\nancient metropolis of Assur, the original seat of the \u201ckings of the four\nregions.\u201d These capitals were Ninive, divided into four cities, and\nArbela, also a \u201cfour-city.\u201d The fact that the latter capital was the seat\nof Ishtar worship, further proves that, at one time, a definite separation\nof cults had also supervened in Assyria and that Assur and Ninive may at\none time have been respectively centres of Polaris and sun worship. It is\nwell known that when about B.C. 606 the great Assyrian empire was\ndestroyed, it had four royal residences: Ninive, D\u00fbr-Sarruk\u00een, Kalash and\nAssur, which were then burnt and levelled to the ground, never to be\nrebuilt.\n\nLet us now examine the emblems of \u201cdivine royalty\u201d exhibited on the famous\nportrait stel\u00e6 of Assyrian kings preserved at the British Museum which\nstrikingly confirm the view I advanced that the four-spoked wheel of\nShamash on the Sippara tablet was the ancient restored image of the\n\u201cprimitive sun\u201d Polaris and of circumpolar rotation.\n\nThe Assyrian kings on the British Museum stel\u00e6 are represented as wearing\nthe cross, between the signs for the moon and planet Venus, that occurs on\nthe Sippara tablet. The four-spoked wheel thus explains itself as a\n\u201cwheel-cross\u201d and is found to have been employed in Assyria alternately\nwith the plain cross; for the portrait statue of Asurnasirpal (about B.C.\n880) represents the king wearing a chain about his neck from which hangs a\ncross between the Ishtar and moon emblems, and next to a symbol\nrepresenting the lightning bolt of Ramman. In the background, next to the\nking\u2019s head, five emblems are sculptured, three of which are identical\nwith those hanging from the chain, _i. e._ the eight-rayed \u201csun\u201d of\nIshtar, the moon Sin and the lightning bolt of Ramman. The _fifth emblem_\nconsists of the royal conical cap with four horns and is represented\nseparately to the right while the other four symbols form a compact group.\n\nIn the text Assur, Ramman, Sin, Shamash and Ishtar are invoked. As the\nsymbols of Ishtar and Sin can be identified by the Sippara tablet, and the\nwinged disk unquestionably pertains to Assur and the lightning bolt to\nRamman, we find that the cap, simulating the central \u201choly mound\u201d with\nfour horns, must be the symbol of the remaining god Shamash. This\ninference appears to be corroborated by the circumstance that the\n_seventh_ month was sacred to Shamash and that it was in this month that\nthe lord of the holy mound built the seven-staged tower of Babylon. These\nfacts authorize us to formulate the conclusion that the four-spoked wheel\nof the Sippara tablet, the cross hanging to the king\u2019s chain and the\nfour-horned cap which, like the \u201csquare altar with four horns,\u201d simulated\nthe \u201choly mound,\u201d were alike symbols of Shamash, the \u201cprimitive Sun.\u201d\n\nOn his portrait-stela king Shamsi-Rammanu the younger (B.C. 825-812), the\ngrandson of Asurnasirpal, wears the cross only, hanging from his\nneck-chain and in the text invokes, according to Dr. von Luschan, only\nNindar, who has been proven to be Shamash under another name or title.\nNindar is identified in Professor Jastrow\u2019s hand-book with Ninsia, \u201ca god\nof considerable importance, imported perhaps from some ancient site of\nLagash\u201d ... who \u201cdisappeared from the later pantheon.\u201d ... (_op. cit._ pp.\n90 and 91). It is interesting to find that the king, who like his ancient\npredecessor the Patesi or religious chief Shamsi-Ramman (B.C. 1850) bears\nthe name of the god Shamash, wears as his only ornament the cross which so\nobviously expresses the royal title, \u201clord of the four regions.\u201d\n\nFrom Professor Jastrow (p. 107), we learn that it was customary for the\nearly rulers of Babylon, at the beginning or the close of their dedicatory\ninscriptions, to parade a list of the divinities associated with the\ndistricts that they controlled. Gudea, for instance, enumerates eighteen\ndeities, and these may be taken as indicative of the territorial extent of\nGudea\u2019s jurisdiction. This custom affords an interesting explanation of\nthe sculptured emblems of divinities and the invocations of their names on\nthe above stel\u00e6 and shows that Asurnasirpal and his grandson ruled four\ndistricts from a fifth situated in the centre, whose emblem was the mound\nwith four horns or the cross, both emblems of the royal \u201clord of the four\nregions.\u201d\n\nBearing this custom in mind, we next note that, on his stela at the\nBritish Museum, Shalmaneser II, the son of Asurnasirpal, invokes not only\nthree different divinities, but also one more than his father or son. His\ninvocation is to Ashur, Shamash and Ishtar and to the Babylonian triad\nAnu, Bel and Ea. The emblems of the first three divinities are the same as\non the stel\u00e6 of his father and son, _i. e._ the winged disk, the\nmound-shaped, horned cap and the eight-rayed star. To Anu, Bel and Ea\npertain the emblematic lightning bolt and moon which are clearly visible;\nand a third, almost effaced, group which, upon examination by Mr. Pinches,\nrevealed the presence of six stars or circles. Dr. von Luschan infers that\noriginally the group consisted of seven circles and was the same as that\nsculptured on the stel\u00e6 of Sargon (at Berlin), the bas-reliefs at\nNahr-el-Kelb and at Bavian. On each of these the circles are grouped in\ntwo horizontal rows of three circles while the seventh circle stands to\nthe right, in front and midway between both rows.\n\nIf we assume that the lightning bolt pertained to Anu, the upper, and the\nmoon, the emblem of Night, to Ea, the lower firmament, we find that the\nseven-fold group falls to the lot of Bel and seems to coincide exactly\nwith the recorded fact that the famous zikkurat of Bel at Babylon, for\ninstance, consisted of seven stories; and that it was known as \u201cthe house\nof the seven divisions [regions] of the world,\u201d and that Babylon actually\nwas at one time a seven-fold state, with seven \u201cmountains\u201d=gods=earthly\nrulers.\n\nFinal, positive proof that Assyria, under Sargon II and Esarhaddon, like\nancient Babylon, was organized into seven \u201cdistricts,\u201d seems to be\nfurnished by the seven symbols carved on their stel\u00e6, accompanied by the\ngroup of seven circles which obviously expresses the same as the cuneiform\ncharacter in the inscribed invocation, namely, the word \u201cseven-fold-one\u201d\nor \u201cseven in one,\u201d(102) which was obviously an appropriate designation for\nthe empire as a whole, consisting as it did of seven tribal districts,\nassociated with the seven directions in space to each of which was\nassigned a god, a mountain house, a color, an animal, a celestial body, a\nday and a symbol.\n\nAn extremely suggestive juxtaposition of the numeral seven and a circle\ncontaining a group of five circles, resembling a flower with four petals,\noccurs on the Bavian tablet already cited, on which are also carved two\nemblems: the moon and winged disk; one compact detached group consisting\nof four altars (three surrounded by horns and one surmounted by a ram\u2019s\nhead) and a second detached group consisting of a base into which four\nstaffs or sceptres are inserted. These recur on the fine Sendschirli stela\nof Esarhaddon about which a few words remain to be said. It exhibits the\nnumeral seven=the \u201cseven in one\u201d sign before the king, accompanied by four\ndivinities mounted on animals, the first two being the god riding a double\nmonster, and the seated goddess, both wearing the cone on the high royal\ncap. Carved close to the king\u2019s hand is the group of four staffs or\nsceptres, inserted in a horizontal base, which appear to be the emblems of\nhis lordship over the four regions. Three of these are the same as on the\nBavian relief: the first surmounted by a cone-shaped object(103) beneath\nwhich are two hanging ends of ribbons; the second consisting of a plain\nsingle staff, split so as to form two; the third surmounted by two animal\nheads, each with a single horn. The fourth sceptre on Esarhaddon\u2019s stela\nis like that represented as inserted into one of the altars on the Bavian\nstela, and terminates in a recurved ram\u2019s head. The fourth in the Bavian\ngroup of sceptres somewhat resembles the trident tripartite emblem which\noccurs on the Sargon stela and the Esarhaddon stela of Nahr-el-Kelb\n(_figured_ by Dr. Luschan, _op. cit._ p. 20).\n\nA fresh examination of the bas-relief of Maltaya, described by Layard and\nalready alluded to, reveals a suggestive differentiation in the\nrepresentations of the seven divinities in a row, at each end of which,\nfacing the procession, stands a king. Considering that in Assyria there\nwere governors, the _limmi_, who held offices of limited duration and gave\ntheir names to their years of office, the query naturally suggests itself\nwhether the two \u201ckings\u201d may not also have ruled for fixed periods of seven\nyears, each one of which bore the name of one of the seven divisions.\n\nIt being an accepted fact that the institution of the Sabbath was of\nChaldean and Babylonian origin, it is permissible to assign to the same\nsource the institution of the seven-year period described in Leviticus\nXXV: \u201cBut the seventh year shall be a sabbath of rest unto the land....\nAnd thou shalt number seven Sabbaths of years unto thee, seven times seven\nyears; and the space of the seven sabbaths of years shall be unto thee\nforty-nine years.... And ye shall hallow the fiftieth year\u201d....\n\nAddressing to Assyriologists an appeal for fuller knowledge concerning the\nancient calendar periods of Babylonia-Assyria, I now revert to the Maltaya\nbas-relief and point out that, of the seven divinities, the two principal\nones, a god and goddess, wear a form of cap encircled by horns and\nsurmounted by a cone. One of these two deities is distinguished from all\nothers by his larger size and by the fact that he stands on a double\nanimal and heads the procession holding a recurved sceptre in his hand.\nBehind him follows the goddess Ishtar, holding a large ring in her right\nhand. Her throne, as on the Sendschirli stela, exhibits a ring surmounting\nits high back, to the side of which a group of four circles or disks are\nattached. As several centres of Ishtar cult, already mentioned, have been\ndesignated as fourfold cities it seems possible that the four disks\nalluded to this fact, while the ring crowning the top of the throne, and\nthat she holds, constitutes one of her emblems.... However this may be,\nboth monuments exhibit kings associated with the number seven and Ishtar,\nthe seated goddess, associated with the number four; facts which claim\nfurther investigation and may lead to interesting verifications of the\nnumerical systems of the Assyrians. It should be mentioned here that the\nheads of the five remaining divinities, on the Maltaya bas-relief, are\nsurmounted by a wheel with spokes and that one holds a recurved sceptre,\nlike that of the first, another bears the lightning bolt of Ramman, while\nthree carry the same peculiar double symbol also held by Shamash on the\nSippara tablet. It consists of a large ring like that held by Ishtar and a\nshort staff possibly a fire-stick. In each case the fingers of the right\nhand of the deity clasp the middle of the staff and the ring and the\nappearance of the combined rod and circle closely resembles the upper\nportion of the Egyptian crux ansata. Professor von Luschan has, indeed,\nexpressed the opinion that the ring or circle (of Ishtar) the rod and\ncircle (of Shamash) and the crux ansata must have analogous meanings, a\nview I fully share and shall further support in dealing with the Egyptian\nsymbol.\n\nThe following data will be found to substantiate further the evidence\nproduced concerning the seven-fold organization of Babylonia-Assyria. One\nof the finest bas-relief tablets at the British Museum excavated by Layard\nfrom the ruins of Asurnasirpal\u2019s palace at Nimroud represents in its\ncentre the sacred conventionalized ashera=tree, above which is the winged\ncircle, from the centre of which issues the half figure of the god Assur\n(_cf._ fig. 71, 1). To its right stand two winged figures wearing the\nconical crown with four horns, and necklaces from which hang its\nreproduction in miniature, also the cross, the symbol of Ishtar and the\nmoon. To the left of the tree stand two personages, wearing the high cap\nwith a flat top, central cone and hanging ends, such as are frequently\nrepresented as worn by the kings. The natural inference would be that the\nwinged figures wearing the cap with horns represent high-priests and that\na double hierarchy corresponding to the dual monarchy probably existed at\none time, the result being \u201cfour lords,\u201d two celestial and two\nterrestrial, corresponding to the \u201cfour regions,\u201d two of which pertained\nto the Above or the heaven and two to the Below or earth. A curious\nindication that at one time there were four separate rulers of the four\nregions is furnished by the cap with four horns and the altar whose four\ncorners terminated in horns, when they are connected with the passage in\nRevelations XVII, which refers to Babylonian symbolism and states: \u201cAnd\nthe ten horns that thou sawest are ten kings.\u201d Professor Jastrow states\nthat \u201csimilar horns existed on the Hebrew and Ph\u0153nician altars,\u201d and that\n\u201cif we may believe Herodotus, the great altars at Babylon were made of\ngold\u201d (p. 652).\n\nDoubtlessly, Assyrian texts contain a fund of information yet inaccessible\nto students, concerning the constitution of the state and the\nmodifications it may have undergone in course of time. An exhaustive study\nof the symbols connected with Assyrian kings at different dates, in\nconnection with the text relating his conquests and foundations of\ntemples, may yet reveal the occasional assumption or usurpation by a\nsingle individual of different degrees of power and, possibly, the\nultimate separation and antagonism of hierarchy and monarchy.\n\nThe employment in Assyria and Babylonia of the tree, as a sacred symbol,\nshould next be considered, first, in relation to the other symbols to\nwhich great religious importance was attached. The significance of the\nzikkurat, or seven-staged tower, has already been discussed. Another\nfeature was \u201cthe great basin known as \u2018Apsu,\u2019 the name, it will be\nrecalled, for \u2018the deep\u2019 [_i. e._ the lower firmament]. The name indicates\nthat it was a symbolical representation of the domain of Ea. The zikkurat\nitself being an attempt to reproduce the shape of the earth, the\nrepresentation of the \u2018apsu\u2019 would suggest itself as a natural accessory\nto the temple. The zikkurat and the basin together would thus become the\nliving symbols of the current cosmological conceptions. The comparison\nwith the great \u2019sea\u2019 that stood in the court of Solomon\u2019s temple,\nnaturally suggests itself, and there can be little doubt that the latter\nis an imitation of a Babylonian model\u201d (Jastrow, _op. cit._ 653). It is\nevident from the above that the adoption of the sacred basin as the symbol\nof Ea would naturally be simultaneous with that of miniature \u201cbasins\u201d and\nwater bowls and jars, employed for holding the sacred water used in the\ncult of the Below. Reflection shows that, in the zikkurat, the seat of\nBel=the image of the earth, and in the \u201cApsu\u201d the watery deep and lower\nfirmament of Ea, we have the sacred emblems of two deities of the\nBabylonian triad only. The emblem of Anu, the Heaven or upper firmament,\nis missing and it is naturally in the cult of Anshar=Ashur that it must be\nsought for. The following data will sufficiently show that it was the tree\nor pole and, in all probability, the fire-stick that were connected with\nthe cult of An-shar=\u201call that is above,\u201d or \u201con high.\u201d The resemblance of\nthe name Ashur to the word for tree or pole, the \u201cAshera\u201d of the\nPh\u0153nicians and Hebrews, suggests, moreover, the probability of their\ncommon origin.\n\nAn interesting question on which I have not, as yet, been able to obtain\ninformation, relates to the mode of producing fire, resorted to by the\nBabylonian-Assyrians. The element was, of course, associated with heaven,\nand the fire-god under the name of Gibil or Nusku was termed the \u201cson of\nAnu.\u201d Shamash himself also figures as a personification of fire and it\nseems probable that, in the Babylonian temples in the centre of the square\naltar, a fire was originally kept perpetually burning as an image of\nPolaris. As great stress is laid upon the purifying effect of fire as on\nthat of water in Babylonian literature, it is easy to trace the origin of\nthe offering of burnt sacrifices to the idea that, cast into the sacred\nfire, they became purified and absorbed into its essence, _i. e._ accepted\nby the sacred living image of the central star-god. It seems extremely\nprobable that the primitive employment of a fire-stick by the priesthood,\nfor the production of \u201ccelestial fire,\u201d may have played an important r\u00f4le\nin causing the stick, and thence the pole and tree, to have become the\nadopted symbol of Anu. So little is known even about the origin of\n\u201ctree-worship\u201d itself in ancient Babylonia-Assyria that Professor Jastrow\nadvances the following statement (p. 689).\n\n\u201cOn the seal cylinders there is frequently represented a pole or a\nconventionalized form of a tree, generally in connection with a design\nillustrating the worship of a deity. This symbol is clearly a survival of\nsome tree worship that was once popular. The comparison with the _ashera_\nand pole worship among Ph\u0153nicians and Hebrews is fully justified and is a\nproof of the great antiquity of the symbols which, without becoming a\nformal part of the later cult, retained in some measure a hold upon the\npopular mind.\n\n\u201c \u2018Ashur\u2019 became the god of Assyria as the rulers of the city of Ashur\ngrew in power ... in the various changes of official residences that took\nplace in the course of Assyrian history ... the god took part and his\ncentral seat of worship depended upon the place that the kings chose for\ntheir official residence ... there was always one place\u2014the official\nresidence\u2014which formed the central spot of worship. There the god was\nsupposed to dwell for the time being. One factor, perhaps, that ought to\nbe taken into consideration, in accounting for this movable disposition of\nthe god was that he was not symbolized exclusively by a statue.... His\nchief symbol was a standard that could be carried from place to place....\nThe standard consisted of _a pole_ surrounded by a disk enclosed within\ntwo wings, while above the disk stood the figure of a warrior in the act\nof shooting an arrow (_cf._ fig. 65, 5).... The standard ... which was so\nmade that it could be carried into the thick of the fray in order to\nassure the army of the god\u2019s presence(104) ... followed the camp\neverywhere and when the kings chose to fix upon a new place for their\nmilitary encampment ... the standard would repose in the place selected\u201d\n(Jastrow, _op. cit._ p. 194). To one who like myself has devoted years to\nthe study of the symbolism of primitive people and is familiar with the\nancient Mexican image of the \u201clord of the North\u201d standing in the centre of\na horizontally-placed cross-figure, and with the Chichimecan custom, on\ntaking possession of new territory, to shoot arrows towards the cardinal\npoints, the Ashur standard suggests a single explanation, namely, that it\nwas the symbol of celestial, central rulership and that the god, standing\non a staff which could be turned and aiming his arrow towards the four\ndirections in succession, was an expressive image of Polaris and\nSeptentriones.\n\nFurther ideas associated with the tree by the Babylonian-Assyrians are\nclear since Professor E. B. Tylor has so conclusively shown that certain\nbas-reliefs represent the act of artificially fertilizing the palm tree by\nscattering the male blossom from its cone-shaped bunch, over the female\npalm. In each case this rite is being performed by figures with human\nbodies and large wings, _i. e._ high priests of heaven, and it seems\nevident that it symbolized the mystic life-producing union of heaven and\nearth or of the male and female principles of nature which marked the\nBabylonian-Assyrian New Year\u2019s Day. Given these associations of thought,\nit is easy to see how the New Year became the festival of New Life and how\nthe fertilized tree became the \u201ctree of life,\u201d and its sculptured image a\nmemorial of a new year, possibly recording some record of the actual\nmarriages which took place in the state on that day. The decipherment and\ncomparison of the inscriptions on such tablets, by skilled Assyriologists,\ncan alone enlighten us on this point, but enough appears apparent to\nexplain how the tree could have become associated in Assyria not only with\nlife, but with the life and growth of the state. Moreover the tree or pole\nitself, named ashera, may well have appeared to some Euphratean people, to\nexpress the name Ashur sufficiently clear to become its symbol and\n\u201ccanting arms.\u201d\n\nThe adoption of the shaft or pole, as a symbol of the Celestial Centre,\nmay easily be explained by the fact that, stuck into the ground and\nwatched from a certain position, its upper end would seem to touch Polaris\nand it thus supplied wandering star-observers with a point of fixity in\nspace which, being transportable, facilitated the registration of\ncircumpolar rotation. During many centuries the image of the \u201ccrooked\nserpent,\u201d Nakkasch, the constellation which could be seen each night\nwinding its way around the pole, must have deeply impressed itself upon\nthe minds of the primitive star gazers of the Euphratean valley, and\nconveyed suggestions of imagery, one of which may have created the\nPh\u0153nician caduceus. At a later period when Ursa Major became circumpolar,\nthe \u201cseven lights of heaven\u201d became in turn associated with the stable\ncentre and suggested, in time, the seven-branched candlestick of the\nHebrews which is to this day constructed with a central or principal\nholder, associated with stability. It is remarkable to note the same\nancient fundamental association in the elevated and beautiful imagery\nemployed by the descendant of ancient Euphratean star-worshippers, in\nRevelation IV, in describing his vision: \u201c... And, behold, a throne _was\nset_ in heaven, and _one_ sat on the throne.... And there were seven lamps\nof fire burning before the throne.... And before the throne there was a\nsea of glass like unto crystal: and in the midst of the throne and round\nabout the throne were four beasts....\u201d\n\nThe idea cited by Mr. Robert Brown, of the sacred pole-tree with golden\napples guarded by the constellation Nakkasch, has already been mentioned\nand to this ancient image should be added the celestial tree of life set\nin the midst of the garden of Paradise, whence \u201cwent out a river to water\nthe garden and from thence it was parted and became four heads.\u201d... It is\nas easy to see how the standard of Assur, which always marked the central\nplace of worship, should have been evolved, as it is to realize why the\nfire-stick, rod or sceptre should have been adopted by monarchs as an\nemblem of central rulership, and why, finally, each centre of government\nshould have adopted some specific symbol which, mounted on the staff,\nbecame its tribal or national emblem. It does not appear hazardous to\ndesignate as such the ornamented staffs already described, which are\nrepresented on the bas-reliefs, in groups of four, a number agreeing with\nthat of the \u201cfour regions.\u201d It has already been pointed out that a group\nof four sceptres, corresponding to the royal title \u201clord of four regions,\u201d\nis carved close to the hand of Esarhaddon on the fine Sendschirli tablet\nat Berlin.\n\nIn Babylonia, the local deity of Girsu was entitled \u201cthe lord of the true\nsceptre,\u201d \u201cthe lord of the right-hand sceptre,\u201d a name which implies that,\nwhere dual rulership prevailed, a distinction was made between right-hand\nand left-hand sceptres, a point to which I shall revert later on in\ndealing with Egypt. In Northern Assyria when the cult of Nabu superseded\nthat of Marduk, his temple was named \u201cthe house of the sceptre of the\nworld\u201d and Nebuchadnezzar declares that it is he \u201cwho gives the sceptre of\nsovereignty to kings to rule over the land\u201d (Jastrow, _op. cit._ 129).\n\nSimultaneously with the staff, the cross and wheel also became emblems of\nsovereignty. It has already been shown that the cross and four-spoked\nwheel of Shamash were synonymous signs. It remains to be shown how the\nwheel was employed in Babylonia and Assyria as an emblem of royalty. The\nrepresentation of Shamash at Sippar exhibits his wheel resting, in a\nperpendicular position, on a table. Attached to the wheel are two cords\nwhich are held by a \u201cgod\u201d and his consort, who appear to be directing the\ncourse of the wheel. We thus see that, whereas the disk or wheel of Assur,\nthe central god, revolved on its own axis, and was provided with wings,\nsignifying a\u00ebrial and celestial motion, the wheel of Shamash was\nassociated with a \u201clord and lady,\u201d and the symbolism appears to express\nthat they were the directors of the \u201cwheel of the law\u201d of terrestrial\ngovernment. It is well known that, beside the throne, the emblem of\npermanent repose, the Assyrian monarchs also used the chariot as a royal\nprerogative.\n\nIn the Gilgamesh epic the goddess Ishtar, on conferring sovereignty upon\nGilgamesh, says: \u201cI will place thee on a chariot of lapis-lazuli and gold,\nwith wheels of gold....\u201d On studying the Nimroud bas-reliefs in the\nBritish Museum I noted the fact that the trappings of the horse driven by\nking Asurnasirpal, who is represented as standing in his two-wheeled\nchariot, are decorated with crosses. It is impossible not to recognize the\naffinity of the \u201cwheel of the law\u201d and the \u201clord of the wheel\u201d of India\nwith the Assyrian symbols of Polaris and of central rulership and to\nappreciate the na\u00efve ingenuity of the idea of making the driving of the\nchariot by the king represent his control of the rotating wheels of state\nand government of the four quarters from a stable centre.(105)\n\nAs another example of the Assyrian employment of the cross-symbol, the\nbas-relief at the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, should be mentioned, as it\ndisplays a winged bird-headed human figure, whose garments are embroidered\nwith crosses.\n\nKing Asurnasirpal, who is alternately figured on his throne or in his\nchariot, is frequently represented as wearing on his garments and\nbracelets another familiar and expressive emblem of centralization and\nunity in diversity, the composite flower or rosette.\n\nThe sacred ship or ark of the Babylonian temple remains to be discussed.\nDiodorus Seculus says that, according to Babylonian notions, \u201cthe world is\n\u2018a boat turned upside down\u2019 and resting on the waters. The appearance in\noutline of this image presented the three divisions of the universe: the\nheavens=Anu upheld by the serpent body of Tiamat; the earth, the dwelling\nof Bel-Marduk, the \u2018chief of gods;\u2019 and the watery deep or \u2018Apsu\u2019 beneath,\nthe dwelling of Ea\u201d (Jastrow). This imagery authorizes the inference that\nthe sacred ship or ark was associated with this conception of the earth as\na boat resting on the line dividing the sky from the watery deep. It can\nreadily be seen how a maritime people would be inclined to fancy that the\ncelestial bodies floated in the sky on invisible boats and that a single\none among them was apparently resting on a stable rock or mountain around\nwhich other stars circled perpetually. That an analogous train of thought\nshould have caused the ultimate consecration of a tabernacle in the form\nof a ship, to the central deity, entitled \u201cthe great mountain,\u201d appears as\ninevitable as the idea that all life proceeded from this source. Professor\nJastrow tells us that the early significance of the custom of carrying the\ngods in consecrated ships became lost, but that it survived in Babylonia\nand Egypt and that the ark of the Hebrews appears, similarly, to have been\noriginally a ship of some kind. I am indebted to Dr. Wallis Budge for the\ninteresting information that each day, in the temple of Ptah at Memphis,\nan image of the god Seker was dragged around the altar by the priests.\n\nBringing the preceding tentative study of the ancient civilization of\nBabylonia-Assyria to a close, I venture to affirm that, imperfect as it\nis, it clearly establishes certain important points connected with the\npresent investigation. It demonstrates that a primitive pole-star worship\nexisted and still exists in the Euphratean valley, accompanied by the\nemployment of the swastika or cross-symbol and by the identical\nfundamental set of ideas which form the basis not only of other Asiatic,\nbut also of the American civilizations. The Middle is associated with\nspecial sanctity, fixity and supremacy of power and rule, extending in\nrotation over the Above and Below and Four Quarters. This seven-fold\ndivision of the universe extended throughout the entire organization of\nthe state and gave rise to certain logical developments of thought and\nsymbolism, analogous to those which have been traced elsewhere.\n\nPostponing further comment, investigation will next be transferred to the\nvalley of the Nile, whose inhabitants, at various periods of their\nhistory, came closely into contact with the people of Asia Minor.\n\nEGYPT.\n\nPausing at the entrance to a much explored domain with a fitting\nrealization of being a novice and an intruder therein, I find myself\nencouraged to advance by the frank admission recently made by one of the\nleading authorities in Egyptology. In his \u201cNotes for travellers in Egypt,\u201d\nDr. Wallis Budge, the Assistant in the Department of Egyptian and Assyrian\nantiquities, of the British Museum, openly states that \u201cthe religion of\nthe ancient Egyptians is one of the most difficult problems of Egyptology\nand though a great deal has been written about it during the last few\nyears and many difficulties have been satisfactorily explained, there\nstill remain unanswered a large number of questions connected with it. In\nall religious texts the reader is always assumed to have a knowledge of\nthe subject treated of by the writer, and no definite statement is made on\nthe subject concerning which very little, comparatively, is known by\nstudents of to-day\u201d (The Nile, London, 1890, p. 71).\n\nAfter having traced, as I have done, throughout ancient America, China,\nIndia and Babylonia-Assyria, one and the same fundamental, artificial\nscheme of state organization, it was with keenest interest and a new sense\nof comprehension of the ancient Egyptian civilization that I noted certain\nfacts which I shall now proceed to present.\n\nThey will be found to show that ancient Egypt supplies us with the\ninstance of a civilization in which the fundamental set of ideas,\ndeveloped from primitive pole-star worship, prevailed during thousands of\nyears and had reached a high stage of evolution at a period anterior to\nabout B.C. 4000.\n\nTERRITORIAL DIVISIONS OF ANCIENT EGYPT.\n\nAccording to Dr. Wallis Budge, the ancient Egyptians called their land Bak\nor Baket, Ta-Mera and Khem or Kamt, also Ta-Nehat, \u201cthe land of the\nsycamore\u201d and the land of \u201cthe eye of Horus.\u201d It was divided into two\nparts: Upper Egypt, Ta-res or Ta-kema=\u201cthe southern land,\u201d symbolized by\nthe vulture; and Lower Egypt, Ta-Meh, Mah-Ti or Meh-Ta, literally,\n\u201cNorth-land,\u201d symbolized by the serpent. Two great ancient cities or\ncapitals were respectively known as Annu Meht, \u201cAnnu of the North,\u201d and\nAnnu Qemat, \u201cAnnu of the South.\u201d The kings of Egypt styled themselves\nSuten-Net, \u201cKing of the North and South\u201d and Nebtaui, \u201clord of the two\nearths.\u201d As such the king wore the double crown made up of the tesher or\nnet, the red crown of Northern or Lower Egypt and the hetet or het, the\nwhite crown of Southern or Upper Egypt (The Nile, p. 27).\n\nIt will be shown further on that the high white and low red crowns were\nrespectively worn by the king and the queen at a certain period of\nEgyptian history. It is well known that, in numerous pictorial\nrepresentations, the Egyptian men are painted with red, but the women with\nwhite skins. The above facts show that there existed a curious association\nof red with the north and the male sex, and of white with the south and\nthe female sex.(106)\n\nIt is a familiar fact that the Egyptian hieroglyph and determinative sign\nfor town, city or village consisted of a circle with four divisions. The\nusual form of this sign, the phonetic value of which is nu or nut, is\nshown as fig. 60, 1, _a_. On a bas-relief preserved at the Ashmolean\nMuseum, Oxford, I noted the variant 1, _b_. It is interesting to collate\nthese signs with the cross-symbols (2) which express the sound of uu, un,\nand ur, and to note that the sign for a capital in Egypt contains a\ndivision into four=un or ur, and that the latter word is actually the\nfamiliar name of the famous centre in Babylonia where cities laid out in\nthe form of a square and \u201cfour-god cities\u201d existed, and the kings were\ntermed \u201clords of the four regions\u201d and \u201ckings of Sumer and Akkad,\u201d the two\nancient divisions of the Babylonian state.\n\nIt thus appears doubly significant that, in Egyptian, the word ur\nsignifies \u201cgreat, great one\u201d and is also the name of a god, which is\nexpressed in hieroglyphic writing by the cross, a mouth and a seated god,\nthe determinative for divinity. What is more, ur-u=chiefs, ur-t=the name\nof a crown and ur-t=those who rest, all of which words show that the\nEgyptian ur was associated with the idea of divinity, greatness, crowned\nchieftainship, repose and the cross-symbol which is incorporated in nut,\nthe sign for capital or city.\n\nThe fact that the symbols for the two great divisions of ancient Egypt,\nthe red crown of Northern or Lower Egypt, and the white crown of Southern\nor Upper Egypt, are found surmounting the sign nut (3), sufficiently shows\nthat this symbol also stood for an extended capital, a state, and that\nboth \u201clands\u201d constituted at one time separate units or reproductions of\nthe identical plan. Returning to the ancient capitals known as the \u201cAnnu\nof the North\u201d and the \u201cAnnu of the South:\u201d according to Dr. Wallis Budge\nthe first occupied the site of Heliopolis and was identical with the city\nof On mentioned in Genesis (XLI: 45). The Annu Qemat was Hermonthis, the\nmodern Menth, Armant or Erment, situated on the west bank of the Nile a\nlittle to the south of the ruins of Thebes. It is noteworthy that the name\nfor Thebes, given in the cuneiform inscriptions and Hebrew scriptures, No\n(Ezek. XXX:4) and No-am-on (Nahum III:8), is in one case the simple\ninversion of On, the Hebrew name of Heliopolis, the Northern Annu, while\nin the second instance the name of Thebes incorporates both forms.\n\nThe allusion to the \u201csquare of the city of Edfu,\u201d and to buildings laid\nout on a square ground-plan, contained in inscriptions cited by\nBrugsch,(107) also furnishes an indication, which can doubtless be\nmultiplied, that, as in Babylonia, Egyptian cities were sometimes built in\nthe form of a square. In Egyptian hieroglyphics, the square (slightly\nelongated) is employed to express the consonant _p_. The sign appears to\nhave been cryptic and to have constituted the symbol of the god Ptah, \u201cThe\nOpener,\u201d considered as the most ancient of Egyptian gods. According to Dr.\nWallis Budge, \u201cthe sign is the picture of a door made up of a number of\nboards fastened together by three cross-pieces at the back, and there can\nbe no doubt that the word for door was connected with the verb pth=to\nopen, and that it was pronounced something like ptah (compare the Hebrew\npethah). The sound of the first letter of ptah being _p_, the phonetic\nvalue of the door became _p_\u201d (First steps in Egyptian, p. 5). To the\nabove I add the observation that the plain square or outline of the door,\nwithout indications of boards and cross-pieces, is usually employed in the\npublished texts. The association of the square, representing a door with\nthree cross-beams, and expressing the sound ptah is particularly\ninteresting when connected with the word for earth or land=ta, and the\nmethod of expressing the word universe=taui, by the threefold repetition\nof the sign ta, which resembles a cross-beam (fig. 60, 5). An interesting\nassociation of the square with earth or land is seen in one of the signs\nfor province or nome=sept or hesp, which consists of a series of squares,\nevidently representing theoretical territorial divisions and possibly a\nsystem of canal-irrigation. Other suggestive signs for sep consist of a\ncircle containing two strokes; a circle enclosing four dots and a double\ncircle (fig. 60, 4). It is interesting to find an isosceles triangle\nemployed, with a slight addition, to express the word ta=land, as well as\nsept=province (fig. 60, 4 and 5), and to find on analyzing the circular\nsign for nut=sky, which is likewise the determinative for city, that it\ncontains four triangles. These converge towards the centre, as do the\ntriangular sides of the square pyramid, and thus the sign nut and the\npyramid clearly appear to express a whole divided into four parts, the\nsquare form being connected with earth and the circle with the sky.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 60.\n\n\nA proof that the quadriform organization was extensively employed in\nancient Egypt, is furnished by Dr. Wallis Budge\u2019s statement that each nome\nor province was divided into four parts, and had its capital or \u201cnut.\u201d The\ninference is that each nome constituted a miniature reproduction of the\nstate and that the sign nut represented its theoretical plan. On the other\nhand, the fact that the triangle constitutes one sign for the nome itself,\nindicates that, originally, the nome was identified as one of four\ndivisions of the state only and that, like Babylon, Egypt must have been\ntheoretically divided, not only into two main divisions, but also into\nfour regions, corresponding to the\n\nNorth=Meh-ta, literally North land.\nWest=Amen-ta, literally Hidden land.\nSouth=Resu.\nEast=Aba.\n\nIn the extracts from the Pyramid texts published by Dr. Wallis Budge\n(Pyramid of Unas, Fifth dynasty), the following invocation occurs: \u201cO gods\nof the west, O gods of the east, O gods of the south, O gods of the north,\nfour these, who embrace _the four quarters of the earth holy_.\u201d These four\nquarters are represented in hieroglyphics by the sign for land=ta,\nrepeated four times, which thus express, literally, \u201cthe four lands\u201d or\nregions. Allusion is also made in the same inscription, to the \u201cfour\nfields of heaven.\u201d(108)\n\nThe four gods, termed by Egyptologists the \u201cgenii of the dead,\u201d were Amset\nor Mestha, Hapi, Tuaumutef and Kebhsenuf, and it was the custom to place\nthe canopic vases representing them under the bier. The canopic vases\nwere, however, also supposed to be under the protection of four sky\ngoddesses, identified with the cardinal points, whose names are usually\ngiven as Isis, Nephthys, Neith and Serk-t(?). A particularly interesting\ninstance of the employment of the cross-symbol in connection with the four\n\u201cgods of the horizon,\u201d as they are termed, is to be found in the Book of\nthe Dead, published by Lepsius and reproduced by Dr. Wallis Budge\n(Dwellers on the Nile, p. 158). The four gods in mummy form, stand in a\nline behind a table laden with offerings. A large crux decussata (St.\nAndrew\u2019s cross) is painted on the right shoulder of the foremost god, a\nfact to which I shall revert and discuss further in dealing with the\ncross-symbol and swastika in Egypt. Having traced quadruplicate\nterritorial divisions and quaternions of gods, let us next present proofs\nof an organization of the population into four \u201craces.\u201d\n\nDr. Wallis Budge, referring to Chabas and Naville, states that \u201cthe\nEgyptians of the later empire believed that Ra-Harmachis, attacked his\nfoes, who fled in all directions from before him. Those who came to the\nsouth became the Cushites, those who came to the north became the Amu,\nthose who came to the west the Libyans and those who came to the east the\nShasu, and thus were the four races of mankind made\u201d (The Dwellers on the\nNile, p. 53).\n\nThe fact that the Sphinx has been designated as the image of Ra-Harmachis\n_i. e._ Heru-em-chut and of his human representative, and that the\ndistribution of people to the cardinal points and the origin of four races\nof men is assigned to him, are particularly interesting and suggestive,\nespecially in connection with the familiar table of nations given by\nMoses, who says \u201cand the sons of Ham, Cush and Mizraim and Phut and\nCanaan\u201d (Gen. X:6). Dr. Wallis Budge states that Ham or Kham is the same\nas Khem and is the name Kamt, _i. e._ black, by which the Egyptians\ngenerally called their land. I venture to point out that in the following\npassages the name Ham seems to be more applicable to a deity such as\nAmen-Ra or to his human representative a king, than to Egypt itself: \u201cAnd\nsmote all the firstborn in Egypt and the chief of their strength _in the\ntabernacles of Ham_\u201d and again \u201cWondrous works _in the land of Ham_.\u201d...\n\nIt is well known that Mizraim, the second name given above, was employed\nby the Hebrews as a designation for Egypt. The inhabitants of the region\nof Cush are represented on Egyptian monuments and we are told that \u201cat the\noutset they appear to have had a religion and speech akin to that of the\nEgyptians. We find Phut most probably, in the Punt of the inscriptions,\nthe land ... situated to the south of Egypt on both sides of the Red sea.\nThe fourth son [of Ham], Canaan, is represented by the original\ninhabitants of Canaan, who were probably near relations of the Egyptians\u201d\n(Wallis Budge, The Dwellers on the Nile, p. 52). While tradition and\ndocumentary evidence thus associates the four sons of Ham with certain\nregions and cardinal points, Egyptian monuments exhibit representations of\npeople of four different colors, _i. e._ red, yellow, black and white.\n\n\u201cThe ancient Egyptians ... recognized four races of men. They themselves\nbelonged to the \u2018Rot\u2019 or red men; the yellow men they called \u2018Namu\u2019\u2014it\nincluded the Asiatic races; the black men were called \u2018Nahsu,\u2019 and the\nwhite men \u2018Tam-hu.\u2019 The following figures (fig. 61) are copied from Nott\nand Gliddon\u2019s \u2018Types of Mankind,\u2019 p. 85, and were taken by them from the\ngreat works of Belzoni, Champollion and Lepsius\u201d (Donelly, Atlantis, p.\n195).\n\nPursuing our investigations of the territorial divisions of Egypt, we\nlearn, from Mr. Wallis Budge, that collectively there were 42 nomes in\nUpper and Lower Egypt. This number is identical with that of the 42 gods\nrepresented in the Book of the Dead as being with Osiris in the hall of\nTwo Truths where the dead were judged. The 42 \u201cjudges of the dead\u201d are\nrepresented as seated figures, with human or animal heads, and are equally\ndivided into two groups. From the \u201cnegative confession\u201d which the deceased\nmakes to his judges, we learn that each god was identified with a\nlocality, some amongst them being addressed as \u201ccoming out from\u201d such\nimportant cities as Heliopolis, Sais, Bubastis, etc. The inference I\nventure to make is that these 42 judges were the gods of the 42 nomes who,\nwith Osiris, the chief god and the \u201cPresident,\u201d formed the council of\ngods, which judged and ordered the affairs of men.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n         Figure 61. The Races Of Men According To The Egyptians.\n\n\nIt is moreover natural to suppose that terrestrial administrations of\njustice must also have been executed by a supreme council of men, composed\nof the king, the living image of Osiris, and the chiefs of the 42 nomes of\nUpper and Lower Egypt, who personified, as elsewhere, the totemic divinity\nof tribe or district. Postponing further discussion of the number 42,\nassociated with nomes and gods, let us examine further data concerning the\nterritorial organization of ancient Egypt.\n\nDr. Wallis Budge tells us that, \u201cduring the rule of the Greeks (B.C.\n342-332), Egypt was divided into three parts: Upper, Central and Lower\nEgypt. Central Egypt consisted of seven nomes, and was called Heptanomis\u201d\n(Nile, p. 28). The seven-storied pyramid of S\u00e2kkarah and the employment of\nthe signs expressing \u201cthree regions\u201d and \u201cfour regions or lands,\u201d to\nsignify the whole land or universe, prove that, long before Greek rule,\nthe ancient Egyptians, like the Babylonians, employed the heptameredal\nsystem. Thus, according to Herodotus, \u201cThere are seven classes of\nEgyptians, and of these some are called priests, others warriors, others\nherdsmen, others swineherds, others tradesmen, others interpreters and\nlastly pilots; such are the classes of Egyptians; they take their names\nfrom the employments they exercise\u201d (Euterpe II, 164). Passages from Prof.\nFlinders Petrie\u2019s History of Egypt (Vol. II, pp. 156 and 185) afford,\nmoreover, instances of the conquest of a heptarchic government by an\nEgyptian king and the employment, in about B.C. 1500, of the number seven,\nas a mystic or sacred number, in a letter from a Syrian prince to the\nEgyptian king.\n\nIn the record of the triumphal return of Aa-kheperu-ra, the seventh king\nof the eighteenth dynasty (B.C. 1449-1423), it is said: \u201cHis Majesty\nreturned in joy of heart to his father Amen; his own hand, with his mace,\nhad struck down the seven chiefs, which were of the territory of Pakhsi\n(near Aleppo)\u201d.... \u201cSix of these enemies were hanged in front of the walls\nof Thebes; the seventh [probably the chief of chiefs], was brought to\nNubin and was hanged on the wall of the town of Napata, to show forth for\nall time the victories of the king among all people of the negro land,\ninasmuch as he had taken possession of the nations of the south and he had\nbound the nations of the north and the ends of the whole extent of the\nearth on which the sun rises and sets, without finding any opposition,\naccording to the command of his father Amen-ra of Thebes.\u201d A letter from a\nSyrian prince to Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379), opens thus: \u201cTo the king,\nmy master, my god, my sun, this is said: Yatibiri, the servant, the dust\nof thy feet, at the feet of my king, my master, my god, my sun, seven\ntimes, and seven times more, I fall down.(109)\u201d...\n\nWhile the above data suffice to establish that more than a thousand years\nbefore Greek rule was established in Egypt its inhabitants were familiar\nwith the seven-fold scheme of organization, the following extremely\ninteresting portion of Brugsch\u2019s monumental work, already cited,\nindirectly teaches much concerning the divisions of the land of Egypt. The\nancient Egyptian astronomers regarded the nocturnal heaven as the exact\ncounterpart of the land of Egypt (I, p. 176). In the inscriptions, the\nfirmament is frequently considered geographically, as a region comprising\ncountries surrounded by seas and traversed by rivers and canals, and\ncovered with cities and houses and divided into nomes which corresponded\nto those of Egypt, excepting in point of number, there being thirty-six\ncelestial nomes. According to the inscriptions and pictures in the royal\ntombs at Thebes, there was a celestial eastern sea (uat-ura abti), a\nwestern sea (uat-ura amentti) and a northern sea (uat-ura mahtet or\nmehtat). Special mention is made of \u201cthe waters\u201d and land of the \u201cnorthern\nplace of light above the constellation of the Great Bear.\u201d\n\nThe lands of Punet (Punt?), Uthenet, Kenemti and Sa-nutart-mahti, \u201cthe\nnorthern land of God\u201d are designated, beside other names which correspond\nto the terrestrial geographical situation of outlying foreign countries\nknown to the Egyptians. There was a celestial city, \u201cAnu or On,\u201d whose\neastern and western sides or places of light are frequently mentioned. The\nmention of a single Anu or On, names which are found applied to the most\nancient capitals of the land of Egypt, is particularly noteworthy. It will\nbe shown further on, upon Sir Norman Lockyer\u2019s authority, that, in the\nexact centre of the circular zodiac at Denderah, the jackal, expressing\nthe name Anubis, \u201cis located at the pole of the equator and obviously\nrepresents the present Little Bear.\u201d This and other data establish beyond\na doubt that the celestial Anu, On or No, was supposed to be situated in\nPolaris and that the terrestrial capital was intended to be the\ncounterpart of the apparent seat of central rule and government according\nto fixed laws and order of rotation. The idea that, after death, the human\nsoul lived again in the celestial sphere is shown in the following address\nto a departed spirit contained in the Bulak papyrus cited by Brugsch: \u201cThe\nimages of the gods of the Southern and Northern countries appear to thee\nin the thirty-six nomes; thou goest where they are as a perfect soul, thou\ndoest what pleases thee in the heaven, thou art amongst the constellations\nof the thirty-six Beka.\u201d\n\nThis word is rendered by Brugsch as the \u201cDekane\u201d in German and I have been\nunable to find its exact equivalent in English. The Dekanes are alluded to\nin an inscription from the Ptolemaic period cited by Brugsch (_op. cit._\nI, p. 135) as follows: \u201cThey shine forth after the sun has set. They _run\nin a circle_, and continually release each other. They become apparent at\nsunset at hours varying with the seasons.\u201d The Dekane constellations or\nstars were those which rose at the beginning of each decade or period of\nten days, which constituted the Egyptian \u201cweek.\u201d There were thirty-six or\n4\u00d79 of these in the Egyptian year, at the end of which an epact of five\ndays was added, each day being consecrated to one of the five chief gods.\nDeferring the discussion of the Egyptian numerical calendaric system, I\nmerely point out here the obvious agreement between the number of\ncelestial nomes = 36, the number of decades in the year of 360 days to\nwhich should be added the familiar fact that each day and decade had its\nspecial \u201cgod.\u201d Laying stress upon the point that in ancient Egypt we find\nthirty-six celestial, geographical districts, corresponding to the\nthirty-six decades of the year and to thirty-six gods, I take pleasure in\npointing out how clearly the following passages of Sir Norman Lockyer\u2019s\n\u201cDawn of Astronomy\u201d show that the thirty-six gods had as many human\nrepresentatives, priests, who performed certain religious rites and homage\nin the chief temple in a fixed order of rotation. \u201cEven at Phil\u00e6 in late\ntimes, in the temple of Osiris, there were 360 bowls for sacrifices, which\nwere filled daily with milk by a specified rotation of priests. At\nAcanthus there was a perforated cask into which one of the 360 priests\npoured water from the Nile daily;\u201d an enforced act of obedience recalling\nthe punishment of the daughters of Dana\u00eb. As Sir Norman Lockyer justly\nremarks \u201cthese temple ceremonials are an evidence of their antiquity and\nmay be regarded as traditions preserved by the conservative priesthood.\u201d\n\nI am inclined to regard the above mentioned acts of empty homage as\nsurvivals of conditions strictly analogous to those which existed in\nancient America, where each geographical district of the state was\nassociated with a class of people under their representative, and a day of\nthe calendar on which obligations towards the central government, such as\nthe paying of tribute, had to be performed in a fixed order of rotation,\ncorresponding to the annual circuit of the circumpolar constellations\naround the pole star.\n\nDuring centuries the most remarkable of these, Ursa Major, like the hand\nof a great celestial dial, moved by an unseen ruling power apparently\nlocated in Polaris, became visible after dusk and pointed towards the four\nquarters of heaven in succession, at intervals of nine decades of days. As\nin China and elsewhere at the present day, its position was referred to as\na guide in determining time, during the night, and the seasons; and\nmankind became familiarized with the idea of a changeless inexorable law\nand order governing the universe and determining human periodical\nactivities, and thus directly influencing individual lives. Added to this\nthe idea of a heavenly kingdom, traversed by the celestial Nile, the Milky\nWay, and in which each familiar locality in Egypt had its counterpart, it\nis easy to follow the spread of the belief that there was a close\nconnection between the stars and their terrestrial counterparts and that\nthey directly influenced the destinies of individuals, each of which had\nits particular star in the sky.\n\nThe following portions of the decree inscribed B.C. 238 on the famous\ntrilingual stela of Canopus, preserved at Gizeh, contain what appear to me\nto be distinct allusions to the ideal of a terrestrial kingdom, laid out\nand governed in accordance with the system and fixed laws observed as\nexisting in the heavens and governing the movements of celestial bodies.\nThe hieroglyphic text records the establishment of festivals \u201cin accord\nwith the existing fundamental laws upon which the heavens [the movements\nof heavenly bodies] are established.\u201d... The Greek translation of this\npassage reads: \u201caccording to the now existing order of the world\n[universe]\u201d and the demotic version is: \u201cin accordance with the scheme,\nupon which the heaven is established \u201d (Brugsch, _op. cit._ I, p. 180).\nFurther facts concerning celestial and terrestrial territorial divisions\nremain to be examined and discussed.\n\nA number of representations exist in which the figure of the sky-goddess,\nNut, appears as though stretched across the vault of heaven, her feet\nresting on the earth in the east and the tips of her fingers touching the\nhorizon in the west. A study of certain texts cited by Brugsch clearly\nshows that it was for very practical and sensible reasons that the\nEgyptian astronomers had adopted the plan of an imaginary human form\nstretched across the nocturnal heaven, as it enabled the position of\nconstellations and stars to be definitely located. Lepsius has shown that,\nin a series of inscriptions in the tombs of Ramses VI and Ramses IX, the\nmovements and positions of stars are given in connection with the parts of\nan imaginary human form in the sky. It is thus said of a star that it was\nsituated: \u201cin the middle of the breast, in the right eye, the left eye,\nthe right ear, the left ear, the right arm, the left arm, the left thigh.\u201d\n\nBrugsch (_op. cit._ I, p. 187) quotes the opinion of Lepsius that the\nparts alluded to in the above inscriptions, referred to an imaginary male\nfigure stretched across the firmament and viewed _en face_, and publishes\na theoretical reconstruction of this imaginary figure. It recalls that of\na Buddha and suggests the idea that the Egyptian schematical figure must\nhave also been imagined as seated on the stable centre of the heaven.\nEgyptian astronomical texts, which I shall cite further on, appear to me\nto show distinctly that the lotus flower (the name for flower being ankh)\nwas employed to express the sound ankh, which means \u201clife\u201d and that it\noccurs in connection with other symbols of the pole-star god.\n\nReturning to the representations of Nut stretched across the sky, it\nshould be noted that this employment of the human form belongs to the same\ncategory as the Sphinx, which appears to have been the terrestrial\ncounterpart of the celestial schematical figure. On the other hand, the\nsign nut, consisting of a circle with four divisions, like the pyramid,\nrepresents the successful attempt to express the same thought in abstract,\ngeometrical form, such as would be intelligible to an initiated,\nintellectual minority only.\n\nIt will be seen further on that I advance the view that the pyramid, being\na miniature reproduction of the scheme of the universe, contained a sacred\ncentral chamber, representing the sacred Middle, and that this was\ndestined to be the \u201chouse of eternal repose\u201d for the dead king, the\nrepresentative of the universal god.\n\nAs Dr. Wallis Budge tells us: \u201cIf the deceased succeeds in passing the\nordeal [of judgment after death] satisfactorily, he comes forth at once as\na god (there is no place of probation), he becomes identified with Osiris,\nin whose shape his mummy is made\u201d (The Dwellers on the Nile, p. 177).\n\nThe following text, from the inscription on an amulet found on the neck of\nthe mummy of a young girl, preserved at the Berlin Museum, is explained in\nthe official catalogue of the museum (p. 343), as signifying that \u201cthe\nmummy was supposed to lie in the centre of the whole world:\u201d \u201cThe sky is\nlocked over the earth, the earth is locked over the beyond and the beyond\nis locked over this strong mummy-case of the departed\nOsiris-Hathor-tsen-usire....\u201d As the \u201cbeyond\u201d in the inscription evidently\nsignifies the \u201cunderworld,\u201d the idea that the mummy case, resting on the\nearth, was being pressed upon from beneath by the underworld, and from\nabove by the sky, is clearly conveyed and is in keeping with the sign for\nuniverse, already alluded to, which represents three regions superposed.\nThe \u201cdeification\u201d of the mummy, which is named \u201cOsiris-Hathor,\u201d is an\ninteresting instance of the idea that the mummy became the image not only\nof the goddess Hathor but also of the god Osiris, or Ptah, who is usually\nrepresented in the form of a mummy.\n\nA remarkable instance of a king in a pyramid being actually worshipped and\nbearing the name of Ptah, added to his own, is given by Professor Flinders\nPetrie (_op. cit._ II, p. 257). \u201c... The figure of the king Teta, entitled\nTeta-mer-en-ptah, is placed in a triangle, which is suggestive of a\npyramid (as Men-nefer is written with the same triangle on this naos).\nRather than suppose a new king at this period, we should see in this the\nworship of a pyramid king, Teta, of the sixth dynasty....\u201d The association\nof Ptah, who is regarded as perhaps the oldest of all gods of Egypt, with\nthe square=ptah and the pyramid and the mummy, is of extreme interest,\nespecially as Egyptian texts contain references to \u201ca single god, who\nbecomes a quaternary of gods\u201d (Brugsch II, 408), and we therefore see that\nthe idea of Four in One was a familiar one. The personification of Ptah\nusually consists of a mummy holding a sceptre, expressing strength, life\nand stability. Under the form of Osiris he usually holds the curved\nsceptre denoting dominion, beside the symbols for life, rule and power,\nand is entitled the \u201clord of the holy land, lord of eternity, prince of\neverlasting, the president of the gods, and the head of the corridor of\nthe tomb.\u201d Considering that in all pyramids hitherto explored, the\ncorridor of the tomb is directed towards Polaris, it appears obvious that\nthe supreme god of \u201clife, strength, eternity, rule and power,\u201d was a\npersonification of Polaris, the stability of which was na\u00efvely expressed\nby the body in mummy form symbolizing the absolute repose and immobility\nof death, combined with an animated face and the symbols of living, active\npower.\n\nAs the divine land is expressly designated as the divine land of the north\nin astronomical texts and that this celestial region had its terrestrial\ncounterpart, it is naturally in Lower Egypt, that the holy land of the\nnorth must be sought.\n\nInvestigation speedily proves that the most ancient vestiges of\ncivilization are situated in the neighborhood of Memphis which, under the\nkings of the fourth and the sixth dynasties, reached its height of\nsplendor. It is in the land of the north, Meh-ta, that the extremely\nancient seven-storied pyramid of Sakk\u00e2rah lies, and that there exists the\narea of about thirty kilometers in which eighty pyramids are concentrated,\nand which constitutes the great burial ground of countless generations of\nEgyptians of all periods. A curious detail, to which I shall refer again,\nis the affinity in sound of the name for \u201cnorth land,\u201d Meh-ta, and\nmit=death or the dead, and the undeniable resemblance of both words to the\nNahuatl, ancient Mexican mictlan=the North, or underworld, from\nmic-quiztli=death and tlan=land (_cf._ Egyptian ta=land).\n\nIn Egypt, as elsewhere, the western horizon, below which sun, moon and\nstars disappeared, was naturally regarded as the entrance to the region of\nthe underworld. The west being therefore designated amen-ta, \u201cthe hidden\nor concealed land or region,\u201d it is all the more significant to find the\nsingle entrance and exit corridor of each pyramid directed, not towards\nthe west, the underworld, but towards the stable centre of the northern\nregion of the sky. It would therefore seem as though the intention had\nbeen to establish a direct line of communication between the tomb chamber\nin the centre of the pyramid and the divine \u201cnorthern land of God,\u201d the\nsacred mountain Manu and the shining celestial city Anu, lying \u201cbetween\nthe east and west,\u201d _i. e._ in the Middle, where the supreme star-god\ndwelt in eternal repose. An interesting proof that the longing of the\nsouls of the dead tended towards the north is furnished by the common\nprayer-formula: \u201cmay my soul ... inhale the north-wind and drink from the\nstream.\u201d\n\nBefore advancing further, the following authoritative statements,\nestablishing the supremacy of pole-star cult in ancient Egypt, should be\npresented.\n\nAccording to Sir Norman Lockyer, \u201cIt seems extremely probable that the\nworship of circumpolar constellations went on in Babylonia as well as in\nEgypt in the earliest times we can get at\u201d (_op. cit._ p. 363). \u201cThere can\nbe no question that the chief ancient constellation in the North was the\nGreat Bear or, as it was then pictured, the Thigh (Meskhet)\u201d (p. 216). \u201cIn\nthe exact centre of the circular zodiac of Denderah we find the jackal\n[Anubis] located at the pole of the equator: it obviously represents the\npresent Little Bear\u201d (p. 362).\n\n\u201cWith regard to Anubis, it is quite certain that the seven stars in Ursa\nMinor make a very good jackal with pendent tail, as generally represented\nby the Egyptians and that they form the nearest compact constellation to\nthe pole of the ecliptic....\u201d\n\nSir Norman Lockyer adds that he is informed by Dr. Wallis Budge that \u201cAn\nwas an old name of the sun-god,\u201d but also states, in another page of his\nwork that \u201cthe worship of Anubis, as god of the dead or the night god ...\nwas supreme until the time of Men-kau-ra, the builder of the third pyramid\nof Gizeh\u201d (B.C. 3633, Brugsch; B.C. 4100, Mariette; p. 363).\n\nPending the production of astronomical texts which amply demonstrate that\nAn was a name of a god of the night sun, Polaris, the following\nestablishes that, at Annu or Heliopolis, in remotest antiquity and amongst\nthe pyramid builders, the cult of a northern star prevailed.\n\n\u201cThe first civilization as yet glimpsed, so far as temple building goes,\nin Northern Egypt, represented by that at Annu, or Heliopolis, was a\ncivilization which combined the cult of a northern star with a\nnon-equinoctial solar worship\u201d.... \u201cI know not whether the similarity in\nthe words Anu, Annu and An results merely from a coincidence, but it is\ncertainly singular that the most ancient temples in Lower Egypt\n(Heliopolis and Denderah) should be called Annu or An, if there be no\nconnection with the Babylonian god Anu\u201d (Lockyer, _op. cit._ p. 321).\n\nThe well-known fact that the entrance passage to the earliest pyramid\nknown, that of Medum, and of all pyramids hitherto explored, has not only\nbeen found on the north face of the structure but is also believed to have\noriented towards \u201cSut-anup,\u201d the pole-star (of the period of its\nconstruction), unquestionably proves that the pyramid builders assigned a\nparticular importance to the north. Referring the reader to Sir Norman\nLockyer\u2019s work for a mass of valuable and interesting information\nconcerning the orientation of Egyptian temples, I merely quote the\nfollowing statements which not only show that throughout Lower Egypt\nnorth-star worship existed, but also establish the interesting and\nimportant fact that in Upper Egypt a totally different astronomical cult\nwas carried out during an unknown length of time.\n\n\u201cIt is an important fact to bear in mind that in the North of Egypt, in\nearly times, the stellar temples were more particularly directed to the\nnorth, while south of Thebes, so far as I know, there is only one temple\nso directed\u201d (p. 225).... \u201cFrom the astronomical point of view ... there\nare distinctly two series [of temples and monuments in general], (leaving\nout of consideration the great pyramid builders at Gizeh) absolutely\ndissimilar astronomically; ... there are at least two sets [of\ntemple-builders], one going _up_ the river building temples to the north\nstars, the other going down the river building temples to the south stars;\nand the two streams practically met at Thebes, or at all events they were\nboth very fully represented there either together or successively.\u201d\n\nSir Norman Lockyer proceeds to say: \u201cThe double origin of the people thus\nsuggested on astronomical grounds may be the reason of the name of \u2018double\ncountry,\u2019 used especially in the titles of kings, of the employment of two\ncrowns, and finally of the supposed sovereignty of Set over the north, and\nof Horus over the south divisions of the kingdom\u201d (_op. cit._ p. 345). \u201cIn\nshort, in Lower Egypt the temples are pointed to rising stars near the\nnorth point of the horizon, or setting north of west. In Upper Egypt we\ndeal chiefly with temples directed to stars rising in the southeast, or\nsetting low in the southwest. Here again we are in presence of ...\ndistinct differences of astronomical thought....\u201d (p. 341). \u201cWith regard\nto the northern stars observed rising in high amplitudes, we have found\ntraces of their worship in times so remote that in all probability at Annu\nand Denderah \u03b1 Urs\u00e6 Majoris was used before it became circumpolar. We deal\nalmost certainly with 5000 B.C.... _New_ temples with nearly similar\namplitudes ... were built at later times ... it may be suggested that the\nstellar observations made in them had ultimately to do with the\ndetermination of the hours of the night; this seems probable, for in Nubia\nat present, time at night is thus told.\u201d\n\n\u201cIt is possible that observations of these stars [which are nearest the\npole and move most slowly] might have been made in such a way that, at the\nbeginning of the evening the particular position of \u03b3 Draconis, for\ninstance, might have been noted with regard to the pole-star; and seeing\nthat the Egyptians thoroughly knew the length of the night and of the day\nin the different portions of the year, they could at once, the moment they\nhad the starting-point afforded by the position of this star, practically\nuse the circle of the stars round the north pole as the dial of a sort of\ncelestial clock. May not this really have been the clock with which they\nhave been credited? However long or short the night, the star which was at\nfirst above the pole-star after it had got round so that it was on a level\nwith it, would have gone through a quarter of its revolution. In low\nnorthern latitudes, however, the southern stars would serve better for\nthis purpose, since the circle of northern circumpolar stars would be much\nrestricted. Hence there was a reason in such latitudes for preferring\nsouthern stars. With regard both to high north and south stars, then, we\nmay in both cases be in presence of observations made to determine the\ntime at night. So that the worship of Set, the determination of the time\nat night by means of the northern stars, might have been little popular\nwith those who at Gebel Barkal and elsewhere in the south had used the\nsouthern ones for the same purpose ...\u201d (p. 344).\n\nValuable and suggestive as these observations are, I venture to point out\nthat the following texts appear to indicate very clearly that, as in China\nand Mesopotamia, in the present day, the ancient Egyptian high-priest and\nking on important public occasions simply utilized the conspicuous\nconstellation of Ursa Major as a measurer of time.\n\nIn the account of the ceremonial used at the laying of the foundation of\nthe temple at Edf\u00fb, it is stated that the king\u2019s glance was directed to\nthe Ak or \u201cMiddle\u201d and to Meskhet=Ursa Major. A part of the full\ntranslation of the inscription quoted from Nissen by Sir Norman Lockyer\n(_op. cit._, pp. 176 and 179) represents the king as speaking, thus:\n\u201cLooking to the sky and recognizing the \u2019ak\u2019 of the Bull\u2019s Thigh\nconstellation, I establish the corners of the temple of Her Majesty.\u201d It\nis further said \u201cWith his glance directed towards the \u2018ak\u2019 of the Bull\u2019s\nThigh constellation he [the king] establishes the temple house of the\nmistress of Denderak, as took place there before.\u201d\n\nHaving found out, by referring to Egyptian dictionaries, that er-ak means\n\u201cin the middle,\u201d and em-aka \u201cin the midst or middle,\u201d while Hak was a word\nemployed for \u201cking,\u201d I suggest that these meanings afford a different and\nmuch more simple explanation of the \u201cak\u201d mentioned in the inscription than\nthat given by Sir Norman Lockyer and D\u00fcmichen. In dealing, further on,\nwith the astronomical signs and names associated with the pole of the\necliptic, I shall, moreover, point out that the bull=ka, employed as an\nastronomical symbol of Ursa Major, may have been adopted as a cryptic sign\nfor Polaris, merely because its name contained the letters of the word\nak=the Middle. The recurrence of the same letters in Hak=king seems to\nexplain also why the king of Egypt was entitled \u201cthe bull.\u201d\n\nReturning to the inscription relating to the ceremony of laying the\nfoundation stone; in other texts cited by Sir Norman Lockyer we find the\nking saying: \u201cI have grasped the wooden peg [stake] and the handle of the\nclub; I hold the rope with Sesheta [his female consort]. My glance follows\nthe course of the stars; my eye is on Meskhet; standing as divider of time\nby his measuring instrument\u201d (Duemichen\u2019s version) or \u201cmine is the part of\ntime of the number of the hour-clock \u201d (Brugsch\u2019s version). In another\npart the king says \u201c... I let my glance enter the constellation of the\nThigh (representing the divider of time at his measuring instrument)\u201d\n(Duemichen\u2019s translation) or \u201cthe part of my time stands in the place of\nhis hour-clock\u201d (Brugsch\u2019s translation). Sir Norman Lockyer notes that\n\u201cthe word merech or merechet, in which Brugsch suspects hour or\nwater-clock, does not occur elsewhere.\u201d\n\nWhatever differences there may be in the Brugsch and Duemichen\ntranslations and the interpretations of the word ak, the above texts\nestablish that the Egyptian king directed his glance to \u201cthe Middle\u201d and\nthat the constellation Meskhet=Ursa Major was connected with\ntime-measurement and the establishment of the four quarters of the temple.\n\nAs I shall show further on, the \u201cSesheta,\u201d mentioned in the text as\nperforming the ceremony with the king, appears to be not a \u201cmythical\ngoddess,\u201d as Sir Norman Lockyer infers, but the living \u201cdivine queen,\u201d and\nconsort of the king. She is represented with the insignia of Isis, whereas\nhe wears the crown of Osiris, and I note that while she holds her stake in\nher left, he holds his in his right hand. Deferring a discussion of the\nposition of Egyptian queens, I point out here that, in the interesting\ndescription of a foundation ceremonial, preserved in an inscription\nrelating to the rebuilding of a temple at Abydos, about B.C. 1380, the\nSesheta, entitled the \u201cmistress of the laying of the foundation stone,\u201d\nseems to have been the chief actor, since it is she who addresses the\nking, as follows: \u201cThe hammer in my hand was of gold, as I struck the peg\nwith it, and thou wast with me in thy capacity of Harpedonapt [?]. Thy\nhand held the spade during the fixing of its [the temple\u2019s] four corners\nwith accuracy by the four supports of heaven\u201d (Lockyer, p. 175).\n\nThe \u201cfour supports of heaven\u201d referred to here are obviously \u201cthe gods\nMestha, Hapi, Tuamautef and Qebhsennuf,\u201d who are recorded in the Book of\nthe Dead (chapter 17) as being \u201cthose which find themselves behind the\nconstellation of the Thigh in the northern heaven.\u201d In an inscription in\nthe kings\u2019 graves at Thebes mention is made of the \u201cfour Northern Genii\nwho are the four gods of \u2018the follower\u2019 [obviously a circumpolar\nconstellation]\u201d (Lockyer, p. 147). They seem to be also identical with the\n\u201cfour constellations [Akhemusek] which are found in the northern heavens,\u201d\nand the \u201csailors or oarsmen in the bark of Ra,\u201d mentioned in the same and\nin many other inscriptions. The four \u201cgods\u201d are represented with human\nbodies respectively surmounted by the head of a man, an ape, a jackal and\na hawk and are identical with the \u201cgenii of the dead,\u201d represented on the\ncanopic vases placed at the four corners of the bier. In this connection\nattention is drawn to how clearly the symbolism of the mortuary customs\nbecomes apparent when it is realized that the mummy, the image of\nPtah-Osiris, and of the pole-star god, was laid to \u201ceternal rest\u201d in an\nimaginary \u201csacred centre,\u201d obtained by na\u00efvely placing the effigies of the\ngods of the cardinal points, the personifications of the \u201cfour stars of\nthe northern heaven,\u201d at the corners of the bier. The same dominant\nthought which underlies the popular use of the canopic vases clearly led\nto the building of the vast pyramids which constituted the sacred \u201ccentres\nof the world\u201d par excellence, the square base typifying the four regions\nand \u201ccorners\u201d of the earth; the triangular sides the four divisions of the\nsky, which converge to a single Middle, associated with Polaris, the\nsacred pole or ak of the Cosmos.\n\nReturning to the subject of the measurement of time by means of the\ncircumpolar constellations, it is instructive to find that the Egyptian\ndeterminative sign for \u201ctime\u201d consists of a central dot with a circle\ndrawn around it and to note that the only celestial body that could be\naccurately figured as occupying the centre of a circle described around it\nis the primitive sun, Polaris.\n\nThe Egyptian for \u201ctime\u201d is rek, an inversion of ker=the night, the common\nsign for which is a band, figuring the sky, from the centre of which a\nstar is suspended by a thread. As the star is usually formed by two lines,\ndiagonally crossed, at the end of the thread, there is a strong temptation\nto see in the hanging single star an actual representation of a cross\nsymbol. It is particularly striking to find in Brugsch\u2019s work, that the\ndeterminative for time is actually represented, in numerous cases, as\nclose to the single hanging star (fig. 62, 9). I leave it to the reader to\nform his own conclusions whether this group represents Polaris and the\ncircuit of time measured by the circumpolar constellations, or whether it\nmerely represents, as Brugsch states, the winter solstice, _i. e._ the day\nsun in the nocturnal sky.\n\nThere exists a remarkable variant of the determinative of time, which I\nshall discuss more fully further on. Instead of a mere dot, a five-pointed\nstar is distinctly figured in the centre of the circle (fig. 62, 12). This\nvariant furnishes, in my opinion, convincing proof of the meaning of the\ndeterminative for time, which also constituted the well-known sign for\nRa=god, and forms a part of the name of the supreme divinity of Egypt,\nAmen, or Amon or Amun Ra, the \u201chidden or secret god,\u201d whose name\ncontradicts the current assumption that Ra signifies the diurnal sun\nmerely, and that Amen-Ra was a \u201csolar\u201d deity.\n\nThe following texts relating to the \u201csupreme true but hidden god\u201d amply\ndemonstrate that the chief characteristic of his cult was that it was\nshrouded in secrecy and mystification. Others, which I shall quote farther\non, allow us clearly to perceive that individuals were obliged to pass\nthrough a series of initiations into the meanings of cabalistic signs and\nsymbols of the divinity before they attained the pure knowledge of the\nnature of the mysterious, \u201chidden divinity.\u201d On reading the texts of the\nfamous \u201cBook of the Dead\u201d it has frequently occurred to me that the\nnegative confession and judgment of the soul of the departed may\noriginally signify the actual confession and judgment of an applicant for\ninitiation into the secrets of the priesthood and the astronomical and\ntheological knowledge they so rigidly guarded from the ignorant multitude.\nThe highest knowledge and most profound secret they could impart was\ndoubtlessly the acknowledgment and perception of the existence of a\nsupreme power which governed the universe on a certain plan, which the\nrulers of the land of Egypt endeavored to apply to its organization and\ngovernment in order to make it a celestial kingdom upon earth.\n\nThe rigidly-adhered-to policy of the ruling caste was, however, the\nshrouding and concealment of their store of knowledge from the uninitiated\nand the gradual admission of select individuals to the inner chambers of\nsecrecy. The following texts show that even the true name of the supreme\ndivinity was wrapped in impenetrable mystery, but the assumption that we\nare dealing with a pole-star god seems to enable us to penetrate the\nobscurity of the formul\u00e6 employed by the scribes to veil the true meaning\nof the texts.\n\nBeginning with the hymn published by Mr. Wallis Budge, in his useful\nhandbook, \u201cThe Nile,\u201d(110) we find Amen-Ra addressed as \u201cKing, _One_ among\nthe gods, _myriad are his names, how many are they, is not known_ ... the\nlord of Law, _whose shrine is hidden, ... whose name is hidden from his\nchildren in his name Amen_.\u201d... In the legend of Ra and Isis (XXth\ndynasty) he is designated as \u201cthe god divine, the creator of himself, the\ncreator of heaven, earth, breath of life, fire, gods, men, beasts, cattle,\nreptiles, fowl of the air, fish, king of men and gods, _in form one_, to\nwhom periods are as years, _many of names, not known are they, not know\nthem the gods_.\u201d(111)\n\nThe mysterious supreme god is further spoken of in the hymn as ... \u201cthe\nlord of the ur\u00e6us crown, exalted of the plumes; the serpent Mehen, and the\ntwo ur\u00e6i are the (ornaments) of his face....\u201d Mention is likewise made of\nhis lordship over the Sekti boat (which sailed from the place of rising in\nthe East) and the Atet boat (which sailed to the place of setting in the\nWest); he is also addressed as the \u201cgod Khepera in his boat.\u201d In many\npassages he is apparently identified with the sun, \u201cthe eye of Horus,\u201d but\nis at the same time, also addressed as Ani, the lord of the New Moon\nfestival and he is termed \u201c_the lord of all the gods_ whose appearances\nare in the horizon.\u201d His all-embracing nature is clearly conveyed by the\npassages terming him \u201cthe maker and lord of things which are below and of\nthings which are above;\u201d \u201cof the heaven and earth.\u201d The above evidence\nsuffices to show that, on the one hand, Amen-Ra is constantly referred to\nas the \u201cOne god, without a second, the knowledge of whose nature is\nconcealed from men and gods, who reveals himself in innumerable forms; who\nexerts hidden control and universal dominion and is associated with\nstability and power, time and eternity.\u201d On the other hand, stress is laid\non his dual nature: Amen-Ra is bi-sexual and self-creative; alternately\nbecomes light and darkness; and the sun and moon are the eyes of his\n\u201chidden face,\u201d which, literally translated, yields Amen-Hra.\n\nIn the hymn previously cited he is also termed the \u201clord of the sky, the\nestablisher of all things, ... the extender of foot-steps.... _One_ in his\ntimes as among the gods....\u201d He is apostrophized as \u201cthe maker of the\ngods, who hast stretched out the heavens and founded the earth,\u201d \u201cthe\nchief who makest the earth like unto himself,\u201d.... \u201cPresident of the great\ncycle of the gods, _only one without his second_ ... living in Law every\nday.... O Form, _one_, creator of all things, O _one_ only, maker of\nexistences ... he giveth the breath of life to (the germ) in the egg....\nHail to thee, thou _only one_!... _He watches all people who sleep_ ...\nall people adore thee.... O thou ... _the untiring watcher_, Amsu-amen\nlord of eternity, the Maker of Law....\u201d Another passage states: \u201cthe aten\n(disk) is thy body\u201d (_i. e._ image or symbol). In the legend of Ra and\nIsis, quoted above, the god is made to say of himself: \u201cI am the maker of\nthe hours, the creator of days, I am the opener of the festivals of the\nyear.... I am he who when he opens his eyes [_i. e._ the sun and moon]\nbecometh light, when he shutteth his two eyes, becometh darkness.\u201d Brugsch\ntells us that Ra, whom he accepts as the day-sun, was addressed as the\nmaster of double or two-fold force, who illuminates the world with his two\neyes and \u201cwas symbolized by two lions.\u201d Further on I shall quote facts\nestablishing that the king and queen of Egypt were respectively named the\nright and left eye of Amen-Ra, were associated with sun and moon, regarded\nas the personifications of Osiris and Isis, and that these deities were\nrepresented in the form of ur\u00e6us serpents with human heads, and that the\ntwo serpents were employed as symbols of Upper and Lower Egypt. Mr. Wallis\nBudge informs us that Amen-Ra was named \u201cbull ... in thy name of \u2018Amen\nbull of his mother,\u2019 and that he was entitled \u2018lord of the thrones of the\ntwo lands;\u2019 \u2018king of the gods;\u2019 \u2018maker of mortals;\u2019 \u2018mighty law.\u2019 \u201d In one\nof his forms he is represented as wearing horns (an allusion to duality\nand the title of bull) and feathers (=mat=maat=law) and holding the\nemblems of stability, power, dominion and rule.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 62.\n\n\nBefore demonstrating that the chief astronomical signs of the Egyptian\nzodiac partake of the nature of a rebus and express the sound of the\nvarious attributes and titles and some of the \u201cmyriad of names\u201d of the\n\u201chidden god,\u201d contained in the preceding texts, I point out how clearly\nthe conception of Amen-Ra, as shown in these hymns and invocations, is\nconsistent with a pole-star origin. We have, moreover, the authoritative\nopinion of Brugsch that \u201cthe hieroglyph and name Ra did not only refer to\nthe day-sun, but also designated certain brilliant stars,\u201d which he\npresumes to be the planets (_op. cit._ I, p. 79). This identification of\nthe name Ra with stars involuntarily obliges one to recall the Sanscrit\ntara=star while the Chinese employment of a plain circle to designate\n\u201cstar,\u201d also finds its analogy. Let us now examine the hieroglyphic signs\nand symbols of Ra and note how intelligible they become when the god is\nidentified as Polaris.\n\nThe following (fig. 62) are some of the modes in which the name Ra is\nfound expressed in texts published in Mr. Wallis Budge\u2019s \u201cFirst steps in\nEgyptian:\u201d\n\nFig. 62, 1. By a dot in the centre of a circle, the determinative of\n\u201ctime.\u201d\n\n2. By the latter accompanied by the image of a seated god and the numeral\n1.\n\n3. _Idem_, partly surrounded by a serpent in motion and accompanied by the\nnumeral 1.\n\n4. The serpent and circle on the head of a hawk-headed seated god.\n\nTo these are added for purposes of comparison\n\n5. The circle with two ur\u00e6i.\n\n6. _Idem_, to which a single ur\u00e6us and a wing are attached.\n\n7. _Idem_, with two ur\u00e6i and two wings.\n\n8. _Idem_, with one wing.\n\n9. _Idem_, accompanied by the numeral one and the sign for heaven, to\nwhich a cross-shaped star is hanging.\n\n10. _Idem_, resting in the centre of the summit of a twin mountain.\n\n11. _Idem_, resting in the centre of a boat.\n\n12. _Idem_, with a central star instead of a dot constituting the word\nduat=\u201clower hemisphere\u201d (Brugsch).\n\n13. The variant of this, cited by Brugsch.\n\n14. The disk containing a single eye.\n\nMy prolonged study of the ancient Mexican picture-writings having given me\nthe habit of regarding each primitive symbol as a possible rebus led me to\nlook up the phonetic values of the symbols combined with the Ra sign and\nto note that some of them were actually mentioned in connection with\nAmen-Ra in the texts cited above, namely: the face, the eye, the egg, the\nur\u00e6us, the disk, the \u201cserpent Mehen.\u201d It was a surprise to find, on simply\nreferring to the glossaries, that the name for ur\u00e6us=ara and that eye=ari;\nan egg=ar (also sa, se, and suht); face=hra; each word thus containing the\nname Ra=god, in simple or inverted form (see fig. 63, 1-4). The natural\ninference was that I had obtained an insight into the method devised by\nthe ingenious Egyptian priesthood, to express, in cryptic form, the name\nof the \u201chidden god.\u201d\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 63.\n\n\nFurther glimpses of light seemed obtained when I found that, as written by\nGerman Egyptologists, the determinative for divinity, the banner=nutar,\nnotar, netar, or neter, not only expressed the same sound as the word nut,\nbut also contained the letters \u201cr\u201d and \u201ca\u201d (5). The disk=atun, aton or\naten might also be regarded as an anagram, being the inverted form of\nnutar, minus the last letter (6). The names for wing (7) being tun, ton or\nten, the wing attached to the disk constituted a complementary sign,\nduplicating the final syllable. At the same time, as a second name for\nwing was meh, or mah (_cf._ mat and its synonym su=feather), there seemed\nto be an explanation of the \u201cserpent mehen\u201d applied to Amen-Ra and the\npossibility that it signified the \u201cwinged serpent,\u201d such as is frequently\ndepicted in texts published by Brugsch (8). It was obvious that the\nur\u00e6us=ara and the wing meh, would form an ingenious anagram expressing, by\nmeans of the signs, a-meh-ra, the name Amen-Ra.\n\nThe constantly recurring form of the Ra sign, in which the serpent is\nrepresented as gliding around the circle, enclosing the central point of\nfixity, naturally suggests the inference that this variant must have been\nadopted at a time when the constellation Draco, the \u201cOld serpent,\u201d or\n\u201cNakkasch qodmun,\u201d was circumpolar and was equally familiar, under this\nname, to the Egyptian and Euphratean astronomers. This inference seems to\nbe confirmed by the fact that, in the hymn to Amen-Ra, cited above, the\nname Nak is given to \u201cthe serpent with knives stuck in his back,\u201d who,\naccording to the myth, was the demon of night and the enemy of the\nsun-god, the ruler of day. The fact that, in the temple of Amen-Ra at\nThebes, a service was recited daily for the destruction of the serpent Nak\nby Horus, appears to indicate the growth of the idea of a combat between\nlight and darkness and the dual forces of nature, which would naturally\ntend to create the thought of an antagonism existing not only between the\nsexes, but also between the two divisions of Egypt and the separate cults\nof the nocturnal heaven (Polaris and the moon) and the diurnal heaven (the\nsun).\n\nIn the list of festivals, dating from the Ptolemaic period and inscribed\nin the temple at Edfu, there are mentioned: \u201cthe festival of the end or\npoint of the triangle,\u201d simultaneous with that of \u201cthe serpent Nai or Na,\u201d\nimmediately followed by \u201cthe festivals of the \u2018tena\u2019=[aten?], and of the\ngreat serpent Na,\u201d and \u201cof the Ken=the festival of darkness, and of the\nred serpent Na\u201d (Brugsch _op. cit._ I, p. 51). Commenting upon the above\nnames I draw attention to the curious fact that in the above word ken, we\nseem to have the inversion of nak, the name of the \u201cnight-serpent\u201d and\nthat na is actually the inversion of the word an, which signifies \u201che who\nturns or winds himself around.\u201d I shall show further on, in astronomical\ntexts, that this name is actually identified with the pole.\n\nWhen these facts are borne in mind the full import of the familiar\nEgyptian symbol for eternity=tet, becomes clear. It consists of the image\nof a mummy, symbolizing fixity, around which a great serpent is winding\nitself, conveying the idea of circling motion (fig. 63, 9 and 10). It is\nwell known that this group symbolized eternity=tet and the sign is always\ninterpreted as expressing the sound tet. If analyzed more closely,\nhowever, and interpreted as a rebus, it appears to yield a fund of deeper\nmeaning.\n\nThe serpent Na furnishes the word An=the winder or he who moves around.\nLinked to one of the names for mummy=sah, the group might be read as\nAn-sah, a name which invites comparison with Anshar, the Assyrian\npole-star god who was said to shoot arrows in all directions, _i. e._ to\nturn around, and the Akkadian title for Ursa Major, Akanna=the Lord of\nHeaven. The second name for mummy, given in Mr. Wallis Budge\u2019s Nile, is\ntut, the exact word which signifies \u201cto engender,\u201d which explains why\nimages of the creator should have been made in mummy form. The word tut\ndirects attention to the name of the god Tehuti=Thoth, \u201cthe Measurer,\u201d a\nname to be weighed in connection with the fact that time was measured by\nthe circumpolar constellations. It does not appear impossible that the\nword khat=corpse may also have been brought into use in the rebus and\nfurnished an anagram or allusion to the ak or centre.\n\nThe other well-known symbol for eternity, _i. e._ stability, is the column\ntet, representing a pillar usually consisting of four or five parts (fig.\n63, 11). It appears hitherto to have escaped attention that the Egyptian\nfor hand being tet, the hand, employed as a rebus, would actually express\nthe name for eternity and may well have been employed as a secret sign for\nthe divine centre, eternal stability and the sacred number five,\nconsisting of the Middle and the Four Quarters, symbolized by the fingers\nand thumb (fig. 63, 12). To this must be added the interesting fact that,\nin hieratic script, the hand expressed the sound \u201ca\u201d which means \u201cpower\u201d\nwhile aa=great, aat=great and mighty, aa=mighty one. To those initiated in\nthe mysteries of hieroglyphic writing the hand thus clearly constituted a\nrebus, expressing the eternal, permanent, stable, great, mighty power, one\nyet double and fourfold, the sacred five in one, the Middle and Four\nQuarters.(112)\n\nThe following is a group of animal and other figures, which are repeated,\nwith variations of form, combination and position, in the different\nzodiacs.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 64.\n\n\nThe principal and the phonetic values of their names are figured as\nfollows: the thigh=uart, khepes or maskhet; the bull, ox or cow=ka, ah,\naua; the hawk=bak, designated as an, kher or heu=Horus; the cynocephalus\nape and phallus=aaani and ka; the lion=mahes; the jackal (anubis) uher or\nsabi; the scorpion=tart or serkhet; the crocodile=sebek, also amsuk or\nemsuh, and seta; the vase or jar=nu (_cf._ nut); the female\nhippopotamus=tebt, shown by Dr. Gensler to have been associated with the\nname menat=nurse, she who nurses (see Brugsch I, p. 130).\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                 Plate V.\n\n\nIn the Edfu zodiac, the latter, whose name furnishes an anagram of\namen=hidden, is represented with the Ra sign on her head and holds a cord\nto which the constellation of Ursa Major is attached. This is figured,\nwith its seven stars, as the thigh (pl. V, 2), with the head of a bull,\nelements which furnish the phonetic values of uart, khepes or maskhet and\naua, ka or ah, to which should be added that the Egyptian mode of saying\n\u201ca bull\u201d=ua en ka, literally \u201cone of bull,\u201d the female form being \u201cuat en\nka\u201d (see Wallis Budge, First steps in Egyptian).\n\nAfter having studied the hymns and invocations to Amen-Ra we are aware,\nnot only that the \u201chidden god\u201d is named \u201cthe bull,\u201d but that great stress\nis laid upon his being \u201cOne\u201d=ua, yet double=ka. It therefore appears very\nsignificant to find these words incorporated in the name for Ursa\nMajor=thigh, uart, and this combined with bull=ua or ka which furnishes\nthe anagram ak=middle. What is more, the second name for thigh being\nkhepes, this might form a rebus for the common name for (1) luminary or\nstar in general=khebs or khabs, literally, lights, lamps, flames, _cf._\nseb=star; (2) kheper=life, existence, to come into existence, _cf._\nkhepdes=uterus, kher khepd=the navel, khepesh=power.\n\nThe fact that one title of Amen-Ra was Khepera=the creator, lends\nadditional interest to the association of his secret sign, the\nhippopotamus, with the constellation Ursa Major, which he apparently holds\nand guides and which emblematizes life, _i. e._ motion\u2014The thigh=khepes,\nscarab=kheper, fish, khepanen, crocodile=seta or sebek, which, inverted,\nyields the word khebes=star, and royal sickle=khepes, thus appear to have\nbeen but different modes of expressing the same meaning and the title of\nKhepera (fig. 63, 13-16). It can be readily understood why the scarab\nbeetle, which encloses its egg in a ball of mud and rolls this to a safe\nhatching place, became the favorite secret sign for the \u201chidden god,\u201d\nsince none but the initiated would see in the beetle, holding the ball of\nearth enclosing its egg, the actual rebus of Khepera, the creator,\nexpressed by the kheper; and the circle or disk, the sign of Ra,\ncontaining the germ of life.