{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_43273/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_43273","id":"gutenberg_43273","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/43273","summary":null,"tags":["Buddhist art","Category: Art","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Zen Buddhism"],"text":"ZEN BUDDHISM\n  and Its Relation to Art\n\n  By\n  ARTHUR WALEY\n\n  LONDON:\n  LUZAC & CO., 46, Great Russell Street, W.C.1.\n  1922\n\n\n\n\nZEN BUDDHISM\n\n\n\n\nZEN BUDDHISM\n\nAND ITS RELATION TO ART\n\n\nBooks on the Far East often mention a sect of Buddhism called Zen. They\nsay that it was a \u201cschool of abstract meditation\u201d and that it exercised\na profound influence upon art and literature; but they tell us very\nlittle about what Zen actually was, about its relation to ordinary\nBuddhism, its history, or the exact nature of its influence upon the\narts.\n\nThe reason of this is that very little of the native literature which\ndeals with Zen has yet been translated, perhaps because it is written\nin early Chinese colloquial, a language the study of which has been\nalmost wholly neglected by Europeans and also (to judge by some of\ntheir attempts to translate it) by the Japanese themselves.\n\nThe present paper makes no attempt at profundity, but it is based on\nthe study of original texts and furnishes, I hope, some information not\nhitherto accessible.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nBefore describing the origins of Zen itself I must give some general\naccount of Buddhism. At the time when it reached China[1] there were\ntwo kinds of Buddhism, called the Lesser Vehicle and the Greater. The\nformer, Primitive Buddhism, possessed scriptures which in part at\nany rate were genuine; that is to say, they recorded words actually\nused by Sh\u0101kyamuni. The ordinary adherent of this religion did not\nhope to become a Buddha; Buddhas indeed were regarded as extremely\nrare. He only aspired to become an Arhat, that is \u201can ascetic ripe\nfor annihilation,\u201d one who is about to escape from the wheel of\nreincarnation--whose present incarnation is an antechamber to Nirv\u0101na.\nTo such aspirants the Buddha gives no assistance; he is what children\nin their games call \u201chome,\u201d and his followers must pant after him as\nbest they can.\n\n[1] First century A.D.\n\nThose who found this religion too comfortless invented another, which\nbecame known as Mah\u0101y\u0101na, the Greater Vehicle. Putting their doctrines\ninto the mouth of Sh\u0101kyamuni, they fabricated _ad hoc_ sermons of\nenormous length, preached (so they asserted) by the Buddha himself in\nhis \u201csecond period\u201d to those who were ripe to receive the whole truth.\n\nThe great feature of this new Buddhism was the intervention of the\nmerciful Bodhisattvas, _illuminati_ who, though fit for Buddhahood,\nvoluntarily renounced it in order to help mankind.\n\nThe first Buddhist books to reach China emanated from the Lesser\nVehicle. But the Greater Vehicle or Bodhisattva-Buddhism soon\nprevailed, and by the sixth century A.D. over two thousand\nworks, most of them belonging to the Greater Vehicle, had been\ntranslated into Chinese.\n\n\nBUDDHIST SECTS.\n\nThere were already many sects in China, the chief of which were:\n\n    (1) _The Amidists._\n\n    This was the form of Buddhism which appealed to the uneducated.\n    It taught that a Buddha named Amida presides over the Western\n    Paradise, where he will receive the souls of those that worship\n    him. The conception of this Paradise closely resembles the\n    Christian idea of Heaven and may have been derived from it.\n\n    (2) The _Tendai_ Sect, founded at the end of the sixth century.\n    Its teaching was based on a scripture of enormous length called\n    the _Saddharma Pundar\u012bka S\u016btra_, which is translated by Kern in\n    the Sacred Books of the East. It was perhaps the broadest and most\n    representative sect. It laid great stress on the ethical side of\n    Buddhism.\n\nWe now come to _Zen_.\n\nIn the year 520 A.D. there arrived at Canton a missionary from\nSouthern India. His name was Bodhidharma and he appears to have been\nthe younger son of an Indian Prince.\n\nThe reigning Emperor of China was a munificent patron of Buddhism. He\nhad built monasteries, given alms, distributed scriptures, defended\nthe faith. Hearing that a Buddhist prince had arrived from India he\nsummoned him at once to his Capital. The following conversation took\nplace in the Palace at Nanking:\n\n    _Emperor_: You will be interested to hear that I have built many\n    monasteries, distributed scriptures, given alms, and upheld the\n    Faith. Have I not indeed acquired merit?\n\n    _Bodhidharma_: None at all.\n\n    _Emperor_: In what then does true merit consist?\n\n    _Bodhidharma_: In the obliteration of Matter through Absolute\n    Knowledge, not by external acts.\n\n    _Emperor_: Which is the Divine and Primal Aspect of Reality?\n\n    _Bodhidharma_: Reality has no aspect that is divine.\n\n    _Emperor_: What are you, who have come before my Throne?\n\n    _Bodhidharma_: I do not know.\n\nThe Emperor could make nothing of him. Monasticism, a huge vested\ninterest, decried him, and after a short stay in Nanking he started\nnorthward, towards the Capital of the Wei Tartars, who then ruled over\na large part of China. The Wei Emperor, like his Chinese confr\u00e8re, was\nalso a great patron of Buddhism, and he, too, desired an interview with\nthe Indian priest. But Bodhidharma had done with Emperors, and settled\nin a small country temple, where he lived till his death nine years\nlater. Some say that he tried to visit the Capital of the Weis, but was\nprevented by the intrigues of the monks there.\n\nHe left behind him a few short tractates, the substance of which is as\nfollows:\n\n    There is no such person as Buddha. Buddha is simply a Sanskrit\n    word meaning \u201cinitiate.\u201d The Absolute is immanent in every man\u2019s\n    heart. This \u201ctreasure of the heart\u201d is the only Buddha that exists.