{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_37380/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_37380","id":"gutenberg_37380","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/37380","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Category: Teaching & Education","Mythology"],"text":"</pre>\n\nE-text prepared by Tor Martin Kristiansen, Michael, Sam W., and the Online\nDistributed Proofreading Team (http://www.pgdp.net)\n\n\n\nTHE STUDENT'S MYTHOLOGY\n\nA Compendium of Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian,\nHindoo, Chinese, Thibetian, Scandinavian, Celtic, Aztec,\nand Peruvian Mythologies,\n\nIn Accordance with Standard Authorities.\n\nArranged for the Use of Schools and Academies.\n\nby\n\nC. A. WHITE.\n\nNew Edition, Revised and Corrected.\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nNew York.\nA. C. Armstrong & Son,\n714 Broadway.\n1889.\n\nEntered According to Act of Congress in\nthe year 1870, by\nW. J. Widdleton,\nIn the Clerk's Office of the District\nCourt of the United States for\nthe Southern District of New York.\nCopyright, 1882, by W. C. Bush.\n\n\n\n\nPREFATORY NOTE.\n\n\nThe Student's Mythology has been in use in manuscript for nearly three\nyears in one of our largest academies, where it has been received with\nmuch favor by both teachers and pupils. Even in that form, which\nsubjected them to the inconvenience of long dictations, it was\npreferred to any of the ordinary text-books on the subject. Copies\nwere sought for the use of other institutions, and the principals of\nthe academy referred to, consented that the work should be prepared\nfor the press.\n\nIn carrying out the plan, the subject matter was carefully classified,\nand such additions made as were deemed necessary for completeness. As\na farther precaution, the whole was submitted to the revision of an\neminent classical scholar.\n\nMythology is a subject which needs to be treated with peculiar care;\nand text-books are often objected to by parents and teachers as still\nretaining the taint of pagan corruption, and presenting dangerous\nimages to the youthful mind. It was this difficulty which first led to\nthe preparation of the present work. The Student's Mythology lays no\nclaim to any superiority in point of erudition; the text-books already\nbefore the public leave nothing to be desired in this particular. It\nis a practical work, prepared by an experienced teacher, and already\nsubmitted to the decisive test of the schoolroom. It is not designed\nfor young persons who are already advanced in classical studies, but\nrather for pupils who have not yet entered, or who, like the greater\nnumber of those attending our female academies, are not likely ever to\nenter upon any regular classical course. For the former, it may prove\na useful introduction to these studies, while the latter will find in\nthe work the most important and pleasing features of mythology.\n\nWith such views, it has been considered most judicious to present the\nclassic fables in their simplest, which is also their most poetic\nform, giving the allegorical meaning attached to the ancient myths,\nonly where their application is clear and simple. For the same reason\nthe writer has avoided questions of comparative mythology, except in\ncases where the analogies are too obvious to be passed unnoticed. The\nwork has been compiled with care from reliable sources, and will,\nperhaps, be found to contain much that is new and interesting; many\narticles, such as those on the public games, the theatrical\nentertainments of the Greeks, the Assyrian, Chinese and American\nmythologies, will be found a pleasing addition, as these subjects have\nnot been treated in the ordinary text-books. The chapter on the \"Poets\nof Classic Fable,\" and the \"Supplement\" containing a notice of the\nancient writers whose names occur in the body of the work, will, it is\nhoped, be found generally useful.\n\nAmong the modern authors to whom the writer has been particularly\nindebted, we may mention Calmet, Anthon, Tooke, Bulfinch, Huc and\nSchlegel. In preparing the article on Druidism, Martin's \"Histoire de\nFrance,\" and the \"Monuments Celtiques\" of Reynaud, have been\nconsulted, together with the Irish Chroniclers and other standard\nauthorities. The matter of the Mexican and Peruvian mythologies, has\nbeen chiefly taken from Clavigero and Prescott. Reference has been\nmade throughout to the New American Cyclop\u00e6dia.\n\nThe work now completed is offered to the public in the hope that it\nmay render the subject of mythology more generally popular in our\nschools, and obviate the dangers attending this otherwise attractive\nstudy.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\n\n  CHAPTER I.\n\n  Origin of Mythology--Divinities called Celestial                  15\n\n  CHAPTER II.\n\n  Greek and Roman Divinities--Jupiter--Juno--How represented--\n    Parentage and Actions--Probable Origin of these Fables--\n    Adventures of Jupiter--Story of Europa--Search of Cadmus--\n    Punishment of Lycaon                                            23\n\n  CHAPTER III.\n\n  Apollo--His Parentage and Exploits--How represented--Story of\n    \u00c6sculapius--Banishment of Apollo from Heaven--Transformation\n    of Hyacinthus and Cyparissus--Story of Admetus and Alcestis--\n    Attributes of Apollo--Punishment inflicted on Marsyas and on\n    King Midas--Story of Midas--Death of Ph\u00e6ton--Transformation\n    of Daphne--Things Sacred to Apollo                              29\n\n  CHAPTER IV.\n\n  Mars (Ares)--His Parentage--How represented--Animals Sacred to\n    Mars--Names given to Mars--His Temple--Priests called Salii     34\n\n  CHAPTER V.\n\n  Mercury (Hermes)--His Parentage--How represented--Offices of\n    Mercury--Benefits conferred by Mercury on Man--Why considered\n    the Patron of Thieves--Story of Io and Argus                    36\n\n  CHAPTER VI.\n\n  Bacchus (Dionysus)--Parentage of the God--How represented--Story\n    of Semele--Infancy of Bacchus--Transformation of Nymphs into\n    Stars--Silenus--How represented--Exploits of Bacchus--How\n    worshipped--Plants Sacred to the God--Bacchanalia or Orgia--\n    Story of Pentheus--Punishment inflicted on Alcithoe and her\n    Sisters--Transformation of Mariners into Dolphins               39\n\n  CHAPTER VII.\n\n  Celestial Goddesses--Juno--Hera--Parentage of Juno--How\n    represented--Iris, Messenger of Juno--Children of Juno--\n    Jealousy of the Goddess--Transformation of Callista and\n    Arcas into Bears--Sacrifices offered to the Goddess--Plants\n    held Sacred to her                                              43\n\n  CHAPTER VIII.\n\n  Minerva--Pallas Athena--How represented--Origin of the Olive--\n    The Palladium--Minerva, as the Patroness of Female Industry--\n    Story of Arachne--The Bird of Minerva--Story of Medusa's Head   45\n\n  CHAPTER IX.\n\n  Venus--Aphrodite--Birth and Education of Venus--Marriage with\n    Vulcan--How represented--Temples of Venus--The Graces--Cupid\n    --Festivals of the Goddess--Birds and Plants Sacred to her--\n    Sacrifices--Temple of Venus Calva--The Apple of Discord--\n    Decision of Paris--Story of Hippomenes and Atalanta--Death of\n    Adonis--Origin of the Red Rose--Names of the Graces             49\n\n  CHAPTER X.\n\n  Latona--Leto--Her Parentage--Persecution of Juno--Birth of\n    Apollo and Diana--Transformation of Lycian Peasants into\n    Frogs--Punishment of Tityus--Latona a Personification of\n    Night--How represented by Painters and Sculptors                54\n\n  CHAPTER XI.\n\n  Aurora--Eos--Attributes of the Goddess--How represented--Story\n    of Cephalus and Procris--Marriage of Aurora with Tithonus--\n    Transformation of Tithonus--Memnon--His Death and Obsequies--\n    Vocal Statue                                                    56\n\n  CHAPTER XII.\n\n  Terrestrial Gods--Saturn--His Parentage--How represented--His\n    History--The Golden Age--Sacrifices offered to Saturn--The\n    Saturnalia--Modern Carnival--Janus--Contradictory Accounts\n    of his Origin--Temple of Janus--Quirinus at Rome                61\n\n  CHAPTER XIII.\n\n  Vulcan--Heph\u00e6stus--Parentage of this God--Why banished from\n    Heaven--Occupation of Vulcan--His Most Celebrated Works--\n    Marriage with Venus--The Cyclops--Vulcania--Temple on Mount\n    Etna--Cacus--C\u00e6culus--Other Works of Vulcan                     64\n\n  CHAPTER XIV.\n\n  \u00c6olus--Supposed origin of the Fable--Momus--His Parentage--\n    Criticisms passed on other Divinities--His Banishment from\n    Olympus                                                         67\n\n  CHAPTER XV.\n\n  Terrestrial Goddesses--Vesta--Hestia--Her Parentage and\n    Attributes--How represented--Worship of Vesta at Rome--\n    Vestal Virgins--Their Obligations and Privileges--Anecdote      69\n\n  CHAPTER XVI.\n\n  Cybele--How called by the Greeks--Parentage and Attributes--How\n    represented--Temple of Cybele on Mount Dindymus--Sacred Image\n    --Festival of Megalesia--Galle and Corybantes--Bona Dea--\n    Story of the Vestal Claudia                                     72\n\n  CHAPTER XVII.\n\n  Ceres--Demeter--Parentage and Attributes--How represented--\n    Story of Proserpine--Eleusinian Mysteries--Rites practiced\n    --Story of Triptolemus--Sacrifices offered to Ceres--Feasts\n    called Ambarvalia--Described by Virgil                          75\n\n  CHAPTER XVIII.\n\n  Themis--Origin and Attributes--Astr\u00e6a changed into the\n    Constellation Virgo--Erigone--Nemesis--Her Office--Temple\n    of Nemesis at Rhamnus                                           80\n\n  CHAPTER XIX.\n\n  The Muses--Their Number, Names and Attributes--Why there are\n    Nine Muses--Punishment or the Daughters of Pierus               82\n\n  CHAPTER XX.\n\n  Gods of the Woods, and Rural Deities--Pan--Names given to this\n    Deity--His Origin--How represented--Famous Action related of\n    Pan--Origin of Pan's Reeds--Satyrs and Fauns--Terminus--\n    Vertumnus--Pales                                                84\n\n  CHAPTER XXI.\n\n  Goddesses of the Woods--Diana--Parentage and Attributes of this\n    Goddess--How represented--Habits of Diana--Her Attendants--\n    Punishment of Chione--Story of Niobe--Temple of Diana at\n    Ephesus--Burned by Erostratus--Despoiled by Nero--Plundered\n    by the Goths--Nymphs--Naiades--Oreades--Oceanides--Dryades\n    and Hamadryades--Arethusa--Story of Echo--Transformation of\n    Narcissus                                                       87\n\n  CHAPTER XXII.\n\n  Gods of the Sea--Neptune--Poseidon--Parentage of the God--How\n    represented--Offices of Neptune--Feasts held at Rome in his\n    Honor--Children of Neptune--Triton--Phorcus or Proteus--\n    Sirens--Ulysses--Orpheus--Scylla and Charybdis--Melicertes--\n    Thetis--Glaucus                                                 93\n\n  CHAPTER XXIII.\n\n  Infernal Deities--Pluto--Hades--Parentage of the God--His\n    Kingdom--Representations and Emblems--Dis--Plutus--Hell--\n    Cerberus--Fates--Furies--Judges of the Dead--Punishment\n    inflicted on the Condemned--Giants--Ixion--Sisyphus--\n    Tantalus--The Belides--Salmoneus--Elysium                       99\n\n  CHAPTER XXIV.\n\n  Fabulous Monsters--Centaurs--Geryon--Harpies--Briareus--The\n    Chim\u00e6ra--Explanation of this Fable--The Sphinx--Fabulous\n    History--Statue of the Sphinx in Egypt                         105\n\n  CHAPTER XXV.\n\n  Household Divinities--Penates--Offices and Attributes--Lares--\n    Their Offices--Sacrifices offered to the Goddess Mania--\n    Honors paid to the Lares--Virtues worshipped as Divinities     108\n\n  CHAPTER XXVI.\n\n  Demigods and Heroes--Their Origin--Hercules--His Parentage--\n    Twelve Labors of the Hero--Field of Narbonne--Death of\n    Hercules                                                       114\n\n  CHAPTER XXVII.\n\n  Jason--Expedition in search of the Golden Fleece--Medea--Her\n    Revenge--Theseus--Tribute imposed on the Athenians--Departure\n    of Theseus--Destruction of the Minotaur--Ariadne--Death of\n    \u00c6geus                                                          119\n\n  CHAPTER XXVIII.\n\n  Castor And Pollux--Their Parentage--Death of Castor--\n    Constellation Gemini--Prometheus--His Parentage--His\n    Impiety--Pandora's Box--Punishment of Prometheus               123\n\n  CHAPTER XXIX.\n\n  Orpheus--Story of Eurydice--Death of Orpheus--Transformation\n    of Thracian Women into Trees--Arion--Amphion                   125\n\n  CHAPTER XXX.\n\n  Atlas--His Parentage--Transformed by Perseus into a Mountain--\n    Explanation of the Fable--Pleiades--Hyades--Hesperides--Orion\n    --His Parentage, Exploits and Death--Transformation into a\n    Constellation--Perseus--His Parentage--Rescue of Andromeda--\n    Death of Acrisius                                              129\n\n  CHAPTER XXXI.\n\n  Bellerophon--Victory over the Chim\u00e6ra--His Presumption and its\n    Punishment--Deucalion--Legend of the re-peopling of the Earth\n    after the Deluge--Probable Explanation--D\u00e6dalus--Labyrinth--\n    Death of Icarus--Ceyx--Alcyone--Halcyon Birds                  134\n\n  CHAPTER XXXII.\n\n  Meleager--The Calydonian Hunt--Erisichthon, Nisus and Scylla     140\n\n  CHAPTER XXXIII.\n\n  Poets of Classic Fable--Homer--Hesiod--Virgil--Ovid              145\n\n  CHAPTER XXXIV.\n\n  Heroes Celebrated by the Poets--Agamemnon--Sacrifice of\n    Iphigenia--Quarrel with Achilles--Murder of Agamemnon by\n    \u00c6gisthus and Clytemnestra--Achilles--His Parentage--\n    Discovered by Ulysses at the Court of Lycomedes--His\n    Quarrel with Agamemnon--Death of Patroclus--Exploits\n    during the Siege--Death of Achilles--Sacrifice of\n    Polyxena--Transformation of Hecuba                             152\n\n  CHAPTER XXXV.\n\n  Ulysses--His Marriage with Penelope--Feigned Insanity--Exploits\n    during the Siege of Troy--Lotus Eaters--Slaying of the Sacred\n    Cattle by the Sailors--Their destruction--Ulysses in the\n    Island of Calypso--Cast on the Shores of Ph\u00e6acia--His Arrival\n    in Ithaca--Suitors of Penelope--Her Deliverance by Ulysses     156\n\n  CHAPTER XXXVI.\n\n  Orestes--Education at the Court of Strophius--Pylades--Murder\n    of Clytemnestra--Orestes pursued by the Furies--Discovery of\n    Iphigenia at Tauris--Circumstances added by the Tragic Poets\n    --Hector--Character and Exploits of the Hero; his Death--Fate\n    of Astyanax--Oedipus--Eteocles and Polynices--Theban War--\n    Heroism of Antigone                                            164\n\n  CHAPTER XXXVII.\n\n  \u00c6neas--His Parentage--His Flight from Troy--Interview with\n    Andromache at Epirus--Prophecy of Helenus--\u00c6neas driven by a\n    Storm on the Coast of Africa--Received by Dido at Carthage--\n    Departure of \u00c6neas--Death of Dido--Funeral Games--Descent\n    into the Infernal Regions--Landing of \u00c6neas in Italy--War--\n    Death of Turnus and Marriage of \u00c6neas with Lavinia--His Death  171\n\n  CHAPTER XXXVIII.\n\n  Sibyls--Story of the Cum\u00e6an Sibyl--Legend of the Sibylline\n    Books--Their destruction--Opinions entertained regarding\n    these Verses--Divination by Omens--The Augurs--Different\n    Classes of Omens--Anecdote                                     176\n\n  CHAPTER XXXIX.\n\n  Oracles--Oracle of Jupiter at Dodona--Manner of giving\n    Responses--Oracle of Delphi--Account given by Diodorus--\n    The Pythia--Remarkable Responses--Unsuccessful attempts made\n    to plunder this Temple--Despoiled by Nero and others--Oracle\n    of Trophonius--Story of the Hero and his Brother--Agamedes--\n    Discovery of the Oracle--Peculiar Rites observed by the\n    Votaries--Oracle of Jupiter Ammon--Its Situation--Temple\n    founded by Bacchus--Expedition sent by Cambyses--Ruins still\n    existing--Fons Solis--Account given by Belzoni--Oracle of\n    Esculapius at Epidaurus--Remarkable Embassy sent to Epidaurus\n    by the Roman Senate--Treatment of Votaries in the different\n    Oracles of Esculapius--Oracle of the Castalian Fount--Anecdote\n    of the Emperor Hadrian--Opinions entertained with regard to\n    these Oracles--Quotation from Milton                           180\n\n  CHAPTER XL.\n\n  Classic Games--Why connected with Mythology--Olympic Games--By\n    Whom instituted--Time and Manner of their celebration--\n    Olympiads--Nature of the Contests--Qualifications required of\n    the Competitors--Prize awarded to the Victors--Honors bestowed\n    --Horse and Chariot Races--Philip of Macedon--Alcibiades--\n    Cynisca--Intellectual Contests--Herodotus--Dionysius--Pythian\n    Games--By whom instituted--Time of their Celebration--Prize--\n    Nemean Games--Crowns bestowed--Isthmian Games--Why so called--\n    Instituted in Honor of Melicertes--Garland bestowed on the\n    Victor                                                         191\n\n  CHAPTER XLI.\n\n  The Greek Drama--Peculiarities of the Greek Theatre--Description\n    of the Theatre of Bacchus at Athens--Stage Machinery--Dress of\n    the Actors--Masks--The Chorus--Measures of the Choral Dance--\n    Chorus of the Furies--Story of Ibycus--Attempt made to revive\n    the Ancient Chorus--Time occupied by Theatrical Entertainments\n    --Their cost--Comparison with the Roman Amphitheatre           197\n\n  CHAPTER XLII.\n\n  Celebrated Statues--The Olympian Jupiter--Minerva of the\n    Parthenon--Subsequent Fate of this Temple--Apollo Belvidere\n    --Diana \u00e0 la Biche                                             206\n\n\n  _PART II._\n\n  CHAPTER I.\n\n  Egyptian Divinities--Osiris--Apis and Serapis--Parentage of\n    Osiris--His Death and Sepulture--Isis--Attributes--Emblematic\n    representation--Rites of Isis forbidden at Rome--Condemned by\n    Juvenal--Apis--Manner of transmigration--Festivals in Honor\n    of Apis--Discovery of a Successor--Oracles obtained from this\n    Divinity--Germanicus--Harpocrates--Quotation                   209\n\n  CHAPTER II.\n\n  Eastern Mythology--Divinities of the Assyrians--Baal or Bel--\n    Tower of Babel--Proper Names of the Phoenicians and\n    Carthaginians--Worship of Baal introduced among the\n    Israelites by Achab--Reproaches of Jeremias--Moloch--Nations\n    devoted to his Worship--Human Sacrifices--Representation of\n    this God--His Worship forbidden by Moses--Valley of Hinnom--\n    Quotation from Milton--Astaroth or Astarte--Sacrifices in\n    Honor of this Goddess--Abuses attending her Festivals--Thammuz\n    identical with Adonis--Mourned by the Assyrian Women--Lines\n    from Milton--Vision of Ezekiel--Oannes--Dagon                  213\n\n  CHAPTER III.\n\n  Persia--The Zend-avesta--Doctrines of Zoroaster--Ormuzd or\n    Ormasdes--Ahriman--Worship of Fire--The Guebers--Perpetual\n    Fires--Bakoo--Magic and Astrology--Parsees of Hindostan        218\n\n  CHAPTER IV.\n\n  Hindoo Mythology--Brahma--The Vedas--Doctrine of the Vedas--\n    Brahma, Vishnu and Siva--Offices of these Deities--Avatars of\n    Vishnu--Krishna--Siva--Doctrines regarding the Soul--\n    Metempsychosis--Castes--Buddha--His Doctrines--Buddhism\n    suppressed in India                                            222\n\n  CHAPTER V.\n\n  China--Absence of any State Religion in China--Doctrine of the\n    Lettered--Confucius--His Writings--Honors paid him in China--\n    Difficulties occasioned among Christian Missionaries--Lao-tze,\n    founder of the Religion of Tao or Reason--His Writings--\n    Chinese Buddhists--Temple of Buddha at Pou-tou--General\n    Feeling of the Chinese with regard to Religion                 229\n\n  CHAPTER VI.\n\n  Thibet--The Grand Lama--Prevailing Religion of Thibet and\n    Tartary--Lamaseries--The Grand Lama, a Perpetual Incarnation\n    of Buddha--His transmigrations--Mode of discovering his\n    Successor                                                      236\n\n  CHAPTER VII.\n\n  Mythology of Scandinavia--Compared with that of Greece and\n    Rome--The Eddas--Account of the Creation--Form of the Earth\n    --Asgard, Odin--Names of this Deity--Valhalla--Thor--Recovery\n    of Thor's Hammer--Frey and Freya--Bragi--Heimdall--Vidar--\n    Hodur--The Valkyrior--Loki and his Progeny--Death of Baldur--\n    His Funeral--Loki's Punishment--The Elves--Runic Letters--\n    Ragnarok, the Twilight of the Gods                             238\n\n  CHAPTER VIII.\n\n  Celtic Mythology--Druidism--Derivation of the Word Druid--\n    Origin of Druidical Worship--Account given by C\u00e6sar--\n    Characteristics--Divinities worshipped by the Druids--Esus--\n    His Attributes--Bel--Teutates--Camul--Tarann--Priests--Their\n    Duties--Bards--Their  Influences--Druids, properly so called--\n    Sacred Plants--Mystic Writing of the Druids--Their Political\n    Authority--Druidesses--Of the Loire--Of the Island of Sena--\n    Human Sacrifices offered by Druidesses--Virgins of Tara--\n    Sacrifices offered by the Druids--Victims chosen--Belief of\n    the Druids in a Future State--Festivals of the Druids--\n    Festival--Solstices--Beltane or Beal-Tinne--Ceremonies\n    observed in Ireland--St. Patrick at Tara--First of November--\n    Breton Legend--Superstitious Practices belonging to the Day--\n    Suppression of Druidism in Gaul--In England--Mona--Iona--\n    Druidical Monuments--Menhirs--Dolmens--Cromlechs--Stonehenge\n    --Carnac--Popular Superstitions                                257\n\n  CHAPTER IX.\n\n  Mexico--Mythology of the Aztecs--Its Peculiar Characteristics--\n    Belief of the Aztecs with regard to the Supreme Being--\n    Subordinate Deities--Huitzilopotchli--Legend of Quetzalcoatl--\n    Household Divinities--Belief of the Aztecs with regard to a\n    Future State--Singular Ceremony--Rites of Burial--Aztec\n    Priests--Priestesses--Mexican Temples--Pyramid of Cholula--\n    Sacrifices--Their Number--Victims offered annually to\n    Tezcatlipoca--Cannibal Repasts--Montezuma                      274\n\n  CHAPTER X.\n\n  Mythology of the Ancient Peruvians--Belief in One God--Worship\n    of the Sun, Moon, and Stars--Legend of Manco-Capac--Pretended\n    Origin of the Inca Race--Legend of the Deluge--Tradition of\n    White Men from the East--Temple of the Sun in the Island of\n    Titicaca--Temple of Cuzco--Peruvian Priesthood--Sacrifices\n    offered to the Sun--Festivals of the Sun--Feast of Raymi--\n    Resemblance of certain Peruvian Rites to those observed by\n    the Ancient Romans--Virgins of the Sun--Burial Rites of the\n    Peruvians--Cupay                                               284\n\n  SUPPLEMENT.\n\n  Notice of Authors, etc., mentioned in this Volume--\u00c6schylus--\n    C\u00e6sar--Cicero--Demosthenes--Diodorus--Euripides--Herodotus--\n    Justin--Juvenal--M\u00e6cenas--Pelasgi--Plinius--Procopius--\n    Simonides--Sophocles--Strabo--Titicaca--Varro                  292\n\n\n\n\nMYTHOLOGY.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\n\n_Ques._ What is Mythology?\n\n_Ans._ This word is derived from the Greek, _Mythos_, a myth or fable,\nand _logos_, a discourse. A myth is, properly speaking, an allegory or\nfable invented to convey some important moral or religious truth, or\nillustrate some operation of nature. Mythology includes also the\nhistorical myths, or the narratives of gods, demigods, and heroes,\nwhich were current among the heathen in ancient times.\n\n_Ques._ Why is it necessary to become acquainted with these fables?\n\n_Ans._ Because ancient literature and art cannot be fully understood\nor appreciated without some knowledge of Mythology. It was mingled\nwith every theme of the classic poet, and inspired the highest skill\nof the painter and sculptor.\n\nThese subjects keep their place to some extent in modern art, and\nmythological allusions are so frequent in our literature that an\nacquaintance with classic fable is considered a necessary part of a\nliberal education.\n\n_Ques._ Did all the heathen nations worship the same deities?\n\n_Ans._ The mythology of different nations varied as to the names and\nattributes of their divinities. There are, nevertheless, so many\npoints of resemblance, that it is believed by many that the principal\nmythical systems had one common origin. To trace these analogies, and\nthe developments which gave rise to so great a diversity, is the\nprovince of comparative mythology.\n\n_Ques._ In what important point do all these systems agree?\n\n_Ans._ In the rite of sacrifice. We meet everywhere the same\nofferings: flowers, first fruits, libations of milk, honey, and wine;\nalso sacrifices of animals, which were either partaken of by the\nvotaries or consumed as holocausts upon the altar.\n\nThis mode of worship varied but little in ceremonial, and the\nsacrifices of the different heathen nations resembled, in their\nexterior form, those offered to the true God by the ancient\npatriarchs. The idea of propitiating the deity in such a manner seems\nto have been universal both in the old and the new world, and we are\nforced to believe that it was drawn from a common fount of primeval\ntradition.\n\n_Ques._ How did the belief in the heathen deities originate?\n\n_Ans._ When the early traditions of the human race became corrupt, the\nsublime idea of one God, self-existent and eternal, was lost or\nobscured. We find it, though vaguely perhaps, in the character and\nattributes of certain divinities, as the Zeus (Jupiter) of the Greek,\nand the Alf\u00e2dur of Scandinavian mythology. There are passages in the\nearly Greek poets which show clearly a belief in the unity of God. In\nthe verses attributed to the mythic poet Orpheus, and generally known\nas Orphic Remains, we find the following:\n\n    \"One self-existent lives; created things\n    Arise from him; and He is all in all.\n    No mortal sight may see Him, yet Himself\n    Sees all that live; * * *\n              * * * For He alone\n    All heavenly is, and all terrestrial things\n    Are wrought by Him. First, midst and last he holds\n    With His omniscient grasp.\"\n\nThe same idea is expressed in the verses of the poet Aratus, quoted by\nSt. Paul in his address to the Athenians on the Hill of Mars.\n\nInstead of ministering spirits obeying the will of the Supreme Being,\nand communicating that will to man, there arose a number of inferior\ndeities, each exercising some peculiar and partial sovereignty. The\ngod whom the warrior invoked in battle was powerless to bless the\nfield he cultivated in time of peace; the power of Jupiter was\nworshipped in the rolling thunder; but when the earth trembled or\nfiery torrents burst from the mountain top, the wrath of Pluto must be\nappeased, and sacrifices were offered to the infernal powers. The\nstrife and turbulence of nature were attributed to the gods, who\nbecame in some manner identified with the elements they were supposed\nto govern.\n\nThe honors paid to the memory of departed heroes assumed, in the\ncourse of time, the character of religious worship. Hence arose a\nclass of demigods, whose real achievements, transmitted by popular\ntradition and embellished by the poets, became altogether legendary\nand mythical.\n\n_Ques._ Were the Greek and Roman mythologies the same?\n\n_Ans._ They were, to a great extent. The ancient Latins had,\nundoubtedly, their own gods and their peculiar superstitions, but they\ndo not appear to have had any regular mythology. When the Romans\nreceived the arts and sciences from the Greeks, they adopted, also,\ntheir divinities and their entire system of religion.\n\nThey shared a tradition, which seems to have been universal, of a\ntime of primeval innocence, when man dwelt in a peaceful world,\nignorant alike of sorrow and of sin. This was the Golden Age. Avarice\nand discord were unknown; men had not learned to slay animals for\nfood, nor had the earth been disturbed by the plough. Neither the\nlabors of the husbandman, nor the merchant's traffic disturbed the\njoyous leisure of that happy time; no ships ploughed the seas, and the\nglittering steel rested harmless in the mine. Ovid thus describes the\ndays of innocence:\n\n    \"The Golden Age was first, when man, yet new,\n    No rule but uncorrupted reason knew,\n    And, with a native bent did good pursue.\n    Unforced by punishment, unawed by fear,\n    His words were simple, and his soul sincere;\n    Needless was written law where none oppressed;\n    The law of man was written in his breast:\n    No suppliant crowds before the judge appeared,\n    No court erected yet, nor cause was heard,\n    But all was safe; for conscience was their guard.\n         *   *   *   *   *   *   *\n    No walls were yet, nor fence, nor moat, nor mound,\n    Nor drum was heard, nor trumpet's angry sound,\n    Nor swords were forged; but, void of care and crime,\n    The soft creation slept away their time.\"\n\nThe Silver Age was far inferior to that of gold; but virtue still\ndwelt on earth, and the Immortals had not altogether departed from the\nabodes of men. Jupiter then divided the year into seasons, shortened\nthe winter days, and let loose the northern blasts, so that men were\nobliged to build dwellings, and cultivate the ungrateful soil.\n\nTheir first habitations were caves and grottoes, leafy coverts of the\nforest, or huts rudely constructed of the trunks of trees and\ninterwoven boughs.\n\nThe Brazen Age came next; men grew fierce and warlike, but were not as\nyet altogether impious.\n\nThe Iron Age gave birth to all the calamities that afflict mankind.\nAvarice and violence reigned supreme; men were not satisfied to till\nthe earth, but dug into its hidden mines, and drew thence gold and\niron, potent instruments of ill to man.\n\nThe same poet says:\n\n    \"Then land-marks limited to each his right;\n    For all before was common as the light.\n    Nor was the ground alone required to bear\n    Her annual income to the crooked share,\n    But greedy mortals, rummaging her store,\n    Digged from her entrails first the precious ore\n    (Which next to hell the prudent gods had laid,)\n    And that alluring ill to sight displayed.\n    Thus cursed steel, and more accursed gold,\n    Gave mischief birth, and made that mischief bold:\n    And double death did wretched man invade,\n    By steel assaulted, and by gold betrayed.\"\n\n                                _Dryden's Ovid._\n\n\nMOUNT OLYMPUS.\n\n_Ques._ Where were the gods supposed to dwell?\n\n_Ans._ On the summit of Mount Olympus, in Thessaly. This mountain\nhides its head, covered with perpetual snows, in a belt of clouds.\nThe Greeks imagined above these, a sublime abode reposing in eternal\nsunshine, and free from the storms which vexed the lower world. A gate\nof clouds, guarded by the goddesses of the seasons, opened to permit\nthe passage of the Celestials when they descended to earth. Each god\nhad his own dwelling, but all were obliged to repair, when summoned,\nto the palace of Jupiter. Even those deities whose usual abode was on\nthe earth, in the waters, or in the lower shades, were compelled to\nassemble in Olympus at his command. Here they feasted on ambrosia and\nnectar, discoursed upon the affairs of heaven and earth, and were\ndelighted at intervals by the music of Apollo's lyre, and the songs of\nthe Muses.\n\nVulcan was smith, architect and chariot builder to the gods. He built\ntheir dwellings on Olympus, and constructed the furniture in so\nwonderful a manner, that the tripods and tables were endowed with\nmotion, and ranged themselves in order without the aid of hands. The\nrobes of the different divinities were wrought by Minerva and the\nGraces. Everything of a solid nature was constructed of metal.\n\n\nTHE GODS--DIFFERENT CLASSES OF DEITIES.\n\n_Ques._ Did the Greeks believe that the gods resembled men?\n\n_Ans._ Yes; in many particulars. They supposed them to have the same\npassions, both good and evil. They were immortal, yet could suffer\npain and receive wounds. Instead of blood a fluid called ichor filled\ntheir veins. The deities resembled men also in form, but they were,\nwith some exceptions, of majestic stature and shone with celestial\nbeauty. They could render themselves invisible at will, and were\notherwise endowed with supernatural powers. There was this restraint\nupon their wonder-working gifts: no divinity was permitted to reverse\nthe act of another. For example, when an offended god subjected a\nmortal to some cruel transformation, no other deity, not even Jupiter\nhimself, could undo the spell.\n\n_Ques._ Into what classes were the gods divided?\n\n_Ans._ Ancient writers differ in the classification of the Greek and\nRoman divinities. According to one division, which we will follow, the\nCelestial gods were: Jupiter, Apollo, Mars, Mercury and Bacchus. The\ngoddesses were: Juno, Minerva or Pallas, Venus, Aurora and Latona.\n\nTo these higher divinities, Saturn, Janus, Vesta and others were\nsometimes added. There were also Terrestrial divinities, Gods of the\nSea, Infernal deities, etc. etc.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nGREEK AND ROMAN DIVINITIES.\n\nCelestial Gods.\n\n\nJUPITER, (Greek, _Zeus_.)\n\n_Ques._ Who was Jupiter?\n\n_Ans._ He was the king and father of gods and men. He is generally\nrepresented as a majestic man with a beard, sitting on a throne of\ngold and ivory. He brandishes the thunder in his right hand; giants\nlie prostrate under his feet, and an eagle stands at his side. Jupiter\nis sometimes called Jove, and as the eagle was sacred to him, it is\noften called the bird of Jove.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the story of Diony\u00b4sius and Jupiter's cloak.\n\n_Ans._ The statues of this god were sometimes decorated with much\nmagnificence. It is related that Diony\u00b4sius, the tyrant of Syracuse,\nvisited a temple in Sicily, where he saw a statue of Jupiter arrayed\nin a mantle of wrought gold. This he took possession of, and ordered\nin its place a woolen cloak. Diony\u00b4sius justified the act on the plea\nthat the latter garment would be more comfortable for the god at all\nseasons, as it was neither so heavy in summer, nor so cold in winter.\n\n_Ques._ Of whom was Jupiter the son?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Saturn and Ops. According to the fable,\nSaturn promised his brother Titan, that after his death, the latter\nshould succeed him in his kingdom. To ensure this, Titan made Saturn\npromise farther to destroy all his male children. In fulfillment of\nthis engagement, Saturn devoured them as soon as they were born. Ops,\nor Rhea, his wife, succeeded in concealing Jupiter from him. She sent\nhim secretly to Crete where he was educated on Mount Ida, by the\nnymphs, or, according to some, by the priestesses of Cyb\u00b4ele. The goat\nwhich suckled him was placed afterwards amongst the constellations.\nOps saved Neptune and Pluto in the same manner.\n\n_Ques._ What were Jupiter's first exploits?\n\n_Ans._ Titan was so much enraged against Saturn for failing to destroy\nall his male children, that he assembled the giants, generally called\nTitans, to avenge the injury. They overcame Saturn, and bound him with\nOps, or Rhea, in hell. Jupiter conquered the Titans, and delivered his\nfather and mother. He afterwards took up arms against Saturn himself,\nwhom he overcame and banished. He then shared his power with his two\nbrothers, Neptune and Pluto; to Neptune he gave the command of the\nseas and rivers, while Pluto received for his portion the\nsubterranean world, or infernal regions.\n\n_Ques._ What natural phenomena were attributed to Jupiter?\n\n_Ans._ Thunder, lightning, rain, clouds, snow, and rainbows. These\nwere sent by Jupiter either as signs or warnings, or else to punish\nthe transgressions of men, particularly the perversion of law and\njustice. It seems certain that the ancients regarded Jupiter as a\nrighteous power, the enemy of tyrants, and the protector of the poor\nand innocent. It is hard to reconcile this character with the fables\nwhich ascribe to this god actions in the last degree base and\ncriminal.\n\n_Ques._ How would you explain this seeming contradiction?\n\n_Ans._ Many of these stories were simply allegories, illustrating the\ndominion of Jupiter over the natural world. Others were invented at\nlater times; and all were embellished by the poets with but little\nregard for moral or religious sentiment. Whatever their origin, there\ncan be no doubt that they had an unfavorable influence on the pagan\nworld, and that they contributed to weaken whatever respect remained\nfor public or private virtue.\n\n_Ques._ Relate some of these fables.\n\n_Ans._ Jupiter was married to Juno, to whom he first appeared in the\nform of a crow. He constantly excited her jealousy by his admiration\nof mortal women, and this gave rise to many adventures, celebrated by\nthe poets.\n\n_Ques._ What was the story of Euro\u00b4pa?\n\n_Ans._ Jupiter was struck by the beauty of Euro\u00b4pa, daughter of\nAge\u00b4nor, king of Phoenicia. He took the form of a snow-white bull, and\nmingled with the herd that grazed in the meadow where the young\nprincess was gathering flowers. Euro\u00b4pa, attracted by the beauty and\ngentleness of the animal, caressed him, crowned him with flowers, and\nat length fearlessly mounted on his back. He immediately plunged into\nthe sea, and carried her to the unknown shores of Europe, which was\nnamed from her.\n\n_Ques._ On what was the story of Euro\u00b4pa probably founded?\n\n_Ans._ It is probable that some sea captain, or pirate, was attracted\nby the beauty of the young princess, and carried her off. When her\nfather grieved at her loss, the courtiers, and perhaps the oracles,\npretended that it was a god who had taken her away. As this report was\nflattering to his pride, he would of course be pleased to hear it\neverywhere repeated. This, however, did not prevent Age\u00b4nor from\nmaking every effort to recover his lost child.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the story of Cadmus.\n\n_Ans._ Cadmus, the son of Age\u00b4nor, was ordered by his father to go in\nsearch of his sister Euro\u00b4pa, with the further injunction, that he\nshould never return to his native land without her. The search proved\nfruitless, and Cadmus, not daring to appear before his father, went to\nconsult the oracle of Apollo as to what he should do. He was directed\nby the god to follow a young heifer, which he would meet in the\nfields, and to mark the place where she should lie down to rest. He\nwas to build a city on that spot, and call the surrounding country\nBoeotia. Cadmus obeyed these instructions; while preparing to offer\nsacrifice to Jupiter on the site of his intended town, the solemnity\nwas interrupted by a terrible event. The attendants of Cadmus, in\nsearching for water, had entered a grove sacred to Mars, which was\nguarded by a mighty dragon. On perceiving him, they turned to fly, but\nwere either crushed in the serpent's folds, or suffocated by blasts of\nthe monster's fiery breath. Cadmus, awaiting their return, and\nbecoming impatient at the delay, proceeded to the spot, and found his\nservants lifeless, while the dragon was basking at his ease upon the\ngrass. The hero, aroused to vengeance, attacked the monster. A\nterrible combat ensued, in which Cadmus, through the assistance of\nMinerva, was victorious. As he gazed upon his expiring foe, he heard a\nfrightful voice which threatened him with the vengeance of the god\nwhose grove he had desecrated. Cadmus was at first dismayed, but\nMinerva told him to sow the dragon's teeth in the ground, and await\nthe result. Where the teeth were planted, armed men immediately sprung\nup. Cadmus threw a stone among them, upon which they turned their\nweapons against one another, and continued to fight until all were\nkilled except five. These assisted the hero in building his city.\n\nCadmus married Hermi\u00b4one, the daughter of Venus; they had four\ndaughters, all of whom suffered persecution, either in their own\npersons, or in those of their children. Cadmus and Hermi\u00b4one were so\nmuch afflicted by the misfortunes of their descendants, that they\npetitioned the gods to deprive them of life. They were soon after\nchanged into serpents.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the punishment of Lyca\u00b4on.\n\n_Ans._ During the Iron Age the wickedness of men had grown to such a\nheight that Jupiter resolved to satisfy himself of the truth of the\nreports that reached him. For this purpose he descended to earth, and\nassuming the disguise of a poor traveller, sought hospitality of\nLyca\u00b4on, king of Arcadia. The impious prince had just received an\nambassador from the Molossians. He ordered him to be slain, and his\nflesh to be served for the entertainment of his guest. Jupiter was\nseized with indignation; he overturned the tables, destroyed the\npalace with lightning, and when the tyrant strove to fly, he was\ntransformed into a savage wolf.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n\nPHOEBUS--APOLLO.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Apollo?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Lato\u00b4na. This god was, with his\ntwin-sister Diana, born at Delos, an island in which Lato\u00b4na had taken\nrefuge from the anger of Juno. This goddess, jealous of Lato\u00b4na, sent\nthe serpent Python to destroy her. One of the first exploits of Apollo\nwas to kill the Python with his arrows.\n\n_Ques._ How is this god generally represented?\n\n_Ans._ As a young man, comely and graceful. He wears a laurel crown\nover his flowing hair; his garments are embroidered with gold; in his\nright hand he carries his bow, and bears on his shoulder a quiver\nfilled with arrows. Apollo and his sister Diana presided respectively\nover the sun and moon. The sun is often called Phoebus, or Apollo, and\nin ancient pictures the head of the god is represented as darting\nrays. Apollo, like other divinities, had many names.\n\n_Ques._ What was the cause of Apollo's being driven from heaven?\n\n_Ans._ He had a son named \u00c6sculapius, who was so skilled in medicine\nthat he was even able to restore the dead to life. Hippol\u00b4ytus, son of\nTheseus, king of Athens, was killed by sea-monsters. \u00c6sculapius, by\nbringing him to life, so offended Jupiter that the latter killed him\nwith a thunderbolt. Apollo was much grieved, and, as he could not take\nrevenge on Jupiter, he killed the Cyclops who forged the thunderbolts.\nFor this reason Jupiter banished Apollo from heaven.\n\n_Ques._ How did he occupy himself in his banishment?\n\n_Ans._ He guarded the flocks of Admetus, king of Thessaly. Here he had\nthe misfortune accidentally to kill Hyacinthus, a boy to whom he was\nmuch attached. Apollo mourned deeply for the youth, and caused a\nflower to spring from his blood, which is called the hyacinth.\nCyparis\u00b4sus was also beloved by the god. The boy grieved so deeply at\nhaving unintentionally killed a favorite deer, that he begged Apollo\nto make his mourning perpetual. The god heard his prayer and changed\nhim to a cypress, the branches of which tree were always used at\nfunerals. After many adventures and wanderings, Apollo was restored to\nthe favor of Jupiter, and to heaven.\n\n_Ques._ What favor did Apollo confer on King Admetus?\n\n_Ans._ He obtained from the Fates, that when Admetus should be about\nto end his existence, his life might be prolonged, provided another\ndied willingly in his stead. When the fatal day came, Alcestis, the\nwife of Admetus, devoted herself to death for her husband. Admetus\ngrieved so deeply at her loss that Proser\u00b4pine actually relented, but\nPluto remained inexorable. Hercules, however, descended to the shades,\nand rescued Alcestis, who was restored to her husband. Euripides has\nfounded one of his most beautiful tragedies upon this story.\n\n_Ques._ Over what sciences did Apollo preside?\n\n_Ans._ He presided over physic, music, poetry, and rhetoric; and the\nnine Muses were subject to him. He regulated the day by guiding the\nchariot of the sun.\n\n_Ques._ What else is said of Apollo?\n\n_Ans._ Many absurd and impossible adventures are told. He seems to\nhave been very vain of his musical skill, as we see from the\npunishment he inflicted on Mar\u00b4syas, and King Midas for coming in\nconflict with him on that point.\n\n_Ques._ Relate these stories.\n\n_Ans._ Apollo was challenged by Mar\u00b4syas to a contest in music. The\ngod was not content with defeating the presumptuous musician, but\nflayed him alive, and afterwards changed him into a river, which is\nstill known by his name.\n\nThe punishment inflicted on King Midas was not so cruel. This prince\nhad the bad taste to declare his preference for the vulgar music of\nPan, in a contest which that god had with Apollo. The insulted deity\ncaused his ears to grow in length and shape like those of an ass.\nMidas endeavored to cover the deformity by his hair, and since it was\nimpossible to conceal it from his barber, he bound him to silence by\ngreat promises. This man, however, found it so painful to keep the\nsecret to himself, that to obtain relief, he dug a little hole in the\nground, and whispered it to the earth. What was his dismay at hearing\nthe hollow reeds which grew upon the spot, whispering, whenever the\nwind blew: \"King Midas has asses' ears!\"\n\n_Ques._ Is anything else related of King Midas?\n\n_Ans._ Yes; he had kindly and hospitably entertained Silenus, the\npreceptor of Bacchus, and in return, the god bade him choose any\nrecompense he pleased. Midas demanded that whatever he should touch\nmight be turned into gold. This prayer was granted, and he was at\nfirst overjoyed to see plants, stones and all around him transformed\ninto glittering metal. He soon perceived his folly, however, for when,\npressed by hunger, he tried to partake of the food placed before him,\nit was suddenly converted into gold, and when he would have quenched\nhis thirst, the water was changed into a golden stream. Famished in\nthe midst of plenty, Midas prayed the god to withdraw the fatal gift.\nBacchus kindly consented, and ordered him to bathe in the river\nPac\u00b4tolus. Midas obeyed, but the virtue which left his body was\ncommunicated to the waters of the stream, which was famous ever after\nfor its golden sands.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Ph\u00e6ton?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Phoebus and Clym\u00b4ene. At the earnest\nsolicitation of his mother, he repaired to the palace of the Sun for\nthe purpose of having his parentage publicly acknowledged. The youth\nwas kindly received, and Apollo swore by the Styx to grant him any\nfavor he should ask. Ph\u00e6ton immediately prayed that he might be\nallowed to drive, for one day only, the chariot of the Sun. Apollo\ntried to dissuade him from his foolish wish, but in vain. The rash\nyouth was not able to control the fiery horses of the Sun; they\ndeparted from their usual track, and heaven and earth were threatened\nwith one universal conflagration. Jupiter perceived the danger, and\nstruck Ph\u00e6ton with a thunderbolt. His body was hurled into the river\nPo, where it was found and buried by the nymphs of the place. As his\nsisters were weeping around his tomb, they were changed by Jupiter\ninto poplars.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Daphne?\n\n_Ans._ A nymph beloved by Apollo: she was changed into a laurel while\nshe was flying from the pursuit of the god.\n\n_Ques._ What things were especially sacred to Apollo?\n\n_Ans._ Among plants, the laurel; among animals, the wolf; and among\nbirds, the hawk, the crow, and the swan were sacred to this god.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\n\nMARS--ARES.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Mars?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, and was worshipped as the\ngod of war.\n\n_Ques._ How was he represented?\n\n_Ans._ As a warrior in splendid armor, standing in a chariot driven by\nBello\u00b4na, a distracted woman, who holds a torch in her hand. Mars is\nfierce in aspect and brandishes a spear. Sometimes Discord is\nrepresented going before him in tattered garments, while Anger and\nClamor follow in his train. Fear and Terror are the horses which draw\nthe chariot.\n\n_Ques._ What animals were sacred to Mars?\n\n_Ans._ The dog, on account of its sagacity in the pursuit of prey; the\nhorse, for its uses in war; the wolf, for its rapacity and cruelty;\nthe raven, because it follows armies, watching for the carcasses of\nthe slain; and the cock, as an emblem of the vigilance which guards\nagainst surprise.\n\n_Ques._ What other names had Mars?\n\n_Ans._ He was called Quiri\u00b4nus when he was quiet, Gradi\u00b4vus when he\nwas raging; therefore the Romans built him two temples, one to Mars\nQuiri\u00b4nus within the walls, that he might keep the city in peace; and\none without, to Mars Gradi\u00b4vus, that he might defend them against\ntheir enemies. Among the Romans, priests called Salii attended to the\nsacrifices of Mars, and on festival days went about the city dancing\nwith their shields. Their name comes from the Latin word \"to dance,\"\nand was considered appropriate, because Mars is inconstant in his\ntemper, and inclines now to this side, now to that, in time of war.\nExcept the story of his attachment to Venus, the poets relate but\nlittle of Mars.\n\nBellona, the goddess of war, was, according to some, the sister of\nMars. She is generally represented as above, but some poets have\ndescribed her as rushing through the ranks of war, waving a flaming\ntorch, and exciting the combatants by her cries. The temple of Bellona\nat Rome, was without the city, near the Carmental gate. Here the\nSenate gave audience to such ambassadors as they were not willing to\nadmit within the walls. A pillar stood before the temple, over which\nthe herald cast a spear when he proclaimed war. The priests of\nBellona, when officiating, held naked swords, with which they gashed\ntheir arms and shoulders, making libations of their own blood, to the\nterrible goddess.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\n\nMERCURY--HERMES.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Mercury?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Ma\u00b4ia, the daughter of Atlas. On\nhis mother's account, sacrifices were generally offered to him during\nthe month of May.\n\n_Ques._ How is Mercury represented?\n\n_Ans._ As a young man of cheerful countenance, having wings fixed to\nhis helmet and his sandals, and carrying a rod in his hand, which is\nalso winged, and entwined with serpents.\n\n_Ques._ How are these different equipments named?\n\n_Ans._ The rod was called Cadu\u00b4ceus, and possessed a wonderful faculty\nfor quieting all disputes. His helmet was called Pet\u00b4asus, and his\nwinged sandals Talaria.\n\n_Ques._ What were the offices of Mercury?\n\n_Ans._ They were various; his most important function was to carry the\ncommands of Jupiter. Mercury is commonly called the messenger of the\ngods. He also swept the room where the gods supped, and made their\nbeds.\n\n_Ques._ What else is said of Mercury?\n\n_Ans._ He was the inventor of letters, and excelled in eloquence. The\nGreeks worshipped him as the patron of orators, under the name of\nHermes. Mercury was also the inventor of weights and measures, and the\npatron of commerce.\n\n_Ques._ Were all his talents equally honorable?\n\n_Ans._ No; he was most skillful in the art of thieving. On the very\nday of his birth, he stole some cattle from King Admetus, although\nApollo was keeping them; and while that god was bending his bow\nagainst him, he contrived to steal his quiver. While yet an infant, he\nstole the tools of Vulcan, the girdle of Venus, and the sceptre of\nJupiter. He intended also to steal Jove's thunderbolts, but was\nfearful they would burn him. Mercury was, therefore, the patron of\nthieves.