\n\nReturning to an examination of the signs for Ursa Major employed by the\nEgyptian astronomer scribes, we find, beside the more elaborate form given\nby Mr. Wallis Budge (pl. V, 3), the variants (4 and 5) which constantly\nrecur in the texts published by Brugsch, and which reveal that the thigh,\naccompanied by a single star, constituted the essential elements of the\nsign. It is one of the curiosities of Egyptian hieroglyphics that the\nimage of a star may express either seb=star, or the numeral five=tuau.\nThis being the case, and the word for thigh being either khepes or uart,\nit is obvious that the thigh and star yield more than one interpretation\nfrom the rebus point of view, and may either be read as seb khepdes,\nseb-uart or tuau-uart\u2014in one case containing the divine title \u201ccreator\u201d\nand in the second a play upon the name ua=One, the favorite appellation\ngiven to Amen-Ra.\n\nThe following star names contained in the Brugsch texts, and which have\navowedly not been satisfactorily identified, up to the present, will speak\nfor themselves and will be found to be comprehensible and appropriate only\nwhen identified with Polaris: Seb-uati=the lone, single, only, or sole\nstar (_cf._ title \u201cOne\u201d given to Amen-Ra); Seb-seta=the hidden star, in\nGreek texts, sebkhes, sebkhe, the sebses, anagrams of khebs, or khepdes\n(_cf._ \u201chidden\u201d god). This star is found pictured in the astronomical\ntexts by a turtle, the name for which is seta, sita, sit or set; in Greek\ntexts cit.\n\nTo me it seems clear that the turtle constituted a rebus sign for the\n\u201chidden star\u201d and concealed god, and I find that another Egyptian word\ncould have served equally well for the same purpose, viz., seta=the\nvulture. What is more, the following names, mentioned in the astronomical\ntexts, yield the sound of the first vowel of the words seb=star and\nseta=hidden, and attention is drawn to the fact that, as the goose and\negg, for instance, were known under several names, the secrecy of the true\nmeaning of these sacred symbols was insured: goose=se, ser, sar, seb,\nsmen, apt, aq; egg=se, sa, ser, sar, ar, suht; nest=ses; pool of water=se;\nheron=sent.\n\nA curious double similarity of sound exists between the name for turtle\nand one of the names for goose, inasmuch as the turtle=seta is also called\naps, and the goose=se is named apt (fig. 63, 17-18). Another name for\ngoose being aq or ak, we find that its value as a rebus must have been\nsupreme, since it so perfectly expressed the word ak=middle. A proof that\nits merits were duly appreciated by the ancient scribes, is its constant\nand widespread employment in decorative art as a so-called \u201csolar symbol,\u201d\nin association with the circle or disk and the swastika. Through its name\nse, the goose-symbol likewise expressed the same meaning as the egg and\nthe first syllable of seta=hidden; perhaps also ne-se-r=flame, the synonym\nof khebs=luminary or star (Brugsch). Through its name ak, the goose symbol\nbecame the synonym of all ak or ka words. Finally, through its name apt,\nit became related to the whole series of anagrams of ptah and the synonym\nof the pair of horns which express ap in hieratic script.\n\nThe association of the syllable ap with the bull=uau and ka, is proven by\nthe name Apis given to the living, sacred bull, under which form the\nsupreme divinity was worshipped from earliest times, at or before the\nbuilding of the pyramids at Memphis. The explanation that, just as sacred\nbull was merely a living rebus expressing by the sound of its names, the\nwords \u201cthe one, the double, the middle of the central two-fold one,\u201d or\n\u201cdivine twain,\u201d fully explains why, in time, the bull itself came to be\nchosen, revered and worshipped as the living image of the \u201chidden god.\u201d\n\nThe marks of the sacred calf Apis, described by Herodotus, appear to\nbecome intelligible, when translated as follows and then analyzed: \u201cIt is\nblack (khem or kam) and has a square (ptah) spot of white (hetet) on the\nforehead (tehen). On the back (of the head) (makha or at) the figure of an\neagle=vulture (seta). In the tail (peh?) double (ka) hairs (anem). On the\ntongue (nes) a beetle (kheper).\u201d\n\nFeeling convinced that Egyptologists could find further phonetic elements\nand hidden meaning in the above material, it is with diffidence that I\npoint out some of the meaning I am able to discern with the simple aid of\n\u201cFirst steps in Egyptian.\u201d Besides being the image of Amen-Ra Polaris, the\none and divine twain, the black (khem) skin (annu) of the sacred bull\nappears to contain an allusion to Egypt, known as \u201ckhem\u201d and its central\ncapital Annu, besides that to the nocturnal heaven and its shining city.\nThe square ptah of white=hetet (_cf._ hetet, and chut=light) appears to\nsymbolize the quadriform plan of the celestial and terrestrial kingdom and\nits position on the head (tep) between the two horns (ap) gains in\nsignificance when it is realized that, in astronomical texts, the square\n(designated above as hetet=white) is as frequently pictured between a pair\nof horns as the pillar=tet, that both square and pillar appear thus to\nhave expressed the same sound=tet, which signifies eternity. The bird of\nprey=seta on the bull\u2019s back (makha) evidently signified the hidden=seta,\ncentre, m-akh-a, further significance being lent to the syllable akh by\nthe fact that it also means \u201cto support,\u201d and that \u201cthe support of heaven\u201d\nwas a divine title contained in the hieratic texts. The double hair=anem,\nka, appears as another mode of expressing the \u201chidden\u201d ka=double or\nak=centre. The word for tongue (nes) being the reversal of sen=two, the\nkheper=life, on the tongue, appears as an allusion to dual principles or\npowers of nature. The giving forth and drawing in of breath by the living\nApis bull must doubtlessly have seemed, to the Egyptian priesthood,\nemblematical of the giving and taking away of breath of life, by the\ncreator, Khepera, over whose emblem, on the tongue of the animal, each\nbreath necessarily passed.\n\nAn insight may thus be gained of the method by means of which primitive,\nna\u00efve picture-writing could have become more ingenious and intricate\nuntil, as actually stated in the hymns, the name of the supreme divinity\nbecame \u201chidden from his children in the name Amen\u201d [literally=hidden], and\na \u201cmyriad of names, how many are they is not known\u201d had been invented by\nthe scribes, to designate the King (Hak), \u201cone among gods, in form one,\nthe lord of eternity, stability and law.\u201d\n\nBefore making a cursory examination of the following lists of homonyms of\nthe names for bull=ah, uau and ka, I must revert to astronomical pictures\nand signs and make some statements concerning the hawk-headed human form\nfound represented in the zodiacs in close association with the image of\nUrsa Major, the bull; (see pl. V, 1, from Denderah). The presence of the\nhawk=bak in the centre of the polar region, with the bull ka, assumes\nsignificance in connection with the word ak=middle and the name for \u201cthe\nmiddle of the heavens,\u201d cited by Sir Norman Lockyer; _i. e._, kabal sami,\nand all of these words are particularly interesting when it is remembered\nthat the Babylonian name for north was akkad, the Akkadian title for Ursa\nMajor was Akanna, while Ursa Minor was named Kakkabu in Babylonia and\nAssyria. The Arabian kaaba is recalled here.\n\nThe inscriptions accompanying the zodiacs published by Brugsch (_op. cit._\nI, p. 127) designate this hawk-headed personage, who, in each case, holds\neither a spear or a plain staff, by the following names, of which I give\nBrugsch\u2019s translation, followed by my own commentary. An=he who turns or\nwinds himself around. In this connection I point out that the name Na,\ngiven to the serpent, is the inversion of an. Kher-an=he who fights and\nturns or winds himself around. As kher is likewise the word for ring or\ncircle (_cf._ Greek kirkos, Latin circus or circulus, Scand. kring), it is\nevident that the name Kher-an admits of being interpreted as \u201che who winds\nor turns around in a ring or circle,\u201d kher=the fighter or combatant. At\nthe same time, the word kher likewise signifies ring or circle; moreover\nker=night and rek=time. Therefore the name Neb-kher, cited by Brugsch\n(_op. cit._ I, 176), as one of those given to the god of the city of\nAt-Nebes, besides signifying, as he says, the \u201clord of strife or\nfighting,\u201d clearly means \u201cthe lord of the circle or ring.\u201d This is\nundoubtedly one of the most appropriate of names for the god of the pole\nstar and Ursa Major and is, besides, the Egyptian equivalent for the Hindu\n\u201clord of the wheel,\u201d the Persian \u201cgod of the ring,\u201d and the Mexican \u201clord\nof the circle and of the night\u201d=Yaual or Yohual-tecuhtli. The other titles\nof the same god recorded by Brugsch are \u201cthe flame or light\u201d=Neser, and\n\u201cthe lord of life\u201d=Neb-ankh.\n\nI merely point out here what I shall discuss more fully later on, that, in\nthe Egyptian An, \u201che who turns himself around,\u201d we have the counterpart,\nnot only of the Assyrian An-shar (fig. 65, 5) who shoots his darts in all\ndirections, but also of the \u201cNorth god\u201d of the ancient Mexicans, who,\nfully armed is held by one foot, by the sign of the North, to the centre\nof the cross, the symbol of the Four Quarters, and like the Akkadian \u201clord\nof heaven,\u201d Akanna, is identified with Ursa Major.\n\nI note, moreover, that, whereas the common name for hawk is bak, that\nemployed by Brugsch is hru (_cf._ inversion ur=the Egyptian name for cross\nsymbol) which is sometimes transcribed as hur, her or heru, hor or har=and\ntranslated as Horus or Ra Harmachis. An interesting image of the hawk god\nis found in another inscription in the temple of Denderah containing the\ngroup (pl. V, 6) consisting of a single star, the bull and hawk,\ntranscribed by Brugsch as \u201cHru-Ka\u201d and translated as \u201cthe bull (of) Horus\u201d\n(_op. cit._ I, p. 7). Another interesting case of the combination of the\nbull and hawk is the hawk with a bull\u2019s head also figured by Brugsch, and\nwhich is obviously a variant of \u201chru-ka.\u201d A curious instance which seems\nto contain a reversal of these syllables is the bull, repeated in inverted\npositions, with the cross-sign=ur, a group which might well have been\nemployed as a rebus expressing the sound ur-ak-ka, a combination which I\nshall discuss further on.\n\nThe identity of Horus as a form of Polaris is hinted at in the following\ninscription in the temple at Denderah (pl. V, 10) which Brugsch\ntranslates: \u201cRa Horchuti (=hur-chuti) the shining Horus, the ray of light\nin the night\u201d ... (_op. cit._ I, p. 16). The \u201cgod\u201d is figured in mummy\nform, holding the sceptre tam (_cf._ mat=justice, truth) and the sign ankh\n(life), with the head of a hawk=bak or hru (_cf._ ur=four, and head=tep or\ntepet, also name for \u201cchief\u201d), the head conveying idea of four-fold\nchieftainship, surmounted by the horns=ap and circle or disk=ra.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 65.\n\n\nAn extremely suggestive astronomical picture (pl. V, 13) contains the\ncombination of Horus, the An, in the form of the human-headed hawk, with a\nserpent Na, the boat (uaa, am or makhen) and the circle enclosing a single\nstar, duat (_cf._ ua=one). The complete group thus conveys a wealth of\nhidden meaning which is perfectly intelligible when interpreted as\npole-star symbolism.\n\nThe reader is now invited to take a preliminary look at the columns of\nsigns included in figs. 66, 67, 68, some of which will be recognized as\nprimitive pole-star symbols already discussed, and which will respectively\nbe found to contain homonyms of ua=One and uahi=permanent; ak and\nkabal=centre, ka=double, an=he who turns and ankh=life, etc. Special\nattention is also drawn to the modes of expressing the syllable am by the\nhomonyms boy or child, boat and tree (fig. 63, 20-22).\n\nDifferent combinations of identical phonetic elements are found in the\nfollowing groups which prove to be but different ingenious figures\nexpressing the same sounds, with more or less the same meanings: pl. V,\n15, represents the boat, whose phonetic values are given above, with a\nflower=ankh, the homonym of life, containing the names an and na, from\nwhich the ur\u00e6us=ara, is rising. Later on the deeper symbolism of this and\nfig. 12, pl. V, will be further discussed. In the latter, instead of the\nflower the boat contains the ara and a boy=ah or aah, whose name is the\nhomonym for great, mighty, powerful, etc. Assuming that the boat expressed\nits particular name uaa=ua=one, we thus have a rendering of the\nappellation so constantly given to Amen-Ra in the hymns and invocations:\n\u201cOne, great, powerful, mighty god,\u201d accompanied by a whole series of\nsecondary meaning and symbolism. In pl. V, 9, the boat containing the bull\nor cow, is accompanied by stars which reproduce Ursa Major exactly, minus\none star, the head of the animal occupying the centre of the four stars\nforming the inverted square of \u201cthe dipper.\u201d In this case the boat seems\nto express its name makhen, incorporating ak, the name for the sacred\ncentre of the sky, which is repeated in the name ka=bull, whose image,\nlike that of the boat, conveys the allusion to ua=one, by their respective\ndouble names, aua and uaa.\n\nWhat appears to me to contain the most convincing proof of the identity of\nAmen-Ra with Polaris is 11, pl. V, which shows us a boat in which lies a\nmummy, above which is a row of seven stars under an oval, containing two\neyes. The oval ring is evidently the image of Amen-Ra, who united in his\nperson the dual principles of nature symbolized by sun and moon=his \u201ctwo\neyes.\u201d The symbolism of the boat and mummy has already been sufficiently\ndiscussed to enable the reader to discern its association with the idea of\noneness, of stability and centrality. Further light is thrown upon the\nconnection of the two eyes with the sacred centre by pl. V, 14, from the\nBook of the Dead, where the chosen place of sepulchre for the dead person,\nmentioned in the text, is the temple pyramid, the apex of which is\nrendered prominent by being painted black and suggestively occupies a\ncentral position between two eyes. After the periods of Greek rule in\nEgypt, the point of the pyramid must have been associated with the Greek\nwords, akra=hill-top and aku=point, which recurs in the Latin name acacia,\nby which the thorny tree, originally found in Egypt, is still known. It\ncan readily be seen how this tree would have been chosen as a symbol of\nthe ak=middle and it is possible that its name may originally have been\nthat also given to the olive tree=bak. The inscription on the famous\nobelisks erected by queen Hat-shepsut contains a special mention of the\npoint of the obelisk, as being made of precious material: \u201ctwo great\nobelisks of hard granite of the south, the point of each is of electrum,\nthe tribute of the best quality of all countries\u201d (Flinders Petrie,\nHistory of Egypt, Vol. II, p. 86).\n\nThe many variants of the constellation or star termed \u201cthe divine\ntriangle\u201d or \u201cthe triangle of the god\u201d next claim attention. An extremely\ninteresting variant of this constellation represents a hawk-headed sphinx,\nnext to the triangle (pl. VI, 1); 2-4 represent the common form expressing\nthe name Sopedet. As Brugsch informs us, the above name was changed at a\nmore recent period into Satit (6-8), which he translates as \u201cshe who\nshoots, the archeress\u201d or \u201cshe who causes the Nile to rise.\u201d In these\ncases the written name either contains an arrow (6), the pyramid symbol\nfor earth (7), or a seated figure above whose head is a single star (8). A\nrarer form of representing the same constellation is 9 and 10, the group\nbeing transcribed by \u201cSatit Hont Khabsu\u201d which Brugsch translates as\n\u201cSothis, the Queen of the ... stars.\u201d From the feminine terminations\nemployed in the text it is clear that it is a cow which figures here in\nthe boat, with a single star between its horns and it appears to me to be\nobvious that we have to deal here with the feminine form of Polaris, with\nAuset=Isis, closely related to the Assyrian \u201cgoddess of battle,\u201d Ishtar,\nthe female counterpart of Ausar=Osiris, the Assyrian Anshar, or Ashur, the\n\u201cgod of battle.\u201d\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Plate VI.\n\n\nThis view is confirmed by further astronomical pictures published by\nBrugsch, which appear to me not merely to signify the constellations Orion\nand Sirius as Brugsch infers, but to be hieroglyphs intended to be\nunderstood by the initiated only, representing two or more of the forms\nunder which Amen-Ra was figured. At Edfu (pl. VI, 11) the boat=au, uaa,\nand the mummy=sah form a fair rebus for Ausar=Osiris, while the boat\nalongside of it contains the cow, a form under which Isis=Hathor was\nworshipped in Egypt during centuries. At Denderah (12) there is a cow in\none boat=Isis; and a man in another who holds the sceptre tam, emblematic\nof power, and turns his head around, an evident allusion to the action\nan=he who turns himself around, or to sah=one who turns away. Between both\nis the hawk=bak or Hur-chuti=Horus, standing on the sceptre named aut,\ncomposed of the lotus flower=ankh. A variant of the same group (13) also\nsymbolizing the \u201cAbove, Below and Middle,\u201d and from Denderah, represents\nIsis only in the celestial boat and Osiris standing (on earth) holding,\nbeside the tam, the whip=nekhe khu, emblematic of rule. In 14, a female\nfigure stands in the boat under the written name Auset=Isis and bears in\nher hand the ankh sign and the lotus flower=ankh sceptre. In the second\nboat the figure of a boy (ahi) turning (an or sah) his head, holds up the\nankh. In 15, we seem to have an evidence of the ascendancy of Isis\nworship, for the boat contains not only the cow, under the name satit=she\nwho shoots, or the archeress, but also the standing figure of the goddess,\ncrowned by the disk or circle between two horns.\n\nA striking proof that the knowledge of the true, hidden meaning of the\nsigns just discussed was regarded by those who possessed it as an evidence\nof an advanced stage of initiation in the mysteries of the priesthood, is\nfurnished by the following text, which accompanies pl. VI, 16:\n\nIn the Book of the Dead (Leyden, Papyrus, p. 16), in a chapter entitled:\n\u201cChapter of the knowledge of the eastern spirits, ro en rex biu abti,\u201d the\ndead person utters the following words: \u201cI know that eastern mountainous\nregion of the heaven whose south is at the sea Kharo and the north at the\nriver of Ro, at the place where the day-god Ra drives around amidst\nstorm-winds. I am a welcome comrade in the boat and I row without tiring\nin the bark of Ra. I know that tree of emerald green brandies amongst\nwhich Ra shows himself when he goes over the layer of clouds of the god\nSu. I know that gate out of which Ra issues. I know the meadow of alo,\nwhose wall is of iron.... _I know the eastern spirits, namely the god\nHur-Chuti, the calf next to this god and the god of the morning_,\u201d the\noriginal text of the latter sentence being: \u201cau-a-rekh-ku-a biu abti\nHur-chuti pu behsu kher nutar pen nutar duaut pu\u201d (Brugsch, _op. cit._, I,\np. 72).\n\nThe evasion and caution with which the speaker alludes to his knowledge of\nthe meaning of the signs, without betraying the latter, sufficiently\nindicate the obligation of absolute secrecy which bound him, and it may be\ninferred that several of the words he employed were intended to be\nmisleading to an outsider just as the astronomical pictures, exposed to\npublic view, were purposely made to seem to relate to the more familiar\nsun, moon and constellations, the mind being thus led away from the hidden\nbut true star-god=Polaris. The circumstance that, on the body of the young\nbull in the boat, there are seven dots and above it a single star and that\nthe hawk-headed seated deity behind it is crowned by the serpent circle or\ndisk of Amen-Ra, sufficiently enlightens us as to the true, veiled\nsignificance which represents different forms of the \u201chidden god,\u201d of the\ngroup. A careful analysis of this and of the astronomical images suffices,\nhowever, to disclose the limited scope of the meaning of such groups, each\none being but a different rebus containing the same phonetic elements. Let\nus now briefly indicate what appear to have been the essential components\nwhich all images contain and a few of the myriad of ways by which they\nwere expressed.\n\n_Uahi=permanent, and Ua=One. Represented by_\n\nFig. 66. 1. An arrow=au (_cf._ abau=to fight), an arm=a, and the numerical\none=ua.\n\n2. The cow=ah, aua, the latter name incorporating the adjective a=mighty,\npowerful, etc.\n\n3. The thigh=uart.\n\n4. The boat=uaa.\n\n5. The numeral five=tuau.\n\n6. The throne, seat or place=auset, which constitutes the name Auset=Isis,\nthe consort of Ausar=Osiris.\n\n7. The bowl=au.\n\n8 and 9. Two forms of sceptre or bent staff=au, uat, _also_ aam.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 66.\n\n\nBesides these signs, well known as sacred symbols, we find that the\nfollowing names also contain the sacred title Ua: uatet=greenstone,\nemerald, aut=quadrupeds, au=heir, also dog, maau=rays of light, mau=lion,\nalso cat. The reason why certain quadrupeds, and particularly the cow,\nlion, and the cat, should have become sacred animals in Egypt, seems to be\nsatisfactorily explained by the fact that each constituted a rebus and\ncould therefore be employed as an \u201cimage\u201d of the One god. It is obvious\nthat locality would necessarily influence the choice of the sacred animal\nand that while one city might adopt the cow, another would be obliged to\nadopt the cat, etc, as the living rebus. The adoption of \u201cthe heir,\u201d or\nfirst-born of the sacramental union of king and queen, as the living image\nof the deity, throws an unexpected light on the reason why members of the\nroyal line were treated with divine honors. While persons, animals and\nobjects whose names contained the divine Ua=one, would thus be chosen,\nothers containing the word Ra=god, would also be adopted.\n\n_Ra=god._\n\nOf these I have already pointed out the ur\u00e6us=ara, the eye=ari, face=hra\nand egg=ar, also se or sa and suht. To these may also be added the date\npalm or dates=ben-ra; grain=nepra; the vine=aarer and grapes=aarer, each\nof which is to be found associated with sacred symbolism.\n\nThe veneration accorded in different localities to the pig=re-ra and the\nhorse, may thus be accounted for, especially as the name for the latter,\nhet-ra, consists of het=light or fair, and ra=god, and the horse is\nactually found associated with the light-gods of antiquity and with\nso-called solar symbols and the swastika.\n\nFood for reflection is afforded by the Egyptian name for mirror, which\nliterally signifies to see, or the seer=maa, of the face=hra, but which\nfurnishes, as a rebus, the word maat=law, which is usually expressed by\nthe feather=mat, connected with hra=_i. e._ ra=god (fig. 66, 10). The\nemployment of the mirror as an image of the god of law would thus\nnaturally have been suggested by its name. The presence of the eye=ari\n(_cf._ ra) in the centre of a mirror which is being worshipped, also\nsuggests that in ancient Egypt the mirror was employed in the temple to\nhold the reflection of Polaris=Amen-Ra, \u201cthe untiring watcher, the lord of\neternity and the maker of law\u201d (see fig. 66, 11). It is obvious that the\nhabitual employment, by the astronomer priests, of a mirror so placed in\nthe sanctuary as to catch the reflection of the pole-star through an open\ndoorway, would lead to the discovery of the movements of the sun and the\npositions it assumes during the year. The flashing of a beam of sunlight\nonce a year, at the period of the summer solstice, upon the mirror which\nconstantly reflected the pole-star, would naturally suggest the idea of\n\u201cthe union of the day-sun with the night-sun\u201d and seem particularly\nimpressive as it was at this period that the Nile began to rise. In\ndealing with the religious festivals held at this period more will be said\non this subject.\n\nThe word maat=law, besides being expressed by the feather=mat, could also\nhave been indicated to those initiated in the mysteries of hieratic\nrebus-writing, by the lion=ma hes; the antelope=ma-het, which also\ncontains the sacred attribute light=het, the synonym of khu, thus\nexpresses the idea of the \u201clight of the law.\u201d The musical instrument named\nmat may also have originally been, like the tam sceptre, a symbol of\nlawful power and conveyed an allusion to meht or maht=north. To this\nseries the word am should be added, signifying child, tree and boat, each\nof which has already been treated of in connection with pole-star\nsymbolism and Amen-Ra (fig. 63, 20-22).\n\n_Duality=ka=double; and the Middle=ak._\n\nThe name for bull=ka (fig. 67, 1) incorporates, as has already been shown,\nnot only duality and middle, but also, through its other names, the idea\nof oneness and of power. This appears to explain clearly why the bull was\nchosen as the image or rebus of Polaris and Ursa Major, which appear to\nhave been regarded as a single combination of stars. The fact that in the\nhymns Amen-Ra is addressed as \u201cthe bull,\u201d constitutes a convincing\ncorroboration of the identification of the \u201chidden god\u201d with Polaris. A\nline of connection seems, moreover, to exist between the Egyptian kabal\nsami=the middle of heaven, the image of a bull in the centre of the\nzodiacs, and the bull of Assyria, under which image Baal was worshipped.\n\nHieratic signs, expressing the word for middle and double appear to have\nbeen: the mummy which, although named sah or tut, also signified\nkhat=corpse (2) and conveyed an allusion to mit=death, the homonym of\nmet=north.\n\nA certain form of fish expressed the syllable kha (3). A cone-shaped\nobject named khaker appears to have served as a rebus for the middle and\ndouble as well as night=ker and time=rek (4). In pl. VII, 12, the khaker\nfigures behind the seated image of a deity with the head of a ram=ser or\nsar, holding the ankh in his hand, the whole forming a rebus for Ansar,\nand containing much meaning besides.\n\nKha-ut (fig. 67, 5) is the name for the sacrificial offering laid on the\nutu=altar, which is shaped like the tau and symbolizes the above and below\nby its perpendicular and horizontal lines. In the centre of this is the\nbread=ta (the homonym of ta=earth, _cf._ neb-at=fire), which is remarkable\non account of its division into four parts analogous to that of nut=city,\na feature which justifies the inference that the word for cake=sen-nu made\nwith honey=bat or net, is intended to be expressed here. A jar stands at\neach side of the cake, which is placed on edge so as to exhibit the sacred\ndesign upon it. It is significant that, if the jars contained wine=arp,\nmilk=art, the name of the liquid constituted an anagram of ra, if\nperfume=anta was present, this furnished the syllables an and ta=earth. It\nis, of course, impossible to surmise how far such resemblances of sounds\ninfluenced the choice of sacred offerings.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 67.\n\n\nThe kha (fig. 67, 6)=crown is particularly interesting as Amen-Ra is\naddressed as \u201ccrowned form,\u201d the lord of the ureret crown, ... beautiful\nof tiara, exalted of the white crown ... on whose brow the double crown of\nUpper and Lower Egypt is established. It appears, therefore, evident that\nthe crown=kha was but another mode of expressing ka=double. At the same\ntime it likewise conveyed the idea of ak=the centre and the act of\ncrowning a sovereign appears as vested with deep symbolical meaning when\nit is realized that, according to the primitive modes of thought I have\nbeen tracing, by enclosing the head of the king in a circlet he was\nconstituted the hak, regent or central chief, the living image of Ra,\nwhose sign was the star or dot in the circle or ring.\n\nKa (duality) is commonly expressed by an uplifted pair of arms; a variant\nbeing the whole figure of a man with raised arms (7 and 8). The fact that\nthe name for phallus was also ka, explains its employment as a sacred\nsymbol, recorded by Herodotus, which proves to what extremes the ancient\nrebus-writers went in their na\u00efve invention and multiplication of secret\nsigns and modes of expressing the names and attributes of their \u201chidden\ngod.\u201d The hatred and disgust conceived by the great reformer Amenophis IV,\nagainst all that pertained to the cult of Amen-Ra, his destruction of all\nimages devised by the priesthood and adoption of a pure image of the\nsupreme divinity of a plain disk or circle, with rays terminating in\nhands, are readily understood in connection with the above.\n\nReturning to our list of akh words: the akh or centre is figured by a man\nbetween two signs for heaven=pet, supporting the upper heaven with both\nhands; the idea ka=double or dual, being simultaneously expressed (9).\n\nThe hawk=bak (10) constitutes so perfect a rebus or anagram of middle=ak\nand kabal, as well as for khab=star, that the reason why the hawk was\nchosen as an image or form of Amen-Ra is as reasonably accounted for as\nthe choice of the bull. Before supporting this assertion by a series of\nconvincing proofs, the following list must be studied:\n\n_An=he who turns himself around (__i. e.__ who performs a circuit=the\ncircuiteer) and ankh=life._\n\nIn the \u201cFirst steps in Egyptian\u201d I find the word \u201can\u201d expressed by (fig.\n68, 1) a man in the act of turning around, resembling the position of the\nmale deity in the boat, already discussed and represented in the\nastronomical texts (fig. 68, 2) by an eye, the form of which differs from\nthat of the eye=ari; (3) by a fish, also different in form from the\nfish=kha, and particularly interesting if compared to the fish khepanen,\nfigured in the kheper series, which constitutes a rebus combining the\ntitles khepera=creator and an=the circuiteer; (4) by a stone=aner, also by\nhair=anem; (5) by two arms spread outwards, recalling the position of the\nfront legs of quadrupeds; (6) by a spear whose shaft is inserted in a\ndouble stand; which sign recurs in the name of the city Annu, expressed by\nthe an=spear, the vase=nu and the nut determinative for city or capital\n(7). It is extremely interesting to compare, at this point, the Greek\npolus=a pole or axis, and polis=city or capital, and to realize that, in\nEgypt and Greece alike, the names for capital are associated with the idea\nof centrifugal power and rule.\n\nThe signification of all the above \u201can\u201d signs becomes intensified when it\nis realized that they conveyed also the first two letters of the word\nankh=life, which was usually expressed by the familiar symbol expressing\nthe union of the dualities of nature (8).\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 68.\n\n\nAmongst the many surprises received during the course of this\ninvestigation, few have given me as much satisfaction and light, as the\nobservation of the fact that the Egyptian name for flower, ankh (9), was\nthe same as that for \u201clife.\u201d The full significance of the lotus blossom as\na symbol became clear to me, and my attention having been called by a\nfriend to Mr. William H. Goodyear\u2019s admirable work \u201cThe Grammar of the\nLotus,\u201d London, 1891, I was able to obtain from it the series of Egyptian\nsymbols which I now present and shall proceed to interpret according to\nthe method set forth in the preceding pages. The interesting observation\nwas by Mr. Goodyear that \u201cthe ankh was the exact counterpart of the lotus\nas regards solar association\u201d and in his work, on pl. LXV and elsewhere,\nthis close observer publishes several instances illustrating this view. Of\nthese I reproduce but two, which suffice, feeling convinced that Mr.\nGoodyear will be as interested as I was to hear that the ankh and lotus\nwere homonyms of ankh=life. This fact of itself fully explains why the\nlotus flower was employed by the ancient Egyptians, as Mr. Goodyear\nstates, as the \u201csymbol of life, immortality and of renaissance and\nresurrection and of fecundity.\u201d\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 69.\n\n\nIn fig. 69, 1, two (ka) fishes (khepanen or an) hold the lotus, ankh, and\nthus constitute a sacred rebus, the profound meaning of which can be\nsurmised by studying the preceding pages. In 2, one (ua) fish holds the\nankh instead of the lotus. Both signs obviously express precisely the same\nmeaning with the difference that, in one case duality is expressed by two\nfishes, and in the other by the ankh symbol which emblematizes the union\nof nature\u2019s dualities.\n\nFig. 69, 3, shows the bull, carrying the circle of Ra between its horns\nand wearing the ankh symbol hanging from its neck. The lotus replaces this\nin 4, where the circle is missing and one bull (ua en ka) expresses the\nmystic sacred words ua=One and ka=double or \u201cthe divine Twain.\u201d It is\nevident that it is only when it is assumed that pole-star worship\nconstituted the basis of the natural religion of the ancient Egyptians\nthat their sacred symbols become intelligible.\n\nThough a novice in Egyptology and with extremely limited works of\nreference at hand, which facts will, I trust, excuse faults and omissions,\nI perceive so much that is clear and simple in the following series of\nEgyptian sacred symbols, culled from Mr. Goodyear\u2019s work, that I am\ntempted to submit my interpretation of their meaning, thereby putting my\nview and method to a crucial test.\n\nIn pl. VII, 2, we have an interesting group uniting the boat, the meaning\nof which has been discussed, a seated figure on a square pedestal, a\ncolumn, the upper portion of which is separate and simulates the bowl or\ncup=au, the dot and circle, the sign of Amen-Ra, and a single flower. As a\nrebus, some of the words expressed are am, uaa or makhen=boat, tet=column,\nRa=dot and circle, also seated figure, determinative of god=Ra, and ua en\nankh=one flower. While the rebus supplies the words ua=one,\nuahi=permanent, ra=god, an=the circuiteer, ankh=life, tet=eternal, it is\nonly when identified as pole-star symbolism that the group becomes\ncomprehensible.\n\nPointing out that, in the above, we have a clear case of the flower in\nassociation with the Ra sign and other symbols which have been discussed\nas pole-star signs, let us next examine 1, 3, 4, 6 and 8, in each of which\none blossom=ua en ankh, constitutes the emblem for the sacred Middle, and\nopenly conveys the idea of the verb an, to perform a circuit and\nankh=life.\n\nThe fact that, in 6, the flower consists of five petals, on four of which\nthe genii of the four quarters stand, sufficiently proves that the flower,\nlike the five-dot group, constituted a symbol of the four quarters and\ncentre, the latter being figured as a pyramid-shaped petal. Interesting\nvariants of this group are 5, with the four genii standing on seven of the\nnine petals of the flower, which is placed between two buds, the idea of\ncentrality being thus conveyed; and 7 where an inverted triangle replaces\nthe flower and reveals some of the deeper meaning attached to this symbol.\nIn 1 and 3 the flower is surmounted by the hawk crowned with the Ra sign\nwhich, as has already been stated, symbolizes circuition around a central\npoint of fixity. The names for hawk=hak (_cf._ ak and cabal=middle, also\nhak=king) and her or hur (_cf._ hru=upper, the above, and ur=four=Horus)\nreveal its appropriate use as rebus and symbol of the central \u201csun\u201d god.\nIn 8, instead of the Ra sign, the hawk wears the peculiar double diadem\nwith a circle at its base, which is the particular attribute of the images\nof the ram-headed god Amon who is represented in no. 12, holding the ankh\nsign and accompanied by the kheper sign, composed of a circle, surmounted\nby a cone and supported by a pedestal. It is well known that the ram=ser,\nsart or sar, was the form under which the supreme divinity was worshipped\nat Thebes, the real metropolis of the whole land of Egypt, during many\ncenturies.(113) The name Amon, also given as Ammon, Amoun, Hammon,\nresembles Amen closely enough to justify the identification of Amon as a\nform of Amen-Ra, the concealed god.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Plate VII.\n\n\nIn this connection it is noteworthy that the ram=sar or sart conveys the\nsame sound as the goose=sar or sa, the employment of which, as a pole-star\nsymbol, will be discussed further on, and that the king of Egypt was\ntermed \u201cthe living ram (of Amon) on earth\u201d and \u201cthe engendering ram.\u201d From\nMr. J. P. Mahaffy we learn that, under the Ptolemaic rule, \u201cit seems\nlikely that among the strict prescriptions for all the solemn acts of the\nking, it was directed that he should assume the insignia of the god Amon,\nhis ram\u2019s horns, fleece, etc, when visiting the queen\u201d (History of Egypt,\nLondon, 1899).\n\nUnder the Ptolemaic dynasty, the identification of Amon with Amen-Ra\nreceives support from the magnificent monumental votive ram, preserved at\nthe Berlin Museum, which was dedicated by king Amenophis III, which bears\non his head, the disk with the ur\u00e6us serpent, the familiar sign of the\n\u201chidden god.\u201d(114)\n\nWhile the diadem of Amen-Ra sufficiently identifies the hawk on the lotus\nas a form of the \u201chidden god,\u201d the following extracts from Mr. Goodyear\u2019s\nwork will be found to confirm this and throw further light on the subject.\n\u201cThe hawk represented Ra, Horus and all solar gods....\u201d A text at Denderah\nsays: \u201cThe sun which was from the beginning rises (_i. e._ comes forth,\nappears, see Brugsch for meaning of Egyptian equivalent) like a hawk from\nthe midst of its lotus bud....\u201d At Denderah the king makes offering of the\nlotus to the sun-god Horus with the words: \u201cI offer thee the flower which\nwas in the beginning the glorious lily of the great water....\u201d In the boat\nof the dead the soul says, \u201cI am a pure lotus (_i. e._ life) issue of the\nfield of the sun.\u201d\n\nThe circumstance that, in 4, the flower is surmounted by a goose, one name\nfor which being aq=ak, shows that, like the hawk, bak, it may well have\nserved as a rebus for ak=the middle. An instance of the direct association\nof the sacred goose with the four quarters is given in the bas-relief at\nMedinet-Abu, described by Brugsch (_op. cit._ II, p. 297). This represents\n\u201cRamses III ... offering sacrifice to the god \u2018Khimti,\u2019 _i. e._ Pan of\nPanopolis, the Theban form of which was Amon Generator.... A white bull\n(the symbol of Pan) and four geese, which are represented as flying\ntowards the cardinal points, constitute the sacrifice.\u201d\n\nThe striking association of the goose with the bull=Apis, the astronomical\nsymbolism of which has been shown, gains in significance when it is\nrealized that another name for goose is apt and that this also constitutes\nan anagram of pta=ptah, one form of Amen-Ra. It is a curious fact that the\nthird name for goose, se or sa, combined with ankh=flower, as in pl. VII,\n4, furnishes the word ankh-sa, which recalls the word An-sah obtained by\nthe mummy and serpent rebus and the name of the god of Assyria, Anshar.\n\nIn connection with the above Egyptian rebus, expressing the syllables ankh\nand sa, it surprised me, to find that the Sanscrit name for goose is\nhangsa, while in ancient Hindu it is hamsa and in modern Hindu hanassa. It\nis well known that in Hindu mythology the goose was \u201cthe bird of Brahma,\u201d\nthe \u201csupreme one who alone exists really and absolutely,\u201d that the birth\nof Brahma from the lotus is frequently represented in Hindu religious art,\nand that the lotus is the attribute of the \u201csun-god\u201d Surya, termed the\n\u201clord of the lotus, father, friend and king.\u201d What is more, the goose,\nassociated with \u201csolar\u201d symbolism, _i. e._ with the circle and central\ndot, with the swastika, four-petalled flower and the wheel, occurs on the\noldest monuments of Greek art; on the prehistoric bronzes and pottery of\nItaly (where the sacred geese were kept on the Capitoline at Rome); on the\nbronzes of Hallstatt, of ancient Gaul and of prehistoric Sweden. Pointing\nout that we thus obtain a whole chain of associations which link the\nsyllables am and an to deities and pole-star symbolism, I next present,\nfor reference, the names for the bird given in Webster\u2019s dictionary.\n\nSanscrit, hangsa; Latin, anser, for hanser; German, gans (in Germany,\naccording to Pliny, the small, white geese were called ganzoe al. gantoe\nlib. X, 22); Greek, khen; Danish, gaas; Swedish, gos; Welsh, gwydd;\nAnglo-Saxon, gos; Irish, geadh; Icelandic, gas; Slavonic, gusj and gonsj.\nNoting that in the Sanscrit, Latin, Greek and German alike, the syllable\nan or en is present in the name for goose, I return to the Egyptian\nsymbols which express the words an and ankh, and, bearing the \u201cbirth of\nBrahma from a lotus\u201d in mind, refer again to the Egyptian title Neb-ankh,\n\u201clord of life,\u201d which, as I point out, also signified \u201cthe lord of the\nlotus flower.\u201d Let us now briefly examine some Egyptian texts relating to\npl. V, 12 and 15, which represent the boat (am and its synonyms) and the\nflower=ankh, associated with the boy and the serpent.\n\nIn an astronomical text from Edfu, published by Brugsch, New Year\u2019s day is\nmentioned in connection with the \u201ccoming forth of the great lotus blossom\nin the form of a bud in its symbolical interpretation as the god ahi\n(literally, boy).... The count of his rulership begins from the first day\nof his rising or birth....\u201d In another text it is said: \u201cNew Year\u2019s day,\nthe sun (Ra) comes forth from a lotus flower in the great sea,\u201d and there\nare numerous allusions in other inscriptions to \u201cthe lotus blossom in the\ngreat waters, from which the sun-child arises in radiance towards heaven.\u201d\nThe text accompanying (pl. V, 15), where a serpent rises from the lotus in\nthe boat, states \u201cthe sun, uniter of the world, in Tentyra\u201d=the New Year.\n\nIn another inscription it is said: \u201cthou risest like the sacred serpent,\nas a living spirit, in thy glorious form in the bark of the sunrise;\u201d and\nthis passage forms an interesting parallel to that already cited where the\nsun is said to rise \u201clike a hawk from the midst of its lotus bud.\u201d Pl.\nVII, 14, exhibits a nine-petalled lotus growing from a pedestal and a head\nissuing from it. As the name for head tep (also tap or tpa, and apt _cf._\npta), signifies chief, or beginning, we must accept this as another\nvariant of the previous signs.\n\nDeferring the discussion of the so-called \u201cbirth\u201d and cult of the diurnal\nsun, as one form of Amen-Ra, let us now rapidly survey the following\nfigures copied from Mr. Goodyear\u2019s work.\n\nPl. VII, 9. A circle encloses a group consisting of the five-petalled\nlotus between two buds and the hawk-headed sphinx, which has already been\nmet with in the astronomical texts and, according to Egyptologists,\nrepresents Horus, the sun, \u201cwho lights the world with two eyes\u201d and is\naddressed as \u201ca powerful lion,\u201d \u201cthe master of double force.\u201d(115) I need\nscarcely recall here that the combination of a bird and quadruped would\nnaturally symbolize air and earth, the Above and Below and that the\nhawk-headed sphinx, seated on four petals, clearly expresses the idea of\nthe \u201clord of Heaven and Earth, the father and mother of all, the ruler of\nthe Four Quarters and lord of the circle.\u201d\n\nPl. VII, 10. The plain circle or disk, supported by two uplifted arms=ka,\narising from (akh) the ankh sign, is another ingenious mode of expressing\nthe idea of the Middle, the circle, duality and life.\n\nNo. 13 constitutes as charming and ingenious a play upon the word\nankh=life as can be imagined, and a close examination reveals its subtle,\nhidden and deep significance. It exhibits, in the first case, the ankh\nsign combined with the flower=ankh, which might, at a first glance, be\ntaken as an example of purely decorative art. But the ever-present thought\nof the duality of nature manifests itself in the arrangement of the two\nflowers towards each other and enclosed in the open ring of the ankh sign,\nand it is evident that the artist took pains to draw the central petal of\nthe lower blossom in the form of a triangle, below which an oblong square\nand a square may be distinguished.\n\nAfter the foregoing attempt to show how, even with my rudimentary and\nlimited knowledge of their language, the sacred symbols of the Egyptians\nbecome intelligible and full of significance when studied as examples of\npole-star symbolism and primitive rebus writing, I draw attention to the\nlimited number of syllables employed in the astronomical texts; to the\ningenuity displayed in expressing the same sound over and over again by\nmeans of different words possessing the same sound and to the fact I shall\nhereafter set forth, that the syllables and rebus-figures employed are\nfound indissolubly linked to pole-star and sacred symbolism. Referring a\ndemonstration of these conclusions to the end of the present\ninvestigation, I shall next discuss the forms which the cult of the\ndualities of nature seemingly assumed in ancient Egypt.\n\nAs an introduction I present in fig. 70, the copy of the upper portion of\na funeral stela preserved at B\u00fbl\u00e2k and published by Perrot and Chipiez\n(\u00c6gypten, Leipzig, 1884). It exhibits the head or face of Hathor\nsurmounting the tet column and supporting, in turn, the image of a small\nhouse or temple, at each side of which is a peculiar projection recalling\nthe circinate line issuing from the red crown of lower Egypt (see fig. 70,\n9, 10). In another Hathor stela, figured in the same work (pp. 510 and\n780), the same characteristic circinate projections recur. The image of\nthe house, always represented with a single doorway, is obviously a rebus\nof the name Hathor, explained by Egyptologists as Het-heru, literally \u201cthe\nhouse of Horus.\u201d \u201cAthor or Hathor of Thebes, identified with Nut, the sky\n... was the female power of nature and is often represented under the form\nof a cow, ... as a woman with a cow\u2019s head, with horns and the disk, or\nwearing a head-dress in the shape of a vulture and above it the disk and\nhorns.\u201d In the familiar representation of the mask of Hathor on columns,\nthe association with the cow is conveyed by large cow\u2019s ears=setem,\nprojecting at each side of the face=hra.\n\nA feature generally present in the miniature doorway of the house, is a\nsingle erect head of a ur\u00e6us, bearing the disk or circle on its head and\nusually exhibiting a distinctly cross-shaped mark on its neck. The latter\npeculiarity is clearly shown in fig. 70, 1, which exhibits moreover a\nseated divinity at each side of the doorway, each bearing the throne or\nseat (auset) on its head, and the ankh sign on its knee. Close examination\nreveals that one of these deities is Ausar=Osiris, whose name is generally\nwritten by means of the throne=auset, and the eye=ari, with or without the\ndeterminative for god, _i. e._, the seated figure (fig. 70, 1 _a_ and 1\n_b_). Opposite to Osiris is Auset=Isis, whose name is usually written as\nin fig. 70, 1 _c_, where the auset, the egg=se, and the seated image of a\ngoddess bearing a bowl=neb, on her head, may be distinguished.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 70.\n\n\nAn idea of the import of fig. 70, 1, seems gained when it is remembered\nthat in Egyptian the word house=pi, pir or per, was associated with the\ntitle of ruler, the name Pharaoh being derived from per=\u0101a=great house.\nWhat is more, the word house=pir or pi, is used in astronomical texts,\nlike the Arabian beth, in relation to stars, it being said of a star that\n\u201cit ever comes forth from its house\u201d=appears (Brugsch).\n\nThe permanent image of the disk and serpent, a form of the Ra sign, in the\ndoorway of the sculptured house, would thus convey the idea of the eternal\npresence of Amen-Ra, the pole-star god. The accentuation of the cross\nlines on the neck of the ara indicates, moreover, the intentional allusion\nto four-fold and two-fold force, the latter being expressed by the eyes of\nthe serpent. The door=ptah, which is open, expresses the name Ptah=the\nOpener, well known as that of the \u201cfather of the gods\u201d and a form of\nAmen-Ra.\n\nThe positions assigned to Osiris and Isis, at either side of the \u201chidden\ngod,\u201d sufficiently shows that they were intended to represent separate\nincorporations of the male and female principles which were united in\nAmen-Ra, the \u201cdivine Twain.\u201d The association of both deities with the\nthrone, the eternal seat of repose, identifies both alike with Polaris. A\nmonument in the Berlin Museum (no. 261) which was found in the temple of\nIsis at Ben-naga, in Nubia, and was a votive offering made by the\nEthiopian king Netek-Amen and his consort Amen-Tari, contains the\nfollowing formula, translated by Lepsius, which associates Isis with\neternal enthronement. \u201cThou remainest, thou remainest, on thy great\nthrone, O Isis, queen of Au-ker, like the sun (Ra) that lives in the\nhorizon ... and thou lettest thy son Netek-Amen flourish on his\nthrone....\u201d\n\nThe fact I am about to demonstrate, that the king and queen of Egypt were\nthe respective, \u201cthe living images\u201d of Osiris and Isis, proves that, as in\nancient Peru and China, the sovereigns, who were at the same time high\npriest and priestess, were considered as the sacred embodiments of the\ndual principles of nature. As elsewhere also, a chain of associations\nbecame attached to each of the dualities; but in Egypt, as may be clearly\ndiscerned, during the lapse of centuries great transformations of thought\ntook place and alternately the male and female elements seem to have been\nassociated with the cults of heaven and earth, light and darkness, sun or\nmoon, morning or evening stars, the southeast and the northwest.\n\nIn the sacred writings the sun is usually termed \u201cthe right eye\u201d and the\nmoon \u201cthe left eye\u201d of Ra (_cf._ hra=the (divine) face). Brugsch points\nout that, in certain inscriptions at Denderah translated by Mariette, \u201cthe\nSothis star of Hathor-Isis is designated as \u2018the right eye of Ra\u2019 while\nthe sun is termed the left eye.\u201d\n\nBrugsch states, moreover, that, according to Sextus Empiricus, \u201cthe\nEgyptians compared the king to the \u2018right eye\u2019 or the sun; while the queen\nwas compared to the \u2018left eye\u2019 or the moon.\u201d The two eyes, often with the\ndesignation of \u201cright\u201d or \u201cleft,\u201d constitute a favorite decoration on\nfuneral stel\u00e6. In some instances the image of the solar disk, with one\nwing and one serpent only, is figured as a substitute for the right eye\n(_op. cit._ II, 436, see fig. 62, 6). The established fact that the eyes\nof Ra were the equivalents of the ur\u00e6i usually accompanying the circle of\nRa, the so-called \u201csolar disk,\u201d is further explained by the following\ndata.\n\nIt is well known that the two ur\u00e6i on the royal diadem denote sovereignty\nover Upper and Lower Egypt. In the bas-relief published by Brugsch, the\ncircle or Ra-sign is represented with two ur\u00e6i, which respectively wear\nthe crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt (fig. 70, 7). The crowned ur\u00e6i recur\nin the emblems of Upper and Lower Egypt published by Mr. Goodyear, the\nfirst accompanied by the lotus flower and the second by what Egyptologists\nusually identify as the papyrus, but which appears to be the ripened pod\nof the lotus (fig. 70, 9 and 10). While the two ur\u00e6i thus emblematized the\ntwo divisions of the land of Egypt they are found as distinctly associated\nwith Osiris and Isis, and their living images the king and queen, or the\nhigh priest and high priestess of Amen-Ra. The Berlin Museum contains\nseveral representations of Isis under the form of a serpent with a woman\u2019s\nhead (see official catalogue, nos. 7740, 870 and 2529). Osiris is also\nrepresented as a serpent with the head of a bearded man.\n\nA small shrine in the form of a temple, and decorated with royal serpents,\nis preserved at the Berlin Museum (catalogue no. 8164) and contains the\neffigies of two ur\u00e6i, one of which, to the left of the spectator, exhibits\nthe head of Isis, the second, to the right, the features of Osiris.\nBetween them stands the vase or bowl which was a constant feature of Isis\ncult.\n\nIn connection with this monument it is interesting to examine an\ninscription published by Brugsch (I, p. 108) in which occur two serpents\nwho are pouring liquid into a bowl placed between them and the divided\nhalves of the sky-sign (fig. 70, 8). The text connects this with the New\nYear festival when the Nile began to rise \u201cfrom its two sources\u201d and the\n\u201cunion of heaven and earth\u201d took place, which will be discussed later. The\nfollowing temporary list briefly presents a summary of the preceding data\nwhich is rendered more complete by the addition of the signs and emblems\nof the festivals, when the \u201cconjunction of sun and moon took place,\u201d\nfigured by the picture of two persons united by their respective right and\nleft hands (fig. 70, 5) or by the tet column placed between two horns\n(fig. 70, 4). As may be seen by numerous examples in Brugsch (vol. II),\nthe great Sed festival is figured by the image of the small sanctuary\nwhich existed on the flat roof of the great temple at Denderah, and\nresembled an open pavilion with four columns which is usually represented\nas containing two seats placed back to back (fig. 70, 2, 3). A small\npicture in Mr. Wallis Budge\u2019s Nile exhibits the king and queen occupying\nsuch a double throne, respectively, wearing the insignia and crowns of\nOsiris and Isis and holding their sceptres, as in the representations of\nthe ceremony of laying the foundation of a temple, in their right and left\nhands (fig. 70, 6). The r\u00e9sum\u00e9 of the preceding material produces the\nfollowing list:\n\nRight eye of Ra: Left eye of Ra.\nSun: Moon.\nKing: Queen.\nOsiris: Isis.\nHigh priest: High priestess.\nRight hand sceptre: Left hand sceptre.\nNorth: South.\nRed crown: White crown.\n\nThe following data, gleaned from the valuable works of Prof. A. H. Sayce\nand the serial History of Egypt, written by Prof. Flinders Petrie, J. P.\nMahaffy and J. G. Milne, furnish strong indications that, in the remotest\npast, the two divisions of the land of Egypt were respectively governed by\na male and female sovereign; a proof that, before the time of Menes, the\nancient empire had become disintegrated, and undergone a long period of\nintense strife and warfare. We learn from Professor Sayce of the\nprobability that \u201cthe city of Nek-hen was once the capital of the south\nand that the vulture, the symbol of the south, was also the emblem of\nNekheb, the goddess of the great fortress, the ruins of which lie opposite\nto Nekhen on the eastern bank of the Nile\u201d (Sayce, _op. cit._ pp. 152,\n191).\n\nWhile the capital and the emblem of southern or Upper Egypt are thus\ndirectly associated with a \u201cgoddess,\u201d further data show us that the\nancient queens of Egypt were termed \u201cgod-women or goddesses.\u201d When the New\nEmpire was founded (1600-1100 B.C.) with its capital at Thebes, King Ahmes\nassumed the sovereignty of the whole of Egypt, but seems to have shared\nsupreme authority with his consort Ah-mes-nefretere=divine- or god-woman,\nalso termed \u201cthe high priestess of Amen.\u201d From the honors accorded to her\nand to her son Amen-hetep or Amenophis I, it must indeed be inferred that\nshe possessed some inherited sovereign right to one of the ancient\ndivisions of the empire.\n\nDuring the period of the 26th dynasty, of Sa\u00efs, we find Upper Egypt\ngoverned by a \u201cgod-woman,\u201d Shep-en-upet, who remained in power, even after\nthe land had been conquered by Psammetichus I. The latter obtained,\nhowever, that his daughter Nitocris was adopted as the successor to the\n\u201cdivine-woman\u201d ruler of Thebes, and she in turn adopted the daughter of\nPsammetichus II (B.C. 594-589), whose name was Anches-nefer-eb-re. A\ntablet from the temple of Karnak, preserved at the Berlin Museum\n(catalogue no. 2112) represents this female sovereign of Thebes\naccompanied by her prime minister, and standing in the presence of the\ngods Amen and Chon.\n\nAnother remarkable monument at the Berlin Museum (no. 7972) figures the\n\u201cgod-woman\u201d Shep-en-upet, under the form of a sphinx holding a vase, and\nrecords that she had inherited the sovereignty of Thebes from her aunt,\nthe consort of an Ethiopian king. An extremely interesting proof that the\nbeard, _per se_, constituted an emblem of sovereignty, is furnished by a\nbeautiful portrait statue of the \u201cdivine woman,\u201d Hat-shepset (Berlin\nMuseum, no. 2299). She is figured as a sphinx and wears a beard suspended\nfrom her head-dress.(116) The serpent decorates her diadem. On other\nmonuments this remarkable queen, who built the temple of Der-el-Bahari, is\nfigured with the crown of Upper Egypt (_cf._ no. 2279, Berlin Museum). By\ngood fortune the personal gold ornaments of a \u201cdivine woman,\u201d an Ethiopian\nprincess, were discovered by Ferlini in the pyramid of Begerauie, enclosed\nin a plain bronze vase. These precious objects are now exhibited in the\nBerlin Museum, where I have examined them and noted with interest that the\ncentral ornament of two finely worked, broad gold bracelets, is a female\nfigure with the royal diadem and four outstretched arms, to which wings\nare attached. This furnishes us with an instance of a queen being\nrepresented with four wings, in exactly the same manner as the Assyrian\nking Sargon, on the seal from the time of Sennacherib (fig. 65, 6),\nnamely, as a \u201cruler of the four quarters,\u201d which indicates that she held\nthe position of a \u201ccentral ruler.\u201d As might be expected in the case of a\nqueen who personified Isis, frequently represented under the form of a\n\u201cwoman-serpent,\u201d the ur\u00e6us is a favorite motif on other gold ornaments\nbelonging to the Ethiopian queen.\n\nCertain passages in Prof. Flinders Petrie\u2019s History of Egypt afford a\ncurious insight into the prerogatives of Egyptian queens as far back as\nabout B.C. 2684. The consort of Usertesen II, the fourth king of the\ntwelfth dynasty was named Nefert,of whom a grey granite statue is\npreserved at the Ghizeh Museum and represents her as seated on a throne.\nOn this are the titles \u201cThe hereditary princess, the great favorite, the\ngreatly praised, the beloved consort of the king, _the ruler of all\nwomen_, the king\u2019s daughter of his body, Nefert.\u201d Prof. Flinders Petrie\nadds: \u201cThe title ruler or princess of all women is peculiar, and suggests\nthat the queen had some prerogatives of government as regards the female\nhalf of the population.\u201d The title in question reappears four centuries\nlater in connection with Nubkhas, the queen of Sebek=Emsaup, of the 13th\ndynasty and her stele in the Louvre entitles her the \u201cgreat heiress, the\ngreatly favored, _the ruler of all women_, the great royal wife, united to\nthe crown Nub-kha-s\u201d (_op. cit._, vol. I, pp. 175 and 225).\n\nBetween B.C. 1423-1414 queen Mutemua-arat appears as \u201cthe goddess queen\u201d\nand \u201cgreat royal wife\u201d (Flinders Petrie _op. cit._, II, p. 174). The\nconsort of Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379) the celebrated Tyi, the daughter\nof Yuaa and Thuaa, is entitled \u201cprincess of both lands,\u201d and \u201cchief\nheiress, princess of all lands.\u201d Her successor Nefertiti is called\n\u201cprincess of south and north, lady of both lands,\u201d which titles, as Prof.\nFlinders Petrie comments, \u201clike the titles of Tyi, imply a hereditary\nright to rule Egypt.\u201d They undoubtedly place her on a footing of equality\nwith the king, which is, however, comprehensible when it is explained that\nshe was the ruler of all women, while he was the ruler of all men. The\nposition of the Egyptian queen would thus prove to have been analogous to\nthat of the ancient Mexican Quilaztli (see pp. 61-67).\n\nThe analogy is all the more striking when it is realized that the titles\nof the Mexican chieftainess were: \u201cthe Woman warrior, the Woman of the\nUnderworld or Below, the Woman serpent or female twin and the Eagle\nwoman,\u201d while the emblem of the Egyptian goddess-queen of the south was\nthe vulture and she was the personification of Isis, represented under the\nform of a serpent, the twin of the male serpent, Osiris.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 71.\n\n\nMuch food for thought is furnished by a Syrian relief sculpture from Amrit\n(published by Spamer, see fig. 71, 2), which exhibits a vulture or eagle\nwith outstretched wings, in juxtaposition to a winged disk which appears\nto combine features of the Assyrian winged disk (the bird\u2019s tail and two\nappendages, see fig. 71,1) with the two ur\u00e6i of the Egyptian form (fig.\n71, 3). It is striking how clear the symbolism of the latter becomes when\ninterpreted (1) as the symbol of the hidden god and his male and female\nform, Osiris and Isis, accompanied by the wings symbolizing air and the\nidea that the deity was invisible and immaterial; (2) as the symbol of\nEgypt itself\u2014an entity, a complete circle, divided into two parts, under\ntwo rulers. The pair of antelope horns above emphasize the fact that the\ntwain were as a single pair. The combined crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt,\nthe latter exhibiting a serpent\u2019s head and the first, what appears to be\nits tail, constitute the symbol of joint rulership which, in this case, is\naccompanied by the feather, the rebus expressing the words \u201ctruth and\njustice.\u201d\n\nWhile the Syrian bas-relief conveys the idea of two separate kingdoms, one\nconveying the idea of single rulership, by the form of an eagle; the other\nof dual rulership, by the two ur\u00e6i, each of which is crowned by a small\ndisk; the Egyptian symbol distinctly conveys the idea of a close union of\ntwo distinct parts. The historical fact that Menes succeeded in uniting\nboth lands under a single crown, indicates clearly enough that the ancient\nempire had become disintegrated and that by marrying the female ruler of\nthe south he had reinstated the dual government on its original primitive\nbasis. That, during the period of separation and independence, a powerful\ngynocracy had been formed seems more than probable. Just as evidences are\nmet with in ancient Mexico of the existence of female communities, so the\nOld World furnishes accounts, deemed fabulous, of powerful gynocracies.\nThus we have heard of the Amazons, the fabulous race of women warriors who\nare supposed to have founded a powerful empire on the coast of the Euxine.\n\nA searching analysis of the texts translated by Brugsch, relating to the\nceremonies performed at the New Year and famous Sed festivals, as well as\nhistorical facts gleaned from the works of living authorities, throw a\nlight upon the position and sacred duties of the Egyptian queens during\nmany centuries. The critical examination of a number of inscriptions,\ntranslated by Brugsch, is found to show that the queen was the high\npriestess and living image of Hathor-Isis and the personification of the\nfemale principle of nature, associated in Egypt with the nocturnal Heaven\nand the Above, and their symbols, the bird or vulture, the cow, the female\nserpent, the moon, the stars, and in particular Sirius-Sothis. In remotest\nhistorical times the goddess-queen seems to have resided in her own\ncapital, a fortress. The universal necessity to insure the safety of women\nand children in times of warfare may well have originally led to the\nassignment of a separate, permanent place of residence, to the female\nportion of the population. The New Year festival, which coincided with the\nheliacal rising of Sirius (20th July, Jul. Cal.) and the overflow of the\nNile, which suspended outdoor activity, was generally celebrated\nthroughout the land as the \u201cunion of heaven and earth,\u201d or the conjunction\nof \u201cthe sun and the moon, or Sirius.\u201d\n\nIt was customary that, at this period, the queen, personifying the Sothis\nstar, should come forth from her retirement and, surrounded by pomp and\nmajesty, meet the king in solemn state, publicly occupy her place on the\ndouble throne, and share in the performance of sacred religious rites. It\nis easy to see that the idea underlying the entire ceremonial was the\nharmonizing of the actions of the sacred personifications of the dual\nprinciples of nature with the natural phenomena, from which arose a\nstrange confusion of ideas concerning the relationship between these\nconsecrated individuals and the powers of nature, which culminated in the\nartificial belief that they were divinely appointed mediators between\nhumanity and the supreme power.\n\nThere are clear indications that the consecrated nuptials of king and\nqueen marked the Sed festival which was celebrated, at the beginning of\nevery fourth year, at Denderah. Brugsch tells us that the place on the\nroof of the Hathor temple, where the celebration of the Sed festival took\nplace, is specially designated as \u201cthe place of the first feast\u201d and in\nmany cases this is shown to have been the small open temple, whose roof is\nsupported by four columns (fig. 70, 2 and 3). In one passage it is\nexpressly stated that \u201cshe, Isis-Sothis, consorts with her father, the\nsun, at \u2018the place of the first feast,\u2019 \u201d represented by a picture of the\nsaid temple (fig. 70, 6).\n\nIt is interesting to compare the following passage with the successive\none, as they exhibit different phases of religious cult. \u201cIn solemn\nprocession statues of the god Ra and of Hathor-Isis (Sothis-Sirius) were\ncarried up the stairs from the interior of the temple to its roof (the\ntep-hat or head of the house) where, under the open sky or in the small\nopen temple on the roof designated as Hait at Denderah, the idols were\nunveiled at a given time....\u201d \u201cOn the morn of the New Year Isis-Sothis\n\u2018beheld her father on the beautiful day of the birth of the disk\u2019\n(mas-aten) or \u2018the birth of the sun\u2019 (mas-ra).\u201d It is described how \u201cthe\ngoddess was led upon the roof so that she might behold the rays of her\nfather on his rising.... She is sometimes addressed directly, being told\n\u2018that thou shouldst see thy father on the day of the New Year.\u2019 \u201d In other\ntexts allusion is made to the approach of Sirius to the sun on New Year\u2019s\nday: \u201cher rays join (heter) with those of the radiant god on that\nbeautiful day of the birth of the sun\u2019s disk in the morning of New Year\u2019s\nday:\u201d or \u201cthou consortest with thy father Ra in thy open temple, thy\nbeautiful face being turned towards the south;\u201d and elsewhere, \u201cshe comes\non her beautiful festival of the New Year, to unite her greatness in\nheaven with that of her father; the gods are festive and the goddesses are\nfull of joy when the right eye (Sirius) unites itself with the left eye\n(the sun). She rests upon her throne in the place where the disk of the\nsun can be seen and the radiant one (Isis-Sothis) combines herself with\nthe radiant one (the sun).\u201d\n\nOn one of the columns of the roof-temple at Denderah, the following text\nis inscribed: \u201cThis temple of Rekhit flourishes in possession of a lion\n(mahes) and of his daughter ... of the Horus of the east and of the\ngoddess Khont-abut. They assume her heavenly form on New Year\u2019s day and\neach one consorts with his neighbor.\u201d Preceding inscriptions are made more\nclear by the following detached passages translated by Brugsch, which\nmerit careful study. \u201cAn inscription at Abydos makes the goddess Safkhet\nsay to the king: \u2018thou didst appear as king upon thy throne on the feast\nhib-seb; like the god Ra at the beginning of the year.\u2019 \u201d \u201cThe high-priest\nof Ptah at Memphis was charged with the celebration of the Sed festival,\nwhich was a general festival throughout the land.\u201d \u201cThe annual going of\nthe Hathor of Denderah to Edfu took place in the month Epiphi.\u201d \u201cThe\ngoddess Hathor-Isis of Denderah is frequently called the second female sun\nnext to the sun\u2019s disk, the many colored, feathered goddess, and is\nidentified with Isis-Sothis.\u201d\n\nAccording to an extremely ancient belief it was the goddess Hathor\nIsis-Sothis who caused the inundation of the Nile which, according to the\ninscriptions, coincided with the heliacal rising of Sirius. Owing to this\ncircumstance she is called, \u201cIsis the great, the mother of god, who causes\nthe Nile to overflow when she shines at the commencement of the year,\u201d or\n\u201cthe female sun who appears at the beginning of the year in the heaven as\nthe divine Sothis star, the queen of the decan stars, whose rays\nilluminate the earth like those of the sun which appears in the morning.\nShe is the mistress of the commencement of the year, who draws the Nile\nout of its source and thus confers life upon living human beings.\u201d\nElsewhere she is termed \u201cthe mistress of the commencement of the year, who\nmakes the Nile rise at its period.\u201d It is likewise said of her \u201con her\nbeautiful feast of beholding her father, the heaven unites itself with the\nearth and the right eye unites itself with the left eye, at the beginning\nof the year.\u201d She is described as Isis the great, the mother of god, the\nlady of Adut in Anet, the mistress of the beginning of the year, the\nmonarch of the Sema? who appears on New Year\u2019s day to usher in the new\nyear. (She is) the goddess Ament (the hidden one) in Thebes, Menat (the\nnurse) in Heliopolis, Renpit (_i. e._ the year) in Memphis, the divine\nstar Sothis in Elephantine, the radiant one in Apollinopolis magna, etc.\n\nIn another passage Hathor-Isis is spoken of as \u201cthe goddess Mehen-net of\nthe light-god and his Ar-hatef=(she who acts as pilot) in the boat sektet,\nwhich eternally passes through the heaven over the head of her father.\u201d On\nthe north wall of the Prondos of the Denderah temple Isis-Hathor is called\n\u201cHathor, the lady of Anet; Isis herself; the eye of Ra; the great one of\nTentyra; the lady of heaven; the queen of gods and goddesses; the great\nMat ... the female sun; the first in Tentyra; the true one amongst gods;\nthe young; the daughter of a young ... [?] the beauty who appears in\nheaven; the truth which regulates the world at the prow of the bark of the\nsun; the queen and mistress of awe; the mistress of goddesses, Isis, the\ngreat, the mother of the god.\u201d\n\nThe following texts from Brugsch are explicit enough: \u201cThe temple of\nTentyra is fitted up for a bride, and is occupied by a bride.\u201d \u201cThe temple\nof Tentyra is in bridal array and contains a bride on the beautiful\nfestival of the birth of the sun.\u201d \u201cThe temple of Tentyra is fitted up for\na bridal and is in possession of a bride on her beautiful festival of the\nbirth of the sun (mas-ra).\u201d\n\nThe birth of a male or female Horus, of a young sun or moon, is alluded to\nin other texts as the \u201cfeast of the child in its cradle,\u201d and coincided\nwith New Year\u2019s day. According to Brugsch, the festival of the child in\nits ses=cradle, nest, or couch, undoubtedly coincided with New Year\u2019s day,\nas is proven by the following inscription: \u201cThe bringing of the band of\nstuff to the great Isis, the mother of the god, for the obtainment of a\nhappy year. Receive, receive happy years on the day of the night of the\nchild in its cradle!\u201d... It is usual to interpret the birth of the young\nchild, or sun of the New Year as a mere allegory of the astronomical fact\nand it may have been thus in later times. On the other hand, historical\ndata prove that the actual birth of a \u201cchild,\u201d the offspring of a royal\nsacramental marriage, did take place in the temple and that children, thus\nborn, afterwards became the rulers of Egypt.\n\n\u201cAt Luqsor, ... a great temple was built by Amenhotep III (B.C. 1414-1379)\nto \u2018his father Amen,\u2019 with special reference to the divine conception of\nthe king.... His birth is the great subject of the temple ... and his\nmother Mut-em-ua is the prominent figure in those scenes, pointing to her\nbeing important as queen-mother....\u201d Of the later king Hor-em-heb (B.C.\n1332-1328) it is inscribed: \u201cAmen, king of the gods, dandled him ... when\nhe came forth from the womb he was enveloped in reverence, the aspect of a\ngod was upon him; the arm was bowed to him as a child and great and small\ndid obeisance before him \u201d (Flinders Petrie, _op. cit._ pp. 177, 190 and\n248).\n\nThe small Isis temple to the east of the great temple of Hathor at\nDenderah is specially designated as the lying-in chamber, or sacred house\nof birth. An inscription dating from the Roman period, on the outer\neastern wall of this building reads: \u201cLife! the female Horus, the\nyouthful, the daughter of a hak (regent, Brugsch), Isis, the great, the\nmother of the Ra=god, is born in Tentyra in the \u2018night of the child in its\ncradle,\u2019 at the west side of the temple of Hat-seses (the great temple of\nHathor).\u201d It is, moreover, stated that \u201cHorus, in female form, is the\nprincess, the powerful, the heiress to the throne and the daughter of an\nheir to the throne.\u201d\n\nIn another inscription, on the south wall of the small temple of Isis, the\nbirth of Isis is described thus: \u201cOn this beautiful day, \u2018of the night of\nthe child in its cradle,\u2019 on the great festival during which the world is\nre-adjusted, or balanced (sekhek en ta), the bringing forth of Isis takes\nplace in the interior or centre of Anet (Tentyra) by the goddess Ap, the\ngreat, in the chamber of Ap, in the form of a dark red female person, the\nKhnum ankh, the lovely. Her mother, Nut, exclaimed at the sight of her:\nbehold, (As is) I have become a mother. Thence the origin of the name\nIsis.... The south, towards the place of rising of the sun\u2019s disk, has\nbeen given over to her, and the north, towards.... She is, namely, the\nmistress of both sides of Egypt, with her son Horus and her brother\nOsiris.\u201d\n\nOn the east side of the wall of the terrace at Denderah a similar\ninscription reads: \u201cUar-kher-ta is the name of this locality. The name of\nthe place of the cradle of Isis is named Adut, which is the house where\nthe \u2018accouchement\u2019 of Nut, the goddess of heaven, takes place. It is here\nthat, at the time of the \u2018night of the child in its cradle,\u2019 the\ngod-mother is brought into the world, in the form of a dark female, named\nKhnum-ankhet, the lady of love and the queen of the gods and goddesses. On\nseeing her, her mother exclaimed: As, \u00ees _i. e._ lo, or behold, I have\nbecome a mother! Thence the origin of her name Isis.... She is the lady of\nthe temple of Egypt with her son Horus and brother Osiris, now and forever\ninto eternity.\u201d The most instructive account of the festival which has\ncome under my notice is the following, contained in another inscription in\nthe temple at Denderah.\n\n\u201cThe fourth day, supplementary to the year (of 360 days, _i. e._ the 364th\nday) is the beautiful day of the \u2018night of the child in its cradle\u2019 and is\na great festival of preparation. During the night preceding this day there\ntakes place the procession of the goddess Hathor and the divinities with\nher. The circuit of her temple is made and all is duly fulfilled according\nto the custom. Upon this follows the return to their places (chambers in\nthe temple). The golden one (Nubet, the ordinary appellation of\nHathor-Isis as the star Sothis-Sirius, Brugsch) rises, shining, above the\nbrow of her progenitor, and her mysterious (literally, full of secrets)\nform is at the prow of the boat of the sun. As soon as she reaches the \u0101k\n(centre) of her city in the presence of her Nomos, she beholds her\ndwelling with the most joyful feelings. When she enters her house her body\nis full of delight. When she has taken possession of her exalted dwelling,\nsurrounded by her fellow-gods, who stand at each side of her, her soul in\nher body is full of rejoicings. When they join the rays of her father (the\nsun god) and are united to the radiance of his disk, the city Anet\n(Tentyra) is happy. Adoration is made in Adut (the lying-in chamber) and\nPi-anet is in festive state, when it beholds the great, the powerful\nleader, she who creates the festival in the holy city on that beautiful\nday of the New Year.\u201d\n\nElsewhere we read: \u201cThe city of Anet is in a constant exaltation when the\ngoddess Isis is born in it (in the small Isis temple) in the form of a\ndark red woman, whose name is Khnum-Ankhet, the lady of love, the queen of\ngoddesses and women, the bride. It is beautiful to see the shining\nappearance of the ray of light in the heaven, in the dusk, at the time\nwhen she is born in this city.... A flying beetle (?) is born in the sky\nin the prim\u00e6val city of Tentyra at the period of \u2018the night of the child\nin its cradle.\u2019 The sun shines in the heaven at dusk when her birth has\ntaken place. Gods and goddesses praise the name of her majesty....\u201d\n\u201cRa-Hur of Apollinopolis magna, god Sam-ta, comes forth, or arises, in the\ndawn (akhekh) when the birth takes place in \u2018the night of the child in its\ncradle,\u2019 on the great festival of the entire world (or the entire land).\nHe shines for her majesty when she has brought forth (the child). Her\nchild is in the form of a beautiful boy, who is the lord of Tentyra. The\ngods and goddesses came to her carrying the symbol of life (the ankh) and\nthe sceptre of power (the tam) so as to fulfil their desire and her wish\u201d\n(p. 103).\n\nThe following extract from a papyrus which belonged to a priest of Amon,\nnamed Horsiesis of Thebes, of the time of Augustus, affords an extremely\ninteresting insight of the mysterious ceremonial which had gradually\ndeveloped. It is evident that the text, though apparently clear, must have\nbeen intelligible to the initiated only, who alone were able to understand\nthe allusions to secret, sacred rites and their symbolical meaning.\n\n\u201cThou raisest thyself to heaven, in the region of the city Ka ... thou\ngoest with the king when he goes to Thebes ... thou seest the Sktt bark on\nits arrival in the city of Thebes and the two sisters united in Pi-ubkt\n... thou seest the goddess Hathor who becomes the mother of her own\nmother(117) on the day ... of the Tx festival ... thy name is called\namongst those of the judges on the great Hermopolis in the night of the\nfestival of _he who remains __ in the middle or centre of his city_ ...\nthou seest the immovable ones united into a quatuor, in form like a young\nbull ... thou seest their wives united together in the form of the goddess\nAnthat ... thou visitest the caves of Thebes when his majesty betakes\nhimself to the zone of Smu.... The mistress of heaven comes to her house\n... thou receivest a cloak from his hand ... the divine eye ... thou\nwatchest at night in the chamber of birth on the day of the [lying in]\nbirth of the goddess Mut....[Nut?] Thou goest in with those who go in and\ncomest out with those who come out like the great Horus in his temple ...\nthou seest in her domain(?) mysterious actions performed by the\nPastophores. No one sees, no one hears (of them) ... thou hearest the\nvoice of the singer in the temple, in varied modulations ... thou\nascendest the stairway of the eternal circle of light, thou seest the\nstrong ram in its domain ... thou seest ... in his first form, Osiris, in\nthe house of purification.\u201d (Brugsch, _op. cit._ II, pp. 518 and 520).\n\nA careful perusal of the preceding texts conveys an idea of the immense\nlapse of time it must have required for the state religion of Egypt to\nhave developed itself and crystallized into a complicated ritual, the true\nsignificance of which, doubtlessly, gradually receded from view. The na\u00efve\nprimitive symbolization of the union of heaven and earth by the actual\nmarriage of king and queen, followed by general marriage festivities, had\nnaturally created, in course of time, a distinct privileged caste rendered\n\u201cdivine\u201d by the circumstances attending their conception and birth. Once\nin existence the maintenance and insurance of the divine line of descent\nwould naturally enforce the intermarriage of its members and the\nsequestration and guarded seclusion of the royal women and the virgin\npriestesses from whose ranks the destined mothers of the divine children\nwere selected.\n\nA more ancient form of symbolizing the union of heaven and earth seems to\nhave been the cult of Apis, which, according to Maspero, preceded the\nbuilding of the pyramids and could scarcely have arisen before the\nadoption of the cow or bull, ua, as the rebus of Polaris, the One=ua. A\nsurvival of Apis cult seems to be the allegorical sacred title \u201cbull\u201d\n(Osiris-Apis) bestowed upon the king, of \u201ccow\u201d upon the queen and \u201ccalf\u201d\nupon their offspring, the young Horus. In later times the king was\nentitled \u201cthe ram\u201d and wore his fleece and horns on visiting the queen. As\na natural sequence, the fruit of their union was spoken of as \u201cthe lamb.\u201d\nAccording to Herodotus (II, pp. 27-29, Cary\u2019s translation), \u201cthe sacred\nApis, or Epaphus is the calf of a cow incapable of conceiving another\noffspring; and the Egyptians say that lightning descends upon the cow from\nheaven and that from thence it brings forth Apis.\u201d \u201cThe Egyptian\nmagistrates said ... the god [in the form of Apis] manifested himself at\ndistant intervals ... and when this manifestation took place the Egyptians\nimmediately put on their richest apparel and kept festive holiday.\u201d\n\nAs stated by Mr. Wallis Budge, Apis worship was established at Memphis by\nKa-kau, the second king of the second dynasty B.C. 4100. The veneration\naccorded to the bull, cow and calf, as embodiments of the dual principles\nof nature, in separate and in single form, seems to have been accorded in\nother localities to different animal forms and to have been replaced, in\nlater times, by triads, composed of a god, goddess and their offspring,\neach great centre ultimately possessing their particular triad, the living\nimages of which were the high-priest, high-priestess and their \u201cdivine\u201d\noffspring. It should be noted that a group consisting of 8+1=nine gods,\nhigh priests or prophets, accompanied the triad, the result being twelve\n\u201cdeities\u201d in all, of which one=the child, was an embodiment of two\nprinciples and was the ka=the divine twain.\n\nThe transition of Apis worship from the animal to the human form was\naccomplished during the reign of the Ptolemies (B.C. 305-42) when Serapis\nor Osiris-Apis was introduced into Egypt and represented as a man with the\nhead of a bull, wearing a disk and ur\u00e6us. Long before this, however,\nandrosphinxes and other combinations of the human and animal form had\nexisted in Egypt. At Thebes the divine triad was formed by Amen-Ra,\nMut-Hathor and Chonsu; at Edfu and Denderah we find Osiris,\nIsis-Sothis-Hathor and Horus. On the other hand, a curious inscription in\nthe temple at Denderah, translated by Brugsch (II, p. 512), actually\ndescribes Amen-Ra as \u201cthe great god in Denderah, who periodically\nrejuvenates himself and _becomes a beautiful boy, who is the concealed or\nhidden god, whose name is hidden_; who is the Horus with colored wings,\ncoming forth in the upper hemisphere of Edfu, the lord of the double\nheaven.\u201d\n\nThe inference one might be tempted to make from this and other texts is\nthat, at one period, a human babe, the fruit of a royal or sacerdotal\nunion, was born in the temple on what constituted New Year\u2019s Day and was\nsecretly worshipped there during the ensuing year, as the living image of\nAmen-Ra, the hidden god and \u201cdivine twain.\u201d I venture to point out that\nthe adoption of the child as the image of the divinity was the logical\nsequence to the preceding employment of the bull as a rebus for the words\nua=one and ka=twain; that the consecration of the human form must,\nundoubtedly, have given a strong impulse to statuary, and that the\nsanctification of the child correspondingly exalted motherhood and lent a\nparticular consecration to the marriage of its \u201cdivine parents.\u201d The\nfollowing facts, culled at random, afford a limit of the transitions and\nfurther developments which took place in Egypt in course of time.\n\nBefore proceeding, special mention must be made of one important point\nwhich throws a flood of light upon the extent of the development of\nseparate cults of sun and moon and the institution of solar and lunar\ncalendars which respectively governed the activities of the male and\nfemale populations. As this matter will be fully treated in my calendar\nmonograph I shall merely note here that Brugsch cites texts proving the\nexistence and simultaneous use of the two calendars, and the supreme\nimportance accorded to the new moon of the month Epiphi on whose\nappearance the \u201cgoddess Isis-Hathor of Denderah embarked on her sacred\nbarge and proceeded up the river, from her city to Edfu (Apollinopolis\nmagna) where she joined his majesty ..., her father, ... the incomparable\nsun-god Ra, the first of Apollinopolis, the golden disk, whose children\nare numerous....\u201d It is further stated that the god and goddess became\ninseparable like sun and moon. Brugsch states that the appearance of the\nsaid new moon, which was also associated with the heliacal rising of\nSirius, would range from Aug. 18 to Sept. 16, Jul. Cal. (see _op. cit._\nII, pp. 282-1). The appearance of the goddess was the signal for the\nopening of a season of general \u201cfeasting and drinking, rejoicing, singing\nand dancing\u201d throughout the land, to which the name Tekhu is given in some\ntexts. This is translated by Brugsch as \u201cthe intoxication of gladness or\njoy;\u201d it \u201ccoincided with the highest level attained by the overflow of the\nNile,\u201d and its modern survival is the annual \u201cmarriage of the Nile\u201d which\ntakes place on the 23d of August.\n\nIt is curious to note how the original carrying out of primitive and na\u00efve\nrites by the queen and high-priestess gradually caused her presence to be\nregarded as essential for the \u201cdrawing out of the Nile from its source\u201d\nand her person to be surrounded with utmost veneration and sanctity. As\nProf. Flinders Petrie states, speaking of as far back as B.C. 1383-1365:\n\u201cThe marriage to a royal high priestess of Amen was, of course, purely a\npolitical necessity to legitimate the king\u2019s position.\u201d\n\n\u201cIt would seem that Hor-em-heb was not married to Nezem-mut until his\naccession, when he legalized his position by becoming husband of the\nhigh-priestess of Amen, as in the arrangement of the later dynasties. This\nmarriage was an affair of politics solely, considering the age of the\nparties; Horemheb was probably between fifty and sixty at the time and if\nthe queen was the same as Nefertiti\u2019s sister Nezem-mut, she must have been\nabout the same age as Horemheb\u201d (_op. cit._ pp. 183, 250). How long the\nfemale Egyptian ruler maintained her sway may, perhaps, best be seen by\nthe following texts describing the political homage paid to the living\ngoddess of the Egyptians under Ptolemaic and Roman rules.\n\nOne inscription clearly shows that, at the time of Ptolemy IX, Euergetes\nII, the living Isis was acknowledged as the sole ruler of the land of the\nsouth by the king and his wife, queen Cleopatra III, who jointly occupied\nthe throne of northern Egypt. Jointly the latter dedicated a beautiful\nhall to the goddess Isis, as a place in which to celebrate the Tekhu feast\nand in which she might linger at this season (Brugsch, _op. cit._ II, p.\n284). I have found indications in other works that, in other localities,\nthe goddess entered a secret chamber in the earth or pyramid or celebrated\nher sacred mysteries and festival on the sacred boat of the sun, in the\nsacred sea or lake belonging to the temple. In these cases it is obvious\nthat the dominant idea was the performance of the sacred rites in the\nsacred centre or middle.\n\nAt a later period Cleopatra VII ascended the female throne at the age of\nseventeen and became high-priestess of Amen, the living image of Isis. It\nwas understood that as soon as her brother Ptolemy XIV, then aged twelve,\nshould come of age, she was to marry him. Partly for political reasons,\nakin to those which had caused king Horemheb, on his accession, to marry\nthe high priestess of Amen, Julius C\u00e6sar and Mark Antony become in\nsuccession the consorts of Cleopatra, after whose death Egypt became a\nRoman province. But the \u201cland of the south,\u201d and traditional, divine,\nfeminine rulership, lingered on. Under the third prefect, \u00c6lius Gallus,\nCandace, queen of the Ethiopians, invades Egypt at the head of her army.\nShe was defeated, but the position of the high-priestess of Amen, the\nliving Isis, continued to be such as to exact the homage and an act of\npropitiation from the Roman Emperor.\n\nAn inscription, from the time of Augustus, records that a beautiful\nmonument, or \u201chouse,\u201d had been erected by the \u201clord of the land, the\nautocrator, the son of the sun, C\u00e6sar,\u201d and was presented, at the time of\nthe Isis festival, to its possessor, the great Isis, the mother of the\ngod, the mistress of the lying-in-house, the splendid and mighty queen of\nPhil\u00e6, the benevolent princess of Abaton, the daughter of the sun. She is\nlikewise named \u201cshe who is great or whose greatness extends towards the\nfour quarters\u201d and is designated as \u201cthe royal wife of the majesty of\nOsiris and the royal mother of Horus, the victorious bull,\u201d _i. e._ the\nka. It is stated that \u201cshe found the house of birth brilliantly adorned\nand well arranged in every way\u201d and she installed herself in its interior\non a given day, so as to bring forth her son in these surroundings. One of\nthe rewards promised to C\u00e6sar for the delicate attention and gift bestowed\nupon the goddess is \u201ceternal and permanent occupation of the throne of\nHorus, the first of the living ones.\u201d According to the Esne calendar a\n\u201cdivine birth\u201d actually took place on a given date. Brugsch, referring to\nPlutarch and calendar texts, shows that the commencement of the Isis\nfestival dated from the time when Isis assumed a phylactery, or amulet, to\nindicate that she had conceived.\n\nAnother inscription shows that Tiberius Claudius had caused the house to\nbe renovated for \u201cthe mighty goddess Isis, the life giving mistress of\nAbaton, the good Hathor, the queen of the land of Nubia, the divine mother\nof the golden (Nub) Horus, the benevolent sister of Osiris, the great\nprotectress who guards his son.\u201d As Tiberius Claudius, in this text named\nhimself her loving son, it is obvious that the day had passed away when\nsolely her own divine son Horus would be the one legitimate and divine\nheir to the Egyptian throne. It is interesting to surmise what became of\nthe children whose \u201cdivine births\u201d continued to be celebrated as a sacred\noccurrence to which even a Roman Emperor yielded homage. The natural\nsequence would have been that, accompanied by a band of devoted followers,\nthe sons of the sun, the young bulls, _i. e._ the ka, or divine twain, and\ntheir sisters, would seek distant lands in which jointly to establish new\nkingdoms on the ancient, familiar plan.\n\nCollectively, the preceding evidence has afforded a realization of some of\nthe curious but natural results of the prolonged cult of the dual\nprinciples of nature in Egypt, the most remarkable being, perhaps, the\ncreation of a distinct, \u201cdivine\u201d caste of individuals, from the na\u00efve\nadoption of marriage and birth as consecrated religious rites, symbolical\nof the union of heaven and earth and the production of new life. While at\none time, and in certain localities, this mode of symbolism obviously took\nthe upper hand and fostered the growth of the artificial idea of the\n\u201cdivine rights of royalty,\u201d there are evidences that, simultaneously, the\nunion of the dual principles of nature was symbolized in one or more\ndifferent archaic and primitive ways. These appear to have been separately\nadopted in various centres of thought where the disastrous and debasing\nconsequences of the association of the idea of sex with the cult of heaven\nand earth, light and darkness, etc., were realized with disapproval.\n\nWe thus find that, even at Edfu, the ceremonial rite of lighting new\nsacred fire by means of a wooden instrument and friction was performed on\nthe great Isis festival which was marked by the \u201cdivine birth.\u201d According\nto the calendar of Canopus this fell on the first day of Payni, and a\nprescribed illumination of the temples and palace was kept up until the\n30th or last day of the month. In the most ancient Egyptian calendars the\n\u201clighting of light\u201d at the same period is also recorded (Brugsch, _op.\ncit._ II, p. 470) and, according to Herodotus, the festival was named \u201cthe\nlighting of lamps\u201d and was observed throughout all Egypt. He adds that \u201ca\nreligious reason is given why this night is illuminated and so honored\u201d\n(II, 61 and 62).\n\nThe influence of increasing astronomical knowledge likewise shows itself\nin the joint observation of the movements of sun, moon and stars and the\ndetermination of the relative positions of the latter to the sun at the\nperiods of the equinoxes and solstices. Without taking period or sequence\ninto consideration for the present, I merely note that we find evidence\nthat, at one time, images of sun and moon, of the right and left eyes of\nRa, or statues of Hathor-Isis and Osiris, replaced their living images in\nreligious ceremonies.