\n    It is no use seeking Buddha outside your own nature. Prayer,\n    scripture-reading, fasting, the observance of monastic rules--all\n    are useless. Those who seek Buddha do not find him. You may know\n    by heart all the S\u016btras of the twelve divisions, and yet be unable\n    to escape from the Wheel of Life and Death. One thing alone\n    avails--to discover the unreality of the World by contemplating the\n    Absolute which is at the root of one\u2019s own nature.\n\nSome one asked him: \u201cWhy may we not worship the Buddhas and\nBodhisattvas?\u201d He answered:\n\n    \u201cOgres and hobgoblins can at will assume the outward form of\n    Bodhisattvas; such are heretical and not of the true Buddha. There\n    is no Buddha but your own thoughts. Buddha is the Way. The Way is\n    Zen. This word Zen cannot be understood even of the wise. Zen means\n    \u2018for a man to behold his fundamental nature.\u2019\u201d[2]\n\n[2] Zen (_Sanskrit: dhy\u0101na_) means literally \u201ccontemplation.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n    The highest truths cannot be written down or taught by speech. A\n    man who cannot write a word, can yet contemplate his own heart and\n    become wise. Knowledge of 1,000 S\u016btras and 10,000 Sh\u0101stras cannot\n    help him to realise the Absolute within him.\n\nHe was asked: \u201cCan a layman with wife and children, one given over to\nthe lusts of the flesh, achieve Buddhahood?\u201d He answered:\n\n    \u201cProvided he contemplate his own inner-nature, he will achieve\n    Buddhahood. It does not matter about his lusts. Even a butcher can\n    achieve Buddhahood, if he searches in his own heart.\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat,\u201d cried his listeners, \u201ca butcher, who lives by taking life, and\n_he_ achieve Buddhahood?\u201d The master replied:\n\n    \u201cIt is not a question of the man\u2019s trade. If he has learnt to know\n    his own nature he will be saved.\n\n    \u201cI have come from India only to teach you that Buddha is Thought.\n    I care nothing for monastic rules or ascetic practices. As for\n    walking on water or through fire, climbing sword-wheels, fasting,\n    sitting upright for hours without rest--all such practices are\n    heretical; they belong to the World of Being.\n\n    \u201cThought, Thought, Thought! It is hard to seek. Expanding, it\n    covers the whole world; shrinking, it is too small to lodge a pin.\n\n    \u201cI seek the heart; I do not seek Buddha. For I have learnt to know\n    that the outer world is empty and untenanted.\u201d\n\nSuch was the teaching of Bodhidharma. It was Vedantic[3] rather than\nBuddhist. The terms \u201cthought,\u201d \u201cBuddha,\u201d etc., used by Bodhidharma\ncorrespond exactly to the _brahman_ of the Upanishads. Mystic\ncontemplation or _yoga_ had been used by the Brahmins and was not\nunknown to the early Buddhists. But Bodhidharma was the first to insist\nupon it as the sole means of salvation.\n\n[3] Dr. McGovern tells me that Zen would seem to be more immediately\nderived from the Nihilistic School of N\u0101g\u0101rjuna (1st century\nA.D.).\n\nYet though his whole teaching turned on this \u201cmeditation\u201d or \u201cZen,\u201d\nhe left behind him no exact directions for the practice of it. Having\nshown the end, he left it to each individual to find his own means.\nRules, dogmas and definitions were precisely what he set out to destroy.\n\nLess than a hundred years after his death another Indian, Buddhapriya,\ncame to China and there defined with exactitude and blunt materiality\nthe various forms of meditation.\n\nThe transition from the spirituality of Bodhidharma to the grossness of\nhis follower is, however, typical of religious history. The poetry of\nChrist turns into the theology of Paul; the hovel of Saint Francis into\nthe mansion of Brother Elias.\n\n\nBUDDHAPRIYA.\n\nHe first describes the different attitudes in which Zen may be\npractised, with an exact account of the correct position for hands,\nfeet, head, etc. The normal attitude of meditation, cross-legged, with\nupright back and hands locked over the knees is familiar to every one.\n\nZen could also be practised while walking and, in cases of sickness,\nwhile lying down. Buddhapriya\u2019s instructions are in the form of\nquestion and answer.\n\n    _Question._--How does the Zen practised by heretics and by the\n    other schools of Buddhism differ from our Zen?\n\n    _Answer._--The Zen of the heretics is not impersonal. The Zen of\n    the Lesser Vehicle is material. The Zen of the Greater Vehicle\n    only abstracts man and phenomena.\n\n    _Question._--How ought one to set about practising Zen?\n\n    _Answer._--First put far away from you all anger and malice, and\n    fill your heart with kindness and compassion.\n\n    _Question._--Can the beginner at once proceed to the contemplation\n    of non-Being?\n\n    _Answer._--By no means! He must by stratagems gradually enter in.\n    I have never yet seen one who straightway achieved the vision of\n    non-Reality. If for example he were meditating in this room he\n    must first banish from his mind every part of the world except the\n    city of Ch\u2019ang-an. Next every building in the city except this\n    monastery. Next, every room in the monastery except this cell,\n    every object but himself, every part of himself except the end of\n    his nose. Finally the end of his nose hangs in space like a drop of\n    dew and on this nose-end he concentrates his mind.\n\n    This is only a preliminary exercise. There are others of the same\n    kind. For example--persuade yourself that your navel is a minute\n    rivulet running through the sands. When this conception is firmly\n    achieved, you will see a bright light and ultimately, the body\n    growing transparent, you will behold the working of your bowels.\n\n    Or again, regard your head as the top of a hollow pipe which runs\n    straight down through your body into the earth. Meditate upon the\n    top of your head, that is to say, upon the mouth of the drain-pipe,\n    and then gradually ascend in your thoughts to a height of four\n    inches above the head, and concentrate firmly on this conception.\n    You will thus easily pass into the contemplation of non-Being,\n    having performed the transition from elementary to complete Zen as\n    comfortably as a workman climbs the rungs of a ladder.\n\n    _Question._--Are there any signs whereby I may know that I have\n    attained to Sam\u0101dhi?