{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_34513/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_34513","id":"gutenberg_34513","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/34513","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Biographies","Category: Encyclopedias/Dictionaries/Reference","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Free thought -- Biography"],"text":"</pre>\n\n\n\n                                   A\n                        Biographical Dictionary\n                                  of\n                              FREETHINKERS\n                                  of\n                         All Ages and Nations.\n\n\n                                   By\n                             J. M. WHEELER.\n\n\n                                London:\n                    Progressive Publishing Company,\n                      28 Stonecutter Street, E.C.\n\n                                 1889.\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE.\n\n\nJohn Stuart Mill in his \"Autobiography\" declares with truth that\n\"the world would be astonished if it knew how great a proportion\nof its brightest ornaments, of those most distinguished even in\npopular estimation for wisdom and virtue are complete sceptics in\nreligion.\" Many of these, as Mill points out, refrain from various\nmotives from speaking out. The work I have undertaken will, I trust,\ndo something to show how many of the world's worthiest men and women\nhave been Freethinkers.\n\nMy Dictionary does not pretend to be a complete list of those who\nhave rendered services to Freethought. To form such a compilation\nwould rather be the task of an international society than of an\nindividual. Moreover details concerning many worthy workers are now\ninaccessible. Freethought boasts its noble army of martyrs of whom\nthe world was not worthy, and who paid the penalty of their freedom\nin prison or at the stake. Some of the names of these are only known\nby the vituperation of their adversaries. I have done my best to\npreserve some trustworthy record of as many as possible.\n\nThe only complete work with a similar design of which I have any\nknowledge, is the Dictionnaire des Ath\u00e9es anciens et modernes,\nby Sylvain Mar\u00e9chal with its supplements by Jerome de Lalande the\nAstronomer, An. VIII. (1800)-1805. That work, which is now extremely\nrare, gave scarcely any biographical details, and unfortunately\nfollowed previous orthodox atheographers, such as Buddeus, Reimmann,\nHardouin, Garasse, Mersenne, in classing as Atheists those to whom\nthe title was inapplicable. I have taken no names from these sources\nwithout examining the evidence.\n\nA work was issued by Richard Carlile in 1826, entitled A Dictionary of\nModern Anti-Superstionists; or, \"an account, arranged alphabetically,\nof those who, whether called Atheists, Sceptics, Latitudinarians,\nReligious Reformers, or etc., have during the last ten centuries\ncontributed towards the diminution of superstition. Compiled by\na searcher after Truth.\" The compiler, as I have reason to know,\nwas Julian Hibbert, who brought to his task adequate scholarship\nand leisure. It was, however, conceived on too extensive a scale,\nand in 128 pages, all that was issued, it only reached to the name of\nAnnet. Julian Hibbert also compiled chronological tables of English\nFreethinkers, which were published in the Reasoner for 1855.\n\nOf the Anti-Trinitarian Biography of the Rev. Robert Wallace, or of\nthe previous compilations of Saudius and Bock, I have made but little\nuse. To include the names of all who reject some of the Christian\ndogmas was quite beside my purpose, though I have included those of\nearly Unitarians and Universalists who, I conceive, exhibited the true\nspirit of free inquiry in the face of persecution. To the Freydenker\nLexikon of J. A. Trinius (1759) my obligations are slight, but should\nbe acknowledged. To Bayle's Dictionary, Hoefer's Nouvelle Biographie\nGenerale, Meyer's Konversations Lexikon, Franck's Dictionnaire des\nSciences Philosophiques, and to Larousse's Grand Dictionnaire Universel\nI must also express my indebtedness. In the case of disputed dates\nI have usually found Haydn's Dictionary of Biography (1886) most\ntrustworthy, but I have also consulted Oettinger's valuable Moniteur\ndes Dates.\n\nThe particulars have in all cases been drawn from the best available\nsources. I have not attempted to give a full view of any of the lives\ndealt with, but merely sought to give some idea of their services and\nrelation to Freethought. Nor have I enumerated the whole of the works\nof authors who have often dealt with a variety of subjects. As full\na list as is feasible has, however, been given of their distinctive\nFreethought works; and the book will, I hope, be useful to anyone\nwishing information as to the bibliography of Freethought. The only\nwork of a bibliographical kind is the Guide du Libre Penseur, by\nM. Alfred Verli\u00e8re, but his list is very far from complete even of\nthe French authors, with whom it is almost entirely occupied. I should\nalso mention La Lorgnette Philosophique, by M. Paquet, as giving lively\nsketches, though not biographies, of some modern French Freethinkers.\n\nIn the compilation of my list of names I have received assistance\nfrom my friends, Mr. G. W. Foote (to whom I am also indebted for\nthe opportunity of publication), Mr. W. J. Birch, Mr. E. Truelove and\nMr. F. Malibran. For particulars in regard to some English Freethinkers\nI am indebted to Mr. Charles Bradlaugh, Mr. George Jacob Holyoake and\nMr. E. T. Craig, while Professor Dalla Volta, of Florence, has kindly\nassisted me with some of the Italian names. I must also express my\nindebtedness to A. de Gubernatis, whose Dizionario Biografico degli\nScrittori Contemporanei I have found of considerable service. My thanks\nare also due to G. K. Fortescue, Esq., for permission to examine the\ntitles of all Freethought works in the British Museum.\n\nSome readers may think my list contains names better omitted, while\nomitting others well deserving a place. I have, for instance, omitted\nmany foreign Liberal Protestants while including Bishop Colenso, who,\nostensibly, did not go so far. But my justification, if any, must be\nfound in my purpose, which is to record the names of those who have\ncontributed in their generation to the advance of Freethought. No one\ncan be more conscious of the imperfections of my work than myself,\nbut I console myself with the reflection of Plato, that \"though it\nbe the merit of a good huntsman to find game in a wide wood, it is\nno discredit if he do not find it all\"; and the hope that what I have\nattempted some other will complete.\n\nThe most onerous part of my task has been the examination of the\nclaims of some thousand names, mostly foreign, which find no place in\nthis dictionary. But the work throughout has been a labor of love. I\ndesigned it as my humble contribution to the cause of Freethought, and\nleave it with the hope that it will contribute towards the history of\n\"the good old cause\"; a history which has yet to be written, and for\nwhich, perhaps, the time is not yet ripe.\n\nShould this volume be received with an encouraging share of favor,\nI hope to follow it with a History of Freethought in England, for\nwhich I have long been collecting materials.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nA BIOGRAPHICAL DICTIONARY OF FREETHINKERS.\n\n\nAb\u00e6lardus (Petrus), b. 1079. A teacher of philosophy at Paris, renowned\nfor being loved by the celebrated Eloise. He was accused of teaching\nerroneous opinions, chiefly about the Creation and the Trinity, and was\ncondemned by a council at Soissons in 1121 and by that of Sens 1140,\nat the instigation of St. Bernard. He was hunted about, but spent\nhis last days as a monk at Cluni. He died 21 April, 1142. \"Abelard,\"\nobserves Hallam, \"was almost the first who awakened mankind, in the\nage of darkness, to a sympathy with intellectual excellence.\"\n\nAbano (Petrus de). See Petrus, de Abano.\n\nAbauzit (Firmin), a French writer, descended from an Arabian family\nwhich settled in the South of France early in the ninth century,\nb. Uzes, 11 Nov. 1679. He travelled in Holland and became acquainted\nwith Bayle, attained a reputation for philosophy, and was consulted by\nVoltaire and Rousseau. Among his works are, Reflections on the Gospels,\nand an essay on the Apocalypse, in which he questions the authority\nof that work. Died at Geneva 20 March, 1767. His Miscellanies were\ntranslated in English by E. Harwood, 1774.\n\nAbbot (Francis Ellingwood). American Freethinker, b. Boston, 6\nNov. 1836. He graduated at Harvard University 1859, began life as a\nUnitarian minister, but becoming too broad for that Church, resigned\nin 1869. He started the Index, a journal of free religious inquiry\nand anti-supernaturalism, at Toledo, but since 1874 at Boston. This he\nedited 1870-80. In 1872 appeared his Impeachment of Christianity. In\naddition to his work on the Index, Mr. Abbot has lectured a great\ndeal, and has contributed to the North American Review and other\nperiodicals. He was the first president of the American National\nLiberal League. Mr. Abbot is an evolutionist and Theist, and defends\nhis views in Scientific Theism, 1886.\n\nAblaing van Giessenburg (R.C.) See Giessenburg.\n\nAbu Bakr Ibn Al-Tufail (Abu J'afar) Al Isbili. Spanish Arabian\nphilosopher, b. at Guadys, wrote a philosophical romance of pantheistic\ntendency Hai Ibn Yakdan, translated into Latin by Pocock, Oxford 1671,\nand into English by S. Ockley, 1711, under the title of The Improvement\nof Human Reason. Died at Morocco 1185.\n\nAbu-Fazil (Abu al Fadhl ibn Mubarak, called Al Hindi), vizier to\nthe great Emperor Akbar from 1572. Although by birth a Muhammadan,\nhis investigations into the religions of India made him see equal\nworth in all, and, like his master, Akbar, he was tolerant of all\nsects. His chief work is the Ayin Akbary, a statistical account of\nthe Indian Empire. It was translated by F. Gladwin, 1777. He was\nassassinated 1604.\n\nAbul-Abbas-Abdallah III. (Al Mamoun), the seventh Abbasside, caliph,\nson of Haroun al Rashid, was b. at Bagdad 16 Sept. 786. He was a patron\nof science and literature, collected Greek and Hebrew manuscripts,\nand invited the scholars of all nations to his capital. He wrote\nseveral treatises and poems. Died in war near Tarsus, 9 Aug. 833.\n\nAbul-Ola (Ahmad ibn Abd Allah ibn Sulaiman), celebrated Arabian poet,\nb. at Maari, in Syria, Dec., 973. His free opinions gave much scandal\nto devout Moslems. He was blind through small-pox from the age of\nfour years, but his poems exhibit much knowledge. He called himself\n\"the doubly imprisoned captive,\" in allusion to his seclusion and\nloss of sight. He took no pains to conceal that he believed in no\nrevealed religion. Died May, 1057, and ordered the following verse\nto be written on his tomb:--\"I owe this to the fault of my father:\nnone owe the like to mine.\"\n\nAbu Tahir (al Karmatti), the chief of a freethinking sect at Bahrein,\non the Persian Gulf, who with a comparatively small number of followers\ncaptured Mecca (930), and took away the black stone. He suddenly\nattacked, defeated, and took prisoner Abissaj whom, at the head of\nthirty thousand men, the caliph had sent against him. Died in 943.\n\nAchillini (Alessandro), Italian physician and philosopher b. Bologna 29\nOct. 1463. He expounded the doctrines of Averroes, and wrote largely\nupon anatomy. Died 2 Aug. 1512. His collected works were published\nat Venice, 1545.\n\nAckermann (Louise-Victorine, n\u00e9e Choquet), French poetess, b. Paris 30\nNov. 1813. She travelled to Germany and there married (1853) a young\ntheologian, Paul Ackerman, who in preparing for the ministry lost his\nChristian faith, and who, after becoming teacher to Prince Frederick\nWilliam (afterwards Frederick III.), died at the age of thirty-four\n(1846). Both were friends of Proudhon. Madame Ackermann's poems\n(Paris 1863-74 and 85) exhibit her as a philosophic pessimist and\nAtheist. \"God is dethroned,\" says M. Caro of her poems (Revue des\nDeux Mondes, 15 May, 1874). She professes hatred of Christianity\nand its interested professors. She has also published Thoughts of a\nSolitary. Sainte Beuve calls her \"the learned solitary of Nice.\"\n\nAcollas (Pierre Antoine Ren\u00e9 Paul Emile), French jurisconsult and\npolitical writer, b. La Ch\u00e2tre 25 June, 1826, studied law at Paris. For\nparticipating in the Geneva congress of the International Society\nin 1867 he was condemned to one year's imprisonment. In 1871 he was\nappointed head of the law faculty by the Commune. He has published\nseveral manuals popularising the legal rights of the people, and has\nwritten on Marriage its Past, Present, and Future, 1880. Mrs. Besant\nhas translated his monograph on The Idea of God in the Revolution,\npublished in the Droits de l'Homme.\n\nAcontius (Jacobus--Italian, Giacomo Aconzio). Born at Trent early\nin sixteenth century. After receiving ordination in the Church of\nRome he relinquished that faith and fled to Switzerland in 1557. He\nsubsequently came to England and served Queen Elizabeth as a military\nengineer. To her he dedicated his Strategems of Satan, published at\nBasle 1565. This was one of the earliest latitudinarian works, and\nwas placed upon the Index. It was also bitterly assailed by Protestant\ndivines, both in England and on the Continent. An English translation\nappeared in 1648. Some proceedings were taken against Acontius before\nBishop Grindall, of the result of which no account is given. Some\npassages of Milton's Areopagitica may be traced to Acontius, who,\nCheynell informs us, lived till 1623. Stephen's Dictionary of National\nBiography says he is believed to have died shortly after 1566.\n\nAcosta (Uriel). Born at Oporto 1597, the son of a Christianised Jew;\nhe was brought up as a Christian, but on reaching maturity, rejected\nthat faith. He went to Holland, where he published a work equally\ncriticising Moses and Jesus. For this he was excommunicated by the\nSynagogue, fined and put in prison by the Amsterdam authorities,\nand his work suppressed. After suffering many indignities from both\nJews and Christians, he committed suicide 1647.\n\nAdams (George), of Bristol, sentenced in 1842 to one month's\nimprisonment for selling the Oracle of Reason.\n\nAdams (Robert C.), Canadian Freethought writer and lecturer. Author\nof Travels in Faith from Tradition to Reason (New York, 1884), also\nEvolution, a Summary of Evidence.\n\nAdler (Felix) Ph. D. American Freethinker, the son of a Jewish rabbi,\nwas b. in Alzey, Germany, 13 Aug. 1851. He graduated at Columbia\nCollege, 1870, was professor of Hebrew and Oriental literature\nat Cornell University from '74 to May '76, when he established in\nNew York the Society of Ethical Culture, to which he discourses on\nSundays. In 1877 he published a volume entitled Creed and Deed, in\nwhich he rejects supernatural religion. Dr. Adler has also contributed\nmany papers to the Radical literature of America.\n\n\u00c6nesidemus. A Cretan sceptical philosopher of the first century. He\nadopted the principle of Heraclitus, that all things were in course\nof change, and argued against our knowledge of ultimate causes.\n\nAiry (Sir George Biddell). English Astronomer Royal, b. Alnwick\n27 July, 1801. Educated at Cambridge, where he became senior\nwrangler 1823. During a long life Professor Airy did much to advance\nastronomical science. His Notes on the Earlier Hebrew Scriptures 1876,\nproves him to have been a thorough-going Freethinker.\n\nAitkenhead (Thomas), an Edinburgh student aged eighteen, who was\nindicted for blasphemy, by order of the Privy Council, for having\ncalled the Old Testament \"Ezra's Fables,\" and having maintained\nthat God and nature were the same. He was found guilty 24 Dec. 1696,\nand hanged for blasphemy, 8 Jan. 1697.\n\nAitzema (Lieuwe van), a nobleman of Friesland, b. at Dorckum 19\nNov. 1600, author of a suppressed History of the Netherlands, between\n1621-68. Is classed by Reimmann as an Atheist. Died at the Hague 23\nFeb. 1669.\n\nAkbar (Jalal-ed-din Muhammad), the greatest of the emperors of\nHindostan, b. 15 Oct. 1542, was famous for his wide administration and\nimprovement of the empire. Akbar showed toleration alike to Christians,\nMuhammadans, and to all forms of the Hindu faith. He had the Christian\ngospels and several Brahmanical treatises translated into Persian. The\nresult of his many conferences on religion between learned men of\nall sects, are collected in the Dabistan. Akbar was brought up as a\nMuhammadan, but became a Theist, acknowledging one God, but rejecting\nall other dogmas. Died Sept. 1605.\n\nAlberger (John). American author of Monks, Popes, and their Political\nIntrigues (Baltimore, 1871) and Antiquity of Christianity (New York,\n1874).\n\nAlbini (Giuseppe). Italian physiologist, b. Milan. In 1845 he\nstudied medicine in Paris. He has written on embryology and many\nother physiological subjects.\n\nAlchindus. Yakub ibn Is'hak ibn Subbah (Ab\u00fa Y\u00fasuf) called Al Kindi,\nArab physician and philosopher, the great grandson of one of the\ncompanions of Muhammad, the prophet, flourished from 814 to about\n840. He was a rationalist in religion, and for his scientific studies\nhe was set down as a magician.\n\nAlciati (Giovanni Paolo). A Milanese of noble family. At first\na Romanist, he resigned that faith for Calvinism, but gradually\nadvanced to Anti-trinitarianism, which he defends in two letters\nto Gregorio Pauli, dated Austerlitz 1564 and 1565. Beza says that\nAlciati deserted the Christian faith and became a Muhammadan, but\nBayle takes pains to disprove this. Died at Dantzic about 1570.\n\nAleardi (Gaetano). Italian poet, known as Aleardo Aleardi, b. Verona, 4\nNov. 1812. He was engaged in a life-long struggle against the Austrian\ndominion, and his patriotic poems were much admired. In 1859 he was\nelected deputy to Parliament for Brescia. Died Verona, 16 July, 1878.\n\nAlembert (Jean le Rond d'), mathematician and philosopher, b. at\nParis 16 Nov. 1717. He was an illegitimate son of Canon Destouches\nand Mme. Tencin, and received his Christian name from a church\nnear which he was exposed as a foundling. He afterwards resided\nfor forty years with his nurse, nor would he leave her for the most\ntempting offers. In 1741, he was admitted a member of the Academy of\nSciences. In 1749, he obtained the prize medal from the Academy of\nBerlin, for a discourse on the theory of winds. In 1749, he solved the\nproblem of the procession of the equinoxes and explained the mutation\nof the earth's axis. He next engaged with Diderot, with whose opinions\nhe was in complete accord, in compiling the famous Encyclop\u00e9die, for\nwhich he wrote the preliminary discourse. In addition to this great\nwork he published many historical, philosophical and scientific essays,\nand largely corresponded with Voltaire. His work on the Destruction\nof the Jesuits is a caustic and far-reaching production. In a letter\nto Frederick the Great, he says: \"As for the existence of a supreme\nintelligence, I think that those who deny it advance more than they\ncan prove, and scepticism is the only reasonable course.\" He goes on\nto say, however, that experience invincibly proves the materiality of\nthe \"soul.\" Died 29 Oct. 1783. In 1799 two volumes of his posthumous\nessays were printed in Paris. His works prove d'Alembert to have been\nof broad spirit and of most extensive knowledge.\n\nAlfieri (Vittorio), Count. Famous Italian poet and dramatist, b. Asti,\nPiedmont, 17 Jan. 1749, of a noble family. His tragedies are justly\ncelebrated, and in his Essay on Tyranny he shows himself as favorable\nto religious as to political liberty. Written in his youth, this work\nwas revised at a more advanced age, the author remarking that if he\nhad no longer the courage, or rather the fire, necessary to compose\nit, he nevertheless retained intelligence, independence and judgment\nenough to approve it, and to let it stand as the last of his literary\nproductions. His attack is chiefly directed against Catholicism,\nbut he does not spare Christianity. \"Born among a people,\" he says,\n\"slavish, ignorant, and already entirely subjugated by priests, the\nChristian religion knows only how to enjoin the blindest obedience,\nand is unacquainted even with the name of liberty.\" Alfieri's tragedy\nof Saul has been prohibited on the English stage. Died Florence,\n8 Oct. 1803.\n\nAlfonso X., surnamed the Wise, King of Castillo and of Leon; b. in\n1223, crowned 1252. A patron of science and lover of astronomy. He\ncompiled a complete digest of Roman, feudal and canon law, and\nhad drawn up the astronomical tables called Alfonsine Tables. By\nhis liberality and example he gave a great impulse to Spanish\nliterature. For his intercourse with Jews and Arabians, his\nindependence towards the Pope and his free disposal of the clerical\nrevenues, he has been stigmatised as an Atheist. To him is attributed\nthe well-known remark that had he been present at the creation of the\nworld he would have proposed some improvements. Father Lenfant adds\nthe pious lie that \"The king had scarcely pronounced this blasphemy\nwhen a thunderbolt fell and reduced his wife and two children to\nashes.\" Alfonso X. died 4 April, 1284.\n\nAlgarotti (Francesco), Count. Italian writer and art critic, b. at\nVenice, 11 Dec. 1712. A visit to England led him to write Newtonianism\nfor the Ladies. He afterwards visited Berlin and became the friend\nboth of Voltaire and of Frederick the Great, who appointed him his\nChamberlain. Died with philosophical composure at Pisa, 3 May, 1764.\n\nAlger (William Rounseville), b. at Freetown, Massachusetts, 30\nDec. 1822, educated at Harvard, became a Unitarian preacher of the\nadvanced type. His Critical History of the Doctrine of a Future\nLife, with a complete bibliography of the subject by Ezra Abbot,\nis a standard work, written from the Universalist point of view.\n\nAllen (Charles Grant Blairfindie), naturalist and author, b. in\nKingston, Canada, 24 Feb. 1848. He studied at Merton College, Oxford,\nand graduated with honors 1871. In 1873 appointed Professor of Logic\nin Queen's College, Spanish town, Jamaica; from 1874 to '77 he was\nits principal. Since then he has resided in England, and become\nknown by his popular expositions of Darwinism. His published works\ninclude Physiological \u00c6sthetics (1877), The Evolutionist at Large\n(1881), Nature Studies (1883), Charles Darwin (1885), and several\nnovels. Grant Allen has also edited the miscellaneous works of Buckle,\nand has written on Force and Energy (1888).\n\nAllen (Ethan) Col., American soldier, b. at Litchfield, Connecticut,\n10 Jan. 1737. One of the most active of the revolutionary heroes,\nhe raised a company of volunteers known as the \"Green Mountain Boys,\"\nand took by surprise the British fortress of Ticonderoga, capturing\n100 guns, 10 May, 1775. He was declared an outlaw and \u00a3100 offered\nfor his arrest by Gov. Tryon of New York. Afterwards he was taken\nprisoner and sent to England. At first treated with cruelty, he was\neventually exchanged for another officer, 6 May, 1778. He was a member\nof the state legislature, and succeeded in obtaining the recognition\nof Vermont as an independent state. He published in 1784 Reason\nthe only Oracle of Man, the first publication in the United States\nopenly directed against the Christian religion. It has been frequently\nreprinted and is still popular in America. Died Burlington, Vermont,\n13 Feb. 1789. A statue is erected to him at Montpelier, Vermont.\n\nAllsop (Thomas). \"The favorite disciple of Coleridge,\" b. 10 April,\n1794, near Wirksworth, Derbyshire, he lived till 1880. A friend\nof Robert Owen and the Chartists. He was implicated in the attempt\nof Orsini against Napoleon III. In his Letters, Conversations and\nRecollections of Samuel Taylor Coleridge, he has imported many of\nhis Freethought views.\n\nAlm (Richard von der). See Ghillany (F. W.)\n\nAlpharabius (Muhammad ibn Muhammad ibn Tarkhan) (Abu Nasr), called\nAl Farabi, Turkish philosopher, termed by Ibn Khallikan the greatest\nphilosopher the Moslems ever had, travelled to Bagdad, mastered\nthe works of Aristotle, and became master of Avicenna. Al Farabi is\nsaid to have taught the eternity of the world and to have denied the\npermanent individuality of the soul. His principal work is a sort\nof encyclop\u00e6dia. R\u00e9nan says he expressly rejected all supernatural\nrevelation. Died at Damascus Dec. 950, aged upwards of eighty.\n\nAmaury or Amalric de Chartres, a heretic of the thirteenth century,\nwas a native of Bene, near Chartres, and lived at Paris, where he gave\nlessons in logic. In a work bearing the title of Physion, condemned\nby a bull of Pope Innocent III. (1204), he is said to have taught a\nkind of Pantheism, and that the reign of the Father and Son must give\nplace to that of the Holy Spirit. Ten of his disciples were burnt at\nParis 20 Dec. 1210, and the bones of Amaury were exhumed and placed\nin the flames.\n\nAmberley (John Russell) Viscount, eldest son of Earl Russell,\nb. 1843. Educated at Harrow, Edinburgh and Trinity College,\nCambridge, where ill-health prevented him reading for honors. He\nentered Parliament in 1866 as Radical member for Nottingham. Lord\nAmberley contributed thoughtful articles to the North British,\nthe Fortnightly and Theological Reviews, and will be remembered by\nhis bold Analysis of Religious Belief (1876), in which he examines,\ncompares and criticises the various faiths of the world. Lord Amberley\nleft his son to be brought up by Mr. Spalding, a self-taught man of\ngreat ability and force of character; but the will was set aside, on\nappeal to the Court of Chancery, in consideration of Mr. Spalding's\nheretical views. Died 8 Jan. 1876.\n\nAmman (Hans Jacob), German surgeon and traveller, b. Lake Zurich\n1586. In 1612 he went to Constantinople, Palestine and Egypt, and\nafterwards published a curious book called Voyage in the Promised\nLand. Died at Zurich, 1658.\n\nAmmianus (Marcellinus). Roman soldier-historian of the fourth century,\nb. at Antioch. He wrote the Roman history from the reign of Nerva to\nthe death of Valens in thirty-one books, of which the first thirteen\nare lost. His history is esteemed impartial and trustworthy. He served\nunder Julian, and compares the rancor of the Christians of the period\nto that of wild beasts. Gibbon calls him \"an accurate and faithful\nguide.\" Died about 395 A.D.\n\nAmmonius, surnamed Saccas or the Porter, from his having been obliged\nin the early part of his life to adopt that calling, was born of\nChristian parents in Alexandria during the second century. He,\nhowever, turned Pagan and opened a school of philosophy. Among his\npupils were Origen, Longinus and Plotinus. He undoubtedly originated\nthe Neo-Platonic movement, which formed the most serious opposition\nto Christianity in its early career. Ammonius died A.D. 243, aged\nover eighty years.\n\nAnaxagoras, a Greek philosopher of the Ionic school, b. about 499 B.C.,\nlived at Athens and enjoyed the friendship of Pericles. In 450 B.C. he\nwas accused of Atheism for maintaining the eternity of matter and was\nbanished to Lampsacus, where he died in 428 B.C. It is related that,\nbeing asked how he desired to be honored after death, he replied,\n\"Only let the day of my death be observed as a holiday by the boys\nin the schools.\" He taught that generation and destruction are only\nthe union and separation of elements which can neither be created\nnor annihilated.\n\nAndre-Nuytz (Louis), author of Positivism for All, an elementary\nexposition of Positive philosophy, to which Littr\u00e9 wrote a preface,\n1868.\n\nAndrews (Stephen Pearl). American Sociologist, b. Templeton, Mass.,\n22 March, 1812. He was an ardent Abolitionist, an eloquent speaker,\nand the inventor of a universal language called Alwato. His principle\nwork is entitled The Basic Outline of Universology (N. Y., 1872). He\nalso wrote The Church and Religion of the Future (1886). He was a\nprominent member and vice-president of the Liberal Club of New York,\na contributor to the London Times, the New York Truthseeker, and many\nother journals. Died at New York, 21 May, 1886.\n\nAndrieux (Louis). French deputy, b. Tr\u00e9voux 20 July, 1840. Was\ncalled to the bar at Lyons, where he became famous for his political\npleading. He took part in the Freethought Congress at Naples in 1869,\nand in June of the following year he was imprisoned for three months\nfor his attack on the Empire. On the establishment of the Republic he\nwas nominated procureur at Lyons. He was on the municipal council of\nthat city, which he has also represented in the Chamber of Deputies. In\n1879 he became Prefect of Police at Paris, but retired in 1881 and was\nelected deputy by his constituents at Lyons. He has written Souvenirs\nof a Prefect of Police (1885).\n\nAngelucci (Teodoro). Italian poet and philosopher, b. near Tolentino\n1549. He advocated Aristotle against F. Patrizi, and was banished\nfrom Rome. One of the first emancipators of modern thought in Italy,\nhe also made an excellent translation of the \u00c6neid of Virgil. Died\nMontagnana, 1600.\n\nAngiulli (Andrea). Italian Positivist, b. Castellana 12 Feb. 1837,\nauthor of a work on philosophy and Positive research, Naples 1868. He\nbecame professor of Anthropology at Naples in 1876, and edits a\nphilosophical review published in that city since 1881.\n\nAnnet (Peter). One of the most forcible writers among the English\nDeists, b. at Liverpool in 1693. He was at one time a schoolmaster\nand invented a system of shorthand. Priestley learnt it at school\nand corresponded with Annet. In 1739 he published a pamphlet on\nFreethinking the Great Duty of Religion, by P. A., minister of\nreligion. This was followed by the Conception of Jesus as the\nFoundation of the Christian Religion, in which he boldly attacks\nthe doctrine of the Incarnation as \"a legend of the Romanists,\"\nand The Resurrection of Jesus Considered (1744) in answer to Bishop\nSherlock's Trial of the Witnesses. This controversy was continued in\nThe Resurrection Reconsidered and The Resurrection Defenders Stript\nof all Defence. In An Examination of the History and Character of\nSt. Paul he attacks the sincerity of the apostle to the Gentiles and\neven questions the authenticity of his epistles. In Supernaturals\nExamined (1747) he argues that all miracles are incredible. In 1761\nhe issued nine numbers of the Free Inquirer, in which he attacked\nthe authenticity and credibility of the Pentateuch. For this he was\nbrought before the King's Bench and sentenced to suffer one month's\nimprisonment in Newgate, to stand twice in the pillory, once at\nCharing Cross and once at the Exchange, with a label \"For Blasphemy,\"\nthen to have a year's hard labor in Bridewell and to find sureties\nfor good behavior during the rest of his life. It is related that\na woman seeing Annet in the pillory said, \"Gracious! pilloried for\nblasphemy. Why, don't we blaspheme every day!\" After his release Annet\nset up a school at Lambeth. Being asked his views on a future life\nhe replied by this apologue: \"One of my friends in Italy, seeing the\nsign of an inn, asked if that was the Angel.\" \"No,\" was the reply,\n\"do you not see it is the sign of a dragon.\" \"Ah,\" said my friend,\n\"as I have never seen either angel or dragon, how can I tell whether\nit is one or the other?\" Died 18 Jan. 1769. The History of the Man\nafter God's Own Heart (1761) ascribed to Annet, was more probably\nwritten by Archibald Campbell. The View of the Life of King David\n(1765) by W. Skilton, Horologist, is also falsely attributed to Annet.\n\nAnthero de Quental, Portuguese writer, b. San Miguel 1843. Educated\nfor the law at the University of Coimbra, he has published both poetry\nand prose, showing him to be a student of Hartmann, Proudhon and R\u00e9nan,\nand one of the most advanced minds in Portugal.\n\nAnthony (Susan Brownell). American reformer, b. of a Quaker family\nat South Adams, Massachusetts, 15 Feb. 1820. She became a teacher,\na temperance reformer, an opponent of slavery, and an ardent advocate\nof women's rights. Of the last movement she became secretary. In\nconjunction with Mrs. E. C. Stanton and Parker Pillsbury she conducted\nThe Revolutionist founded in New York in 1868, and with Mrs. Stanton\nand Matilda Joslyn Gage she has edited the History of Woman's Suffrage,\n1881. Miss Anthony is a declared Agnostic.\n\nAntoine (Nicolas). Martyr. Denied the Messiahship and divinity of\nJesus, and was strangled and burnt at Geneva, 20 April, 1632.\n\nAntonelle (Pierre Antoine) Marquis d', French political economist,\nb. Arles 1747. He embraced the revolution with ardor, and his article\nin the Journal des Hommes Libres occasioned his arrest with Baboeuf. He\nwas, however, acquitted. Died at Arles, 26 Nov. 1817.\n\nAntoninus (Marcus Aurelius). See Aurelius.\n\nApelt (Ernst Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Reichenau 3 March,\n1812. He criticised the philosophy of religion from the standpoint\nof reason, and wrote many works on metaphysics. Died near Gorlitz,\n27 Oct. 1859.\n\nAquila, a Jew of Pontus, who became a proselyte to Christianity, but\nafterwards left that religion. He published a Greek version of the\nHebrew scriptures to show that the prophecies did not apply to Jesus\n(A.D. 128). The work is lost. He has been identified by E. Deutsch\nwith the author of the Targum of Onkelos.\n\nArago (Dominique Fran\u00e7ois Jean), French academician, politician,\nphysicist and astronomer, b. Estagel, 26 Feb. 1786. He was elected to\nthe French Academy of Sciences at the age of twenty-three. He made\nseveral optical and electro-magnetic discoveries, and advocated\nthe undulatory theory of light. He was an ardent Republican and\nFreethinker, and took part in the provisional Government of 1848. He\nopposed the election of Louis Napoleon, and refused to take the\noath of allegiance after the coup d'\u00e9tat of December, 1851. Died 2\nOct. 1853. Humboldt calls him a \"zealous defender of the interests\nof Reason.\"\n\nArdigo (Roberto), Italian philosopher, b. at Casteldidone (Cremona)\n28 Jan. 1828, was intended for the Church, but took to philosophy. In\n1869 he published a discourse on Peitro Pomponazzi, followed next year\nby Psychology as a Positive Science. Signor Ardigo has also written on\nthe formation of the solar system and on the historical formation of\nthe ideas of God and the soul. An edition of his philosophical works\nwas commenced at Mantua in 1882. Ardigo is one of the leaders of the\nItalian Positivists. His Positivist Morals appeared in Padua 1885.\n\nArgens (Jean Baptiste de Boyer) Marquis d', French writer, b. at\nAix, in Provence, 24 June 1704. He adopted a military life and\nserved with distinction. On the accession of Frederick the Great\nhe invited d'Argens to his court at Berlin, and made him one of his\nchamberlains. Here he resided twenty-five years and then returned to\nAix, where he resided till his death 11 June, 1771. His works were\npublished in 1768 in twenty-four volumes. Among them are Lettres\nJuives, Lettres Chinoises and Lettres Cabalistiques, which were\njoined to La Philosophie du bon sens. He also translated Julian's\ndiscourse against Christianity and Ocellus Lucanus on the Eternity\nof the World. Argens took Bayle as his model, but he was inferior to\nthat philosopher.\n\nArgental (Charles Augustin de Ferriol) Count d', French diplomat,\nb. Paris 20 Dec. 1700, was a nephew of Mme. de Tencin, the mother\nof D'Alembert. He is known for his long and enthusiastic friendship\nfor Voltaire. He was said to be the author of M\u00e9moires du Comte de\nComminge and Anecdotes de la cour d'Edouard. Died 5 Jan. 1788.\n\nAristophanes, great Athenian comic poet, contemporary with Socrates,\nPlato, and Euripides, b. about 444 B.C. Little is known of his life. He\nwrote fifty-four plays, of which only eleven remain, and was crowned\nin a public assembly for his attacks on the oligarchs. With the utmost\nboldness he satirised not only the the political and social evils\nof the age, but also the philosophers, the gods, and the theology\nof the period. Plato is said to have died with Aristophanes' works\nunder his pillow. Died about 380 B.C.\n\nAristotle, the most illustrious of ancient philosophers, was born at\nStagyra, in Thrace, 384 B.C. He was employed by Philip of Macedon\nto instruct his son Alexander. His inculcation of ethics as apart\nfrom all theology, justifies his place in this list. After the death\nof Alexander, he was accused of impiety and withdrew to Chalcis,\nwhere he died B.C. 322. Grote says: \"In the published writings of\nAristotle the accusers found various heretical doctrines suitable for\nsustaining their indictment; as, for example, the declaration that\nprayer and sacrifices to the gods were of no avail.\" His influence\nwas predominant upon philosophy for nearly two thousand years. Dante\nspeaks of him as \"the master of those that know.\"\n\nArnold of Brescia, a pupil of Abelard. He preached against the papal\nauthority and the temporal power, and the vices of the clergy. He\nwas condemned for heresy by a Lateran Council in 1139, and retired\nfrom Italy. He afterwards returned to Rome and renewed his exertions\nagainst sacerdotal oppression, and was eventually seized and burnt at\nRome in 1155. Baronius calls him \"the patriarch of political heretics.\"\n\nArnold (Matthew), LL.D. poet and critic, son of Dr. Arnold of Rugby,\nb. at Laleham 24 Dec. 1822. Educated at Winchester, Rugby, and Oxford,\nwhere he won the Newdigate prize. In 1848 he published the Strayed\nReveller, and other Poems, signed A. In 1851 he married and became\nan inspector of schools. In 1853 appeared Empedocles on Etna, a poem\nin which, under the guise of ancient teaching he gives much secular\nphilosophy. In 1857 he was elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford. In\n1871 he published an essay entitled St. Paul and Protestantism; in 1873\nLiterature and Dogma, which, from its rejection of supernaturalism,\noccasioned much stir and was followed by God and the Bible. In 1877\nMr. Arnold published Last Essays on Church and State. Mr. Arnold\nhas a lucid style and is abreast of the thought of his age, but he\ncuriously unites rejection of supernaturalism, including a personal\nGod, with a fond regard for the Church of England. He may be said\nin his own words to wander \"between two worlds, one dead, the other\npowerless to be born.\" Died 15 April, 1888.\n\nArnould (Arthur), French writer, b. Dieuze 7 April, 1833. As\njournalist he wrote on l'Opinion Nationale, the Rappel, Reforme and\nother papers. In 1864 he published a work on Beranger, and in '69 a\nHistory of the Inquisition. In Jan. 1870 he founded La Marseillaise\nwith H. Rochefort, and afterwards the Journal du Peuple with Jules\nValles. He was elected to the National Assembly and was member of\nthe Commune, of which he has written a history in three volumes. He\nhas also written many novels and dramas.\n\nArnould (Victor), Belgian Freethinker, b. Maestricht, 7 Nov. 1838,\nadvocate at the Court of Appeal, Brussels. Author of a History of the\nChurch 1874, and a little work on the Philosophy of Liberalism 1877.\n\nArouet (Fran\u00e7ois Marie). See Voltaire.\n\nArpe (Peter Friedrich). Philosopher, b. Kiel, Holstein, 10 May,\n1682. Wrote an apology for Vanini dated Cosmopolis (i.e., Rotterdam,\n1712). A reply to La Monnoye's treatise on the book De Tribus\nImpostoribus is attributed to him. Died, Hamburg, 4 Nov. 1740.\n\nArthur (John) is inserted in Mar\u00e9chal's Dictionnaire des Ath\u00e9es\nas a mechanic from near Birmingham, who took a prize at Paris and\nrepublished the Invocation to Nature in the last pages of the System\nof Nature. Julian Hibbert inserted his name in his Chronological\nTables of Anti-Superstitionists, with the date of death 1792.\n\nAsseline (Louis). French writer, b. at Versailles in 1829, became an\nadvocate in 1851. In 1866 he established La Libre Pens\u00e9e, a weekly\njournal of scientific materialism, and when that was suppressed\nLa Pens\u00e9e Nouvelle. He was one of the founders of the Encyclop\u00e9die\nG\u00e9n\u00e9rale. He wrote Diderot and the Nineteenth Century, and contributed\nto many journals. After the revolution of 4 Sept. 1870 he was elected\nmayor of the fourteenth arrondissement of Paris, and was afterwards\none of the Municipal Council of that city. Died 6 April, 1878.\n\nAssezat (Jules). French writer, b. at Paris 21 Jan. 1832 was a son\nof a compositor on the Journal des Debats, on which Jules obtained a\nposition and worked his way to the editorial chair. He was secretary of\nthe Paris Society of Anthropology, contributed to La Pens\u00e9e Nouvelle,\nedited the Man Machine of Lamettrie, and edited the complete works\nof Diderot in twenty volumes. Died 24 June, 1876.\n\nAssollant (Jean, Baptiste Alfred). French novelist, b. 20 March,\n1827. Larousse says he has all the scepticism of Voltaire.\n\nAst (Georg Anton Friedrich). German Platonist, b. Gotha 29\nDec. 1778. Was professor of classical literature at Landshut and\nMunich. Wrote Elements of Philosophy, 1809, etc. Died Munich 31\nDec. 1841.\n\nAtkinson (Henry George). Philosophic writer, b. in 1818. Was educated\nat the Charterhouse, gave attention to mesmerism, and wrote in\nthe Zoist. In 1851 he issued Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature\nand Development, in conjunction with Harriet Martineau, to whom he\nserved as philosophic guide. This work occasioned a considerable\noutcry. Mr. Atkinson was a frequent contributor to the National\nReformer and other Secular journals. He died 28 Dec. 1884, at Boulogne,\nwhere he had resided since 1870.\n\nAubert de Verse (Noel). A French advocate of the seventeenth century,\nwho wrote a history of the Papacy (1685) and was accused of blasphemy.\n\nAudebert (Louise). French authoress of the Romance of a Freethinker\nand of an able Reply of a Mother to the Bishop of Orleans, 1868.\n\nAudifferent (Georges). Positivist and executor to Auguste Comte,\nwas born at Saint Pierre (Martinque) in 1823, settled at Marseilles,\nand is the author of several medical and scientific works.\n\nAurelius (Marcus Antoninus). Roman Emperor and Stoic philosopher, b. at\nRome 26 April, 121. Was carefully educated, and lived a laborious,\nabstemious life. On the death of his uncle Antoninus Pius, 161, the\nSenate obliged him to take the government, but he associated with\nhimself L. Verus. On the death of Verus in 169 Antoninus possessed\nsole authority, which he exercised with wise discretion and great\nglory. Much of his time was employed in defending the northern\nfrontiers of the empire against Teutonic barbarians. He had no\nhigh opinion of Christians, speaking of their obstinacy, and it is\npretended many were put to death in the reign of one of the best\nemperors that ever ruled. If so we may be assured it was for their\ncrimes. Ecclesiastical historians have invented another pious miracle\nin a victory gained through the prayers of the Christians. Antoninus\nheld that duty was indispensable even were there no gods. His\nMeditations, written in the midst of a most active life, breathe a\nlofty morality, and are a standing refutation of the view that pure\nethics depend upon Christian belief. Died 17 March, 180.\n\nAustin (Charles), lawyer and disciple of Bentham, b. Suffolk 1799. At\nCambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1824 and M.A. in 1827, he won,\nmuch to the amazement of his friends, who knew his heterodox opinions,\nthe Hulsean prize for an essay on Christian evidences. For this he\nwas sorry afterwards, and told Lord Stanley of Alderley \"I could\nhave written a much better essay on the other side.\" He afterwards\nwrote on the other side in the Westminster Review. Successful as a\nlawyer, he retired in ill-health. J. S. Mill writes highly of his\ninfluence. The Hon. L. A. Tollemache gives a full account of his\nheretical opinions. He says \"He inclined to Darwinism, because as he\nsaid, it is so antecedently probable; but, long before this theory\nbroke the back of final causes, he himself had given them up.\" Died\n21 Dec. 1874.\n\nAustin (John), jurist, brother of above, was born 3 March, 1790. A\nfriend of James Mill, Grote and Bentham, whose opinions he shared,\nhe is chiefly known by his profound works on jurisprudence. Died 17\nDec. 1859.\n\nAvempace, i.e., Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn Bajjat (Abu Bekr), called\nIbn al-Saigh (the son of the goldsmith), Arabian philosopher and\npoet, b. at Saragossa, practised medicine at Seville 1118, which he\nquitted about 1120, and became vizier at the court of Fez, where he\ndied about 1138. An admirer of Aristotle, he was one of the teachers\nof Averroes. Al-Fath Ibn Kh\u00e2k\u00e2n represents him as an infidel and\nAtheist, and says: \"Faith disappeared from his heart and left not a\ntrace behind; his tongue forgot the Merciful, neither did [the holy]\nname cross his lips.\" He is said to have suffered imprisonment for\nhis heterodoxy.\n\nAvenel (Georges), French writer, b. at Chaumont 31 Dec. 1828. One of\nthe promoters of the Encyclop\u00e9die G\u00e9n\u00e9rale. His vindication of Cloots\n(1865) is a solid work of erudition. He became editor of la R\u00e9publique\nFran\u00e7aise and edited the edition of Voltaire published by Le Si\u00e8cle\n(1867-70). Died at Bougival, near Paris, 1 July, 1876, and was,\nby his express wish, buried without religious ceremony.\n\nAverroes (Muhammad Ibn-Ahmad Ibn Rushd), Abu al Walid, Arabian\nphilosopher, b. at Cordova in 1126, and died at Morocco 10\nDec. 1198. He translated and commented upon the works of Aristotle,\nand resolutely placed the claims of science above those of theology. He\nwas prosecuted for his heretical opinions by the Muhammadan doctors,\nwas spat upon by all who entered the mosque at the hour of prayer,\nand afterwards banished. His philosophical opinions, which incline\ntowards materialism and pantheism, had the honor of being condemned\nby the University of Paris in 1240. They were opposed by St. Thomas\nAquinas, and when profoundly influencing Europe at the Renaissance\nthrough the Paduan school were again condemned by Pope Leo X. in 1513.\n\nAvicenna (Husain Ibn Abdallah, called Ibn Sina), Arabian physician and\nphilosopher, b. Aug. 980 in the district of Bokhara. From his early\nyouth he was a wonderful student, and at his death 15 June, 1037,\nhe left behind him above a hundred treatises. He was the sovereign\nauthority in medical science until the days of Harvey. His philosophy\nwas pantheistic in tone, with an attempt at compromise with theology.\n\nAymon (Jean), French writer, b. Dauphin\u00e9 1661. Brought up in the\nChurch, he abjured Catholicism at Geneva, and married at the Hague. He\npublished Metamorphoses of the Romish Religion, and is said to have\nput forward a version of the Esprit de Spinoza under the famous title\nTreatise of Three Impostors. Died about 1734.\n\nBagehot (Walter), economist and journalist, b. of Unitarian parents,\nLangport, Somersetshire, 3 Feb. 1826; he died at the same place 24\nMarch, 1877. He was educated at London University, of which he became\na fellow. For the last seventeen years of his life he edited the\nEconomist newspaper. His best-known works are The English Constitution,\nLombard Street and Literary Studies. In Physics and Politics (1872),\na series of essays on the Evolution of Society, he applies Darwinism\nto politics. Bagehot was a bold, clear, and very original thinker,\nwho rejected historic Christianity.\n\nBaggesen (Jens Immanuel), Danish poet, b. K\u00f6sor, Zealand. 15\nFeb. 1764. In 1789 he visited Germany, France, and Switzerland; at\nBerne he married the grand-daughter of Haller. He wrote popular poems\nboth in Danish and German, among others Adam and Eve, a humorous mock\nepic (1826). He was an admirer of Voltaire. Died Hamburg, 3 Oct. 1826.\n\nBahnsen (Julius Friedrich August), pessimist, b. Tondern,\nSchleswig-Holstein, 30 Mar. 1830. Studied philosophy at Keil,\n1847. He fought against the Danes in '49, and afterwards studied at\nT\u00fcbingen. Bahnsen is an independent follower of Schopenhauer and\nHartmann, joining monism to the idealism of Hegel. He has written\nseveral works, among which we mention The Philosophy of History,\nBerlin, 1872, and The Contradiction between the Knowledge and the\nNature of the World (2 vols), Berlin 1880-82.\n\nBahrdt (Karl Friedrich), German deist, b. in Saxony, 25\nAug. 1741. Educated for the Church, in 1766 he was made professor\nof biblical philology. He was condemned for heresy, and wandered\nfrom place to place. He published a kind of expurgated Bible, called\nNew Revelations of God: A System of Moral Religion for Doubters and\nThinkers, Berlin, 1787, and a Catechism of Natural Religion, Halle,\n1790. Died near Halle, 23 April, 1792.\n\nBailey (James Napier), Socialist, edited the Model Republic, 1843, the\nTorch, and the Monthly Messenger. He published Gehenna: its Monarch\nand Inhabitants; Sophistry Unmasked, and several other tracts in the\n\"Social Reformer's Cabinet Library,\" and some interesting Essays on\nMiscellaneous Subjects, at Leeds, 1842.\n\nBailey (Samuel), philosophical writer, of Sheffield, b. in 1791. His\nessay on the Formation and Publication of Opinions appeared in 1821. He\nvigorously contends that man is not responsible for his opinions\nbecause they are independent of his will, and that opinions should\nnot be the subject of punishment. Another anonymous Freethought work\nwas Letters from an Egyptian Kaffir on a Visit to England in Search\nof Religion. This was at first issued privately 1839, but afterwards\nprinted as a Reasoner tract. He also wrote The Pursuit of Truth,\n1829, and a Theory of Reasoning, 1851. He was acquainted with both\nJames and John Stuart Mill, and shared in most of the views of the\nphilosophical Radicals of the period. Died 18 Jan. 1870, leaving\n\u00a390,000 to his native town.\n\nBailey (William S.), editor of the Liberal, published in Nashville,\nTennessee, was an Atheist up till the day of death, March, 1886. In\na slave-holding State, he was the earnest advocate of abolition.\n\nBaillie (George), of Garnet Hill, Glasgow. Had been a sheriff in one\nof the Scotch counties. He was a liberal subscriber to the Glasgow\nEclectic Institute. In 1854 he offered a prize for the best essay on\nChristianity and Infidelity, which was gained by Miss Sara Hennell. In\n1857 another prize was restricted to the question whether Jesus\nprophesied the coming of the end of the world in the life-time of his\nfollowers. It was gained by Mr. E. P. Meredith, and is incorporated\nin his Prophet of Nazareth. In 1863 Mr. Baillie divested himself\nof his fortune (\u00a318,000) which was to be applied to the erection\nand endowment of an institution to aid the culture of the operative\nclasses by means of free libraries and unsectarian schools, retaining\nonly the interest for himself as curator. He only survived a few years.\n\nBailli\u00e8re (Gustave-Germer), French scientific publisher, b. at Paris\n26 Dec. 1837. Studied medicine, but devoted himself to bringing out\nscientific publications such as the Library of Contemporary Philosophy,\nand the International Scientific Series. He was elected 29 Nov. 1874 as\nRepublican and anti-clerical member of the Municipal Council of Paris.\n\nBain (Alexander) LL.D. Scotch philosopher, b. at Aberdeen in 1818. He\nbegan life as a weaver but studied at Marischal College 1836-40, and\ngraduated M.A. in 1840. He then began to contribute to the Westminster\nReview, and became acquainted with John Stuart Mill, whose Logic\nhe discussed in manuscript. In 1855 he published The Senses and\nThe Intellect, and in 1859 The Emotions and the Will, constituting\ntogether a systematic exposition of the human mind. From 1860 to\n1880 he occupied the Chair of Logic in the University of Aberdeen,\nhis accession being most obnoxious to the orthodox, and provoking\ndisorder among the students. In 1869 he received the degree of\nLL.D. In addition to numerous educational works Dr. Bain published a\nCompendium of Mental and Moral Science (1868), Mind and Body (1875),\nand Education as a Science (1879), for the International Scientific\nSeries. In 1882 he published James Mill, a Biography, and John Stuart\nMill: a Criticism, with Personal Recollections. In 1881 he was elected\nLord Rector of the University of Aberdeen, and this honor was renewed\nin 1884, in which year he published Practical Essays.\n\nBainham (James), martyr. He married the widow of Simon Fish, author\nof the Supplycacion of Beggars, an attack upon the clergy of the\nperiod. In 1531 he was accused of heresy, having among other things\ndenied transubstantiation, the confessional, and \"the power of the\nkeys.\" It was asserted that he had said that he would as lief pray\nto his wife as to \"our lady,\" and that Christ was but a man. This\nhe denied, but admitted holding the salvation of unbelievers. He was\nburnt 30 April, 1532.\n\nBaissac (Jules), French litt\u00e9rateur, b. Vans, 1827, author of several\nstudies in philology and mythology. In 1878 he published Les Origines\nde la Religion in three volumes, which have the honor of being put\nupon the Roman Index. This was followed by l'Age de Dieu, a study\nof cosmical periods and the feast of Easter. In 1882 he began to\npublish Histoire de la Diablerie Chr\u00e9tienne, the first part of which\nis devoted to the person and \"personnel\" of the devil.\n\nBakunin (Mikhail Aleksandrovich), Russian Nihilist, b. Torshok\n(Tver) 1814, of an ancient aristocratic family. He was educated at\nSt. Petersburg, and entered as an ensign in the artillery. Here he\nbecame embued with revolutionary ideas. He went to Berlin in 1841,\nstudied the Hegelian philosophy, and published some philosophical\nwritings under the name of Jules Elisard. In '43 he visited Paris and\nbecame a disciple of Proudhon. In '48 he was expelled from France\nat the demand of Russia, whose government set the price of 10,000\nsilver roubles on his head, went to Dresden and became a member of the\ninsurrectionary government. He was arrested and condemned to death,\nMay '50, but his sentence was commuted to imprisonment for life. He\nescaped into Austria, was again captured and sentenced to death,\nbut was handed over to Russia and deported to Siberia. After several\nyears' penal servitude he escaped, travelled over a thousand miles\nunder extreme hardship, reached the sea and sailed to Japan. Thence he\nsailed to California, thence to New York and London, where with Herzen\nhe published the Kolokol. He took part in the establishment of the\nInternational Society, but being at issue with Karl Marx abandoned\nthat body in 1873. He died at Berne 1 July 1876, leaving behind a\nwork on God and the State, both being vigorously attacked. Laveleye\nwrites of him as \"the apostle of universal destruction.\"\n\nBall (William Platt), b. at Birmingham 28 Nov. 1844. Educated at\nBirkbeck School, London. Became schoolmaster but retired rather\nthan teach religious doctrines. Matriculated at London University\n1866. Taught pyrotechny in the Sultan's service 1870-71. Received\nthe order of the Medjidieh after narrow escape from death by the\nbursting of a mortar. Upon his return published Poems from Turkey\n(1872). Mr. Ball has contributed to the National Reformer since 1878\nand since 1884 has been on the staff of the Freethinker. He has\npublished pamphlets on Religion in Schools, the Ten Commandments\nand Mrs Besant's Socialism, and has compiled with Mr. Foote the\nBible Handbook. Mr. Ball is a close thinker and a firm supporter of\nEvolutional Malthusianism, which he has ably defended in the pages\nof Progress. He has of late been engaged upon the question: Are the\nEffects of Use and Disuse Inherited?\n\nBallance (John), New Zealand statesman, b. Glenary, Antrim, Ireland,\nMarch 1839. Going out to New Zealand he became a journalist and started\nthe Wanganui Herald. He entered Parliament in 1875 and became Colonial\nTreasurer in '78. With Sir Robert Stout he has been a great support\nto the Freethought cause in New Zealand.\n\nBaltzer (Wilhelm Eduard). German rationalist, b. 24 Oct. 1814, at\nHohenleine in Saxony. He was educated as a Protestant minister, but\nresigned and founded at Nordhausen in 1847 a free community. He took\npart in the Parliament of Frankfort in '48; has translated the life\nof Apollonius of Tyana, and is the author of a history of religion\nand numerous other works. Died 24 June, 1887.\n\nBancel (Fran\u00e7ois D\u00e9sir\u00e9). French politician, b. Le Mastre,\n2 Feb. 1822. Became an advocate. In 1849, he was elected to the\nLegislative Assembly. After the coup d'\u00e9tat he retired to Brussels,\nwhere he became Professor at the University. In 1869 he was elected\ndeputy at Paris in opposition to M. Ollivier. He translated the work\non Rationalism by Ausonio Franchi, and wrote on Mysteries, 1871,\nbesides many political works. Died 23 June, 1871.\n\nBarbier (Edmond). French translator of the works of Darwin, Lubbock,\nand Tylor. Died 1883.\n\nBarbier d'Aucour (Jean). French critic and academician, b. Langres,\n1642. Most of his writings are directed against the Jesuits. Died\nParis, 13 Sept. 1694.\n\nBarlow (George). Poet, b. in London, 19 June, 1847. In his volumes,\nUnder the Dawn and Poems, Real and Ideal, he gives utterance to many\nFreethought sentiments.\n\nBarlow (Joel). American statesman, writer and poet, b. Reading,\nConnecticut, 24 March, 1754. Served as a volunteer in the\nrevolutionary war, became a chaplain, but resigned that profession,\ntaking to literature. In England, in 1791, he published Advice to the\nPrivileged Orders. In France he translated Volney's Ruins of Empires,\nand contributed to the political literature of the Revolution. Paine\nentrusted him with the MS. of the first part of the Age of Reason. His\nchief work is entitled the Columbiad, 1808. He was sent as minister\nto France, 1811, and being involved in the misfortunes following the\nretreat from Moscow, died near Cracow, Poland, 24 Dec. 1812.\n\nBarni (Jules Romain). French philosophic writer, b. Lille, 1 June,\n1818. He became secretary to Victor Cousin, and translated the works\nof Kant into French. He contributed to La Libert\u00e9 de Penser (1847-51)\nand to l'Avenir (1855). During the Empire he lived in Switzerland\nand published Martyrs de la Libre Pens\u00e9e (1862), La Morale dans\nla D\u00e9mocratie (1864), and a work on the French Moralists of the\nEighteenth Century (1873). He was elected to the National Assembly,\n1872; and to the Chamber of Deputies, 1876. Died at Mers, 4 July,\n1878. A statue is erected to him at Amiens.\n\nBarnout (Hippolyte). French architect and writer, b. Paris 1816,\npublished a Rational Calendar 1859 and 1860. In May 1870 he established\na journal entitled L'Ath\u00e9e, the Atheist, which the clerical journals\ndeclared drew God's vengeance upon France. He is also author of a\nwork on aerial navigation.\n\nBarot (Fran\u00e7ois Odysse). French writer, b. at Mirabeau 1830. He\nhas been a journalist on several Radical papers, was secretary to\nGustave Flourens, and has written on the Birth of Jesus (1864) and\nContemporary Literature in England (1874).\n\nBarrett (Thomas Squire). Born 9 Sept. 1842, of Quaker parents, both\ngrandfathers being ministers of that body; educated at Queenwood\nCollege, obtained diploma of Associate in Arts from Oxford with honors\nin Natural Science and Mathematics, contributed to the National\nReformer between 1865 and 1870, published an acute examination of\nGillespie's argument, \u00e0 priori, for the existence of God (1869),\nwhich in 1871 reached a second edition. He also wrote A New View\nof Causation (1871), and an Introduction to Logic and Metyphysics\n(1877). Mr. Barrett has been hon. sec. of the London Dialectical\nSociety, and edited a short-lived publication, The Present Day, 1886.\n\nBarrier (F. M.). French Fourierist, b. Saint Etienne 1815, became\nprofessor of medicine at Lyons, wrote A Sketch of the Analogy of Man\nand Humanity (Lyons 1846), and Principles of Sociology (Paris 1867),\nand an abridgment of this entitled Catechism of Liberal and Rational\nSocialism. Died Montfort-L'Amaury 1870.\n\nBarrillot (Fran\u00e7ois). French author, b. of poor parents at Lyons in\n1818. An orphan at seven years of age, he learnt to read from shop\nsigns, and became a printer and journalist. Many of his songs and\nsatires acquired popularity. He has also wrote a letter to Pope Pius\nIX. on the OEcumenical Council (1871), signed Jean Populus, and a\nphilosophical work entitled Love is God. Died at Paris, 11 Dec. 1874.\n\nBarthez (Paul Joseph), French physician, b. Montpelier 11 Dec. 1734. A\nfriend of D'Alembert, he became associate editor of the Journal des\nSavants and Encyclop\u00e9die M\u00e9thodique. He was made consulting physician\nto the king and a councillor of State. Shown by the Archbishop of\nSens a number of works relating to the rites of his see he said,\n\"These are the ceremonies of Sens, but can you show me the sense\n[Sens] of ceremonies.\" His principal work is New Elements of the\nScience of Man. Died 15 Oct. 1806.\n\nBasedow (Johann Bernhard), German Rationalist and educational reformer,\nb. at Hamburg 11 Sept. 1723. He studied theology at Leipsic, became\nprofessor at the Academy of Sora, in Denmark, 1753-1761, and at\nAltona, 1761-1768. While here he published Philalethea, the Grounds of\nReligion, and other heterodox works, which excited so much prejudice\nthat he was in danger of being stoned. He devoted much attention to\nimproving methods of teaching. Died at Magdeburg 25 July, 1790.\n\nBaskerville (John), famous printer, b. Sion Hill, Wolverley,\nWorcestershire, 28 Jan. 1706. Lived at Birmingham. He was at\nfirst a stone-mason, then made money as an artistic japanner, and\ndevoted it to perfecting the art of type-founding and printing. As\na printer-publisher he produced at his own risk beautiful editions\nof Milton, Addison, Shaftesbury, Congreve, Virgil, Horace, Lucretius,\nTerence, etc. He was made printer to Cambridge University 1758. Wilkes\nonce visited him and was \"shocked at his infidelity\" (!) He died\n8 Jan. 1775, and was buried in a tomb in his own garden. He had\ndesigned a monumental urn with this inscription: \"Stranger, beneath\nthis cone in unconsecrated ground a friend to the liberties of\nmankind directed his body to be inurned. May the example contribute\nto emancipate thy mind from the idle fears of superstition and the\nwicked arts of priesthood.\" His will expresses the utmost contempt\nfor Christianity. His type was appropriately purchased to produce a\ncomplete edition of Voltaire.\n\nBassus (Aufidus). An Epicurean philosopher and friend of Seneca in\nthe time of Nero. Seneca praises his patience and courage in the\npresence of death.\n\nBate (Frederick), Socialist, author of The Student 1842, a drama\nin which the author's sceptical views are put forward. Mr. Bate\nwas one of the founders of the social experiment at New Harmony,\nnow Queenswood College, Hants, and engraved a view representing the\nOwenite scheme of community.\n\nBaudelaire (Charles Pierre), French poet, b. Paris, 9 April 1821,\nthe son of a distinguished friend of Cabanis and Condorcet. He\nfirst became famous by the publication of Fleurs du Mal, 1857, in\nwhich appeared Les Litanies de Satan. The work was prosecuted and\nsuppressed. Baudelaire translated some of the writings of E. A. Poe,\na poet whom he resembled much in life and character. The divine\nbeauty of his face has been celebrated by the French poet, Th\u00e9odore\nde Banville, and his genius in some magnificent stanzas by the English\npoet, Algernon Swinburne. Died Paris 31 Aug. 1867.\n\nBaudon (P. L.), French author of a work on the Christian Superstition,\npublished at Brussels in 1862 and dedicated to Bishop Dupanloup under\nthe pseudonym of \"Aristide.\"\n\nBauer (Bruno), one of the boldest biblical critics of Germany,\nb. Eisenberg, 6 Sept. 1809. Educated at the University of Berlin,\nin 1834 he received a professorship of theology. He first attained\ncelebrity by a review of the Life of Jesus by Strauss (1835). This\nwas followed by his Journal of Speculative Theology and Critical\nExposition of the Religion of the Old Testament. He then proceeded\nto a Review of the Gospel History, upon the publication of which\n(1840) he was deprived of his professorship at Bonn. To this followed\nChristianity Unveiled (1843), which was destroyed at Zurich before\nits publication. This work continued his opposition to religion,\nwhich was carried still further in ironical style in his Proclamation\nof the Day of Judgement concerning Hegel the Atheist. Bauer's heresy\ndeepened with age, and in his Review of the Gospels and History of\ntheir Origin (1850), to which Apostolical History is a supplement,\nhe attacked the historical truth of the New Testament narratives. In\nhis Review of the Epistles attributed to St. Paul (1852) he tries to\nshow that the first four epistles, which had hardly ever before been\nquestioned, were not written by Paul, but are the production of the\nsecond century. In his Christ and the C\u00e6sars he shows the influence\nof Seneca and Greco-Roman thought upon early Christianity. He died\nnear Berlin, 13 April, 1882.\n\nBauer (Edgar), b. Charlottenburg, 7 Oct. 1820, brother of the\npreceding, collaborated in some of his works. His brochure entitled\nBruno Bauer and his Opponents (1842) was seized by the police. For\nhis next publication, The Strife of Criticism with Church and State\n(1843), he was imprisoned for four years. He has also written on\nEnglish freedom, Capital, etc.\n\nBaume-Desdossat (Jacques Fran\u00e7ois, de la), b. 1705, a Canon of\nAvignon who wrote La Christiade (1753), a satire on the gospels,\nin which Jesus is tempted by Mary Magdalene. It was suppressed by\nthe French Parliament and the author fined. He died 30 April, 1756.\n\nBaur (Ferdinand Christian von), distinguished theological critic, b. 21\nJune, 1792, near Stuttgart. His father was a clergyman. He was educated\nat T\u00fcbingen, where in 1826 he became professor of Church history. Baur\nis the author of numerous works on dogmatic and historic theology, in\nwhich he subverts all the fundamental positions of Christianity. He was\nan Hegelian Pantheist. Among his more important works are Christianity\nand the Church in the First Three Centuries and Paul: His Life and\nWorks. These are translated into English. He acknowledges only four\nof the epistles of Paul and the Revelation as genuine products of\nthe apostolic age, and shows how very far from simplicity were the\ntimes and doctrines of primitive Christianity. After a life of great\nliterary activity he died at T\u00fcbingen, 2 Dec. 1860.\n\nBayle (Pierre), learned French writer, b. 18 Nov. 1647, at Carlat,\nFrance, where his father was a Protestant minister. He was converted\nto Romanism while studying at the Jesuit College, Toulouse, 1669. His\nRomanism only lasted seventeen months. He abjured, and fled to\nSwitzerland, becoming a sceptic, as is evident from Thoughts on the\nComet, in which he compares the supposed mischiefs of Atheism with\nthose of fanaticism, and from many articles in his famous Dictionnaire\nCritique, a work still of value for its curious learning and shrewd\nobservation. In his journal Nouvelles de la R\u00e9publique des Lettres\nhe advocates religious toleration on the ground of the difficulty of\ndistinguishing truth from error. His criticism of Maimbourg's History\nof Calvinism was ordered to be burnt by the hangman. Jurieu persecuted\nhim, and he was ordered to be more careful in preparing the second\nedition of his dictionary. He died at Rotterdam, 28 Dec. 1706. Bayle\nhas been called the father of free discussion in modern times.\n\nBayrhoffer (Karl Theodor), German philosopher, b. Marburg, 14 Oct.,\n1812, wrote The Idea and History of Philosophy (1838), took part in\nthe revolution of '48, emigrated to America, and wrote many polemical\nworks. Died near Monroe, Wisconsin, 3 Feb. 1888.\n\nBeauchamp (Philip). See Bentham and Grote.\n\nBeausobre (Louis de), b. at Berlin, 22 Aug. 1730, was adopted by\nFrederick the Great out of esteem for his father, Isaac Beausobre,\nthe author of the History of Manicheanism. He was educated first at\nFrankfort-on-Oder, then at Paris. He wrote on the scepticism of the\nwise (Pyrrhonisme du Sage, Berlin, 1754), a work condemned to be burnt\nby the Parliament of Paris. He also wrote anonymously The Dreams of\nEpicurus, and an essay on Happiness (Berlin, 1758), reprinted with\nthe Social System of Holbach in 1795. Died at Berlin, 3 Dec. 1783.\n\nBebel (Ferdinand August). German Socialist, b. Cologne, 22\nFeb. 1840. Brought up as a turner in Leipsic. Since '63, he became\ndistinguished as an exponent of social democracy, and was elected to\nthe German Reichstag in '71. In the following year he was condemned (6\nMarch) to two years' imprisonment for high treason. He was re-elected\nin '74. His principal work is Woman in the Past, Present and Future\nwhich is translated by H. B. A. Walther, 1885. He has also written on\nthe Mohammedan Culture Period (1884) and on Christianity and Socialism.\n\nBeccaria (Bonesana Cesare), an Italian marquis and writer, b. at Milan,\n15 March, 1738. A friend of Voltaire, who praised his treatise on\nCrimes and Punishments (1769), a work which did much to improve the\ncriminal codes of Europe. Died Milan, 28 Nov. 1794.\n\nBeesly (Edward Spencer), Positivist, b. Feckenham, Worcestershire,\n1831. Educated at Wadham College, Oxford, where he took B.A. in 1854,\nand M.A. in '57. Appointed Professor of History, University College,\nLondon, in 1860. He is one of the translators of Comte's System of\nPositive Polity, and has published several pamphlets on political\nand social questions.\n\nBeethoven (Ludwig van), one of the greatest of musical composers,\nb. Bonn 16 Dec. 1770. His genius early displayed itself, and at the\nage of five he was set to study the works of Handel and Bach. His many\ncompositions are the glory of music. They include an opera \"Fidelio,\"\ntwo masses, oratorios, symphonies, concertos, overtures and sonatas,\nand are characterised by penetrating power, rich imagination, intense\npassion, and tenderness. When about the age of forty he became totally\ndeaf, but continued to compose till his death at Vienna, 26 March,\n1827. He regarded Goethe with much the same esteem as Wagner showed\nfor Schopenhauer, but he disliked his courtliness. His Republican\nsentiments are well known, and Sir George Macfarren, in his life in\nthe Imperial Dictionary of Universal Biography, speaks of him as a\n\"Freethinker,\" and says the remarkable mass in C. \"might scarcely\nhave proceeded from an entirely orthodox thinker.\" Sir George Grove,\nin his Dictionary of Music and Musicians, says: \"Formal religion he\napparently had none,\" and \"the Bible does not appear to have been one\nof his favorite books.\" At the end of his arrangement of \"Fidelio\"\nMoscheles had written, \"Fine. With God's help.\" To this Beethoven\nadded, \"O man, help thyself.\"\n\nBekker (Balthasar), Dutch Rationalist, b. Metslawier (Friesland)\n20 March, 1634. He studied at Gronigen, became a doctor of divinity,\nand lived at Francker, but was accused of Socinianism, and had to fly\nto Amsterdam, where he raised another storm by his World Bewitched\n(1691), a work in which witchcraft and the power of demons are\ndenied. His book, which contains much curious information, raised\na host of adversaries, and he was deposed from his place in the\nChurch. It appeared in English in 1695. Died, Amsterdam, 11 June,\n1698. Bekker was remarkably ugly, and he is said to have \"looked like\nthe devil, though he did not believe in him.\"\n\nBelinsky (Vissarion Grigorevich), Russian critic, b. Pensa 1811,\neducated at Pensa and Moscow, adopted the Pantheistic philosophy of\nHegel and Schelling. Died St. Petersburg, 28 May, 1848. His works\nwere issued in 12 volumes, 1857-61.\n\nBell (Thomas Evans), Major in Madras Army, which he entered in 1842. He\nwas employed in the suppression of Thugee. He wrote the Task of To-Day,\n1852, and assisted the Reasoner, both with pen and purse, writing over\nthe signature \"Undecimus.\" He contemplated selling his commission to\ndevote himself to Freethought propaganda, but by the advice of his\nfriends was deterred. He returned to India at the Mutiny. In January,\n1861, he became Deputy-Commissioner of Police at Madras. He retired\nin July, 1865, and has written many works on Indian affairs. Died 12\nSept. 1887.\n\nBell (William S.), b. in Allegheny city, Pennsylvania, 10\nFeb. 1832. Brought up as a Methodist minister, was denounced for\nmixing politics with religion, and for his anti-slavery views. In\n1873 he preached in the Universalist Church of New Bedford, but in\nDec. '74, renounced Christianity and has since been a Freethought\nlecturer. He has published a little book on the French Revolution,\nand some pamphlets.\n\nBender (Wilhelm), German Rationalist, professor of theology at Bonn,\nb. 15 Jan. 1845, who created a sensation at the Luther centenary,\n1883, by declaring that the work of the Reformation was incompleted\nand must be carried on by the Rationalists.\n\nBennett (De Robigne Mortimer), founder and editor of the New York\nTruthseeker, b. of poor parents, Springfield (N.Y.), 23 Dec. 1818. At\nthe age of fifteen he joined the Shaker Society in New Lebanon. Here\nhe stayed thirteen years and then married. Having lost faith in the\nShaker creed, he went to Louisville, Kentucky, where he started a\ndrug store. The perusal of Paine, Volney, and similar works made him\na Freethinker. In 1873, his letters to a local journal in answer to\nsome ministers having been refused, he resolved to start a paper of\nhis own. The result was the Truthseeker, which in January, 1876 became\na weekly, and has since become one of the principal Freethought organs\nin America. In 1879 he was sentenced to thirteen months' imprisonment\nfor sending through the post a pamphlet by Ezra H. Heywood on the\nmarriage question. A tract, entitled An Open Letter to Jesus Christ,\nwas read in court to bias the jury. A petition bearing 200,000\nnames was presented to President Hayes asking his release, but was\nnot acceded to. Upon his release his admirers sent him for a voyage\nround the world. He wrote A Truthseeker's Voyage Round the World,\nLetters from Albany Penitentiary, Answers to Christian Questions and\nArguments, two large volumes on The Gods, another on the World's Sages,\nInfidels and Thinkers, and published his discussions with Humphrey,\nMair, and Teed, and numerous tracts. He died 6 Dec. 1882.\n\nBentham (Jeremy), writer on ethics, jurisprudence, and political\neconomy, b. 15 Feb. 1748. A grand uncle named Woodward was the\npublisher of Tindal's Christianity as Old as the Creation. Was educated\nat Westminster and Oxford, where he graduated M.A. 1767. Bentham\nis justly regarded as the father of the school of philosophical\nRadicalism. In philosophy he is the great teacher of Utilitarianism;\nas a jurist he did much to disclose the defects of and improve our\nsystem of law. Macaulay says he \"found jurisprudence a gibberish and\nleft it a science.\" His most pronounced Freethought work was that\nwritten in conjunction with Grote, published as An Analysis of the\nInfluence of Natural Religion, by Philip Beauchamp, 1822. Among his\nnumerous other works we can only mention Deontology, or the Science\nof Mortality, an exposition of utilitarianism; Church of Englandism\nand its Catechism Examined; Not Paul, but Jesus, published under the\npseudonym of Gamaliel Smith. Died 6 June, 1832, leaving his body for\nthe purposes of science.\n\nB\u00e9ranger (Jean Pierre de), celebrated French lyrical poet,\nb. Paris, 19 Aug. 1780. His satire on the Bourbons twice ensured\nfor him imprisonment. He was elected to the Constituant Assembly\n1848. B\u00e9ranger has been compared not inaptly to Burns. All his songs\nbreathe the spirit of liberty, and several have been characterised\nas impious. He died 16 July, 1857.\n\nBergel (Joseph), Jewish Rationalist, author of Heaven and Its Wonders,\nLeipsic, 1881, and Mythology of the Ancient Hebrews, 1882.\n\nBerger (Moriz), author of a work on Materialism in Conflict with\nSpiritualism and Idealism, Trieste, 1883.\n\nBergerac de (Savinien Cyrano). See Cyrano.\n\nBergk (Johann Adam), German philosopher, b. Hainechen, Zeitz, 27 June,\n1769; became a private teacher at Leipsic and wrote many works, both\nunder his own name and pseudonyms. He published the Art of Thinking,\nLeipsic, 1802, conducted the Asiatic Magazine, 1806, and wrote under\nthe name of Frey the True Religion, \"recommended to rationalists\nand destined for the Radical cure of supernaturalists, mystics,\netc.\" Died Leipsic, 27 Oct. 1834.\n\nBergk (Theodor), German humanist, son of the above, b. Leipsic,\n22 May, 1812, author of a good History of Greek Literature, 1872.\n\nBerigardus (Claudius), or Beauregard (Claude Guillermet), French\nphysician and philosopher, b. at Moulins about 1591. He became a\nprofessor at Pisa from 1628 till 1640, and then went to Padua. His\nCirculus Pisanus, published in 1643, was considered an Atheistic\nwork. In the form of a dialogue he exhibits the various hypotheses\nof the formation of the world. The work was forbidden and is very\nrare. His book entitled Dubitationes in Dialogum Galil\u00e6i, also brought\non him a charge of scepticism. Died in 1664.\n\nBerkenhout (Dr. John), physician and miscellaneous writer, b. 1731,\nthe son of a Dutch merchant who settled at Leeds. In early life he\nhad been a captain both in the Prussian and English service, and\nin 1765 took his M.D. degree at Leyden. He published many books on\nmedical science, a synopsis of the natural history of Great Britain\nand Ireland, and several humorous pieces, anonymously. His principal\nwork is entitled Biographia Literaria, a biographical history of\nEnglish literature, 1777. Throughout the work he loses no opportunity\nof displaying his hostility to the theologians, and is loud in his\npraises of Voltaire. Died 3 April, 1791.\n\nBerlioz (Louis Hector). The most original of French musical composers,\nb. Is\u00e8re, 11 Dec. 1803. He obtained fame by his dramatic symphony\nof Romeo and Juliet (1839), and was made chevalier of the Legion\nof Honor. Among his works is one on the Infancy of Christ. In his\nMemoirs he relates how he scandalised Mendelssohn \"by laughing at\nthe Bible.\" Died Paris, 9 March, 1869.\n\nBernard (Claude), French physiologist, b. Saint Julien 12 July,\n1813. Went to Paris 1832, studied medicine, became member of the\nInstitute and professor at the Museum of Natural History, wrote\nLa Science Experimentale, and other works on physiology. Died 10\nFeb. 1878, and was buried at the expense of the Republic. Paul Bert\ncalls him the introducer of determinism in the domain of physiology.\n\nBernier (Abb\u00e9). See Holbach.\n\nBernier (Fran\u00e7ois), French physician and traveller, b. Angers about\n1625. He was a pupil of Gassendi, whose works he abridged, and he\ndefended Descartes against the theologians. He is known as le joli\nphilsophe. In 1654 he went to Syria and Egypt, and from thence to\nIndia, where he became physician to Aurungzebe. On his return he\npublished an account of his travels and of the Empire of the Great\nMogul, and died at Paris 22 Sept. 1688.\n\nBernstein (Aaron), a rationalist, b. of Jewish parents Dantzic\n1812. His first work was a translation of the Song of Songs, published\nunder the pseudonym of A. Rebenstein (1834). He devoted himself\nto natural science and published works on The Rotation of Planets,\nHumboldt and the Spirit of the Time, etc. His essay on The Origin of\nthe Legends of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob was translated by a German\nlady and published by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate (1872). Died Berlin,\n12 Feb. 1884.\n\nBerquin (Louis de), French martyr, b. in Artois, 1489. Erasmus,\nhis friend, says his great crime was openly professing hatred of\nthe monks. In 1523 his works were ordered to be burnt, and he was\ncommanded to abjure his heresies. Sentence of perpetual banishment\nwas pronounced on him on April 16, 1529. He immediately appealed to\nthe Parliament. His appeal was heard and rejected on the morning of\nthe 17th. The Parliament reformed the judgment and condemned him to\nbe burnt alive, and the sentence was carried out on the same afternoon\nat the Place de la Gr\u00e8ve. He died with great constancy and resolution.\n\nBert (Paul), French scientist and statesman, b. at Auxerre, 17\nOct. 1833. In Paris he studied both law and medicine, and after\nbeing Professor in the Faculty of Science at Bordeaux, he in 1869\nobtained the chair of physiology in the Faculty of Science at Paris,\nand distinguished himself by his scientific experiments. In '70 he\noffered his services to the Government of National Defence, and in\n'72 was elected to the National Assembly, where he signalised himself\nby his Radical opinions. Gambetta recognised his worth and made him\nMinister of Public Instruction, in which capacity he organised French\neducation on a Secular basis. His First Year of Scientific Instruction\nis almost universally used in the French primary schools. It has been\ntranslated into English by Josephine Clayton (Madame Paul Bert). His\nstrong anti-clerical views induced much opposition. He published\nseveral scientific and educational works and attacked The Morality of\nthe Jesuits, '80. In '86 he was appointed French Resident Minister at\nTonquin, where he died 11 Nov. '86. His body was brought over to France\nand given a State funeral, a pension being also accorded to his widow.\n\nBertani (Agostino), Italian patriot, b. 19 Oct. 1812, became a\nphysician at Genoa, took part with Garibaldi and Mazzini, organising\nthe ambulance services. A declared Freethinker, he was elected deputy\nto the Italian Parliament. Died Rome 30 April, '86.\n\nBerti (Antonio), Italian physician, b. Venice 20 June, 1816. Author\nof many scientific works, member of the Venice Municipal Council and\nof the Italian Senate. Died Venice 24 March, 1879.\n\nBertillon (Louis Adolphe), French Anthropologist and physician,\nb. Paris 1 April, 1821. His principal work is a statistical study\nof the French population, Paris '74. He edits in conjunction with\nA. Hovelacque and others, the Dictionary of the Anthropological\nSciences ('83 etc.) His sons, Jacques (b. '51) and Alphonse (b. '53),\nprosecute similar studies.\n\nBertrand de Saint-Germain (Guillaume Scipion), French physician,\nb. Puy-en-Velay 25 Oct. 1810. Became M.D. 1840, wrote on The\nOriginal Diversity of Human Races (1847), and a materialistic work\non Manifestation of Life and Intelligence through Organisation,\n1848. Has also written on Descartes as a Physiologist, 1869.\n\nBerwick (George J.) M.D., appointed surgeon to the East India Company\nin 1828, retired in '52. Author of Awas-i-hind, or a Voice from the\nGanges; being a solution of the true source of Christianity. By an\nIndian Officer; London, 1861. Also of a work on The Forces of the\nUniverse, '70. Died about 1872.\n\nBesant (Annie) n\u00e9e Wood. B. London, 1 Oct. 1847. Educated in\nEvangelicalism by Miss Marryat, sister of novelist, but turned\nto the High Church by reading Pusey and others. In \"Holy Week\"\nof 1866 she resolved to write the story of the week from the\ngospel. Their contradictions startled her but she regarded her doubts\nas sin. In Dec. '67 she married the Rev. F. Besant, and read and\nwrote extensively. The torment a child underwent in whooping-cough\ncaused doubts as to the goodness of God. A study of Greg's Creed\nof Christendom and Arnold's Literature and Dogma increased her\nscepticism. She became acquainted with the Rev. C. Voysey and Thomas\nScott, for whom she wrote an Essay on the Deity of Jesus of Nazareth,\n\"by the wife of a beneficed clergyman.\" This led to her husband\ninsisting on her taking communion or leaving. She chose the latter\ncourse, taking by agreement her daughter with her. Thrown on her own\nresources, she wrote further tracts for Mr. Scott, reprinted in My Path\nto Atheism ('77). Joined the National Secular Society, and in '74 wrote\nin the National Reformer over the signature of \"Ajax.\" Next year she\ntook to the platform and being naturally eloquent soon won her way to\nthe front rank as a Freethought lecturess, and became joint editor\nof the National Reformer. Some lectures on the French Revolution\nwere republished in book form. In April, '77, she was arrested\nwith Mr. Bradlaugh for publishing the Fruits of Philosophy. After a\nbrilliant defence, the jury exonerated the defendants from any corrupt\nmotives, and although they were sentenced the indictment was quashed\nin Feb. '78, and the case was not renewed. In May, '78, a petition\nin Chancery was presented to deprive Mrs. Besant of her child on the\nground of her Atheistic and Malthusian views. Sir G. Jessell granted\nthe petition. In '80 Mrs. Besant matriculated at the London University\nand took 1st B.Sc. with honors in '82. She has debated much and issued\nmany pamphlets to be found in Theological Essays and Debates. She\nwrote the second part of the Freethinkers' Text Book dealing with\nChristian evidence; has written on the Sins of the Church, 1886, and\nthe Evolution of Society. She has translated Jules Soury's Religion\nof Israel, and Jesus of the Gospels; Dr. L. B\u00fcchner on the Influence\nof Heredity and Mind in Animals, and from the fifteenth edition of\nForce and Matter. From '83 to '88 she edited Our Corner, and since\n'85 has given much time to Socialist propaganda, and has written many\nSocialist pamphlets. In Dec. '88, Mrs. Besant was elected a member\nof the London School Board.\n\nBeverland (Hadrianus), Dutch classical scholar and nephew of Isaac\nVossius, b. Middleburg 1654. He took the degree of doctor of law and\nbecame an advocate, but devoted himself to literature. He was at the\nuniversity of Oxford in 1672. His treatise on Original Sin, Peccatum\nOriginale (Eleutheropoli, 1678), in which he contends that the sin\nof Adam and Eve was sexual inclination, caused a great outcry. It\nwas burnt, Beverland was imprisoned and his name struck from the\nrolls of Leyden University. He wrote some other curious works and\ndied about 1712.\n\nBevington (Louisa S.), afterwards Guggenberger; English poetess and\nauthoress of Key Notes, 1879; Poems, Lyrics and Sonnets, '82; wrote\n\"Modern Atheism and Mr. Mallock\" in the Nineteenth Century (Oct. and\nDec. '79), and on \"The Moral Demerits of Orthodoxy\" in Progress,\nSept. '84.\n\nBeyle (Marie Henri), French man of letters, famous under the\nname of de Stendhal, b. Grenoble, 23 Jan. 1783. Painter, soldier,\nmerchant and consul, he travelled largely, a wandering life being\ncongenial to his broad and sceptical spirit. His book, De l'Amour\nis his most notable work. He was an original and gifted critic and\nromancer. Balzac esteemed him highly. He died at Paris, 23 March,\n1842. Prosper Merim\u00e9e has published his correspondence. One of his\nsayings was \"Ce qui excuse Dieu, c'est qu'il n'existe pas\"--God's\nexcuse is that he does not exist.\n\nBianchi (Angelo), known as Bianchi-Giovini (Aurelio) Italian man\nof letters, b. of poor parents at Como, 25 Nov. 1799. He conducted\nseveral papers in various parts of Piedmont and Switzerland. His Life\nof Father Paoli Sarpi, 1836, was put on the Index, and thenceforward\nhe was in constant strife with the Roman Church. For his attacks on\nthe clergy in Il Republicano, at Lugano, he was proscribed, and had to\nseek refuge at Zurich, 1839. He went thence to Milan and there wrote\na History of the Hebrews, a monograph on Pope Joan, and an account\nof the Revolution. His principal works are the History of the Popes\nuntil the great schism of the West (Turin, 1850-64) and a Criticism\nof the Gospels, 1853, which has gone through several editions. Died\n16 May, 1862.\n\nBiandrata or Blandrata (Giorgio), Italian anti-trinitarian reformer,\nb. Saluzzo about 1515. Graduated in arts and medicine at Montpellier,\n1533. He was thrown into the prison of the Inquisition at Pavia,\nbut contrived to escape to Geneva, where he become obnoxious to\nCalvin. He left Geneva in 1558 and went to Poland where he became a\nleader of the Socinian party. He was assassinated 1591.\n\nBichat (Marie Fran\u00e7ois Xavier), a famous French anatomist and\nphysiologist, b. Thoirette (Jura), 11 Nov. 1771. His work on the\nPhysiology of Life and Death was translated into English. He died a\nmartyr to his zeal for science, 22 July, 1802.\n\nBiddle or Bidle (John), called the father of English Unitarianism,\nb. Wotton-under-Edge, Gloucestershire, 14 Jan. 1615. He took his\nM.A. degree at Oxford, 1641, and became master of the Gloucester\nGrammar School, but lost the situation for denying the Trinity. He\nwas also imprisoned there for some time, and afterwards cited at\nWestminster. He appealed to the public in defence, and his pamphlet\nwas ordered to be burnt by the hangman, 6 Sept. 1647. He was detained\nin prison till 1652, after which he published several pamphlets, and\nwas again imprisoned in 1654. In Oct. 1655, Cromwell banished him to\nthe Scilly Isles, making him an allowance. He returned to London 1658,\nbut after the publication of the Acts of Uniformity was again seized,\nand died in prison 22 Sept. 1662.\n\nBierce (M. H.) see Grile (Dod).\n\nBillaud-Varenne (Jean Nicolas), French conventionalist b. La Rochelle,\n23 April, 1756. About 1785 became advocate to Parliament; denounced\nthe government and clergy 1789. Proposed abolition of the monarchy\n1 July, 1791, and wrote Elements of Republicanism, 1793. Withdrew\nfrom Robespierre after the feast of the Supreme Being, saying \"Thou\nbeginnest to sicken me with thy Supreme Being.\" Was exiled 1 April,\n1795, and died at St. Domingo, 3 June, 1819.\n\nBion, of Borysthenes, near the mouth of the Dneiper. A Scythian\nphilosopher who flourished about 250 B.C. He was sold as a slave\nto a rhetorician, who afterwards gave him freedom and made him his\nheir. Upon this he went to Athens and applied himself to the study\nof philosophy. He had several teachers, but attached himself to\nTheodorus the Atheist. He was famous for his knowledge of music,\npoetry, and philosophy. Some shrewd sayings of his are preserved,\nas that \"only the votive tablets of the preserved are seen in the\ntemples, not those of the drowned\" and \"it is useless to tear our\nhair when in grief since sorrow is not cured by baldness.\"\n\nBirch (William John), English Freethinker, b. London 4\nJan. 1811. Educated at Baliol College, Oxford, graduated M.A. at\nNew Inn Hall. Author of An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion\nof Shakespeare, 1848; An Inquiry into the Philosophy and Religion\nof the Bible, 1856; this work was translated into Dutch by \"Rudolf\nCharles;\" Paul an Idea, not a Fact; and the Real and Ideal. In the\nstormy time of '42 Mr. Birch did much to support the prosecuted\npublications. He brought out the Library of Reason and supported\nThe Reasoner and Investigator with both pen and purse. Mr. Birch has\nresided much in Italy and proved himself a friend to Italian unity\nand Freedom. He is a member of the Italian Asiatic Society. Mr. Birch\nhas been a contributor to Notes and Queries and other journals,\nand has devoted much attention to the early days of Christianity,\nhaving many manuscripts upon the subject.\n\nBithell (Richard), Agnostic, b. Lewes, Sussex, 22 March 1821, of pious\nparents. Became teacher of mathematics and chemistry. Is Ph.D. of\nGottingen and B.Sc. of London University. In '65 he entered the\nservice of the Rothschilds. Has written Creed of a Modern Agnostic,\n1883; and Agnostic Problems, 1887.\n\nBj\u00f6rnson (Bj\u00f6rnstjerne), Norwegian writer, b. Quickne 8 Dec. 1832. His\nfather was a Lutheran clergyman. Has done much to create a national\nliterature for Norway. For his freethinking opinions he was obliged\nto leave his country and reside in Paris. Many of his tales have been\ntranslated into English. In 1882 Bj\u00f6rnson published at Christiania,\nwith a short introduction, a resum\u00e9 of C. B. Waite's History of the\nChristian Religion, under the title of Whence come the Miracles of the\nNew Testament? This was the first attack upon dogmatic Christianity\npublished in Norway, and created much discussion. The following year\nhe published a translation of Colonel Ingersoll's article in the North\nAmerican Review upon the \"Christian Religion,\" with a long preface,\nin which he attacks the State Church and Monarchy. The translation\nwas entitled Think for Yourself. The first edition rapidly sold out\nand a second one appeared. He has since, both in speech and writing,\nrepeatedly avowed his Freethought, and has had several controversies\nwith the clergy.\n\nBlagosvyetlov (Grigorevich E.), Russian author, b. in the Caucasus,\n1826. Has written on Shelley, Buckle, and Mill, whose Subjection\nof Women he translated into Russian. He edited a magazine Djelo\n(Cause). Died about 1885.\n\nBlanqui (Louis Auguste), French politician, b. near Nice, 7 Feb. 1805,\na younger brother of Jerome Adolphe Blanqui, the economist. Becoming\na Communist, his life was spent in conspiracy and imprisonment\nunder successive governments. In '39 he was condemned to death, but\nhis sentence commuted to imprisonment for life, and was subject to\nbrutal treatment till the revolution of '48 set him at liberty. He\nwas soon again imprisoned. In '65 he wrote some remarkable articles\non Monotheism in Le Candide. After the revolution of 4 Sept. '70,\nBlanqui demanded the suppression of worship. He was again imprisoned,\nbut was liberated and elected member of the Commune, and arrested by\nThiers. In his last imprisonment he wrote a curious book, Eternity\nand the Stars, in which he argues from the eternity and infinity of\nmatter. Died Paris, 31 Dec. 1880. Blanqui took as his motto \"Ni Dieu\nni ma\u00eetre\"--Neither God nor master.\n\nBlasche (Bernhard Heinrich), German Pantheist, b. Jena 9 April,\n1776. His father was a professor of theology and philosophy. He wrote\nKritik des Modernen Geisterglaubens (Criticism of Modern Ghost Belief),\nPhilosophische Unsterblichkeitslehre (Teaching of Philosophical\nImmortality), and other works. Died near Gotha 26 Nov. 1832.\n\nBlignieres (C\u00e9lestin de), French Positivist, of the Polytechnic\nschool. Has written a popular exposition of Positive philosophy and\nreligion, Paris 1857; The Positive Doctrine, 1867; Studies of Positive\nMorality, 1868; and other works.\n\nBlind (Karl), German Republican, b. Mannheim, 4 Sept. 1826. Studied\nat Heidelberg and Bonn. In 1848 he became a revolutionary leader\namong the students and populace, was wounded at Frankfort, and\nproscribed. In Sept. '48 he led the second republican revolution in\nthe Black Forest. He was made prisoner and sentenced to eight year's\nimprisonment. In the spring of '49 he was liberated by the people\nbreaking open his prison. Being sent on a mission to Louis Napoleon,\nthen president of the French Republic at Paris, he was arrested and\nbanished from France. He went to Brussels, but since '52 has lived\nin in England, where he has written largely on politics, history,\nand mythology. His daughter Mathilde, b. at Mannheim, opened her\nliterary career by publishing a volume of poems in 1867 under the\nname of Claude Lake. She has since translated Straus's Old Faith and\nthe New, and written the volumes on George Eliot and Madame Roland\nin the Eminent Women series.\n\nBlount (Charles), English Deist of noble family, b. at Holloway 27\nApril, 1654. His father, Sir Henry Blount, probably shared in his\nopinions, and helped him in his anti-religious work, Anima Mundi,\n1678. This work Bishop Compton desired to see suppressed. In 1680 he\npublished Great is Diana of the Ephesians, or the Origin of Idolatry,\nand the two first books of Apollonius Tyanius, with notes, in which\nhe attacks priestcraft and superstition. This work was condemned and\nsuppressed. Blount also published The Oracles of Reason, a number\nof Freethought Essays. By his Vindication of Learning and Liberty\nof the Press, and still more by his hoax on Bohun entitled William\nand Mary Conquerors, he was largely instrumental in doing away with\nthe censorship of the press. He shot himself, it is said, because\nhe could not marry his deceased wife's sister (August, 1693). His\nmiscellaneous works were printed in one volume, 1695.\n\nBlumenfeld (J. C.), wrote The New Ecce Homo or the Self Redemption of\nMan, 1839. He is also credited with the authorship of The Existence of\nChrist Disproved in a series of Letters by \"A German Jew,\" London,\n1841.\n\nBoerne (Ludwig), German man of letters and politician, b. Frankfort\n22 May, 1786. In 1818 he gave up the Jewish religion, in which he had\nbeen bred, nominally for Protestantism, but really he had, like his\nfriend Heine, become a Freethinker. He wrote many works in favor of\npolitical liberty and translated Lammenais' Paroles d'un Croyant. Died\n12 Feb. 1837.\n\nBodin (Jean), French political writer, b. Angers 1530. He studied\nat Toulouse and is said to have been a monk but turned to the law,\nand became secretary to the Duc d'Alen\u00e7on. His book De la Republique\nis highly praised by Hallam, and is said to have contained the germ of\nMontesquieu's \"Spirit of the Laws.\" He wrote a work on demonomania, in\nwhich he seems to have believed, but in his Colloquium Heptaplomeron\ncoloquies of seven persons: a Catholic, a Lutheran, a Calvinist, a\nPagan, a Muhammadan, a Jew, and a Deist, which he left in manuscript,\nhe put some severe attacks on Christianity. Died of the plague at\nLaon in 1596.