\n\nSometimes the entire ritual seems to have consisted in the union of water,\nthe produce of heaven, with seeds, the produce of earth; the ensuing\ngermination and production of young shoots being deemed sacred and\nsymbolical of the renewal of life. The fact that statuettes of Osiris have\nactually been found, made of paste containing various seeds, distinctly\nshows that, like the Babylonian Baal, the Egyptian male divinity was\nidentified with the earth. Another indication of this is furnished by the\ndescriptions of the feast of Pan, which fell at the period of the spring\nequinox. At this period the crop of dura, which had been sown by the king\nin the sacred fields at Denderah, at the time of the \u201cOsiris mysteries,\u201d\nimmediately after the inundation had receded and \u201cthe earth was laid\nbare,\u201d became ripe. The ceremony of cutting the first sheaf of dura was\nperformed by the king, with the silex sickle=khepes.\n\nWhile Osiris was thus directly associated with the produce of the earth\nthere are also evidences that, just as Isis became identified with birth\nand life, her consort became the lord of death and of the underworld.\nMysterious rites and human sacrifices seem to have been instituted in his\nhonor. According to obscure myths Osiris himself had been foully murdered,\nhis body cut into fourteen pieces and cast over the length and breadth of\nthe land. His head was supposed to be preserved at Abydos, the chief\ncentre of his worship, and shrines were erected over the other portions of\nhis body. It will be a matter for further research to investigate whether\nthe \u201cmysteries of Osiris\u201d did not include the dramatization of the death\nof Osiris, in which a human victim personified the god and was actually\nkilled and dismembered.\n\nIt is, perhaps, worth noting here, as an analogy, how appropriately the\nancient Mexican annual sacrifice of a youth, chosen among the most\nperfect, might have answered as a rendition of the drama of Osiris. The\nbody of the victim was divided and the pieces distributed to a fixed\nnumber of priests and chieftains, who partook of them as sacred food. The\nhead was preserved in the Great Temple itself, on the Tzompantli, and the\nlarge number of skulls seen there by the Spaniards constituted a proof of\nthe great antiquity of the custom. The blood of the victim, poured upon\nseeds, seems to have been considered essential for bringing about the\ngermination of the sacred shoots and typical of the union of the dual\nprinciples of nature and of life springing from death. Idols, formed of\nseeds moistened with human blood, were distributed to the participants in\nthe ceremony. According to some authors this sacred paste, and not pieces\nof human flesh, constituted the consecrated food, eaten according to the\nprescribed ritual.\n\nHow far analogous rites were performed in Egypt remains to be seen; it is,\nat all events, certain that, by slow degrees, the cult of the dual\nprinciples of nature gave rise to the institution of strange unnatural\nrites, the original na\u00efve meanings of which became obscured, debased or\nlost. While various localities of Egypt, notably Thebes and Abydos, appear\nto have become the birthplace of curious aberrations of the human\nintellect, there was one ancient and great centre of learning where\nmonotheism and the knowledge of the fundamental scheme appear to have been\npreserved intact, namely, at Heliopolis, the ancient On or Anu of the\nNorth, named the \u201cHouse of the Sun\u201d by Jeremiah and \u201cthe Eye or Fountain\nof the Sun\u201d by the Arabs. According to Mr. Wallis Budge, \u201cits ruins cover\nan area three miles square ... the greatest and oldest Egyptian College or\nUniversity for the education of the priesthood and laity stood here....\nDuring the XXth dynasty the temple of Heliopolis was one of the largest\nand wealthiest of all Egypt and its staff was numbered by thousands. When\nCambyses visited Egypt the glory of Heliopolis was well on the wane and,\nafter the removal of the priesthood and sages of the temple to Alexandria,\nby Ptolemy II (B.C. 286), its downfall was well assured. When Strabo\nvisited it (B.C. 24) the greater part of it was in ruins.... Heliopolis\nhad a large population of Jews and it will be remembered that Joseph\nmarried the daughter of a priest of On (Annu).... Macrobius says that the\nHeliopolis of Syria or Baalbek, was founded by a body of priests who left\nthe ancient city of Heliopolis of Egypt\u201d (The Nile, p. 132).\n\nIndirectly we learn the tenor of the doctrines and ideas held by the sages\nof Heliopolis at one period by the remarkable attempt to reform the\nreligion of Egypt, carried out by their pupil, Amenhotep IV (about B.C.\n1450). Evidently realizing, with his masters, the extent to which the\nancient fundamental religion had become obscured and debased by the\nmultiplication of images of the deity, and the institution of rival cults,\nwhich were shrouded in mystery and darkness, the young prince boldly made\nwar against the priesthood of Amen-Ra and the cult of a \u201chidden god.\u201d\n\nDestroying the monstrous images which had originally been rebus figures\nonly, and represented the supreme deity in partly human and animal form,\nhe instituted the disk or circle as the simple and purer form under which\nthe divinity was to be revered.(118) Animated by the clear realization to\nwhat an extent the original communal or republican scheme of organization\nwas being departed from by the artificial creation of a \u201cdivine\u201d race of\nkings who claimed to be gods, he caused himself and his queen to be\nportrayed as simple mortals, and not as the deities Osiris and Isis.\nChoosing the sun as his emblem, this champion of pure light and open truth\nfought the Egyptian votaries of darkness. He erased the word Amen=hidden,\nfrom public monuments, changed his own name from Amenhotep to\nChu-en-Aten=the brilliance or glory of the disk and founded a city also\nnamed Chu-aten, which was to be the centre of a new and reformed state. It\nseems evident that this was instituted on the familiar archaic plan and\nthat the so-called \u201cheresy of Amenhotep\u201d was but an attempt, backed by the\nsages and philosophers of Heliopolis, to abolish the artificialities and\nabuses which had come into existence and destroyed the order of the state\nand the harmony of the primitive plan. It is well known that gradually\nAmenhotep\u2019s successors were obliged to yield to the hostility of the\npriesthood of the \u201chidden god\u201d and that these, in turn, erased or defaced\nall images of the disk or aten within their reach.\n\nIneffectual though the grand attempt had been to reorganize state and\nreligion and re\u00ebstablish republican principles, on the original plan, the\nknowledge of the original scheme seems to have been preserved intact\nduring the following centuries, by the sages and philosophers of\nHeliopolis, by whom the primitive set of ideas seems to have been\ngradually developed into an abstract philosophical system. Reminding the\nreader that Plato spent \u201cthirteen years in Egypt, in gaining an insight\ninto the mysterious doctrines and priest-lore of the sacerdotal caste,\u201d I\nalso draw attention to the passage in his \u201cTim\u00e6us,\u201d in which Critias makes\nthe statement that when Plato\u2019s ideal republic ... was being discoursed\nupon, he was reminded, to his surprise, of the account of a state given to\nthe Greek sage, Solon, by the priests of Sa\u00efs, and perceived how, \u201cin most\nrespects, the republic described coincided with Solon\u2019s statements.\u201d It is\nindeed striking how clearly we can recognize, in Plato\u2019s republic, the\nunderlying, primitive, universal scheme in this case, highly developed,\nelaborated, transfigured and transformed into the philosophical ideal of a\ngreat intellect.\n\nBefore demonstrating which of the main features of Plato\u2019s cosmogony and\nideal republic we have found actually carried out in practice, let us\nbriefly refer to the most ancient descriptions of the primitive government\nof Greece, preserved in the Tim\u00e6us and Critias, where the conversations\nheld, by Solon, with the priests of Sa\u00efs are recorded. Solon (about 594\nB.C.) on his arrival (at Sa\u00efs) \u201cwas very honorably received; and\nespecially, on his inquiring about ancient affairs of those priests who\npossessed superior knowledge in such matters, he perceived that neither\nhimself nor any one of the Greeks (so to speak) had any antiquarian\nknowledge at all.... One of their extremely ancient priests said to Solon:\n\u2018you (Greeks) are all youths in intelligence, for you hold no ancient\nopinions derived from remote tradition _nor any system of discipline_ that\ncan boast of a hoary old age.... In this our country, ... the most ancient\nthings are said to be here preserved ... and all the noble, great or\notherwise distinguished achievements, performed either by ourselves, by\nyou or elsewhere, of which we have heard the report, all these have been\nengraved in our temples in very remote times and preserved to the present\nday. The annals of our own city (Sa\u00efs) have been preserved eight thousand\nyears in our sacred writings ... your state has a priority over ours of a\nthousand years.... I will briefly describe the law and more illustrious\nactions of those states which have existed nine thousand years ...\u2019 \u201d\n(Tim\u00e6us). It is interesting at this point to recall also the familiar\nstatements made by the priests of Sa\u00efs to Solon, concerning the immense\nantiquity of the human race and the \u201cmultitude and variety of destructions\nwhich have been and will be undergone by the human race ... after which\nnations become young again, as at first, knowing nothing of the events of\nancient times\u201d (Tim\u00e6us, V).\n\nReferring the reader to the original text I merely point out here that the\npriest of Sa\u00efs, referring to the sacred writings themselves, assigned to\nremotest antiquity the principle of distribution and arrangement on which\nthe state had originally been founded and established. In the Critias the\ndescription of the Athenian state, which \u201chad been founded nine thousand\u201d\nyears before, contains the following particulars which will appear\nfamiliar to the reader. \u201cTo the gods was once locally allotted the whole\nearth.... Obtaining a country agreeable to them by just allotment, they\nchose regions for their habitations.... Different gods received by lot\ndifferent regions.... Hephaestus and Athene, a brother and sister, both\nreceived one region as their common allotment ... their temple was built\non the Acropolis ... whose northern and southern slopes were respectively\nassociated with separate winter and summer residences.\u201d The population was\ndivided into classes and each caste occupied a fixed place of residence.\n\u201cThe outer parts, down the flanks (of the Acropolis) were inhabited by\ncraftsmen and husbandmen who tilled the neighboring land; the\nwarrior-classes lived separately, by themselves, in the more elevated\nparts around the temple of Athene and Hephaestus, which they had formed,\nas it were, into the garden of a single dwelling by encircling it with one\nenclosure\u201d (The Critias, VI). \u201c... On this site was a single fountain\nwhich furnished every part with abundant water....\u201d \u201cThe \u2018guardians of the\nstate\u2019 were the \u2018leaders\u2019 of the Greeks and as to their number they paid\nspecial attention that they should always have the same number of men and\nwomen that might serve in war, the whole being about twenty thousand.\u201d\n\nIn the description given, in the Critias, of the state of Atlantis, the\nidentical features recur, but are more fully described. In the centre of\nthe island of Atlantis stood a mountain, surrounded by a plain, which was\nultimately made square. The mountain was the residence of a pair of\nmythical lovers, consisting of a god and of a mortal woman, and became the\nbirthplace of their offspring, \u201ca divine race of kings.\u201d \u201cThe god ... with\nhis divine power, agreeably adorned the centre of the island, causing two\nfountains of water to shoot upwards from beneath the earth, one cold and\nthe other hot, and making every variety of food to spring abundantly from\nthe earth.\u201d The central hill, from which thus proceeded all life and\nfestivity, was at first \u201ccircularly enclosed, the land and sea being\nformed into alternate zones, greater and less, two out of land and three\nout of sea, from the centre of the island all equally distant.\u201d The ten\nkings, born of the \u201cdivine union, lived each in his own district and city,\nand ruled supreme over his people. The government and commonwealth in each\ncase was, by the injunction of the god, according to the laws which were\nhanded down. The latter were inscribed on a column of orichalcum which was\ndeposited in the centre of the island, in the temple of the god, where the\nten kings originally assembled every fifth year. A fire burned near the\ncolumn and a bull was sacrificed at its base, after which a sacred cup was\nfilled with its blood and this was poured into the fire by way of\npurifying the column\u201d (Critias, VII-XVI).\n\nThe above mention of a column is of interest when it is realized that, in\nhistorical times, the laws of Solon were actually inscribed on a square\nwooden pillar which was made to revolve or turn and was placed on the\nAcropolis. The presence of a revolving pillar on the Acropolis, the sacred\ncentre of the Athenian state, is, moreover, curiously in keeping with the\nconception of axial energy set forth by Plato and awakens the desire to\nlearn from Greek scholars what relationship, if any, there was between the\nSanscrit aksa=axle or axis, the Greek akra (akris=summit, akros=most high,\nsupreme, akrisios=mountain-top god) and the Egyptian ak=the Centre, and\nhak=a king; and whether the word polis=city was connected with polos=the\npole-star, an axis, pivot or pole, from polein=to turn, and may be\ninterpreted as the equivalent of the Egyptian An and Annu. It would also\nbe important to learn whether the name of the principal ancient god of\nGreece, Apollo, who was revered under the form of a column at Delphi, can\nalso be connected with the verb polein or pelein=to turn, as well as the\nname Polias _i. e._ the goddess protecting the city, a surname for Minerva\n(Athene) at Athens, where she was worshipped at one time as the protecting\ndivinity of the Acropolis. The title Poliuchus, \u201cprotecting the city,\u201d\noccurs as a surname of several divinities and particularly of Minerva\nChalchioecus, \u201cof the brazen house,\u201d at Sparta and Athens. It is\ninstructive likewise to compare the Greek words for axis=axon, and\npolis=city, with Helice, the name for Ursa Major and for a town in\nArcadia, with the Egyptian Annu, An or On, the names of capitals, and the\nEgyptian word an=that which turns around. It will be for Greek and\nEgyptian scholars to enlighten us as to whether the Egyptian an and the\nGreek polis are synonyms; in which connection I draw their attention to\nthe following suggestive passage of the Critias (VII).... \u201cYet before we\nnarrate this we must briefly warn you not to be surprised at hearing\nHellenic names given to barbarians ... and the cause of this you shall now\nhear. Solon made an investigation into the power of names and found that\nthe early Egyptians, who committed these facts to writing, transferred\nthese names into their own language; and he again, receiving the meaning\nof each name, introduced it by writing into our language.\u201d While, on one\nhand, it is certain that the Egyptian astronomer-priests associated the\npole star with the words An, Anu, Anubis, on the other, the following\npassages from Plato\u2019s works clearly demonstrate his views concerning axial\nrotation.(119) A fresh interest is undoubtedly added to Plato\u2019s philosophy\nwhen it is regarded as the possible result of the thirteen years spent by\nhim with the Egyptian priesthood, who may possibly have confided to him\nthe entire sum of their ancient philosophy and accumulated store of\nknowledge, and who certainly seem to have imposed upon him the reticence\nand obscurity noticeable in the Republic, the Critias and the Tim\u00e6us.\n\nTo those who have followed my investigation of the ancient state\norganization and cosmical conceptions of the ancient Egyptians, and noted\nthe interpretation given to the pyramid and the fact that Amenophis\ninstituted the disk as the image of the Supreme Being, the following\ndetached extracts from Plato\u2019s Tim\u00e6us will appear familiar and full of\nfresh significance. \u201cTo discover the Father and Creator of this universe\n(also called the heaven or the world) or his work is indeed difficult;\n_and when discovered it is impossible to reveal him to mankind at\nlarge_.... The composing (or framing) Artificer constituted the universe\nfrom entire elements of fire, water, air and earth and ... considering\nthat it would thus be a whole animal.... He gave it also a figure becoming\nand allied to its nature; and to the animal destined to comprehend all\nothers within itself that figure as the most becoming which includes\nwithin itself every sort of figure whatever. Hence he fashioned it in the\nshape of a sphere, perfectly round, having its centre everywhere equally\ndistant from the bounding extremities.... He assigned to it a motion\npeculiar to itself ... making the world to turn constantly on itself and\non same point, he gave it a circular motion ... he assigned to it a motion\npeculiar to itself, being that of all the seven kinds of motion.... As for\nthe soul, he fixed it in the middle, extended it throughout the whole and\nlikewise surrounded it with its entire surface ... and so, causing a\ncircle to revolve in a circle, he established the world as one\nsubstantive, solitary object.... _Let the universe be called heaven or the\nworld or by any other name it usually receives_.... The soul of this\nuniverse ... being composed of three parts ... being interwoven throughout\nfrom the middle to the very extremities of space and covering it even all\naround externally, though at the same time herself revolving within\nherself, originated the divine commencement of an unceasing and wise life\nthroughout all time.... Time ... was generated with the universe.... Time\n... an eternal image _on the principles of numbers_ ... the perfect number\nof time completes a perfect year ... for this purpose ... were formed\n_such of the stars as moved circularly through the universe_....\u201d\n\nWhile a careful study of Plato\u2019s work will further elucidate his views\nconcerning the quadruplicate nature of the universe, of its comprehensive\nunity, of axial rotation, the generation of time and of the principle of\nnumbers, I point out that the following passage conveys the idea of\napplying the universal plan to the regulation of human thought: \u201cThis,\nhowever, we may assert, that God invented and bestowed sight upon us for\nthe express purpose, that on _surveying the circles of intelligence in the\nheavens_, we might properly employ those of our minds, which, though\ndisturbed when compared with the others that are uniform, are still allied\nto their circulation and that, having thus learned and being naturally\npossessed of a correct reasoning faculty, we might, _by imitating the\nuniform revolutions of divinity_, set right our own silly wanderings and\nblunders.\u201d\n\nThere are two portions of Plato\u2019s cosmology to which I wish particularly\nto draw attention, because of the striking examples that exist, showing\nthat the views therein expressed and suggestions given, were independently\ncarried into practice in ancient times, in widely separated countries. One\nis the suggestive attempt to figure the Cosmos by geometrical images, a\nmethod which had been carried out by the pyramid-builders and Amenophis\nIII and suggests an explanation for the origin and meaning of the\ngeometrical decoration that prevailed at one period of antiquity. The\nother is the association of time with the principles of numbers, the most\nremarkable exemplifications of which are furnished by the Egyptian, Hindu,\nChinese, Mexican and Maya cyclical systems, founded upon the associations\nof divisions of time and numerals, and even and uneven numbers with\nday-names, etc.\n\nHaving hastily noted some features of Plato\u2019s Cosmos let us next obtain an\ninsight into the ideas associated with Polaris and the Septentriones by\nthe ancient Greeks and their neighbors, before and after Plato\u2019s time. I\ngratefully acknowledge my indebtedness to Mr. Richard Hinckley Allen\u2019s\n\u201cStar-names and their meanings\u201d (New York, 1899), for the following\nvaluable information and at the same time express my regret that his\nuseful work was unknown to me when I wrote the preceding portion of my\ninvestigation.(120)\n\n\u201cUrsa Minor was not mentioned by Homer or Hesiod for, according to Strabo,\nit was not admitted among the constellations of the Greeks until about 600\nB.C. when Thales, inspired by its use in Ph\u0153nicia, his probable\nbirthplace, suggested it to the Greek mariners in place of its greater\nneighbor which till then had been their sailing guide. Thence its title\nPh\u0153nice and Ursa Ph\u0153nicia. But it also shared, with Ursa Major, the titles\nSeptentrio, Aratos, Amaxa, Aganna and Helice. It also bore the \u2018early and\nuniversal title\u2019 Kynosura or Cynosura, usually translated \u2018the Dog\u2019s\nTail,\u2019 the origin of which is uncertain, Bournouf asserting that \u2018it is in\nno way associated with the Greek word for dog.\u2019 Cox identified the word\nwith Lycosura (meaning tail or trail of light), which recalls the city of\nthat name in Arcadia considered, by Pausanias, the most ancient in the\nworld, having been founded by Lycaon some time before the Deluge of\nDeucalion.\u201d\n\n\u201cEuclid said in his Phainomena: \u2018A star is visible between the Bears, not\nchanging its place, _but always revolving upon itself_\u2019 (_cf._ Plato\u2019s\nCosmos). Hipparchus, that the pole was \u2018in a vacant spot forming a\nquadrangle with three other stars,\u2019 both writers calling this Polos, the\nPolus of Lucan, Ovid and other classical Latins, and Euphratean observers\nhad called their pole-star P\u016bl or Bil. But, although other astronomical\nwriters used these words for some individual star, there is no certainty\nas to which was intended, for it should be remembered that, during many\nmillenniums, the polar point has gradually been approaching our pole-star\nwhich, 2000 years ago, was far removed from it, in Hipparchus\u2019 time 12\u00b0\n24\u2019 away, according to his own statement, quoted by Marinus of Tyre and\ncited by Ptolemy. Heraclitus, the Ionian philosopher of Ephesus of about\n500 B.C., asserted that this constellation marked the boundary between the\neast and the west, which it may be regarded as doing when on the horizon.\u201d\nThis statement is of extreme importance as it proves an orientation of the\nnorth by the pole-star and not by the solstitial position of the sun.\n\u201cAnother name for it, \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03bd\u03b8\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, used for it or its quarter of the sky, was\nfrom the Greek, as seen in Plutarch\u2019s \u03b1\u1f30 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u03c0\u03bb\u03b9\u03bd\u03b8\u03af\u03c9\u03bd \u1f40\u03c0\u03bf\u03b3\u03c1\u03b1\u03c6\u03b1\u03af the\n\u2018fields\u2019 or \u2018spaces\u2019 into which the augurs divided the heavens, the\ntempla, or regiones c\u0153li of the Latins....\u201d\n\n\u201cIn Homer\u2019s Iliad and Odyssey the use of the seven stars of Ursa Major in\nGreek navigation is clearly shown. The constellation is entitled the\nBear=arctos, described, according to different translators, as \u2018circling\non high,\u2019 \u2018wheeling round,\u2019 or \u2018revolving around the axle of the\nsky.\u2019(121) Homer used, equally with Arctos, the name Amaxa=the wain or\nwagon, to designate the seven stars. Aratos called the constellation the\n\u2018Wain-like Bear;\u2019 and, alluding to the title Amaxa, asserted that the word\nwas from ama=together, the Amaxai thus circling together around the pole;\nbut no philologist accepts this and it might as well have come from\naxion=axle, referring to the axis of the heavens. In fact Hewitt goes far\nback of Aratos in his statement that the Sanscrit god Akshivan, the Driver\nof the Axle (aksha), was adopted in Greece as Ixion, whose well-known\nwheel was merely the circling course of this constellation. Anacreon\nmentioned it as a Chariot as well as a Bear; and Hesychius had it Aganna,\nan archaic word from agein, \u2018to carry,\u2019 singularly like, in orthography at\nleast, the Akkadian title for the Wain stars, Aganna or Akanna, the Lord\nof Heaven; and Aben Ezra called it Ajala, the Hebrew word for \u2018waggon.\u2019\nThe name Helice from \u0395\u03bb\u03b9\u03be, the Curved, or Spiral One, apparently first\nused by Aratos and Apollonius Rhodius, became common as descriptive of its\ntwisting around the pole, ... Sophocles having the same thought in his\nmention of \u2018the circling paths of the Bear.\u2019 Some, however, derived the\nname from the curved or twisted positions of the chief stars.... Helice\nwas also the name of a city in Arcadia, the country so intimately\nconnected with the Bears, whose inhabitants were called the Bear race.\u201d\n\nAs far back as Hesiod\u2019s time the constellation was associated in myth,\nwith the name Kallisto, \u201cthe beautiful,\u201d which \u201cLa Lande referred to the\nPh\u0153nician Kalitsah or Chalitsa, Safety, as its observation helped to a\nsafe voyage. Another version of the Grecian myth associated the\nconstellation with Artemis, the Roman Diana [_i. e._ the huntress, _cf._\nIshtar and Isis-Satit].\u201d The apparent connection of the name Artemis with\nThemis=\u201claw and justice personified,\u201d should be noted here.\n\nThe preceding statements establish that, in ancient Greece, Polaris was\nidentified with the celestial Polos and was described as a star, not\nchanging its place, but always _revolving on itself_ and it appears\nsuperfluous to point out how closely Plato\u2019s Cosmos agrees with the\ncurrent astronomical theories. The Urs\u00e6, on the other hand, were\nidentified with the titles Helice, referring to axial rotation, and with\nthe names Aganna (Akanna) Arctos and Amaxa, which are identical in sound\nwith the words we have found associated with Polaris and the Septentriones\nin the ancient Egyptian texts.\n\nDeferring the demonstration that a number of the natural objects or\nanimals represented in the Egyptian rebus signs, which were merely\nemployed in hieratic script to express the syllables an, am, ar, ak, etc.,\nare to be found as actual names for Polaris and the Urs\u00e6 in different\nwestern Asiatic and other countries, I shall now briefly show that, in\nremotest historical times, the Grecian states were established upon the\nmodel of an ideal republic such as is outlined in Plato\u2019s works, in\naccordance with current cosmological conceptions. According to ancient\ntradition the aborigines of Attica were first civilized under Cecrops who\nis said to have come hither from Sa\u00efs, Egypt, about 1500 B.C.\n\nTurning to Iwan Mueller\u2019s monumental \u201cAlterthumswissenschaft\u201d (IV.\nHandbuch der Griechische Alterth\u00fcmer), let us examine the data he presents\nconcerning the beginnings of Athenian culture.\n\n\u201cThe historical inhabitants of Attica belonged to the Ionic race and\nclaimed to be autochthonous.... They were grouped into four tribes: the\nGeleontes, Argadeis, Aigikoreis and Hopletes. The existence of these four\ntribes is usually connected with a territorial division of Attica into\nfour parts and their names are supposed to have been derived from the\nlocation and occupation of each tribe. The Geleont\u00e6=the shining ones, are\nsaid to have formed the priest or warrior caste and to have lived in\nPedion. The Argad\u00e6i were the agriculturists and were situated in the plain\nof Thriasis. The Aigikor\u00e6i or goatherds were assigned to Diakria.\nAuthorities still disagree about the habitation of the Hopletes, \u2018the\narmed ones.\u2019 The interpretation of these names is still open to doubt. An\nancient tradition attributes to them an Ionic derivation.... On the other\nhand, it is probable that when they emigrated to Attica the tribe remained\nseparate and became associated with their place of residence ... at a\nlater period the phratries were associated with localities.... Each of the\nfour castes had its chieftain and an equality of rank seems to have been\nmaintained. In ancient times the citizens were divided into three classes:\nthe Eupatrid\u00e6 or nobility; the Geomor\u00e6 or farmers; and the Demiurg\u00e6 or\nartisans, merchants, potters or fishermen,\u2014in fact all who exercised some\noccupation.\n\n\u201cThe political unity of Attica was centred in the plain of Cephisos, which\nwas the kernel of the country. In the lower part of the plain, about a\nmile from the sea, situated on a plateau, and crowning a high rocky\nelevation, lay the ancient fortress Cekropia, the residence of Cecrops and\nErechtheus, the mythical, earth-born forefathers of the Athenians. At the\nfoot of the fortress, a lower town gradually grew up and spread itself\ntowards the south. This primitive Athens originally formed only the\nnucleus of a small kingdom situated in the plains and surrounded by\nenemies.... According to an Attic tradition Cecrops collected the\ninhabitants of Attica into 12 ... tribes, states or communities.... The\nnames of several of these have been shown to have also been applied to\ncapitals which were independent centres of government. Athens, the centre\nof the state, developed into a large city in which the nobility of the\nwhole country resided and where many artisans also settled. The majority\nof the citizens lived, however, in the surrounding country.... The harvest\nfestival, held at ancient Athens, in honor of the goddess Athene, the\npatroness of agriculture, was also a general feast for all inhabitants of\nAttica ...\u201d (pp. 104-108).\n\nThe foregoing suffices to establish that, in remotest antiquity, Attica\nwas divided into four territorial divisions, with a central seat of\ngovernment, the capital, which formed the fifth division. The inhabitants\nof the four regions constituted four tribes, each under its own chieftain.\nEach tribe became identified with a different occupation and ultimately\nconstituted castes which remained associated with their place of\nresidence. Simultaneously with this territorial distribution, another\nclassification of the population was evolved, which divided it into three\nstrata, corresponding to the upper, central and lower caste and thus\nyielded a total of seven great divisions of the state, which thus reveals\nitself as having been a heptarchy and explains the constitution of the\nHeptanomis, which existed in Central Egypt under Greek rule.\n\nFrom the preceding material it appears that when Solon divided the people\ninto four classes, he merely reinstated the most ancient form of state\norganization known in Greece. It would be interesting to learn how far the\nfollowing offices had been previously known. It is well known that Solon\ninstituted nine archons (literally leaders), which seem to have been the\nequivalents to the group of \u201cnine gods\u201d mentioned in Egypt in association\nwith the supreme god or goddess. The characteristic feature of the archons\nappears to have been the fact that they were elected and that the first\narchon was surnamed Eponymos and gave his name to the year; the second\narchon, entitled Basileus, was the king, and the third, Polemarchas, was a\nwarrior. The remaining six were collectively called Thesmothetes,\nadministrators of right or justice. Under the above was the Council of\nFour Hundred. Each of the four phyl\u00e6 fell into three parts or thirds,\nproducing a total of 12, a number corresponding to the organization of\ntwelve tribes, communities or states. Each of these was divided into 4\nNaucrari\u00e6, under 48 captaincies. The following extracts from Iwan M\u00fcller\u2019s\nwork supply us with further details concerning the Athenian government and\nshow that variants of the same existed at different periods, throughout\nancient Greece.\n\n\u201cAt Athens, in historical times, the members of one tribe formed a\ncorporation, recognized a common ancestor, observed a form of ancestral\ncult and kept a tribal register with the names of all newly born children\n(p. 20). The tribes formed corporations within the state, and each had its\nown cult and chieftain.... The Doric nation consisted of three such\ntribes.... In Ephesus the citizens were divided into five \u2018gens\u2019 (_i. e._,\nfour quarters and centre). It is certain that in Athens, Cyrene, and\nChios, the phratries were communities with separate forms of cult, who\nworshipped beside their tribal deities, Zeus Phratrios and Athena Phratria\n...\u201d (pp. 20 and 21).\n\n\u201cIn Teos the towns inhabited by a \u2018gens\u2019 were divided into at least seven\nquarters.... In Tenos each gens was known as \u2018a tower,\u2019 and each\nindividual bore the name of his tower and his gens.\u201d Pausing here for an\ninstant, I draw attention to the recurrence in Greece of certain features\nof the Great Plan which must now be familiar to the reader: the\nassociation of divisions of people with a \u201ctower,\u201d an artificial \u201chigh\nplace\u201d or mountain, the development and existence of separate forms of\ncult, corresponding to tribal and territorial divisions; the supreme cult\nof a male and female divinity, corresponding to the traditions that the\nstate was founded by two individuals and was governed by two rulers. An\nillustration of this is furnished by Sparta, which \u201cwas governed by two\nkings, belonging to two different royal families ... the origin of this\ncustom is unknown ... these kings usually were at enmity with each\nother....\u201d \u201cThe population of Sparta was primarily divided into five\n\u2018phyles,\u2019 identified with five local districts. The names of the latter,\nPitane, Mesoa, Limnai, Konoura and Dyme, were identical with those of the\nfive Comes or group of separate communities which had constituted the\nstate of Sparta at the time of Thucydides.\u201d It will be perceived that this\norganization corresponds to that of a capital and four provinces.\nSimultaneously the population was grouped into three main classes and\ntwenty-seven phratries.\n\nConsidering that in ancient times the belief prevailed, and was shared by\nthe Spartans themselves, that Lycurgus had introduced his scheme of\norganization from Crete, it is interesting to learn that \u201cthe Cretans\nthemselves claimed that their laws dated from a remote antiquity and had\nbeen communicated to Minos and Rhadamanthus by Zeus himself.\u201d In one of\nthe most ancient portions of the Odysseus, Idomeneus is represented as\nruling in particular over cities situated in _the middle_ of the island.\nIn historical times the central rulership or monarchy had been abolished\nand \u201cthe state was ruled by ten chiefs of tribal divisions, who bore in\ncommon the title Cosmos and held office for the limit of one year.\u201d\nAlthough the most ancient accounts of the maritime supremacy of Crete\nunder its king Minos, the \u201cson of Zeus,\u201d are regarded as grossly\nexaggerated, modern authorities agree that, on account of its geographical\nposition, Crete must undoubtedly have been an extremely important centre\nof maritime commerce, during a prolonged period.\n\nOn this account, and because the Spartans acknowledged to have received\ntheir scheme of organization from Crete, I draw particular attention to\nthe design on a coin from Cnossus, the most important capital of Crete,\nwhich recently arrested my attention. It is preserved at the Berlin Museum\nand is reproduced in Spamer\u2019s work, already cited (fig. 72, 14 and 15). On\nthe obverse, it exhibits the fabulous Minotaurus the monster, half man and\nhalf bull, who is stated to have ruled the island. On the reverse, is a\ngeometrical figure, representing a swastika, in the centre of which is the\nfive-dot group. A similar coin also found on the site of Cnossus, and\nassigned to B.C. 700, is preserved at the British Museum. Its reverse\nexhibits also the five-dot group and the swastika, between whose branches\nare four large dots or circles. In the Berlin Museum specimen the latter\nare replaced by squares containing cross lines. To any one familiar, in\nthe first case, with the scheme of organization into five Comes, _i. e._\n4+1, such as has been shown to have been adopted in Sparta and elsewhere\nin Greece, the design on the reverse of both coins appears perfectly\nintelligible. No geometrical or cursive sign could more clearly express\nthe scheme or ground-plan upon which the most ancient form of government\nin Greece has been shown to have also rested.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 72.\n\n\nAs to the image of the Minotaurus on the obverse of the Berlin coin: to\nany one familiar with the widespread system of figuring the state under\nthe form of a human being or of a quadruped, and of symbolizing its ruler\nas its head, the image appears intelligible as that of the quadruplicate\nstate. The circumstance that the head is that of a bull seems to indicate\nthat, like the Egyptians, the Cretans applied the title \u201cbull\u201d to their\nking; thence perhaps the fable that the island was at one time governed by\nthe monster Minotaurus who claimed as annual tribute, from conquered\ntribes, seven youths and maidens. It is striking how perfectly the\ngeometrical figures on the reverse of both coins, which I hold to\nrepresent territorial divisions, seem to form the complement to the image\nof the state represented in semi-human and semi-animal form. Interesting\nvariants of the same design appear on two coins of the same period in the\nBritish Museum collection. One of these, from Syracuse, exhibits a\nswastika, in the centre of which is a human head\u2014a sign which I should\ninterpret as the image of a state and its single central ruler. A coin\nfrom Corinth displays a plain swastika only, which suffices to indicate,\nhowever, that its state organization was on the familiar plan.\n\nIn connection with the swastika and five-dot group it is interesting to\nexamine some ancient Egyptian seals exhibiting crosses with four dots or\nstrokes (fig. 72, 3-5), and to compare these with Rhodian specimens\n(10-13). On vases found by Schliemann on the site of Troy (8 and 9), we\nfind, in one case a swastika and in the other a cross and four dots in a\ncircle forming the nave. It is interesting to compare the Athenian nos. 6\nand 7, one being a swastika and the other a cross in a lozenge.(122) An\nextremely curious instance of an entire decoration of a building\nconsisting of crosses and five-dot groups, is furnished by the cenotaph\nerected by a late king in honor of Midas, king of Phrygia (fig. 72, 2),\nwhich, curiously enough, offers much resemblance to the geometrical style\nof stucco decorations of the ruins of Mitla, Mexico.(123) The presence of\nthe swastika on coins assigned to about B.C. 700 and its use in Greece,\nwhere plain cross-symbols had previously been employed, naturally leads to\nthe inquiry as to the oldest-dated swastikas which have hitherto been\nfound in Greece and Egypt.\n\nIn his important work on the subject already referred to, Prof. Thomas\nWilson (_op. cit._ pp. 806 and 833), cites the opinions of Prof. Max\nM\u00fcller and Count Goblet d\u2019Alviella as agreeing with that of Waring, who\nstates that \u201cthe swastika is sought for in vain in Babylonia, Assyria and\nPh\u0153nicia,\u201d and \u201chad no foothold in Egypt.\u201d The same authority says that:\n\u201cthe only sign approaching the fylfot in Egyptian hieroglyphics ... is not\nvery similar to our fylfot ... and forms one of the hieroglyphs of Isis\u201d\n(Ceramic Art in Remote Ages, p. 82). On the other hand, Professor Goodyear\nsays (Grammar of the Lotus, p. 356): \u201cThe earliest dated swastikas,\nhitherto found in Egypt, occur on the foreign Cyprian and Carian [?]\npottery fragments of the time of the twelfth dynasty [B.C. 2466-2266]\ndiscovered by Mr. Flinders Petrie in 1889. In the Third Memoir of the\nEgypt Exploration Fund, Prof. Flinders Petrie published illustrations of\nGreek vases showing unmistakable swastikas which, though found at\nNaukratis in Egypt, are not Egyptian, but Greek.\u201d\n\nThe only other examples of the swastika in Egypt cited by Prof. Thomas\nWilson are those woven on Coptic grave cloths made of linen and reproduced\nin \u201cDie Gr\u00e4ber- und Textilfunde von Achmim-Panopolis by R. Forrer.\u201d These\ngrave cloths pertained to the Christian Greeks who migrated from their\ncountry during the first centuries of our era and settled in Upper Egypt,\nin Coptos and the surrounding cities. I am able to add another instance of\nthe employment of the swastika in Egypt, which, although of Coptic origin,\nattaches itself to ancient Egypt.\n\nI have already pointed out that, in Lepsius\u2019 Book of the Dead, the\nforemost of the gods of the four quarters, represented in mummy form,\nexhibited a cross on his right shoulder. During a recent visit to the\nBerlin Museum, my attention was arrested by seeing a swastika painted in\nprecisely the same position, on the right shoulder of the stucco mummy\ncase of a man, from Hermopolis, dated from the second century after Christ\n(Catalogue No. 11649). This remarkable coincidence seems to furnish\nconclusive evidence that, long before the introduction of Greek culture\nand Christian influence, the plain cross was employed by the ancient\nEgyptians in precisely the same way as, subsequently, the swastika by the\nCopts. To some of my readers the question will perhaps suggest itself\nwhether some early Christian sects and, amongst them, communities of Greek\nCopts, did not interpret the mission of Christ literally, as an attempt to\nre\u00ebstablish an earthly \u201ckingdom of heaven\u201d on the ancient plan, the\nknowledge of which had been preserved at Heliopolis, by the sages and\nphilosophers of Egypt and the large Hebrew colony established there.\n\nReturning to the swastika: From the account given by Prof. Thomas Wilson\n(_op. cit._, 810) of Schliemann\u2019s observations on the swastikas he\ndiscovered, during his excavations on the site of Troy, we learn that,\nwhereas the swastika occurs on thousands of whorls found in the third,\nfourth and fifth cities, but few whorls were found in the first and second\ncities, which were the deepest and oldest and _none of these bore the\nswastika mark_. These observations, added to the appearance of the\nswastika in Egypt at a comparatively late period, appear to prove that,\nwhereas the cross-symbol was known in remotest antiquity in Asia Minor and\nEgypt and expressed the same meaning as the swastika, _i. e._ Polaris and\ncircumpolar rotation and the quadruplicate organization of the Cosmos\nsuggested by these natural phenomena, it was only the form or shape of the\ncross which underwent a change at a certain period. The earliest-dated\nspecimens of this new form, given to a more ancient symbol, occur on the\npottery fragments found in Egypt by Prof. Flinders Petrie. The presence of\nthe swastika, on the whorls found in the ruins of the third city built on\nthe site of Troy, also indicates that its adoption occurred at a fixed\ndate and marked a new departure.\n\nReferring back to page 21, where I show that the observations which led to\nthe adoption of the swastika as a symbol could not possibly have been made\nuntil after Ursa Major had become circumpolar, about B.C. 4000, I point\nout that the oldest swastikas which have hitherto been found corroborate\nthis view, since they are all posterior to the time when Ursa Major became\ncircumpolar. Long anterior to its adoption, however, the primordial set of\nideas, suggested to the human mind by the observation of natural\nphenomena, had reached an advanced stage of development, and had been\nworked out, applied to the regulation of human life and symbolized, in\nvarious ways, in widely separated countries.\n\nIt is impossible to conclude my comparative research, which has been\nrewarded by a most unexpected wealth of material, without enumerating a\nfew facts connected with the earliest histories of Rome, ancient Ireland,\nBritain, Wales and Scandinavia. These brief and doubtlessly imperfect\nr\u00e9sum\u00e9s will have fulfilled their purpose if they stimulate inquiry and\nevoke authoritative statements by learned specialists.\n\nANCIENT ROME.\n\nWhether Rome \u201cwas founded by the common resolve of a Latin confederacy or\nby the enterprise of an individual chief, is beyond the reach even of\nconjecture. The date fixed upon for the commencement of the city is, of\ncourse, perfectly valueless in its precision\u201d (Chambers\u2019 Encyclop\u00e6dia).\n\u201cAccording to Varro the city of Rome was founded B.C. 753, but Cato places\nthe event four years later.... The day of its foundation was the 21st of\nApril, which was sacred to the rural goddess Pales. There seems to be some\nuncertainty whether Romulus gave his name to the city or derived his own\nfrom it, but those who ascribe to the city a Grecian origin ... assert\nthat Romulus and Roma are both derived from the Greek word for \u2018strength.\u2019\nThe city, we are assured, had another name which the priests were\nforbidden to divulge; but what that was it is now impossible to\ndiscover.(124) There is, however, some plausibility in the conjecture that\nit was Pallanteum, and from the great care with which the Palladium, or\nimage of Pallas, was preserved, it seems probable that the city was\nsupposed to be under the care of that deity. If this conjecture be\ncorrect, the Pelasgic origin of Rome cannot be doubted, for Pallas was a\nPelasgic deity....\n\n\u201cThe institution of the vestal virgins was older than the city itself and\nwas regarded by the Romans as the most sacred part of their religious\nsystem. In the time of Numa there were but four ... their duty was to keep\nthe sacred fire on the altar in the temple of Vesta from being\nextinguished and to preserve a certain sacred pledge on which the very\nexistence of Rome was supposed to depend.(125) What this pledge was we\nhave no means of discovering; some supposed that it was the Trojan\nPalladium; others, some traditional mystery brought by the Pelasgi from\nSamothrace. One fact is certain: that the Palatine is regarded as the\noldest portion of the city and the original site and centre of the embryo\nmistress of the world and mother of cities, the _Roma quadrata_, fragments\nof whose walls have been brought to light.(126)\n\n\u201cTradition relates that it was on the Palatine that Romulus marked out the\nPom\u0153rium, a space around the walls of the city, on which it was unlawful\nto erect buildings.... The next ceremony was the consecration of the\ncomitium, or place of public assembly. A vault was built under ground and\nfilled with the firstlings of all the natural productions that sustain\nhuman life and with earth which each foreign settler had brought from his\nhome. This place was called _Mundus_\u201d (History of Rome, Goldsmith\u2019s\nabridgment, 21st edition, by W. C. Taylor, p. 13).\n\nThis fact furnishes evidence that the sacred central cosmical vault over\nwhich a mound may have been formed by the earth contributed from different\nquarters, was regarded as a synopsis of all, and that sanctity was also\nattached to the central place of assembly where justice was administered\nat regular intervals, weekly markets were held and religious rites were\ncelebrated.(127)\n\nTradition relates that, after the foundation of the central \u201cMundus,\u201d the\nfounder of Rome established the Sabine town which occupied the Quirinal\nand part of the Capitoline hills. \u201cThe name of this town most probably was\nQuirium ... the two cities were united on terms of equality and the\ndouble-faced Janus, stamped on the earliest Roman coins was probably a\nsymbol of the double state.\u201d It is significant to find not only that Janus\nwas sometimes depicted with four faces instead of two, in which case he\nwas called Janus Quadrifrontis, but that references are also made to the\nfemale form of Janus=Jana, the latter being identified with Diana.\nConsidering that it was from Quirium that the Roman youths obtained Sabine\nwives by force, which had been refused to their entreaties, it would seem\nas though, originally, as elsewhere, the men and women of the community\nresided separately and that stringent laws regulated their intercourse. In\nother ancient communities it has been shown how the separation of the\nsexes created in time an upper and lower class, and to the same origin may\nperhaps be assigned the most remarkable feature of the Roman constitution,\n_i. e._ the two-fold division of the people into patricians and plebeians.\n\nWhile the foregoing statements throw light upon the ideas associated with\nthe Middle and show that Rome was originally a dual state, the following\nfacts furnish indications of a quadruplicate division. At an early period\nRome was laid out and enclosed in a square, the population _was divided\ninto four tribes_ and mention is made of \u201cthe state, under Servius\nTullius, being an entity divided into _four cities_ and twenty-six tribes\n... this being strictly a geographical division analogous to our parishes.\nThe division of the city into four tribes continued until the reign of\nAugustus (B.C. 29)....\u201d(128)\n\nThe four chief religious corporations of ancient Rome, mentioned in the\nCentury Dictionary, evidently correspond to this fourfold division and it\nis specially stated of one of these corporations that it was represented\nand governed by a group consisting of seven \u201cseptemvir epulones\u201d who\nformed a \u201cseptemvirate.\u201d\n\nThe number of septemvirs corresponded to the \u201cseven hills\u201d which were\nenclosed by Tullus Hostilius, and it is stated that there were seven\nplaces of worship in ancient Rome. It is interesting to find that between\nA.D. 193 and 211, Septimius Severus, a native of an ancient Punic colony\nin Africa, erected a Septizonium (an edifice consisting, like the\nBabylonian zikkurat, of seven stories) on the Palatine, where a large\ntemple of Apollo had previously been built.(129)\n\nAlthough it is thus evident that, at different periods, seven-fold\ndivision was carried out in ancient Rome, it was not until after the reign\nof Theodosius, according to some authors, that the seven-day period was\nimported from Alexandria and the term \u201cseptimana\u201d adopted in Rome.\n\u201cPreviously to this Rome had counted her periods by eight days, the eighth\nday itself being originally called Nundin\u00e6\u2014a term later applied to the\nwhole cycle\u201d (Chambers\u2019 Encyclop\u00e6dia). Noting that the period of eight\n(=2\u00d74) days accords with the quadruplicate system applied to the primitive\nstate, I draw attention to the numerical classification of the citizens of\nRome employed during centuries, which so curiously agrees with the system\ncarried out in Peru at a widely sundered period (see p. 141).\n\nTen households formed a gens (clan or family); ten clans or one hundred\nhouseholds formed a curia or wardship; and ten wardships, or one hundred\nclans, or one thousand households formed a populus, civitas or community.\nAs it is stated that, at one time, Rome consisted of four cities, it is\nobvious that the above numbers, quadrupled, constituted the state which\nthus included forty wardships, four hundred gentes and four thousand\nhouseholds. As each gens possessed a chieftain, endowed with paternal\nauthority over its members, there must, at one time, have been four\nhundred of these \u201cpatricians,\u201d whose number is thus found to correspond to\nthe Greek \u201cCouncil of 400\u201d and curiously enough to the \u201cfour hundred\nTochtli\u201d or governors of the ancient Mexican commonwealth.\n\nA noteworthy feature of the attempt to institute the Decemvirate in Rome\n(5th century B.C.) was the arrangement that the ten chosen men exercised\noffice in prescribed rotation for one day, each ruling, in consequence,\nfor thirty-six days in the year which, like the Egyptian, then consisted\nof three hundred and sixty days and of an epact of five days. The\nassignment of a day to each chieftain finds its parallel not only in\nAssyria but also in ancient America (see p. 181).\n\nIn connection with the Roman communal organization, attention is drawn to\nwhat appears to be a remarkable survival of an extremely ancient and\nnatural mode of distinguishing the wardships. It is well known that,\naccording to tradition, the republic of Siena, Italy, was founded at a\nremote period \u201cby the sons of Remus, the twin brother of Romulus.\u201d The\nfollowing facts prove that, to this day, certain features of its social\norganization exhibit an affinity to that of primitive Rome. \u201cSiena, from\nthe earliest day, has been divided into contrade or parishes. Each\ncontrada has its special church, generally of great antiquity, and each\ncontrada is named after some animal, or natural object, these names being\nsymbolical of certain trades or customs. There are now the wolf, giraffe,\nowl, snail, tower, wave, goose, tortoise, etc., in all seventeen. Each has\nits colors, heralds, pages, music, flags; all the medi\u00e6val paraphernalia\nof republican subdivision\u201d (Frances Eliot, Diary of an idle woman in Italy\nI, p. 19).\n\nThe employment of the names of animals and natural objects as distinctive\nmarks for a wardship offers a curious analogy to the American institution\nof tribal names and totems.\n\nThe circumstance that, in remotest times, the king of Rome, the\nacknowledged metropolis or mother city, was accompanied, on public\noccasions, by _twelve_ lictors or administrators of justice, each carrying\nthe axe tied in a bundle of rods, shows that, at one time, the government\nwas administered by thirteen individuals\u2014a method we shall find again in\nancient Ireland and Scandinavia. The history of Rome reveals that the\ndifferent variants of governmental scheme adopted, one after the other,\nunder influences emanating from Greece and Egypt, were reared upon the\nfamiliar universal plan. The most striking instance of this is, however,\nfurnished by the details preserved of the groundwork on which Constantine\nfounded (A.D. 330) the city he intended to be the capital of a universal\nempire, and named the New or Second Rome.\n\nHistorians relate that the peninsula of Byzantium offered striking\nresemblances to the sites of Carthage and Rome. The design of Constantine\nembraced the entire peninsula with the seven hills upon it. \u201cOn foot, with\na lance in his hand, professing to be under the guidance of divine\ninspiration, the emperor directed the line which was traced as the\nboundary of the destined capital.\u201d ... \u201cIn imitation of Rome at that\nperiod, the city was divided into 2\u00d77=fourteen wards (regiones).... Its\ncentre was marked by a column ... surmounted by a bronze colossus of\nApollo. The church of S. Sophia, built on the site of an ancient temple of\nWisdom, was subsequently dedicated to \u2019the Holy Eternal Wisdom\u2019 by\nJustinian. In the court called the Forum Augusteum, one side of which was\nformed by the palace and the other by the church, stood the Milliarium\nAureum, not, as at Rome, a gilt marble pillar, but a spacious edifice, the\ncentre from which all the roads of the empire were measured and on the\nwalls of which the distances to all the chief places were inscribed.... In\nthe new reunited empire quadruple division was maintained, _the __ empire\nbeing divided into four parts_, each forming a pr\u00e6torian prefecture under\na pr\u00e6torian prefect, who, being the lieutenant of the emperor, ruled over\nthe governors and people of the province with absolute power. The four\nprefectures were subdivided into thirteen dioceses, each governed by a\nvice-prefect named vicarius, the total number of dioceses being\nfifty-two.\u201d\n\nThis system of numeration is of particular interest as it is not only\nidentical with the system of a modern pack of cards, the origin of which\nis unknown, but is also the same as the Mexican year cycle (see p. 297).\nVestiges of sevenfold organization are traceable in the appointment by\nConstantine, of \u201cseven ministers of the palace\u201d who exercised \u201csacred\u201d\nfunctions about the person of the emperor, and the division of all Gaul\ninto seven provinces placed under the governorship of the Vicar of the\nSeven Provinces. In conclusion I venture to point out that the\nfour-storied amphitheatre of Vespasian (A.D. 71), the Pantheon of Agrippa\n(A.D. 23) and the Mausoleum of Hadrian (A.D. 138) appear to have a\ncosmical character, the first having been planned to hold the entire\npopulation of Rome, around a central space in which, originally, the\ncircling chariot simulated the circuit of the celestial \u201cplaustrum\u201d or\n\u201ccarro\u201d=chariot, the Latin name given to Ursa Major.\n\nWhile, on public festivals, the amphitheatre must have appeared as a\nsynopsis of the whole empire and may also have been originally used for\nnocturnal, religious or political assemblages, the great Pantheon\nenclosing the images of twelve deities, may well have been a conscious\nattempt to represent the all-embracing Cosmos of Egyptian and Greek\nphilosophy, the framed view of the heaven, seen through the central\nopening in the dome, being the symbol of the \u201chidden and invisible god,\u201d\nof the initiated. To Hadrian, who visited Egypt twice and was undoubtedly\nacquainted with the idea of Plato\u2019s Cosmos or Theos, the idea of building\na great circular structure in the centre of which he would be laid to\nrest, would naturally have suggested itself. Passing from a consideration\nof the buildings which, with the pyramids, appear to be among the grandest\nexponents of natural philosophy and religion ever reared by the hand of\nman, and clearly appear to have been planned under the direct influence of\nEgyptian and Greek philosophy, let us briefly glance at the mode in which\nthe identical fundamental scheme was perpetuated among some northern\npeoples.\n\nANCIENT IRELAND, BRITAIN AND WALES.\n\nIt is a remarkable fact that, in ancient Ireland, we find distinct traces\nof a state, founded on the same crystallized artificial system that has\nbeen found at the basis of the most ancient civilizations of the world.\n\u201cThere is really no authentic history of Ireland before the introduction\nof Christianity into the country, but there are some genuine traditions\nwhich appear based upon truth, because they accord with and explain the\npeculiar customs which were found to prevail in the island at the time of\nthe English invasion. These traditions declare, that the original Celtic\ninhabitants were subdued by an Asiatic colony, or at least by the\ndescendants of some Eastern people at a very remote period; they aver that\nthe conquerors were as inferior to the original inhabitants in numbers as\nthey were superior in military discipline and the arts of social life;\nthey describe the conquest as a work of time and trouble and assert that,\nafter its completion, an hereditary monarchy and hereditary aristocracy\nwere for the first time established in Ireland....\u201d\n\n\u201cAt some unknown period Ireland was divided into five kingdoms, Ulster,\nLeinster, Connaught, Munster and Meath ... the latter being the property\nof the paramount sovereign ...\u201d (W. C. Taylor, History of Ireland, 1837).\n\nJohn O\u2019Neil cites \u201cthe very oldest Irish books, according to which two\nbrothers, the leaders of the Milesian colonization, divided Ireland into\nNorthern and Southern kingdom.\u201d Elsewhere he relates how a prince of the\nnorth had been united in marriage to the princess of the south and that\n\u201cthe mythical Niall-Navi-giallach of the nine treasures had had a Northern\nking for father and a Southern princess for mother.\u201d Besides this\nsubdivision which strikingly recalls the ancient Egyptian, O\u2019Neil brings\nout the remarkable fact that definite positions in relation to each other\nand the cardinal points were assigned to the five Irish kings and tells us\nthat \u201cwe have a fuller and later division when, in the central hall, the\nmiodh-chuarta of Tara, the king of Erinn sat in the centre, with his face\nto the East, the king of Ulster being at his North, the king of Munster at\nhis South, while the king of Leinster sat opposite to him and the king of\nConnaught behind him\u201d (_op. cit._ I, 463).\n\nI refer the reader to his extremely interesting comparison (I, p. 369) of\nancient Ireland being \u201can Irish instance of a Chinese \u2018Middle Kingdom,\u2019 \u201d\nand to the data given in connection with the great hall of Tara, which was\ncalled Meath or Mid-court, Miodchuarta (pronounced Mic\u00f4rta), and the\nNorthern hill of Miodhchaoinn (or Midkena), guarded by Miodhchaoinn and\nhis three sons, the guardians of the hill being thus four in all. O\u2019Neil\nalso refers to \u201cthe great idol or castrum of Kilair ... which was\nsurrounded by twelve smaller ones and was called the stone and umbilicus\nof Hibernia and, as if placed in the midst and middle of the land, \u2018medio\net meditullio\u2019....\u201d \u201cMeath itself, where this Kilair navel stood, was\nanciently the central one of the five divisions of Ireland and is called\nMedia by Giraldus Cambrensis, ... and connected with the words\nmedi-tullium and medi-tullus.\u201d The legend states that \u201cthe castrum of\nKilair and the stones around it were transported by Merlin to Stonehenge\nand \u2018set up in the same order.\u2019 \u201d(130) \u201cAt Mag Slecht was the chief idol\nof Ireland, called Cenn Craich (Mound-chief) covered with gold and silver,\nand twelve other idols about it, covered with brass\u201d (O\u2019Neil, p. 273).\n\n\u201cThe five Irish kingdoms were again subdivided into several principalities\ninhabited by distinct \u2018septs,\u2019 each ruled by its own carfinny or\nchieftain. The obedience of these local rulers or toparchs to the\nprovincial sovereign was regulated, like his to the general monarch, by\nthe powers that he possessed for enforcing authority.... The succession to\nevery degree of sovereignty was regulated by the law of tanistry, which\nlimited heredity right to the family but not to the individual.... Each\ndistrict was deemed the common property of the entire sept; but the\ndistribution of the several shares was entrusted to the toparch.... The\nlower orders were divided into freemen and hetages, or as they were called\nby the Normans, villanis. The former had the privilege of choosing their\ntribe; the latter were bound to the soil and transferred with it in any\ngrant or deed of sale.\u201d\n\nRuined groups of buildings, consisting of seven sanctuaries or churches,\nsituated around a round, high tower, usually with four windows near the\ntop, opening to the cardinal points, exist in various parts of Ireland,\nthe Seven Churches in County Wicklow being the most famous example. The\ncosmical character of the round towers has been set forth by John O\u2019Neil,\nto whose work I refer the reader. According to my views the groups testify\nto the establishment, at one time, of several septarchies in Ireland, the\ngeographical centres of which, as in Assyria and elsewhere, were marked in\nthis case by the cosmical round tower, figuring the axis or spindle,\naround which each sept built its council house, for religious and\npolitical assemblies.(131) In connection with such it is interesting to\nread what C\u00e6sar says of the priests and judges of Gaul, which was\norganized into seven provinces, as late as at the time of Constantine:\n\u201cThese Druids held a meeting at a certain time of the year in a\nconsecrated place in the country of the Carnutes [modern Chartres] which\ncountry is considered to be in the centre of all Gaul.\u201d It is well known\nthat anterior to the Roman Conquest there existed in Britain a\nlong-established, seven-fold state, governed by seven kings, compared by\nJohn Speed (1630) to seven crowned pillars.\n\nThe kingdom of Mercia included the counties in the centre of the kingdom\nand is said to have been founded by Crida or Creoda. The central and chief\nruler of Britain was styled Bretwalda. It is well known that Stonehenge,\nwhich is associated in folk-lore with the number seven, is situated in the\nheart of the plain region of England and is supposed to have been the seat\nof central religion and government.(132)\n\nIt is moreover acknowledged by Knight that the ancient Britons were a\npeople who evidently had some great principle of association in their\nreligion as in their industry. The familiar fact, that at one period the\nancient Kent, Cantium, was governed by four kings, also styled \u201cthe four\nprinces of Cantii,\u201d furnishes an indication that quadruplicate division\nwas also known to the ancient Britons.\n\nA few instructive facts concerning Welsh Druidism may be appropriately\ncited here.\n\nMorien has pointed out that the Druidic Celi Ced corresponds to Amen-Ra,\nthe Egyptian Hidden Sun. According to Welsh system the universe was born\nof Celi-Ced, a dual power, Celi being the masculine and Ced the feminine\nprinciple. Ceridwen is termed the Welsh Isis, and her name translated as\n\u201cthe producing woman.\u201d Celi is invariably represented as _hidden_, the\nthree Hus representing him in manifestation.\n\n\u201cThe three Hus are: Hu cylch y Cengant=the Hu of the circle of infinitude;\nHu cylch y Sidydd=the Hu of the circle of the zodiac and Hu yn Nghnawd=Hu\nincarnate. The latter was incarnate in the Arch Druid. He, standing in the\nmiddle of the Gorsedd circle, where the triple life lines met, implied by\nhis action that the three emanations which had their root in the dual\nCed-Celi, focussed themselves in him. He stood facing the east where the\nsun rises\u201d (_cf._ the ceremonial position assumed by the king of Erin in\ncouncil and that of the Roman augur on drawing his templum). \u201cThe name for\nthe physical sun was Huan, translated as \u2018the abode of divinity.\u2019 \u201d \u201cThe\nDruidic bards of N. Wales worshipped Beli.\u201d(133)\n\nIn Welsh legend a god named Peredur Paladye Hir (of the long spear or pal)\nis associated with his brother, both sons of Eliffer, one of the _thirteen\nprinces of the north_. Peredur is one of seven brothers; there were seven\nprofound mysteries of Druidism, _i. e._ seven divisions of the\nreverberations of the Word, emanating from Ced, and the seven Tattaras or\nseven rays.\n\nSCANDINAVIA.\n\nAccording to the Icelandic historian Snorri Sturlesson, whose opinion was\nthe re-echo of ancient traditional beliefs, Odin and his eight sons and\nfour companions, twelve in all, were earthly kings and priests of a\nsacerdotal caste, who had emigrated from Asia\u2014perhaps from Troy\u2014and who\nconquered and ruled over various parts of Scandinavia and Northern Germany\nwhere, after their death, they were regarded by the people as deities\n(Chambers\u2019 Encyclop\u00e6dia).\n\nO\u2019Neil states \u201cthat Odin was named Mith-Odinn (Mid-Odin?) by Saxo\nGrammaticus,\u201d and quotes the following: \u201cOdinn died in his bed, in Sweden,\nand when he was near his death he made himself be marked with the point of\na spear and said he was going to Godheim\u201d (Ingliga Saga). \u201cThe twelve\n_godes_ or diar or drotnar of Odin were obviously cognate to our _god_ as\na name of a deity. They (or the priests who represented them) directed\nsacrifices and judged the people, and all the people served and obeyed\nthem\u201d (O\u2019Neil I, p. 76).\n\nA strange reality is given to Odin and his twelve \u201cgodes,\u201d when it is\nrealized that at Mora, near Upsala, Sweden, there exists the ancient stone\nthrone on which the ancient kings of Sweden were crowned and this central\nstone is surrounded by twelve lesser stones, just as the Irish\n\u201cMound-chief\u201d was surrounded by twelve idols.\n\nWhile the above facts suffice to indicate that, in remotest antiquity, the\ngovernment of the state was vested in one supreme and twelve minor chiefs,\nthe following brief extracts from the Eddas reveal the cosmical beliefs of\nthe Norsemen: \u201cIn the cold north existed Niflheim in the middle of which\nwas a well from which sprang twelve rivers. In the south existed the warm\nMuspelheim. There was a contention between both of these worlds.... The\nunion of heat and cold produced Oergelmer or Chaos, and the first human\nbeing, Ymir. The revolving eye of the Norse world-millstone was directly\nabove Oergelmer and through it the waters flowed to and from the great\nfountain of the Universe waters.\u201d Ymir drew his nourishment from four\nstreams of milk proceeding from the mythical cow Aedhumla. Subsequently he\nwas slain by three divine brothers who carried his body to the _middle_ of\nGinnungagap, and formed from it the earth and the heavens ... of his skull\nthey formed the heavens, at each of the four corners of which stood a\ndwarf, viz: Austri at the East, Vestri at the west, Northri at the north\nand Suthri at the south.... When heaven and earth were formed, the chief\ngods or Oesir, of whom there were twelve, met in the Centre of the world\nand built Midgardr or Asgard, the yard, city or stronghold of the Middle\nand of the Asen=the gods. It was situated on the Himinbiorg, or Hill of\nHeaven, on the summit of which was the ash-tree, Yggdrasil, whose branches\nspread over the whole world and tower over the heavens.\n\nThe following is from the prose Edda: \u201cThen the sons of B\u00f5r built in the\nmiddle of the universe the city called Asgard, where dwell the gods and\ntheir kindred, and _from that abode work out so many wondrous things both\non earth and in the heavens above it_. There is in that city a place\ncalled Hlidskjalf, and when Odin is seated there upon his lofty throne, he\nsees over the whole world.\u201d\n\nIn the Eddas we find evidences that while Odin or All-fader was the ruler\nof heaven, his powerful son Thor was \u201cthe ruler of Thrudheim and drove\nthrough the world in a chariot and became the supreme god.\u201d\n\nThe following facts, taken from Mr. Allen\u2019s \u201cStar-names,\u201d established the\nassociation of Thor with Polaris and the Urs\u00e6. \u201cIn ancient times the\nnorthern nations termed Ursa Major \u2018the wagon of Odin, Woden or Wuotan,\nthe father of Thor.\u2019(134) The Danes, Swedes and Icelanders also knew it as\nStori Vagn, the Great Wagon and as Karl\u2019s Vagn; Karl being Thor, their\nchief god of whom the old Swedish Rhyme Chronicle of Upsala says \u2018... The\ngod Thor was the highest of them. He sat naked as a child, seven stars in\nhis hand and Charles\u2019 Wain.\u2019 \u201d\n\nThe \u201cthrone of Thor\u201d or \u201cSmaller Chariot,\u201d was the name given to Polaris\n(Ursa Minor) by the early Danes and Icelanders and their descendants still\ncall it the \u201cLitli Vagn,\u201d the little wagon. The Finns, apparently alone\namong the northern nations of Europe in this conception, named Ursa Minor,\nV\u00e4h\u00e4 Otawa, the Little Bear. They, however, termed Polaris, Taehti, \u201cthe\nstar at the top of the heavenly mountain.\u201d\n\nIt is striking how clearly, in Scandinavia, the Middle is associated with\na sacred mountain and tree, the world axis, a heavenly city, an enthroned\ncentral god, and with Polaris, Ursa Major and the idea of eternal\ncircumpolar rotation expressed by the wain eternally wheeled around the\nthrone of Thor. To any one imbued with the ideas set forth above, the\nsignification of the Scandinavian, Druidic, New Year festival, the name\nfor which was \u201cthe wheel\u201d (yule, yeol, yeul, hjol, hiugl, hjul), must\nclearly appear as the date on which the complete circuit of the Urs\u00e6\naround the pole, was ceremonially registered. It is obvious that this\ncould best be expressed by a circle being drawn around the swastika or\ncross, to which the fourth arm would be added, completing thus the\nregistration of the four seasons, marked by the opposite positions assumed\nby the Urs\u00e6 at nightfall. It is well known that the wheel-cross, swastika,\ntriskeles and S-figure constitute, with the winding serpent and the tau,\nnamed Thor\u2019s hammer, the main symbols of ancient Scandinavia (see fig. 13,\np. 29 and fig. 38, p. 119). I venture to point out how obviously Thor\u2019s\nhammer symbolizes the union of the Above and Below, the heaven represented\nby the horizontal line resting on the perpendicular support, symbolizing\nthe sacred pole, column, mountain and tree intimately associated with\nPolaris, the world axis.\n\nAs a suggestion only, I venture to point out how, the old Norse name for\nstar being tjara and for tree=tar, the r\u00f4le of the tree in Druidic cult\nwould be fully accounted for, the initiated only being aware that it was\nbut a rebus symbol of the secret or hidden star-god Polaris.\n\nIt can readily be seen how natural or artificial elevations and erected\nstones, trees, staffs or poles must have been used as means of determining\nthe positions of the Urs\u00e6 at the public celebration of the Yule festival\nand that the ceremony of kindling of new fire was observed at the time\nwhen the \u201cwheel\u201d was supposed to begin its new annual revolution.\n\nReflection clearly shows that pole-star worship must have taken a stronger\nhold upon the ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia and their descendants,\nthe seafaring Vikings, than upon any other nation. We are compelled to\nadmit that the recognition that Polaris formed the centre of axial\nrotation and the middle of the sky, would have impressed itself most\nprofoundly upon observers stationed in the latitude where winter darkness\nprevailed and the pole-star appeared to be nearly overhead. Under such\nconditions the association of the opposite positions of the Septentriones\nwith directions in space, _i. e._, the cardinal points, would be most\nstriking.\n\nWhat is more: the re-appearance of the sun, after the long darkness of a\nnorthern winter, must have established the idea of a fixed relationship\nbetween certain positions of Ursa Major and the solstitial position of the\nsun. It may indeed be said that the observation of the solstices and\nequinoxes was forced upon the inhabitants of the north as nowhere else on\nthe globe and that it may perhaps be therefore designated as the\nbirthplace of primitive astronomy.\n\nThe origin of the idea of an all-pervading duality and the chains of\nassociation which linked Light and the Sun to air and water, and to the\nmale element, whilst Darkness and the Nocturnal Heaven became connected\nwith earth, fire and woman, are clearly accounted for in the circumpolar\nregions only, where the year divides itself into a period of light in\nwhich independent and roaming out-door life was possible, and a period of\ndarkness during which family life, in underground fire-lit dwellings, was\ncompulsory. If fathomed, the mind of the Eskimo to-day may possibly reveal\nthe germs of identical associations of ideas, for it would seem as though\nexistence in the polar regions would infallibly stamp them indelibly upon\nthe consciousness of all living creatures, until they unconsciously\npervaded their entire being and even affected the structural organization\nof the human brain.(135)\n\nThe tendency to believe that the human race must have spent its infancy\nnear the pole and received there an intellectual stamp, which could not\nhave been conveyed to it so clearly in any other latitude, is undoubtedly\nencouraged by the opinion of various authorities, that \u201call forms of life\nmust have originated at the pole, this having been the first habitable\nportion of our world.\u201d This view is exhaustively treated in William\nFairfield Warren\u2019s \u201cParadise Found, the cradle of the human race at the\nNorth Pole\u201d (Boston, 1885), to which I refer the reader and which contains\nmuch valuable data which I would have incorporated in the present\ninvestigation had I had earlier access to the volume. It would seem as\nthough Warren\u2019s conclusions were in perfect accord with the conclusions\narrived at by some leading pal\u00e6ontologists, geologists and botanists,\nconcerning the distribution of life on the globe. These are conveniently\nsummarized in the article on \u201cDistribution\u201d in the Encyclop\u00e6dia\nBritannica, from which the following detached excerpts are made for the\nbenefit of the reader.\n\n\u201cThe general result arrived at is that the great northern continents\nrepresent the original seat of mammalian life and the regions of its\nhighest development.... The tertiary fauna of North America, compared with\nthat of Europe, exhibits proofs of a former communication between the two\nnorthern continents both in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, but\nalways, probably, in rather high latitudes. This is indicated both by the\ngroups which appear to have originated in one continent and then to have\npassed across to the other and also by the entire absence from America of\nmany important groups which abounded in Europe (and _vice versa_)\nindicating that the communication between the two hemispheres was always\nimperfect and of limited duration.... On the other hand, the marked\ncontinuity of the Northern Flora (with only a gradual east and west change\nin the arctic regions, but with an increased divergency southwards)\nrequires it to be treated as a whole, although it has long been divided\ninto that of the old and new world by the severance of North America from\nNorthern Asia and by the barrier to an interchange of vegetation in the\nupheaval of the Rocky Mountain range. The old and new world divisions of\nthe flora which, no doubt, began to diverge from the mere influence of\ndistance, have now had that divergence immensely increased by\nisolation.... Large American genera (of the intermediate flora) have sent\noff offsets into Eastern Asia which, gradually diminishing in number of\nspecies and sometimes slightly modifying their character, have spread over\nthe whole of Asia and invaded almost every part of Europe.... With regard\nto the arctic alpine flora, Hooker found that, estimating the whole arctic\nflora at 762 species, arctic East America possessed 379 of which 269 are\ncommon to Scandinavia. Of the whole flora 616 species are found in arctic\nEurope and of these 586 are Scandinavian and this leads Hooker to the\nstriking observation that \u2018the Scandinavian flora is present in every\nlatitude of the globe and is the only one that is so.\u2019 According to\nBentham, Scandinavia, which would, according to older rules, have been\ntermed the centre of creation for the arctic regions, may now be termed\nthe chief centre of preservation within the arctic circle owing, perhaps,\nto its more broken conformation and partly to that warmer climate ...\nwhich was, during the glacial period a means of preservation of some\ncolder species which were everywhere expelled or destroyed.... We may\ninfer that, towards the close of the Tertiary epoch, the continuous\ncircumpolar land was covered with a vegetation also largely composed of\nidentical plants, but adapted to a warmer climate. As the climate became\nless warm there would commence a migration southwards which would result\nin the modified descendants of these plants being now blended with the\nvegetation of central Europe and the United States. As the glacial period\ngradually advanced, the tropical plants will have retreated from both\nsides towards the equator followed in the rear by the temperate\nproductions and these by the arctic. When the climate of the earth again\nameliorated, the migration took place in a reverse direction and in this\nway mountain ranges became the havens of refuge for the fragments of the\noriginal arctic flora which were exterminated on the lowlands. An\nindication of the great antiquity of the arctic alpine flora is afforded\nby the fact of its absence in the comparatively modern volcanic mountains\nof France.... If it be granted that the polar area was once occupied by\nthe Scandinavian flora and that the cold of the glacial epoch did drive\nthis vegetation downwards ... in arctic America ... where there was a free\nsouthern extension and dilatation of land for the same Scandinavian plants\nto occupy, these would multiply enormously in individuals....\u201d\n\nThe following remarkable results of recent botanical research will be\nfound to be of profound interest to investigators and to support the\nforegoing conclusions. Amongst the many important discoveries of hitherto\nundescribed species of plants, made by the distinguished botanists Mr.\nStephen Sommier and Dr. Emile Levier during their expedition in the\nCaucasus mountains, in 1890, was that of a species of fungus named\n_Exobasidium discoideum_ Ell., which was found growing on the\n_Rhododendron flaro_ L. This fungus was submitted to Prof. P. Magnus of\nBerlin, who pronounced it to be the identical Exobasidium which has been\nfound growing on the _Azalea viscosa_ L. in New Jersey, U. S. A. The\nfollowing is the authoritative statement of Prof. P. Magnus which appears\nin Messrs. S. Sommier and E. Levier\u2019s Enumeratorio plantarum caucas: acta\nhorti petropolitani, vol. XVI. St. Petersburg, 1899.\n\n\u201cThe occurrence of the identical species of fungus on two closely related\nplants, which respectively grow in the Caucasus and in North America and\nare missing in intermediate countries, deserves our deepest interest....\nThese plants are relics of the Tertiary period, during which North America\nand Europe still formed a continuous floral area. While the plants, on\nwhich the fungus grew, differentiated into two closely related species, in\ntwo at present widely separated but formerly connected radii of\ndistribution, the parasitical Exobasidium remained outwardly unaltered.\nThis is exactly like the case of another fungus, _Uromyces glycyrrhiz\u00e6_,\nwhich I have described and explained in the \u2018Berichten der Deutschen\nBotanischen Gesellschaft\u2019 (Bd. VII, 1890, S. 377-384). _Exobasidium disc._\nis also a parasitical fungus which has been growing on the parent form of\n_Rhododendron viscosum_ and _Rhododendron flavum_ ever since that period\nwhen North America and Europe were continuous and possessed the same\nflora.\u201d\n\nI am also indebted to Professor Magnus and to Dr. Levier for the following\nnames of closely allied species of plants which are found in America and\nAsia only, it being particularly noticeable that it is in Asia Minor and\nthe Caucasus mountains that the relatives of the American species are most\nfrequently met with.\n\n_Platanus occidentalis_: North America.\n_Platanus orientalis_: Asia Minor.\n_Liquidambar styraciflua_: North America.\n_Liquidambar styraciflua_: Asia.\n_Rhododendron viscosum_: North America.\n_Rhododendron flavum_: Caucasus Mts.\n_Rhododendron maximum_: North America.\n_Rhododendron ponticum_: Causasus Mts.\n\nProfessor Magnus has, moreover, recently pointed out that the fungus\nUropyxis, which is a widespread American species and grows in Mexico, has\na representative in Manchuria. In his monograph on Uropyxis, Professor\nMagnus enumerates further species of fungi which occur in America and Asia\nonly and are missing in other portions of the world (P. Magnus, Berichten\nder Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, Jahrgang 1899. Band XVII, Heft 3).\n\nReferring the reader to Professor Edward S. Morse\u2019s trite article, Was\nMiddle America peopled from Asia? (Appleton\u2019s Popular Science Monthly,\nNovember, 1898), I cite, from this, the following authoritative\nstatements: \u201cFrom the naturalist\u2019s standpoint the avenues have been quite\nas open for the circumpolar distribution of man as they have been for the\ncircumpolar distribution of other animals and plants, down to the minutest\nland snail and low fungus. The ethnic resemblances supposed to exist\nbetween the peoples of the two sides of the Pacific may be the result of\nan ancient distribution around the northern regions of the globe.\u201d\n\nThe very remarkable survival of certain plants and fungi, dating from the\nTertiary period, in two such widely sundered countries as Asia Minor and\nNorth America, certainly finds a curious and striking parallel in the\nanalogy of the cosmical ideas and social organization of Babylonia and\nAssyria with those of Mexico.\n\nWhat is more: A cosmical scheme, attributable to a prolonged observation\nof natural celestial phenomena, such as could best have been carried on in\ncircumpolar regions, has been shown to be as widespread as the\nScandinavian flora which \u201cis present in every latitude and is the only one\nthat is so.\u201d\n\nMany of my readers will doubtless be inclined to explain the identity of\ncosmical and religious conceptions, social organization, and architectural\nplans shown to have existed in the past between the inhabitants of both\nhemispheres, as the result of independent evolution, dating from the\nperiod when primitive man, emerging from savagery, was driven southward\nfrom circumpolar regions, carrying with him a set of indelible impressions\nwhich, under the influence of constant pole-star worship, sooner or later\ndeveloped and brought forth identical or analogous results.\n\nThose who hold this view may perhaps go so far as to consider the\npossibility that, before drifting asunder, the human race had already\ndiscovered, for instance, the art of fire-making and of working in stone,\nhad adopted the sign of the cross as a year-register, and evolved an\narchaic form of social organization. To many this view may furnish a\nsatisfactory explanation of the universal spread of identical ideas and\nthe differentiation of their subsequently independent evolution.\n\nOn the other hand, another class of readers may prefer to think that,\nwhile both hemispheres may have originally been populated by branches of\nthe same race, at an extremely low stage of intellectual development,\ncivilization and a plan of social organization may have developed and been\nformulated sooner in one locality than in another, owing to more favorable\nconditions and thence have been spread to both continents by a race, more\nintelligent and enterprising than others, who became the intermediaries of\nancient civilization.\n\nThe great problem of the origin of American peoples lies far beyond the\nscope of the present work and its final solution can only be obtained at\nsome future day by the joint co\u00f6peration of Americanists and Orientalists.\nOn the other hand certain incontrovertible facts which throw light upon\nthe question of prehistoric contact have been coming under my observation\nduring my prolonged course of study and the presentation of these may\nadvance knowledge by acting as a stimulus to discussion, inquiry and\nresearch by learned specialists.\n\nFor ready reference I submit the following tabulated record of the widely\nsundered countries in which are found, applied to the governmental scheme,\nthe same cosmical divisions, respectively consisting of four, seven and\nthirteen parts, the group being invariably associated with the idea of an\nall-embracing One, constituting the Four in One, Seven in One and Thirteen\nin One. It is superfluous to add that, in each country enumerated, the\nexistence of more or less distinct traces of an ancient pole-star worship\nand the cult of the sacred Middle, the Above and Below and Four Quarters,\n_i. e._, the four, seven and thirteen directions in space, have been\nrecorded in the preceding pages. Important additional facts, acquired by\nreference to Hewitt\u2019s Ruling Races of Prehistoric Times, to which my\nattention was directed by Mr. Stansbury Hagar, and to other valuable\nworks, will be found included in the following summary.\n\nIt would be of utmost assistance to me in my future researches and I would\nregard it as a personal favor if specialists would draw my attention to\nany deficiencies they may detect, and inform me of the latest results of\ntheir individual investigations bearing upon the subjects under\nconsideration.\n\nINDIA.\n\nSeven zones, seven directions in space, seven sages.\n\n\u201cThe conception of the confederated kingdom formed of six dependent and\nallied states surrounding the seventh ruling state in the centre.\u201d... \u201cIt\nis this conception which is worked out in the six kingdoms surrounding the\ncentral kingdom of Jambudvipa, into which they divided India. This form of\nkingdom still survives in those which form the tributary states of Chota\nNagpore, for in all of these the central province is ruled by the king and\nthose surrounding it by his subordinate chiefs ...\u201d(136) (Hewitt, Ruling\nRaces of Prehistoric Times, p. 256).\n\nFour lakes, four rivers, four cosmical divisions, four guardians, p. 320.\n\n\u201cIn the Gond \u2018Song of Lingal,\u2019 it is related how, Lingal, having been\nslain by the confederacy [of six kingdoms surrounding seventh], came to\nlife again, and with four new-born Gonds, founded a new race of Gonds;\ntaught them to build houses and to grow millets.... He divided the people\ninto _four tribes_.... With these he united the four tribes descended from\nthe Gonds he had brought down in his first avatar.... These formed the\neight united races of the tortoise-earth.... Lingal placed among them\npriests ... who married the new-comers to the daughters of the previous\nimmigrants.... This ... marks the first stage of the union of the Kushikas\nand the Maghadas, the latter being the race who worshipped the mother-Maga\nas the sacred alligator (Hewitt).\n\n\u201cAccording to the Mah\u0101bh\u0101rata the two races of Kushikas and Maghadas were\nunited under one king.... This land was called by Hindu geographers\nSaka-dvipa, said in the Mataya Purana to be the land of the mountain\nwhence Indra gets the rain;\u201d that is of the mountain called\nKhar-sah-kurra, Ushidhan and Savkanta. \u201cThis mountain stood as the meeting\npoint of the two confederacies of the patriarchal tribes and the\nmatriarchal races.... Each confederacy is formed by six kingdoms\nsurrounding a seventh or ruling kingdom in the centre.... This, in the\nIranian federation, is Khavaniras or Huaniratha and in India, Jambu-dvipa,\nthe land of the Jambu tree.\u201d\n\nHewitt publishes an interesting drawing (reproduced as fig. 73, _c_),\nformed \u201cby the union of the four triangles representing the Southeastern\nand Northwestern races, who all looked on the mother mountain of the East,\nwhence Indra gets the rain, as their national birthplace, where they\nbecame united as the Kushite race, the confederation of civilized man. It\nrepresents the Greek cross and the double dorje or thunderbolt of Vishnu\nand Indra and also a map of the Indian races, as distributed at the time\nof the union. It also forms, with spaces left open for the parent rivers,\n... an octahedron or eight-sided figure ... and the angles of the tribal\nangles form the swastika ... the sign of the rain-god ..., the great Sar\nof the Ph\u0153nicians....\u201d Referring the reader to Hewitt\u2019s interesting\ndiscussion of this figure with which he associates the origin of the\nswastika, I point out a fact he barely notices, namely that the figure\ncoincides with the description of Mt. Meru, associated with four lakes,\nfour rivers, four mythical animals and four guardians (p. 320). It is in\nconnection with the cosmical Middle Mountain that the foundation of an\nearthly kingdom on the same plan becomes significant and the distribution\nof races figured by Mr. Hewitt assumes utmost importance. The\nrepresentation of the four races by \u201ctribal triangles,\u201d is of special\ninterest when collated with the Egyptian sign for city or state and the\npyramid, the building of which I have several times alluded to as an event\nfacilitating, symbolizing and commemorating the foundation of a\nquadruplicate state (pp. 220 and 221).\n\nARABIA.\n\n\u201cIn the land of Arabia, of the irrigating and building Minyans and\nstar-worshipping Sab\u00e6ans, the land of the Queen of Sheba, or the number\nseven (sheba) ... a fresh confederacy was formed, to rival that of the\nKushite mountain of the East ...\u201d (Hewitt, p. 291).\n\nIt is significant that among the Sab\u00e6ans the seven-day period prevailed.\n\nASSYRIA.\n\nSeven directions of heaven and earth, seven territorial districts, seven\nmountains, seven kings, seven-staged towers, seven year and day periods,\netc., pp. 328, 348 and 358.\n\nFour-god cities, square cities, square four-storied towers, four cities,\nfour regions or provinces, four-fold power embodied in king wearing cross,\ntetrarchies (?).\n\nEGYPT.\n\nSeven classes of people, seven districts, seven-day period, pp. 300 and\n375.(137)\n\nQuadruplicate division of capital and state, four fields of heaven, p.\n372.\n\nSacerdotal group consisting of 12+1=13 individuals, p. 437.\n\nDivision of the country, at one time, into twelve parts (Ast).\n\nCHINA.\n\nSeven Manchurian tribes, p. 302.\n\nFour provinces, four mountains, four seas, p. 286; four classes of seven\neach, p. 292.\n\nAt the summit of the present administration in Pekin, Four Grand\nSecretaries, two of whom are Manchus and two Chinese.(138)\n\nTwelve districts, p. 292.\n\nANCIENT JAPAN.\n\nThe \u201cSeven divine generations,\u201d each consisting of a god and goddess.\n\nFour classes of people, 2\u00d74=8 holy quarters, eight great islands.\n\nImperial council of twelve divided into the higher council of five called\nGolosew=\u201cImperial Old Men\u201d and the lower council of seven members termed\nWaka Tosiyori=\u201cJunior Old Men\u201d (Chambers\u2019 Encyclop\u00e6dia). The imperial\ncouncil, with the emperor, thus constituted the sacred thirteen.\n\nPERSIA.\n\nSeven divisions of Cosmos, seven regions, seven spirits personifying\ncelestial bodies and moral qualities.\n\nAncient confederacy of Iran consisted of six kingdoms grouped around the\ncentral royal province, \u201csituated under the pole-star,\u201d and called\nKwan-iras or Hvan-iratha, ruled by Susi-nag, the original father-god of\nthe model state identified with the pole-star, Draconis, the serpent\n(Hewitt, _op. cit._ p. 253), see also Appendix III, list II.\n\nFour-fold rule embodied in king, p. 325. Darius distributed Persian empire\ninto 4\u00d75=20 satrapies, each including a certain continuous territory\n(Grote).\n\nGREECE.\n\nTenos divided into seven quarters, seven divisions of state.(139)\n\nFour tribes,(140) four castes, territorial division of Attica into four\nparts, institution of tetrarchies. Thessaly anciently divided into four\ntetrarchies. Institution (between 600-560 B.C.) of cycle or period, marked\nby the four sacred Olympic games, one of which took place in one of four\ncities each year in rotation. Pisistratus added the quadrennial or greater\nPanathen\u00e6a to the ancient annual and lesser Panathen\u00e6a (Grote, History of\nGreece, vol. 4).