[4]\n\n    _Answer._--To be sure there are. Sometimes you will feel a\n    sensation as of bugs or ants creeping over your skin; or again, it\n    will appear to you that a cloud or mass of white cotton-wool is\n    rising immediately behind your back. In neither case must you be\n    discomposed or put out your hand. Sometimes it will seem as though\n    oil were dripping down from your head and face; sometimes a light\n    will shine from out of the ground you are sitting upon.\n\n    These are all preliminary signs.\n\n    Sometimes when you have been sitting for a long while and your\n    back is aching, you will suddenly hear a sound of rapping with the\n    fingers or a noise as of some one bumping against the door. Do not\n    be disquieted. These are the Good Spirits of Heaven, come to warn\n    you against sleep.\n\n    Again, it may happen that you have an agreeable sense of lightness\n    and floating; this is a good sign. Beware, however, of a _painful_\n    sense of lightness; for this may merely indicate flatulence.\n\n    Patches of heat on the body are a sign of Fiery Sam\u0101dhi. A light\n    filling the whole room is a premonitory sign of Zen; to smell\n    strange fragrances not known on earth is a sign of whole and utter\n    Abstraction.\n\n    Such and many more are the signs of Zen. The practicant must not\n    heed them; for if by them he be encouraged or dismayed, all his\n    work will be undone.\n\n    _Question._--Can Zen be practised in a Buddha Shrine?\n\n    _Answer._--No, indeed! Zen should be practised in a quiet room or\n    under a tree or among tombs or sitting on the dewy earth.\n\n    _Question._--Can Zen be practised by many sitting together?\n\n    _Answer._--To be sure it may; but each must face his neighbour\u2019s\n    back. They must not sit face to face. When there are many sitting\n    together at night, a lamp or candle may be lit; but when there are\n    few together, it ought not to be used.\n\n    _Question._--Need I wear monastic vestments at my meditations?\n\n    _Answer._--Vestments? Why, you need wear no clothes at all, if so\n    be you are alone.\n\n[4] Concentration.\n\n\nLATER DEVELOPMENT OF ZEN.\n\nZen was at first a purely personal discipline, non-monastic,\nnon-ethical, not demanding the acceptance of any Scripture or any\ntradition. In modern Japan it has to some extent regained this\ncharacter. In China the habit of quoting written authority was\ntoo strong to be easily discarded. The Zen masters soon began to\nanswer difficult questions by quoting from the Buddhist Scriptures.\nConvenience dictated that practicants of Zen should live in communities\nand monasticism was soon established in their sect, as in every other\nsect of Buddhism. Questions of conduct arose, and Zen was squared\nwith the contemporary ethical outlook; though in medieval Japanese\nliterature wicked and cynical persons are generally depicted as adepts\nof Zen.\n\nBodhidharma denied the existence of Good and Evil; but it was pointed\nout by later apologists that the Zen adept, having viewed the Absolute,\nis convinced of the unreality and futility of those pleasures and\npossessions which are the incentive to sin. The Zen practicant, though\nhe makes no moral effort, nevertheless is certain not to sin, because\nhe is certain not to be tempted.\n\nFinally, Zen forged itself a tradition. Probably during the eleventh\ncentury a Scripture[5] was fabricated which recounts how once when\nBuddha was preaching, he plucked a flower and smiled. Only the disciple\nK\u0101shyapa understood the significance of this act. Between him and the\nBuddha there passed a wordless communication of Absolute Truths. This\ncommunication was silently passed on by K\u0101shyapa to his disciple, and\nso ultimately to Bodhidharma, who brought it to China.\n\n[5] _Dai Bonten Monbutsu Ketsugi Ky\u014d._\n\nThe method of teaching by symbolic acts (such as the plucking of a\nflower) was extensively used by the Zen masters. For example, when\na disciple asked Enkwan a question about the nature of Buddha, he\nanswered, \u201cBring me a clean bowl.\u201d When the priest brought the bowl,\nthe master said, \u201cNow put it back where you found it.\u201d He signified\nthat the priest\u2019s questionings must return to their proper place,\nthe questioner\u2019s heart, from which alone spiritual knowledge can be\nobtained.\n\nThe object of the Zen teachers, as of some eccentric schoolmasters\nwhom I have known, seems at first sight to have been merely to puzzle\nand surprise their pupils to the highest possible degree. A peculiar\n\u201cbrusquerie\u201d was developed in Zen monasteries. The literature of the\nsect consists chiefly in an endless series of anecdotes recording\nthe minutest happenings in the lives of famous Zen monks and their\n(apparently) most trivial sayings. But behind these trifling acts\nand sayings a deep meaning lay hid. The interpretation of such\nteaching depends on a complete knowledge of the symbolism used. I\nam not inclined to agree with those students of Zen who assert that\nits written teaching are wholly devoid of intellectual content or so\ncompletely esoteric as not to admit of explanation in words. Like other\nBuddhist philosophers the Zen masters were chiefly concerned with the\nattempt to define the relation between the One and the Many, between\nthe subjective and objective aspects of life.\n\nThe idealism of Zen does not mean that the phenomenal world has no\nimportance. To those who have not reached complete self-realisation\nthe urgencies of that world remain paramount and are the only\nstepping-stones upon which he can climb higher.\n\nOn the day of his arrival at the monastery a novice presented himself\nbefore the abbot, begging to be allowed to begin his spiritual\nexercises without further delay. \u201cHave you had supper?\u201d asked the\nabbot. \u201cYes.\u201d \u201cThen go and wash your plate.\u201d\n\n\nTHE ZEN MASTERS.\n\nLet us begin with En\u014d, a master of the seventh century. He lost his\nparents when he was young and earned his living by gathering firewood.\nOne day when he was in the market-place he heard some one reading the\nDiamond S\u016btra.[6] He asked where such books were to be had and was\ntold \u201cFrom Master K\u014dnin on the Yellow Plum-blossom Hill.