{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_43433/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_43433","id":"gutenberg_43433","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/43433","summary":null,"tags":["Category: Archaeology & Anthropology","Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Magic","Mythology","Religion","Superstition"],"text":"The Golden Bough\n\n                      A Study in Magic and Religion\n\n                                    By\n\n               James George Frazer, D.C.L., LL.D., Litt.D.\n\n                   Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge\n\n     Professor of Social Anthropology in the University of Liverpool\n\n                             Vol. XI. of XII.\n\n                     Part VII: Balder the Beautiful.\n\n   The Fire-Festivals of Europe and the Doctrine of the External Soul.\n\n                               Vol. 2 of 2.\n\n                           New York and London\n\n                            MacMillan and Co.\n\n                                   1913\n\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\n\nChapter VI. Fire-Festivals in Other Lands.\n   \u00a7 1. The Fire-walk.\n   \u00a7 2. The Meaning of the Fire-walk.\nChapter VII. The Burning of Human Beings in the Fires.\n   \u00a7 1. The Burning of Effigies in the Fires.\n   \u00a7 2. The Burning of Men and Animals in the Fires.\nChapter VIII. The Magic Flowers of Midsummer Eve.\nChapter IX. Balder and the Mistletoe.\nChapter X. The Eternal Soul in Folk-Tales.\nChapter XI. The External Soul in Folk-Custom.\n   \u00a7 1. The External Soul in Inanimate Things.\n   \u00a7 2. The External Soul in Plants.\n   \u00a7 3. The External Soul in Animals.\n   \u00a7 4. A Suggested Theory of Totemism.\n   \u00a7 5. The Ritual of Death and Resurrection.\nChapter XII. The Golden Bough.\nChapter XIII. Farewell to Nemi.\nNotes.\n   I. Snake Stones.\n   II. The Transformation of Witches Into Cats.\n   III. African Balders.\n   IV. The Mistletoe and the Golden Bough.\nIndex.\nFootnotes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n                               [Cover Art]\n\n[Transcriber\u2019s Note: The above cover image was produced by the submitter\nat Distributed Proofreaders, and is being placed into the public domain.]\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI. FIRE-FESTIVALS IN OTHER LANDS.\n\n\n\n\n\u00a7 1. The Fire-walk.\n\n\n(M1) At first sight the interpretation of the European fire customs as\ncharms for making sunshine is confirmed by a parallel custom observed by\nthe Hindoos of Southern India at the Pongol or Feast of Ingathering. The\nfestival is celebrated in the early part of January, when, according to\nHindoo astrologers, the sun enters the tropic of Capricorn, and the chief\nevent of the festival coincides with the passage of the sun. For some days\npreviously the boys gather heaps of sticks, straw, dead leaves, and\neverything that will burn. On the morning of the first day of the festival\nthe heaps are fired. Every street and lane has its bonfire. The young folk\nleap over the flames or pile on fresh fuel. This fire is an offering to\nS\u00fbrya, the sun-god, or to Agni, the deity of fire; it \u201cwakes him from his\nsleep, calling on him again to gladden the earth with his light and\nheat.\u201d(1) If this is indeed the explanation which the people themselves\ngive of the festival, it seems decisive in favour of the solar explanation\nof the fires; for to say that the fires waken the sun-god from his sleep\nis only a metaphorical or mythical way of saying that they actually help\nto rekindle the sun\u2019s light and heat. But the hesitation which the writer\nindicates between the two distinct deities of sun and fire seems to prove\nthat he is merely giving his own interpretation of the rite, not reporting\nthe views of the celebrants. If that is so, the expression of his opinion\nhas no claim to authority.\n\n(M2) A festival of Northern India which presents points of resemblance to\nthe popular European celebrations which we have been considering is the\nHoli. This is a village festival held in early spring at the full moon of\nthe month Phalgun. Large bonfires are lit and young people dance round\nthem. The people believe that the fires prevent blight, and that the ashes\ncure disease. At Barsana the local village priest is expected to pass\nthrough the Holi bonfire, which, in the opinion of the faithful, cannot\nburn him. Indeed he holds his land rent-free simply on the score of his\nbeing fire-proof. On one occasion when the priest disappointed the\nexpectant crowd by merely jumping over the outermost verge of the\nsmouldering ashes and then bolting into his cell, they threatened to\ndeprive him of his benefice if he did not discharge his spiritual\nfunctions better when the next Holi season came round. Another feature of\nthe festival which has, or once had, its counterpart in the corresponding\nEuropean ceremonies is the unchecked profligacy which prevails among the\nHindoos at this time.(2) In Kumaon, a district of North-West India, at the\nfoot of the Himalayas, each clan celebrates the Holi festival by cutting\ndown a tree, which is thereupon stripped of its leaves, decked with shreds\nof cloth, and burnt at some convenient place in the quarter of the town\ninhabited by the clan. Some of the songs sung on this occasion are of a\nribald character. The people leap over the ashes of the fire, believing\nthat they thus rid themselves of itch and other diseases of the skin.\nWhile the trees are burning, each clan tries to carry off strips of cloth\nfrom the tree of another clan, and success in the attempt is thought to\nensure good luck. In Gwalior large heaps of cow-dung are burnt instead of\ntrees. Among the Marwaris the festival is celebrated by the women with\nobscene songs and gestures. A monstrous and disgusting image of a certain\nNathuram, who is said to have been a notorious profligate, is set up in a\nbazaar and then smashed with blows of shoes and bludgeons while the\nbonfire of cow-dung is blazing. No household can be without an image of\nNathuram, and on the night when the bride first visits her husband, the\nimage of this disreputable personage is placed beside her couch. Barren\nwomen and mothers whose children have died look to Nathuram for\ndeliverance from their troubles.(3) Various stories are told to account\nfor the origin of the Holi festival. According to one legend it was\ninstituted in order to get rid of a troublesome demon (_r\u00e1kshas\u00ed_). The\npeople were directed to kindle a bonfire and circumambulate it, singing\nand uttering fearlessly whatever might come into their minds. Appalled by\nthese vociferations, by the oblations to fire, and by the laughter of the\nchildren, the demon was to be destroyed.(4)\n\n(M3) In the Chinese province of Fo-Kien we also meet with a vernal\nfestival of fire which may be compared to the fire-festivals of Europe.\nThe ceremony, according to an eminent authority, is a solar festival in\nhonour of the renewal of vegetation and of the vernal warmth. It falls in\nApril, on the thirteenth day of the third month in the Chinese calendar,\nand is doubtless connected with the ancient custom of renewing the fire,\nwhich, as we saw, used to be observed in China at this season.(5) The\nchief performers in the ceremony are labourers, who refrain from women for\nseven days, and fast for three days before the festival. During these days\nthey are taught in the temple how to discharge the difficult and dangerous\nduty which is to be laid upon them. On the eve of the festival an enormous\nbrazier of charcoal, sometimes twenty feet wide, is prepared in front of\nthe temple of the Great God, the protector of life. At sunrise next\nmorning the brazier is lighted and kept burning by fresh supplies of fuel.\nA Taoist priest throws a mixture of salt and rice on the fire to conjure\nthe flames and ensure an abundant year. Further, two exorcists, barefooted\nand followed by two peasants, traverse the fire again and again till it is\nsomewhat beaten down. Meantime the procession is forming in the temple.\nThe image of the god of the temple is placed in a sedan-chair, resplendent\nwith red paint and gilding, and is carried forth by a score or more of\nbarefooted peasants. On the shafts of the sedan-chair, behind the image,\nstands a magician with a dagger stuck through the upper parts of his arms\nand grasping in each hand a great sword, with which he essays to deal\nhimself violent blows on the back; however, the strokes as they descend\nare mostly parried by peasants, who walk behind him and interpose bamboo\nrods between his back and the swords. Wild music now strikes up, and under\nthe excitement caused by its stirring strains the procession passes thrice\nacross the furnace. At their third passage the performers are followed by\nother peasants carrying the utensils of the temple; and the rustic mob,\nelectrified by the frenzied spectacle, falls in behind. Strange as it may\nseem, burns are comparatively rare. Inured from infancy to walking\nbarefoot, the peasants can step with impunity over the glowing charcoal,\nprovided they plant their feet squarely and do not stumble; for usage has\nso hardened their soles that the skin is converted into a sort of leathery\nor horny substance which is almost callous to heat. But sometimes, when\nthey slip and a hot coal touches the sides of their feet or ankles, they\nmay be seen to pull a wry face and jump out of the furnace amid the\nlaughter of the spectators. When this part of the ceremony is over, the\nprocession defiles round the village, and the priests distribute to every\nfamily a leaf of yellow paper inscribed with a magic character, which is\nthereupon glued over the door of the house. The peasants carry off the\ncharred embers from the furnace, pound them to ashes, and mix the ashes\nwith the fodder of their cattle, believing that it fattens them. However,\nthe Chinese Government disapproves of these performances, and next morning\na number of the performers may generally be seen in the hands of the\npolice, laid face downwards on the ground and receiving a sound\ncastigation on a part of their person which is probably more sensitive\nthan the soles of their feet.(6)\n\n(M4) In this last festival the essential feature of the ceremony appears\nto be the passage of the image of the deity across the fire; it may be\ncompared to the passage of the straw effigy of Kupalo across the midsummer\nbonfire in Russia.(7) As we shall see presently, such customs may perhaps\nbe interpreted as magical rites designed to produce light and warmth by\nsubjecting the deity himself to the heat and glow of the furnace; and\nwhere, as at Barsana, priests or sorcerers have been accustomed in the\ndischarge of their functions to walk through or over fire, they have\nsometimes done so as the living representatives or embodiments of deities,\nspirits, or other supernatural beings. Some confirmation of this view is\nfurnished by the beliefs and practices of the Dosadhs, a low Indian caste\nin Behar and Chota Nagpur. On the fifth, tenth, and full-moon days of\nthree months in the year, the priest walks over a narrow trench filled\nwith smouldering wood ashes, and is supposed thus to be inspired by the\ntribal god Rahu, who becomes incarnate in him for a time. Full of the\nspirit and also, it is surmised, of drink, the man of god then mounts a\nbamboo platform, where he sings hymns and distributes to the crowd leaves\nof _tulsi_, which cure incurable diseases, and flowers which cause barren\nwomen to become happy mothers. The service winds up with a feast lasting\nfar into the night, at which the line that divides religious fervour from\ndrunken revelry cannot always be drawn with absolute precision.(8)\nSimilarly the Bhuiyas, a Dravidian tribe of Mirzapur, worship their tribal\nhero Bir by walking over a short trench filled with fire, and they say\nthat the man who is possessed by the hero does not feel any pain in the\nsoles of his feet.(9) Ceremonies of this sort used to be observed in most\ndistricts of the Madras Presidency, sometimes in discharge of vows made in\ntime of sickness or distress, sometimes periodically in honour of a deity.\nWhere the ceremony was observed periodically, it generally occurred in\nMarch or June, which are the months of the vernal equinox and the summer\nsolstice respectively. A narrow trench, sometimes twenty yards long and\nhalf a foot deep, was filled with small sticks and twigs, mostly of\ntamarind, which were kindled and kept burning till they sank into a mass\nof glowing embers. Along this the devotees, often fifty or sixty in\nsuccession, walked, ran, or leaped barefoot. In 1854 the Madras Government\ninstituted an enquiry into the custom, but found that it was not attended\nby danger or instances of injury sufficient to call for governmental\ninterference.(10)\n\n(M5) The French traveller Sonnerat has described how, in the eighteenth\ncentury, the Hindoos celebrated a fire-festival of this sort in honour of\nthe god Darma Rajah and his wife Drobed\u00e9 (Draupadi). The festival lasted\neighteen days, during which all who had vowed to take part in it were\nbound to fast, to practise continence, to sleep on the ground without a\nmat, and to walk on a furnace. On the eighteenth day the images of Darma\nRajah and his spouse were carried in procession to the furnace, and the\nperformers followed dancing, their heads crowned with flowers and their\nbodies smeared with saffron. The furnace consisted of a trench about forty\nfeet long, filled with hot embers. When the images had been carried thrice\nround it, the worshippers walked over the embers, faster or slower,\naccording to the degree of their religious fervour, some carrying their\nchildren in their arms, others brandishing spears, swords, and standards.\nThis part of the ceremony being over, the bystanders hastened to rub their\nforeheads with ashes from the furnace, and to beg from the performers the\nflowers which they had worn in their hair; and such as obtained them\npreserved the flowers carefully. The rite was performed in honour of the\ngoddess Drobed\u00e9 (Draupadi), the heroine of the great Indian epic, the\n_Mahabharata_. For she married five brothers all at once; every year she\nleft one of her husbands to betake herself to another, but before doing so\nshe had to purify herself by fire. There was no fixed date for the\ncelebration of the rite, but it could only be held in one of the first\nthree months of the year.(11) In some villages the ceremony is performed\nannually; in others, which cannot afford the expense every year, it is\nobserved either at longer intervals, perhaps once in three, seven, ten, or\ntwelve years, or only in special emergencies, such as the outbreak of\nsmallpox, cholera, or plague. Anybody but a pariah or other person of very\nlow degree may take part in the ceremony in fulfilment of a vow. For\nexample, if a man suffers from some chronic malady, he may vow to Draupadi\nthat, should he be healed of his disease, he will walk over the fire at\nher festival. As a preparation for the solemnity he sleeps in the temple\nand observes a fast. The celebration of the rite in any village is\nbelieved to protect the cattle and the crops and to guard the inhabitants\nfrom dangers of all kinds. When it is over, many people carry home the\nholy ashes of the fire as a talisman which will drive away devils and\ndemons.(12)\n\n(M6) The Badagas, an agricultural tribe of the Neilgherry Hills in\nSouthern India, annually celebrate a festival of fire in various parts of\ntheir country. For example, at Nidugala the festival is held with much\nceremony in the month of January. Omens are taken by boiling two pots of\nmilk side by side on two hearths. If the milk overflows uniformly on all\nsides, the crops will be abundant for all the villages; but if it flows\nover on one side only, the harvest will be good for villages on that side\nonly. The sacred fire is made by friction, a vertical stick of\n_Rhodomyrtus tomentosus_ being twirled by means of a cord in a socket let\ninto a thick bough of _Debregeasia velutina_. With this holy flame a heap\nof wood of two sorts, the _Eugenia Jambolana_ and _Phyllanthus Emblica_,\nis kindled, and the hot embers are spread over a fire-pit about five yards\nlong and three yards broad. When all is ready, the priest ties bells on\nhis legs and approaches the fire-pit, carrying milk freshly drawn from a\ncow which has calved for the first time, and also bearing flowers of\n_Rhododendron arboreum_, _Leucas aspera_, or jasmine. After doing\nobeisance, he throws the flowers on the embers and then pours some of the\nmilk over them. If the omens are propitious, that is, if the flowers\nremain for a few seconds unscorched and the milk does not hiss when it\nfalls on the embers, the priest walks boldly over the embers and is\nfollowed by a crowd of celebrants, who before they submit to the ordeal\ncount the hairs on their feet. If any of the hairs are found to be singed\nafter the passage through the fire-pit, it is an ill omen. Sometimes the\nBadagas drive their cattle, which have recovered from sickness, over the\nhot embers in performance of a vow.(13) At Melur, another place of the\nBadagas in the Neilgherry Hills, three, five, or seven men are chosen to\nwalk through the fire at the festival; and before they perform the\nceremony they pour into an adjacent stream milk from cows which have\ncalved for the first time during the year. A general feast follows the\nperformance of the rite, and next day the land is ploughed and sown for\nthe first time that season. At Jakkaneri, another place of the Badagas in\nthe Neilgherry Hills, the passage through the fire at the festival \u201cseems\nto have originally had some connection with agricultural prospects, as a\nyoung bull is made to go partly across the fire-pit before the other\ndevotees, and the owners of young cows which have had their first calves\nduring the year take precedence of others in the ceremony, and bring\nofferings of milk, which are sprinkled over the burning embers.\u201d(14)\nAccording to another account the ceremony among the Badagas was performed\nevery second year at a harvest festival, and the performers were a set of\ndegenerate Brahmans called Haruvarus, who \u201cused to walk on burning coals\nwith bare feet, pretending that the god they worshipped could allay the\nheat and make fire like cold water to them. As they only remained a few\nseconds, however, on the coals, it was impossible that they could receive\nmuch injury.\u201d(15)\n\n(M7) In Japan the fire-walk is performed as a religious rite twice a year\nat a temple in the Kanda quarter of Tokio. One of the performances takes\nplace in September. It was witnessed in the year 1903 by the wife of an\nAmerican naval officer, who has described it. In a court of the temple a\nbed of charcoal about six yards long, two yards wide, and two feet deep\nwas laid down and covered with a deep layer of straw. Being ignited, the\nstraw blazed up, and when the flames had died down the bed of hot charcoal\nwas fanned by attendants into a red glow. Priests dressed in robes of\nwhite cotton then walked round the fire, striking sparks from flint and\nsteel and carrying trays full of salt. When mats had been laid down at the\ntwo ends of the fire and salt poured on them, the priests rubbed their\nbare feet twice in the salt and then walked calmly down the middle of the\nfire. They were followed by a number of people, including some boys and a\nwoman with a baby in her arms. \u201cThe Shintoists claim that, having been\nperfectly purified by their prayers and ceremonies, no evil has any power\nover them. Fire they regard as the very spirit of evil; so twice a year, I\nbelieve, they go through this fire-walking as a kind of \u2018outward and\nvisible sign of inward spiritual grace.\u2019 \u201d(16)\n\n(M8) In the island of Mbengga, one of the Fijian archipelago, once every\nyear a dracaena, which grows in profusion on the grassy hillsides, becomes\nfit to yield the sugar of which its fibrous root is full. To render the\nroots edible it is necessary to bake them among hot stones for four days.\nA great pit is dug and filled with great stones and blazing logs, and when\nthe flames have died down and the stones are at white heat, the oven is\nready to receive the roots. At this moment the members of a certain clan\ncalled Na Ivilankata, favoured of the gods, leap into the oven and walk\nunharmed upon the hot stones, which would scorch the feet of any other\npersons. On one occasion when the ceremony was witnessed by Europeans\nfifteen men of the clan, dressed in garlands and fringes, walked unscathed\nthrough the furnace, where tongues of fire played among the hot stones.\nThe pit was about nineteen feet wide and the men marched round it,\nplanting their feet squarely and firmly on each stone. When they emerged\nfrom the pit, the feet of several were examined and shewed no trace of\nscorching; even the anklets of dried tree-fern leaves which they wore on\ntheir legs were unburnt. The immunity thus enjoyed by members of the clan\nin the fiery furnace is explained by a legend that in former days a chief\nof the clan, named Tui Nkualita, received for himself and his descendants\nthis remarkable privilege from a certain god, whom the chief had\naccidentally dragged out of a deep pool of water by the hair of his\nhead.(17) A similar ceremony of walking through fire, or rather over a\nfurnace of hot charcoal or hot stones, has also been observed in\nTahiti,(18) the Marquesas Islands,(19) and by Hindoo coolies in the West\nIndian island of Trinidad;(20) but the eye-witnesses who have described\nthe rite, as it is observed in these islands, have said little or nothing\nas to its meaning and purpose, their whole attention having been\napparently concentrated on the heat of the furnace and the state of the\nperformers\u2019 legs before and after passing through it.\n\n(M9) \u201cAnother grand custom of the Hottentots, which they likewise term\n_andersmaken_, is the driving their sheep at certain times through the\nfire. Early in the day appointed by a kraal for the observance of this\ncustom, the women milk all their cows, and set the whole produce before\ntheir husbands. \u2019Tis a strict rule at those times that the women neither\ntaste, nor suffer their children to touch, a drop of it. The whole\nquantity is sacred to the men, who drink it all up before they address\nthemselves to the business of the fire. Having consumed the milk, some go\nand bring the sheep together to the place where the fire is to be lighted,\nwhile others repair to the place to light it. The fire is made of chips\nand dry twigs and thinly spread into a long square. Upon the coming up of\nthe sheep, the fire, scattered into this figure, is covered with green\ntwigs to raise a great smoak; and a number of men range themselves closely\non both sides of it, making a lane for the sheep to pass through, and\nextending themselves to a good distance beyond the fire on the side where\nthe sheep are to enter. Things being in this posture, the sheep are driven\ninto the lane close up to the fire, which now smoaks in the thickest\nclouds. The foremost boggle, and being forced forward by the press behind,\nseek their escape by attempting breaches in the ranks. The men stand close\nand firm, and whoop and goad them forward; when a few hands, planted at\nthe front of the fire, catch three or four of the foremost sheep by the\nhead, and drag them through, and bring them round into the sight of the\nrest; which sometimes upon this, the whooping and goading continuing,\nfollow with a tantivy, jumping and pouring themselves through the fire and\nsmoak with a mighty clattering and fury. At other times they are not so\ntractable, but put the Hottentots to the trouble of dragging numbers of\nthem through; and sometimes, in a great press and fright, sturdily\nattacking the ranks, they make a breach and escape. This is a very\nmortifying event at all times, the Hottentots, upon whatever account,\nlooking upon it as a heavy disgrace and a very ill omen into the bargain.\nBut when their labours here are attended with such success, that the sheep\npass readily through or over the fire, \u2019tis hardly in the power of\nlanguage to describe them in all the sallies of their joy.\u201d The writer who\nthus describes the custom had great difficulty in extracting an\nexplanation of it from the Hottentots. At last one of them informed him\nthat their country was much infested by wild dogs, which made terrible\nhavoc among the cattle, worrying the animals to death even when they did\nnot devour them. \u201cNow we have it,\u201d he said, \u201cfrom our ancestors, that if\nsheep are driven through the fire, as we say, that is, through a thick\nsmoak, the wild dogs will not be fond of attacking them while the scent of\nthe smoak remains upon their fleeces. We therefore from time to time, for\nthe security of our flocks, perform this _andersmaken_.\u201d(21)\n\n(M10) When disease breaks out in a herd of the Nandi, a pastoral tribe of\nBritish East Africa, a large bonfire is made with the wood of a certain\ntree (_Olea chrysophilla_), and brushwood of two sorts of shrubs is thrown\non the top. Then the sick herd is driven to the fire, and while the\nanimals are standing near it, a sheep big with young is brought to them\nand anointed with milk by an elder, after which it is strangled by two men\nbelonging to clans that may intermarry. The intestines are then inspected,\nand if the omens prove favourable, the meat is roasted and eaten; moreover\nrings are made out of the skin and worn by the cattle-owners. After the\nmeat has been eaten, the herd is driven round the fire, and milk is poured\non each beast.(22) When their cattle are sick, the Zulus of Natal will\ncollect their herds in a kraal, where a medicine-man kindles a fire, burns\nmedicine in it, and so fumigates the cattle with the medicated smoke.\nAfterwards he sprinkles the herd with a decoction, and, taking some melted\nfat of the dead oxen in his mouth, squirts it on a fire-brand and holds\nthe brand to each animal in succession.(23) Such a custom is probably\nequivalent to the Hottentot and European practice of driving cattle\nthrough a fire.\n\n(M11) Among the Indians of Yucatan the year which was marked in their\ncalendar by the sign of _Cauac_ was reputed to be very unlucky; they\nthought that in the course of it the death-rate would be high, the maize\ncrops would be withered up by the extreme heat of the sun, and what\nremained of the harvest would be devoured by swarms of ants and birds. To\navert these calamities they used to erect a great pyre of wood, to which\nmost persons contributed a faggot. Having danced about it during the day,\nthey set fire to it at night-fall, and when the flames had died down, they\nspread out the red embers and walked or ran barefoot over them, some of\nthem escaping unsmirched by the flames, but others burning themselves more\nor less severely. In this way they hoped to conjure away the evils that\nthreatened them, and to undo the sinister omens of the year.(24)\n\n(M12) Similar rites were performed at more than one place in classical\nantiquity. At Castabala, in Cappadocia, the priestesses of an Asiatic\ngoddess, whom the Greeks called Artemis Perasia, used to walk barefoot\nthrough a furnace of hot charcoal and take no harm.(25) Again, at the foot\nof Mount Soracte, in Italy, there was a sanctuary of a goddess Feronia,\nwhere once a year the men of certain families walked barefoot, but\nunscathed, over the glowing embers and ashes of a great fire of pinewood\nin presence of a vast multitude, who had assembled from all the country\nround about to pay their devotions to the deity or to ply their business\nat the fair. The families from whom the performers of the rite were drawn\nwent by the name of Hirpi Sorani, or \u201cSoranian Wolves\u201d; and in\nconsideration of the services which they rendered the state by walking\nthrough the fire, they were exempted, by a special decree of the senate,\nfrom military service and all public burdens. In the discharge of their\nsacred function, if we can trust the testimony of Strabo, they were\nbelieved to be inspired by the goddess Feronia. The ceremony certainly\ntook place in her sanctuary, which was held in the highest reverence alike\nby Latins and Sabines; but according to Virgil and Pliny the rite was\nperformed in honour of the god of the mountain, whom they call by the\nGreek name of Apollo, but whose real name appears to have been\nSoranus.(26) If Soranus was a sun-god, as his name has by some been\nthought to indicate,(27) we might perhaps conclude that the passage of his\npriests through the fire was a magical ceremony designed to procure a due\nsupply of light and warmth for the earth by mimicking the sun\u2019s passage\nacross the firmament. For so priceless a service, rendered at some\npersonal risk, it would be natural that the magicians should be handsomely\nrewarded by a grateful country, and that they should be released from the\ncommon obligations of earth in order the better to devote themselves to\ntheir celestial mission. The neighbouring towns paid the first-fruits of\ntheir harvest as tribute to the shrine, and loaded it besides with\nofferings of gold and silver, of which, however, it was swept clean by\nHannibal when he hung with his dusky army, like a storm-cloud about to\nbreak, within sight of the sentinels on the walls of Rome.(28)\n\n\n\n\n\u00a7 2. The Meaning of the Fire-walk.\n\n\n(M13) The foregoing customs, observed in many different parts of the\nworld, present at least a superficial resemblance to the modern European\npractices of leaping over fires and driving cattle through them; and we\nnaturally ask whether it is not possible to discover a general explanation\nwhich will include them all. We have seen that two general theories have\nbeen proposed to account for the European practices; according to one\ntheory the customs in question are sun-charms, according to the other they\nare purifications. Let us see how the two rival theories fit the other\nfacts which we have just passed in review. To take the solar theory first,\nit is supported, first, by a statement that the fires at the Pongol\nfestival in Southern India are intended to wake the sun-god or the\nfire-god from his sleep;(29) and, second, by the etymology which connects\nSoranus, the god of Soracte, with the sun.(30) But for reasons which have\nalready been given, neither of these arguments carries much weight; and\napart from them there appears to be nothing in the foregoing customs to\nsuggest that they are sun-charms. Nay, some of the customs appear hardly\nreconcilable with such a view. For it is to be observed that the fire-walk\nis frequently practised in India and other tropical countries, where as a\nrule people would more naturally wish to abate than to increase the fierce\nheat of the sun. In Yucatan certainly the intention of kindling the\nbonfires cannot possibly have been to fan the solar flames, since one of\nthe principal evils which the bonfires were designed to remedy was\nprecisely the excessive heat of the sun, which had withered up the maize\ncrops.(31) Thus the solar theory is not strongly supported by any of the\nfacts which we are considering, and it is actually inconsistent with some\nof them.\n\n(M14) Not so with the purificatory theory. It is obviously applicable to\nsome of the facts, and apparently consistent with them all. Thus we have\nseen that sick men make a vow to walk over the fire, and that sick cattle\nare driven over it. In such cases clearly the intention is to cleanse the\nsuffering man or beast from the infection of disease, and thereby to\nrestore him or it to health; and the fire is supposed to effect this\nsalutary end, either by burning up the powers of evil or by interposing an\ninsurmountable barrier between them and the sufferer. For it is to be\nremembered that evils which civilized men regard as impersonal are often\nconceived by uncivilized man in the personal shape of witches and wizards,\nof ghosts and hobgoblins; so that measures which we should consider as\nsimple disinfectants the savage looks upon as obstacles opportunely\npresented to the attacks of demons or other uncanny beings. Now of all\nsuch obstacles fire seems generally to be thought the most effective;\nhence in passing through or leaping over it our primitive philosopher\noften imagines that he is not so much annihilating his spiritual foe as\nmerely giving him the slip; the ghostly pursuer shrinks back appalled at\nthe flames through which his intended victim, driven to desperation by his\nfears, has safely passed before him. This interpretation of the ceremony\nis confirmed, first, by the observation that in India the ashes of the\nbonfire are used as a talisman against devils and demons;(32) and, second,\nby the employment of the ceremony for the avowed purpose of escaping from\nthe pursuit of a troublesome ghost. For example, in China \u201cthey believe\nthat a beheaded man wanders about a headless spectre in the World of\nShades. Such spectres are frequently to be seen in walled towns,\nespecially in the neighbourhood of places of execution. Here they often\nvisit the people with disease and disaster, causing a considerable\ndepreciation in the value of the houses around such scenes. Whenever an\nexecution takes place, the people fire crackers to frighten the headless\nghost away from the spot; and the mandarin who has superintended the\nbloody work, on entering the gate of his mansion, has himself carried in\nhis sedan chair over a fire lighted on the pavement, lest the headless\napparition should enter there along with him; for disembodied spirits are\nafraid of fire.\u201d(33) For a like reason Chinese mourners after a funeral,\nand persons who have paid a visit of condolence to a house of death, often\npurify themselves by stepping over a fire of straw;(34) the purification,\nwe cannot doubt, consists simply in shaking off the ghost who is supposed\nto dog their steps. Similarly at a coroner\u2019s inquest in China the mandarin\nand his subordinates hold pocket handkerchiefs or towels to their mouths\nand noses while they are inspecting the corpse, no doubt to hinder the\nghost from insinuating himself into their bodies by these apertures; and\nwhen they have discharged their dangerous duty, they purify themselves by\npassing through a small fire of straw kindled on the pavement before they\nenter their sedan-chairs to return home, while at the same time the crowd\nof idlers, who have gathered about the door, assist in keeping the ghost\nat bay by a liberal discharge of crackers. The same double process of\npurification, or rather of repelling the ghost, by means of fire and\ncrackers is repeated at the gate of the mandarin\u2019s residence when the\nprocession defiles into it.(35) Among some of the Tartars it used to be\ncustomary for all persons returning from a burial to leap over a fire made\nfor the purpose, \u201cin order that the dead man might not follow them; for\napparently in their opinion he would be afraid of the fire.\u201d(36) \u201cThe\nYakuts bury their dead as a rule on the day of the death, and in order not\nto take the demon of death home with them, they kindle fires on the way\nback from the burial and jump over them in the belief that the demon of\ndeath, who dreads fire, will not follow them, and that in this way they\nwill be freed from the persecutions of the hated demon of death.\u201d(37) In\nSikkhim, when members of the Khambu caste have buried a corpse, all\npersons present at the burial \u201cadjourn to a stream for a bath of\npurification, and, on re-entering the house, have to tread on a bit of\nburning cloth, to prevent the evil spirits who attend at funerals from\nfollowing them in.\u201d(38) Among the Fans of West Africa, \u201cwhen the mourning\nis over, the wives of the deceased must pass over a small lighted brazier\nin the middle of the village, then they sit down while some leaves are\nstill burning under their feet; their heads are shaved, and from that\nmoment they are purified from the mourning\u2014perhaps we should translate:\n\u2018delivered from the ghost of their husband\u2019\u2014and may be divided among the\nheirs.\u201d(39) At Agweh, on the Slave Coast of West Africa, a widow used to\nremain shut up for six months in the room where her husband was buried; at\nthe end of the time a fire was lighted on the floor, and red peppers\nstrewn in it, until in the pungent fumes the widow was nearly stifled.(40)\nNo doubt the intention was to rid her of her husband\u2019s ghost in order that\nshe might mingle again in the world with safety to herself and others.\n\n(M15) On the analogy of these customs, in which the purpose of the passage\nthrough the fire appears to be unmistakable, we may suppose that the\nmotive of the rite is similar at the popular festivals of Europe and the\nlike observances in other lands. In every case the ritual appears to be\nexplained in a simple and natural way by the supposition that the\nperformers believe themselves to be freed from certain evils, actual or\nthreatened, through the beneficent agency of fire, which either burns up\nand destroys the noxious things or at all events repels and keeps them at\nbay. Indeed this belief, or at least this hope, is definitely expressed by\nsome of the people who leap across the bonfires: they imagine that all\nills are burnt up and consumed in the flames, or that they leave their\nsins, or at all events their fleas, behind them on the far side of the\nfire.(41) But we may conjecture that originally all the evils from which\nthe people thus thought to deliver themselves were conceived by them to be\ncaused by personal beings, such as ghosts and demons or witches and\nwarlocks, and that the fires were kindled for the sole purpose of burning\nor banning these noxious creatures. Of these evil powers witches and\nwarlocks appear to have been the most dreaded by our European peasantry;\nand it is therefore significant that the fires kindled on these occasions\nare often expressly alleged to burn the witches,(42) that effigies of\nwitches are not uncommonly consumed in them,(43) and that two of the great\nperiodic fire-festivals of the year, namely May Day and Midsummer Eve,\ncoincide with the seasons when witches are believed to be most active and\nmischievous, and when accordingly many other precautions are taken against\nthem.(44) Thus if witchcraft, as a great part of mankind has believed, is\nthe fertile source of almost all the calamities that afflict our species,\nand if the surest means of frustrating witchcraft is fire, then it follows\nas clearly as day follows night that to jump over a fire must be a\nsovereign panacea for practically all the ills that flesh is heir to. We\ncan now, perhaps, fully understand why festivals of fire played so\nprominent a part in the religion or superstition of our heathen\nforefathers; the observance of such festivals flowed directly from their\novermastering fear of witchcraft and from their theory as to the best way\nof combating that dreadful evil.\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII. THE BURNING OF HUMAN BEINGS IN THE FIRES.\n\n\n\n\n\u00a7 1. The Burning of Effigies in the Fires.\n\n\n(M16) We have still to ask, What is the meaning of burning effigies in the\nfire at these festivals? After the preceding investigation the answer to\nthe question seems obvious. As the fires are often alleged to be kindled\nfor the purpose of burning the witches, and as the effigy burnt in them is\nsometimes called \u201cthe Witch,\u201d we might naturally be disposed to conclude\nthat all the effigies consumed in the flames on these occasions represent\nwitches or warlocks, and that the custom of burning them is merely a\nsubstitute for burning the wicked men and women themselves, since on the\nprinciple of homoeopathic or imitative magic you practically destroy the\nwitch herself in destroying her effigy. On the whole this explanation of\nthe burning of straw figures in human shape at the festivals appears to be\nthe most probable.\n\n(M17) Yet it may be that this explanation does not apply to all the cases,\nand that certain of them may admit and even require another\ninterpretation, in favour of which I formerly argued as follows:\u2014(45)\n\n\u201cIt remains to ask, What is the meaning of burning an effigy in these\nbonfires? The effigies so burned, as I have already remarked, can hardly\nbe separated from the effigies of Death which are burned or otherwise\ndestroyed in spring; and grounds have been already given for regarding the\nso-called effigies of Death as really representatives of the tree-spirit\nor spirit of vegetation.(46) Are the other effigies, which are burned in\nthe spring and midsummer bonfires, susceptible of the same explanation? It\nwould seem so. For just as the fragments of the so-called Death are stuck\nin the fields to make the crops grow, so the charred embers of the figure\nburned in the spring bonfires are sometimes laid on the fields in the\nbelief that they will keep vermin from the crop.(47) Again, the rule that\nthe last married bride must leap over the fire in which the straw-man is\nburned on Shrove Tuesday, is probably intended to make her fruitful.(48)\nBut, as we have seen, the power of blessing women with offspring is a\nspecial attribute of tree-spirits;(49) it is therefore a fair presumption\nthat the burning effigy over which the bride must leap is a representative\nof the fertilizing tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation. This character of\nthe effigy, as representative of the spirit of vegetation, is almost\nunmistakable when the figure is composed of an unthreshed sheaf of corn or\nis covered from head to foot with flowers.(50) Again, it is to be noted\nthat, instead of a puppet, trees, either living or felled, are sometimes\nburned both in the spring and midsummer bonfires.(51) Now, considering the\nfrequency with which the tree-spirit is represented in human shape, it is\nhardly rash to suppose that when sometimes a tree and sometimes an effigy\nis burned in these fires, the effigy and the tree are regarded as\nequivalent to each other, each being a representative of the tree-spirit.\nThis, again, is confirmed by observing, first, that sometimes the effigy\nwhich is to be burned is carried about simultaneously with a May-tree, the\nformer being carried by the boys, the latter by the girls;(52) and,\nsecond, that the effigy is sometimes tied to a living tree and burned with\nit.(53) In these cases, we can scarcely doubt, the tree-spirit is\nrepresented, as we have found it represented before, in duplicate, both by\nthe tree and by the effigy. That the true character of the effigy as a\nrepresentative of the beneficent spirit of vegetation should sometimes be\nforgotten, is natural. The custom of burning a beneficent god is too\nforeign to later modes of thought to escape misinterpretation. Naturally\nenough the people who continued to burn his image came in time to identify\nit as the effigy of persons, whom, on various grounds, they regarded with\naversion, such as Judas Iscariot, Luther, and a witch.\n\n(M18) \u201cThe general reasons for killing a god or his representative have\nbeen examined in the preceding chapter.(54) But when the god happens to be\na deity of vegetation, there are special reasons why he should die by\nfire. For light and heat are necessary to vegetable growth; and, on the\nprinciple of sympathetic magic, by subjecting the personal representative\nof vegetation to their influence, you secure a supply of these necessaries\nfor trees and crops. In other words, by burning the spirit of vegetation\nin a fire which represents the sun, you make sure that, for a time at\nleast, vegetation shall have plenty of sun. It may be objected that, if\nthe intention is simply to secure enough sunshine for vegetation, this end\nwould be better attained, on the principles of sympathetic magic, by\nmerely passing the representative of vegetation through the fire instead\nof burning him. In point of fact this is sometimes done. In Russia, as we\nhave seen, the straw figure of Kupalo is not burned in the midsummer fire,\nbut merely carried backwards and forwards across it.(55) But, for the\nreasons already given, it is necessary that the god should die; so next\nday Kupalo is stripped of her ornaments and thrown into a stream. In this\nRussian custom, therefore, the passage of the image through the fire is a\nsun-charm pure and simple; the killing of the god is a separate act, and\nthe mode of killing him\u2014by drowning\u2014is probably a rain-charm. But usually\npeople have not thought it necessary to draw this fine distinction; for\nthe various reasons already assigned, it is advantageous, they think, to\nexpose the god of vegetation to a considerable degree of heat, and it is\nalso advantageous to kill him, and they combine these advantages in a\nrough-and-ready way by burning him.\u201d\n\n(M19) On the foregoing argument, which I do not now find very cogent, I\nwould remark that we must distinguish the cases in which an effigy or an\nimage is burnt in the fire from the cases in which it is simply carried\nthrough or over it. We have seen that in the Chinese festival of fire the\nimage of the god is carried thrice by bearers over the glowing furnace.\nHere the motive for subjecting a god to the heat of the furnace must\nsurely be the same as the motive for subjecting his worshippers to the\nsame ordeal; and if the motive in the case of the worshippers is\npurificatory, it is probably the same in the case of the deity. In other\nwords we may suppose that the image of a god is periodically carried over\na furnace in order to purify him from the taint of corruption, the spells\nof magicians, or any other evil influences that might impair or impede his\ndivine energies. The same theory would explain the custom of obliging the\npriest ceremonially to pass through the fire; the custom need not be a\nmitigation of an older practice of burning him in the flames, it may only\nbe a purification designed to enable him the better to discharge his\nsacred duties as representative of the deity in the coming year.\nSimilarly, when the rite is obligatory, not on the people as a whole, but\nonly on certain persons chosen for the purpose,(56) we may suppose that\nthese persons act as representatives of the entire community, which thus\npasses through the fire by deputy and consequently participates in all the\nbenefits which are believed to accrue from the purificatory character of\nthe rite.(57) In both cases, therefore, if my interpretation of them is\ncorrect, the passage over or through a fire is not a substitute for human\nsacrifice; it is nothing but a stringent form of purification.\n\n\n\n\n\u00a7 2. The Burning of Men and Animals in the Fires.\n\n\n(M20) Yet in the popular customs connected with the fire-festivals of\nEurope there are certain features which appear to point to a former\npractice of human sacrifice. We have seen reasons for believing that in\nEurope living persons have often acted as representatives of the\ntree-spirit and corn-spirit and have suffered death as such.(58) There is\nno reason, therefore, why they should not have been burned, if any special\nadvantages were likely to be attained by putting them to death in that\nway. The consideration of human suffering is not one which enters into the\ncalculations of primitive man. Now, in the fire-festivals which we are\ndiscussing, the pretence of burning people is sometimes carried so far\nthat it seems reasonable to regard it as a mitigated survival of an older\ncustom of actually burning them. Thus in Aachen, as we saw, the man clad\nin peas-straw acts so cleverly that the children really believe he is\nbeing burned.(59) At Jumi\u00e8ges in Normandy the man clad all in green, who\nbore the title of the Green Wolf, was pursued by his comrades, and when\nthey caught him they feigned to fling him upon the mid-summer bonfire.(60)\nSimilarly at the Beltane fires in Scotland the pretended victim was\nseized, and a show made of throwing him into the flames, and for some time\nafterwards people affected to speak of him as dead.(61) Again, in the\nHallowe\u2019en bonfires of north-eastern Scotland we may perhaps detect a\nsimilar pretence in the custom observed by a lad of lying down as close to\nthe fire as possible and allowing the other lads to leap over him.(62) The\ntitular king at Aix, who reigned for a year and danced the first dance\nround the midsummer bonfire,(63) may perhaps in days of old have\ndischarged the less agreeable duty of serving as fuel for that fire which\nin later times he only kindled. In the following customs Mannhardt is\nprobably right in recognizing traces of an old custom of burning a\nleaf-clad representative of the spirit of vegetation. At Wolfeck, in\nAustria, on Midsummer Day, a boy completely clad in green fir branches\ngoes from house to house, accompanied by a noisy crew, collecting wood for\nthe bonfire. As he gets the wood he sings\u2014\n\n\n    \u201c_Forest trees I want,_\n    _No sour milk for me,_\n    _But beer and wine,_\n    _So can the wood-man be jolly and gay._\u201d(64)\n\n\nIn some parts of Bavaria, also, the boys who go from house to house\ncollecting fuel for the midsummer bonfire envelop one of their number from\nhead to foot in green branches of firs, and lead him by a rope through the\nwhole village.(65) At Moosheim, in Wurtemberg, the festival of St. John\u2019s\nFire usually lasted for fourteen days, ending on the second Sunday after\nMidsummer Day. On this last day the bonfire was left in charge of the\nchildren, while the older people retired to a wood. Here they encased a\nyoung fellow in leaves and twigs, who, thus disguised, went to the fire,\nscattered it, and trod it out. All the people present fled at the sight of\nhim.(66)\n\n(M21) In this connexion it is worth while to note that in pagan Europe the\nwater as well as the fire seems to have claimed its human victim on\nMidsummer Day. Some German rivers, such as the Saale and the Spree, are\nbelieved still to require their victim on that day; hence people are\ncareful not to bathe at this perilous season. Where the beautiful Neckar\nflows, between vine-clad and wooded hills, under the majestic ruins of\nHeidelberg castle, the spirit of the river seeks to drown three persons,\none on Midsummer Eve, one on Midsummer Day, and one on the day after. On\nthese nights, if you hear a shriek as of a drowning man or woman from the\nwater, beware of running to the rescue; for it is only the water-fairy\nshrieking to lure you to your doom. Many a fisherman of the Elbe knows\nbetter than to launch his boat and trust himself to the treacherous river\non Midsummer Day. And Samland fishermen will not go to sea at this season,\nbecause they are aware that the sea is then hollow and demands a victim.\nIn the neighbourhood of the Lake of Constance the Swabian peasants say\nthat on St. John\u2019s Day the Angel or St. John must have a swimmer and a\nclimber; hence no one will climb a tree or bathe even in a brook on that\nday.(67) According to others, St. John will have three dead men on his\nday; one of them must die by water, one by a fall, and one by lightning;\ntherefore old-fashioned people warn their children not to climb or bathe,\nand are very careful themselves not to run into any kind of danger on\nMidsummer Day.(68) So in some parts of Switzerland people are warned\nagainst bathing on St. John\u2019s Night, because the saint\u2019s day demands its\nvictims. Thus in the Emmenthal they say, \u201cThis day will have three\npersons; one must perish in the air, one in the fire, and the third in the\nwater.\u201d At Schaffhausen the saying runs, \u201cSt. John the Baptist must have a\nrunner, must have a swimmer, must have a climber.\u201d That is the reason why\nyou should not climb cherry-trees on the saint\u2019s day, lest you should fall\ndown and break your valuable neck.(69) In Cologne the saint is more\nexacting; on his day he requires no less than fourteen dead men; seven of\nthem must be swimmers and seven climbers.(70) Accordingly when we find\nthat, in one of the districts where a belief of this sort prevails, it\nused to be customary to throw a person into the water on Midsummer Day, we\ncan hardly help concluding that this was only a modification of an older\ncustom of actually drowning a human being in the river at that time. In\nVoigtland it was formerly the practice to set up a fine May tree, adorned\nwith all kinds of things, on St. John\u2019s Day. The people danced round it,\nand when the lads had fetched down the things with which it was tricked\nout, the tree was thrown into the water. But before this was done, they\nsought out somebody whom they treated in the same manner, and the victim\nof this horseplay was called \u201cthe John.\u201d The brawls and disorders, which\nsuch a custom naturally provoked, led to the suppression of the whole\nceremony.(71)\n\n(M22) At Rotenburg on the Neckar they throw a loaf of bread into the water\non St. John\u2019s Day; were this offering not made, the river would grow angry\nand take away a man.(72) Clearly, therefore, the loaf is regarded as a\nsubstitute which the spirit of the river consents to accept instead of a\nhuman victim. Elsewhere the water-sprite is content with flowers. Thus in\nBohemia people sometimes cast garlands into water on Midsummer Eve; and if\nthe water-sprite pulls one of them down, it is a sign that the person who\nthrew the garland in will die.(73) In the villages of Hesse the girl who\nfirst comes to the well early on the morning of Midsummer Day, places on\nthe mouth of the well a gay garland composed of many sorts of flowers\nwhich she has culled from the fields and meadows. Sometimes a number of\nsuch garlands are twined together to form a crown, with which the well is\ndecked. At Fulda, in addition to the flowery decoration of the wells, the\nneighbours choose a Lord of the Wells and announce his election by sending\nhim a great nosegay of flowers; his house, too, is decorated with green\nboughs, and children walk in procession to it. He goes from house to house\ncollecting materials for a feast, of which the neighbours partake on the\nfollowing Sunday.(74) What the other duties of the Lord of the Wells may\nbe, we are not told. We may conjecture that in old days he had to see to\nit that the spirits of the water received their dues from men and maidens\non that important day.\n\n(M23) The belief that the spirits of the water exact a human life on\nMidsummer Day may partly explain why that day is regarded by some people\nas unlucky. At Neuburg, in Baden, people who meet on Midsummer Day bid\neach other beware.(75) Sicilian mothers on that ominous day warn their\nlittle sons not to go out of the house, or, if they do go out, not to\nstray far, not to walk on solitary unfrequented paths, to avoid horses and\ncarriages and persons with firearms, and not to dare to swim; in short\nthey bid them be on their guard at every turn. The Sicilian writer who\ntells us this adds: \u201cThis I know and sadly remember ever since the year\n1848, when, not yet seven years old, I beheld in the dusk of the evening\non St. John\u2019s Day some women of my acquaintance bringing back in their\narms my little brother, who had gone to play in a garden near our house,\nand there had found his death, my poor Francesco! In their simplicity the\nwomen who strove to console my inconsolable mother, driven distracted by\nthe dreadful blow, kept repeating that St. John must have his due, that on\nthat day he must be appeased. \u2018Who knows,\u2019 said they, \u2018how many other\nmothers are weeping now for other little sons forlorn!\u2019 \u201d(76)\n\n(M24) Yet curiously enough, though the water-spirits call for human\nvictims on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day, water in general is supposed at\nthat season to acquire certain wonderful medicinal virtues, so that he who\nbathes in it then or drinks of it is not only healed of all his\ninfirmities but will be well and hearty throughout the year. Hence in many\nparts of Europe, from Sweden in the north to Sicily in the south, and from\nIreland and Spain in the west to Esthonia in the east it used to be\ncustomary for men, women, and children to bathe in crowds in rivers, the\nsea, or springs on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day, hoping thus to fortify\nthemselves for the next twelve months. The usual time for taking the bath\nwas the night which intervenes between Midsummer Eve and Midsummer\nDay;(77) but in Belgium the hour was noon on Midsummer Day. It was a\ncurious sight, we are told, to see the banks of a river lined with naked\nchildren waiting for the first stroke of noon to plunge into the healing\nwater. The dip was supposed to have a remarkable effect in strengthening\nthe legs. People who were ashamed to bathe in public used to have cans of\nwater brought to their houses from the river at midday, and then performed\ntheir ablutions in the privacy of their chambers. Nor did they throw away\nthe precious fluid; on the contrary they bottled it up and kept it as a\nsort of elixir for use throughout the year. It was thought never to grow\nfoul and to be as blessed as holy water fetched from a church, which we\nmay well believe. Hence it served to guard the house against a\nthunder-storm; when the clouds were heavy and threatening, all you had to\ndo was to take the palm branches (that is, the twigs of box-wood) which\nwere blessed on Palm Sunday, dip them in the midsummer water, and burn\nthem. That averted the tempest.(78) In the Swiss canton of Lucerne a bath\non Midsummer Eve is thought to be especially wholesome, though in other\nparts of Switzerland, as we saw, bathing at that season is accounted\ndangerous.(79)\n\n(M25) Nor are such customs and beliefs confined to the Christian peoples\nof Europe; they are shared also by the Mohammedan peoples of Morocco.\nThere, too, on Midsummer Day all water is thought to be endowed with such\nmarvellous virtue that it not only heals but prevents sickness for the\nrest of the year; hence men, women, and children bathe in the sea, in\nrivers, or in their houses at that time for the sake of their health. In\nFez and other places on this day people pour or squirt water over each\nother in the streets or from the house-tops, so that the streets become\nalmost as muddy as after a fall of rain. More than that, in the Andjra\nthey bathe their animals also; horses, mules, donkeys, cattle, sheep, and\ngoats, all must participate in the miraculous benefits of midsummer\nwater.(80) The rite forms part of that old heathen celebration of\nMidsummer which appears to have been common to the peoples on both sides\nof the Mediterranean;(81) and as the aim of bathing in the midsummer water\nis undoubtedly purification, it is reasonable to assign the same motive\nfor the custom of leaping over the midsummer bonfire. On the other hand\nsome people in Morocco, like some people in Europe, think that water on\nMidsummer Day is unclean or dangerous. A Berber told Dr. Westermarck that\nwater is haunted on Midsummer Day, and that people therefore avoid bathing\nin it and keep animals from drinking of it. And among the Beni Ahsen\npersons who swim in the river on that day are careful, before plunging\ninto the water, to throw burning straw into it as an offering, in order\nthat the spirits may not harm them.(82) The parallelism between the rites\nof water and fire at this season is certainly in favour of interpreting\nboth in the same way;(83) and the traces of human sacrifice which we have\ndetected in the rite of water may therefore be allowed to strengthen the\ninference of a similar sacrifice in the rite of fire.\n\n(M26) But it seems possible to go farther than this. Of human sacrifices\noffered on these occasions the most unequivocal traces, as we have seen,\nare those which, about a hundred years ago, still lingered at the Beltane\nfires in the Highlands of Scotland, that is, among a Celtic people who,\nsituated in a remote corner of Europe and almost completely isolated from\nforeign influence, had till then conserved their old heathenism better\nperhaps than any other people in the West of Europe. It is significant,\ntherefore, that human sacrifices by fire are known, on unquestionable\nevidence, to have been systematically practised by the Celts. The earliest\ndescription of these sacrifices has been bequeathed to us by Julius\nCaesar. As conqueror of the hitherto independent Celts of Gaul, Caesar had\nample opportunity of observing the national Celtic religion and manners,\nwhile these were still fresh and crisp from the native mint and had not\nyet been fused in the melting-pot of Roman civilization. With his own\nnotes Caesar appears to have incorporated the observations of a Greek\nexplorer, by name Posidonius, who travelled in Gaul about fifty years\nbefore Caesar carried the Roman arms to the English Channel. The Greek\ngeographer Strabo and the historian Diodorus seem also to have derived\ntheir descriptions of the Celtic sacrifices from the work of Posidonius,\nbut independently of each other, and of Caesar, for each of the three\nderivative accounts contain some details which are not to be found in\neither of the others. By combining them, therefore, we can restore the\noriginal account of Posidonius with some probability, and thus obtain a\npicture of the sacrifices offered by the Celts of Gaul at the close of the\nsecond century before our era.(84) The following seem to have been the\nmain outlines of the custom. Condemned criminals were reserved by the\nCelts in order to be sacrificed to the gods at a great festival which took\nplace once in every five years. The more there were of such victims, the\ngreater was believed to be the fertility of the land.(85) If there were\nnot enough criminals to furnish victims, captives taken in war were\nimmolated to supply the deficiency. When the time came the victims were\nsacrificed by the Druids or priests. Some they shot down with arrows, some\nthey impaled, and some they burned alive in the following manner. Colossal\nimages of wicker-work or of wood and grass were constructed; these were\nfilled with live men, cattle, and animals of other kinds; fire was then\napplied to the images, and they were burned with their living contents.\n\n(M27) Such were the great festivals held once every five years. But\nbesides these quinquennial festivals, celebrated on so grand a scale, and\nwith, apparently, so large an expenditure of human life, it seems\nreasonable to suppose that festivals of the same sort, only on a lesser\nscale, were held annually, and that from these annual festivals are\nlineally descended some at least of the fire-festivals which, with their\ntraces of human sacrifices, are still celebrated year by year in many\nparts of Europe. The gigantic images constructed of osiers or covered with\ngrass in which the Druids enclosed their victims remind us of the leafy\nframework in which the human representative of the tree-spirit is still so\noften encased.(86) Hence, seeing that the fertility of the land was\napparently supposed to depend upon the due performance of these\nsacrifices, Mannhardt interpreted the Celtic victims, cased in osiers and\ngrass, as representatives of the tree-spirit or spirit of vegetation.\n\n(M28) These wicker giants of the Druids seem to have had till lately their\nrepresentatives at the spring and midsummer festivals of modern Europe. At\nDouay, down to the early part of the nineteenth century, a procession took\nplace annually on the Sunday nearest to the seventh of July. The great\nfeature of the procession was a colossal figure, some twenty or thirty\nfeet high, made of osiers, and called \u201cthe giant,\u201d which was moved through\nthe streets by means of rollers and ropes worked by men who were enclosed\nwithin the effigy. The wooden head of the giant is said to have been\ncarved and painted by Rubens. The figure was armed as a knight with lance\nand sword, helmet and shield. Behind him marched his wife and his three\nchildren, all constructed of osiers on the same principle, but on a\nsmaller scale.(87) At Dunkirk the procession of the giants took place on\nMidsummer Day, the twenty-fourth of June. The festival, which was known as\nthe Follies of Dunkirk, attracted such multitudes of spectators, that the\ninns and private houses could not lodge them all, and many had to sleep in\ncellars or in the streets. In 1755 an eye-witness estimated that the\nnumber of onlookers was not less than forty thousand, without counting the\ninhabitants of the town. The streets through which the procession took its\nway were lined with double ranks of soldiers, and the houses crammed with\nspectators from top to bottom. High mass was celebrated in the principal\nchurch and then the procession got under weigh. First came the guilds or\nbrotherhoods, the members walking two and two with great waxen tapers,\nlighted, in their hands. They were followed by the friars and the secular\npriests, and then came the Abbot, magnificently attired, with the Host\nborne before him by a venerable old man. When these were past, the real\n\u201cFollies of Dunkirk\u201d began. They consisted of pageants of various sorts\nwheeled through the streets in cars. These appear to have varied somewhat\nfrom year to year; but if we may judge from the processions of 1755 and\n1757, both of which have been described by eye-witnesses, a standing show\nwas a car decked with foliage and branches to imitate a wood, and carrying\na number of men dressed in leaves or in green scaly skins, who squirted\nwater on the people from pewter syringes. An English spectator has\ncompared these maskers to the Green Men of our own country on May Day.\nLast of all came the giant and giantess. The giant was a huge figure of\nwicker-work, occasionally as much as forty-five feet high, dressed in a\nlong blue robe with gold stripes, which reached to his feet, concealing\nthe dozen or more men who made it dance and bob its head to the\nspectators. This colossal effigy went by the name of Papa Reuss, and\ncarried in its pocket a bouncing infant of Brobdingnagian proportions, who\nkept bawling \u201cPapa! papa!\u201d in a voice of thunder, only pausing from time\nto time to devour the victuals which were handed out to him from the\nwindows. The rear was brought up by the daughter of the giant,\nconstructed, like her sire, of wicker-work, and little, if at all,\ninferior to him in size. She wore a rose-coloured robe, with a gold watch\nas large as a warming pan at her side: her breast glittered with jewels:\nher complexion was high, and her eyes and head turned with as easy a grace\nas the men inside could contrive to impart to their motions. The\nprocession came to an end with the revolution of 1789, and has never been\nrevived. The giant himself indeed, who had won the affections of the\ntownspeople, survived his ancient glory for a little while and made shift\nto appear in public a few times more at the Carnival and other festal\noccasions; but his days were numbered, and within fifty years even his\nmemory had seemingly perished.(88)\n\n(M29) Most towns and even villages of Brabant and Flanders have, or used\nto have, similar wicker giants which were annually led about to the\ndelight of the populace, who loved these grotesque figures, spoke of them\nwith patriotic enthusiasm, and never wearied of gazing at them. The name\nby which the giants went was Reuzes, and a special song called the Reuze\nsong was sung in the Flemish dialect while they were making their\ntriumphal progress through the streets. The most celebrated of these\nmonstrous effigies were those of Antwerp and Wetteren. At Ypres a whole\nfamily of giants contributed to the public hilarity at the Carnival. At\nCassel and Hazebrouch, in the French department of Nord, the giants made\ntheir annual appearance on Shrove Tuesday.(89) At Antwerp the giant was so\nbig that no gate in the city was large enough to let him go through; hence\nhe could not visit his brother giants in neighbouring towns, as the other\nBelgian giants used to do on solemn occasions. He was designed in 1534 by\nPeter van Aelst, painter to the Emperor Charles the Fifth, and is still\npreserved with other colossal figures in a large hall at Antwerp.(90) At\nAth, in the Belgian province of Hainaut, the popular procession of the\ngiants took place annually in August down to the year 1869 at least. For\nthree days the colossal effigies of Goliath and his wife, of Samson and an\nArcher (_Tirant_), together with a two-headed eagle, were led about the\nstreets on the shoulders of twenty bearers concealed under the flowing\ndrapery of the giants, to the great delight of the townspeople and a crowd\nof strangers who assembled to witness the pageant. The custom can be\ntraced back by documentary evidence to the middle of the fifteenth\ncentury; but it appears that the practice of giving Goliath a wife dates\nonly from the year 1715. Their nuptials were solemnized every year on the\neve of the festival in the church of St. Julien, whither the two huge\nfigures were escorted by the magistrates in procession.(91)\n\n(M30) In England artificial giants seem to have been a standing feature of\nthe midsummer festival. A writer of the sixteenth century speaks of\n\u201cMidsommer pageants in London, where to make the people wonder, are set\nforth great and uglie gyants marching as if they were alive, and armed at\nall points, but within they are stuffed full of browne paper and tow,\nwhich the shrewd boyes, underpeering, do guilefully discover, and turne to\na greate derision.\u201d(92) At Chester the annual pageant on Midsummer Eve\nincluded the effigies of four giants, with animals, hobby-horses, and\nother figures. An officious mayor of the town suppressed the giants in\n1599, but they were restored by another mayor in 1601. Under the\nCommonwealth the pageant was discontinued, and the giants and beasts were\ndestroyed; but after the restoration of Charles II. the old ceremony was\nrevived on the old date, new effigies being constructed to replace those\nwhich had fallen victims to Roundhead bigotry. The accounts preserve a\nrecord not only of the hoops, buckram, tinfoil, gold and silver leaf,\npaint, glue, and paste which went to make up these gorgeous figures; they\nalso mention the arsenic which was mixed with the paste in order to\npreserve the poor giants from being eaten alive by the rats.(93) At\nCoventry the accounts of the Cappers\u2019 and Drapers\u2019 Companies in the\nsixteenth century shed light on the giants which there also were carried\nabout the town at Midsummer; from some of the entries it appears that the\ngiant\u2019s wife figured beside the giant.(94) At Burford, in Oxfordshire,\nMidsummer Eve used to be celebrated with great jollity by the carrying of\na giant and a dragon up and down the town. The last survivor of these\nperambulating English giants dragged out a miserable existence at\nSalisbury, where an antiquary found him mouldering to decay in the\nneglected hall of the Tailors\u2019 Company about the year 1844. His bodily\nframework was of lath and hoop like the one which used to be worn by\nJack-in-the-Green on May Day. The drapery, which concealed the bearer, was\nof coloured chintz, bordered with red and purple, and trimmed with yellow\nfringe. His head was modelled in paste-board and adorned with a gold-laced\ncocked hat: his flowing locks were of tow; and in his big right hand he\nbrandished a branch of artificial laurel. In the days of his glory he\npromenaded about the streets, dancing clumsily and attended by two men\ngrotesquely attired, who kept a watchful eye on his movements and checked\nby the wooden sword and club which they carried any incipient tendency to\nlose his balance and topple over in an undignified manner, which would\nhave exposed to the derision of the populace the mystery of his inner man.\nThe learned called him St. Christopher, the vulgar simply the giant.(95)\n\n(M31) In these cases the giants only figure in the processions. But\nsometimes they were burned in the summer bonfires. Thus the people of the\nRue aux Ours in Paris used annually to make a great wicker-work figure,\ndressed as a soldier, which they promenaded up and down the streets for\nseveral days, and solemnly burned on the third of July, the crowd of\nspectators singing _Salve Regina_. A personage who bore the title of king\npresided over the ceremony with a lighted torch in his hand. The burning\nfragments of the image were scattered among the people, who eagerly\nscrambled for them. The custom was abolished in 1743.(96) In Brie, Isle de\nFrance, a wicker-work giant, eighteen feet high, was annually burned on\nMidsummer Eve.(97)\n\n(M32) Again, the Druidical custom of burning live animals, enclosed in\nwicker-work, has its counterpart at the spring and midsummer festivals. At\nLuchon in the Pyrenees on Midsummer Eve \u201ca hollow column, composed of\nstrong wicker-work, is raised to the height of about sixty feet in the\ncentre of the principal suburb, and interlaced with green foliage up to\nthe very top; while the most beautiful flowers and shrubs procurable are\nartistically arranged in groups below, so as to form a sort of background\nto the scene. The column is then filled with combustible materials, ready\nfor ignition. At an appointed hour\u2014about 8 P.M.\u2014a grand procession,\ncomposed of the clergy, followed by young men and maidens in holiday\nattire, pour forth from the town chanting hymns, and take up their\nposition around the column. Meanwhile, bonfires are lit, with beautiful\neffect, in the surrounding hills. As many living serpents as could be\ncollected are now thrown into the column, which is set on fire at the base\nby means of torches, armed with which about fifty boys and men dance\naround with frantic gestures. The serpents, to avoid the flames, wriggle\ntheir way to the top, whence they are seen lashing out laterally until\nfinally obliged to drop, their struggles for life giving rise to\nenthusiastic delight among the surrounding spectators. This is a favourite\nannual ceremony for the inhabitants of Luchon and its neighbourhood, and\nlocal tradition assigns it to a heathen origin.\u201d(98) In the midsummer\nfires formerly kindled on the Place de Gr\u00e8ve at Paris it was the custom to\nburn a basket, barrel, or sack full of live cats, which was hung from a\ntall mast in the midst of the bonfire; sometimes a fox was burned. The\npeople collected the embers and ashes of the fire and took them home,\nbelieving that they brought good luck. The French kings often witnessed\nthese spectacles and even lit the bonfire with their own hands. In 1648\nLouis the Fourteenth, crowned with a wreath of roses and carrying a bunch\nof roses in his hand, kindled the fire, danced at it and partook of the\nbanquet afterwards in the town hall. But this was the last occasion when a\nmonarch presided at the midsummer bonfire in Paris.(99) At Metz midsummer\nfires were lighted with great pomp on the esplanade, and a dozen cats,\nenclosed in wicker-cages, were burned alive in them, to the amusement of\nthe people.(100) Similarly at Gap, in the department of the High Alps,\ncats used to be roasted over the midsummer bonfire.(101) In Russia a white\ncock was sometimes burned in the midsummer bonfire;(102) in Meissen or\nThuringia a horse\u2019s head used to be thrown into it.(103) Sometimes animals\nare burned in the spring bonfires. In the Vosges cats were burned on\nShrove Tuesday; in Alsace they were thrown into the Easter bonfire.(104)\nIn the department of the Ardennes cats were flung into the bonfires\nkindled on the first Sunday in Lent; sometimes, by a refinement of\ncruelty, they were hung over the fire from the end of a pole and roasted\nalive. \u201cThe cat, which represented the devil, could never suffer enough.\u201d\nWhile the creatures were perishing in the flames, the shepherds guarded\ntheir flocks and forced them to leap over the fire, esteeming this an\ninfallible means of preserving them from disease and witchcraft.(105) We\nhave seen that squirrels were sometimes burned in the Easter fire.(106)\n\n(M33) Thus it appears that the sacrificial rites of the Celts of ancient\nGaul can be traced in the popular festivals of modern Europe. Naturally it\nis in France, or rather in the wider area comprised within the limits of\nancient Gaul, that these rites have left the clearest traces in the\ncustoms of burning giants of wicker-work and animals enclosed in\nwicker-work or baskets. These customs, it will have been remarked, are\ngenerally observed at or about midsummer. From this we may infer that the\noriginal rites of which these are the degenerate successors were\nsolemnized at midsummer. This inference harmonizes with the conclusion\nsuggested by a general survey of European folk-custom, that the midsummer\nfestival must on the whole have been the most widely diffused and the most\nsolemn of all the yearly festivals celebrated by the primitive Aryans in\nEurope. At the same time we must bear in mind that among the British Celts\nthe chief fire-festivals of the year appear certainly to have been those\nof Beltane (May Day) and Hallowe\u2019en (the last day of October); and this\nsuggests a doubt whether the Celts of Gaul also may not have celebrated\ntheir principal rites of fire, including their burnt sacrifices of men and\nanimals, at the beginning of May or the beginning of November rather than\nat Midsummer.\n\n(M34) We have still to ask, What is the meaning of such sacrifices? Why\nwere men and animals burnt to death at these festivals? If we are right in\ninterpreting the modern European fire-festivals as attempts to break the\npower of witchcraft by burning or banning the witches and warlocks, it\nseems to follow that we must explain the human sacrifices of the Celts in\nthe same manner; that is, we must suppose that the men whom the Druids\nburnt in wicker-work images were condemned to death on the ground that\nthey were witches or wizards, and that the mode of execution by fire was\nchosen because, as we have seen, burning alive is deemed the surest mode\nof getting rid of these noxious and dangerous beings. The same explanation\nwould apply to the cattle and wild animals of many kinds which the Celts\nburned along with the men.(107) They, too, we may conjecture, were\nsupposed to be either under the spell of witchcraft or actually to be the\nwitches and wizards, who had transformed themselves into animals for the\npurpose of prosecuting their infernal plots against the welfare of their\nfellow creatures. This conjecture is confirmed by the observation that the\nvictims most commonly burned in modern bonfires have been cats, and that\ncats are precisely the animals into which, with the possible exception of\nhares, witches were most usually supposed to transform themselves. Again,\nwe have seen that serpents and foxes used sometimes to be burnt in the\nmidsummer fires;(108) and Welsh and German witches are reported to have\nassumed the form both of foxes and serpents.(109) In short, when we\nremember the great variety of animals whose forms witches can assume at\npleasure,(110) it seems easy on this hypothesis to account for the variety\nof living creatures that have been burnt at festivals both in ancient Gaul\nand modern Europe; all these victims, we may surmise, were doomed to the\nflames, not because they were animals, but because they were believed to\nbe witches who had taken the shape of animals for their nefarious\npurposes. One advantage of explaining the ancient Celtic sacrifices in\nthis way is that it introduces, as it were, a harmony and consistency into\nthe treatment which Europe has meted out to witches from the earliest\ntimes down to about two centuries ago, when the growing influence of\nrationalism discredited the belief in witchcraft and put a stop to the\ncustom of burning witches. On this view the Christian Church in its\ndealings with the black art merely carried out the traditional policy of\nDruidism, and it might be a nice question to decide which of the two, in\npursuance of that policy, exterminated the larger number of innocent men\nand women.(111) Be that as it may, we can now perhaps understand why the\nDruids believed that the more persons they sentenced to death, the greater\nwould be the fertility of the land.(112) To a modern reader the connexion\nat first sight may not be obvious between the activity of the hangman and\nthe productivity of the earth. But a little reflection may satisfy him\nthat when the criminals who perish at the stake or on the gallows are\nwitches, whose delight it is to blight the crops of the farmer or to lay\nthem low under storms of hail, the execution of these wretches is really\ncalculated to ensure an abundant harvest by removing one of the principal\ncauses which paralyze the efforts and blast the hopes of the husbandman.\n\n(M35) The Druidical sacrifices which we are considering were explained in\na different way by W. Mannhardt. He supposed that the men whom the Druids\nburned in wickerwork images represented the spirits of vegetation, and\naccordingly that the custom of burning them was a magical ceremony\nintended to secure the necessary sunshine for the crops. Similarly, he\nseems to have inclined to the view that the animals which used to be burnt\nin the bonfires represented the corn-spirit,(113) which, as we saw in an\nearlier part of this work, is often supposed to assume the shape of an\nanimal.(114) This theory is no doubt tenable, and the great authority of\nW. Mannhardt entitles it to careful consideration. I adopted it in former\neditions of this book; but on reconsideration it seems to me on the whole\nto be less probable than the theory that the men and animals burnt in the\nfires perished in the character of witches. This latter view is strongly\nsupported by the testimony of the people who celebrate the fire-festivals,\nsince a popular name for the custom of kindling the fires is \u201cburning the\nwitches,\u201d effigies of witches are sometimes consumed in the flames, and\nthe fires, their embers, or their ashes are supposed to furnish protection\nagainst witchcraft. On the other hand there is little to shew that the\neffigies or the animals burnt in the fires are regarded by the people as\nrepresentatives of the vegetation-spirit, and that the bonfires are\nsun-charms. With regard to serpents in particular, which used to be burnt\nin the midsummer fire at Luchon, I am not aware of any certain evidence\nthat in Europe snakes have been regarded as embodiments of the tree-spirit\nor corn-spirit,(115) though in other parts of the world the conception\nappears to be not unknown.(116) Whereas the popular faith in the\ntransformation of witches into animals is so general and deeply rooted,\nand the fear of these uncanny beings is so strong, that it seems safer to\nsuppose that the cats and other animals which were burnt in the fire\nsuffered death as embodiments of witches than that they perished as\nrepresentatives of vegetation-spirits.\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII. THE MAGIC FLOWERS OF MIDSUMMER EVE.\n\n\n(M36) A feature of the great midsummer festival remains to be considered,\nwhich may perhaps help to clear up the doubt as to the meaning of the\nfire-ceremonies and their relation to Druidism. For in France and England,\nthe countries where the sway of the Druids is known to have been most\nfirmly established, Midsummer Eve is still the time for culling certain\nmagic plants, whose evanescent virtue can be secured at this mystic season\nalone. Indeed all over Europe antique fancies of the same sort have\nlingered about Midsummer Eve, imparting to it a fragrance of the past,\nlike withered rose leaves that, found by chance in the pages of an old\nvolume, still smell of departed summers. Thus in Saintonge and Aunis, two\nof the ancient provinces of Western France, we read that \u201cof all the\nfestivals for which the merry bells ring out there is not one which has\ngiven rise to a greater number of superstitious practices than the\nfestival of St. John the Baptist. The Eve of St. John was the day of all\ndays for gathering the wonderful herbs by means of which you could combat\nfever, cure a host of diseases, and guard yourself against sorcerers and\ntheir spells. But in order to attain these results two conditions had to\nbe observed; first, you must be fasting when you gathered the herbs, and\nsecond, you must cull them before the sun rose. If these conditions were\nnot fulfilled, the plants had no special virtue.\u201d(117) In the neighbouring\nprovince of Perigord the person who gathered the magic herbs before\nsunrise at this season had to walk backwards, to mutter some mystic words,\nand to perform certain ceremonies. The plants thus collected were\ncarefully kept as an infallible cure for fever; placed above beds and the\ndoors of houses and of cattle-sheds they protected man and beast from\ndisease, witchcraft, and accident.(118) In Normandy a belief in the\nmarvellous properties of herbs and plants, of flowers and seeds and leaves\ngathered, with certain traditional rites, on the Eve or the Day of St.\nJohn has remained part of the peasant\u2019s creed to this day. Thus he fancies\nthat seeds of vegetables and plants, which have been collected on St.\nJohn\u2019s Eve, will keep better than others, and that flowers plucked that\nday will never fade.(119) Indeed so widespread in France used to be the\nfaith in the magic virtue of herbs culled on that day that there is a\nFrench proverb \u201cto employ all the herbs of St. John in an affair,\u201d meaning\n\u201cto leave no stone unturned.\u201d(120) In the early years of the nineteenth\ncentury a traveller reported that at Marseilles, \u201con the Eve of St. John,\nthe Place de Noailles and the course are cleaned. From three o\u2019clock in\nthe morning the country-people flock thither, and by six o\u2019clock the whole\nplace is covered with a considerable quantity of flowers and herbs,\naromatic or otherwise. The folk attribute superstitious virtues to these\nplants; they are persuaded that if they have been gathered the same day\nbefore sunrise they are fitted to heal many ailments. People buy them\nemulously to give away in presents and to fill the house with.\u201d(121) On\nthe Eve of St. John (Midsummer Eve), before sunset, the peasants of Perche\nstill gather the herb called St. John\u2019s herb. It is a creeping plant, very\naromatic, with small flowers of a violet blue. Other scented flowers are\nadded, and out of the posies they make floral crosses and crowns, which\nthey hang up over the doors of houses and stables. Such floral decorations\nare sold like the box-wood on Palm Sunday, and the withered wreaths are\nkept from year to year. If an animal dies, it may be a cow, they carefully\nclean the byre or the stable, make a pile of these faded garlands, and set\nthem on fire, having previously closed up all the openings and\ninterstices, so that the whole place is thoroughly fumigated. This is\nthought to eradicate the germs of disease from the byre or stable.(122) At\nNellingen, near Saaralben, in Lorraine the hedge doctors collect their\nstore of simples between eleven o\u2019clock and noon on Midsummer Day; and on\nthat day nut-water is brewed from nuts that have been picked on the stroke\nof noon. Such water is a panacea for all ailments.(123) In the Vosges\nMountains they say that wizards have but one day in the year, and but one\nhour in that day, to find and cull the baleful herbs which they use in\ntheir black art. That day is the Eve of St. John, and that hour is the\ntime when the church bells are ringing the noonday Angelus. Hence in many\nvillages they say that the bells ought not to ring at noon on that\nday.(124)\n\n(M37) In the Tyrol also they think that the witching hour is when the _Ave\nMaria_ bell is ringing on Midsummer Eve, for then the witches go forth to\ngather the noxious plants whereby they raise thunderstorms. Therefore in\nmany districts the bells ring for a shorter time than usual that\nevening;(125) at Folgareit the sexton used to steal quietly into the\nchurch, and when the clock struck three he contented himself with giving a\nfew pulls to the smallest of the bells.(126) At Rengen, in the Eifel\nMountains, the sexton rings the church bell for an hour on the afternoon\nof Midsummer Day. As soon as the bell begins to ring, the children run out\ninto the meadows, gather flowers, and weave them into garlands which they\nthrow on the roofs of the houses and buildings. There the garlands remain\ntill the wind blows them away. It is believed that they protect the houses\nagainst fire and thunderstorms.(127) At Niederehe, in the Eifel Mountains,\non Midsummer Day little children used to make wreaths and posies out of\n\u201cSt. John\u2019s flowers and Maiden-flax\u201d and throw them on the roofs. Some\ntime afterwards, when the wild gooseberries were ripe, all the children\nwould gather round an old woman on a Sunday afternoon, and taking the now\nwithered wreaths and posies with them march out of the village, praying\nwhile they walked. Wreaths and posies were then thrown in a heap and\nkindled, whereupon the children snatched them up, still burning, and ran\nand fumigated the wild gooseberry bushes with the smoke. Then they\nreturned with the old woman to the village, knelt down before her, and\nreceived her blessing. From that time the children were free to pick and\neat the wild gooseberries.(128) In the Mark of Brandenburg the peasants\ngather all sorts of simples on Midsummer Day, because they are of opinion\nthat the drugs produce their medicinal effect only if they have been\nculled at that time. Many of these plants, especially roots, must be dug\nup at midnight and in silence.(129) In Mecklenburg not merely is a special\nhealing virtue ascribed to simples collected on Midsummer Day; the very\nsmoke of such plants, if they are burned in the fire, is believed to\nprotect a house against thunder and lightning, and to still the raging of\nthe storm.(130) The Wends of the Spreewald twine wreaths of herbs and\nflowers at midsummer, and hang them up in their rooms; and when any one\ngets a fright he will lay some of the leaves and blossoms on hot coals and\nfumigate himself with the smoke.(131) In Eastern Prussia, some two hundred\nyears ago, it used to be customary on Midsummer Day to make up a bunch of\nherbs of various sorts and fasten it to a pole, which was then put up over\nthe gate or door through which the corn would be brought in at harvest.\nSuch a pole was called Kaupole, and it remained in its place till the\ncrops had been reaped and garnered. Then the bunch of herbs was taken\ndown; part of it was put with the corn in the barn to keep rats and mice\nfrom the grain, and part was kept as a remedy for diseases of all\nsorts.(132)\n\n(M38) The Germans of West Bohemia collect simples on St. John\u2019s Night,\nbecause they believe the healing virtue of the plants to be especially\npowerful at that time.(133) The theory and practice of the Huzuls in the\nCarpathian Mountains are similar; they imagine that the plants gathered on\nthat night are not only medicinal but possess the power of restraining the\nwitches; some say that the herbs should be plucked in twelve gardens or\nmeadows.(134) Among the simples which the Czechs and Moravians of Silesia\ncull at this season are dandelions, ribwort, and the bloom of the\nlime-tree.(135) The Esthonians of the island of Oesel gather St. John\u2019s\nherbs (_Jani rohhud_) on St. John\u2019s Day, tie them up in bunches, and hang\nthem up about the houses to prevent evil spirits from entering. A\nsubsidiary use of the plants is to cure diseases; gathered at that time\nthey have a greater medical value than if they were collected at any other\nseason. Everybody does not choose exactly the same sorts of plants; some\ngather more and some less, but in the collection St. John\u2019s wort (_Jani\nrohhi_, _Hypericum perforatum_) should never be wanting.(136) A writer of\nthe early part of the seventeenth century informs us that the Livonians,\namong whom he lived, were impressed with a belief in the great and\nmarvellous properties possessed by simples which had been culled on\nMidsummer Day. Such simples, they thought, were sure remedies for fever\nand for sickness and pestilence in man and beast; but if gathered one day\ntoo late they lost all their virtue.(137) Among the Letts of the Baltic\nprovinces of Russia girls and women go about on Midsummer Day crowned with\nwreaths of aromatic plants, which are afterwards hung up for good luck in\nthe houses. The plants are also dried and given to cows to eat, because\nthey are supposed to help the animals to calve.(138)\n\n(M39) In Bulgaria St. John\u2019s Day is the special season for culling\nsimples. On this day, too, Bulgarian girls gather nosegays of a certain\nwhite flower, throw them into a vessel of water, and place the vessel\nunder a rose-tree in bloom. Here it remains all night. Next morning they\nset it in the courtyard and dance singing round it. An old woman then\ntakes the flowers out of the vessel, and the girls wash themselves with\nthe water, praying that God would grant them health throughout the year.\nAfter that the old woman restores her nosegay to each girl and promises\nher a rich husband.(139) Among the South Slavs generally on St. John\u2019s Eve\nit is the custom for girls to gather white flowers in the meadows and to\nplace them in a sieve or behind the rafters. A flower is assigned to each\nmember of the household: next morning the flowers are inspected; and he or\nshe whose flower is fresh will be well the whole year, but he or she whose\nflower is faded will be sickly or die. Garlands are then woven out of the\nflowers and laid on roofs, folds, and beehives.(140) In some parts of\nMacedonia on St. John\u2019s Eve the peasants are wont to festoon their\ncottages and gird their own waists with wreaths of what they call St.\nJohn\u2019s flower; it is the blossom of a creeping plant which resembles\nhoneysuckle.(141) Similar notions as to the magical virtue which plants\nacquire at midsummer have been transported by Europeans to the New World.\nAt La Paz in Bolivia people believe that flowers of mint (_Yerba buena_)\ngathered before sunrise on St. John\u2019s Day foretell an endless felicity to\nsuch as are so lucky as to find them.(142)\n\n(M40) Nor is the superstition confined to Europe and to people of European\ndescent. In Morocco also the Mohammedans are of opinion that certain\nplants, such as penny-royal, marjoram, and the oleander, acquire a special\nmagic virtue (_baraka_) when they are gathered shortly before midsummer.\nHence the people collect these plants at this season and preserve them for\nmagical or medical purposes. For example, branches of oleander are brought\ninto the houses before midsummer and kept under the roof as a charm\nagainst the evil eye; but while the branches are being brought in they may\nnot touch the ground, else they would lose their marvellous properties.\nCases of sickness caused by the evil eye are cured by fumigating the\npatients with the smoke of these boughs. The greatest efficacy is ascribed\nto \u201cthe sultan of the oleander,\u201d which is a stalk with four pairs of\nleaves clustered round it. Such a stalk is always endowed with magical\nvirtue, but that virtue is greatest when the stalk has been cut just\nbefore midsummer. Arab women in the Hiaina district of Morocco gather\n_Daphne gnidium_ on Midsummer Day, dry it in the sun, and make it into a\npowder which, mixed with water, they daub on the heads of their little\nchildren to protect them from sunstroke and vermin and to make their hair\ngrow well. Indeed such marvellous powers do these Arabs attribute to\nplants at this mystic season that a barren woman will walk naked about a\nvegetable garden on Midsummer Night in the hope of conceiving a child\nthrough the fertilizing influence of the vegetables.(143)\n\n(M41) Sometimes in order to produce the desired effect it is deemed\nnecessary that seven or nine different sorts of plants should be gathered\nat this mystic season. Norman peasants, who wish to fortify themselves for\nthe toil of harvest, will sometimes go out at dawn on St. John\u2019s Day and\npull seven kinds of plants, which they afterwards eat in their soup as a\nmeans of imparting strength and suppleness to their limbs in the harvest\nfield.(144) In Mecklenburg maidens are wont to gather seven sorts of\nflowers at noon on Midsummer Eve. These they weave into garlands, and\nsleep with them under their pillows. Then they are sure to dream of the\nmen who will marry them.(145) But the flowers on which youthful lovers\ndream at Midsummer Eve are oftener nine in number. Thus in Voigtland nine\ndifferent kinds of flowers are twined into a garland at the hour of noon,\nbut they may not enter the dwelling by the door in the usual way; they\nmust be passed through the window, or, if they come in at the door, they\nmust be thrown, not carried, into the house. Sleeping on them that night\nyou will dream of your future wife or future husband.(146) The Bohemian\nmaid, who gathers nine kinds of flowers on which to dream of love at\nMidsummer Eve, takes care to wrap her hand in a white cloth, and\nafterwards to wash it in dew; and when she brings her garland home she\nmust speak no word to any soul she meets by the way, for then all the\nmagic virtue of the flowers would be gone.(147) Other Bohemian girls look\ninto the book of fate at this season after a different fashion. They twine\ntheir hair with wreaths made of nine sorts of leaves, and go, when the\nstars of the summer night are twinkling in the sky, to a brook that flows\nbeside a tree. There, gazing on the stream, the girl beholds, beside the\nbroken reflections of the tree and the stars, the watery image of her\nfuture lord.(148) So in Masuren maidens gather nosegays of wild flowers in\nsilence on Midsummer Eve. At the midnight hour each girl takes the nosegay\nand a glass of water, and when she has spoken certain words she sees her\nlover mirrored in the water.(149)\n\n(M42) Sometimes Bohemian damsels make a different use of their midsummer\ngarlands twined of nine sorts of flowers. They lie down with the garland\nlaid as a pillow under their right ear, and a hollow voice, swooning from\nunderground, proclaims their destiny.(150) Yet another mode of consulting\nthe oracle by means of these same garlands is to throw them backwards and\nin silence upon a tree at the hour of noon, just when the flowers have\nbeen gathered. For every time that the wreath is thrown without sticking\nto the branches of the tree the girl will have a year to wait before she\nweds. This mode of divination is practised in Voigtland,(151) East\nPrussia,(152) Silesia,(153) Belgium,(154) and Wales,(155) and the same\nthing is done in Masuren, although we are not told that there the wreaths\nmust be composed of nine sorts of flowers.(156) However, in Masuren\nchaplets of nine kinds of herbs are gathered on St. John\u2019s Eve and put to\na more prosaic use than that of presaging the course of true love. They\nare carefully preserved, and the people brew a sort of tea from them,\nwhich they administer as a remedy for many ailments; or they keep the\nchaplets under their pillows till they are dry, and thereupon dose their\nsick cattle with them.(157) In Esthonia the virtues popularly ascribed to\nwreaths of this sort are many and various. These wreaths, composed of nine\nkinds of herbs culled on the Eve or the Day of St. John, are sometimes\ninserted in the roof or hung up on the walls of the house, and each of\nthem receives the name of one of the inmates. If the plants which have\nbeen thus dedicated to a girl happen to take root and grow in the chinks\nand crannies, she will soon wed; if they have been dedicated to an older\nperson and wither away, that person will die. The people also give them as\nmedicine to cattle at the time when the animals are driven forth to\npasture; or they fumigate the beasts with the smoke of the herbs, which\nare burnt along with shavings from the wooden threshold. Bunches of the\nplants are also hung about the house to keep off evil spirits, and maidens\nlay them under their pillows to dream on.