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the history of Io and Argus.\n\n_Ans._ Io, the daughter of In\u00b4achus, was beloved by Jupiter. He strove\nto hide her from the anger of Juno by transforming her into a cow. The\ngoddess suspected the deceit, and begged the beautiful heifer as a\ngift. Jupiter was afraid to refuse, and Juno consigned the unhappy Io\nto the guardianship of Argus. Escape seemed hopeless, as Argus had a\nhundred eyes, of which he closed only two in sleep, while the others\nwatched. Jupiter commanded Mercury to slay Argus and deliver Io. To\neffect this, it was necessary to set all his eyes to sleep. Mercury\ndisguised himself as a shepherd, entered into conversation with\nArgus, and at length played so sweetly on his pipe, that, one by one,\nthe keeper's hundred eyes were closed. The god then drew his falchion,\nand cut off the head of Argus with a single blow. Juno was grieved for\nher servant, and placed his eyes in her peacock's tail. Io, still\npersecuted by Juno, wandered over the earth, and at length arrived,\nfaint and weary, on the banks of the Nile. There she prayed Jupiter\neither to restore her to her original form, or to terminate her\nmisfortunes by death. Juno was touched with compassion, and allowed\nJupiter to grant her request. Io was restored to human form, and\nmarried to Osiris, king of Egypt; she was afterwards worshipped in\nthat country under the name of Isis.\n\nThe statues of Mercury were simply wooden posts, surmounted by a rude\nhead with a pointed beard. They were set up in the fields, and at all\ncross roads. The Greeks had pillars of stone, which they called Herm\u00e6,\nbut the head which surmounted them was not always that of Mercury.\nThese pillars were sometimes placed, by the Athenians, at the\nentrances of their houses as a protection against thieves. On one\noccasion, all the Herm\u00e6 in Athens were mutilated in the same night.\nAlcibiades was accused of this sacrilege, and was obliged to take\nrefuge in Cergos from the indignation of the people.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\n\nBACCHUS--DIONYSUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Bacchus?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Sem\u00b4ele and was worshipped as the\ngod of wine.\n\n_Ques._ How is he represented?\n\n_Ans._ As a young man, crowned with ivy and grape leaves; he sits in a\nchariot, drawn sometimes by panthers and lynxes, and sometimes by\ntigers and lions. He carries in his hand a thyrsus--that is, a staff\nencircled by ivy and grape leaves; a troop of demons and drunken\nsatyrs follow him.\n\n_Ques._ What was the story of Sem\u00b4ele?\n\n_Ans._ She was destroyed by the jealousy of Juno. This goddess visited\nSem\u00b4ele in the shape of an old woman, and persuaded her to ask Jupiter\nto visit her with all the glory which encompassed him in heaven. All\nhappened as Juno desired, and Sem\u00b4ele was consumed by the lightnings\nwhich surrounded Jupiter. Bacchus did not share his mother's fate, but\nwas conveyed to Naxos, where he was educated by some nymphs.\n\n_Ques._ How did Bacchus reward their care?\n\n_Ans._ He transformed them into the stars known as the Hyades.\n\n_Ques._ Who aided the nymphs in their care of Bacchus?\n\n_Ans._ An old man named Silenus. He was considered a demi-god.\n\n_Ques._ How is Silenus represented?\n\n_Ans._ He seems to be the personification of drunkenness; he is\nsometimes represented as seated intoxicated on a cask of wine, his\nhead crowned with grape leaves, and his face stained with the lees of\nwine; sometimes as mounted on an ass, and following the car of\nBacchus.\n\n_Ques._ What were the first exploits of Bacchus?\n\n_Ans._ He distinguished himself in the combats between the gods and\ngiants, taking the form of a lion to strike terror into the latter.\n\n_Ques._ What other actions are attributed to him?\n\n_Ans._ He taught men how to plant the vine and till the ground. He is\nsaid to have subdued India, and many other countries of the East.\n\n_Ques._ How was he worshipped?\n\n_Ans._ The goat and the hog were offered to him in sacrifice; and the\nivy, the fir, the bindweed, the fig and the vine were consecrated to\nhim.\n\n_Ques._ What feasts were held in his honor?\n\n_Ans._ The feasts of Bacchus were various. The Bacchanalia or Orgia\nwere the most celebrated. They were at first participated in by women\nonly but afterwards men were admitted to join in these rites. The\nwomen were called Bacchantes, and ran about with their hair\ndishevelled, shouting and singing in a distracted manner. The Roman\nSenate at length abolished this festival.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the story of Pentheus?\n\n_Ans._ Pentheus was king of Thebes. He not only refused to acknowledge\nthe divinity of Bacchus, but endeavored to prevent the celebration of\nhis orgies. Having presumed to intrude on the revels of the\nBacchantes, they were seized by a sort of madness, and rushing upon\nthe unhappy man, tore him to pieces. The mother of Pentheus, and her\nsisters, were the leaders in this act, which was considered to have\nbeen performed under a divine impulse.\n\n_Ques._ What was the punishment inflicted on Alcitho\u00b4e and her\nsisters?\n\n_Ans._ These were Theban maidens who ridiculed the orgies of Bacchus.\nDuring the celebration of these rites, they remained at home, plying\nthe distaff and the spindle, and singing over their tasks. For this,\nAlcitho\u00b4e and her sisters were transformed by the power of Bacchus\ninto bats; and the spindle and yarn with which they worked were\nchanged to ivy.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the transformation of mariners into dolphins?\n\n_Ans._ A ship touched at Chios for a supply of fresh water. The\nsailors who went on shore, found near the spring a boy of uncommon\ngrace and beauty. They bore him to the ship, still heavy with sleep\nand wine, and declared their intention of selling him at the next\nport. Acoe\u00b4tes, their captain, tried to dissuade them from the crime,\nthe more so, as he perceived that there was something more than mortal\nabout the captive youth. In the meantime Bacchus, for it was he,\nawaking from his slumber, begged the sailors to land him at Naxos.\nThis the captain promised, but when they had set sail, the mariners\ntook possession of the ship, and steered in another direction. The god\nnow revealed himself. The sails and cordage suddenly appeared hung\nwith grapes and ivy; spotted panthers lay at his feet, and when the\nterrified sailors tried to leap overboard, they were suddenly changed\ninto dolphins. The captain was spared, and landed with Bacchus on the\nshores of Chios.\n\n_Ques._ What is the origin of the history of Bacchus?\n\n_Ans._ He was probably some prince who taught the people to till the\nground, and cultivate the vine. They disgraced his memory in after\ntimes by the drunken revels they held in his honor.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nCelestial Goddesses.\n\n\nJUNO--HERA.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Juno?\n\n_Ans._ She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and was both sister and\nwife of Jupiter.\n\n_Ques._ How is she generally represented?\n\n_Ans._ As seated in a golden chariot drawn by peacocks. She holds a\nsceptre in her hand, and is crowned with roses and lilies. Iris was\nthe messenger of Juno, as Mercury was of Jupiter.\n\n_Ques._ How is Iris represented?\n\n_Ans._ With wings, because of her swiftness, and sometimes also as\nriding on a rainbow.\n\n_Ques._ How did Iris differ from Mercury?\n\n_Ans._ Mercury was often employed in messages of peace; but Iris was\nfrequently sent to promote strife and dissension.\n\n_Ques._ What children had Juno?\n\n_Ans._ Vulcan, Mars and Hebe. Hebe was called the goddess of youth, on\naccount of her extraordinary beauty, and Jupiter made her his\ncup-bearer. She offended him by an unlucky fall, and Ganymede was\nappointed in her place.\n\n_Ques._ What were Juno's faults?\n\n_Ans._ She was very jealous, and took the most cruel revenge on the\nmortal woman whom Jupiter loved. She transformed Callista and her son\nArcas into bears, and was extremely displeased when Jupiter placed\nthem among the constellations.\n\nThe goddess carried her complaint to Ocean\u00b4us, bidding him to observe,\nwhen the shades of night should darken the world, how her rival was\nexalted. The god of Ocean was moved, and promised Juno that he would\nnever receive either Callista or her offspring in his watery domain.\nHence it is, that the Greater and the Lesser Bear continually circle\naround the pole, and never sink, like the other stars, beneath the\nwaves of Ocean. In the fables of Bacchus and Hercules, Juno displays\nthe same character, extending to these heroes the enmity she bore\ntheir mortal mothers.\n\nJuno was chiefly honored at Argos, Samos and Plat\u00e6a. The victims\noffered to her were kine, ewe lambs, and sows. The cow was consecrated\nto her, and at Argos the priestess of Juno always rode in a chariot\ndrawn by oxen. The sacred plants of the goddess were, the willow,\npomegranate, the dittany and the lily. The peacock was chosen as the\nbird of Juno, because it was supposed by its cry to indicate a change\nof weather.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII.\n\n\nMINERVA--PALLAS ATHENA.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Minerva?\n\n_Ans._ She was the goddess of wisdom and of war. She had no mother,\nbut sprang full armed from the head of Jupiter.\n\n_Ques._ How is Minerva represented?\n\n_Ans._ As clothed in complete armor. She has a golden helmet on her\nhead, holds a lance in her right hand, and her left rests upon a\nshield to which is affixed the head of Medusa. The cock and the owl\nare also represented on the shield.\n\n_Ques._ Why was Minerva said to have sprung full armed from the head\nof Jupiter?\n\n_Ans._ The poets signify by this, that wisdom comes direct from the\ndeity.\n\n_Ques._ Why is Minerva sometimes crowned with olive?\n\n_Ans._ Because the olive is the emblem of peace, and war should only\nbe made that a secure peace may follow; also because she bestowed the\nolive on men.\n\n_Ques._ On what occasion did Minerva give the olive to men?\n\n_Ans._ When Cecrops built a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended\nabout its name; and it was resolved that whichever of the two deities\nshould confer the most useful gift on man, might give a name to the\ncity. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse\nappeared; but Minerva caused an olive to spring out of the earth. The\nlatter was judged the more useful gift; and Minerva named the city,\ncalling it Athe\u00b4na or Athens, after her own name in Greek.\n\n_Ques._ What was the Palladium?\n\n_Ans._ When the Trojans were building the temple and castle of Minerva\nin Troy, a statue of the goddess fell from heaven into the castle,\nwhich was still unroofed. The oracle of Apollo declared that Troy\nwould be safe so long as this statue, called Palladium, from Pallas, a\nname of Minerva, remained within the walls. When the Greeks besieged\nTroy, they found that all their efforts to take the city were of no\navail; they determined, therefore, to steal the Palladium. Ulysses and\nDiome\u00b4des crept into the city through the common sewers, and brought\naway the image. Troy was soon afterwards taken and destroyed. Minerva\nwas a virgin, and was the patroness of modest and virtuous women.\n\n_Ques._ Did Minerva excel only in the art of war?\n\n_Ans._ No; she invented the distaff and spindle, and excelled in\nevery branch of female industry. The fate of Arach\u00b4ne shows how much\nshe prized her reputation for skill in embroidery.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Arach\u00b4ne?\n\n_Ans._ She was a maiden of Lydia, who had the presumption to challenge\nMinerva to a trial of skill in weaving. The goddess wrought into her\nwork the most beautiful designs, but it would seem that Arach\u00b4ne's\nperformance surpassed hers: for Minerva, seeing it, was fired with\nenvy, and struck the unhappy maiden on the face with her shuttle.\nArach\u00b4ne could not endure this insult, and hung herself from a beam.\nMinerva immediately changed her into a spider, and permitted her to\nlive only that she might weave unceasingly.\n\n_Ques._ Why was the owl chosen as the bird of Minerva?\n\n_Ans._ Because this bird sees in the dark; and wisdom distinguishes\nwhat is hidden from common eyes.\n\n_Ques._ What is the story of Medu\u00b4sa's head?\n\n_Ans._ Medusa was one of three sisters, the daughters of Phorcus.\nThese maidens were called Gorgons, and were all immortal, except\nMedu\u00b4sa. The latter was at one period distinguished for her personal\nbeauty, and particularly for her flowing hair; but having offended\nMinerva, that goddess changed her locks into serpents, and rendered\nher appearance so frightful that all who beheld her were changed to\nstone. The hero Perseus undertook an expedition against the Gorgons,\nand as he saw the whole country around covered with figures of men and\nanimals changed into stone by the sight of the monster, he was obliged\nto use great precaution to avoid the same misfortune. He looked,\ntherefore, not at Medu\u00b4sa, but at her reflection in his polished\nshield, and when he perceived that she was asleep, Minerva guiding his\nsword, he struck off her head. Mercury had lent Perseus his wings, and\nas he flew over the Lybian desert bearing Medu\u00b4sa's head, the blood\nfell upon the burning sands, and produced the serpents which have ever\nsince infested that region. From the blood of Medu\u00b4sa, also, when her\nhead was cut off, sprang the famous winged horse called Peg\u00b4asus. This\nwonderful steed flew to Mount Helicon, the residence of the Muses,\nwhere, by striking the earth with his foot, he produced the fountain\nHippocre\u00b4ne. All who drank of its waters were inspired by the Muses\nwith a poetic spirit. Perseus went through many other adventures in\nwhich Medu\u00b4sa's head did him good service, by changing his enemies\ninto stone. He afterwards gave the head to Minerva, who fixed it on\nher shield.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX.\n\n\nVENUS--APHRODITE.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Venus?\n\n_Ans._ She was the goddess of love and beauty. She sprang from the\nfroth of the sea; for this reason the Greeks called her Aphrodi\u00b4te,\nfrom Aphros, meaning foam. As soon as she was born, she was placed\nlike a pearl in a shell instead of a cradle, and the god Zephyrus (the\nwest wind) wafted her to the shores of Cyprus.\n\n_Ques._ By whom was she educated?\n\n_Ans._ She was educated and adorned by the Hor\u00e6 or Hours, who carried\nher to heaven as soon she became of age. All the gods were astonished\nat the beauty of Venus, and many demanded her in marriage; but Jupiter\nbetrothed her to Vulcan, an ugly and deformed divinity.\n\n_Ques._ How is Venus represented?\n\n_Ans._ Sometimes as a young virgin rising from the sea, or riding on\nthe waves in a shell, while Cupids, Nereids and Dolphins are sporting\naround her--again, she is pictured as traversing the heavens in an\nivory chariot drawn by doves. She wears a wonderful girdle called the\nCestus, her doves are harnessed with golden chains, and Cupids flutter\naround her on silken wings. Venus is always crowned with roses.\n\n_Ques._ What was there remarkable in the Cestus of Venus?\n\n_Ans._ It had the property of conferring grace, beauty, and\nirresistible attractions on the wearer.\n\n_Ques._ Where had Venus temples?\n\n_Ans._ In many places. The most celebrated were at Paphos, Cytherea,\nIdalia and Cnidos.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the companions of Venus?\n\n_Ans._ The Graces were her attendants, and she was generally\naccompanied by her son Cupid, who was the god of love.\n\n_Ques._ How is Cupid represented?\n\n_Ans._ As a beautiful boy with wings, carrying a bow and arrows; he\nhas sometimes a band over his eyes to show that love is blind.\n\n_Ques._ What do you say of the festivals of Venus?\n\n_Ans._ They were various, and accompanied by much that was disgraceful\nand immoral. The swan, the dove, and the sparrow were sacred to this\ngoddess; and among plants, the rose, the myrtle and the apple.\nIncense, fruits and flowers were the ordinary sacrifices laid on her\naltars but birds were sometimes offered.\n\n_Ques._ What remarkable temple was raised to Venus in Rome?\n\n_Ans._ There was a temple dedicated to Venus Calva, or the Bald;\nbecause when the Gauls besieged Rome, the inhabitants made ropes for\ntheir military engines with the long hair of the Roman women.\n\n_Ques._ On what occasion was the prize of beauty adjudged to Venus?\n\n_Ans._ All the gods and goddesses had been invited to the marriage of\nPeleus and Thetis, Discordia, or Discord being the only one excluded.\nThis goddess was determined to revenge the slight; she entered\nsecretly, when all were assembled, and threw among them a golden apple\non which was written: \"For the fairest.\" A violent quarrel immediately\narose between the goddesses, for each believed herself to be the most\nbeautiful. Juno, Minerva, and Venus disputed so eagerly, that Jupiter\nhimself was not able to bring them to an agreement. He resolved,\ntherefore, to refer the matter to the decision of Paris, who was then\nfeeding his sheep on Mount Ida. This prince was the son of Priam, king\nof Troy. An oracle had foretold before his birth that he was destined\nto cause the destruction of his native city. He was, therefore,\nexposed on Mount Ida, where he was found and cared for by some\nshepherds. After he had grown up, he acquired a great reputation for\nthe prudence with which he settled the most difficult disputes; hence\nthe difference between the goddesses was referred to his decision.\nWhen they appeared before him, they began to court his favor with\npromises. Juno offered him great power; Minerva, wisdom; but Venus\npromised to give him for a wife the most beautiful woman in the world.\nParis then pronounced Venus the fairest. He was soon after\nacknowledged by his father, King Priam; and Venus fulfilled her\nengagement by aiding him to carry off Helen, the beautiful wife of\nMenela\u00b4us, king of Sparta. This gave rise to the total destruction of\nTroy; and the prediction of the oracle with regard to Paris was\naccomplished.\n\n_Ques._ What was the story of Hippo\u00b4menes and Atalanta?\n\n_Ans._ Atalanta was the daughter of King Coeneus, and was equally\nrenowned for her beauty and her swiftness in running. As an oracle had\ndeclared that marriage would be fatal to her, she freed herself from\nthe importunity of her suitors by a singular expedient. She caused it\nto be proclaimed that any one who sought her hand should contend with\nher in running, with the understanding that she would marry him who\nshould excel her in the race, but that those who were beaten should\nsuffer death. Hard as were these conditions, many suitors presented\nthemselves, but they were all unsuccessful, and were put to death\nwithout mercy. Hippo\u00b4menes determined to undertake the race, but\nfirst, he had recourse to Venus. This goddess gave him three golden\napples gathered in the garden of the Hesper\u00b4ides, and directed him as\nto their use. When Hippo\u00b4menes saw that Atalanta was going to\noutstrip him in the race, he threw down a golden apple; the princess\npaused to admire and take up the glittering fruit, while Hippo\u00b4menes\npassed on. A second and a third time did he try the same expedient,\nand with such success that he reached the goal and won his bride.\nHippo\u00b4menes was ungrateful to Venus, who revenged herself by changing\nhim into a lion, and the beautiful Atalanta into a lioness.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Adonis?\n\n_Ans._ He was a beautiful youth, the son of Cin\u00b4yras, king of Cyprus,\nand was beloved by Venus. He was killed by a wild boar, while hunting\nwith that goddess. Venus grieved much for her favorite. To commemorate\nhis cruel fate she caused the flower anemone to spring from his blood.\n\nAccording to the poets, the rose was formerly white. When Venus was\nhastening to the assistance of Adonis, her foot was wounded by a\nthorn, and some drops of blood fell upon that flower, which then\nassumed its present crimson hue.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Graces?\n\n_Ans._ They were inferior goddesses, who presided over the banquet,\nthe dance and all social enjoyments and elegant arts.\n\n_Ques._ How many were there?\n\n_Ans._ They were three in number. Their names were Euphro\u00b4syne,\nAgla\u00b4ia and Thalia. They are represented as beautiful young women,\nstanding in graceful attitudes with their hands joined.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER X.\n\n\nLATONA--LETO.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Latona?\n\n_Ans._ She was the daughter of Phoebe and Coeus the Titan. When she\nwas driven from heaven by the jealousy of Juno, she found an asylum in\nthe island of Delos, where she gave birth to Apollo and Diana. Terra\n(the earth) had promised Juno to give no shelter to her rival, but the\nisland of Delos formerly floated in the sea, and was at that time\nhidden under the waters. Neptune, pitying the forlorn state of Latona,\ncaused it to emerge from the sea, when it became fixed and immovable\nfor her use.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the transformation of Lycian peasants into frogs.\n\n_Ans._ Latona, while wandering with her babes in the country of Lycia,\nin Asia, arrived, exhausted by heat and fatigue, on the borders of a\nclear pool. She was about to quench her thirst in the cool waters,\nwhen some clowns rudely hindered her. She begged them to have\ncompassion, and not deny her so small a refreshment; but they mocked\nher prayers, and when she tried to approach they waded into the pool,\nand, stirring up the mud, defiled the waters so that it became unfit\nto drink. The goddess was so much incensed, that she changed the cruel\nrustics into frogs, and condemned them to dwell forever in the muddy\npool.\n\nThe punishment of Niobe will be related in another place. The\nsufferings of the giant Tityus in hell, were also the penalty of an\ninsult offered to this goddess.\n\nThe Greeks personified Night, under the name of Latona; hence she was\nsaid to have been the first wife of Jupiter, the mother of Apollo and\nDiana, (the sun and moon) and the nurse of the earth and stars. The\nEgyptians had the same allegory, with a little variation, as,\naccording to them, she was grandmother and nurse of Horus and\nBu\u00b4bastis, their Apollo and Diana.\n\nThis goddess is generally represented on ancient monuments, as a large\nand beautiful woman, wearing a veil. In paintings, the veil is always\nblack; in cutting gems, artists sometimes availed themselves of a dark\ncolored vein in the stone, to produce the same effect, and represent\nthe shades of night. The veil is sometimes studded with stars.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XI.\n\n\nAURORA--EOS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Aurora?\n\n_Ans._ She was the goddess of the morning and sister of the sun and\nmoon. She is represented as seated in a golden chariot drawn by\nmilk-white horses; her countenance is brilliant, and her fingers are\nred like roses.\n\n_Ques._ What did this represent?\n\n_Ans._ The beauty of the morning heavens.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the story of Ceph\u00b4alus and Procris.\n\n_Ans._ Ceph\u00b4alus, a beautiful youth, was beloved by Aurora, who\ncarried him with her to heaven; but he regarded the goddess with\nindifference, and insisted on returning to his young wife Procris.\nAurora allowed him to depart, but prevailed on him to visit his house\nin disguise, that he might judge of the constancy of his bride.\nCeph\u00b4alus found his wife lamenting his absence and refusing all\nconsolation, but when she discovered her husband in the supposed\nstranger, she was so indignant at his suspicion that she fled from him\nand joined the attendants of Diana. She was afterwards reconciled to\nCeph\u00b4alus, and gave him two presents which she had received from\nDiana. These were, a dog that was always sure of its prey, and an\narrow which never missed its aim, and returned immediately to the hand\nof the owner. Ceph\u00b4alus was extremely fond of hunting, and when\nfatigued, he often rested in the shade and invited the presence of\n\"Aura,\" or the refreshing breeze. This word was mistaken for the name\nof a nymph by some persons who carried the tale to Procris. Being\njealous in her turn, she determined to watch, and discover her rival.\nWhen Ceph\u00b4alus returned from hunting, Procris concealed herself in the\ngrove; she started upon hearing the name Aura, and caused a rustling\namong the leaves. Ceph\u00b4alus immediately threw his unerring dart, which\nreturned to his hand stained with the blood of his beloved wife. He\nhastened to the spot, but it was too late, and Procris expired in his\narms, acknowledging she had fallen a victim to her own groundless\njealousy.\n\n_Ques._ To whom was Aurora married?\n\n_Ans._ She chose for her husband Titho\u00b4nus, the son of Laom\u00b4edon, king\nof Troy. This prince was endowed with wonderful beauty; but when\nAurora begged of Jove that he might be exempted from death, she forgot\nto ask at the same time for the bloom of immortal youth. When\nTitho\u00b4nus became old and decrepit, Aurora still watched over him with\nthe tenderest care, \"giving him ambrosial food and fair garments.\"\nWhen Titho\u00b4nus could no longer move his aged limbs, and his feeble\nvoice was scarcely heard, the goddess was moved with compassion, and\nchanged him into a grasshopper.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Memnon?\n\n_Ans._ He was king of the Ethiopians, and son of Titho\u00b4nus and Aurora.\nWhen Troy was besieged, Memnon came with an army to aid the kindred of\nhis father. In the first engagements he slew Antil\u00b4ochus, the son of\nNestor, and threw the whole army of the Greeks into disorder.\nAchil\u00b4les, however, appeared on the field, and changed the fortune of\nthe day. The Trojans were routed in their turn, and Memnon fell by the\nhand of the Grecian hero. Aurora watched the combat from the heavens,\nand when she saw Memnon fall she directed the winds to convey his body\nto the banks of the river \u00c6se\u00b4pus in Paphlagonia. Here they raised his\ntomb in a sacred grove, and his obsequies were celebrated with solemn\npomp. The sparks, as they rose from the funeral pyre, were changed\ninto birds, which divided into two flocks, and fought together until\nthey fell into the flames and were consumed. According to the poets,\nAurora was never consoled for the loss of her son; she mourns\nunceasingly, and the drops which sparkle in the morning on the grass\nand flowers are the tears which the goddess continues to shed during\nthe long hours of night. Ancient history mentions many persons of the\nname of Memnon, particularly a general who distinguished himself in\nPersia against Alexander the Great. The Memnon of fable was in all\nprobability an Egyptian, and not an Ethiopian king. His statue is\nstill an object of curiosity to travellers.\n\n_Ques._ Where is this statue, and for what is it remarkable?\n\n_Ans._ It is one of two colossal figures which are directly opposite\nthe great temple of Luxor. They are called by the Arabs, Shama and\nDama. The statue of Memnon is the more northerly of the two, and was\nformerly celebrated for its vocal powers.\n\nIt is commonly asserted by ancient writers that when the first rays of\nthe rising sun fell upon this statue, it acknowledged the presence of\nAurora, and uttered a sound like the sudden breaking of a harp-string.\nBy some, it was compared to a blow struck on hollow brass.\n\n_Ques._ Was there any foundation for such a belief?\n\n_Ans._ It appeared quite certain that the sounds of which we have\nspoken, were really heard from this statue at sunrise; the only\nquestion is as to the means by which they were produced. The Colossus,\nalthough in a sitting posture, measures fifty-two feet in height, and\nthe throne on which it rests is thirty feet long and eighteen broad.\nThese dimensions were sufficient to admit of any internal machinery\nthat might be required to produce the mysterious sounds. Such was the\nsupposition of the Persian king Cambyses, who had the statue cleft\nasunder from the head to the middle of the body, but without\ndiscovering anything. Humboldt conjectured that the sound might be\nattributed to the nature of the stone, or to the action of the sun's\nrays upon the air confined in the cavities of the statue. A much more\nreasonable solution of the mystery has been furnished by Mr.\nWilkinson, an intelligent English traveller. He discovered in the lap\nof the statue a stone, which, on being struck, emits a metallic sound.\nThere is a hollow space hewn in the block behind this stone,\nsufficiently large to admit of a person lying within it, entirely\nconcealed from observation. Mr. Wilkinson tried the experiment, and\nwas convinced that he had discovered the secret of this famous statue.\n\nThe face of the Memnon, like that of the Sphinx, has been mutilated by\nthe Arabs; the positions of the figures which are yet uninjured show\nthat the whole must have presented a beautiful and imposing\nappearance. The base of the throne is covered with ancient\ninscriptions in Greek and Latin, commemorating the visits of different\nillustrious persons, and testifying that they had heard the mysterious\nvoice of Memnon.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XII.\n\nTerrestrial Gods.\n\n\nSATURN.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Saturn?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Coelum and Terra. He was married to Ops, or\nRhea, and was the father of Jupiter, Neptune and Pluto. As we have\nalready learned, Saturn devoured the rest of his male children.\n\n_Ques._ How is he represented?\n\n_Ans._ Saturn is represented as an old man armed with a scythe, which\nsignifies that time mows down everything in its course; and he holds\nin his hands an infant which he is about to devour, because time\ndestroys all that it brings forth.\n\n_Ques._ How did Saturn lose his kingdom?\n\n_Ans._ He was deposed by Jupiter, and was obliged to take refuge in\nItaly, where he taught the people the arts of civilized life. Janus,\nking of Italy, made Saturn partner of his kingdom, and that part of\nthe country was called Latium, from a Latin word which meant to hide;\nit was sometimes also called Saturnia. Saturn's government was so\nwise and beneficial that his reign was called the Golden Age. The\npoets tell us that all men then lived on a perfect equality, property\nwas held in common, and the earth brought forth its fruits without\nlabor.\n\n_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered to Saturn?\n\n_Ans._ He was worshipped with human sacrifices, which seems strange\nwhen we consider that he was so mild a king. The planet Saturn was\nsupposed by the ancients to exercise a malignant influence.\n\n_Ques._ What were the Saturnalia?\n\n_Ans._ They were solemnities instituted by Tullus Hostilius, king of\nRome. In early times the festival lasted one day, but after Julius\nC\u00e6sar, it was prolonged to three, four, or five days.\n\n_Ques._ How were these days observed?\n\n_Ans._ They were a season of general rejoicing; the Senate did not\nsit, schools gave holidays, and friends sent presents to one another.\nIt was unlawful to proclaim war or execute criminals during this\nfestival. Servants might, at this time, say what they pleased to their\nmasters, who could not take offence; also, in memory of the freedom\nand equality enjoyed in Saturn's reign, they sat at table while their\nmasters served, and reproved the latter freely if they were guilty of\nany awkwardness. Lastly, servants and common people were allowed to\nwear purple cloaks, a distinction reserved at other times to the\npatricians. The Saturnalia is probably represented in some degree by\nthe modern Carnival. Saturn is thought by some persons to have been\nthe same as Noah.\n\n\nJANUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Janus?\n\n_Ans._ He was an ancient Italian deity, of whose origin very\ncontradictory accounts are given. He was supposed to have reigned in\nItaly in the time of Saturn, and to have associated that god with him\nin the kingdom. He was generally represented with two faces, and was\ncalled hence, Janus Bifrons. He had many temples in Rome. The gates of\nthe chief temple, that of Janus Quiri\u00b4nus, were always open in time of\nwar, and closed when the Romans were at peace. It is a remarkable\ncircumstance that the gates of Janus were closed but three times in\nseven hundred years. They were shut for the first time in the reign of\nNuma; again, after the first Punic war; and Augustus closed the temple\nthe third time when he had given peace to the world. This occurred\njust before the coming of our Lord. The first month of the year is\nnamed from Janus.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIII.\n\n\nVULCAN--HAPH\u00c6STUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Vulcan?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter and Juno, but was cast down from\nheaven on account of his deformed appearance. He landed in Lemnos, but\nbroke his leg in the fall, and remained lame ever afterwards.\n\n_Ques._ How was Vulcan represented?\n\n_Ans._ As a smith standing by an anvil with tools in his hand.\n\n_Ques._ What was his occupation?\n\n_Ans._ He had a blacksmith shop in Lemnos, where he manufactured\nJupiter's thunderbolts, and the arms of the other gods. Vulcan was the\ngod of fire, and the patron of blacksmiths and armorers.\n\n_Ques._ What were the most celebrated works of Vulcan?\n\n_Ans._ The armor of Achil\u00b4les and of \u00c6ne\u00b4as, the beautiful necklace of\nHermi\u00b4one, the crown of Ariadne, and the brazen palace of the sun. The\nshield of Achil\u00b4les was enamelled with metals of various colors, and\nembossed with beautiful historical designs.\n\n_Ques._ To whom was Vulcan married?\n\n_Ans._ Vulcan was married to Venus, but that goddess behaved\ntreacherously towards him and attached herself to Mars.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the servants of Vulcan?\n\n_Ans._ The attendants of Vulcan were called Cyclops, because they had\neach one eye in the middle of the forehead; they were the offspring of\nNeptune and Amphitri\u00b4te.\n\n_Ques._ How was Vulcan worshipped?\n\n_Ans._ The Romans celebrated feasts in his honor called Vulcania. At\nthese they sacrificed animals by throwing them into the fire to be\nburned to death. The Athenians also kept feasts of Vulcan, and there\nwas in Sicily, upon Mount Etna, a famous temple dedicated to him.\n\n_Ques._ What was peculiar about this temple?\n\n_Ans._ The approach to it was guarded by dogs, whose scent was so keen\nthat they could discover whether the persons coming to the temple were\nvirtuous or wicked. To the servants of Vulcan might be added Cacus,\nwho stole the oxen of Hercules; and the robber C\u00e6\u00b4culus, from whom the\nnoble Roman family of the C\u00e6cilii derived their name. He was the\nfounder of the city of Pr\u00e6neste. One fable is, that certain shepherds\nfound C\u00e6\u00b4culus, when an infant, lying unhurt in a glowing fire, from\nwhich circumstance he was supposed to be the son of Vulcan. The\nshepherd, Polyphemus, resembled the Cyclops, and was, like them, a\nson of Neptune. The monster devoured several of the companions of\nUlysses, but the hero, having made him drunk with wine, put out his\nsingle eye with a firebrand and escaped. He embarked in haste, pursued\nby the monster; his companions shouted defiance as they weighed\nanchor, and the blind Cyclops, directed by the sound of their voices,\nhurled a rock into the sea, by which their vessel was almost swamped.\nWarned by this danger, they rowed silently until they reached the open\nsea. Some writers have imagined that the Cyclops were a race of\nminers, who, descending into the deep recesses of the earth, and\ncoming forth again, had a lamp attached to their foreheads, to give\nthem light. This, at a distance, would appear like a large, flaming\neye, and might give rise to the fable of one-eyed monsters. This\nexplanation is, however, far fetched and improbable.\n\n_Ques._ Can you name any works of Vulcan, beside those already\nmentioned?\n\n_Ans._ Yes, he made for Alcino\u00fbs, king of the Ph\u00e6acians, gold and\nsilver dogs which guarded his house. To Minos, king of Crete, he gave\nthe brazen man Talus, who passed around the island three times every\nday, to guard it from invasion. For himself, Vulcan formed golden\nhandmaidens, whom he endowed with reason and speech.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIV.\n\n\n\u00c6OLUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was \u00c6\u00b4olus?\n\n_Ans._ He was the god of the winds; he could imprison them in a dark\ncave, or, by setting them free, create tempests.\n\n_Ques._ What was the origin of this fable?\n\n_Ans._ It is believed that \u00c6\u00b4olus was a skillful astronomer who dwelt\nin a volcanic island. By noticing the clouds of smoke, and how they\nrose, he was enabled to foretell storms a long time before they\nhappened; hence the ignorant believed that he could bring high winds\nand tempests whenever he pleased.\n\n\nMOMUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Momus?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Night and Sleep; the name Momus signifies a\njester. His occupation was to criticise the other gods, and censure\ntheir actions.\n\n_Ques._ Give an example?\n\n_Ans._ Neptune, Vulcan, and Minerva contended for the prize of skill;\nNeptune made a bull, Minerva a house, and Vulcan a man. Momus was\ncalled upon to decide their merits, but he blamed them all. He said\nthat Neptune was imprudent in not placing the bull's horns in his\nforehead, before his eyes, that he might give a stronger and surer\nblow. He found fault with Minerva's house, because it was immovable\nand could not be carried away if it were placed among bad neighbors.\nHe said that Vulcan was the worst of all, because he did not put a\nwindow in the man's breast so that his thoughts might be seen. No god\ncould escape the censure of Momus. When he could find nothing to\ncriticise in the person of Venus, he complained of the noise made by\nher golden sandals. Momus was at length driven from Olympus.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XV.\n\nTerrestrial Goddesses.\n\n\nVESTA--HESTIA.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Vesta?\n\n_Ans._ She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops or Rhea, and was,\ntherefore, the sister of Jupiter. She was considered the guardian of\nhomes and firesides, and was a household divinity. Statues of Vesta\nwere placed by the Romans at the entrance of their houses; hence the\nword vestibule, which we still use.\n\n_Ques._ How is Vesta usually represented?\n\n_Ans._ As seated on the ground, and leaning upon a drum, while various\ndomestic animals are grouped about her.\n\n_Ques._ What was the character of this goddess?\n\n_Ans._ She was esteemed very holy, and was the patroness of household\nvirtues. When Jupiter asked her to choose whatever gift she would,\nVesta desired that she might remain always a virgin, and receive the\nfirst oblations in all sacrifices. Fire was the emblem of this\ngoddess, and in her temple, at Rome, a sacred fire was suspended in\nthe air, and watched by the Vestal Virgins. If this fire chanced to be\nextinguished, all public and private business was suspended until the\naccident had been expiated.\n\n_Ques._ What laws existed with regard to the Vestal Virgins?\n\n_Ans._ The penalties for neglect of their duties were severe. If the\nsacred fire was extinguished through their negligence, they were\nsometimes cruelly punished, and if any Virgin infringed the rule which\nforbade her to marry, she was buried alive; being shut up in a vault\nunderground, with a lamp, and a little bread, wine, water and oil. The\nsacred fire of Vesta was watched by these priestesses for nearly\neleven centuries. We are told that during this period, twenty Vestals\nwere condemned to death. Of these, seven were permitted to take their\nown lives, thirteen suffered the terrible punishment we have\ndescribed. The last execution of this kind took place in the reign of\nthe emperor Domitian.\n\n_Ques._ What were the privileges of the Vestal Virgins?\n\n_Ans._ In recompense for these severe laws, the Vestals were treated\nwith extraordinary respect. They had the most honorable seats at games\nand festivals, and even the consuls and magistrates gave them\nprecedence; their testimony was taken in trials without any form of\noath, and if they happened to meet a criminal going to execution, he\nwas immediately pardoned. Public documents of great importance were\ngenerally entrusted to their care.\n\nA striking instance of the respect felt for these Virgins, is related\nby a Roman historian. Appius Claudius Audax, a consul who had rendered\nhimself obnoxious to the people, was attacked in the midst of a\ntriumphal procession by the plebeian tribunes, who endeavored to pull\nhim from his chariot. His daughter, who was a Vestal Virgin, ascended\nthe triumphal car, and took her place by her father's side. The tumult\nimmediately subsided, and the procession proceeded quietly to the\ncapital.\n\n_Ques._ How many Vestal Virgins were there?\n\n_Ans._ The number has been variously stated. Some authors mention six,\nothers seven, as the number actually in office. They were chosen\nbetween the ages of six and ten; for ten years they were employed in\nlearning their duty; they remained in office for ten, and ten other\nyears were employed in instructing the novices. If there were seven\nVestals always in office, the entire number must have been twenty-one.\nThe thirty years being ended, the Vestals returned to their families.\nThe law then permitted them to marry, but it was considered\ndiscreditable to do so.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVI.\n\n\nCYBELE.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Cyb\u00b4ele?\n\n_Ans._ This goddess, sometimes called by the Greeks, Rhea, and by the\nLatins, Ops, is considered to be a personification of the earth. She\nis goddess, not of cities only, but of all things which the earth\ncontains. She was the daughter of Coelum, and the wife of Saturn.\n\n_Ques._ How was Cyb\u00b4ele represented?\n\n_Ans._ Generally as riding in a chariot, drawn by lions. She wears a\nturreted crown, and is clothed in a many-colored mantle, on which are\nrepresented the figures of various animals. In her right hand she\nholds a sceptre, and in her left, a key. This last emblem seems to\nsignify that the earth locks up her treasures in the winter season.\nCyb\u00b4ele is always represented with the dignified and matronly air\nwhich distinguishes Juno and Ceres.\n\n_Ques._ How was she worshipped?\n\n_Ans._ Sacrifices were first offered to this goddess in Phrygia and\nLydia. Her temples were generally built on the summits of mountains;\nthat on Mount Dindymus near Pessi\u00b4nus, in Galatia, was particularly\ncelebrated. Her statue in this temple was simply a large aerolite\nwhich had fallen in the vicinity, and was regarded by the people as\nthe heaven-sent image of their great goddess. At the close of the\nsecond Punic war, the Romans, directed, it is said, by the Sibylline\nbooks, sent an embassy to Attalus, king of Pergamus, requesting that\nhe would permit the so-called image to be removed to Rome. The monarch\nconsented, and the sacred stone was carried in triumph to the Italian\ncapital. There it was placed in a stately temple built for the\npurpose, and a solemn festival, called Megalesia, was celebrated\nannually, in honor of Cyb\u00b4ele. During these solemnities, priests\ncalled Galli and Corybantes ran about like madmen, with cries and\nhowlings, making, at the same time, a terrific noise with the clashing\nof cymbals, the sound of pipes and other instruments. In their frenzy,\nthey cut their flesh with knives, and performed many other\nextravagances, but the people regarded them with reverence, as they\nwere believed, while in this state, to possess the gift of prophecy.\n\nThe divinity worshipped by the Roman women under the name of Bona Dea,\nor Good Goddess, is believed to be the same as Cyb\u00b4ele.\n\nAncient writers relate an extraordinary incident connected with the\narrival of the image of Cyb\u00b4ele in Rome. The ship which bore the\nsacred stone was stranded on a shoal in the Tiber. Claudia, a Vestal\nVirgin who was suspected of having violated her vow, attached her\ngirdle to the prow, and drew the ship safely into port. Her innocence\nwas established by this prodigy.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVII.\n\n\nCERES--DEMETER.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Ceres?\n\n_Ans._ She was the daughter of Saturn and Ops, and was worshipped as\nthe goddess of fruits and corn. It is supposed that she first invented\nand taught the art of tilling the earth, and sowing wheat and other\ngrains, so that men ate wholesome bread, where before they had lived\non roots and acorns.\n\n_Ques._ How is Ceres represented?\n\n_Ans._ As a beautiful and majestic woman, with golden hair, and\ncrowned with ears of wheat; in her right hand she holds poppies and\nears of corn, and in her left, a flaming torch.\n\n_Ques._ Explain these emblems.\n\n_Ans._ The hair of Ceres is golden, to represent the color of ripe\ncorn; she holds a lighted torch, because when her daughter Proser\u00b4pine\nwas stolen by Pluto, Ceres kindled a torch from the flames of Mount\nEtna, to light her on her search throughout the world. She holds a\npoppy, because when she was so grieved that she could neither rest\nnor sleep, Jupiter gave her a poppy to eat.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the story of Proser\u00b4pine (Perse\u00b4phone).\n\n_Ans._ None of the goddesses were willing to marry Pluto, or share his\ngloomy kingdom. He determined, nevertheless, to obtain a wife, even if\nhe had to do so by violence. Proser\u00b4pine, the daughter of Jupiter and\nCeres, was gathering daffodils with her companions in the plains of\nEnna, when Pluto suddenly appeared among them in a chariot drawn by\nblack horses. As the maidens fled in terror, he seized Proser\u00b4pine,\nand striking the waters of the fountain Cy\u00b4ane with his trident, he\nopened a passage, through which he descended with his prize. Ceres,\nignorant of what had occurred, wandered through the world in search of\nher daughter. At length, arriving at the fountain of Cy\u00b4ane, she\nperceived the girdle of Proser\u00b4pine still floating on its waters; and\nthe nymph Arethusa informed her of what had taken place. Ceres\nrepaired immediately to Olympus, where she made her complaint to\nJupiter, and demanded that Pluto should restore her daughter. Jupiter\npromised to grant her request, in case Proser\u00b4pine should not have\ntasted food in the infernal regions. Ceres descended thither, and\nProser\u00b4pine prepared joyfully to accompany her mother, when\nAscal\u00b4aphus reported that he had seen her eat some seeds of\npomegranate. The hopes of Ceres were thus destroyed, but Proser\u00b4pine\nwas so indignant at the treachery of Ascal\u00b4aphus, that she changed\nhim immediately into an owl. Jupiter endeavored to appease the\nresentment of Ceres by permitting Proser\u00b4pine to divide the year,\nspending six months with her mother on earth, the other six with Pluto\nin the infernal regions.\n\n_Ques._ What were the most famous solemnities instituted in honor of\nCeres?\n\n_Ans._ The Eleusian or Eleusinian Mysteries. They were named from\nEleusis, a town in Greece where they were celebrated.\n\n_Ques._ What rites were practiced during these mysteries?\n\n_Ans._ We cannot tell with any certainty. The penalty of death was\ndecreed against any one who should betray the secret, or even witness\nthe ceremonies without having been regularly initiated. Disclosures\nwere made, however, which seem to prove that the person to be\ninitiated was first introduced into a dark subterranean cave, where he\nwas terrified with the most fearful sights and sounds. After this, if\nhis courage did not fail, he was suddenly introduced into a lovely\ngarden, and the ceremonies concluded with feasting and dancing.\n\n_Ques._ Who were admitted to these rites?\n\n_Ans._ Athenians only; but Hercules, to whom no one dared refuse\nanything, was initiated, and after him, other distinguished foreigners\nwere admitted to what were called the Lesser Mysteries. The Athenians\nwere eager to be admitted to these rites, because they believed that\nthe souls of those who had not been initiated were left to wallow in\nmud and filth in the lower regions.\n\n_Ques._ What do the early Christian writers say of these mysteries?\n\n_Ans._ They speak of them as being almost as immoral as the festivals\nheld in honor of Bacchus.\n\n_Ques._ Who is said to have instituted them?\n\n_Ans._ Triptol\u00b4emus, the foster-child of Ceres.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the story of Triptol\u00b4emus.\n\n_Ans._ When Ceres was seeking Proser\u00b4pine by sea and land, she was\nkindly entertained by Celeus, king of Eleusis, in Attica. She rewarded\nhis hospitality by taking care of his young son, whom she nourished\nduring the day with celestial food; but in the night, she covered him\nwith fire. Under this extraordinary treatment, the infant, in a few\ndays, became a beautiful young man. His mother, Meganira, wondered at\nthis, and resolved to discover the cause. She watched Ceres at night,\nand when she saw her covering Triptol\u00b4emus with living coals, she\ncried out in terror, and rushed into the room to save him. Ceres\npunished her curiosity with death, but she adopted Triptol\u00b4emus, and\nsent him through the world to teach mankind the use of corn. He\nexecuted the commands of Ceres, and wherever he went, instructed men\nin sowing, reaping, and other arts of husbandry. Triptol\u00b4emus is\nusually represented as a young man, seated in a splendid chariot\ndrawn by flying serpents.\n\n_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered to Ceres?\n\n_Ans._ Young heifers, swine and ears of corn, wine, milk and honey\nwere used in the libations.\n\n_Ques._ What were the Ambarvalia?\n\n_Ans._ They were feasts kept in the beginning of harvest, preparatory\nto reaping. The animal to be offered in sacrifice, was led around the\nfields, the husbandmen and country rustics following with shouts and\nsongs. Virgil says of these festivities:\n\n    Let ev'ry swain adore her power divine,\n    And milk and honey mix with sparkling wine;\n    Let all the choir of clowns attend this show,\n    In long procession, shouting as they go;\n    Invoking her to bless their yearly stores,\n    Inviting plenty to their crowded floors.\n    Thus in the spring, and thus in summer's heat,\n    Before the sickles touch the rip'ning wheat,\n    On Ceres call; and let the lab'ring hind\n    With oaken wreaths his hollow temples bind;\n    On Ceres let him call, and Ceres praise,\n    With uncouth dances, and with country-lays.\n\n                                       GEORG. I.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVIII.\n\n\nTHEMIS--ASTR\u00c6A--NEMESIS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Themis?