\n\nBoggis (John) is mentioned by Edwards in his Gangrena, 1645, as an\nAtheist and disbeliever in the Bible.\n\nBoichot (Jean Baptiste), b. Villier sur Suize 20 Aug. 1820, entered\nthe army. In '49 he was chosen representative of the people. After\nthe coup d'\u00e9tat he came to England, returned to France in '54,\nwas arrested and imprisoned at Belle Isle. Since then he has lived\nat Brussels, where he has written several works and is one of the\ncouncil of International Freethinkers.\n\nBoindin (Nicolas) French litterateur, wit, playwright and academician,\nb. Paris 29 May, 1676. He publicly professed Atheism, and resorted\nwith other Freethinkers to the famous caf\u00e9 Procope. There, in order to\nspeak freely, they called the soul Margot, religion Javotte, liberty\nJeanneton, and God M. de l'Etre. One day a spy asked Boindin, \"Who\nis this M. de l'Etre with whom you seem so displeased?\" \"Monsieur,\"\nreplied Boindin, \"he is a police spy.\" Died 30 Nov. 1751. His corpse\nwas refused \"Christian burial.\"\n\nBoissiere (Jean Baptiste Prudence), French writer, b. Valognes\nDec. 1806, was for a time teacher in England. He compiled an analogical\ndictionary of the French language. Under the name of Si\u00e8rebois he\nhas published the Autopsy of the Soul and a work on the foundations\nof morality, which he traces to interest. He has also written a book\nentitled The Mechanism of Thought, '84.\n\nBoissonade (J. A.), author of The Bible Unveiled, Paris, 1871.\n\nBoito (Arrigo), Italian poet and musician, b. at Padua, whose opera\n\"Mefistofele,\" has created considerable sensation by its boldness.\n\nBolingbroke (Henry Saint John) Lord, English statesman and philosopher,\nb. at Battersea, 1 Oct. 1672. His political life was a stormy\none. He was the friend of Swift and of Pope, who in his Essay on Man\navowedly puts forward the views of Saint John. He died at Battersea\n12 Dec. 1751, leaving by will his MSS. to David Mallet, who in 1754\npublished his works, which included Essays Written to A. Pope, Esq.,\non Religion and Philosophy, in which he attacks Christianity with\nboth wit and eloquence. Bolingbroke was a Deist, believing in God\nbut scornfully rejecting revelation. He much influenced Voltaire,\nwho regarded him with esteem.\n\nBonavino (Francesco Cristoforo) see Franchi (Ausonio).\n\nBoni (Filippo de), Italian man of letters, b. Feltre, 1820. Editor of\na standard Biography of Artists, published at Venice, 1840. He also\nwrote on the Roman Church and Italy and on Reason and Dogma, Siena,\n'66, and contributed to Stefanoni's Libero Pensiero. De Boni was\nelected deputy to the Italian Parliament. He has written on \"Italian\nUnbelief in the Middle Ages\" in the Annuario Filosofico del Libero\nPensiero, '68.\n\nBoniface VIII., Pope (Benedetto Gaetano), elected head of Christendom,\n24 Dec. 1294. During his quarrel with Philip the Fair of France charges\nwere sworn on oath against Pope Boniface that he neither believed in\nthe Trinity nor in the life to come, that he said the Virgin Mary\n\"was no more a virgin than my mother\"; that he did not observe the\nfasts of the Church, and that he spoke of the cardinals, monks,\nand friars as hypocrites. It was in evidence that the Pope had said\n\"God may do the worst with me that he pleases in the future life; I\nbelieve as every educated man does, the vulgar believe otherwise. We\nhave to speak as they do, but we must believe and think with the\nfew.\" Died 11 Oct. 1303.\n\nBonnycastle (John), mathematician, b. Whitchurch, Bucks, about\n1750. He wrote several works on elementary mathematics and became\nProfessor of mathematics at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich,\nwhere he died 15 May, 1821. He was a friend of Fuseli, and private\ninformation assures me he was a Freethinker.\n\nBooms (Marinus Adriaansz), Dutch Spinozist, a shoemaker by trade,\nwho wrote early in the eighteenth century, and on 1 Jan. 1714,\nwas banished.\n\nBonnot de Condillac (Etienne) see Condillac.\n\nBonstetten (Karl Victor von), Swiss Deist, b. Berne, 3 Sept\n1745. Acquainted with Voltaire and Rousseau he went to Leyden and\nEngland to finish his education. Among his works are Researches on\nthe Nature and Laws of the Imagination, 1807; and Studies on Man,\n1821. Died Geneva, 3 Feb. 1832.\n\nBorde (Fr\u00e9d\u00e9ric), editor of La Philosophie de l'Avenir, Paris, 1875,\netc. Born La Rochelle 1841. Has written on Liberty of Instruction, etc.\n\nBorn (Ignaz von) baron, b. Carlsruhe, 26 Dec. 1742. Bred by the\nJesuits, he became an ardent scientist and a favorite of the\nEmpress Marie Theresa, under whose patronage he published works\non Mineralogy. He was active as a Freemason, and Illuminati, and\npublished with the name Joannes Physiophilus a stinging illustrated\nsatire entitled Monchalogia, or the natural history of monks.\n\nBosc (Louis Augustin Guillaume), French naturalist, b. Paris, 29\nJan. 1759; was tutor and friend to Madame Roland whose Memoirs he\npublished. He wrote many works on natural history. Died 10 July, 1828.\n\nBoucher (E. Martin), French writer, b. Beaulieu, 1809; contributed to\nthe Rationalist of Geneva, where he died 1882. Author of a work on\nRevelation and Rationalism, entitled Search for the Truth, Avignon,\n1884.\n\nBougainville (Louis Antoine de) Count, the first French voyager\nwho made the tour around the world; b. Paris, 11 Nov. 1729. Died 31\nAug. 1811. He wrote an interesting account of his travels.\n\nBouillier (Francisque), French philosopher, b. Lyons 12 July 1813, has\nwritten several works on psychology, and contributed to la Libert\u00e9 de\nPenser. His principal work is a History of the Cartesian Philosophy. He\nis a member of the Institute and writes in the leading reviews.\n\nBouis (Casimir), French journalist, b. Toulon 1848, edited La Libre\nPens\u00e9e and wrote a satire on the Jesuits entitled Calottes et Soutanes,\n1870. Sent to New Caledonia for his participation in the Commune, he\nhas since his return published a volume of political verses entitled\nApr\u00e8s le Naufrage, After the Shipwreck, 1880.\n\nBoulainvilliers (Henri de), Comte de St. Saire, French historian and\nphilosopher, b. 11 Oct. 1658. His principal historical work is an\naccount of the ancient French Parliaments. He also wrote a defence of\nSpinozism under pretence of a refutation of Spinoza, an analysis of\nSpinoza's Tractus Theologico-Politicus, printed at the end of Doubts\nupon Religion, Londres, 1767. A Life of Muhammad, the first European\nwork doing justice to Islam, and a History of the Arabs also proceeded\nfrom his pen, and he is one of those to whom is attributed the treatise\nwith the title of the Three Impostors, 1755. Died 23 Jan. 1722.\n\nBoulanger (Nicolas-Antoine), French Deist, b. 11 Nov. 1722. Died\n16 Sept. 1759. He was for some time in the army as engineer, and\nafterwards became surveyor of public works. After his death his works\nwere published by D'Holbach who rewrote them. His principal works\nare Antiquity Unveiled and Researches on the Origin of Oriental\nDespotism. Christianity Unveiled, attributed to him and said by\nVoltaire to have been by Damilavile, was probably written by D'Holbach,\nperhaps with some assistance from Naigeon. It was burnt by order of\nthe French Parliament 18 Aug. 1770. A Critical Examination of the\nLife and Works of St. Paul, attributed to Boulanger, was really made\nup by d'Holbach from the work of Annet. Boulanger wrote dissertations\non Elisha, Enoch and St. Peter, and some articles for the Encyclop\u00e9die.\n\nBourdet (Dr.) Eugene, French Positivist, b. Paris, 1818. Author of\nseveral works on medicine and Positivist philosophy and education.\n\nBoureau-Deslands (A. F.) See Deslandes.\n\nBourget (Paul), French litt\u00e9rateur, b. at Amiens in 1852. Has made\nhimself famous by his novels, essays on contemporary psychology,\nstudies of M. R\u00e9nan, etc. He belongs to the Naturalist School, but\nhis methods are less crude than those of some of his colleagues. His\ninsight is most subtle, and his style is exquisite.\n\nBoutteville (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lyc\u00e9e\nBonaparte; has made translations from Lessing and published an\nable work on the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, 1866,\nfor which the clergy turned him out of a professorship he held at\nSainte-Barbe.\n\nBovio (Giovanni), Professor of Political Economy in the University\nof Naples and deputy to the Italian parliament; is an ardent\nFreethinker. Both in his writings and in parliament Prof. Bovio\nopposes the power of the Vatican and the reconciliation between\nChurch and State. He has constantly advocated liberty of conscience\nand has promoted the institution of a Dante chair in the University\nof Rome. He has written a work on The History of Law, a copy of which\nhe presented to the International Congress of Freethinkers, 1887.\n\nBowring (Sir John, K.B., LL D.), politician, linguist and writer,\nb. Exeter, 17 Oct., 1792. In early life a pupil of Dr. Lant\nCarpenter and later a disciple of Jeremy Bentham, whose principles\nhe maintained in the Westminster Review, of which he was editor,\n1825. Arrested in France in 1822, after a fortnight's imprisonment\nhe was released without trial. He published Bentham's Deontology\n(1834), and nine years after edited a complete collection of the\nworks of Bentham. Returned to Parliament in '35, and afterwards was\nemployed in important government missions. In '55 he visited Siam,\nand two years later published an account of The Kingdom and People\nof Siam. He translated Goethe, Schiller, Heine, and the poems of\nmany countries; was an active member of the British Association and\nof the Social Science Association, and did much to promote rational\nviews on the Sunday question. Died 23 Nov. 1872.\n\nBoyle (Humphrey), one of the men who left Leeds for the purpose of\nserving in R. Carlile's shop when the right of free publication was\nattacked in 1821. Boyle gave no name, and was indicted and tried as\n\"a man with name unknown\" for publishing a blasphemous and seditious\nlibel. In his defence he ably asserted his right to hold and publish\nhis opinions. He read portions of the Bible in court to prove he was\njustified in calling it obscene. Upon being sentenced, 27 May, 1822,\nto eighteen months' imprisonment and to find sureties for five years,\nhe remarked \"I have a mind, my lord, that can bear such a sentence\nwith fortitude.\"\n\nBradlaugh (Charles). Born East London, 26 Sept. 1833. Educated\nin Bethnal Green and Hackney. He was turned from his Sunday-school\nteachership and from his first situation through the influence of the\nRev. J. G. Packer, and found refuge with the widow of R. Carlile. In\nDec. 1850 he entered the Dragoon Guards and proceeded to Dublin. Here\nhe met James Thomson, the poet, and contracted a friendship which\nlasted for many years. He got his discharge, and in '53 returned to\nLondon and became a solicitor's clerk. He began to write and lecture\nunder the nom de guerre of \"Iconoclast,\" edited the Investigator, '59;\nand had numerous debates with ministers and others. In 1860 he began\nediting the National Reformer, which in '68-9 he successfully defended\nagainst a prosecution of the Attorney General, who wished securities\nagainst blasphemy. In '68 he began his efforts to enter Parliament,\nand in 1880 was returned for Northampton. After a long struggle\nwith the House, which would not admit the Atheist, he at length took\nhis seat in 1885. He was four times re-elected, and the litigation\ninto which he was plunged will become as historic as that of John\nWilkes. Prosecuted in '76 for publishing The Fruits of Philosophy, he\nsucceeded in quashing the indictment. Mr. Bradlaugh has had numerous\ndebates, several of which are published. He has also written many\npamphlets, of which we mention New Lives of Abraham, David, and\nother saints, Who was Jesus Christ? What did Jesus Teach? Has Man\na Soul, Is there a God? etc. His Plea for Atheism reached its 20th\nthousand in 1880. Mr. Bradlaugh has also published When were our\nGospels Written?, 1867; Heresy, its Utility and Morality, 1870;\nThe Inspiration of the Bible, 1873; The Freethinker's Text Book,\npart i., dealing with natural religion, 1876; The Laws Relating to\nBlasphemy and Heresy, 1878; Supernatural and Rational Morality,\n1886. In 1857 Mr. Bradlaugh commenced a commentary on the Bible,\nentitled The Bible, What is it? In 1865 this appeared in enlarged form,\ndealing only with the Pentateuch. In 1882 he published Genesis, Its\nAuthorship and Authenticity. In Parliament Mr. Bradlaugh has become\na conspicuous figure, and has introduced many important measures. In\n1888 he succeeded in passing an Oaths Bill, making affirmations\npermissible instead of oaths. His elder daughter, Alice, b. 30\nApril, 1856, has written on Mind Considered as a Bodily Function,\n1884. Died 2 Dec. 1888. His second daughter, Hypatia Bradlaugh Bonner,\nb. 31 March, 1858, has written \"Princess Vera\" and other stories,\n\"Chemistry of Home,\" etc.\n\nBr\u00e6kstad (Hans Lien), b. Throndhjem, Norway, 7 Sept. 1845. Has made\nEnglish translations from Bj\u00f6rnson, Asbj\u00f6rnsen, Andersen, etc., and\nhas contributed to Harper's Magazine and other periodical literature.\n\nBrandes (Georg Morris Cohen), Danish writer, by birth a Jew,\nb. Copenhagen, 4 Feb. 1842. In 1869 he translated J. S. Mills'\nSubjection of Women, and in the following year took a doctor's\ndegree for a philosophical treatise. His chief work is entitled the\nMain Current of Literature in the Nineteenth Century. His brother,\nDr. Edvard Brandes, was elected to the Danish Parliament in 1881,\ndespite his declaration that he did not believe either in the God of\nthe Christians or of the Jews.\n\nBray (Charles), philosophic writer, b. Coventry, 31 Jan. 1811. He was\nbrought up as an Evangelical, but found his way to Freethought. Early\nin life he took an active part in promoting unsectarian education. His\nfirst work (1835) was on The Education of the Body. This was followed\nby The Education of the Feelings, of which there were several\neditions. In 1836 he married Miss Hennell, sister of C. C. Hennell,\nand took the System of Nature and Volney's Ruins of Empires \"to\nenliven the honeymoon.\" Among his friends was Mary Ann Evans (\"George\nEliot\"), who accompanied Mr. and Mrs. Bray to Italy. His works on\nThe Philosophy of Necessity (1841) and Cerebral Psychology (1875)\ngive the key to all his thought. He wrote a number of Thomas Scott's\nseries of tracts: Illusion and Delusion, The Reign of Law in Mind as\nin Matter, Toleration with remarks on Professor Tyndall's \"Address,\"\nand a little book, Christianity in the Light of our Present Knowledge\nand Moral Sense (1876). He also wrote A Manual of Anthropology and\nsimilar works. In a postscript to his last volume, Phases of Opinion\nand Experience During a Long Life, dated 18 Sept. 1884, he stated\nthat he has no hope or expectation or belief even in the possibility\nof continued individuality after death, and that as his opinions have\ndone to live by \"they will do to die by.\" He died 5 Oct. 1884.\n\nBresson (L\u00e9opold), French Positivist, b. Lamarche, 1817. Educated at\nthe Polytechnic School, which he left in 1840 and served on public\nworks. For seventeen years was director of an Austrian Railway\nCompany. Wrote Id\u00e9es Modernes, 1880.\n\nBridges (John Henry), M.D. English Positivist, b. 1833, graduated\nB.A. at Oxford 1855, and B.M. 1859; has written on Religion and\nProgress, contributed to the Fortnightly Review, and translated Comte's\nGeneral View of Positivism (1865) and System of Positive Polity (1873).\n\nBril (Jakob), Dutch mystical Pantheist, b. Leyden, 21 Jan. 1639. Died\n1700. His works were published at Amsterdam, 1705.\n\nBrissot (Jean Pierre) de Warville, active French revolutionist,\nb. Chartres, 14 Jan. 1754. He was bred to the law, but took to\nliterature. He wrote for the Courier de l'Europe, a revolutionary\npaper suppressed for its boldness, published a treatise on Truth,\nand edited a Philosophical Law Library, 1782-85. He wrote against the\nlegal authority of Rome, and is credited with Philosophical Letters\nupon St. Paul and the Christian Religion, Neufchatel, 1783. In 1784\nhe was imprisoned in the Bastille for his writings. To avoid a second\nimprisonment he went to England and America, returning to France\nat the outbreak of the Revolution. He wrote many political works,\nbecame member of the Legislative Assembly, formed the Girondist party,\nprotested against the execution of Louis XVI., and upon the triumph\nof the Mountain was executed with twenty-one of his colleagues,\n31 Oct., 1793. Brissot was a voluminous writer, honest, unselfish,\nand an earnest lover of freedom in every form.\n\nBristol (Augusta), n\u00e9e Cooper, American educator, b. Croydon, New\nHaven, 17 April, 1835. In 1850 became teacher and gained repute by\nher Poems. In Sept. 1880, she represented American Freethinkers at\nthe International Conference at Brussels. She has written on Science\nand its Relations to Human Character and other works.\n\nBroca (Pierre Paul), French anthropologist, b. 28 June, 1824. A\nhard-working scientist, he paid special attention to craniology. In\n1875 he founded the School of Anthropology and had among his pupils\nGratiolet, Topinard, Hovelacque and Dr. Carter Blake, who translated\nhis treatise on Hybridity. He established The Review of Anthropology,\npublished numerous scientific works and was made a member of the\nLegion of Honor. In philosophy he inclined to Positivism. Died Paris,\n9 July, 1880.\n\nBrooksbank (William), b. Nottingham 6 Dec. 1801. In 1824 he wrote\nin Carlile's Lion, and has since contributed to the Reasoner, the\nPathfinder, and the National Reformer. He was an intimate friend\nof James Watson. He wrote A Sketch of the Religions of the Earth,\nRevelation Tested by Astronomy, Geography, Geology, etc., 1856, and\nsome other pamphlets. Mr. Brooksbank is still living in honored age\nat Nottingham.\n\nBrothier (L\u00e9on), author of a Popular History of Philosophy, 1861,\nand other works in the Biblioth\u00e8que Utile. He contributed to the\nRationalist of Geneva.\n\nBroussais (Fran\u00e7ois Joseph Victor), French physician and philosopher,\nb. Saint Malo, 17 Dec. 1772. Educated at Dinan, in 1792 he served\nas volunteer in the army of the Republic. He studied medicine at\nSt. Malo and Brest, and became a naval surgeon. A disciple of Bichat,\nhe did much to reform medical science by his Examination of Received\nMedical Doctrines and to find a basis for mental and moral science in\nphysiology by his many scientific works. Despite his bold opinions, he\nwas made Commander of the Legion of Honor. He died poor at St. Malo 17\nNov. 1838, leaving behind a profession of faith, in which he declares\nhis disbelief in a creator and his being \"without hope or fear of\nanother life.\"\n\nBrown (George William), Dr., of Rockford, Illinois, b. in Essex Co.,\nN.Y., Oct. 1820, of Baptist parents. At 17 years of age he was expelled\nthe church for repudiating the dogma of an endless hell. Dr. Brown\nedited the Herald of Freedom, Kansas. In 1856 his office was destroyed\nby a pro-slavery mob, his type thrown into the river, and himself\nand others arrested but was released without trial. Dr. Brown has\ncontributed largely to the Ironclad Age and other American Freethought\npapers, and is bringing out a work on the Origin of Christianity.\n\nBrown (Titus L.), Dr., b. 16 Oct. 1823, at Hillside (N.Y.). Studied\nat the Medical College of New York and graduated at the Homoeopathic\nCollege, Philadelphia. He settled at Binghamton where he had a large\npractice. He contributed to the Boston Investigator and in 1877 was\nelected President of the Freethinkers Association. Died 17 Aug. 1887.\n\nBrowne (Sir Thomas), physician and writer, b. London, 19 Oct. 1605. He\nstudied medicine and travelled on the Continent, taking his doctor's\ndegree at Leyden (1633). He finally settled at Norwich, where he had\na good practice. His treatise Religio Medici, famous for its fine\nstyle and curious mixture of faith and scepticism, was surreptitiously\npublished in 1642. It ran through several editions and was placed on\nthe Roman Index. His Pseudodoxia Epidemica; Enquiries into Vulgar\nand Common Errors, appeared in 1646. While disputing many popular\nsuperstitions he showed he partook of others. This curious work\nwas followed by Hydriotaphia, or Urn-Burial, in which he treats\nof cremation among the ancients. To this was added The Garden of\nCyrus. He died 19 Oct. 1682.\n\nBruno (Giordano), Freethought martyr, b. at Nola, near Naples, about\n1548. He was christened Filippo which he changed to Filoteo, taking\nthe name of Giordano when he entered the Dominican order. Religious\ndoubts and bold strictures on the monks obliged him to quit Italy,\nprobably in 1580. He went to Geneva but soon found it no safe abiding\nplace, and quitted it for Paris, where he taught, but refused to attend\nmass. In 1583 he visited England, living with the French ambassador\nCastelnau. Having formed a friendship with Sir Philip Sidney, he\ndedicated to him his Spaccio della Bestia Triomfante, a satire on all\nmythologies. In 1585 he took part in a logical tournament, sustaining\nthe Copernican theory against the doctors of Oxford. The following year\nhe returned to Paris, where he again attacked the Aristotelians. He\nthen travelled to various cities in Germany, everywhere preaching\nthe broadest heresy. He published several Pantheistic, scientific and\nphilosophical works. He was however induced to return to Italy, and\narrested as an heresiarch and apostate at Venice, Sept. 1592. After\nbeing confined for seven years by the Inquisitors, he was tried,\nand burnt at Rome 17 Feb. 1600. At his last moments a crucifix was\noffered him, which he nobly rejected. Bruno was vastly before his age\nin his conception of the universe and his rejection of theological\ndogmas. A statue of this heroic apostle of liberty and light, executed\nby one of the first sculptors of Italy, is to be erected on the spot\nwhere he perished, the Municipal Council of Rome having granted the\nsite in face of the bitterest opposition of the Catholic party. The\nlist of subscribers to this memorial comprises the principal advanced\nthinkers in Europe and America.\n\nBrzesky (Casimir Liszynsky Podsedek). See Liszinski.\n\nBucali or Busali (Leonardo), a Calabrian abbot of Spanish descent,\nwho became a follower of Servetus in the sixteenth century, and had\nto seek among the Turks the safety denied him in Christendom. He died\nat Damascus.\n\nBuchanan (George), Scotch historian and scholar, b. Killearn,\nFeb. 1506. Evincing an early love of study, he was sent to\nParis at the age of fourteen. He returned to Scotland and became\ndistinguished for his learning. James V. appointed him tutor to his\nnatural son. He composed his Franciscanus et Fratres, a satire on the\nmonks, which hastened the Scottish reformation. This exposed him to\nthe vengeance of the clergy. Not content with calling him Atheist,\nArchbishop Beaton had him arrested and confined in St. Andrew's\nCastle, from whence he escaped and fled to England. Here he found,\nas he said, Henry VIII. burning men of opposite opinions at the same\nstake for religion. He returned to Paris, but was again subjected to\nthe persecution of Beaton, the Scottish Ambassador. On the death of\na patron at Bordeaux, in 1548, he was seized by the Inquisition and\nimmured for a year and a half in a monastery, where he translated\nthe Psalms into Latin. He eventually returned to Scotland, where he\nespoused the party of Moray. After a most active life, he died 28\nSept. 1582, leaving a History of Scotland, besides numerous poems,\nsatires, and political writings, the most important of which is a\nwork of republican tendency, De Jure Regni, the Rights of Kings.\n\nBuchanan (Robert), Socialist, b. Ayr, 1813. He was successively a\nschoolmaster, a Socialist missionary and a journalist. He settled in\nManchester, where he published works on the Religion of The Past and\nPresent, 1839; the Origin and Nature of Ghosts, 1840. An Exposure\nof Joseph Barker, and a Concise History of Modern Priestcraft also\nbear the latter date. At this time the Socialists were prosecuted for\nlecturing on Sunday, and Buchanan was fined for refusing to take the\noath of supremacy, etc. After the decline of Owenism, he wrote for\nthe Northern Star, and edited the Glasgow Sentinel. He died at the\nhome of his son, the poet, at Bexhill, Sussex, 4 March, 1866.\n\nBuchanan (Joseph Rhodes), American physician, b. Frankfort, Kentucky,\n11 Dec. 1814. He graduated M.D. at Louisville University, 1842, and\nhas been the teacher of physiology at several colleges. From 1849-56\nhe published Buchanan's Journal of Man, and has written several works\non Anthropology.\n\nBuchner (Ludwig). See Buechner.\n\nBuckle (Henry Thomas), philosophical historian, b. Lee, Kent, 24\nNov. 1821. In consequence of his delicate health he was educated at\nhome. His mother was a strict Calvinist, his father a strong Tory,\nbut a visit to the Continent made him a Freethinker and Radical. He\never afterwards held travelling to be the best education. It was his\nambition to write a History of Civilisation in England, but so vast was\nhis design that his three notable volumes with that title form only\npart of the introduction. The first appeared in 1858, and created a\ngreat sensation by its boldness. In the following year he championed\nthe cause of Pooley, who was condemned for blasphemy, and dared the\nprosecution of infidels of standing. In 1861 he visited the East,\nin the hope of improving his health, but died at Damascus, 29 May,\n1862. Much of the material collected for his History has been published\nin his Miscellaneous and Posthumous Works, edited by Helen Taylor,\n1872. An abridged edition, edited by Grant Allen, appeared in 1886.\n\nBuechner (Friedrich Karl Christian Ludwig), German materialist,\nb. Darmstadt, 29 March, 1824. Studied medicine in Geissen, Strassburg\nand Vienna. In '55 he startled the world with his bold work on\nForce and Matter, which has gone through numerous editions and been\ntranslated into nearly all the European languages. This work lost\nhim the place of professor which he held at T\u00fcbingen, and he has\nsince practised in his native town. B\u00fcchner has developed his ideas\nin many other works such as Nature and Spirit (1857), Physiological\nSketches, '61; Nature and Science, '62; Conferences on Darwinism,\n'69; Man in the Past, Present and Future, '69; Materialism its History\nand Influence on Society, '73; The Idea of God, '74; Mind in Animals,\n'80; and Light and Life, '82. He also contributes to the Freidenker,\nthe Dageraad, and other journals.\n\nBuffon (Georges Louis Leclerc), Count de, French naturalist,\nb. Montford, Burgundy, 7 Sept. 1707. An incessant worker. His Natural\nHistory in 36 volumes bears witness to the fertility of his mind\nand his capacity for making science attractive. Buffon lived much in\nseclusion, and attached himself to no sect or religion. Some of his\nsentences were attacked by the Sorbonne. H\u00e9rault de S\u00eachelles says\nthat Buffon said: \"I have named the Creator, but it is only necessary\nto take out the word and substitute the power of nature.\" Died at\nParis 16 April, 1788.\n\nBuitendijk or Buytendyck (Gosuinus van), Dutch Spinozist, who wrote an\nApology at the beginning of the eighteenth century and was banished\n1716.\n\nBufalini (Maurizio), Italian doctor, b. Cesena 2 June, 1787. In 1813 he\npublished an essay on the Doctrine of Life in opposition to vitalism,\nand henceforward his life was a conflict with the upholders of that\ndoctrine. He was accused of materialism, but became a professor at\nFlorence and a member of the Italian Senate in 1860. Died at Florence\n31 March, 1875.\n\nBurdach (Karl Friedrich), German physiologist, b. Leipsic 12 June,\n1776. He occupied a chair at the University of Breslau. His works on\nphysiology and anthropology did much to popularise those sciences,\nand the former is placed on the Index Librorum Prohibitorum for its\nmaterialistic tendency. He died at Konigsberg, 16 July, 1847.\n\nBurdon (William), M.A., writer, b. Newcastle, 11 Sept. 1764. Graduated\nat Emmanuel College, Cambridge, 1788. He was intended for a clergyman,\nbut want of faith made him decline that profession. His principal work\nis entitled Materials for Thinking. Colton largely availed himself of\nthis work in his Lacon. It went through five editions in his lifetime,\nand portions were reprinted in the Library of Reason. He also addressed\nThree Letters to the Bishop of Llandaff, wrote a Life and Character of\nBonaparte, translated an account of the Revolution in Spain, edited the\nMemoirs of Count Boruwlaski, and wrote some objections to the annual\nsubscription to the Sons of the Clergy. Died in London, 30 May, 1818.\n\nBurigny (Jean Levesque de), French writer, b. Rheims, 1692. He became\na member of the French Academy, wrote a treatise on the Authority\nof the Pope, a History of Pagan Philosophy and other works, and\nis credited with the Critical Examination of the Apologists of the\nChristian Religion, published under the name of Freret by Naigeon,\n1766. Levesque de Burigny wrote a letter in answer to Bergier's\nProofs of Christianity, which is published in Naigeon's Recueil\nPhilosophique. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1785.\n\nBurmeister (Hermann), German naturalist, b. Stralsund, 15 Jan. 1807. In\n1827 he became a doctor at Halle. In '48 he was elected to the National\nAssembly. In 1850 he went to Brazil. His principal work is The History\nof Creation, 1843.\n\nBurmeister or Baurmeister (Johann Peter Theodor) a German Rationalist\nand colleague of Ronge. Born at Flensburg, 1805. He resided in\nHamburg, and wrote in the middle of the present century under the\nname of J. P. Lyser.\n\nBurnet (Thomas), b. about 1635 at Croft, Yorkshire. Through the\ninterest of a pupil, the Duke of Ormonde, he obtained the mastership\nof the Charterhouse, 1685. In 1681 the first part of his Telluris\nTheoria Sacra, or Sacred Theory of the Earth, appeared in Latin, and\nwas translated and modified in 1684. In 1692 Burnet published, both\nin English and in Latin, his Arch\u00e6ologi\u00e6 Philosophic\u00e6, or the Ancient\nDoctrine of the Origin of Things. He professes in this to reconcile\nhis theory with Genesis, which receives a figurative interpretation;\nand a ludicrous dialogue between Eve and the serpent gave great\noffence. In a popular ballad Burnet is represented as saying--\n\n\n                That all the books of Moses\n                Were nothing but supposes.\n\n\nHe had to resign a position at court. In later life he wrote De Fide\net Officiis Christianorum (on Christian Faith and Duties), in which\nhe regards historical religions as based on the religion of nature,\nand rejects original sin and the \"magical\" theory of sacraments;\nand De Statu Mortuorum et Resurgentium, on the State of the Dead and\nResurrected, in which he opposed the doctrine of eternal punishment\nand shadowed forth a scheme of Deism. These books he kept to himself\nto avoid a prosecution for heresy, but had a few copies printed for\nprivate friends. He died in the Charterhouse 27 Sept. 1715. A tract\nentitled Hell Torments not Eternal was published in 1739.\n\nBurnett (James), Lord Monboddo, a learned Scotch writer and judge,\nwas b. Monboddo, Oct. 1714. He adopted the law as his profession,\nbecame a celebrated advocate, and was made a judge in 1767. His\nwork on the Origin and Progress of Language (published anonymously\n1773-92), excited much derision by his studying man as one of the\nanimals and collecting facts about savage tribes to throw light on\ncivilisation. He first maintained that the orang-outang was allied\nto the human species. He also wrote on Ancient Metaphysics. He was\na keen debater and discussed with Hume, Adam Smith, Robertson, and\nLord Kames. Died in Edinburgh, 26 May, 1799.\n\nBurnouf (Emile Louis), French writer, b. Valonges, 25 Aug. 1821. He\nbecame professor of ancient literature to the faculty of Nancy. Author\nof many works, including a translation of selections from the Novum\nOrganum of Bacon, the Bhagvat-Gita, an Introduction to the Vedas,\na history of Greek Literature, Studies in Japanese, and articles\nin the Revue des deux Mondes. His heresy is pronounced in his work\non the Science of Religions, 1878, in his Contemporary Catholicism,\nand Life and Thought, 1886.\n\nBurnouf (Eug\u00e8ne), French Orientalist, cousin of the preceding;\nb. Paris, 12 Aug. 1801. He opened up to the Western world the Pali\nlanguage, and with it the treasures of Buddhism, whose essentially\nAtheistic character he maintained. To him also we are largely indebted\nfor a knowledge of Zend and of the Avesta of the Zoroastrians. He\ntranslated numerous Oriental works and wrote a valuable Introduction\nto the History of Indian Buddhism. Died at Paris, 28 May, 1852.\n\nBurns (Robert), Scotland's greatest poet, b. near Ayr, 25\nJan. 1759. His father was a small farmer, of enlightened views. The\nlife and works of Burns are known throughout the world. His\nFreethought is evident from such productions as the \"Holy Fair,\"\n\"The Kirk's Alarm,\" and \"Holy Willie's Prayer,\" and many passages in\nprivate letters to his most familiar male friends. Died at Dumfries,\n21 July, 1796.\n\nBurr (William Henry), American author, b. 1819, Gloversville, N.Y.,\ngraduated at Union College, Schenectady, became a shorthand reporter\nto the Senate. In 1869 he retired and devoted himself to literary\nresearch. He is the anonymous author of Revelations of Antichrist, a\nlearned book which exposes the obscurity of the origin of Christianity,\nand seeks to show that the historical Jesus lived almost a century\nbefore the Christian era. He has also written several pamphlets:\nThomas Paine was Junius, 1880: Self Contradictions of the Bible;\nIs the Bible a Lying Humbug? A Roman Catholic Canard, etc. He has\nalso frequently contributed to the Boston Investigator, the New York\nTruthseeker, and the Ironclad Age of Indianapolis.\n\nBurton (Sir Richard Francis), traveller, linguist, and author,\nb. Barham House, Herts, 19 March, 1821. Intended for the Church,\nhe matriculated at Oxford, but in 1842 entered the East India\nCompany's service, served on the staff of Sir C. Napier, and soon\nacquired reputation as an intrepid explorer. In '51 he returned to\nEngland and started for Mecca and Medina, visiting those shrines\nunsuspected, as a Moslem pilgrim. He was chief of the staff of the\nOsmanli cavalry in the Crimean war, and has made many remarkable and\ndangerous expeditions in unknown lands; he discovered and opened\nthe lake regions in Central Africa and explored the highlands of\nBrazil. He has been consul at Fernando Po, Santos, Damascus, and\nsince 1872 at Trieste, and speaks over thirty languages. His latest\nwork is a new translation of The Thousand Nights and a Night in 10\nvols. Being threatened with a prosecution, he intended justifying\n\"literal naturalism\" from the Bible. Burton's knowledge of Arabic is\nso perfect that when he used to read the tales to Arabs, they would\nroll on the ground in fits of laughter.\n\nButler (Samuel), poet, b. in Strensham, Worcestershire, Feb. 1612. In\nearly life he came under the influence of Selden. He studied painting,\nand is said to have painted a head of Cromwell from life. He became\nclerk to Sir Samuel Luke, one of Cromwell's Generals, whom he has\nsatirised as Hudibras. This celebrated burlesque poem appeared in 1663\nand became famous, but, although the king and court were charmed with\nits wit, the author was allowed to remain in poverty and obscurity\ntill he died at Covent Garden, London, 25 Sept. 1680. Butler expressed\nthe opinion that\n\n\n        \"Religion is the interest of churches\n        That sell in other worlds in this to purchase.\"\n\n\nButtmann (Philipp Karl), German philologist, b. Frankfort, 5\nDec. 1764. Became librarian of the Royal Library at Berlin. He edited\nmany of the Greek Classics, wrote on the Myth of the Deluge, 1819,\nand a learned work on Mythology, 1828. Died Berlin, 21 June, 1829.\n\nBuzot (Fran\u00e7ois L\u00e9onard Nicolas), French Girondin, distinguished as\nan ardent Republican and a friend and lover of Madame Roland. Born\nat Evreux, 1 March, 1760; he died from starvation when hiding after\nthe suppression of his party June, 1793.\n\nByelinsky (Vissarion G.) See Belinsky.\n\nByron (George Gordon Noel) Lord, b. London, 22 Jan. 1788. He succeeded\nhis grand-uncle William in 1798; was sent to Harrow and Cambridge. In\n1807 he published his Hours of Idleness, and awoke one morning to find\nhimself famous. His power was, however, first shown in his English\nBards and Scotch Reviewers, in which he satirised his critics, 1809. He\nthen travelled on the Continent, the result of which was seen in his\nChilde Harold's Pilgrimage and other works. He married 2 Jan. 1815,\nbut a separation took place in the following year. Lord Byron then\nresided in Italy, where he made the acquaintance of Shelley. In 1823\nhe devoted his name and fortune to the cause of the Greek revolution,\nbut was seized with fever and died at Missolonghi, 19 April, 1824. His\ndrama of Cain: a Mystery, 1822, is his most serious utterance,\nand it shows a profound contempt for religious dogma. This feeling\nis also exhibited in his magnificent burlesque poem, The Vision\nof Judgment, which places him at the head of English satirists. In\nhis letters to the Rev. Francis Hodgson, 1811, he distinctly says:\n\"I do not believe in any revealed religion.... I will have nothing\nto do with your immortality; we are miserable enough in this life,\nwithout the absurdity of speculating upon another.... The basis of\nyour religion is injustice; the Son of God, the pure, the immaculate,\nthe innocent, is sacrificed for the guilty,\" etc.\n\nCabanis (Pierre Jean George), called by Lange \"the father of the\nmaterialistic physiology,\" b. Conac, 5 June, 1757. Became pupil\nof Condillac and friend of Mirabeau, whom he attended in his last\nillness, of which he published an account 1791. He was also intimate\nwith Turgot, Condorcet, Holbach, Diderot, and other distinguished\nFreethinkers, and was elected member of the Institute and of the\nCouncil of Five Hundred in the Revolution. His works are mostly\nmedical, the chief being Des Rapports du Physique et du Morale de\nl'Homme, in which he contends that thoughts are a secretion of the\nbrain. Died Rueil, near Paris, 5 May, 1808.\n\nC\u00e6salpinus (Andreas), Italian philosopher of the Renaissance,\nb. Arezzo, Tuscany, 1519. He became Professor of Botany at Pisa, and\nLinn\u00e6us admits his obligations to his work, De Plantis, 1583. He also\nwrote works on metals and medicine, and showed acquaintance with the\ncirculation of the blood. In a work entitled Demonum Investigatio,\nhe contends that \"possession\" by devils is amenable to medical\ntreatment. His Qu\u00e6stionum Peripateticarum, in five books, Geneva,\n1568, was condemned as teaching a Pantheistic doctrine similar to\nthat of Spinoza. Bishop Parker denounced him. Died 23 Feb. 1603.\n\nC\u00e6sar (Caius Julius), the \"foremost man of all this world,\" equally\nrenowned as soldier, statesman, orator, and writer, b. 12 July,\n100 B.C., of noble family. His life, the particulars of which are\nwell known, was an extraordinary display of versatility, energy,\ncourage, and magnanimity. He justified the well-known line of Pope,\n\"C\u00e6sar the world's great master and his own.\" His military talents\nelevated him to the post of dictator, but this served to raise against\nhim a band of aristocratic conspirators, by whom he was assassinated,\n15 March, 44 B.C. His Commentaries are a model of insight and clear\nexpression. Sallust relates that he questioned the existence of\na future state in the presence of the Roman senate. Froude says:\n\"His own writings contain nothing to indicate that he himself had any\nreligious belief at all. He saw no evidence that the gods practically\ninterfered in human affairs.... He held to the facts of this life and\nto his own convictions; and as he found no reason for supposing that\nthere was a life beyond the grave he did not pretend to expect it.\"\n\nCahuac (John), bookseller, revised an edition of Palmer's Principles\nof Nature, 1819. For this he was prosecuted at the instance of the\n\"Vice Society,\" but the matter was compromised. He was also prosecuted\nfor selling the Republican, 1820.\n\nCalderino (Domizio), a learned writer of the Renaissance, b. in 1445,\nin the territory of Verona, and lived at Rome, where he was professor\nof literature, in 1477. He edited and commented upon many of the\nLatin poets. Bayle says he was without religion. Died in 1478.\n\nCalenzio (Eliseo), an Italian writer, b. in the kingdom of Naples about\n1440. He was preceptor to Prince Frederic, the son of Ferdinand, the\nKing of Naples. He died in 1503, leaving behind a number of satires,\nfables and epigrams, some of which are directed against the Church.\n\nCall (Wathen Mark Wilks), English author, b. 7 June, 1817. Educated at\nCambridge, entered the ministry in 1843, but resigned his curacy about\n1856 on account of his change of opinions, which he recounts in his\npreface to Reverberations, 1876. Mr. Call is of the Positivist school,\nand has contributed largely to the Fortnightly and Westminster Reviews.\n\nCallet (Pierre Auguste), French politician, b. St. Etienne, 27\nOct. 1812; became editor of the Gazette of France till 1840. In 1848\nhe was nominated Republican representative. At the coup d'\u00e9tat of 2\nDec. 1851, he took refuge in Belgium. He returned to France, but was\nimprisoned for writing against the Empire. In 1871, Callet was again\nelected representative for the department of the Loire. His chief\nFreethought work is L'Enfer, an attack upon the Christian doctrine\nof hell, 1861.\n\nCamisani (Gregorio), Italian writer, b. at Venice, 1810. A Professor\nof Languages in Milan. He has translated the Upas of Captain R. H. Dyas\nand other works.\n\nCampanella (Tommaso), Italian philosopher, b. Stilo, Calabria,\n5 Sept. 1568. He entered the Dominican order, but was too much\nattracted by the works of Telesio to please his superiors. In 1590\nhis Philosophia Sensibus Demonstratio was printed at Naples. Being\nprosecuted, he fled to Rome, and thence to Florence, Venice,\nand Padua. At Bologna some of his MS. fell into the hands of the\nInquisition, and he was arrested. He ably defended himself and was\nacquitted. Returning to Calabria in 1599, he was arrested on charges\nof heresy and conspiracy against the Spanish Government of Naples,\nand having appealed to Rome, was sentenced to perpetual imprisonment\nin the prison of the Holy Office. He was put to the torture seven\ntimes, his torments on one occasion extending over forty hours, but\nhe refused to confess. He was dragged from one prison to another for\ntwenty-seven years, during which he wrote some sonnets, a history of\nthe Spanish monarchy, and several philosophical works. On 15 May,\n1626, he was released by the intervention of Pope Urban VIII. He\nwas obliged to fly from Rome to France, where he met Gassendi. He\nalso visited Descartes in Holland. Julian Hibbert remarked that\nhis Atheismus Triumphatus--Atheism Subdued, 1631, would be better\nentitled Atheismus Triumphans--Atheism Triumphant--as the author puts\nhis strongest arguments on the heterodox side. In his City of the Sun,\nCampanella follows Plato and More in depicting an ideal republic and a\ntime when a new era of earthly felicity should begin. Hallam says \"The\nstrength of Campanella's genius lay in his imagination.\" His \"Sonnets\"\nhave been translated by J. A. Symonds. Died Paris, 21 May, 1639.\n\nCampbell (Alexander), Socialist of Glasgow, b. about the beginning\nof the century. He early became a Socialist, and was manager at\nthe experiment at Orbiston under Abram Combe, of whom he wrote\na memoir. Upon the death of Combe, 1827, he became a Socialist\nmissionary in England. He took an active part in the co-operative\nmovement, and in the agitation for an unstamped press, for which he\nwas tried and imprisoned at Edinburgh, 1833-4. About 1849 he returned\nto Glasgow and wrote on the Sentinel. In 1867 he was presented with\na testimonial and purse of 90 sovereigns by admirers of his exertions\nin the cause of progress. Died about 1873.\n\nCampion (William), a shoemaker, who became one of R. Carlile's\nshopmen; tried 8 June, 1824, for selling Paine's Age of Reason. After\na spirited defence he was found guilty and sentenced to three years'\nimprisonment. In prison he edited, in conjunction with J. Clarke,\nE. Hassell, and T. R. Perry, the Newgate Monthly Magazine, to which\nhe contributed some thoughtful papers, from Sept. 1824, to Aug. 1826,\nwhen he was removed to the Compter.\n\nCanestrini (Giovanni), Italian naturalist, b. Rer\u00f2, 1835. He studied\nat Vienna, and in '60 was nominated Professor of Natural History at\nGeneva. Signor Canestrini contributed to the Annuario Filosofico del\nLibero Pensiero, and is known for his popularisation of the works\nof Darwin, which he has translated into Italian. He has written\nupon the Origin of Man, which has gone through two editions, Milan,\n'66-'70, and on the Theory of Evolution, Turin, '77. He was appointed\nProfessor of Zoology, Anatomy and Comparative Physiology at Padua,\nwhere he has published a Memoir of Charles Darwin, '82.\n\nCardano (Girolamo), better known as Jerome Cardan, Italian\nmathematician, and physician, b. Pavia, 24 Sept. 1501. He studied\nmedicine, but was excluded from the Milan College of Physicians on\naccount of illegitimate birth. He and his young wife were at one time\ncompelled to take refuge in the workhouse. It is not strange that his\nfirst work was an exposure of the fallacies of the faculty. A fortunate\ncure brought him into notice and he journeyed to Scotland as the\nmedical adviser of the Archbishop of St. Andrews, 1551. In 1563 he was\narrested at Bologna for heresy, but was released, although deprived of\nhis professorship. He died at Rome, 20 Sept. 1576, having, it is said,\nstarved himself to verify his own prediction of his death. Despite\nsome superstition, Cardano did much to forward science, especially\nby his work on Algebra, and in his works De Subtilitate Rerum and De\nVarietate Rerum, amid much that is fanciful, perceived the universality\nof natural law and the progressive evolution of life. Scaliger accused\nhim of Atheism. P\u00fcnjer says \"Cardanus deserves to be named along with\nTelesius as one of the principal founders of Natural Philosophy.\"\n\nCarducci (Giosu\u00e8), Italian poet and Professor of Italian Literature at\nthe University of Bologna, b. Pietrasantra, in the province of Lucca,\n27 July, 1836. As early as '49 he cried, Abasso tutti i re! viva la\nrepublica--Down with all kings! Long live the republic! Sprung into\nfame by his Hymn to Satan, '69, by which he intended the spirit of\nresistance. He has written many poems and satires in which he exhibits\nhimself an ardent Freethinker and Republican. At the end of '57 he\nwrote his famous verse \"Il secoletto vil che cristianeggia\"--\"This\nvile christianising century.\" In '60 he became professor of Greek\nin Bologna University, being suspended for a short while in '67 for\nan address to Mazzini. In '76 he was elected as republican deputy to\nthe Italian Parliament for Lugo di Romagna.\n\nCarlile (Eliza Sharples), second wife of Richard Carlile, came from\nLancashire during the imprisonment of Carlile and Taylor, 1831,\ndelivered discourses at the Rotunda, and started a journal, the Isis,\nwhich lasted from 11 Feb. to 15 Dec. 1832. The Isis was dedicated\nto the young women of England \"until superstition is extinct,\"\nand contained Frances Wright's discourses, in addition to those\nby Mrs. Carlile, who survived till '61. Mr. Bradlaugh lodged with\nMrs. Carlile at the Warner Place Institute, in 1849. She had three\nchildren, Hypatia, Theophila and Julian, of whom the second is\nstill living.\n\nCarlile (Jane), first wife of R. Carlile, who carried on his business\nduring his imprisonment, was proceeded against, and sentenced to two\nyears' imprisonment, 1821. She had three children, Richard, Alfred,\nand Thomas Paine Carlile, the last of whom edited the Regenerator,\na Chartist paper published at Manchester, 1839.\n\nCarlile (Richard), foremost among the brave upholders of an English\nfree press, b. Ashburton, Devon, 8 Dec. 1790. He was apprenticed to a\ntin-plate worker, and followed that business till he was twenty-six,\nwhen, having read the works of Paine, he began selling works like\nWooler's Black Dwarf, which Government endeavored to suppress. Sherwin\noffered him the dangerous post of publisher of the Republican, which\nhe accepted. He then published Southey's Wat Tyler, reprinted the\npolitical works of Paine and the parodies for which Hone was tried, but\nwhich cost Carlile eighteen weeks' imprisonment. In 1818 he published\nPaine's Theological Works. The prosecution instituted induced him to\ngo on printing similar works, such as Palmer's Principles of Nature,\nWatson Refuted, Jehovah Unveiled, etc. By Oct. 1819, he had six\nindictments to answer, on two of which he was tried from 12 to 16\nOctober. He read the whole of the Age of Reason in his defence, in\norder to have it in the report of the trial. He was found guilty and\nsentenced (16 Nov.) to fifteen hundred pounds fine and three years'\nimprisonment in Dorchester Gaol. During his imprisonment his business\nwas kept on by a succession of shopmen. Refusing to find securities\nnot to publish, he was kept in prison till 18 Nov. 1835, when he\nwas liberated unconditionally. During his imprisonment he edited\nthe Republican, which extended to fourteen volumes. He also edited\nthe Deist, the Moralist, the Lion (four volumes), the Prompter (for\nNo. 3 of which he again suffered thirty-two months' imprisonment),\nand the Gauntlet. Amongst his writings are An Address to Men of\nScience, The Gospel according to R. Carlile, What is God? Every\nWoman's Book, etc. He published Doubts of Infidels, Janus on Sion,\nSepher Toldoth Jeshu, D'Holbach's Good Sense, Volney's Ruins, and\nmany other Freethought works. He died 10 Feb. 1843, bequeathing his\nbody to Dr. Lawrence for scientific purposes.\n\nCarlyle (Thomas), one of the most gifted and original writers of the\ncentury, b. 4 Dec. 1795, at Ecclefechan, Dumfriesshire, where his\nfather, a man of intellect and piety, held a small farm. Showing early\nability he was intended for the Kirk, and educated at the University\nof Edinburgh. He, however, became a tutor, and occupied his leisure\nin translating from the German. He married Jane Welsh 17 Oct. 1826,\nand wrote in the London Magazine and Edinburgh Review many masterly\ncritical articles, notably on Voltaire, Diderot, Burns, and German\nliterature. In 1833-4 his Sartor Resartus appeared in Fraser's\nMagazine. In '34 he removed to London and began writing the French\nRevolution, the MS. of the first vol. of which he confided to Mill,\nwith whom it was accidentally burnt. He re-wrote the work without\ncomplaint, and it was published in '37. He then delivered a course\nof lectures on \"German Literature\" and on \"Heroes, Hero-Worship, and\nthe Heroic in History,\" in which he treats Mahomet as the prophet\n\"we are freest to speak of.\" His Past and Present was published in\n'43. In '45 appeared Oliver Cromwell's Letters and Speeches. In\n'50 he published Latter-Day Pamphlets, which contains his most\ndistinctive political and social doctrines, and in the following year\nhis Life of John Sterling, in which his heresy clearly appears. His\nlargest work is his History of the Life and Times of Frederick the\nGreat, in 10 vols. He was elected rector of Edinburgh University in\n'65. Died 5 Feb. 1881. Mr. Froude, in his Biography of Carlyle, says,\n\"We have seen him confessing to Irving that he did not believe as his\nfriend did in the Christian religion.\" ... \"the special miraculous\noccurrences of sacred history were not credible to him.\"\n\nCarneades, sceptical philosopher, b. Cyrene about B.C. 213. He went\nearly to Athens, and attended the lectures of the Stoics, learning\nlogic from Diogenes. In the year 155, he was chosen with other\ndeputies to go to Rome to deprecate a fine which had been placed on\nthe Athenians. During his stay at Rome he attracted great attention\nby his philosophical orations. Carneades attacked the very idea of\na God at once infinite and an individual. He denied providence and\ndesign. Many of his arguments are preserved in Cicero's Academics\nand De Natura Deorum. Carneades left no written works; his views\nseem to have been systematised by his follower Clitomachus. He died\nB.C. 129. Carneades is described as a man of unwearied industry. His\nethics were of elevated character.\n\nCarneri (Bartholom\u00e4us von), German writer, b. Trieste, 3\nNov. 1821. Educated at Vienna. In 1870 he sat in the Austrian\nParliament with the Liberals. Author of an able work on Morality and\nDarwinism, Vienna, 1871. Has also written Der Mensch als Selbstweck,\n\"Humanity as its own proper object,\" 1877; Grundlegung der Ethik,\nFoundation of Morals, 1881; and Ethical Essays on Evolution and\nHappiness, Stuttgart, 1886.\n\nCarra (Jean Louis), French man of letters and Republican, b. 1743 at\nPont de Veyle. He travelled in Germany, Italy, Turkey, Russia, and\nMoldavia, where he became secretary to the hospodar. On returning to\nFrance he became employed in the King's library and wrote a History\nof Moldavia and an Essay on Aerial Navigation. He warmly espoused\nthe revolution and was one of the most ardent orators of the Jacobin\nclub. In the National Assembly he voted for the death of Louis XVI.,\nbut was executed with the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793. His Freethought\nsentiments are evident from his System of Reason, 1773; his Spirit\nof Morality and Philosophy, 1777; New Principles of Physic, 1782-3,\nand other works.\n\nCarrel (Jean Baptiste Nicolas Armand), called by Saint Beuve \"the\nJunius of the French press,\" b. Rouen, 8 May, 1800. He became a\nsoldier, but, being a Republican, fought on behalf of the Spanish\nrevolution. Being taken prisoner, he was condemned to death, but\nescaped through some informality. He became secretary to Thierry,\nedited the works of P. L. Courier, and established the Nation in\nconjunction with Thiers and Mignet. J. S. Mill writes of him in terms\nof high praise. The leading journalist of his time, his slashing\narticles led to several duels, and in an encounter with Emile de\nGirardin (22 July, 1836) he was fatally wounded. On his death-bed,\nsays M. Littr\u00e9, he said \"Point de pr\u00eatres, point d'\u00e9glise\"--no\npriests nor church. Died 24 July, 1836. He wrote a History of the\nCounter-Revolution in England, with an eye to events in his own\ncountry.\n\nCarus (Julius Viktor), German zoologist, b. Leipsic, 25 Aug. 1825. Has\nbeen keeper of anatomical museum at Oxford, and has translated Darwin's\nworks and the philosophy of G. H. Lewes.\n\nCarus (Karl Gustav), German physiologist and Pantheist, b. Leipsic,\n3 Jan. 1789. He taught comparative anatomy at the university of that\ntown, and published a standard introduction to that subject. He also\nwrote Psyche, a history of the development of the human soul, 1846,\nand Nature and Idea, 1861. Died at Dresden, 28 July, 1869.\n\nCastelar y Ripoll (Emilio), Spanish statesman, b. Cadiz,\n8 Sept. 1832. He began as a journalist, and became known by his\nnovel Ernesto, 1855. As professor of history and philosophy, he\ndelivered lectures on \"Civilisation during the first three centuries of\nChristendom.\" La Formula del Progresso contains a sketch of democratic\nprinciples. On the outbreak of the revolution of '68 he advocated\na Federal Republic in a magnificent oration. The Crown was however\noffered to Amadeus of Savoy. \"Glass, with care,\" was Castelar's verdict\non the new dynasty, and in Feb. '73 Castelar drew up a Republican\nConstitution; and for a year was Dictator of Spain. Upon his retirement\nto France he wrote a sketchy History of the Republican Movement in\nEurope. In '76 he returned to Spain and took part in the Cortes,\nwhere he has continued to advocate Republican views. His Old Rome and\nNew Italy, and Life of Lord Byron have been translated into English.\n\nCastelli (David), Italian writer, b. Livorno, 30 Dec. 1836. Since\n1873 he has held the chair of Hebrew in the Institute of Superior\nStudies at Florence. He has translated the book of Ecclesiastes with\nnotes, and written rationalistic works on Talmudic Legends, 1869;\nThe Messiah According to the Hebrews, '74; the Bible Prophets, '82;\nand The History of the Israelites, 1887.\n\nCastilhon (Jean Louis), French man of letters, b. at Toulouse in\n1720. He wrote in numerous publications, and edited the Journal of\nJurisprudence. His history of dogmas and philosophical opinions had\nsome celebrity, and he shows himself a Freethinker in his Essay\non Ancient and Modern Errors and Superstitions, Amsterdam, 1765;\nhis Philosophical Almanack, 1767; and his History of Philosophical\nOpinions, 1769. Died 1793.\n\nCattell (Christopher Charles), writer in English Secular journals,\nauthor of Search for the First Man; Against Christianity; The Religion\nof this Life, etc.\n\nCaumont (Georges), French writer of genius, b. about 1845. Suffering\nfrom consumption, he wrote Judgment of a Dying Man upon Life,\nand humorous and familiar Conversations of a Sick Person with the\nDivinity. Died at Madeira, 1875.\n\nCavalcante (Guido), noble Italian poet and philosopher, b. Florence,\n1230. A friend of Dante, and a leader of the Ghibbelin party. He\nmarried a daughter of Farinata delgi Uberti. Bayle says, \"it is said\nhis speculation has as their aim to prove there is no God. Dante places\nhis father in the hell of Epicureans, who denied the immortality of\nthe soul.\" Guido died in 1300. An edition of his poems was published\nin 1813.\n\nCavallotti (Felice Carlo Emanuel), Italian poet and journalist,\nb. Milan, 6 Nov. 1842, celebrated for his patriotic poems; is a\npronounced Atheist. He was elected member of the Italian parliament\nin 1873.\n\nCayla (Jean Mamert), French man of letters and politician b. Vigan\n(Lot) 1812. Became in '37 editor of the Emancipator of Toulouse,\na city of which he wrote the history. At Paris he wrote to the\nSi\u00e8cle, the R\u00e9publique Fran\u00e7aise and other journals, and published\nEuropean Celebrities and numerous anti-clerical brochures, such as\nThe Clerical Conspiracy, '61; The Devil, his Grandeur and Decay,\n'64; Hell Demolished, '65; Suppression of Religious Orders, '70;\nand The History of the Mass,'74. He died 2 May, 1877.\n\nCazelles (Emile), French translator of Bentham's Influence of Natural\nReligion, Paris, 1875. Has also translated Mill's Subjection of Women\nand his Autobiography and Essays on Religion.\n\nCecco d'Ascoli, i.e., Stabili (Francesco degli), Italian poet,\nb. Ascoli, 1257. He taught astrology and philosophy at Bologna. In\n1324 he was arrested by the Inquisition for having spoken against the\nfaith, and was condemned to fine and penitence. He was again accused\nat Florence, and was publicly burnt as an heretic 16 Sept. 1327. His\nbest known work is entitled Acerba, a sort of encyclop\u00e6dia in rhyme.\n\nCellarius (Martin), Anabaptist, who deserves mention as the first\navowed Protestant Anti-trinitarian. He studied Oriental languages\nwith Reuchlin and Melancthon, but having discussed with Anabaptists\nacknowledged himself converted, 1522, and afterwards gave up the deity\nof Christ. He was imprisoned, and on his release went to Switzerland,\nwhere he died 11 Oct. 1564.\n\nCelsus, a Pagan philosopher, who lived in the second century. He was\na friend of Lucian, who dedicated to him his treatise on the False\nProphet. He wrote an attack on Christianity, called The True Word. The\nwork was destroyed by the early Christians. The passages given by\nhis opponent, Origen, suffice to show that he was a man of high\nattainments, well acquainted with the religion he attacked, and that\nhis power of logic and irony was most damaging to the Christian faith.\n\nCerutti (Giuseppe Antonio Gioachino), poet, converted Jesuit,\nb. Turin, 13 June, 1738. He became a Jesuit, and wrote a defence of\nthe Society. He afterwards became a friend of Mirabeau, adopted the\nprinciples of 1789, wrote in defence of the Revolution, and wrote\nand published a Philosophical Breviary, or history of Judaism,\nChristianity, and Deism, which he attributed to Frederick of\nPrussia. His opinions may also be gathered from his poem, Les Jardins\nde Betz, 1792. Died Paris, 3 Feb. 1792.\n\nChaho (J. Augustin), Basque man of letters, b. Tardets,\nBasses-Pyr\u00e9n\u00e9es, 10 Oct. 1811. His principal works are a Philosophy of\nComparative Religion, and a Basque dictionary. At Bayonne he edited\nthe Ariel. In 1852 this was suppressed and he was exiled. Died 23\nOct. 1858.\n\nChaloner (Thomas), M.P., Regicide, b. Steeple Claydon, Bucks,\n1595. Educated at Oxford, he became member for Richmond (Yorks),\n1645. Was a witness against Archbishop Laud, and one of King Charles's\nJudges. In 1651 he was made Councillor of State. Wood says he \"was as\nfar from being a Puritan as the east is from the west,\" and that he\n\"was of the natural religion.\" He wrote a pretended True and Exact\nRelation of the Finding of Moses His Tomb, 1657, being a satire\ndirected against the Presbyterians. Upon the Restoration he fled to\nthe Low Countries, and died at Middelburg, Zeeland, in 1661.\n\nChambers (Ephraim), originator of the Cyclop\u00e6dia of Arts and Sciences,\nb. Kendal about 1680. The first edition of his work appeared in 1728,\nand procured him admission to the Royal Society. A French translation\ngave rise to Diderot and D'Alembert's Encyclop\u00e9die. Chambers also\nedited the Literary Magazine, 1836, etc. His infidel opinions were\nwell known, and the Cyclop\u00e6dia was placed upon the Index, but he was\nburied in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Died 15 May, 1740.\n\nChamfort (S\u00e9bastien Roch Nicolas), French man of letters, b. in\nAuvergne, near Clermont, 1741. He knew no parent but his mother,\na peasant girl, to supply whose wants he often denied himself\nnecessaries. At Paris he gained a prize from the Academy for his\neulogy on Moli\u00e8re. About 1776 he published a Dramatic Dictionary\nand wrote several plays. In 1781 he obtained a seat in the Academy,\nbeing patronised by Mme. Helvetius. He became a friend of Mirabeau,\nwho called him une t\u00eate \u00e9lectrique. In 1790 he commenced a work called\nPictures of the Revolution. In the following year he became secretary\nof the Jacobin Club and National Librarian. Arrested by Robespierre,\nhe desperately, but vainly, endeavored to commit suicide. He died 13\nApril, 1794, leaving behind numerous works and a collection of Maxims,\nThoughts, Characters, and Anecdotes, which show profound genius and\nknowledge of human nature.\n\nChapman (John), M.R.C.S., b. 1839. Has written largely in the\nWestminster Review, of which he is proprietor.\n\nChappellsmith (Margaret), n\u00e9e Reynolds, b. Aldgate, 22 Feb. 1806. Early\nin life she read the writings of Cobbett. In '36 she began writing\npolitical articles in the Dispatch, and afterwards became a Socialist\nand Freethought lecturess. She married John Chappellsmith in '39,\nand in '42 she began business as a bookseller. In '37 she expressed\na preference for the development theory before that of creation. In\n'50 they emigrated to the United States, where Mrs. Chappellsmith\ncontributed many articles to the Boston Investigator.\n\nCharles (Rudolf). See Giessenburg.\n\nCharma (Antoine), French philosopher, b. 15 Jan. 1801. In '30 he was\nnominated to the Chair of Philosophy at Caen. He was denounced for\nhis impiety by the Count de Montalembert in the Chamber of peers,\nand an endeavor was made to unseat him. He wrote many philosophical\nworks, and an account of Didron's Histoire de Dieu. Died 5 Aug. 1869.\n\nCharron (Pierre), French priest and sceptic, b. Paris, 1513. He was\nan intimate friend of Montaigne. His principal work is a Treatise on\nWisdom, 1601, which was censured as irreligious by the Jesuits. Franck\nsays \"the scepticism of Charron inclines visibly to 'sensualisme'\nand even to materialism.\" Died Paris, 16 Nov. 1603.\n\nChasseboeuf de Volney (Constantin Fran\u00e7ois). See Volney.\n\nChastelet du or Chatelet Lomont (Gabrielle Emilie le Tonnelier de\nBreteuil), Marquise, French savante, b. Paris, 17 Dec 1706. She was\nlearned in mathematics and other sciences, and in Latin, English\nand Italian. In 1740 she published a work on physical philosophy\nentitled Institutions de Physique. She afterwards made a good French\ntranslation of Newton's Principia. She lived some years with Voltaire\nat Cirey between 1735 and 1747, and addressed to him Doubts on Revealed\nReligions, published in 1792. She also wrote a Treatise on Happiness,\nwhich was praised by Condorcet.\n\nChastellux (Fran\u00e7ois Jean de), Marquis. A soldier, traveller and\nwriter, b. Paris 1734. Wrote On Public Happiness (2 vols., Amst. 1776),\na work Voltaire esteemed highly. He contributed to the Encyclop\u00e9die;\none article on \"Happiness,\" being suppressed by the censor because\nit did not mention God. Died Paris, 28 Oct. 1788.\n\nChatterton (Thomas), the marvellous boy poet, b. Bristol, 20 Nov,\n1752. His poems, which he pretended were written by one Thomas Rowley\nin the fourteenth century and discovered by him in an old chest in\nRedcliffe Church, attracted much attention. In 1769 he visited London\nin hopes of rising by his talents, but after a bitter experience of\nwriting for the magazines, destroyed himself in a fit of despair 25\nAug. 1770. Several of his poems betray deistic opinions.\n\nChaucer (Geoffrey), the morning star of English poetry and first\nEnglish Humanist, b. London about 1340. In 1357 he was attached to\nthe household of Lionel, third son of Edward III. He accompanied the\nexpedition to France 1359-60, was captured by the French, and ransomed\nby the king. He was patronised by John of Gaunt, and some foreign\nmissions were entrusted to him, one of them being to Italy, where he\nmet Petrarch. All his writings show the influence of the Renaissance,\nand in his Canterbury Pilgrims he boldly attacks the vices of the\necclesiastics. Died 25 Oct. 1400, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.\n\nChaumette (Pierre Gaspard), afterwards Anaxagoras, French\nrevolutionary, b. Nevers, 24 May, 1763. The son of a shoemaker, he was\nin turn cabin boy, steersman, and attorney's clerk. In early youth he\nreceived lessons in botany from Rousseau. He embraced the revolution\nwith ardor, was the first to assume the tri-color cockade, became\npopular orator at the club of the Cordeliers, and was associated with\nProudhomme in the journal Les Revolutions de Paris. Nominated member\nof the Commune 10 Aug. 1792, he took the name of Anaxagoras to show\nhis little regard for his baptismal saints. He was elected Procureur\nSyndic, in which capacity he displayed great activity. He abolished\nthe rod in schools, suppressed lotteries, instituted workshops for\nfallen women, established the first lying-in-hospital, had books\nsent to the hospitals, separated the insane from the sick, founded\nthe Conservatory of Music, opened the public libraries every day\n(under the ancien r\u00e9gime they were only open two hours per week),\nreplaced books of superstition by works of morality and reason, put\na graduated tax on the rich to provide for the burial of the poor,\nand was the principal mover in the feasts of Reason and closing of\nthe churches. He was accused by Robespierre of conspiring with Cloots\n\"to efface all idea of the Deity,\" and was guillotined 13 April, 1794.\n\nChaussard (Pierre Jean Baptiste), French man of letters, b. Paris,\n8 Oct. 1766. At the Revolution he took the name of Publicola, and\npublished patriotic odes, Esprit de Mirabeau, and other works. He was\npreacher to the Theophilanthropists, and became professor of belles\nlettres at Orleans. Died 9 Jan. 1823.\n\nChemin-Dupontes (Jean Baptiste), b. 1761. One of the founders of\nFrench Theophilanthropy; published many writings, the best known of\nwhich is entitled What is Theophilanthropy?\n\nChenier (Marie Andr\u00e9 de), French poet, b. Constantinople, 29\nOct. 1762. His mother, a Greek, inspired him with a love for ancient\nGreek literature. Sent to college at Paris, he soon manifested his\ngenius by writing eclogues and elegies of antique simplicity and\nsensibility. In 1787 he came to England as Secretary of Legation. He\ntook part in the legal defence of Louis XVI., eulogised Charlotte\nCorday, and gave further offence by some letters in the Journal de\nParis. He was committed to prison, and here met his ideal in the\nComtesse de Coigny. Confined in the same prison, to her he addressed\nthe touching verses, The Young Captive (La jeune Captive). He was\nexecuted 25 July, 1794, leaving behind, among other poems, an imitation\nof Lucretius, entitled Hermes, which warrants the affirmation of de\nCh\u00eanedolle, that \"Andr\u00e9 Ch\u00e9nier \u00e9tait ath\u00e9e avec d\u00e9lices.\"\n\nChenier (Marie Joseph de), French poet and miscellaneous writer,\nbrother of the preceding, b. Constantinople, 28 Aug. 1764. He served\ntwo years in the army, and then applied himself to literature. His\nfirst successful drama, \"Charles IX.,\" was produced in 1789, and was\nfollowed by others. He wrote many patriotic songs, and was made member\nof the Convention. He was a Voltairean, and in his Nouveaux Saints\n(1801) satirised those who returned to the old faith. He wrote many\npoems and an account of French literature. Died Paris, 10 Jan. 1811.\n\nChernuishevsky or Tchernycheiosky (Nikolai Gerasimovich),\nRussian Nihilist, b. Saratof, 1829. Educated at the University of\nSt. Petersburg, translated Mill's Political Economy, and wrote on\nSuperstition and the Principles of Logic, '59. His bold romance,\nWhat is to be Done? was published '63. In the following year he was\nsentenced to the Siberian mines, where, after heartrending cruelties,\nhe has become insane.\n\nChesneau Du Marsais (C\u00e9sar). See Dumarsais.\n\nChevalier (Joseph Philippe), French chemist, b. Saint Pol, 21 March,\n1806, is the author of an able book on \"The Soul from the standpoint\nof Reason and Science,\" Paris, '61. He died at Amiens in 1865.\n\nChies y Gomez (Ramon), Spanish Freethinker, b. Medina de Pomar,\nBurgos, 13 Oct. 1845. His father, a distinguished Republican,\neducated him without religion. In '65 Chies went to Madrid, and\nfollowed a course of law and philosophy at the University, and soon\nafter wrote for a Madrid paper La Discusion. He took an active part\nin the Revolution of '65, and at the proclamation of the Republic,\n'73, became civil governor of Valencia. In '81 he founded a newspaper\nEl Voto Nacional, and since '83 has edited Las Dominicales del Libre\nPensamiento, which he also founded. Ramon Chies is one of the foremost\nFreethought champions in Spain and lectures as well as writes.\n\nChild (Lydia Maria) n\u00e9e Francis, American authoress, b. Medford, Mass.,\n11 Feb. 1802. She early commenced writing, publishing Hobomok, a Tale\nof Early Times, in '21. From '25 she kept a private school in Watertown\nuntil '28, when she married David Lee Child, a Boston lawyer. She, with\nhim, edited the Anti-Slavery Standard, '41, etc., and by her numerous\nwritings did much to form the opinion which ultimately prevailed. She\nwas, however, long subjected to public odium, her heterodoxy being well\nknown. Her principal work is The Progress of Religious Ideas, 3 vols.;\n'55. Died Wayland, Mass., 20 Oct. 1880. She was highly eulogised by\nWendell Phillips.\n\nChilton (William), of Bristol, was born in 1815. In early life he was\na bricklayer, but in '41 he was concerned with Charles Southwell in\nstarting the Oracle of Reason, which he set up in type, and of which\nhe became one of the editors. He contributed some thoughtful articles\non the Theory of Development to the Library of Reason, and wrote in\nthe Movement and the Reasoner. Died at Bristol, 28 May, 1855.\n\nChubb (Thomas), English Deist, b. East Harnham, near Salisbury, 29\nSept. 1679, was one of the first to show Rationalism among the common\npeople. Beginning by contending for the Supremacy of the Father, he\ngradually relinquished supernatural religion, and considered that Jesus\nChrist was of the religion of Thomas Chubb. Died 8 Feb. 1747, leaving\nbehind two vols. which he calls A Farewell to his Readers, from which\nit appears that he rejected both revelation and special providence.\n\nChurch (Henry Tyrell), lecturer and writer, edited Tallis's\nShakespeare, wrote Woman and her Failings, 1858, and contributed to\nthe Investigator when edited by Mr. Bradlaugh. Died 19 July, 1859.\n\nClapiers (Luc de). See Vauvenargues.\n\nClaretie (Jules Armand Ars\u00e8ne), French writer, b. Limoges, 3\nDec. 1840. A prolific writer, of whose works we only cite Free Speech,\n'68; his biographies of contemporary celebrities; and his work Camille\nDesmoulins, '75.\n\nClarke (John), brought up in the Methodist connection, changed his\nopinion by studying the Bible, and became one of Carlile's shopmen. He\nwas tried 10 June, 1824, for selling a blasphemous libel in number 17,\nvol. ix., of The Republican, and after a spirited defence, in which\nhe read many of the worst passages in the Bible, was sentenced to\nthree years' imprisonment, and to find securities for good behavior\nduring life. He wrote while in prison, A Critical Review of the Life,\nCharacter, and Miracles of Jesus, a work showing with some bitterness\nmuch bold criticism and Biblical knowledge. It first appeared in the\nNewgate Magazine and was afterwards published in book form, 1825 and\n'39.\n\nClarke (Marcus), Australian writer, b. Kensington, 1847. Went to\nVictoria, '63; joined the staff of Melbourne Argus. In '76 was made\nassistant librarian of the Public Library. He has compiled a history of\nAustralia, and written The Peripatetic Philosopher (a series of clever\nsketches), His Natural Life (a powerful novel), and some poems. An able\nFreethought paper, \"Civilisation without Delusion,\" in the Victoria\nReview, Nov. '79, was replied to by Bishop Moorhouse. The reply, with\nClarke's answer, which was suppressed, was published in '80. Died 1884.\n\nClaude-Constant, author of a Freethinkers' Catechism published at\nParis in 1875.\n\nClavel (Adolphe), French Positivist and physician, b. Grenoble,\n1815. He has written on the Principles of 1789, on those of the\nnineteenth century, on Positive Morality, and some educational works.\n\nClavel (F. T. B.), French author of a Picturesque History of\nFreemasonry, and also a Picturesque History of Religions, 1844,\nin which Christianity takes a subordinate place.\n\nClayton (Robert), successively Bishop of Killala, Cork, and Clogher,\nb. Dublin, 1695. By his benevolence attracted the friendship of\nSamuel Clarke, and adopted Arianism, which he maintained in several\npublications. In 1756 he proposed, in the Irish House of Lords, the\nomission of the Nicene and Athanasian Creeds from the Liturgy, and\nstated that he then felt more relieved in his mind than for twenty\nyears before. A legal prosecution was instituted, but he died, it\nis said, from nervous agitation (26 Feb. 1758) before the matter\nwas decided.\n\nCleave (John), bookseller, and one of the pioneers of a cheap\npolitical press. Started the London Satirist, and Cleave's Penny\nGazette of Variety, Oct. 14, 1837, to Jan. 20, '44. He published\nmany Chartist and Socialistic works, and an abridgment of Howitt's\nHistory of Priestcraft. In May, '40, he was sentenced to four months'\nimprisonment for selling Haslam's Letters to the Clergy.\n\nClemenceau (Georges Benjamin Eugene), French politician,\nb. Moulleron-en-Pareds, 28 Sept. 1841. Educated at Nantes and Paris,\nhe took his doctor's degree in '65. His activity as Republican\nensured him a taste of gaol. He visited the United States and acted\nas correspondent on the Temps. He returned at the time of the war\nand was elected deputy to the Assembly. In Jan. 1880 he founded La\nJustice, having as collaborateurs M. C. Pelletan, Prof. Acollas and\nDr. C. Letourneau. As one of the chiefs of the Radical party he was\nlargely instrumental in getting M. Carnot elected President.\n\nClemetshaw (C.), French writer, using the name Cilwa. B. 14 Sept. 1864\nof English parents; has contributed to many journals, was delegate to\nthe International Congress, London, of '87, and is editor of Le Danton.\n\nClemens (Samuel Langhorne), American humorist, better known as\n\"Mark Twain,\" b. Florida, Missouri, 30 Nov. 1835. In '55 he served\nas Mississippi pilot, and takes his pen name from the phrase used\nin sounding. In Innocents Abroad, or the New Pilgrim's Progress,\n'69, by which he made his name, there is much jesting with \"sacred\"\nsubjects. Mr. Clemens is an Agnostic.\n\nClifford (Martin), English Rationalist. Was Master of the Charterhouse,\n1671, and published anonymously a treatise of Human Reason, London,\n'74, which was reprinted in the following year with the author's\nname. A short while after its publication Laney, Bishop of Ely, was\ndining in Charterhouse and remarked, not knowing the author, \"'twas no\nmatter if all the copies were burnt and the author with them, because\nit made every man's private fancy judge of religion.\" Clifford died 10\nDec. 1677. In the Nouvelle Biographie G\u00e9n\u00e9rale Clifford is amusingly\ndescribed as an \"English theologian of the order des Chartreux,\" who,\nit is added, was \"prior of his order.\"\n\nClifford (William Kingdon), mathematician, philosopher, and moralist,\nof rare originality and boldness, b. Exeter 4 May, 1845. At the age\nof fifteen he was sent to King's College, London, where he showed an\nearly genius for mathematics, publishing the Analogues of Pascal's\nTheorem at the age of eighteen. Entered Trinity College, Cambridge,\nin '63. In '67 he was second wrangler. Elected fellow of his college,\nhe remained at Cambridge till 1870, when he accompanied the eclipse\nexpedition to the Mediterranean. The next year he was appointed\nProfessor of mathematics at London University, a post he held till\nhis death. He was chosen F.R.S. '74. Married Miss Lucy Lane in April,\n'75. In the following year symptoms of consumption appeared, and he\nvisited Algeria and Spain. He resumed work, but in '79 took a voyage to\nMadeira, where he died 3 March. Not long before his death appeared the\nfirst volume of his great mathematical work, Elements of Dynamic. Since\nhis death have been published The Common Sense of the Exact Sciences,\nand Lectures and Essays, in two volumes, edited by Leslie Stephen and\nMr. F. Pollock. These volumes include his most striking Freethought\nlectures and contributions to the Fortnightly and other reviews. He\nintended to form them into a volume on The Creed of Science. Clifford\nwas an outspoken Atheist, and he wrote of Christianity as a religion\nwhich wrecked one civilisation and very nearly wrecked another.\n\nCloots or Clootz (Johann Baptist, afterwards Anacharsis) Baron du Val\nde Gr\u00e2ce, Prussian enthusiast, b. near Cleves, 24 June, 1755, was a\nnephew of Cornelius de Pauw. In 1780 he published the The Certainty\nof the Proofs of Mohammedanism, under the pseudonym of Ali-gier-ber,\nan anagram of Bergier, whose Certainty of the Proofs of Christianity\nhe parodies. He travelled widely, but became a resident of Paris\nand a warm partisan of the Revolution, to which he devoted his large\nfortune. He wrote a reply to Burke, and continually wrote and spoke\nin favor of a Universal Republic. On 19 June, 1790, he, at the head\nof men of all countries, asked a place at the feast of Federation,\nand henceforward was styled \"orator of the human race.\" He was, with\nPaine, Priestley, Washington and Klopstock, made a French citizen,\nand in 1792 was elected to the Convention by two departments. He\ndebaptised himself, taking the name Anacharsis, was a prime mover\nin the Anti-Catholic party, and induced Bishop Gobel to resign. He\ndeclared there was no other God but Nature. Incurring the enmity of\nRobespierre, he and Paine were arrested as foreigners. After two\nand a half months' imprisonment at St. Lazare, he was brought to\nthe scaffold with the H\u00e9bertistes, 24 March, 1794. He died calmly,\nuttering materialist sentiments to the last.\n\nClough (Arthur Hugh), poet, b. Liverpool, 1 Jan. 1819. He was\neducated at Rugby, under Dr. Arnold, and at Oxford, where he showed\nhimself of the Broad School. Leslie Stephen says, \"He never became\nbitter against the Church of his childhood, but he came to regard its\ndogmas as imperfect and untenable.\" In '48 he visited Paris, and the\nsame year produced his Bothie of Toper-na-Fuosich: a Long-Vacation\nPastoral. Between '49 and '52 he was professor of English literature\nin London University. In '52 he visited the United States, where\nhe gained the friendship of Emerson and Longfellow, and revised\nthe Dryden translation of Plutarch's Lives. Died at Florence, 13\nNov. 1861. His Remains are published in two volumes, and include\nan essay on Religious Tradition and some notable poems. He is the\nThyrsis of Matthew Arnold's exquisite Monody.\n\nCnuzius (Matthias). See Knutzen.\n\nCoke (Henry), author of Creeds of the Day, or collated opinions of\nreputable thinkers, in 2 vols, London, 1883.\n\nCole (Peter), a tanner of Ipswich, was burnt for blasphemy in the\ncastle ditch, Norwich, 1587. A Dr. Beamond preached to him before the\nmayor, sheriffs, and aldermen, \"but he would not recant.\" See Hamont.\n\nColenso (John William), b. 24 Jan. 1814. Was educated at St. John's,\nCambridge, and became a master at Harrow. After acquiring fame by his\nvaluable Treatise on Algebra, '49, he became first Bishop of Natal,\n'54. Besides other works, he published The Pentateuch and Book of\nJoshua Critically Examined, 1862-79, which made a great stir, and\nwas condemned by both Houses of Convocation and its author declared\ndeposed. The Privy Council, March '65, declared this deposition\n\"null and void in law.\" Colenso pleaded the cause of the natives at\nthe time of the Zulu War. He died 20 June, 1883.\n\nColins (Jean Guillaume C\u00e9sar Alexandre Hippolyte) Baron de,\nBelgian Socialist and founder of \"Collectivism,\" b. Brussels, 24\nDec. 1783. Author of nineteen volumes on Social Science. He denied\nalike Monotheism and Pantheism, but taught the natural immortality of\nthe soul. Died at Paris, 12 Nov. 1859. A number of disciples propagate\nhis opinions in the Philosophie de l'Avenir.\n\nCollins (Anthony), English Deist, b. Heston, Middlesex, 21 June,\n1676. He studied at Cambridge and afterwards at the Temple, and\nbecame Justice of the Peace and Treasurer of the County of Essex. He\nwas an intimate friend of Locke, who highly esteemed him and made\nhim his executor. He wrote an Essay on Reason, 1707; Priestcraft\nin Perfection, 1710; a Vindication of the Divine Attributes, and a\nDiscourse on Freethinking, 1713. This last occasioned a great outcry,\nas it argued that all belief must be based on free inquiry, and\nthat the use of reason would involve the abandonment of supernatural\nrevelation. In 1719 he published An Inquiry Concerning Human Liberty,\na brief, pithy defence of necessitarianism, and in 1729 A Discourse\non Liberty and Necessity. In 1724 appeared his Discourse on the\nGrounds and Reasons of the Christian Religion, and this was followed\nby The Scheme of Literal Prophecy Considered, 1726. He was a skilful\ndisputant, and wrote with great ability. He is also credited with A\nDiscourse Concerning Ridicule and Irony in Writing. Died at London,\n13 Dec. 1729. Collins, says Mr. Leslie Stephen, \"appears to have been\nan amiable and upright man, and to have made all readers welcome to\nthe use of a free library.\" Professor Fraser calls him \"a remarkable\nman,\" praises his \"love of truth and moral courage,\" and allows that in\nanswering Dr. Samuel Clarke on the question of liberty and necessity\nhe \"states the arguments against human freedom with a logical force\nunsurpassed by any necessitarian.\" A similar testimony to Collins as\na thinker and dialectician is borne by Professor Huxley.\n\nColman (Lucy N.), American reformer, b. 26 July, 1817, has spent\nmost of her life advocating the abolition of slavery, women's rights,\nand Freethought. She has lectured widely, written Reminisences in the\nLife of a Reformer of Fifty Years, and contributed to the Truthseeker\nand Boston Investigator.\n\nColotes, of Lampsacus, a hearer and disciple of Epicurus, with whom he\nwas a favorite. He wrote a work in favor of his master's teachings. He\nheld it was unworthy of a philosopher to use fables.\n\nCombe (Abram), one of a noted Scotch family of seventeen, b. Edinburgh,\n15 Jan. 1785. He traded as a tanner, but, becoming acquainted with\nRobert Owen, founded a community at Orbiston upon the principle of\nOwen's New Lanark, devoting nearly the whole of his large fortune\nto the scheme. But his health gave way and he died 11 Aug. 1827. He\nwrote Metaphysical Sketches of the Old and New Systems and other\nworks advocating Owenism.\n\nCombe (Andrew), physician, brother of the above, b. Edinburgh,\n27 Oct. 1797; studied there and in Paris; aided his brother George\nin founding the Phrenological Society; wrote popular works on the\nPrinciples of Physiology and the Management of Infancy. Died near\nEdinburgh, 9 Aug. 1847.\n\nCombe (George), phrenologist and educationalist, b. Edinburgh,\n21 Oct. 1788. He was educated for the law. Became acquainted with\nSpurzheim, and published Essays on Phrenology, 1819, and founded the\nPhrenological Journal. In '28 he published the Constitution of Man,\nwhich excited great controversy especially for removing the chimeras of\nspecial providence and efficacy of prayer. In '33 he married a daughter\nof Mrs. Siddons. He visited the United States and lectured on Moral\nPhilosophy and Secular Education. His last work was The Relations\nbetween Science and Religion, '57, in which he continued to uphold\nSecular Theism. He also published many lectures and essays. Among his\nfriends were Miss Evans (George Eliot), who spent a fortnight with him\nin '52. He did more than any man of his time, save Robert Owen, for the\ncause of Secular education. Died at Moor Park, Surrey, 14 Aug. 1858.\n\nCombes (Paul), French writer, b. Paris, 13 June, 1856. Has written\non Darwinism, '83, and other works popularising science.\n\nCommazzi (Gian-Battista), Count author of Politica e religione trovate\ninsieme nella persona di Gies\u00f9 Cristo, Nicopoli [Vienna] 4 vols.,\n1706-7, in which he makes Jesus to be a political impostor. It was\nrigorously confiscated at Rome and Vienna.\n\nComparetti (Domenico), Italian philologist, b. Rome in 1835. Signor\nComparetti is Professor at the Institute of Superior Studies, Rome,\nand has written many works on the classic writers, in which he evinces\nhis Pagan partialities.\n\nComte (Isidore Auguste Marie Fran\u00e7ois Xavier), French philosopher,\nmathematician and reformer, b. at Montpelier, 12 Jan. 1798. Educated at\nParis in the Polytechnic School, where he distinguished himself by his\nmathematical talent. In 1817 he made the acquaintance of St. Simon,\nagreeing with him as to the necessity of a Social renovation based\nupon a mental revolution. On the death of St. Simon ('25) Comte\ndevoted himself to the elaboration of an original system of scientific\nthought, which, in the opinion of some able judges, entitles him to\nbe called the Bacon of the nineteenth century. Mill speaks of him as\nthe superior of Descartes and Leibniz. In '25 he married, but the\nunion proved unhappy. In the following year he lectured, but broke\ndown under an attack of brain fever, which occasioned his detention\nin an asylum. He speedily recovered, and in '28 resumed his lectures,\nwhich were attended by men like Humboldt, Ducrotay, Broussais, Carnot,\netc. In '30 he put forward the first volumes of his Course of Positive\nPhilosophy, which in '42 was completed by the publication of the sixth\nvolume. A condensed English version of this work was made by Harriet\nMartineau, '53. In '45 Comte formed a passionate Platonic attachement\nto Mme. Clotilde de Vaux, who died in the following year, having\nprofoundely influenced Comte's life. In consequence of his opinions,\nhe lost his professorship, and was supported by his disciples--Mill,\nMolesworth and Grote, in England, assisting. Among other works, Comte\npublished A General View of Positivism, '48, translated by Dr. Bridges,\n'65; A System of Positive Polity, '51, translated by Drs. Bridges,\nBeesley, F. Harrison, etc., '75-79; and A Positive Catechism, '54,\ntranslated by Dr. Congreve, '58. He also wrote on Positive Logic,\nwhich he intended to follow with Positive Morality and Positive\nIndustrialism. Comte was a profound and suggestive thinker. He\nresolutely sets aside all theology and metaphysics, coordinates\nthe sciences and substitutes the service of man for the worship of\nGod. Mr. J. Cotter Morison says \"He belonged to that small class\nof rare minds, whose errors are often more valuable and stimulating\nthan other men's truths.\" He died of cancer in the stomach at Paris,\n5 Sept. 1857.\n\nCondillac (Etienne Bonnot de), French philosopher, b. Grenoble,\nabout 1715. His life was very retired, but his works show much\nacuteness. They are in 23 vols., the principal being A Treatise on the\nSensations, 1764; A Treatise on Animals, and An Essay on the Origin\nof Human Knowledge. In the first-named he shows that all mental life\nis gradually built up out of simple sensations. Died 3 Aug. 1780.\n\nCondorcet (Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, Marquis de),\nFrench philosopher and politician, b. Ribemont, Picardy, 17\nSept. 1743. Dedicated to the Virgin by a pious mother, he was kept\nin girl's clothes until the age of 11. Sent to a Jesuit's school,\nhe soon gave up religion. At sixteen he maintained a mathematical\nthesis in the presence of Alembert. In the next year he dedicated\nto Turgot a Profession of Faith. After some mathematical works, he\nwas made member of the Academy, of which he was appointed perpetual\nsecretary, 1773. In 1776 he published his atheistic Letters of a\nTheologian. He also wrote biographies of Turgot and Voltaire, and\nin favor of American independence and against negro slavery. In\n1791 he represented Paris in the National Assembly, of which he\nbecame Secretary. It was on his motion that, in the following year,\nall orders of nobility were abolished. Voting against the death of\nthe king and siding with the Gironde drew on him the vengeance of\nthe extreme party. He took shelter with Madame Vernet, but fearing to\nbring into trouble her and his wife, at whose instigation he wrote his\nfine Sketch of the Progress of the Human Mind while in hiding, he left,\nbut, being arrested, died of exhaustion or by poison self-administered,\nat Bourg la Reine, 27 March, 1794.\n\nCondorcet (Sophie de Grouchy Caritat, Marquise de), wife of above,\nand sister of General Grouchy and of Mme. Cabanis, b. 1765. She\nmarried Condorcet 1786, and was considered one of the most beautiful\nwomen of her time. She shared her husband's sentiments and opinions\nand, while he was proscribed, supported herself by portrait\npainting. She was arrested, and only came out of prison after the\nfall of Robespierre. She translated Adam Smith's Theory of the Moral\nSentiments, which she accompanied with eight letters on Sympathy,\naddressed to Cabanis. She died 8 Sept. 1822. Her only daughter married\nGen. Arthur O'Connor.\n\nConfucius (Kung Kew) or Kung-foo-tsze, the philosopher Kung, a\nChinese sage, b. in the State of Loo, now part of Shantung, about\nB.C. 551. He was distinguished by filial piety and learning. In his\nnineteenth year he married, and three years after began as a teacher,\nrejecting none who came to him. He travelled through many states. When\npast middle age he was appointed chief minister of Loo, but finding\nthe Duke desired the renown of his name without adopting his counsel,\nhe retired, and devoted his old age to editing the sacred classics\nof China. He died about B.C. 478. His teaching, chiefly found in the\nLun-Yu, or Confucian Analects, was of a practical moral character,\nand did not include any religious dogmas.\n\nCongreve (Richard), English Positivist, born in 1819. Educated at\nRugby under T. Arnold, and Oxford 1840, M.A. 1843; was fellow of\nWadham College 1844-54. In '55 he published his edition of Aristotle\nPolitics. He became a follower of Comte and influenced many to embrace\nPositivism. Translated Comte's Catechism of Positive Philosophy, 1858,\nand has written many brochures. Dr. Congreve is considered the head\nof the strict or English Comtists, and has long conducted a small\n\"Church of Humanity.\"\n\nConnor (Bernard), a physician, b. Co. Kerry, of Catholic family,\n1666. He travelled widely, and was made court physician to John\nSobieski, King of Poland. He wrote a work entitled Evangelium Medici\n(1697), in which he attempts to account for the Christian miracles\non natural principles. For this he was accused of Atheism. He died\nin London 27 Oct. 1698.\n\nConstant de Rebecque (Henri Benjamin), Swiss writer, b. Lausanne,\n25 Oct. 1767, and educated at Oxford, Erlangen and Edinburgh. In\n1795 he entered Paris as a prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of Mme. de Stael, and in 1799\nbecame a member of the Tribunal. He opposed Buonaparte and wrote\non Roman Polytheism and an important work on Religion Considered in\nits Source, its Forms and its Developments (6 vols.; 1824-32). Died\n8 Dec. 1830. Constant professed Protestantism, but was at heart a\nsceptic, and has been called a second Voltaire. A son was executor\nto Auguste Comte.\n\nConta (Basil), Roumanian philosopher, b. Neamtza 27 Nov. 1845. Studied\nin Italy and Belgium, and became professor in the University of Jassy,\nMoldavia. In '77 he published in Brussels, in French, a theory of\nfatalism, which created some stir by its boldness of thought.\n\nConway (Moncure Daniel), author, b. in Fredericksburg, Stafford\nco. Virginia, 17 March, 1832. He entered the Methodist ministry '50,\nbut changing his convictions through the influence of Emerson and\nHicksite Quakers, entered the divinity school at Cambridge, where\nhe graduated in '54 and became pastor of a Unitarian church until\ndismissed for his anti-slavery discourses. In '57 he preached in\nCincinnati and there published The Natural History of the Devil, and\nother pamphlets. In '63 Mr. Conway came to England and was minister\nof South Place from the close of '63 until his return to the States\nin '84. Mr. Conway is a frequent contributor to the press. He has\nalso published The Earthward Pilgrimage, 1870, a theory reversing\nBunyan's Pilgrim's Progress; collected a Sacred Anthology from the\nvarious sacred books of the world 1873, which he used in his pulpit;\nhas written on Human Sacrifices, 1876, and Idols and Ideals, 1877. His\nprincipal work is Demonology and Devil Lore, 1878, containing much\ninformation on mythology. He also issued his sermons under the title of\nLessons for the Day, two vols., 1883, and has published a monograph on\nthe Wandering Jew, a biography of Emerson, and is at present engaged\non a life of Thomas Paine.\n\nCook (Kenningale Robert), LL.D., b. in Lancashire 26 Sept. 1845, son\nof the vicar of Stallbridge. When a boy he used to puzzle his mother\nby such questions as, \"If God was omnipotent could he make what had\nhappened not have happened.\" He was intended for the Church, but\ndeclined to subscribe the articles. Graduated at Dublin in '66, and\ntook LL.D. in '75. In '77 he became editor of the Dublin University\nMagazine, in which appeared some studies of the lineage of Christian\ndoctrine and traditions afterwards published under the title of The\nFathers of Jesus. Dr. Cook wrote several volumes of choice poems. Died\nJuly, 1886.\n\nCooper (Anthony Ashley), see Shaftesbury.\n\nCooper (Henry), barrister, b. Norwich about 1784. He was a schoolfellow\nof Wm. Taylor of Norwich. He served as midshipman at the battle of the\nNile, but disliking the service became a barrister, and acquired some\nfame by his spirited defence of Mary Ann Carlile, 21 July, 1821, for\nwhich the report of the trial was dedicated to him by R. Carlile. He\nwas a friend of Lord Erskine, whose biography he commenced. Died 19\nSept. 1824.\n\nCooper (John Gilbert), poet, b. Thurgaton Priory, Notts, 1723. Educated\nat Westminster School and Trinity College, Cambridge. An enthusiastic\ndisciple of Lord Shaftesbury. Under the name of \"Philaretes\" he\ncontributed to Dodsley's Museum. In 1749 he published a Life of\nSocrates, for which he was coarsely attacked by Warburton. He wrote\nsome poems under the signature of Aristippus. Died Mayfair, London,\n14 April, 1769.\n\nCooper (Peter), a benevolent manufacturer, b. N. York, 12 Feb. 1791. He\ndevoted over half a million dollars to the Cooper Institute, for\nthe secular instruction and elevation of the working classes. Died\n4 April, 1883.