(158) In Sweden the \u201cMidsummer\nBrooms,\u201d made up of nine sorts of flowers gathered on Midsummer Eve, are\nput to nearly the same uses. Fathers of families hang up such \u201cbrooms\u201d to\nthe rafters, one for each inmate of the house; and he or she whose broom\n(_quast_) is the first to wither will be the first to die. Girls also\ndream of their future husbands with these bunches of flowers under their\npillows. A decoction made from the flowers is, moreover, a panacea for all\ndisorders, and if a bunch of them be hung up in the cattle shed, the Troll\ncannot enter to bewitch the beasts.(159) The Germans of Moravia think that\nnine kinds of herbs gathered on St. John\u2019s Night (Midsummer Eve) are a\nremedy for fever;(160) and some of the Wends attribute a curative virtue\nin general to such plants.(161)\n\n(M43) Of the flowers which it has been customary to gather for purposes of\nmagic or divination at midsummer none perhaps is so widely popular as St.\nJohn\u2019s wort (_Hypericum perforatum_). The reason for associating this\nparticular plant with the great summer festival is perhaps not far to\nseek, for the flower blooms about Midsummer Day, and with its bright\nyellow petals and masses of golden stamens it might well pass for a tiny\ncopy on earth of the great sun which reaches its culminating point in\nheaven at this season. Gathered on Midsummer Eve, or on Midsummer Day\nbefore sunrise, the blossoms are hung on doorways and windows to preserve\nthe house against thunder, witches, and evil spirits; and various healing\nproperties are attributed to the different species of the plant. In the\nTyrol they say that if you put St. John\u2019s wort in your shoe before sunrise\non Midsummer Day you may walk as far as you please without growing weary.\nIn Scotland people carried it about their persons as an amulet against\nwitchcraft. On the lower Rhine children twine chaplets of St. John\u2019s wort\non the morning of Midsummer Day, and throw them on the roofs of the\nhouses. Here, too, the people who danced round the midsummer bonfires used\nto wear wreaths of these yellow flowers in their hair, and to deck the\nimages of the saints at wayside shrines with the blossoms. Sometimes they\nflung the flowers into the bonfires. In Sicily they dip St. John\u2019s wort in\noil, and so apply it as a balm for every wound. During the Middle Ages the\npower which the plant notoriously possesses of banning devils won for it\nthe name of _fuga daemonum_; and before witches and wizards were stretched\non the rack or otherwise tortured, the flower used to be administered to\nthem as a means of wringing the truth from their lips.(162) In North Wales\npeople used to fix sprigs of St. John\u2019s wort over their doors, and\nsometimes over their windows, \u201cin order to purify their houses, and by\nthat means drive away all fiends and evil spirits.\u201d(163) In Saintonge and\nAunis the flowers served to detect the presence of sorcerers, for if one\nof these pestilent fellows entered a house, the bunches of St. John\u2019s\nwort, which had been gathered on Midsummer Eve and hung on the walls,\nimmediately dropped their yellow heads as if they had suddenly faded.(164)\nHowever, the Germans of Western Bohemia think that witches, far from\ndreading St. John\u2019s wort, actually seek the plant on St. John\u2019s Eve.(165)\nFurther, the edges of the calyx and petals of St. John\u2019s wort, as well as\ntheir external surface, are marked with dark purple spots and lines,\nwhich, if squeezed, yield a red essential oil soluble in spirits.(166)\nGerman peasants believe that this red oil is the blood of St. John,(167)\nand this may be why the plant is supposed to heal all sorts of\nwounds.(168) In Mecklenburg they say that if you pull up St. John\u2019s wort\nat noon on Midsummer Day you will find at the root a bead of red juice\ncalled St. John\u2019s blood; smear this blood on your shirt just over your\nheart, and no mad dog will bite you.(169) In the Mark of Brandenburg the\nsame blood, procured in the same manner and rubbed on the barrel of a gun,\nwill make every shot from that gun to hit the mark.(170) According to\nothers, St. John\u2019s blood is found at noon on St. John\u2019s Day, and only\nthen, adhering in the form of beads to the root of a weed called knawel,\nwhich grows in sandy soil. But some people say that these beads of red\njuice are not really the blood of the martyred saint, but only insects\nresembling the cochineal or kermes-berry.(171) \u201cAbout Hanover I have often\nobserved devout Roman Catholics going on the morning of St. John\u2019s day to\nneighbouring sandhills, gathering on the roots of herbs a certain insect\n(_Coccus Polonica_) looking like drops of blood, and thought by them to be\ncreated on purpose to keep alive the remembrance of the foul murder of St.\nJohn the Baptist, and only to be met with on the morning of the day set\napart for him by the Church. I believe the life of this insect is very\nephemeral, but by no means restricted to the twenty-fourth of June.\u201d(172)\n\n(M44) Yet another plant whose root has been thought to yield the blood of\nSt. John is the mouse-ear hawkweed (_Hieracium pilosella_), which grows\nvery commonly in dry exposed places, such as gravelly banks, sunny lawns,\nand the tops of park walls. \u201cIt blossoms from May to the end of July,\npresenting its elegant sulphur-coloured flowers to the noontide sun, while\nthe surrounding herbage, and even its own foliage, is withered and burnt\nup\u201d;(173) and these round yellow flowers may be likened not inaptly to the\ndisc of the great luminary whose light they love. At Hildesheim, in\nGermany, people used to dig up hawkweed, especially on the Gallows\u2019 Hill,\nwhen the clocks were striking noon on Midsummer Day; and the blood of St.\nJohn, which they found at the roots, was carefully preserved in quills for\ngood luck. A little of it smeared secretly on the clothes was sure to make\nthe wearer fortunate in the market that day.(174) According to some the\nplant ought to be dug up with a gold coin.(175) Near Gablonz, in Bohemia,\nit used to be customary to make a bed of St. John\u2019s flowers, as they were\ncalled, on St. John\u2019s Eve, and in the night the saint himself came and\nlaid his head on the bed; next morning you could see the print of his head\non the flowers, which derived a healing virtue from his blessed touch, and\nwere mixed with the fodder of sick cattle to make them whole.(176) But\nwhether these St. John\u2019s flowers were the mouse-ear hawkweed or not is\ndoubtful.(177)\n\n(M45) More commonly in Germany the name of St. John\u2019s flowers\n(_Johannisblumen_) appears to be given to the mountain arnica. In\nVoigtland the mountain arnica if plucked on St. John\u2019s Eve and stuck in\nthe fields, laid under the roof, or hung on the wall, is believed to\nprotect house and fields from lightning and hail.(178) So in some parts of\nBavaria they think that no thunderstorm can harm a house which has a\nblossom of mountain arnica in the window or the roof, and in the Tyrol the\nsame flower fastened to the door will render the dwelling fire-proof. But\nit is needless to remark that the flower, which takes its popular name\nfrom St. John, will be no protection against either fire or thunder unless\nit has been culled on the saint\u2019s own day.(179)\n\n(M46) Another plant which possesses wondrous virtues, if only it be\ngathered on the Eve or the Day of St. John, is mugwort (_Artemisia\nvulgaris_). Hence in France it goes by the name of the herb of St.\nJohn.(180) Near P\u00e9ronne, in the French department of Somme, people used to\ngo out fasting before sunrise on St. John\u2019s Day to cull the plant; put\namong the wheat in the barn it protected the corn against mice. In Artois\npeople carried bunches of mugwort, or wore it round their body;(181) in\nPoitou they still wear girdles of mugwort or hemp when they warm their\nbacks at the midsummer fire as a preservative against backache at\nharvest;(182) and the custom of wearing girdles of mugwort on the Eve or\nDay of St. John has caused the plant to be popularly known in Germany and\nBohemia as St. John\u2019s girdle. In Bohemia such girdles are believed to\nprotect the wearer for the whole year against ghosts, magic, misfortune,\nand sickness. People also weave garlands of the plant and look through\nthem at the midsummer bonfire or put them on their heads; and by doing so\nthey ensure that their heads will not ache nor their eyes smart all that\nyear. Another Bohemian practice is to make a decoction of mugwort which\nhas been gathered on St. John\u2019s Day; then, when your cow is bewitched and\nwill yield no milk, you have only to wash the animal thrice with the\ndecoction and the spell will be broken.(183) In Germany, people used to\ncrown their heads or gird their bodies with mugwort, which they afterwards\nthrew into the midsummer bonfire, pronouncing certain rhymes and believing\nthat they thus rid themselves of all their ill-luck.(184) Sometimes\nwreaths or girdles of mugwort were kept in houses, cattle-sheds, and\nsheep-folds throughout the year.(185) In Normandy such wreaths are a\nprotection against thunder and thieves;(186) and stalks of mugwort hinder\nwitches from laying their spells on the butter.(187) In the Isle of Man on\nMidsummer Eve people gathered _barran fealoin_ or mugwort \u201cas a preventive\nagainst the influence of witchcraft\u201d;(188) in Belgium bunches of mugwort\ngathered on St. John\u2019s Day or Eve and hung on the doors of stables and\nhouses are believed to bring good luck and to furnish a protection against\nsorcery.(189) It is curious to find that in China a similar use is, or was\nformerly, made of mugwort at the same season of the year. In an old\nChinese calendar we read that \u201con the fifth day of the fifth month the\nfour classes of the people gambol in the herbage, and have competitive\ngames with plants of all kinds. They pluck mugwort and make dolls of it,\nwhich they suspend over their gates and doors, in order to expel poisonous\nairs or influences.\u201d(190) On this custom Professor J. J. M. de Groot\nobserves: \u201cNotice that the plant owed its efficacy to the time when it was\nplucked: a day denoting the midsummer festival, when light and fire of the\nuniverse are in their apogee.\u201d(191) On account of this valuable property\nmugwort is used by Chinese surgeons in cautery.(192) The Ainos of Japan\nemploy bunches of mugwort in exorcisms, \u201cbecause it is thought that demons\nof disease dislike the smell and flavour of this herb.\u201d(193) It is an old\nGerman belief that he who carries mugwort in his shoes will not grow\nweary.(194) In Mecklenburg, they say that if you will dig up a plant of\nmugwort at noon on Midsummer Day, you will find under the root a burning\ncoal, which vanishes away as soon as the church bells have ceased to ring.\nIf you find the coal and carry it off in silence, it will prove a remedy\nfor all sorts of maladies.(195) According to another German superstition,\nsuch a coal will turn to gold.(196) English writers record the popular\nbelief that a rare coal is to be found under the root of mugwort at a\nsingle hour of a single day in the year, namely, at noon or midnight on\nMidsummer Eve, and that this coal will protect him who carries it on his\nperson from plague, carbuncle, lightning, fever, and ague.(197) In Eastern\nPrussia, on St. John\u2019s Eve, people can foretell a marriage by means of\nmugwort; they bend two stalks of the growing plant outward, and then\nobserve whether the stalks, after straightening themselves again, incline\ntowards each other or not.(198)\n\n(M47) A similar mode of divination has been practised both in England and\nin Germany with the orpine (_Sedum telephium_), a plant which grows on a\ngravelly or chalky soil about hedges, the borders of fields, and on bushy\nhills. It flowers in August, and the blossoms consist of dense clustered\ntufts of crimson or purple petals; sometimes, but rarely, the flowers are\nwhite.(199) In England the plant is popularly known as Midsummer Men,\nbecause people used to plant slips of them in pairs on Midsummer Eve, one\nslip standing for a young man and the other for a young woman. If the\nplants, as they grew up, bent towards each other, the couple would marry;\nif either of them withered, he or she whom it represented would die.(200)\nIn Masuren, Westphalia, and Switzerland the method of forecasting the\nfuture by means of the orpine is precisely the same.(201)\n\n(M48) Another plant which popular superstition has often associated with\nthe summer solstice is vervain.(202) In some parts of Spain people gather\nvervain after sunset on Midsummer Eve, and wash their faces next morning\nin the water in which the plants have been allowed to steep\novernight.(203) In Belgium vervain is gathered on St. John\u2019s Day and worn\nas a safeguard against rupture.(204) In Normandy the peasants cull vervain\non the Day or the Eve of St. John, believing that, besides its medical\nproperties, it possesses at this season the power of protecting the house\nfrom thunder and lightning, from sorcerers, demons, and thieves.(205)\nBohemian poachers wash their guns with a decoction of vervain and\nsouthernwood, which they have gathered naked before sunrise on Midsummer\nDay; guns which have been thus treated never miss the mark.(206) In our\nown country vervain used to be sought for its magical virtues on Midsummer\nEve.(207) In the Tyrol they think that he who finds a four-leaved clover\nwhile the vesper-bell is ringing on Midsummer Eve can work magic from that\ntime forth.(208) People in Berry say that the four-leaved clover is\nendowed with all its marvellous virtues only when it has been plucked by a\nvirgin on the night of Midsummer Eve.(209) In Saintonge and Aunis the\nfour-leaved clover, if it be found on the Eve of St. John, brings good\nluck at play;(210) in Belgium it brings a girl a husband.(211)\n\n(M49) At Kirchvers, in Hesse, people run out to the fields at noon on\nMidsummer Day to gather camomile; for the flowers, plucked at the moment\nwhen the sun is at the highest point of his course, are supposed to\npossess the medicinal qualities of the plant in the highest degree. In\nheathen times the camomile flower, with its healing qualities, its yellow\ncalix and white stamens, is said to have been sacred to the kindly and\nshining Balder and to have borne his name, being called _Balders-br\u00e2_,\nthat is, Balder\u2019s eyelashes.(212) In Westphalia, also, the belief prevails\nthat camomile is most potent as a drug when it has been gathered on\nMidsummer Day;(213) in Masuren the plant must always be one of the nine\ndifferent kinds of plants that are culled on Midsummer Eve to form\nwreaths, and tea brewed from the flower is a remedy for many sorts of\nmaladies.(214)\n\n(M50) Thuringian peasants hold that if the root of the yellow mullein\n(_Verbascum_) has been dug up in silence with a ducat at midnight on\nMidsummer Eve, and is worn in a piece of linen next to the skin, it will\npreserve the wearer from epilepsy.(215) In Prussia girls go out into the\nfields on Midsummer Day, gather mullein, and hang it up over their beds.\nThe girl whose flower is the first to wither will be the first to\ndie.(216) Perhaps the bright yellow flowers of mullein, clustering round\nthe stem like lighted candles, may partly account for the association of\nthe plant with the summer solstice. In Germany great mullein (_Verbascum\nthapsus_) is called the King\u2019s Candle; in England it is popularly known as\nHigh Taper. The yellow, hoary mullein (_Verbascum pulverulentum_) \u201cforms a\ngolden pyramid a yard high, of many hundreds of flowers, and is one of the\nmost magnificent of British herbaceous plants.\u201d(217) We may trace a\nrelation between mullein and the sun in the Prussian custom of bending the\nflower, after sunset, towards the point where the sun will rise, and\npraying at the same time that a sick person or a sick beast may be\nrestored to health.(218)\n\n(M51) In Bohemia poachers fancy that they can render themselves\ninvulnerable by swallowing the seed from a fir-cone which they have found\ngrowing upwards before sunrise on the morning of St. John\u2019s Day.(219)\nAgain, wild thyme gathered on Midsummer Day is used in Bohemia to fumigate\nthe trees on Christmas Eve in order that they may grow well;(220) in\nVoigtland a tea brewed from wild thyme which has been pulled at noon on\nMidsummer Day is given to women in childbed.(221) The Germans of Western\nBohemia brew a tea or wine from elder-flowers, but they say that the brew\nhas no medicinal virtue unless the flowers have been gathered on Midsummer\nEve. They do say, too, that whenever you see an elder-tree, you should\ntake off your hat.(222) In the Tyrol dwarf-elder serves to detect\nwitchcraft in cattle, provided of course that the shrub has been pulled up\nor the branches broken on Midsummer Day.(223) Russian peasants regard the\nplant known as purple loosestrife (_Lythrum salicaria_) with respect and\neven fear. Wizards make much use of it. They dig the root up on St. John\u2019s\nmorning, at break of day, without the use of iron tools; and they believe\nthat by means of the root, as well as of the blossom, they can subdue evil\nspirits and make them serviceable, and also drive away witches and the\ndemons that guard treasures.(224)\n\n(M52) More famous, however, than these are the marvellous properties which\npopular superstition in many parts of Europe has attributed to the fern at\nthis season. At midnight on Midsummer Eve the plant is supposed to bloom\nand soon afterwards to seed; and whoever catches the bloom or the seed is\nthereby endowed with supernatural knowledge and miraculous powers; above\nall, he knows where treasures lie hidden in the ground, and he can render\nhimself invisible at will by putting the seed in his shoe. But great\nprecautions must be observed in procuring the wondrous bloom or seed,\nwhich else quickly vanishes like dew on sand or mist in the air. The\nseeker must neither touch it with his hand nor let it touch the ground; he\nspreads a white cloth under the plant, and the blossom or the seed falls\ninto it. Beliefs of this sort concerning fern-seed have prevailed, with\ntrifling variations of detail, in England, France, Germany, Austria,\nItaly, and Russia.(225) In Bohemia the magic bloom is said to be golden,\nand to glow or sparkle like fire.(226) In Russia, they say that at dead of\nnight on Midsummer Eve the plant puts forth buds like glowing coals, which\non the stroke of twelve burst open with a clap like thunder and light up\neverything near and far.(227) In the Azores they say that the fern only\nblooms at midnight on St. John\u2019s Eve, and that no one ever sees the flower\nbecause the fairies instantly carry it off. But if any one, watching till\nit opens, throws a cloth over it, and then, when the magic hour has\npassed, burns the blossoms carefully, the ashes will serve as a mirror in\nwhich you can read the fate of absent friends; if your friends are well\nand happy, the ashes will resume the shape of a lovely flower; but if they\nare unhappy or dead, the ashes will remain cold and lifeless.(228) In\nThuringia people think that he who has on his person or in his house the\nmale fern (_Aspidium filix mas_) cannot be bewitched. They call it St.\nJohn\u2019s root (_Johanniswurzel_), and say that it blooms thrice in the year,\non Christmas Eve, Easter Eve, and the day of St. John the Baptist; it\nshould be dug up when the sun enters the sign of the lion. Armed with this\npowerful implement you can detect a sorcerer at any gathering, it may be a\nwedding feast or what not. All you have to do is to put the root under the\ntablecloth unseen by the rest of the company, and, if there should be a\nsorcerer among them, he will turn as pale as death and get up and go away.\nFear and horror come over him when the fern-root is under the tablecloth.\nAnd when oxen, horses, or other domestic cattle are bewitched by wicked\npeople, you need only take the root at full moon, soak it in water, and\nsprinkle the cattle with the water, or rub them down with a cloth that has\nbeen steeped in it, and witchcraft will have no more power over the\nanimals.(229)\n\n(M53) Once more, people have fancied that if they cut a branch of hazel on\nMidsummer Eve it would serve them as a divining rod to discover treasures\nand water. This belief has existed in Moravia, Mecklenburg, and apparently\nin Scotland.(230) In the Mark of Brandenburg, they say that if you would\nprocure the mystic wand you must go to the hazel by night on Midsummer\nEve, walking backwards, and when you have come to the bush you must\nsilently put your hands between your legs and cut a fork-shaped stick;\nthat stick will be the divining-rod, and, as such, will detect treasures\nburied in the ground. If you have any doubt as to the quality of the wand,\nyou have only to hold it in water; for in that case your true divining-rod\nwill squeak like a pig, but your spurious one will not.(231) In Bavaria\nthey say that the divining-rod should be cut from a hazel bush between\neleven and twelve on St. John\u2019s Night, and that by means of it you can\ndiscover not only veins of metal and underground springs, but also thieves\nand murderers and unknown ways. In cutting it you should say, \u201cGod greet\nthee, thou noble twig! With God the Father I seek thee, with God the Son I\nfind thee, with the might of God the Holy Ghost I break thee. I adjure\nthee, rod and sprig, by the power of the Highest that thou shew me what I\norder, and that as sure and clear as Mary the Mother of God was a pure\nvirgin when she bare our Lord Jesus, in the name of God the Father, God\nthe Son, and God the Holy Ghost, Amen!\u201d(232) In Berlin and the\nneighbourhood they say that every seventh year there grows a wonderful\nbranch on a hazel bush, and that branch is the divining-rod. Only an\ninnocent child, born on a Sunday and nursed in the true faith, can find it\non St. John\u2019s Night; to him then all the treasures of the earth lie\nopen.(233) In the Tyrol the divining-rod ought to be cut at new moon, but\nmay be cut either on St. John\u2019s Day or on Twelfth Night. Having got it you\nbaptize it in the name of one of the Three Holy Kings according to the\npurpose for which you intend to use it: if the rod is to discover gold,\nyou name it Caspar; if it is to reveal silver, you call it Balthasar; and\nif it is to point out hidden springs of water, you dub it Melchior.(234)\nIn Lechrain the divining-rod is a yearling shoot of hazel with two\nbranches; a good time for cutting it is new moon, and if the sun is\nrising, so much the better. As for the day of the year, you may take your\nchoice between St. John\u2019s Day, Twelfth Night, and Shrove Tuesday. If cut\nwith the proper form of words, the rod will as usual discover underground\nsprings and hidden treasures.(235)\n\n(M54) Midsummer Eve is also the favourite time for procuring the\ndivining-rod in Sweden. Some say that it should then be cut from a\nmistletoe bough.(236) However, other people in Sweden are of opinion that\nthe divining-rod (_Slag ruta_) which is obtained on Midsummer Eve ought to\nbe compounded out of four different kinds of wood, to wit, mistletoe,\nmountain-ash, the aspen, and another; and they say that the mountain-ash\nwhich is employed for this purpose should, like the mistletoe, be a\nparasite growing from the hollow root of a fallen tree, whither the seed\nwas carried by a bird or wafted by the wind. Armed with this fourfold\nimplement of power the treasure-seeker proceeds at sundown to the spot\nwhere he expects to find hidden wealth; there he lays the rod on the\nground in perfect silence, and when it lies directly over treasure, it\nwill begin to hop about as if it were alive.(237)\n\n(M55) A mystical plant which to some extent serves the same purpose as the\ndivining-rod is the springwort, which is sometimes supposed to be\ncaper-spurge (_Euphorbia lathyris_). In the Harz Mountains they say that\nmany years ago there was a wondrous flower called springwort or Johnswort,\nwhich was as rare as it was marvellous. It bloomed only on St. John\u2019s\nNight (some say under a fern) between the hours of eleven and twelve; but\nwhen the last stroke of twelve was struck, the flower vanished away. Only\nin mountainous regions, where many noble metals reposed in the bosom of\nthe earth, was the flower seen now and then in lonely meadows among the\nhills. The spirits of the hills wished by means of it to shew to men where\ntheir treasures were to be found. The flower itself was yellow and shone\nlike a lamp in the darkness of night. It never stood still, but kept\nhopping constantly to and fro. It was also afraid of men and fled before\nthem, and no man ever yet plucked it unless he had been set apart by\nProvidence for the task. To him who was lucky enough to cull it the flower\nrevealed all the treasures of the earth, and it made him rich, oh so rich\nand so happy!(238)\n\n(M56) However, the usual account given of the springwort is somewhat\ndifferent. They say that the way to procure it is this. You mark a hollow\nin a tree where a green or black woodpecker has built its nest and hatched\nits young; you plug up the hole with a wooden wedge; then you hide behind\nthe tree and wait. The woodpecker meantime has flown away but very soon\nreturns with the springwort in its bill. It flutters up to the tree-trunk\nholding the springwort to the wedge, which at once, as if struck by a\nhammer, jumps out with a bang. Now is your chance. You rush from your\nconcealment, you raise a loud cry, and in its fright the bird opens its\nbill and drops the springwort. Quick as thought you reach out a red or\nwhite cloth, with which you have taken care to provide yourself, and catch\nthe magic flower as it falls. The treasure is now yours. Before its\nmarvellous power all doors and locks fly open; it can make the bearer of\nit invisible; and neither steel nor lead can wound the man who carries it\nin the right-hand pocket of his coat. That is why people in Swabia say of\na thief who cannot be caught, \u201cHe must surely have a springwort.\u201d(239) The\nsuperstition which associates the springwort with the woodpecker is very\nancient, for it is recorded by Pliny. It was a vulgar belief, he tells us,\nthat if a shepherd plugged up a woodpecker\u2019s nest in the hollow of a tree\nwith a wedge, the bird would bring a herb which caused the wedge to slip\nout of the hole; Trebius indeed affirmed that the wedge leaped out with a\nbang, however hard and fast you might have driven it into the tree.(240)\nAnother flower which possesses the same remarkable power of bursting open\nall doors and locks is chicory, provided always that you cut the flower\nwith a piece of gold at noon or midnight on St. James\u2019s Day, the\ntwenty-fifth of July. But in cutting it you must be perfectly silent; if\nyou utter a sound, it is all up with you. There was a man who was just\nabout to cut the flower of the chicory, when he looked up and saw a\nmillstone hovering over his head. He fled for his life and fortunately\nescaped; but had he so much as opened his lips, the millstone would have\ndropped on him and crushed him as flat as a pancake. However, it is only a\nrare white variety of the chicory flower which can act as a picklock; the\ncommon bright blue flower is perfectly useless for the purpose.(241)\n\n(M57) Many more examples might perhaps be cited of the marvellous virtues\nwhich certain plants have been supposed to acquire at the summer solstice,\nbut the foregoing instances may suffice to prove that the superstition is\nwidely spread, deeply rooted, and therefore probably very ancient in\nEurope. Why should plants be thought to be endowed with these wonderful\nproperties on the longest day more than on any other day of the year? It\nseems difficult or impossible to explain such a belief except on the\nsupposition that in some mystic way the plants catch from the sun, then at\nthe full height of his power and glory, some fleeting effluence of radiant\nlight and heat, which invests them for a time with powers above the\nordinary for the healing of diseases and the unmasking and baffling of all\nthe evil things that threaten the life of man. That the supposition is not\npurely hypothetical will appear from a folk-tale, to be noticed later on,\nin which the magic bloom of the fern is directly derived from the sun at\nnoon on Midsummer Day. And if the magic flowers of Midsummer Eve thus\nstand in direct relation to the sun, which many of them resemble in shape\nand colour, blooming in the meadows like little yellow suns fallen from\nthe blue sky, does it not become probable that the bonfires kindled at the\nsame time are the artificial, as the flowers are the natural, imitations\nof the great celestial fire then blazing in all its strength? At least\nanalogy seems to favour the inference and so far to support Mannhardt\u2019s\ntheory, that the bonfires kindled at the popular festivals of Europe,\nespecially at the summer solstice, are intended to reinforce the waning or\nwaxing fires of the sun. Thus if in our enquiry into these fire-festivals\nthe scales of judgment are loaded with the adverse theories of Mannhardt\nand Westermarck, we may say that the weight, light as it is, of the magic\nflowers of Midsummer Eve seems to incline the trembling balance back to\nthe side of Mannhardt.\n\n(M58) Nor is it, perhaps, an argument against Mannhardt\u2019s view that the\nmidsummer flowers and plants are so often employed as talismans to break\nthe spells of witchcraft.(242) For granted that employment, which is\nundeniable, we have still to explain it, and that we can hardly do except\nby reference to the midsummer sun. And what is here said of the midsummer\nflowers applies equally to the midsummer bonfires. They too are used to\ndestroy the charms of witches and warlocks; but if they can do so, may it\nnot be in part because fires at midsummer are thought to burn with fiercer\nfury than at other times by sympathy with the fiercer fervour of the sun?\nThis consideration would bring us back to an intermediate position between\nthe opposing theories, namely, to the view that while the purely\ndestructive aspect of fire is generally the most prominent and apparently\nthe most important at these festivals, we must not overlook the additional\nforce which by virtue of homoeopathic or imitative magic the bonfires may\nbe supposed both to derive from and to impart to the sun, especially at\nthe moment of the summer solstice when his strength is greatest and begins\nto decline, and when accordingly he can at once give and receive help to\nthe greatest advantage.\n\n(M59) To conclude this part of our subject it may not be amiss to\nillustrate by a few more miscellaneous examples the belief that Midsummer\nEve is one of the great days of the year in which witches and warlocks\npursue their nefarious calling; indeed in this respect Midsummer Eve\nperhaps stands second only to the famous Walpurgis Night (the Eve of May\nDay). For instance, in the neighbourhood of Lierre, in Belgium, the people\nthink that on the night of Midsummer Eve all witches and warlocks must\nrepair to a certain field which is indicated to them beforehand. There\nthey hold their infernal Sabbath and are passed in review by a hellish\nmagician, who bestows on them fresh powers. That is why old women are most\ncareful, before going to bed on that night, to stop up doors and windows\nand every other opening in order to bar out the witches and warlocks, who\nbut for this sage precaution might steal into the house and make the first\ntrial of their new powers on the unfortunate inmates.(243) At Rottenburg,\nin Swabia, people thought that the devil and the witches could do much\nharm on Midsummer Eve; so they made fast their shutters and bunged up even\nthe chinks and crannies, for wherever air can penetrate, there the devil\nand witches can worm their way in. All night long, too, from nine in the\nevening till break of day, the church bells rang to disturb the dreadful\nbeings at their evil work, since there is perhaps no better means of\nputting the whole devilish crew to flight than the sound of church\nbells.(244) Down to the second half of the nineteenth century the belief\nin witches was still widespread in Voigtland, a bleak mountainous region\nof Central Germany. It was especially on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis),\nSt. Thomas\u2019s Day, St. John\u2019s Day, and Christmas Eve, as well as on\nMondays, that they were dreaded. Then they would come into a neighbour\u2019s\nhouse to beg, borrow, or steal something, no matter what; but woe to the\npoor wretch who suffered them to carry away so much as a chip or splinter\nof wood; for they would certainly use it to his undoing. On these witching\nnights the witches rode to their Sabbath on baking-forks and the dashers\nof churns; but if when they were hurtling through the darkness any one\nstanding below addressed one of the witches by name, she would die within\nthe year. To counteract and undo the spells which witches cast on man and\nbeast, people resorted to all kinds of measures. Thus on the\nbefore-mentioned days folk made three crosses on the doors of the byres or\nguarded them by hanging up St. John\u2019s wort, marjoram, or other equally\npowerful talismans. Very often, too, the village youth would carry the war\ninto the enemy\u2019s quarters by marching out in a body, cracking whips,\nfiring guns, waving burning besoms, shouting and making an uproar, all for\nthe purpose of frightening and driving away the witches.(245) In Prussia\nwitches and warlocks used regularly to assemble twice a year on Walpurgis\nNight and the Eve of St. John. The places where they held their infernal\nSabbath were various; for example, one was Pogdanzig, in the district of\nSchlochau. They generally rode on a baking-fork, but often on a black\nthree-legged horse, and they took their departure up the chimney with the\nwords, \u201cUp and away and nowhere to stop!\u201d When they were all gathered on\nthe Blocksberg or Mount of the Witches, they held high revelry, feasting\nfirst and then dancing on a tight rope lefthanded-wise to the inspiring\nstrains which an old warlock drew from a drum and a pig\u2019s head.(246) The\nSouth Slavs believe that on the night of Midsummer Eve a witch will slink\nup to the fence of the farmyard and say, \u201cThe cheese to me, the lard to\nme, the butter to me, the milk to me, but the cowhide to thee!\u201d After that\nthe cow will perish miserably and you will be obliged to bury the flesh\nand sell the hide. To prevent this disaster the thing to do is to go out\ninto the meadows very early on Midsummer morning while the dew is on the\ngrass, collect a quantity of dew in a waterproof mantle, carry it home,\nand having tethered your cow wash her down with the dew. After that you\nhave only to place a milkpail under her udders and to milk away as hard as\nyou can; the amount of milk that you will extract from that cow\u2019s dugs is\nquite surprising. Again, the Slovenians about G\u00f6rz and the Croats of\nIstria believe that on the same night the witches wage pitched battles\nwith baptized folk, attacking them fiercely with broken stakes of palings\nand stumps of trees. It is therefore a wise precaution to grub up all the\nstumps in autumn and carry them home, so that the witches may be\nweaponless on St. John\u2019s Night. If the stumps are too heavy to be grubbed\nup, it is well to ram them down tighter into the earth, for then the\nwitches will not be able to pull them up.(247)\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX. BALDER AND THE MISTLETOE.\n\n\n(M60) The reader may remember that the preceding account of the popular\nfire-festivals of Europe was suggested by the myth of the Norse god\nBalder, who is said to have been slain by a branch of mistletoe and burnt\nin a great fire. We have now to enquire how far the customs which have\nbeen passed in review help to shed light on the myth. In this enquiry it\nmay be convenient to begin with the mistletoe, the instrument of Balder\u2019s\ndeath.\n\n(M61) From time immemorial the mistletoe has been the object of\nsuperstitious veneration in Europe. It was worshipped by the Druids, as we\nlearn from a famous passage of Pliny. After enumerating the different\nkinds of mistletoe, he proceeds: \u201cIn treating of this subject, the\nadmiration in which the mistletoe is held throughout Gaul ought not to\npass unnoticed. The Druids, for so they call their wizards, esteem nothing\nmore sacred than the mistletoe and the tree on which it grows, provided\nonly that the tree is an oak. But apart from this they choose oak-woods\nfor their sacred groves and perform no sacred rites without oak-leaves; so\nthat the very name of Druids may be regarded as a Greek appellation\nderived from their worship of the oak.(248) For they believe that whatever\ngrows on these trees is sent from heaven, and is a sign that the tree has\nbeen chosen by the god himself. The mistletoe is very rarely to be met\nwith; but when it is found, they gather it with solemn ceremony. This they\ndo above all on the sixth day of the moon, from whence they date the\nbeginnings of their months, of their years, and of their thirty years\u2019\ncycle, because by the sixth day the moon has plenty of vigour and has not\nrun half its course. After due preparations have been made for a sacrifice\nand a feast under the tree, they hail it as the universal healer and bring\nto the spot two white bulls, whose horns have never been bound before. A\npriest clad in a white robe climbs the tree and with a golden sickle cuts\nthe mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloth. Then they sacrifice the\nvictims, praying that God may make his own gift to prosper with those upon\nwhom he has bestowed it. They believe that a potion prepared from\nmistletoe will make barren animals to bring forth, and that the plant is a\nremedy against all poison. So much of men\u2019s religion is commonly concerned\nwith trifles.\u201d(249)\n\n(M62) In another passage Pliny tells us that in medicine the mistletoe\nwhich grows on an oak was esteemed the most efficacious, and that its\nefficacy was by some superstitious people supposed to be increased if the\nplant was gathered on the first day of the moon without the use of iron,\nand if when gathered it was not allowed to touch the earth; oak-mistletoe\nthus obtained was deemed a cure for epilepsy; carried about by women it\nassisted them to conceive; and it healed ulcers most effectually, if only\nthe sufferer chewed a piece of the plant and laid another piece on the\nsore.(250) Yet, again, he says that mistletoe was supposed, like vinegar\nand an egg, to be an excellent means of extinguishing a fire.(251)\n\n(M63) If in these latter passages Pliny refers, as he apparently does, to\nthe beliefs current among his contemporaries in Italy, it will follow that\nthe Druids and the Italians were to some extent agreed as to the valuable\nproperties possessed by mistletoe which grows on an oak; both of them\ndeemed it an effectual remedy for a number of ailments, and both of them\nascribed to it a quickening virtue, the Druids believing that a potion\nprepared from mistletoe would fertilize barren cattle, and the Italians\nholding that a piece of mistletoe carried about by a woman would help her\nto conceive a child. Further, both peoples thought that if the plant were\nto exert its medicinal properties it must be gathered in a certain way and\nat a certain time. It might not be cut with iron, hence the Druids cut it\nwith gold; and it might not touch the earth, hence the Druids caught it in\na white cloth. In choosing the time for gathering the plant, both peoples\nwere determined by observation of the moon; only they differed as to the\nparticular day of the moon, the Italians preferring the first, and the\nDruids the sixth.\n\n(M64) With these beliefs of the ancient Gauls and Italians as to the\nwonderful medicinal properties of mistletoe we may compare the similar\nbeliefs of the modern Ainos of Japan. We read that they, \u201clike many\nnations of the Northern origin, hold the mistletoe in peculiar veneration.\nThey look upon it as a medicine, good in almost every disease, and it is\nsometimes taken in food and at others separately as a decoction. The\nleaves are used in preference to the berries, the latter being of too\nsticky a nature for general purposes.... But many, too, suppose this plant\nto have the power of making the gardens bear plentifully. When used for\nthis purpose, the leaves are cut up into fine pieces, and, after having\nbeen prayed over, are sown with the millet and other seeds, a little also\nbeing eaten with the food. Barren women have also been known to eat the\nmistletoe, in order to be made to bear children. That mistletoe which\ngrows upon the willow is supposed to have the greatest efficacy. This is\nbecause the willow is looked upon by them as being an especially sacred\ntree.\u201d(252)\n\n(M65) Thus the Ainos agree with the Druids in regarding mistletoe as a\ncure for almost every disease, and they agree with the ancient Italians\nthat applied to women it helps them to bear children. A similar belief as\nto the fertilizing influence of mistletoe, or of similar plants, upon\nwomen is entertained by the natives of Mabuiag, an island in Torres\nStraits. These savages imagine that twins can be produced \u201cby the pregnant\nwoman touching or breaking a branch of a loranthaceous plant (_Viscum\nsp._, probably _V. orientale_) parasitic on a tree, _mader_. The wood of\nthis tree is much esteemed for making digging sticks and as firewood, no\ntwin-producing properties are inherent in it, nor is it regarded as being\ninfected with the properties of its twin-producing parasite.\u201d(253) Again,\nthe Druidical notion that the mistletoe was an \u201call-healer\u201d or panacea may\nbe compared with a notion entertained by the Walos of Senegambia. These\npeople \u201chave much veneration for a sort of mistletoe, which they call\n_tob_; they carry leaves of it on their persons when they go to war as a\npreservative against wounds, just as if the leaves were real talismans\n(_gris-gris_).\u201d The French writer who records this practice adds: \u201cIs it\nnot very curious that the mistletoe should be in this part of Africa what\nit was in the superstitions of the Gauls? This prejudice, common to the\ntwo countries, may have the same origin; blacks and whites will doubtless\nhave seen, each of them for themselves, something supernatural in a plant\nwhich grows and flourishes without having roots in the earth. May they not\nhave believed, in fact, that it was a plant fallen from the sky, a gift of\nthe divinity?\u201d(254)\n\n(M66) This suggestion as to the origin of the superstition is strongly\nconfirmed by the Druidical belief, reported by Pliny, that whatever grew\non an oak was sent from heaven and was a sign that the tree had been\nchosen by the god himself.(255) Such a belief explains why the Druids cut\nthe mistletoe, not with a common knife, but with a golden sickle,(256) and\nwhy, when cut, it was not suffered to touch the earth; probably they\nthought that the celestial plant would have been profaned and its\nmarvellous virtue lost by contact with the ground. With the ritual\nobserved by the Druids in cutting the mistletoe we may compare the ritual\nwhich in Cambodia is prescribed in a similar case. They say that when you\nsee an orchid growing as a parasite on a tamarind tree, you should dress\nin white, take a new earthenware pot, then climb the tree at noon, break\noff the plant, put it in the pot, and let the pot fall to the ground.\nAfter that you make in the pot a decoction which confers the gift of\ninvulnerability.(257) Thus just as in Africa the leaves of one parasitic\nplant are supposed to render the wearer invulnerable, so in Cambodia a\ndecoction made from another parasitic plant is considered to render the\nsame service to such as make use of it, whether by drinking or washing. We\nmay conjecture that in both places the notion of invulnerability is\nsuggested by the position of the plant, which, occupying a place of\ncomparative security above the ground, appears to promise to its fortunate\npossessor a similar security from some of the ills that beset the life of\nman on earth. We have already met with many examples of the store which\nthe primitive mind sets on such vantage grounds.(258)\n\n(M67) Whatever may be the origin of these beliefs and practices concerning\nthe mistletoe, certain it is that some of them have their analogies in the\nfolk-lore of modern European peasants. For example, it is laid down as a\nrule in various parts of Europe that mistletoe may not be cut in the\nordinary way but must be shot or knocked down with stones from the tree on\nwhich it is growing. Thus, in the Swiss canton of Aargau \u201call parasitic\nplants are esteemed in a certain sense holy by the country folk, but most\nparticularly so the mistletoe growing on an oak. They ascribe great powers\nto it, but shrink from cutting it off in the usual manner. Instead of that\nthey procure it in the following manner. When the sun is in Sagittarius\nand the moon is on the wane, on the first, third, or fourth day before the\nnew moon, one ought to shoot down with an arrow the mistletoe of an oak\nand to catch it with the left hand as it falls. Such mistletoe is a remedy\nfor every ailment of children.\u201d(259) Here among the Swiss peasants, as\namong the Druids of old, special virtue is ascribed to mistletoe which\ngrows on an oak: it may not be cut in the usual way: it must be caught as\nit falls to the ground; and it is esteemed a panacea for all diseases, at\nleast of children. In Sweden, also, it is a popular superstition that if\nmistletoe is to possess its peculiar virtue, it must either be shot down\nout of the oak or knocked down with stones.(260) Similarly, \u201cso late as\nthe early part of the nineteenth century, people in Wales believed that\nfor the mistletoe to have any power, it must be shot or struck down with\nstones off the tree where it grew.\u201d(261)\n\n(M68) Again, in respect of the healing virtues of mistletoe the opinion of\nmodern peasants, and even of the learned, has to some extent agreed with\nthat of the ancients. The Druids appear to have called the plant, or\nperhaps the oak on which it grew, the \u201call-healer\u201d;(262) and \u201call-healer\u201d\nis said to be still a name of the mistletoe in the modern Celtic speech of\nBrittany, Wales, Ireland, and Scotland.(263) On St. John\u2019s morning\n(Midsummer morning) peasants of Piedmont and Lombardy go out to search the\noak-leaves for the \u201coil of St. John,\u201d which is supposed to heal all wounds\nmade with cutting instruments.(264) Originally, perhaps, the \u201coil of St.\nJohn\u201d was simply the mistletoe, or a decoction made from it. For in\nHolstein the mistletoe, especially oak-mistletoe, is still regarded as a\npanacea for green wounds and as a sure charm to secure success in\nhunting;(265) and at Lacaune, in the south of France, the old Druidical\nbelief in the mistletoe as an antidote to all poisons still survives among\nthe peasantry; they apply the plant to the stomach of the sufferer or give\nhim a decoction of it to drink.(266) Again, the ancient belief that\nmistletoe is a cure for epilepsy has survived in modern times not only\namong the ignorant but among the learned. Thus in Sweden persons afflicted\nwith the falling sickness think they can ward off attacks of the malady by\ncarrying about with them a knife which has a handle of oak mistletoe;(267)\nand in Germany for a similar purpose pieces of mistletoe used to be hung\nround the necks of children.(268) In the French province of Bourbonnais a\npopular remedy for epilepsy is a decoction of mistletoe which has been\ngathered on an oak on St. John\u2019s Day and boiled with rye-flour.(269) So at\nBottesford in Lincolnshire a decoction of mistletoe is supposed to be a\npalliative for this terrible disease.(270) Indeed mistletoe was\nrecommended as a remedy for the falling sickness by high medical\nauthorities in England and Holland down to the eighteenth century.(271) At\nKirton-in-Lindsey, in Lincolnshire, it is thought that St. Vitus\u2019s dance\nmay be cured by the water in which mistletoe berries have been\nboiled.(272) In the Scotch shires of Elgin and Moray, down to the second\nhalf of the eighteenth century, at the full moon of March people used to\ncut withes of mistletoe or ivy, make circles of them, keep them all the\nyear, and profess to cure hectics and other troubles by means of\nthem.(273) In Sweden, apparently, for other complaints a sprig of\nmistletoe is hung round the patient\u2019s neck or a ring of it is worn on his\nfinger.(274)\n\n(M69) However, the opinion of the medical profession as to the curative\nvirtues of mistletoe has undergone a radical alteration. Whereas the\nDruids thought that mistletoe cured everything, modern doctors appear to\nthink that it cures nothing.(275) If they are right, we must conclude that\nthe ancient and widespread faith in the medicinal virtue of mistletoe is a\npure superstition based on nothing better than the fanciful inferences\nwhich ignorance has drawn from the parasitic nature of the plant, its\nposition high up on the branch of a tree seeming to protect it from the\ndangers to which plants and animals are subject on the surface of the\nground. From this point of view we can perhaps understand why mistletoe\nhas so long and so persistently been prescribed as a cure for the falling\nsickness. As mistletoe cannot fall to the ground because it is rooted on\nthe branch of a tree high above the earth, it seems to follow as a\nnecessary consequence that an epileptic patient cannot possibly fall down\nin a fit so long as he carries a piece of mistletoe in his pocket or a\ndecoction of mistletoe in his stomach. Such a train of reasoning would\nprobably be regarded even now as cogent by a large portion of the human\nspecies.\n\n(M70) Again the ancient Italian opinion that mistletoe extinguishes fire\nappears to be shared by Swedish peasants, who hang up bunches of\noak-mistletoe on the ceilings of their rooms as a protection against harm\nin general and conflagration in particular.(276) A hint as to the way in\nwhich mistletoe comes to be possessed of this property is furnished by the\nepithet \u201cthunder-besom,\u201d which people of the Aargau canton in Switzerland\napply to the plant.(277) For a thunder-besom is a shaggy, bushy\nexcrescence on branches of trees, which is popularly believed to be\nproduced by a flash of lightning;(278) hence in Bohemia a thunder-besom\nburnt in the fire protects the house against being struck by a\nthunder-bolt.(279) Being itself a product of lightning it naturally\nserves, on homoeopathic principles, as a protection against lightning, in\nfact as a kind of lightning-conductor. Hence the fire which mistletoe in\nSweden is designed especially to avert from houses may be fire kindled by\nlightning; though no doubt the plant is equally effective against\nconflagration in general.\n\n(M71) Again, mistletoe acts as a master-key as well as a\nlightning-conductor; for it is said to open all locks.(280) However, in\nthe Tyrol it can only exert this power \u201cunder certain circumstances,\u201d\nwhich are not specified.(281) But perhaps the most precious of all the\nvirtues of mistletoe is that it affords efficient protection against\nsorcery and witchcraft.(282) That, no doubt, is the reason why in Austria\na twig of mistletoe is laid on the threshold as a preventive of\nnightmare;(283) and it may be the reason why in the north of England they\nsay that if you wish your dairy to thrive you should give your bunch of\nmistletoe to the first cow that calves after New Year\u2019s Day,(284) for it\nis well known that nothing is so fatal to milk and butter as witchcraft.\nSimilarly in Wales, for the sake of ensuring good luck to the dairy,\npeople used to give a branch of mistletoe to the first cow that gave birth\nto a calf after the first hour of the New Year; and in rural districts of\nWales, where mistletoe abounded, there was always a profusion of it in the\nfarmhouses. When mistletoe was scarce, Welsh farmers used to say, \u201cNo\nmistletoe, no luck\u201d; but if there was a fine crop of mistletoe, they\nexpected a fine crop of corn.(285) In Sweden mistletoe is diligently\nsought after on St. John\u2019s Eve, the people \u201cbelieving it to be, in a high\ndegree, possessed of mystic qualities; and that if a sprig of it be\nattached to the ceiling of the dwelling-house, the horse\u2019s stall, or the\ncow\u2019s crib, the Troll will then be powerless to injure either man or\nbeast.\u201d(286)\n\n(M72) With regard to the time when the mistletoe should be gathered\nopinions have varied. The Druids gathered it above all on the sixth day of\nthe moon, the ancient Italians apparently on the first day of the\nmoon.(287) In modern times some have preferred the full moon of March and\nothers the waning moon of winter when the sun is in Sagittarius.(288) But\nthe favourite time would seem to be Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day. We\nhave seen that both in France and Sweden special virtues are ascribed to\nmistletoe gathered at Midsummer.(289) The rule in Sweden is that\n\u201cmistletoe must be cut on the night of Midsummer Eve when sun and moon\nstand in the sign of their might.\u201d(290) Again, in Wales it was believed\nthat a sprig of mistletoe gathered on St. John\u2019s Eve (Midsummer Eve), or\nat any time before the berries appeared, would induce dreams of omen, both\ngood and bad, if it were placed under the pillow of the sleeper.(291) Thus\nmistletoe is one of the many plants whose magical or medicinal virtues are\nbelieved to culminate with the culmination of the sun on the longest day\nof the year. Hence it seems reasonable to conjecture that in the eyes of\nthe Druids, also, who revered the plant so highly, the sacred mistletoe\nmay have acquired a double portion of its mystic qualities at the solstice\nin June, and that accordingly they may have regularly cut it with solemn\nceremony on Midsummer Eve.\n\n(M73) Be that as it may, certain it is that the mistletoe, the instrument\nof Balder\u2019s death, has been regularly gathered for the sake of its mystic\nqualities on Midsummer Eve in Scandinavia, Balder\u2019s home.(292) The plant\nis found commonly growing on pear-trees, oaks, and other trees in thick\ndamp woods throughout the more temperate parts of Sweden.(293) Thus one of\nthe two main incidents of Balder\u2019s myth is reproduced in the great\nmidsummer festival of Scandinavia. But the other main incident of the\nmyth, the burning of Balder\u2019s body on a pyre, has also its counterpart in\nthe bonfires which still blaze, or blazed till lately, in Denmark, Norway,\nand Sweden on Midsummer Eve.(294) It does not appear, indeed, that any\neffigy is burned in these bonfires; but the burning of an effigy is a\nfeature which might easily drop out after its meaning was forgotten. And\nthe name of Balder\u2019s balefires (_Balder\u2019s B\u0103lar_), by which these\nmidsummer fires were formerly known in Sweden,(295) puts their connexion\nwith Balder beyond the reach of doubt, and makes it probable that in\nformer times either a living representative or an effigy of Balder was\nannually burned in them. Midsummer was the season sacred to Balder, and\nthe Swedish poet Tegner, in placing the burning of Balder at\nmidsummer,(296) may very well have followed an old tradition that the\nsummer solstice was the time when the good god came to his untimely end.\n\n(M74) Thus it has been shewn that the leading incidents of the Balder myth\nhave their counterparts in those fire-festivals of our European peasantry\nwhich undoubtedly date from a time long prior to the introduction of\nChristianity. The pretence of throwing the victim chosen by lot into the\nBeltane fire,(297) and the similar treatment of the man, the future Green\nWolf, at the midsummer bonfire in Normandy,(298) may naturally be\ninterpreted as traces of an older custom of actually burning human beings\non these occasions; and the green dress of the Green Wolf, coupled with\nthe leafy envelope of the young fellow who trod out the midsummer fire at\nMoosheim,(299) seems to hint that the persons who perished at these\nfestivals did so in the character of tree-spirits or deities of\nvegetation. From all this we may reasonably infer that in the Balder myth\non the one hand, and the fire-festivals and custom of gathering mistletoe\non the other hand, we have, as it were, the two broken and dissevered\nhalves of an original whole. In other words, we may assume with some\ndegree of probability that the myth of Balder\u2019s death was not merely a\nmyth, that is, a description of physical phenomena in imagery borrowed\nfrom human life, but that it was at the same time the story which people\ntold to explain why they annually burned a human representative of the god\nand cut the mistletoe with solemn ceremony. If I am right, the story of\nBalder\u2019s tragic end formed, so to say, the text of the sacred drama which\nwas acted year by year as a magical rite to cause the sun to shine, trees\nto grow, crops to thrive, and to guard man and beast from the baleful arts\nof fairies and trolls, of witches and warlocks. The tale belonged, in\nshort, to that class of nature myths which are meant to be supplemented by\nritual; here, as so often, myth stood to magic in the relation of theory\nto practice.\n\n(M75) But if the victims\u2014the human Balders\u2014who died by fire, whether in\nspring or at midsummer, were put to death as living embodiments of\ntree-spirits or deities of vegetation, it would seem that Balder himself\nmust have been a tree-spirit or deity of vegetation. It becomes desirable,\ntherefore, to determine, if we can, the particular kind of tree or trees,\nof which a personal representative was burned at the fire-festivals. For\nwe may be quite sure that it was not as a representative of vegetation in\ngeneral that the victim suffered death. The idea of vegetation in general\nis too abstract to be primitive. Most probably the victim at first\nrepresented a particular kind of sacred tree. Now of all European trees\nnone has such claims as the oak to be considered as pre-eminently the\nsacred tree of the Aryans. Its worship is attested for all the great\nbranches of the Aryan stock in Europe. We have seen that it was not only\nthe sacred tree, but the principal object of worship of both Celts and\nLithuanians.(300) The roving Celts appear to have carried their worship of\nthe oak with them even to Asia; for in the heart of Asia Minor the\nGalatian senate met in a place which bore the pure Celtic name of\nDrynemetum or \u201ctemple of the oak.\u201d(301) Among the Slavs the oak seems to\nhave been the sacred tree of the great god Perun.(302) According to Grimm,\nthe oak ranked first among the holy trees of the Germans. It is certainly\nknown to have been adored by them in the age of heathendom, and traces of\nits worship have survived in various parts of Germany almost to the\npresent day.(303) Among the ancient Italians the oak was sacred above all\nother trees.(304) The image of Jupiter on the Capitol at Rome seems to\nhave been originally nothing but a natural oak-tree.(305) At Dodona,\nperhaps the oldest of all Greek sanctuaries, Zeus was worshipped as\nimmanent in the sacred oak, and the rustling of its leaves in the wind was\nhis voice.(306) If, then, the great god of both Greeks and Romans was\nrepresented in some of his oldest shrines under the form of an oak, and if\nthe oak was the principal object of worship of Celts, Germans, and\nLithuanians, we may certainly conclude that this tree was venerated by the\nAryans in common before the dispersion; and that their primitive home must\nhave lain in a land which was clothed with forests of oak.(307)\n\n(M76) Now, considering the primitive character and remarkable similarity\nof the fire-festivals observed by all the branches of the Aryan race in\nEurope, we may infer that these festivals form part of the common stock of\nreligious observances which the various peoples carried with them in their\nwanderings from their old home. But, if I am right, an essential feature\nof those primitive fire-festivals was the burning of a man who represented\nthe tree-spirit. In view, then, of the place occupied by the oak in the\nreligion of the Aryans, the presumption is that the tree so represented at\nthe fire-festivals must originally have been the oak. So far as the Celts\nand Lithuanians are concerned, this conclusion will perhaps hardly be\ncontested. But both for them and for the Germans it is confirmed by a\nremarkable piece of religious conservatism. The most primitive method\nknown to man of producing fire is by rubbing two pieces of wood against\neach other till they ignite; and we have seen that this method is still\nused in Europe for kindling sacred fires such as the need-fire, and that\nmost probably it was formerly resorted to at all the fire-festivals under\ndiscussion. Now it is sometimes required that the need-fire, or other\nsacred fire, should be made by the friction of a particular kind of wood;\nand when the kind of wood is prescribed, whether among Celts, Germans, or\nSlavs, that wood appears to be generally the oak.(308) Thus we have seen\nthat amongst the Slavs of Masuren the new fire for the village is made on\nMidsummer Day by causing a wheel to revolve rapidly round an axle of oak\ntill the axle takes fire.(309) When the perpetual fire which the ancient\nSlavs used to maintain chanced to go out, it was rekindled by the friction\nof a piece of oak-wood, which had been previously heated by being struck\nwith a grey (not a red) stone.(310) In Germany and the Highlands of\nScotland the need-fire was regularly, and in Russia and among the South\nSlavs it was sometimes, kindled by the friction of oak-wood;(311) and both\nin Wales and the Highlands of Scotland the Beltane fires were lighted by\nsimilar means.(312) Now, if the sacred fire was regularly kindled by the\nfriction of oak-wood, we may infer that originally the fire was also fed\nwith the same material. In point of fact, it appears that the perpetual\nfire of Vesta at Rome was fed with oak-wood,(313) and that oak-wood was\nthe fuel consumed in the perpetual fire which burned under the sacred oak\nat the great Lithuanian sanctuary of Romove.(314) Further, that oak-wood\nwas formerly the fuel burned in the midsummer fires may perhaps be\ninferred from the custom, said to be still observed by peasants in many\nmountain districts of Germany, of making up the cottage fire on Midsummer\nDay with a heavy block of oak-wood. The block is so arranged that it\nsmoulders slowly and is not finally reduced to charcoal till the expiry of\na year. Then upon next Midsummer Day the charred embers of the old log are\nremoved to make room for the new one, and are mixed with the seed-corn or\nscattered about the garden. This is believed to guard the food cooked on\nthe hearth from witchcraft, to preserve the luck of the house, to promote\nthe growth of the crops, and to preserve them from blight and vermin.(315)\nThus the custom is almost exactly parallel to that of the Yule-log, which\nin parts of Germany, France, England, Servia, and other Slavonic lands was\ncommonly of oak-wood.(316) At the Boeotian festival of the Daedala, the\nanalogy of which to the spring and midsummer festivals of modern Europe\nhas been already pointed out, the great feature was the felling and\nburning of an oak.(317) The general conclusion is, that at those periodic\nor occasional ceremonies the ancient Aryans both kindled and fed the fire\nwith the sacred oak-wood.(318)\n\n(M77) But if at these solemn rites the fire was regularly made of\noak-wood, it follows that any man who was burned in it as a\npersonification of the tree-spirit could have represented no tree but the\noak. The sacred oak was thus burned in duplicate; the wood of the tree was\nconsumed in the fire, and along with it was consumed a living man as a\npersonification of the oak-spirit. The conclusion thus drawn for the\nEuropean Aryans in general is confirmed in its special application to the\nScandinavians by the relation in which amongst them the mistletoe appears\nto have stood to the burning of the victim in the midsummer fire. We have\nseen that among Scandinavians it has been customary to gather the\nmistletoe at midsummer. But so far as appears on the face of this custom,\nthere is nothing to connect it with the midsummer fires in which human\nvictims or effigies of them were burned. Even if the fire, as seems\nprobable, was originally always made with oak-wood, why should it have\nbeen necessary to pull the mistletoe? The last link between the midsummer\ncustoms of gathering the mistletoe and lighting the bonfires is supplied\nby Balder\u2019s myth, which can hardly be disjoined from the customs in\nquestion. The myth suggests that a vital connexion may once have been\nbelieved to subsist between the mistletoe and the human representative of\nthe oak who was burned in the fire. According to the myth, Balder could be\nkilled by nothing in heaven or earth except the mistletoe; and so long as\nthe mistletoe remained on the oak, he was not only immortal but\ninvulnerable. Now, if we suppose that Balder was the oak, the origin of\nthe myth becomes intelligible. The mistletoe was viewed as the seat of\nlife of the oak, and so long as it was uninjured nothing could kill or\neven wound the oak. The conception of the mistletoe as the seat of life of\nthe oak would naturally be suggested to primitive people by the\nobservation that while the oak is deciduous, the mistletoe which grows on\nit is evergreen. In winter the sight of its fresh foliage among the bare\nbranches must have been hailed by the worshippers of the tree as a sign\nthat the divine life which had ceased to animate the branches yet survived\nin the mistletoe, as the heart of a sleeper still beats when his body is\nmotionless. Hence when the god had to be killed\u2014when the sacred tree had\nto be burnt\u2014it was necessary to begin by breaking off the mistletoe. For\nso long as the mistletoe remained intact, the oak (so people might think)\nwas invulnerable; all the blows of their knives and axes would glance\nharmless from its surface. But once tear from the oak its sacred heart\u2014the\nmistletoe\u2014and the tree nodded to its fall. And when in later times the\nspirit of the oak came to be represented by a living man, it was logically\nnecessary to suppose that, like the tree he personated, he could neither\nbe killed nor wounded so long as the mistletoe remained uninjured. The\npulling of the mistletoe was thus at once the signal and the cause of his\ndeath.\n\n(M78) On this view the invulnerable Balder is neither more nor less than a\npersonification of a mistletoe-bearing oak. The interpretation is\nconfirmed by what seems to have been an ancient Italian belief, that the\nmistletoe can be destroyed neither by fire nor water;(319) for if the\nparasite is thus deemed indestructible, it might easily be supposed to\ncommunicate its own indestructibility to the tree on which it grows, so\nlong as the two remain in conjunction. Or to put the same idea in mythical\nform we might tell how the kindly god of the oak had his life securely\ndeposited in the imperishable mistletoe which grew among the branches; how\naccordingly so long as the mistletoe kept its place there, the deity\nhimself remained invulnerable; and how at last a cunning foe, let into the\nsecret of the god\u2019s invulnerability, tore the mistletoe from the oak,\nthereby killing the oak-god and afterwards burning his body in a fire\nwhich could have made no impression on him so long as the incombustible\nparasite retained its seat among the boughs.\n\n(M79) But since the idea of a being whose life is thus, in a sense,\noutside himself, must be strange to many readers, and has, indeed, not yet\nbeen recognized in its full bearing on primitive superstition, it will be\nworth while to illustrate it by examples drawn both from story and custom.\nThe result will be to shew that, in assuming this idea as the explanation\nof Balder\u2019s relation to the mistletoe, I assume a principle which is\ndeeply engraved on the mind of primitive man.\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER X. THE ETERNAL SOUL IN FOLK-TALES.\n\n\n(M80) In a former part of this work we saw that, in the opinion of\nprimitive people, the soul may temporarily absent itself from the body\nwithout causing death.(320) Such temporary absences of the soul are often\nbelieved to involve considerable risk, since the wandering soul is liable\nto a variety of mishaps at the hands of enemies, and so forth. But there\nis another aspect to this power of disengaging the soul from the body. If\nonly the safety of the soul can be ensured during its absence, there is no\nreason why the soul should not continue absent for an indefinite time;\nindeed a man may, on a pure calculation of personal safety, desire that\nhis soul should never return to his body. Unable to conceive of life\nabstractly as a \u201cpermanent possibility of sensation\u201d or a \u201ccontinuous\nadjustment of internal arrangements to external relations,\u201d the savage\nthinks of it as a concrete material thing of a definite bulk, capable of\nbeing seen and handled, kept in a box or jar, and liable to be bruised,\nfractured, or smashed in pieces. It is not needful that the life, so\nconceived, should be in the man; it may be absent from his body and still\ncontinue to animate him by virtue of a sort of sympathy or action at a\ndistance. So long as this object which he calls his life or soul remains\nunharmed, the man is well; if it is injured, he suffers; if it is\ndestroyed, he dies. Or, to put it otherwise, when a man is ill or dies,\nthe fact is explained by saying that the material object called his life\nor soul, whether it be in his body or out of it, has either sustained\ninjury or been destroyed. But there may be circumstances in which, if the\nlife or soul remains in the man, it stands a greater chance of sustaining\ninjury than if it were stowed away in some safe and secret place.\nAccordingly, in such circumstances, primitive man takes his soul out of\nhis body and deposits it for security in some snug spot, intending to\nreplace it in his body when the danger is past. Or if he should discover\nsome place of absolute security, he may be content to leave his soul there\npermanently. The advantage of this is that, so long as the soul remains\nunharmed in the place where he has deposited it, the man himself is\nimmortal; nothing can kill his body, since his life is not in it.\n\n(M81) Evidence of this primitive belief is furnished by a class of\nfolk-tales of which the Norse story of \u201cThe giant who had no heart in his\nbody\u201d is perhaps the best-known example. Stories of this kind are widely\ndiffused over the world, and from their number and the variety of incident\nand of details in which the leading idea is embodied, we may infer that\nthe conception of an external soul is one which has had a powerful hold on\nthe minds of men at an early stage of history. For folk-tales are a\nfaithful reflection of the world as it appeared to the primitive mind; and\nwe may be sure that any idea which commonly occurs in them, however absurd\nit may seem to us, must once have been an ordinary article of belief. This\nassurance, so far as it concerns the supposed power of disengaging the\nsoul from the body for a longer or shorter time, is amply corroborated by\na comparison of the folk-tales in question with the actual beliefs and\npractices of savages. To this we shall return after some specimens of the\ntales have been given. The specimens will be selected with a view of\nillustrating both the characteristic features and the wide diffusion of\nthis class of tales.(321)\n\n(M82) In the first place, the story of the external soul is told, in\nvarious forms, by all Aryan peoples from Hindoostan to the Hebrides. A\nvery common form of it is this: A warlock, giant, or other fairyland being\nis invulnerable and immortal because he keeps his soul hidden far away in\nsome secret place; but a fair princess, whom he holds enthralled in his\nenchanted castle, wiles his secret from him and reveals it to the hero,\nwho seeks out the warlock\u2019s soul, heart, life, or death (as it is\nvariously called), and, by destroying it, simultaneously kills the\nwarlock. Thus a Hindoo story tells how a magician called Punchkin held a\nqueen captive for twelve years, and would fain marry her, but she would\nnot have him. At last the queen\u2019s son came to rescue her, and the two\nplotted together to kill Punchkin. So the queen spoke the magician fair,\nand pretended that she had at last made up her mind to marry him. \u201cAnd do\ntell me,\u201d she said, \u201care you quite immortal? Can death never touch you?\nAnd are you too great an enchanter ever to feel human suffering?\u201d \u201cIt is\ntrue,\u201d he said, \u201cthat I am not as others. Far, far away, hundreds of\nthousands of miles from this, there lies a desolate country covered with\nthick jungle. In the midst of the jungle grows a circle of palm trees, and\nin the centre of the circle stand six chattees full of water, piled one\nabove another: below the sixth chattee is a small cage, which contains a\nlittle green parrot;\u2014on the life of the parrot depends my life;\u2014and if the\nparrot is killed I must die. It is, however,\u201d he added, \u201cimpossible that\nthe parrot should sustain any injury, both on account of the\ninaccessibility of the country, and because, by my appointment, many\nthousand genii surround the palm trees, and kill all who approach the\nplace.\u201d But the queen\u2019s young son overcame all difficulties, and got\npossession of the parrot. He brought it to the door of the magician\u2019s\npalace, and began playing with it. Punchkin, the magician, saw him, and,\ncoming out, tried to persuade the boy to give him the parrot. \u201cGive me my\nparrot!\u201d cried Punchkin. Then the boy took hold of the parrot and tore off\none of his wings; and as he did so the magician\u2019s right arm fell off.\nPunchkin then stretched out his left arm, crying, \u201cGive me my parrot!\u201d The\nprince pulled off the parrot\u2019s second wing, and the magician\u2019s left arm\ntumbled off. \u201cGive me my parrot!\u201d cried he, and fell on his knees. The\nprince pulled off the parrot\u2019s right leg, the magician\u2019s right leg fell\noff; the prince pulled off the parrot\u2019s left leg, down fell the magician\u2019s\nleft. Nothing remained of him except the trunk and the head; but still he\nrolled his eyes, and cried, \u201cGive me my parrot!\u201d \u201cTake your parrot, then,\u201d\ncried the boy; and with that he wrung the bird\u2019s neck, and threw it at the\nmagician; and, as he did so, Punchkin\u2019s head twisted round, and, with a\nfearful groan, he died!(322) In another Hindoo tale an ogre is asked by\nhis daughter, \u201cPapa, where do you keep your soul?\u201d \u201cSixteen miles away\nfrom this place,\u201d he said, \u201cis a tree. Round the tree are tigers, and\nbears, and scorpions, and snakes; on the top of the tree is a very great\nfat snake; on his head is a little cage; in the cage is a bird; and my\nsoul is in that bird.\u201d The end of the ogre is like that of the magician in\nthe previous tale. As the bird\u2019s wings and legs are torn off, the ogre\u2019s\narms and legs drop off; and when its neck is wrung he falls down\ndead.(323)\n\n(M83) In another Hindoo story a princess called Sodewa Bai was born with a\ngolden necklace about her neck, and the astrologer told her parents, \u201cThis\nis no common child; the necklace of gold about her neck contains your\ndaughter\u2019s soul; let it therefore be guarded with the utmost care; for if\nit were taken off, and worn by another person, she would die.\u201d So her\nmother caused it to be firmly fastened round the child\u2019s neck, and, as\nsoon as the child was old enough to understand, she told her its value,\nand warned her never to let it be taken off. In course of time Sodewa Bai\nwas married to a prince who had another wife living. The first wife,\njealous of her young rival, persuaded a negress to steal from Sodewa Bai\nthe golden necklace which contained her soul. The negress did so, and, as\nsoon as she put the necklace round her own neck, Sodewa Bai died. All day\nlong the negress used to wear the necklace; but late at night, on going to\nbed, she would take it off and put it by till morning; and whenever she\ntook it off, Sodewa Bai\u2019s soul returned to her and she lived. But when\nmorning came, and the negress put on the necklace, Sodewa Bai died again.\nAt last the prince discovered the treachery of his elder wife and restored\nthe golden necklace to Sodewa Bai.(324) In another Hindoo story a holy\nmendicant tells a queen that she will bear a son, adding, \u201cAs enemies will\ntry to take away the life of your son, I may as well tell you that the\nlife of the boy will be bound up in the life of a big _boal_ fish which is\nin your tank, in front of the palace. In the heart of the fish is a small\nbox of wood, in the box is a necklace of gold, that necklace is the life\nof your son.\u201d The boy was born and received the name of Dalim. His mother\nwas the Suo or younger queen. But the Duo or elder queen hated the child,\nand learning the secret of his life, she caused the _boal_ fish, with\nwhich his life was bound up, to be caught. Dalim was playing near the tank\nat the time, but \u201cthe moment the _boal_ fish was caught in the net, that\nmoment Dalim felt unwell; and when the fish was brought up to land, Dalim\nfell down on the ground, and made as if he was about to breathe his last.\nHe was immediately taken into his mother\u2019s room, and the king was\nastonished on hearing of the sudden illness of his son and heir. The fish\nwas by the order of the physician taken into the room of the Duo queen,\nand as it lay on the floor striking its fins on the ground, Dalim in his\nmother\u2019s room was given up for lost. When the fish was cut open, a casket\nwas found in it; and in the casket lay a necklace of gold. The moment the\nnecklace was worn by the queen, that very moment Dalim died in his\nmother\u2019s room.\u201d The queen used to put off the necklace every night, and\nwhenever she did so, the boy came to life again. But every morning when\nthe queen put on the necklace, he died again.(325)\n\n(M84) In a Cashmeer story a lad visits an old ogress, pretending to be her\ngrandson, the son of her daughter who had married a king. So the old\nogress took him into her confidence and shewed him seven cocks, a spinning\nwheel, a pigeon, and a starling. \u201cThese seven cocks,\u201d said she, \u201ccontain\nthe lives of your seven uncles, who are away for a few days. Only as long\nas the cocks live can your uncles hope to live; no power can hurt them as\nlong as the seven cocks are safe and sound. The spinning-wheel contains my\nlife; if it is broken, I too shall be broken, and must die; but otherwise\nI shall live on for ever. The pigeon contains your grandfather\u2019s life, and\nthe starling your mother\u2019s; as long as these live, nothing can harm your\ngrandfather or your mother.\u201d So the lad killed the seven cocks and the\npigeon and the starling, and smashed the spinning-wheel; and at the moment\nhe did so the ogres and ogresses perished.(326) In another story from\nCashmeer an ogre cannot die unless a particular pillar in the verandah of\nhis palace be broken. Learning the secret, a prince struck the pillar\nagain and again till it was broken in pieces. And it was as if each stroke\nhad fallen on the ogre, for he howled lamentably and shook like an aspen\nevery time the prince hit the pillar, until at last, when the pillar fell\ndown, the ogre also fell down and gave up the ghost.(327) In another\nCashmeer tale an ogre is represented as laughing very heartily at the idea\nthat he might possibly die. He said that \u201che should never die. No power\ncould oppose him; no years could age him; he should remain ever strong and\never young, for the thing wherein his life dwelt was most difficult to\nobtain.\u201d It was in a queen bee, which was in a honeycomb on a tree. But\nthe bees in the honeycomb were many and fierce, and it was only at the\ngreatest risk that any one could catch the queen. However, the hero\nachieved the enterprise and crushed the queen bee; and immediately the\nogre fell stone dead to the ground, so that the whole land trembled with\nthe shock.(328) In some Bengalee tales the life of a whole tribe of ogres\nis described as concentrated in two bees. The secret was thus revealed by\nan old ogress to a captive princess who pretended to fear lest the ogress\nshould die. \u201cKnow, foolish girl,\u201d said the ogress, \u201cthat we ogres never\ndie. We are not naturally immortal, but our life depends on a secret which\nno human being can unravel. Let me tell you what it is, that you may be\ncomforted. You know yonder tank; there is in the middle of it a crystal\npillar, on the top of which in deep waters are two bees. If any human\nbeing can dive into the waters, and bring up to land the two bees from the\npillar in one breath, and destroy them so that not a drop of their blood\nfalls to the ground, then we ogres shall certainly die; but if a single\ndrop of blood falls to the ground, then from it will start up a thousand\nogres. But what human being will find out this secret, or, finding it,\nwill be able to achieve the feat? You need not, therefore, darling, be\nsad; I am practically immortal.\u201d As usual, the princess reveals the secret\nto the hero, who kills the bees, and that same moment all the ogres drop\ndown dead, each on the spot where he happened to be standing.(329) In\nanother Bengalee story it is said that all the ogres dwell in Ceylon, and\nthat all their lives are in a single lemon. A boy cuts the lemon in\npieces, and all the ogres die.(330)\n\n(M85) In a Siamese or Cambodian story, probably derived from India, we are\ntold that Thossakan or Ravana, the King of Ceylon, was able by magic art\nto take his soul out of his body and leave it in a box at home, while he\nwent to the wars. Thus he was invulnerable in battle. When he was about to\ngive battle to Rama, he deposited his soul with a hermit called Fire-eye,\nwho was to keep it safe for him. So in the fight Rama was astounded to see\nthat his arrows struck the king without wounding him. But one of Rama\u2019s\nallies, knowing the secret of the king\u2019s invulnerability, transformed\nhimself by magic into the likeness of the king, and going to the hermit\nasked back his soul. On receiving it he soared up into the air and flew to\nRama, brandishing the box and squeezing it so hard that all the breath\nleft the King of Ceylon\u2019s body, and he died.(331) In a Bengalee story a\nprince going into a far country planted with his own hands a tree in the\ncourtyard of his father\u2019s palace, and said to his parents, \u201cThis tree is\nmy life. When you see the tree green and fresh, then know that it is well\nwith me; when you see the tree fade in some parts, then know that I am in\nan ill case; and when you see the whole tree fade, then know that I am\ndead and gone.\u201d(332) In another Indian tale a prince, setting forth on his\ntravels, left behind him a barley plant, with instructions that it should\nbe carefully tended and watched; for if it flourished, he would be alive\nand well, but if it drooped, then some mischance was about to happen to\nhim. And so it fell out. For the prince was beheaded, and as his head\nrolled off, the barley plant snapped in two and the ear of barley fell to\nthe ground.(333) In the legend of the origin of Gilgit there figures a\nfairy king whose soul is in the snows and who can only perish by\nfire.(334)\n\n(M86) In Greek tales, ancient and modern, the idea of an external soul is\nnot uncommon. When Meleager was seven days old, the Fates appeared to his\nmother and told her that Meleager would die when the brand which was\nblazing on the hearth had burnt down. So his mother snatched the brand\nfrom the fire and kept it in a box. But in after-years, being enraged at\nher son for slaying her brothers, she burnt the brand in the fire and\nMeleager expired in agonies, as if flames were preying on his vitals.(335)\nAgain, Nisus King of Megara had a purple or golden hair on the middle of\nhis head, and it was fated that whenever the hair was pulled out the king\nshould die. When Megara was besieged by the Cretans, the king\u2019s daughter\nScylla fell in love with Minos, their king, and pulled out the fatal hair\nfrom her father\u2019s head. So he died.(336) Similarly Poseidon made Pterelaus\nimmortal by giving him a golden hair on his head. But when Taphos, the\nhome of Pterelaus, was besieged by Amphitryo, the daughter of Pterelaus\nfell in love with Amphitryo and killed her father by plucking out the\ngolden hair with which his life was bound up.(337) In a modern Greek\nfolk-tale a man\u2019s strength lies in three golden hairs on his head. When\nhis mother pulls them out, he grows weak and timid and is slain by his\nenemies.(338) Another Greek story, in which we may perhaps detect a\nreminiscence of Nisus and Scylla, relates how a certain king, who was the\nstrongest man of his time, had three long hairs on his breast. But when he\nwent to war with another king, and his own treacherous wife had cut off\nthe three hairs, he became the weakest of men.(339) In another modern\nGreek story the life of an enchanter is bound up with three doves which\nare in the belly of a wild boar. When the first dove is killed, the\nmagician grows sick; when the second is killed, he grows very sick; and\nwhen the third is killed, he dies.(340) In another Greek story of the same\nsort an ogre\u2019s strength is in three singing birds which are in a wild\nboar. The hero kills two of the birds, and then coming to the ogre\u2019s house\nfinds him lying on the ground in great pain. He shews the third bird to\nthe ogre, who begs that the hero will either let it fly away or give it to\nhim to eat. But the hero wrings the bird\u2019s neck, and the ogre dies on the\nspot.(341) In a variant of the latter story the monster\u2019s strength is in\ntwo doves, and when the hero kills one of them, the monster cries out,\n\u201cAh, woe is me! Half my life is gone. Something must have happened to one\nof the doves.\u201d When the second dove is killed, he dies.(342) In another\nGreek story the incidents of the three golden hairs and three doves are\nartificially combined. A monster has on his head three golden hairs which\nopen the door of a chamber in which are three doves: when the first dove\nis killed, the monster grows sick; when the second is killed, he grows\nworse; and when the third is killed, he dies.(343) In another Greek tale\nan old man\u2019s strength is in a ten-headed serpent. When the serpent\u2019s heads\nare being cut off, he feels unwell; and when the last head is struck off,\nhe expires.(344) In another Greek story a dervish tells a queen that she\nwill have three sons, that at the birth of each she must plant a pumpkin\nin the garden, and that in the fruit borne by the pumpkins will reside the\nstrength of the children. In due time the infants are born and the\npumpkins planted. As the children grow up, the pumpkins grow with them.\nOne morning the eldest son feels sick, and on going into the garden they\nfind that the largest pumpkin is gone. Next night the second son keeps\nwatch in a summer-house in the garden. At midnight a negro appears and\ncuts the second pumpkin. At once the boy\u2019s strength goes out of him, and\nhe is unable to pursue the negro. The youngest son, however, succeeds in\nslaying the negro and recovering the lost pumpkins.(345)\n\n(M87) Ancient Italian legend furnishes a close parallel to the Greek story\nof Meleager. Silvia, the young wife of Septimius Marcellus, had a child by\nthe god Mars. The god gave her a spear, with which he said that the fate\nof the child would be bound up. When the boy grew up he quarrelled with\nhis maternal uncles and slew them. So in revenge his mother burned the\nspear on which his life depended.(346) In one of the stories of the\n_Pentamerone_ a certain queen has a twin brother, a dragon. The\nastrologers declared at her birth that she would live just as long as the\ndragon and no longer, the death of the one involving the death of the\nother. If the dragon were killed, the only way to restore the queen to\nlife would be to smear her temples, breast, pulses, and nostrils with the\nblood of the dragon.(347) In a modern Roman version of \u201cAladdin and the\nWonderful Lamp,\u201d the magician tells the princess, whom he holds captive in\na floating rock in mid-ocean, that he will never die. The princess reports\nthis to the prince her husband, who has come to rescue her. The prince\nreplies, \u201cIt is impossible but that there should be some one thing or\nother that is fatal to him; ask him what that one fatal thing is.\u201d So the\nprincess asked the magician, and he told her that in the wood was a hydra\nwith seven heads; in the middle head of the hydra was a leveret, in the\nhead of the leveret was a bird, in the bird\u2019s head was a precious stone,\nand if this stone were put under his pillow he would die. The prince\nprocured the stone, and the princess laid it under the magician\u2019s pillow.\nNo sooner did the enchanter lay his head on the pillow than he gave three\nterrible yells, turned himself round and round three times, and died.(348)\n\n(M88) Another Italian tale sets forth how a great cloud, which was really\na fairy, used to receive a young girl as tribute every year from a certain\ncity; and the inhabitants had to give the girls up, for if they did not,\nthe cloud would throw things at them and kill them all. One year it fell\nto the lot of the king\u2019s daughter to be handed over to the cloud, and they\ntook her in procession, to the roll of muffled drums, and attended by her\nweeping father and mother, to the top of a mountain, and left her sitting\nin a chair there all alone. Then the fairy cloud came down on the top of\nthe mountain, set the princess in her lap, and began to suck her blood out\nof her little finger; for it was on the blood of girls that this wicked\nfairy lived. When the poor princess was faint with the loss of blood and\nlay like a log, the cloud carried her away up to her fairy palace in the\nsky. But a brave youth had seen all that happened from behind a bush, and\nno sooner did the fairy spirit away the princess to her palace than he\nturned himself into an eagle and flew after them. He lighted on a tree\njust outside the palace, and looking in at the window he beheld a room\nfull of young girls all in bed; for these were the victims of former years\nwhom the fairy cloud had half killed by sucking their blood; yet they\ncalled her mamma. When the fairy went away and left the girls, the brave\nyoung man had food drawn up for them by ropes, and he told them to ask the\nfairy how she might be killed and what was to become of them when she\ndied. It was a delicate question, but the fairy answered it, saying, \u201cI\nshall never die.\u201d However, when the girls pressed her, she took them out\non a terrace and said, \u201cDo you see that mountain far off there? On that\nmountain is a tigress with seven heads. If you wish me to die, a lion must\nfight that tigress and tear off all seven of her heads. In her body is an\negg, and if any one hits me with it in the middle of my forehead, I shall\ndie; but if that egg falls into my hands, the tigress will come to life\nagain, resume her seven heads, and I shall live.\u201d When the young girls\nheard this they pretended to be glad and said, \u201cGood! certainly our mamma\ncan never die,\u201d but naturally they were discouraged. However, when she\nwent away again, they told it all to the young man, and he bade them have\nno fear. Away he went to the mountain, turned himself into a lion, and\nfought the tigress. Meantime the fairy came home, saying, \u201cAlas! I feel\nill!\u201d For six days the fight went on, the young man tearing off one of the\ntigress\u2019s heads each day, and each day the strength of the fairy kept\nebbing away. Then after allowing himself two days\u2019 rest the hero tore off\nthe seventh head and secured the egg, but not till it had rolled into the\nsea and been brought back to him by a friendly dog-fish. When he returned\nto the fairy with the egg in his hand, she begged and prayed him to give\nit her, but he made her first restore the young girls to health and send\nthem away in handsome carriages. When she had done so, he struck her on\nthe forehead with the egg, and she fell down dead.(349) Similarly in a\nstory from the western Riviera a sorcerer called Body-without-Soul can\nonly be killed by means of an egg which is in an eagle, which is in a dog,\nwhich is in a lion; and the egg must be broken on the sorcerer\u2019s forehead.\nThe hero, who achieves the adventure, has received the power of changing\nhimself into a lion, a dog, an eagle, and an ant from four creatures of\nthese sorts among whom he had fairly divided the carcase of a dead\nass.(350)\n\n(M89) Stories of the same sort are current among Slavonic peoples. In some\nof them, as in the biblical story of Samson and Delilah, the warlock is\nquestioned by a treacherous woman as to the place where his strength\nresides or his life or death is stowed away; and his suspicions being\nroused by her curiosity, he at first puts her off with false answers, but\nis at last beguiled into telling her the truth, thereby incurring his doom\nthrough her treachery. Thus a Russian story tells how a certain warlock\ncalled Kashtshei or Koshchei the Deathless carried off a princess and kept\nher prisoner in his golden castle. However, a prince made up to her one\nday as she was walking alone and disconsolate in the castle garden, and\ncheered by the prospect of escaping with him she went to the warlock and\ncoaxed him with false and flattering words, saying, \u201cMy dearest friend,\ntell me, I pray you, will you never die?\u201d \u201cCertainly not,\u201d says he.\n\u201cWell,\u201d says she, \u201cand where is your death? is it in your dwelling?\u201d \u201cTo\nbe sure it is,\u201d says he, \u201cit is in the broom under the threshold.\u201d\nThereupon the princess seized the broom and threw it on the fire, but\nalthough the broom burned, the deathless Koshchei remained alive; indeed\nnot so much as a hair of him was singed. Balked in her first attempt, the\nartful hussy pouted and said, \u201cYou do not love me true, for you have not\ntold me where your death is; yet I am not angry, but love you with all my\nheart.\u201d With these fawning words she besought the warlock to tell her\ntruly where his death was. So he laughed and said, \u201cWhy do you wish to\nknow? Well then, out of love I will tell you where it lies. In a certain\nfield there stand three green oaks, and under the roots of the largest oak\nis a worm, and if ever this worm is found and crushed, that instant I\nshall die.\u201d When the princess heard these words, she went straight to her\nlover and told him all; and he searched till he found the oaks and dug up\nthe worm and crushed it. Then he hurried to the warlock\u2019s castle, but only\nto learn from the princess that the warlock was still alive. Then she fell\nto wheedling and coaxing Koshchei once more, and this time, overcome by\nher wiles, he opened his heart to her and told her the truth. \u201cMy death,\u201d\nsaid he, \u201cis far from here and hard to find, on the wide ocean. In that\nsea is an island, and on the island there grows a green oak, and beneath\nthe oak is an iron chest, and in the chest is a small basket, and in the\nbasket is a hare, and in the hare is a duck, and in the duck is an egg;\nand he who finds the egg and breaks it, kills me at the same time.\u201d The\nprince naturally procured the fateful egg and with it in his hands he\nconfronted the deathless warlock. The monster would have killed him, but\nthe prince began to squeeze the egg. At that the warlock shrieked with\npain, and turning to the false princess, who stood by smirking and\nsmiling, \u201cWas it not out of love for you,\u201d said he, \u201cthat I told you where\nmy death was? And is this the return you make to me?\u201d With that he grabbed\nat his sword, which hung from a peg on the wall; but before he could reach\nit, the prince had crushed the egg, and sure enough the deathless warlock\nfound his death at the same moment.(351)\n\n(M90) In another version of the same story, when the cunning warlock\ndeceives the traitress by telling her that his death is in the broom, she\ngilds the broom, and at supper the warlock sees it shining under the\nthreshold and asks her sharply, \u201cWhat\u2019s that?\u201d \u201cOh,\u201d says she, \u201cyou see\nhow I honour you.\u201d \u201cSimpleton!\u201d says he, \u201cI was joking. My death is out\nthere fastened to the oak fence.\u201d So next day when the warlock was out,\nthe prince came and gilded the whole fence; and in the evening when the\nwarlock was at supper he looked out of the window and saw the fence\nglittering like gold. \u201cAnd pray what may that be?\u201d said he to the\nprincess. \u201cYou see,\u201d said she, \u201chow I respect you. If you are dear to me,\ndear too is your death. That is why I have gilded the fence in which your\ndeath resides.\u201d The speech pleased the warlock, and in the fulness of his\nheart he revealed to her the fatal secret of the egg. When the prince,\nwith the help of some friendly animals, obtained possession of the egg, he\nput it in his bosom and repaired to the warlock\u2019s house. The warlock\nhimself was sitting at the window in a very gloomy frame of mind; and when\nthe prince appeared and shewed him the egg, the light grew dim in the\nwarlock\u2019s eyes and he became all of a sudden very meek and mild. But when\nthe prince began to play with the egg and to throw it from one hand to the\nother, the deathless Koshchei staggered from one corner of the room to the\nother, and when the prince broke the egg, Koshchei the Deathless fell down\nand died.(352) \u201cIn one of the descriptions of Koshchei\u2019s death, he is said\nto be killed by a blow on the forehead inflicted by the mysterious\negg\u2014that last link in the magic chain by which his life is darkly bound.\nIn another version of the same story, but told of a snake, the fatal blow\nis struck by a small stone found in the yolk of an egg, which is inside a\nduck, which is inside a hare, which is inside a stone, which is on an\nisland.\u201d(353) In another Russian story the death of an enchantress is in a\nblue rose-tree in a blue forest. Prince Ivan uproots the rose-tree,\nwhereupon the enchantress straightway sickens. He brings the rose-tree to\nher house and finds her at the point of death. Then he throws it into the\ncellar, crying, \u201cBehold her death!\u201d and at once the whole building shakes,\n\u201cand becomes an island, on which are people who had been sitting in Hell,\nand who offer up thanks to Prince Ivan.\u201d(354) In another Russian story a\nprince is grievously tormented by a witch who has got hold of his heart,\nand keeps it seething in a magic cauldron.(355)\n\n(M91) In a Bohemian tale a warlock\u2019s strength lies in an egg which is in a\nduck, which is in a stag, which is under a tree. A seer finds the egg and\nsucks it. Then the warlock grows as weak as a child, \u201cfor all his strength\nhad passed into the seer.\u201d(356) A Servian story relates how a certain\nwarlock called True Steel carried off a prince\u2019s wife and kept her shut up\nin his cave. But the prince contrived to get speech of her and told her\nthat she must persuade True Steel to reveal to her where his strength lay.\nSo when True Steel came home, the prince\u2019s wife said to him, \u201cTell me,\nnow, where is your great strength?\u201d He answered, \u201cMy wife, my strength is\nin my sword.