\n\n_Ans._ She instructed both gods and men, and was generally considered\nthe goddess of law and justice. Her origin is uncertain; but she is\nsaid to have been a Titaness.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Astr\u00e6\u00b4a?\n\n_Ans._ She was also goddess of justice; according to some, she was the\ndaughter of Jupiter and Themis. When the Titans took up arms against\nJupiter, Astr\u00e6\u00b4a descended to earth, and mingled with the human race.\nThis intercourse was uninterrupted during the Golden Age; in the\nSilver Age, Astr\u00e6\u00b4a dwelt in the mountains, and descended only amid\nthe shades of evening, when she was unseen by men. When the Brazen Age\ncommenced, she fled altogether from the human race, being the last\namong the Immortals to abandon the earth. Jupiter then changed her\ninto the constellation Virgo, one of the signs of the zodiac. This\nconstellation is represented by the figure of a woman holding scales\nin one hand, and a sword in the other. The scales have been variously\nexplained, but they are generally supposed to be an emblem of justice.\nAccording to some, Erigo\u00b4ne, a maiden who hung herself in despair, at\nthe death of her father, was changed into the constellation Virgo.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Nem\u00b4esis?\n\n_Ans._ She was the daughter of Night, and the goddess of just\nvengeance. It was her office to follow and punish guilty men. She had\nwings, but generally went on foot, which signifies that the punishment\nof crime, although sure, is generally slow. An ancient poet says:\n\n    \"Vengeance divine to punish sin moves slow;\n    The slower is its pace, the surer is its blow.\"\n\n_Ques._ What do you say of the temple of Nem\u00b4esis at Rhamnus?\n\n_Ans._ This temple was but a short distance from the plain of\nMarathon. The Persians had brought with them a great block of Parian\nmarble for the trophy which they intended to erect in honor of their\nexpected victory. This marble fell into the hands of the Athenians,\nand a sculptor, said by some to have been Phidias, afterwards carved\nfrom it a beautiful statue of Nem\u00b4esis, which was placed in the temple\nof Rhamnus. A fragment was found in the ruins of this edifice, which\nis supposed to be the head of this statue; and has been presented as\nsuch to the British Museum.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIX.\n\n\nTHE MUSES.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Muses?\n\n_Ans._ They were the daughters of Jupiter and Mnemo\u00b4syne, and were\nsupposed to preside over the liberal arts and sciences.\n\n_Ques._ How many Muses were there?\n\n_Ans._ They were nine in number, and each presided over some\nparticular department of literature, art or science. Their names were:\n\nCalli\u00b4ope, who was the Muse of epic poetry, she holds in her hand a\nroll of parchment, or a trumpet.\n\nClio presided over history. She holds a half opened scroll.\n\nMelpo\u00b4mene was the Muse of tragedy. She leans on a club, and holds a\ntragic mask.\n\nEuter\u00b4pe was the patroness of music. She holds two flutes.\n\nEr\u00b4ato inspired those who wrote of love. She plays on a nine-stringed\nlyre.\n\nTerpsich\u00b4ore presided over choral dance and song. She appears dancing,\nand holds a seven-stringed lyre.\n\nUra\u00b4nia, the Muse of astronomy, holds a globe, and traces\nmathematical figures with a wand.\n\nThalia, the Muse of comedy, holds in one hand a comic mask, in the\nother a crooked staff.\n\nPolyhym\u00b4nia presided over eloquence. She holds her fore-finger to her\nlips, or carries a scroll.\n\nThe Muses are sometimes represented as crowned with palms, and seated\nin the shade of an arbor, playing upon different instruments; or\nagain, as dancing in a circle with joined hands, while Apollo is\nseated in their midst.\n\n_Ques._ How have some writers accounted for the number of Muses?\n\n_Ans._ They say that in ancient times there were but three Muses. The\ncitizens of Sicyon employed three sculptors to execute statues of\nthese goddesses, promising to choose from among the nine images, those\nwhich they should consider the most beautiful. When the statues were\nfinished, they were found to be so skillfully wrought, that it was\nimpossible to make a choice. They were all placed in the temple, and\nthe poet Hesiod afterwards assigned them names and attributes.\n\n_Ques._ What punishment did the Muses inflict on the nine daughters of\nPierus, king of \u00c6mathia?\n\n_Ans._ These maidens challenged the Muses to a contest in music; they\nwere defeated and transformed into magpies by the indignant goddesses.\nTham\u00b4yris, a musician of Thrace, was struck blind for the same\noffence.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XX.\n\nGods of the Woods, and Rural Deities.\n\n\nPAN.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Pan?\n\n_Ans._ He was a woodland deity, and was honored by the Romans as the\ngod of shepherds and the patron of fishing and fowling. The Latins\nsometimes called him Incubus or the \"Nightmare,\" and at Rome he was\nworshipped as Lupercus, or Lynceus. His origin is uncertain, but he is\nsaid by some authors to have been a son of Mercury and a nymph of\nArcadia.\n\n_Ques._ How is Pan represented?\n\n_Ans._ As half man, and half goat, having a human head ornamented with\nhorns, and a garland of pine: he holds in one hand a crooked staff,\nand in the other a pipe of uneven reeds. The music which he made on\nthis rude instrument was so sweet as to cheer the gods.\n\n_Ques._ What famous action is related of Pan?\n\n_Ans._ When the Gauls, under their King Brennus, made an irruption\ninto Greece, and were about to plunder the temple of Apollo at Delphi,\nPan suddenly showed himself, and so terrified them that they fled in\ndisorder. Hence it comes that any sudden and unreasonable terror which\nspreads through an assemblage of persons, particularly an army, is\ncalled a panic.\n\n_Ques._ What was the origin of Pan's reeds?\n\n_Ans._ A beautiful nymph, named Syrinx, was so persecuted by this god,\nthat she prayed the water-nymphs to help her, and change her into\nreeds, which they did. Pan saw the transformation, and was much\ngrieved. He took some of the reeds away for a remembrance. On applying\nthem to his lips, he found they produced the most melodious sounds, so\nthat he formed them into a rustic pipe. Milk and honey were offered to\nPan.\n\n\nSATYRS AND FAUNS.\n\n_Ques._ Who were these?\n\n_Ans._ They were hideous monsters who dwelt in forests, and were, like\nPan, half man and half goat.\n\n\nTERMINUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Terminus?\n\n_Ans._ He was the god of boundaries. His statue was only a square\nstone, or a painted log of wood. It is probable that the Romans did\nnot suppose Terminus to be a person, but only used the name as another\nterm for justice, which forbids any one to trespass on another's\nboundaries.\n\nLandmarks and boundary stones were considered sacred by the Romans;\nthey were crowned with garlands on festivals, offerings were laid upon\nthem, and it was death for any one to remove one. When Constantine\nembraced Christianity, and placed the cross on his standard, he\nreplaced these Terminal stones by the Christian emblem, and the custom\nof erecting wayside crosses, which became afterwards almost universal,\nis said to date from this epoch.\n\nTerminus had a temple on the Tarpeian rock. It is said that when\nTarquin the Proud wished to build a temple to Jupiter on the spot, the\ngod of boundaries refused to give way.\n\n\nVERTUMNUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was this deity?\n\n_Ans._ He is generally reckoned as one of the rural divinities, and\nwas worshipped as such by the ancient Sabines. The name comes from the\nLatin word verto, (to turn or change,) and was bestowed upon him in\nallusion to his power of taking any form he pleased. Vertumnus\npresided over the seasons; he was the husband of Pomona. Statues of\nthis god were erected in every town of Italy. His festival called\nVertumnalia, was kept in October.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXI.\n\nGoddesses of the Woods.\n\n\nDIANA.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Diana?\n\n_Ans._ She was the daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and the twin-sister\nof Apollo. This goddess had three names. On earth she was called\nDiana, and was honored as the goddess of woods and hunting; in heaven\nshe was called Luna, and was identified with the moon, as her brother\nApollo was with the sun. In hell, she was called Hec\u00b4ate, and as\nspirits were supposed to be subject to her, she was invoked under the\nlatter name in all magical incantations.\n\n_Ques._ What were the habits of Diana?\n\n_Ans._ She shunned the society of men, and frequented the woods,\nattended by a train of virgins who had resolved, like her, never to\nmarry.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the attendants of Diana?\n\n_Ans._ Sometimes the Ocean\u00b4ides or daughters of Ocean\u00b4us; sometimes\nthe woodland nymphs. Diana often led a chorus of the Muses and Graces,\nand joined them in singing the praises of her mother Latona.\n\n_Ques._ How is Diana represented?\n\n_Ans._ As a very stately and beautiful woman, dressed in the garb of a\nhuntress; she holds a bow in her hand, and a quiver of arrows is hung\nacross her shoulders. Her feet are covered with buskins, and a bright\nsilver crescent glitters on her forehead. Sometimes she is represented\nas seated in a silver chariot drawn by hounds.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Chi\u00b4one?\n\n_Ans._ She was a nymph beloved by Apollo. She spoke scornfully of the\nbeauty of Diana, and the goddess, in revenge, pierced her tongue with\nan arrow.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the story of Ni\u00b4obe.\n\n_Ans._ She was the daughter of Tan\u00b4talus, and the wife of Amphi\u00b4on,\nking of Thebes. She was enriched with all the gifts of nature and\nfortune, and being made insolent by prosperity, she insulted Latona,\nand refused to offer incense at her shrine. Ni\u00b4obe had seven beautiful\nsons, and as many lovely daughters, and had boasted of their number as\nrendering her superior to Latona. The indignant goddess called upon\nApollo and Diana to revenge the insult offered to their mother, and\nhumble the haughty Ni\u00b4obe. This they effected by slaying, in one day,\nall the children of the unhappy queen. Her sons expired by the arrows\nof Apollo, and her daughters by those of Diana. Amphi\u00b4on killed\nhimself in despair, and the wretched Ni\u00b4obe, widowed and childless,\nwept without ceasing until the pitying gods changed her into stone.\nThis story has furnished the subject of a very beautiful group of\nstatuary, in which Ni\u00b4obe is represented as vainly endeavoring to\nshelter, beneath her mantle, the youngest and last of her children.\n\n_Ques._ Where was the most celebrated temple of Diana?\n\n_Ans._ At Ephesus in Asia Minor; it was so beautiful that it was\ncounted among the seven wonders of the world. Two hundred and twenty\nyears were spent in the building, although an incredible number of\nworkmen were employed. The entire length of the temple was 425 feet,\nand the breadth 220; the whole was supported by 127 superb columns,\neach the gift of a king. The statue of the goddess was of ebony, and\nthe most skillful painters and sculptors were employed in the\ndecorations of the edifice.\n\nA man named Erostratus, who was anxious to make himself famous, by\nwhatever means, set fire to this magnificent building. This event took\nplace on the very day on which Alexander the Great was born.\n\nThe temple was but partially destroyed, and was soon afterwards\nrestored to its former splendor. The inhabitants of Ephesus seem to\nhave been particularly attached to the worship of Diana. We read in\nthe Acts of the Apostles that when they began to make converts in that\ncity, the people were very indignant; in their zeal for their goddess\nthey ran about the streets for the space of about two hours, crying,\n\"Great is Diana of the Ephesians!\"\n\nThis temple was despoiled by Nero, who removed many costly offerings\nand images, together with a large quantity of silver and gold. It was\nafterwards plundered by the Goths in the reign of Gallienus; and the\nmaterials of the building have been since used in the construction of\nother edifices. The great dome of Santa Sophia, in Constantinople,\nrests upon pillars of green jasper which were removed from the temple\nof Diana by order of Justinian.\n\nTwo pillars of the great church of Pisa were also taken from this\ntemple, which has been so completely destroyed that the exact site is\nnot known.\n\n\nNYMPHS.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Nymphs?\n\n_Ans._ They were graceful young women who attended on Diana and the\ngreater goddesses. Some, also, had charge of certain fountains and\nrivers, and were called Na\u00b4iades; the nymphs of Ocean were Nere\u00b4ides\nand Ocean\u00b4ides. The Ore\u00b4ades were mountain nymphs, and others presided\nover groves and even single trees.\n\n_Ques._ What were the woodland nymphs called?\n\n_Ans._ Those who watched over the forests, and always lived among the\ntrees, were called Dry\u00b4ades, from a Greek word which means an oak; the\nHamadry\u00b4ades were so called because they were attached, each to some\nparticular oak. The Hamadryad was born with the tree, flourished and\ndied with it. This belief lingered for a long time amid the German\nforests, as also the superstition about water spirits.\n\n_Ques._ What was the story of Arethusa?\n\n_Ans._ This nymph was the daughter of Ocean\u00b4us, and an attendant of\nDiana. She was admired by the god of the river Alphe\u00b4us, but refused\nto listen to his addresses. As she fled from his presence, he pursued.\nThe terrified nymph had sped through all Arcadia; the shades of\nevening were gathering, and Alphe\u00b4us pressed close upon her fainting\nsteps. In this extremity, Arethusa prayed to Diana for relief, and was\nimmediately dissolved into a fountain. Alphe\u00b4us resumed his watery\nform, and sought to mingle his current with hers, but Diana opened for\nher a passage under the sea, and she rose in the island of Ortygia, in\nSicily, still followed by the stream of the Alphe\u00b4us. In proof of this\nfable, and of the Grecian origin of this famous fount, it was asserted\nthat a cup which fell into the river Alphe\u00b4us in Greece, rose in the\nfountain of Arethusa, and that its clear waters were reddened with the\nblood of the victims slain at the Olympic games.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Echo?\n\n_Ans._ Echo was a nymph, the daughter of Air and Tellus; she was one\nof Juno's attendants, but offended that goddess by her talkativeness.\nShe was so far deprived of speech, that she could only repeat the\nlast words of every sentence which she heard. Echo loved the youth\nNarcissus, and seeing that he despised her affection, she pined away\ntill nothing remained of her but her voice and bones. The latter were\nchanged into stones, but the voice is still heard among rocks and in\nsolitary places, repeating always the last words that are spoken.\n\n_Ques._ What was the fate of Narcissus?\n\n_Ans._ One legend is that he saw his image reflected in a fountain,\nand, not perceiving that it was but his own shadow, gazed at it, lost\nin admiration, until he was changed into the flower that bears his\nname. According to another version, Narcissus had a twin-sister who\nresembled him closely in form and feature, and was his constant\ncompanion. This sister died young, and Narcissus, deeply lamenting her\ndeath, used to go to a neighboring fountain, and try to recall the\nimage of his sister by gazing at his own reflection in the waters.\n\n_Ques._ Were there many rural divinities?\n\n_Ans._ Yes, a great number; but only a few were well known. Among\nthose we may mention Pomona, the goddess of orchards, and Flora, the\ngoddess of flowers. Pales was the goddess of shepherds and pastures.\nThe Romans celebrated feasts, called Pallia, in her honor. They\noffered milk, and cakes of millet, that she might drive away the\nwolves, and prevent diseases among the cattle.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXII.\n\nGods of the Sea.\n\n\nNEPTUNE--POSEIDON.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Neptune?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Saturn and Ops, and was worshipped as the god\nof the sea, and the father of rivers and fountains.\n\n_Ques._ How is he represented?\n\n_Ans._ As standing upright in a chariot made of a sea-shell; for a\nsceptre, he holds a trident, that is, a fork with three barbed tines;\nhe is arrayed in a blue mantle, and is generally accompanied by his\nqueen Amphitri\u00b4te. Neptune's chariot is drawn by sea-horses, and his\nattendants, who swim on either side, are human only to the waist, the\nbody terminating like that of a fish. Whenever Neptune's chariot moved\nupon the waters, the sea grew calm, and tempests were appeased.\n\n_Ques._ What were the offices of Neptune?\n\n_Ans._ He conducted ships safely to port, and presided over\nhorse-races.\n\n_Ques._ Why was he supposed to preside over horses?\n\n_Ans._ In memory of his contest with Minerva, when he produced a\nhorse by striking on the ground with his trident. Neptune was obliged\nby Jupiter to aid Apollo in building the walls of Troy.\n\n_Ques._ How was Neptune worshipped?\n\n_Ans._ Neptune had an altar in the Circus at Rome where sacrifices\nwere offered, and plays were acted, representing the carrying off of\nthe Sabine women. The solemn games in honor of this god were called\nConsualia, and were celebrated in the month of March. While these\nlasted, horses were released from work, and mules were adorned with\ngarlands.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the most remarkable of Neptune's children?\n\n_Ans._ Triton, and Phorcus or Proteus.\n\n_Ques._ What is told of Phorcus?\n\n_Ans._ He was vanquished by Atlas, and drowned in the sea; after which\nthe people worshipped him as a god. There was another Phorcus who had\nthree daughters, concerning whom a remarkable circumstance is related.\nThe sisters had but one eye for their common use; each one wore it in\nturn, in the middle of her forehead. They were the guardians of the\nGorgons, of whom Medusa was one. The hero Perseus, when about to\nattack Medusa, visited them, and, watching his opportunity, while one\nof the sisters was handing the eye to the other, he snatched it from\nher, and left all three in darkness.\n\n_Ques._ For what was Proteus remarkable?\n\n_Ans._ For his power of transforming himself instantaneously into any\nshape he wished.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Triton?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Neptune and Amphitri\u00b4te, and was his father's\ncompanion and trumpeter. The upper half of his body was like that of a\nman, but below the waist he resembled a fish; his tail was cleft and\ncrooked, and his hair resembled wild parsley.\n\n_Ques._ What other sea-monsters were celebrated?\n\n_Ans._ The Sirens, also Scylla, and Charybdis.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Sirens?\n\n_Ans._ They were monsters who had the faces of women, but the bodies\nof flying-fish; they dwelt near the promontory of Peloris, or in\nislands called Sirenus\u00e6, south of Italy. By the magical sweetness of\ntheir singing, they allured all who sailed by those coasts; and after\nthey had lulled them into a trance, drowned them in the sea.\n\n_Ques._ What was there remarkable in the songs of the Sirens?\n\n_Ans._ They blended the notes of different musical instruments with\ntheir voices, and adapted the style and matter of their songs to the\ninclination of their hearers. They had bold and stirring strains to\nentice the ambitious, softer melodies for the lovers of pleasure, and\nwith still different notes, they drew on the covetous to their\ndestruction.\n\n_Ques._ Did any escape who passed those coasts?\n\n_Ans._ History mentions only two; Ulys\u00b4ses and Or\u00b4pheus. The first was\nwarned against the danger by the enchantress Circe; he therefore\nstopped the ears of his companions with wax, and had himself firmly\nbound to the mast of the ship, by which means he passed the fatal\ncoasts in safety. Or\u00b4pheus overcame them in their own art; for he sang\nthe praises of the gods, accompanying himself upon his lyre, and made\nsuch divine melody that the music of the Sirens attracted no\nattention. The Fates had decreed that the Sirens should live until\nsome one who passed by, had listened to their songs unmoved. When they\nsaw themselves overcome by Or\u00b4pheus, they knew that their hour had\ncome, and flung themselves headlong into the sea, where they were\ntransformed into rocks.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Circe?\n\n_Ans._ She was a skillful enchantress. Having poisoned her husband,\nthe king of the Sarmatians, she was obliged to fly into Italy, where\nshe fixed her dwelling on the promontory Circ\u00e6um. She presented to all\ntravellers an enchanted cup; and after they had drunk, transformed\nthem into wolves, swine or other animals. Ulys\u00b4ses escaped by throwing\nan herb into the cup, which rendered it powerless; he then rushed upon\nthe sorceress with his sword, and forced her to restore his companions\nwhom she had transformed. After this, Circe entertained Ulys\u00b4ses in a\nfriendly manner.\n\n_Ques._ What did the poets endeavor to teach by the fables of the\nSirens' song, and the cup of Circe?\n\n_Ans._ They wished to signify by the singing of the Sirens, the\nallurements of vice, and the dangers of listening to its seductions;\nby the story of Circe, they showed that when men drink of the cup of\nsensual pleasure, they become soon degraded to the level of the\nbeasts.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Scylla?\n\n_Ans._ The fable relates that she was the daughter of Phorcus, and\nthat she was transformed by the jealousy of Circe, into a frightful\nmonster. Scylla was so much grieved by this transformation, that she\ncast herself into the sea, where she was changed into a rock, made\nfamous by the many shipwrecks that occurred upon it. Over against this\nrock is the whirlpool of Charybdis, about which the poets relate a\nsimilar fable. They say that Charybdis was a very ravenous woman, who\nstole Hercules's oxen. For this theft, Jupiter struck her dead with a\nthunderbolt, and changed her into the whirlpool which bears her name.\nThe ancients placed Scylla and Charybdis in the straits of Messina. It\nwas considered a great feat to steer successfully between them.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Melicertes?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Athamas, king of Thebes, and of Ino, the\ndaughter of Cadmus and Hermi\u00b4one. Ino offended Juno, and the goddess,\nin revenge, deprived Athamas of reason. The king, in his frenzy, took\nthe queen and her children for wild beasts, and pursued them through\nthe palace. He killed his son Learchus by dashing him against a wall,\nbut Ino escaped, and threw herself into the sea with Melicertes in her\narms. At the intercession of Venus, Neptune endowed them both with\nimmortality. Ino became a sea-goddess under the name of Leucothea,\nwhile Melicertes was worshipped as Pal\u00e6mon. He was supposed to have\npower in saving vessels from shipwreck, and was, therefore, invoked by\nmariners. The Romans called him Portunus, and honored him as the god\nof shores and harbors.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Thetis?\n\n_Ans._ She was a sea-goddess, the daughter of Nereus and Doris, and\nsister of the Nere\u00b4ides. She was endowed with such beauty that Jupiter\nhimself sought her in marriage; but Prometheus, the Titan, prophesied\nthat Thetis would give birth to a son who should be greater than his\nfather. Jupiter thereupon desisted from his suit, and Thetis was\nbetrothed to Peleus, king of Thessaly. Their marriage was celebrated\nwith much pomp, all the deities of Olympus honoring the nuptial rites\nwith their presence. Achilles, the son of Thetis, fulfilled the\nTitan's prophecy by his heroic exploits.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXIII.\n\nInfernal Deities.\n\n\nPLUTO--HADES.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Pluto?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Saturn and Ops, and the brother of Jupiter\nand Neptune. In the division of his father's kingdom, the infernal\nregions were allotted to him, and he is therefore called the king of\nHell.\n\n_Ques._ How is Pluto represented?\n\n_Ans._ He is seated on a throne in the midst of clouds and darkness;\nhe wears a crown of ebony, and holds a key in his hand instead of a\nsceptre.\n\n_Ques._ What does the key signify?\n\n_Ans._ It seems to imply, that when once the dead are received into\nPluto's kingdom, the gates are locked upon them and there is no\nescape.\n\n_Ques._ What does Pluto's name signify?\n\n_Ans._ The Greek name Pluto, and the Latin word Dis, signify wealth,\nbecause this god is supposed to control the hidden treasures of the\nearth. The thunder that happens in the night time is attributed to\nPluto, and he is often styled the Infernal Jupiter.\n\n_Ques._ Was Pluto the same as Plutus?\n\n_Ans._ No; Plutus was the god of riches, and was supposed to be the\nson of Jason and Ceres. He is described as being blind and lame,\ninjudicious, and timorous.\n\n_Ques._ What does this mean?\n\n_Ans._ Plutus is blind and injudicious, because he passes over the\nvirtuous to heap riches on the wicked; he is lame because riches come\nslowly, and timorous, because the rich watch their treasures with\ngreat fear and anxiety.\n\n_Ques._ To whom was Pluto married?\n\n_Ans._ As we have learned before, Pluto was married to Proser\u00b4pine,\ndaughter of Ceres.\n\n\nHELL.\n\n_Ques._ How was Hell described?\n\n_Ans._ The entrance to the infernal regions was by a wide, dark cave,\nthrough which the departed souls were obliged to pass; they next came\nto a gloomy grove, and a black lake, called Avernus; this was overhung\nwith such poisonous vapors that no birds could fly over it. The\nferryman, Charon, was always waiting on the shore to carry the dead to\nthe other side of the lake. The ghosts of those who had not been\nburied with funeral rites, were obliged to wander for a hundred years\nby the gloomy waters of Avernus, before Charon could carry them to the\nother side. This superstition made the ancients very careful about\nburying their dead.\n\n_Ques._ What do you say of the rivers of Hell?\n\n_Ans._ The Styx was the most remarkable. When any of the gods swore by\nthe Styx, the oath was sacred; if any deity was guilty of breaking\nsuch an oath, he was deprived of nectar, and excluded from the table\nof the gods for a year and nine days. Lethe was also a river of Hell;\nthe name means oblivion; it is so called, because when the dead drank\nof its waters, they forgot all that had passed upon this earth.\n\n_Ques._ What monster kept the gate of Pluto's palace?\n\n_Ans._ Cer\u00b4berus; a three-headed dog, whose body was clothed with\nsnakes instead of hair.\n\n\nFATES--FURIES.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Fates?\n\n_Ans._ They were three sisters, the daughters of Chaos, who were\nappointed to watch over the thread of human life. Their names were,\nClotho, Lach\u00b4esis and At\u00b4ropos; Clotho drew the thread between her\nfingers; Lach\u00b4esis turned the wheel, and, at the appointed moment,\nAt\u00b4ropos cut the thread with her scissors.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Furies?\n\n_Ans._ They were three sisters, Alec\u00b4to, Tisi\u00b4phone, and Meg\u00e6\u00b4ra. They\nare called by the poets the Daughters of Night; their office was to\ntorment the wicked during life and after death.\n\n_Ques._ How were they represented?\n\n_Ans._ As hideous women with terrible countenances; they had twining\nserpents instead of hair, and carried snaky whips and lighted torches\nin their hands. They were often called by the Greeks Eumen\u00b4ides.\n\n_Ques._ Of what were the Furies an emblem?\n\n_Ans._ Of the evil passions of men, and the remorse which torments the\nwicked. When the ancients said of a man, that the Furies had taken up\ntheir abode with him, they meant that the remembrance of his crimes\ndid not leave him any repose.\n\n\nJUDGES OF THE DEAD.\n\nPunishments inflicted on the Condemned.\n\n_Ques._ Besides Pluto, who were appointed judges of the dead?\n\n_Ans._ Minos, Rhadamanthus and \u00c6\u00b4acus. These were princes, who\ngoverned so justly during life, that the fate of the dead was\nentrusted to them.\n\n_Ques._ What offices were assigned to each?\n\n_Ans._ Rhadamanthus judged the Asiatics, \u00c6\u00b4acus the Europeans; and\nwhen a very difficult case arose it was referred to Minos.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the most famous among the condemned?\n\n_Ans._ The giants whom Jupiter conquered. Typhon was the most\nenormous; when he was overthrown, Jupiter was obliged to lay the\nwhole Island of Sicily upon him to keep him down. Briareus was\nanother giant, remarkable for having fifty heads and a hundred hands.\nAccording to the ancient poets, he is imprisoned under Mount Etna, and\nwhenever he tries to move he causes terrible eruptions of the volcano.\nTityus was still more cruelly punished. He was chained to the ground\nin the infernal regions, and such was his stature, that he covered\nnine acres. A frightful vulture fed continually upon his liver, which\ngrew as fast as it was consumed, that his punishment might be eternal.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Ixion?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Phlegyas, or, according to some, of Mars. He\nboasted falsely that he had gained the affections of Juno. For this\ninsolence Jupiter cast him down into hell, where he was fastened to a\nwheel which revolved continually.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Sis\u00b4yphus?\n\n_Ans._ He was a famous robber who was slain by Theseus. In hell, he\nwas obliged to roll a huge stone up a steep mountain. When it touched\nthe top it rolled down again, so that he was tormented with unceasing\ntoil.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Tan\u00b4talus?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter. He invited the gods to a feast, at\nwhich he served up the flesh of his son Pelops to try their divinity.\nIn hell he is tormented by continual hunger and thirst. He stands up\nto his lips in a cool fountain, whose waters recede whenever he\nattempts to drink. Branches laden with tempting fruit hang over him,\nbut they are carried out of reach by a sudden gust of wind whenever he\nattempts to pluck them.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Beli\u00b4des?\n\n_Ans._ They were fifty maidens, daughters of Dan\u00b4aus and\ngrand-daughter of King Belus, from whom they are called. They all\nmurdered their husbands on the wedding night, for which crime they are\nobliged to draw water from a deep well until they have filled an\nimmense sieve. Their labor is therefore perpetual.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Salmo\u00b4neus?\n\n_Ans._ Salmo\u00b4neus was king of Elis, and was cast into hell for\nimitating Jupiter's thunder.\n\n_Ques._ What became of the souls of good men?\n\n_Ans._ After being purified from whatever slight offences they had\ncommitted in life, they were conducted to a place abounding in\ndelights, called Elysium. When they had passed many ages in this\nblissful abode they returned to earth, but before doing so, they drank\nof the river Lethe, that they might forget the happiness they had\nenjoyed.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXIV.\n\n\nFABULOUS MONSTERS.\n\n_Ques._ Were there any fabulous monsters besides those of Hell?\n\n_Ans._ Yes, many; the Centaurs, who were half man and half horse; also\nGeryon, who was king of the three Balearic Islands, now known as\nIvica, Minorca and Majorca. For this reason, he was said to have three\nheads and three bodies, and passed into fable as a monster. He was\nprobably a wicked and cruel prince. There were also the Harpies, which\nhad the faces of women and the bodies of birds.\n\n_Ques._ What was the Chim\u00e6ra?\n\n_Ans._ A fabulous monster, which vomited fire. It had the head and\nbreast of a lion, the body of a goat, and the tail of a dragon.\n\n_Ques._ What was intended by this fable?\n\n_Ans._ Poets thus described a volcano in Lycia, on the summit of which\nwere lions; in the middle was pasture-land frequented by goats; and\nthe lowest part was infested by serpents. Bellerophon made this\nmountain inhabitable, and was therefore said to have killed the\nChim\u00e6ra. At present anything which is quite imaginary is called a\nChim\u00e6ra.\n\n_Ques._ What was the Sphinx?\n\n_Ans._ It was a monster with the head and shoulders of a woman, the\nwings of a bird, and the paws of a lion. She infested the country\nabout Thebes, so that the people, in their distress, went to consult\nthe oracle of Apollo. An answer was given that no remedy could be\nfound until some one should solve the riddle that the Sphinx had\nproposed, and which she had learned from the Muses. The question was\nthis: \"What animal is that which goes on four feet in the morning, on\ntwo at noon, and on three in the evening?\" The Thebans often met to\ntry their skill, and when they had failed, the Sphinx carried off and\ndevoured one of their number. At length H\u00e6mon, son of Creon, was\ndestroyed by the monster, and the king made a public proclamation,\nthat he would give the throne, with the hand of his sister Jocasta, to\nthat man who should solve the riddle. Oedipus, who was then at Thebes,\ncame forward and answered the Sphinx, that the animal was Man, because\nwhen an infant he creeps on all fours; in manhood, he walks on two\nfeet, and when old uses a staff as a third foot. Upon hearing this\nanswer, the Sphinx dashed her head against a rock, and expired.\n\n_Ques._ Why is the story of the Sphinx interesting?\n\n_Ans._ Because there still remains in Egypt an enormous statue of the\nmonster, carved in solid rock. Formerly, little was visible save the\nhead and neck, but the sand which has been gathering around it for so\nmany centuries, is now cleared away. The body is one hundred and\ntwenty-five feet long; and the fore-paws extend about fifty feet more.\nThe face has been much disfigured by the arrows and lances of the\nArabs, who are taught by their religion to hold all images of men or\nanimals in detestation.\n\n_Ques._ What was the Phoenix?\n\n_Ans._ A fabulous bird of which there never existed more than one at\nthe same time. It excelled all other birds in beauty of plumage, and\nfed only on frankincense and sweet gums. When the Phoenix had attained\nthe age of five hundred years, it built a funeral pile of odorous\nwood, on which it was consumed. A new Phoenix also immediately arose\nfrom the flames. The first care of the young bird was to collect the\nashes of its parent, which it carried, enclosed in myrrh, to the\ntemple of the Sun in Egypt.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXV.\n\nHousehold Divinities.\n\n\nPENATES--LARES.\n\n_Ques._ What were the Pena\u00b4tes?\n\n_Ans._ This name was given to a certain class of household deities,\nwhich were worshipped by the Romans in the penetralia, or innermost\npart of their dwellings. The greater Pena\u00b4tes governed kingdoms and\nprovinces; others presided over cities; and the lesser Pena\u00b4tes\nwatched over particular houses and families.\n\n_Ques._ What were the Lares?\n\n_Ans._ They were, according to some, the children of Mercury and the\nnymph Lara; they were domestic gods, and presided over houses, streets\nand roads. They warded off danger from without, while the Pena\u00b4tes\nwatched over the interior of the dwelling. The spirits of ancestors\nsometimes watched as Lares, over the fortunes of families. This idea\nof the spirits of the deceased watching over their descendants, made\nthe Romans wish to bury the dead within, or very near their dwellings.\nThis custom was condemned by the laws of the Twelve Tables. Besides\nthe spirit which watched over the family, each individual was supposed\nto have his Lar, or familiar genius, who watched over him from his\nbirth. In early times, children were sacrificed to the goddess Mania,\nwho was supposed by some to be the mother of the Lares. After the\nexpulsion of the Tarquins, Junius Brutus abolished this barbarous\nrite, and substituted little balls of wool, and heads of garlic and\npoppy, in place of the human heads which had been formerly offered.\nThe ordinary altar of the Lares was the domestic hearth; hogs, sheep\nand steers were among the sacrifices offered to these divinities, but\nthe first fruits of the season were always laid upon the hearth. No\nfamily repast was properly begun, unless some portion of the viands\nhad been first cast into the fire; in the more solemn form of\nmarriage, the bride always threw a piece of money on the hearth, to\nthe Lares of her family, and another on the cross roads, that they\nmight grant her free passage to her husband's house. The Roman boy, on\nattaining the age of fifteen, put off his childish dress, and\nconsecrated the golden bulla, which he had worn around his neck from\ninfancy, to the domestic Lares.\n\nThe soldier whose term of service had expired dedicated his arms to\nthese powerful genii; while captives, and slaves restored to freedom,\nhung up their fetters, in token of gratitude, by the altar of the\nLares.\n\n_Ques._ How were the Lares represented?\n\n_Ans._ Variously; sometimes as children, sometimes as young warriors,\nbut always accompanied by a dog.\n\n\nVirtues Worshipped by the Ancients. Vices.\n\n_Ques._ What Virtues were particularly honored as divinities?\n\n_Ans._ The ancients not only worshipped the different Virtues, but the\nabstract idea of virtue itself was personified as a goddess. The\nRomans dedicated two temples, one to this divinity, and another,\nadjoining, to Honor. As the temple of Honor could only be reached by\npassing through that dedicated to Virtue, the votaries were reminded\nthat it was by walking in her paths, that true honor was to be\nattained.\n\n_Ques._ What were the emblems of Truth?\n\n_Ans._ She was generally represented as a beautiful and modest virgin,\nwith garments as white as snow. She was the daughter of Time, or\nSaturn, because Time always brings truth to light.\n\nFides, or Fidelity, had a temple near the Capitol, which was said to\nhave been founded by Numa Pompilius. The symbols of this goddess were,\na white dog, two hands joined, or sometimes two maidens with joined\nhands.\n\n_Ques._ What were the emblems of Peace?\n\n_Ans._ Pax, or Peace, was represented as a matron holding ears of\ncorn, and crowned with olives and laurel. Her particular symbol was a\ncaduceus, a white staff anciently borne by ambassadors when sent to\ntreat of peace. A magnificent temple was dedicated to this goddess in\nthe Roman Forum.\n\nJustice was worshipped by the Egyptians, Greeks and Romans. Her\nemblems have been described in the article on the goddess Astr\u00e6a.\n\nHope had a temple at Rome in the herb market. It was destroyed by\nlightning.\n\nMisericordia, or Mercy, had an altar at Athens This was a public\nsanctuary for the unfortunate, and it was unlawful to take any one\nfrom it by force. This altar is said to have been erected by the\nkindred of Hercules, after the death of that hero.\n\nPudicitia, or Modesty, had two temples, much frequented by the Roman\nmatrons. The second of these was founded under peculiar circumstances.\n\nVirginia, the daughter of Aulus, a patrician of high rank, married\ninto a plebeian family. The noble ladies of Rome were so indignant at\nthis alliance, that they would not permit her to enter the temple of\nPudicitia, nor to offer sacrifice with them. She desired to repair\nthis public affront by some memorable action. For this purpose, she\nbuilt, in the Via Longa, a temple similar to that from which she had\nbeen expelled, and dedicated it likewise to Pudicitia. Virginia then\nassembled the plebeian matrons, and exhorted them to honor this Virtue\nin such a manner, that however the patrician ladies should surpass\nthem in power or rank, they might still excel in modest behavior and\npurity of life. The two temples were from that time distinguished as\nPudicitia Patricia, and Pudicitia Plebeia.\n\n_Ques._ Was Fortune honored as a goddess?\n\n_Ans._ Yes, the ancients worshipped under this name, a certain unseen\npower which was supposed to exercise a supreme dominion over human\naffairs. Fortune had many splendid temples in Italy. Servius Tullius\ndedicated two at Rome; one to Bona Fortuna, the other to Fors Fortuna.\nThis capricious goddess was sometimes represented with her eyes\nbandaged, her feet winged, and her right hand resting on a wheel. In\nthe temple of Fortune at Thebes, the goddess held Wealth, represented\nas an infant, in her arms.\n\nThe goddess Salus, or Health, was much honored by the Romans. In\nancient times, certain days in the year were set apart for her\nworship. Her emblems were a bowl and a serpent.\n\nLiberty was honored as a divinity. Her emblem was the peculiar cap\nwith which we are familiar from the representations on our own coins.\n\n_Ques._ Were not the Vices also honored by the ancients?\n\n_Ans._ It is certain that both the Greeks and Romans erected temples\nand altars to certain vices, but it does not appear that their\nintention was to do them honor. In some instances, they strove to\npropitiate the powers of evil, that they might abstain from doing them\nharm. When they built a temple at Rome to Febris, or Fever, they\nundoubtedly wished to appease the demon or malignant deity who was\nsupposed to send this calamity. The same superstition has been\nremarked among the modern Hindoos, who are said to have dedicated\ntemples to thunder and lightning, earthquake, pestilence, etc. The\nVices were always represented in such a manner as to excite\nabhorrence. We have an instance of this in the altar erected to\nCalumny at Athens.\n\nApelles drew an allegorical picture, in which the odious features of\nthis Vice were strikingly portrayed. A man sits in a listening\nattitude, beckoning Calumny to approach. Two counsellors, Ignorance\nand Suspicion, stand near him. Calumny is beautiful in form and\nfeature, but has a malignant countenance, and flashing eyes. Envy goes\nbefore, while Fraud and Conspiracy accompany her on either side.\nRepentance follows with woful mien and torn garments. She looks behind\nher, as if calling upon Truth, who is seen advancing slowly in the\ndistance.\n\nDiscord, Fraud, etc., were represented with appropriate symbols.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXVI.\n\nDemigods and Heroes.\n\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Demigods?\n\n_Ans._ They were brave men, who had rendered themselves famous in life\nby illustrious actions. After their death, their countrymen believed\nthat they were admitted among the gods, and gave them divine honors.\nThe circumstance of a mortal taking his place among the gods, was\ncalled an Apotheosis.\n\n_Ques._ Who was the most famous of the Demigods?\n\n_Ans._ Hercules, the son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Juno hated him on his\nmother's account, and resolved upon his destruction. For this purpose\nshe sent two monstrous serpents to kill him as he was sleeping in his\ncradle. The infant hero awoke, and seizing the serpents in his hands,\nstrangled them both. Juno was not discouraged, and when Hercules was\ngrown up, devised new means to destroy him. She persuaded Jupiter to\nput Hercules under the authority of Eurys\u00b4theus, king of Mycen\u00e6, who\nimposed upon the hero twelve Labors, or tasks, of great danger and\ndifficulty. Hercules was in doubt as to whether he should submit to\nthis injustice, and consulted the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. The\noracle told him that he must obey Eurys\u00b4theus, which he accordingly\ndid. Hercules had been carefully instructed by the Centaur Chiron, and\nhe was now equipped for his labors by the liberality of the gods. He\nreceived a sword from Mercury, a bow from Apollo, a golden breastplate\nfrom Vulcan, horses from Neptune, and a robe from Minerva.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the Twelve Labors of Hercules.\n\n_Ans._ They are briefly as follows:\n\n_First._ He killed a terrible lion which raged in the Ne\u00b4mean forest.\nHercules is usually represented as clothed in the skin of this animal,\nand leaning on the club which was his ordinary weapon.\n\n_Second._ He destroyed the Hydra, a serpent with fifty heads, which\nlived in the marshes of Lerna, and ravaged the surrounding country.\n\nHercules noticed that where he cut off one of the heads of this\nserpent, two immediately sprang up. He commanded an attendant to burn\nthe wound with a firebrand, and by this means he at length cut off the\nlast head.\n\n_Third._ He captured the savage wild boar of Mount Erymanthus, in\nArcadia, and brought it bound to Eurys\u00b4theus. The tyrant was so\nfrightened at the sight of the animal, that he shut himself up in a\nbrazen apartment of his palace.\n\n_Fourth._ He caught, after a chase which lasted an entire year, a\nfamous stag which was sacred to Diana. It had golden horns and brazen\nfeet.\n\n_Fifth._ He killed, or drove away from Lake Stympha\u00b4lus, certain\nvoracious birds which fed on human flesh.\n\n_Sixth._ He defeated the Amazons, and obtained as a spoil, the girdle\nof their queen, Hippol\u00b4yte.\n\n_Seventh._ Three thousand oxen had been kept thirty years in the\nstables of Au\u00b4geas, which had never been cleaned during the entire\nperiod. Hercules was required to perform this task, which he effected\nby turning the course of a river through the stables.\n\n_Eighth._ He tamed the wild bull of Crete, and brought him bound to\nEurys\u00b4theus.\n\n_Ninth._ He overcame Diome\u00b4des, tyrant of Thrace, who fed his horses\nwith the flesh of his guests. Hercules caused him, in turn, to serve\nas food to these same horses.\n\n_Tenth._ He overcame Ger\u00b4yon, who had three heads and three bodies.\nHercules brought into Italy the oxen of this monster, which were\naccustomed to feed on human flesh.\n\n_Eleventh._ He killed the dragon that watched the golden apple in the\ngarden of the Hesper\u00b4ides, and bore away the precious fruit.\n\n_Twelfth._ Hercules descended alive into the infernal regions, and\nbrought from thence the three-headed dog, Cerberus.\n\n_Ques._ Did Hercules perform any other great actions?\n\n_Ans._ A vast number of exploits are attributed to him. There is a\nplain near Narbonne, in France, covered with stones. The ancients said\nthat Hercules was contending on this spot with two giants, when, his\narrows becoming exhausted, he prayed to Jupiter for aid. The god sent\ndown a shower of great stones, with which Hercules put the giants to\nflight.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the death of Hercules?\n\n_Ans._ This hero had slain the Centaur Nessus to revenge an insult\noffered to his wife, Deiani\u00b4ra. When the monster was dying, he gave\nDeiani\u00b4ra a charmed philter, telling her that if Hercules ever gave\nher cause to doubt his affection, she could secure his constancy by\nmaking him wear a garment which had been sprinkled with this potion.\nThe credulous Deiani\u00b4ra accepted the philter, which was nothing else\nbut the venom of the hydra which had been infused into the Centaur's\nblood; and it was not long before her jealousy led her to use it as\nshe had been directed. Hercules had plundered Oechalia, and carried\noff, among other captives, the beautiful I\u00b4ole, daughter of the king\nof that city. The hero, who wished to keep a festival, and to offer\nsacrifice in honor of his victory, sent for a splendid robe befitting\nthe occasion. Deiani\u00b4ra's jealousy was excited against I\u00b4ole by the\nreports of the messenger, and she sent her husband a tunic\nimpregnated with the venom of the hydra. The poison soon began to\nwork, and Hercules endeavored in vain to tear off the tunic, which\nclung to his flesh and consumed even the marrow of his bones. In his\nfury he caught the youth who had brought him the garment, by the foot,\nand hurled him into the sea. He then fled in his agony to the summit\nof Mount Oeta, where he erected a funeral pyre with forest trees which\nhe tore up by the roots. On this he laid the skin of the Ne\u00b4mean lion\nand his famous club, after which he ascended the pile and directed his\nfollowers to set it on fire. All refused except Philocte\u00b4tes, who\npitied the sufferings of the dying hero, and obeyed his command. He\nreceived the bow and arrows of Hercules as a reward for this service.\nWhile the pyre was blazing, Jupiter sent a thunder-cloud, in which\nHercules was conveyed to Olympus. Here he was endowed with\nimmortality, and, according to some accounts, was reconciled with\nJuno, who gave him her daughter Hebe in marriage.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXVII.\n\n\nJASON.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Jason?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of \u00c6son, king of Thessaly, and was celebrated on\naccount of his expedition in search of the Golden Fleece. He is also\nknown as the husband of the famous sorceress Mede\u00b4a.\n\n_Ques._ What was the Golden Fleece?\n\n_Ans._ Phryxus, son of Athamas, king of Thebes, received from his\nmother a ram of a golden color, or, according to fable, with a fleece\nof pure gold. Some time after, Phryxus and his sister Helle, to escape\nfrom their step-mother Ino, attempted to cross the sea on this ram.\nHelle became terrified, and was drowned in the straits which are\ncalled from her, Hellespont. Phryxus arrived in safety at Colchis,\nwhere he sacrificed the ram to Jupiter, who placed it among the signs\nof the Zodiac. The fleece was hung in a grove sacred to Mars, where it\nwas guarded by bulls who breathed flame from their nostrils, and also\nby a sleepless dragon. When Jason demanded his father's throne, his\nuncle, who wished to continue in the government, persuaded him to\nundertake an expedition for the recovery of the Golden Fleece. Jason,\nwith some brave companions, among whom were Hercules, Orpheus, Castor\nand Pollux, went on board a ship called the Argo, from which\ncircumstance they were called Ar\u00b4gonauts. On arriving at Colchis, they\ndemanded the fleece, which the king, \u00c6etes, promised to Jason on\ncondition that he would tame the wild bulls that guarded it, kill the\ndragon, sow his teeth in the ground, and afterwards destroy the\nsoldiers who should spring from them. Jason accepted the conditions,\nbut would inevitably have perished, had not Mede\u00b4a, the king's\ndaughter, saved him by her magical arts. Jason obtained the fleece,\nand fled by night from Colchis, carrying with him Mede\u00b4a, whom he\nmarried, in fulfilment of the engagement which he had made.\n\n_Ques._ What else is related of Mede\u00b4a?\n\n_Ans._ She lived for some time happily with Jason, upon whom she\nconferred an additional favor by restoring his aged and decrepit\nfather to the vigor and beauty of youth. Jason was ungrateful for\nthese benefits, and divorced Mede\u00b4a in order that he might marry\nCreusa, the daughter of the king of Corinth.\n\n_Ques._ What was Mede\u00b4a's revenge?