\n\nCooper (Robert), Secularist writer and lecturer, b. 29 Dec. 1819,\nat Barton-on-Irwell, near Manchester. He had the advantage of being\nbrought up in a Freethought family. At fourteen he became teacher\nin the Co-operative Schools, Salford, lectured at fifteen, and\nby seventeen became an acknowledged advocate of Owenism, holding a\npublic discussion with the Rev. J. Bromley. Some of his lectures were\npublished--one on Original Sin sold twelve thousand copies--when he was\nscarcely eighteen. The Holy Scriptures Analysed (1832) was denounced\nby the Bishop of Exeter in the House of Lords. Cooper was dismissed\nfrom a situation he had held ten years, and in 1841 became a Socialist\nmissionary in the North of England and Scotland. At Edinburgh (1845)\nhe wrote Free Agency and Orthodoxy, and compiled the Infidel's Text\nBook. About '50 he came to London, lecturing with success at John\nStreet Institution. In '54 he started the London Investigator, which\nhe edited for three years. In it appears his lectures on \"Science\nv. Theology,\" \"Admissions of Distinguished Men,\" etc. Failing health\nobliged him to retire leaving the Investigator to \"Anthony Collins\"\n(W. H. Johnson), and afterwards to \"Iconoclast\" (C. Bradlaugh). At\nhis last lecture he fainted on the platform. In 1858 he remodelled\nhis Infidel Text-Book into a work on The Bible and Its Evidences. He\ndevoted himself to political reform until his death, 3 May, 1868.\n\nCooper (Thomas), M.D., LL.D., natural philosopher, politician,\njurist and author, b. London, 22 Oct. 1759. Educated at Oxford, he\nafterwards studied law and medicine; was admitted to the bar and lived\nat Manchester, where he wrote a number of tracts on \"Materialism,\"\n\"Whether Deity be a Free Agent,\" etc., 1789. Deputed with James\nWatt, the inventor, by the Constitutional clubs to congratulate\nthe Democrats of France (April, 1792), he was attacked by Burke\nand replied in a vigorous pamphlet. In '94 he published Information\nConcerning America, and in the next year followed his friend Priestly\nto Philadelphia, established himself as a lawyer and was made judge. He\nalso conducted the Emporium of Arts and Sciences in that city. He was\nProfessor of Medicine at Carlisle College, '12, and afterwards held\nthe chairs both of Chemistry and Political Economy in South Carolina\nCollege, of which he became President, 1820-34. This position he was\nforced to resign on account of his religious views. He translated\nfrom Justinian and Broussais, and digested the Statutes of South\nCarolina. In philosophy a Materialist, in religion a Freethinker,\nin politics a Democrat, he urged his views in many pamphlets. One on\nThe Right of Free Discussion, and a little book on Geology and the\nPentateuch, in reply to Prof. Silliman, were republished in London\nby James Watson. Died at Columbia, 11 May, 1840. [1]\n\n[1] So varied was the activity of T. Cooper during his long life that\nhis works in the British Museum were catalogued as by six different\npersons of the same name. I pointed this out, and the six single\ngentlemen will be rolled into one.\n\nCoornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon), Dutch humanist, poet and writer,\nb. Amsterdam, 1522. He travelled in his youth through Spain\nand Portugal. He set up as an engraver at Haarlem, and became\nthereafter notary and secretary of the city of Haarlem. He had a\nprofound horror of intolerance, and defended liberty against Beza and\nCalvin. The clergy vituperated him as a Judas and as instigated by\nSatan, etc. Bayle, who writes of him as Theodore Koornhert, says he\ncommuned neither with Protestants nor Catholics. The magistrates of\nDelft drove him out of their city. He translated Cicero's De Officiis,\nand other works. Died at Gouda, 20 Oct. 1590.\n\nCordonnier de Saint Hyacinthe. See Saint-Hyacinthe (Themiseuil de).\n\nCorvin-Wiersbitski (Otto Julius Bernhard von), Prussian Pole of noble\nfamily, who traced their descent from the Roman Corvinii, b. Gumbinnen,\n12 Oct. 1812. He served in the Prussian army, where he met his friend\nFriedrich von Sallet; retired into the Landwehr 1835, went to Leipsic\nand entered upon a literary career, wrote the History of the Dutch\nRevolution, 1841; the History of Christian Fanaticism, 1845, which\nwas suppressed in Austria. He took part with the democrats in '48;\nwas condemned to be shot 15 Sept. '49, but the sentence was commuted;\nspent six years' solitary confinement in prison; came to London,\nbecame correspondent to the Times; went through American Civil War,\nand afterwards Franco-Prussian War, as a special correspondent. He\nhas written a History of the New Time, 1848-71. Died since 1886.\n\nCotta (Bernhard), German geologist, b. Little Zillbach, Thuringia,\n24 Oct. 1808. He studied at the Academy of Mining, in Freiberg,\nwhere he was appointed professor in '42. His first production, The\nDendroliths, '32, proved him a diligent investigator. It was followed\nby many geological treatises. Cotta did much to support the nebular\nhypothesis and the law of natural development without miraculous\nagency. He also wrote on phrenology. Died at Freiburg, 13 Sept 1879.\n\nCotta (C. Aurelius), Roman philosopher, orator and statesman,\nb. B.C. 124. In '75 he became Consul. On the expiration of his\noffice he obtained Gaul as a province. Cicero had a high opinion of\nhim and gives his sceptical arguments in the third book of his De\nNatura Deorum.\n\nCourier (Paul Louis), French writer, b. Paris, 4 Jan. 1772. He entered\nthe army and became an officer of artillery, serving with distinction\nin the Army of the Republic. He wrote many pamphlets, directed against\nthe clerical restoration, which place him foremost among the literary\nmen of the generation. His writings are now classics, but they brought\nhim nothing but imprisonment, and he was apparently assassinated,\n10 April, 1825. He had a presentiment that the bigots would kill him.\n\nCoventry (Henry), a native of Cambridgeshire, b. about 1710, Fellow\nof Magdalene College, author of Letters of Philemon to Hydaspus on\nFalse Religion (1736). Died 29 Dec. 1752.\n\nCoward (William), M.D., b. Winchester, 1656. Graduated at Wadham\nCollege, Oxford, 1677. Settled first at Northampton, afterwards\nat London. Published, besides some medical works, Second Thoughts\nConcerning Human Soul, which excited much indignation by denying\nnatural immortality. The House of Commons (17 March, 1704) ordered\nhis work to be burnt. He died in 1725.\n\nCox (the Right Rev. Sir George William), b. 1827, was educated at\nRugby and Oxford, where he took B.C.L. in 1849. Entered the Church,\nbut has devoted himself to history and mythology. His most pretentious\nwork is Mythology of the Aryan Nations (1870). He has also written\nan Introduction to Comparative Mythology and several historical\nworks. In 1886 he became Bishop of Bloemfontein. He is credited with\nthe authorship of the English Life of Jesus, published under the name\nof Thomas Scott. At the Church Congress of 1888 he read an heretical\npaper on Biblical Eschatology. His last production is a Life of Bishop\nColenso, 2 vols, 1888.\n\nCoyteux (Fernand), French writer, b. Ruffec, 1800. Author of a\nmaterialistic system of philosophy, Brussels, 1853 Studies on\nphysiology, Paris, 1875, etc.\n\nCraig (Edward Thomas), social reformer, b. at Manchester 4\nAug. 1804. He was present at the Peterloo massacre '19; helped to form\nthe Salford Social Institute and became a pioneer of co-operation. In\n'31 he became editor of the Lancashire Co-operator. In Nov. of the same\nyear he undertook the management of a co-operative farm at Rahaline,\nco. Clare. Of this experiment he has written an history, '72. Mr. Craig\nhas edited several journals and contributed largely to Radical and\nco-operative literature. He has published a memoir of Dr. Travis and\nat the age of 84 he wrote on The Science of Prolonging Life.\n\nCramer (Johan Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Wisby, Gottland, 18\nFeb. 1812. He studied at Upsala and became Doctor of Philosophy\n'36; ordained priest in '42; he resigned in '58. In religion he\ndenies revelation and insists on the separation of Church and\nState. Among his works we mention Separation from the Church, a\nFreethinker's annotations on the reading of the Bible, Stockholm,\n1859. A Confession of Faith; Forward or Back? (1862). He has also\nwritten on the Punishment of Death (1868), and other topics.\n\nCranbrook (Rev. James.) Born of strict Calvinistic parents about\n1817. Mr. Cranbrook gradually emancipated himself from dogmas, became\na teacher, and for sixteen years was minister of an Independent Church\nat Liscard, Cheshire. He also was professor at the Ladies' College,\nLiverpool, some of his lectures there being published '57. In Jan. '65,\nhe went to Albany Church, Edinburgh, but his views being too broad\nfor that congregation, he left in Feb. '67 but continued to give\nSunday lectures until his death, 6 June, 1869. In '66 he published\nCredibilia: an Inquiry into the grounds of Christian faith and two\nyears later The Founders of Christianity, discourses on the origin of\nChristianity. Other lectures on Human Depravity, Positive Religion,\netc., were published by Thomas Scott.\n\nCranch (Christopher Pearse), American painter and poet, b. Alexandria,\nVirginia, 8 March, 1813, graduated at divinity school, Cambridge,\nMass. '35, but left the ministry in '42. He shows his Freethought\nsentiments in Satan, a Libretto, Boston, '74, and other works.\n\nCraven (M. B.), American, author of a critical work on the Bible\nentitled Triumph of Criticism, published at Philadelphia, 1869.\n\nCremonini (Cesare), Italian philosopher, b. Cento, Ferrara, 1550, was\nprofessor of philosophy at Padua from 1591 to 1631, when he died. A\nfollower of Aristotle, he excited suspicion by his want of religion and\nhis teaching the mortality of the soul. He was frequently ordered by\nthe Jesuits and the Inquisition to refute the errors he gave currency\nto, but he was protected by the Venetian State, and refused. Like most\nof the philosophers of his time, he distinguished between religious\nand philosophic truth. Bayle says. \"Il a pass\u00e9 pour un esprit fort,\nqui ne croyait point l'immortalit\u00e9 de l'\u00e2me.\" Larousse says, \"On peut\ndire qu'il n'\u00e9tait pas chr\u00e9tien.\" Ladvocat says his works \"contain\nmany things contrary to religion.\"\n\nCross (Mary Ann). See Eliot (George).\n\nCrousse (Louis D.), French Pantheistic philosopher, author of\nPrinciples, or First Philosophy, 1839, and Thoughts, 1845.\n\nCurtis (S. E.), English Freethinker, author of Theology Displayed,\n1842. He has been credited with The Protestant's Progress to\nInfidelity. See Griffith (Rees). Died 1847.\n\nCroly (David Goodman), American Positivist, b. New York, 3\nNov. 1829. He graduated at New York University in '54, and was\nsubsequently a reporter on the New York Herald. He became editor of\nthe New York World until '72. From '71 to '73 he edited The Modern\nThinker, an organ of the most advanced thought, and afterwards the\nNew York Graphic. Mr. Croly has written a Primer of Positivism, '76,\nand has contributed many articles to periodicals. His wife, Jane\nCunningham, who calls herself \"Jennie June,\" b. 1831, also wrote in\nThe Modern Thinker.\n\nCross (Mary Ann), see Eliot (George).\n\nCrozier (John Beattie), English writer of Scottish border parentage,\nb. Galt, Ontario, Canada, 23 April, 1849. In youth he won a scholarship\nto the grammar school of the town, and thence won another scholarship\nto the Toronto University, where he graduated '72, taking the\nUniversity and Starr medals. He then came to London determined to study\nthe great problems of religion and civilisation. He took his diploma\nfrom the London College of Physicians in '73. In '77 he wrote his first\nessay, \"God or Force,\" which, being rejected by all the magazines, he\npublished as a pamphlet. Other essays on the Constitution of the World,\nCarlyle, Emerson, and Spencer being also rejected, he published them in\na book entitled The Religion of the Future, '80, which fell flat. He\nthen started his work Civilisation and Progress, which appeared in\n'85, and was also unsuccessful until republished with a few notices\nin '87, when it received a chorus of applause, for its clear and\noriginal thoughts. Mr. Crozier is now engaged on his Autobiography,\nafter which he proposes to deal with the Social question.\n\nCuffeler (Abraham Johann), a Dutch philosopher and doctor of law,\nwho was one of the first partizans of Spinoza. He lived at Utrecht\ntowards the end of the seventeenth century, and wrote a work on\nlogic in three parts entitled Specimen Artis Ratiocinandi, etc.,\npublished ostensibly at Hamburg, but really at Amsterdam or Utrecht,\n1684. It was without name but with the author's portrait.\n\nCuper (Frans), Dutch writer, b. Rotterdam. Cuper is suspected to have\nbeen one of those followers of Spinoza, who under pretence of refuting\nhim, set forth and sustained his arguments by feeble opposition. His\nwork entitled Arcana Atheismi Revelata, Rotterdam 1676, was denounced\nas written in bad faith. Cuper maintained that the existence of God\ncould not be proved by the light of reason.\n\nCyrano de Bergerac (Savinien), French comic writer, b. Paris 6 March,\n1619. After finishing his studies and serving in the army in his youth\nhe devoted himself to literature. His tragedy \"Agrippine\" is full of\nwhat a bookseller called \"belles impi\u00e9t\u00e9s,\" and La Monnoye relates that\nat its performance the pit shouted \"Oh, the wretch! The Atheist! How\nhe mocks at holy things!\" Cyrano knew personally Campanella, Gassendi,\nLamothe Le Vayer, Lini\u00e8re, Rohault, etc. His other works consist of\na short fragment on Physic, a collection of Letters, and a Comic\nHistory of the States and Empires of the Moon and the Sun. Cyrano\ntook the idea of this book from F. Godwin's Man in the Moon, 1583,\nand it in turn gave rise to Swift's Gulliver's Travels and Voltaire's\nMicromegas. Died Paris, 1655.\n\nCzolbe (Heinrich), German Materialist, b. near Dantzic, 30 Dec. 1819,\nstudied medicine at Berlin, writing an inaugural dissertation on\nthe Principles of Physiology, '44. In '55 he published his New\nExposition of Sensationalism, in which everything is resolved into\nmatter and motion, and in '65 a work on The Limits and Origin of Human\nKnowledge. He was an intimate friend of Ueberweg. Died at K\u00f6nigsberg,\n19 Feb. 1873. Lange says \"his life was marked by a deep and genuine\nmorality.\"\n\nD'Ablaing. See Giessenburg.\n\nDale (Antonius van), Dutch writer, b. Haarlem, 8 Nov. 1638. His work\non oracles was erudite but lumbersome, and to it Fontenelle gave the\ncharm of style. It was translated into English by Mrs. Aphra Behn,\nunder the title of The History of Oracles and the Cheats of Pagan\nPriests, 1699. Van Dale, in another work on The Origin and Progress\nof Idolatry and Superstition, applied the historical method to his\nsubject, and showed that the belief in demons was as old and as\nextensive as the human race. He died at Haarlem, 28 Nov. 1708.\n\nDamilaville (Etienne No\u00ebl), French writer, b. at Bordeaux, 1721. At\nfirst a soldier, then a clerk, he did some service for Voltaire, who\nbecame his friend. He also made the friendship Diderot, d'Alembert,\nGrimm, and d'Holbach. He contributed to the Encyclop\u00e9die, and in\n1767 published an attack on the theologians, entitled Theological\nHonesty. The book entitled Christianity Unveiled [see Boulanger and\nHolbach] was attributed by Voltaire, who called it Impiety Unveiled,\nand by La Harpe and Lalande to Damilaville. Voltaire called him\n\"one of our most learned writers.\" Larousse says \"he was an ardent\nenemy of Christianity.\" He has also been credited with a share in\nthe System of Nature. Died 15 Dec. 1768.\n\nDandolo (Vincenzo) Count, Italian chemist, b. Venice, 26 Oct. 1758,\nwrote Principles of Physical Chemistry, a work in French on The New\nMen, in which he shows his antagonism to religion, and many useful\nworks on vine, timber, and silk culture. Died Varessa, 13 Dec. 1819.\n\nDanton (Georges Jacques), French revolutionist, b. Arcis sur Aube, 28\nOct. 1759. An uncle wished him to enter into orders, but he preferred\nto study law. During the Revolution his eloquence made him conspicuous\nat the Club of Cordeliers, and in Feb. 1791, he became one of the\nadministrators of Paris. One of the first to see that after the flight\nof Louis XVI. he could no longer be king, he demanded his suspension,\nand became one of the chief organisers of the Republic. In the alarm\ncaused by the invasion he urged a bold and resolute policy. He was a\nmember of the Convention and of the Committee of Public Safety. At the\ncrisis of the struggle with Robespierre, Danton declined to strike\nthe first blow and disdained to fly. Arrested March, 1794, he said\nwhen interrogated by the judge, \"My name is Danton, my dwelling will\nsoon be in annihilation; but my name will live in the Pantheon of\nhistory.\" He maintained his lofty bearing on the scaffold, where he\nperished 5 April, 1794. For his known scepticism Danton was called\nfils de Diderot. Carlyle calls him \"a very Man.\"\n\nDapper (Olfert), Dutch physician, who occupied himself with history and\ngeography, on which he produced important works. He had no religion\nand was suspected of Atheism. He travelled through Syria, Babylonia,\netc., in 1650. He translated Herodotus (1664) and the orations of\nthe late Prof. Caspar v. Baerli (1663), and wrote a History of the\nCity of Amsterdam, 1663. Died at Amsterdam 1690.\n\nDarget (Etienne), b. Paris, 1712; went to Berlin in 1744 and became\nreader and private secretary to Frederick the Great (1745-52), who\ncorresponded with him afterwards. Died 1778.\n\nDarwin (Charles Robert), English naturalist, b. Shrewsbury,\n12 Feb. 1809. Educated at Shrewsbury, Edinburgh University, and\nCambridge. He early evinced a taste for collecting and observing\nnatural objects. He was intended for a clergyman, but, incited by\nHumboldt's Personal Narrative, resolved to travel. He accompanied\nCaptain Fitzroy in the \"Beagle\" on a voyage of exploration, '31-36,\nwhich he narrated in his Voyage of a Naturalist Round the World, which\nobtained great popularity. In '39 he married, and in '42 left London\nand settled at Down, Kent. His studies, combined with the reading of\nLamarck and Malthus, led to his great work on The Origin of Species\nby means of Natural Selection, '59, which made a great outcry and\nmarked an epoch. Darwin took no part in the controversy raised by the\ntheologians, but followed his work with The Fertilisation of Orchids,\n'62; Cross and Self Fertilisation of Plants, '67; Variations of\nPlants and Animals under Domestication, '65; and in '71 The Descent\nof Man and Selection in relation to Sex, which caused yet greater\nconsternation in orthodox circles. The following year he issued The\nExpression of the Emotions of Men and Animals. He also published\nworks on the Movements of Plants, Insectivorous Plants, the Forms of\nFlowers, and Earthworms. He died 19 April, 1882, and was buried in\nWestminster Abbey, despite his expressed unbelief in revelation. To\na German student he wrote, in '79, \"Science has nothing to do with\nChrist, except in so far as the habit of scientific research makes\na man cautious in admitting evidence. For myself I do not believe\nthat there ever has been any revelation.\" In his Life and Letters\nhe relates that between 1836 and 1842 he had come to see \"that the\nOld Testament was no more to be trusted than the sacred books of the\nHindoos.\" He rejected design and said \"I for one must be content to\nremain an Agnostic.\"\n\nDarwin (Erasmus), Dr., poet, physiologist and philosopher, grandfather\nof the above, was born at Elston, near Newark, 12 Dec. 1731. Educated\nat Chesterfield and Cambridge he became a physician, first at Lichfield\nand afterwards at Derby. He was acquainted with Rousseau, Watt and\nWedgwood. His principal poem, The Botanic Garden was published in 1791,\nand The Temple of Nature in 1803. His principal work is Zoomania,\nor the laws of organic life (1794), for which he was accused of\nAtheism. He was actually a Deist. He also wrote on female education\nand some papers in the Philosophical Transactions. Died at Derby,\n18 April, 1802.\n\nDaubermesnil (Fran\u00e7ois Antoine), French conventionalist. Elected\ndeputy of Tarn in 1792. Afterwards became a member of the Council of\nFive Hundred. He was one of the founders of Theophilanthropy. Died\nat Perpignan 1802.\n\nDaudet (Alphonse), French novelist, b. at N\u00eemes, 13 May 1840, author\nof many popular romances, of which we mention L'Evangeliste, '82,\nwhich has been translated into English under the title Port Salvation.\n\nDaunou (Pierre Claude Fran\u00e7ois), French politician and historian,\nb. Boulogne, 18 Aug. 1761. His father entered him in the congregation\nof the Fathers of the Oratory, which he left at the Revolution. The\ndepartment of Calais elected him with Carnot and Thomas Paine to\nthe Convention. After the Revolution he became librarian at the\nPantheon. He was a friend of Garat, Cabanis, Chenier, Destutt Tracy,\nGinguen\u00e9 and Benj. Constant. Wrote Historical Essay on the Temporal\nPower of the Popes, 1810. Died at Paris, 20 June, 1840, noted for\nhis benevolence.\n\nDavenport (Allen), social reformer, b. 1773. He contributed to\nCarlile's Republican; wrote an account of the Life, Writings and\nPrinciples of Thomas Spence, the reformer (1826); and published a\nvolume of verse, entitled The Muses' Wreath (1827). Died at Highbury,\nLondon, 1846.\n\nDavenport (John), Deist, b. London, 8 June, 1789, became a teacher. He\nwrote An Apology for Mohammed and the Koran, 1869; Curiositates\nEroticoe Physiolog\u00e6, or Tabooed Subjects Freely Treated, and several\neducational works. Died in poverty 11 May, 1877.\n\nDavid of Dinant, in Belgium, Pantheistic philosopher of the twelfth\ncentury. He is said to have visited the Papal Court of Innocent\nIII. He shared in the heresies of Amalric of Ch\u00e2rtres, and his work\nQuaterini was condemned and burnt (1209). He only escaped the stake\nby rapid flight. According to Albert the Great he was the author of\na philosophical work De Tomis, \"Of Subdivisions,\" in which he taught\nthat all things were one. His system was similar to that of Spinoza.\n\nDavid (Jacques Louis), French painter, born at Paris, 31 Aug. 1748,\nwas made painter to the king, but joined the Jacobin Club, became\na member of the Convention, voted for the king's death and for the\ncivic festivals, for which he made designs. On the restoration he\nwas banished. Died at Brussels, 29 Dec. 1825. David was an honest\nenthusiast and a thorough Freethinker.\n\nDavidis or David (Ferencz), a Transylvanian divine, b. about\n1510. He was successively a Roman Catholic, a Lutheran and an\nAntitrinitarian. He went further than F. Socinus and declared there\nwas \"as much foundation for praying to the Virgin Mary and other\ndead saints as to Jesus Christ.\" He was in consequence accused of\nJudaising and thrown into prison at Deva, where he died 6 June, 1579.\n\nDavies (John C.), of Stockport, an English Jacobin, who in 1797\npublished a list of contradictions of the Bible under the title of The\nScripturian's Creed, for which he was prosecuted and imprisoned. The\nwork was republished by Carlile, 1822, and also at Manchester, 1839.\n\nDavidson (Thomas), bookseller and publisher, was prosecuted by the Vice\nSociety in Oct. 1820, for selling the Republican and a publication\nof his own, called the Deist's Magazine. For observations made in\nhis defence he was summoned and fined \u00a3100, and he was sentenced to\ntwo years' imprisonment in Oakham Gaol. He died 16 Dec. 1826.\n\nDebierre (Charles), French writer, author of Man Before History, 1888.\n\nDe Dominicis. See Dominicis.\n\nDe Felice (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Catania, Sicily, 1821,\ntook part in the revolution of '43, and when Garibaldi landed in\nSicily was appointed president of the provisional council of war. Has\nwritten on the reformation of elementary schools.\n\nDe Greef (Guillaume Joseph), advocate at Brussels Court of Appeal,\nb. at Brussels, 9 Oct. 1842. Author of an important Introduction to\nSociology, 1886. Wrote in La Libert\u00e9, 1867-73, and now writes in La\nSociet\u00e9 Nouvelle.\n\nDe Gubernatis (Angelo), Italian Orientalist and writer, b. Turin,\n7 April, 1840; studied at Turin University and became doctor of\nphilosophy. He studied Sanskrit under Bopp and Weber at Berlin. Sig. de\nGubernatis has adorned Italian literature with many important\nworks, of which we mention his volumes on Zoological Mythology,\nwhich has been translated into English, '72: and on the Mythology of\nPlants. He has compiled and in large part written a Universal History\nof Literature, 18 vols. '82-85; edited La Revista Europea and the\nRevue Internationale, and contributed to many publications. He is a\nbrilliant writer and a versatile scholar.\n\nDe Harven (Emile Jean Alexandre), b. Antwerp, 23 Sept. 1837, the\nanonymous author of a work on The Soul: its Origin and Destiny\n(Antwerp, 1879).\n\nDekker (Eduard Douwes), the greatest Dutch writer and Freethinker of\nthis century, b. Amsterdam, 2 March, 1820. In '39 he accompanied his\nfather, a ship's captain, to the Malayan Archipelago. He became officer\nunder the Dutch government in Sumatra, Amboina, and Assistant-Resident\nat Lebac, Java. He desired to free the Javanese from the oppression of\ntheir princes, but the government would not help him and he resigned\nand returned to Holland, '56. The next four years he spent, in poverty,\nvainly seeking justice for the Javanese. In '60 he published under the\npen name of \"Multatuli\" Max Havelaar, a masterly indictment of the\nDutch rule in India, which has been translated into German, French\nand English. Then follow his choice Minnebrieven (Love Letters),\n'61; Vorstenschool (A School for Princes), and Millioenen Studi\u00ebn\n(Studies on Millions). His Ide\u00ebn, 7 vols. '62-79, are full of the\nboldest heresy. In most of his works religion is attacked, but in the\nIdeas faith is criticised with much more pungency and satire. He wrote\n\"Faith is the voluntary prison-cell of reason.\" He was an honorary\nmember of the Freethought Society, De Dageraad, and contributed to its\norgan. During the latter years of his life he lived at Wiesbaden, where\nhe died 19 Feb. 1887. His corpse was burned in the crematory at Gotha.\n\nDe Lalande (see Lalande).\n\nDelambre (Jean Baptiste Joseph), French astronomer, b. Amiens,\n19 Sept. 1749, studied under Lalande and became, like his master,\nan Atheist. His Tables of the Orbit of Uranus were crowned by the\nAcademy, 1790. In 1807 he succeeded Lalande as Professor of Astronomy\nat the Coll\u00e9ge de France. He is the author of a History of Astronomy\nin five volumes, and of a number of astronomical tables and other\nscientific works He was appointed perpetual secretary of the Academy of\nSciences. Died 19 Aug. 1822, and was buried at P\u00e8re la Chaise. Cuvier\npronouncing a discourse over his grave.\n\nDe la Ramee. See Ram\u00e9e.\n\nDelboeuf (Joseph Remi L\u00e9opold), Belgian writer, b. Li\u00e8ge, 30\nSept. 1831; is Professor at the University of Li\u00e8ge, and has\nwritten Psychology as a Natural Science, its Present and its Future;\nApplication of the Experimental Method to the Phenomena of the Soul,\n'73, and other works. In his Philosophical Prolegomena to Geometry\nhe suggests that even mathematical axioms may have an empirical origin.\n\nDelbos (L\u00e9on), linguist, b. 20 Sept. 1849 of Spanish father and Scotch\nmother. Educated in Paris, Lyc\u00e9e Charlemagne. Is an M.A. of Paris and\nofficier d'Acad\u00e9mie. Speaks many languages, and is a good Arabic and\nSanskrit scholar. Has travelled widely and served in the Franco-German\nWar. Besides many educational works, M. Delbos has written L'Ath\u00e9e,\nthe Atheist, a Freethought romance '79, and in English The Faith in\nJesus not a New Faith, '85. He has contributed to the Agnostic Annual,\nand is a decided Agnostic.\n\nDelepierre (Joseph Octave), Belgian bibliophile, b. Bruges, 12 March,\n1802. Was for thirty-five years secretary of Legation to England. His\ndaughter married N. Truebner, who published his work L'Enfer, 1876,\nand many other bibliographical studies. Died London, 18 Aug. 1879.\n\nDelescluze (Louis Charles), French journalist and revolutionary,\nb. Dreux, 2 Oct. 1809, was arrested in '34 for sedition. Implicated in\na plot in '35, he took refuge in Belgium. In '48 he issued at Paris La\nRevolution D\u00e9mocratique et Sociale, but was soon again in prison. He\nwas banished, came to England with Ledru Rollin, but returning to\nFrance in '53 was arrested. In '68 he published the R\u00e9veil, for\nwhich he was again fined and sentenced to prison for ten years. In\n'59 he was amnestied and imprisoned. He became head of the Commune\nCommittee of Public Safety, and died at the barricade, 25 May, 1871.\n\nDeleyre (Alexandre), French writer, b. Porbats, near Bordeaux, 6\nJan. 1726. Early in life he entered the order of Jesuits, but changed\nhis faith and became the friend of Rousseau and Diderot. He contributed\nto the Encyclop\u00e9die, notably the article \"Fanatisme,\" and published\nan analysis of Bacon and works on the genius of Montesquieu and Saint\nEvremond, and a History of Voyages. He embraced the Revolution with\nardor, was made deputy to the Convention, and in 1795 was made member\nof the Institute. Died at Paris, 27 March, 1797.\n\nDelisle de Sales. See Isoard Delisle (J. B. C.)\n\nDell (John Henry), artist and poet, b. 11 Aug. 1832. Contributed\nto Progress, wrote Nature Pictures, '71, and The Dawning Grey, '85,\na volume of vigorous verse, imbued with the spirit of democracy and\nfreethought. Died 31 Jan. 1888.\n\nDeluc (Adolphe), Professor of Chemistry at Brussels, b. Paris,\n1 Sept. 1811. Collaborated on La Libre Recherche.\n\nDe Maillet. See Maillet (Beno\u00eet de).\n\nDemocritus, a wealthy Atheistic philosopher, b. Abdera, Thrace,\nB.C. 460. He travelled to Egypt and over a great part of Asia,\nand is also said to have visited India. He is supposed to have\nbeen acquainted with Leucippus, and sixty works were ascribed to\nhim. Died B.C. 357. He taught that all existence consisted of atoms,\nand made the discovery of causes the object of scientific inquiry. He\nis said to have laughed at life in general, which Montaigne says\nis better than to imitate Heraclitus and weep, since mankind are\nnot so unhappy as vain. Democritus was the forerunner of Epicurus,\nwho improved his system.\n\nDemonax, a cynical philosopher who lived in the second century of\nthe Christian era and rejected all religion. An account of him was\nwritten by Lucian.\n\nDemora (Gianbattista), director of the Libero Pensatore of Milan,\nand author of some dramatic works.\n\nDenis (Hector), Belgian advocate and professor of political economy\nand philosophy at Brussels University, b. Braine-le-Comte, 29 April,\n1842. Has written largely on social questions and contributed to La\nLibert\u00e9, la Philosophie Positive, etc. Is one of the Council of the\nInternational Federation of Freethinkers.\n\nDenslow (Van Buren), American writer, author of essays on Modern\nThinkers, 1880, to which Colonel Ingersoll wrote an introduction. He\ncontributed a paper on the value of irreligion to the Religio\nPhilosophic journal of America, Jan. '78, and has written in the\nTruthseeker and other journals.\n\nDenton (William F.), poet, geologist, and lecturer, b. Darlington,\nDurham, 8 Jan. 1823. After attaining manhood he emigrated to the\nUnited States, '48, and in '56 published Poems for Reformers. He was\na prolific writer, and constant lecturer on temperance, psychology,\ngeology, and Freethought. In '72 he published Radical Discourses\non Religious Subjects (Boston, '72), and Radical Rhymes, '79. He\ntravelled to Australasia, and died of a fever while conducting\nscientific explorations in New Guinea 26 Aug. 1883.\n\nDe Paepe (C\u00e9sar) Dr., Belgian Socialist, b. Ostend, 12 July, 1842. He\nwas sent to the college of St. Michel, Brussels. He obtained the\nDiploma of Candidate of Philosophy, but on the death of his father\nbecame a printer with D\u00e9sir\u00e9 Brism\u00e9e (founder of Les Solidaires,\na Rationalist society). Proudhon confided to him the correction of\nhis works. He became a physician and is popular with the workmen's\nsocieties. He was one of the foremost members of the International and\nattended all its congresses, as well as those of the International\nFederation of Freethinkers. He has written much on public hygiene,\npolitical economy, and psychology, collaborating in a great number of\nthe most advanced journals. Dr. De Paepe is a short, fair, energetic\nman, capable both as a speaker and writer.\n\nDepasse (Hector), French writer, b. at Armenti\u00e8res in 1843, is\neditor of La R\u00e9publique Fran\u00e7aise, and member of the Paris Municipal\nCouncil. He has written a striking work on Clericalism, in which he\nurges the separation of Church and State, 1877; and is author of many\nlittle books on Contemporary Celebrities, among them are Gambetta,\nBert, Ranc, etc.\n\nDe Ponnat. See Ponnat (--de), Baron.\n\nDe Pontan. See Ponnat.\n\nDe Potter (Agathon Louis), Belgian economist, b. Brussels, 11\nNov. 1827. Has written many works on Social Science, and has\ncollaborated to La Ragione (Reason), '56, and La Philosophie de\nl'Avenir.\n\nDe Potter (Louis Antoine Joseph), Belgian politician and writer,\nfather of the above, b. of noble family, Bruges, 26 April, 1786. In\n1811 he went to Italy and lived ten years at Rome. In '21 he wrote the\nSpirit of the Church, in 6 vols., which are put on the Roman Index. A\nstrong upholder of secular education in Belgium, he was arrested\nmore than once for his radicalism, being imprisoned for eighteen\nmonths in '28. In Sept. '30 he became a member of the provisional\ngovernment. He was afterwards exiled and lived in Paris, where he wrote\na philosophical and anti-clerical History of Christianity, in 8 vols.,\n1836-37. He also wrote a Rational Catechism, 1854, and a Rational\nDictionary, 1859, and numerous brochures. Died Bruges, 22 July, 1859.\n\nDeraismes (Maria), French writer and lecturer, b. Paris, 15\nAug. 1835. She first made her name as a writer of comedies. She wrote\nan appeal on behalf of her sex, Aux Femmes Riches, '65. The Masonic\nLodge of Le Pecq, near Paris, invited her to become a member, and she\nwas duly installed under the Grand Orient of France. The first female\nFreemason, was president of the Paris Anti-clerical Congress of 1881,\nand has written much in her journal, Le R\u00e9publicain de Seine et Oise.\n\nDe Roberty (Eugene). See Roberty.\n\nDesbarreaux (Jacques Vall\u00e9e), Seigneur, French poet and sceptic,\nb. Paris, 1602, great-nephew of Geoffrey Vall\u00e9e, who was burnt in\n1574. Many stories are related of his impiety, e.g. the well-known\none of his having a feast of eggs and bacon. It thundered, and Des\nBarreaux, throwing the plate out of window, exclaimed, \"What an amount\nof noise over an omelette.\" It was said he recanted and wrote a poem\nbeginning, \"Great God, how just are thy chastisements.\" Voltaire,\nhowever, assigns this poem to the Abb\u00e9 Levau. Died at Chalons,\n9 May, 1673.\n\nDescartes (Ren\u00e9), French philosopher, b. at La Haye, 31 March,\n1596. After leaving college he entered the army in '16, and fought\nin the battle of Prague. He travelled in France and Italy, and in\n'29 settled in Holland. In '37 he produced his famous Discourses upon\nthe Method of Reasoning Well, etc., and in '41 his Meditations upon\nFirst Philosophy. This work gave such offence to the clergy that he\nwas forced to fly his country \"parce qu'il y fait trop chaud pour\nlui.\" He burnt his Traite du Monde (Treatise on the World) lest\nhe should incur the fate of Gallilei. Though a Theist, like Bacon,\nhe puts aside final causes. He was offered an asylum by Christina,\nQueen of Sweden, and died at Stockholm 11 Feb. 1650.\n\nDeschamps (L\u00e9ger-Marie), known also as Dom Deschamps, a French\nphilosopher, b. Rennes, Poitiers, 10 Jan. 1716. He entered the Order\nof Benedictines, but lost his faith by reading an abridgment of\nthe Old Testament. He became correspondent of Voltaire, Rousseau,\nd'Alembert, Helvetius, and other philosophers. \"Ce pr\u00eatre ath\u00e9e,\"\nas Ad. Franck calls him, was the author of a treatise entitled La\nV\u00e9rit\u00e9, ou le Vrai Syst\u00e8me, in which he appears to have anticipated\nall the leading ideas of Hegel. God, he says, as separated from\nexisting things, is pure nothingness. An analysis of his remarkable\nwork, which remained in manuscript for three-quarters of a century,\nhas been published by Professor Beaussire (Paris, 1855). Died at\nMontreuil-Bellay, 19 April 1774.\n\nDeslandes (Andr\u00e9 Fran\u00e7ois Boureau), b. Pondichery, 1690. Became member\nof the Berlin Academy and wrote numerous works, mostly under the veil\nof anonymity, the principal being A Critical History of Philosophy,\n3 vols(1737). His Pygmalion, a philosophical romance, was condemned by\nthe parliament of Dijon, 1742. His Reflexions sur les grands hommes\nqui sont mort en Plaisantant (Amsterdam, 1732) was translated into\nEnglish and published in 1745 under the title, Dying Merrily. Another\nwork directed against religion was On the certainty of Human Knowledge,\na philosophical examination of the different prerogatives of reason\nand faith (London, 1741). Died Paris, 11 April, 1757.\n\nDes Maizeaux (Pierre), miscellaneous writer, b. Auvergne, 1673. He\nstudied at Berne and Geneva, and became known to Bayle who introduced\nhim to Lord Shaftesbury, with whom he came to London, 1699. He edited\nthe works of Bayle, Saint Evremond and Toland, whose lives he wrote,\nas well as those of Hales and Chillingworth. Anthony Collins was his\nfriend, and at his death left him his manuscripts. These he transferred\nto Collins's widow and they were burnt. He repented and returned the\nmoney, 6 Jan. 1730, as the wages of iniquity. He became Secretary of\nthe Royal Society of London, where he died, 11 July, 1745.\n\nDesmoulins (Luci\u00e9 Simplice Camille Ben\u00f4it), French revolutionary\nwriter, b. Guise, 2 March, 1760. He was a fellow-student of Robespierre\nat Paris, and became an advocate and an enthusiastic reformer. In\nJuly '89 he incited the people to the siege of the Bastille,\nand thus began the Revolution. On 29 Dec. 1790 he married Lucile\nLaridon-Duplessis. He edited Le Vieux Cordelier and the R\u00e9volutions\nde France et de Brabant, in which he stated that Mohammedanism was\nas credible as Christianity. He was a Deist, preferring Paganism to\nChristianity. Both creeds were more or less unreasonable; but, folly\nfor folly, he said, I prefer Hercules slaying the Erymanthean boar\nto Jesus of Nazareth drowning two thousand pigs. He was executed\nwith Danton, 5 April 1794. His amiable wife, Lucile, who was an\nAtheist (b. 1770), in a few days shared his fate (April 13). Carlyle\ncalls Desmoulins a man of genius, \"a fellow of infinite shrewdness,\nwit--nay, humor.\"\n\nDes Periers (Jean Bonaventure), French poet and sceptic,\nb. Arnay le Duc, about 1510. He was brought up in a convent,\nonly to detest the vices of the monks. In 1535 he lived in Lyons\nand assisted Dolet. He probably knew Rabelais, whom he mentions as\n\"Francoys Insigne.\" Attached to the court of Marguerite of Valois,\nhe defended Clement Marot when persecuted for making a French version\nof the Psalms. He wrote the Cymbalum Mundi, a satire upon religion,\npublished under the name of Thomas de Clenier \u00e0 Pierre Tryocan,\ni.e., Thomas Incr\u00e9dule \u00e0 Pierre Croyant, 1537. It was suppressed\nand the printer, Jehan Morin, imprisoned. Des Periers fled and\ndied (probably by suicide, to escape persecution) 1544. An English\nversion of Cymbalum Mundi was published in 1712. P. G. Brunet, the\nbibliographer, conjectures that Des Periers was the author of the\nfamous Atheistic treatise, The Three Impostors.\n\nDestriveaux (Pierre Joseph), Belgian lawyer and politician, b. Li\u00e9ge,\n13 March, 1780. Author of several works on public right. Died\nSchaerbeck (Brussels), 3 Feb. 1853.\n\nDestutt de Tracy (Antoine Louis de Claude) Count, French materialist\nphilosopher, b. 20 July, 1754. His family was of Scotch origin. At\nfirst a soldier, he was one of the first noblemen at the Revolution\nto despoil himself of his title. A friend of Lafayette, Condorcet,\nand Cabanis, he was a complete sceptic in religion; made an analysis\nof Dupuis' Origine de tous les Cultes (1804), edited Montesquieu and\nCabanis, was made a member of the French Academy (1808), and wrote\nseveral philosophical works, of which the principal is Elements of\nIdeology. He was a great admirer of Hobbes. Died Paris, 9 March, 1836.\n\nDes Vignes (Pietro), secretary to Frederick II. (1245-49). Mazzuchelli\nattributes to him the treatise De Tribus Impostoribus.\n\nDetrosier (Rowland), social reformer and lecturer, b. 1796, the\nillegitimate son of a Manchester man named Morris and a Frenchwoman. In\nhis early years he was \"for whole days without food.\" Self-educated,\nhe established the first Mechanics' Institute in England at Hulme,\ngave Sunday scientific lectures, and published several discourses\nin favor of secular education. He became secretary of the National\nPolitical Union. He was a Deist. Like Bentham, who became his friend,\nhe bequeathed his body for scientific purposes. Died in London,\n23 Nov. 1834.\n\nDeubler (Konrad). The son of poor parents, b. Goisern, near Ischl,\nUpper Austria, 26 Nov. 1814. Self-taught amid difficulties,\nhe became the friend of Feuerbach and Strauss, and was known as\n\"the Peasant Philosopher.\" In 1854 he was indicted for blasphemy,\nand was sentenced to two years' hard labor and imprisonment during\npleasure. He was incarcerated from 7 Dec. '54, till Nov. '56 at Br\u00fcnn,\nand afterwards at Olmutz, where he was released 24 March, 1857. He\nreturned to his native place, and was visited by Feuerbach. In '70\nhe was made Burgomaster by his fellow-townsmen. Died 30 March, 1884.\n\nDeurhoff (Willem), Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, March 1650. Educated\nfor the Church, he gave himself to philosophy, translated the works of\nDescartes, and was accused of being a follower of Spinoza. Forced to\nleave his country, he took refuge in Brabant, but returned to Holland,\nwhere he died 10 Oct. 1717. He left some followers.\n\nDe Wette. (See Wette M. L. de).\n\nD'Holbach. See Holbach (P. H. D. von), Baron.\n\nDiagoras, Greek poet, philosopher, and orator, known as \"the Atheist,\"\nb. Melos. A pupil of Democritus, who is said to have freed him from\nslavery. A doubtful tradition reports that he became an Atheist after\nbeing the victim of an unpunished perjury. He was accused (B.C. 411)\nof impiety, and had to fly from Athens to Corinth, where he died. A\nprice was put upon the Atheist's head. His works are not extant,\nbut several anecdotes are related of him, as that he threw a wooden\nstatue of Hercules into the fire to cook a dish of lentils, saying the\ngod had a thirteenth task to perform; and that, being on his flight\nby sea overtaken by a storm, hearing his fellow-passengers say it\nwas because an Atheist was on board, he pointed to other vessels\nstruggling in the same storm without being laden with a Diagoras.\n\nDi Cagno Politi (Niccola Annibale), Italian Positivist, b. Bari,\n1857. Studied at Naples under Angiulli, has written on modern culture\nand on experimental philosophy in Italy, and contributed articles on\nPositivism to the Rivista Europea.\n\nDiderot (Denis), French philosopher, b. Langres, 6 Oct. 1713. His\nfather, a cutler, intended him for the Church. Educated by Jesuits,\nat the age of twelve he received the tonsure. He had a passion for\nbooks, but, instead of becoming a Jesuit, went to Paris, where he\nsupported himself by teaching and translating. In 1746 he published\nPhilosophic Thoughts, which was condemned to be burnt. It did much\nto advance freedom of opinion. Three years later his Letters on the\nBlind occasioned his imprisonment at Vincennes for its materialistic\nAtheism. Rousseau, who called him \"a transcendent genius,\" visited\nDiderot in prison, where he remained three years. Diderot projected the\nfamous Encyclop\u00e9die, which he edited with Alembert, and he contributed\nsome of the most important articles. With very inadequate recompense,\nand amidst difficulties that would have appalled an ordinary editor,\nDiderot superintended the undertaking for many years (1751-65). He also\ncontributed to other important works, such as Raynal's Philosophic\nHistory, L'Esprit, by Helvetius, and The System of Nature and other\nworks of his friend D'Holbach. Diderot's fertile mind also produced\ndramas, essays, sketches, and novels. Died 30 July, 1784. Comte calls\nDiderot \"the greatest thinker of the eighteenth century.\"\n\nDiercks (Gustav), German author of able works on the History of the\nDevelopment of Human Spirit (Berlin, 1881-2) and on Arabian Culture\nin Spain, 1887. Is a member of the German Freethinkers' Union.\n\nDilke (Ashton Wentworth), b. 1850. Educated at Cambridge, travelled\nin Russia and Central Asia, and published a translation of Turgenev's\nVirgin Soil. He purchased and edited the Weekly Dispatch; was returned\nas M.P. for Newcastle in 1880, but, owing to ill health, resigned in\nfavor of John Morley, and died at Algiers 12 March, 1883.\n\nDinter (Gustav Friedrich), German educationalist, b. Borna, near\nLeipsic, 29 Feb. 1760. His Bible for Schoolmasters is his best-known\nwork. It sought to give rational notes and explanations of the Jew\nbooks, and excited much controversy. Died at Konigsberg, 29 May, 1831.\n\nDippel (Johann Konrad), German alchemist and physician, b. 10\nAug. 1672, at Frankenstein, near Darmstadt. His Papismus vapulans\nProtestantium (1698) drew on him the wrath of the theologians of\nGiessen, and he had to flee for his life. Attempting to find out the\nphilosopher's stone, he discovered Prussian blue. In 1705 he published\nhis satires against the Protestant Church, Hirt und eine Heerde,\nunder the name of Christianus Democritos. He denied the inspiration\nof the Bible, and after an adventurous life in many countries died\n25 April, 1734.\n\nDobrolyubov (Nikolai Aleksandrovich), Russian author, b. 1836, at\nNijni Novgorod, the son of a priest. Educated at St. Petersburg, he\nbecame a radical journalist. His works were edited in four vols. by\nChernuishevsky. Died 17 Nov. 1861.\n\nDodel-Port (Prof. Arnold), Swiss scientist, b. Affeltrangen, Thurgau,\n16 Oct. 1843. Educated at Kreuzlingen, he became in '63 teacher in\nthe Oberschule in Hauptweil; then studied from '64-'69 at Geneva,\nZ\u00fcrich, and Munich, becoming privat docent in the University of\nZ\u00fcrich, '70. In '75 he published The New History of Creation. In\n'78 he issued his world-famous Botanical Atlas, and was in '80 made\nProfessor of Botany in the Z\u00fcrich University and Director of the\nBotanical Laboratory. He has also written Biological Fragments (1885),\nthe Life and Letters of Konrad Deubler, \"the peasant philosopher\"\n(1886), and has just published Moses or Darwin? a School Question,\n1889. Dr. Dodel-Port is an hon. member of the London Royal Society\nand Vice-President of the German Freethinkers' Union.\n\nDodwell (Henry), eldest son of the theologian of that name, was\nb. Shottesbrooke, Berkshire, about the beginning of the eighteenth\ncentury. He was educated at Magdalen Hall, when he proceeded B.A.,\n9 Feb. 1726. In '42 he published a pamphlet entitled Christianity\nnot Founded on Argument, which in a tone of grave irony contends that\nChristianity can only be accepted by faith. He was brought up to the\nlaw and was a zealous friend of the Society for the Promotion of Arts,\nManufactures, and Commerce. Died 1784.\n\nDoebereiner (Johann Wolfgang), German chemist, b. Bavaria, 15\nDec. 1780. In 1810 he became Professor of Chemistry at Jena, where\nhe added much to science. Died 24 March, 1849. He was friend and\ninstructor to Goethe.\n\nDolet (Etienne), a learned French humanist, b. Orleans 3 Aug. 1509. He\nstudied in Paris, Padua and Venice. For his heresy he had to fly\nfrom Toulouse and lived for some time at Lyons, where he established\na printing-press and published some of his works, for which he was\nimprisoned. He was acquainted with Rabelais, Des Periers, and other\nadvanced men of the time. In 1543 the Parliament condemned his books\nto be burnt, and in the next year he was arrested on a charge of\nAtheism. After being kept two years in prison he was strangled and\nburnt, 3 Aug. 1546. It is related that seeing the sorrow of the crowd,\nhe said: \"Non dolet ipe Dolet, sed pia turba dolet.\"--Dolet grieves\nnot, but the generous crowd grieves. His goods being confiscated,\nhis widow and children were left to beggary. \"The French language,\"\nsays A. F. Didot, \"owes him much for his treatises, translations,\nand poesies.\" Dolet's biographer, M. Joseph Boulmier, calls him \"le\nChrist de la pens\u00e9e libre.\" Philosophy has alone the right, says\nHenri Martin, to claim Dolet on its side. His English biographer,\nR. C. Christie, says he was \"neither a Catholic nor a Protestant.\"\n\nDominicis (Saverio Fausto de), Italian Positivist philosopher,\nb. Buonalbergo, 1846. Is Professor of Philosophy at Bari, and has\nwritten on Education and Darwinism.\n\nDondorf (Dr. A.), See Anderson (Marie) in Supplement.\n\nDoray de Longrais (Jean Paul), French man of letters. b. Manvieux,\n1736. Author of a Freethought romance, Faustin, or the Philosophical\nAge. Died at Paris, 1800.\n\nDorsch (Eduard), German American Freethinker, b. Warzburg 10\nJan. 1822. He studied at Munich and Vienna. In '49 he went to America\nand settled in Monroe, Michigan, where he published a volume of poems,\nsome being translations from Swinburne. Died 10 Jan. 1887.\n\nDorsey (J. M.), author of the The True History of Moses, and others,\nan attack on the Bible, published at Boston in 1855.\n\nDraparnaud (Jacques Philippe Raymond), French doctor, b. 3 June, 1772,\nat Montpelier, where he became Professor of Natural History. His\ndiscourses on Life and Vital Functions, and on the Philosophy of\nthe Sciences and Christianity (1801), show his scepticism. Died 1\nFeb. 1805.\n\nDraper (John William), scientist and historian, b. St. Helens,\nnear Liverpool, 5 May 1811. The son of a Wesleyan minister, he was\neducated at London University. In '32 he emigrated to America,\nwhere he was Professor of Chemistry and Natural History in New\nYork University. He was one of the inventors of photography and the\nfirst who applied it to astronomy. He wrote many scientific works,\nnotably on Human Physiology. His history of the American Civil War\nis an important work, but he is chiefly known by his History of the\nIntellectual Development of Europe and History of the Conflict of\nReligion and Science, which last has gone through many editions and\nbeen translated into all the principal languages. Died 4 Jan. 1882.\n\nDreyfus (Ferdinand Camille), author of an able work on the Evolution\nof Worlds and Societies, 1888.\n\nDroysen (Johann Gustav), German historian, b. Treptoir, 6 July,\n1808. Studied at Berlin; wrote in the Hallische Jahrb\u00fccher; was\nProfessor of History at Keil, 1840; Jena '51 and Berlin '59. Has edited\nFrederick the Great's Correspondence, and written other important\nworks, some in conjunction with his friend Max Duncker. Died 15\nJune, 1882.\n\nDrummond (Sir William), of Logie Almond, antiquary and author,\nb. about 1770; entered Parliament as member for St. Mawes, Cornwall,\n1795. In the following year he became envoy to the court of Naples,\nand in 1801 ambassador to Constantinople. His principal work is\nOrigines, or Remarks on the Origin of several Empires, States,\nand Cities (4 vols. 1824-29). He also printed privately The OEdipus\nJudaicus, 1811. It calls in question, with much boldness and learning,\nmany legends of the Old Testament, to which it gave an astronomical\nsignification. It was reprinted in '66. Sir William Drummond also\nwrote anonymously Philosophical Sketches of the Principles of Society,\n1795. Died at Rome, 29 March, 1828.\n\nDuboc (Julius) German writer and doctor of philosophy b. Hamburg, 10\nOct. 1829. Educated at Frankfurt and Giessen, is a clever journalist,\nand has translated the History of the English Press. Has written\nan Atheistic work, Das Leben Ohne Gott (Life without God), with the\nmotto from Feuerbach \"No religion is my religion, no philosophy my\nphilosophy,\" 1875. He has also written on the Psychology of Love,\nand other important works.\n\nDubois (Pierre), a French sceptic, who in 1835 published The True\nCatechism of Believers--a work ordered by the Court of Assizes to\nbe suppressed, and for which the author (Sept. '35) was condemned to\nsix months' imprisonment and a fine of one thousand francs. He also\nwrote The Believer Undeceived, or Evident Proofs of the Falsity and\nAbsurdity of Christianity; a work put on the Index in '36.\n\nDu Bois-Reymond (Emil), biologist, of Swiss father and French\nmother, b. Berlin, 7 Nov. 1818. He studied at Berlin and Bonn for\nthe Church, but left it to follow science, '37. Has become famous as\na physiologist, especially by his Researches in Animal Electricity,\n'48-60. With Helmholtz he has done much to establish the new era\nof positive science, wrongly called by opponents Materialism. Du\nBois-Reymond holds that thought is a function of the brain and nervous\nsystem, and that \"soul\" has arisen as the gradual results of natural\ncombinations, but in his Limits of the Knowledge of Nature, '72, he\ncontends that we must always come to an ultimate incomprehensible. Du\nBois-Reymond has written on Voltaire and Natural Science, '68; La\nMettrie, '75; Darwin versus Galiani, '78; and Frederick II. and\nRousseau, '79. Since '67 he has been perpetual secretary of the\nAcademy of Sciences, Berlin.\n\nDubuisson (Paul Ulrich), French dramatist and revolutionary, b. Lauat,\n1746. A friend of Cloots he suffered with him on the scaffold, 24\nMarch, 1794.\n\nDubuisson (Paul), living French Positivist, author of Grand Types\nof Humanity.\n\nDu Chatelet Lomont. See Chastelet.\n\nDuclos (Charles Pinot), witty French writer, b. Dinan, 12 Feb. 1704. He\nwas admitted into the French Academy, 1747 and became its secretary,\n1755. A friend of Diderot and d'Alembert. His Considerations sur les\nMoeurs is still a readable work. Died 27 March, 1772.\n\nDucos (Jean Fran\u00e7ois), French Girondist, b. Bordeaux in 1765. Elected\nto the Legislative Assembly, he, on the 26th Oct. 1791, demanded\nthe complete separation of the State from religion. He shared the\nfate of the Girondins, 31 Oct. 1793, crying with his last breath,\n\"Vive la Republique!\"\n\nDu Deffand (Marie), Marchioness, witty literary Frenchwoman,\nb. 1697. Chamfort relates that when young and in a convent she preached\nirreligion to her young comrades. The abbess called in Massillon, to\nwhom the little sceptic gave her reasons. He went away saying \"She\nis charming.\" Her house in Paris was for fifty years the resort of\neminent authors and statesmen. She corresponded for many years with\nHorace Walpole, D'Alembert and Voltaire. Many anecdotes are told of\nher; thus, to the Cardinal de Polignac, who spoke of the miracle of\nSt. Denis walking when beheaded, she said \"Il n'y a que le premier\npas qui co\u00fbte.\" Died 24 Sept. 1780. To the cur\u00e9 of Saint Sulpice,\nwho came to her death-bed, she said \"Ni questions, ni raisons, ni\nsermons.\" Larousse calls her \"Belle, instruite, spirituelle mais\nsceptique et materialiste.\"\n\nDudgeon (William), a Berwickshire Deist, whose works were published\n(privately printed at Edinburgh) in 1765.\n\nDudnevant (A. L. A. Dupin), Baroness. See Sand (Georges).\n\nDuehring (Eugen Karl), German writer, b. Berlin, 12 Jan. 1833; studied\nlaw. He has, though blind, written many works on science and political\neconomy, also a Critical History of Philosophy, '69-78, and Science\nRevolutionized, '78. In Oct. 1879, his death was maliciously reported.\n\nDulaure (Jacques Antoine), French arch\u00e6ologist and historian,\nb. Clermont-Ferrand, 3 Dec. 1755. In 1788-90 he published six volumes\nof a description of France. He wrote many pamphlets, including one\non the private lives of ecclesiastics. Elected to the Convention in\n1792, he voted for the death of the King. Proscribed as a Girondist,\nSept. 1793, he fled to Switzerland. He was one of the Council of Five\nHundred, 1796-98. Dulaure wrote a learned Treatise on Superstitions,\nbut he is best known by his History of Paris, and his Short History\nof Different Worships, 1825, in which he deals with ancient fetishism\nand phallic worship. Died Paris, 9 Aug. 1835.\n\nDulaurens (Henri Joseph). French satirist, b. Douay, 27 March, 1719. He\nwas brought up in a convent, and made a priest 12 Nov. 1727. Published\na satire against the Jesuits, 1761, he was compelled to fly to\nHolland, where he lived in poverty. He edited L'Evangile de la Raison,\na collection of anti-Christian tracts by Voltaire and others, and\nwrote L'Antipapisme r\u00e9vel\u00e9 in 1767. He was in that year condemned\nto perpetual imprisonment for heresy, and shut in the convent of\nMariabaum, where he died 1797. Dulaurens was caustic, cynical and\nvivacious. He is also credited with the Portfolios of a Philosopher,\nmostly taken from the Analysis of Bayle, Cologne, 1770.\n\nDulk (Albert Friedrich Benno), German poet and writer, b. Konigsberg,\n17 June, 1819; he became a physician, but was expelled for aiding\nin the Revolution of '48. He travelled in Italy and Egypt. In '65\nhe published Jesus der Christ, embodying rationalism in prose and\nverse. He has also written Stimme der Menschheit, 2 vols., '76,\n'80, and Der Irrgang des Lebens Jesu, '84, besides numerous plays\nand pamphlets. Died 29 Oct. 1884.\n\nDumont (L\u00e9on), French writer, b. Valenciennes, 1837. Studied for\nthe bar, but took to philosophy and literature. He early embraced\nDarwinism, and wrote on H\u00e6ckel and the Theory of Evolution, '73. He\nwrote in La Revue Philosophique, and other journals. Died Valenciennes,\n17 Jan. 1877.\n\nDumarsais (C\u00e9sar Chesneau), French grammarian and philosopher,\nb. Marseilles, 17 July, 1676. When young he entered the congregation\nof the oratory. This society he soon quitted, and went to Paris,\nwhere he married. A friend of Boindin and Alembert, he wrote against\nthe pretensions of Rome and contributed to the Encyclop\u00e9die. He is\ncredited with An Analysis of the Christian Religion and with the\ncelebrated Essai sur les Pr\u00e9jug\u00e9s, par Mr. D. M., but the latter was\nprobably written by Holbach, with notes by Naigeon. Le Philosophe,\npublished in L'Evangile de la Raison by Dulaurens, was written by\nVoltaire. Died 11 June, 1756. Dumarsais was very simple in character,\nand was styled by D'Alembert the La Fontaine of philosophers.\n\nDumont (Pierre Etienne Louis), Swiss writer, b. Geneva, 18 July,\n1759. Was brought up as a minister, but went to France and became\nsecretary to Mirabeau. After the Revolution he came to England, where\nhe became acquainted with Bentham, whose works he translated. Died\nMilan, 29 Sept. 1829.\n\nDuncker (Maximilian Wolfgang), German historian, b. Berlin, 15\nOct. 1811. His chief work, the History of Antiquity, 1852-57,\nthoroughly abolishes the old distinction of sacred and profane\nhistory, and freely criticises the Jewish records. A translation in\nsix volumes has been made by E. Abbot. Duncker took an active part\nin the events of '48 and '50, and was appointed Director-General of\nthe State Archives. Died 24 July, 1886.\n\nDupont (Jacob Louis), a French mathematician and member of the\nNational Convention, known as the Abb\u00e9 Dupont, who, 14 Dec. 1792,\ndeclared himself an Atheist from the tribune of the Convention. Died\nat Paris in 1813.\n\nDupont de Nemours (Pierre Samuel), French economist, b. Paris, 14\nDec. 1739. He became President of the Constituent Assembly, and was\na Theophilantrophist. Died Delaware, U.S.A., 6 Aug. 1817.\n\nDupuis (Charles Fran\u00e7ois), French astronomer and philosopher,\nb. Trie-le-Chateau, 16 Oct. 1742. He was educated for the Church, which\nhe left, and married in 1775. He studied under Lalande, and wrote on\nthe origin of the constellations, 1781. In 1788 he became a member of\nthe Academy of Inscriptions. At the Revolution he was chosen a member\nof the Convention. During the Reign of Terror he saved many lives at\nhis own risk. He was afterwards one of the Council of Five Hundred, and\npresident of the legislative body. His chief work is on the Origin of\nReligions, 7 vols., 1795, in which he traces solar worship in various\nfaiths, including Christianity. This has been described as \"a monument\nof the erudition of unbelief.\" Dupuis died near Dijon, 29 Sept. 1809.\n\nDutrieux (Pierre Joseph), Belgian physician, b. Tournai, 19 July,\n1848. Went to Cairo and became a Bey. Died 1 Jan. 1889.\n\nDutton (Thomas), M.A., theatrical critic, b. London, 1767. Educated\nby the Moravians. In 1795 he published a Vindication of the Age of\nReason by Thomas Paine. He translated Kotzebue's Pizarro in Peru,\n1799, and edited the Dramatic Censor, 1800, and the Monthly Theatrical\nReporter, 1815.\n\nDuvernet (Th\u00e9ophile Imarigeon), French writer, b. at Ambert\n1730. He was brought up a Jesuit, became an Abb\u00e9, but mocked at\nreligion. Duvernet became tutor to Saint Simon. For a political\npamphlet he was imprisoned in the Bastille. While here he wrote a\ncurious and rare romance, Les Devotions de Mme. de Bethzamooth. He\nwrote on Religious Intolerance, 1780, and a History of the Sorbonne,\n1790, but is best known by his Life of Voltaire (1787). In 1793\nhe wrote a letter to the Convention, in which he declares that\nhe renounces the religion \"born in a stable between an ox and an\nass.\" Died in 1796.\n\nDyas (Richard H.), captain in the army. Author of The Upas. He resided\nlong in Italy and translated several of the works of C. Voysey.\n\nEaton (Daniel Isaac), bookseller, b. about 1752, was educated at the\nJesuits' College, St. Omer. Being advised to study the Bible, he did\nso, with the result of discarding it as a revelation. In 1792 he was\nprosecuted for publishing Paine's Rights of Man, but the prosecution\nfell through. He afterwards published Politics for the People, which\nwas also prosecuted, 1793, as was his Political Dictionary, 1796. To\nescape punishment, he fled to America, and lived there for three years\nand a half. Upon returning to England, his person and property were\nseized. Books to the value of \u00a32,800 were burnt, and he was imprisoned\nfor fifteen months. He translated from Helvetius and sold at his\n\"Rationcinatory or Magazine for Truths and Good Sense,\" 8 Cornhill,\nin 1810, The True Sense and Meaning of the System of Nature. The Law\nof Nature had been previously translated by him. In '11 he issued\nthe first and second parts of Paine's Age of Reason, and on 6 March,\n'12, was tried before Lord Ellenborough on a charge of blasphemy\nfor issuing the third and last part. He was sentenced to eighteen\nmonths' imprisonment and to stand in the pillory. The sentence evoked\nShelley's spirited Letter to Lord Ellenborough. Eaton translated and\npublished Freret's Preservative against Religious Prejudices, 1812,\nand shortly before his death, at Deptford, 22 Aug. 1814, he was again\nprosecuted for publishing George Houston's Ecce Homo.\n\nEberhard (Johann August), German Deist, b. Halberstadt, 31 Aug. 1739,\nwas brought up in the church, but persecuted for heresy in his New\nApology for Socrates, 1772, was patronised by Frederick the Great,\nand appointed Professor of Philosophy at Halle, where he opposed\nthe idealism of Kant and Fichte. He wrote a History of Philosophy,\n1788. Died Halle, 7 Jan. 1809.\n\nEberty (Gustav), German Freethinker, b. 2 July, 1806. Author of some\ncontroversial works. Died Berlin, 10 Feb. 1887.\n\nEchtermeyer (Ernst Theodor), German critic, b. Liebenwerda, 1805. He\nstudied at Halle and Berlin, and founded, with A. Ruge, the Hallische\nJahrb\u00fccher, which contained many Freethought articles, 1837-42. He\ntaught at Halle and Dresden, where he died, 6 May, 1844.\n\nEdelmann (Johann Christian), German Deist, b. Weissenfels, Saxony,\n9 July, 1698; studied theology in Jena, joined the Moravians,\nbut left them and every form of Christianity, becoming an adherent\nof Spinozism. His principal works are his Unschuldige Wahrheiten,\n1735 (Innocent Truths), in which he argues that no religion is of\nimportance, and Moses mit Aufgedecktem Angesicht (Moses Unmasked),\n1740, an attack on the Old Testament, which, he believed, proceeded\nfrom Ezra; Die G\u00f6ttlichkeit der Vernunft (The Divinity of Reason),\n1741, and Christ and Belial. His works excited much controversy, and\nwere publicly burnt at Frankfort, 9 May, 1750. Edelmann was chased\nfrom Brunswick and Hamburg, but was protected by Frederick the Great,\nand died at Berlin, 15 Feb. 1767. Mirabeau praised him, and Guizot\ncalls him a \"fameux esprit fort.\"\n\nEdison (Thomas Alva), American inventor, b. Milan, Ohio, 10\nFeb. 1847. As a boy he sold fruit and papers at the trains. He read,\nhowever, Gibbon, Hume and other important works before he was ten. He\nafterwards set up a paper of his own, then became telegraph operator,\nstudied electricity, invented electric light, the electric pen,\nthe telephone, microphone, phonograph, etc. Edison is known to be an\nAgnostic and to pay no attention to religion.\n\nEenens (Ferdinand), Belgian writer, b. Brussels, 7 Dec. 1811. Eenens\nwas an officer in the Belgian army, and wrote many political and\nanti-clerical pamphlets. He also wrote La V\u00e9rit\u00e9, a work on the\nChristian faith, 1859; Le Paradis Terrestre, '60, an examination of\nthe legend of Eden, and Du Dieu Thaumaturge, '76. He used the pen\nnames \"Le P\u00e8re Nicaise,\" \"Nicod\u00e8me Polycarpe\" and \"Timon III.\" Died\nat Brussels in 1883.\n\nEffen (Justus van), Dutch writer, b. Utrecht, 11 Feb. 1684. Edited the\nMisanthrope, Amsterdam, 1712-16; translated Robinson Crusoe, Swift's\nTale of a Tub, and Mandeville's Thoughts on Religion, 1722; published\nthe Dutch Spectator, 1731-35. Died at Bois-le-Duc, 18 Sept. 1735.\n\nEichhorn (Johann Gottfried), German Orientalist and rationalist, b. 16\nOct. 1752, became Professor of Oriental Literature and afterwards\nProfessor of Theology at Gottingen. He published Introductions to\nthe Old and New Testaments and A Commentary on the Apocalypse, in\nwhich his criticism tends to uproot belief in the Bible as a divine\nrevelation. He lectured every day for fifty-two years. Died 25 June,\n1827.\n\n\"Elborch (Conrad von),\" the pseudonym of a living learned Dutch writer,\nwhose position does not permit him to reveal his true name. Born\n14 Jan. 1865, he has contributed to De Dageraad (The Daybreak),\nunder various pen-names, as \"Fra Diavolo,\" \"Denis Bontemps,\" \"J. Van\nden Ende,\" etc. He has given, in '88, a translation of the rare and\nfamous Latin treatise, De Tribus Impostoribus (On Three Impostors)\n[Jesus, Moses, and Muhammad], with an important bibliographic and\nhistorical introduction.\n\n\"Eliot (George),\" the pen-name of Mary Ann Lewes (n\u00e9e Evans) one of\nthe greatest novelists of the century, b. at Arbury Farm, near Griff,\nWarwickshire, 22 Nov. 1819. In '41 the family removed to Foleshill,\nnear Coventry. Here she made the friendship of the household of\nCharles Bray, and changed her views from Evangelical Christianity\nto philosophical scepticism. Influenced by The Inquiry into the\nOrigin of Christianity, by C. C. Hennell (Bray's brother-in-law),\nshe made an analysis of that work. Her first literary venture was\ntranslating Strauss' Leben Jesu, published in 1846. After the death\nof her father ('49) she travelled with the Brays upon the Continent,\nand upon her return assisted Dr. Chapman in the editorship of the\nWestminster Review, to which she contributed several articles. She\ntranslated Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity, '54, the only work\npublished with her real name, and also translated from Spinoza's\nEthics. Introduced by Herbert Spencer to George Henry Lewes, she\nlinked her life with his in defiance of the conventions of society,\nJuly, '54. Both were poor, but by his advice she turned to fiction,\nin which she soon achieved success. Her Scenes of Clerical Life, Adam\nBede, Mill on the Floss, Silas Marner, Romola, Felix Holt, Middlemarch,\nDaniel Deronda, and Theophrastus Such have become classics. As a poet,\n\"George Eliot\" does not rank so high, but her little piece, \"Oh,\nmay I join the choir invisible,\" well expresses the emotion of the\nReligion of Humanity, and her Spanish Gipsy she allowed was \"a mass\nof Positivism.\" Lewes died in 1878, and within two years she married\nhis friend, J. W. Cross. Her new happiness was short-lived. She died\n22 Dec. 1880, and is buried with Lewes at Highgate.\n\nEllero (Pietro) Italian jurisconsult, b. Pordenone, 8 Oct. 1833,\nCounsellor of the High Court of Rome, has been Professor of Criminal\nLaw in the University of Bologna. Author of many works on legal and\nsocial questions. His Scritti Minori, Scritti Politici and La Question\nSociale have the honor of a place on the Roman Index.\n\nElliotson (John, M.D., F.R.S.), an eminent medical man, b. London,\n1791. He became physician at St. Thomas's Hospital in 1822, and made\nmany contributions to medical science. By new prescriptions of quinine,\ncreasote, etc., he excited much hostility in the profession. He was\nthe first in this country to advocate the use of the stethoscope. He\nwas also the first physician to discard knee-breeches and silk\nstockings, and to wear a beard. In '31 he was chosen Professor at\nUniversity College, but, becoming an advocate of curative mesmerism,\nhe resigned his appointments, '38. He was founder and President of the\nLondon Phrenological Society, and, in addition to many medical works,\nedited the Zoist (thirteen vols.), translated Blumenbach's Physiology,\nand wrote an introduction to Engledue's Cerebral Physiology, defending\nmaterialism. Thackeray dedicated Pendennis to him, '50, and he received\na tribute of praise from Dickens. Died at London, 29 July, 1868.\n\nEichthal (Gustave d'), French writer, b. of Jewish family, Nancy,\n22 March, 1804. He became a follower of Saint Simon, was one of the\nfounders of the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d'Ethnologie, and published Les Evangiles, a\ncritical analysis of the gospels, 2 vols, Paris, '63. This he followed\nby The Three Great Mediterranean Nations and Christianity and Socrates\nand our Time, '84. He died at Paris, April, 1886, and his son published\nhis M\u00e9langes de Critique Biblique (Miscellanies of Biblical Criticism),\nin which there is an able study on the name and character of \"Jahveh.\"\n\nEmerson (Ralph Waldo), American essayist, poet, and philosopher,\nb. Boston 25 May, 1803. He came of a line of ministers, and was\nbrought up like his father, educated at Harvard College, and ordained\nas a Unitarian minister, 1829. Becoming too broad for the Church,\nhe resigned in '32. In the next year he came to Europe, visiting\nCarlyle. On his return he settled at Concord, giving occasional\nlectures, most of which have been published. He wrote to the Dial, a\ntranscendentalist paper. Tending to idealistic pantheism, but without\nsystematic philosophy, all his writings are most suggestive, and he\nis always the champion of mental freedom, self-reliance, and the free\npursuit of science. Died at Concord, 27 April, 1882. Matthew Arnold\nhas pronounced his essays \"the most important work done in prose\"\nin this century.\n\nEmerson (William), English mathematician, b. Hurworth, near Darlington,\n14 May, 1701. He conducted a school and wrote numerous works on\nMathematics. His vigorous, if eccentric, individuality attracted\nCarlyle, who said to Mrs. Gilchrist, \"Emerson was a Freethinker who\nlooked on his neighbor, the parson, as a humbug. He seems to have\ndefended himself in silence the best way he could against the noisy\nclamor and unreal stuff going on around him.\" Died 21 May, 1782. He\ncompiled a list of Bible contradictions.\n\nEmmet (Robert), Irish revolutionist, b. in Dublin 1778, was educated\nas a barrister. Expelled from Dublin University for his sympathy with\nthe National Cause in 1798; he went to the Continent, but returned in\n1802 to plan an ill-starred insurrection, for which he was executed 20\nSept. 1803. Emmet made a thrilling speech before receiving sentence,\nand on the scaffold refused the services of a priest. It is well\nknown that his desire to see once more his sweetheart, the daughter\nof Curran, was the cause of his capture and execution.\n\nEngledue (William Collins), M.D., b. Portsea 1813. After taking his\ndegree at Edinburgh, he became assistant to Dr. Lizars and was elected\nPresident of the Royal Medical Society of Edinburgh. He returned\nto Portsmouth in 1835; originated the Royal Portsmouth Hospital and\nestablished public baths and washhouses. He contributed to the Zoist\nand published an exposition of materialism under the title of Cerebral\nPhysiology, 1842, republished by J. Watson, 1857. Died Jan. 1859.\n\nEnglish (George Bethune), American writer and linguist, b. Cambridge,\nMass., 7 March, 1787. He studied law and divinity, and graduated\nat Harvard, 1807, but becoming sceptical published Grounds of\nChristianity Examined, 1813. The work excited some controversy,\nand has been reprinted at Toronto, 1839. He joined the Egyptian\nservice and became General of Artillery. He had a variable genius\nand a gift of languages. At Marseilles he passed for a Turk with\na Turkish ambassador; and at Washington he surprised a delegation\nof Cherokees by disputing with them in their own tongue. He wrote a\nreply to his critics, entitled Five Smooth Stones out of the Brook,\nand two letters to Channing on his sermons against infidelity. Died\nat Washington, 20 Sept. 1828.\n\nEnse (Varnhagen von). See Varnhagen.\n\nEnsor (George), an Irish writer, b. Loughgall, 1769. Educated at\nTrinity College; he became B.A. 1790. He travelled largely, and was\na friend of liberty in every country. Besides other political works\nhe published, The Independent Man, 1806; On National Government,\n1810; A Review of the Miracles, Prophecies and Mysteries of the\nOld and New Testaments, first printed as Janus on Sion, 1816, and\nrepublished 1835; and Natural Theology Examined, 1836, the last being\nrepublished in The Library of Reason. Bentham described him as clever\nbut impracticable. Died Ardress, Co. Armagh, 3 Dec. 1843.\n\nEpicurus, Greek philosopher, b. Samos, B.C. 342. He repaired to\nAthens, B.C. 323. Influenced by the works of Demokritos, he occupied\nhimself with philosophy. He purchased a garden in Athens, in which he\nestablished his school. Although much calumniated, he is now admitted\nto have been a man of blameless life. According to Cicero, he had no\nbelief in the gods, but did not attack their existence, in order not\nto offend the prejudices of the Athenians. In physics he adopted the\natomic theory, and denied immortality. He taught that pleasure is the\nsovereign good; but by pleasure he meant no transient sensation, but\npermanent tranquility of mind. He wrote largely, but his works are\nlost. His principles are expounded in the great poem of Lucretius,\nDe Rerum Natura. Died B.C. 270, leaving many followers.\n\n\"Erdan (Alexandre),\" the pen-name of Alexandre Andre Jacob, a French\nwriter, b. Angles 1826. He was the natural son of a distinguished\nprelate. Educated at Saint Sulpice for the Church, he read Proudhon,\nand refused to take holy orders. He became a journalist and an advocate\nof phonography. His work, La France Mystique (1855), in which he\ngives an account of French religious eccentricities, was condemned\nfor its scepticism which appears on every page. Sentenced to a year's\nimprisonment and a fine of three thousand francs, he took refuge in\nItaly. Died at Frascati, near Rome, 24 Sept. 1878.\n\nErnesti (Johann August), German critic, b. Tennstadt, 4\nAug. 1707. Studied at Wittenberg and Leipsic, where he was appointed\nprofessor of classical literature. Renowned as a philologist, he\ninsisted that the Bible must be interpreted like any other book. Died\nLeipsic, 11 Sept. 1781.\n\nEscherny (Fran\u00e7ois Louis d') Count, Swiss litterateur, b. Neufchatel,\n24 Nov. 1733. He spent much of his life in travel. At Paris he became\nthe associate of Helvetius, Diderot, and particularly Rousseau, whom he\nmuch admired. He wrote Lacunes de la Philosophie (Amsterdam, 1783) and\na work on Equality (1795), in which he displays his Freethought. Died\nat Paris, 15 July, 1815.\n\nEspinas (Alfred), French philosopher, b. Saint-Florentin, 1844. Has\ntranslated, with Th. Ribot, H. Spencer's Principles of Psychology,\nand has written studies on Experimental Philosophy in Italy, and on\nAnimal Societies (1877).\n\nEspronceda (Jos\u00e9), popular Spanish poet, b. Almendralejo (Estremadura)\nin 1810. After the War of Independence he went to Madrid and studied\nunder Alberto Lista, the poet and mathematician. He became so obnoxious\nto the government by his radical principles that he was imprisoned\nabout the age of fifteen, and banished a few years later. He passed\nseveral years in London and Paris, and was brought under the influence\nof Byron and Hugo. He fought with the people in the Paris Revolution\nof July, 1830. On the death of the Spanish King in '33 he returned\nto Madrid, but was again banished for too free expression of his\nopinions. He returned and took part in the revolutionary contest of\n'35-36. He was elected to the Cortes in '41, and appointed secretary\nof embassy to The Hague. Died 23 May, 1842. Among his works are\nlyrical poems, which often remind us of Heine; an unfinished epic,\nEl Pelayo; and El Diablo-Mundo (the Devil-World), a fine poem, due\nto the inspiration of Faust and Don Juan. Espronceda was a thorough\nsceptic. In his Song of the Pirate he asks, \"Who is my God?--Liberty\";\nand in his concluding lines to a star he says:\n\n\n                I unheedingly follow my path,\n                At the mercy of winds and of waves.\n                Wrapt thus within the arms of Fate,\n                What care I if lost or saved.\n\n\nEstienne (Henri), the ablest of a family of learned French printers,\nknown in England as Stephens; b. Paris, 1528. At the age of\neighteen he assisted his father in collating the MSS. of Dionysius\nof Halicarnassus. In 1557 he established a printing office of his\nown, and issued many Greek authors; and in 1572 the Thesaurus Lingu\u00e6\nGr\u00e6c\u00e6. His Apologie pour Herodote (Englished as a World of Wonders)\nis designed as a satire on Christian legends, and directed against\npriests and priestcraft. He was driven from place to place. Sir\nPhilip Sidney highly esteemed him, and \"kindly entertained him in\nhis travaile.\" Died 1598. Garasse classes him with Atheists.\n\nEsteve (Pierre), French writer, b. Montpelier at the beginning of the\neighteenth century. He wrote a History of Astronomy and an anonymous\nwork on the Origin of the Universe explained from a Principle of\nMatter; Berlin, 1748.\n\nEttel (Konrad), Austrian Freethinker, b. 17 Jan. 1847, at Neuhof,\nSternberg. Studied at the Gymnasium Kremsier, and at the wish of his\nparents at the Theological Seminary Olm\u00fctz, which he left to study\nphilosophy at Vienna. He has written many poems and dramas. His\nGrundzuge der Nat\u00fcrlichen Weltanschauung (Sketch of a Natural View\nof the World), a Freethinker's catechism, 1886, has reached a fourth\nedition.\n\nEvans (George Henry), b. at Bromyard, Herefordshire, 25 March,\n1803. While a child, his parents emigrated to New York. He set up\nas a printer, and published the Correspondent, the first American\nFreethought paper. He also published the Working Man's Advocate, Man,\nYoung America, and the Radical. He labored for the transportation\nof mails on Sundays, the limitation of the right to hold lands,\nthe abolition of slavery, and other reforms. His brother became one\nof the chief elders of the Shakers. Died in Granville, New Jersey,\n2 Feb. 1855.\n\nEvans (William), b. Swansea, 1816, became a follower of Robert\nOwen. He established The Potter's Examiner and Workman's Advocate,\n'43, and wrote in the Co-operative journals under the anagram of\n\"Millway Vanes.\" Died 14 March, 1887.\n\nEvanson (Edward), theological critic, b. Warrington, Lancashire,\n21 April, 1731. He graduated at Cambridge, became vicar of South\nMimms, and afterwards rector of Tewkesbury. Entertaining doubts\non the Trinity, he submitted them to the Archbishop of Canterbury\nwithout obtaining satisfaction. He made some changes in reading the\nLitany, and for expressing heretical opinions in a sermon in 1771,\nhe was prosecuted, but escaped in consequence of some irregularity\nin the proceedings. In 1772 he published an anonymous tract on the\nTrinity. In 1797 he addressed a letter to the Bishop of Lichfield\non the Prophecies of the New Testament, in which he tried to show\nthat either Christianity was false or the orthodox churches. In the\nfollowing year he resigned both his livings and took pupils. In\n1792 he published his principal work, The Dissonance of the Four\nGenerally-Received Evangelists, in which he rejected all the gospels,\nexcept Luke, as unauthentic. This work involved him in a controversy\nwith Dr. Priestley, and brought a considerable share of obloquy and\npersecution from the orthodox. Died 25 Sept. 1805.\n\nEve'merus or Euhemerus, a Sicilian author of the time of Alexander\nthe Great, who sought to rationalise religion, and treated the gods\nas dead heroes. He is usually represented as an Atheist.\n\nEudes (Emile Fran\u00e7ois D\u00e9sir\u00e9), French Communist, b. Roncey, 1844. He\nbecame a chemist, and was condemned, with R\u00e9gnard, to three months'\nimprisonment for writing in La Libre Pens\u00e9e, '67, of which he was\ndirector. He joined the ranks of the Commune and became a general. When\nthe Versailles troops entered Paris he escaped to Switzerland. On\nhis return after the Amnesty, he wrote with Blanqui. Died at a public\nmeeting in Paris, 5 Aug. 1888.\n\nEwerbeck (August Hermann), Dr., b. Dantzic. After the events of 1848,\nhe lived at Paris. He translated into German Cabet's Voyage en Icarie,\nand in an important work entitled Qu'est ce que La Religion? (What\nis Religion), '50, translated into French Feuerbach's \"Essence of\nReligion,\" \"Essence of Christianity,\" and \"Death and Immortality.\" In\na succeeding volume What is the Bible? he translated from Daumer,\nGhillany, Luetzelberger and B. Bauer. Ewerbeck also wrote in French\nan historical work on Germany and the Germans; Paris, 1851.\n\nFabre D'Eglantine (Philippe Fran\u00e7ois Nazaire), French revolutionist and\nplaywriter, b. Carcassonne, 28 Dec. 1755. After some success as a poet\nand playwright he was chosen as deputy to the National Convention. He\nvoted for the death of Louis XVI., and proposed the substitution of\nthe republican for the Christian calendar, Sept. 1793. He was executed\nwith his friend Danton, 5 April, 1794.\n\nFabricatore (Bruto), Italian writer, b. Sarno, Naples, 1824. His father\nAntonio had the honor of having a political work placed on the Index,\n1821. He took part in the anti-papal Freethought Council of 1869,\nand has written works on Dante, etc.\n\nFarinata. See Uberti (Farinata degli).\n\nFauche (Hippolyte), French Orientalist, b. Auxerre, 22 May,\n1797. Translations of the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the plays\nof Kalidasa, attest his industry and erudition. He contributed to La\nLibert\u00e9 de Penser. Died at Juilly, 28 Feb. 1869.\n\nFausto (Sebastiano), Da Longiano, Italian of the beginning of the 16th\ncentury, who is said to have projected a work The Temple of Truth,\nwith the intention of overturning all religions. He translated the\nMeditations of Antoninus, also wrote observations on Cicero, 1566.\n\nFeer (Henri L\u00e9on), French Orientalist, b. Rouen, 27 Nov. 1830, is\nchiefly known by his Buddhistic Studies, 1871-75.\n\nFellens (Jean Baptiste), Professor of History, b. Bar-sur-Aube,\n1794. Author of a work on Pantheism, Paris, 1873.\n\nFellowes (Robert), LL.D., b. Norfolk 1771, educated at Oxford. He\ntook orders in 1795, and wrote many books, but gradually quitted the\ndoctrines of the Church and adopted the Deistic opinions maintained in\nhis work entitled The Religion of the Universe (1836). Dr. Fellowes\nwas proprietor of the Examiner and a great supporter of the London\nUniversity. Died 5 Feb. 1847.\n\nFenzi (Sebastiano), Italian writer, b. Florence, 22 Oct. 1822. Educated\nby the Jesuits in Vienna, England and Paris. Founded in '49 the Revista\nBritannica, writer on the journal L'Italiano, and has written a credo\nwhich is a non-credo.\n\nFeringa (Frederik), Dutch writer, b. Groningen, 16 April, 1840. Studied\nmathematics. A contributor to De Dageraad (The Daybreak) over the\nsignature, \"Muricatus\"; he has written important studies, entitled\nDemocratie en Wetenschap (Democracy and Science), 1871, also wrote\nin De Vrije Gedachte (Freethought).\n\nFernau (Rudolf), Dr., German author of Christianity and Practical\nLife, Leipsic, 1868; The Alpha and Omega of Reason, Leipsic, 1870;\nZoologica Humoristica, 1882; and a recent work on Religion as Ghost\nand God Worship.\n\nFeron (Emile), Belgian advocate, b. Brussels, 11 July, 1841. Councillor\nof the International Freethought Federation.\n\nFerrari (Giuseppe), Italian philosopher, b. Milan 7 March, 1811. A\ndisciple of Romagnosi, a study of whose philosophical writings he\npublished '35. He also published the works of Vico, and in '39 a work\nentitled Vico and Italy, and in the following year another on the\nReligious Opinions of Campanella. Attacked by the Catholic party,\nhe was exiled, living in Paris, where he became a collaborator with\nProudhon and a contributor to the Revue de Deux Mondes. In '42 he\nwas made Professor of Philosophy at Strasbourg, but appointment was\nsoon cancelled on account of his opinions. He wrote a History of the\nRevolution of Italy, '55, and a work on China and Europe. His history\nof the Reason of the State, '60, is his most pronounced work. In '59,\nhe was elected to the Italian Parliament, where he remained one of\nthe most radical members until his death at Rome 1 July, 1876.\n\nFerri (Enrico), Member of the Italian Parliament, formerly professor\nof criminal law at the University of Siena, studied at Mantua under\nProfessor Ardigo. Has written a large work on the Non-Existence of\nFree Will, and is with Professor Lombroso, leader of the new Italian\nschool of criminal law reform.\n\nFerri (Luigi), Italian philosopher, b. Bologna, 15 June 1826. Studied\nin Paris and became licentiate of letters in 1850. Author of History\nof Philosophy in Italy, Paris 1868; The Psychology of Pomponazzi, etc.\n\nFerri\u00e8re (Emile), French writer and licentiate of letters, b. Paris,\n1830; author of Literature and Philosophy, 1865; Darwinism, 1872,\nwhich has gone through several editions; The Apostles, a work\nchallenging early Christian Morality, 1879; The Soul the Function\nof the Brain, a scientific work of popular character in two vols.,\n1883; and Paganism of the Hebrews until the Babylonian Captivity,\n1884. All these are works of pronounced Freethought. M. Ferri\u00e8re has\nalso announced a work Jesus bar Joseph.\n\nFeuerbach (Friedrich Heinrich), son of a famous German jurist, was\nb. at Ansbach 29 Sept. 1806. He studied philology, but set himself to\npreach what his brother Ludwig taught. He wrote Theanthropos, a series\nof Aphorisms (Zurich, '38), and an able work on the Religion of the\nFuture, '43-47; and Thoughts and Facts, Hamburg, '62. Died Nurenberg,\n24 Jan. 1880.\n\nFeuerbach (Ludwig Andreas), brother of the preceding, b. Landshut,\nBavaria, 28 July 1804. He studied theology with a view to the Church,\nbut under the influence of Hegel abandoned it for philosophy. In '28\nhe was made professor at Erlangen, but was dismissed in consequence\nof his first published work, Thoughts upon Death and Immortality,\n'30, in which he limited immortality to personal influence on the\nhuman race. After a wandering life he married in '37, and settled\nnear Anspach. He published there a history of modern philosophy from\nBacon to Spinoza. This was followed by a work on Peter Bayle. In '38\nhe wrote on philosophy and Christianity, and in '41 his work called\nthe The Essence of Christianity, in which he resolves theology\ninto anthropology. This book was translated by Mary Ann Evans,\n'53. He also wrote Principles of the Philosophy of the Future. After\nthe revolution of '48 he was invited to lecture by the students of\nHeidelberg, and gave his course on The Essence of Religion, published\nin '51. In '57 he published Theogony from the Sources of Classical,\nHebrew, and Christian Antiquity, and in '66 Theism, Freedom, and\nImmortality from the Standpoint of Anthropology. Died at Rechenberg,\nnear Nurenberg, 13 Sept. 1872. His complete works were published at\nLeipsic in 1876. He was a deep thinker and lucid writer.\n\nFichte (Johann Gottlieb), one of the greatest German thinkers,\nb. 19 May, 1762. He studied at the Universities of Jena, Leipsic,\nand Wittenberg, embraced \"determinism,\" became acquainted with Kant,\nand published anonymously, A Criticism of all Revelation. He obtained\na chair of philosophy at Jena, where he developed his doctrines\nof science, asserting that the problem of philosophy is to seek\non what foundations knowledge rests. He gave moral discourses in\nthe lecture-room on Sunday, and was accused of holding atheistical\nopinions. He was in consequence banished from Saxony, 1799. He appears\nto have held that God was not a personal being, but a system of\nintellectual, moral, and spiritual laws. Fichte took deep interest in\nthe cause of German independence, and did much to rouse his countrymen\nagainst the domination of the French during the conquest which led to\nthe fall of Napoleon. Besides many publications, in which he expounds\nhis philosophy, he wrote eloquent treatises on The Vocation of Man,\nThe Nature and Vocation of the Scholar, The Way Towards the Blessed\nLife, etc. Died Berlin 27 Jan. 1814.\n\n\"Figaro.\" See Larra (Mariano Jos\u00e9 de).\n\nFiguiera (Guillem), Proven\u00e7al troubadour and precursor of the\nRenaissance, b. Toulouse about 1190. His poems were directed against\nthe priests and Court of Rome.\n\nFilangieri (Gaetano), an Italian writer on legislation, b. Naples,\n18 Aug. 1752. He was professor at that city. His principal work is\nLa Scienza della Legislazione, 1780. In the fifth volume he deals\nwith pre-Christian religions. The work was put on the Index. Died 21\nJuly, 1788.\n\nFiorentino (Francesco), Italian philosopher, b. Sambiasa, Nicastro,\n1 May, 1834. In 1860 he became Professor of Philosophy at Spoletto,\nin '62 at Bologna, and in '71 at Naples. He was elected deputy\nto Parliament, Nov. '70. A disciple of Felice Tocco, he paid\nspecial attention to the early Italian Freethinkers, writing upon\nThe Pantheism of Giordano Bruno, Naples, '61; Pietro Pomponazzi,\nFlorence, '68; Bernardius Telesio, Florence, 2 vols., '72-74. He\nhas also written on Strauss and Spinoza. In the Nuova Antologia he\nwrote on J. C. Vanini, and on C\u00e6salpinus, Campanella, and Bruno. A\nfriend of Bertrando Spaventa, he succeeded to his chair at Naples in\n'83. Died 22 Dec. 1884.\n\nFischart (Johann), German satirist called Mentzer, b. Strasbourg about\n1545. His satires in prose and verse remind one of Rabelais, whom he\nin part translated, and are often directed against the Church. Died\nat Forbach in 1614.\n\nFischer (J. C.), German materialist, author of a work on the freedom of\nthe will 1858, a criticism of Hartmann's Philosophy of the Unconscious,\n'72; Das Bewusstsein, '74. Died 1888.\n\nFischer (Kuno), German philosopher, b. 23 July, 1824, at Sandewald,\nSilesia. Educated at Leipsic and Halle, in 1856 he was appointed\nProfessor of Philosophy at Jena. His chief works are History of Modern\nPhilosophy, '52-72; Life and Character of Spinoza; Francis Bacon,\n'56; and Lessing, '81.\n\nFiske (John), American author, b. Hartford, Connecticut, 30 March,\n1842. Graduated at Harvard, '63. In '69-71 was Lecturer on Philosophy\nat that University, and from '72-9 Librarian. Mr. Fiske has lectured\nlargely, and has written Myths and Mythmakers, '72; Outlines of\nCosmic Philosophy, 2 vols. '74; Darwinism, and other essays, '79;\nExcursions of an Evolutionist, '83; The Idea of God as Affected by\nModern Knowledge, '85.\n\nFlaubert (Gustave), French novelist, b. Rouen, 12 Dec. 1821. The son\nof a distinguished surgeon, he abandoned his father's profession for\nliterature. His masterpiece, Madame Bovary, published in '56 in the\nRevue de Paris, drew a prosecution upon that journal which ended\nin a triumph for the author. For his next great work, Salammb\u00f4,\n'62, an epic of Carthage, he prepared himself by long antiquarian\nstudies. His intellectual tendencies are displayed in The Temptation\nof Saint Anthony. He stands eminent among the naturalist school for\nhis artistic fidelity. He was a friend of Th\u00e9ophile Gautier, Ivan\nTurgenev, Emile Zola and \"George Sand.\" His correspondence with the\nlast of these has been published. He distinctly states therein that\non subjects like immortality men cheat themselves with words. Died\nat Rouen, 9 May, 1880.\n\nFlourens (Marie Jean Pierre), French scientist, b. near B\u00e9ziers, 15\nApril, 1794. In 1828 he was admitted into the Academy of Sciences,\nafter having published a work on the nervous system of vertebrates;\nhe became perpetual secretary in '33. A work on Human Longevity and\nthe Quantity of Life on the Globe was very popular. Died near Paris,\n6 Dec. 1867.\n\nFlourens (Gustave), eldest son of the preceding, b. Paris,\n4 Aug. 1838. In '63 he took his father's chair at the College of\nFrance, and his course on \"Ethnography\" attracted much attention. In\nthe following year he published his work on The Science of Man. His\nbold heresy lost him his chair, and he collaborated on Larousse's\nGrand Dictionnaire. In '65 he left France for Crete, where for three\nyears he fought in the mountains against the Turkish troops. Upon\nhis return he was arrested for presiding at a political meeting. He\nshowed himself an ardent Revolutionist, and was killed in a skirmish\nnear Nanterre, 3 April, 1871.\n\nFonblanque (Albany William), English journalist, b. London, 1793;\nthe son of an eminent lawyer. In 1820 he was on the staff of the\nTimes, and contributed to the Westminster Review. In '30 he became\neditor of the Examiner, and retained his post until '47. His caustic\nwit and literary attainments did much to forward advanced liberal\nviews. A selection of his editorials was published under the title,\nEngland under Seven Administrations. Died 13 Oct. 1872.\n\nFontanier (Jean), French writer, who was burnt at the Place\nde Gr\u00e8ve, 1621, for blasphemies in a book entitled Le Tresor\nInestimable. Garasse, with little reason, calls him an Atheist.\n\nFontenelle (Bernard le Bovier de), nephew of Corneille, called\nby Voltaire the most universal genius of the reign of Louis XIV.,\nb. Rouen, 11 Feb. 1657. Dedicated to the Virgin and St. Bernard,\nhe was educated at the Jesuits' College. He went to Paris in 1674;\nwrote some plays and Dialogues of the Dead, 1683. In 1686 appeared\nhis Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds, and in the following\nyear his History of Oracles, based on the work of Van Dale, for which\nhe was warmly attacked by the Jesuit Baltus, as impugning the Church\nFathers. He was made secretary to the Academy of Sciences in 1699,\na post he held forty-two years. He wrote Doubts on the Physical\nSystem of Occasional Causes, and is also credited with a letter\non the Resurrection of the Body, a piece on The Infinite, and a\nTreatise on Liberty; \"but,\" says l'Abb\u00e9 Ladvocat, \"as these books\ncontain many things contrary to religion, it is to be hoped they are\nnot his.\" Fontenelle nearly reached the age of one hundred. A short\ntime before he died (9 Jan. 1757), being asked if he felt any pain,\n\"I only feel,\" he replied, \"a difficulty of existing.\"\n\nFoote (George William), writer and orator, b. Plymouth, 11\nJan. 1850. Was \"converted\" in youth, but became a Freethinker by\nreading and independent thought. Came to London in 1868, and was soon a\nleading member of the Young Men's Secular Association. He taught in the\nHall of Science Sunday School, and became secretary of the Republican\nLeague. Devoting his time to propagating his principles, he wrote\nin the Secular Chronicle and National Reformer, and in '76 started\nthe Secularist in conjunction with Mr. G. J. Holyoake, and after\nthe ninth number conducting it alone. This afterwards merged in the\nSecular Review. In '79 Mr. Foote edited the Liberal, and in Sept. '81,\nstarted the Freethinker, which he still edits. In the following year\na prosecution was commenced by the Public Prosecutor, who attempted\nto connect Mr. Bradlaugh with it. Undaunted, Mr. Foote issued a\nChristmas number with an illustrated \"Comic Life of Christ.\" For\nthis a prosecution was started by the City authorities against him\nand his publisher and printer, and the trial came on first in March,\n'83. The jury disagreed, but Judge North refused to discharge the\nprisoners, and they were tried again on the 5th March; Judge North\ndirecting that a verdict of guilty must be returned, and sentencing\nMr. Foote to one year's imprisonment as an ordinary criminal subject\nto the same \"discipline\" as burglars. \"I thank you, my lord; your\nsentence is worthy of your creed,\" he remarked. On 24 April, '83,\nMr. Foote was brought from prison before Lord Coleridge and a special\njury on the first charge, and after a splendid defence, upon which\nhe was highly complimented by the judge, the jury disagreed. He has\ndebated with Dr. McCann, Rev. A. J. Harrison, the Rev. W. Howard,\nthe Rev. H. Chapman, and others. Mr. Foote has written much,\nand lectures continually. Among his works we mention Heroes and\nMartyrs of Freethought (1876); God, the Soul, and a Future State;\nSecularism the True Philosophy of Life (1879); Atheism and Morality;\nThe Futility of Prayer; Bible Romances; Death's Test, afterwards\nenlarged into Infidel Death-Beds; The God Christians Swear by; Was\nJesus Insane? Blasphemy No Crime; Arrows of Freethought; Prisoner\nfor Blasphemy (1884); Letters to Jesus Christ; What Was Christ? Bible\nHeroes; and has edited The Bible Hand-book with Mr. W. P. Ball, and\nthe Jewish Life of Christ with the present writer, in conjunction\nwith whom he has written The Crimes of Christianity. From 1883-87\nhe edited Progress, in which appeared many important articles from\nhis pen. Mr. Foote is President of the London Secular Federation,\nand a Vice-President of the National Secular Society.