\u201d Accordingly\nhe went to K\u014dnin\u2019s Monastery in Anhui and presented himself before the\nMaster. \u201cWhere do you come from?\u201d \u201cFrom the South.\u201d \u201cBah! In the South\nthey have not Buddha in their souls.\u201d \u201cNorth and South,\u201d replied En\u014d,\n\u201care human distinctions that Buddha knows nothing of.\u201d\n\n[6] Translated by W. Gemmell, 1912. Its use by K\u014dnin shows that Zen did\nnot long avoid the use of scriptures.\n\nK\u014dnin accepted him as a lay-brother and put him to pound rice in the\nbakery.\n\nK\u014dnin was growing old and wished to choose his successor. He therefore\ninstituted a poetical competition in which each monk was to epitomise\nin a quatrain the essence of Zen. The favourite candidate was the\nwarden Shinsh\u016b, who sent in the following verses:\n\n    _The body is the trunk of the Bodhi-tree;\n    The mind is the bright mirror\u2019s stand;\n    Scrub your mirror continually,\n    Lest the dust eclipse its brightness._\n\nEn\u014d, as a lay-brother, was not qualified to compete. Some one told him\nof Shinsh\u016b\u2019s quatrain. \u201cMine would be very different,\u201d he exclaimed,\nand persuaded one of the boys employed in the bakery to go stealthily\nby night and inscribe the following poem on the monastery-wall:\n\n    _Knowledge is not a tree;\n    The Mirror has no stand;\n    Since nothing exists,\n    How could dust rise and cover it?_\n\nThe authorship of the poem was discovered and the abbot K\u014dnin visited\nEn\u014d in the bakery. \u201cIs your rice white or no?\u201d he asked. \u201cWhite?\u201d\nanswered En\u014d; \u201cit has not yet been sifted.\u201d Thereupon the abbot\nstruck three times on the rice-mortar with his staff and departed.\nEn\u014d understood his meaning. That night at the third watch he came to\nK\u014dnin\u2019s cell and was invested with the abbot\u2019s mantle, thereby becoming\nthe Sixth Patriarch of the Zen Church. He died in 712 A.D.,\nwithout having learned how to read or write.\n\n\nFASHIONABLE ZEN.\n\nThe warden Shinsh\u016b had lost the Patriarchate and with it the spiritual\nheadship of Zen. But as a compensation Fate had in store for him\nworldly triumphs of the most dazzling kind. Leaving the rural monastery\nof K\u014dnin, he entered the Temple of the Jade fountain in the great\ncity of Kingchau. His fame soon spread over central China. He was a\nman of \u201chuge stature, bushy eyebrows and shapely ears.\u201d The Empress\nWu Hou, who had usurped the throne of China, notoriously cultivated\nthe society of handsome priests. About 684 A.D. she summoned\nhim to the Capital. Instead of commanding his presence at Court she\ncame in a litter to his lodgings and actually knelt down before him.\nThe friendship of this murderous and fiendishly cruel woman procured\nfor him temporal dignities which in the eyes of the world completely\noutshone the rustic piety of the Sixth Patriarch. Shinsh\u016b at the\nCapital became as it were the Temporal Father of Zen, while En\u014d at his\ncountry monastery remained its spiritual pope. The successors of En\u014d\nbecame known as the Fathers of the Southern School; while the courtly\nand social Zen of Shinsh\u016b is called Zen of the North.\n\nWas it in sincere goodwill or with the desire to discredit his rival\nthat Shinsh\u016b invited En\u014d to join him at the Capital? In any case En\u014d\nhad the good sense to refuse. \u201cI am a man of low stature and humble\nappearance,\u201d he replied; \u201cI fear that the men of the North would\ndespise me and my doctrines\u201d--thus hinting (with just that touch of\nmalice which so often spices the unworldly) that Shinsh\u016b\u2019s pre-eminence\nin the North was due to outward rather than to spiritual graces.\n\nShinsh\u016b died in 706, outliving his august patroness by a year. To\nperpetuate his name a palace was turned into a memorial monastery; the\nEmperor\u2019s brother wrote his epitaph; his obsequies were celebrated with\nstupendous pomp.\n\nHis successor, Fujaku, at first remained at the Kingchau monastery\nwhere he had been Shinsh\u016b\u2019s pupil. But in 724 the irresolute Emperor\nMing-huang, who had proscribed Buddhism ten years before, summoned\nFujaku to the Imperial City. Here princes and grandees vied with one\nanother in doing him honour. \u201cThe secret of his success,\u201d says the\nhistorian,[7] \u201cwas that he seldom spoke and generally looked cross.\nHence his rare words and occasional smiles acquired in the eyes of his\nadmirers an unmerited value.\u201d He died at the age of 89. On the day of\nhis interment the great streets of Ch\u2019ang-an were empty. The whole city\nhad joined in the funeral procession. The Governor of Honan (one of\nthe greatest functionaries in the State), together with his wife and\nchildren, all of them clad in monastic vestments, followed the bier,\nmingling with the promiscuous crowd of his admirers and disciples.\n\n[7] _Old T\u2019ang History_, 191.\n\nReligion was at that time fashionable in the high society of Ch\u2019ang-an,\nas it is to-day in the great Catholic capitals of Munich, Vienna or\nSeville. When I read of Fujaku\u2019s burial another scene at once sprang\ninto my mind, the funeral of a great Bavarian dignitary, where I saw\nthe noblemen of Munich walk hooded and barefoot through the streets.\n\nI shall not refer again to the Northern School of Zen. One wonders\nwhether the founders of religions are forced by fate to watch the\nposthumous development of their creeds. If so, theirs must be the very\nblackest pit of Hell.\n\nLet us return to the Southern School, always regarded as the true\nrepository of Zen tradition.\n\n\n\u014cBAKU.\n\n\u014cbaku lived at the beginning of the ninth century, and was thus a\ncontemporary of the poet Po Ch\u00fc-i. He enjoyed the patronage of a\ndistinguished statesman the Chancellor Hai Ky\u016b, of whom the Emperor\nsaid, \u201cThis is indeed a true Confucian.\u201d It is to the Chancellor that\nwe owe the record of \u014cbaku\u2019s conversations, which he wrote down day by\nday. I will make a few extracts from this diary:\n\n    Hai Ky\u016b.--En\u014d could not read or write. How came it that he\n    succeeded to the Patriarchate of K\u014dnin? The warden Shinsh\u016b was\n    in control of 500 monks, gave lectures, and could discourse upon\n    thirty-two different S\u016btras and Sh\u0101stras. It was certainly very\n    strange that he was not made Patriarch.