\u201d Then she began to pray and turned to his sword. When True\nSteel saw that, he laughed and said, \u201cO foolish woman! my strength is not\nin my sword, but in my bow and arrows.\u201d Then she turned towards the bow\nand arrows and prayed. But True Steel said, \u201cI see, my wife, you have a\nclever teacher who has taught you to find out where my strength lies. I\ncould almost say that your husband is living, and it is he who teaches\nyou.\u201d But she assured him that nobody had taught her. When she found he\nhad deceived her again, she waited for some days and then asked him again\nabout the secret of his strength. He answered, \u201cSince you think so much of\nmy strength, I will tell you truly where it is. Far away from here there\nis a very high mountain; in the mountain there is a fox; in the fox there\nis a heart; in the heart there is a bird, and in this bird is my strength.\nIt is no easy task, however, to catch the fox, for she can transform\nherself into a multitude of creatures.\u201d So next day, when True Steel went\nforth from the cave, the prince came and learned from his wife the true\nsecret of the warlock\u2019s strength. So away he hied to the mountain, and\nthere, though the fox, or rather the vixen, turned herself into various\nshapes, he managed with the help of certain friendly eagles, falcons, and\ndragons, to catch and kill her. Then he took out the fox\u2019s heart, and out\nof the heart he took the bird and burned it in a great fire. At that very\nmoment True Steel fell down dead.(357)\n\n(M92) In another Servian story we read how a dragon resided in a\nwater-mill and ate up two king\u2019s sons, one after the other. The third son\nwent out to seek his brothers, and coming to the water-mill he found\nnobody in it but an old woman. She revealed to him the dreadful character\nof the being that kept the mill, and how he had devoured the prince\u2019s two\nelder brothers, and she implored him to go away home before the same fate\nshould overtake him. But he was both brave and cunning, and he said to\nher, \u201cListen well to what I am going to say to you. Ask the dragon whither\nhe goes and where his strength is; then kiss all that place where he tells\nyou his strength is, as if from love, till you find it out, and afterwards\ntell me when I come.\u201d So when the dragon came in, the old woman began to\nquestion him, \u201cWhere in God\u2019s name have you been? Whither do you go so\nfar? You will never tell me whither you go.\u201d The dragon replied, \u201cWell, my\ndear old woman, I do go far.\u201d Then the old woman coaxed him, saying, \u201cAnd\nwhy do you go so far? Tell me where your strength is. If I knew where your\nstrength is, I don\u2019t know what I should do for love; I would kiss all that\nplace.\u201d Thereupon the dragon smiled and said to her, \u201cYonder is my\nstrength, in that fireplace.\u201d Then the old woman began to fondle and kiss\nthe fireplace; and the dragon on seeing it burst into a laugh. \u201cSilly old\nwoman,\u201d he said, \u201cmy strength is not there. It is in the tree-fungus in\nfront of the house.\u201d Then the old woman began to fondle and kiss the tree;\nbut the dragon laughed again and said to her, \u201cAway, old woman! my\nstrength is not there.\u201d \u201cThen where is it?\u201d asked the old woman. \u201cMy\nstrength,\u201d said he, \u201cis a long way off, and you cannot go thither. Far in\nanother kingdom under the king\u2019s city is a lake; in the lake is a dragon;\nin the dragon is a boar; in the boar is a pigeon, and in the pigeon is my\nstrength.\u201d The murder was now out; so next morning when the dragon went\naway from the mill to attend to his usual business of eating people up,\nthe prince came to the old woman and she let him into the secret of the\ndragon\u2019s strength. The prince accordingly set off to find the lake in the\nfar country and the other dragon that lived in it. He found them both at\nlast; the lake was a still and lonely water surrounded by green meadows,\nwhere flocks of sheep nibbled the sweet lush grass. The hero tucked up his\nhose and his sleeves, and wading out into the lake called aloud on the\ndragon to come forth and fight. Soon the monster emerged from the water,\nslimy and dripping, his scaly back glistening in the morning sun. The two\ngrappled and wrestled from morning to afternoon of a long summer day. What\nwith the heat of the weather and the violence of his exertions the dragon\nwas quite exhausted, and said, \u201cLet me go, prince, that I may moisten my\nparched head in the lake and toss you to the sky.\u201d But the prince sternly\nrefused; so the dragon relaxed his grip and sank under the water, which\nbubbled and gurgled over the place where he plunged into the depths. When\nhe had disappeared and the ripples had subsided on the surface, you would\nnever have suspected that under that calm water, reflecting the green\nbanks, the white, straying sheep, the blue sky, and the fleecy\ngold-flecked clouds of a summer evening, there lurked so ferocious and\ndangerous a monster. Next day the combat was renewed with the very same\nresult. But on the third day the hero, fortified by a kiss from the fair\ndaughter of the king of the land, tossed the dragon high in air, and when\nthe monster fell with a most tremendous thud on the water he burst into\nlittle bits. Out of the pieces sprang a boar which ran away as fast as it\ncould lay legs to the ground. But the prince sent sheep-dogs after it\nwhich caught it up and rent it in pieces. Out of the pieces sprang a\npigeon; but the prince let loose a falcon, which stooped on the pigeon,\nseized it in its talons, and brought it to the prince. In the pigeon was\nthe life of the dragon who kept the mill, so before inflicting on the\nmonster the doom he so richly merited, the prince questioned him as to the\nfate of his two elder brothers who had perished at the hands, or rather\nunder the claws and fangs, of the dragon. Having ascertained how to\nrestore them to life and to release a multitude of other victims whom the\ndragon kept prisoners in a vault under the water-mill, the prince wrung\nthe pigeon\u2019s neck, and that of course was the end of the dragon and his\nunscrupulous career.(358)\n\n(M93) A Lithuanian story relates how a prince married a princess and got\nwith her a kingdom to boot. She gave him the keys of the castle and told\nhim he might enter every chamber except one small room, of which the key\nhad a bit of twine tied to it. But one day, having nothing to do, he\namused himself by rummaging in all the rooms of the castle, and amongst\nthe rest he went into the little forbidden chamber. In it he found twelve\nheads and a man hanging on the hook of the door. The man said to the\nprince, \u201cOblige me by fetching me a glass of beer.\u201d The prince fetched it\nand the man drank it. Then the man said to the prince, \u201cOblige me by\nreleasing me from the hook.\u201d The prince released him. Now the man was a\nking without a soul, and he at once availed himself of his liberty to come\nto an understanding with the coachman of the castle, and between them they\nput the prince\u2019s wife in the coach and drove off with her. The prince rode\nafter them and coming up with the coach called out, \u201cHalt, Soulless King!\nStep out and fight!\u201d The King stepped out and the fight began. In a trice\nthe King had sliced the buttons off the prince\u2019s coat and pinked him in\nthe side. Then he stepped into the coach and drove off. The prince rode\nafter him again, and when he came up with the coach he called out, \u201cHalt,\nSoulless King! Step out and fight!\u201d The King stepped out and they fought\nagain, and again the King sliced off the prince\u2019s buttons and pinked him\nin the side. Then, after carefully wiping and sheathing his sword, he said\nto his discomfited adversary, \u201cNow look here. I let you off the first time\nfor the sake of the glass of beer you gave me, and I let you off the\nsecond time because you let me down from that infernal hook; but if you\nfight me a third time, by Gad I\u2019ll make mince meat of you.\u201d Then he\nstepped into the coach, told the coachman to drive on, jerked up the coach\nwindow with a bang, and drove away like anything. But the prince galloped\nafter him and coming up with the coach for the third time he called out,\n\u201cHalt, Soulless King! Step out and fight!\u201d The King did step out, and at\nit the two of them went, tooth and nail. But the prince had no chance.\nBefore he knew where he was, the King ran him through the body, whisked\noff his head, and left him lying a heap of raw mince beside the road. His\nwife, or rather his widow, said to the King, \u201cLet me gather up the\nfragments that remain.\u201d The King said, \u201cCertainly.\u201d So she made up the\nmince into a neat parcel, deposited it on the front seat of the coach, and\naway they drove to the King\u2019s castle. Well to cut a long story short, a\nbrother-in-law of the deceased prince sent a hawk to fetch the water of\nlife; the hawk brought it in his beak; the brother-in-law poured the water\non the fragments of the prince, and the prince came to life again at once\nsafe and sound. Then he went to the King\u2019s castle and played on a little\npipe, and his wife heard it in the castle and said, \u201cThat is how my\nhusband used to play, whom the King cut in bits.\u201d So she went out to the\ngate and said to him, \u201cAre you my husband?\u201d \u201cThat I am,\u201d said he, and he\ntold her to find out from the King where he kept his soul and then to come\nand tell him. So she went to the King and said to him, \u201cWhere my husband\u2019s\nsoul is, there must mine be too.\u201d The King was touched by this artless\nexpression of her love, and he replied, \u201cMy soul is in yonder lake. In\nthat lake lies a stone; in that stone is a hare; in the hare is a duck, in\nthe duck is an egg, and in the egg is my soul.\u201d So the queen went and told\nher former husband, the prince, and gave him plenty of money and food for\nthe journey, and off he set for the lake. But when he came to the lake, he\ndid not know in which part of it the stone was; so he roamed about the\nbanks, and he was hungry, for he had eaten up all the food. Then he met a\ndog, and the dog said to him, \u201cDon\u2019t shoot me dead. I will be a mighty\nhelper to you in your time of need.\u201d So he let the dog live and went on\nhis way. Next he saw a tree with two hawks on it, an old one and a young\none, and he climbed up the tree to catch the young one. But the old hawk\nsaid to him, \u201cDon\u2019t take my young one. He will be a mighty helper to you\nin your time of need.\u201d So the prince climbed down the tree and went on his\nway. Then he saw a huge crab and wished to break off one of his claws for\nsomething to eat, but the crab said to him, \u201cDon\u2019t break off my claw. It\nwill be a mighty helper to you in your time of need.\u201d So he left the crab\nalone and went on his way. And he came to people and got them to fish up\nthe stone for him from the lake and to bring it to him on the bank. And\nthere he broke the stone in two and out of the stone jumped a hare. But\nthe dog seized the hare and tore him, and out of the hare flew a duck. The\nyoung hawk pounced on the duck and rent it, and out of the duck fell an\negg, and the egg rolled into the lake. But the crab fetched the egg out of\nthe lake and brought it to the prince. Then the King fell ill. So the\nprince went to the King and said, \u201cYou killed me. Now I will kill you.\u201d\n\u201cDon\u2019t,\u201d said the King. \u201cI will,\u201d said the prince. With that he threw the\negg on the ground, and the King fell out of the bed as dead as a stone. So\nthe prince went home with his wife and very happy they were, you may take\nmy word for it.(359)\n\n(M94) Amongst peoples of the Teutonic stock stories of the external soul\nare not wanting. In a tale told by the Saxons of Transylvania it is said\nthat a young man shot at a witch again and again. The bullets went clean\nthrough her but did her no harm, and she only laughed and mocked at him.\n\u201cSilly earthworm,\u201d she cried, \u201cshoot as much as you like. It does me no\nharm. For know that my life resides not in me but far, far away. In a\nmountain is a pond, on the pond swims a duck, in the duck is an egg, in\nthe egg burns a light, that light is my life. If you could put out that\nlight, my life would be at an end. But that can never, never be.\u201d However,\nthe young man got hold of the egg, smashed it, and put out the light, and\nwith it the witch\u2019s life went out also.(360) In this last story, as in\nmany other stories of the same type, the hero achieves his adventure by\nthe help of certain grateful animals whom he had met and done a service to\non his travels. The same incident occurs in another German tale of this\nclass which runs thus. Once upon a time there was a young fellow called\nBody-without-Soul, or, for short, Soulless, and he was a cannibal who\nwould eat nothing but young girls. Now it was a custom in that country\nthat the girls drew lots every year, and the one on whom the lot fell was\nhanded over to Soulless. In time it happened that the lot fell on the\nking\u2019s daughter. The king was exceedingly sorry, but what could he do? Law\nwas law, and had to be obeyed. So they took the princess to the castle\nwhere Soulless resided; and he shut her up in the larder and fattened her\nfor his dinner. But a brave soldier undertook to rescue her, and off he\nset for the cannibal\u2019s castle. Well, as he trudged along, what should he\nsee but a fly, an eagle, a bear, and a lion sitting in a field by the side\nof the road, and quarrelling about their shares in a dead horse. So he\ndivided the carcase fairly between them, and as a reward the fly and the\neagle bestowed on him the power of changing himself at will into either of\ntheir shapes. That evening he made himself into an eagle, and flew up a\nhigh tree; there he looked about, but could see nothing but trees. Next\nmorning he flew on till he came to a great castle, and at the gate was a\nbig black board with these words chalked up on it: \u201cMr. Soulless lives\nhere.\u201d When the soldier read that he was glad, and changed himself into a\nfly, and flew buzzing from window to window, looking in at every one till\nhe came to the one where the fair princess sat a prisoner. He introduced\nhimself at once and said, \u201cI am come to free you, but first you must learn\nwhere the soul of Soulless really is.\u201d \u201cI don\u2019t know,\u201d replied the\nprincess, \u201cbut I will ask.\u201d So after much coaxing and entreaty she learned\nthat the soul of Soulless was in a box, and that the box was on a rock in\nthe middle of the Red Sea. When the soldier heard that, he turned himself\ninto an eagle again, flew to the Red Sea, and came back with the soul of\nSoulless in the box. Arrived at the castle he knocked and banged at the\ndoor as if the house was on fire. Soulless did not know what was the\nmatter, and he came down and opened the door himself. When he saw the\nsoldier standing at it, I can assure you he was in a towering rage. \u201cWhat\ndo you mean,\u201d he roared, \u201cby knocking at my door like that? I\u2019ll gobble\nyou up on the spot, skin and hair and all.\u201d But the soldier laughed in his\nface. \u201cYou\u2019d better not do that,\u201d said he, \u201cfor here I\u2019ve got your soul in\nthe box.\u201d When the cannibal heard that, all his courage went down into the\ncalves of his legs, and he begged and entreated the soldier to give him\nhis soul. But the soldier would not hear of it; he opened the box, took\nout the soul, and flung it over his head; and that same instant down fell\nthe cannibal, dead as a door-nail.(361)\n\n(M95) Another German story, which embodies the notion of the external soul\nin a somewhat different form, tells how once upon a time a certain king\nhad three sons and a daughter, and for each of the king\u2019s four children\nthere grew a flower in the king\u2019s garden, which was a life-flower; for it\nbloomed and flourished so long as the child lived, but drooped and\nwithered away when the child died. Now the time came when the king\u2019s\ndaughter married a rich man and went to live with him far away. But it was\nnot long before her flower withered in the king\u2019s garden. So the eldest\nbrother went forth to visit his brother-in-law and comfort him in his\nbereavement. But when he came to his brother-in-law\u2019s castle he saw the\ncorpse of his murdered sister weltering on the ramparts. And his wicked\nbrother-in-law set before him boiled human hands and feet for his dinner.\nAnd when the king\u2019s son refused to eat of them, his brother-in-law led him\nthrough many chambers to a murder-hole, where were all sorts of implements\nof murder, but especially a gallows, a wheel, and a pot of blood. Here he\nsaid to the prince, \u201cYou must die, but you may choose your kind of death.\u201d\nThe prince chose to die on the gallows; and die he did even as he had\nsaid. So the eldest son\u2019s flower withered in the king\u2019s garden, and the\nsecond son went forth to learn the fate of his brother and sister. But it\nfared with him no better than with his elder brother, for he too died on\nthe gallows in the murder-hole of his wicked brother-in-law\u2019s castle, and\nhis flower also withered away in the king\u2019s garden at home. Now when the\nyoungest son was also come to his brother-in-law\u2019s castle and saw the\ncorpse of his murdered sister weltering on the ramparts, and the bodies of\nhis two murdered brothers dangling from the gallows in the murder-hole, he\nsaid that for his part he had a fancy to die by the wheel, but he was not\nquite sure how the thing was done, and would his brother-in-law kindly\nshew him? \u201cOh, it\u2019s quite easy,\u201d said his brother-in-law, \u201cyou just put\nyour head in, so,\u201d and with that he popped his head through the middle of\nthe wheel. \u201cJust so,\u201d said the king\u2019s youngest son, and he gave the wheel\na twirl, and as it spun round and round, the wicked brother-in-law died a\npainful death, which he richly deserved. And when he was quite dead, the\nmurdered brothers and sister came to life again, and their withered\nflowers bloomed afresh in the king\u2019s garden.(362)\n\n(M96) In another German story an old warlock lives with a damsel all alone\nin the midst of a vast and gloomy wood. She fears that being old he may\ndie and leave her alone in the forest. But he reassures her. \u201cDear child,\u201d\nhe said, \u201cI cannot die, and I have no heart in my breast.\u201d But she\nimportuned him to tell her where his heart was. So he said, \u201cFar, far from\nhere in an unknown and lonesome land stands a great church. The church is\nwell secured with iron doors, and round about it flows a broad deep moat.\nIn the church flies a bird and in the bird is my heart. So long as the\nbird lives, I live. It cannot die of itself, and no one can catch it;\ntherefore I cannot die, and you need have no anxiety.\u201d However the young\nman, whose bride the damsel was to have been before the warlock spirited\nher away, contrived to reach the church and catch the bird. He brought it\nto the damsel, who stowed him and it away under the warlock\u2019s bed. Soon\nthe old warlock came home. He was ailing, and said so. The girl wept and\nsaid, \u201cAlas, daddy is dying; he has a heart in his breast after all.\u201d\n\u201cChild,\u201d replied the warlock, \u201chold your tongue. I _can\u2019t_ die. It will\nsoon pass over.\u201d At that the young man under the bed gave the bird a\ngentle squeeze; and as he did so, the old warlock felt very unwell and sat\ndown. Then the young man gripped the bird tighter, and the warlock fell\nsenseless from his chair. \u201cNow squeeze him dead,\u201d cried the damsel. Her\nlover obeyed, and when the bird was dead, the old warlock also lay dead on\nthe floor.(363)\n\n(M97) In the Norse tale of \u201cthe giant who had no heart in his body,\u201d the\ngiant tells the captive princess, \u201cFar, far away in a lake lies an island,\non that island stands a church, in that church is a well, in that well\nswims a duck, in that duck there is an egg, and in that egg there lies my\nheart.\u201d The hero of the tale, with the help of some animals to whom he had\nbeen kind, obtains the egg and squeezes it, at which the giant screams\npiteously and begs for his life. But the hero breaks the egg in pieces and\nthe giant at once bursts.(364) In another Norse story a hill-ogre tells\nthe captive princess that she will never be able to return home unless she\nfinds the grain of sand which lies under the ninth tongue of the ninth\nhead of a certain dragon; but if that grain of sand were to come over the\nrock in which the ogres live, they would all burst \u201cand the rock itself\nwould become a gilded palace, and the lake green meadows.\u201d The hero finds\nthe grain of sand and takes it to the top of the high rock in which the\nogres live. So all the ogres burst and the rest falls out as one of the\nogres had foretold.(365)\n\n(M98) In a Danish tale a warlock carries off a princess to his wondrous\nsubterranean palace; and when she anxiously enquires how long he is likely\nto live, he assures her that he will certainly survive her. \u201cNo man,\u201d he\nsays, \u201ccan rob me of my life, for it is in my heart, and my heart is not\nhere; it is in safer keeping.\u201d She urges him to tell her where it is, so\nhe says: \u201cVery far from here, in a land that is called Poland, there is a\ngreat lake, and in the lake is a dragon, and in the dragon is a hare, and\nin the hare is a duck, and in the duck is an egg, and in the egg is my\nheart. It is in good keeping, you may trust me. Nobody is likely to\nstumble upon it.\u201d However, the hero of the tale, who is also the husband\nof the kidnapped princess, has fortunately received the power of turning\nhimself at will into a bear, a dog, an ant, or a falcon as a reward for\nhaving divided the carcase of a deer impartially between four animals of\nthese species; and availing himself of this useful art he not only makes\nhis way into the warlock\u2019s enchanted palace but also secures the egg on\nwhich the enchanter\u2019s life depends. No sooner has he smashed the egg on\nthe enchanter\u2019s ugly face than that miscreant drops down as dead as a\nherring.(366)\n\n(M99) Another Danish story tells how a lad went out into the world to look\nfor service. He met a man, who hired him for three years and said he would\ngive him a bushel of money for the first year, two bushels of money for\nthe second, and three bushels of money for the third. The lad was well\ncontent, as you may believe, to get such good wages. But the man was a\nmagician, and it was not long before he turned the lad into a hare, by\npronouncing over him some strange words. For a whole year the lad scoured\nthe woods in the shape of a hare, and there was not a sportsman in all the\ncountry round about that had not a shot at him. But not one of them could\nhit him. At the end of the year the magician spoke some other words over\nhim and turned him back into human form and gave him the bushel of money.\nBut then the magician mumbled some other words, and the lad was turned\ninto a raven and flew up into the sky. Again all the marksmen of the\nneighbourhood pointed their guns at him and banged away; but they only\nwasted powder and shot, for not one of them could hit him. At the end of\nthe year the magician changed him back into a man and gave him two\nbushelfuls of money. But soon after he changed him into a fish, and in the\nform of a fish the young man jumped into the brook and swam down into the\nsea. There at the bottom of the ocean he saw a most beautiful castle all\nof glass and in it a lovely girl all alone. Round and round the castle he\nswam, looking into all the rooms and admiring everything. At last he\nremembered the words the magician had spoken when he turned him back into\na man, and by repeating them he was at once transformed into a stripling\nagain. He walked into the glass castle and introduced himself to the girl,\nand though at first she was nearly frightened to death, she was soon very\nglad to have him with her. From her he learned that she was no other than\nthe daughter of the magician, who kept her there for safety at the bottom\nof the sea. The two now laid their heads together, and she told him what\nto do. There was a certain king who owed her father money and had not the\nwherewithal to pay; and if he did not pay by such and such a day, his head\nwas to be cut off. So the young man was to take service with the king,\noffer him the bushels of money which he had earned in the service of the\nmagician, and go with him to the magician to pay his debt. But he was to\ndress up as the court Fool so that the magician would not know him, and in\nthat character he was to indulge in horse-play, smashing windows and so\non, till the magician would fall into such a rage that though the king had\npaid his debt to the last farthing he would nevertheless be condemned to\ninstant execution unless he could answer the magician\u2019s questions. The\nquestions would be these, \u201cWhere is my daughter?\u201d \u201cWould you know her if\nyou saw her?\u201d Now the magician would cause a whole line of phantom women\nto pass by, so that the young man would not be able to tell which of them\nwas the sorcerer\u2019s daughter; but when her turn came to pass by she would\ngive him a nudge as a sign, and so he would know her. Then the magician\nwould ask, \u201cAnd where is my heart?\u201d And the young man was to say, \u201cIn a\nfish.\u201d And the magician would ask, \u201cWould you know the fish if you saw\nit?\u201d And he would cause all sorts of fishes to pass by, and the young man\nwould have to say in which of them was the heart of the magician. He would\nnever be able of himself to tell in which of them it was, but the girl\nwould stand beside him, and when the right fish passed by, she would nudge\nhim and he was to catch it and rip it up, and the magician would ask him\nno more questions. Everything turned out exactly as she had said. The king\npaid his debt to the last farthing; but the young man disguised as the\ncourt Fool cut such capers and smashed so many glass windows and doors\nthat the heaps of broken glass were something frightful to contemplate. So\nthere was nothing for it but that the king, who was of course responsible\nfor the pranks of his Fool, should either answer the magician\u2019s questions\nor die the death. While they were getting the axe and the block ready in\nthe courtyard, the trembling king was interrogated by the stern magician.\n\u201cWhere is my daughter?\u201d asked the sorcerer. Here the court Fool cut in and\nsaid, \u201cShe is at the bottom of the sea.\u201d \u201cWould you know her if you saw\nher?\u201d enquired the magician. \u201cTo be sure I would,\u201d answered the Fool. So\nthe magician caused a whole regiment of girls to defile before him, one\nafter the other; but they were mere phantoms and apparitions. Almost the\nlast of all came the magician\u2019s daughter, and when she passed the young\nman she pinched his arm so hard that he almost shrieked with pain.\nHowever, he dissembled his agony and putting his arm round her waist held\nher fast. The magician now played his last trump. \u201cWhere is my heart?\u201d\nsaid he. \u201cIn a fish,\u201d said the Fool. \u201cWould you know the fish if you saw\nit?\u201d asked the magician. \u201cTo be sure I would,\u201d answered the Fool. Then all\nthe fishes of the sea swam past, and when the right one came last of all,\nthe girl nudged her lover; he seized the fish, and with one stroke of his\nknife slit it from end to end. Out tumbled the magician\u2019s heart; the young\nman seized it and cut it in two, and at the same moment the magician fell\ndead.(367)\n\n(M100) In Iceland they say that once a king\u2019s son was out hunting in a\nwood with the courtiers, when the mist came down so thick that his\ncompanions lost sight of the prince, and though they searched the woods\ntill evening they could not find him. At the news the king was\ninconsolable, and taking to his bed caused proclamation to be made that he\nwho could find and bring back his lost son should have half the kingdom.\nNow an old man and his old wife lived together in a wretched hut, and they\nhad a daughter. She resolved to seek the lost prince and get the promised\nreward. So her parents gave her food for the journey and a pair of new\nshoes, and off she set. Well, she walked and better walked for days, and\nat last she came towards evening to a cave and going into it she saw two\nbeds. One of them was covered with a cloth of silver and the other with a\ncloth of gold; and in the bed with the golden coverlet was the king\u2019s son\nfast asleep. She tried to wake him, but all in vain. Then she noticed some\nrunes carved on the bedsteads, but she could not read them. So she went\nback to the mouth of the cave and hid behind the door. Hardly had she time\nto conceal herself when she heard a loud noise and saw two giantesses, two\ngreat hulking louts they were, stride into the cave. No sooner were they\nin than one said to the other, \u201cUgh, what a smell of human flesh in our\ncave!\u201d But the other thought the smell might come from the king\u2019s son.\nThey went up to the bed where he was sleeping, and calling two swans,\nwhich the girl had not perceived in the dim light of the cave, they said:\u2014\n\n\n    \u201c_Sing, sing, my swans,_\n    _That the king\u2019s son may wake._\u201d\n\n\nSo the swans sang and the king\u2019s son awoke. The younger of the two hags\noffered him food, but he refused it; then she asked him, if he would marry\nher, but he said \u201cNo, certainly not.\u201d Then she shrieked and said to the\nswans:\u2014\n\n\n    \u201c_Sing, sing, my swans,_\n    _That the king\u2019s son may sleep._\u201d\n\n\nThe swans sang and the king\u2019s son fell fast asleep. Then the two\ngiantesses lay down in the bed with the silver coverlet and slept till\nbreak of day. When they woke in the morning, they wakened the prince and\noffered him food again, but he again refused it; and the younger hag again\nasked him if he would have her to wife, but he would not hear of it. So\nthey put him to sleep again to the singing of the swans and left the cave.\nWhen they were gone a while, the girl came forth from her hiding-place and\nwaked the king\u2019s son to the song of the swans, and he was glad to see her\nand to get the news. She told him that, when the hag asked him again to\nmarry her, he must say, \u201cYes, but you must first tell me what is written\non the beds, and what you do by day.\u201d So when it drew to evening, the girl\nhid herself again, and soon the giantesses came, lit a fire in the cave,\nand cooked at it the game they had brought with them. And the younger hag\nwakened the king\u2019s son and asked him if he would have something to eat.\nThis time he said \u201cYes.\u201d And when he had finished his supper, the giantess\nasked him if he would have her to wife. \u201cThat I will,\u201d said he, \u201cbut first\nyou must tell me what the runes mean that are carved on the bed.\u201d She said\nthat they meant:\u2014\n\n\n    \u201c_Run, run, my little bed,_\n    _Run whither I will._\u201d\n\n\nHe said he was very glad to know it, but she must also tell him what they\ndid all day long out there in the wood. The hag told him that they hunted\nbeasts and birds, and that between whiles they sat down under an oak and\nthrew their life-egg from one to the other, but they had to be careful,\nfor if the egg were to break, they would both die. The king\u2019s son thanked\nher kindly, but next morning when the giantess asked him to go with them\nto the wood he said that he would rather stay at home. So away went the\ngiantesses by themselves, after they had lulled him to sleep to the\nsinging of the swans. But hardly were their backs turned when out came the\ngirl and wakened the prince and told him to take his spear, and they would\npursue the giantesses, and when they were throwing their life-egg to each\nother he was to hurl his spear at it and smash it to bits. \u201cBut if you\nmiss,\u201d said she, \u201cit is as much as your life is worth.\u201d So they came to\nthe oak in the wood, and there they heard a loud laugh, and the king\u2019s son\nclimbed up the tree, and there under the oak were the two giantesses, and\none of them had a golden egg in her hand and threw it to the other. Just\nthen the king\u2019s son hurled his spear and hit the egg so that it burst. At\nthe same time the two hags fell dead to the ground and the slaver dribbled\nout of their mouths.(368) In an Icelandic parallel to the story of\nMeleager the spae-wives or sibyls come and foretell the high destiny of\nthe infant Gestr as he lies in his cradle. Two candles were burning beside\nthe child, and the youngest of the spae-wives, conceiving herself\nslighted, cried out, \u201cI foretell that the child shall live no longer than\nthis candle burns.\u201d Whereupon the chief sibyl put out the candle and gave\nit to Gestr\u2019s mother to keep, charging her not to light it again until her\nson should wish to die. Gestr lived three hundred years; then he kindled\nthe candle and expired.(369)\n\n(M101) The conception of the external soul meets us also in Celtic\nstories. Thus a tale, told by a blind fiddler in the island of Islay,\nrelates how a giant carried off a king\u2019s wife and his two horses and kept\nthem in his den. But the horses attacked the giant and mauled him so that\nhe could hardly crawl. He said to the queen, \u201cIf I myself had my soul to\nkeep, those horses would have killed me long ago.\u201d \u201cAnd where, my dear,\u201d\nsaid she, \u201cis thy soul? By the books I will take care of it.\u201d \u201cIt is in\nthe Bonnach stone,\u201d said he. So on the morrow when the giant went out, the\nqueen set the Bonnach stone in order exceedingly. In the dusk of the\nevening the giant came back, and he said to the queen, \u201cWhat made thee set\nthe Bonnach stone in order like that?\u201d \u201cBecause thy soul is in it,\u201d quoth\nshe. \u201cI perceive,\u201d said he, \u201cthat if thou didst know where my soul is,\nthou wouldst give it much respect.\u201d \u201cThat I would,\u201d said she. \u201cIt is not\nthere,\u201d said he, \u201cmy soul is; it is in the threshold.\u201d On the morrow she\nset the threshold in order finely, and when the giant returned, he asked\nher, \u201cWhat brought thee to set the threshold in order like that?\u201d \u201cBecause\nthy soul is in it,\u201d said she. \u201cI perceive,\u201d said he, \u201cthat if thou knewest\nwhere my soul is, thou wouldst take care of it.\u201d \u201cThat I would,\u201d said she.\n\u201cIt is not there that my soul is,\u201d said he. \u201cThere is a great flagstone\nunder the threshold. There is a wether under the flag. There is a duck in\nthe wether\u2019s belly, and an egg in the belly of the duck, and it is in the\negg that my soul is.\u201d On the morrow when the giant was gone, they raised\nthe flagstone and out came the wether. They opened the wether and out came\nthe duck. They split the duck, and out came the egg. And the queen took\nthe egg and crushed it in her hands, and at that very moment the giant,\nwho was coming home in the dusk, fell down dead.(370) In another Celtic\ntale, a sea beast has carried off a king\u2019s daughter, and an old smith\ndeclares that there is no way of killing the beast but one. \u201cIn the island\nthat is in the midst of the loch is Eillid Chaisfhion\u2014the white-footed\nhind, of the slenderest legs, and the swiftest step, and though she should\nbe caught, there would spring a hoodie out of her, and though the hoodie\nshould be caught, there would spring a trout out of her, but there is an\negg in the mouth of the trout, and the soul of the beast is in the egg,\nand if the egg breaks, the beast is dead.\u201d As usual the egg is broken and\nthe beast dies.(371)\n\n(M102) In these Celtic tales the helpful animals reappear and assist the\nhero in achieving the adventure, though for the sake of brevity I have\nomitted to describe the parts they play in the plot. They figure also in\nan Argyleshire story, which seems however to be of Irish origin; for the\nCruachan of which we hear in it is not the rugged and lofty mountain Ben\nCruachan which towers above the beautiful Loch Awe, but Roscommon Cruachan\nnear Belanagare, the ancient palace of the kings of Connaught, long famous\nin Irish tradition.(372) The story relates how a big giant, King of\nSorcha, stole away the wife and the shaggy dun filly of the herdsman or\nking of Cruachan. So the herdsman baked a bannock to take with him by the\nway, and set off in quest of his wife and the filly. He went for a long,\nlong time, till at last his soles were blackened and his cheeks were\nsunken, the yellow-headed birds were going to rest at the roots of the\nbushes and the tops of the thickets, and the dark clouds of night were\ncoming and the clouds of day were departing; and he saw a house far from\nhim, but though it was far from him he did not take long to reach it. He\nwent in, and sat in the upper end of the house, but there was no one\nwithin; and the fire was newly kindled, the house newly swept, and the bed\nnewly made; and who came in but the hawk of Glencuaich, and she said to\nhim, \u201cAre you here, young son of Cruachan?\u201d \u201cI am,\u201d said he. The hawk said\nto him, \u201cDo you know who was here last night?\u201d \u201cI do not,\u201d said he. \u201cThere\nwere here,\u201d said she, \u201cthe big giant, King of Sorcha, your wife, and the\nshaggy dun filly; and the giant was threatening terribly that if he could\nget hold of you he would take the head off you.\u201d \u201cI well believe it,\u201d said\nhe. Then she gave him food and drink, and sent him to bed. She rose in the\nmorning, made breakfast for him, and baked a bannock for him to take with\nhim on his journey. And he went away and travelled all day, and in the\nevening he came to another house and went in, and was entertained by the\ngreen-headed duck, who told him that the giant had rested there the night\nbefore with the wife and shaggy dun filly of the herdsman of Cruachan. And\nnext day the herdsman journeyed again, and at evening he came to another\nhouse and went in and was entertained by the fox of the scrubwood, who\ntold him just what the hawk of Glencuaich and the green-headed duck had\ntold him before. Next day the same thing happened, only it was the brown\notter of the burn that entertained him at evening in a house where the\nfire was newly kindled, the floor newly swept, and the bed newly made. And\nnext morning when he awoke, the first thing he saw was the hawk of\nGlencuaich, the green-headed duck, the fox of the scrubwood, and the brown\notter of the burn all dancing together on the floor. They made breakfast\nfor him, and partook of it all together, and said to him, \u201cShould you be\nat any time in straits, think of us, and we will help you.\u201d Well, that\nvery evening he came to the cave where the giant lived, and who was there\nbefore him but his own wife? She gave him food and hid him under clothes\nat the upper end of the cave. And when the giant came home he sniffed\nabout and said, \u201cThe smell of a stranger is in the cave.\u201d But she said no,\nit was only a little bird she had roasted. \u201cAnd I wish you would tell me,\u201d\nsaid she, \u201cwhere you keep your life, that I might take good care of it.\u201d\n\u201cIt is in a grey stone over there,\u201d said he. So next day when he went\naway, she took the grey stone and dressed it well, and placed it in the\nupper end of the cave. When the giant came home in the evening he said to\nher, \u201cWhat is it that you have dressed there?\u201d \u201cYour own life,\u201d said she,\n\u201cand we must be careful of it.\u201d \u201cI perceive that you are very fond of me,\nbut it is not there,\u201d said he. \u201cWhere is it?\u201d said she. \u201cIt is in a grey\nsheep on yonder hillside,\u201d said he. On the morrow, when he went away, she\ngot the grey sheep, dressed it well, and placed it in the upper end of the\ncave. When he came home in the evening he said, \u201cWhat is it that you have\ndressed there?\u201d \u201cYour own life, my love,\u201d said she. \u201cIt is not there as\nyet,\u201d said he. \u201cWell!\u201d said she, \u201cyou are putting me to great trouble\ntaking care of it, and you have not told me the truth these two times.\u201d He\nthen said, \u201cI think that I may tell it to you now. My life is below the\nfeet of the big horse in the stable. There is a place down there in which\nthere is a small lake. Over the lake are seven grey hides, and over the\nhides are seven sods from the heath, and under all these are seven oak\nplanks. There is a trout in the lake, and a duck in the belly of the\ntrout, an egg in the belly of the duck, and a thorn of blackthorn inside\nof the egg, and till that thorn is chewed small I cannot be killed.\nWhenever the seven grey hides, the seven sods from the heath, and the\nseven oak planks are touched I shall feel it wherever I shall be. I have\nan axe above the door, and unless all these are cut through with one blow\nof it the lake will not be reached; and when it will be reached I shall\nfeel it.\u201d Next day, when the giant had gone out hunting on the hill, the\nherdsman of Cruachan contrived, with the help of the friendly animals\u2014the\nhawk, the duck, the fox, and the otter\u2014to get possession of the fateful\nthorn and to chew it before the giant could reach him; and no sooner had\nhe done so than the giant dropped stark and stiff, a corpse.(373)\n\n(M103) Another Argyleshire story relates how a certain giant, who lived in\nthe Black Corrie of Ben Breck, carried off three daughters of a king, one\nafter the other, at intervals of seven years. The bereaved monarch sent\nchampions to rescue his lost daughters, but though they surprised the\ngiant in his sleep and cut off his head, it was all to no purpose; for as\nfast as they cut it off he put it on again and made after them as if\nnothing had happened. So the champions fled away before him as fast as\nthey could lay legs to the ground, and the more agile of them escaped, but\nthe shorter-winded he caught, bared them to the skin, and hanged them on\nhooks against the turrets of his castle. So he went by the name of the\nBare-Stripping Hangman. Now this amiable man had announced his intention\nof coming to fetch away the fourth and last of the king\u2019s daughters, when\nanother seven years should be up. The time was drawing near, and the king,\nwith the natural instincts of a father, was in great tribulation, when as\ngood luck would have it a son of the king of Ireland, by name Alastir,\narrived in the king\u2019s castle and undertook to find out where the\nBare-Stripping Hangman had hidden his soul. To cut a long story short, the\nartful Hangman had hidden his soul in an egg, which was in the belly of a\nduck, which was in the belly of a salmon, which was in the belly of a\nswift-footed hind of the cliffs. The prince wormed the secret from a\nlittle old man, and by the help of a dog, a brown otter, and a falcon he\ncontrived to extract the egg from its various envelopes and crushed it to\nbits between his hands and knees. So when he came to the giant\u2019s castle he\nfound the Bare-Stripping Hangman lying dead on the floor.(374)\n\n(M104) Another Highland story sets forth how Hugh, prince of Lochlin, was\nlong held captive by a giant who lived in a cave overlooking the Sound of\nMull. At last, after he had spent many years of captivity in that dismal\ncave, it came to pass that one night the giant and his wife had a great\ndispute, and Hugh overheard their talk, and learned that the giant\u2019s soul\nwas in a precious gem which he always wore on his forehead. So the prince\nwatched his opportunity, seized the gem, and having no means of escape or\nconcealment, hastily swallowed it. Like lightning from the clouds, the\ngiant\u2019s sword flashed from its scabbard and flew between Hugh\u2019s head and\nhis body to intercept the gem before it could descend into the prince\u2019s\nstomach. But it was too late; and the giant fell down, sword in hand, and\nexpired without a gasp. Hugh had now lost his head, it is true, but having\nthe giant\u2019s soul in his body he felt none the worse for the accident. So\nhe buckled the giant\u2019s sword at his side, mounted the grey filly, swifter\nthan the east wind, that never had a bridle, and rode home. But the want\nof his head made a painful impression on his friends; indeed they\nmaintained that he was a ghost and shut the door in his face, so now he\nwanders for ever in shades of darkness, riding the grey filly fleeter than\nthe wind. On stormy nights, when the wind howls about the gables and among\nthe trees, you may see him galloping along the shore of the sea \u201cbetween\nwave and sand.\u201d Many a naughty little boy, who would not go quietly to\nbed, has been carried off by Headless Hugh on his grey filly and never\nseen again.(375)\n\n(M105) In Sutherlandshire at the present day there is a sept of Mackays\nknown as \u201cthe descendants of the seal,\u201d who claim to be sprung from a\nmermaid, and the story they tell in explanation of their claim involves\nthe notion of the external soul. They say that the laird of Borgie used to\ngo down to the rocks under his castle to bathe. One day he saw a mermaid\nclose in shore, combing her hair and swimming about, as if she were\nanxious to land. After watching her for a time, he noticed her cowl on the\nrocks beside him, and knowing that she could not go to sea without it, he\ncarried the cowl up to the castle in the hope that she would follow him.\nShe did so, but he refused to give up the cowl and detained the sea-maiden\nherself and made her his wife. To this she consented with great\nreluctance, and told him that her life was bound up with the cowl, and\nthat if it rotted or was destroyed she would instantly die. So the cowl\nwas placed for safety in the middle of a great hay-stack, and there it lay\nfor years. One unhappy day, when the laird was from home, the servants\nwere working among the hay and found the cowl. Not knowing what it was,\nthey shewed it to the lady of the house. The sight revived memories of her\nold life in the depths of the sea, so she took the cowl, and leaving her\nchild in its cot, plunged into the sea and never came home to Borgie any\nmore. Only sometimes she would swim close in shore to see her boy, and\nthen she wept because he was not of her own kind that she might take him\nto sea with her. The boy grew to be a man, and his descendants are famous\nswimmers. They cannot drown, and to this day they are known in the\nneighbourhood as _Sliochd an roin_, that is, \u201cthe descendants of the\nseal.\u201d(376)\n\n(M106) In an Irish story we read how a giant kept a beautiful damsel a\nprisoner in his castle on the top of a hill, which was white with the\nbones of the champions who had tried in vain to rescue the fair captive.\nAt last the hero, after hewing and slashing at the giant all to no\npurpose, discovered that the only way to kill him was to rub a mole on the\ngiant\u2019s right breast with a certain egg, which was in a duck, which was in\na chest, which lay locked and bound at the bottom of the sea. With the\nhelp of some obliging salmon, rams, and eagles, the hero as usual made\nhimself master of the precious egg and slew the giant by merely striking\nit against the mole on his right breast.(377) Similarly in a Breton story\nthere figures a giant whom neither fire nor water nor steel can harm. He\ntells his seventh wife, whom he has just married after murdering all her\npredecessors, \u201cI am immortal, and no one can hurt me unless he crushes on\nmy breast an egg, which is in a pigeon, which is in the belly of a hare;\nthis hare is in the belly of a wolf, and this wolf is in the belly of my\nbrother, who dwells a thousand leagues from here. So I am quite easy on\nthat score.\u201d A soldier, the hero of the tale, had been of service to an\nant, a wolf, and a sea-bird, who in return bestowed on him the power of\nturning himself into an ant, a wolf, or a sea-bird at will. By means of\nthis magical power the soldier contrived to obtain the egg and crush it on\nthe breast of the giant, who immediately expired.(378) Another Breton\nstory tells of a giant who was called Body-without-Soul because his life\ndid not reside in his body. He himself dwelt in a beautiful castle which\nhung between heaven and earth, suspended by four golden chains; but his\nlife was in an egg, and the egg was in a dove, and the dove was in a hare,\nand the hare was in a wolf, and the wolf was in an iron chest at the\nbottom of the sea. In his castle in the air he kept prisoner a beauteous\nprincess whom he had swooped down upon and carried off in a magic chariot.\nBut her lover turned himself into an ant and so climbed up one of the\ngolden chains into the enchanted castle, for he had done a kindness to the\nking and queen of ants, and they rewarded him by transforming him into an\nant in his time of need. When he had learned from the captive princess the\nsecret of the giant\u2019s life, he procured the chest from the bottom of the\nsea by the help of the king of fishes, whom he had also obliged; and\nopening the chest he killed first the wolf, then the hare, and then the\ndove, and at the death of each animal the giant grew weaker and weaker as\nif he had lost a limb. In the stomach of the dove the hero found the egg\non which the giant\u2019s life depended, and when he came with it to the castle\nhe found Body-without-Soul stretched on his bed at the point of death. So\nhe dashed the egg against the giant\u2019s forehead, the egg broke, and the\ngiant straightway expired.(379) In another Breton tale the life of a giant\nresides in an old box-tree which grows in his castle garden; and to kill\nhim it is necessary to sever the tap-root of the tree at a single blow of\nan axe without injuring any of the lesser roots. This task the hero, as\nusual, successfully accomplishes, and at the same moment the giant drops\ndead.(380)\n\n(M107) The notion of an external soul has now been traced in folk-tales\ntold by Aryan peoples from India to Brittany and the Hebrides. We have\nstill to shew that the same idea occurs commonly in the popular stories of\npeoples who do not belong to the Aryan stock. In the first place it\nappears in the ancient Egyptian story of \u201cThe Two Brothers.\u201d This story\nwas written down in the reign of Rameses II., about 1300 B.C. It is\ntherefore older than our present redaction of Homer, and far older than\nthe Bible. The outline of the story, so far as it concerns us here, is as\nfollows. Once upon a time there were two brethren; the name of the elder\nwas Anpu and the name of the younger was Bata. Now Anpu had a house and a\nwife, and his younger brother dwelt with him as his servant. It was Anpu\nwho made the garments, and every morning when it grew light he drove the\nkine afield. As he walked behind them they used to say to him, \u201cThe grass\nis good in such and such a place,\u201d and he heard what they said and led\nthem to the good pasture that they desired. So his kine grew very sleek\nand multiplied greatly. One day when the two brothers were at work in the\nfield the elder brother said to the younger, \u201cRun and fetch seed from the\nvillage.\u201d So the younger brother ran and said to the wife of his elder\nbrother, \u201cGive me seed that I may run to the field, for my brother sent me\nsaying, Tarry not.\u201d She said, \u201cGo to the barn and take as much as thou\nwouldst.\u201d He went and filled a jar full of wheat and barley, and came\nforth bearing it on his shoulders. When the woman saw him her heart went\nout to him, and she laid hold of him and said, \u201cCome, let us rest an hour\ntogether.\u201d But he said, \u201cThou art to me as a mother, and my brother is to\nme as a father.\u201d So he would not hearken to her, but took the load on his\nback and went away to the field. In the evening, when the elder brother\nwas returning from the field, his wife feared for what she had said. So\nshe took soot and made herself as one who had been beaten. And when her\nhusband came home, she said, \u201cWhen thy younger brother came to fetch seed,\nhe said to me, Come, let us rest an hour together. But I would not, and he\nbeat me.\u201d Then the elder brother became like a panther of the south; he\nsharpened his knife and stood behind the door of the cow-house. And when\nthe sun set and the younger brother came laden with all the herbs of the\nfield, as was his wont every day, the cow that walked in front of the herd\nsaid to him, \u201cBehold, thine elder brother stands with a knife to kill\nthee. Flee before him.\u201d When he heard what the cow said, he looked under\nthe door of the cow-house and saw the feet of his elder brother standing\nbehind the door, his knife in his hand. So he fled and his brother pursued\nhim with the knife. But the younger brother cried for help to the Sun, and\nthe Sun heard him and caused a great water to spring up between him and\nhis elder brother, and the water was full of crocodiles. The two brothers\nstood, the one on the one side of the water and the other on the other,\nand the younger brother told the elder brother all that had befallen. So\nthe elder brother repented him of what he had done and he lifted up his\nvoice and wept. But he could not come at the farther bank by reason of the\ncrocodiles. His younger brother called to him and said, \u201cGo home and tend\nthe cattle thyself. For I will dwell no more in the place where thou art.\nI will go to the Valley of the Acacia. But this is what thou shalt do for\nme. Thou shalt come and care for me, if evil befalls me, for I will\nenchant my heart and place it on the top of the flower of the Acacia; and\nif they cut the Acacia and my heart falls to the ground, thou shalt come\nand seek it, and when thou hast found it thou shalt lay it in a vessel of\nfresh water. Then I shall come to life again. But this is the sign that\nevil has befallen me; the pot of beer in thine hand shall bubble.\u201d So he\nwent away to the Valley of the Acacia, but his brother returned home with\ndust on his head and slew his wife and cast her to the dogs.\n\n(M108) For many days afterwards the younger brother dwelt alone in the\nValley of the Acacia. By day he hunted the beasts of the field, but at\nevening he came and laid him down under the Acacia, on the top of whose\nflower was his heart. And many days after that he built himself a house in\nthe Valley of the Acacia. But the gods were grieved for him; and the Sun\nsaid to Khnumu, \u201cMake a wife for Bata, that he may not dwell alone.\u201d So\nKhnumu made him a woman to dwell with him, who was perfect in her limbs\nmore than any woman on earth, for all the gods were in her. So she dwelt\nwith him. But one day a lock of her hair fell into the river and floated\ndown to the land of Egypt, to the house of Pharaoh\u2019s washerwomen. The\nfragrance of the lock perfumed Pharaoh\u2019s raiment, and the washerwomen were\nblamed, for it was said, \u201cAn odour of perfume in the garments of Pharaoh!\u201d\nSo the heart of Pharaoh\u2019s chief washerman was weary of the complaints that\nwere made every day, and he went to the wharf, and there in the water he\nspied the lock of hair. He sent one down into the river to fetch it, and,\nbecause it smelt sweetly, he took it to Pharaoh. Then Pharaoh\u2019s magicians\nwere sent for and they said, \u201cThis lock of hair belongs to a daughter of\nthe Sun, who has in her the essence of all the gods. Let messengers go\nforth to all foreign lands to seek her.\u201d So the woman was brought from the\nValley of the Acacia with chariots and archers and much people, and all\nthe land of Egypt rejoiced at her coming, and Pharaoh loved her. But when\nthey asked her of her husband, she said to Pharaoh, \u201cLet them cut down the\nAcacia and let them destroy it.\u201d So men were sent with tools to cut down\nthe Acacia. They came to it and cut the flower upon which was the heart of\nBata; and he fell down dead in that evil hour. But the next day, when the\nearth grew light and the elder brother of Bata was entered into his house\nand had sat down, they brought him a pot of beer and it bubbled, and they\ngave him a jug of wine and it grew turbid. Then he took his staff and his\nsandals and hied him to the Valley of the Acacia, and there he found his\nyounger brother lying dead in his house. So he sought for the heart of his\nbrother under the Acacia. For three years he sought in vain, but in the\nfourth year he found it in the berry of the Acacia. So he threw the heart\ninto a cup of fresh water. And when it was night and the heart had sucked\nin much water, Bata shook in all his limbs and revived. Then he drank the\ncup of water in which his heart was, and his heart went into its place,\nand he lived as before.(381)\n\n(M109) In the _Arabian Nights_ we read how Seyf el-Mulook, after wandering\nfor four months over mountains and hills and deserts, came to a lofty\npalace in which he found the lovely daughter of the King of India sitting\nalone on a golden couch in a hall spread with silken carpets. She tells\nhim that she is held captive by a jinnee, who had swooped down on her and\ncarried her off while she was disporting herself with her female slaves in\na tank in the great garden of her father the king. Seyf el-Mulook then\noffers to smite the jinnee with the sword and slay him. \u201cBut,\u201d she\nreplied, \u201cthou canst not slay him unless thou kill his soul.\u201d \u201cAnd in what\nplace,\u201d said he, \u201cis his soul?\u201d She answered, \u201cI asked him respecting it\nmany times; but he would not confess to me its place. It happened,\nhowever, that I urged him, one day, and he was enraged against me, and\nsaid to me, \u2018How often wilt thou ask me respecting my soul? What is the\nreason of thy question respecting my soul?\u2019 So I answered him, \u2018O H\u00e1tim,\nthere remaineth to me no one but thee, excepting God; and I, as long as I\nlive, would not cease to hold thy soul in my embrace; and if I do not take\ncare of thy soul, and put it in the midst of my eye, how can I live after\nthee? If I knew thy soul, I would take care of it as of my right eye.\u2019 And\nthereupon he said to me, \u2018When I was born, the astrologers declared that\nthe destruction of my soul would be effected by the hand of one of the\nsons of the human kings. I therefore took my soul, and put it into the\ncrop of a sparrow, and I imprisoned the sparrow in a little box, and put\nthis into another small box, and this I put within seven other small\nboxes, and I put these within seven chests, and the chests I put into a\ncoffer of marble within the verge of this circumambient ocean; for this\npart is remote from the countries of mankind, and none of mankind can gain\naccess to it.\u2019 \u201d But Seyf el-Mulook got possession of the sparrow and\nstrangled it, and the jinnee fell upon the ground a heap of black\nashes.(382) In a modern Arabian tale a king marries an ogress, who puts\nout the eyes of the king\u2019s forty wives. One of the blinded queens gives\nbirth to a son whom she names Mohammed the Prudent. But the ogress queen\nhated him and compassed his death. So she sent him on an errand to the\nhouse of her kinsfolk the ogres. In the house of the ogres he saw some\nthings hanging from the roof, and on asking a female slave what they were,\nshe said, \u201cThat is the bottle which contains the life of my lady the\nqueen, and the other bottle beside it contains the eyes of the queens whom\nmy mistress blinded.\u201d A little afterwards he spied a beetle and rose to\nkill it. \u201cDon\u2019t kill it,\u201d cried the slave, \u201cfor that is my life.\u201d But\nMohammed the Prudent watched the beetle till it entered a chink in the\nwall; and when the female slave had fallen asleep, he killed the beetle in\nits hole, and so the slave died. Then Mohammed took down the two bottles\nand carried them home to his father\u2019s palace. There he presented himself\nbefore the ogress queen and said, \u201cSee, I have your life in my hand, but I\nwill not kill you till you have replaced the eyes which you took from the\nforty queens.\u201d The ogress did as she was bid, and then Mohammed the\nPrudent said, \u201cThere, take your life.\u201d But the bottle slipped from his\nhand and fell, the life of the ogress escaped from it, and she died.(383)\n\n(M110) A Basque story, which closely resembles some of the stories told\namong Aryan peoples, relates how a monster\u2014a Body-without-Soul\u2014detains a\nprincess in captivity, and is questioned by her as to how he might be\nslain. With some reluctance he tells her, \u201cYou must kill a terrible wolf\nwhich is in the forest, and inside him is a fox, in the fox is a pigeon;\nthis pigeon has an egg in his head, and whoever should strike me on the\nforehead with this egg would kill me.\u201d The hero of the story, by name\nMalbrouk, has learned, in the usual way, the art of turning himself at\nwill into a wolf, an ant, a hawk, or a dog, and on the strength of this\naccomplishment he kills the animals, one after the other, and extracts the\nprecious egg from the pigeon\u2019s head. When the wolf is killed, the monster\nfeels it and says despondently, \u201cI do not know if anything is going to\nhappen to me. I am much afraid of it.\u201d When the fox and the pigeon have\nbeen killed, he cries that it is all over with him, that they have taken\nthe egg out of the pigeon, and that he knows not what is to become of him.\nFinally the princess strikes the monster on the forehead with the egg, and\nhe falls a corpse.(384) In a Kabyle story an ogre declares that his fate\nis far away in an egg, which is in a pigeon, which is in a camel, which is\nin the sea. The hero procures the egg and crushes it between his hands,\nand the ogre dies.(385) In a Magyar folk-tale, an old witch detains a\nyoung prince called Ambrose in the bowels of the earth. At last she\nconfided to him that she kept a wild boar in a silken meadow, and if it\nwere killed, they would find a hare inside, and inside the hare a pigeon,\nand inside the pigeon a small box, and inside the box one black and one\nshining beetle: the shining beetle held her life, and the black one held\nher power; if these two beetles died, then her life would come to an end\nalso. When the old hag went out, Ambrose killed the wild boar, and took\nout the hare; from the hare he took the pigeon, from the pigeon the box,\nand from the box the two beetles; he killed the black beetle, but kept the\nshining one alive. So the witch\u2019s power left her immediately, and when she\ncame home, she had to take to her bed. Having learned from her how to\nescape from his prison to the upper air, Ambrose killed the shining\nbeetle, and the old hag\u2019s spirit left her at once.(386) In another\nHungarian story the safety of the Dwarf-king resides in a golden\ncockchafer, inside a golden cock, inside a golden sheep, inside a golden\nstag, in the ninety-ninth island. The hero overcomes all these golden\nanimals and so recovers his bride, whom the Dwarf-king had carried\noff.(387)\n\n(M111) A Lapp story tells of a giant who slew a man and took away his\nwife. When the man\u2019s son grew up, he tried to rescue his mother and kill\nthe giant, but fire and sword were powerless to harm the monster; it\nseemed as if he had no life in his body. \u201cDear mother,\u201d at last enquired\nthe son, \u201cdon\u2019t you know where the giant has hidden away his life?\u201d The\nmother did not know, but promised to ask. So one day, when the giant\nchanced to be in a good humour, she asked him where he kept his life. He\nsaid to her, \u201cOut yonder on a burning sea is an island, in the island is a\nbarrel, in the barrel is a sheep, in the sheep is a hen, in the hen is an\negg, and in the egg is my life.\u201d When the woman\u2019s son heard this, he hired\na bear, a wolf, a hawk, and a diver-bird and set off in a boat to sail to\nthe island in the burning sea. He sat with the hawk and the diver-bird\nunder an iron tent in the middle of the boat, and he set the bear and the\nwolf to row. That is why to this day the bear\u2019s hair is dark brown and the\nwolf has dark-brown spots; for as they sat at the oars without any screen\nthey were naturally scorched by the tossing tongues of flame on the\nburning sea. However, they made their way over the fiery billows to the\nisland, and there they found the barrel. In a trice the bear had knocked\nthe bottom out of it with his claws, and forth sprang a sheep. But the\nwolf soon pulled the sheep down and rent it in pieces. From out the sheep\nflew a hen, but the hawk stooped on it and tore it with his talons. In the\nhen was an egg, which dropped into the sea and sank; but the diver-bird\ndived after it. Twice he dived after it in vain and came up to the surface\ngasping and spluttering; but the third time he brought up the egg and\nhanded it to the young man. Great was the young man\u2019s joy. At once he\nkindled a great bonfire on the shore, threw the egg into it, and rowed\naway back across the sea. On landing he went away straight to the giant\u2019s\nabode, and found the monster burning, just as he had left the egg burning\non the island. \u201cFool that I was,\u201d lamented the dying giant, \u201cto betray my\nlife to a wicked old woman,\u201d and with that he snatched at an iron tube\nthrough which in happier days he had been wont to suck the blood of his\nhuman victims. But the woman was too subtle for him, for she had taken the\nprecaution of inserting one end of the tube in the glowing embers of the\nhearth; and so, when the giant sucked hard at the other end, he imbibed\nonly fire and ashes. Thus he burned inside as well as outside, and when\nthe fire went out the giant\u2019s life went out with it.(388)\n\n(M112) A Samoyed story tells how seven warlocks killed a certain man\u2019s\nmother and carried off his sister, whom they kept to serve them. Every\nnight when they came home the seven warlocks used to take out their hearts\nand place them in a dish which the woman hung on the tent-poles. But the\nwife of the man whom they had wronged stole the hearts of the warlocks\nwhile they slept, and took them to her husband. By break of day he went\nwith the hearts to the warlocks, and found them at the point of death.\nThey all begged for their hearts; but he threw six of their hearts to the\nground, and six of the warlocks died. The seventh and eldest warlock\nbegged hard for his heart and the man said, \u201cYou killed my mother. Make\nher alive again, and I will give you back your heart.\u201d The warlock said to\nhis wife, \u201cGo to the place where the dead woman lies. You will find a bag\nthere. Bring it to me. The woman\u2019s spirit is in the bag.\u201d So his wife\nbrought the bag; and the warlock said to the man, \u201cGo to your dead mother,\nshake the bag and let the spirit breathe over her bones; so she will come\nto life again.\u201d The man did as he was bid, and his mother was restored to\nlife. Then he hurled the seventh heart to the ground, and the seventh\nwarlock died.(389) In a Kalmuck tale we read how a certain khan challenged\na wise man to shew his skill by stealing a precious stone on which the\nkhan\u2019s life depended. The sage contrived to purloin the talisman while the\nkhan and his guards slept; but not content with this he gave a further\nproof of his dexterity by bonneting the slumbering potentate with a\nbladder. This was too much for the khan. Next morning he informed the sage\nthat he could overlook everything else, but that the indignity of being\nbonneted with a bladder was more than he could stand; and he ordered his\nfacetious friend to instant execution. Pained at this exhibition of royal\ningratitude, the sage dashed to the ground the talisman which he still\nheld in his hand; and at the same instant blood flowed from the nostrils\nof the khan, and he gave up the ghost.(390)\n\n(M113) In a Tartar poem two heroes named Ak Molot and Bulat engage in\nmortal combat. Ak Molot pierces his foe through and through with an arrow,\ngrapples with him, and dashes him to the ground, but all in vain, Bulat\ncould not die. At last when the combat has lasted three years, a friend of\nAk Molot sees a golden casket hanging by a white thread from the sky, and\nbethinks him that perhaps this casket contains Bulat\u2019s soul. So he shot\nthrough the white thread with an arrow, and down fell the casket. He\nopened it, and in the casket sat ten white birds, and one of the birds was\nBulat\u2019s soul. Bulat wept when he saw that his soul was found in the\ncasket. But one after the other the birds were killed, and then Ak Molot\neasily slew his foe.(391) In another Tartar poem, two brothers going to\nfight two other brothers take out their souls and hide them in the form of\na white herb with six stalks in a deep pit. But one of their foes sees\nthem doing so and digs up their souls, which he puts into a golden ram\u2019s\nhorn, and then sticks the ram\u2019s horn in his quiver. The two warriors whose\nsouls have thus been stolen know that they have no chance of victory, and\naccordingly make peace with their enemies.(392) In another Tartar poem a\nterrible demon sets all the gods and heroes at defiance. At last a valiant\nyouth fights the demon, binds him hand and foot, and slices him with his\nsword. But still the demon is not slain. So the youth asked him, \u201cTell me,\nwhere is your soul hidden? For if your soul had been hidden in your body,\nyou must have been dead long ago.\u201d The demon replied, \u201cOn the saddle of my\nhorse is a bag. In the bag is a serpent with twelve heads. In the serpent\nis my soul. When you have killed the serpent, you have killed me also.\u201d So\nthe youth took the saddle-bag from the horse and killed the twelve-headed\nserpent, whereupon the demon expired.(393) In another Tartar poem a hero\ncalled K\u00f6k Chan deposits with a maiden a golden ring, in which is half his\nstrength. Afterwards when K\u00f6k Chan is wrestling long with a hero and\ncannot kill him, a woman drops into his mouth the ring which contains half\nhis strength. Thus inspired with fresh force he slays his enemy.(394)\n\n(M114) In a Mongolian story the hero Joro gets the better of his enemy the\nlama Tschoridong in the following way. The lama, who is an enchanter,\nsends out his soul in the form of a wasp to sting Joro\u2019s eyes. But Joro\ncatches the wasp in his hand, and by alternately shutting and opening his\nhand he causes the lama alternately to lose and recover\nconsciousness.(395) In a Tartar poem two youths cut open the body of an\nold witch and tear out her bowels, but all to no purpose, she still lives.\nOn being asked where her soul is, she answers that it is in the middle of\nher shoe-sole in the form of a seven-headed speckled snake. So one of the\nyouths slices her shoe-sole with his sword, takes out the speckled snake,\nand cuts off its seven heads. Then the witch dies.(396) Another Tartar\npoem describes how the hero Kartaga grappled with the Swan-woman. Long\nthey wrestled. Moons waxed and waned and still they wrestled; years came\nand went, and still the struggle went on. But the piebald horse and the\nblack horse knew that the Swan-woman\u2019s soul was not in her. Under the\nblack earth flow nine seas; where the seas meet and form one, the sea\ncomes to the surface of the earth. At the mouth of the nine seas rises a\nrock of copper; it rises to the surface of the ground, it rises up between\nheaven and earth, this rock of copper. At the foot of the copper rock is a\nblack chest, in the black chest is a golden casket, and in the golden\ncasket is the soul of the Swan-woman. Seven little birds are the soul of\nthe Swan-woman; if the birds are killed the Swan-woman will die\nstraightway. So the horses ran to the foot of the copper rock, opened the\nblack chest, and brought back the golden casket. Then the piebald horse\nturned himself into a bald-headed man, opened the golden casket, and cut\noff the heads of the seven birds. So the Swan-woman died.(397) In a Tartar\nstory a chief called Tash Kan is asked where his soul is. He answers that\nthere are seven great poplars, and under the poplars a golden well; seven\n_Maralen_ (?) come to drink the water of the well, and the belly of one of\nthem trails on the ground; in this _Maral_ is a golden box, in the golden\nbox is a silver box, in the silver box are seven quails, the head of one\nof the quails is golden and its tail silver; that quail is Tash Kan\u2019s\nsoul. The hero of the story gets possession of the seven quails and wrings\nthe necks of six of them. Then Tash Kan comes running and begs the hero to\nlet his soul go free. But the hero wrings the last quail\u2019s neck, and Tash\nKan drops dead.(398) In another Tartar poem the hero, pursuing his sister\nwho has driven away his cattle, is warned to desist from the pursuit\nbecause his sister has carried away his soul in a golden sword and a\ngolden arrow, and if he pursues her she will kill him by throwing the\ngolden sword or shooting the golden arrow at him.(399)\n\n(M115) A modern Chinese story tells how an habitual criminal used to take\nhis soul out of his own body for the purpose of evading the righteous\npunishment of his crimes. This bad man lived in Khien (Kwei-cheu), and the\nsentences that had been passed on him formed a pile as high as a hill. The\nmandarins had flogged him to death with sticks and flung his mangled\ncorpse into the river, but three days afterwards the scoundrel got his\nsoul back again, and on the fifth day he resumed his career of villainy as\nif nothing had happened. The thing occurred again and again, till at last\nit reached the ears of the Governor of the province, who flew into a\nviolent passion and proposed to the Governor-General to have the rascal\nbeheaded. And beheaded he was; but in three days the wretch was alive\nagain with no trace of decapitation about him except a slender red thread\nround his neck. And now, like a giant refreshed, he began a fresh series\nof enormities. He even went so far as to beat his own mother. This was\nmore than she could bear, and she brought the matter before the\nmagistrate. She produced in court a vase and said, \u201cIn this vase my\nrefractory son has hidden his soul. Whenever he was conscious of having\ncommitted a serious crime, or a misdeed of the most heinous kind, he\nremained at home, took his soul out of his body, purified it, and put it\nin the vase. Then the authorities only punished or executed his body of\nflesh and blood, and not his soul. With his soul, refined by a long\nprocess, he then cured his freshly mutilated body, which thus became able\nin three days to recommence in the old way. Now, however, his crimes have\nreached a climax, for he has beaten me, an old woman, and I cannot bear\nit. I pray you, smash this vase, and scatter his soul by fanning it away\nwith a windwheel; and if then you castigate his body anew, it is probable\nthat bad son of mine will really die.\u201d The mandarin took the hint. He had\nthe rogue cudgelled to death, and when they examined the corpse they found\nthat decay had set in within ten days.(400)\n\n(M116) The Khasis of Assam tell of a certain Kyllong, king of Madur, who\npursued his conquests on a remarkable principle. He needed few or no\nsoldiers, because he himself was a very strong man and nobody could kill\nhim permanently; they could, it is true, put him to death, but then he\ncame to life again immediately. The king of Synteng, who was much afraid\nof him, once chopped him in pieces and threw the severed hands and feet\nfar away, thinking thus to get rid of him for good and all; but it was to\nno purpose. The very next morning Kyllong came to life again and stalked\nabout as brisk as ever. So the king of Synteng was very anxious to learn\nhow his rival contrived thus to rise from the dead; and he hit on a plan\nfor worming out the secret. He chose the fairest girl of the whole\ncountry, clad her in royal robes, put jewels of gold and silver upon her,\nand said, \u201cAll these will I give thee and more besides, if thou canst\nobtain for me King Kyllong\u2019s secret, and canst inform me how he brings\nhimself to life again after being killed.\u201d So he sent the girl to the\nslave-market in King Kyllong\u2019s country; and the king saw and loved her and\ntook her to wife. So she caressed him and coaxed him to tell her his\nsecret, and in a fatal hour he was beguiled into revealing it. He said,\n\u201cMy life depends upon these things. I must bathe every day and must wash\nmy entrails. After that, I take my food, and there is no one on earth who\ncan kill me unless he obtains possession of my entrails. Thus my life\nhangs only on my entrails.\u201d His treacherous wife at once sent word to the\nking of Synteng, who caused men to lie in wait while Kyllong was bathing.\nAs usual, Kyllong had laid his entrails on one side of the bathing-place,\nwhile he disported himself in the water, intending afterwards to wash them\nand replace them in his body. But before he could do so, one of the\nliers-in-wait had seized the entrails and killed him. The entrails he cut\nin pieces and gave to the dogs to eat. That was the end of King Kyllong.\nHe was never able to come to life again; his country was conquered, and\nthe members of the royal family were scattered far and wide. Seven\ngenerations have passed since then.(401)\n\n(M117) A Malay poem relates how once upon a time in the city of Indrapoora\nthere was a certain merchant who was rich and prosperous, but he had no\nchildren. One day as he walked with his wife by the river they found a\nbaby girl, fair as an angel. So they adopted the child and called her\nBidasari. The merchant caused a golden fish to be made, and into this fish\nhe transferred the soul of his adopted daughter. Then he put the golden\nfish in a golden box full of water, and hid it in a pond in the midst of\nhis garden. In time the girl grew to be a lovely woman. Now the King of\nIndrapoora had a fair young queen, who lived in fear that the king might\ntake to himself a second wife. So, hearing of the charms of Bidasari, the\nqueen resolved to put her out of the way. She lured the girl to the palace\nand tortured her cruelly; but Bidasari could not die, because her soul was\nnot in her. At last she could stand the torture no longer and said to the\nqueen, \u201cIf you wish me to die, you must bring the box which is in the pond\nin my father\u2019s garden.\u201d So the box was brought and opened, and there was\nthe golden fish in the water. The girl said, \u201cMy soul is in that fish. In\nthe morning you must take the fish out of the water, and in the evening\nyou must put it back into the water. Do not let the fish lie about, but\nbind it round your neck. If you do this, I shall soon die.\u201d So the queen\ntook the fish out of the box and fastened it round her neck; and no sooner\nhad she done so, than Bidasari fell into a swoon. But in the evening, when\nthe fish was put back into the water, Bidasari came to herself again.\nSeeing that she thus had the girl in her power, the queen sent her home to\nher adopted parents. To save her from further persecution her parents\nresolved to remove their daughter from the city. So in a lonely and\ndesolate spot they built a house and brought Bidasari thither. There she\ndwelt alone, undergoing vicissitudes that corresponded with the\nvicissitudes of the golden fish in which was her soul. All day long, while\nthe fish was out of the water, she remained unconscious; but in the\nevening, when the fish was put into the water, she revived. One day the\nking was out hunting, and coming to the house where Bidasari lay\nunconscious, was smitten with her beauty. He tried to waken her, but in\nvain. Next day, towards evening, he repeated his visit, but still found\nher unconscious. However, when darkness fell, she came to herself and told\nthe king the secret of her life. So the king returned to the palace, took\nthe fish from the queen, and put it in water. Immediately Bidasari\nrevived, and the king took her to wife.(402)\n\n(M118) Another story of an external soul comes from Nias, an island to the\nwest of Sumatra. Once on a time a chief was captured by his enemies, who\ntried to put him to death but failed. Water would not drown him nor fire\nburn him nor steel pierce him. At last his wife revealed the secret. On\nhis head he had a hair as hard as a copper wire; and with this wire his\nlife was bound up. So the hair was plucked out, and with it his spirit\nfled.(403)\n\n(M119) A Hausa story from Northern Nigeria closely resembles some of the\nEuropean tales which we have noticed; for it contains not only the\nincident of the external soul, but also the incident of the helpful\nanimals, by whose assistance the hero is able to slay the Soulless King\nand obtain possession of the kingdom. The story runs thus. A certain man\nand his wife had four daughters born to them in succession, but every one\nof the baby girls mysteriously disappeared on the day when she was to be\nweaned; so the parents fell under the suspicion of having devoured them.\nLast of all there was born to them a son, who to avoid accidents was left\nto wean himself. One day, as he grew up, the son received a magic lotion\nfrom an old woman, who told him to rub his eyes with it. He did so, and\nimmediately he saw a large house and entering it he found his eldest\nsister married to a bull. She bade him welcome and so did her husband the\nbull; and when he went away, the bull very kindly presented him with a\nlock of his hair as a keepsake. In like manner the lad discovered his\nother three sisters, who were living in wedlock with a ram, a dog, and a\nhawk respectively. All of them welcomed him and from the ram, the dog, and\nthe hawk he received tokens of regard in the shape of hair or feathers.\nThen he returned home and told his parents of his adventure and how he had\nfound his sisters alive and married. Next day he went to a far city, where\nhe made love to the Queen and persuaded her to plot with him against the\nlife of the King her husband. So she coaxed the King to shew his affection\nfor her by \u201ctaking his own life, and joining it to hers.\u201d The unsuspecting\nhusband, as usual, fell into the trap set for him by his treacherous wife.\nHe confided to her the secret of his life. \u201cMy life,\u201d said he, \u201cis behind\nthe city, behind the city in a thicket. In this thicket there is a lake;\nin the lake is a rock; in the rock is a gazelle; in the gazelle is a dove;\nand in the dove is a small box.\u201d The Queen divulged the secret to her\nlover, who kindled a fire behind the city and threw into it the hair and\nfeathers which he had received from the friendly animals, his\nbrothers-in-law. Immediately the animals themselves appeared and readily\ngave their help in the enterprise. The bull drank up the lake; the ram\nbroke up the rock; the dog caught the gazelle; the hawk captured the dove.\nSo the youth extracted the precious box from the dove and repaired to the\npalace, where he found the King already dead. His Majesty had been ailing\nfrom the moment when the young man left the city, and he grew steadily\nworse with every fresh success of the adventurer who was to supplant him.\nSo the hero became King and married the false Queen; and his sisters\u2019\nhusbands were changed from animals into men and received subordinate posts\nin the government. The hero\u2019s parents, too, came to live in the city over\nwhich he reigned.(404)\n\n(M120) A West African story from Southern Nigeria relates how a king kept\nhis soul in a little brown bird, which perched on a tall tree beside the\ngate of the palace. The king\u2019s life was so bound up with that of the bird\nthat whoever should kill the bird would simultaneously kill the king and\nsucceed to the kingdom. The secret was betrayed by the queen to her lover,\nwho shot the bird with an arrow and thereby slew the king and ascended the\nvacant throne.(405) A tale told by the Ba-Ronga of South Africa sets forth\nhow the lives of a whole family were contained in one cat. When a girl of\nthe family, named Titishan, married a husband, she begged her parents to\nlet her take the precious cat with her to her new home. But they refused,\nsaying, \u201cYou know that our life is attached to it\u201d; and they offered to\ngive her an antelope or even an elephant instead of it. But nothing would\nsatisfy her but the cat. So at last she carried it off with her and shut\nit up in a place where nobody saw it; even her husband knew nothing about\nit. One day, when she went to work in the fields, the cat escaped from its\nplace of concealment, entered the hut, put on the warlike trappings of the\nhusband, and danced and sang. Some children, attracted by the noise,\ndiscovered the cat at its antics, and when they expressed their\nastonishment, the animal only capered the more and insulted them besides.\nSo they went to the owner and said, \u201cThere is somebody dancing in your\nhouse, and he insulted us.\u201d \u201cHold your tongues,\u201d said he, \u201cI\u2019ll soon put a\nstop to your lies.\u201d So he went and hid behind the door and peeped in, and\nthere sure enough was the cat prancing about and singing. He fired at it,\nand the animal dropped down dead. At the same moment his wife fell to the\nground in the field where she was at work; said she, \u201cI have been killed\nat home.\u201d But she had strength enough left to ask her husband to go with\nher to her parents\u2019 village, taking with him the dead cat wrapt up in a\nmat. All her relatives assembled, and bitterly they reproached her for\nhaving insisted on taking the animal with her to her husband\u2019s village. As\nsoon as the mat was unrolled and they saw the dead cat, they all fell down\nlifeless one after the other. So the Clan of the Cat was destroyed; and\nthe bereaved husband closed the gate of the village with a branch, and\nreturned home, and told his friends how in killing the cat he had killed\nthe whole clan, because their lives depended on the life of the cat. In\nanother Ronga story the lives of a whole clan are attached to a buffalo,\nwhich a girl of the clan in like manner insists on taking with her.(406)\n\n(M121) Ideas of the same sort meet us in stories told by the North\nAmerican Indians. Thus in one Indian tale the hero pounds his enemy to\npieces, but cannot kill him because his heart is not in his body. At last\nthe champion learns that his foe\u2019s heart is in the sky, at the western\nside of the noonday sun; so he reaches up, seizes the heart, and crushes\nit, and straightway his enemy expires. In another Indian myth there\nfigures a personage Winter whose song brings frost and snow, but his heart\nis hidden away at a distance. However, his foe finds the heart and burns\nit, and so the Snow-maker perishes.(407) A Pawnee story relates how a\nwounded warrior was carried off by bears, who healed him of his hurts.\nWhen the Indian was about to return to his village, the old he-bear said\nto him, \u201cI shall look after you. I shall give you a part of myself. If I\nam killed, you shall be killed. If I grow old, you shall be old.\u201d And the\nbear gave him a cap of bearskin, and at parting he put his arms round the\nIndian and hugged him, and put his mouth against the man\u2019s mouth and held\nthe man\u2019s hands in his paws. The Indian who told the tale conjectured that\nwhen the man died, the old bear died also.(408) The Navajoes tell of a\ncertain mythical being called \u201cthe Maiden that becomes a Bear,\u201d who\nlearned the art of turning herself into a bear from the prairie wolf. She\nwas a great warrior and quite invulnerable; for when she went to war she\ntook out her vital organs and hid them, so that no one could kill her; and\nwhen the battle was over she put the organs back in their places\nagain.(409) The Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia tell of an ogress,\nwho could not be killed because her life was in a hemlock branch. A brave\nboy met her in the woods, smashed her head with a stone, scattered her\nbrains, broke her bones, and threw them into the water. Then, thinking he\nhad disposed of the ogress, he went into her house. There he saw a woman\nrooted to the floor, who warned him, saying, \u201cNow do not stay long. I know\nthat you have tried to kill the ogress. It is the fourth time that\nsomebody has tried to kill her. She never dies; she has nearly come to\nlife. There in that covered hemlock branch is her life. Go there, and as\nsoon as you see her enter, shoot her life. Then she will be dead.\u201d Hardly\nhad she finished speaking when sure enough in came the ogress, singing as\nshe walked:\u2014\n\n\n    \u201c_I have the magical treasure,_\n    _I have the supernatural power,_\n    _I can return to life._\u201d\n\n\nSuch was her song. But the boy shot at her life, and she fell dead to the\nfloor.(410)\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XI. THE EXTERNAL SOUL IN FOLK-CUSTOM.\n\n\n\n\n\u00a7 1. The External Soul in Inanimate Things.\n\n\n(M122) Thus the idea that the soul may be deposited for a longer or\nshorter time in some place of security outside the body, or at all events\nin the hair, is found in the popular tales of many races. It remains to\nshew that the idea is not a mere figment devised to adorn a tale, but is a\nreal article of primitive faith, which has given rise to a corresponding\nset of customs.\n\n(M123) We have seen that in the tales the hero, as a preparation for\nbattle, sometimes removes his soul from his body, in order that his body\nmay be invulnerable and immortal in the combat. With a like intention the\nsavage removes his soul from his body on various occasions of real or\nimaginary peril. Thus among the people of Minahassa in Celebes, when a\nfamily moves into a new house, a priest collects the souls of the whole\nfamily in a bag, and afterwards restores them to their owners, because the\nmoment of entering a new house is supposed to be fraught with supernatural\ndanger.(411) In Southern Celebes, when a woman is brought to bed, the\nmessenger who fetches the doctor or the midwife always carries with him\nsomething made of iron, such as a chopping-knife, which he delivers to the\ndoctor. The doctor must keep the thing in his house till the confinement\nis over, when he gives it back, receiving a fixed sum of money for doing\nso. The chopping-knife, or whatever it is, represents the woman\u2019s soul,\nwhich at this critical time is believed to be safer out of her body than\nin it. Hence the doctor must take great care of the object; for were it\nlost, the woman\u2019s soul would assuredly, they think, be lost with it.(412)\nBut in Celebes the convenience of occasionally depositing the soul in some\nexternal object is apparently not limited to human beings. The Alfoors, or\nToradjas, who inhabit the central district of that island, and among whose\nindustries the working of iron occupies a foremost place, attribute to the\nmetal a soul which would be apt to desert its body under the blows of the\nhammer, if some means were not found to detain it. Accordingly in every\nsmithy of Poso\u2014for that is the name of the country of these people\u2014you may\nsee hanging up a bundle of wooden instruments, such as chopping-knives,\nswords, spear-heads, and so forth. This bundle goes by the name of\n_lamoa_, which is the general word for \u201cgods,\u201d and in it the soul of the\niron that is being wrought in the smithy is, according to one account,\nsupposed to reside. \u201cIf we did not hang the _lamoa_ over the anvil,\u201d they\nsay, \u201cthe iron would flow away and be unworkable,\u201d on account of the\nabsence of the soul.(413) However, according to another interpretation\nthese wooden models are substitutes offered to the gods in room of the\niron, whose soul the covetous deities might otherwise abstract for their\nown use, thus making the metal unmalleable.(414)\n\n(M124) Among the Dyaks of Pinoeh, a district of South-Eastern Borneo, when\na child is born, a medicine-man is sent for, who conjures the soul of the\ninfant into half a coco-nut, which he thereupon covers with a cloth and\nplaces on a square platter or charger suspended by cords from the roof.\nThis ceremony he repeats at every new moon for a year.(415) The intention\nof the ceremony is not explained by the writer who describes it, but we\nmay conjecture that it is to place the soul of the child in a safer place\nthan its own frail little body. This conjecture is confirmed by the reason\nassigned for a similar custom observed elsewhere in the Indian\nArchipelago. In the Kei Islands, when there is a newly-born child in a\nhouse, an empty coco-nut, split and spliced together again, may sometimes\nbe seen hanging beside a rough wooden image of an ancestor. The soul of\nthe infant is believed to be temporarily deposited in the coco-nut in\norder that it may be safe from the attacks of evil spirits; but when the\nchild grows bigger and stronger, the soul will take up its permanent abode\nin its own body. Similarly among the Esquimaux of Alaska, when a child is\nsick, the medicine-man will sometimes extract its soul from its body and\nplace it for safe-keeping in an amulet, which for further security he\ndeposits in his own medicine-bag. (416) It seems probable that many\namulets have been similarly regarded as soul-boxes, that is, as safes in\nwhich the souls of the owners are kept for greater security.(417) An old\nMang\u2019anje woman in the West Shire district of British Central Africa used\nto wear round her neck an ivory ornament, hollow, and about three inches\nlong, which she called her life or soul (_moyo wanga_). Naturally, she\nwould not part with it; a planter tried to buy it of her, but in\nvain.(418) When Mr. James Macdonald was one day sitting in the house of a\nHlubi chief, awaiting the appearance of that great man, who was busy\ndecorating his person, a native pointed to a pair of magnificent ox-horns,\nand said, \u201cNtame has his soul in these horns.\u201d The horns were those of an\nanimal which had been sacrificed, and they were held sacred. A magician\nhad fastened them to the roof to protect the house and its inmates from\nthe thunder-bolt. \u201cThe idea,\u201d adds Mr. Macdonald, \u201cis in no way foreign to\nSouth African thought. A man\u2019s soul there may dwell in the roof of his\nhouse, in a tree, by a spring of water, or on some mountain scaur.\u201d(419)\nAmong the natives of the Gazelle Peninsula in New Britain there is a\nsecret society which goes by the name of Ingniet or Ingiet. On his\nentrance into it every man receives a stone in the shape either of a human\nbeing or of an animal, and henceforth his soul is believed to be knit up\nin a manner with the stone. If it breaks, it is an evil omen for him; they\nsay that the thunder has struck the stone and that he who owns it will\nsoon die. If nevertheless the man survives the breaking of his soul-stone,\nthey say that it was not a proper soul-stone and he gets a new one\ninstead.(420) The emperor Romanus Lecapenus was once informed by an\nastronomer that the life of Simeon, prince of Bulgaria, was bound up with\na certain column in Constantinople, so that if the capital of the column\nwere removed, Simeon would immediately die. The emperor took the hint and\nremoved the capital, and at the same hour, as the emperor learned by\nenquiry, Simeon died of heart disease in Bulgaria.(421) The deified kings\nof ancient Egypt appear to have enjoyed the privilege of depositing their\nspiritual doubles or souls (_ka_) during their lifetime in a number of\nportrait statues, properly fourteen for each king, which stood in the\nchamber of adoration (_pa doua\u00eft_) of the temple and were revered as the\nequivalents or representatives of the monarchs themselves.(422) Among the\nKarens of Burma \u201cthe knife with which the navel string is cut is carefully\npreserved for the child. The life of the child is supposed to be in some\nway connected with it, for, if lost or destroyed, it is said the child\nwill not be long lived.\u201d(423) Among the Shawnee Indians of North America\nit once happened that an eminent man was favoured with a special\nrevelation by the Great Spirit. Wisely refusing to hide the sacred light\nof revelation under a bushel, he generously communicated a few sparks of\nthe illumination to John Tanner, a white man who lived for many years as\nan Indian among the Indians. \u201cHenceforth,\u201d said the inspired sage, \u201cthe\nfire must never be suffered to go out in your lodge. Summer and winter,\nday and night, in the storm, or when it is calm, you must remember that\nthe life in your body, and the fire in your lodge, are the same, and of\nthe same date. If you suffer your fire to be extinguished, at that moment\nyour life will be at its end.\u201d(424)\n\n(M125) Again, we have seen that in folk-tales a man\u2019s soul or strength is\nsometimes represented as bound up with his hair, and that when his hair is\ncut off he dies or grows weak. So the natives of Amboyna used to think\nthat their strength was in their hair and would desert them if it were\nshorn. A criminal under torture in a Dutch Court of that island persisted\nin denying his guilt till his hair was cut off, when he immediately\nconfessed. One man, who was tried for murder, endured without flinching\nthe utmost ingenuity of his torturers till he saw the surgeon standing\nwith a pair of shears. On asking what this was for, and being told that it\nwas to cut his hair, he begged they would not do it, and made a clean\nbreast. In subsequent cases, when torture failed to wring a confession\nfrom a prisoner, the Dutch authorities made a practice of cutting off his\nhair.(425) In Ceram it is still believed that if young people have their\nhair cut they will be weakened and enervated thereby.(426)\n\n(M126) Here in Europe it used to be thought that the maleficent powers of\nwitches and wizards resided in their hair, and that nothing could make any\nimpression on these miscreants so long as they kept their hair on. Hence\nin France it was customary to shave the whole bodies of persons charged\nwith sorcery before handing them over to the torturer. Millaeus witnessed\nthe torture of some persons at Toulouse, from whom no confession could be\nwrung until they were stripped and completely shaven, when they readily\nacknowledged the truth of the charge. A woman also, who apparently led a\npious life, was put to the torture on suspicion of witchcraft, and bore\nher agonies with incredible constancy, until complete depilation drove her\nto admit her guilt. The noted inquisitor Sprenger contented himself with\nshaving the head of the suspected witch or wizard; but his more\nthorough-going colleague Cumanus shaved the whole bodies of forty-one\nwomen before committing them all to the flames. He had high authority for\nthis rigorous scrutiny, since Satan himself, in a sermon preached from the\npulpit of North Berwick church, comforted his many servants by assuring\nthem that no harm could befall them \u201csa lang as their hair wes on, and\nsould newir latt ane teir fall fra thair ene.\u201d(427) Similarly in Bastar, a\nprovince of India, \u201cif a man is adjudged guilty of witchcraft, he is\nbeaten by the crowd, his hair is shaved, the hair being supposed to\nconstitute his power of mischief, his front teeth are knocked out, in\norder, it is said, to prevent him from muttering incantations.... Women\nsuspected of sorcery have to undergo the same ordeal; if found guilty, the\nsame punishment is awarded, and after being shaved, their hair is attached\nto a tree in some public place.\u201d(428) So among the Bhils of India, when a\nwoman was convicted of witchcraft and had been subjected to various forms\nof persuasion, such as hanging head downwards from a tree and having\npepper put into her eyes, a lock of hair was cut from her head and buried\nin the ground, \u201cthat the last link between her and her former powers of\nmischief might be broken.