\n\n_Ans._ She murdered, in the sight of their father, the two children\nwhom she had borne to Jason, and consumed his palace and bride in a\nconflagration raised by her art. As Jason was about to rush upon the\nsorceress, she rose in the air in a flying chariot, and escaped to\nAthens.\n\n\nTHESEUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Theseus?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of \u00c6\u00b4geus, king of Athens. The Athenians were\nobliged to send every year, as tribute to Crete, seven of the noblest\nof their young men, and as many maidens. These were usually devoured\nby a horrible monster called Minotaur, whom Minos, the king of Crete,\nkept in the Labyrinth.\n\n_Ques._ What was the Labyrinth?\n\n_Ans._ It was a building with fifteen hundred rooms above ground, and\nas many underneath. These apartments had so many doors, and were\nconnected by such intricate windings, that no one who was conducted a\ncertain distance into the edifice, could find the entrance again.\n\nTheseus resolved to deliver the Athenians from this dreadful tribute,\nand when the lots were about being cast for the fourth time, he\noffered himself as one of the victims. \u00c6\u00b4geus strove to dissuade the\nyoung hero, but in vain; and the tribute ship departed as usual under\nblack sails, which Theseus promised his father to change for white, in\ncase of his returning victorious.\n\nWhen they arrived in Crete, the youths and maidens were exhibited\nbefore King Minos; and Ariadne, the daughter of the king, was so much\nstruck by the courage and generosity of Theseus that she resolved to\nsave his life. For this purpose she gave him a ball of thread which\nshe directed him to attach to the entrance of the Labyrinth, and to\nunwind as he proceeded. Theseus followed her instructions, and when he\ncame to where the Minotaur lay, he slew him, and found his way out by\nthe thread. The whole band then embarked for Athens.\n\n_Ques._ What became of Ariadne?\n\n_Ans._ She accompanied Theseus on his flight, but he was so ungrateful\nas to abandon her on the island of Naxos, where she had fallen asleep\non the shore. Ariadne was afterwards married to Bacchus, who gave her\na crown composed of seven stars, the same which we admire in the\nheavens as the Corona Borealis, or Northern Crown.\n\n_Ques._ Of what negligence was Theseus guilty on his return to Athens?\n\n_Ans._ He forgot his promise to his father with regard to the color of\nhis sails, and \u00c6\u00b4geus, who watched every day for his son's return,\nsaw the black sails in the distance. He believed from this that his\nson was dead. In his despair he cast himself into the sea, which was\ncalled \u00c6ge\u00b4an from his name. Theseus, after performing many other\nwonderful actions, was banished from his country, and died in\nobscurity.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXVIII.\n\n\nCASTOR AND POLLUX.\n\n_Ques._ Who were Castor and Pollux?\n\n_Ans._ They were twin brothers, the sons of Jupiter and Leda. Castor\nwas mortal like his mother, and when he died, Pollux grieved so much\nthat Jupiter permitted him to share his immortality with his brother.\nIt was arranged, therefore, that they should live every alternate day.\n\n_Ques._ What Constellation is named from these brothers?\n\n_Ans._ Gemini, or the Twins, the third sign of the Zodiac.\n\n\nPROMETHEUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Prometheus?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Iapetus and Clymene, one of the Oceanides. He\nformed a man out of clay, and gave it life by means of fire which he\nstole from heaven.\n\n_Ques._ What pretty fable is connected with this?\n\n_Ans._ The poets tell us that Jupiter was so much displeased at the\ntheft, that he sent Pando\u00b4ra to Prometheus with a mysterious box, in\nwhich were imprisoned all the evils which have since afflicted the\nhuman race. Prometheus, suspecting something wrong, refused to touch\nthe box, upon which Pando\u00b4ra carried it to his brother Epimetheus. He\nwas less cautious, and opening the casket, set free the evils and\nmiseries which flew abroad through the world. When he saw what he had\ndone, he shut the box quickly, and prevented Hope, which was lying at\nthe bottom, from escaping also. This signifies that in the midst of\nall human miseries, hope yet remains. The fable may have been derived\nfrom some ancient tradition of Eve's curiosity, the fall of man, and\nthe hope left him amid so many misfortunes.\n\n_Ques._ How was Prometheus punished?\n\n_Ans._ Jupiter commanded Mercury to chain him to a rock on Mount\nCaucasus; there an eagle fed on his liver, which was continually\nrenewed. Prometheus had, at one time, rendered Jupiter a service. The\nking of the gods remembered this, and permitted that after a certain\ntime, Hercules should kill the eagle and set him free.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXIX.\n\n\nORPHEUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Orpheus?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Apollo and the Muse Calliope. He played so\nsweetly on the lyre accompanying the music with his voice, that he\ntamed wild beasts, stayed the course of rivers, and drew the very\ntrees to gather around him as he sung. Orpheus married the beautiful\nnymph Eury\u00b4dice; but on the very day of their nuptials she was stung\nin the foot by a venomous serpent, and died, leaving Orpheus\noverwhelmed with grief. Trusting to the magic of his lyre, he repaired\nto the infernal regions. Here, \"at the music of his golden shell,\" the\nwheel of Ixion stopped; Tantalus forgot his thirst; the vulture ceased\nto prey on the vitals of Tityus; Cerberus fawned at the musician's\nfeet, Proserpine was melted to tears, and the stern king of Hell was\nmoved to pity. Eury\u00b4dice was permitted to return to the upper world,\nbut only on condition that Orpheus did not look upon her before they\npassed the confines of Pluto's kingdom. Orpheus forgot this in his\neagerness, and Eury\u00b4dice vanished from his sight. In his despair, he\nnow shunned all intercourse with mankind, and retired to woods and\nsolitary grottoes, endeavoring to forget his misfortune in the charms\nof music. Orpheus was murdered during the orgies of Bacchus, by the\nThracian women, who were incensed at the coldness with which he had\ntreated them. After tearing him to pieces, they threw his head into\nthe river Hebrus, and were surprised to hear its murmur, \"Eury\u00b4dice,\nEury\u00b4dice!\" as it was carried down the stream to the \u00c6gean Sea.\nBacchus was indignant at the cruelty of the Thracian women, and\nchanged them into trees.\n\n\nARION.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Arion?\n\n_Ans._ He was a famous musician who resided at the court of Periander,\nking of Corinth. Impelled by a minstrel's love of wandering, he felt\ndesirous of visiting foreign countries, and departed from Corinth,\nnotwithstanding the earnest solicitations of Periander, who warned him\nin vain of the danger to which he might be exposed. After some time\nspent in Italy and Sicily, Arion desired to return to Corinth, and\nembarked for this purpose at Sarentum, taking with him the riches that\nhe had amassed. During the voyage the mariners agreed among themselves\nthat they would murder Arion, and seize his treasures. The unhappy\nmusician offered in vain to abandon everything to their cupidity, if\nthey would but spare his life. The only favor he could obtain was the\nchoice of a grave. If he desired to be laid on shore under the green\nturf, they would carry his lifeless body to land, and give it\nsepulture. If he cared not for this, he must immediately cast himself\ninto the sea. Arion chose the latter alternative, but begged that he\nmight die as became a bard, after having played for the last time upon\nhis lyre, and sung his own death-song. The mariners granted his\nrequest, not from pity, but they desired to hear so famous a minstrel;\nmusic had charms even for their rude hearts.\n\nArion attired himself in festal robes; his mantle was of purple\nfringed with gold, and his brow was adorned with a golden wreath. He\nstruck his lyre with the ivory wand, and sung a sweet and mournful\nmelody. Then, commending himself to the friendly Nereides, he sprang\ninto the sea. The waves closed above him, and the ship held on its\nway. The inhabitants of the deep had gathered around as Arion sung,\nand now, as he was struggling in the waves, a dolphin took him on his\nback, and carried him safe to shore. Periander received his friend\nwith a cordial welcome, and listened with wonder to the story of his\nescape. When the ship arrived, he ordered the mariners to be brought\nbefore him, and inquired if they knew anything of Arion. They replied\nconfidently that they had left him well and happy at Sarentum. Upon\nthis Arion stepped forth, clothed in gold and purple, and holding his\nlyre as when he had cast himself into the sea. Overcome with terror,\nthe guilty men confessed their crime, and suffered the punishment they\nhad so well deserved. This event was commemorated by a statue of brass\nwhich was consecrated at T\u00e6narus. It represented a man mounted on a\ndolphin.\n\n\nAMPHION.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Amphi\u00b4on?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Anti\u00b4ope and Jupiter. He obtained the kingdom\nof Thebes, which he governed conjointly with his twin-brother Zethus.\nAmphi\u00b4on cultivated the art of music; he was instructed by Mercury,\nwho gave him a golden lyre with which he is said to have built the\nwalls of Thebes, causing the stones to move and place themselves in\norder, as he played. Amphi\u00b4on married Ni\u00b4obe, and became the father of\nseven sons and as many daughters, who were all slain by Apollo and\nDiana. He is said to have killed himself in despair. The legend of the\nbuilding of the walls of Thebes, is probably an allusion to the old\nDorian and \u00c6olian custom of erecting the walls of cities with public\nsolemnities, and to the sound of musical instruments.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXX.\n\n\nATLAS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Atlas?\n\n_Ans._ He was a king of Mauritania, the son of the Titan Jap\u00b4etus, and\nthe nymph Clym\u00b4ene; he was, therefore, brother of Prometheus. He is\nrepresented as sustaining the heavens on his shoulders. Atlas had been\nwarned that he would suffer much from a son of Jupiter. When Perseus\nwas returning from the conquest of the Gorgons, he arrived in the\ndominions of Atlas, of whom he claimed the rites of hospitality,\ndeclaring at the same time his divine parentage. The king, remembering\nthe prophecy with regard to Jupiter's offspring, repulsed him harshly.\nThis conduct brought upon Atlas the calamity which he feared; for\nPerseus, indignant at so much inhumanity, showed him the head of\nMedusa, and changed him into the mountain which bears his name.\n\nThe fable, that Atlas sustained the heavens on his shoulders, has been\nexplained by saying he was an astronomer, who observed the motion of\nthe heavenly bodies from the summit of a lofty mountain, to which his\nname was afterwards given.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the children of Atlas?\n\n_Ans._ By his wife Peli\u00b4one, he had seven daughters, who were called\nPleiades; they were changed into stars, and form the beautiful group\nwhich we admire in the constellation Taurus. Atlas had seven other\ndaughters who underwent the same transformation; they were placed in\nthe head of Taurus, and were called by the Greeks, Hyades, from a word\nwhich signifies \"to rain.\"\n\nThe Hesperides, or Western Maidens, were three celebrated nymphs,\nconcerning whose parentage ancient writers are not agreed. Hesiod\nspeaks of them as the daughters of Night, but according to others,\nthey were the offspring of Atlas and Hesperis. At the bridal of\nJupiter and Juno, the different deities brought nuptial presents;\namong these, Juno most admired some branches loaded with golden\napples, which were offered by the goddess of the Earth. She begged the\nEarth to plant them in her gardens, which extended as far as Mount\nAtlas. The Hesperides were directed to watch these trees, but they\nproved unfaithful, and frequently plucked the apples for themselves.\nJuno sent, therefore, a terrible dragon to guard the precious fruit.\nThis monster was the offspring of Typhon, and had a hundred heads, so\nthat it never slept.\n\n\nORION.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Ori\u00b4on?\n\n_Ans._ His origin is doubtful; according to some writers, he was the\nson of Neptune and Eury\u00b4ale. The accounts given of his exploits and of\nhis death are many and contradictory. According to one legend, Ori\u00b4on\nwas a famous hunter; having boasted that he could subdue the wildest\nand fiercest animals, the earth was displeased at his presumption, and\nsent a scorpion to sting him. The hero was changed, after death, into\na constellation which is known as the most resplendent group in the\nwinter heavens.\n\n\nPERSEUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Perseus?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Jupiter, and of Dana\u00eb, the only daughter of\nAcrisius, king of Argos. This prince had been warned by an oracle that\nhis daughter would have a son, who was destined to deprive him of\nlife. Acrisius resolved, in consequence, that Dana\u00eb should never\nmarry. To guard against the possibility of such an event, he\nimprisoned her in a brazen apartment which he had diligently guarded.\n\nJupiter had seen and admired the young princess, and he now found\nmeans to visit her by transforming himself into a shower of gold,\nwhich we may take for a poetical manner of saying that he bribed the\nguards. When Acrisius discovered that his precautions had been of no\navail, he enclosed Dana\u00eb and her infant son in a coffer, which he cast\ninto the sea. The coffer was carried by the waves to the island of\nSeriphus, where a fisherman named Dictys drew it ashore in his net. He\nwas much surprised at beholding Dana\u00eb and the infant Perseus, and\nbrought them immediately to Polydectes, who reigned in that island.\nPolydectes received the strangers kindly, but when Perseus was grown,\nhe strove to effect his destruction by engaging him in an expedition\nagainst the Gorgons. This adventure has been already related, in the\narticle on Minerva. It was followed by the rescue of Androm\u00b4eda, which\nis too remarkable to be omitted.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Androm\u00b4eda?\n\n_Ans._ She was the daughter of Cepheus, king of Ethiopia. Her mother,\nCassiopeia, had boasted that she was fairer than Juno and the\nNereides. The offended nymphs complained to Neptune, who sent a\nsea-monster to ravage the dominions of Cepheus. The people, in their\ndistress, had recourse to the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, but the god\ndeclared that the country could not be freed from this calamity,\nunless Androm\u00b4eda were given up to be devoured by the monster. Cepheus\nconsented to the sacrifice, and his daughter was chained to a rock by\nthe sea-shore, where she was abandoned to her fate.\n\nPerseus, returning through the air, from his conquest of the Gorgons,\nsaw the unhappy maiden and resolved to rescue her. He asked her hand\nas his only reward, which Cepheus readily promised.\n\nWhen the sea-monster appeared, Perseus showed him the head of Medusa,\nand changed him into a rock, which was long famous upon that coast.\nPhineus, who had been betrothed to Androm\u00b4eda, opposed her marriage\nwith Perseus, and changed the nuptial solemnities into a scene of\ndiscord and bloodshed.\n\nThe head of the Gorgon again procured for Perseus an easy victory. He\nwarned his friends to avert their eyes, and displayed the frightful\ntrophy, upon which Phineus and his followers were changed into stone,\nin the very attitudes in which they fought.\n\nPolydectes, who had persecuted Dana\u00eb in the absence of Perseus, was\npunished in the same manner. The hero afterwards fulfilled the oracle\nby killing his grandfather, whom he did not know, by an accidental\nblow of a quoit.\n\nPerseus, Androm\u00b4eda, Cepheus, and Cassiopeia were changed, after\ndeath, into the constellations which bear their names.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXI.\n\n\nBELLEROPHON.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Beller\u00b4ophon?\n\n_Ans._ This hero was the son of Glaucus, and grandson of Sis\u00b4yphus,\nking of Corinth. Having accidentally killed one of his relatives, he\nfled, as was usual in such circumstances, and was received with much\nkindness by Proetus, king of Argos. Beller\u00b4ophon had not, however,\nbeen long at Argos when the king was prejudiced by a calumnious\nreport, and became jealous of the young hero. As he was ashamed to\nviolate the rights of hospitality, he despatched Beller\u00b4ophon to his\nfather-in-law, Joba\u00b4tes, king of the Lycians, with sealed letters in\nwhich he requested that prince to put the bearer to death. Joba\u00b4tes\nwas also unwilling to imbrue his hands openly in the blood of a guest;\nhe resolved, therefore, to effect his purpose indirectly, by engaging\nBeller\u00b4ophon in dangerous enterprises.\n\nThe first task imposed upon the hero, was the slaying of the Chim\u00e6ra,\na fabulous monster which we have already described, and which was\nthen spreading terror through the kingdom of Lycia. Before proceeding\nto the combat, Beller\u00b4ophon took counsel of the soothsayer, Polyi\u00b4dus,\nwho advised him to procure, if possible, the winged steed Peg\u00b4asus.\nFor this purpose, he directed him to pass the night in the temple of\nMinerva. There the goddess visited him in a dream, and gave him a\ngolden bridle, instructing him as to its use. On awaking, Beller\u00b4ophon\nfound the bridle in his hand, and repaired immediately to the spring\nat which Peg\u00b4asus was accustomed to drink. The winged steed submitted\nto the golden bit, Beller\u00b4ophon mounted him fearlessly, and was borne\nthrough the air to his combat with the Chim\u00e6ra. When he returned to\nJoba\u00b4tes with the spoils of the monster, the king sent him to fight\nagainst certain people, called Sol\u00b4ymi, whom he had much difficulty in\nsubduing. He next defeated the Amazons, a nation of female warriors,\nand destroyed a party of Lycians, who laid an ambush for him on his\nreturn. Joba\u00b4tes perceived from these exploits that his guest was\nindeed allied to the gods, and abandoned all further designs against\nhim. He even gave him his daughter in marriage, and declared him his\nsuccessor in the kingdom.\n\nBeller\u00b4ophon might have ended his days in happiness and prosperity,\nhad he not irritated the gods by his pride. He conceived the project\nof mounting to heaven on his winged steed; Jupiter was indignant, and\nsent a gad-fly which stung the horse, and caused him to throw the\npresumptuous rider. Beller\u00b4ophon, lame and blind from his fall,\nwandered in lonely places, avoiding the haunts of men, until death\ncame to relieve his misery.\n\n\nDEUCALION.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Deucalion?\n\n_Ans._ He was king of Thessaly, and son of Prometheus. During his\nreign, there occurred so great a flood that the whole earth was\ncovered with the waters. Of the entire human race, only Deucalion and\nhis wife, Pyrrha, were saved. When the waters abated, the ship in\nwhich they were carried rested upon Mount Parnassus, and they\nconsulted the oracle of Themis, to know by what means the earth might\nagain be peopled. The oracle directed that they should cast behind\nthem the bones of their Great Mother. Understanding by this expression\nthe earth, which is the common mother of all, they gathered stones\nwhich they cast behind them, as they had been commanded, when a great\nprodigy ensued. The stones thrown by Deucalion assumed human form and\nbecame men, and those thrown by Pyrrha were changed into women.\n\n_Ques._ How is this fable explained?\n\n_Ans._ It is supposed that Deucalion and Pyrrha were remarkable for\ntheir piety and virtue; and that by precept and example, they subdued\nthe ferocity of their subjects. In this manner they softened those\nwho before were hard like stones, so that gentleness and humanity\nbegan to reign among them.\n\n\nD\u00c6DALUS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was D\u00e6d\u00b4alus?\n\n_Ans._ He is said to have been a native of Athens, eminent for his\nskill in architecture and statuary. His nephew Perdix wrought with\nhim, and showed much inventive genius. Having observed the teeth of a\nserpent, or, according to some, the backbone of a fish, Perdix\ninvented the carpenter's saw, and applied it to the cutting of timber.\nBy this and other efforts of skill, the young man excited the jealousy\nof D\u00e6d\u00b4alus, who killed him by casting him down from the summit of the\nAcropolis. Perdix was transformed into a partridge, a timid bird which\nseems still mindful of its fall, and keeps to low coverts, avoiding\nhigh places and lofty flights. For this murder, D\u00e6d\u00b4alus was sentenced\nto banishment by the Court of the Areop\u00b4agus. He found an asylum with\nMinos, king of Crete, for whom he constructed the famous Labyrinth.\nHaving incurred the displeasure of Minos, D\u00e6d\u00b4alus was imprisoned in a\nlofty tower. As there seemed no other means of escape, he resolved on\nattempting a flight through the air. For this purpose, he made wings\nfor himself and his son Ic\u00b4arus, which were so skilfully contrived,\nthat, by their aid, they mounted boldly in the air, and directed\ntheir flight over the sea. Ic\u00b4arus disregarded his father's\ninstructions, and approached so near the sun that its heat melted the\nwax which united the feathers of his wings. He could no longer sustain\nhimself, and was drowned in that sea which is called Icarian, from his\nname. D\u00e6d\u00b4alus arrived in Sicily, where he was employed by Coc\u00b4alus,\nking of that island, in the erection of many splendid edifices.\n\nVarious explanations have been given of the fable of D\u00e6d\u00b4alus. The\nmost probable opinion is that there really existed an architect of\nthat name, whose fame was such that all the improvements made in those\nearly times in architecture and sculpture were attributed to him by\npopular tradition. He introduced the use of masts and sails in ships,\nand he is said to have been the first who represented statues in\nnatural and lifelike attitudes, and with open eyes. D\u00e6d\u00b4alus is also\nmentioned as the inventor of the axe, plumb-line and augur.\n\n\nCEYX--HALCYONE--THE HALCYON BIRDS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Ceyx?\n\n_Ans._ He was a king of Trachinia, who married Halcy\u00b4one, a daughter\nof the god \u00c6olus. Ceyx was drowned on his way to consult the oracle of\nClaros. Halcy\u00b4one was apprised of the sad event in a dream, in which\nshe saw her husband stand before her, with pallid countenance and\ndripping garments. She hastened to the strand at break of day, and\ngazing over the waters, beheld the body of Ceyx borne towards her by\nthe waves. In her despair, she cast herself into the sea, but the gods\ntook pity on the faithful pair, and transformed them into halcyons.\nAccording to the poets, it was decreed that the sea should remain calm\nwhile these birds built their nests upon it. Notwithstanding the\nquerulous, lamenting note of the halcyon, it was regarded by the\nancients as a symbol of tranquillity, and as it seemed to make its\nhome upon the waters, it was consecrated to Thetis. Pliny tells us\nthat these birds constructed their floating nests during the seven\ndays immediately preceding the winter solstice, and laid their eggs in\nthe seven days succeeding. These are the \"halcyon days\" of antiquity,\nand this expression is still used to denote a period of bright and\ntranquil happiness.\n\nThe only bird of modern times which at all resembles the halcyon\ndescribed by Pliny and Aristotle, is the _Alcedo Ispida_, a species of\nmartin called by the French, martin-p\u00eacheur. This martin, however,\nmakes its nest on shore, lays its eggs in the spring, and has no\nconnection with calm weather. The large sponge-like ball which was\ntaken by the ancients for the floating nest of the halcyon, was in\nreality a zo\u00f6phyte, of the class named by Linn\u00e6us, halcyonium.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXII.\n\n\nMELEAGER--THE CALYDONIAN HUNT.\n\n_Ques._ What was the story of this prince?\n\n_Ans._ Meleager was the son of Oeneus and Althea, king and queen of\nCalydon. After his birth, the Fates entered the chamber of Althea, and\nforetold that the life of the child should expire with a billet of\nwood then burning on the hearth. Althea immediately seized and\nquenched the brand, which she secured in an oaken chest. Meleager had\nalready attained the years of manhood when he took part in the\nexpedition generally known as the Calydonian hunt. Oeneus had, upon\none occasion, in offering sacrifice to the gods, neglected the honors\ndue to Diana, and the goddess, in revenge, sent a wild boar of\nenormous size to lay waste the fields of Calydon. The boldest hunters\nfeared to attack the monster, whose eyes shone with fire, while its\nbristles stood erect like spears, and its tusks resembled those of an\nIndian elephant. The cornfields and vineyards were trampled down in\nits path, and the terrified husbandmen everywhere fled in dismay. At\nlength Meleager called on the heroes of Greece to join in a hunt and\ndestroy the common foe. There came on the appointed day, Castor and\nPollux, Theseus and his friend Pirothous, Peleus, afterwards father of\nAchil\u00b4les, Telamon, father of Ajax, Nestor, then a youth, and many\nothers of heroic fame. All eyes were, however, attracted by the fair\nhuntress Atalanta. Her girdle was of burnished gold, an ivory quiver\nhung from her shoulder, and she carried a bow in her left hand.\n\nThey soon reached the monster's lair. Roused by the baying hounds, he\nrushed forth, trampling down and slaying the nearest huntsmen. In vain\nJason threw his spear, praying that Diana might guide his arm. It\nglanced aside, and the weapon of Telamon proved equally harmless,\nwhile Nestor was obliged to seek safety in the branches of a tree. The\nfirst wound was inflicted by an arrow from the bow of Atalanta.\nMeleager, following up this advantage, despatched the monster with his\nspear. The heroes crowded around to congratulate the victor, who\noffered the head of the boar and the bristling hide to Atalanta. The\nhuntress accepted the trophies, but the uncles of Meleager, indignant\nthat a woman should bear off the honors of the day, snatched them\nrudely from her. Meleager forgot, in his anger, the ties of kindred,\nand slew the offenders on the spot.\n\nAs Althea was going to the temple to return thanks for her son's\nvictory she beheld the bodies of her murdered brothers. When she\nlearned that they had fallen by the hand of Meleager, the Furies took\npossession of her soul. Entering hastily into the palace, she\nsnatched the fatal brand, so long preserved, and cast it into the\nflames. At the same moment Meleager started with sudden pain, his\nstrength ebbed away, and as the brand fell to ashes, the soul of the\nhero was breathed forth on the light winds.\n\nWhen the deed was accomplished Althea killed herself in despair. The\nsisters of Meleager wept his loss, until Diana, pitying their sorrow,\nchanged them into birds called Meleagrides.\n\n\nNISUS AND SCYLLA.\n\n_Ques._ Relate the story of their transformation?\n\n_Ans._ Nisus was king of Megara; this city was closely besieged by\nMinos, but all his efforts were vain, as the Fates had decreed that it\nshould not be taken, so long as a purple lock which grew on the head\nof Nisus, remained uncut. Scylla, the daughter of this prince, admired\nthe majestic person of Minos, and the valor which he displayed.\nBelieving that he would reward her treachery by making her his queen,\nshe cut the fatal lock while her father slept. Minos received the gift\nwith horror, and, when the city was taken, refused to permit Scylla to\naccompany him to Crete. In despair, she clung to the prow of his ship;\nbut Nisus, who had just been transformed into a hawk, swooped down\nupon her from the sky. Scylla cast herself into the sea, and was\ntransformed at the same moment into a lark.\n\n\nERISICHTHON.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Erisichthon?\n\n_Ans._ He was a profane person and a despiser of the gods. There stood\nin a grove sacred to Ceres, a stately oak which overtopped the trees\naround as they did the garden shrubs. Erisichthon commanded his\nattendants to fell the tree, and when they hesitated, he snatched an\naxe himself, and struck the sacred wood. Blood flowed from the wounded\ntrunk, and a voice from the Dryad dwelling in the oak, warned him of\nthe punishment which awaited his impiety. Erisichthon persisted in his\ncrime, and at length the tree, severed by repeated blows, and drawn\nwith ropes, sunk to the ground, prostrating half the grove in its\nfall. The indignant Dryades went to Ceres in mourning garb, and\ninvoked vengeance on the head of their impious foe. The goddess was\nmoved, and delivered Erisichthon into the power of Famine. As the\nFates had decreed that this goddess and Ceres should never meet, an\nOread was sent to the ice-clad plains of Scythia, where Famine chiefly\ndwelt. Arriving at Mount Caucasus, the nymph found her in a stony\nfield, tearing up with teeth and claws the scanty herbage. The pale\ngoddess obeyed the command of Ceres, and visiting the dwelling of\nErisichthon, she breathed upon him as he slept. Awaking he craved\nfood, but the more he consumed, the more his hunger raged. In vain\nthe unhappy man spent all his substance to obtain relief; he was\nreduced to misery and famished as before. He had one daughter called\nMestra, an only child, whom he sold to procure food. The maiden\nscorned to be a slave, and standing with her purchaser on the\nsea-shore, she lifted her hands, and invoked the aid of Neptune. The\ngod immediately changed her form, so that she appeared to be an aged\nfisherman mending nets.\n\nThe master, strangely surprised at the sudden disappearance of his\nslave, questioned the supposed fisherman. Mestra replied that she had\nseen no one, and he proceeded to search for the fugitive elsewhere.\nShe then resumed her own form, and returned to her father, who was\nwell pleased to find that he had still both his daughter and the money\nfor which he had sold her. He again resorted to this base expedient,\nbut as often as Mestra was sold, she was transformed, by the favor of\nNeptune, now into a horse, now an ox, and now a stag; and so escaped\nfrom her purchaser.\n\nAll means proved insufficient to supply the wants of the unhappy\nErisichthon, who was compelled by hunger to devour his own flesh\nbefore death came to end his misery.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXIII.\n\nPoets of Classic Fable.\n\n\nHOMER--HESIOD--VIRGIL--OVID.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Homer?\n\n_Ans._ Everything relating to this poet is involved in obscurity. The\ntwo biographies of him which were formerly attributed to Herodotus and\nPlutarch, are evidently fabulous; their real authors are not known.\nNothing is known certainly regarding Homer's parentage, his\nbirth-place, or even the exact era in which he lived. Seven cities\ncontended for the honor of having given this great poet to the world;\nthese were Smyrna, Chios, Col\u00b4ophon, Sal\u00b4amis, Rhodes, Argos and\nAthens.\n\nSmyrna appears to have the best claim, and it is considered certain\nthat the poet was by birth an Ionian; the Ionic is the dialect\nemployed in his works, with a slight mixture, however, of the \u00c6olic,\nand other forms. With regard to the time in which Homer lived, there\nis much difference of opinion among the learned, some placing him in\nthe ninth, others in the tenth century before our era. The latter\nopinion is the more probable.\n\nAccording to the account generally given, Homer was for many years a\nschoolmaster in Smyrna. He afterwards abandoned this occupation, and\nspent some time in travelling.\n\nHe made several voyages in the company of a sea captain named Mentes;\nbut at length his sight became so much affected that he was obliged to\nremain on shore at Ithaca. While in this island, he was kindly\nentertained by a wealthy man named Mentor, who related to him the\ntraditionary tales on which he afterwards founded the Odyssey.\n\nBecoming totally blind, Homer returned to Smyrna, where he probably\ncomposed the greater part of his poems. He afterwards led a wandering\nlife, gaining wealth and fame by the recitation of his verses. He died\nat Ios, one of the Cyclades, where he was buried. The fame of Homer is\nfounded on his two great poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The first\nof these has been always considered among the finest productions of\nhuman genius. Homer is distinguished not only for his sublimity, but\nfor the high moral tone which pervades his works.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Hesiod?\n\n_Ans._ This poet flourished about half a century later than Homer. He\nwas a Boeotian, and in his youth tended sheep upon Mount Helicon. He\nemigrated afterwards to Orchomenos, in western Boeotia, where he died.\n\nThe only complete works of Hesiod now extant are the \"Works and\nDays,\" and the Theogony, or \"Birth of the Gods.\" The latter work\nconsists of a long and rather tedious catalogue of the gods and\ngoddesses; it is valued as containing an accurate account of the\nGrecian deities. The description of the Battle of the Titans and the\nGods, at the close of the work, is considered one of the most sublime\npassages in classic poetry; Milton has borrowed from it in his Battle\nof the Angels.\n\n_Ques._ When did Virgil flourish?\n\n_Ans._ Publius Virgilius Maro was born near Mantua in the year 70,\nB. C. He received a liberal education, and inherited from his father a\nconsiderable estate. Of this he was deprived during the civil troubles\nwhich distracted Italy, but it was afterwards restored at the\nintercession of a powerful friend. His gratitude towards this kind\nbenefactor, and the happiness felt by the poet in the peaceful\npossession of his patrimony, form the subject of his first pastoral\npoem or Eclogue. Virgil enjoyed the favor of Augustus, with the\nfriendship of M\u00e6cenas and other generous and powerful patrons; his\nlife was, therefore, spent in ease and prosperity. He died at\nBrundusium, in the year 19, B. C.\n\nThe Eclogues, sometimes called also Bucolica or Bucolics, are ten\nshort pastoral poems. The fourth, entitled Pollio, has given rise to\nmuch speculation on account of its striking coincidence with\nScripture. Many suppose that the poet was acquainted with the\nprophecies of Isaiah.\n\nThe Georgics treat of agriculture, the care of cattle, the raising of\nbees, etc. These peaceful arts had been much neglected in Italy during\nthe civil wars; Virgil hoped to revive the taste for rural pursuits,\nby his beautiful descriptions of country life. The \u00c6neid, the last and\ngreatest of his works, is an epic poem in twelve books. It is a\nhistory of the wanderings of \u00c6neas, and the settlement of the Trojans\nin Italy.\n\nVirgil is considered inferior to Homer in sublimity, but he exceeds\nhim in sweetness and in the beauty of his descriptions. The moral, and\neven to a certain extent the religious spirit which pervades his\nwritings is beyond praise, and places him almost alone among the poets\nof antiquity.\n\n_Ques._ When did Ovid write?\n\n_Ans._ Ovidius Naso was born in the year 43, B. C., at Sulmo (now\nSulmona), a town about ninety miles distant from Rome. The date of his\nbirth is rendered memorable in history by the murder of the great\nCicero. Ovid belonged to an equestrian family; he was educated at\nRome, and enjoyed every advantage that splendid capital afforded. He\nshowed his taste for poetry at an early age, but was dissuaded from\ncultivating this art by his father, who wished him to apply\nexclusively to the study of eloquence. Ovid gained some distinction as\nan orator; but when the death of his elder brother left him sole heir\nto an ample fortune, his natural inclination prevailed, and he gave\nhimself up to literary pursuits. A career of unexampled prosperity\nwas now opened to the poet. He enjoyed the favor of Augustus, and the\nfriendship of the most distinguished men in Rome; his verses were\nuniversally admired, they were sung in the streets and at\nentertainments, or were recited in the theatre amid bursts of\napplause. Ovid was not content with the nobler pleasures of fame and\nfriendship, but plunged without restraint into all the vices and\nfollies of which the Roman capital was the centre. This career of\nprosperity and pleasure was brought suddenly to a close. Ovid was\nbanished by Augustus to Tomi, (now Temiswar) on the shores of the\nEuxine.\n\nThe decree was executed with the utmost severity. But one wretched\nnight was allowed to the poet to deplore his fate, and take leave of\nhis friends. His wife begged in vain to be allowed to accompany her\nhusband in his exile. It is not known by what crime the unfortunate\npoet merited so severe a punishment. The immoral tendency of some of\nhis poems, was the ostensible reason set forth by the emperor; but\nthese verses had been written many years before. It is evident,\ntherefore, that he must have offended Augustus in some manner which\nthe latter did not choose to make public. Ovid wrote, in his exile,\npoems appropriately named \"Tristia,\" in which he bewails his hard\nfate, and describes the scenes by which he was surrounded. From the\nseverity of the climate, and the inroads of the barbarians, the fields\nwere without grain, the hills without vines; no stately oaks clothed\nthe mountain-side, no willows drooped along the banks; a scanty growth\nof wormwood alone covered the desolate plains. Spring brought with it\nneither birds nor flowers. In Summer, the sun was obscured by clouds;\nthe Autumn shed no fruits, but through every season of the year, the\nwintry winds blew with prodigious violence, and lashed the waves of\nthe boisterous Euxine on its desert shore. The only animated object\nwas the wild Sarmatian driving his car, yoked with oxen, across the\nicy waste, himself wrapped in furs, his shaggy hair and beard\nsparkling with the hoar frost and flakes of snow. Such was the abode\nfor which the poet was compelled to exchange the theatres, the\nporticoes and gardens of Rome, the court of Augustus, and the sunny\nskies of Italy. He died in the ninth year of his exile, and the\nsixty-first of his age.\n\nThe poems of Ovid, however beautiful otherwise, are all more or less\nobjectionable on account of their immoral tendency; the corruption of\nthe author's private character has left its impress on all his works.\n\nThe claim of Ovid to be numbered among the poets of mythology, rests\nchiefly on his Metamorphoses. This is a collection of legends of all\nthe transformations said to have taken place in heathen mythology,\nbeginning with the earliest times, and closing with the changing of\nJulius C\u00e6sar into a star. The stories are not themselves original;\nthey are principally Greek and Oriental fictions, interspersed,\nperhaps, with a few Latin or Etruscan fables. There are, in all, two\nhundred and fifty of these stories. Ovid was engaged in correcting\nthis, his greatest work, when he was surprised by the sentence of\nbanishment. In a fit of impatience and despair, he threw it into the\nflames. Some of his friends possessed copies, and the poem was thus\npreserved.\n\nIf the Metamorphoses had been destroyed by this rash act, we would\nhave lost many interesting fables which have been rendered immortal by\nthe beauty of Ovid's verse and his graceful fancy.\n\nThe Tristia are not so generally admired. They turn principally on the\npoet's personal misfortunes; and this subject, however absorbing to\nhimself, soon becomes wearisome to the reader. Ovid composed a poem in\nthe harsh dialect spoken by the Get\u00e6 who dwelt on the borders of the\nEuxine Sea. The barbarians listened with delight to his recitations,\nuntil their anger was excited by his constant complaints of their rude\nmanners and inhospitable climate.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXIV.\n\nHeroes Celebrated by the Poets.\n\n\nAGAMEMNON.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Agamemnon?\n\n_Ans._ He was king of Mycen\u00e6, and commander-in-chief of the Grecian\nforces during the siege of Troy. The combined fleet was detained for a\nlong time at Aulis, owing to the wrath of Diana, whom Agamemnon had\noffended by killing one of her favorite deer. Calchas, the soothsayer,\nwas consulted; he declared that the goddess could only be appeased by\nthe sacrifice of Iphige\u00b4nia, the oldest daughter of the monarch. She\nwas accordingly led to the altar, but Diana was moved with pity, and\ncarried the maiden with her to Tauris, leaving a hind in her place.\nThe quarrel of Agamemnon with Achil\u00b4les, and the troubles that\nresulted, form the principal subject of Homer's Iliad. In the division\nof captives, after the taking of Troy, Cassandra, one of the daughters\nof Priam, fell to the lot of Agamemnon. This princess had been endowed\nby Apollo with the gift of prophecy, but as she refused afterwards to\nlisten to the suit of that god, he decreed that no one should attach\nany credit to her predictions. It was so in the present instance.\nClytemnestra, the queen of Agamemnon, believing, and perhaps hoping,\nthat her husband would not return, had given a promise of marriage to\n\u00c6gisthus, who already considered himself king of Mycen\u00e6. Cassandra\nwarned Agamemnon against returning thither, but her prediction was\ndisregarded. Agamemnon was assassinated immediately on his arrival at\nMycen\u00e6; according to the tragic poets, it was Clytemnestra who dealt\nthe fatal blow.\n\n\nACHILLES.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Achil\u00b4les?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Peleus, king of Phthio\u00b4tis in Thessaly; his\nmother was Thetis, a sea-goddess. Many incredible stories are told\nconcerning the manner in which the hero was nursed in his infancy.\nAccording to one account, his mother designed to make him immortal,\nand for that purpose anointed him with ambrosia during the day, and\nlaid him in the fire at night. The fears of Peleus interrupted this\nstrange treatment, and Achil\u00b4les remained subject to death. Calchas\nhad declared that Troy could not be taken without his aid, and Thetis,\nwho was aware that her son was destined to perish if he joined the\nexpedition, disguised him in female attire, and concealed him among\nthe daughters of King Lycome\u00b4des. Ulysses was sent to discover his\nretreat, which he effected by the following stratagem. Attired as a\ntravelling merchant, he presented himself at court, and displayed\nbefore the queen and her maidens, various articles of female attire.\nSome pieces of armor were disposed among the merchandise; by the order\nof Ulys\u00b4ses, a trumpet was suddenly blown, when the disguised\nAchil\u00b4les betrayed himself by seizing the armor. The young warrior was\nthen obliged to join the expedition. During the siege, Achil\u00b4les had a\ndispute with Agamemnon, concerning some female captives; considering\nhimself wronged, he withdrew from the contest, and no entreaties could\ninduce him to return to the field. The death of his friend Patroclus,\nwho fell by the hand of Hector, at length aroused him to action.\nAchil\u00b4les' armor, which he had lent to Patroclus, had become the spoil\nof Hector, and it was upon this occasion that Vulcan fabricated for\nthe hero, the famous suit which is described in the Iliad. Arrayed in\nthis Achil\u00b4les performed prodigies of valor, and at length killed\nHector, after a desperate combat. According to Homer, Achil\u00b4les took\nan ignoble revenge on the dead body of his foe, which he dragged at\nhis chariot-wheels, three times around the tomb of Patroclus. The\ncorpse of the Trojan hero was yielded at last, to the tears and\nsupplications of Priam, and a truce was granted to the Trojans, for\nthe performance of the funeral rites. Achil\u00b4les was himself slain soon\nafter; his ashes were mingled in a golden urn with those of\nPatroclus, and a tomb was erected to both heroes, on the promontory of\nSigoeum.\n\nThe vindictive spirit of Achil\u00b4les knew no repose, even in death.\nAfter the fall of Troy, his ghost appeared to the Greeks, and\ncommanded them, with fearful menaces in case of refusal, to sacrifice\non his tomb, Polyxena, one of the daughters of Priam. The unhappy\nmaiden was torn from her mother's arms, and immolated by Pyrrhus, the\nson of Achil\u00b4les. Hec\u00b4uba learned soon after the sad fate of her son\nPolydorus. This young prince, who had been commended by Priam to the\ncare of Polymnestor, king of Thrace, was treacherously murdered by\nthat monarch. The bereaved mother planned a terrible revenge.\nPromising disclosures with regard to hidden treasures, she induced\nPolymnestor and his children to visit her in secret. Then, aided by\nher fellow captives, Hec\u00b4uba murdered the young princes and put out\nthe father's eyes. While endeavoring to escape from the vengeance of\nthe Thracians, she was suddenly transformed into a dog.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXV.\n\n\nULYSSES.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Ulys\u00b4ses?\n\n_Ans._ He was king of Ithaca, and had been, like many other princes of\nGreece, a suitor of the beautiful Helen. Believing that he had no hope\nfor success among so many competitors, Ulys\u00b4ses asked the hand of\nPenel\u00b4ope, daughter of Icarus. His suit was granted; but when he was\nabout to depart with his bride, Icarus was so much grieved, that he\ntried to persuade Penel\u00b4ope to remain with him, and not accompany her\nhusband to Ithaca. Ulys\u00b4ses bade her act according to her inclination,\nsaying that she was free to remain, if such was her desire. Penel\u00b4ope\nmade no reply, but dropped her veil over her face. Icarus urged her no\nlonger, and when she was gone, he erected a statue to Modesty, on the\nspot where they parted. When the Grecian princes were called upon to\nrevenge the abduction of Helen, Ulys\u00b4ses was unwilling to leave his\npeaceful kingdom, and sacrifice the happiness he enjoyed in the\ncompany of Penel\u00b4ope. Hearing that Palame\u00b4des had come to summon him\nto the field, he pretended to be insane. He yoked a horse and a bull\ntogether, and began ploughing the sands of the sea-shore, sowing salt\ninstead of grain. Palame\u00b4des caused Telem\u00b4achus, the infant son of\nUlys\u00b4ses, to be laid before the plough, and the manner in which the\nfather hastened to remove the child, convinced every one that his\ninsanity was feigned. He was obliged, therefore, to join the\nexpedition against Troy, but he never forgave Palame\u00b4des for having\nexposed his stratagem. The manner in which Ulys\u00b4ses revenged himself\nis not calculated to give us a very high opinion of the hero. During\nthe siege, he brought forward a false accusation against Palame\u00b4des,\nwhich he supported so well, that the latter was condemned, and put to\ndeath.\n\nUlys\u00b4ses distinguished himself during the war, by his wisdom and\nprudence in council, and his courage on the field of battle. We have\nalready spoken of the part which he took in carrying off the Palladium\nof Troy. As a reward for his services, he received the armor of\nAchil\u00b4les, which Ajax had disputed with him.\n\nAfter the fall of Troy, Ulys\u00b4ses embarked with the intention of\nreturning to Greece, but he met with so many extraordinary adventures,\nthat it was only after ten years of peril and hardships, that he was\npermitted to land upon the shores of Ithaca.\n\nThe Odyssey, the second of the two great poems attributed to Homer,\nis a history of the wanderings of Ulys\u00b4ses. After some adventures of\nminor importance, the ships of the hero were overtaken by a storm\nwhich drove them southward for nine days, and as many nights, until\nthey reached the country of the Lotus-eaters. When the tempest abated,\nUlys\u00b4ses sent some of his companions on shore. They were kindly\nentertained by the Lotus-eaters, who regaled them with their own\nfavorite food, the lotus plant. This was of such a nature, that all\nwho partook of it forgot home and friends, and were filled with a sort\nof indolent contentment, so that they had no other desire than to\nremain always in that country. Ulys\u00b4ses was obliged to have these men\ndragged away by force, and even then, it was necessary to bind them\nwith ropes to the benches of the ship.\n\nThe escape of Ulys\u00b4ses from the cavern of the Cyclops and from the\nenchantments of Circe has been already related. After passing safely\nbetween Scylla and Charybdis, Ulys\u00b4ses landed in the island of\nThrinakia, where the cattle of Hyperion (the Sun) fed in verdant\npastures. Circe had warned the voyagers that these flocks should be\nheld inviolate, however pressing their wants might be. They were\ndetained a long time at Thrinakia by contrary winds; and Ulys\u00b4ses\nbound his companions by an oath that they would not touch the sacred\nherds. They were, however, so pressed by famine that they ventured one\nday, in the absence of Ulys\u00b4ses, to slay a number of the sacred\ncattle; vainly endeavoring to propitiate the offended god, by offering\na portion in sacrifice. Ulys\u00b4ses returning to the shore, was struck\nwith horror at their temerity, the more so on account of the fearful\nsigns which followed. The skins crept on the ground, and the joints of\nmeat lowed on the spits while roasting.\n\nAs the wind was now favorable, Ulys\u00b4ses hastened to fly from the fatal\nisland. The vengeance of the god pursued them on the sea, and a\nterrible storm arose, in which all perished, except Ulys\u00b4ses himself,\nwho was spared as having taken no part in the sacrilege. He formed a\nraft from the fragments of his ship, and was at length cast by the\nwaves upon the island of the nymph Calypso. This goddess entertained\nUlys\u00b4ses with much kindness, and even offered to share her immortality\nwith the hero, if he would consent to forget Ithaca and dwell forever\nin her happy island. Jupiter, however, sent Mercury to Calypso, with\nthe command that she should dismiss Ulys\u00b4ses, and provide him with all\nthat was necessary for his homeward voyage.\n\nThe goddess reluctantly obeyed; a raft was constructed and furnished,\nand Ulys\u00b4ses departed from the island. He sped prosperously for some\ndays, and was almost within sight of land, when a violent storm arose,\nin which he would have perished had he not been aided by a\ncompassionate sea nymph; Minerva, also, smoothed the billows before\nhim, and he swam safely to land.\n\nThe Ph\u00e6acians, on whose shores he had been cast, received him kindly,\nand fitted out a ship in which he sailed for Ithaca. Ulys\u00b4ses was\nasleep when the vessel touched the strand. The Ph\u00e6acians carried him\non shore without awaking him, and placed near him a chest filled with\ncostly gifts, after which they sailed away. Neptune was so much\ndispleased with the Ph\u00e6acians for aiding Ulys\u00b4ses, that, as their\nvessel was returning to port, he transformed it into a rock, which\ncontinued ever after to obstruct the mouth of their harbor.