\n\nTwelve tribes formed by Cecrops\u2014represented by twelve chiefs,\n+Cecrops=thirteen.\n\nIt is most interesting to find this division adopted in Plato\u2019s de\nLegibus, in which it is imagined that three elderly statesmen come\ntogether, belonging respectively to Athens, Crete and Laced\u00e6mon, to\ndiscuss the re\u00ebstablishment of the depopulated city of Magnesia in Crete.\nAristotle has insinuated that the scheme proposed by Plato was not\noriginal and had been actually realized at Laced\u00e6mon. Mr. George Burger,\nthe able translator of Bohn\u2019s edition of Plato\u2019s Works, in his\nintroduction to vol. V, remarks that, if that were the case, Plato would\nnever have wasted his time in writing two elaborate treatises on matters\nalready well known, when it would have been sufficient to point out ...\nthe institutions of Lycurgus as the pattern, if not of a faultless\ngovernment, at least of one, that approached the nearest to perfection.\nPlato might have replied to the charge made by Aristotle by saying that\nhis notions were all the better for not being original, for it was thus\nshown that, as some of them were practicable, since they had already been\nput into practice\u2014the rest, which were a reform rather of existing\ninstitutions than the construction of a code perfectly novel, would be\nequally practicable if they were submitted to the same test. In his\nProtagoras, Plato distinctly states that in Crete and Laced\u00e6mon a most\nbeautiful philosophy was to be found, which had been handed down from\nancient times.... Let us now examine the plan discussed by the three\nstatesmen and submitted to them by the anonymous Athenian who, according\nto Cicero, Plutarch and Boeckh, was Plato himself.\n\nIn the case of \u201cthe Magnesians, whom a god is again raising up and\nsettling into a colony ... a divine polity....\u201d Plato says: ... \u201cIt is\nmeet, in the first place, to build the city as much as possible in the\nmiddle of the country.... After this to divide it into twelve parts(141)\nand placing first the temple of Hestia, and Zeus and Athene, to call it\nthe Acropolis and to throw around a circular enclosure and from it to cut\nthe city and all the country into twelve parts. But the twelve parts ought\nto be equalized ... and the allotments to be five thousand and forty....\nAfter this to assign the twelve allotments to the twelve gods and to call\nthem by their names and to consecrate to each the portion attained by lot\nand to call it a phyle; and again to divide the twelve sections of the\ncity in the same manner as they divided the rest of the country, and that\neach should possess two habitations, one near the centre and the other\nnear the extremity, and thus let the method end ... (B. V, C. 14).... We\nought, in the first place, to resume the number five thousand and forty\nbecause it had and has now convenient distributions, both the whole number\nand that which was assigned to the wards, which we laid down as the\ntwelfth part of the whole, being exactly four hundred and twenty. And as\nthe whole number has twelve divisions, so also has that of the wards. Now\nit is meet to consider each division as a sacred gift of a deity through\nits _following both the months and revolutions of the universe_. (By this\nis meant, says Ast, the twelve signs of the zodiac.) _Hence that which is\ninherent leads every state, making them holy_.... Some persons indeed have\nmade a more correct distribution than others, and with better fortune have\ndedicated the distribution to the gods. But we now assert that the number\nfive thousand and forty has been chosen most correctly, as it has all\ndivisions as far as twelve, beginning from one, except that by eleven; ...\nlet us distribute this number; and dedicating to a god ... each portion,\nand giving the altars ... let us institute monthly two meetings relating\nto sacrifices ... twelve according to the divisions of the wards and\ntwelve to that of the city ... for the sake of every kind of intercourse.\u201d\n\nIt should be noted here that, as in his Republic, Plato provides his ideal\nstate with female as well as male guardians, and with priestesses as well\nas priests, whose duty it was to fulfil sacerdotal functions. Special\nattention is drawn to this point, as in practice, it naturally signifies a\ndual government, such as I have traced in ancient Egypt,\nBabylonia-Assyria, and also in Mexico and Peru.\n\n\u201cAs regards the number of ... festivals ... let there be three hundred and\nsixty-five ... so that some one of the magistrates may always sacrifice\n... there are to be twelve festivals to the twelve gods from whom each\ntribe has its name ... and twelve guardians of the law.... There ought to\nbe twelve hamlets, one in the middle of each twelfth part, and in each\nhamlet to be selected first, a market place and temples ... prepare all\nthe rest of the country by it into thirteen parts for the handicraftsmen\nand to cause one portion of these to reside in the city by distributing\nthis portion among the twelve parts of the whole city ... to have other\npersons distributed out of the city, in a circle around it.\u201d\n\nThe portions of Plato\u2019s work dealing with the appointment of the governors\nand guardians of the state and their rotations in office and imposed tours\nof inspection, are of such particular interest in connection with the\npresent comparative research, that I am impelled to quote them here.\n\n\u201cLet each (of the twelve) phyles furnish for the year five Rural Stewards\n(in all sixty) ... each of whom is to choose twelve young men ... to the\nlatter let there be allotted portions of the country during a month ... so\nthat all of them may have a practical knowledge of every part of the\ncountry.... But let the governorship and guardianship continue to the\nguards and governors for two years, and let those who first obtain by lot\ntheir respective portions, the guard officers, lead out, _changing the\nplaces of the country constantly by going to the place next in order\ntowards the right in a circle, and let the right be that which is in the\neast_. But as the years come around, in the second year, in order that the\ngreatest portion of the guards may become acquainted with the country, not\nonly at one season of the year, but that as many as possible may know\nthoroughly in addition to the country, at the same time what occurs\nrelatively to each spot in the country at each season, let the officers\n_lead them out again to the left, constantly changing the place until they\ngo through the second year_. In the third year it is meet to choose other\nrural stewards and guard officers as the five curators of the twelve young\nmen.... There were to be three city stewards, dividing the twelve parts of\nthe city into three ... and five Market-Stewards, to be chosen from ten\nelected\u201d....(142)\n\nIt is deeply interesting to consider from the standpoint of comparative\nstudy the principal features of the perfected scheme proposed by Plato, in\nthe fifth century B. C, for the establishment of an ideal colony, which is\ndesignated as a \u201cdivine polity\u201d or a \u201choly land.\u201d This is especially the\ncase when we see that Plato himself states that it is the conformity of\nthe states to the inherent laws of nature, that confers upon it divinity\nor holiness. It seems impossible not to recognize that both ideal\nrepublics of Plato were intended to be \u201ccelestial kingdoms\u201d or \u201ckingdoms\nof heaven\u201d and that he expounded and doubtlessly perfected, an ancient\nideal which had been more or less successfully carried out in different\ncountries during many centuries before his time.\n\nHaving studied the proposed scheme for the foundation of a new colony of\nthe Greeks, who proudly maintained that \u201cit was meet that the Greeks\nshould rule barbarians,\u201d and pursued a regular system of colonization, let\nus now obtain an idea of the mode in which Greeks had previously founded\ncolonies by reading the following passage from Grote\u2019s History of Greece,\nvol. IV, chap. XXVII:\n\n\u201cUnder reign of Psammetichus, king of Egypt, about the middle of seventh\ncentury B.C., Grecian mercenaries were first established in Egypt and\nGrecian traders admitted ... into the Nile.(143) The opening of this new\nmarket emboldened them to traverse the direct sea which separates Kr\u00eate\nfrom Egypt\u2014a dangerous voyage with vessels which rarely ventured to lose\nsight of land\u2014and seems to have first made them acquainted with the\nneighboring coast of Libya ... hence arose the foundation of the important\ncolony called Kyr\u00ean\u00ea\u201d ... about 630 B.C.\n\n\u201cTh\u00eara was the mother-city, herself a colony from Laced\u00e6mon ... political\ndissension among its inhabitants ... bad seasons, distress and\nover-population led to the emigration that founded Kyr\u00ean\u00ea.... The oekist\nBattus was selected and consecrated to work of founding the colony....\n_From the seven districts into which Th\u00eara was divided, emigrants were\ndrafted for the colony, one brother being singled out by lot from the\ndifferent families_.... The band which accompanied Battus was generally\nsupplied with provisions for one year and was all conveyed in two\npentekonters\u2014armed ships with fifty rowers each. Thus humble was the start\nof the mighty Kyr\u00ean\u00ea. After six years residence in one spot they abandoned\nit and were conducted to a better site by guides, saying: \u2018Here, men of\nHellas, is the place for you to dwell, for here the sky is\nperforated.\u2019 \u201d(144) The small force brought over by Battus was enabled at\nfirst to fraternize with the indigenous Libyans,\u2014next, reinforced by\nadditional colonists and availing themselves of the power of native\nchiefs, to overawe and subjugate them....\n\n\u201cThe Ther\u00e6an colonists seem to have married Libyan wives, whence Herodotus\ndescribes the women of Kyr\u00ean\u00ea and Barka as following, even in his time,\nreligious observances indigenous and not Hellenic. Even the descendants of\nthe primitive oekist Battus were semi-Libyan.... We must bear in mind that\nthe population of the [Gr\u00e6co-Libyan] cities was not pure Greek, but more\nor less mixed, like that of the colonies in Italy, Sicily or Ionia....\nIsokrates praises the well-chosen site of the colony of Kyr\u00ean\u00ea because it\nwas planted in the midst of indigenous natives apt for subjection and far\ndistant from any formidable enemies.... We are then to conceive the first\nTher\u00e6an colonists as established in their lofty fortified post Kyr\u00ean\u00ea, in\nthe centre of Libyan Perioeki, till then strangers to walls, to arts and\nperhaps even to cultivated land.... To these rude men the Ther\u00e6ans\ncommunicated the elements of Hellenism and civilization, not without\nreceiving themselves much that was non-Hellenic in return, and perhaps the\nreactionary influence of the Libyan element against the Hellenic might\nhave proved the stronger of the two had they not been reinforced by\nnew-comers from Greece.... About 543 B.C. owing to discontent, etc., the\nregal prerogative of the Battiad line was terminated and a republican\ngovernment established; the dispossessed prince retaining both the landed\ndomains and various sacerdotal functions which had belonged to his\npredecessors.\u201d\n\nROME.\n\nSeven hills, seven places of worship, septemvirate, seven ministers,\nSeptizonium, p. 464.\n\nRoman quadrata, Janus quadrifrontis, quadruplicate territorial division\ncarried out. Palestine, for instance, divided into four tetrarchies under\nRoman rule.\n\nTwelve gods, twelve months, etc.\n\nNew Rome divided into four parts, each consisting of thirteen prefectures\n_i. e._ fifty-two prefectures in all.\n\nGAUL.\n\nSeven provinces.\n\nBRITAIN.\n\nSeven kings=heptarchy.\n\nFour kings of Kent=tetrarchy.\n\nIRELAND.\n\nSeven sanctuaries grouped around central tower.\n\nFour associates of king of Erin.\n\nGroup consisting of 12+1=13 stone figures, p. 469.\n\nSCANDINAVIA.\n\nFour guardians of four quarters.\n\nThor, supreme divinity, pole-star god, seated and holding \u201cseven stars,\u201d\nthe symbol of seven-fold power, in his hand.\n\nGroup consisting of royal throne surrounded by 12 stones. Odin associated\nwith twelve \u201cgodes,\u201d p. 472.\n\nNORTH AMERICA.\n\nHuron confederacy=seven tribes, quadriform city, 2\u00d74=8 gentes, p. 198.\n\nZUNI.\n\nSeven directions in space, seven quarters of city, seven tribes, seven\ntowns.\n\nFour bands of priests, p. 201.\n\nTwelve, _i. e._, thirteen priesthoods, p. 201.\n\nMEXICO.\n\nSeven tribes issued from seven caves, seven gods or chiefs, p. 62.\n\nFour quarters of city, represented by four chieftains, four subrulers,\nfour divisions of army, four year signs, four tribes, four tribal trees\n(fig. 52), four storied pyramids.\n\nThirteen divisions or parts, p. 181.\n\nCalendar and state organized into 4\u00d713=52 parts.\n\nYUCATAN.\n\nTitle of ruler, \u201cthe divine Four,\u201d four sub-rulers, four royal brothers,\nfour-year periods, p. 218, four quarters, p. 223, four year signs.\n\nTwelve _i. e._ thirteen priest-rulers of Mayapan, p. 209.\n\nGUATEMALA.\n\nSeven tribes, seven day period, p. 179.\n\nFour nations, four provinces, four capitals, four Tullans, pp. 164, 171.\n\nThirteen divisions of warriors, p. 179.\n\nPERU.\n\nEmpire named \u201cFour in one,\u201d Creator named \u201cEarth, air, fire and water in\nOne,\u201d four provinces, four viceroys.\n\nTwelve _i. e._ thirteen wards in Cuzco, twelve divisions of year, p. 144.\n\nBefore commenting upon the above summary, and as its necessary complement,\na brief examination must be made of the various modes in which the\nphenomenon of celestial axial rotation figured in the rituals of primitive\npeople.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nThe lighting of \u201csacred fire,\u201d by means of the wooden fire-drill and the\nwooden socket block, appears as the most ancient and widespread\nritualistic performance.\n\nTo begin with, the reader is requested to read carefully the following\ndetached extracts from Hewitt\u2019s work:\n\n\u201cIn the Rig-Veda the Aryan invaders of Lydia are called the Tritsu, \u2018the\nboring people,\u2019 who used the fire-drill; also Arna, \u2018sons of Arani,\u2019 the\nfire-drill, whose sacred number is four\u201d.... \u201cIn India, from time\nimmemorial, by a process like churning, fire has been produced by the\nArani, made of the Ashvattha (_Ficus religiosa_) wood, being twirled\nrepeatedly round till the fire is lighted, by a string fixed in the\ncross-bar at its top,\u201d a method, I may add, which is a later development\nof the more primitive mode of twirling the fire-drill by hand. \u201cThe\nKushites ... believed that life was generated by the union of heat with\nwater ... and that heat was, in the astronomical myth, engendered by the\nrevolution of the Great Bear and the connection between it, the vital heat\nand the creating water is shown in one of its Akkadian names, Bel-a-sar-a,\nwhich means \u2018the fire god who measures the water yoke\u2019 (R. Brown and\nSayce), or, in other words, Bel, the distributor of the water allotted to\nthe earth. From this heavenly cistern and fire-drill, in which marichi,\nthe fire-spark, is hidden, the water of life is distributed.\u201d\n\nCompare the preceding with the following statements: \u201cAccording to the\nArab doctrine of the pole, the seven stars of the Great Bear and the star\nCanopus [?] formed the fire-drill.\u201d According to Hewitt \u201c... It was the\nAshvins, ... the twin brothers of day and night, ... identified with the\ntwin stars in Gemini, who twirled round the fire drill of the northern\npole ... or, according to a later hymn, drove through the seas with one of\nthe wheels of their chariot in Ursa Major and one in heaven,\u2014that is, to\ndrive around the pole.\u201d A deeper comprehension seems to be afforded by\nthis association of the Ashvins with the axis, of the significance of the\ntwo figures (of a god and his consort) who, in the Sippar tablet, appear\nto be directing the wheel of Shamash\u2014the world-axis and symbol of\nquadruplicate terrestrial government (see p. 365). Reference should also\nbe repeated here, to Al-kuth and Al-fass, the Arabian names for Polaris,\nrespectively signifying the axle and the hole of the axle, also to the\npole star of Northern India\u2014Grahadhara,\u2014the \u201cpivot of heaven,\u201d and to the\nsignificant fact that in Egyptian hieratic script the word an=the Akkadian\nand Sumerian word for heaven, and Babylonian-Assyrian word for god, is\nfound rendered by a man \u201cturning around,\u201d an action expressing the verb\nan.\n\nIt is interesting to collate these statements with the descriptions of\nDhruva (see p. 448, note 1), the personification of centrifugal power,\nwho, as he turns, causes the heaven to revolve around the fixed centre on\nwhich he stands, resting on one foot only, and to note how the two\ndistinct ideas of central stability and rotation influenced the making of\npagan divinities. The idea of stability was perpetuated in the house-pole\nwhich sustained Aman, the roof of primitive dwellings in the column an,\nwhich supported the temple roof and in time was transformed into a hermes,\nor, in Egypt, into a statue of Amen-ra, and in the mythical mountain of\nthe North, Sama, which supported the heaven (Sama). Dhruva\u2019s turning round\non one foot, which implies the use of the other, reappears in the\nHephaistos of Greek mythology, who was, as Hewitt tells us (p. 504), \u201cthe\nfire-drill and its driver, and was called Amphi-Gu\u0113eis, or he who halts on\nboth legs, ... was cast from heaven by Zeus, and was the husband of the\nfire-socket, the first form of the Greek goddess Aphrodite.\u201d\n\nFor information regarding the cult of the fire-socket, the construction of\nthe Hindu fire-altars in the form of a woman, representing \u201cmother-earth\u201d\nor \u201cthe prim\u00e6val mother,\u201d Aditi, I refer the reader to Hewitt\u2019s work, and\nalso to p. 323 of the present publication, where the description of the\nJiddah sanctuary proves the existence of the same ancient form of cult in\nArabia. Hewitt relates on page 170 that, on the fire-altar, the central\nfire called Agni jatavedas is kindled when the officiating priest\naddresses in the words of Rig-Veda III, 29, 4: \u201cWe place thee, O\nJatavedas, in the place of Ida (the mountain daughter of Manu) in the\nnavel (nabha) of the altar, to carry our offerings.\u201d In Rig-Veda, X, 61,\nwe are also told how Nabha-Nedishtha (that which is nearest to the navel)\nwas born from the union of celestial lightning flash with the earth, and\nhow, on his birth, he claimed to be the supreme god, saying: \u201cThis, our\nnavel, is the highest. I am his son.... I am the twice-born son of the law\n(of nature)....\u201d Hewitt (p. 171) regards, moreover, the image of the\ngoddess of the earth altar found by Schliemann in the second city from the\nbottom of the six cities, built one over another on the site of Troy, a\ncounterpart of the Hindu fire-altar. It is significant that the Trojan\nimage exhibits a triangle surrounded by seven disks, and containing the\nswastika, which Hewitt designates as \u201cthe holy fire, the sun of the\nrevolving year,\u201d a view curiously, though indistinctly, analogous and\nparallel to that I have formulated in the present research.\n\n\u201cIn the Brahmanas the Try-Ambika offering, a very ancient form of the rain\nfestival, is described.... Its sanctity dated from the days of primeval\ntheology, for the offerings were made on a spot outside and _to the north_\nof the consecrated area, and on one intersected by cross-roads, and thus\nmarked by the cross sacred to the rain-god, which is said to be Rudra\u2019s\nfavorite haunts, and the halting place of the Agnis.... Hence the festival\nis dedicated to Rud-ra, the red (rud) god, the father of the seven Marut\nstars.... He is called the red god from the spark of fire kindled by him\nin the fire socket when he was the fire-drill, and from being reddened by\nthe blood of the victim slain in his sacrifices when he was the\nsacrificial stake to which the annual victims, whose blood fertilized the\nground, were bound, and this name was continued to him when he became the\nred cloud of the thunderstorm which infused the soil of life into the\nearth by pouring on it the life-giving rain, the blood of the creating\ngod....\u201d\n\nIn the Rig-Veda the rain-god is termed Ushana, the \u201clord of fire,\u201d who is\nmade to exclaim: \u201cIt is I who pour down rain for the good of creatures.\u201d\nIt was he who was also known as Varuna, the Greek Ourauos, who ... became\nthe god of the dark night.... The union [in India] of the patriarchal\nworshippers of the Northern father-god, with the matriarchal races of the\nsouth was followed by the miners, metal-workers and artisans of the early\nbronze age, who looked on fire and the life-giving heat as the author of\nlife. These were the people (of Finnic origin) who employed the word ku\nfor god, in Asia Minor became the worshippers of the mother goddess Magha,\nthe socket block from which fire was generated by the fire-drill, and it\nwas they, \u201cthe Sons of Magha\u201d that became the Maghi of Persia and the\nMaghadas of Indian history.\n\nIn connection with the union of a northern patriarchal and a southern\nmatriarchal race, an astronomical myth deserves particular attention, as\nit commemorates the combination of a feminine cult of the Pleiades, the\n\u201cspinning stars,\u201d with a masculine cult of Ursa Major. According to this\nmyth, related by Hewitt, the \u201cSpinners\u201d=Krittakas (from krit, to spin)\nwere \u201cthe mother-stars of the earth,\u201d who were married to the seven stars\nof the Great \u201cBear, the father-stars of the North.\u201d(145) Remarking how\ncuriously the assignment of the north to the male and the south to the\nfemale element coincides with what has been noted in Egypt, I note here\nthe interesting detail recorded by Hewitt (p. 379) that to this day the\nHindu bride and bridegroom respectively pay reverence to the Pleiades and\nUrsa Major, before worshipping the pole-star, \u201cthe spotted bull,\u201d on\nentering their house. It would seem as though the fulfilment of this\nritual might limit the Hindu marriage season to some particular time of\nthe year, marked by the position of the Pleiades; in which connection it\nis interesting to remember that, in Mexico, the culmination of the\nPleiades at midnight marked the New Year festival, when sacred fire was\nrekindled and the union of Heaven and Earth took place. On pp. 130-132 of\nHewitt\u2019s work, vol. I, the reader will find instructive data regarding\nPleiades festivals.\n\nThe preceding details appear to show that whereas a northern patriarchal\nrace would naturally symbolize axial rotation by the fire-drill, a\nsouthern matriarchal race would adopt the spindle for the same purpose.\nSuch a ritualistic use of the spindle would undoubtedly afford a very\nsimple explanation for the presence of cross-symbols and swastikas and\nother designs of religious significance upon the terra-cotta spinning\nwhorls found in such quantities in Troy, for instance, and the cited\nallusion on one of these, to the pole-star god, Tur, corroborates this\nview.(146)\n\nIt is instructive to trace how, amongst primitive agricultural races, the\nart of spinning, the employment of beasts of burden, the invention of the\noil-press which \u201cwas used in Asia Minor as it has been used for time\nimmemorial in India to extract the oil of the sesame seeds,\u201d and of the\nwheel and cart, influenced their respective adoption of symbols of axial\nrotation. In turn, these symbols suggested and created divergent forms of\nritual and religious cult. \u201cThe Turanians ... when they had evolved the\nidea of the god of heaven as the pole turned by the revolving days and\nweeks symbolized it as the pole of the threshing floors around which the\noxen were driven.\u201d The reader is referred here to the passages from the\nBhagavata-purana quoted in the present work (note 1, p. 448), in which\naxial rotation is compared to \u201coxen turning around their stakes,\u201d to which\nmust be added the Vedic \u201cone-wheeled car to which one horse named seven\nwas yoked\u201d (see p. 452, note 1), and the revolving wheel and the revolving\nmeasuring pole of the potter and builder castes, which united formed the\nTelis caste.\n\nIn the Vaya Purana, \u201cthe seven Maruts drive the stars which are bound to\nit by ties invisible to man, round the pole. They move round like the beam\nin the oil-press, for its bottom is, as it were, standing still, while its\nend moves round\u201d.... In the ritual \u201cthe Sanscrit Isha or the beam which\nturns this pole of heavenly oil-pressing mill, is the husband and father.\u201d\nA diverging view, which developed and combined the ideas of fixity and\ncircular motion with the kindling of the vital spark by the wooden\nfire-drill, caused the living tree to become the emblem of the tribal\nfather or mother. The custom, still in use among some primitive people, of\ndrilling for fire in the dry, inflammable bark of dead trees of a\nparticular species, may have forcibly directed the choice of tribal trees.\nAt all events, in India, we find the mango or Am tree, which recurs in\nEgyptian script (see fig. 63, 22), the fig-tree, the udumbara, the\ndate-palm and other trees established as the parent trees of different\ntribes, who made their respective house-poles and presumably their\nfire-drills and sockets, from their wood. The curious ritual of marrying\nmen and women to their respective mother or father tribal trees, before\nthey are wedded to their respective husbands and wives is mentioned by\nHewitt on p. 237, etc. This close bond between some special kind of tree\nand a tribe is a point which I particularly emphasize on account of its\nanalogy to ancient Mexican, Maya and Peruvian tribal trees.\n\nReturning to a study of the pole and the beam of the oil-press we find\nthat, in Essay II, Hewitt traces the Greek myths of Ixion and Koronis to\nthe Hindu comparison of the heavens to a revolving oil-press and, in the\nritual of the Vajapeya sacrifice, refers the dawn of astronomy to the\nobservation of the revolutions of the pole and the reckoning of the seven\ndays of the week.... \u201cIxion, when raised to heaven, was the rain-god, who\nturned one wheel, to which his hands and feet were fixed by Hermes, the\nfire-god, continuously in the air, and this is merely a mythic way of\nsaying that he was the fire-drill, made as the revolving pole to rotate\nperpetually, and by being turned to every side in his winged course, to\nproduce life-giving heat, the generator of rain.... The Greek Ixion is the\nsame word as the Sanscrit Akshivan, the driver of the axle (aksha)....\nIxion is also, according to Bopp and Pott, connected with the root ik,\npouring water, which appears in ichor, \u2018the blood of the gods,\u2019 the water\nof life.\u201d\n\n\u201cMoreover, the Sanscrit aksha is a word of which the original is found in\nthe Gond akkha, an axle. In the summer festival of the agricultural Gonds,\ncalled Akkhadi or Akhtuj, the worship of the cart axle or Akkha takes\nplace and is associated with Nagur, the rain snake.... In the Vajapeya\nsacrifice ... the Soma priest consecrates two cups of the sacred drink\nSoma above the axle, at the same time as the Neskti priest consecrates two\ncups of Sura below it. In this ceremony we see a reminiscence of the days\nwhen the axle was the upright revolving pole pressing out the heavenly\nrain.... It also shows us how it was that the axle became the sacred part\nof the Soma cart ... and the revolving pole became the axle of the car of\ntime and of the cart of the agricultural Gonds....\u201d\n\nIt seems easy to trace from the rude one-wheeled cart, the evolution of\nthe two-wheeled chariot, the prerogative of royalty in India and Assyria,\nemployed simultaneously with the regal umbrella, which, when twirled,\nsymbolized celestial axial rotation and suggested the idea of a protective\ndeity. The transition from the \u201cone-wheeled car\u201d of the oldest Veda, to\nwhich \u201cone horse named seven was yoked\u201d to the chariot of Apollo=\u201cSeven,\u201d\nwhose lyre, with seven chords, struck the divine heptachord of the\nPythagoreans, and who drove seven horses, coincides with that of the\numbrella which, in Greece, was borne at the period of the summer solstice\nin the Skirophoria or \u201cfestival of the umbrella,\u201d in honor of Athene.\n\nIt is particularly gratifying to me, as it so forcibly substantiates the\nviews I have been enlarging upon in this investigation, to refer here to\nHewitt\u2019s quotations (p. 7, vol. II) from the Rig-Veda, in which the\nwheeled chariot, closely identified with the year, is said to be drawn by\nthe father-horse, with seven names, the seven days of the week, etc.\nHewitt likewise cites passages of the Rig-Veda containing the conception\nof year wheels, the varying number of whose spokes agree with different\ndivisions of the year. Thus one year-wheel exhibits twelve spokes,\ndenoting months, another five spokes denoting five seasons. A chariot,\nwith seven wheels with six spokes, is explained as meaning the seven days\nof the week and the six seasons of the southern year. \u201cAll living beings\nrest on the five-spoked wheel, ... the horses draw the never-aging wheel\nthrough space, whence the eye of the sun on which all life depends, looks\ndown. The seventh of those born together they call \u2018that born alone\u2019: this\nis the self-created thirteenth or central month; the six twinned months\nare said to be those begotten of the gods. They are arranged in their\norder, six on each side of the central month, by the leader who dwells\nabove.\u201d A striking analogy to the ideas I detected, as associated with\ncentral rulership, in ancient America, is set forth in Hewitt\u2019s statement\nthat, it was to the one wheel year \u201cthat the Hindus likened their\nuniversal monarch, the Chakravarta or king, who sits, like the Kushite\nmonarch, as the father of his subject tribes, in the central province of\nhis dominions, and directs his satellites, the rulers of the seasons, who\nbecame the ruling stars of the frontier provinces\u2014the Nakshatra stars\u2014to\nturn the wheel (chakra) of time in its yearly round\u201d (_op. cit._ p. 31,\nvol. II, see also p. 314.)(147)\n\nThe single wheel, without any indication of an utilitarian employment, is\nfound directly associated with the pole-star in Japan, where, as in China,\nthe use of the wheel has been known from earliest times. It will be for\nScandinavian archaeologists to enlighten us as to the earliest traces of\nthe use, by northern races, not only of the wheeled chariot, familiar to\nthose who named Ursa Major, Thor\u2019s wagon, but also that of the mill-stone.\nThe employment of the latter in the description of the \u201crevolving world\nmill-stone through which the waters of the Universe fountain flowed,\u201d is a\nproof that the Eddas were written by an agricultural people, possessing\nadvanced methods of grinding or of extracting oil or juice from food\nstuffs. The association of the Norse mill-stone with the distribution of\nliquid, appearing to indicate that, like the oil-press of ancient India,\nthe stone-mill of Scandinavia had been employed to extract fluids,\nchallenges investigation as to the original home of the mill-stone and\nchariot of the Eddas.\n\nPersonally I am inclined to regard the term \u201cworld mill-stone\u201d as a\nmodernized transcription of the term \u201caxle,\u201d and the whole as a rendering\nof the archaic idea that \u201cheat was engendered by the revolution of the\nGreat Bear\u201d and that the axle of heaven was the distribution of vital heat\nand vivifying water. I shall await enlightenment as to the relationship of\nthe Norse tree of the pole and Thor, with the creating fire-drill of Tur,\nthe father-god; and the connection of the Norse \u201cmill-stone\u201d and fountain,\nto the fire-socket and celestial cistern of the Kushites, said to be the\n\u201csons of the Finnic Ku, the begetter and rain-god,\u201d who, having migrated\nto India and united with other races, founded a mighty confederacy, the\nplan of which is figured in Hewitt\u2019s work (p. 220), by \u201cthe union of four\ntriangles, representing the southeastern and northwestern races, ... with\nspaces left open for the parent rivers,\u201d which flow towards the cardinal\npoints (see figure 73, _c_).\n\nIf we now revert to the first stages of the mental evolution, the outcome\nof which we have been reviewing, we cannot but recognize the curious, but\nperfectly natural chain of reasoning which led early man to explain\nnatural phenomena in different ways by the results of his own immediate\nobservation and experience. He had discovered that the rotation of the\nfire-drill generated fire; consequently the rotation of the circumpolar\nconstellations must generate life-giving heat. The churning or twirling of\nliquid in a vessel, by means of the drill, caused an overflow;\nconsequently the action of the fire-drill also caused an external flow of\nlife-giving waters, which, after the invention of the oil or grape press,\nwas compared to the flow of precious oil or wine from the receptacle.\n\nHigh mountains attracted lightning-clouds and when these collected around\ntheir summits whence rivers constantly flowed, life-giving rain descended;\nconsequently the tops of cloud-capped mountains must reach to the axle of\nthe heaven where fire, heat and rain were being generated and distributed\nby the rotation of celestial bodies. As Polaris the axle, pivot or fire\nsocket, was immovable it could most appropriately be figured by a wooden\nor stone socket, from which fire and water flowed towards the four\nquarters. Such an image would also figure a year, and, by extension, time,\nsince it marked the four annual positions of circumpolar star-groups. The\nadoption of a stone socket as an image of the \u201crevolving heaven\u201d could\nthus have long antedated, but have suggested the invention of the wheel,\nwhich was at first a religious and then became a royal symbol.\n\nI venture to express the view that the archaic image of Shamash (fig. 73,\n_a_), the homonym of Heaven and the North, which was \u201can ancient model\u201d at\nthe time of Nabupaliddin (879-855 B.C.), could only have been invented by\na race of pole-star worshippers who had long been acquainted with the uses\nof the fire drill and the oil-press. At the same time I point out how\nremarkably the combination of four rays and four streams in the image of\nShamash (Shame=heaven) coincides with the explanation given by Hewitt (p.\n9, vol. II) of the Akkadian eight-rayed star of Anu (heaven), which, he\nasserts, is formed by the superposition of the fire-cross and rain cross.\nIt is a most remarkable and undeniable fact that there is a striking\nanalogy between the Anu sign as explained by Hewitt and the Shamash image.\nThe eight-rayed or \u201cspoked wheel\u201d of Ishtar, which figures on the same\ntablet, also gains significance for the same reason, and particularly when\ncollated with the hymn cited in note 1, p. 448, in which she is clearly\ndesignated as the \u201caxis of the heavens,\u201d _i. e._ the female Polaris.\n\nHaving indicated how the origin of the image of Shamash can be traced to\nconceptions arising from the use of the fire-drill and some primitive mode\nof extracting oil or of preparing a highly valued drink from seeds and\nplants, by centrifugal action, invented by a primitive agricultural\npeople, I advance the suggestion that the celestial tree of the Norsemen\nand Semites, associated with the fountain and the four rivers of life,\nappears as a closely related symbol which, however, mainly expressed the\nidea of stability. In the Eddas the tree occurs as a complement to the\nworld axle, the first as the emblem of stability and of a central power\nwhich dispensed shade and life-giving fruits in all directions; the second\nas the image of centrifugal power which caused the star-groups to assume\nopposite positions and which impartially distributed heat and water. It is\ncurious to note how readily from the fire-drill and beam of the oil press\nas a starting point, not only all forms of tree and pole worship and the\nChinese assignment of element wood to the Middle, but also all symbols of\ncentrifugal motion, such as the axle, the pivot and the wheel, could have\nevolved on closely parallel lines.\n\nLet us now transport ourselves to a land where, to this day, the Indian\nwomen grind maize on a flat stone, by means of a pestle, where the\noil-press and the mill-stone, the pole of the threshing-floor, the\npotter\u2019s wheel and the cart wheel were unknown before the date of the\nSpanish Conquest and rotatory motion was associated with the fire-drill\nand spinning whorl only.\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\nThe ancient Mexican name for the fire-drill = mamalhuaztli, and that for\nspinning-wheel=malacatl, are both derived from the verb malacachoa=to\nwhirl, turn or drill. At the time of the Spanish invasion (A.D. 1519) the\nMexican priesthood lit the sacred fire of the altar by an extremely\nprimitive method of employing the fire-drill: by holding it tightly\nbetween the palms of both hands and rapidly rubbing them alternately\nforward and backward.\n\nThe Codices contain numberless pictures representing a priest, in the act\nof kindling fire by inserting the drill in a simple wooden beam, usually\nexhibiting several small holes or sockets. On the other hand the Borgian\nCodex, which has recently been placed within general reach by the\ngenerosity of the Duc de Loubat, shows us two elaborate representations of\nthe great ceremony of kindling the holy fire in a large circular socket,\non the body of a woman which, in all cases is combined with the image of\nan alligator (see p. 91). In another Codex the alligator alone supports\nthe socket. The smaller of these representations is reproduced in fig. 29,\nand on pp. 93-97 this image is discussed as well as the remarkable stone\nfire altars in human form, of which one has been unearthed near the city\nof Mexico, while no less than six were found at Chichen-Itza. My informant\non this point is Mr. Alfred P. Maudslay, who added that they seem to have\nbeen invariably placed at the bottom of the stairs leading up to the\ntemple, the fa\u00e7ade of which is always supported by two great columns, each\nsculptured in the form of a great serpent with open jaws, the symbol\nwhich, in the bas-reliefs at Chichen-Itza and on the Central American\nstel\u00e6, recurs on the head-dresses of the rulers termed \u201cDivine serpents,\u201d\nor \u201cdivine four in One.\u201d\n\nPostponing comment upon the curious analogy between the stone fire altars\nin human form, of the Mayas and Mexicans, with those of the Maghadas of\nNorthern India, who called themselves the Sons of Magha = the socket-block\nwhence fire was generated by the fire-drill, or the mother Maga, the\nsacred alligator, let us examine the fire-drill god of ancient Mexico.\n\nReference to fig. 1 reveals that it is impossible to see these Mexican\nrepresentations, which I could supplement by others, and not be struck by\ntheir agreement with the descriptions of the Hindu pole-star god Dhruva,\nwho stands on one foot, of the lame Hephaistos of Greek mythology, to\nwhich I would add that Hewitt also mentions in his preface to vol. II the\nNorse V\u00f6lunde, the maimed, one-legged turner of the pole; the god called\nin the Rig-Veda the Aja ekapad, or one-footed goat, who watched the\nrevolutions of the solar disk, and the one-legged bird of Russian\nmythology, associated with a revolving house and fire-drill. In the\nMexican Codices the Mexican Tezcatlipoca, held by one foot to the centre\nof the north, describes a circle around this. His foot evidently\nconstitutes the fire-drill, which, inserted in the socket, causes smoke,\nalso rain and a serpent to issue from it (see 5 and 6). One figure,\nrepresenting one leg only in the fire-socket, and a head, exhibiting a\nsmall, smoking fire-socket, appears, in the light of comparative research,\nas a cursive method of representing the fire-drill god, universally\nassociated with Ursa Major.\n\nIt is remarkable that, in one case water and in another smoke, indicating\nfire, issues from the socket of Tezcatlipoca\u2019s fire-drill, and that,\nopposite to the picture in the Borgian Codex, representing the kindling of\nfire on the fire-altar, we have the image of a pool of water from which\nfour figures spring toward the cardinal points (see fig. 29).\n\nIt is only after recognizing that, like the people of the Old World, the\nMexicans associated with the fire-drill and socket not only the\ndistribution of fire and heat, but also of water, that we also fully grasp\nthe symbolism of the symbol of the \u201cBlack or Night Sun,\u201d from the \u201cLife of\nthe Indians,\u201d which is but one of many simple forms exhibiting main\nfeatures which recur on the highly elaborated Mexican stone of the Great\nPlan (fig. 73_b_). When placed in juxtaposition the undoubted resemblance\nbetween the Babylonian image of Shamash and the Mexican image, as well as\nthe deep-seated identity of these two quadruplicate symbols stands out\nclearly: in the Babylonian, wavy lines emanating from the centre convey\nthe idea of some fluid essence. In the Mexican, instead of the wavy lines,\nthe conventional representation of a drop of water is depicted\u2014the idea in\nboth cases being obviously identical and agreeing with the primeval\nuniversal conception of heat or fire, and water emanating from a common\nsource, and flowing to the cardinal points. In both cases an axle or\nsocket is represented, and it is instructive to study the different ways\nin which the symbol recurs in the Mexican Codices.\n\n                             [Illustration.]\n\n                                Figure 73.\n\n\nReferring back to fig. 1, 1, reproduced from the Codex Borgia, we see the\naxle with rays issuing from a circular band of water. A receptacle filled\nwith water occupies the centre and contains a tecpatl, the symbol of the\nnorth, the same associated with the fire-drill god in the next figure. In\nfig. 1, 4, the central fountain is surrounded, as in many instances, by\nstars which connect it with the nocturnal heaven, and it contains a\nrabbit=tochtli, the rebus figure employed to express the word octli, by\nwhich the rain was designated as \u201cearth wine\u201d (see pp. 95 and 185).\n\nAs I write, I have before me a whole series of painted representations\nfrom the Codices of what has heretofore been misinterpreted as images of\nthe diurnal sun. In some of these the open centre is painted blue or\ngreen, in others it is filled by a heart from which flows, in some cases,\na stream of blood, the essence of life. In several instances a tree with\nfour main branches grows from the centre.(148) In one case the tree grows\nfrom a pool and holds in its branches the image of the axle, in the centre\nof which, as in the Humboldt Tablet preserved at the Berlin Museum, a\nfigure is seated. The centres of others exhibit the head of a divinity\npainted red, a single eye, or the ollin. All examples establish the fact\nthat the Mexican \u201caxle of the North\u201d represented fire and water emanating\nfrom a single source. In notable examples, where the axle is carved in\nstone, the identical features are conventionally reproduced. Some exhibit\na depression or deep hole in the centre. This is the case in the\nremarkable example at the museum in New Haven, Conn., where the axle is\ncarved on the top of a square altar, the corners of which exhibit symbols\nof the four elements, each accompanied by the numeral 4. The centre of the\nfigure exhibits a carved ollin, in the middle of which a deep hole is\nsituated. An analogous but shallow depression occurs in the great circular\nmonument, the Conquest Stone of Mexico (see p. 259), around which\nTezcatlipoca, the one-footed fire-drill god, is represented sixteen times,\neach time in the act of receiving the enforced homage of the chief or\nchieftainess of a different locality.\n\nThe above monuments, as well as a rudely-carved representation of the\n\u201csun\u201d recently discovered and unearthed by Dr. Ed. Seler, lying on a\nsubstructure of stones in the centre of an open space, presumably a market\nplace, definitely proves that the design was intended to be placed in a\nhorizontal position. This intention has already been noted in the case of\nthe Great Cosmical Stone of Mexico (fig. 56), on which the rays and\nintermediate water drops recur, and are represented as emanating from the\ncentral Nahui Ollin, the Four in One, which encloses the masked face of\nthe divine Twain.\n\nA question naturally suggests itself at this juncture: How did the ancient\nMexicans, who utilized the fire-drill in its most elementary form and as\nfar as is known, employed no means of extracting oil or juice or of\ngrinding food-stuff by a centrifugal process,(149) come to employ as a\nsacred symbol, the axle or \u201cmill-stone\u201d which, in India, had been adopted\nas an image of central rotation, by people who constantly used the\nfire-drill and the oil-press?\n\nThe strongest proof that the idea of a circular disk was associated in\nMexico with terra-cotta spinning whorls only, is the fact that, in the\nnative description of the Great Temple recorded by Sahagun, a circular\nstone monument, employed in religious festivals, which the Spaniards\ndescribed as a \u201cstone wheel,\u201d is termed in the Nahuatl text as a\n\u201cte-malacatl\u201d _i. e._ a \u201cstone whorl.\u201d Further evidence of the close\nassociation of such \u201cstone whorls\u201d with thread or cord, the product of\nspinning, is furnished by the way in the ritual, that the victim was\nattached by one foot to the open centre of the \u201cstone whorl\u201d and\ncirculated around the stone which lay motionless. On the other hand, the\nsculptured zone on the Great Cosmical stone, enclosing the day signs\nplaced in their fixed order of rotation, and the sculptured frieze on the\nTribute Stone, furnish direct evidence that circular movement was\nassociated with the cosmical axle, or disk.\n\nIt is obvious that the distribution of water combined with fire from a\ncommon central source, represented as a mill-stone, could not have been\nsuggested to the native mind by the use of the fire-drill and socket and\nthe spinning whorl only. Therefore we are obliged to face the question\nwhether the cosmical figure may not have been introduced, as a religious\nsymbol only, by a race of civilizers who, though acquainted not only with\nthe oil press and chariot but also with the Akkadian star of Anu, the\ncombination of the rain and fire crosses, and with the Assyrian-Babylonian\nimage of Shamash (an elaboration of the same idea), but in the absence of\nbeasts of burden and sesame seeds in Mexico, had no opportunity, or did\nnot consider it feasible or necessary, to teach the use of the chariot,\noil-press or circular mill stone to the natives. Before forming any\nconclusions or conjectures on this point, however, a number of other\nquestions must be investigated. One fact, however, stands out quite\nclearly: Whereas in figure 73, _b_, we have the rudimentary form of the\nquadruplicate symbol, closely resembling that which was already ancient\nand almost obsolete in Babylonia in the ninth century B.C. and pertained\nto a cult of Shamash, the North and Heaven, which had flourished in that\ncountry about 1850 B.C., the Great Cosmical Stone of Mexico represents the\nhighly advanced development and elaboration of the identical cult, as\nactually established there until the year 1519 of our era.\n\nPausing here and looking back upon the foregoing summary of the universal\nspread of identical forms of social organization and of rituals suggested\nby the use of the fire-drill, in association with a primitive pole-star\ncult, there are a few distinct and unrelated points which claim special\nattention: First of all, the identity in the form of the fire-altar and\nthe cult of the fire-socket, among the Maghas and Nahushas of India and\nthe Mayas and Nahuas of Yucatan and Mexico. Secondly, the striking\nresemblance of plan and numerical scheme which unquestionably existed\nbetween the ideal \u201cdivine polities,\u201d recorded by Plato, and the states\nwhich actually existed, of ancient Peru and Mexico. It is impossible to\nread Plato\u2019s scheme of an all-pervading division into 12, and his plan for\nthe laying out of the capital and state and not to recognize the fact\nthat, in Peru, as set forth on pp. 133-149 of the present work, these\nidentical principles were actually carried out by the alien Incas who, in\ncomparatively modern times, collected the natives together and organized\nthem into a settled community. Thirdly, the undeniable fact that the\nnumerical scheme of the Maya and Mexican Calendar and state-organization\nis identical with that adopted by Constantine, in establishing New Rome.\n\nPostponing a closer examination of these points until further on, let us\nnow continue our comparative review.\n\nThe universal spread of the identical scheme of organization, vouched for\nby documentary evidence, is further demonstrated by the results of\narchaeological and historical research and a comparative study of ancient\nsymbolism. Thus it is impossible not to admit the striking and deep-seated\nanalogy between the Assyrian four-fold division of city and state, the\ntitle \u201clord of the four regions\u201d and the image of Shamash, the\n\u201cfour-spoked wheel;\u201d the Indian, Egyptian and Grecian philosophical\nconceptions of four elements, culminating in Plato\u2019s Cosmos and Theos (an\nentity, spherical in shape, incorporating four elements) and, for\ninstance, the quadruplicate symbol carved in the centre of the Mexican\nCosmical Tablet, which exhibits the symbols of the same four elements\nembodied in a single symbol, representing the supreme power, who is thus\nproven to have been conceived by the Mexicans, as well as by the\nPeruvians, as \u201cthe Air, Earth, Fire and Water in One,\u201d or the source of\nthe four elements.(150)\n\nWhen it is likewise considered that the Mexicans employed the divine\ntitle, \u201cfour times lord,\u201d that the Maya title \u201cKukulcan,\u201d signifies the\n\u201cDivine Four,\u201d that the ancient map of Mayapan proves that, like the\nKushite confederacy, and the kingdoms of Assyria, Egypt and Peru, it was a\n\u201cFour provinces in One\u201d or a \u201cfour-fold state,\u201d the identity of the\nprinciples underlying the archaic civilizations of the Old and New World\nbecomes more and more apparent. It likewise becomes evident that in each\nof these countries the significance and symbolism of the archaic\ncross-symbol and swastika must have been identical, and that, like the\npyramid (the form of which, in the ancient Greek alphabet, is given to the\nletter delta which expresses, numerically, four, a quatuor, or 4,000) and\nthe square stone altar or column, it figured the Four in One, the mystic\nFive or the Four and all-embracing One. The following array of facts\ndemonstrates further the universal association of archaic cross-symbolism\nwith the conception of an all-embracing, stable, central power.\n\nA striking demonstration of this is furnished by the diagonal cross,\nemployed as a Chinese character, to express the word w\u016b=five, just as it\nis used, in Egyptian hieratic script, to express the syllables uu, un or\nur (see fig. 60). Sometimes, in Chinese, a horizontal line is drawn above\nthe cross and another beneath it, and John Chalmers informs us that,\naccording to the Shoh Wan, this \u201cfull form means the five elements between\nheaven and earth, the upper line being heaven and the lower earth.\u201d The\nsign thus obviously constituted an image of the Cosmos, the 5+2=heaven and\nearth, thus furnishing the familiar seven directions in space, the chief\nand synopsis of which is the sacred Centre.\n\nThe association, in ancient America, of the cross-shape with central\nstable power, has already been discussed in the case of the Copan\nswastika, p. 222. At the time when I wrote about this and carved stel\u00e6\nfound at Quirigua and Copan, I had not yet learned of the remarkable\ndiscovery made there, by Mr. George Byron Gordon of the Peabody Museum\nHonduras Expedition, which furnishes me with the most striking\nconfirmation of the conclusion I expressed on p. 220, namely, that the\npersonages, whose portraits are sculptured on the stel\u00e6, were high-priest\nrulers, who bore the title \u201cDivine Four,\u201d and were \u201crulers of the four\nregions.\u201d\n\nReferring the reader to Mr. Gordon\u2019s report, published in vol. I, no. I,\nof the Peabody Museum Memoirs, I merely note his verification that,\nbeneath several stel\u00e6 examined for this purpose, there exist subterraneous\nvaults, in the form of the so-called Greek cross, above the exact centre\nof which the stela stands, its base being inserted in the stones forming\nthe ceiling of the chamber. In one case the length of the cruciform vault\nis over nine feet from eastern to western extremity, the width of the\nbranches being one foot and their depth two feet. Over thirty vessels of\npottery were found in this, amongst them large urns with covers. It would\nappear from this that, like the Egyptians, the ancient builders of Copan\nperformed certain ceremonial rites in connection with the construction of\nthese artificially cosmical centres.\n\nWhat seems quite clear is that the subterraneous vault constituted a\nsacred cosmical chamber and that the stel\u00e6 were memorial stones, which\nprobably represented the image of a lord, and the record of his fixed term\nof office which formed a period or era of the native calendar (see p.\n221). The stela which formed the stable, visible centre of the hidden\nsubstructure may also have been employed as a gnomon during some period of\ntime, and in the monument the initiated must undoubtedly have recognized\nthe underlying cosmical conceptions, and regarded it as a highly developed\nform or variant of the archaic cross, the primitive record of a year. It\nis remarkable how closely analogous are the Central American stel\u00e6 with\ntheir hidden cruciform vaults, to the conception of the Egyptian \u201cstar of\nHorus\u201d explained by Hewitt as the meridian pole raised in the centre of a\ncross denoting the four quarters.\n\nThe most striking evidence of a close affinity between the ancient Central\nAmerican ah-men, or master-masons, who built cruciform windows in the\nwalls of temples and designed the cruciform vaults under the stel\u00e6 at\nCopan and Quirigua, and the amanteca or tolteca, the master-architects and\nbuilders of Mitla, Mexico, is furnished by Mr. M. H. Saville\u2019s recent\nexcavation of three remarkable subterraneous, cruciform chambers, the\nlargest of which is situated on the summit of a high hill near Mitla. The\ninterior of the latter is elaborately decorated with geometrical designs,\nlike those on the exterior of the Mitla palace. The extreme length from\neast to west is 9m. 71cm., from north to south 8m. 18cm., and its roof was\ncomposed of large flat stones. The entrance to this and the other\ncruciform vaults is situated at the extremity of the western arm, which in\nthe case described was longer than the other arms.\n\nThe most remarkable example of such a cruciform crypt is, however, that\nsituated beneath the palace of Mitla, which has been figured by Dupaix in\nLord Kingsborough\u2019s Mexican Antiquities, vol. IX. This vault is also built\nof the shape of a so-called \u201cGreek\u201d cross, but in its centre stands a\nlarge circular stone column reaching from floor to ceiling. It is\nimpossible not to recognize the symbolism of this pillar situated in the\ncentre of a structure, the form of which symbolizes the Four Quarters and\nthe fundamental identity of the column occupying the centre of the Mitla\nchamber and the Copan stel\u00e6 standing above the centre of the hidden\ncruciform vault. Details associated with the pillar which stood in the\nGreat Temple of Mexico (p. 53), and the \u201cpedestal\u201d erected on the hill of\njustice at Guatemala (p. 79) definitely show that, in ancient America, the\ncolumn was also associated with star-cult, with the administration of\njustice and central celestial and terrestrial government. Investigation\nhas shown that precisely the same ideas were associated with the circular,\nsquare or octagonal columns of Egypt, Greece, Rome and Japan, where they\neither constituted the images of the central supreme divinity, formed the\nsupport for the statues of earthly \u201cdivine\u201d rulers, or marked the centres\nof the cosmos or state, bearing inscriptions of the sacred laws as in\nAthens, or of the distances to all points of the empire, viz. the Roman\nMilliarum Aureum.\n\nIt is remarkable to find that, whereas in ancient Byzantium the centre of\nthe city had been marked by a column surmounted by a colossal statue of\nApollo, a pillar or pole god, Constantine erected a \u201cspacious edifice,\nfrom the centre of which all roads of the empire were measured.\u201d\nConsidering that, at the time when this edifice was built, the ancient\nquadruplicate plan had been revised and the empire of New Rome had been\ndivided into four parts by Constantine, it seems reasonable to infer that\nthe form of the great edifice which marked the territorial centre of the\nnew empire bore the impress of the cruciform plan, and that the shape of\nthe cross should have been adopted throughout the empire, in edifices\nmarking central consecrated places. How much of the true spirit of the\nChristian ideal of universal brotherhood entered into the constitution of\nConstantine\u2019s New Rome it is impossible to conjecture. Niebuhr denies that\nConstantine was a Christian, records that he was only baptized shortly\nbefore his death, and states that the religion of Constantine \u201cmust have\nbeen a strange compound indeed, something like the amulet recently\ndiscovered at Rome, which is an example of that curious mixture of\nJudaism, Christianity and Paganism which we so frequently meet with from\nabout the beginning of the third century.\u201d(151)\n\nIn an extremely interesting monograph \u201cOn the origin of the cruciform plan\nof the medi\u00e6val Cathedral,\u201d by the distinguished architect, Mr. E. M.\nWheelwright, published in the \u201cTransactions of the Boston Society of\nArchitects, 1891,\u201d I find the significant fact that what is now the little\nchurch of S. Tiburce, Rome, in the form of a Greek cross, was built at the\ntime of Constantine.\n\nThe same monograph teaches that \u201cde Rossi discovered in the catacombs of\nRome two scholia of a plan called specifically triclinium, of a date\nprevious to Diocletian and probably of the third century. In such were\ncelebrated, by the presbyters, the memorial feasts of martyrs, the\ncongregation assembling outside. Tombs of a positive cruciform plan are\nalso found in the catacombs. In the fifth or sixth century cruciform\nbuildings became in the East, and _wherever Byzantine influence was\npotent, the recognized form for tombs, mortuary chapels and buildings\ncommemorative of holy places_. These types seem to have been given, by\nByzantine architects, special recognition of the purpose of their\nconstruction and to have appeared to them _as monuments requiring a\nsymbolical expression of plan_, while they evidently _did not consider\nsuch symbolical expressions requisite in buildings planned for general\ncongregations_, which, although of types without distinct association with\nthe Christian faith, were held, for several centuries, to be sufficiently\nwell adapted to purposes of Christian worship without material change from\ntheir ancient form [that of the Roman Basilica].\u201d\n\nReferring the reader to Mr. Wheelwright\u2019s monograph for interesting data\nconcerning the Byzantine influence discernible in the early types of\nChristian churches of cruciform plan erected in northern Italy and Europe,\nI merely note here that in St. Sophia, founded by Constantine, and\ncompleted by Justinian, \u201cthe load of the dome is thrown on four great\npiers disposed at either corner of a square. These great piers, with the\ncorresponding buttresses of the outer wall, suggest a possible symbolical\nintent in the arrangement ... otherwise the cruciform plan here suggested\nis expressed neither externally nor internally.\u201d I venture to suggest that\nin St. Sophia, \u201cHoly Eternal Wisdom,\u201d as in the case of the Pantheon, the\ndominant idea may have been the all-embracing unity, but that, as the\nnumber four was identified with \u201cwisdom and justice\u201d by the widespread\nPythagorean philosophy, that number must have seemed, to the initiated, to\npervade the entire structure. In the case of the Church of the Nativity at\nBethlehem, where it was Justinian\u2019s intention to mark a sacred locality,\nwe find the cruciform plan clearly carried out. \u201cThe church of St. Simeon\nStylite at Kelat Seman Syria, built about A.D. 500, is a most interesting\nexample of a cruciform church, marking a sacred spot [and associated with\na sacred column].\u201d\n\n\u201cThe church of the seventh century built at Sichem, over the well of the\nSamaritan, shows a distribution of plan similar to that of S. Simeon\nStylite, the holy object being at the crossing.... There are existing at\nSt. Wandrille and at Querqueville in Normandy, two (cruciform) triapsidal\nchurches of a date prior to the Norman conquest ... a well preserved\nfour-apsed tomb chapel exists at Montmajour near Arles, built in 1019; the\ndetail and plan of which point to a Syrian prototype and resembles two\nbuildings of an early date now existing in Dalmatia.\u201d The use of the\ncruciform type of church, anterior to the great revival of purely\nChristian religious architecture in the thirteenth century, was confined\nto Picardy and the Rhenish provinces, fine churches of this type being at\nCologne, Bonn, Marburg, etc.\n\nIt is interesting to recall that the building of sacred structures is\nattributed to \u201csecret organizations of free or enfranchised operative\nmasons which existed during the middle ages, and possessed grades of\nofficers and secret signs by which, on coming to a strange place, they\ncould be recognized as real craftsmen and not impostors.\u201d To this day, in\nsome parts of Germany and Bohemia, the swastika is the sign or mark of the\nstone-mason\u2019s guild which has survived from the medi\u00e6val times. In the\norganized bands of masons whose mark was the swastika and who introduced\nEastern cosmical symbolism into Europe and gradually developed, upon this\nbasis, a purely Christian form of architecture, we may perhaps see the\ndescendants of those ancient builders who, filled with the conception of\nthe sacred Central power, the Four Quarters, the Above and Below, planned\nthe square, seven-stoned zikkurats of Babylonia-Assyria, the pyramids,\nobelisks and sphinxes of Egypt, the columns and cruciform tombs and\nsanctuaries of Greece, Asia Minor and Rome, the cruciform temples and the\ntopes of India and the domes of the Pantheon and St. Sophia.(152)\n\nIt would appear that these ancient builders were also the designers and\nfounders of cities and states. It is, for instance, known that Hippodamus,\nthe son of Euryphon, a Milesian, and by profession an architect, gained\ncelebrity in his own art by constructing the Pir\u00e6us at Athens and by\nimproving the method of distributing streets and planning cities ... and\nalso wrote a treatise concerning the best form of government.\n\nA kinship of thought undoubtedly exists between the trained builders of\ncosmical structures in the Old World and the ah-men, the amantecas and\ntoltecas of Central America and Mexico, who also reared pyramids,\ncruciform vaults, circular temples, with openings to the four quarters\n(see fig. 30, p. 97), altars and pillars, and in their temples wrought, in\nstone, endless variations of the great human theme: the sacred central,\nstable power, the four quarters and elements, and the heaven and earth\nwith the dualities of Nature, and likewise instituted an artificial scheme\nof social organization, a calendar and religious rites based on these same\nfundamental principles, which can be traced back to primitive pole-star\nworship. It has been of utmost interest to me, as I was approaching the\nend of the present investigation, to become acquainted with Hewitt\u2019s work\nand his view that it was the seafaring Turanians, originally a northern\nrace, the worshippers of Tur=the pole, who claimed descent from the seven\nstars of N\u0101gash, the serpent=Ursa Major, and, from India, extended their\ntrade and carried their form of social organization and religious cult\nfirst to the Euphratean kingdoms and afterwards to Egypt and Syria, where\nthey were known by the Greeks as the Ph\u0153nicians.\n\nThe subjoined detached passages, which open out new fields of inquiry, not\nonly appear to me to establish conclusively this view, but certainly\nafford most interesting information concerning the ancient race of\npole-star worshippers, seafarers, builders and handicraftsmen who,\naccording to Hewitt (p. 25), extended their emigrations not only to Europe\nbut also to America.(153) Hewitt bases the latter assertion upon the\nidentity be perceived \u201cbetween Akkadian and American mythological\ntraditions.\u201d\n\nAs the limit of the present inquiry excludes mythology, I cannot discuss\nhere the evidences of similarity produced by Hewitt. I must express\nregret, however, that he designates a tribe of Pueblo Indians (the Sias,\nrelated to the Zu\u00f1is), as \u201cMexican\u201d (see vol. II, p. 243, etc.), a term\nwhich, in this case, is decidedly misleading. His identification of the\ntruly Mexican, \u201cteo-cipactli\u201d as a \u201cfish-god\u201d is unfortunate, as\nnumberless conventionalized drawings in the Codices prove that cipactli\nsignifies alligator. If the somewhat limited and vague evidence, produced\nby Mr. Hewitt, appeared to justify his conclusion, how much more must an\nidentity of social organization and cult such as I have traced, not only\nauthorize but also render it imperative, that the possibility of\npre-Columbian contact should be thoroughly looked into. Disclaiming any\ndesire to formulate hasty conclusions, and merely for the sake of gaining\ninformation by looking squarely at facts, I shall now rapidly enumerate\nsome of these which undoubtedly appear to corroborate Hewitt\u2019s further\nassertion that \u201cthe Mayas and Nahuas of Yucatan and Mexico were emigrants\nof the Magha and Nahusha tribes, who pertained to the race of navigators\nknown by the Greeks as the Ph\u0153nicians ... and who continued in their new\nland, America, the worship of the rain god, to whom, as their fathers in\ncentral Asia, they dedicated the sign of the cross\u201d (Hewitt, p. 492).\n\n\u201cThe Maghas were the Finnic long-haired race of star- and fire-worshippers\nwho, starting from Phrygia, as the Takkas conquered northern India ... who\ncalled themselves the sons of the Northern pine tree, called in Phrygia,\nas by the Northern Finns, Ma=the mother; also the sons of the\nmother-goddess Magha, the socket block whence fire was generated by the\nfire-drill; who is also worshipped as the mother Maga under the form of\nthe alligator. Consequently the alligator was their totem.\u201d In Essay VIII\nHewitt states that these \u201csons of the great witch-mother Maga\u201d lived in\nMagnesia, whence they emigrated to Thessaly and that theirs was the \u201ccity\nof the Magnetes\u201d referred to by Plato as \u201cthe mother of laws.\u201d The word\nmag, however, meant great in Akkadian, hence according to Hewitt the name\nMakkhu, the high priests or Magi (vol. II, p. 54).\n\n\n    The Maya and Mexican fire altars and sockets and their association\n    with the earth-mother and alligator in the native Codices has been\n    discussed. The Mexican day-sign cipactli figures an alligator and\n    is associated with a female deity. The alligator altar at Copan,\n    is described on p. 228. Were it not for limit of space additional\n    testimony could be cited here, proving that in Mexico the\n    alligator was associated with the mother of the race, the\n    fire-socket, and was a tribal totem.\n\n\n\u201cAs the mother Maga she is the maker or kneader, the mother of the\nbuilding and constructing races ... they were the first builders of\ntowns.... They adored the god of the twirling or churning fire-drill....\nThey employed the name Ku, Ukko, Pukka and Pukan to designate the rain and\nthunder god and star-god who guides the stars in their courses and rules\nthe beginning of the year\u201d (Hewitt, p 438). The Finnic and Esthonian \u201cUkko\nis also called Taivahan Napanen, meaning the navel of the heaven and this\nis called the place of the pole star, the star at the top of the heavenly\nmountain\u201d (vol. II, p. 155).\n\n\n    Compare Ku in Maya list, appendix III, also Tezcatli-poca or\n    puca=Mexican fire-drill god, Ursa Major.\n\n\n\u201cThey worshipped Nag or Nagash,=the serpent and fire-drill constellation\nof Ursa Major, and consequently called themselves also the sons of\nNaga=the Nahushas. They worshipped the Pleiades=the mother stars....\u201d\n\n\n    The Nahuas traced ancestry to seven stars of Ursa Major and began\n    their religious year at the culmination of the Pleiades at\n    midnight.\n\n\n\u201cThe Nagas united with the navigating Shus or Ph\u0153nicians ... the red men,\nwho worshipped the ruler of heaven.... These Shus ... called in the North,\nHus ... were the Sumerian trading races of the Euphratean delta and\nWestern India, who traced their descent to Khu, the mother bird of the\nAkkadians, Egyptians and Kushites.... They reverenced the sacred \u2018shu\u2019\nstone, the begetter of fire and of life fostered by heat,... designated as\nthe precious stone, the strong stone, the snake stone, the mountain\nstone.... The pregnant mountain of the Shu stone was to the Akkadians the\ncentral point of the earth. The people who are said in the Rig-Veda to\nhave first found fire by the help of Matarishoan, the fire-socket, and to\nhave brought it to men, and are said to have placed it in the navel of the\nworld ... as the sacred Shu stone.\u201d\n\nIt should be added here that the Hittite sign for Ishtar was a triangle\nenclosing a stone: \u201cthe mountain enclosing the stone of life.\u201d\n\n\n    About 270 A.D. the Tutul-xius=(_cf._ Kukul) under a great chief or\n    lord Kukulcan reigned at Chichen-Itza ... (p. 206). In Mexico the\n    name for turquoise is xiuitl and the god of fire is named\n    Xiuh-tecuhtli. Jadeite is designated as chal-chiuitl and is\n    associated with Chalchiuitlycue, the mother-goddess. The\n    spark-producing, flint knife=tecpatl is also employed as a symbol\n    of generation.\n\n\n\u201cTheir kings, like those of Egypt, wore the ur\u00e6us serpent as a sign of\nroyal authority and made this the emblem of kingly rank in countries so\nwidely distant from one another as India and Egypt....\u201d\n\nWe learn from Prof. A. H. Sayce (Ancient Empires of the East, p. 200),\nthat customs that had originated in a primitive period of Semitic belief\nsurvived in Ph\u0153nician religion and that clear traces of totemism are found\namongst the Semites. \u201cTribes were named each after its peculiar totem, an\nanimal, plant or heavenly body.... David, for instance, belonged to the\nserpent-family, as is shown by the name of his ancestor Nahshon, and\nProfessor Smith suggests that the brazen serpent found by Hezekiah in the\nSolomonic Temple was the symbol of it. We find David and the family of\nNahash, \u2018or the serpent,\u2019 the king of Ammon, on friendly terms even after\nthe deadly war between Israel and Ammon, that had resulted in the conquest\nand decimation of the latter.\u201d\n\n\n    The name of the culture hero Kukulcan or Quetzalcoatl incorporates\n    the word serpent in Maya and Nahuatl. The conventionalized open\n    serpent\u2019s jaw forms the usual head-dress of the lords sculptured\n    on the Central American stel\u00e6 and bas-reliefs. The existence of\n    totemism in America is too well known to require comment, and the\n    arbitrary method by which it was established by the Incas of Peru,\n    when they founded the new colony, has been described.\n\n\n\u201c... I have already shown that the snake-father of the snake races in\nGreece and Asia Minor and of the matriarchal races in India was the snake\nEchis, or Achis, the holding snake, the Vritra, or enclosing snake of the\nRig-Veda, the cultivated land which girdled the Temenos. This was the\nSanscrit and Egyptian snake Ahi.... But the Naga snake was not the\nencircling snake, but the offspring of the house-pole and in this form it\nwas called by the Jews the offspring or Baal of the land. But as the\nheavenly snake it was the old village snake transferred to heaven, called\nthe Nag-ksetra, or field of the Nags, and there it was the girdling\nair-god who encircled the cloud mothers, the Apsaras, the daughters of the\nAbyss, the Assyrian Apsa, and marked their boundaries as the village snake\ndid those of the holy grove on earth. But on earth the water-snake was the\nmagical rain-pole, called the god Darka, set up by the Dravidian Males in\nfront of every house ...\u201d (p. 194). \u201cThey are the Canaanites, or dwellers\nin the low country, and the Hivites or the villagers of the Bible and the\nrace of Ach\u00e6ans of Greece. These are the sons of the Achis=the serpent,\nthe having or holding snake, the girdling snake of cultivated land which\nsurrounded the Temenos or inner shrine, the holy grove of the gods\u201d\n(Hewitt, p. 175).\n\n\n    Attention is drawn here to the twin serpents which enclose the\n    Mexican Cosmical Tablet (fig. 56), whose bodies may be seen to\n    consist of a repetition of the conventional sign for tlalli=land,\n    consisting of a fringed square. Each square in this case encloses\n    a sign resembling that of fire=tletl and the numeral ten. These\n    girdling serpents, whose heads unite, being directly associated\n    with land, appear as the counterpart of the Old World Achis, a\n    curious fact when it is considered that they are represented as\n    springing from the sign Acatl (see p. 257).\n\n    On the other hand, the heavenly \u201cfeathered serpent\u201d of Mexico and\n    Yucatan is distinctly associated with the air and the circle; its\n    conception curiously coinciding with that of the \u201cgirdling\n    air-god\u201d mentioned by Hewitt. It is well known that the walls\n    enclosing the court of the Great Temple of Mexico, were covered\n    with sculptured serpents, and at Xochicalco, Mexico, and in\n    Central American ruins (Uxmal, for instance), great sculptured\n    serpents surround the buildings. It is remarkable that the sign\n    Acatl not only figures conspicuously on the Great American Tablet,\n    but also on the allegorical figure of the \u201cDivine Serpent,\u201d which\n    may well represent the totemic divinity and ancestor of a snake\n    tribe, associated with the word Acatl, possibly conveying their\n    name. The undeniable association, in Mexico, of the serpent with\n    Acatl, curiously agrees with the name of the \u201csons of Achis, the\n    serpent\u201d=the Achaians: and deserves consideration.\n\n\nIn the Genesis genealogy of the kings of Edom, the land of the red man,\nthe priest king of the Hus or Shus is mentioned \u201c... his people had\nreplaced the Tur, the stone pillar, the Egyptian obelisk by the temple,\nthe home and symbol of the creating god, who had been the pillar of the\nhouse.... But in their eyes the father-god was not the central pillar but\nthe two door-posts and thence they called the temple gates Babel or the\ngates of god.... This gate was guarded by the holy twins.... The\ndoorposts, and night and morning are invoked in the Rig-Veda.... The Magas\nwere the discoverers of magic, mining, metallurgy, handicrafts\u2014the\npioneers of scientific research and the first organizers of a ritual of\nreligious festivals.\u201d\n\n\n    Twin pillars, sculptured in the form of great serpents, whose\n    names signify twinship, support the entrances to the ancient\n    temples of Yucatan, Central America, and have been found on the\n    site of the Great Temple of Mexico. The Mexican and Maya accounts\n    of the culture hero Quetzalcoatl-Kukulcan state that he and his\n    followers were \u201cgreat necromancers\u201d and magicians and that they\n    taught handicrafts, metallurgy, and instituted calendar, social\n    organization and ritual. A personal, close examination of a large\n    number of old Peruvian and Mexican as well as Coptic textile\n    fabrics, has convinced me moreover of their identity of technique.\n\n\n\u201cThe Magas sacrificed dogs,.... They wore long hair,.... They made human\nsacrifices in order to obtain rain\u201d (Hewitt).\n\n\u201cThe Ph\u0153nician priests scourged themselves or gashed their arms and\nbreasts to win divine favor.... Human sacrifices were made, to Moloch or\nMilkom ... the parent was required to offer his eldest or only son as a\nsacrifice and the victim\u2019s cries were drowned by the noise of drums and\nflutes\u201d (Sayce).\n\n\n    The human sacrifices of Mexico are familiar to all. The native dog\n    and various kinds of birds were sacrificed. The Mexican priests,\n    named papas, wore long hair, practised asceticism, gashed their\n    breasts, arms and legs and pierced their ears and tongues. On the\n    Palenque bas-reliefs, priests with long hair are sculptured. The\n    human sacrifices of Mexico and those of Egypt, Ph\u0153nicia and\n    Assyria, described by Sayce and Hewitt (pp. 275 and 348), are\n    closely alike. See also Hewitt\u2019s account of the blood brotherhood\n    made between the sacrificer and the land on which the blood is\n    poured (p. 196), and the Chichimec blood sacrifice described in\n    the present work, p. 66.\n\n\nThe foregoing are a few noteworthy analogies which have impressed\nthemselves upon me during the present course of investigation, in addition\nto the many undeniable and unsuspected evidences I have found, of an\nidentity of star-cult, ritual and social organization in Old and New World\ncivilizations.\n\nIt will be seen that the outcome of my researches corroborates the\nopinions differently expressed by a long line of eminent investigators,\nwho have been constantly discovering and pointing out undeniable\nsimilarities and identities between the civilizations of both hemispheres.\n\nIt seems to me that an accumulation of evidence now forces us to face and\nthoroughly investigate the possibility that, from remote antiquity, our\ncontinent and its inhabitants were known to the seafarers of the Old\nWorld, to whose agency the spread of similar forms of cult and\ncivilization in the New World is to be assigned.\n\nWhile those who uphold the autochthony of the native civilization may\nregard such identities as accidental, those who are willing to admit the\npossibility that the Ph\u0153nicians, the red men of antiquity, whose land was\nSyria, navigating by the pole-star, may have reached America, will\ndoubtlessly dwell upon the unquestionable fact that the most ancient\ntraces of organized and settled communities actually exist along the coast\nswept by the equatorial currents. A glance at an ordinary chart exhibiting\nthe ocean currents and trade winds shows that vessels sailing southward\nfrom the Canary Islands and caught in the north African current, might, at\na certain point, enter the north equatorial current flowing towards the\ncoast of America. Further southward still, off the coast of Guinea, the\ncurrent bearing this name meets the main equatorial current which sweeps\nalong the coast of Honduras and Yucatan into the Gulf of Mexico.\n\nWhat is more, ancient well-known tradition asserts that the culture-hero\nKukulcan-Quetzalcoatl, with his followers, came to Mexico from the East\n(_via_ Yucatan) and told the natives of their distant home, named\nTlapallan and Huehue tlapallan which, translated, mean \u201cthe red land\u201d and\n\u201cthe great ancient red land.\u201d Native American tradition unquestionably and\nunanimously ascribes to single individuals of aged and venerable aspect,\nor leaders of small bands of men and women of an alien race, the peaceable\nintroduction of a definite plan of civilization, identical in its elements\nwith that known to have existed in India, Egypt and Babylonia-Assyria from\ntime immemorial, and said to have been spread to these countries by the\nPh\u0153nicians.\n\nNative tradition, therefore, is seen unanimously to controvert the\nindependent development of the cosmical schemes of government and most\nadvanced forms of civilization which prevailed in America at the Columbian\nperiod. This, of course, in no wise excludes the existence of purely\nnative people, with a certain degree of civilization, more rudimentary in\nform, founded on impressive natural phenomena, which the natives had\nalways been in a position to observe for themselves.\n\nIn order to obtain an insight into conditions which might have determined\nand affected maritime intercourse with distant America, let us now make a\nrapid survey of the history of the ancient civilizations of the Old World.\nThis reveals, in the first case, the undeniable fact (one of deepest\nsignificance in the light of the present investigation) that the period of\na general stirring of men\u2019s minds, in countries where pole-star worship\nhad prevailed from time immemorial, exactly coincides with the period to\nwhich I alluded on p. 43, during which there ceased to be a brilliantly\nconspicuous and perfectly immovable pole-star in the northern heavens.\n\nFrom Mr. Hinckley Allen\u2019s work (p. 454), I have since learned that\nastronomers have closely determined this period, and that Miss Clerke\nwrites of this: \u201cThe entire millennium before the Christian era may count\nfor an interregnum as regards pole-stars. Alpha Draconis had ceased to\nexercise that office; and Alruccabah had not yet assumed it.\u201d Prof. A. H.\nSayce tells us that the Ph\u0153nician pilots steered by the pole-star in\nremotest antiquity, and it is a matter of history that \u201cPytheas of\nMassilia, the bold navigator (died about 285 B.C.), showed the Greeks that\nthe pole-star was not at the pole itself.\u201d Previous to that date, however,\nthe astronomer-priests must have noted the change in the heavens. On\ndescendants of ancient pole-star worshippers, whose entire religion and\ncivilization were based on the idea of fixity and rotation, the\nunaccountable change in the order of the universe must indeed have\nproduced a deep impression. Under such conditions it seems but natural\nthat a great awakening of doubt and speculation should take place, that\nworship should be transferred from stars known to be subject to change, to\nthe unseen, incomprehensible but ever-present eternal power which ruled\nthe universe.\n\nLet us examine some of the records of the great intellectual movement that\nswept at one time, like a wave, over the ancient centres of civilization.\nThe eighth, seventh and sixth centuries before our era are marked by the\ngrowth of the Ionian philosophy which, as Huxley tells us, \u201cwas but one of\nmany results of the stirring of the moral and intellectual life of the\nAryan-Semitic population of Western Asia. The conditions of the general\nawakening were doubtless manifold, but there is one which modern research\nhas brought into great prominence. This is the existence of extremely\nancient and highly advanced societies in the valleys of the Euphrates and\nthe Nile.... The Ionian intellectual movement is only one of the several\nsporadic indications of some powerful mental ferment over the whole of the\narea comprised between the \u00c6gean and Northern Hindustan....\u201d(154)\n\nProfessor Schroeder\u2019s statement that, \u201cin the seventh century B.C., the\nidea of four, _i. e._ five elements, spread in India,\u201d is particularly\ninteresting in connection with the date assigned to the birth of the\nIonian intellectual movement. Of Pythagoras it is related that, like\nSolon, \u201che had visited Egypt, also Ph\u0153nicia and Babylon, then Chaldean and\nindependent, and founded a brotherhood originally brought together by a\nreligious influence, with observances approaching to monastic peculiarity,\nand working in a direction at once religious, political and scientific.\u201d\nAccording to the learned translator of Cicero\u2019s first Tusculan\ndisputation(155) \u201cit is generally accepted that Pherecydes of Syros (one\nof the Cyclades islands in the \u00c6gean sea) was the teacher of Pythagoras.\nPherecydes, who flourished about B.C. 544 is said to have derived his\nknowledge from the secret books of the Ph\u0153nicians and from travels of\ninquiry in Egypt.\u201d Through Philolaus (see Grote IV, p. 395, note 2),\nPythagorean science was made known to Plato, whose views are quoted on p.\n449. Grote states that, about 300 B.C., the Pythagorean philosophy nearly\ndied out. It is a curious fact that this date coincides, approximately,\nwith the destruction of Tyre (Tsar, in Ph\u0153nician,=the rock), the last\nstronghold of the Ph\u0153nicians, \u201cwhich had defied Assyrian, Babylonian and\nPersian but at last fell,\u201d according to Prof. A. H. Sayce, \u201cin July, B.C.\n332, before the Greek conqueror Alexander. Thirty thousand of its citizens\nwere sold in slavery, thousands of others massacred and crucified and the\nwealth of the richest and most luxurious city of the world became the prey\nof an exasperated army. Its trade was inherited by its neighbor Sidon\u201d\n(_op. cit._ p. 194). It is obvious that, at this period, bands of\nfugitives may well have taken refuge in traders\u2019 ships and sought safety\nin flight to distant regions, where they might establish themselves and\nfound colonies on the pattern of Tyre or of Carthage which, in ancient\ntimes had also been founded by fugitives and been named \u201cthe new city,\u201d\nKarthakhadasha (Sayce). While the great historical events which marked the\nfourth century B.C. seem to have arrested the spread of Pythagorean\nphilosophy, we find that, according to Grote, \u201cin the time of Cicero, two\ncenturies later, the orientalizing tendency, beginning to spread over the\nGrecian and Roman world, caused it to be again revived, with little or\nnone of its scientific tendencies, but with more than its primitive\nreligious and imaginative fanaticism.... It was taken up anew by the pagan\nworld, along with the disfigured doctrines of Plato. Neo-Pythagorism,\npassing gradually into Neo-Platonism, outlasted other more positive and\nmasculine systems of pagan philosophy, as the contemporary and revival of\nChristianity\u201d (_op. cit._ IV, 398). Neo-Platonism reached its height under\nits chief Plotinus (A.D. 205-270) who sought to reconcile the Platonic and\nAristotelian systems with Oriental theosophy. His pantheistic and eclectic\nschool was the last product of the Greek philosophy.(156)\n\nIt is, at all events, remarkable, that the date tradition assigns to the\npresence of Kukulcan in Yucatan and the foundation of the quadruplicate\nstate of Mayapan coincides with the dying out, in Europe, of pagan\nphilosophy, one of the features of which had been the elaboration of ideal\nforms of government based on a numerical and cosmical scheme, the elements\nof which had apparently been spread by the Ph\u0153nicians. In Copan and\nQuirigua we find remnants of long-established, peaceable communities\nrevealing no trace of war-like weapons, and the memorial stel\u00e6 of whose\nrulers stand above hidden cruciform vaults, while carved personages are\nrepresented as seated in the centre of ornate crosses. In Yucatan, through\nwhich land the foreign civilization seems to have reached the plateau of\nMexico, there are significant traces of an ancient city, named Zilan,\nsituated on the Atlantic coast; proofs that buildings of cosmical forms\nwere erected; that the state of Mayapan was laid out on the familiar\ncosmical plan; that repeated migrations took place, and that, from time\nimmemorial, a calendar, on the same numerical basis as that of Mexico, had\nbeen in use. The great state of Mayapan, where a remarkable stone cross\nwas found at Cozumel by the Spaniards, is shown to have been figured as a\ncircle within a circle, the whole divided into four parts by cross-lines.\nHere, as in Chiapas and Mexico, all divisions of government, population\nand time are organized on a numerical scheme representing the combination\nof 4\u00d75=20 _i. e_. an entire finger and toe count, \u201ca whole man,\u201d with the\n13 directions in space. The multiplication of 13 and 20 results in a unit\nof 260 which, as a cycle of time, represents the complete set of all\nharmonious combinations of man the miniature image of the living state,\nwith the thirteen directions of space in the all-embracing Cosmos,\ncomposed of four primary elements. In consonance with this we find the\nexistence of 20 (or 4\u00d75) lords, whose names correspond to those of the 4\nchief and 16 minor day-signs of the calendar, and of a lord by election,\nwhose name signifies the thirteen divisions or parts, and who constituted\na microcosmos, a Four in One. In regular rotation the 20 lords, consisting\nof 4 chief and 4\u00d74=16=minor rulers fulfilled duties towards the supreme\nrepresentative who resided in the capital, while they respectively lived\nin four provinces, the population of which was subdivided into four tribes\neach of the 20 divisions of the state being again divided into 13 parts.\n\nIn a cosmical state like this in which each individual not only felt\nhimself to be a unit and a microcosmos, but also an indispensable part of\na living organism, under the form of which the state was symbolized, its\ninhabitants, leading lives regulated by a calendar based on the phenomenon\nof circumpolar rotation, under a chief ruler entitled the \u201cFour in One,\u201d\nassisted by four sub-rulers, must indeed have felt that they \u201clived, moved\nand had their being\u201d in the Teotl or Theos, imagined as the embodiment of\nthe four elements. In this connection it is interesting to learn that \u201cthe\nanimal\u201d itself, of Plato, is considered by eminent authorities to have\nbeen the tetrad.\n\nIn Zu\u00f1i, where, at the present day, each individual feels himself\nidentified with some part of the body of a quadruped, his clan totem, the\nconception of the state as \u201ca living animal,\u201d is an actual reality. Their\npueblo moreover represents a 6+1=7, or a \u201cseven in one,\u201d the miniature\ncounterpart of the far distant Ooraon village of Chota Nagpore and of the\nancient archaic kingdoms of India, Persia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome,\netc. Anciently the Zu\u00f1is called themselves the Ashiwi, a name remarkably\nlike that of the Ashvins, derived from the Akkadian ash=six.\n\nI revert again here to the following landmarks, which may perhaps furnish\na useful \u201cworking hypothesis\u201d for future investigation. In Mexico the\npyramids of Cholula and of Teotihuacan seem to render testimony of the,\npossibly consecutive, establishment of ideal states amongst tribes\n\u201ccapable of subjection\u201d by Toltecas, or \u201cMaster-Builders,\u201d who, according\nto their method, used the building of a great structure, requiring time\nand united labor, as a means of organizing a new community or colony. It\nmay be that the period of their completion coincided with the\nestablishment of the Calendar system, beginning with the number one.\n\nIn my Preliminary Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System (Stockholm\n1894), I demonstrated how, by reconstructing the Calendar cycles, it was\npossible to determine exactly when the native system was adopted.\nAccording to my demonstration, which has now stood unchallenged for six\nyears, a fresh year cycle began in 1507 A.D., with the year sign II Acatl\nand the day 2 cipactli. For a cycle to be associated with the number two\nit is obvious that it must have been preceded by a cycle ruled by number\none, therefore it may be safely inferred that the cycle II Acatl that\ncommenced in 1507 followed a cyclical period of 4\u00d713=52\u00d720=1840 years (p.\n32). Accordingly the date when the Mexican system was instituted in the\nform which existed at the time of the Conquest, may be fixed as\ncorresponding to the year 467 of our era.\n\nConsidering that the Calendar system was, however, but one part of the\nmachinery of government, was inseparable from the organization of tribes,\nclasses and individuals, and that its institution signified the foundation\nof a state, it is remarkable to ascertain that, but 137 years previously,\nConstantine, in A.D. 330, had instituted the empire of New Rome, on\nprecisely the same numerical basis as that of the Mexican Calendar, and\ndivided it into 4 parts or prefectures, each subdivided into 13, yielding\na total of 52 prefectures. Moreover, as far back as the institution of the\nKleisthenean democracy, the Greeks had been familiar with an extremely\nintricate and close union of calendar and government system, such as\nexisted in Babylonia-Assyria and, as I have shown, in ancient Mexico.\n\nIt is certainly suggestive that the period of 137 years, which elapsed\nbetween the establishment of New Rome on a partly revived and partly\namended or remodelled plan, and the foundation of the great democracy of\nancient Mexico at the date inferred, is unparalleled in the history of\nmankind for religious persecutions, carried on in Egypt, Greece and Rome,\nfollowing upon three centuries marked by the growth and spread of\nChristianity and the persecution of its followers, the destruction of\nJerusalem and the persecution of the Jews. It was in A.D. 379 that\nTheodosius, the Greek, proclaimed Christianity the religion of his empire\nand instituted a relentless persecution of the Arians and followers of the\nancient Egyptian religion.\n\nUnder Arcadius, Emperor of the East (A.D. 395), the Anthromorphites, who\naffirmed that God was of human form, destroyed the greater number of their\nopponents. Under Marcianus (A.D. 451), Silco invaded Egypt with his Nubian\nfollowers and the Council of Chalcedon condemned the Monophysite doctrine\nof Eutyches. Later, under Justinian (A.D. 527), the Monophysites separated\nfrom the Melchites and chose their own patriarch, being afterwards called\nCopts.