\n\n    \u014cbaku (replying).--Shinsh\u016b\u2019s conception of Thought was too\n    material. His proofs and practices were too positive.\n\n\u201cThe master told me that when he was studying with Enkwan, the Emperor\nTai Chung came dressed as a monk. The master happened to be in the\nchapel prostrating himself before an image of Buddha. The Emperor, who\nthought he had learnt the lesson of Zen idealism, said to him: \u2018There\nis nothing to be got from Buddha, nothing from the Church, nothing from\nMan; for nothing exists. What do you mean by praying at your age?\u2019\n\n\u201c\u014cbaku answered him: \u2018I seek nothing of Buddha, the Church, or of\nMan. I am in the habit of praying.\u2019 The Emperor said: \u2018What do you do\nit for?\u2019 \u014cbaku lost patience and struck him with his fist. \u2018You rude\nfellow,\u2019 cried the Emperor. \u2018Since nothing exists, what difference\ndoes it make to you whether I am rude or polite?\u2019 and \u014cbaku struck him\nagain. The Emperor retreated hastily.\u201d\n\nIn his old age \u014cbaku visited his native village and stayed a year in\nhis mother\u2019s house, without revealing his identity. After he had set\nout again for his monastery, his mother suddenly realised that he was\nher son and went in pursuit of him. She reached the shore of a certain\nriver, only to see him disembarking on the other side. Thereupon she\nlost her reason and flung herself into the water.\n\n\u014cbaku threw a lighted torch after her and recited the following verses:\n\n    _May the wide river dry at its source, to its very bed\n    If here the crime of matricide has been done;\n    When one son becomes a priest, the whole family is born again in Heaven;\n    If that is a lie, all that Buddha promised is a lie._\n\nHenceforward the throwing of a lighted torch into the bier became part\nof the Zen funeral ceremony; it was accompanied by the reciting of the\nabove verses. Probably formula, ritual, and story alike belong to a\nperiod much more ancient than Buddhism.\n\nIn the seventeenth century a Chinese priest named Ingen[8] carried the\nteaching of \u014cbaku to Japan, where it now possesses nearly 700 temples.\n\n[8] 1592-1673 A.D.\n\n\nBASO.\n\nBaso was a master of the ninth century. One day he was sitting with his\nfeet across the garden-path. A monk came along with a wheel-barrow.\n\u201cTuck in your feet,\u201d said the monk. \u201cWhat has been extended cannot be\nretracted,\u201d answered Baso. \u201cWhat has been started cannot be stopped,\u201d\ncried the monk and pushed the barrow over Baso\u2019s feet. The master\nhobbled to the monastery and seizing an axe called out \u201cHave any of you\nseen the rascal who hurt my feet?\u201d The monk who had pushed the barrow\nthen came out and stood \u201cwith craned head.\u201d The master laid down his\naxe.\n\nTo understand this story we must realise that the wheel-barrow is here\na symbol of the Wheel of Life and Death, which, though every spoke of\nit is illusion, cannot be disregarded till we have destroyed the last\nseed of phenomenal perception in us.\n\n\nRINZAI.\n\n\u014cbaku, as we have seen, taught wisdom with his fists. When the novice\nRinzai came to him and asked him what was the fundamental idea of\nBuddhism, \u014cbaku hit him three times with his stick. Rinzai fled and\npresently met the monk Daigu.\n\n    _Daigu_: Where do you come from?\n\n    _Rinzai_: From \u014cbaku.\n\n    _Daigu_: And what stanza did he lecture upon?\n\n    _Rinzai_: I asked him thrice what was the fundamental doctrine of\n    Buddhism and each time he hit me with his stick. Please tell me if\n    I did something I ought not to have done?\n\n    _Daigu_: You go to \u014cbaku and torture him by your questions, and\n    then ask if you have done wrong!\n\nAt that moment Rinzai had a Great Enlightenment.\n\nRinzai substituted howling for \u014cbaku\u2019s manual violence. He shouted\nmeaningless syllables at his disciples; roared like a lion or bellowed\nlike a bull. This \u201chowling\u201d became a regular part of Zen practice,\nand may be compared to the yelling of the American Shakers. Upon his\ndeathbed Rinzai summoned his disciples round him and asked which of\nthem felt capable of carrying on his work. Sansh\u014d volunteered to\ndo so. \u201cHow will you tell people what was Rinzai\u2019s teaching?\u201d asked\nRinzai. Sansh\u014d threw out his chest and roared in a manner which he\nthought would gratify the master. But Rinzai groaned and cried out, \u201cTo\nthink that such a blind donkey should undertake to hand on my teaching!\u201d\n\nIt was in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries that Zen most completely\npermeated Chinese thought. Upon the invasion of the Mongols[9] many Zen\nmonks from Eastern China took refuge in Japan; the same thing happened\nduring the Manchu invasion in the seventeenth century. But by that time\nZen had a serious philosophic rival.\n\n[9] On the attitude of the Mongol rulers to Zen, see an article by\nProf. Kunishita, _T\u014dy\u014dgakuh\u014d_, xi., 4, 87.\n\nIn the fifteenth century the philosopher Wang Yang-ming began to\npropagate a doctrine which, in all but names, strongly resembled the\nphilosophic side of Zen. He taught that in each one of us is a \u201chigher\nnature,\u201d something which, borrowing a phrase from Mencius, he called\n\u201cGood Knowledge.\u201d Of this inner nature he speaks in exactly the same\nterms as the Zen teachers spoke of their \u201cBuddha immanent in man\u2019s\nheart.\u201d He even uses the same kind of doggerel-verse as a medium of\nteaching.\n\nRigid Confucianists, who would not have listened to any doctrine of\nprofessedly Buddhist origin, were able through Wang Yang-ming\u2019s tact to\naccept the philosophy of Zen without feeling that they were betraying\nthe Confucian tradition. The followers of Yang-ming are to-day very\nnumerous both in China and Japan. They cultivate introspection, but not\nthe complete self-hypnosis of Zen.\n\nIn China, where Zen is almost forgotten, the followers of this later\ndoctrine are not even aware of its derivation.\n\n\nZEN AND ART.