\n\nThe arrival of the hero could not have occurred more opportunely for\nthe deliverance of his wife, the faithful Penel\u00b4ope. When a long time\nhad elapsed after the fall of Troy, and no tidings were received of\nUlys\u00b4ses, it was generally believed that he had perished. More than a\nhundred nobles of Ithaca and the surrounding islands, became suitors\nfor the hand of Penel\u00b4ope; she however still cherished the hope of her\nhusband's return, and refused to entertain any proposal of marriage.\nThe suitors nevertheless persisted; they remained in the palace, which\nthey filled with riot and feasting, and continually urged Penel\u00b4ope to\nchoose a husband from among their number. She promised, at length,\nthat she would do so when she had completed a certain web of\nembroidery on which she was engaged. They agreed to wait, and\nPenel\u00b4ope deceived them for a long time, plying her needle diligently\nduring the day, and undoing the greater part of her work at night.\nThis device succeeded for three years, at the end of which time the\nsuitors became so importunate that Penel\u00b4ope could no longer resist.\nShe promised, therefore, that she would marry that man who should send\nan arrow from the bow of Ulys\u00b4ses, through twelve rings suspended in a\nline. The conditions were accepted: and it was on the very eve of the\nday appointed for the contest, that Ulys\u00b4ses landed in Ithaca. It was\nnecessary to conceal his return; for this purpose the hero disguised\nhimself as a beggar, and by the aid of Minerva, so changed his whole\nappearance that it was impossible for any one to recognize him. In\nthis character he was kindly received by Eum\u00e6us, a swine-herd, from\nwhom he learned all that had transpired, and the present distress of\nPenel\u00b4ope.\n\nTelem\u00b4achus, the son of Ulys\u00b4ses, had been absent for a long time in\nsearch of his father. He had visited the courts of the other kings who\nhad taken part in the Trojan war, but without obtaining any certain\ntidings. While still engaged in this quest, Minerva bade him return to\nIthaca; he obeyed, and the goddess contrived that he should arrive on\nthe same day with his father, and meet him in the hut of Eum\u00e6us. After\nmutual explanations, and affectionate greetings, the two heroes\nconsulted as to what measures they should take for the punishment of\nthe suitors, and the deliverance of Penel\u00b4ope. It was resolved that\nTelem\u00b4achus should proceed to the palace, and mingle with the suitors,\nas formerly; that Ulys\u00b4ses should also go, but in the disguise of a\nbeggar. Such persons were often admitted, in ancient times, to the\nhalls of chieftains and princes, where they entertained the guests\nwith stories of their wanderings, and were regaled with a portion of\nthe viands. On their arrival at the palace, they found the usual scene\nof riot and festivity. The suitors received Telem\u00b4achus with affected\njoy, although secretly mortified at the failure of their plots against\nhim. As Ulys\u00b4ses entered, a dog which lay in the court, half dead with\nage, raised his head in sudden recognition, fawned upon his old\nmaster, and expired. It was Argus, whom Ulys\u00b4ses had often led to the\nchase.\n\nThe banquet proceeded, but Telem\u00b4achus had much difficulty in\ndissembling his feelings when the suitors made his father a subject of\nmockery; and one of them carried his insolence so far as to strike the\ndisguised hero. At length, the time arrived for the contest of skill\nwhich was to decide the fate of Penel\u00b4ope. Twelve rings were suspended\nat equal distances, and Telem\u00b4achus brought from the armory the mighty\nbow of Ulys\u00b4ses, with its quiver of arrows; taking care, at the same\ntime, to remove all other weapons from the hall.\n\nThe first thing to be done, was to bend the bow, in order to attach\nthe string. This Telem\u00b4achus tried to do, and was obliged to confess\nthat his strength was unequal to the effort. He passed the bow to one\nof the suitors, who was compelled to yield it in turn, amid the\nraillery of his companions. When several had failed in the same\nmanner, Ulys\u00b4ses begged that he might be allowed to try his skill. The\nrequest was received with shouts of derision, and some would have\ndriven the insolent beggar from the hall. Telem\u00b4achus interfered, and\nremarking, with affected indifference, that they might as well gratify\nthe old man, bade him try. Ulys\u00b4ses took the bow, and the suitors were\namazed to see him handle the mighty weapon as if it had been a\nplaything. Their surprise was still greater, when, having adjusted the\ncord, and chosen an arrow from the quiver, he took such steady aim\nthat the arrow sped unerringly through all the rings; he then\nexclaimed, \"Now for another mark!\" and aimed a second shaft at the\nmost insolent of the suitors. He fell dead, and as the others rushed\nforward, Telem\u00b4achus placed himself by his father's side, with Eum\u00e6us\nand other armed retainers. The suitors, deprived of their weapons, and\nterrified at the aspect of the injured prince, whom they recognized\ntoo late, turned to fly, but Eum\u00e6us secured the doors. A desperate\nstruggle ensued, in which all were slain, and Ulys\u00b4ses was left master\nof his palace and his kingdom. The Odyssey concludes with a\ndescription of the rejoicings which followed, and the happiness\nenjoyed by Ulys\u00b4ses and Penel\u00b4ope after their long separation.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXVI.\n\n\nORESTES.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Orestes?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Agamemnon and Clytemnestra. At the time of\nhis father's assassination, Orestes, then a child, was saved by his\nsister Electra, who sent him secretly to their uncle Strophius, king\nof Phocis. Here he formed a friendship with Pylades, the son of that\nmonarch, which was so true and constant that it passed into a proverb.\nOrestes was urged by messages from his sister Electra, to avenge the\nmurder of his father, and her counsels were confirmed by the responses\nof the oracle of Apollo at Delphi. Orestes, accompanied by his friend\nPyl\u00b4ades, repaired in disguise to Mycen\u00e6. Here he announced himself to\nClytemnestra as a messenger from Strophius, bringing news of the death\nof her son Orestes. The guilty queen feigned to grieve at these\ntidings, but \u00c6gisthus made no effort to conceal his satisfaction.\nOrestes was now seized with horror at the thought of the deed which he\nwas about to commit, but the reproaches of Electra, and the\nremembrance of his father's cruel fate, banished every thought of\npity, and he slew Clytemnestra and \u00c6gisthus with his own hand. This\nact, however justified by the guilt of Clytemnestra, and the express\ncommand of the gods, was abhorrent to nature, and could not pass\nunavenged. Orestes was pursued by the Furies, and wandered frantic and\ndespairing from land to land, always accompanied by the faithful\nPyl\u00b4ades.\n\nThe oracle of Apollo was consulted, and the Pythia declared that\nOrestes would not be delivered until he had visited the Tauric\nChersone\u00b4sus, and brought from thence to Argos, a certain statue of\nDiana, from the temple of that goddess. It was the custom at Tauris,\nto sacrifice all strangers at the altar of Diana; Orestes and Pyl\u00b4ades\nwere accordingly seized on their arrival, and carried as victims to\nthe temple. The officiating priestess was no other than Iphigenia, the\nsister of Orestes, whom Diana had saved when she was about to be\nimmolated at Aulis. Perceiving that the strangers were Greeks, she\noffered to spare the life of one, on condition that he would be the\nbearer of a letter to Greece.\n\nThis proposal gave rise to a memorable contest of friendship, each\ndesiring to sacrifice himself for the other. Pyl\u00b4ades at length\nyielded to Orestes, and consented to take the letter. His surprise was\ngreat on perceiving that it was addressed to Orestes himself; an\nexplanation followed, and Iphigenia resolved to fly from Tauris with\nher brother. Their plans were so well laid, that they not only\nsucceeded in escaping unobserved, but were also enabled to carry off\nthe statue of Diana, which they brought to Argos.\n\nOrestes reigned many years in Mycen\u00e6, and was married to his cousin\nHermi\u00b4one, daughter of Menela\u00b4us and Helen. Pyl\u00b4ades married Electra,\nthe sister of his friend.\n\nThe tragic poets add many incidents to the story of Orestes. They say\nthat when pursued by the Furies, he took refuge in the temple of\nApollo, at Delphi. By the command of that god, he repaired to Athens,\nwhere he was tried by the court of Areop\u00b4agus. The judges were divided\nin their sentiments, but Minerva interfered in behalf of Orestes, and\nhe was acquitted.\n\n\nHECTOR.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Hector?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Priam and Hec\u00b4uba, and the most valiant of\nall the Trojan chiefs who fought against the Greeks. The Fates had\ndecreed that Troy should not be taken as long as Hector lived. The\nhero knew that he was destined to fall before the walls of his native\ncity, and that he could at best only postpone the ruin of his country\nfor a little time. Not discouraged by this, he performed prodigies of\nvalor, and slew, with his own hand, Patroclus, the friend of\nAchil\u00b4les. He next went out to meet Achil\u00b4les himself, notwithstanding\nthe remonstrances of Priam and Hec\u00b4uba, and the tears of his wife\nAndrom\u00b4ache. He fell as we have seen, and this event was shortly\nfollowed by the overthrow of his father's kingdom. Hector was not only\ndistinguished as a warrior and a patriot; he was equally admirable as\na son, husband, and father; and his character is perhaps the noblest\nwhich has been described by any writer of antiquity.\n\nWhen Troy was taken, Calchas excited much uneasiness among the Greeks,\nby a prediction, that if Asty\u00b4anax, the son of Hector, were permitted\nto live, he would one day avenge his father's death, and raise Troy\nfrom its ruins. Diligent search was therefore made for the child, who\nhad been concealed by his mother in the recesses of Hector's tomb.\nHere he was discovered by Ulys\u00b4ses. Disregarding the prayers of the\nunhappy Androm\u00b4ache, the Grecian commanders precipitated the boy from\nthe summit of a lofty tower.\n\n\nOEDIPUS--ETEOCLES AND POLYNICES.\n\n_Ques._ What was the story of these princes?\n\n_Ans._ Oedipus was the son of La\u00b4ius, king of Thebes. He was exposed\nby his father immediately on his birth, to avoid the fulfillment of an\noracle which declared that La\u00b4ius was destined to fall by the hand of\none of his children. Oedipus was found by a herdsman, who brought him\nto Pol\u00b4ybus, king of Corinth. This monarch was childless, and adopted\nthe infant as his own.\n\nWhen Oedipus was grown to manhood, he desired to learn something of\nhis real parentage, and went to consult the oracle of Delphi. The god\nwarned him to shun his native country, declaring that if he returned\nthither, he would become the murderer of his father, and be guilty of\ncrimes which would draw upon him the vengeance of the gods. Oedipus\nunderstood this of Corinth, and instead of returning to that city,\nproceeded to Thebes. Here he slew his father La\u00b4ius in an accidental\nencounter, and, after his victory over the Sphinx, which we have\nalready mentioned, he fulfilled the other predictions of the oracle.\n\nOedipus reigned many years in Thebes before he discovered his\nparentage, and the crimes which he had unknowingly committed. In his\ndespair, he put out his eyes, and went into exile, leaving the throne\nto his sons Ete\u00b4ocles and Polyni\u00b4ces. It was agreed between the\nbrothers that they should reign each a year alternately. Ete\u00b4ocles\nfirst ascended the throne; but when the year had expired, he refused\nto resign the crown. Polyni\u00b4ces was indignant at this breach of faith,\nand fled to Argos, where he married the daughter of King Adrastus.\nThis monarch assembled a large army to enforce the claims of his\nson-in-law. The command of the expedition was given to seven\nchieftains, who were to attack each one of the seven gates of Thebes.\n\nAfter all the Argive leaders, except Adrastus, had perished before the\nwalls, it was proposed that Ete\u00b4ocles and Polyni\u00b4ces should decide the\nwar by single combat. The brothers fought with such animosity that\nboth fell, mortally wounded. The battle was then renewed, and the\nArgives were totally defeated. Creon, the uncle of the fallen princes,\nwas now king of Thebes; he had the body of Ete\u00b4ocles honorably buried,\nbut he left the remains of Polyni\u00b4ces exposed to the dogs and\nvultures, and forbade, under pain of death, that any one should bestow\non him the rites of sepulture. He thus carried his vengeance beyond\nthe grave, as, according to Greek superstition, the souls of the\nunburied were excluded for a hundred years from the Elysian fields.\n\nAntig\u00b4one, the daughter of Oedipus, had, meanwhile, accompanied her\nfather in his exile, and watched over him with touching devotion until\ndeath released her from this filial duty. She no sooner learned the\ncruel order of Creon, than she resolved, at whatever hazard, to\nperform the funeral rites for Polyni\u00b4ces. She succeeded in approaching\nthe corpse, which she covered with earth, making the usual libations.\n\nWhile thus engaged, Antig\u00b4one was seized and brought before Creon. She\ndefended nobly the pious act which she had performed, and was\ncondemned by the tyrant to be entombed alive.\n\nThe misfortunes of Oedipus and his children have been celebrated by\nthree Greek tragedians: \u00c6schylus, Sophocles and Euripides. In the\ntragedy of Sophocles which bears her name, the character of Antig\u00b4one\nis beautifully drawn. We have the sternest heroism, tempered always by\nthe tenderness of filial piety and sisterly devotion. The whole\npresents the finest ideal of womanly excellence which can be found in\nthe writings of any ancient poet.\n\nThe following lines are taken from Dale's translation of the\nAntig\u00b4one. Creon reproaches the heroine with having violated the laws;\nshe replies:\n\n          \"Ne'er did eternal Jove such laws ordain,\n    Or Justice, throned amid th' infernal powers,\n    Who on mankind these holier rites imposed--\n    Nor can I deem thine edict armed with power\n    To contravene the firm unwritten laws\n    Of the just gods, thyself a weak frail mortal!\n                        ... I knew before\n    That I must die, though thou had'st ne'er proclaimed it,\n    And if I perish ere th' allotted term,\n    I deem that death a blessing. Who that lives\n    Like me encompassed by unnumbered ills,\n    But would account it blessedness to die?\n    If then I meet the doom thy laws assign,\n    It nothing grieves me. Had I left my brother,\n    From my own mother sprung, on the bare earth\n    To lie unburied, that, indeed, might grieve me;\n    But for this deed I mourn not.\" ...\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXVII.\n\n\n\u00c6NEAS.\n\n_Ques._ Who was \u00c6ne\u00b4as?\n\n_Ans._ He was a Trojan chief, the son of Venus and Anchi\u00b4ses. He was\nborn on Mount Ida, where he was nurtured by the Dryads until he had\nattained his fifth year, when he was brought to his father. Anchi\u00b4ses\nwas not on friendly terms with the family of Priam, but this coldness\ndid not prevent \u00c6ne\u00b4as from exerting himself to the utmost in defence\nof his country. Excepting Hector only, there was no Trojan who so\ndistinguished himself by his valor. When Troy was taken, \u00c6ne\u00b4as made\nhis escape from the burning city, bearing on his shoulders the aged\nAnchi\u00b4ses, and leading his little son Ascanius by the hand. His wife\nwas separated from him in the confusion and darkness, and perished by\nthe sword of the enemy. Anchises bore with him the sacred Penates of\nTroy, and his household gods. \u00c6ne\u00b4as was joined by the greater part of\nthe Trojans, both men and women, who had escaped from the horrors of\nthat fatal night. They concealed themselves in the neighboring\nmountains until the Greeks had departed, after which they constructed\na fleet of twenty sail. In the second year after the destruction of\nTroy, the remnant of the Trojans embarked under the guidance of \u00c6ne\u00b4as\nin search of new settlements. After many wanderings and adventures,\nthey landed at Epi\u00b4rus, and were rejoiced to learn that Hel\u00b4enus, one\nof the sons of Priam, was reigning in that country. He had married\nAndrom\u00b4ache, and the meeting of \u00c6ne\u00b4as with the widow of the great\nHector is the subject of a very beautiful passage in the \u00c6neid. The\nPenates of Troy had appeared at night to Anchi\u00b4ses, and revealed to\nhim that Italy was the land allotted by the Fates to the exiled\nTrojans. \u00c6ne\u00b4as recalled a prediction of Cassandra to the same effect;\nand Hel\u00b4enus, who was endowed with the gift of prophecy, now confirmed\nwhat had been already foretold. He rendered his exiled countrymen all\nthe assistance in his power, and dismissed them at length, loaded with\ncostly gifts. \u00c6ne\u00b4as was destined to pass through many perils before\nlanding on the shores of Italy. In the seventh year of their\nwanderings, the Trojans were driven by a storm on the coast of Africa;\nhere they were kindly entertained by Dido, who was then engaged in the\nerection of her new city of Carthage. The queen admired the great\nqualities of the Trojan chief, and felt her heart moved with\ncompassion at the sight of so much undeserved misfortune. She\nresolved, therefore, to share her throne with the hero, and to offer\nhis followers a permanent settlement in the country. This proposal\nseems not to have been displeasing either to \u00c6ne\u00b4as or to the Trojans.\nForgetful of the decrees of fate, they lingered many months in idle\npleasure, and \u00c6ne\u00b4as was only roused to action by the direct\nintervention of the gods. Jupiter sent Mercury to the hero, commanding\nhim to embark without delay, and proceed to his destined settlement in\nItaly. \u00c6ne\u00b4as obeyed, and made the necessary preparations for\ndeparture, disregarding the tears and reproaches of the queen.\n\nWhen Dido found that all was unavailing, and that the Trojans had\nalready embarked, she killed herself in despair.\n\n\u00c6ne\u00b4as spent some time in Sicily, where he celebrated funeral games in\nhonor of his father, who had died there the preceding year. He left\nwith Acestes, a Trojan prince who governed a part of the island, the\nwomen, the aged men, and all who were likely to be useless in the wars\nwhich awaited him. \u00c6ne\u00b4as next landed at Cum\u00e6, in Italy. This was the\nabode of a famous Sibyl, of whom we will speak elsewhere. She foretold\nto the hero much that was to happen during his settlement in Italy;\nbut in order that he might be fully informed of the future destinies\nof his race, she offered to conduct him to the world of shades. \u00c6ne\u00b4as\nhaving plucked, in the sacred grove, a golden bough as a gift to\nProser\u00b4pine, descended with the Sibyl to the dreary realms of Pluto.\nAfter seeing much that was wonderful, and passing through regions\ninhabited by different classes of departed souls, they entered the\nhappy plains of Elysium. This was the abode of the heroes and other\nfavorites of the gods. Here, in a fragrant meadow, \u00c6ne\u00b4as found the\nshade of Anchi\u00b4ses, who showed him the souls which were destined to\nreturn to earth, and become the future heroes of Rome. Anchi\u00b4ses also\nrecounted to \u00c6ne\u00b4as the glorious deeds which they were one day to\nperform. In this passage, Virgil takes occasion to gratify the vanity\nof Augustus and the great families of Rome, by introducing their names\nand actions in the prophetic discourse of Anchi\u00b4ses.\n\nReturning to upper air, \u00c6ne\u00b4as took leave of the sibyl, and pursued\nhis voyage along the Italian coast, anchoring at length in the mouth\nof the Tiber.\n\nThe country around was governed by a prince named Latinus, the son of\nFaunus and the nymph Marica. This prince had one child, a daughter\nnamed Lavinia. Her hand had been promised to Turnus, prince of the\nRutulians, but Latinus was warned by an oracle that his destined\nson-in-law was to come from afar, and that Lavinia was to wed a\nforeigner. When \u00c6ne\u00b4as sent an embassy to Latinus, requesting\npermission to settle in the country, that prince believed that the\nTrojan chief was the person pointed out by the oracle, and invited\nhim to his palace. All now seemed to promise a peaceful settlement to\nthe harassed Trojans, but the enmity of Juno was not yet appeased. She\nsent the Fury Alecto to the palace of Turnus, with orders to excite\nthis prince against the stranger, who was about to rob him of his\npromised bride. A long war ensued, which forms the subject of the\nconcluding books of the \u00c6neid. At length Turnus fell in a personal\ncombat with \u00c6ne\u00b4as. The hand of Lavinia was the price of victory, and\nfrom the Trojan hero were descended the founders of Rome.\n\nThe \u00c6neid concludes with the death of Turnus, but we have some further\nparticulars handed down by tradition. \u00c6neas built a city, called from\nhis bride, Lavinium. Here he governed his Trojan and Italian subjects,\nwho became one people under the common name of Latins. The new kingdom\nwas attacked by several of the neighboring princes, led by Mezentius,\nking of Etruria. \u00c6neas defeated the allies, but was killed in the\nmoment of victory. The family of Julii, made illustrious by Julius\nC\u00e6sar, claimed descent from Iulus, grandson of \u00c6neas.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXVIII.\n\n\nSIBYLS--AUGURS.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Sibyls?\n\n_Ans._ The Sibyll\u00e6, or Sibyls, were certain females, supposed to be\ninspired by Heaven, who flourished at different times and in different\nparts of the world. According to the historian Varro, they were ten in\nnumber. The most celebrated was the Cum\u00e6an Sibyl, of whom the poets\ngive the following account. Apollo sought the love of the young\nprophetess, and promised to give her whatever she should demand. The\nsibyl desired that she might live as many years as she had grains of\nsand in her hand; but as she forgot to ask for health and youthful\nbloom, this long life proved rather a burden than a benefit. She had\nrejected the suit of Apollo, and the god refused, therefore, to\nwithdraw his gift or mitigate the severity of her lot. This sibyl had\nalready lived seven hundred years when \u00c6ne\u00b4as came to Italy, and six\ncenturies still remained of the time granted by Apollo. She\naccompanied \u00c6ne\u00b4as on his visit to the lower world. According to a\nwell-known Roman legend, one of the sibyls came to the palace of the\nsecond Tarquin with nine volumes, which she offered to sell at a very\nhigh price. The king declined the offer; the sibyl immediately\ndisappeared and burned three of the volumes. Returning soon after, she\nasked the same price for the remaining six books; and when Tarquin\nagain refused to buy them, she burned three more, and still persisted\nin demanding the same sum of money for those that were left. This\nextraordinary conduct astonished the monarch, and with the advice of\nthe Augurs he bought the books, upon which the sibyl disappeared and\nwas never seen after. These books were preserved with great care, and\nwere called the Sibylline Verses. A college of priests was appointed\nto take charge of them, and they were consulted with the greatest\nsolemnity, whenever the state seemed to be in danger. When the Capitol\nwas burned in the troubles raised by Sylla, the Sibylline Verses are\nsaid by some to have perished in the conflagration. It is believed,\nhowever, on good authority, that they were in existence as late as the\nfourth century, when they were destroyed by command of the Emperor\nHonorius. Various collections were afterwards made, which are\ngenerally admitted to be forgeries.\n\nDifferent opinions have prevailed with regard to the prophecies of the\nsibyls, some of which, it is said, pointed clearly to the advent of a\nRedeemer, the time of his coming, and the submission of Rome to the\nnew dispensation. It has been thought that these passages were\ninvented by later Christian writers, but Bishop Horsley, a learned\nEnglish divine, thinks it more reasonable to suppose that the\nsibylline books contained the records of prophecies which were granted\nin primitive times, to nations outside of the patriarchal and Jewish\nraces. He cites in favor of this opinion, the fact that St. Justin, in\nhis apology addressed to the Emperor Marcus Antoninus, appeals\nconfidently to the sibylline prophecies, and at that time, about the\nmiddle of the second century, it was not possible that the Christians\nshould have added anything to them. There are also passages in the\nfourth Eclogue of Virgil which prove that the expectation of a\nSaviour, and the belief that the time of his advent was approaching,\nexisted even among the pagans.\n\n\nDivination by Omens--The Augurs.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Augurs?\n\n_Ans._ They were priests whose office it was to observe and interpret\nomens. This science was derived from the ancient Etrurians. There were\nfive principal classes of omens from which the Augurs were supposed to\nforetell future events, the good or ill success of an undertaking,\netc. The first were drawn from the phenomena of nature, such as\nthunder, lightning, comets, etc. The second kind of omen was obtained\nby observing the cries and the flight of birds. In the third class we\nmay place the appetite of the sacred chickens; when they did not eat,\nthe omen was so bad that it was considered unlucky to give battle, or\nundertake anything of importance. It happened once that a Roman\ncommander, (Claudius Pulcher,) when about to engage the fleet of the\nenemy, was warned by the Augurs that the sacred chickens would not\neat. He replied, with very natural contempt, that if they would not\neat, they might drink, and had them thrown into the sea. It is\nbelieved that the terrible defeat the Romans suffered on that day was\nowing, in great part, to the discouragement of the sailors, who\nsupposed that their commander had forfeited the favor of the gods by\nthis act of sacrilege.\n\nOmens were drawn from the appearance of the entrails of animals\noffered in sacrifice, also from the meeting with quadrupeds in any\nunaccustomed place.\n\nThe fifth class of omens was taken from different casualties, such as\nspilling salt, stumbling on the threshold, sneezing, meeting a hare,\nwolf, fox, etc. Some of these last superstitions prevail, more or\nless, to the present day.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXXIX.\n\n\nORACLES.\n\n_Ques._ What do you understand by oracles?\n\n_Ans._ The places where the heathen divinities were supposed to answer\nthose who consulted them, were called oracles. This word was also\napplied to the responses given.\n\n_Ques._ Name some of the more famous oracles?\n\n_Ans._ Among the most celebrated were, the oracles of Jupiter at\nDodo\u00b4na; of Apollo, at Delphi; of Trophonius, near Lebe\u00b4dea in\nBoeotia; of Jupiter Ammon, in the deserts of Lybia; of \u00c6sculapius at\nEpidaurus; and the Castalian Fount.\n\n_Ques._ Describe the oracle of Dodo\u00b4na.\n\n_Ans._ Dodo\u00b4na was a town of Epirus, probably situated in the valley\nnow called Joannina, but the exact site has not been ascertained. In\nthe earlier times Jupiter gave answers to his votaries by means of a\nso-called vocal oak or beach. Brazen instruments, suspended from the\nhigher branches, clashed together when moved by the wind. The\npriestesses who were appointed to explain the responses of the oracle\ncould attach whatever meaning they pleased to these inarticulate\nsounds. Later, the Corcyrians presented to the temple a brazen caldron\nsurmounted by a figure of the same metal; the statue held in its hand\na whip, the lash of which consisted of three chains, each having an\nastragalus (a small bone) at the end. These, when moved by the winds,\nstruck the caldron, and produced so continuous a sound that four\nhundred vibrations were sometimes counted before it ceased.\nDemosthenes tells us that the responses delivered to the Athenians at\nDodo\u00b4na were carefully preserved in the public archives; their\nreverence for the oracle did not, however, prevent them from accusing\nthe priestess of being influenced by bribes when they were\ndissatisfied with her answers.\n\nThe oracle of Dodo\u00b4na was probably the most ancient in Greece. The\ntemple was founded by the Pelasgi long before the siege of Troy; it\nwas partially destroyed by the \u00c6tolians during the Social War, and it\nwould seem that it never recovered from this disaster. The town\nexisted many centuries later; and we read of a bishop of Dodo\u00b4na who\nattended the council of Ephesus.\n\n_Ques._ What does Diodorus tell us concerning the oracle at Delphi?\n\n_Ans._ This historian relates that a shepherd, while feeding his\nflocks on the side of Mount Parnassus, observed that his sheep and\ngoats, on approaching a certain cavity in the earth, began to skip\nand dance about in an extraordinary manner. As he drew near to examine\nthe cause of this phenomenon, the vapors, exhaling from the earth,\naffected him in the same way; his body was convulsed, and he spoke\nwords which revealed futurity. Others experienced similar effects, and\nthe exhalation was supposed to have a certain divine property. The\ncavity was approached with reverence; a tripod was placed over it; and\na priestess or Pythia was appointed to preside. The words which she\nuttered when under the influence of the vapor were considered to be\ninspired by Apollo; crowds came to consult the oracle; a temple was\nbuilt, and the city of Delphi arose insensibly around the spot.\n\nAs the oracle grew in repute it became necessary to appoint a second\nand a third Pythia to answer those who came to consult the god. The\nPythia could not prophesy until she had become intoxicated by the\nvapor from the sanctuary. This effect was not produced at all times,\nand on some days it was not permitted to consult the oracle. Spring\nwas considered the most propitious season. When Apollo was favorably\ndisposed, his approach was made known by the moving of a laurel that\nstood before the gate of the temple. The sacred tree was then seen to\ntremble in every leaf.\n\nThe Pythia was obliged to prepare by fasts, sacrifices and\npurifications before she ascended the tripod. When under the influence\nof the mysterious vapor, her hair stood erect, her eyes flashed, she\nfoamed at the mouth, and a convulsive trembling seized her whole body.\n\nShe then spoke prophetic words, which were carefully noted by the\nattendant priests. The oracles were sometimes in verse, but more\ncommonly in prose; in the latter case they were immediately versified\nby poets employed for that purpose.\n\nMany remarkable oracles are recorded by Herodotus as having been\ndelivered at Delphi, but as a general thing the answers were\nambiguous, and so cautiously worded as to seem true, whatever might be\nthe event. Such was the answer given to Croe\u00b4sus, king of Lydia, when\nhe consulted the oracle concerning the result of his expedition\nagainst the Medes. The Pythia told him that by crossing the river\nHalys he would ruin a great empire, but as she did not say what\nempire, whether his own or that of his enemies, the oracle could not\nfail of being fulfilled. There is no doubt that the Pythia was often\ninfluenced by persuasion or bribes, and many illustrious persons were\naccused of having bought the oracles they desired.\n\nThe temple of Apollo at Delphi was enriched by the offerings of\ndifferent princes, and the surrounding nations vied with one another\nin the magnificence of their gifts. The building was destroyed by fire\nin the year 548 B. C., but was soon rebuilt. Xerxes, after having\nforced the pass of Thermopyl\u00e6, sent a detachment of his army to\nplunder the treasures of Delphi. The expedition was unsuccessful,\nowing, as the Delphians asserted, to a manifest interposition of the\ndeity. Afterwards, Philome\u00b4lus, a Phocian general, seized these\ntreasures to pay his troops. He is said to have carried off, in gold\nand silver, a sum equal to ten million dollars. Still later Delphi was\nthreatened by the Gauls, under their king Brennus. According to\nPausanias, the city and temple were saved by Pan, as we have seen in\nthe account given of that god; but others declare that the invaders\npossessed themselves of great booty. Sylla also plundered Delphi, and\nNero took from it, at one time, no less than five hundred statues of\nbronze.\n\nThe temple was finally dismantled by Constantine the Great, who\nadorned his Hippodrome with the sacred tripods.\n\nNo traces are known to exist of the cavern whence issued the sacred\nvapor, but some have thought it might be discovered by searching in\nthe central part of the ruins of the ancient city.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Trophonius, and for what was his oracle remarkable?\n\n_Ans._ Trophonius, and his brother Agame\u00b4des were the architects of\nthe temple of Apollo at Delphi. According to one legend, when the\nedifice was finished, they asked the god to reward them for their\nlabor. Apollo promised that he would recompense them on the seventh\nday, and bade them live happily during the interval. On the seventh\nnight the brothers died in their sleep. The oracle is said to have\nbeen discovered on the following occasion: In a time of severe drought\nthe Boeotians consulted Apollo at Delphi, and were directed to seek\naid from Trophonius in Lebadea. They proceeded thither, and seeing a\nswarm of bees enter a chasm in the earth, they followed and discovered\na deep cavern. Here they found the oracle of Trophonius, and the aid\nthey sought.\n\n_Ques._ What ceremonies were observed in consulting this oracle?\n\n_Ans._ The votary was first purified by solemn ablutions; then, after\noffering sacrifice, and drinking of a water called Lethe, or oblivion,\nhe descended by means of ladders into the first, or upper cavern. The\nopening into the lower cave was extremely narrow, and there was\napparently nothing to aid the descent. Here, those who were courageous\nenough to advance, lay upon the ground with their feet within the\nentrance, taking care to hold in each hand a certain composition of\nhoney. They were then carried downwards with great force, as by the\ncurrent of a rapid river. In the mysterious depths of the lower cave,\nthe future was revealed, but not to all in the same manner; some saw,\nothers heard what they desired to know.\n\nIt has been frequently asserted that those who entered the cave of\nTrophonius never smiled and we should judge, from the accounts given\nby ancient writers, that they were subjected to a treatment closely\nresembling what we now call animal magnetism, or mesmerism.\n\n_Ques._ Where was the temple of Jupiter Ammon?\n\n_Ans._ It was situated in an oasis of the Libyan desert, called by the\nancients Ammon, and by the modern Arabs, Siwah. It is about five\ndegrees west of Cairo.\n\nThe temple is said to have been founded by Bacchus under the following\ncircumstances. While marching through the Libyan desert, Bacchus came\nto a barren waste of sand where his whole army was in danger of\nperishing for want of water. He called on Jupiter for aid, and a ram\nsuddenly appeared, which guided them to a verdant oasis, in the midst\nof which sparkled a clear fountain. Bacchus erected on the spot, a\ntemple which he dedicated to Jupiter. As the surrounding country was\ncalled Hammo\u00b4des from Hammon or Ammon, sand, the god was worshipped\nhere under this title, and was always represented as having the head\nand horns of a ram. The temple soon became celebrated as an oracle,\nand was enriched, like that of Delphi, by splendid offerings. When\nCamby\u00b4ses invaded Egypt, he sent a large body of troops across the\ndesert to seize its treasures. As nothing was ever heard of this\nexpedition, it seems probable that the Persians were purposely misled\nby their Egyptian guides, and thus perished in the desert. Alexander\nthe Great visited the temple of Jupiter Ammon to question the oracle\nas to his parentage; and the priests, who were undoubtedly apprised of\nthe object of his visit, did not wait to be questioned, but saluted\nthe king as the son of Jupiter. The site of this temple was discovered\nin the last century by an English traveller, but the latest and best\naccount is given by Belzoni, who visited it in 1816. The oasis is\nabout six miles in length, with an average breadth of four miles. It\nis fertile and produces in abundance, rice, wheat and fruits. The\nruins of the temple are not extensive; they are, however, interesting,\nas many pieces of sculpture, including figures of goats with rams'\nheads, are found in a good state of preservation. In a beautiful grove\nof palms, towards the centre of the oasis, is the famous Fons Solis,\nor Fountain of the Sun, which does not, however, correspond with the\ndescription given by Herodotus. According to that historian, this\nfountain was always tepid at dawn, icy cold at noon; it grew warm\nagain towards sunset, and was boiling hot at midnight. Belzoni says\nthat this account is quite exaggerated, although the water of the\nfountain felt to him much warmer at midnight than at noon-day. The\ntruth seems to be that little or no change takes place in the\nfountain, which is well shaded and very deep. The great change which\nreally takes place in the atmosphere is probably the cause of the\napparent variation in the temperature of the fountain. Belzoni had no\nthermometer with him, so that he was unable to test the truth of this\nsupposition.\n\n_Ques._ Where was the oracle of \u00c6sculapius?\n\n_Ans._ This god was consulted by the sick in many places, but his most\ncelebrated oracle was in his native city of Epidaurus in Argolis. This\noracle was so famous that in the year 293 B. C., when a terrible\npestilence was raging in Rome, the Senate sent a solemn embassy to\nEpidaurus to implore the aid of \u00c6sculapius. The god was propitious,\nand accompanied the returning embassy in the form of a serpent.\nAccording to another account, the priests sent to Rome a sacred\nserpent which they nourished in the temple.\n\n_Ques._ What was particularly remarkable in the oracles of \u00c6sculapius?\n\n_Ans._ It would seem that the priests, who had probably some skill in\nmedicine, made use of every means calculated to encourage the\nvotaries, and inspire them with a confident hope of recovery. They\nwere obliged to sleep in the temple, and we should judge, from the\naccounts given by ancient writers, that they were subjected to a\ntreatment closely resembling what we now call animal magnetism, or\nmesmerism.\n\nThe temple of Epidaurus was plundered by Sylla to defray the expenses\nof the war against Mithridates.\n\n_Ques._ Where was the Castalian Fount?\n\n_Ans._ There were two celebrated springs of that name; one on Mount\nParnassus, which was sacred to the Muses, and another near Daphne, in\nSyria. This last was believed to impart the knowledge of futurity to\nthose who drank of its waters. The oracle of this fountain promised\nthe empire to Hadrian, while he was yet in a private station. When he\nascended the throne, he had the fountain shut up with stones.\n\n_Ques._ What opinions did the early Christian writers hold with regard\nto the heathen oracles?\n\n_Ans._ They believed that although the responses were to be\nattributed, as a general thing, to mere human jugglery and imposture,\nthere were occasions in which it was impossible to doubt the direct\nagency of evil spirits. We read in Scripture that Satan spoke by the\nmouths of the possessed, and none were more likely to fall under this\ndemoniac influence than the priests and other ministrants in these\nshrines of imposture. Many instances are recorded where Christians\nimposed silence on oracles by pronouncing the name of Jesus Christ, or\nby the sign of the cross; and sometimes the same effect was produced\nby their simple presence in the temple.\n\n_Ques._ At what period did the oracles cease to give responses?\n\n_Ans._ No exact date can be assigned; as Christianity spread, these\nimpostures fell gradually into disrepute, and were at length entirely\nabandoned. It has been asserted that the oracles became silent at the\nbirth of Christ, but this is an error. Milton, however adopts this\nidea in his beautiful Hymn of the Nativity:\n\n    \"The oracles are dumb;\n    No voice or hideous hum\n      Rings through the arched roof in words deceiving.\n    Apollo from his shrine\n    Can no more divine,\n      With hollow shriek the steep of Delphos leaving.\n    No nightly trance or breathed spell\n    Inspires the pale-eyed priest from the prophetic cell.\"\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XL.\n\n\nCLASSIC GAMES.\n\n_Ques._ Why is a notice of these games appropriate in this place?\n\n_Ans._ Because they were closely connected with the religious\nobservances of the Greeks. They were begun and ended with solemn\nsacrifices, and formed a part in the celebration of the principal\nfestivals held in honor of the gods. These remarks apply also to the\nGreek drama.\n\n_Ques._ What games were solemnized in Greece?\n\n_Ans._ They were of four kinds: the Olympic, the Pythian, the Ne\u00b4mean,\nand the Isthmian.\n\n_Ques._ Who instituted the Olympic games?\n\n_Ans._ They were very ancient; their first institution was attributed\nby the Greeks to Hercules. They were revived by Iphitus, king of Elis,\nwho obtained for them the solemn sanction of the Delphic oracle. The\nOlympian games were celebrated at intervals of forty-nine and fifty\nlunar months alternately, so that they fell sometimes in the month\nApollonius, (July); sometimes in the month Parthenius, (August). The\ntime of their celebration was a period of sacred truce, sufficiently\nprolonged to enable persons to attend the games from every part of\nGreece, and return to their homes in safety. The interval between the\ncelebrations was called an Olympiad, and the Greeks usually counted\ntime in this manner. The Olympiads were reckoned only from the year\n776, B. C., although the games had been revived by Iphitus more than a\ncentury earlier. The Olympic festival lasted five days. The games\nconsisted of chariot, horse and foot races; leaping, wrestling,\nboxing, throwing the discus or quoit, etc. All persons were admitted\nto contend in these games who could prove that they were free, of pure\nHellenic blood, and that their characters had never been stained by\nany base or immoral act. So great was the importance attached to race,\nthat even the kings of Macedon were obliged to prove their Hellenic\ndescent before they were allowed to enter as competitors. It is almost\nimpossible for us to realize the importance attached by the Greeks to\na victory gained in any of these exercises. The prize itself was a\ncrown of wild olive. This was cut from a tree in the sacred grove of\nOlympia, which was said to have been brought by Hercules from the land\nof the Hyperboreans. A palm branch was at the same time placed in the\nvictor's hand, and his name was proclaimed by the herald. On his\nreturn home, more distinguished honors awaited him. He entered his\nnative city, not by the gate, but through a breach made in the walls\nfor his reception. Banquets were given to him by his friends, at which\nodes were sung in honor of his victory. The horse and chariot races\nheld the highest rank, and singularly enough, the honor of the victory\nbelonged to the owner of the horse or chariot, although he himself\nshould not have been present at the games.\n\nThe Greek historians relate that three couriers were received by\nPhilip of Macedon on the same day, each being the bearer of joyful\ntidings. The first announced that his general had gained a great\nvictory; the second, that his horse had won the prize in the Olympic\ngames; while the third brought news of the birth of his son,\nafterwards Alexander the Great. This passage is sufficient to show\nwhat importance was attached to such a victory, when we see it thus\nclassed as an event of equal importance with the success of an army,\nand the birth of an heir to a great kingdom.\n\nAlcibiades on one occasion entered seven four-horse chariots in the\nOlympic games, and carried off the first, second and third prizes. The\npoet Euripides celebrated this victory, and Alcibiades, after offering\nsolemn sacrifices to Jupiter, feasted the entire multitude assembled\nto witness the games. Ladies were admitted to dispute the prizes at\nOlympia, and many are mentioned as successful competitors. Cynisca,\nthe sister of Agesilaus, king of Sparta, first opened this path of\nglory to her sex, and was proclaimed conqueror in the four-horse\nchariot race. This victory, till then unexampled, was celebrated with\nall possible splendor. A magnificent monument was erected in Sparta in\nhonor of Cynisca, and the Laced\u00e6monians, who were generally\nindifferent to the charms of verse, engaged a poet to transmit this\nnew triumph to posterity. The princess dedicated a brazen chariot in\nthe temple of Apollo at Delphi; in this votive offering, the\ncharioteer was also represented; which proves that she had not driven\nthe chariot herself at the games. This is a feat which, it is\nbelieved, no woman ever attempted. The portrait of Cynisca, drawn by\nthe great Apelles, was afterwards placed in the same temple.\n\n_Ques._ Were any other exercises admitted at the Olympic games?\n\n_Ans._ Yes; there was also an intellectual competition, which was\nperhaps more lively and ardent than any other, as the victory in such\na contest was more highly esteemed. The best writers and poets of\nGreece repaired to the Olympic games, believing that the approbation\nof so illustrious an assembly was the most certain means of\nestablishing a great reputation in a little time. It was thus that\nHerodotus read his history to assembled Greece. It was received with\nenthusiastic applause, and the names of the nine muses were\nimmediately given to the nine books which compose the work. Dionysius\nwas not so fortunate. This prince believed himself the most excellent\npoet of the time, and employed professional readers to recite some of\nhis pieces at Olympia. When they began to read these verses their\nclear and harmonious voices pleased the ear, and they were listened to\nat first with great attention, which gradually decreased as they went\non, until the whole assembly burst forth into hooting and shouts of\nlaughter, so absurd did the pretensions of the royal poet appear.\n\nWhat we have said of the Olympic Games, may be applied with some\nlittle variation to those solemnized in other places.\n\n_Ques._ By whom were the Pythian Games instituted?\n\n_Ans._ According to Greek fable, by Apollo himself, in commemoration\nof his victory over the serpent Python; according to the more probable\nhistoric account, they originated at the time when the Delphic oracle\nhad already gained some reputation. The Amphictyonic council was\ncharged with the superintendence of the games, which were celebrated\nat first every ninth, and afterwards every fifth year. The crown\nbestowed was of bay.\n\n_Ques._ Where were the Ne\u00b4mean games celebrated?\n\n_Ans._ At Ne\u00b4mea, a city of Argolis, celebrated as the haunt of the\nlion slain by Hercules. They were said to have been restored by that\nhero, and were celebrated every third year. The crowns bestowed on\nthe victors were of parsley, because these were originally funeral\ngames, and it was customary to lay chaplets of parsley on the tombs of\nthe dead. The ruins of Ne\u00b4mea are to be seen near the modern village\nof Kutchumadi.\n\n_Ques._ Why were the Isthmian Games so called?\n\n_Ans._ They were named from the Isthmus of Corinth, where they were\ncelebrated. They were instituted in honor of Melicertes, who was\nchanged into a sea deity. After falling into neglect, these games were\nrestored by Theseus. They were celebrated every five years, and\ncontinued to be solemnized even after the destruction of Corinth by\nthe Romans. The victors were at first rewarded with garlands of pine\nleaves, but this custom was changed, and the pine was replaced by a\ncrown of withered parsley.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XLI.\n\n\nTHEATRES.\n\n_Ques._ Did the theatrical representations of the Greeks resemble\nthose of modern times?\n\n_Ans._ They differed widely, both in the arrangement of the drama, and\nthe mode of representation. The greatest distinction lay, perhaps, in\nthe structure of the theatre itself.\n\n_Ques._ Describe the general plan of a Greek theatre?\n\n_Ans._ It was quite open above, and the dramas were always acted in\nthe light of day, beneath the bright canopy of a southern heaven. The\nRomans at a later period introduced awnings to screen the audience\nfrom the sun, but the Greeks would have regarded such a precaution as\na mark of effeminacy; and it must be admitted that their milder\nclimate rendered it almost unnecessary. If a storm or a shower came\non, the play was, of course, interrupted; the gods and heroes\ndisappeared, and the audience sought shelter in the lofty colonnade\nwhich always ran behind their seats. They chose to suffer these\noccasional inconveniences, rather than shut themselves up in a close\nand crowded house, and forfeit the sunny brightness of what was to\nthem a national, and even, in some sort, religious solemnity. To have\ncovered in the stage itself, and imprisoned gods and heroes in a\ngloomy apartment artificially lighted, would have appeared to the\nancients in the highest degree absurd.\n\nThe great theatre of Bacchus, at Athens, is the only structure of the\nkind of which a complete description has reached us. It may serve to\ngive a general idea of these edifices.\n\nThis theatre stood on the southeastern side of the eminence which was\ncrowned by the noble buildings of the Acropolis. From the level of the\nplain below, a semicircular excavation ascended far up on the slope of\nthe hill. Round the concavity, seats for an audience of thirty\nthousand persons arose, range above range; higher still, the whole was\nenclosed by a lofty portico adorned with statues and surmounted by a\nbalustraded terrace. For the convenience of entering and leaving, the\ntiers of benches were divided at intervals, by passages extending\naround the theatre, and again transversely, into wedge-like masses, by\nflights of steps which radiated from the lowest tier to the portico\nabove. The lower seats, being more conveniently placed for seeing and\nhearing, were esteemed the most honorable, and were reserved for the\nhigh magistrates, the priests and the Senate. Below, was the\nsemicircular orchestra, or pit, which was generally occupied by the\nchorus. Elevated above the orchestra, and opposite the lower seats,\nwas the stage itself. This had a very wide front and but little depth.\nThe actors usually spoke in the central part, called logeum, or\npulpitum. Behind this, the stage grew deeper, and formed a quadrangle\ncalled the proscenium. This was enclosed by lofty buildings of\nstone-work, representing externally a palace-like mansion, and\ncontaining within withdrawing rooms for the actors, and receptacles\nfor the stage machinery. When the nature of the play rendered it\nnecessary, these buildings were concealed by painted scenes. In the\ngreater number of tragedies, however, the whole action might be\ncarried on appropriately enough in the portico or court of a palace.