\n\nFouillee (Alfred), French philosopher, b. La Pou\u00ebze, near Angers,\n18 Oct. 1838. Has been teacher at several lyceums, notably at\nBordeaux. He was crowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences for two\nworks on the Philosophy of Plato and Socrates. Elected Professor\nof Philosophy at the Superior Normal School, Paris, he sustained\na thesis at the Sorbonne on Liberty and Determinism, which was\nviolently attacked by the Catholics. This work has gone through\nseveral editions. M. Fonill\u00e9e has also written an able History of\nPhilosophy, 1875, Contemporary Social Science, and an important\nCritique of Contemporary Moral Systems (1883). He has written much\nin the Revue des Deux Mondes, and is considered, with Taine, Ribot,\nand Renan, the principal representative of French philosophy. His\nsystem is known as that of id\u00e8es-forces, as he holds that ideas are\nthemselves forces. His latest work expounds the views of M. Guyau.\n\nForberg (Friedrich Karl), German philosopher, b. Meuselwitz, 30\nAug. 1770, studied theology at Leipsic, and became private docent\nat Jena. Becoming attached to Fichte's philosophy, he wrote with\nFichte in Niethammer's Philosophical Journal on \"The Development\nof Religious Ideas,\" and an article on \"The Ground of our Faith in\nDivine Providence,\" which brought on them a charge of Atheism, and\nthe journal was confiscated by the Electorate of Saxony. Forberg held\nreligion to consist in devotion to morality, and wrote An Apology\nfor Alleged Atheism, 1799. In 1807 he became librarian at Coburg,\nand devoted himself to the classics, issuing a Manuel d'Erotologie\nClassique. Died Hildburghausen 1 Jan. 1848.\n\nForder (Robert), b. Yarmouth, 14 Oct. 1844. Coming to to Woolwich,\nhe became known as a political and Freethought lecturer. He took part\nin the movement to save Plumstead Common from the enclosers, and was\nsent to trial for riotous proceedings, but was acquitted. In '77 he\nwas appointed paid secretary to the National Secular Society, a post\nhe has ever since occupied. During the imprisonment of Messrs. Foote,\nRamsey, and Kemp, in '83, Mr. Forder undertook charge of the publishing\nbusiness. He has lectured largely, and written some pamphlets.\n\nForlong (James George Roche). Major General, H.B.A., b. Lanarkshire,\nScotland, Nov. 1824. Educated as an engineer, joined the Indian\narmy '43, fought in the S. Mahrata campaign '45-6, and in the second\nBurmese war. On the annexation of Barma he became head of the Survey,\nRoads and canal branches. In '58-9 he travelled extensively through\nEgypt, Palestine, Turkey, Greece, Italy, Spain, etc. From '61-71 was\na superintending engineer of Calcutta, and in Upper Bengal, North-west\nProvinces, and Rajputana, and '72-76 was Secretary and Chief Engineer\nto the Government of Oudh. He retired in '77 after an active service of\n33 years, during which he frequently received the thanks of the Indian\nand Home Governments. In his youth he was an active Evangelical,\npreaching to the natives in their own tongues. He has, however,\ngiven his testimony that during his long experience he has known no\none converted solely by force of reasoning or \"Christian evidences.\" A\ngreat student of Eastern religions, arch\u00e6ology, and languages, he has\nwritten in various periodicals of the East and West, and has embodied\nthe result of many years researches in two illustrated quarto volumes\ncalled Rivers of Life, setting forth the evolution of all religions\nfrom their radical objective basis to their present spiritualised\ndevelopments. In an elaborate chart he shows by streams of color the\nmovements of thought from 10,000 B.C. to the present time.\n\nFourier (Fran\u00e7ois Marie Charles), French socialist, b. Besan\u00e7on, 7\nApril, 1772. He passed some of the early years of his life as a common\nsoldier. His numerous works amid much that is visionary have valuable\ncriticisms upon society, and suggestions for its amelioration. He\nbelieved in the transmigration of souls. Died at Paris, 8 Oct. 1837.\n\nFox (William Johnson), orator and political writer, b. near Wrentham,\nSuffolk, 1786. Intended for the Congregational Ministry, he became\na Unitarian, and for many years preached at South Place, Finsbury,\nwhere he introduced the plan of taking texts from other books\nbesides the Bible. One of his first published sermons was on behalf of\ntoleration for Deists at the time of the Carlile prosecutions 1819. He\ngradually advanced from the acceptance of miracles to their complete\nrejection. During the Anti-Corn Law agitation he was a frequent\nand able speaker. In 1847 he became M.P. for Oldham, and retained\nhis seat until his retirement in '61. He was a prominent worker for\nRadicalism, contributing to the Westminster Review, Weekly Dispatch,\nand Daily News. For some years he edited the Monthly Repository. His\nworks, which include spirited Lectures to the Working Classes, and a\nphilosophical statement of Religions Ideas, were published in twelve\nvolumes, '65-68. Died 3 June, 1864.\n\n\"Franchi (Ausonio),\" the pen name of Francesco Cristoforo Bonavino,\nItalian ex-priest, b. Pegli, 24 Feb. 1821. Brought up in the Church\nand ordained priest in '44, the practice of the confessional made\nhim sceptical and he quitted it for philosophy, having ceased to\nbelieve in its dogmas, '49. In '52 he published his principal work,\nentitled The Philosophy of the Italian Schools. The following year\nhe published The Religion of the Nineteenth Century. He established\nLa Razione (Reason) and Il Libero Pensiero at Turin, '54-57; wrote\non the Rationalism of the People, Geneva, '56, and became an active\norganiser of anti-clerical societies. In '66 he published a criticism\nof Positivism, and has since written Critical and Polemical Essays,\n3 vols. Milan, '70-72. In '68 was appointed Professor of Philosophy\nin the Academy of Milan by Terenzio Mamiani.\n\nFrancis (Samuel), M.D., author of Watson Refuted, published by\nCarlile, 1819.\n\nFrancois de Neufchateau (Nicolas Louis), Count, French statesman,\npoet, and academician, b. Lorraine, 17 April, 1750. In his youth he\nbecame secretary to Voltaire, who regarded him as his successor. He\nfavored the Revolution, and was elected to the Legislative Assembly\nin '91. As Member of the Directory, '97, he circulated d'Holbach's\nContagion Sacr\u00e9e. He became President of the Senate, '14-16. He wrote\nnumerous pieces. Died at Paris 10 Jan. 1828.\n\nFranklin (Benjamin), American patriot and philosopher, b. Boston 17\nJan. 1706. He was apprenticed to his uncle as a printer, came to\nEngland and worked at his trade '24-26; returned to Philadelphia,\nwhere he published a paper and became known by his Poor Richard's\nAlmanack. He founded the public library at Philadelphia, and\nmade the discovery of the identity of lightning with the electric\nfluid. He became member of the Provincial Assembly and was sent to\nEngland as agent. When examined before the House of Commons he spoke\nboldly against the Stamp Act. He was active during the war with this\ncountry, and was elected member of Congress. Became envoy to France,\nand effected the treaty of alliance with that country, 6 Feb. '78,\nwhich secured the independence of the American colonies. Turgot summed\nup his services in the fine line Eripuit c\u00e6lo fulmen, sceptrumque\ntyrannis. \"He wrested the thunderbolt from heaven and the sceptre\nfrom kings.\" Died at Philadelphia, 17 April, 1790.\n\nFransham (John), a native of Norwich, b. 1730, became a teacher of\nmathematics, renounced the Christian religion, and professed Paganism,\nwriting several treatises in favor of disbelief. Died 1810.\n\nFrauenstaedt (Christian Martin Julius), Dr., philosopher and disciple\nof Schopenhauer, b. 17 April, 1813, at Bojanowo, Posen. He studied\nphilosophy and theology at Berlin, but meeting Schopenhauer at\nFrankfort in '47 he adopted the views of the pessimist, who made\nhim his literary executor. Among Frauenst\u00e4dt's works are Letters on\nNatural Religion, '58, The Liberty of Men and the Personality of God,\n'38; Letters on the Philosophy of Schopenhauer, '54, etc. Died at\nBerlin, 13 Jan. 1879.\n\nFrederick II. (Emperor of Germany), the greatest man of the thirteenth\ncentury and founder of the Renaissance, b. 26 Dec. 1194. Was elected\nto the throne in 1210. He promoted learning, science, and art, founded\nthe Universities of Vienna and Naples, had the works of Aristotle\nand Averroes translated, and was the patron of all the able men of\nhis time. For his resistance to the tyranny of the Church he was\ntwice excommunicated. He answered by a letter attacking the Pope\n(Gregory IX.), whom he expelled from Rome in '28. He made a treaty\nwith the Sultan of Egypt, by which he became master of Jerusalem. For\nsome heretical words in his letter, in which he associates the names\nof Christ, Moses, and Mohammed, he was reported author of the famous\nwork De Tribus Impostoribus. He addressed a series of philosophical\nquestions to Ibn Sabin, a Moslem doctor. He is said to have called\nthe Eucharist truffa ista, and is credited also with the saying\n\"Ignorance is the mother of devotion.\" Died at Florence, 13 Dec. 1250.\n\nFrederick the Great (King of Prussia), b. 24 Jan. 1712, was educated in\na very rigid fashion by his father, Frederick William I. He ascended\nthe throne and soon displayed his political and military ability. By\na war with Austria he acquired Silesia. He wrote several deistical\npieces, and tolerated all religions and no religion saying \"every man\nmust get to heaven his own way.\" He attracted to his court men like\nLamettrie, D'Argens, Maupertuis, and Voltaire, who, says Carlyle,\ncontinued all his days Friedrich's chief thinker. In 1756 France,\nAustria, Sweden, and Russia united against him, but he held his own\nagainst \"a world in arms.\" After a most active life Frederick died\nat Potsdam, 17 Aug. 1786. The Philosophical Breviary attributed to\nhim was really written by C\u00e9rutti.\n\nFredin (Nils Edvard), Swedish writer, b. 1857. Has published\ntranslation of modern poets, and also of Col. Ingersoll's writings. In\n'80 he was awarded first prize by the Swedish Academy for an original\npoem.\n\nFreeke (William), b. about 1663, wrote A Brief but Clear Confutation\nof the Trinity, which being brought before the notice of the House of\nLords it was on 3 Jan. 1693 ordered to be burnt by the common hangman,\nand the author being prosecuted by the Attorney General was fined \u00a3500.\n\nFreiligrath (Ferdinand) German poet, b. Detmold 17 June, 1810. In\n'35 he acquired notice by some poems. In '44 he published his\nprofession of faith Mein Glaubensbekenntniss, and was forced to\nfly the country. In '48 he returned and joined Karl Marx on the\nNeue Rheinische Zeitung. Again prosecuted he took refuge in London,\ndevoting his leisure to poetry and translation. Freiligrath holds a\nhigh place among the poets of his time. Died Kannstadt, near Stuttgart,\n18 March 1876.\n\nFr\u00e9ret (Nicolas), French historical critic, b. 15 Feb. 1688. He was a\npupil of Rollin, and was patronised by Boulainvilliers. Distinguished\nby his attainments in ancient history, philosophy and chronology,\nhe became member of the Academy of Inscriptions 1714. For a Discourse\non the \"Origin of the Franks,\" he was incarcerated for four months in\nthe Bastille. While here he read Bayle so often that he could repeat\nmuch from memory. He was an unbeliever, and the author of the atheistic\nLetters from Thrasybulus to Leucippe on Natural and Revealed Religion,\nand perhaps of La Moisade, a criticism of the Pentateuch, translated\nby D. I. Eaton, as A Preservative against Religious Prejudices. The\nLetters to Eugenie, attributed to Fr\u00e9ret, were written by D'Holbach,\nand the Critical Examination of the Apologists of the Christian\nReligion by J. Levesque de Burigny. A Critical Examination of the New\nTestament, 1777 which long circulated in MS. has also been wrongly\nattributed to Fr\u00e9ret. Died at Paris, 8 March, 1749.\n\nFrey (William), the adopted name of a Russian Positivist\nand philanthropist, b. of noble family, the son of a general,\n1839. Educated at the higher military school, St. Petersburg, he\nbecame teacher in a Government High School, and disgusted with the\noppression and degradation of his country he went to New York in\n1866 where he established co-operative communities and also Russian\ncolonies in Kansas and Oregon. In 1884 he came to London in order to\ninfluence his countrymen. In '87 he revisited Russia. Died 6 Nov. 1888.\n\nFries (Jacob Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Barby, 23\nAug. 1773. Brought up as a Moravian, he became a Deist. Fries is of\nthe Neo-Kantian rationalistic school. Among his writings are a System\nof Metaphysics, 1824; a Manual of the Philosophy of Religion and\nPhilosophical \u00c6sthetics, Heidelberg '32; in which he resolves religion\ninto poetry. He criticised Kant's proofs of God and immortality,\nand wrote a History of Philosophy. Died Jena, 10 Aug. 1843.\n\nFrothingham (Octavius Brooks), American author, b. Boston, 26\nNov. 1822. Graduated at Harvard, '43, and became Unitarian minister. In\n'60 he became pastor of the most radical Unitarian congregation in\nNew York. In '67 he became first president of the Free Religious\nAssociation, but, becoming too advanced, resigned in '79 and came\nto Europe. Since his return to Boston, '81, he has devoted himself\nto literature. He has published The Religion of Humanity, N.Y.,\n'73; Life of Theodore Parker, '74; The Cradle of the Christ, '77;\nLife of Gerrit Smith, 78; and numerous sermons.\n\nFroude (James Anthony), man of letters and historian, the son of an\nArchdeacon of Totnes, was b. Dartington, Devon, 23 April, 1818, and\neducated at Westminster and Oxford, where he took his degree in '40,\nwas elected fellow of Exeter College and received deacon's orders. At\nfirst, under the influence of the Romanising movement, he became\na rationalist and abandoned his fellowship and clerical life. His\nNemesis of Faith, '48, showed the nature of his objections. Mr. Froude\ndevoted his abilities to a literary career, and fell under the\ninfluence of Carlyle. For many years he edited Fraser's Magazine,\nin which he wrote largely. His essays are collected under the title\nof Short Studies on Great Subjects, '71-83. His largest work is the\nHistory of England, from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the\nSpanish Armada, '56-76. His Life of Carlyle, '82, and publication\nof Carlyle's Reminiscenses provoked much controversy. His magical\ntranslation of Lucian's most characteristic Dialogue of the Gods\nis done with too much verve to allow of the supposition that the\ntranslator is not in sympathy with his author.\n\nFry (John), a colonel in the Parliamentary army. In 1640 he was\nelected one of the burgesses of Shaftesbury, but his return was\ndeclared void. After serving with distinction in the army, he was\ncalled to the House of Commons by the Independents in 1648. He voted\nfor Charles I. being put on trial; and sat in judgment when sentence\nwas passed on him. He was charged with blasphemy and wrote The Accuser\nShamed, 1649, which was ordered to be burnt for speaking against\n\"that chaffie and absurd opinion of three persons in the Godhead.\" He\nalso wrote The Clergy in their Colors, 1650.\n\nFuller (Sarah Margaret), American authoress, b. Cambridgeport,\nMassachusetts, 23 May, 1810. In '40-42 she edited the Dial. She\nalso published Woman in the Nineteenth Century, '44. Among friends\nshe counted Emerson, Hawthorne, Channing, and Mazzini. She visited\nEurope and married at Rome the Marquis D'Ossoli. Returning she was\nshipwrecked and drowned off the coast of New Jersey, 16 July, 1850.\n\nFurnemont (L\u00e9on), Belgian advocate, b. Charleroi, 17 April,\n1861. Entered the school of Mines Li\u00e9ge in '76, and founded the Circle\nof Progressive Students. Became president of International Congress\nof Students, '84, and represented Young Belgium at the funeral of\nVictor Hugo. Radical candidate at the Brussels municipal elections,\nhe obtained 3,500 votes, but was not elected. He is a Councillor\nof the International Federation of Freethinkers and director of a\nmonthly journal, La Raison, 1889.\n\nGabarro (Bartolom\u00e9) Dr., Spanish writer, b. Ygualade, Barcelona,\n27 Sept. 1846, was educated in a clerical college with a view to\ntaking the clerical habit, he refused and went to America. After\ntravelling much, he established a day school in Barcelona and founded\nan Anti-clerical League of Freethinkers pledged to live without\npriests. This induced much clerical wrath, especially when Dr. Gabarro\nfounded some 200 Anti-clerical groups and over 100 lay schools. For\ndenouncing the assassins of a Freethinker he was pursued for libel,\nsentenced to four years' imprisonment, and forced to fly to Cerbere\non the frontier, where he continues his anti-clerical journal La\nTronada. He has written many anti-clerical brochures and an important\nwork on Pius IX. and History.\n\nGabelli (Aristide), Italian writer, b. Belluno, 22 March, 1830. Author\nof The Religious Question in Italy, '64, Man and the Moral Sciences,\n'69, in which he rejects all metaphysics and supernaturalism, and\nThoughts, 1886.\n\nGage (Matilda Joslyn), American reformer, b. Cicero, New\nYork, 24 March, 1826. Her father, Dr. H. Joslyn, was an active\nabolitionist. Educated at De Peyster and Hamilton, N.Y., in '45 she\nmarried Henry H. Gage. From '52 till '61 she wrote and spoke against\nslavery. In '72 she was made President of the National Woman's\nSuffrage Association. She is joint author of The History of Woman\nSuffrage with Miss Anthony and Mrs. Stanton, and with them considers\nthe Church the great obstacle to woman's progress.\n\nGagern (Carlos von), b. Rehdorf, Neumark, 12 Dec. 1826. Educated at\nBerlin, travelled in '47 to Paris where he became acquainted with\nHumboldt. He went to Spain and studied Basque life in the Pyrenees;\nserved in the Prussian army, became a friend of Wislicenus and the\nfree-religious movement. In '52 he went to Mexico; here he had an\nappointment under General Miramon. In the French-Mexican expedition\nhe was taken prisoner in '63; released in '65 he went to New York. He\nwas afterwards military attach\u00e9 for Mexico at Berlin. His freethought\nappears in his memoirs entitled Dead and Living, 1884, and in his\nvolume Sword and Trowel, 1888. Died Madrid 19 Dec. 1885.\n\nGall (Franz Joseph), founder of phrenology, b. Baden, 6 March, 1758. He\npractised as a physician in Vienna, devoting much time to the study of\nthe brain, and began to lecture on craniology in that city. In 1802 he\nwas prohibited from lecturing. He joined Dr. Spurzheim and they taught\ntheir system in various cities of Europe. Died at Paris, 22 Aug. 1828.\n\nGalton (Francis), grandson of Erasmus Darwin, was born in\n1822. Educated at Birmingham, he studied medicine at King's College,\nLondon, and graduated at Cambridge, '24. In '48 and '50 he travelled in\nAfrica. He wrote a popular Art of Travel, and has distinguished himself\nby many writings bearing on heredity, of which we name Hereditary\nGenius, '69, English Men of Science, '70. In his Inquiries into Human\nFaculty and Developement, '83, he gives statistical refutation of the\ntheory of prayer. Mr. Galton was Secretary of the British Association\nfrom '63-68, President of the Geographical Section in '62 and '72,\nand of the Anthropological Section in '77 and '85. He is President\nof the Anthropological Institute.\n\nGambetta (L\u00e9on Michel), French orator and statesman, b. Cahors, 30\nOct. 1838. His uncle was a priest and his father wished him to become\none. Educated at a clerical seminary, he decided to study for the\nlaw. In '59 he was enrolled at the bar. His defence of Delescluze\n(14 Nov. 1868), in which he vigorously attacked the Empire, made\nhim famous. Elected to the Assembly by both Paris and Marseilles, he\nbecame the life and leader of the Opposition. After Sedan he proclaimed\nthe Republic and organised the national defences, leaving Paris, then\ninvested by the Germans, in a balloon. From Tours he invigorated every\ndepartment, and was the inspiration of the few successes won by the\nFrench. Gambetta preserved the Republic against all machinations,\nand compelled MacMahon to accept the second of the alternatives,\n\"Se soumettre ou se demettre.\" He founded the Republique Fran\u00e7aise,\nand became President of the Chamber. Gambetta was a professed\ndisciple of Voltaire, an admirer of Comte, and an open opponent of\nclericalism. All the members of his Cabinet were Freethinkers. Died\n31 Dec. 1882. His public secular funeral was one of the largest\ngatherings ever witnessed.\n\nGambon (Ferdinand Charles), French Communist, b. Bourges, 19 March,\n1820. In 1839 he became an Advocate, and he founded the Journal des\nEcoles. In '48 he was elected representative. The Empire drove him\ninto exile, he returned at amnesty of '59. In '69 he refused to pay\ntaxes. In '71 was elected deputy at Paris, and was one of the last\ndefenders of the Commune. Imprisoned, he was released in '82. Formed\na League for abolishing standing army. Died 17 Sept. 1887.\n\nGarat (Dominique Joseph), Count, French revolutionist, orator and\nwriter, b. near Bayonne, 8 September, 1749. He became a friend of\nd'Alembert, Diderot and Condercet, and in 1789 was elected to the\nAssembly, where he spoke in favor of the abolition of religion. As\nminister of justice he had to notify to Louis XVI his condemnation. He\nafterwards taught at the Normal School, and became a senator, count,\nand president of the Institute. Died at Urdains 9 December, 1833.\n\nGarborg (Arne), b. Western Coast of Norway, 25 Jan. 1851. Brought\nup as a teacher at the public schools, he entered the University of\nChristiania in 1875. Founded a weekly paper Fedraheimen, written in\nthe dialect of the peasantry. Held an appointment for some years\nin the Government Audit Office. In '81 he published a powerfully\nwritten tale, A Freethinker, which created a deal of attention. Since\nhe has published Peasant Students, Tales and Legends, Youth, Men,\netc. He is one of the wittiest and cleverest controversialists on\nthe Norwegian press.\n\nGarcia-Vao (Antonio Rodriguez), Spanish poet and miscellaneous\nwriter, b. Manzanares, 1862. Educated at the institute of Cardinal\nCisneros, where he made brilliant studies. He afterwards studied\nat the Madrid University and became a lawyer. After editing several\npapers, he attached himself to the staff of Las Dominicales del Libre\nPensiamento. Among his numerous works are a volume of poems, Echoes\nof a Free Mind, Love and the Monks, a satire, a study of Greco-Roman\nphilosophy, etc. This promising student was stabbed in the back at\nMadrid, 18 December, 1886.\n\nGarde (Jehan de la), bookseller, burnt together with four little\nblasphemous books at Paris in 1537.\n\nGaribaldi (Guiseppe), Italian patriot and general, b. Nice, 4\nJuly, 1807. His father, a small shipmaster, hoped he would become a\npriest. Young Garibaldi objected, preferring a sailor's life. A trip to\nRome made him long to free his country. He joined Mazzini's movement,\n\"Young Italy,\" and being implicated in the Genoese revolt of '33,\nhe fled at risk of his life to Marseilles, where he learnt he was\nsentenced to death. He went to South America and fought on behalf of\nthe republic of Uruguay. Here he met Anita Rivera, his beautiful and\nbrave wife, who accompanied him in numerous adventures. Returning to\nItaly he fought against the Austrians in '48, and next year was the\nsoul of resistance to the French troops, who came to restore Papal\nauthority. Garibaldi had to retire; his wife died, and he escaped\nwith difficulty to Genoa, whence he went to New York, working for\nan Italian soap and candlemaker at Staten Island. In '54 he returned\nand bought a farm on the isle of Caprera. In '59 he again fought the\nAustrians, and in May, '60, landed at Marsala, Sicily, took Palermo,\nand drove Francis II. from Naples. Though a Republican he saluted\nVictor Emanuel as King of Italy. Vexed by the cessation of Nice to\nFrance, he marched to Rome, but was wounded by Victor Emanuel's\ntroops, and taken prisoner to Varignaro. Here he wrote his Rule\nof the Monk, a work exhibiting his love of liberty and hatred of\nthe priesthood. In '64 he visited England, and was enthusiastically\nreceived. In '67 he again took part in an attempt to free Rome from\nthe Papal government. In '71 he placed his sword at the service of\nthe French Republic, and the only standard taken from the Germans was\ncaptured by his men. Elected Member of the Italian Parliament in his\nlater years he did much to improve the city of Rome. In one of his\nlaconic letters of '80, he says \"Dear Friend,--Man has created God,\nnot God man,--Yours ever, Garibaldi.\" He died 2 June, '82, and directed\nin his will that he should be cremated without any religious ceremony.\n\nGarrison (H. D.), Dr. of Chicago. Author of an able pamphlet on The\nAbsence of Design in Nature, 1876.\n\nGarth (Sir Samuel), English poet, wit, and physician, b. Yorkshire,\n1672, and educated at Cambridge. He helped to establish dispensaries,\nand lashed the opposition in his poem The Dispensary. He was made\nphysician to King George I. Died 18 June 1719.\n\nGaston (H.), French author of a brochure with the title Dieu, voila,\nl'ennemi, God the enemy, 1882.\n\nGattina (F. P. della). See Petruccelli.\n\nGautama (called also Gotama, Buddha, and Sakyamuni), great Hindu\nreformer and founder of Buddhism, b. Kapilavastu, 624 B.C. Many\nlegends are told of his birth and life. He is said to have been a\nprince, who, pained with human misery, left his home to dedicate\nhimself to emancipation. His system was rather a moral discipline\nthan a religion. Though he did not deny the Hindu gods he asserted\nthat all beings were subject to \"Karma,\" the result of previous\nactions. He said, \"If a man for a hundred years worship Agni in the\nforest, and if he but for one moment pay homage to a man whose soul\nis grounded in true knowledge, better is that homage than sacrifice\nfor a hundred years.\" According to Ceylonese writers Gautama Buddha\ndied at Kusinagara, B.C. 543.\n\nGautier (Th\u00e9ophile), exquisite French poet and prose writer, b. Tarbes,\n31 Aug. 1811. He wrote no definite work against priestcraft or\nsuperstition, but the whole tendency of his writings is Pagan. His\nromanticism is not Christian, and he made merry with \"sacred themes\"\nas well as conventional morality. Baudelaire called him an impeccable\nmaster of French literature, and Balzac said that of the two men who\ncould write French, one was Th\u00e9ophile Gautier. Died 22 Oct. 1872.\n\nGeijer (Erik Gustaf), eminent Swedish historian, poet, and critic,\nb. Wermland, 12 Jan. 1783. At the age of 20 he was awarded the Swedish\nAcademy's first prize for a patriotical poem. At first a Conservative\nin religious, philosophical, and political matters he became through\nhis historical researches an ardent adherent of the principles of the\nFrench revolution. His historical work and indictment against \"The\nProtestant creed\" was published in 1820 in a philosophical treatise,\nThorild, which was prosecuted. His acquittal by an enlightened jury\nstayed religious prosecutions in Sweden for over sixty years. He\ndied 23 April 1847. A monument was erected to him last year at the\nUniversity of Upsala, where he was professor of history. His works\nhave been republished.\n\nGeijerstam (Gustaf), Swedish novelist, b. 1858. Is one of the\nFreethinking group of Young Sweden.\n\nGeismar (Martin von), editor of a Library of German Rationalists of\nthe eighteenth century, in five parts, including some of the works\nof Bahrdt, Eberhardt, Knoblauch, etc, 1846-7. He also added pamphlets\nentitled Germany in the Eighteenth Century.\n\nGellion-Danglar (Eug\u00e8ne), French writer, b. Paris, 1829. Became\nProfessor of Languages at Cairo, wrote in La Pens\u00e9e Nouvelle, was\nmade sous pr\u00e9fect of Compi\u00e8gne, '71, wrote History of the Revolution\nof 1830, and A Study of the Semites, '82.\n\nGemistos (Georgios), surnamed Plethon, a philosophic reviver of Pagan\nlearning, b. of noble parents at Byzantium about 1355. He early lost\nhis faith in Christianity, and was attracted to the Moslem court\nat Brusa. He went to Italy in the train of John Pal\u00e6logus in 1438,\nwhere he attracted much attention to the Platonic philosophy, by\nwhich he sought to reform the religious, political and moral life of\nthe time. Gennadius, the patriarch of Constantinople, roundly accused\nhim of Paganism. Died 1450.\n\nGenard (Fran\u00e7ois), French satirist, b. Paris about 1722. He wrote\nan irreligious work called A Parallel of the Portraits of the Age,\nwith the Pictures of the Holy Scriptures, for which he was placed in\nthe Bastille, where it is believed he finished his days.\n\nGendre (Barbe), Russian writer in French, b. Cronstadt, 15\nDec. 1842. She was well educated at Kief, where she obtained a\ngold medal. By reading the works of B\u00fcchner, Buckle, and Darwin\nshe became a Freethinker. Settling in Paris, she contributed\nto the Revue Internationale des Sciences, to La Justice and the\nNouvelle Revue, etc. Some of her pieces have been reprinted under\nthe title Etudes Sociales (Social Studies, Paris, 1886), edited by\nDr. C. Letourneau. Died Dec. 1884.\n\nGener (Pompeyo), Spanish philosopher, b. Barcelona, 1849, is a member\nof the Society of Anthropology, and author of a study of the evolution\nof ideas entitled Death and the Devil, Paris, '80. This able work is\ndedicated to Renan and has a preface by Littr\u00e9. The author has since\ntranslated it into Spanish.\n\nGenestet (Petrus Augustus de), Dutch poet and Agnostic, b. Amsterdam,\n21 Nov. 1829. He studied theology, and for some years was a Protestant\nminister. His verses show him to be a Freethinker. Died at Rozendaal,\n2 July, 1861.\n\nGenin (Fran\u00e7ois), French philologist, b. Amiens, 16 Feb. 1803. He\nbecame one of the editors of the National, of Paris, about '37, and\nwrote for it spirited articles against the Jesuits. He published works\non The Jesuits and the Universities, The Church or the State, etc. In\n'45 the French Academy awarded a prize to his Lexicon of the Language\nof Moli\u00e8re. He edited Diderot, '47, and is known for his researches\ninto the origin of the French language and literature. Died Paris,\n20 Dec. 1856.\n\nGenovesi (Antonio), Italian philosopher, b. Castiglione, 1\nNov. 1712. He read lectures in philosophy at Naples, but by his\nsubstitution of doubt for traditional belief he drew upon himself\nmany attacks from the clergy. The book by which he is best known is\nhis Italian Morality. Died at Naples, 20 Sept. 1769.\n\nGensonne (Armand), French lawyer and one of the leaders of the\nGirondists, b. Bordeaux, 10 Aug. 1758. He was elected to the\nLegislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In the\nstruggle with the Jacobins, Gensonn\u00e9 was one of the most active and\neloquent champions of his party. He was executed with his colleagues\n31 Oct. 1793.\n\nGentilis (Giovanni Valentino), Italian heretic, b. Consenza, Naples,\nabout 1520. He fled to avoid persecution to Geneva, where in 1558\nhe was thrown into prison at the instigation of Calvin. Fear of\nsharing the fate of Servetus made him recant. He wandered to Poland,\nwhere he joined Alciati and Biandrata, but he was banished for his\ninnovations. Upon the death of Calvin he returned to Switzerland,\nwhere he was arrested for heresy, 11 June, 1566. After a long trial\nhe was condemned for attacking the Trinity, and beheaded at Berne,\n26 (?) Sept. 1566. Ladvocat says \"He died very impiously, saying he\nthought himself honored in being martyred for the glory of the Father,\nwhereas the apostles and other martyrs only died for the glory of\nthe Son.\"\n\nGeoffrin (Marie Ther\u00e8se, ne\u00e9 Rodet), a French lady distinguished as a\npatroness of learning and the fine arts, b. Paris, 2 June, 1699. She\nwas a friend of Alembert, Voltaire, Marmontel, Montesquieu, Diderot,\nand the encyclop\u00e6dists, and was noted for her benevolence. Died at\nParis, 6 Oct. 1777.\n\nGerhard (H.), Dutch socialist, b. Delft, 11 June, 1829. Educated at\nan orphanage he became a tailor, travelled through France, Italy,\nand Switzerland, and in '61 returned to Amsterdam. He wrote for De\nDageraad, and was correspondent of the Internationale. Died 5 July,\n1886.\n\nGerhard (A. H.), son of foregoing, b. Lausanne, Switzerland, 7 April,\n1858. Is headmaster of a public school, and one of the editors of\nDe Dageraad.\n\nGermond (J. B. L.), editor of Mar\u00e8chal's Dictionnaire des Ath\u00e9es,\nBrussels, 1833.\n\nGertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich). See Herzen.\n\nGhillany (Friedrich Wilhelm), German critic, b. at Erlangan, 18\nApril, 1807. In '35 he became Professor of History at Nurenberg. His\nprincipal work is on Human Sacrifices among the Ancient Jews, Nurnberg,\n'42. He also wrote on the Pagan and Christian writers of the first\nfour centuries. Under the pseudonym of \"Richard von der Alm\" he wrote\nTheological Letters, 1862; Jesus of Nazareth, 1868; and a collection of\nthe opinions of heathen and Jewish writers of the first four centuries\nupon Jesus and Christianity. Died 25 June, 1876.\n\nGiannone (Pietro), Italian historian, b. Ischitella, Naples, 7 May,\n1676. He devoted many years to a History of the Kingdom of Naples,\nin which he attacked the papal power. He was excommunicated and fled\nto Vienna, where he received a pension from the Emperor, which was\nremoved on his avowal of heterodox opinions. He was driven from Austria\nand took refuge in Venice: here also was an Inquisition. Giannone\nwas seized by night and cast before sunrise on the papal shore. He\nfound means, however, of escaping to Geneva. Having been enticed\ninto Savoy in 1736, he was arrested by order of the King of Sardinia,\nand confined in prison until his death, 7 March, 1748.\n\nGibbon (Edward), probably the greatest of historians, b. Putney,\n27 April 1737. At Oxford be became a Romanist, but being sent to a\nCalvinist at Lausanne, was brought back to Protestantism. When visiting\nthe ruins of the Capitol at Rome, he conceived the idea of writing\nthe Decline and Fall of that empire. For twenty-two years before the\nappearance of his first volume he was a prodigy of arduous application,\nhis investigations extending over the whole range of intellectual and\npolitical activity for nearly fifteen hundred years. His monumental\nwork, bridging the old world and the new, is an historic exposure\nof the crimes and futility of Christianity. Gibbon was elected to\nParliament in '74, but did not distinguish himself. He died of dropsy,\nin London, 16 Jan. 1794.\n\nGibson (Ellen Elvira), American lecturess, b. Winchenden, Mass. 8 May,\n1821, and became a public school teacher. Study of the Bible brought\nher to the Freethought platform. At the outbreak of the American Civil\nWar she organised Ladies' Soldiers' Aid Societies, and was elected\nchaplain to the 1st Wisconsin Volunteer Artillery. President Lincoln\nendorsed the appointment, which was questioned. She has written\nanonymously Godly Women of the Bible, and has contributed to the\nTruthseeker, Boston Investigator, and Ironclad Age, under her own\nsignature and that of \"Lilian.\"\n\nGiessenburg (Rudolf Charles d'Ablaing van), one of the most notable of\nDutch Freethinkers, b. of noble family, 26 April, 1826. An unbeliever\nin youth, in '47 he went to Batavia, and upon his return set up as a\nbookseller under the name of R. C. Meijer. With Junghuhn and G\u00fcnst,\nhe started de Dageraad, and from '56-68 was one of the contributors,\nusually under his name \"Rudolf Charles.\" He is a man of great\nerudition, has written Het verbond der vrije gedachte (The Alliance of\nFreethought); de Tydgenoot op het gebied der Rede (The Contemporary\nin the Field of Reason); De Regtbank des Onderzoeks (The Tribunal\nof Inquiry); Zedekunde en Christendom (Ethics and Christianity);\nCuriositeiten van allerlei aard (Curiosities of Various Kinds). He has\nalso published the Religion and Philosophy of the Bible by W. J. Birch\nand Brooksbank's work on Revelation. He was the first who published\na complete edition of the famous Testament du Cur\u00e9 Jean Meslier in\nthree parts ('64), has published the works of Douwes Dekker and other\nwriters, and also Curieuse Gebruiken.\n\nGilbert (Claude), French advocate, b. Dijon, 7 June, 1652. He had\nprinted at Dijon, in 1700, Histoire de Calejava, ou de l'isle\ndes hommes raisonables, avec le paralelle de leur Morale et du\nChristianisme. The book has neither the name of author or printer. It\nwas suppressed, and only one copy escaped destruction, which was bought\nin 1784 by the Duc de La Valli\u00e8re for 120 livres. It was in form of a\ndialogue (329 pp.), and attacked both Judaism and Christianity. Gilbert\nmarried in 1700, and died at Dijon 18 Feb. 1720.\n\nGill (Charles), b. Dublin, 8 Oct. 1824, was educated at the University\nof that city. In '83 he published anonymously a work on The Evolution\nof Christianity. It was quoted by Mr. Foote in his defences before\nJudge North and Lord Coleridge, and in the following year he put his\nname to a second edition. Mr. Gill has also written a pamphlet on\nthe Blasphemy Laws, and has edited, with an introduction, Archbishop\nLaurence's Book of Enoch, 1883.\n\nGiles (Rev. John Allen, D.Ph.), b. Mark, Somersetshire, 26\nOct. 1808. Educated at the Charterhouse and Oxford, where he\ngraduated B.A. as a double first-class in '28. He was appointed\nhead-master of the City of London School, which post he left for\nthe Church. The author of over 150 volumes of educational works,\nincluding the Keys to the Classics; privately he was a confirmed\nFreethinker, intimate with Birch, Scott, etc. His works bearing on\ntheology show his heresy, the principal being Hebrew Records 1850,\nChristian Records 1854. These two were published together in amended\nform in 1877. He also wrote Codex Apocryphus Novi Testamenti 1852,\nWritings of the Early Christians of the Second Century 1857, and\nApostolic Records, published posthumously in 1886. Died 24 Sept 1884.\n\nGinguene (Pierre Louis), French historian b. Rennes, 25 April,\n1748. Educated, with Parny, by Jesuits. At Paris he became a\nteacher, embraced the Revolution, wrote on Rousseau and Rabelais,\nand collaborated with Chamfort in the Historic Pictures of the French\nRevolution. Thrown into prison during the Terror, he escaped on the\nfall of Robespierre, and became Director of Public Instruction. His\nprincipal work is a Literary History of Italy. Died Paris, 11\nNov. 1816.\n\nGilliland (M. S.) Miss, b. Londonderry 1853, authoress of a little\nwork on The Future of Morality, from the Agnostic standpoint, 1888.\n\nGioja (Melchiorre), Italian political economist, b. Piazenza, 20\nSept. 1767. He advocated republicanism, and was appointed head of a\nbureau of statistics. For his brochure La Scienza del Povero Diavolo\nhe was expelled from Italy in 1809. He published works on Merit and\nRewards and The Philosophy of Statistics. Died at Milan 2 Jan. 1829.\n\nGirard (Stephen), American philanthropist, b. near Bordeaux France,\n24 May, 1750. He sailed as cabin boy to the West Indies about 1760;\nrose to be master of a coasting vessel and earned enough to settle\nin business in Philadelphia in 1769. He became one of the richest\nmerchants in America, and during the war of 1812 he took the whole\nof a Government loan of five million dollars. He called his vessels\nafter the names of the philosophers Helvetius, Montesquieu, Voltaire,\nRousseau, etc. He contributed liberally to all public improvements\nand radical movements. On his death he left large bequests to\nPhiladelphia, the principal being a munificent endowment of a college\nfor orphans. By a provision of his will, no ecclesiastic or minister\nof any sect whatever is to hold any connection with the college, or\neven be admitted to the premises as a visitor; but the officers of the\ninstitution are required to instruct the pupils in secular morality\nand leave them to adopt their own religious opinions. This will has\nbeen most shamefully perverted. Died Philadelphia, 26 Dec. 1831.\n\nGlain (D. de Saint). See Saint Glain.\n\nGlennie (John Stuart Stuart), living English barrister and\nwriter, author of In the Morningland, or the law of the origin and\ntransformation of Christianity, 1873, the most important chapter\nof which was reprinted by Thomas Scott, under the title, Christ and\nOsiris. He has also written Pilgrim Memories, or travel and discussion\nin the birth-countries of Christianity with the late H. T. Buckle,\n1875.\n\nGlisson (Francis), English anatomist and physician, b. Rampisham,\nDorsetshire, 1597. He took his degree at Cambridge, and was there\nappointed Regius Professor of Physic, an office he held forty years. He\ndiscovered Glisson's capsule in the liver, and was the first to\nattribute irritability to muscular fibre. In his Tractatus de natura\nsubstanti\u00e6 energetica, 1672, he anticipates the natural school in\nconsidering matter endowed with native energy sufficient to account\nfor the operations of nature. Dr. Glisson was eulogised by Harvey,\nand Boerhaave called him \"the most accurate of all anatomists that\never lived.\" Died in 1677.\n\nGodwin (Mary). See Wollstonecraft.\n\nGodwin (William), English historian, political writer and novelist,\nb. Wisbeach, Cambridgeshire, 3 March, 1756. The son of a Dissenting\nminister, he was designed for the same calling. He studied at Hoxton\nCollege, and came out, as he entered, a Tory and Calvinist; but making\nthe acquaintance of Holcroft, Paine, and the English Jacobins, his\nviews developed from the Unitarianism of Priestley to the rejection\nof the supernatural. In '93 he published his republican work on\nPolitical Justice. In the following year he issued his powerful\nnovel of Caleb Williams. He married Mary Wollstonecraft, '96; wrote,\nin addition to several novels and educational works, On Population,\nin answer to Malthus, 1820; a History of the Commonwealth, '24-28;\nThoughts on Man, '31; Lives of the Necromancers, '34. Some Freethought\nessays, which he had intended to form into a book entitled The Genius\nof Christianity Unveiled, were first published in '73. They comprise\npapers on such subjects as future retribution, the atonement, miracles,\nand character of Jesus, and the history and effects of the Christian\nreligion. Died 7 April, 1836.\n\nGoethe (Johann Wolfgang von), Germany's greatest poet,\nb. Frankfort-on-Main, 28 Aug. 1749. He records that early in his\nseventh year (1 Nov. 1758) the great Lisbon earthquake filled his\nmind with religious doubt. Before he was nine he could write several\nlanguages. Educated at home until sixteen, he then went to Leipsic\nUniversity. At Strasburg he became acquainted with Herder, who directed\nhis attention to Shakespeare. He took the degree of doctor in 1771,\nand in the same year composed his drama \"Goetz von Berlichingen.\" He\nwent to Wetzlar, where he wrote Sorrows of Werther, 1774, which at\nonce made him famous. He was invited to the court of the Duke of\nSaxe-Weimar and loaded with honors, becoming the centre of a galaxy\nof distinguished men. Here he brought out the works of Schiller and\nhis own dramas, of which Faust is the greatest. His chief prose work\nis Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship. His works are voluminous. He\ndeclared himself \"decidedly non-Christian,\" and said his objects of\nhate were \"the cross and bugs.\" He was averse to abstractions and\nrefused to recognise a Deity distinct from the world. In philosophy\nhe followed Spinoza, and he disliked and discountenanced the popular\ncreed. Writing to Lavater in 1772 he said: \"You look upon the gospel as\nit stands as the divinest truth: but even a voice from heaven would not\nconvince me that water burns and fire quenches, that a woman conceives\nwithout a man, and that a dead man can rise again. To you, nothing is\nmore beautiful than the Gospel; to me, a thousand written pages of\nancient and modern inspired men are equally beautiful.\" Goethe was\nopposed to asceticism, and Pfleiderer admits \"stood in opposition\nto Christianity not merely on points of theological form, but to\na certain extent on points of substance too.\" Goethe devoted much\nattention to science, and he attempted to explain the metamorphosis\nof plants on evolutionary principles in 1790. Died 22 March, 1832.\n\nGoldstuecker (Theodor), Sanskrit scholar, of Jewish birth, but a\nFreethinker by conviction, b. Konigsberg 18 Jan. 1821; studied at Bonn\nunder Schlegel and Lassen, and at Paris under Burnouf. Establishing\nhimself at Berlin, he was engaged as tutor in the University and\nassisted Humboldt in the matter of Hindu philosophy in the Cosmos. A\ndemocrat in politics, he left Berlin at the reaction of '49 and came\nto England, where he assisted Professor Wilson in preparing his\nSanskrit-English Dictionary. He contributed important articles on\nIndian literature to the Westminster Review, the Reader, the Athen\u00e6um\nand Chambers' Encyclop\u00e6dia. Died in London, 6 March, 1872.\n\nGoldziher (Ignacz), Hungarian Orientalist, b. Stuhlweissenburg,\n1850. Is since 1876 Doctor of Semitic Philology in Buda-pesth; is\nauthor of Mythology Among the Hebrews, which has been translated\nby Russell Martineau, '77, and has written many studies on Semitic\ntheology and literature.\n\nGordon (Thomas), Scotch Deist and political reformer, was b. Kells,\nKirkcudbright, about 1684, but settled early in London, where he\nsupported himself as a teacher and writer. He first distinguished\nhimself by two pamphlets in the Bangorian controversy, which\nrecommended him to Trenchard, to whom he became amanuensis, and\nwith whom he published Cato's Letters and a periodical entitled The\nIndependent Whig, which he continued some years after Trenchard's\ndeath, marrying that writer's widow. He wrote many pamphlets, and\ntranslated from Barbeyrac The Spirit of the Ecclesiastics of All\nAges. He also translated the histories of Tacitus and Sallust. He died\n28 July, 1750, leaving behind him posthumous works entitled A Cordial\nfor Low Spirits and The Pillars of Priestcraft and Orthodoxy Shaken.\n\nGorl\u00e6us (David), a Dutch philosopher, b. at Utrecht, towards the end\nof the sixteenth century, has been accused of Atheism on account\nof his speculations in a work published after his death entitled\nExercitationes Philosophic\u00e6, Leyden 1620.\n\nGovea or Gouvea [Latin Goveanus] (Antonio), Portugese jurist and poet,\nb. 1505, studied in France and gained great reputation by his legal\nwritings. Calvin classes him with Dolet, Rabelais, and Des Periers,\nas an Atheist and mocker. He wrote elegant Latin poems. Died at Turin,\n5 March, 1565.\n\nGratiolet (Louis-Pierre), French naturalist, b. Sainte Foy, 6 July\n1815, noted for his researches on the comparative anatomy of the\nbrain. Died at Paris 15 Feb. 1865.\n\nGraves (Kersey), American, author of The Biography of Satan, 1865,\nand The World's Sixteen Crucified Saviors, 1876. Works of some vogue,\nbut little value.\n\nGray (Asa), American naturalist, b. 18 Nov. 1810, Paris, Oneida Co.,\nNew York. Studied at Fairfield and became physician 1831. Wrote\nElements of Botany, 1836, became Professor of Nat. Hist. at Harvard,\nand was the first to introduce Darwinism to America. Wrote an\nExamination of Darwin's Treatise 1861. Succeeded Agassiz as Governor of\nSmithsonian Institute, and worked on American Flora. Died at Cambridge,\nMass., 30 Jan. 1888.\n\nGreen (H. L.), American Freethinker, b. 18 Feb. 1828. Edits the\nFreethinker's Magazine published at Buffalo, New York.\n\nGreg (William Rathbone), English Writer, b. Manchester 1809. Educated\nat Edinburgh university, he became attracted to economic studies\nand literary pursuits. He was one of the founders of the Manchester\nStatistical Society, a warm supporter of the Anti-Corn Law League,\nand author of one of its prize essays. In '40 he wrote on Efforts for\nthe Extinction of the African Slave Trade. In '50 he published his\nCreed of Christendom, which has gone through eight editions, and in\n1872 his Enigmas of Life, of which there were thirteen editions in\nhis life. He published also Essays on Political and Social Science,\nand was a regular contributor to the Pall Mall Gazette. His works\nexhibit a careful yet bold thinker and close reasoner. Died at\nWimbledon 15 Nov. 1881.\n\nGrenier (Pierre Jules), French Positivist, b. Beaumont, Perigord,\n1838, author of a medical examination of the doctrine of free will,\n'68, which drew out letter from Mgr. Dupanloup, Bishop of Orleans,\nimploring him to repudiate his impious doctrines. Also author of\nAphorisms on the First Principles of Sociology, 1873.\n\n\"Grile (Dod),\" pen name of Ambrose Bierce, American humorist, who\nwrote on the San Francisco News-Letter. His Nuggets and Dust and\nFiend's Delight, were blasphemous; has also written in Fun, and\npublished Cobwebs from an Empty Skull, 1873.\n\nGrimm (Friedrich Melchior von), Baron. German philosophic writer in\nFrench, b. Ratisbon, 26 Dec. 1723. Going to France he became acquainted\nwith D'Holbach and with Rousseau, who was at first his friend, but\nafterwards his enemy. He became secretary to the Duke of Orleans,\nand wrote in conjunction with Diderot and Raynal caustic literary\nbulletins containing criticisms on French literature and art. In\n1776 he was envoy from the Duke of Saxe Gotha to the French Court,\nand after the French Revolution was appointed by Catherine of Russia\nher minister at Hamburg. Grimm died at Gotha, 19 Dec. 1807. He is\nchiefly known by his literary correspondence with Diderot published\nin seventeen vols. 1812-1813.\n\nGringore (Pierre), French poet and dramatist, b. about 1475, satirised\nthe pope and clergy as well as the early reformers. Died about 1544.\n\nGrisebach (Eduard), German writer, b. Gottingen 9 Oct. 1845. Studied\nlaw, but entered the service of the State and became Consul at\nBucharest, Petersburg, Milan and Hayti. Has written many poems, of\nwhich the best known is The New Tanh\u00e4user, first published anonymously\nin '69, and followed by Tanh\u00e4user in Rome, '75. Has also translated\nKin Ku Ki Kuan, Chinese novels. Is a follower of Schopenhauer, whose\nbibliography he has compiled, 1888.\n\nGrote (George), the historian of Greece, b. near Beckenham, Kent,\n17 Nov. 1794. Descended from a Dutch family. He was educated for\nthe employment of a banker and was put to business at the age of\nsixteen. He was however addicted to literary pursuits, and became\na friend and disciple of James Mill and Jeremy Bentham. In 1820 he\nmarried a cultured lady, Harriet Lewin, and in '22 his Analysis of\nthe Influence of Natural Religion was published by Carlile, under\nthe pen name of Philip Beauchamp. He also wrote in the Westminster\nReview. In '33 he was elected as Radical M.P. for the City of London\nand retained his seat till '41. He was chiefly known in Parliament\nfor his advocacy of the ballot. In '46-'56 he published his famous\nHistory of Greece, which cost him the best years of his life; this was\nfollowed by Plato and the other Companions of Socrates. His review\nof J. S. Mill's Examination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy,\n'61, showed he retained his Freethought until the end of his life. He\ndied 18 June '71, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.\n\nGrote (Harriet) nee Lewin, wife of the above, b. 1792, shared in his\nopinions and wrote his life. Died 29 Dec. 1878.\n\nGruen (Karl) German author, b. 30 Sept. 1817, L\u00fcdenschied, Westphalia,\nstudied at Bonn and Berlin. In '44 he came to Paris, was a friend\nto Proudhon and translated his Philosophy of Misery, was arrested in\n'49 and condemned to exile; lived at Brussels till '62, when he was\nmade professor at Frankfort. He became professor of English at the\nCollege of Colmar, established a Radical journal the Mannheim Evening\nNews and he wrote Biographical Studies of Schiller, '44, and Feuerbach,\n'71. A Culture History of the 16th-17th Centuries, and The Philosophy\nof the Present, '76. Died at Vienna 17 February, 1887.\n\nGruet (Jacques), Swiss Freethinker, tortured and put to death for\nblasphemy by order of Calvin at Geneva, 26 July, 1547. After his death\npapers were found in his possession directed against religion. They\nwere burnt by the common hangman, April, 1550.\n\nGruyer (Louis Auguste Jean Fran\u00e7ois-Philippe), Belgian philosopher,\nb. Brussels, 15 Nov. 1778. He wrote an Essay of Physical Philosophy,\n1828, Tablett\u00e8s Philosophiques, '42. Principles of Physical\nPhilosophy, '45, etc. He held the atomic doctrine, and that matter\nwas eternal. Died Brussels 15 Oct. 1866.\n\nGuadet (Marguerite Elie), Girondin, b. Saint Emilion (Gironde),\n20 July, 1758. He studied at Bordeaux, and became an advocate in\n'81. He threw himself enthusiastically into the Revolution, and was\nelected Deputy for the Gironde. His vehement attacks on the Jacobins\ncontributed to the destruction of his party, after which he took\nrefuge, but was arrested and beheaded at Bordeaux, 15 June, 1794.\n\nGubernatis (Angelo de), see De Gubernatis.\n\nGu\u00e9pin (Ange), French physician, b. Pontivy, 30 Aug. 1805. He became\nM.D. in '28. After the revolution of July, '30, Dr. Gu\u00e9pin was made\nProfessor at the School of Medicine at Nantes. He formed the first\nscientific and philosophical congress, held there in '33. In '48 he\nbecame Commissaire of the Republic at Nantes, and in '50 was deprived\nof his situation. In '54 he published his Philosophy of the Nineteenth\nCentury. After the fall of the Empire, M. Gu\u00e9pin became Prefet of La\nLoire Inf\u00e9rieure, but had to resign from ill-health. Died at Nantes,\n21 May, 1873, and was buried without any religious ceremony.\n\nGueroult (Adolphe), French author, b. Radepont (Eure), 29\nJan. 1810. Early in life he became a follower of Saint Simon. He wrote\nto the Journal des Debats, the Republique, Credit and Industrie, and\nfounded l'Opinion National. He was elected to the Legislature in '63,\nwhen he advocated the separation of Church and State. Died at Vichy,\n21 July, 1872.\n\nGuerra Junqueiro. Portuguese poet, b. 1850. His principal work is a\npoem on The Death of Don Juan, but he has also written The Death of\nJehovah, an assault upon the Catholic faith from the standpoint of\nPantheism. Portuguese critics speak highly of his powers.\n\nGuerrini (Olindo), Italian poet, b. Forli, 4 Oct. 1845. Educated\nat Ravenna, Turin, and Bologna University; he has written many fine\npoems under the name of Lorenzo Stecchetti. In the preface to Nova\nPolemica he declares \"Primo di tutto dice, non credo in Dio\" (\"First\nof all I say do not believe in God.\")\n\nGueudeville (Nicolas), French writer, b. Rouen, 1654. He became a\nBenedictine monk, and was distinguished as a preacher, but the boldness\nof his opinions drew on him the punishment of his superiors. He escaped\nto Holland, and publicly abjured Catholicism. He taught literature\nand philosophy at Rotterdam, wrote the Dialogue of the Baron de la\nHontan with an American Savage Amst. 1704, appended to the Travels\nof La Hontan, 1724, edited by Gueudeville. This dialogue is a bitter\ncriticism of Christian usages. He translated Erasmus's Praise of Folly\n(1713), More's Utopia (1715), and C. Agrippa, Of the Uncertainty and\nVanity of Sciences (1726). Died at the Hague, 1720.\n\nGuichard (Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1803. He became\nMayor of Sens, and was elected deputy for the Yonne department. He\nwas exiled in '52, but again elected in '71. His principal work is\nLa Libert\u00e9 de Penser, fin du Pouvoir Spirituel (1868). Died at Paris,\n11th Nov. 1884.\n\nGuild (E. E.), b. in Connecticut, 6 May, 1811. In '35 he became\na Christian minister, but after numerous debates became turned\nUniversalist. In '44 he published The Universalist Book of Reference,\nwhich went through several editions. It was followed by Pro and Con,\nin which he gives the arguments for and against Christianity.\n\nGuirlando (Giulio) di Treviso. Italian heretic, put to death at Venice\nfor anti-trinitarian heresy, 19 Oct. 1562.\n\nGundling (Nicolaus Hieronymus), German scholar and Deistic philosopher,\nb. near Nuremberg, 25 Feb. 1671. He wrote a History of the Philosophy\nof Morals, 1706, and The Way to Truth, 1713. One of the first German\neclectics, he took much from Hobbes and Locke, with whom he derived\nall ideas from experience. Died at Halle, 16 Dec. 1729.\n\nGunning (William D.), American scientific professor, b. Bloomingburg,\nOhio. Graduated at Oberlin and studied under Agassiz. He wrote Life\nHistory of our Planet, Chicago, 1876, and contributed to The Open\nCourt. Died Greeley, Colorado, 8 March, 1888.\n\nG\u00fcnst (Dr. Frans Christiaan), Dutch writer and publisher, b. Amsterdam,\n19 Aug. 1823. He was intended for a Catholic clergyman; studied\nat Berne, where he was promoted '47. Returning to Holland he became\nbookseller and editor at Amsterdam. He was for many years secretary of\nthe City Theatre. G\u00fcnst contributed to many periodicals, and became\na friend of Junghuhn, with whom he started De Dageraad, the organ of\nthe Dutch Freethinkers, which he edited from '55 to '67. He usually\ncontributed under pseudonyms as \"Mephistho\" or ([therefore]). He was\nfor many years President of the Independent Lodge of Freemasons,\n\"Post Nubila Lux,\" and wrote on Adon Hiram, the oldest legend of\nthe Freemasons. He also wrote Wijwater voor Roomsch Katholieken\n(Holy Water for the Roman Catholics); De Bloedgetuigen der Spaansche\nInquisitie (The Martyrs of the Spanish Inquisition, '63); and Heidenen\nen Jezuieten, eene vergelijking van hunne zedeleer (Pagans and Jesuits,\na comparison of their morals, '67). In his life and conversation he\nwas frater gaudens. Died 29 Dec. 1886.\n\nGuyau (Marie Jean), French philosopher, b. 1854, was crowned at the\nage of 19 by the Institute of France for a monograph on Utilitarian\nmorality. In the following year he had charge of a course of philosophy\nat the Condorcet lyc\u00e9e at Paris. Ill health, brought on by excess of\nwork, obliged him to retire to Mentone, where he occupied himself\nwith literature. His principal works are La Morale d'Epicure (the\nmorality of Epicurus), in relation to present day doctrines, 1878,\nLa Morale Anglaise Contemporaine (Contemporary English Ethics), '79,\ncrowned by the Academy of Moral Sciences. Verses of a philosopher,\n'81. Esquisse d'une morale sans obligation ni sanction (Sketch of\nmorality without obligation or sanction,) '84, and L'Irreligion de\nl'Avenir (the Irreligion of the Future) '87. M. Guyau was a follower of\nM. Fouill\u00e9e, but all his works bear the impress of profound thought and\noriginality. A chief doctrine is the expansion of life. Died Mentone,\n31 March, 1888.\n\nGuyot (Yves), French writer and statesman, b. Dinan, 1843. He wrote\nwith Sigismond Lacroix a Study of the Social Doctrines of Christianity,\n'73, and a work on morality in the Biblioth\u00e8que Mat\u00e9rialiste. Elected\non the Municipal Council of Paris '74-78, he has since been a deputy\nto the Chamber, and is now a member of the government. He has written\nthe Principles of Social Economy, '84, and many works on that topic;\nhas edited Diderot's La Religieuse and the journals Droits de l'homme\nand le Bien public.\n\nGwynne (George), Freethought writer in the Reasoner and National\nReformer, under the pen-name of \"Aliquis.\" His reply to J. H. Newman's\nGrammar of Assent shewed much acuteness. He served the cause both by\npen and purse. Died 25 Sept. 1873.\n\nGyllenborg (Gustaf Fredrik), Count. Swedish poet, b. 6 Dec. 1731, was\none of the first members of the Academy of Stockholm and Chancellor\nof Upsala University. He published satires, fables, odes, etc.,\namong which may be named The Passage of the Belt. His opinions were\nDeistic. Died 30 March, 1808.\n\nHaeckel (Ernst Heinrich Philipp August), German scientist, b. Potsdam,\n16 Feb. 1834; studied medicine and science at W\u00fcrzburg, Berlin,\nand Vienna. In '59 he went to Italy and studied zoology at Naples,\nand two years later was made Professor of Zoology at Jena. Between\n'66 and '75 he travelled over Europe besides visiting Syria and Egypt,\nand later he visited India and Ceylon, writing an interesting account\nof his travels. He is the foremost German supporter of evolution; his\nNatural History of Creation, '68, having gone through many editions,\nand been translated into English '76, as have also his Evolution\nof Man, 2 vols. '79, and Pedigree of Man, '83. Besides numerous\nmonographs and an able work on Cellular Psychology, Professor Haeckel\nhas published important Popular Lectures on Evolution, '78, and on\nFreedom in Science and Teaching, published with a prefatory note by\nProfessor Huxley, '79.\n\nHagen (Benjamin Olive), Socialist, b. 25 June, 1791. About the year\n1841 his attention was attracted to the Socialists by the abuse they\nreceived. Led thus to inquire, he embraced the views of Robert Owen,\nand was their chief upholder for many years in the town of Derby,\nwhere he lived to be upwards of seventy years of age. His wife also\ndeserves mention as an able lady of Freethought views.\n\nHalley (Edmund), eminent English astronomer, known in his lifetime\nas \"the Infidel Mathematician,\" b. Haggerston, London, 29 Oct. 1656;\neducated at Oxford. At twenty he had made observations of the planets\nand of the spots on the sun. In Nov. '76 he went to St. Helena\nwhere he prepared his Catalogue of Southern Stars, '79. He also\nfound how to take the sun's parallax by means of the transits of\nMercury or Venus. In '78 he was elected a F.R.S. Two years later\nhe made observation on \"Halley's comet,\" and in '83 published his\ntheory of the variation of the magnet. He became a friend of Sir\nIsaac Newton, whom he persuaded to publish his Principia. In '98 he\ncommanded a scientific expedition to the South Atlantic. In 1713 he\nwas made sec. of the Royal Society and in 1720 Astronomer-royal. He\nthen undertook a task which required nineteen years to perform, viz:\nto observe the moon throughout an entire revolution of her nodes. He\nlived to finish this task. Died 14 Jan. 1742. Halley was the first who\nconceived that fixed stars had a proper motion in space. Chalmers in\nhis Biographical Dictionary says, \"It must be deeply regretted that\nhe cannot be numbered with those illustrious characters who thought\nit not beneath them to be Christians.\"\n\nHammon (W.), pseudonym of Turner William, q. v.\n\nHamond or Hamont (Matthew), English heretic, by trade a ploughwright,\nof Hethersett, Norfolk, burnt at Norwich, May 1579, for holding\n\"that the New Testament and the Gospel of Christ were pure folly,\na human invention, a mere fable.\" He had previously been set in the\npillory and had both his ears cut off.\n\nHannotin (Emile), French Deist, b. Bar le Duc in 1812, and some\ntime editor of the Journal de la Meuse. Author of New Philosophical\nTheology, '46; Great Questions, '67; Ten Years of Philosophical\nStudies, '72; and an Essay on Man, in which he seeks to explain life\nby sensibility.\n\nHanson (Sir Richard Davies), Chief Justice of South Australia,\nb. London, 5 Dec. 1805. He practised as attorney for a short time in\nLondon, and wrote for the Globe and Morning Chronicle. In 1830 he took\npart in the attempt to found a colony in South Australia. In 1851 he\nbecame Advocate-General of the colony, and subsequently in 1861 Chief\nJustice. In 1869 he was knighted. He wrote on Law in Nature 1865,\nThe Jesus of History 1869, and St. Paul 1875. Hanson wrote Letters\nto and from Rome A.D. 61, 62 and 63. Selected and translated by\nC.V.S. 1873. Died at Adelaide 10 Mar. 1876.\n\nHardwicke (Edward Arthur), M.D., eldest son of Junius Hardwicke,\nF.R.C.S., of Rotherham, Yorks. In '75 he qualified as a surveyor, and\nin '86 as a physician. For twelve years he was Surgeon Superintendent\nof the Government Emigration Service. He is an Agnostic of the school\nof Herbert Spencer, and has contributed to Freethought and scientific\nperiodicals.\n\nHardwicke (Herbert Junius), M.D., brother of above, b. Sheffield, 26\nJan. 1850. Studied at London, Edinburgh and Paris. In '78 he became a\nmember of the Edinburgh College of Physicians. Next year he was the\nprincipal agent in establishing the Sheffield Public Hospital for\nSkin Diseases. Besides numerous medical works, Dr. Hardwicke set up\na press of his own in order to print The Popular Faith Unveiled, the\npublishers requiring guarantee in consequence of the prosecution of\nMr. Foote ('84), and Evolution and Creation ('87). He has contributed\nto the Agnostic Annual, and has recently written Rambles in Spain,\nItaly and Morocco ('89).\n\nHarriot (Thomas), English mathematician, b. Oxford, 1560, accompanied\nRaleigh to Virginia and published an account of the expedition. He was\nnoted for his skill in algebra, and A. Wood says \"He was a Deist.\" Died\n21 July 1621.\n\nHarrison (Frederic), M.A., English Positivist, b. London 18 Oct. 1831,\neducated at London and Oxford, when he was 1st class in classics. He\nwas called to the bar in '58. He has since been appointed Professor\nof Jurisprudence and International Law. He has written many important\narticles in the high-class reviews, and has published The Meaning\nof History, Order and Progress, and on The Choice of Books and Other\nLiterary Pieces, '86, and has translated vol. ii of Comte's Positive\nPolity. He was one of the founders of the Positivist school, '70,\nand of Newton Hall in '81. A fine stylist, his addresses and magazine\narticles bear the stamp of a cultured man of letters.\n\nHartmann (Karl Robert Eduard), German pantheistic pessimist\nphilosopher, b. Berlin, 23 Feb. 1842. In '58 he entered the Prussian\narmy, but an affection of the knee made him resign in '65. By the\npublication of his Philosophy of the Unconscious in '69, he became\nfamous, though it was not translated into English until '84. He\nhas since written numerous works of which we name Self-Dissolution\nof Christianity and The Religion of the Future, '75, The Crisis of\nChristianity in Modern Theology, '80, The Religious Consciousness of\nMankind, '81, and Modern Problems, '86. Latterly Hartmann has turned\nhis attention to the philosophy of politics.\n\nHartogh Heys van Zouteveen (Dr. Herman), a learned Dutch writer,\nb. Delft 13 Feb. 1841. He studied law and natural philosophy at Leyden,\nand graduated doctor of law in '64 and doctor of natural philosophy in\n'66. In '66 he received a gold medal from the king of Holland for a\ntreatise on the synthesis of organic bodies. Dr. Hartogh was some time\nprofessor of chemistry and natural history at the Hague, but lived at\nDelft, where he was made city councillor and in '69 and '70 travelled\nthrough Egypt and Nubia as correspondent of Het Vaderland and was the\nguest of the Khedive. He translated into Dutch Darwin's Descent of\nMan and Expressions of the Emotions, both with valuable annotations\nof his own. He has also translated and annotated some of the works\nof Ludwig B\u00fcchner and \"Carus Sterne,\" from the German, and works from\nthe French, besides writing several original essays on anthropology,\nnatural history, geology, and allied sciences, contributing largely\nto the spread of Darwinian ideas in Holland. In '72 he visited the\nUnited States and the Pacific coast. Since '73 he has resided at\nAssen, of which he was named member of the city council, but could\nnot take his seat because he refused the oath. He is a director of\nthe Provincial Arch\u00e6ological Museum at Assen, and a member of the\nDutch Literary Society the Royal Institution of Netherlands, India,\nand other scientific associations. For a long while he was a member\nof the Dutch Freethinkers' Society, De Dageraad, of which he became\npresident. To the organ De Dageraad he contributed important works,\nsuch as Jewish Reports Concerning Jesus of Nazareth and the Origin\nof Religious Ideas, the last of which has been published separately.\n\nHaslam (Charles Junius), b. Widdington, Northumberland, 24 April,\n1811. He spent most of his life near Manchester, where he became a\nSocialist and published Letters to the Clergy of all Denominations,\nshowing the errors, absurdities, and irrationalities of their\ndoctrines, '38. This work went through several editions, and the\npublishers were prosecuted for blasphemy. He followed it by Letters to\nthe Bishop of Exeter, containing materials for deciding the question\nwhether or not the Bible is the word of God, '41, and a pamphlet Who\nare the Infidels? In '61 he removed to Benton, where he has since\nlived. In '85 he issued a pamphlet entitled The Suppression of War.\n\nHassell (Richard), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced to two years\nimprisonment in Newgate for selling Paine's Age of Reason, 28 May,\n1824. He died in October 1826.\n\nHattem (Pontiaam van), Dutch writer, b. Bergen 1641. He was a\nfollower of Spinoza, inclined to Pantheistic mysticism, and had\nseveral followers. Died 1706.\n\nHaureau (Jean Barthelemy), French historian, b. Paris 1812. At the\nage of twenty he showed his sympathy with the Revolution by a work\non The Mountain. In turn journalist and librarian he has produced\nmany important works, of which we name his Manual of the Clergy,\n'44, which drew on him attacks from the clericals, and his erudite\nCritical Examination of the Scholastic Philosophy, '50.\n\nHauy (Valentine), French philanthropist, b. Saint-Just 13 Nov. 1745. He\ndevoted much attention to enabling the blind to read and founded the\ninstitute for the young blind in 1784. He was one of the founders\nof Theophilantropy. In 1807 he went to Russia, where he stayed till\n1817, devoting himself to the blind and to telegraphy. Died at Paris\n18 March, 1822.\n\nHavet (Ernest August Eug\u00e8ne), French scholar and critic, b. Paris,\n11 April, 1813. In '40 he was appointed professor of Greek literature\nat the Normal School. In '55 he was made professor of Latin eloquence\nat the Coll\u00e9ge de France. In '63 an article on Renan's Vie de Jesus in\nthe Revue des Deux Mondes excited much attention, and was afterwards\npublished separately. His work on Christianity and its Origins,\n4 vols. 1872-84, is a masterpiece of rational criticism.\n\nHawkesworth (John), English essayist and novelist, b. in London about\n1715. Became contributor to the Gentleman's Magazine and editor of\nthe Adventurer. In '61 he edited Swift's works with a life of that\nauthor. He compiled an account of the voyages of Byron, Wallis,\nCarteret, and Cook for government, for which he received \u00a36,000;\nbut the work was censured as incidentally attacking the doctrine of\nProvidence. His novel Almoran and Hamet was very popular. Died at\nBromley, Kent, 17 Nov. 1773.\n\nHawley (Henry), a Scotch major-general, who died in 1765, and by the\nterms of his will prohibited Christian burial.\n\nHebert (Jacques Ren\u00e9), French revolutionist, b. Alen\u00e7on 15 Nov. 1757,\npublished the notorious P\u00e8re Duch\u00easne, and with Chaumette instituted\nthe Feasts of Reason. He was denounced by Saint Just, and guillotined\n2 March 1794. His widow, who had been a nun, was executed a few\ndays later.\n\nHegel (Georg Wilhelm Friedrich), German metaphysician b. Stuttgart,\n27 Aug. 1770. He studied theology at T\u00fcbingen, but, becoming acquainted\nwith Schelling, devoted his attention to philosophy. His Encyclop\u00e6dia\nof the Philosophical Sciences made a deep impression in Germany, and\ntwo schools sprang up, one claiming it as a philosophical statement\nof Christianity, the other as Pantheism hostile to revelation. Hegel\nsaid students of philosophy must begin with Spinozism. He is said to\nhave remarked that of all his many disciples only one understood him,\nand he understood him falsely. He was professor at Jena, Heidelberg,\nand Berlin, in which last city he died 14 Nov. 1831, and was buried\nbeside Fichte.\n\nHeine (Heinrich), German poet and litt\u00e9rateur, b. of Jewish parents\nat Dusseldorf, 31 Dec. 1797. He studied law at Bonn, Berlin, and\nG\u00f6ttingen; became acquainted with the philosophy of Spinoza and\nHegel; graduated LL.D., and in June 1825 renounced Judaism and\nwas baptised. The change was only formal. He satirised all forms\nof religious faith. His fine Pictures of Travel was received with\nfavor and translated by himself into French. His other principal\nworks are the Book of Songs, History of Recent Literature in Germany,\nThe Romantic School, The Women of Shakespeare, Atta Troll and other\npoems. In 1835 he married a French lady, having settled in Paris,\nwhere \"the Voltaire of Germany\" became more French than German. About\n1848 he became paralysed and lost his eyesight, but he still employed\nhimself in literary composition with the aid of an amanuensis. After\nan illness of eight years, mostly passed in extreme suffering on his\n\"mattress grave,\" he died 17 Feb. 1856. Heine was the greatest and\nmost influential German writer since Goethe. He called himself a\nSoldier of Freedom, and his far-flashing sword played havoc with the\nforces of reaction.\n\nHeinzen (Karl Peter) German-American poet, orator and politician,\nb. near Dusseldorf, 22 Feb. 1809. He studied medicine at Bonn,\nand travelled to Batavia, an account of which he published (Cologne\n1842). A staunch democrat, in 1845 he published at Darmstadt a work\non the Prussian Bureaucracy, for which he was prosecuted and had to\nseek shelter in Switzerland. At Zurich he edited the German Tribune\nand the Democrat. At the beginning of '48 he visited New York but\nreturned to participate in the attempted German Revolution. Again\n\"the regicide\" had to fly and in August '50 returned to New York. He\nwrote on many papers and established the Pioneer (now Freidenker),\nfirst in Louisville, then in Cincinnati, then in New York, and from\n'59 in Boston. He wrote many works, including Letters on Atheism,\nwhich appeared in The Reasoner 1856, Poems, German Revolution, The\nHeroes of German Communism, The Rights of Women, Mankind the Criminal,\nSix Letters to a Pious Man (Boston 1869), Lessons of a Century,\nand What is Humanity? (1877.) Died Boston 12 Nov. 1880.\n\nHellwald (Friedrich von), German geographer, b. Padua 29 March 1842,\nand in addition to many works on various countries has written an\nable Culture History, 1875.\n\nHelmholtz (Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von) German scientist, b. Potsdam\n31 Aug. 1821. Distinguished for his discoveries in acoustics, optics\nand electricity, he is of the foremost rank among natural philosophers\nin Europe. Among his works we mention The Conservation of Force (1847),\nand Popular Scientific Lectures (1865-76.) Professor Helmholtz rejects\nthe design hypothesis.\n\nHelvetius (Claude Adrien) French philosopher, b. Paris 18\nJan. 1715. Descended from a line of celebrated physicians, he had a\nlarge fortune which he dispensed in works of benevolence. Attracted\nby reading Locke he resigned a lucrative situation as farmer-general\nto devote himself to philosophy. In August 1758 he published a work\nOn the Mind (De L'Esprit) which was condemned by Pope Clement XIII,\n31 Jan. 1759, and burnt by the order of Parliament 6 Feb. 1759 for the\nhardihood of his materialistic opinions. Mme. Du Deffand said \"he told\neverybody's secret.\" It was republished at Amsterdam and London. He\nalso wrote a poem On Happiness and a work on Man his Faculties and\nEducation. He visited England and Prussia and became an honored guest\nof Frederick the Great. Died 26 Dec. 1771. His wife, n\u00e9e Anne Catherine\nDe Lingville, b. 1719, after his death retired to Auteuil, where her\nhouse was the rendezvous of Condillac, Turgot, d'Holbach, Morellet,\nCabanis, Destutt de Tracy, etc. This re-union of Freethinkers was\nknown as the Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d'Auteuil. Madame Helvetius died 12 August 1800.\n\nHenault, or Hesnault (Jean), French Epicurean poet of the 17th century,\nson of a Paris baker, was a pupil of Gassendi, and went to Holland to\nsee Spinoza. Bayle says he professed Atheism, and had composed three\ndifferent systems of the mortality of the soul. His most famous sonnet\nis on The Abortion. Died Paris, 1682.\n\nHenin de Cuvillers (Etienne Felix), Baron, French general and writer,\nb. Balloy, 27 April, 1755. He served as diplomatist in England, Venice,\nand Constantinople. Employed in the army of Italy, he was wounded at\nArcola, 26 Sept. '96. He was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor in\n1811. He wrote much, particularly on magnetism. In the 8th vol. of\nhis Archives du Magn\u00e9tisme Animal, he suggests that the miracles of\nJesus were not supernatural, but wrought by means of magnetism learnt\nin Egypt. In other writings, especially in reflections on the crimes\ncommitted in the name of religion, '22, he shows himself the enemy\nof fanaticism and intolerance. Died 2 August, 1841.\n\nHennell (Charles Christian), English Freethinker, b. 9 March, 1809,\nauthor of an able Inquiry concerning the Origin of Christianity,\nfirst published in '38, a work which powerfully influenced \"George\nEliot,\" and a translation of which was introduced to German readers\nby Dr. D. F. Strauss. It was Hennell who induced \"George Eliot\"\nto translate Strauss's Life of Jesus. He also wrote on Christian\nTheism. Hennell lived most of his time in Coventry. He was married\nat London in '39, and died 2 Sept. 1850.\n\nHerault de Sechelles (Marie Jean), French revolutionist, b. of\nnoble family, Paris, 1760. Brought up as a friend of Buffon and\nMirabeau, he gained distinction as a lawyer and orator before the\nRevolution. Elected to the Legislative Assembly in '91, he was made\nPresident of the Convention, 2 Nov. 92. He edited the document known\nas the Constitution of 1793, and was president and chief speaker at\nthe national festival, 10 Aug. '93. He drew on himself the enmity\nof Robespierre, and was executed with Danton and Camille Desmoulins,\n5 April, 1794.\n\nHerbart (Johann Friedrich), b. Oldenburg 4 May 1776. In 1805 he was\nmade professor of philosophy at G\u00f6ttingen, and in 1808 became Kant's\nsuccessor at K\u00f6nigsberg and opposed his philosophy. Though religiously\ndisposed, his philosophy has no room for the notion of a God. He was\nrecalled to G\u00f6ttingen, where he died 14 Aug. 1841.\n\nHerbert (Edward), Lord of Cherbury, in Shropshire, b. Montgomery\nCastle, 1581. Educated at Oxford, after which he went on his\ntravels. On his return he was made one of the king's counsellors,\nand soon after sent as ambassador to France to intercede for the\nProtestants. He served in the Netherlands, and distinguished himself\nby romantic bravery. In 1625 he was made a peer of Ireland, and in\n'31 an English peer. During the civil wars he espoused the side of\nParliament. His principal work is entitled De Veritate, the object of\nwhich was to assert the sufficiency of natural religion apart from\nrevelation. He also wrote Lay Religion, his own Memoirs, a History\nof Henry VIII., etc. Died 20 Aug. 1648.\n\nHertell (Thomas), judge of the Marine Court of New York, and for some\nyears Member of the Legislature of his State. He wrote two or three\nsmall works criticising Christian Theology, and exerted his influence\nin favour of State secularization.\n\nHertzen or Gertsen (Aleksandr Ivanovich), Russian patriot, chief of\nthe revolutionary party, b. Moscow, 25 March, 1812. He studied at\nMoscow University, where he obtained a high degree. In '34 he was\narrested for Saint Simonian opinions and soon afterwards banished\nto Viatka, whence he was permitted to return in '37. He was expelled\nfrom Russia in '42, visited Italy, joined the \"Reds\" at Paris in '48,\ntook refuge at Geneva, and soon after came to England. In '57 he set\nup in London a Russian printing press for the publication of works\nprohibited in Russia, and his publications passed into that country in\nlarge numbers. Among his writings are Dilettantism in Science, '42;\nLetters on the Study of Nature, '45-46; Who's to Blame? '57; Memoirs\nof the Empress Catherine, and My Exile, '55. In '57 Herzen started the\nmagazine the Kolokol or Bell. Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1870. His son,\nAlessandro Herzen, b. Wladimar, 1839, followed his father's fortunes,\nlearnt most of the European languages and settled at Florence, where\nhe did much to popularise physiological science. He has translated\nMaudsley's Physiology of Mind, and published a physiological analysis\nof human free will.\n\nHerwegh (Georg), German Radical and poet, b. Stuttgart, 31\nMay, 1817. Intended for the Church, he left that business for\nLiterature. His Gedichte eines Lebendigen (Poems of a Living Man)\naroused attention by their boldness. In '48 he raised a troop\nand invaded Baden, but failed, and took refuge in Switzerland and\nParis. Died at Baden-Baden, 7 April, 1875.\n\nHetherington (Henry), English upholder of a free press, b. Soho,\nLondon, 1792. He became a printer, and was one of the most energetic\nof working men engaged in the foundation of mechanics' institutes. He\nalso founded the Metropolitan Political Union in March, 1830, which\nwas the germ both of trades' unionism and of the Chartist movement. He\nresisted the \"taxes upon knowledge\" by issuing unstamped The Poor Man's\nGuardian, a weekly newspaper for the people, established, contrary to\n\"law,\" to try the power of \"might\" against \"right,\" '31-35. For this\nhe twice suffered sentences of six months' imprisonment. He afterwards\npublished The Unstamped, and his persistency had much to do in removing\nthe taxes. While in prison he wrote his Cheap Salvation in consequence\nof conversation with the chaplain of Clerkenwell Gaol. On Dec. 8, '40,\nhe was tried for \"blasphemous libel\" for publishing Haslam's Letters\nto the Clergy, and received four month's imprisonment. Hetherington\npublished A Few Hundred Bible Contradictions, and other Freethought\nworks. Much of his life was devoted to the propaganda of Chartism. He\ndied 24 Aug. 1849, leaving a will declaring himself an Atheist.\n\nHetzer (Ludwig), anti-Trinitarian martyr, b. Bischopzell, Switzerland;\nwas an Anabaptist minister at Zurich. He openly denied the doctrine of\nthe Trinity, and was condemned to death by the magistrates of Constance\non a charge of blasphemy. The sentence was carried out 4 Feb. 1529.\n\nHeusden (C. J. van), Dutch writer in De Dageraad. Has written several\nworks, Thoughts on a Coming More Universal Doctrine, by a Believer,\netc.\n\nHibbert (Julian), Freethought philanthropist, b. 1801. During the\nimprisonment of Richard Carlile he was active in sustaining his\npublications. Learning that a distinguished political prisoner had\nreceived a gift of \u00a31,000, he remarked that a Freethinking prisoner\nshould not want equal friends, and gave Carlile a cheque for the same\namount. Julian Hibbert spent nearly \u00a31,000 in fitting up Carlile's\nshop in Fleet Street. He contributed \"Theological Dialogues\" to the\nRepublican, and also contributed to the Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert\nset up a private press and printed in uncial Greek the Orphic Hymns,\n'27, and also Plutarch and Theophrastus on Superstition, to which\nhe wrote a life of Plutarch and appended valuable essays \"on the\nsupposed necessity of deceiving the vulgar\"; \"various definitions\nof an important word\" [God], and a catalogue of the principal\nmodern works against Atheism. He also commenced a Dictionary\nof Anti-Superstitionists, and Chronological Tables of British\nFreethinkers. He wrote a short life of Holbach, published by James\nWatson, to whom, and to Henry Hetherington, he left \u00a3500 each. Died\nDecember 1834.\n\nHedin (Sven Adolph), Swedish member of the \"Andra Kammaren\" [House\nof Commons], b. 1834. Studied at Upsala and became philosophical\ncandidate, '61. Edited the Aftonbladet, '74-76. Has written many\nradical works.\n\nHiggins (Godfrey), English arch\u00e6ologist, b. Skellow Grange, near\nDoncaster, 1771. Educated at Cambridge and studied for the bar,\nbut never practised. Being the only son he inherited his father's\nproperty, married, and acted as magistrate, in which capacity he\nreformed the treatment of lunatics in York Asylum. His first work was\nentitled Hor\u00e6 Sabbatic\u00e6, 1813, a manual on the Sunday Question. In\n'29 he published An Apology for the Life and Character of Mohammed and\nCeltic Druids, which occasioned some stir on account of the exposure\nof priestcraft. He died 9 Aug. 1833, leaving behind a work on the\norigin of religions, to the study of which he devoted ten hours daily\nfor about twenty years. The work was published in two volumes in 1826,\nunder the title of \"Anacalypsis, an attempt to draw aside the veil of\nthe Saitic Isis; or an Inquiry into the Origin of Languages, Nations,\nand Religions.\"\n\nHillebrand (Karl), cosmopolitan writer, b. 17 Sept. 1829, at\nGiessen. His father, Joseph Hillebrand, succeeded Hegel as professor\nat Heidelberg. Involved in the revolutionary movement in Germany,\nKarl was imprisoned in the fortress of Rastadt, whence he escaped to\nFrance. He taught at Strasbourg and Paris, where he became secretary\nto Heine. On the poet's death he removed to Bordeaux, where he became a\nnaturalised Frenchman. He became professor of letters at Douay. During\nthe Franco-Prussian war he was correspondent to the Times, and was\ntaken for a Prussian spy. In 1871 he settled at Florence, where he\ntranslated the poems of Carducci. Hillebrand was a contributor to\nthe Fortnightly Review, Nineteenth Century, Revue des deux Mondes,\nNorth American Review, etc. His best known work is on France and the\nFrench in the second half of the nineteenth century. Died at Florence,\n18 Oct. 1884.\n\nHins (Eug\u00e8ne), Belgian writer, Dr. of Philosophy, Professor at Royal\nAthen\u00e6um, Charleroi, b. St. Trond, 1842. As general secretary of the\nInternational, he edited L'Internationale, in which he laid stress\non anti-religious teaching. He contributed to La Libert\u00e9, and was\none of the prominent lecturers of the Societies Les Solidaires, and\nLa Libre-pens\u00e9e of Brussels. He has written La Russie d\u00e9 voil\u00e9e au\nmoyen de sa litt\u00e9rature populaire, 1883, and other works.\n\nHippel (Theodor Gottlieb von), German humoristic poet, b. Gerdauen,\nPrussia, 31 Jan. 1741. He studied theology, but resigned it for law,\nand became in 1780 burgomaster of K\u00f6nigsberg. His writings, which were\npublished anonymously, betray his advanced opinions. Died Bromberg,\n23 April, 1796.\n\nHittell (John S.), American Freethinker, author of the Evidences\nagainst Christianity (New York, 1857): has also written A Plea for\nPantheism, A New System of Phrenology, The Resources of California,\na History of San Francisco, A Brief History of Culture (New York,\n1875), and St. Peter's Catechism (Geneva, 1883).\n\nHoadley (George), American jurist, b. New Haven, Conn., 31 July,\n1836. He studied at Harvard, and in '47 was admitted to the bar,\nand in '51 was elected judge of the superior court of Cincinnati. He\nafterwards resigned his place and established a law firm. He was one\nof the counsel that successfully opposed compulsory Bible reading in\nthe public schools.\n\nHobbes (Thomas), English philosopher, b. Malmesbury, 5 April,\n1588. In 1608 he became tutor to a son of the Earl of Devonshire,\nwith whom he made the tour of Europe. At Pisa in 1628 he made the\nacquaintance of Galileo. In 1642 he printed his work De Cive. In 1650\nappeared in English his work on Human Nature, and in the following\nyear his famous Leviathan. At the Restoration he received a pension,\nbut in 1666 Parliament, in a Bill against Atheism and profaneness,\npassed a censure on his writings, which much alarmed him. The latter\nyears of his life were spent at the seat of the Duke of Devonshire,\nChatsworth, where he died 4 Dec. 1679.\n\nHodgson (William, M.D.), English Jacobin, translator of d'Holbach's\nSystem of Nature (1795). In 1794 he was confined in Newgate for two\nyears for drinking to the success of the French Republic. In prison\nhe wrote The Commonwealth of Reason.\n\nHoelderlin (Johann Christian Friedrich), German pantheistic poet,\nb. Laufen, 20 March, 1770. Entered as a theological student at\nT\u00fcbingen, but never took to the business. He wrote Hyperion, a\nfine romance (1797-99), and Lyric Poems, admired for their depth of\nthought. Died T\u00fcbingen, 7 June, 1843.\n\nHoijer (Benjamin Carl Henrik), Swedish philosopher, b. Great Skedvi,\nDelecarlia, 1 June, 1767. Was student at Upsala University '83,\nand teacher of philosophy '98. His promotion was hindered by his\nliberal opinions. By his personal influence and published treatises he\ncontributed much to Swedish emancipation. In 1808 he became Professor\nof Philosophy at Upsala. Died 8 June, 1812.\n\nHolbach (Paul Heinrich Dietrich von) Baron, b. Heidelsheim\nJan. 1723. Brought up at Paris where he spent most of his life. Rich\nand generous he was the patron of the Encyclop\u00e6dists. Buffon, Diderot,\nd'Alembert, Helvetius, Rousseau, Grimm, Raynal, Marmontel, Condillac,\nand other authors often met at his table. Hume, Garrick, Franklin,\nand Priestley were also among his visitors. He translated from the\nGerman several works on chemistry and mineralogy, and from the English,\nMark Akenside's Pleasures of the Imagination. He contributed many\narticles to the Encyclop\u00e9die. In 1765 he visited England, and from\nthis time was untiring in his issue of Freethought works, usually put\nout under pseudonyms. Thus he wrote and had published at Amsterdam\nChristianity Unveiled, attributed to Boulanger. The Spirit of the\nClergy, translated, from the English of Trenchard and Gordon, was\npartly rewritten by d'Holbach, 1767. His Sacred Contagion or Natural\nHistory of Superstition, was also wrongly attributed to Trenchard\nand Gordon. This work was condemned to be burnt by a decree of the\nFrench parliament, 8 Aug. 1770. D'Holbach also wrote and published\nThe History of David, 1768, The Critical History of Jesus Christ,\nLetters to Eugenia, attributed to Freret, Portable Theology, attributed\nto Bernier, an Essay on Prejudices, attributed to M. Du M [arsais],\nReligious Cruelty, Hell Destroyed, and other works, said to be from\nthe English. He also translated the Philosophical Letters of Toland,\nand Collins's Discourses on Prophecy, and attributed to the latter a\nwork with the title The Spirit of Judaism. These works were mostly\nconveyed to the printer, M. Rey, at Amsterdam, by Naigeon, and the\nsecret of their authorship was carefully preserved. Hence d'Holbach\nescaped persecution. In 1770 he published his principal work The\nSystem of Nature, or The Laws of the Physical and Moral World. This\ntext-book of atheistic philosophy, in which d'Holbach was assisted\nby Diderot, professed to be the posthumous work of Mirabaud. It made\na great sensation. Within two years he published a sort of summary\nunder the title of Good Sense, attributed to the cur\u00e9 Meslier. In\n1773 he wrote on Natural Politics and the Social System. His last\nimportant work was Universal Morality; or the Duties of Man founded\nupon Nature. D'Holbach, whose personal good qualities were testified to\nby many, was depicted in Rousseau's Nouvelle H\u00e9loise as the benevolent\nAtheist Wolmar. Died 21 Jan. 1789.\n\nHolcroft (Thomas), English author, b. 10 Dec. 1745, was successively\na groom, shoemaker, schoolmaster, actor and author. His comedies\n\"Duplicity,\" 1781, and \"The Road to Ruin,\" 1792, were very\nsuccessful. He translated the Posthumous Works of Frederick the\nGreat, 1789. For his active sympathy with the French Republicans he\nwas indicted for high treason with Hardy and Horne Tooke in 1794,\nbut was discharged without a trial. Died 23 March, 1809.\n\nHolland (Frederic May), American author, b. Boston, 2 May, 1836,\ngraduated at Harvard in '49, and in '63 was ordained Unitarian minister\nat Rockford, Ill. Becoming broader in his views, he resigned, and has\nsince written in the Truthseeker, the Freethinkers' Magazine, etc. His\nprincipal work is entitled The Rise of Intellectual Liberty, 1885.\n\nHollick (Dr. Frederick), Socialist, b. Birmingham, 22 Dec. 1813. He was\neducated at the Mechanics' Institute of that town, and became one of\nthe Socialist lecturers under Robert Owen. He held a public discussion\nwith J. Brindley at Liverpool, in 1840, on \"What is Christianity?\" On\nthe failure of Owenism he went to America, where some of his works\npopularising medical science have had a large circulation.\n\nHollis (John), English sceptic, b. 1757. Author of Sober and Serious\nReasons for Scepticism, 1796; An Apology for Disbelief in Revealed\nReligion, 1799; and Free Thoughts, 1812. Died at High Wycombe, Bucks\n26 Nov. 1824. Hollis, who came of an opulent dissenting family, was\ndistinguished by his love of truth, his zeal in the cause of freedom,\nand by his beneficence.\n\nHolmes (William Vamplew), one of Carlile's brave shopmen who came up\nfrom Leeds to uphold the right of free publication. He was sentenced\nto two years' imprisonment, 1 March, '22, for selling blasphemous\nand seditious libels in An Address to the Reformers of Great Britain,\nand when in prison was told that \"if hard labor was not expressed in\nhis sentence, it was implied.\" On his release Holmes went to Sheffield\nand commenced the open sale of all the prohibited publications.\n\nHolwell (John Zephaniah), noted as one of the survivors of the Black\nHole of Calcutta, b. Dublin, 7 Sept. 1711. He practised as a surgeon,\nwent to India as a clerk, defended a fort at Calcutta against Surajah\nDowlah, was imprisoned with one hundred and forty-five others in the\n\"Black Hole,\" 20th June, 1756, of which he published a Narrative. He\nsucceeded Clive as governor of Bengal. On returning to England\nhe published a dissertation directed against belief in a special\nprovidence, and advocating the application of church endowments to\nthe exigencies of the State (Bath, 1786). Died 5 Nov. 1798.\n\nHolyoake (Austin), English Freethinker, b. Birmingham, 27\nOct. 1826. His mental emancipation came from hearing the lectures of\nRobert Owen and his disciples. He took part in the agitation for the\nabolition of the newspaper stamp--assisting when risk and danger had\nto be met--and he co-operated with his brother in the production of\nthe Reasoner and other publications from '45 till '62. Soon after\nthis he printed and sub-edited the National Reformer, in which\nmany of his Freethought articles appeared. Among his pamphlets may\nbe mentioned Heaven and Hell, Ludicrous Aspects of Christianity,\nThoughts on Atheism, the Book of Esther, and Daniel the Dreamer. He\nalso composed a Secular Burial Service. Austin Holyoake took pride\nin the character of Freethought, and was ever zealous in promoting\nits welfare. His amiable spirit endeared him to all who knew him. He\ndied 10 April, 1874, leaving behind thoughts written on his deathbed,\nin which he repudiated all belief in theology.\n\nHolyoake (George Jacob), b. Birmingham, 13 April 1817. Became\nmathematical teacher of the Mechanics' Institution. Influenced by Combe\nand Owen he became a Freethinker, and in '40 a Socialist missionary. In\n'42, when Southwell was imprisoned for writing in the Oracle of Reason,\nMr. Holyoake took charge of that journal, and wrote The Spirit of\nBonner in the Disciples of Jesus. He was soon arrested for a speech\nat Cheltenham, having said, in answer to a question, that he would put\nthe Deity on half-pay. Tried Aug. '42, he was sentenced to six months\nimprisonment, of which he gave a full account in his Last Trial by\nJury for Atheism in England. In Dec. '43 he edited with M. Q. Ryall\nthe Movement, bearing the motto from Bentham, \"Maximise morals,\nminimise religion.\" The same policy was pursued in The Reasoner,\nwhich he edited from 1846 till 1861. Among his many pamphlets we must\nnotice the Logic of Death, '50, which went through numerous editions,\nand was included in his most important Freethought work, The Trial\nof Theism. In '49 he published a brief memoir of R. Carlile. In\n'51 he first used the term \"Secularist,\" and in Oct. '52 the first\nSecular Conference was held at Manchester Mr. Holyoake presiding. In\nJan. '53 he held a six nights discussion with the Rev. Brewin Grant,\nand again in Oct. '54. He purchased the business of James Watson,\nand issued many Freethought works, notably The Library of Reason--a\nseries, The Cabinet of Reason, his own Secularism, The Philosophy of\nthe People, etc. In '60 he was Secretary to the British Legion sent out\nto Garibaldi. Mr. Holyoake did much to remove the taxes upon knowledge,\nand has devoted much attention to Co-operation, having written a\nhistory of the movement and contributed to most of its journals.\n\nHome (Henry), Scottish judge, was b. 1696. His legal ability was\nmade known by his publication of Remarkable Decisions of the Court of\nSession, 1728. In 1752 he was raised to the bench as Lord Kames. He\npublished Essays on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion\n(1751), Elements of Criticism (1762), and Sketches of the History\nof Man, in which he proved himself in advance of his age. Died 27\nDec. 1782.