\n\nIt is impossible to close one\u2019s eyes to the fact that, during this period\nof persecution and massacre, imminent peril of death must have forced many\na band of the priests and followers of the ancient Egyptian and other\nreligions to seek safety in flight. The events which took place in Egypt\nbetween A.D. 379 and 451, culminating in Silco\u2019s invasion, must\nunquestionably have been deeply felt by the descendants of the ancient\nPh\u0153nician, Carthaginian and Grecian exiles, fugitives and mercenaries who,\nduring countless centuries, had founded colonies along the Libyan coast,\nand pushed migration further westward along the coast line. Migrations\nfrom these regions would doubtless have resulted in the remarkable\ncombination of archaic star, fire-drill and socket worship found in\nYucatan and Mexico, existing alongside of a highly developed and perfected\nphilosophical scheme of social organization identical, in principle, with\nthat which, in the Old World, constituted an ideal which was the result of\ncenturies of experience and active intellectual life.\n\nThe present investigation, in which I have collected more material than it\nhas been possible to present in this publication, brings out facts tending\nto show that, originally, both hemispheres were peopled from the North,\nand that, in antiquity, at intervals, an extremely limited intercourse was\nkept up between the Old and New Worlds. The obvious fact that navigation\nmust have been seriously impeded by the interregnum of Polaris, lasting\nfor many centuries, would explain a prolonged isolation of America\nanterior to the Christian era. Whereas the equatorial currents facilitated\nthe voyage to America, the same favorable conditions did not accompany\nnavigation in the same latitudes in a reverse direction, and this suggests\nthe probability that few who set out for \u201cthe hidden land,\u201d ever returned\nto the port whence they sailed. Investigation seems to reveal that\ninfluences, emanating from the most ancient centres of Old World\ncivilization, reached sundered regions of America at different times, and\nthat they could have been carried there by a seafaring and building race\nsuch as the Minyans, the Magas, the Ph\u0153nicians or their descendants.\n\nIf such were the case it would be reasonable to expect that, in America,\ntraces of words associated with the archaic set of ideas would be found,\nand the same method of writing. Let us now refer with prudent reservations\nas to the possibility of their being accidental, to the striking\nresemblances which undoubtedly exist between certain names for God,\nHeaven, North, Middle, etc., in the languages of the most ancient\ncivilizations of the Old World and the Maya and Nahuatl. For convenient\nreference and without detailed comment, these words are presented as\nAppendix III.\n\nToo much importance must not, of course, be given to these linguistic\nanalogies; at the same time we cannot shut our eyes to the fact that these\nbroken fragments of language, traceable to India, Babylonia-Assyria, Egypt\nand Greece, are found, in America, clinging tenaciously to a set of\ncosmical ideas and a scheme of organization identical in both hemispheres.\n\nIt has been surprising to me, for instance, to learn, by carefully\ncollecting facts, that whereas Professor Sayce tells us that the supreme\ngod of the Ph\u0153nicians was named Yeud or Ekhad, the supreme god of the\nMexican Chichimecs (literally, Red race) was named Youalli-Ehecatl, which\nsignifies, literally, night-air or wind. I likewise ascertained that,\nwhereas the word yau or yu signifies the source or origin in Chinese, is\nlinked to a character forming a cross and is homogeneous with Yaou Sing, a\nstar in Ursa Major, described as \u201crevolving,\u201d the Mexican name for the\npole-star god was Yaual or Yohual Tecuhtli, the lord of the circle or of\nthe night.\n\nAgain there is a remarkable similarity between the Mexican yaualli=circle\nand the verb yoli or yuli=to resuscitate or vivify; the Chinese ui=to turn\naround, and the Scandinavian yul, yeul or yol = wheel, also the festival\nof the winter solstice, when nature seemed to resuscitate. Whereas the\nsignificance of the above Mexican, Chinese and Scandinavian names, is\nclear, no meaning has, to my knowledge, been attached to the Semitic name\nfor the supreme god, which, as Professor Sayce informs us, was pronounced\nYahu or Yaho or Yahve (see Appendix, list I).\n\nOther striking resemblances are found between the names for handicraftsman\nand master-builder in widely distant countries. Thus, in Phrygia, we have\nthe Daktuloi, the builders who erected monuments decorated with\ncross-symbols arranged so as to form a geometrical design, such as\nrepresented in fig. 72, 2. In Oaxaca the Toltecatl=builders and\nhandicraftsmen, erected the walled temple and cruciform structures at\nMitla, and decorated them with geometrical designs.\n\nReliable authorities teach us that \u201cthe Hittites were the northern minyan\nor menyan=measurers, a building race\u201d (Hewitt); that Aha-Mena, the first\nhistorical ruler of Egypt, was a builder; that the name of Amun, the god\nof the Ammonites, signified \u201cthe builder.\u201d Dictionaries reveal that, in\nAmerica, Maya-speaking people designated a master builder or\nhandicraftsman as ah-men, or menyah which, in Nahuatl, became amanteca. In\nYucatan the name for North was Aman or Xaman; the building race of\ncivilizers seems to have been associated with that region, which the\nArabians named Shamaliyy. In the Babylonian-Assyrian Shamash, the Sanscrit\nBrahman and the Egyptian Amen-ra, we seem to have but different forms of\nthe same word, which recurs in the Akkadian-Sumerian Sama, or an=the\nrevolving heaven (see Appendix, list).\n\nIt is to philologists that I refer the question whether the resemblances,\nin sound and meaning, of certain words I have found associated, in widely\nsundered countries, with the universal cosmical set of ideas, are merely\naccidental or whether they furnish indication of a remote common origin or\nof contact at a later period. It will interest me particularly to learn\ntheir opinion as to the oldest forms of the words; and whether there is\nreally no clue to the meaning of the Hebrew Yahu and the Ph\u0153nician\nYeud-Ekhad. One is tempted to inquire whether the Chichimecan\nYoualli-Ehecatl was not the same and whether this and other analogies do\nnot constitute evidence tending to establish that Mexico was a Ph\u0153nician\ncolony in which during centuries of isolation the archaic forms and\nmeanings of Ph\u0153nician words were preserved.\n\nIt is my hope that these lists will be carefully examined and explained by\ncompetent authorities, to whose judgment they are respectfully submitted.\nWhether they will be accounted for in one way or another, these lists will\nbe found to establish the existence of striking resemblances which, by\nthemselves, might not carry weight, but which unquestionably gain in\nsignificance when found in conjunction with cosmical conceptions, social\norganization, forms of architecture and cross-symbolism, which appear\nuniversal.\n\nA few words here concerning the undoubted general resemblances that exist\nbetween the Chinese and Japanese, and Central American methods of\norganization\u2014resemblances which even extend to certain words directly\ntraceable to Western Asiatic influence in the case of the Eastern Asiatic\ncivilizations. The existence of marked differences between the Chinese and\nMaya-Mexican numerical systems and determination of elements, appears to\nexclude the possibility that dominating Asiatic influences could have\nreached America _via_ China and Japan after the still existing,\ncrystallized forms of government and calendar had been established in the\nlatter countries. As far as I can judge, the great antiquity attributed,\nby Chinese historians, to the establishment of the governmental and\ncyclical schemes, still in use, appears extremely doubtful. Referring the\nquestion to Sinologists, I venture to ask whether it does not seem\nprobable that the present Chinese scheme dates from the lifetime of\nLao-tze, in the sixth century B.C., a period marked, as I have pointed\nout, by the growth of Ionian philosophy, one feature of which was the\ninvention of numerical schemes applied to \u201cdivine polities\u201d and ideal\nforms of government. Future investigation may, perhaps, prove that \u201cthe\npowerful mental ferment\u201d alluded to by Huxley, as spreading between the\neighth and ninth centuries B.C., over the whole of the area comprised\nbetween the \u00c6gean and North Hindustan, was caused by the growth and\ndiffusion of plans of ideal states, which would naturally suggest and lead\nto the formation of bands of enthusiasts, who would set out in search of\ndistricts where they could carry out their principles and ideals.\n\nPersonally, I am strongly inclined to assign the origin of the Chinese and\nthe Mexican schemes, which are identical in principle, to the same source,\nand to believe that they were carried in opposite directions, at different\nperiods, by seafarers and colonists, animated by the same purpose.\nFavorably established in distant regions, both grew and flourished during\ncenturies, constituting analogous examples of an immense, submissive,\nnative population living under a highly perfected, artificial, numerical,\nscheme of religious government, preserved intact and enforced by a ruling\ncaste, who possessed superior knowledge and claimed divine descent.\n\nIt is, of course, to Chinese and Japanese scholars and to archaeologists,\nsome of whom constitute the able staff of the Jesup Expedition, who are\ninvestigating the question of Asiatic contact, that I look for further\ninformation and enlightenment as to prehistoric contact between China and\nAmerica.(157)\n\nThe foregoing investigation seems to have shown that in all countries\nalike, at one period or other, the cross-symbol or swastika expressed\nabsolutely the same meaning. Primarily the record of a year, which\nsuggested the division of the heaven into four parts, it had come to\nsignify the establishment of communal life on a basis of fixed law, order\nand harmony. Like the number four itself which, in Pythagorean philosophy,\nis identified with wisdom and justice \u201cbecause it is the first square\nnumber, the product of equals,\u201d the cruciform symbols have been the\nemblems of justice, equality and brotherhood.\n\nFrom the dawn of human history, the cross, therefore, appears to have\nexpressed a plan as simple as it was noble and great, which consisted in\npeaceably uniting men, on principles of good-will, peace, equity, equality\nand mutual help, of instituting and organizing communal life, and of\nregulating its activity in accord with the immutable laws which govern the\nmovements of celestial bodies, causing the circumpolar constellations to\nassume opposite positions, forming the sign of the cross, and marking\nseasons, days and years, all testifying to the existence of a single,\nall-ruling, all-pervading, stable and eternal central power, who thus\ncontrolled not only the heavens but, by a human representative, the\nearthly kingdom, laid out on the celestial plan.\n\nConsidering that no less an authority than St. Augustine has asserted\n\u201cthat which is now called the Christian religion existed among the\nancients, and in fact was with the human race from the beginning,\u201d it is\npermissible to ask whether the above scheme does not strikingly\nsubstantiate his dictum, afford a deep view under the surface of\naccumulated dogma and a perception of the mighty principle that has been\nat work from the beginning of all things and was understood by many at\nthat time when \u201cthe people that sat in darkness saw great light, and to\nthem which sat in the region and shadow of death light sprang up.\u201d...\n\u201cFrom that time Jesus began to preach and say, \u2018Repent: for the kingdom of\nheaven is at hand\u2019 \u201d (Matthew IV, 16, 17). Adopting the cross as the\nemblem of his earthly mission he said: \u201cIf any man will come after me, let\nhim take up his cross and follow me.\u201d By the words: \u201cI bear in my body the\nmark of the Lord Jesus,\u201d St. Paul designates the recognized \u201cmark\u201d to have\nbeen the quadruplicate cross of the Saviour, who charged his apostles to\npreach, saying: \u201cthe kingdom of heaven is at hand\u201d and promised them that\n\u201cye which have followed me in the regeneration, when the Son of Man shall\nsit in the throne of his glory, ye also shall sit upon twelve thrones,\njudging the twelve tribes of Israel\u201d (Matthew XIX, 28). The mother of\nZebedee\u2019s children came unto him asking that her sons might sit \u201cthe one\non thy right hand and the other on thy left, in thy kingdom\u201d (Matthew XX,\n20). Repeatedly, the Teacher, referring to children, said \u201cof such is the\nkingdom of heaven,\u201d or \u201cExcept ye be converted and become as little\nchildren ye shall not enter into the kingdom of heaven.\u201d St. Paul and his\nfollowers were designated as \u201cthose that have turned the world upside down\n... doing contrary to the decrees of C\u00e6sar, saying that there is another\nking, one Jesus\u201d (Acts XVII, 6 and 7).\n\nIt is well known that the early Christian church was persecuted because,\nfrom the first, it preached a total regeneration of human society and its\nre\u00ebstablishment of a basis of peace and good-will, social equality,\nabsolute justice, mutual aid, respect and sympathy, unselfish,\ndisinterested subservience of the individual to the interest of the\ncommunity.\n\nIt was for the sublime principle of a religious democracy and the\nregeneration of human society that, in an age of tyranny, oppression and\nbloodshed, the early Christian martyrs laid down their lives. The\nfoundations of religious orders were as many attempts to realize the\nChristian ideal, and to this day the Roman Catholic Church, whose clergy\nand religious orders unquestionably afford a splendid living example of\ndevotion to a common cause, self-abnegation, obedience and humility,\nclings to the ideal of a state in which temporal power is wielded by a\nhierarchy raised to rulership from all ranks, merely by virtue of\npersonal, moral and intellectual qualities. Throughout the Christian\nchurch the ideal of religious democracy prevails. Each day it is prayed\nfor in the words \u201cThy kingdom come,\u201d by those taught to look forward to\nthe promise of the time when \u201cformer things are passed away and a holy\nJerusalem shall descend out of heaven from God, lying four-square, with\ntwelve gates, and at the gates twelve angels and names written thereon\nwhich are the names of the twelve tribes of the children of Israel ... and\nthe wall of the city had twelve foundations and in them the names of the\ntwelve apostles of the Lamb,.... And I saw no temple therein, for the Lord\nGod Almighty and the Lamb are the temple in it ... but the throne of God\nand of the Lamb shall be in it.... And he showed me a pure river of water\nof life, clear as crystal, proceeding out of the throne of God and of the\nLamb. In the midst of the street of it and on either side of the river was\nthere a tree of life, which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her\nfruit every month ...\u201d (Revelation, chaps. XXI and XXII).\n\nIt appears significant, in the light of the present investigation, that\nthe birth of Christianity, as well as the revival of pagan systems of\nphilosophy, embodying principles for the organization of religious\nbrotherhoods and ideal democracies, should coincide with the spread of the\ngreat tidings that a star had been seen by the Magi, or \u201cwise men of the\nEast, who came _from the east_ to Jerusalem.\u201d Occurring, as it did, after\n\u201cthe interregnum as regards pole-stars,\u201d during which nomadic tribes and\nseafarers had vainly sought the fixed star which had guided their\nforefathers, the appearance of a brilliant pole-star must have seemed\ndoubly significant and revived, among pagan philosophers, the ideal of an\nearthly kingdom ruled by Heaven. The advent, at this time, of the Messiah\nwho, with his twelve disciples, announced that the kingdom of heaven was\nnigh and taught that God was to be worshipped in the Spirit only, must\nindeed have appeared particularly impressive and well-timed.\n\nFaithfully clinging to the ideal of a regenerated religious democracy, the\nearly Christian church maintained itself through centuries of persecution\nand is slowly advancing, amidst almost overwhelming and innumerable\ndifficulties, towards its realization.\n\nReturning to Mexico we find that its civilization at the time of the\nConquest was precisely what might be expected if a small body of men of\nsuperior wisdom and experience, such as was possessed by a remnant of\nGr\u00e6co-Egyptian philosophers, had embarked in ships manned by the\ndescendants of Ph\u0153nician seafarers, and found refuge in the \u201cland of the\nWest,\u201d amongst simple, docile people, existing in large numbers, who,\ntreated \u201cas little children and instructed with love and gentleness,\nwillingly submitted themselves to the guidance of their teachers.\u201d A\nsingle, short-lived generation of these would have amply sufficed for the\nestablishment of the governmental system and calendar, the firm\ninstitution of a \u201ccelestial kingdom,\u201d and the spread of knowledge of the\ntechnique of various arts and industries deemed most useful to the\nnatives. On the other hand, the foreign element, whose aims were chiefly\nideal, could have left little or no impression upon the evolution of the\nnative race, its art and industry, which doubtlessly followed its original\nindependent line of development.\n\nIt is remarkable how the echo of great events in Old World history seem to\nhave reached the Western hemisphere. In the Old World the eleventh and\ntwelfth centuries were marked by a revival of religious enthusiasm, by the\nCrusades, the persecution of infidels by the Christian world and by a\ngeneral stirring amongst oriental people, the descendants of the ancient\npole-star worshippers.\n\nHistorical records and traditions accord in stating that in about the\neleventh and twelfth centuries of our era, the civilizations of Mexico,\nYucatan and Central America underwent a great period of warfare,\npestilence and famine, leading to the disintegration of the great ancient\ncentres, to numberless migrations, and to an assumption of dominion in\nMexico by a fierce warrior-race who increased the number of human\nsacrifices. It seems significant that it is to this troublous period in\nthe history of ancient America that the advent of the Incas in Peru is\nassigned by native tradition, which also records the existence of more\nancient centres of civilization situated around the Titicaca lake. The\nfoundation of the Inca empire is assigned to as late as about 1200 A.D.\n(see p. 148, note 1), and all who compare Plato\u2019s scheme for the\nre\u00ebstablishment of the holy polity of the Magnetes, and the description of\nthe Peruvian \u201cFour in One\u201d state, must admit that the latter constitutes\nthe most perfect example known, of a community based on those numerical\nprinciples which were considered most perfect by Plato. At a first glance\none might be tempted to conclude that the foreign civilizers of Peru, the\nIncas, were acquainted with Plato\u2019s twelve-fold scheme and deliberately\nestablished or re\u00ebstablished a \u201cdivine polity\u201d accordingly, naming it the\n\u201cFour in One\u201d and instituting the worship of a supreme divinity designated\nas \u201cEarth, Air, Fire and Water in One,\u201d in consonance with the cosmical\ntheory said to have been first formulated by Empedocles about B.C. 444,\nand adopted by Plato. Reflection shows, however, that no such conclusion\nis justifiable until competent authorities have thoroughly investigated\nand satisfactorily established how far the ideas of Empedocles and Plato\nwere original and how far they incorporated older philosophical ideas,\nsuch as were preserved by the Egyptian priesthood or had been disseminated\nby the Ph\u0153nicians.(158) Nevertheless it is an undeniable fact that the\nInca colony constitutes a most valuable object-lesson of a \u201ccosmical\nstate\u201d founded on precisely the numerical scheme and principles of\norganization advocated by Plato. Reflection shows, moreover, that such a\npolity could only have been established and maintained itself during\ncenturies, in a land free from enemies and amongst docile people \u201capt for\nsubjection.\u201d\n\nA significant result of a critical comparison of the celestial kingdoms of\nPeru and Mexico is the perception that, in the former, as in Egypt, a\nhereditary sovereignty was exercised by male and female sacerdotal rulers\nof a \u201cdivine line of descent.\u201d On the other hand we find, in Mexico, a\nstate of affairs in exact accordance with Montezuma\u2019s account of the\nbehavior of his predecessors towards the lord who had led them and\npresided over the foundation of the Mexican empire. During his absence\nthey, his vassals, established democratical principles and when he\nreturned, having intermarried with women of the country and founded new\ncities, they refused to recognize his authority and let him depart. From\nMontezuma himself we learn that, although they thus emancipated themselves\nfrom their former lord, they continued to regard themselves as dependent\nand owing allegiance to the mother-city whence they had come. Until the\ntime of the Conquest, however, they were governed by rulers whom they\nelected, and who had risen in rank merely by virtue of their moral and\nintellectual distinction.\n\nIt is indeed deeply suggestive and impressive to realize that, in\nantiquity as in modern times, the American Continent seems to have been\nsought, as a place of refuge, by men whose ideals have been state\ninstitutions founded on democratic principles. The ancient polities of\nMexico and Peru and, what is more, the archaic Pueblos of to-day, alike\nfurnish examples of conditions, such as undoubtedly existed in\nMediterranean countries in ancient times and inspired Greek statesmen and\nphilosophers to plan ideal polities, and must have preceded the creation\nof the Jewish and early Christian spiritualized ideal of a New Jerusalem,\npervaded throughout by the Divine Spirit. In conclusion, there are a few\npoints which I recommend to the consideration of students. Different\nwriters have, as Prescott summarizes, with certainty discerned in the\nhighest American civilizations, a Semitic or an Egyptian or an Asiatic\norigin.\n\nThis remarkable combination of features, distinctively characteristic of\nthe said civilizations, actually existed amongst the Ph\u0153nicians who, as\nProfessor Sayce relates, were allied to the Semitic race, were affected by\ncontact with their cousins the Arameans or Syrians, penetrated to the\ncoast of India, derived their art from Babylonia, Egypt, and later from\nAssyria, and \u201cknew how to combine together the elements it had received\nand to return them, modified and improved, to the countries from which\nthey had been borrowed.\u201d In the case of India and China it is an\nestablished and accepted truth that an active communication existed\nbetween these countries and Asia Minor, which was carried on by a race of\nseafarers and colonists. When it is realized that, through them, distant\nregions became known and accessible, and that at one time in the history\nof Greek philosophy, for instance, statesmen, philosophers and\nmathematicians alike rivalled each other in planning ideal states, based\non the identical principle: the harmonizing of human life with Nature\u2019s\nlaws; it seems but rational to infer that, at different times, bands of\nenthusiasts, adopting one numerical scheme in preference to another, and\nled perhaps by its inventor or disciples, set out in search of distant\ncountries where they could undisturbedly establish \u201ccelestial kingdoms\u201d\naccording to their ideal plan. To such an enterprise as this I venture to\nassign the establishment of the celestial kingdom of China, drawing\nattention to Biot\u2019s statement, cited on p. 298, that year cycles (_i. e._\nthe sociological and chronological system since in use) were introduced\nthere from India, after the Christian era. This being the case, contrary\nto the claims of a much greater antiquity by Chinese scholars, the present\nform of the \u201ccelestial kingdom\u201d appears to date from the arrival in China,\nfrom Persia, of Semitic emigrants, during the first century of our era\n(see p. 303), and to have undergone a certain re-modelling in the first\nhalf of the sixth century, after the arrival of a band of Syrian\nChristians (p. 304).\n\nPointing out that these dates would make it appear as though the cyclical\nsystems of India and Eastern Asia had been formulated under the direct or\nindirect influence of Greek philosophy, I observe that the date of their\nintroduction and establishment assigns them to approximately the same\nperiod which produced the numerical scheme adopted by Constantine, Maya\nand Mexican calendrical and chronological scheme. At the period when\nConstantine established New Rome and instituted four divisions of the\nempire, each divided into thirteen yielding a total of fifty-two\nprefectures, there lived in Byzantium a philosopher and rhetorician\n(315-390 A.D.) whose name was Themistius and who filled the office of\nprefect of Constantinople. It is well known that the attempt thus to\norganize the empire proved fruitless and that the proclamation of\nChristianity as the religion of his empire by Theodosius I (379 A.D.)\ninaugurated a prolonged persecution of pagan religion and philosophy (see\np. 530).\n\nIs it inadmissible to consider at least the possibility that, disappointed\nand driven from their land, some of those who clung to the ancient ideal,\nand were acquainted with the perfected scheme of state organization\ninstituted by Constantine during the lifetime of Themistius, carried it at\na later period, to the \u201chidden land\u201d of the West and established it there,\nwhere it was preserved intact until the time of the Spanish Conquest? Is\nit by accident only that one of the names of the capital of ancient\nMexico, as preserved in the writings of Cort\u00e9s and Bernal Diaz is\nTemistitan, literally \u201cland of Temis,\u201d the Nahuatl language not furnishing\nany meaning to the latter word? Can it be that, just as the word Teotl,\nresembling Theos, is found on Mexican soil, employed with the same meaning\nas in Greek, the name Temistitan means \u201cthe land of established law, order\nand justice\u201d dedicated to the Greek Themis, just as New Rome was dedicated\nto Sofia=Wisdom? Or did some sort of connection exist between the name of\nthe Mexican capital, the system on which it was established and the\nphilosopher Themistius?\n\nIs it by chance merely that the state calendar of Temistitan was based on\n4\u00d713=52 divisions, and that Themistius of Byzantium, a member of that\nschool of philosophy which had evolved numberless plans and numerical\nschemes for ideal states, should have held one of the 4\u00d713=52 prefectures\nduring Constantine\u2019s reign? In order to make the most rapid advance\ntowards a solution of the great problem of the origin of American\ncivilizations, I venture to suggest that Orientalists and Americanists\nshould combine and freshly study it from opposite points of view. One side\nmight be taken by those who incline to admit the possibility that a few\nPh\u0153nician traders discovered the American continent in ancient times and\nthat, subsequently, those to whom they imparted their discovery and their\nsuccessors, the daring Greek navigators, conveyed thither, at intervals,\nbands of refugees or enthusiasts who braved danger and death, in the hope\nof reaching the blessed land where, free from persecution, they could\nfound ideal democracies or divine polities.\n\nBesides studying and adding to the numberless similarities which have been\ncited by so many different authorities and to which I have added a modest\ncontribution, let them produce evidence showing the improbability that the\nidentical forms of cult, religion, social organization, calendar cycles\nand numerical schemes should have been independently evolved two or more\ntimes by distinct races. On the other hand, let those who hold the view\nthat American civilization was purely autochthonous, advance grounds for\nthe supposition that it developed a school of philosophical speculation\nand that America produced its Empedocles and its Plato. Let them also\nformulate the psychical law which caused the American race to formulate\nthe four elements, recognized as such by the philosophers of India and\nGreece, and not the five of Chinese philosophy; and to evolve numerical\nschemes applied to social organization, identical with those current in\nIndia, Western Asia and the Mediterranean countries, but different from\nthat employed in China and Japan. It will also be incumbent upon them not\nonly to disprove American traditions, which record the introduction of a\nhigher civilization and plans of social organization by strangers, but\nalso to demonstrate that, although in ancient times, Ph\u0153nician traders\ncarried on an active traffic with Britain, daring the perils of the Bay of\nBiscay, they could not possibly have ventured across the southern\nAtlantic, even in the most favorable seasons. It has remained a source of\nsincere regret to me that circumstances prevented my attending the\nOrientalist Congress which met at Rome, in October, 1899, under the\npresidency of the illustrious Count Angelo de Gubernatis, to whom credit\nis due for having first suggested and planned that a section of the\nCongress should devote itself to the discussion of prehistoric contact or\nconnection between the Old and New Worlds.\n\nWith an apology for my non-attendance and consequent failure to aid in\norganizing the section and carrying out a plan which met with my\nenthusiastic approval, I venture to submit the present investigation to\nthe President and officers of the Orientalist Congress with the earnest\nhope that it may contain material and suggestions for fruitful discussions\nduring the next Congress held, and that these may be carried on in a\nsection devoted to the consideration of facts relating to prehistoric\nAmerica and its relation to the Old World.\n\nSUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.\n\nIn the preceding pages the view is advanced that the ancient cross-symbol\nor swastika was first used by man, presumably in circumpolar regions, as a\nrecord of the opposite positions assumed, by circumpolar constellations,\nin performing their nocturnal and annual circuit around Polaris. Employed\nas a year sign in the first case, the cross or swastika later became the\nsymbol of the Four Quarters, of quadruplicate division and of a stable\ncentral power whose rule extended in four directions and controlled the\nentire Heaven.\n\nAt some remote period of antiquity man developed the idea of social\norganization and, in India, ancient Egypt and Babylonia-Assyria, actual\nproofs exist that the earliest cities and states were divided into four\nquarters, a division involving the distribution of the population into\nfour tribes under a central chief. Wherever this division was carried out,\nit represented an attempt to harmonize human society and the establishment\nof the ideal of a religious democracy, founded on principles of law,\norder, justice, peace and good will. The pyramid, a primitive form of\nwhich consisted of four stories, and cruciform sacred structures, may be\nregarded as monuments commemorating a cosmical and territorial\norganization into four parts. The more extended conception of seven\ndirections in space, consisting of the Above and Below, or Heaven and\nEarth, the Four Quarters and the sacred Middle, the synopsis of all, was\nalso evolved. In the confederations of India and Iran, and Arabia, in the\nseven-storied towers of Babylonia, and in the division of the Egyptians\ninto seven classes, we find the earliest traces of a practical application\nof this numerical division.\n\nThe ancient historical records of Egypt and Greece reveal that, in the\nearliest polities, the population was divided into groups consisting of a\nfixed number of individuals, officially represented by chieftains, or\nofficers of the state, and that, in consequence, a state formed a unit,\nconstituted according to a mathematical scheme, which was also applied to\nthe regulation of time. Each officer of the state held office for a fixed\nterm, in a prescribed order of rotation. The year was divided into a fixed\nnumber of seasons, marked by the positions of a circumpolar constellation,\nand this therefore appeared to regulate not only the cycle of time but the\ngovernmental rotation of office and the entire activity of the community.\nStarting from a common basis of quadruplicate division in different\ncountries, a great variety of constitutions of state was independently\ninvented by statesmen and philosophers, who devised cycles produced by\ndifferent combinations of numbers and signs, the object being to regulate\ntime and communal life in imitation of the law, order and harmony existing\nin the motion of the stars and under the guidance of a supreme ruler, the\nearthly representative of Polaris.\n\nThe origin of these ideas and governmental scheme, in the Old World, is\nassigned by competent authorities to a northern race which had discovered\nthe art of fire-making and evolved a religious cult and ritual suggested\nby it, in association with pole-star worship. Their civilization is\nsupposed to have been developed by contact with a southern race, in\nPhrygia, and to have been carried at a remote period by their seafaring\ndescendants to India, Asia Minor, Egypt and beyond the pillars of\nHercules, to European countries, situated on the Atlantic.\n\nThe present investigation brings into prominence the fact that, just as\nthe older Andean art closely resembles that of the early Mediterranean, an\nobservation first made by Prof. F. W. Putnam,(159) so the fundamental\nprinciples, numerical scheme and plan of the state founded by the foreign\nIncas in Peru, resembled those formulated by Plato in his description of\nan ideal state.\n\nIt is a remarkable fact, on which the writer lays utmost stress, that,\nwhereas there is a marked difference between the Chinese and the Mexican\nand Peruvian divisions of the elements and numerical cycles, the American\nsystems exactly agree with those propounded by Greek philosophers and said\nto have reached them from more ancient centres of culture, presumably\nthrough the Ph\u0153nicians. On the other hand, there undoubtedly exist\nremarkable analogies between the Chinese and Hindu and Mexican\nsociological, chronological, cyclical systems, their principles being\nprecisely the same. These close analogies as well as the marked\ndivergences which have been noted can only be satisfactorily accounted for\nby the assumption that each of these countries derived their civilization\nfrom the same source. Over and over again different writers have pointed\nout undeniable analogies and resemblances between the highest forms of\nAmerican civilization and that of China, India, Asia Minor, the\nMediterranean and Western European countries. At the same time modern\nresearch has shown that the seafarers, whom we shall conveniently\ndesignate as the Ph\u0153nicians, acted as the intermediaries of ancient Old\nWorld civilization and formulated a culture which incorporated and formed\na curious compound of elements drawn from different countries and people.\n\nWhile investigation, moreover, reveals that the conquest of Ph\u0153nicia and\nintermittent periods of warfare and persecution directed against the\nreligion and democratic principles of its people, must have furnished the\nmost powerful incentive for them to extend their voyages of discovery and\nseek distant lands where colonies might be established. It is obvious\nthat, if safe places of refuge were found, their existence would remain a\nsecret and that, in course of time, a complete isolation of distant\ncolonies would result.\n\nConsidering that it would be premature to formulate a final conclusion on\na subject which demands so much more investigation, I merely observe here\nthat, as far as I can see, the conditions which existed and survive\namongst the aborigines of America would be fully accounted for by the\nassumption that they received certain elements of culture and civilization\nfrom Mediterranean seafarers who, at widely separated, critical periods of\nOld World history, may have transported refugees and would-be colonists or\nfounders of ideal republics and \u201cdivine polities\u201d to different parts of\nthe hidden or divine land of \u201cthe West,\u201d the existence of which was known\nby tradition to the Egyptian priesthood.\n\nUnder such circumstances it is apparent how the American Continent could\nhave become an isolated area of preservation where archaic and primitive\nforms of civilization, religious cult, symbolism and industries, drawn at\ndifferent epochs, from various, more or less important centres or from the\noutposts of Old World culture, would be handed down, transformed through\nthe active and increasing influence of the native elements. The latter\nmust always have been markedly predominant since it must be assumed, if at\nall, that the number of individuals who reached America, and the\nsubsequent duration of their lives, must have been extremely limited. What\nis more, as Montezuma related that the colonists, from whom he descended,\nmarried native women, it is obvious that, from the outset, foreign and\nnative influences were combined.\n\nThere was one main element, however, underlying both foreign and native\ncivilizations, which formed the basis of both, united and made them as\none, namely, the recognition of fixed immutable laws governing the\nuniverse, attained, by both races, by long-continued observation of\nPolaris and the \u201cNorthern\u201d constellations.\n\nTo me the most precious result of the preceding investigation is the\ngradual recognition that the entire intellectual, moral and religious\nevolution of mankind has been the result of the fixed laws which govern\nthe universe. From the time when our world began to revolve in space, at\nintervals, a luminous point of fixity in space has existed and an unknown\nforce, irresistible as that which controls the magnetic needle and\ngyrostat,(160) appears to have raised the mind of man from ignorance and\ndarkness and guided his footsteps towards a higher scale of existence and\na more elevated conception of a supreme central power.\n\nFrom this, amongst favored races, the higher conception of an invisible\nsupreme deity seems to have been gradually developed by the human mind, as\nit rose in the scale of spiritual evolution. To many, the idea that it was\nthe observation of the stars and the recognition of the fixity of Polaris\nwhich first led man to realize the existence of immutable laws, and of a\nsupreme celestial power ruling the universe and to form the sacred sign of\nthe cross, will appear as the fulfilment of the text in Genesis, which\nexpressly mentions as the first, and therefore chief, purpose for which\nthe lights in the firmament were created, that \u201cthey should be for _signs_\nand portents, for seasons, for days and years ... and for lights.\u201d\n\nWhen we realize that all revolving spheres in space, and the beings that\nmay live upon them, have been, are, or shall be subject to the same\nconditions as govern our tiny world, forcing their intellectual evolution\nto proceed in parallel lines to ours, we are compelled to recognize the\nexistence of One Great Plan, and to render reverent homage to the\nMaster-Architect of the Universe.\n\n\n\n\n\nAPPENDIX I. COMPARATIVE TABLE OF SOME QUECHUA, NAHUATL AND MAYA WORDS.\n\n\nQUECHUA.           NAHUATL.                  MAYA.\nhatun=great.       huey=great.               pax=name of\npacha=time,        pachtli=name of           festival in\nname of annual     annual harvest            which prayers\nharvest            festival.                 were offered to\nfestival.                                    obtain abundant\n                                             harvest.\nyacu and           atl=water.                haa=water.\nunu=water.                                   aak=moist.\n                                             aakal=lagoon.\n                                             yachhaa=canal,\n                                             stream of\n                                             water.\npihi-huy=first     pil-conetl=infant\nborn.              son.\n                   pilli=nobleman,\n                   or son.\n                   pilhua=he who\n                   has sons.\n                   pilli=the\n                   fingers.\nall=good.          qualli=good.\nycacha=            mala-cachoa,\nfrequentative.     verb, to spin or\nahua=to spin or    twist or turn\nweave.             something around\nahua-ycacha=to     continuously.\nspin               malacatl=spindle.\ncontinuously.      icpac=to be on\nticpac=to lie      the top of\nmouth upwards.     something high.\nticnu=the          ticatla=midnight.\nzenith.\ncosca=things       cozcatl=beads,\nthat are alike,    strung precious\nnecklace.          stones,\n                   metaphorically\n                   used to designate\n                   one\u2019s children.\nmaqui or           maitl=hand.               kab=hand.\nmaki=hand.         macpalli=palm of          tankab=palm of\nmakip-pampa=palm   hand. pan=affix,          hand.\nof hand.           meaning upon,\npampa=name for     above.\nplain.\nhumihua=small      comitl=earthen            cum=earthen\nvessel.            vessel.                   vessel.\n                                             hooch=vessel in\n                                             general.\nhunu and huni=a                              hun=one.\nnumber, a                                    hunkinchil=one.\ndivision of men,                             count=10\u00d7100,000.\nten thousand\n(Markham).\nhunu=all.\npalla=woman of     tlapalli-eztli=nobility\nnoble birth.       of blood or\n                   lineage\n                   (metaphor).\npallca=the         tlapalli=color or dye.    pal, pa\u2019al,\nfingers, or        tlapaloloni=worthy of     palal,\nbranches of a      being reverenced and      palil=child, boy,\ntree               saluted.                  servant.\n(Chinchaysuyo      tlapaliui=able-bodied,\ndialect.)          marriageable young man.\n                   atlapalli=wing of a\n                   bird, leaf of tree.\n                   cuitlapilli,\n                   atlapalli=metaphor\n                   signifying the people\n                   and servants of the\n                   state, literally the\n                   tail and wing of a\n                   bird.\n\nIt is quite obvious how this metaphor came to be employed. The words for\ntail and wing respectively terminate with pilli the word designating\nnobleman, the upper class, and palli, signifying the lower class, women,\nboys, servants. The head of the bird signified the chief and the two eyes\nand two halves of the beak conveyed the idea of duality, or two in one.\nThere are indications that the right foot, with its four claws, symbolized\nthe four chief rulers of the Above and the left foot the four rulers of\nthe Below.\n\nThe control of the feet and entire body was, of course, assigned to the\nhead. It is only when the full metaphorical significance of the eagle, as\nan emblem of the state, is understood, that the meaning of the eagle in\nthe arms of Mexico and the native bird symbolism begin to become apparent.\nI have shown that in Peru and Yucatan the word for head was synonymous for\nchief. It remains to be ascertained how far the same symbolism prevailed\nthroughout the American Continent and whether in other cases the words for\nbird, wings, tail and claws are homonymous or synonymous for the state and\nits divisions. Amongst the Zu\u00f1is the State and entire scheme of\norganization is associated with the imaginary form of a quadruped and in\nMexico there are indications that at one time the human form was regarded\nas an emblem of the State and its subdivisions. This subject is referred\nto more fully in the text.\n\nQUECHUA.                   NAHUATL.                      MAYA.\nUira-cocha=name            In the native\nof mythical                harangues the\npersonage and              Supreme Being\ntitle of                   is referred to\nCreator.                   as being like\n                           an unfathomable\n                           abyss.\n                           ixachicatlan=abyss.\n                           ixachi=great,\n                           much.\ncochca=coch-allpa=fallow   cochi=to sleep.               cuchil=place or\nland, \u201ctierra              tlacochcalli=                 town.\nde descanso\u201d:              literally house of            ah-cuch-cab=the\nliterally, land            rest, burial                  chief or ruler\nthat is                    towers.                       of a town or\nresting.                                                 place.\ncollana= excellent,\nprincipal, sovereign,\nfirst and best of each\nspecies.\ncollanan ayllu=royal       coyauac=something\nline, name used by the     broad, like a\nIncas. coya=princess of    spring of water or\nroyal blood, virgin,       a window(161)\nqueen.\nhapichi=title, meaning     tlapixqui=title of            piz=measure,\nthe collector of           some priests,                 quantity.\nproduce, he who collects   literally, he who             pizil=to\nor gathers in.             gathers in the                measure.\n                           harvest. _Cf._\n                           pixquitl=harvest,\n                           etc.\ntiani=to sit down.         tiacauan=brave men,           tialtic=\ntiyana=seat of honor       strong warriors.              appurtenance,\nsuch as were employed as   tiyacapan=first-born.         right of\nmark of chieftainship.     tiyacapanyotl=the             possession.\nhuahua-tiana=matrix.       right of\ntiya-chicu=to be selling   primogeniture and\nsomething in the public    property.\nsquare. tiyachi=to offer   tianquiztli=market,\nor place something in      also place or\nthe public square to be    square where market\nsold or exchanged.         was held.\nmicuy=food.                tiamiquiztli=act of\n                           buying or selling.\n                           tiamictli=merchandise.(162)\nin-ti or in-tin=the sun.   tona-ti-uh=the sun,           kin=the sun.\n                           literally, that which\n                           shines.\nmitimaes=name for          ce-mitime=sons of one\ncolonists.                 mother.\ntayta=father.              tatli=father.\nmama=mother.               ta-tzin=father, reverential\nhuarmi=woman.              form. nantli=mother.\nMama-ciuaco=name of a      nantzin=reverential form.\nfemale ruler of royal      cihuatl=woman. mama=verb,\nblood, mother of Inca      to rule.\nRocca.\numa=literally, the head,   ome, literally two, title     hool, ppool or\ntitle of priest. Ingua     of head priest, for           pul, head,\nor Inca=title of           instance: ome acatl, ome      chieftain,\nPeruvian ruler.            tochtli. quaitl=head.         beginning.\n                           in-quaitl=the head.\n                           qua=abbreviation for quaitl\n                           (see Sahagun, book IX,\n                           chap. XXIX, par. 6).\nTonapa=name of culture     tonal pouhque=diviner or\nhero who established       soothsayer, from verb\nInca civilization at       tonalpoa=to divine by signs\nTiahuanaco, erected        or count festivals by\nlarge cross, etc., made    ancient calendar (Molina\nhis way to the ocean and   dictionary). _Cf._\ndeparted.                  tonal-mitl=ray of sun;\n                           literally, sun\u2019s arrow,\n                           from tona-tiuh=sun. _Cf._\n                           tona-catzon=the ancient\n                           men, or the ruins.\nticsi=foundation.          icxitl=foot.\nticsik=founder.            icxinecuiltic=a lame\ntecci-muyu-pacha=the       person. _Cf._ name of Ursa\nentire world or            Major. qua= tecciztle=\nuniverse.                  literally: \u201cheads decorated\n                           with shell.\u201d=disciples of\n                           Quetzalcoatl \u201cwho called\n                           themselves sons of the sun\n                           and toltecas.\u201d _Cf._\n                           Ticitl=medicine man or\n                           woman, astrologer or\n                           divines, who employed the\n                           pearl-oyster shell\n                           tici-caxitl, for divinatory\n                           purposes. yoal-ticitl=title\n                           of earth-mother, or\n                           ancestress of human race,\n                           whose symbol was a\n                           sea-snail=tecciztli.\nPacha-Yachachic=title of   pachoa=verb, to rule or       am=spider.\nSupreme Being or Creator   govern others. yacana=to      aman=North.\ntranslated as              guide others, to govern a     ah-men=he who\npacha=world, time.         town, to lead the blind.      builds.\npaccha=spider.             paccamachtia=to teach         ah-pakcah=he\nyachachic=the teacher      cheerfully and with           who founds a\nfrom yacha=to learn with   patience. amanteca=skilled    town and\naffix chi, means to        artisans.                     peoples it.\nteach, like ru-rachi=to\ncause others to make\nsomething).\nPachacamac=title of\nCreator.\npa-chac-an or              yaca-tecuhtli, title of the   bacab=title of\npa-cha-ca=title of         god of the travellers or      the rulers of\nofficer of the Inca.       merchants, literally          the four\nccapac=title of supreme    meaning the lord who          provinces or\nruler; ccapac apu, male    guides, governs or leads.     quarters.\nruler; ccapac              The names of his five         chac=title of\nccoya=female ruler.        brothers were                 four assistants\n                           Chiconquiauitl, Xomocuitl,    of high priest.\n                           Nacxitl, Cochimetl,\n                           Yacapitzauac. The sister\n                           who completed the group of\n                           seven, was named\n                           Chalmeca-ciuatl (Sahagun,\n                           op. cit. Book I, chap.\n                           XIX). This god and his six\n                           brethren, to whom the\n                           merchants offered\n                           sacrifices when they had\n                           safely returned from their\n                           perilous and long\n                           expeditions, doubtlessly\n                           were Polaris and the Ursa\n                           Minor or Major.\n\n\n\n\n\nAPPENDIX II. A PRAYER-MEETING OF THE STAR-WORSHIPPERS.\n\n\nSook-es-Shookh, on the river Euphrates, in the Mesopotamian villayet,\nthough an interesting spot, is not an imposing or attractive place. Like\nmost of the townlets in this part of Asia Minor, it is just a straggling,\novergrown village, a few one-storied plastered houses, with flat roofs and\nnarrow doorways, dotted here and there, a number of wattled and mud-daubed\nhuts huddled irregularly about, a _mesjid_, of course, a khan or\ncaravanserai, and one or two open spaces with the inevitable refuse and\nrubbish heaps, where a bazar or market is held on Fridays. It looks,\nhowever, picturesque and peaceful enough, as we ride into it, in the\ndeepening twilight of a late September evening. The stars are beginning\nalready to twinkle overhead, but there is still sufficient light left to\nnote the strange, white-robed figures moving stealthily about in the\nsemi-gloom down by the riverside. Clad in long snowy garments, reaching\nnearly to the ground, they pass to and fro near the edge of the water,\nsome wading into mid-stream, while the sound of a strange salutation\nexchanged in a strange tongue, _Sood Havilakh_, strikes oddly upon the ear\nlong accustomed to the ordinary salutation, _Selam Alekum_, of the\nArab-speaking Moslemin. _Paderha Sutekh_, \u201ctheir fathers were burned,\u201d\ncries our Persian _Charvadar_ and guide in disgust, as he catches a\nglimpse of the white-robed figures, thus delicately hinting that they are\nnot followers of Islam; and a Jew from Hamadan who accompanies our party,\non his way to the tomb of Ezekiel, deliberately spits upon the ground and\nexclaims, in pure Hebrew, _Obde kokhabim umazaloth_, \u201cservants of the\nstars and planets.\u201d And the Hebrew is not wrong. The forms gathering by\nthe riverside in the twilight are those of \u201cStar-worshippers,\u201d the last\nremnants of the famous magi of ancient Chaldea, and their followers, the\nBabylonian adorers of the host of heaven. To the number of about four\nthousand in all, they still survive in their Mesopotamian native land,\nprincipally along the banks of the Euphrates river, where they form small\nvillage communities. They invariably keep their settlements somewhere near\na stream, for their religious rites and ceremonies are preceded by\nfrequent bathings and ablutions, and a rill of flowing water passing near\nor through their tabernacle or meeting-place is indispensable. Hence this\nedifice is always raised quite close to the river. They call themselves\n_Mandaya_, Manda\u00eftes, possessors of the \u201cword,\u201d the \u201cliving word,\u201d keep\nstrictly to their own customs and observances and language, and never\nintermarry with Moslems, who call them _Sabba_, Sabeans. Their dialect is\na remnant of the later Babylonian, and resembles closely the idiom of the\nPalestinian Talmud, and their liturgy is a compound of fragments of the\nancient Chaldean cosmogony with gnostic mysticism influenced by later\nsuperstitions. They are a quiet and inoffensive people noted, oddly\nenough, for the quality of their dairy produce in the villages, and for\ntheir skill as metal workers and goldsmiths in the towns where they\nreside. Their principal settlement is, or was, at Mardin, in the Bagdad\ndistrict; but there has always been a small community of them at\nSook-es-Shookh, on the banks of their favorite stream, the Euphrates.\n\nIt happens to be the festival of the Star-worshippers celebrated on the\nlast day of the year and known as the _Kanshio Zahlo_, or day of\nrenunciation. This is the eve of the new year, the great watch-night of\nthe sect, when the annual prayer-meeting is held and a solemn sacrifice\nmade to Avather Ramo, the Judge of the under world, and Ptahiel, his\ncolleague; and the white-robed figures we observe down by the riverside\nare those of members of the sect making the needful preparations for the\nprayer-meeting and its attendant ceremonies. First, they have to erect\ntheir _Mishkna_, their tabernacle or outdoor temple; for the sect has,\nstrange to say, no permanent house of worship or meeting-place, but raise\none previous to their festival and only just in time for the celebration.\nAnd this is now what they are busy doing within a few yards of the water,\nas we ride into the place. The elders, in charge of a _shkando_, or\ndeacon, who directs them, are gathering bundles of long reeds and wattles,\nwhich they weave quickly and deftly into a sort of basket work. An oblong\nspace is marked out about sixteen feet long and twelve broad by stouter\nreeds, which are driven firmly into the ground close together, and then\ntied with strong cord. To these the squares of woven reeds and wattles are\nsecurely attached, forming the outer containing walls of the tabernacle.\nThe side walls run from north to south, and are not more than seven feet\nhigh. Two windows, or rather openings for windows, are left east and west,\nand space for a door is made on the southern side, so that the priest when\nentering the edifice has the North Star, the great object of their\nadoration, immediately facing him. An altar of beaten earth is raised in\nthe centre of the reed-encircled enclosure, and the interstices of the\nwalls well daubed with clay and soft earth, which speedily hardens. On one\nside of the altar is placed a little furnace of dark earthenware, and on\nthe other a little handmill, such as is generally used in the East for\ngrinding meal, together with a small quantity of charcoal. Close to the\nsouthern wall, a circular basin is now excavated in the ground, about\neight feet across, and from the river a short canal or channel is dug\nleading to it. Into this the water flows from the stream, and soon fills\nthe little reservoir to the brim. Two tiny cabins or huts, made also of\nreeds and wickerwork, each just large enough to hold a single person, are\nthen roughly put together, one by the side of the basin of water, the\nother at the further extremity of the southern wall, beyond the entrance.\nThe second of these cabins or huts is sacred to the _Ganzivro_ or high\npriest of the Star-worshippers, and no layman is ever allowed to even so\nmuch as touch the walls with his hands after it is built and placed in\nposition. The doorway and window openings of the edifice are now hung with\nwhite curtains; and long before midnight, the hour at which the prayer\nmeeting commences, the little _Mishkna_, or tabernacle open to the sky, is\nfinished and ready for the solemnity.\n\nTowards midnight the Star-worshippers, men and women, come slowly down to\nthe _Mishkna_ by the riverside. Each, as he or she arrives, enters the\ntiny wattled hut by the southern wall, disrobes and bathes in the little\ncircular reservoir, the _tarmido_, or priest, standing by and pronouncing\nover each the formula, \u201c_Eshmo d\u2019ha\u00ef, Eshmo d\u2019manda ha\u00ef madhkar elakh_\u201d\n(\u201cThe name of the living one, the name of the living word, be remembered\nupon thee\u201d). On emerging from the water, each one robes himself or herself\nin the _rasta_, that is, the ceremonial white garments peculiar to the\nStar-worshippers, consisting of a _sadro_, a long white shirt reaching to\nthe ground; a _nassifo_, or stole, round the neck falling to the knees; a\n_hiniamo_, or girdle of woollen material; a _gabooa_, square head-piece\nreaching to the eyebrows; a _shalooal_, or white overmantle and a\n_kanzolo_, or turban, wound round the _gabooa_ head-piece, of which one\nend is left hanging down over the shoulder. Peculiar sanctity attaches to\nthe _rasta_, for the garments composing it are those in which every\nStar-worshipper is buried, and in which he believes he will appear for\njudgment before Avather in the nether world _Materotho_. Each one, as soon\nas he is thus attired, crosses to the open space in front of the door of\nthe tabernacle, and seats himself upon the ground there, saluting those\npresent with the customary _Sood Havilakh_, \u201cBlessing be with thee,\u201d and\nreceiving in return the usual reply, _Assootah d\u2019ha\u00ef havilakh_, \u201cBlessing\nof the living one be with thee.\u201d The numbers increase as the hour of the\nceremonial comes nearer, and by midnight there are some twenty rows of\nthese white-robed figures, men and women, ranked in orderly array facing\nthe _Mishkna_, and waiting in silent expectation the coming of the\npriests. A couple of _tarmidos_, lamp in hand, guard the entry to the\ntabernacle, and keep their eyes fixed upon the pointers of the Great Bear\nin the sky above. As soon as these attain the position indicating\nmidnight, the priests give a signal by waving the lamps they hold, and in\na few moments the clergy of the sect march down in procession. In front\nare four of the _shkandos_, young deacons, attired in the _rasta_, with\nthe addition of a silk cap, or _tagha_, under the turban, to indicate\ntheir rank. Following these come four _tarmidos_, ordained priests who\nhave undergone the baptism of the dead. Each wears a gold ring on the\nlittle finger of the right hand, and carries a tau-shaped cross of olive\nwood to show his standing. Behind the _tarmidos_ comes the spiritual head\nof the sect, the _Ganzivro_, a priest elected by his colleagues, who has\nmade complete renunciation of the world and is regarded as one dead and in\nthe realms of the blessed. He is escorted by four other deacons. One holds\naloft the large wooden tau-cross, known as _derashvod zivo_, that\nsymbolizes his religious office; a second bears the sacred scriptures of\nthe Star-worshippers, the _Sidra Rabba_, \u201cthe great Order,\u201d two-thirds of\nwhich form the liturgy of the living and one-third the ritual of the dead.\nThe third of the deacons carries two live pigeons in a cage, and the last\na measure of barley and of sesame seeds. The procession marches through\nthe ranks of the seated worshippers, who bend and kiss the garments of the\n_Ganzivro_ as he passes near them. The _tarmidos_, guarding the entrance\nto the tabernacle, draw back the hanging over the doorway and the priests\nfile in, the deacons and _tarmidos_ to the right and left, leaving the\n_Ganzivro_ standing alone in the centre, in front of the earthen altar\nfacing the North Star, Polaris. The sacred book, _Sidra Rabba_, is laid\nupon the altar folded back where the liturgy of the living is divided from\nthe ritual of the dead. The high priest takes one of the live pigeons\nhanded to him by a _shkando_, extends his hand towards the Polar Star upon\nwhich he fixes his eyes, and lets the bird fly, calling aloud, _Bshmo\nd\u2019ha\u00ef rabba mshabbah zivo kadmaya Elaha Edmen Nafshi Eprah_, \u201cIn the name\nof the living one, blessed be the primitive light, the ancient light, the\nDivinity self-created.\u201d The words, clearly enunciated within, are\ndistinctly heard by the worshippers without, and with one accord the\nwhite-robed figures rise from their places and prostrate themselves upon\nthe ground towards the North Star, on which they have silently been\ngazing.\n\nNoiselessly the worshippers resume their seated position on the ground\noutside. Within the _Mishkna_, or tabernacle, the _Ganzivro_ steps on one\nside, and his place is immediately taken by the senior priest, a tarmido,\nwho opens the _Sidra Rabba_ before him on the altar and begins to read the\n_Shomhotto_, \u201cconfession\u201d of the sect, in a modulated chant, his voice\nrising and falling as he reads, and ever and anon terminating in a loud\nand swelling _Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo Manda d\u2019ha\u00ef_, \u201cBlessed be thy name, O\nsource of life,\u201d which the congregants without take up and repeat with\nbowed heads, their hands covering their eyes. While the reading is in\nprogress two other priests turn, and prepare the _Peto elayat_, or high\nmystery, as they term their Communion. One kindles a charcoal fire in the\nearthenware stove by the side of the altar, and the other grinds small\nsome of the barley brought by the deacon. He then expresses some oil from\nthe sesame seed, and, mixing the barley meal and oil, prepares a mass of\ndough which he kneads and separates into small cakes, the size of a\ntwo-shilling piece. These are quickly thrust into or on the oven and\nbaked, the chanting of the liturgy of the _Shomhotto_ still proceeding\nwith its steady sing-song and response, _Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo_, from\noutside. The fourth of the tarmidos now takes the pigeon left in the cage\nfrom the _shkando_, or deacon, standing near him, and cuts its throat\nquickly with a very sharp knife, taking care that no blood is lost. The\nlittle cakes are then brought to him by his colleague, and, still holding\nthe dying pigeon, he strains its neck over them in such a way that four\ndrops fall on each one so as to form the sacred _tau_, or cross. Amid the\ncontinued reading of the liturgy, the cakes are carried round to the\nworshippers outside by the two principal priests who prepared them, who\nthemselves pop them direct into the mouths of the members, with the words\n_Rshimot bereshm d\u2019ha\u00ef_, \u201cMarked be thou with the mark of the living one.\u201d\nThe four deacons inside the _Mishkna_ walk round to the rear of the altar\nand dig a little hole, in which the body of the dead pigeon is then\nburied. The chanting of the confession is now closed by the officiating\n_tarmido_, and the high priest, the _Ganzivro_, resuming his former place\nin front of the Sacred Book, begins the recitation of the _Massakhto_, or\n\u201crenunciation\u201d of the dead, ever directing his prayers towards the North\nStar, on which the gaze of the worshippers outside continues fixed\nthroughout the whole of the ceremonial observances and prayers. This star\nis the _Olma d\u2019nhoora_, literally \u201cthe world of light,\u201d the primitive sun\nof the Star-worshippers theogony, the paradise of the elect, and the abode\nof the pious hereafter. For three hours the reading of the \u201crenunciation \u201d\nby the high priest continues, interrupted only, ever and anon, by the\n_Mshobbo havi eshmakhyo_, \u201cBlessed be thy name,\u201d of the participants\nseated outside, until, towards dawn, a loud and ringing _Ano asborlakh ano\nasborli ya Avather_, \u201cI mind me of thee, mind thou of me O Avather,\u201d comes\nfrom the mouth of the priest, and signalizes the termination of the\nprayers.\n\nBefore the North Star fades in the pale ashen grey of approaching dawn, a\nsheep, penned over night near the river, is led into the tabernacle by one\nof the four _shkandos_ for sacrifice to Avather and his companion deity,\nPtahiel. It is a wether, for the Star-worshippers never kill ewes, or eat\ntheir flesh when killed. The animal is laid upon some reeds, its head west\nand its tail east, the _Ganzivro_ behind it facing the Star. He first\npours water over his hands, then over his feet, the water being brought to\nhim by a deacon. One of the _tarmidos_ takes up a position at his elbow\nand places his hand on the _Ganzivro\u2019s_ shoulder, saying, _Ana shaddakh_,\n\u201cI bear witness.\u201d The high priest bends towards the North Star, draws a\nsharp knife from his left side, and reciting the formula, \u201cIn the name of\nAlaha, Ptahiel created thee, Hibel Sivo permitted thee, and it is I who\nslay thee,\u201d cuts the sheep\u2019s throat from ear to ear, and allows the blood\nto escape on to the matted reeds upon which the animal is stretched out.\nThe four deacons go outside, wash their hands and feet, then flay the\nsheep, and cut it into as many portions as there are communicants outside.\nThe pieces are now distributed among the worshippers, the priests leave\nthe tabernacle in the same order as they came, and with a parting\nbenediction from the _Ganzivro, Assootad d\u2019ha\u00ef havilakh_, \u201cThe benison of\nthe living one attend thee,\u201d the prayer-meeting terminates, and the\nStar-worshippers quietly return to their homes before the crimson sun has\ntime to peep above the horizon.(163)\n\n\n\n\n\nAPPENDIX III. COMPARATIVE LISTS OF WORDS.\n\n\nI.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nYAU or YU=the source or origin, the Chinese character for which figures a\nsquare or circle divided into four by crossed horizontal and perpendicular\nlines, the latter projecting above the square or circle.(164)\n\nYAOU and YU=mythical emperors who instituted the celestial kingdom, see p.\n298.\n\nYAOU SING=\u201cRevolving Star\u201d in Ursa Major. China.\n\nUI or HWEI=verb to turn around. Chinese.\n\nYUL, YEUL, YEOL=wheel (Icelandic hjol, O. Swedish hiugl, Swedish hjul).\n\nHVEL=disk, orb. Iceland.\n\nWUOTAN=ODIN=supreme divinity. Scandinavia.\n\nJOVLA=sacred hearth fire of Northern Finns, under guardianship of mother\nof family.\n\nJOVIS=Roman supreme divinity, associated with wheel.\n\nYAHWE=Hebrew name for God, translated as \u201cheaven,\u201d was pronounced Yahu.\nAccording to the Masoretes must be read Yeho (Y\u0103hu). The early Gnostics\nwrote Iao, that is Yaho (Sayce). The four consonants yhvh, pronounced\nYahveh, constituted the sacred Tetragrammaton, or four lettered name of\nthe Most High.\n\nArchbishop Tenison says (Idolat. p. 404): \u201cThis name was no mystery among\nthe Greeks, as is evident from the mention of the god Ieuo in\nSanchoniathon; Jaho in St. Hiersm, and the Sibylline Oracles; Jaoth or\nJaho in Irenaeus; of the Hebrew God called Jaoia by the Gnostics; of Jaou\nin Clemens Alexandrinus, of Jao the first principle of the Gnostic Heaven\nin Epiphanius; the God of Moses in Diodorus Siculus; the god Bacchus in\nthe oracle of Apollo Clarius; lastly, as was said, of the Samaritan Jabe,\nin Theodoret.\u201d\n\nYEUD EKHAD=name of supreme god of Ph\u0153nicians the Red people (Sayce).\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\nYOUALLI-EHECATL, literally, night or circling-air or wind=supreme god of\nthe Chichimecs (see p. 33), a Mexican ruling tribe whose name signifies\nthe red lineage or people.\n\nYAHUAL-TECUHTLI or YOUAL-TECUHTLI=the Lord of the circle or of the Night,\n_i. e._ North-star god, supreme divinity. Mexico, see p. 279.\n\nYALAHUA=Tzendal deity, p. 181.\n\nYANAULUHA=Zu\u00f1i deity, p. 223.\n\n{IO, IOVANA, IELLA, IOCAHUNA=names for god.\n{HUIOU=sun.\n{HUIOO or HUIHO=mountain. Ha\u00efti.\n{YOLI, YULI=verb, to live, resuscitate, vivify.\n{OLLIN=\u201cmotion.\u201d Nahuatl.\nYAUALLI=to walk in a circle many times. Nahuatl.\nYOUALLI=night. Nahuatl.\nHUE=egg. Maya.\n\nII.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nSHAME=heaven. Babylonian-Assyrian.\n\nSAMA=heaven. Gr\u00e6co-Persian.\n\nSAMA or SHAMA=north. Arabic (Al Kaukabal Shamaliyy=star of the North; Al\nKulbal Shamaliyy=the northern axle or spindle).\n\nAMAN=verb to sustain. Akkadian.\n\nAMAXA=name for Ursa Major=a chariot. Greek.\n\nSAMAS or SHAMASH=Babylonian-Assyrian god, \u201cthe universal judge,\u201d whose\nimage was wheel with four rays (see pp. 331 and 350), _cf._ Ramman.\n\nBAAL-SHAMAYUN=supreme god. Ph\u0153nicia.\n\nAMASIS=Egyptian god.\n\nKAMOSH=god of Moabites, p. 350.\n\nHAM or KHAM=name for northern Egypt.\n\nAMANTINI=an Illyrian tribe. Greece.\n\nBR-AHMA=supreme god. India (_cf._ Yama).(165)\n\nBR-AHMANAS=priestly caste. India.\n\nARYAMAN=star-god associated with Mitra-Yaruna, Ursa Major and number\nseven. In Zendavesta is associated with Ashvino-ritual. India.\n\nAMA or AME=heaven. Japan.\n\nKAMI=deity, top, above.\n\nO-KAMI=the honorable government.\n\nYAMA=mountain. Japan.\n\nYAMATO=main island of Japan.\n\nAMA-NO-MA-HITOTSU=\u201cEye of Heaven,\u201d name for Pole-star. Japan.\n\nAME-NO-MI-NAKA-NUSHI-NO-KAMI=Deity-Master-of-the-August-Centre-of-Heaven,\nfirst Japanese \u201chidden\u201d god.(166)\n\nAME-NO-TOKO-TACHI-NO-KAMI=Deity-standing-eternally-in-heaven, hidden god;\n_cf._ Kuni-no-toko-tachi-no-kami=Deity-standing-eternally-on-earth. Japan.\n\nAMEN-RA=hidden god. Egypt.\n\nAHA-MENA or MENES=historical founder of kingdom=\u201cthe Constant One.\u201d Egypt;\n_cf._ menu=monuments; smen=to establish. Egyptian.\n\nMINY\u0152, MINYANS or MIN\u0152ANS=race who traced descent from Minos=the measurer\n(Men=measurer); great agricultural and building race in India, Arabia and\nEgypt. Measured time by circumpolar constellations; became confederates of\nSab\u00e6ans; conquered Phrygia, built Mycen\u00e6 (Hewitt).\n\nAMUN=national god of Ammonites. Amun means the builder or architect and\nis, like the name of Egyptian god, formed of am\u0101n, to sustain. He was the\ngod of the meridian and of the central house-pole, sustaining roof who, in\nEgypt, became Amen-ra (Sayce and Gesenius, quoted by Hewitt, _op. cit._).\nThe supreme god of the Ammonites was N\u0101gash, the constellation of Ursa\nMajor (Hewitt).\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\nAMAN or XAMAN (pron. Haman)=north. Maya, Yucatan.\n\nAH-MEN=master builder, handicraftsman; _cf._ Menah or Menyah=artificer,\nartisan, builder, handicraftsman; _cf._ verb men=to build, found,\nestablish, erect, also menta\u2019al=to govern. Maya, p. 234.\n\nAMAN-TECA=name used in ancient Mexico to designate master-handicraftsmen,\nsynonym of Tolteca.\n\nAMAUTAS=name given in Peru to the \u201cwise men\u201d who introduced civilization.\n\nIII.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nAN=heaven, god. Babylonian Assyrian (p. 331).\n\nANA=heaven. Sumerian, Akkadian,(167) _cf._ Akanna=Ursa Major, Akkadian,\nsee p. 235.\n\nAN and ANNU=names of celestial and terrestrial sacred central cities.\nEgypt, _cf._ an=pillar or that which turns around. According to Flinders\nPetrie, the an was an octagonal fluted column with a square tenon or top.\n\nMANU=sacred mountain situated in N. W. Egypt.\n\nKW-AN-IRAS=sacred central cosmical division situated under pole-star,\naround which the six kingdoms of Iran were situated. Persia.\n\nCANAAN=holy land, whose capital was Jerusalem.\n\nAN-SHAN=name of ancient Persian empire.\n\nAN-SHAR=supreme god. Assyria, _cf._ Nannar, pp. 336 and 337.\n\nAN-SAR=transcription of Osiris. Egypt, _cf._ Anubis also Anu and Anath,\nJanus and Jana.\n\nZ-AN=old Doric form of Zeus, hence Janus.\n\nSHANG=heaven, the Above. China.\n\nKAN=mountain, also Yo. China.\n\nALKAID=star in Ursa Major, also used for moon; origin of Spanish title\nAlcalde.\n\nALKABIR=the Great. Early Arabic.\n\nKA=surnamed the Great. Kushite father of life, the hidden god who guards\nand distributes, at the appointed seasons, the life-giving rains\n(Hewitt).(168)\n\nKA=title of Egyptian king, usually rendered by \u201cbull.\u201d\n\nKHAN=a prince. Tartary.\n\nKHAKAN=an emperor or sovereign. Persia.\n\nHAN=name for empire. Japan, _cf._ ken, imperial domain.\n\nHANA=flower or blossom. Japanese, _cf._ ankh=flower, Egyptian and\nanthos=flower, Greek.\n\nANGLI or ANGRIWARII=widely diffused, great northern race, mentioned by\nTacitus and Ptolemy.\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\nCA-AN=heaven. Maya, Yucatan, see pp. 278 and 288.\n\nCANAL=Above. Maya, Yucatan.\n\nCAN=title of culture-hero: KUKUL-CAN=the divine can, homonym of\ncan=serpent. Maya, Yucatan.\n\nZIUVA-CAAN=Colony founded in Yucatan, by Holon-chan-te=Peuh.\n\nANAHUAC: name of Mexican empire, usually loosely translated as a=water,\nnahuac=by the water.\n\nTo this list should be added the following affixes or prefixes, denoting,\nin each case, \u201cplace, land or region of.\u201d\n\nEgyptian: ta, for instance meh-ta or mah-ta=north; amen-ta=hidden region,\nN. W.\n\nChinese: kwan=earth, land.\n\nPersian: Kwan-iras or Hvan-iras=the name for Iran=\u201cland of Iran\u201d?\n\nJapanese: han=empire, ken=domain.\n\nMaya: tan, for instance Aman-tan or Xaman-tan=North.\n\nNahuatl: an, tlan or can, \u201cland of, also mountain.\u201d\n\nZu\u00f1i: wan=place of, for instance Halona-wan.\n\nIV.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nAK=Middle. Egypt, p. 385.\n\nAKANNA=literally \u201cthe Lord of Heaven,\u201d title Ursa Major. Akkadian, p. 394.\n\nN-AKKASCH=title of Polaris \u201cthe serpent.\u201d Ph\u0153nicia (p. 325).\n\nNAGASCH, NAHUSHA, or the Great Nag=the great invisible god, hidden in his\nark of clouds, who reveals himself to men as the ruler of time and the\norderer of the regular sequence of the phenomena of nature, and who\nchurns, in the mortar of the heavens, the life-giving rains in which his\ndivine spirit is infused.... (Hewitt).\n\nNAGA, NAGUR=the rain snake, at whose summer festival called Akkhadi or\nAkhtuj, the Gonds worship the cart axle or akkha in a ceremony which is a\nreminiscence of the days when the axle was the upright revolving pole\npressing out the heavenly rain. The Naga snake was the offspring of the\nhouse pole; the soul of life in the rain cloud; the heavenly snake, the\ngreat time-measurer and year god of the Hindus (Hewitt).\n\nP-AKU=zenith. Akkadian, _cf._ Papakhu, central sacred cosmical chamber.\n\nAKKAD=the North, name of country (B.C. 3800). Babylonia-Assyria, p. 347.\n\nK-AKKABU=_the_ star, Polaris. Babylonia-Assyria, p. 326.\n\nAKRIS or AKROS=summit, point, supreme, most high; _cf._ ok=eye. Greek.\n\nAKRIOS=god of summit, title of supreme god. Greece.\n\nAKA-TOS, AKA=a ship. Greek.\n\nACHAIIS=the Achaian land.\n\nACHAIANS=in Homer, the name for Greeks generally.\n\nAKRA=Hindu village dancing and marriage ground, where sacred tree is\nplanted and sacrifices made to it in great Naga festival (Hewitt).\n\nAKSA=name of mosque at Jerusalem.\n\nAKSHAFARU=point, summit. Persian.\n\nAKAL, AKARAN=god, eternal, timeless. Zoroastrian, name of god.\n\nH-AK-HAMANISIJA=ancient royal title. Persia.\n\nHAK=king or regent, royal title. Akkadian, Egyptian.\n\nAKACA=Sanscrit name for fifth element \u00e6ther: (Schroeder).\n\nAGATHON=name given by Pythagoreans to all-embracing soul of the universe.\n\nAK or AG=verb aj, to drive, urge, impel. Sanscrit.\n\nAGNI=god of central fire. India.\n\nAGASTYA=star father of Dravidians. India.\n\nCHAKRA=wheel. Sanscrit.\n\nCHAKRAYARTIN=title, supreme ruler. Sanscrit.\n\nAKSHA=axis or axle. Sanscrit.\n\nAKSHIVAN=\u201cthe driver of the axle,\u201d supreme ruler. Sanscrit.\n\nDAKSHA=the North people, also white, blessed, and the left. Sanscrit.\n\nTAKKAS=one of the most powerful and wealthy tribes of the Punjab, whose\nprogeners founded the great city of Taxila, the Hindu Takkasila or rock of\nthe Takkas, taken by Alexander the Great. Their name Takkas or Takshas\nmeans \u201cthe makers or artificers,\u201d which is connected with the Akkadian\ntuk=stone.... They call themselves the sons of the two Nagas or horned\nsnake, Takht-nag and Basak-nag or \u201cthe sons of the race of artificers\u201d ...\nas the sons of the all-mother Maga [the maker or kneader], they called\nthemselves the sons of the mother-mountain.... (Hewitt).\n\nAKHAL, AKHAL-ZIKH, AKHAL-KALAKI=names of towns. Asia Minor (O\u2019Neil, p.\n681).\n\nACASA or ACASE=axis or axle. Old Norse.\n\nAKKA and UKKO=names given by Finns to mother-earth and father-heavens\n(O\u2019Neil, p. 38).\n\nNAKA=Middle. Japan (O\u2019Neil, p. 536).(169)\n\nHAK-KAKU=eight holy corners or points; also that which is revealed,\ndisclosed, known, come to light. Japanese dictionary.\n\nAKA=above, mountain, _cf._ SAKA=ascent. Japan.\n\nAGATA=ancient name for domain or department (Chamberlain). Japan.\n\nHAKKI=the eight diagrams, _cf._\nYa-he-koto-shiro-nu-shi-no-kami=Deity-eight-fold-thing-sign-master.\nChamberlain _op. cit._ pp. 83 and 101.\n\nWAKE, WAKI, WAKU=lord, title. Japan.\n\nKAGU=Mount Kagu in Heaven. Japan.\n\nHAKU=white, shining. Japan.\n\nHOKU, NE-NO-HO, KITA, KITA-NO-HO=North. Japan. _Cf._ Khita=race mentioned\nin Egyptian and Biblical history, and Kitai=name for China.\n\nHOKU-SEI, HOKU-SHIN, HOKKIYOKU, North Star. Japan.\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\n_Nahuatl._\n\nACACHTO=the first, at first.\n\nYAQUE=that which has a point; a point, by extension a nose.\n\nYACANA=to govern a town or to guide.\n\nYACA-TECUHTLI (literally, the governing or guiding lord)=title of Polaris,\n_cf._ Pacha-Yachachic=Peruvian Creator, p. 159.\n\nTON-ACA-TECUHTLI=title of Creator.\n\nMAL-ACATL=wheel, spindle, verb malacachoa, to walk around in a circle.\n\nACATL=cane, staff.\n\nCE-ACATL, OME-ACATL=titles of deities meaning One Acatl, Two Acatl.\n\n13 ACATL=inscription on Stone of Great Plan and on image of Divine Twain\n(see p. 261).\n\nACALLI=boat, from atl=water, calli=house.\n\n_Maya._\n\nAKAB=night.\n\nB-AK-CAB=in a circle, around, _cf._ hab=year.\n\nBACAB=title of four \u201crulers of the year,\u201d tetrarch.\n\nAK-BAL=a vessel or pot.\n\nC-ACAB=town, village.\n\nB-AK-LIC=around in a circle, in the surroundings.\n\nB-AK-TE=together.\n\nB-AK-ACH=all, the whole.\n\nB-AK=rock, fortification, enclosure, also bone, phallus, foundation,\nheron.\n\nN-AK=throne, belly.\n\nN-AK-LIC=at the root, on top of all.\n\nL-AK-AN=standard, banner.\n\nL-AK-IN=east.\n\nK-AK=fire.\n\nP-AC-AT=sight.\n\nZ-AK=white _cf._ Iztac=white. Nahuatl.\n\nV.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nMAD-HYIAS=Middle. Sanscrit.\n\nMAGHAVAN=Vedic name of Indra.\n\nMATH=the fire-drill, from math or manth=to twirl or churn. Sanscrit.(170)\n\nMATHURA=name of central sacred locality. India (see Hewitt, p. 214).\n\nMAGANA=Akkadian name for the Sinaitic Peninsula.\n\nMAGHADAS=Finnic race ruling Northern India before the Kushites.\n\nMERU=the Middle. Sanscrit, p. 317.\n\nMAHTA or MEHTA=north. Egyptian, _cf._ mit=death.\n\nMED-DOS, MEDOS or MESOS=Middle. Greek.\n\nMED-IUS=Middle. Latin.\n\nMED-ON=Middle. Old Irish, _cf._ Medi=Tullium, centre of state.\n\nMID-JIS, Middle. Goth.\n\nMIODHACH=a Central Power (Joyce). Celtic.\n\nMITRA=the god said, in Rig-Veda, \u201cto fix times of festivals.\u201d Was\nassociated with Varuna=night and rain god (Greek, Ouranos), with the\nconstellation of Ursa Major and the number seven. The North was sacred to\nMitra-Varuna who \u201cmaintain the invariable succession of the order of\nnatural phenomena\u201d (see Hewitt, pp. 144, 416 and 420).\n\nMILKOM=god of Ammonites whose supreme god was Ursa Major.\n\nMEDIA or MADGA=ancient kingdom whose inhabitants were allied to Persians\nand shook off yoke of Assyrian rule in 708 B.C.\n\nMEDUM=site of most ancient pyramid known. Egypt.\n\nMECCA=sacred capital. Arabia.\n\nMY-CENAE=very ancient city in N. E. of Argolis, built upon craggy height,\nprincipal city of Greece and capital of kingdom in Agamemnon\u2019s time.\n\nMETHONE=most ancient Greek colony on Thermaic gulf.\n\nMI-YAU-KEN: \u201cname under which the Pole-star is worshipped in Japan in the\nform of a Buddha with a wheel, the emblem of the revolving world, resting\non his folded hands.\u201d(171) _cf._ Chinese.\n\nMUKDEN=capital of Manchuria, p. 288, _cf._ Mughs or Maghadas, Finnic race\nruling Northern India before Kushites, and\n\nMANJHUS=\u201croyal land\u201d set apart in Ooraon villages.\n\nMIOKEN=name of town and mountain. Japan.\n\nMIWA=sacred mountain shrine regarded with extraordinary reverence. Japan\n(Chamberlain).\n\nMIAKO=ancient sacred capital of Japan, residence of\n\nMIKO, or MIKADO=heavenly sovereign who, like the Chinese Wong or\nWang=king, ruled the three powers, heaven, earth and man. The Chinese\ncharacter, consisting of three horizontal lines crossed by a perpendicular\nline expresses also the Japanese Miko which includes males and females and\nis used combined with Naka=middle _i. e._, Middle sovereign (Chamberlain).\n\nMIHE=threefold. Japanese.\n\nMID-KENA=cosmical central power and mountain. Old Irish.\n\nMID-GARD=cosmical centre. Scandinavia.\n\nMIODH-CHUARTA (pron. micorta)=Meath, centre of Irish kingdom.\n\nMERCIA=middle kingdom of Britain.\n\nHAR-MOED=central mountain. Isaiah XIV.\n\nMISHKNA=name of tabernacle of pole-star worshipping Mandaites (see\nAppendix II).\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\nMEXICO=name of capital and by extension of state.\n\nMEK-TAN=Maya name for empire, literally: \u201cland of Mek.\u201d\n\nMITNAL or METNAL=underworld. Maya.\n\nMICTLAN=name of region surrounding pyramids of Teotihuacan.\n\nMITLA=name of ruins in Oaxaca, Mexico.\n\nMICTLAMPA=north. Nahuatl. _cf._ miquiztli=death.\n\nMICTLAN-TECUHTLI=lord of the North, or underworld. Mexican pole-star god.\n\nVI.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nI-KU or I KUU=the leader or prince, Polaris. Assyria.\n\nDIL-GAN-I-KU=the messenger of light, Polaris. Akkadian.\n\nKU=holy, divine (tul-ku, the holy altar). Akkadian.\n\nKU=word of Finnic origin brought to India by Northern settlers\u2014used by\nthem to denote Father-god=Ukku. Uk=the great Ku=placer or begetter\n(Hewitt, p. 148).\n\nKU-SHIKAS=ruling race of India, of Northern origin, known as\nAshura-kushikas (Hewitt).\n\nCHU=the brilliance or light, Egyptian.\n\nCHU-ATEN=the central capital founded by Amenhotep.\n\nAL-KUTB=the axle, Polaris. Arabia.\n\nTUL-KU=the holy altar. Akkadian.\n\nGU=the urn. Akkadian.\n\nKUL-KUN=central cosmical mountain. China, _cf._ Sar-tuli-elli, king of the\nholy mound.\n\nKURUMA=wheel, Japanese, also mawaru, from marawi=to turn, revolve.\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\n_Maya._\n\nKU=god.\n\nKUKUL=holy, divine (p. 69).\n\nKUKULCAN=name of culture-hero.\n\nKU-LEL=noble.\n\nKU-NA=temple.\n\nKUKUM=feather.\n\nKUL=chalice.\n\nCHUT=bowl, _cf._ Nahuatl cumitl=bowl or jar.\n\nCHU-MUC=that which is in the middle or centre.\n\nCHU-MUCCIL=Middle, centre.\n\nCHU-MUC-AKAB=midnight.\n\nCHU-NIL=adj. the principal.\n\nVII.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nCITRA=bright, shining. Sanscrit.\n\nTARA=star. Sanscrit, _cf._ Ra=god. Egypt.\n\nSITARA=star. Hindu.\n\nTJARA=star. Old Norse, _cf._ tar=tree.\n\nTARA=name of central city. Old Irish.\n\nUTTARA=North. Sanscrit.\n\nISH-TAR=goddess, a hymn to whom, in Akkadian and Assyrian, begins thus:\n\u201cThou who as the axis of the heavens dawnest. In the dwellings of the\nearth her name revolves\u201d (Prof. Sayce, quoted by O\u2019Neil, p. 715).\n\nCompare with Egyptian ra=god and note that the Sanscrit uttara could have\nbeen expressed in Egyptian hieratic script by the form of eye=uta and the\nsign for ra _i. e._ an eye within a circle (see p. 390 and fig. 62). Also\ncompare the Sanscrit and Hindu citra and sitara with Egyptian seb-seta\n\u201cthe hidden star,\u201d pictured by the turtle, sit or cit, etc. (see p. 398).\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\nCITLALLIN=star. Nahuatl.\n\nIX-TOLOLOTLI=eye, employed in picture writing for star. Nahuatl, see in\ncentre of Nahui-Ollin, fig. 2, Nos. 1 and 3.\n\nIXUA=the birth of a plant, the germination of seed, _cf._ cihuatl=woman.\nNahuatl.\n\nIXTLI=the face. Nahuatl.\n\nICH=the eye. Maya.\n\nIK=life, breath, air, wind _cf._ ecatl=breath, etc., Nahuatl, and ek=star.\nMaya.\n\nKIKCOLOM=blood. Maya.\n\nXICO=navel. Nahuatl.\n\nVIII.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nTEH-TEH=designation of the first star of the Great Bear, given in\nstar-list in Papyrus of Ani, and the same as Te-te, the Akkadian star-god\nof the two foundations (Hewitt, p. 267).\n\nTET=highly abraded form of timmen=foundation.\n\nTEM=foundation, Egyptian (O\u2019Neil); foundation stone (Brown). Akkadian.\n\nTET=eternity, symbolized by stone pillar. Egypt.\n\nA-TEN=circle or disk. Egypt.\n\nUA-TET=Egyptian name for emerald.\n\nTHEOS=Greek name for god _i. e._ Cosmos.\n\nTHEO=descriptive of running wheel, of anything circular which seems to run\naround into itself.\n\nTHEORS=sacred envoys, who came for sacred festivals to Olympia or Delphi\nfrom different points.\n\nTHEMIS=law, right, agreed upon by common consent or prescription. Greece.\n\nTHEMIS=personified law, order and justice, _cf._ Artemis, the goddess to\nwhom the seven stars of the Great Bear were sacred (Hewitt).\n\nTEMENOS=piece of land sacred to a god, sacred precincts, precincts of\ntemple.\n\nA-THENA=name of Grecian capital, state and goddess, signified \u201cSeven.\u201d\n\nTENOS and TEOS=names of Greek states, p. 456.\n\nDEOTHAN=village earth-god worshipped by Brahmin priests (Hewitt).\n\nTEEN or TIEN=heaven, god, the character for god being an upright pole or\nsupport, a \u201cti.\u201d Chinese, see p. 301, _cf._ Chinese character, tien,\nfield, representing a square divided by cross lines into four parts.\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\nTEM, TETEM=stone altar, foundation. Maya. p. 229.\n\nTETL=stone. Nahuatl.\n\nTEO-CALLI=\u201chouse of god\u201d = temple. Nahuatl.\n\nTEOTL=name for god. Nahuatl.\n\nTEOTIHUACAN=site of extensive ruins. Mexico.\n\nTENOCH-TI-TLAN=name of capital of Mexico.\n\nTEMISTITAN=another ancient name for Mexican capital.\n\nIX.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nASH=number six. Akkadian.\n\nASHURA=trading non-Aryan races, the Hittites, worshippers of six gods, six\nseasons, of Pleiades and of Ashura Mazda, the Zend god. Established system\nof grouping six provinces around central royal province where king\nresided.\n\nASHVINS=stars which drove round the pole the constellations of Ursa Major\nand Draco, another name for Ashura? Sons of horse (ashva), brought barley\nto India, drank mead (madhu); instituted the Ashva M\u0113dha, or\nhorse-sacrifice of the Hindus, also used by North Germans Ugro-Finns,\nScythians and Romans.\n\nASH, NAK-KASCH=Draco, Euphratean name for Polaris.\n\nMASSEBA=stone pillar. Hebrew symbol, see p. 350.\n\nASHERAH=pole or tree, worshipped by Ph\u0153nicians and Hebrews equivalent of\nIndian rain-pole.\n\nAL-FASS=axis, Arabian name for pole-star.\n\nPHAR-ASH-AH, PARR-ASIS=Hebrew and Ph\u0153nician \u201cguiding star,\u201d Polaris.\n\nASSUR=kingdom and god of Assyria.\n\nASAR=transcription of Osiris. Egypt (O\u2019Neil, p. 59).\n\nASIA=name given by Greeks to Asia.\n\nASKANIOS=ancient name of Phrygia.\n\nASTARTE=goddess of heaven, see p. 350.\n\nASS or \u00c6SIR=Scandinavian gods.\n\nASSGARD=central, divine dwelling. Scandinavia.\n\nUM-ASHI=reed shoot that sprouted when the earth, young and like unto\nfloating oil, drifted about medusa-like. Japan. (Records of Ancient\nMatters, section I.)\n\nUMASHI-ASHI-KABI-HIKO-JI-NO-KAMI=\u201cPleasant-reed-shoot-elder-deity,\u201d born\nfrom prim\u00e6val reed-shoot.\n\nASHI-HARA-NO-NAKA-TSU-KUNI=Land in the Middle of the Reed plains, common\nperiphrastic designation of Japan.\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\nAZTLAN=the original home of Aztec race, according to tradition.\n\nAZTEC=name of dominant race. Mexico.\n\nASH-IWI=other name for Zu\u00f1i tribe (Cushing, see p. 203).\n\nX.\n\nOLD WORLD.\n\nO, ON or NO=name of celestial and terrestrial capitals. Hebrew and\nEgyptian.\n\nOLYMPOS=the breaker or organizer of time (Hewitt, p. 514).\n\nKOLONH=a hill, mound, Greek; Lat. tumulus.\n\nCOLONOS=a demos of Attica lying on and around hill sacred to Poseidon.\n\nCOLONIA=a colony, the Lat. colonia.\n\nKOLOSSOS=statue in general, _i. e._ column?\n\nOM-EL-KORA=mother of cities. Arabian, see p. 323.\n\nOMPHALE=in Greek mythology, the fire socket, wife of Herakles, the fire\ndrill (Hewitt).\n\nHO=designation for directions in space. China, see pp. 285-288.\n\nHO=acme, taken to mean the best, highest, most showy part of anything.\nJapanese (Chamberlain).(172)\n\nHO=the land\u2019s acme, or a plain surrounded by mountains. Japan (Motowori).\n\nHOM=date-palm-sacred tree. Babylonia-Assyria (Sir Geo. Birdwood).\n\nNEW WORLD.\n\nHO, or TI-HOO=ancient capital of Yucatan, see p. 277.\n\nHOM=mound. Maya.\n\nHOMTAMIL=belly, _i. e._ omphalos.\n\n\n\n\n\nINDEX.\n\n\nAbadiano, Dionysio, 246, 251.\n\nAbove (see \u201cHeaven or Above\u201d).\n\nAcademia Manuscript, 11.\n\nAcamapichtli, Mexican ruler, having title of \u201cWoman-serpent,\u201d 63, 67, 71.\n\nAcatl, one of the four Mexican year-symbols, 76, 170, 179, 257, 280.\n\nAcolma, 55.\n\nAcosta, 76, 150.\n\nAgave or maguey, juice of, \u201cdrink of life,\u201d 188.\n\nAhau, Maya glyph, chief, lord, 169;\n  figured on gold plaque from Cuzco, 169, 220.\n\nAhau-ka-tun, 24-year period, 219;\n  literally lord, 20 stone, compared with Copan stel\u00e6, 219, 221.\n\nAh-cuch-cab, Maya name of ruler or chief of a town or place, 184;\n  title of chief, 220;\n  terrestrial lord, 224.\n\nAh-cuch-haab, Maya name for four year-signs, 220.\n\nAir, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, lord of, 126;\n  name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, 253.\n\nAir and water design, on sacred edifices in ancient America, 126;\n  union of, 126;\n  emblem of Above, 126;\n  on drinking vessels, 127;\n  on dome of ancient Greek monument, 127;\n  associated with the male region, 249.\n\nAkbal, Maya glyph, 108.\n\nAkkad=the North, 334.\n\nAkkadians, Semitic race of Assyria-Babylonia, 334.\n\nAlexander of Macedonia, 527.\n\nAllen, Richard Hinckley, 448, 451, 525.\n\nAlligator, altar at Copan, 227, 228, 296;\n  totem of Copan tribe, 228;\n  symbol in codices, 504, 518;\n  in India, 505, 519;\n  totem of Mayas and Mexicans, 520.\n\nAltars at Copan, 226, 227, 228, 229.\n\nAmaterasu, Japanese sun-goddess, 311.\n\nAmaytun, painted representation of the 20 and 24-year epoch, 219, 226.\n\nAmen-Ra, the supreme dual god of the Egyptians, 389, 390, 391.\n\nAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science, 510, 545.\n\nAmerican Folk-Lore Society, 510.\n\nAmerican Museum of Natural History, 234.\n\nAmerican peoples, 479-548.\n\nAmmon, 522.\n\nAmmonites, 351.\n\nAnacreon, 453.\n\nAnales del Museo Nacional de Mexico, 86, 93, 98.\n\nAndastes, 196.\n\nAndean art, compared with Mediterranean, 545.\n\nAndree, Richard, 52, 53.\n\nAngrand, Leonce, 150, 151.\n\nAnimal form, as totem, 154;\n  associated with Four Quarters by Zu\u00f1i, 295;\n  combined with bird, symbol of union of Above and Below, 296;\n  summary of use in symbolism 296;\n  in Chinese calendar, 299, in Buddhist mythology, 318;\n  combined with human in Babylonian symbolism, 335 (see Human form).\n\nAnthromorphites, 530.\n\nApis, sacred Egyptian bull, 399;\n  cult of, very ancient, 437.\n\nApollo, worshipped in form of a column, 447, 513.\n\nArabia, star worship, axial rotation, seven-day period, etc., 322, 324,\n            448, 482, 495, 556.\n\nAratos, 453.\n\nArcadius, 530.\n\nArchitecture, ancient, influenced by religious cults of Heaven and Earth,\n            284;\n  Byzantine, 515;\n  cruciform, 515;\n  symbolism of (see Windows, Cone, Tau, Pyramid, Color, Greek fret, etc.).\n\nArctos, 452.\n\nAristotle, 485, 486, 487.\n\nArizona, 52, 199.\n\nArriaga, Padre, 134.\n\nArrowpoint, barbed, used instead of flint knife as symbol of\n            life-producing force, 55, 56.\n\nAshmolean Museum at Oxford, 366, 369.\n\nAshurbanipal, Assyrian king, offspring of Heaven and Earth, 346.\n\nAsia Minor, compared with North America in relation to tertiary plants and\n            fungi, 479.\n\nAsiatic contact, 534, 541 (see Pre-Columbian contact).\n\nAsiatic Society of Japan, 565, 575.\n\nAssyria, star-cult, 326;\n  numerical divisions, etc., 328;\n  cult of Polaris, 335;\n  analogies with China and Central America, 349;\n  civilization more recent than that of Babylonia, 353;\n  founded by Semitic Babylonians, 354;\n  rise of pure monotheism, 355;\n  stel\u00e6 with seven symbols, seven circles, etc., 358;\n  Pole-star worship, seven-fold division, Four Quarters, etc., 367;\n  summary, 483.\n\nAstarte, Assyrian goddess figured as cow and as moon, 337, 345, 350.\n\nAstronomy, cast of astronomy-leaders, 22;\n  study of, among native races, 42;\n  basis of religion, 43;\n  knowledge of, among Eskimo, 50;\n  and other native peoples, 53;\n  Mexican astronomers, 82;\n  among the Zu\u00f1i, 205;\n  astronomer-priests of Mexico 274;\n  in China, 285;\n  Chinese, Babylonian, Hindoo, Chaldean, Egyptian, Thibetan and Indian,\n              300, 301;\n  in Chaldea, 330;\n  in Babylonia and Assyria, 328, 338;\n  in Egypt, 376, 383;\n  Egyptian zodiac signs, illustrated, 395;\n  the time when there ceased to be a conspicuous pole star, 525-526 (see\n              Polaris, Calendar, etc.).\n\nAtlantis, Island of, 446.\n\nAtlatl or spear thrower, 211;\n  on temple of the Tigers, and on Stone of Tizoc, 212.\n\nAttiwendaronks, 196.\n\nAvila, 132.\n\nAxayacatl, living representative of Huitzilopochtli, 71.