\nThere were also contrivances by which a portion of the interior might\nbe exposed to view. The rank of the personages was generally indicated\nby the particular door at which they entered; that in the centre of\nthe proscenium being reserved for royalty. Wonderful effects were\nproduced by the use of the machinery which was disposed behind the\nwalls of the stage. Supported by ropes, or iron cranes, carefully\nconcealed, gods appeared in the air, descended on the stage, and\nperformed their allotted part in the drama. Heroes also ascended to\nOlympus, and were hidden at length from view by scenic clouds. In the\nPrometheus of \u00c6schylus, Oceanus passes through the air, mounted on a\ngriffin, and a choir of fifteen ocean nymphs is introduced in a flying\nchariot. In another piece, Aurora descends and carries off the dead\nbody of Memnon. Ghosts and infernal deities ascended from beneath the\nstage, where there were appropriate contrivances for their\nintroduction. When it was necessary to conceal the stage, the curtain\nwas not dropped, but drawn up from beneath the floor.\n\n_Ques._ Was there anything peculiar in the dress of the actors?\n\n_Ans._ The costumes were splendid, and carefully adapted to the rank\nand character of the personages represented. The actors wore masks\nwhich covered the entire head. When gods or heroic personages were\nrepresented, the masks were larger than life, and the disproportion of\nthe size of the head with the rest of the body, was obviated by two\ndifferent contrivances. The cothurnus, or buskin, was soled with\nseveral layers of cork, which added at least three inches to the\nheight of the actor, and the dress was judiciously padded, so as to\ngive the whole figure the necessary heroic dimensions. Women were not\nadmitted on the Greek stage; the female parts were always performed by\nmen, wearing appropriate wigs and masks.\n\nIt has been supposed that the use of masks must have embarrassed the\nactors, and made them appear stiff and unnatural. This may have been\ntrue to a certain extent, but we must remember that, at the distance\nat which the actors were placed from the greater part of their\naudience, the changes of expression, and the play of feature would\nhave been quite lost, while the large and finely colored masks may\nhave had a very good effect. Nothing would have seemed more out of\nplace to the Greeks, than to see the part of Apollo or Hercules\nperformed by an actor with strongly marked or ordinary features.\n\nThe masks were lined with brass, and so constructed that instead of\nmuffling the voice, they gave it depth and volume, almost as a\nspeaking trumpet would have done.\n\n_Ques._ What was the Chorus?\n\n_Ans._ It was a choir of singers, varying in number from fifteen to\nfifty. In the intervals between the acts of the drama, the chorus\nchanted verses corresponding to the action of the piece, sometimes\npouring forth hymns of thanksgiving or supplication to the gods;\nsometimes chanting odes on the instability of human affairs as\nexemplified in the scenes which they had just witnessed. At other\ntimes the chorus broke forth into lamentations over the untimely fate\nof some personage of the drama, or denounced the anger of the gods on\nthe head of a tyrant. Besides this more legitimate action of the\nchorus, it was occasionally permitted to take part in the dialogue.\nEven in this case they always remained in the orchestra.\n\nThe singing was always accompanied by dances which varied according to\nthe nature of the piece. All the movements of a tragic chorus were\nslow and grave, while in the lighter pieces, the music and the\nmeasures of the dance were quick and lively. The dress of the chorus\nvaried in the same manner. In certain tragedies, these singers\npersonated the Eumenides or Furies. These were generally robed in\nblack, with purple girdles. They brandished whips, wreathed with\nserpents, in their fleshless hands, and their aspect was rendered\nstill more terrible by the frightful masks which appeared beneath\ntheir snaky tresses. We are told that when \u00c6schylus introduced such a\nchorus in one of his tragedies, the terror of the spectators was such\nthat many fainted, and several children died of fright.\n\nIn this connection we have an interesting story. Ibycus, a lyric poet,\nwas on his way to the Isthmian games, when he was waylaid by two\nrobbers. The unhappy bard called in vain for aid; no human help was\nnear; but his last, despairing cry was echoed by the hoarse scream of\na flock of cranes which was passing overhead. The dying poet heard,\nand looking upwards, prayed the birds to discover and avenge the crime\nwhich they alone had seen. The murderers heard this appeal, to which,\nhowever, they paid no heed at the time. The body of Ibycus was found\nand recognized, and the multitude assembled to witness the Isthmian\ngames were sorely disappointed and dismayed at the sad tidings of his\ndeath. They crowded the tribunals and demanded vengeance on the\nmurderers, but no trace could be found which might lead to their\ndiscovery. The festival proceeded, the fate of Ibycus being still on\nevery tongue. The assembled people were assisting at a dramatic\nrepresentation, when the dread chorus of the Furies advanced with\nmeasured step, and made the circuit of the Theatre. The sound of\ninstruments was heard no more as their choral hymn swelled and rose,\nthrilling the hearts of all who heard. They sang of the happiness\nenjoyed by the pure of heart, of the good man whose dwelling was never\ndarkened by their shadow. Then the blood of the listeners grew cold\nwith fear as they told of the vengeance which it was theirs to wreak\non the secret murderer, on him whose crime had been vainly hidden from\nmortal eye. Thus they sang in measured cadence, and passed from view,\nwhile a solemn stillness settled on the vast assembly. At this moment\na voice was heard from the upper benches, exclaiming, as if in sudden\nterror, \"Behold, comrade! yonder are the cranes of Ibycus!\" and a\nflight of cranes was seen passing directly over the Theatre. The name\nof the murdered poet caught the ears of the multitude. Each one asked\nwhat this exclamation might mean, and what had the cranes to do with\nhim. A cry was raised to seize the man who had spoken, and the one to\nwhom his speech had been addressed. The wretched murderers, thus\nbetrayed by their own guilty fears, confessed the crime, and suffered\nthe punishment they had deserved. Attempts have been made by French\nand German tragedians, to revive the ancient chorus, but without\nsuccess, as it is entirely unsuited to the modern drama.\n\n_Ques._ Were dramatic entertainments as frequent in ancient times as\nin our own?\n\n_Ans._ No; but they took place several times in the year, forming a\nnecessary part in the celebration of the principal festivals. The best\nactors were engaged long beforehand, and were subject to heavy fines\nif they failed to appear on the appointed day. When such an\nentertainment was about to take place, the people hastened to the\ntheatre at the dawn of day, that they might secure good seats, as the\nperformance commenced at a very early hour. There were three or four\ndistinct representations during the day, divided by short intervals of\nrepose. During these, the audience walked in the neighboring groves,\namused themselves, and partook of the refreshments which they brought\nwith them. When different dramatic poets contended for the prize of\nexcellence, they generally presented two or three pieces each, so that\ntwelve complete dramas were sometimes performed on the same day.\n\n_Ques._ Were these theatres free to all?\n\n_Ans._ No; each person was obliged to pay a small sum for admission.\nWhen Pericles wished to gain the favor of the Athenians, he reduced\nthe entrance fee to two oboli, and obtained a decree that even this\ntrifling sum should be furnished by the magistrates to the poorer\nclass of citizens. The theatres themselves were erected, and in a\ngreat measure maintained at the expense of the state. The cost of the\nentertainments must have been heavy, if we are to judge by the\ndescriptions given of the scenic arrangements. It is even said that\nwhen groves were required, living trees from the forest were planted\non the stage.\n\nWhatever may have been the faults of the Greek drama, there is no\ndoubt that it was intended to inculcate principles of religion and\nmorality.\n\nThe theatrical entertainments of the Greeks, and their public games,\nform a striking contrast to the inhuman sports of the Roman\namphitheatre.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XLII.\n\n\nCELEBRATED STATUES.\n\n_Ques._ What are the most celebrated statues of the heathen\ndivinities?\n\n_Ans._ The Olympian Jupiter, the Apollo Belvidere, the Diana \u00e0 la\nBiche, the Minerva of the Parthenon and the Venus de Medicis.\n\n_Ques._ What was the Olympian Jupiter?\n\n_Ans._ This statue, now lost, was forty feet in height, on a pedestal\nof twelve feet. It was considered the finest work of art of the great\nAthenian sculptor, Phidias, and there are still in existence busts\ntaken from it, which are remarkable for their calm majesty of\nexpression. The material was what the Greeks called chryselephantine;\nthat is, the flesh was composed of plates of ivory skillfully laid on;\nbut the drapery and ornaments were pure gold. This circumstance is\nsufficient to account for the destruction of the statue. It was\nexecuted for the temple of Jupiter at Olympia, which was worthy of\nsuch an adornment, being one of the most magnificent edifices in\nGreece.\n\n_Ques._ Describe the Minerva of the Parthenon?\n\n_Ans._ The statue was of the same dimensions and was composed of the\nsame materials as the Olympian Jupiter; it was also the work of\nPhidias. The Parthenon was one of the most beautiful of the Greek\ntemples, and was enriched by the hand of Phidias with statues and\nother ornaments. This magnificent temple would have been sufficient in\nitself to confer immortal glory on the administration of Pericles. It\nexisted in its full beauty for more than a century after his death. It\nwas first despoiled by Lachares, who stripped the statue of Minerva of\nits golden adornments. It is said he obtained in this manner an amount\nof precious metal equal to nearly half a million of dollars. The\ntemple itself resisted the attacks of time; it was used successively\nas a Christian church and a Turkish mosque, and was still entire when\nthe Venetians besieged the citadel of Athens in the year 1687. The\nTurks converted the Parthenon into a powder magazine; it was\nunfortunately struck by a bomb, and the entire edifice was reduced to\nits present ruinous condition. Some of the sculptures and bas-reliefs\nwhich once adorned this temple may now be seen in the British Museum.\nThey are called \"Elgin Marbles,\" because they were brought from Greece\nby Lord Elgin.\n\n_Ques._ Describe the Venus de Medicis?\n\n_Ans._ This statue, still perfect, is so called from having been in\nthe possession of the Medicis family. An inscription on its base\ninforms us that it was carved by Cleomenes, an Athenian sculptor, 200\nB. C. The artist has succeeded in producing a figure quite perfect in\nform; but there is nothing spiritual about the Venus, which is,\ntherefore, far inferior to the Jupiter and Minerva.\n\n_Ques._ Describe the Apollo Belvidere?\n\n_Ans._ This statue is so called from the Belvidere gallery of the\nPope's palace. The artist is unknown, but it is believed to be a Roman\nwork. The god is represented as having just discharged an arrow from\nhis bow against the monster Python. The form and attitude are perfect,\nbut the face is particularly admired for its expression of majesty and\npower.\n\n_Ques._ Describe the Diana \u00e0 la Biche?\n\n_Ans._ This beautiful statue, now at the Louvre, is considered the\ncounterpart of the Apollo. The goddess is engaged in the chase, and a\nhind is running by her side. One hand is lifted to draw an arrow from\nthe quiver.\n\n\n\n\nPART II.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nEgyptian Divinities.\n\n\nOSIRIS--APIS--SERAPIS--ISIS--ANUBIS--HARPOCRATES.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Osiris?\n\n_Ans._ Osiris, Apis and Serapis, are three different names of one and\nthe same god. Osiris was the son of Jupiter and of Niobe, the daughter\nof Phoroneus. He conquered Egypt, which he governed so well and wisely\nas to receive divine honors from his subjects even during his life. He\nmarried, as we have already learned, Io, the daughter of Inachus, who\nwas more generally known to the Egyptians by the name of Isis.\n\nOsiris was cruelly murdered by his brother Typhon. Isis, after a long\nsearch, found his body, which she laid in a monument in an island near\nMemphis. Osiris became from that time the tutelar deity of the\nEgyptians. He was regarded as identical with the sun, while Isis was\nsupposed, like Cybele, to personify the earth.\n\n_Ques._ How was this goddess represented?\n\n_Ans._ As a woman with the horns of a cow, sometimes, also, as crowned\nwith lotus. Heads of Isis are common among the decorations of Egyptian\ntemples. After the worship of this goddess was introduced into Rome,\nher image was adorned with different emblems. The mysterious rites of\nIsis became a cloak for much secret vice, and were repeatedly\nforbidden at Rome. Tiberius caused the images of the goddess to be\nthrown into the Tiber; her worship was, however, afterwards revived.\nThe abuses attending it are mentioned with indignation by the poet\nJuvenal.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Apis?\n\n_Ans._ He was the sacred bull of Memphis. The Egyptians maintained\nthat the soul of Osiris passed after death into the body of Apis; and\nthat as often as the sacred animal died, the soul passed into the body\nof its successor.\n\nSacrifices were offered to this strange divinity; his birth-day was\ncelebrated with great magnificence, and it was believed that during\nthis festival the crocodiles forgot their usual ferocity, and became\nharmless. A temple, two chapels, and a court for exercise, were\nassigned to this god, whose food was always served in vessels of gold.\nIt may be doubted whether the poor animal was capable of appreciating\nthese extraordinary honors; he was not permitted, however, to enjoy\nthem beyond a stated period. If he attained the age of twenty-five\nyears, he was drowned by the attendant priests in the sacred cistern;\nhis body was then carefully embalmed, and buried in the temple of\nSerapis.\n\nOn the death of Apis, whether it occurred in the course of nature or\nby violence, the whole country was plunged into mourning, which lasted\nuntil his successor was found. The animal into whom the divinity had\npassed, was known by many extraordinary marks; a square white spot on\nthe forehead, the figure of an eagle on the back, a white crescent on\nthe right side, and the mark of a beetle under the tongue. The priests\nalways succeeded in finding an animal with these extraordinary marks,\nand the happy event was immediately celebrated throughout Egypt.\n\n_Ques._ How did the people obtain replies from the oracle of Apis?\n\n_Ans._ By various signs: the votary having proposed a question,\noffered food to the sacred animal; if he ate, it was considered a\nfavorable omen. It was also a good augury if he entered, of his own\naccord, a particular stall. When Germanicus offered food to Apis, the\nanimal refused to eat, and this circumstance was afterwards considered\nas ominous of the early fate of the Roman prince.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Harpocrates?\n\n_Ans._ Horus or Harpocrates was the son of Osiris. He was worshipped\nas the god of Silence, and is represented as a boy, seated on a\nlotus-flower, with his finger on his lips.\n\nBesides the gods we have mentioned, the Egyptians worshipped the dog,\nthe wolf, the crocodile, the ibis, and many other animals. They even\nattributed divinity to certain plants and roots. Juvenal, in one of\nhis Satires, thus ridicules their superstition:\n\n    Who has not heard where Egypt's realms are nam'd\n    What monster gods her frantic sons have fram'd?\n    Here Ibis gorged with well-grown serpents, there\n    The Crocodile commands religious fear:\n    Where Memnon's statue magic strains inspire\n    With vocal sounds that emulate the lyre;\n    And Thebes, such, Fate, are thy disastrous turns,\n    Now prostrate o'er her pompous ruins mourns\n    A monkey-god, prodigious to be told!\n    Strikes the beholder's eye with burnish'd gold:\n    To godship here blue Triton's scaly herd,\n    The river progeny is there preferr'd:\n    Through towns Diana's power neglected lies,\n    Where to her dogs aspiring temples rise!\n    And should you leeks or onions eat, no time\n    Would expiate the sacrilegious crime.\n    Religious nations sure, and blest abodes,\n    Where every orchard is o'er-run with gods.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nEASTERN MYTHOLOGY.\n\nDeities of the Assyrians.\n\n\nBAAL, OR BEL--MOLOCH.\n\n_Ques._ Who were these divinities?\n\n_Ans._ The names Baal and Moloch seem to have been, at first,\ndifferent appellations of the Sun; later they assumed another\nsignification, and were applied to distinct deities.\n\n_Ques._ Where was the Sun worshipped under the name of Baal or Bel\n(the Lord)?\n\n_Ans._ In Babylon. The famous tower of Babel or Belus, was there\ndevoted to his worship, although the highest apartment of the edifice\nserved also as an observatory, and was the repository of the most\nancient astronomical observations. Some writers have imagined that the\nChaldeans and Babylonians worshipped Nimrod under the name of Belus,\nbut it is generally believed that with these nations, and the ancient\nCanaanites, this was one of the many appellations of the Sun.\n\n_Ques._ What proof have we of the popularity of this god among the\nPhoenicians and Carthaginians?\n\n_Ans._ In their proper names; as among the former, Eth_baal_,\nJerub_baal_; among the latter, Hanni_bal_, Asdru_bal_.\n\n_Ques._ By whom was the worship of Baal introduced among the\nIsraelites?\n\n_Ans._ By King Achab or Ahab. They offered human sacrifices to Baal in\ngroves, or high places, and on the terraces of their houses. Jeremias\nreproaches the Jews with building \"the high places of Baalim, to burn\ntheir children with fire for a holocaust to Baalim.\" This text shows\nthe extent to which the apostate Hebrews carried this abominable\nworship.\n\n\nMOLOCH.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Moloch?\n\n_Ans._ He was a divinity of the Ammonites. The Phoenicians were also\nparticularly devoted to his worship. Young children and infants were\noffered as holocausts to this cruel god. These horrid sacrifices were\nmost frequent in Carthage. When the Sicilian Agathocles threatened\nthat city, we are told that five hundred infants, many the first-born\nof noble parents, were consumed in one day on the altar of Moloch.\n\n_Ques._ How was this god represented?\n\n_Ans._ By a brazen image, which was so contrived that when a child\nwas laid upon its extended arms, they were lowered, and the little\nvictim immediately fell into the fiery furnace placed at the foot of\nthe idol.\n\n_Ques._ Was Moloch worshipped by the Jews?\n\n_Ans._ Yes; it would seem that they were addicted to this idolatry\nbefore their departure from Egypt, since Moses in many places forbids\nthe Israelites, under pain of death, to dedicate their children to\nMoloch, by passing them through fire. Solomon built a temple for his\nworship on the Mount of Olives. Later human sacrifices were offered to\nhim in the valley of Hinnom, called also Tophet, which lay to the east\nof Jerusalem.\n\n_Ques._ Where does Milton refer to this god?\n\n_Ans._ Assuming that the demons or fallen angels received the worship\nof men, under the names of different heathen divinities, he thus\ndescribes Moloch amid the host of Satan:\n\n    \"First, Moloch, horrid king, besmear'd with blood\n    Of human sacrifice, and parents' tears;\n    Though, for the noise of drums and timbrels loud,\n    Their children's cries unheard, that passed through fire,\n    To his grim idol. Him the Ammonite\n    Worshipp'd in Rabba and her watery plain,\n    In Argob and in Basan, to the stream\n    Of utmost Arnon; nor content with such\n    Audacious neighborhood, the wisest heart\n    Of Solomon he led by fraud to build\n    His temple right against the temple of God,\n    On that opprobrious hill: and made his grove\n    The pleasant valley of Hinnom, Tophet thence\n    And black Gehenna call'd, the type of Hell.\"\n\n_Ques._ Who was Astaroth?\n\n_Ans._ This goddess, called by the Greeks Astarte, represented the\nmoon, in the same manner as Baal was held to be identical with the\nsun. The Hebrews always connected the worship of these two divinities.\nAccording to Cicero, Astarte was the Syrian Venus, and it is certain\nthat in her worship, and the festivals celebrated in her honor, there\nis some foundation for this idea. Where human sacrifices were offered\nto Baal, wheaten cakes, wine and perfumes were laid upon the altar of\nAstaroth.\n\nNotwithstanding these more innocent offerings, her worship was\nrendered infamous by the license which prevailed during these\nfestivals, and the open immorality practised by her votaries.\n\n\nTHAMMUZ.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Thammuz?\n\n_Ans._ This was another name for Adonis, whose story is of Eastern\norigin. His death, which we have already referred to in connection\nwith the goddess Venus, is said to have taken place in the mountains\nof Libanus, from which the river Adonis flows to the sea. The Assyrian\nwomen mourned for him in the autumn-time. It was believed that at this\nseason the river changed its color, and ran red, as if tinged with\nblood. To this Milton alludes:\n\n            \"Thammuz came next behind,\n    Whose annual wound in Lebanon allured\n    The Syrian damsels to lament his fate\n    In amorous ditties all a summer's day;\n    While smooth Adonis from his native rock\n    Ran purple to the sea, supposed with blood\n    Of Thammuz yearly wounded.\"\n\nThe prophet Ezekiel, in relating the iniquities committed in\nJerusalem, says that he saw women sitting by the north gate of the\ntemple, who mourned for Adonis. (In the Hebrew, Thammuz.)\n\n\nOANNES.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Oannes?\n\n_Ans._ He was a god of the Assyrians, half man, half fish, who was\nsaid to dwell in the sea, from which he came at stated times, to\ninstruct the Babylonians in wisdom and science. Oannes is the Dagon of\nthe Philistines.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\n\nPERSIA.\n\n_Ques._ What was the religion of the ancient Persians?\n\n_Ans._ We derive our knowledge of their religion principally from\ntheir Zend-avesta, or Sacred Book.\n\n_Ques._ What does the Zend-avesta contain?\n\n_Ans._ The doctrines of Zoroaster, an Eastern sage, who is thought to\nhave lived in Bactria about twelve hundred years before our era.\n\n_Ques._ Was the Zend-avesta written by Zoroaster?\n\n_Ans._ But a small portion, if any, of the Sacred Books were written\nby him, but the most ancient passages, which are in verse, were\nprobably written soon after his time, when the knowledge of his\ndoctrines was still preserved. The Parsees, or modern followers of\nZoroaster, now scattered through India, say that the Zend-avesta\nformerly consisted of twenty-one books, but that the greater part were\nlost in the troubled times that followed the conquest of Persia by\nAlexander the Great.\n\n_Ques._ What is the form of the Zend-avesta?\n\n_Ans._ It is in the form of a dialogue, in which Ormuzd, the supreme\ndeity, replies to the inquiries of Zoroaster, and teaches him his will\nwith regard to his creatures.\n\n_Ques._ What were the doctrines of Zoroaster?\n\n_Ans._ This philosopher was more enlightened than his contemporaries,\nand was probably acquainted with primitive tradition. He taught the\nexistence of one supreme Being called \"the Eternal,\" who created two\nother mighty beings, and imparted to them a portion of his own eternal\ndivinity.\n\n_Ques._ Who were these deities?\n\n_Ans._ Ormuzd, or Oromasdes, who remained faithful and pure, governs\nthe world with all the attributes which are given to the true God.\nAhriman, on the contrary, uses all his energies for evil; and is, in\nall respects, considered as a sort of independent demon, endowed with\ninfinite and untiring malice.\n\n_Ques._ What part did each of these divinities take in the creation?\n\n_Ans._ Ormuzd created men and angels, the sun, moon and stars, and\neverything which can contribute to the welfare or pleasure of his\ncreatures. Ahriman created the wild beasts, poisonous serpents, etc.,\nand sent diseases, earthquakes and storms. The Persians thus believed\nin two independent principles, one of good, and one of evil, but they\nworshipped only the first.\n\n_Ques._ Did they not worship the sun?\n\n_Ans._ They probably did in later times, but the early followers of\nZoroaster reverenced the sun and fire as emblems of Ormuzd. Perpetual\nfire was kept burning on their altars. The Parsees of Hindostan say\nthat they have sacred fire which has never been extinguished since the\ntime of Zoroaster. All the sacred fires were originally lit from that\nwhich Zoroaster brought from heaven. The Guebres, as these people are\nsometimes called, often built their temples over subterranean fires.\n\n_Ques._ Is there any such fire now reverenced by them?\n\n_Ans._ Yes, near the town of Bakoo in Georgia, on the Caspian Sea,\nthere is a perpetual flame issuing from a limestone rock. It is\nwatched by priests, and is much venerated by the surrounding tribes.\nPilgrimages are made to this sacred fire from all parts of Asia.\n\n_Ques._ What is the cause of this phenomenon?\n\n_Ans._ Bakoo and the surrounding country abound in naphtha and\npetroleum. The sacred fire is simply a jet of inflammable gas escaping\nfrom the rocks, which, once lit, burns perpetually, as the supply is\ninexhaustible.\n\n_Ques._ Were the Persians attached to magical arts?\n\n_Ans._ Yes, their priests mingled the fables of astrology with their\nastronomical learning; hence, from the word magi, is derived our word\nmagician.\n\n_Ques._ Where did the Persians offer their sacrifices?\n\n_Ans._ Generally on the tops of lofty mountains.\n\n_Ques._ When was the religion of Zoroaster suppressed in Persia?\n\n_Ans._ After the conquest of Persia, by the Arabs, which took place in\nthe seventh century, those who refused to embrace the Koran fled to\nHindostan, where they still exist under the name of Parsees. At Bombay\nthey are an active, intelligent and wealthy class.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nHindoo Mythology.\n\n\nBRAHMA--THE VEDAS.\n\n_Ques._ What are the Vedas?\n\n_Ans._ The Vedas are the Sacred Books of the Hindoos, and are much\nreverenced by them. They maintain that they were composed by Brahma,\nthe Supreme Deity, at the creation.\n\n_Ques._ When do the Hindoos think that the world was created?\n\n_Ans._ At an incredibly remote period; they say the present\narrangement of the Vedas was made by a sage named Vyasa, some five\nthousand years ago.\n\n_Ques._ What is the more correct opinion?\n\n_Ans._ That they were written in the second thousand years before our\nera, a little later, probably, than the Books of Moses.\n\n_Ques._ Had the Hindoos then conquered the country which now bears\ntheir name?\n\n_Ans._ No; they were only crossing the borders of India.\n\n_Ques._ In what form are the Vedas written?\n\n_Ans._ In poetry. The principal Veda contains ten thousand double\nverses. These works are heavy and uninteresting, but very important to\nhistorians.\n\n_Ques._ Why so?\n\n_Ans._ Because they throw light on the early history of the Indian and\nEuropean races.\n\n_Ques._ What do the Vedas teach of God?\n\n_Ans._ They teach one supreme deity, called Brahma, and like the\nPersians seem to have some idea of the Trinity, speaking of Brahma,\nVishnu, and Siva, as one God. The modern Hindoos, however, worship\nthem as distinct divinities.\n\n_Ques._ What are the offices of these gods?\n\n_Ans._ Brahma created all things, Vishnu preserves them, and when the\nend of the world is come, which the Vedas say will occur in about\ntwelve million years, Siva will destroy them.\n\n_Ques._ What is there peculiar in the history of Vishnu?\n\n_Ans._ His Avatars, or incarnations, which are numerous, but ten are\nmore especially celebrated.\n\n_Ques._ What was the first Avatar?\n\n_Ans._ The first Avatar was when Vishnu assumed the form of a fish,\nand saved Manu, the father of the human race, from a universal deluge.\n\n_Ques._ What is the ninth Avatar?\n\n_Ans._ In the ninth Avatar, Vishnu appeared in the form of Krishna, a\nsort of Indian Apollo; the last of the Sacred Books is that which\ncontains the life of Krishna.\n\n_Ques._ What is there remarkable about this life?\n\n_Ans._ So many circumstances closely resemble corresponding events in\nthe life of our Saviour, that it is impossible the coincidence should\nbe accidental. It is supposed this book was written after our era by\nsome one who had heard imperfect accounts of the life of our Lord.\n\n_Ques._ What is to be the tenth Avatar?\n\n_Ans._ The tenth Avatar is called Kalki, in which Vishnu will come to\njudge the world, destroying the wicked and rewarding the good.\n\n_Ques._ What do you say of Siva?\n\n_Ans._ Siva, or Mahadeva, as he is more generally called, has a vast\nnumber of followers. His worshippers and those of Vishnu form two\ndistinct sects. Brahma, having finished his work, has but one temple\nin India. It is doubtful whether the worshippers of Juggernaut belong\nto the sect of Vishnu, or of Siva.\n\n_Ques._ What do the Hindoos believe of the soul?\n\n_Ans._ They think that every soul is a part of Brahma, as a spark is a\npart of the fire, and that finally all souls will be absorbed into\nBrahma, as drops of water are lost in the ocean. They also believe in\nmetempsychosis.\n\n_Ques._ What is metempsychosis?\n\n_Ans._ The transmigration of souls. The Hindoos believe that if a man\nlead a pure life, his soul will pass, after death, into another human\nbody, but that if he has been wicked, it will enter into the body of\nsome unclean animal. They think the soul will transmigrate many times\nbefore being finally united to Brahma. This belief makes many of the\nHindoos afraid to kill animals for food, lest they may possess human\nsouls, and be perhaps their own friends or relations.\n\n_Ques._ What are Castes?\n\n_Ans._ They are different classes into which the Hindoos have been\ndivided from the earliest times.\n\n_Ques._ How many castes are there?\n\n_Ans._ Four; the Brahmins or priests, who sprung from the head of\nBrahma; the Warrior caste, which issued from his arms; the\nAgriculturists and Traders, who came from his thighs, and lastly, the\nSudras, or laborers, who sprung from his feet.\n\n_Ques._ Is there much distinction between the castes?\n\n_Ans._ Yes; they cannot under any circumstances intermarry; nor can a\nmember of a lower caste ever pass to a higher. Only, if he lead a good\nlife, he may console himself with the hope of being born in a higher\ncaste the next time.\n\n_Ques._ Is there any caste lower than the Sudras?\n\n_Ans._ No regular caste, but there exists a most unhappy race called\nPariahs, who are treated with the utmost contempt, and employed only\nin the vilest offices. They cannot enter the house of any one\nbelonging to a pure caste, and they are not only unclean themselves,\nbut are supposed to contaminate everything they touch. Different\naccounts are given as to the origin of these Pariahs.\n\n_Ques._ Are the Hindoos allowed to eat flesh?\n\n_Ans._ The three higher castes are forbidden it altogether. The Sudras\nmay eat every kind but beef, but the Pariahs are under no restriction\nwhatever. The idea seems to be that they are so vile that no kind of\nfood could pollute them.\n\n_Ques._ Are the castes ancient?\n\n_Ans._ So much so, that it is impossible to say when they were first\nestablished. The Pariahs are being gradually raised from their\ndegradation by the efforts of Christian missionaries.\n\n\nBUDDHA.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Buddha?\n\n_Ans._ Buddha is said by the Vedas to have been a delusive incarnation\nof Vishnu, but his followers give a different account.\n\n_Ques._ What do they say?\n\n_Ans._ They say that he was a mortal sage, called Guatama, and also\nBuddha, or the Wise.\n\n_Ques._ When did Buddha live?\n\n_Ans._ We cannot ascertain exactly, but it is probable he was a\ncontemporary of Solomon--that is, he lived about one thousand years\nbefore our era. He was the son of a king, and was distinguished by\nwisdom, virtue and every personal gift. He was so disgusted with the\nwickedness of men, that he retired into a desert place, where he spent\nsix years in prayer and meditation. At the end of this time, he began\nhis career as a religious teacher. He preached first in Benares, but\nhis doctrines were received with so much favor that he lived to see\nthem spread over all India. Buddha died at the age of eighty.\n\n_Ques._ Was Buddhism tolerated by the Brahmins?\n\n_Ans._ It appears that for several centuries it was, and that it\nextended to Ceylon, and the Eastern peninsula.\n\n_Ques._ What are the doctrines of the Buddhists?\n\n_Ans._ They reject the Vedas altogether, and the religious observances\nprescribed in them. They allow animal food, and acknowledge no\ndistinction of castes. Bloody sacrifices are prohibited. One of the\nduties of a priest of Buddha is to study the medicinal properties of\nplants in order to benefit his fellow men. We may see, therefore, that\nBuddha had more reasonable and humane ideas than those who composed\nthe Vedas, and that he was probably a true sage among his people.\n\n_Ques._ Is Buddhism common in India?\n\n_Ans._ No; after being tolerated for a long time, a fierce and\ncontinued persecution was raised against it. This had the effect of\nsuppressing the sect almost entirely in India, and of spreading it in\nthe adjacent countries.\n\n_Ques._ When was the worship of Buddha first introduced into China?\n\n_Ans._ About the year 65 of our era. From China it spread to Corea,\nJapan and Java.\n\nIn Japan, Buddhism has, to a great extent, supplanted the Sinto\nreligion, the ancient faith of Japan. The word Sinto signifies spirit\nworship; the priests of this sect teach that the world is governed by\nan infinite number of spirits. The chief of these animates the sun;\nothers rule the moon, stars, and different elements.\n\nThe worship of the sun is the most important exterior part of their\nreligion, and the Japanese were so much attached to this form of\nidolatry, that the Buddhists have incorporated it with their own\nrites.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\n\nCHINA.\n\n_Ques._ Is Buddhism universally followed in China?\n\n_Ans._ There is, strictly speaking, no state or national religion in\nChina, but all forms of worship are tolerated, unless they are\nconsidered politically dangerous. Among the pagan Chinese three\nprincipal religions are admitted, which are now considered equally\ngood, although there were formerly bitter wars between their\nfollowers.\n\n_Ques._ What are these?\n\n_Ans._ The first, of which Confucius is in some sort the founder, is\ncalled the \"Doctrine of the Lettered;\" the second is regarded by its\nprofessors as the primitive religion of the ancient inhabitants of\nChina. The priests are called Tao-sse, or Doctors of Reason, from the\nprincipal doctrine of their great teacher, Lao-tze, who considered\nprimordial reason as the creator of all things. The third religion is\nBuddhism, which, as we have seen, was introduced into China in the\nfirst century of our era.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Confucius?\n\n_Ans._ Confucius is the Latinized name of a philosopher whom the\nChinese call Kung-fu-tse, (Reverend Master Kung). He was born in the\nyear 551 B. C., and died in 479; eleven years before Socrates was\nborn. Confucius was carefully educated in virtue and learning by his\nwidowed mother. At her death he retired, according to Chinese custom,\nfor the appointed three years of mourning. During this time, he\ndevoted himself to the study of ancient writers, and noticing how\ncompletely the morality of the old sages was forgotten in China, he\ndetermined to restore their usages and doctrines. After careful\npreparation, he set himself up as a teacher, and his disciples were\nsoon numbered by tens of thousands. Confucius travelled through the\nneighboring countries, preaching wherever he went; he was at one time\nprime minister of the empire, but his last years were spent in\nretirement with some chosen disciples. We read that he paid a visit to\nLao-tze, and was so confounded by the sublime wisdom of that\nphilosopher, that on his return home he remained three days buried in\nprofound thought, refusing to speak, or answer any of the questions\nput to him by his disciples. Confucius enjoyed unbounded popularity\nduring life, but the honors paid to him after death, have no parallel\nin history. His tablet is in every school in China and both master and\npupils are required to prostrate themselves before it at the beginning\nand end of each class. Every town has a temple erected in his honor,\nand his statue is to be found in every literary institution. Confucius\nleft one grandson, Tse-tse, whose descendants constitute the only\nhereditary nobility in China. In the seventeenth century, they\nnumbered eleven thousand males.\n\n_Ques._ What were the doctrines of Confucius?\n\n_Ans._ This philosopher did not originate any religious creed: he was\nsimply a teacher of morality. It is thought, from many passages in his\nwritings, that he believed in one Omnipotent God. He does not,\nhowever, inculcate any such doctrine, nor does he ever speak of any\nfuture reward as a motive for virtuous actions. Filial piety and other\nsocial and domestic virtues are strongly inculcated. It would be well\nfor the Chinese of the present day, if their conduct corresponded to\nthe maxims of their great teacher, whose morality, though often\ndefective, contains much that is to be admired. It is a proof, if any\nwere needed, that human motives are too weak to have any lasting\ninfluence on the passions of men; and the Chinese, particularly the\nfollowers of Confucius, seem to have lost even the last traces of\nnatural religion.\n\n_Ques._ Why then do they persevere in his worship?\n\n_Ans._ The honors paid to Confucius, as well as to the souls of their\nancestors, constitute an external religion for official persons and\nliterary men. There seems to be no sort of belief connected with\nthese observances.\n\n_Ques._ What difficulties did this cause among the Christian\nmissionaries?\n\n_Ans._ Some of these missionaries believed that the honors paid to\nConfucius were purely civil observances; and that the worship of the\nsouls of deceased relations, the oblations made at their tombs, etc.,\nwere simply national customs to which no superstitious idea was\nattached. As they were assured of this by the most learned men of the\nEmpire, they permitted the newly converted Chinese to continue these\nobservances. Others, however, considered that, among the ignorant,\nthese rites always degenerated into superstition, and often into\nidolatry. The dispute was referred to Rome, and after a careful\ninquiry, the latter opinion prevailed; the rites in honor of\nConfucius, together with the worship of ancestors, were forbidden to\nthe Chinese Christians.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Lao-tze?\n\n_Ans._ He was a Chinese philosopher, contemporary with Confucius. With\nregard to his life and actions, many absurd and impossible things are\nrelated. His name, Lao-tze, means 'Old Child;' and the Chinese say\nthis appellation was given him because he was born already old, and\nwith gray hair. The followers of Lao-tze believe in a spiritual world,\nin spiritual manifestations, and in the transmigration of souls. This\ndoctrine is called the religion of Tao, or Reason. The priests are\nnow only cheats and jugglers, living on the superstition of the\npeople, to whom they sell charms and spells.\n\nNotwithstanding the degraded character of his followers, the writings\nof Lao-tze prove that he was a true sage, a man of noble and elevated\nideas. He has been compared favorably with Plato, and some have\nclaimed that the Chinese philosopher travelled as far west as Athens.\nBe this as it may, it is certain Lao-tze spent some time in Persia and\nSyria. The Ten Tribes had just been dispersed over Asia by the\nconquests of Salmanasar; and it is not possible that a sage so eager\nin the pursuit of religious knowledge, should have failed to learn\nsomething of the ancient prophecies and the Mosaic law.\n\n_Ques._ What did Lao-tze teach with regard to God?\n\n_Ans._ In his writings he declares plainly that the world was erected\nby a threefold divinity. His followers, however, like the rest of the\nChinese, have no definite idea of God.\n\n_Ques._ What class of Chinese follow the doctrines of Buddha, or Fo?\n\n_Ans._ At present the Chinese Buddhists belong principally to the\nlower classes. Formerly this religion was in higher repute, but the\nmagnificent temples of Buddha are now going gradually to decay, and\nthere seems no prospect that any attempt will be made to restore them.\nThe Bonzes, or Buddhist priests, are ignorant and degraded, and are\nallowed to live in the greatest poverty. They are not permitted to\nmarry; to keep up their numbers they buy young children, who may be\nhad in China for a few sapecks, and these are trained for the service\nof Buddha. These Bonzes have sunk so low in public estimation, that\nthey are often hired to perform inferior parts on the stage.\n\n_Ques._ Where is the most celebrated temple of Buddha?\n\n_Ans._ In Pou-tou, an island in the Archipelago of Chusan. This temple\nretains many traces of its former magnificence, and is particularly\nremarkable for a triple statue of Buddha. There are three gigantic\nfigures, richly gilt, which represent the divinity in the past, the\npresent and the future. In this temple is a hall dedicated to the\nGoddess of Porcelain, and every part of the edifice is crowded with\nhideous idols of the lesser divinities.\n\n_Ques._ What is the general feeling of the Chinese on religious\nsubjects?\n\n_Ans._ They are entirely indifferent, and have but a vague idea of the\nexistence of anything beyond the present life. This indifference is\nthe greatest obstacle with which the Christian missionaries have to\ncontend in China.\n\n_Ques._ Do the Chinese ever argue among themselves on points of\nbelief?\n\n_Ans._ Never. When Chinese, who are strangers to each other, meet, a\npolite formula is to ask \"To what sublime religion do you belong?\"\nThen one will call himself a Buddhist, another a follower of\nConfucius, etc., upon which politeness requires that each one should\nspeak slightingly of his own religion, and praise the sect to which he\ndoes not belong. These compliments end by all repeating in chorus a\nproverbial phrase to the effect that all men are brothers, and\nreligions are of no consequence.\n\n_Ques._ If such total indifference prevails in China, on the subject\nof religion, how does it happen that Christianity should be so\nseverely persecuted?\n\n_Ans._ This arises partly from the political fears of the Chinese\ngovernment, and its jealousy of strangers. The missionaries are, of\ncourse, foreigners, and it is natural that the emperors should imagine\nthem to be working in the interest of the great western nations whose\npower they so much fear. There are other reasons; the purity of\nChristian morals has been always a reproach to pagan society, and the\nspirit of darkness never fails to rouse the prejudices and passions of\nmen against the progress of the faith. In ancient Rome, where the\nidols and superstitions of every conquered nation found a ready\nwelcome, Christianity obtained a foothold only after three centuries\nof persecution.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nThibet.\n\n\nTHE GRAND LAMA.\n\n_Ques._ What is the prevailing religion of Thibet?\n\n_Ans._ Buddhism prevails in Thibet and Tartary. The people of these\ncountries are more thoughtful than the Chinese, and more earnest with\nregard to religious matters. Their priests, called Lamas, live\ntogether in large communities. They are given to study, and their\ndwellings, or Lamaseries, often contain large and valuable libraries.\nMany of the Lamas are addicted to demon worship and sorcery, but these\nare generally looked upon with aversion by the more virtuous among\ntheir brethren.\n\n_Ques._ Who is the Grand Lama?\n\n_Ans._ He is a sort of High Priest of Buddhism residing in Lassa, the\ncapital of Thibet; he is invested with an entirely supernatural\ncharacter.\n\n_Ques._ How is this?\n\n_Ans._ The Buddhists believe that the confinement of the soul in a\nhuman body is a state of misery, and the punishment of sins committed\nin a former state of existence. They maintain, however, that pure\nspirits, from time to time, assume our human nature voluntarily, in\norder to promote the welfare of mankind. Such are the Lamas, and since\nthe victories of Genghis Kan in the East, the Lama residing in Thibet\nhas been considered the Chief Pontiff of his sect, and a perpetual\nincarnation of Buddha. He is also a temporal sovereign, although he is\ncontrolled by the Chinese government.\n\n_Ques._ How is the line perpetuated?\n\n_Ans._ When the Lama dies, his soul enters immediately into the body\nof some child, so that he is simply said to transmigrate.\n\n_Ques._ How is the child discovered?\n\n_Ans._ This is an affair of some difficulty, but the inferior Lamas\nalways succeed in finding the hidden divinity. The child into whom\nthey supposed the Lama's soul has entered, is required to remember the\nmost private acts of the Lama's life, to recognize, as familiar\nobjects, the articles which he was accustomed to use, etc. The\nchildren thus examined have sometimes answered in so extraordinary a\nmanner that many have supposed Satan was permitted to aid in the\nimposture.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nMYTHOLOGY OF SCANDINAVIA.\n\n\n_Ques._ What does this mythology include?\n\n_Ans._ The ancient superstitions of that portion of Northern Europe\nnow known as Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Iceland.\n\n_Ques._ What is the general character of Scandinavian mythology?\n\n_Ans._ It has none of the grace and poetic beauty which characterize\nthe fables of Greece and Rome; and it differs equally from the more\nmystical superstitions of the Persians and Hindoos. In warm and\nfertile regions, the temper, even of the barbarian, is softened into\nharmony with the scenes around him, and his superstitions, though\nstill sensual, are more gentle and refined. On the other hand, the\nwild and rugged North made its own impress on the Scandinavian tribes,\nand their superstitions were gloomy and extravagant, with sometimes an\nelement of savage grandeur and sublimity.\n\n_Ques._ Was this mythology transmitted by oral tradition only?\n\n_Ans._ This must have been the case for a long time; as the oldest of\nthe Eddas was compiled only in the eleventh century, and the stories\nwhich it contains of the Northern gods and heroes, had been long\nfamiliar to the people in the recitations of their bards. The\nScandinavian Skalds or bards were, like the Celtic, historians as well\nas minstrels.\n\n_Ques._ Who composed the Eddas?\n\n_Ans._ It is impossible to say. The oldest, or poetic Edda, was\ncompiled by S\u00e2mund Sigf\u00fbsson, an Icelandic priest, about the middle of\nthe eleventh century. He was educated in France and Germany, and spent\nsome time in Rome before his return to Iceland. He was induced to\ncompile the Edda, principally, it would seem, from a patriotic desire\nof preserving the ancient legends of his race. The word Edda means\nancestress, and it is so called because it is considered the mother of\nIcelandic poetry. The Sagas were written in Denmark and the\nScandinavian peninsula.\n\n_Ques._ What account do the Eddas give of the creation?\n\n_Ans._ They say that in the beginning, there was neither heaven nor\nearth, but a world of mist, in which flowed a mysterious fountain.\nTwelve rivers issued from this fountain, and when they had flowed far\nfrom their source, froze into ice, which, gradually accumulating, the\ngreat deep was filled up. Southward from the world of mist, was the\nworld of light. From this a warm wind flowed upon the ice, and melted\nit. The vapors rose in the air and formed clouds, from which sprung\nthe Frost Giant and his progeny; also the cow Audhumbla, by whose milk\nthe giant was nourished. The Frost Giants were the enemies of gods and\nmen. From the ice of the lower deep a god arose, who married a\ndaughter of the giants, and became the father of three sons, Odin,\nVili and Ve. These slew the giant Ymir, and out of his body formed the\nearth on which we live. His bones were changed into mountains, his\nhair into trees; of his skull they made the heavens, and of his brain,\nclouds charged with hail and snow. Odin next regulated the days and\nseasons by placing the sun and moon in the heavens, and appointing\nthem their respective courses. As soon as the sun shed its rays upon\nthe earth, the plants and trees began to bud and sprout. The three\ngods walked by the side of the sea, admiring their new creation, but\nseeing that it was uninhabited, they resolved to create man. Aske and\nEmbla, the first man and woman, were therefore formed, the man out of\nan ash, and the woman out of an alder. They were the parents of the\nwhole human race.\n\n_Ques._ What idea had the ancient Scandinavians of the form of the\nearth?\n\n_Ans._ Their notions on the subject were childish in the extreme. They\nthought that the ash tree Ygdrasill, supported the entire universe.\nThis tree had three roots, one of which extended into Asgard, the\ndwelling-place of the gods; another into Jotunheim, the abode of the\ngiants; and a third into Niffleheim, the region of darkness and cold.\nUnder the tree lies Ymir, and his efforts to throw off the weight\ncause earthquakes. The root that extends into Asgard is carefully\ntended by three Norns, who correspond to the Fates of Greek mythology.\nAsgard could only be entered by crossing the bridge Bifrost, (the\nrainbow).\n\n_Ques._ Describe Asgard.\n\n_Ans._ It contained gold and silver palaces, the dwellings of the\ngods, but the most famous and beautiful of these was Valhalla, the\nresidence of Odin. This god is represented as seated on a throne which\noverlooks all heaven and earth. On his shoulders sit the ravens, Hugin\nand Munin, who fly every day over the whole world, and on their return\nreport to him all that they have seen. At Odin's feet lie two wolves,\nto whom he gives all the meat that is set before him, as he himself\nstands in no need of food. Mead is for him both food and drink.\n\n_Ques._ How is Odin's name sometimes written?\n\n_Ans._ Woden; and from this comes the name of the fourth day of the\nweek, Woden's day, changed to Wednesday.\n\n_Ques._ Has Odin any other name?\n\n_Ans._ He was sometimes called Alf\u00e2dur, (All father,) but this name is\noccasionally used in a way that seems to prove that the Scandinavians\nhad an idea of a divinity superior to Odin, Uncreated and Eternal.