\u201d(429) In like manner among the Aztecs of Mexico,\nwhen wizards and witches \u201chad done their evil deeds, and the time came to\nput an end to their detestable life, some one laid hold of them and\ncropped the hair on the crown of their heads, which took from them all\ntheir power of sorcery and enchantment, and then it was that by death they\nput an end to their odious existence.\u201d(430)\n\n\n\n\n\u00a7 2. The External Soul in Plants.\n\n\n(M127) Further it has been shewn that in folk-tales the life of a person\nis sometimes so bound up with the life of a plant that the withering of\nthe plant will immediately follow or be followed by the death of the\nperson.(431) Similarly among the natives of the Pennefather River in\nQueensland, when a visiter has made himself very agreeable and taken his\ndeparture, an effigy of him about three or four feet long is cut on some\nsoft tree, such as the _Canarium australasicum_, so as to face in the\ndirection taken by the popular stranger. Afterwards from observing the\nstate of the tree the natives infer the corresponding state of their\nabsent friend, whose illness or death are apparently supposed to be\nportended by the fall of the leaves or of the tree.(432) In Uganda, when a\nnew royal enclosure with its numerous houses was built for a new king,\nbarkcloth trees used to be planted at the main entrance by priests of each\nprincipal deity and offerings were laid under each tree for its particular\ngod. Thenceforth \u201cthe trees were carefully guarded and tended, because it\nwas believed that as they grew and flourished, so the king\u2019s life and\npower would increase.\u201d(433) Among the M\u2019Bengas in Western Africa, about\nthe Gaboon, when two children are born on the same day, the people plant\ntwo trees of the same kind and dance round them. The life of each of the\nchildren is believed to be bound up with the life of one of the trees; and\nif the tree dies or is thrown down, they are sure that the child will soon\ndie.(434) In Sierra Leone also it is customary at the birth of a child to\nplant a shoot of a _malep_-tree, and they think that the tree will grow\nwith the child and be its god. If a tree which has been thus planted\nwithers away, the people consult a sorcerer on the subject.(435) Among the\nWajagga of German East Africa, when a child is born, it is usual to plant\na cultivated plant of some sort behind the house. The plant is thenceforth\ncarefully tended, for they believe that were it to wither away the child\nwould die. When the navel-string drops from the infant, it is buried under\nthe plant. The species of birth-plant varies with the clan; members of one\nclan, for example, plant a particular sort of banana, members of another\nclan plant a sugar-cane, and so on.(436) Among the Swahili of East Africa,\nwhen a child is born, the afterbirth and navel-string are buried in the\ncourtyard and a mark is made on the spot. Seven days afterwards, the hair\nof the child is shaved and deposited, along with the clippings of its\nnails, in the same place. Then over all these relics of the infant\u2019s\nperson a coco-nut is planted. As the tree grows up from the nut, the child\nlikes to point it out to his playfellows and tell them, \u201cThis coco-nut\npalm is my navel.\u201d In planting the coco-nut the parents say, \u201cMay God\ncause our child to grow up, that he or she may one day enjoy the coco-nut\nmilk of the tree which we plant here.\u201d(437) Though it is not expressly\naffirmed, we may perhaps assume that such a birth-tree is supposed to\nstand in a sympathetic relation with the life of the person. In the\nCameroons, also, the life of a person is believed to be sympathetically\nbound up with that of a tree.(438) The chief of Old Town in Calabar kept\nhis soul in a sacred grove near a spring of water. When some Europeans, in\nfrolic or ignorance, cut down part of the grove, the spirit was most\nindignant and threatened the perpetrators of the deed, according to the\nking, with all manner of evil.(439) Among the Fans of the French Congo,\nwhen a chief\u2019s son is born, the remains of the navel-string are buried\nunder a sacred fig-tree, and \u201cthenceforth great importance is attached to\nthe growth of the tree; it is strictly forbidden to touch it. Any attempt\non the tree would be considered as an attack on the human being\nhimself.\u201d(440) Among the Boloki of the Upper Congo a family has a plant\nwith red leaves (called _nkungu_) for its totem. When a woman of the\nfamily is with child for the first time, one of the totemic plants is\nplanted near the hearth outside the house and is never destroyed,\notherwise it is believed that the child would be born thin and weak and\nwould remain puny and sickly. \u201cThe healthy life of the children and family\nis bound up with the healthiness and life of the totem tree as respected\nand preserved by the family.\u201d(441) Among the Baganda of Central Africa a\nchild\u2019s afterbirth was called the second child and was believed to be\nanimated by a spirit, which at once became a ghost. The afterbirth was\nusually buried at the root of a banana tree, and afterwards the tree was\ncarefully guarded by old women, who prevented any one from going near it;\nthey tied ropes of fibre from tree to tree to isolate it, and all the\nchild\u2019s excretions were thrown into this enclosure. When the fruit\nripened, it was cut by the old woman in charge. The reason for guarding\nthe tree thus carefully was a belief that if any stranger were to eat of\nthe fruit of the tree or to drink beer brewed from it, he would carry off\nwith him the ghost of the child\u2019s afterbirth, which had been buried at the\nroot of the banana-tree, and the living child would then die in order to\nfollow its twin ghost. Whereas a grandparent of the child, by eating the\nfruit or drinking the beer, averted this catastrophe and ensured the\nhealth of the child.(442) Among the Wakondyo, at the north-western corner\nof Lake Albert Nyanza, it is customary to bury the afterbirth at the foot\nof a young banana-tree, and the fruit of this particular tree may be eaten\nby no one but the woman who assisted at the birth.(443) The reason for the\ncustom is not mentioned, but probably, as among the Baganda, the life of\nthe child is supposed to be bound up with the life of the tree, since the\nafterbirth, regarded as a spiritual double of the infant, has been buried\nat the root of the tree.\n\n(M128) Some of the Papuans unite the life of a new-born child\nsympathetically with that of a tree by driving a pebble into the bark of\nthe tree. This is supposed to give them complete mastery over the child\u2019s\nlife; if the tree is cut down, the child will die.(444) After a birth the\nMaoris used to bury the navel-string in a sacred place and plant a young\nsapling over it. As the tree grew, it was a _tohu oranga_ or sign of life\nfor the child; if it flourished, the child would prosper; if it withered\nand died, the parents augured the worst for their child.(445) In the\nChatham Islands, when the child of a leading man received its name, it was\ncustomary to plant a tree, \u201cthe growth of which was to be as the growth of\nthe child,\u201d and during the planting priests chanted a spell.(446) In some\nparts of Fiji the navel-string of a male child is planted together with a\ncoco-nut or the slip of a breadfruit-tree, and the child\u2019s life is\nsupposed to be intimately connected with that of the tree.(447) With\ncertain Malayo-Siamese families of the Patani States it is customary to\nbury the afterbirth under a banana-tree, and the condition of the tree is\nafterwards regarded as ominous of the child\u2019s fate for good or evil.(448)\nIn Southern Celebes, when a child is born, a coco-nut is planted and\nwatered with the water in which the afterbirth and navel-string have been\nwashed. As it grows up, the tree is called the \u201ccontemporary\u201d of the\nchild.(449) So in Bali a coco-palm is planted at the birth of a child. It\nis believed to grow up equally with the child, and is called its\n\u201clife-plant.\u201d(450) On certain occasions the Dyaks of Borneo plant a\npalm-tree, which is believed to be a complete index of their fate. If it\nflourishes, they reckon on good fortune; but if it withers or dies, they\nexpect misfortune.(451) Amongst the Dyaks of Landak and Tajan, districts\nof Dutch Borneo, it is customary to plant a fruit-tree for a child, and\nhenceforth in the popular belief the fate of the child is bound up with\nthat of the tree. If the tree shoots up rapidly, it will go well with the\nchild; but if the tree is dwarfed or shrivelled, nothing but misfortune\ncan be expected for its human counterpart.(452) According to another\naccount, at the naming of children and certain other festivals the Dyaks\nare wont to set a _sawang_-plant, roots and all, before a priestess; and\nwhen the festival is over, the plant is replaced in the ground. Such a\nplant becomes thenceforth a sort of prophetic index for the person in\nwhose honour the festival was held. If the plant thrives, the man will be\nfortunate; if it fades or perishes, some evil will befall him.(453) The\nDyaks also believe that at the birth of every person on earth a flower\ngrows up in the spirit world and leads a life parallel to his. If the\nflower flourishes, the man enjoys good health, but if it droops, so does\nhe. Hence when he has dreamed bad dreams or has felt unwell for several\ndays, he infers that his flower in the other world is neglected or sickly,\nand accordingly he employs a medicine-man to tend the precious plant, weed\nthe soil, and sweep it up, in order that the earthly and unearthly life\nmay prosper once more.(454)\n\n(M129) It is said that there are still families in Russia, Germany,\nEngland, France, and Italy who are accustomed to plant a tree at the birth\nof a child. The tree, it is hoped, will grow with the child, and it is\ntended with special care.(455) The custom is still pretty general in the\ncanton of Aargau in Switzerland; an apple-tree is planted for a boy and a\npear-tree for a girl, and the people think that the child will flourish or\ndwindle with the tree.(456) In Mecklenburg the afterbirth is thrown out at\nthe foot of a young tree, and the child is then believed to grow with the\ntree.(457) In Bosnia, when the children of a family have died one after\nthe other, the hair of the next child is cut with some ceremony by a\nstranger, and the mother carries the shorn tresses into the garden, where\nshe ties them to a fine young tree, in order that her child may grow and\nflourish like the tree.(458) At Muskau, in Lausitz, it used to be\ncustomary for bride and bridegroom on the morning of their wedding-day to\nplant a pair of young oaks side by side, and as each of the trees\nflourished or withered, so the good luck of the person who planted it was\nbelieved to wax or wane.(459) On a promontory in Lake Keitele, in Finland,\nthere used to stand an old fir-tree, which according to tradition had been\nplanted by the first colonists to serve as a symbol or token of their\nfortune. First-fruits of the harvest used to be offered to the tree before\nany one would taste of the new crop; and whenever a branch fell, it was\ndeemed a sign that some one would die. More and more the crown of the tree\nwithered away, and in the same proportion the family whose ancestors had\nplanted the fir dwindled away, till only one old woman was left. At last\nthe tree fell, and soon afterwards the old woman departed this life.(460)\nWhen Lord Byron first visited his ancestral estate of Newstead \u201che\nplanted, it seems, a young oak in some part of the grounds, and had an\nidea that as _it_ flourished so should _he_.\u201d(461) On a day when the cloud\nthat settled on the later years of Sir Walter Scott lifted a little, and\nhe heard that _Woodstock_ had sold for over eight thousand pounds, he\nwrote in his journal: \u201cI have a curious fancy; I will go set two or three\nacorns, and judge by their success in growing whether I shall succeed in\nclearing my way or not.\u201d(462) Near the Castle of Dalhousie, not far from\nEdinburgh, there grows an oak-tree, called the Edgewell Tree, which is\npopularly believed to be linked to the fate of the family by a mysterious\ntie; for they say that when one of the family dies, or is about to die, a\nbranch falls from the Edgewell Tree. Thus, on seeing a great bough drop\nfrom the tree on a quiet, still day in July 1874, an old forester\nexclaimed, \u201cThe laird\u2019s deid noo!\u201d and soon after news came that Fox\nMaule, eleventh Earl of Dalhousie, was dead.(463) At Howth Castle in\nIreland there is an old tree with which the fortunes of the St. Lawrence\nfamily are supposed to be connected. The branches of the tree are propped\non strong supports, for tradition runs that when the tree falls the direct\nline of the Earls of Howth will become extinct.(464) On the old road from\nHanover to Osnabr\u00fcck, at the village of Oster-Kappeln, there used to stand\nan ancient oak, which put out its last green shoot in the year 1849. The\ntree was conjecturally supposed to be contemporary with the Guelphs; and\nin the year 1866, so fatal for the house of Hanover, on a calm summer\nafternoon, without any visible cause, the veteran suddenly fell with a\ncrash and lay stretched across the highroad. The peasants regarded its\nfall as an ill omen for the reigning family, and when King George V. heard\nof it he gave orders that the giant trunk should be set up again, and it\nwas done with much trouble and at great expense, the stump being supported\nin position by iron chains clamped to the neighbouring trees. But the\nking\u2019s efforts to prop the falling fortunes of his house were vain; a few\nmonths after the fall of the oak Hanover formed part of the Prussian\nmonarchy.(465)\n\n(M130) In the midst of the \u201cForbidden City\u201d at Peking there is a tiny\nprivate garden, where the emperors of the now fallen Manchu dynasty used\nto take the air and refresh themselves after the cares of state. In\naccordance with Chinese taste the garden is a labyrinth of artificial\nrockeries, waterfalls, grottoes, and kiosks, in which everything is as\nunlike nature as art can make it. The trees in particular (_Arbor vitae_),\nthe principal ornament of the garden, exhibit the last refinement of the\ngardener\u2019s skill, being clipped and distorted into a variety of grotesque\nshapes. Only one of the trees remained intact and had been spared these\ndeformations for centuries. Far from being stunted by the axe or the\nshears, the tree was carefully tended and encouraged to shoot up to its\nfull height. \u201cIt was the \u2018Life-tree of the Dynasty,\u2019 and according to\nlegend the prosperity or fall of the present dynasty went hand in hand\nwith the welfare or death of the tree. Certainly, if we accept the\ntradition, the days of the present reigning house must be numbered, for\nall the care and attention lavished on the tree have been for some years\nin vain. A glance at our illustration shews the tree as it still surpasses\nall its fellows in height and size; but it owes its pre-eminence only to\nthe many artificial props which hold it up. In reality the \u2018Life-tree of\nthe Dynasty\u2019 is dying, and might fall over night, if one of its artificial\nprops were suddenly to give way. For the superstitious Chinese\u2014and\nsuperstitious they certainly are\u2014it is a very, very evil omen.\u201d(466) Some\ntwelve years have passed since this passage was written, and in the\ninterval the omen has been fulfilled\u2014the Manchu dynasty has fallen. We may\nconjecture that the old tree in the quaint old garden has fallen too. So\nvain are all human efforts to arrest the decay of royal houses by\nunderpropping trees on which nature herself has passed a sentence of\ndeath.\n\n(M131) At Rome in the ancient sanctuary of Quirinus there grew two old\nmyrtle-trees, one named the Patrician and the other the Plebeian. For many\nyears, so long as the patricians were in the ascendant, their myrtle-tree\nflourished and spread its branches abroad, while the myrtle of the\nplebeians was shrivelled and shrunken; but from the time of the Marsian\nwar, when the power of the nobles declined, their myrtle in like manner\ndrooped and withered, whereas that of the popular party held up its head\nand grew strong.(467) Thrice when Vespasia was with child, an old oak in\nthe garden of the Flavian family near Rome suddenly put forth branches.\nThe first branch was puny and soon withered away, and the girl who was\nborn accordingly died within the year; the second branch was long and\nsturdy; and the third was like a tree. So on the third occasion the happy\nfather reported to his mother that a future emperor was born to her as a\ngrandchild. The old lady only laughed to think that at her age she should\nkeep her wits about her, while her son had lost his; yet the omen of the\noak came true, for the grandson was afterwards the emperor Vespasian.(468)\n\n(M132) In England children are sometimes passed through a cleft ash-tree\nas a cure for rupture or rickets, and thenceforward a sympathetic\nconnexion is supposed to exist between them and the tree. An ash-tree\nwhich had been used for this purpose grew at the edge of Shirley Heath, on\nthe road from Hockly House to Birmingham. \u201cThomas Chillingworth, son of\nthe owner of an adjoining farm, now about thirty-four, was, when an infant\nof a year old, passed through a similar tree, now perfectly sound, which\nhe preserves with so much care that he will not suffer a single branch to\nbe touched, for it is believed the life of the patient depends on the life\nof the tree, and the moment that it is cut down, be the patient ever so\ndistant, the rupture returns, and a mortification ensues, and terminates\nin death, as was the case in a man driving a waggon on the very road in\nquestion.\u201d \u201cIt is not uncommon, however,\u201d adds the writer, \u201cfor persons to\nsurvive for a time the felling of the tree.\u201d(469) The ordinary mode of\neffecting the cure is to split a young ash-sapling longitudinally for a\nfew feet and pass the child, naked, either three times or three times\nthree through the fissure at sunrise. In the West of England it is said\nthat the passage should be \u201cagainst the sun.\u201d As soon as the ceremony has\nbeen performed, the tree is bound tightly up and the fissure plastered\nover with mud or clay. The belief is that just as the cleft in the tree\ncloses up, so the rupture in the child\u2019s body will be healed; but that if\nthe rift in the tree remains open, the rupture in the child will remain\ntoo, and if the tree were to die, the death of the child would surely\nfollow.(470)\n\n(M133) Down to the second half of the nineteenth century the remedy was\nstill in common use at Fittleworth and many other places in Sussex. The\naccount of the Sussex practice and belief is notable because it brings out\nvery clearly the sympathetic relation supposed to exist between the\nruptured child and the tree through which it has been passed. We are told\nthat the patient \u201cmust be passed nine times every morning on nine\nsuccessive days at sunrise through a cleft in a sapling ash-tree, which\nhas been so far given up by the owner of it to the parents of the child,\nas that there is an understanding it shall not be cut down during the life\nof the infant who is to be passed through it. The sapling must be sound at\nheart, and the cleft must be made with an axe. The child on being carried\nto the tree must be attended by nine persons, each of whom must pass it\nthrough the cleft from west to east. On the ninth morning the solemn\nceremony is concluded by binding the tree lightly with a cord, and it is\nsupposed that as the cleft closes the health of the child will improve. In\nthe neighbourhood of Petworth some cleft ash-trees may be seen, through\nwhich children have very recently been passed. I may add, that only a few\nweeks since, a person who had lately purchased an ash-tree standing in\nthis parish, intending to cut it down, was told by the father of a child,\nwho had some time before been passed through it, that the infirmity would\nbe sure to return upon his son if it were felled. Whereupon the good man\nsaid, he knew that such would be the case; and therefore he would not fell\nit for the world.\u201d(471)\n\n(M134) A similar cure for various diseases, but especially for rupture and\nrickets, has been commonly practised in other parts of Europe, as Germany,\nFrance, Denmark, and Sweden; but in these countries the tree employed for\nthe purpose is usually not an ash but an oak; sometimes a willow-tree is\nallowed or even prescribed instead. With these exceptions the practice and\nthe belief are nearly the same on the Continent as in England: a young oak\nis split longitudinally and the two sides held forcibly apart while the\nsick child is passed through the cleft; then the opening in the tree is\nclosed, and bound up, and it is believed that as the cleft in the tree\nheals by the parts growing together again, so the rupture in the child\nwill be simultaneously cured. It is often laid down that the ceremony must\nbe performed in the strictest silence; sometimes the time prescribed is\nbefore sunrise, and sometimes the child must be passed thrice through the\ncleft.(472) In Oldenburg and Mecklenburg they say that the cure should be\nperformed on St. John\u2019s Eve (Midsummer Eve) by three men named John, who\nassist each other in holding the split oak-sapling open and passing the\nchild through it.(473) Some people, however, prefer Good Friday or\nChristmas Eve as the season for the performance of the ceremony.(474) In\nDenmark copper coins are laid as an offering at the foot of the tree\nthrough which sick persons have been passed; and threads, ribbons, or\nbandages which have been worn by the sufferers are tied to a branch of the\ntree.(475) In the Greek island of Ceos, when a child is sickly, the\nparents carry it out into the country \u201cand the father selects a young oak;\nthis they split up from the root, then the father is assisted by another\nman in holding the tree open whilst the mother passes the child three\ntimes through, and then they bind up the tree well, cover it all over with\nmanure, and carefully water it for forty days. In the same fashion they\nbind up the child for a like period, and after the lapse of this time they\nexpect that it will be quite well.\u201d(476)\n\n(M135) In Mecklenburg, as in England, the sympathetic relation thus\nestablished between the tree and the child is so close that if the tree is\ncut down the child will die.(477) In the island of R\u00fcgen people believe\nthat when a person who has been thus cured of rupture dies, his soul\npasses into the same oak-tree through which his body was passed in his\nyouth.(478) Thus it seems that in ridding himself of the disease the\nsufferer is supposed to transfer a certain vital part of his person to the\ntree so that it is impossible to injure the tree without at the same time\ninjuring the man; and in R\u00fcgen this partial union is thought to be\ncompleted by the transmigration of the man\u2019s soul at death into the tree.\nApparently the disease is conceived as something physical, which clings to\nthe patient but can be stripped off him and left behind on the farther\nside of the narrow aperture through which he has forced his way; when the\naperture is closed by the natural growth of the tree, the door is as it\nwere shut against the disease, which is then unable to pursue and overtake\nthe sufferer. Hence the idea at the root of the custom is not so much that\nthe patient has transferred his ailment to the tree, as that the tree\nforms an impervious barrier between him and the malady which had hitherto\nafflicted him. This interpretation is confirmed by the following\nparallels.\n\n(M136) In those parts of Armenia which are covered with forests, many\ngreat and ancient trees are revered as sacred and receive marks of homage.\nThe people burn lights before them, fumigate them with incense, sacrifice\ncocks and wethers to them, and creep through holes in their trunks or push\nlean and sickly children through them \u201cin order to put a stop to the\ninfluence of evil spirits.\u201d(479) Apparently, they think that evil spirits\ncannot creep through the cleft in the holy tree, and therefore that the\nsick who have effected the passage are safe from their demoniacal\npursuers. The same conception of a fissure in a tree as an obstacle placed\nin the path of pursuing spirits meets us in a number of savage customs.\nThus in the island of Nias, when a man is in training for the priesthood,\nhe has to be introduced to the various spirits between whom and mankind it\nwill be his office to mediate. A priest takes him to an open window, and\nwhile the drums are beating points out to him the great spirit in the sun\nwho calls away men to himself through death; for it is needful that the\nfuture priest should know him from whose grasp he will often be expected\nto wrest the sick and dying. In the evening twilight he is led to the\ngraves and shewn the envious spirits of the dead, who also are ever\ndrawing away the living to their own shadowy world. Next day he is\nconducted to a river and shewn the spirit of the waters; and finally they\ntake him up to a mountain and exhibit to him the spirits of the mountains,\nwho have diverse shapes, some appearing like swine, others like buffaloes,\nothers like goats, and others again like men with long hair on their\nbodies. When he has seen all this, his education is complete, but on his\nreturn from the mountain the new priest may not at once enter his own\nhouse. For the people think that, were he to do so, the dangerous spirits\nby whom he is still environed would stay in the house and visit both the\nfamily and the pigs with sickness. Accordingly he betakes himself to other\nvillages and passes several nights there, hoping that the spirits will\nleave him and settle on the friends who receive him into their houses; but\nnaturally he does not reveal the intention of his visits to his hosts.\nLastly, before he enters his own dwelling, he looks out for some young\ntree by the way, splits it down the middle, and then creeps through the\nfissure, in the belief that any spirit which may still be clinging to him\nwill thus be left sticking to the tree.(480) Again, among the Bilqula or\nBella Coola Indians of British Columbia \u201cthe bed of a mourner must be\nprotected against the ghost of the deceased. His male relatives stick a\nthorn-bush into the ground at each corner of their beds. After four days\nthese are thrown into the water. Mourners must rise early and go into the\nwoods, where they stick four thorn-bushes into the ground, at the corners\nof a square, in which they cleanse themselves by rubbing their bodies with\ncedar branches. They also swim in ponds. After swimming they cleave four\nsmall trees and creep through the clefts, following the course of the sun.\nThis they do on four subsequent mornings, cleaving new trees every day.\nMourners cut their hair short. The hair that has been cut off is burnt. If\nthey should not observe these regulations, it is believed that they would\ndream of the deceased.\u201d(481) To the savage, who fails to distinguish the\nvisions of sleep from the appearances of waking life, the apparition of a\ndead man in a dream is equivalent to the actual presence of the ghost; and\naccordingly he seeks to keep off the spiritual intruder, just as he might\na creature of flesh and blood, by fencing his bed with thorn-bushes.\nSimilarly the practice of creeping through four cleft trees is clearly an\nattempt to shake off the clinging ghost and leave it adhering to the\ntrees, just as in Nias the future priest hopes to rid himself in like\nmanner of the dangerous spirits who have dogged his steps from the\nmountains and the graves.\n\n(M137) This interpretation of the custom is strongly confirmed by a\nfuneral ceremony which Dr. Charles Hose witnessed at the chief village of\nthe Madangs, a tribe of Kayans who occupy a hitherto unexplored district\nin the heart of Borneo. \u201cJust across the river from where we were\nsitting,\u201d says Dr. Hose, \u201cwas the graveyard, and there I witnessed a\nfuneral procession as the day was drawing to a close. The coffin, which\nwas a wooden box made from a tree-trunk, was decorated with red and black\npatterns in circles, with two small wooden figures of men placed at either\nend; it was lashed with rattans to a long pole, and by this means was\nlifted to the shoulders of the bearers, who numbered thirteen in all, and\nwho then carried it to the burying-ground. After the mourners had all\npassed over to the graveyard, a man quickly cut a couple of small sticks,\neach five feet long and about an inch in diameter. One of these he split\nalmost the whole way down, and forced the unsplit end into the ground,\nwhen the upper part opened like a V, leaving sufficient room for each\nperson to pass through. He next split the top of the other stick, and,\nplacing another short stick in the cleft, made a cross, which he also\nforced into the ground. The funeral procession climbed the mound on which\nthe cemetery was situated, passing through the V of the cleft stick in\nsingle file. As soon as the coffin had been placed on the stage erected\nfor the purpose, the people commenced their return, following on one\nanother\u2019s heels as quickly as possible, each spitting out the words, \u2018_Pit\nballi krat balli jat tesip bertatip!_\u2019 (\u2018Keep back, and close out all\nthings evil, and sickness\u2019) as they passed through the V-shaped stick. The\nwhole party having left the graveyard, the gate was closed by the simple\nprocess of tying the cleft ends of the stick together, and a few words\nwere then said to the cross-stick, which they call _ngring_, or the wall\nthat separates the living from the dead. All who had taken part in the\nceremony then went and bathed before returning to their homes, rubbing\ntheir skins with rough pebbles, the old Mosaic idea of the uncleanness of\nthe dead, as mentioned in Numbers (chap. xix.), evidently finding a place\namong their religious beliefs. It is apparently a great relief to their\nminds to think that they can shut out the spirit of the deceased. They\nbelieve that the spirit of the dead is not aware that life has left the\nbody until a short time after the coffin has been taken to the graveyard,\nand then not until the spirit has had leisure to notice the clothes,\nweapons, and other articles belonging to its earthly estate, which are\nplaced with the coffin. But before this takes place the gate has been\nclosed.\u201d(482)\n\n(M138) Here the words uttered by the mourners in passing through the\ncloven stick shew clearly that they believe the stick to act as a barrier\nor fence, on the further side of which they leave behind the ghost or\nother dangerous spirit whose successful pursuit might entail sickness and\ndeath on the survivors. Thus the passage of these Madang mourners through\nthe cleft stick is strictly analogous to the passage of ruptured English\nchildren through a cleft ash-tree. Both are simply ways of leaving an evil\nthing behind. Similarly the subsequent binding up of the cloven stick in\nBorneo is analogous to the binding up of the cloven ash-tree in England.\nBoth are ways of barricading the road against the evil which is dogging\nyour steps; having passed through the doorway you slam the door in the\nface of your pursuer. Yet it seems probable that the intention of binding\nup the cleft in a tree through which a ruptured patient has been passed is\nnot merely that of shutting the door on the malady conceived as a personal\nbeing; combined with this idea is perhaps the notion that in virtue of the\nlaw of magical homoeopathy the rupture in the body of the sufferer will\nclose up exactly in the same measure as the cleft in the tree closes up\nthrough the force of bandages and of natural growth. That this shade of\nmeaning attaches to the custom is rendered probable by a comparison of an\nancient Roman cure for dislocation, which has been preserved for us by the\ngrave authority of the elder Cato. He recommended that a green reed, four\nor five feet long, should be taken, split down the middle, and held by two\nmen to the dislocated bones while a curious and now unintelligible spell\nwas recited; then, when the spell had been recited and the aperture in the\nreed had closed, the reed was to be tied to the dislocated limb, and a\nperfect cure might be expected. Apparently it was supposed that just as\nthe two sides of the split reed came together and coalesced after being\nheld apart, so the dislocated bones would come together and fit into their\nproper places.(483)\n\n(M139) But the usual idea in passing through a narrow aperture as a cure\nor preventive of evil would seem to be simply that of giving the slip to a\ndangerous pursuer. With this intention, doubtless, the savage Thays of\nTonquin repair after a burial to the banks of a stream and there creep\nthrough a triangle formed by leaning two reeds against each other, while\nthe sorcerer souses them with dirty water. All the relations of the\ndeceased must wash their garments in the stream before they return home,\nand they may not set foot in the house till they have shorn their hair at\nthe foot of the ladder. Afterwards the sorcerer comes and sprinkles the\nwhole house with water for the purpose of expelling evil spirits.(484)\nHere again we cannot doubt that the creeping through the triangle of reeds\nis intended to rid the mourners of the troublesome ghost. So when the\nKamtchatkans had disposed of a corpse after their usual fashion by\nthrowing it to the dogs to be devoured, they purified themselves as\nfollows. They went into the forest and cut various roots which they bent\ninto rings, and through these rings they crept twice. Afterwards they\ncarried the rings back to the forest and flung them away westward. The\nKoryaks, a people of the same region, burn their dead and hold a festival\nin honour of the departed a year after the death. At this festival, which\ntakes place on the spot where the corpse was burned, or, if that is too\nfar off, on a neighbouring height, they sacrifice two young reindeer which\nhave never been in harness, and the sorcerer sticks a great many reindeer\nhorns in the earth, believing that thereby he is dispatching a whole herd\nof these animals to their deceased friend in the other world. Then they\nall hasten home, and purify themselves by passing between two poles\nplanted in the ground, while the sorcerer strikes them with a stick and\nadjures death not to carry them off.(485) The Tokoelawi in the interior of\nCentral Celebes hold a great sacrificial festival on the eighth day after\nthe death of a man or the ninth day after the death of a woman. When the\nguests return homewards after the festival they pass under two poles\nplaced in a slanting direction against each other, and they may not look\nround at the house where the death occurred. \u201cIn this way they take a\nfinal leave of the soul of the deceased. Afterwards no more sacrifices are\noffered to the soul.\u201d(486) Among the Toboengkoe, another tribe in the\ninterior of Central Celebes, when a man buries his wife, he goes to the\ngrave by a different road from that along which the corpse is carried; and\non certain days afterwards he bathes, and on returning from the bath must\npass through a teepee-shaped erection, which is formed by splitting a pole\nup the middle and separating the two split pieces except at the top. \u201cThis\nhe must do in order that his second wife, if he has one, may not soon\ndie.\u201d(487) Here the notion probably is that the jealous ghost of the dead\nwife seeks to avenge herself on her living rival by carrying off her soul\nwith her to deadland. Hence to prevent this catastrophe the husband tries\nto evade the ghost, first by going to the grave along a different path,\nand second by passing under a cleft stick, through which as usual the\nspirit cannot follow him.\n\n(M140) In the light of the foregoing customs, as well as of a multitude of\nceremonies observed for a similar purpose in all parts of the world,(488)\nwe may safely assume that when people creep through rings after a death or\npass between poles after a sacrifice to the dead, their intention simply\nis to interpose a barrier between themselves and the ghost; they make\ntheir way through a narrow pass or aperture through which they hope that\nthe ghost will not be able to follow them. To put it otherwise, they\nconceive that the spirit of the dead is sticking to them like a burr, and\nthat like a burr it may be rubbed or scraped off and left adhering to the\nsides of the opening through which they have squeezed themselves.\n\n(M141) Similarly, when a pestilence is raging among the Koryaks, they kill\na dog, wind its guts about two poles, and pass between the poles,(489)\ndoubtless for the sake of giving the slip to the demon of the plague in\nthe same way that they give the slip to the ghost. When the Kayans of\nBorneo have been dogged by an evil spirit on a journey and are nearing\ntheir destination, they fashion a small archway of boughs, light a fire\nunder it, and pass in single file under the archway and over the fire,\nspitting into the fire as they pass. By this ceremony, we are told, \u201cthey\nthoroughly exorcise the evil spirits and emerge on the other side free\nfrom all baleful influences.\u201d(490) Here, to make assurance doubly sure, a\nfire as well as an archway is interposed between the travellers and the\ndreadful beings who are walking unseen behind. To crawl under a bramble\nwhich has formed an arch by sending down a second root into the ground, is\nan English and Welsh cure for whooping-cough, rheumatism, boils, and other\ncomplaints. In some parts of the west of England they say that to get rid\nof boils the thing to do is to crawl through such a natural arch nine\ntimes against the sun; but in Devonshire the patient should creep through\nthe arch thrice with the sun, that is from east to west. When a child is\npassed through it for whooping-cough, the operators ought to say:\n\n\n    \u201c_In bramble, out cough,_\n    _Here I leave the whooping-cough._\u201d(491)\n\n\nIn Perigord and other parts of France the same cure is employed for\nboils.(492) In Bulgaria, when a person suffers from a congenital malady\nsuch as scrofula, a popular cure is to take him to a neighbouring village\nand there make him creep naked thrice through an arch, which is formed by\ninserting the lower ends of two vine branches in the ground and joining\ntheir upper ends together. When he has done so, he hangs his clothes on a\ntree, and dons other garments. On his way home the patient must also crawl\nunder a ploughshare, which is held high enough to let him pass.(493)\nFurther, when whooping-cough is prevalent in a Bulgarian village, an old\nwoman will scrape the earth from under the root of a willow-tree. Then all\nthe children of the village creep through the opening thus made, and a\nthread from the garment of each of them is hung on the willow. Adults\nsometimes go through the same ceremony after recovering from a dangerous\nillness.(494) Similarly, when sickness is rife among some of the villages\nto the east of Lake Nyassa, the inhabitants crawl through an arch formed\nby bending a wand and inserting the two ends in the ground. By way of\nfurther precaution they wash themselves on the spot with medicine and\nwater, and then bury the medicine and the evil influence together in the\nearth. The same ceremony is resorted to as a means of keeping off evil\nspirits, wild beasts, and enemies.(495)\n\n(M142) In Uganda \u201csometimes a medicine-man directed a sick man to provide\nan animal, promising that he would come and transfer the sickness to the\nanimal. The medicine-man would then select a plantain-tree near the house,\nkill the animal by it, and anoint the sick man with its blood, on his\nforehead, on each side of his chest, and on his legs above the knees. The\nplantain-tree selected had to be one that was about to bear fruit, and the\nmedicine-man would split the stem from near the top to near the bottom,\nleaving a few inches not split both at the top and at the bottom; the\nsplit stem would be held open so that the sick man could step through it,\nand in doing so he would leave his clothing at the plantain-tree, and\nwould run into the house without looking back. When he entered the house,\nnew clothes would be given him to wear. The plantain, the clothing, and\nmeat would be carried away by the medicine-man, who would deposit the\nplantain-tree on waste land, but would take the meat and clothing for\nhimself. Sometimes the medicine-man would kill the animal near the hut,\nlay a stout stick across the threshold, and narrow the doorway by\npartially filling it with branches of trees; he would then put some of the\nblood on either side of the narrow entrance, and some on the stick across\nthe threshold, and would also anoint with it the sick man, who would be\ntaken outside for the purpose. The patient would then re-enter the house,\nletting his clothing fall off, as he passed through the doorway. The\nmedicine-man would carry away the branches, the stick, the clothing, and\nthe meat. The branches and the stick he would cast upon waste land, but\nthe meat and the clothing he would keep for himself.\u201d(496) Here the notion\nof transferring the sickness to the animal is plainly combined with, we\nmay almost say overshadowed by the notion that the ailment is left behind\nadhering to the cleft plantain-stem or to the stick and branches of the\nnarrow opening through which the patient has made his way. That obviously\nis why the plantain-stem or the stick and branches are thrown away on\nwaste land, lest they should infect other people with the sickness which\nhas been transferred to them.\n\n(M143) The Kai of German New Guinea attribute sickness to the agency\neither of ghosts or of sorcerers, but suspicion always falls at first on\nghosts, who are deemed even worse than the sorcerers. To cure a sick man\nthey will sometimes cleave a stick in the middle, leaving the two ends\nintact, and then oblige the sufferer to insert his head through the cleft.\nAfter that they stroke his whole body with the stick from head to foot.\n\u201cThe stick with the soul-stuff of the ghosts is then hurled away or\notherwise destroyed, whereupon the sick man is supposed to recover.\u201d(497)\nHere the ghosts who cause the sickness are clearly supposed to be scraped\nfrom the patient\u2019s body by means of the cleft stick, and to be thrown away\nor destroyed with the implement. The Looboos, a primitive tribe in the\nMandailing district of Sumatra, stand in great fear of the wandering\nspirits of the dead (_soemangots_). But \u201cthey know all sorts of means of\nprotecting themselves against the unwelcome visits of the spirits. For\nexample, if a man has lost his way in the forest, he thinks that this is\nthe work of such a spirit (_soemangot_), who dogs the wanderer and bedims\nhis sight. So in order to throw the malignant spirit off the track he\ntakes a rattan and splits it through the middle. By bending the rattan an\nopening is made, through which he creeps. After that the rattan is quickly\nstretched and the opening closes. By this procedure the spirit (so they\nthink) cannot find the opening again and so cannot further follow his\nvictim.\u201d(498) Here therefore, the passage through a cleft stick is\nconceived in the clearest way as an escape from a spiritual pursuer, and\nthe closing of the aperture when the fugitive has passed through it is\nnothing but the slamming of the door in the face of his invisible foe.\n\n(M144) A similar significance is probably to be attached to other cases of\nceremonially passing through a cleft stick even where the intention of the\nrite is not expressly alleged. Thus among the Ovambo of German South-West\nAfrica young women who have become marriageable perform a variety of\nceremonies; among other things they dance in the large and the small\ncattle-kraal. On quitting the large cattle-kraal after the dance, and on\nentering and quitting the small cattle-kraal, they are obliged to pass,\none after the other, through the fork of a cleft stick, of which the two\nsides are held wide open by an old man.(499) Among the Washamba of German\nEast Africa, when a boy has been circumcised, two women bring a long\nsugar-cane, which still bears its leaves. The cane is split at some\ndistance from its upper and lower ends and the two sides are held apart so\nas to form a cleft or opening; at the lower end of the cleft a _danga_\nring is fastened. The father and mother of the circumcised youth now place\nthe sugar-cane between them, touch the ring with their feet, and then slip\nthrough the cleft; and after them the lad\u2019s aunt must also pass through\nthe cleft sugar-cane.(500) In both these cases the passage through the\ncleft stick is probably intended to give the slip to certain dangerous\nspirits, which are apt to molest people at such critical seasons as\npuberty and circumcision.\n\n(M145) Again, the passage through a ring or hoop is resorted to for like\nreasons as a mode of curing or preventing disease. Thus in Sweden, when a\nnatural ring has been found in a tree, it is carefully removed and\ntreasured in the family; for sick and especially rickety children are\nhealed by merely passing through it.(501) A young married woman in Sweden,\nwho suffered from an infirmity, was advised by a wise woman to steal three\nbranches of willow, make them into a hoop, and creep through it naked,\ntaking care not to touch the hoop and to keep perfectly silent. The hoop\nwas afterwards to be burnt. She carried out the prescription faithfully,\nand her faith was rewarded by a perfect cure.(502) No doubt her infirmity\nwas thought to adhere to the hoop and to be burnt with it. Similarly in\nScotland children who suffered from hectic fever and consumptive patients\nused to be healed by passing thrice through a circular wreath of woodbine,\nwhich was cut during the increase of the March moon and was let down over\nthe body of the sufferer from the head to the feet. Thus Jonet Stewart\ncured sundry women by \u201ctaking ane garland of grene woodbynd, and causing\nthe patient pas thryis throw it, quhilk thairefter scho cut in nyne\npieces, and cast in the fyre.\u201d Another wise woman transmitted the sick\n\u201cthrow are girth of woodbind thryis thre times, saying, \u2018I do this in name\nof the Father, the Sone, and the Halie Ghaist.\u2019 \u201d(503) The Highlanders of\nStrathspey used to force all their sheep and lambs to pass through a hoop\nof rowan-tree on All Saints\u2019 Day and Beltane (the first of November and\nthe first of May),(504) probably as a means of warding off the witches and\nfairies, who are especially dreaded at these seasons, and against whose\nmalignant arts the rowan-tree affords an efficient protection. In\nOldenburg when a cow gives little or no milk, they milk her through a hole\nin a branch. In Eversten they say that this should be done through a ring\nwhich an oak-tree has formed round the scar where a branch has been sawn\noff. Others say the beast should be milked through a \u201cwitch\u2019s nest,\u201d that\nis, through the boughs of a birch-tree which have grown in a tangle. Such\na \u201cwitch\u2019s nest\u201d is also hung up in a pig\u2019s stye to protect the pig\nagainst witchcraft.(505) Hence the aim of milking a cow through a \u201cwitch\u2019s\nnest\u201d or through a natural wooden ring is no doubt to deliver the poor\ncreature from an artful witch who has been draining away the milk into her\nown pail, as witches are too apt to do. Again, in Oldenburg sick children,\nand also adults and animals, are passed through a ring of rough unwashed\nyarn, just as it comes from the reel. To complete the cure you should\nthrow a hot coal thrice through the ring, then spit through it thrice, and\nfinally bury the yarn under a stone, where you leave it to rot. The writer\nwho reports these remedies explains them as intended to strip the\nwitchcraft, as you might say, from the bodies of the victims, whether\nhuman or animal, on whom the witch has cast her spell.(506) Among the\nLushais of Assam \u201cfive to ten days after the child is born its body is\nsaid to be covered with small pimples, its lips become black and its\nstrength decreases. The family then obtain a particular kind of creeping\nplant called _vawm_, which they make into a coil. In the evening\neverything in the house that has a lid or covering is uncovered, and the\nchild is thrice passed through this coil, which act is supposed to clear\nthe child\u2019s skin and restore its strength. After this is finished, the\nparents go to bed and the pots or other receptacles are covered again by\nany of the other members of the family. The parents themselves must not\nreplace any of these lids for fear that they might shut up the spirit of\nthe child in them.\u201d(507) When the Kwakiutl Indians of British Columbia\nfear the outbreak of an epidemic, a medicine-man takes a large ring of\nhemlock branches and causes every member of the tribe to pass through it.\nEach person puts his head through the ring and then moves the ring\ndownwards over his body till it has almost reached his feet, when he steps\nout of it, right foot first. They think that this prevents the epidemic\nfrom breaking out.(508) In Asia Minor, \u201cif a person is believed to be\npossessed by an evil spirit, one form of treatment is to heat an\niron-chain red-hot, form it into a ring and pass the afflicted person\nthrough the opening, on the theory that the evil spirit cannot pass the\nhot chain, and so is torn from his victim and left behind.\u201d(509) Here the\nintention of the passage through the aperture is avowedly to shake off a\nspiritual pursuer, who is deterred from further pursuit not only by the\nnarrowness of the opening but by the risk of burning himself in the\nattempt to make his way through it.\n\n(M146) But if the intention of these ceremonies is essentially to rid the\nperformer of some harmful thing, whether a disease or a ghost or a demon,\nwhich is supposed to be clinging to him, we should expect to find that any\nnarrow hole or opening would serve the purpose as well as a cleft tree or\nstick, an arch or ring of boughs, or a couple of posts fixed in the\nground. And this expectation is not disappointed. On the coast of Morven\nand Mull thin ledges of rock may be seen pierced with large holes near the\nsea. Consumptive people used to be brought thither, and after the tops of\nnine waves had been caught in a dish and thrown on the patient\u2019s head, he\nwas made to pass through one of the rifted rocks thrice in the direction\nof the sun.(510) \u201cOn the farm of Crossapol in Coll there is a stone called\n_Clach Thuill_, that is, the Hole Stone, through which persons suffering\nfrom consumption were made to pass three times in the name of the Father,\nSon, and Holy Ghost. They took meat with them each time, and left some on\nthe stone. The bird that took the food away had the consumption laid upon\nit. Similar stones, under which the patient can creep, were made use of in\nother islands.\u201d(511) Here it is manifest that the patient left his disease\nbehind him on the stone, since the bird which carried off the food from\nthe stone caught the disease. In the Aberdeenshire river Dee, at Cambus o\u2019\nMay, near Ballater, there is a rock with a hole in it large enough to let\na person pass through. Legend runs that childless women used to wade out\nto the stone and squeeze themselves through the hole. It is said that a\ncertain noble lady tried the effect of the charm not very many years ago\nwith indifferent success.(512) In the parish of Madern in Cornwall, near\nthe village of Lanyon, there is a perforated stone called the _M\u00ean-an-tol_\nor \u201choled stone,\u201d through which people formerly crept as a remedy for\npains in the back and limbs; and at certain times of the year parents drew\ntheir children through the hole to cure them of the rickets.(513) The\npassage through the stone was also deemed a cure for scrofula, provided it\nwas made against the sun and repeated three times or three times\nthree.(514)\n\n(M147) Near the little town of Dourgne, not far from Castres, in Southern\nFrance, there is a mountain, and on the top of the mountain is a\ntableland, where a number of large stones may be seen planted in the\nground about a cross and rising to a height of two to five feet above the\nground. Almost all of them are pierced with holes of different sizes. From\ntime immemorial people used to assemble at Dourgne and the neighbourhood\nevery year on the sixth of August, the festival of St. Estapin. The\npalsied, the lame, the blind, the sick of all sorts, flocked thither to\nseek and find a cure for their various infirmities. Very early in the\nmorning they set out from the villages where they had lodged or from the\nmeadows where for want of better accommodation they had been forced to\npass the night, and went on pilgrimage to the chapel of St. Estapin, which\nstands in a gorge at the southern foot of the mountain. Having gone nine\ntimes in procession round the chapel, they hobbled, limped, or crawled to\nthe tableland on the top of the mountain. There each of them chose a stone\nwith a hole of the requisite size and thrust his ailing member through the\nhole. For there are holes to suit every complaint; some for the head, some\nfor the arm, some for the leg, and so on. Having performed this simple\nceremony they were cured; the lame walked, the blind saw, the palsied\nrecovered the use of their limbs, and so on. The chapel of the saint is\nadorned with the crutches and other artificial aids, now wholly\nsuperfluous, which the joyful pilgrims left behind them in token of their\ngratitude and devotion.(515) About two miles from Gisors, in the French\ndepartment of Oise, there is a dolmen called Trie or Trie- Chateau,\nconsisting of three upright stones with a fourth and larger stone laid\nhorizontally on their tops. The stone which forms the back wall of the\ndolmen is pierced about the middle by an irregularly shaped hole, through\nwhich the people of the neighbourhood used from time immemorial to pass\ntheir sickly children in the firm belief that the passage through the\nstone would restore them to health.(516)\n\n(M148) In the church of St. Corona at the village of Koppenwal, in Lower\nBavaria, there is a hole in the stone on which the altar rests. Through\nthis hole, while service was going on, the peasants used to creep,\nbelieving that having done so they would not suffer from pains in their\nback at harvest.(517) In the crypt of the old cathedral at Freising in\nBavaria there is a tomb which is reputed to contain the relics of St.\nNonnosius. Between a pillar of the tomb and the wall there is a narrow\nopening, through which persons afflicted with pains in the back creep in\norder to obtain thereby some mitigation of their pangs.(518) In Upper\nAustria, above the Lake of Aber, which is a sheet of dark-green water\nnestling among wooded mountains, there stands the Falkenstein chapel of\nSt. Wolfgang built close to the face of a cliff that rises from a little\ngreen dale. A staircase leads up from the chapel to a narrow, dark,\ndripping cleft in the rock, through which pilgrims creep in a stooping\nposture \u201cin the belief that they can strip off their bodily sufferings or\nsins on the face of the rock.\u201d(519) Women with child also crawl through\nthe hole, hoping thus to obtain an easy delivery.(520) In the Greek island\nof Cythnos, when a child is sickly, the mother will take it to a hole in a\nrock about half an hour distant from Messaria. There she strips the child\nnaked and pushes it through the hole in the rock, afterwards throwing away\nthe old garments and clothing the child in new ones.(521)\n\n(M149) Near Everek, on the site of the ancient Caesarea in Asia Minor,\nthere is a rifted rock through which persons pass to rid themselves of a\ncough.(522) A writer well acquainted with Asia Minor has described how he\nvisited \u201ca well-known pool of water tucked away in a beautiful nook high\nup among the Anatolian mountains, and with a wide reputation for sanctity\nand healing powers. We arrived just as the last of a flock of three\nhundred sheep were being passed through a peculiar hole in the thin ledge\nof a huge rock to deliver them from a disease of the liver supposed to\nprevent the proper laying on of fat.\u201d(523) Among the Kawars of the Central\nProvinces in India a man who suffers from intermittent fever will try to\ncure it by walking through a narrow passage between two houses.(524) In a\nruined church of St. Brandon, about ten miles from Dingle, in the west of\nIreland, there is a narrow window, through which sick women pass thrice in\norder to be cured.(525) The Hindoos of the Punjaub think that the birth of\na son after three girls is unlucky for the parents, and in order to avert\nthe ill-luck they resort to a number of devices. Amongst other things they\nbreak the centre of a bronze plate and remove all but the rim; then they\npass the luckless child through the bronze rim. Moreover, they make an\nopening in the roof of the room where the birth took place, and then pull\nthe infant out through the opening; and further they pass the child under\nthe sill of the door.(526) By these passages through narrow apertures they\napparently hope to rid the child of the ill-luck which is either pursuing\nit or sticking to it like a burr. For in this case, as in many similar\nones, it might be hard to say whether the riddance is conceived as an\nescape from the pursuit of a maleficent spirit or as the abrasion of a\ndangerous substance which adheres to the person of the sufferer.\n\n(M150) Another way of ridding man and beast of the clinging infection of\ndisease is to pass them through a hole dug in the ground. This mode of\ncure was practised in Europe during the Middle Ages, and has survived in\nDenmark down to modern times. In a sermon preached by St. Eloi, Bishop of\nNoyon, in the sixth century, he forbade the faithful to practise\nlustrations and to drive their sheep through hollow trees and holes in the\nearth, \u201cbecause by this they seem to consecrate them to the devil.\u201d(527)\nTheodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, who died in 690 A.D., decreed that \u201cif\nany one for the health of his little son shall pass through a hole in the\nground and then close it behind him with thorns, let him do penance for\neleven days on bread and water.\u201d(528) Here the closing of the hole with\nthorns after the patient or his representative has passed through is\nplainly intended to barricade the narrow way against the pursuit of\nsickness personified as a demon; hence it confirms the general\ninterpretation here given of these customs. Again, Burchard, Bishop of\nWorms, who died in A.D. 1025, repeated the same condemnation: \u201cHast thou\ndone what certain women are wont to do? I mean those who have squalling\nbabes; they dig the earth and pierce it, and through that hole they drag\nthe babe, and they say that thus the squalling babe ceases to squall. If\nthou has done this or consented unto it, thou shalt do penance for fifteen\ndays on bread and water.\u201d(529) At F\u00fcnen in Denmark, as late as the latter\npart of the nineteenth century, a cure for childish ailments was to dig up\nseveral sods, arrange them so as to form a hole, and then to pass the sick\nchild through it.(530) A simplified form of this cure is adopted in\nJutland. At twelve o\u2019clock on a Thursday night you go to a churchyard, dig\nup a circular piece of turf, and make a hole in it large enough to permit\nthe passage through it of your infant progeny. Taking the sod with you, go\nhome, salute nobody on the way, and speak to nobody. On getting to your\nhouse, take the child and pass it thrice through the turf from right to\nleft; then take the turf back to the churchyard and replace it in\nposition. If the turf takes root and grows afresh, the child will recover;\nbut if the turf withers, there is no hope. Elsewhere it is at the hour of\nsunset rather than of midnight that people cut the turf in the churchyard.\nThe same cure is applied to cattle which have been bewitched; though\nnaturally in that case you must cut a much bigger turf and make a much\nbigger hole in it to let a horse or a cow through than is necessary for an\ninfant.(531) Here, again, the conception of a sympathetic relation,\nestablished between the sufferer and the thing which has rid him of his\nailment, comes out clearly in the belief, that if the turf through which\nthe child has been passed thrives, the child will thrive also, but that if\nthe turf withers, the child will die. Among the Corannas, a people of the\nHottentot race on the Orange River, \u201cwhen a child recovers from a\ndangerous illness, a trench is dug in the ground, across the middle of\nwhich an arch is thrown, and an ox made to stand upon it; the child is\nthen dragged under the arch. After this ceremony the animal is killed, and\neaten by married people who have children, none else being permitted to\nparticipate of the feast.\u201d(532) Here the attempt to leave the sickness\nbehind in the hole, which is probably the essence of the ceremony, may\nperhaps be combined with an endeavour to impart to the child the strength\nand vigour of the animal. Ancient India seems also to have been familiar\nwith the same primitive notion that sickness could, as it were, be\nstripped off the person of the sufferer by passing him through a narrow\naperture; for in the Rigveda it is said that Indra cured Apala of a\ndisease of the skin by drawing her through the yoke of the chariot; \u201cthus\nthe god made her to have a golden skin, purifying her thrice.\u201d(533)\n\n(M151) At the small village of Damun, on the Kabenau river, in German New\nGuinea, a traveller witnessed the natives performing a ceremony of\ninitiation, of which the following rite formed part. The candidates for\ninitiation, six in number, were boys and lads of various ages from about\nfour years of age to sixteen or seventeen. The company betook themselves\nto the bed of a small stream, where at the end of a gully a hollow in the\nrocks formed a natural basin. At the entrance to the gully a sort of yoke,\nso the traveller calls it, was erected by means of some poles, and from\nthe cross-piece plants were hung so as to make an arch. One of the men\ntook up his station in front of the arch, and as each candidate came up,\nthe man seized him, spat on his breast and back a clot of red spittle, and\ngave him several severe blows with the stock of a plant. After that the\ncandidate, who had previously stripped himself naked, passed under the\nleafy arch and bathed in the rocky pool at the other end of the gully. All\nthe time that this solemnity was proceeding another man sat perched on a\nneighbouring rock, beating a drum and singing. Only men took part in the\nceremony.(534) Though no explanation of the ceremony is given by the\nobserver who witnessed it, we may suppose that by passing under the yoke\nor arch the novices were supposed to rid themselves of certain evil\ninfluences, whether conceived as spiritual or not, which they left behind\nthem on the further side of the barrier. This interpretation is confirmed\nby the bath which each candidate took immediately afterwards. In short the\nwhole purpose of the rite would seem to have been purificatory.\n\n(M152) With the preceding examples before us, it seems worth while to ask\nwhether the ancient Italian practice of making conquered enemies to pass\nunder a yoke may not in its origin have been a purificatory ceremony,\ndesigned to rid the foe of some uncanny powers before dismissing him to\nhis home. For apparently the ceremony was only observed with prisoners who\nwere about to be released;(535) had it been a mere mark of ignominy, there\nseems to be no reason why it should not have been inflicted also on men\nwho were doomed to die. This conjectural explanation of the ceremony is\nconfirmed by the tradition that the Roman Horatius was similarly obliged\nby his fellow-countrymen to pass under a yoke as a form of purification\nfor the murder of his sister. The yoke by passing under which he cleansed\nhimself from his sister\u2019s blood was still to be seen in Rome when Livy was\nwriting his history under the emperor Augustus. It was an ancient wooden\nbeam spanning a narrow lane in an old quarter of the city, the two ends of\nthe beam being built into the masonry of the walls on either side; it went\nby the name of the Sister\u2019s Beam, and whenever the wood decayed and\nthreatened to fall, the venerable monument, which carried back the\nthoughts of passers-by to the kingly age of Rome, was repaired at the\npublic expense.(536) If our interpretation of these customs is right, it\nwas the ghost of his murdered sister whom the Roman hero gave the slip to\nby passing under the yoke; and it may have been the angry ghosts of\nslaughtered Romans from whom the enemy\u2019s soldiers were believed to be\ndelivered when they marched under the yoke before being dismissed by their\nmerciful conquerors to their homes.\n\n(M153) In a former part of this work we saw that homicides in general and\nvictorious warriors in particular are often obliged to perform a variety\nof ceremonies for the purpose of ridding them of the dangerous ghosts of\ntheir victims.(537) If the ceremony of passing under the yoke was\nprimarily designed, as I have suggested, to free the soldiers from the\nangry ghosts of the men whom they had slain, we should expect to find that\nthe victorious Romans themselves observed a similar ceremony after a\nbattle for a similar purpose. Was this the original meaning of passing\nunder a triumphal arch? In other words, may not the triumphal arch have\nbeen for the victors what the yoke was for the vanquished, a barrier to\nprotect them against the pursuit of the spirits of the slain? That the\nRomans felt the need of purification from the taint of bloodshed after a\nbattle appears from the opinion of Masurius, mentioned by Pliny, that the\nlaurel worn by soldiers in a triumphal procession was intended to purge\nthem from the slaughter of the enemy.(538) A special gate, the _Porta\nTriumphalis_, was reserved for the entrance of a victorious army into\nRome;(539) and it would be in accordance with ancient religious views if\nthis distinction was originally not so much an honour conferred as a\nprecaution enforced to prevent the ordinary gates from being polluted by\nthe passage of thousands of blood-guilty men.(540)\n\n\n\n\n\u00a7 3. The External Soul in Animals.\n\n\n(M154) But in practice, as in folk-tales, it is not merely with inanimate\nobjects and plants that a person is occasionally believed to be united by\na bond of physical sympathy. The same bond, it is supposed, may exist\nbetween a man and an animal, so that the welfare of the one depends on the\nwelfare of the other, and when the animal dies the man dies also. The\nanalogy between the custom and the tales is all the closer because in both\nof them the power of thus removing the soul from the body and stowing it\naway in an animal is often a special privilege of wizards and witches.\nThus the Yakuts of Siberia believe that every shaman or wizard keeps his\nsoul, or one of his souls, incarnate in an animal which is carefully\nconcealed from all the world. \u201cNobody can find my external soul,\u201d said one\nfamous wizard, \u201cit lies hidden far away in the stony mountains of\nEdzhigansk.\u201d Only once a year, when the last snows melt and the earth\nturns black, do these external souls of wizards appear in the shape of\nanimals among the dwellings of men. They wander everywhere, yet none but\nwizards can see them. The strong ones sweep roaring and noisily along, the\nweak steal about quietly and furtively. Often they fight, and then the\nwizard whose external soul is beaten, falls ill or dies. The weakest and\nmost cowardly wizards are they whose souls are incarnate in the shape of\ndogs, for the dog gives his human double no peace, but gnaws his heart and\ntears his body. The most powerful wizards are they whose external souls\nhave the shape of stallions, elks, black bears, eagles, or boars. Again,\nthe Samoyeds of the Turukhinsk region hold that every shaman has a\nfamiliar spirit in the shape of a boar, which he leads about by a magic\nbelt. On the death of the boar the shaman himself dies; and stories are\ntold of battles between wizards, who send their spirits to fight before\nthey encounter each other in person.(541) In Yorkshire witches are thought\nto stand in such peculiarly close relations to hares, that if a particular\nhare is killed or wounded, a certain witch will at the same moment be\nkilled or receive a hurt in her body exactly corresponding to the wound in\nthe hare.(542) However, this fancy is probably a case of the general\nEuropean belief that witches have the power of temporarily transforming\nthemselves into certain animals, particularly hares and cats, and that any\nhurts inflicted on such transformed animals are felt by the witches who\nare concealed in the animals.(543) But the notion that a person can\ntemporarily transform himself into an animal differs from the notion that\nhe can deposit his soul for a longer or shorter period in an animal, while\nhe himself retains the human form; though in the cloudy mind of the\npeasant and the savage the two ideas may not always be sharply\ndistinguished. The Malays believe that \u201cthe soul of a person may pass into\nanother person or into an animal, or rather that such a mysterious\nrelation can arise between the two that the fate of the one is wholly\ndependent on that of the other.\u201d(544)\n\n(M155) Among the Melanesians of Mota, one of the New Hebrides islands, the\nconception of an external soul is carried out in the practice of daily\nlife. The Mota word for soul is _atai_. \u201cThe use of the word _atai_ in\nMota seems properly and originally to have been to signify something\npeculiarly and intimately connected with a person and sacred to him,\nsomething that he has set his fancy upon when he has seen it in what has\nseemed to him a wonderful manner, or some one has shewn it to him as such.\nWhatever the thing might be the man believed it to be the reflection of\nhis own personality; he and his _atai_ flourished, suffered, lived, and\ndied together. But the word must not be supposed to have been borrowed\nfrom this use and applied secondarily to describe the soul; the word\ncarries a sense with it which is applicable alike to that second self, the\nvisible object so mysteriously connected with the man, and to this\ninvisible second self which we call the soul. There is another Mota word,\n_tamaniu_, which has almost if not quite the same meaning as _atai_ has\nwhen it describes something animate or inanimate which a man has come to\nbelieve to have an existence intimately connected with his own. The word\n_tamaniu_ may be taken to be properly \u2018likeness,\u2019 and the noun form of the\nadverb _tama_, as, like. It was not every one in Mota who had his\n_tamaniu_; only some men fancied that they had this relation to a lizard,\na snake, or it might be a stone; sometimes the thing was sought for and\nfound by drinking the infusion of certain leaves and heaping together the\ndregs; then whatever living thing was first seen in or upon the heap was\nthe _tamaniu_. It was watched but not fed or worshipped; the natives\nbelieved that it came at call, and that the life of the man was bound up\nwith the life of his _tamaniu_, if a living thing, or with its safety;\nshould it die, or if not living get broken or be lost, the man would die.\nHence in case of sickness they would send to see if the _tamaniu_ was safe\nand well. This word has never been used apparently for the soul in Mota;\nbut in Aurora in the New Hebrides it is the accepted equivalent. It is\nwell worth observing that both the _atai_ and the _tamaniu_, and it may be\nadded the Motlav _talegi_, is something which has a substantial existence\nof its own, as when a snake or stone is a man\u2019s _atai_ or _tamaniu_; a\nsoul then when called by these names is conceived of as something in a way\nsubstantial.\u201d(545)\n\n(M156) From this account, which we owe to the careful and accurate\nresearches of the Rev. Dr. Codrington, we gather that while every person\nin Mota has a second self or external soul in a visible object called an\n_atai_, only some people have, it may be, a second external soul in\nanother visible object called a _tamaniu_. We may conjecture that persons\nwho have a _tamaniu_ in addition to an _atai_ are more than usually\nanxious as to the state of their soul, and that they seek to put it in\nperfect security by what we may call a system of double insurance,\ncalculating that if one of their external souls should die or be broken,\nthey themselves may still survive by virtue of the survival of the other.\nBe that as it may, the _tamaniu_ discharges two functions, one of them\ndefensive and the other offensive. On the one hand, so long as it lives or\nremains unbroken, it preserves its owner in life; and on the other hand it\nhelps him to injure his enemies. In its offensive character, if the\n_tamaniu_ happens to be an eel, it will bite its owner\u2019s enemy; if it is a\nshark, it will swallow him. In its defensive character, the state of the\n_tamaniu_ is a symptom or life-token of the state of the man; hence when\nhe is ill he will visit and examine it, or if he cannot go himself he will\nsend another to inspect it and report. In either case the man turns the\nanimal, if animal it be, carefully over in order to see what is the matter\nwith it; should something be found sticking to its skin, it is removed,\nand through the relief thus afforded to the creature the sick man\nrecovers. But if the animal should be found dying, it is an omen of death\nfor the man; for whenever it dies he dies also.(546)\n\n(M157) In Melanesia a native doctor was once attending to a sick man. Just\nthen \u201ca large eagle-hawk came soaring past the house, and Kaplen, my\nhunter, was going to shoot it; but the doctor jumped up in evident alarm,\nand said, \u2018Oh, don\u2019t shoot; that is my spirit\u2019 (_niog_, literally, my\nshadow); \u2018if you shoot that, I will die.\u2019 He then told the old man, \u2018If\nyou see a rat to-night, don\u2019t drive it away, \u2019tis my spirit (_niog_), or a\nsnake which will come to-night, that also is my spirit.\u2019 \u201d(547) It does\nnot appear whether the doctor in this case, like the giant or warlock in\nthe tales, kept his spirit permanently in the bird or in the animal, or\nwhether he only transferred it temporarily to the creature for the purpose\nof enabling him the better to work the cure, perhaps by sending out his\nown soul in a bird or beast to find and bring back the lost soul of the\npatient. In either case he seems to have thought, like the giant or\nwarlock in the stories, that the death of the bird or the animal would\nsimultaneously entail his own. A family in Nauru, one of the Marshall\nIslands, apparently imagine that their lives are bound up with a species\nof large fish, which has a huge mouth and devours human beings; for when\none of these fish was killed, the members of the family cried, \u201cOur\nguardian spirit is killed, now we must all die!\u201d(548)\n\n(M158) The theory of an external soul deposited in an animal appears to be\nvery prevalent in West Africa, particularly in Nigeria, the Cameroons, and\nthe Gaboon.(549) In the latter part of the nineteenth century two English\nmissionaries, established at San Salvador, the capital of the King of\nCongo, asked the natives repeatedly whether any of them had seen the\nstrange, big, East African goat which Stanley had given to a chief at\nStanley Pool in 1877. But their enquiries were fruitless; no native would\nadmit that he had seen the goat. Some years afterwards the missionaries\ndiscovered why they could obtain no reply to their enquiry. All the\npeople, it turned out, imagined that the missionaries believed the spirit\nof the King of Salvador to be contained in the goat, and that they wished\nto obtain possession of the animal in order to exercise an evil influence\non his majesty.(550) The belief from the standpoint of the Congo savages\nwas natural enough, since in that region some chiefs regularly link their\nfate to that of an animal. Thus the Chief Bankwa of Ndolo, on the Moeko\nRiver, had conferred this honour on a certain hippopotamus of the\nneighbourhood, at which he would allow nobody to shoot.(551) At the\nvillage of Ongek, in the Gaboon, a French missionary slept in the hut of\nan old Fan chief. Awakened about two in the morning by a rustling of dry\nleaves, he lit a torch, when to his horror he perceived a huge black\nserpent of the most dangerous sort, coiled in a corner, with head erect,\nshining eyes, and hissing jaws, ready to dart at him. Instinctively he\nseized his gun and pointed it at the reptile, when suddenly his arm was\nstruck up, the torch was extinguished, and the voice of the old chief\nsaid, \u201cDon\u2019t fire! don\u2019t fire! I beg of you. In killing the serpent, it is\nme that you would kill. Fear nothing. The serpent is my _elangela_.\u201d So\nsaying he flung himself on his knees beside the reptile, put his arms\nabout it, and clasped it to his breast. The serpent received his caresses\nquietly, manifesting neither anger nor fear, and the chief carried it off\nand laid it down beside him in another hut, exhorting the missionary to\nhave no fear and never to speak of the subject.(552) His curiosity being\nexcited by this adventure, the missionary, Father Trilles, pursued his\nenquiries and ascertained that among the Fans of the Gaboon every wizard\nis believed at initiation to unite his life with that of some particular\nwild animal by a rite of blood-brotherhood; he draws blood from the ear of\nthe animal and from his own arm, and inoculates the animal with his own\nblood, and himself with the blood of the beast. Henceforth such an\nintimate union is established between the two that the death of the one\nentails the death of the other. The alliance is thought to bring to the\nwizard or sorcerer a great accession of power, which he can turn to his\nadvantage in various ways. In the first place, like the warlock in the\nfairy tales who has deposited his life outside of himself in some safe\nplace, the Fan wizard now deems himself invulnerable. Moreover, the animal\nwith which he has exchanged blood has become his familiar, and will obey\nany orders he may choose to give it; so he makes use of it to injure and\nkill his enemies. For that reason the creature with whom he establishes\nthe relation of blood-brotherhood is never a tame or domestic animal, but\nalways a ferocious and dangerous wild beast, such as a leopard, a black\nserpent, a crocodile, a hippopotamus, a wild boar, or a vulture. Of all\nthese creatures the leopard is by far the commonest familiar of Fan\nwizards, and next to it comes the black serpent; the vulture is the\nrarest. Witches as well as wizards have their familiars; but the animals\nwith which the lives of women are thus bound up generally differ from\nthose to which men commit their external souls. A witch never has a\npanther for her familiar, but often a venomous species of serpent,\nsometimes a horned viper, sometimes a black serpent, sometimes a green one\nthat lives in banana-trees; or it may be a vulture, an owl, or other bird\nof night. In every case the beast or bird with which the witch or wizard\nhas contracted this mystic alliance is an individual, never a species; and\nwhen the individual animal dies the alliance is naturally at an end, since\nthe death of the animal is supposed to entail the death of the man.(553)\n\n(M159) Similar beliefs are held by the natives of the Cross River valley\nwithin the German provinces of the Cameroons. Groups of people, generally\nthe inhabitants of a village, have chosen various animals, with which they\nbelieve themselves to stand on a footing of intimate friendship or\nrelationship. Amongst such animals are hippopotamuses, elephants,\nleopards, crocodiles, gorillas, fish, and serpents, all of them creatures\nwhich are either very strong or can easily hide themselves in the water or\na thicket. This power of concealing themselves is said to be an\nindispensable condition of the choice of animal familiars, since the\nanimal friend or helper is expected to injure his owner\u2019s enemy by\nstealth; for example, if he is a hippopotamus, he will bob up suddenly out\nof the water and capsize the enemy\u2019s canoe. Between the animals and their\nhuman friends or kinsfolk such a sympathetic relation is supposed to exist\nthat the moment the animal dies the man dies also, and similarly the\ninstant the man perishes so does the beast. From this it follows that the\nanimal kinsfolk may never be shot at or molested for fear of injuring or\nkilling the persons whose lives are knit up with the lives of the brutes.\nThis does not, however, prevent the people of a village, who have\nelephants for their animal friends, from hunting elephants. For they do\nnot respect the whole species but merely certain individuals of it, which\nstand in an intimate relation to certain individual men and women; and\nthey imagine that they can always distinguish these brother elephants from\nthe common herd of elephants which are mere elephants and nothing more.\nThe recognition indeed is said to be mutual. When a hunter, who has an\nelephant for his friend, meets a human elephant, as we may call it, the\nnoble animal lifts up a paw and holds it before his face, as much as to\nsay, \u201cDon\u2019t shoot.\u201d Were the hunter so inhuman as to fire on and wound\nsuch an elephant, the person whose life was bound up with the elephant\nwould fall ill.(554)\n\n(M160) The Balong of the Cameroons think that every man has several souls,\nof which one is in his body and another in an animal, such as an elephant,\na wild pig, a leopard, and so forth. When a man comes home, feeling ill,\nand says, \u201cI shall soon die,\u201d and dies accordingly, the people aver that\none of his souls has been killed in a wild pig or a leopard, and that the\ndeath of the external soul has caused the death of the soul in his body.\nHence the corpse is cut open, and a diviner determines, from an inspection\nof the inwards, whether the popular surmise is correct or not.(555)\n\n(M161) A similar belief in the external souls of living people is\nentertained by the Ibos, an important tribe of the Niger delta, who\ninhabit a country west of the Cross River. They think that a man\u2019s spirit\ncan quit his body for a time during life and take up its abode in an\nanimal. This is called _ishi anu_, \u201cto turn animal.\u201d A man who wishes to\nacquire this power procures a certain drug from a wise man and mixes it\nwith his food. After that his soul goes out and enters into the animal. If\nit should happen that the animal is killed while the man\u2019s soul is lodged\nin it, the man dies; and if the animal be wounded, the man\u2019s body will\npresently be covered with boils. This belief instigates to many deeds of\ndarkness; for a sly rogue will sometimes surreptitiously administer the\nmagical drug to his enemy in his food, and having thus smuggled the\nother\u2019s soul into an animal will destroy the creature, and with it the man\nwhose soul is lodged in it.(556) A like belief is reported to prevail\namong the tribes of the Obubura Hill district on the Cross River in\nSouthern Nigeria. Once when Mr. Partridge\u2019s canoe-men wished to catch fish\nnear a town of the Assiga tribe, the people objected, saying, \u201cOur souls\nlive in those fish, and if you kill them we shall die.\u201d(557)\n\n(M162) The negroes of Calabar, at the mouth of the Niger, believe that\nevery person has four souls, one of which always lives outside of his or\nher body in the form of a wild beast in the forest. This external soul, or\nbush soul, as Miss Kingsley calls it, may be almost any animal, for\nexample, a leopard, a fish, or a tortoise; but it is never a domestic\nanimal and never a plant. Unless he is gifted with second sight, a man\ncannot see his own bush soul, but a diviner will often tell him what sort\nof creature his bush soul is, and after that the man will be careful not\nto kill any animal of that species, and will strongly object to any one\nelse doing so. A man and his sons have usually the same sort of animals\nfor their bush souls, and so with a mother and her daughters. But\nsometimes all the children of a family take after the bush soul of their\nfather; for example, if his external soul is a leopard, all his sons and\ndaughters will have leopards for their external souls. And on the other\nhand, sometimes they all take after their mother; for instance, if her\nexternal soul is a tortoise, all the external souls of her sons and\ndaughters will be tortoises too. So intimately bound up is the life of the\nman with that of the animal which he regards as his external or bush soul,\nthat the death or injury of the animal necessarily entails the death or\ninjury of the man. And, conversely, when the man dies, his bush soul can\nno longer find a place of rest, but goes mad and rushes into the fire or\ncharges people and is knocked on the head, and that is an end of it. When\na person is sick, the diviner will sometimes tell him that his bush soul\nis angry at being neglected; thereupon the patient will make an offering\nto the offended spirit and deposit it in a tiny hut in the forest at the\nspot where the animal, which is his external soul, was last seen. If the\nbush soul is appeased, the patient recovers; but if it is not, he dies.\nYet the foolish bush soul does not understand that in injuring the man it\ninjures itself, and that it cannot long survive his decease.(558)\n\n(M163) Such is the account which Miss Kingsley gives of the bush souls of\nthe Calabar negroes. Some fresh particulars are furnished by Mr. Richard\nHenshaw, Agent for Native Affairs at Calabar. He tells us that a man may\nonly marry a woman who has the same sort of bush soul as himself; for\nexample, if his bush soul is a leopard, his wife also must have a leopard\nfor her bush soul. Further, we learn from Mr. Henshaw that a person\u2019s bush\nsoul need not be that either of his father or of his mother. For example,\na child with a hippopotamus for his bush soul may be born into a family,\nall the members of which have wild pigs for their bush souls; this happens\nwhen the child is a reincarnation of a man whose external soul was a\nhippopotamus. In such a case, if the parents object to the intrusion of an\nalien soul, they may call in a medicine-man to check its growth and\nfinally abolish it altogether, after which they will give the child their\nown bush soul. Or they may leave the matter over till the child comes of\nage, when he will choose a bush soul for himself with the help of a\nmedicine-man, who will also select the piece of bush or water in which the\nchosen animal lives. When a man dies, then the animal which contains his\nexternal soul \u201cbecomes insensible and quite unconscious of the approach of\ndanger. Thus a hunter can capture or kill him with perfect ease.\u201d\nSacrifices are often offered to prevent other people from killing the\nanimal in which a man\u2019s bush soul resides. The tribes of Calabar which\nhold these beliefs as to the bush soul are the Efik and Ekoi.(559) The\nbelief of the Calabar negroes in the external soul has been described as\nfollows by a missionary: \u201c_Ukpong_ is the native word we have taken to\ntranslate our word _soul_. It primarily signifies the shadow of a person.\nIt also signifies that which dwells within a man on which his life\ndepends, but which may detach itself from the body, and visiting places\nand persons here and there, again return to its abode in the man....\nBesides all this, the word is used to designate an animal possessed of an\n_ukpong_, so connected with a person\u2019s _ukpong_, that they mutually act\nupon each other. When the leopard, or crocodile, or whatever animal may be\na man\u2019s _ukpong_, gets sick or dies, the like thing happens to him. Many\nindividuals, it is believed, have the power of changing themselves into\nthe animals which are their _ukpong_.\u201d(560)\n\n(M164) Among the Ekoi of the Oban district, in Southern Nigeria, it is\nusual to hear a person say of another that he or she \u201cpossesses\u201d such and\nsuch an animal, meaning that the person has the power to assume the shape\nof that particular creature. It is their belief that by constant practice\nand by virtue of certain hereditary secrets a man can quit his human body\nand put on that of a wild beast. They say that in addition to the soul\nwhich animates his human body everybody has a bush soul which at times he\ncan send forth to animate the body of the creature which he \u201cpossesses.\u201d\nWhen he wishes his bush soul to go out on its rambles, he drinks a magic\npotion, the secret of which has been handed down from time immemorial, and\nsome of which is always kept ready for use in an ancient earthen pot set\napart for the purpose. No sooner has he drunk the mystic draught than his\nbush soul escapes from him and floats away invisible through the town into\nthe forest. There it begins to swell and, safe in the shadow of the trees,\ntakes on the shape of the man\u2019s animal double, it may be an elephant, a\nleopard, a buffalo, a wild boar, or a crocodile. Naturally the potion\ndiffers according to the kind of animal into which a man is temporarily\nconverted. It would be absurd, for example, to expect that the dose which\nturns you into an elephant should also be able to turn you into a\ncrocodile; the thing is manifestly impossible. A great advantage of these\ntemporary conversions of a man into a beast is that it enables the convert\nin his animal shape to pay out his enemy without being suspected. If, for\nexample, you have a grudge at a man who is a well-to-do farmer, all that\nyou have to do is to turn yourself by night into a buffalo, an elephant,\nor a wild boar, and then, bursting into his fields, stamp about in them\ntill you have laid the standing crops level with the ground. That is why\nin the neighbourhood of large well-tilled farms, people prefer to keep\ntheir bush souls in buffaloes, elephants, and wild boars, because these\nanimals are the most convenient means of destroying a neighbour\u2019s crops.\nWhereas where the farms are small and ill-kept, as they are round about\nOban, it is hardly worth a man\u2019s while to take the trouble of turning into\na buffalo or an elephant for the paltry satisfaction of rooting up a few\nmiserable yams or such like trash. So the Oban people keep their bush\nsouls in leopards and crocodiles, which, though of little use for the\npurpose of destroying a neighbour\u2019s crops, are excellent for the purpose\nof killing the man himself first and eating him afterwards. But the power\nof turning into an animal has this serious disadvantage that it lays you\nopen to the chance of being wounded or even slain in your animal skin\nbefore you have time to put it off and scramble back into your human\nintegument. A remarkable case of this sort happened only a few miles from\nOban not long ago. To understand it you must know that the chiefs of the\nOdodop tribe, who live about ten miles from Oban, keep their bush souls,\nwhenever they are out on a ramble, in the shape of buffaloes. Well, one\nday the District Commissioner at Oban saw a buffalo come down to drink at\na stream which runs through his garden. He shot at the beast and hit it,\nand it ran away badly wounded. At the very same moment the head chief of\nthe Ododop tribe, ten miles away, clapped his hand to his side and said,\n\u201cThey have killed me at Oban.\u201d Death was not instantaneous, for the\nbuffalo lingered in pain for a couple of days in the forest, but an hour\nor two before its dead body was discovered by the trackers the chief\nexpired. Just before he died, with touching solicitude he sent a message\nwarning all people who kept their external souls in buffaloes to profit by\nhis sad fate and beware of going near Oban, which was not a safe place for\nthem. Naturally, when a man keeps his external soul from time to time in a\nbeast, say in a wild cow, he is not so foolish as to shoot an animal of\nthat particular sort, for in so doing he might perhaps be killing himself.\nBut he may kill animals in which other people keep their external souls.\nFor example, a wild cow man may freely shoot an antelope or a wild boar;\nbut should he do so and then have reason to suspect that the dead beast is\nthe animal double of somebody with whom he is on friendly terms, he must\nperform certain ceremonies over the carcase and then hurry home, running\nat the top of his speed, to administer a particular medicine to the man\nwhom he has unintentionally injured. In this way he may possibly be in\ntime to save the life of his friend from the effects of the deplorable\naccident.(561)\n\n(M165) Near Eket in North Calabar there is a sacred lake, the fish of\nwhich are carefully preserved because the people believe that their own\nsouls are lodged in the fish, and that with every fish killed a human life\nwould be simultaneously extinguished.(562) In the Calabar River not very\nmany years ago there used to be a huge old crocodile, popularly supposed\nto contain the external soul of a chief who resided in the flesh at Duke\nTown. Sporting vice-consuls used from time to time to hunt the animal, and\nonce a peculiarly energetic officer contrived to hit it. Forthwith the\nchief was laid up with a wound in his leg. He gave out that a dog had\nbitten him, but no doubt the wise shook their heads and refused to be put\noff with so flimsy a pretext.(563) Again, among several tribes on the\nbanks of the Niger between Lokoja and the delta there prevails \u201ca belief\nin the possibility of a man possessing an _alter ego_ in the form of some\nanimal such as a crocodile or a hippopotamus. It is believed that such a\nperson\u2019s life is bound up with that of the animal to such an extent that,\nwhatever affects the one produces a corresponding impression upon the\nother, and that if one dies the other must speedily do so too. It happened\nnot very long ago that an Englishman shot a hippopotamus close to a native\nvillage; the friends of a woman who died the same night in the village\ndemanded and eventually obtained five pounds as compensation for the\nmurder of the woman.\u201d(564) Among the Montols of Northern Nigeria, \u201cin many\nof the compounds there will be found a species of snake, of a\nnon-poisonous sort, which, when full grown, attains a length of about five\nfeet and a girth of eight or nine inches. These snakes live in and about\nthe compound. They are not specially fed by the people of the place, nor\nare places provided for them to nest in. They live generally in the roofs\nof the small granaries and huts that make up the compound. They feed upon\nsmall mammals, and no doubt serve a useful purpose in destroying vermin\nwhich might otherwise eat the stored grain. They are not kept for the\npurpose of destroying vermin, however. The Montols believe that at the\nbirth of every individual of their race, male and female, one of these\nsnakes, of the same sex, is also born. If the snake be killed, his human\npartner in life dies also and at the same time. If the wife of a\ncompound-owner gives birth to a son, shortly after the interesting event,\nthe snake of the establishment will be seen with a young one of\ncorresponding sex. From the moment of birth, these two, the snake and the\nman, share a life of common duration, and the measure of the one is the\nmeasure of the other. Hence every care is taken to protect these animals\nfrom injury, and no Montol would in any circumstances think of injuring or\nkilling one. It is said that a snake of this kind never attempts any\ninjury to a man. There is only one type of snake thus regarded.\u201d(565)\nAmong the Angass, of the Kanna District in Northern Nigeria, \u201cwhen a man\nis born, he is endowed with two distinct entities, life and a _kurua_\n(Arabic _rin_).... When the _rin_ enters a man, its counterpart enters\nsome beast or snake at the same time, and if either dies, so also does the\nbody containing the counterpart. This, however, in no wise prevents a man\nfrom killing any game, etc., he may see, though he knows full well that he\nis causing thereby the death of some man or woman. When a man dies, his\nlife and _rin_ both leave him, though the latter is asserted sometimes to\nlinger near the place of death for a day or two.\u201d(566) Again, at the town\nof Paha, in the northern territory of the Gold Coast, there are pools\ninhabited by crocodiles which are worshipped by the people. The natives\nbelieve that for every death or birth in the town a similar event takes\nplace among the crocodiles.(567)\n\n(M166) In South Africa the conception of an external soul deposited in an\nanimal, which is so common in West Africa, appears to be almost unknown;\nat least I have met with no clear traces of it in literature. The\nBechuanas, indeed, commonly believe that if a man wounds a crocodile, the\nman will be ill as long as the crocodile is ill of its wound, and that if\nthe crocodile dies, the man dies too. This belief is not, apparently,\nconfined to the Bechuana clan which has the crocodile for its totem, but\nis shared by all the other clans; all of them certainly hold the crocodile\nin respect.(568) It does not appear whether the sympathetic relation\nbetween a man and a crocodile is supposed by the Bechuanas to be lifelong,\nor only to arise at the moment when the man wounds the animal; in the\nlatter case the shedding of the crocodile\u2019s blood might perhaps be thought\nto establish a relationship of affinity or sympathy between the two. The\nZulus believe that every man is attended by an ancestral spirit (_ihlozi_,\nor rather _idhlozi_) in the form of a serpent, \u201cwhich specially guards and\nhelps him, lives with him, wakes with him, sleeps and travels with him,\nbut always under ground. If it ever makes its appearance, great is the\njoy, and the man must seek to discover the meaning of its appearance. He\nwho has no _ihlozi_ must die. Therefore if any one kills an _ihlozi_\nserpent, the man whose _ihlozi_ it was dies, but the serpent comes to life\nagain.\u201d(569) But the conception of a dead ancestor incarnate in a snake,\non which the welfare or existence of one of his living descendants\ndepends, is rather that of a guardian spirit than of an external soul.\n\n(M167) Amongst the Zapotecs of Central America, when a woman was about to\nbe confined, her relations assembled in the hut, and began to draw on the\nfloor figures of different animals, rubbing each one out as soon as it was\ncompleted. This went on till the moment of birth, and the figure that then\nremained sketched upon the ground was called the child\u2019s _tona_ or second\nself. \u201cWhen the child grew old enough, he procured the animal that\nrepresented him and took care of it, as it was believed that health and\nexistence were bound up with that of the animal\u2019s, in fact that the death\nof both would occur simultaneously,\u201d or rather that when the animal died\nthe man would die too.(570) Among the Indians of Guatemala and Honduras\nthe _nagual_ or _naual_ is \u201cthat animate or inanimate object, generally an\nanimal, which stands in a parallel relation to a particular man, so that\nthe weal and woe of the man depend on the fate of the _nagual_.\u201d(571)\nAccording to an old writer, many Indians of Guatemala \u201care deluded by the\ndevil to believe that their life dependeth upon the life of such and such\na beast (which they take unto them as their familiar spirit), and think\nthat when that beast dieth they must die; when he is chased, their hearts\npant; when he is faint, they are faint; nay, it happeneth that by the\ndevil\u2019s delusion they appear in the shape of that beast (which commonly by\ntheir choice is a buck, or doe, a lion, or tigre, or dog, or eagle) and in\nthat shape have been shot at and wounded.