\n\nI said at the beginning of this paper that Zen is often mentioned\nby writers on Far Eastern Art. The connection between Zen and art\nis important, not only because of the inspiration which Zen gave\nto the artist, but also because through Zen was obtained a better\nunderstanding of the psychological conditions under which art is\nproduced than has prevailed in any other civilisation.\n\nArt was regarded as a kind of Zen, as a delving down into the Buddha\nthat each of us unknowingly carries within him, as Benjamin carried\nJoseph\u2019s cup in his sack. Through Zen we annihilate Time and see the\nUniverse not split up into myriad fragments, but in its primal unity.\nUnless, says the Zen \u00e6sthetician, the artist\u2019s work is imbued with\nthis vision of the subjective, non-phenomenal aspect of life, his\nproductions will be mere toys.\n\nI do not mean to suggest that Chinese artists found in Zen a short\ncut to the production of beauty. Zen aims at the annihilation of\nconsciousness, whereas art is produced by an interaction of conscious\nand unconscious faculties. How far such an interaction can be promoted\nby the psychic discipline of Zen no layman can judge; moreover the\nwhole question of the artist\u2019s psychology is controversial and obscure.\n\nPerhaps it is not even very important that the artist himself should\nhave a sound \u00e6sthetic; but it is of the utmost importance to the artist\nthat the public should have some notion of the conditions under which\nart can be produced--should have some key to the vagaries of a section\nof humanity which will in any case always be found troublesome and\nirritating.\n\nSuch a key Zen supplied, and it is in the language of Zen that, after\nthe twelfth century, art is usually discussed in China and Japan.\n\n\nTHE ROKUTS\u016aJI SCHOOL.\n\nOne institution, about which till recently very little was known,\nseems to have been an important factor in the propagation of Zen art\nand ideas. About 1215 A.D. a Zen priest came from the far\nsouth-west of China to Hangchow, the Capital, and there refounded a\nruined monastery, the Rokuts\u016bji, which stood on the shores of the\nfamous Western Lake. His name was Mokkei. He seems to have been the\nfirst to practise the swift, ecstatic type of monochrome which is\nassociated with Zen. In hurried swirls of ink he sought to record\nbefore they faded visions and exaltations produced whether by the\nfrenzy of wine, the stupor of tea, or the vacancy of absorption.\n\nSometimes his design is tangled and chaotic; sometimes as in his famous\n\u201cPersimmons,\u201d[10] passion has congealed into a stupendous calm.\n\n[10] See K\u00fcmmel, _Die Kunst Ostasiens_ Pl. 118.\n\nOf his fellow-workers the best known is Ras\u014d, a painter of birds and\nflowers. Ry\u014dkai, once a fashionable painter, left the Court and with\nhis pupil Rikaku worked in the manner of Mokkei.\n\nExamples of Ry\u014dkai\u2019s work before and after his conversion are still\npreserved in Japan.\n\nFinally, about the middle of the fourteenth century, a Japanese priest\ncame to China and, under circumstances which I shall describe in an\nappendix, confusingly became Mokkei II. It may be that it was he who\nsent back to his own country some of the numerous pictures signed\nMokkei which are now in Japan. Which of them are by Mokkei and which by\nMokuan is a problem which remains to be solved.\n\nThis Zen art did not flourish long in China, nor in all probability do\nmany specimens of it survive there. But in Japan it was a principal\nsource of inspiration to the great painters of the fourteenth and\nfifteenth centuries. Sessh\u016b himself is the direct descendant of Mokkei;\nas in a decadent way are Kan\u014d masters such as Tsunenobu.\n\nZen paintings are of two kinds. (1) Representations of animals, birds\nand flowers, in which the artist attempted to identify himself with the\nobject depicted, to externise its inner Buddha. These were achieved\nnot by study from the life, as the early Sung nature-pieces have been,\nbut by intense and concentrated visualisation of the subject to be\npainted. This mental picture was rapidly transferred to paper before\nthe spell of concentration (sam\u0101dhi) was broken. (2) Illustrations of\nepisodes in the lives of the great Zen teachers. This branch of Zen\nart was essentially dramatic. It sought to express the characters of\nthe persons involved, subtly to reveal the grandeur of soul that lay\nhidden behind apparent uncouthness or stupidity. Typical of this kind\nof painting are the pictures of \u201cTanka burning the Image.\u201d\n\nOne night Tanka, a Zen priest, stayed as a guest at an ordinary\nBuddhist monastery. There was no firewood in his cell. As the night\nwas cold he went into the chapel, seized a wooden statue of Sh\u0101kyamuni\nand, chopping it up, made himself a comfortable fire. To him the\nidol of Buddha was a mere block of wood; his indignant hosts took a\ndifferent view. The controversy is the same as that which occupies the\ncentral place in the N\u014d play _Sotoba Komachi_.\n\nThere is another aspect of Zen which had an equally important effect on\nart. The Buddha-nature is immanent not in Man only, but in everything\nthat exists, animate or inanimate. Stone, river and tree are alike\nparts of the great hidden Unity. Thus Man, through his Buddha-nature\nor universalised consciousness, possesses an intimate means of contact\nwith Nature. The songs of birds, the noise of waterfalls, the rolling\nof thunder, the whispering of wind in the pine-trees--all these are\nutterances of the Absolute.\n\nHence the connection of Zen with the passionate love of Nature which is\nso evident in Far Eastern poetry and art.\n\nPersonally I believe that this passion for Nature worked more\nfavourably on literature than on painting. The typical Zen picture,\ndashed off in a moment of exaltation--perhaps a moonlit river expressed\nin three blurs and a flourish--belongs rather to the art of calligraphy\nthan to that of painting.\n\nIn his more elaborate depictions of nature the Zen artist is led by his\nlove of nature into that common pitfall of lovers--sentimentality. The\nforms of Nature tend with him to function not as forms but as symbols.