\n\nAxial rotation (or wheel) in ancient religion, symbolism and government;\n  in Maya name for Ursa Major, 8-10;\n  title of Mexican supreme divinity, \u201cWheel of the Winds,\u201d 11, 33;\n  origin of idea was rotation of Ursa Major around Polaris;\n  symbolized by swastika symbol, 18-23;\n  imitated by Mexican game, \u201cThose who fly,\u201d 24;\n  associated with Mexican Calendar system, 25;\n  indicated by name Teo-Culhuacan or Aztlan, 56;\n  represented by Mexican sacred dance, 59;\n  indicated in Vienna Codex by circle of footstep, 90;\n  in Zu\u00f1i religious ceremony, 129;\n  in religious ceremony and irrigating canals of Peru, 145, 146;\n  symbolized by Nahuiollin on Mexican Calendar Stone, 251-52;\n  by one-footed man on Mexican \u201cSacrificial Stone,\u201d 259;\n  in ancient plan of Mexican government, 273;\n  pictured divinity surrounded by circle of footsteps, 279;\n  in plan of ancient Chinese government, 280-291;\n  in calendar systems of China and Mexico, 292;\n  symbolized by spider\u2019s web, 293;\n  in Chinese calendar, 309;\n  the wheel in Hindu religion, 313, 319;\n  in Babylonia and Assyria, 331, 332, 356, 365, 366, 367;\n  \u201cWheel of the law\u201d and \u201clord of the wheel\u201d of India, in Egyptian\n              symbolism, 394, 400, 401;\n  centrifugal power and rule indicated by names of capital cities in Egypt\n              and Greece, 413;\n  revolving pillar on Acropolis at Athens, 447;\n  in Arabia, 448;\n  in India, 448;\n  in Plato\u2019s cosmical conception, 449;\n  in Homer\u2019s works, 452;\n  in Sophocles\u2019 work, 453;\n  in ancient Greece, _polos_=a star revolving on itself, 453;\n  Sanscrit god, \u201cthe driver of the axle,\u201d 453;\n  Greek \u201cIxion\u2019s wheel,\u201d 453;\n  indicated by cross symbol and later by swastika, 461;\n  wheel associated with Jove on Roman tombstone, 464;\n  in Scandinavia, the wain wheeled around the throne of Thor, 473;\n  Turanian god of heaven=the pole turned by the revolving days and weeks,\n              499;\n  symbols of, in Old and New World, 494-544;\n  summary, 544.\n\nAyllu, Peruvian word for tribe or lineage, 141.\n\nAztlan, land of light, 56, 57.\n\nBaal, Assyrian god, 345;\n  worshipped under image of bull, 410.\n\nBabylonia, Chinese immigrants from, 299;\n  Middle kingdom, 299;\n  astronomy, 300;\n  star cult, 326;\n  numerical divisions, etc., 328;\n  either a mountain or a star signified a god, 329;\n  astronomical observations of great antiquity, 329;\n  oriented to the Four Quarters, 333;\n  decline of the empire, 347;\n  female ruler, 347;\n  described in Revelations;\n  sevenfold organization, 348;\n  seven-staged tower, 356;\n  sevenfold state, 357;\n  altar of gold, 361.\n\nBabylonia-Assyria, the Babylonia triad, Anu, Ea, and Bel, signify the\n            Above, Middle and Below, 336;\n  compared with gods of China, 336;\n  combined Heaven and Earth cult, 344;\n  seven-fold organization, 360;\n  seven-staged tower (Zikkurat) and the great basin (Apsu) symbolized\n              cosmological conceptions;\n  tree or pole as sacred symbol;\n  fire-stick, 361;\n  worship of Polaris;\n  male and female principles in nature, 363;\n  New Year\u2019s festival, 364;\n  summary and conclusions, 367, 544.\n\nBacab, title of Maya chief, 86;\n  title of rulers of Four Quarters, 183.\n\nBailly, 319.\n\nBalam, Maya word for ocelot;\n  title of four lords of Below or Earth;\n  same as chac, 185.\n\nBalboa, 150.\n\nBall, C. J., 302.\n\nBandelier, Ad. F., 61, 74, 79, 84, 168, 200.\n\nBaptism, Maya, 225.\n\nBarber, Commander, U. S. N., 159.\n\nBartholomew de las Casas, Friar, 32.\n\nBat, symbol of happiness, 277.\n\nBat-kin-ya-m\u00fbh, the Water people, 200.\n\nBastian, A., 153.\n\nBead, jade bead, as symbol in Mexico, 81;\n  \u201cgold bead,\u201d used as title;\n  symbolical among the Mayas, 237.\n\nBeard, on stel\u00e6 at Copan and Quirigua, 219, 230;\n  on calendar sign;\n  on images of air-god, 231;\n  worn by representatives of Above, 231;\n  not worn by representatives of Below, 231;\n  in pictorial art, 232;\n  on portrait-statue of Stela E, at Quirigua, 232;\n  bearded personages on stel\u00e6 were high-priests, etc., 232;\n  beardless effigies indicated different caste, 232;\n  bearded Spaniards regarded, by Mexicans, descendants of founders of\n              their civilization, 266;\n  emblem of sovereignty in Egypt, 426.\n\nBee, Maya word for=cab;\n  Cab glyph, 110.\n\nBeetle (see Scarab).\n\nBeltram de Santa Rosa, Fray, 89, 101.\n\nBenares, temple of;\n  sacred cow, 316.\n\nBentham, 476.\n\nBentley, 300.\n\nBerichten der Deutschen Botanischen Gesellschaft, 478.\n\nBerlin Museum, 380, 417, 423, 424, 426, 427, 457, 460, 507.\n\nBerra, Orozco y, 264, 268, 269.\n\nB. N. MS. (Biblioteca Nationale MS.), same as \u201cLyfe of the Indians.\u201d\n\nBiblioteca Nazionale Manuscript (in press), 7, 9, 11, 12, 34, 37, 39, 44,\n            45, 46, 47, 54, 57, 64, 66, 71, 99, 102, 111, 112, 125, 128,\n            130, 189, 241, 279, 505.\n\nBiot, 298, 301.\n\nBird, title of Mexican war chief, 25;\n  humming-bird in symbolism, 39;\n  with spider, serpent and cross on shell gorget, 49;\n  Bird-god, borne on litter, 71;\n  ancient Yucatan in shape of bird, 86;\n  illustrated social organization in Mexico, 87;\n  totem of Incas, 157;\n  on arms of Mexico, 157;\n  on sculptures at Tiahuanaco, 167;\n  man-bird represented ruler of upper division of State in Mexico, 185;\n  typical of lords of four provinces in Mexico, 190;\n  blue-bird, Mexican symbol, 190;\n  name of Nahuatl tribe, 206, 214;\n  three most powerful tribes of Yucatan have bird names, 217;\n  on altar at Copan, 228;\n  in sculptures at Palenque, and in Mexican Fejervary chart, 235;\n  mask in Mexican festival, 242;\n  totem of the Air people in Mexico, 254;\n  recapitulation of meaning of symbol, 282;\n  use of as symbol, 296;\n  vulture, symbol of Upper Egypt, 368.\n\nBirdwood, Geo., 314, 575.\n\nBlackfoot Indians, myth about Ursa Major, 511.\n\nBlack, Robert, 526.\n\nBlack Sun, in B. N. MS., 54.\n\nBlood offerings, meaning of, 98, 99, 442.\n\nBoas, Franz, 147.\n\nBoat, in sculptured bas-relief at Chichen-Itza, 160;\n  in Babylonian symbolism, 366;\n  in Egyptian symbolism, 403;\n  Egyptian, Grecian, Ph\u0153nician in early times, 491.\n\nBochica or Ida-can-zas, culture hero of the Muyscas;\n  personification of the Sun or Above, 171.\n\nBodleian MS., 44, 90.\n\nBodleian Library at Oxford, 508.\n\nBoeckh, 488.\n\nBogota, dual government, calendar, etc., 171.\n\nBohn, 486.\n\nBook of the Dead, 372, 374, 386, 387, 404, 406.\n\nBook of Manu, 317.\n\nBook of Yu, 296.\n\nBopp and Pott, 500.\n\nBoturini, 150, 180, 181, 182, 268, 269.\n\nBourbourg, B. de, 35, 69, 89, 191, 206, 211, 216, 217, 271.\n\nBournouf, 448, 451.\n\nBovallius, Dr., 230.\n\nBowl or vase (see Vase).\n\nBrahmanism, 312, 313.\n\nBrandenburg, spearhead from, illustrating triskelion and swastika\n            associated, 28.\n\nBrandsford, J. F., 50.\n\nBrazil, wooden clubs with Greek fret, 121;\n  symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American\n              civilizations, 224.\n\nBreath, puffs of, conventionalized on Copan slab, 223;\n  on bas-relief at Palenque, 223;\n  at Quirigua, 223;\n  compared with Zu\u00f1i symbolism, 223;\n  in Copan, 280.\n\nBrinton, D. G., 60, 69, 72, 82, 88, 93, 100, 107, 109, 110, 111, 112, 164,\n            171, 175, 178, 181, 182, 191, 192, 217, 235.\n\nBritain, ancient, numerical divisions, middle, central ruler, quadruple\n            organization, 470, 493.\n\nBritish Guiana, wooden clubs with \u201cGreek fret,\u201d 121.\n\nBritish Museum, 151, 166, 234, 353, 355, 356, 357, 366, 457, 459.\n\nBrown, Robert, 324, 325, 327, 338, 364.\n\nBrugsch, 370, 376, 377, 378, 379, 382, 385, 387, 390, 393, 395, 397, 398,\n            399, 400, 401, 402, 404, 406, 407, 418, 419, 423, 424, 425,\n            429, 431, 432, 433, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442.\n\nBuddhism, 294, 298, 301, 306, 311, 314.\n\nBudge, Wallis, 367, 368, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 379, 382, 388, 389,\n            391, 394, 397, 425, 437, 443.\n\nBull, winged bulls of Babylonia and Assyria, 336;\n  symbolism of, 337;\n  Yahwe, national god of the Hebrews, represented as man or as bull, 350;\n  astronomical sign in Egypt for Ursa Major, and possibly of Polaris, 385;\n  linguistic reasons why king of Egypt was entitled \u201cthe bull,\u201d 385;\n  title of Egyptian supreme deity, 389;\n  cow, bull or ox, in Egyptian zodiac signs, 395;\n  Apis, sacred bull of Egypt, 399;\n  in inscription in temple of Denderah, 401;\n  Baal worshipped under image of, 410;\n  Egyptian _ka_, rebus, signifying Polaris and Ursa Major, 410;\n  title of Amen-Ra, 410;\n  associated with the goose in symbolism, 418;\n  Minotaurus, ruler of Crete, 457.\n\nBurger, George, 486.\n\nBurial urn, emblem of earth mother, 106.\n\nBuschmann, Dr., 153, 155, 158, 165, 172.\n\nButterfly used as symbol of immortal soul by Mexicans, 39;\n  symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, 47.\n\nByzantine architecture, 515.\n\nCab, Maya day sign, word for bee, also earth, 109;\n  honey, 110;\n  associated with female principle, 110.\n\nCabal, day-sign, on Copan altar, 227.\n\nCaban, Maya day-sign, identical with symbol of earth, 107;\n  figured with leaves of maize, 109;\n  the Below, 227.\n\nC\u00e6sar, called the Son of the Sun, 440, 470, 537.\n\nCakchiquel Indians of Guatemala, 79;\n  court of, 79;\n  obsidian mirror used as oracle, 80;\n  Annals of, 164;\n  legend suggesting form of government, 172;\n  tribal division associated with calendar, 178, 179;\n  tradition in relation to 7-day period, 182.\n\nCalendar systems, Mexican, 7;\n  suggested by Polaris and circumpolar constellations, 25;\n  Maya, origin of, 35;\n  Mexican, monograph on, 53;\n  origin of, 100;\n  ancient Peruvian, 145;\n  among the Muyscas, 171;\n  connection between calendar signs and divisions of the people, 175;\n  a governmental institution, 179;\n  invention of native system by ancient inhabitants of Chiapas, 182;\n  among the Zu\u00f1i, 205;\n  kept profound secret by priesthood, 205;\n  Maya, 220;\n  fixed term of office for ancient American rulers, 221;\n  Mexican, originated from the fixed market-days, 245;\n  signs identified with different parts of human form, 282;\n  instituted by the Chinese emperor, Yaou, 289, 292;\n  comparison of American and Chinese, 297, 298, 299, 309;\n  Chaldean and Hindoo, 300;\n  Japanese compared with Mexican, 311;\n  Hindu with Mexican, 319;\n  Assyrian and Babylonian, 337, 348, 349;\n  ancient Egyptian, 377, 378;\n  lunar and solar, 439;\n  Esne calendar, 440;\n  Canopus calendar, 441;\n  Central American and Mexican, 528;\n  time when first adopted, 529, 530.\n\nCalendar-stone of Mexico, 12;\n  night sun pictured on, 13;\n  symbol of five dots compared with same on recumbent stone figure, 95;\n  market-stone of the City of Mexico, regulated social organization, 245;\n  special work on, by Zelia Nuttall, 246;\n  image of \u201cGreat Plan\u201d or Scheme of Organization, 247;\n  figured and described, 248-258;\n  regulated machinery of state, 254;\n  Gama\u2019s, Valentine\u2019s and Chavero\u2019s descriptions, 256;\n  based on observation of Polaris, 257;\n  embodied the idea of a central, dual and quadruple power, etc., 258;\n  contains symbol of union of dual principles of nature, 280.\n\nCalendar-swastika, 9, 18, 41\n  (see Swastika).\n\nCalifornia Indians, use today two symbols in use by ancient Mexicans and\n            Mayas, _i. e._, flint-knife and \u201cstone yoke,\u201d 104, 105.\n\nCalli, Nahuatl for western horizon=the house, 38;\n  one of the four-year symbols, 76;\n  meaning, the house, 253.\n\nCampi\u00f1a de Puebla, 275.\n\nCan, Maya word for serpent, 38;\n  serpent and numeral four, 50, 110, 112;\n  affix in names of towns, Iroquois, Maya and Mexican, 198;\n  associated with pyramid as Teotihua-Can, 263;\n  in Chinese and Maya associated with fourfold division, 288.\n\nCanaan, account of Hebrew religion, 350.\n\nCanada, Iroquois town, 197;\n  Maya meaning of, 198.\n\nCandace, queen of the Ethiopians, 440.\n\nCapital, Maya word for, homonymous with five=ho, 256.\n\nCaracol, or Round Temple, of Chichen-Itza, built by Quetzalcoatl,\n            representing Middle and Four Quarters, and centre of dominion,\n            97.\n\nCardinal points, assignment of colors and parts of human body, 293, 294;\n  associated with form of quadruped among the Zu\u00f1i, 295\n  (see Four Quarters).\n\nCarillo, Crescencio, 85, 86.\n\nCarthaginians, having knowledge of an island in the ocean, 540.\n\nCartier, 197.\n\nCary\u2019s translation of Herodotus, 437.\n\nCaryatids, at Chichen-Itza, 212.\n\nCassiopeia, 22, 25, 26, 29, 40, 49.\n\nCaste, in Peru, 143;\n  in Mexico, 273.\n\nCastelnau, 150.\n\nCat, sacred symbol in Egypt, 408.\n\nCatari, chronicler of the Incas, 151.\n\nCeli-Ced, the dual power, from which the universe was born (Druidic), 471.\n\nCentipede, Mexican symbol, 186.\n\nCentral America, fundamental basis of government and civilization, 15;\n  symbolical form in architecture, 113, 119;\n  carved stone seats or altars, 283\n  (see Copan, Guatemala, etc.).\n\nCentre (stable centre or middle), in ancient government, religion, and\n            symbolism: Polaris, the centre of axial energy, 22, 30;\n  centre of the Cosmos, among Zu\u00f1is, Mayas, Mexicans and Peruvians, 41;\n  symbols of, 46;\n  on shell gorgets, 49;\n  divergence from idea, 52;\n  represented by recumbent stone figure, 96;\n  among Incas, 136, 142, 144;\n  and Four Quarters represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172;\n  in ancient American game, 178;\n  in F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary Codex, 178;\n  in social organization, 180;\n  on sculpture of Lord of Above, 186;\n  colors associated with, 192;\n  among the Zu\u00f1i, 202;\n  in Copan Swastika, 222, 224, 225;\n  on Tablet of the Cross at Palenque, 236, 243;\n  union with Four Quarters in Mexican calendar-stone, 250, 258;\n  on Mexican monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 260, 262, 264;\n  symbolized by pyramid, 273, 274;\n  words and symbols connected with, 277;\n  associated with swastika, 280;\n  expressed by pyramid, 282;\n  typified by cross-legged human figure, 283;\n  expressed in flower symbol, 284;\n  Chinese \u201cMiddle kingdom,\u201d 286, 287, 288, 291, 294, 299;\n  in America, symbolized by human heart and navel, in China by stomach,\n              296;\n  in Chinese religion, 306;\n  Japan called \u201cCentre of the Earth,\u201d 310;\n  represented by statue of Buddha, 314;\n  Nirvana, 315;\n  in Hindu religion, 317;\n  in religion of Arabia, 323, 324;\n  of Persia, 325;\n  of Babylonia, 330, 333;\n  Jerusalem, sacred spot marking the centre of the world, 352;\n  in Babylonia-Assyria 364;\n  in Egypt, 376, 379, 380, 381, 384, 385, 386, 394;\n  expressed by mummy-shaped object, also by cone, 410;\n  by a crown, 412;\n  by a flower, 415;\n  in Egyptian feast, Tekhu, 439;\n  in ancient government of Crete, 457;\n  in ancient Rome, 463;\n  in ancient Ireland, Britain and Wales, 468-471;\n  in Scandinavia, 472;\n  in cross-symbolism, 511;\n  in religious ideas of Old and New World, 517, 535;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nCentury Dictionary, 452, 464.\n\nCezalcouatl, name for Kukulcan, 69.\n\nChaac Mool or Lord Tiger, name given by Le Plongeon to the recumbent\n            figure bearing circular vessel, found in Chichen-Itza, 95\n  (see \u201cRecumbent stone figure\u201d).\n\nChac (Maya) red color;\n  also rain, storms, thunder and Lightning;\n  title of Lord of Below, 185.\n\nChac-noui-tan, name for Yucatan, 210.\n\nChalchihuitl=jade, 34, 91;\n  jade beads, 81.\n\nChalmers, John, 511.\n\nChambers\u2019 Encyclop\u00e6dia, 452, 462, 463, 465, 484, 564.\n\nChamberlain, Basil Hall, 565, 568, 571, 574, 575.\n\nChariot, symbolism of, 313, 500, 501.\n\nChavero, A., 33, 61, 253, 256.\n\nCh\u00e9, Maya word for tree;\n  in names of tribes, 199, 234.\n\nChecker-board (or tartan) design, formed by taus, 122, 123, 124.\n\nCh\u2019en, Maya day sign, 110.\n\nCheles, one of the Yucatan tribes, 217.\n\nCherokees, 196.\n\nChess board, in Egypt, 124.\n\nChiapas, the present home of the Tzendals;\n  native calendar system, 180, 182;\n  migrations from, 210;\n  numerical divisions, 528.\n\nChichen-Itza, culture-hero ruled in, 68, 69;\n  recumbent stone figure bearing circular vessel, 93, 185, 214;\n  connection established with Mexico by Kukulcan (Quetzalcoatl), 93;\n  Caracol or Round Temple, 97;\n  bas-relief illustrating navigation by boats, 160;\n  tradition about settlement of, 207;\n  evidence of Aztec influence, 212;\n  classification of ruins, 216;\n  tablet in house of \u201cTennis-court\u201d 259.\n\nChichimecs, sacrifices by, 66.\n\nChicome-coatl, literally, seven-serpents, title of earth mother, 181.\n\nChina, cosmical symbol compared with those of Copan and Mexico, 114;\n  symbols of Above and Below, 118;\n  sound of words, in symbolism, 276;\n  pole-star worship, 284;\n  the emperor at Pekin termed the Son of Heaven and the Empress inhabits\n              the palace of Earth\u2019s repose;\n  Yang and Yin;\n  Above and Below, etc., 286;\n  reason of deformation of feet, 287;\n  Chow Dynasty, fourfold plan of cities, linguistic affinities with\n              Mexicans and Mayas, \u201cQuadriform constitution,\u201d 288;\n  calendar system, social and religious organization compared with that of\n              ancient America, 291, 292, 293;\n  tables showing the agreement and divergence in ancient systems of China\n              and America, 293;\n  assignment of colors and of parts of human body to cardinal points, 294;\n  comparative study of symbolism, 296;\n  social organization, etc., 297;\n  calendar and numerical system, 297, 298;\n  origin of civilization, 299;\n  astronomical system, 300, 301;\n  Buddhism, 301, 303, 315;\n  primitive calendar, 301;\n  Taouism, 301;\n  Chinese language said to be the same as Akkadian, 302;\n  civilization not indigenous, emigration into, 303;\n  Dowager Empress Ling, 304;\n  Israelites, 303-306;\n  Christians, 306;\n  fundamental principles of religion identical with that of ancient\n              America, but later, divergent, 306, 307, 308, 309;\n  Heaven and Earth cult practised at the present time, 344;\n  summary of numerical divisions, 483;\n  use of wheel from earliest times, 501-502;\n  use of Cross symbol with idea of central power, 511;\n  resemblances and differences, Chinese and Maya, Mexican, 533, 534;\n  doubt about extreme age of governmental scheme, 533;\n  celestial kingdom dates from first century, 541, 542;\n  summary and conclusions, 546.\n\nCholula, contains largest pyramid in America, 268;\n  built as place of refuge from inundations, 271, 272;\n  place of sanctity, 275;\n  also called Cholola or Colola, 275;\n  marks site of great and ancient Tollan, 275, 276, 529.\n\nCholollan, pyramid, a venerated sanctuary, 269;\n  tradition concerning, 270;\n  native name is \u201ctollan,\u201d 275\n  (see Tullan Cholollan).\n\nChristianity, in China, 305, 306;\n  period of growth, persecution of pagans, 530, 531;\n  St. Augustine states that it has existed from the beginning, 536, 537,\n              538, 539, 541.\n\nChuen, Maya day-sign, 112.\n\nCib, Maya day-sign, 109, 110, 111.\n\nCibola, seven cities of, 203.\n\nCicero, 488, 526, 527.\n\nCieza de Leon, 132, 150.\n\nCihuacoatl, the earth mother, flint knife in wrappings, symbol of, 55;\n  the Woman serpent (or twin), 60;\n  name of Quilaztli, 60;\n  female ruler, 62, 63, 64;\n  Mexican ruler, 67;\n  personification of Earth, 76;\n  Montezuma\u2019s substitute, 77;\n  duties of, agents of, 78;\n  offered sacrifice to god of Underworld, 79;\n  compared with serpent in Maya Codex, 111;\n  emblem of, 128;\n  female title of lord of the night, 181.\n\nCipactli, Mexican sign for a \u201cmarine monster,\u201d 228.\n\nCircle, symbol of heaven, 260;\n  influence on ancient architecture and symbolism, 284;\n  with dot, Egyptian sign for time, 387.\n\nCircle or ring, symbol of Egyptian \u201clord of the ring,\u201d Hindu \u201clord of the\n            wheel,\u201d Persian \u201cgod of the ring,\u201d and Mexican \u201clord of the\n            circle,\u201d 401.\n\nCircle or disk, Egyptian symbol, 402, 412, 444;\n  also in Peru, 444.\n\nCircumpolar constellations, studied by primitive man, 15;\n  in relation to origin of swastika symbol, 15;\n  form triskelion on night of winter-solstice, 27;\n  relation to sacred numbers, 29;\n  associated with idea of death and resurrection, 39;\n  in relation to underworld, 40;\n  four movements of, 54;\n  in connection with cult of Below, 54;\n  worship of in Old World, 383-387\n  (see Pleiades, Ursa Major, Ursa Minor, Polaris).\n\nCircumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult of Polaris, 475;\n  place where human race probably spent its infancy, 475;\n  fauna and flora, 476, 478, 479.\n\nCircumpolar rotation, represented by swastika and star-symbols on pottery,\n            50-52;\n  compared to rotation of fire-drill by early peoples, 502\n  (see Rotation or Wheel).\n\nClavigero, 24, 25, 58.\n\nClaws (or nails) of the state, title of warriors, 87;\n  in Mexican calendar-stone, 249;\n  on monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 261.\n\nCliff dwellers, tau as symbol, 119.\n\nClubs (wooden) from South America and Peru, with symbolical designs, 122.\n\nCoatl (serpent or twin) in connection with tree symbolism, 188;\n  compared with Zu\u00f1i Koa=twin, 201.\n\nCocomes, Maya tribe, 209, 214.\n\nCodices: Borgian, 27, 36, 55, 91, 95, 98, 103, 116, 189, 504, 505;\n  Chimalpopoca, 270;\n  Chumazel, 85;\n  Cortesian, 111;\n  Dresden, 35, 37, 39, 41, 45, 110, 183;\n  F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary, 9, 10, 44, 107;\n  Fuenleal, 8, 10, 12, 33, 44;\n  Mendoza, 63, 87, 88, 117, 118, 122, 130, 173, 263;\n  Telleriano-Remensis, 10, 11, 240;\n  Troano, 86, 109, 110;\n  Vatican, 11, 44, 55, 50, 78, 80;\n  Vienna, 34, 44, 86, 90, 100, 103, 119, 123, 127.\n\nCogolludo, 89, 180, 206, 210, 218.\n\nColebrook and Bentley, 300.\n\nColhuacan, Mexican local name, 263.\n\nColor, red in Mexico, associated with north, 57;\n  cult of Earth, 185;\n  title, 193;\n  blue, associated with rulership and divinities, 61, 62, 91, 214;\n  black, associated with Tezcatlipoca and with Quilaztli, 62;\n  yellow, color of the west, female region, 64;\n  meaning of, 114, 115;\n  on Moki masks, 119;\n  in tau design, 122;\n  on ancient Mexican temples and sculptures, 128;\n  in Peruvian symbolism, 130;\n  in Zu\u00f1i symbolism, 130;\n  in architecture at Uxmal, 131;\n  used to denote social status by Peruvians, Mayas, Mexicans and Zu\u00f1is,\n              192;\n  associated with four Quarters and Above and Below, 192, 251;\n  used for face and body painting, 193;\n  Huaxtecan mantle of five hundred colors, 208;\n  painting of caryatids in Chichen Itza, 212;\n  symbolic at Copan and Quirigua, 233;\n  emblematic, in China, 286;\n  assigned to elements by Mexicans, Zu\u00f1is and Chinese, 200, 293;\n  assigned to cardinal points, in China and America, 294;\n  in Buddhist temple; in Quetzalcoatl\u2019s temples in Mexico, 295;\n  in Hindu caste, 313;\n  in Babylonia, 328;\n  in Egypt, red associated with the north and male sex, and white with\n              south and female sex, 369, 373, 425.\n\nColorado, cliff dwellers, 119.\n\nColumn, sacred, in great temple of Mexico, 53;\n  on hill of justice in Guatemala, 79;\n  stel\u00e6 at Copan and Quirigua, 220, 230, 512;\n  laws inscribed on, centre of island Atlantis;\n  laws of Solon inscribed on, in centre of Athenian state;\n  of Apollo at Delphi, 447;\n  the cosmical round tower of Ireland, 470;\n  at Mitla, Mexico, 513;\n  symbolism of, in Old and New World, 513, 517.\n\nConfucianism, 115, 289, 298, 306.\n\nCone, in Mexican ollin-sign, signified the Above, 118;\n  used in native architecture;\n  culminated in pyramid, 118;\n  represented by shape of windows in ancient ruins, 120;\n  on summit of House of the Doves at Uxmal, 131.\n\nConical stone, on which human victims were sacrificed, 118.\n\nCongress of Americanists, 230, 231.\n\nCongress of Orientalists, 544.\n\nConquest Stone of Mexico, \u201cSacrificial Stone,\u201d \u201cTribute Stone,\u201d 258, 507.\n\nConstantine, 509, 513, 514, 515, 530;\n  his numerical scheme compared with same in India, Mexico and Yucatan,\n              542, 543.\n\nCopan, lentil-shaped stone altar, from, 113;\n  carved stel\u00e6, 215;\n  purpose of erection, 216;\n  study of the ruins, 219;\n  cult of Polaris illustrated by carved slab in temple, 11, 222;\n  numerical organization illustrated, 222;\n  numerical divisions, symbolism, etc., identical with those of Peru,\n              Guatemala, Mexico, Yucatan, Zu\u00f1i, etc., 226, 228, 233;\n  numerical divisions on altar conform with Zu\u00f1i clan-organization, 229;\n  bearded effigies, 231;\n  dual rulers, 232;\n  totemic animals and symbolic colors, 233;\n  excavation at Mound, 4, 233;\n  same cult as that of Palenque and Quirigua, 240;\n  carved stone seats or altars, 283;\n  alligator altar, 295;\n  stel\u00e6 as memorial columns, 512, 513;\n  remnants of old civilization, 528.\n\nCopan swastika, compared with design on club from South America, 224;\n  compared with tablet in \u201cTemple of the Sun,\u201d 239\n  (see also Swastika).\n\nCopts, 530.\n\nCord (Maya kaan), associated with Maya word for Heaven=caan, and with\n            glyph, _can_, 112;\n  meaning of carved gorget worn on a cord, 112;\n  sky represented as a circle composed of a cord to which stars were\n              attached, 113;\n  on lentil-shaped stone altar at Copan, 114;\n  on shield of Mexican god, 128;\n  on Copan stela, 219.\n\nCorinth, coin with swastika, 459.\n\nCortes, 34, 67, 68, 74, 75, 77, 97, 107, 150, 171, 183, 208, 245, 264,\n            266, 542.\n\nCosmos, four-fold and seven-fold divisions of, in Peru, Mexico, Yucatan,\n            Zu\u00f1i, 41, 42;\n  in Babylonia, India, Persia, etc., 328;\n  in pagan philosophy, 484, _note_\n  (see separate headings; also, Quadruple Organization and Numerical\n              Divisions).\n\nCow, venerated in India, 316;\n  Canaan goddess, Astarte, in form of, 337;\n  Egyptian god Isis (Hathor) worshipped under form of, 406;\n  or bull, cult of Apis in Egypt, 437\n  (see Bull).\n\nCox, 289, 451.\n\nCoya, wife or sister of Inca, 134.\n\nCozumel cross, called symbol of \u201crain-god,\u201d 280.\n\nCreation myths, ancient Mexican, 54, 55, 56;\n  Zu\u00f1i, 105, 200, 223;\n  Peruvian, 138;\n  Hindu, 313-318;\n  Babylonian, 334, 340;\n  Babylonian and Hebrew evidently from same source, 353.\n\nCreator, or \u201cSupreme Being,\u201d in Mexico, 8;\n  title \u201cwheel of the winds,\u201d 11;\n  Polaris, 22;\n  worshipped by ancient Americans, 32, 36;\n  earliest form of;\n  feathered serpent, image of, 70;\n  the four elements regarded as attributes of, 99;\n  belief in, represented by mushroom-shaped stone figure, 115;\n  Inca knowledge of, 135, 149;\n  Quechua title for;\n  Mexican title for, 159;\n  in Peru, identified with Mexican \u201cLord who guides,\u201d or Polaris;\n  and associated with star and cross, 161;\n  image of at Cuzco, 162;\n  worship of in Texcoco, 163;\n  in Peru, 164;\n  in Tiahuanaco, 168;\n  native title, \u201cHeart of Heaven\u201d, 189;\n  in Mexico represented by rebus of the feathered serpent, 209;\n  Nahuatl title, expressed by an eye and pyramid in picture-writing, 269;\n  Divine Twain, Father and Mother of all, in Mexico, Quetzalcoatl, 270;\n  in China, 302;\n  Akkadian name for symbol, an eight-pointed star, 302, 304;\n  among the Hindu, 312;\n  Brahmanistic conception of, 314;\n  in Persia, 325;\n  in Babylonia, 329, 330;\n  among the Hebrews=Yahwe lord of Heaven, 304, 351, 352;\n  in ancient Egypt, 397, 403, 412, 444;\n  in Plato\u2019s Tim\u00e6us, 449;\n  the Norse, Thor, 473;\n  the source of the four elements, 510;\n  comparison of names in Old and New World, 532;\n  summary, 548.\n\nCremation, significance of, 106.\n\nCrete, Greek plan of organization came from, description of symbols on\n            coin 457;\n  ancient philosophy of, 486-488.\n\nCross-bones, origin of symbol, 184.\n\nCross-legged seated figures, on Central American stone seats or altars,\n            283;\n  emblem of stable centre and Four Quarters, 283.\n\nCross-symbol, Maya and Mexican, figured and described, 37, 38, 45, 46, 47;\n  on shell gorget from Tennessee, 49, 50;\n  on pottery from Mississippi Valley, 51;\n  from Arizona, 52;\n  on Iroquois belt, 198;\n  in symbolical carving from Brazil or Guiana, 224;\n  four-spoked wheel as cross symbol in Assyria, 356;\n  emblem of sovereignty in Babylonia-Assyria, 365;\n  used as symbol at earlier period than swastika, 461;\n  with idea of Central power, 511;\n  emblem of Christian religion, 535, 536;\n  summary, 544\n  (see Swastika).\n\nCross-tablets at Palenque, 237, 238, 239.\n\nCross-worshippers, Chinese name for Christians, 305.\n\nCruciform structures, vaults under stel\u00e6 at Copan and Quirigua, 512;\n  at Mitla, Mexico, 513;\n  at Rome, 514;\n  buildings and churches of later period, 515;\n  at Byzantium, 515;\n  in Syria, 515;\n  in India, 516;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nCruz, Alonzo de la, 230.\n\nCubas, Garcia, 218, 231.\n\nCulin, Stewart, 178.\n\nCum-ahau, name of divinity of Yucatan, 93, 222, 226.\n\nCup-shaped depression, on stone altar at Copan, 114.\n\nCushing, Frank H., 41, 99, 115, 129, 132, 192, 200, 201, 203, 205, 206,\n            227, 295, 511, 574.\n\nCuzco, \u201cnavel of the earth,\u201d 133;\n  plan of city, Centre and Four Quarters, 136;\n  founded by Manco Capac, 156;\n  temple, facing north and containing gold image of \u201cCreator,\u201d 163;\n  gold plaque from, 168;\n  symbolism analogous to Mexican and Maya, 170.\n\nDahlgren, E. W., 230.\n\nD\u2019Alviella, Goblet, 19, 459.\n\nDances, sacred, 57;\n  description of Mexican dance, representing wheel or axial rotation, 58,\n              59;\n  of Moki Indian, 119;\n  at Cuzco, 145;\n  Sun pole dance of American Indians, 313, _note_.\n\nDavis, J. F., 300.\n\nDay-sign, Maya and Mexican, 75, 107-112;\n  influence of, 177;\n  totem of clan, 178, 179;\n  Cabal, on Copan altar, 227;\n  and year signs of native calendar, 248;\n  in calendar-stone, 253;\n  names of, used as personal and tribal names, 253.\n\nDeath, symbol of, 39.\n\nDeer, mask of, 165.\n\nDeities, Aztec, number of, same god under several names, 8.\n\nDemosthenes, lantern of, 127.\n\nDenderah, 400.\n\nDennis, J. S., 483.\n\nDeRossi, 514.\n\nDesjardins, 150.\n\nDestruction of the earth, Mexican traditions concerning, 270, 271.\n\nDhruva, 495, 496.\n\nDiaz, Bernal, 71, 72, 75, 77, 80, 96, 97, 245, 265, 542.\n\nDin-gira, Akkadian name for God, 302.\n\nDiocletian, 514.\n\nDivination, in connection with use of mirrors, 83;\n  origin of 177;\n  in China, Thibet and India, 301.\n\nDivine Twin\n  (see Duality).\n\nDocumentos ineditos del Archivio de Indias, 77.\n\nDog, head of, on sculptures from Santa Lucia, 165; Maya word for=men, 234.\n\nDonelly, Ignatius, 374, 516.\n\nD\u2019Orbigny, 150.\n\nDouglas, R. K., 285, 291, 298, 299, 302.\n\nDraconis, observation in Egypt, 384.\n\nDragon, at Quirigua, 233.\n\nDragon-fly, employed as cross-symbol, on Algonquin garment, 48.\n\nDruids, 470, 471.\n\nDrums, 58, 59, 60, 213.\n\nDuality or \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d symbol of, 39;\n  conventional representation of, 46;\n  idea of, 47;\n  dual stellar divinity, 56, 57;\n  represented in sacred dance, 59;\n  by male and female ruler, 62;\n  development of idea, 67;\n  twin brothers as rulers in Yucatan, 68;\n  Montezuma, impersonation of, 73, 77, 78;\n  in Peruvian symbolism, 134;\n  the \u201cBeloved Twain\u201d of the Zu\u00f1i, 200;\n  Quetzalcoatl and Kukulcan, 223;\n  dual ruler at Copan, 228;\n  in Quirigua, 232;\n  on Palenque tablet, 245;\n  on Mexican Calendar Stone, 249;\n  in Mexican sculpture, 251, 260-262;\n  dual government at time of Conquest, 266;\n  in China, 285;\n  in Hindu religion, 312;\n  in India, 314;\n  in Babylonia-Assyria, 342;\n  in Egypt, 389, 397, 399, 410, 412, 415, 423;\n  in ancient Rome, 463;\n  in ancient Ireland, 468;\n  in Druidic traditions of Wales, 471.\n\nDuemichen, 385.\n\nDuran, Friar, 26, 41, 56, 57, 58, 61, 71, 77, 78, 80, 88, 182, 241, 243,\n            245, 258, 282.\n\nEagle (quauhtli), associated with Cassiopeia;\n  title of Mexican war chief, 25, 167;\n  Eagle-woman, 60;\n  among the Incas, 156;\n  on bas-reliefs of Santa Lucia, Guatemala, 156, 157;\n  totem of one or more of the Incas, 157;\n  on bas-relief in City of Mexico, 157;\n  in arms of Mexico, 157;\n  symbol of Above among the Zu\u00f1i, 204;\n  symbol of state in Mexico and Central America, 295;\n  summary of use as symbol, 296.\n\nEarth, or \u201cThe Below,\u201d in ancient religion and symbolism;\n  in ancient Mexican and Maya cosmos;\n  in secret beliefs of Zu\u00f1i priests, 41;\n  female region, 42;\n  lord of, 45;\n  cult of, 54;\n  associated with woman, 60-655;\n  sacrifices to, 66;\n  Cihuacoatl, personification of, 76;\n  sacrifices to god of, 79;\n  in connection with human sacrifices, 91;\n  sacred rites, 97, 98;\n  in Zu\u00f1i ceremonies, 100;\n  in connection with cremation, 106;\n  symbol of, in use by California Indians, 106;\n  priestesses of, buried in caves, 107;\n  symbols of, 110;\n  associated with image of serpent, 111;\n  with angular form, 113;\n  composed of fire and water, 113;\n  on altar at Copan, 114;\n  associated with square form and bowl, 115;\n  flat-topped mitre worn by lord of, 116;\n  Chinese symbol, 118;\n  sacrifices 118;\n  tau upright, emblem of, 118, 119;\n  cult of, in Peru, 130, 133, 134, 135, 141, 142;\n  idea prevailed in Tiahuanaco, 166;\n  among the Muyscas, 171;\n  in calendar, 179;\n  in social organization, 180, 181;\n  associated with animal form, 184, 185;\n  color associated with, 192;\n  associated with female principle, 193;\n  votaries of, 195;\n  in Zu\u00f1i social system, 202, 203, 204;\n  priests of, represented without beards on sculptures at Copan and\n              Quirigua, 231, 232;\n  moon symbol of cult, 267;\n  cultivation of maize, by daughter of, 276;\n  symbolized by quadruped, 282;\n  vase, emblem of, 283;\n  associated with square form, and darkness;\n  influence on primitive architecture and symbolism, 284;\n  flower used as symbol of, 284;\n  in China, 285, 288, 290, 307;\n  in Hindu religion, cult of Siva, 314;\n  in Persian religion, 325;\n  in Assyrian and Babylonia cult, 334, 336, 338, 339;\n  cult combined with that of Above practised in China at present time,\n              344;\n  Baal, Ph\u0153nician god of Earth, 351;\n  in Egypt, 381;\n  symbolized in Scandinavia by Thor\u2019s hammer, 474;\n  table of countries where traces of cult have been found, 480;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nEarth-mother, represented by Cihuacoatl, 79;\n  pictured in Borgian Codex, 98;\n  Zu\u00f1i symbol of, 100, 200, 201\n  (see Earth or the Below, also Cihuacoatl).\n\nEarth-work builders of the Ohio valley, 50, 199, 280.\n\nEddas, written by agricultural people, having knowledge of the fire-drill,\n            axial rotation, etc., 502, 503.\n\nEgypt, crux ansata, 119;\n  checker-board design;\n  basis of chess-board, 124;\n  civilization mainly Euphratean, 327;\n  explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, 367-461;\n  color symbolism;\n  high development of pole-star worship;\n  territorial divisions, 368;\n  Four Quarters;\n  hieroglyph for capital or city, cross symbol with four divisions, 369,\n              371;\n  pyramid, and square form associated with earth, and round with sky, 371;\n  numerical divisions, 375;\n  seven-fold organization, centre, Polaris, 376;\n  calendar, 377, 378;\n  sky-goddess Nut, 378;\n  lotus flower symbol, 379;\n  Polaris, sphinx, pyramid, Middle, 379;\n  mummy, Polaris, 380, 383;\n  Ursa Major, used as a measurer of time, 384;\n  bull, used as astronomical sign of Ursa Major, king entitled \u201cThe Bull,\u201d\n              385;\n  Amen-Ra, the supreme, dual god;\n  king associated with sun, and queen with moon, 389;\n  hawk-headed god, An, compared with Assyrian, Greek and Mexican gods of\n              the circle or wheel, 401;\n  Egyptian queen analogous in position to Mexican Quilaztli, 428, 429;\n  festival of Tekhu, 439;\n  becomes a Roman province, 440;\n  cult of dual principles of nature, 441;\n  summary, 483;\n  the sacred and tribal tree, 499;\n  the symbolical use of the column, 513;\n  Aha-Mena, first historical ruler, was a builder, 532;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nFaber, 516.\n\nFauna and flora of the tertiary period, in Old and New World, 476-479.\n\nFeather, symbol of divinity (Mexican and Maya), 69, 70;\n  names signify something divine, 129;\n  Egyptian symbol, 390, 409, 410.\n\nFeathered serpent, origin of use as symbol, 69;\n  effigies of in Mexico, 70;\n  used as rebus to express Supreme Being and his earthly representative,\n              208\n  (see also Serpent).\n\nFeet of Chinese women, deformation of, 287.\n\nF\u00e9j\u00e9rvary Codex, 178, 187, 235, 250.\n\nFerlini, 427.\n\nFewkes, J. Walter, 130, 199, 200.\n\nFigueredo, Padre Juan de, 164.\n\nFinger and toe count=20: 175, 295, 296, 297.\n\nFire, sacred, Pleiades in connection with kindling, 53;\n  new, kindling of, 56;\n  festival of god of, 57;\n  earliest form under which deity was worshipped, 58, 64, 70;\n  in Peru, 83;\n  lighting of, by means of mirror, 83;\n  god of, associated with sceptre having gold disk, 87;\n  kindled on body of human victim, 91, 95;\n  lord of, 127, 128, 214;\n  feast of in Mexico, 240;\n  name of one of the four eras since the creation of the world, 253;\n  symbolical meaning of, 280;\n  means of producing in Mexico and India, 318;\n  in connection with cult of Polaris, 319;\n  worship of in India, 320, 321;\n  in Parsee religion, 326;\n  in Babylonia-Assyria, 362;\n  ceremonial rite, in ancient Egypt, 442;\n  at New Year festival in Scandinavia, 474;\n  (in Old World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altars, lord\n              of fire, 494-504, 519, 520, 521;\n  (in New World) sacred fire, fire-drill, fire-socket, fire-altar,\n              fire-drill god, 504-509;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nFive elements in China, 293, 301, 309;\n  in India and in Greece, 484, _note_.\n\nFive-day periods, year divided into in Mexico, 292;\n  in Japan, 310.\n\nFive-dot groups, idea of, 256;\n  on monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 260;\n  on coin found in island of Crete, 457;\n  on the cenotaph of king Midas, 459.\n\nFletcher, Alice C., 196, 511.\n\nFlint, Earl, 195.\n\nFlint knife, Tecpatl, in wrappings, symbol of earth-mother, used as\n            sacrificial knife, 55, 56;\n  on head dress in B. N. MS., 57;\n  in connection with emblematic vase, 103;\n  sacred among the Hupa Indians of California, 105;\n  on sacrificial stone of Mexico, 258;\n  emblem of generation, 521\n  (see Tecpatl).\n\nFlood and destruction myths and traditions, 88, 240, 253, 270-275\n  (see Myths and Traditions).\n\nFlower, as symbol, 101;\n  four petals, two leaves and stalk, 191;\n  on Tablet of the Cross, 236;\n  symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, 278;\n  recapitulation of meaning of, 284;\n  lotus in Hindu religion, 314;\n  or rosette, in Assyrian symbolism, 366;\n  seven petalled flower on Ph\u0153nician tablets, 395;\n  Egyptian word for=_ankh_ means also \u201clife,\u201d 413;\n  emblem of Middle, axial rotation and life, 413-420.\n\nFootsteps, in circle, indicating rotation, 90, 279.\n\nForrer, R., 460.\n\nF\u00f6rstemann, E., 107, 109, 112.\n\nFour Elements, in ancient religion and symbolism: union of, in sacred\n            rites, 97;\n  regarded as attributes of Supreme Divinity, 99;\n  Mexican and Zu\u00f1i beliefs and ceremonies, 99-102;\n  symbolized by calendar signs, 182;\n  symbols of, on Mexican Calendar Stone, 249-251, 253, 254;\n  classification of among the Mexicans, Zu\u00f1i, and Chinese, 293, 294;\n  Creator, in Peru and Mexico, named Earth, air, fire and water in One,\n              494, 510, 529.\n\nFour Quarters, in ancient religion and symbolism: 38, 41, 46;\n  on shell gorgets, 48, 49;\n  colors of, represented on feathered serpent, 70;\n  represented in Mexico by four executive officers, 75, 76;\n  ancient Yucatan divided into, 85, 86;\n  in Vienna Codex, 90, 91;\n  in Borgian Codex, 91;\n  represented in Caracol or Round Temple of Chichen Itza, 97;\n  all things divided into, for an indefinite period, finally subdivided,\n              99;\n  figured as single sign, 124;\n  in plan of capital and form of government among Incas, 136, 144;\n  represented on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172;\n  represented by four limbs of human figure, 174;\n  symbolized in ancient American games 176, 178;\n  in F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary Codex, 178;\n  represented by 20-day period, 179, 180;\n  lords of, among the Quiches, 182;\n  colors of, 192;\n  among Zu\u00f1i, 201;\n  in pyramid temple at Chichen Itza, 208;\n  idea of, carried out by Quetzalcoatl in the Mexican temples, 209;\n  ruler of, on Copan stel\u00e6, 220;\n  meaning of symbol as used among the Maya, 223;\n  on Copan swastika, 224;\n  on Palenque tablets, 243;\n  in Mexican calendar-stone, 250;\n  designated by colors on monuments in Mexico, 251;\n  symbolized on monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 260;\n  cult of, in Mexico and Peru, 264;\n  Cortes regarded as Lord of, 266;\n  in connection with pyramid, 273;\n  list of symbols connected with, 278;\n  expressed by pyramid, 282;\n  in flower symbol, 284;\n  in Chinese calendar system, 285, 291;\n  associated with color and the elements, 293;\n  with parts of the body by Chinese, 294;\n  with form of quadruped by Zu\u00f1i, 295;\n  in China, 298;\n  in Japan, 311;\n  in India, 313;\n  in Persia, 325;\n  in Assyria and Babylonia, 332, 333, 337, 357;\n  in Egypt, 369, 372, 386, 394, 395, 415;\n  in ancient Ireland, the five kings assigned one to the middle and the\n              others to the cardinal points, 468;\n  in ancient Britain, 470;\n  in ancient Scandinavia, 472;\n  table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, 480-494;\n  in religious ideas of Old and New World, 517, 539;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nGage, Thomas, 75, 84.\n\nGallatin, 196.\n\nGama, Leon y, 96, 186, 246, 252, 256, 260.\n\nGame of ball, represented idea of perpetual motion of the heavenly bodies,\n            82;\n  of patolli, description of, 87;\n  tlachtli and patolli in Mexico, 176, 177, 178.\n\nGarcia, 150.\n\nGarcilaso de la Vega, 132, 133.\n\nGaul, divided into seven provinces, 493.\n\nGesenius, 518.\n\nGensler, Dr., 395.\n\nGhizeh Museum, 427.\n\nGibbon, 150.\n\nGilgamesh epic, 366.\n\nGillies, John, 487.\n\nGlobus, 52.\n\nGod C, Maya divinity, 108, 111;\n  not identical with Polaris, 112.\n\nGod L, Maya divinity, 108.\n\nGod M, Maya divinity, 108.\n\nGodman, F. Ducane, 120.\n\nGodman and Salvin, 216.\n\nGomara, 26, 39, 90, 150.\n\nGoodyear, William H., 314, 395, 413, 414, 415, 418, 420, 424, 460.\n\nGoose, in Egyptian symbolism, 398;\n  in Egyptian, Sanscrit and Hindu religious art, 418;\n  in the prehistoric art of Greece, Italy, Hallstatt, Gaul, Sweden;\n  name for in different languages, 419.\n\nGordon, G. B., 512.\n\nGottfriedt, J. L., 63.\n\nGovernment (see Quadruple organization, and Social organization).\n\nGreat Plan, stone of, 506.\n\nGreat temple of Mexico, 53, 80;\n  recumbent stone figure on summit of, 96;\n  contains forty high towers to hold effigies of lords of the Above, 107,\n              225.\n\nGreat Turtle at Quirigua, 234, 240.\n\nGreece, use of checker-board design, 124;\n  primitive government of, 445;\n  Athenian culture, 454-459;\n  summary, 484;\n  Greek colonies in Egypt, 491;\n  the symbolic use of the column, 513;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nGreek fret, evolution of, on the American continent, 121;\n  formed by upright and reversed tau, 121.\n\nGriffis, W. E., 310.\n\nGrote, 484, 485, 486, 491, 492, 527.\n\nGuatemala, cult of Polaris, 44;\n  Cakchiquel Indians, 79, 171;\n  obsidian mirror as oracle, 82;\n  ancient capital of, divided into two and four parts, 85;\n  ancient civilization in, 89;\n  mushroom-shaped stone figures from, 114;\n  sculptured slabs resembling image in Inca fable, 153;\n  Nahuatl language spoken in, 155;\n  caste division associated with left hand, evidence that Nahuatl was\n              spoken in, 165;\n  Nahuatl names of four provinces, 172;\n  stela with symbol of open hand, 184;\n  numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, 226;\n  summary, in table of countries, 494.\n\nGubernatis, Angelo de, 318, 544.\n\nGudea, 357.\n\nGuiana, symbolism, etc., compared with that of other ancient American\n            civilizations, 224.\n\nGuillemin, Amed\u00e9e, 162, 163.\n\nHabel, Dr., 154, 156.\n\nHagar, Stansbury, 480, 510.\n\nHakluyt, 140, 161.\n\nHale, Horatio, 196, 198.\n\nHaliburton, R. G., 339, 469.\n\nHammurabi, 349.\n\nHamy, Ernest, 114, 174.\n\nHanan-ayllu, upper lineage in Peru, 133.\n\nHanan Cuzco=the Above, ruled by the Inca, 133;\n  division of Inca capital including those of upper class, 140, 164.\n\nHathor-Isis, Egyptian goddess of whom the queen was the living image,\n            429-437.\n\nHawk god, in Egyptian zodiac, 400;\n  on inscriptions in temple of Denderah, 401;\n  Egyptian god Horus represented with head of hawk, 402;\n  used as image of Amen-Ra, 412.\n\nHeaven, or \u201cthe Above,\u201d in ancient religion and symbolism:\n  in conception of cosmos in ancient Mexico, in secret beliefs of Zu\u00f1i\n              priests, associated with rising of celestial bodies, 41;\n  male region, 42, 54, 62, 65;\n  sacrifices to, 66;\n  Montezuma living representative of, 71, 72;\n  in Zu\u00f1i ceremonies, 100;\n  symbolized as air, light and water, 103;\n  lords of, buried in wooden effigies placed in high towers, 107;\n  associated with rounded form;\n  temples were circular, 113;\n  on lentil-shaped altar at Copan, 114;\n  in mushroom-shaped stone figures from San Salvador and Guatemala, 115;\n  peaked mitre worn by lord of, 116;\n  represented in Mexican ollin-sign by cone, 118;\n  symbolized by conical stone on which human victims were sacrificed, 118;\n  Chinese emblem of, 118;\n  in Moki Indian dance, 119;\n  in ancient architecture, 119-121;\n  on clubs from Brazil and British Guiana, 121;\n  in Peru, 130-146;\n  in Tiahuanaco, 166;\n  in Bogota, 171;\n  represented by human head, 174;\n  associated with human figure, 184, 185;\n  in Mexican tree symbolism, 188, 189;\n  color associated with, 192;\n  priests represented with beards on sculptures at Copan and Quirigua,\n              231;\n  in Mexican calendar-stone, 249;\n  in \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 260;\n  list of symbols connected with, 278, 282;\n  in China, 284-290, 298, 299, 301, 306, 307, 344;\n  Hebrew Jehovah called \u201cGod of Heaven,\u201d 304, 323, 351;\n  in India, 314;\n  in Persia, 325;\n  in Assyria and Babylonia, 334, 336, 338, 339;\n  in Egypt, 429;\n  in Scandinavia, 474;\n  table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, 480;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nHeaven and Earth, union of:\n  symbolized by human face, 46, 47;\n  expressed by cross-symbols, 48;\n  illustrated by double tau-shaped figure, 86;\n  in connection with Toxcatl festival, 97;\n  in ancient architecture, 120;\n  in ancient symbolism 130;\n  typified by shape of irrigating canals of Peru, 132;\n  on Copan stel\u00e6, 221;\n  on summits of high mountains, 283;\n  in China, 286;\n  by figure of ocelot and eagle combined, 296;\n  in Babylonia, 330, 334-346;\n  in Egypt, 425, 429-438.\n\nHebrews, 304, 305, 327, 350, 351, 352, 364.\n\nHeliopolis, seat of learning and monotheism in ancient Egypt, 444.\n\nHeraclitus of Ephesus, 452.\n\nHercules, twelve labors of, 511.\n\nHerodotus, 300, 328, 329, 361, 375, 399, 412, 437, 442-492.\n\nHerrera, 77, 86, 132.\n\nHesiod, 453.\n\nHewitt, 453, 480-482, 494-509, 517-524, 565-575.\n\nHiawatha, 197.\n\nHieroglyphs, and symbols, on stone monuments of Central America, 218-233;\n  Yucatan, 234-244;\n  Mexico, 245-275.\n\nHilavi, 134.\n\nHipparchus, 452.\n\nHippodamus, 486, 516.\n\nHistorical Exposition at Madrid, 23.\n\nHo, ancient name for Merida, on ancient map from Codex Chumazel, 86, 90.\n\nHochelaga, kingdom of, 197;\n  Iroquois central capital, 198.\n\nHolcan, title given to war chiefs in Mexico, signifies literally the head\n            of four, 209;\n  relates to rulership of Four Quarters, 209.\n\nHolmes, W. H., 39-48, 49, 69, 97, 131, 213, 235, 240.\n\nHomer, 451, 452.\n\nHonduras, ancient civilization in, 89, 218;\n  Peabody Museum Expedition, 512\n  (see Copan).\n\nHopi, ceremonial having affinities with the Nahuatl and Maya, 209.\n\nHorizon, western, Nahuatl symbol for=calli, the house, 38.\n\nHorse, sacred animal in Egypt, 409.\n\nHorse-shoe symbol, 106, 107, 108.\n\nHorus, Egyptian God identified with Polaris, 402.\n\nHouse of the Doves at Uxmal, symbolism of, 131.\n\nHuaca, tribal or household \u201cidol\u201d among the Peruvians, origin of, 138,\n            139, 140.\n\nHuaxtecans, 64, 125;\n  Maya colony on Mexican coast, 160, 207, 208.\n\nHuitzilopochtli, tradition concerning, 12;\n  represented as humming-bird, 26;\n  connected with Above, the male region, 42;\n  the traditional leader of the Aztecs, 57;\n  tradition concerning sister of, 60;\n  associated with blue color, 62;\n  represented by Montezuma, 71;\n  title of, \u201cHeart of the Heaven,\u201d 72;\n  companion idol to that of Tezcatlipoca in great temple of Mexico, 80;\n  monolith in Mexico, 245;\n  statue of, 265.\n\nHuman arm, symbol of one of the divisions of state in Mexico, 175.\n\nHuman bones, used as rebus, 183;\n  reason of decoration, 184.\n\nHuman breath, symbolism of, 9, 10\n  (see also Breath).\n\nHuman face, used symbolically, 47;\n  in centre of ollin sign, 54;\n  on sculpture at Tiahuanaco, 169;\n  in Mexican calendar, 169;\n  in Central American sculptures, 221;\n  in Copan sculpture, 222;\n  in Mexican calendar-stone, 248;\n  summary, 281.\n\nHuman faces, of silver and mosaic, on necklace of statue, 265.\n\nHuman figure, in sacrifice regarded as symbolic of Middle and Four\n            Quarters, 91;\n  in mushroom-shaped stone figure, 114;\n  in Vienna Codex, 123;\n  statue of man and woman, symbolized duality in Peru, 134;\n  Inca gold image of Creator and of the sun, 135;\n  image of the State in Mexico, 174;\n  associated with Four Quarters of the Above, 184;\n  combined with animal figure, symbol of dual State, 185;\n  on Copan stel\u00e6, 219-227;\n  at Quirigua, 231, 232, 233, 234;\n  in sculpture at Palenque, and in Mexican F\u00e9j\u00e9rvary chart, 235-240;\n  recapitulation of meaning of symbol;\n  image of constitution and calendar system;\n  calendar signs identified with, 282;\n  seated cross-legged, emblem of stable Centre, 283;\n  parts of, assigned to cardinal points in China, 294;\n  in Zu\u00f1i, 295;\n  significance of, in sculpture, 295;\n  on stela, represented the chief and his term of office, 295;\n  summary of its use as symbol, 296;\n  statue of Buddha conveys idea of swastika, also of Centre, 315;\n  combined with animal in Babylonian symbolism, 335;\n  winged, bird-headed human figure on Assyrian bas-relief, 366;\n  in Egypt, 378, 379, 400, 437, 438;\n  in the island of Crete, 457, 458.\n\nHuman fingers, symbol of four officers, 175.\n\nHuman foot, symbol of lower division of State, 175.\n\nHuman hand, symbol of supplication, 127, 261;\n  on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172;\n  meaning of, 174;\n  wooden sceptre in form of, 174;\n  symbol of capital of State, 175;\n  on garment of chieftain at Uxmal;\n  on stela used as name-sign of ruler in Mexico;\n  symbol of ancient capital in Yucatan;\n  sceptre in shape of, 184;\n  symbol of four lords of the Above, 185;\n  the idea of many hands guided by one head or central power, 186;\n  symbol of lord or chief, 190;\n  expressed numeral five, 279;\n  Egyptian symbol of Centre and Four Quarters, 394.\n\nHuman head, on Tablet of the Cross, 236;\n  as corn cobs on maize plant, 237;\n  in serpents\u2019 jaws on calendar-stone, 257;\n  portraits or effigies of the dead, 276;\n  used as symbol of Centre, 279;\n  on winged bull, 337.\n\nHuman heart, symbol employed by Mexicans, Mayas, Quiches, and Tzendals,\n            71;\n  extracted from human victim of sacrifice, 91;\n  emblem of supplication, 127;\n  in sacrifice, 173, 296;\n  between 4 squares, symbol for chieftain, etc., 199;\n  on monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 261;\n  of gold on necklace of idol, 265.\n\nHuman eye used as star symbol, 279\n  (see Eye symbol).\n\nHuman mouth and teeth, symbolized earth or Below, 281.\n\nHuman nose, mystic union of two streams of breath, consecrated by wearing\n            symbolical nose ornament, 282.\n\nHuman sacrifice\n  (see Sacrifice).\n\nHuman skull, artificial deformation of, 143.\n\nHuman stomach, in China symbol of Centre;\n  death by disemboweling practised, 296.\n\nHuman thumb, symbol of central ruler, 175.\n\nHumboldt, 297, 301, 319.\n\nHumboldt Tablet, 506.\n\nHumis-katshina, Zu\u00f1i dance, tau symbol used in, 119.\n\nHunter, Annie, 222.\n\nHupa Indians, 105.\n\nHurin-ayllo, lower lineage in Peru, 133.\n\nHurin Cuzco=the Below, 133;\n  division of the Inca capital including the lower class, 141, 164.\n\nHuron Indians, 196-199, 493.\n\nHuxley, 526, 534.\n\nHwang-te, Chinese emperor who introduced calendar system, 298, 301.\n\nIdols, represented attributes of divine power, etc., 8;\n  tribal and household, 138, 139, 140.\n\nIk, Maya glyph, 225.\n\nIllinois, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, 44.\n\nImix, Maya glyph, 108.\n\nIncas of Peru, 133;\n  cult of, 134;\n  Great Temple of, 135;\n  gold images of Creator and of the sun, 135, 136;\n  form of government, based on Centre and Four Quarters, 136;\n  ancestor worship, 137;\n  origin of, 151;\n  use of tree symbolism, 186;\n  record of male and female ancestry, 186;\n  gold associated with male element, silver with female, 187;\n  associated with golden effigy of sun, 264;\n  advent into Peru, 539;\n  summary and conclusions, 546\n  (see also Peru).\n\nIndia, divisions of year, 291;\n  astronomical system, 300;\n  swastika abounds in, 312;\n  Mithra, Hindu god of the wheel, 313;\n  Brahmans, Buddhists, 314;\n  marriage custom, 316;\n  numerical divisions, 317;\n  native maps of, 318;\n  ceremonial mode of producing fire, 318;\n  Middle, centrifugal power;\n  quadruple organization, etc., 320;\n  tree worship, 321;\n  worship of Polaris, \u201cthe pivot of the planets,\u201d 448, _note_;\n  summary, 480;\n  Pythagoras derived his philosophy from, 484;\n  sacred fire, fire drill, fire altar, 494;\n  marriage, 498;\n  the Maghas and Nahushas compared with the Mayas of Yucatan and the\n              Xahuas of Mexico, 509;\n  the idea of five elements, 526;\n  active intercourse with seafarers, 541;\n  cyclical system of, assigned to same period as Constantine\u2019s numerical\n              scheme and the calendrical schemes of the Mayas and\n              Mexicans, 542;\n  summary and conclusions, 514.\n\nIndra, 312.\n\nInitial scroll, in Central American inscriptions, 221, 233.\n\nInternationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie, 79.\n\nIreland, numerical divisions;\n  quadruple organization;\n  dual ruler;\n  Middle;\n  Four Quarters;\n  cosmical round tower;\n  Seven Churches;\n  great hall of Tara (midcourt), 468-470;\n  summary, in table of countries, 493.\n\nIroquois, social organization, 196;\n  wampum belts, 197;\n  numerical divisions, 198;\n  linguistic affinities with Mayas, 198, 199.\n\nIrrigation, in ancient Peru, 146.\n\nIshtar, cult of, 342-350;\n  ring or circle, symbol of, 359, 360;\n  \u201caxis of the heavens,\u201d female Polaris, 503.\n\nIsis, Egyptian goddess worshipped under form of cow, 406;\n  in sculpture and symbolism, 421-434;\n  called daughter of the sun, 440, 441.\n\nIsokrates, 492.\n\nIsraelites, 345;\n  idea of central power;\n  star-cult developing into monotheism, 352, 353, 355.\n\nItza, tribe who occupied Chichen-Itza, 206.\n\nIxion\u2019s wheel, 453.\n\nIxkun, 210, 215, 244;\n  bas-relief at, 259.\n\nIxtlilxochitl, 33, 66, 84, 163, 255.\n\nIzamal, ruins of, 214, 217.\n\nIz-calli, Mexican 20-day period, 240;\n  festival of \u201crenovation,\u201d 241.\n\nIztaccihuatl, giant volcano, 275.\n\nJade, Nahuatl word for, chalchiuitl, 34, 81;\n  symbol of;\n  emblem of water goddess, 91;\n  placed with dead of upper class in Mexico, 195;\n  jade celts from Nicaragua, 196;\n  ancient name for pyramid of Cholula, \u201cthe monument or precious jade\n              stone of the Toltecs, etc.,\u201d 269;\n  Chinese word for, significance of, 563, _note_.\n\nJaguar, figure of, represented four lords of the Below, 184, 185;\n  skeleton of, in Mound 4 at Copan, 233;\n  compared with ocelot, 233;\n  on Cross tablets at Palenque, 239\n  (see Ocelot, Puma, Quadruped and Animal form).\n\nJanus, double-faced, probably symbol of double state in Rome, 463.\n\nJapan, junks, 309;\n  organization founded on plan derived from Corea;\n  \u201cgreat Centre of the Earth;\u201d\n  tradition about North Pole;\n  compared with China, 310;\n  Buddhism, 311;\n  four divisions of population, with Emperor at head;\n  governed by two rulers, celestial and terrestrial, 311;\n  swastika;\n  Shinto religion, 311;\n  quadruple organization, 311, 312;\n  summary, 483.\n\nJastrow, Morris, 327-344, 348, 350, 354, 357, 361-367.\n\nJensen, 327.\n\nJerusalem, temples to Baal and altar to Astarte, 350-352;\n  destruction of, 530.\n\nJesup expedition to the North Pacific, 534.\n\nJones, Sir William, 300.\n\nJoyce, 570.\n\nJustinian, 530.\n\nKaan, Maya word for cord, associated with caan, Heaven, 112.\n\nKaka or Akaka-kwe, mythic dance drama people, among the Zu\u00f1i, 204.\n\nKan=numeral four, 110;\n  Maya word for serpent, 112;\n  Nahuatl word for serpent, 189;\n  Chinese word for mountain, also for province or ruler, 287.\n\nKan-asta (Iroquois) frame poles of the council house, 197.\n\nKanasta-tsi-koma (Iroquois) \u201cthe great framework;\u201d\n  name of Iroquois league, 197.\n\nKatun, period of twenty years marked by sculptured stone, 218, 219, 220,\n            221.\n\nKingsborough, 11, 57, 62, 78, 240, 246.\n\nKin (Maya)=sun, 217.\n\nKin-ich-ahua, one title of Maya supreme divinity, 36.\n\nKircher, 485.\n\nKnight, 470.\n\nKukulcan, Maya title for Mexican god Quetzalcoatl, 68;\n  meaning of name=divine serpent, 68, 69;\n  represented by feathered serpent in Yucatan and Mexico, 69;\n  tradition concerning, 69;\n  ruler of Chichen Itza, 69;\n  assumed offices of four rulers, 69;\n  established connection between Chichen Itza and Mexico, 93;\n  compared with culture hero of Bogota, 171;\n  Maya chief or lord, journeyed to Mexico and was there called,\n              Quetzalcoatl, 206;\n  actual person, Maya high priest, Mexican culture hero, 207;\n  brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, 208;\n  name signified \u201cdivine four,\u201d 208;\n  title expressed by serpent on Copan stel\u00e6, 220, 223;\n  represented by monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 262.\n\nKulkun, mountain in China, called king of mountains, summit of the earth,\n            etc., 287.\n\nKushites, myth regarding origin of life, etc., 495.\n\nKwakiutl Indians, social organization and secret societies, 147;\n  compared with Maya, Mexican and Peruvian, 148.\n\nLaced\u00e6mon, ancient philosophy of, 487.\n\nLacouperie, T. de, 300, 302.\n\nLand, conventional symbol of, 123.\n\nLanda, Fra Diego de, 35, 69, 86, 191, 192, 206-220, 242, 281.\n\nLanguage, differed in male and female communities, 193;\n  influence on ancient American symbolism, 284\n  (see Linguistics).\n\nLaoutsze, founder of Taouism, 298, 534.\n\nLaplace, 319.\n\nLas Casas, 67.\n\nLayard, 360.\n\nLea, Chinese word for Below, 118.\n\nLeft-hand;\n  left-handed was attribute of Mexican god, 12;\n  consecration of, in Mexico and Peru, 163, 164;\n  honorific title, 165;\n  on Copan altar, 228.\n\nLegge, 286, 289, 290, 292, 296, 298, 299.\n\nLenormant, 566.\n\nLeon, Cieza de, 136, 150.\n\nLe Plongeon A., 93, 95, 184, 214.\n\nLepsius, 379, 460.\n\nLevier, Emile, 477, 478.\n\nLife of the Indians (same as Hispano-Mexican MS., Biblioteca Nazionale\n            MS., or B. N. MS.).\n\nLinguistics, traces of words associated with archaic set of ideas in Old\n            and New World, 531;\n  comparative tables of words, Appendix I, 549; and Appendix III, 563.\n\nLion, sacred symbol in Egypt, 408.\n\nLizard, skin of, in connection with human sacrifice, and with goddess of\n            earth and underworld, 91, 96, 98.\n\nLizana, 210.\n\nLloque Yupanqui, third Inca, 133.\n\nLockyer, Norman, 13, 14, 20, 162, 252, 376, 377, 381, 382, 384, 385, 386,\n            400.\n\nLorenzana, 68.\n\nLorillard City (see Mench\u00e9), 210;\n  sculpture and art of, 234.\n\nLotus, as symbol in Egypt and India, 314, 320, 379, 413.\n\nLoubat, Duc de, 230, 504.\n\nLuna, Don Jose, 50.\n\nLunar year, 254.\n\nLunar periods, 256.\n\nLunar calendar in Mexico, 297;\n  in China, 297, 298.\n\nLuschan, Felix von, 332, 356, 357.\n\nLysicrates, choragic monument of, 127.\n\nLycurgus, 457, 487.\n\nMaghadas of India, 497.\n\nMaghas of India compared with Mayas, 509;\n  a Finnic race, 519.\n\nMaghi of Persia, 497.\n\nMagnus, P., 477, 478.\n\nMahaffy, J. P., 417.\n\nMaize, ceremonial, 78;\n  symbol of goddess of Earth, 91, 98;\n  used in ceremonial offerings by Californian Indians, 105;\n  on earth symbol in codices, 109, 117, 123;\n  on sculptures at Palenque and Copan, 237, 239, 243;\n  in Mexican New Year festivals, 241;\n  cultivation of, in very early times, 272, 275;\n  legacy of Corn Maidens and Daughters of Earth, 276;\n  as year symbol, 291.\n\nMaler, Teobert, 184, 212, 213, 214.\n\nMaltaya bas-relief, 359, 360.\n\nManco, Capac, 133;\n  founder of Cuzco, 156, 161, 186.\n\nManch\u00e9, a tribe of Mench\u00e9 and Palenque, 235.\n\nMandaite pole-star worship, 321, 322, 556.\n\nMarch, H. Colley, 23, 24.\n\nMarcianus, 530.\n\nMarket stone of the City of Mexico, 245\n  (see Mexican Calendar Stone).\n\nMarinus, 452.\n\nMaritime intercourse between Old and New World, interrupted for many\n            centuries by interregnum of Polaris, 531;\n  equatorial currents favoring migrations to New World, 524, 525;\n  evidence of Gr\u00e6co-Egyptian contact with Mexico, 538\n  (see Pre-Columbian contact).\n\nMarkham, Clements B., 132, 136, 142, 152, 160, 168, 510.\n\nMarriage, in Mexico, sacred rites in connection with, 102;\n  laws governing, 176;\n  among the Hindu, 316;\n  on New Year\u2019s day in Babylonia and Assyria, 331, 346;\n  in ancient Egypt, 441;\n  festivals, in India and in Mexico connected with worship of Pleiades,\n              498\n  (see Heaven and Earth, union of).\n\nMarroquin, 80.\n\nMaspero, 437, 518.\n\nMaster builders, ah-men, Maya name for;\n  aman-teca, Mexican name for, 234;\n  kinship between those of Central America and Mexico, and the trained\n              builders of cosmical structures in the Old World, 517, 529,\n              532, 533.\n\nMaudslay, Alfred P., 120, 121, 170, 172, 215, 216, 218, 219, 221, 222,\n            223, 227, 229, 230, 233, 234, 235, 236, 239, 504.\n\nMayapan, capital of confederacy of Mayas, 69;\n  ancient capital of Yucatan, 86;\n  Ho, another name for, 206;\n  Ichpa, another name for, 206;\n  ancient chronicles, 209, 211;\n  Cocomes, people of, 211-216.\n\nMayer\u2019s Manual, 285.\n\nMazahuas or deer people, of Guatemala, 165.\n\nMcGee, W. J., 101.\n\nMecca, \u201cthe mother of cities;\u201d\n  the grave of Mother Eve, 323.\n\nMedhurst, W. H., 285, 289.\n\nMelchites, 530.\n\nMemorial stones, in Copan, 219.\n\nMen, name of dog in Maya calendar;\n  means master-builder, artisan, etc., 234.\n\nMench\u00e9, ancient ruins of, 215;\n  \u201cLorillard City,\u201d 234;\n  ancient civilization of, 244.\n\nMendieta, 44, 67, 76.\n\nMerida, modern capital of Yucatan, 68;\n  ancient name, \u201cHo,\u201d 85;\n  figured in ancient map, 86.\n\nMesopotamia, pole-star worship, 321, 557;\n  quadruple organization, stable Centre, 322;\n  seat of various empires, 334.\n\nMexican Calendar Stone\n  (see Calendar Stone of Mexico).\n\nMexican Calendar system\n  (see Calendar Systems).\n\nMexican MSS. unpublished, 90.\n\nMexican Sacrificial Stone\n  (see Sacrificial stone).\n\nMexico, number of deities;\n  same god under several names, 7;\n  idols, 8;\n  worship of supreme Creator, 8;\n  calendar-swastika, 9;\n  calendar-stone, 12, 13, 95, 245-258, 280;\n  system of government, origin of, 15;\n  game, symbolizing axial rotation, 24, 25;\n  calendar system, 25, 35, 53, 100, 145, 176, 179, 182, 221, 245, 282,\n              297, 528, 529, 530;\n  Great Temple of, 58, 83, 90, 96, 107, 225, 507;\n  City of, divided into four quarters, 83;\n  built on dual island in dual lake, 84;\n  ancient map of, 88;\n  ancient capital of, divided into two halves, 89;\n  recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessel, 93;\n  tribal and household \u201cidols,\u201d origin of, 139;\n  native arms of, 157;\n  caste division associated with left hand, 165;\n  origin of human sacrifice, 173;\n  numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical\n              with Peru, Copan, Guatemala, Yucatan, Zu\u00f1i, etc., 226;\n  map of, to be published, 230, 231;\n  compared with other ancient cultures of America, 235-244;\n  sun cult and moon cult existing at same time, 264;\n  dual government at time of Conquest, 266;\n  cradle of American civilizations, 276;\n  names of symbols translated from Maya, 278;\n  swastika symbol found associated with calendar signs, 280;\n  spider\u2019s web as symbol of numerical divisions, 293;\n  summary, in table of countries, 494;\n  the sacred and tribal tree, 499;\n  lighting the sacred fire, 504;\n  symbols and plan of government compared to those of Old World, 506-524;\n  numerical divisions on which the cosmical scheme was based, 528;\n  date when calendar was instituted, 530;\n  ruder forms of culture, 531;\n  civilization at time of Conquest indicative of contact with Old World,\n              538;\n  period of warfare, pestilence, etc., 539;\n  resemblance between name of capital (Temistitan), and of Greek\n              philosopher, Themistius, 543;\n  summary and conclusions, 546.\n\nMeyer\u2019s Lexikon, 288.\n\nMicmac Indians, myths about Ursa Major, 510.\n\nMictlampa, Nahuatl name for the North, 8.\n\nMictlan, land of the dead, 40, 245.\n\nMictlantecuhtli, identical with Tezcatlipoca, 8;\n  lord of the North, 9, 11;\n  symbols of, 37, 42, 44, 47, 57, 185, 186, 249, 260, 295.\n\nMidas, king of Phrygia, 459.\n\nMigration, from the north, to South America, 224;\n  caused by desire to find stable centre of the earth, 275;\n  in Mexico and Central America in twelfth century, 539\n  (see Migration myths).\n\nMigration myths and traditions: in connection with cult of Polaris, 43;\n  Peruvian, Mayan, Mexican, 149, 150, 151;\n  motive of, explained by Zu\u00f1i, 201, 202;\n  Kukulcan driven out of Chichen Itza and journeyed to Mexico, 206;\n  three brothers came from the West and settled in Chichen Itza, 207;\n  into Yucatan from the South, 210, 211;\n  the Mayas came from Tollan in Zu-iva, 217;\n  the Mexican culture hero came from the East, \u201cthe ancient red land,\u201d\n              525, 528-530\n  (see Myths and Traditions).\n\nMikado, 311.\n\nMill-stone, as symbol, 494-509.\n\nMilne, J. G., 425.\n\nMinotaurus, ruler of island of Crete, 457.\n\nMirror, of obsidian, 10;\n  used as oracle among the Cakchiquel Indian of Guatemala, 80;\n  in sacred edifices;\n  in great temple of Mexico;\n  eyes of image of Tezcatlipoca, 80;\n  symbol of Tezcatlipoca;\n  oracle of judgment in Mexico and Guatemala;\n  aid to astronomical observations, 82;\n  of obsidian, symbol of star-cult;\n  of polished pyrites, symbol of sun-cult, 83;\n  in connection with symbolical tree and serpent, 110;\n  bowl of water, preceded use of, 225;\n  in Shinto symbolism, 311;\n  in Egypt, 409.\n\nMississippi valley, cult of Polaris, 44;\n  earth-work builders, 50;\n  early peoples of, in contact with Mayas, 112;\n  names of cities and tribes showing Maya influence, art resembling that\n              of Mayas, 199.\n\nMissouri, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, 44.\n\nMit (Egyptian)=death, or the dead, 381.\n\nMithra, Aryan god of the wheel, 313.\n\nMitimaes, Peruvian colonists, 149.\n\nMitla, 244;\n  recent excavations at, 513.\n\nMoabites, 351.\n\nMohammedans, 305.\n\nMol, glyph on Copan altar, 227.\n\nMolina\u2019s dictionary, 8, 93, 132, 138, 139, 141, 145, 146, 147, 152, 154,\n            158, 165, 168, 186, 189, 192, 553.\n\nMonarquia Indiana, 95.\n\nMongolia, Buddhists of, 315.\n\nMonkey=Ozomatli, Mexican day-sign, 112.\n\nMonophysite doctrine of Eutyches, 530.\n\nMontagua river, 215, 230.\n\nMontesinos, 146, 150.\n\nMontezuma, 34, 43, 54, 60, 61, 67-75, 83, 106, 125, 150, 183, 208, 231,\n            245, 265, 266, 540, 547.\n\nMoon, associated with cult of night, Earth Mother, the Below, 104;\n  in Peruvian cult of the Below, 134, 135, 148;\n  in Bogota, 171;\n  astronomical attainments of priests of, 180;\n  in Mexican calendar stone, 250;\n  image in silver on pyramid at Teotihuacan, 264, 267;\n  in China, 286, 287, 292;\n  lunar calendar, 297;\n  in religion of Persia, 325;\n  in Babylonia and Assyria, 332, 344, 347;\n  in Egypt, 389, 424, 438.\n\nMoqui Indians, tau symbol used by, 119.\n\nMorien, 471.\n\nMorse, Edward T., 473, 478.\n\nMortillet, Gabriel de, 19.\n\nMortuary customs in Mexico, placing jade with dead of upper class, and\n            texaxoctli with dead of lower class, 195;\n  carried northward from the south, 196;\n  body of Mexican ruler covered with raiment of four principal gods, 209.\n\nMoslems, 324.\n\nMotowori, 575.\n\nMotul, dictionary of, 112.\n\nMound, symbol of Earth, 110;\n  in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, 224.\n\nMound-builders (see \u201cEarth-work Builders\u201d).\n\nMountain, sacred (see \u201cPyramid or Mountain\u201d).\n\nMueller, Iwan, 454.\n\nM\u00fcller, Max, 459, 484, 564.\n\nMuluc, Maya division of 4 years assigned to the north, 218.\n\nMummy, in Egyptian symbolism, 380, 394, 403, 404, 410.\n\nMuseums: American, of New York, 234;\n  Berlin, 380, 417, 423, 424, 426, 427, 457, 460, 507;\n  Bonn, 464; British, 151, 166, 234, 353, 355-357, 366, 457, 459;\n  Dresden, 129, 155;\n  Ghizer, 427;\n  National, Mexico, 9, 13, 86, 93, 98, 256, 260;\n  National, Washington, 19, 51;\n  New Haven, 507;\n  Peabody, 34, 48, 61, 153, _note_, 195, 218, _note_, 512;\n  South Kensington, 216, 227, 234, 239, 313;\n  Stockholm, 48; Trocadero, 104, 174, _note_.\n\nMushroom-shaped stone figures, from San Salvador and Guatemala, 114;\n  represent native idea of Above and Below with central ruler of both,\n              114;\n  indicate belief in one supreme ruler, 115.\n\nMussulman, 324.\n\nMuyscas of Bogota, 171.\n\nMyths and traditions: _Creation_ myths\n    (see separate heading), 54, 55, 56, 105, 138, 200, 223, 313-318, 334,\n                340, 353, 495;\n  _flood and destruction_ myths\n    (see separate heading), 88, 240, 253, 270-275;\n  _migration_ myths\n    (see separate heading), 43, 149, 150, 201, 202, 206, 207, 210,\n                211-217, 525-530;\n  _star cult_ myths,\u2014Mexican, 11, 12, 25, 26;\n    American Indian, 511, _note_;\n    Turanian, 517, 518;\n  _Mexican_, life after death and relative position of man and woman, 38,\n              39;\n    Tezcatlipoca cast down from Heaven and arose as an ocelot, 44, 45;\n    Quilaztli, \u201cwoman serpent,\u201d 60-62;\n  _Maya_, culture hero, Kukulcan, 69;\n    suggesting worship of Polaris, 159;\n    relating to 7-day period among the Cakchiquel Indians of Guatemala,\n                182;\n  _Peruvian_, concerning the Inca Yupanqui who introduced the worship of\n              the Creator, 152, 153;\n    relating to ancestors of Manco Capac and the \u201croyal eagle,\u201d 156;\n    concerning contest between serpent and eagle, compared with similar\n                Mexican tradition, 159;\n  _Japanese_, concerning birthplace of Japanese race, 310;\n  _Arabian_, Moslem tradition about Heavenly and earthly Kaaba, 324;\n    astronomical, 465;\n  _Assyrian_, relating to planet Venus and god Ishtar, 344;\n  _Greek_, about fire-drill, 496, and Ixion, 500;\n  _Rig Veda_, origin of fire, 521.\n\nNahr-el-Kelb, bas-reliefs at, 357;\n  Esarhaddon stela, 359.\n\nNahuas of Mexico compared with Nahushas of India, 509, 519.\n\nNahui-ollin, Mexican symbol, \u201cfour movements,\u201d 170;\n  represents four movements of constellations, 250;\n  summary of the four-fold divisions of which it was a symbol, 251;\n  commemorated the four epochs of the world\u2019s history, 253;\n  common to the various ancient peoples of America, 256, _note_\n  (see also Ollin).\n\nNakhunte, king of Susiana, 299.\n\nNaming of children in Mexico and Yucatan, 242.\n\nNavel, name of cosmical centre where human victims were annually\n            sacrificed by Mexican priests=\u201cNavel of the Earth,\u201d 64;\n  Cuzco called \u201cNavel of the Earth,\u201d 133;\n  symbol in ancient American art, 296;\n  in Arabia, 323;\n  in India, \u201cNavel of the heaven,\u201d 520;\n  \u201cNavel of the world,\u201d 521.\n\nNavigation, primitive crafts and charts, Ceylon and Karashee, 159, 160;\n  Peruvian fishing boats of seal skin;\n  Quetzalcoatl\u2019s twin raft of serpent or seal skin;\n  illustrations in native codices and sculptures, 160\n  (see also Boat and Maritime intercourse).\n\nNebuchadnezzar, 365.\n\nNecklace of hearts and hands, on Mexican idol, indicative of supplication,\n            128.\n\nNeo-platonism, 527.\n\nNepantla, the zenith, 38.\n\nNest, in Egyptian symbolism, 398.\n\nNestorian Tablet, 304.\n\nNew Year\u2019s Day, in ancient Mexico and Central America, 240-244;\n  in China, 292;\n  in Mesopotamia, 321, 557;\n  in Babylonia and Assyria, 331, 346;\n  in ancient Egypt, 419, 425-437;\n  in Scandinavia, 473.\n\nNezahual coyotl, ruler of Texcoco who erected temple to \u201cUnknown God,\u201d 33,\n            163;\n  title, Ome Tochtli=2 rabbit, 180.\n\nNicaragua, star-symbol on pottery from, 50;\n  ancient occupation by Nahuatl-speaking race, 158;\n  jade celts from, 195.\n\nNiebuhr, 514.\n\nNight, priest of, lord of, 82;\n  sons of, 83;\n  Egyptian symbol of, a star suspended by thread, 387.\n\nNimroud bas-reliefs, 366.\n\nNirvana, in Hindu religion, 315.\n\nNordenskj\u00f6ld, Baron Gustav, 119, 230, _note_.\n\nNorsemen, Eddas, symbolism, celestial tree, 502, 503.\n\nNorth, symbols of, 10;\n  sign of, 35;\n  underworld, 39;\n  in Cosmos, associated with Tecpatl=flint, red, fire, warmth, 42;\n  symbol of, 56, 57;\n  color of, red, 57;\n  lord of, 57;\n  female region, 64;\n  symbol of, in Mexican calendar-stone, 250;\n  region of the dead, 267;\n  Maya name and symbol of, 278;\n  Buddha associated with, 316;\n  veneration of, in India, 317;\n  in Egyptian pyramid symbolism, 381;\n  Babylonian word=akkad, 400.\n\nNose, grotesque, on sculptures at Copan, Quirigua and Palenque, 240.\n\nNose ornament, religious idea associated with, 103.\n\nNott and Gliddon, races of men recognized by ancient Egyptians, 373.\n\nNumbers, sacred, 29, 30\n  (see Numerical divisions).\n\nNumerical divisions, in sociological and calendrical systems:\n  in Mexico and Central America, 29, 62;\n  in Peru, 144, 147, 167;\n  in Guatemala, 164, 171, 179;\n  represented by human figure, 174, 175;\n  in Mexican government, 179, 181;\n  carried northward from the south, 196;\n  in Huron Confederacy, 198;\n  among the Zu\u00f1i, 201;\n  in Yucatan, 209, 218, 223;\n  at Chichen Itza, 212, 213;\n  in Copan, 221, 226, 228, 229;\n  in symbolic carving from South America, 224;\n  in Quirigua, 232, 233;\n  in Mexican Calendar stone, 248, 256;\n  on monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 261;\n  in China, 286, 292, 302;\n  Mexican compared with Chinese, 297;\n  in Japan, 310;\n  in India, 313, 320;\n  in Persia, 325;\n  in Assyria, 328, 348, 358, 360;\n  in Egypt, 368-376;\n  in cyclical systems of Egyptians, Hindus, Chinese, Mexicans, Mayas and\n              Greeks, 450;\n  in ancient Rome, 464;\n  and Greece, 484;\n  in ancient Ireland, 468-470;\n  Britain, 470;\n  Wales, 471;\n  Scandinavia, 471, 472;\n  table of countries in which used, 480-494;\n  Plato\u2019s \u201cdivine polities\u201d compared with scheme of organization in Mexico\n              and Peru, 509;\n  summary, as shown in Yucatan and Mexico, 528;\n  chief ruler called \u201cFour in One,\u201d 529;\n  apparent survival in early Christian religion, 536-538;\n  in Plato\u2019s and Inca\u2019s scheme of state, 539;\n  in Constantine\u2019s plan, and in Maya and Mexican calendars, 542, 543;\n  analogies and divergences, American divisions agree with Greek but\n              differ from Chinese, 546.\n\nNutt, David, 451.\n\nNuttall, Zelia, work on the Atlatl, 34;\n  on the Mexican Calendar system, 7, 53, 244-247.\n\nObsidian mirror\n  (see \u201cMirror\u201d).\n\nOcelot, Tezcatlipoca took shape of, 8;\n  in Mexican mythical drama, 12;\n  of nocturnal sky, 35;\n  in Mexican codices, 44;\n  at Tiahuanaco, 166;\n  title of one division of Mexican warriors, 167;\n  man with beast (ocelot or jaguar,) symbol of dual State in Yucatan, 185;\n  title of minor rulers in Yucatan, 185;\n  man-ocelot and man-bird, represented rulers of two divisions of state in\n              Mexico, 185;\n  or tiger, warrior-caste of Mexico, 212;\n  skin of, worn by high-priest in Copan and Quirigua, 231, 233;\n  totem of the Fire people in Mexico, 254;\n  symbolized cult of Earth, as opposed to bird, symbol of cult of Heaven,\n              282;\n  symbol of State in ancient America, 295, 296\n  (see also Jaguar, Puma and Quadruped).\n\nOcna, a Maya festival, 242.\n\nOctli, name of native wine, 78;\n  pulque, 101;\n  earth-wine, indicated by figure of rabbit, 103.\n\nOctli-gods, agents of the Cihuacoatl, 78;\n  rain gods, 96;\n  rain-priests, 101;\n  priests of the earth, emblem of=vase filled with rain or earth-wine,\n              107;\n  monkey intimately connected with, 112.\n\nOdin, Scandinavian king and deity, 471;\n  Norse \u201cruler of Heaven,\u201d 473.\n\nOhio valley, ancient earth-work builders in contact with ancient Mexicans,\n            50;\n  art resembles Maya, 199;\n  swastika symbol associated with serpent symbol, 280.\n\nOjibway Indians, 511, _note_.\n\nOldenburg, 484.\n\nOld World, fire-drill, fire altar, sacred fire, oil press, millstone,\n            axial rotation, etc., 494-504;\n  civilizations compared with New World, 504-609, 525;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nOliva, Padre Anello, 132, 150, 154, 156, 157, 164.\n\nOliver, G., 484, 485.\n\nOllin, in Calendar-stone, 12, 13, 14, 15, 54\n  (see also Nahuiollin).\n\nOlmos, Friar Andreas de, 54, 189, 190, 195.\n\nOlympic Games, marked cycle or period, 485.\n\nOmacatl, associated with water, 81.\n\nOmaha Indians, measured time by Ursa Major, 511, _note_.\n\nOme Tochtli Ixtlilxochitl, 163.\n\nOndegardo, Polo de, 132, 141, 148.\n\nO\u2019Neil, 448, 449, 451, 468, 469, 471, 472, 547, 568, 570, 572, 574.\n\nOriental Congress, 544.\n\nOrientation, 42;\n  of Copan and Quirigua the same, 230;\n  of temples at Palenque, 235;\n  diagonal, in Egypt and Central America, 372, _note_;\n  Egyptian pyramids faced the north, and the pole-star, 382;\n  temples in Lower Egypt faced to the North; in Upper Egypt to the South,\n              383.\n\nOrigin of American civilizations, 543;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nOrizaba, giant volcano, 275;\n  ancient name, Citlal-tepetl=Star Mountain, 275, _note_.\n\nOzomatli, monkey;\n  Mexican day-sign, 112.\n\nPacha-Yachachi, Inca name for Creator, 135.\n\nPainting, in connection with symbolism, 114;\n  of body and face in Peru, Mexico and Yucatan, 192, 193\n  (see Color).\n\nPalenque, Palace House with tau-shaped recesses, 121, _note_;\n  character of stel\u00e6, 215;\n  study of monuments, 234-239;\n  same cult as Quirigua and Copan, 240;\n  tablets, tribal registers, 243;\n  tablet, in \u201cTemple of the Sun,\u201d likened to Mexican Sacrificial stone,\n              259.\n\nPalestine, cult of Astarte and Baal, and monotheism of the Israelites,\n            345.\n\nPan, feast of, 442.\n\nPantheon, 515.\n\nPanuco, Maya colony established at, 125, 207, 208, _note_.\n\nPapa, name of Mexican Priest, 39.\n\nPapakhu, name of inner sanctuary of Babylonian and Assyrian temple, 330,\n            331.\n\nPapalotl, butterfly, 39.\n\nParry, Francis, 104.\n\nParsee religion, worship of fire as outcome of pole-star worship, 326.\n\nParturition, symbolized by shell, 95;\n  by snail, 111.\n\nPath of the Dead, ancient road leading to Pyramid of the Moon, 267.\n\nPatolli, native Mexican game, 87;\n  symbolized social organization, 176, 177.\n\nPaz Solden, 150.\n\nPeabody Museum, 34, 48, 61, 153, _note_, 195.\n\nPeabody Museum Honduras Expedition, 218, _note_, 512.\n\nPedregal de San Augustin, ancient lava-field in City of Mexico, 271.\n\nPeking, contains temple to North Star God, 284\n  (see China and Polaris).\n\nPe\u00f1atiel, Antonio, 262.\n\nPerez, 109.\n\nPerrot and Chipiez, 421.\n\nPerry, John, 547.\n\nPersia, ancient religion of;\n  swastika;\n  seven divisions of Cosmos, four-fold rule, 325, 484.\n\nPeru, worship of Pleiades, 53;\n  sacred fire, 83;\n  use of checker board design, 124;\n  light and dark colors used to designate the Above and Below, 130;\n  irrigating canals in symbolic form, 132, 146;\n  outline of civilization, 132;\n  stone monument typifying duality, 134;\n  knowledge of Creator, 135;\n  form of government, 136, 137;\n  tribal and household \u201cidols,\u201d 138, 139, 140;\n  four rulers, 141;\n  classification of people, 142;\n  \u201cwhite virgins,\u201d title given to upper class maidens;\n  \u201cblack virgins,\u201d lower class;\n  caste;\n  deformation of skulls, 143;\n  ceremony for driving out sickness, 144;\n  Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, 144;\n  ceremony illustrating rotation, 145;\n  religious festivals, 146, 147;\n  civilization from the north, 150;\n  prehistoric ruins, 151, 156;\n  Inca fable, 152;\n  compared with symbolism of sculptured slabs in Guatemala, 153, 154, 155,\n              156;\n  linguistic affinities between Quechua and Maya and Nahuatl, 158, 159;\n  Polaris;\n  navigation, 159, 160;\n  worship of \u201cCreator\u201d (Polaris) superseded sun and moon cults, 161, 164;\n  caste division associated with left hand, 165;\n  ruins of Tiahuanaco, 165-169;\n  symbols compared with those of Mexico and Central America, 170;\n  summary, 494;\n  scheme of government compared with Plato\u2019s \u201cdivine polities\u201d, 509, 539;\n  summary and conclusions, 546.\n\nPetrie, Flinders, 375, 380, 404, 425, 439, 461, 483, 491.\n\nPheidon of Corinth, 486, _note_.\n\nPherecydes, the Ph\u0153nician teacher of Pythagoras, 526.\n\nPhilolaus, 485, 527.\n\nPh\u0153nicians, cult of Astarte, 345;\n  a northern race, called Turanians, 517;\n  navigators, 519;\n  worshipped serpent, fire-drill and the Pleiades;\n  called the \u201cred men,\u201d 521;\n  tradition indicates their migration to the New World, 524, 525, 528-535;\n  evidence of their influence, 538-541;\n  allied to Semitic race, 540, _note_, 541, 543;\n  summary and conclusions, 546.\n\nPig, sacred animal in Egypt, 409.\n\nPigmy races, traditions of, 339.\n\nPillar, worship of (see Column).\n\nPilli, Mexican title, 74;\n  meaning \u201cfingers,\u201d title of minor lords, 282.\n\nPilquixtia, a Mexican festival, 240.\n\nPinches, Mr., 357.\n\nPlato, 346, 444-451, 467, 486-490, 509, 527, 529, 539, 546.\n\nPlato\u2019s \u201cDivine Polities,\u201d identical with scheme of government in ancient\n            Mexico and Peru, 509, 539.\n\nPleiades, study of, by primitive peoples, 52;\n  on Society Islands, 52;\n  in Mexico, 53;\n  in southern America, 53, 54;\n  on Mexican Calendar-stone, 252;\n  in Chinese calendar, 296;\n  in Babylonia and Assyria, 338 (see Polaris, Ursa Major and Ursa Minor);\n  worship of, in India and Mexico;\n  in connection with New Year and marriage festivals, 498.\n\nPlotinus, 527.\n\nPlutarch, 441, 452, 488.\n\nPolar constellations, chart of, 16.\n\nPolar regions, both hemispheres originally peopled from, 531.\n\nPolaris, the author\u2019s observation of, 7;\n  primitive man\u2019s study of, 14, 15;\n  Draconis, as pole-star;\n  apparent immovability;\n  means of determining direction;\n  supernatural power, 21; worship of;\n  centre of axial energy, 22;\n  Mexican Calendar system suggested by, 25;\n  numerical value of, 30, 31;\n  centre of cosmic system, 40, 41;\n  changes in relative positions of, 42;\n  ceased to be brilliant and immovable about 500 B.C. to 1200 A.D., 43;\n  cult of;\n  migrations from south to north, 43;\n  spread of cult in Mexico, Yucatan, Honduras, Guatemala, Peru;\n  also, in Mississippi valley, as indicated by carvings on shell gorgets,\n              44;\n  symbols of, analogous to cross and star symbols on shell gorgets from\n              Tennessee, 48, 49, 50;\n  suggestions of cult among the Eskimo, 50;\n  represented by star symbols and swastika on pottery from Arizona and\n              Nicaragua, 50;\n  in connection with cult of Earth and Night, 54;\n  represented by Montezuma on his throne, 72;\n  not identical with God C, 112;\n  as centre of rotation in Zu\u00f1i emblem, 129;\n  as a guide in navigation between Guatemala, Nicaragua and Peru, 159;\n  between Ceylon and Karachee, 159, 160;\n  cult superseded sun and moon cults in Peru, 161;\n  invisible at Cuzco;\n  Inca worship of the invisible Creator, 161;\n  Yoal-tecuhtli, Mexican lord of the Night;\n  title of Polaris, 181;\n  producer of life and regulator of the universe;\n  tecpatl (flint knife) symbol of, 183;\n  in connection with tree symbolism;\n  title, \u201cHeart Of Heaven,\u201d 189;\n  among the Zu\u00f1i, 202;\n  at Copan, 222, 224;\n  reflected in bowl of water=Creator, 225;\n  in Shakespeare, 247;\n  represented central face in Mexican calendar-stone, 250;\n  Calendar-stone based on observation of, 257, _note_;\n  in connection with pyramid, 273, 274;\n  in connection with swastika symbol, 276;\n  Maya name, Ek-chuah, patron divinity of travellers and traders, 278;\n  North Star God, temple to, in Pekin;\n  Chinese name=Teen-hwang-ta-tee, literally the great imperial ruler of\n              Heaven, 284-287, 291, 295;\n  in work of Confucius, 298;\n  in Chinese Taouism, 301, 302;\n  Hebrew Jehovah, having same title, \u201cGod of Heaven,\u201d 304;\n  in India, 316, 318, 319;\n  in Mesopotamia, 321;\n  in Arabia, 324;\n  linguistic affinity between name of Polaris, and word for capital and\n              for north, in Babylonia, 325;\n  Ph\u0153nician name=the serpent, 325;\n  in Persia, 326;\n  in Babylonia, \u201clord or king\u201d, \u201cGreat Mountain,\u201d 329;\n  cult of, in Assyria and Babylonia, 332-339;\n  among the Israelites, 352;\n  in Babylonia, highest form developed into monotheism, and lowest form\n              into cult of Ishtar and Bel, 353;\n  represented in Babylonian temples by a fire in centre of square altar,\n              362, 363;\n  Euphratean star-worshippers, 364;\n  high development of cult in Egypt, 368, 376-382;\n  Egyptian mummy, image of, 386;\n  Egyptian names for, 398, 401-403;\n  in Egyptian religion and symbolism, 403, 404, 409, 410, 415, 421, 423;\n  in India, called the \u201cpivot of the planets,\u201d 448, _note_;\n  in Arabia, \u201cthe hole where the earth\u2019s axle found its bearing,\u201d 448,\n              _note_;\n  in ancient Greece, 450-453;\n  Greek Polos, a star revolving on itself, 453, 454;\n  indicated by cross symbol before the use of swastika, 461;\n  called by early Danes and Icelanders, \u201cthrone of Thor\u201d or \u201csmaller\n              Chariot,\u201d 473;\n  called by Finns \u201cTaehti=star at the top of the heavenly mountain,\u201d 473;\n  among the ancient Scandinavians and their descendants the Vikings, 474;\n  circumpolar region, probable birth-place of cult, 475;\n  table of countries in which traces of cult have been found, 480;\n  associated with use of fire-drill in Old and New World, 494;\n  among Hindus, 498;\n  Greek Ixion, 500;\n  Assyrian goddess Ishtar called the \u201caxis of the heavens,\u201d female\n              Polaris, 503;\n  figured by wooden or stone socket from which fire and water flowed to\n              the four quarters, 503;\n  pole-star god of the Hindus compared with fire-drill god of Mexico, 505;\n  the Mexican pole-star god compared with the Hindu, Greek, Norse,\n              Russian, etc., 505;\n  Old and New World, 517;\n  Ph\u0153nicians steered by, from earliest times, 523, 525;\n  interval of time when the pole star ceased to be conspicuous, 525;\n  maritime intercourse interrupted, 531;\n  reappearance of, 538;\n  summary and conclusions, 544;\n  Mesopotamian prayer meeting of star-worshippers (Appendix II), 557.\n\nPopocatepetl, volcano, Mexico, 275.\n\nPopol-Vuh, sacred book of the Quich\u00e9s, 72, _note_, 113, 270.\n\nPopular Science Monthly, 478.\n\nPorto Rico, stone objects from, 118;\n  cult of aborigines, 118.\n\nPowell, J. W., 288, _note_.\n\nPowers, Stephen, 105.\n\nPre-Columbian contact indicated by same cosmical divisions and scheme of\n            government in Old and New World, 480-504;\n  same symbolism, etc., 509-544;\n  traditions indicate, 525, 528, 529, 530;\n  question of contact between China and America, 534;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nPrescott, 541.\n\nPritchard, W. T., 290.\n\nProctor, Richard A., 162.\n\nPropitiation, origin of, 177.\n\nPtolemy, 452.\n\nPueblo Indians, use of tau, 119;\n  associate step pyramid with rain, 132;\n  affinities with Mexican and Maya, 199;\n  corn maidens, 276.\n\nPull\u00e9, Mr., 318.\n\nPulque, in connection with cult of earth-mother, 193\n  (see Octli).\n\nPuma, four heads terminating arms of swastika at Tiahuanaco,\n  (see Quadruped, Ocelot and Jaguar).\n\nPutnam, F. W., 50, 196, 199, 545.\n\nPyramid or sacred mountain:\n  culmination of symbolism of cone, 118;\n  in mountain worship, 132;\n  Maya word for, 191;\n  Lord of the Mountain a sovereign title among the Quich\u00e9, 211;\n  origin and significance of, 251;\n  typified numerical divisions, 252;\n  on statue \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 262;\n  origin attributed to the Maya speaking people;\n  at Teotihuacan, 263;\n  interpretation of affix \u201ccan\u201d in names of Mexican and Maya towns, 263,\n              264, 266, 268;\n  image of central, dual and quadruple power, 269, _note_;\n  of Cholula, ancient name for, means \u201cthe monument or precious jade stone\n              of the Toltecs, etc.,\u201d 269;\n  erected as place of refuge from inundations, 272;\n  symbol of Central power, and quadruple organization, 274;\n  same as expressed by swastika, 274;\n  of Cholula, marks the site of great and ancient Tollan, 275;\n  as symbol of Centre in Cosmos, 277;\n  meaning of symbol, 282, 283;\n  in Chinese symbolism and social organization, 287, 288, 333;\n  in Japan, 310;\n  in Hindu religion, 317;\n  in Babylonia, 328;\n  star god called \u201cGreat mountain,\u201d 329;\n  identical with god in Babylonia and in Assyria, 333;\n  Hebrew god, Yahwe, worshipped on Mount Sion, 351;\n  Jerusalem founded on Mount Zion, 352;\n  holy mound symbol of god Shamash of Assyria, 356;\n  central deity of Babylonia called \u201cthe great mountain,\u201d 367;\n  in Egypt expressed a whole divided into four parts, 371;\n  miniature of cosmos, 379, 380;\n  seven-storied pyramid of Sakkarah, Egypt, 381, 386;\n  of Begerauie, 427;\n  \u201choly mountain of God\u201d Book of Prophet Ezekiel, 449, _note_;\n  the chief idol of Ireland was called Cenn Craich (mound-chief), 469;\n  form of letter delta in Greek Alphabet, 511;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nPyramid temple at Chichen Itza, 207, 208.\n\nPyrites, mirror of, used as symbol of sun-cult, 83.\n\nPythagorean philosophy, 484-488, _note_, 515, 526;\n  Neo-Pythagorism, 527.\n\nQuadruped, meaning of use as symbol, 282;\n  represented Zu\u00f1i state and subdivisions, 295;\n  illustrated by Alligator altar at Copan and by \u201cGreat Turtle\u201d at\n              Quirigua, also by tortoise in China, 296, _note_\n  (see Ocelot, Jaguar and Puma).\n\nQuadruple organization, in cosmos, and scheme of government:\n  origin of idea, 15;\n  Maya, Mexican, and Zu\u00f1i, 41, 42;\n  expressed in cross symbols, 47-54;\n  Mexico divided into four parts, 83;\n  at time of Conquest, 75, 76;\n  in ancient map of Yucatan, 86;\n  in ancient map of Mexico, 88;\n  in Inca empire, 136, 144;\n  in Guatemala, 171, 172;\n  in Bogota, 171;\n  among the Tzendals, 180, 181;\n  Quich\u00e9, 182;\n  in Yucatan sculptures, 185, 186;\n  in tree symbolism, 187, 192;\n  carried northward, 196;\n  in Huron Indian Confederacy, 198;\n  among Zu\u00f1i, 201;\n  in Maya and Mexican traditions, 208, 209;\n  in Yucatan, 218, 223;\n  at Copan, 226, 228;\n  at Quirigua, 232;\n  at Palenque, 236;\n  Palenque, Peru, Guatemala, Yucatan, Mexico and Zu\u00f1i compared, 244;\n  regulated by Calendar Stone, 245, 247, 254;\n  in connection with pyramid building, 272, 273-282;\n  in China, 286, 291;\n  represented by human figure, 296;\n  China and Mexico compared, 297;\n  in Japan, 310-312;\n  in India, 313, 318, 481;\n  in Mesopotamia, 321;\n  in Persia, 325;\n  in Assyria, 332-337, 335;\n  in ancient Egypt, 371, 372, 399;\n  in Greece, 454;\n  indicated first by cross symbol and later by swastika, 461;\n  in ancient Rome, 463;\n  in ancient Ireland, 468;\n  in ancient Britain, 470;\n  in Scandinavia, 472;\n  table of countries where traces are found, 480-494;\n  comparative review, 509, 510;\n  in cruciform structures at Copan and Mitla, 512, 513;\n  chief ruler called \u201cFour in One,\u201d 529\n  (see also, Numerical Divisions).\n\nQuauh-Cihuatl=the Eagle woman, Mexican title, 60.\n\nQuetquetzalcoa, plural of Quetzalcoatl, title of his successors, 70, 97,\n            98.\n\nQuetzal, feathers of, carved on feathered serpent, 70;\n  exhibiting colors of Four Quarters, 70;\n  used as Mexican symbol of beloved chief or child, 190;\n  totem at Palenque, 236, 237;\n  totem at Copan, 237;\n  (see also Bird).\n\nQuetzalcoatl, invocation to;\n  Creator and maker, twin lord and twin lady, 32;\n  \u201cwheel of the winds,\u201d 33;\n  the divine twin, centre of cosmos, 42;\n  other names for;\n  myth concerning, 55;\n  an actual person who came from Yucatan, 67;\n  ruled in Chichen-Itza, 68;\n  Maya title=Kukulcan, 68;\n  in Mexico supreme god, also god of fire, and of the four winds, 70;\n  successors to, 71;\n  was driven from Tullan by enemies, 88;\n  established connection between Chichen-Itza and Mexico, 93;\n  recumbent figure of, in temple of city of Tula, 95;\n  sacrifices to, 96;\n  god of the winds, 96;\n  built Caracol or Round Temple at Chichen-Itza, 97;\n  Round Temples in Mexico dedicated to, 97;\n  divine twin, 126;\n  on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, 154, 157;\n  his craft called \u201cserpent or twin raft,\u201d 160;\n  another name for Maya lord, Kukulcan, 206;\n  brought colony from Yucatan to Mexico, 208;\n  important historical person, 208;\n  Tollan abode of, 217;\n  compared with figure on Copan sculpture, and with priest in Zu\u00f1i\n              creation myth, 223;\n  figured with beard, in Mexican codices, 231;\n  monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 260, 262;\n  image of, in temple of Cholollan, 270;\n  temple at Tula, 294.\n\nQuetzalcoatl Totec Tlamacazqui, title of high priest in service of\n            Huitzilopochtli, 71;\n  also title of Montezuma, 71.\n\nQuich\u00e9, Supreme Divinity of, 71, _note_;\n  Sacred book of, 72, _note_;\n  totems, 164, _note_;\n  numerical and social system, illustrated by tradition, 182;\n  compared with Zu\u00f1i, 182;\n  \u201cLord of the Mountain\u201d title, 211;\n  affix in name, _ch\u00e9_, Maya word for tree, 235;\n  used day and year signs as personal and tribal names, 253;\n  traditions of destruction of earth, 270.