\u201d(572) Herrera\u2019s account of the\nway in which the Indians of Honduras acquired their _naguals_, runs thus:\n\u201cThe devil deluded them, appearing in the shape of a lion or a tiger, or a\ncoyte, a beast like a wolf, or in the shape of an alligator, a snake, or a\nbird, that province abounding in creatures of prey, which they called\n_naguales_, signifying keepers or guardians, and when the bird died the\nIndian that was in league with him died also, which often happened and was\nlooked upon as infallible. The manner of contracting this alliance was\nthus. The Indian repaired to the river, wood, hill, or most obscure place,\nwhere he called upon the devils by such names as he thought fit, talked to\nthe rivers, rocks, or woods, said he went to weep that he might have the\nsame his predecessors had, carrying a cock or a dog to sacrifice. In that\nmelancholy fit he fell asleep, and either in a dream or waking saw some\none of the aforesaid birds or other creatures, whom he entreated to grant\nhim profit in salt, cacao, or any other commodity, drawing blood from his\nown tongue, ears, and other parts of his body, making his contract at the\nsame time with the said creature, the which either in a dream or waking\ntold him, \u2018Such a day you shall go abroad asporting, and I will be the\nfirst bird or other animal you shall meet, and will be your _nagual_ and\ncompanion at all times.\u2019 Whereupon such friendship was contracted between\nthem, that when one of them died the other did not survive, and they\nfancied that he who had no _nagual_ could not be rich.\u201d(573) The Indians\nwere persuaded that the death of their _nagual_ would entail their own.\nLegend affirms that in the first battles with the Spaniards on the plateau\nof Quetzaltenango the _naguals_ of the Indian chiefs fought in the form of\nserpents. The _nagual_ of the highest chief was especially conspicuous,\nbecause it had the form of a great bird, resplendent in green plumage. The\nSpanish general Pedro de Alvarado killed the bird with his lance, and at\nthe same moment the Indian chief fell dead to the ground.(574)\n\n(M168) In many tribes of South-Eastern Australia each sex used to regard a\nparticular species of animals in the same way that a Central American\nIndian regarded his _nagual_, but with this difference, that whereas the\nIndian apparently knew the individual animal with which his life was bound\nup, the Australians only knew that each of their lives was bound up with\nsome one animal of the species, but they could not say with which. The\nresult naturally was that every man spared and protected all the animals\nof the species with which the lives of the men were bound up; and every\nwoman spared and protected all the animals of the species with which the\nlives of the women were bound up; because no one knew but that the death\nof any animal of the respective species might entail his or her own; just\nas the killing of the green bird was immediately followed by the death of\nthe Indian chief, and the killing of the parrot by the death of Punchkin\nin the fairy tale. Thus, for example, the Wotjobaluk tribe of\nSouth-Eastern Australia \u201cheld that \u2018the life of Ng\u016dn\u016dng\u016dn\u016dt (the Bat) is\nthe life of a man, and the life of Y\u00e1rtatg\u016drk (the Nightjar) is the life\nof a woman,\u2019 and that when either of these creatures is killed the life of\nsome man or of some woman is shortened. In such a case every man or every\nwoman in the camp feared that he or she might be the victim, and from this\ncause great fights arose in this tribe. I learn that in these fights, men\non one side and women on the other, it was not at all certain which would\nbe victorious, for at times the women gave the men a severe drubbing with\ntheir yamsticks, while often women were injured or killed by spears.\u201d The\nWotjobaluk said that the bat was the man\u2019s \u201cbrother\u201d and that the nightjar\nwas his \u201cwife.\u201d(575) The particular species of animals with which the\nlives of the sexes were believed to be respectively bound up varied\nsomewhat from tribe to tribe. Thus whereas among the Wotjobaluk the bat\nwas the animal of the men, at Gunbower Creek on the Lower Murray the bat\nseems to have been the animal of the women, for the natives would not kill\nit for the reason that \u201cif it was killed, one of their lubras [women]\nwould be sure to die in consequence.\u201d(576) In the Kurnai tribe of\nGippsland the emu-wren (_Stipiturus malachurus_) was the \u201cman\u2019s brother\u201d\nand the superb warbler (_Malurus cyaneus_) was the \u201cwoman\u2019s sister\u201d; at\nthe initiation of young men into the tribal mysteries the name of the\nemu-wren was invoked over the novices for the purpose of infusing manly\nvirtue into them.(577) Among the Yuin on the south-eastern coast of\nAustralia, the \u201cwoman\u2019s sister\u201d was the tree-creeper (_Climacteris\nscandens_), and the men had both the bat and the emu-wren for their\n\u201cbrothers.\u201d(578) In the Kulin nation each sex had a pair of \u201cbrothers\u201d and\n\u201csisters\u201d; the men had the bat and the emu-wren for their \u201cbrothers,\u201d and\nthe women had the superb warbler and the small nightjar for their\n\u201csisters.\u201d(579) It is notable that in South-Eastern Australia the animals\nthus associated with the lives of men and women were generally flying\ncreatures, either birds or bats. However, in the Port Lincoln tribe of\nSouth Australia the man\u2019s \u201cbrother\u201d and the woman\u2019s \u201csister\u201d seem to have\nbeen identified with the male and female respectively of a species of\nlizard; for we read that \u201ca small kind of lizard, the male of which is\ncalled _ibirri_, and the female _waka_, is said to have divided the sexes\nin the human species; an event that would appear not to be much approved\nof by the natives, since either sex has a mortal hatred against the\nopposite sex of these little animals, the men always destroying the _waka_\nand the women the _ibirri_.\u201d(580) But whatever the particular sorts of\ncreature with which the lives of men and women were believed to be bound\nup, the belief itself and the fights to which it gave rise are known to\nhave prevailed over a large part of South-Eastern Australia, and probably\nthey extended much farther.(581) The belief was a very serious one, and so\nconsequently were the fights which sprang from it. Thus among some tribes\nof Victoria \u201cthe common bat belongs to the men, who protect it against\ninjury, even to the half-killing of their wives for its sake. The fern\nowl, or large goatsucker, belongs to the women, and, although a bird of\nevil omen, creating terror at night by its cry, it is jealously protected\nby them. If a man kills one, they are as much enraged as if it was one of\ntheir children, and will strike him with their long poles.\u201d(582)\n\n(M169) The jealous protection thus afforded by Australian men and women to\nbats and owls respectively (for bats and owls seem to be the creatures\nusually allotted to the two sexes)(583) is not based upon purely selfish\nconsiderations. For each man believes that not only his own life but the\nlives of his father, brothers, sons, and so on are bound up with the lives\nof particular bats, and that therefore in protecting the bat species he is\nprotecting the lives of all his male relations as well as his own.\nSimilarly, each woman believes that the lives of her mother, sisters,\ndaughters, and so forth, equally with her own, are bound up with the lives\nof particular owls, and that in guarding the owl species she is guarding\nthe lives of all her female relations besides her own. Now, when men\u2019s\nlives are thus supposed to be contained in certain animals, it is obvious\nthat the animals can hardly be distinguished from the men, or the men from\nthe animals. If my brother John\u2019s life is in a bat, then, on the one hand,\nthe bat is my brother as well as John; and, on the other hand, John is in\na sense a bat, since his life is in a bat. Similarly, if my sister Mary\u2019s\nlife is in an owl, then the owl is my sister and Mary is an owl. This is a\nnatural enough conclusion, and the Australians have not failed to draw it.\nWhen the bat is the man\u2019s animal, it is called his brother; and when the\nowl is the woman\u2019s animal, it is called her sister. And conversely a man\naddresses a woman as an owl, and she addresses him as a bat.(584) So with\nthe other animals allotted to the sexes respectively in other tribes. For\nexample, among the Kurnai all emu-wrens were \u201cbrothers\u201d of the men, and\nall the men were emu-wrens; all superb warblers were \u201csisters\u201d of the\nwomen, and all the women were superb warblers.(585)\n\n\n\n\n\u00a7 4. A Suggested Theory of Totemism.(586)\n\n\n(M170) But when a savage names himself after an animal, calls it his\nbrother, and refuses to kill it, the animal is said to be his totem.\nAccordingly in the tribes of South-Eastern Australia which we have been\nconsidering the bat and the owl, the emu-wren and the superb warbler, may\nproperly be described as totems of the sexes. But the assignation of a\ntotem to a sex is comparatively rare, and has hitherto been discovered\nnowhere but in Australia. Far more commonly the totem is appropriated not\nto a sex, but to a clan, and is hereditary either in the male or female\nline. The relation of an individual to the clan totem does not differ in\nkind from his relation to the sex totem; he will not kill it, he speaks of\nit as his brother, and he calls himself by its name. Now if the relations\nare similar, the explanation which holds good of the one ought equally to\nhold good of the other. Therefore the reason why a clan revere a\nparticular species of animals or plants (for the clan totem may be a\nplant) and call themselves after it, would seem to be a belief that the\nlife of each individual of the clan is bound up with some one animal or\nplant of the species, and that his or her death would be the consequence\nof killing that particular animal, or destroying that particular plant.\nThis explanation of totemism squares very well with Sir George Grey\u2019s\ndefinition of a totem or _kobong_ in Western Australia. He says: \u201cA\ncertain mysterious connection exists between a family and its _kobong_, so\nthat a member of the family will never kill an animal of the species to\nwhich his _kobong_ belongs, should he find it asleep; indeed he always\nkills it reluctantly, and never without affording it a chance to escape.\nThis arises from the family belief that some one individual of the species\nis their nearest friend, to kill whom would be a great crime, and to be\ncarefully avoided. Similarly, a native who has a vegetable for his\n_kobong_ may not gather it under certain circumstances, and at a\nparticular period of the year.\u201d(587) Here it will be observed that though\neach man spares all the animals or plants of the species, they are not all\nequally precious to him; far from it, out of the whole species there is\nonly one which is specially dear to him; but as he does not know which the\ndear one is, he is obliged to spare them all from fear of injuring the\none. Again, this explanation of the clan totem harmonizes with the\nsupposed effect of killing one of the totem species. \u201cOne day one of the\nblacks killed a crow. Three or four days afterwards a Boortwa (crow)\n[_i.e._ a man of the Crow clan] named Larry died. He had been ailing for\nsome days, but the killing of his _wingong_ [totem] hastened his\ndeath.\u201d(588) Here the killing of the crow caused the death of a man of the\nCrow clan, exactly as, in the case of the sex-totems, the killing of a bat\ncauses the death of a Bat-man or the killing of an owl causes the death of\nan Owl-woman. Similarly, the killing of his _nagual_ causes the death of a\nCentral American Indian, the killing of his bush soul causes the death of\na Calabar negro, the killing of his _tamaniu_ causes the death of a Banks\nIslander, and the killing of the animal in which his life is stowed away\ncauses the death of the giant or warlock in the fairy tale.\n\n(M171) Thus it appears that the story of \u201cThe giant who had no heart in\nhis body\u201d may perhaps furnish the key to the relation which is supposed to\nsubsist between a man and his totem. The totem, on this theory, is simply\nthe receptacle in which a man keeps his life, as Punchkin kept his life in\na parrot, and Bidasari kept her soul in a golden fish. It is no valid\nobjection to this view that when a savage has both a sex totem and a clan\ntotem his life must be bound up with two different animals, the death of\neither of which would entail his own. If a man has more vital places than\none in his body, why, the savage may think, should he not have more vital\nplaces than one outside it? Why, since he can put his life outside\nhimself, should he not transfer one portion of it to one animal and\nanother to another? The divisibility of life, or, to put it otherwise, the\nplurality of souls, is an idea suggested by many familiar facts, and has\ncommended itself to philosophers like Plato,(589) as well as to savages.\nIt finds favour also with the sages of China, who tell us that every human\nbeing is provided with what may be called a male soul (_shen_) and a\nfemale soul (_kwei_), which by their harmonious co-operation compose an\norganic unity. However, some Chinese philosophers will have it that each\nof the five viscera has its own separate male soul (_shen_); and a Taoist\ntreatise written about the end of the tenth or beginning of the eleventh\ncentury has even enriched science with a list of about three dozen souls\ndistributed over the various parts of the human frame; indeed, not content\nwith a bare catalogue of these souls, the learned author has annexed to\nthe name and surname of each a brief description of its size and stature,\nof the kind of dress in which it is clothed and the shape of hat it\nwears.(590) It is only when the notion of a soul, from being a\nquasi-scientific hypothesis, becomes a theological dogma that its unity\nand indivisibility are insisted upon as essential. The savage, unshackled\nby dogma, is free to explain the facts of life by the assumption of as\nmany souls as he thinks necessary. Hence, for example, the Caribs supposed\nthat there was one soul in the head, another in the heart, and other souls\nat all the places where an artery is felt pulsating.(591) Some of the\nHidatsa Indians explain the phenomena of gradual death, when the\nextremities appear dead first, by supposing that man has four souls, and\nthat they quit the body, not simultaneously, but one after the other,\ndissolution being only complete when all four have departed.(592) Some of\nthe Dyaks of Borneo and the Malays of the Peninsula believe that every man\nhas seven souls.(593) The Alfoors of Poso in Celebes are of opinion that\nhe has three.(594) The natives of Laos suppose that the body is the seat\nof thirty spirits, which reside in the hands, the feet, the mouth, the\neyes, and so on.(595) Hence, from the primitive point of view, it is\nperfectly possible that a savage should have one soul in his sex totem and\nanother in his clan totem. However, as I have observed, sex totems have\nbeen found nowhere but in Australia; so that as a rule the savage who\npractises totemism need not have more than one soul out of his body at a\ntime.(596)\n\n(M172) If this explanation of the totem as a receptacle in which a man\nkeeps his soul or one of his souls is correct, we should expect to find\nsome totemic people of whom it is expressly said that every man amongst\nthem is believed to keep at least one soul permanently out of his body,\nand that the destruction of this external soul is supposed to entail the\ndeath of its owner. Such a people are the Battas of Sumatra. The Battas\nare divided into exogamous clans (_margas_) with descent in the male line;\nand each clan is forbidden to eat the flesh of a particular animal. One\nclan may not eat the tiger, another the ape, another the crocodile,\nanother the dog, another the cat, another the dove, another the white\nbuffalo, and another the locust. The reason given by members of a clan for\nabstaining from the flesh of the particular animal is either that they are\ndescended from animals of that species, and that their souls after death\nmay transmigrate into the animals, or that they or their forefathers have\nbeen under certain obligations to the creatures. Sometimes, but not\nalways, the clan bears the name of the animal.(597) Thus the Battas have\ntotemism in full. But, further, each Batta believes that he has seven or,\non a more moderate computation, three souls. One of these souls is always\noutside the body, but nevertheless whenever it dies, however far away it\nmay be at the time, that same moment the man dies also.(598) The writer\nwho mentions this belief says nothing about the Batta totems; but on the\nanalogy of the Australian, Central American, and African evidence we may\nconjecture that the external soul, whose death entails the death of the\nman, is housed in the totemic animal or plant.\n\n(M173) Against this view it can hardly be thought to militate that the\nBatta does not in set terms affirm his external soul to be in his totem,\nbut alleges other grounds for respecting the sacred animal or plant of his\nclan. For if a savage seriously believes that his life is bound up with an\nexternal object, it is in the last degree unlikely that he will let any\nstranger into the secret. In all that touches his inmost life and beliefs\nthe savage is exceedingly suspicious and reserved; Europeans have resided\namong savages for years without discovering some of their capital articles\nof faith, and in the end the discovery has often been the result of\naccident.(599) Above all, the savage lives in an intense and perpetual\ndread of assassination by sorcery; the most trifling relics of his\nperson\u2014the clippings of his hair and nails, his spittle, the remnants of\nhis food, his very name(600)\u2014all these may, he fancies, be turned by the\nsorcerer to his destruction, and he is therefore anxiously careful to\nconceal or destroy them. But if in matters such as these, which are but\nthe outposts and outworks of his life, he is so shy and secretive, how\nclose must be the concealment, how impenetrable the reserve in which he\nenshrouds the inner keep and citadel of his being! When the princess in\nthe fairy tale asks the giant where he keeps his soul, he often gives\nfalse or evasive answers, and it is only after much coaxing and wheedling\nthat the secret is at last wrung from him. In his jealous reticence the\ngiant resembles the timid and furtive savage; but whereas the exigencies\nof the story demand that the giant should at last reveal his secret, no\nsuch obligation is laid on the savage; and no inducement that can be\noffered is likely to tempt him to imperil his soul by revealing its\nhiding-place to a stranger. It is therefore no matter for surprise that\nthe central mystery of the savage\u2019s life should so long have remained a\nsecret, and that we should be left to piece it together from scattered\nhints and fragments and from the recollections of it which linger in fairy\ntales.\n\n\n\n\n\u00a7 5. The Ritual of Death and Resurrection.\n\n\n(M174) This view of totemism throws light on a class of religious rites of\nwhich no adequate explanation, so far as I am aware, has yet been offered.\nAmongst many savage tribes, especially such as are known to practise\ntotemism, it is customary for lads at puberty to undergo certain\ninitiatory rites, of which one of the commonest is a pretence of killing\nthe lad and bringing him to life again. Such rites become intelligible if\nwe suppose that their substance consists in extracting the youth\u2019s soul in\norder to transfer it to his totem. For the extraction of his soul would\nnaturally be supposed to kill the youth or at least to throw him into a\ndeath-like trance, which the savage hardly distinguishes from death. His\nrecovery would then be attributed either to the gradual recovery of his\nsystem from the violent shock which it had received, or, more probably, to\nthe infusion into him of fresh life drawn from the totem. Thus the essence\nof these initiatory rites, so far as they consist in a simulation of death\nand resurrection, would be an exchange of life or souls between the man\nand his totem. The primitive belief in the possibility of such an exchange\nof souls comes clearly out in the story of the Basque hunter who affirmed\nthat he had been killed by a bear, but that the bear had, after killing\nhim, breathed its own soul into him, so that the bear\u2019s body was now dead,\nbut he himself was a bear, being animated by the bear\u2019s soul.(601) This\nrevival of the dead hunter as a bear is exactly analogous to what, on the\ntheory here suggested, is supposed to take place in the ceremony of\nkilling a lad at puberty and bringing him to life again. The lad dies as a\nman and comes to life again as an animal; the animal\u2019s soul is now in him,\nand his human soul is in the animal. With good right, therefore, does he\ncall himself a Bear or a Wolf, etc., according to his totem; and with good\nright does he treat the bears or the wolves, etc., as his brethren, since\nin these animals are lodged the souls of himself and his kindred.\n\n(M175) Examples of this supposed death and resurrection at initiation are\nas follows. In the Wonghi or Wonghibon tribe of New South Wales \u201cthe\nyouths on approaching manhood attend a meeting of the tribe. The\nceremonies of initiation are secret, and at them none but the men of the\ntribe who have been initiated attend with the novices. At the spot where\nthe ceremonies are to be performed, a large oval space is cleared. The old\nmen of the tribe conduct the ceremonies, and the \u2018medicine man\u2019 of the\ntribe is the master of them. Part of the proceedings consists in knocking\nout a tooth and giving a new designation to the novice, indicating the\nchange from youth to manhood. When the tooth is knocked out, a loud\nhumming noise is heard, which is made with an instrument of the following\ndescription: a flat piece of wood is made with serrated edges, and having\na hole at one end, to which a string is attached, and this swung round\nproduces a humming noise. The uninitiated are not even allowed to see this\ninstrument. Women are forbidden to be present at these ceremonies, and\nshould one, by accident or otherwise, witness them, the penalty is death.\nThe penalty for revealing the secrets is probably the same. When\neverything is prepared the women and children are covered with boughs, and\nthe men retire, with the young fellows who are to be initiated, to a\nlittle distance. It is said that the youths are sent away a short distance\none by one, and that they are each met in turn by a Being, who, so far as\nI can understand, is believed to be something between a blackfellow and a\nspirit. This Being, called Thuremlin, it is said, takes the youth to a\ndistance, kills him, and in some instances cuts him up, after which he\nrestores him to life and knocks out a tooth. Their belief in the power of\nThuremlin is undoubted.\u201d(602)\n\n(M176) The foregoing account, while it applies strictly to one tribe only,\nmay be regarded as typical of the initiation ceremonies performed on young\nmen throughout the tribes of South-Eastern and Central Australia, except\nthat among the Central tribes the practice of knocking out a tooth on\nthese occasions is replaced by the equally mysterious and much severer\nbodily mutilations of circumcision and subincision, which are not\npractised by the tribes of the South-East.(603) The instrument whose\nhumming or booming sound accompanies the critical operation of knocking\nout the tooth of the novice, is the now well-known bull-roarer, which\nfigures in many savage rites of initiation. Its true nature is concealed\nfrom the women and uninitiated lads, who are taught to believe that its\nsonorous and long-drawn notes are the voice of the mythical being, often\ncalled Daramulun, who lives in the sky, instituted the rites, and\nsuperintends their performance. The hollow roar of the slat of wood, as it\nis swung round and round, \u201crepresents the muttering of thunder, and the\nthunder is the voice of Daramulun, and therefore its sound is of the most\nsacred character. Umbara once said to me, \u2018Thunder is the voice of him\n(pointing upward to the sky) calling on the rain to fall and make\neverything grow up new.\u2019 \u201d(604) This supposed resemblance of the sound to\nthunder probably explains a certain use which the Dieri, a tribe of\nCentral Australia, made of the instrument. When a young man had passed\nthrough an initiatory rite, which consisted in cutting a row of gashes in\nhis back, he was given a bull-roarer, and when he went out in search of\ngame, he used to twirl the implement in the belief that by doing so, while\nhis wounds were still unhealed, he created a good harvest of snakes,\nlizards, and other reptiles, which the natives employ as food; but on the\ncontrary they imagined that these supplies of food would be cut off for\never, if a woman were to see a bull-roarer which had been swung at the\nrites of initiation.(605) No doubt these savages, living in a parched\nwilderness where the existence of plants and animals depends on rare and\nirregular showers,(606) have observed that the fall of rain is regularly\nfollowed by a great and sudden increase in the food supply, and that this\nincrease is most marked after violent thunder-storms. Hence by making a\nnoise like thunder with the help of bull-roarers they probably hope, on\nthe principle of imitative magic, to bring on a thunder-storm and with it\na fertilizing deluge of rain.\n\n(M177) For the same reason in the parched and torrid regions of Arizona\nand New Mexico the Indians make great use of the bull-roarer in their\nceremonies for procuring rain. For example, when Captain Bourke was at the\nPueblo Indian village of Walpi in the month of August, 1881, he saw the\ninstrument in use at the snake dance. \u201cThe medicine-men twirled it\nrapidly, and with a uniform motion, about the head and from front to rear,\nand succeeded in faithfully imitating the sound of a gust of rain-laden\nwind. As explained to me by one of the medicine-men, by making this sound\nthey compelled the wind and rain to come to the aid of the crops. At a\nlater date I found it in use among the Apache, and for the same\npurpose.\u201d(607) The Zu\u00f1i Indians of New Mexico whirl bull-roarers \u201cto\ncreate enthusiasm\u201d among the mythical beings who are supposed to cause\nrain, or for the purpose of making them gather in the air over the\nvillage.(608) In a Zu\u00f1i rain-making ceremony, while one medicine-man\nwhirls a bull-roarer, another whips up a mixture of water and meal into\nfrothy suds symbolic of clouds, and a third plays a flute. \u201cAll this is an\ninvocation to the gods for rain\u2014the one great and perpetual prayer of the\npeople of this arid land.\u201d(609) This supposed connexion of the instrument\nwith thunder-storms explains why the Navajos of the same torrid country\nsay that the bull-roarer should always be made of wood from a pine-tree\nthat has been struck by lightning;(610) and why the Bakairi of Brazil call\nthe unpretentious instrument by a name that means \u201cthunder and\nlightning.\u201d(611) The resemblance of the sound of the bull-roarer to the\nroaring of the wind is doubtless the reason why in the Torres Straits\nIslands wizards whirled bull-roarers in order to make the wind to\nblow,(612) and why, when Caffres wish for calm weather, they forbid boys\nto play with bull-roarers, because they think that the booming noise\nattracts a gale of wind.(613) Hence, as an instrument whose sound\nresembles the rumbling of thunder, the roar of wind, and the patter of\nrain, the bull-roarer is naturally swung by agricultural savages as a\npowerful means of promoting the growth of the crops. In the island of\nKiwai, off the mouth of the Fly River in British New Guinea, bull-roarers\nare whirled in order to ensure a good crop of yams, sweet potatoes, and\nbananas.(614) Similarly the Yabim of German New Guinea imagine that by\ntwirling bull-roarers while they mention the names of the dead they\nproduce a fine crop of taro.(615)\n\n(M178) But why among the Dieri of Central Australia should the power of\nattracting rain and so ensuring a supply of food be specially attributed\nto a young man whose back has just been scored and whose wounds are still\nraw? Perhaps the reason may be that the blood dripping from the gashes is\nthought to resemble rain and therefore to be endowed with a magical\npotency of drawing showers from the clouds. The conjecture is confirmed by\nthe observation that the Dieri actually do bleed themselves avowedly for\nthe purpose of making rain, and they are not the only people in Australia\nand elsewhere who have resorted to this singular mode of putting an end to\na drought.(616) Altogether the foregoing evidence seems to hint that the\nwhole virtue of the bull-roarer resides, as its English name implies, in\nits voice, and that its original significance was simply that of a magical\ninstrument for causing thunder, wind, and rain.(617) When these natural\nphenomena came to be personified as spirits, the sound of the bull-roarer\nwas naturally interpreted as their voice.\n\n(M179) Among the tribes on the Brisbane River in Queensland the weird\nsound of the bull-roarers swung at initiation was believed by the women\nand children to be made by the wizards in swallowing the boys and bringing\nthem up again as young men. The Ualaroi of the Upper Darling River said\nthat the boy met a ghost, who killed him and brought him to life again as\na young man. Among the natives on the Lower Lachlan and Murray Rivers it\nwas Thrumalun (Daramulun) who was thought to slay and resuscitate the\nnovices.(618) In the Arunta tribe of Central Australia, at the moment when\nthe lads are being circumcised, the bull-roarer sounds in the darkness all\nround the ceremonial ground; and the awestruck women, listening in the\ndistance, believe that it is the voice of a spirit called Twanyirika, who\nlives in wild and inaccessible regions and only comes out when a youth is\ninitiated. They think that the spirit enters the body of the lad after the\noperation of circumcision has been performed and carries him away into the\nbush, keeping him there till his wound is healed. While the newly\ncircumcised youth is out in the wilds, carefully secluded from the sight\nof the women and children, he constantly sounds the bull-roarer. When he\nhas recovered from the wound, the spirit leaves him and he returns to camp\nan initiated, or rather partially initiated, man. He has learned, at all\nevents, the secret of Twanyirika; for no sooner is he circumcised than an\nelder brother comes up to him, and placing in his hands a bundle of sacred\nsticks or stones (_churinga_), says, \u201cHere is Twanyirika, of whom you have\nheard so much. They are _churinga_ and will help you to heal quickly;\nguard them well, or else you and your mothers and sisters will be\nkilled.\u201d(619)\n\n(M180) In this account nothing is said about killing the lad and bringing\nhim to life again; but a belief in the death and resurrection of the\nnovices at initiation is expressly affirmed to be part of the feminine\ncreed in other tribes of Central Australia. Thus in the Unmatjera tribe\nboth women and children believe that Twanyirika kills the youth and\nafterwards brings him to life again during the period of initiation. The\nrites of initiation in this tribe, as in the other Central tribes,\ncomprise the operations of circumcision and subincision; and as soon as\nthe second of these has been performed on him, the young man receives from\nhis father a sacred stick (_churinga_), with which, he is told, his spirit\nwas associated in the remotest past. While he is out in the bush\nrecovering from his wounds, he must swing the bull-roarer, or a being who\nlives up in the sky will swoop down and carry him off.(620) In the\nUrabunna tribe of Central Australia a lad at initiation receives a\nbull-roarer, the very name of which (_chimbaliri_) is never heard by women\nand children. They are taught to believe that the sound of it is the voice\nof a spirit called Witurna, who takes the boy away, cuts out all his\nbowels, provides him with a new set, and brings him back an initiated\nyouth. The lad is warned that on no account may he allow a woman or a\nchild to see the sacred stick, else he and his mother and sisters will\nfall down as dead as stones.(621) In the Binbinga tribe, on the western\ncoast of the Gulf of Carpentaria, the women and children believe that the\nnoise of the bull-roarer at initiation is made by a spirit named\nKatajalina, who lives in an ant-hill and comes out and eats up the boy,\nafterwards restoring him to life.(622) Similarly among their neighbours\nthe Anula the women imagine that the droning sound of the bull-roarer is\nproduced by a spirit called Gnabaia, who swallows the lads at initiation\nand afterwards disgorges them in the form of initiated men. In this tribe,\nafter a lad has been subincised as well as circumcised, he is presented\nwith a bull-roarer and informed that the instrument was originally made by\nthe whirlwind, that it is sacred or tabooed, and that it may on no account\nbe shewn to women or children.(623)\n\n(M181) Among the tribes settled on the southern coast of New South Wales,\nof which the Coast Murring tribe may be regarded as typical, the drama of\nresurrection from the dead was exhibited in a graphic form to the novices\nat initiation. Before they were privileged to witness this edifying\nspectacle they had been raised to the dignity of manhood by an old man,\nwho promoted them to their new status by the simple process of knocking a\ntooth out of the mouth of each with the help of a wooden chisel and\nhammer. The ceremony of the resurrection has been described for us in\ndetail by an eye-witness, the late Dr. A. W. Howitt, one of the best\nauthorities on the customs of the Australian aborigines. The scene\nselected for the sacred drama was the bottom of a deep valley, where a\nsluggish stream wound through a bed of tall sharp-edged sedge. Though the\nhour was between ten and eleven o\u2019clock in the morning, the sun had but\njust peeped over the mountains which enclosed the valley like a wall on\nthe east; and while the upper slopes, clothed with a forest of tall rowan\ntrees, looked warm and bright in sunshine, which shot between the grey\nstems and under the light feathery foliage of the trees, all the bottom of\nthe dell was still in deep shadow and dank with the moisture of the\nnight\u2019s rain. While the novices rested and warmed themselves at a\ncrackling fire, the initiated men laid their heads together, prepared a\nstock of decorations made of stringy bark, and dug a grave. There was some\ndiscussion as to the shape of the grave, but the man who was to be buried\nin it decided the question by declaring that he would be laid in it on his\nback at full length. He was a man of the eagle-hawk totem and belonged to\nthe tribal subdivision called Yibai. So while two men under his directions\nwere digging the grave with sticks in the friable granitic soil, he\nsuperintended the costume of the other actors in the drama. Sheets of bark\nwere beaten out into fleeces of stringy fibre, and in these garments six\nperformers were clothed from head to foot so that not even a glimpse could\nbe obtained of their faces. Four of them were tied together by a cord\nwhich was fastened to the back of their heads, and each of them carried\ntwo pieces of bark in his hands. The other two walked free, but hobbled\nalong bent double and supporting their tottery steps on staves to mark the\nweight of years; for they played the part of two medicine-men of venerable\nage and great magical power. By this time the grave was ready, and the\neagle-hawk man stretched himself in it at full length on a bed of leaves,\nhis head resting on a rolled-up blanket, just as if he were a corpse. In\nhis two hands, crossed on his chest, he held the stem of a young tree\n(_Persoonia linearis_), which had been pulled up by the roots and now\nstood planted on his chest, so that the top of it rose several feet above\nthe level of the ground. A light covering of dried sticks filled the\ngrave, and dead leaves, tufts of grass, and small plants were artistically\narranged over them so as to complete the illusion. All being now ready,\nthe novices were led by their sisters\u2019 husbands to the grave and placed in\na row beside it, while a singer, perched on the trunk of a fallen tree at\nthe head of the grave, crooned a melancholy ditty, the song of Yibai.\nThough the words of the song consisted merely of a monotonous repetition\nof the words _Burrin-burrin Yibai_, that is, Stringy-bark Yibai, they were\nunderstood to refer to the eagle-hawk totem, as well as to the tribal\nsubdivision of the buried man. Then to the slow, plaintive but well-marked\nair of the song the actors began to move forward, winding among the trees,\nlogs, and rocks. On came the four disguised men, stepping in time to the\nmusic, swaying from side to side, and clashing their bark clappers\ntogether at every step, while beside them hobbled the two old men keeping\na little aloof to mark their superior dignity. They represented a party of\nmedicine-men, guided by two reverend seniors, who had come on pilgrimage\nto the grave of a brother medicine-man, him of the eagle-hawk totem, who\nlay buried here in the lonely valley, now illumined by the warm rays of\nthe sun; for by this time the morning was wearing on to noon. When the\nlittle procession, chanting an invocation to Daramulun, had defiled from\namong the rocks and trees into the open, it drew up on the side of the\ngrave opposite to the novices, the two old men taking up a position in the\nrear of the dancers. For some time the dance and song went on till the\ntree that seemed to grow from the grave began to quiver. \u201cLook there!\u201d\ncried the sisters\u2019 husbands to the novices, pointing to the trembling\nleaves. As they looked, the tree quivered more and more, then was\nviolently agitated and fell to the ground, while amid the excited dancing\nof the dancers and the chanting of the tuneful choir the supposed dead man\nspurned from him the superincumbent mass of sticks and leaves, and\nspringing to his feet danced his magic dance in the grave itself, and\nexhibited in his mouth the magic substances which he was supposed to have\nreceived from Daramulun in person.(624)\n\n(M182) In some tribes of Central and Northern Australia the initiation of\na medicine-man into the mysteries of his craft is supposed to be\naccomplished by certain spirits, who kill him, cut out his internal\norgans, and having provided him with a new set bring him to life again.\nSometimes the spirits kindly replace the man\u2019s human organs by their own\nspiritual organs; sometimes along with the new organs they insert magical\nstones in his body or even a serpent, and the stones or the serpents\nnaturally endow the new wizards with marvellous powers. In some tribes the\ninitiation takes place in a cave, where the spirits dwell. After the man\nhas been restored to life with a new heart, a new pair of lungs, and so\nforth, he returns to his people in a more or less dazed condition, which\nhis friends may at first mistake for insanity, though afterwards they\nrecognize its true character as inspiration.(625) One eminent medical\npractitioner in the Unmatjera tribe assured Messrs. Spencer and Gillen\nthat when he came to himself after the operation, which in his case was\nperformed by an aged doctor, he had completely forgotten who he was and\nall about his past life. After a time his venerable friend led him back to\nthe camp and shewed it to him, and said, \u201cThat woman there is your wife,\u201d\nfor she had gone clean out of his head.(626) We shall see presently that\nthis temporary oblivion, a natural effect of the shock to the nervous\nsystem produced by resuscitation from the dead, is characteristic of\nnovices under similar circumstances in other lands. Among the Arunta of\nAlice Springs the cave where the mystic initiation takes place is a\nlimestone cavern in a range of hills which rises to the north of the wide\nlevel expanse known as the Emily plain. None of the ordinary natives would\ndare to set foot in the awful grotto, which they believe to extend for\nmiles into the bowels of the earth and to be tenanted by certain ancestral\nspirits, who live there in perpetual sunshine and amid streams of running\nwater, an earthly paradise by contrast with the arid sun-scorched steppes\nand barren mountains outside. White men have explored the cave, and if\nthey perceived no spirits, they found bats in plenty. The man who aspires\nto the rank of a wizard lies down at the mouth of the cave and falls\nasleep; and as he sleeps one of the ancestral spirits steals up to him and\ndrives an invisible spear through his neck from back to front. The point\nof the spear comes out through the man\u2019s tongue, leaving a hole through\nwhich you could put your little finger, and this hole the man retains for\nthe rest of his natural life, or at least so long as he retains his\nmagical powers; for if the hole should close up, these spiritual gifts and\ngraces would depart from him. A second thrust from the invisible spear\ntransfixes the man\u2019s head from ear to ear; he drops down dead, and is\nimmediately transported into the depths of the cavern, where the spirits\ndissect his dead body, extract the old viscera, and replace them with a\nnew set in the manner already described.(627)\n\n(M183) In this account of the manner in which medicine-men obtain their\nmagical powers not only are the supposed death and resurrection of the\nnovice worthy of attention, but also the exchange of internal organs which\nin the Binbinga and Mara tribes is supposed to be effected between the man\nand the spirit;(628) for this exchange resembles that which, on the theory\nI have suggested, may be thought to take place between a lad and his totem\nat the ceremonies of initiation which mark the momentous transition from\nboyhood to manhood. Further, the bodily mutilation which is the visible\nsign of the medicine-man\u2019s initiation (for however the hole may be made it\ncertainly exists in the tongues of regular Arunta practitioners)\ncorresponds to the bodily mutilations of other sorts, which in many savage\ntribes attest to the world that the mutilated persons are fullgrown men.\nWhat the precise meaning of such mutilations may be, still remains very\nobscure; but they seem in some cases to be directly associated with the\nconception of death and resurrection.\n\n(M184) This association certainly comes out plainly in the rites of\ninitiation through which in some parts of New Guinea all lads must pass\nbefore they attain to the status of adults. The rites are observed by a\ngroup of tribes who occupy contiguous territories about Finsch Harbour and\nHuon Gulf in German New Guinea. The tribes in question are the Yabim, the\nBukaua, the Kai, and the Tami. All of them except the Kai belong to the\nMelanesian stock and are therefore presumably immigrants from the\nadjoining islands; but the Kai, who inhabit the rugged, densely wooded,\nand rainy mountains inland from Finsch Harbour, belong to the aboriginal\nPapuan stock and differ from their neighbours in speech as well as in\nappearance. Yet the rites of initiation which all these tribes celebrate\nand the beliefs which they associate with them are so similar that a\nsingle description will apply accurately enough to them all. All of them,\nlike many Australian tribes, require every male member of the tribe to be\ncircumcised before he ranks as a full-grown man; and the tribal\ninitiation, of which circumcision is the central feature, is conceived by\nthem, as by some Australian tribes, as a process of being swallowed and\ndisgorged by a mythical monster, whose voice is heard in the humming sound\nof the bull-roarer. Indeed the New Guinea tribes not only impress this\nbelief on the minds of women and children, but enact it in a dramatic form\nat the actual rites of initiation, at which no woman or uninitiated person\nmay be present. For this purpose a hut about a hundred feet long is\nerected either in the village or in a lonely part of the forest. It is\nmodelled in the shape of the mythical monster; at the end which represents\nhis head it is high, and it tapers away at the other end. A betel-palm,\ngrubbed up with the roots, stands for the backbone of the great being and\nits clustering fibres for his hair; and to complete the resemblance the\nbutt end of the building is adorned by a native artist with a pair of\ngoggle eyes and a gaping mouth. When after a tearful parting from their\nmothers and women folk, who believe or pretend to believe in the monster\nthat swallows their dear ones, the awe-struck novices are brought face to\nface with this imposing structure, the huge creature emits a sullen growl,\nwhich is in fact no other than the humming note of bull-roarers swung by\nmen concealed in the monster\u2019s belly. The actual process of deglutition is\nvariously enacted. Among the Tami it is represented by causing the\ncandidates to defile past a row of men who hold bull-roarers over their\nheads; among the Kai it is more graphically set forth by making them pass\nunder a scaffold on which stands a man, who makes a gesture of swallowing\nand takes in fact a gulp of water as each trembling novice passes beneath\nhim. But the present of a pig, opportunely offered for the redemption of\nthe youth, induces the monster to relent and disgorge his victim; the man\nwho represents the monster accepts the gift vicariously, a gurgling sound\nis heard, and the water which had just been swallowed descends in a jet on\nthe novice. This signifies that the young man has been released from the\nmonster\u2019s belly. However, he has now to undergo the more painful and\ndangerous operation of circumcision. It follows immediately, and the cut\nmade by the knife of the operator is explained to be a bite or scratch\nwhich the monster inflicted on the novice in spewing him out of his\ncapacious maw. While the operation is proceeding, a prodigious noise is\nmade by the swinging of bull-roarers to represent the roar of the dreadful\nbeing who is in the act of swallowing the young men.\n\n(M185) When, as sometimes happens, a lad dies from the effect of the\noperation, he is buried secretly in the forest, and his sorrowing mother\nis told that the monster has a pig\u2019s stomach as well as a human stomach,\nand that unfortunately her son slipped into the wrong stomach, from which\nit was impossible to extricate him. After they have been circumcised the\nlads must remain for some months in seclusion, shunning all contact with\nwomen and even the sight of them. They live in the long hut which\nrepresents the monster\u2019s belly; among the Yabim they beguile the tedium of\nthis enforced leisure by weaving baskets and playing on certain sacred\nflutes, which are never used except on these occasions. The instruments\nare of two patterns. One is called the male and the other the female; and\nthey are believed to be married to each other. No woman may see these\nmysterious flutes; if she did, she would die. When the long seclusion is\nover, the lads, now ranking as initiated men, are brought back with great\npomp and ceremony to the village, where they are received with sobs and\ntears of joy by the women, as if the grave had given up its dead. At first\nthe young men keep their eyes rigidly closed or even sealed with a plaster\nof chalk, and they appear not to understand the words of command which are\ngiven them by an elder. Gradually, however, they come to themselves as if\nawaking from a stupor, and next day they bathe and wash off the crust of\nwhite chalk with which their bodies had been coated.(629)\n\n(M186) It is highly significant that all these tribes of New Guinea apply\nthe same word to the bull-roarer and to the monster, who is supposed to\nswallow the novices at circumcision, and whose fearful roar is represented\nby the hum of the harmless wooden instruments. The word in the speech of\nthe Yabim and Bukaua is _balum_; in that of the Kai it is _ngosa_; and in\nthat of the Tami it is _kani_. Further, it deserves to be noted that in\nthree languages out of the four the same word which is applied to the\nbull-roarer and to the monster means also a ghost or spirit of the dead,\nwhile in the fourth language (the Kai) it signifies \u201cgrandfather.\u201d From\nthis it seems to follow that the being who swallows and disgorges the\nnovices at initiation is believed to be a powerful ghost or ancestral\nspirit, and that the bull-roarer, which bears his name, is his material\nrepresentative. That would explain the jealous secrecy with which the\nsacred implement is kept from the sight of women. While they are not in\nuse, the bull-roarers are stowed away in the men\u2019s club-houses, which no\nwoman may enter; indeed no woman or uninitiated person may set eyes on a\nbull-roarer under pain of death.(630) Similarly among the Tugeri or\nKaya-Kaya, a large Papuan tribe on the south coast of Dutch New Guinea,\nthe name of the bull-roarer, which they call _sosom_, is given to a\nmythical giant, who is supposed to appear every year with the south-east\nmonsoon. When he comes, a festival is held in his honour and bull-roarers\nare swung. Boys are presented to the giant, and he kills them, but\nconsiderately brings them to life again.(631)\n\n(M187) In certain districts of Viti Levu, the largest of the Fijian\nIslands, the drama of death and resurrection used to be acted with much\nsolemnity before the eyes of young men at initiation. The ceremonies were\nperformed in certain sacred precincts of oblong shape, enclosed by low\nwalls or rows of stones but open to the sky. Such a precinct was called a\n_Nanga_, and it might be described as a temple dedicated to the worship of\nancestors; for in it sacrifices and prayers were offered to the ancestral\nspirits. For example, the first-fruits of the yam harvest were regularly\npresented with great ceremony to the souls of the dead in the temple\nbefore the bulk of the crop was dug for the people\u2019s use, and no man might\ntaste of the new yams until this solemn offering had been made. The yams\nso offered were piled up in the sacred enclosure and left to rot there; if\nany man were so bold as to eat of these dedicated fruits, it was believed\nthat he would go mad.(632) Any initiated man had the right of approaching\nthe ancestral spirits at any time in their holy place, where he would pray\nto them for help and protection and propitiate them by laying down his\noffering of a pig, or yams, or eels, or cloth, or what not.(633) Of these\nofferings perhaps the most curious was that of the foreskins of young men,\nwho were circumcised as a sort of vicarious sacrifice or atonement for the\nrecovery of a sick relative, it might be either their father or one of\ntheir father\u2019s brothers. The bloody foreskins, stuck in the cleft of a\nsplit reed, were presented to the ancestral gods in the temple by the\nchief priest, who prayed for the sick man\u2019s recovery.(634) The temple or\nsacred enclosure was divided into two or three compartments by cross walls\nof stones, and the inmost of these compartments was the\n_Nanga-tambu-tambu_, or Holy of Holies.(635)\n\n(M188) In these open-air temples of the dead the ceremony of initiating\nyoung men was performed as a rule every year at the end of October or the\nbeginning of November, which was the commencement of the Fijian New Year;\nhence the novices who were initiated at that season went by the name of\n_Vilavou_ or New Year\u2019s Men. The exact time for celebrating the rite was\ndetermined by the flowering of the _ndrala_ tree (_Erythrina_); but it\nroughly coincided with the New Year of the Tahitians and Hawaiians, who\ndated the commencement of the year by observation of the Pleiades. The\nhighlanders of Fiji, who alone celebrated these rites, did not trouble\ntheir heads about the stars.(636) As a preparation for the solemnity the\nheads of the novices were shaved and their beards, if they had any, were\ncarefully eradicated. On four successive days they went in procession to\nthe temple and there deposited in the Holy of Holies their offerings of\ncloth and weapons to the ancestral spirits. But on the fifth and great day\nof the festival, when they again entered the sacred ground, they beheld a\nsight which froze their souls with horror. Stretched on the ground was a\nrow of dead or seemingly dead and murdered men, their bodies cut open and\ncovered with blood, their entrails protruding. At the further end sat the\nHigh Priest, regarding them with a stony glare, and to reach him the\ntrembling novices had to crawl on hands and knees over the ghastly\nblood-bedabbled corpses that lay between. Having done so they drew up in a\nline before him. Suddenly he blurted out a piercing yell, at which the\ncounterfeit dead men started to their feet and ran down to the river to\ncleanse themselves from the blood and guts of pigs with which they were\nbeslobbered. The High Priest now unbent his starched dignity, and skipping\nfrom side to side cried in stridulous tones, \u201cWhere are the people of my\nenclosure? Are they gone to Tonga Levu? Are they gone to the deep sea?\u201d He\nwas soon answered by a deep-mouthed chant, and back from the river marched\nthe dead men come to life, clean, fresh, and garlanded, swaying their\nbodies in time to the music of their solemn hymn. They took their places\nin front of the novices and a religious silence ensued. Such was the drama\nof death and resurrection. It was immediately followed by a sacramental\nmeal. Four old men of the highest order of initiates now entered the Holy\nof Holies. The first bore a cooked yam carefully wrapt up in leaves so\nthat no part of it should touch the hands of the bearer: the second\ncarried a piece of baked pork similarly enveloped: the third held a\ndrinking-cup full of water and wrapt round with native cloth; and the\nfourth bore a napkin of the same stuff. The first elder passed along the\nrow of novices putting the end of the yam into each of their mouths, and\nas he did so each of them nibbled a morsel of the sacred food: the second\nelder did the same with the hallowed pork: the third elder followed with\nthe holy water, with which each novice merely wetted his lips; and the\nfourth elder wiped all their mouths with his napkin. Then the high priest\nor one of the elders addressed the young men, warning them solemnly\nagainst the sacrilege of betraying to the profane vulgar any of the high\nmysteries which they had witnessed, and threatening all such traitors with\nthe vengeance of the gods. The general intention of the initiatory rites\nseems to have been to introduce the young men to the worshipful spirits of\nthe dead at their temple, and to cement the bond between them by a\nsacramental meal.(637)\n\n(M189) The people of Rook, an island between New Guinea and New Britain,\nhold festivals at which one or two disguised men, their heads covered with\nwooden masks, go dancing through the village, followed by all the other\nmen. They demand that the circumcised boys who have not yet been swallowed\nby Marsaba (the devil) shall be given up to them. The boys, trembling and\nshrieking, are delivered to them, and must creep between the legs of the\ndisguised men. Then the procession moves through the village again, and\nannounces that Marsaba has eaten up the boys, and will not disgorge them\ntill he receives a present of pigs, taro, and so forth. So all the\nvillagers, according to their means, contribute provisions, which are then\nconsumed in the name of Marsaba.(638) In New Britain all males are members\nof an association called the Duk-duk. The boys are admitted to it very\nyoung, but are not fully initiated till their fourteenth year, when they\nreceive from the Tubuvan or Tubuan a terrible blow with a cane, which is\nsupposed to kill them. The Tubuan and the Duk-duk are two disguised men\nwho represent cassowaries. They dance with a short hopping step in\nimitation of the cassowary. Each of them wears a huge hat like an\nextinguisher, woven of grass or palm-fibres; it is six feet high, and\ndescends to the wearer\u2019s shoulders, completely concealing his head and\nface. From the neck to the knees the man\u2019s body is hidden by a crinoline\nmade of the leaves of a certain tree fastened on hoops, one above the\nother. The Tubuan is regarded as a female, the Duk-duk as a male. The\nformer is supposed to breed and give birth to the novices, who are\naccordingly looked upon as newly born. The female masks are very plain\ncompared with the male masks. Two of them are regularly kept from year to\nyear in order that they may annually breed new Duk-duks. When they are\nwanted for this purpose they are brought forth, decorated afresh, and\nprovided with new leaf dresses to match. According to one account, women\nand children may not look upon one of these disguised men or they would\ndie. So strong is this superstition among them that they will run away and\nhide as soon as they hear him coming, for they are aware of his approach\nthrough a peculiar shrieking noise he utters as he goes along. In the\ndistrict of Berara, where red is the Duk-duk colour, the mere sight of a\nred cloth is enough to make the women take to their heels. The common herd\nare not allowed to know who the masker is. If he stumbles and his hat\nfalls to the ground, disclosing his face, or his crinoline is torn to\ntatters by the bushes, his attendants immediately surround him to hide his\nperson from the vulgar eye. According to one writer, indeed, the performer\nwho drops his mask, or lets it fall so that the sharp point at the top\nsticks in the ground, is put to death. The institution of the Duk-duk is\ncommon to the neighbouring islands of New Ireland and the Duke of\nYork.(639)\n\n(M190) Among the Galelareese and Tobelorese of Halmahera, an island to the\nwest of New Guinea, boys go through a form of initiation, part of which\nseems to consist in a pretence of begetting them anew. When a number of\nboys have reached the proper age, their parents agree to celebrate the\nceremony at their common expense, and they invite others to be present at\nit. A shed is erected, and two long tables are placed in it, with benches\nto match, one for the men and one for the women. When all the preparations\nhave been made for a feast, a great many skins of the rayfish, and some\npieces of a wood which imparts a red colour to water, are taken to the\nshed. A priest or elder causes a vessel to be placed in the sight of all\nthe people, and then begins, with significant gestures, to rub a piece of\nthe wood with the ray-skin. The powder so produced is put in the vessel,\nand at the same time the name of one of the boys is called out. The same\nproceeding is repeated for each boy. Then the vessels are filled with\nwater, after which the feast begins. At the third cock-crow the priest\nsmears the faces and bodies of the boys with the red water, which\nrepresents the blood shed at the perforation of the _hymen_. Towards\ndaybreak the boys are taken to the wood, and must hide behind the largest\ntrees. The men, armed with sword and shield, accompany them, dancing and\nsinging. The priest knocks thrice on each of the trees behind which a boy\nis hiding. All day the boys stay in the wood, exposing themselves to the\nheat of the sun as much as possible. In the evening they bathe and return\nto the shed, where the women supply them with food.(640)\n\n(M191) In the west of Ceram boys at puberty are admitted to the Kakian\nassociation.(641) Modern writers have commonly regarded this association\nas primarily a political league instituted to resist foreign domination.\nIn reality its objects are purely religious and social, though it is\npossible that the priests may have occasionally used their powerful\ninfluence for political ends. The society is in fact merely one of those\nwidely-diffused primitive institutions, of which a chief object is the\ninitiation of young men. In recent years the true nature of the\nassociation has been duly recognized by the distinguished Dutch\nethnologist, J. G. F. Riedel. The Kakian house is an oblong wooden shed,\nsituated under the darkest trees in the depth of the forest, and is built\nto admit so little light that it is impossible to see what goes on in it.\nEvery village has such a house. Thither the boys who are to be initiated\nare conducted blindfold, followed by their parents and relations. Each boy\nis led by the hand by two men, who act as his sponsors or guardians,\nlooking after him during the period of initiation. When all are assembled\nbefore the shed, the high priest calls aloud upon the devils. Immediately\na hideous uproar is heard to proceed from the shed. It is made by men with\nbamboo trumpets, who have been secretly introduced into the building by a\nback door, but the women and children think it is made by the devils, and\nare much terrified. Then the priests enter the shed, followed by the boys,\none at a time. As soon as each boy has disappeared within the precincts, a\ndull chopping sound is heard, a fearful cry rings out, and a sword or\nspear, dripping with blood, is thrust through the roof of the shed. This\nis a token that the boy\u2019s head has been cut off, and that the devil has\ncarried him away to the other world, there to regenerate and transform\nhim. So at sight of the bloody sword the mothers weep and wail, crying\nthat the devil has murdered their children. In some places, it would seem,\nthe boys are pushed through an opening made in the shape of a crocodile\u2019s\njaws or a cassowary\u2019s beak, and it is then said that the devil has\nswallowed them. The boys remain in the shed for five or nine days. Sitting\nin the dark, they hear the blast of the bamboo trumpets, and from time to\ntime the sound of musket shots and the clash of swords. Every day they\nbathe, and their faces and bodies are smeared with a yellow dye, to give\nthem the appearance of having been swallowed by the devil. During his stay\nin the Kakian house each boy has one or two crosses tattooed with thorns\non his breast or arm. When they are not sleeping, the lads must sit in a\ncrouching posture without moving a muscle. As they sit in a row\ncross-legged, with their hands stretched out, the chief takes his trumpet,\nand placing the mouth of it on the hands of each lad, speaks through it in\nstrange tones, imitating the voice of the spirits. He warns the lads,\nunder pain of death, to observe the rules of the Kakian society, and never\nto reveal what has passed in the Kakian house. The novices are also told\nby the priests to behave well to their blood relations, and are taught the\ntraditions and secrets of the tribe.\n\n(M192) Meantime the mothers and sisters of the lads have gone home to weep\nand mourn. But in a day or two the men who acted as guardians or sponsors\nto the novices return to the village with the glad tidings that the devil,\nat the intercession of the priests, has restored the lads to life. The men\nwho bring this news come in a fainting state and daubed with mud, like\nmessengers freshly arrived from the nether world. Before leaving the\nKakian house, each lad receives from the priest a stick adorned at both\nends with cock\u2019s or cassowary\u2019s feathers. The sticks are supposed to have\nbeen given to the lads by the devil at the time when he restored them to\nlife, and they serve as a token that the youths have been in the spirit\nland. When they return to their homes they totter in their walk, and enter\nthe house backward, as if they had forgotten how to walk properly; or they\nenter the house by the back door. If a plate of food is given to them,\nthey hold it upside down. They remain dumb, indicating their wants by\nsigns only. All this is to shew that they are still under the influence of\nthe devil or the spirits. Their sponsors have to teach them all the common\nacts of life, as if they were new-born children. Further, upon leaving the\nKakian house the boys are strictly forbidden to eat of certain fruits\nuntil the next celebration of the rites has taken place. And for twenty or\nthirty days their hair may not be combed by their mothers or sisters. At\nthe end of that time the high priest takes them to a lonely place in the\nforest, and cuts off a lock of hair from the crown of each of their heads.\nAfter these initiatory rites the lads are deemed men, and may marry; it\nwould be a scandal if they married before.\n\n(M193) In the region of the Lower Congo a simulation of death and\nresurrection is, or rather used to be, practised by the members of a guild\nor secret society called _ndembo_. The society had nothing to do with\npuberty or circumcision, though the custom of circumcision is common in\nthe country. Young people and adults of both sexes might join the guild;\nafter initiation they were called \u201cthe Knowing Ones\u201d (_nganga_). To found\na branch of the society it was necessary to have an albino, who, whether a\nchild, lad, or adult, was the acknowledged head of the society.(642) The\nostensible reason for starting a branch of the guild in a district was\ncommonly an epidemic of sickness, \u201cand the idea was to go into _ndembo_ to\ndie, and after an indefinite period, from a few months to two or three\nyears, to be resurrected with a new body not liable to the sickness then\ntroubling the countryside. Another reason for starting a _ndembo_ was a\ndearth of children in a district. It was believed that good luck in having\nchildren would attend those who entered or died _ndembo_. But the\nunderlying idea was the same, _i.e._ to get a \u2018new body\u2019 that would be\nhealthy and perform its functions properly.\u201d The quarters of the society\nwere always a stockaded enclosure in a great thick forest; a gate of\nplanks painted yellow and red gave access to it, and within there was an\nassemblage of huts. The place was fenced to keep intruders from prying\ninto the mysteries of the guild, and it was near water. Uninitiated\npersons might walk on the public roads through the forest, but if they\nwere caught in bye-paths or hunting in the woods, they were flogged,\nfined, and sometimes killed. They might not even look upon the persons of\nthose who had \u201cdied _ndembo_\u201d; hence when these sanctified persons were\nroving about the forest or going to the river, the booming notes of a drum\nwarned the profane vulgar to keep out of their way.\n\n(M194) When the stockade and the huts in the forest were ready to receive\nall who wished to put off the old man or woman and to put on the new, one\nof the initiates gave the sign and the aspirant after the higher life\ndropped down like dead in some public place, it might be the market or the\ncentre of the town where there were plenty of people to witness the\nedifying spectacle. The initiates immediately spread a pall over him or\nher, beat the earth round about the pretended corpse with plantain stalks,\nchanted incantations, fired guns, and cut capers. Then they carried the\nseemingly dead body away into the forest and disappeared with it into the\nstockade. The spectacle proved infectious; one after another in the\nemotional, excitable crowd of negroes followed the example, dropped down\nlike dead, and were carried off, sometimes in a real cataleptic state. In\nthis way fifty to a hundred or more novices might feign death and be\ntransported into the sacred enclosure. There they were supposed not only\nto die but to rot till only a single bone of their body remained, of which\nthe initiated had to take the greatest care in expectation of the joyful\nresurrection that was soon to follow. However, though they were both dead\nand rotten, they consumed a large quantity of food, which their credulous\nrelatives brought to them in baskets, toiling with the loads on their\nbacks over the long paths through the forest in the sweltering heat of the\ntropical day. If the relations failed to discharge this pious and\nindispensable duty, their kinsman in the sacred enclosure ran a risk of\ndying in good earnest, or rather of being spirited away to a distant town\nand sold as a slave.\n\n(M195) Shut up within the stockade for months or years, the men and women,\nboys and girls, dispensed with the superfluity of clothes, rubbed their\nnaked bodies with red ochre or powdered camwood instead, and gave\nthemselves up to orgies of unbridled lust. Some feeble attempts were made\nto teach them the rudiments of a secret language, but the vocabulary was\nsmall and its principles lacking in ingenuity. The time during which this\nseclusion lasted might vary from three months to three years. When the\ncircumstances which had furnished the pretext for instituting the society\nhad passed away, whether it was that the epidemic had died out or that the\nbirth-rate had sensibly increased, murmurs would begin to be heard among\nfriends and relatives in the town, who did not see why they should be\ntaxed any longer to support a set of idle and dissolute ruffians in the\nforest, and why they should trudge day after day in the sweat of their\nbrow to carry provisions to them. So the supplies would begin to run\nshort, and whenever that happened the mystery of the resurrection was sure\nto follow very soon after.\n\n(M196) Accordingly it would be announced that on a certain market-day the\nnew initiates, now raised from the dead, would reveal themselves in all\ntheir glory to the astonished gaze of the public. The glad tidings were\nreceived with enthusiasm, and crowds assembled from all the country round\nabout to welcome those who had come back from the world beyond the grave.\nWhen all were gathered in eager expectancy in the market-place, the sounds\nof distant music would be heard, and soon the gay procession would defile\ninto the open square and march round it, while the dusky skins, reddened\nwith camwood powder, glistened in the sunshine, the gay garments fluttered\nin the wind, and the tassels of palm-leaf fibre dangled at every arm. In\nthe crowd of spectators many parents would recognize their children in the\nmarching figures of the procession, and girls and boys would point out\ntheir brothers and sisters and eagerly call out their names. But in the\nstolid faces of the initiates not an eye would gleam with recognition, not\na muscle would twitch with an involuntary expression of delight; for\nhaving just been raised from the dead they were supposed to know nothing\nof their former life, of friends and relations, of home and country. There\nmight be in the crowd a mother or a sister not seen for years; or, more\nmoving still, the novice might look in vain for loved and remembered faces\nthat would never be seen in the market-place again. But whatever his\nfeelings might be, he must rigidly suppress them under pain of a flogging,\na fine, or even death. At last the parade was over and the procession\nbroke up. Then the old hands introduced the new hands to their own parents\nand brothers and sisters, to their old homes and haunts. For still the\nnovices kept up the pretence that everything was new and strange to them,\nthat they could not speak their mother tongue, that they did not know\ntheir own fathers and mothers, their own town and their own houses; nay\nthat they had forgotten even how to eat their food. So everything and\neverybody had to be shewn to them and their names and meanings explained.\nTheir guides would lead them about the town, pointing out the various\nroads and telling where they led to\u2014this one to the watering-place on the\nriver, this to the forest, that to the farms, and so on: they would take\nup the commonest domestic utensils and shew what they were used for: they\nwould even chew the food and put it into the mouths of the novices, like\nmother birds feeding their callow young. For some time afterwards the\nresuscitated persons, attended by their mentors, would go about the town\nand the neighbourhood acting in a strange way like children or mad folk,\nseizing what they wanted and trying to beat or even kill such as dared to\nrefuse them anything. Their guardian would generally restrain these\nsallies; but sometimes he would arrange with his hopeful pupils to be out\nof sight when two or three of them clubbed together to assault and rob an\nhonest man, and would only return in time to share the booty. After a\nwhile, however, the excitement created by the resurrection would wear off;\nthe dead folk come to life were expected to have learned their lessons,\nand if they forgot themselves, their memory was promptly refreshed by the\nlaw.(643)\n\n(M197) The following account of the rites, as practised in this part of\nAfrica, was given to Adolf Bastian by an interpreter. \u201cThe great fetish\nlives in the interior of the forest-land, where nobody sees him and nobody\ncan see him. When he dies, the fetish priests carefully collect his bones\nin order to bring them to life again, and they nourish them, that he may\nbe clothed anew in flesh and blood. But it is not good to speak of it. In\nthe land of Ambamba every one must die once, and when the fetish priest\nshakes his calabash against a village, all the men and lads whose hour is\ncome fall into a state of lifeless torpidity, from which they generally\narise after three days. But if the fetish loves a man he carries him away\ninto the bush and buries him in the fetish house, often for many years.\nWhen he comes to life again, he begins to eat and drink as before, but his\nunderstanding is gone and the fetish man must teach him and direct him in\nevery motion, like the smallest child. At first this can only be done with\na stick, but gradually his senses return, so that it is possible to talk\nwith him, and when his education is complete, the priest brings him back\nto his parents. They would seldom recognize their son but for the express\nassurances of the fetish priest, who moreover recalls previous events to\ntheir memory. He who has not gone through the ceremony of the new birth in\nAmbamba is universally looked down upon and is not admitted to the\ndances.\u201d(644)\n\n(M198) In the same part of Africa we hear of a fetish called Malassi, the\nvotaries of which form a secret order of the usual sort with a variety of\nranks to which the initiates are promoted. \u201cThe candidate is plunged into\na magic sleep within the temple-hut, and while he sleeps he beholds a bird\nor other object with which his existence is henceforth sympathetically\nbound up, just as the life of the young Indian is bound up with the animal\nwhich he sees in his dream at puberty. All who have been born again at\ninitiation, after their return to a normal state, bear the name of Swamie\n(a sacred designation also in India) or, if they are women, Sumbo (Tembo),\nand wear as a token the ring called _sase_, which consists of an iron hoop\nwith a fruit attached to it.\u201d(645) Similarly among the Fans of the Gaboon\na young warrior acquires his guardian spirit by dreaming. He is secluded\nin the forest, drinks a fermented and intoxicating liquor, and smokes\nhemp. Then he falls into a heavy sleep, and next morning he must describe\nexactly to the fetish priest the animal, tree, mineral, or whatever it may\nhave been which he saw in his dream. This magical dream is repeated on\nthree successive nights; and after that the young man is sent forth by the\npriest to seek and bring back the beast, bird, reptile, or whatever it was\nof which he dreamed. The youth obeys, reduces the animal or thing to\ncinders or ashes, and preserves these calcined remains as a talisman which\nwill protect him against many dangers.(646) However, in these rites there\nis no clear simulation of dying and coming to life again.\n\n(M199) Rites of death and resurrection were formerly observed in Quoja, on\nthe west coast of Africa, to the north of the Congo. They are thus\ndescribed by an old writer:\u2014\u201cThey have another ceremony which they call\nBelli-Paaro, but it is not for everybody. For it is an incorporation in\nthe assembly of the spirits, and confers the right of entering their\ngroves, that is to say, of going and eating the offerings which the simple\nfolk bring thither. The initiation or admission to the Belli-Paaro is\ncelebrated every twenty or twenty-five years. The initiated recount\nmarvels of the ceremony, saying that they are roasted, that they entirely\nchange their habits and life, and that they receive a spirit quite\ndifferent from that of other people and quite new lights. The badge of\nmembership consists in some lines traced on the neck between the\nshoulders; the lines seem to be pricked with a needle. Those who have this\nmark pass for persons of spirit, and when they have attained a certain age\nthey are allowed a voice in all public assemblies; whereas the uninitiated\nare regarded as profane, impure, and ignorant persons, who dare not\nexpress an opinion on any subject of importance. When the time for the\nceremony has come, it is celebrated as follows. By order of the king a\nplace is appointed in the forest, whither they bring the youths who have\nnot been marked, not without much crying and weeping; for it is impressed\nupon the youths that in order to undergo this change it is necessary to\nsuffer death. So they dispose of their property, as if it were all over\nwith them. There are always some of the initiated beside the novices to\ninstruct them. They teach them to dance a certain dance called _killing_,\nand to sing verses in praise of Belli. Above all, they are very careful\nnot to let them die of hunger, because if they did so, it is much to be\nfeared that the spiritual resurrection would profit them nothing. This\nmanner of life lasts five or six years, and is comfortable enough, for\nthere is a village in the forest, and they amuse themselves with hunting\nand fishing. Other lads are brought thither from time to time, so that the\nlast comers have not long to stay. No woman or uninitiated person is\nsuffered to pass within four or five leagues of the sacred wood. When\ntheir instruction is completed, they are taken from the wood and shut up\nin small huts made for the purpose. Here they begin once more to hold\ncommunion with mankind and to talk with the women who bring them their\nfood. It is amusing to see their affected simplicity. They pretend to know\nno one, and to be ignorant of all the customs of the country, such as the\ncustoms of washing themselves, rubbing themselves with oil, and so forth.\nWhen they enter these huts, their bodies are all covered with the feathers\nof birds, and they wear caps of bark which hang down before their faces.\nBut after a time they are dressed in clothes and taken to a great open\nplace, where all the people of the neighbourhood are assembled. Here the\nnovices give the first proof of their capacity by dancing a dance which is\ncalled the dance of Belli. After the dance is over, the novices are taken\nto the houses of their parents by their instructors.\u201d(647)\n\n(M200) Miss Kingsley informs us that \u201cthe great point of agreement between\nall these West African secret societies lies in the methods of initiation.\nThe boy, if he belongs to a tribe that goes in for tattooing, is tattooed,\nand is handed over to instructors in the societies\u2019 secrets and formulae.\nHe lives, with the other boys of his tribe undergoing initiation, usually\nunder the rule of several instructors, and for the space of one year. He\nlives always in the forest, and is naked and smeared with clay. The boys\nare exercised so as to become inured to hardship; in some districts, they\nmake raids so as to perfect themselves in this useful accomplishment. They\nalways take a new name, and are supposed by the initiation process to\nbecome new beings in the magic wood, and on their return to their village\nat the end of their course, they pretend to have entirely forgotten their\nlife before they entered the wood; but this pretence is not kept up beyond\nthe period of festivities given to welcome them home. They all learn, to a\ncertain extent, a new language, a secret language only understood by the\ninitiated. The same removal from home and instruction from initiated\nmembers is observed also with the girls. However, in their case, it is not\nalways a forest-grove they are secluded in, sometimes it is done in huts.\nAmong the Grain Coast tribes, however, the girls go into a magic wood\nuntil they are married. Should they have to leave the wood for any\ntemporary reason, they must smear themselves with white clay. A similar\ncustom holds good in Ok\u00ffon, Calabar district, where, should a girl have to\nleave the fattening-house, she must be covered with white clay.\u201d(648)\n\n(M201) Among the natives of the Sherbro, an island lying close to the\ncoast of Sierra Leone, there is a secret society called the _purra_ or\n_poro_, \u201cwhich is partly of a religious, but chiefly of a political\nnature. It resembles free-masonry in excluding females, and in obliging\nevery member by a solemn oath, which I believe is seldom violated, not to\ndivulge the sacred mysteries, and to yield a prompt and implicit obedience\nto every order of their superiors. Boys of seven or eight years of age are\nadmitted, or rather serve a novitiate until they arrive at a proper age;\nfor it is difficult to procure exact information, and even somewhat\ndangerous to make many inquiries. Every person on entering the society\nlays aside his former name and assumes a new one; to call him by his old\nname would produce a dispute. They have a superior or head _purra_ man,\nassisted by a grand council, whose commands are received with the most\nprofound reverence and absolute submission, both by the subordinate\ncouncils and by individuals. Their meetings are held in the most retired\nspots, amid the gloom of night, and carried on with inquisitorial secrecy.\nWhen the _purra_ comes into a town, which is always at night, it is\naccompanied with the most dreadful howlings, screams, and other horrid\nnoises. The inhabitants, who are not members of the society, are obliged\nto secure themselves within doors; should any one be discovered without,\nor attempting to peep at what is going forward, he would inevitably be put\nto death. To restrain the curiosity of the females, they are ordered to\ncontinue within doors, clapping their hands incessantly, so long as the\n_purra_ remains. Like the secret tribunal, which formerly existed in\nGermany, it takes cognizance of offences, particularly of witchcraft and\nmurder, but above all of contumacy and disobedience in any of its own\nmembers, and punishes the guilty with death in so secret and sudden a\nmanner, that the perpetrators are never known: indeed, such is the dread\ncreated by this institution, that they are never even inquired\nafter.\u201d(649) When the members of the _purra_ or _poro_ society visit a\ntown, the leader of the troop, whom an English writer calls \u201cthe Poro\ndevil,\u201d draws discordant notes from a sort of reed flute, the holes of\nwhich are covered with spiders\u2019 webs. The only time when this devil and\nhis rout make a prolonged stay in the town is on the evening before the\nday on which the newly initiated lads are to be brought back from the\nforest. Then the leader and his satellites parade the streets for hours,\nwhile all the uninitiated men, women, and children remain shut up in their\nhouses, listening to the doleful strains of the flute, which signify that\nthe devil is suffering the pangs of childbirth before he brings forth the\ninitiated lads; for he is supposed to have been pregnant with them the\nwhole of the rainy season ever since they entered into the forest. When\nthey come forth from the wood, they wear four or five coils of twisted\nferns round their waists in token of their being initiated members of the\norder.(650) Among the Soosoos of Senegambia there is a similar secret\nsociety called _semo_: \u201cthe natives who speak English call it African\nmasonry. As the whole ceremonies are kept very private, it is difficult to\ndiscover in what they consist: but it is said that the novices are met in\nthe woods by the old men, who cut marks on several parts of their bodies,\nbut most commonly on the belly; they are also taught a language peculiar\nto the _semo_, and swear dreadful oaths never to divulge the secrets\nrevealed to them. The young men are then made to live in the woods for\ntwelve months, and are supposed to be at liberty to kill any one who\napproaches and does not understand the language of the _semo_.... It is\nsaid, when women are so unfortunate as to intrude upon the _semo_, they\nkill them, cut off their breasts, and hang them up by the side of the\npaths as a warning to others. This circumstance is perhaps less deserving\nof credit, because the Soosoos are fond of telling wonderful and horrid\nstories respecting this institution. They say, for instance, that when\nfirst initiated their throats are cut, and they continue dead for some\ntime; at length they are reanimated and initiated into the mysteries of\nthe institution, and are enabled to ramble about with much more vigour\nthan they possessed before.\u201d(651)\n\n(M202) While the belief or the pretence of death and resurrection at\ninitiation is common among the negroes of West Africa, few traces of it\nappear to be found among the tribes in the southern, central, and eastern\nparts of that continent; and it is notable that in these regions secret\nsocieties, which flourish in the West, are also conspicuously absent.\nHowever, the Akikuyu of British East Africa \u201chave a curious custom which\nrequires that every boy just before circumcision must be born again. The\nmother stands up with the boy crouching at her feet; she pretends to go\nthrough all the labour pains, and the boy on being reborn cries like a\nbabe and is washed. He lives on milk for some days afterwards.\u201d(652) A\nfuller description of the ceremony was given by a member of the Kikuyu\ntribe as follows: \u201cA day is appointed, any time of year, by father and\nmother. If the father is dead another elder is called in to act as proxy\nin his stead, or if the mother is not living another woman to act in her\nplace. Any woman thus acting as representative is looked upon in future by\nthe boy as his own mother. A goat or sheep is killed in the afternoon by\nany one, usually not by the father, and the stomach and intestines\nreserved. The ceremony begins in the evening. A piece of skin is cut in a\ncircle, and passed over one shoulder of the candidate and under the other\narm. The stomach of the goat is similarly treated and passed over the\nother shoulder and under the other arm. All the boy\u2019s ornaments are\nremoved, but not his clothes. No men are allowed inside the hut, but women\nare present. The mother sits on a hide on the floor with the boy between\nher knees. The sheep\u2019s gut is passed round the woman and brought in front\nof the boy. The woman groans as in labour, another woman cuts the gut, and\nthe boy imitates the cry of a new-born infant. The women present all\napplaud, and afterwards the assistant and the mother wash the boy. That\nnight the boy sleeps in the same hut as the mother.\u201d(653) Here the cutting\nof the sheep\u2019s gut, which unites the mother to the boy, is clearly an\nimitation of severing the navel string. Nor is it boys alone who are born\nagain among the Akikuyu. \u201cGirls go through the rite of second birth as\nwell as boys. It is sometimes administered to infants. At one time the new\nbirth was combined with circumcision, and so the ceremony admitted to the\nprivileges and religious rites of the tribe. Afterwards trouble took place\non account of mere boys wishing to take their place alongside of the young\nmen and maintaining they were justified in doing so. The old men then\nsettled the matter by separating the two. Unless the new birth has been\nadministered the individual is not in a position to be admitted to\ncircumcision, which is the outward sign of admittance to the nation. Any\nwho have not gone through the rite cannot inherit property, nor take any\npart in the religious rites of the country.\u201d(654) For example, a man who\nhas not been born again is disqualified for carrying his dying father out\ninto the wilds and for disposing of his body after death. The new birth\nseems to take place usually about the tenth year, but the age varies with\nthe ability of the father to provide a goat, whose guts are necessary to\nenable the boy or girl to be born again in due form.(655)\n\n(M203) Among the Bondeis, a tribe on the coast of German East Africa,\nopposite to the island of Pemba, one of the rites of initiation into\nmanhood consists in a pretence of slaying one of the lads with a sword;\nthe entrails of a fowl are placed on the boy\u2019s stomach to make the\npretence seem more real.(656) Among the Bushongo, who inhabit a district\nof the Belgian Congo bounded on the north and east by the Sankuru River\nand on the west by the Kasai, young boys had formerly to undergo certain\nrites of initiation, amongst which a simulation of killing them would seem\nto have had a place, though in recent times the youths have been allowed\nto escape the ordeal by the payment of a fine. The supreme chief of the\ntribe, who in old days bore the title of God on Earth (_Chembe Kunji_),\nused to assemble all the lads who had just reached puberty and send them\naway into the forest, where they remained for several months under the\ncare of one of his sons. During their seclusion they were deemed unclean\nand might see no one; if they chanced to meet a woman, she had to flee\nbefore them. By night the old men marched round the quarters of the\nnovices, raising hideous cries and whirling bull-roarers, the noise of\nwhich the frightened lads took to be the voices of ghosts. They wore\nnothing but a comb, and passed their leisure hours in learning to make\nmats and baskets. After about a month they had to submit to the first\nordeal. A trench about ten feet deep was dug in the ground and roofed over\nwith sticks and earth so as to form a dark tunnel. In the sides of the\ntunnel were cut niches, and in each niche a man took post, whose business\nit was to terrify the novices. For this purpose one of them was disguised\nin the skin of a leopard, a second was dressed as a warrior with a knife\nin his hand, a third was a smith with his furnace and red-hot irons, and a\nfourth was masked to look like an ugly ape, while he too gripped a knife\nin his hand. The novices generally recoiled in dismay from each of these\napparitions, and it was only by means of reiterated taunts and threats\nthat the elders forced them to traverse the whole length of the tunnel.\nAfter the lapse of another month the youths had to face another ordeal of\na similar character. A low tunnel, about three feet deep, was dug in the\nearth, and sticks were inserted in it so that their tops projected from\nthe surface of the ground. At the end of the tunnel a calabash was set\nfull of goat\u2019s blood. By way of encouraging the timid novices the master\nof the ceremonies himself crawled through the tunnel, his progress under\nground being revealed to the novices above ground by the vibrations of the\nsticks with which he collided in the dark passage. Then having bedabbled\nhis nose, his mouth, and all the rest of his body with the goat\u2019s blood,\nhe emerged from the tunnel on hands and knees, dripping with gore and to\nall appearance in the last stage of exhaustion. Then he lay prostrate on\nhis stomach in a state of collapse; the elders declared him to be dead and\ncarried him off. The chief now ordered the lads to imitate the example set\nthem by the master of the ceremonies, but they begged and prayed to be\nexcused. At first the chief was inexorable, but in time he relented and\nagreed to accept a fine of so many cowries as a ransom paid by the youths\nfor exemption from the ordeal. A month later the last of the ordeals took\nplace. A great trunk of a tree was buried with its lower end in the earth\nand surrounded for three-quarters of its circumference with arrows stuck\nin the ground so that the barbs were pointed towards the tree. The chief\nand the leading men sat down at the gap in the circle of arrows, so as to\nconceal the gap from the eyes of the novices and other spectators, among\nwhom the women were allowed to be present. To the eyes of the uninitiated\nit now seemed that the tree was surrounded by a bristling hedge of arrows,\nto fall upon which would be death. All being ready the master of the\nceremonies climbed the tree amid breathless silence, and having reached\nthe top, which was decorated with a bunch of leaves, he looked about him\nand asked the women, \u201cShall I come down?\u201d \u201cNo! no!\u201d they shrieked, \u201cyou\nwill be killed by the arrows.\u201d Then, turning disdainfully from these\ncraven souls, the gallant man addressed himself to the youths and repeated\nhis question, \u201cShall I come down?\u201d A shout of \u201cYes!\u201d gave the answer that\nmight have been expected from these heroic spirits. In response the master\nof the ceremonies at once slid down the tree and, dropping neatly to the\nground just at the gap in the hedge of arrows, presented himself unscathed\nto the gaze of the excited assembly. The chief now ordered the young men\nto go up and do likewise. But the dauntless courage with which they had\ncontemplated the descent of the master of the ceremonies entirely forsook\nthem when it came to their turn to copy his shining example. Their\nmothers, too, raised a loud cry of protest, joining their prayers and\nentreaties to those of their hopeful sons. After some discussion the chief\nconsented to accept a ransom, and the novices were dispensed from the\nordeal. Then they bathed and were deemed to have rid themselves of their\nuncleanness, but they had still to work for the chief for three months\nbefore they ranked as full-grown men and might return to their\nvillages.(657)\n\n(M204) Among the Indians of Virginia, an initiatory ceremony, called\n_Huskanaw_, took place every sixteen or twenty years, or oftener, as the\nyoung men happened to grow up. The youths were kept in solitary\nconfinement in the woods for several months, receiving no food but an\ninfusion of some intoxicating roots, so that they went raving mad, and\ncontinued in this state eighteen or twenty days. \u201cUpon this occasion it is\npretended that these poor creatures drink so much of the water of Lethe\nthat they perfectly lose the remembrance of all former things, even of\ntheir parents, their treasure, and their language. When the doctors find\nthat they have drunk sufficiently of the Wysoccan (so they call this mad\npotion), they gradually restore them to their senses again by lessening\nthe intoxication of their diet; but before they are perfectly well they\nbring them back into their towns, while they are still wild and crazy\nthrough the violence of the medicine. After this they are very fearful of\ndiscovering anything of their former remembrance; for if such a thing\nshould happen to any of them, they must immediately be _Huskanaw\u2019d_ again;\nand the second time the usage is so severe that seldom any one escapes\nwith life. Thus they must pretend to have forgot the very use of their\ntongues, so as not to be able to speak, nor understand anything that is\nspoken, till they learn it again. Now, whether this be real or\ncounterfeit, I don\u2019t know; but certain it is that they will not for some\ntime take notice of anybody nor anything with which they were before\nacquainted, being still under the guard of their keepers, who constantly\nwait upon them everywhere till they have learnt all things perfectly over\nagain. Thus they unlive their former lives, and commence men by forgetting\nthat they ever have been boys.\u201d(658)\n\n(M205) Among some of the Indian tribes of North America there exist\ncertain religious associations which are only open to candidates who have\ngone through a pretence of being killed and brought to life again. In 1766\nor 1767 Captain Jonathan Carver witnessed the admission of a candidate to\nan association called \u201cthe friendly society of the Spirit\u201d\n(_Wakon-Kitchewah_) among the Naudowessies, a Siouan or Dacotan tribe in\nthe region of the great lakes. The candidate knelt before the chief, who\ntold him that \u201che himself was now agitated by the same spirit which he\nshould in a few moments communicate to him; that it would strike him dead,\nbut that he would instantly be restored again to life; to this he added,\nthat the communication, however terrifying, was a necessary introduction\nto the advantages enjoyed by the community into which he was on the point\nof being admitted. As he spoke this, he appeared to be greatly agitated;\ntill at last his emotions became so violent, that his countenance was\ndistorted, and his whole frame convulsed. At this juncture he threw\nsomething that appeared both in shape and colour like a small bean, at the\nyoung man, which seemed to enter his mouth, and he instantly fell as\nmotionless as if he had been shot.\u201d For a time the man lay like dead, but\nunder a shower of blows he shewed signs of consciousness, and finally,\ndischarging from his mouth the bean, or whatever it was that the chief had\nthrown at him, he came to life.(659) In other tribes, for example, the\nOjebways, Winnebagoes, and Dacotas or Sioux, the instrument by which the\ncandidate is apparently slain is the medicine-bag. The bag is made of the\nskin of an animal (such as the otter, wild cat, serpent, bear, raccoon,\nwolf, owl, weasel), of which it roughly preserves the shape. Each member\nof the society has one of these bags, in which he keeps the odds and ends\nthat make up his \u201cmedicine\u201d or charms. \u201cThey believe that from the\nmiscellaneous contents in the belly of the skin bag or animal there issues\na spirit or breath, which has the power, not only to knock down and kill a\nman, but also to set him up and restore him to life.\u201d The mode of killing\na man with one of these medicine-bags is to thrust it at him; he falls\nlike dead, but a second thrust of the bag restores him to life.(660) Among\nthe Dacotas the institution of the medicine-bag or mystery-sack was\nattributed to Onktehi, the great spirit of the waters, who ordained that\nthe bag should consist of the skin of the otter, raccoon, weasel,\nsquirrel, or loon, or a species of fish and of serpents. Further, he\ndecreed that the bag should contain four sorts of medicines of magical\nqualities, which should represent fowls, quadrupeds, herbs, and trees.\nAccordingly, swan\u2019s down, buffalo hair, grass roots, and bark from the\nroots of trees are kept by the Dacotas in their medicine-bags. From this\ncombination there proceeds a magical influence (_tonwan_) so powerful that\nno human being can of his own strength withstand it. When the god of the\nwaters had prepared the first medicine-bag, he tested its powers on four\ncandidates for initiation, who all perished under the shock. So he\nconsulted with his wife, the goddess of the earth, and by holding up his\nleft hand and pattering on the back of it with the right, he produced\nmyriads of little shells, whose virtue is to restore life to those who\nhave been slain by the medicine-bag. Having taken this precaution, the god\nchose four other candidates and repeated the experiment of initiation with\nsuccess, for after killing them with the bag he immediately resuscitated\nthem by throwing one of the shells into their vital parts, while he\nchanted certain words assuring them that it was only sport and bidding\nthem rise to their feet. That is why to this day every initiated Dacota\nhas one of these shells in his body. Such was the divine origin of the\nmedicine-dance of the Dacotas. The initiation takes place in a special\ntent. The candidate, after being steamed in a vapour-bath for four\nsuccessive days, plants himself on a pile of blankets, and behind him\nstands an aged member of the order. \u201cNow the master of the ceremonies,\nwith the joints of his knees and hips considerably bent, advances with an\nunsteady, uncouth hitching, sack in hand, wearing an aspect of desperate\nenergy, and uttering his \u2018Heen, heen, heen\u2019 with frightful emphasis, while\nall around are enthusiastic demonstrations of all kinds of wild passions.