\n\nSomething resembling the mystic belief which Zen embraces is found\nin many countries and under many names. But Zen differs from other\nreligions of the same kind in that it admits only one means by\nwhich the perception of Truth can be attained. Prayer, fasting,\nasceticism--all are dismissed as useless, giving place to one single\nresource, the method of self-hypnosis which I have here described.\n\nI have, indeed, omitted any mention of an important adjunct of Zen,\nnamely tea-drinking, which was as constant a feature in the life of Zen\nmonasteries as it is here in the r\u00e9gime of charwomen and girl-clerks.\nI have not space to describe the various tea-ceremonies. The tendency\nof monasteries was to create in them as in every part of daily life a\nmore and more elaborate ritual, calculated to give some pattern to\ndays otherwise devoid of any incident. We possess minute descriptions\nof every ceremony--the initiation of novices, the celebration of birth\nand death anniversaries of the Patriarchs, the procedure in cases of\nsickness, madness, disobedience, disappearance or death of monks;\nthe selection and investiture of abbots; the lectures, liturgies and\nsessions which constituted the curriculum of Zen instruction.\n\nIn China decay set in after the fifteenth century. The Zen monasteries\nbecame almost indistinguishable from those of popular, idolatrous\nBuddhism. In Japan, on the other hand, Zen has remained absolutely\ndistinct and is now the favourite creed of the educated classes. It\nhas not hitherto conducted any propaganda in Europe, whereas the Amida\nSect has sent out both missionaries and pamphlets. But I believe that\nZen would find many converts in England. Something rather near it we\nalready possess. Quakerism, like Zen, is a non-dogmatic religion,\nlaying stress on the doctrine of Immanence. But whereas the Quakers\nseek communion with the Divine Spark in corporate meditation and\ndeliberately exploit the mysterious potencies of crowd-psychology--the\nZen adept probes in solitude (or at least without reference to his\nneighbour) for the Buddha within him.\n\nIn cases where a Quaker meeting passes in silence, the members having\nmeditated quietly for a whole hour, a very near approach to a Zen\ngathering has been made. But more often than not the Holy Spirit,\nchoosing his mouthpiece with an apparent lack of discrimination,\nquickly descends upon some member of the meeting. The ineffable,\nwhich Zen wisely refused to express, is then drowned in a torrent of\npedestrian oration.\n\nSome, then, may turn to Zen as a purer Quakerism. Others will be\nattracted to it by the resemblance of its doctrines to the hypotheses\nof recent psychology. The Buddha consciousness of Zen exactly\ncorresponds to the Universal Consciousness which, according to certain\nmodern investigators, lies hid beneath the personal Consciousness.\nSuch converts will probably use a kind of applied Zen, much as the\nJapanese have done; that is to say, they will not seek to spend their\ndays in complete Sam\u0101dhi, but will dive occasionally, for rest or\nencouragement, into the deeper recesses of the soul.\n\nIt is not likely that they will rest content with the traditional\nEastern methods of self-hypnosis. If certain states of consciousness\nare indeed more valuable than those with which we are familiar in\nordinary life--then we must seek them unflinchingly by whatever means\nwe can devise. I can imagine a kind of dentist\u2019s chair fitted with\nrevolving mirrors, flashing lights, sulphurous haloes expanding and\ncontracting--in short a mechanism that by the pressure of a single knob\nshould whirl a dustman into Nirv\u0101na.\n\nWhether such states of mind are actually more valuable than our\nordinary consciousness is difficult to determine. Certainly no one\nhas much right to an opinion who has not experienced them. But\nsomething akin to Sam\u0101dhi--a sudden feeling of contact with a unity\nmore real than the apparent complexity of things--is probably not an\nuncommon experience. The athlete, the creative artist, the lover, the\nphilosopher--all, I fancy, get a share of it, not when seeking to\nescape from the visible world; but rather just when that world was\nseeming to them most sublimely real.\n\nTo seek by contemplation of the navel or of the tip of the nose a\nrepetition of spiritual experiences such as these seems to us inane;\nand indeed the negative trance of Zen is very different from the\npositive ecstasies to which I have just referred. I say that it is\ndifferent; but how do I know? \u201cZen,\u201d said Bodhidharma, \u201ccannot be\ndescribed in words nor chronicled in books\u201d; and I have no other\nexperience of Zen. If I _knew_, I might transmit to you my knowledge,\nbut it would have to be by a direct spiritual communication, symbolised\nonly by a smile, a gesture, or the plucking of a flower.\n\nI need not therefore apologise for having given a purely external and\nhistorical account of Zen, a creed whose inner mysteries are admittedly\nbeyond the scope of words.\n\n\n\n\nAPPENDIX I.\n\n\nReproductions of Zen Paintings in Japanese art publications. (The\n_Kokka_ and the other publications here referred to may be seen at the\nArt Library, Victoria and Albert Museum; and at the Print Room of the\nBritish Museum.)\n\n    MOKKEI--_Kokka._ 37, 112, 122, 177, 185, 238, 242, 265, 268, 291,\n    293, 314.\n\n    RAS\u014c.--_Shimbi Taikwan_ XX.\n\n    MOKUAN.--(Mokkei II).--_Kokka_ 295, _Shimbi Taikwan_ Vol. IX. (Nos.\n    21 and 22 in the collection of Chinese Paintings at the British\n    Museum are probably by Mokuan.)\n\n    RY\u014cKAI.--_Kokka_ 40, 114, 145, 152, 220, 227, 229.\n\n    RIKAKU.--_Kokka_ 269.\n\n    MUJUN.--(An important thirteenth century Zen writer.) _Kokka_ 243.\n\n    INDRA.--(A Hangchow priest, presumably an Indian; flourished c.\n    1280.) _Kokka_ 35, 110, 223, 310. _Shimbi Taikwan_ IX.\n\n\n\n\nAPPENDIX II.\n\n\nMOKUAN.\n\nThe Nikk\u014dsh\u016b[11], a diary by the priest Gid\u014d, has the following entry\nunder the year 1378 (month and day uncertain):\n\n    To-day Donfu[12] came, and we fell to talking of Mokuan. It seems\n    that he was once known as Ze-itsu. But on becoming a pupil of the\n    priest Kenzan[13], he changed his name to Mokuan. Afterwards he\n    went to China and entered the Honkakuji[14], where he became the\n    disciple of Ry\u014d-an[15] and was made librarian. Here he published at\n    his own expense (lit. \u201cselling his shoes\u201d) the _Second Collection\n    of Sayings by Korin_.