\n\n_Ques._ What were the delights of Valhalla, and who were permitted to\nenjoy them?\n\n_Ans._ None were admitted to Valhalla but heroes who had fallen in\nbattle. Women, children, and all who had died a peaceful death, were\nexcluded as unworthy. The joys of Valhalla consisted in eating,\ndrinking and fighting. They feasted on the flesh of the boar\nSchrimnir, which was cooked every day, and became whole again every\nnight. The goat Heidrun supplied them with never-failing draughts of\nmead, which they drank from the skulls of their slaughtered enemies.\nFor pastime, they fought, and cut one another to pieces. When the hour\nof feasting came, they recovered from their wounds, and were whole as\nbefore.\n\n\nTHOR.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Thor?\n\n_Ans._ He was Odin's eldest son, and was god of thunder. His mighty\nstrength depended upon three things--his hammer, his belt of strength,\nand his iron gloves. The giants at one time obtained his hammer, and\nhe was obliged to use a very singular stratagem to recover it.\n\n_Ques._ What was this?\n\n_Ans._ Thor was most anxious to recover his hammer, but the giant\nThrym had buried it eight fathoms deep under the rocks of Jotunheim.\nLoki undertook to negotiate with Thrym; but the giant demanded the\nhand of the goddess Freya, and refused to restore the hammer on any\nother terms. Thor was much troubled, as he knew how vain it was to\nexpect that the bright goddess of love and song would consent to dwell\nin the dismal regions of Jotunheim. The artful Loki proposed that Thor\nshould array himself in the garments of Freya, and accompany him to\nthe abode of the Frost Giants. Thor consented, and Thrym welcomed his\nveiled bride with great joy, attributing her silence to a modest\nreserve. He was much surprised, however, to see her eat for supper\neight salmons, besides a full grown ox and other delicacies, washing\ndown the repast with proportionate draughts of mead. Loki bade him not\nto wonder at this, as her thoughts had been so much occupied by her\napproaching nuptials that she had not eaten for many days. When Thrym\nwas startled by the fiery eyes he saw gleaming from beneath the bridal\nveil, Loki again made an excuse which satisfied him, so he brought the\nhammer, and laid it on the lap of the supposed bride. Thor seized the\nweapon, and finding his wonted strength restored, he threw off his\ndisguise, and rushed upon Thrym, whom he slew with all his followers.\n\nLoki had served Thor in this adventure; on another occasion he\nincurred his wrath by an injury offered to Sif or Sifa, his wife. The\nhair of this goddess flowed around her in sunny waves that shone like\ngold. She was proud of this adornment; and Loki, willing to punish her\nvanity, and always ready for mischief, found means to cut off her hair\nwhile she slept.\n\nThe goddess was inconsolable, and Thor sought the insolent offender,\nintending to crush him with his redoubtable hammer.\n\nLoki was terrified, and sought the dwelling of the Gnomes. These\nskillful workmen gave him a head of hair which they had spun from the\npurest gold, and which was so wonderfully wrought that it would attach\nitself to the head of the wearer, and increase in length like ordinary\nhair. Sifa was enchanted with the golden locks, and the cunning Loki\nescaped the threatened punishment.\n\nFrom Thor's name is derived the word Thursday.\n\n\nFREY AND FREYA.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Frey?\n\n_Ans._ He was one of the greatest of the gods. He presided over rain,\nsunshine, and the fruits of the earth. From his name comes our word\nFriday.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Freya?\n\n_Ans._ She was the sister of Frey or Freyr. She loved music, Spring\nand flowers, and was a friend of the elves, or good fairies. Freya\nwas invoked by lovers, and seems to have been a sort of Scandinavian\nVenus.\n\n\nBRAGI.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Bragi?\n\n_Ans._ He was god of poetry, but he scorned all lighter strains, and\nwas the patron of those only who sung the praises of the gods and the\ndeeds of warriors.\n\nIduna, his wife, kept in a casket certain apples which the gods, when\nthey felt age approaching, had only to taste to renew the vigor and\nbloom of youth. On the approach of the Great Twilight, and the end of\ntime, this fruit was to lose its magic power.\n\n\nHEIMDALL.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Heimdall?\n\n_Ans._ He was the watchman of the gods, and was stationed at the\nextreme verge of heaven to guard the bridge Bifrost. The gods\ncontinually feared that the giants might force their way over the\nshining arch, and invade Valhalla.\n\nHeimdall required less sleep than a bird, and his sight was so keen\nthat he could distinguish the smallest object, for a thousand leagues\naround, even in the darkest night. His quickness of hearing was\nequally wonderful; he could hear the wool growing on the sheep's\nbacks, and the grain sprouting in the fields. He possessed a horn of\nsuch construction that when he blew upon it, the sound spread in\nwidening circles until it reached the uttermost confines of the world.\nHeimdall was not permitted to marry, lest any care for wife or\nchildren might interrupt his unceasing watchfulness.\n\n\nVIDAR.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Vidar?\n\n_Ans._ He was the god of silence. His strength was almost equal to\nthat of Thor; he was often employed like Mercury as messenger of the\ngods. He had sandals which sustained him equally in the air, and upon\nthe water.\n\n\nHODUR.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Hodur?\n\n_Ans._ He was a blind deity, endowed with prodigious strength. He was\nmild and benevolent, but certain terrible predictions concerning him\ninspired such terror in Asgard that it was not lawful for any god to\npronounce his name. Hodur seems to have been a personification of\nnight.\n\n\nTHE VALKYRIOR.\n\n_Ques._ Who are the Valkyrior?\n\n_Ans._ According to the Scandinavian tradition, they are warlike\nvirgins, the messengers of Odin, and their name signifies \"Choosers of\nthe slain.\" Odin is desirous of collecting a great many heroes in\nValhalla, that he may be able to meet the giants in the final contest\nat the end of the world. He sends the Valkyrior, therefore, to every\nbattle field to make choice of those who shall be slain. When they\nride forth on their errand, mounted upon war steeds and in full armor,\ntheir shields and helmets shed a strange flickering light, which\nflashes up over the northern skies, and is called by men, \"Aurora\nBorealis,\" or \"Northern Lights.\"\n\n\nLOKI AND HIS PROGENY.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Loki?\n\n_Ans._ Loki was an evil deity, the contriver of all fraud and\nmischief. He was very handsome, but of fickle and malicious temper.\nLoki had three children, the wolf Fenris, the Midgard serpent, and\nHela, or Death. The gods were not ignorant that these monsters were\ngrowing up, and would one day bring much evil upon gods and men.\nOdin, therefore, sent a messenger to bring them to him. When they\ncame, he threw the serpent into the deep ocean by which the earth is\nsurrounded. The monster soon grew to such an enormous size, that,\nholding his tail in his mouth, he encircled the whole world. Hela was\ncast into Niffleheim, where she receives as her subjects all who die\nof sickness or old age. The wolf Fenris gave the gods much trouble\nbefore they succeeded in chaining him. He broke the strongest fetters\nas if they were made of cobwebs. Finally, the mountain spirits\nfashioned a chain which he could not break. It was fabricated of the\nroots of stones, the noise made by the footfall of a cat, and other\nequally absurd and imaginary material.\n\n\nBALDUR THE GOOD.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Baldur?\n\n_Ans._ He was the son of Odin, good and exceedingly beautiful. He was\ntormented by terrible dreams, indicating that his life was in peril.\nHe told these things to the assembled gods, who resolved to do all in\ntheir power to protect him. Frigga, the wife of Odin, exacted an oath\nfrom the elements, fire, air, water, and from everything animate and\ninanimate upon the earth--stones, plants, rocks and animals--that they\nwould do no harm to Baldur. The gods were so well satisfied with this,\nthat they amused themselves with throwing sticks, stones and all\nmanner of weapons at the hero, who was not harmed by anything. Loki,\nwith his usual malice, was determined on Baldur's death, but did not\nknow exactly how to bring it about. He assumed, therefore, the form of\nan old woman, and went to see Frigga. The goddess asked him what the\ngods were doing at their meetings. The disguised Loki replied that\nthey were throwing darts and stones at Baldur, without being able to\nhurt him.\n\nHe inquired of Frigga, in his turn, if it were really true that she\nhad exacted an oath of all created things, to spare Baldur. \"Aye,\"\nsaid Frigga; \"all things have sworn, save a mistletoe which was\ngrowing on a mountain side, and which I thought too young and feeble\nto crave an oath from.\" As soon as Loki heard this, he went away\nrejoicing. Having cut down the mistletoe, he repaired to the place\nwhere the gods were assembled, and put the bough among the sticks\nwhich they were casting in sport at Baldur. It was thrown with the\nrest, and Baldur fell to the ground pierced through and through. The\ngods were overwhelmed with grief, and broke forth in the wildest\nlamentations. Then Frigga came, and asked, who among them would show\nhis love for her, and for Baldur, by procuring the deliverance of the\nhero. Not having fallen in battle, Baldur had passed into the power of\nHela, who ruled over the gloomy regions of Hell, or Niffleheim.\nHermod, the son of Odin, offered to repair thither, and pay to Hela a\nmighty ransom for the return of his brother Baldur. He set out,\ntherefore, mounted on Odin's horse Sleipnir, which had eight legs and\ncould outstrip the wind. For nine days, and as many nights, the hero\nrode through darksome glens where no object could be discerned in the\ngloom. On the tenth, he came to a dark river, which was spanned by a\nbridge of gold; this was the entrance into Hell, and Hermod rode over\nit fearlessly, although it shook and swayed under his living weight.\nHe passed the night in discourse with Baldur, and the next morning\npreferred his petition to Hela. He offered any ransom she might name\nfor Baldur's return, assuring her that heaven and earth resounded with\nlamentations for the hero. Hela would take no ransom, but wished to\ntry if Baldur were really so beloved. \"If,\" said she, \"all things in\nthe world, both living and lifeless, weep for him, then shall he\nreturn; but if any one thing refuse to weep for him, then shall he be\nkept in Hell.\"\n\nOn hearing the result of Hermod's mission, the gods made proclamation\nthroughout the world, beseeching all created things to weep for\nBaldur's deliverance. All complied with this request; both men and\nanimals, all, even to the savage beasts of the forest, shed tears for\nthe hero. The trees and plants shed crystal drops like rain, and even\nthe rocks and stones were covered with a glittering dew. One old hag\nonly, sat in a cavern, and refused to weep, saying,\n\n    \"Thankt will wail\n    With dry tears\n    Baldur's bale-fire.\n    Let Hela keep her own.\"\n\nIt was strongly suspected that this hag was no other than Loki\nhimself, who never ceased to work evil among gods and men. Thus Baldur\nwas prevented from coming back to Asgard.\n\n\nFuneral of Baldur.\n\n_Ques._ How was the hero buried?\n\n_Ans._ Baldur's body was borne to the sea-shore, and placed upon a\nfuneral pile which was built of his own ship, the largest in the\nworld. All the gods were present, and even the Frost and Mountain\nGiants were touched with kindness and came to do him honor. When the\nwife of Baldur saw the funeral pile prepared, she died of grief, and\nher body was consumed with that of her husband.\n\n\nLoki's Punishment.\n\n_Ques._ How did the gods revenge the death of Baldur?\n\n_Ans._ They pursued Loki, who made use of his magical power to escape\ntheir wrath. He changed himself at one time into a salmon, and hid\namong the stones of a brook. He was taken, however, by Thor, who\ncaught him by the tail, and compressed it so, that all salmons ever\nsince have had that part remarkably thin. Being restored to his\nnatural form, Loki was bound with chains in a gloomy cavern. A serpent\nwas suspended over his head, whose venom falls upon his face drop by\ndrop. One comfort is allowed him; his wife Siguna sits by his side,\nand catches the drops as they fall, in a cup; but when she carries it\naway to empty it, the venom falls upon Loki, which makes him howl with\nhorror, and twist his body so violently that the whole earth shakes.\n\n\nThe Elves.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Elves?\n\n_Ans._ They were beautiful spirits, clothed in transparent and\ndelicate garments. They loved the light, and were kindly disposed to\nmankind. The country of the Elves was called Alfheim, and was the\ndomain of Freyr, the god of the sun, in whose light they were always\nsporting.\n\n_Ques._ Were all the fairies equally beneficent?\n\n_Ans._ No; the Night Elves, also called Gnomes, and sometimes\nBrownies, were at times exceedingly malicious. They were ugly,\nlong-nosed dwarfs of a dark brown complexion, and were never seen\nexcept at night, because the sun's rays had the power of changing them\ninto stones.\n\n_Ques._ Where did these dwell?\n\n_Ans._ The Gnomes dwelt in mountain caverns and the clefts of rocks.\nThey were particularly distinguished for their knowledge of the\nmysterious powers of nature. They were also skillful workers in wood\nand metal, and were acquainted with the secret stores of gold and\nsilver which the gods had hidden in the earth. Many stories are\nrelated of their malicious pranks; but they sometimes favored the poor\nand friendless in an unexpected manner.\n\nThe principal works of the Gnomes were Thor's hammer, and the ship\nSkidbladnir. This vessel was so wonderfully wrought, that while it was\nlarge enough to carry all the deities with their war and household\nimplements, it could be folded together so small as to be carried in\nthe hand.\n\n\nRunic Letters.\n\n_Ques._ What are Runic letters?\n\n_Ans._ One may occasionally meet in Norway, Denmark, or Sweden with\ngreat stones of different forms, engraven with characters called\nRunic, which appear, at first sight, very different from any letters\nwe know. They consist almost invariably of straight lines in the shape\nof little sticks, either single or in groups. Divination was anciently\npracticed among the northern nations by means of sticks of different\nlengths. These were shaken up, and from the chance figures they\nformed, the priests predicted future events. When alphabetic writing\nwas introduced, the letters naturally took the form of the ancient\nrunes. The magic verses were of various kinds. The noxious, or, as\nthey were called, the bitter runes were recited to bring evils on\ntheir enemies; the favorable averted misfortune; some were medicinal,\nothers employed to win love, etc. In later times, the runes were used\nfor inscriptions, of which more than a thousand have been found.\n\nThe language is a dialect of the Gothic, called Norse, still in use in\nIceland. The inscriptions may, therefore, be read with certainty; but\nthey throw very little light on history, being principally epitaphs on\ntombstones.\n\n\nRagnarok, the Twilight of the Gods.\n\nIt was a firm belief of the northern nations, that a time would come\nwhen all the visible creation, the gods of Valhalla, the inhabitants\nof earth, men, giants and elves, would be destroyed, together with\ntheir habitations.\n\nThis fearful day will not be without its forerunners. First will come\na triple winter, during which clouds of snow, driven by piercing winds\nfrom the four quarters of the heavens, will fall unceasingly on the\nearth; tempests will sweep the sea, and the sun will impart neither\nheat nor gladness. Three such winters will pass away without being\ntempered by a single summer. Three other winters will then follow,\nduring which war and discord will convulse the universe. The solid\nearth will tremble, the sea will leave its bed, and the heavens will\nbe rent asunder.\n\nDuring this convulsion of nature, armies will meet in combat, and so\ngreat shall be the slaughter, that wolves and eagles will banquet upon\nthe flesh of kings and heroes. The wolf Fenris will now break his\nbands; the Midgard serpent rise out of the sea, and Loki, released\nfrom his chains, will join the enemies of the gods. The Eddas give a\nwild description of the last great battlefield on which the powers of\ngood and evil shall contend, and on which all alike, whether gods or\ndemons, are doomed to perish. When all are slain, the world will be\nwrapped in flames, the sun will become dim, the stars will fall from\nheaven, and time shall be no more.\n\nAfter this universal destruction, Alf\u00e2dur (All-Father) will cause a\nnew heaven and a new earth to rise out of the abyss. This new earth\nwill produce its fruits without labor or care; perpetual spring will\nreign, and sin and misery will be unknown. In this blissful abode,\ngods and men are to dwell together in a peace which the powers of evil\ncan never again disturb.\n\n\nGermany.\n\nThe Mythology of the Teutonic or Germanic race is neither so\npicturesque nor so well defined as that of Scandinavia. Odin and\nother Scandinavian divinities were worshipped by the tribes who dwelt\nalong the borders of the Northern Ocean; in other parts of Germany,\nDruidism prevailed. The Germans had, however, their own deities and\ntheir own superstitions. Tuisco (sometimes written Tuesco or Tuisto)\nwas worshipped by the Saxons as the god of war. The third day of the\nweek takes its name from this divinity.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII.\n\nCELTIC MYTHOLOGY.\n\n\nDRUIDISM.\n\n_Ques._ From what is the term Druid derived?\n\n_Ans._ There exists much difference of opinion on this point. The word\nhas been variously deduced from the Saxon, \"dry,\" a magician, from the\nGerman, \"druthin,\" a master or lord, from the Celtic, \"deru,\" an oak,\netc. The best informed writers now refer it to the compound Celtic\nword \"derouyd,\" from \"De,\" God, and \"rouyd,\" speaking. It would,\ntherefore, seem to signify those who speak of or for God.\n\n_Ques._ Where did Druidism prevail?\n\n_Ans._ In some parts of Germany, in Gaul, and in ancient Britain and\nIreland.\n\n_Ques._ Where did it originate?\n\n_Ans._ Various theories have been advanced on this subject. Some refer\nit to the Siva-worshippers of Hindostan, others to the Magi of Persia;\nbut all agree as to its Eastern origin.\n\n_Ques._ Who is the earliest writer on this subject?\n\n_Ans._ Julius C\u00e6sar. His account is considered perfectly reliable,\nalthough, to render it more intelligible, he gives to the Celtic gods\nthe names of the Greek and Roman divinities whom they resemble.\n\n_Ques._ What were the principal characteristics of Druidism?\n\n_Ans._ The belief in one Supreme Being: in the immortality of the\nsoul, and a future state of rewards and punishments. This last\ndoctrine takes with them, as with the Hindoos, the form of\nmetempsychosis. The religion of the Druids was farther characterized\nby the use of circular temples, open at the top; the worship of fire\nas the emblem of the sun, and the celebration of the ancient Tauric\nfestival, (held on the first of May, when the sun enters Taurus.)\n\n_Ques._ What name did the Druids give to the Supreme Being?\n\n_Ans._ Esus, or Hesus; although this is sometimes mentioned as the\nappellation of a subordinate divinity. Superior to the Roman Jupiter,\nor the Zeus of the Greeks, Esus had no parentage; was subject to no\nfate; he was free and self-existent, and the creation of the world was\nhis own voluntary act. The Druids taught that excepting this Supreme\nGod, all things had a beginning, but that nothing created would ever\nhave an end. Notwithstanding these enlightened ideas, they reverenced\nmany other divinities. The Assyrian Baal was worshipped among the\nCelts as Bel or Belen. As he represented the sun, the Romans\nrecognized in him their god Apollo. Diodorus Siculus, a contemporary\nof C\u00e6sar, makes the following statement on the authority of an ancient\nGreek writer.\n\n\"Apollo,\" he says, \"is worshipped with solemn rites by the inhabitants\nof a large island, which lies off the coast of Gaul, in the Northern\nOcean. This island is inhabited by the Hyperboreans, so named because\nthey live beyond the region of the north wind. The god has there a\nremarkable temple, circular in form, and a magnificent forest is\nconsecrated to him.\" It is generally supposed that the temple alluded\nto by Diodorus, was the Druidical circle of Stonehenge, of which we\nshall speak later.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Teu\u00b4tates?\n\n_Ans._ This name is thought to be derived from \"Tut-tat,\" signifying\n\"parent of men.\" This god was much honored by the Gauls, who\nattributed to him the invention of letters and poetry. According to\nthe Triads, (Druidical verses,) he \"wrote upon stone the arts and the\nsciences of the world.\" In his more beneficent character, the name\nGwyon was often given to this divinity. He resembles, both in name and\nattributes, Thoth, the Mercury of Egypt and Phoenicia. The ancient\nGauls had no idols, nor did they ever attempt any visible\nrepresentation of their deities. When the Romans established their own\nworship in the country, they endeavored, according to their usual\npolicy, to conciliate the conquered tribes by adopting their gods, and\nplacing their images in the temples which they built. We read that\nZenodorus, a famous sculptor, said by some to have been a native of\nGaul, executed a statue of Teu\u00b4tates which cost forty million\nsestertia. He spent six years upon this great work.\n\nCamul, the Celtic Mars, Tarann, the god of thunder, and many other\ndivinities of inferior rank, were worshipped in Gaul and Germany.\n\n_Ques._ How was the Druid priesthood divided?\n\n_Ans._ Into three orders; the priests, the bards, and the Druids,\nproperly so called.\n\n_Ques._ What were the duties of the priests?\n\n_Ans._ They studied the hidden laws of nature and the mysteries of\nearth and heaven. They offered public and private sacrifices, and\nobtained a knowledge of the future from the entrails and the blood of\nvictims, or from the flight of birds. They also cured maladies with\ncertain mysterious charms. The bards held a still higher rank: they\npreserved in their verses the mystic learning of the priests, the\ntraditions of their race, and the great actions of their heroes. No\nsacrifice was duly offered without their sacred chant; they encouraged\nthe warrior going to the field of combat, and received him on his\nreturn with notes of triumph. To live in heroic song was the\naspiration of every Celtic warrior, and to the coward or traitor,\nthere was no penalty so terrible as the denunciation of the sacred\nbards. Music was the only gentle art known to the rude tribes of Gaul\nand Britain, and they were, perhaps for this reason, the more\nsusceptible to its influence. The character of these minstrels was\npeculiarly sacred in their eyes, on account of the gifts of prophecy\nand second sight which they were believed to possess in moments of\ninspiration.\n\nThe verses of the bards were never committed to writing, and a long\nand painful course of oral instruction was necessary before a\ncandidate could be admitted to take his place in this influential\nclass. According to C\u00e6sar, twenty years was the ordinary novitiate\nrequired.\n\nThe bards of Gaul seem to have passed away with the religious system\nto which they belonged; but in the British islands, they continued,\nalthough divested of their sacred character, to be a highly esteemed\nand privileged class. We may judge of their influence in keeping alive\nthe patriotic spirit of the people, from the fact that Edward I.\nordered their extermination as the surest means of extinguishing the\nfeeling of nationality among the Welsh tribes. In Ireland and\nScotland, the bards gradually passed away with the decline of the\nfeudal system, and the power of the native princes and chieftains\nwhose glory they sung.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Druids, properly so called?\n\n_Ans._ They were priests of the highest order, who remained secluded\nin caves and grottoes, or in the depths of oak forests, where they\nwere supposed to study the deeper mysteries of nature and religion,\nand to consult more directly the secret will of the divinity. They\nwere also the teachers of youth.\n\nThe Druids must have possessed some knowledge of the motions of the\nheavenly bodies, since they counted the year by lunations;\nastronomical instruments have also been found among the druidical\nremains in Ireland, which prove that they had made a certain progress\nin this science. Like the Persians, they mingled astrology and\ndivination with their observations of the celestial bodies. The\nhealing art was also practised by the Druids. The effect of their\nremedies was not, however, attributed to any natural cause, but rather\nto a mysterious virtue residing in certain plants, and rendered\nefficacious by the magic rites with which they were gathered.\n\nThe mistletoe, when found growing on the oak, was esteemed\nparticularly sacred; it was an antidote against poison, a remedy in\nall diseases, and a preservative against the machinations of evil\nspirits. To possess the proper efficacy, it should be gathered in\nFebruary or March, on the sixth day of the moon. As soon as the\nmistletoe was found growing on the no less sacred oak, the Druids\nassembled; a banquet and a sacrifice were prepared, after which a\npriest in white vestments cut the plant with a golden sickle while two\nothers received it reverently into a white mantle spread beneath. Two\nmilk-white heifers were instantly offered in sacrifice, and the rest\nof the day was spent in rejoicing. In like manner, the samolus, or\nmarsh-wort, possessed no virtue unless it were sought fasting, and\ngathered with the left hand, without looking at it. They plucked the\nhelago, or hedge hyssop, barefooted, and without a knife, after\nablutions, and offerings of bread and wine. The vervain and other\nplants had also their distinct ceremonial.\n\nAmber was valued for certain mysterious properties; it was\nmanufactured into beads by the Druids, and these were given as charms\nto warriors going to battle; such beads are sometimes found in their\ntombs.\n\n_Ques._ Were the Druids acquainted with the art of writing?\n\n_Ans._ They were, at least in Gaul and Ireland. Their alphabet\ncontained seventeen letters, and resembled the characters used by the\nancient Pelasgi. It is probable, therefore, that they received it from\nthe early Greek colonists. Writing was employed for ordinary affairs,\nwhether public or private, but the mystic learning of the Druids was\nhanded down by oral tradition only. The few inscriptions they have\nleft are in symbolic writing, which resembles the runes of\nScandinavia, and originated in the same manner from the rods and\nbranches of certain plants used in divination. These inscriptions are\ncalled in Ireland \"ogham;\" they are principally straight lines,\ngrouped in different ways.\n\n_Ques._ Did the Druids exercise any political authority?\n\n_Ans._ Yes; they were the legislators of the people, and had the right\nof deciding in all controversies. There was no appeal from their\nsentence, and those who ventured to resist were excommunicated and\noutlawed.\n\nThe college of Druids was governed by a chief or Arch-druid, chosen by\nvote from among their number. The elections were eagerly contested,\nand were often attended with much bloodshed. The Arch-druid held his\noffice for life.\n\n_Ques._ Who were the Druidesses?\n\n_Ans._ They were prophetesses or sorceresses, most generally wives or\ndaughters of the Druids, who exercised an unbounded influence over the\npeople. They were supposed to read the future, to conjure tempests,\nand appease them again at will. The Gallic mariner often went to\nconsult them amid the reefs of the Armorican coast, and trembled with\nsuperstitious awe as he saw them gliding like phantoms among the misty\ncrags, waving flaming torches, and mingling their wild chants with the\nvoices of wind and sea. Some of these sorceresses were obliged to\nassist at nocturnal rites, where, with their bodies painted black, and\ntheir hair dishevelled, they joined in a frantic dance, and abandoned\nthemselves to the wildest transports of frenzy. A peculiar rite was\npractised by the Druidesses who resided in an island at the mouth of\nthe Loire. They were obliged once every year, between sunrise and\nsunset, to demolish and rebuild the roof of their rustic temple. If\nany of their number should let fall the least part of the sacred\nmaterial, her fate was sealed. She was torn to pieces by her\ncompanions, amid paroxysms of wild frenzy which recalled to the Greeks\nthe orgies of their own Bacchantes. It is said that no year passed\nwithout a victim.\n\nThe nine virgin priestesses who dwelt on the island of Sena, an almost\ninaccessible rock off the promontory of Plogoff, on the coast of\nBrittany, were regarded with particular veneration, and constituted,\nperhaps, the highest religious authority among the ancient Gauls.\nThere was a class of Druidesses in Gaul and Germany, who, in addition\nto practices of sorcery and incantation, presided at fearful rites.\nStrabo tells us that when the Cimbri had taken prisoners of war, they\nwere offered in sacrifice by these terrible women. The chief Druidess,\nstanding by a rude stone altar, received the victim dragged thither by\nher companions. She plunged her knife into his heart, and watched\ncarefully to obtain an omen, according as the blood should flow more\nor less rapidly. This ceremony was repeated with other victims until\nthe augury was deemed decisive. The superstitions with regard to\nwitches and their nocturnal revels, which prevailed so long in Europe,\noriginated, no doubt, from popular traditions concerning these\nsorceresses.\n\nIn Ireland, they do not appear to have played either so terrible or\nso important a part. We only know that at Tara, certain virgins of\nroyal blood were consecrated to Baal and Samhain, (the moon,) and\nwatched the perpetual fire which burned on their altars. In one of the\ncivil wars so common in the island, a chief of Leinster destroyed this\nsanctuary and massacred its inmates. The entire country united to\npunish the perpetrators of this sacrilege; they were put to death, and\na perpetual fine was imposed on the province of Leinster.\n\n_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered by the Druids?\n\n_Ans._ In time of peace, fruits and cattle; in war, human sacrifices\nwere preferred.\n\n_Ques._ How were the victims chosen?\n\n_Ans._ They were generally captives taken in war, slaves or criminals.\nIn some cases, warriors and others devoted themselves voluntarily to\nthe altar, either to propitiate the gods, and obtain victory for their\npeople, or because they were weary of life, and desired to hasten the\nmoment of transmigration. These acts of self-immolation were esteemed\nexceedingly meritorious. C\u00e6sar supposes Teu\u00b4tates to be the same with\nDis or Pluto; but in the mythology of the Gauls, there were no\ninfernal regions, and consequently, there was no Pluto. The soul\npassed into another body, and the transmigration was happy, or the\ncontrary, as the actions performed during its last state of existence\nhad been good or evil.\n\nAccording to the Druids, death was but the central point of a long\nlife.\n\n_Ques._ What was the usual mode of sacrifice?\n\n_Ans._ Victims offered to Baal were always burned. On important\noccasions, a great number were enclosed in a huge frame of wicker work\nin which they were consumed together. In offerings to other gods,\ndifferent rites were observed.\n\nThese remarks apply chiefly to Gaul, Germany and Britain. Human\nsacrifices were rare in Ireland.\n\n_Ques._ What were the principal festivals of the Druids?\n\n_Ans._ The Tauric festival, which has been already mentioned, was the\nmost ancient, dating from the time of the Chaldees, or Babylonians. In\nIreland and in the Highlands of Scotland, the first of May takes its\nname from this solemnity, being called in Gaelic, Beltane; and in\nIrish, Beal-Tinne, or the Fire of Baal. The solstices were also\ncelebrated as the chief points in the sun's annual course. Wherever\nDruidism prevailed, there was in the centre of each great district or\ncanton, a perpetual fire in honor of Baal. On the feast of the god,\nthis was extinguished, and again lighted, after which all the fires\nthroughout the country were rekindled from this sacred source. This\nrite was observed with particular solemnity in Ireland. There the\nDruids assembled around the sacred or \"parent fire,\" which the\nArch-druid extinguished. At this signal every fire disappeared, and,\nin an incredibly short space of time, darkness settled on the island.\nThe chiefs and princes, together with the assembled people, then\nassisted in silent awe, while the Druids performed their nocturnal\nrites. At length the fire was rekindled; torches lighted at the sacred\nflame were passed from hand to hand, and the country was soon\nilluminated by the Baal fires which blazed on every hill. The chief\nscene of these solemnities was Ouisneach, in the centre of the island,\nbut the same rite was performed in many other places.\n\nAccording to what seems an authentic tradition, it was during such a\nceremony that St. Patrick obtained the opportunity of holding a public\ndisputation with the Druids in the presence of the king and chieftains\nassembled at Tara. It was Easter Eve, and the Saint, who must have\nbeen well aware of the penalty of death attached to such an act,\ncommanded his disciples to light the paschal fire at the moment when\nall around was plunged in darkness. The flame was seen at Tara, and\nthe Druids called loudly for the punishment of the sacrilegious\nstrangers. They were seized and brought before the assembly, but the\nresult was favorable to the missionaries, and from that day may be\ndated the rapid though peaceful decline of Druidism in Ireland.\n\nThe idolatrous rites peculiar to the season of the summer solstice\nhave been long forgotten but the custom of lighting fires upon that\nday, still prevails. The bonfires of St. John's Eve (June 21st)\nrecall, at least, one feature of the ancient Druid festival.\n\n_Ques._ What rites were observed on the first day of November?\n\n_Ans._ The day was consecrated to the Moon, (called in Ireland\nSamhain,) and was observed both in Gaul and in the British islands. It\nwould seem that the spirits of the departed were also propitiated at\nthis season, and many curious traditions are connected with its\nobservance.\n\nBefore the invasion of C\u00e6sar, Britain was so little known to the\nancient Gauls, as to be still a land of mystery. They believed that on\nevery feast of the moon, the souls of those who had died during the\nyear, were obliged to repair thither for judgment.\n\nConnected with this, Procopius relates an Armorican legend of which\nsome traces may yet be found in Brittany. At the foot of the\npromontory of Plogoff, around the sacred isle of Sena, are scattered\nrocks on which the sea breaks with an unceasing moan. Thither\nassemble, on the night of judgment, the spirits of the dead. Faint\nwailings are heard, and pale phantoms are seen gliding above the\nwaves, which they are not yet spiritual enough to cross without human\nsuccor. At the hour of midnight the sailors and fisher men along the\ncoast hear mysterious voices calling at their doors. They rise and\nfind strange barks waiting on the shore. Scarcely have they entered\nthese, when the light craft is weighed down by a ghostly band. The\nterrified pilot has no need of helm or sail, for the barks are borne\nwestwardly with incredible velocity. When they touch the misty shores\nof Britain, there is a hollow murmur--the boats ride lightly on the\nwater--the souls are gone.\n\nThe superstitious observances which are still practised on November,\nor All Hallow Eve, in Ireland, Scotland, and some parts of England,\nare of pagan origin, and seem to be relics of this festival.\n\n_Ques._ At what period may we fix the decline of Druidism?\n\n_Ans._ It was suppressed in Gaul by the Roman conquerors, who built\ntemples, and introduced the worship of their own gods, adopting also\nthose of the conquered race. Druidism retired, step by step, before\nthis more classic heathenism, but found a temporary refuge in the\nGerman forests and in Armorica. It was suppressed in Britain during\nthe reign of Nero. The persecuted Druids took refuge in the island of\nMona or Anglesea, whence they were driven by the Roman troops with\ngreat slaughter. They found a last asylum in the island of Iona. Here\nthey maintained a certain influence up to the latter part of the sixth\ncentury, when the inhabitants of the island were converted by the\npreaching of St. Columba, the Apostle of the Highlands. This\nmissionary was a native of Ireland, where Christianity had been\nestablished for nearly a century.\n\n_Ques._ What traces still remain of the ancient Druidical worship?\n\n_Ans._ Certain monuments, which are called, according to their form,\nmenhirs, dolmens or cromlechs.\n\n_Ques._ What are the menhirs?\n\n_Ans._ The word is derived from the old Breton man, stone; and hir,\nlong. They are upright blocks of stone, often terminating in a point;\nand are for the most part rough and unshapely; the ordinary height is\nfrom seven to twelve feet; but in some rare instances, they exceed\nthirty feet in height. The purpose of these menhirs is not well\nunderstood. Where they stand singly, or in groups of two or three,\nthey probably mark a spot rendered memorable by some important event.\nSimilar monuments were common in primitive times, as we learn from\nScripture; when the Israelites had crossed the dry bed of the Jordan,\nJoshua placed twelve stones on the bank, as a remembrance of the\nmiracle. Jacob marked in the same manner the spot on which he had been\nfavored by a celestial vision. In certain places on the Scandinavian\npeninsula, extensive groups of menhirs occur, scattered irregularly\nover the plain; these are supposed to mark ancient battle-fields.\nWhere the stones are arranged in a \"cromlech\" or circular form, there\nis generally a dolmen in the centre. The dolmen is a large flat\nstone, placed like a table, upon two others which are set upright.\nSome of these were evidently altars, as the flat stone on the top is\nfurrowed and slightly inclined to facilitate as it were the flowing of\nblood. Dolmens are found also in straight lines, forming a sort of\ncovered gallery.\n\n_Ques._ Where are the most remarkable of these monuments?\n\n_Ans._ On the continent of Europe, the most extensive series is that\nof Carnac in Brittany. In the midst of a wide heath, stand rude blocks\nof gray granite, set on end; they are angular, and show no marks of\npolish. These menhirs are arranged in eleven lines, forming regular\nalleys. The blocks numbered formerly about ten thousand; but there are\nnow many gaps in the stony lines, as every house in the vicinity seems\nto have been built from this convenient quarry.\n\nAt Stonehenge, in England, is a large cromlech arranged in two circles\nand two ovals. There are in all about one hundred and forty stones, of\nwhich the smallest are estimated to weigh ten or twelve, and the\nlargest seventy tons. In the centre of the work is a massive slab of\nfine sandstone, supposed to have been an altar. This cromlech is\nsurrounded by a trench and an earthen embankment. Numerous ancient\n_barrows_, or burial mounds, are found in the neighborhood. In\nIreland, monuments constructed of stone are sometimes found; but\ncircular earthworks are more common. In this country, as in Brittany,\nmany popular superstitions still attach to these remains of ancient\npaganism. Almost within our own day, many an Irish peasant has made\nhis scanty harvest still smaller, rather than violate with the plough,\nthe grass-grown \"rath,\" or Druid circle. Death within the year is the\nsupposed penalty of such an act. In Brittany, malignant dwarfs and\nnight-elves still haunt the deserted cromlech, and have power at\ncertain times, to wreak their malice on the belated traveller. Some of\nthese giant stones are themselves subject to mysterious laws. Once in\na hundred years, they are obliged, at the hour of midnight, to pass in\nweird procession to bathe in the waters of the Northern Ocean.\n\nThen for a few brief moments the stars look down on the riches\nburied in ancient times beneath the enchanted circle. It is the\ntreasure-seeker's golden opportunity, but woe to the avaricious wretch\nwho lingers over the spoil. He is crushed by the swift returning\nstones, and the morning sun finds the grim sentinels silent and\nmotionless as before, bearing no trace of their wild nocturnal march.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX.\n\nMexico.\n\n\nMYTHOLOGY OF THE AZTECS.\n\n_Ques._ What peculiarity has been remarked in the mythology of the\nAztecs or ancient Mexicans?\n\n_Ans._ Its incongruity. On the one hand we find their priests\ninculcating the most sublime truths of natural religion, and the\npurest maxims of morality, while on the other, their sacrifices and\npublic worship were marked by a spirit of unexampled ferocity.\n\n_Ques._ How has this been explained?\n\n_Ans._ It is supposed that the religion of the Aztecs was derived from\ntwo distinct sources. The ancient Toltecs, who preceded them in\nMexico, were a comparatively humane and enlightened race; they\nretained many of the highest principles of natural religion, united,\nprobably, with truths derived from primitive tradition. The Aztecs\nseem to have adopted the religion of their more civilized predecessors\nwithout abandoning their own dark and cruel superstitions. Hence the\ncontradictions and inconsistencies of their mythology.\n\n_Ques._ What did the Aztecs believe of God?\n\n_Ans._ They believed in one Supreme Lord and Creator, to whom they\nattributed all the divine perfections. The prayers which they\naddressed to Him recall, in many instances, the very phraseology of\nScripture.\n\n_Ques._ Did the Aztecs worship any other deity?\n\n_Ans._ Yes, they worshipped many subordinate divinities who were\nsupposed to preside over the elements, the changes of the seasons and\nthe various occupations of men. Of these gods, thirteen held the most\nexalted rank, while the inferior class numbered over two hundred.\n\n_Ques._ Who may be considered the chief of these subordinate\ndivinities?\n\n_Ans._ Huitzilopotchli, a sort of Mexican Mars, who was, in fact, the\npatron deity of the nation. His temples were the most stately of all\nthe public edifices, and his altars in every part of the empire were\ncontinually reeking with the blood of human victims.\n\n_Ques._ Who was Quetzalcoatl?\n\n_Ans._ The Aztecs, like many nations of the old world, had their\nGolden Age. During this blissful period, Quetzalcoatl, god of the air,\ndwelt on earth, and instructed men in the use of metals, in\nagriculture and every useful art. Under his beneficent rule, the earth\nbrought forth its fruits without care or labor: and such was the\nfertility of the soil that a single ear of corn was as much as a man\ncould carry. The dyer's art was not needed, for the cotton took, as it\ngrew, the richest and most varied hues. The rarest flowers filled the\nair with perfume, and the melody of birds was heard in every grove.\nThis happy state was not destined to last; Quetzalcoatl incurred the\nanger of one of the greater gods, and was obliged to abandon the\ncountry. He proceeded to the shores of the Mexican gulf, where he took\nleave of his followers, promising that, when many years had rolled\naway, he would revisit their descendants. He then embarked in a skiff\nmade of serpent's skins, and sailed eastward towards the fabled land\nof Tlapallan.\n\nQuetzalcoatl was described by the Mexicans as tall, with a fair\ncomplexion, long, dark hair, and a flowing beard. They looked\nconfidently for the return of the benevolent deity, and this tradition\nhad no small influence in preparing the way for the future success of\nthe Spaniards.\n\nIt is evident that Quetzalcoatl was the name given by the Mexicans to\nsome beneficent ruler who instructed them in the arts of civilized\nlife. It is singular that he should have been described with every\ncharacteristic of the European race; and some have conjectured that he\nwas indeed a native of the Eastern hemisphere, cast by some strange\naccident among the simple natives of the New World.\n\n_Ques._ Did the Aztecs worship any household divinities?\n\n_Ans._ Yes; the images of their penates, or household gods, were to be\nfound in every dwelling.\n\n_Ques._ What did the Aztecs believe with regard to a future life?\n\n_Ans._ Their priests taught that the wicked were sent after death to\nexpiate their sins in a region of eternal darkness. Those who died of\ncertain diseases were entitled, after death, to a state of indolent\ncontentment; but the Aztec paradise, like the Elysium of the Greeks\nand Romans, was reserved for their warriors and heroes. In this class\nwere included those who were offered in sacrifice. These privileged\nsouls passed at once into the presence of the Sun, whom they\naccompanied with songs and choral dances in his journey through the\nheavens. After a certain period, their spirits went to animate the\ngolden clouds which floated over the gardens of paradise, or, assuming\nthe form of singing birds, revelled amid the blossoms and odors of its\nsacred groves.\n\n_Ques._ What peculiar rite was practised by the Aztecs in the naming\nof their children?\n\n_Ans._ The lips and bosom of the infant were sprinkled with water.\nDuring the ceremony they implored the Lord, that the holy drops might\nwash away the sin that was given to it before the foundation of the\nworld, so that the child might be born anew.\n\n_Ques._ How did the Aztecs bury their dead?\n\n_Ans._ Immediately after death, the corpse was clothed in certain\nsacred habiliments, and strewed with charms, which were supposed to be\nnecessary as a defence against the dangers of the unknown road which\nthe spirit was about to travel. The body was then burned, and the\nashes, carefully collected in a funeral urn, were placed in the house\nof the deceased. In this mode of burial, we may notice a certain\nresemblance to the funeral rites of the ancient Greeks and Romans.\nThere was, however, this distinction, that although the latter\noccasionally sacrificed their captive enemies to the manes of a\ndeparted warrior, this offering formed no necessary part of the burial\nrite; on the other hand, the obsequies of an Aztec noble were always\naccompanied by the sacrifice of unoffending slaves, the number of\nvictims being proportioned to the rank of the deceased.\n\n_Ques._ Did the Aztec priests form a distinct order?\n\n_Ans._ They were altogether distinct from the people, and formed a\nnumerous and powerful hierarchy. Their different functions were\nexactly regulated; those who were best skilled in music formed the\nchoirs--Others arranged the festivals according to the calendar. Some\nwere engaged in the education of youth, and others had charge of the\nhieroglyphical paintings and oral traditions, while the dreadful\nrites of sacrifice were reserved to the chief dignitaries of the\norder.\n\n_Ques._ Were women permitted to exercise any sacerdotal functions?\n\n_Ans._ Yes; the Aztec priestesses exercised every function except that\nof sacrifice. They superintended the schools in which the daughters of\nthe higher and middle classes received their education. These schools,\nas well as those for boys, directed by the priests, were under the\nstrictest discipline. Ordinary faults were punished with extreme\nrigor; graver offences, with death.\n\n_Ques._ How was this numerous priesthood maintained?\n\n_Ans._ A certain quantity of land was annexed to each temple, and the\npriests were further enriched by first fruits and other offerings.\nThis large provision became necessary from the fact that the Aztec\npriests were allowed to marry. The law prescribed that any surplus,\nbeyond what was actually required for their support, should be\ndistributed among the poor. This, and other benevolent provisions,\nseem very inconsistent with the cruelties practised in their public\nworship.\n\n_Ques._ What was the form of the Mexican temples?\n\n_Ans._ They were solid pyramids, constructed of earth, but completely\ncased in brick or stone. They were disposed in three or four stories,\neach smaller than that below. At the top was a broad area, in which\nstood one or more towers, containing images of the presiding deities.\nBefore these towers were generally placed, besides the dreadful stone\nof sacrifice, two lofty altars on which burned perpetual fires. So\nnumerous were these sacred fires in the city of Mexico, that the\nstreets were brilliantly lighted even on the darkest night. The ascent\nwas made, in some cases, by a stairway which led directly up the\ncentre of the western face of the pyramid. More generally, it was so\narranged, that the religious processions were obliged to pass two or\nthree times around the pyramid before reaching the summit. The\nMexicans called their temples Teocallis, or \"houses of God.\"\n\n_Ques._ Are any of these structures still in existence?\n\n_Ans._ Yes; of those which yet remain, the pyramid of Cholula is the\nlargest, and perhaps the most perfect. It measures 176 feet in\nperpendicular height, and is 1425 feet square; it covers 45 acres. It\nis very ancient, having been built before the Aztecs conquered\nAnahuac, as that part of Mexico was formerly named.\n\n_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered by the Aztecs?\n\n_Ans._ Their sacrifices present the same striking contrasts which we\nfind in everything connected with their religion.--Some festivals were\nof a light and joyous character, being celebrated with choral songs\nand dances. Processions of votaries crowned with garlands, bore\nofferings to the temple; fruits, ripe maize, and the sweet incense of\nthe copal and other odoriferous gums; while the birds and domestic\nanimals offered in sacrifice were consumed at the banquets with which\nthe festival concluded. These innocent rites were evidently of Toltec\norigin; the dreadful practice of human sacrifice was introduced by the\nAztec conquerors, whose wars were often undertaken for no other\npurpose than to procure victims for their altars.\n\n_Ques._ Were these sacrifices numerous?\n\n_Ans._ They were introduced only about two hundred years before the\nSpanish Conquest. They were at first exceptional, but became more\nfrequent as the Aztec empire extended, until the number of those\nsacrificed annually throughout the empire is calculated at twenty\nthousand, which is the lowest estimate given. It was customary to\npreserve the skulls of the victims in buildings erected for the\npurpose. One hundred and thirty-six thousand of these ghastly relics\nwere counted in a single edifice. Women were occasionally offered in\nsacrifice, but Tlaloc, the god of rain, could only be propitiated by\nthe blood of young children and infants. In seasons of drought, these\ninnocent victims, decked in the richest attire, and crowned with\nflowers, were borne to the temple in open litters, their cries being\ndrowned in the wild chanting of the priests.