\nAt this point the sack is raised near a painted spot on the breast of the\ncandidate, at which the _tonwan_ is discharged. At the instant the brother\nfrom behind gives him a push and he falls dead, and is covered with\nblankets. Now the frenzied dancers gather around, and in the midst of\nbewildering and indescribable noises, chant the words uttered by the god\nat the institution of the ceremony, as already recorded. Then the master\nthrows off the covering, and chewing a piece of the bone of the Onktehi,\nspirts it over him, and he begins to show signs of returning life. Then as\nthe master pats energetically upon the breast of the initiated person, he,\nconvulsed, strangling, struggling, and agonizing, heaves up the shell\nwhich falls from his mouth on a sack placed in readiness to receive it.\nLife is restored and entrance effected into the awful mysteries. He\nbelongs henceforth to the medicine-dance, and has a right to enjoy the\nmedicine-feast.\u201d(661)\n\n(M206) A ceremony witnessed by the castaway John R. Jewitt during his\ncaptivity among the Indians of Nootka Sound doubtless belongs to this\nclass of customs. The Indian king or chief \u201cdischarged a pistol close to\nhis son\u2019s ear, who immediately fell down as if killed, upon which all the\nwomen of the house set up a most lamentable cry, tearing handfuls of hair\nfrom their heads, and exclaiming that the prince was dead; at the same\ntime a great number of the inhabitants rushed into the house armed with\ntheir daggers, muskets, etc., enquiring the cause of their outcry. These\nwere immediately followed by two others dressed in wolf skins, with masks\nover their faces representing the head of that animal. The latter came in\non their hands and feet in the manner of a beast, and taking up the\nprince, carried him off upon their backs, retiring in the same manner they\nentered.\u201d(662) In another place Jewitt mentions that the young prince\u2014a\nlad of about eleven years of age\u2014wore a mask in imitation of a wolf\u2019s\nhead.(663) Now, as the Indians of this part of America are divided into\ntotem clans, of which the Wolf clan is one of the principal, and as the\nmembers of each clan are in the habit of wearing some portion of the totem\nanimal about their person,(664) it is probable that the prince belonged to\nthe Wolf clan, and that the ceremony described by Jewitt represented the\nkilling of the lad in order that he might be born anew as a wolf, much in\nthe same way that the Basque hunter supposed himself to have been killed\nand to have come to life again as a bear.\n\n(M207) This conjectural explanation of the ceremony has, since it was\nfirst put forward, been confirmed by the researches of Dr. Franz Boas\namong these Indians; though it would seem that the community to which the\nchief\u2019s son thus obtained admission was not so much a totem clan as a\nsecret society called Tlokoala, whose members imitated wolves. The name\nTlokoala is a foreign word among the Nootka Indians, having been borrowed\nby them from the Kwakiutl Indians, in whose language the word means the\nfinding of a _manitoo_ or personal totem. The Nootka tradition runs that\nthis secret society was instituted by wolves who took away a chief\u2019s son\nand tried to kill him, but, failing to do so, became his friends, taught\nhim the rites of the society, and ordered him to teach them to his friends\non his return home. Then they carried the young man back to his village.\nThey also begged that whenever he moved from one place to another he would\nkindly leave behind him some red cedar-bark to be used by them in their\nown ceremonies; and to this custom the Nootka tribes still adhere. Every\nnew member of the society must be initiated by the wolves. At night a pack\nof wolves, personated by Indians dressed in wolf-skins and wearing\nwolf-masks, make their appearance, seize the novice, and carry him into\nthe woods. When the wolves are heard outside the village, coming to fetch\naway the novice, all the members of the society blacken their faces and\nsing, \u201cAmong all the tribes is great excitement, because I am Tlokoala.\u201d\nNext day the wolves bring back the novice dead, and the members of the\nsociety have to revive him. The wolves are supposed to have put a magic\nstone into his body, which must be removed before he can come to life.\nTill this is done the pretended corpse is left lying outside the house.\nTwo wizards go and remove the stone, which appears to be quartz, and then\nthe novice is resuscitated.(665) Among the Niska Indians of British\nColumbia, who are divided into four principal clans with the raven, the\nwolf, the eagle, and the bear for their respective totems, the novice at\ninitiation is always brought back by an artificial totem animal. Thus when\na man was about to be initiated into a secret society called Olala, his\nfriends drew their knives and pretended to kill him. In reality they let\nhim slip away, while they cut off the head of a dummy which had been\nadroitly substituted for him. Then they laid the decapitated dummy down\nand covered it over, and the women began to mourn and wail. His relations\ngave a funeral banquet and solemnly burnt the effigy. In short, they held\na regular funeral. For a whole year the novice remained absent and was\nseen by none but members of the secret society. But at the end of that\ntime he came back alive, carried by an artificial animal which represented\nhis totem.(666)\n\n(M208) In these ceremonies the essence of the rite appears to be the\nkilling of the novice in his character of a man and his restoration to\nlife in the form of the animal which is thenceforward to be, if not his\nguardian spirit, at least linked to him in a peculiarly intimate relation.\nIt is to be remembered that the Indians of Guatemala, whose life was bound\nup with an animal, were supposed to have the power of appearing in the\nshape of the particular creature with which they were thus sympathetically\nunited.(667) Hence it seems not unreasonable to conjecture that in like\nmanner the Indians of British Columbia may imagine that their life depends\non the life of some one of that species of creature to which they\nassimilate themselves by their costume. At least if that is not an article\nof belief with the Columbian Indians of the present day, it may very well\nhave been so with their ancestors in the past, and thus may have helped to\nmould the rites and ceremonies both of the totem clans and of the secret\nsocieties. For though these two sorts of communities differ in respect of\nthe mode in which membership of them is obtained\u2014a man being born into his\ntotem clan but admitted into a secret society later in life\u2014we can hardly\ndoubt that they are near akin and have their root in the same mode of\nthought.(668) That thought, if I am right, is the possibility of\nestablishing a sympathetic relation with an animal, a spirit, or other\nmighty being, with whom a man deposits for safe-keeping his soul or some\npart of it, and from whom he receives in return a gift of magical powers.\n\n(M209) The Carrier Indians, who dwell further inland than the tribes we\nhave just been considering, are divided into four clans with the grouse,\nthe beaver, the toad, and the grizzly bear for their totems. But in\naddition to these clan totems the tribe recognized a considerable number\nof what Father Morice calls honorific totems, which could be acquired,\nthrough the performance of certain rites, by any person who wished to\nimprove his social position. Each totem clan had a certain number of\nhonorific totems or crests, and these might be assumed by any member of\nthe clan who fulfilled the required conditions; but they could not be\nacquired by members of another clan. Thus the Grouse clan had for its\nhonorific totems or crests the owl, the moose, the weasel, the crane, the\nwolf, the full moon, the wind, and so on; the Toad clan had the sturgeon,\nthe porcupine, the wolverine, the red-headed woodpecker, the \u201cdarding\nknife,\u201d and so forth; the Beaver clan had the mountain-goat for one of its\nhonorific totems; and the goose was a honorific totem of the Grizzly Bear\nclan. But the common bear, as a honorific totem or crest, might be assumed\nby anybody, whatever his clan. The common possession of a honorific totem\nappears to have constituted the same sort of bond among the Carrier\nIndians as the membership of a secret society does among the coast tribes\nof British Columbia; certainly the rites of initiation were similar. This\nwill be clear from Father Morice\u2019s account of the performances, which I\nwill subjoin in his own words. \u201cThe connection of the individual with his\ncrest appeared more especially during ceremonial dances, when the former,\nattired, if possible, with the spoils of the latter, was wont to personate\nit in the gaze of an admiring assemblage. On all such occasions, man and\ntotem were also called by the same name. The adoption of any such \u2019rite\u2019\nor crest was usually accompanied by initiatory ceremonies or observances\ncorresponding to the nature of the crest, followed in all cases by a\ndistribution of clothes to all present. Thus whenever anybody resolved\nupon getting received as _Lulem_ or Bear, he would, regardless of the\nseason, divest himself of all his wearing apparel and don a bear-skin,\nwhereupon he would dash into the woods there to remain for the space of\nthree or four days and nights in deference to the wonts of his intended\ntotem animal. Every night a party of his fellow-villagers would sally out\nin search of the missing \u2018bear.\u2019 To their loud calls: _Yi! Kelulem_ (Come\non, Bear!) he would answer by angry growls in imitation of the bear. The\nsearching party making for the spot where he had been heard, would find by\na second call followed by a similar answer that he had dexterously shifted\nto some opposite quarter in the forest. As a rule, he could not be found,\nbut had to come back of himself, when he was speedily apprehended and\nconducted to the ceremonial lodge, where he would commence his first\nbear-dance in conjunction with all the other totem people, each of whom\nwould then personate his own particular totem. Finally would take place\nthe _potlatch_ [distribution of property] of the newly initiated \u2018bear,\u2019\nwho would not forget to present his captor with at least a whole dressed\nskin. The initiation to the \u2018Darding Knife\u2019 was quite a theatrical\nperformance. A lance was prepared which had a very sharp point so arranged\nthat the slightest pressure on its tip would cause the steel to gradually\nsink into the shaft. In the sight of the multitude crowding the lodge,\nthis lance was pressed on the bare chest of the candidate and apparently\nsunk in his body to the shaft, when he would tumble down simulating death.\nAt the same time a quantity of blood\u2014previously kept in the mouth\u2014would\nissue from the would-be corpse, making it quite clear to the uninitiated\ngazers-on that the terrible knife had had its effect, when lo! upon one of\nthe actors striking up one of the chants specially made for the\ncircumstance and richly paid for, the candidate would gradually rise up a\nnew man, the particular _prot\u00e9g\u00e9_ of the \u2018Darding Knife.\u2019 \u201d(669)\n\n(M210) In the former of these two initiatory rites of the Carrier Indians\nthe prominent feature is the transformation of the man into his totem\nanimal; in the latter it is his death and resurrection. But in substance,\nprobably, both are identical. In both the novice dies as a man and revives\nas his totem, whether that be a bear, a \u201cdarding\u201d knife, or what not; in\nother words, he has deposited his life or some portion of it in his totem,\nwith which accordingly for the future he is more or less completely\nidentified. Hard as it may be for us to conceive why a man should choose\nto identify himself with a knife, whether \u201cdarding\u201d or otherwise, we have\nto remember that in Celebes it is to a chopping-knife or other iron tool\nthat the soul of a woman in labour is transferred for safety;(670) and the\ndifference between a chopping-knife and a \u201cdarding\u201d knife, considered as a\nreceptacle for a human soul, is perhaps not very material. Among the\nThompson Indians of British Columbia warriors who had a knife, an arrow,\nor any other weapon for their personal totem or guardian spirit, enjoyed\nthis signal advantage over their fellows that they were for all practical\npurposes invulnerable. If an arrow did hit them, which seldom happened,\nthey vomited the blood up, and the hurt soon healed. Hence these\narrow-proof warriors rarely wore armour, which would indeed have been\nsuperfluous, and they generally took the most dangerous posts in battle.\nSo convinced were the Thompson Indians of the power of their personal\ntotem or guardian spirit to bring them back to life, that some of them\nkilled themselves in the sure hope that the spirit would immediately raise\nthem up from the dead. Others, more prudently, experimented on their\nfriends, shooting them dead and then awaiting more or less cheerfully\ntheir joyful resurrection. We are not told that success crowned these\nexperimental demonstrations of the immortality of the soul.(671)\n\n(M211) The Toukaway Indians of Texas, one of whose totems is the wolf,\nhave a ceremony in which men, dressed in wolf-skins, run about on all\nfours, howling and mimicking wolves. At last they scratch up a living\ntribesman, who has been buried on purpose, and putting a bow and arrows in\nhis hands, bid him do as the wolves do\u2014rob, kill, and murder.(672) The\nceremony probably forms part of an initiatory rite like the resurrection\nfrom the grave of the old man in the Australian rites.\n\n(M212) The simulation of death and resurrection or of a new birth at\ninitiation appears to have lingered on, or at least to have left traces of\nitself, among peoples who have advanced far beyond the stage of savagery.\nThus, after his investiture with the sacred thread\u2014the symbol of his\norder\u2014a Brahman is called \u201ctwice born.\u201d Manu says, \u201cAccording to the\ninjunction of the revealed texts the first birth of an Aryan is from his\nnatural mother, the second happens on the tying of the girdle of Mu\u00f1ga\ngrass, and the third on the initiation to the performance to a Srauta\nsacrifice.\u201d(673) A pretence of killing the candidate perhaps formed part\nof the initiation to the Mithraic mysteries.(674)\n\n(M213) Thus, on the theory here suggested, wherever totemism is found, and\nwherever a pretence is made of killing and bringing to life again the\nnovice at initiation, there may exist or have existed not only a belief in\nthe possibility of permanently depositing the soul in some external\nobject\u2014animal, plant, or what not\u2014but an actual intention of so doing. If\nthe question is put, why do men desire to deposit their life outside their\nbodies? the answer can only be that, like the giant in the fairy tale,\nthey think it safer to do so than to carry it about with them, just as\npeople deposit their money with a banker rather than carry it on their\npersons. We have seen that at critical periods the life or soul is\nsometimes temporarily stowed away in a safe place till the danger is past.\nBut institutions like totemism are not resorted to merely on special\noccasions of danger; they are systems into which every one, or at least\nevery male, is obliged to be initiated at a certain period of life. Now\nthe period of life at which initiation takes place is regularly puberty;\nand this fact suggests that the special danger which totemism and systems\nlike it are intended to obviate is supposed not to arise till sexual\nmaturity has been attained, in fact, that the danger apprehended is\nbelieved to attend the relation of the sexes to each other. It would be\neasy to prove by a long array of facts that the sexual relation is\nassociated in the primitive mind with many serious perils; but the exact\nnature of the danger apprehended is still obscure. We may hope that a more\nexact acquaintance with savage modes of thought will in time disclose this\ncentral mystery of primitive society, and will thereby furnish the clue,\nnot only to totemism, but to the origin of the marriage system.\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XII. THE GOLDEN BOUGH.\n\n\n(M214) Thus the view that Balder\u2019s life was in the mistletoe is entirely\nin harmony with primitive modes of thought. It may indeed sound like a\ncontradiction that, if his life was in the mistletoe, he should\nnevertheless have been killed by a blow from the plant. But when a\nperson\u2019s life is conceived as embodied in a particular object, with the\nexistence of which his own existence is inseparably bound up, and the\ndestruction of which involves his own, the object in question may be\nregarded and spoken of indifferently as his life or his death, as happens\nin the fairy tales. Hence if a man\u2019s death is in an object, it is\nperfectly natural that he should be killed by a blow from it. In the fairy\ntales Koshchei the Deathless is killed by a blow from the egg or the stone\nin which his life or death is secreted;(675) the ogres burst when a\ncertain grain of sand\u2014doubtless containing their life or death\u2014is carried\nover their heads;(676) the magician dies when the stone in which his life\nor death is contained is put under his pillow;(677) and the Tartar hero is\nwarned that he may be killed by the golden arrow or golden sword in which\nhis soul has been stowed away.(678)\n\n(M215) The idea that the life of the oak was in the mistletoe was probably\nsuggested, as I have said, by the observation that in winter the mistletoe\ngrowing on the oak remains green while the oak itself is leafless. But the\nposition of the plant\u2014growing not from the ground but from the trunk or\nbranches of the tree\u2014might confirm this idea. Primitive man might think\nthat, like himself, the oak-spirit had sought to deposit his life in some\nsafe place, and for this purpose had pitched on the mistletoe, which,\nbeing in a sense neither on earth nor in heaven, might be supposed to be\nfairly out of harm\u2019s way. In the first chapter we saw that primitive man\nseeks to preserve the life of his human divinities by keeping them poised\nbetween earth and heaven, as the place where they are least likely to be\nassailed by the dangers that encompass the life of man on earth. We can\ntherefore understand why it has been a rule both of ancient and of modern\nfolk-medicine that the mistletoe should not be allowed to touch the\nground; were it to touch the ground, its healing virtue would be\ngone.(679) This may be a survival of the old superstition that the plant\nin which the life of the sacred tree was concentrated should not be\nexposed to the risk incurred by contact with the earth. In an Indian\nlegend, which offers a parallel to the Balder myth, Indra swore to the\ndemon Namuci that he would slay him neither by day nor by night, neither\nwith staff nor with bow, neither with the palm of the hand nor with the\nfist, neither with the wet nor with the dry. But he killed him in the\nmorning twilight by sprinkling over him the foam of the sea.(680) The foam\nof the sea is just such an object as a savage might choose to put his life\nin, because it occupies that sort of intermediate or nondescript position\nbetween earth and sky or sea and sky in which primitive man sees safety.\nIt is therefore not surprising that the foam of the river should be the\ntotem of a clan in India.(681)\n\n(M216) Again, the view that the mistletoe owes its mystic character partly\nto its not growing on the ground is confirmed by a parallel superstition\nabout the mountain-ash or rowan-tree. In Jutland a rowan that is found\ngrowing out of the top of another tree is esteemed \u201cexceedingly effective\nagainst witchcraft: since it does not grow on the ground witches have no\npower over it; if it is to have its full effect it must be cut on\nAscension Day.\u201d(682) Hence it is placed over doors to prevent the ingress\nof witches.(683) In Sweden and Norway, also, magical properties are\nascribed to a \u201cflying-rowan\u201d (_fl\u00f6gr\u00f6nn_), that is to a rowan which is\nfound growing not in the ordinary fashion on the ground but on another\ntree, or on a roof, or in a cleft of the rock, where it has sprouted from\nseed scattered by birds. They say that a man who is out in the dark should\nhave a bit of \u201cflying-rowan\u201d with him to chew; else he runs a risk of\nbeing bewitched and of being unable to stir from the spot.(684) A\nNorwegian story relates how once on a time a Troll so bewitched some men\nwho were ploughing in a field that they could not drive a straight furrow;\nonly one of the ploughmen was able to resist the enchantment because by\ngood luck his plough was made out of a \u201cflying-rowan.\u201d(685) In Sweden,\ntoo, the \u201cflying-rowan\u201d is used to make the divining rod, which discovers\nhidden treasures. This useful art has nowadays unfortunately been almost\nforgotten, but three hundred years ago it was in full bloom, as we gather\nfrom the following contemporary account. \u201cIf in the woods or elsewhere, on\nold walls or on high mountains or rocks you perceive a rowan-tree (_runn_)\nwhich has sprung from a seed that a bird has dropped from its bill, you\nmust either knock or break off that rod or tree in the twilight between\nthe third day and the night after Ladyday. But you must take care that\nneither iron nor steel touches it and that in carrying it home you do not\nlet it fall on the ground. Then place it under the roof on a spot under\nwhich you have laid various metals, and you will soon be surprised to see\nhow that rod under the roof gradually bends in the direction of the\nmetals. When your rod has sat there in the same spot for fourteen days or\nmore, you take a knife or an awl, which has been stroked with a magnet,\nand with it you slit the bark on all sides, and pour or drop the blood of\na cock (best of all the blood from the comb of a cock which is all of one\ncolour) on the said slits in the bark; and when the blood has dried, the\nrod is ready and will give public proof of the efficacy of its marvellous\nproperties.\u201d(686) Just as in Scandinavia the parasitic rowan is deemed a\ncountercharm to sorcery, so in Germany the parasitic mistletoe is still\ncommonly considered a protection against witchcraft, and in Sweden, as we\nsaw, the mistletoe which is gathered on Midsummer Eve is attached to the\nceiling of the house, the horse\u2019s stall or the cow\u2019s crib, in the belief\nthat this renders the Troll powerless to injure man or beast.(687)\n\n(M217) The view that the mistletoe was not merely the instrument of\nBalder\u2019s death, but that it contained his life, is countenanced by the\nanalogy of a Scottish superstition. Tradition ran that the fate of the\nHays of Errol, an estate in Perthshire, near the Firth of Tay, was bound\nup with the mistletoe that grew on a certain great oak. A member of the\nHay family has recorded the old belief as follows: \u201cAmong the low country\nfamilies the badges are now almost generally forgotten; but it appears by\nan ancient MS. and the tradition of a few old people in Perthshire, that\nthe badge of the Hays was the mistletoe. There was formerly in the\nneighbourhood of Errol, and not far from the Falcon stone, a vast oak of\nan unknown age, and upon which grew a profusion of the plant: many charms\nand legends were considered to be connected with the tree, and the\nduration of the family of Hay was said to be united with its existence. It\nwas believed that a sprig of the mistletoe cut by a Hay on Allhallowmas\neve, with a new dirk, and after surrounding the tree three times sunwise,\nand pronouncing a certain spell, was a sure charm against all glamour or\nwitchery, and an infallible guard in the day of battle. A spray gathered\nin the same manner was placed in the cradle of infants, and thought to\ndefend them from being changed for elf-bairns by the fairies. Finally, it\nwas affirmed, that when the root of the oak had perished, \u2018the grass\nshould grow in the hearth of Errol, and a raven should sit in the falcon\u2019s\nnest.\u2019 The two most unlucky deeds which could be done by one of the name\nof Hay were, to kill a white falcon, and to cut down a limb from the oak\nof Errol. When the old tree was destroyed I could never learn. The estate\nhas been some time sold out of the family of Hay, and of course it is said\nthat the fatal oak was cut down a short time before.\u201d(688) The old\nsuperstition is recorded in verses which are traditionally ascribed to\nThomas the Rhymer:\u2014\n\n\n    \u201c_While the mistletoe bats on Errol\u2019s aik,_\n      _And that aik stands fast,_\n    _The Hays shall flourish, and their good grey hawk_\n      _Shall nocht flinch before the blast._\n    _But when the root of the aik decays,_\n      _And the mistletoe dwines on its withered breast,_\n    _The grass shall grow on Errol\u2019s hearthstane,_\n      _And the corbie roup in the falcon\u2019s nest._\u201d(689)\n\n\n(M218) The idea that the fate of a family, as distinct from the lives of\nits members, is bound up with a particular plant or tree, is no doubt\ncomparatively modern. The older view may have been that the lives of all\nthe Hays were in this particular mistletoe, just as in the Indian story\nthe lives of all the ogres are in a lemon; to break a twig of the\nmistletoe would then have been to kill one of the Hays. Similarly in the\nisland of Rum, whose bold mountains the voyager from Oban to Skye observes\nto seaward, it was thought that if one of the family of Lachlin shot a\ndeer on the mountain of Finchra, he would die suddenly or contract a\ndistemper which would soon prove fatal.(690) Probably the life of the\nLachlins was bound up with the deer on Finchra, as the life of the Hays\nwas bound up with the mistletoe on Errol\u2019s oak, and the life of the\nDalhousie family with the Edgewell Tree.\n\n(M219) It is not a new opinion that the Golden Bough was the\nmistletoe.(691) True, Virgil does not identify but only compares it with\nmistletoe. But this may be only a poetical device to cast a mystic glamour\nover the humble plant. Or, more probably, his description was based on a\npopular superstition that at certain times the mistletoe blazed out into a\nsupernatural golden glory. The poet tells how two doves, guiding Aeneas to\nthe gloomy vale in whose depth grew the Golden Bough, alighted upon a\ntree, \u201cwhence shone a flickering gleam of gold. As in the woods in winter\ncold the mistletoe\u2014a plant not native to its tree\u2014is green with fresh\nleaves and twines its yellow berries about the boles; such seemed upon the\nshady holm-oak the leafy gold, so rustled in the gentle breeze the golden\nleaf.\u201d(692) Here Virgil definitely describes the Golden Bough as growing\non a holm-oak, and compares it with the mistletoe. The inference is almost\ninevitable that the Golden Bough was nothing but the mistletoe seen\nthrough the haze of poetry or of popular superstition.\n\n(M220) Now grounds have been shewn for believing that the priest of the\nArician grove\u2014the King of the Wood\u2014personified the tree on which grew the\nGolden Bough.(693) Hence if that tree was the oak, the King of the Wood\nmust have been a personification of the oak-spirit. It is, therefore, easy\nto understand why, before he could be slain, it was necessary to break the\nGolden Bough. As an oak-spirit, his life or death was in the mistletoe on\nthe oak, and so long as the mistletoe remained intact, he, like Balder,\ncould not die. To slay him, therefore, it was necessary to break the\nmistletoe, and probably, as in the case of Balder, to throw it at him. And\nto complete the parallel, it is only necessary to suppose that the King of\nthe Wood was formerly burned, dead or alive, at the midsummer fire\nfestival which, as we have seen, was annually celebrated in the Arician\ngrove.(694) The perpetual fire which burned in the grove, like the\nperpetual fire which burned in the temple of Vesta at Rome and under the\noak at Romove,(695) was probably fed with the sacred oak-wood; and thus it\nwould be in a great fire of oak that the King of the Wood formerly met his\nend. At a later time, as I have suggested, his annual tenure of office was\nlengthened or shortened, as the case might be, by the rule which allowed\nhim to live so long as he could prove his divine right by the strong hand.\nBut he only escaped the fire to fall by the sword.\n\n(M221) Thus it seems that at a remote age in the heart of Italy, beside\nthe sweet Lake of Nemi, the same fiery tragedy was annually enacted which\nItalian merchants and soldiers were afterwards to witness among their rude\nkindred, the Celts of Gaul, and which, if the Roman eagles had ever\nswooped on Norway, might have been found repeated with little difference\namong the barbarous Aryans of the North. The rite was probably an\nessential feature in the ancient Aryan worship of the oak.(696)\n\n(M222) It only remains to ask, Why was the mistletoe called the Golden\nBough?(697) The whitish-yellow of the mistletoe berries is hardly enough\nto account for the name, for Virgil says that the bough was altogether\ngolden, stem as well as leaves.(698) Perhaps the name may be derived from\nthe rich golden yellow which a bough of mistletoe assumes when it has been\ncut and kept for some months; the bright tint is not confined to the\nleaves, but spreads to the stalks as well, so that the whole branch\nappears to be indeed a Golden Bough. Breton peasants hang up great bunches\nof mistletoe in front of their cottages, and in the month of June these\nbunches are conspicuous for the bright golden tinge of their foliage.(699)\nIn some parts of Brittany, especially about Morbihan, branches of\nmistletoe are hung over the doors of stables and byres to protect the\nhorses and cattle,(700) probably against witchcraft.\n\n(M223) The yellow colour of the withered bough may partly explain why the\nmistletoe has been sometimes supposed to possess the property of\ndisclosing treasures in the earth;(701) for on the principles of\nhomoeopathic magic there is a natural affinity between a yellow bough and\nyellow gold. This suggestion is confirmed by the analogy of the marvellous\nproperties popularly ascribed to the mythical fern-seed or fern-bloom. We\nsaw that fern-seed is popularly supposed to bloom like gold or fire on\nMidsummer Eve.(702) Thus in Bohemia it is said that \u201con St. John\u2019s Day\nfern-seed blooms with golden blossoms that gleam like fire.\u201d(703) Now it\nis a property of this mythical fern-seed that whoever has it, or will\nascend a mountain holding it in his hand on Midsummer Eve, will discover a\nvein of gold or will see the treasures of the earth shining with a bluish\nflame.(704) In Russia they say that if you succeed in catching the\nwondrous bloom of the fern at midnight on Midsummer Eve, you have only to\nthrow it up into the air, and it will fall like a star on the very spot\nwhere a treasure lies hidden.(705) In Brittany treasure-seekers gather\nfern-seed at midnight on Midsummer Eve, and keep it till Palm Sunday of\nthe following year; then they strew the seed on ground where they think a\ntreasure is concealed.(706) Tyrolese peasants imagine that hidden\ntreasures can be seen glowing like flame on Midsummer Eve, and that\nfern-seed, gathered at this mystic season, with the usual precautions,\nwill help to bring the buried gold to the surface.(707) In the Swiss\ncanton of Freiburg people used to watch beside a fern on St. John\u2019s night\nin the hope of winning a treasure, which the devil himself sometimes\nbrought to them.(708) In Bohemia they say that he who procures the golden\nbloom of the fern at this season has thereby the key to all hidden\ntreasures; and that if maidens will spread a cloth under the fast-fading\nbloom, red gold will drop into it.(709) And in the Tyrol and Bohemia if\nyou place fern-seed among money, the money will never decrease, however\nmuch of it you spend.(710) Sometimes the fern-seed is supposed to bloom on\nChristmas night, and whoever catches it will become very rich.(711) In\nStyria they say that by gathering fern-seed on Christmas night you can\nforce the devil to bring you a bag of money.(712) In Swabia likewise you\ncan, by taking the proper precautions, compel Satan himself to fetch you a\npacket of fern-seed on Christmas night. But for four weeks previously, and\nduring the whole of the Advent season, you must be very careful never to\npray, never to go to church, and never to use holy water; you must busy\nyourself all day long with devilish thoughts, and cherish an ardent wish\nthat the devil would help you to get money. Thus prepared you take your\nstand, between eleven and twelve on Christmas night, at the meeting of two\nroads, over both of which corpses have been carried to the churchyard.\nHere many people meet you, some of them dead and buried long ago, it may\nbe your parents or grandparents, or old friends and acquaintances, and\nthey stop and greet you, and ask, \u201cWhat are you doing here?\u201d And tiny\nlittle goblins hop and dance about and try to make you laugh. But if you\nsmile or utter a single word, the devil will tear you to shreds and\ntatters on the spot. If, however, you stand glum and silent and solemn,\nthere will come, after all the ghostly train has passed by, a man dressed\nas a hunter, and that is the devil. He will hand you a paper cornet full\nof fern-seed, which you must keep and carry about with you as long as you\nlive. It will give you the power of doing as much work at your trade in a\nday as twenty or thirty ordinary men could do in the same time. So you\nwill grow very rich. But few people have the courage to go through with\nthe ordeal. The people of Rotenburg tell of a weaver of their town, who\nlived some two hundred and fifty years ago and performed prodigies of\nweaving by a simple application of fern-seed which he had been so\nfortunate as to obtain, no doubt from the devil, though that is not\nexpressly alleged by tradition. Rich in the possession of this treasure,\nthe lazy rascal worked only on Saturdays and spent all the rest of the\nweek playing and drinking; yet in one day he wove far more cloth than any\nother skilled weaver who sat at his loom from morning to night every day\nof the week. Naturally he kept his own counsel, and nobody might ever have\nknown how he did it, if it had not been for what, humanly speaking, you\nmight call an accident, though for my part I cannot but regard it as the\nmanifest finger of Providence. One day\u2014it was the octave of a festival\u2014the\nfellow had woven a web no less than a hundred ells long, and his mistress\nresolved to deliver it to her customer the same evening. So she put the\ncloth in a basket and away she trudged with it. Her way led her past a\nchurch, and as she passed the sacred edifice, she heard the tinkle of the\nholy bell which announced the elevation of the Host. Being a good woman\nshe put her basket down, knelt beside it, and there, with the shadows\ngathering round her, committed herself to the care of God and his good\nangels and received, along with the kneeling congregation in the lighted\nchurch, the evening benediction, which kept her and them from all the\nperils and dangers of the night. Then rising refreshed she took up her\nbasket. But what was her astonishment on looking into it to find the whole\nweb reduced to a heap of yarn! The blessed words of the priest at the\naltar had undone the cursed spell of the Enemy of Mankind.(713)\n\n(M224) Thus, on the principle of like by like, fern-seed is supposed to\ndiscover gold because it is itself golden; and for a similar reason it\nenriches its possessor with an unfailing supply of gold. But while the\nfern-seed is described as golden, it is equally described as glowing and\nfiery.(714) Hence, when we consider that two great days for gathering the\nfabulous seed are Midsummer Eve and Christmas\u2014that is, the two solstices\n(for Christmas is nothing but an old heathen celebration of the winter\nsolstice)\u2014we are led to regard the fiery aspect of the fern-seed as\nprimary, and its golden aspect as secondary and derivative. Fern-seed, in\nfact, would seem to be an emanation of the sun\u2019s fire at the two\nturning-points of its course, the summer and winter solstices. This view\nis confirmed by a German story in which a hunter is said to have procured\nfern-seed by shooting at the sun on Midsummer Day at noon; three drops of\nblood fell down, which he caught in a white cloth, and these blood-drops\nwere the fern-seed.(715) Here the blood is clearly the blood of the sun,\nfrom which the fern-seed is thus directly derived. Thus it may be taken as\nprobable that fern-seed is golden, because it is believed to be an\nemanation of the sun\u2019s golden fire.\n\n(M225) Now, like fern-seed, the mistletoe is gathered either at Midsummer\nor Christmas(716)\u2014that is, at the summer and winter solstices\u2014and, like\nfern-seed, it is supposed to possess the power of revealing treasures in\nthe earth. On Midsummer Eve people in Sweden make divining-rods of\nmistletoe, or of four different kinds of wood one of which must be\nmistletoe. The treasure-seeker places the rod on the ground after\nsun-down, and when it rests directly over treasure, the rod begins to move\nas if it were alive.(717) Now, if the mistletoe discovers gold, it must be\nin its character of the Golden Bough; and if it is gathered at the\nsolstices, must not the Golden Bough, like the golden fern-seed, be an\nemanation of the sun\u2019s fire? The question cannot be answered with a simple\naffirmative. We have seen that the old Aryans perhaps kindled the\nsolstitial and other ceremonial fires in part as sun-charms, that is, with\nthe intention of supplying the sun with fresh fire; and as these fires\nwere usually made by the friction or combustion of oak-wood,(718) it may\nhave appeared to the ancient Aryan that the sun was periodically recruited\nfrom the fire which resided in the sacred oak. In other words, the oak may\nhave seemed to him the original storehouse or reservoir of the fire which\nwas from time to time drawn out to feed the sun. But if the life of the\noak was conceived to be in the mistletoe, the mistletoe must on that view\nhave contained the seed or germ of the fire which was elicited by friction\nfrom the wood of the oak. Thus, instead of saying that the mistletoe was\nan emanation of the sun\u2019s fire, it might be more correct to say that the\nsun\u2019s fire was regarded as an emanation of the mistletoe. No wonder, then,\nthat the mistletoe shone with a golden splendour, and was called the\nGolden Bough. Probably, however, like fern-seed, it was thought to assume\nits golden aspect only at those stated times, especially midsummer, when\nfire was drawn from the oak to light up the sun.(719) At Pulverbatch, in\nShropshire, it was believed within living memory that the oak-tree blooms\non Midsummer Eve and the blossom withers before daylight. A maiden who\nwishes to know her lot in marriage should spread a white cloth under the\ntree at night, and in the morning she will find a little dust, which is\nall that remains of the flower. She should place the pinch of dust under\nher pillow, and then her future husband will appear to her in her\ndreams.(720) This fleeting bloom of the oak, if I am right, was probably\nthe mistletoe in its character of the Golden Bough. The conjecture is\nconfirmed by the observation that in Wales a real sprig of mistletoe\ngathered on Midsummer Eve is similarly placed under the pillow to induce\nprophetic dreams;(721) and further the mode of catching the imaginary\nbloom of the oak in a white cloth is exactly that which was employed by\nthe Druids to catch the real mistletoe when it dropped from the bough of\nthe oak, severed by the golden sickle.(722) As Shropshire borders on\nWales, the belief that the oak blooms on Midsummer Eve may be Welsh in its\nimmediate origin, though probably the belief is a fragment of the\nprimitive Aryan creed. In some parts of Italy, as we saw,(723) peasants\nstill go out on Midsummer morning to search the oak-trees for the \u201coil of\nSt. John,\u201d which, like the mistletoe, heals all wounds, and is, perhaps,\nthe mistletoe itself in its glorified aspect. Thus it is easy to\nunderstand how a title like the Golden Bough, so little descriptive of its\nusual appearance on the tree, should have been applied to the seemingly\ninsignificant parasite. Further, we can perhaps see why in antiquity\nmistletoe was believed to possess the remarkable property of extinguishing\nfire,(724) and why in Sweden it is still kept in houses as a safeguard\nagainst conflagration.(725) Its fiery nature marks it out, on homoeopathic\nprinciples, as the best possible cure or preventive of injury by fire.\n\n(M226) These considerations may partially explain why Virgil makes Aeneas\ncarry a glorified bough of mistletoe with him on his descent into the\ngloomy subterranean world. The poet describes how at the very gates of\nhell there stretched a vast and gloomy wood, and how the hero, following\nthe flight of two doves that lured him on, wandered into the depths of the\nimmemorial forest till he saw afar off through the shadows of the trees\nthe flickering light of the Golden Bough illuminating the matted boughs\noverhead.(726) If the mistletoe, as a yellow withered bough in the sad\nautumn woods, was conceived to contain the seed of fire, what better\ncompanion could a forlorn wanderer in the nether shades take with him than\na bough that would be a lamp to his feet as well as a rod and staff to his\nhands? Armed with it he might boldly confront the dreadful spectres that\nwould cross his path on his adventurous journey. Hence when Aeneas,\nemerging from the forest, comes to the banks of Styx, winding slow with\nsluggish stream through the infernal marsh, and the surly ferryman refuses\nhim passage in his boat, he has but to draw the Golden Bough from his\nbosom and hold it up, and straightway the blusterer quails at the sight\nand meekly receives the hero into his crazy bark, which sinks deep in the\nwater under the unusual weight of the living man.(727) Even in recent\ntimes, as we have seen, mistletoe has been deemed a protection against\nwitches and trolls,(728) and the ancients may well have credited it with\nthe same magical virtue. And if the parasite can, as some of our peasants\nbelieve, open all locks,(729) why should it not have served as an \u201copen\nSesame\u201d in the hands of Aeneas to unlock the gates of death? There is some\nreason to suppose that when Orpheus in like manner descended alive to hell\nto rescue the soul of his dead wife Eurydice from the shades, he carried\nwith him a willow bough to serve as a passport on his journey to and from\nthe land of the dead; for in the great frescoes representing the nether\nworld, with which the master hand of Polygnotus adorned the walls of a\nloggia at Delphi, Orpheus was depicted sitting pensively under a willow,\nholding his lyre, now silent and useless, in his left hand, while with his\nright he grasped the drooping boughs of the tree.(730) If the willow in\nthe picture had indeed the significance which an ingenious scholar has\nattributed to it,(731) the painter meant to represent the dead musician\ndreaming wistfully of the time when the willow had carried him safe back\nacross the Stygian ferry to that bright world of love and music which he\nwas now to see no more. Again, on an ancient sarcophagus, which exhibits\nin sculptured relief the parting of Adonis from Aphrodite, the hapless\nyouth, reclining in the lap of his leman, holds a branch, which has been\ntaken to signify that he, too, by the help of the mystic bough, might yet\nbe brought back from the gates of death to life and love.(732)\n\n(M227) Now, too, we can conjecture why Virbius at Nemi came to be\nconfounded with the sun.(733) If Virbius was, as I have tried to shew, a\ntree-spirit, he must have been the spirit of the oak on which grew the\nGolden Bough; for tradition represented him as the first of the Kings of\nthe Wood. As an oak-spirit he must have been supposed periodically to\nrekindle the sun\u2019s fire, and might therefore easily be confounded with the\nsun itself. Similarly we can explain why Balder, an oak-spirit, was\ndescribed as \u201cso fair of face and so shining that a light went forth from\nhim,\u201d(734) and why he should have been so often taken to be the sun. And\nin general we may say that in primitive society, when the only known way\nof making fire is by the friction of wood, the savage must necessarily\nconceive of fire as a property stored away, like sap or juice, in trees,\nfrom which he has laboriously to extract it. The Senal Indians of\nCalifornia \u201cprofess to believe that the whole world was once a globe of\nfire, whence that element passed up into the trees, and now comes out\nwhenever two pieces of wood are rubbed together.\u201d(735) Similarly the Maidu\nIndians of California hold that \u201cthe earth was primarily a globe of molten\nmatter, and from that the principle of fire ascended through the roots\ninto the trunk and branches of trees, whence the Indians can extract it by\nmeans of their drill.\u201d(736) In Namoluk, one of the Caroline Islands, they\nsay that the art of making fire was taught men by the gods. Olofaet, the\ncunning master of flames, gave fire to the bird _mwi_ and bade him carry\nit to earth in his bill. So the bird flew from tree to tree and stored\naway the slumbering force of the fire in the wood, from which men can\nelicit it by friction.(737) In the ancient Vedic hymns of India the\nfire-god Agni \u201cis spoken of as born in wood, as the embryo of plants, or\nas distributed in plants. He is also said to have entered into all plants\nor to strive after them. When he is called the embryo of trees or of trees\nas well as plants, there may be a side-glance at the fire produced in\nforests by the friction of the boughs of trees.\u201d(738) In some Australian\nlanguages the words for wood and fire are said to be the same.(739)\n\n(M228) A tree which has been struck by lightning is naturally regarded by\nthe savage as charged with a double or triple portion of fire; for has he\nnot seen the mighty flash enter into the trunk with his own eyes? Hence\nperhaps we may explain some of the many superstitious beliefs concerning\ntrees that have been struck by lightning. Thus in the opinion of the\nCherokee Indians \u201cmysterious properties attach to the wood of a tree which\nhas been struck by lightning, especially when the tree itself still lives,\nand such wood enters largely into the secret compounds of the conjurers.\nAn ordinary person of the laity will not touch it, for fear of having\ncracks come upon his hands and feet, nor is it burned for fuel, for fear\nthat lye made from the ashes will cause consumption. In preparing\nballplayers for the contest, the medicine-man sometimes burns splinters of\nit to coal, which he gives to the players to paint themselves with, in\norder that they may be able to strike their opponents with all the force\nof a thunderbolt. Bark or wood from a tree struck by lightning, but still\ngreen, is beaten up and put into the water in which seeds are soaked\nbefore planting, to insure a good crop, but, on the other hand, any\nlightning-struck wood thrown into the field will cause the crop to wither,\nand it is believed to have a bad effect even to go into the field\nimmediately after having been near such a tree.\u201d(740) Apparently the\nCherokees imagine that when wood struck by lightning is soaked in water\nthe fierce heat of the slumbering fire in its veins is tempered to a\ngenial warmth, which promotes the growth of the crops; but that when the\nforce of the fire has not been thus diluted it blasts the growing corn.\nWhen the Thompson Indians of British Columbia wished to set fire to the\nhouses of their enemies, they shot at them arrows which were either made\nfrom a tree that had been struck by lightning or had splinters of such\nwood attached to them.(741) They seem to have thought that wood struck by\nlightning was so charged with fire that it would ignite whatever it\nstruck, the mere concussion sufficing to explode it like gunpowder. Yet\ncuriously enough these Indians supposed that if they burned the wood of\ntrees that had been struck by lightning, the weather would immediately\nturn cold.(742) Perhaps they conceived such trees as reservoirs of heat,\nand imagined that by using them up they would exhaust the supply and thus\nlower the temperature of the atmosphere.(743) Wendish peasants of Saxony\nsimilarly refuse to burn in their stoves the wood of trees that have been\nstruck by lightning; but the reason they give for their refusal is\ndifferent. They say that with such fuel the house would be burnt\ndown.(744) No doubt they think that the electric flash, inherent in the\nwood, would send such a roaring flame up the chimney that nothing could\nstand before it. In like manner the Thonga of South Africa will not use\nsuch wood as fuel nor warm themselves at a fire which has been kindled\nwith it; but what danger they apprehend from the wood we are not\ntold.(745) On the contrary, when lightning sets fire to a tree, the\nWinamwanga of Northern Rhodesia put out all the fires in the village and\nplaster the fireplaces afresh, while the head men convey the\nlightning-kindled fire to the chief, who prays over it. The chief then\nsends out the new fire to all his villages, and the villagers reward his\nmessengers for the boon. This shews that they look upon fire kindled by\nlightning with reverence, and the reverence is intelligible, for they\nspeak of thunder and lightning as God himself coming down to earth.(746)\nSimilarly the Maidu Indians of California believe that a Great Man created\nthe world and all its inhabitants, and that lightning is nothing but the\nGreat Man himself descending swiftly out of heaven and rending the trees\nwith his flaming arm.(747)\n\n(M229) It is a plausible theory that the reverence which the ancient\npeoples of Europe paid to the oak, and the connexion which they traced\nbetween the tree and their sky-god,(748) were derived from the much\ngreater frequency with which the oak appears to be struck by lightning\nthan any other tree of our European forests. Some remarkable statistics\nhave been adduced in support of this view by Mr. W. Warde Fowler.(749)\nObservations, annually made in the forests of Lippe-Detmold for seventeen\nyears, yielded the result that while the woods were mainly stocked with\nbeech and only to a small extent with oak and Scotch pine, yet far more\noaks and Scotch pines were struck by lightning than beeches, the number of\nstricken Scotch pines exceeding the number of stricken beeches in the\nproportion of thirty-seven to one, and the number of stricken oaks\nexceeding the number of stricken beeches in the proportion of no less than\nsixty to one. Similar results have been obtained from observations made in\nFrench and Bavarian forests.(750) In short, it would seem from statistics\ncompiled by scientific observers, who have no mythological theories to\nmaintain, that the oak suffers from the stroke of lightning far oftener\nthan any other forest tree in Europe. However we may explain it, whether\nby the easier passage of electricity through oakwood than through any\nother timber,(751) or in some other way, the fact itself may well have\nattracted the notice of our rude forefathers, who dwelt in the vast\nforests which then covered a large part of Europe; and they might\nnaturally account for it in their simple religious way by supposing that\nthe great sky-god, whom they worshipped and whose awful voice they heard\nin the roll of thunder, loved the oak above all the trees of the wood and\noften descended into it from the murky cloud in a flash of lightning,\nleaving a token of his presence or of his passage in the riven and\nblackened trunk and the blasted foliage. Such trees would thenceforth be\nencircled by a nimbus of glory as the visible seats of the thundering\nsky-god. Certain it is that, like some savages, both Greeks and Romans\nidentified their great god of the sky and of the oak with the lightning\nflash which struck the ground; and they regularly enclosed such a stricken\nspot and treated it thereafter as sacred.(752) It is not rash to suppose\nthat the ancestors of the Celts and Germans in the forests of Central\nEurope paid a like respect for like reasons to a blasted oak.\n\n(M230) This explanation of the Aryan reverence for the oak and of the\nassociation of the tree with the great god of the thunder and the sky, was\nsuggested or implied long ago by Jacob Grimm,(753) and has been of late\npowerfully reinforced by Mr. W. Warde Fowler.(754) It appears to be\nsimpler and more probable than the explanation which I formerly adopted,\nnamely, that the oak was worshipped primarily for the many benefits which\nour rude forefathers derived from the tree, particularly for the fire\nwhich they drew by friction from its wood; and that the connexion of the\noak with the sky was an after-thought based on the belief that the flash\nof lightning was nothing but the spark which the sky-god up aloft elicited\nby rubbing two pieces of oak wood against each other, just as his savage\nworshipper kindled fire in the forest on earth.(755) On that theory the\ngod of the thunder and the sky was derived from the original god of the\noak; on the present theory, which I now prefer, the god of the sky and the\nthunder was the great original deity of our Aryan ancestors, and his\nassociation with the oak was merely an inference based on the frequency\nwith which the oak was seen to be struck by lightning. If the Aryans, as\nsome think, roamed the wide steppes of Russia or Central Asia with their\nflocks and herds before they plunged into the gloom of the European\nforests, they may have worshipped the god of the blue or cloudy firmament\nand the flashing thunderbolt long before they thought of associating him\nwith the blasted oaks in their new home.(756)\n\n(M231) Perhaps the new theory has the further advantage of throwing light\non the special sanctity ascribed to mistletoe which grows on an oak. The\nmere rarity of such a growth on an oak hardly suffices to explain the\nextent and the persistence of the superstition. A hint of its real origin\nis possibly furnished by the statement of Pliny that the Druids worshipped\nthe plant because they believed it to have fallen from heaven and to be a\ntoken that the tree on which it grew was chosen by the god himself.(757)\nCan they have thought that the mistletoe dropped on the oak in a flash of\nlightning? The conjecture is confirmed by the name thunder-besom which is\napplied to mistletoe in the Swiss canton of Aargau,(758) for the epithet\nclearly implies a close connexion between the parasite and the thunder;\nindeed \u201cthunder-besom\u201d is a popular name in Germany for any bushy\nnest-like excrescence growing on a branch, because such a parasitic growth\nis actually believed by the ignorant to be a product of lightning.(759) If\nthere is any truth in this conjecture, the real reason why the Druids\nworshipped a mistletoe-bearing oak above all other trees of the forest was\na belief that every such oak had not only been struck by lightning but\nbore among its branches a visible emanation of the celestial fire; so that\nin cutting the mistletoe with mystic rites they were securing for\nthemselves all the magical properties of a thunderbolt. If that was so, we\nmust apparently conclude that the mistletoe was deemed an emanation of the\nlightning rather than, as I have thus far argued, of the midsummer sun.\nPerhaps, indeed, we might combine the two seemingly divergent views by\nsupposing that in the old Aryan creed the mistletoe descended from the sun\non Midsummer Day in a flash of lightning. But such a combination is\nartificial and unsupported, so far as I know, by any positive evidence.\nWhether on mythical principles the two interpretations can really be\nreconciled with each other or not, I will not presume to say; but even\nshould they prove to be discrepant, the inconsistency need not have\nprevented our rude forefathers from embracing both of them at the same\ntime with an equal fervour of conviction; for like the great majority of\nmankind the savage is above being hidebound by the trammels of a pedantic\nlogic. In attempting to track his devious thought through the jungle of\ncrass ignorance and blind fear, we must always remember that we are\ntreading enchanted ground, and must beware of taking for solid realities\nthe cloudy shapes that cross our path or hover and gibber at us through\nthe gloom. We can never completely replace ourselves at the standpoint of\nprimitive man, see things with his eyes, and feel our hearts beat with the\nemotions that stirred his. All our theories concerning him and his ways\nmust therefore fall far short of certainty; the utmost we can aspire to in\nsuch matters is a reasonable degree of probability.\n\n(M232) To conclude these enquiries we may say that if Balder was indeed,\nas I have conjectured, a personification of a mistletoe-bearing oak, his\ndeath by a blow of the mistletoe might on the new theory be explained as a\ndeath by a stroke of lightning. So long as the mistletoe, in which the\nflame of the lightning smouldered, was suffered to remain among the\nboughs, so long no harm could befall the good and kindly god of the oak,\nwho kept his life stowed away for safety between earth and heaven in the\nmysterious parasite; but when once that seat of his life, or of his death,\nwas torn from the branch and hurled at the trunk, the tree fell\u2014the god\ndied\u2014smitten by a thunderbolt.(760)\n\n(M233) And what we have said of Balder in the oak forests of Scandinavia\nmay perhaps, with all due diffidence in a question so obscure and\nuncertain, be applied to the priest of Diana, the King of the Wood, at\nAricia in the oak forests of Italy. He may have personated in flesh and\nblood the great Italian god of the sky, Jupiter,(761) who had kindly come\ndown from heaven in the lightning flash to dwell among men in the\nmistletoe\u2014the thunder-besom\u2014the Golden Bough\u2014growing on the sacred oak\nbeside the still waters of the lake of Nemi. If that was so, we need not\nwonder that the priest guarded with drawn sword the mystic bough which\ncontained the god\u2019s life and his own. The goddess whom he served and\nmarried was herself, if I am right, no other than the Queen of Heaven, the\ntrue wife of the sky-god. For she, too, loved the solitude of the woods\nand the lonely hills, and sailing overhead on clear nights in the likeness\nof the silver moon she looked down with pleasure on her own fair image\nreflected on the calm, the burnished surface of the lake, Diana\u2019s Mirror.\n\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIII. FAREWELL TO NEMI.\n\n\n(M234) We are at the end of our enquiry, but as often happens in the\nsearch after truth, if we have answered one question, we have raised many\nmore; if we have followed one track home, we have had to pass by others\nthat opened off it and led, or seemed to lead, to far other goals than the\nsacred grove at Nemi. Some of these paths we have followed a little way;\nothers, if fortune should be kind, the writer and the reader may one day\npursue together. For the present we have journeyed far enough together,\nand it is time to part. Yet before we do so, we may well ask ourselves\nwhether there is not some more general conclusion, some lesson, if\npossible, of hope and encouragement, to be drawn from the melancholy\nrecord of human error and folly which has engaged our attention in these\nvolumes.\n\n(M235) If then we consider, on the one hand, the essential similarity of\nman\u2019s chief wants everywhere and at all times, and on the other hand, the\nwide difference between the means he has adopted to satisfy them in\ndifferent ages, we shall perhaps be disposed to conclude that the movement\nof the higher thought, so far as we can trace it, has on the whole been\nfrom magic through religion to science. In magic man depends on his own\nstrength to meet the difficulties and dangers that beset him on every\nside. He believes in a certain established order of nature on which he can\nsurely count, and which he can manipulate for his own ends. When he\ndiscovers his mistake, when he recognizes sadly that both the order of\nnature which he had assumed and the control which he had believed himself\nto exercise over it were purely imaginary, he ceases to rely on his own\nintelligence and his own unaided efforts, and throws himself humbly on the\nmercy of certain great invisible beings behind the veil of nature, to whom\nhe now ascribes all those far-reaching powers which he once arrogated to\nhimself. Thus in the acuter minds magic is gradually superseded by\nreligion, which explains the succession of natural phenomena as regulated\nby the will, the passion, or the caprice of spiritual beings like man in\nkind, though vastly superior to him in power.\n\n(M236) But as time goes on this explanation in its turn proves to be\nunsatisfactory. For it assumes that the succession of natural events is\nnot determined by immutable laws, but is to some extent variable and\nirregular, and this assumption is not borne out by closer observation. On\nthe contrary, the more we scrutinize that succession the more we are\nstruck by the rigid uniformity, the punctual precision with which,\nwherever we can follow them, the operations of nature are carried on.\nEvery great advance in knowledge has extended the sphere of order and\ncorrespondingly restricted the sphere of apparent disorder in the world,\ntill now we are ready to anticipate that even in regions where chance and\nconfusion appear still to reign, a fuller knowledge would everywhere\nreduce the seeming chaos to cosmos. Thus the keener minds, still pressing\nforward to a deeper solution of the mysteries of the universe, come to\nreject the religious theory of nature as inadequate, and to revert in a\nmeasure to the older standpoint of magic by postulating explicitly, what\nin magic had only been implicitly assumed, to wit, an inflexible\nregularity in the order of natural events, which, if carefully observed,\nenables us to foresee their course with certainty and to act accordingly.\nIn short, religion, regarded as an explanation of nature, is displaced by\nscience.\n\n(M237) But while science has this much in common with magic that both rest\non a faith in order as the underlying principle of all things, readers of\nthis work will hardly need to be reminded that the order presupposed by\nmagic differs widely from that which forms the basis of science. The\ndifference flows naturally from the different modes in which the two\norders have been reached. For whereas the order on which magic reckons is\nmerely an extension, by false analogy, of the order in which ideas present\nthemselves to our minds, the order laid down by science is derived from\npatient and exact observation of the phenomena themselves. The abundance,\nthe solidity, and the splendour of the results already achieved by science\nare well fitted to inspire us with a cheerful confidence in the soundness\nof its method. Here at last, after groping about in the dark for countless\nages, man has hit upon a clue to the labyrinth, a golden key that opens\nmany locks in the treasury of nature. It is probably not too much to say\nthat the hope of progress\u2014moral and intellectual as well as material\u2014in\nthe future is bound up with the fortunes of science, and that every\nobstacle placed in the way of scientific discovery is a wrong to humanity.\n\n(M238) Yet the history of thought should warn us against concluding that\nbecause the scientific theory of the world is the best that has yet been\nformulated, it is necessarily complete and final. We must remember that at\nbottom the generalizations of science or, in common parlance, the laws of\nnature are merely hypotheses devised to explain that ever-shifting\nphantasmagoria of thought which we dignify with the high-sounding names of\nthe world and the universe. In the last analysis magic, religion, and\nscience are nothing but theories of thought; and as science has supplanted\nits predecessors, so it may hereafter be itself superseded by some more\nperfect hypothesis, perhaps by some totally different way of looking at\nthe phenomena\u2014of registering the shadows on the screen\u2014of which we in this\ngeneration can form no idea. The advance of knowledge is an infinite\nprogression towards a goal that for ever recedes. We need not murmur at\nthe endless pursuit:\u2014\n\n\n    \u201c_Fatti non foste a viver come bruti_\n    _Ma per seguir virtute e conoscenza._\u201d\n\n\n(M239) Great things will come of that pursuit, though we may not enjoy\nthem. Brighter stars will rise on some voyager of the future\u2014some great\nUlysses of the realms of thought\u2014than shine on us. The dreams of magic may\none day be the waking realities of science. But a dark shadow lies athwart\nthe far end of this fair prospect. For however vast the increase of\nknowledge and of power which the future may have in store for man, he can\nscarcely hope to stay the sweep of those great forces which seem to be\nmaking silently but relentlessly for the destruction of all this starry\nuniverse in which our earth swims as a speck or mote. In the ages to come\nman may be able to predict, perhaps even to control, the wayward courses\nof the winds and clouds, but hardly will his puny hands have strength to\nspeed afresh our slackening planet in its orbit or rekindle the dying fire\nof the sun.(762) Yet the philosopher who trembles at the idea of such\ndistant catastrophes may console himself by reflecting that these gloomy\napprehensions, like the earth and the sun themselves, are only parts of\nthat unsubstantial world which thought has conjured up out of the void,\nand that the phantoms which the subtle enchantress has evoked to-day she\nmay ban to-morrow. They too, like so much that to common eyes seems solid,\nmay melt into air, into thin air.(763)\n\n(M240) Without dipping so far into the future, we may illustrate the\ncourse which thought has hitherto run by likening it to a web woven of\nthree different threads\u2014the black thread of magic, the red thread of\nreligion, and the white thread of science, if under science we may include\nthose simple truths, drawn from observation of nature, of which men in all\nages have possessed a store. Could we then survey the web of thought from\nthe beginning, we should probably perceive it to be at first a chequer of\nblack and white, a patchwork of true and false notions, hardly tinged as\nyet by the red thread of religion. But carry your eye further along the\nfabric and you will remark that, while the black and white chequer still\nruns through it, there rests on the middle portion of the web, where\nreligion has entered most deeply into its texture, a dark crimson stain,\nwhich shades off insensibly into a lighter tint as the white thread of\nscience is woven more and more into the tissue. To a web thus chequered\nand stained, thus shot with threads of diverse hues, but gradually\nchanging colour the farther it is unrolled, the state of modern thought,\nwith all its divergent aims and conflicting tendencies, may be compared.\nWill the great movement which for centuries has been slowly altering the\ncomplexion of thought be continued in the near future? or will a reaction\nset in which may arrest progress and even undo much that has been done? To\nkeep up our parable, what will be the colour of the web which the Fates\nare now weaving on the humming loom of time? will it be white or red? We\ncannot tell. A faint glimmering light illumines the backward portion of\nthe web. Clouds and thick darkness hide the other end.\n\n                  \u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\u2010\n\n(M241) Our long voyage of discovery is over and our bark has drooped her\nweary sails in port at last. Once more we take the road to Nemi. It is\nevening, and as we climb the long slope of the Appian Way up to the Alban\nHills, we look back and see the sky aflame with sunset, its golden glory\nresting like the aureole of a dying saint over Rome and touching with a\ncrest of fire the dome of St. Peter\u2019s. The sight once seen can never be\nforgotten, but we turn from it and pursue our way darkling along the\nmountain side, till we come to Nemi and look down on the lake in its deep\nhollow, now fast disappearing in the evening shadows. The place has\nchanged but little since Diana received the homage of her worshippers in\nthe sacred grove. The temple of the sylvan goddess, indeed, has vanished\nand the King of the Wood no longer stands sentinel over the Golden Bough.\nBut Nemi\u2019s woods are still green, and as the sunset fades above them in\nthe west, there comes to us, borne on the swell of the wind, the sound of\nthe church bells of Ariccia ringing the Angelus. _Ave Maria!_ Sweet and\nsolemn they chime out from the distant town and die lingeringly away\nacross the wide Campagnan marshes. _Le roi est mort, vive le roi! Ave\nMaria!_\n\n\n\n\n\nNOTES.\n\n\n\n\nI. Snake Stones.(764)\n\n\n(M242) The belief of the Scottish Highlanders as to the so-called Snake\nStones has been recorded as follows by a good authority at the end of the\nnineteenth century:\u2014\n\n\u201cA product called _clach-nathrach_, serpent stone, is found on the root of\nthe long ling. It is of steel-grey colour, has the consistency of soft\nputty when new and of hard putty when old, and is as light as\npumice-stone, which it resembles. It is of a globular form, and from one\nto three inches in diameter. There is a circular hole, about a quarter of\nan inch in width, through the centre. This substance is said to be\nproduced by the serpent emitting spume round the root of a twig of\nheather. The _clach-nathrach_ is greatly prized by the people, who\ntransmit it as a talisman to their descendants.\u201d(765)\n\n\n\n\nII. The Transformation of Witches Into Cats.\n\n\n(M243) The European belief that witches can turn themselves into cats, and\nthat any wounds inflicted on the witch-cat will afterwards be found on the\nbody of the witch herself,(766) has its exact parallel among the Oraons or\nUraons, a primitive hill tribe of Bengal. The following is the account\ngiven of the Oraon belief by a Jesuit missionary, who laboured for years\namong these savages and was intimately acquainted with their\nsuperstitions:\u2014\n\n\u201c_Chordewa_ is a witch rather than a _bhut_ [demon]. It is believed that\nsome women have the power to change their soul into a black cat, who then\ngoes about in the houses where there are sick people. Such a cat has a\npeculiar way of mewing quite different from its brethren, and is easily\nrecognised. It steals quietly into the house, licks the lips of the sick\nman and eats of the food that has been prepared for him. The sick man soon\ngets worse and dies. They say it is very difficult to catch the cat, as it\nhas all the nimbleness of its nature and the cleverness of a _bhut_.\nHowever, they sometimes succeed, and then something wonderful happens. The\nwoman out of whom the cat has come remains insensible, as it were in a\nstate of temporary death, until the cat re-enters her body. Any wound\ninflicted on the cat will be inflicted on her; if they cut its ears or\nbreak its legs or put out its eyes the woman will suffer the same\nmutilation. The Uraons say that formerly they used to burn any woman that\nwas suspected to be a _Chordewa_.\u201d(767)\n\n\n\n\nIII. African Balders.\n\n\n(M244) In various parts of Africa stories are told of men who could only\nbe killed, like Balder, by the stroke of an apparently insignificant\nweapon; and some at least of these men were not mythical beings but real\nmen of flesh and blood who lived not long ago and whose memory is still\ncomparatively fresh among their people. The Wadoe of German East Africa\ntell such a story of a great sorcerer, whom they now worship as a\ndispenser of sunshine and rain. The legend and the worship are reported as\nfollows by a native African traveller:\u2014\n\n(M245) \u201cIf drought sets in, all the chiefs meet in council and resolve:\n\u2018This year we have had nothing but sunshine; when we plant, the fruits\nwill not ripen; therefore we must betake ourselves to our spirits of the\ndead (_mizimu_).\u2019 Then they take some woollen stuff dyed blue and a red\ncloth, and set out together on the way and go to the district Nguu, where\ntheir principal ghost (_mzimu_) resides, in order to lay the matter before\nhim. The ghost dwells in a very spacious cave. On their coming the chiefs\ngreet him. His answer consists in a humming noise, which sounds like the\npatter of rain. If one among them is a bad man, the ghost says to them,\n\u2018There is come with you in the caravan a rascal who wears such and such\nclothes.\u2019 If such a man there is, he is driven away. Now they tell the\nghost all that they wish to say, to wit: \u2018This year thou hast given us\nmuch sunshine; the fruits in the fields do not grow tall, everywhere there\nis sickness, therefore we beg thee, give us rain.\u2019 Thereupon the ghost\nhums a second time, and all are glad, because he has answered them. But if\nthe ghost is angry, he does not answer but holds his peace. If he has made\nthem glad and given an answer, much rain will fall; otherwise they return\nas they went in sunshine.\n\n(M246) \u201cOriginally this ghost was a man, a village elder (_jumbe_) of\nUkami. He was a great sorcerer. One day people wished to conquer him, but\nthey could do him no harm, for neither lead nor sword nor arrow could\npierce his body. But he lived at strife with his wife. She said to his\nenemies, \u2018If you would kill my husband, I will tell you how it can be\ndone.\u2019 They asked her, \u2018How can it be done?\u2019 She answered, \u2018My husband is\na great sorcerer; you all know that.\u2019 They answered, \u2018That is true.\u2019 Then\nshe said further, \u2018If you would kill him so that he dies on the spot, seek\na stalk of a gourd and smite him with it; then he will die at once, for\nthat has always been to him a forbidden thing.\u2019(768) They sought the stalk\nof a gourd, and when they smote him with it, he died at once without so\nmuch as setting one foot from the spot. But of him and his departure there\nwas nothing more to be seen, for suddenly a great storm blew, and no man\nknew whither he had gone. The storm is said to have carried him to that\ncave which is still there to this day. After some days people saw in the\ncave his weapons, clothes, and turban lying, and they brought word to the\nfolk in the town, \u2018We have seen the clothes of the elder in the cave, but\nof himself we have perceived nothing.\u2019 The folk went thither to look\nabout, and they found that it was so. So the news of this ghost spread,\nall the more because people had seen the marvel that a man died and nobody\nknew where he had gone. The wonderful thing in this wood is that the\nspirits dwell in the midst of the wood and that everywhere a bright white\nsand lies on the ground, as if people had gone thither for the purpose of\nkeeping everything clean. On many days they hear a drumming and shouts of\njoy in this wood, as if a marriage feast were being held there. That is\nthe report about the ghost of Kolelo.(769) All village elders, who dwell\nin the interior, see in this ghost the greatest ghost of all. All the\nchiefs (_mwene_) and headmen (_pazi_) and the village elders (_jumben_) of\nthe clan Kingaru(770) respect that ghost.\u201d(771)\n\n(M247) Miss Alice Werner, who kindly called my attention to this and the\nfollowing cases of African Balders, tells me that this worshipful ghost in\nthe cave appears to have been in his time a real man. Again, she was\nassured by some natives that \u201cChikumbu, a Yao chief, who at one time gave\nthe Administration some trouble, was invulnerable by shot or steel; the\nonly thing that could kill him\u2014since he had not been fortified against it\nby the proper medicine\u2014was a sharp splinter of bamboo. This reminds one of\nBalder and the mistletoe.\u201d(772) Again, a Nyanja chief named Chibisa, who\nwas a great man in this part of Africa when Livingstone travelled in\nit,(773) \u201cstood firm upon his ant-heap, while his men fell round him,\nshouting his war-song, until one who knew the secret of a sand-bullet\nbrought him down.\u201d(774)\n\n(M248) Once more the Swahili tell a story of an African Samson named\nLiongo who lived in Shanga, while it was a flourishing city. By reason of\nhis great strength he oppressed the people exceedingly, and they sought to\nkill him, but all in vain. At last they bribed his nephew, saying, \u201cGo and\nask your father what it is that will kill him. When you know, come and\ntell us, and when he is dead we will give you the kingdom.\u201d So the\ntreacherous nephew went to his uncle and asked him, \u201cFather, what is it\nthat can kill you?\u201d And his uncle said, \u201cA copper needle. If any one stabs\nme in the navel, I die.\u201d So the nephew went to the town and said to the\npeople, \u201cIt is a copper needle that will kill him.\u201d And they gave him a\nneedle, and he went back to his uncle; and while his uncle slept the\nwicked nephew stabbed him with the needle in the navel. So he died, and\nthey buried him, and his grave is to be seen at Ozi to this day. But they\nseized the nephew and killed him; they did not give the kingdom to that\nbad young man.(775)\n\n(M249) When we compare the story of Balder with these African stories, the\nheroes of which were probably all real men, and when further we remember\nthe similar tale told of the Persian hero Isfendiyar, who may well have\nbeen an historical personage,(776) we are confirmed in the suspicion that\nBalder himself may have been a real man, admired and beloved in his\nlifetime and deified after his death, like the African sorcerer, who is\nnow worshipped in a cave and bestows rain or sunshine on his votaries. On\nthe whole I incline to regard this solution of the Balder problem as more\nprobable than the one I have advocated in the text, namely that Balder was\na mythical personification of a mistletoe-bearing oak. The facts which\nseem to incline the balance to the side of Euhemerism reached me as my\nbook was going to press and too late to be embodied in their proper place\nin the volumes. The acceptance of this hypothesis would not necessarily\nbreak the analogy which I have traced between Balder in his sacred grove\non the Sogne fiord of Norway and the priest of Diana in the sacred grove\nof Nemi; indeed, it might even be thought rather to strengthen the\nresemblance between the two, since there is no doubt at all that the\npriests of Diana at Nemi were men who lived real lives and died real\ndeaths.\n\n\n\n\nIV. The Mistletoe and the Golden Bough.\n\n\n(M250) That Virgil compares the Golden Bough to the mistletoe(777) is\ncertain and admitted on all hands. The only doubt that can arise is\nwhether the plant to which he compares the mystic bough is the ordinary\nspecies of mistletoe (_Viscum album_) or the species known to botanists as\n_Loranthus europaeus_. The common mistletoe (_Viscum album_, L.) \u201clives as\na semi-parasite (obtaining carbon from the air, but water, nitrogen, and\nmineral matter from the sap of its host) on many conifers and broadleaved\ntrees, and chiefly on their branches. The hosts, or trees on which it\nlives, are, _most frequently_, the apple tree, both wild and cultivated\nvarieties; next, the silver-fir; _frequently_, birches, poplars (except\naspen), limes, willows, Scots pine, mountain-ash, and hawthorn;\n_occasionally_, robinia, maples, horse-chestnut, hornbeam, and aspen. It\nis very rarely found on oaks, but has been observed on pedunculate oak at\nThornbury, Gloucestershire, and elsewhere in Europe, also on _Quercus\ncoccinea_, Moench., and _Q. palustris_, Moench. The alders, beech and\nspruce appear to be always free from mistletoe, and it very rarely attacks\npear-trees. It is commoner in Southern Europe than in the North, and is\nextremely abundant where cider is made. In the N.-W. Himalayan districts,\nit is frequently found on apricot-trees, which are the commonest\nfruit-trees there. Its white berries are eaten by birds, chiefly by the\nmissel-thrush (_Turdus viscivorus_, L.), and the seeds are either rubbed\nby the beak against branches of trees, or voided on to them; the seeds,\nowing to the viscous nature of the pulp surrounding them, then become\nattached to the branches.\u201d(778) The large smooth pale-green tufts of the\nparasite, clinging to the boughs of trees, are most conspicuous in winter,\nwhen they assume a yellowish hue.(779) In Greece at the present time\nmistletoe grows most commonly on firs, especially at a considerable\nelevation (three thousand feet or more) above the level of the sea.(780)\nThroughout Italy mistletoe now grows on fruit-trees, almond-trees,\nhawthorn, limes, willows, black poplars, and firs, but never, it is said,\non oaks.(781) In England seven authentic cases of mistletoe growing on\noaks are said to be reported.(782) In Gloucestershire mistletoe grows on\nthe Badham Court oak, Sedbury Park, Chepstow, and on the\nFrampton-on-Severn oak.(783) Branches of oak with mistletoe growing on\nthem were exhibited to more than one learned society in France during the\nnineteenth century; one of the branches was cut in the forest of\nJeugny.(784) It is a popular French superstition that mandragora or \u201cthe\nhand of glory,\u201d as it is called by the people, may be found by digging at\nthe root of a mistletoe-bearing oak.(785)\n\n(M251) The species of mistletoe known as _Loranthus europaeus_ resembles\nthe ordinary mistletoe in general appearance, but its berries are bright\nyellow instead of white. \u201cThis species attacks chiefly oaks, _Quercus\ncerris_, L., _Q. sessiliflora_, Salisb., less frequently, _Q.\npedunculata_, Ehrh., and _Castanea vulgaris_, Lam.; also lime. It is found\nthroughout Southern Europe and as far north as Saxony, not in Britain. It\ngrows chiefly on the branches of standards over coppice.\u201d The injury which\nit inflicts on its hosts is even greater than that inflicted by the\nordinary mistletoe; it often kills the branch on which it settles. The\nseeds are carried to the trees by birds, chiefly by the missel-thrush. In\nIndia many kinds of _Loranthus_ grow on various species of forest trees,\nfor example, on teak;(786) one variety (_Loranthus vestitus_) grows on two\nspecies of oak, the _Quercus dilatata_, Lindl., and the _Quercus incana_,\nRoxb.(787) A marked distinction between the two sorts of mistletoe is that\nwhereas ordinary mistletoe (_Viscum album_) is evergreen, the _Loranthus_\nis deciduous.(788) In Greece the _Loranthus_ has been observed on many old\nchestnut-trees at Stheni, near Delphi.(789) In Italy it grows chiefly on\nthe various species of oaks and also on chestnut-trees. So familiar is it\non oaks that it is known as \u201coak mistletoe\u201d both in popular parlance\n(_visco quercino_) and in druggists\u2019 shops (_viscum quernum_). Bird-lime\nis made from it in Italy.(790)\n\n(M252) Both sorts of mistletoe were known to the ancient Greeks and\nRomans, though the distinctive terms which they applied to each appear not\nto be quite certain. Theophrastus, and Pliny after him, seem to\ndistinguish three sorts of mistletoe, to which Theophrastus gives the\nnames of _ixia_, _hyphear_, and _stelis_ respectively. He says that the\n_hyphear_ and the _stelis_ grow on firs and pines, and that the _ixia_\ngrows on the oak (\u03b4\u03c1\u1fe6\u03c2), the terebinth, and many other kinds of trees. He\nalso observes that both the _ixia_ and the _hyphear_ grow on the ilex or\nholm-oak (\u03c0\u03c1\u1fd6\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2), the same tree sometimes bearing both species at the\nsame time, the _ixia_ on the north and the _hyphear_ on the south. He\nexpressly distinguishes the evergreen species of _ixia_ from the\ndeciduous, which seems to prove that he included both the ordinary\nmistletoe (_Viscum album_) and the _Loranthus_ under the general name of\n_ixia_.(791)\n\n(M253) Modern writers are not agreed as to the identification of the\nvarious species of mistletoe designated by the names _ixia_, _hyphear_,\nand _stelis_. F. Wimmer, the editor of Theophrastus in the Didot edition,\ntakes _hyphear_ to be common mistletoe (_Viscum album_), _stelis_ to be\n_Loranthus europaeus_, and _ixia_ to be a general name which includes the\ntwo species.(792) On the other hand F. Fraas, while he agrees as to the\nidentification of _hyphear_ and _stelis_ with common mistletoe and\n_Loranthus_ respectively, inclines somewhat hesitatingly to regard _ixia_\nor _ixos_ (as Dioscorides has it) as a synonym for _stelis_ (the\n_Loranthus_).(793) H. O. Lenz, again, regards both _hyphear_ and _stelis_\nas synonyms for common mistletoe (_Viscum album_), while he would restrict\n_ixia_ to the _Loranthus_.(794) But both these attempts to confine _ixia_\nto the single deciduous species _Loranthus_ seem incompatible with the\nstatement of Theophrastus, that _ixia_ includes an evergreen as well as a\ndeciduous species.(795)\n\n(M254) We have now to ask, Did Virgil compare the Golden Bough to the\ncommon mistletoe (_Viscum album_) or to the _Loranthus europaeus_? Some\nmodern enquirers decide in favour of the _Loranthus_. Many years ago Sir\nFrancis Darwin wrote to me:(796) \u201cI wonder whether _Loranthus europaeus_\nwould do for your Golden Bough. It is a sort of mistletoe growing on oaks\nand chestnuts in S. Europe. In the autumn it produces what are described\nas bunches of pretty yellow berries. It is not evergreen like the\nmistletoe, but deciduous, and as its leaves appear at the same time as the\noak leaves and drop at the same time in autumn, it must look like a branch\nof the oak, more especially as it has rough bark with lichens often\ngrowing on it. _Loranthus_ is said to be a hundred years old sometimes.\u201d\nProfessor P. J. Veth, after quoting the passage from Virgil, writes that\n\u201calmost all translators (including Vondel) and commentators of the Mantuan\nbard think that the mistletoe is here meant, probably for the simple\nreason that it was better known to them than _Loranthus europaeus_. I am\nconvinced that Virgil can only have thought of the latter. On the other\nside of the Alps the _Loranthus_ is much commoner than the mistletoe; on\naccount of its splendid red blossoms, sometimes twenty centimetres long,\nit is a far larger and more conspicuous ornament of the trees; it bears\nreally golden yellow fruit (_Croceus fetus_), whereas the berries of the\nmistletoe are almost white; and it attaches itself by preference to the\noak, whereas the mistletoe is very seldom found on the oak.\u201d(797) Again,\nMr. W. R. Paton writes to me from Mount Athos:(798) \u201cThe oak is here\ncalled _dendron_, _the_ tree. As for the mistletoe there are two\nvarieties, both called _axo_ (ancient \u1f30\u03be\u03cc\u03c2). Both are used to make\nbird-lime. The real _Golden Bough_ is the variety with yellow berries and\nno leaves. It is the parasite of the oak and rarely grows on other trees.\nIt is very abundant, and now in winter the oak-trees which have adopted it\nseem from a distance to be draped in a golden tissue. The other variety is\nour own mistletoe and is strictly a parasite of the fir (a spruce fir, I\ndon\u2019t know its scientific name). It is also very abundant.\u201d\n\n(M255) Thus in favour of identifying Virgil\u2019s mistletoe (_viscum_) with\n_Loranthus_ rather than with common mistletoe it has been urged, first,\nthat the berries of _Loranthus_ are bright yellow, whereas those of the\nmistletoe are of a greenish white; and, second, that the _Loranthus_\ncommonly grows on oaks, whereas mistletoe seldom does so, indeed in Italy\nmistletoe is said never to be found on an oak. Both these circumstances\ncertainly speak strongly in favour of _Loranthus_; since Virgil definitely\ndescribes the berries as of a saffron-yellow (_croceus_) and says that the\nplant grew on a holm-oak. Yet on the other hand Virgil tells us that the\nplant put forth fresh leaves in the depths of winter (_brumali frigore_,\nstrictly speaking, \u201cthe cold of the winter solstice\u201d); and this would best\napply to the common mistletoe, which is evergreen, whereas _Loranthus_ is\ndeciduous.(799) Accordingly, if we must decide between the two species,\nthis single circumstance appears to incline the balance in favour of\ncommon mistletoe. But is it not possible that Virgil, whether consciously\nor unconsciously, confused the two plants and combined traits from both in\nhis description? Both parasites are common in Italy and in appearance they\nare much alike except for the colour of the berries. As a loving observer\nof nature, Virgil was probably familiar by sight with both, but he may not\nhave examined them closely; and he might be excused if he thought that the\nparasite which he saw growing, with its clusters of bright yellow berries,\non oaks in winter, was identical with the similar parasite which he saw\ngrowing, with its bunches of greenish white berries and its pale green\nleaves, on many other trees of the forest. The confusion would be all the\nmore natural if the Celts of northern Italy, in whose country the poet was\nborn, resembled the modern Celts of Brittany in attaching bunches of the\ncommon mistletoe to their cottages and leaving them there till the\nrevolving months had tinged the pale berries, leaves, and twigs with a\ngolden yellow, thereby converting the branch of mistletoe into a true\nGolden Bough.\n\n\n\n\n\nINDEX.\n\n\nAachen, effigy burnt at, i. 120, ii. 25\n\nAargau, Swiss canton, of, Lenten fire-custom in, i. 119;\n  superstition as to oak-mistletoe in, ii. 82;\n  mistletoe called \u201cthunder-besom\u201d in, 85, 301;\n  birth-trees in, 165\n\nAbeghian, Manuk, on creeping through cleft trees in Armenia, ii. 172\n\nAbensberg in Bavaria, burning the Easter Man at, i. 144\n\nAbeokuta, use of bull-roarers at, ii. 229 _n._\n\nAber, the Lake of, in Upper Austria, ii. 189\n\nAberdeenshire, custom at reaping the last corn in, i. 12;\n  need-fire in, 296;\n  holed rock used by childless women in, ii. 187\n\nAberfeldy, Hallowe\u2019en fires near, i. 232\n\nAborigines of Victoria, their custom as to emu fat, i. 13\n\nAbougit, Father X., S.J., on the ceremony of the new fire at Jerusalem, i.\n            130\n\nAbruzzi, new Easter fire in the, i. 122;\n  water consecrated at Easter in the, 122 _sqq._;\n  Midsummer rites of fire and water in the, 209 _sq._\n\nAcacia, the heart in the flower of the, ii. 135 _sq._\n\nAcarnanian story of Prince Sunless, i. 21\n\nAchern, St. John\u2019s fires at, i. 168\n\nAchterneed, in Ross-shire, Beltane cakes at, i. 153\n\nAcireale, in Sicily, Midsummer fires at, i. 210\n\nAdder stones, i. 15\n\nAddison, Joseph, on witchcraft in Switzerland, ii. 42 _n._ 2\n\nAdonis and Aphrodite, ii. 294 _sq._\n\nAelst, Peter van, painter, ii. 36\n\nAeneas and the Golden Bough, ii. 285, 293 _sq._\n\nAfrica, girls secluded at puberty in, i. 22 _sqq._;\n  dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in, 79 _sqq._;\n  birth-trees in, ii. 160 _sqq._;\n  use of bull-roarers in, 229 _n._, 232\n\n\u2014\u2014, British Central, the Anyanja of, i. 81\n\n\u2014\u2014, British East, i. 81;\n  ceremony of new fire in, 135 _sq._;\n  the Nandi of, ii. 229 _n._;\n  the Akikuyu of, 262 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, East, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 135;\n  the Swahili of, ii. 160\n\n\u2014\u2014, German East, the Wajagga of, ii. 160;\n  the Washamba of, 183;\n  the Bondeis of, 263;\n  the Wadoe of, 312\n\n\u2014\u2014, German South-West, the Ovambo of, ii. 183\n\n\u2014\u2014, North, Midsummer fires in, i. 213 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, South, the Thonga of, ii. 297\n\n\u2014\u2014, West, theory of an external soul embodied in an animal prevalent in,\n            ii. 200 _sqq._;\n  ritual of death and resurrection at initiation in, 251 _sqq._\n\nAfrican stories of the external soul, ii. 148 _sqq._;\n  Balders, 312 _sqq._\n\nAfterbirth buried under a tree, ii. 160 _sq._, 162, 163, 164, 165;\n  of child animated by a ghost and sympathetically connected with a\n              banana-tree, 162;\n  regarded as brother or sister of child, 162 _n._ 2;\n  regarded as a second child, 162 _n._ 2;\n  regarded as a guardian spirit, 223 _n._ 2;\n  and navel-string regarded as guardian angels of the man, ii. 162 _n._ 2\n\nAgaric growing on birch-trees, superstitions as to, i. 148\n\nAglu, New year fires at, i. 217\n\nAir thought to be poisoned at eclipses, i. 162 _n._\n\nAisne, Midsummer fires in the department of, i. 187\n\nAix, squibs at Midsummer in, i. 193;\n  Midsummer king at, i. 194, ii. 25;\n  bathing at Midsummer in, 216\n\nAgni, Hindoo deity, i. 99 _n._ 2;\n  the fire-god, ii. 1, 296\n\nAgue, Midsummer bonfires deemed a cure for, i. 162;\n  leaps across the Midsummer bonfires thought to be a preventive of, 174\n\nAgweh, on the Slave Coast, custom of widows at, ii. 18 _sq._\n\nAhlen, in Munsterland, i. 247\n\nAhriman, the devil of the Persians, i. 95\n\nAht or Nootka Indians of Vancouver Island, seclusion of girls at puberty\n            among the, i. 43 _sq._\n\nAhura Mazda, the supreme being of the Persians, i. 95\n\nAin, Lenten fires in the department of, i. 114\n\nAinos of Japan, their mourning caps, i. 20;\n  their use of mugwort in exorcism, ii. 60;\n  their veneration for mistletoe, 79\n\nA-Kamba of British East Africa, seclusion of girls at puberty among the,\n            i. 23\n\nAkikuyu of British East Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 81;\n  ritual of the new birth among the, ii. 262 _sq._\n\nAladdin and the Wonderful Lamp, Roman version of, ii. 105\n\nAlaska, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i. 45 _sq._;\n  the Esquimaux of, ii. 155\n\nAlastir and the Bare-Stripping Hangman, Argyleshire story of, ii. 129\n            _sq._\n\nAlbania, Midsummer fires in, i. 212;\n  the Yule log in, 264\n\nAlbanian story of the external soul, ii. 104 _n._ 3\n\nAlbert Nyanza, the Wakondyo of the, ii. 162 _sq._\n\nAlbino head of secret society on the Lower Congo, ii. 251\n\nAlders free from mistletoe, ii. 315\n\nAlfoors or Toradjas of Celebes, their custom at the smelting of iron, ii.\n            154;\n  their doctrine of the plurality of souls, 222\n\nAlgeria, Midsummer fires in, i. 213\n\nAlice Springs in Central Australia, ii. 238\n\nAllan, John Hay, on the Hays of Errol, ii. 283\n\nAllandur temple, at St. Thomas\u2019s Mount, Madras, ii. 8\n\nAll-healer, name applied to mistletoe, ii. 77, 79, 82\n\nAll Saints\u2019 Day, omens on, i. 240;\n  the first of November, 225;\n  bonfires on, 246;\n  sheep passed through a hoop on, ii. 184\n\nAll Souls, Feast of, i. 223 _sq._, 225 _n._ 3\n\nAlmond-trees, mistletoe on, ii. 316\n\nA-Louyi, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 28 _n._ 5\n\nAlsace, Midsummer fires in, i. 169;\n  cats burnt in Easter bonfires in, ii. 40\n\nAlthenneberg, in Bavaria, Easter fires at, i. 143 _sq._\n\nAltmark, Easter bonfires in, i. 140, 142\n\nAlum burnt at Midsummer, i. 214\n\nAlungu, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 24 _sq._\n\nAlur, a tribe of the Upper Nile, i. 64\n\nAlvarado, Pedro de, Spanish general, ii. 214\n\n_Amadhlozi_, ancestral spirits in serpent form, ii. 211 _n._ 2\n\nAmambwe, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 24 _sq._\n\n_Amatongo_, plural of _itongo_, ii. 302 _n._\n\nAmazon, ordeals of young men among the Indians of the, i. 62 _sq._\n\nAmbamba, in West Africa, death, resurrection, and the new birth in, ii.\n            256\n\nAmboyna, hair of criminals cut in, ii. 158\n\nAmbras, Midsummer customs at, i. 173\n\nAmerica, Central, the Mosquito territory in, i. 86\n\nAmerica, North, Indians of, not allowed to sit on bare ground in war, i.\n            5;\n  seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, 41 _sqq._;\n  dread and seclusion of menstruous women among the Indians of, 87 _sqq._;\n  stories of the external soul among the Indians of, ii. 151 _sq._;\n  religious associations among the Indian tribes of, 267 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, South, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i. 56\n            _sqq._;\n  effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, 128;\n  Midsummer fires in, 212 _sq._\n\nAmmerland, in Oldenburg, cart-wheel used as charm against witchcraft in,\n            i. 345 _n._ 3\n\nAmphitryo besieges Taphos, ii. 103\n\nAmulets, rings and bracelets as, i. 92;\n  as soul-boxes, ii. 155;\n  degenerate into ornaments, 156 _n._ 2\n\nAncestor, wooden image of, ii. 155\n\nAncestors, worship of, in Fiji, ii. 243 _sq._\n\nAncestral spirits incarnate in serpents, ii. 211\n\nAnderson, Miss, of Barskimming, i. 171 _n._ 3\n\nAndes, the Peruvian, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in the, i. 128\n\nAndjra, a district of Morocco, i. 17;\n  Midsummer fires in the, 213 _sq._;\n  Midsummer rites of water in, 216;\n  animals bathed at Midsummer in, ii. 31\n\nAndreas, parish of, in the Isle of Man, i. 224, 305, 307 _n._ 1\n\nAngass, the, of Northern Nigeria, their belief in external human souls\n            lodged in animals, ii. 210\n\nAngel, need-fire revealed by an, i. 287\n\n\u2014\u2014 -man, effigy of, burnt at Midsummer, i. 167\n\nAngelus bell, the, i. 110, ii. 47\n\nAngoniland, British Central Africa, customs as to girls at puberty in, i.\n            25 _sq._;\n  customs as to salt in, 27\n\nAngus, superstitious remedy for the \u201cquarter-ill\u201d in, i. 296 _n._ 1\n\nAnhalt, Easter bonfires in, i. 140\n\nAnimal, bewitched, or part of it, burnt to compel the witch to appear, i.\n            303, 305, 307 _sq._, 321 _sq._;\n  sickness transferred to, ii. 181;\n  and man, sympathetic relation between, 272 _sq._\n\nAnimal familiars of wizards and witches, ii. 196 _sq._, 201 _sq._\n\nAnimals burnt alive as a sacrifice in England, Wales, and Scotland, i. 300\n            _sqq._;\n  witches transformed into, 315 _sqq._, ii. 311 _sq._;\n  bewitched, buried alive, i. 324 _sqq._;\n  live, burnt at Spring and Midsummer festivals, ii. 38 _sqq._;\n  the animals perhaps deemed embodiments of witches, 41 _sq._, 43 _sq._;\n  the language of, learned by means of fern-seed, 66 _n._;\n  external soul in, 196 _sqq._;\n  magical transformation of men into animals, 207;\n  helpful, in fairy tales. _See_ Helpful\n\n_Ankenmilch bohren_, to make the need-fire, i. 270 _n._\n\nAnkole, in Central Africa, i. 80\n\nAnnam, dread of menstruous women in, i. 85;\n  use of wormwood to avert demons in, ii. 61 _n._ 1\n\nAnpu and Bata, ancient Egyptian story of, ii. 134 _sqq._\n\n_Anthemis nobilis_, camomile, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 63\n\nAnt-hill, insane people buried in an, i. 64\n\nAnts employed to sting girls at puberty, i. 61;\n  to sting young men, i. 62 _sq._\n\nAntonius Mountain, in Thuringia, Christmas bonfire on the, i. 265 _sq._\n\nAntwerp, wicker giants at, ii. 35 _sq._\n\nAnula tribe of Northern Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. 