\n\nQuilaztli, sister of Huitzilopochtli, myth concerning, 60;\n  the mother of all, same as Cihuacoatl, 61, 67;\n  compared with Egyptian queen, 428.\n\nQuirigua, sister city to Copan, 210;\n  ancient monuments, 215, 216, 218, 223, 229;\n  social organization same as that of Copan, 230, 231, 232;\n  totemic animals and symbolic colors, 233;\n  \u201cGreat Turtle,\u201d 234, 240, 296, _note_;\n  stel\u00e6 as memorial stones of high priest rulers, 512;\n  remnants of old civilization, 528.\n\nRa, Egyptian word for God, 409.\n\nRabbit (tochtli), 78;\n  Mexican calendar sign;\n  symbol of earth and reproduction, used to represent sound of word,\n              octli, 78;\n  figure of, indicates sacred octli or earth-wine, 103;\n  in Nahuatl picture writing, 125;\n  the rebus for earth-wine or rain, 506.\n\nRabinal, 172.\n\nRain, Tlaloc, god of, 78, 81;\n  figured with scrolls about the eyes, 95;\n  symbols, 96;\n  lords, four hundred in number, sacred vase, emblem of, 102;\n  Zu\u00f1i rain-makers, 132;\n  rites practised on summits of pyramids, 283;\n  ancient festival described in the Brahmanas, 496, 497;\n  symbolized by rabbit, 506.\n\nRattlesnakes, on monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 261.\n\nRaven, or summer people among the Zu\u00f1i, 201.\n\nRawnsley, 491.\n\nRays, carved on Calendar stone the idea of, 255.\n\nRead, C. H., 166.\n\nRecumbent stone statues, 93-96, 185, 214.\n\nRecurved staff or sceptre, 34.\n\nRed land, in name of Mexican city Tlapallan, and of Chichen (Itza), 68;\n  \u201cthe great ancient red land\u201d in the East, 525.\n\nRed man, origin of title, 193;\n  title of the Ph\u0153nicians, 521;\n  in Genesis, 523;\n  Chichimecs of Mexico (literally, Red race), 532.\n\nRig-Veda, 494, 496, 497, 499, 500, 505, 521, 522.\n\nRiksmuseum of Stockholm, 48.\n\nRing or circle, in Persia, 326\n  (see Circle or ring).\n\nRio Lagartos, 217.\n\nRios, Padre, 11, 268, 270.\n\nRivero, 134;\n  and Tschudi, 150.\n\nRoman, 150.\n\nRoman Catholic Church, 537.\n\nRoman Milliarum Aureum, 513.\n\nRome, sacred fire, Roma Quadrata, 461;\n  duality, middle, quadruple government, 463;\n  numerical divisions, 464;\n  seven-storied tower, 464;\n  seven-day period, 465, 466, 467;\n  summary, in table of countries, 493;\n  Constantine\u2019s plan of state-organization in New Rome identical with the\n              numerical scheme of the Maya and Mexican calendars, 509;\n  the symbolical use of the column, 513;\n  amulet, 514;\n  church built by Constantine in form of Greek Cross, 514.\n\nRosa, Beltran de la, 181.\n\nRosny, Leon de, 36.\n\nRotation\n  (see Axial rotation).\n\nRound form, associated with cult of Heaven or the Above in Mexico, Central\n            America;\n  among Zu\u00f1is, 113-115;\n  in ancient architecture, 115;\n  associated with sky in Egypt, 371.\n\nRound Temples of Chichen Itza and Mexico, symbolism of, 97.\n\nRoyal Ethnographical Museum of Dresden, 129, 155.\n\nRust, Horatio N., 104.\n\nSab\u00e6an star-worship, 322.\n\nSabbath, derivation of name, etc., 327.\n\nSacrifice, human, sacred rite, in Mexico, 63;\n  symbolism of, in Aztec religion, 66, 77;\n  human victim formed living swastika, 91, 92;\n  human blood used to moisten sacred dough, 98;\n  origin of blood sacrifices, 98;\n  to Heaven and to Earth, 118;\n  in Peru, 147, 148, 151;\n  in Mexico, taking out heart of captive signified destroying life of\n              conquered tribe, 263;\n  in China, 296;\n  Egyptian compared with Mexican, 442, 443.\n\nSacrificial-stone of Mexico=Tribute-stone, or law-stone recording\n            collection of tributes, etc., 258, 259.\n\nSahagun, Friar Bernardino de, 8, 11, 32, 33, 34, 38, 39, 47, 53, 56, 61,\n            66, 70, 72, 73, 75, 77-83, 104, 118, 123, 127, 128, 150, 159,\n            173, 175, 176, 189, 192, 245, 259, 261, 279, 507, 553, 555.\n\nSt. Augustine, 536.\n\nSakkarah, Egyptian seven-storied pyramid, 381.\n\nSalado, 200.\n\nSalcamayhua, 132, 146, 148, 151, 161, 170, 186.\n\nSalcamayhua tablet, 510, _note_.\n\nSanchez, Jesus, 44, 93, 95, 96, 157, _note_.\n\nSan Fun, ancient Chinese work, 291.\n\nSaniah-ya-kwe: priesthood of the Hunt, among the Zu\u00f1is, 201.\n\nSan Salvador, mushroom-shaped stone figures from, 114.\n\nSanta Lucia Cozumalhuapa, sculptured slabs at, 153, 154, 163, 172.\n\nSapper, Carl, 114, 173.\n\nSatow and Hawes\u2019 Handbook of Japan, 570.\n\nSaville, M. H., 513.\n\nSaxo Grammaticus, 472.\n\nSayce, A. H., 324, 327, 347, 348, 349, 425, 449, 481, 491, 518, 519, 520,\n            521, 524, 525, 527, 532, 540, 572.\n\nScandinavia, triskelion associated with swastika, 28, 29;\n  Greek fret, 121;\n  numerical divisions;\n  middle;\n  Four Quarters;\n  Ursa Major called \u201cThor\u2019s Wagon;\u201d\n  sacred mountain and tree;\n  axial rotation;\n  cult of Polaris;\n  duality;\n  flora and fauna, 471-479;\n  summary, in table of countries, 493;\n  use of wheel in early times, also mill stone, 502, 503.\n\nScarab, meaning of emblem, secret sign for \u201chidden god,\u201d 397, 399.\n\nSceptre, with gold disk, in Mexico, 80, 81;\n  emblem of sovereignty in Assyria and Babylonia, 365;\n  in Egypt, 425.\n\nSchellhas, P., 107, 108, 109, 111, 182.\n\nSchlagintweit, 294, 301.\n\nSchlegel, G., 284.\n\nSchliemann, H., 459, 460, 518.\n\nSchroeder, 526, 568.\n\nSchuchhardt, 518.\n\nScorpion, Maya Zin-an;\n  symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, 9.\n\nScotland, use of checker-board design, 124.\n\nSed festival, 425, 429, 431.\n\nSelden MS., 57, 90, 508, _note_.\n\nSeeds, in symbolism of earth mother, 109;\n  in Maya codices, 111;\n  seeds of life, Zu\u00f1i, Mexican, Maya, 223, 225;\n  on Tablet of the Cross, 236;\n  on Copan swastika;\n  among Zu\u00f1i, 236;\n  conventionalized maize seeds, 237;\n  idols formed of seeds in Egypt and Mexico, 442, 443.\n\nSeler, E., 109, 129.\n\nSemiramis, temple of, 347.\n\nSemites, 350-352, 521;\n  name of Supreme god=Yahu or Yaho or Yahve, 532;\n  allied to the Ph\u0153nicians, 540, _note_, 541.\n\nSendschirli tablet, 365.\n\nSepher Hathora, Hebrew book of the law, 361.\n\nSerpent, in ancient religious symbolism:\n  associated with time, 26, 27;\n  Nahuatl name=twin, Maya name=four, 31;\n  symbol of dual or quadruple nature, 31;\n  of eternal life and the Creator, 32;\n  cursive sign for, 38;\n  on shell gorgets from Mississippi valley, 49, 112;\n  origin of symbol, 50;\n  divine ruler of four quarters, 68, 69;\n  feathers with (see Feathered serpent) 70, 71;\n  pertaining to earth-mother, 100;\n  double-headed, forming vase, 101;\n  in connection with tree of life, 103, 110, 189;\n  with burial of woman, 107;\n  with symbol of Earth, 111;\n  associated with air symbol, 126;\n  in ancient Peruvian fable, 152;\n  on sculptured slabs from Guatemala, 154;\n  totem of tribe conquered by Incas, 157;\n  in arms of Mexico, 157;\n  on silver pendant from Cuzco, 170;\n  with seven heads, symbolical of Mexican and Maya seven tribal divisions,\n              181;\n  of dual ruler, 190;\n  mythological snake among the Pueblo people, 200;\n  symbol of Below among the Zu\u00f1i, 204;\n  totemic animal of Uxmal, 214;\n  at Copan and Quirigua, 219, 220, 223, 228;\n  on \u201cCross Tablets\u201d at Palenque, 236, 238, 239;\n  on Calendar-stone, 255;\n  on monolith \u201cDivine Twin,\u201d 261;\n  of gold and mosaic on statue of Huitzilopochtli, 266;\n  meaning of symbol, 281;\n  in India, 313;\n  in Persia, 325;\n  in Babylonia, 335;\n  worshipped in the temple of Solomon, 351;\n  in Egyptian symbolism, 389, 391, 393, 424;\n  in Old and New World, 522-523.\n\nSerpent-woman, 60, 61, 65;\n  Cihuacoatl, Mexican ruler, 67, 77, 79, 111;\n  emblem of, figured and described, 128.\n\nSeven, sacred number, 29, 56\n  (see summary, 480-494;\n  also Numerical divisions).\n\nShakespeare, 247, _note_.\n\nShamash, temple of, in Babylonia, 331;\n  antiquity of cult of, 332;\n  symbols of, 356;\n  cross and four-spoked wheel of, 355, 365, 495;\n  image of, made by a race of pole star worshippers, 503;\n  compared with \u201cblack or night sun\u201d on Mexican Calendar stone, 506.\n\nShang, Chinese word for Above, 118.\n\nShang-te, Chinese supreme ruler, whose residence was \u201cTien\u201d=Heaven, 301.\n\nS-shape, Ursa Minor figured as, 11;\n  bronze brooch from Scandinavia, 29;\n  on native fabrics, in Vienna Codex, 34;\n  in B. N. MS., 34, 38;\n  in Sahagun\u2019s Historia, 34;\n  cakes in shape of, 34;\n  associated with star signs and the North, 35;\n  in Mexican and Maya codices, 35, 36;\n  sign of summer solstice, 36;\n  with cross and rain symbols, 37;\n  breads in shape of, 46;\n  figure on Ph\u0153nician tablet, 395, _note_.\n\nShell gorgets, representing winged human being, 39, _note_;\n  in Illinois, Missouri and Tennessee, showing cult of Polaris, 44;\n  from Tennessee, 48, 49;\n  evidence of identical symbolism from Yucatan to Illinois, 48-52, 112.\n\nShell, symbol of parturition, 95, 238.\n\nShell pendant, symbolism of, 112.\n\nShinto religion, 311.\n\nShiwana-kwe, priesthood of the priest-people among the Zu\u00f1i, 201.\n\nShoo king, 289, 290, 292, 295, 298, 299.\n\nShogunate, 311.\n\nShun, Chinese emperor succeeding Yaou, 292, 298.\n\nSiculus, Diodorus, 329, _note_, 540, _note_.\n\nSidon, 527.\n\nSiena, Italy, founded by sons of Remus, affinities with ancient Rome, 465.\n\nSilco, 530, 531.\n\nSimpson, Wm., 313.\n\nSippara, tablet of, 331, 332, 350, 356, 365, 495, 503, 506.\n\nSitua, Peruvian festival when the cults of Above and Below were\n            celebrated, 134.\n\nSiva, cult of, compared with cult of Earth-mother, 314.\n\nSkull, artificially deformed in ancient Peru, 143.\n\nSky-father among the Zu\u00f1i, 201.\n\nSmith, Professor, 522.\n\nSmyth, Piazzi, star-map, 30, 43.\n\nSnail, symbol of parturition, 111.\n\nSocial organization in Mexico, at time of Montezuma, myths relating to\n            origin of, 54, 62-75\n  (see Quadruple organization and Numerical divisions).\n\nSociety Islands, study of Pleiades in, 52.\n\nSolomon, built altar to Astarte in Jerusalem, 350;\n  built altars to Kamosh, god of the Moabites, and to Milkom, god of the\n              Ammonites, 351.\n\nSolomon\u2019s temple, 327, 344, 522.\n\nSolon, 445, 447, 448, 455, 526.\n\nSolar or civil year, divisions, 254.\n\nSolstice, summer, 36;\n  winter, 40;\n  lighting sacred fires at time of, 83.\n\nSommier, Stephen, 477.\n\nSophocles, 453.\n\nSouth America, symbolism of, compared with that of Mexico, 122, 224\n  (see Peru).\n\nSouthern Cross, 162.\n\nSouth, Acatl=cane, blue, Mexican emblem and color of, 42.\n\nSouth Kensington Museum, 216, 227, 234, 239, 313.\n\nSpamer, 332, 428, 457.\n\nSpear-throwers, on tablet at Chichen Itza, and on Mexican Tribute Stone,\n            259.\n\nSpeed, John, 470.\n\nSphinx, Egyptian, 373, 379.\n\nSpider, a symbol of Mictlantecuhtli, 37;\n  tradition about Tezcatlipoca\u2019s descent from the sky by a spider\u2019s\n              thread, 44;\n  in Nahuatl=tocatl. In Maya=am;\n  symbol originated in Yucatan, 47;\n  on shell-gorgets from Illinois, Tennessee and Missouri, 47, 49;\n  in ancient MSS., 90, 202;\n  in Zu\u00f1i symbolism, 201;\n  Maya symbol of the North, 278;\n  web of, use as symbol of numerical divisions, 293, 535, _note_.\n\nSpindle, as symbol of axial rotation, in connection with cross symbols on\n            terra cotta spinning whorls, 498.\n\nSpinning tops, 547, _note_.\n\nSpinning whorls, symbolic of rotary motion, in Troy, 498;\n  in Mexico, 504, 508.\n\nSquare form, associated with Earth in native American symbolism and\n            architecture, 115, 260, 284;\n  in Egypt, 371.\n\nStadacon\u00e9, same as Canada, 197.\n\nStanley, Dean, 514, _note_.\n\nStar symbol, a black dot, 35;\n  an eye, 36, _note_, 50, 116, 155, _note_, 269, 279;\n  suspended by thread, symbol of night (Egyptian), 387;\n  plain circle in Chinese symbolism, 391;\n  expressed numeral five in Egypt, 398\n  (see Polaris).\n\nStar-cult\n  (see Polaris).\n\nStar god, in Babylonia, Bel;\n  in Asia Minor, Ah-baal, identified with pole-star, 329\n  (see Polaris).\n\nStar-map, Piazzi Smyth\u2019s, 20.\n\nStar-names in Maya, 278.\n\nStel\u00e6, purpose of erection, marked periods of time, 216;\n  at Copan and Quirigua, 219-240;\n  correspond with Ahua-ka-tun, the 20-year memorial stone, 221;\n  of Assyrian kings, having seven symbols, seven circles, etc., 337-360;\n  Esar-haddon of Sendschirli, 342, 359;\n  Bavian, 357, 358, 359;\n  of Sargon, 357, 359;\n  trilingual stela of Canopus, preserved at Gizeh, 378;\n  funeral stela at B\u00fbl\u00e2k, 421;\n  at Quirigua and Copan memorial stones of high priest rulers, with title\n              \u201cDivine Four\u201d;\n  built over hidden cruciform vaults, compared with the Egyptian \u201cstar of\n              Horus,\u201d 512, 513.\n\nStevenson, 150.\n\nStolpe, Hjalmar, 48, 121, 224.\n\nStoll, Otto, 79, 85, 164, 173.\n\nStomach, symbolized the Centre or Middle, in China, 296.\n\nStone, rough or worked, emblem of Earth mother, buried with the dead, 106.\n\nStone of Tizoc, compared with Altar K of Copan, 226.\n\nStone collar, from Porto Rico, analogous to stone yokes of Mexico, 118.\n\nStone figures, recumbent, bearing circular vessels, 93;\n  figured, 94\n  (see Recumbent stone figure).\n\nStone knives, flint knife in wrappings, Mexican and Maya symbol of Earth\n            mother, 55, 56;\n  among California Indians, 105.\n\nStone monuments, of Peru (Tiahuanaco), 164-169;\n  Central America, 154, 218-233;\n  Yucatan, 234-244;\n  Mexico, 245-275.\n\nStone \u201cseats,\u201d found in Ecuador, analogous to vase or earth symbols, 107.\n\nStone tiger with human head and depression in back, found in Mexico and\n            Yucatan, 95.\n\nStone tables, at Chichen Itza, 212;\n  Maya name for=Mayac-tun, 213;\n  used as drums in sacred ceremonies, 213.\n\nStone tablet at Sippar, 331, 332.\n\nStone vessels, found in Mexico and Yucatan, 213.\n\nStone \u201cyokes,\u201d compared with symbolic vase;\n  pertained to cult of earth-mother;\n  in use among Indians of Southern California, 104;\n  in connection with burial of priestesses of Below, 107.\n\nStrabo, 329.\n\nStrebel, Hermann, 104, 153, 156, 157, 165, 172.\n\nSt\u00fcbel, A., 167, 169.\n\nSturlesson, Snorri, 471.\n\nSumerians, inhabited the South=Sumer, 334.\n\nSummary, of study of ancient American symbols,\u2014cross, serpent, tree,\n            flower, etc., 279-284;\n  use of human and animal figure in symbolism, 296;\n  of countries in which are found the \u201cQuadruple Organization,\u201d pole-star\n              worship, etc., 480-494;\n  and Conclusions, 544-562;\n  and tables of words used in the Old and New World in connection with a\n              certain culture based on pole star worship, Appendix I, 548;\n              and Appendix III, 562.\n\nSun cult, Nahuatl word for sun applies equally to the stars;\n  day sun and night sun;\n  Ollin, symbol of, 13;\n  superseded by star cult, 22;\n  associated with star-cult, 53, 54;\n  Black Sun in B. N. MS.,\n  myth concerning, 54, 55;\n  emblem of Montezuma, 72;\n  Montezuma, high priest of, 74;\n  mirror of polished pyrites, symbol of, 83;\n  rival of star-cult, 83;\n  sacrifices to, in Mexico, 117, 118;\n  in Peru, 134;\n  superseded by belief in Creator, among the Incas, 135;\n  temple of, at Cuzco, 138;\n  upper class maidens in Peru, dedicated to, 143, 145, 148, 149, 170;\n  among Muyscas of Bogota, 171;\n  astronomical attainments of priests of, 180;\n  \u201cVirgins of the Sun\u201d and sun-priests in Mexico and Peru, 194;\n  Sun-father of the Zu\u00f1i, 200, 201, 204, _note_;\n  on Copan sculpture, 222;\n  in Mexican calendar-stone, 249;\n  four movements of, 252;\n  golden effigy of, associated with Incas in Peru, 264;\n  Enclosure of, name of pyramid at Teotihua-Can, 264, 267;\n  tablet of the sun, in China, 285;\n  temple of, 286;\n  altars, 387;\n  sun-goddess of Japan, 311;\n  among the Hindu, 312;\n  in religion of Persia, 325;\n  in Babylonia and Assyria, 332;\n  in Egypt, 382;\n  king of Egypt associated with, 389, 424;\n  Egyptian goddess Hathor-Isis was called the female sun, 432;\n  development of cult in Egypt, 438;\n  C\u00e6sar called son of the sun, 440.\n\nSupreme being\n  (see Creator or Supreme Being).\n\nSut-staw-ra-tse, the leader of the \u201cKingdom of Hochelaga,\u201d 197.\n\nSwastika, in Mexican Calendar, 9, 18, 41;\n  origin of symbol;\n  formed by positions of Ursa Major, 15, 16, 18;\n  various forms of, illustrated, 17, 19;\n  geographical distribution of, 19;\n  date when first used as symbol, 20, 21;\n  sign for a year or cycle of time, 23;\n  suggests axial rotation, 24, _note_;\n  formed by four serpents in Codex Borgia, 27;\n  associated with triskelion, on spearhead from Brandenburg;\n  on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, 28;\n  formed by combination of star groups, 29, 30;\n  suggested by star-symbol on pottery from Nicaragua and Arizona, 51, 52;\n  origin of the idea of dividing everything into four parts, 76;\n  represented by Zu\u00f1i idol, 129;\n  rounded and square forms of, at Tiahuanaco, 166;\n  terminating in four puma heads, symbol of central ruler, 209;\n  \u201cThe Copan Swastika,\u201d 222, 223, 224;\n  the pyramid, a later development of same idea, 274;\n  in different parts of the world, accompanied with pole-star worship,\n              etc., 276-280;\n  in Mexico and Ohio valley, linked with serpent;\n  in Copan, with Middle and Four Quarters, 280;\n  Christian cross compared with, 305;\n  use of symbol in China, 309;\n  in Japan, 311;\n  meaning conveyed by figure of Buddha 315;\n  in Egypt, 409;\n  on Egyptian seal, 459;\n  on coin from island of Crete, 457;\n  on coin from Syracuse;\n  on coin from Corinth;\n  on vases from Troy, 459;\n  in Greece, 459, 460;\n  on Cyprian and Carian pottery;\n  on Greek vases found at Naukratis;\n  on Coptic grave cloths;\n  on mummy case from Hermopolis;\n  on whorls from Troy, 460;\n  date of its use as symbol, 461;\n  later development of the cross symbol, 461;\n  in Scandinavia, 474;\n  on image found in Troy, 496;\n  identical in significance in Old and New World, 510;\n  symbolized \u201cFour in One,\u201d and stable centre, 511;\n  in some parts of Germany and Bohemia is still the sign of the\n              stone-mason\u2019s guild, 516;\n  or cross-symbol, same meaning in all countries, 534, 538;\n  summary and conclusions, 544.\n\nSweat house, Nahuatl name of, 124.\n\nSymbolism, in central United States identical with that of Mexico and\n            Yucatan, 48, 49, 50;\n  of Mexico influenced by migration from Yucatan, 67;\n  influenced by sound of word, among the Mayas and Mexicans, 110, 183,\n              185, 186, 284;\n  in China, 277;\n  showing linguistic affinities between Mayas, and early peoples of the\n              Mississippi valley, 112;\n  same in Peru, Central America, Yucatan and Mexico, 170;\n  resemblances between Pueblo people and Mayas and Mexicans, 199, 200,\n              236;\n  same in Copan, 226;\n  in Palenque and Quirigua, 240;\n  on Calendar stone explained, 247;\n  symbols connected with Middle, etc., 277;\n  with Four Quarters, Above and Below, 278;\n  names of Mexican symbols often translations of Maya name, 278;\n  recapitulation of important native symbols, 279-284;\n  year symbols in Mexico and China, 291;\n  resemblances and differences, Chinese and American, 293-296;\n  summary of use of human and animal figure, 296;\n  explanations and illustrations of Egyptian symbols, 367-461;\n  Egyptian pyramid and mummy, 379-381;\n  of ancient Scandinavia, 474;\n  symbols denoting axial rotation, 494;\n  in architecture (see window, tau, pyramid, Greek fret, round form,\n              square form, color, etc.);\n  of human form (see separate references under Human);\n  for special symbols, see separate references.\n\nSyracuse, coins from, swastika with human head in centre, 459.\n\nTabasco, 211.\n\nTablet, containing ancient map of Babylonia\n  (note following Index).\n\nTalon, of beast of prey, symbol of four lords of Below, 185.\n\nTaouism, 298, 301, 306.\n\nTarahumari Indians, ceremonies typifying fecundity of earth, etc.,\n            compared with those of ancient Mexicans, 101.\n\nTartan design, 122, 123, 124.\n\nTau, double, shape of courtyard, 82, 86, 87;\n  signified union of Above and Below;\n  inverted, emblem of Above;\n  upright emblem of the Below, 118;\n  in American ceremonial rite;\n  among the cliff dwellers of Colorado;\n  among the Pueblo Indians;\n  in Scandinavia, called Thor\u2019s hammer;\n  in architecture of Central America, and Palenque;\n  in dance of Moqui Indians;\n  different forms of, figured and described, 119, 122;\n  in checker-board or tartan design, 123;\n  suggested by fire-drill, 280;\n  tau-shaped cross in Mesopotamia, 321;\n  tau-shaped altar in Egypt, 411.\n\nTaylor, E. B., 297, _note_.\n\nTaylor, W. C., 463, 468, 488, _note_.\n\nTecpan, Mexican council house;\n  meaning of word, 183.\n\nTecpatl, symbol of the North, 10, 34;\n  flint knife, 45, 46;\n  sacred producer of vital spark, 47;\n  myth concerning, 54;\n  figured as offspring of dual divinity, 55;\n  symbol of Fire, 56;\n  emblem of \u201csupreme pontiffs,\u201d 62;\n  one of the four year symbols, 76;\n  in Borgian Codex, 98;\n  on carved slab from Santa Lucia, 172;\n  possible origin of name, which means \u201cto govern,\u201d 183;\n  on Sacrificial Stone of Mexico, 258.\n\nTeen-hwang-ta-tee, Chinese name for the pole-star, 284, 302.\n\nTemistitan, ancient name for capital of Mexico, 542.\n\nTemple of Mexico, 58, 80, 83, 90, 118.\n\nTemples, of the \u201cTigers\u201d at Chichen-Itza, 212;\n  \u201c11,\u201d at Copan, 222;\n  of \u201cthe Inscriptions\u201d at Palenque, 235, 240;\n  of \u201cthe Sun,\u201d 235, 239, 240;\n  of \u201cCross No. 2,\u201d 235, 243;\n  of Ptah at Memphis, 367;\n  at Abydos, 386.\n\nTenayocan, name of Mexican town containing the affix \u201cCan,\u201d 263.\n\nTennessee, cult of Polaris indicated by emblems on shell-gorget, 44.\n\nTenochtitlan, 63;\n  hieroglyph in centre of ancient Maya and Mexican maps, 88.\n\nTeo-Culhuacan, from _Teotl_, stars, sun, gods, something divine; and\n            _Culhua_, something recurved, and _can_, the place of=name for\n            Aztlan, 56.\n\nTeotihuacan, pyramids of, 140, 199, 263, 264;\n  description of ruins, registry of death by small clay heads, 267;\n  Pyramids show knowledge of \u201cGreat Plan;\u201d\n  great antiquity;\n  advanced stage of intellectual development, 268;\n  same civilization as builders of Pyramid of Cholula, 269;\n  two cults, two languages (Maya and Nahuatl) and dual rulership, 274,\n              529.\n\nTeotl, represented by image of sun;\n  signifies something divine, 13, 65;\n  title of the upper class in Mexico, 102, 140;\n  meaning a divinity or divine lord and applied to all lords or rulers,\n              279.\n\nTerra cotta heads and figures in Mexico and Peru, 139, 140.\n\nTerrace form, rain symbol, 132.\n\nTet, Egyptian symbol of eternity, described and analyzed, 394.\n\nTexcoco, 55, 163, 183.\n\nTexoxoctli, stone placed with dead of lower class, 195.\n\nTezcatl, obsidian mirror, 10.\n\nTezcatlipoca, meaning of name;\n  identical with Mictlantecuhtli, 8;\n  surrounded by circle of footsteps;\n  myth concerning, 9;\n  symbols of, representations of;\n  fastened to symbol of the North, 10;\n  star-cult connected with, 11;\n  synonymous names, 11;\n  myth concerning, 12, 26, 44, 45;\n  associated with the Below, the female region, 42;\n  with black, 62;\n  title of, means \u201cHeart of the Earth,\u201d 72, _note_;\n  \u201cShining Mirror,\u201d 79;\n  image of, beside the idol of Huitzilopochtli, in great temple of Mexico,\n              60, 82, 265;\n  lord of the Nocturnal Heaven, 82;\n  priests of, called \u201cSons of the Night,\u201d connected with divination, 83;\n  honored jointly with Huitzilopochtli at Toxcatl festival, 97;\n  flint knife, emblem of, 103;\n  compared with Zu\u00f1i idol, 128, 129;\n  suggested by symbols at Tiahuanaco, 166;\n  tradition, 208;\n  fire-drill god, 505, 507.\n\nTezolotlan, termed the land of war, 172.\n\nTezozomoc, 11, 40, 60, 61, 79.\n\nThemistius of Byzantium, 542.\n\nTheodosius, 530.\n\nTheophrastus, 519.\n\nThibet, astronomical science, 301;\n  Buddhist of, 315.\n\nThomas, Cyrus, 109.\n\nThor, Norse supreme god, 473.\n\nThor\u2019s hammer, 119.\n\nThucydides, 457.\n\nTiahuanaco, place of first appearance of Incas, 133;\n  monolithic doorway, 165;\n  swastika sacred symbol, 166;\n  ruins of, 167-169, 209.\n\nTiberius Claudius, 440.\n\nTien (Chinese), Heaven, also Supreme ruler, 301.\n\nTiger, in stone, with human head and hollow depression in back, found in\n            Yucatan and Mexico, 95;\n  on sculpture from Mitla, 163;\n  \u201cTiger\u2019s arm,\u201d title of prince in ancient Mexico, 163;\n  head, symbol on monolithic doorway at Tiahuanaco, Peru, 165;\n  heads, at end of swastika;\n  on sculptured doorway, 166;\n  in headdress on sculptures, 167;\n  warrior caste of Mexico;\n  temple of, at Chichen Itza, 212\n  (see Puma, Jaguar and Quadruped).\n\nTikal, 210;\n  classification of ruins, 215.\n\nTim\u00e6us, 445.\n\nTime, Egyptian sign, circle with dot, 387.\n\nTinamit, on Usumacinto river, 215.\n\nTionontat\u00e9 or Tobacco Nation, 197.\n\nTiticaca lake, as place of first appearance of Incas, 133, 539.\n\nTititl, name of Mexican feast, 79.\n\nTizoc, stone of, 9, 172, 212.\n\nTlacaxipehualiztli, ritual at festival of, 12.\n\nTlachtli, courtyard in shape of double tau, 87;\n  ancient Mexican game, 176.\n\nTlaloc, title of god of rain, 78, 99;\n  designated by surrounding his eyes with two blue rings, 81.\n\nTlatoque, literally, \u201cThe speaker\u201d title of chief of clan, 178.\n\nTlaxcalla, republic of;\n  government of, army of, 75;\n  recumbent stone figures bearing circular vessels, found in, 93;\n  small republic of Mexico, name signifies bread;\n  hieroglyphic sign is maize-cake, 272.\n\nTloquenahuaque, title of \u201cCreator\u201d in texcoca, 163.\n\nTochtli, one of the four year symbols, 76;\n  rabbit, 78;\n  tochtli-gods, agents of Cihuacoatl, 78.\n\nTollan, abode of Quetzalcoatl, 217;\n  native name for Cholollan, 275.\n\nToltecas, representatives of high civilization of ancient Yucatan, 89;\n  master-builders, 234, 253, 254, 529.\n\nTopiltzin, title of supreme pontiff, of Quetzalcoatl or divine twin, 77,\n            96.\n\nTorquemada, 54, 55, 60, 67, 77, 95, 96, 150.\n\nTortoise, among the Iroquois, 197;\n  in Mexico, 279;\n  Maya word for _ac_, 281;\n  in Chinese symbolism, 296.\n\nTotemism, North American Indian, 154, 197;\n  Peruvian, 157, 201;\n  Quich\u00e9, 164, _note_;\n  Zu\u00f1i, 201, 204;\n  Copan and Zu\u00f1i, 227;\n  and Quirigua, 233;\n  Fire people of Mexico,\u2014the ocelot; Air people,\u2014the bird, 254;\n  in relation to signs of zodiac and to the stars, 255;\n  in Babylonia, 348;\n  alligator totem in India and Mexico, 520;\n  among the Semites, 521, 522;\n  serpent totem among Semites, Mayas, Nahuas, and Peruvians, 522, 523.\n\nToxcatl festival, Tezcatlipoca and Huitzilopochtli, jointly honored, 97.\n\nTraditions (see \u201cMyths and Traditions\u201d).\n\nTree symbolism, tree of life in Vienna Codex, 103;\n  in Dresden Codex, 110;\n  in ancient America, 186;\n  among the Incas, 186;\n  among the Mexicans, social organization represented by, 187;\n  Above and Below, 188;\n  serpent and Polaris, 189;\n  embodied male and female elements, 188;\n  shape of human figure, 189;\n  used to signify lord or governor, also ancestor, 189, 190;\n  sacred tree of the Mayas, 191;\n  among Peruvians, Mexicans and Mayas, image of social organization, 192;\n  in symbolic carving from Brazil or Guiana, 224;\n  symbol of tribe in America, 235, 236, 237, 242, 213, 507, _note_;\n  symbol of the year in Mexico, 241;\n  ch\u00e9, Maya word for tree, zin-ch\u00e9=cross, literally tree of life or of\n              power, 278;\n  quahuitl, Nahuatl word for tree, symbol of Centre;\n  homonymous with _quaitl_, meaning head, 279;\n  recapitulation of meaning of symbol, 281;\n  compared with Chinese symbol of \u201cwood,\u201d 294;\n  in Buddhist religion, 321;\n  in Babylonia and Assyria, on bas-relief at Nimroud, 360;\n  as sacred symbol, 361;\n  tree worship, by Hebrews, Ph\u0153nicians, Assyrians, 362-364;\n  celestial tree of life in garden of Paradise, 365;\n  the ash-tree of the Norsemen on the summit of the Hill of Heaven, 472;\n  symbol of star-god, Polaris, 474;\n  tribal trees in India, Egypt, Mexico, Central America and Peru, 499;\n  the celestial tree of the Norsemen and Semites, 503;\n  in ancient America, 506, 507.\n\nTribute stone, Mexican \u201cSacrificial\u201d stone, 259.\n\nTriskelion, companion symbol to swastika;\n  formed by polar constellations at winter-solstice, 27;\n  not used in the South but with swastika in the North, 28;\n  on pottery from Arkansas;\n  on spearhead from Brandenburg;\n  on bronze brooch from Scandinavia, 28;\n  formed by combination of star groups, 30;\n  sign of winter solstice, 37.\n\nTrocadero Museum, 104, 174, _note_.\n\nTroncoso, Francisco del Paso y, 13, 82, 250, 252.\n\nTroy, vases from, having swastika or cross symbol, 459.\n\nTroy, spindle whorls with swastikas and allusion to pole-star god, Tur,\n            498.\n\nTschudi, 134.\n\nTuch-pan, name of capital of Maya colony, 125, 207.\n\nTula, 60;\n  city of, 95.\n\nTulapan, 210.\n\nTullan, 173;\n  name of culture hero\u2019s home, 68;\n  meaning of, in Maya language, 68;\n  identity not established;\n  beautiful land of the Aztecs, Mayas, Kiches and Cakchiquels;\n  Cakchiquel legend regarding;\n  Maya migration from, 88, 268.\n\nTullan Cholollan, ancient seat of civilization;\n  probable place where scheme of organization was evolved, and where\n              traditions of destruction of earth originated, 268, 274,\n              275.\n\nTuranian, originally a northern race, (see Ph\u0153nicians), 517.\n\nTurtle, at Quirigua, 234;\n  in Egyptian symbolism, 398.\n\nTusayan, ceremonies, symbols and myths compared with those of Central\n            America, 200.\n\nTuscaroras, 196.\n\nTutulxius, 211;\n  immigrants into Yucatan, tradition concerning, 210.\n\nTwin, divine\n  (see Dual Divinity).\n\nTwin serpents, on Mexican Calendar Stone, symbolizing dual forces of\n            nature, and quadruplication, 257;\n  on dual statues, on summit of great Temple of Mexico, 266.\n\nTylor, E. B., 196, 363.\n\nTyre, destruction of, by the Greeks, 527.\n\nTzendals, culture hero of, 60, 71, 72;\n  calendar signs, 180;\n  social organization and numerical system, 181, 182.\n\nTzilan, ancient capital in Yucatan, 234.\n\nTzitzimi-Cihuatl, name of Quilaztli, 60.\n\nUhle, Max, 167-169.\n\nUpsala, university of, 230, _note_.\n\nUrhye, Chinese dictionary, 292.\n\nUrsa Major, myths concerning, 8, 11, 12;\n  meaning of name in Nahuatl, 8, 9;\n  four positions of form swastika, 14-22;\n  nearer to pole-star in remote antiquity, 21;\n  rotary motion, 22;\n  positions of, scratched on rocks, beginning of astronomical records, 23;\n  Tezcatlipoca and ocelot associated with, 26;\n  in relation to sacred numbers, 29;\n  resembles s-shape, 34;\n  in relation to idea of Above and Below, 40;\n  ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, 57;\n  on calendar stone, 246, 250;\n  identified as star-god, \u201cYoual-tecuhtli\u201d mentioned by Sahagun, 279;\n  among the ancient Chinese, 284, 285, 291, 298, 302;\n  in Hindu religion, 319;\n  in Babylonia and Assyria, 358, _note_;\n  in Egypt, 378, 382, 384, 385, 397, 400, 410;\n  Akkadian title, Akanna=the Lord of Heaven, 394;\n  Greek name for Helice, 447;\n  as sailing guide in ancient Greece, 451, 452;\n  became circumpolar about B.C. 4000, time of adoption of swastika symbol,\n              461.\n\nUrsa Minor, S-shaped figure sign of, 11, 29;\n  connected with Tezcatlipoca, 12;\n  rotation of, 18;\n  suavastika formed by, 19;\n  in relation to sacred number, 29, 33;\n  represented by recurved sceptre, 34;\n  represented by Maya glyph, Hun-Imix, 35;\n  in connection with Polaris, 36;\n  in relation to idea of Above and Below, 40;\n  symbol of;\n  s-shaped breads made in honor of, 46;\n  ancient Mexicans claimed descent from Ursa Major and Minor, 57;\n  in Copan swastika, 224;\n  in Egypt, 382;\n  in Babylonia-Assyria=Kakkabu, 400;\n  in ancient Greece as sailing guide, 451.\n\nUsumacinto river, 235.\n\nUxmal, House of the Doves, symbolism of, 131;\n  symbolic hand on garment of chieftain, 184;\n  the serpent city of America, 214;\n  ruins in, 216.\n\nValentini, P. J. J., 256, _note_.\n\nValera, Padre Blas, 151.\n\nVaruna, name of supreme god in India, 312.\n\nVase, or Bowl, symbol of earth mother, 100;\n  emblem of the rain priests or Octli gods, 102;\n  worn in nose as emblem;\n  meaning of, 103;\n  containing rabbit or flint knife, 104;\n  as conventionalized serpent jaw, resembles horseshoe-shaped stone\n              \u201cyoke,\u201d 104;\n  considered sacred among Zu\u00f1i Indians, 105;\n  reason of vase decoration, 105, 106;\n  grave made in shape of;\n  buried with dead to propitiate earth-mother;\n  used as burial urn, 106;\n  stone \u201cseats\u201d indicate analogous cult of earth-mother south of Mexico,\n              107;\n  Maya day-sign, Caban, 107;\n  in Maya codices, 107, 108;\n  figured as day sign, ch\u2019en, 110;\n  associated with seeds and germination, by Mayas and Mexicans, 111;\n  in Vienna Codex, 123, 124;\n  sacred bowl among Pueblo Indians, 132;\n  in hand of ruler on Copan sculpture, 222, 224, 225;\n  bowl of water, preceded use of obsidian mirror, in divination, 225;\n  Maya supreme priest called \u201cLord of the Vase or bowl,\u201d 226;\n  on Tablet of the \u201cCross 2,\u201d at Palenque, 236;\n  recapitulation of meaning of symbol, 283;\n  used for Astronomical purposes among pigmy races, and in Ph\u0153nicia,\n              Assyria and Egypt, 339;\n  large terra-cotta jars found at Nippur, and in temple of Solomon, 344;\n  canopic vases in Egypt, 372;\n  same idea embodied in pyramid, 386;\n  in zodiac signs, 395;\n  symbol of god Amen-Ra, 408;\n  in cult of Egyptian goddess, Isis, 424.\n\nVedas, 312, 314, 452, _note_, 494, 496, 497, 499, 500, 505, 521, 522.\n\nVega, Garcilaso de la, 136, 137, 150, 151.\n\nVega, Nu\u00f1ez de la, 180, 181, 182.\n\nVenice, compared to Mexico, 84.\n\nVenus, temple of Mexico dedicated to, planet of, 53;\n  on Calendar-stone, 252.\n\nVikings, cult of Polaris, 474.\n\nVillavicencio, 150.\n\nVirgins of the Sun, in Mexico and Peru, 194.\n\nVishnu, cult of, 314.\n\nVolcanoes, as probable cause of traditions of destruction of earth,\n            270-275.\n\nVon Herder, 449, _note_.\n\nVon Luschan, 342, 358, _note_, 359, 360.\n\nVon Schroeder, L., 484, 458, _note_.\n\nVotan, culture hero of the Tzendals, title \u201cthe Master of the Sacred\n            Drum,\u201d 60, 71-72, _note_.\n\nVulture, totem of Quich\u00e9 chieftain, 164;\n  in Egyptian symbolism, 398, 425, 426.\n\nWales, Druidic Celi Ced corresponds to Egyptian Amen-Ra;\n  dual power;\n  Central ruler;\n  numeral seven in Welsh legend, 471.\n\nWampum belts, Iroquois, 197-199.\n\nWan, Chinese word for swastika, 309.\n\nWarburg, A., 119.\n\nWaring, 459.\n\nWarren, William F., 475, 566.\n\nWater, sacred pool in temple of Mexico, 225;\n  in connection with star cult, 226;\n  associated with fire-drill and socket in Old and New World, 505.\n\nWater era, one of the four eras of the world, 253.\n\nWater goddess, called Chalchiutlycue, 91.\n\nWater and air design, encircling the mitre of the Lord of the Above;\n  on mantles of Montezuma\u2019s predecessors, 125;\n  emblem of cult of Above, 126.\n\nWeaving, art of among the Huaxtekans, 207-208, _note_.\n\nWest, Cihuatlampa (in Nahuatl)=place of the women, 38;\n  in Cosmos=Calli=house, yellow, earth, darkness, 42;\n  door of the Underworld, 54;\n  female region, 64.\n\nWebster\u2019s Dictionary, 419.\n\nWheat, stalk of, year symbol in China, 291.\n\nWheel, emblem of the Deity and of rotation, among ancient Mexicans, 33;\n  represented by Mexican dance, 59;\n  the four-spoked wheel of Shamash in Babylonia and Assyria, 332, 356,\n              365;\n  symbol of axial rotation and time in Old World, 500;\n  associated with pole-star in Japan, 501;\n  use of, known in Japan and China from the earliest times, 501-502;\n  in Scandinavia, 502;\n  first religions and their royal symbol\u2014possibly evolved from the stone\n              fire socket, 503 (see Axial Rotation).\n\nWheelwright, E. M., 514, 515.\n\nWhitney, J. D., 449 _note_, 452, _note_.\n\nWickersham, James, 288, 292.\n\nWiener, 132, 146.\n\nWilliams, 288.\n\nWilson, Sir Daniel, 540.\n\nWilson, Thomas, 19, 23, 28, 50, 318, 459, 460.\n\nWind-god, symbol of, 34.\n\nWindows, symbolism of, in Mexico, Central America and elsewhere, 120, 121.\n\nWinged disk, in Assyria, 356, 357.\n\nWinter solstice, triskelion sign of, 27, 28.\n\nWoman, origin of idea of inferiority, 65;\n  position of, in Peru and Mexico, 194;\n  \u201cCorn Maidens\u201d and \u201cMothers\u201d in America, 276;\n  in China, 286, 287;\n  in Babylonia-Assyria, 341;\n  in Greece and Rome, 345 in Egypt, 426-436.\n\nWriting, cursive and ikonomatic of the Old World;\n  picture writing adopted by Spanish missionaries to New World, 534-535,\n              _note_;\n  Egyptian hieratic script, 535, _note_;\n  numerical value of letters in Greek alphabet;\n  Maya calculiform hieroglyphs;\n  geometrical figures used by Ph\u0153nicians, 536, _note_.\n\nWu, Chinese empress, 309.\n\nWylie, Alexander, 303, 335, 481, _note_.\n\nXicalango, 211.\n\nXilomaniztli, another name for the festival \u201cIzcalli;\u201d\n  meaning the birth or sprouting of the young maize, 241.\n\nXiuhtecuhtli, Mexican lord of the year or of fire;\n  emblem of, figured and described;\n  called the turquoise;\n  or grass-green pyramid, 129, 214, 223.\n\nXius, tribe of ancient Yucatan, 211.\n\nXonecuilli, native name for Ursa Minor (see Ursa Minor).\n\nXoxouhqui-ilhuicatl (Nahuatl)=the verdant or blue sky, a title of\n            Huitzilo-pochtli, 72.\n\nYang and Yin, in Chinese religion;\n  belief of the modern Chinese concerning, 286.\n\nYaou, Chinese emperor who divided China into four provinces, 298.\n\nYear symbols, in Mexican calendar, acatl, tecpatl, calli and tochtli, 76;\n  glyphs on Copan stela or katun, 220;\n  Maya name for=Ah-cuch-haab, 220;\n  in Mexican Calendar-stone, 253;\n  in Mexico, bunch of grass or maize shoots;\n  in China, stalk of wheat, 291.\n\nYoalticitl, mother of the gods in ancient Mexico, 123.\n\nYop-at, Maya name for \u201ca mitre,\u201d symbol of divine ruler, 118.\n\nYope or yopi, Mexican peaked headdress or cone 117.\n\nYopico, name given to temple and monastery in courtyard of Great Temple of\n            Mexico, 118.\n\nYoual-tecuhtli, star-god mentioned by Sahagun, identified as Ursa Major,\n            279;\n  name signifies, \u201clord of the night,\u201d also \u201cLord of the circle or wheel,\u201d\n              279.\n\nYuoalahua=lord of the wheel, 71.\n\nYu, Chinese emperor;\n  divisions of China, 292, 299.\n\nYucatan, cult of Polaris, 44;\n  Mexican culture-hero, Quetzalcoatl, came from, 67;\n  social organization, older than that of Mexico, 67;\n  Twin-brothers personifying the Above and Below, 68;\n  serpent symbol, more ancient than in Mexico, 70;\n  ancient map of, 85-90;\n  early peoples of, in contact with those of Mississippi valley, 112;\n  traditions about Kukulcan\u2019s journey to Mexico, 206;\n  traditions of tribes who came from the south, 210-214;\n  meeting ground of Maya- and Nahuatl-speaking people, 214;\n  not cradle of Maya civilization, 214;\n  ancient monuments of, 216;\n  fourfold divisions, 218, 494;\n  Mayas compared with Maghas of India, 509, 519;\n  ancient civilization, 528;\n  ruder forms of culture alongside of the perfected social organization,\n              531;\n  period of warfare and pestilence, 539\n  (see Chichen Itza, Mayapan, etc.).\n\nYupanqui, founder of Cuzco, who introduced worship of the Creator, 135,\n            161, 186.\n\nZamorra, Fray Geronimo Roman y, 275.\n\nZarate, 150.\n\nZeller, Edward, 484.\n\nZenith, nepantla, 38.\n\nZigzag or undulated lines, symbol of water, 126.\n\nZikkurats of Babylonia, seven-staged towers, 327-331;\n  oriented to the four cardinal points, 332;\n  together with \u201cGreat basin of Apsu,\u201d formed image of Cosmos, 361.\n\nZilan, Maya centre of female industry 208, _note_;\n  name signified \u201cembroidery,\u201d 210;\n  stone monoliths, 216;\n  ancient centre of culture in Yucatan, 217.\n\nZip, glyph on Copan altar, 227.\n\nZmigrodski, 19.\n\nZodiac composed of twenty day-signs, 255;\n  in Chinese calendar, 285.\n\nZumarraga, Bishop, 264.\n\nZu\u00f1i, conception of Cosmos, Above, Below, Centre and Four Quarters, 41,\n            100;\n  ceremonies typifying the fecundity of the earth, etc., 101;\n  vase used as emblem of earth-mother, 105;\n  cult of Above and Below;\n  swastika symbol in use among;\n  cult of Polaris;\n  Zu\u00f1i idol compared with Mexican lord of fire and lord of the under\n              world, 128, 129, 130;\n  twin brothers, war-gods, compared with counterparts in Mexico and\n              Yucatan, 130;\n  colors assigned to cardinal points, 192;\n  creation myth, 200, 223;\n  modern, ceremonies, symbols, etc., compared with those of Mexico,\n              Central America and Peru, 200;\n  Sky-father and Earth-mother;\n  Macaw or winter people, and Raven or summer people, 201;\n  linguistic affinities with Nahuatl and Maya, 201;\n  myth about building the town at the stable middle of the earth, 202;\n  social organization, 203, 205;\n  symbol of seeds of life, compared with Mexico and Maya, 223;\n  numerical divisions, social organization, symbolism, etc., identical\n              with that of Mexico, Yucatan, Copan, Guatemala, Peru, etc.,\n              226, 493;\n  spider\u2019s web as image of numerical divisions;\n  colors assigned to four elements, compared with Mexico and China, 293;\n  use of quadruped to symbolize cardinal points and divisions of state\n              compared with similar symbolism in Mexico and Central\n              America, 295;\n  the pueblo represents a \u201cseven in one,\u201d a counterpart of archaic\n              kingdoms in India, Persia, Babylonia, Egypt, Greece, Rome,\n              etc., 529.\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTE.\n\n\nI am indebted to the eminent Prof. Paul Haupt, of Johns Hopkins\nUniversity, for drawing my attention to the existence of an extremely\nimportant and interesting ancient map of Babylonia on an unfortunately\nbroken and mutilated clay tablet also inscribed with cuneiform characters.\nThis tablet is reproduced in photogravure and illustrated by a pencil\ndrawing on pp. 100 and 101 of the Notes on \u201cthe Book of Ezekiel\u201d\n(translated by Prof. C. H. Toy), which forms Part 12 of the monumental\npolychrome edition of the Bible, which is being edited by Prof. Paul\nHaupt, with the assistance of Dr. Horace Howard Furness. Although\ndesignated as a \u201cBabylonian map of the world\u201d it obviously represents\nBabylonia as a Middle Kingdom, traversed by the Euphrates and containing\nBabylon, surrounded by other cities situated in the Euphratean valley.\n\nBabylonia is enclosed in two large concentric circles representing the\nsea, designated in a cuneiform inscription as the \u201cBitter stream\u201d or \u201cSalt\nwater river.\u201d Triangles extend beyond the outer circle, recalling the four\n\u201crays or spokes\u201d of the image of Shamash (fig. 65). Cuneiform characters,\nin one of these triangular spaces, designate it as an island. Professor\nToy states that \u201cthere seem to have been originally seven of these\ntriangles, but most of them are broken away.\u201d In point of fact only one of\nthe triangles is whole, and distinct traces of three others are preserved.\nAs the mutilated condition of the tablet forbids certainty as to the\noriginal number of triangles, I venture to point out that it seems more\nlikely that instead of seven there were originally six triangles around\nthe central disc and that the map of Babylonia constitutes an image of a\nconfederated state, like those of India and Persia (see pp. 480 and 484),\nconceived as formed of \u201csix dependent and allied states surrounding the\nseventh ruling state in the centre.\u201d\n\nReferring the reader to p. 348 of this work where \u201cthe seven kings\u201d of\nBabylon are mentioned and seven-fold organization is discussed, I merely\nstate that the importance of the Babylonian map can scarcely be overrated\nas a proof of the application in remote antiquity of the cosmical scheme\nto territorial divisions. It will be for Assyriologists to determine for\nus the relative ages of the Sippara tablet (p. 332 and fig. 65, 1), and\nthe Babylonian Map tablet and to define their respective connections with\nthe \u201cfour regions\u201d and \u201cseven directions,\u201d or with quadruplicate and\nseven-fold schemes of organization. It is my hope that their researches\nwill lead to definite knowledge as to the date when these cosmical schemes\nwere employed in the Euphratean valley.\n\nIn conclusion I draw attention to the two interesting wheel-shaped maps of\nthe world also published in the \u201cNotes on Ezekiel\u201d (p. 105), and the\nremarkable diagram (p. 197), showing the allotment of the land of Canaan\naccording to Ezekiel. On p. 204, in the Notes of Chapter 48 of Ezekiel,\nthere are valuable details concerning the geographical distribution of the\ntribes of Israel, and the position, in the centre, of the sacred\nreservation and the symmetrical arrangement of the gates of Jerusalem,\nwhich were associated with the cardinal points and tribal representatives.\n\nZ. N.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n\n    1 The Swastika. Report of the U. S. National Museum, 1894. Washington,\n      1896. During the preparation of this paper I also consulted the\n      following works, from which some forms of swastika are likewise\n      reproduced on pl. II: Le signe de la Croix avant le Christianisme.\n      Gabriel de Mortillet. Paris, 1866. Zur Geschichte der Swastika.\n      Zmigrodski, Braunschweig, 1890. La migration des symboles. Comte\n      Goblet d\u2019Alviella. Paris, 1891.\n\n    2 I would insert here that it was only when the present investigation\n      was almost completed, that my attention was arrested by a reference\n      in Professor Wilson\u2019s work, already cited, to a short article on the\n      Fylfot and the Futhorc tir by H. Colley March, M.D.\n\n      Having succeeded in obtaining a copy of the Transactions of the\n      Lancashire and Cheshire Antiquarian Society (vol. 4, pp. 1-12,\n      1886), in which it appeared, I had the extreme satisfaction of\n      finding that a specialist working in another field and approaching\n      the problem from another direction had come to two of the identical\n      conclusions that I had reached in a totally different manner. This\n      fact constitutes, in my opinion, the most powerful support of the\n      correctness of the views we hold in common after having formed,\n      expressed and worked them out in such a different way, as can be\n      verified by a comparison of our two works.\n\n      Referring the reader to his valuable and suggestive communication to\n      which I shall revert, I shall merely mention here that Dr. March\n      recognizes, as I do, that the \u201cessential suggestion [of the swastika\n      and fylfot] is of axial rotation.\u201d He attributes the original of the\n      swastika to the nocturnal (not as I do, to the annual) rotation of\n      the Ursa Major around Polaris, and likewise refers to the fact that\n      about four thousand years ago, the circular sweep of the circumpolar\n      constellations was far more striking than at present. After meeting\n      on this common ground our lines of investigation part company and go\n      wide asunder, nor am I able to follow some of Dr. March\u2019s\n      conclusions such as, for instance, his opinion that the fylfot was a\n      sign of a \u201cdiurnal rotation\u201d suggested by \u201cthe rising and setting of\n      the sun and moon when the spectator looked at them with his back to\n      the north.\u201d On the other hand I am indebted to him for much valuable\n      information relating to the rune or futhorc tir, to which I shall\n      refer later.\n\n    3 Besides the word _coatl_=twin, the Mexicans had another term to\n      express some thing double, in pairs. A plant with two shoots was\n      named xolotl. Double agave plants, or maize when occasionally met\n      with, were regarded with superstition and named me-xolotl. The\n      pretty little parroquets, popularly known as \u201clove-birds\u201d from their\n      habit of constant association, in pairs, were named xolotl. The\n      circumstance that the term for birds\u2019-down was also xolotl may\n      explain why the down-feathers of eagles and other birds were\n      employed and played a certain r\u00f4le in ritual observances. They\n      expressed and conveyed the sound of a word which meant something\n      double and could therefore be used to symbolize a variety of\n      meanings relating to multiplication or propagation. That the\n      Mexicans figuratively connected birds\u2019-down with generation is\n      proven by the well-known myth of the birth of Huitzilopochtli from\n      the union of a ball of birds\u2019-down and a goddess named \u201cshe with the\n      petticoat of serpents\u201d (Sahagun, book III, chap. I).\n\n      Tufts of birds\u2019-down figure, in the B. N. MS., on the shield of the\n      female ancestress of the human race, one of whose numerous titles\n      was toci,=\u201cour grandmother,\u201d to express which the figure of a citli\n      or hare was sometimes employed in pictography. Of her it was said,\n      that she bore only twins, a figure of speech meaning great\n      productiveness, just as the female divinity is also termed \u201cthe\n      woman with 400 breasts\u201d (text to p. 29, Vatican Codex, Kingsborough,\n      vols. II and V). In the text to the Telleriano-Remensis Codex\n      (Kingsborough, vol. I, pl. 24), we find Xolotl, a deity wearing the\n      shell-symbol of Quetzalcoatl, directly named \u201cthe god of twins.\u201d\n\n    4 The full meaning which may have been attached to the eye-symbol in\n      both Nahuatl and Maya languages is set forth in the following notes\n      which I give merely for the suggestion they convey of a deep meaning\n      having been attached to the eye-symbol. The Nahuatl word for eye is\n      _ix-telolotli_, but in pictography it represented the phonetic value\n      of _ix_ only. It may, therefore, have been employed as a cursive\n      sign for face=_ixtli_ and the fact that it figures in the centre of\n      the symbol _ollin_, where a face sometimes occurs, confirms this\n      surmise. In the Maya language the word for eye is _ich_, which is\n      practically identical with the Nahuatl _ix_, and this enters into\n      the composition of the following words, the meanings of which are\n      worth considering in connection with the fact that the eye is shown\n      to have been employed to convey the meaning of star, in both\n      languages: Ix-machun=eternal, without beginning, ix-mayam=forever,\n      continuously, without interruption. ix-maxul=perpetual, without end.\n      The fact that each of these Maya words exhibits the prefix _ix_ and\n      that an eye is employed to express this sound and stands for star,\n      is certainly interesting, since it suggests that the natives\n      associated the idea of eternity with the stars.\n\n    5 This native belief is beautifully illustrated by the two \u201chighly\n      artistic shell-gorgets representing winged human beings,\u201d which are\n      described and figured by Mr. Wm. H. Holmes, in Part II of his\n      instructive and extremely useful \u201cArchaeological Studies among the\n      Ancient Cities of Mexico,\u201d which I have received just as this paper\n      is going to press. I am much pleased at the possibility of drawing\n      attention, by means of a footnote, to the interesting fact that in\n      one gorget the human head is figured with butterfly wings, whilst in\n      the other it is accompanied by conventionalized feathers and a\n      butterfly wing. There can be no doubt that both gorgets are attempts\n      to represent the resuscitated souls of departed warriors, according\n      to the native ideas concerning them. It is nevertheless very\n      remarkable to see actually that the ancient Mexicans employed the\n      butterfly as a symbol of an immortal soul and had also evolved the\n      idea of a winged head, analogous to that of a cherub, to represent a\n      blest spirit, dwelling in celestial regions.\n\n      It is noticeable that the name of the Mexican priests was papa,\n      which syllables are the first in the word papalotl=butterfly. It may\n      be that a distinction was made and that the souls of the dead\n      priests were supposed to assume the shape of butterflies or moths,\n      whilst the warriors became celestial humming-birds.\n\n    6 In connection with Montezuma\u2019s use of a litter it should be noticed\n      that, in the picture-writings, only the culture-hero Quetzalcoatl\n      and the bird god Huitzilopochtli are represented as seated on\n      litters. The two bars of Quetzalcoatl\u2019s litter, figured in Duran\u2019s\n      atlas (Tratado 2, cap. 1 a) terminate at each end in a serpent\u2019s\n      head. The pair of twin serpents thus rendered, evidently convey an\n      allusion to his name, which would be equally comprehensible in the\n      Maya or Mexican languages. In another portion of Duran\u2019s Atlas\n      (Trat. 2, chap. 2), Huitzilopochtli is figured as seated on a litter\n      masked as a bird, and a finely-executed native picture of the\n      bird-god, being borne on a litter, is in the B. N. MS. where he is\n      named \u201cthe precious lord\u201d and is represented with a sceptre in his\n      hand surmounted by a heart. This latter detail is of special\n      interest, since it indicates that the Mexicans employed the heart\n      with the same symbolical and metaphorical meaning as the\n      Maya-Quiches and Tzentals. The latter had named their culture-hero\n      \u201cVotan\u201d=\u201cthe Heart\u201d (of the people). (Brinton Hero-myths, p. 217.)\n      In the Popol-Vuh, the sacred book of the Quiches, the supreme\n      divinity is named \u201cthe Heart of the heaven, whose name is Hurakan.\u201d\n      He is also named the \u201cHeart of the Earth,\u201d a title whose equivalent\n      in Mexico=Tepe-Yollotl, was applied to Tezcatlipoca and associated\n      with the bodiless voice, the echo, which was supposed to proceed\n      from the \u201cheart (or life) of the Mountain.\u201d The above data\n      undoubtedly prove the important point that Huitzilopochtli and\n      Tezcatlipoca were respectively entitled \u201cthe Heart of the Heaven\u201d\n      and \u201cthe Heart of the Earth.\u201d\n\n    7 Short triangular capes are worn to this day by the Mexican women,\n      and are called quechquemitl=shoulder capes. It is curious to find in\n      Molina\u2019s dictionary, the following: tzimpitzauac=something figured,\n      which is wide above and pointed below, and tzimmanqui=something\n      figured which is pointed above and wide below, words which seem to\n      indicate that they refer to triangles and that these had different\n      meanings according to position.\n\n    8 The production of this drink was limited to the area in which the\n      agave plant could be cultivated. As set forth in my commentary on\n      the \u201cLyfe of the Indians,\u201d the natives employed many other kinds of\n      fermented liquors, made from different fruits and plants.\n\n    9 The sacred symbols and numbers of Aboriginal America in Ancient and\n      Modern times. (Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, no. 2,\n      1894.)\n\n   10 Tribes of California, Stephen Powers. Contributions to North\n      American Ethnology. Washington, 1877. vol. III, p. 79.\n\n   11 Fourth Annual Report Bureau of Ethnology, p. 518. Washington.\n\n   12 Republicas de Indias, Fray Jeronimo Roman de Zamorra 1569-1575, ed.\n      Suarez. Madrid, 1898.\n\n   13 Pilz-foermige Goetzenbilder aus Guatemala und San Salvador, Carl\n      Sapper, Globus. band LXXIII, nr. 20.\n\n   14 For other examples see Borgian Codex, pp. 2, 5, 64, 66, 74.\n\n   15 Note on the Ancient Mexican Calendar System. Stockholm, 1894.\n\n   16 Biologia Centrali-Americana. Arch\u00e6ology, edited by F. Ducane Godman,\n      London.\n\n   17 The most striking example of this is in the Palace House, at\n      Palenqne, all wall-holes of which are tau-shaped. An elaborate\n      stucco ornamentation, richly colored, encloses two upright taus\n      surrounded by raised borders. One is a deep opening in the wall; the\n      other, next to it, is filled in and exhibits a horizontal line\n      resting on a vertical one. There can be no doubt that a profound\n      symbolical meaning was expressed by the entire motif, which has been\n      admirably reproduced by Mr. A. P. Maudslay (Biologia\n      Centrali-Americana, Arch\u00e6ology, part VI, pl. 18).\n\n   18 Ver\u00f6ffentlichungen aus dem K\u00f6niglichen Museum f\u00fcr V\u00f6lkerkunde, IV\n      band, I heft. 1895. p. 5.\n\n   19 Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarias Reales, Lisbon, 1609; also\n      translation by Sir Clements B. Markham, issued by the Hakluyt\n      Society. Rites and Laws of the Incas (accounts by Molina,\n      Salcamayhua, Avila and Ondegardo), translated by Sir Clements B.\n      Markham; also Cieza de Leon, Herrera, etc. and MS. of Padre Anello\n      Oliva.\n\n   20 Attention is called to a curious error in the original text by\n      Arriaga, quoted by Rivero and Tschudi. Arriaga states that the two\n      statues stood back to back, but he makes the woman look toward the\n      \u201cponiente\u201d and the man to the \u201coccidente,\u201d thus making both figures\n      face the west. As \u201cponiente\u201d is the current Spanish phrase for the\n      west, it is evident that the author made a slip in the use of the\n      classical term, and intended to say that the man faced the\n      \u201coriente.\u201d\n\n   21 The Terra-cotta Heads of Teotihuacan, American Journal of\n      Archaeology, Baltimore, 1886.\n\n   22 For this valuable list I am indebted to the kindness of Sir Clements\n      B. Markham, the President of the Royal Geographical Society of Great\n      Britain, who generously allowed me to study some of his MS. notes on\n      Ancient Peru.\n\n   23 \u201cFrom what can be gathered and conjectured in considering the\n      traditions of the present time, it is not more than 350 to 400 years\n      since the Incas only possessed and ruled over the valley of Cuzco as\n      far as Urcas, a distance of six leagues and to the valley of Yucay,\n      which is not more than 5 leagues.... The historical period cannot be\n      placed further back than 400 years at the earliest\u201d (Polo de\n      Ondegardo 1550-1600).\n\n   24 Lettre sur les Antiquit\u00e9s de Tiahuanaco, 1866, pp. 9, 17, 19.\n\n   25 Blas Valera, apud Garcilaso de la Vega, Comentarios Reales, Lisboa,\n      1609, lib. I, cap. XI, pp. 13, 14; lib. II, cap. VI, p. 42. See also\n      Garcia, Origen de los Indios. Madrid, 1729, lib. IV, cap. XV, p.\n      313.\n\n   26 Narratives of the Rites and laws of the Incas, translated by\n      Clements B. Markham, C. B., F. R. S., ed. Hakluyt Society, pp.\n      10-13.\n\n   27 It is the merit of the late distinguished philologist Dr. Buschmann,\n      in his invaluable work on Aztec names of localities to have pointed\n      out that although the Cakchiquel language is now spoken at\n      Cozumalhuapa or Cotzumalguapan, its name is unquestionably Nahuatl\n      (Cozamalo-apan). Ueber Aztekische Ortsnamen, VII, p. 34.\n\n      The largest number of illustrations of the beautiful bas-reliefs\n      found in the above locality have been published by M. Herman Strebel\n      of Hamburg, whose valuable publications and splendid collections of\n      ancient Mexican antiquities, preserved at Berlin and Hamburg, are\n      well known. Die Steinsculptures von Santa Lucia Cozumalhuapa\n      (Guatemala) in Museum fur Volkerkunde. Hamburg, 1894. Jahrbuch der\n      Hamburgischen Wissenschaftlichen Austallen, XI.\n\n      Three of these remarkable bas-reliefs are figured in the valuable\n      publication by Geheimrath A. Bastian: Steinsculpturen aus Guatemala,\n      Berichte der K\u00f6niglichen Museen zu Berlin, 1882. Dr. Habel\u2019s\n      drawings were published in 1878, in the 22d vol. of the Smithsonian\n      Contributions to Knowledge.\n\n      Casts of these bas-reliefs are on exhibition in the Peabody Museum.\n\n   28 \u201cThe skins of lions, with the heads, had been prepared, with gold\n      ear-pieces in the ears and golden teeth in place of the real teeth\n      which had been pulled out. In the paws were certain rings of gold.\n      Those who were dressed or invested with these skins put on the head\n      and neck of the lion so as to cover their own and the skin of the\n      body of the lion hung from the shoulders.\u201d _op. cit._ p. 45.\n\n      The wearing of puma and ocelot skins by one of the two highest\n      grades of warriors in Mexico is too well known to need further\n      mention here.\n\n   29 In connection with the three points proceeding from the eye, the\n      Mexican symbol for star, I would draw attention to the fact that in\n      the latitude of Santa Lucia only three equidistant positions of Ursa\n      Major, and, possibly, of Ursa Minor, would be observable, the\n      constellations being below the northern horizon when lying between\n      it and Polaris. The symbolical three points could have thus\n      originated in the same way as the triskeles in other countries, from\n      observation of the identical phenomenon.\n\n   30 This bas-relief is reproduced in vol. III of the Anales del Museo\n      Nacional, p. 302, and is discussed by Se\u00f1or Sanchez.\n\n   31 Article Peru, Encyclopaedia Britannica.\n\n   32 Garcilaso de la Vega, The Royal Commentaries of the Incas, Hakluyt\n      ed. vol. I, p. 270.\n\n   33 Rites and Laws of the Incas, ed. Hakluyt, p. 86.\n\n   34 Rites and Laws of the Incas, ed. Hakluyt, pp. 77, 84.\n\n   35 The Heavens ... London. Richard Bentley and Son. 1883. pp. 287-289.\n\n   36 Historia Chichimeca, chap. XIX.\n\n   37 In Quechua the left hand was named lloque maqui and the right, pana\n      maqui. In the Chinchaysuyo dialect of Quechua the left hand was\n      hichoc maqui and the right, allaucay maqui (Vocabulario Padre Juan\n      de Figueredo).\n\n   38 Annals of the Cakchiquels. Library of Aboriginal Literature, vol.\n      VI, D. G. Brinton, p. 71. It is a striking coincidence which further\n      excavations may however destroy, that seven similar upright slabs\n      were found at Santa Lucia, six complete ones of which exhibit\n      individuals whose left hands bear special marks. What is more, these\n      figures are accompanied by animals which agree with a native\n      chronicle quoted by Dr. Otto Stoll (_op. cit._ p. 6). According to\n      this some of the totems or marks of dignity worn by certain Quich\u00e9\n      chieftains were representations of pumas, ocelots and vultures. It\n      is, perhaps, permissible to advance the hypothesis that the\n      personages on the slabs are representatives of the seven tribes and\n      display their totemic devices.\n\n      I would add a couple of observations which seem to indicate that the\n      language of the people who sculptured and set up the Santa Lucia\n      slabs was Nahuatl. In the first case on the long slab, figured by M.\n      Herman Strebel as No. 11, a chieftain in a recumbent position is\n      conferring with a personage masked as a deer. The date is sculptured\n      on this slab, recalling the Mexican method of figuring numerals and\n      indicates that a historical event is being recorded.\n\n      The Nahuatl word for deer is mazatl and we know that the Mazahuas,\n      or \u201cdeer-people\u201d is the name of a native tribe which inhabits to\n      this day the coast region of Guatemala. A town named Mazatenango=the\n      capital or mother-city of the Mazahuas lies between the lake of\n      Atitlan and the coast (tenan=mother of somebody; tenamitl=walled\n      city). A small village named Mazahuat also lies farther south and\n      inland on the Lempa river, in San Salvador. On one of the upright\n      slabs two sculptured heads resembling dogs\u2019 heads are enclosed in\n      circles. The Nahuatl name for dog is itzcuintl; and a town of the\n      same name, corrupted to Escuintla, lies between the latitude of\n      Amatitlan and the coast of Guatemala, at about the same distance\n      inland as the town of Maza-tenango. As both places were within easy\n      reach from Santa Lucia, it seems possible that the slabs may refer\n      to some conquest or agreement made with the \u201cdeer and dog people.\u201d\n      At all events the agreement is worth noting as a hint for future\n      research.\n\n   39 Ed. Brinton. Library of Aboriginal literature, p. 13.\n\n   40 It is to the superior authority of my distinguished and highly\n      esteemed colleagues Drs. Otto Stoll and Carl Sapper that I submit\n      the above considerations. It may be possible for the latter\n      enthusiastic explorer and for Dr. Gustavo Eisen, who is continuing\n      his valuable researches in Guatemala, to determine the locality of\n      the ancient Tullan, which should, I imagine, be sought for in a\n      region where the land inhabited by the Four Nations would converge\n      and at a point almost equidistant from the Four Tecpans.\n\n   41 In the Mexican collection at the Trocadero Museum in Paris, there is\n      a curious wooden sceptre in the form of a hand, which has been\n      figured by Dr. Ernest Hamy in his splendidly illustrated work on\n      this Museum.\n\n   42 See Brinton. The Native Calendar of Central America and Mexico, p.\n      49.\n\n   43 Bulletin of the Museum of Science and Art, University of\n      Pennsylvania, no. 3, vol. I.\n\n   44 Idea de una nueva historia general, Madrid, 1746, p. 117.\n\n   45 Native Calendar, p. 50.\n\n   46 Vergleichende Studien. Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie, bd.\n      III, 1890, and the Native Calendar, p. 19.\n\n   47 See Molina\u2019s dictionary for further meanings of verb yuli, which\n      accounts for another form of primitive native symbolism.\n\n   48 See D. G. Brinton (American Hero-myths, p. 155) who, like other\n      authorities, has not recognized the difference between native\n      cross-symbols, denoting the four quarters celestial and terrestrial\n      and the tree of tribal life.\n\n   49 Dr. Hale states that these squares remind us of the similar Chinese\n      character which represents the word \u201cfield\u201d (p. 241).\n\n   50 A Central American ceremony which suggests the snake dance of the\n      Tusayan villagers. Reprint from The American Anthropologist, vol.\n      VI, no. 3, July, 1893. _cf._ Bandelier, Final Report of\n      Investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern United States.\n      Archaeol. Inst. Papers, Am. series, IV, pp. 586-591.\n\n   51 Thirteenth Report of the Bureau of Ethnology. Washington, 1896.\n\n   52 In abbreviated form I note here, inviting special comparison with\n      Mexico, that the Zu\u00f1i Upper world was symbolized by the sun, eagle\n      and turquoise; the Lower world by the rattlesnake, water and toad.\n\n   53 Landa states that Mayapan signified \u201cthe banner of Maya,\u201d the latter\n      being the name of the \u201ctongue of land\u201d on which the capital was\n      situated. This explanation is, however, scarcely satisfactory, for\n      pantli is Nahuatl. If the entire word be regarded as Nahuatl, we\n      obtain \u201cthe banner of the hand.\u201d As another Maya name for the\n      capital was Ho and this means five it seems possible that this\n      numeral and sound were actually expressed by an open hand and that\n      the Nahuatl name thus arose.\n\n   54 As throughout America four brothers are always found associated, in\n      consequence of the general spread of the quadruple organization, the\n      fact that three rulers only are mentioned here and that three\n      powerful tribes were found in possession of Yucatan, indicates that\n      these must have separated themselves from their original State. The\n      subsequent reduction of their number to two shows further\n      dissension.\n\n   55 It seems reasonable to refer to this date the expulsion of the Maya\n      tribe, the Huaxtekans, who founded their colony at Panuco, named\n      their capital Tuch-pan and carried with them their execrable\n      practices and ideas. At the same time they possessed and handed down\n      such a proficiency in the art of weaving that at the time of\n      Montezuma the most beautiful textile fabrics, furnished to him as\n      tribute, were the Huaxtecan \u201ccentzon-tilmatli\u201d or mantles of four\n      hundred colors, \u201cfinely woven and covered with intricate and\n      artistic designs.\u201d This circumstance points to a possible connection\n      with Zilan, the reputed Maya centre of female industry. It has been\n      stated by good authorities that the only antiquities thus far found\n      in America, which testify to the existence of a degraded and obscene\n      cult, are from the region of Panuco.\n\n   56 It is interesting to note in the above description absolutely no\n      mention of woman in the organization of Mayapan. It is therefore to\n      be presumed that they were excluded from this capital, and\n      inhabited, as in Mexico, their own town, under female rulership and\n      that of the \u201clords of the Night.\u201d\n\n   57 See the Atlatl or Spear-thrower of the Ancient Mexicans. Peabody\n      Museum Papers, vol. 1, no. 3. Cambridge, 1891.\n\n   58 Relacion. ed. Brasseur de Bourbourg, p. 52. In a note the Abb\u00e9\n      states that the above description recalls the monoliths of Copan and\n      Quirigua.\n\n   59 We are told that the Cheles inhabited a province named Ah-bin-chel,\n      and that their capitals were Tikoh and Izamal (literally, Ah=they\n      who are of, kin=sun, chel=sort of bird and the ancient name of a\n      sacerdotal lineage in Yucatan). Thence the title Chelekat=holiness,\n      highness, grandeur, given to the head of this lineage (Brasseur de\n      Bourbourg). Ix-chel=the woman-bird, was the high-priestess or\n      medicine-woman and midwife. The Cheles, Tutul-xius and Cocomes were\n      the three most powerful tribes at the time of the Conquest. It is\n      noteworthy that they all had bird names and that the word chel, the\n      totemic bird of the Cheles, so closely resembles ch\u00e9=tree, that the\n      combination of a ch\u00e9 or tree as a symbol of the tribe and the\n      chel-bird would have been suggested by the language.\n\n   60 According to Se\u00f1or Garcia Cubas, \u201cthis peninsula of Yucatan must\n      have been united at one time, to the island of Cuba, the determining\n      cause of their separation being the impetuous current of the Gulf of\n      Mexico\u201d (Atlas Metodico, Mexico, 1874, p. 32).\n\n   61 For a general account of the ruins of Copan and for a plan on which\n      the position of the different structures, stel\u00e6, altars and\n      prominent sculptures are given, I refer to the Memoirs of the\n      Peabody Museum vol. I, no. 1, containing a preliminary report, of\n      the Explorations by the Museum. Cambridge, 1896.\n\n   62 Historia de la Provincia de Yucathan, by Friar Diego Lopez\n      Cogolludo, Madrid, 1688.\n\n   63 It seems to me that this statement establishes once and for all the\n      order in which these sculptured glyphs are to be read. It is evident\n      that in fastening them to the walls the idea was that of building up\n      the calculiform record by placing the stones above each other, in\n      the same manner that a stone wall would be raised. Accordingly, the\n      earliest records would form the base and the last be at the top.\n\n   64 See Biologia Centrali Americana, pt. I, Copan \u201ca\u201d pl. 9. Casts of\n      this sculpture and of two others nearly identical, from Copan, are\n      in the Peabody Museum.\n\n   65 It is my intention to reproduce these plans of Copan and Quirigua\n      and of other ancient American capitals in the publication I have\n      undertaken to make in co-editorship with Mr. E. W. Dahlgren of\n      Stockholm, of the beautiful map of the City of Mexico and its\n      surroundings, painted by Alonzo de la Cruz, the cosmographer of\n      Philip II of Spain. Mr. Dahlgren published an interesting account of\n      this map, which is preserved in the library of the university at\n      Upsala, in 1889, with its uncolored reproduction on a reduced scale.\n      In his monumental work on ancient cartography, Baron Nordenskj\u00f6ld\n      also published an uncolored production of this map and, with Dr.\n      Bovallius, exhibited a beautiful facsimile of this precious\n      document, at the Historical Exposition in Madrid, in October, 1892.\n      During the previous summer at Stockholm, I had personally\n      superintended the painting of a perfect facsimile copy of the map\n      which I exhibited in the Anthropological Building of the World\u2019s\n      Columbian Exposition in 1893. The original map was exhibited in\n      Stockholm during the meeting of the Congress of Americanists at\n      Stockholm in 1894, and I suggested that it ought to be published in\n      exact facsimile and in colors, particularly on account of the many\n      hieroglyphic names of localities it exhibits. It was thereupon\n      agreed by Mr. Dahlgren and myself that we should jointly publish the\n      map with an accompanying text in English, my share of the work being\n      principally the decipherment of the hieroglyphs of localities, the\n      classification of the tribes inhabiting them, as well as the\n      presentation of all historical facts connected with them that I\n      could obtain from the native and early Spanish chronicles. With\n      characteristic liberality the Duc de Loubat most kindly supported\n      the proposed publication by subscribing to twenty copies of it in\n      advance and depositing the payment for these at the Academy of\n      Sciences. The reproduction of the map has been facilitated by this\n      generous action and I take great pleasure in expressing here our\n      grateful appreciation to the Duc de Loubat, who has been patiently\n      awaiting the achievement of our undertaking. Both Mr. Dahlgren and I\n      have been prevented from completing this up to the present, by work\n      planned previously to the publication of the map. The present\n      publication will prove, however, that the social organization of the\n      Mexicans has been the object of my painstaking study and that, until\n      I had satisfactorily set forth the fundamental principles which\n      influenced not only the distribution of the population, but the\n      ground-plan of the capital itself, any text I could publish with the\n      map would be incomplete. As matters now stand, I propose to treat of\n      the City of Mexico as a type of an ancient American sacred city, to\n      compare its ground plan with those of other native capitals and to\n      trace, as far as possible, the localization of the various tribes\n      and classes of the ancient population, so that we can form an\n      adequate idea of the topography and machinery of the great state\n      known as the Empire of Montezuma. I hope and expect to complete this\n      publication in a reasonable period of time but dare not define its\n      limits, as all scientific research demands more time and strength\n      than can be determined upon in advance. In conclusion I would state\n      that, at the Congress of Americanists which took place at the city\n      of Mexico in 1895, the distinguished Mexican cartographer, Se\u00f1or\n      Garcia Cubas, whose splendid maps of Mexico are well known, made an\n      interesting communication on this map, of which he had seen a copy.\n\n   66 It has been surmised that the name Palenque is of Spanish origin and\n      means \u201ca palisade;\u201d but it seems far more likely to be the\n      approximate rendering of the sound of the old native word by a\n      Spanish word, in the same way that the Nahuatl Quauh-nahuac became\n      the Spanish Cuerna-vaca, literally cow\u2019s horn.\n\n   67 Brasseur de Bourbourg\u2019s Maya Vocabulary contains an interesting\n      instance of a native tribe or lineage bearing the name of a bird:\n      \u201cChel: name of a kind of bird; ancient name of a great sacerdotal\n      family reigning at Tecoh (near Izamal, Yucatan). Thence the title\n      \u2018Chelekat,\u2019 which meant holy, exalted, great, and was applied to the\n      head of this family.\u201d\n\n   68 On a large tablet at Ixkun, the cast of which is now in Mr.\n      Maudslay\u2019s collection at the South Kensington Museum, similarly\n      placed figures support on their bent backs and shoulders standing\n      personages, facing each other, and surrounded by glyphs. In this\n      case, however, the men who serve as footstools, are bound and\n      distinctly show a difference of type and costume, so that there can\n      be no doubt that the tablet commemorated the conquest of an alien\n      tribe.\n\n   69 Estudio arqueologico y jeroglifico del Calendario o gran libro\n      astronomico.... Mexico. 1889.\n\n   70 Shakespeare, Julius Caesar, III, 1, 60.\n\n   71 A somewhat disheartening consideration concerning the Stone of the\n      Great Plan deserves mention. The probability is that it was\n      originally painted with the colors of the four quarters and that\n      some of the records thus made are irretrievably lost. On taking the\n      first impressions with gelatine, in order to make his admirable cast\n      of the monolith, Se\u00f1or Abadiano discovered many traces of color,\n      lodged in small crevices and corners of the carvings. Moreover, the\n      use of the symbolical colors on stone monuments is vouched for by\n      the great painted monolith which was, strange to say, re-interred\n      after having been discovered in the City of Mexico some years ago.\n      The reproduction of an obviously incorrect drawing made of this\n      stone during its uncovered state, has been published in vol. II of\n      the Annals of the National Museum of Mexico.\n\n   72 Relacion, p. 339, Kingsborough, vol. IX.\n\n   73 Leon y Gama advanced the opinion that the stone, supplemented by a\n      gnomon, served as a solar clock or dial, to mark the hours of the\n      days and the seasons, etc. He added that the stone may have served\n      further purposes than those he enumerated and hints that it may have\n      also recorded lunar periods. This distinguished scholar concludes by\n      acknowledging that the ancient Mexicans possessed enlightened\n      knowledge of the movements of the principal planets and methods of\n      observing them, in order to divide time for the purposes of civil\n      and religious government (Description de las dos Piedras. Mexico,\n      1852, p. 110).\n\n      The late Doctor Philip Valentini, in a learned discourse on the\n      Calendar-stone, read at New York in 1878, expressed his view that it\n      contained a complete and plastic representation of the division of\n      time employed in ancient Mexico.\n\n      The distinguished Mexican scholar, Se\u00f1or Alfredo Chavero, has\n      published the most elaborate treatise which has been written on the\n      subject and discusses the views of Gama and Valentini with much\n      erudition. Referring the reader to his publications in the Annals of\n      the National Museum of Mexico I shall but mention his views that the\n      four symbols, contained in the quadruplicate central figure, record\n      four epochs of the native cosmogony, that the central head is an\n      image of the sun and that the monument itself is a votive tablet\n      which was erected to the Sun in historical time, two conclusions to\n      which I cannot subscribe. It is impossible to discuss fully the\n      valuable publications of Se\u00f1ores Troncoso and Chavero in these\n      cursive remarks, but I shall do so on another occasion. Meanwhile\n      there is one point upon which both of these authorities agree,\n      namely, in admitting the possible connection between the\n      civilization of Mexico and Peru and in recognizing that various\n      ancient people of America had the nahui-ollin in common. A passage\n      in Se\u00f1or Chavero\u2019s work claims moreover special mention, as it\n      contains his supposition that the sign nahui-ollin may have\n      symbolized not only the four movements of the sun, but also those of\n      the moon, which the writer seems to regard as the nocturnal or dark\n      sun. I am quite ready to agree with the above authorities on some of\n      the points mentioned, conflicting as their views appear to be at\n      first sight. Inasmuch as I regard the monument as the image of a\n      plan or theoretical scheme which colored and influenced all native\n      thought, I hail any recognition made by other students of its\n      all-pervading presence in the Calendar and in the cosmogony of the\n      ancient Mexicans. On the other hand I maintain a view which\n      materially differs from those of previous writers, namely, that the\n      entire plan was originally based on the primitive observation of\n      Polaris and in the conception of a stable centre: the seat of a\n      power extending over the Four Quarters and the Above and Below.\n\n   74 In the text, as published, Bernal Diaz states that this statue had a\n      face like that of a bear \u201cun rostro, como de osso,\u201d but goes on to\n      say that it was decorated according to the same mode as the other\n      \u201cdel otro.\u201d I am inclined to think it more than probable that\n      instead of \u201cde osso \u201d the text should also read \u201cdel otro,\u201d as among\n      the many images of Tezcatlipoca that are extant, none show him\n      connected with the bear in any form or shape.\n\n   75 In Tullan we seem to find the Maya equivalent to the Mexican\n      Itzacual=enclosure, by which the Teotihuacan pyramids are popularly\n      designated, as may be verified by the discussion of the Maya word in\n      the preceding pages (_cf._ tulum, tulul, tuliz, tulacal), which\n      conveys the idea of something enclosed, entire, whole and universal\n      and will be reverted to. Cholol-lan seems to be connected with the\n      verb cholol-tia=to escape (like game from a snare or net) to fly, or\n      to spring away. According to this, Cholol-lan would mean \u201cthe place\n      of escape or flight\u201d and it will be seen that this designation will\n      be found to agree with the native tradition concerning the purpose\n      of the pyramid, which will be cited presently. It is not impossible,\n      however, that Cholol-lan may be bilingual and also be a corrupt\n      rendering of the Maya _ho_ or _hool_=head, also capital. This\n      supposition receives a certain support from Padre Rios\u2019 statement\n      that \u201cthe inhabitants of Cholula, in their sacred festivals,\n      performed a solemn dance around the pyramid chanting a song which\n      began with the words Tulanian Hulaez.\u201d These, he states, \u201cbelonged\n      to none of the languages now spoken in Mexico\u201d (Orozco y Berra _op.\n      cit._ p. 363). The name Tlachiuhaltepetl is translated by Orozcoy\n      Berra by \u201cmountain made by hand,\u201d _i. e._ artificial mountain or\n      pyramid; from tlachiuhaliztli, the act of accomplishing some work\n      forming or creating something. As the origin of primitive symbolism\n      is a question of such deep interest I shall mention here some\n      curious data in connection with the pyramid. The word Tlachiuhale\n      was a title or name applied to the \u201cCreator or Former of living\n      creatures.\u201d In order to express the sound of this word in the\n      picture-writings, it is obvious that a pyramid could have been\n      employed, since it graphically and phonetically conveyed the desired\n      sound tlachiual-tepetl. At the same time a complementary sign would\n      be necessary so as to obtain a symbol which would specially apply to\n      the Creator alone. The word tlachia=to look, see, watch, naturally\n      suggests itself, as a complement to the sound tlach; and to express,\n      in a cursive way, the action of seeing, an eye sufficed. We thus see\n      that an artificial mountain or pyramid and an eye formed a\n      hieroglyph which expressed the sound \u201cTlachiuale\u201d and signified the\n      \u201cCreator.\u201d As the eye by itself was the sign for star, and the idea\n      of a central star, as frequently depicted in the nahui-ollin sign,\n      was an emblem of the creative and central power, it is evident that,\n      besides its literal meaning, _i. e._ an artificial or created\n      mountain, a \u201ctlachiuhaltepetl\u201d would have been regarded by the\n      initiated as the Mountain of the Creator, the sacred pyramid, which\n      was the image of central, dual and quadruple power.\n\n   76 The testimony of early Spanish missionaries established the fact\n      that in ancient Mexico a caste of master builders and masons\n      existed, whose name, Tulteca, identified them with the ancient\n      centre of civilization and integral state of Tullan. \u201cWhenever the\n      natives were asked who had constructed certain edifices, passes and\n      roads, etc., they invariably answered the \u2018tultecas,\u2019 a Nahuatl word\n      in current use, which signified \u2018the skilled artificers or workers\n      in stone, etc., the master-masons or builders.\u2019 \u201d\n\n   77 The ancient native name of this volcano was Citlal-tepetl, literally\n      the Star Mountain, from which it may, perhaps, be inferred that,\n      from the plains, its high and sharp peak served as a means of\n      registering the movements of certain stars and planets.\n\n   78 China, Prof. Rob. Douglas, p. 259.\n\n   79 The Chinese designation ho, applied to the limits of space, is\n      particularly interesting in connection with the Maya ho and its\n      homonyms.\n\n   80 \u201cThe Mongol-Mayan Constitution,\u201d The American Antiquarian, May and\n      June, 1898. It is with all the more genuine appreciation that I\n      point out how Mr. Wickersham, anticipating my publication of the\n      same conclusion, has recognized that the Zu\u00f1is, Mexicans and\n      Peruvians as well as the Chinese, were ruled by what he aptly terms\n      the \u201cQuadriform Constitution,\u201d since it has taken me years of hard\n      study to perceive this common basis. I likewise draw attention to\n      his study in primitive law, \u201cThe Constitution of China (Olympia,\n      1898),\u201d but must remark that I strongly differ from his conclusions\n      in the recently published Answer to Major Powell\u2019s inquiry \u201cWhence\n      came the American Indians?\u201d (Tacoma, 1899.)\n\n   81 Shu King. The Chinese Classics, Legge. Book I, p. 37.\n\n   82 Sacred Books of the East, Legge, vol. III, Sh\u00fb King; also W. H.\n      Medhurst, Shanghai, 1846.\n\n   83 An interesting note in connection with the assignment of color to\n      the cardinal points in Asia, is given by Schlagintweit (Buddhism in\n      Thibet, 27, 3), who relates that \u201cthe walls of the temples look\n      towards the 4 quarters of heaven and each side should be painted\n      with its particular colour, viz.: north=green, east=white,\n      south=yellow, west=red, but this rule is not strictly adhered to;\n      most, indeed, are painted red.\u201d As a parallel to this I refer to\n      Sahagun\u2019s description of the temple of the high-priest Quetzalcoatl\n      at Tula, which held four chambers facing the cardinal points; \u201cThe\n      east chamber was termed the golden house and was lined with plates\n      of gold; the west chamber was termed the house of emeralds and\n      turquoises; the south chamber was inlaid with silver and mother of\n      pearl and the north chamber with red jasper and shells.\u201d Sahagun\n      describes also a second building of the same kind, in which the\n      decoration of the four rooms was carried out in the same colors, in\n      feather-mosaic (_op. cit._ Book X, chap. XXIX).\n\n   84 The alligator-altar of Copan and the \u201cGreat Turtle\u201d of Quirigua, on\n      which four limbs may be discerned, are the most remarkable examples\n      of the native employment of the quadruped figure as a symbol of\n      clan-organization and the great Quadruplicate Plan. An interesting\n      instance of the association, in China, of the form of a four-footed\n      animal with numerical divisions is furnished by the following\n      passage from the Book of Yu, Shoo-King, ed. Legge. Khung-she has\n      said that \u201cHeaven conferred on Y\u00fc the divine tortoise bearing a book\n      out of the river; on its back were various numbers, up to nine. Y\u00fc\n      arranged them and completed the 9 species. On the head of the\n      tortoise was 9, on the tail 1, on the left side 3, on the right 7.\n      The shoulders were formed by 2 and 4, the thighs by 6 and 8.\u201d\n\n   85 As Prof. E. B. Taylor has aptly pointed out: \u201cBy accident the\n      [Mexican] Calendar may be exactly illustrated with a modern pack of\n      cards laid out in rotation of the four suits, as an ace of hearts, 2\n      of spades, 3 of diamonds, 4 of clubs, 5 of hearts, etc.... This\n      system [of combining signs with numerals] is similar to that of\n      central southwestern Asia where, among the Mongols, Tibetans and\n      Chinese, etc., series of signs are thus combined to reckon years,\n      months and days.... Humboldt makes this comparison in his Vue des\n      Cordill\u00e8res, p. 212\u201d.... (Article \u201cMexico,\u201d Ency. Brit.).\n\n   86 The following passages contain interesting evidences of the ancient\n      application of the number seven to tribal organization in China. \u201cIn\n      the time of the Suy dynasty Manchuria went by the name of Mo-ho in\n      China ... the people being _then divided into seven tribes_....\n      Towards the end of the eleventh century one Yang-ko was elected as\n      their chief ... and he organized something of a regular government\n      throughout the various tribes of Jou-tchi or Ni\u00f4-tchi\u2019s and\n      collected taxes from them. The highest of his officers were all\n      styled po-k-eih-lee and _were distinguished by the names of the sun,\n      planets and 28 constellations of the Zodiac_. Every five, every ten\n      and every hundred men had their special officers.... From the chief\n      of five to the chief of ten thousand, each trained his dependents in\n      military art....\u201d Wylie: On the origin of the Manchus (Chinese\n      Researches, p. 244).\n\n   87 The Nestorian Tablet in Si-ngan-foo (p. 24, Chinese Researches.\n      Shanghai, 1897).\n\n   88 (The Religion of Japan, Wm. Elliott Griffis. London, 1895, p. 67 and\n      note 9.) This curious agreement between the Japanese and other\n      ethnic traditions, in locating Paradise, the origin of the human\n      family and of civilization at the north pole, has not escaped the\n      attention of Dr. W. F. Warren, President of Boston University, who\n      makes extended reference to it in his suggestive book, \u201cParadise\n      Found, The Cradle of the Human Race at the North Pole. A Study of\n      the Prehistoric World. Boston, 1885.\u201d\n\n   89 An interesting parallelism in the development or evolution of the\n      idea of rotation around a central pole was brought to my notice by a\n      model in the Indian Department of the South Kensington Museum. It\n      represents the Hindu fanatical religious rite known as the \u201cChurruck\n      Puja.\u201d Four individuals are suspended by cords, with hooks drawn\n      through their flesh, to a movable wooden structure like a wheel\n      surmounting a high pole, similar to that used by the Ancient Mexican\n      \u201cflyers\u201d (see p. 24) which likewise served as a pivot for the\n      circling motion of the performers. The torture voluntarily endured\n      by the latter recalls that accompanying the sacred sun pole-dance of\n      certain North American Indian tribes. It is interesting to contrast\n      the ancient Mexican refined and intellectual symbolization of\n      circumpolar motion with the fanatical and hideous self-torture\n      associated with the North American and Hindu modes of representing\n      the same phenomena, as it throws much light on the development of\n      certain sides of human nature.\n\n   90 Mr. Wm. H. Goodyear, from whose admirable work, the Grammar of the\n      Lotus, the above quotations are taken, remarks that \u201cthe myth of\n      Horus rising from the lotus, as found in the Egyptian texts, is the\n      exact counterpart of this idea and as far as Brahmanism is\n      concerned, is much the older;\u201d also that \u201cit is possible that the\n      lotus symbolism of Egypt and India dates from a race which divided\n      into separate branches; it is also possible that the people of India\n      experienced the influence, direct or indirect, of Egypt.\u201d\n\n   91 Researches into the origin of the primitive constellations of the\n      Greeks, Ph\u0153nicians and Babylonians (Robert Brown, jun., F. S. A., M.\n      R. A. S., vol. I, 1899, p. 357).\n\n   92 In Assyria we find one of the oldest temples bearing the name\n      E-kharsag-kurkura, that stamps the edifice as the reproduction of\n      the \u201cmountain of all lands\u201d and there are other temples that\n      likewise bear names in which the idea of a mountain is\n      introduced.... The zikkurat or \u201cmountain-house\u201d=E-kur was at Nippur,\n      Sippar, Uruk, Ur and Larsa, \u201cthe centre of a considerable group of\n      buildings; while at Babylon ... the temple area of E-sagila must\n      have presented the appearance of a little city of itself, shut off\n      from the rest of the town by a wall which invariably enclosed the\n      sacred quarter.\u201d The name E-kur was used at Nippur, by extension, to\n      denote the entire sacred precinct which contained the zikkurat or\n      staged tower, the great court where worshippers assembled, shrines\n      and other minor structures. The excavations at Nippur have afforded\n      us, for the first time, a general view of a sacred quarter in an\n      ancient Babylonian city. The extent of the quarter was considerable.\n      Dr. Peters\u2019 estimate is eight acres for the zikkurat and surrounding\n      structures.... \u201cA factor that contributed largely to the growth of\n      the sacred precinct in the large centres was the circumstance that\n      the political importance of such centres as Nippur, Lagash, Ur,\n      Babylon and Nineveh led the rulers to group around the worship of\n      the chief deity, the cult of the minor ones who constituted the\n      family or court of the chief god.