\n\nHon, Le (Henri). See Le Hon.\n\nHooker (Sir Joseph Dalton), English naturalist, b. 1817. He\nstudied medicine at Glasgow, graduating M.D '39. In '55 he\nbecame assistant-director of Kew Gardens, and from '65-85 sole\ndirector. Renowned as a botanist, he was the first eminent man of\nscience to proclaim his adoption of Darwinism.\n\nHope (Thomas), novelist and antiquarian, b. 1770. Famous for his\nanonymous Anastasius, or Memories of a Modern Greek, he also wrote an\noriginal work on The Origin and Prospects of Man '31. Died at London\n3 Feb. 1831.\n\nHouten (Samuel van), Dutch Freethinker, b. Groningen. 17 Feb. 1837;\nhe studied law and became a lawyer in that city. In '69 he was\nchosen member of the Dutch Parliament. Has published many writings on\npolitical economy. In '88 he wrote a book entitled Das Causalit\u00e4tgesetz\n(The Law of Causality).\n\nHouston (George). Was the translator of d'Holbach's Ecce Homo, first\npublished in Edinburgh in 1799, and sometimes ascribed to Joseph\nWebb. A second edition was issued in 1813. Houston was prosecuted and\nwas imprisoned two years in Newgate, with a fine of \u00a3200. He afterwards\nwent to New York, where he edited the Minerva (1822). In Jan. 1827,\nhe started The Correspondence, which, we believe, was the first weekly\nFreethought journal published in America. It lasted till July 1828. He\nalso republished Ecce Homo. Houston helped to establish in America a\n\"Free Press Association\" and a Society of Free Inquirers.\n\nHovelacque (Abel), French scientist, b. Paris 14 Nov. 1843. He studied\nlaw and made part of the groupe of la Pens\u00e9e Nouvelle, with Asseline,\nLetourneau, Lefevre, etc. He also studied anthropology under Broca\nand published many articles in the Revue d'Anthropologie. He founded\nwith Letourneau, Thuli\u00e9, Asseline, etc. The \"Biblioth\u00e8que des sciences\ncontemporains\" and published therein La Linguistique. He also founded\nwith the same the library of anthropological science and published in\ncollaboration with G. Herv\u00e9 a pr\u00e8cis of Anthropology and a study of\nthe Negroes of Africa. He has also contributed to the Dictionary of\nAnthropology. For the \"Biblioth\u00e8que Materialiste\" he wrote a work on\nPrimitive man. He has also published choice extracts from the works\nof Voltaire, Diderot and Rousseau, a grammar of the Zend language,\nand a work on the Avesta Zoroaster and Mazdaism. In '78 he was made a\nmember of the municipal council of Paris, and in '81 was elected deputy\nto the chamber where he sits with the autonomist socialist group.\n\nHowdon (John), author of A Rational Investigation of the Principles\nof Natural Philosophy, Physical and Moral, printed at Haddington,\n1840, in which he attacks belief in the Bible.\n\nHuber (Marie), Swiss Deist, b. of Protestant parents, Geneva,\n1694. In a work on the System of Theologians, 1731, she opposed\nthe dogma of eternal punishment. In '38 published Letters on the\nReligion essential to Man. This was translated into English in the\nsame year. Other works show English reading. She translated selections\nfrom the Spectator. Died at Lyons, 13 June, 1753.\n\nHudail (Abul). See Muhammad ibn Hudail (Al Allaf.)\n\nHuet (Coenraad Busken), Dutch writer, b. the Hague, 28 Dec. 1826. He\nbecame minister of the Walloon Church at Haarlem, but through his\nFreethought left the church in '63, and became editor of various\nnewspapers, afterwards living in Paris. He wrote many works of literary\nvalue, and published Letters on the Bible, '57, etc. Died 1887.\n\nHugo (Victor Marie), French poet and novelist, b. Besan\u00e7on, 26\nFeb. 1802. Was first noted for his Odes, published in '21. His dramas\n\"Hernani,\" '30, and \"Marion Delorme,\" '31, were highly successful. He\nwas admitted into the French Academy in '41, and made a peer in\n'45. He gave his cordial adhesion to the Republic of '48, and was\nelected to the Assembly by the voters of Paris. He attacked Louis\nNapoleon, and after the coup d'\u00e9tat was proscribed. He first went to\nBrussels, where he published Napoleon the Little, a biting satire. He\nafterwards settled at Guernsey, where he remained until the fall of\nthe Empire, producing The Legend of the Ages, '59, Les Miserables, '62,\nToilers of the Sea, '69, and other works. After his return to Paris he\nproduced a new series of the Legend of the Ages, The Pope, Religions\nand Religion, Torquemada, and other poems. He died 22 May, 1885,\nand it being decided he should have a national funeral, the Pantheon\nwas secularised for that purpose, the cross being removed. Since his\ndeath a poem entitled The End of Satan has been published.\n\nHugues (Clovis), French Socialist, poet, and deputy, b. Menerbes,\n3 Nov. 1850. In youth he desired to become a priest, but under the\ninfluence of Hugo left the black business. In '71 he became head\nof the Communist movement at Marseilles. He was sentenced to three\nyears' imprisonment. In '81 he was elected deputy, and sits on the\nextreme left.\n\nHumboldt (Friedrich Heinrich Alexander von), illustrious German\nnaturalist and traveller, b. Berlin, 14 Sept. 1769. He studied under\nHeyne and Blumenbach, travelled in Holland, France and England\nwith George Forster, the naturalist, and became director-general\nof mines. In 1799 he set out to explore South America and Mexico,\nand in 1804 returned with a rich collection of animals, plants and\nminerals. Humboldt became a resident of Paris, where he enjoyed\nthe friendship of Lalande, Delambre, Arago, and all the living\ndistinguished French scientists. After numerous important contributions\nto scientific knowledge, at the age of seventy-four he composed his\ncelebrated Cosmos, the first volume of which appeared in '45 and the\nfourth in '58. To Varnhagen von Ense he wrote in 1841: \"Bruno Bauer\nhas found me pre-adamatically converted. Many years ago I wrote,\n'Toutes les r\u00e9ligions positives offrent trois parties distinctes;\nun trait\u00e9 de moeurs partout le m\u00eame et tr\u00e8s pur, un r\u00e8ve g\u00e9ologique,\net un mythe ou petit roman historique; le dernier \u00e9l\u00e9ment obtient\nle plus d'importance.'\" Later on he says that Strauss disposes of\n\"the Christian myths.\" Humboldt was an unwearied student of science,\npaying no attention to religion, and opposed his brother in regard to\nhis essay On the Province of the Historian, because he considered it\nto acknowledge the belief in the divine government of the world, which\nseemed to him as complete a delusion as the hypothesis of a principle\nof life. He died in Berlin, 6 May, 1859, in his ninetieth year.\n\nHumboldt (Karl Wilhelm von), Prussian statesman and philosopher,\nb. Potsdam, 22 June, 1767. He was educated by Campe. Went to Paris in\n1789, and hailed the revolution with enthusiasm. In '92 he published\nIdeas on the Organization of the State. He became a friend of Schiller\nand Goethe, and in 1809 was Minister of Public Instruction. He took\npart in founding the University of Berlin. He represented Prussia at\nthe Congress of Vienna, '14. He advocated a liberal constitution, but\nfinding the King averse, retired at the end of '19, and devoted himself\nto the study of comparative philology. He said there were three things\nhe could not comprehend--orthodox piety, romantic love, and music. He\ndied 8 April, 1835. His works were collected and edited by his brother.\n\nHume (David), philosopher and historian, b. Edinburgh, 26 April,\n1711. In 1735 he went to France to study, and there wrote his Treatise\non Human Nature, published in 1739. This work then excited no interest\nfriendly or hostile. Hume's Essays Moral and Political appeared in\n1742, and in 1752 his Inquiry Concerning the Principles of Morals which\nof all his writings he considered the best. In 1755 he published his\nNatural History of Religion, which was furiously attacked by Warburton\nin an anonymous tract. In 1754 he published the first volume of his\nHistory of England, which he did not complete till 1761. He became\nsecretary to the Earl of Hertford, ambassador at Paris, where he was\ncordially welcomed by the philosophers. He returned in 1766, bringing\nRousseau with him. Hume became Under Secretary of State in 1767,\nand in 1769 retired to Edinburgh, where he died 25 Aug. 1776. After\nhis death his Dialogues on Natural Religion were published, and also\nsome unpublished essays on Suicide, the Immortality of the Soul,\netc. Hume's last days were singularly cheerful. His friend, the famous\nDr. Adam Smith, considered him \"as approaching as nearly to the idea\nof a perfectly wise and virtuous man as perhaps the nature of human\nfrailty will permit.\"\n\nHunt (James), Ph.D., physiologist, b. 1833, was the founder of the\nAnthropological Society, of which he was the first president, '63. He\nwas the author of the Negro's Place in Nature, a work on Stammering,\netc. Died 28 Aug. 1869.\n\nHunt (James Henry Leigh), poet, essayist and critic, b. Southgate,\nMiddlesex, 19 Oct. 1784. was educated with Lamb and Coleridge at\nChrist's Hospital, London. He joined his brother John in editing\nfirst the Sunday News, 1805, and then the Examiner, 1808. They were\ncondemned to pay a fine, each of \u00a3500, and to be imprisoned for\ntwo years, 1812-14, for a satirical article, in which the prince\nregent was called an \"Adonis of fifty.\" This imprisonment procured\nhim the friendship of Shelley and Byron, with whom, after editing\nthe Indicator he was associated in editing the Liberal. He wrote many\nchoice books of poems and criticisms, and in his Religion of the Heart,\n'53, repudiates orthodoxy. Died 28 Aug. 1859.\n\nHutten (Ulrich von), German poet and reformer, b. of noble family\nSteckelberg, Hesse Cassel, 22 April 1488. He was sent to Fulda\nto become a monk, but fled in 1504 to Erfurt, where he studied\nhumaniora. After some wild adventures he went to Wittenberg in 1510,\nand Vienna 1512, and also studied at Pavia and Bologna. He returned to\nGermany in 1517 as a common soldier in the army of Maximilian. His\ngreat object was to free his country from sacerdotalism, and\nmost of his writings are satires against the Pope, monks and\nclergy. Persecution drove him to Switzerland, but the Council of\nZurich drove him out of their territory and he died on the isle of\nUfnau, Lake Z\u00fcrich, 29 Aug. 1523.\n\nHutton (James), Scotch geologist and philosopher, b. at Edinburgh 3\nJune, 1736. He graduated as M.D. at Leyden in 1749, and investigated\nthe strata of the north of Scotland. He published a dissertation\non Light, Heat, and Fire, and in his Theory of the World, 1795,\nattributes geological phenomena to the action of fire. He also wrote\na work entitled An Investigation of the Principles of Knowledge,\nthe opinions of which, says Chalmers, \"abound in sceptical boldness\nand philosophical infidelity.\" Died 26 March 1797.\n\nHuxley (Thomas Henry), LL.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., b. Ealing, 4 May, 1825. He\nstudied medicine, and in '46 took M.R.C.S., and was appointed assistant\nnaval surgeon. His cruises afforded opportunities for his studies of\nnatural history. In '51 he was elected Fellow of the Royal Society, and\nin '54 was made Professor at the School of Mines. In '60 he lectured on\n\"The Relation of Man to the Lower Animals,\" and afterwards published\nEvidence as to Man's Place in Nature (1863). In addition to numerous\nscientific works, Professor Huxley has written numerous forcible\narticles, addresses, etc., collected in Lay Sermons, '70; Critiques\nand Addresses, '73; and American Addresses, '79. A vigorous writer,\nhis Hume in the \"English Men of Letters\" series is a model of clear\nexposition. In his controversies with Mr. Gladstone, in his articles\non the Evolution of Theology, and in his recent polemic with the\nRev. Mr. Wace in the Nineteenth Century, Professor Huxley shows all\nhis freshness, and proves himself as ready in demolishing theological\nfictions as in demonstrating scientific facts. He states as his own\nlife aims \"The popularising of science and untiring opposition to\nthat ecclesiastical spirit, that clericalism, which in England,\nas everywhere else, and to whatever denomination it may belong,\nis the deadly enemy of science.\"\n\nHypatia, Pagan philosopher and martyr, b. Alexandria early in\nthe second half of the fourth century. She became a distinguished\nlecturer and head of the Neo-Platonic school (c. 400). The charms of\nher eloquence brought many disciples. By a Christian mob, incited by\nSt. Cyril, she was in Lent 415 torn from her chariot, stripped naked,\ncut with oyster-shells and finally burnt piecemeal. This true story\nof Christian persecution has been disguised into a legend related of\nSt. Catherine in the Roman breviary (Nov. 25).\n\nIbn Bajjat. See Avenpace.\n\nIbn Massara. See Massara in Supplement.\n\nIbn Rushd. See Averroes.\n\nIbn Sab\u00een. See Sabin.\n\nIbn Sina. See Avicenna.\n\nIbn Tofail. See Abu Bakr.\n\nIbsen (Henrik), an eminent Norwegian dramatist and poet, b. Skien,\n20 March, 1828. At first he studied medicine, but he turned his\nattention to literature. In '52, through the influence of Ole Bull,\nhe became director of the theatre at Bergen, for which he wrote a\ngreat deal. From '57 to '63 he directed the theatre at Christiania. In\nthe following year he went to Rome. The Storthing accorded him an\nannual pension for his services to literature. His dramas, Brand,\n(Peer Gynt), Kejser og Galil\u00e6r (C\u00e6sar [Julian] and the Galilean),\nNora, and Samfundets Stotler (the Pillars of Society), and Ghosts\nexhibit his unconventional spirit. Ibsen is an open unbeliever in\nChristianity. He looks forward to social regeneration through liberty,\nindividuality, and education without superstition.\n\nIlive (Jacob), English printer and letter founder, b. Bristol about\n1710. He published a pretended translation of the Book of Jasher, 1751,\nand some other curious works. He was prosecuted for blasphemy in Some\nModest Remarks on the late Bishop Sherlock's Sermons, and sentenced to\ntwo years' imprisonment, 15 June, 1756-10 June, 1758. He was confined\nin the Clerkenwell House of Correction and published some pamphlets\nexposing the bad condition of the prison and suggesting means for\nits improvement. He died in 1768.\n\nImray (I. W.), author, b. 1802. Wrote in Carlile's Republican and Lion,\nand published \"Altamont,\" an atheistic drama, in 1828.\n\nIngersoll (Robert Green), American orator, b. Dresden, New York,\n11 Aug. 1833. His father was a Congregationalist clergyman. He\nstudied law, and opened an office in Shawneetown, Illinois. In '62 he\nbecame colonel of the 11th Illinois Cavalry, and served in the war,\nbeing taken prisoner. In '66 he was appointed attorney-general for\nIllinois. At the National Republican Convention, '76, he proposed\nBlaine for President in a speech that attracted much attention. In\n'77 he refused the post of Minister to Germany. He has conducted\nmany important cases, and defended C. B. Reynolds when tried for\nblasphemy in '86. Col. Ingersoll is the most popular speaker in\nAmerica. Eloquence, humor, and pathos are alike at his command. He is\nwell known by his books, pamphlets, and speeches directed against\nChristianity. He had published the Gods, Ghosts, Some Mistakes\nof Moses, and a collection of his Lectures, '83, and Prose Poems\nand Extracts, '84. Most of his lectures have been republished in\nEngland. We mention What must I do to be Saved? Hell, The Dying Creed,\nMyth and Miracle, Do I Blaspheme? Real Blasphemy. In the pages of the\nNorth American Review Col. Ingersoll has defended Freethought against\nJudge Black, the Rev. H. Field, Mr. Gladstone, and Cardinal Manning.\n\nInman (Thomas), B.A., physician and arch\u00e6ologist, b. 1820. Educated\nat London University, he settled at Liverpool, being connected with\nthe well-known shipping family of that port. He is chiefly known by\nhis work on Ancient Faiths Embodied in Ancient Names, in which he\ndeals with the evidences of phallic worship amongst Jews and other\nnations. It was first published in '69. A second edition appeared in\n'73. He also wrote Ancient Pagan and Modern Christian Symbolism Exposed\nand Explained, '69, and a controversial Freethought work, entitled\nAncient Faiths and Modern, published at New York '76. Dr. Inman was\nfor some time President of the Liverpool Literary and Philosophical\nSociety, and was physician to the Royal Infirmary of that city. His\nprofessional life was one of untiring industry. He wrote several\nmedical works, including two volumes on the Preservation and\nRestoration of Health. Died at Clifton, 3 May. 1876.\n\nIron (Ralph), pseudonym of Olive Schreiner, q.v.\n\nIsnard (Felix), French physician, b. Grasse 1829. Author of a work\non Spiritualism and Materialism, 1879.\n\nIsnard (Maximin), Girondin revolutionist, b. Grasse 16 Feb. 1751. He\nwas made a member of the Assembly, in which he declared, \"The Law,\nbehold my God. I know no other.\" He voted for the death of the\nKing, and was nominated president of the Convention. On the fall of\nthe Girondins he made his escape, and reappeared after the fall of\nRobespierre. In 1796 he was one of the Council of Five Hundred. Died\n1830.\n\nIsoard (Eric Michel Antoine), French writer, b. Paris, 1826. Was naval\nofficer in '48 but arrested as socialist in '49. In '70 he was made\nsous-prefet of Cambrai and wrote Guerre aux J\u00e9suites.\n\nIsoard Delisle (Jean Baptiste Claude), called also Delisle de Sales,\nFrench man of letters, b. Lyons 1743. When young he entered the\nCongregation of the Oratory, but left theology for literature. In 1769\nhe published the Philosophy of Nature, which in 1771 was discovered to\nbe irreligious, and he was condemned to perpetual banishment. While in\nprison he was visited by many of the philosophers, and a subscription\nwas opened for him, to which Voltaire gave five hundred francs. He\nwent to the court of Frederick the Great, and subsequently published\nmany works of little importance. Died at Paris 22 Sept. 1816.\n\nJacob (Andre Alexandre). See Erdan (A.)\n\nJacobson (Augustus), American, author of Why I do not Believe,\nChicago 1881, and The Bible Inquirer.\n\n\"Jacobus (Dom)\" Pseudonym of Potvin (Charles) q.v.\n\nJacoby (Leopold) German author of The Idea of Development. 2\nvols. Berlin 1874-76.\n\nJacolliot (Louis), French orientalist, b. Saint Etienne, 1806. Brought\nup to the law, in '43 he was made judge at Pondichery. He first aroused\nattention by his work, The Bible in India, '70. He also has written\non Genesis of Humanity, '76. The Religions Legislators, Moses, Manu\nand Muhammad, '80, and The Natural and Social History of Humanity,\n'84, and several works of travel.\n\nJantet (Charles and Hector), two doctors of Lyons, b. the first\nin 1826, the second in '28, have published together able Aper\u00e7us\nPhilosophiques on R\u00e8nan's Life of Jesus, '64, and Doctrine Medicale\nMat\u00e9rialiste, 1866.\n\nJaucourt (Louis de), Chevalier, French scholar and member of the\nRoyal Society of London and of the academies of Berlin and Stockholm,\nb. Paris 27 Sept. 1704. He studied at Geneva, Cambridge, and Leyden,\nfurnished the Encyclop\u00e9die with many articles, and conducted the\nBiblioth\u00e8que Raisonn\u00e9e. Died at Compi\u00e8gne, 3 Feb. 1779.\n\nJefferies (Richard), English writer, b. 1848, famous for his\ndescriptions of nature in The Gamekeeper at Home, Wild Life in a\nSouthern Country, etc. In his autobiographical Story of My Heart\n(1883) Mr. Jefferies shows himself a thorough Freethinker. Died\nGoring-on-Thames, 14 Aug. 1887.\n\nJefferson (Thomas), American statesman, b. Shadwell, Virginia, 2 April\n1743. He studied law and was admitted to the bar in 1767. He became\na member of the House of Burgesses, 1769-75. In 1774 he published\nhis Summary Views of the Rights of British-Americans. He drafted\nand reported to Congress the \"Declaration of Independence\" which\nwas unanimously adopted, 4 July 1766. He was Governor of Virginia\nfrom 1719 to 1781, and originated a system of education in the\nState. He was Ambassador to Paris from 1785-89, secretary of state\nfrom 1789-93, vice-president 1791-1801 and third president of the\nUnited States 1801-9. In '19 he founded the University of Virginia, of\nwhich he was rector till his death, 4 July 1826. Dr. J. Thomas in his\nDictionary of Biography says \"In religion he was what is denominated a\nfreethinker.\" He spoke in old age of \"the hocus-pocus phantom of God,\nwhich like another Cerberus had one body and three heads.\" See his\nlife by J. Parton.\n\nJohnson (Richard Mentor), Colonel, American soldier and statesman,\nb. Bryant's Station, Kentucky, 17 Oct. 1781. Was educated at Lexington,\nstudied law, and practiced with success. Became member of the Kentucky\nLegislature in 1805, and raised a regiment of cavalry '12. Fought\nwith distinction against British and Indians. Was member of Congress\nfrom 1807-19, and from '29-37; a United States Senator from '19-29,\nand Vice-President of the United States, '37-40. Is remembered by his\nreport against the suspension of Sunday mails and his speeches in favor\nof rights of conscience. Died at Frankfort, Kentucky, 19 Nov. 1850.\n\nJohnson (Samuel), American author, b. Salem, Massachusetts, 10\nOct. 1822. He was educated at Harvard, and became pastor of a \"Free\nChurch\" at Lynn in '53. He never attached himself to any denomination,\nalthough in some points his views were like those of the Unitarians\nand Universalists. About '46 he published, in conjunction with\nS. Longfellow, brother of the poet, Hymns of the Spirit, Oriental\nReligions in relation to Universal Religion, of which the volume\non India appeared in '72, China '77, and Persia '84. Died Andover,\n19 Feb. 1882.\n\nJones (Ernest Charles), barrister and political orator, b. Berlin,\n25 Jan. 1819. His father was in the service of the King of Hanover,\nwho became his godfather. Called to the bar in '44 in the following\nyear he joined the Chartist movement, editing the People's Paper, Notes\nto the People, and other Chartist periodicals. In '48 he was tried for\nmaking a seditious speech, and condemned to two years' imprisonment,\nduring which he wrote Beldagon Church and other poems. He stood for\nHalifax in '47, and Nottingham in '53 and '57, without success. He\nwas much esteemed by the working classes in Manchester, where he died\n26 Jan. 1869.\n\nJones (John Gale), Political orator, b. 1771. At the time of the French\nRevolution he became a leading member of the London Corresponding\nSociety. Arrested at Birmingham for sedition, he obtained a verdict of\nacquittal. He was subsequently committed to Newgate in Feb. 1810, for\nimpugning the proceedings of the House of Commons, and there remained\ntill his liberation was effected by the prorogation of Parliament,\nJune 21. On 26 Dec. '11 he was again convicted for \"a seditious and\nblasphemous libel.\" He was a resolute advocate of the rights of free\npublication during the trials of Carlile and his shopmen. Died Somers\nTown, 4 April, 1838.\n\nJones (Lloyd), Socialist, b. of Catholic parents at Brandon, co. Cork,\nIreland, in March, 1811. In '27 he came over to Manchester, and\nin '32 joined the followers of Robert Owen. He became \"a social\nmissionary,\" and had numerous debates with ministers, notably one on\n\"The Influence of Christianity\" with J. Barker, then a Methodist, at\nManchester, in '39. Lloyd Jones was an active supporter of co-operation\nand trades-unionism, and frequently acted as arbitrator in disputes\nbetween masters and men. He contributed to the New Moral World, Spirit\nof the Age, Glasgow Sentinel, Leeds Express, North British Daily Mail,\nNewcastle Chronicle, and Co-operative News. Died at Stockwell, 22 May,\n1886, leaving behind a Life of Robert Owen.\n\nJoseph II., Emperor of Germany, son of Francis I. and Maria Theresa,\nb. Vienna 13 March 1741. In 1764 he was elected king of the Romans, and\nin the following year succeeded to the throne of Germany. He wrought\nmany reforms, suppressed the Jesuits 1773, travelled in France as Count\nFalkenstein, saw d'Alembert but did not visit Voltaire. He abolished\nserfdom, allowed liberty of conscience, suppressed several convents,\nregulated others, abridged the power of the pope and the clergy,\nand mitigated the condition of the Jews. Carlyle says \"a mighty\nreformer he had been, the greatest of his day. Austria gazed on him,\nits admiration not unmixed with terror. He rushed incessantly about,\nhardy as a Charles Twelfth; slept on his bearskin on the floor of any\ninn or hut;--flew at the throat of every absurdity, however broad\nand based or dangerously armed. 'Disappear I say.' A most prompt,\nsevere, and yet beneficent and charitable kind of man. Immensely\nambitious, that must be said withal. A great admirer of Friedrich;\nbent to imitate him with profit. 'Very clever indeed' says Friedrich,\n'but has the fault (a terribly grave one!) of generally taking the\nsecond step without having taken the first.'\" Died Vienna 20 Feb. 1790.\n\nJouy (Victor Joseph Etienne de), French author b. Jouy near Versailles\n1764. He served as soldier in India and afterwards in the wars of\nthe Republic. A disciple of Voltaire to whom he erected a temple,\nhe was a prolific writer, his plays being much esteemed in his own\nday. Died 4 Sept. 1846.\n\nJulianus (Flavius Claudius), Roman Emperor, b. Constantinople 17\nNov. 331. In the massacre of his family by the sons of Constantine\nhe escaped. He was educated in the tenets of Christianity but\nreturned to an eclectic Paganism. In 354 he was declared C\u00e6sar. He\nmade successful campaigns against the Germans who had overrun Gaul\nand in 361 was made Emperor. He proclaimed liberty of conscience\nand sought to uproot the Christian superstition by his writings, of\nwhich only fragments remain. As Emperor he exhibited great talent,\ntact, industry, and skill. He was one of the most gifted and learned\nof the Roman Emperors, and his short reign (Dec. 361--26 June, 363),\ncomprehended the plans of a life-long administration. He died while\nseeking to repel a Persian invasion, and his death was followed by\nthe triumph of Christianity and the long night of the dark ages.\n\nJunghuhn (Franz Wilhelm), traveller and naturalist, b. Mansfeld,\nPrussia 29 Oct 1812. His father was a barber and surgeon. Franz\nstudied at Halle and Berlin. He distinguished himself by love for\nbotany and geology. In a duel with another student he killed him and\nwas sentenced to imprisonment at Ehrenbreitster for 20 years. There\nhe simulated madness and was removed to the asylum at Coblentz,\nwhence he escaped to Algiers. In '34 he joined the Dutch Army in the\nMalay Archipelago. He travelled through the island of Java making\na botanical and geological survey. In '54 he published his Licht\nen Schaduwbeelden uit de binnenlanden van Java (Light and Shadow\npictures from the interior of Java), which contains his ideas of God,\nreligion and science, together with sketches of nature and of the\nmanners of the inhabitants. This book aroused much indignation from\nthe pious, but also much agreement among freethinkers, and led to\nthe establishment of De Dageraad (The Daybreak,) the organ of the\nDutch Freethinkers Union. Junghuhn afterwards returned to Java and\ndied 21 April, '64 at Lemberg, Preanges, Regentsch. His Light and\nShadow pictures have been several times reprinted.\n\nKalisch (Moritz Marcus), Ph.D., b. of Jewish parents in Pomerania,\n16 May, 1828. Educated at the University of Berlin, where he\nstudied under Vatke and others. Early in '49 he came to England as a\npolitical refugee, and found employment as tutor to the Rothschild\nfamily. His critical Commentary on the Pentateuch commenced with a\nvolume on Exodus, '55, Genesis '58, Leviticus in two vols. in '67\nand '72 respectively. His rational criticism anticipated the school\nof Wellhausen. He published Bible Studies on Balaam and Jonah '77,\nand discussions on philosophy and religion in a very able and learned\nwork entitled Path and Goal, '80. Kalisch also contributed to Scott's\nseries of Freethought tracts. Died at Baslow, Derbyshire, 23 Aug. 1885.\n\nKames (Lord). See Home (Henry).\n\nKant (Immanuel), German critical philosopher, b. K\u00f6nigsberg, 22\nApril, 1724. He became professor of mathematics in 1770. In 1781 he\npublished his great work, The Critick of Pure Reason, which denied\nall knowledge of the \"Thing itself,\" and overthrew the dogmatism of\nearlier metaphysics. In 1792 the philosopher fell under the royal\ncensorship for his Religion within the Limits of Pure Reason. Kant\neffected a complete revolution in philosophy, and his immediate\ninfluence is not yet exhausted. Died at K\u00f6nigsberg, 12 Feb. 1804.\n\nKapila. One of the earliest Hindu thinkers. His system is known as\nthe Atheistic philosophy. It is expounded in the Sankhya Karika, an\nimportant relic of bold rationalistic Indian thought. His aphorisms\nhave been translated by J. R. Ballantyne.\n\nKarneades. See Carneades.\n\nKeeler (Bronson C.) American author of an able Short History of the\nBible, being a popular account of the formation and development of\nthe canon, published at Chicago 1881.\n\nKeim (Karl Theodor), German rationalist, b. Stuttgart,\n17 Dec. 1825. Was educated at T\u00fcbingen, and became professor of\ntheology at Z\u00fcrich. Is chiefly known by his History of Jesus of Nazara\n('67-'72). He also wrote a striking work on Primitive Christianity\n('78), and endeavored to reproduce the lost work of Celsus. His\nrationalism hindered his promotion, and he was an invalid most of\nhis days. Died at Giessen, where he was professor, 17 Nov. 1878.\n\nKeith (George), Lord Marshall, Scotch soldier, b. Kincardine 1685,\nwas appointed by Queen Anne captain of Guard. His property being\nconfiscated for aiding the Pretender, he went to the Continent, and\nlike his brother, was in high favor with Frederick the Great. Died\nBerlin, 25 May, 1778.\n\nKeith (James Francis Edward), eminent military commander, b. Inverugie,\nScotland, 11 June, 1696. Joined the army of the Pretender and was\nwounded at Sheriffmuir, 1715. He afterwards served with distinction\nin Spain and in Russia, where he rose to high favor under the\nEmpress Elizabeth. In 1747 he took service with Frederick the Great\nas field-marshal, and became Governor of Berlin. Carlyle calls him\n\"a very clear-eyed, sound observer of men and things. Frederick, the\nmore he knows him, likes him the better.\" From their correspondence\nit is evident Keith shared the sceptical opinions of Frederick. After\nbrilliant exploits in the seven years' war at Prague, Rossbach, and\nOlmutz, Marshal Keith fell in the battle of Hochkirch, 14 Oct. 1758.\n\nKenrick (William), LL.D., English author, b. near Watford, Herts,\nabout 1720. In 1751 he published, at Dublin, under the pen-name of\nOntologos, an essay to prove that the soul is not immortal. His first\npoetic production was a volume of Epistles, Philosophical and Moral\n(1759), addressed to Lorenzo; an avowed defence of scepticism. In\n1775 he commenced the London Review, and the following year attacked\nSoame Jenyns's work on Christianity. He translated some of the works\nof Buffon, Rousseau, and Voltaire. Died 10 June 1779.\n\nKerr (Michael Crawford) American statesman, b. Titusville, Western\nPennsylvania, 15 March 1827. He was member of the Indiana Legislature\n'56, and elected to Congress in '74 and endeavoured to revise the\ntariff in the direction of free-trade. Died Rockbridge, Virginia,\n19 Aug. 1876, a confirmed Freethinker and Materialist.\n\nKet, Kett, or Knight (Francis), of Norfolk, a relative of the\nrebellious tanner. He was of Windham and was an M.A. He was prosecuted\nfor heresy and burnt in the castle ditch, Norwich, 14 Jan. 1588. Stowe\nsays he was burnt for \"divers detestable opinions against Christ\nour Saviour.\"\n\nKhayyam (Omar) or Umar Khaiyam, Persian astronomer, poet, b. Naishapur\nKhorassan, in the second half of the eleventh century, and was\ndistinguished by his reformation of the calendar as well as by his\nverses (Rubiyat), which E. Fitzgerald has so finely rendered in\nEnglish. He alarmed his contemporaries and made himself obnoxious to\nthe Sufis. Died about 1123. Omar laughed at the prophets and priests,\nand told men to be happy instead of worrying themselves about God and\nthe Hereafter. He makes his soul say, \"I myself am Heaven and Hell.\"\n\nKielland (Alexander Lange), Norwegian novelist, b. Stavanger, 18\nFeb. 1849. He studied law at Christiania, but never practised. His\nstories, Workpeople, Skipper Worse, Poison, and Snow exhibit his\nbold opinions.\n\nKleanthes. See Cleanthes.\n\nKlinger (Friedrich Maximilian von), German writer, b. Frankfort, 19\nFeb. 1753. Went to Russia in 1780, and became reader to the Grand\nDuke Paul. Published poems, dramas, and romances, exhibiting the\nrevolt of nature against conventionality. Goethe called him \"a true\napostle of the Gospel of nature.\" Died at Petersburg, 25 Feb. 1831.\n\nKneeland (Abner), American writer, b. Gardner, Mass., 7 April, 1774,\nbecame a Baptist and afterwards a Universalist minister. He invented\na new system of orthography, published a translation of the New\nTestament, 1823, The Deist (2 Vols.), '22, edited the Olive Branch\nand the Christian Inquirer. He wrote The Fourth Epistle of Peter,\n'29, and a Review of the Evidences of Christianity, being a series\nof lectures delivered in New York in '29. In that year he removed to\nBoston, and in April '31 commenced the Boston Investigator, the oldest\nFreethought journal. In '33 he was indicted and tried for blasphemy\nfor saying that he \"did not believe in the God which Universalists\ndid.\" He was sentenced 21 Jan. '34, to two months' imprisonment and\nfine of five hundred dollars. The verdict was confirmed in the Courts\nof Appeal in '36, and he received two months' imprisonment. Kneeland\nwas a Pantheist. He took Frances Wright as an associate editor, and\nsoon after left the Boston Investigator in the hands of P. Mendum and\nSeaver, and retired to a farm at Salubria, where he died 27 August,\n1844. His edition, with notes, of Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary,\nwas published in two volumes in 1852.\n\nKnoblauch (Karl von), German author, b. Dillenburg, 3 Nov. 1757. He\nwas a friend of Mauvillon and published several works directed against\nsupernaturalism and superstition. Died at Bernburg, 6 Sept. 1794.\n\nKnowlton (Charles) Dr., American physician and author, b. Templeton,\nMass., 10 May, 1800. He published the Fruits of Philosophy, for which\nhe was imprisoned in '32. He was a frequent correspondent of the Boston\nInvestigator, and held a discussion on the Bible and Christianity with\nthe Rev. Mr. Thacher of Harley. About '29 he published The Elements\nof Modern Materialism. Died in Winchester, Mass., 20 Feb. 1850.\n\nKnutzen (Matthias), b. Oldensworth, in Holstein, 1645. He early lost\nhis parents, and was brought to an uncle at K\u00f6nigsberg, where he\nstudied philosophy. He took to the adventurous life of a wandering\nscholar and propagated his principles in many places. In 1674 he\npreached Atheism publicly at Jena, in Germany, and had followers who\nwere called \"Gewissener,\" from their acknowledging no other authority\nbut conscience. It is said there were seven hundred in Jena alone. What\nbecame of him and them is unknown. A letter dated from Rome gives his\nprinciples. He denied the existence of either God or Devil, deemed\nchurches and priests useless, and held that there is no life beyond\nthe present, for which conscience is a sufficient guide, taking the\nplace of the Bible, which contains great contradictions. He also\nwrote two dialogues.\n\nKoerbagh (Adriaan), Dutch martyr, b. Amsterdam, 1632 or 1633. He became\na doctor of law and medicine. In 1668 he published A Flower Garden\nof all Loveliness, a dictionary of definitions in which he gave bold\nexplanations. The work was rigidly suppressed, and the writer fled\nto Culemborg. There he translated a book De Trinitate, and began a\nwork entitled A Light Shining in Dark Places, to illuminate the chief\nthings of theology and religion by Vrederijk Waarmond, inquisitor of\ntruth. Betrayed for a sum of money, Koerbagh was tried for blasphemy,\nheavily fined and sentenced to be imprisoned for ten years, to be\nfollowed by ten years banishment. He died in prison, Oct. 1669.\n\nKolb (Georg Friedrich), German statistician and author, b. Spires 14\nSept. 1808, author of an able History of Culture, 1869-70. Died at\nMunich 15 May, 1884.\n\nKoornhert (Theodore). See Coornhert (Dirk Volkertszoon.)\n\nKorn (Selig), learned German Orientalist of Jewish birth, b. Prague,\n26 April, 1804. A convert to Freethought, under the name of \"F. Nork,\"\nhe wrote many works on mythology which may still be consulted with\nprofit. A list is given in Fuerst's Bibliotheca Judaica. We mention\nChristmas and Easter Explained by Oriental Sun Worship, Leipsic, '36;\nBrahmins and Rabbins, Weissen, '36; The Prophet Elijah as a Sun Myth,\n'37; The Gods of the Syrians, '42; Biblical Mythology of the Old and\nNew Testament, 2 vols. Stuttgart, '42-'43. Died at Teplitz, Bohemia,\n16 Oct. 1850.\n\nKrause (Ernst H. Ludwig), German scientific writer, b. Zielenzig\n22 Nov. 1839. He studied science and contributed to the Vossische\nZeitung and Gartenlaube. In '63 he published, under the pen-name of\n\"Carus Sterne,\" a work on The Natural History of Ghosts, and in\n'76 a work on Growth and Decay, a history of evolution. In '77 he\nestablished with H\u00e6ckel, Dr. Otto Caspari, and Professor Gustav Jaeger,\nthe monthly magazine Kosmos, devoted to the spread of Darwinism. This\nhe conducted till '82. In Kosmos appeared the germ of his little book\non Erasmus Darwin, '79, to which Charles Darwin wrote a preliminary\nnotice. As \"Carus Sterne\" he has also written essays entitled Prattle\nfrom Paradise, The Crown of Creation, '84, and an illustrated work\nin parts on Ancient and Modern Ideas of the World, '87, etc.\n\nKrekel (Arnold), American judge, b. Langenfield, Prussia 14 March,\n1815. Went with parents to America in '32 and settled in Missouri. In\n'42 he was elected Justice of the Peace and afterwards county\nattorney. In '52 he was elected to the Missouri State Legislature. He\nserved in the civil war being elected colonel, was president of\nthe constitutional convention of '65 and signed the ordinance of\nemancipation by which the slaves of Missouri were set free. He was\nappointed judge by President Lincoln 9 March, '65. A pronounced\nAgnostic, when he realized he was about to die he requested his wife\nnot to wear mourning, saying that death was as natural as birth. Died\nat Kansas 14 July, 1888.\n\nKrekel (Mattie H. Hulett), b. of freethinking parents, Elkhart Indiana\n13 April, 1840. Educated at Rockford, Illinois, in her 16th year became\na teacher. Married Judge Krekel, after whose death, she devoted her\nservices to the Freethought platform.\n\nKropotkin (Petr Aleksyeevich) Prince, Russian anarchist, b. Moscow\n9 Dec 1842. After studying at the Royal College of Pages he went to\nSiberia for five years to pursue geological researches. In '71 he went\nto Belgium and Switzerland and joined the International. Arrested\nin Russia, he was condemned to three years imprisonment, escaped\n'76 and came to England. In '79 he founded at Geneva, Le R\u00e9volt\u00e9 was\nexpelled. Accused in France in '83 of complicity in the outrage at\nLyons, he was condemned to five years imprisonment, but was released in\n'86, since which he has lived in England. A brother who translated\nHerbert Spencer's \"Biology\" into Russian, died in Siberia in the\nautumn of 1886.\n\nLaas (Ernst) German writer, b. Furstenwalde, 16 June, 1837. He has\nwritten three volumes on Idealism and Positivism, 1879-'84, and also\non Kant's Place in the History of the Conflict between Faith and\nScience, Berlin, 1882. He was professor of philosophy at Strassburg,\nwhere he died 25 July, 1885.\n\nLabanca (Baldassarre), professor of moral philosophy in the University\nof Pisa, b. Agnone, 1829. He took part in the national movement of\n'48, and in '51 was imprisoned and afterwards expelled from Naples. He\nhas written on progress in philosophy and also a study on primitive\nChristianity, dedicated to Giordano Bruno, the martyr of Freethought,\n'86.\n\nLachatre (Maurice), French writer, b. Issoudun 1814, edits a \"Library\nof Progress,\" in which has appeared his own History of the Inquisition,\nand History of the Popes, '83.\n\nLacroix (Sigismund), the pen name of Sigismund Julien Adolph\nKrzyzanowski, b. Warsaw 26 May, 1845. His father was a refugee. He\nwrote with Yves Guyot The Social Doctrines of Christianity. In '74 he\nwas elected a municipal councillor of Paris. In '77 he was sentenced\nto three months' imprisonment for calling Jesus \"enfant adulterin\"\nin Le Radical. In Feb. '81 he was elected president of the municipal\ncouncil, and in '83 deputy to the French parliament.\n\nLaffitte (Pierre), French Positivist philosopher, b. 21 Feb. 1823\nat Beguey (Gironde), became a disciple of Comte and one of his\nexecutors. He was professor of mathematics, but since the death of\nhis master has given a weekly course of instruction in the former\napartment of Comte. M. Laffitte has published discourses on The\nGeneral History of Humanity, '59, and The Great Types of Humanity,\n'75-6. In '78 he founded La Revue Occidentale.\n\nLagrange (Joseph Louis), Count, eminent mathematician, b. Turin, 25\nJan. 1736. He published in 1788 his Analytical Mechanics, which is\nconsidered one of the masterpieces of the human intellect. He became\na friend of D'Alembert, Diderot, Condorcet, and Delambre. He said he\nbelieved it impossible to prove there was a God. Died 10 April 1813.\n\nLa Hontan (Jean), early French traveller in Canada, b. 1666. In\nhis account of Dialogues with an American Savage, 1704, which was\ntranslated into English, he states objections to religion. Died in\nHanover, 1715.\n\nLainez (Alexandre), French poet, b. Chimay, Hainault, 1650, of the same\nfamily with the general of the Jesuits. He lived a wandering Bohemian\nlife and went to Holland to see Bayle. Died at Paris 18 April, 1710.\n\nLaing (Samuel), politician and writer, b. Edinburgh 1812, the son of\nS. Laing of Orkney. Educated at Cambridge, where he took his degree\n'32; called to the bar '42; became secretary of the railway department\nof the Board of Trade; returned as Liberal M.P. for Kirkwall '52;\nhelped repeal duty on advertisements in newspapers. In '60 he became\nfinance minister for India. His Modern Science and Modern Thought,\n'85, is a plain exposition of the incompatibility of the old and\nnew view of the universe. In the Modern Zoroastrian, '87, he gives\nthe philosophy of polarity, in which, however, he was anticipated by\nMr. Crozier, who in turn was anticipated by Emerson. In '88 he entered\ninto a friendly correspondence with Mr. Gladstone on the subject of\nAgnosticism his portion of which has been published.\n\nLakanal (Joseph), French educator, b. Serres, 14 July, 1762. Studied\nfor priesthood, but gave up that career. He entered with ardor into the\nRevolution, was a member of the Convention 1792-5, and there protected\nthe interests of science. At the restoration in 1814 he retired to\nAmerica, and was welcomed by Jefferson and became president of the\nUniversity of Louisiana. He returned to France after the Revolution of\n'30, and died in Paris 14 Feb. 1845.\n\nLalande (Joseph J\u00e8rome le Francais de), distinguished French\nastronomer, b. Bourg en Bresse, 11 July 1732. Educated by the Jesuits,\nhe was made a member of the Academy of Sciences in his 20th year. In\n1762 he became Professor of Astronomy at the College of France. In\n1764 he published his Treatise of Astronomy, to which Dupuis subjoined\na memoir, which formed the basis of his Origin of all Religions, the\nidea of which he had taken from Lalande. In Aug 1793 Lalande hazarded\nhis own life to save Dupont de Nemours, and some priests whom he\nconcealed in the observatory of Mazarin college. It was upon Lalande's\nobservations that the Republican calender was drawn up. At Lalande's\ninstigation Sylvain Mar\u00e9chal published his Dictionary of Atheists,\nto which the astronomer contributed supplements after Mar\u00e9chal's\ndeath. Lalande professed himself prouder of being an Atheist than\nof being an astronomer. His Bibliographie Astronomique is called by\nProf. de Morgan \"a perfect model of scientific bibliography.\" It was\nsaid that never did a young man address himself to Lalande without\nreceiving proof of his generosity. He died at Paris 4 April, 1807.\n\nLamarck (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet) French naturalist,\nb. Picardy 1 Aug. 1744, educated for the Church, but entered the army\nin 1761, and fought with distinction. Having been disabled, he went\nto Paris, studied Botany, and published French Flora in 1788, which\nopened to him the Academy of Sciences. He became assistant at the\nMuseum of Natural History, and in 1809 propounded, in his Zoological\nPhilosophy, a theory of transmutation of species. His Natural History\nof Invertebrate Animals (1815-22) was justly celebrated. He became\nblind several years before his death, 18 Dec. 1829.\n\nLamborelle (Louis). Belgian author of books on The Good Old Times,\nBrussels, 1874; The Apostles and Martyrs of Liberty of Conscience,\nAntwerp, 1882, and other anti-clerical works. Lamborelle lost a post\nunder government through his anticlerical views, and is one of the\ncouncil of the Belgian Freethought party.\n\nLamettrie (Julian Offray de). French physician and philosopher,\nb. St. Malo, 25 Dec. 1709. Destined for the Church, he was educated\nunder the Jesuits at Caen. He, however, became a physician, studying\nunder Boerhaave, at Leyden. Returning to France, he became surgeon\nto the French Guard, and served at the battles of Fontenoy and\nDettingen. Falling ill, he noticed that his faculties fluctuated with\nhis physical state, and drew therefrom materialistic conclusions. The\nboldness with which he made his ideas known lost him his place, and he\ntook refuge in Holland. Here he published The Natural History of the\nSoul, under the pretence of its being a translation from the English\nof Charp [Sharp], 1745. This was followed by Man a Machine (1748),\na work which was publicly burnt at Leyden, and orders given for the\nauthor's arrest. It was translated into English, and reached a second\nedition (London, 1750). It was often attributed to D'Argens. Lamettrie\nheld that the senses are the only avenues to knowledge, and that it\nis absurd to assume a god to explain motion. Only under Atheism will\nreligious strife cease. Lamettrie found an asylum with Frederick the\nGreat, to whom he became physician and reader (Feb. 1748). Here he\npublished Philosophical Reflections on the Origin of Animals (1750),\ntranslated Seneca on Happiness, etc. He died 11 Nov. 1751, and desired\nby his will to be buried in the garden of Lord Tyrconnel. The great\nking thought so well of him that he composed his funeral eulogy.\n\nLa Mothe Le Vayer (Fran\u00e7ois de). French sceptical philosopher,\nb. Paris, 1588, was patronised by Louis XIV., and was preceptor to\nthe Duke of Anjou. Published The Virtue of Pagans and Dialogues\nafter the Manner of the Ancients, in which he gave scope to his\nscepticism. Two editions of his collected works appeared, but neither\nof these contains The Dialogues of Orasius Tubero (Frankfort 1606,\nprobably a false date). Died 1672.\n\nLancelin (Pierre F.), French materialist, b. about 1770. Became a\nconstructive engineer in the French navy, wrote an able Introduction\nto the Analysis of Science, 3 vols. 1801-3, and a physico-mathematical\ntheory of the organisation of worlds, 1805. Died Paris, 1809.\n\nLand (Jan Pieter Nicolaus), Dutch writer, b. Delft, 23 April, 1834. Has\nwritten critical studies on Spinoza, and brought out an edition of\nthe philosopher's works in conjunction with J. van Vloten.\n\nLandesmann (Heinrich). See Lorm.\n\nLandor (Walter Savage), English poet, b. Ipsley Court, Warwickshire,\n30 Jan. 1775. He was educated at Rugby and Oxford, and, inheriting\na fortune, could indulge his tastes as an author. He published a\nvolume of poems in 1795, and Gebir in 1798. An ardent Republican, he\nserved as a volunteer colonel in the Spanish Army against Napoleon\nfrom 1808 to 1814, besides devoting a considerable sum of money to\nthe Spanish cause. He became a resident of Florence about 1816. His\nreputation chiefly rests on his great Imaginary Conversations, in\nwhich many bold ideas are presented in beautiful language. Landor\nwas unquestionably the greatest English writer of his age. While\nnominally a Christian, he has scattered many Freethought sentiments\nover his various works. Died at Florence, 17 Sept. 1864.\n\nLanessan (Jean Louis de), French naturalist, b. at Saint Andr\u00e9 de\nCubzac (Gironde), 13 July, 1843. At 19 he became a naval physician, and\nM.D. in '68. He was elected in '79 as Radical member of the Municipal\nCouncil of Paris, and re-elected in '81. In August of the same year\nhe was elected Deputy for the Department of the Seine. He founded\nLe Reveil, edited the Marseillaise, and started the International\nBiological Library, to which he contributed a study on the doctrine\nof Darwin. He has written a standard work on botany, and has written\nvol. iii. of the \"Materialists' Library,\" on the Evolution of Matter.\n\nLanfrey (Pierre), French author and senator, b. Chamb\u00e9ry, 26 Oct. 1828,\nbecame known by a book on The Church and the Philosophers of the\nEighteenth Century, '55, and celebrated by his History of Napoleon\nI. '67-75. M. Lanfrey also wrote The Political History of the Popes,\na work placed on the Index. Died at Pau, 15 Nov. 1877.\n\nLang (Andrew), man of letters, b. Selkirk, 31 March, 1844. Educated\nat St. Andrews and Oxford. Mr. Lang made his name by his translation\nof the Odyssey with Mr. Butcher, and by his graceful poems and\nballads. He has written In the Wrong Paradise, and many other\npleasant sketches. More serious work is shown in Custom and Myth,\n'84, and Myth, Ritual and Religion, '87. A disciple of E. B. Tylor,\nMr. Lang successfully upholds the evolutionary view of mythology.\n\nLang (Heinrich), German Rationalist, b. 14 Nov. 1826. Studied theology\nunder Baur at T\u00fcbingen, and became teacher at Z\u00fcrich, where he died,\n13 Jan. 1876.\n\nLange (Friedrich Albert), German philosopher and writer, b. Wald,\nnear Solix, 28 Sept. 1828. He studied at Bonn, and became teacher in\nthe gymnasium of Cologne, '52. In '53 he returned to Bonn as teacher\nof philosophy, and there enjoyed the friendship of Ueberweg. He became\nproprietor and editor of the democratic Landbote, and filled various\nmunicipal offices. In '70 he was called to the chair of philosophy at\nZ\u00fcrich, but resigned in '72 and accepted a similar post at Marburg,\nwhere he died 21 Nov. 1875. His fame rests on his important History\nof Materialism, which has been translated into English.\n\nLangsdorf (Karl Christian), German Deist, b. 18 May, 1757, author\nof God and Nature, a work on the immortality of the soul, and some\nmathematical books. Died Heidelberg, 10 June, 1834.\n\nLankester (Edwin Ray), F.R.S., LL.D., English scientist, b. London, 15\nMay, 1847, and educated at St. Paul's School and Oxford. Has published\nmany scientific memoirs, revised the translation of Haeckel's History\nof Creation, and has done much to forward evolutionary ideas. In 1876\nhe exposed the spiritist medium Slade, and procured his conviction. He\nis Professor of Zoology and Natural History in the University of\nLondon.\n\nLa Place (Pierre Simon). One of the greatest astronomers,\nb. Beaumont-en-Auge, 23 March, 1749. His father was a poor\npeasant. Through the influence of D'Alembert, La Place became professor\nof mathematics in the military school, 1768. By his extraordinary\nabilities he became in 1785 member of the Academy of Science, which\nhe enriched with many memoirs. In 1796 he published his Exposition\nof the System of the Universe, a popularisation of his greater work\non Celestial Mechanics, 1799-1825. Among his sayings were, \"What we\nknow is but little, what we know not is immense.\" \"There is no need\nfor the hypothesis of a God.\" Died Paris, 5 March, 1827.\n\nLarevelliere-Lepaux (Louis Marie DE), French politician, b. Montaigu\n25 Aug. 1753. Attached from youth to the ideas of Rousseau, he was\nelected with Volney to represent Angers in the national assembly. He\nwas a moderate Republican, defended the proscribed Girondins, was\ndoomed himself but escaped by concealment, and distinguished himself\nby seeking to replace Catholicism with theophilanthropy or natural\nreligion. He wrote Reflections on Worship and the National F\u00eates. He\nbecame President of the Directory, and after the 18 Brumaire retired,\nrefusing to swear fealty to the empire though offered a pension by\nNapoleon. Died Paris, 27 March, 1824.\n\nLarousse (Pierre Athanase), French lexicographer, b. of poor parents,\n23 Oct. 1817, at Toucy, Yonne, where he became teacher. He edited\nmany school books and founded the Grand Dictionnaire Universel du\nXIXe. Siecle, 1864-77. This is a collection of dictionaries, and may\nbe called the Encyclopedie of this century. Most of M. Larousse's\ncolleagues were also Freethinkers. Died at Paris, 3 Jan. 1875.\n\nLarra (Mariano Jos\u00e9 de), distinguished Spanish author, b. Madrid,\n4 March, 1809. He went with his family to France and completed his\neducation. He returned to Spain in '22. At eighteen he published\na collection of poems, which was followed by El Duende Satirico\n(The Satirical Goblin). In '31 appeared his Pobrecito Hablador (Poor\nGossip), a paper in which he unmercifully satirised the public affairs\nand men of Spain. It was suppressed after its fourteenth number. He\nedited in the following year the Revista Espa\u00f1ola, signing his articles\n\"Figaro.\" He travelled through Europe, and on his return to Madrid\nedited El Mundo. Larra wrote also some dramas and translated Lamennais'\nParoles d'un Croyant. Being disappointed in love he shot himself,\n13 April, 1837. Ch. de Mazade, after speaking of Larra's scepticism,\nadds, \"Larra could see too deep to possess any faith whatever. All\nthe truths of this world, he was wont to say, can be wrapped in a\ncigarette paper!\"\n\nLarroque (Patrice), French philosopher, b. Beaume, 27 March, 1801. He\nbecame a teacher and was inspector of the academy of Toulouse, 1830-36,\nand rector of the academies of Cahors, Limoges, and Lyons, 1836-49. In\nthe latter year he was denounced for his opposition to clerical ideas\nand lost his place. Among his numerous works we mention De l'Esclavage\nchez les Nations Chr\u00e9tiennes, '57, in which he proves that Christianity\ndid not abolish slavery. This was followed by an Critical Examination\nof the Christian Religion, '59, and a work on Religious Renovation,\n'59, which proposes a moral system founded upon pure deism. Both were\nfor a while prohibited in France. M. Larroque also wrote on Religion\nand Politics, '78. Died at Paris, 15 June, 1879.\n\nLassalle (Ferdinand Johann Gottlieb), founder of German Social\nDemocratic party, b. of Jewish parents, 11 April, 1825, in Breslau,\nstudied philosophy and law at Breslau and Berlin. He became a\nfollower of Hegel and Feuerbach. Heine, at Paris, '46, was charmed\nwith him. Humboldt called him \"Wunderkind.\" In 1858 he published\na profound work on the philosophy of Heraclitus. For planning an\ninsurrection against the Prussian Government he was arrested, but\nwon his acquittal. Died through a duel, 31 Aug. 1864.\n\nLastarria (Jos\u00e9 Victorino), Chilian statesman and Positivist,\nb. Rancagua, 1812. From youth he applied himself to teaching\nand journalism, and in '38 was appointed teacher of civil law and\nliterature in the National Institute. He has founded several journals\nand literary societies. From '43 he has been at different times deputy\nto the legislature and secretary to the republic of Chili. He has\nalso served as minister to Peru and Brazil. In '73 he founded the\nSantiago Academy of Science and Literature; has written many works,\nand his Lecciones de Politicia Positiva has been translated into\nFrench by E. de Rivi\u00e8re and others, 1879.\n\nLau (Theodor Ludwig), German philosopher, b. at K\u00f6nigsberg, 15 June\n1670, studied at K\u00f6nigsberg and Halle, and about 1695 travelled\nthrough Holland, England, and France. In 1717 he published in Latin,\nat Frankfort, Philosophical Meditations on God, the World, and Man,\nwhich excited an outcry for its materialistic tendency and was\nsuppressed. He was a follower of Spinoza, and held several official\npositions from which he was deposed on account of his presumed\natheism. Died at Altona, 8 Feb. 1740.\n\nLaurent (Fran\u00e7ois), Belgian jurisconsult, b. Luxembourg, 8 July,\n1810. Studied law and became an advocate. In '35 he was made\nProfessor of Civil Law in the University of Ghent, a post he held,\ndespite clerical protests, till his retirement in '80. A voluminous\nauthor on civil and international law, his principal work is entitled\nStudies in the History of Humanity. He was a strong advocate of the\nseparation of Church and State, upon which he wrote, 1858-60. He also\nwrote Letters on the Jesuits, '65. Died in 1887.\n\nLaw (Harriet), English lecturess, who for many years occupied the\nsecular platform, and engaged in numerous debates. She edited the\nSecular Chronicle, 1876-1879.\n\nLawrence (James), Knight of Malta, b. Fairfield, Jamaica, 1773, of good\nLancashire family. Educated at Eton and Gottingen; became acquainted\nwith Schiller and Goethe at Stuttgart and Weimar, was detained with\nEnglish prisoners at Verdun. In 1807 he published his The Empire of\nthe Nairs, or the Rights of Women, a free-love romance which he wrote\nin German, French, and English. He also wrote in French and English,\na curious booklet The Children of God, London, 1853. He addressed a\npoem on Tolerance to Mr. Owen, on the occasion of his denouncing the\nreligions of the world. It appears in The Etonian Out of Bounds. Died\nat London 26 Sept. 1841.\n\nLawrence (Sir William), surgeon, b. Cirencester, 1783. Admitted\nM.R.C.S., 1805, in '13 he was chosen, F.R.S., and two years later\nwas named Professor of Anatomy and Surgery at the Royal College of\nSurgeons. While he held that chair he delivered his Lectures on Man,\nwhich on their publication in 1819 roused a storm of bigotry. In his\nearly manhood, Lawrence was an earnest advocate of radical reform;\nbut notwithstanding his early unpopularity, he acquired a lucrative\npractice. Died London, 5 July, 1867.\n\nLayton (Henry), educated at Oxford, and studied at Gray's Inn, being\ncalled to the bar. He wrote anonymously observations on Dr. Bentley's\nConfutation of Atheism (1693), and a Search After Souls, and Spiritual\nObservations in Man (1700).\n\nLeblais (Alphonse), French professor of mathematics, b. Mans,\n1820. Author of a study in Positivist philosophy entitled Materialism\nand Spiritualism (1865), to which Littr\u00e9 contributed a preface.\n\nLe Bovier de Fontenelle. See Fontenelle.\n\nLecky (William Edward Hartpole), historian, b. near Dublin, 26 March,\n1838. Educated at Trinity College, Dublin. His works, which are\ncharacterised by great boldness and originality of thought, are\nA History of the Rise and Spirit of Rationalism in Europe ('65),\nA History of European Morals from Augustus to Charlemagne ('69),\nand A History of England in the Eighteenth Century (1878-87).\n\nLeclerc (Georges Louis). See Buffon.\n\nLeclerc de Septchenes (N.), b. at Paris. Became secretary to Louis\nXVI., translated the first three vols. of Gibbon, and wrote an essay\non the religion of the ancient Greeks (1787). A friend of Lalande,\nhe prepared an edition of Freret, published after his death. Died at\nPlombieres, 9 June, 1788.\n\nLeconte de Lisle (Charles Marie Ren\u00e9), French poet, b. Isle of Bourbon,\n23 Oct. 1818. After travelling in India, returned to Paris, and took\npart in the revolution of '48, but has since devoted himself mainly\nto poetry, though he has written also A Republican Catechism and A\nPopular History of Christianity ('71). One of his finest poems is\nKain. On being elevated to the seat of Victor Hugo at the Academy in\n'87, he gave umbrage to Jews and Catholics by incidentally speaking\nof Moses as \"the chief of a horde of ferocious nomads.\"\n\nLecount (Peter), lieutenant in the French navy. He was engaged in\nthe battle of Navarino. Came to England as a mathematician in the\nconstruction of the London and Birmingham Railway, of which he wrote\na history (1839). He wrote a curious book in three volumes entitled A\nFew Hundred Bible Contradictions; A Hunt After the Devil and other Old\nMatters, by John P. Y., M.D.; published by H. Hetherington ('43). The\nauthor's name occurs on p. 144, vol i., as \"the Rev. Peter Lecount.\"\n\nLeenhof (Frederick van), b. Middelburg (Zealand), Aug. 1647. Became\na minister of Zwolle, where he published a work entitled Heaven on\nEarth (1703), which subjected him to accusations of Atheism. It was\ntranslated into German in 1706.\n\nLefevre (Andr\u00e9), French writer, b. Provins, 9 Nov. 1834. He became,\nat the age of twenty-three, one of the editors of the Magasin\nPittoresque. He wrote much in La Libre Pens\u00e9e and La Pens\u00e9e Nouvelle;\nhas translated Lucretius in verse ('76), and written Religions and\nMythologies Compared ('77); contributed a sketchy History of Philosophy\nto the Library of Contemporary Science ('78); has written Man Across\nthe Ages ('80) and the Renaissance of Materialism ('81). He has also\nedited the Lettres Persanes of Montesquieu, some Dialogues of Voltaire,\nand Diderot's La Religieuse ('86).\n\nLefort (C\u00e9sar), disciple of Comte. Has published a work on the method\nof modern science (Paris, 1864).\n\nLefrancais de Lalande. See Lalande.\n\nLegate (Bartholomew), Antitrinitarian native of Essex, b. about 1572,\nwas thrown into prison on a charge of heresy, 1611. King James had\nmany personal interviews with him. On one occasion the king asked him\nif he did not pray to Jesus Christ. He replied that he had done so in\nthe days of his ignorance, but not for the last seven years. \"Away,\nbase fellow!\" said His Majesty, \"It shall never be said that one\nstayeth in my presence who hath never prayed to the Savior for seven\nyears together.\" He was burnt at Smithfield by the King's writ, De\nH\u00e6retico Comburendo, 18 March, 1612, being one of the last persons\nso punished in England.\n\nLeguay de Premontval. See Premontval.\n\nLe Hon (Henri) Belgian scientist, b. Ville-Pommeroeul (Hainault) 1809,\nwas captain in the Belgian army, professor at the military school of\nBrussels, and Chevalier of the Order of Leopold. Author of L'Homme\nFossile en Europe, '66. Translated Professor Omboni's exposition of\nDarwinism. Died at San Remo, 1872.\n\nLeidy (Joseph), M.D., American naturalist, b. Philadelphia, 9\nSept. 1823. He became professor of biology at the University of\nPhiladelphia, and is eminent for his contributions to American\npal\u00e6ontology.\n\nLeigh (Henry Stone), English author of a Deistic work on the Religions\nof the World, 1869.\n\nLeland (Theron C.), American journalist, b. 9 April, 1821. He edited\nwith Wakeman the journal Man. Died 2 June, 1885.\n\nLemaire (Charles), member of the Academical Society of Saint Quentin,\nauthor of an atheistic philosophical work, in two vols., entitled\nInitiation to the Philosophy of Liberty, Paris, 1842.\n\nLemonnier (Camille), Belgian writer, b. Ixel les Bruxelles, 1845,\nauthor of stories and works on Hysteria, Death, etc., in which he\nevinces his freethought sentiments.\n\nLenau (Nicolaus), i.e. Nicolaus Franz Niembsch von Strehlenau,\nHungarian poet, b. Czatad, 15 Aug. 1802. His poems, written in German,\nare pessimistic, and his constitutional melancholy deepened into\ninsanity. Died Ober-D\u00f6bling, near Vienna, 22 Aug. 1850.\n\nLennstrand (Viktor E.), Swedish writer and orator, b. Gefle,\n30 Jan. 1861. Educated at Upsala University. Founded the Swedish\nUtilitarian Society, March '88, and in May was sentenced to a fine of\n250 crowns for denial of the Christian religion. On the 29th Nov. he\nwas imprisoned for three months for the same offence. Has written\nseveral pamphlets and has incurred several fresh prosecutions. In\ncompany with A. Lindkvist he has founded the Fritankaren as the organ\nof Swedish freethought.\n\nLeontium, Athenian Het\u00e6ra, disciple and mistress of Epicurus (q.v.) She\nacquired distinction as a philosopher, and wrote a treatise against\nTheophrastus, which is praised by Cicero as written in a skilful and\nelegant manner.\n\nLeopardi (Giacomo), count, Italian pessimist poet, b. Recanati\n(Ancona), 29 June, 1798. In 1818 he won a high place among poets by\nhis lines addressed To Italy. His Canti, '31, are distinguished by\neloquence and pathos, while his prose essays, Operette Morali, '27, are\nesteemed the finest models of Italian prose of this century. Leopardi's\nshort life was one long disease, but it was full of work of the\nhighest character. As a poet, philologist, and philosopher, he is\namong the greatest of modern Italians. Died at Naples, 14 July, 1837.\n\nLequinio (Joseph Marie), French writer and Conventionnel, b. Sarzeau,\n1740. Elected Mayor of Rennes, 1790, and Deputy from Morbihar to\nthe Legislative Assembly. He then professed Atheism. He voted the\ndeath of Louis XVI. \"regretting that the safety of the state did not\npermit his being condemned to penal servitude for life.\" In 1792 he\npublished Prejudices Destroyed, signed \"Citizen of the World,\" in\nwhich he considered religion as a political chain. He took part in the\nFeasts of Reason, and wrote Philosophy of the People, 1796. Died 1813.\n\nLermina (Jules Hippolyte), French writer, b. 27 March, 1839. Founded\nthe Corsair and Satan, and has published an illustrated biographical\ndictionary of contemporary France, 1884-5.\n\nLermontov (Mikhail Yur'evich), Russian poet and novelist, b. Moscow,\n3 Oct. 1814. Said to have come of a Scotch family, he studied at Moscow\nUniversity, from which he was expelled. In '32 he entered the Military\nAcademy at St. Petersburg, and afterwards joined the Hussars. In\n'37 some verses on the death of Pushkin occasioned his being sent to\nthe Caucasus, which he describes in a work translated into English,\n'53. His poems are much admired. The Demon, exhibiting Satan in love,\nhas been translated into English, and so has his romance entitled A\nHero of Our Times. He fell in a duel in the Caucasus, 15 July, 1840.\n\nLeroux (Pierre), French Socialist and philosophic writer, b. Bercy,\nnear Paris, 6 April, 1797. At first a mason, then a typographer, he\ninvented an early composing machine which he called the pianotype. In\n1824 he became editor of the Globe. Becoming a Saint Simonian,\nhe made this paper the organ of the sect. He started with Reynaud\nL'Encyclop\u00e9die Nouvelle, and afterwards with L. Viardot and Mme. George\nSand the Revue Ind\u00e9pendante ('41), which became noted for its pungent\nattacks on Catholicism. His principal work is De l'Humanite ('40). In\nJune '48 M. Leroux was elected to the Assembly. After the coup d'\u00e9tat\nhe returned to London and Jersey. Died at Paris, 12 April, 1871.\n\nLeroy (Charles Georges), lieutenant ranger of the park of Versailles,\nb. 1723, one of the writers on the Encyclop\u00e9die. He defended the work\nof Helvetius on the Mind against Voltaire, and wrote Philosophical\nLetters on the Intelligence and Perfectibility of Animals (1768),\na work translated into English in 1870. Died at Paris 1789.\n\nLespinasse (Adolf Frederik Henri de). Dutch writer, b. Delft, 14 May,\n1819. Studied medicine, and established himself first at Deventer and\nafterwards at Zwartsluis, Vaassen, and Hasselt. In the Dageraad he\nwrote many interesting studies under the pen-name of \"Titus,\" and\ntranslated the work of Dupuis into Dutch. In 1870 he emigrated to\nAmerica and became director of a large farm in Iowa. Died in Orange\nCity (Iowa) 1881.\n\nL'Espinasse (Julie Jeanne El\u00e9onore de). French beauty and wit,\nb. Lyons, 9 Nov. 1732. She became the prot\u00e9g\u00e9 of Madame du Deffand, and\ngained the favor of D'Alembert. Her letters are models of sensibility\nand spirit. Died Paris, 23 May, 1776.\n\nLessing (Gotthold Ephraim). German critic and dramatic poet, b. Kamenz,\n22 Jan. 1729. He studied at Leipsic, and at Berlin became acquainted\nwith Voltaire and Mendelssohn. Made librarian at Wolfenb\u00fcttel he\npublished Fragments of an Unknown (1777), really the Vindication of\nRational Worshippers of God, by Reimarus, in which it was contended\nthat Christian evidences are so clad in superstition as to be unworthy\ncredence. Among his writings were The Freethinker and Nathan the\nWise, his noblest play, in which he enforces lessons of toleration\nand charity to all faiths. The effect of his writings was decidedly\nsceptical. Heine calls Lessing, after Luther, the greatest German\nemancipator. Died at Brunswick 15 Feb. 1781.\n\nLessona (Michele). Italian naturalist, b. 20 Sept., 1823; has\ntranslated some of the works of Darwin.\n\nLeucippus. Greek founder of the atomic philosophy.\n\nL'Estrange (Thomas), writer, b. 17 Jan. 1822. With a view to entering\nthe Church he graduated at Trinity College, Dublin, 26 Feb. '44,\nbut became an attorney. Having read F. A. Paley's Introduction to the\nIliad, he became convinced that the \"cooking\" process there described,\nhas been undergone by all sacred books now extant. He wrote for Thomas\nScott's series valuable tracts on Our First Century, Primitive Church\nHistory, Iren\u00e6us, Order, The Eucharist. He also edited Hume's Dialogues\non Natural Religion, and wrote The First Ten Alleged Persecutions.\n\nLevallois (Jules), French writer, b. Rouen 18 May, 1829. In '55 he\nbecame secretary to Sainte Beuve. Wrote D\u00e9isme et Christianisme, 1866.\n\nLewes (George Henry), English man of letters, b. in London, 18\nApril, 1817, he became a journalist and dramatic critic. In 1845-6\nappeared his Biographical History of Philosophy, which showed higher\npower. This has been republished as History of Philosophy from Thales\nto Comte. Lewes was one of the first to introduce English readers to\nComte in his account of Comte's Philosophy of the Sciences, '47. In\n'49 he became one of the founders of the Leader, for which he wrote\ntill '54. In that year he began his association with \"George Eliot\"\n(q.v.). His Life of Goethe appeared in '55, and from this time he\nbegan to give his attention to scientific, especially biological,\nstudies. In '64 he published an important essay on Aristotle. On\nthe foundation of the Fortnightly Review, '65, Lewes was appointed\neditor. His last work, Problems of Life and Mind, 5 vols. '74-79,\nwas never completed owing to his death, 28 Nov. 1878. He bequeathed\nhis books to Dr. Williams's library.\n\nLichtenberg (Georg Christoph), German satirical writer and scientist,\nb. Ober-Ramst\u00e4dt, 1 July, 1742; a friend of G. Forster, he left many\nthoughts showing his advanced opinions. Died G\u00f6ttingen, 24 Feb. 1799.\n\nLick (James), American philanthropist, b. Fredericksburg, Pa., 25\nAug. 1796. In 1847 he settled in California and made a large fortune\nby investing in real estate. He was a Materialist and bequeathed\nlarge sums to the Lick Observatory, Mount Hamilton, and for other\nphilanthropic purposes. Died San Francisco, 1 Oct. 1876.\n\nLilja (Nicolai), Swedish writer, b. Rostanga, 18 Oct. 1808. Studied\nat Lund and became parish clerk in the Lund diocese. He wrote, on Man;\nhis Life and Destiny. Died Lund 1870.\n\nLincoln (Abraham), sixteenth President of the United States,\nb. Kentucky, 12 Feb. 1809. An uncompromising opponent of slavery,\nhis election (Nov. '60) led to the civil war and the emancipation\nof slaves. Ward H. Lamon, who knew him well, says he \"read Volney\nand Paine and then wrote a deliberate and labored essay, wherein\nhe reached conclusions similar to theirs. The essay was burnt, but\nhe never denied or regretted its composition.\" Mrs. Lincoln said,\n\"Mr. Lincoln had no hope and no faith in the usual acceptance of those\nwords.\" Assassinated 14 April, 1865, he expired the following morning.\n\nLindet (Robert Thomas), \"apostate\" French bishop, b. Bernay, 1743. Was\nelected to the States-General by the clergy of his district. He\nembraced Republican principles, and in March, 1791, was made Bishop\nof L'Eure. In Nov. 1792 he publicly married. On 7 Nov. 1793, renounced\nhis bishopric. He proposed that civil festivals should take the place\nof religious ones. He became member of the Conseil des Anciens. Died\nBernay, 10 Aug. 1823, and was buried without religious service.\n\nLindh (Theodor Anders), b. Borgo (Finland), 13 Jan. 1833. Studied\nat Helsingfors University, '51-57; became lawyer in '71, and is\nnow a member of the Municipal Council of Borgo. He has written many\npoems in Swedish, and also translated from the English poets, and has\npublished Freethought essays, which have brought him into controversy\nwith the clergy.\n\nLindkvist (Alfred), Swedish writer, b. Gefle, 21 Oct. 1860, of\npious parents. At the University of Upsala he studied European\nliterature, and became acquainted with the works of Mill, Darwin,\nand Spencer. He has published two volumes of poems, Snow Drops and\nApril Days, and lost a stipend at the University by translating\nfrom the Danish a rationalistic life of Jesus entitled The Reformer\nfrom Galilee. Mr. Lindkvist has visited Paris, and collaborated on\na Stockholm daily paper. In '88 he joined his friend Lennstrand in\npropagating Freethought, and in Nov. received a month's imprisonment\nfor having translated one of J. Symes's anti-Christian pamphlets. He\nnow edits Fritankaren in conjunction with Mr. Lennstrand.\n\nLindner (Ernst Otto Timotheus), German physician, b. Breslau, 28\nNov. 1820. A friend of Schopenhauer, whose philosophy he maintained\nin several works on music. He edited the Vossische Zeitung from\n'63. Died at Berlin, 7 Aug. 1867.\n\nLiniere (Fran\u00e7ois Payot de), French satiric poet, b. Paris, 1628;\nknown as the Atheist of Senlis. Boileau says the only act of piety\nhe ever did was drinking holy water because his mistress dipped her\nfinger in it. Wrote many songs and smart epigrams, and is said to have\nundertaken a criticism of the New Testament. Died at Paris in 1704.\n\nLinton (Eliza, n\u00e9e Lynn) novelist and journalist, daughter of vicar\nof Crosthwaite, Cumberland, b. Keswick, 1822. Has contributed largely\nto the leading Radical journals, and has written numerous works of\nfiction, of which we must mention Under which Lord? and The Rebel of\nthe Family. In '72 she published The True History of Joshua Davidson,\nChristian and Communist, and in '85 the Autobiography of Christopher\nKirkland. She has also written on the woman question, and contributed\nlargely to periodical literature.\n\nLinton (William James), poet, engraver, and author, b. at London,\n1812. A Chartist in early life, he was intimately associated with\nthe chief political refugees. He contributed to the democratic press,\nand also, we believe, to the Oracle of Reason. He wrote the Reasoner\ntract on \"The Worth of Christianity.\" He was one of the founders of\nthe Leader, has edited the Truthseeker, the National and the English\nRepublic, and has published Famine a Masque, a Life of Paine, and a\nmemoir of James Watson and some volumes of poems. In '67 he went to\nAmerica, but has recently returned.\n\nLiscow (Christian Ludwig), one of the greatest German satirists,\nb. Wittenberg, 29 April, 1701. He studied law in Jena, and became\nacquainted with Hagedorn in Hamburg. In 1745 he was Councillor of War\nat Dresden. This post he abandoned, occupying himself with literature\nuntil his death, 30 Oct. 1760. Liscow's principal satires are The\nUselessness of Good Works for our Salvation and The Excellence and\nUtility of Bad Writers. He has been called the German Swift, and his\nworks show him to have been an outspoken Freethinker.\n\nLisle (Lionel), author of The Two Tests: the Supernatural Claims of\nChristianity Tried by Two of its own Rules (London, 1877).\n\nLiszinski (Casimir), Polish martyr of noble birth. Denounced as an\nAtheist in 1688 by the Bishop of Wilna and Posnovia, he was decapitated\nand burnt at Grodno 30 March, 1689. His ashes were placed in a cannon\nand scattered abroad. Among the statements in Liszinski's papers was\nthat man was the creator of God, whom he had formed out of nothing.\n\nLittre (Maximilian Paul Emile), French philologist and philosopher,\nb. Paris, 1 Feb. 1801. He studied medicine, literature and most of\nthe sciences. An advanced Republican, he was one of the editors of\nthe National. His edition of the works of Hippocrates (1839-61) proved\nthe thoroughness of his learning. He embraced the doctrines of Comte,\nand in '45 published a lucid analysis of the Positive Philosophy. He\ntranslated the Life of Jesus, by Strauss, and wrote the Literary\nHistory of France. His Dictionary of the French Language, in which he\napplied the historical method to philology, is one of the most colossal\nworks ever performed by one man. He wrote on Comte and Positive\nPhilosophy, Comte and Mill, etc., but refused to follow Comte in his\nlater vagaries. From '67 till his death he conducted La Philosophie\nPositive. Littr\u00e9 also wrote Science from the Standpoint of Philosophy,\n'73; Literature and History, '75; Fragments of Positive Philosophy\nand Contemporary Sociology, '76. He was proposed for the Academy in\n'63, but was bitterly opposed by Bishop Dupanloup, and was elected in\n'71. In the same year he was elected to the National Assembly, and in\n'75 was chosen senator. Under the Empire he twice refused the Legion\nof Honor. After a long life of incessant labor, he died at Paris,\n2 June 1881.\n\nLloyd (John William), American poet and writer, b. of Welsh-English\nstock at Westfield, New Jersey, 4 June, 1857. Is mostly\nself-educated. After serving apprenticeship as a carpenter, became\nassistant to Dr. Trall. Brought up as an orthodox Christian he became\nan Agnostic and Anarchist, and has written much in Liberty and Lucifer.\n\nLohmann (Hartwic), a native of Holstein, who in 1616 occupied a\ngood position in Flensburg. He was accused of Atheism. In 1635 he\npractised medicine at Copenhagen. He wrote a work called the Mirror\nof Faith. Died 1642.\n\nLollard (Walter), heretic and martyr, b. England, towards end of\nthirteenth century, began to preach in Germany in 1315. He rejected\nthe sacraments and ceremonies of the Church. It is said he chose\ntwelve apostles to propagate his doctrines and that he had many\nfollowers. Arrested at Cologne in 1322, he was burnt to death, dying\nwith great courage.\n\nLoman (Abraham Dirk), Dutch rationalist, b. The Hague 16 Sep. 1823. He\nholds the entire New Testament to be unhistorical, and the Pauline\nEpistles to belong to the second century, and has written many\ncritical works.\n\nLombroso (Cesare). Italian writer and scientist, b. Nov. 1836,\nhas been a soldier and military physician. Introduced Darwinism to\nItaly. Has written several works, mostly in relation to the physiology\nof criminals.\n\nLonget (Fran\u00e7ois Achille), French physiologist, b. St. Germain-en-Laye,\n1811, published a Treatise on Physiology in 3 vols. and several\nmedical works. Died Bordeaux, 20 April, 1871.\n\nLongiano (Sebastiano). See Fausto.\n\nLongue (Louis Pierre de), French Deist, writer in the service of\nthe house of Conti; wrote Les Princesses de Malabares, Adrianople,\n1734, in which he satirised religion. It was condemned to be burnt\n31 Dec. 1734, and a new edition published in Holland with the imprint\nTranquebar, 1735.\n\nLorand (Georges), Belgian journalist, b. Namur, 1851, studied\nlaw at Bologna (Italy) and soon became an active propagator of\nAtheistic doctrines among the youth of the University and in workmen\nassociations. He edits La R\u00e9forme at Brussels, the ablest daily\nexponent of Freethought and Democratic doctrines in Belgium. He has\nlately headed an association for the suppression of the standing army.\n\n\"Lorm (Hieronymus),\" the pen name of Heinrich Landesmann. German\npessimistic poet, b. Nikolsberg, 9 Aug. 1821. In addition to many\nphilosophical poems, he has written essays entitled Nature and Spirit,\nVienna, '84.\n\nLozano (Fernando), Spanish writer in Las Dominicales dal Libre\nPensamiento, where he uses the signature \"Demofilo.\" He has written\nBattles of Freethought, Possessed by the Devil, The Church and\nGaleote, etc.\n\nLubbock (Sir John), banker, arch\u00e6ologist, scientist and statesman,\nb. in London, 30 April, 1834. Educated at Eton, he was taken into\nhis father's bank at the age of fourteen, and became a partner in\n'56. By his arch\u00e6ological works he has most distinguished himself. He\nhas written Prehistoric Times as Illustrated by Ancient Remains,\nand the Manners and Customs of Modern Savages ('65), and The Origin\nof Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of Man ('70).\n\nLucretius Carus (Titus). Roman philosophical poet, b. about\nB.C. 99. Little is known of his life, but his name is immortalised\nby his atheistic work, De Rerum Natura, in six books, which is the\nfinest didactic poem in any language. Lucretius has been said to\nhave believed in one god, Epicurus, whose system he expounds. Full\nof animation, dignity, and sublimity, he invests philosophy with the\ngrace of genius. Is said to have died by his own hand B.C. 55.\n\nLuetzelberger (Ernst Karl Julius), German controversialist\nb. Ditterswind, 19 Oct. 1802. He was a friend of the Feuerbachs. He\nwrote on The Church Tradition of the Apostle John. He also wrote a\nwork on Jesus, translated in Ewerbeck's Qu'est ce que la Religion. In\n'56 he was appointed town librarian at Nuremberg.\n\nLunn (Edwin), Owenite lecturer. Published pamphlets On Prayer, its\nFolly, Inutility, etc. 1839, and Divine Revelation Examined, 1841.\n\nLuys (Jules Bernard), French alienist, b. Paris, 1828. Is physician\nat l'Hopital de la Charit\u00e9, Paris, and author of a work on The Brain\nand its Functions in the \"International Scientific Series.\"\n\nLyell (Sir Charles), geologist, b. Kinnordy, Forfarshire, 14\nNov. 1797. Was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, and devoted himself\nto geology. In 1830-33 appeared his great work, The Principles of\nGeology, which went through numerous editions. His last important\nwork was Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man, in which he\naccepts the Darwinian theory. Died 22 Feb. 1875.\n\nMaccall (William), writer, b. Largs. Scotland, 1812. Educated at\nGlasgow, he found his way to the Unitarian Church which he left\nas insufficiently broad. He wrote Elements of Individualism ('47),\ntranslated Spinoza's Treatise on Politics ('54), wrote to the Critic as\n\"Atticus,\" contributed to the National Reformer, Secular Review, etc.,\npublished Foreign Biographies ('73), and translated Dr. Letourneau's\nBiology and other works. Maccall was an idealistic Pantheist of strong\nindividual character. Died at Bexley, 19 Nov. 1888.\n\nMacchi (Mauro), Italian writer, b. Milan, 1 July, 1818. Became\nprofessor of rhetoric at the age of twenty-four, when, becoming\nobnoxious to the Austrians by the liberty of his opinions, he was\ndeprived of his position. He betook himself to radical journalism,\nfounded l'Italia, a Republican journal, for which he was exiled. He\nwas associated with Ausonio Franchi and Luigi Stefanoni in the Libero\nPensiero and the Libero Pensatore, and founded an Italian Association\nof Freethinkers. In '61 he was elected deputy to Parliament for\nCremona, and in '79 was elevated to the Senate. Died at Rome, 24\nDec. 1880. One of his principal works is on the Council of Ten.\n\nMacdonald (Eugene Montague), editor of the New York Truthseeker,\nb. Chelsea, Maine, 4 Feb. 1855. He learned the printer's trade in\nNew York, where he became foreman to D. M. Bennett, and contributed\nto the paper, which he has conducted since Mr. Bennett's death.\n\nMacdonald (George), brother of the preceding. Wrote on the Truthseeker,\nand now conducts Freethought, of San Francisco, in company with\nS. P. Putnam. George Macdonald is a genuine humorist and a sound\nFreethinker.\n\nMcDonnell (William), American novelist, b. 15 Sept. 1824. Author of The\nHeathens of the Heath and Exeter Hall, '73, both Freethought romances.\n\nMackay (Robert William), author of The Progress of the Intellect,\n1850, Sketch of the Rise and Progress of Christianity, '53, and The\nTubingen School, '63.\n\nMackey (Sampson Arnold), astronomer and shoemaker, of Norwich,\nwho is said to have constructed an orrery out of leather. He wrote\nThe Mythological Astronomy of the Ancients, Norwich, 1822-24,\nPious Frauds, '26, A Lecture on Astronomy and Geology, edited by\nW. D. Saull, '32, Urania's Key to the Revelation, '33, and The Age\nof Mental Emancipation, '36-39. Mackey also wrote the Sphinxiad,\na rare book. Died 1846.\n\nMackintosh (Thomas Simmons), author of The Electrical Theory of the\nUniverse, 1848, and An Inquiry into the Nature of Responsibility. Died\n1850.\n\nMacSweeney (Myles), mythologist, b. at Enniskillen 1814. He came to\nLondon, and hearing Robert Taylor at the Rotunda in 1830, adopted his\nviews. He held that Jesus never existed, and wrote in the National\nReformer, Secular Chronicle, and other papers. He published a pamphlet\non Moses and Bacchus in 1874. Died Jan. 1881.\n\nMadach (Imr\u00e9), Hungarian patriot and poet, b. 21 Jan. 1823, at\nSztregova, studied at the University of Buda Pesth, and afterwards\nlived at Cseszlova. He was in '52 incarcerated for a year for having\ngiven asylum at his castle to a political refugee. He became in '61\ndelegate at Pesth. In this year he published his fine poem Az Ember\nTrag\u00e9di\u00e1ja (The Human Tragedy), in which mankind is personified as\nAdam, with Lucifer in his company. Many Freethought views occur in\nthis poem. Died 5 Oct. 1864. His works were published in 3 vols., 1880.\n\nMaier (Lodewyk). See Meyer.\n\nMaillet (Ben\u00f4it de). French author, b. Saint Michiel, 12 April,\n1656. He was successively consul in Egypt and at Leghorn; and died at\nMarseilles, 30 Jan. 1738. After his death was published \"Telliamed\"\n(the anagram of his name), in which he maintained that all land\nwas originally covered with water and that every species of animal,\nman included, owes its origin to the sea.\n\n\"Mainlaender\" (Philipp), pseudonym of Philipp Batz, German pessimist,\nauthor of a profound work entitled the Philosophy of Redemption,\nthe first part of which was published in 1876. It was said that\n\"Mainl\u00e4nder\" committed suicide in that year, but the second part of\nhis work has come out 1882-86. He holds that Polytheism gives place\nto Monotheism and Pantheism, and these again to Atheism. \"God is dead,\nand his death was the life of the world.\"\n\nMalherbe (Fran\u00e7ois de). French poet, b. Caen, 1555. He served in\nthe civil wars of the League, and enjoyed the patronage of Henry\nIV. He was called the prince of poets and the poet of princes. Many\nstories are told illustrating his sceptical raillery. When told upon\nhis death-bed of paradise and hell he said he had lived like others\nand would go where others went. Died Paris, 16 Oct. 1628.\n\nMallet (Mme. Josephine). French authoress of a work on The Bible,\nits origin, errors and contradictions (1882).\n\nMalon (Beno\u00eet). French Socialist, b. near St. Etienne, 1841. One\nof the founders of the International; he has written a work on that\norganisation, its history and principles (Lyons, 1872). He is editor\non L'Intransigeant, conducted the Revue Socialiste, and has written\non the religion and morality of the Socialists and other works.\n\nMalvezin (Pierre). French journalist, b. Junhac, 26 June 1841. Author\nof La Bible Farce (Brussels, 1879.) This work was condemned\nand suppressed, 1880, and the author sentenced to three month's\nimprisonment. He conducts the review La Fraternit\u00e9.\n\nMandeville (Bernhard), b. Dort. 1670. He studied medicine, was made\na doctor in Holland, and emigrated to London. In 1705 he published\na poetical satire, The Grumbling Hive, or Knaves Turned Honest. In\n1709, he published The Virgin Unmasked, and in 1723, Free Thoughts on\nReligion the Church and National Happiness. In the same year appeared\nhis Fables of the Bees or Private Vices, Public Benefits. This work\nwas presented by the grand jury of Middlesex, 1723 and 1728. It was\nattacked by Law, Berkeley, and others. Mandeville replied to Berkeley\nin A Letter to Dion, occasioned by a book called Alciphron, or the\nMinute Philosopher, 1732. He also wrote An Inquiry of Honor, and\nUsefulness of Christianity in War, 1731. Died, London, 19 Jan. 1733.\n\nMantegazza (Paolo), Italian anthropologist, b. Monza, 31\nOct. 1831. Studied medicine at Milan, Pisa, and Paria, and travelled\nconsiderably through Europe, and produced at Paris in 1854 his first\nbook The Physiology of Pleasure. He has also written on the physiology\nof pain, spontaneous generation, anthropological works on Ecstacy,\nLove and other topics, and a fine romance Il Dio Ignoto, the unknown\ngod (1876). Mantegazza is one of the most popular and able of Italian\nwriters.\n\nManzoni (Romeo), Dr. Italian physician, b. Arogno, 1847, studied\nphilosophy at Milan, and graduated at Naples. He has written on the\ndoctrine of love of Bruno and Schopenhauer A Life of Jesus, also Il\nPrete, a work translated into German with the title Religion as a\nPathological Phenomenon, etc.\n\nMarchena (Jos\u00e9), Spanish writer, b. Utrera, Andalusia, 1768. Brought\nup for the church, reading the writings of the French philosophers\nbrought on him the Inquisition. He fled to France where he became\na friend of Brissot and the Girondins. He wrote a pronounced Essai\nde Th\u00e9ologie, 1797, and translated into Spanish Moli\u00e8re's Tartufe,\nand some works of Voltaire. He translated Dupuis' Origine de tous\nles Cultes, became secretary to Murat, and died 10 Jan. 1821.\n\nMarechal (Pierre Sylvain), French author, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1750;\nwas brought up to the Bar, which he quitted for the pursuit of\nliterature. He was librarian to the Mazarin College, but lost his\nplace by his Book Escaped from the Deluge, Psalms, by S. Ar. Lamech\n(anagram), 1784. This was a parody of the style of the prophets. In\n1781 he wrote Le Nouveau Lucrece. In 1788 appeared his Almanack of\nHonest People, in which the name of Jesus Christ was found beside\nthat of Epicurus. The work was denounced to Parliament, burnt at the\nhands of the hangman, and Mar\u00e9chal imprisoned for four months. He\nwelcomed the Revolution, and published a republican almanack, 1793. In\n1797 and 1798 he published his Code of a Society of Men without God,\nand Free Thoughts on the Priests. In 1799 appeared his most learned\nwork, Travels of Pythagoras in Egypt, Chaldea, India, Rome, Carthage,\nGaul, etc. 6 vols. Into this fiction Mar\u00e9chal puts a host of bold\nphilosophical, political, and social doctrines. In 1800 he published\nhis famous Dictionary of Atheists, which the Government prohibited and\ninterdicted journals from noticing. In the following year appeared\nhis For and Against the Bible. Died at Montrouge, 18 Jan. 1803. His\nbeneficence is highly spoken of by Lalande.\n\nMaret (Henry), French journalist and deputy, b. Santerre, 4 March,\n1838. He ably combatted against the Empire, and edits Le Radical;\nwas elected deputy in '81.\n\nMarguerite, of Valois, Queen of Navarre, sister to Francis I. b. at\nAngouleme, 11 April, 1492. Deserves place for her protection to\nreligious reformers. Died 21 Dec. 1549.\n\nMarguetel de Saint Denis. See Saint Evremond (C.)\n\nMario (Alberto), Italian patriot, b. 3 June, 1825. He edited the\nTribune and Free Italy, became aide-de-camp to Garibaldi and married\nJessie White, an English lady. In '60 he wrote a polemic against the\npapacy entitled Slavery and Thought. Died 2 June, 1883.\n\nMarlow (Christopher), English poet and dramatist, b. Canterbury,\n8 Feb. 1564. Educated at Benet College, Cambridge, where he took his\ndegree in 1587. He devoted himself to dramatic writing and according\nto some became an actor. He was killed in a brawl at Deptford, 1 June,\n1593, in time to escape being tried on an information laid against him\nfor Atheism and blasphemy. The audacity of his genius is displayed in\nTamburlaine and Dr. Faustus. Of the latter, Goethe said \"How greatly\nis it all planned.\" Swinburne says \"He is the greatest discoverer,\nthe most daring and inspired pioneer in all our poetic literature.\"\n\nMarr (Wilhelm), German socialist, author of Religious Excursions,\n1876, and several anti-Semitic tracts.\n\nMarsais (Cesar Chesneau du). See Du Marsais.\n\nMarselli (Niccola), Italian writer, b. Naples, 5 Nov. 1832. Author\nof advanced works on the Science of History, Nature and Civilisation,\nthe Origin of Humanity, the Great Races of Humanity, etc.\n\nMarston (Philip Bourke), English poet, b. London, 13 Aug. 1850. He\nbecame blind in childhood, and devoted to poetry. A friend of\nD. G. Rossetti, Swinburne, and Thomson, his poems are sad and\nsincere. Died 14 Feb. 1887, and was buried in accordance with his\nown wishes in unconsecrated ground at Highgate, and without religious\nservice.\n\nMarsy (Fran\u00e7ois Marie de), b. Paris, 1714, educated as a Jesuit. He\nbrought out an analysis of Bayle, 1755, for which he was confined in\nthe Bastile. Died 16 Dec. 1763.\n\nMarten (Henry), regicide, b. Oxford, 1602. Educated at Oxford, where\nhe proceeded B.A., 1619. He was elected to Parliament in 1640, and\nexpelled for his republican sentiments in 1643. He resumed his seat\n6 Jan. 1646, took part in the civil war, sat as one of King Charles's\njudges, and became one of the Council of State. He proposed the repeal\nof the statute of banishment against the Jews, and when it was sought\nto expel all profane persons, proposed to add the words \"and all\nfools.\" Tried for regicide 10 Oct. 1660, he was kept in Chepstow\nCastle till his death, Sep. 1680. Carlyle calls him \"sworn foe of\nCant in all its figures; an indomitable little Pagan if not better.\"\n\nMartin (Emma), English writer and lecturess, b. Bristol, 1812. Brought\nup as a Baptist, she, for a time, edited the Bristol Magazine. She\nwrote the Exiles of Piedmont and translated from the Italian the Maxims\nof Guicciardini. The trials of Holyoake and Southwell for blasphemy\nled her to inquire and embrace the Freethought cause. While Holyoake\nand Paterson were in gaol, Mrs. Martin went about committing the\n\"crime\" for which they were imprisoned. In '43 she published Baptism A\nPagan Rite. This was followed by Tracts for the People on the Bible no\nRevelation, Religion Superseded, Prayer, God's Gifts and Men's Duties,\na conversation on the being of God, etc. She also lectured and wrote\non the Punishment of Death, to which she was earnestly opposed. Died\nOct. 1851.\n\nMartin (Bon Louis Henri), French historian, b. St. Quentin, 20\nFeb. 1810. He was sent to Paris to study law, but abandoned it for\nhistory. His History of France, in nineteen vols. (1838-53), is\na monumental work of erudition. A confirmed Republican, he warmly\nopposed the Second Empire and after its fall became member of the\nNational Assembly, '71, and senator, '76. He was elected member of\nthe Academy, '78. In addition to his historical works he contributed\nto le Siecle, la Libert\u00e9 de penser, and l'Encyclop\u00e9die Nouvelle,\netc. Died 14 Dec. 1883.\n\nMartin (Louis), author of Les Evangiles Sans Dieu (called by Victor\nHugo cette noble page), Paris, 1887, describes himself as an Atheist\nSocialist.\n\nMartin (Louis Auguste). French writer, b. Paris, 25 April, 1811,\neditor of the Morale Independante and member of the Institute of\nGeneva. For his True and False Catholics ('58), he was fined three\nthousand francs and imprisoned for six months. He published the\nAnnuaire Philosophique. Several of his works are placed on the Roman\nIndex. Died Paris, 6 April, 1875.\n\nMartinaud (M.), an ex-abb\u00e9 who refused ordination, and wrote Letters\nof a young priest, who is an Atheist and Materialist, to his bishop,\nParis, 1868, in which he says, \"Religion is the infancy of peoples,\nAtheism their maturity.\"\n\nMartineau (Harriet), b. Norwich 12 June, 1803, descended from\na Huguenot family. Brought up as a Unitarian, she began writing\nDevotional Exercises for Young Persons, and, taking to literature\nas a means of living, distinguished herself by popularisations\nof political economy. The Letters on the Laws of Man's Nature and\nDevelopment, which passed between her and H. G. Atkinson, appeared in\n'51, and disclosed her advance to the Positivist school of Thought. In\n'53 she issued a condensed account of Comte's philosophy. She wrote\na History of England during the Thirty Years' Peace, and numerous\nother works. Died at Ambleside 27 June, 1876. Her Autobiography,\npublished after her death, shows the full extent of her unbelief.\n\nMasquerier (Lewis), American land reformer of Huguenot descent, b. 1\nMarch, 1802. Wrote The Sataniad, established Greenpoint Gazette,\nand contributed to the Boston Investigator. Died 7 Jan. 1888.\n\nMassenet (Jules Emile Fr\u00e9deric), French musical composer, b. Montard,\n12 May, 1842. Has written a daring and popular oratorio on Marie\nMagdeleine, and an opera, Herodiade.