235\n\nAnyanja of British Central Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 81\n            _sq._\n\nApaches, i. 21;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, ii, 230 _n._\n\nApala cured by Indra in the Rigveda, ii. 192\n\nApe, a Batta totem, ii. 223\n\nAphrodite and Adonis, ii. 294 _sq._\n\nApollo, identified with the Celtic Grannus, i. 112\n\n\u2014\u2014 Soranus, ii. 14, 15 _n._ 3\n\nApollo\u2019s temple at Cumae, i. 99\n\nApple, divination by the sliced, i. 238;\n  and candle, biting at, 241, 242, 243, 245\n\nApple-tree as life-index of boy, ii. 165\n\n\u2014\u2014 -trees, torches thrown at, i. 108;\n  mistletoe on, ii. 315, 316 _n._ 5\n\nApples, dipping for, at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 237, 239, 241, 242, 243, 245\n\nApricot-trees, mistletoe on, ii. 316\n\nApril, the twenty-seventh of, in popular superstitions of Morocco, i. 17\n            _sq._;\n  ceremony of the new fire in, 136 _sq._, ii. 3;\n  Chinese festival of fire in, 3\n\nArab women in Morocco, their superstitions as to plants at Midsummer, ii.\n            51\n\nArabia, tree-spirits in snake form in, ii. 44 _n._ 1\n\nArabian, modern, story of the external soul, ii. 137 _sq._\n\n_Arabian Nights_, story of the external soul in the, ii. 137\n\nArabs of Morocco, their Midsummer customs, i. 214\n\nAran, in the valley of the Garonne, Midsummer fires at, i. 193\n\nArch, child after an illness passed under an, ii. 192;\n  young men at initiation passed under a leafy, 193;\n  triumphal, suggested origin of the, 195\n\nArcher (_Tirant_), effigy of, ii. 36\n\nArches, novices at initiation passed under arches in Australia, ii. 193\n            _n._ 1\n\nArchways, passing under, as a means of escaping evil spirits or sickness,\n            ii. 179 _sqq._\n\nArdennes, the Belgian, bonfires on the first Sunday of Lent in the, i. 107\n            _sq._;\n  the French, Lenten fires and customs in the, 109 _sq._;\n  Midsummer fires in the, 188;\n  the Yule log in the, 253;\n  cats burnt alive in Lenten bonfires, ii. 40\n\nArgo, tree of which the ship was made, ii. 94 _n._ 1\n\nArgyleshire stories of the external soul, ii. 127 _sqq._\n\nArgyrus, temple of Hercules at, i. 99 _n._ 3\n\nAricia, the priest of, and the Golden Bough, i. 1;\n  the priest of Diana at, perhaps a personified Jupiter, ii. 302 _sq._\n\nArician grove, the Midsummer festival of fire in the, ii. 285;\n  the priest of the, a personification of an oak-spirit, 285\n\nAriminum, triumphal arch of Augustus at, ii. 194 _n._ 4\n\nArizona and New Mexico, use of bull-roarers in, ii. 230 _n._, 231\n\nArks, sacred, of the Cherokees, i. 11 _sq._\n\nArmenia, were-wolves in, i. 316;\n  sick people creep through cleft trees in, ii. 173\n\nArmenian church, bonfires at Candlemas in the, i. 131\n\n\u2014\u2014 idea of the sun as a wheel, i. 334 _n._ 1\n\nArms of youths punctured to make them good hunters, i. 58\n\nArnstadt, witches burnt at, i. 6\n\nArran, the need-fire in, i. 293\n\nArrows used as a love-charm, i. 14\n\nArtemis Perasia, at Castabala in Cappadocia, ii. 14\n\n_Artemisia absinthium_, wormwood, ii. 58 _n._ 3, 61 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 _vulgaris_, mugwort, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 58 _sqq._\n\nArtois, mugwort at Midsummer in, ii. 59\n\nArunta of Central Australia, their sacred pole, i. 7;\n  their dread of women at menstruation, 77;\n  legend that the ancestors kept their spirits in their _churinga_, ii.\n              218 _n._ 3;\n  rites of initiation among the, 233 _sq._;\n  initiation of medicine-men among the, 238\n\nAryan god of the thunder and the oak, i. 265\n\n\u2014\u2014 peoples, stories of the external soul among, ii. 97 _sqq._\n\nAryans of Europe, importance of the Midsummer festival among the, ii. 40;\n  the oak the chief sacred tree of the, 89 _sq._\n\nAscension Day, parasitic rowan should be cut on, ii. 281\n\nAsceticism not primitive, i. 65\n\nAsh Wednesday, effigy burnt on, i. 120\n\nAsh-trees, children passed through cleft ash-trees as a cure for rupture\n            or rickets, ii. 168 _sqq._\n\nAshes in divination, i. 243, 244, 245.\n  _See also_ Sticks, Charred\n\n\u2014\u2014 of bonfires put in fowls\u2019 nests, i. 112, 338;\n  increase fertility of fields, 141, 337;\n  make cattle thrive, 141, 338;\n  placed in a person\u2019s shoes, 156;\n  administered to cattle to make them fat, ii. 4\n\n\u2014\u2014 of dead, disposal of the, i. 11\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Easter bonfire mixed with seed at sowing, i. 121\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Hallowe\u2019en fires scattered, i. 233\n\n\u2014\u2014 of holy fires a protection against demons, ii. 8, 17\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Midsummer fires strewed on fields to fertilize them, i. 170, 190,\n            203;\n  a protection against conflagration, 174, 196;\n  a protection against lightning, 187, 188;\n  a protection against thunder, 190;\n  put by people in their shoes, 191 _sq._;\n  a cure for consumption, 194 _sq._;\n  rubbed by people on their hair or bodies, 213, 214, 215;\n  good for the eyes, 214\n\nAshes of the need-fire strewn on fields to protect the crops against\n            vermin, i. 274;\n  used as a medicine, 286\n\n\u2014\u2014 of New Year\u2019s fire used to rub sore eyes, i. 218\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Yule log strewed on fields, i. 250;\n  used to heal swollen glands, 251\n\n_Ashur_, Arab New Year\u2019s Day, i. 217, 218\n\nAsia Minor, the Celts in, ii. 89;\n  cure for possession by an evil spirit in, 186;\n  creeping through rifted rocks in, 189\n\nAspen, mistletoe on, ii. 315\n\n_Aspidium filix mas_, the male fern, superstitions as to, ii. 66 _sq._\n\nAss, child passed under an, as a cure for whooping-cough, ii. 192 _n._ 1\n\nAssam, the Khasis of, ii. 146;\n  the Lushais of, 185 _sq._\n\nAssiga, tribe of South Nigeria, ii. 204\n\nAssociations, religious, among the Indian tribes of North America, ii. 267\n            _sqq._\n\nAssyrian ritual, use of golden axe in, ii. 80 _n._ 3\n\nAston, W. G., quoted, i. 137 _sq._;\n  on the fire-walk in Japan, ii. 10 _n._ 1\n\nAstral spirit of a witch, i. 317\n\n_Atai_, external soul in the Mota language, ii. 197 _sq._\n\nAth, in Hainaut, procession of giants at, ii. 36\n\nAthboy, in County Meath, i. 139\n\nAthena, priestess of, uses a white umbrella, i. 20 _n._ 1\n\nAthenians offer cakes to Cronus, i. 153 _n._ 3\n\nAthens, ceremony of the new fire at Easter in, i. 130\n\nAthis, in Normandy, Christmas bonfires at, i. 266\n\nAthos, Mount, mistletoe at, ii. 319, 320 _n._\n\nAtrae, city in Mesopotamia, i. 82\n\nAubrey, John, on the Midsummer fires, i. 197\n\nAufkirchen in Bavaria, burning the Easter Man at, i. 144\n\nAugust, procession of wicker giants in, ii. 36\n\n\u2014\u2014, first of, Festival of the Cross on the, i. 220\n\n\u2014\u2014 the eighteenth, feast of Florus and Laurus, i. 220\n\n\u2014\u2014 the sixth, festival of St. Estapin, ii. 188\n\nAugustus, triumphal arch of Augustus at Ariminum, ii. 195 _n._ 4\n\nAunis, wonderful herbs gathered on St. John\u2019s Eve in, ii. 45;\n  St. John\u2019s wort in, 55;\n  vervain gathered at Midsummer in, 62 _n._ 4;\n  four-leaved clover at Midsummer in, 63\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Saintonge, Midsummer fires in, i. 192\n\nAurora, in the New Hebrides, _tamaniu_ in, ii. 198\n\nAustralia, dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in, i. 76 _sqq._;\n  passing under an arch as a rite of initiation in, ii. 193 _n._ 1;\n  initiation of young men in, 227, 233 _sqq._;\n  use of bull-roarers in, 228 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014, Central, pointing sticks or bones in, i. 14 _n._ 3;\n  its desert nature, ii. 230 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014, South-Eastern, sex totems among the natives of, ii. 214 _sqq._\n\nAustralian languages, words for fire and wood in, ii. 296\n\nAustria, Midsummer fires in, i. 172 _sqq._;\n  the Yule log among the Servians of, 262 _sqq._;\n  need-fire in Upper, 279;\n  fern-seed at Midsummer in, ii. 65;\n  mistletoe used to prevent nightmare in, 85\n\nAutumn fires, i. 220 _sqq._\n\nAuvergne, Lenten fires in, i. 111 _sq._;\n  story of a were-wolf in, 308 _sq._\n\n_Ave Maria_ bell, ii. 47\n\nAvernus, Lake, and the Golden Bough, ii. 285 _n._ 2\n\nAwa-nkonde, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 28\n\n\u201cAwasungu, the house of the,\u201d i. 28\n\nAwka in South Nigeria, i. 4\n\nAzemmur, in Morocco, Midsummer fires at, i. 214\n\nAzores, bonfires and divination on Midsummer Eve in the, i. 208 _sq._;\n  fern-seed at Midsummer in the, ii. 66\n\nAztecs, their punishment of witches and wizards, ii. 159\n\nBaal and Beltane, i. 149 _n._ 1, 150 _n._ 1, 157\n\nBabine Lake in British Columbia, i. 47\n\nBackache at reaping, leaps over the Midsummer bonfire thought to be a\n            preventive of, i. 165, 168, 189, 344 _sq._;\n  set down to witchcraft, 343 _n._, 345;\n  at harvest, mugwort a protection against, ii. 59;\n  creeping through a holed stone to prevent backache at harvest, 189\n\n_Badache_, double-axe, Midsummer King of the, i. 194\n\nBadagas of the Neilgherry Hills, their fire-walk, ii. 8 _sq._\n\nBaden, Lenten fire-custom in, i. 117;\n  Easter bonfires in, 145;\n  Midsummer fires in, 167 _sqq._\n\nBadham Court oak, in Gloucestershire, ii. 316\n\n_Badnyak_, Yule log, i. 259, 263\n\n_Badnyi Dan_, Christmas Eve, i. 258, 263\n\nBag, souls of persons deposited in a, ii. 142, 153, 155\n\nBaganda, children live apart from their parents among the, i. 23 _n._ 2;\n  seclusion of girls at puberty among the, 23 _sq._;\n  superstition as to women who do not menstruate, 24;\n  abstain from salt in certain cases, 27 _sq._;\n  their dread of menstruous women, 80 _sq._;\n  their beliefs and customs concerning the afterbirth, ii. 162.\n  _See also_ Uganda\n\nBahaus or Kayans of Central Borneo, i. 4 _sq._\n\nBahima of Central Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 80\n\nBahr-el-Ghazal province, ceremony of the new fire in the, i. 134 _sq._\n\nBakairi, the, of Brazil, call bull-roarers \u201cthunder and lightning,\u201d ii.\n            231 _sq._\n\nBaking-forks, witches ride on, ii. 73, 74\n\nBakuba or Bushongo of the Congo, i. 4\n\nBalder, his body burnt, i. 102;\n  worshipped in Norway, 104;\n  camomile sacred to, ii. 63;\n  burnt at Midsummer, 87;\n  Midsummer sacred to, 87;\n  a tree-spirit or deity of vegetation, 88 _sq._;\n  interpreted as a mistletoe-bearing oak, 93 _sq._;\n  his invulnerability, 94;\n  why Balder was thought to shine, 293\n\n\u2014\u2014 and the mistletoe, i. 101 _sq._, ii. 76 _sqq._, 302;\n  his life or death in the mistletoe, 279, 283;\n  perhaps a real man deified, 314 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, the myth of, i. 101 _sqq._;\n  reproduced in the Midsummer festival of Scandinavia, ii. 87;\n  perhaps dramatized in ritual, 88;\n  Indian parallel to, 280;\n  African parallels to, 312 _sqq._\n\nBalder\u2019s Balefires, name formerly given to Midsummer bonfires in Sweden,\n            i. 172, ii. 87\n\n\u2014\u2014 Grove, i. 104, ii. 315\n\n_Balders-br\u00e2_, Balder\u2019s eyelashes, a name for camomile, ii. 63\n\nB\u00e2le, Lenten fire-custom in the canton of, i. 119\n\nBalefires, Balder\u2019s, at Midsummer in Sweden, i. 172\n\nBali, filing of teeth in, i. 68 _n._ 2;\n  birth-trees in, ii. 164\n\nBalkan Peninsula, need-fire in the, i. 281\n\nBall, game of, played to determine the King of Summer, i. 195\n\nBallyvadlea, in Tipperary, woman burnt as a witch at, i. 323 _sq._\n\nBalnagown loch, in Lismore, i. 316\n\nBalong of the Cameroons, their external souls in animals, ii. 203\n\nBalquhidder, hill of the fires at, i. 149;\n  Hallowe\u2019en bonfires at, 232\n\n_Balum_, New Guinea word signifying bull-roarer, ghost, and mythical\n            monster, ii. 242\n\nBanana-tree, afterbirth of child buried under a, ii. 162, 163, 164\n\nBancroft, H. H., on the external souls of the Zapotecs, ii. 212\n\nBanivas of the Orinoco, their scourging of girls at puberty, i. 66 _sqq._\n\n_Baraka_, blessed or magical virtue, i. 216, 218, ii. 51\n\nBarclay, Sheriff, on Hallowe\u2019en fires, i. 232\n\nBardney bumpkin, on witch as hare, i. 318\n\nBare-Stripping Hangman, Argyleshire story of the, ii. 129 _sq._\n\nBarker, W. G. M. Jones, on need-fire in Yorkshire, i. 286 _sq._\n\nBarley plant, external soul of prince in a, ii. 102\n\nBa-Ronga, the, of South Africa, their story of a clan whose external souls\n            were in a cat, ii. 150 _sq._\n\nBarotse or Marotse of the Zambesi, seclusion of girls at puberty among\n            the, i. 28, 29\n\nBarren cattle driven through fire, i. 203, 338\n\n\u2014\u2014 women hope to conceive through fertilizing influence of vegetables, ii.\n            51\n\nBarricading the road against a ghostly pursuer, ii. 176\n\nBarsana, in North India, Holi bonfires at, ii. 2, 5\n\nBartle Bay, in British New Guinea, festival of the wild mango tree at, i.\n            7 _sqq._\n\nBasque hunter transformed into bear, ii. 226, 270\n\n\u2014\u2014 story of the external soul, ii. 139\n\nBastar, province of India, treatment of witches in, ii. 159\n\nBastian, Adolph, on rites of initiation in West Africa, ii. 256 _sq._\n\nBasutos, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 31\n\nBata and Anpu, ancient Egyptian story of, ii. 134 _sqq._\n\nBathing in the sea at Easter, i. 123;\n  at Midsummer, 208, 210, 216, ii. 29 _sq._;\n  thought to be dangerous on Midsummer Day, 26 _sq._\n\nBats, the lives of men in, ii. 215 _sq._, 217;\n  called men\u2019s \u201cbrothers,\u201d 215, 216, 218\n\nBattas, their doctrine of the plurality of souls, ii. 223;\n  their totemic system, 224 _sqq._\n\nBattel, Andrew, on the colour of negro children at birth, ii. 251 _n._ 1\n\nBavaria, Easter bonfires in, i. 143 _sq._;\n  belief as to eclipses in, 162;\n  Midsummer fires in, 164 _sqq._;\n  leaf-clad mummer at Midsummer in, ii. 26;\n  the divining-rod in, 67 _sq._;\n  creeping through a holed stone or narrow opening in, 188 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, Upper, use of mistletoe in, ii. 85 _n._ 4\n\nBavarian peasants, their belief as to hazel, ii. 69 _n._\n\nBavili, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 31\n\nBeal-fires on Midsummer Eve in Yorkshire, i. 198\n\nBean, King of the, i. 153 _n._ 1\n\nBeans, divination by, i. 209\n\nBear, external soul of warrior in a, ii. 151;\n  Basque hunter transformed into, 226, 270;\n  simulated transformation of novice into a, 274 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 clan, ii. 271, 272 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 -dance of man who pretends to be a bear, ii. 274\n\nBear\u2019s skin, Lapp women shoot blindfold at a, ii. 280 _n._\n\nBearers to carry royal personages, i. 3 _sq._\n\nBeating girls at puberty, i. 61, 66 _sq._;\n  as a form of purification, 61, 64 _sqq._\n\nBeauce, festival of torches in, i. 113;\n  story of a were-wolf in, 309\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Perche, Midsummer fires in, i. 188\n\nBeaver clan, ii. 272\n\nBechuana belief as to sympathetic relation of man to wounded crocodile,\n            ii. 210 _sq._\n\nBee, external soul of an ogre in a, ii. 101\n\nBeech or fir used to make the Yule log, i. 249\n\n\u2014\u2014 -tree burnt in Lenten bonfire, i. 115 _sq._\n\nBeeches, struck by lightning, proportion of, ii. 298 _sq._;\n  free from mistletoe, 315\n\nBees thought to be killed by menstruous women, i. 96;\n  ashes of bonfires used to cure ailments of, 142\n\nBeetle, external soul in a, ii. 138, 140\n\nBegetting novices anew at initiation, pretence of, ii. 248\n\nBehar, the fire-walk in, ii. 5\n\n_Beifuss_, German name for mugwort, ii. 60 _n._ 6\n\nBel, the fires of, i. 147, 157, 158 _sq._\n\nBeleth, John, his _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_ quoted, i. 161 _n._ 2\n\nBelford, in Northumberland, the Yule log at, i. 256\n\nBelgium, Lenten fires in, i. 107 _sq._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 194 _sq._;\n  the Yule log in, 249;\n  bathing on Midsummer Day in, ii. 30;\n  divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, 53;\n  mugwort gathered on St. John\u2019s Day or Eve in, 59 _sq._;\n  vervain gathered on St. John\u2019s Day in, 62;\n  four-leaved clover at Midsummer in, 63;\n  the witches\u2019 Sabbath in, 73\n\nBella Coola Indians of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty\n            among the, i. 46;\n  custom of mourners among the, ii. 174\n\nBelli-Paaro society in West Africa, rites of initiation in the, ii. 257\n            _sqq._\n\nBellochroy, i. 290\n\nBells worn by priest in exorcism, i. 5;\n  on his legs, ii. 8\n\n\u2014\u2014, church, silenced in Holy Week, i. 123, 125 _n._ 1;\n  rung on Midsummer Eve, ii. 47 _sq._;\n  rung to drive away witches, 73\n\nBeltane, popularly derived from Baal, i. 149 _n._ 1, 150 _n._ 1;\n  the need-fire at, 293;\n  the Yellow Day of, 293;\n  sheep passed through a hoop at, ii. 184\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Hallowe\u2019en the two chief fire-festivals of the British Celts, ii.\n            40 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 cakes, i. 148 _sq._, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155\n\n\u2014\u2014 carline, i. 148, 153\n\n\u2014\u2014 Eve (the Eve of May Day), a witching time, i. 295\n\n\u2014\u2014 fire, pretence of throwing a man into the, i. 148, ii. 25;\n  kindled by the friction of oak-wood, i. 148, 155, ii. 91\n\n\u2014\u2014 fires, i. 146 _sqq._;\n  in Wales, 155 _sq._;\n  in Ireland, 157 _sq._;\n  in Nottinghamshire, 157\n\nBenametapa, the king of, in East Africa, i. 135\n\nBengal, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 68;\n  the Oraons of, ii. 311\n\nBengalee stories of the external soul, ii. 101 _sq._, 102\n\nBeni Ahsen, a tribe in Morocco, ii. 31;\n  their Midsummer fires, i. 215 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 Mgild, a Berber tribe of Morocco, their Midsummer fires, i. 215\n\n\u2014\u2014 Snous, the, of Morocco, their Midsummer rites, i. 216\n\nBent, J. Theodore, on passing sick children through a cleft oak, ii. 172\n\nBerber belief as to water at Midsummer, ii. 31\n\n\u2014\u2014 tale, milk-tie in a, ii. 138 _n._ 1\n\nBerbers of North Africa, their Midsummer customs, i. 213 _sqq._, 219\n\nBergen, Midsummer bonfires at, i. 171\n\nBering Strait, the Esquimaux of, i. 91\n\nBerleburg, in Westphalia, the Yule log at, i. 248\n\nBerlin, the divining-rod at, ii. 68\n\nBern, Midsummer fires in the canton of, i. 172;\n  the Yule log in the canton of, 249;\n  witches put to death in the canton of, ii. 42 _n._ 2\n\nBerry, Lenten fire custom in, i. 115;\n  Midsummer fires in, 189;\n  the Yule log in, 251 _sq._;\n  four-leaved clover at Midsummer in, ii. 63\n\nBesoms, blazing, flung aloft to make the corn grow high, i. 340;\n  used to drive away witches, ii. 74\n\nBethlehem, new Easter fire carried to, i. 130 _n._\n\n\u201cBetween the two Beltane fires,\u201d i. 149\n\nBeul, fire of, need-fire, i. 293\n\nBevan, Professor A. A., i. 83 _n._ 1\n\nBeverley, on the initiatory rites of the Virginian Indians, ii. 266 _sq._\n\nBewitched animals burnt alive, i. 300 _sqq._;\n  buried alive, 324 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 cow, mugwort applied to, ii. 59\n\n\u2014\u2014 things burnt to compel the witch to appear, i. 322\n\nBhils of India, torture of witches among the, ii. 159\n\nBhuiyars of Mirzapur, their dread of menstrual pollution, i. 84\n\nBhuiyas, a Dravidian tribe, fire-walk among the, ii. 5 _sq._\n\n_Bhut_, demon, ii. 312\n\nBidasari and the golden fish, Malay story of, ii. 147 _sq._, 220\n\nBilqula. _See_ Bella Coola\n\nBinbinga tribe of Northern Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. 234\n            _sq._;\n  initiation of medicine-man in the, 239\n\nBinding up a cleft stick or tree a mode of barricading the road against a\n            ghostly pursuer, ii. 176\n\nBir, a tribal hero, ii. 6\n\nBirch used to kindle need-fire, i. 291\n\n\u2014\u2014 and plane, fire made by the friction of, i. 220\n\n\u2014\u2014, branches of, on Midsummer Day, i. 177, 196;\n  a protection against witchcraft, ii. 185\n\n\u2014\u2014 trees set up at Midsummer, i. 177;\n  used to keep off witches, ii. 20 _n._;\n  mistletoe on, 315\n\nBird, disease transferred to, ii. 187;\n  brings first fire to earth, 295\n\nBird-lime made from mistletoe, ii. 317\n\nBirds, external souls in, ii. 104, 111, 119, 142, 144, 150;\n  carry seed of mistletoe, 316\n\nBirseck, Lenten fires at, i. 119\n\nBirth, the new, of novices at initiation, ii. 247, 251, 256, 257, 261\n\nBirth-names of Central American Indians, ii. 214 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 -trees in Africa, ii. 160 _sqq._;\n  in Europe, 165\n\nBirthday of the Sun at the winter solstice, i. 246\n\nBisection of the year, Celtic, i. 223\n\nBlack Corrie of Ben Breck, the giant of, in an Argyleshire tale, ii. 129\n            _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 Forest, Midsummer fires in the, i. 168\n\n\u2014\u2014 Isle, Ross-shire, i. 301\n\n\u2014\u2014 poplars, mistletoe on, ii. 316, 318 _n._ 6\n\n\u2014\u2014 spauld, a disease of cattle, cure for, i. 325\n\n\u2014\u2014 three-legged horse ridden by witches, ii. 74\n\nBlackening girls at puberty, i. 41, 60\n\nBlemishes, physical, transferred to witches, i. 160 _n._ 1\n\nBlindness of Hother, ii. 279 _n._ 4\n\nBlock, the Yule, i. 247\n\nBlocksberg, the resort of witches, i. 171;\n  the Mount of the Witches, ii. 74\n\nBlood, girls at puberty forbidden to see, i. 46;\n  disastrous effect of seeing menstruous, 77;\n  drawn from women who do not menstruate, 81\n\n\u2014\u2014 -brotherhood between men and animals among the Fans, ii. 201, 226 _n._\n            1\n\n\u2014\u2014 -covenant between men and animals, ii. 201, 214, 226 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014, human, used in rain-making ceremonies, ii. 232 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, menstruous, dread of, i. 76;\n  deemed fatal to cattle, 80;\n  miraculous virtue attributed to, 82 _sq._;\n  medicinal application of, 98 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 of St. John found on St. John\u2019s wort and other plants at Midsummer, ii.\n            56, 57\n\n\u2014\u2014 of sheep poured on image of god as a sin-offering, i. 82\n\nBoa-constrictors, kings at death turn into, ii. 212 _n._\n\nBoas, Dr. Franz, on seclusion of Shuswap girls at puberty, i. 53;\n  on customs observed by mourners among the Bella Coola Indians, ii. 174;\n  on initiation into the wolf society of the Nootka Indians, 270 _sq._;\n  on the relation between clans and secret societies, 273 _n._ 1\n\nBoar\u2019s skin, shoes of, worn by a king at inauguration, i. 4\n\nBoars, familiar spirits of wizards in, ii. 196 _sq._;\n  lives of persons bound up with those of, 201, 203, 205;\n  external human souls in, 207\n\nBocage of Normandy, Midsummer fires in the, i. 185;\n  the Yule log in the, 252;\n  torchlight processions on Christmas Eve in the, 266\n\nBody-without-soul in a Ligurian story, ii. 107;\n  in a German story, 116 _sq._;\n  in a Breton story, 132 _sq._;\n  in a Basque story, 139\n\nBoeotian festival of the Great Daedala, ii. 77 _n._ 1\n\nBogota, rigorous training of the heir to the throne of, i. 19\n\nBohemia, water and fire consecrated at Easter in, i. 123 _sq._;\n  bonfires on May Day in, 159;\n  Midsummer fires in, 173 _sqq._;\n  need-fire in, 278 _sq._;\n  charm to make corn grow high in, 340;\n  offering to water-spirits on Midsummer Eve in, ii. 28;\n  simples gathered on St. John\u2019s Night in, 49;\n  divination by means of flowers on Midsummer Eve in, 52 _sq._;\n  mugwort at Midsummer in, 59;\n  elder-flowers gathered at Midsummer in, 64;\n  wild thyme gathered on Midsummer Day in, 64;\n  fern-seed at Midsummer in, 66;\n  \u201cthunder besoms\u201d in, 85;\n  fern-seed on St. John\u2019s Day in, 287, 288\n\nBohemian poachers, their use of vervain, ii. 62;\n  their use of seeds of fir-cones, 64\n\n\u2014\u2014 story of the external soul, ii. 110\n\nBohus, Midsummer fires in, i. 172\n\n_Boid\u00e8s_, bonfires, i. 111 _n._ 1\n\nBoiling bewitched animal or part of it to compel witch to appear, i. 321\n            _sq._, 323\n\n\u2014\u2014 milk, omens drawn from, ii. 8\n\n\u2014\u2014 resin, ordeal of, i. 311\n\nBoils, crawling under a bramble as a cure for, ii. 180\n\nBolivia, the Chiriguanos of, i. 56;\n  the Yuracares of, 57 _sq._;\n  fires on St. John\u2019s Eve in, 213;\n  La Paz in, ii. 50\n\nBoloki of the Upper Congo, birth-plants among the, ii. 161 _sq._;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, 229 _n._\n\nBondeis of German East Africa, rites of initiation among the, ii. 263\n            _sq._\n\nBone used to point with in sorcery, i. 14;\n  incident of, in folk-tales, 73 _n._ 3;\n  of bird (eagle or swan), women at menstruation obliged to drink out of,\n              45, 48, 49, 50, 73 _n._ 3, 90, 92\n\nBones burnt in the Easter bonfires, i. 142;\n  burnt in Midsummer fires, 203\n\n\u2014\u2014 of dead husbands carried by their widows, i. 91 _n._ 4\n\nBonfire Day in County Leitrim, i. 203\n\nBonfires supposed to protect against conflagrations, i. 107, 108;\n  protect houses against lightning and conflagration, 344;\n  lit by the persons last married, 107, 109;\n  a protection against witchcraft, 108, 109, 154;\n  a protection against sickness, 108, 109;\n  a protection against sorcery, 156;\n  quickening and fertilizing influence of, 336 _sqq._;\n  omens of marriage drawn from, 338 _sq._;\n  protect fields against hail, 344;\n  at festivals in India, ii. 1 _sqq._\n  _See also_ Fires\n\nBonfires, Midsummer, intended to drive away dragons, i. 161;\n  protect cattle against witchcraft, 188;\n  thought to ensure good crops, 188, 336\n\nBoniface, Archbishop of Mainz, i. 270\n\nBonnach stone in a Celtic story, ii. 126\n\n_Bordes_, bonfires, i. 111 _n._ 1, 113\n\nBorlase, William, on Midsummer fires in Cornwall, i. 199\n\nBorneo, festivals in, i. 13;\n  seclusion of girls at puberty in, 35 _sq._;\n  birth-custom in, ii. 154 _sq._;\n  trees and plants as life-indices in, 164 _sq._;\n  creeping through a cleft stick after a funeral in, 175 _sq._;\n  giving the slip to an evil spirit in, 179 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, the Dyaks of, i. 5, ii. 222\n\n\u2014\u2014, the Kayans of, i. 4 _sq._\n\nBororo of Brazil, their use of bull-roarers, ii. 230 _n._\n\nBorrow, witches come to, i. 322, 323, ii. 73\n\nBosnia, need-fire in, i. 286;\n  life-trees of children in, ii. 165\n\nBossuet, Bishop, on the Midsummer bonfires, i. 182\n\nBottesford, in Lincolnshire, mistletoe deemed a remedy for epilepsy at,\n            ii. 83\n\nBottle, external soul of queen in a, ii. 138\n\nBougainville, use of bull-roarers in, ii. 229 _n._\n\nBough, the Golden, ii. 279 _sqq._;\n  and the priest of Aricia, i. 1;\n  a branch of mistletoe, ii. 284 _sqq._, 315 _sqq._\n  _See also_ Golden Bough\n\nBoulia district of Queensland, i. 14\n\nBourbonnais, mistletoe a remedy for epilepsy in, ii. 83\n\n_Bourdifailles_, bonfires, i. 111 _n._ 1\n\nBourke, Captain J. G., on the bull-roarer, ii. 231\n\nBowels, novice at initiation supplied by spirits with a new set of, ii.\n            235 _sqq._\n\nBowes, in Yorkshire, need-fire at, i. 287\n\nBox, external soul of king in a, ii. 102, 149;\n  external soul of cannibal in a, 117\n\nBoxes or arks, sacred, i. 11 _sq._\n\nBox-tree, external soul of giant in a, ii. 133\n\nBoxwood blessed on Palm Sunday, i. 184, ii. 47\n\nBoy and girl produce need-fire by friction of wood, i. 281\n\nBoys at initiation thought to be swallowed by wizards, ii. 233\n\nBrabant, Midsummer fires in, i. 194;\n  St. Peter\u2019s bonfires in, 195;\n  wicker giants in, ii. 35\n\nBracelets as amulets, i. 92\n\nBraemar Highlanders, their Hallowe\u2019en fires, i. 233 _sq._\n\nBrahman, the Hindoo creator, i. 95\n\nBrahman called \u201ctwice born,\u201d ii. 276\n\n\u2014\u2014 boys forbidden to see the sun, i. 68 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 student, his observances at end of his studentship, i. 20\n\nBrahmanic ritual at inauguration of a king, i. 4\n\nBramble, crawling under a, as a cure for whooping-cough, etc., ii. 180\n\nBrand, John, on the Yule log, i. 247, 255\n\nBrandenburg, simples culled at Midsummer in, ii. 48\n\n_Brandons_, the Sunday of the, i. 110;\n  torches carried about fields and streets, 111 _n._ 1\n\nBrands of Midsummer fires a protection against lightning, conflagration,\n            and spells, i. 183;\n  a protection against thunder, 191;\n  lighted, carried round cattle, 341\n\nBraunrode in the Harz Mountains, Easter fires at, i. 142\n\nBrazier, walking through a lighted, ii. 3 _sqq._\n\nBrazil, the Guaranis of, i. 56;\n  seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, 56, 59 _sq._;\n  the Uaupes of, 61;\n  ordeals undergone by young men among the Indians of, 62 _sq._;\n  effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, 128;\n  fires of St. John in, 213;\n  the Caripunas of, ii. 230;\n  the Bororo of, 230 _n._;\n  the Nahuqua of, 230;\n  the Bakairi of, 231\n\nBread, reverence for, i. 13\n\nBreadalbane, i. 149;\n  treatment of mad cow in, 326\n\nBreadfruit-tree planted over navel-string of child, ii. 163\n\n\u201cBreath, scoring above the,\u201d cutting a witch on the forehead, i. 315 _n._\n            2\n\nBreitenbrunn, the \u201cCharcoal Man\u201d at, ii. 26 _n._ 2\n\nBrekinjska, in Slavonia, need-fire at, i. 282\n\nBresse, Midsummer bonfires in, i. 189\n\nBrest, Midsummer fire-custom at, i. 184\n\nBreteuil, canton of, Midsummer fires in the, i. 187\n\nBreton belief that women can be impregnated by the moon, i. 76\n\n\u2014\u2014 stories of the external soul, ii. 132 _sq._\n\nBrezina, in Slavonia, need-fire at, i. 282\n\nBriar-thorn, divination by, i. 242\n\nBri-bri Indians of Costa Rica, seclusion of women at menstruation among\n            the, i. 86\n\nBride not allowed to tread the earth, i. 5;\n  last married, made to leap over bonfire, ii. 22\n\n\u2014\u2014 and bridegroom, mock, at bonfires, i. 109 _sq._\n\nBride, parish of, in the Isle of Man, i. 306, 307 _n._ 1\n\nBridegroom not to touch the ground with his feet, i. 5\n\nBrie, Isle de France, effigy of giant burnt on Midsummer Eve at, ii. 38\n\nBrihaspati, Hindoo deity, i. 99 _n._ 2\n\nBriony, wreaths of, at Midsummer, i. 210\n\nBrisbane River in Queensland, use of bull-roarers on the, ii. 233 _sqq._\n\nBritish Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i.\n            46 _sqq._;\n  dread and seclusion of menstruous women among the Indians of, 89 _sq._;\n  the Kwakiutl of, ii. 186;\n  Koskimo Indians of, 229;\n  rites of initiation among the Indians of, 270 _sqq._;\n  the Thompson Indians of, 297;\n  the Shuswap Indians of, 297 _n._ 3\n\nBrittany, Midsummer fires in, i. 183 _sqq._;\n  stones thrown into the Midsummer fires in, 240;\n  the Yule log in, 253;\n  mistletoe hung over doors of stables and byres in, ii. 287;\n  fern-seed used by treasure-seekers in, 288\n\n_Brochs_, prehistoric ruins, i. 291\n\nBrocken, in the Harz mountains, associated with witches, i. 160 _n._ 1,\n            171 _n._ 3\n\nBroom, a protective against witchcraft, i. 210\n\n\u201cBrother\u201d and \u201csister,\u201d titles given by men and women to their sex totems,\n            ii. 215, 216, 218\n\nBrotherhood of the Green Wolf at Jumi\u00e8ges in Normandy, i. 185 _sq._\n\nBrothers, ancient Egyptian story of the Two, ii. 134 _sqq._\n\nBrown, Dr. George, quoted, i. 32 _sqq._;\n  on external soul in Melanesia, ii. 199\n\nBrughe, John, his cure for bewitched cattle, i. 324 _sq._\n\nBrund (or brand), the Christmas, the Yule log, i. 257\n\nBrunswick, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96;\n  Easter bonfires in, 140;\n  need-fire in, 277 _sq._\n\nBuchan, Hallowe\u2019en fires in, i. 232 _sq._\n\n_B\u00fbche de No\u00ebl_, the Yule log, i. 249\n\nBuddha and the crocodile, Indian story, ii. 102 _n._ 4\n\nBuffalo, external souls of a clan in a, ii. 151;\n  a Batta totem, 223\n\n\u2014\u2014 clan in Uganda, i. 3\n\nBuffaloes, external human souls in, ii. 207, 208\n\nB\u00fchl, St. John\u2019s fires at, i. 168\n\nBukaua, the, of New Guinea, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 35;\n  their rites of initiation, ii. 239 _sqq._\n\n_Bu-ku-r\u00fa_, ceremonial uncleanness, i. 65 _n._ 1, 86\n\nBul\u00e9on, Mgr., quoted by Father H. Trilles, ii. 202 _n._ 1\n\nBulgaria, the Yule log in, i. 264 _n._ 1;\n  need-fire in, 281, 285;\n  simples and flowers culled on St. John\u2019s Day in, ii. 50;\n  creeping through an arch of vines as a cure in, 180;\n  creeping under the root of a willow as a cure for whooping-cough in, 180\n              _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, Simeon, prince of, ii. 156 _sq._\n\nBullet blessed by St. Hubert used to shoot witches with, i. 315 _sq._\n\nBullock, bewitched, burnt to cause the witch to appear, i. 303\n\nBull-roarers swung, i. 133;\n  sounded at initiation of lads, ii. 227, 228 _sqq._, 233 _sqq._, 240,\n              241;\n  used as magical instruments to make rain, 230 _sqq._;\n  sounded at festivals of the dead, 230 _n._;\n  made from trees struck by lightning, 231;\n  sounded to make the wind blow, 232;\n  called \u201cthunder and lightning,\u201d 232;\n  sounded to promote the growth of the crops, 232;\n  originally magical instruments for making thunder, wind, and rain, 233;\n  not to be seen by women, 234, 235, 242;\n  called by name which means a ghost or spirit of the dead, 242;\n  called by the same name as the monster who swallows lads at initiation,\n              242;\n  kept in men\u2019s club-house, 242;\n  named after dead men, 242 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014, sound of, thought to resemble thunder, ii. 228 _sqq._;\n  supposed to increase the food supply, 230;\n  supposed to be the voice of a spirit, 233, 234, 235\n\nBurchard, Bishop of Worms, his condemnation of a heathen practice, ii. 191\n\n_Bures_, bonfires, i. 110 _n._ 1, 111 _n._ 1\n\nBurford, in Oxfordshire, Midsummer giant and dragon at, ii. 37\n\nBurghead, the burning of the Clavie at, i. 266 _sq._;\n  the old rampart at, 267 _sq._\n\nBurgundy, Firebrand Sunday in, i. 114;\n  the Yule log in, 254\n\nBurma, the Karens of, ii. 157\n\nBurne, Miss F. C., and Jackson, Miss G. F., on the fear of witchcraft in\n            Shropshire, i. 342 _n._ 4\n\nBurning the witches on May Day, i. 157, 159, 160;\n  of effigies in the Midsummer fires, 195;\n  of the witches in the Hallowe\u2019en fires, 232 _sq._;\n  of the Clavie at Burghead, 266 _sq._;\n  of a bewitched animal or part of it to cause the witch to appear, 303,\n              305, 307 _sq._, 321 _sq._;\n  of human beings in the fires, ii. 21 _sqq._;\n  of live animals at spring and Midsummer festivals, 38 _sqq._;\n  the animals perhaps deemed embodiments of witches, 41 _sq._, 43 _sq._;\n  of human victims annually, 286 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 discs thrown into the air, i. 116 _sq._, 119, 143, 165, 166, 168 _sq._,\n            172\n\n\u2014\u2014 the Easter Man, i. 144\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 the Old Wife (Old Woman),\u201d i. 116, 120\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 the Witches,\u201d i. 116, 118 _sq._, 154;\n  a popular name for the fires of the festivals, ii. 43\n\n\u2014\u2014 wheels rolled down hill, i. 116, 117 _sq._, 119, 141, 143, 161, 162\n            _sq._, 163 _sq._, 166, 173, 174, 201, 328, 334, 337 _sq._;\n  rolled over fields at Midsummer to fertilize them, 191, 340 _sq._;\n  perhaps intended to burn witches, 345\n\nBurns, Robert, i. 207;\n  on Hallowe\u2019en, 234\n\nBurnt sacrifices to stay cattle-plague in England, Wales, and Scotland, i.\n            300 _sqq._\n\nBurs, a preservative against witchcraft, i. 177\n\nBurying bewitched animals alive, i. 324 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 girls at puberty in the ground, i. 38 _sqq._\n\nBushmen, their dread of menstruous women, i. 79;\n  their way of warming up the star Sirius, 332 _sq._\n\nBushongo, royal persons among the, not allowed to set foot on the ground,\n            i. 4;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 229;\n  rites of initiation among the, 264 _sqq._\n\nButter thought to be improved by the Midsummer fires, i. 180;\n  bewitched, burnt at a cross-road, 322\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 -churning,\u201d Swiss expression for kindling a need-fire, i. 279\n\nByron, Lord, and the oak, ii. 166\n\nCabbages, divination by, at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 242.\n  _See also_ Kail\n\nCaesar on the fortification walls of the Gauls, i. 267;\n  on human sacrifices among the Celts of Gaul, ii. 32\n\nCaesarea. _See_ Everek\n\nCaffre villages, women\u2019s tracks at, i. 80\n\nCaffres of South Africa, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 30;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 229 _n._, 232\n\nCages, girls at puberty confined in, i. 32 _sqq._, 44, 45\n\n_Cailleach beal-tine_, the Beltane carline, i. 148\n\nCairnshee, in Kincardineshire, Midsummer fires on, i. 206\n\nCaithness, need-fire in, i. 290 _sqq._\n\nCake, St. Michael\u2019s, i. 149, 154 _n._ 3;\n  salt, divination by, 238 _sq._;\n  the Yule or Christmas, 257, 259, 261\n\nCakes, Hallowe\u2019en, i. 238, 241, 245;\n  Beltane, 148 _sq._, 150, 152, 153, 154, 155;\n  divination by, 242, 243\n\nCalabar, soul of chief in sacred grove at, ii. 161;\n  negroes of, their belief in external or bush souls lodged in animals,\n              204 _sqq._, 220, 222 _n._ 5;\n  the fattening-house for girls in, 259\n\nCalabria, holy water at Easter in, i. 123\n\nCalamities, almost all, set down to witchcraft, ii. 19 _sq._\n\nCalendar, change in the Chinese, i. 137;\n  Mohammedan, 216 _sq._, 218 _sq._;\n  the Julian, used by Mohammedans, 218 _sq._;\n  the reform of, in relation to floral superstitions, ii. 55 _n._ 1\n\nCalendars, conflict of, i. 218\n\n_Calendeau_, _calignau_, the Yule-log, i. 250\n\nCalf burnt alive to stop a murrain, i. 300 _sq._\n\nCalifornia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i. 41\n            _sqq._;\n  ordeals among the Indians of, 64;\n  the Senal Indians of, ii. 295;\n  the Maidu Indians of, 295, 298\n\nCallander, the parish of, Beltane fires in, i. 150 _sqq._;\n  Hallowe\u2019en fires in, 231\n\nCalves burnt to stop disease in the herds, i. 301, 306\n\nCalymnos, a Greek island, superstition as to menstruous women in, i. 96\n            _sq._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 212\n\nCambodia, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 70;\n  ritual at cutting a parasitic orchid in, ii. 81\n\nCambodian or Siamese story of the external soul, ii. 102\n\nCambridgeshire, witch as cat in, i. 317\n\nCambus o\u2019 May, near Ballater, holed stone at, ii. 187\n\nCameroons, life of person bound up with tree in the, ii. 161;\n  theory of the external soul in, 200, 202 _sq._\n\nCamomile (_Anthemis nobilis_) burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213;\n  sacred to Balder, ii. 63;\n  gathered at Midsummer, 63\n\nCampbell, Rev. J. G., on _deiseal_, i. 151 _n._\n\nCampbell, Rev. John, on Coranna customs, ii. 192, 192 _n._ 1\n\nCampo di Giove, in the Abruzzi, Easter candles at, i. 122\n\nCandle, the Easter or Paschal, i. 121, 122, 125;\n  divination by the flame of a, 229;\n  the Yule or Christmas, 255, 256, 260;\n  external soul in a, ii. 125 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 and apple, biting at, i. 241, 242, 243, 245\n\nCandlemas in the Armenian church, bonfires at, i. 131;\n  the Yule log at, 256 _n._\n\n\u2014\u2014 candles, i. 264 _n._ 4\n\nCandles used to keep off witches, i. 245\n\nCanopus and Sirius in Bushman lore, i. 333\n\nCapart, Jean, on palettes found in Egyptian tombs, ii. 155 _n._ 3\n\nCape York Peninsula in Queensland, i. 37, 38\n\nCaper-spurge (_Euphorbia lathyris_) identified with mythical springwort,\n            ii. 69\n\nCapital of column, external soul in, ii. 156 _sq._\n\nCapitol at Rome, the oak of Jupiter on the, ii. 89\n\nCappadocia, the fire-walk at Castabala in, ii. 14\n\nCapri, feast of the Nativity of the Virgin in, i. 220 _sq._\n\nCapricorn, time when the sun enters the tropic of, ii. 1\n\nCaps worn in mourning, i. 20\n\nCardiganshire, Hallowe\u2019en in, i. 226\n\nCaribs, their theory of the plurality of souls, ii. 221\n\nCarinthia, new fire at Easter in, i. 124\n\nCaripunas Indians of Brazil, use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 230 _n._\n\nCarmichael, Alexander, on need-fire, i. 293 _sqq._;\n  on snake stones, ii. 311\n\nCarn Brea, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires on, i. 199\n\nCarnarvonshire, the cutty black sow in, i. 240\n\nCarnival, effigy burnt at end of, i. 120;\n  wicker giants at the, ii. 35\n\nCarnmoor, in Mull, need-fire kindled on, i. 289 _sq._\n\nCarnwarth, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires at, i. 199\n\nCaroline Islands, traditionary origin of fire in the, ii. 295\n\nCarpathian Mountains, Midsummer fires on the, i. 175;\n  need-fire in the, 281;\n  the Huzuls of the, ii. 49\n\nCarrier Indians of North-Western America, funeral custom of the, i. 11;\n  their dread and seclusion of menstruous women, 91 _sqq._;\n  their honorific totems, ii. 273 _sqq._\n\nCarver, Captain Jonathan, his description of the rite of death and\n            resurrection, ii. 267 _sq._\n\nCasablanca, Midsummer fires at, i. 214\n\nCashmeer stories of the external soul, ii. 100 _sq._, 138 _n._ 1\n\nCaspar, Balthasar, and Melchior, the Three Holy Kings, ii. 68\n\nCassel, in France, wicker giants on Shrove Tuesday at, ii. 35\n\nCassowaries, men disguised as, in Duk-duk ceremonies, ii. 247\n\nCastabala, in Cappadocia, the fire-walk at, ii. 14\n\nCastiglione a Casauria, Midsummer customs at, i. 210\n\nCastle Ditches, in the Vale of Glamorgan, bonfires at, i. 156\n\nCastres, in Southern France, ii. 187\n\nCat, a representative of the devil, ii. 40;\n  story of a clan whose souls were all in one, 150 _sq._;\n  a Batta totem, 223.\n  _See also_ Cats\n\nCaterpillars, bonfires as a protection against, i. 114\n\nCatholic Church, its consecration of the Midsummer festival to St. John\n            the Baptist, i. 181\n\nCato on a Roman cure for dislocation, ii. 177\n\nCats burnt in bonfires, i. 109, ii. 39 _sq._;\n  perhaps burnt as witches, 41;\n  witches changed into, i. 315 _n._ 1, 317, 318, 319 _sq._, ii. 311 _sq._\n\nCattle sacrificed at holy oak, i. 181;\n  protected against sorcery by sprigs of mullein, 190;\n  fire carried round, 201, 206;\n  driven out to pasture in spring and back in autumn, 223;\n  acquire the gift of speech on Christmas Eve, 254;\n  driven through the need-fire, 270 _sqq._;\n  killed by fairy darts, 303;\n  lighted brands carried round, 341;\n  thought to benefit by festivals of fire, ii. 4, 7;\n  fumigated with smoke of Midsummer herbs, 53\n\n\u2014\u2014 and sheep driven through, round, or between bonfires, i. 108, 109, 141,\n            154, 157, 158, 159, 165, 175, 176, 179, 185, 188, 192, 202,\n            203, 204, 301, ii. 8, 9, 11 _sq._, 13\n\n\u2014\u2014 disease, the Midsummer fires a protection against, i. 176;\n  attributed to witchcraft, 302 _sq._, 343\n\n\u2014\u2014 -plague, need-fire kindled as a remedy for, i. 270 _sqq._;\n  sacrifice of an animal to stay a, 300 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -rearing tribes of South Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 79\n            _sq._\n\nCave, initiation of medicine-men by spirits in a, ii. 237 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Cruachan, the \u201cHell-gate of Ireland,\u201d i. 226\n\nCedar-bark, red, used in ceremonies of a secret society, ii. 271\n\nCelebes, Macassar in, i. 14;\n  souls of persons removed for safety from their bodies in, ii. 153 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, Central, the Toradjas of, i. 311 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, Southern, birth-trees in, ii. 164\n\nCelibacy of the Vestal Virgins, i. 138 _n._ 5\n\nCeltic bisection of the year, i. 223\n\n\u2014\u2014 population, their superstition as to Snake Stones, i. 15\n\n\u2014\u2014 stories of the external soul, ii. 126 _sqq._\n\nCelts, their two great fire-festivals on the Eve of May Day and\n            Hallowe\u2019en, i. 222, 224;\n  the oak worshipped by the, ii. 89\n\n\u2014\u2014, the British, their chief fire-festivals, Beltane and Hallowe\u2019en, ii.\n            40 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Brittany, their use of mistletoe, ii. 320\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Gaul, their human sacrifices, ii. 32 _sq._;\n  the victims perhaps witches and wizards, 41 _sq._;\n  W. Mannhardt\u2019s theory, 43\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Ireland, their new fire on Hallowe\u2019en, i. 139\n\n\u2014\u2014 of northern Italy, ii. 320\n\nCelts (prehistoric implements) called \u201cthunderbolts,\u201d i. 14 _sq._\n\nCentral Provinces of India, cure for fever in the, ii. 190\n\nCeos, Greek island of, sick children passed through a cleft oak in, ii.\n            172\n\nCeram, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 36;\n  belief that strength of young people is in their hair in, ii. 158;\n  rites of initiation to the Kakian association in, 249 _sqq._\n\nCeremony, magical, to ensure fertility of women, i. 23 _sq._, 31\n\nCetraro in Calabria, Easter custom at, i. 123\n\nCeylon, the king of, and his external soul, ii. 102\n\nChaco, the Gran, i. 58;\n  marriage custom of Indians of the, i. 75;\n  Indians of the, i. 98 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014, the Paraguayan, i. 56\n\nChadwick, Professor H. M., i. 103 _n._\n\nChaka, Zulu king, ii. 212 _n._\n\nChalk, white, bodies of newly initiated lads coated with, ii. 241\n\nChambers, E. K., on the Celtic bisection of the year, i. 223\n\n\u201cCharcoal Man\u201d at Midsummer, ii. 26 _n._ 2\n\nCharente Inf\u00e9rieure, department of, St. John\u2019s fires in the, i. 192\n\nChariot, patient drawn through the yoke of a, ii. 192\n\nChariots used by sacred persons, i. 4 _n._ 1\n\nCharlemagne, i. 270\n\nChaste young men kindle need-fire, i. 273\n\nChastity associated with abstinence from salt, i. 27 _sq._\n\nCh\u00e2teau-Tierry, Midsummer fires at, i. 187 _sq._\n\nChatham Islands, birth-trees in the, ii. 165\n\n_Chavandes_, bonfires, i. 109 _n._ 2\n\nCheadle, in Staffordshire, the Yule log at, i. 256\n\nCheese, the Beltane, kept as a charm against the bewitching of\n            milk-produce, i. 154\n\n_Ch\u00eane-Dor\u00e9_, \u201cthe gilded oak,\u201d in Perche, ii. 287 _n._ 1\n\nChepstow oak, in Gloucestershire, ii. 316\n\nCheremiss of the Volga, their Midsummer festival, i. 181\n\nCherokees, their sacred arks, i. 11 _sq._;\n  their ideas as to trees struck by lightning, ii. 296 _sq._\n\nCherry-tree wood used for Yule log, i. 250\n\n\u2014\u2014 -trees, torches thrown at, i. 108\n\nChervil-seed burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213\n\n_Chesnitsa_, Christmas cake, i. 261\n\nChester, Midsummer giants at, ii. 37\n\n_Chevannes_, bonfires, i. 111 _n._ 1\n\nCheyenne Indians, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 54 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 women secluded at menstruation, i. 89\n\nChiaromonte, Midsummer custom at, i. 210\n\nChibisa, an African chief, ii. 314\n\n_Chicha_, a native intoxicant, i. 57, 58\n\nChicory, the white flower of, opens all locks, ii. 71\n\nChief\u2019s daughter, ceremonies observed by her at puberty, i. 30, 43\n\nChikumbu, a Yao chief, ii. 314\n\nChilblains, the Yule log a preventive of, i. 250\n\nChildbirth, customs observed by women after, i. 20\n\nChildless couples leap over bonfires to procure offspring, i. 214, 338\n\nChildless women creep through a holed stone, ii. 187\n\nChildren live apart from their parents among the Baganda, i. 23 _n._ 2;\n  born feet foremost, curative power attributed to, 295;\n  passed across the Midsummer fires, 182, 189 _sq._, 192, 203;\n  passed through holes in ground or turf to cure them, ii. 190 _sq._\n\nChillingworth, Thomas, passed through a cleft ash-tree for rupture, ii.\n            168 _sq._\n\nChimney, witches fly up the, ii. 74\n\n\u2014\u2014 -piece, divination by names on, i. 237\n\nChina, were-wolves in, i. 310 _sq._;\n  annual ceremony of the new fire in, 136 _sq._, ii. 3;\n  use of fire to bar ghosts in, 17 _sq._;\n  spirits of plants in snake form in, 44 _n._ 1;\n  use of mugwort in, 60\n\nChinese festival of fire, ii. 3 _sqq._;\n  story of the external soul, 145 _sq._;\n  theories as to the human soul, 221\n\nChinook Indians, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 43\n\nChippeway Indians, their dread and seclusion of menstruous women, i. 90\n            _sq._\n\nChiquites Indians of Paraguay, their theory of sickness, ii. 226 _n._ 1\n\nChirbury, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257\n\nChiriguanos of Bolivia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 56\n\nChoctaw women secluded at menstruation, i. 88\n\nChopping-knife, soul of woman in childbirth transferred for safety to a,\n            ii. 153 _sq._\n\nChota Nagpur, the fire-walk in, ii. 5\n\nChouquet, in Normandy, the Green Wolf at, i. 185\n\n_Christbrand_, the Yule log, i. 248\n\nChristenburg Crags, in Northumberland, Midsummer fires at, i. 198\n\nChristian Church, its treatment of witches, ii. 42\n\n_Christklotz_, the Yule log, i. 248\n\nChristmas, an old pagan festival of the sun, i. 246, 331 _sq._;\n  new fire made by the friction of wood at, 264;\n  mistletoe gathered at, ii. 291\n\n\u2014\u2014 cake, i. 257, 259, 261\n\n\u2014\u2014 candle, the, i. 255, 256, 260\n\n\u2014\u2014 Eve, cattle acquire the gift of speech on, i. 254;\n  trees fumigated with wild thyme on, ii. 64;\n  the fern blooms at, 66;\n  witches dreaded on, 73;\n  sick children passed through cleft trees on, 172\n\n\u2014\u2014 night, fern-seed blooms on, ii. 289\n\n\u2014\u2014 pig, i. 259\n\n\u2014\u2014 visiter, the, i. 261 _sq._, 263, 264\n\nChurch, the Christian, its treatment of witches, ii. 42\n\n\u2014\u2014 bells on Midsummer Eve, custom as to ringing, ii. 47 _sq._;\n  rung to drive away witches, 73\n\nChurches used as places of divination at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 229\n\n_Churinga_, sacred sticks and stones of the Arunta, ii. 218 _n._ 3, 234\n\nChu-Tu-shi, a Chinese were-tiger, i. 310 _sq._\n\nCiotat, Midsummer rites of fire and water at, i. 194\n\nCircumambulating fields with lighted torches, i. 233 _sq._\n\nCircumcision, custom at, among the Washamba, ii. 183;\n  of lads at initiation in Australia, 227 _sq._, 233, 234, 235;\n  in New Guinea, 240 _sq._;\n  in Fiji, 243 _sq._;\n  in Rook, 246;\n  custom of, on the Lower Congo, 251, 255 _n._ 1\n\n_Clach-nathrach_, serpent stone, ii. 311\n\nClam shell, sacred, of the Omahas, i. 11\n\nClan of the Cat, ii. 150 _sq._\n\nClappers, used instead of church bells in Holy Week, i. 125;\n  wooden, used in China, 137\n\nClassificatory system of relationship, ii. 234 _n._ 1, 314 _n._ 4\n\nClaudius, the emperor, i. 15\n\nClavie, the burning of the, at Burghead, i. 266 _sq._\n\nClay plastered on girls at puberty, i. 31;\n  white, bodies of novices at initiation smeared with, ii. 255 _n._ 1, 259\n\nCleary, Bridget, burnt as a witch in Tipperary, i. 323 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, Michael, burns his wife as a witch, i. 323 _sq._\n\nClee, in Lincolnshire, the Yule log at, i. 257\n\n\u2014\u2014 Hills, in Shropshire, fear of witchcraft in the, i. 342 _n._ 4\n\nCleft stick, passage through a, in connexion with puberty and\n            circumcision, ii. 183 _sq._\n\n_Climacteris scandens_, women\u2019s \u201csister\u201d among the Kulin, ii. 216\n\nClodd, Edward, on the external soul, ii. 96 _n._ 1\n\nClog, the Yule, i. 247\n\nClonmel, trial for witch-burning at, i. 324\n\nClover, four-leaved, a counter-charm for witchcraft, i. 316;\n  found at Midsummer, ii. 62 _sq._\n\nClue of yarn, divination by a, i. 235, 240, 241, 243\n\nCoal, magical, that turns to gold at Midsummer, ii. 60 _sq._\n\nCoast Murring tribe of New South Wales, the drama of resurrection\n            exhibited to novices at initiation in the, ii. 235 _sqq._\n\nCobern, effigy burnt at, i. 120\n\nCoblentz, i. 248\n\n_Coccus Polonica_ and St. John\u2019s blood, ii. 56\n\nCock, effigy of, in bonfire, i. iii;\n  a black, used as counter-charm to witchcraft, 321;\n  white, burnt in Midsummer bonfire, ii. 40;\n  external soul of ogre in a, 100;\n  killed on harvest-field, 280 _n._;\n  red, killed to cure person struck by lightning, 298 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 or hen, striking blindfold at a, ii. 279 _n._ 4\n\nCock\u2019s blood poured on divining-rod, ii. 282\n\nCockchafer, external soul in a golden, ii. 140\n\nCockchafers, witches as, i. 322\n\nCoco-nut, soul of child deposited in a, i. 154 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 palm planted over navel-string and afterbirth of child, ii. 161, 163,\n            compare 164;\n  attracts lightning, 299 _n._ 2\n\nCodrington, Dr. R. H., on the Melanesian conception of the external soul,\n            ii. 197 _sq._\n\n_Coel Coeth_, Hallowe\u2019en bonfire, i. 239\n\nCohen, S. S., i. 128 _n._ 1\n\nCoil, sick children passed through a, ii. 185 _sq._\n\nCold food, festival of the, in China, i. 137\n\nCole, Lieut.-Colonel H. W. G., on a custom of the Lushais, ii. 185 _sq._\n\nColic, popular remedies for, i. 17;\n  leaping over bonfires as a preventive of, 107, 195 _sq._, 344;\n  attributed to witchcraft, 344\n\nColl, the Hole Stone in the island of, ii. 187\n\nColleda, an old Servian goddess, i. 259\n\nCologne, St. John\u2019s fourteen Midsummer victims at, ii. 27\n\nColombia, the Goajiras of, i. 34 _n._ 1;\n  Guacheta in, 74\n\nCombe d\u2019Ain, i. 114\n\nComminges, Midsummer fires in, i. 192 _sq._\n\nCommunity, welfare of, bound up with the life of the divine king, i. 1\n            _sq._;\n  purified in the persons of its representatives, ii. 24\n\nCond\u00e9, in Normandy, i. 266\n\nConductivity, electric, of various kinds of wood, ii. 299 _n._ 2\n\nConflagrations, bonfires supposed to protect against, i. 107, 108, 140,\n            142, 344;\n  brands of Midsummer bonfires thought to be a protection against, 165,\n              174, 183, 188, 196;\n  the Yule log a protection against, 248 _sq._, 250, 255, 256, 258;\n  Midsummer flowers a protection against, ii. 48;\n  mountain arnica a protection against, 58;\n  oak-mistletoe a protection against, 85\n\nConflict of calendars, solar and lunar, i. 218\n\nCongo, seclusion of girls at puberty on the Lower, i. 31;\n  birth-trees on the, 161 _sq._;\n  theory of the external soul on the, ii. 200;\n  use of bull-roarers on the, 229\n\n\u2014\u2014, the French, the Fans of, ii. 161\n\n\u2014\u2014, the Lower, rites of initiation on the, ii. 251 _sqq._\n\nConnaught, Midsummer fires in, i. 203;\n  cave of Cruachan in, 226;\n  palace of the kings of, ii. 127\n\nConnemara, Midsummer fires in, i. 203\n\nConstance, the Lake of, ii. 26\n\nConstantinople, column at, ii. 157\n\nConsumption, ashes of the Midsummer fires a cure for, i. 194 _sq._;\n  transferred to bird, ii. 187\n\nConsumptive patients passed through holes in stones or rocks, ii. 186\n            _sq._\n\nContinence as preparation for walking through fire, ii. 3\n\nConty, Lenten fires at, i. 113\n\nConway, Professor R. S., on the etymology of Soranus, ii. 15 _n._ 1\n\nCook, A. B., on the oak of Errol, ii. 284 _n._ 1\n\nCook, menstruous women not allowed to, i. 80, 82, 84, 90\n\nCopper needle, story of man who could only be killed by a, ii. 314\n\nCorannas, a Hottentot people, children after an illness passed under an\n            arch among the, ii. 192\n\nCords tied tightly round the bodies of girls at puberty, i. 92 _n._ 1\n\nCorea, custom observed after childbirth by women in, i. 20;\n  use of torches to ensure good crops in, 340\n\nCormac, on Beltane fires, i. 157\n\nCor-mass, procession of wicker giants at Dunkirk, ii. 34\n\nCorn, charm to make the corn grow tall, i. 18;\n  thrown on the man who brings in the Yule log, 260, 262, 264;\n  blazing besoms flung aloft to make the corn grow high, 340\n\n\u2014\u2014 -spirit in last standing corn, i. 12;\n  human representatives of, put to death, ii. 25;\n  in animal shape, 43\n\nCornel-tree wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 286\n\nCornwall, Snake Stones in, i. 15, 16 _n._ 1;\n  Midsummer fires in, 199 _sq._;\n  burnt sacrifices to stay cattle-disease in, 300 _sq._;\n  holed stone through which people used to creep in, ii. 187\n\nCorpse, priest of Earth forbidden to see a, i. 4\n\nCorpus Christi Day, processions on, i. 165\n\nCorr\u00e8ze and Creuse, departments of, St. John\u2019s fires in the, i. 190\n\nCorsica, Midsummer fires in, i. 209\n\nCos, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, i. 130;\n  Midsummer fires in, 212\n\nCosquin, E., on helpful animals and external souls in folk-tales, ii. 133\n            _n._ 1\n\n_Cosse de Nau_, the Yule log, i. 251\n\nCosta Rica, Indians of, their customs in fasts, i. 20;\n  ceremonial uncleanness among the, 65 _n._ 1;\n  the Bri-bri Indians of, 86;\n  the Guatusos of, ii. 230 _n._\n\nCoudreau, H., quoted, i. 63 _sq._\n\nCoulommiers, in France, notion as to mistletoe at, ii. 316 _n._ 1\n\nCounter-charm for witchcraft, \u201cscoring above the breath,\u201d i. 316 _n._ 2\n\nCouples married within the year obliged to dance by torchlight, i. 115,\n            339\n\nCoventry, Midsummer giants at, ii. 37\n\nCows, witches steal milk from, i. 343;\n  mistletoe given to, ii. 86;\n  milked through a hole in a branch or a \u201cwitch\u2019s nest,\u201d 185\n\nCrackers burnt to frighten ghosts, ii. 17, 18\n\nCracow, Midsummer fires in the district of, i. 175\n\nCream, ceremony for thickening, i. 262\n\nCreek Indians, their dread of menstruous women, i. 88\n\nCreeping through a tunnel as a remedy for an epidemic, i. 283 _sq._;\n  through cleft trees as cure for various maladies, ii. 170 _sqq._;\n  through narrow openings in order to escape ghostly pursuers, 177 _sqq._\n\nCreuse and Corr\u00e8ze, departments of, St. John\u2019s fires in the, i. 190\n\nCriminals shorn to make them confess, ii. 158 _sq._\n\nCroatia, Midsummer fires in, i. 178\n\nCroats of Istria, their belief as to the activity of witches on Midsummer\n            Eve, ii. 75\n\nCrocodile, a Batta totem, ii. 223\n\nCrocodiles, fat of, i. 14;\n  lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. 201, 202, 206, 209;\n  external human souls in, 207, 209\n\nCronus, cakes offered to, i. 153 _n._ 3\n\nCrops supposed to be spoiled by menstruous women, i. 79, 96;\n  leaping over bonfires to ensure good, 107;\n  Midsummer fires thought to ensure good, 188, 336;\n  torches swung by eunuchs to ensure good, 340;\n  bull-roarers sounded to promote the growth of the, ii. 232\n\nCross River natives, their lives bound up with those of certain animals,\n            ii. 202 _sq._, 204\n\n\u2014\u2014 -roads, ceremonies at, i. 24;\n  witches at, 160 _n._ 1;\n  Midsummer fires lighted at, 172, 191;\n  divination at, 229;\n  bewitched things burnt at, 322\n\nCrosses chalked up to protect houses and cattle-stalls against witches, i.\n            160 _n._ 1, ii. 74\n\nCrow, hooded, sacrifice to, i. 152\n\n_Crowdie_, a dish of milk and meal, i. 237\n\nCrown or garland of flowers in Midsummer bonfire, i. 184, 185, 188, 192;\n  of Roses, festival of the, 195.\n  _See also_ Flowers\n\nCruachan, the herdsman or king of, Argyleshire story of, ii. 127 _sqq._;\n  in Connaught, the cave of, i. 226\n\n_Cryptocerus atratus_, F., stinging ants, i. 62\n\nCuissard, Ch., on Midsummer fires, i. 182 _sq._\n\nCumae, the Sibyl at, i. 99\n\nCumanus, inquisitor, ii. 158\n\nCumberland, Midsummer fires in, i. 197\n\nCups, special, used by girls at puberty, i. 50, 53\n\nCurative powers ascribed to persons born feet foremost, i. 295\n\nCures, popular, prescribed by Marcellus of Bordeaux, i. 17\n\nCursing a mist in Switzerland, i. 280\n\nCuzco, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 132\n\nCycle of thirty years (Druidical), ii. 77\n\nCycles of sixty years (Boeotian, Indian, and Tibetan), ii. 77 _n._ 1\n\nCythnos, Greek island, sickly children pushed through a hole in a rock in,\n            ii. 189\n\nCzechs cull simples at Midsummer, ii. 49\n\nDacotas or Sioux, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. 268\n            _sq._\n\nDaedala, Boeotian festival of the Great, ii. 77 _n._ 1\n\nDairy, mistletoe used to make the dairy thrive, ii. 86\n\nDaizan, king of Atrae, i. 83\n\nDalhousie Castle, the Edgewell Tree at, ii. 166\n\nDalmatia, the Yule log in, i. 263\n\nDalyell, J. G., on Beltane, i. 149 _n._ 1\n\nDamun, in German New Guinea, ceremony of initiation at, ii. 193\n\nDanae, the story of, i. 73 _sq._\n\nDance at Sipi in Northern India, i. 12;\n  of young women at puberty, ii. 183;\n  in the grave at initiation, 237;\n  in honour of the big or grey wolf, 276 _n._ 2\n\nDances of fasting men and women at festival, i. 8 _sq._;\n  of Duk-duk society, 11;\n  of girls at puberty, 28, 29, 30, 37, 42, 50, 58, 59;\n  round bonfires, 108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 116, 120, 131, 142, 145, 148,\n              153 _sq._, 159, 166, 172, 173, 175, 178, 182, 183, 185, 187,\n              188, 189, 191, 193, 194, 195, 198, 246, ii. 2, 39;\n  masked, bull-roarers used at, 230 _n._;\n  of novices at initiation, 258, 259\n\nDancing with the fairies at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 227\n\nDandelions gathered at Midsummer, ii. 49\n\nDanger apprehended from the sexual relation, ii. 277 _sq._\n\nDangers thought to attend women at menstruation, i. 94\n\nDanish stories of the external soul, ii. 120 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 story of a girl who was forbidden to see the sun, i. 70 _sqq._\n\n_Danserosse_ or _danseresse_, a stone, i. 110\n\nDanube, worship of Grannus on the, i. 112\n\nDanzig, the immortal lady of, i. 100\n\n_Daphne gnidium_ gathered at Midsummer, ii. 51\n\nDapper, O., on ritual of death and resurrection at initiation in the\n            Belli-Paaro society, ii. 257 _sqq._\n\nDaramulun, a mythical being who instituted and superintends the initiation\n            of lads in Australia, ii. 228, 233, 237;\n  his voice heard in the sound of the bull-roarer, 228.\n  _See also_ Thrumalun and Thuremlin\n\n\u201cDarding Knife,\u201d pretence of death and resurrection at initiation to the,\n            ii. 274 _sq._\n\nDarling River, the Ualaroi of the, ii. 233\n\nDarma Rajah, Hindoo god, ii. 6\n\nDarowen, in Wales, Midsummer fires at, i. 201\n\nDarwin, Charles, on the cooling of the sun, ii. 307\n\nDarwin, Sir Francis, on the Golden Bough, ii. 318, 319 _n._ 3\n\nDashers of churns, witches ride on, ii. 73 _sq._\n\nDate of Chinese festival changed, i. 137\n\nDathi, king of Ireland, and his Druid, i. 228 _sq._\n\nDavies, J. Ceredig, as to witches in Wales, i. 321 _n._ 2\n\nDawn of the Day, prayers to the, i. 50 _sq._, 53;\n  prayer of adolescent girl to the, 98 _n._ 1\n\nDawson, James, on sex totems in Victoria, ii. 216\n\nDead, festival of the, i. 223 _sq._, 225 _sq._;\n  souls of the, sit round the Midsummer fire, 183, 184;\n  sacrifice of reindeer to the, ii. 178;\n  incarnate in serpents, 211 _sq._;\n  bull-roarers sounded at festivals of the, 230 _n._;\n  first-fruits offered to the souls of the, 243\n\n\u201cDeath, carrying out,\u201d i. 119;\n  \u201cthe burying of,\u201d 119;\n  effigies of, burnt in spring fires, ii. 21 _sq._;\n  omens of, 54, 64;\n  customs observed by mourners after a death in order to escape from the\n              ghost, 174 _sqq._;\n  identified with the sun, 174 _n._ 1\n\nDeath and resurrection, ritual of, ii. 225 _sqq._;\n  in Australia, 227 _sqq._;\n  in New Guinea, 239 _sqq._;\n  in Fiji, 243 _sqq._;\n  in Rook, 246;\n  in New Britain, 246 _sq._;\n  in Ceram, 249 _sqq._;\n  in Africa, 251 _sqq._;\n  in North America, 266 _sqq._;\n  traces of it elsewhere, 276 _sq._\n\n_Debregeasia velutina_, used to kindle fire by friction, ii. 8\n\nDecember, the last day of, Hogmanay, i. 266;\n  the twenty-first, St. Thomas\u2019s Day, 266\n\nDecle, L., quoted, i. 4 _n._ 1\n\nDee, holed stone used by childless women in the Aberdeenshire, ii. 187\n\nDeer and the family of Lachlin, superstition concerning, ii. 284\n\nDeffingin, in Swabia, Midsummer bonfires at, i. 166 _sq._\n\nDehon, P., on witches as cats among the Oraons, ii. 312\n\n_Deiseal_, _deisheal_, _dessil_, the right-hand turn, in the Highlands of\n            Scotland, i. 150 _n._ 1, 154\n\nDelagoa Bay, the Thonga of, i. 29\n\nDelaware Indians, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 54\n\nDelivery, charms to ensure women an easy, i. 49, 50 _sq._, 52;\n  women creep through a rifted rock to obtain an easy, ii. 189\n\nDelmenhorst, in Oldenburg, Easter fires at, i. 142\n\nDelos, new fire brought from, i. 136\n\nDelphi, perpetual fire at, ii. 91 _n._ 7;\n  the picture of Orpheus at, 294;\n  Stheni, near, 317\n\nDemeter, the torches of, i. 340 _n._ 1;\n  serpents in the worship of, ii. 44 _n._\n\nDemnat, in the Atlas, New Year rites at, i. 217, 218\n\nDemon supposed to attack girls at puberty, i. 67 _sq._;\n  festival of fire instituted to ban a, ii. 3\n\nDemons attack women at puberty and childbirth, i. 24 _n._ 2;\n  expelled at the New Year, 134 _sq._;\n  abroad on Midsummer Eve, 172;\n  ashes of holy fires a protection against, ii. 8, 17;\n  vervain a protection against, 62;\n  guard treasures, 65.\n  _See also_ Evil Spirits\n\nD\u00e9n\u00e9 or Tinneh Indians, their dread and seclusion of menstruous women, i.\n            91 _sqq._;\n  the Western, tattooing among the, 98 _n._ 1\n  _See also_ Tinneh\n\n_Denham Tracts_, on need-fire in Yorkshire, i. 287 _sq._\n\nDenmark, fires on St. John\u2019s Eve in, i. 171;\n  passing sick children through a hole in the ground in, 190, 191;\n  children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture or rickets in,\n              ii. 170, 172\n\n_Dessil._ _See_ _Deiseal_\n\nDeux-S\u00e8vres, department of, Midsummer fires in the, i. 191;\n  fires on All Saints\u2019 Day in the, 245 _sq._\n\nDevil, the, seen on Midsummer Eve, i. 208\n\nDevil\u2019s bit, St. John\u2019s wort, ii. 55 _n._ 2\n\nDevils, ghosts, and hobgoblins abroad on Midsummer Eve, i. 202\n\nDevonshire, need-fire in, i. 288;\n  animals burnt alive as a sacrifice in, 302;\n  belief in witchcraft in, 302;\n  crawling under a bramble as a cure for whooping-cough in, ii. 180\n\nDew, rolling in the, at Midsummer, i. 208, with _n._ 1;\n  at Midsummer a protection against witchcraft, ii. 74\n\nDiana and Juno, ii. 302 _n._ 2\n\nDiana, priest of, at Nemi, ii. 315\n\nDiana\u2019s Mirror, the Lake of Nemi, ii. 303\n\nDieri of Central Australia, their dread of women at menstruation, i. 77;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 229 _sq._, 232;\n  bleed themselves to make rain, 232\n\nDijon, Lenten fires at, i, 114\n\nDingle, church of St. Brandon near, ii. 190\n\nDiodorus Siculus, on the human sacrifices of the Celts, ii. 32\n\nDioscorides on mistletoe, ii. 318 _n._ 1\n\nDipping for apples at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 237, 239, 241, 242, 245\n\nDiscs, burning, thrown into the air, i. 116 _sq._, 119, 143, 165, 166, 168\n            _sq._, 172, 328, 334;\n  burning, perhaps directed at witches, 345\n\nDisease, walking through fire as a remedy for, ii. 7;\n  conceived as something physical that can be stripped off the patient and\n              left behind, 172\n\nDiseases of cattle ascribed to witchcraft, i. 343\n\nDish, external soul of warlock in a, ii. 141\n\nDishes, special, used by girls at puberty, i. 47, 49\n\nDislocation, Roman cure for, ii. 177\n\nDivination on St. John\u2019s Night (Midsummer Eve), i. 173, ii. 46 _n._ 3, 50,\n            52 _sqq._, 61, 64, 67 _sqq._;\n  at Midsummer in Spain and the Azores, i. 208 _sq._;\n  at Hallowe\u2019en, 225, 228 _sqq._;\n  by stones at Hallowe\u2019en fires, 230 _sq._, 239, 240;\n  by stolen kail, 234 _sq._, 241;\n  by clue of yarn, 235, 240, 241, 243;\n  by hemp seed, 235, 241, 245;\n  by winnowing-basket, 236;\n  by thrown shoe, 236;\n  by wet shirt, 236, 241;\n  by white of eggs, 236 _sq._, 238;\n  by apples in water, 237;\n  by a ring, 237;\n  by names on chimney-piece, 237;\n  by three plates or basins, 237 _sq._, 240, 244;\n  by nuts in fire, 237, 239, 241, 242, 245;\n  by salt cake, or salt herring, 238 _sq._;\n  by the sliced apple, 238;\n  by eavesdropping, 238, 243, 244;\n  by knife, 241;\n  by briar-thorn, 242;\n  by melted lead, 242;\n  by cabbages, 242;\n  by cake at Hallowe\u2019en, 242, 243;\n  by ashes, 243, 244, 245;\n  by salt, 244;\n  by raking a rick, 247;\n  magic dwindles into, 336.\n  _See also_ Divining-rod\n\nDivine personages not allowed to touch the ground with their feet, i. 2\n            _sqq._;\n  not allowed to see the sun, 18 _sqq._;\n  suspended for safety between heaven and earth, 98 _sq._\n\nDivining-rod cut on Midsummer Eve, ii. 67 _sqq._;\n  made of hazel, 67 _sq._, 291 _n._ 3;\n  made of mistletoe in Sweden, 69, 291;\n  made of four sorts of wood, 69;\n  made of willow, 69 _n._;\n  made out of a parasitic rowan, 281 _sq._\n\nDivisibility of life, doctrine of the, ii. 221\n\nDobischwald, in Silesia, need-fire at, i. 278\n\nDodona, Zeus and his sacred oak at, ii. 49 _sq._\n\nDog not allowed to enter priest\u2019s house, i. 4;\n  beaten to ensure woman\u2019s fertility, 69;\n  charm against the bite of a mad, ii. 56;\n  a Batta totem, 223\n\n\u2014\u2014 Star, or Sirius, supposed by the ancients to cause the heat of summer,\n            i. 332\n\nDolac, need-fire at, i. 286\n\nDolmen, sick children passed through a hole in a, ii. 188\n\nDommartin, Lenten fires at, i. 109\n\nDoor, separate, for girls at puberty, i. 43, 44\n\nDoorie, hill of, at Burghead, i. 267\n\nDoors, separate, used by menstruous women, i. 84\n\nDoorway, creeping through narrow opening in, as a cure, ii. 181 _sq._\n\nDosadhs, an Indian caste, the fire-walk among the, ii. 5\n\nDosuma, king of, not allowed to touch the ground, i. 3\n\nDouay, procession of the giants at, ii. 33 _sq._\n\nDouble-axe, Midsummer king of the, i. 194\n\nDourgne, in Southern France, crawling through holed stones near, ii. 187\n            _sq._\n\nDove, the ceremony of the fiery, at Easter in Florence, i. 126;\n  a Batta totem, ii. 223\n\nDoves, external soul of magicians in, ii. 104;\n  Aeneas led by doves to the Golden Bough, 285, 316 _n._ 1\n\nDragon at Midsummer, effigy of, ii. 37;\n  external soul of a queen in a, 105;\n  of the water-mill, Servian story of the, 111 _sqq._\n\nDragons driven away by smoke of Midsummer bonfires, i. 161;\n  St. Peter\u2019s fires lighted to drive away, 195\n\nDraguignan, in the department of Var, Midsummer fires at, i. 193\n\nDraupadi, the heroine of the _Mahabharata_, ii. 7\n\nDread and seclusion of menstruous women, i. 76 _sqq._;\n  dread of witchcraft in Europe, 342\n\nDream, guardian spirit or animal acquired in a, ii. 256 _sq._\n\nDreaming on flowers on Midsummer Eve, i. 175\n\nDreams, oracular, i. 238, 242;\n  of love on Midsummer Eve, ii. 52, 54;\n  prophetic, on the bloom of the oak, 292;\n  prophetic, on mistletoe, 293\n\nDriving away the witches on Walpurgis Night, i. 160;\n  at Midsummer, 170, 171\n\nDrobede (Draupadi), the heroine of the epic _Mahabharata_, ii. 7\n\nDr\u00f6mling district, in Hanover, need-fire in, i. 277\n\nDrought attributed to misconduct of young girls, i. 31\n\nDruid, etymology of the word, i. 76 _n._ 1\n\nDruidical custom of burning live animals, ii. 38;\n  the animals perhaps deemed embodiments of witches, 41 _sq._, 43 _sq._;\n  festivals, so-called, of the Scotch Highlanders, i. 147, 206\n\n\u2014\u2014 sacrifices, W. Mannhardt\u2019s theory of the, ii. 43\n\nDruidism, so-called, remains of, i. 233, 241;\n  and the Christian Church in relation to witchcraft, ii. 42\n\nDruid\u2019s Glass, the, i. 16; prediction, the, 229\n\nDruids\u2019 Hill, the, i. 229\n\nDruids, their superstition as to \u201cserpents\u2019 eggs,\u201d i. 15;\n  their human sacrifices, ii. 32 _sq._;\n  in relation to the Midsummer festival, 33 _sqq._, 45;\n  their worship of the mistletoe and the oak, 76 _sq._, 301;\n  their cycle of thirty years, 77;\n  catch the mistletoe in a white cloth, 293\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Ireland, i. 157\n\nDrynemetum, \u201cthe temple of the oak,\u201d ii. 89\n\nDuck baked alive as a sacrifice in Suffolk, i. 304\n\nDuck\u2019s egg, external soul in a, ii. 109 _sq._, 115 _sq._, 116, 119 _sq._,\n            120, 126, 130, 132\n\nDuk-duk, secret society of New Britain, i. 11, ii. 246 _sq._\n\nDuke of York Island, ii. 199 _n._ 2;\n  Duk-duk society in, 247;\n  exogamous classes in, 248 _n._\n\nDuke Town, on the Calabar River, ii. 209\n\nDukkala, New Year customs in, i. 218\n\nDumbartonshire, Hallowe\u2019en in, i. 237 _n._ 5\n\nDunbeath, in Caithness, i. 291\n\nDunkeld, i. 232\n\nDunkirk, procession of giants on Midsummer Day at, ii. 34 _sq._\n\nDurandus, G. (W. Durantis), his _Rationale Divinorum Officiorum_, i. 161\n\nDurham, Easter candle in the cathedral of, i. 122 _n._\n\nDurris, parish of, Kincardineshire, Midsummer fires in the, i. 206 _sq._\n\nDusk of the Evening, prayers to the, i. 53\n\nD\u00fcsseldorf, Shrove Tuesday custom in the district of, i. 120\n\nDutch names for mistletoe, ii. 319 _n._ 1\n\nDwarf-elder at Midsummer detects witchcraft, ii. 64\n\nDyaks of Borneo, trees and plants as life indices among the, ii. 164\n            _sq._;\n  their doctrine of the plurality of souls, 222;\n  of Landak and Tajan, marriage custom of the, i. 5;\n  birth-trees among the, ii. 164;\n  of Pinoeh, their custom at a birth, ii. 154 _sq._\n\nEagle, sacrifice to, i. 152\n\n\u2014\u2014 bone, used to drink out of, i. 45\n\n\u2014\u2014 clan, ii. 271, 272 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 -hawk, external soul of medicine-man in, ii. 199\n\n\u2014\u2014 -spirits and buried treasures, i. 218\n\nEarth, taboos observed by the priest of, in Southern Nigeria, i. 4;\n  prayers to, 50;\n  and heaven, between, 1 _sqq._\n\nEaster, fern-seed blooms at, ii. 292 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 candle, i. 121, 122, 125\n\n\u2014\u2014 ceremonies in the New World, i. 127 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 eggs, i. 108, 143, 144\n\n\u2014\u2014 Eve, new fire on, i. 121, 124, 126, 158;\n  the fern blooms at, ii. 66\n\n\u2014\u2014 fires, i. 120 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 Man, burning the, i. 144\n\n\u2014\u2014 Monday, fire-custom on, i. 143\n\n\u2014\u2014 Mountains, bonfires on, i. 140, 141\n\n\u2014\u2014 Saturday, new fire on, i. 121, 122, 124, 127, 128, 130;\n  the divining-rod baptized on, ii. 69\n\n\u2014\u2014 Sunday, red eggs on, i. 122\n\nEavesdropping, divination by, i. 238, 243, 244\n\nEchternach in Luxemburg, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 116\n\nEclipses attributed to monster biting the sun or moon, i. 70;\n  air thought to be poisoned at, 162 _n._;\n  thought to be caused by a monster attacking the luminary, 162 _n._\n\n_Edda_, the prose, story of Balder in, i. 101;\n  the poetic, story of Balder in, 102\n\nEddesse, in Hanover, need-fire at, i. 275 _sq._\n\nEdersleben, Midsummer fire-custom at, i. 169\n\nEdgewell Tree, oak at castle of Dalhousie, ii. 166, 284\n\nEffect, supposed, of killing a totem animal, ii. 220\n\nEffigies burnt in bonfires, i. 106, 107, 116, 118 _sq._, 119 _sq._, 121,\n            122, 159, 167;\n  of Judas burnt at Easter, 121, 127 _sq._, 130 _sq._;\n  burnt in the Midsummer fires, 172 _sq._, 195;\n  of witches burnt in the fires, 342, ii. 19, 43;\n  of human beings burnt in the fires, 21 _sqq._;\n  of giants burnt in the summer fires, 38\n\nEffigy of absent friend cut in a tree, ii. 159 _sq._\n\nEfik, a tribe of Calabar, their belief in external or bush souls, ii. 206\n\nEgede, Hans, on impregnation by the moon, i. 76\n\nEgg broken in water, divination by means of, i. 208 _sq._\n\nEggs, charm to ensure plenty of, i. 112, 338;\n  begged for at Midsummer, 169;\n  divination by white of, 236 _sq._, 238;\n  external souls of fairy beings in, ii. 106 _sqq._, 110, 125, 132 _sq._,\n              140 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, Easter, i. 108, 122, 143, 144\n\nEgypt, the Flight into, ii. 69 _n._;\n  deified kings of, their souls deposited during life in portrait statues,\n              157\n\nEgyptian, ancient, story of the external soul, ii. 134 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 doctrine of the _ka_ or external soul, ii. 157 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 tombs, plaques or palettes of schist in, ii. 155\n\nEgyptians, human sacrifices among the, ii. 286 _n._ 2\n\nEifel Mountains, Lenten fires in the, i. 115 _sq._, 336 _sq._;\n  Cobern in the, 120;\n  St. John\u2019s fires in the, 169;\n  the Yule log in the, 248;\n  Midsummer flowers in the, ii. 48\n\nEighty-one (nine times nine), men make need-fire, i. 289, 294, 295\n\nEket, in North Calabar, ii. 209\n\nEkoi, a tribe of Calabar, their belief in external or bush souls, ii. 206\n            _sqq._\n\n_Elangela_, external soul in Fan language, ii. 201, 226 _n._ 1\n\nElbe, the river, dangerous on Midsummer Day, ii. 26\n\nElder-flowers gathered at Midsummer, ii. 64\n\nElecampane in a popular remedy, i. 17\n\nElectric conductivity of various kinds of wood, ii. 299 _n._ 2\n\nElephant hunters, custom of, i. 5\n\nElephants, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. 202, 203;\n  external human souls in, 207\n\nElgin, medical use of mistletoe in, ii. 84\n\nElk clan of the Omaha Indians, i. 11\n\nElm wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 299\n\nEmbers of bonfires planted in fields, i. 117, 121;\n  stuck in cabbage gardens, 174, 175;\n  promote growth of crops, 337.\n  _See also_ Ashes _and_ Sticks, charred\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Midsummer fires a protection against conflagration, i. 188;\n  a protection against lightning, 190\n\nEmily plain of Central Australia, ii. 238\n\nEmmenthal, in Switzerland, superstition as to Midsummer Day in the, ii.\n            27;\n  use of orpine at Midsummer in the, 62 _n._\n\nEmu fat not allowed to touch the ground, i. 13\n\n\u2014\u2014 -wren, called men\u2019s \u201cbrother\u201d among the Kurnai, ii. 215 _n._ 1, 216,\n            218\n\nEncounter Bay tribe in South Australia, their dread of women at\n            menstruation, i. 76\n\nEnergy, sanctity and uncleanness, different forms of the same mysterious,\n            i. 97 _sq._\n\nEngland, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96 _n._ 1;\n  Midsummer fires in, 196 _sqq._;\n  the Yule log in, 255 _sqq._;\n  the need-fire in, 286 _sqq._;\n  Midsummer giants in, ii. 36 _sqq._;\n  divination by orpine at Midsummer in, 61;\n  fern-seed at Midsummer in, 65;\n  the north of, mistletoe used to make the dairy thrive in, 85 _sq._;\n  birth-trees in, 165;\n  children passed through cleft ash-trees as a cure for rupture or rickets\n              in, 168 _sqq._;\n  oak-mistletoe in, 316\n\nEnglish cure for whooping-cough, rheumatism, and boils, ii. 180\n\nEnsival, bonfires at, i. 108\n\nEntrails, external soul in, ii. 146 _sq._, 152\n\n_Epic of Kings_, Firdusi\u2019s, i. 104\n\nEpidemic, creeping through a tunnel as a remedy for an, i. 283 _sq._\n\nEpilepsy, yellow mullein a protection against, ii. 63;\n  mistletoe a cure for, 78, 83, 84\n\n\u00c9pinal, Lenten fires at, i. 109\n\nEriskay, fairies at Hallowe\u2019en in, i. 226;\n  salt cake at Hallowe\u2019en in, 238 _sq._\n\nErrol, the Hays of, their fate bound up with oak-mistletoe, ii. 283 _sq._\n\n_Escouvion_ or _Scouvion_, the Great and the Little, i. 108\n\nEsquimaux, their superstition as to various meats, i. 13 _sq._;\n  seclusion of girls at puberty among the, 55;\n  ceremony of the new fire among the, 134;\n  their custom at eclipses, 162 _n._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Alaska, child\u2019s soul deposited in a bag among the, ii. 155\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Bering Strait, their belief as to menstruous women, i. 91\n\nEsthonia, bathing at Midsummer in, ii. 29;\n  flowers gathered for divination and magic at Midsummer in, 53 _sq._\n\nEsthonians, Midsummer fires among the, i. 179 _sq._;\n  of Oesel cull St. John\u2019s herbs on St. John\u2019s Day, ii. 49\n\nEteobutads as umbrella-bearers at the festival of Scira, i. 20 _n._ 1\n\nEton, Midsummer fires at, i. 197\n\nEunuchs perform a ceremony for the fertility of the fields, i. 340\n\n_Euphorbia lathyris_, caper-spurge, ii. 69\n\nEuripides, his play on Meleager, ii. 103 _n._ 2\n\nEurope, superstitions as to menstruous women in, i. 96 _sq._;\n  the fire-festivals of, 106 _sqq._;\n  great dread of witchcraft in, 342;\n  birth-trees in, ii. 165;\n  belief in, that strength of witches and wizards is in their hair, 158\n\nEurydice, Orpheus and, ii. 294\n\nEve of Samhain (Hallowe\u2019en) in Ireland, i. 139\n\nEverek (Caesarea), in Asia Minor, creeping through a rifted rock at, ii.\n            189\n\nEvil eye, protection against, i. 17\n\n\u2014\u2014 spirit, mode of cure for possession by an, ii. 186\n\nEvil spirits driven away at the New Year, i. 134 _sq._;\n  kept off by fire, 282, 285 _sq._;\n  St. John\u2019s herbs a protection against, ii. 49;\n  kept off by flowers gathered at Midsummer, 53 _sq._;\n  creeping through cleft trees to escape the pursuit of, 173 _sqq._\n  _See also_ Demons\n\nEwe negroes, their dread of menstruous women, i. 82\n\nExogamous classes in Duke of York island, ii. 248 _n._\n\nExorcizing vermin with torches, i. 340\n\nExorcism of evil spirits, i. 5;\n  and ordeals, 66;\n  at Easter, 123;\n  use of St. John\u2019s wort in, ii. 55;\n  use of mugwort in, 60;\n  by vervain, 62 _n._ 4\n\nExpulsion of demons, annual, i. 135\n\nExternal soul in folk-tales, ii. 95 _sqq._;\n  in folk-custom, 153 _sqq._;\n  in inanimate things, 153 _sqq._;\n  in plants, 159 _sqq._;\n  in animals, 196 _sqq._;\n  kept in totem, 220 _sqq._\n  _See also_ Souls, External\n\nExtinction of common fires before the kindling of the need-fire, i. 271,\n            272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277 _sq._, 279, 283, 285, 288, 289,\n            289 _sq._, 291, 291 _sq._, 292, 294, 297, 298 _sq._;\n  ceremonial, of fires, ii. 297 _sq._\n\nEye, the evil, cast on cattle, i. 302, 303;\n  oleander a protection against the, ii. 51\n\nEyes, looking through flowers at the Midsummer fire, thought to be good\n            for the, i. 162, 163, 165 _sq._, 171, 174 _sq._, 344;\n  ashes or smoke of Midsummer fire supposed to benefit the, 214 _sq._;\n  sore, attributed to witchcraft, 344;\n  mugwort a protection against sore, ii. 59;\n  of newly initiated lads closed, 241\n\nEyre, E. J., on menstruous women in Australia, i. 77\n\n\u201cFaery dairts\u201d thought to kill cattle, i. 303\n\n_Failles_, bonfires, i. 111 _n._ 1\n\nFair, great, at Uisnech in County Meath, i. 158\n\nFairies let loose at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 224 _sqq._;\n  carry off men\u2019s wives, 227;\n  at Hallowe\u2019en, dancing with the, 227;\n  thought to kill cattle by their darts, 303;\n  active on Hallowe\u2019en and May Day, ii. 184 _n._ 4, 185\n\nFairy changelings, i. 151 _n._;\n  mistletoe a protection against, ii. 283\n\nFalcon stone, at Errol, in Perthshire, ii. 283\n\nFalkenstein chapel of St. Wolfgang, creeping through a rifted rock near\n            the, ii. 189\n\nFalling sickness, mistletoe a remedy for, ii. 83, 84\n\nFamenne in Namur, Lenten fires in, i. 108\n\nFamiliar spirits of wizards in boars, ii. 196 _sq._\n\nFans of the French Congo, birth-trees among the, ii. 161\n\n\u2014\u2014 of the Gaboon, their theory of the external soul, ii. 200 _sqq._, 226\n            _n._ 1;\n  guardian spirits acquired in dreams among the, 257\n\n\u2014\u2014 of West Africa, custom at end of mourning among the, ii. 18\n\nFast at puberty, ii. 222 _n._ 5\n\nFasting of girls at puberty, i. 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 66;\n  of women at menstruation, 93, 94;\n  as preparation for gathering magical plants, ii. 45, 55 _n._ 1, 58\n\n\u2014\u2014 men and women at a dancing festival, i. 8 _sqq._\n\nFasts imposed on heirs to thrones in South America, i. 19;\n  rules observed in, 20\n\nFat of emu not allowed to touch the ground, i. 13;\n  of crocodiles and snakes as unguent, 14\n\nFattening-house for girls in Calabar, ii. 259\n\nFeast of Florus and Lauras on August 18th, i. 220;\n  of the Nativity of the Virgin, 220 _sq._;\n  of All Souls, 223 _sq._, 225 _n._ 3\n\n_Fechenots_, _fechenottes_, Valentines, i. 110\n\nFeet foremost, children born, curative power attributed to, i. 295\n\nFen-hall, i. 102\n\nFerintosh district, in Scotland, i. 227\n\nFern in a popular remedy, i. 17;\n  the male (_Aspidium filix mas_), superstitions as 10, ii. 66 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 owl or goatsucker, sex totem of women, ii. 217\n\n\u2014\u2014 -seed gathered on Midsummer Eve, magical properties ascribed to, ii. 65\n            _sqq._;\n  blooms on Midsummer Eve, 287;\n  blooms on Christmas Night, 288 _sq._;\n  reveals treasures in the earth, 287 _sqq._;\n  brought by Satan on Christmas night, 289;\n  gathered at the solstices, Midsummer Eve and Christmas, 290 _sq._;\n  procured by shooting at the sun on Midsummer Day, 291;\n  blooms at Easter, 292 _n._ 2\n\nFeronia, Italian goddess, ii. 14\n\nFerrara, synod of, denounces practice of gathering fern-seed, ii. 66 _n._\n\nFertility of women, magical ceremony to ensure, i. 23 _sq._, 31;\n  of fields, processions with lighted torches to ensure the, 233 _sq._;\n  of the land supposed to depend on the number of human beings sacrificed,\n              ii. 32, 33, 42 _sq._\n\nFertilization of mango trees, ceremony for the, i. 10\n\nFertilizing fields with ashes of Midsummer fires, i. 170\n\nFestival of the cold food in China, i. 137;\n  Chinese, shifted in the calendar, 137;\n  of the Cross on August 1st, 220;\n  of the Dead, 223 _sq._, 225 _sq._\n\nFetish, the great, in West Africa, ii. 256\n\nFever, leaping over the Midsummer bonfires as a preventive of, i. 166,\n            173, 194;\n  Midsummer fires a protection against, 190;\n  need-fire kindled to prevent, 297;\n  cure for, in India, ii. 190\n\n_Fey_, devoted, i. 231\n\nFez, Midsummer custom at, i. 216, ii. 31\n\nField-mice, burning torches as a protection against, i. 114, 115\n\n\u2014\u2014 and moles driven away by torches, ii. 340\n\nFields, cultivated, menstruous women not allowed to enter, i. 79;\n  protected against insects by menstruous women, 98 _n._ 1;\n  processions with torches through, 107 _sq._, 110 _sqq._, 113 _sqq._,\n              179, 339 _sq._;\n  protected against witches, 121;\n  made fruitful by bonfires, 140;\n  fertilized by ashes of Midsummer fires, 170;\n  fertilized by burning wheel rolled over them, 191, 340 _sq._;\n  protected against hail by bonfires, 344\n\nFig-trees, charm to benefit, i. 18; sacred among the Fans, ii. 161\n\nFights between men and women about their sex totems, ii. 215, 217\n\n_Figo_, bonfire, i. 111\n\nFiji, brides tattooed in, i. 34 _n._ 1;\n  the fire-walk in, ii. 10 _sq._;\n  birth-trees in, 163;\n  the drama of death and resurrection exhibited to novices at initiation\n              in, 243 _sqq._\n\nFiley, in Yorkshire, the Yule log and candle at, i. 256\n\nFinchra, mountain in Rum, ii. 284\n\nFingan Eve in the Isle of Man, i. 266\n\nFinist\u00e8re, bonfires on St. John\u2019s Day in, i. 183\n\nFinland, Midsummer fires in, i. 180 _sq._;\n  fir-tree as life-index in, ii. 165 _sq._\n\nFinsch Harbour in German New Guinea, ii. 239\n\nFir-branches, prayers to, i. 51;\n  at Midsummer, 177;\n  Midsummer mummers clad in, ii. 25 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -cones, seeds of, gathered on St. John\u2019s Day, ii. 64\n\n\u2014\u2014 -tree as life-index, ii. 165 _sq._;\n  mistletoe on fir-trees, 315, 316\n\n\u2014\u2014 -wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 278, 282\n\n\u2014\u2014 or beech used to make the Yule log, i. 249\n\nFirdusi\u2019s _Epic of Kings_, i. 104\n\nFire, girls at puberty forbidden to see or go near, i. 29, 45, 46;\n  menstruous women not allowed to touch or see, 84, 85;\n  extinguished at menstruation, 87;\n  in fire-festivals, different possible explanations of its use, 112\n              _sq._;\n  made by flints or by flint and steel, 121, 124, 126, 127, 145, 146, 159;\n  made by a burning-glass, 121, 127;\n  made by a metal mirror, 132, 137, 138 _n._ 5;\n  made by the friction of wood, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 144 _sq._,\n              148, 155, 169 _sq._, 175, 177, 179, 220, 264, 270 _sqq._,\n              335 _sq._, ii. 8, 90, 295;\n  not to be blown up with breath, i. 133;\n  year called a fire, 137;\n  thought to grow weak with age, 137;\n  pretence of throwing a man into, 148, 186, ii. 25;\n  carried round houses, corn, cattle, and women after child-bearing, 151\n              _n._;\n  used to drive away witches and demons at Midsummer, 170;\n  as a protection against evil spirits, 282, 285 _sq._;\n  made by means of a wheel, 335 _sq._, ii. 91;\n  as a destructive and purificatory agent, i. 341;\n  used as a charm to produce sunshine, 341 _sq._;\n  employed as a barrier against ghosts, ii. 17 _sqq._;\n  as a purificatory agency, 19;\n  used to burn or ban witches, 19 _sq._;\n  extinguished by mistletoe, 78, 84 _sq._, 293;\n  of oak-wood used to detect a murderer, 92 _n._ 4;\n  life of man bound up with a, 157;\n  perpetual, of oak-wood, 285 _sq._;\n  conceived by savages as a property stored like sap in trees, 295;\n  primitive ideas as to the origin of, 295 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, living, made by friction of wood, i. 220\n\n\u2014\u2014, new, kindled on Easter Saturday, i. 121 _sqq._;\n  festivals of new, 131 _sqq._;\n  made by the friction of wood at Christmas, 264\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 of heaven,\u201d term applied to Midsummer bonfire, i. 334, 335\n\n\u2014\u2014 -drill used to kindle need-fire, i. 292\n\nFire-festivals of Europe, i. 106 _sqq._;\n  interpretation of the, 328 _sqq._, ii. 15 _sqq._;\n  at the solstices, i. 331 _sq._;\n  solar theory of the, 331 _sqq._;\n  purificatory theory of the, 341 _sqq._;\n  regarded as a protection against witchcraft, 342;\n  the purificatory theory of the, more probable than the solar theory,\n              346;\n  elsewhere than in Europe, ii. 1 _sqq._;\n  in India, 1 _sqq._, 5 _sqq._;\n  in China, 3 _sqq._;\n  in Japan, 9 _sq._;\n  in Fiji, 10 _sq._;\n  in Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands, and Trinidad, 11;\n  in Africa, 11 _sqq._;\n  in classical antiquity in Cappadocia and Italy, 14 _sq._;\n  their relation to Druidism, 33 _sqq._, 45\n\nFire-god, Armenian, i. 131 _n._ 3;\n  of the Iroquois, prayers to the, 299 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -walk, the, ii. 1 _sqq._;\n  a remedy for disease, 7;\n  the meaning of the, 15 _sqq._\n\nFirebrand, external soul of Meleager in a, ii. 103\n\nFirebrands, the Sunday of the, i. 110, 114\n\nFires extinguished as preliminary to obtaining new fire, i. 5;\n  annually extinguished and relit, 132 _sqq._;\n  to burn the witches on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night), 159 _sq._;\n  autumn, 220 _sqq._;\n  the need-fire, 269 _sqq._;\n  extinguished before the lighting of the need-fire, 270, 271, 272, 273,\n              274, 275, 276, 277 _sq._, 279, 283, 285, 288, 289 _sq._,\n              291, 291 _sq._, 292, 294, 297, 298 _sq._;\n  of the fire-festivals explained as sun-charms, 329, 331 _sqq._;\n  explained as purificatory, 329 _sq._, 341 _sqq._;\n  the burning of human beings in the, ii. 21 _sqq._;\n  perpetual, fed with oak-wood, 91;\n  with pinewood, 91 _n._ 7;\n  the solstitial, perhaps sun-charms, 292;\n  extinguished and relighted from a flame kindled by lightning, 297 _sq._\n  _See also_ Fire, Bonfires\n\n\u2014\u2014, the Beltane, i. 146 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, the Easter, i. 120 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, Hallowe\u2019en, i. 222 _sq._, 230 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, the Lenten, i. 106 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, Midsummer, i. 160 _sqq._;\n  a protection against witches, 180;\n  supposed to stop rain, 188, 336;\n  supposed to be a preventive of backache in reaping, 189, 344 _sq._;\n  a protection against fever, 190\n\n\u2014\u2014, Midwinter, i. 246 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of St. John in France, i. 183, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193\n\n\u2014\u2014 on the Eve of Twelfth Day, i. 107\n\nFirst-born lamb, wool of, used as cure for colic, i. 17\n\n\u2014\u2014 sons make need-fire, i. 294;\n  special magical virtue attributed to, 295\n\nFirst-fruits offered to the souls of the dead, ii. 243\n\nFish frightened or killed by proximity of menstruous women, i. 77, 93;\n  external soul in a, ii. 99 _sq._, 122 _sq._;\n  golden, external soul of girl in a, 147 _sq._;\n  lives of people bound up with, 200, 202, 204, 209\n\nFisheries supposed to be spoiled by menstruous women, i. 77, 78, 90 _sq._,\n            93\n\nFison, Rev. Lorimer, on Fijian religion, ii. 244 _n._ 1, 2, 3, 246 _n._ 1\n\nFittleworth, in Sussex, cleft ash-trees used for the cure of rupture at,\n            ii. 169 _sq._\n\nFlames of bonfires, omens drawn from, i. 159, 165, 336\n\nFlanders, Midsummer fires in, i. 194;\n  the Yule log in, 249;\n  wicker giants in, ii. 35\n\nFlax, leaping over bonfires to make the flax grow tall, i. 119;\n  charms to make flax grow tall, 165, 166, 173, 174, 176, 180\n\n\u2014\u2014 crop, omens of the, drawn from Midsummer bonfires, i. 165\n\n\u2014\u2014 seed sown in direction of flames of bonfire, i. 140, 337\n\nFleabane as a cure for headache, i. 17\n\nFleas, leaping over Midsummer fires to get rid of, i. 211, 212, 217\n\nFlight into Egypt, the, ii. 69 _n._\n\nFlints, fire kindled by, i. 121, 124, 126, 127, 145, 146, 159\n\nFloor, sitting on the, at Christmas, i. 261\n\nFlorence, ceremony of the new fire at Easter in, i. 126 _sq._\n\nFlorus and Laurus, feast of, on August 18th, i. 220\n\nFlowers thrown on bonfire, ii. 8;\n  external souls in, 117 _sq._\n  _See also_ Crown\n\n\u2014\u2014 and herbs cast into the Midsummer bonfires, i. 162, 163, 172, 173\n\n\u2014\u2014 at Midsummer thrown on roofs as a protection against lightning, i. 169;\n  festival of, 177 _sq._;\n  as talismans, 183;\n  in fires, 184, 188, 190;\n  wreaths of, hung over doors and windows, 201;\n  placed on mouths of wells, ii. 28;\n  divination from, 50\n\n\u2014\u2014 on Midsummer Eve, blessed by St. John, i. 171;\n  the magic flowers of Midsummer Eve, ii. 45 _sqq._;\n  used in divination, 52 _sq._;\n  used to dream upon, 52, 54\n\nFlutes, sacred, played at initiation, ii. 241\n\nFly River, in British New Guinea, ii. 232\n\n\u201cFlying-rowan\u201d (parasitic rowan), superstitions in regard to, ii. 281;\n  used to make a divining-rod, 281 _sq._\n\nFoam of the sea, the demon Namuci killed by the, ii. 280;\n  the totem of a clan in India, 281\n\nFo-Kien, province of China, festival of fire in, ii. 3 _sqq._\n\nFolgareit, in the Tyrol, Midsummer custom at, ii. 47\n\nFolk-custom, external soul in, ii. 153 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -tales, the external soul in, ii. 95 _sqq._\n\nFollies of Dunkirk, ii. 34 _sq._\n\nFood, sacred, not allowed to touch the ground, i. 13 _sq._;\n  girls at puberty not allowed to handle, 23, 28, 36, 40 _sq._, 42\n\nFoods, forbidden, i. 4, 7, 19, 36 _sq._, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47,\n            48, 49, 54, 56, 57, 58, 68, 77, 78, 94\n\n\u201cFool\u2019s Stone\u201d in ashes of Midsummer fire, i. 195\n\nForbidden thing of clan, ii. 313\n\nForchheim, in Bavaria, the burning of Judas at Easter in, i. 143\n\nForeskins of young men offered to ancestral spirits in Fiji, ii. 243 _sq._\n\nForespeaking men and cattle, i. 303\n\nForgetfulness of the past after initiation, ii. 238, 254, 256, 258, 259,\n            266 _sq._\n\nForked shape of divining-rod, ii. 67 _n._ 3\n\n\u201cForlorn fire,\u201d need-fire, i. 292\n\n_Foul\u00e8res_, bonfires, i. 111 _n._ 1\n\nFoulkes, Captain, quoted, ii. 210\n\nFour kinds of wood used to make the divining-rod, ii. 69, 291\n\nFourdin, E., on the procession of the giants at Ath, ii. 36 _n._ 2\n\nFour-leaved clover, a counter-charm for witchcraft, i. 316;\n  at Midsummer useful for magic, ii. 62 _sq._\n\nFowler, W. Warde, on Midsummer custom, i. 206 _n._ 2;\n  on _sexta luna,_ ii. 77 _n._ 1;\n  on the ceremony of passing under the yoke, 195 _n._ 4;\n  on the oak and the thunder-god, 298, 299 _n._ 2, 300\n\nFowls\u2019 nests, ashes of bonfires put in, i, 112, 338\n\nFox prayed to spare lambs, i. 152\n\nFoxes burnt in Midsummer fires, ii. 39, 41;\n  witches turn into, 41\n\nFoxwell, Ernest, on the fire-walk in Japan, ii. 10 _n._ 1\n\nFraas, F., on the various sorts of mistletoe known to the ancients, ii.\n            318\n\nFrampton-on-Severn in Gloucestershire, ii. 316\n\nFrance, Lenten fires in, i. 109 _sqq._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 181 _sqq._;\n  fires on All Saints\u2019 Day in, 245 _sq._;\n  the Yule log in, 249 _sqq._;\n  wonderful herbs gathered on St. John\u2019s Eve (Midsummer Eve) in, ii. 45\n              _sqq._;\n  mugwort (herb of St. John) at Midsummer in, 58 _sq._;\n  fern-seed at Midsummer in, 65;\n  judicial treatment of sorcerers in, 158;\n  birth-trees in, 165;\n  children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture or rickets in,\n              170.\n  _See also_ French\n\nFranche-Comt\u00e9, Lenten fires in, i. 110 _sq._;\n  fires of St. John in, 189;\n  the Yule log in, 254\n\nFranken, Middle, fire custom at Easter in, i. 143\n\nFrankenstein, precautions against witches in, ii. 20 _n._\n\nFraser Lake in British Columbia, i. 47\n\nFreiburg, in Switzerland, Lenten fires in, i. 119;\n  fern and treasure on St. John\u2019s Night in, ii. 288\n\nFreising, in Bavaria, creeping through a narrow opening in the cathedral\n            of, ii. 189\n\nFrench cure for whooping-cough, ii. 192 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 Islands, use of bull-roarers in, ii. 229 _n._\n\n\u2014\u2014 peasants, their superstition as to a virgin and a flame, i. 137 _n._\n\nFriction of wood, fire made by the, i. 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 144\n            _sq._, 148, 155, 169 _sq._, 175, 177, 179, 220, 264, 270\n            _sqq._, 335 _sq._, ii. 8;\n  the most primitive mode of making fire, 90, 295\n\n\u201cFriendly Society of the Spirit\u201d among the Naudowessies, ii. 267\n\nFrigg or Frigga, the goddess, and Balder, i. 101, 102\n\nFringes worn over the eyes by girls at puberty, i. 47, 48\n\nFruit-trees threatened, i. 114;\n  Midsummer fires lit under, 215;\n  shaken at Christmas to make them bear fruit, 248;\n  fumigated with smoke of need-fire, 280;\n  fertilized by burning torches, 340\n\n_Fuga daemonum_, St. John\u2019s wort, ii. 55\n\nFulda, the Lord of the Wells at, ii. 28\n\nFumigating crops with smoke of bonfires, i. 201, 337\n\n\u2014\u2014 sheep and cattle, ii. 12, 13\n\nFumigation of pastures at Midsummer to drive away witches and demons, i.\n            170;\n  of fruit-trees, nets, and cattle with smoke of need-fire, 280;\n  of byres with juniper, 296;\n  of trees with wild thyme on Christmas Eve, ii. 64\n\nF\u00fcnen, in Denmark, cure for childish ailments at, ii. 191\n\nFuneral, customs observed by mourners after a funeral in order to escape\n            from the ghost, ii. 174 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 ceremony among the Michemis, i. 5\n\nFurnace, walking through a fiery, ii. 3 _sqq._\n\nFurness, W. H., on passing under an archway, ii. 179 _sq._, 180 _n._ 1\n\nGabb, W. M., on ceremonial uncleanness, i. 65 _n._ 1\n\nGablonz, in Bohemia, Midsummer bed of flowers at, ii. 57\n\nGaboon, birth-trees in the, ii. 160;\n  theory of the external soul in, 200 _sq._\n\nGacko, need-fire at, i. 286\n\nGaidoz, H., on the custom of passing sick people through cleft trees, ii.