\u201d A \u201clist of temples in Lagash,\n      recently published by Scheil, ... furnishes the name of no less than\n      thirteen sacred edifices, and we are certain that as many as four or\n      five smaller chapels surrounded the precinct in which stood the\n      great temple E-ninnu ...\u201d (Jastrow, _op. cit._).\n\n   93 These facts shed additional light and interest upon the Mt. Meru of\n      India, where the Brahmans sought union with their god Brahma.\n\n   94 \u201cDiodorus Siculus maintains that the E-kur was employed as an\n      astronomical observatory. The antiquity of Babylonian astronomy is\n      indicated by the testimony of Simplicius and Porphyrius who relate\n      that Callisthenes, the companion of Alexander the Great during his\n      campaigns, brought back from Babylon and communicated to Aristoteles\n      a series of observations which had been made there for a period of\n      1,903 years. Accordingly, the Chald\u00e6ans must have begun to make\n      astronomical notes more than 2,200 years before the Christian era.\n      It stands indeed to reason that they must have made observations\n      during countless centuries, since they discovered the Saros, known\n      as the Chald\u00e6an period of 6583-1/3 days, which served for the\n      prediction of eclipses and were also acquainted with the precession\n      of the equinoxes.\u201d\n\n   95 Professor Jastrow tells us that the name Shamash merely signifies\n      vassal or servitor. I venture to point out what is doubtlessly a\n      fact familiar to Assyriologists, that the name closely resembles the\n      Babylonian-Assyrian name Shame=heaven, the equivalent of the\n      Sumerian an, a word of which the most ancient cuneiform signs were\n      four crossed lines, forming eight lines proceeding from a common\n      centre.\n\n   96 A striking corroboration of the view that China derived its\n      civilization from Asia Minor is afforded by the resemblance between\n      the Assyrian Anu and the Chinese Shang, both signifying Heaven, and\n      the Assyrian Ea and Chinese Lea, both applied to \u201cthe Below.\u201d\n\n   97 An analytical study of the Babylonian and Assyrian divinities\n      enumerated in Professor Jastrow\u2019s hand-book enables us to detect\n      some of the natural associations of ideas that influenced the\n      formation of one artificial theological system after another, all\n      springing from a single root.\n\n      The fundamental realization of the antithesis of light and darkness\n      giving rise to the division of the universe into two distinct parts,\n      the conception of an eternal antagonism between both followed and\n      led to the stage of thought set forth by Mr. Robert Brown who tells\n      us (_op. cit._) that \u201cthe original twins were the Sun and Moon\u201d and\n      that an archaic cosmogonic legend attached to the third month of Kas\n      (twins) is that of two hostile brethren and the building of the\n      first city. The great twin-brethren who join together to build the\n      city are the Sun and Moon, engaged in preserving cosmic order yet\n      also constantly antagonistic to each other and who constantly chase\n      each other, one being up when the other is down. Mr. Brown also\n      relates the myth of antagonistic satraps Namaros and Parsondas and\n      states that, in the twin stars, Castor and Pollux, named by the\n      Euphrateans the great Twins=Mastab-bagal-gal, the Sun and Moon were\n      re-duplicated. The Euphratean abbreviation is mas=twin or mas-mas,\n      and Pollux is equated with the fourth antediluvian king Ammenon, a\n      name derived from Akkadian: umun=offspring, an=heaven _i. e._ the\n      Sun, \u201cthe son or offspring of heaven.\u201d\n\n   98 \u201cThere are reasons for believing, however, that Sarpanitum, the\n      offspring-producing goddess once enjoyed considerable importance of\n      her own; that, prior to the rise of Marduk to his supreme position,\n      a goddess was worshipped in Babylon, one of whose special functions\n      it was to protect the progeny while still in the mother\u2019s womb. A\n      late king of Babylon, the great Nebuchadnezzar, appeals to this\n      attribute of the goddess. To her was also attributed the possession\n      of knowledge concealed from men.... A late ruler of Babylon,\n      Shamash-Shumu-kin, calls her \u2018the queen of the gods\u2019 and declares\n      himself to have been nominated by her to lord it over men\u201d (Jastrow,\n      _op. cit._ p. 122).\n\n      The following extracts from Assyrian prayers addressed to Ishtar\n      further define her position at one time: \u201cThe producer, queen of\n      heaven, the glorious lady. To the one who dwells in E-babbara.... To\n      the queen of the gods to whom has been entrusted the commands of the\n      great gods. To the lady of Nineveh.... To the daughter of Sin, _the\n      twin-sister of Shamash_, ruling over all kingdoms. Who issues\n      decrees, the goddess of the universe.... _Besides thee there is no\n      guiding deity_....\u201d\n\n   99 As an illustration of the ideas connected with Astarte it is\n      interesting to note that fish and doves, inhabitants of the sea and\n      air, became her sacred emblems. The horns which she is sometimes\n      represented as wearing seem to be not only symbolical of the moon,\n      but also to be a remnant of a more ancient form of symbolism which\n      associated the goddess with the cow. It is stated that, in Canaan,\n      Astarte was represented under the form of a cow and it will be shown\n      that, in the Egyptian zodiac Polaris and Ursa Major were represented\n      under the form of a bull or cow or its thigh. The eye painted on the\n      prow of the ship was also a symbol of the goddess, an interesting\n      fact considering that the eye expresses a star among other primitive\n      people.\n\n  100 Book V, Chaps. VIII-X.\n\n  101 \u201cThat the Hebrew and Babylonian traditions [of the Creation] spring\n      from a common source is so evident as to require no further proof.\n      The agreements are too close to be accidental. At the same time the\n      variations in detail point to an independent elaboration of the\n      traditions on the part of the Hebrews and Babylonians.... It is in\n      Babylonia that the thought would naturally arise of making the world\n      begin with the close of the storms and rains in the spring. The\n      Terahites must, therefore, have brought those cosmological\n      traditions with them upon migrating from the Euphrates Valley to the\n      Jordan district.... The intercourse, political and commercial,\n      between Palestine and Mesopotamia was uninterrupted.... The\n      so-called Babylonian exile brought Hebrews and Babylonians once more\n      side by side.... A direct borrowing [of traditions] from the\n      Babylonians has not taken place and while the Babylonian records are\n      in all probability much older than the Hebrew, the latter again\n      contain elements, as Gunkel has shown, of a more primitive character\n      than the Babylonian production. This relationship can only\n      satisfactorily be explained on the assumption that the Hebrews\n      possessed the traditions upon which Genesis narrative rests, long\n      before the Babylonian exile, when the story appears, indeed, to have\n      received its final and present shape.... Yahwe is assigned the r\u00f4le\n      of Bel-Marduk, the division of the work of creation into six days is\n      definitely made and some further modifications introduced ...\u201d\n      (Jastrow, _op. cit._ pp. 452-453).\n\n  102 Dr. von Luschan (_op. cit._ p. 22) translates this cuneiform sign,\n      which exists in Babylonian and Assyrian forms, as \u201cSiebeneinigkeit\u201d\n      and emphasizes the fact that it is employed in the singular form.\n      The inference that it may designate not only the Pleiades but more\n      probably Ursa Major corroborates the view that the mystic number\n      seven impressed itself upon the human mind by its association with\n      the Septentriones.\n\n  103 The fact that the mountain was the symbol of the centre of the earth\n      and of Bel, throws light upon the meaning of the clay cones which\n      were \u201cvery common votive objects in Babylonia especially in the\n      earlier periods.\u201d They would have been appropriately used in the\n      cult of Baal, the personification of the male principle, and are\n      indeed usually represented as offered by male worshippers. That the\n      cones in some cases represented the conical bunch of the male\n      blossom of the palm tree may also be conjectured.\n\n  104 An interesting complement to this is furnished by the texts of\n      oracular messages sent by the goddess Ishtar to King Ashurbanapal\n      who seems to have been a fervent disciple of the theological school\n      of Arbela. On one occasion, when the king\u2019s army was in a\n      predicament, Ishtar appears at night and declares: \u201cI walk in front\n      of Ashurbanapal, the king, who is the creation of my hands.\u201d On\n      another occasion the oracle-giving medium reports to the king:\n      \u201cIshtar, dwelling in Arbela, came with quivers hung on her right and\n      left sides with a bow in her hand and girded with a pointed\n      unsheathed sword. Before thee [_i. e._ the king] she stood and like\n      the mother that bore thee [with maternal kindness] Ishtar, supreme\n      among the gods, addressed thee commanding: \u2018Be encouraged\n      [literally, look up] for the fray. Wherever thou art, I am.\u2019 \u201d The\n      images of Ashur aiming his arrow and Ishtar with an unsheathed\n      pointed sword recall the biblical description of the flaming sword\n      which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life (Genesis\n      III).\n\n  105 It is interesting to trace to the same origin the \u201cquadriga\u201d which\n      may well have been associated with the \u201cprimitive sun\u201d=Polaris,\n      before supreme sovereignty was transferred to Ph\u0153bus, the diurnal\n      sun, by the votaries of the cult of Light.\n\n  106 I am pleased to be able, at the last moment, to insert the following\n      interesting points personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis\n      Budge: In remotest antiquity two mythical mountains marked the two\n      divisions of the land: Bakhan, situated to the southeast, and Manu,\n      situated to the northwest. The latter, like the mountain Meru of\n      India, was the abode of the blessed, towards which the souls of the\n      dead set out from Abydos and where eternal rest was to be found. The\n      curious connection between the north=mehta and the west=amenta,\n      which I have shown to have prevailed in ancient Mexico where the\n      north is named Mictlan and in Yucatan where Aman signifies north, is\n      particularly interesting in connection with the exclamation or\n      exhortation to the soul, constantly met with in the Egyptian Book of\n      the Dead: Er-amentet=to the hidden land! _i. e._, the northwest.\n\n  107 Thesaurus Inscriptionem \u00c6gyptiacarum II, p. 212.\n\n  108 First Steps in Egyptian, London, 1898. I am mainly indebted to this\n      useful book and other publications by the same author for the\n      Egyptian words cited in the following pages. An interesting point,\n      personally communicated to me by Dr. Wallis Budge, is that the\n      cardinal points in Egypt were located diagonally, a method which is\n      shown to have also existed in Central America by the diagonal\n      orientation of numberless pyramids and buildings.\n\n  109 A History of Egypt, Vol. II. London, 1896.\n\n  110 Reference is made to another translation of the hymn in the \u201cRecords\n      of the Past,\u201d Vol. II, pp. 127-136, and to Gr\u00e9baut, Hymne \u00e0 Ammon\n      Ra.\n\n  111 First steps in Egyptian, Mr. Wallis Budge, p. 235.\n\n  112 An extremely interesting instance of the hand being actually figured\n      between the sun and the moon, _i. e._ as the symbol of the Middle,\n      is to be seen on the Ph\u0153nician tablet to Baal Hamman and Tanitla,\n      from Carthage, preserved at the British Museum and figured by Mr.\n      Goodyear, fig. 64, 1. Above the hand is a group of symbols\n      consisting of two S-shaped signs, resembling the Mexican picture of\n      Ursa Major. Between these is a pyramid and above this a\n      seven-petalled conventionalized flower, which should be compared\n      with fig. 64, 3, a copy of the familiar flower on the sacred tree of\n      the Assyrians. In fig. 64, 2, copied from another Ph\u0153nician tablet\n      (Goodyear), the flower occupies the central position between two\n      hands; the latter taking the places of sun and moon in the tablet 1,\n      an interesting detail considering the instances cited, showing that\n      dual rulership was indiscriminately associated with \u201cright and left\n      hand\u201d or \u201cthe sun and moon.\u201d\n\n  113 It is remarkable that the sound of the Latin word for ram=aries, so\n      closely resembles the Egyptian symbols for Amen-Ra (see fig. 63,\n      1-4) and that the am and ar syllables occur in the following names\n      for ram or sheep, applied to the zodiacal constellation:\n\n      Al Hamal=the sheep (Arabic).\n      Bara=the ram (Persian).\n      Amru=the ram (Syrian).\n      Varak=the ram (Parsi).\n\n  114 The inscription on this monument, which also exhibits the portrait\n      statue of Amenophis III, is of particular interest as it states that\n      the temple of Saleb, built by the king, was \u201cvery wide and large ...\n      its towers reached to the sky, and _the flagstaffs united themselves\n      with the stars of heaven_\u201d (see official catalogue of the Berlin\n      Museum, p. 122). This appears to indicate that the flagstaffs were\n      employed for purposes of astronomical observations.\n\n  115 The ideas associated with the form of a lion couchant are best\n      learned from the following passages from the Bible: \u201cHe couched, he\n      lay down as a lion and as a great lion; who shall stir him up?\u201d\n      (Numbers XXIV, 9, see also Genesis XLIX, 9). It is only by the light\n      afforded by such insights into eastern contemporaneous thought that\n      the meaning of the Egyptian sphinx can be in some measure\n      understood.\n\n  116 I address the query to Egyptologists: whether there are any\n      indications of a common identity of sound in the Egyptian word for\n      beard and same name, denoting rule or power, similar to that\n      existing in the Maya language between \u201cah-meex\u201d=bearded man and\n      \u201cah-mek-tan\u201d governor, ruler (see p. 232).\n\n  117 The somewhat perplexing allusions to the \u201cdivine marriage\u201d of Isis\n      to her father or brother and to her giving birth to her own mother,\n      as in the above text, are very naturally explained by the fact that\n      the successive officiating king-high-priest always personified\n      Ra-Osiris or the Sun and the queen Isis-Sothis-Hathor and the Moon\n      or Sirius. The female child to whom the queen gives birth was\n      destined to be her successor and another personification of Isis,\n      therefore she could be said to have given birth to her own mother,\n      since, like the latter, the child would be an Isis. In the same way\n      the queen could be said to marry her father and brother, as, like\n      herself, the king was the offspring of a divine union and bore his\n      father\u2019s title. In connection with the custom of the male Horus\n      naming the \u201cyoung sun\u201d and the female Horus the young star or moon,\n      it is noteworthy that the son and daughter of Anthony and Cleopatra,\n      who used to assume the insignia of Isis on state occasions, were\n      given the Greek surnames of Helios and Selene.\n\n  118 It is extremely curious and interesting that the Incas, the\n      civilizers of Peru, also set up a disk of gold as the image of the\n      Creator and placed it between images of the sun and moon. We also\n      find the Inca Ccapac Yupanqui, like Amenhotep, deploring the spread\n      of idolatry and image-worship as a misfortune to his vassals and a\n      sorrow to himself. It is recorded of another Inca that, as a wise\n      measure he destroyed all writing, presumably picture and rebus\n      writing, as calculated to mislead his people by a multiplication of\n      symbols. It is an interesting reflection which our increased\n      knowledge of the primitive civilization of Egypt enables us to make,\n      that the organization of Peru, under Inca rule, must have closely\n      resembled that of Egypt in remotest antiquity, at its primitive\n      stage of development, when simplicity, harmony and equilibrium\n      existed throughout the \u201ccelestial kingdom.\u201d\n\n  119 The following detached extracts, partly from Mr. Richard Hinckley\n      Allen\u2019s valuable work, should be carefully studied in connection\n      with the above text, as they throw further light upon the ideas\n      associated with the sacred centres of heaven and earth by nations\n      with whom the Greeks were in touch.\n\n      \u201cTo the whole Arabian nation, heathen or Mahommedan, Polaris was\n      Alfass, the hole in which the earth\u2019s axle found its bearing\u201d (p.\n      451).\n\n      The following important material pertains to the chapter on India,\n      of whose insufficiency I am painfully aware. \u201cIn earliest Northern\n      India the star nearest the pole was known as Grahadhara, \u2018the pivot\n      of the planets,\u2019 representing the great god Dhruva, and Al Biruni\n      said that among the Hindus of his time it was Dhruva himself. It was\n      an object of their worship\u201d (p. 456).\n\n      In Bournouf\u2019s Bhagavata-p\u00fbrana (chap. IV) it is said that \u201cDhruva,\n      meditating on Brahma, stood on one foot, motionless as a post; while\n      he did so half the world, wounded by his big toe, bent over under\n      his weight like a boat which, bearing a vigorous elephant, leans at\n      each step he takes, from left to right.\u201d O\u2019Neil, citing the same\n      source continues: \u201cIn consequence of his austerities Bhagavat said\n      \u2018I grant thee virtuous Child, a Spot which has never yet been\n      occupied by any being, a Spot blazing with splendor, of which the\n      ground is firm, where is fixed the circus of the celestial lights,\n      of the planets, constellations and stars; which turn all around like\n      oxen round their stake, and which [the Spot] subsists motionless\n      even after the Dwellers of a Kalpa [a day and night of Brahm\u00e2 _i.\n      e._ 4,320,000,000 years] have disappeared. Around this Spot there\n      turn with the stars and leaving it on their right, Dharma, Agni,\n      Kasyapa and Sakra and the Solitaries who live in the Forest\u2019 ...\u201d\n      (p. 801). According to the Vishnu-pur\u00e2na: \u201cAs Dhruva turns, he\n      causes sun, moon and other planets to turn round also, and the lunar\n      asterisms follow in his circular course, for all the celestial\n      lights are in fact bound to the Polar star by a\u00ebrial cords\u201d\n      (Vishnu-pur\u00e2na, see O\u2019Neil, p. 503). It is instructive to compare\n      these descriptions of Dhruva with the Akkadian-Sumerian hymn to\n      Ishtar, whom I have identified as the female form of Polaris (p.\n      342). According to Professor Sayce it begins: \u201cThou who as the axis\n      of the heavens dawnest. In the dwellings of the earth her name\n      revolves\u201d (O\u2019Neil, p. 715).\n\n      O\u2019Neil further notes that \u201cDhruva is named the sun of Utt\u00e2na-P\u00e2da\u201d\n      and that this name is connected with uttarat=north and also\n      signifies outstretched, supine. He also states that \u201cUttara and\n      Uttar\u00e2 was the dual god of the north, the son and daughter of\n      Vir\u00e2ta, and expresses the opinion that the age of the Dhruva legend\n      is unutterable\u201d (p. 503).\n\n      According to another Sanscrit legend: \u201cAt one time in the history of\n      the creation an attempt was made by Visvamitra to locate a southern\n      pole and another bear in positions corresponding to the northern,\n      this pole passing through the island Lumka or Vadav\u0101mukha (Ceylon)\u201d\n      (Allen, p. 436). Professor Sayce writes: \u201cIn early Sumerian days,\n      the heaven was believed to rest upon the peak of \u2018the mountain of\n      the world\u2019 in the far northeast, where the gods had their\n      habitations (_cf._ Isa. XIV, 13) [the mount of congregation in the\n      uttermost parts of the north], while an ocean or \u2018deep\u2019 encircled\n      the earth which rested upon its surface.\u201d Von Herder referred to it\n      as \u201cAlbordz, the dazzling mountain on which was held the assembly of\n      the gods, and identified it with the holy mountain of God,\u201d alluded\n      to in the Book of the Prophet Ezekiel XXVIII, 14; and Professor\n      Whitney quoted from the sixty-second verse of the first chapter of\n      the Surya Siddhanta, \u201cthe mountain which is the seat of the gods\u201d\n      and from the thirty-fourth verse of the twelfth chapter: \u201cA\n      collection of manifold jewels, a mountain of gold, is Meru, passing\n      through the middle of the earth-globe, and protruding on either\n      side;\u201d commenting on which he says: the \u201cseat of the gods\u201d is Mount\n      Meru, situated at the North Pole (p. 452).\n\n  120 I likewise deeply regret that it is only since the last pages of the\n      present investigation have been in proof, that a remarkable work,\n      full of valuable material relating to the universal spread of\n      pole-star worship and symbolism, was particularly recommended to me\n      by a distinguished fellow arch\u00e6ologist. Had I realized before this\n      the great value of the late John O\u2019Neil\u2019s \u201cThe Night of the Gods\u201d\n      (David Nutt, London, 1897), as a compendium, the result of years of\n      conscientious and painstaking labor, I should have made extensive\n      use of it and should have been able to make my survey of the ancient\n      civilizations of the Old World far more complete and my material\n      more convincing. As it is, I can only warmly recommend the work to\n      all interested in the present investigation, who will see for\n      themselves the widely different points of view from which our\n      respective researches have been carried out but will probably be\n      struck with the identity of some of our views. I should like to\n      express here my keen realization of the many blunders and omissions\n      I have probably made in the course of the present investigation,\n      which carried me, reluctantly, into fields of research where I felt\n      myself to be a stranger. In view of the disadvantages under which I\n      have labored, under pressure of time and a frequent inability to\n      obtain all the books I wished to consult, I rely upon the leniency\n      of specialists and upon their kindly communicating to me the faults\n      they detect, so that I may avoid them in future publications.\n\n  121 \u201cThe Century Dictionary has a theory as to the origin of the idea of\n      a Bear for the seven stars, doubtless from its editor, Professor\n      Whitney, that seems plausible, at all events scholarly. It is that\n      their Sanscrit designation, Riksha, signifies, in two different\n      genders, \u2018a bear\u2019 and \u2018a star,\u2019 \u2018bright\u2019 or \u2018to shine;\u2019 hence a\n      title, the Seven Shiners,\u2014to that it would appear to have come, by\n      some confusion of sound of the two words, among a people not\n      familiar with the sound\u201d (p. 424). \u201cLater on Riksha was confounded\n      with Rishi, and so connected with the Seven Sages or Poets of India.\n      Al Biruni devoted a chapter of his work on India to the seven stars\n      [of Ursa Major] known as Saptar Shayar, the seven Anchorites\u201d\n      (Allen). I draw attention here to the curious fact that the Sanscrit\n      verb to see=iksh is nearly homonymous with riksha and that\n      therefore, in Sanscrit, the association of a star with the\n      eye=akshan, that sees=iksh, must have been a very close one and\n      suggested the employment of the eye as a symbol for star. In\n      connection with the Sanscrit riksha it is curious to note that, in\n      Japanese, riki means power, viz., jin-riki-sha=man\u2014power-wagon; and\n      hasha or rinsha=wagon or wain. The following extract from one of the\n      hymns in the oldest Veda, the Brahm\u00e2na, which \u201cmark the beginning of\n      the philosophical creed of the Vedic period,\u201d is particularly\n      significant when compared, not only with the preceding association\n      of Ursa Major with the seven sages of India, but also with Plato\u2019s\n      cosmological doctrines: \u201cI have beheld the Lord of Men,\u201d one poet\n      writes, \u201cwith seven sons, of which delightful and benevolent [deity]\n      who is the object of our invocation, there is _an all-pervading\n      middle brother_ and a third brother.... They yoke the seven to the\n      one wheeled car; _one horse named seven_ bears it along; the\n      three-axled _wheel is undecaying, never loosened and in it all these\n      regions of the universe abide_.... Immature, undiscerning in mind, I\n      inquire of those things _which are hidden from the gods_ [_cf._ Hymn\n      to Amen-Ra, p. 388, where the same expression is used], the seven\n      threads which the sages _have spread to envelop the sun in whom all\n      abide_\u201d (Chambers\u2019 Encyclop\u00e6dia, article India).\n\n  122 Fig. 72, 1, is referred to on p. 319.\n\n  123 The original name for Phrygia is said to have been Askanios, from\n      Askanios its first ruler. The cenotaph of Midas is built in the rock\n      at Jazylykaia, in the vicinity of Kumbet, where other similarly\n      decorated royal tombs exist.\n\n  124 It would be interesting to learn whether the Arabian title\n      Om-al-kara, \u201cthe mother of cities,\u201d has ever been connected with\n      Roma by investigators.\n\n  125 It is recalled here that the twin brothers Romulus and Remus are\n      supposed to have been the issue of the union, in the temple of Mars,\n      of the vestal virgin Rhea Silvia with a personification of the god\n      Mars.\n\n  126 The recurrence of the square plan, employed in Babylonia and Egypt\n      (see pp. 333 and 369), is noteworthy.\n\n  127 In course of time each Roman civitas, or political canton or\n      community, possessed such \u201ca centre, which was termed capitolium,\n      _i. e._ the height, from being originally fixed on a height or\n      hill-top, corresponding to the Greek akra. Round this stronghold of\n      the canton, which formed the nucleus of the earliest Latin towns,\n      houses sprang up, which were in turn surrounded by the oppidum or\n      the urbs (ring-wall connected with urbus, curvus, orbis); hence, in\n      later times, oppidum and urbs became, naturally enough, the\n      recognized designations of town and city.\u201d\u2014Chambers\u2019 Encyclop\u00e6dia.\n\n  128 Diocletian (A.D. 292) revived dual rulership and quadruplicate\n      organization by instituting the quadruple hierarchy of two Augusti\n      and two C\u00e6sars. The prevalence of quadruplicate division with\n      current cosmical conceptions is shown by the following text: \u201cThe\n      usual form of taking an augury was very solemn; the augur ascending\n      a tower, bearing in his hand a curved stick called a _litus_. He\n      turned his face to the east and marked out some distant objects as\n      the limits within which he would make his observations and _divided\n      mentally the enclosed space into four divisions_.... He next ...\n      prayed and offered sacrifices....\u201d \u201cWe learn from ... the augur\n      Cicero that while the Romans only had four divisions to their\n      heavens-templum, the Etruscans had sixteen, obtained by bisecting\n      and rebisecting the four angles\u201d (O\u2019Neil, p. 433).\n\n  129 The cult of Ishtar=Isis, associated with mystery and of\n      Serapis=Osiris, had been instituted in Rome by Domitian (A.D. 82)\n      who caused temples to be built for them. Curious instances of the\n      spread of the cults of other countries throughout the Roman empire\n      have come under my personal notice. In the Museum at Bonn, Germany,\n      there is a Roman tombstone the inscription on which consists of a\n      wheel above the name Jovis, the association of Jove with the wheel,\n      being very remarkable and significant in connection with the present\n      subject.\n\n      At N\u00eemes in the South of France, a curious statue of Mithra was\n      found in the ruins of the Roman city. It consists of a Hermes,\n      surmounted by a hairy, dog-like face. A great serpent is wound\n      around the Hermes, the signs of the zodiac being sculptured between\n      the coils. In the light of the present investigation the meaning of\n      the symbolical statue seems too obvious to require explanation. It\n      is strange that the recollection of seeing this statue at the age of\n      nine with my father, who pointed out and explained the signs of the\n      zodiac to me, is one of the most vivid of my childhood.\n\n  130 The curious association of the number seven with Stonehenge in gypsy\n      folk-lore, which possibly contains vestiges of Druidical folk-lore,\n      is brought out by R. G. Haliburton in his paper on \u201cGypsy folk-lore\n      as to Stonehenge,\u201d to which I refer the reader.\n\n  131 In the case of Mayapan, Yucatan, the practical use of analogous\n      council-houses is described (p. 209). The Irish tower and seven\n      houses are remarkably in accord with the scheme of organization used\n      in ancient Greece where, at Tenos, each gens was known as \u201ca tower\u201d\n      and each gens, as well as its town, was divided into at least seven\n      parts (p. 456).\n\n  132 John Speed relates that one of the kings of Kent, named Catigera,\n      \u201cwas interred upon a plain where his monument vulgarly called\n      \u2018citscotehouse,\u2019 consisted of four stones pitched in the manner of\n      the stonehenge.\u201d It is tempting to see in the four stones \u201cpitched\u201d\n      around the grave, the underlying thought of a resting-place in the\n      cosmical centre, of the symbolized four quarters, and to view the\n      prehistoric crosses of Ireland and Scotland as emblematic of the\n      Middle and Four Quarters, associated with secret pole-star and\n      cosmical cult and employed as symbols of time and of quadruplicate\n      government.\n\n  133 Celi-Ced and the cult of the wren. Theosophical review, June 15,\n      1900.\n\n  134 Light is thrown upon the possible conception of Ursa Major as Thor\u2019s\n      wagon and the most primitive form of chariots in general by the\n      archaic chariot of state used, to this day, in Corea and formerly in\n      Japan. It is one-wheeled and the seat, destined for one person, is\n      placed high above the single wheel and rests upon two long poles,\n      the ends of which project in front and behind. Four men are required\n      to support and push this chariot of state, a fine example of which\n      has lately been secured for the Museum of Salem, Mass., by Prof. E.\n      S. Morse.\n\n  135 It is with keenest interest that I look forward to learning, from\n      the distinguished arch\u00e6ologists of Sweden, among whom I have the\n      honor of having highly-esteemed, personal friends, how far their\n      observation and deeper knowledge lead them to entertain views I have\n      advanced concerning the origin of the swastika and the influence of\n      pole-star worship upon the development of primitive religion and\n      social organization. It is from them that I expect information as to\n      the relation of the prehistoric inhabitants of Scandinavia to the\n      ancient centres of civilization which have been discussed.\n\n  136 Hewitt states (p. 90) that, \u201cit was successively immigrating races\n      from the North ... who placed a king at the head of the confederated\n      provinces formed from their confederated villages.... The\n      confederate form of these kingdoms is shown in such names as\n      Chuttisgurh which means the 36 gurhs or united provinces. But the\n      final consolidated form of the pre-Aryan Indian village was that\n      framed by the Kushites. It was they who placed the royal province in\n      the centre of the kingdom.... It was on these principles that the\n      government of the Ooraon village of Chota Nagpore was constructed.\n      The Ooraon form of village government is that which has been\n      preserved with less alteration from subsequent invaders than that of\n      any other part of India, for the Ooraons, Mundas, Ho-kals and Bhuyas\n      have always been able, under the protection of their mountain\n      fastnesses, their political organization and their natural love of\n      independence, to keep their country free from the interference of\n      the hated Sadhs, the name by which they call the Hindus. But these\n      people, who repelled and held themselves aloof from later invaders\n      were of no less foreign origin than those who succeeded them, for\n      they were all formed by the union with the matriarchal Australioids\n      _and patriarchal Mongols or Finnish and other Northern stocks_, most\n      of whom were formed into confederated tribes of artisans and\n      agriculturists in Asia Minor and it was from the southern part of\n      Asia Minor or Northern Palestine, that the Ooraons came. They\n      themselves say that they came from Western India, from the land of\n      Ruhidas [the land of the red men], but this means Syria, the country\n      whose people were called Rotou by the Egyptians, and they were the\n      race who introduced barley and plough-tillage into India and Chota\n      Nagpore.\u201d\n\n      Particular attention is drawn to Wylie\u2019s statements, quoted on p.\n      303, concerning the migration of Israelites to China, via Persia\n      (about A.D. 58-75) and the native record that Christianity was the\n      ancient religion of Ta-Tsin=Syria. Hewitt\u2019s identification of Syria\n      as the \u201cred land\u201d causes the Ooraon and Chinese traditions to agree\n      in assigning it as the common source of origin of their\n      civilization. According to Professor Sayce it was \u201cabout B.C. 600\n      that the Ph\u0153nicians penetrated to the northwest coast of India,\u201d and\n      \u201ctradition brought them originally from the Persian Gulf\u201d (Ancient\n      Empire of the East, p. 183).\n\n  137 The recent discovery, by Prof. Flinders Petrie, of the mummy of\n      Aha-Mena, and of six other kings of the first dynasty, suggests the\n      possibility that they may have reigned simultaneously and\n      constituted a heptarchy(?). Although it would materially affect\n      Egyptian and Babylonian-Assyrian chronology as it now stands,\n      historians may yet find it necessary to make a revision taking into\n      deeper consideration the existence of tetrarchies and heptarchies in\n      which a number of kings and subrulers reigned simultaneously.\n\n  138 To assist these four principal secretaries are two\n      under-secretaries, one Manchu and one Chinese, and a board of ten\n      assistants. Together, these sixteen secretaries divided between two\n      races, constitute a grand secretariat, which acts as nearly as\n      possible as the cabinet of the Emperor. (Missions in China. Jas. S.\n      Dennis, D.D.)\n\n  139 This association of Tenos with seven-fold division is particularly\n      suggestive because, in Pythagorean philosophy, the number seven was\n      named Parthenos, Athene, also Apollo, Hermes, Hephaistos, Heracles,\n      Dionysius, Rex, etc. These divinities, the second and third of which\n      are specially known as patrons of cities, appear in a new light when\n      it is realized that they were personifications of the number seven\n      and, by extension, of the seven-fold cosmos, state and city. On p.\n      449, Plato\u2019s division of the Cosmos is cited. Reference to the\n      history of Greek philosophy shows, however that the spurious\n      existence of four or five elements had not always been accepted in\n      Greece, that Thal\u00eas (640-550 B.C.) had laid down the doctrine of a\n      single eternal, original element, water or fluid substance, and\n      \u201cassimilated the universe to an organized body or system.\u201d\n      Xenophan\u00ebs (570-480 B.C.) conceived \u201cnature as one unchangeable and\n      indivisible whole, spherical, animated ... penetrated by or indeed\n      identical with God.\u201d It is usually accepted that it was Empedocles\n      (444 B.C.) who first formulated the elements, earth, air, fire and\n      water, to which later philosophers added a fifth, the all-embracing\n      \u00e6ther.\n\n      In a luminous monograph (Pythagoras und die Inder, Leipzig, 1884.),\n      Professor L. von Schroeder, of Dorpat, Russia, quoting the authority\n      of Professor Max M\u00fcller, Edward Zeller and Oldenburg, has\n      conclusively shown that the five elements, earth, fire, water, air\n      and \u00e6ther (Sanskrit \u0101ka\u00e7\u0101) already occur in the Brahmanas; were\n      taught in the S\u0101mkhya philosophy of the Kapila and were therefore\n      known in India at least as far back as in the seventh century B.C.\n      The idea of the five elements is so familiar to the Hindus at the\n      present time that death is usually spoken of as \u201ca dissolution into\n      the five elements,\u201d or a \u201cgoing over into the Five.\u201d Professor von\n      Schroeder\u2019s conclusion is that Pythagorean philosophy derived the\n      elemental divisions from India as well as its doctrine of\n      transmigration, etc., and its science of geometry and of number,\n      mentioning, in support of the latter assertion, the fact that\n      S\u00e2mkya, the name of the ancient Indian school of philosophy,\n      signifies \u201cnumber,\u201d that its followers were therefore designated as\n      \u201cphilosophers or teachers of numbers.\u201d At the same time I point out\n      that, according to Oliver, \u201ca large portion of Egyptian philosophy\n      and religion was constructed almost wholly upon the science of\n      numbers and we are assured by Kircher (Oedip. Egypt, II, 2) that\n      everything in nature was explained on this principle alone.\u201d\n\n      Returning to Professor von Schroeder\u2019s work I refer the reader to\n      pp. 59 and 65, and notes for an extremely interesting discussion of\n      the Greek name of the fifth element that figures in the work of\n      Philolaus, the first who wrote a treatise on the Pythagorean system\n      of philosophy. The name employed has been deciphered by different\n      authorities as \u1f45\u03bb\u03c7\u03b1\u03c2, \u1f41\u03bb\u03c7\u03b1\u03c2, \u03c7\u03c5\u03c7\u03bb\u03ac\u03c2, \u03bf\u03b3\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2, \u1f41\u03b3\u03bf\u03c4\u03b1\u03c2, or \u1f45\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2. The\n      interpretation given is that the name (the first syllable of which\n      recurs in the word Olympus) signified \u201cthat which moves or carries\n      with it the universe.\u201d Professor von Schroeder suggests that the\n      name may be a corruption of the Sanscrit name for \u00e6ther, the\n      all-embracing element, \u00e2k\u00e2\u00e7a. I venture to recall here the curious\n      fact that, in ancient Mexico, the symbol, enclosing the four\n      elements, is always designated as the ollin, a word associated with\n      the idea of \u201cmovement\u201d and of life=yoli.\n\n      In his work on the \u201cPythagorean Triangle,\u201d the Rev. G. Oliver gives\n      an extremely clear account of the Pythagorean philosophy and tells\n      us that its central thought is the idea of number, the recognition\n      of the \u201cnumerical and mathematical relations of things....\u201d \u201cThe\n      Pythagoreans seem,\u201d says Aristotle, \u201cto have looked upon number as\n      the principle and, so to speak, the matter of which existences\n      consist;\u201d and again \u201cthey supposed the elements of number to be the\n      elements of existence, and pronounced the whole heaven to be harmony\n      and number.\u201d\n\n      Concerning the universe, like many early thinkers, as a sphere, they\n      placed in the heart of it the central fire to which they gave the\n      name of Hestia, the hearth or altar of the universe, the citadel or\n      throne of Zeus. Around this move the ten heavenly bodies ... the\n      earth revolved on its own axis....\n\n      They developed a list of ten fundamental oppositions: 1, limited and\n      unlimited; 2, odd and even; 3, one and many; 4, right and left; 5,\n      masculine and feminine; 6, rest and motion; 7, straight and crooked;\n      8, light and darkness; 9, good and evil.... The union of opposites\n      in which consists the existence of things is harmony; hence the\n      expression that the whole heaven or the whole universe is harmony.\n      Pointing out that it is only by a combination of odd and even\n      numbers that a harmonious cycle is created, I continue to cite from\n      Mr. Oliver\u2019s work: \u201cThe decade, as the basis of the numerical\n      system, appeared to them to comprehend all other numbers in itself,\n      and to it are applied, therefore, the epithets quoted above of\n      number in general. Similar language is held of the number \u2018four\u2019\n      because it is the first square number and is also the potential\n      decade (1+2+3+4=10). Pythagoras is celebrated as the discoverer of\n      the holy \u2018Tetraktos\u2019 the fountain and root of ever-living nature, or\n      the Cosmos consisting of Fire, Air, Earth, Water, the four roots of\n      all existing things.\n\n      \u201cNumber,\u201d says Philolaus, \u201cis great and perfect and omnipotent, and\n      the principle and guide of divine and human life. Number then is the\n      principle of order, the principle on which cosmos or ordered world\n      exists.\u201d Without number and the limitation which number brings,\n      there would only be chaos and the illimitable, a thought abhorrent\n      to the Greek mind.\n\n  140 \u201cThe four Ionic tribes were abolished by Kleisthenes (510 B.C.) who\n      created, in their place, ten new tribes founded on a new principle,\n      independent of the gentes and phratries. Each new tribe comprised a\n      certain number of demes or cantons with the enrolled proprietors and\n      residents in each of them. Each tribe had a chapel, sacred rites and\n      festivals and a common fund for such meetings, in honor of its\n      eponymous hero, administered by members of its own choice; and the\n      statues of all the ten eponymous heroes, fraternal patrons of the\n      democracy, were planted in the most conspicuous part of the agora of\n      Athens.... The demes taken altogether, included the entire surface\n      of Attica. Simultaneously Kleisthenes divided the year into ten\n      portions called Prytanies,\u2014the fifty senators of each tribe taking\n      by turns the duty of constant attendance during one prytany and\n      receiving during that time, the title of The Prytanes. The order of\n      precedence among the tribes in these duties was annually determined\n      by lot.... Moreover, a further subdivision of the prytany into five\n      periods of seven days each and of the fifty tribe-senators into five\n      bodies of ten each, was recognized; each body of ten presided in the\n      senate for one period of seven days, drawing lots every day among\n      their number for a new chairman called Epistates, to whom, during\n      his day of office were confided the keys of the acropolis and the\n      treasury, together with the city seal.\u201d The remaining senators, not\n      belonging to the prytanizing tribe, might of course attend if they\n      chose, but the attendance of nine among them, one from each of the\n      remaining nine tribes, was imperatively necessary to constitute a\n      valid meeting and to insure a constant representation of the\n      collective people. During those later times\u2014the ekklesia or formal\n      assembly of the citizens, was convened four times regularly during\n      each prytany ... (_op. cit._, vol. IV, p. 138). Special attention is\n      drawn here to the intimate association of the system of government\n      and the calendar, analogous to the ancient Mexican system.\n\n      \u201cThe number of inhabitants an ideal state should contain and their\n      numerical organization were evidently subjects of supreme interest\n      to Greek statesmen and philosophers. The great work by Aristoteles\n      (384-322 B.C.) on Politics, \u2018according to Grote,\u2019 was based on a\n      collection made by himself, of 158 different constitutions of\n      states, which collection has, unfortunately, been lost.\u201d \u201cThe\n      purpose of comfortable subsistence for which commonwealths are\n      instituted, requiring a minute subdivision of labor,\u201d Aristotle\n      says, that \u201cin this particular view, the more populous the community\n      its end will be the more completely attained.... All things\n      considered he declares in favour of what would be now deemed a very\n      small commonwealth, consisting of 15,000 or 20,000 citizens....\u201d\n\n      \u201cIn his \u2018Book of Laws\u2019 Plato intended to delineate a more\n      practicable scheme of government than that of his first.... His two\n      republics nearly agree in form, though they differ in magnitude; the\n      first containing one thousand and the second five thousand and forty\n      men bearing arms.... In his second republic he equalizes estates but\n      leaves population unlimited.... A regulation directly the reverse of\n      this is introduced by one of the most ancient writers on the subject\n      of politics, Pheidon of Corinth, who limits population, but does not\n      equalize possessions.... The republic, planned by the architect\n      Hippodamus, consisted of ten thousand men, divided into the three\n      classes of artificers, husbandmen and soldiers. The territory he\n      likewise divides into three portions: the sacred, destined for the\n      various exigencies of public worship; the common, to be cultivated\n      for the common benefit of the soldiers; and the private, to be\n      separately appropriated by the husbandmen. His laws were also\n      divided into three kinds....\u201d (Aristotle\u2019s Ethics and Politics, John\n      Gillies, LL.D., London 1804).\n\n      The knowledge that a republic was actually planned on the scheme of\n      three-fold division naturally suggests the possibility that the\n      Sicilian coat of arms, the triskeles, may be a survival of a period\n      when a similar republic existed in Sicily and the year was divided\n      into three seasons only. (For interesting details concerning the\n      employment and spread of a year of three seasons in ancient times,\n      see Hewitt, _op. cit._ Preface XVI, vol. I.)\n\n      In Grote\u2019s history we learn that after the establishment of the\n      first Athenian democracy by Kleisthenes and the victory they gained\n      over the B\u0153otians and Chalkidians, the Athenians _planted a body of\n      four thousand_ of their citizens as kleruchs (lot-holders) or\n      settlers upon the lands of the wealthy conquered Chalkidians. This\n      is a system which we shall find hereafter extensively followed out\n      by the Athenians in the days of their power; partly with a view of\n      providing for their poorer citizens, partly to serve as garrison\n      among a population either hostile or of doubtful fidelity. These\n      Attic kleruchs did not lose their birthright as Athenian citizens:\n      they were not colonists in the Grecian sense and they are known by a\n      totally different name\u2014but they corresponded very nearly to the\n      colonies formally planted out on the conquered lands by Rome. The\n      increase of the poorer population was always more or less painfully\n      felt in every Grecian city ... the numerous kleruchies sent out by\n      Athens, of which this to Eub\u0153a was the first, arose in a great\n      measure out of the multiplication of the poorer population, which\n      her extended power was employed in providing for ... (_op. cit._\n      vol. 4, p. 171). The number \u201cfour thousand\u201d specially designated is\n      of particular interest because the letter of the Greek alphabet\n      expressing it was the delta, in the form of a triangle or pyramid,\n      which also signified \u201cthe fourth\u201d or \u201ca quarter.\u201d The ideas\n      suggested by these facts are: that the foundation of such a colony\n      would have been commemorated by the building of a pyramid by the\n      conquered race, the division of labor amongst them preparing the way\n      for the institution of a social organization on the familiar plan\n      (_cf._ p. 273). It is only when we reflect what an admirable means\n      of establishing communal life and activity the mere act of building\n      under direction and guidance must have been, that we appreciate the\n      fine wisdom of the ancient kings, civilizers and culture-heroes, who\n      were, first of all, master builders, architects and masons and who\n      began the work of rearing an empire by directing the erection of a\n      monument which, by its form, expressed the all-pervading plan of\n      organization.\n\n  141 \u201cTaylor says that the reason Plato adopted this division is because\n      the number 12, the image of all-perfect progression, is the product\n      of 3 by 4, both of which numbers, according to the Pythagoreans, are\n      images of perfection. On the other hand, Ast conceives that Plato\n      had in mind the division of the country in twelve parts found in\n      Egypt and elsewhere, and which seems, as may be inferred from other\n      portions of his work, to have been connected with the division of\n      the year into twelve months, each under the superintendence of one\n      of the twelve greater gods.\u201d To this note I add the remark that, in\n      B. VI, C. 8, Plato distinctly refers to the twelve tribes as \u201cthe\n      thrice four tribes, recommending that they should appoint thrice\n      four interpreters,\u201d one for each tribe. It should also be recalled\n      that Cecrops is said to have employed the division into twelve and\n      is supposed to have brought it from Egypt. In the present summary\n      the employment of the same division in other countries can be\n      verified.\n\n      It may be of interest to note here that, like the Egyptians, the\n      Greeks divided their month into 3 decades. The year consequently\n      contained 3\u00d712=36 decades+5 days.\n\n  142 Considering that the employment of silver or gold currency among the\n      nations of antiquity has been regarded, by some, as a proof of\n      advanced culture, it is interesting to learn, from the following\n      passage, that, as a result of experience and with wisdom and\n      foresight, Plato recommended the adoption of different forms of\n      currency in each different state, in order to avert the dangers\n      resulting from the accumulation of riches. \u201cA law ... that no\n      private person be permitted to possess any gold or silver; but that\n      there be a coin for the sake of daily exchange, which it is almost\n      necessary for handicrafts to change and for all who have need of\n      such things to pay the wages due to hired persons, be they slaves or\n      domestic servants. On which account we say that _they must possess\n      coin which is of value to themselves, but of no worth amongst the\n      rest of mankind_.\u201d It is curious to note how closely the employment\n      of the cocoa bean, in ancient Mexico and of wampum in North America,\n      as the staple currency, fulfilled the purpose recognized as\n      desirable, by Plato.\n\n  143 At the last moment I learn that fragments of \u00c6gean pottery lately\n      found at Abydos in tombs of the Egyptian kings of the first dynasty,\n      by Prof. Flinders Petrie are considered to prove that, \u201cGrecian\n      merchants sailed the seas in 4500 B.C., ... a conclusion further\n      borne-out by the pictures of vessels with 60 oarsmen, vessels quite\n      large enough for crossing the Mediterranean, which have been seen on\n      prehistoric memorials of the oldest inhabitants of Egypt\u201d\n      (Rawnsley). In this connection it is interesting to learn, from\n      Professor Sayce, that the Ph\u0153nician galley was the model of the\n      Greek one, that it was at Carthage that a ship, with more than three\n      banks of oars, was first built, and that its pilots steered by the\n      pole star, not, like the Greeks, by the Great Bear (Ancient Empires\n      of the East, p. 205).\n\n  144 An interesting interpretation of this somewhat obscure sentence is\n      obtained by collating it with the conception of \u201cthe revolving eye\n      of the Norse world mill-stone which was directly above Oergelmer and\n      through which the waters flowed to and fro from the great fountain\n      of the Universe mountains\u201d (p. 472). The analogy is strengthened by\n      the fact that the mountainous region in which Kyr\u00ean\u00ea was situated\n      has always been noted for its fertility, the water, from the\n      mountains enclosing its plains, settling in pools and lakes,\n      affording a constant supply, during the summer months, to the Arabs\n      who frequent it. The feature of Kyr\u00ean\u00ea, most renowned in antiquity,\n      was its inexhaustible Fountain of Apollo, and travellers describe\n      how, to this day, the Bedouin Arabs flock to it when their supply of\n      water and herbage fails in the interior. Grote states that the same\n      circumstance must have operated in ancient times to hold the nomadic\n      Libyans in a sort of dependence upon Kyr\u00ean\u00ea (Grote, _op. cit._ vol.\n      IV, p. 37).\n\n      The realization that an inexhaustible fountain of water meant life\n      to primitive nomadic people, enables us to understand the expression\n      \u201cfountain of life\u201d and the constant associations of the sacred\n      central mountain with pools of water and streams flowing in four\n      directions. It is remarkable and highly suggestive how closely the\n      following topographical details, given by Grote, of the original\n      seat of the Macedonians (which were in the regions east of the chain\n      of Skardus, north of the chain which connects Olympus with Pindus\n      and which forms the northwestern boundary of Thessaly), coincide\n      with the conception of Mt. Meru, for instance.\n\n      \u201cReckoning the basin of Thessaly as a fourth, here are four distinct\n      inclosed plains on the east side of this long range of Skardus and\n      Pindus,\u2014each generally bounded by mountains which rise precipitously\n      to an alpine height, and each leaving only one cleft for drainage by\n      a single river,\u2014the Axius, the Erig\u014dn, the Haliakm\u014dn and the Peneius\n      respectively. All four plains ... are of distinguished fertility\n      ...\u201d (Grote, _op. cit._ vol. IV, p. 10). The close vicinity of\n      Olympus, the Grecian \u201cdivine mountain,\u201d is particularly suggestive,\n      inasmuch as it proves to be geographically associated with four\n      remarkable plains and rivers.\n\n  145 \u201cThis metaphorical name (the Krittakas) was derived from the\n      vocabulary of the Northern races, who had learned in Asia Minor and\n      the neighborhood of the Caspian Sea to spin thread and weave cloth\n      from the flax of Asia Minor, and the hemp of the shores of the\n      Caspian Sea, and who had taken their knowledge with them when\n      emigrating to the villages of the Neolithic life in Europe and to\n      the Kushite Empire in India, where they divided the people into\n      guilds or trade unions, founded on community of function, and\n      discovered how to use cotton thread for weaving. The reverence of\n      the Ashura Kushika for the Pleiades, whose mother star is Amba, also\n      proves them to be connected with the southwestern Semites, the\n      Himydritic Arabs of Southern Arabia, the land of Sheba, meaning\n      _seven_, meaning the seven stars of the constellation of the Great\n      Bear, called by the Arabs Al-suha, who first worshipped the Pleiades\n      with its 6 stars, the sacred number of the Ashura, as their mother\n      constellation, under the name of Tur-ayya, or children of the\n      father-pole (tur, of the Turanian race) ...\u201d (Hewitt).\n\n  146 Various writers have observed and pointed out the close resemblance\n      in form and decoration, between the terra-cotta whorls found, in\n      profusion, in Mexico and those of Troy.\n\n  147 There is, however, a wide difference between Hewitt\u2019s views and mine\n      concerning the stars associated with the year wheel and the origin\n      and meaning of the primitive cross-symbols and swastika, although at\n      times they partially agree. As Hewitt gives several totally distinct\n      and different explanations of the origin and significance of crosses\n      and swastikas, it is difficult to understand clearly his standpoint.\n      On p. 9, vol. II, he makes an interesting differentiation between a\n      diagonal or transverse and upright cross, respectively designating\n      them as rain-cross and fire-cross, and states that their\n      superposition forms the eight-rayed star, the Akkadian and early\n      Indian sign of Anu=god. On p. 145, vol. II he names the transverse\n      cross a sun-cross and says it describes the track of the sun across\n      the heavens, on solstitial days and distinctly describes the\n      swastika in the centre of the triangle on the Hindu altar, as \u201ca\n      symbolic picture of the sun rising at midsummer in the N. E. and\n      setting in the N. W., and at the winter solstice rising in the S. E.\n      and setting in the S. W.\u201d On the other hand Hewitt associates the\n      right-angled cross with the fire-god and the pole-star (p. 191, vol.\n      II), and the five-rayed star of Horus as the rain or meridian pole,\n      or mountain standing in the midst of the four stars marking the four\n      quarters of the heavens (p. 9, vol. II and p. 17, vol. I). I\n      recommend a careful re-perusal of all of Hewitt\u2019s interpretations of\n      cross-symbols and swastika and a close comparison of these with my\n      views, as set forth in the beginning of the present publication, to\n      Mr. Stansbury Hagar who, somewhat hastily, upon hearing my brief\n      communication to Section H of the A. A. A. S. in New York, June\n      1900, stated (in the October number of the Folklore Journal) that my\n      view concerning the origin of the swastika was the same as that\n      suggested by Hewitt.\n\n  148 Referring the reader to pp. 186-192 for details concerning native\n      tree worship, I shall but add that to this day, among certain North\n      American tribes, the planting of the sacred tribal pole in the\n      hallowed earth socket is accompanied by curious ritualistic marriage\n      rites, and the ceremonial kindling of the sacred fire of the fire\n      drill. For the association of four Mexican tribes with four tribal\n      trees and totemic birds, see fig. 53, and note that the central\n      figure, enclosed in a square, is represented as though four streams\n      of blood, flowing from the four angles, converged in his person,\n      constituting him the \u201cFour in One.\u201d\n\n  149 The only mention of a movable axle or hub that I know of in Mexican\n      chronicles is the cylinder of wood, described on p. 24 as being\n      shaped like a mortar. The only native illustration I have met which\n      suggests the native employment of some kind of revolving press or\n      axle is the curious and clumsy apparatus figured on pp. 11 and 12 of\n      the Selden MS. preserved at the Bodleian Library at Oxford, and\n      reproduced by Kingsborough. An examination of this strange\n      mechanical contrivance apparently associated with a monkey=ozomatli,\n      and the sacrifice of two prisoners, will be found as interesting as\n      it is puzzling.\n\n  150 In a paper read to the Section of Anthropology of the New York\n      meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science,\n      Mr. Stansbury Hagar communicated the interesting results of his\n      study of the Salcamayhua tablet which has been alluded to on p. 162\n      of the present publication. With his kind authorization I take\n      pleasure in citing here his interpretation of the name of the\n      Peruvian Creator, an abbreviation of which is inscribed on the plate\n      or tablet. It will be found to accord with that given by Sir\n      Clements B. Markham (History of Peru, p. 20), but to be more\n      explicit. According to his view the name should be analyzed as\n      follows: illa=light, lightning=fire; ticci=foundation, brick=earth;\n      uayra _i. e._ huaii=air, wind; cocha=lake=water.\n\n      \u201cIlla ticci uayra cocha would thus mean: the universal spirit\n      defined by naming what seemed to a people unacquainted with\n      scientific chemistry to be the four ultimate elements.\u201d\n\n      Referring to the cognate Aymara language, Mr. Hagar interprets the\n      name pachaya chachic as \u201csource, lit. male ancestor, grandfather of\n      all things,\u201d and states that the opening inscription on the tablet\n      should therefore read: \u201cSpirit of Fire, Earth, Air and Water, source\n      of all things\u201d ... that is to say \u201cimage of the source whence heaven\n      and earth have emanated.\u201d Mr. Hagar states that this source seems to\n      be appropriately figured by the oval form which he interprets as an\n      egg (see fig. 28, _c_). On the other hand I point out that the flat\n      plate of fine gold, which was set up by the Inca Manco Capac between\n      images of the sun and moon, is figured as circular in shape (fig.\n      28, _b_).\n\n      I draw attention to Mr. Stansbury Hagar\u2019s interesting and suggestive\n      paper on \u201cThe Celestial Bear,\u201d which appeared in vol. XIII, no.\n      XLIX, of the Journal of American Folk-lore, in July, 1900. In this\n      he relates the legend connected with Ursa Major by the Micmac\n      Indians, that \u201cthis group of stars served to mark the divisions of\n      the night and the seasons for the Micmacs.\u201d A point of particular\n      interest in connection with the Micmac legend is the fact, so\n      clearly distinguishable, that the story was suggested to the minds\n      of the Indians by the different positions assumed by the\n      constellation in its annual circuit around Polaris.\n\n      \u201cThe Micmacs say,.... In all things as it was and is in the sky, so\n      it is on earth.... In midspring the bear does actually seem to be\n      climbing down out of her [celestial] den [_corona borealis_], which\n      appears higher up to the northern horizon. In midsummer ... the bear\n      runs along the northern horizon.... Soon after the bear assumes an\n      erect position she topples over on her back [is slain] in the\n      autumn. In midwinter she lies dead on her back, ... but the den\n      [_corona borealis_] has re-appeared, with the bear of the new year\n      lying therein, invisible. But this does not end the story of the\n      bear, ... through the winter her skeleton lies upon its back in the\n      sky, but her life spirit has entered another bear who also lies upon\n      her back in the den, invisible and sleeping the winter sleep. When\n      the spring comes around again, this bear will again issue forth from\n      the den to be again pursued by the hunters, to be again slain, but\n      again to send into the den her life-spirit, to issue forth yet again\n      when the sun once more awakens the sleeping earth. And so the drama\n      keeps on eternally.\u201d Reasoning by induction, I am strongly tempted\n      to assign the origin of the Egyptian myth of Osiris and of the\n      \u201cchild in its cradle,\u201d to the same source of inspiration\u2014possibly\n      also other myths of antiquity, such as the twelve labors of Hercules\n      (held by O\u2019Neil to be a pole-star god) may be assigned to the same\n      source. At all events, the Micmac example is extremely instructive\n      and suggestive.\n\n      The following extracts from Mr. Hagar\u2019s paper establish that Ursa\n      Major was known as the Bear to several North American tribes, and\n      generally served to mark time and seasons. \u201cIn a Blackfoot myth we\n      read: The seven Persons slowly swung around and pointed downward. It\n      was the middle of the night,\u201d showing that they too marked the time\n      at night by the position of these stars. So the Zu\u00f1is tell, when\n      winter comes, how the bear, lying, sleeps, no longer guarding the\n      West land from the cold of the Ice gods, etc., a story which\n      demonstrates that in Zu\u00f1i mythology there was a marked association\n      between the terrestrial bear [the \u201cgreat white bear of the seven\n      stars,\u201d Cushing] and the seasons.\n\n      The Ojibways mention the constellation in connection with the four\n      quarters in heaven, showing that they, at some time, were accustomed\n      to mark their seasons not only by the position of the stars of the\n      Bear, but also by the rising and setting of various fixed stars.\n\n      In conclusion I would state that Miss Alice Fletcher has informed me\n      that, among the Omaha Indians, time is measured by Ursa Major, and\n      that the pole-star is named the \u201cStar which never travels.\u201d\n\n  151 \u201cThe amulet is of finely wrought silver, with magic inscription, the\n      seven-branched candlestick of Jerusalem and the usual Christian\n      monogram. The inscription is in Greek, mixed with barbarous and\n      unintelligible forms. It contains however express allusions to\n      Christianity and states that whoever wore it would be sure to please\n      gods and men.\u201d It is well known that Constantine had on the reverse\n      of his coin the inscription Sol Invictus and on the obverse the\n      monogram of Christ. \u201cThis has been interpreted as a proof that the\n      sun was his own guardian deity,\u201d but I venture to explain the\n      adoption of the sun as analogous to the ancient Egyptian mode of\n      designating the sovereign as the son of the sun, the sacred\n      representation of Heaven. Dean Stanley (Eastern Church, p. 193)\n      refers to Constantine\u2019s \u201cmode of harmonizing the discordant\n      religions of the empire under one institution and retention of the\n      old Pagan name of Dies Solis or Sunday, for the weekly Christian\n      festival,\u201d which was recommended by Constantine to his subjects,\n      Pagan and Christian alike, as \u201cthe venerable day of the Sun.\u201d\n\n  152 \u201cNo country in the world can compare with India for the exposition\n      of the pyramidal cross.... The body of the great temple of Bindh\n      madhu (formerly the boast of the ancient city of Benares ...\n      demolished in the seventeenth century) was constructed in the figure\n      of a colossal cross, with a lofty dome at the centre, above which\n      rose a massive structure of a pyramidal form. At the four\n      extremities of the cross there were four other pyramids.... A\n      similar building existed at Mhuttra.... By pyramidal towers placed\n      crosswise the Hindoo also displayed the all-pervading sign of the\n      cross. At the famous temple of Chillambrum, on the Coromandel coast,\n      there were _seven_ lofty walls, one within the other, round a\n      central quadrangle, and as many pyramidal gateways in the midst of\n      each side which forms the limbs of a vast cross\u201d (Faber, quoted by\n      Donelly in Atlantis, p. 335).\n\n  153 \u201cThe Tur-vasu, or people whose creating god (vasu) was the pole\n      (tur), when united with the traders of the south, became the\n      mercantile mariners of the Indian Ocean, who had imposed their rule\n      and traditions both on the lands of Northern India and on those of\n      the twin rivers, the Euphrates and Tigris.... From India, the only\n      land on the Indian Ocean where they could build sea-going ships,\n      they extended their trade, forms of government and national myths,\n      first to the Euphratean kingdoms and afterwards to Egypt and Syria,\n      where they were known to the Greeks as the Ph\u0153nicians\u201d (p. 356).\n\n      \u201cThese people had seven parent stars whose names are preserved.\n      Professor Sayce has identified the first of these, Sugi, with \u2018the\n      star of the Wain\u2019 and states that it means the\n      \u2018creating-spirit-reed\u2019 or the northern khu=bird, the \u2018reed of the\n      bird, the mother of life.\u2019 Sugi is therefore an additional name for\n      the Bear to that of Bel, distributor of waters.... In both names the\n      metaphor is the same, for it is from the reeds at the source of the\n      rivers, their point of distribution, that the rivers are born....\n      Both names denoted the star that led the year and it was the Great\n      Bear, as Sugi, that led the earliest year, opening with the week of\n      creation\u201d ... (p. 357). ... \u201cThe sons of the Tur or pole were the\n      Indian Tur-vashu, the Zend Turanians, the mariners of Asia Minor\n      called by the Egyptians Tour-sha (Maspero), the sea traders of the\n      Mediterranean called the Tur-sene of Lydia, the Tur-sena or\n      Tyrrhenians of Lemnos and Etruria, who spoke a language closely\n      allied to that of the Akkadians. That their god was worshiped in\n      Cyprus and Asia Minor is proved by the _terra-cotta whorl_ found in\n      one of the settlements on the site of Troy, dedicated in Cypriote\n      characters to Patori-Turi, the father Tur, who gave his name to the\n      Phrygian city of Turiaion. The great antiquity of the settlement is\n      proved by the fact that though some bronze knives and instruments\n      were found in it, by far the greater number of implements were of\n      stone and the pottery, though similar to that of Mycen\u00e6, is of a\n      more archaic type\u201d (Schuchhardt\u2019s Schliemann\u2019s Excavations, App. I,\n      331-332 and 334).\n\n      \u201cThey were also the first spinners, weavers, makers of pottery and\n      built canoes and worked in mines.... They grew wheat, barley, peas,\n      flax and fruit trees.... These men covered the whole of Europe and\n      Southern Asia ... and the Indian Dekhan with cromlechs and stone\n      circles, which were certainly in some cases roofed over, dolmens,\n      meaning stone tables, shrines, altars, tumuli and memorial stones or\n      pillars and all of these, whether found in Western Europe or\n      Southern Asia, are completely identical in character. These people\n      had, in their migrations, established an active and widespread\n      foreign trade...\u201d (p. 178).\n\n      \u201cThese maritime Tursena were intermingled with the matriarchal\n      Amazonian tribes who preceded them, and who seemed to have founded\n      the ancient ports of Asia Minor and Palestine, especially the Ionian\n      cities of Smyrna and Ephesus and that of _Askelon_. It was in the\n      land of Phrygia, the mountain countries of the Caucasus range and\n      the snowy heights whence the Euphrates rose, that the earliest\n      shepherds met the matriarchal races, the immigrants from the\n      southeast, the Hindu village communities, who are called by the\n      Greeks Amazons, and are described as the earliest ruling races of\n      Asia Minor and Greece (p. 175).\u201d\n\n      \u201c... The Great Naga is the Akkadian god Ner-gal, and the Ph\u0153nician\n      god Sarrahu, or the Great Sar. His name among the Shuites, or the\n      worshippers of Susi-nag on the west of the Euphrates, is Emu, a name\n      which is letter for letter the same as that of the national god of\n      the Ammonites, Amun\u201d (Sayce: Hibbert Lectures, 1887, III, p. 196,\n      note 1. \u201cAmun means the builder, or architect, and is, like that of\n      the Egyptian god, formed of aman, to sustain\u201d (Gesenius, Thesaurus,\n      p. 115). \u201cHe was the god of the house pole, who became in Egyptian\n      Thebes, Amen-Ra, the hidden, and it was the people who made the\n      house-pole the symbol of their ancestors, ... who brought to Egypt\n      as well as to Assyria and India, the custom of having cities for the\n      dead apart from those for the living.... It was from the rains of\n      the summer-solstice ... generated from the Naga snake that the\n      Ph\u0153nician sons of Kush were born, whose kings, like those of Egypt,\n      wore the Ur\u00e6us snake as a sign of royal authority. Their original\n      settlement, according to a tradition recorded by Theophrastus, was\n      at _Tulos_ or Turos, in the Persian Gulf, the modern Bahrein. This\n      was the holy island of Diloun, called Dilmun by the Akkadians.... It\n      was the settlement of Hindu navigators in the holy island of Dilmun\n      in the Persian gulf, and at Eridu, which first brought them in\n      contact with the Arabian star-gazers and merchants, and it was the\n      union, in the ancient city of Ur, of these races with the Hebrew\n      tribe of Gad (who built, not only the cities of Bashan, but also\n      those of Assyria and were the great builders of the ancient world),\n      which first formed the Semite race. It was the meridian pole, the\n      heavenly, revolving pole, the Tur of the Akkadians, which the\n      Dravidian traders of India brought with them to Eridu\u201d (p. 292). \u201cIt\n      was these Tursena who, by developing the ancient organization of the\n      village and province in India, divided all the countries they\n      occupied into confederacies of cities, such as we find among the\n      Euphratean nations, the Egyptians, Canaanites and the people of Asia\n      Minor, Greece and Italy. It was they who were the fathers of Greek\n      and Latin civilization.\u201d (p. 296). \u201cIt was these people who brought\n      from India their village institutions, their holy groves and\n      seasonal dances.... Among them the Finnic mining races descended....\n      It was in Phrygia that they were mixed with the Daktuloi, or race of\n      handicraftsmen and artificers, the sons of Dak, the showing or\n      teaching god, the god Daksha, the father of the Kush race.... They\n      were the carpenters and builders of the Stone age.\u201d\n\n      Prof. Sayce\u2019s \u201cAncient Empires of the East\u201d furnishes further\n      interesting details concerning the Ph\u0153nicians. According to this\n      eminent authority, at an early date, in order to relieve the\n      pressure of population, they sent out organized colonies to the\n      recently discovered lands of the West. Accordingly commercial marts\n      were established at Thera and Melos,.... Colonies were established\n      at Attica, on the coast of Africa, in Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica,\n      and beyond the columns of Herakles, in Gadeira. The three cities of\n      Rhodes were planned by Ph\u0153nician architects.... The Assyrian\n      character of early Greek art is due to its Ph\u0153nician inspiration....\n      It was about \u201cB.C. 600 that these people penetrated to the northwest\n      coast of India and probably to the island of Britain as well....\n      They were the intermediaries of ancient civilization ... and the\n      chief elements of Greek art and civilization came from Assyria\n      through the hands of Ph\u0153nicians.... Ph\u0153nician art was essentially\n      catholic ... it assimilated the art of Babylonia, Egypt and Assyria\n      superadding something of its own.... Their chief deity was Yeud or\n      Ekhad=the Only One ... they worshipped the Kabeiri ... originally\n      seven stars ... who were the makers of the world, the founders of\n      civilization, the inventors of ships.... The cities of Ph\u0153nicia were\n      the first trading communities the world has seen.... Their colonies\n      were originally mere marts and their voyages of discovery were taken\n      in the interests of trade. The tin of Britain, the silver of Spain,\n      the birds of the Canaries, the frankincense of Arabia, the pearls\n      and ivory of India, all flowed into their harbours.... Many of their\n      colonies were wholly independent, and governed by their own kings\n      and benefiting Ph\u0153nicia only in the way of trade.... In Ph\u0153nicia ...\n      the king seems to have been but the first among a body of ruling ...\n      princes and ... chiefs. In time the monarchy disappeared altogether,\n      its place being supplied by suffetes or \u2018judges,\u2019 whose term of\n      office lasted sometimes for a year, sometimes for more, sometimes\n      even for life.... At Carthage there were two suffetes, who were\n      merely presidents of the senate of thirty ... whose power was\n      subsequently checked by a board of one hundred and four.... By\n      providing that no member of the board should hold office for two\n      years running, Hannibal changed the government into a democracy.\u201d\n\n  154 Evolution and Ethics. Appleton ed. New York, 1896, p. 104.\n\n  155 \u201cDeath no Bane,\u201d translation by Robert Black, M. A., Sampson Low,\n      Marston & Co., London, 1889, p. 121, note.\n\n  156 Merely as affording a glimpse of the troublous period during which\n      Plotinus lived, I recall the fact that Caracalla, visiting Egypt,\n      caused a large number of young men to be massacred at Alexandria\n      (A.D. 211). Between A.D. 248 and 268, Alexandria was the seat of\n      civil war for twelve years, and through war, famine and pestilence,\n      in a few years, about half of the population, not only of\n      Alexandria, but of Rome, perished. A general persecution of\n      Christians was also carried on at this period, and in A.D. 268\n      Zenobia invaded Egypt.\n\n  157 To those of my fellow-workers who have made a special study of the\n      most ancient forms of cursive and ikonomatic writings of the Old\n      World, I should like to submit some facts concerning the ancient\n      Mexican method, which may carry a fresh suggestion and be an aid to\n      future research.\n\n      When the first Spanish missionaries who reached Mexico found\n      themselves confronted by the barrier of language and wished to teach\n      the native converts the Lord\u2019s Prayer in Latin, they adopted the\n      method of picture writing employed by the aborigines. By painting a\n      banner=pantli, a stone=tetl, a cactus=nochtli and another\n      stone=tetl, they conveyed the words Pa-te-noch-te, which,\n      approximately, represented paternoster. The consequence was that the\n      Indians were able to memorize prayers in a language unknown to them,\n      by referring to pictures of objects and naming these in their own\n      tongue. A number of curious documents exist, which exhibit a great\n      difference and variety in execution and are more or less cursive,\n      according to the artistic sense and ability of the missionary or\n      converted Indian who drew them. The fact that Spaniards, possessing\n      our mode of writing, should have found picture-writing the most\n      effective means of teaching primitive people speaking an alien\n      tongue has always appeared to me as most instructive and suggestive.\n\n      As the natives suggested this method to their instructors, it is\n      obvious that it was their habitual mode of memorizing a foreign\n      language. The possibility that words recorded in native pictography\n      may belong to an alien tongue, opens out a new field for future\n      research. A curious result is obtained when Tenoch-Titlan, one of\n      the ancient names of the capital of Mexico is studied from this\n      point of view. In the well-known rebus now employed as the arms of\n      Mexico, the syllables Te and Noch only are actually expressed in\n      picture-writing by the stone=tetl, from which a cactus=nochtli is\n      growing. This group is, however, surmounted by an eagle holding a\n      serpent in its talons and the meaning of this animal group appears\n      symbolical merely. It may be a curious coincidence that the eagle\n      holding a serpent in its talons was employed by Mediterranean people\n      as an emblem of victory and occurs on ancient Greek coins with this\n      significance, and that the recorded name, Tenochtitlan or \u201cthe land\n      of Tenoch,\u201d curiously resembles Tenos, the name of a Greek\n      heptarchy, founded by seven tribes just as the adjacent town of\n      Chalco, in Mexico, resembles Chalcis, the town in Eub\u0153a, where\n      Aristoteles died.\n\n      On p. 418 and in my discussion of Egyptian hieratic script, I have\n      pointed out that some signs employed express the sounds of words in\n      another tongue, that the syllables am and an, for instance, seem\n      indissolubly and universally linked to pole-star worship and\n      symbolism. It does not seem unreasonable to endeavor to explain this\n      by imagining that individuals, wishing, in each case, to teach the\n      word _Sama_=the revolving heaven _i. e._ the North, to people\n      speaking different languages, should make a picture of a tree or\n      boat named am in one tongue, and in another country, draw a spider,\n      named am, by its inhabitants. In the first country the tree, or\n      boat, and in the second, the spider, would, in time, become the\n      symbols of the north, and though different, signify the same thing.\n      In time, each sign might be employed to express the syllable am in\n      general and in this way isolated systems of ikonomatic writing would\n      evolve and, in course of time, native artists would more or less\n      skilfully produce conventionalized and distinctly characteristic\n      forms and methods.\n\n      At the same time the colonizing race might be employing and\n      perfecting a totally different form of cursive writing for their own\n      purposes of registration, etc. For instance: in Athens, where Euclid\n      held an archonship in 403 B.C. and, during centuries, Pythagorean\n      philosophers identified \u201cearth with a cube, fire with a pyramid, air\n      with an octahedron, water with an icosahedron, and _the Sphere of\n      the Universe_ with a dodecahedron,\u201d and also taught that a point\n      corresponds with the monad, both being indivisible; a line with the\n      duad, etc., it is obvious that points, lines and geometrical figures\n      must have been employed for the cursive registration of ideas. In a\n      state, firmly established on fixed principles of numbers, the\n      cursive registration of its subdivisions, by means of numbers only,\n      was rendered possible and in such a community the necessity for\n      cursive writing would be limited and perhaps be confined to the\n      registration and identification of individuals, the reports of\n      quantities of produce, etc.\n\n      The facts that the letters of the Greek alphabet possess fixed\n      numerical values, and that the initial letters only of their tribal\n      names were inscribed on the shields of Laced\u00e6monian, Sicyonian and\n      Messenian warriors, for instance, appear to indicate that, at one\n      time, each Greek tribal division possessed its cursive mark, a\n      letter, which may have indicated, at the same time, a numerical\n      division of the confederacy. To understand such cursive records it\n      is evident that a knowledge of the numerical basis of the state\n      would be indispensable and imperative and that this would be\n      confined to the rulers only. My opinion that the Maya calculiform\n      hieroglyphs constitute cursive notation relating entirely to the\n      calendrical and governmental cyclical system and absolutely\n      unintelligible without a knowledge of this, has already been\n      partially referred to on pp. 242 and 244. From Mexican manuscripts,\n      where individuals, by means of a number and a calendar sign, are\n      linked to a division of the state, I hope yet to be able to clearly\n      demonstrate the practical harmonious working of a machinery of\n      state, established on a perfected numerical scheme, the cursive\n      notation of which was extremely simple.\n\n      Meanwhile I offer the foregoing remarks as suggestions for future\n      research and as an expression of my opinion that people, using\n      geometrical and numerical cursive methods of notation in their own\n      country, may have systematically employed the pictographic method in\n      teaching their language to strangers and in establishing their\n      civilization in foreign lands.\n\n  158 It is particularly interesting to learn from Professor Sayce (_op.\n      cit._ p. 188), not only that Ph\u0153nician culture had been introduced\n      among the rude tribes of Israel, but that the temple of Jerusalem\n      was built by Ph\u0153nician artists after the model of a Ph\u0153nician one,\n      the main features of which were the two columns or cones at the\n      entrance and the brazen sea or basin, which rested on _twelve_\n      bulls, this number agreeing with the number of Israelitic tribes and\n      with tribal or caste divisions in other ancient centres of\n      civilization. It is thus certainly suggestive to find the number\n      twelve associated with the Ph\u0153nicians, to whom the spread of\n      civilization in the Old World is attributed and whose predecessors,\n      at the period of Babylonian culture, were, according to Professor\n      Sayce, \u201csolitary traders, who trafficked in slaves, in purple-fish\n      ... and whose voyages were intermittent and private.\u201d\n\n      ... \u201cDiodorus Siculus assigns to the Carthaginians the knowledge of\n      an island in the ocean, the secret of which they reserved for\n      themselves as a refuge to which they could withdraw should fate ever\n      compel them to desert their African home. It is far from improbable\n      that we may identify this obscure island with one of the Azores,\n      which lies 800 miles from the coast of Portugal. Neither Greek nor\n      Roman writers make any reference to them, but the discovery of\n      numerous Carthaginian coins at Carvo, the northwesterly island of\n      the group, leaves little room to doubt that they were visited by\n      Punic voyagers.\u201d\u2014Sir Daniel Wilson. The lost Atlantis and other\n      ethnographic studies. New York, 1892.\n\n  159 Address of the retiring President of the A. A. A. S., Columbus\n      meeting, 1899. Proceedings of the A. A. A. S., vol. XLVIII, to which\n      the reader is referred for valuable data.\n\n  160 \u201cProfessor Perry, F. R. S., in his admirable monograph on Spinning\n      Tops, (Romance of Science: Spinning Tops, by Professor John Perry,\n      M. E., D.Sc., F. R. S., 1890, pp. 107-110, 12-13, cited by O\u2019Neil,\n      _op. cit._, p. 540.) shows how a spinning gyrostat whose spinning\n      axis is compelled by the experimenter into a horizontal plane is\n      then constrained by the earth\u2019s motion alone to direct its spinning\n      axis due north and south and so to indicate mathematically the lie\n      of the true meridian of its spot. If the spinning gyrostat be next\n      shut off from all other motion except a vertical one in the plane of\n      this meridian, its spinning axis will point its north end up to, and\n      continue to point truly up to, the celestial pole.\u201d Then, adds\n      Professor Perry, in terms strangely suitable to my purposes: \u201cIt is\n      with a curious mixture of feelings that one first recognizes the\n      fact that all rotating bodies, fly-wheels of steam-engines and the\n      like, are always tending to turn themselves towards the Polestar;\n      gently and vainly tugging at their foundations, all the time they\n      are in motion, to get round towards the object of their adoration.\u201d\n\n  161 The Incas claimed to have descended from three windows. See Rites\n      and Laws of the Incas, p. 77.\n\n  162 It is noteworthy that the Zu\u00f1i name for village in general is\n      ti\u00b4-na-kwin-ne. Tina=many sitting around and kwin-ne=place of.\n\n  163 The accuracy and value of the above article are vouched for, in an\n      interesting way by the Rev. Samuel M. Zwemer, F. R. G. S. (a\n      missionary who spent ten years in Arabia), who refers to it as\n      follows, and quotes it in his recent publication: \u201cArabia, the\n      cradle of Islam. New York, 1900,\u201d p. 289. \u201cAn anonymous article in\n      the London Standard, Oct. 19, 1894, entitled, \u2018A prayer-meeting of\n      the Star-worshippers,\u2019 curiously gave me the key to open the lock of\n      their silence. Whoever wrote it must have been perfectly acquainted\n      with their religious ceremonies, for when I translated it to a\n      company of Sabeans at Amara, they were dumfounded. Knowing that I\n      knew _something_, made it easy for them to tell me more.\u201d\n\n  164 I point out the remarkable fact that the Chinese name for jade=yu,\n      is homonymous with the word for source or origin, hence, perhaps,\n      its sacredness and employment as a secret symbol of the hidden\n      source of all things. See p. 277 for Chinese choice of symbols\n      influenced by sound of name.\n\n  165 The Hindu Yama and Yami were twin brother and sister, and have been\n      respectively identified by Prof. Max M\u00fcller as night and day. Yama,\n      the inseparable duality, is entitled law and justice, etc. and was\n      represented with four arms, riding a buffalo, with a crown on his\n      head, accompanied by \u201ctwo four-eyed watch dogs, which are probably\n      the eight or twice-four regions of the compass\u201d... (Chambers\u2019\n      Encyclop\u00e6dia). Of the originally cosmical character of Yama there\n      can be no doubt. It is curious to find, at the epic and Puranic\n      period, the account of \u201cYama\u201d marrying the thirteen daughters of\n      Daksha (north-people, white), becoming the regent of the south and\n      residing in Yamapura, a town in the lower regions; details which\n      appear to indicate the actual establishment of a kingdom on the\n      familiar plan by an earthly representative of the cosmical deity.\n\n  166 This was the first god of the divine triad of whom it is recorded\n      that \u201cthey hid their persons;\u201d see Translation of the Ko-ji-ki or\n      Records of Ancient Matters, Basil Hall Chamberlain, vol. X,\n      supplement, Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan, Sections I\n      and II from which this and the following names of gods are taken.\n\n  167 The Akkadian Sumerian Cosmos is thus described: \u201cAbove the earth\n      extended the sky, ana, spangled with its fixed stars (mul) revolving\n      around the mountain of the east (Kharsak Kurra) the column which\n      joins the heaven and the earth and serves as an axis to the\n      celestial vault. The culminating point in the heaven, the zenith\n      (Paku), was not this axis or pole; on the contrary, it was situated\n      immediately above the country of Akkadia [Kalama] which was regarded\n      as the centre of the inhabited lands, while the mountain which acted\n      as a pivot to the starry heavens was to the northeast of this\n      country. Beyond the mountain, also to the northeast, extended the\n      land of Aralli, which was very rich in gold and was inhabited by the\n      gods and blessed spirits\u201d (Lenormant, quoted by Warren _op. cit._ p.\n      166).\n\n  168 This is the Ka of Egyptian theology ... he is the Sek-Nag, the god\n      of the R\u0101j, or royal race of Gonds, born (ja) of R\u0101, that is, the\n      sons of Ra-Hu, the begetting (Hu) creating fire-god (Ra). His\n      festival is held every seven years and is attended only by males who\n      are bound to secrecy as to its rites.... This god, the great Nag, is\n      the soul of life in the rain cloud, the heavenly snake ... the other\n      being the Ahi or Echis, the snake of earth. \u201cTo the present day the\n      Jains, who are the great trading race of India, call themselves\n      Ka-ya=the sons of Ka. This name they must have brought with them to\n      the holy island (Dilmun), from thence it must have travelled to\n      Egypt with the race who established the Kushite rule there\u201d\n      (Hewitt).\n\n  169 The titles \u201cMiddle king,\u201d \u201cGreat Middle princess,\u201d are cited by\n      Chamberlain, _op. cit._ pp. 265 and 267.\n\n  170 Madhu=the inspiring intoxicating honey mead used in the sacred\n      ritual, substituted by a Northern people for the barley liquor\n      offered in the manthin or creating, churning cup. The names given to\n      the drinkers of madhu=\u201cmadhuya,\u201d madhu-p\u0101 and Madhvi; also\n      madhu-varna, the men of Madhu\u2019s caste, are curiously homonymous with\n      the word for Middle Madhyias and appear to designate them as the\n      \u201cMiddle caste,\u201d naturally associated with the North.\n\n  171 Quoted by O\u2019Neil from Satow and Hawes\u2019 Hdbk. of Japan, 2nd ed. p.\n      39.\n\n      It is interesting to compare the following Japanese words with\n      Miyauken:\n\n      MIYO=wonderful, admirable, secret, mysterious, holy.\n\n      MIYA=Shinto temple where the kami are worshipped. Japan.\n\n      MIYUKI=travelling, going, only applied to circuit of provinces\n      performed by Mikado.\n\n      KEN=imperial domain, or that territory which is under the direct\n      government of the Mikado, _cf._ Chinese k\u2019an=land.\n\n  172 Transactions of Asiatic Society of Japan, vol. X, p. 245, note 2.","title":"The Fundamental Principles of Old and New World Civilizations: A Comparative Research Based on a Study of the Ancient Mexican Religious, Sociological, and Calendrical Systems","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":248991}