\n\n    Subsequently he lived at the Sh\u014dtenji at Soochow, and was warden\n    there under Nanso[16], dying soon afterwards.\n\n    When he first came to China he spent some time at the J\u014dji\n    Monastery at Hangchow and from there visited the Rokuts\u016bji on\n    the shores of the Western Lake. This monastery was inhabited by\n    the followers of Mokkei. The abbot greeted Mokuan with a smile,\n    saying to him: \u201cLast night I dreamt that our founder Mokkei came\n    back again. You must be his reincarnation\u201d; and he gave to Mokuan\n    Mokkei\u2019s two seals, white and red. Henceforward he was known as\n    Mokkei the Second.\n\n[11] See my _N\u014d Plays of Japan_ (Allen & Unwin, 1921), p. 19. The\npassage here translated is taken not from the current, two-chapter\nabridgement of Gid\u014d\u2019s Diary, but from the _Kokuchosh\u016b_, a miscellany by\nthe 15th century priest Zuikei, who quoted many passages from the lost\nportion of the Diary. See Mr. Saga T\u014dsh\u016b, _Shina Gaku_, I., 1.\n\n[12] 1314-1384.\n\n[13] Died 1323. Both he and Donfu were Japanese priests who visited\nChina.\n\n[14] At Chia-hsing in Chehkiang.\n\n[15] Entered this temple in 1334.\n\n[16] Visited Japan; was at the Sh\u014dtenji from 1342-1345.\n\n\n\n\nAPPENDIX III.\n\nReproductions of paintings illustrating Zen legend.\n\n\nBODHIDHARMA.\n\n    (1) With tightly closed lips, as he appeared before the Emperor of\n    China in 520. _Masterpieces of Sessh\u016b_, Pl. 47.\n\n    (2) Crossing the Yangtze on a reed. Perhaps the best example may be\n    seen not in a reproduction, but in No. 22 of the original Chinese\n    Paintings at the British Museum.\n\n    (3) Sitting with his face to the wall. He sat thus in silence for\n    nine years in the Sh\u014drin Monastery on Mount Sung. _Kokka_ 333.\n\n\nEKA.\n\n    Second Patriarch of the sect. Severed his own arm and presented\n    it to Bodhidharma. In spite of his fanaticism (or because of it)\n    the Founder did not at first regard him with complete confidence\n    and recommended to him the study of the Langk\u0101vat\u0101ra S\u016btra,\n    not considering him ripe for complete, non-dogmatic Zen. Eka\n    waiting waist-deep in the snow for the Founder to instruct him.\n    Masterpieces of Sessh\u016b, Pl. 45.\n\n\nEN\u014c.\n\n    Sixth Patriarch. See above, p 15. _Kokka_, 289, 297.\n\n\nTOKUSAN, died 865 A.D.\n\n    _Shimbi Taikwan_, I, 13, shows him with his famous Zen stick. He\n    is also sometimes depicted failing to answer an old market-woman\u2019s\n    riddle; and tearing up his commentary on the Diamond S\u016btra.\n\n\nTANKA.\n\n    A painting by Indra (_Kokka_ 173) shows him burning the wooden\n    statue of Buddha at the Erin Temple.\n\n\n\n\nBIBLIOGRAPHY.\n\n\n(1) EUROPEAN.\n\nThe only writer who has made extracts from the works of Bodhidharma is\nP\u00e8re Wieger, whose remarks (in his _Histoire des Croyances religieuses\nen Chine_, pp. 517-528) show a robust and likeable bigotry.\n\nOf Zen literature he says: \u201cNombre d\u2019in-folio remplis de r\u00e9ponses\nincoh\u00e9rentes, insens\u00e9es.... Ce ne sont pas, comme on l\u2019a suppos\u00e9, des\nallusions \u00e0 des affaires int\u00e9rieures, qu\u2019il faudrait conna\u00eetre pour\npouvoir comprendre. Ce sont des exclamations \u00e9chapp\u00e9es \u00e0 des abrutis,\nmomentan\u00e9ment tir\u00e9s de leur coma.\u201d\n\nFor the tea-ceremony in Japan see Okakura\u2019s _Book of Tea_ (Foulis,\n1919). The \u201cmilitary\u201d Zen of Japan is well described by Nukariya Kaiten\nin his _The Religion of the Samurai, 1913_.\n\n\n(2) NATIVE.\n\nMost of this paper is derived from the section on Zen (Series II, Vol.\n15, seq.) in the \u201cSupplement to the Collection of Buddhist Scriptures,\u201d\n_Dai Nihon Zoku Z\u014d Ky\u014d_.\n\nMuch of the information with regard to the Rokuts\u016bji School is taken\nfrom the article by Mr. Saga to which I have already referred. For the\nRokuts\u016bji (\u201cTemple of the Six Penetrations\u201d) see _Hsien Shun Lin-an\nChih_ (\u201cTopography of Hangchow, 1265-1275 A.D.\u201d), ch. 78, f. 9\nrecto.\n\nI have also used Yamada\u2019s _Zensh\u016b Jiten_ (Dictionary of Zen) and the\n_Hekiganroku_, edited by S\u014dyen, 1920.\n\n\n\n\nSHORT INDEX.\n\n\n(Chinese pronunciations given in brackets.)\n\n  Amida, 8.\n\n  Baso (Ma Tsu), 20.\n\n  Bodhidharma (Ta-mo), 8 _seq._, 29.\n\n  Bodhisattvas, 8.\n\n  Buddhapriya (Chio-ai), 11.\n\n  _Dai Bonten Monbutsu-ketsugi Ky\u014d_, 14.\n\n  Daigu (Ta-y\u00fc), 20.\n\n  Diamond S\u016btra, 15.\n\n  Dhy\u0101na, see Zen. Also, 10.\n\n  Eka (Hui-k\u2019o), 29.\n\n  Enkwan (Yen-kuan), 14.\n\n  En\u014d (Hui-n\u0113ng), 15, 29.\n\n  Fujaku (P\u2019u-chi), 17.\n\n  Haiky\u016b (P\u2019ei Hsiu), 18.\n\n  _Hokkeky\u014d_, see _Saddharma_, etc.\n\n  Honkakuji (P\u0113n-chio-ss\u016d), 28.\n\n  Joji (Ching-tz\u2019u), 28.\n\n  Kern, 8.\n\n  K\u014dnin (Hung-j\u0113n), 15.\n\n  Korin (Ku-lin), 28.\n\n  Mah\u0101y\u0101na, 7.\n\n  Mokkei (Mu-ch\u2019i), 22, 27.\n\n  Mujun (Wu-chun), 27.\n\n  Nanso (Nan-ch\u2019u), 28.\n\n  \u014cbaku (Huang Po), 18.\n\n  Okakura, 30.\n\n  Ras\u014d (Lo-ch\u2019uang), 23, 27.\n\n  Rikaku (Li Ch\u2019\u00fceh), 27.\n\n  Rinzai (Lin-chi), 20.\n\n  Rokuts\u016bji (Liu-t\u2019ung-ss\u016d), 22.\n\n  Ry\u014d-an (Liao-an), 28.\n\n  Ry\u014dkai (Liang K\u2019ai), 23, 27.\n\n  _Saddharma Pundar\u012bka S\u016btra_, 8.\n\n  Saga T. 28, 30.\n\n  Sam\u0101dhi (San-mei), 12.\n\n  Sansh\u014d (San-sh\u0113ng), 21.\n\n  Sh\u0101kyamuni, 7.\n\n  _Shina Gaku_, 28, 30.\n\n  Shinsh\u016b (Sh\u0113n-hsiu), 16.\n\n  Sh\u014dtenji (Ch\u2019\u0113ng-t\u2019ien-ss\u016d), 28.\n\n  Tanka (Tan-hsia), 23, 29.\n\n  Tendai (T\u2019ien-t\u2019ai), 8.\n\n  Tokusan (T\u0113-shan), 29.\n\n  Wieger, 30.\n\n  Wu Hou, 17.\n\n  Zen (Ch\u2019an), 7, etc.\n\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\nTranscriber's Note\n\nA duplicate title page has been removed from the text.\n\n\"Externise\" on p. 23 is a variant form of \"externalise\", and has been\nleft as printed.\n\nThe diacritics in \"Saddharma Pundar\u012bka S\u016btra\" on p. 8\nwere marked in pen on the printed copy, and may not have been printed.","title":"Zen Buddhism, and Its Relation to Art","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":7825}