\n\nThe feast of Tezcatlipoca, one of the chief gods, who was called the\n\"Soul of the World,\" was celebrated by the sacrifice of a single\nvictim, with regard to whom many peculiar ceremonies were observed. A\nyear before the sacrifice, a young man, distinguished for grace and\nbeauty, was chosen from among the captives. He was splendidly attired,\nsurrounded by every luxury, and was received everywhere with the\nhomage due to the divinity whom he was supposed to represent.\n\nWhen the fatal day arrived, the victim, who had been trained to\nperform his part with calmness and dignity, was conducted to the\ntemple. As the melancholy procession wound up the sides of the\npyramid, he played upon a musical instrument; at first, joyous airs,\nwhich grew graver and more mournful as the cortege advanced, until at\nlength he broke his lute, and cast it aside. He then threw from him,\none by one, his chaplets of flowers, and stood unadorned before the\nstone of sacrifice. The bloody work was soon accomplished, and the yet\npalpitating heart of the victim was thrown at the feet of the idol.\nThe career of this captive, and his progress to the altar, was\nintended as an allegorical representation of human life, which, joyous\nat first, terminates in sorrow and in death. In speaking of human\nsacrifices, we have yet to mention the most revolting feature. The\nMexicans, both men and women, feasted on the bodies of the victims;\nand no Aztec noble would venture to entertain his friends on a\nfestival day without placing before them this loathsome food.\n\nIt is worthy of remark that Montezuma surpassed all his predecessors\nin the pomp with which he celebrated the festivals of the Aztec gods,\nand the number of human victims which he offered on their altars.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER X.\n\n\nPERU.\n\n_Ques._ What deities were worshipped by the ancient Peruvians?\n\n_Ans._ Like most of the races inhabiting the American continent, the\nPeruvians believed in one Supreme God, immaterial and infinite. This\nsublime doctrine did not, however, lead to the practical results that\nmight have been expected.\n\n_Ques._ What name did the Peruvians give to this Supreme deity?\n\n_Ans._ He was adored under the different names of Pachacamac and\nViracocha. They raised no temples in his honor; that which stood near\nthe present site of Lima, having been erected before the country came\nunder the sway of the Incas. It seems probable, therefore, that the\nworship of this Great Spirit did not originate with the Peruvians.\nTheir entire system of religion was directed to the adoration of the\nheavenly bodies. The Sun was adored as the father of the world, the\nsource of light and life. The Moon was honored as his sister-wife, and\nthe Stars were worshipped as her heavenly train. The planet known to\nus as Venus was an especial object of devotion. The Peruvians named it\nChasca, or \"the Youth with the long and curling locks;\" they\nworshipped it as the page of the Sun, whom he attends in his rising\nand setting.\n\nThe Sun was honored also as the father of the royal Inca race; and,\nconnected with this belief, we have one of the few legends worthy of\nnote in the barren mythology of the Peruvians.\n\n_Ques._ Relate this legend.\n\n_Ans._ According to tradition, there was a time when the ancient races\nof the continent were plunged in the most complete barbarism: the will\nof the strongest was the only law; war was their pastime; they\nworshipped the vilest objects in nature, and feasted on the flesh of\ntheir slaughtered enemies. The Sun, the great parent of mankind, took\ncompassion on their degraded state, and sent two of his children,\nManco-Capac, and Mama Oello Huaco, to form men into regular\ncommunities, and teach them the arts of civilized life. The celestial\npair advanced along the high plains in the neighborhood of Lake\nTiticaca, as far as the sixteenth degree of south latitude. They bore\nwith them a golden wedge, and were directed to take up their abode\nwherever the sacred emblem should sink into the earth of its own\naccord. This prodigy took place in the valley of Cuzco, where the\nwedge sank into the ground, and disappeared forever. Here the\nchildren of the Sun entered upon their benevolent mission; Manco-Capac\ninstructing the men in the arts of agriculture, while Mama Oello\ninitiated the women into the mysteries of weaving and spinning. The\nrude, but simple-hearted natives were not slow to appreciate the\nbenefits conferred by the messengers of heaven: a large community was\ngradually formed, and the city of Cuzco was founded in the valley. The\nmonarchy thus formed, was governed by the Incas, who claimed descent\nfrom Manco-Capac and Mama Oello, and always styled themselves,\nChildren of the Sun.\n\n_Ques._ What was the origin of this legend?\n\n_Ans._ It was evidently a fiction, invented at a later period to\ngratify the vanity of the Incas, by attributing to their race a\ncelestial origin. The extensive ruins on the shores of Lake Titicaca\nprove that this region was inhabited by a powerful, and comparatively\ncivilized people, long before the foundation of the Peruvian monarchy.\n\n_Ques._ Are there any other Peruvian legends?\n\n_Ans._ Among the traditions of this race, is one of the deluge, which\nresembles in one or two curious particulars the Mexican legend on the\nsame subject. According to both these traditions, seven persons took\nrefuge in caves, in which they were preserved from the universal\ndestruction; and from these, the earth was re-peopled. The Peruvians\nmaintained that white and bearded men from the east had visited the\ncountry in ancient times, and instructed the natives in the arts of\ncivilized life. This legend recalls the Mexican story of Quetzalcoatl,\nand the coincidence is singular, because no communication is believed\nto have existed between the two countries.\n\n_Ques._ Where were the most celebrated temples of the Sun?\n\n_Ans._ The most ancient of these edifices was in the island of\nTiticaca, whence the founders of the Inca dynasty were said to have\nproceeded. Everything belonging to this sanctuary was held in\nparticular veneration. Even the fields of maize which were attached to\nthe temple were supposed to partake of its sanctity; and the yearly\nproduce was distributed in small quantities through all the public\ngranaries, to bring a blessing on the rest of the store.\n\nA Peruvian esteemed himself happy in securing even a single ear of the\nsacred grain.\n\n_Ques._ Describe the temple of Cuzco.\n\n_Ans._ This edifice was constructed of stone, and covered a large\nextent of ground in the heart of the city. The interior of the temple\nhas been described, by those who saw it in its glory, as being\nliterally a mine of precious metals. It was called by the natives\nCoricancha, or \"Place of Gold.\" On the western wall was the image of\nthe Sun; this was a massive golden plate, of enormous dimensions, on\nwhich was emblazoned a human countenance darting forth rays on every\nside. The image was richly ornamented with emeralds and precious\nstones. It fronted the eastern portal of the temple in such a manner\nthat the first rays of the morning Sun fell directly on his golden\nimage, and were reflected from the rich ornaments with which the walls\nand ceiling were encrusted. Every part of the temple glowed with the\nprecious metal, and even the exterior was encompassed with a broad\nfrieze of gold set in the solid stone-work of the edifice. Adjoining\nthe principal structure was the temple of the Moon. Her effigy was of\nsilver, but otherwise resembled that of the Sun. The same metal was\nused in all the decorations of the building, as resembling in its pale\nlustre the milder radiance of the beautiful planet.\n\nOne chapel was dedicated to the stars, another to thunder and\nlightning, and a third to the rainbow. This last was decorated with a\nmany-colored arch of resplendent hues. Attached to the temple of Cuzco\nwere the celebrated gardens, sparkling with flowers of gold and\nsilver. Animals also were represented in precious ore, and the classic\nfable of the golden fleece was realized in the llama of this fairy\ngarden.\n\n_Ques._ Does anything now remain of this magnificent temple?\n\n_Ans._ No; its riches became the prey of the conquerors, and the\ndesecrated shrine offered an inexhaustible supply of material for the\nerection of other buildings. Fields of maize are now waving where the\ngolden gardens once sparkled in the sun, and the church of St.\nDominic, one of the most magnificent buildings of the New World,\noccupies the site of the famous Coricancha. The temples of Peru were\nmany and magnificent; but Cuzco was to the Inca noble what Mecca is to\nthe devout follower of Mahomet, and he would consider that he had\nneglected a sacred duty, if he had not made at least one pilgrimage to\nthe holy shrine.\n\n_Ques._ From what class were the Peruvian priests generally chosen?\n\n_Ans._ They were all, without exception, Inca nobles, and therefore\nchildren of the Sun. The High Priest, called Villac Vmu, was second\nonly to the Inca, and was chosen from among his brothers or nearest\nkindred.\n\n_Ques._ What sacrifices were offered to the Sun?\n\n_Ans._ Animals, ripe maize, flowers and sweet-scented gums. Human\nsacrifices were rare, and were only offered on great occasions, such\nas a coronation, a victory, etc. A child or a beautiful maiden was\nthen selected as the victim; but the cannibal repasts of the Mexicans\nwere unknown among the more refined Peruvians.\n\n_Ques._ What were the principal festivals of the Sun?\n\n_Ans._ The solstices and equinoxes were celebrated by four great\nfestivals; but the most solemn was the feast of Raymi, held at the\nperiod of their summer solstice. This festival lasted many days. The\nanimals offered in sacrifice were served at the tables of the Inca\nand of his nobles; but of the flocks belonging to the temple, a vast\nnumber were slaughtered and distributed among the people.\n\n_Ques._ What points of resemblance have been noticed between the\nreligious observances of the Peruvians and those of the ancient\nRomans?\n\n_Ans._ In the mode of procuring the sacred fire, the obtaining of\nomens from the animals offered in sacrifice, and in some of the laws\nwith regard to the Virgins of the Sun. At the festival of Raymi, the\nsacred fire was obtained, as under the reign of Numa, by means of a\nconcave mirror of polished metal. The sun's rays were in this manner\ncollected in a focus of sufficient intensity to ignite dried cotton.\nWhen the sky was overcast, which was esteemed a very bad omen, the\nfire was obtained by means of friction. This fire was watched by the\nVirgins of the Sun.\n\n_Ques._ Who were these?\n\n_Ans._ They were maidens of noble birth who were dedicated to the\nservice of the Sun. They were taken from their families at an early\nage, and placed under the care of elderly matrons, who instructed them\nin their religious duties, and in every branch of female industry.\nThey spun garments, which they were taught to embroider with exquisite\nskill. They also wove, of the fine hair of the vicu\u00f1a, the hangings of\nthe temples and the garments worn by the Inca and his household. They\nwere completely secluded, even from their own nearest relatives. The\nwives of the Inca, and they were numerous, were chosen from among the\nVirgins of the Sun. With this exception, they were forbidden to marry.\nThe unhappy maiden who ventured to form in secret a less exalted\nalliance, was condemned to the cruel punishment decreed in like\ncircumstances against the Roman Vestal. She was buried alive; her\naccomplice was strangled, and the village to which he belonged was\nrazed to the ground and sowed with stones.\n\n_Ques._ How did the Peruvians bury their dead?\n\n_Ans._ The body was embalmed, not, as in Egypt, with gums and spices,\nbut by simple exposure to the cold, dry and rarefied atmosphere of the\nmountains. The mummies are generally in a sitting posture. As the\nPeruvians imagined that the wants and occupations of men would be the\nsame beyond the grave as in this life, costly apparel, arms, utensils\nand sometimes treasures were placed in the tomb of a deceased noble.\nThat he might not lack attendance and society, his favorite wives and\ndomestics were sacrificed on his tomb.\n\nThe Peruvians believed in an evil spirit whom they called Cupay, but\nthey did not attempt to propitiate him by any form of worship. Cupay\nseems, in fact, to have been only a personification of sin.\n\n\n\n\nSUPPLEMENT.\n\n_A BRIEF NOTICE OF AUTHORS, ETC., MENTIONED IN THIS VOLUME._\n\n\n\u00c6SCHYLUS,\n\nThe earliest of the Greek dramatists, was born at Eleusis in Attica,\n525 B. C. He distinguished himself in the battles of Marathon, Salamis\nand Plat\u00e6a. \u00c6schylus has been called the father of Grecian tragedy, as\nhe was the first to give rules to the dialogue, and define the duties\nof the chorus; he also planned the dress of the actors, the scenery\nand the whole mechanism of the stage. \u00c6schylus wrote sixty-six dramas,\nin thirteen of which he obtained the victory over all his competitors.\nHe was at length defeated by a younger rival, Sophocles. He retired\nthe same year to the court of Hiero, king of Syracuse, and some\nwriters attribute this step to the mortification felt by the poet on\nthis occasion. Others say that he was accused as guilty of profanity\nin exhibiting on the stage certain things connected with the\nEleusinian mysteries. The people were about to stone him, when he was\nsaved by the presence of mind of his brother Aminias. The latter had\nwon much glory in the Persian war, and now, while interceding for his\nbrother he dexterously dropped his mantle so as to expose the stump of\nthe arm he had lost at Salamis. The silent appeal was not without its\neffect on the impulsive Athenians, and \u00c6schylus was pardoned. He\ndeemed it prudent, however, to retire to Sicily, where he was kindly\nentertained by Hiero. His death is said to have occurred in a very\nextraordinary manner.\n\nAs he slept in the fields, an eagle which was flying over him with a\ntortoise in his claws, mistook the bald head of the poet for a stone.\nThe bird dropped the tortoise for the purpose of breaking the shell,\nand he was killed by the blow, thus verifying a prophecy that his\ndeath would come from on high.\n\nOf the dramas written by \u00c6schylus, but seven remain. Of these, the\nmost admired is the \"Prometheus Chained.\" The subject is the\npunishment of Prometheus on Mount Caucasus; the scenery is grand and\nterrific, and all the persons of the drama are divinities.\n\n\nC\u00c6SAR (Caius Julius),\n\nThe Roman general and dictator, holds a high rank among Latin authors.\nDuring the most active period of his life, he found time to devote to\nliterary pursuits. Of the works written by him on various subjects,\nboth in prose and verse, we have only his \"Commentaries,\" in ten\nbooks. Seven of these treat of the Gallic war, the rest contain an\naccount of the Civil war. The hurry of military expeditions did not\nprevent this extraordinary man from observing closely the manners and\ncustoms of the different nations with whom he contended. We are\nindebted to the Commentaries for almost all the accurate information\nwe possess with regard to the inhabitants of ancient Gaul.\n\nC\u00e6sar was not surpassed, even by the writers of the Augustan age, in\nclearness and beauty of style. He exaggerates nothing, and his most\nbrilliant achievements are related with a certain modest simplicity\nwhich is one of the characteristics of true greatness.\n\n\nCICERO.\n\nA Roman orator and statesman. He filled the highest offices in the\ngift of his country, and took so prominent a part in public affairs,\nthat an account of his life would be also a history of his times.\nCicero wrote on the art of public speaking, on philosophy and\njurisprudence. This great man, who had saved Rome from the plots of\nCatiline, and rendered many other signal services to his country, was\nbasely murdered by the order of the second Triumvirate, in the year 43\nB. C.\n\n\nDEMOSTHENES.\n\nA famous Athenian orator, who defended the liberties of his country\nagainst the aggressions of Philip of Macedon.\n\n\nDIODORUS,\n\nSurnamed Siculus, from Sicily, his birth-place. He was a celebrated\nhistorian, contemporary with Julius C\u00e6sar and Augustus. He wrote a\n\"General History\" in forty books, of which we have now fifteen entire,\nwith scattered fragments of the others. Diodorus devoted thirty years\nto this great work.\n\n\nEURIPIDES,\n\nA Greek tragedian, was born in 480 B. C., on the day rendered famous\nby the victory of Salamis. After gaining a high reputation as a\ndramatist, Euripides retired to Macedon, to the court of King\nArchela\u00fbs. On the death of the poet, the Athenians begged that his\nbody might be sent to Athens for interment. This request Archela\u00fbs\nrefused, and Euripides was buried with much pomp at Pella, in Macedon.\nThis poet is inferior to \u00c6schylus and Sophocles, not only in dignity\nof sentiment, but in the moral tone of his dramas. Sophocles is said\nto have observed that while he represented men as they ought to be,\nEuripides described them as they were.\n\n\nHERODOTUS,\n\nWho has been called the Father of History, was born at Halicarnassus,\n484 B. C. He spent many years travelling through Europe, Asia and\nAfrica, observing everywhere the manners and customs of the people,\nand collecting materials for his great work. His account of the\nPersian war is full of interest, and won for him great popularity\namong his countrymen.\n\nHerodotus relates many things which seem strange, and even incredible;\nbut these are either traditions of remote times, or accounts received\nfrom other travellers. The general opinion is that where Herodotus\nspeaks from his own observation, or relates events of which the memory\nwas still recent, he may be relied upon as an accurate and truthful\nhistorian.\n\n\nJUSTIN (Saint).\n\nA Christian writer of the second century. He is principally celebrated\nfor his \"Apology for the Christians,\" addressed to the Emperor\nAntoninus. It is written in a style at once eloquent and persuasive,\nand it is believed that it had the desired effect, and was the\nimmediate cause of the edict issued by Antoninus in favor of the\nChristians.\n\nSt. Justin addressed a second Apology to Marcus Aurelius, but with far\ndifferent success. This Emperor was too much under the influence of\nthe heathen philosophers whom he had assembled at his court, to judge\nimpartially in the matter. One of these, Crescentius, a bitter enemy\nof the Christians, procured the death of their intrepid defender. The\nmartyrdom of St. Justin took place at Rome, about the year 161 A. D.\n\n\nJUVENAL.\n\nA Roman poet of the first century. He was born in the reign of\nCaligula, but the exact date is not known. Juvenal is celebrated for\nhis satires, in which he attacked the vices and follies of his day,\nnot sparing the emperors themselves where their conduct was deserving\nof reproach. Hadrian believed that one of the satires of Juvenal was\ndirected against himself; he had not the magnanimity to overlook the\noffence, and Juvenal was exiled to Lybia, where he died soon after.\n\n\nM\u00c6CENAS.\n\nMinister and favorite of the Emperor Augustus. He was distinguished\nfor the wisdom of his counsels, and his rare abilities as a statesman.\nAlthough himself an indifferent poet, he was still a patron of\nliterature and literary men; Virgil, Horace, Ovid and other celebrated\nwriters of the Augustan age, were among his most intimate friends.\nSuch was the care with which M\u00e6cenas sought out and rewarded every\nspecies of merit, that his name is proverbially used to denote a\ngenerous patron.\n\nAdmirable in his public capacity, he was in private life as indolent\nand luxurious as the most effeminate oriental. His villas were laid\nout with unexampled magnificence, and his banquets surpassed, in taste\nand display, those given by Augustus himself.\n\nThe later years of M\u00e6cenas offer a sad commentary on the value of\nhuman greatness. His constitution, which had never been strong, was\nweakened by excess. He was tormented by constant wakefulness, and this\ngreat man, with the resources of the world at his command, would\nprobably have sacrificed both wealth and power for the common boon of\nsleep enjoyed by the meanest of his slaves. In vain the physicians\nexercised their skill; narcotics, monotonous sounds, distant music,\nall failed to produce the desired effect. A stream was, at length,\nconducted through a garden adjoining the chamber where he lay, and the\nsoft murmur of the falling waters procured a temporary alleviation. We\nare told, however, that for three years preceding his death, M\u00e6cenas\nnever slept.\n\n\nPELASGI.\n\nA name given to the most ancient inhabitants of Greece. They founded\ncolonies in Asia Minor, the islands of the \u00c6gean Sea, and in Italy.\nThe Cyclopean remains in these countries are generally attributed to\nthe Pelasgi. These structures are remarkable for the immense size of\nthe stones of which they are built.\n\n\nPLINIUS, (Secundus C.)\n\nA Roman writer, generally known as Pliny the Elder; is equally\ncelebrated as a historian and a naturalist. It is not easy to\nunderstand how one man could have followed so many different\navocations, filled high offices under different emperors, and yet have\nfound time for such a vast amount of composition. While still quite\nyoung, Pliny served in Germany, where he commanded a troop of cavalry;\nhe afterwards practised as a pleader at the Roman bar, filled the\noffice of procurator in Spain, and we find him, at the time of his\ndeath, in command of the fleet which guarded the coast of Italy.\n\nThe application of Pliny to literary pursuits was uninterrupted. He\nrose to his studies at two in the morning, and during the entire day,\nwhether in the bath, at table, or sitting in his garden, he either\nlistened to reading, wrote, or dictated. Even on his journeys and\nmilitary expeditions, a secretary always sat in his chariot. We are\ntold that in winter Pliny was careful to provide him with a warm glove\nof peculiar make, that his fingers might not be too much benumbed to\nhold the stylus.\n\nWe have but one complete work of this author, his Natural History, in\nthirty-seven books. It treats, not only of natural history, properly\nso called, but also of astronomy, biography, history, physiology,\nmedicine and the fine arts. The portion which treats of animals\npossesses now but little interest.\n\nIn many instances, the description is so vague as to leave us in doubt\nas to the particular animal he would designate. He also mingles facts,\nreally observed, with fables of winged horses, monsters with human\nheads and the tails of scorpions, etc. The ten books on botany are\nopen to the same objections. He attributes to many plants properties\naltogether fabulous, and his work, although formerly much quoted on\nthese points, has rendered very little service to the art of medicine.\nThe case is different where he speaks of geography, history and the\nfine arts. On all these points, he imparts much valuable information\nof which we would otherwise be deprived. The Natural History may be\nconsidered, from its wide range of subjects, a sort of Cyclop\u00e6dia, and\nit is said that if the Latin language were lost, it might be restored\nfrom this work alone.\n\nPliny perished in the great eruption of Mount Vesuvius which destroyed\nthe towns of Herculaneum and Pompeii. He observed the phenomena\naccompanying it from the deck of his ship. Wishing to take a nearer\nview, and also to succor some of his friends whose villas lay near\nthe scene of peril, he steered across the bay, and landed at the foot\nof the mountain. The next morning, while pursuing his investigations,\nregardless of the remonstrances of his friends, he was suffocated by\nthe noxious vapors of the volcano. His body was discovered three days\nlater, entirely uninjured, and in an attitude of repose.\n\nC. Plinius C\u00e6cilius Secundus, nephew of the preceding, is generally\ndistinguished as Pliny the Younger. Under the care of his uncle he\nmade such rapid progress in literature, that he was generally\naccounted one of the most learned men of his age.\n\nHe began his career as an orator at the early age of nineteen. After\nfilling the high offices of qu\u00e6stor, consul and augur, Pliny was\nappointed by Trajan governor of Bithynia. It was from this country\nthat he wrote his celebrated letter in favor of the Christians. It is\ninteresting and important, as showing the progress of Christianity,\nand bearing testimony to the purity of life which was the\ndistinguishing mark of its professors.\n\nPliny has left a collection of letters in ten books. They are\naddressed to some of the most celebrated persons of the time, and are\nvaluable and interesting for the information they convey with regard\nto public events, and the manners and habits of his contemporaries.\nThe style of these letters is studied, and they have none of the ease\nand familiarity of friendly correspondence. It seems probable that\nthey were intended rather for posterity, than for the persons to whom\nthey were ostensibly addressed.\n\n\nPROCOPIUS.\n\nOne of the most celebrated historians of the Eastern Empire. He\nflourished during the reigns of Justin the Elder and Justinian, and\naccompanied Belisarius as secretary on his military expeditions.\n\n\nSIMONIDES.\n\nThis poet excelled particularly in elegiac verse. When the most\ndistinguished poets of Greece wrote verses in honor of those who fell\nat Marathon, the elegy of Simonides took the prize, although \u00c6schylus\nwas one of the competitors. The compositions of the great tragedian\nwere deficient in the tenderness and pathos for which Simonides was\nparticularly distinguished. The lament of Dana\u00eb, and a few scattered\nfragments, are all that remain of his verses, but these are sufficient\nto prove that his reputation in this respect was well deserved.\n\nSimonides brought the epigram to all the perfection of which it was\ncapable. The most celebrated of his epitaphs is the monumental\ninscription composed for the Spartans who died at Thermopyl\u00e6:\n\"Stranger, tell the Laced\u00e6monians that we lie here in obedience to\ntheir laws.\"\n\nSimonides was held in high esteem at the court of Hiero, king of\nSyracuse. This prince having inquired of him concerning the nature of\nGod, the poet requested a day to deliberate on the subject. When Hiero\nrepeated his question on the morrow, he asked for two days. As he\ncontinued in this manner, doubling the number of days, the king\nrequired an explanation. Simonides replied that he postponed his\nanswer, because, the longer he meditated on the subject, the more\nobscure it became, and the more he felt his inability to treat it in\nan adequate manner.\n\nSimonides was the master of Pindar; he lived to a very advanced age,\nso that he became the contemporary of the Pisistratid\u00e6 and of\nPausanias, king of Sparta. This poet is accused of having become\nmercenary in his old age, and Greek writers speak of him as the first\nwho wrote verses for money. In this connection, we have a story which\nwould show that the poet was not believed to have forfeited the favor\nof the gods by his avarice.\n\nWhile residing at the court of Scopas, king of Thessaly, he was\nengaged by that prince to compose a poem in his honor for an\napproaching banquet. Whether Simonides found the exploits of Scopas\ntoo barren a subject for his muse, or that his piety led him to\nintroduce higher themes, we do not know; but when the verses were\nrecited before the assembled court, the praises of Castor and Pollux\nwere mingled largely with those of his royal patron.\n\nA mortal might have been content to share his honors with the divine\npair; but Scopas grudged every line which did not celebrate his own\nfame. When Simonides approached to receive his reward, the king gave\nhim half the appointed sum, saying, that was for his part; for what\nrelated to Castor and Pollux, they would no doubt bestow a generous\nrecompense. The disconcerted poet returned to his place amid the jeers\nand laughter of the guests. In a little while, a slave brought him\nword that two young men on horseback were at the gate, and desired\nearnestly to speak with him. Simonides went out, but found no one;\nwhile he was looking to see which way the strangers had gone, the roof\nof the palace fell with a terrible crash, burying Scopas and his\nguests beneath the ruins.\n\nOn being informed of the appearance of the young men who had sent for\nhim--of their snow white steeds and shining armor, he knew that it was\nindeed Castor and Pollux who had acknowledged, in this manner, the\nhomage of his verse.\n\n\nSOPHOCLES.\n\nWas the second in order of time of the great tragic poets of Greece.\nIn true dramatic excellence, he is generally considered the first. The\npoet was only sixteen when he was selected to lead the chorus of\nAthenian youths who celebrated with lyre and song the erection of the\ntrophy in honor of the victory at Salamis. In his twenty-fifth year,\nhe carried off the tragic prize from \u00c6schylus. He gained the same\ntriumph over other competitors, taking the first prize on twenty-four\ndifferent occasions.\n\nIrreproachable in private life, distinguished for his skill in every\nmanly exercise, and a rare excellence in the arts of poetry and music,\nSophocles was considered by his admiring countrymen as an especial\nfavorite of the gods. The remark of the ancient sage that no man is to\nbe accounted happy before he dies, was verified in the case of this\ngreat poet. If the morning of his life was bright in the lustre of\nnational glory and personal renown, the evening was clouded by the\nmisfortunes of his country, and domestic unhappiness. Sophocles served\nwith courage, but without gaining much distinction, in the\nPeloponnesian war, and was a witness of the miseries which that fatal\nstruggle brought upon Greece. He died in the year 405, B. C., a few\nmonths before the defeat of \u00c6gos-potamos completed the misfortunes of\nAthens. He was deeply lamented by the Athenians, who seem to forget\nthe calamities of the time in their grief at the loss of so\nillustrious a citizen. Sophocles wrote one hundred and thirty dramas,\nof which seven remain. Of these, the Oedipus Tyrannus and the Antigone\nare the most admired.\n\n\nSTRABO.\n\nA celebrated geographer, born at Amaseia, in Pontus, about the year\n24, B. C. He spent many years in travelling, at first for his own\ngratification, and in the pursuit of knowledge, but afterwards by the\norder of Augustus. He was already advanced in life when he compiled\nhis great work on geography. It is divided into seventeen books, and\ncontains much valuable and interesting information with regard to the\nmanners and customs of the nations he had visited.\n\nLittle was known at that time of the extent and form of earth. Strabo\nimagined that the entire habitable portion was included between two\nmeridians, one of which passed through the island of Ierne, (Ireland,)\nand the other through Ceylon.\n\n\nTITICACA.\n\nA lake in Bolivia, celebrated for the ruins of Tiahuanico on its\nshores. They stand on an eminence which, from the water-marks\nsurrounding it, seems to have been formerly an island in the lake. So\ngreat a change has taken place, that the level of the lake is now 135\nfeet lower, and its shores 12 miles distant. These ruins are believed\nto be the most ancient on the American continent. The Peruvians knew\nnothing of their origin, but had a vague tradition that they were\nbuilt by giants in a single night. They regarded them, therefore,\nwith superstitious awe, and connected them, as we have seen, with the\nfables of their mythology. These ruins, like some in the the Old\nWorld, are often called cyclopean, on account of the size of the\nblocks of stone used in their construction. There are still remaining,\nmonolithic pillars, statues and doorways, sculptured in a style\nentirely different from that observed on any other American monuments.\nWe may form some idea of the size of the blocks used, from the\nmeasurement of one doorway, which is 10 ft. high, and 13 ft. broad,\nwith an opening, 6 ft. 4 inches, by 3 ft. 2 inches, the whole being\ncut from a single stone.\n\nSome of the buildings appear to have been of pyramidal form, and to\nhave covered several acres. Of the people who executed such stupendous\nworks, we know absolutely nothing, except that they preceded the\nPeruvians, and were farther advanced in the arts of civilized life\nthan any nation existing on the continent at the time of its\ndiscovery.\n\n\nVARRO.\n\nA Latin writer, celebrated for his extensive learning. He is said to\nhave composed five hundred volumes, all of which are now lost, with\nthe exception of two treatises; one on agriculture, the other on the\nLatin language. The latter is dedicated to Cicero, an intimate friend\nof the author.\n\nThe life of Varro was eventful: he was favored by Julius C\u00e6sar,\nproscribed by Antony, and passed his later years in literary ease\nunder the protection of Augustus. Speaking of Varro, St. Augustine\nsays, that \"it is an equal subject of wonder, how one who read such a\nnumber of books, could find time to compose so many volumes; and how\nhe who composed so many volumes, could have found leisure to peruse\nsuch a variety of books.\"\n\n\n\n\n_INDEX._\n\n\n    A.\n\n    Acestes, 173.\n\n    Achab, 214.\n\n    Achilles, 58, 152, 153, 166, 98.\n\n    Acoetes, 42.\n\n    Acrisius, 131\n\n    Admetus, 31.\n\n    Adonis, 53, 216.\n\n    Adrastus, 168.\n\n    \u00c6acus, 102.\n\n    \u00c6geus, 121, 122.\n\n    \u00c6gisthus, 153, 164.\n\n    \u00c6neas, 171.\n\n    \u00c6neid, 148.\n\n    \u00c6olus, 67.\n\n    \u00c6schylus, 170, 199, 202, 291.\n\n    \u00c6sculapius, 30, 188.\n\n    \u00c6son, 119.\n\n    \u00c6etes, 120.\n\n    Agamedes, 184.\n\n    Agamemnon, 152.\n\n    Agathocles, 214.\n\n    Ages of the World, 18.\n\n    Agenor, 26.\n\n    Aglaia, 53.\n\n    Ajax, 141, 157.\n\n    Ahriman, 218.\n\n    Alcestis, 31.\n\n    Alcithoe, 41.\n\n    Alcibiades, 38, 193.\n\n    Alcmena, 114.\n\n    Alecto, 101.\n\n    Alexander, 187, 193.\n\n    Alfheim, 252.\n\n    Alpheus, 91.\n\n    Althea, 140.\n\n    Amazons, 135.\n\n    Ambarvalia, 79.\n\n    Amphion, 88, 128.\n\n    Amphitrite, 93.\n\n    Anchises, 171, 174.\n\n    Andromache, 167, 172.\n\n    Andromeda, 132.\n\n    Antigone, 169.\n\n    Antilochus, 58.\n\n    Apelles, 113, 193.\n\n    Apis, Serapis, 209, 210.\n\n    Apollo, Phoebus, 176, 26, 29, 30, 33, 259, 184, 182, 152.\n\n    Arachne, 47.\n\n    Arcas, 44.\n\n    Arethusa, 91.\n\n    Argonauts, 120.\n\n    Argus, 37.\n\n    Ariadne, 122.\n\n    Arion, 126.\n\n    Ascalaphus, 76.\n\n    Ascanius, 171.\n\n    Asgard, 241.\n\n    Astaroth, Astarte, 216.\n\n    Aske, 240.\n\n    Astr\u00e6a, 80.\n\n    Astyanax, 167.\n\n    Atalanta, 52, 141.\n\n    Attalus, 73.\n\n    Athamas, 97, 119.\n\n    Atlas, 36, 129.\n\n    Atropos, 101.\n\n    Audax, Ap. Cl., 71.\n\n    Augurs, 178.\n\n    Aurora, Eos, 56.\n\n    Avatars, 222.\n\n    Avernus, 100.\n\n    Aztecs, 274.\n\n\n    B.\n\n    Baal, Bel, 213, 258.\n\n    Bacchanalia, 40.\n\n    Bacchantes, 41.\n\n    Bacchus, 32, 39, 122, 126, 186.\n\n    Bakoo, 219.\n\n    Baldur, 248.\n\n    Bards, 260.\n\n    Belides, 104.\n\n    Bellerophon, 104, 137.\n\n    Bellona, 35.\n\n    Belus, 213.\n\n    Belvidere, Apollo, 208.\n\n    Bifrost, 241.\n\n    Bona Dea, 73.\n\n    Bonzes, 232.\n\n    Bragi, 245.\n\n    Brahma, 221.\n\n    Brennus, 84.\n\n    Briareus, 103.\n\n    Buddha, 226.\n\n\n    C.\n\n    Cacus, 65.\n\n    Cadmus, 26.\n\n    Caduceus, 36.\n\n    C\u00e6culus, 65.\n\n    C\u00e6sar, Augustus, 63, 147, 149.\n\n    C\u00e6sar, Julius, 258, 292.\n\n    Calchas, 152, 153, 167.\n\n    Calliope, 82, 125.\n\n    Callista, 44.\n\n    Calypso, 159.\n\n    Cambyses, 59, 187.\n\n    Camul, 260.\n\n    Carnac, 272.\n\n    Cassandra, 152, 172.\n\n    Cassiopeia, 132.\n\n    Castalian fount, 189.\n\n    Castes, 225.\n\n    Cecrops, 46.\n\n    Castor, 123, 141.\n\n    Celeus, 78.\n\n    Centaurs, 104.\n\n    Cephalus, 56.\n\n    Cepheus, 132.\n\n    Cerberus, 101, 116.\n\n    Ceres, Demeter, 17, 75, 76, 143.\n\n    Cestus, 50.\n\n    Ceyx, 138.\n\n    Charon, 100.\n\n    Charybdis, 158.\n\n    Chim\u00e6ra, 104, 134.\n\n    Chione, 88.\n\n    Chiron, 114.\n\n    Cholula, 280.\n\n    Cicero, 148, 293.\n\n    Cinyras, 53.\n\n    Circe, 96.\n\n    Claudia, 73.\n\n    Cleomenes, 208.\n\n    Clio, 82.\n\n    Clotho, 101.\n\n    Clymene, 33, 123.\n\n    Clytemnestra, 153, 164.\n\n    Coeneus, 52.\n\n    Confucius, 228-9.\n\n    Consualia, 94.\n\n    Constantine, 184, 86.\n\n    Corcyreans, 181.\n\n    Coricancha, 287.\n\n    Corybantes, Galli, 73.\n\n    Creon, 169.\n\n    Creusa, 120.\n\n    Croesus, 183.\n\n    Cromlechs, 271.\n\n    Cupid, 50.\n\n    Cuzco, 287.\n\n    Cyane, 76.\n\n    Cybele, 72.\n\n    Cyclops, 30, 65.\n\n    Cynisca, 193.\n\n    Cyparissus, 30.\n\n\n    D.\n\n    D\u00e6dalus, 137.\n\n    Dagon, 217.\n\n    Dana\u00eb, 131.\n\n    Danaus, 104.\n\n    Daphne, 33.\n\n    Deianira, 117.\n\n    Delos, 54.\n\n    Delphi, 181.\n\n    Demosthenes, 181, 295.\n\n    Deucalion, 136.\n\n    Diana, 29, 87, 91, 152.\n\n    Dictys, 132.\n\n    Dido, 172.\n\n    Diodorus, 181, 259, 295.\n\n    Diomedes, 46, 116.\n\n    Dindymus, Mt., 72.\n\n    Dionysius, 23, 194.\n\n    Dodona, 180.\n\n    Dolmens, 272.\n\n    Domitian, 70.\n\n    Druids, 258, 261.\n\n    Druidesses, 264.\n\n    Dryades, 90, 143.\n\n\n    E.\n\n    Echo, 91.\n\n    Eclogues, 147, 178.\n\n    Eddas, 239.\n\n    Electra, 164.\n\n    Eleusinian Mysteries, 77.\n\n    Elves, 250, 251, 252.\n\n    Elysium, 174, 104.\n\n    Embla, 241.\n\n    Ephesus, Temple of, 89.\n\n    Epidaurus, 188.\n\n    Epimetheus, 124.\n\n    Erato, 82.\n\n    Erigone, 81.\n\n    Erisichthon, 143-4.\n\n    Erostratus, 89.\n\n    Esus, 258.\n\n    Eteocles, 168.\n\n    Eumenides, 102.\n\n    Euphrosyne, 53.\n\n    Euripides, 170, 193, 295.\n\n    Europa, 26.\n\n    Euryale, 131.\n\n    Eurydice, 125.\n\n    Eurystheus, 114.\n\n    Euterpe, 82.\n\n\n    F.\n\n    Fates, 101, 140.\n\n    Fauns, 85.\n\n    Fenris, 247-8, 255.\n\n    Flora, 92.\n\n    Fo, 233.\n\n    Frey, 244.\n\n    Freya, 244.\n\n    Frigga, 248, 249.\n\n    Frost Giants, 240, 249.\n\n    Furies, 101, 201.\n\n\n    G.\n\n    Games, Classic, 191.\n\n    Ganymede, 43.\n\n    Georgics, 148.\n\n    Genghis, Kan, 237.\n\n    Germanicus, 211.\n\n    Geryon, 104, 116.\n\n    Giants, 209.\n\n    Gnomes, 244, 252.\n\n    Gorgons, 47, 132.\n\n    Graces, 53.\n\n    Gradivus, Mars, 35.\n\n    Guatama, 226.\n\n    Guebers or Guebres, 220.\n\n\n    H.\n\n    Hadrian, 189.\n\n    H\u00e6mon, 106.\n\n    Halcyone, 138.\n\n    Halcyons, 139.\n\n    Hamadryades, 90.\n\n    Harpies, 104.\n\n    Harpocrates, 212.\n\n    Hebe, 118.\n\n    Hecate, 87.\n\n    Hector, 154, 166.\n\n    Hecuba, 155.\n\n    Heimdall, 245.\n\n    Hela, 245, 248, 259.\n\n    Helen, 52, 155.\n\n    Helenus, 172.\n\n    Helicon, Mt., 48, 146.\n\n    Hell, 100.\n\n    Helle, 119.\n\n    Hercules, 31, 77, 114, 191, 192, 195.\n\n    Hermione, 166.\n\n    Hermod, 249.\n\n    Herodotus, 187, 194, 296.\n\n    Hesiod, 146, 83.\n\n    Hesperides, 116, 130.\n\n    Hinnom, 215.\n\n    Hippocrene, 48.\n\n    Hippolytus, 30.\n\n    Hippomenes, 52.\n\n    Hodur, 246.\n\n    Homer, 145.\n\n    Huitzilopotchli, 275.\n\n    Hyacinthus, 30.\n\n    Hyades, 40, 130.\n\n    Hyperboreans, 182, 259.\n\n    Hyperion, 158.\n\n\n    I.\n\n    Iapetus, 123.\n\n    Ibycus, 202.\n\n    Icarus, 137, 156.\n\n    Ida, Mt., 51, 24, 171.\n\n    Iduna, 245.\n\n    Iliad, 146.\n\n    Inachus, 38.\n\n    Incas, 285.\n\n    Ino, 97, 119.\n\n    Io, 38, 209.\n\n    Iole, 117.\n\n    Iona, 270.\n\n    Iphigenia, 52, 165.\n\n    Iphitus, 191, 192.\n\n    Iris, 43.\n\n    Isis, 38, 210.\n\n    Isthmian Games, 196.\n\n    Ixion, 103.\n\n    Iulus, 175.\n\n\n    J.\n\n    Janus, 17, 61, 63.\n\n    Jason, 119, 141.\n\n    Jobates, 134.\n\n    Jocasta, 106.\n\n    Jotunheim, 241, 243.\n\n    Juggernaut, 224.\n\n    Juno, 25, 38, 39, 43, 51, 114, 175.\n\n    Jupiter, 17, 19, 23, 131, 159.\n\n    Jupiter Ammon, 186.\n\n    Justin, (Saint,) 178, 296.\n\n    Juvenal, 210, 212, 297.\n\n\n    K.\n\n    Kalki, 223.\n\n    Krishna, 223.\n\n\n    L.\n\n    Labyrinth, 121, 137.\n\n    Lachesis, 101.\n\n    Laius, 167.\n\n    Lama, Grand, 235-7.\n\n    Laomedon, 57.\n\n    Lao-tze, 228-231.\n\n    Lara, 108.\n\n    Lares, 108.\n\n    Latinus, 174.\n\n    Latona, 29, 54.\n\n    Lavinia, 174.\n\n    Leda, 123.\n\n    Lemnos, 64.\n\n    Lethe, 101, 104.\n\n    Leucothea, 98.\n\n    Loki, 247-250, 243, 251, 256.\n\n    Lotus-eaters, 158.\n\n    Lupercus, 84.\n\n    Luxor, 59.\n\n    Lycaon, 28.\n\n    Lycomedes, 153.\n\n\n    M.\n\n    M\u00e6cenas, 147, 297.\n\n    Maia, 36.\n\n    Mama Oello Huaco, 285.\n\n    Manco-Capac, 285.\n\n    Mania, 108.\n\n    Marathon, 81.\n\n    Mars, Ares, 34.\n\n    Marsyas, 31.\n\n    Medea, 119.\n\n    Medusa, 47, 94.\n\n    Meg\u00e6ra, 101.\n\n    Megalesia, 73.\n\n    Meganira, 78.\n\n    Meleager, 140.\n\n    Melicertes, 97, 196.\n\n    Melpomene, 82.\n\n    Memnon, 58.\n\n    Menelaus, 52.\n\n    Menhirs, 271.\n\n    Mentor, 146.\n\n    Mercury, Hermes, 36, 37.\n\n    Mestra, 144.\n\n    Metamorphoses, 150.\n\n    Metempsychoses, 223.\n\n    Mezentius, 175.\n\n    Midas, 31.\n\n    Midgard serpent, 247.\n\n    Minerva, Pallas Athena, 27, 45, 51, 88, 166.\n\n    Minos, 102, 121, 142, 137.\n\n    Minotaur, 121.\n\n    Mistletoe, rite of the, 262.\n\n    Mnemosyne, 82.\n\n    Moloch, 214.\n\n    Momus, 67.\n\n    Mona, 270.\n\n    Montezuma, 283.\n\n    Muses, 48, 82.\n\n\n    N.\n\n    Naiades, 90.\n\n    Narcissus, 92.\n\n    Nemesis, 81.\n\n    Neptune, 17, 24, 54, 68, 93, 144.\n\n    Nereides, 90.\n\n    Nero, 184-90, 127.\n\n    Nessus, 117.\n\n    Nestor, 141.\n\n    Niffleheim, 241, 246.\n\n    Niobe, 88, 128.\n\n    Nisus, 142.\n\n    Norns, 241.\n\n    Numa, 63, 110.\n\n    Nymphs, 90.\n\n\n    O.\n\n    Oannes, 217.\n\n    Odin, 240-2, 245-6.\n\n    Odyssey, 146, 157.\n\n    Oceanus, 87.\n\n    Oceanides, 87, 90.\n\n    Oedipus, 167, 106.\n\n    Oeneus, 140.\n\n    Olympiads, 192.\n\n    Olympic Games, 191.\n\n    Olympus, Mt., 18.\n\n    Ops, Rhea, 24.\n\n    Oracles, 180.\n\n    Oreades, 90.\n\n    Orestes, 164.\n\n    Orion, 131.\n\n    Ormuzd, Ormasdes, 219.\n\n    Orpheus, 96, 125.\n\n    Osiris, 38, 209.\n\n    Ouisneach, 268.\n\n    Ovid, 148.\n\n\n    P.\n\n    Pachacamac, 284.\n\n    Palamedes, 157.\n\n    Pales, 92.\n\n    Pal\u00e6mon, 98.\n\n    Palladium, 46, 157.\n\n    Pan, 31, 84, 184.\n\n    Pandora, 124.\n\n    Pariahs, 225.\n\n    Paris, 51.\n\n    Parnassus, Mt., 181, 189, 136.\n\n    Parthenon, 207.\n\n    Parsees, 220.\n\n    Patroclus, 154.\n\n    Pausanias, 184.\n\n    Pegasus, 48, 135.\n\n    Pelasgi, 181, 263, 299.\n\n    Peleus, 51, 98, 141, 153.\n\n    Pelops, 103.\n\n    Penates, 108, 171.\n\n    Penelope, 156, 160.\n\n    Pentheus, 41.\n\n    Perdix, 137.\n\n    Periander, 126.\n\n    Pericles, 204.\n\n    Perseus, 47, 94, 129.\n\n    Peru, 284.\n\n    Petasus, 36.\n\n    Ph\u00e6ton, 33.\n\n    Ph\u00e6acia, 160.\n\n    Phoenix, 107.\n\n    Phidias, 81, 206.\n\n    Philip, 193.\n\n    Philoctetes, 118.\n\n    Philomelus, 184.\n\n    Phineus, 133.\n\n    Phorcus or Proteus, 94.\n\n    Phryxus, 119.\n\n    Pierides, 83.\n\n    Pleiades, 130.\n\n    Pliny, 139, 299.\n\n    Pluto, 24, 76, 99.\n\n    Plutus, 100.\n\n    Pollux, 123, 141.\n\n    Polydectes, 132.\n\n    Polybus, 168.\n\n    Polydorus, 155.\n\n    Polyhymnia, 83.\n\n    Polyidus, 135.\n\n    Polymnestor, 155.\n\n    Polynices, 168.\n\n    Polyphemus, 65.\n\n    Polyxena, 155.\n\n    Pomona, 92.\n\n    Pou-tou, 234.\n\n    Priests, Aztec, 278.\n\n    Priestesses, Aztec, 279.\n\n    Priam, 51, 154.\n\n    Procris, 56.\n\n    Procopius, 269, 302.\n\n    Proetus, 137.\n\n    Prometheus, 98, 123.\n\n    Proserpine, Persephone, 31, 76, 100.\n\n    Proteus, 95.\n\n    Pulcher, Cl., 179.\n\n    Pylades, 164.\n\n    Pyrrha, 136.\n\n    Pythia, 165, 181.\n\n    Pythian Games, 195.\n\n    Python, 29, 195.\n\n\n    Q.\n\n    Quetzalcoatl, 275.\n\n    Quirinus, Mars, 34.\n\n\n    R.\n\n    Ragnarok, 254.\n\n    Raymi, 289.\n\n    Rhadamanthus, 102.\n\n    Runic Letters, 258, 263.\n\n\n    S.\n\n    Salii, 35.\n\n    Salmoneus, 104.\n\n    Samhain, 266.\n\n    S\u00e2mund Sigf\u00fbsson, 239.\n\n    Santa Sophia, 90.\n\n    Saturnalia, 62.\n\n    Saturn, 17, 24, 61.\n\n    Satyrs, 85.\n\n    Scylla, 96, 142.\n\n    Semele, 39.\n\n    Sibyls, 176.\n\n    Sibyl, Cum\u00e6an, 173, 176.\n\n    Sifa, 243.\n\n    Siguna, 252.\n\n    Silenus, 32, 40.\n\n    Sirens, 95.\n\n    Sisyphus, 103, 134.\n\n    Siva, 222.\n\n    Skalds, 239.\n\n    Solymi, 135.\n\n    Sophocles, 170, 304.\n\n    Sphinx, 105.\n\n    Statues, 206.\n\n    Stonehenge, 259, 272.\n\n    Strabo, 306.\n\n    Strophius, 164.\n\n    Styx, 33, 101.\n\n    Sudras, 224.\n\n    Sylla, 158, 184, 189.\n\n    Syrinx, 85.\n\n\n    T.\n\n    Tantalus, 88, 103.\n\n    Tao-sse, 229.\n\n    Tara, 268.\n\n    Tarann, 260.\n\n    Tarquin, 86, 177.\n\n    Tauric festival, 258, 267.\n\n    Telamon, 141.\n\n    Telemachus, 157, 161.\n\n    Terminus, 85.\n\n    Tezcatlipoca, 281.\n\n    Terpsichore, 82.\n\n    Teutates, 259, 266.\n\n    Thalia, 53, 83.\n\n    Thammuz, 216.\n\n    Thamyris, 83.\n\n    Theatres, 197.\n\n    Themis, 80.\n\n    Theseus, 121, 141.\n\n    Thetis, 98, 153.\n\n    Thor, 242-4.\n\n    Thoth, 259.\n\n    Thrym, 242-3.\n\n    Tisiphone, 101.\n\n    Titan, 24.\n\n    Tithonus, 57.\n\n    Titicaca, 285, 306.\n\n    Tityus, 103.\n\n    Tlaloc, 281.\n\n    Toltecs, 274.\n\n    Triads, 259.\n\n    Triptolemus, 78.\n\n    Tristia, 149.\n\n    Triton, 94.\n\n    Trophonius, 184.\n\n    Tse-tse, 231.\n\n    Tuisco, 256.\n\n    Turnus, 175.\n\n    Typhon, 102, 209.\n\n\n    U.\n\n    Ulysses, 46, 154, 156, 96.\n\n    Urania, 83.\n\n\n    V.\n\n    Valhalla, 242.\n\n    Valkyrior, 247.\n\n    Varro, 176, 307.\n\n    Ve, 240.\n\n    Vedas, 221.\n\n    Venus, 49, 51, 53, 65, 171.\n\n    Vertumnus, 86.\n\n    Vesta, 69.\n\n    Vestal Virgins, 70.\n\n    Vidar, 246.\n\n    Vili, 240.\n\n    Viracocha, 284.\n\n    Virgil, 147.\n\n    Virgins of the Sun, 290-1.\n\n    Virginia, 111.\n\n    Virtues personified, 110.\n\n    Vishnu, 222.\n\n    Vulcan, Heph\u00e6stus, 19, 64, 68, 154.\n\n    Vulcania, 65.\n\n    Vyasa, 221.\n\n\n    X.\n\n    Xerxes, 183.\n\n\n    Y.\n\n    Ymir, 240.\n\n\n    Z.\n\n    Zend-avesta, 218.\n\n    Zenodorus, 260.\n\n    Zoroaster, 218.\n\n\n\n\n         *   *   *   *   *   *   *\n\n\n\n\nTranscriber's note:\n\nA number of the page numbers in the index are incorrect, generally\nonly being out by a single page; as such, they have been preserved\nas printed.\n\nArchaic and variable spelling is preserved as printed.\n\nSome names include acute accents to indicate pronounciation. The\npositioning of these accents has been made consistent where there was\na variation in a few instances. However, other occurrences of the same\nname may not include the accent. These have been preserved as printed.\n\nMinor punctuation errors, e.g. omitted periods, have been corrected.\nHyphenation and accent usage have been made consistent where there was\na prevalence of one form over another.\n\nPage 270 contains the following paragraph: \"The superstitious\nobservances which are still practised on November, or All Hallow Eve,\nin Ireland, Scotland, and some parts of England, are of pagan origin,\nand seem to be relics of this festival.\" There seems to be a specific\nday missing from the reference to November, presumably 'first,'\nalthough All Hallow Eve is generally regarded as being October 31st,\nwith November 1st being All Hallow, or All Saints Day. As it is\nuncertain what precisely the author was referencing, the text is\npreserved as printed.\n\nThe following amendments have been made to give consistency in the\ntable of contents or index with the main text:\n\n    Page 7--Coeculus amended to C\u00e6culus--\"... Cacus--C\u00e6culus ...\"\n\n    Page 7--Megalecia amended to Megalesia--\"... Festival of\n    Megalesia ...\"\n\n    Page 11--Ashtaroth amended to Astaroth--\"... Astaroth or\n    Astarte ...\"\n\n    Page 13--Bealtime amended to Beal-Tinne--\"... Beltane or\n    Beal-Tinne ...\"\n\n    Page 13--Tetzcatlipoca amended to Tezcatlipoca--\"... Victims\n    offered annually to Tezcatlipoca ...\"\n\n    Page 309--Ashtaroth amended to Astaroth--\"Astaroth, Astarte,\n    216.\"\n\n    Page 309--Athropos amended to Atropos--\"Atropos, 101.\"\n\n    Page 313--Megalecia amended to Megalesia--\"Megalesia, 73.\"\n\n    Page 313--Athen\u00e6 amended to Athena--\"Minerva, Pallas Athena,\n    27, ...\"\n\n    Page 315--Vyassa amended to Vyasa--\"Vyasa, 221.\"\n\nThe following typographic errors have been corrected:\n\n    Page 31--presumptious amended to presumptuous--\"The god was\n    not content with defeating the presumptuous musician, ...\"\n\n    Page 40--personfication amended to personification--\"He seems\n    to be the personification of drunkenness; ...\"\n\n    Page 40--where amended to were--\"What feasts were held in his\n    honor?\"\n\n    Page 46--determed amended to determined--\"... they\n    determined, therefore, to steal the Palladium.\"\n\n    Page 47--because amended to Because--\"_Ans._ Because\n    this bird sees in the dark; ...\"\n\n    Page 64--were amended to where--\"... where he manufactured\n    Jupiter's thunderbolts, ...\"\n\n    Page 67--be- amended to before--\"... he was enabled to\n    foretell storms a long time before they happened; ...\"\n\n    Page 91--refuse amended to refused--\"... but refused to\n    listen to his addresses.\"\n\n    Page 91--repeated 'a' deleted--\"... and was immediately\n    dissolved into a fountain.\"\n\n    Page 98--shipwreek amended to shipwreck--\"He was supposed to\n    have power in saving vessels from shipwreck, ...\"\n\n    Page 106--H\u00e6man amended to H\u00e6mon--\"At length H\u00e6mon, son of\n    Creon, ...\"\n\n    Page 203--Iybcus amended to Ibycus--\"... the fate of Ibycus\n    being still on every tongue.\"\n\n    Page 213--of amended to or--\"Where was the Sun worshipped\n    under the name of Baal or Bel ...\"\n\n    Page 260--excuted amended to executed--\"... executed a statue\n    of Teu\u00b4tates ...\"\n\n    Page 271--ef amended to of--\"... extensive groups of menhirs\n    occur, ...\"\n\n    Page 280--mearsures amended to measures--\"It measures 176\n    feet in perpendicular height, ...\"\n\n    Page 302--repect amended to respect--\"... to prove that his\n    reputation in this respect was well deserved.\"\n\nThe following amendments were made to the index:\n\n    Page 312--there were two entries for Iphitus (one referencing\n    p. 192 and incorrectly located before the entry for Ino). The\n    two have been merged into a single entry in the correct place.\n\n    Page 312--Japetus amended to Iapetus, and entry moved to correct\n    place in index--\"Iapetus, 123.\"\n\n    Page 312--Lucothea amended to Leucothea--\"Leucothea, 98.\"\n\n    Page 315--page reference for Virgins of the Sun entry\n    added--\"Virgins of the Sun, 290-1.\"\n\n\n\n<pre id=\"pg-footer\">","title":"The Student's Mythology: A Compendium of Greek, Roman, Egyptian, Assyrian, Persian, Hindoo, Chinese, Thibetian, Scandinavian, Celtic, Aztec, and Peruvian Mythologies","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":65549}