\n\nMassey (Gerald), poet and arch\u00e6ologist, b. of poor parents at\nTring, in Herts, 29 May, 1828. At eight years of age he was sent\nto a factory to earn a miserable pittance. At the age of fifteen\nhe came to London as an errand boy, read all that came in his way,\nand became a Freethinker and political reformer. Inspired by the\nmen of '48, he started The Spirit of Freedom, '49. It cost him five\nsituations in eleven months. In '53 his Ballad of Babe Christabel,\nwith other Lyrical Poems at once gave him position as a poet of fine\ntaste and sensibility. Mr. Massey devoted himself to the study of\nEgyptology, the result of which is seen in his Book of Beginnings\nand Natural Genesis, '81-83, in which he shows the mythical nature of\nChristianity. Mr. Massey has also lectured widely on such subjects as\nWhy Don't God Kill the Devil? The Historical Jesus and the Mythical\nChrist, The Devil of Darkness in the Light of Evolution, The Coming\nReligion, etc. His poems are being re-published under the title My\nLyrical Life.\n\nMassey (James). See Tyssot. (S.)\n\nMassol (Marie Alexandre), French writer, b. Beziers, 18 March,\n1805. He studied under Raspail, went to Paris in '30 and became a Saint\nSimonian. In '48 he wrote on Lamennais' La R\u00e9forme, and on the Voix\ndu Peuple with his friend Proudhon, to whom he became executor. In\n'65 he established La Morale Independante with the object of showing\nmorality had nothing to do with theology. Died at Paris 20 April, 1875.\n\nMaubert de Gouvest (Jean Henri), French writer, b. Rouen, 20\nNov. 1721. Brought up as a monk, he fled and took service in the Saxon\narmy. He was thrown into prison by the King of Poland, but the Papal\nnuncio procured his release on condition of retaking his habit. This\nhe did and went to Rome to be relieved of his vows. Failing this\nhe went to Switzerland and England, where he was well received by\nLord Bolingbroke. He published Lettres Iroquoises, Irocopolis, 1752,\nand other anonymous works. At Frankfort in 1764 he was arrested as\na fugitive monk and vagabond, and was imprisoned eleven months. Died\nat Altona, 21 Nov. 1767.\n\nMaudsley (Henry), M.D., b. near Giggleswick, Yorkshire, 5\nFeb. 1835. Educated at London University, where he graduated\nM.D. in 1857. Taking mental pathology as his speciality, he soon\nreached eminence in his profession. From '69-'79 he was professor\nof medical jurisprudence at University College, London. His works on\nThe Physiology and Pathology of the Mind ('67), Body and Mind ('70),\nResponsibility in Mental Disease ('73), and Body and Will ('83) have\nattracted much attention. His Natural Laws and Supernatural Seemings\n('80) is a powerful exposure of the essence of all superstition.\n\nMauvillon (Jakob von), b. Leipzig, 8 March, 1743. Though feeble in\nbody, he had a penchant for the army, and joined the engineer corps of\nHanover, and afterwards became lieutenant-colonel in the service of the\nDuke of Brunswick. A friend and admirer of Mirabeau, he defended the\nFrench Revolution in Germany. He wrote anonymously Paradoxes Moraux\n(Amsterdam, 1768) and The Only True System of the Christian Religion\n(Berlin, 1787), at first composed under the title of False Reasonings\nof the Christian Religion. Died in Brunswick, 11 Jan. 1794.\n\nMazzini (Giuseppe), Italian patriot, b. Genoa, 28 June 1808. In '26 he\ngraduated LL.D., in the University of Genoa, and plunged into politics,\nbecoming the leader of Young Italy, with the object of uniting the\nnation. Condemned to death in '33, he went to Switzerland and was\nexpelled, then came to England in '37. In '48 he returned, and in March\n'49 was made triumvir of Rome with Saffi and Armellini. Compelled,\nafter a desperate resistance, to retire, he returned to London. He\nwrote in the Westminster Review and other periodicals and his works are\nnumerous though mostly of a political character. They are distinguished\nby highmindedness, love of toleration and eloquence. Carlyle called\nMazzini \"a man of genius and virtue, a man of sterling veracity,\nhumanity and nobleness of mind.\" Died at Pisa 10 March, 1872. He was\na Deist.\n\nMeissner (Alfred), German poet, b. Teplitz, 15 Oct. 1822. Has written\nZiska, an epic poem, The Son of Atta Troll, Recollections of Heine,\netc. Died Teplitz, 20 May, 1885.\n\nMeister (Jacques Henri), Swiss writer, b. B\u00fcckeburg, 6\nAug. 1744. Intended for a religious career, he went to France, and\nbecame acquainted with D'Holbach and Diderot, of whom he wrote a short\nlife, and was secretary to Grimm. He wrote the Origin of Religious\nPrinciples, 1762, and Natural Morality, 1787.\n\nMenard (Louis), French author and painter, b. Paris, 1822. In\n'48-'49 he wrote Prologue of a Revolution, for which he was obliged\nto leave France. Has written on Morality before the Philosophers,\n'60, Studies on the Origin of Christianity, '67, and Freethinkers'\nReligious Catechism, '75.\n\nMendoza (Diego Hurtado de), famous and learned Spanish author, b. of\ndistinguished family, Granada, 1503. Intended for the church, he\nstudied Latin, Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew, but on leaving the university\nhe joined the army. At school he wrote his well known comic novel,\nLazarillo de Tormes, which was condemned by the Inquisition. Sent\non an embassy to Pope Paul III., the latter was greatly shocked at\nhis audacity and vehemence of speech. His chief work is his History\nof the Moorish Wars, which remained unprinted thirty years, through\nthe intolerant policy of Philip II. Mendoza's satires and burlesques\nwere also prohibited by the Inquisition. He commented Aristotle and\ntranslated his Mechanics. Died at Valladolid, April, 1575.\n\nMendum (Josiah P.), publisher and proprietor of the Boston\nInvestigator, b. Kennebunk, Maine, 7 July, 1811. He became a printer,\nand in 1833 became acquainted with Abner Kneeland and after his\nimprisonment engaged to print the Investigator, and when Kneeland\nleft Boston for the West to recruit his health, he carried on the\npaper together with Mr. Horace Seaver. Mr. Mendum was one of the\nfounders of the Paine Memorial Hall, Boston, and a chief support of\nFreethought in that city.\n\nMentelle (Edme), French geographer and historian, b. Paris, 11\nOct. 1730. Studied at the College de Beauvais under Cr\u00e9vier. His\nPr\u00e9cis de l'Histoire des H\u00e9breux (1798), and Pr\u00e9cis de l'Histoire\nUniverselle are thoroughly anti-Christian. He doubted if Jesus ever\nexisted. He was a member of the Institute and Chevalier of the Legion\nof Honor. Died at Paris, 28 Dec. 1815.\n\nMercier (L. A.), author of La Libre Pens\u00e9e, Brussels, 1879.\n\nMeredith (Evan Powell), Welsh writer, author of The Prophet of Nazareth\n(1864), an able work exposing the prophecies of Jesus, and Amphilogia,\na reply in to the Bishop of Landaff and the Rev. J. F. Francklin, '67.\n\nMeredith (George), philosophical poet and novelist, b. Hampshire,\n1828, and educated partly on the Continent. Intended for the law,\nhe adopted literature in preference. He first appeared as a poet\nwith Poems ('51). Of his powerful novels we mention the Ordeal of\nRichard Feveril ('59), Emilia in England ('64), now Sandra Belloni,\nwith Vittoria ('66) for a sequel. Rhoda Fleming, Beauchamp's Career\n('76), The Egoist ('79), The Tragic Comedians ('81) and Diana of\nthe Crossways ('85). Deep thought and fine grace characterise his\nwritings. As a poet Mr. Meredith is not popular, but his volumes of\nverse are marked by the highest qualities, and give him a place apart\nfrom the throng of contemporary singers.\n\nMerimee (Prosper), learned French writer, b. Paris, 28 Sept. 1808,\nauthor of numerous essays and romances. Was made Inspector General\nof Historic Monuments and was admitted to the Academy in '44. In his\nanonymous brochure on H(enri) B(eyle), Eleutheropolis (Brussels), '64,\nthere is an open profession of Atheism. Died at Cannes, 23 Sept. 1870.\n\nMerritt (Henry), English painter and writer, b. Oxford, 8 June,\n1822. On coming to London he lived with Mr. Holyoake, and contributed\nto the Reasoner, using the signature \"Christopher.\" He wrote on Dirt\nand Pictures and Robert Dalby and his World of Troubles, etc. Died\nin London, 10 July, 1877.\n\nMeslier or Mellier (Jean), cur\u00e9 of Etrepigny, Champagne, b. Mazerny,\nRethelois, 15 June, 1664. Died in 1729. After his death a will was\ndiscovered of which he had made three copies, in which he repudiated\nChristianity and requested to be buried in his own garden. His\nproperty he left to his parishioners. Voltaire published it under\nthe title of Extract from the sentiments of Jean Meslier. To Meslier\nhas been attributed the work entitled Le Bon Sens, written by Baron\nD'Holbach. Le Testament de Jean Meslier has been published in three\nvolumes at Amsterdam, 1864, preceded by a study by Rudolf Charles\n(R. C. d'Ablaing van Giessenburg). It calls in question all the dogmas\nof Christianity. Anacharsis Clootz proposed to the National Convention\nto erect a statue to this \"honest priest.\"\n\nMetchnikov (L\u00e9on), Russian writer in French; author of a work on\nJapan and of able articles, notably one on Christian Communion in\nthe Revue Internationale des Sciences Biologiques, tome 12.\n\nMetrodorus of Lampsacus. Greek philosopher, b. 330 B.C., a disciple\nand intimate friend of Epicurus. He wrote numerous works, the titles\nof which are preserved by Diogenes Laertius. Died B.C. 277.\n\nMettrie, see La Mettrie.\n\nMeunier (Am\u00e9d\u00e9e Victor), French writer, b. Paris, 2 May, 1817. Has\ndone much to popularise science by his Scientific Essays, 1851-58,\nthe Ancestors of Adam, '75, etc.\n\nMeyer (Lodewijk), a Dutch physician, a friend and follower of\nSpinoza, who published Exercitatio Paradoxa on the philosophical\ninterpretation of scripture, Eleutheropoli (Amst.), 1666. This has\nbeen wrongly attributed to Spinoza. It was translated into Dutch\nin 1667. He is also credited with Lucii Antistic Constantes, de\njure ecclesiasticorum. Alethopoli (Amst.), 1665. This work is also\nattributed to another writer, viz. P. de la Court.\n\nMialhe (Hippolyte), French writer, b. Roquecourbe (Tarn), 1834. From\n'60-62 he was with the French army of occupation at Rome. He has\norganised federations of Freethinkers in France, edited L'Union\ndes Libres-Penseurs, and has written M\u00e9moires d'un libre Penseur\n(Nevers, 1888).\n\nMichelet (Jules), French historian, b. Paris, 21 Aug. 1798. Became\na Professor of History in 1821. Has written a History of France and\nof the French Revolution; The Jesuits, with his friend Quinet, '43;\nThe Priest, Woman and the Family, '44; The Sorceress, dealing with\nwitchcraft in the Middle Ages, '62; The Bible of Humanity, '64. His\nlectures were interdicted by the Government of Louis Phillippe, and\nafter the coup d'\u00e9tat he was deprived of his chair. All Michelet's\nworks glow with eloquence and imagination. He never forgot that he\nwas a republican and Freethinker of the nineteenth century. Died at\nHy\u00e8res, 9 Feb. 1874.\n\nMichelet (Karl Ludwig), German philosopher of French family, b. Berlin,\n4 Dec. 1801. In '29 he became Professor of Philosophy. A disciple\nof Hegel, he edited his master's works, '32. His principle work is A\nSystem of Philosophy as an Exact Science, '76-81. He has also written\non the relation of Herbert Spencer to German philosophy.\n\nMiddleton (Conyers), Freethinking clergyman, b. York 1683. His Letters\nfrom Rome, 1729, showed how much Roman Christianity had borrowed from\nPaganism, and his Free Inquiry into the Miraculous Powers supposed\nto have subsisted in the Christian Church, 1749, was a severe blow\nto hitherto received \"Christian Evidences.\" He also wrote a classic\nLife of Cicero. Died at Hildersham near Cambridge, 28 July, 1750.\n\nMignardi (G.), Italian writer, who in 1884 published Memorie di un\nNuovo Credente (Memoirs of a New Believer).\n\nMilelli (Domenico), Italian poet, b. Catanzaro, Feb. 1841. His family\nintended to make him a priest, but he turned out a rank Pagan, as\nmay be seen in his Odi Pagane, '79, Canzonieri, '84, and other works.\n\nMill (James), philosopher and historian, b. Northwaterbridge, Montrose,\n6 April, 1773. Studied at Edinburgh, and distinguished himself by his\nattainments in Greek and moral philosophy. He was licensed as preacher\nin the Scotch Church, but removed to London in 1800, and became editor\nof the Literary Review, and contributed to the reviews. He published,\n'17-'19, his History of British India. He contributed many articles to\nthe fifth edition of the Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica. A friend of Bentham,\nhe wrote largely in the Westminster Review, and did much to forward\nthe views of Philosophic Radicalism. His Analysis of the Human Mind,\n'39, is a profound work. In religion he was a complete sceptic. Reading\nBishop Butler's Analogy made him an Atheist. Died 23 June, 1836.\n\nMill (John Stuart), eminent English writer, son of the preceding,\nb. London, 20 May, 1806. Educated by his father without religion, he\nbecame clerk in the East India House, and early in life contributed to\nthe Westminster and Edinburgh Reviews. Of the first he became joint\neditor in '35. His System of Logic, '43, first made him generally\nknown. This was followed by his Principles of Political Economy. In\n'59 appeared his small but valuable treatise On Liberty, in which he\ndefends the unrestricted free discussion of religion. Among subsequent\nworks were Utilitarianism, '63; Auguste Comte and Positivism, '67;\nExamination of Sir William Hamilton's Philosophy '65; Dissertations\nand Discussions, '59-'75; and the Subjection of Women, '69. In '65\nhe was elected to Parliament for Westminster, but lost his seat in\n'68. In '67 he was chosen Rector of St. Andrews, and delivered the\nstudents an able address. Prof. Bain says \"in everything characteristic\nof the creed of Christendom he was a thorough-going negationist. He\nadmitted neither its truth nor its utility.\" Died at Avignon, 8 May,\n1873, leaving behind his interesting Autobiography and three essays on\n\"Nature,\" \"Theism,\" and \"Religion.\"\n\nMille (Constantin), Roumanian writer, b. at Bucharest, educated at\nParis. He lectured at Jassy and Bucharest on the History of Philosophy,\nfrom a Materialistic point of view. He was also active with Codreano,\nand after the latter's death ('77), in spreading Socialism. Mill\u00e9\ncontributes to the Rivista Sociala and the V\u00fctorul, edited by\nC. Pilitis.\n\nMilliere (Jean Baptiste), Socialist, b. of poor parents, Lamarche\n(C\u00f4te d'Or), 13 Dec. 1817. He became an advocate, and founded the\nProletaire at Clermont Ferrand. For writing Revolutionary Studies he\nwas, after the coup d'\u00e9tat, banished to Algeria until the amnesty of\n'59. In '69 Milli\u00e8re started, with Rochefort, the Marseillaise, of\nwhich he became one of the principal directors. At the election for the\nNational Assembly he was elected for Paris by 73,000 votes. Although\nhe took no part in the Commune, but sought to act as an intermediary,\nhe was arrested and summarily shot near the Pantheon, Paris, 26 May,\n1871. He died crying \"Vive l'Humanit\u00e9.\"\n\nMirabaud (Jean Baptiste de), French writer, b. Paris, 1675. He\ntranslated Tasso and Ariosto, and became perpetual secretary to the\nFrench Academy. He wrote Opinions of the Ancients on the Jews, a\nCritical Examination of the New Testament, (published under the name\nof Fr\u00e9ret), The World: its Origin and Antiquity, 1751, Sentiments of\na Philosopher on the Nature of the Soul inserted in the collection\nentitled Nouvelle libert\u00e9s de Penser, Amst. (Paris) 1743. The System\nof Nature, attributed to Mirabaud, was written by d'Holbach. Mirabaud\ndied 24 June, 1760.\n\nMirabeau (Honor\u00e9 Gabriel Riquetti Comte de), French statesman\nand orator, b. at the Chateau de Bignon (Loiret) 9 March, 1749. He\ninherited a passionate nature, a frank strong will, generous temper,\nand a mind of prodigious activity. He entered the army in 1767,\nbut by an amorous intrigue provoked the ire of his father, by whom\nhe was more than once imprisoned. In 1776 he went to Amsterdam and\nemployed himself in literary work. In 1783 appeared anonymously his\nErotika Biblion, dealing with the obscenity of the Bible. In 1786 he\nwas sent to Berlin, where he met Frederick and collected materials\nfor his work on The Prussian Monarchy. He returned to the opening of\nthe States General and soon became leader of the Revolution, being\nin Jan. 1791 chosen President of the National Assembly. He advocated\nthe abolition of the double aristocracy of Lords and bishops, the\nspoliation of the Church and the National Guard. Carlyle calls him\n\"far the strongest, best practical intellect of that time.\" He died\n2 April, 1791. Among his last words were, \"Envelop me with perfumes\nand crown me with flowers that I may pass away into everlasting sleep.\"\n\nMiranda (Don Francisco). South American patriot and general, b. Caracas\n1750, aided the Americans in their War of Independence, tried to free\nGuatimalaus from the Spanish, allied himself to the Girondins and\nbecame second in command in the army of Dumouriez. He was a friend\nof Thomas Paine. In 1806-11 he was engaged seeking to free Peru from\nthe Spaniards, by whom he was made prisoner, and died in a dungeon\nat Cadiz, 16 Jan. 1816. It was said General Miranda made a sceptic\nof James Mill.\n\nMiron. See Morin (Andr\u00e9 Saturnin.)\n\nMitchell (J. Barr), Dr., anonymous author of Dates and Data (1876)\nand Chrestos; a Religious Epithet (1880). Dr. Mitchell has also\nwritten in the National Reformer, using his initials only.\n\nMitchell (Logan), author of Lectures published as The Christian\nMythology Unveiled. This work was also issued under the title\nSuperstition Besieged. It is said that Mitchell committed suicide in\nNov. 1841. He left by his will a sum of \u00a3500 to any bookseller who had\nthe courage to publish his book. It was first published by B. Cousens,\nand was republished in '81.\n\nMittermaier (Karl Josef Anton von), German jurisconsult, b. Munich,\n5 Aug. 1787. Studied law and medicine at Landshut, where he became\nprofessor. His works on Law gained him a high reputation. He obtained\na chair at the Heidelberg University. In 1831 he represented Baden in\nParliament. He advocated the unity of Germany and took an active part\nin the Radical movement of '48. His writings are all in the direction\nof freedom. Died 28 Aug. 1867.\n\nMittie (Stanilas), in 1789 proposed the taking of church bells to make\nmoney and cannon, and during the revolution distinguished himself by\nother anti-clerical suggestions. Died 1816.\n\nMocenicus (Philippus), Archbishop of Nicosia, Cyprus, a Venetian\nphilosopher, whose heretical Contemplations were printed at Geneva,\n1588, with the Peripatetic Question of C\u00e6salpinus and the books of\nTelesio on The Nature of Things in the volume entitled Tractationum\nPhilosophicarum.\n\nMoleschott (Jacob), scientific Materialist, b. of Dutch parents at 's\nHertogenbosch, 9 Aug. 1822; studied at Heidelburg where he graduated\nM.D. Became Professor of Physiology at Zurich and afterwards at\nTurin. Becoming a naturalised Italian he was in '76 made a senator,\nand in '78 Professor of Physiology at the University of Rome. He has\nwritten Circulation of Life, Light and Life, Physiological Sketches,\nand other medical and scientific works. Lange calls him \"the father\nof the modern Materialistic movement.\"\n\nMolesworth (Sir William), statesman and man of letters, the eighth\nbaronet of his family, b. Cornwall, 23 May, 1810. In '32 he was\nreturned M.P. for East Cornwall, and from '37-41 sat for Leeds. In\n'53 he was First Commissioner of Public Works, and in '55 was Secretary\nfor the Colonies. He was for some time proprietor and conductor of the\nWestminster Review, in which he wrote many articles. A noble edition\nof Hobbes was produced at his expense, '39-45, and he contributed to\nthe support of Auguste Comte. Died 22 Oct. 1855.\n\nMommsen (Theodor), historian, b. Garding (Schleswig), 30\nNov. 1817. Studied at Kiel, and travelled from '44 to 47. He became\nProfessor of Law of Leipsic, Z\u00fcrich and Berlin. Is best known by his\nHistory of Rome, '53-85, a work of great research and suggestiveness\nin which he expresses the opinion that it is doubtful if the world\nwas improved by Christianity.\n\nMonboddo (Lord). See Burnett (James).\n\nMonge (Gaspard), French scientist, b. at Beaume, 10 May 1746. Taught\nphysics and mathematics at the military school of Mezieres, became a\nmember of the Academy of Sciences in 1780, and through the influence\nof Condorcet was made Minister of the Marine in 1792. He was one of\nthe founders of the Polytechnic School. Napoleon made him a senator,\ncreated him Count of Pelusium, and gave him an estate for his many\nservices to the French nation. On the return of the Bourbons he was\ndeprived of all his emoluments. Died 28 July, 1818. Mar\u00e9chal and\nLalande insert his name in their list of Atheists.\n\nMongez (Antoine), French arch\u00e6ologist, b. Lyons, 30 June\n1747. Distinguished by his studies, he became a member of the Academy\nof Inscriptions and of the Institute, before which he said \"he had\nthe honor to be an Atheist.\" He was one of the most ardent members of\nthe Convention, and wrote many memoirs. Died at Paris, 30 July, 1835.\n\nMonroe (J. R.), Dr., editor and proprietor of the Ironclad Age,\nb. Monmouth, co. New Jersey, about 1825. In '50 he went to Rochford,\nwhere he had a good practice as a doctor. In '55 he started the\nRochford Herald, and in July, '57, the Seymour Times. During the Civil\nWar he was appointed surgeon to the 150th regiment, and after some\nhard service his own health broke down. In '75 Dr. Monroe published\nhis dramas and poems in a volume. From this time his paper became\nmore Freethought and less political. In April, '82, he removed to\nIndianapolis, Indiana, and changed the name to The Age, afterwards\nMonroe's Ironclad Age. Dr. Monroe is a clever writer and a modest man,\nwith a remarkable fund of natural humor. Among his publications are\npoems on The Origin of Man, etc., Genesis Revised, and Holy Bible\nStories.\n\nMontaigne (Michel de), French philosophic essayist, b. at the family\ncastle in Perigord, 28 Feb. 1533. He studied law and became a judge\nat Bordeaux about 1554. In 1580 he produced his famous \"Essays,\"\nwhich indicate a sprightly humor allied to a most independent\nspirit. The Essays, Hallam says, make in several respects an epoch in\nliterature. Emerson says, \"Montaigne is the frankest and honestest\nof all writers.\" Montaigne took as his motto: Que s\u00e7ais-je? [What\nknow I?] and said that all religious opinions are the result of\ncustom. Buckle says, \"Under the guise of a mere man of the world,\nexpressing natural thoughts in common language, Montaigne concealed a\nspirit of lofty and audacious inquiry.\" Montaigne seems to have been\nthe first man in Europe who doubted the sense and justice of burning\npeople for a difference of opinion. His denunciation of the conduct of\nthe Christians in America does him infinite honor. Died 13 Sept. 1592.\n\nMonteil (Charles Fran\u00e7ois Louis Edgar), French journalist, b. Vire,\n26 Jan. 1845. Fought against the Empire, writing in Le Rappel. During\nthe Commune he was secretary to Delescluze. For his Histoire d'un\nFr\u00e8re Ignorantin, '74, he was prosecuted by the Christian Brothers,\nand condemned to one year's imprisonment, 2,000 francs fine, and 10,000\nfrancs damages. In '77 he wrote a Freethinker's Catechism, published\nat Antwerp, and in '79 an edition of La R\u00e9publique Fran\u00e7aise. In '80\nhe was made a member of the Municipal Council of Paris, and re-elected\nin '84. In '83 he was made Chevalier of the Legion of Honor. He has\ncompiled an excellent secular Manual of Instruction for schools.\n\nMontesquieu (Charles de Secondat), Baron, eminent French writer,\nb. near Bordeaux, 18 Jan. 1689. His first literary performance was\nentitled Persian Letters, 1721. In 1728 he was admitted a member of\nthe French Academy, though opposed by Cardinal Fleury on the ground\nthat his writings were dangerous to religion. His chief work is the\nSpirit of Laws, 1748. This work was one of the first-fruits of the\npositive spirit in history and jurisprudence. The chapters on Slavery\nare written in a vein of masterly irony, which Voltaire pronounced\nto be worthy of Moli\u00e8re. Died 10 Feb. 1755.\n\nMontgomery (Edmund), Dr. philosopher, b. of Scotch parents, Edinburgh\n1835. In youth he lived at Frankfort, where he saw Schopenhauer,\nand afterwards attended at Heidelberg the lectures of Moleschott and\nKuno Fischer. He became a friend of Feuerbach. He wrote in German and\npublished at Munich in '71, The Kantian Theory of Knowledge refuted\nfrom the Empirical Standpoint. In '67 he published a small book On\nthe Formation of so-called Cells in Animal Bodies. In '71 he went to\nTexas and prosecuted his scientific studies on life. He has written\nin the Popular Science Monthly, The Index, and The Open Court and\nMind. Dr. Montgomery holds not only that there is no evidence of a God,\nbut that there is evidence to the contrary.\n\nMontgolfier (Michel Joseph), aeronaut, b. Aug. 1740. He was the first\nto ascend in an air balloon, 5 June 1783. A friend of Delambre and\nLa Lalande, he was on the testimony of this last an atheist. Died 26\nJune 1810.\n\nMook (Friedrich) German writer, b. Bergzabern, 29 Sept. 1844, studied\nphilosophy and theology at T\u00fcbingen, but gave up the latter to study\nmedicine. He lived as a writer at Heidelberg and became lecturer to\na free congregation at N\u00fcrenburg, and wrote a popular Life of Jesus,\npublished at Z\u00fcrich, '72-3. He travelled abroad and was drowned in\nthe river Jordan, 13 Dec. 1880. His brother Kurt, b. 12 Feb. 1847,\nis a physician who has published some poems.\n\nMoor (Edmund), Major in the East Indian Company, author of the Hindu\nPantheon, 1810 and Oriental Fragments, '34. Died 1840.\n\nMoreau (H\u00e9g\u00e9sippe), French poet, b. Paris 9, April 1810. A radical\nand freethinker, he fought in the barricades in '30. Wrote songs and\nsatires of considerable merit, and a prose work entitled The Mistletoe\nand the Oak. His life, which was a continual struggle with misery,\nterminated in a hospital, 20 Dec. 1838. His works have been collected,\nwith an introduction by Sainte-Beuve.\n\nMoreau (Jacques Joseph), Dr. of Tours, b. Montresor, 1804. He became a\ndistinguished alienist of the materialist school, and wrote on Moral\nFaculties from a medical point of view, '36, and many physiological\nworks.\n\nMorelly, French socialist of the eighteenth century,\nb. Vitry-le-Fran\u00e7ais, author of a work called Code de la Nature,\nsometimes attributed to Diderot. It was published in 1755, and urges\nthat man should find circumstances in which depravity is minimised.\n\nMorgan (Thomas), Welsh Deist, known by the title of his book as The\nMoral Philosopher, 1737. Was a Presbyterian, but was deposed for\nArianism about 1723, and practised medicine at Bristol. He edited\nRadicati's Dissertation on Death, 1731. His Moral Philosopher seeks\nto substitute morality for religion. He calls Moses \"a more fabulous\nromantic writer than Homer or Ovid,\" and attacks the evidence of\nmiracles and prophecy. This was supplemented by A Further Vindication\nof Moral Truth and Reason, 1739, and Superstition and Tyranny\nInconsistent with Theocracy, 1740. He replied to his opponents over\nthe signature \"Philalethes.\" His last work was on Physico-Theology,\n1741. Lechler calls Morgan \"the modern Marcion.\" Died at London,\n14 Jan. 1743.\n\nMorgan (Sir Thomas Charles), M.D., b. 1783. Educated at Cambridge. In\n1811 he was made a baronet, and married Miss Sidney Owensen. A warm\nfriend of civil and religious liberty and a sceptic, he is author of\nSketches of the Philosophy of Life, '18, and the Philosophy of Morals,\n'19. The Examiner says, \"He was never at a loss for a witty or wise\npassage from Rabelais or Bayle.\" Died 28 Aug. 1843.\n\nMorin (Andr\u00e9 Saturnin), French writer, b. Chatres, 28\nNov. 1807. Brought up to the law, and became an advocate. In '30\nhe wrote defending the revolution against the restoration. In '48\nhe was made sous-prefet of Nogent. During the Empire he combated\nvigorously for Republicanism and Freethought, writing under the\nsignature \"Miron,\" in the Rationaliste of Geneva, the Libre Pens\u00e9e\nof Paris, the Libero-pensiero of Milan, and other papers. He was\nintimately associated with Ausonio Franchi, Trezza, Stefanoni,\nand the Italian Freethinkers. His principal work is an Examination\nof Christianity, in three volumes, '62. His Jesus Reduced to his\nTrue Value has gone through several editions. His Essai de Critique\nReligieuse, '85, is an able work. M. Morin was one of the founders\nof the Biblioth\u00e8que D\u00e9mocratique, to which he contributed several\nanti-clerical volumes, the one on Confession being translated into\nEnglish by Dr. J. R. Beard. In '76 he was elected on the Municipal\nCouncil of Paris, where he brought forward the question of establishing\na crematorium. Died at Paris, 5 July, 1888, and was cremated at Milan.\n\nMorison (James Augustus Cotter), English Positivist and man of letters,\nb. London, 1831. Graduated at Lincoln Coll. Oxford, M.A., '59. In\n'63 he published the Life and Times of Saint Bernard. He was one of\nthe founders of the Fortnightly Review, in which he wrote, as well as\nin the Athen\u00e6um. He contributed monographs on Gibbon and Macaulay to\nMorley's \"Men of Letters\" Series. In '86 he published his striking work\nThe Service of Man, an Essay towards the Religion of the Future, which\nshows that the benefits of Christianity have been much exaggerated and\nits evils palpable. All his writings are earnest and thoughtful. He\ncollected books and studied to write a History of France, which would\nhave been a noble contribution to literature; but the possession of\na competence seems to have weakened his industry, and he never did\njustice to his powers. Even the Service of Man was postponed until\nhe was no longer able to complete it as he intended. Morison was a\nbrilliant talker, and the centre of a wide circle of friends. George\nMeredith dedicated to him a volume of poems. Died at Hampstead,\n26 Feb. 1888.\n\nMorley (John), English writer and statesman, b. Blackburn,\n24 Dec. 1838, educated at Oxford. Among his fellow students was\nJ.C. Morison. He contributed to The Leader and the Saturday Review,\nedited the Morning Star, and the Fortnightly Review, '67-82, in which\nappeared the germs of most of his works, such as On Compromise,\nVoltaire, '72; Rousseau, '73; Diderot and the Encyclop\u00e6dists\n'78. During his editorship important Freethought papers appeared in\nthat review. From May, '80 till Aug. '83 he edited the Pall Mall\nGazette. Upon the death of Ashton Dilke, M.P., he was elected\nto Parliament for Newcastle, and in Feb. '86 was appointed by\nMr. Gladstone Chief Secretary for Ireland.\n\nMorselli (Enrico Agostino), Italian doctor and scientist, b. Modena,\n1852. Has written many anthropological works, notably one on Suicide\nin the International Scientific Series, and a study on \"The Religion\nof Mazzini.\" He edits the Rivista di Filosofia Scientifica, and has\ntranslated Herbert Spencer on the past and future of religion.\n\nMortillet (Louis Laurent Gabriel de), French scientist, b. Meylan\n(Is\u00e8re), 29 Aug. 1821, and was educated by Jesuits. Condemned in\n'49 for his political writings he took refuge in Switzerland. He\nhas done much to promote prehistoric studies in France. Has written\nMaterials to serve for the positive and philosophical history of man,\n'64. The Sign of the Cross before Christianity, '66, Contribution\nto the History of Superstition, and Prehistoric Antiquity of Man,\n'82. He contributed to the Revue Ind\u00e9pendante, Pens\u00e9e Nouvelle,\netc. M. de Mortillet is curator of the Museum of St. Germain and was\nelected Deputy in 1885.\n\nMoss (Arthur B.), lecturer and writer, b. 8 May, 1855. Has written\nnumerous pamphlets, a number of which are collected in Waves of\nFreethought, '85. Others are Nature and the Gods, Man and the Lower\nAnimals, Two Revelations, etc. Mr. Moss has been a contributor to\nthe Secular Chronicle, Secular Review, Freethinker, Truthseeker,\nand other journals, and has had a written debate on \"Was Jesus God\nor Man.\" A School Board officer, he was for a time prohibited from\nlecturing on Sunday. A collection of his Lectures and Essays has been\npublished, 1889.\n\nMothe Le Vayer. See La Mothe Le Vayer.\n\nMott (Lucretia), American reformer, nee Coffin, b. Nantucket, 3\nJan. 1793. She was a Quakeress, but on the division of the Society\nin 1827 went with the party who preferred conscience to revelation. A\nstrong opponent of slavery, she took an active part in the abolitionist\nmovement. She was delegated to the World's Anti-slavery Convention\nin London in 1840, but excluded on account of her sex. A friend of\nMrs. Rose and Mrs. Stanton. Took an active part in Women's Rights\nconventions. Died at Philadelphia, 11 Nov. 1880.\n\nMuhammad ibn al Hudail al Basri, philosopher of Asia Minor, founder\nof the Muhammadan Freethinking sect of Mutazilah, b. about 757. Died\nabout 849.\n\nMuhammad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Tarkhan (Abu Nasr.) See Alpharabius.\n\nMuhammad Ibn Yahya Ibn Bajjat. See Avempace.\n\nMuhammad Jalal ed din. See Akbar.\n\nMuller (Dr. H. C.) Dutch writer, b. 31 Oct. 1855. Has contributed\ngood articles to de Dageraad (the Daybreak), and is now teacher of\nmodern Greek at the University of Amsterdam.\n\nMurger (Henri), French author, b. Paris, 1822, contributed to the Revue\ndes Deux Mondes, tales poems and dramas. In his poem Le Testament in\n\"Winter Nights\" he says in answer to the inquiring priest \"Reponds\nlui que j'ai lu Voltaire.\" His most popular work is entitled Scenes\nof Bohemian Life. Died Paris, 28 Jan. 1861.\n\nMusset (Louis Charles Alfred de), French poet, b. Paris, 11\nNov. 1810. Before the age of twenty he became one of the leaders of the\nRomantic school. His prose romance, Confession d'un Enfant du Si\u00e8cle,\n'36, exhibits his intellectual development and pessimistic moods. Among\nhis finest works are four poems entitled Nuits. He contributed to\nthe Revue des Deux Mondes, and was admitted into the Academy in\n'52. Died at Paris 1 May, 1857.\n\nNaber (Samuel Adriaan), learned Dutch writer, b. Gravenhage, 16 July,\n1828. Studied at Leyden and became rector of the Haarlem gymnasium,\nand head teacher at the Amsterdam Athen\u00e6um. He has edited a journal\nof literature, and is joint author with Dr. A. Pierson of Verisimilia\n(1886), a Latin work showing the fragmentary and disjointed character\nof the Epistles attributed to Paul.\n\nNachtigal (Gustav.), Dr., German traveller, b. Eichstadt, 23\nFeb. 1834. He studied medicine, went to Algiers and Tunis, became\nprivate physician to the Bey of Tunis, explored North Africa, and\nwrote an account thereof, Sahara und Sudan. He became German Consul\nGeneral at Tunis, and died 20 April, 1885.\n\nNaigeon (Jacques Andr\u00e9), French atheist, b. Dijon 1728. At first an\nart student, he became a disciple and imitator of Diderot. He became\ncopyist to and collaborator with Holbach and conveyed his works to\nAmsterdam to be printed. He contributed to the Encyclop\u00e9die, notably\nthe articles Ame and Unitaires and composed the Militaire Philosophe,\nor difficulties on religion proposed to Father Malebranche, 1768. This\nwas his first work, the last chapter being written by Holbach. He\ntook some share in several of the works of that writer, notably in the\nTheologie Portative. He published the Recu\u00e9il Philosophique, 2 vols.,\nLondres (Amst.), 1770; edited Holbach's Essay on Prejudices and his\nMorale Universelle. He also edited the works of Diderot, the essays\nof Montaigne and a translation of Toland's philosophical letters. His\nprincipal work is the Dictionary of Ancient and Modern Philosophy in\nthe Encyclop\u00e9die M\u00e9thodique (Paris 1791-94.) He addressed the National\nAssembly on Liberty of Opinion, 1790, and asked them to withhold\nthe name of God and religion from their declaration of the rights of\nman. Naigeon was of estimable character. Died at Paris, 28 Feb. 1810.\n\nNaquet (Joseph Alfred). French materialist, b. Carpentras, 6 Oct. 1834,\nbecame M.D. in '59. In '67 he received fifteen months imprisonment for\nbelonging to a secret society. He founded, with M. Regnard, the Revue\nEncyclop\u00e9dique, which was suppressed at once for containing an attack\non theism. In '69 he issued a work on Religion, Property, and Family,\nwhich was seized and the author condemned to four months imprisonment,\na fine of five hundred francs, and the perpetual interdict of civil\nrights. He represented Vaucluse in the National Assembly, where he\nhas voted with the extreme left. He was re-elected in '81. The new\nlaw of divorce in France has been passed chiefly through M. Naquet's\nenergetic advocacy. In '83 he was elected to the Senate, and of late\nhas distinguished himself by his advocacy of General Boulanger.\n\nNascimento (Francisco Manuel do). Portuguese poet, b. Lisbon, 23\nDec, 1734. He entered the Church, but having translated Moli\u00e8re's\nTartuffe, was accused of heresy (1778), and had to fly for his life\nfrom the Inquisition. He wrote many poems and satires under the name of\n\"Filinto Elysio.\" Died 25 Feb. 1819.\n\nNavez (Napoleon), Belgian Freethinker, president of La Libre Pens\u00e9e,\nof Antwerp, and active member of the Council of the International\nFederation of Freethinkers.\n\nNelson (Gustave), a writer in the New York Truthseeker, conjectured to\nbe the author of Bible Myths and their Parallels in other Religions,\na large and learned work, showing how much of Christianity has been\ntaken from Paganism.\n\nNewcomb (Simon), LL.D., American astronomer, b. Wallace, (Nova\nScotia), 12 March, 1835. Went to the United States in '53, and was\nappointed computor on the Nautical Almanack. In '77 he became senior\nprofessor of mathematics in the U. S. navy. He has been associated\nwith the equipment of the Lick observatory, and has written many\nworks on mathematics and astronomy, as well as Principles of Political\nEconomy, 1885.\n\nNewman (Francis William) brother of Cardinal Newman, b. London\n1805. Educated at Oxford, he was elected to a fellowship at Balliol\nCollege '26, but resigned in '30, being unable conscientiously to\ncomply with the regulations of the Test Act then in force. He then\nwent to Bagdad with the object of assisting in a Christian mission,\nbut his further studies convinced him he could not conscientiously\nundertake the work. He returned to England and became classical\nteacher in Bristol College, and subsequently Latin Professor at\nLondon University. In The Soul: its Sorrows and Aspirations, '49,\nhe states his Theistic position, and in Phases of Faith, '50, he\nexplains how he came to give up Christianity. He has also written A\nHistory of the Hebrew Monarchy, '47, Theism: Doctrinal and Practical,\n'58, and a number of Scott's tracts on the Defective Morality of\nthe New Testament, the Historical Depravation of Christianity, the\nReligious Weakness of Protestantism, etc. Also Religion not History,\n'77; What is Christianity without Christ? '81; Christianity in its\nCradle, '84; and Life after Death, '86.\n\nNeymann (Clara), German American Freethought lecturess, friend and\ncolleague of Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi.\n\nNicholson (William), English writer on chemistry and natural\nphilosophy, b. London 1753. He went to India at an early age, and upon\nreturning settled at London as a Mathematical teacher. He published\nuseful introductions to chemistry and natural philosophy. Conducted\nthe British Encyclopedia, and the Journal of Natural Philosophy. He\nalso wrote The Doubts of the Infidels, submitted to the Bench of\nBishops by a weak Christian, 1781, a work republished by Carlile and\nalso by Watson. He died in poor circumstances 21 May, 1815.\n\nNicolai (Christoph Friedrich), German writer, b. Berlin, 18 March,\n1733. A friend of Lessing, and Moses Mendelssohn; he was noted\nfor founding \"The Universal German Library.\" He wrote anecdotes of\nFriedrich II., and many other works. Died at Berlin, 8 Jan. 1811.\n\nNietzsche (Friedrich Wilhelm), German writer, b. Lutzen, 15 Oct. 1844,\nauthor of sketches of Strauss, Schopenhauer, and Wagner, and of\nMorgenr\u00f6the, and other philosophical works. Died 1889.\n\nNieuwenhuis (Ferdinand Jakob Domela), Dutch publicist, b. Utrecht,\n3 May, 1848. At first a minister of the Lutheran church, on Nov. 25,\n'77, he told his congregation that he had ceased to believe in\nChristianity, and as an honest man resigned. He then contributed\nto De Banier (Banner) de Dageraad (Dawn) and de Vragen des Tijds\n(Questions of the time.) On 1st March, '79 he started a Socialist\npaper Recht voor Allen, now an important daily organ of Socialism and\nFreethought. His principle writings are--With Jesus, For or against\nSocialism, The Religious Oath Question, The Religion of Reason,\nThe Religion of Humanity. On Jan. 19, '87, he was sentenced to one\nyears' solitary confinement for an article he had not written, and\nwas harshly treated till upon pressure of public opinion, he was\nliberated 30 Aug. 1887. He is now member of the Dutch Parliament.\n\nNoeldeke (Theodor), German Orientalist, b. Harburg, 2 March,\n1836. Studied at Gottingen, Vienna, Leyden, and Berlin, and has been\nprofessor of oriental studies at Gottingen, Kiel, and Strasburg. He\nhas written a History of the Koran, '56; a Life of Mahomet, '63; and\na Literary History of the Old Testament, which has been translated\ninto French by MM. Derembourg and J. Soury, '73.\n\nNoire (Ludwig), German monist, b. 26 March, 1829. Studied at Geissen,\nand became a teacher at Mainz. His works show the influence of\nSpinoza and Schopenhauer. He is the author of Aphorisms on the Monist\nphilosophy, '77, and a work on the Origin of Speech, '77. He contends\nthat language originates in instinctive sounds accompanying will in\nassociative actions. Died 26 March, 1889.\n\nNoorthouck (John), author of a History of London, 1773, and an\nHistorical and Classical Dictionary, 1776. Has been credited with\nthe Life of the Man After God's Own Heart. See Annet.\n\nNordau (Max Simon), b. of Jewish parents at Pesth, 29 July, 1849. He\nbecame a physician in '73. He has written several books of travels\nand made some noise by his trenchant work on Convential Lies of our\nCivilisation. He has since written on The Sickness of the Century.\n\nNork (Felix). See Korn (Selig).\n\nNott (Josiah Clark), Dr., American ethnologist, b. Columbia, South\nCarolina, 24 March, 1804. He wrote The Physical History of the Jewish\nRace, Types of Mankind, '54, and Indigenous Races of the Earth, '55;\nthe last two conjointly with G. R. Gliddon, and with the object of\ndisproving the theory of the unity of the human race. Died at Mobile,\n31 March, 1873.\n\nNoun (Paul), French author of The Scientific Errors of the Bible, 1881.\n\nNoyes (Thomas Herbert), author of Hymns of Modern Man, 1870.\n\nNunez (Rafael), President of Columbia, b. Carthagena, 28 Sept. 1825. He\nhas written many poems and political articles, and in philosophy is\na follower of Mill and Spencer.\n\nNuytz (Louis Andr\u00e9). See Andre-Nuytz.\n\nNystrom (Anton Christen), Dr. Swedish Positivist, b. 15\nFeb. 1842. Studied at Upsala and became a medical doctor in Lund,\n'68. He served as assistant and field doctor in the Dano-Prussian\nwar of '67, and now practises an alienist in Stockholm, where he has\nestablished a Positivist Society and Workmen's Institute. Has written\na History of Civilisation.\n\nOcellus Lucanus, early Greek philosopher, who maintained the\neternity of the cosmos. An edition of his work was published with a\ntranslation by the Marquis d'Argens, and Thomas Taylor published an\nEnglish version.\n\nOchino (Bernardino Tommasini), Italian reformer, b. Sienna, 1487. A\npopular preacher, he was chosen general of the Capuchins. Converted to\nthe Reformation by Jean Valdez, he had to fly to Geneva, 1542. Invited\nto England by Cranmer, he became prebend of Canterbury and preached\nin London until the accession of Mary, when he was expelled and went\nto Zurich. Here he became an Antitrinitarian, and was banished about\n1562 for Thirty Dialogues, in one of which he shows that neither in the\nBible nor the Fathers is there any express prohibition of polygamy. He\nwent to Poland and joined the Socinians, was banished thence also,\nand died Slaukau, Moravia, in 1564. Beza ascribes the misfortunes of\nOchinus, and particularly the accidental death of his wife, to the\nspecial interposition of God on account of his erroneous opinions.\n\nO'Connor (Arthur, afterwards Condorcet), General, b. Mitchells, near\nBandon (Cork), 4 July, 1768. Joined the United Irishmen and went\nto France to negotiate for military aid. In May 1798 he was tried\nfor treason and acquitted. He entered the French service and rose to\ndistinction. In 1807 he married Elisa, the only daughter of Condorcet,\nwhose name he took, and whose works he edited. He also edited the\nJournal of Religious Freedom. Died at Bignon, 25 April, 1852.\n\nO'Donoghue (Alfred H.) Irish American counsellor at law, b. about\n1840. Educated for the Episcopal ministry at Trinity College, Dublin,\nbut became a sceptic and published Theology and Mythology, an inquiry\ninto the claims of Biblical inspiration and the supernatural element\nin religion, at New York, 1880.\n\nOest (Johann Heinrich) German poet, b. Cassel 1727. Wrote poems\npublished at Hamburg, 1751, and was accused of materialism.\n\nOffen (Benjamin), American Freethinker, b. in England, 1772. He\nemigrated to New York, where he became lecturer to the Society of\nMoral Philantropists at Tammany Hall. He wrote Biblical Criticism\nand A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, and supported the\nCorrespondent, Free Inquirer, and Boston Investigator. Died New York,\n12 May, 1848.\n\nOffray de la Mettrie (Julian). See Lamettrie.\n\nO'Keefe (J. A.), M.D. Educated in Germany; author of an essay On\nthe Progress of the Human Understanding, 1795, in which he speaks\ndisparagingly of Christianity. He was a follower of Kant, and was\nclassed with Living Authors of Great Britain in 1816.\n\nO'Kelly (Edmund de Pentheny), a descendant of the O'Kelly's; author\nof Consciousness, or the Age of Reason, 1853; Theological Papers,\npublished by Holyoake; and Theology for the People, '55, a series of\nshort papers suggestive of religious Theism.\n\nOken (Lorenz), German morphologist and philosopher, b. Offenburg,\n2 Aug. 1779. He studied at G\u00f6ttingen and became a privat-docent in\nthat university. In a remarkable Sketch of Natural Philosophy, 1802,\nhe advanced a scheme of evolution. He developed his system in a work\non Generation, 1805, and a Manual of Natural Philosophy, 1809. He\nwas professor at Jena, but dismissed for his liberal views. From\n'17 till '48 he edited the scientific journal Isis. In '32 he became\na professor at Z\u00fcrich, where he died, 11 Aug. 1851.\n\nOliver (William), M.D., of Bath, who was accused of Atheism. Died 1764.\n\nOmar Khayyam. See Khayyam.\n\nOmboni (Giovanni), Lombard naturalist, b. Abbiategrasso, 29 June,\n1829. Is professor of geology at Padua, and author of many scientific\nworks.\n\nOnimus (Ernest Nicolas Joseph), Dr., French Positivist, b. near\nMulhouse, 6 Dec. 1840. Studied medicine at Strasburg and Paris,\nand wrote a treatise on The Dynamical Theory of Heat in Biological\nSciences, 1866. In '73 he was one of the jury of the Vienna Exhibition,\nand obtained the Cross of the Legion of Honor. Is author of the\nPsychology in the Plays of Shakespere, '78, and has written in the\nRevue Positive and other periodicals.\n\nOort (Henricus), Dutch rationalist, b. Eemnes, 27 Dec. 1836. Studied\ntheology at Leyden, and became teacher at Amsterdam. Has written many\nworks, of which we mention The Worship of Baalim in Israel, translated\nby Bp. Colenso, 1865, and The Bible for Young People, written with\nDrs. Hooykaas and Kuenen, and translated by P. H. Wickstead, 1873-79.\n\nOrelli (Johann Kaspar von), learned Swiss critic, b. Z\u00fcrich,\n13 Feb. 1789. Edited many classics, and wrote a letter in favor of\nStrauss at the time when there was an outcry at his being appointed\nProfessor at Z\u00fcrich. Died 6 Jan. 1849.\n\nOsborne (Francis), English writer, b. Clucksand, Beds. 1589. Was an\nadherent of Cromwell in the Civil War. His Advice to a Son, 1656, was\npopular though much censured by the Puritans who drew up a complaint\nagainst his works and proposed to have them burnt, and an order was\npassed 27 July, 1658, forbidding them to be sold. Died 1659.\n\nOscar (L.), Swiss writer, author of Religion Traced Back to its\nSource, Basel, 1874. He considers religion \"a belief in conflict\nwith experience and resting on exaggerated fancies\" of animism and\nmythology. One of his chapters is entitled \"The Crucifixion of the\nSon of God as Christian mythology.\"\n\nOssoli (Countess d'). See Fuller (Margaret).\n\nOswald (Eugen), German teacher in England. Author of many popular\nschool books, and a Study of Positivism in England, 1884.\n\nOswald (Felix Leopold), American writer, b. Belgium, 1845. Educated\nas a physician, he has devoted his attention to natural history,\nand in pursuit of his studies has travelled extensively. He has\ncontributed to the Popular Science Monthly, The Truthseeker and other\njournals, and has published Summerland Sketches, or Rambles in the\nBackwoods of Mexico and Central America, '81; Physical Education,\n'82; The Secrets of the East, '83, which argues that Christianity\nis derived from Buddhism, and The Bible of Nature or the Principles\nof Secularism, '88. Dr. Oswald is now employed as Curator of Natural\nHistory in Brazil.\n\nO'Toole (Adam Duff), Irish Freethought martyr, burnt to death at\nHogging (now College) Green, Dublin, in 1327. Holinshed says he\n\"denied obstinatelie the incarnation of our savior, the trinitie\nof persons in the vnitie of the Godhead and the resurrection of the\nflesh; as for the Holie Scripture, he said it was but a fable; the\nVirgin Marie he affirmed to be a woman of dissolute life, and the\nApostolic see erronious.\"\n\n\"Ouida,\" See Ram\u00e9e (Louise de la).\n\nOuvry (Henry Aim\u00e9), Col., translator of Feuchterslebens, Dietetics\nof the Soul and Rau's Unsectarian Catechism, and author of several\nworks on the land question.\n\nOverton (Richard), English Republican, who wrote a satire on relics,\n1642, and a treatise on Man's Mortality (London, 1643, Amsterdam,\n1644) a work designed to show man is naturally mortal.\n\nOwen (Robert), social reformer, b. Newton, Montgomeryshire, Wales, 14\nMarch, 1771. At 18 he was so distinguished by his business talents that\nhe became partner in a cotton mill. In 1797 he married the daughter\nof David Dale, and soon afterwards became partner and sole manager\nat New Lanark Mills, where he built the first infant schools and\nimproved the dwellings of the workmen. From 1810-15 he published New\nViews on Society, or, Essays on the Formation of Character. In '17 he\ncaused much excitement by proclaiming that the religions of the world\nwere all false, and that man was the creature of circumstances. In\n'24 he went to America and purchased New Harmony, Indiana, from the\nRappists to found a new community, but the experiment was a failure,\nas were also others at Orbiston, Laner, and Queenswood, Hants. In\n'28 he debated at Cincinatti with Alex. Campbell on the Evidences of\nChristianity. He published a numerous series of tracts, Robert Owen's\nJournal, and The New Moral World, '35. He debated on his Social\nSystem with the Rev. J. H. Roebuck, R. Brindley, etc. As his mind\nbegan to fail he accepted the teachings of Spiritism. Died Newton,\n17 Nov. 1858. Owen profoundly influenced the thought of his time in\nthe direction of social amelioration, and he is justly respected for\nhis energy, integrity and disinterested philanthropy.\n\nOwen (Robert Dale), son of the above, b. Glasgow 9 Nov. 1800. Was\neducated by his father till 1820, when he was sent to Fellenberg's\nschool, near Berne, Switzerland. In '25 he went to America to aid\nin the efforts to found a colony at New Harmony, Indiana. On the\nfailure of that experiment he began with Frances Wright, in Nov. '28,\nthe publication of the Free Inquirer, which was continued till\n'32. In that year he had a written discussion with O. Bachelor on\nthe existence of God, and the authenticity of the Bible, in which he\nably championed the Freethought cause. He wrote a number of tracts\nof which we mention Situations, 1839; Address on Free Inquiry, 1840;\nProssimo's Experience, Consistency, Galileo and the Inquisition. He\nwas elected to Congress in '43. After fifteen years of labor he\nsecured the women of Indiana independent rights of property. He\nbecame charge d'affaires at Naples in '53. During the civil war he\nstrongly advocated slave emancipation. Like his father he became a\nSpiritualist. Died at Lake George, 17 June, 1877.\n\nPaalzow (Christian Ludwig), German jurist, b. Osterburg (Altmark),\n26 Nov. 1753, translated Voltaire's commentaries on The Spirit of\nthe Laws and Burigny's Examination of the Apologists of Christianity\n(Leipzic, 1793), and wrote a History of Religious Cruelty (Mainz,\n1800). Died 20 May, 1824.\n\nPaepe (Cesar de). See De Paepe.\n\nPagano (Francisco Mario Saverio Antonio Carlo Pasquale). Italian\njurist, philosopher and patriot, b. Brienza, 1748. He studied at\nNaples, and became the friend of Filangieri. Was made professor\nof criminal law in 1787. For his Political Essays in three volumes\n(1783-92) he was accused of Atheism and impiety. He wrote on Criminal\nProcess and a work on God and Nature. Taking part in the Provisional\nGovernment of the Neapolitan Republic in 1791, he was taken prisoner\nby the royalists and executed 6 Oct. 1800.\n\nPage (David). Scotch geologist, b. 29 Aug. 1814. Author of\nintroductory and advanced text-books of geology, which went through\nmany editions. He gave advanced lectures in Edinburgh, and edited\nLife Lights of Song, '64. His Man Where, Whence, and Whither?,\n'67, advocating Darwinian views, made some stir in Scotland. He\nbecame professor of geology at Durham University. A friend of Robert\nChambers, he was for some time credited with that writer's Vestiges\nof Creation, in the scientific details of which he assisted. Died at\nNewcastle-on-Tyne, 9 March, 1879.\n\nPaget (Violet). English authoress, who, under the pen-name of \"Vernon\nLee,\" has written Studies of the Eighteenth Century in Italy and\nBaldwin, dialogues on views and aspirations 1886. Since '71 she has\nlived chiefly in Florence, and contributes to the principal reviews,\nan article in the Contemporary (May '83) on \"Responsibilities of\nUnbelief\" being particularly noticeable. Miss Paget's writings show\na cultivated mind and true literary instinct.\n\nPageze (L.) French Socialist; has written on the Concordat and the\nBudget des Cultes, '86, Separation of Church and State, '87, etc.\n\nPaine (Thomas), Deist, b. Thetford, Norfolk, 29 Jan., 1737. His father\nwas a Quaker and staymaker, and Paine was brought up to the trade. He\nleft home while still young, went to London and Sandwich, where he\nmarried the daughter of an exciseman, and entered the excise. He\nwas selected by his official associates to embody their wants in a\npaper, and on this work he displayed such talent that Franklin, then\nin London, suggested America as a good field for his abilities. Paine\nwent in 1774, and soon found work for his pen. He became editor of the\nPennsylvanian Magazine and contributed to the Pennsylvanian journal\na strong anti-slavery essay. Common Sense, published early in 1776,\nadvocating absolute independence for America, did more than anything\nelse to precipitate the great events of that year. Each number of\nthe Crisis, which appeared during the war, was read by Washington's\norder to each regiment in the service. Paine subscribed largely\nto the army, and served for a short time himself. After peace was\ndeclared, congress voted him three thousand dollars, and the state\nof New York gave him a large farm. Paine turned his attention to\nmechanics, and invented the tubular iron bridge, which he endeavored\nto introduce in Europe. Reaching France during the Revolution,\nhe published a pamphlet advocating the abolition of royalty. In\n1791 he published his Rights of Man, in reply to Burke. For this\nhe was outlawed. Escaping from England, he went to France, where he\nwas elected to the Convention. He stoutly opposed the execution of\nthe king, and was thrown by Robespierre into the Luxembourg prison,\nwhere for nearly a year he awaited the guillotine. During this time\nhe wrote the first part of the Age of Reason, which he completed\non his release. This famous book, though vulnerable in some minor\npoints of criticism, throws a flood of light on Christian dogmas,\nand has had a more extended sale than any other Freethought work. As\na natural consequence, Paine has been an object of incessant slander\nby the clergy. Paine died at New York 8 June, 1809, and, by his own\ndirection was buried on his farm at New Rochelle. Cobbett is said to\nhave disinterred him and brought his bones to England.\n\nPajot (Fran\u00e7ois). See Liniere.\n\nPaleario (Aonio), i.e., Antonio, della Paglia, Italian humanist and\nmartyr, b. about 1500 at V\u00e9roli in the Roman Campagna. In 1520 he\nwent to Rome and took place among the brilliant men of letters of\ncourt of Leo X. After the taking of Rome by Charles V. he retired\nto Sienna. In 1536 he published at Lyons an elegant Latin poem on\nthe Mortality of the Soul--modeled on Lucretius. He was Professor\nof Eloquence at Milan for ten years, but was accused of heresy. He\nhad called the Inquisition a poignard directed against all men of\nletters. On 3 July, 1570, he was hung and his body thrown into the\nflames. A work on the Benefit of Christ's Death has been attributed to\nhim on insufficient grounds. It is attributed to Benedetto da Mantova.\n\nPallas (Peter Simon), German naturalist and traveller, b. Berlin,\n22 Sept. 1741. Educated as a physician at Gottingen and Leyden,\nhe was invited by Catherine II. to become Professor of Natural\nHistory at St. Petersburg. He travelled through Siberia and settled\nin the Crimea. In 1810 he returned to Berlin, where he died 8\nSept. 1811. Lalande spoke highly of him, and Cuvier considered him\nthe founder of modern geology.\n\nPallavicino (Ferrante), Italian poet and wit, b. Piacenza 1616. He\nbecame a canon of the Lateran congregation, but for composing some\nsatirical pieces against Pope Urban VIII. had a price set on his\nhead. He fled to Venice, but a false friend betrayed him to the\nInquisition, and he was beheaded at Avignon, 5 March, 1644.\n\nPalmer (Courtlandt), American reformer, b. New York, 25 March,\n1843, graduated at the Columbia law-school in '69. He was brought\nup in the Dutch Reformed Church, but became a Freethinker while\nstill young. Mr. Palmer did much to promote Liberal ideas. In '80\nhe established and became President of the Nineteenth Century Club,\nfor the utmost liberty of public discussion. He contributed to the\nFreethinker's Magazine, Truthseeker, etc. A sister married Prof. Draper\nwith whom he was intimate. Died at New York, 23 July, 1888, and was\ncremated at Fresh Pond, his friend Col. R. G. Ingersoll delivering\nan eulogium.\n\nPalmer (Elihu), American author, b. Canterbury, Connecticut,\n1764. He graduated at Dartmouth in 1787, and studied divinity but\nbecame a deist in 1791. In 1793 he became totally blind from an\nattack of yellow fever. In 1797 he lectured to a Deistical Society\nin New York. After this he dictated his Principles of Nature, 1802,\na powerful anti-Christian work, reprinted by Carlile in '19. He also\nwrote Prospect or View of the Moral World from the year 1804. Palmer\nwas the head of the Society of Columbian Illuminati founded in New\nYork in 1801. He died in Philadelphia, 7 April, 1806.\n\nPanaetius, Stoic philosopher, b. Rhodes, a pupil of Diogenes the Stoic,\nand perhaps of Carneades. About 150 B.C. he visited Rome and taught a\nmoderate stoicism, denying the doctrine of the conflagration of the\nworld, and placing physics before dialectics. He wrote a work On\nDuties, to which Cicero expresses his indebtedness in his De Officiis.\nDied in Athens 111 B.C.\n\nPancoucke (Charles Joseph), eminent French publisher, b. Lille, 26\nNov. 1736. He settled at Paris and became acquainted with d'Alembert,\nGarat, etc., and was a correspondent of Rousseau, Buffon and Voltaire,\nwhose works he brought out. He translated Lucretius, 1768, brought out\nthe Mercure de France, projected in 1781 the important Encyclop\u00e9die\nM\u00e9thodique, of which there are 166 vols., and founded the Moniteur,\n1789. Died at Paris, 19 Dec. 1798.\n\nPantano (Eduardo), Italian author of a little book on the Sicilian\nVespers and the Commune, Catania, 1882.\n\nPapillon (J. Henri Fernand), French philosophic writer, b. Belfort,\n5 June, 1847. He wrote an Introduction to Chemical Philosophy,\n'65; contributed to the Revue de Philosophie Positive and the Revue\ndes Deux Mondes. His principal work is entitled Nature and Life,\n'73. Died at Paris 31 Dec. 1873.\n\nPaquet (Henri Remi Ren\u00e9), French writer, b. Charleville, 29\nSep. 1845. After studying under the Jesuits he went to Paris,\nwhere he became an advocate, but devoted his main attention to\nliterature. Under the anagram of \"N\u00e9r\u00e9e Qu\u00e9pat\" he has published La\nLorgnette Philosophique, '72, a dictionary of the great and little\nphilosophers of our time, a study of La Mettrie entitled Materialist\nPhilosophy in the Eighteenth Century and other works.\n\nPare (William), Owenite Social reformer, b. Birmingham, 11\nAug. 1805. Wrote an abridgment of Thompson's Distribution of Wealth,\nalso works on Capital and Labor '54, Co-operative Agriculture, at\nRahaline, '70, etc. He compiled vol. 1 of the Biography of Robert\nOwen. Died at Croydon, 18 June, 1873.\n\nParfait (Noel), French writer and politician, b. Chartres, 30\nNov. 1814. Took part in the revolution of '30, and wrote many radical\nbrochures. After the coup d'\u00e9tat he took refuge in Belgium. In '71\nwas elected deputy and sat on the extreme left.\n\nParfait (Paul), son of the foregoing, b. Paris, 1841. Author of\nL'Arsenal de la D\u00e9votion, '76, Notes to serve for a history of\nsuperstition, and a supplement Le Dossier des P\u00e9lerinages, '77,\nand other pieces. Died 1881.\n\nParisot (Jean Patrocle), a Frenchman who wrote La Foy devoil\u00e9e par\nla raison, 1681 [Faith Unveiled by Reason], a work whose title seems\nto have occasioned its suppression.\n\nParker (Theodore), American rationalist, b. Lexington, Mass., 24\nAug. 1810. From his father--a Unitarian--he inherited independence\nof mind, courage, and love of speculation. Brought up in poverty he\nstudied hard, and acquired a University education while laboring on the\nfarm. In March, '31, he became an assistant teacher at Boston. In June,\n'37, he was ordained Unitarian minister. Parker gradually became known\nas an iconoclast, and study of the German critics made him a complete\nrationalist, so that even the Unitarian body rejected him. A society\nwas established to give him a hearing in Boston, and soon his fame\nwas established. His Discourse on Matters Pertaining to Religion,\n'47, exhibited his fundamental views. He translated and enlarged\nDe Wette's Critical Introduction to the Old Testament. A fearless\nopponent of the Fugitive Slave Law, he sheltered slaves in his own\nhouse. Early in '59 failing health compelled him to relinquish his\nduties. Died at Florence, 10 May, 1860. He bequeathed his library of\n13,000 volumes to the Boston Public Library.\n\nParmenides, a Greek philosopher, b. Elea, Italy, 518 B.C. Is said\nto have been a disciple of Xenophanes. He developed his philosophy\nabout 470 B.C. in a didactic poem On Nature, fragments of which are\npreserved by Sextus Empiricus. He held to Reason as our guide, and\nconsidered nature eternal.\n\nParny (\u00c9variste D\u00e9sir\u00e9 de Forges de), Viscount. French poet,\nb. St. Paul, Isle of Bourbon, 6 Feb. 1753. Educated in France, he\nchose the military profession. A disappointed passion for a creole\ninspired his \"Amatory Poems,\" and he afterwards wrote the audacious\nWar of the Gods, Paradise Lost, and The Gallantries of the Bible. His\npoems, though erotic, are full of elegant charm, and he has been\nnamed the French Tibullus. He was admitted into the French Academy\nin 1803. Died at Paris, 5 Dec. 1814.\n\nParton (James), author, b. Canterbury, England, 9 Feb. 1822. Was taken\nto the United States when a child and educated at New York. He married\nMiss Willis, \"Fannie Fern,\" and has written many biographies, including\nLives of Thomas Jefferson, '74, and of Voltaire, '81. He has also\nwritten on Topics of the Time, '71, and Church Taxation. He resided\nin New York till '75 when he removed to Newburyport, Massachusetts.\n\nParvish (Samuel), Deistic author of An Inquiry into the Jewish and\nChristian Revelation (London, 1739), of which a second edition was\nissued in 1746.\n\nPasquier (\u00c9tienne). French journalist, b. 7 April, 1529, at\nParis. Brought up to the bar he became a successful pleader. He\ndefended the Universities against the Jesuits, whom he also attacked\nin a bitter satire, Cat\u00e9chisme des J\u00e9suites. Died Paris, 30 Aug. 1615.\n\nPasserano (Alberto Radicati di) count. Italian philosopher of last\ncentury, attached to the court of Victor Amed\u00e9e II. For some pamphlets\nwritten against the Papal power he was pursued by the Inquisition and\nhis goods seized. He lived in England and made the acquaintance of\nCollins, also in France and Holland, where he died about 1736, leaving\nhis goods to the poor. In that year he published at Rotterdam Recueil\nde Pi\u00e8ces curieuses sur les matieres les plus \u00ednt\u00e9ressantes, etc.,\nwhich contains a Parallel between Mahomet and Sosem (anagram of Moses),\nan abridged history of the Sacerdotal Profession, and a Faithful and\ncomic recital of the religion of modern cannibals, by Zelin Moslem;\nalso a Dissertation upon Death, which was published separately in\n1733. The Recueil was republished at London in 1749. He also wrote a\npretended translation from an Arabic work on Mohammedanism, satirising\nthe Bible, and a pretended sermon by Elwall the Quaker.\n\nPasteur (Louis). French scientist b. D\u00f4le, 27 Dec 1822, became doctor\nin '47 and professor of physic at Strassburg in '48. He received\nthe Rumford medal of the Royal Society in '56 for his discoveries\nin polarisation and molecular chemistry. Decorated with the Legion\nof honor in '53, he was made commander '68 and grand officer '78. His\nresearches into innoculation have been much contested, but his admirers\nhave raised a large institute for the prosecution of his treatment. He\nwas elected to the Academy as successor of Littr\u00e9. He gave his name\nas Vice-President of the British Secular Union.\n\nPastoret (Claude Emmanuel Joseph Pierre de), Marquis, French statesman\nand writer, b. of noble family at Marseilles, 25 Oct. 1756. Educated by\nthe Oratorians at Lyons, in 1779 he published an Elege de Voltaire. By\nhis works on Zoroaster, Confucius and Mahomet (1787) and on Moses\nConsidered as Legislator and Moralist (1788) he did something for the\ninfant science of comparative religion. His principal work is a learned\nHistory of Legislation, in 11 vols. (1817-37), in which he passes in\nreview all the ancient codes. He embraced the Revolution, and became\nPresident of the Legislative Assembly (3 Oct. 1791). He proposed the\nerection of the Column of July on the Place of the Bastille, and the\nconversion of the church of Ste Genevi\u00e8ve into the Pantheon. On the\n19th June, 1792, he presented a motion for the complete separation of\nthe state from religion. He fled during the Terror, but returned as\ndeputy in 1795. In 1820 he succeeded his friend Volney as member of\nthe French Academy, in '23 received the cross of the Legion of Honor,\nand in '29 became Chancellor of France. Died at Paris, 28 Sept. 1840.\n\nPater (Walter Horatio), English writer, b. London, 4 Aug. 1839. B.A. at\nOxford in '62, M.A. in '65. Has written charming essays in the\nWestminster Review, Macmillan, and the Fortnightly Review. In '73\nhe published The Renaissance, and in '85 Marius the Epicurean, His\nSensations and Ideas.\n\nPaterson (Thomas), b. near Lanark early in this century. After\nthe imprisonment of Southwell and Holyoake he edited the Oracle of\nReason. For exhibiting profane placards he was arrested and sentenced\n27 Jan. 1843 to three months' imprisonment. His trial was reported\nunder the title God v. Paterson ('43.) He insisted on considering\nGod as the plaintiff and in quoting from \"the Jew book\" to show\nthe plaintiff's bad character. When released he went to Scotland to\nuphold the right of free publication, and was sentenced 8 Nov. '43 to\nfifteen months' imprisonment for selling \"blasphemous\" publications\nat Edinburgh. On his release he was presented with a testimonial 6\nApril, 1845, H. Hetherington presiding. Paterson went to America.\n\nPatin (Gui), French physician, writer, and wit, b. near Beauvais\n31 Aug. 1602. He became professor at the college of France. His\nreputation is chiefly founded on his Letters, in which he attacked\nsuperstition. Larousse says \"C'\u00e9tait un libre penseur de la famille\nde Rabelais.\" Died at Paris 30 Aug. 1672.\n\nPatot. See Tyssot de Patot (S.)\n\nPauw (Cornelius), learned Dutch writer, b. Amsterdam, 1739. He wrote\nphilosophical researches on the Americans, and also on the Egyptians,\nChinese, and Greeks. Was esteemed by Frederick the Great for his\ningenuity and penetration. Died at Xanten, 7 July, 1799. He was the\nuncle of Anacharsis Clootz.\n\nPeacock (John Macleay), Scotch poet, b. 21 March, 1817. He wrote\nmany poems in the National Reformer, and in '67 published Hours of\nReverie. Died 4 May, 1877.\n\nPeacock or Pecock (Reginald), the father of English rationalism,\nb. about 1390, and educated at Oriel College Oxford, of which he\nwas chosen fellow in 1417. Was successively Bishop of St Asaph,\n1444, and Chichester, 1450, by the favor of Humphrey, the good\nDuke of Gloster. He declared that Scripture must in all cases be\naccommodated to \"the doom of reason.\" He questioned the genuineness\nof the Apostles' Creed. In 1457 he was accused of heresy, recanted\nfrom fear of martyrdom, was deprived of his bishopric, and imprisoned\nin a monastery at Canterbury, where he used to repeat to those who\nvisited him,\n\n\n            \"Wit hath wonder, that reason cannot skan,\n            How a Moder is Mayd, and God is Man.\"\n\n\nHis books were publicly burnt at Oxford. He died in 1460. His influence\ndoubtless contributed to the Reformation.\n\nPearson (Karl), author of a volume of essays entitled The Ethic of\nFreethought, 1888. Educated at Cambridge; B.A. '79, M.A. '82.\n\nPechmeja (Jean de), French writer. A friend of Raynal, he wrote a\nsocialistic romance in 12 books in the style of Telemachus, called\nT\u00e9l\u00e8phe, 1784. Died 1785.\n\nPeck (John), American writer in the Truthseeker. Has published Miracles\nand Miracle Workers, etc.\n\nPecqueur (A.), contributor to the Rationaliste of Geneva, 1864.\n\nPelin (Gabriel), French author of works on Spiritism Explained and\nDestroyed, 1864, and God or Science, '67.\n\nPelletan (Charles Camille), French journalist and deputy, son of\nthe following; b. Paris, 23 June, 1846. Studied at the Lyc\u00e9e Louis\nle Grand. He wrote in La Tribune Fran\u00e7aise, and Le Rappel, and since\n'80 has conducted La Justice with his friend Cl\u00e9menceau, of whom he\nhas written a sketch.\n\nPelletan (Pierre Clement Eug\u00e8ne), French writer,\nb. Saint-Palais-sur-Meir, 20 Oct. 1813. As a journalist he wrote in\nLa Presse, under the name of \"Un Inconnu,\" articles distinguished\nby their love of liberty and progress. He also contributed to the\nRevue des Deux Mondes. In '52 he published his Profession of Faith\nof the Nineteenth Century, and in '57 The Law of Progress and The\nPhilosophical Kings. From '53-'55 he opposed Napoleon in the Si\u00e8cle,\nand afterwards established La Tribune Fran\u00e7aise. In '63 he was\nelected deputy, but his election being annulled, he was re-elected in\n'64. He took distinguished rank among the democratic opposition. After\nthe battle of Sedan he was made member of the Committee of National\nDefence, and in '76 of the Senate, of which he became vice-president\nin '79. In '78 he wrote a study on Frederick the Great entitled Un\nRoi Philosophe, and in '83 Is God Dead? Died at Paris, 14 Dec. 1884.\n\nPemberton (Charles Reece). English actor and author, b. Pontypool,\nS. Wales, 23 Jan. 1790. He travelled over most of the world and\nwrote The Autobiography of Pel Verjuice, which with other remains\nwas published in 1843. Died 3 March, 1840.\n\nPennetier (Georges), Dr., b. Rouen, 1836, Director of the Museum of\nNatural History at Rouen. Author of a work on the Origin of Life,\n'68, in which he contends for spontaneous generation. To this work\nF. A. Pouchet contributed a preface.\n\nPerfitt (Philip William), Theist, b. 1820, edited the Pathfinder,\n'59-61. Preached at South Place Chapel. Wrote Life and Teachings of\nJesus of Nazareth, '61.\n\nPeriers (Bonaventure des). See Desperiers.\n\nPerot (Jean Marie Albert), French banker, author of a work on Man\nand God, which has been translated into English, 1881, and Moral and\nPhilosophical Allegories (Paris, 1883).\n\nPerrier (Edmond), French zoologist, Curator at Museum of Natural\nHistory, Paris, b. Tulle, 1844. Author of numerous works on Natural\nHistory, and one on Transformisme, '88.\n\nPerrin (Raymond S.), American author of a bulky work on The Religion\nof Philosophy, or the Unification of Knowledge: a comparison of the\nchief philosophical and religious systems of the world, 1885.\n\nPerry (Thomas Ryley), one of Carlile's shopmen, sentenced 1824 to\nthree years' imprisonment in Newgate for selling Palmer's Principles\nof Nature. He became a chemist at Leicester and in 1844 petitioned\nParliament for the prisoners for blasphemy, Paterson and Roalfe,\nstating that his own imprisonment had not fulfilled the judge's hope\nof his recantation.\n\nPetit (Claude), French poet, burnt on the Place de Gr\u00e8ve in 1665 as\nthe author of some impious pieces.\n\nPetronius, called Arbiter (Titus), Roman Epicurean poet at the Court\nof Nero, in order to avoid whose resentment he opened his veins and\nbled to death in A.D. 66, conversing meanwhile with his friends on the\ngossip of the day. To him we owe the lines on superstition, beginning\n\"Primus in orbe Deos fecit timor.\" Petronius is famous for his \"pure\nLatinity.\" He is as plain-spoken as Juvenal, and with the same excuse,\nhis romance being a satire on Nero and his court.\n\nPetruccelli della Gattina (Ferdinando) Italian writer, b. Naples,\n1816, has travelled much and written many works. He was deputy to\nthe Naples Parliament in '48, and exiled after the reaction.\n\nPetrus de Abano. A learned Italian physician, b. Abano 1250. He\nstudied at Paris and became professor of medicine at Padua. He wrote\nmany works and had a great reputation. He is said to have denied the\nexistence of spirits, and to have ascribed all miracles to natural\ncauses. Cited before the Inquisition in 1306 as a heretic, a magician\nand an Atheist, he ably defended himself and was acquitted. He was\naccused a second time but dying (1320) while the trial was preparing,\nhe was condemned after death, his body disinterred and burnt, and he\nwas also burnt in effigy in the public square of Padua.\n\nPeypers (H. F. A.), Dutch writer, b. De Rijp, 2 Jan. 1856, studied\nmedicine, and is now M.D. at Amsterdam. He is a man of erudition and\ngood natured though satirical turn of mind. He has contributed much\nto De Dageraad, and is at present one of the five editors of that\nFreethought monthly.\n\nPeyrard (Fran\u00e7ois), French mathematician, b. Vial (Haute Loire)\n1760. A warm partisan of the revolution, he was one of those who (7\nNov. 1793) incited Bishop Gobel to abjure his religion. An intimate\nfriend of Sylvian Mar\u00e9chal, Peyrard furnished him with notes for\nhis Dictionnaire des Ath\u00e9es. He wrote a work on Nature and its Laws,\n1793-4, and proposed the piercing of the Isthmus of Suez. He translated\nthe works of Euclid and Archimedes. Died at Paris 3 Oct. 1822.\n\nPeyrat (Alphonse), French writer, b. Toulouse, 21 June, 1812. He\nwrote in the National and la Presse, and combated against the Second\nEmpire. In '65 he founded l'Avenir National, which was several\ntimes condemned. In Feb. '71, he was elected deputy of the Seine,\nand proposed the proclamation of the Republic. In '76 he was chosen\nsenator. He wrote a History of the Dogma of the Immaculate Conception,\n'55; History and Religion, '58; Historical and Religious Studies, '58;\nand an able and scholarly Elementary and Critical History of Jesus,\n'64.\n\nPeyrere (Isaac de la), French writer, b. Bordeaux, 1594, and brought up\nas a Protestant. He entered into the service of the house of Cond\u00e9, and\nbecame intimate with La Mothe de Vayer and Gassendi. His work entitled\nPr\u00e6adamit\u00e6, 1653, in which he maintained that men lived before Adam,\nmade a great sensation, and was burnt by the hangman at Paris. The\nbishop of Namur censured it, and la Peyr\u00e8re was arrested at Brussels,\n1656, by order of the Archbishop of Malines, but escaped by favor of\nthe Prince of Cond\u00e9 on condition of retracting his book at Rome. The\nfollowing epitaph was nevertheless made on him:\n\n\n            La Peyrere ici g\u00eet, ce bon Israelite,\n            Hugenot, Catholique, enfin Pre-adamite:\n            Quatre religions lui plurent \u00e0 la fois:\n              Et son indiff\u00e9rence \u00e9tait si peu commune\n            Qu'apr\u00e8s 80 ans qu'il eut \u00e0 faire un choix\n              Le bon homme partit, et n'en choisit pas une.\n\n\nDied near Paris, 30 Jan. 1676.\n\nPfeiff (Johan Gustaf Viktor), Swedish baron, b. Upland, 1829. Editor\nof the free religious periodical, The Truthseeker, since 1882. He has\nalso translated into Swedish some of the writings of Herbert Spencer.\n\nPharmacopulo (A.P.) Greek translator of B\u00fcchner's Force and Matter, and\ncorresponding member of the International Federation of Freethinkers.\n\nPhillips (Sir Richard), industrious English writer, b. London, 1767. He\nwas hosier, bookseller, printer, publisher, republican, Sheriff of\nLondon (1807-8), and Knight. He compiled many schoolbooks, chiefly\nunder pseudonyms, of which the most popular were the Rev. J. Goldsmith\nand Rev. D. Blair. His own opinions are seen most in his Million of\nFacts. Died at Brighton 2 April, 1840.\n\nPhillippo (William Skinner), farmer, of Wood Norton, near Thetford,\nNorfolk. A deist who wrote an Essay on Political and Religious\nMeditations, 1868.\n\nPi-y Margall (Francisco), Spanish philosopher and Republican statesman,\nb. Barcelona, 1820. The first book he learnt to read was the Ruins\nof Volney. Studied law and became an advocate. He has written many\npolitical works, and translated Proudhon, for whom he has much\nadmiration, into Spanish. He has also introduced the writings and\nphilosophy of Comte into his own country. He was associated with\nCastelar and Figueras in the attempt to establish a Spanish Republic,\nbeing Minister of the Interior, and afterwards President in 1873.\n\nPichard (Prosper). French Positivist, author of Doctrine of Reality,\n\"a catechism for the use of people who do not pay themselves with\nwords,\" to which Littr\u00e9 wrote a preface, 1873.\n\nPierson (Allard). Dutch rationalist critic, b. Amsterdam 8 April,\n1831. Educated in theology, he was minister to the Evangelical\ncongregation at Leuven, afterwards at Rotterdam and finally professor\nat Heidelberg. He resigned his connection with the Church in '64. He\nhas written many works of theological and literary value of which we\nmention his Poems '82, New Studies on Calvin, '83, and Verisimilia,\nwritten in conjunction with S. A. Naber, '86.\n\nPigault-Lebrun (Guillaume Charles Antoine), witty French author,\nb. Calais, 8 April, 1753. He studied under the Oratorians of\nBoulogne. He wrote numerous comedies and romances, and Le Citateur,\n1803, a collection of objections to Christianity, borrowed in part\nfrom Voltaire, whose spirit he largely shared. In 1811 Napoleon\nthreatened the priests he would issue this work wholesale. It\nwas suppressed under the Restoration, but has been frequently\nreprinted. Pigault-Lebrun became secretary to King Jerome Napoleon,\nand died at La Celle-Saint-Cloud, 24 July, 1835.\n\nPike (J. W.) American lecturer, b. Concord (Ohio), 27 June, 1826,\nwrote My Religious Experience and What I found in the Bible, 1867.\n\nPillsbury (Parker), American reformer, b. Hamilton, Mass., 22\nSep. 1809. Was employed in farm work till '35, when he entered\nGilmerton theological seminary. He graduated in '38, studied a year\nat Andover, was congregational minister for one year, and then,\nperceiving the churches were the bulwark of slavery, abandoned the\nministry. He became an abolitionist lecturer, edited the Herald\nof Freedom, National Anti-Slavery Standard, and the Revolution. He\nalso preached for free religious societies, wrote Pious Frauds, and\ncontributed to the Boston Investigator and Freethinkers' Magazine. His\nprincipal work is Acts of the Anti-Slavery Apostles, 1883.\n\nPiron (Alexis), French comic poet, b. Dijon, 9 July, 1689. His\npieces were full of wit and gaiety, and many anecdotes are told of\nhis profanity. Among his sallies was his reply to a reproof for being\ndrunk on Good Friday, that failing must be excused on a day when even\ndeity succumbed. Being blind in his old age he affected piety. Worried\nby his confessor about a Bible in the margin of which he had written\nparodies and epigrams as the best commentary, he threw the whole book\nin the fire. Asked on his death-bed if he believed in God he answered\n\"Parbleu, I believe even in the Virgin.\" Died at Paris, 21 Jan. 1773.\n\nPisarev (Dmitri Ivanovich) Russian critic, journalist, and materialist,\nb. 1840. He first became known by his criticism on the Scholastics of\nthe nineteenth century. Died Baden, near Riga, July 1868. His works\nare published in ten vols. Petersburg, 1870.\n\nPitt (William). Earl of Chatham, an illustrious English statesman\nand orator, b. Boconnoc, Cornwall, 15 Nov. 1708. The services to his\ncountry of \"the Great Commoner,\" as he was called, are well known,\nbut it is not so generally recognised that his Letter on Superstition,\nfirst printed in the London Journal in 1733, entitles him to be ranked\nwith the Deists. He says that \"the more superstitious people are,\nalways the more vicious; and the more they believe, the less they\npractice.\" Atheism furnishes no man with arguments to be vicious;\nbut superstition, or what the world made by religion, is the greatest\npossible encouragement to vice, by setting up something as religion,\nwhich shall atone and commute for the want of virtue. This remarkable\nletter ends with the words \"Remember that the only true divinity\nis humanity.\"\n\nPlace (Francis), English Radical reformer and tailor; b. 1779 at\nCharing Cross. He early became a member of the London, Corresponding\nSociety. He wrote to Carlile's Republican and Lion. A friend of\nT. Hardy, H. Tooke, James Mill, Bentham, Roebuck, Hetherington, and\nHibbert (who puts him in his list of English Freethinkers). He was\nconnected with all the advanced movements of his time and has left\nmany manuscripts illustrating the politics of that period, which are\nnow in the British Museum. He always professed to be an Atheist--see\nReasoner, 26 March, '54. Died at Kensington, 1 Jan. 1854.\n\nPlatt (James), F.S.S., a woolen merchant and Deistic author of\npopular works on Business, '75; Morality, '78; Progress, '80; Life,\n'81; God and Mammon, etc.\n\nPliny (Caius Plinius Secundus), the elder, Roman naturalist, b. Verona,\nA.D. 22. He distinguished himself in the army, was admitted into the\ncollege of Augurs, appointed procurator in Spain, and honored with\nthe esteem of Vespasian and Titus. He wrote the history of his own\ntime in 31 books, now lost, and a Natural History in 37 books, one\nof the most precious monuments of antiquity, in which his Epicurean\nAtheism appears. Being with the fleet at Misenum, 24 Aug. A.D. 79,\nhe observed the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, and landing to assist\nthe inhabitants was himself suffocated by the noxious vapors.\n\nPlumacher (Olga), German pessimist, follower of Hartmann, and authoress\nof a work on Pessimism in the Past and Future, Heidelberg, 1884. She\nhas also defended her views in Mind.\n\nPlumer (William) American senator, b. Newburyport, Mass. 25 June,\n1759. In 1780 he became a Baptist preacher, but resigned on account\nof scepticism. He remained a deist. He served in the Legislature\neight terms, during two of which he was Speaker. He was governor\nof New Hampshire, 1812-18, wrote to the press over the signature\n\"Cincinnatus,\" and published an Address to the Clergy, '14. He lived\ntill 22 June, 1850.\n\nPlutarch. Greek philosopher and historian, b. Cheron\u00e6a in Boetia, about\nA.D. 50. He visited Delphi and Rome, where he lived in the reign of\nTrajan. His Parallel Lives of forty-six Greeks and Romans have made\nhim immortal. He wrote numerous other anecdotal and ethical works,\nincluding a treatise on Superstition. He condemned the vulgar notions\nof Deity, and remarked, in connection with the deeds popularly ascribed\nto the gods, that he would rather men said there was no Plutarch than\ntraduce his character. In other words, superstition is more impious\nthan Atheism. Died about A.D. 120.\n\nPoe (Edgar Allan), American poet, grandson of General Poe, who figured\nin the war of independence, b. Boston, 19 Jan. 1809. His mother was\nan actress. Early left an orphan. After publishing Tamerlane and other\nPoems, '27, he enlisted in the United States Army, but was cashiered in\n'31. He then took to literary employment in Baltimore and wrote many\nstories, collected as the Tales of Mystery, Imagination, and Humor. In\n'45 appeared The Raven and other Poems, which proved him the most\nmusical and dextrous of American poets. In '48 he published Eureka,\na Prose Poem, which, though comparatively little known, he esteemed\nhis greatest work. It indicates pantheistic views of the universe. His\npersonal appearance was striking and one of his portraits is not\nunlike that of James Thomson. Died in Baltimore, 7 Oct. 1849.\n\nPoey (Andr\u00e9s), Cuban meteorologist and Positivist of French and Spanish\ndescent, b. Havana, 1826. Wrote in the Modern Thinker, and is author\nof many scientific memoirs and a popular exposition of Positivism\n(Paris, 1876), in which he has a chapter on Darwinism and Comtism.\n\nPompery (Edouard), French publicist, b. Courcelles, 1812. A follower\nof Fourier, he has written on Blanquism and opportunism, '79, and a\nLife of Voltaire, '80.\n\nPomponazzi (Pietro) [Lat. Pomponatius], Italian philosopher,\nb. Mantua, of noble family, 16 Sept. 1462. He studied at Padua,\nwhere he graduated 1487 as laureate of medicine. Next year he was\nappointed professor of philosophy at Padua, teaching in concurrence\nwith Achillini. He afterwards taught the doctrines of Aristotle at\nFerrara and Bologna. His treatise De Immortalitate Anim\u00e6, 1516, gave\ngreat offence by denying the philosophical foundation of the doctrine\nof the immortality of the soul. The work was burnt by the hangman at\nVenice, and it is said Cardinal Bembo's intercession with Pope Leo\nX. only saved Pomponazzi from ecclesiastical procedure. Among his works\nis a treatise on Fate, Free Will, etc. Pomponazzi was a diminutive\nman, and was nicknamed \"Peretto.\" He held that doubt was necessary\nfor the development of knowledge, and left an unsullied reputation\nfor upright conduct and sweet temper. Died at Bologna, 18 May, 1525,\nand was buried at Mantua, where a monument was erected to his memory.\n\nPonnat (de), Baron, French writer, b. about 1810. Educated by\nJesuits, he became a thorough Freethinker and democrat and a friend\nof A. S. Morin, with whom he collaborated on the Rationaliste of\nGeneva. He wrote many notable articles in La Libre Pens\u00e9e, Le Critique,\nand Le Candide, for writing in which last he was sentenced to one\nyear's imprisonment. He published, under the anagram of De Pontan,\nThe Cross or Death, a discourse to the bishops who assisted at the\nEcumenical Council at Rome (Brussels, '62). His principal work is\na history of the variations and contradictions of the Roman Church\n(Paris, '82). Died in 1884.\n\nPorphyry, Greek philosoper of the New Platonic school, b. Sinia,\n233 A.D. His original name was Malchus or Melech--a \"King.\" He was\na pupil of Longinus and perhaps of Origen. Some have supposed that\nhe was of Jewish faith, and first embraced and then afterwards\nrejected Christianity. It is certain he was a man of learning and\nintelligence; the friend as well as the disciple of Plotinus. He wrote\n(in Greek) a famous work in fifteen books against the Christians, some\nfragments of which alone remain in the writings of his opponents. It\nis certain he showed acquaintance with the Jewish and Christian\nwritings, exposed their contradictions, pointed out the dispute between\nPeter and Paul, and referred Daniel to the time of Antiochus Epiphanes.\nHe wrote many other works, among which are lives of Plotinus and\nPythagorus. Died at Rome about 305.\n\nPorzio (Simone), a disciple of Pomponazzi, to whom, when lecturing\nat Pisa, the students cried \"What of the soul?\" He frankly professed\nhis belief that the human soul differed in no essential point from\nthe soul of a lion or plant, and that those who thought otherwise\nwere prompted by pity for our mean estate. These assertions are in\nhis treatise De Mente Human\u00e2.\n\n\"Posos (Juan de),\" an undiscovered author using this pen-name,\nexpressed atheistic opinions in a book of imaginary travels, published\nin Dutch at Amsterdam in 1708, and translated into German at Leipsic,\n1721.\n\nPost (Amy), American reformer, b. 1803. From '28 she was a leading\nadvocate of slavery abolition, temperance, woman's suffrage and\nreligious reform. Died Rochester, New York, 29 Jan. 1889.\n\nPotter (Agathon Louis de). See De Potter (A. L.)\n\nPotter (Louis Antoine Joseph de). See De Potter (L. A. J.)\n\nPotvin (Charles), Belgian writer b. Mons. 2 Dec. 1818, is member of the\nRoyal Academy of Letters, and professor of the history of literature\nat Brussels. He wrote anonymously Poesie et Amour '58, and Rome and\nthe Family. Under the name of \"Dom Jacobus\" he has written an able\nwork in two volumes on The Church and Morality, and also Tablets of\na Freethinker. He was president of \"La Libre Pens\u00e9e\" of Brussels from\n'78 to '83, is director of the Revue de Belgique and has collaborated\non the National and other papers.\n\nPouchet (Felix Archim\u00e8de), French naturalist, b. Rouen 26\nAug. 1800. Studied medicine under Dr. Flaubert, father of the author\nof Mme. Bovary, and became doctor in '27. He was made professor of\nnatural history at the Museum of Rouen, and by his experiments enriched\nscience with many discoveries. He defended spontaneous generation and\nwrote many monographs and books of which the principal is entitled\nThe Universe, '65. Died at Rouen, 6 Dec. 1872.\n\nPouchet (Henri Charles George), French naturalist, son of the\nproceeding, b. Rouen, 1833, made M.D. in '64, and in '79 professor\nof comparative anatomy in the museum of Natural History at Paris. In\n'80 he was decorated with the Legion of Honor. He has written on The\nPlurality of the Human Race, '58, and collaborated on the Si\u00e8cle,\nand the Revue des Deux Mondes and to la Philosophie Positive.\n\nPouchkine (A.), see Pushkin.\n\nPougens (Marie Charles Joseph de), French author, a natural son of the\nPrince de Conti, b. Paris, 15 Aug. 1755. About the age of 24 he was\nblinded by small pox. He became an intimate friend of the philosophers,\nand, sharing their views, embraced the revolution with ardor, though\nit ruined his fortunes. He wrote Philosophical Researches, 1786, edited\nthe posthumous works of D'Alembert, 1799, and worked at a dictionary of\nthe French language. His Jocko, a tale of a monkey, exhibits his keen\nsympathy with animal intelligence, and in his Philosophical Letters,\n1826, he gives anecdotes of Voltaire, Rousseau, D'Alembert, Pechmeja,\nFranklin, etc. Died at Vauxbuin, near Soissons, 19 Dec. 1833.\n\nPoulin (Paul), Belgian follower of Baron Colins and author of What\nis God? What is Man? a scientific solution of the religious problem\n(Brussels, 1865), and re-issued as God According to Science, '75,\nin which he maintains that man and God exclude each other, and that\nthe only divinity is moral harmony.\n\nPoultier D'Elmolte (Fran\u00e7ois Martin), b. Montreuil-sur-Mer, 31\nOct. 1753. Became a Benedictine monk, but cast aside his frock\nat the Revolution, married, and became chief of a battalion of\nvolunteers. Elected to the Convention he voted for the death of\nthe King. He conducted the journal, L'Ami des lois, and became\none of the Council of Ancients. Exiled in 1816, he died at Tournay\nin Belgium, 16 Feb. 1827. He wrote Morceaux Philosophiques in the\nJournal Encyclop\u00e9dique; Victoire, or the Confessions of a Benedictine;\nDiscours D\u00e9cadaires, for the use of Theophilantropists, and Conjectures\non the Nature and Origin of Things, Tournay, 1821.\n\nPowell (B. F.), compiler of the Bible of Reason, or Scriptures of\nAncient Moralists; published by Hetherington in 1837.\n\nPrades (Jean Martin de), French theologian b. Castel-Sarrasin, about\n1720. Brought up for the church, he nevertheless became intimate with\nDiderot and contributed the article Certitude to the Encyclop\u00e9die. On\nthe 18th Nov. 1751 he presented to the Sorbonne a thesis for the\ndoctorate, remarkable as the first open attack on Christianity by\na French theologian. He maintained many propositions on the soul,\nthe origin of society, the laws of Moses, miracles, etc., contrary\nto the dogmas of the Church, and compared the cures recorded in the\nGospels to those attributed to Esculapius. The thesis made a great\nscandal. His opinions were condemned by Pope Benedict XIV., and he\nfled to Holland for safety. Recommended to Frederick the Great by\nd'Alembert he was received with favor at Berlin, and became reader to\nthat monarch, who wrote a very anti-Christian preface to de Prades'\nwork on ecclesiastical history, published as Abr\u00e9ge de l'Histoire\necclesiastique de Fleury, Berne (Berlin) 1766. He retired to a benefice\nat Glogau (Silesia), given him by Frederick, and died there in 1782.\n\nPrater (Horatio), a gentleman of some fortune who devoted himself to\nthe propagation of Freethought ideas. Born early in the century, he\nwrote on the Physiology of the Blood, 1832. He published Letters to\nthe American People, and Literary Essays, '56. Died 20 July, 1885. He\nleft the bulk of his money to benevolent objects, and ordered a deep\nwound to be made in his arm to insure that he was dead.\n\nPreda (Pietro), Italian writer of Milan, author of a work on Revelation\nand Reason, published at Geneva, 1865, under the pseudonym of\n\"Padre Pietro.\"\n\nPremontval (Andre Pierre Le Guay de), French writer, b. Charenton, 16\nFeb. 1716. At nineteen years of age, while in the college of Plessis\nSorbonne, he composed a work against the dogma of the Eucharist. He\nstudied mathematics and became member of the Academy of Sciences\nat Berlin. He wrote Le Diogene de D'Alembert, or Freethoughts on\nMan, 1754, Panangiana Panurgica, or the false Evangelist, and Vues\nPhilosophiques, Amst., 2 vols., 1757. He also wrote De la Th\u00e9ologie\nde L'Etre, in which he denies many of the ordinary proofs of the\nexistence of a God. Died Berlin, 1767.\n\nPriestley (Joseph), LL.D., English philosopher, b. Fieldhead, near\nLeeds, 18 March, 1733. Brought up as a Calvinist, he found his way\nto broad Unitarianism. Famous as a pneumatic chemist, he defended the\ndoctrine of philosophical necessity, and in a dissertation annexed to\nhis edition of Hartley expressed doubts of the immateriality of the\nsentient principal in man. This doctrine he forcibly supported in\nhis Disquisitions on Matter and Spirit, 1777. Through the obloquy\nthese works produced, he lost his position as librarian to Lord\nShelburne. He then removed to Birmingham, and became minister of\nan independent Unitarian congregation, and occupied himself on his\nHistory of the Corruptions of Christianity and History of the Early\nOpinions Concerning Jesus Christ, which involved him in controversy\nwith Bishop Horsley and others. In consequence of his sympathy with\nthe French Revolution, his house was burnt and sacked in a riot,\n14 July, 1791. After this he removed to Hackney, and was finally\ngoaded to seek an asylum in the United States, which he reached in\n1794. Even in America he endured some uneasiness on account of his\nopinions until Jefferson became president. Died 6 Feb. 1804.\n\nPringle (Allen), Canadian Freethinker, author of Ingersoll in Canada,\n1880.\n\nProctor (Richard Anthony), English astronomer, b. Chelsea, 23 March,\n1837. Educated at King's College, London, and at St. John's, Cambridge,\nwhere he became B.A. in '60. In '66 he became Fellow of the Royal\nAstronomical Society, of which he afterwards became hon. sec. He\nmaintained in '69 the since-established theory of the solar corona. He\nwrote, lectured, and edited, far and wide, and left nearly fifty\nvolumes, chiefly popularising science. Attracted by Newman, he was for\na while a Catholic, but thought out the question of Catholicism and\nscience, and in a letter to the New York Tribune, Nov. '75, formally\nrenounced that religion as irreconcilable with scientific facts. His\nremarks on the so-called Star of Bethlehem in The Universe of Suns,\nand other Science Gleanings, and his Sunday lectures, indicated his\nheresy. In '81 he started Knowledge, in which appeared many valuable\npapers, notably one (Jan. '87), \"The Beginning of Christianity.\" He\nentirely rejected the miraculous elements of the gospels, which he\nconsidered largely a rechauff\u00e9 of solar myths. In other articles\nin the Freethinkers' Magazine and the Open Court he pointed out the\ncoincidence between the Christian stories and solar myths, and also\nwith stories found in Josephus. The very last article he published\nbefore his untimely death was a vindication of Colonel Ingersoll\nin his controversy with Gladstone in the North American Review. In\n'84 he settled at St. Josephs, Mobille, where he contracted yellow\nfever and died at New York, 12 Sep. 1888.\n\nProudhon (Pierre Joseph), French anarchist and political thinker,\nb. Besan\u00e7on, 15 Jan. 1809. Self-educated he became a printer,\nand won a prize of 1,500 francs for the person \"best fitted for a\nliterary or scientific career.\" In '40 appears his memoir, What is\nProperty? in which he made the celebrated answer \"C'est le vol.\" In\n'43 the Creation of Order in Humanity appeared, treating of religion,\nphilosophy and logic. In '46 he published his System of Economical\nContradictions, in which appeared his famous aphorism, \"Dieu,\nc'est le mal.\" In '48 he introduced his scheme of the organisation\nof credit in a Bank of the People, which failed, though Proudhon\nsaw that no one lost anything. He attacked Louis Bonaparte when\nPresident, and was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and a fine\nof 10,000 francs. On 2 Jan. '50 he married by private contract while\nin prison. For his work on Justice in the Revolution and in the Church\nhe was condemned to three years' imprisonment and 4,000 francs fine in\n'58. He took refuge in Belgium and returned in '63. Died at Passy,\n19 Jan. 1865. Among his posthumous works was The Gospels Annotated,\n'66. Proudhon was a bold and profound thinker of noble aspirations,\nbut he lacked the sense of art and practicability. His complete works\nhave been published in 26 vols.\n\nProtagoras, Greek philosopher, b. Abdera, about 480 B.C. Is said to\nhave been a disciple of Democritus, and to have been a porter before\nhe studied philosophy. He was the first to call himself a sophist. He\nwrote in a book on the gods, \"Respecting the gods, I am unable to\nknow whether they exist or do not exist.\" For this he was impeached\nand banished, and his book burnt. He went to Epirus and the Greek\nIslands, and died about 411. He believed all things were in flux,\nand summed up his conclusions in the proposition that \"man is the\nmeasure of all things, both of that which exists and that which does\nnot exist.\" Grote, who defends the Sophists, says his philosophy \"had\nthe merit of bringing into forcible relief the essentially relative\nnature of cognition.\"\n\nPrudhomme (Sully). See Sully Prudhomme.\n\nP\u00fcckler Muskau (Hermann Ludwig Heinrich), Prince, a German writer,\nb. Muskau, 30 Oct. 1785. He travelled widely and wrote his observations\nin a work entitled Letters of a Defunct, 1830; this was followed by\nTutti Frutti, '32; Semilasso in Africa, '36, and other works. Died\n4 Feb. 1871.\n\nPushkin (Aleksandr Sergyeevich), eminent Russian poet, often\ncalled the Russian Byron, b. Pskow, 26 May, 1799. From youth he\nwas remarkable for his turbulent spirit, and his first work, which\ncirculated only in manuscript, was founded on Parny's Guerre des\nDieux, and entitled the Gabrielade, the archangel being the hero. He\nwas exiled by the Emperor, but, inspired largely by reading Voltaire\nand Byron, put forward numerous poems and romances, of which the most\npopular is Eugene On\u00e9guine, an imitation of Don Juan. He also wrote\nsome histories and founded the Sovremennik (Contemporary), 1836. In\nJan. 1837 he was mortally wounded in a duel.\n\nPutnam (Samuel P.), American writer and lecturer, brought up as a\nminister. He left that profession for Freethought, and became secretary\nto the American Secular Union, of which he was elected president in\nOct. 1887. In '88 he started Freethought at San Francisco in company\nwith G. Macdonald. Has written poems, Prometheus, Ingersoll and Jesus,\nAdami and Heva; romances entitled Golden Throne, Waifs and Wanderings,\nand Gottlieb, and pamphlets on the Problem of the Universe, The New\nGod, and The Glory of Infidelity.\n\nPutsage (Jules), Belgian follower of Baron Colins, founder of the\nColins Philosophical Society at Mons; has written on Determinism and\nRational Science, Brussels 1885, besides many essays in La Philosophie\nde L'Avenir of Paris and La Societe Nouvelle of Brussels.\n\nPyat (Felix) French socialist, writer and orator, b. Vierzon, 4\nOct. 1810. His father was religious and sent him to a Jesuit college\nat Bourges, but he here secretly read the writings of Beranger and\nCourier. He studied law, but abandoned it for literature, writing in\nmany papers. He also wrote popular dramas, as The Rag-picker of Paris,\n'47. After '52 he lived in England, where he wrote an apology for\nthe attempt of Orsini, published by Truelove, '58. In '71 he founded\nthe journal le Combat. Elected to the National Assembly he protested\nagainst the treaty of peace, was named member of the Commune and\ncondemned to death in '73. He returned to France after the armistice,\nand has sat as deputy for Marseilles. Died, Saint Gerainte near Nice,\n3 Aug. 1889.\n\nPyrrho. Greek philosopher, a native of Elis, in Peloponesus, founder of\na sceptical school about the time of Epicurus; is said to have been\nattracted to philosophy by the books of Democritus. He attached himself\nto Anaxarchus, and joined her in the expedition of Alexander the Great,\nand became acquainted with the philosophy of the Magi and the Indian\nGymnosophists. He taught the wisdom of doubt, the uncertainty of all\nthings, and the rejection of speculation. His disciples extolled his\nequanimity and independence of externals. It is related that he kept\nhouse with his sister, and shared with her in all domestic duties. He\nreached the age of ninety years, and after his death the Athenians\nhonored him with a statue. He left no writings, but the tenets of his\nschool, which were much misrepresented, may be gathered from Sextus\nand Empiricus.\n\nQuental. See Anthero de Quental.\n\n\"Quepat (N\u00e9r\u00e9e.\") See Paquet (Ren\u00e9).\n\nQuesnay (Fran\u00e7ois), French economist, b. M\u00e9rey, 4 June 1694. Self\neducated he became a physician, but is chiefly noted for his Tableau\nEconomique, 1708, and his doctrine of Laissez Faire. He derived moral\nand social rules from physical laws. Died Versailles, 16 Dec. 1774.\n\nQuinet (Edgar), French writer, b. Bourgen Bresse, 17 Feb. 1803. He\nattracted the notice of Cousin by a translation of Herder's The\nPhilosophy of History. With his friend Michelet he made many attacks\non Catholicism, the Jesuits being their joint work. He fought in\nthe Revolution of '48, and opposed the Second Empire. His work on\nThe Genius of Religion, '42, is profound, though mystical, and his\nhistorical work on The Revolution, '65 is a masterpiece. Died at\nVersailles, 27 March, 1875.\n\nQuintin (Jean), Heretic of Picardy, and alleged founder of the\nLibertines. He is said to have preached in Holland and Brabant in\n1525, that religion was a human invention. Quintin was arrested and\nburnt at Tournay in 1530.\n\nQuris (Charles), French advocate of Angers, who has published some\nworks on law and La D\u00e9fense Catholique et la Critique, Paris, 1864.\n\nRabelais (Fran\u00e7ois), famous and witty French satirist and philosopher,\nb. Chinon, Touraine, 7 Jan. 1495. At an early age he joined the order\nof Franciscans, but finding monastic life incompatible with his genial\ntemper, quitted the convent without the leave of his superior. He\nstudied medicine at Montpelier about 1530, after which he practised\nat Lyons. His great humorous work, published anonymously in 1535, was\ndenounced as heretical by the clergy for its satires, not only on their\norder but their creed. The author was protected by Francis I. and was\nappointed cur\u00e9 of Meudon. Died at Paris, 9 April, 1553. His writings\nshow surprising fertility of mind, and Coleridge says, \"Beyond a\ndoubt he was among the deepest as well as boldest thinkers of his age.\"\n\nRadenhausen (Christian), German philosopher, b. Friedrichstadt, 3\nDec. 1813. At first a merchant and then a lithographer, he resided\nat Hamburg, where he published Isis, Mankind and the World (4 vols.),\n'70-72; Osiris, '74; The New Faith, '77; Christianity is Heathenism,\n'81; The True Bible and the False, '87; Esther, '87.\n\nRadicati (Alberto di), Count. See Passerano.\n\nRagon (Jean Marie de), French Freemason, b. Bray-sur-Seine, 1781. By\nprofession a civil engineer at Nancy, afterwards Chief of Bureau to\nthe Minister of the Interior. Author of many works on Freemasonry,\nand The Mass and its Mysteries Compared with the Ancient Mysteries,\n1844. Died at Paris, 1862.\n\nRam (Joachim Gerhard), Holstein philosopher of the seventeenth century,\nwho was accused of Atheism.\n\nRamaer (Anton Gerard Willem), Dutch writer b. Jever, East Friesland,\n2 Aug. 1812. From '29 he served as officer in the Dutch army. He\nafterwards became a tax collector, and in '60 was pensioned. He wrote\non Schopenhauer and other able works, and also contributed largely\nto De Dageraad, often under the pseudonym of \"La\u00e7hm\u00e9.\" He had a noble\nmind and sacrificed much for his friends and the good cause. Died 16\nFeb. 1867.\n\nRamee (Louise de la), English novelist, b., of French extraction,\nBury St. Edmunds, 1840. Under the name of \"Ouida,\" a little sister's\nmispronunciation of Louisa, she has published many popular novels,\nexhibiting her free and pessimistic opinions. We mention Tricotin,\nFolle Farine, Signa, Moths and A Village Commune. She has lived much\nin Italy, where the scenes of several novels are placed.\n\nRamee (Pierre de la) called Ramus, French humanist, b. Cuth\n(Vermandois) 1515. He attacked the doctrines of Aristotle, was accused\nof impiety, and his work suppressed 1543. He lost his life in the\nmassacre of St. Bartholomew, 26 Aug. 1572.\n\nRamsey (William James), b. London, 8 June, 1844. Becoming a Freethinker\nearly in life, he for some time sold literature at the Hall of Science\nand became manager of the Freethought Publishing Co. Starting in\nbusiness for himself he published the Freethinker, for which in '82\nhe was prosecuted with Mr. Foote and Mr. Kemp. Tried in March '83,\nafter a good defence, he was sentenced to nine months' imprisonment,\nand on Mr. Foote's release acted as printer of the paper.\n\nRanc (Arthur), French writer and deputy, b. Poitiers, 10 Dec. 1831,\nand was brought up a Freethinker and Republican by his parents. He\ntook the prize for philosophy at the College of Poitiers, and studied\nlaw at Paris. He conspired with C. Delescluze against the Second\nEmpire and was imprisoned, but escaped to Geneva. He collaborated on\nLa Marseillaise, was elected on the Municipal Council of Paris in\n'71, and Deputy, '73. Has written Under the Empire and many other\npolitical works.\n\nRandello (Cosimo), Italian author of The Simple Story of a Great\nFraud, being a criticism of the origin of Christianity, directed\nagainst Pauline theology, published at Milan, 1882.\n\nRapisardi (Mario), Italian poet, b. Catania, Sicily, 1843. Has\ntranslated Lucretius, '80, and published poems on Lucifer, and The\nLast Prayer of Pius IX., '71, etc.\n\nRaspail (Fran\u00e7ois Vincent), French chemist and politician b. Carpentras\n24 Jan. 1794, was brought up by ecclesiastics and intended for the\nChurch. He became, while quite young, professor of philosophy at the\ntheological seminary of Avignon but an examination of theological\ndogmas led to their rejection. He went to Paris, and from 1815-24 gave\nlessons, and afterwards became a scientific lecturer. He took part\nin the Revolution of '30. Louis Philippe offered him the Legion of\nHonor but he refused. Taking part in all the revolutionary outbreaks\nhe was frequently imprisoned. Elected to the chamber in '69 and sat\non the extreme left. Died at Arcueil 6 Jan. 1878.\n\nRau (Herbert), German rationalist b. Frankfort 11 Feb. 1813. He studied\ntheology and became preacher to free congregations in Stuttgart and\nMannheim. He wrote Gospel of Nature, A Catechism of the Religion of\nthe Future, and other works. Died Frankfort 26 Sept. 1876.\n\nRawson (Albert Leighton) LL.D. American traveller and author,\nb. Chester, Vermont 15 Oct. 1829. After studying law, theology, and\nart, he made four visits to the East, and made in '51-2 a pilgrimage\nfrom Cairo to Mecca, disguised as a Mohammedan student of medicine. He\nhas published many maps and typographical and philological works,\nand illustrated Beecher's Life of Jesus. Has also written on\nthe Antiquities of the Orient, New York, '70, and Chorography of\nPalestine, London, '80. Has written in the Freethinkers' Magazine,\nmaintaining that the Bible account of the twelve tribes of Israel\nis non-historical.\n\nRaynal (Guillaume Thomas Fran\u00e7ois) l'abb\u00e9, French historian and\nphilosopher, b. Saint Geniez, 12 April, 1713. He was brought up as a\npriest but renounced that profession soon after his removal to Paris,\n1747, where he became intimate with Helvetius, Holbach, etc. With\nthe assistance of these, and Diderot, Pechmeja, etc., he compiled a\nphilosophical History of European establishments in the two Indies\n(4 vols. 1770 and 1780), a work full of reflections on the religious\nand political institutions of France. It made a great outcry, was\ncensured by the Sorbonne, and was burnt by order of Parliament 29 May,\n1781. Raynal escaped and passed about six years in exile. Died near\nParis, 6 March, 1796.\n\nReade (William Winwood), English traveller and writer, nephew of\nCharles Reade the novelist, b. Murrayfield, near Crieff, Scotland,\n26 Dec. 1824. He studied at Oxford, then travelled much in the heart\nof Africa, and wrote Savage Africa, '63, The African Sketch Book,\nand in '73, The Story of the Ashantee Campaign; which he accompanied\nas Times correspondent. In the Martyrdom of Man ('72), he rejects\nthe doctrine of a personal creator. It went through several editions\nand is still worth reading. He also wrote Liberty Hall, a novel,\n'60; The Veil of Isis, '61, and See Saw, a novel, '65. He wrote his\nlast work The Outcast, a Freethought novel, with the hand of death\nupon him. Died 24 April, 1875.\n\nReber (George), American author of The Christ of Paul, or the Enigmas\nof Christianity (New York, 1876), a work in which he exposes the\nfrauds and follies of the early fathers.\n\nReclus (Jean Jacques Elis\u00e9e), French geographer and socialist, the\nson of a Protestant minister, b. Sainte-Foy-la-Grande (Gironde), 15\nMarch, 1830, and educated by the Moravian brethren, and afterwards at\nBerlin. He early distinguished himself by his love for liberty, and\nleft France after the coup d'\u00e9tat of 2 Dec. '51, and travelled till '57\nin England, Ireland, and the North and South America, devoting himself\nto studying the social and political as well as physical condition of\nthe countries he visited, the results being published in the Tour du\nmonde, and Revue des Deux Mondes, in which he upheld the cause of the\nNorth during the American war. In '71 he supported the Commune and was\ntaken prisoner and sentenced to transportation for life. Many eminent\nmen in England and America interceded and his sentence was commuted\nto banishment. At the amnesty of March '79, he returned to Paris,\nand has devoted himself to the publication of a standard Universal\nGeography in 13 vols. In '82 he gave two of his daughters in marriage\nwithout either religious or civil ceremony. He has written a preface\nto Bakounin's God and the State, and many other works.\n\nReddalls (George Holland), English Secularist, b. Birmingham,\nNov. 1846. He became a compositor on the Birmingham Daily Post, but\nwishing to conduct a Freethought paper started in business for himself,\nand issued the Secular Chronicle, '73, which was contributed to by\nFrancis Neale, H. V. Mayer, G. Standring, etc. He died 13 Oct. 1875.\n\nReghillini de Schio (M.), Professor of Chemistry and Mathematics,\nb. of Venetian parents at Schio in 1760. He wrote in French an\nable exposition of Masonry, 1833, which he traced to Egypt; and an\nExamination of Mosaism and Christianity, '34. He was mixed in the\ntroubles of Venice in '48, and fled to Belgium, dying in poverty at\nBrussels Aug. 1853.\n\nRegnard (Albert Adrien), French doctor and publicist, b. Lachante\n(Ni\u00e8vre), 20 March, 1836, author of Essais d'Histoire et de\nCritique Scientifique (Paris, '65)--a work for which he could\nfind no publisher, and had to issue himself--in which he proclaimed\nscientific materialism. Losing his situation, he started, with Naquet\nand Clemenceau, the Revue Encyclop\u00e9dique, which being suppressed\non its first number, he started La Libre Pens\u00e9e with Asseline,\nCondereau, etc. His articles in this journal drew on him and Eudes\na condemnation of four months' imprisonment. He wrote New Researches\non Cerebral Congestion, '68, and was one of the French delegates to\nthe anti-Council of Naples, '69. Has published Atheism, studies of\npolitical science, dated Londres, '78; a History of England since 1815;\nand has translated B\u00fcchner's Force and Matter, '84. He was delegate\nto the Freethinkers' International Congress at Antwerp, '85.\n\nRegnard (Jean Fran\u00e7ois), French comic poet, b. Paris. 8 Feb. 1655. He\nwent to Italy about 1676, and on returning home was captured by an\nAlgerian corsair and sold as a slave. Being caught in an intrigue\nwith one of the women, he was required to turn Muhammadan. The French\nconsul paid his ransom and he returned to France about 1681. He wrote\na number of successful comedies and poems, and was made a treasurer\nof France. He died as an Epicurean, 4 Sept. 1709.\n\nRegnier (Mathurin), French satirical poet, b. Chartres, 21\nDec. 1573. Brought up for the Church, he showed little inclination for\nits austerities, and was in fact a complete Pagan, though he obtained\na canonry in the cathedral of his native place. Died at Rouen, 22\nOct. 1613.\n\nReich (Eduard) Dr., German physician and anthropologist of Sclav\ndescent on his father's side, b. Olm\u00fctz, 6 March 1839. He studied at\nJena and has travelled much, and published over thirty volumes besides\nediting the Athen\u00e6um of Jena '75, and Universities of Grossenbain,\n'83. Of his works we mention Man and the Soul, '72; The Church of\nHumanity, '74; Life of Man as an Individual, '81; History of the Soul,\n'84; The Emancipation of Women, '84.\n\nReil (Johann Christian), German physician, b. Rauden, East Friesland,\n20 Feb. 1758. Intended for the Church, he took instead to medicine;\nafter practising some years in his native town he went in 1787\nto Halle, and in 1810 he was made Professor of Medicine at Berlin\nUniversity. He wrote many medical works, and much advanced medical\nscience, displacing the old ideas in a way which brought on him the\naccusation of pantheism. Attending a case of typhus fever at Halle\nhe was attacked by the malady, and succumbed 22 Nov. 1813.\n\nReimarus (Hermann Samuel), German philologist, b. Hamburg, 22\nDec. 1694. He was a son-in-law of J. A. Fabricus. Studied at Jena and\nWittenberg; travelled in Holland and England; and was appointed rector\nof the gymnasium in Weimar, 1723, and in Hamburg, 1729. He was one of\nthe most radical among German rationalists. He published a work on\nThe Principle Truths of Natural Religion, 1754, and left behind the\nWolfenb\u00fcttel Fragments, published by Lessing in 1777. Died at Hamburg,\n1 March, 1768. Strauss has written an account of his services, 1862.\n\nReitzel (Robert), German American revolutionary, b. Baden, 1849. Named\nafter Blum, studied theology, went to America, walked from New\nYork to Baltimore, and was minister to an independent Protestant\nchurch. Studied biology and resigned as a minister, and became speaker\nof a Freethought congregation at Washington for seven years. Is now\neditor of Der Arme Teufel of Detroit, and says he \"shall be a poor\nman and a Revolutionaire all my life.\"\n\nRemsburg (John E.), American lecturer and writer, b. 1848. Has\nwritten a series of pamphlets entitled The Image Breaker, False\nClaims of the Christian Church, '83, Sabbath Breaking, Thomas Paine,\nand a vigorous onslaught on Bible Morals, instancing twenty crimes\nand vices sanctioned by scripture, '85.\n\nRenan (Joseph Ernest), learned French writer, b. Tr\u00e9guier (Brittany)\n27 Feb. 1823. Was intended for the Church and went to Paris to\nstudy. He became noted for his linguistic attainment, but his\nstudies and independence of thought did not accord with his intended\nprofession. My faith, he says was destroyed not by metaphysics\nnor philosophy but by historical criticism. In '45 he gave up all\nthoughts of an ecclesiastic career and became a teacher. In '48\nhe gained the Volney prize, for a memoir on the Semitic Languages,\nafterwards amplified into a work on that subject. In '52 he published\nhis work on Averro\u00ebs and Averro\u00efsm. In '56 was elected member of\nthe Academy of Inscriptions, and in '60 sent on a mission to Syria;\nhaving in the meantime published a translation of Job and Song of\nSongs. Here he wrote his long contemplated Vie de Jesus, '63. In\n'61 he had been appointed Professor of Hebrew in the Institute of\nFrance, but denounced by bishops and clergy he was deprived of his\nchair, which was, however, restored in '70. The Pope did not disdain\nto attack him personally as a \"French blasphemer.\" The Vie de Jesus\nis part of a comprehensive History of the Origin of Christianity, in\n8 vols., '63-83, which includes The Apostles, St Paul, Anti-Christ,\nThe Gospels, The Christian Church, and Marcus Aurelius, and the end\nof the Antique World. Among his other works we must mention Studies on\nReligious History ('58), Philosophical Dialogues and Fragments ('76),\nSpinoza ('77), Caliban, a satirical drama ('80), the Hibbert Lecture\non the Influence of Rome on Christians, Souvenirs, '84; New Studies\nof Religious History,'84; The Abbess of Jouarre, a drama which made\na great sensation in '86; and The History of the People of Israel,\n'87-89.\n\nRenand (Paul), Belgian author of a work entitled Nouvelle Symbolique,\non the identity of Christianity and Paganism, published at Brussels\nin 1861.\n\nRengart (Karl Fr.), of Berlin, b. 1803, democrat and freethought\nfriend of C. Deubler. Died about 1879.\n\nRenard (Georges), French professor of the Academie of Lausanne;\nauthor of Man, is he Free? 1881, and a Life of Voltaire, '83.\n\nRenouvier (Charles Bernard), French philosopher, b. Montpellier,\n1815. An ardent Radical and follower of the critical philosophy. Among\nhis works are Manual of Ancient Philosophy (2 vols., '44); Republican\nManual, '48; Essays of General Criticism, '54; Science of Morals, '69;\na translation, made with F. Pillon, of Hume's Psychology, '78; and A\nSketch of a Systematic Classification of Philosophical Doctrines, '85.\n\nRenton (William), English writer, b. Edinburgh, 1852. Educated in\nGermany. Wrote poems entitled Oil and Water Colors, and a work on The\nLogic of Style, '74. At Keswick he published Jesus, a psychological\nestimate of that hero, '76. Has since published a romance of the last\ngeneration called Bishopspool, '83.\n\nRethore (Fran\u00e7ois), French professor of philosophy at the Lyceum of\nMarseilles, b. Amiens, 1822. Author of a work entitled Condillac,\nor Empiricism and Rationalism, '64. Has translated H. Spencer's\nClassification of Sciences.\n\nReuschle (Karl Gustav), German geographer, b. Mehrstetten, 12\nDec. 1812. He wrote on Kepler and Astronomy, '71, and Philosophy and\nNatural Science, '74, dedicated to the memory of D. F. Strauss. Died\nat Stuttgart, 22 May, 1875.\n\nRevillon (Antoine, called Tony), French journalist and deputy,\nb. Saint-Laurent-les M\u00e2con (Ain), 29 Dec. 1832. At first a lawyer in\n'57, he went to Paris, where he has written on many journals, and\npublished many romances and brochures. In '81 he was elected deputy.\n\nRey (Marc Michel), printer and bookseller of Amsterdam. He printed\nall the works of d'Holbach and Rousseau and some of Voltaire's,\nand conducted the Journal des Savans.\n\nReynaud (Antoine Andre Louis), Baron, French mathematician, b. Paris,\n12 Sept. 1777. In 1790 he became one of the National Guard of Paris. He\nwas teacher and examiner for about thirty years in the Polytechnic\nSchool. A friend of Lalande. Died Paris, 24 Feb. 1844.\n\nReynaud (Jean Ernest), French philosopher, b. Lyons, 14 Feb. 1806. For\na time he was a Saint Simonian. In '36 he edited with P. Leroux the\nEncyclop\u00e9die Nouvelle. He was a moderate Democrat in the Assembly\nof '48. His chief work, entitled Earth and Heaven, '54, had great\nsuccess. It was formally condemned by a clerical council held at\nP\u00e9rigueux. Died Paris, 28 June, 1863.\n\nReynolds (Charles B.), American lecturer, b. 4 Aug. 1832. Was\nbrought up religiously, and became a Seventh Day Baptist preacher,\nbut was converted to Freethought. He was prosecuted for blasphemy\nat Morristown, New Jersey, May 19, 20, 1887, and was defended by\nCol. Ingersoll. The verdict was one of guilty, and the sentence was\na paltry fine of 25 dollars. Has written in the Boston Investigator,\nTruthseeker, and Ironclad Age.\n\nReynolds (George William MacArthur), English writer; author of many\nnovels. Wrote Errors of the Christian Religion, 1832.\n\nRialle (J. Girard de), French anthropologist, b. Paris 1841. He\nwrote in La Pens\u00e9e Nouvelle, conducted the Revue de Linguistique et\nde Philologie compar\u00e9e, and has written on Comparative Mythology,\ndealing with fetishism, etc., '78, and works on Ethnology.\n\nRibelt (L\u00e9once), French publicist, b. Bordeaux 1824, author of several\npolitical works and collaborator on La Morale Ind\u00e9pendante.\n\nRibeyrolles (Charles de), French politician, b. near Martel (Lot)\n1812. Intended for the Church, he became a social democrat; edited the\nEmancipation of Toulouse, and La R\u00e9forme in '48. A friend of V. Hugo,\nhe shared in his exile at Jersey. Died at Rio-Janeiro, 13 June, 1861.\n\nRibot (Th\u00e9odule), French philosopher, b. Guingamp (C\u00f4tes du-Nord)\n1839; has written Contemporary English Psychology '70, a resume of\nthe views of Mill, Bain, and Spencer, whose Principles of Psychology\nhe has translated. Has also written on Heredity, '73; The Philosophy\nof Schopenhauer, '74; The maladies of Memory, personality and Will,\n3 vols.; and Contemporary German Psychology. He conducts the Revue\nPhilosophique.\n\nRicciardi (Giuseppe Napoleone), Count, Italian patriot, b. Capodimonte\n(Naples), 19 July, 1808, son of Francesco Ricciardi, Count of\nCamaldoli, 1758-1842. Early in life he published patriotic poems. He\nsays that never after he was nineteen did he kneel before a priest. In\n'32 he founded at Naples Il Progresso, a review of science, literature,\nand art. Arrested in '34 as a Republican conspirator, he was imprisoned\neight months and then lived in exile in France until '48. Here he\nwrote in the Revue Ind\u00e9pendante, pointing out that the Papacy from\nits very essence was incompatible with liberty. Elected deputy to the\nNeapolitan Parliament, he sat on the extreme left. He wrote a History\nof the Revolution of Italy in '48 (Paris '49). Condemned to death in\n'53, his fortune was seized. He wrote an Italian Martyrology from\n1792-1847 (Turin '56), and The Pope and Italy, '62. At the time of the\nEcumenical Council he called an Anti-council of Freethinkers at Naples,\n'69. This was dissolved by the Italian government, but it led to the\nInternational Federation of Freethinkers. Count Ricciardi published\nan account of the congress. His last work was a life of his friend\nMauro Macchi, '82. Died 1884.\n\nRichepin (Jean), French poet, novelist, and dramatist, b. M\u00e9d\u00e9ah\n(Algeria) in 1849. He began life as a doctor, and during the\nFranco-German war took to journalism. In '76 he published the Song\nof the Beggars, which was suppressed. In '84 appeared Les Blasph\u00e8mes,\nwhich has gone through several editions.\n\nRicher (L\u00e9on), French Deist and journalist, b. Laigh, 1824. He was\nwith A. Gu\u00e9roult editor of l'Opinion Nationale, and in '69 founded and\nedits L'Avenir des Femmes. In '68 he published Letters of a Freethinker\nto a Village Priest, and has written many volumes in favor of the\nemancipation of women, collaborating with Mdlle. Desraismes in the\nWomen's Rights congresses held in Paris.\n\nRickman (Thomas Clio), English Radical. He published several volumes\nof poems and a life of his friend Thomas Paine, 1819, of whom he\nalso published an excellent portrait painted by Romney and engraved\nby Sharpe.\n\nRiem (Andreas), German rationalist b. Frankenthal 1749. He became\na preacher, and was appointed by Frederick the Great chaplain of a\nhospital at Berlin. This he quitted in order to become secretary of the\nAcademy of Painting. He wrote anonymously on the Aufklaring. Died 1807.\n\nRitter (Charles), Swiss writer b. Geneva 1838, and has translated into\nFrench Strauss's Essay of Religious History, George Eliot's Fragments\nand Thoughts, and Zeller's Christian Baur and the T\u00fcbingen School.\n\nRoalfe (Matilda), a brave woman, b. 1813. At the time of the blasphemy\nprosecutions in 1843, she went from London to Edinburgh to uphold\nthe right of free publication. She opened a shop and circulated a\nmanifesto setting forth her determination to sell works she deemed\nuseful \"whether they did or did not bring into contempt the Holy\nScriptures and the Christian Religion.\" When prosecuted for selling The\nAge of Reason, The Oracle of Reason, etc., she expressed her intention\nof continuing her offence as soon as liberated. She was sentenced to\ntwo months imprisonment 23 Jan. '44, and on her liberation continued\nthe sale of the prosecuted works. She afterwards married Mr. Walter\nSanderson and settled at Galashiels, where she died 29 Nov. 1880.\n\nRobert (Pierre Fran\u00e7ois Joseph), French conventionnel and friend of\nBrissot and Danton, b. Gimn\u00e9e (Ardennes) 21 Jan. 1763. Brought up\nto the law he became professor of public law to the philosophical\nsociety. He was nominated deputy for Paris, and wrote Republicanism\nadapted to France, 1790, became secretary to Danton, and voted for the\ndeath of the king. He wrote in Prudhomme's R\u00e9volutions de Paris. Died\nat Brussels 1826.\n\nRobertson (A. D.), editor of the Free Enquirer, published at New\nYork, 1835.\n\nRobertson (John Mackinnon), Scotch critic, b. Arran, 14 Nov. 1856. He\nbecame journalist on the Edinburgh Evening News, and afterwards on\nthe National Reformer. Mr. Robertson has published a study of Walt\nWhitman in the \"Round Table Series.\" Essays towards a Critical Method,\n'89, and has contributed to Our Corner, Time, notably an article on\nMithraism, March, '89, The Westminster Review, etc. He has also issued\npamphlets on Socialism and Malthusianism, and Toryism and Barbarism,\n'85, and edited Hume's Essay on Natural Religion, '89.\n\nRoberty (Eug\u00e8ne de), French positivist writer, of Russian birth,\nb. Podolia (Russia), 1843; author of works on Sociology, Paris, '81,\nand The Old and the New Philosophy, an essay on the general laws of\nphilosophic development, '87. He has recently written a work entitled\nThe Unknowable, '89.\n\nRobin (Charles Philippe), French physician, senator member of the\nInstitute and of the Academy of Medecine, b. Jasseron (Aix), 4 June,\n1821. Became M.D. in '46, and D.Sc. '47. In company with Littr\u00e9 he\nrefounded Nysten's Dictionary of Medicine, and he has written many\nimportant medical works, and one on Instruction. In '72 his name was\nstruck out of the list of jurors on the ground of his unbelief in God,\nand it thus remained despite many protests until '76. In the same\nyear he was elected Senator, and sits with the Republican Left. He\nhas been decorated with the Legion of Honor.\n\nRobinet (Jean Baptiste Ren\u00e9), French philosopher, b. Rennes, 23 June,\n1735. He became a Jesuit, but gave it up and went to Holland to publish\nhis curious work, De la Nature, 1776, by some attributed to Toussaint\nand to Diderot. He continued Marsy's Analysis of Bayle, edited the\nSecret Letters of Voltaire, translated Hume's Moral Essays, and took\npart in the Recueil Philosophique, published by J. L. Castilhon. Died\nat Rennes, 24 March, 1820.\n\nRobinet (Jean Eug\u00e8ne Fran\u00e7ois), French physician and publicist,\nb. Vic-sur-Seille, 1825. He early attached himself to the person\nand doctrine of Auguste Comte, and became his physician and one of\nhis executors. During the war of '70 he was made Mayor of the Sixth\nArrondissement of Paris. He has written a Notice of the Work and\nLife of A. Comte, '60, a memoir of the private life of Danton, '65,\nThe Trial of the Dantonists, '79, and contributed an account of the\nPositive Philosophy of A. Comte and P. Lafitte to the \"Biblioth\u00e8que\nUtile,\" vol. 66, '81.\n\nRoell (Hermann Alexander), German theologian, b. 1653, author of a\nDeistic dissertation on natural religion, published at Frankfort in\n1700. Died Amsterdam, 12 July, 1718.\n\nRogeard (Louis Auguste), French publicist, b. Chartres, 25 April,\n1820. Became a teacher but was dismissed for refusing to attend\nmass. In '49 he moved to Paris and took part in the revolutionary\nmovement. He was several times imprisoned under the Empire, and in\n'65 was sentenced to five years' imprisonment for writing Les Propos\nde Labienus (London, i.e. Z\u00fcrich), '65. He fled to Belgium and wrote\nsome excellent criticism on the Bible in the Rive Gauche. In '71\nhe assisted Pyat on Le Vengeur, and was elected on the Commune but\ndeclined to sit. An incisive writer, he signed himself \"Atheist.\" Is\nstill living in Paris.\n\nRokitansky (Karl), German physician and scientist, founder of the\nViennese school in medicine, b. K\u00f6niggr\u00e4tz (Bohemia) 11 Feb. 1804,\nstudied medicine at Prague and Vienna, and received his degree of\nDoctor in '28. His principal work is a Manual of Practical Anatomy,\n'42-6. Died Vienna, 23 July, 1878.\n\nRoland (Marie Jeanne), n\u00e9e Phlipon, French patriot, b. Paris, 17 March,\n1754. Fond of reading, Plutarch's Lives influenced her greatly. At\na convent she noted the names of sceptics attached and read their\nwritings, being, she says, in turn Jansenist, stoic, sceptic, atheist,\nand deist. The last she remained, though Miss Blind classes her with\nAgnostics. After her marriage in 1779 with Jean Marie Roland de la\nPlati\u00eare (b. Lyons, 1732), Madame Roland shared the tasks and studies\nof her husband, and the Revolution found her an ardent consort. On\nthe appointment of her husband to the ministry, she became the centre\nof a Girondist circle. Carlyle calls her \"the creature of Simplicity\nand Nature, in an age of Artificiality, Pollution, and Cant,\" and\n\"the noblest of all living Frenchwomen.\" On the fall of her party\nshe was imprisoned, and finally executed, 8 Nov. 1793. Her husband,\nthen in hiding, hearing of her death, deliberately stabbed himself,\n15 Nov. 1793.\n\nRolph (William Henry), German philosopher, b. of English father,\nBerlin, 26 Aug. 1847. He became privat-docent of Zoology in the\nUniversity of Leipsic, and wrote an able work on Biological Problems,\n'84, in which he accepts evolution, discards theology, and places\nethics on a natural basis. Died 1 Aug. 1883.\n\nRomagnosi (Giovanni Domenico), Italian philosopher and jurist,\nb. Salso Maggiore, 13 Dec. 1761. He published in 1791 an able work\non penal legislation, Genesis of Penal Law, many pages of which are\nborrowed from d'Holbach's System of Nature. He became Professor of\nLaw in Parma, Milan, and Pavia. A member of the Italian Academy,\nhe was named professor at Corfu, where he died 8 June, 1835. In\n'21 he wrote Elements of Philosophy, followed by What is a Sound\nMind? ('27) and Ancient Moral Philosophy, '32. A somewhat obscure\nwriter, he nevertheless contributed to the positive study of sociology.\n\nRomiti (Guglielmo), Italian Positivist. Professor of Anatomy in the\nUniversity of Siena. Has published Anatomical Notes, and a Discourse\nwhich excited some commotion among the theologians.\n\nRomme (Gilbert), French Mathematician, b. Riou, 1750, became deputy\nto the Legislative Assembly in 1791, and to the Convention in 1792. In\nSept. 1793 he introduced the new Republican Calendar, the plan of which\nwas drawn by Lalande, and the names assigned by Fabre d'Eglantine. He\nadvocated the F\u00eates of Reason. Being condemned to death, he committed\nsuicide, 18 June, 1795. His brother Charles, b. 1744, was also an\neminent geometrician, and a friend of Laland. He died 15 June, 1805.\n\nRonge (Johannes), German religious reformer, b. Bischopwalde\n(Silesia), 16 Oct. 1813. He entered the seminary of Breslau,\nand became a Catholic priest in '40. His liberal views and bold\npreaching soon led to his suspension. In '44 his letter denouncing the\nworship of \"the holy coat,\" exhibited by Arnoldi, Bishop of Treves,\nmade much clamor. Excommunicated by the Church, he found many free\ncongregations, but was proscribed after the revolution of '49 and took\nrefuge in England. In '51 he issued a revolutionary manifesto. In\n'61 he returned to Frankfort, and in '73 settled at Darmstadt. Died\nat Vienna, 25 Oct. 1887.\n\nRonsard (Pierre), French poet, b. of noble family 11 Sept. 1524. He\nbecame page to the Duke of Orleans, and afterwards to James V. of\nScotland. Returning to France, he was a great favorite at the French\nCourt. Died 27 Dec. 1585.\n\nRoorda van Eysinga (Sicco Ernst Willem), Dutch positivist, b. Batavia\n(Java), 8 Aug. 1825. He served as engineer at Java, and was expelled\nabout '64 for writing on behalf of the Javanese. He contributed\nto the De Dageraad and Revue Positive. Died Clarens (Switzerland),\n23 Oct. 1887.\n\nRoquetaillade (Jean de la), also known as Rupescina, early French\nreformer of Auvillac (Auvergne), who entered the order of the\nFranciscans. His bold discourses led to his imprisonment at Avignon\n1356, by order of Innocent VI., when he wrote an apology. Accused\nof Magic, Nostradamus says he was burnt at Avignon in 1362, but this\nhas been disputed.\n\nRose (Charles H.), formerly of Adelaide, Australia, author of A Light\nto Lighten the Gentiles, 1881.\n\nRose (Ernestine Louise) n\u00e9e S\u00fcsmond Potowsky, Radical reformer\nand orator, b. Peterkov (Poland), 13 Jan. 1810. Her father was\na Jewish Rabbi. From early life she was of a bold and inquiring\ndisposition. At the age of 17 she went to Berlin. She was in Paris\nduring the Revolution of '30. Soon after she came to England where she\nembraced the views of Robert Owen, who called her his daughter. Here\nshe married Mr. William E. Rose, a gentleman of broad Liberal views. In\nMay '36, they went to the United States and became citizens of the\nRepublic. Mrs. Rose lectured in all the states on the social system,\nthe formation of character, priestcraft, etc. She lectured against\nslavery in the slave-owning states and sent in '38 the first petition\nto give married women the right to hold real estate. She was one\nof the inaugurators of the Woman's Rights Movement, and a constant\nchampion of Freethought. An eloquent speaker, some of her addresses\nhave been published. Defence of Atheism, Women's Rights and Speech\nat the Hartford Bible Convention in '54. About '73 she returned to\nEngland where she still lives. One of her last appearances at public\nwas at the Conference of Liberal Thinkers at South Place Chapel in\n'76, where she delivered a pointed speech. Mrs. Rose has a fine face\nand head, and though aged and suffering, retains the utmost interest\nin the Freethought cause.\n\nRoskoff (Georg Gustav), German rationalist, b. Presburg, Hungary, 30\nAug. 1814. He studied theology and philosophy at Halle, and has written\nworks on Hebrew Antiquity, '57. The Samson legend and Herakles myth,\n'60, and a standard History of the Devil in 2 vols., Leipzig, '69.\n\nRoss (William Stewart), Scotch writer, b. 20 Mar. 1844. Author of\npoems and educational works, and editor of Secular Review, now The\nAgnostic Journal. Wrote God and his Book, '87, and several brochures\npublished under the pen name of \"Saladin.\"\n\nRosseau (Leon), French writer in the Rationalist of Geneva under the\nname of L. Russelli. He published separately the Female Followers of\nJesus, founded the Horizon, contributed to la Libre Pens\u00e9e, and was\neditor of l'Ath\u00e9e. Died 1870.\n\nRossetti (Dante Gabriel), poet and painter, b. of Italian parents,\nLondon, 12 May, 1828. Educated at King's College, he became a student\nat the Royal Academy and joined the pre-Raphaelites. As a poet\nartist he exhibited the richest gifts of originality, earnestness,\nand splendour of expression. Died at Westgate on Sea, 9 April, 1882.\n\nRossetti (William Michael) critic and man of letters, brother of\nthe preceding, b. London, 25 Sep. 1829. Educated at King's College,\nhe became assistant secretary in the Inland Revenue Office. He has\nacted as critic for many papers and edited many works, the chief being\nan edition of Shelley, '70, with a memoir and numerous notes. He is\nChairman of the Committee of the Shelley Society.\n\nRossmaessler (Emil Adolf), German naturalist b. Leipsic 3 March,\n1806. Studied theology, but abandoned it for science, and wrote many\nscientific works of repute. In '48 he was elected to Parliament. Among\nhis writings are Man in the Mirror of Nature. '49-55. The History of\nthe Earth, '68. Died as a philosopher 8 April, 1867.\n\nRoth (Julius), Dr., German author of Religion and Priestcraft, Leipzig,\n1869; Jesuitism, '71.\n\nRothenbuecher (Adolph), Dr., German author of an able little Handbook\nof Morals, written from the Secular standpoint, Cottbus, 1884.\n\nRotteck (Karl Wenceslaus von), German historian and statesman\nb. Freiburg 18 July, 1775. Studied in his native town, where in\n1798 be became Professor of History. In 1819 he represented his\nUniversity in the States of Baden, where he distinguished himself by\nhis liberal views. He was forbidden by government to edit any paper\nand was deprived of his chair. This persecution hastened his death,\nwhich occurred 26 Nov 1840. Rotteck's General History of the World\n(9 vols., 1827) was very popular and gave one of the broadest views\nof history which had then appeared.\n\nRousseau (Jean Jacques), Swiss philosopher, b. Geneva, 28 June,\n1712. After a varied career he went to Paris in 1741 and supported\nhimself. In 1751 he obtained a prize from the academy of Dijon for\nnegative answer to the question \"whether the re-establishment of the\narts and sciences has conduced to the purity of morals.\" This success\nprompted further literary efforts. He published a dictionary of music,\nthe New Heloise (1759), a love story in the form of letters, which\nhad great success, and Emilius (May 1762), a moral romance, in which\nhe condemns other education than that of following nature. In this\nwork occurs his Confession of Faith of a Savoyard Vicar, discarding\nthe supernatural element in Christianity. The French parliament\ncondemned the book 9 June, 1762, and prosecuted the writer, who fled\nto Switzerland. Pope Clement XVIII fulminated against Emile, and\nRousseau received so many insults on account of his principles that\nhe returned to Paris and on the invitation of Hume came to England\nin Jan. 1766. He knew little English and soon took offence with\nHume, and asked permission to return to Paris, which he obtained on\ncondition of never publishing anything more. He however completed his\nConfessions, of which he had previously composed the first six books\nin England. Rousseau was a sincere sentimentalist, an independent\nand eloquent, but not deep thinker. His captious temper spoiled his\nown life, but his influence has been profound and far-reaching. Died\nnear Paris, 2 July, 1778.\n\nRouzade (Leonie) Madame, French Freethought lecturess. Has written\nseveral brochures and novels, notably Le Monde Renvers\u00e9, 1872,\nand Ci et ca, ca et la, ideas upon moral philosophy and social\nprogress. Writes in Malon's Revue Socialiste, and is one of the\neditors of Les Droits des Femmes.\n\nRoy (Joseph), French translator of Feuerbach's Essence of Christianity,\n1864, and Religion, Death, Immortality, '66. Has also translated\nMarx's Capital.\n\nRoyer (Clemence Auguste), French authoress, b. Nantes, 24 April, 1830,\nof Catholic royalist family. Visiting England in '54, she studied our\nlanguage and literature. Going to Switzerland, in '59 she opened at\nLausanne a course of logic and philosophy for women. In '60 she shared\nwith Proudhon in a prize competition on the subject of taxation. In\n'62 she translated Darwin's Origin of Species, with a bold preface\nand notes. In '64 her philosophical romance The Twins of Hellas\nappeared at Brussels, and was interdicted in France. Her ablest work\nis on The Origin of Man and of Societies, '69. In this she states\nthe scientific view of human evolution, and challenges the Christian\ncreed. This was followed by many memoirs, Pre-historic Funeral Rites,\n'76; Two Hypotheses of Heredity, '77; The Good and the Moral Law,\n'81. Mdlle. Royer has contributed to the Revue Moderne, Revue de\nPhilosophie, Positive, Revue d'Anthropologie, etc., and has assisted\nand spoken at many political, social, and scientific meetings.\n\nR\u00fcdt (P. A.), Ph. D., German lecturer and \"apostle of unbelief,\"\nb. Mannheim, 8 Dec. 1844. Educated at Mannheim and Carlsruhe, he\nstudied philosophy, philology, and jurisprudence at Heidelberg\nUniversity, '65-69. Dr. R\u00fcdt became acquainted with Lassalle,\nand started a paper, Die Waffe, and in '70 was imprisoned for\nparticipation in social democratic agitation. From '74 to '86 he\nlived in St. Petersburg as teacher, and has since devoted himself to\nFreethought propaganda. Several of his addresses have been published.\n\nRuelle (Charles Claude), French writer, b. Savigny, 1810. Author of\nThe History of Christianity, '66, and La Schmita, '69.\n\nRuge (Arnold), German reformer, b. Bergen (Isle R\u00fcgen), 13\nSept. 1802. Studied at Halle, Jena, and Heidelberg, and as a member of\nthe Tugenbund was imprisoned for six years. After his liberation in\n'30 he became professor at Halle, and with Echtermeyer founded the\nHallische Jahrb\u00fccher, '38, which opposed Church and State. In '48 he\nstarted Die Reform. Elected to the Frankfort Assembly, he sat on the\nExtreme Left. When compelled to fly he came to England, where he wrote\nNew Germany in \"Cabinet of Reason\" series, and translated Buckle's\nHistory of Civilisation. He acted as visiting tutor at Brighton,\nwhere he died 30 Dec. 1880.\n\nRuggieri (Cosmo), Florentine philosopher and astrologer, patronised\nby Catherine de Medicis. He began to publish Almanachs in 1604, which\nhe issued annually. He died at Paris in 1615, declaring himself an\nAtheist, and his corpse was in consequence denied Christian burial.\n\nRumpf (Johann Wilhelm), Swiss author of Church, Faith, and Progress,\nand The Bible and Christ, a criticism (Strasburg, 1858). Edited Das\nFreire Wort (Basle, '56).\n\nRussell (John). See Amberley.\n\nRyall (Malthus Questell), was secretary of the Anti-Persecution Union,\n1842, and assisted his friend Mr. Holyoake on The Oracle of Reason\nand The Movement. Died 1846.\n\nRydberg (Abraham Viktor), Swedish man of Letters, b. J\u00f6nk\u00f6ping, 18\nDec. 1829. He has written many works of which we mention The Last\nAthenian Roman Days, and The Magic of the Middle Ages, which have\nbeen translated into English.\n\nRystwick (Herman van), early Dutch heretic who denied hell and\ntaught that the soul was not immortal, but the elements of all\nmatter eternal. He was sent to prison in 1499, and set at liberty\nupon abjuring his opinion, but having published them a second time,\nhe was arrested at the Hague, and burnt to death in 1511.\n\nSabin (Ibn), Al Mursi, Spanish Arabian philosopher, b. Murcia about\n1218 of noble family. About 1249 he corresponded with Frederick II.,\nreplying to his philosophical questions. Committed suicide about 1271.\n\nSadoc, a learned Jewish doctor in the third century B.C. He denied\nthe resurrection, the existence of angels, and the doctrine\nof predestination, and opposed the idea of future rewards and\npunishments. His followers were named after him, Sadducees.\n\nSaga (Francesco) de Rovigo, Italian heretic, put to death for\nAnti-Trinitarianism at Venice, 25 Feb. 1566.\n\nSaigey (Emile), French inspector of telegraph wires. Wrote Modern\nPhysics, 1867, and The Sciences in the Eighteenth Century: Physics\nof Voltaire, '74. Died 1875.\n\nSaillard (F.), French author of The Revolution and the Church (Paris,\n'69), and The Organisation of the Republic, '83.\n\nSainte Beuve (Charles Augustin), French critic and man of letters\nb. Boulogne, 23 Dec. 1804. Educated in Paris, he studied medicine,\nwhich he practised several years. A favorable review of V. Hugo's\nOdes and Ballades gained him the intimacy of the Romantic school. As\na critic he made his mark in '28 with his Historical and Critical\nPicture of French Poetry in the Sixteenth Century. His other principal\nworks are his History of Port Royal, '40-62; Literary Portraits,\n'32-39; and Causeries du Lundi, '51-57. In '45 he was elected to the\nAcademy, and in '65 was made a senator. As a critic he was penetrative,\ncomprehensive, and impartial.\n\nSaint Evremond (Charles de Marguetel de Saint Denis) seigneur de,\nFrench man of letters, b. St. Denys-le-Guast (Normandy), 1 April,\n1713. He studied law, but subsequently entered the army and became\nmajor-general. He was confined in the Bastile for satirising Cardinal\nMazarin. In England he was well received at the court of Charles\nII. He died in London, 20 Sept. 1703, and was buried in Westminster\nAbbey. Asked on his death-bed if he wished to reconcile himself to God,\nhe replied, he desired to reconcile himself to appetite. His works,\nconsisting of essays, letters, poems, and dramas, were published in\n3 vols. 1705.\n\nSaint-Glain (Dominique de), French Spinozist, b. Limoges, about\n1620. He went into Holland that he might profess the Protestant\nreligion more freely; was captain in the service of the States,\nand assisted on the Rotterdam Gazette. Reading Spinoza, he espoused\nhis system, and translated the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus into\nFrench, under the title of La Clef du Sanctuaire, 1678. This making\nmuch noise, and being in danger of prosecution, he changed the title to\nCeremonies Superstitieuses des Juifs, and also to Reflexions Curieuses\nd'un Esprit Desint\u00e9ress\u00e9, 1678.\n\nSaint-Hyacinthe (Themiseul de Cordonnier de), French writer,\nb. Orleans, 24 Sept. 1684. Author of Philosophical Researches,\npublished at Rotterdam, 1743. Died near Breda (Holland), 1746. Voltaire\npublished his Diner Du Comte de Boulainvilliers under the name of\nSt. Hyacinthe.\n\nSaint John (Henry). See Bolingbroke, Lord.\n\nSaint Lambert (Charles, or rather Jean Fran\u00e7ois de), French writer,\nb. Nancy, 16 Dec. 1717. After being educated among the Jesuits he\nentered the army, and was admired for his wit and gallantry. He became\na devoted adherent of Voltaire and an admirer of Madame du Chatelet. He\nwrote some articles in the Encyclop\u00e9die, and many fugitive pieces and\npoems in the literary journals. His poem, the Seasons, 1769 procured\nhim admission to the Academy. He published essays on Helvetius and\nBolingbroke, and Le Cat\u00e9chisme Universel. His Philosophical Works\nwere published in 1801. Died Paris, 9 Feb. 1803.\n\nSale (George), English Oriental scholar, b. Kent, 1680, educated\nat Canterbury. He was one of a society which undertook to publish a\nUniversal History, and was also one of the compilers of the General\nDictionary. His most important work was a translation of the Koran,\nwith a preliminary discourse and explanatory notes, 1734. He was one\nof the founders of the Society for the Encouragement of Learning. Died\n14 Nov. 1736.\n\nSalieres (A.), contributor to l'Ath\u00e9e, 1870. Has written a work on\nPatriotism, 1881.\n\nSallet (Friedrich von), German pantheist poet of French descent,\nb. Neisse (Silesia), 20 April, 1812. An officer in the army, he was\nimprisoned for writing a satire on the life of a trooper. In '34 he\nattended Hegel's lectures at Berlin, and in '38 quitted the army. He\nwrote a curious long poem entitled the Layman's Gospel, in which he\ntakes New Testament texts and expounds them pantheistically--the God\nwho is made flesh is replaced by the man who becomes God. Died Reichau\n(Silesia), 21 Feb. 1843.\n\nSalmeron y Alonso (Nicolas), Spanish statesman, b. Alhama lo Seco,\n1838. Studied law, and became a Democratic journalist; a deputy to the\nCortes in 1871, and became President thereof during the Republic of\n'73. He wrote a prologue to the work of Giner on Philosophy and Arts,\n'78, and his own works were issued in 1881.\n\nSalt (Henry Stephens), English writer, b. India, 20 Sept. 1851;\neducated at Eton, where he became assistant master. A contributor\nto Progress, he has written Literary Sketches, '88. A monograph on\nShelley, and a Life of James Thomson, \"B.V.\", 1889.\n\nSaltus (Edgar Evertson), American author, b. New York 8 June\n1858. Studied at Concord, Paris, Heidelberg and Munich. In '84 he\npublished a sketch of Balzac. Next year appeared The Philosophy of\nDisenchantment, appreciative and well written views of Schopenhauer\nand Hartmann. This was followed by The Anatomy of Negation, a sketchy\naccount of some atheists and sceptics from Kapila to Leconte de Lisle,\n'86. Has also written several novels, and Eden, an episode, '89. His\nbrother Francis is the author of Honey and Gall, a book of poems\n(Philadelphia, '73.)\n\nSalverte (Anne Joseph Eus\u00e8be Baconniere de), French philosopher,\nb. Paris, 18 July, 1771. He studied among the Oratorians. Wrote Epistle\nto a Reasonable Woman, an Essay on What should be Believed, 1793,\ncontributed to Mar\u00e9chal's Dictionnaire des Ath\u00e9es, published an eloge\non Diderot, 1801, and many brochures, among others a tragedy on the\nDeath of Jesus Christ. Elected deputy in '28, he was one of the warm\npartisans of liberty, and in '30, demanded that Catholicism should not\nbe recognised as the state religion. He is chiefly remembered by his\nwork on The Occult Sciences, '29, which was translated into English,\n'46. To the French edition of '56 Littr\u00e9 wrote a Preface. He died 27\nOct. 1839. On his death bed he refused religious offices.\n\nSand (George), the pen name of Amandine Lucile Aurore Dupin, afterwards\nbaroness Dudnevant, French novelist, b. Paris, 1 July, 1804, and\nbrought up by her grandmother at the Ch\u00e2teau de Nohant. Reading\nRousseau and the philosophers divorced her from Catholicism. She\nremained a Humanitarian. Married Sept. 1822, Baron Dudnevant, an\nelderly man who both neglected and ill-treated her, and from whom\nafter some years she was glad to separate at the sacrifice of her\nwhole fortune. Her novels are too many to enumerate. The Revolution of\n'48 drew her into politics, and she started a journal and translated\nMazzini's Republic and Royalty in Italy, Died at her Chateau of Nohant,\n8 June, 1876. Her name was long obnoxious in England, where she was\nthought of as an assailant of marriage and religion, but a better\nappreciation of her work and genius is making way.\n\nSarcey (Franscique), French critic, b. Dourdan, 8 Oct. 1828, editor\nof Le XIXe. Si\u00e8cle, has written plays, novels, and many anti-clerical\narticles.\n\n\"Sarrasi,\" pseudonym of A. de C....; French Orientalist b. Department\nof Tarn, 1837, author of L'Orient Devoil\u00e9, '80, in which he shows\nthe mythical elements in Christianity.\n\nSaull (William Devonshire), English geologist, b. 1783. He established\na free geological museum, contributed to the erection of the John\nStreet Institute, and was principally instrumental in opening the\nold Hall of Science, City Road. He wrote on the connection between\nastronomy, geology, etc. He died 26 April, 1855, and is buried in\nKensal Green, near his friends, Allen Davenport and Henry Hetherington.\n\nSaunderson (Nicholas), English mathematician b. Thurleston (Yorkshire),\n2 Jan. 1682. He lost both his eyes and his sight by small pox when\nbut a year old, yet he became conversant with Euclid, Archimedes,\nand Diophantus, when read to him in Greek. He lectured at Cambridge\nUniversity, explaining Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural\nPhilosophy, and even his works on light and color. It was said,\n\"They have turned out Whiston for believing in but one God, and put\nin Saunderson, who believes in no God at all.\" Saunderson said that\nto believe in God he must first touch him. Died 19 April, 1739.\n\nSauvestre (Charles), French journalist, b. Mans. 1818, one of\nthe editors of L'Opinion Nationale. Has written on The Clergy and\nEducation ('61), Monita Secreta Societatis Jesu; Secret Instructions\nof the Jesuits ('65), On the Knees of the Church ('68), Religious\nCongregations Unveiled ('70), and other anti-clerical works. He died\nat Paris in 1883.\n\nSaville (Sir George), Marquis of Halifax, English statesman,\nb. Yorkshire, 1630. He became President of the Council in the reign\nof James II., but was dismissed for opposing the repeal of the Test\nActs. He wrote several pieces and memoirs. Burnet gives a curious\naccount of his opinions, which he probably tones down.\n\nSawtelle (C. M.), American author of Reflections on the Science of\nIgnorance, or the art of teaching others what you don't know yourself,\nSalem, Oregon, 1868.\n\nSbarbaro (Pietro), Italian publicist and reformer, b. Savona, 1838;\nstudied jurisprudence. He published a work on The Philosophy of\nResearch, '66. In '70 he dedicated to Mauro Macchi a book on The Task\nof the Nineteenth Century, and presided at a congress of Freethinkers\nheld at Loreto. Has written popular works on the Conditions of Human\nProgress, the Ideal of Democracy, and an essay entitled From Socino\nto Mazzini, '86.\n\nSchade (Georg), German Deist, b. Apenrade, 1712. He believed in the\nimmortality of brutes. In 1770 he was imprisoned for his opinions\non the Isle of Christiansoe. He settled at Kiel, Holstein, in 1775,\nwhere he died in 1795.\n\nScherer (Edmond), French critic and publicist, b. Paris 8 April,\n1815. Of Protestant family, he became professor of exegesis at Geneva,\nbut his views becoming too free, he resigned his chair and went to\nStrasburg, where he became chief of the School of Liberal Protestants,\nand in the Revue de Th\u00e9ologie et de Philosophie Chr\u00e9tienne, '50-60,\nput forward views which drew down a tempest from the orthodox. He also\nwrote in the Bibliotheque Universelle and Revue des Deux-Mondes. Some\nof his articles have been collected as M\u00e9langes de Critique Religieuse,\n'60; and M\u00e9langes d'Histoire Religieuse, '64. He was elected deputy in\n'71, and sat with the Republicans of the Left. Died 1889.\n\nScherr (Johannes), German author, b. Hohenrechberg, 3\nOct. 1817. Educated at Z\u00fcrich and T\u00fcbingen, he wrote in '43 with his\nbrother Thomas a Popular History of Religious and Philosophical Ideas,\nand in '57 a History of Religion, in three parts. In '60 he became\nProfessor of History and Literature at Z\u00fcrich, and has written many\nable literary studies, including histories of German and English\nliterature. Died at Z\u00fcrich, 21 Nov. 1887.\n\nSchiff (Johan Moriz), German physiologist, b. Frankfort, 1823. Educated\nat Berlin and Gottingen, he became Professor of Comparative Anatomy at\nBerne, '54-63; of Physiology at Florence, '63-76, and at Genoa. Has\nwritten many physiological treatises, which have been attacked as\nmaterialistic.\n\nSchiller (Johann Christoph Friedrich von), eminent German poet and\nhistorian, b. Marbech, 10 Nov. 1759. His mother wished him to become a\nminister, but his tastes led him in a different direction. A friend of\nGoethe, he enriched German literature with numerous plays and poems,\na History of the Netherlands Revolt, and of the Thirty Years' War. He\ndied in the prime of mental life at Weimar, 9 May, 1805.\n\nSchmidt (Eduard Oskar), German zoologist, b. Torgau, 21 Feb. 1823. He\ntravelled widely, and became professor of natural history at\nJena. Among the first of Germans to accept Darwinism, he has\nillustrated its application in many directions, and published an able\nwork on The Doctrine of Descent and Darwinism in the \"International\nScientific Series.\" Died at Strasburg, 17 Jan. 1886.\n\nSchmidt (Kaspar), German philosopher, b. Bayreuth,\n25 Oct. 1806. Studied at Berlin, Erlangen, and K\u00f6nigsberg, first\ntheology, then philosophy. Under the pseudonym of \"Max Stirner\"\nhe wrote a system of individualism The Only One, and His Possession\n(Der Einzige und sein Eigenthum), '45. He also wrote a History of\nReaction in two parts (Berlin, '52), and translated Smith's Wealth\nof Nations and Say's Text-book of Political Economy. Died at Berlin,\n25 June, 1856.\n\nSchneeberger (F. J.), Austrian writer, b. Vienna, 7 Sept, 1827. Has\nwritten some popular novels under the name of \"Arthur Storch,\" and\nwas one of the founders of the German Freethinkers' Union.\n\nSchoelcher ( Victor), French philosophist, b. Paris, 21 July\n1804. While still young he joined the secret society Aide-toi, le ciel\nt'aidera, and studied social questions. He devoted himself from about\n'26 to advocating the abolition of slavery, and wrote many works\non the subject. On 3 March, '48, he was made Under Secretary of the\nNavy, and caused a decree to be issued by the Provisional Government\nenfranchising all slaves on French territory. He was elected Deputy for\nMartinique '48 and '49. After 2 Dec. '51, he came to London, where he\nwrote occasionally in the Reasoner and National Reformer. He returned\nto France during the war, and took part in the defence of Paris. In\n'71 he was again returned for Martinique, and in '75 he was elected\na life senator.\n\nScholl (Aur\u00e9lien), French journalist, b. Bordeaux, 14 July, 1833. He\nbegan life as a writer on the Corsaire, founded Satan, Le Nain Jaune,\netc., and writes on l'Ev\u00e9nement. Has written several novels, and le\nProc\u00e8s de J\u00e9sus Christ, '77.\n\nScholl (Karl), German writer and preacher to the Free religious bodies\nof Mannheim and Heidelberg, b. Karlsruhe, 17 Aug. 1820. He became\na minister '44, but was suspended for his free opinions in '45. His\nfirst important work was on the Messiah Legend of the East (Hamburg,\n'52), and in '61 he published a volume on Free Speech, a collection\nof extracts from French, English, and American Freethinkers. In '70\nhe started a monthly journal of the Religion of Humanity, Es Werde\nLicht! which continued for many years. Has published many discourses,\nand written Truth from Ruins, '73, and on Judaism and the Religion\nof Humanity, '79.\n\nSchopenhauer (Arthur), German pessimist philosopher, b. Danzig,\n22 Feb. 1788. The son of a wealthy and well-educated merchant and a\nvivacious lady, he was educated in French and English, and studied\nat G\u00f6ttingen science, history, and the religions and philosophies of\nthe East. After two visits to Italy, and an unsuccessful attempt to\nobtain pupils at Berlin, he took up his abode at Frankfort. In 1815\nhe wrote his chief work, The World as Will and Idea, translated into\nEnglish in '83. His philosophy is expressed in the title, will is\nthe one reality, all else appearance. He also wrote The Two Ground\nProblems of Ethics, '61, On the Freedom of Will, and a collection\nof essays entitled Parega and Paralipomena ('51). Died at Frankfort,\n21 Sept. 1860. Schopenhauer was a pronounced Atheist, and an enemy of\nevery form of superstition. He said that religions are like glow-worms;\nthey require darkness to shine in.\n\nSchroeter (Eduard), German American writer, b. Hannover, 4 June,\n1810, studied theology at Jena; entered the Free-religious communion\nin '45. In '50, he went to America, living since '53 in Sauk City,\nand frequently lecturing there. In '81, he attended the International\nConference of Freethinkers at Brussels. He was a constant contributor\nto the Freidenker, of Milwaukee, until his death 2 April, 1888.\n\nSchroot (A.), German author of Visions and Ideas (Berlin, 1865),\nNatural Law and Human Will; Creation and Man, and Science and Life\n(Hamburg, 1873).\n\nSchuenemann Pott (Friedrich), German American, b. Hamburg, 3 April,\n1826. He joined the \"Freie Gemeinde,\" and was expelled from Prussia\nin '48. After the Revolution he returned to Berlin and took part\nin democratic agitation, for which he was tried for high treason,\nbut acquitted. In '54 he removed to America, where he made lecturing\ntours over the States settling at San Francisco.\n\nSchultze (Karl August Julius Fritz), German writer, b. Celle, 7 May,\n1846, studied at Jena, G\u00f6ttingen and M\u00fcnich, has written an able study\non Fetishism, Leipzig '71, a pamphlet on Religion in German Schools,\n'72, a History of the Philosophy of the Renaissance, '74, and Kant\nand Darwin, '75. In '76, he was appointed Professor of Philosophy in\nJena, since which he has written The Elements of Materialism, '80,\nPhilosophy of the Natural Sciences, 2 vols. '81-82, and Elements of\nSpiritualism, 1883.\n\nSchumann (Robert Alexander), German musical composer, b. Nekau, 8\nJuly, 1810. He studied law at Leipsic, but forsook it for music. He\nstarted a musical journal '34, which he edited for some years. His\nlyrical compositions are unsurpassed, and he also composed a \"profane\"\noratorio, Paradise and the Peri ('40). His character and opinions\nare illustrated by his Letters. Died 29 July, 1856.\n\nSchweichel (Georg Julius Robert), German writer, b. K\u00f6nigsberg, 12\nJuly, 1821. He studied jurisprudence, but took to literature. Taking\npart in the events of '48, after the reaction he went to\nSwitzerland. Has written several novels dealing with Swiss life,\nalso a Life of Auerbach. He wrote the preface to Dulk's Irrgang des\nLeben's Jesu, 1884.\n\nSchweitzer (Jean Baptista von), German Socialist poet, b. Frankfort,\n12 July, 1833. He studied law in Berlin and Heidelberg; became after\nLassalle's death president of the German Workmen's Union, and was\nsent to Parliament in '67. He wrote the Zeitgeist and Christianity,\n'62, The Darwinians, '75, and several other works. Died 28 July, 1875.\n\nScot (Reginald), English rationalist, author of The Discoverie of\nWitchcraft, 1584, the first English work to question the existence of\nwitches. It was burnt by order of King James I, and was republished\nin 1886. Scot died in 1599.\n\nScott (Thomas), English scholar, b. 28 April 1808. In early life he\ntravelled widely, lived with Indians and had been page to Chas. X,\nof France. Having investigated Christianity, he in later life devoted\nhimself to Freethought propaganda by sending scholarly pamphlets among\nthe clergy and cultured classes. From '62-77, he issued from Mount\nPleasant, Ramsgate, over a hundred different pamphlets by Bp. Hinds,\nF. W. Newman, Kalisch, Lestrange, Willis, Strange, etc., most of which\nwere given away. He issued a challenge to the Christian Evidence\nSociety, and wrote with Sir G. W. Cox, The English Life of Jesus\n'71. Altogether his publications extend to twenty volumes. Little\nknown outside his own circle, Thomas Scott did a work which should\nsecure him lasting honor. Died at Norwood, 30 Dec. 1878.\n\nSeaver (Horace Holley), American journalist, b. Boston, 25\nAug. 1810. In '37 he became a compositor on the Boston Investigator,\nand during Kneeland's imprisonment took the editorship, which\nhe continued for upwards of fifty years during which he battled\nstrenuously for Freethought in America. His articles were always\nvery plain and to the point. A selection of them has been published\nwith the title Occasional Thoughts (Boston, '88). With Mr. Mendum, he\nhelped the erection of the Paine Memorial Hall, and won the esteem of\nall Freethinkers in America. Died, 21 Aug. 1889. His funeral oration\nwas delivered by Colonel Ingersoll.\n\nSebille (Adolphe), French writer, who, under the pseudonym\nof \"Dr. Fabricus,\" published God, Man, and his latter end, a\nmedico-psychological study, 1868, and Letters from a Materialist to\nMgr. Dupanloup, 1868-9.\n\nSechenov or Setchenoff (Ivan), Russian philosopher, who, in 1863,\npublished Psychological Studies, explaining the mind by physiology. The\nwork made a great impression in Russia, and has been translated into\nFrench by Victor Der\u00e9ly, and published in '84 with an introduction\nby M. G. Wyrouboff.\n\nSecondat (Charles de). See Montesquieu.\n\nSeeley (John Robert), English historian and man of letters, b. London,\n1834, educated at City of London School and Cambridge, where he\ngraduated in '57. In '63, he was appointed Professor of Latin in\nLondon University. In '66, appeared his Ecce Homo, a survey of the\nLife and Work of Jesus Christ, published anonymously, and which Lord\nShaftesbury denounced in unmeasured terms as vomitted from the pit of\nhell. In '69, he became professor of modern history at Cambridge, and\nhas since written some important historical works as well as Natural\nReligion ('82). Prof. Seeley is president of the Ethical Society.\n\nSegond (Louis August), French physician and Positivist, author of\na plan of a positivist school to regenerate medicine, 1849, and of\nseveral medical works.\n\nSeidel (Martin), Silesian Deist, of Olhau, lived at the end of the\nsixteenth century. He held that Jesus was not the predicted Messiah,\nand endeavored to propagate his opinion among the Polish Socinians. He\nwrote three Letters on the Messiah, The Foundations of the Christian\nReligion, in which he considered the quotation from the Old Testament\nin the new, and pointed out the errors of the latter.\n\nSellon (Edward), English arch\u00e6ologist, author of The Monolithic\nTemples of India; Annotations on the Sacred Writings of the Hindus,\n1865, and other scarce works, privately printed.\n\nSemerie (Eug\u00e8ne), French Positivist, b. Aix, 6 Jan. 1832. Becoming\nphysician at Charenton, he studied mental maladies, and in '67\npublished a work on Intellectual Symptoms of Madness, in which\nhe maintained that the disordered mind went back from Positivism\nto metaphysics, theology, and then to fetishism. This work was\ndenounced by the Bishop of Orleans. Dr. Semerie wrote A Simple Reply\nto M. Dupanloup, '68. During the sieges of Paris he acted as surgeon\nand director of the ambulance. A friend of Pierre Lafitte, he edited\nthe Politique Positive, and wrote Positivists and Catholics, '73,\nand The Law of the Three States, '75. Died at Grasse, May, 1884.\n\nSemler (Johann Salomo), German critic, b. Saalfeld, 18 Dec. 1725. He\nwas professor of theology at Halle and founder of historical Biblical\ncriticism there. He translated Simon's Critical History of the New\nTestament, and by asserting the right of free discussion drew down\nthe wrath of the orthodox. Died at Halle, 4 March, 1791.\n\nSerafini (Maria Alimonda), Italian authoress of a Catechism for\nFemale Freethinkers (Geneva, 1869), and a work on Marriage and Divorce\n(Salerno, '73).\n\nServeto y Reves (Miguel), better known as Michael Servetus, Spanish\nmartyr, b. Villanova (Aragon), 1509. Intended for the Church, he\nleft it for law, which he studied at Toulouse. He afterward studied\nmedicine at Paris, and corresponded with Calvin on the subject\nof the Trinity, against which he wrote De Trinitatis Erroribus\nand Christianismi Restitutio, which excited the hatred of both\nCatholics and Protestants. To Calvin Servetus sent a copy of his\nlast work. Calvin, through one Trie, denounced him to the Catholic\nauthorities at Lyons. He was imprisoned, but escaped, and to get to\nNaples passed through Geneva, where he was seized at the instance of\nCalvin, tried for blasphemy and heresy, and burnt alive at a slow fire,\n26 Oct. 1553.\n\nSeume (Johann Gottfried), German poet, b. near Weissenfels, 29\nJan. 1763. He was sent to Leipsic, and intended for a theologian,\nbut the dogmas disgusted him, and he left for Paris. He lived an\nadventurous life, travelled extensively, and wrote Promenade to\nSyracuse, 1802, and other works. Died at Teplitz, 13 June, 1810.\n\nSextus Empiricus, Greek sceptical philosopher and physician, who\nprobably lived early in the third century of the Christian era. He\nleft two works, one a summary of the doctrines of the sceptics in\nthree books; the other an attack on all positive philosophy.\n\nShadwell (Thomas), English dramatist, b. Straton Hall, Norfolk,\n1640. Although damned by Dryden in his Mac Flecknoe, Shadwell's plays\nare not without merit, and illustrate the days of Charles II. Died\n6 Dec. 1692.\n\nShaftesbury (Anthony Ashley Cooper), third Earl, b. London, 26\nFeb. 1671. Educated by Locke, in 1693 he was elected M.P. for Poole,\nand proposed granting counsel to prisoners in case of treason. His\nhealth suffering, he resigned and went to Holland, where he made the\nacquaintance of Bayle. The excitement induced by the French Prophets\noccasioned his Letters upon Enthusiasm, 1708. This was followed,\nby his Moralists and Sensus Communis. In 1711 he removed to Naples,\nwhere he died 4 Feb. 1713. His collected works were published under\nthe title of Characteristics, 1732. They went through several editions,\nand did much to raise the character of English Deism.\n\nShakespeare (William). The greatest of all dramatists,\nb. Stratford-on-Avon, 23 April, 1564. The materials for writing his\nlife are slender. He married in his 19th year, went to London, where he\nbecame an actor and produced his marvellous plays, the eternal honor\nof English literature. Shakespeare gained wealth and reputation and\nretired to his native town, where he died April 23, 1616. His dramas\nwarrant the inference that he was a Freethinker. Prof. J. R. Green\nsays, \"Often as his questionings turned to the riddle of life\nand death, and leaves it a riddle to the last without heeding the\ncommon theological solutions around him.\" His comprehensive mind\ndisdained endorsement of religious dogmas and his wit delighted in\nwhat the Puritans call profanity. Mr. Birch in his Inquiry into the\nPhilosophy and Religion of Shakespeare, sustains the position that\nhe was an Atheist.\n\nShaw (James Dickson), American writer, b. Texas, 27 Dec. 1841. Brought\nup on a cattle farm, at the Civil War he joined the Southern Army,\ntook part in some battles, and was wounded. He afterwards entered the\nMethodist Episcopal ministry, '70; studied biblical criticism to answer\nsceptics, and his own faith gave way. He left the Church in March,\n'83, and started the Independent Pulpit at Waco, Texas, in which he\npublishes bold Freethought articles. He rejects all supernaturalism,\nand has written The Bible, What Is It?, Studies in Theology, The\nBible Against Itself, etc.\n\nShelley (Percy Bysshe), English poet, b. Field Place (Sussex), 4\nAug. 1792. From Eton, where he refused to fag, he went to Oxford. Here\nhe published a pamphlet on the necessity of Atheism, for which he\nwas expelled from the University. His father, Sir Timothy Shelley,\nalso forbade him his house. He went to London, wrote Queen Mab, and\nmet Miss Westbrook, whom, in 1811, he married. After two children\nhad been born, they separated. In '16 Shelley learned that his wife\nhad drowned herself. He now claimed the custody of his children,\nbut, in March, '17, Lord Eldon decided against him, largely on\naccount of his opinions. Shelley had previously written A Letter\nto Lord Ellenborough, indignantly attacking the sentence the judge\npassed on D. I. Eaton for publishing Paine's Age of Reason. On 30\nDec. '16, Shelley married Mary, daughter of William Godwin and Mary\nWollstonecraft. In '18, fearing their son might also be taken from him,\nhe left England never to return. He went to Italy, where he met Byron,\ncomposed The Cenci, the Witch of Atlas, Prometheus Unbound, Adonais,\nEpipsychidion, Hellas, and many minor poems of exquisite beauty,\nthe glory of our literature. He was drowned in the Bay of Spezzia,\n8 July, 1822. Shelley never wavered in his Freethought. Trelawny,\nwho knew him well, says he was an Atheist to the last.\n\nSiciliani (Pietro), Professor in the University of Bologna b. Galatina,\n19 Sep. 1835, author of works on Positive Philosophy, Socialism,\nDarwinism, and Modern Sociology, '79; and Modern Psychogeny, with a\npreface by J. Soury, '82. Died 28 Dec. '85.\n\nSidney (Algernon), English Republican, and second son of Robert, Earl\nof Leicester, b. 1617. He became a colonel in the Army of Parliament,\nand a member of the House of Commons. On the Restoration he remained\nabroad till 1677, but being implicated in the Rye House Plot, was\ncondemned by Judge Jeffreys to be executed on Tower Hill, 7 Dec. 1678.\n\nSierebois (P.). See Boissi\u00e8re.\n\nSiffle (Alexander Fran\u00e7ois), Dutch writer, b. Middleburg, 11 May,\n1801. Studied law at Leyden, and became notary at Middleburg. He\nwrote several poems and works of literary value, and contributed\nto de Dageraad. He was a man of wide reading. Died at Middleburg,\n7 Oct. 1872.\n\nSigward (M.), b. St. Leger-sur-Dhume, France, 15 April, 1817. An\nactive French democrat and Freethinker, and compiler of a Republican\ncalendar. He took part in the International Congress at Paris '89,\nand is one of the editors of Le Danton.\n\nSimcox (Edith), author of Natural Law in the English and Foreign\nPhilosophical Library; also wrote on the Design Argument in the\nFortnightly Review, 1872, under the signature \"H. Lawrenny.\"\n\nSimon de Tournai, a Professor at Paris University early in the XIIIth\ncentury. He said that \"Three seducers,\" Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad,\n\"have mystified mankind with their doctrines.\" He was said to have\nbeen punished by God for his impiety.\n\nSimon (Richard), learned French theological critic, b. Dieppe, 15 May,\n1638. Brought up by the Congregation of the Oratory, he distinguished\nhimself by bold erudition. His Critical History of the Old Testament,\n1678, was suppressed by Parliament. He followed it with a Critical\nHistory of the New Testament, which was also condemned. Died at Dieppe,\n11 April, 1712.\n\nSimonis.--A physician, b. at Lucques and persecuted in Poland for\nhis opinions given in an Atheistic work, entitled Simonis Religio,\npublished at Cracow, 1588.\n\nSimpson (George), of the Glasgow Zetetic Society, who in 1838 put\nforward a Refutation of the Argument a priori for the being and\nattributes of God, in reply to Clarke and Gillespie. He used the\nsignature \"Antitheos.\" Died about 1844.\n\nSjoberg (Walter), b. 24 May, 1865, at Borgo (Finland), lives near\nHelsingfors, and took part in founding the Utilistiska Samfundet\nthere. During the imprisonment of Mr. Lennstrand he gave bold lectures\nat Stockholm.\n\nSkinner (William), of Kirkcaldy, Deist, author of Thoughts on\nSuperstition or an attempt to Discover Truth (Cupar, 1822), was\ncredited also with Jehovah Unveiled or the God of the Jews, published\nby Carlile in 1819.\n\nSlater (Thomas), English lecturer, b. 15 Sept. 1820. Has for many\nyears been an advocate of Secularism and Co-operation. He was on the\nTown Council of Bury, and now resides at Leicester.\n\nSlenker (Elmina), n\u00e9e Drake, American reformer, b. of Quaker parents,\n23 Dec. 1827. At fourteen, she began notes for her work, Studying\nthe Bible, afterwards published at Boston, '70; she conducts the\nChildren's Corner in the Boston Investigator, and has contributed\nto most of the American Freethought papers. Has written John's Way\n('78), Mary Jones, The Infidel Teacher ('85), The Darwins ('79),\nFreethought stories. Resides at Snowville, Virginia.\n\nSmith (Geritt), American reformer, b. Utica (N.Y.), 6 March, 1799,\ngraduated at Hamilton's College. He was elected to Congress in 1850,\nbut only served one Session. Though of a wealthy slaveholding family,\nhe largely devoted his fortune to the Anti-Slavery cause. In religion,\noriginally a Presbyterian, he came to give up all dogmas, and wrote\nThe Religion of Reason, '64, and Nature the base of a Free Theology,\n'67. Died, New York, 28 Dec. 1874.\n\nSnoilsky (Karl Johan Gustav), Count, Swedish poet, b. Stockholm,\n8 Sept. 1841. Studied at Upsala, '60. Displays his Freethought in\nhis poems published under the name of \"Sventr\u00f6st.\"\n\nSocinus [Ital. Sozzini] (Fausto), anti-trinitarian, b. Siena, 5\nDec. 1539. He adopted the views of his uncle, Laelio, (1525-1562),\nand taught them with more boldness. In 1574 he went to Switzerland,\nand afterwards to Poland, where he made many converts, and died 3\nMarch, 1604.\n\nSohlman (Per August Ferdinand), Swedish publicist, b. Nerika, 1824. He\nedited the Aftonbladet, of Stockholm, from '57, and was a distinguished\nLiberal politician. Died at Stockholm, 1874.\n\nSomerby (Charles Pomeroy), American publisher, b. 1843. Has issued\nmany important Freethought works, and is business manager of the\nTruthseeker.\n\nSomerset (Edward Adolphus Saint Maur), 12th Duke of, b. 20\nDec. 1804. Educated at Eton and Oxford. He married a daughter of\nThomas Sheridan. Sat as M.P. for Totnes, '34-35, and was Lord of the\nTreasury, '35-39, and First Lord of the Admiralty, '59-66. In '72 he\nstartled the aristocratic world by a trenchant attack on orthodoxy\nentitled Christian Theology and Modern Scepticism. He also wrote on\nmathematics and on Monarchy and Democracy. Died 28 Nov. 1885.\n\nSoury (Auguste Jules), French philosopher, b. Paris, 1842. In '65 he\nbecame librarian at the Biblioth\u00e8que Nationale. He has contributed\nto the Revue des Deux Mondes, Revue Nouvelle, and other journals,\nand has published important works on The Bible and Arch\u00e6ology, '72;\nHistorical Studies on Religions, '77; Essays of Religious Criticism,\n'78; Jesus and the Gospels, '78, a work in which he maintains that\nJesus suffered from cerebral affection, and which has been translated\ninto English, together with an essay on The Religion of Israel from\nhis Historical Studies. Studies of Psychology, '79, indicated a new\ndirection in M. Soury's Freethought. He has since written A Breviary\nof the History of Materialism, '80; Naturalist Theories of the World\nand of Life in Antiquity, '81; Natural Philosophy, '82; Contemporary\nPsychological Doctrines, '83. He has translated Noeldeke's Literary\nHistory of the Old Testament, 73; Haeckel's Proofs of Evolution,\n'79; and Preyer's Elements of General Physiology, '84.\n\nSouthwell (Charles), English orator, b. London, 1814. He served\nwith the British Legion in Spain, and became an actor and social\nmissionary. In Nov. '41 he started The Oracle of Reason at Bristol,\nfor an article in which on \"The Jew Book\" he was tried for blasphemy\n14 Jan. '42, and after an able defence sentenced to twelve months'\nimprisonment, and a fine of one hundred pounds. After coming out he\nedited the Lancashire Beacon. He also lectured and debated both in\nEngland and Scotland; wrote Christianity Proved Idolatry, '44; Apology\nfor Atheism, '46; Difficulties of Christianity, '48; Superstition\nUnveiled; The Impossibility of Atheism which he held on the ground\nthat Theism was unproved, and Another Fourpenny Wilderness, in answer\nto G. J. Holyoake's criticism of the same. He also wrote about '45,\nConfessions of a Freethinker, an account of his own life. In '56 he\nwent to New Zealand, and died at Auckland 7 Aug. 1860.\n\nSouverain (N.), French author of Platonism Unveiled 1700, a posthumous\nwork. He had been a minister in Poitou and was deposed on account of\nhis opinions.\n\nSozzini. See Socinus.\n\nSpaink (Pierre Fran\u00e7ois), Dutch physician, b. Amsterdam, 13 Dec. 1862,\nand studied at the city, wrote for a time on De Dageraad, with the pen\nnames \"A. Th. Eist.\" and \"F.R.S.\" Has translated Romanes' Scientific\nEvidences of Organic Evolution.\n\nSpaventa (Bertrando), Italian philosopher, b. 1817. Since '61 he\nhas been professor of philosophy at Naples. Has written upon the\nPhilosophy of Kant, Gioberti, Spinoza, Hegel, etc. Died 1888.\n\nSpecht (Karl August), Dr. German writer, b. Lhweina, 2 July,\n1845. Has been for many years editor of Menschenthum at Gotha, and\nhas written on Brain and Soul, Theology and Science and a Popular\nHistory of the World's Development, which has gone through several\neditions. Dr. Specht is a leading member of the German Freethinkers'\nUnion.\n\nSpencer (Herbert), English philosopher, b. Derby, 1820. He was\narticled to a civil engineer, but drifted into literature. He\nwrote in the Westminster Review, and at the house of Dr. Chapman\nmet Mill, Lewes and \"George Eliot.\" His first important work was\nSocial Statistics, '51. Four years later appeared his Principles of\nPsychology, which with First Principles, '62; Principles of Biology,\n'64; Principles of Sociology, '76-85, and Data of Ethics, '79, form\npart of his \"Synthetic Philosophy\" in which he applies the doctrines\nof evolution to the phenomena of mind and society no less than to\nanimal life. He has also published Essays, 3 vols, '58-74; a work on\nEducation '61; Recent Discussions on Science, Philosophy and Morals,\n'71; The Study of Sociology, '72; Descriptive Sociology, '72-86,\nan immense work compiled under his direction. Also papers directed\nagainst Socialism; The Coming Slavery, '84; and Man and the State,\n'85, and has contributed many articles to the best reviews.\n\nSpinoza (Baruch), Pantheistic philosopher, b. of Jewish parents,\nAmsterdam, 24 Nov. 1632. He early engaged in the study of theology and\nphilosophy, and, making no secret of his doubts, was excommunicated\nby the Synagogue, 27 July, 1656. About the same time he narrowly\nescaped death by a fanatic's dagger. To avoid persecution, he retired\nto Rhinsburg, and devoted himself to philosophy, earning his living by\npolishing lenses. About 1670 he settled at the Hague, where he remained\nuntil his death. In 1670 he issued his Tractatus Theologico-politicus,\nwhich made a great outcry; and for more than a century this great\nthinker, whose life was gentle and self-denying, was stigmatized as\nan atheist, a monster, and a blasphemer. A re-action followed, with\nLessing and Goethe, upon whom he had great influence. Though formerly\nstigmatized as an atheist, Spinoza is now generally recognised as\namong the greatest philosophers. He died in poverty at the Hague,\n21 Feb. 1677. His Ethics was published with his Opera Posthuma. The\nbi-centenary of his death was celebrated there by an eloquent address\nfrom M. R\u00e9nan.\n\nSpooner (Lysander), American writer, b. Athol (Mass.), 19\nJan. 1808. His first pamphlet was A Deist's Reply to the alleged\nSupernatural Evidences of Christianity. He started letter-carrying from\nBoston to New York, but was overwhelmed with prosecutions. He published\nmany works against slavery, and in favor of Individualism. Died at\nBoston, 14 May, 1887.\n\nStabili (Francesco), see Cecco' d'Ascoli.\n\nStamm (August Theodor), German Humanist, wrote The Religion of Action,\ntranslated into English, 1860. After the events of '48, he came to\nEngland, went to America, Aug. '54.\n\nStandring (George), English lecturer and writer, b. 18 Oct. 1855,\nwas for some years chorister at a Ritualistic Church, but discarded\ntheology after independent inquiry in '73. He became hon. sec. of the\nNational Secular Society about '75, resigning on appointment of paid\nsec., was auditor and subsequently vice-president. Started Republican\nChronicle, April, 1875, this was afterwards called The Republican, and\nin Sept. '88 The Radical. He is sec. of the London Secular Federation,\nand has contributed to the National Reformer, Freethinker, Progress,\nOur Corner, Reynolds's and Pall Mall Gazette. His brother, Sam.,\nb. 27 July, 1853, is also an active Freethinker.\n\nStanley (F. Lloyd), American author of An Outline of the Future\nReligion of the World (New York and London, 1884), a Deistic work in\nwhich he criticises preceding religions.\n\nStanton (Elizabeth, n\u00e9e Cady), American reformer, b. Johnstone, New\nYork, 12 Nov. 1815. A friend of Ernestine Rose and Lucretia Mott, she\nwas associated with them in the Anti-Slavery and the Woman's Rights\ncrusades, of which last the first convention was held at her home in\nSeneca Falls, July '48. She edited with her friends, Susan Anthony\nand Parker Pilsbury, The Revolution, and is joint author of History\nof Woman's Suffrage ('80-86). She has written in the North American\nReview notably on \"Has Christianity Benefited Woman,\" May, 1885.\n\nStap (A.), author of Historic Studies on the origins of\nChristianity. Bruxelles, 1864, and The Immaculate Conception, 1869.\n\nStarcke (Carl Nicolay), Dr. and teacher of philosophy in the\nUniversity of Copenhagen, b. 29 March, 1858. A decided disciple\nof Feuerbach on whom he published a dissertation in '83. This able\nMonograph on the whole doctrine of the German philosopher was in '85,\npublished in a German edition. Prof. Starcke has since published in\nthe \"International Scientific Series,\" a work on The Primitive Family,\nin which he critically surveys the views of Lubbock, Maine, McLennan,\netc. He is now engaged on a work on Ethics based on the doctrines of\nLudwig Feuerbach.\n\nStecchetti (Lorenzo). See Guerrini (O.)\n\nStefanoni (Luigi). Italian writer and publicist, b. Milan, 1842. In\n'59, his first Romance, The Spanish in Italy was suppressed by\nthe Austrians. He joined Garibaldi's volunteers and contributed\nto Unita Italiana. In '66, he founded at Milan the Society of\nFreethinkers and the organ Il Libero Pensiero, in which he wrote A\ncritical History of Superstition, afterwards published separately\n2 vols. '69. He also compiled a Philosophical Dictionary, '73-75;\nand wrote several romances as L'Inferno, The Red and Black of Rome,\netc. He translated B\u00fcchner's Force and Matter, Morin's Jesus r\u00e9duit,\nLa Mettrie's Man-machine, Letourneau's Physiology of the Passions,\nand Feuerbach's Essence of Religion.\n\nSteinbart (Gotthelf, Samuel), German rationalist, b. Z\u00fcllichau, 21\nSept. 1738. Brought up in a pietist school, he became a Freethinker\nthrough reading Voltaire. In '74, he became Prof. of Philosophy\nat Frankfurt-on-the-Oder, and wrote a System of Pure Philosophy,\n'78. Died, 3 Feb. 1809.\n\nSteinthal (Hajjim), German philologist, b. Gr\u00f6bzig, 16 May, 1823,\nhas written many works on language and mythology.\n\nSteller (Johann), Advocate at Leipsic, published an heretical work,\nPilatus liberatoris Jesu subsidio defensus, Dresden, 1674.\n\n\"Stendhal (M. de),\" Pseud, see Beyle (M. H.)\n\nStephen (Sir James FitzJames), English judge and writer, b. London, 3\nMarch, 1829. Studied at Cambridge, graduated B.A. '52, and was called\nto the bar in '54. He was counsel for the Rev. Rowland Williams when\ntried for heresy for writing in Essays and Reviews, and his speech\nwas reprinted in '62. He wrote in the Saturday Review, and reprinted\nEssays by a Barrister. From Dec. '69, to April, '72, he was Legal\nMember of the Indian Council, and in '79 was appointed judge. He is\nauthor of Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity, '73, and some valuable\nlegal works. He has written much in the Nineteenth Century, notably\non the Blasphemy Law '83, and Modern Catholicism, Oct. '87.\n\nStephen (Leslie), English man of letters, brother of preceding,\nb. London, 28 Nov. 1832. Educated at Cambridge where he graduated M.A.,\n'57. He married a daughter of Thackeray, and became editor of the\nCornhill Magazine from '71-82, when he resigned to edit the Dictionary\nof National Biography. Mr. Stephen also contributed to Macmillan, the\nFortnightly, and other reviews. Some of his boldest writing is found\nin Essays on Freethinking and Plainspeaking, '73. He has also written\nan important History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century,\n'76, dealing with the Deistic movement, and The Science of Ethics,\n'82, besides many literary works.\n\nStern (J)., Rabbiner, German writer, b. of Jewish parents,\nLiederstetten (Wurtemburg), his father being Rabbi of the town. In\n'58 he went to the Talmud High School, Presburg and studied the\nKabbalah, which he intended to translate into German. To do this he\nstudied Spinoza, whose philosophy converted him. In '63 he graduated at\nStuttgart. He founded a society, to which he gave discourses collected\nin his first book, Gottesflamme, '72. His Old and New Faith Among the\nJews, '78, was much attacked by the orthodox Jews. In Women in the\nTalmud, '79, he pleaded for mixed marriages. He has also written Jesus\nas a Jewish Reformer, The Egyptian Religion and Positivism, and Is the\nPentateuch by Moses? In '81 he went to live at Stuttgart, where he has\ntranslated Spinoza's Ethics, and is engaged on a history of Spinozism.\n\n\"Sterne (Carus)\"; pseud. See Krause (E).\n\nStevens (E. A.), of Chicago, late secretary of American Secular Union,\nb. 8 June, 1846. Author of God in the State, and contributor to the\nAmerican Freethought journals.\n\nStewart (John), commonly called Walking Stewart, b. London before\n1750. Was sent out in 1763 as a writer to Madras. He walked through\nIndia, Africa, and America. He was a Materialist. Died in London,\n20 Feb. 1822.\n\n\"Stirner (Max).\" See Schmidt (Kaspar).\n\nStosch (Friedrich Wilhelm), called also Stoss (Johann Friedrich),\nb. Berlin, 1646, and studied at Frankfort-on-the-Oder. In 1692 he\npublished a little book, Concordia rationis et fidei, Amst. [or rather\nBerlin]. It was rigorously suppressed, and the possession of the work\nwas threatened with a penalty of five hundred thalers. Lange classes\nhim with German Spinozists, and says \"Stosch curtly denies not only\nthe immateriality, but also the immortality of the soul.\" Died 1704.\n\nStout (Sir Robert), New Zealand statesman, b. Lerwick (Shetland Isles),\n1845. He became a pupil teacher, and in '63 left for New Zealand. In\n'67 he began the study of the law, was elected to the General Assembly\nin '75, and became Attorney-General in March, '78. He has since been\nMinister of Education of the Colony.\n\nStrange (Thomas Lumsden), late Madras Civil Service, and for many\nyears a judge of the High Court, Madras. A highly religious man, and\nlong an Evangelical Christian, he joined the Plymouth Brethren, and\nended in being a strong, and then weak Theist, and always an earnest\nadvocate of practical piety in life and conduct, and a diligent\nstudent and writer. When judge, he sentenced a Brahmin to death,\nand sought to bring the prisoner \"to Jesus.\" He professed himself\ninfluenced, but at the gallows \"he proclaimed his trust to be in\nRama and not in Christ.\" This set the judge thinking. He investigated\nChristianity's claims, and has embodied the result in his works. The\nBible, Is it the Word of God? '71; The Speaker's Commentary Reviewed,\n'71; The Development of Creation on the Earth, '74; The Legends of the\nOld Testament, '74; and The Sources and Development of Christianity,\n'75. A friend of T. Scott and General Forlong, he died at Norwood,\n4 Sept. 1884.\n\nStrauss (David Friedrich), German critic, b. Ludwigsburg (Wurtemburg),\n27 Jan. 1808. He studied Theology at T\u00fcbengen, was ordained in '30, and\nin '32 became assistant-teacher. His Life of Jesus Critically Treated,\n'35, in which he shows the mythical character of the Gospels, aroused\nmuch controversy, and he was deprived of his position. In '39 the\nZ\u00fcrich Government appointed him professor of church history, but they\nwere obliged to repeal their decision before the storm of Christian\nindignation. His next important work was on the Christian Doctrines\n(2 vols.), '40. In '47 he wrote on Julian the Apostle, and in '58 an\naccount of the Life and Time of Ulrich von Hutten. He prepared a New\nLife of Christ for the German People, '64, followed by the Christ of\nthe Creeds and the Jesus of History. In '70 he published his lectures\non Voltaire, and two years later his last work The Old Faith and the\nNew, in which he entirely breaks not only with Christianity but with\nthe belief in a personal God and immortality. A devoted servant of\ntruth, his mind was always advancing. He died at his native place,\n8 Feb. 1874.\n\nStrindberg (Johan August), Swedish writer, known as the Scandinavian\nRousseau, b. Stockholm, 22 Jan. 1849. He has published many prominent\nrationalistic works, as The Red Chamber and Marriage. The latter\nwas confiscated. He is one of the most popular poets and novelists\nin Sweden.\n\nStromer (Hjalmar), Swedish astronomer, b. 1849. He lectured on\nastronomy and published several works thereon, and also wrote\nConfessions of a Freethinker. Died 1887.\n\nStrozzi (Piero), Italian general in the service of France, b. of\nnoble Florentine family 1500. Intended for the Church he abandoned\nit for a military career, and was created marshal of France by Henry\nII. about 1555. He was killed at the siege of Thionville, 20 June\n1558, and being exhorted by the Duc de Guise to think of Jesus,\nhe calmly declared himself an Atheist.\n\nSuard (Jean Baptiste Antione), French writer, b. Besan\u00e7on, 15 Jan,\n1734. He became a devoted friend of Baron d'Holbach and of Garat,\nand corresponded with Hume and Walpole. He wrote Miscellanies of\nLiterature, etc. He had the post of censor of theatres. Died at Paris\n20 July, 1817.\n\nSue (Marie Joseph, called Eug\u00e8ne), French novelist, b. Paris, 10\nDec. 1804. He wrote many romances, of which The Mysteries of Paris\nand The Wandering Jew, '42-45, were the most popular. In '50 he was\nelected deputy and sat at the extreme left, but was exiled by the\ncoup d'etat. He died as a Freethinker at Annecy (Savoy), 3 July 1857.\n\nSullivan (J.), author of Search for Deity, an inquiry as to the origin\nof the conception of God (London, 1859).\n\nSully Prudhomme (Ren\u00e8 Fran\u00e7ois Armand), French poet, b. Paris, 16\nMarch 1839. He studied law but took to poetry and has published many\nvolumes. In '78 he was made Chevalier of Honor, and in '82 member of\nthe Academy. His poems are of pessimistic cast, and full of delicacy\nof philosophical suggestion.\n\nSunderland (La Roy), American author and orator, b. Exeter (Rhode\nIsland), 18 May, 1803. He became a Methodist preacher and was prominent\nin the temperance and anti-slavery movements. He came out of the Church\nas the great bulwark of slavery and opposed Christianity during the\nforty years preceding his death. He wrote many works against slavery\nand Pathetism, '47; Book of Human Nature, '53, and Ideology, 3 vols.,\n'86-9. Died in Quincy (Mass.) 15 May, 1885.\n\nSuttner (Bertha von), Baroness, Austrian author of Inventory of a Soul,\n1886, and of several novels.\n\nSutton (Henry S.), anonymous author of Quinquenergia; or, Proposals\nfor a New Practical Theology, and Letters from a Father to a Son on\nRevealed Religion.\n\nSwinburne (Algernon Charles), English poet and critic, b. London,\n5 April, 1837, educated at Oxford, and went to Florence, where he\nspent some time with W. S. Landor. Atalanta in Calydon, a splendid\nreproduction of Greek tragedy, first showed his genius. Poems and\nBallads, 1866, evinced his unconventional lyrical passion and power,\nand provoked some outcry. In his Songs before Sunrise, 1871, he\nglorifies Freethought and Republicanism, with unsurpassed wealth\nof diction and rhythm. Mr. Swinburne has put forward many other\nvolumes of melodious and dramatic poems, and also essays, studies,\nand prose miscellanies.\n\nSymes (Joseph), English lecturer and writer, b. Portland, 29 Jan. 1841,\nof pious Methodist parents. In '64 he offered himself as candidate for\nthe ministry, and was sent to the Wesleyan College, Richmond, and in\n'67 went on circuit as preacher. Having come to doubt orthodoxy,\nhe resigned in '72, preached his first open Freethought lecture\nat Newcastle, 17 Dec. '76. Had several debates, wrote Philosophic\nAtheism, Man's Place in Nature, Hospitals not of Christian Origin,\nChristianity a Persecuting Religion, Blows at the Bible, etc. He\ncontributed to the Freethinker, and was ready to conduct it during\nMr. Foote's imprisonment. He went to Melbourne, Dec. '83, and there\nestablished the Liberator, and has written Life and Death of My\nReligion, '84; Christianity and Slavery, Phallic Worship, etc.\n\nSymonds (John Addington), English poet and author, b. Bristol,\n5 Oct. 1840, educated at Harrow and Oxford, and was elected in\n'62 to a Fellowship at Magdalen College, which he vacated on his\nmarriage. His chief work is on the Renaissance in Italy, 7 vols.,\ncompleted in '86. He has also written critical sketches, studies,\nand poems. Ill health compels his living abroad.\n\nTaine (Hippolyte Adolphe), D.C.L., brilliant French man of letters,\nb. Vouziers, 21 April, 1828. Educated at the College Bourbon (now the\nCondorcet Lyceum), in '53 he took the degree of Doctor of Letters. In\n'56 appears his French Philosophers of the Nineteenth Century, in which\nhe sharply criticised the spiritualist and religious school. He came\nto England and studied English Literature; his Hand History of which\nwas sent in for the Academy prize, '63, but rejected on the motion of\nBishop Dupanloup on account of its materialist opinions. Also wrote\non English Positivism, a study of J. S. Mill. In '71 Oxford made\nhim D.C.L., and in Nov. '78, he was elected to the French Academy;\nhis latest work is The Origins of Contemporary France.\n\nTalandier (Alfred), French publicist, b. Limoges, 7 Sept. 1828. After\nentering the bar, he became a socialist and took part in the revolution\nof '48. Proscribed after 12 Dec. he came to England, started trades\nunions and co-operation, translated Smiles's Self-Help, and wrote in\nthe National Reformer. Returned to Paris in '70 and became professor at\nthe Lyc\u00e9e Henri IV. In '74 he was deprived of his chair, but elected on\nthe Municipal council of Paris, and two years later chosen as deputy,\nand was re-elected in '81. In '83 he published a Popular Rabelais\nand has written in Our Corner on that great Freethinker.\n\nTaubert (A.), the maiden name of Dr. Hartmann's first wife. She wrote\nThe Pessimists and their Opponents, 1873.\n\nTaule (Ferdinand), M.D., of Strassburg, author of Notions on the\nNature and Properties of Organised Matter. Paris, 1866.\n\nTaurellus (Nicolaus), German physician and philosopher, b. Montb\u00e9hard,\n26 Nov. 1547, studied medicine at T\u00fcbingen and Basle. For daring to\nthink for himself, and asking how the Aristotelian doctrine of the\neternity of the world could be reconciled with the dogma of creation,\nhe was stigmatised as an atheist. Wrote many works in Latin, the\nprincipal of which is Philosophi\u00e6 Triumphans, 1573. He died of the\nplague 28 Sept. 1606.\n\nTaylor (Robert), ex-minister, orator, and critic, b. Edmonton,\n18 Aug. 1784. In 1805 he walked Guy's and St. Thomas's Hospital,\nand became M.R.C.S., 1807. Persuaded to join the Church, he entered\nSt. John's, Cambridge, Oct. 1809, in Jan. '13 graduated B.A., and\nsoon after took holy orders. He was curate at Midhurst till '18, when\nhe first became sceptical through discussions with a tradesman. He\npreached a sermon on Jonah which astonished his flock, and resigned. He\nthen went to Dublin and published The Clerical Review and started\n\"The Society of Universal Benevolence.\" In '24 he came to London and\nstarted \"The Christian Evidence Society,\" and delivered discourses with\ndiscussion; also edited the Philalethian. In '27 he was indicted for\nblasphemy, tried Oct. 24, after an able defence he was found guilty,\nand on 7 Feb. '28 sentenced to one year's imprisonment in Oakham\nGaol. Here he wrote his Syntagma on the Evidences of Christianity,\nand his chief work, The Diegesis, being a discovery of the origins,\nevidences, and early history of Christianity. He also contributed a\nweekly letter to The Lion, which R. Carlile started on his behalf. On\nhis liberation they both went on \"an infidel mission\" about the\ncountry, and on May 30 the Rotunda, Blackfriars, was taken, where\nTaylor attired in canonicals delivered the discourses published in\nThe Devil's Pulpit. He was again prosecuted, and on 4 July, '31, was\nsentenced to two year's imprisonment. He was badly treated in gaol,\nand soon after coming out married a wealthy lady and retired. Died\nat Jersey, 5 June, 1844.\n\nTaylor (Thomas), known as \"The Platonist,\" b. London, 1758. He\ndevoted his life to the elucidation and propagation of the Platonic\nphilosophy. He translated the works of Plato, Aristotle, Porphyry, five\nbooks of Plotinus, six books of Proclus, Gamblichus on the Mysteries,\nArguments of Celsus taken from Origen, Arguments of Julian against\nthe Christians, Orations of Julian, etc. He is said to have been so\nthorough a Pagan that he sacrificed a bull to Zeus. Died in Walworth,\n1 Nov. 1835.\n\nTaylor (William), of Norwich, b. 7 Nov. 1765. He formed an acquaintance\nwith Southey, with whom he corresponded. His translations from\nthe German, notably Lessing's Nathan the Wise, brought him some\nrepute. He also wrote a Survey of German Poetry and English Synonyms,\n1830. He edited the Norwich Iris, 1802, which he made the organ of his\npolitical and religions views. In '10 he published anonymously A Letter\nConcerning the Two First Chapters of Luke, also entitled Who was the\nFather of Jesus Christ? 1810, in which he argues that Zacharias was\nthe father of Jesus Christ. Also wrote largely in the Monthly Review,\nreplying therein to the Abb\u00e9 Barruel; and the Critical Review when\nedited by Fellowes, in which he gave an account of the rationalism\nof Paulus. Died at Norwich, 5 March, 1836.\n\nTchernychewsky (N. G.) See Chernuishevsky.\n\n\"Tela (Josephus),\" the Latinised name of Joseph Webbe who in 1818\nedited the Philosophical Library, containing the Life and Morals of\nConfucius, Epicurus, Isoscrates, Mahomet, etc., and other pieces. Webbe\nis also thought to have been concerned in the production of Ecce Homo,\n'13. Cushing, in his Initials and Pseudonyms, refers Tela to \"Joseph\nWebb,\" 1735-87; an American writer; Grand Master of Freemasons in\nAmerica; died in Boston.\" I am not satisfied that this is the same\nperson.\n\nTelesio (Bernardino), Italian philosopher, b. of noble family at\nCosenza, 1509. He studied at Padua, and became famous for his learning,\noptical discoveries, and new opinions in philosophy. He wrote in\nLatin On the Nature of Things according to Proper Principles, 1565. He\nopposed the Aristotelian doctrine in physics, and employed mathematical\nprinciples in explaining nature, for which he was prosecuted by the\nclergy. He died Oct. 1588. His works were placed in the Index, but\nthis did not prevent their publication at Venice, 1590.\n\nTelle (Reinier), or Regnerus Vitellius, Dutch Humanist, b. Zierikzee,\n1578. He translated Servetus On the Errors of the Trinity, published\n1620. Died at Amsterdam, 1618.\n\nTesta (Giacinto), of Messina, Italian author of a curious Storia di\nGes\u00f9 di Nazareth, 1870, in which he maintains that Jesus was the son\nof Giuseppe Pandera, a Calabrian of Brindisi.\n\nThaer (Albrecht Daniel). German agriculturist, b. Celle, 14 May,\n1752. Studied at Gottingen, and is said to have inspired Lessing's\nwork on The Education of the Human Race. Died 28 Oct. 1828.\n\nTheodorus of Cyrene, a Greek philosopher, whose opinions resembled\nthose of Epicurus. He was banished for Atheism from his native city. He\nresided at Athens about 312 B.C. When threatened with crucifixion, he\nsaid it mattered little whether he rotted in the ground or in the air.\n\nTheophile de Viau, French satiric poet, b. Clerac, 1590. For the\nalleged publication of Le Parnasse Satyriques, he was accused of\nAtheism, condemned to death, and burnt in effigy. He fled, and was\nreceived by the Duc de Montmorency at Chantilly, where he died,\n25 Sept. 1626.\n\nThompson (Daniel Greenleaf), American author of works on The Problem\nof Evil, '87; The Religious Sentiments, etc. He is President of the\nNineteenth Century Club.\n\nThomson (Charles Otto), Captain, b. Stockholm, 3 Jan. 1833. Went to\nsea in '49 and became a merchant captain in '57, and was subsequently\nmanager of the Eskilstuna gas works. At Eskilstuna he started a\nUtilitarian Society in '88, of which he is president. He has done\nmuch to support Mr. Lennstrand in his Freethought work in Sweden; has\ntranslated articles by Ingersoll, Foote and others, and has lectured\non behalf of the movement. He shares in the conduct of Frit\u00e4nkaren.\n\nThomson (James), Pessimistic poet, b. Port Glasgow, 23\nNov. 1834. Educated at the Caledonian Asylum, London, he became\na schoolmaster in the army, where he met Mr. Bradlaugh, whom he\nafterwards assisted on the National Reformer. To this paper he\ncontributed many valuable essays, translations, and poems, including\nhis famous \"City of Dreadful Night,\" the most powerful pessimistic\npoem in the English language, (April, '74, afterwards published with\nother poems in '80). \"Vane's Story\" with other poems was issued in\n'81, and \"A Voice from the Nile,\" and \"Shelley\" (privately printed in\n'84). Thomson also contributed to the Secularist and Liberal, edited\nby his friend Foote, who has published many of his articles in a\nvolume entitled Satires and Profanities, which includes \"The Story of\na Famous Old Jewish Firm,\" also published separately. Thomson employed\nmuch of his genius in the service of Freethought. Died 3 June, 1882.\n\nThomson (William), of Cork. A disciple of Bentham, and author of The\nDistribution of Wealth, 1824; Appeal for Women, '25; Labor Reward,\n'27, and in the Co-operative Magazine.\n\nThorild (Thomas), or Thoren, Swedish writer, b. Bohuslau, 18 April,\n1759. In 1775 he studied at Lund, and in 1779 went to Stockholm,\nand published many poems and miscellaneous pieces in Swedish, Latin,\nGerman, and English, in which he wrote Cromwell, an epic poem. In\n1786 he wrote Common Sense on Liberty, with a view of extending the\nliberty of the press. He was a partisan of the French Revolution,\nand for a political work was imprisoned and exiled. He also wrote a\nSermon of Sermons, attacking the clergy, and a work maintaining the\nrights of women. Died at Greifswald; 1 Oct. 1808. He was a man far\nin advance of his time, and is now becoming appreciated.\n\nThulie (Jean Baptiste Henri), French physician and anthropologist,\nb. Bordeaux, 1832. In '56 he founded a journal, \"Realism.\" In '66 he\npublished a work on Madness and the Law. He contributed to La Pens\u00e9e\nNouvelle, defending the views of B\u00fcchner. He has written an able study,\nLa Femme, Woman, published in '85. M. Thulie has been President of\nthe Paris Municipal Council.\n\nTiele (Cornelis Petrus), Dutch scholar, b. Leyden, 16\nDec. 1830. Although brought up in the Church, his works all tell in\nthe service of Freethought, and he has shown his liberality of views\nin editing the poems of Genestet together with his life, '68. He has\nwritten many articles on comparative religion, and two of his works\nhave been translated into English, viz., Outlines of the History of\nReligion, a valuable sketch of the old faiths, fourth ed. '88; and\nComparative History of the Egyptian and Mesopotamian Religions, '82.\n\nTillier (Claude), French writer, b. of poor parents, Clamecy,\n11 April, 1801. He served as a conscript, and wrote some telling\npamphlets directed against tyranny and superstition, and some novels,\nof which we note My Uncle Benjamin. Died at Nevers, 12 Oct. 1844. His\nworks were edited by F. Pyat.\n\nTindal (Matthew), LL.D., English Deist, b. Beer-ferris, Devon,\n1657. Educated at Oxford, and at first a High Churchman, he was\ninduced to turn Romanist in the reign of James II., but returned to\nProtestantism and wrote The Rights of the Christian Church. This work\nwas much attacked by the clergy, who even indicted the vendors. A\ndefence which he published was ordered to be burnt by the House of\nCommons. In 1730 he published Christianity as Old as the Creation, to\nwhich no less than 150 answers were published. He died 16 Aug. 1733,\nand a second volume, which he left in MS., was destroyed by order of\nGibson, Bishop of London.\n\nToland (John), Irish writer, b. Redcastle, near Londonderry, 30\nNov. 1669. Educated as a Catholic, he renounced that faith in early\nyouth, went to Edinburgh University, where he became M.A. in 1690,\nand proceeded to Leyden, studying under Spanheim, and becoming a\nsceptic. He also studied at Oxford, reading deeply in the Bodleian\nLibrary, and became the correspondent of Le Clerc and Bayle. In\n1696 he startled the orthodox with his Christianity not Mysterious,\nwhich was \"presented\" by the Grand Jury of Middlesex and condemned by\nthe Lower House of Convocation. The work was also burnt at Dublin,\nSept. 1697. He wrote a Life of Milton (1698), in which, mentioning\nEikon Basilike, he referred to the \"suppositious pieces under the\nname of Christ, his apostles and other great persons.\" For this he was\ndenounced by Dr. Blackhall before Parliament. He replied with Amytor,\nin which he gives a catalogue of such pieces. He went abroad and\nwas well received by the Queen of Prussia, to whom he wrote Letters\nto Serena (1704), which, says Lange, \"handles the kernel of the\nwhole question of Materialism.\" In 1709 he published Adeisid\u00e6non and\nOrigines Judaic\u00e6. In 1718 Nazarenus, on Jewish, Gentile and Mahommedan\nChristianity, in which he gave an account of the Gospel of Barnabus. He\nalso wrote four pieces entitled Tetradymus and Pantheisticon, which\ndescribed a society of Pantheists with a liturgy burlesquing that\nof the Catholics. Toland died with the calmness of a philosopher,\nat Putney, 11 March, 1722. Lange praises him highly.\n\nTollemache (Hon. Lionel Arthur), b. 1838, son of Baron Tollemache,\na friend of C. Austin, of whom he has written. Wrote many articles\nin Fortnightly Review, reprinted (privately) as Stones of Stumbling,\n'84. Has also written Safe Studies, '84; Recollections of Pallison,\n'85; and Mr. Romanes's Catechism, '87.\n\nTone (Theobald Wolfe), Irish patriot, b. Dublin, 20 June,\n1763. Educated at Trinity College in 1784, he obtained a scholarship\nin 1786, B.A. He founded the Society of United Irishmen, 1791. Kept\nrelations with the French revolutionists, and in 1796 induced the\nFrench Directory to send an expedition against England. He was taken\nprisoner and committed suicide in prison, dying 19 Nov. 1798.\n\nTopinard (Paul), M.D., French anthropologist, b. Isle-Adam 1830. Editor\nof the Revue d'Anthropologie, and author of a standard work on that\nsubject published in the Library of Contemporary Science.\n\nToulmin (George Hoggart), M.D., of Wolverhampton. Author of The\nAntiquity and Duration of the World, 1785; The Eternity of the\nUniverse, 1789; the last being republished in 1825.\n\nTournai (Simon de). See Simon.\n\nTraina (Tommaso), Italian jurist. Author of a work on The Ethics of\nHerbert Spencer, Turin, 1881.\n\nTravis (Henry), Dr., b. Scarborough, 1807. He interested himself\nin the socialistic aspect of co-operation, and became a friend and\nliterary executor to Robert Owen. In '51-53 he edited Robert Owen's\nJournal. He also wrote on Effectual Reform, Free Will and Law, Moral\nFreedom and Causation, and A Manual of Social Science, and contributed\nto the National Reformer. Died 4 Feb. 1884.\n\nTrelawny (Edward John), b. Cornwall, Nov. 1792. Became intimate in\nItaly with Shelley, whose body he recovered and cremated in August,\n1822. He accompanied Byron on his Greek expedition, and married a\ndaughter of a Greek chief. He wrote Adventures of a Younger Son,\n'31; and Records of Shelley, Byron, and the Author, '78. He died 13\nAug. 1881, and was cremated at Gotha, his ashes being afterwards placed\nbeside those of Shelley. Trelawny was a vehement Pagan despising the\ncreeds and conventions of society. Swinburne calls him \"World-wide\nliberty's lifelong lover.\"\n\nTrenchard (John), English Deist and political writer, b. Somersetshire,\n1669. He studied law, but abandoned it, and was appointed Commissioner\nof Forfeited Estates in Ireland. In conjunction with Gordon he\nwrote Cato's Letters on civil and religious liberty, and conducted\nThe Independent Whig. He sat in the House of Commons as M.P. for\nTaunton; he also wrote the Natural History of Superstition, 1709; but\nLa Contagion Sacree, attributed to him, is really by d'Holbach. Died\n17 Dec. 1723.\n\nTrevelyan (Arthur), of Tyneholm, Tranent, N.B., a writer in the\nReasoner and National Reformer. Published The Insanity of Mankind\n(Edinburgh, 1850), and some tracts. He was a Vice-President of the\nNational Secular Society. Died at Tyneholm, 6 Feb. 1878.\n\nTrezza (Gaetano), Italian writer, b. Verona, Dec. 1828. Was brought\nup and ordained a priest, and was an eloquent preacher. Study led him\nto resign the clerical profession. He has published Confessions of a\nSceptic, '78; Critical Studies, '78; New Critical Studies, '81. He is\nProfessor of Literature at the Institute of High Studies, Florence. To\nthe first number of the Revue Internationale '83, he contributed Les\nDieux s'en vont. He also wrote Religion and Religions, '84; and a work\non St. Paul. A study on Lucretius has reached its third edition, '87.\n\nTridon (Edme Marie, Gustave), French publicist, b. Chatillon sur\nSeine, Burgundy, 5 June, 1841. Educated by his parents who were rich,\nhe became a doctor of law but never practised. In '64 he published in\nLe Journal des Ecoles, his remarkable study of revolutionary history\nLes H\u00e9bertistes. In May, '65 he founded with Blanqui, etc., Le Candide,\nthe precursor of La Libre Pens\u00e9e, '66, in both of which the doctrines\nof materialism were expounded. Delegated in '65 to the International\nStudents Congress at Li\u00e9ge his speech was furiously denounced by Bishop\nDupanloup; he got more than two years' imprisonment for articles in\nLe Candide and La Libre Pens\u00e9e, and in Ste Pelagie contracted the\nmalady which killed him. While in prison he wrote the greater part\nof his work Du Molochisme Juif, critical and philosophical studies\nof the Jewish religion, only published in '84. After 4 Sept. '70,\nhe founded La Patrie en Danger. In Feb. '71 he was elected deputy to\nthe Bordeaux Assembly, but resigned after voting against declaration\nof peace. He then became a member of the Paris Commune, retiring after\nthe collapse to Brussels where he died 29 Aug. 1871. He received the\nmost splendid Freethinker's funeral witnessed in Belgium.\n\nTruebner (Nicolas), publisher, b. Heidelberg, 17 June, 1817. After\nserving with Longman and Co., he set up in business, and distinguished\nhimself by publishing works on Freethought, religions, philosophy\nand Oriental literature. Died London, 30 March, 1884.\n\nTruelove (Edward), English publisher, b. 29 Oct. 1809. Early in\nlife he embraced the views of Robert Owen, and for nine years was\nsecretary of the John Street Institution. In '44 and '45 he threw\nin his lot with the New Harmony Community, Hampshire. In '52 he\ntook a shop in the Strand, where he sold advanced literature. He\npublished Voltaire's Philosophical Dictionary and Romances, Paine's\ncomplete works, D'Holbach's System of Nature, and Taylor's Syntagma\nand Diegesis. In '58 he was prosecuted for publishing a pamphlet on\nTyrannicide, by W. E. Adams, but the prosecution was abandoned. In\n'78 he was, after two trials, sentenced to four months' imprisonment\nfor publishing R. D. Owen's Moral Physiology. Upon his release he\nwas presented with a testimonial and purse of 200 sovereigns.\n\nTrumbull (Matthew M.), American general, a native of London,\nb. 1826. About the age of twenty he went to America, served in the\narmy in Mexico, and afterwards in the Civil War. General Grant made\nhim Collector of Revenue for Iowa. He held that office eight years,\nand then visited England. In 1882 he went to Chicago, where he exerted\nhimself on behalf of a fair trial for the Anarchists.\n\nTschirnhausen (Walthier Ehrenfried), German Count, b. 1651. He was a\nfriend of Leibniz and Wolff, and in philosophy a follower of Spinoza,\nthough he does not mention him. Died 1708.\n\nTucker (Benjamin R.), American writer, b. Dartmouth, Mass., 17 April,\n1854. Edits Liberty, of Boston.\n\nTurbiglio (Sebastiano), Italian philosopher, b. Chiusa, 7 July, 1842,\nauthor of a work on Spinoza and the Transformation of his Thoughts,\n1875.\n\nTurgenev (Ivan Sergyeevich), Russian novelist, b. Orel, 28\nOct. 1818. In his novels, Fathers and Sons and Virgin Soil he has\ndepicted characters of the Nihilist movement. Died at Bougival,\nnear Paris, 3 Sept. 1883.\n\nTurner (William), a surgeon of Liverpool, who, under the name of\nWilliam Hammon, published an Answer to Dr. Priestley's Letters to a\nPhilosophical Unbeliever, 1782, in which he avows himself an Atheist.\n\nTuuk (Titia, Van der), Dutch lady, b. Zandt, 27 Nov. 1854. Was\nconverted to Freethought by reading Dekker, and is now one of the\neditors of De Dageraad.\n\nTwesten (Karl), German publicist and writer, b. Kiel, 22 April,\n1820. Studied law, '38-41, in Berlin and Heidelberg, and became\nmagistrate in Berlin and one of the founders of the National Liberal\nParty. Wrote on the religious, political, and social ideas of Asiatics\nand Egyptians (2 vols.), '72. Died Berlin, 14 Oct. 1870.\n\nTylor (Edward Burnet), D.C.L., F.R.S., English anthropologist,\nb. Camberwell, 2 Oct. 1832. He has devoted himself to the study\nof the races of mankind, and is the first living authority upon\nthe subject. He has wrote Anahuac, or Mexico and the Mexicans, '61;\nResearches into the Early History of Mankind, '65; Primitive Culture;\nbeing researches into the development of mythology, philosophy,\nreligion, art, and custom (2 vols.), '71. In this splendid work he\ntraces religion to animism, the belief in spirits. He has also written\nan excellent handbook of Anthropology, an introduction to the Study\nof Man and Civilisation, '81; and contributed to the Encyclop\u00e6dia\nBritannica, as well as to periodical literature. He is President of\nthe Anthropological Society.\n\nTyndall (John), LL.D., F.R.S., Irish scientist, b. near Carlow,\n1820. In '47 he became a teacher in Queenswood College (Hants), and\nafterwards went to Germany to study. In '56 he went to Switzerland\nwith Professor Huxley, and they wrote a joint work on glaciers. He\ncontributed to the Fortnightly Review, notably an article on Miracles\nand Special Providence, '66. In '72 he went on a lecturing tour in\nthe United States, and two years later was president of the British\nAssociation. His address at Belfast made a great stir, and has been\npublished. In addition to other scientific works he has published\npopular Fragments of Science, which has gone through several editions.\n\nTyrell (Henry). See Church.\n\nTyssot de Patot (Simon), b. of French family in Delft, 1655. He\nbecame professor of mathematics at Deventer. Under the pen name of\n\"Jacques Mass\u00e9\" he published Voyages and Adventures, Bordeaux, 1710,\na work termed atheistic and scandalous by Reimmann. It was translated\ninto English by S. Whatley, 1733, and has been attributed to Bayle.\n\nUeberweg (Friedrich), German philosopher, b. Leichlingen 22 Jan. 1826;\nstudied at G\u00f6ttingen and Berlin, and became Professor of Philosophy at\nK\u00f6nigsberg, where he died 9 June, 1871. His chief work is a History\nof Philosophy. Lange cites Czolbe as saying \"He was in every way\ndistinctly an Atheist and Materialist.\"\n\nUhlich (Johann Jacob Marcus Lebericht), German religious reformer,\nb. K\u00f6then 27 Feb. 1799. He studied at Halle and became a preacher. For\nhis rationalistic views he was suspended in 1847, and founded the\nFree Congregation at Magdeburg. He wrote numerous brochures defending\nhis opinions. His Religion of Common Sense has been translated and\npublished in America. Died at Magdeburg, 23 March, 1872.\n\nUle (Otto), German scientific writer, b. Lossow 22 Jan. 1820. Studied\nat Halle and Berlin. In '52 he started the journal Die Natur, and\nwrote many works popularising science. Died at Halle 6 Aug. 1876.\n\nUnderwood (Benjamin F.). American lecturer and writer, b. New York\n6 July, 1839. Has been a student and a soldier in the Civil War. He\nfought at Ball's Bluff, Virginia, 21 Oct. '61, was wounded and held\nprisoner in Richmond for nine months. In '81 he edited the Index in\nconjunction with Mr. Potter, and in '87 started The Open Court at\nChicago. He has had numerous debates; those with the Rev. J. Marples\nand O. A. Burgess being published. He has also published Essays and\nLectures, The Religion of Materialism, Influence of Christianity\non Civilisation, etc. His sister, Sara A., has written Heroines of\nFreethought, New York, 1876.\n\nVacherot (Etienne), French writer, b. Langres, 29 July, 1809. In '39 he\nreplaced Victor Cousin in the Chair of Philosophy at the Sorbonne. For\nhis free opinions expressed in his Critical History of the School\nof Alexandria, a work in three vols. crowned by the Institute,\n'46-51, he was much attacked by the clergy and at the Empire lost\nhis position. He afterwards wrote Essays of Critical Philosophy,\n'64, and La Religion, '69.\n\nVacquerie (Auguste), French writer, b. Villequier, 1819. A friend of\nVictor Hugo. He has written many dramas and novels of merit, and was\ndirector of Le Rappel.\n\nVaillant (Edouard Marie), French publicist, b. Vierzon, 26\nJan. 1840. Educated at Paris and Germany. A friend of Tridon he\ntook part in the Commune, and in '84 was elected Muncipal Councillor\nof Paris.\n\nVairasse (Denis) d'Alais, French writer of the seventeenth century. He\nbecame both soldier and lawyer. Author of Histoire des Sevarambes,\n1677; imaginary travels in which he introduced free opinions and\nsatirised Christianity.\n\nVale (Gilbert) author, b. London, 1788. He was intended for the church,\nbut abandoned the profession and went to New York, where he edited\nthe Citizen of the World and the Beacon. He published Fanaticism;\nits Source and Influence, N.Y. 1835, and a Life of Paine, '41. Died\nBrooklyn, N.Y. 17 Aug. 1866.\n\nValk (T. A. F. van der), Dutch Freethinker, who, after being a\nChristian missionary in Java, changed his opinions, and wrote in De\nDageraad between 1860-70, using the pen name of \"Thomas.\"\n\nValla (Lorenzo), Italian critic, b. Piacenza, 1415. Having hazarded\nsome free opinions respecting Catholic doctrines, he was condemned to\nbe burnt, but was saved by Alphonsus, King of Naples. Valla was then\nconfined in a monastery, but Pope Nicholas V. called him to Rome and\ngave him a pension. He died there, 1 Aug. 1457.\n\nVallee (Geoffrey), French martyr, b. Orleans, 1556. He wrote La\nB\u00e9atitude des Chr\u00e9stiens ou le Fl\u00e9o de la Foy, for which he was accused\nof blasphemy, and hanged on the Place de Gr\u00e9ve, Paris, 9 Feb. 1574.\n\nValliss (Rudolph), German author of works on The Natural History\nof Gods (Leip., 1875); The Eternity of the World, '75; Catechism of\nHuman Duty, '76, etc.\n\nVan Cauberg (Adolphe), Belgian advocate. One of the founders and\npresident of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 1886.\n\nVan Effen. See Effen.\n\nVanini (Lucilio, afterwards Julius C\u00e6sar), Italian philosopher and\nmartyr, b. Taurisano (Otranto), 1585. At Rome and Padua he studied\nAverroism, entered the Carmelite order, and travelled in Switzerland,\nGermany, Holland and France making himself admired and respected by\nhis rationalistic opinions. He returned to Italy in 1611, but the\nInquisition was on his track and he took refuge at Venice. In 1612 he\nvisited England, and in 1614 got lodged in the Tower. When released\nhe went to Paris and published a Pantheistic work in Latin On the\nAdmirable Secrets of Nature, the Queen and Goddess of Mortals. It was\ncondemned by the Sorbonne and burnt, and he fled to Toulouse in 1617;\nbut there was no repose for Freethought. He was accused of instilling\nAtheism into his scholars, tried and condemned to have his tongue cut\nout, his body burned and his ashes scattered to the four winds. This\nwas done 19 Feb. 1619. President Gramond, author of History of France\nunder Louis XIII., writes \"I saw him in the tumbril as they led him\nto execution, mocking the Cordelier who had been sent to exhort him\nto repentance, and insulting our Savior by these impious words. 'He\nsweated with fear and weakness, and I die undaunted.'\"\n\nVapereau (Louis Gustave), French man of letters, b. Orleans 4 April,\n1819. In '41 he became the secretary of Victor Cousin. He collaborated\non the Dictionnaire des Sciences Philosophiques and the Libert\u00e9\nde Penser, but is best known by his useful Dictionnaire Universel\ndes Contemporains. In '70 he was nominated prefect of Cantal, but\non account of the violent attacks of the clericals was suspended in\n'73 and resumed his literary labors, compiling a Universal Dictionary\nof Writers, '76, and Elements of the History of French Literature,\n1883-85.\n\nVarnhagen von Ense (Earl August Ludwig Philipp), German author,\nb. Dusseldorf, 21 Feb. 1785. He studied medicine and philosophy,\nentered the Austrian and Russian armies, and served in the Prussian\ndiplomatic service. He was an intimate friend of Alex. von Humboldt,\nand shared his Freethinking opinions. Died in Berlin, 10 Oct. 1858. He\nvividly depicts the men and events of his time in his Diary.\n\nVauvenargues (Luc de Clapiers), Marquis; French moralist, b. Aix,\n6 Aug. 1715. At eighteen he entered the army, and left the service\nwith ruined health in 1743. He published in 1746 an Introduction to\nthe Knowledge of the Human Mind, followed by Reflections and Maxims,\nwhich was deservedly praised by his friend Voltaire. Died at Paris 28\nMay, 1747. His work, which though but mildly deistic, was rigorously\nsuppressed, and was reprinted about 1770.\n\nVelthuysen (Lambert), Dutch physician, b. Utrecht, 1622. He wrote\nmany works on theology and philosophy in Latin. His works, De Officio\nPastorum and De Idolatria et Superstitione were proceeded against in\n1668, but he was let off with a fine. Died 1685.\n\nVenetianer (Moritz), German Pantheist, author of Der Allgeist, 1874,\nand a work on Schopenhauer as a Scholastic.\n\nVereschagin (Vasily), Russian painter, b. Novgorod, 1842. He studied\nat Paris under Gerome, took part in the Russo-Turkish war, and has\ntravelled widely. The realistic and anti-religious conceptions of his\nHoly Family and Resurrection were the cause of their being withdrawn\nfrom the Vienna Exhibition in Oct. '85, by order of the archbishop. In\nhis Autobiographical Sketches, translated into English, '87, he shows\nhis free opinions.\n\nVergniaud (Pierre Victurnien), French Girondist orator, b. Limoges,\n31 May, 1759. He studied law, and became an advocate. Elected to\nthe Legislative Assembly in 1791, he also became President of the\nConvention. At the trial of the King he voted for the appeal to\nthe people, but that being rejected, voted death. With Gensonn\u00e9\nand Guadet, he opposed the sanguinary measures of Robespierre, and,\nbeing beaten in the struggle, was executed with the Girondins, 31\nOct. 1793. Vergniaud was a brilliant speaker. He said: \"Reason thinks,\nReligion dreams.\" He had prepared poison for himself, but as there\nwas not enough for his comrades, he resolved to suffer with them.\n\nVerlet (Henri), French founder and editor of a journal, La Libre\nPens\u00e9e, 1871, and author of a pamphlet on Atheism and the Supreme\nBeing.\n\nVerliere (Alfred), French author of a Guide du Libre-Penseur (Paris,\n1869); collaborated La Libre Pens\u00e9e, Rationaliste, etc. To Bishop\nDupanloup's Ath\u00e9isme et Peril Social he replied with Deisme et Peril\nSocial, for which he was condemned to several months' imprisonment.\n\nVermersch (Eug\u00e8ne), French journalist, b. Lille about 1840. Took part\nin the Commune, and has written on many Radical papers.\n\nVernes (Maurice), French critic, b. Mauroy, 1845. Has published\nMelanges de Critique Religieuse, and translated from Kuenen and Tiele.\n\nVeron (Eug\u00e8ne), French writer and publicist, b. Paris, 29 May, 1825. He\nwrote on many journals, founded La France Republicaine at Lyons, and\nl'Art at Paris. Besides historical works he has written L'Esthetique\nin the \"Library of Contemporary Science,\" '78; The Natural History\nof Religions, 2 vols., in the Biblioth\u00e8que Materialiste, '84; and La\nMorale, '84.\n\nViardot (Louis), French writer, b. Dijon, 31 July, 1800. He came\nto Paris and became an advocate, but after a voyage in Spain, left\nthe bar for literature, writing on the Globe National and Si\u00e8cle. In\n'41 he founded the Revue Independante with \"George Sand,\" and Pierre\nLeroux. He made translations from the Russian, and in addition to many\nworks on art he wrote The Jesuits, '57; Apology of an Unbeliever,\ntranslated into English, '69, and republished as Libre Examen,\n'71. Died 1883.\n\nVico (Giovanni Battista), Italian philosopher, b. Naples 1668. He\nbecame Professor of Rhetoric in the University of that city, and\npublished a New Science of the Common Nature of Nations, 1725, in\nwhich he argues that the events of history are determined by immutable\nlaws. It presents many original thoughts. Died Naples, 21 Jan. 1743.\n\nVirchow (Rudolf), German anthropologist, b. Schivelbein Pomerania,\n13 Oct. 1821. Studied medicine at Berlin and became lecturer, member\nof the National Assembly of '48, and Professor of Pathological\nAnatomy at Berlin. His Cellular Pathology, '58, established his\nreputation. He was chosen deputy and rose to the leadership of the\nLiberal opposition. His scientific views are advanced although he\nopposed the Haeckel in regard to absolute teaching of evolution.\n\nVischer (Friedrich Theodor), German art critic, b. Ludwigsburg,\n30 June, 1807. Was educated for the Church, became a minister, but\nrenounced theology and became professor of  and is Jahrb\u00fccher der\nGegenwart, '44, was accused of blasphemy and for his Freethinking\nopinions he was suspended two years. At the revolution of '48 he\nwas elected to the National Assembly. In '55 he became Professor\nat Z\u00fcrich. His work on \u00c6sthetic, or the Science of the Beautiful,\n'46-54, is considered classic. He has also written, Old and New,\n'81, and several anonymous works. Died Gmunden, 14 Sept. 1887.\n\nVitry (Guarin de) French author of a Rapid Examination of Christian\nDogma, addressed to the Council of 1869.\n\nVloten (Johannes van), Dutch writer, b. Kampen, 18 Jan. 1818; studied\ntheology at Leiden and graduated D.D. in '43. He has, however, devoted\nhimself to literature, and produced many works, translating plays of\nShakespeare, editing Spinoza, and writing his life--translated into\nEnglish by A. Menzies. He edited also De Levensbode, 1865, etc.\n\nVoelkel (Titus), Dr., German lecturer and writer, b. Wirsitz (Prussian\nPoland) 14 Dec. 1841. Studied ('59-65) theology, natural philosophy,\nand mathematics, and spent some years in France. He returned '70,\nand was for ten years employed as teacher at higher schools. Since\n'80 has been \"sprecher\" of Freethought associations and since '85\neditor of the Neues Freireligi\u00f6ses Sonntags-Blatt, at Magdeburg. In\n'88 he was several times prosecuted for blasphemy and each time\nacquitted. He represented several German societies at the Paris\nCongress of Freethinkers, '89.\n\nVoglet (Prosper), Belgian singer, b. Brussels, 1825. He was blinded\nthrough his baptism by a Catholic priest, and has in consequence to\nearn his living as a street singer. His songs, of his own composition,\nare anti-religious. Many have appeared in La Tribune du Peuple,\nwhich he edited.\n\nVogt (Karl), German scientist, b. Giessen, 5 July, 1817, the\nson of a distinguished naturalist. He studied medicine and became\nacquainted with Agassiz. In '48 he was elected deputy to the National\nAssembly. Deprived of his chair and exiled, he became professor\nof Natural History at Geneva. His lectures on Man, His Position in\nCreation and in the History of the Earth, '63, made a sensation by\ntheir endorsement of Darwinism. They were translated into English\nand published by the Anthropological Society. He has also written\na Manual of Geology, Physiological Letters, Zoological Letters,\nBlind Faith and Science, etc., and has contributed to the leading\nFreethought journals of Germany and Switzerland.\n\nVolkmar (Gustav), Swiss critic, b. Hersfeld, 11 Jan. 1809. Studied at\nMarburg '29-32; became privat docent at Zurich, '53, and professor\n'63. He has written rationalist works on the Gospel of Marcion,\n'52; Justin Martyr, '53; the Origin of the Gospels, '66; Jesus and\nthe first Christian Ages, '82, etc.\n\nVolney (Constantin Fran\u00e7ois Chassebouf de), Count, French philosopher,\nb. Craon (Anjou) 3 Feb. 1757. Having studied at Ancenis and Angers,\nhe went to Paris in 1774. Here he met D'Holbach and others. In 1783\nhe started for Egypt and Syria, and in 1787 published an account of\nhis travels. Made Director of Commerce in Corsica, he resigned on\nbeing elected to the Assembly. Though a wealthy landlord, he wrote\nand spoke for division of landed property. In 1791 his eloquent Ruins\nappeared. During the Terror he was imprisoned for ten months. In '95\nhe visited America. Returning to France, Napoleon asked him to become\ncolleague in the consulship but Volney declined. He remonstrated\nwith Napoleon when he re-established Christianity by the Concordat,\nApril 1802. Among his other works was a History of Samuel and the\nLaw of Nature. Died 25 April, 1820.\n\nVoltaire (Fran\u00e7ois Marie. Arouet de), French poet, historian and\nphilosopher, b. Paris 21 Nov. 1694. Educated by the Jesuits, he\nearly distinguished himself by his wit. For a satirical pamphlet on\nthe death of Louis XIV he was sent to the Bastille for a year and\nwas afterwards committed again for a quarrel with the Chevalier de\nRohan. On his liberation he came to England at the invitation of Lord\nBolingbroke, and became acquainted with the English Freethinkers. His\nLettres Philosophiques translated as \"Letters on the English,\" 1732,\ngave great offence to the clergy and was condemned to be burnt. About\n1735 he retired to the estate of the Marquise de Ch\u00e2telet at Cirey,\nwhere he produced many plays. We may mention Mahomet, dedicated\nto the Pope, who was unable to see that its shafts were aimed at\nthe pretences of the church. In 1750 he accepted the invitation\nof Frederick II. to reside at his court. But he could not help\nlaughing at the great king's poetry. The last twenty years of his\nlife was passed at Ferney near the Genevan territory, which through\nhis exertions became a thriving village. He did more than any other\nman of his century to abolish torture and other relics of barbarism,\nand to give just notions of history. To the last he continued to wage\nwar against intolerance and superstition. His works comprise over a\nthousand pieces in seventy volumes. Over fifty works were condemned\nby the Index, and Voltaire used no less than one hundred and thirty\ndifferent pen-names. His name has risen above the clouds of detraction\nmade by his clerical enemies. Died 30 May, 1778.\n\nVoo (G. W. van der), Dutch writer, b. 6 April, 1806. For more than\nhalf a century he was schoolmaster and teacher of the French language\nat Rotterdam, where he still lives. He contributed many articles to\nDe Dageraad.\n\nVosmaer (Carel), Dutch writer, b. the Hague 20 March, 1826. Studied law\nat Leyden. He edited the Tydstroom (1858-9) and Spectator (1860-73),\nand wrote several works on Dutch art and other subjects. Died at\nMontreux (Switzerland), 12 June, 1888.\n\nVoysey (Charles), English Theist, b. London 18 March, 1828. Graduated\nB.A. at Oxford, '51, was vicar of Healaugh, Yorkshire, '64-71, and\ndeprived 11 Feb. '71 for heresy in sermons published in The Sling\nand the Stone. He has since established a Theistic Church in Swallow\nStreet, Piccadilly, and his sermons are regularly published. He has\nalso issued Fragments from Reimarus, '79, edited The Langham Magazine\nand published Lectures on the Bible and the Theistic Faith, etc.\n\nVulpian (Edme Felix Alfred), French physician, b. 5 Jan. 1826. Wrote\nseveral medical works and upon being appointed lecturer at the School\nof Medicine, '69, was violently opposed on account of his Atheism. He\nwas afterwards elected to the Academy of Sciences. Died 17 May, 1887.\n\nWagner (Wilhelm Richard), German musical composer and poet, b. Leipsic,\n22 May, 1813. From '42-49 he was conductor of the Royal Opera, Dresden,\nbut his revolutionary sentiments caused his exile to Switzerland, where\nhe produced his \"Lohengrin.\" In '64 he was patronised by Ludwig II. of\nBavaria, and produced many fine operas, in which he sought that poetry,\nscenery, and music should aid each other in making opera dramatic. In\nphilosophy he expressed himself a follower of Schopenhauer. Died at\nVenice, 13 Feb. 1883.\n\nWaite (Charles Burlingame), American judge, b. Wayne county, N.Y. 29\nJan. 1824. Educated at Knox College, Illinois, he was admitted to the\nBar in '47. After successful practice in Chicago, he was appointed\nby President Lincoln Justice of the Supreme Court of Utah. In '81 he\nissued his History of the Christian Religion to the year A.D. 200,\na rationalistic work, which explodes the evangelical narratives.\n\nWakeman (Thaddeus B.), American lawyer and Positivist, b. 29 Dec. 1834,\nwas one of the editors of Man and a president of the New York Liberal\nClub. A contributor to the Freethinkers' Magazine.\n\nWalferdin (Fran\u00e7ois-Hippolyte), b. Langres, 8 June, 1795. A friend\nof Arago he contributed with him to the enlargement of science, and\nwas decorated with the Legion of Honor in 1844. He published a fine\nedition of the works of Diderot in '57, and left the bust of that\nphilosopher to the Louvre. Died 25 Jan. 1880.\n\nWalker (E.), of Worcester. Owenite author of Is the Bible True? and\nWhat is Blasphemy? 1843.\n\nWalker (Edwin C.), editor of Lucifer and Fair Play, Valley Falls,\nKansas.\n\nWalker (Thomas), orator, b. Preston, Lancashire, 5 Feb. 1858. Went\nto America and at the age of sixteen took to the platform. In\n'77 he went to Australia, and for a while lectured at the Opera,\nMelbourne. In '82 he started the Australian Secular Association, of\nwhich he was president for two years when he went to Sydney. In '85\nhe was convicted for lecturing on Malthusianism, but the conviction\nwas quashed by the Supreme Court. In '87 he was elected M.P. for\nNorthumberland district. Is President of Australian Freethought Union.\n\nWalser (George H.), American reformer, b. Dearborn Co. Indiana,\n26 May, 1834. Became a lawyer, and a member of the legislature\nof his State. He founded the town of Liberal Barton Co. Missouri,\nto try the experiment of a town without any priest, church, chapel\nor drinking saloon. Mr. Walser has also sought to establish there a\nFreethought University.\n\nWard (Lester Frank). American botanist, b. Joliet, Illinois, 18\nJune, 1841. He served in the National Army during the civil war and\nwas wounded. In '65 he settled at Washington and became librarian\nof the U.S. bureau of statistics. He is now curator of botany and\nfossil plants in the U.S. national museum. Has written many works\non paleo-botany, and two volumes of sociological studies entitled\nDynamic Sociology. He has contributed to the Popular Science Monthly.\n\nWard (Mary A.), translator of Amiel's Journal, and authoress of a\npopular novel Robert Elsmere, 1888.\n\nWarren (Josiah). American reformer, b. 26 June, 1798. He took an\nactive part in Robert Owen's communistic experiment at New Harmony,\nIndiana, in '25-6. His own ideas he illustrated by establishing a\n\"time store\" at Cincinnati. His views are given in a work entitled\nTrue Civilisation. Died Boston, Mass. 14 April, 1874.\n\nWashburn (L. K.), American lecturer and writer, b. Wareham, Plymouth,\nMass., 25 March, 1846. In '57 he went to Barre. Was sent to a Unitarian\nschool for ministers, and was ordained in Ipswich, Feb. '70. He read\nfrom the pulpit extracts from Parker, Emerson, and others instead\nof the Bible. He went to Minneapolis, where he organised the first\nFreethought Society in the State. He afterwards resided at Revere,\nand delivered many Freethought lectures, of which several have been\npublished. He now edits the Boston Investigator.\n\nWaters (Nathaniel Ramsey), American author of Rome v. Reason, a memoir\nof Christian and extra Christian experience.\n\nWatson (James), English upholder of a free press, b. Malton (Yorks),\n21 Sept. 1799. During the prosecution of Carlile and his shopmen in\n1822 he volunteered to come from London to Leeds. In Feb. '23 he was\narrested for selling Palmer's Principles of Nature, tried 23 April,\nand sentenced to twelve months' imprisonment, during which he read\nGibbon, Hume, and Mosheim. When liberated he became a compositor on the\nRepublican. In '31 Julian Hibbert gave him his type and presses, and he\nissued Volney's Lectures on History. In Feb. '33 he was sentenced to\nsix months' imprisonment for selling The Poor Man's Guardian. Hibbert\nleft him \u00a3450, which he used in printing d'Holbach's System of Nature,\nVolney's Ruins, F. Wright's Lectures, R. D. Owen's pamphlets, Paine's\nworks, and other volumes. Died at Norwood, 29 Nov. 1874.\n\nWatson (Thomas), author of The Mystagogue, Leeds, 1847.\n\nWatts (Charles), Secularist orator, b. Bristol, 28 Feb. 1835. Converted\nto Freethought by hearing Charles Southwell, he became a lecturer\nand assistant editor on the National Reformer. Mr. Watts has had\nnumerous debates, both in England and America, with Dr. Sexton,\nRev. Mr. Harrison, Brewin Grant, and others. He started the Secular\nReview with G. W. Foote, and afterwards Secular Thought of Toronto. He\nwrote a portion of The Freethinker's Text Book, and has published\nChristianity: its Origin, Nature and Influence; The Teachings of\nSecularism compared with Orthodox Christianity, and other brochures.\n\nWatts (Charles A.), a son of above, b. 27 May, 1858. Conducts Watts's\nLiterary Gazette and edits the Agnostic Annual.\n\nWatts (John), brother of Charles, b. Bedminster, Bristol, 2\nOct. 1834. His father was a Wesleyan preacher, and he was converted\nto Freethought by his brother Charles. He became sub-editor of the\nReasoner, and afterwards for a time edited the National Reformer. He\nedited Half Hours With Freethinkers with \"Iconoclast,\" and published\nseveral pamphlets, Logic and Philosophy of Atheism, Origin of Man,\nIs Man Immortal? The Devil, Who were the Writers of the New Testament,\netc. Died 31 Oct. 1866.\n\nWatts (of Lewes, Sussex), author of the Yahoo, a satire in verse\n(first published in 1833), also The Great Dragon Cast Out.\n\nWebber (Zacharias), Dutch painter, who in the seventeenth century\nwrote heretical works On the Temptation of Christ and The Seduction\nof Adam and Eve, etc. He defended Bekker, whom he surpassed in\nboldness. Under the pen name J. Adolphs he wrote The True Origin,\nContinuance and Destruction of Satan. Died in 1679.\n\nWeber (Karl Julius), German author, b. Langenburg, 16 April,\n1767. Studied law at Erlangen and G\u00f6ttingen. He lived for a while\nin Switzerland and studied French philosophy, which suited his\nsatirical turn of mind. He wrote a history of Monkery, 1818-20;\nLetters of Germans Travelling in Germany, '26-28; and Demokritos,\nor the Posthumous Papers of a Laughing Philosopher, '32-36. Died\nKupferzell, 19 July, 1832.\n\nWeitling (Wilhelm), German social democrat, b. Magdeburg, 1808. He\nwas a leader of \"Der Bund der Gerechten,\" the League of the Just,\nand published at Z\u00fcrich The Gospel of Poor Sinners. He also wrote\nHumanity, As It Is and As It Should Be. He emigrated to America,\nwhere he died 25 Jan. 1871.\n\nWellhausen (Julius), German critic, b. Hameln 17 May, 1844, studied\ntheology at G\u00f6ttingen, and became professor in Griefswald, Halle,\nand Marburg. Is renowned for his History of Israel in progress, '78,\netc., and his Prolegomena to the same, and his contributions to the\nEncyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.\n\nWestbrook (Richard Brodhead), Dr., American author, b. Pike co.,\nPennsylvania, 8 Feb. 1820. He became a Methodist preacher in '40,\nand afterwards joined the Presbyterians, but withdrew about '60,\nand has since written The Bible: Whence and What? and Man: Whence and\nWhither? In '88 Dr. Westbrook was elected President of the American\nSecular Union, and has since offered a prize for the best essay on\nteaching morality apart from religion.\n\nWesterman (W. B.) During many years, from 1856-68, an active\nco-operator on De Dageraad.\n\nWestra (P.), Dutch Freethinker, b. 16 March, 1851. Has for some years\nbeen active secretary of the Dutch Freethought society, \"De Dageraad.\"\n\nWettstein (Otto), German American materialist, b. Barmen, 7 April,\n1838. About '48 his parents emigrated. In '58 he set up in business as\na jeweller at Rochelle. He contributed to the Freethinkers' Magazine,\nThe Ironclad Age, and other journals, and is treasurer of the National\nSecular Union.\n\nWhite (Andrew Dickson), American educator, b. Homer, N.Y., 7\nNov. 1832. He studied at Yale, where he graduated in '53; travelled\nin Europe, and in '57 was elected professor of history and English\nliterature in the University of Michigan. He was elected to the State\nSenate, and in '67 became first president of Cornell, a university\nwhich he has largely endowed. Among his works we must mention The\nWarfare of Science (N.Y., '76) and Studies in General History and in\nthe History of Civilisation, '85.\n\nWhitman (Walt), American poet, b. West Hills, Long Island, N.Y.,\n31 May, 1819. Educated in public schools, he became a printer,\nand travelled much through the States. In the civil war he served\nas a volunteer army nurse. His chief work, Leaves of Grass, with\nits noble preface, appeared in '55, and was acclaimed by Emerson as\n\"the most extraordinary piece of wit and wisdom that America has yet\ncontributed.\" It was followed by Drum Taps, November Boughs and Sands\nat Seventy. This \"good gray poet\" has also written prose essays called\nDemocratic Vietas and Specimen Days and Collect.\n\nWicksell (Knut), Swedish author and lecturer, b. Stockholm, 30\nDec. 1851, studied at Upsala, and became licentiate of philosophy in\n'85. Has written brochures on Population, Emigration, Prostitution,\netc., and anonymously a satirical work on Bible Stories, as by Tante\nMalin. Represented Sweden at the Paris Conference of '89.\n\nWieland (Christopher Martin), German poet and novelist, b. near\nBiberach, 5 Sept. 1733. A voluminous writer, he was called the\nVoltaire of Germany. Among his works we notice Dialogues of the\nGods, Agathon, a novel, and Euthanasia, in which he argues against\nimmortality. He translated Horace, Lucian and Shakespeare. Died Weimer,\n20 Jan. 1813. His last words were \"To be or not to be.\"\n\nWiener (Christian), Dr., German author of a materialistic work on\nthe Elements of Natural Laws, 1863.\n\nWiessner (Alexander), German writer, author of an examination of\nspiritualism (Leipsic, 1875).\n\nWigand (Otto Friedrich), German publisher, b. G\u00f6ttingen, 10\nAug. 1795. In 1832 he established himself in Leipsic, where he\nissued the works of Ruge, Bauer, Feuerbach, Scherr, and other\nFreethinkers. Died 31 Aug. 1870.\n\nWightman (Edward), English anti-Trinitarian martyr of\nBurton-on-Trent. Was burnt at Lichfield 11 April, 1612, being the\nlast person burnt for heresy in England.\n\nWihl (Ludwig), German poet, b. 24 Oct. 1807. Died Brussels, 16\nJan. 1882.\n\nWilbrandt (Adolf), German author, b. Rosbock, 24 Aug. 1837. Has\nwritten on Heinrich von Kleist, H\u00f6lderlin, the poet of Pantheism,\nand published many plays, of which we may mention Giordano Bruno,\n1874, and also some novels.\n\nWilhelmi (Hedwig Henrich), German lecturess and author of Vortrage,\npublished at Milwaukee, 1889. She attended the Paris Congress of '89.\n\nWilkinson (Christopher), of Bradford, b. 1803. Wrote with Squire Farrah\nan able Examination of Dr. Godwin's Arguments for the Existence of God,\npublished at Bradford, 1853.\n\nWilliams (David), Welsh deist, b. Cardiganshire, 1738. He became a\ndissenting minister but after publishing two volumes of Sermons on\nReligious Hypocrisy, 1774, dissolved the connections. In conjunction\nwith Franklin and others he founded a club and drew up a Liturgy on\nthe Universal Principles of Religion and Morality, which he used at a\nDeistic chapel opened in Margaret Street, Cavendish Square, 7 April,\n1776. He wrote various political and educational works, and established\nthe literary fund in 1789. Died Soho, London, 29 June, 1816.\n\nWillis (Robert), physician and writer, b. Edinburgh, 1799. He studied\nat the University and became M.D. in 1819. He soon after came to\nLondon, and in '23 became M.R.C.S. He became librarian to the College\nof Surgeons. Besides many medical works he wrote a Life of Spinoza,\n'70, and Servetus and Calvin, '77. He also wrote on The Pentateuch and\nBook of Joshua in the face of the Science and Moral Senses of our Age,\nand A Dialogue by Way of Catechism, both published by T. Scott. Died\nat Barnes, 21 Sept. 1878.\n\nWilson (John), M.A., of Trin. Coll., Dublin, author of Thoughts on\nScience, Theology and Ethics, 1885.\n\nWirmarsius (Henrik), Dutch author of Den Ingebeelde Chaos, 1710.\n\nWislicenus (Gustav Adolf), German rationalist, b. Saxony, 20\nNov. 1803. He studied theology at Halle, and became a minister,\nbut in consequence of his work Letter or Spirit (1845) was suspended\nand founded the Free Congregation. For his work on The Bible in the\nLight of Modern Culture he was, in Sept. '53, sentenced to prison\nfor two years. He went to America, and lectured in Boston and New\nYork. He returned to Europe in '56, and stayed in Z\u00fcrich, where he\ndied 14 Oct. 1785. His chief work, The Bible for Thinking Readers,\nwas published at Leipsic in '63.\n\nWittichius (Jacobus), Dutch Spinozist, b. Aken, 11 Jan. 1671. Wrote\non the Nature of God, 1711. Died 18 Oct. 1739.\n\nWixon (Susan H.), American writer and editor of the \"Children's Corner\"\nin the Truthseeker, has for many years been an advocate of Freethought,\ntemperance, and women's rights. She was a school teacher and member\nof the Board of Education of the City of Fall River, Mass., where\nshe resides. She contributes to the Boston Investigator.\n\nWollny (Dr. F.), German author of Principles of Psychology (Leipsic,\n1887), in the preface to which he professes himself an Atheist.\n\nWollstonecraft (Mary), English authoress, b. Hoxton, 27 April,\n1759. She became a governess. In 1796 she settled in London, and began\nher literary labors with Thoughts on the Education of Daughters. She\nalso wrote a Vindication of the Rights of Man, in answer to Burke,\nand Vindication of the Rights of Woman. In 1797 she married William\nGodwin, and died in childbirth.\n\nWooley (Milton), Dr., American author of Science of the Bible 1877;\nCareer of Jesus Christ, '77; and a pamphlet on the name God. Died\nAug. 1885.\n\nWoolston (Thomas), Rev. English deist, b. Northampton, 1669. He studied\nat Cambridge, and became a Fellow at Sydney College and a minister. He\npublished in 1705 The Old Apology, which was followed by other works in\nfavor of an allegorical interpretation of Scripture. In 1726 he began\nhis Six Discourses upon the Miracles, which were assailed in forcible,\nhomely language. Thirty thousand copies are said to have been sold,\nand sixty pamphlets were written in opposition. Woolston was tried for\nblasphemy and sentenced (March, 1729) to one year's imprisonment and\na fine of \u00a3100. This he could not pay, and died in prison 29 Jan. 1733.\n\nWright (Elizur), American reformer, b. South Canaan, Litchfield\nCo., Connecticut, 12 Feb. 1804. He graduated at Yale College,\n'26. Having warmly embraced the principles of the Abolitionists,\nhe became secretary of the American Anti-Slavery Society,\nand edited the Abolitionist and Commonwealth. He was a firm and\nuncompromising Atheist, and a contributor to the Boston Investigator,\nthe Freethinker's Magazine, etc. Died at Boston, 21 Dec. '85. His\nfuneral oration was delivered by Col. Ingersoll.\n\nWright (Frances), afterwards D'Arusmont, writer and lecturess,\nb. Dundee, 6 Sept. 1795. At the age of eighteen she wrote A Few Days in\nAthens, in which she expounds and defends the Epicurean philosophy. She\nvisited the United States, and wrote Views on Society and Manners\nin America, 1820. She bought 2,000 acres in Tennessee, and peopled\nit with slave families she purchased and redeemed. She afterwards\njoined Owen's experiment; in part edited the New Harmony Gazette,\nand afterwards the Free Inquirer. A Course of Popular Lectures was\npublished at New York in '29, in which she boldly gives her views on\nreligion. She also wrote a number of fables and tracts, and assisted\nin founding the Boston Investigator. Died at Cincinnati, 14 Dec. 1852.\n\nWright (Henry Clarke), American reformer, b. Sharon, Litchfield\nco. Connecticut, 29 Aug. 1797. A conspicuous anti-slavery orator,\nhe was a friend of Ernestine Rose, Lucretia Mott, etc. He wrote The\nLiving, Present and the Dead Past. Died Pawtucket, Rhode Island,\n16 Aug. 1870.\n\nWright (Susannah), one of Carlile's shopwomen. Tried 14 Nov. 1822,\nfor selling pamphlets by Carlile. She made a good defence, in the\ncourse of which she was continually interrupted.\n\nWundt (Wilhelm Max), German scientist, b. Neckaran (Baden),\n16 Aug. 1832. His father was a clergyman. He studied medicine at\nT\u00fcbingen, Heidelberg, and Berlin, and became professor of physiology at\nHeidelberg in '64, and has since held chairs at Zurich and Leipsic. His\nprincipal works are Principles of Physiological Psychology, '74;\nManual of Human Physiology; Logic, '83; Essays, '85; Ethik, '86.\n\nWuensch (Christian Ernest), German physician, b. Hohenstein, 1744. Was\nProfessor of Mathematics and Physics in Frankfort on the Oder, 1828.\n\nWyrouboff (Gr.), Count; Russian Positivist, who established the\nRevue de Philosophie Positive with Littr\u00e9, and edited it with him\nfrom 1867-83.\n\nXenophanes, Greek philosopher, b. Colophon, about 600 B.C. He founded\nthe Eleatic school, and wrote a poem on Nature and Eleaticism, in\nwhich he ridiculed man making gods in his own image.\n\nXimines (Augustin Louis), Marquis de, French writer, b. Paris, 26\nFeb. 1726. Was an intimate friend of Voltaire, and wrote several\nplays. Died Paris, 31 May, 1817.\n\nYork (J. L.), American lecturer, b. New York, 1830. He became a\nblacksmith, then a Methodist minister, then Unitarian, and finally\nFreethought advocate. He was for some years member of the California\nLegislature, and has made lecturing tours in Australia and through\nthe States.\n\nYorke (J. F.), author of able Notes on Evolution and Christianity,\nLondon, 1882.\n\nYoumans (Edward Livingstone), American scientist, b. Coeymans, N.Y.,\n3 June, 1821. Though partially blind he was a great student. He became\nM.D. about 1851, and began to lecture on science, popularly expounding\nthe doctrines of the conservation of energy and evolution. He\npopularised Herbert Spencer, planned the \"International Scientific\nSeries,\" and in '72 established the Popular Science Monthly, in which\nhe wrote largely. Died at New York, 18 Jan. 1887.\n\nZaborowski Moindrin (Sigismond), French scientific writer, b. La\nCr\u00e9che, 1851. Has written on The Antiquity of Man, '74; Pre-historic\nMan, '78; Origin of Languages, '79; The Great Apes, '81; Scientific\nCuriosities, '83.\n\nZambrini (Francesco), Italian writer, b. Faenza, 25 Jan. 1810. Educated\nat Ravenna and Bologna. He devoted himself to literature and produced\na great number of works. Died 9 July, 1887.\n\nZarco (Francisco), Mexican journalist, b. Durango, 4 Dec. 1829. Edited\nEl Siglo XIX and La Ilustracion, in which he used the pen-name of\n\"Fortun.\" He was elected to Congress in '55, and imprisoned by the\nreactionaries in '60. Juarez made him Secretary of State and President\nof Council. He was a friend of Gagern. Died Mexico, 29 Dec. 1869.\n\nZeller (Eduard), German critic, b. Kleinbottwar (W\u00fcrtemberg), 22\nJan. 1814. Studied theology at T\u00fcbingen and Berlin, became professor\nat Berne, '47. He married a daughter of Baur; gave up theology for\nphilosophy, of which he has been professor at Berlin since '72. Has\nwritten a memoir of Strauss, '74; Outlines of the History of Greek\nPhilosophy, '83; Frederick the Great as a Philosopher, '86; and other\nimportant works.\n\nZijde (Karel van der), Dutch writer, b. Overschie, 13 July, 1838. Has\nbeen teacher at Rotterdam. Under the pen-name of M. F. ten Bergen\nhe wrote The Devil's Burial, 1874. Besides this he has written many\nliterary articles, and is now teacher of Dutch and German at Zaandam.\n\nZimmern (Helen), b. Hamburg, 25 March, 1846. Has lived in England\nsince '50, and is naturalised. She has written lives of Schopenhauer\nand Lessing, and a paraphrase of Firdusi's Shah Nahmeh.\n\nZola (Emile), French novelist, b. of Italian father, Paris, 2 April,\n1840. By his powerful collection of romances known as Les Rougon\nMacquart, he made himself the leader of the \"naturalist\" school,\nwhich claims to treat fiction scientifically, representing life as\nit is without the ideal.\n\nZorrilla (Manuel Ruiz), Spanish statesman, b. Burgo-de-Osma, 1834,\nbecame a lawyer, and in '56 was returned to the Cortes by the\nProgressive party. For a brochure against the Neo-Catholics he was\nprosecuted. In '70 he became President of the Cortes, and has since\nbeen exiled for his Republicanism.\n\nZouteveen (H. H. H. van). See Hartogh.\n\nZuppetta (Luigi), Italian jurist and patriot, b. Castelnuovo, 21 June,\n1810. He studied at Naples, took part in the democratic movement of\n'48, was exiled and returned in 1860, and has been Professor of Penal\nLaw in the University of Pavia.\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSUPPLEMENT.\n\n\nThose which have already appeared are marked *\n\n\nAbd al Hakk ibn Ibrahim ibn Muhammad ibn Sabin. See Sabin.\n\nAbu Abd'allah Muhammad ibn Massara al Jabali. Arabian pantheist\nb. 881. He lived at Cordova in Spain and studied the works of\nEmpedocles and other Greek philosophers. Accused of impiety, he\nleft Spain and travelled through the East. Returned to Spain and\ncollected disciples whom he led to scepticism. He was the most eminent\npredecessor of Ibn Rushd or Averroes. Died Oct. 931. His works were\npublicly burned at Seville.\n\n* Acosta (Uriel), the name of his work was Examen Traditorum\nPhilosophicarum ad legem Scriptam.\n\nAcuna (Rosario de), Spanish writer and lecturess, b. Madrid about\n1854. Contributes to Las Dominicales of Madrid. Has written The Doll's\nHouse, and other educational works.\n\n* Adams (Robert C.), American Freethought writer and lecturer,\nthe son of the Rev. Needham Adams, b. Boston 1839. He became a\nsea-captain, and was afterwards shipper at Montreal. Has written\nin Secular Thought, the Truthseeker and the Freethinker's Magazine,\nand published rational lectures under the title Pioneer Pith, '89. In\n'89 he was elected President of the Canadian Secular Union.\n\nAdmiraal (Aart), Dutch writer, b. Goedereede, 13 Oct. 1833. At first\na schoolmaster, he became in '60 director of the telegraph bureau at\nSchoonhoven. He wrote from '56 for many years in De Dageraad over\nthe anagram \"Aramaldi.\" In '67 he published The Religion of the\nPeople under the pseudonym \"Bato van der Maas,\" a name he used in\nwriting to many periodicals. A good mind and heart with but feeble\nconstitution. He died 12 Nov. 1878.\n\nAiroldi (J.) Italian lawyer, b. Lugano (Switzerland), 1829; a poet\nand writer of talent.\n\nAlbaida (Don Jose M. Orense), Spanish nobleman (marquis), one of the\nfounders of the Republican party. Was expelled for his principles;\nreturned to Spain, and was president of the Cortes in 1869.\n\n* Alchindus. Died about 864.\n\n* Aleardi had better be deleted. I am now told he was a Christian.\n\nAlfarabi. See Alpharabius.\n\nAlgeri (Pomponio), a youth of Nola. Studied at Padua, and was accused\nof heresy and Atheism, and burnt alive in a cauldron of boiling oil,\npitch, and turpentine at Rome in 1566.\n\nAlkemade (A. de Mey van), Dutch nobleman, who contributed to\nDe Dageraad, and also published a work containing many Bible\ncontradictions, 1862; and in '59 a work on the Bible under the pen name\n\"Alexander de M.\"\n\nAllais (Denis de). See Vairasse.\n\nAllais (Giovanni), Italian doctor, b. Casteldelfino, 1847.\n\nAlmquist (Herman), Swedish, b. 1839, orientalist; professor of\nphilology at the University of Upsala. An active defender of new\nideas and Freethought.\n\nAltmeyer (Jean Jacques), Belgian author, b. Luxembourg, 20\nJan. 1804. Was professor at the University of Brussels. He wrote an\nIntroduction to the Philosophical Study of the History of Humanity,\n'36, and other historical works. Died 15 Sept. 1877.\n\nAmari (Michele), Sicilian historian and orientalist, b. Palmero, 7\nJuly, 1806. In '32 he produced a version of Scott's Marmion. He wrote\na standard History of the Musulmen in Sicily. After the landing of\nGaribaldi, he was made head of public instruction in the island. He\ntook part in the anti-clerical council of '69. Died at Florence,\nJuly 1889.\n\n* Amaury de Chartres. According to L'Abb\u00e8 Ladvocat his disciples\nmaintained that the sacraments were useless, and that there was no\nother heaven than the satisfaction of doing right, nor any other hell\nthan ignorance and sin.\n\nAnderson (Marie), Dutch lady Freethinker, b. the Hague, 2\nAug. 1842. She has written many good articles in de Dageraad, and\nwas for some time editress of a periodical De Twintigste Eeuw (the\ntwentieth century). She has also written some novels. She resides now\nat W\u00fcrzburg, Germany, and contributes still to de Dageraad. As pen-name\nshe formerly used that of \"Mevrouw Quarl\u00e8s\" and now \"Dr. Al. Dondorf.\"\n\n* Anthero de Quental. This name would be better under Quental.\n\nApono. See Petrus de Abano. This would probably be best under Abano.\n\n* Aquila. Justinian forbade the Jews to read Aquila's version of\nthe Scriptures.\n\nAranda (Pedro Pablo Abarca de Bolea), Count, Spanish statesman,\nb. of illustrious family, Saragossa, 18 Dec. 1718. Was soldier and\nambassador to Poland. He imbibed the ideas of the Encyclop\u00e6dists,\nand contributed to the expulsion of the Jesuits from Spain in 1767. He\nalso disarmed the Inquisition. In 1792 he was elected Spanish minister\nto France. He was recalled and exiled to Aragon, where he died in 1799.\n\nArgilleres (Antoine), at first a Jacobin monk and afterwards a\nProtestant preacher, was tortured several times, then decapitated and\nhis head nailed to a gibbet at Geneva, 1561-2, for having eight years\npreviously taken the part of Servetus against Calvin at Pont-de-Veyle\nin Bresse.\n\n* Arnould (Victor). Has continued his Tableau in the Positivist\nRevue and La Societ\u00e9 Nouvelle. From 1868 to '73 he edited La Libert\u00e9,\nin which many a battle for Freethought has been fought.\n\nAscarate (Gumezindo de), Spanish professor of law at the University of\nMadrid and Republican deputy, b. Leon about 1844. One of the ablest\nRadical parliamentary orators; in philosophy, he is a follower of\nKrause. He has written Social Studies, Self-Government and Monarchy,\nand other political works.\n\nAszo y Del Rio (Ignacio Jordan de), Spanish jurist and naturalist,\nb. Saragossa, 1742. Was professor at Madrid, and left many important\nworks on various branches of science. In his political works he\nadvocated the abolition of ecclesiastical power. Died 1814.\n\n* Aubert de Verse (Noel) had probably better be omitted, although\naccused of blasphemy himself, I find he wrote an answer to Spinoza,\nwhich I have not been able to see.\n\nAuerbach (Berthold), German novelist of Jewish extraction,\nb. Nordstetten, 28 Feb. 1812. Devoted to Spinoza, in '41 he published\na life of the philosopher and a translation of his works, having\npreviously published an historical romance on the same subject. Died\nCannes, 8 Feb. 1882.\n\n* Aymon (Jean). La vie et L'Esprit de M. Benoit Spinoza (La Haye,\n1719) was afterwards issued under the famous title Treatise of Three\nImpostors.\n\n* Bahrdt (Karl Friedrich). The writings of this enfant terrible of\nthe German Aufklarung fill 120 volumes.\n\n* Bailey (William Shreeve) was born 10 Feb. 1806. He suffered much\non account of his opinions. Died Nashville, 20 Feb 1886. Photius Fisk\nerected a monument to his memory.\n\n* Bancel (Francis D\u00e9sir\u00e9). In his work Les Harangues de l'Exil, 3\nvols., 1863, his Freethought views are displayed. He also wrote in\nLa Revue Critique.\n\nBarnaud (Nicolas), of Crest in Dauphin\u00e9. Lived during the latter half\nof the sixteenth century. He travelled in France, Spain, and Germany,\nand to him is attributed the authorship of a curious work entitled Le\nCabinet du Roy de France, which is largely directed against the clergy.\n\nBarreaux. See des Barreaux.\n\nBarth (Ferdinand), b. Mureck, Steyermark Austria, 1828. In '48 he\nattained reputation as orator to working men and took part in the\nrevolution. When Vienna was retaken he went to Leipzig and Zurich,\nwhere he died in 1850, leaving a profession of his freethought.\n\nBartrina, Spanish Atheistic poet, b. Barcelona, 1852, where he died\nin 1880.\n\nBedingfield (Richard, W. T.), Pantheistic writer, b. May, 1823,\nwrote in National Reformer as B.T.W.R., established Freelight,\n'70. Died 14 Feb. 1876.\n\n* Berigardus (Claudius), b. 15 Aug. 1578.\n\n* Bertillon (Louis Adolphe). In a letter to Bp. Dupanloup, April, '68,\nhe said, You hope to die a Catholic, I hope to die a Freethinker. Died\n1883.\n\n* Berwick (George J.) M.D., Dr. Berwick, I am informed, was the author\nof the tracts issued by Thomas Scott of Ramsgate with the signature of\n\"Presbyter Anglicanus.\"\n\nBlein (F. A. A.), Baron, French author of Essais Philosophiques,\nParis, 1843.\n\nBlum (Robert), German patriot and orator, b. Cologne, 10 Nov. 1807. He\ntook an active part in progressive political and religious movements,\nand published the Christmas Tree and other publications. In '48 he\nbecame deputy to the Frankfort Parliament and head of the Republican\nparty. He was one of the promoters at the insurrection of Vienna,\nand showed great bravery in the fights of the students with the\ntroops. Shot at Vienna, 9 Nov. 1848.\n\n* Blumenfleld (J. C.), this name I suspect to be a pseudonym.\n\nBolin (A. W.), a philosophic writer of Finland, b. 2 Aug. 1835. Studied\nat Helsingford, '52, and became Doctor of Philosophy in '66, and\nProfessor in '73. He has written on the Freedom of the Will, The\nPolitical Doctrines of Philosophy, etc. A subject of Russian Finland;\nhe has been repeatedly troubled by the authorities for his radical\nviews on religious questions.\n\nBolivar (Ignacio), Spanish professor of natural history at the\nUniversity of Madrid, and one of the introducers of Darwinian ideas.\n\nBoppe (Herman C.), editor of Freidenker of Milwaukee, U.S.A.\n\nBorsari (Ferdinand), Italian geographer, b. Naples, author of a work\nof the literature of American aborigines, and a zealous propagator\nof Freethought.\n\nBostrom (Christopher Jacob), Swedish Professor at Upsala, b. 4\nJan. 1797. Besides many philosophical works, published trenchant\ncriticism of the Christian hell creed. Died 22 March, 1866.\n\nBoucher (E. Martin), b. Beaulieu 1809. Conducted the Rationaliste\nat Geneva, where he died 1882. His work Search for the Truth was\npublished at Avignon, 1884.\n\nBourneville (Magloire D\u00e9sir), French deputy and physician,\nb. Garanci\u00e8res, 21 Oct. 1840. Studied medicine at Paris, and in '79\nwas appointed physician to the asylum of Bic\u00eatre. He was Municipal\nCouncillor of Paris from '76 to '83. On the death of Louis Blanc he\nwas elected deputy in his place. Wrote Science and Miracle, '75;\nHysteria in History, '76; and a discourse on Etienne Dolet at the\nerection of the statue to that martyr, 18 May 1889.\n\nBoutteville (Marc Lucien), French writer, professor at the Lycee\nBonaparte. Wrote to Dupanloup on his pamphlet against Atheism, 1867;\nwrote in La Pens\u00e9e Nouvelle, '68; is author of a large and able work\non the Morality of the Church and Natural Morality, '66; and has\nedited the posthumous works of Proudhon, 1870.\n\n* Bovio (Giovanni), b. Trani, 1838, Dr. of law and advocate. Author\nof a dramatic piece, Cristo alla festa di Purim, and of a History\nof Law in Italy. Signor Bovio delivered the address at unveiling the\nmonument to Bruno at Rome, 9 June, 1889.\n\nBoyer. See Argens.\n\n* Bradlaugh (Charles), M.P. In April, 1889, he introduced a Bill to\nrepeal the Blasphemy Laws.\n\nBraga (Teofilo), Portuguese Positivist, b. 24 Feb. 1843. Educated\nat Coimbra. Has written many poems, and a History of Portuguese\nLiterature. Is one of the Republican leaders.\n\nBranting (Hjalmar), Swedish Socialist, b. 1860. Sentenced in '88\nto three months' imprisonment for blasphemy in his paper Social\nDemocraten.\n\nBraun (Eugen), Dr. See F. W. Ghillany.\n\nBraun (Wilhelm von), Swedish humoristic poet, b. 1813. He satirised\nmany of the Bible stories. Died 1860.\n\nBrewer (Ebenezer Cobham), English author. Has written numerous school\nbooks, and compiled a Dictionary of Miracles, 1884.\n\nBrismee (Desir\u00e9), Belgian printer, b. Ghent, 27 July, 1822. As editor\nof Le Drapeau he underwent eighteen months' imprisonment. The principle\nfounder of Les Solidaires, he was the life-long secretary of that\nsociety, and his annual reports are a valuable contribution towards\nthe history of Freethought in Belgium. An eloquent speaker, many of\nhis Freethought orations were printed in La Tribune du Peuple. Died\nat Brussels 18 Feb. 1888.\n\n* Brothier (L\u00e9on). Died about 1874.\n\n* Brown (G. W.) Dr. Brown's new work is published at Rockford,\nIllinois, and entitled Researches in Jewish History, including the rise\nand development of Zoroastrianism and the derivation of Christianity.\n\n* Bruno (Giordano), b. Nola, 21 March, 1548. The Avisso di Roma\nof 19 Feb. 1600, records the fact of his being burnt, and that he\ndied impenitent. Signor Mariotti, State Secretary to the Minister\nof Public Instruction, has found a document proving that Bruno was\nstripped naked, bound to a pole, and burnt alive, and that he bore\nhis martyrdom with great fortitude.\n\nBuen (Odon de), Spanish writer on Las Dominicales, of Madrid,\nb. Aragon, 1884. Professor of Natural History at the University of\nBarcelona. Has written an account of a scientific expedition From\nChristiania to Treggurt, has translated Memoirs of Garibaldi. He\nmarried civilly the daughter of F. Lozano, and was delegate to the\nParis Freethought Conference, 1889.\n\nCalderon (Alfredo), Spanish journalist and lawyer, b. 1852. He edits\nLa Justicia. Has written several books on law.\n\nCalderon (Lauresmo), Professor of Chemistry in the University of\nMadrid, b. 1848. Is a propagator of Darwinian ideas.\n\nCalderon (Salvador), Spanish geologist and naturalist, b. 1846;\nprofessor at the University of Seville. Has made scientific travels\nin Central America, and written largely on geological subjects.\n\nCalvo (Rafael), Spanish actor and dramatic author, b. 1852. A\npronounced Republican and Freethinker.\n\n* Canestrini (Giovanni), b. Revo (Trente), 26 Dec. 1835.\n\nCassels (Walter Richard), a nephew of Dr. Pusey, is the author of\nSupernatural Religion, a critical examination of the worth of the\nGospels (two vols. 1874 and three '79). Has written under his own name\nEidolon and other poems, 1850, and Poems, '56. In '89 he published\nA Reply to Dr. Lightfoot's Essays.\n\nCastro (Fernando), Spanish philosopher and historian. He was a\npriest, and on his death-bed confessed himself a Freethinker, and\nhad a secular burial. Died about 1874, aged 60 years.\n\nCavia (Mariano), Spanish journalist and critic, b. 1859, editor of\nthe Liberal of Madrid.\n\n* Coke (Henry), author of Creeds of the Day, is the third son of the\nfirst Earl of Leicester, and was born 3 Jan. 1827. He served in the\nnavy during the first China War, 1840-42. Published accounts of the\nsiege of Vienna, '48, at which he was present, also \"Ride over Rocky\nMountains,\" which he accomplished with great hardships in '50. Was\nprivate secretary to Mr. Horsman when Chief Secretary for Ireland in\n'54-'58. Married Lady K. Egerton, 1861.\n\nCornette (Henri Arthur Marie), Belgian professor of Flemish literature\nat Antwerp, b. Bruges, 27 March, 1852. A writer in L'Avenir of\nBrussels and the Revue Socialite, he has published separate works\non Freemasonry, 1878; Pessimism and Socialism, '80; Freethought\nDarwinism, etc.\n\nCurros (Enriquez), living Spanish poet, who was prosecuted by the\nBishop of Santiago, of Galicia, for his collection of poems entitled\nAirs of my Country, but he was acquitted by the jury.\n\nCzerski (Johannes), German reformer, b. Warlubien, West Prussia, 12\nMay, 1813. He became a Catholic priest in '44, broke with the Church,\nassociated himself with Ronge, married, and was excommunicated. Has\nwritten several works against Roman Catholicism, and is still living\nat Schneidem\u00fckl-Posen.\n\nD'Ercole (Pasquale), Italian professor of philosophy in the University\nof Turin, author of a work on Christian Theism, in which he holds\nthat the principles of philosophic Theism are undemonstrated and at\nvariance both with reality and with themselves.\n\nDeschanel (Emile Auguste), French senator, b. Paris, 19 Nov. 1819. He\nwrote in the Revue Independante, Revue des Deux Mondes and Libert\u00e9 de\nPenser; for writing against clericalism in the last he was deprived\nof his chair. After 2 Dec. he went to Belgium. He has been Professor\nof Modern Literature at the College of France, and written many\nimportant works.\n\nDesnoiresterres (Gustave le Brisoys), Frenchman of letters,\nb. Bayeux, 20 June, 1817, author of Epicurienes et Lettres XVII. and\nXVIII. Si\u00e8cles, 1881, and Voltaire et la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Fran\u00e7aise au\nXVIII. Si\u00e8cle, an important work in eight vols.\n\n* Desraimes (Maria), b. 15 Aug. 1835.\n\nDiogenes (Apolloinates), a Cretan, natural philosopher, who lived\nin the fifth century B.C. He is supposed to have got into trouble at\nAthens through his philosophical opinions being considered dangerous to\nthe State. He held that nothing was produced from nothing or reduced\nto nothing; that the earth was round and had received its shape from\nwhirling. He made no distinction between mind and matter.\n\nDonius (Augustinus), a Materialist, referred to by Bacon. His work,\nDe Natura Dominis, in two books, 1581, refers the power of the spirit,\nto motion. The title of his second book is \"Omnes operationes spiritus\nesse motum et semum.\"\n\nDosamantes (Jesus Ceballos), Mexican philosopher; author of works on\nAbsolute Perfection, Mexico, 1888, and Modern Pharisees and Sadducees\n(mystics and materialists), '89.\n\nDruskowitz (Helene), Dr., b. Vienna, 2 May, 1858. Miss Druskowitz is\nDoctor of philosophy at Dresden, and has written a life of Shelley,\nBerlin, '84; a little book on Freewill, and The New Doctrines, '83.\n\nDufay (Henri), author of La Legende du Christ, 1880.\n\nDuller (Eduard), German poet and historian, b. Vienna, 18 Nov. 1809. He\nwrote a History of the Jesuits (Leipsic, '40) and The Men of the People\n(Frankfort, '47-'50). Died at Wiesbaden, 24 July, 1853.\n\n* Du Marsais (C\u00e9sar Chesneau). He edited Mirabaud's anonymous work\non The World and its Antiquity and The Soul and its Immortality,\nLondres, 1751.\n\n* Fellowes (R.) Graduated B.A. at Oxford 1796, M.A. 1801. Died 6\nFeb. 1847.\n\nFigueras-y-Moracas (Estanilas), Spanish statesman and orator,\nb. Barcelona, 13 Nov. 1810. Studied law and soon manifested Republican\nopinions. In '51 he was elected to the Cortes, was exiled in '66, but\nreturned in '68. He fought the candidature of the Duc de Montpensi\u00e9r in\n'69, and became President of the Spanish Republic 12 Feb. '73. Died\npoor in 1879, and was buried without religious ceremony, according\nto his wish.\n\nFitzgerald (Edward), English poet and translator, b. near Woodbridge,\nSuffolk, 31 March, 1809. Educated at Cambridge and took his degree in\n'30. He lived the life of a recluse, and produced a fine translation\nof Calderon. His fame rests securely on his fine rendering of the\nQuatrains of Omar Khayyam. Died 14 June, 1883.\n\nGalletti (Baldassare), cavalier Pantheist of Palermo. Has translated\nFeuerbach on Death and Immortality, and also translated from\nMorin. Died Rome, 18 Feb. 1887.\n\nGaneval (Louis), French professor in Egypt, b. Veziat, 1815, author\nof a work on Egypt and Jesus devant l'histoire n'a jamais v\u00e9cu. The\nfirst part, published in '74, was prohibited in France, and the second\npart was published at Geneva in '79.\n\nGarrido (Fernando), Spanish writer, author of Memoirs of a Sceptic,\nCadiz 1843, a work on Contemporary Spain, published at Brussels in\n'62, The Jesuits, and a large History of Political and Religious\nPersecutions, a work rendered into English in conjunction with\nC. B. Cayley. Died at Cordova in 1884.\n\nGerling (Fr. Wilhelm), German author of Letter of a Materialist\nto an Idealist, Berlin 1888, to which Frau Hedwig Henrich Wilhelmi\ncontributes a preface.\n\nGeroult de Pival, French librarian at Rouen; probably the author of\nDoutes sur la Religion, Londres, 1767. Died at Paris about 1772.\n\nGoffin (Nicolas), founder of the Society La Libre of Li\u00e9ge and\nPresident of La Libre Pens\u00e9e of Brussels, and one of the General\nCouncil of the International Federation of Freethinkers. Died 23\nMay, 1884.\n\nGoldhawke (J. H.), author of the Solar Allegories, proving that the\ngreater number of personages mentioned in the Old and New Testaments\nare allegorical beings, Calcutta 1853.\n\nGorani (Giuseppe), count, b. Milan, 1744. He was intimate with\nBeccaria, D'Holbach, and Diderot. He wrote a treatise on Despotism,\npublished anonymously, 1770; defended the French Revolution and was\nmade a French citizen. Died poor at Geneva, 12 Dec. 1819.\n\nGovett (Frank), author of the Pains of Life, 1889, a pessimistic\nreply to Sir J. Lubbock's Pleasures of Life. Mr. Govett rejects the\nconsolations of religion.\n\nGuimet (Etienne Emile), French traveller, musician, anthropologist\nand philanthropist, b. Lyons, 2 June, 1836, the son of the inventor\nof ultramarine, whose business he continued. He has visited most\nparts of the world and formed a collection of objects illustrating\nreligions. These he formed into a museum in his native town, where he\nalso founded a library and a school for Oriental languages. This fine\nmuseum which cost several million francs, he presented to his country,\nand it is now at Paris, where M. Guimet acts as curator. In 1880 he\nbegan publishing Annales du Mus\u00e9e Guimet, in which original articles\nappear on Oriental Religions. He has also written many works upon his\ntravels. He attended the banquet in connection with the International\nCongress of Freethinkers at Paris, 1889.\n\nGuynemer (A. M. A. de), French author of a dictionary of astronomy,\n1852, and an anonymous unbelievers' dictionary, '69, in which many\npoints of theology are discussed in alphabetical order.\n\nHamerling (Robert), German poet, b. Kirchberg am Wald, 24 March,\n1830. Author of many fine poems, of which we mention Ahasuerus in Rome\n'66. The King of Sion; Danton and Robespierre a tragedy. He translated\nLeopardis' poems '86. Died at Gratz, 13 July, 1889.\n\nHeyse (Paul Johann Ludwig), German poet and novelist, b. Berlin,\n15 March, 1830. Educated at the University, after travelling to\nSwitzerland and Italy he settled at Munich in '54. Has produced many\npopular plays and romances, of which we specially mention The Children\nof the World, '73, a novel describing social and religious life of\nGermany at the present day, and In Paradise, 1875.\n\nHicks (L. E.) American geologist, author of A Critique of Design\nArguments. Boston, 1883.\n\nHitchman (William), English physician, b. Northleach, Gloucestershire,\n1819, became M.R.C.S. in '41, M.D. at Erlangen, Bavaria. He established\nFreelight, and wrote a pamphlet, Fifty Years of Freethought. Died 1888.\n\nHoeffding (Harald), Dr., Professor of Philosophy at the University of\nCopenhagen, b. Copenhagen, 1843. Has been professor since '83. Is\nabsolutely free in his opinion and has published works on the newer\nphilosophy in Germany, '72, and in England, '74. In the latter work\nspecial attention is devoted to the works of Mill and Spencer. German\neditions have been published of his works Grundlage der humanen\nEthik (Basis of Human Ethics '80), Psychologie im Umriss (Outlines\nof Psychology '87), and Ethik 1888.\n\nHolst (Nils Olaf), Swedish geologist, b. 1846. Chairman of the Swedish\nSociety for Religious Liberty.\n\nIgnell (Nils), Swedish rationalist, b. 12 July, 1806. Brought\nup as a priest, his free views gave great offence. He translated\nRenan's Life of Jesus, and did much to arouse opposition to orthodox\nChristianity. Died at Stockholm, 3 June, 1864.\n\nJacobsen (Jens Peter), Danish novelist and botanist, b. Thistede,\n7 April, 1847. He did much to spread Darwinian views in Scandinavia,\ntranslating the Origin of Species and Descent of Man. Among his\nnovels we may name Fru Marie Grubbe, scenes from the XVII. century,\nand Niels Lyhne, in which he develops the philosophy of Atheism. This\nable young writer died at his birth place, 3 April 1885.\n\nKleist (Heinrich von), German poet, b. Frankfurt-on-Oder, 18\nOct. 1777. Left an orphan at eleven, he enlisted in the army in 1795,\nquitted it in four years and took to study. Kant's Philosophy made\nhim a complete sceptic. In 1800 he went to Paris to teach Kantian\nphilosophy, but the results were not encouraging. Committed suicide\ntogether with a lady, near Potsdam, 21 Nov. 1811. Kleist is chiefly\nknown by his dramas and a collection of tales.\n\nLetourneau (Charles Jean Marie), French scientist, b. Auray\n(Morbihan), 1831. Educated as physician. He wrote in La Pens\u00e9e\nNouvelle, and has published Physiology of the Passions, '68; Biology,\n'75, translated into English by W. Maccall; Science and Materialism,\n'79; Sociology based on Ethnography, '80; and the Evolution of\nMarriage and the Family, '85. He has also translated B\u00fcchner's Man\nAccording to Science, Light and Life and Mental Life of Animals,\nHaeckel's History of Creation, Letters of a Traveller in India,\nand Herzen's Physiology of the Will.\n\nLippert (Julius), learned German author of works on Soul Worship,\nBerlin, 1881; The Universal History of Priesthoods, '83; and an\nimportant Culture History of Mankind, '86-7.\n\nLloyd (William Watkiss), author of Christianity in the Cartoons,\nLondon 1865, in which he criticises Rafael and the New Testament side\nby side. He has also written The Age of Pericles, and several works\non Shakespeare.\n\nLucian, witty Greek writer, b. of poor parents, Samosata, on\nthe Euphrates, and flourished in the reign of Marcus Aurelius and\nCommodus. He was made a sculptor, but applied himself to rhetoric. He\ntravelled much, and at Athens was intimate with Demonax. His principal\nworks are dialogues, full of wit, humor, and satire, often directed\nagainst the gods. According to Suidas he was named the Blasphemer,\nand torn to pieces by dogs for his impiety, but on this no reliance\ncan be placed. On the ground of the dialogue Philopatris, he has\nbeen supposed an apostate Christian, but it is uncertain if that\npiece is genuine. It is certain that he was sceptical, truth-loving,\nand an enemy of the superstition of the time which he depicts in his\naccount of Alexander, the false prophet.\n\nMaglia (Adolfo de), Spanish journalist, b. Valencia, 3 June,\n1859, began writing in La Tronada at Barcelona, and afterwards\npublished L'Union Republicana. He founded the Freethinking group\n\"El Independiente\" and edits El Clamor Setabense and El Pueblo\nSoberano. Was secretary for Spain at the Anticlerical Congress at Rome\nin '85, and in '89 at Paris. During this year he has been condemned\nto six years' imprisonment and a fine of 4,000 francs for attacking\nLeo XIII. and the Catholic dogmas.\n\ndisciples, whom he conducted from faith to scepticism. He was the most\neminent predecessor of Ibn Roschd or Averro\u00ebs. Died Oct.-Nov. 931. His\nworks were publicly burned at Seville.\n\nMata (Pedro), Spanish physician, professor at the University of\nMadrid. Author of a poem, Glory and Martyrdom, 1851; a Treatise on\nHuman Reason, '58-64; and on Moral Liberty and Free Will, '68.\n\nMendizabal (Juan Alvarez), Spanish Liberal statesman, b. Cadiz,\n1790. Was minister during the reign of Cristina, and contributed\nto the subjugation of the clerical party. He abolished the religious\norders and proclaimed their goods as national property. Died at Madrid,\n3 Nov. 1853.\n\n* Meredith (Evan Powell), b. 1811. Educated at Pontypool College, he\nbecame a Baptist minister, and was an eloquent preacher in the Welsh\ntongue. He translated the Bible into Welsh. Investigation into the\nclaims of Christianity made him resign his ministry. In his Prophet\nof Nazareth he mentioned a purpose of writing a work on the gospels,\nbut it never appeared. He died at Monmouth 23 July, 1889.\n\nMiralta (Constancio), the pen name of a popular Spanish writer,\nb. about 1849. Has been a priest and doctor of theology, and is one\nof the writers on Las Dominicales. His most notable works are Memoirs\nof a Poor Clerical, The Secrets of Confession, and The Sacrament\nExposed. His work on The Doctrine of Catholicism upon Matrimony has\ngreatly encouraged civil marriages.\n\nMoraita (Miguel), Spanish historian, b. about 1845. Is Professor\nof History at Madrid, and one of the most ardent enemies of\nclericalism. Has written many works, including a voluminous History\nof Spain. In '84 he made a discourse at the University against\nthe pretended antiquity of the Mosaic legends, which caused his\nexcommunication by several bishops. He was supported by the students,\nagainst whom the military were employed. He is Grand Master of the\nSpanish Freemasons.\n\nMoya (Francisco Xavier), Spanish statistician, b. about 1825. Was\ndeputy to the Cortes of 1869, and has written several works on the\ninfallibility of the Pope and on the temporal power.\n\nNakens (Jos\u00e9), Spanish journalist, b. 1846. Founder and editor of El\nMotin, a Republican and Freethought paper of Madrid, in connection\nwith which there is a library, in which he has written La Piqueta--the\nPick-axe.\n\nNees Von Esenbeck (Christian Gottfried), German naturalist,\nb. Odenwald, 14 Feb. 1776. He became a doctor of medicine, and was\nProfessor of Botany at Bohn, 1819, and Breslau, '31. He was leader of\nthe free religious movement in Silesia, and in '48, took part in the\npolitical agitations, and was deprived of his chair. Wrote several\nworks on natural philosophy. Died at Breslau, 16 March, 1858.\n\nNyblaus (Claes Gudmund), Swedish bookseller, b. 1817, has published\nsome anti-Christian pamphlets.\n\nOffen (Benjamin), American lecturer, b. England, 1772. He emigrated to\nAmerica and became lecturer to the Society of Moral Philanthropists at\nTammany Hall, New York, and was connected With the Free Discussion\nSociety. He wrote A Legacy to the Friends of Free Discussion, a\ncritical review of the Bible. Died at New York, 12 May, 1848.\n\nPalmaer (Bernhard Henrik), Swedish satirist, b. 21 Aug. 1801. Author of\nThe Last Judgment in the Crow Corner. Died at Linkoping, 7 July, 1854.\n\nPanizza (Mario). Italian physiologist and philosopher; author of a\nmaterialist work on The Philosophy of the Nervous System, Rome, 1887.\n\nPerez Galdos (Benito), eminent living Spanish novelist, b. Canary\nIslands, lived since his youth in Madrid. Of his novels we mention\nGloria, which has been translated into English, and La Familia\nde Leon Roch, 1878, in which he stoutly attacks clericalism and\nreligious intolerance. He has also written Episodes nacionales,\nand many historical novels.\n\nRegenbrecht (Michael Eduard), German rationalist, b. Brannsberg,\n1792. He left the Church with Ronge, and became leader of the free\nreligious movement at Breslau, where he died 9 June, 1849.\n\nRobert (Roberto). Spanish anti-clerical satirist, b. 1817. Became\nfamous by his mordant style, his most celebrated works being The\nRogues of Antonio, The Times of Mari Casania, The Skimmer of the\nCenturies. Died in 1870.\n\nRupp (Julius), German reformer, b. K\u00f6nigsberg, 13 Aug. 1809. Studied\nphilosophy and theology, and became in '42 a minister. He protested\nagainst the creeds, and became leader of the Free-religious movement\nin East Prussia.\n\nRyberg (Y. E.), Swedish merchant captain, b. 16 Oct. 1828. He has\ntranslated several of Mr. Bradlaugh's pamphlets and other secular\nliterature.\n\nSachse (Heinrich Ernst), German atheist, b. 1812. At Magdeburg he\ndid much to demolish the remains of theism in the Free-religious\ncommunities. Died 1883.\n\nSales y Ferre (Manuel), Spanish scientist, b. about 1839. Professor\nat the University of Seville. Has published several works on geology\nand prehistoric times.\n\nSchneider (Georg Heinrich), German naturalist, b. Mannheim,\n1854. Author of The Human Will from the standpoint of the New\nDevelopment Theory (Berlin, 1882), and other works.\n\nSchreiner (Olive), the daughter of a German missionary in South\nAfrica. Authoress of \"The Story of an African Farm,\" 1883.\n\nSerre (... de la), author of an Examination of Religion, attributed to\nSaint Evremond, 1745. It was condemned to be burnt by the Parliament\nof Paris.\n\nSuner y Capderila. Spanish physician of Barcelona, b. 1828. Became\ndeputy to the Cortes in 1829, and is famous for his discourses\nagainst Catholicism.\n\nTocco (Felice), Italian philosopher and anthropologist, b. Catanzaro,\n12 Sept. 1845, and studied at the University of Naples and Bologna,\nand became Professor of Philosophy at Pisa. He wrote in the\nRivista Bolognese on Leopardi, and on \"Positivism\" in the Rivista\nContemporanea. He has published works on A. Bain's Theory of Sensation,\n'72; Thoughts on the History of Philosophy, '77; The Heresy of the\nMiddle Ages, '84; and Giordano Bruno, '86.\n\nTommasi (Salvatore), Italian evolutionist, author of a work on\nEvolution, Science, and Naturalism, Naples 1877, and a little pamphlet\nin commemoration of Darwin, '82.\n\nTubino (Francisco Maria), Spanish positivist, b. Seville, 1838, took\npart in Garibaldi's campaign in Sicily, and has contributed to the\nRivista Europea.\n\nTuthill (Charles A. H.), author of The Origin and Development of\nChristian Dogma, London, 1889.\n\nVernial (Paul), French doctor and member of the Anthropological\nSociety of Paris, author of a work on the Origin of Man, 1881.\n\nWheeler (Joseph Mazzini), atheist, b. London, 24 Jan., 1850. Converted\nfrom Christianity by reading Newman, Mill, Darwin, Spencer, etc. Has\ncontributed to the National Reformer Secularist, Secular Chronicle,\nLiberal, Progress, and Freethinker which he has sub-edited since\n1882, using occasionally the signatures \"Laon,\" \"Lucianus\" and other\npseudonyms. Has published Frauds and Follies of the Fathers '88,\nFootsteps of the Past, a collection of essays in anthropology and\ncomparative religion '86; and Crimes of Christianity, written in\nconjunction with G. W. Foote, with whom he has also edited Sepher\nToldoth Jeshu. The compiler of the present work is a willing drudge\nin the cause he loves, and hopes to empty many an inkstand in the\nservice of Freethought.\n\n\n<pre id=\"pg-footer\">","title":"A Biographical Dictionary of Freethinkers of All Ages and Nations","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":125967}