\n            171\n\nGage, Thomas, on _naguals_ among the Indians of Guatemala, ii. 213\n\nGaj, in Slavonia, need-fire at, i. 282\n\nGalatian senate met in Drynemetum, \u201cthe temple of the oak,\u201d ii. 89\n\nGalatians kept their old Celtic speech, ii. 89 _n._ 2\n\nGalela, dread of women at menstruation in, i. 79\n\nGalelareese of Halmahera, their rites of initiation, ii. 248\n\nGallic Councils, their prohibition of carrying torches, i. 199\n\nGallows Hill, magical plants gathered on the, ii. 57\n\n\u2014\u2014 -rope used to kindle need-fire, i. 277\n\nGandersheim, in Brunswick, need-fire at, i. 277\n\nGap, in the High Alps, cats roasted alive in the Midsummer fire at, ii. 39\n            _sq._\n\nGardner, Mrs. E. A., i. 131 _n._ 1\n\nGarlands of flowers placed on wells at Midsummer, ii. 28;\n  thrown on trees, a form of divination, 53\n\nGarlic roasted at Midsummer fires, i. 193\n\nGaronne, Midsummer fires in the valley of the, i. 193\n\nGatschet, A. S., on the Toukawe Indians, ii. 276 _n._ 2\n\nGaul, \u201cserpents\u2019 eggs\u201d in ancient, i. 15;\n  human sacrifices in ancient, ii. 32 _sq._\n\nGauls, their fortification walls, i. 267 _sq._\n\nGazelle Peninsula, New Britain, the Ingniet society in the, ii. 156\n\nGem, external soul of magician in a, ii. 105 _sq._;\n  external soul of giant in a, 130\n\nGeneva, Midsummer fires in the canton of, i. 172\n\n_Genius_, the Roman, ii. 212 _n._\n\nGeranium burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213\n\nGerhausen, i. 166\n\nGerman stories of the external soul, ii. 116 _sqq._\n\nGermans, human sacrifices offered by the ancient, ii. 28 _n._ 1;\n  the oak sacred among the, 89\n\nGermany, Lenten fires in, i. 115 _sq._;\n  Easter bonfires in, 140 _sqq._;\n  custom at eclipses in, 162 _n._;\n  the Midsummer fires in, 163 _sqq._;\n  the Yule log in, 247 _sqq._;\n  belief in the transformation of witches into animals in, 321 _n._ 2;\n  colic, sore eyes, and stiffness of the back attributed to witchcraft in,\n              344 _sq._;\n  mugwort at Midsummer in, ii. 59;\n  orpine gathered at Midsummer in, 62 _n._;\n  fern-seed at Midsummer in, 65;\n  mistletoe a remedy for epilepsy in, 83;\n  the need-fire kindled by the friction of oak in, 91;\n  oak-wood used to make up cottage fires on Midsummer Day in, 91 _sq._;\n  birth-trees in, 165;\n  children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture in, 170 _sqq._\n\nGestr and the spae-wives, Icelandic story of, ii. 125 _sq._\n\nGewar, King of Norway, i. 103\n\nGhost, oracular, in a cave, ii. 312 _sq._\n\nGhosts extracted from wooden posts, i. 8;\n  fire used to get rid of, ii. 17 _sqq._;\n  mugwort a protection against, 59;\n  kept off by thorn bushes, 174 _sq._;\n  creeping through cleft sticks to escape from, 174 _sqq._\n\nGiant who had no heart in his body, stories of the, ii. 96 _sqq._, 119\n            _sq._;\n  mythical, supposed to kill and resuscitate lads at initiation, 243\n\nGiant-fennel burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213\n\nGiants of wicker-work at popular festivals in Europe, ii. 33 _sqq._;\n  burnt in the summer bonfires, 38\n\nGiggenhausen, in Bavaria, burning the Easter Man at, i. 144\n\nGion shrine in Japan, i. 138\n\nGippsland, the Kurnai of, ii. 216\n\nGiraldus Cambrensis on transformation of witches into hares, i. 315 _n._ 1\n\nGirdle of wolf\u2019s hide worn by were-wolves, i. 310 _n._ 1;\n  of St. John, mugwort, ii. 59\n\nGirdles of mugwort worn on St. John\u2019s Day or Eve as preservative against\n            backache, sore eyes, ghosts, magic, and sickness, ii. 59\n\nGirkshausen, in Westphalia, the Yule log at, i. 248\n\nGirl at puberty said to be wounded by a snake, i. 56;\n  to be swallowed by a serpent, 57\n\n\u2014\u2014 and boy produce need-fire by friction of wood, 281\n\nGirls at puberty, secluded, i. 22 _sqq._;\n  not allowed to touch the ground, 22, 33, 35, 36, 60;\n  not allowed to see the sun, 22, 35, 36, 37, 41, 44, 46, 47, 68;\n  not allowed to handle food, 23, 28, 36, 40 sq., 42; half buried in\n              ground, 38 _sqq._;\n  not allowed to scratch themselves with their fingers, 38, 39, 41, 42,\n              44, 47, 50, 53, 92;\n  not allowed to lie down, 44;\n  gashed on back, breast, and belly, 60;\n  stung by ants, 61;\n  beaten severely, 61, 66 _sq._;\n  supposed to be attacked by a demon, 67 _sq._;\n  not to see the sky, 69;\n  forbidden to break bones of hares, 73 _n._ 3\n\nGisors, crawling through a holed stone near, ii. 188\n\n_Givoy agon_, living fire, made by the friction of wood, i. 220\n\nGlamorgan, the Vale of, Beltane and Midsummer fires in the, i. 154;\n  Midsummer fires in, 201, 338\n\nGlands, ashes of Yule log used to cure swollen, i. 251\n\nGlanvil, Joseph, on a witch in the form of a cat, i. 317\n\nGlass, the Magician\u2019s or Druid\u2019s, i. 16\n\nGlatz, precautions against witches on Walpurgis Night in, ii. 20 _n._\n\nGlawi, in the Atlas, New Year fires at, i. 217\n\nGlencuaich, the hawk of, in a Celtic tale, ii. 127 _sqq._\n\nGlenorchy, the Beltane cake in, i. 149\n\n\u201cGlory, the Hand of,\u201d mandragora, ii. 316\n\nGloucestershire, mistletoe growing on oaks in, ii. 316\n\nGnabaia, a spirit who swallows and disgorges lads at initiation, ii. 235\n\n_Gnid-eld_, need-fire, i. 280\n\nGoajiras of Colombia, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 34 _n._ 1\n\nGoatsucker or fern owl, sex totem of women, ii. 217\n\nGod, Aryan, of the thunder and the oak, i. 265\n\n\u2014\u2014 on Earth, title of supreme chief of the Bushongo, ii. 264\n\nGodolphin, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires on, i. 199\n\nGold, the flower of chicory to be cut with, ii. 71;\n  root of marsh mallow to be dug with, 80 _n._ 3;\n  buried, revealed by mistletoe and fern-seed, 287 _sqq._, 291\n\n\u2014\u2014 coin, magic plant to be dug up with a, ii. 57.\n  _See also_ Golden\n\nGolden axe, sacred tamarisk touched with, ii. 80 _n._ 3\n\nGolden Bough, the, ii. 279 _sqq._;\n  and the priest of Aricia, i. 1;\n  a branch of mistletoe, ii. 284 _sqq._, 315 _sqq._;\n  Virgil\u2019s account of the, 284 _sq._, 286, 293 _sq._, 315 _sqq._;\n  origin of the name, 286 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 fish, girl\u2019s external soul in a, ii. 147 _sq._, 220\n\n\u2014\u2014 knife, horse slain in sacrifice with a, ii. 80 _n._ 3\n\n\u2014\u2014 ring, half a hero\u2019s strength in a, ii. 143\n\n\u2014\u2014 sickle, mistletoe cut by Druids with a, ii. 77, 88;\n  sacred olive at Olympia cut with a, 80 _n._ 3\n\nGolden sword and golden arrow, external soul of a hero in a, ii. 145\n\nGoldie, Rev. Hugh, on the _ukpong_ or external soul in Calabar, ii. 206\n\nGoliath, effigy of, ii. 36\n\n_Goluan_, Midsummer, i. 199\n\nGood Friday, Judas driven out of church on, i. 146;\n  the divining-rod cut on, ii. 68 _n._ 4;\n  sick children passed through cleft trees on, 172\n\nGoodrich-Freer, A., quoted, i. 154 _n._ 3\n\nGooge, Barnabe, i. 124\n\nGooseberry bushes, wild, custom as to, ii. 48\n\nGorillas, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. 202\n\nG\u00f6rz, belief as to witches at Midsummer about, ii. 75\n\nGrain Coast, West Africa, initiation of girls on the, ii. 259\n\nGrammont, in Belgium, festival of the \u201cCrown of Roses\u201d at, i. 195;\n  the Yule log at, 249\n\nGranada (South America), youthful rulers secluded in, i. 19\n\nGrand Halleux, bonfires at, i. 107\n\n_Grannas-mias_, torches, i. 111\n\nGranno, invocation of, i. 111 _sq._\n\n_Granno-mio_, a torch, i. 111\n\nGrannus, a Celtic deity, identified with Apollo, i. 111 _sq._\n\nGrant, the great laird of, not exempt from witchcraft, i. 342 _n._ 4\n\nGrass, ceremony to make grass plentiful, i. 136\n\nGratz, puppet burned on St. John\u2019s Eve at, i. 173\n\nGrave, dance at initiation in, ii. 237\n\nGreat Man, who created the world and comes down in the form of lightning,\n            ii. 298\n\nGreece, Midsummer fires in, i. 211 _sq._;\n  mistletoe in, ii. 316, 317\n\nGreek belief as to menstruous women, i. 98 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 Church, ritual of the new fire at Easter in the, i. 128 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 stories of girls who were forbidden to see the sun, i. 72 _sqq._;\n  of the external soul, ii. 103 _sqq._\n\nGreeks deemed sacred the places which were struck by lightning, ii. 299\n\nGreen Wolf, Brotherhood of the, ii. 15 _n._;\n  at Jumi\u00e8ges in Normandy, i. 185 _sq._, ii. 25, 88\n\nGreenlanders, their notion that women can conceive by the moon, i. 75\n            _sq._\n\nGregor, Rev. Walter, ii. 284 _n._ 1;\n  on virtue of children born feet foremost, i. 295 _n._ 3;\n  on the \u201cquarter-ill,\u201d 296 _n._ 1;\n  on the bewitching of cattle, 303\n\nGreig, James S., ii. 187 _n._ 3\n\nGreta, river in Yorkshire, i. 287\n\nGrey, Sir George, on the _kobong_ or totem, ii. 219 _sq._\n\nGrimm, J., on need-fire, i. 270 _n._, 272 _sq._;\n  on the relation of the Midsummer fires to Balder, ii. 87 _n._ 6;\n  on the sanctity of the oak, 89;\n  on the oak and lightning, 300\n\nGrisons, threatening a mist in the, i. 280\n\nGrizzly Bear clan, ii. 274\n\nGroot, J. J. M. de, on mugwort in China, ii. 60\n\nGrottkau, precautions against witches in, ii. 20 _n._\n\nGround, sacred persons not allowed to set foot on, i. 2 _sqq._;\n  not to sit on bare, 4, 5, 12;\n  girls at puberty not allowed to touch the, 22, 33, 35, 36, 60;\n  magical plants not to touch the, ii. 51;\n  mistletoe not allowed to touch the, 280\n\nGrouse clan, ii. 273\n\nGrove, Miss Florence, on withered mistletoe, ii. 287 _n._ 1\n\nGrove, Balder\u2019s, i. 104, ii. 315;\n  sacred grove of Nemi, 315;\n  soul of chief in sacred, 161.\n  _See also_ Arician\n\nGrubb, Rev. W. B., i. 57 _n._ 1\n\nGr\u00fcn, in Bohemia, mountain arnica gathered at Midsummer at, ii. 58 _n._ 1\n\nGuacheta in Colombia, i. 74\n\nGuaranis of Brazil, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 56\n\nGuaraunos of the Orinoco, uncleanness of menstruous women among the, i. 85\n            _sq._\n\nGuardian angels, afterbirth and navel-string regarded as a man\u2019s, ii. 162\n            _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 spirit, afterbirth and seed regarded as, ii. 223 _n._ 2;\n  acquired in a dream, 256 _sq._\n\nGuatemala, the _nagual_ or external soul among the Indians of, ii. 212\n            _sq._\n\nGuatusos of Costa Rica, use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 230 _n._\n\nGuayquiries of the Orinoco, their beliefs as to menstruous women, i. 85\n\nGuelphs, the oak of the, ii. 166\n\nGuiana, British, the Macusis of, i. 60;\n  ordeals undergone by young men among the Indians of, 63 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, French, the Wayanas of, i. 63\n\n_Guizing_ at Christmas in Lerwick, i. 268 _sq._\n\nGuleesh and the fairies at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 277 _sq._\n\nGunn, David, kindles need-fire, i. 291\n\nGuns fired to drive away witches, ii. 74\n\nGwalior, Holi fires in, ii. 2\n\nHadji Mohammad shoots a were-wolf, i. 312 _sq._\n\nHaida Indians of Queen Charlotte Islands, girls at puberty secluded among\n            the, i. 44 _sq._\n\nHail, bonfires thought to protect fields against, i. 344;\n  ceremonies to avert, 144, 145;\n  Midsummer fires a protection against, 176;\n  mountain arnica a protection against, ii. 57 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 and thunderstorms caused by witches, i. 344\n\nHainan, island, i. 137\n\nHainaut, province of Belgium, fire customs in, i. 108;\n  procession of giants in, ii. 36\n\nHair, unguent for, i. 14;\n  prohibition to cut, 28;\n  of girls at puberty shaved, 31, 56, 57, 59;\n  Hindoo ritual of cutting a child\u2019s, 99 _n._ 2;\n  of the Virgin or St. John looked for in ashes of Midsummer fire, 182\n              _sq._, 190, 191;\n  external soul in, ii. 103 _sq._, 148;\n  strength of people bound up with their, 158 _sq._;\n  of criminals, witches, and wizards shorn to make them confess, 158\n              _sq._;\n  of children tied to trees, 165;\n  of novices cut at initiation, 245, 251\n\n\u2014\u2014 and nails of child buried under a tree, ii. 161\n\nHairy Stone, the, at Midsummer, i. 212\n\nHalberstadt district, need-fire in the, i. 273\n\nHall, C. F., among the Esquimaux, i. 13, 134\n\n\u2014\u2014,  Rev. G. R., quoted, i. 198\n\nHallowe\u2019en, new fire at, in Ireland, i. 139;\n  an old Celtic festival of New Year, 224 _sqq._;\n  divination at, 225, 228 _sqq._;\n  witches, hobgoblins, and fairies let loose at, 226 _sqq._, 245;\n  witches and fairies active on, ii. 184 _n._ 4, 185\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Beltane, the two chief fire festivals of the British Celts, ii. 40\n            _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 cakes, i. 238, 241, 245\n\n\u2014\u2014 fires, i. 222 _sq._, 230 _sqq._;\n  in Wales, 156\n\nHalmahera, rites of initiation in, ii. 248\n\nHaltwhistle, in Northumberland, burnt sacrifice at, i. 301\n\nHamilton, Gavin, quoted, i. 47 _sq._\n\nHammocks, girls at puberty hung up in, i. 56, 59, 60, 61, 66\n\n\u201cHand of Glory,\u201d mandragora, ii. 316\n\nHannibal despoils the shrine on Soracte, ii. 15\n\nHanover, the need-fire in, i. 275;\n  Easter bonfires in, 140;\n  custom on St. John\u2019s Day about, ii. 56\n\nHare, pastern bone of a, in a popular remedy, i. 17\n\nHares, witches in the form of, i. 157;\n  witches changed into, 315 _n._ 1, 316 _sqq._, ii. 41\n\nHares and witches in Yorkshire, ii. 197\n\nHareskin Tinneh, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 48\n\nHarris, Slope of Big Stones in, i. 227\n\nHartland, E. S., on the life-token, ii. 119 _n._\n\nHaruvarus, degenerate Brahmans, their fire-walk, ii. 9\n\nHarz district, Easter bonfires in the, i. 140;\n  Midsummer fires in the, 169\n\n\u2014\u2014 Mountains, Easter fires in the, i. 142;\n  need-fire in the, 276;\n  springwort in the, ii. 69 _sqq._\n\nHats, special, worn by girls at puberty, i. 45, 46, 47, 92.\n  _See also_ Hoods\n\nHausa story of the external soul, ii. 148 _sq._\n\nHawaiians, the New Year of the, ii. 244\n\nHawkweed gathered at Midsummer, ii. 57\n\nHawthorn, mistletoe on, ii. 315, 316\n\nHaxthausen, A. von, i. 181\n\nHays of Errol, their fate bound up with an oak-tree and the mistletoe\n            growing on it, ii. 283 _sq._\n\nHazebrouch, in France, wicker giants on Shrove Tuesday at, ii. 35\n\nHazel, the divining-rod made of, ii. 67 _sq._;\n  never struck by lightning, 69 _n._\n\n\u2014\u2014 rods to drive cattle with, i. 204\n\nHeadache, cure for, i. 17;\n  mugwort a protection against, ii. 59\n\nHeaddress, special, worn by girls at first menstruation, i. 92\n\nHeadless Hugh, Highland story of, ii. 130 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 horsemen in India, ii. 131 _n._ 1\n\nHeads or faces of menstruous women covered, i. 22, 24, 25, 29, 31, 44\n            _sq._, 48 _sq._, 55, 90\n\nHearne, Samuel, quoted, i. 90 _sq._\n\nHeart of bewitched animal burnt or boiled to compel the witch to appear,\n            i. 321 _sq._\n\nHearts of diseased cattle cut out and hung up as a remedy, i. 269 _n._ 1,\n            325\n\nHeaven, the Queen of, ii. 303\n\n\u2014\u2014 and earth, between, i. 1 _sqq._, 98 _sq._\n\nHector, first chief of Lochbuy, ii. 131 _n._ 1\n\nHeiberg, Sigurd K., i. 171 _n._ 3\n\nHeifer sacrificed at kindling need-fire, i. 290\n\nHelensburgh, in Dumbartonshire, Hallowe\u2019en at, i. 237 _n._ 5\n\n\u201cHell-gate of Ireland,\u201d i. 226\n\nHelmsdale, in Sutherland, need-fire at, i. 295\n\nHelpful animals in fairy tales, ii. 107, 117, 120, 127 _sqq._, 130, 132,\n            133, 139 _n._ 2, 140 _sq._, 149\n\nHemlock branch, external soul of ogress in a, ii. 152\n\nHemlock branches, passing through a ring of, in time of sickness, ii. 186\n\n\u2014\u2014 stone in Nottinghamshire, i. 157\n\nHemorrhoids, root of orpine a cure for, ii. 62 _n._\n\nHemp, how to make hemp grow tall, i. 109;\n  leaping over the Midsummer bonfire to make the hemp grow tall, 166, 168\n\n\u2014\u2014 seed, divination by, i. 235, 241, 245\n\nHen and chickens imitated by a woman and her children at Christmas, i. 260\n\nHenderson, William, on need-fire, i. 288 _sq._;\n  on a remedy for cattle-disease, 296 _n._ 1;\n  on burnt sacrifice of ox, 301\n\nHen\u2019s egg, external soul of giant in a, ii. 140 _sq._\n\nHenshaw, Richard, on external or bush souls in Calabar, ii. 205 _sq._\n\nHephaestus worshipped in Lemnos, i. 138\n\nHerb, a magic, gathered at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 228\n\n\u2014\u2014 of St. John, mugwort, ii. 58\n\nHerbs thrown across the Midsummer fires, i. 182, 201;\n  wonderful, gathered on St. John\u2019s Eve or Day, ii. 45 _sqq._;\n  of St. John, wonderful virtues ascribed to, 46\n\n\u2014\u2014 and flowers cast into the Midsummer bonfires, i. 162, 163, 172, 173\n\nHercules at Argyrus, temple of, i. 99 _n._ 3\n\nHerdsmen dread witches and wolves, i. 343\n\nHerefordshire, Midsummer fires in, i. 199;\n  the Yule log in, 257 _sq._\n\nHerndon, W. L., quoted, i. 62 _n._ 3\n\nHernia, cure for, i. 98 _n._ 1\n\nHerodias, cursed by Slavonian peasants, i. 345\n\nHerrera, A. de, on _naguals_ among the Indians of Honduras, ii. 213 _sq._\n\nHerrick, Robert, on the Yule log, i. 255\n\nHerring, salt, divination by, i. 239\n\nHerzegovina, the Yule log in, i. 263;\n  need-fire in, 288\n\nHesse, Lenten fire-custom in, i. 118;\n  Easter fires in, 140;\n  wells decked with flowers on Midsummer Day in, ii. 28\n\nHewitt, J. N. B., on need-fire of the Iroquois, i. 299 _sq._\n\nHiaina district of Morocco, ii. 51\n\nHidatsa Indians, their theory of the plurality of souls, ii. 221 _sq._\n\n_Hieracium pilosella_, mouse-ear hawk-weed, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 57\n\nHiggins, Rev. J. C., i. 207 _n._ 2\n\nHigh Alps, department of the, Midsummer fires in the, ii. 39 _sq._\n\nHigh Priest, the Fijian, ii. 245\n\nHighland story of Headless Hugh, ii. 130 _sq._\n\nHighlanders of Scotland, their medicinal applications of menstruous blood,\n            i. 98 _n._ 1;\n  their belief in the power of witches to destroy cattle, 343 _n._ 1;\n  their belief concerning snake stones, ii. 311\n\nHighlands of Scotland, snake stones in the, i. 16;\n  Beltane fires in the, 146 _sqq._;\n  divination at Hallowe\u2019en in the, 229, 234 _sqq._;\n  need-fire and Beltane fire kindled by the friction of oak in the, ii. 91\n\nHildesheim, Easter rites of fire and water at, i. 124;\n  Easter bonfires at, 141;\n  the need-fire at, 272 _sq._;\n  hawk-weed gathered on Midsummer Day at, ii. 57\n\nHill of the Fires in the Highlands of Scotland, i. 149\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Ward, in County Meath, i. 139\n\nHimalayan districts, mistletoe in the, ii. 316\n\nHindoo maidens secluded at puberty, i. 68\n\n\u2014\u2014 marriage custom, i. 75\n\n\u2014\u2014 ritual, abstinence from salt in, i. 27;\n  as to cutting a child\u2019s hair, 99 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 stories of the external soul, ii. 97 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 use of menstruous fluid, i. 98 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 women, their restrictions at menstruation, i. 84\n\nHindoos of Southern India, their Pongol festival, ii. 1;\n  of the Punjaub, their custom of passing unlucky children through narrow\n              openings, 190\n\nHippopotamus, external soul of chief in, ii. 200;\n  lives of persons bound up with those of hippopotamuses, 201, 202, 205,\n              209\n\nHirpi Sorani, their fire-walk, ii. 14 _sq._\n\nHlubi chief, his external soul in a pair of ox-horns, ii. 156\n\nHoare, Sir Richard Colt, on Hallowe\u2019en in Wales, i. 239\n\nHogg, Alexander, i. 206\n\nHogmanay, the last day of the year, i. 224, 266\n\nHohenstaufen Mountains in Wurtemberg, Midsummer fires in the, i. 166\n\nHole in tongue of medicine-man, ii. 238, 239\n\nHoled stones which people creep through as a cure, ii. 187 _sqq._\n\nHoles in rocks or stones, sick people passed through, ii. 186 _sqq._\n\nHoli, a festival of Northern India, ii. 2 _sq._\n\nHoliness or taboo conceived as a dangerous physical substance which needs\n            to be insulated, i. 6 _sq._\n\nHolland, Easter fires in, i. 145\n\nHollantide Eve (Hallowe\u2019en) in the Isle of Man, i. 244\n\nHollertau, Bavaria, Easter fires in the, i. 122\n\nHollis, A. C., ii. 262 _n._ 2\n\nHolly-tree, children passed through a cleft, ii. 169 _n._ 2\n\nHolm-oak, the Golden Bough growing on a, ii. 285\n\nHoly Apostles, church of the, at Florence, i. 126\n\n\u2014\u2014 Land, fire flints brought from the, i. 126\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Holies, the Fijian, ii. 244, 245\n\n\u2014\u2014 Sepulchre, church of the, at Jerusalem, ceremony of the new fire in\n            the, i. 128 _sq._\n\nHomesteads protected by bonfires against lightning and conflagration, i.\n            344\n\nHomoeopathic or imitative magic, i. 49, 133, ii. 287\n\nHomoeopathy, magical, ii. 177\n\nHomolje mountains in Servia, i. 282\n\nHonduras, the _nagual_ or external soul among the Indians of, ii. 213\n            _sq._, 226 _n._ 1\n\nHonorific totems of the Carrier Indians, ii. 273 _sqq._\n\nHoods worn by women after childbirth, i. 20;\n  worn by girls at puberty, 44 _sq._, 48 _sq._, 55;\n  worn by women at menstruation, 90.\n  _See also_ Hats\n\nHoop, crawling through a, as a cure or preventive of disease, ii. 184;\n  of rowan-tree, sheep forced through a, 184\n\nHoopoe brings the mythical springwort, ii. 70 _n._ 2\n\nHoratius purified for the murder of his sister, ii. 194\n\nHornbeam, mistletoe on, ii. 315\n\nHorse, the White, effigy carried through Midsummer fire, i. 203 _sq._;\n  witch in the shape of a, 319\n\n\u2014\u2014 sacrifice in ancient India, ii. 80 _n._ 3\n\nHorse\u2019s head thrown into Midsummer fire, ii. 40\n\nHorse-chestnut, mistletoe on, ii. 315\n\nHorses used by sacred persons, i. 4 _n._ 1;\n  not to be touched or ridden by menstruous women, 88 _sq._, 96;\n  driven through the need-fire, 276, 297\n\nHos, the, of Togoland (West Africa), their dread of menstruous women, i.\n            82\n\nHose, Dr. Charles, on creeping through a cleft stick after a funeral, ii.\n            175 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 and W. McDougall, on the _ngarong_ or secret helper of the Ibans, ii.\n            224 _n._ 1\n\nHother, Hodr, or Hod, the blind god, and Balder, i. 101 _sqq._, ii. 279\n            _n._ 4\n\nHottentots drive their sheep through fire, ii. 11 _sqq._\n\nHouse-communities of the Servians, i. 259 _n._ 1\n\nHouses protected by bonfires against lightning and conflagration, i. 344;\n  made fast against witches on Midsummer Eve, ii. 73\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 of the soul\u201d in Isaiah, ii. 155 _n._ 3\n\nHousman, Professor A. E., on the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, i.\n            220 _sq._\n\nHoustry, in Caithness, need-fire at, i. 291 _sq._\n\nHowitt, A. W., on seclusion of menstruous women, i. 78;\n  on killing a totem animal, ii. 220 _n._ 2;\n  on secrecy of totem names, 225 _n._;\n  on the drama of resurrection at initiation, 235 _sqq._\n\nHowitt, Miss E. B., ii. 226 _n._ 1\n\nHowth, the western promontory of, Midsummer fire on, i. 204\n\n\u2014\u2014 Castle, life-tree of the St. Lawrence family at, ii. 166\n\nHuahine, one of the Tahitian islands, ii. 11 _n._ 3\n\nHudson Bay Territory, the Chippeways of, i. 90\n\nHughes, Miss E. P., on the fire-walk in Japan, ii. 10 _n._ 1\n\nHuman beings burnt in the fires, ii. 21 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 divinities put to death, i. 1 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 sacrifices at fire-festivals, i. 106;\n  traces of, 146, 148, 150 _sqq._, 186, ii. 31;\n  offered by the ancient Germans, ii. 28 _n._ 1;\n  among the Celts of Gaul, 32 _sq._;\n  the victims perhaps witches and wizards, 41 _sqq._;\n  Mannhardt\u2019s theory, 43\n\n\u2014\u2014 victims annually burnt, ii. 286 _n._ 2\n\nHungarian story of the external soul, ii. 140\n\nHungary, Midsummer fires in, i. 178 _sq._\n\nHunt, Holman, his picture of the new fire at Jerusalem, i. 130 _n._\n\nHunt, Robert, on burnt sacrifices, i. 303\n\nHunters avoid girls at puberty, i. 44, 46;\n  luck of, spoiled by menstruous women, 87, 89, 90, 91, 94\n\nHuon Gulf in German New Guinea, ii. 239\n\nHupa Indians of California, seclusion of girls among the, i. 42\n\nHurons of Canada, custom of their women at menstruation, i. 88 _n._ 1\n\n_Huskanaw_, initiatory ceremony of the Virginian Indians, ii. 266\n\nHut burnt at Midsummer, i. 215 _sq._\n\nHutchinson, W., quoted, i. 197 _n._ 4\n\nHuts, special, for menstruous women, i. 79, 82, 85 _sqq._\n\nHuzuls of the Carpathians kindle new fire at Christmas, i. 264;\n  gather simples on St. John\u2019s Night, ii. 49\n\nHyaenas, men turned into, i. 313\n\n_Hypericum perforatum_, St. John\u2019s wort, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 54\n            _sqq._\n  _See also_ St. John\u2019s Wort\n\n_Hyphear_, a kind of mistletoe, ii. 317, 318\n\nHyrrockin, a giantess, i. 102\n\nIbans of Borneo, their _ngarong_ or secret helper, ii. 224 _n._ 1\n\nIbos of the Niger delta, their belief in external human souls lodged in\n            animals, ii. 203 _sq._\n\nIbrahim Pasha, i. 129\n\nIcelandic stories of the external soul, ii. 123 _sqq._\n\nIcolmkill, the hill of the fires in, i. 149\n\nIdeler, L., on the Arab year before Mohammed, i. 217 _n._ 1\n\n_Idhlozi_, ancestral spirit in serpent form, ii. 211\n\nIglulik, Esquimaux of, i. 134\n\nIlmenau, witches burnt at, i. 6\n\nIluvans of Malabar, marriage custom of, i. 5\n\nImage of god carried through fire, ii. 4;\n  reason for carrying over a fire, 24\n\nImages, colossal, filled with human victims and burnt, ii. 32 _sq._\n\nImitative magic, i. 329, ii. 231\n\nImmortality, the burdensome gift of, i. 99 _sq._;\n  of the soul, experimental demonstration of the, ii. 276\n\nImmortelles, wreaths of, on Midsummer Day, i. 177\n\nImplements, magical, not allowed to touch the ground, i. 14 _sq._\n\nImpregnation of women by the sun, i. 74 _sq._;\n  by the moon, 75 _sq._\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 rite\u201d at Hindoo marriages, i. 75\n\nInauguration of a king in Brahmanic ritual, i. 4\n\nInca, fast of the future, i. 19\n\nIncas of Peru, their ceremony of the new fire, i. 132\n\nIncantation recited at kindling need-fire, i. 290\n\nInconsistency and vagueness of primitive thought, ii. 301 _sq._\n\nIndia, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 68 _sqq._;\n  fire-festivals in, ii. 1 _sqq._;\n  sixty years\u2019 cycle in, 77 _n._ 1;\n  the horse-sacrifice in ancient, 80 _n._ 3;\n  torture of suspected witches in, 159;\n  ancient, traditional cure of skin disease in, 192;\n  _Loranthus_ in, 317\n\nIndian Archipelago, birth-custom in the, ii. 155\n\n\u2014\u2014 legend parallel to Balder myth, ii. 280\n\nIndians of Costa Rica, their customs in fasts, i. 20\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Granada seclude their future rulers, i. 19\n\nIndians of North America, not allowed to sit on bare ground in war, i. 5;\n  seclusion of girls among the, 41 _sqq._;\n  imitate lightning by torches, 340 _n._ 1;\n  rites of initiation into religious associations among the, ii. 267\n              _sqq._\n\n\u201cIndex of Superstitions,\u201d i. 270\n\nIndra and Apala, in the Rigveda, ii. 192\n\n\u2014\u2014 and the demon Namuci, Indian legend of, ii. 280\n\nIndrapoora, story of the daughter of a merchant of, ii. 147\n\nInfants tabooed, i. 5, 20\n\nIngleborough in Yorkshire, i. 288\n\nIngleton, in Yorkshire, need-fire at, i. 288\n\nIngniet or Ingiet, a secret society of New Britain, ii. 156\n\nInitiation, rites in German New Guinea, ii. 193;\n  at puberty, pretence of killing the novice and bringing him to life\n              again during, 225 _sqq._;\n  in Australia, 227, 233 _sqq._;\n  in New Guinea, 239 _sqq._;\n  in Fiji, 243 _sqq._;\n  in Rook, 246;\n  in New Britain, 246 _sq._;\n  in Halmahera, 248;\n  in Fiji apparently intended to introduce the novices to the worshipful\n              spirits of the dead, 246;\n  in Ceram, 249 _sqq._;\n  in Africa, 251 _sqq._;\n  in North America, 266 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of young men, bull-roarers sounded at the, ii. 227 _sqq._, 233 _sqq._;\n  of a medicine-man in Australia, 237 _sqq._\n\nInn, effigies burnt at Midsummer in the valley of the river, i. 172 _sq._\n\nInnerste, river, i. 124\n\nInnuits (Esquimaux), i. 14\n\nInsanity, burying in an ant-hill as a cure for, i. 64\n\nInspired men walk through fire unharmed, ii. 5 _sq._\n\nInsulation of women at menstruation, i. 97\n\nInterpretation of the fire-festivals, i. 328 _sqq._, ii. 15 _sqq._\n\nInverness-shire, Beltane cakes in, i. 153\n\nInvulnerability conferred by a species of mistletoe, ii. 79 _sq._;\n  conferred by decoction of a parasitic orchid, 81;\n  of Balder, 94;\n  attained through blood-brotherhood with animal, 201;\n  thought to be attained through initiation, 275 _sq._, 276 _n._ 1\n\nInvulnerable warlock or giant, stories of the, ii. 97 _sqq._\n\nIpswich witches, i. 304 _sq._\n\nIran, marriage custom in, i. 75\n\nIreland, the Druid\u2019s Glass in, i. 16;\n  new fire at Hallowe\u2019en in, 139, 225;\n  Beltane fires in, 157 _sq._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 201 _sqq._;\n  fairies at Hallowe\u2019en in, 226 _sq._;\n  Hallowe\u2019en customs in, 241 _sq._;\n  witches as hares in, 315 _n._ 1;\n  bathing at Midsummer in, ii. 29;\n  cure for whooping-cough in, 192 _n._ 1\n\nIrish story of the external soul, ii. 132\n\nIron not to be used in digging fern root, ii. 65;\n  mistletoe gathered without the use of, 78;\n  not to be used in cutting certain plants, 81 _n._;\n  custom observed by the Toradjas at the working of, 154\n\nIron-wort, bunches of, held in the smoke of the Midsummer fires, i. 179\n\nIroquois, ceremony of the new fire among the, i. 133 _sq._;\n  need-fire among the, 299 _sq._\n\nIsaiah, \u201chouses of the soul\u201d in, ii. 155 _n._ 3\n\nIsfendiyar and Rustem, i. 104 _sq._, 314\n\nIsland, need-fire kindled in an, i. 290 _sq._, 291 _sq._\n\nIsle de France, Midsummer giant burnt in, ii. 38\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Man, Beltane fires in the, i. 157.\n  _See_ Man, Isle of\n\nIstria, the Croats of, ii. 75\n\nItalian stories of the external soul, ii. 105, _sqq._;\n  ancient practice of passing conquered enemies under a yoke, 193 _sq._\n\nItalians, the oak the chief sacred tree among the ancient, ii. 89\n\nItaly, birth-trees in, ii. 165;\n  mistletoe in, 316, 317\n\n_Itongo_, plural _amatongo_, ii. 202 _n._\n\nIvory Coast, totemism among the Siena of the, ii. 220 _n._ 2\n\nIvy to dream on, i. 242\n\n_Ixia_, a kind of mistletoe, ii. 317, 318\n\nJablanica, need-fire at, i. 286\n\nJack-in-the-Green, ii. 37\n\nJaffa, new Easter fire carried to, i. 130 _n._\n\nJakkaneri, in the Neilgherry Hills, the fire-walk at, ii. 9\n\nJames, M. R., on the Sibyl\u2019s Wish, i. 100 _n._\n\nJames and Philip, the Apostles, feast of, i. 158\n\nJamieson, J., on the \u201cquarter-ill,\u201d i. 296 _n._ 1\n\nJanuary, the Holi festival in, ii. 1;\n  the fire-walk in, 8\n\n\u2014\u2014 the sixth, the nativity of Christ on, i. 246\n\nJanus and Jupiter, ii. 302 _n._ 2\n\nJapan, the Ainos of, i. 20, ii. 60;\n  the fire-walk in, 9 _sq._\n\nJapanese ceremony of new fire, i. 137 _sq._\n\nJava, birth-trees in, ii. 161 _n._ 1\n\nJebel Bela mountain, in the Sudan, i. 313\n\nJerusalem, ceremony of the new fire, at Easter in, i. 128 _sq._\n\nJeugny, the forest of, ii. 316\n\nJevons, Dr. F. B., on the Roman _genius_, ii. 212 _n._\n\nJewitt, John R., on ritual of mimic death among the Nootka Indians, ii.\n            270\n\n_Johanniswurzel_, the male fern, ii. 66\n\nJohnstone, Rev. A., quoted, i. 233\n\n_J\u00f4nee_, _joanne_, _jouanne_, the Midsummer fire (the fire of St. John),\n            i. 189\n\nJoyce, P. W., on driving cattle through fires, i. 159 _n._ 2;\n  on the bisection of the Celtic year, 223 _n._ 2\n\nJudas, effigies of, burnt in Easter fires, i. 121, 127 _sq._, 130 _sq._,\n            143, 146, ii. 23;\n  driven out of church on Good Friday, i. 146\n\n\u2014\u2014 candle, i. 122 _n._\n\n\u2014\u2014 fire at Easter, i. 123, 144\n\nJulian calendar used by Mohammedans, i. 218 _sq._\n\nJuly, procession of giants at Douay in, ii. 33\n\n\u2014\u2014 the twenty-fifth, St. James\u2019s Day, flower of chicory cut on, ii. 71\n\nJumi\u00e8ges, in Normandy, Brotherhood of the Green Wolf at, i. 185 _sq._, ii.\n            25\n\nJumping over a wife, significance of, i. 23\n\nJune, the fifteenth of, St. Vitus\u2019s Day, i. 335\n\n\u2014\u2014 the fire-walk in, ii. 6\n\nJuniper burnt in need-fire, i. 288;\n  used to fumigate byres, 296\n\nJuno and Diana, ii. 302 _n._ 2\n\nJupiter represented by an oak-tree on the Capitol, ii. 89;\n  perhaps personified by the King of the Wood, the priest of Diana at\n              Nemi, 302 _sq._;\n  Jupiter and Janus, 302 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014, cycle of sixty years based on the sidereal revolution of the planet,\n            ii. 77 _n._ 1\n\nJura, fire-custom at Lent in the, i. 114\n\n\u2014\u2014 Mountains, Midsummer bonfires in the, i. 188 _sq._;\n  the Yule log in the, 249\n\nJurby, parish of, in the Isle of Man, i. 305\n\nJutland, sick children and cattle passed through holes in turf in, ii.\n            191;\n  superstitions about a parasitic rowan in, 281\n\n_Ka_, external soul or double in ancient Egypt, ii. 157 _n._ 2\n\nKabadi, a district of British New Guinea, i. 35\n\nKabenau river, in German New Guinea, ii. 193\n\nKabyle tale, milk-tie in a, ii. 138 _n._ 1;\n  the external soul in a, 139\n\nKahma, in Burma, annual extinction of fires in, i. 136\n\nKai of New Guinea, their seclusion of women at menstruation, i. 79;\n  their use of a cleft stick as a cure, ii. 182;\n  their rites of initiation, 239 _sqq._\n\nKail, divination by stolen, i. 234 _sq._\n\nKakian association in Ceram, rites of initiation in the, ii. 249 _sqq._\n\nKalmuck story of the external soul, ii. 142\n\nKamenagora in Croatia, Midsummer fires at, i. 178\n\nKamtchatkans, their purification after a death, ii. 178\n\nKanna district, Northern Nigeria, ii. 210\n\nKappiliyans of Madura, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 69\n\nKarens of Burma, their custom at childbirth, ii. 157\n\nKasai River, ii. 264\n\nKatajalina, a spirit who eats up boys at initiation and restores them to\n            life, ii. 234\n\nKatrine, Loch, i. 231\n\nKauffmann, Professor F., i. 102 _n._ 1, 103 _n._;\n  on the external soul, ii. 97 _n._\n\nKaupole, a Midsummer pole in Eastern Prussia, ii. 49\n\nKawars, of India, their cure for fever, ii. 190\n\nKaya-Kaya or Tugeri of Dutch New Guinea, their use of bull-roarers, ii.\n            242\n\nKayans or Bahaus of Central Borneo, i. 4 _sq._;\n  custom observed by them after a funeral, ii. 175 _sq._;\n  their way of giving the slip to a demon, 179\n\nKeating, Geoffrey, Irish historian, quoted, i. 139;\n  on the Beltane fires, 158\n\nKeating, W. H., quoted, i. 89\n\nKei Islands, birth-custom in the, ii. 155\n\nKeitele, Lake, in Finland, ii. 165\n\nKemble, J. M., on need-fire, i. 288\n\nKerry, Midsummer fires in, i. 203\n\n_Kersavondblok_, the Yule log, i. 249\n\n_Kersmismot_, the Yule log, i. 249\n\nKhambu caste in Sikkhim, their custom after a funeral, ii. 18\n\nKharwars of Mirzapur, their dread of menstruous women, i. 84\n\nKhasis of Assam, story of the external soul told by the, i. 146 _sq._\n\nKhnumu, Egyptian god, fashions a wife for Bata, ii. 135\n\nKhonds, human sacrifices among the, ii. 286 _n._ 2\n\nKia blacks of Queensland, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 39\n\nKidd, Dudley, on external souls of chiefs, ii. 156 _n._ 2\n\nKildare, Midsummer fires in, i. 203\n\nKilkenny, Midsummer fires in, i. 203\n\nKillin, the hill of the fires at, i. 149\n\nKilling a totem animal, ii. 220\n\n\u2014\u2014 the novice and bringing him to life again at initiation, pretence of,\n            ii. 225\n\nKing, nominal, chosen at Midsummer, i. 194, ii. 25;\n  presides at summer bonfire, 38\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Queen of Roses, i. 195\n\n\u2014\u2014 of the Bean, i. 153 _n._ 3\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Summer chosen on St. Peter\u2019s Day, i. 195\n\n\u2014\u2014 of the Wood at Nemi put to death, i. 2;\n  in the Arician grove a personification of an oak-spirit, ii. 285;\n  the priest of Diana at Aricia, perhaps personified Jupiter, 302 _sq._\n  _See also_ Kings\n\nKingaru, clan of the Wadoe, ii. 313\n\nKings, sacred or divine, put to death, i. 1 _sq._;\n  subject to taboos, 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 and priests, their sanctity analogous to the uncleanness of women at\n            menstruation, i. 97 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Uganda, their life bound up with barkcloth trees, ii. 160\n\n_Kings, The Epic of_, i. 104\n\nKingsley, Miss Mary H., on external or bush souls, ii. 204 _sq._;\n  on rites of initiation in West Africa, 259\n\nKingussie, in Inverness-shire, Beltane cakes at, i. 153\n\nKinship created by the milk-tie, ii. 138 _n._ 1\n\nKirchmeyer, Thomas, author of _Regnum Papisticum_, i. 124, 125 _n._ 1;\n  his account of Midsummer customs, 162 _sq._\n\nKirghiz story of girl who might not see the sun, i. 74\n\nKirk Andreas, in the Isle of Man, i. 306\n\nKirkmichael, in Perthshire, Beltane fires and cakes at, i. 153\n\nKirton Lindsey, in Lincolnshire, i. 318;\n  medical use of mistletoe at, ii. 84\n\nKitching, Rev. A. L., on cure for lightning stroke, ii. 298 _n._ 2\n\nKiwai, island off New Guinea, use of bull-roarers in, ii. 232\n\nKiziba, to the west of Victoria Nyanza, theory of the afterbirth in, ii.\n            162 _n._ 2\n\nKloo, in the Queen Charlotte Islands, i. 45\n\nKnawel, St. John\u2019s blood on root of, ii. 56\n\nKnife, divination by, i. 241;\n  soul of child bound up with, ii. 157;\n  \u201cDarding Knife,\u201d honorific totem of the Carrier Indians, 273, 274 _sq._\n\n_Kobong_, totem, in Western Australia, ii. 219 _sq._\n\nK\u00f6hler, Joh., lights need-fire and burnt as a witch, i. 270 _sq._\n\nK\u00f6hler, Reinhold, on the external soul in folk-tales, ii. 97 _n._\n\nKolelo, in East Africa, ii. 313\n\nKonz on the Moselle, custom of rolling a burning wheel down hill at, i.\n            118, 163 _sq._, 337 _sq._\n\nKooboos of Sumatra, their theory of the afterbirth and navel-string, ii.\n            162 _n._ 2\n\nKoppenwal, church of St. Corona at, ii. 188 _sq._\n\nKoran, passage of, used as a charm, i. 18\n\nKoryaks, their festivals of the dead and subsequent purification, ii. 178;\n  their custom in time of pestilence, 179\n\nKoshchei the Deathless, Russian story of, ii. 108 _sqq._\n\nKoskimo Indians of British Columbia, use of bull-roarers among the, ii.\n            229 _n._\n\nKreemer, J., on the Looboos of Sumatra, ii. 182 _sq._\n\nKroeber, A. L., quoted, i. 41 _sq._\n\nKruijt, A. C., on Toradja custom as to the working of iron, ii. 154 _n._ 3\n\n_Kuga_, an evil spirit, i. 282\n\nKuhn, Adalbert, on need-fire, i. 273;\n  on Midsummer fire, 335;\n  on the divining-rod, ii. 67\n\nK\u00fchnau, R., on precautions against witches in Silesia, ii. 20 _n._\n\nKukunjevac, in Slavonia, need-fire at, i. 282\n\nKulin nation of South-Eastern Australia, sex totems in the, ii. 216\n\n\u2014\u2014 tribe of Victoria, ii. 226 _n._ 1\n\nKumaon, in North-West India, the Holi festival in, ii. 2\n\nKupalo, image of, burnt or thrown into stream on St. John\u2019s Night, i. 176;\n  effigy of, carried across fire and thrown into water, ii. 5, 23\n\nKupalo\u2019s Night, Midsummer Eve, i. 175, 176\n\nKurnai, a tribe of Gippsland, sex totems and fights concerning them among\n            the, ii. 215 _n._ 1, 216\n\nK\u00fcstendil, in Bulgaria, need-fire at, i. 281\n\nKwakiutl, Indians of British Columbia, their story of an ogress whose life\n            was in a hemlock branch, ii. 152;\n  pass through a hemlock ring in time of epidemic, 186\n\nKylenagranagh, the hill of, in Ireland, i. 324\n\nLa Manche, in Normandy, Lenten fire-custom in, i. 115\n\nLa Paz, in Bolivia, Midsummer fires at, i. 213;\n  Midsummer flowers at, ii. 50 _sq._\n\nLacaune, belief as to mistletoe at, ii. 83\n\nLachlan River, in Australia, ii. 233\n\nLachlins of Rum and deer, superstition concerning, ii. 284\n\nLadyday, ii. 282\n\nLahn, the Yule log in the valley of the, i. 248\n\nLamb burnt alive to save the rest of the flock, i. 301\n\nLammas, the first of August, superstitious practice at, i. 98 _n._ 1\n\n_Lamoa_, gods in Poso, ii. 154\n\nLancashire, Hallowe\u2019en customs in, i. 244 _sq._\n\nLandak, district of Dutch Borneo, i. 5, ii. 164\n\nLanercost, Chronicle of, i. 286\n\nLang, Andrew, on the fire-walk, ii. 2 _n._ 1;\n  on the bull-roarer, 228 _n._ 2\n\nLanguage of animals learned by means of fern-seed, ii. 66 _n._\n\n_L\u2019\u00e1n\u1e63\u0103ra_ (_El An\u1e63arah_), Midsummer Day in North Africa, i. 213, 214 _n._\n\nLanyon, in Cornwall, holed stone near, ii. 187\n\nLaon, Midsummer fires near, i. 187\n\nLaos, custom of elephant hunters in, i. 5;\n  the natives of, their doctrine of the plurality of souls, ii. 222\n\nLapps, their rule as to menstruous women, i. 91;\n  their story of the external soul, ii. 140 _sq._;\n  their custom of shooting arrows at skin of dead bear, 280 _n._\n\nLarkspur, looking at Midsummer bonfires through bunches of, i. 163, 165\n            _sq._\n\nLarrakeeyah tribe of South Australia, their treatment of girls at puberty,\n            i. 38\n\nLaurus and Florus, feast of, on August 18th, i. 220\n\nLausitz, Midsummer fires in, i. 170;\n  marriage oaks in, ii. 165\n\nLawgivers, ancient, on the uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 95\n            _sq._\n\nLead, melted, divination by, i. 242\n\nLeaf-clad mummer on Midsummer Day, ii. 25 _sq._\n\nLeaping over bonfires to ensure good crops, i. 107;\n  as a preventive of colic, 107, 195 _sq._, 344;\n  to make the flax grow tall, 119, 165, 166, 166 _sq._, 168, 173, 174,\n              337;\n  to ensure a happy marriage, 107, 108;\n  to ensure a plentiful harvest, 155, 156;\n  to be free from backache at reaping, 165, 168;\n  as a preventive of fever, 166, 173, 194;\n  for luck, 171, 189;\n  in order to be free from ague, 174;\n  in order to marry and have many children, 204, 338 _sq._;\n  as cure of sickness, 214;\n  to procure offspring, 214, 338;\n  over ashes of fire as remedy for skin diseases, ii. 2;\n  after a burial to escape the ghost, 18;\n  a panacea for almost all ills, 20;\n  as a protection against witchcraft, 40\n\nLeaping of women over the Midsummer bonfires to ensure an easy delivery,\n            i. 194, 339\n\nLeaps of lovers over the Midsummer bonfires, i. 165, 166, 168, 174\n\nLeather, Mrs. Ella Mary, on the Yule log, i. 257 _sq._\n\nLebanon, peasants of the, their dread of menstruous women, i. 83 _sq._\n\nLech, Midsummer fires in the valley of the, i. 166\n\nLechrain, the divining rod in, ii. 68\n\nLecky, W. E. H., on the treatment of magic and witchcraft by the Christian\n            Church, ii. 42 _n._ 2\n\nLee, the laird of, his \u201ccureing stane,\u201d i. 325\n\n_Leeting_ the witches, i. 245\n\nLegends of persons who could not die, i. 99 _sq._\n\nLegs and thighs of diseased cattle cut off and hung up as a remedy, i. 296\n            _n._ 1, 325\n\nLeine, river, i. 124\n\nLeinster, Midsummer fires in, i. 203\n\nLeitrim, Midsummer fires in County, i. 203;\n  divination at Hallowe\u2019en in, 242;\n  need-fire in, 297;\n  witch as hare in, 318\n\nLemnos, worship of Hephaestus in, i. 138\n\nLemon, external souls of ogres in a, ii. 102\n\nLengua Indians of the Paraguayan Chaco, i. 75 _n._ 2;\n  seclusion of girls at puberty among the, 56;\n  masquerade of boys among, 57 _n._ 1\n\nLent, the first Sunday in, fire-festival on, i. 107 _sqq._;\n  bonfires on, 107 _sqq._\n\nLenten fires, i. 106 _sqq._\n\nLenz, H. O., on ancient names for mistletoe, ii. 318\n\nLeobsch\u00fctz, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170\n\nLeonard, Major A. G., on souls of people in animals, ii. 206 _n._ 2\n\nLeopard the commonest familiar of Fan wizards, ii. 202\n\nLeopards, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. 201, 202, 203, 204,\n            205, 206;\n  external human souls in, 207\n\nLerwick, Christmas _guizing_ at, i. 268 _sq._;\n  procession with lighted tar-barrels on Christmas Eve at, 268;\n  celebration of Up-helly-a\u2019 at, 269 _n._ 1\n\nLesachthal (Carinthia), new fire at Easter in the, i. 124\n\nLesbos, fires on St. John\u2019s Eve in, i. 211 _sq._\n\nLeslie, David, on Caffre belief as to spirits of the dead incarnate in\n            serpents, ii. 211 _n._ 2, 212 _n._\n\nL\u2019\u00c9toile, Lenten fires at, i. 113\n\nLettermore Island, Midsummer fires in, i. 203\n\nLetts of Russia, Midsummer fires among the, i. 177 _sq._;\n  gather aromatic plants on Midsummer Day, ii. 50\n\nLewis, Professor W. J., i. 127 _n._ 1\n\nLewis, island of, custom of fiery circle in the, i. 151 _n._;\n  need-fire in the, 293\n\n_Lexicon Mythologicum_, author of, on the Golden Bough, ii. 284 _n._ 3\n\nLhwyd, Edward, on snake stones, i. 16 _n._ 1\n\nLicense, annual period of, i. 135;\n  at Midsummer festival, 180, 339\n\nLi\u00e8ge, Lenten fires near, i. 108\n\nLierre, in Belgium, the witches\u2019 Sabbath at, ii. 73\n\nLife of community bound up with life of divine king, i. 1 _sq._;\n  the water of, ii. 114 _sq._;\n  of woman bound up with ornament, 156;\n  of a man bound up with the capital of a column, 156 _sq._;\n  of a man bound up with fire in hut, 157;\n  of child bound up with knife, 157;\n  of children bound up with trees, 160 _sqq._;\n  the divisibility of, 221.\n  _See also_ Soul\n\n\u2014\u2014 -indices, trees and plants as, ii. 160 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -tokens in fairy tales, ii. 118 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 -tree of the Manchu dynasty at Peking, ii. 167 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -trees of kings of Uganda, ii. 160\n\nLigho, a heathen deity of the Letts, i. 177, 178 _n._ 1\n\nLight, girls at puberty not allowed to see the, i. 57;\n  external soul of witch in a, ii. 116\n\nLightning, charred sticks of Easter fire used as a talisman against, i.\n            121, 124, 140 _sq._, 145, 146;\n  the Easter candle a talisman against, 122;\n  brands of the Midsummer bonfires a protection against, 166 _n._ 1, 183;\n  flowers thrown on roofs at Midsummer as a protection against, 169;\n  charred sticks of bonfires a protection against, 174, 187, 188, 190;\n  ashes of Midsummer fires a protection against, 187, 188, 190;\n  torches interpreted as imitations of, 340 _n._ 1;\n  bonfires a protection against, 344;\n  a magical coal a protection against, ii. 61;\n  pine-tree struck by, used to make bull-roarer, 231;\n  superstitions about trees struck by, 296 _sqq._;\n  thought to be caused by a great bird, 297;\n  strikes oaks oftener than any other tree of the European forests, 298\n              _sq._;\n  regarded as a god descending out of heaven, 298;\n  mode of treating persons who have been struck by, 298 _n._ 2;\n  places struck by lightning enclosed and deemed sacred, 299.\n  _See also_ Thunder\n\nLightning and thunder, the Yule log a protection against, i. 248, 249,\n            250, 252, 253, 254, 258, 264;\n  mountain arnica a protection against, ii. 57 _sq._\n\nLillooet Indians of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among\n            the, i. 52 _sq._\n\nLimburg, processions, with torches in, i. 107 _sq._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 194;\n  the Yule log in, 249\n\nLime-kiln in divination, i. 235, 243\n\n\u2014\u2014 -tree, the bloom of the, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 49;\n  mistletoe on limes, 315, 316\n\n\u2014\u2014 -wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 281, 283, 286\n\nLincolnshire, the Yule log in, i. 257;\n  witches as cats and hares in, 318;\n  calf buried to stop a murrain in, 326;\n  mistletoe a remedy for epilepsy and St. Vitus\u2019s dance in, ii. 83 _sq._\n\nLindenbrog, on need-fire, i. 335 _n._ 1\n\nLint seed, divination by, i. 235\n\nLiongo, an African Samson, ii. 314\n\nLion, the sun in the sign of the, ii. 66 _sq._\n\nLismore, witch as hare in, i. 316 _sq._\n\nLithuania, Midsummer fires in, i. 176;\n  sanctuary at Romove in, ii. 91\n\nLithuanians, their custom before first ploughing in spring, i. 18;\n  their worship of the oak, ii. 89;\n  their story of the external soul, 113 _sqq._\n\nLives of a family bound up with a fish, ii. 200;\n  with a cat, 150 _sq._\n\nLiving fire made by friction of wood, i. 220;\n  the need-fire, 281, 286\n\nLivonia, story of a were-wolf in, i. 308\n\nLivonians cull simples on Midsummer Day, ii. 49 _sq._\n\nLizard, external soul in, ii. 199 _n._ 1;\n  sex totem in the Port Lincoln tribe of South Australia, 216;\n  said to have divided the sexes in the human species, 216\n\nLoaf thrown into river Neckar on St. John\u2019s Day, ii. 28\n\nLoango, rule as to infants in, i. 5;\n  girls secluded at puberty in, 22\n\nLoch Katrine, i. 231\n\n\u2014\u2014 Tay, i. 232\n\nLock and key in a charm, i. 283\n\nLocks opened by springwort, ii. 70;\n  and by the white flower of chicory, 71;\n  mistletoe a master-key to open all, 85\n\nLocust, a Batta totem, ii. 223\n\nLog, the Yule, i. 247 _sqq._\n\nLogierait, in Perthshire, Beltane festival in, i. 152 _sq._;\n  Hallowe\u2019en fires in, 231 _sq._\n\nLoiret, Lenten fires in the department of, i. 114\n\nLoki and Balder, i. 101 _sq._\n\nLokoja on the Niger, ii. 209\n\nLombardy, belief as to the \u201coil of St. John\u201d on St. John\u2019s Morning in, ii.\n            82 _sq._\n\nLondon, the immortal girl of, i. 99;\n  Midsummer fires in, 196 _sq._\n\nLongridge Fell, _leeting_ the witches at, i. 245\n\nLooboos of Sumatra creep through a cleft rattan to escape a demon, ii. 182\n            _sq._\n\nLooking at bonfires through mugwort a protection against headache and sore\n            eyes, ii. 59\n\n_Loranthus europaeus_, a species of mistletoe, ii. 315, 317 _sqq._;\n  called \u201coak mistletoe\u201d (_visco quercino_) in Italy, 317\n\n\u2014\u2014 _vestitus_, in India, ii. 317\n\nLord of the Wells at Midsummer, ii. 28\n\nLorne, the Beltane cake in, i. 149\n\nLorraine, Midsummer fires in, i. 169;\n  the Yule log in, 253;\n  Midsummer customs in, ii. 47\n\nLoudoun, in Ayrshire, i. 207\n\nLouis XIV. at Midsummer bonfire in Paris, ii. 39\n\nLove-charm of arrows, i. 14\n\nLovers leap over the Midsummer bonfires, i. 165, 166, 168, 174\n\nLow Countries, the Yule log in the, i. 249\n\nLowell, Percival, his fire-walk, ii. 10 _n._ 1\n\nL\u00fcbeck, church of St. Mary at, i. 100\n\nLucerne, Lenten fire-custom in the canton of, i. 118 _sq._;\n  bathing at Midsummer in, ii. 30\n\nLuchon, in the Pyrenees, serpents burnt alive at the Midsummer festival\n            in, ii. 38 _sq._, 43\n\nLucian, on the Platonic doctrine of the soul, ii. 221 _n._ 1\n\nLuck, leaping over the Midsummer fires for good, i. 171, 189\n\nLuckiness of the right hand, i. 151\n\nLunar calendar of Mohammedans, i. 216 _sq._, 218 _sq._\n\nLungs or liver of bewitched animal burnt or boiled to compel the witch to\n            appear, i. 321 _sq._\n\nLushais of Assam, sick children passed through a coil among the, ii. 185\n            _sq._\n\nLussac, in Poitou, Midsummer fires at, i. 191\n\nLuther, Martin, burnt in effigy at Midsummer, i. 167, 172 _sq._, ii. 23\n\nLuxemburg, \u201cBurning the Witch\u201d in, ii. 116\n\n_Lythrum salicaria_, purple loosestrife, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 65\n\nMabuiag, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 36 _sq._;\n  dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in, 78 _sq._;\n  girls at puberty in, 92 _n._ 1;\n  belief as to a species of mistletoe in, ii. 79\n\nMac Crauford, the great arch witch, i. 293\n\nMacassar in Celebes, magical unguent in, i. 14\n\nMacdonald, Rev. James, on the story of Headless Hugh, ii. 131 _n._ 1;\n  on external soul in South Africa, 156\n\nMacdonell, A. A., on Agni, ii. 296\n\nMcDougall, W., and C. Hose, on creeping through a cleft stick after a\n            funeral, ii. 176 _n._ 1\n\nMacedonia, Midsummer fires among the Greeks of, i. 212;\n  bonfires on August 1st in, 220;\n  need-fire among the Serbs of Western, 281;\n  St. John\u2019s flower at Midsummer in, ii. 50\n\nMacedonian peasantry burn effigies of Judas at Easter, i. 131\n\nMcGregor, A. W., on the rite of new birth among the Akikuyu, ii. 263\n\nMackay, Alexander, on need-fire, i. 294 _sq._\n\nMackays, sept of the \u201cdescendants of the seal,\u201d ii. 131 _sq._\n\nMackenzie, E., on need-fire, i. 288\n\nMackenzie, Sheriff David J., i. 268 _n._ 1\n\nMacphail, John, on need-fire, i. 293 _sq._\n\nMacusis of British Guiana, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 60\n\nMadangs of Borneo, custom observed by them after a funeral, ii. 175 _sq._\n\nMadern, parish of, Cornwall, holed stone in, ii. 187\n\nMadonie Mountains, in Sicily, Midsummer fires on the, i. 210\n\nMadras Presidency, the fire-walk in the, ii. 6\n\nMadura, the Kappiliyans of, i. 69;\n  the Parivarams of, 69\n\nMaeseyck, processions with torches at, i. 107 _sq._\n\nMagic, homoeopathic or imitative, i. 49, 133, 329, ii. 231, 287;\n  dwindles into divination, i. 336;\n  movement of thought from magic through religion to science, ii. 304\n              _sq._\n\nMagic and ghosts, mugwort a protection against, ii. 59\n\n\u2014\u2014 and science, different views of natural order postulated by the two,\n            ii. 305 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 flowers of Midsummer Eve, ii. 45 _sqq._\n\nMagical bone in sorcery, i. 14\n\n\u2014\u2014 implements not allowed to touch the ground, i. 14 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 influence of medicine-bag, ii. 268\n\n\u2014\u2014 virtues of plants at Midsummer apparently derived from the sun, ii. 71\n            _sq._\n\nMagician\u2019s apprentice, Danish story of the, ii. 121 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 Glass, the, i. 16\n\nMagyars, Midsummer fires among the, i. 178 _sq._;\n  stories of the external soul among the, ii. 139 _sq._\n\n_Mahabharata_, Draupadi and her five husbands in the, ii. 7\n\n\u201cMaiden-flax\u201d at Midsummer, ii. 48\n\nMaidu Indians of California, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i.\n            42;\n  their notion as to fire in trees, ii. 295;\n  their idea of lightning, 298\n\nMaimonides, on the seclusion of menstruous women, i. 83\n\nMakalanga, a Bantu tribe, i. 135 _n._ 2\n\n_Makral_, \u201cthe witch,\u201d i. 107\n\nMalabar, the Iluvans of, i. 5;\n  the Tiyans of, 68\n\nMalassi, a fetish in West Africa, ii. 256\n\nMalay belief as to sympathetic relation between man and animal, ii. 197\n\n\u2014\u2014 story of the external soul, ii. 147 _sq._\n\nMalayo-Siamese families of the Patani States, their custom as to the\n            afterbirth, ii. 163 _sq._\n\nMalays of the Peninsula, their doctrine of the plurality of souls, ii. 222\n\nMale and female souls in Chinese philosophy, ii. 221\n\nMalkin Tower, witches at the, i. 245\n\nMalta, fires on St. John\u2019s Eve in, i. 210 _sq._\n\n_Malurus cyaneus_, superb warbler, women\u2019s \u201csister,\u201d among the Kurnai, ii.\n            216\n\nMan and animal, sympathetic relation between, ii. 272 _sq._\n\nMan, the Isle of, Midsummer fires in, i. 201, 337;\n  old New Year\u2019s Day in, 224 _sq._;\n  Hallowe\u2019en customs in, 243 _sq._;\n  bonfires on St. Thomas\u2019s Day in, 266;\n  cattle burnt alive to stop a murrain in, 325 _sqq._;\n  mugwort gathered on Midsummer Eve in, ii. 59.\n  _See also_ Isle of Man\n\nManchu dynasty, the life-tree of the, ii. 167 _sq._\n\nMandragora, \u201cthe hand of glory,\u201d ii. 316\n\nMang\u2019anje woman, her external soul, ii. 157\n\nMango tree, festival of wild, i. 7 _sqq._;\n  ceremony for the fertilization of the, 10\n\n_Manitoo_, personal totem, ii. 273 _n._ 1\n\nMannhardt, W., on fire-customs, i. 106 _n._ 3;\n  on burning leaf-clad representative of spirit of vegetation, 25;\n  his theory that the fires of the fire-festivals are charms to secure\n              sunshine, 329, 331 _sqq._;\n  on torches as imitations of lightning, 340 _n._ 1;\n  on the Hirpi Sorani, ii. 15 _n._;\n  on the human victims sacrificed by the Celts, 33;\n  his theory of the Druidical sacrifices, 43;\n  his solar theory of the bonfires at the European fire-festivals, 72;\n  on killing a cock on the harvest-field, 280 _n._\n\n_Mantis religiosus_, a totem, ii. 248 _n._\n\nManu, Hindoo lawgiver, on the uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 95;\n  the Laws of, on the three births of the Aryan, ii. 276 _sq._\n\nManx mummers at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 224\n\nMaoris, birth-trees among the, ii. 163\n\nMara tribe of Northern Australia, initiation of medicine-men in the, ii.\n            239\n\n_Marake_, an ordeal of being stung by ants and wasps, i. 63 _sq._\n\nMarcellus of Bordeaux, his medical treatise, i. 17\n\nMarch, the month of, the fire-walk in, ii. 6;\n  mistletoe cut at the full moon of, 84, 86\n\n\u2014\u2014 moon, woodbine cut in the increase of the, ii. 184\n\n_Margas_, exogamous totemic clans of the Battas of Sumatra, ii. 222 _sq._\n\nMarilaun, A. Kerner von, on mistletoe, ii. 318 _n._ 6\n\nMarjoram burnt at Midsummer, i. 214;\n  gathered at Midsummer, ii. 51;\n  a talisman against witchcraft, 74\n\nMark of Brandenburg, need-fire in the, i. 273;\n  simples culled at Midsummer in the, ii. 48;\n  St. John\u2019s blood in the, 56;\n  the divining-rod in the, 67\n\nMarotse. _See_ Barotse\n\nMarquesas Islands, the fire-walk in the, ii. 11\n\nMarriage, leaping over bonfires to ensure a happy, i. 107, 108, 110;\n  omens of, drawn from Midsummer bonfires, 168, 174, 178, 185, 189;\n  omens of, drawn from bonfires, 338 _sq._;\n  omens of, from flowers, ii. 52 _sq._, 61;\n  oak-trees planted at, 165\n\nMarried, the person last, lights the bonfire, i. 107, 109, 111, 119, 339;\n  young man last married provides wheel to be burnt, 116;\n  the person last married officiates at Midsummer fire, 192;\n  men married within the year collect fuel for Midsummer fire, 192 _sq._;\n  married men kindle need-fire, 289;\n  last married bride made to leap over bonfire, ii. 22\n\nMars and Silvia, ii. 105\n\nMarsaba, a devil who swallows lads at initiation, ii. 246\n\nMarseilles, drenching people with water at Midsummer in, i. 193;\n  Midsummer king of the double-axe at, 194;\n  the Yule log at, 250;\n  Midsummer flowers at, ii. 46\n\nMarshall Islands, belief in the external soul in the, ii. 200\n\nMarsi, the ancient, i. 209\n\nMartin of Urzedow, i. 177\n\nMartin, M., on _dessil_ (_deiseal_), i. 151 _n._;\n  on need-fire, 289\n\nMarwaris, of India, Holi festival among the, ii. 2 _sq._\n\nMarxberg, the, on the Moselle, i. 118\n\nMasai, peace-making ceremony among the, ii. 139 _n._\n\nMask, not to wear a, i. 4\n\nMasked dances, bull-roarers used at, ii. 230 _n._\n\nMasks worn by girls at puberty, i. 31, 52;\n  worn at Duk-duk ceremonies in New Britain, ii. 247;\n  worn by members of a secret society, 270, 271\n\nMasquerade of boys among the Lengua Indians, i. 57 _n._ 1\n\nMasuren, a district of Eastern Prussia, Midsummer fire kindled by the\n            revolution of a wheel at, i. 177, 335 _sq._;\n  divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, ii. 52, 53;\n  divination by orpine at Midsummer in, 61;\n  camomile gathered at Midsummer in, 63;\n  fire kindled by friction of oak at Midsummer in, 91\n\nMatabeles fumigate their gardens, i. 337\n\nMatacos, Indian tribe of the Gran Chaco, their custom of secluding girls\n            at puberty, i. 58\n\nMataguayos, Indian tribe of the Gran Chaco, their custom of secluding\n            girls at puberty, i. 58\n\nMatthes, B. F., on sympathetic relation between man and animal, ii. 197\n            _n._ 4\n\nMauhes, Indians of Brazil, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 59;\n  ordeal of young men among the, 62\n\nMaundy Thursday, i. 125 _n._ 1\n\nMaurer, Konrad, on Icelandic story of the external soul, ii. 125 _n._ 1\n\nMay Day in the Isle of Man, i. 157;\n  sheep burnt as a sacrifice on, 306;\n  witches active on, ii. 19, 184 _n._ 4, 185\n\n\u2014\u2014, Eve of, Snake Stones thought to be formed on, i. 15;\n  a witching time, 295;\n  witches active on, ii. 73\n\nMay-tree carried about, i. 120, ii. 22\n\nMayo, County, story of Guleesh in, i. 228\n\nM\u2019Bengas of the Gaboon, birth-trees among the, ii. 160\n\nMbengga, in Fiji, the fire-walk in, ii. 10 _sq._\n\nMeakin, Budgett, on Midsummer fires in Morocco, i. 214 _n._\n\nMeath, County, Hill of Ward in, i. 139;\n  Uisnech in, 158\n\nMeaux, Midsummer bonfires in the diocese of, i. 182\n\nMecklenburg, need-fire in, i. 274 _sq._;\n  simples gathered at Midsummer in, ii. 48;\n  mugwort at Midsummer in, 60;\n  the divining-rod in, 67;\n  treatment of the afterbirth in, 165;\n  children passed through a cleft oak as a cure in, 171 _sq._;\n  custom of striking blindfold at a half-buried cock in, 279 _n._ 4\n\nMedicine-bag, instrument of pretended death and resurrection at\n            initiation, ii. 268 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -man in Australia, initiation of, ii. 237 _sqq._\n\nMegara besieged by Minos, ii. 103\n\nMeinersen, in Hanover, i. 275\n\nMeissen or Thuringia, horse\u2019s head thrown into Midsummer fire in, ii. 40\n\nMelanesian conception of the external soul, ii. 197 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Papuan stocks in New Guinea, ii. 239\n\nMeleager and the firebrand, story of, ii. 103;\n  and the olive-leaf, 103 _n._ 2\n\nMelur, in the Neilgherry Hills, the fire-walk at, ii. 8 _sq._\n\nMen disguised as women, i. 107\n\n\u2014\u2014 and women eat apart, i. 81\n\n_M\u00ean-an-tol_, \u201choled stone\u201d in Cornwall, ii. 187\n\nMenomini Indians, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. 268 _n._\n            1\n\nMenstruation, seclusion of girls at the first, i. 22 _sqq._;\n  the first, attributed to defloration by a spirit, 24;\n  reasons for secluding women at, 97\n\nMenstruous blood, the dread of, i. 76.\n  _See also_ Blood\n\n\u2014\u2014 energy, beneficent applications of, i. 98 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 fluid, medicinal applications of the, i. 98 _n._ 1\n\nMenstruous women keep their heads or faces covered, i. 22, 24, 25, 29, 31,\n            44 _sq._, 48 _sq._, 55, 90, 92;\n  not allowed to cross or bathe in rivers, 77;\n  not allowed to go near water, 77;\n  supposed to spoil fisheries, 77, 78, 90 _sq._, 93;\n  painted red, or red and white, 78;\n  not allowed to use the ordinary paths, 78, 80, 84, 89, 90;\n  not allowed to approach the sea, 79;\n  not allowed to enter cultivated fields, 79;\n  obliged to occupy special huts, 79, 82, 85 _sqq._;\n  supposed to spoil crops, 79, 96;\n  not allowed to cook, 80, 82, 84, 90;\n  not allowed to drink milk, 80, 84;\n  not allowed to handle salt, 81 _sq._, 84;\n  kept from wells, 81, 82, 97;\n  obliged to use separate doors, 84;\n  not allowed to lie on high beds, 84;\n  not allowed to touch or see fire, 84, 85;\n  not allowed to cross the tracks of animals, 84, 91, 93;\n  excluded from religious ceremonies, 85;\n  not allowed to eat with men, 85, 90;\n  thought to spoil the luck of hunters, 87, 89, 90, 91, 94;\n  not allowed to ride horses, 88 _sq._, 96;\n  not allowed to walk on ice of rivers and lakes, 90;\n  dangers to which they are thought to be exposed, 94;\n  not allowed to touch beer, wine or vinegar, 96;\n  not allowed to salt or pickle meat, 96 _n._ 2;\n  not allowed to cross running streams, 97;\n  not allowed to draw water at wells, 97;\n  used to protect fields against insects, 98 _n._ 1\n  dreaded and secluded in Australia, i. 76 _sqq._,\n  in the Torres Straits Islands, 78 _sq._,\n  in New Guinea, 79,\n  in Galela, 79,\n  in Sumatra, 79,\n  in Africa, 79 _sqq._,\n  among the Jews and in Syria, 83 _sq._,\n  in India, 84 _sq._,\n  in Annam, 85,\n  in America, 85 _sqq._\n\nMequinez, Midsummer custom at, i. 216\n\nMerolla, J., on seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 31 _n._ 3\n\nMerrakech, in Morocco, Midsummer custom at, i. 216;\n  New Year fires at, 217\n\nMesopotamia, Atrae in, i. 82\n\nMespelaer, St. Peter\u2019s fires at, i. 195\n\nMessaria, in Cythnos, ii. 189\n\nMetz, F., on the fire-walk, ii. 9\n\nMetz, cats burnt alive in Midsummer fire at, ii. 39\n\nMexican ceremony of new fire, i. 132\n\n\u2014\u2014 representation of the sun as a wheel, i. 334 _n._ 1\n\nMexico, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, i. 127 _sq._;\n  the Zapotecs of, ii. 212\n\nMichael, in the Isle of Man, i. 307\n\nMichaelmas, cakes baked at, i. 149.\n  _See also_ St. Michael\n\nMichemis, a Tibetan tribe, a funeral ceremony among the, i. 5\n\nMiddle Ages, the Yule log in the, i. 252;\n  the need-fire in the, 270\n\nMidsummer, wells crowned with flowers at, ii. 28;\n  bathing at, 29 _sq._;\n  sacred to Balder, 87.\n  _See also_ St. John\u2019s Day\n\n\u2014\u2014 bonfire called \u201cfire of heaven,\u201d i. 334;\n  intended to drive away dragons, 161\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 Brooms\u201d in Sweden, ii. 54\n\n\u2014\u2014 Day, charm for fig-trees on, i. 18;\n  water claims human victims on, 26 _sqq._;\n  in ancient Rome, 178;\n  regarded as unlucky, ii. 29\n\n\u2014\u2014 Eve, Snake Stones thought to be formed on, i. 15;\n  Trolls and evil spirits abroad on, 172;\n  witches active on, ii. 19;\n  the season for gathering wonderful herbs and flowers, 45 _sqq._;\n  the magic flowers of, 45 _sqq._;\n  divination on, 46 _n._ 3, 50, 52 _sqq._, 61, 64, 67 _sqq._;\n  dreams of love on, 52, 54;\n  fernseed blooms at, 65, 287;\n  the divining-rod cut at, 67 _sqq._;\n  activity of witches and warlocks on, 73 _sqq._;\n  treasures bloom in the earth on, 288 _n._ 5;\n  the oak thought to bloom on, 292, 293\n\n\u2014\u2014 festival common to peoples on both sides of the Mediterranean, i. 219,\n            ii. 31;\n  the most important of the year among the primitive Aryans of Europe, 40;\n  its relation to Druidism, 45\n\n\u2014\u2014 fires, i. 160 _sqq._;\n  in Wales, 156\n\n\u2014\u2014 flowers and plants used as talismans against witchcraft, ii. 72\n\n\u2014\u2014 Men, orpine, ii. 61\n\n\u2014\u2014 mummers clad in green fir branches, ii. 25 _sq._\n\nMidwinter fires, i. 246 _sqq._\n\nMijatovich, Chedo, on the _Zadrooga_ or Servian house-community, i. 259\n            _n._ 1\n\nMikado not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 2 _sq._;\n  the sun not allowed to shine on him, 18 _sq._\n\nMilk, girls at puberty forbidden to drink, i. 22, 30;\n  libations of, 30;\n  not to be drunk by menstruous women, 80, 84;\n  stolen by witches from cows, 176, 343, ii. 74;\n  omens drawn from boiling, 8;\n  libations of, poured on fire, 8, 9;\n  libations of, poured into a stream, 9;\n  poured on sick cattle, 13\n\n\u2014\u2014 and butter thought to be improved by the Midsummer fires, i. 180;\n  stolen by witches at Midsummer, 185;\n  witchcraft fatal to, ii. 86\n\n\u2014\u2014 -tie as a bond of kinship, ii. 138 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 -vessels not to be touched by menstruous women, i. 80\n\nMilking cows through a hole in a branch or a \u201cwitch\u2019s nest,\u201d ii. 185\n\nMillaeus on judicial torture, ii. 158\n\nMiller\u2019s wife a witch, story of the, i. 319 _sq._\n\nMiming, a satyr of the woods, i. 103\n\nMinahassa, in Celebes, ceremony at a house-warming in, ii. 153\n\nMinangkabauers of Sumatra, their belief as to menstruous women, i. 79;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 229 _n._\n\nMinos, king of Crete, besieges Megara, ii. 103\n\nMint, flowers of, gathered on St. John\u2019s Day, ii. 51\n\nMirzapur, the Bhuiyars of, i. 84\n\nMisfortune burnt in Midsummer fires, i. 215;\n  got rid of by leaping over Midsummer fires, 215\n\nMissel-thrush and mistletoe, ii. 316\n\n\u201cMist-healing,\u201d Swiss expression for kindling a need-fire, i. 279\n\nMistletoe, the divining-rod made of, ii. 69, 291;\n  worshipped by the Druids, 76 _sq._, 301;\n  cut on the sixth day of the moon, 77;\n  makes barren animals and women to bring forth, 77, 78, 79;\n  cut with a golden sickle, 77, 80;\n  thought to have fallen from the sky, 77, 80;\n  called the \u201call-healer,\u201d 77, 79, 82;\n  an antidote to all poison, 77, 83;\n  gathered on the first day of the moon, 78;\n  not to touch the earth, 78, 80;\n  a cure for epilepsy, 78, 83, 84;\n  extinguishes fire, 78, 84 _sq._, 293;\n  venerated by the Ainos of Japan, 79;\n  growing on willow specially efficacious, 79;\n  confers invulnerability, 79 _sq._;\n  its position as a parasite on a tree the source of superstitions about\n              it, 80, 81, 84;\n  not to be cut but shot or knocked down with stones, 81 _sq._;\n  in the folk-lore of modern European peasants, 81 _sqq._;\n  medical virtues ascribed to, 82 _sqq._;\n  these virtues a pure superstition, 84;\n  cut when the sun is in Sagittarius, 82, 86;\n  growing on oak a panacea for green wounds, 83;\n  mystic qualities ascribed to mistletoe at Midsummer (St. John\u2019s Day or\n              Eve), 83, 86;\n  cut at the full moon of March, 84, 86;\n  called \u201cthunder-besom\u201d in Aargau, 85, 301;\n  a masterkey to open all locks, 85;\n  a protection against witchcraft, 85 _sq._;\n  given to first cow that calves after New Year, 86;\n  gathered especially at Midsummer, 86 _sq._;\n  grows on oaks in Sweden, 87;\n  ancient Italian belief that mistletoe could be destroyed neither by fire\n              nor water, 94;\n  Balder\u2019s life or death in the, 279, 283;\n  life of oak in, 280;\n  not allowed to touch the ground, 280;\n  a protection against witchcraft and Trolls, 282, 283, 294;\n  a protection against fairy changelings, 283;\n  hung over doors of stables and byres in Brittany, 287; thought to\n              disclose treasures in the earth, 287, 291 _sq._;\n  gathered at the solstices, Midsummer and Christmas, 291 _sqq._;\n  traditional privilege of, 291 _n._ 2;\n  growing on a hazel, 291 _n._ 3;\n  growing on a thorn, 291 _n._ 3;\n  life of the oak conceived to be in the, 292;\n  perhaps conceived as a germ or seed of fire, 292;\n  sanctity of mistletoe perhaps explained by the belief that the plant has\n              fallen on the tree in a flash of lightning, 301;\n  two species of, _Viscum album_ and _Loranthus europaeus_, 315 _sqq._;\n  found most commonly on apple-trees, 315, compare 316 _n._ 5;\n  growing on oaks in England, 316;\n  seeds of, deposited by missel-thrush, 316;\n  ancient names of, 317 _sq._;\n  Virgil on, 318 _sqq._;\n  Dutch names for, 319 _n._ 1\n\nMistletoe and Balder, i. 101 _sq._, ii. 76 _sqq._, 302\n\n\u2014\u2014 and the Golden Bough, ii. 315 _sqq._\n\nMitchell, Sir Arthur, on a barbarous cure for murrain, i. 326\n\nMithr, Armenian fire-god, i. 131 _n._ 3\n\nMithraic mysteries, initiation into the, ii. 277\n\n_Mizimu_, spirits of the dead, ii. 312\n\nMlanje, in British Central Africa, ii. 314\n\nMnasara tribe of Morocco, i. 214\n\nMogk, Professor Eugen, i. 330\n\nMohammedan calendar lunar, i. 216 _sq._, 218 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 New Year festival in North Africa, i. 217 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 peoples of North Africa, Midsummer fires among the, i. 213 _sqq._\n\nMoharram, first Mohammedan month, i. 217\n\nMoles and field-mice driven away by torches, i. 115, ii. 340\n\nMolsheim in Baden, i. 117\n\nMondays, witches dreaded on, ii. 73\n\nMongolian story, milk-tie in a, i. 138 _n._ 1;\n  the external soul in a, ii. 143 _sq._\n\nMonster supposed to swallow and disgorge novices at initiation, ii. 240\n            _sq._, 242\n\nMont des Fourches, in the Vosges, i. 318\n\nMontaigne on ceremonial extinction of fires, i. 135 _n._ 2\n\nMontanus, on the Yule log, i. 248\n\nMontenegro, the Yule log in, i. 263\n\nMontezuma not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 2\n\nMontols of Northern Nigeria, their belief in their sympathetic relation to\n            snakes, ii. 209 _sq._\n\nMoon, impregnation of women by the, i. 75 _sq._;\n  the sixth day of the, mistletoe cut on, 77;\n  the first day of the, mistletoe gathered on, 78;\n  the full, transformation of were-wolves at, 314 _n._ 1\n\nMooney, James, on Cherokee ideas as to trees struck by lightning, ii. 296\n\nMoore, _Manx Surnames,_ quoted by Sir John Rhys, i. 306\n\nMoors, their superstition as to the \u201csultan of the oleander,\u201d i. 18\n\nMoosheim, in Wurtemberg, leaf-clad mummer at, ii. 26\n\nMoravia, fires to burn the witches in, i. 160;\n  Midsummer fires in, 175;\n  the divining-rod in, ii. 67\n\nMoravians cull simples at Midsummer, ii. 49, 54\n\nMoray, remedy for a murrain in the county of, i. 326\n\nMorayshire, medical use of mistletoe in, ii. 84\n\nMorbihan in Brittany, ii. 287\n\nMoresin, Thomas, on St. Peter\u2019s fires in Scotland, i. 207\n\nMorice, Father A. G., on customs and beliefs of the Carrier Indians as to\n            menstruous women, i. 91 _sqq._;\n  on the honorific totems of the Carrier Indians, ii. 273 _sqq._\n\nMorlaks, the Yule log among the, i. 264\n\nMorlanwelz, bonfires at, i. 107\n\nMorning star, the rising of the, i. 40, 133\n\nMorocco, magical virtue ascribed to rain-water in, i. 17 _sq._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 213 _sqq._;\n  water thought to acquire marvellous virtue at Midsummer in, ii. 30\n              _sq._;\n  magical plants gathered at Midsummer in, 51\n\nMorven, i. 290;\n  consumptive people passed through rifted rocks in, ii. 186 _sq._\n\nMoscow, annual new fire in villages near, i. 139\n\nMoselle, bonfires on the, i. 109;\n  Konz on the, 118, 163 _sq._\n\nMoses on the uncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 95 _sq._\n\nMosquito territory, Central America, seclusion of menstruous women in the,\n            i. 86\n\nMota, in the New Hebrides, conception of the external soul in, ii. 197\n            _sq._\n\nMotherwort, garlands of, at Midsummer, i. 162\n\nMoulin, parish of, in Perthshire, Hallowe\u2019en fires in, i. 230\n\nMoulton, Professor J. H., on the etymology of Soranus, ii. 15 _n._ 1\n\nMountain arnica gathered at Midsummer, ii. 57 _sq._;\n  a protection against thunder, lightning, hail, and conflagration, 58\n\nMountain-ash, parasitic, used to make the divining rod, ii. 69;\n  mistletoe on, 315.\n  _See also_ Rowan\n\n\u2014\u2014 scaur, external soul in, ii. 156\n\nMourne Mountains, i. 159\n\nMourners tabooed, i. 20;\n  step over fire after funeral in China, ii. 17;\n  purified by fire, 17, 18 _sq._;\n  customs observed by, among the Bella Coola Indians, 174\n\nMourning, the great, for Isfendiyar, i. 105\n\nMouse-ear hawkweed (_Hieracium pilosella_) gathered at Midsummer, ii. 57\n\nMovement of thought from magic through religion to science, ii. 304 _sq._\n\nMugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_), wreaths of, at Midsummer, i. 163, 165,\n            174;\n  a preventive of sore eyes, 174;\n  a preservative against witchcraft, 177;\n  a protection against thunder, ghosts, magic, and witchcraft, ii. 59\n              _sq._;\n  gathered on Midsummer Day or Eve, ii. 58 _sqq._;\n  thrown into the Midsummer fires, 59;\n  used in exorcism, 60\n\nMull, the need-fire in, i. 148, 289 _sq._;\n  the Beltane cake in, 149;\n  remedy for cattle-disease in, 325;\n  consumptive people passed through rifted rocks in, ii. 186 _sq._\n\nMullein, sprigs of, passed across Midsummer fires protect cattle against\n            sickness and sorcery, i. 190;\n  bunches of, passed across Midsummer fires and fastened on cattle-shed,\n              191;\n  yellow (_Verbascum_), gathered at Midsummer, ii. 63 _sq._;\n  yellow hoary (_Verbascum pulverulentum_), its golden pyramid of blooms,\n              64;\n  great (_Verbascum thapsus_), called King\u2019s Candle or High Taper, 64\n\nMummers at Hallowe\u2019en in the Isle of Man, i. 224\n\nMunster, the King of, i. 139;\n  Midsummer fires in, 203\n\nM\u00fcnsterberg, precautions against witches in, ii. 20 _n._\n\nM\u00fcnsterland, Easter fires in, i. 141;\n  the Yule log in, 247\n\nMuralug, dread of women at menstruation in, i. 78\n\nMurderer, fire of oak-wood used to detect a, ii. 92 _n._ 4\n\nMurrain, need-fire kindled as a remedy for, i. 278, 282, 290 _sqq._;\n  burnt sacrifices to stay a, in England, Wales, and Scotland, 300 _sqq._;\n  calf burnt alive to stop a, 300 _sq._;\n  cattle buried to stop a, 326.\n  _See also_ Cattle disease\n\nMurray, the country of, i. 154 _n._ 1\n\nMurray River, in Australia, ii. 233;\n  natives of, their dread of menstruous women, i. 77\n\nMuskau, in Lausitz, marriage oaks at, ii. 165\n\nMyrtle-trees of the Patricians and Plebeians at Rome, ii. 168\n\nMyths dramatized in ritual, i. 105\n\nNa Ivilankata, a Fijian clan, ii. 10\n\nNagas of North-Eastern India, their ceremony of the new fire, i. 136\n\n_Nagual_, external soul, among the Indians of Guatemala and Honduras, ii.\n            212 _sqq._, 220, 226 _n._ 1\n\nNahuqua Indians of Brazil, their use of bull-roarers, ii. 230\n\nNames on chimney-piece, divination by, i. 237;\n  of savages kept secret, ii. 224 _n._ 2;\n  new, taken by novices after initiation, 259\n\nNamoluk, one of the Caroline Islands, traditionary origin of fire in, ii.\n            295\n\nNamuci and Indra, legend of, ii. 280\n\nNamur, Lenten fires in, i. 108\n\nNandi, the, of British East Africa, their custom of driving sick cattle\n            round a fire, ii. 13;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, 229 _n._\n\n_Nanga_, sacred enclosure in Fiji, ii. 243, 244\n\nNanna, the wife of Balder, i. 102, 103\n\nNanny, a Yorkshire witch, i. 317\n\nNaples, feast of the Nativity of the Virgin at, i. 220 _sq._\n\nNarrow openings, creeping through, in order to escape ghostly pursuers,\n            ii. 177 _sqq._\n\nNathuram, image supposed to make women fruitful, ii. 3\n\nNativity of the Virgin, feast of the, i. 220 _sq._\n\nNaudowessies, Indian tribe of North America, ritual of death and\n            resurrection among the, ii. 267\n\n_Naueld_, need-fire, i. 280\n\nNauru, in the Marshall Islands, lives of people bound up with a fish in,\n            ii. 200\n\nNavajoes, their story of the external soul, ii. 151 _sq._;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, 230 _n._, 231\n\nNavel-string buried under a plant or tree, ii. 160 _sq._, 161, 163;\n  regarded as brother or sister of child, 162 _n._ 2\n\n_Ndembo_, secret society on the Lower Congo, ii. 251 _sqq._\n\nNdolo, on the Moeko River, West Africa, ii. 200\n\nNeckar, the river, requires three human victims at Midsummer, ii. 26;\n  loaf thrown into the river, 28\n\nNecklace, girl\u2019s soul in a, ii. 99 _sq._\n\nNeed-fire, i. 269 _sqq._;\n  kindled as a remedy for cattle-plague, 270 _sqq._, 343;\n  cattle driven through the, 270 _sqq._;\n  derivation of the name, 270 _n._;\n  kindled by the friction of a wheel, 270, 273, 289 _sq._, 292;\n  kindled with oak-wood, 271, 272, 275, 276, 278, 281, 289 _sq._, 294;\n  called \u201cwild-fire,\u201d 272, 273, 277;\n  kindled by fir-wood, 278, 282;\n  kindled as a remedy for witchcraft, 280, 292 _sq._, 293, 295;\n  called \u201cliving fire,\u201d 281, 286;\n  healing virtue ascribed to, 281, 286;\n  kindled by lime-wood, 281, 283, 286;\n  kindled by poplar-wood, 282;\n  regarded as a barrier interposed between cattle and an evil spirit, 282,\n              285 _sq._;\n  kindled by cornel-tree wood, 286;\n  revealed by an angel from heaven, 287;\n  used to heat water, 289;\n  kindled on an island, 290 _sq._, 291 _sq._;\n  kindled by birch-wood, 291;\n  kindled between two running streams, 292;\n  kindled to prevent fever, 297;\n  probable antiquity of the, 297 _sq._;\n  kindled by elm-wood, 299;\n  the parent of the periodic fire-festivals, 299, 343;\n  used by Slavonic peoples to combat vampyres, 344;\n  sometimes kindled by the friction of fir, plane, birch, lime, poplar,\n              cornel-wood, ii. 91 _n._ 1\n\nNeed-fire, John Ramsay\u2019s account of, i. 147 _sq._;\n  Lindenbrog on, 335 _n._ 1\n\nNegro children pale at birth, ii. 251 _n._ 1, 259 _n._ 2\n\nNeil, R. A., on Gaelic name for mistletoe, ii. 82 _n._ 5\n\nNeilgherry Hills, the Badagas of the, ii. 8 _sq._;\n  the Todas of the, i. 136\n\nNeisse, precautions against witches in, ii. 20 _n._\n\nNellingen in Lorraine, simples gathered on Midsummer Day at, ii. 47\n\nNemi, the King of the Wood at, i. 2;\n  the Lake of, annual tragedy enacted at, ii. 286;\n  sacramental bread at, 286 _n._ 2;\n  Virbius at, 295; at evening, 308 _sq._;\n  sacred grove of, 315;\n  priests of Diana at, 315\n\nNerthus, old German goddess, ii. 28 _n._ 1\n\n_Nestelkn\u00fcpfen_, i. 346 _n._ 2\n\nNets fumigated with smoke of need-fire, i. 280\n\nNettles, Indians beaten with, as an ordeal, i. 64\n\nNeuchatel, Midsummer fires in the canton of, i. 172\n\nNeumann, J. B., on the Batta doctrine of souls, ii. 223 _n._ 2\n\nNeustadt, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170;\n  near Marburg, the need-fire at, 270\n\nNew birth of novices at initiation, ii. 247, 251, 256, 257, 261, 262 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 body obtained at initiation, ii. 252\n\n\u2014\u2014 Britain, the Duk-duk society of i. 11, ii. 246 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 fire kindled on Easter Saturday, i. 121 _sqq._;\n  made at the New Year, 134 _sq._, 138, 140;\n  made by the friction of wood at Christmas, 264\n\n\u2014\u2014 Guinea, British, festival of wild mango in, i. 7;\n  custom observed after childbirth in, 20;\n  seclusion of girls at puberty in, 35;\n  dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in, 79;\n  the Toaripi of, 84;\n  use of bull-roarers in, ii. 228 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 Guinea, German, the Kai of, ii. 182;\n  ceremony of initiation in, 193;\n  the Yabim of, 232;\n  rites of initiation in, 239 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 Hebrides, conception of the external soul in the, ii. 197 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 Ireland, seclusion of girls at puberty in, i. 32 _sqq._;\n  Duk-duk society in, ii. 247\n\n\u2014\u2014 Mexico, the Zuni Indians of, i. 132;\n  and Arizona, use of bull-roarers in, ii. 230 _n._, 231\n\n\u2014\u2014 South Wales, dread of women at menstruation in, i. 78;\n  the Wongh tribe of, ii. 227;\n  the drama of resurrection at initiation in, 235 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 water at Easter, i. 123\n\n\u2014\u2014 World, Easter ceremonies in the, i. 127 _sq._;\n  magical virtue of plants at Midsummer in the, ii. 50 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 Year, new fire made at the, i. 134 _sq._, 138, 140;\n  festival of Mohammedans in North Africa, 217 _sq._;\n  the Celtic, on November first, 224 _sq._;\n  the Fijian, Tahitian, and Hawaiian, ii. 244\n\nNewstead, Byron\u2019s oak at, ii. 166\n\n_Nganga_, \u201cthe Knowing Ones,\u201d initiates, ii. 251\n\n_Ngarong_, secret helper, of the Ibans of Borneo, ii. 224 _n._ 1\n\nNguu, district of German East Africa, ii. 312\n\nNias, story of the external soul told in the island of, ii. 148;\n  ceremonies performed by candidates for the priesthood in, 173 _sq._\n\nNiceros and the were-wolf, story of, i. 313 _sq._\n\nNidugala, in the Neilgherry Hills, the fire-walk at, ii. 8\n\nNieder-Lausitz, the Midsummer log in, ii. 92 _n._ 1\n\nNiederehe, in the Eifel Mountains, Midsummer flowers at, ii. 48\n\nNiger, belief as to external human souls lodged in animals on the, ii. 209\n\nNigeria, the Ibo of Southern, i. 4;\n  theory of the external soul in, ii. 200, 203, _sqq._\n\nNigerian, South, story of the external soul, ii. 150\n\nNight-jars, the lives of women in, ii. 215;\n  called women\u2019s \u201csisters,\u201d 216\n\nNikclerith, Neane, buries cow alive, i. 324 _sq._\n\nNile, the Alur of the Upper, i. 64\n\nNine, ruptured child passed nine times on nine successive mornings through\n            a cleft ash-tree and attended by nine persons, ii. 170\n\n\u2014\u2014 bonfires on Midsummer Eve an omen of marriage, i. 174, 185, 189, 339\n\n\u2014\u2014 different kinds of wood burnt in the Beltane fires, i. 155;\n  used for the Midsummer bonfires, 172, 201;\n  burnt in the need-fire, 271, 278;\n  used to kindle need-fire, 278, 280\n\n\u2014\u2014 grains of oats in divination, i. 243\n\n\u2014\u2014 leaps over Midsummer fire, i. 193\n\n\u2014\u2014 men employed to make fire by the friction of wood, i. 148, 155\n\n\u2014\u2014 ridges of ploughed land in divination, i. 235\n\n\u2014\u2014 sorts of flowers on Midsummer Eve, to dream on, i. 175;\n  gathered, ii. 52 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 times to crawl under a bramble as a cure, ii. 180\n\n\u2014\u2014 times nine men make need-fire, i. 289, 294, 295\n\n\u2014\u2014 (thrice three) times passed through a girth of woodbine, ii. 184;\n  passed through a holed stone, 187\n\n\u2014\u2014 turns round a rick, i. 243\n\nNiska Indians of British Columbia, rites of initiation among the, ii. 271\n            _sq._\n\nNisus and his purple or golden hair, story of, ii. 103\n\n_Nkimba_, secret society on the Lower Congo, ii. 255 _n._ 1\n\nNocturnal creatures the sex totems of men and women, ii. 217 _n._ 4\n\nNograd-Ludany, in Hungary, Midsummer fires at, i. 179\n\nNogu\u00e8s, J. L. M., on the wonderful herbs of St. John\u2019s Eve, ii. 45\n\nNootka Indians of Vancouver Island, seclusion of girls at puberty among\n            the, i. 43 _sq._;\n  ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. 270 _sq._\n\nNord, the department of, giants at Shrove Tuesday in, ii. 35\n\nNorden, E., on the Golden Bough, ii. 284 _n._ 3\n\nNore, A. de, on the Yule log, i. 250 _sq._, 253\n\nNorfolk, use of orpine for divination in, ii. 61 _n._ 4\n\nNorman peasants gather seven kinds of plants on St. John\u2019s Day, ii. 51\n            _sq._\n\nNormandy, Midsummer fires in, i. 185 _sq._;\n  the Yule log in, 252;\n  torch-light processions on Christmas Eve in, 266;\n  processions with torches on the Eve of Twelfth Day, in, 340;\n  wonderful herbs and flowers gathered at Midsummer in, ii, 46;\n  wreaths of mugwort in, 59;\n  vervain gathered at Midsummer in, 62\n\nNorrland, Midsummer bonfires in, i. 172\n\nNorse stories of the external soul, ii. 119 _sq._\n\nNorth American Indians, their personal totems, ii. 222 _n._ 5, 226 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 Berwick, Satan preaches at, ii. 158\n\nNorthamptonshire, sacrifice of a calf in, i. 300\n\nNorthumberland, Midsummer fires in, i. 197 _sq._;\n  divination at Hallowe\u2019en in, 245;\n  the Yule log in, 256;\n  need-fire in, 288 _sq._;\n  ox burnt alive in, to stop a murrain, 301\n\nNorway, bonfires on Midsummer Eve in, i. 171;\n  the need-fire in, 280;\n  superstitions about a parasitic rowan in, ii. 281\n\nNorwich, Easter candle in the cathedral of, i. 122 _n._\n\nNottinghamshire, the Hemlock Stone in, i. 157\n\n_Nouer l\u2019aiguilette_, i. 346 _n._ 2\n\nNouzon, in the Ardennes, the Yule log at, i. 253\n\nNovember the first, old New Year\u2019s Day in the Isle of Man, i. 224 _sq._;\n  the first of, All Saints\u2019 Day, 225\n\nNovice at initiation killed as a man and brought to life as an animal, ii.\n            272\n\nNovices (lads) at initiation supposed to be swallowed and disgorged by a\n            spirit or monster, ii. 235, 240 _sq._, 242, 246;\n  supposed to be newly born, 247, 251, 256, 257, 261, 262 _sq._;\n  begotten anew, 248\n\n_Nurtunjas_, sacred poles among the Arunta, ii. 219\n\nNut-water brewed at Midsummer, ii. 47\n\nNuts passed across Midsummer fires, i. 190;\n  in fire, divination by, 237, 239, 241, 242, 245\n\nNyanja chief, ii. 314\n\nNyanja-speaking tribes of Angoniland, their customs as to girls at\n            puberty, i. 25 _sq._\n\nNyassa, Lake, i. 28, 81;\n  people to the east of, crawl through an arch as a precaution against\n              sickness, evil spirits, etc., ii. 181\n\nOak associated with thunder, i. 145;\n  worshipped by the Druids, ii. 76 _sq._, 301;\n  the principal sacred tree of the Aryans, 89 _sq._;\n  human representatives of the oak perhaps originally burnt at the\n              fire-festivals, 90, 92 _sq._;\n  children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture or rickets,\n              170 _sqq._;\n  life of, in mistletoe, 280, 292;\n  struck by lightning oftener than any other tree of the European forest,\n              298 _sqq._;\n  supposed to bloom on Midsummer Eve, 292, 293\n\n\u2014\u2014 and thunder, Aryan god of the, i. 265\n\n\u2014\u2014 -leaves, \u201coil of St. John\u201d found on St. John\u2019s Morning upon, ii. 82\n            _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 log a protection against witchcraft, ii. 92\n\n\u2014\u2014 -mistletoe an \u201call-healer\u201d or panacea, ii. 77, 79, 82;\n  a remedy for epilepsy, 78, 83;\n  to be shot down with an arrow, 82;\n  a panacea for green wounds, 83;\n  a protection against conflagration, 85, 293\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Errol, fate of the Hays bound up with the, ii. 283 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of the Guelphs, ii. 166 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Romove, ii. 286\n\n\u2014\u2014 of the Vespasian family at Rome, ii. 168\n\n\u2014\u2014 planted by Byron, ii. 166\n\n\u2014\u2014 -spirit, the priest of the Arician grove a personification of an, ii.\n            285\n\n\u2014\u2014 tree worshipped by the Cheremiss, i. 181\n\n\u2014\u2014 -trees planted at marriage, ii. 165\n\n\u2014\u2014 twigs and leaves used to keep off witches, ii. 20\n\n\u2014\u2014 -wood used to kindle the need-fire, i. 148, 271, 272, 275, 276, 278,\n            281, 289 _sq._, ii. 90 _sq._;\n  used to kindle the Beltane fires, i. 148, 155;\n  used to kindle Midsummer fire, 169, 177, ii. 91 _sq._;\n  used for the Yule log, i. 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263, 264\n              _sq._, ii. 92;\n  fire of, used to detect a murderer, 92 _n._ 4;\n  perpetual fires of, 285 _sq._\n\nOaks planted by Sir Walter Scott, ii. 166;\n  mistletoe growing on, in Sweden, 87;\n  mistletoe growing on, in England and France, 316\n\nOath not to hurt Balder, i. 101\n\nOats, nine grains of, in divination, i. 243\n\nOban district, Southern Nigeria, belief as to external human souls lodged\n            in animals in the, ii. 206 _sqq._\n\nOberland, in Central Germany, the Yule log in the, i. 248 _sq._\n\nObermedlingen, in Swabia, fire kindled on St. Vitus\u2019s Day at, i. 335 _sq._\n\nObubura district of S. Nigeria, ii. 204\n\nOctober, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 136;\n  the last day of (Hallowe\u2019en), 139\n\nOdessa, New Easter fire carried to, i. 130 _n._\n\nOdin, Othin, or Woden, the father of Balder, i. 101, 102, 103 _n._\n\nOdodop tribe of Southern Nigeria, ii. 208\n\nOels, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170\n\nOeniadae, the ancient, i. 21\n\nOesel, Midsummer fires in the island of, i. 180;\n  St. John\u2019s herbs in the island of, ii. 49\n\nOffenburg, in the Black Forest, Midsummer fires at, i. 168\n\nOgboni, a secret society on the Slave Coast, ii. 229 _n._\n\nOgre whose soul was in a bird, story of the, ii. 98 _sq._\n\n\u201cOil of St. John\u201d found on St. John\u2019s morning, ii. 82 _sq._;\n  on oaks at Midsummer, 293\n\nOise, French department of, dolmen in, ii. 188\n\nOjebways, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. 268\n\nOlala, secret society of the Niska Indians, ii. 271 _sq._\n\nOlaus Magnus, on were-wolves, i. 308\n\n\u201cOld Wife\u201d (\u201cOld Woman\u201d), burning the, i. 116, 120\n\nOldenburg, the immortal dame of, i. 100;\n  Shrove Tuesday customs in, 120;\n  Easter bonfires in, 140;\n  burning or boiling portions of animals or things to force witch to\n              appear in, 321 _sq._;\n  witch as toad in, 323;\n  children passed through a cleft oak as a cure in, ii. 171 _sq._;\n  custom as to milking cows in, 185;\n  sick children passed through a ring of yarn in, 185\n\n_Olea chrysophilla_, used as fuel for bonfire, ii. 11\n\n\u201cOleander, the Sultan of the,\u201d i. 18, ii. 51;\n  gathered at Midsummer, 51\n\nOlive, the sacred, at Olympia, ii. 80 _n._ 3\n\nOlofaet, a fire-god, ii. 295\n\nOlympia, the sacred olive at, ii. 80 _n._ 3;\n  white poplar used for sacrifices to Zeus at, 90 _n._ 1, 91 _n._ 7\n\nOmaha tribe, Elk clan of the, i. 11\n\n\u2014\u2014 women secluded at menstruation, i. 88 _sq._\n\nOmens from birds and beasts, i. 56;\n  from the smoke of bonfires, 116, 131, 337;\n  from flames of bonfires, 140, 142, 159, 165, 336, 337;\n  from cakes rolled down hill, 153;\n  from boiling milk, ii. 8;\n  from intestines of sheep, 13\n\n\u2014\u2014 of death, ii. 54, 64\n\n\u2014\u2014 of marriage drawn from Midsummer bonfires, i. 168, 174, 178, 185, 189,\n            339;\n  drawn from bonfires, 338 _sq._;\n  from flowers, ii. 52 _sq._, 61\n\nOnktehi, the great spirit of the waters among the Dacotas, ii. 268, 269\n\nOran, bathing at Midsummer in, i. 216\n\nOrange River, the Corannas of the, ii. 192\n\nOraons or Uraons of Bengal, their belief as to the transformation of\n            witches into cats, ii. 311 _sq._\n\nOrdeal of stinging ants undergone by girls at puberty, i. 61, and by young\n            men, 62 _sqq._;\n  of boiling resin, 311\n\nOrdeals as an exorcism, i. 66;\n  undergone by novices at initiation among the Bushongo, ii. 264 _sqq._\n\nOrder of nature, different views of the, postulated by magic and science,\n            ii. 305 _sq._\n\nOrgans, internal, of medicine-man replaced by a new set at initiation, ii.\n            237, 238 _sq._\n\nOrigin of fire, primitive ideas as to the, ii. 295 _sq._\n\nOrinoco, the Banivas of the, i. 66;\n  the Guaraunos of the, 85; the Guayquiries of the, 85;\n  the Tamanaks of the, 61 _n._ 3\n\nOrnament, external soul of woman in an ivory, ii. 156\n\nOrnaments, amulets degenerate into, ii. 156 _n._ 2\n\nOrne, Midsummer fires in the valley of the, i. 185\n\nOro, West African bogey, ii. 229\n\nOrpheus and the willow, ii. 294\n\nOrpine (_Sedum telephium_) at Midsummer, i. 196;\n  used in divination at Midsummer, ii. 61\n\nOrvieto, Midsummer fires at, i. 210\n\nOster-Kappeln, in Hanover, the oak of the Guelphs at, ii. 166 _sq._\n\nOsterode, Easter bonfires at, i. 142\n\nOt Danoms of Borneo, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 35 _sq._\n\nOtati tribe of Queensland, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 38\n\nOvambo, of German South-West Africa, custom observed by young women at\n            puberty among the, ii. 183\n\nOwls, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. 202;\n  sex totem of women, 217;\n  called women\u2019s \u201csisters,\u201d 218\n\nOx burnt alive to stop a murrain, i. 301\n\n\u2014\u2014 -horns, external soul of chief in pair of, ii. 156\n\nOzieri, in Sardinia, bonfires on St. John\u2019s Eve at, i. 209\n\nPadua, story of a were-wolf in, i. 309\n\nPaha, on the Gold Coast, ii. 210\n\nPale colour of negro children at birth, ii. 251 _n._ 1, 259 _n._ 2\n\nPalettes or plaques of schist in Egyptian tombs, ii. 155 _n._ 3\n\nPalm-branches, consecrated, at Easter, i. 121\n\n\u2014\u2014 Sunday, palm-branches consecrated on, i. 144, ii. 30, 85 _n._ 4;\n  boxwood blessed on, i. 184, ii. 47;\n  fern-seed used on, 288\n\n\u2014\u2014 -trees as life-indices, ii. 161, 163, 164\n\nPapuan and Melanesian stocks in New Guinea, ii. 239\n\nPapuans, life-trees among the, ii. 163\n\nParaguay, the Chiquites Indians of, ii. 226 _n._ 1\n\nParallelism between witches and were-wolves, i. 315, 321\n\nParasitic mountain-ash (rowan) used to make the divining-rod, ii. 69\n\n\u2014\u2014 orchid growing on a tamarind, ritual at cutting, ii. 81\n\n\u2014\u2014 rowan, superstitions about a, ii. 281 _sq._\n\nParis, effigy of giant burnt in summer fire at, ii. 38;\n  cats burnt alive at Midsummer in, 39\n\nParivarams of Madura, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 69\n\nParrot, external soul of warlock in a, ii. 97 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Punchkin, story of the, ii. 97 _sq._\n\nParsees, their customs as to menstruous women, i. 85\n\nPartridge, C., ii. 204\n\nPaschal candle, i. 121, 122 _n._, 125\n\n\u2014\u2014 Mountains, i. 141\n\nPassage over or through fire a stringent form of purification, ii. 24;\n  through a cleft stick in connexion with puberty and circumcision, 183\n              _sq._\n\nPasses, Indians of Brazil, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 59\n\nPassing over fire to get rid of ghosts, ii. 17 _sq._;\n  through cleft trees and other harrow openings to get rid of ghosts,\n              etc., 173 _sqq._;\n  under a yoke as a purification, 193 _sqq._\n\nPassing children through cleft trees, ii. 168 _sqq._;\n  children, sheep, and cattle through holes in the ground, ii. 190 _sq._\n\nPastern-bone of a hare in a popular remedy, i. 17\n\nPastures fumigated at Midsummer to drive away witches and demons, i. 170\n\nPatani States, custom as to the after-birth in the, ii. 164\n\nPaths, separate, for men and women, i. 78, 80, 89\n\nPatiko, in the Uganda Protectorate, dread of lightning at, ii. 298 _n._ 2\n\nPaton, W. R., on the Golden Bough, ii. 319\n\nPatriarch of Jerusalem kindles the new fire at Easter, i. 129\n\nPatrician myrtle-tree at Rome, ii. 168\n\nPatschkau, precautions against witches near, ii. 20 _n._\n\nP\u00e2turages, processions with torches at, i. 108\n\nPawnee story of the external soul, ii. 151\n\nPawnees, human sacrifices among the, ii. 286 _n._ 2\n\nPazzi family at Florence, i. 126\n\nPeace-making ceremony among the Masai, ii. 139 _n._\n\nPear-tree as life-index of girl, ii. 165\n\n\u2014\u2014 -trees, torches thrown at, i. 108;\n  rarely attacked by mistletoe, ii. 315\n\nPeas, boiled, distributed by young married couples, i. 111 _n._ 1\n\nPebbles thrown into Midsummer fires, i. 183\n\nPeguenches, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 59\n\nPeking, life-tree of the Manchu dynasty at, ii. 167 _sq._\n\nPelops at Olympia, ii. 90 _n._ 1\n\nPemba, island of, ii. 263\n\nPendle, the forest of, i. 245\n\nPennant, Thomas, on Beltane fires and cakes in Perthshire, i. 152;\n  on Hallowe\u2019en fires in Perthshire, 230\n\nPennefather River in Queensland, ii. 159;\n  treatment of girls at puberty on the, i. 38\n\nPenny-royal burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213, 214;\n  gathered at Midsummer, ii. 51\n\n_Pentamerone_, the, ii. 105\n\nPenzance, Midsummer fires at, i. 199 _sq._\n\nPerche, Midsummer fires in, i. 188;\n  St. John\u2019s herb gathered on Midsummer Eve in, ii. 46;\n  the _Ch\u00eane-Dor\u00e9_ in, 287 _n._ 1\n\nPerforating arms and legs of young men, girls, and dogs as a ceremony, i.\n            58\n\nPergine, in the Tyrol, fern-seed at, ii. 288 _sq._\n\nPerigord, the Yule log in, i. 250 _sq._, 253;\n  magic herbs gathered at Midsummer in, ii. 46;\n  crawling under a bramble as a cure for boils in, 180\n\nPerkunas, Lithuanian god, his perpetual fire, ii. 91 _n._ 5\n\nP\u00e9ronne, mugwort at Midsummer near, ii. 58\n\nPersians celebrate a festival of fire at the winter solstice, i. 269\n\nPerthshire, Beltane fires and cakes in, i. 152 _sq._;\n  traces of Midsummer fires in, 206;\n  Hallowe\u2019en bonfires in, 230 _sqq._;\n  need-fire in, 296 _sq._\n\nPeru, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 132\n\nPerun, the oak sacred to the god, ii. 89\n\nPetronius, his story of the were-wolf, i. 313 _sq._\n\nPett, Grace, a witch, i. 304\n\nPetworth, in Sussex, cleft ash-trees used for the cure of rupture at, ii.\n            170\n\nPhalgun, a Hindoo month, ii. 2\n\nPhilip and James, the Apostles, feast of, i. 158\n\nPiazza del Limbo at Florence, i. 126\n\nPicardy, Lenten fire-customs in, i. 113;\n  Midsummer fires in, 187\n\nPiedmont, belief as to the \u201coil of St. John\u201d on St. John\u2019s morning in, ii.\n            82 _sq._\n\nPietro in Guarano (Calabria), Easter custom at, i. 123\n\nPig, roast, at Christmas, i. 259;\n  burnt sacrifice of a, 302\n\nPigeon, external soul of ogre in a, ii. 100;\n  external soul of dragon in a, 112 _sq._\n\nPigeon\u2019s egg, external soul of fairy being in, ii. 132 _sq._, 139\n\nPigeons deposit seed of mistletoe, ii. 316 _n._ 1\n\nPigs sacrificed, i. 9;\n  driven through Midsummer fire, 179;\n  driven through the need-fire, 272, 273, 274 _sq._, 275 _sq._, 276 _sq._,\n              277, 278, 279, 297;\n  offered to monster who swallows novices at initiation, ii. 240, 246\n\nPilgrimages on Yule Night in Sweden, i. 20 _sq._\n\nPillar, external soul of ogre in a, ii. 100 _sq._\n\nPima Indians, their purification for manslaughter, i. 21\n\nPines, Scotch, struck by lightning, proportion of, ii. 298\n\nPinewood, fire of, at Soracte, ii. 14, 91 _n._ 1\n\nPinoeh, district of South-Eastern Borneo, ii. 154 _sq._\n\nPippin, king of the Franks, i. 270\n\nPitlochrie, in Perthshire, i. 230\n\nPitr\u00e8, Giuseppe, on St. John\u2019s Day in Sicily, ii. 29\n\nPlacci, Carlo, i. 127 _n._ 1\n\nPlace de Noailles at Marseilles, Midsummer flowers in the, ii. 46\n\nPlane and birch, fire made by the friction of, i. 220\n\nPlantain-tree, creeping through a cleft, as a cure, ii. 181\n\nPlants, spirits of, in the form of snakes, ii. 44 _n._;\n  external soul in, 159 _sqq._;\n  and trees as life-indices, 160 _sqq._\n\nPlaques or palettes of schist in Egyptian tombs, ii. 155 _n._ 3\n\nPlates or basins, divination by three, i. 237 _sq._, 240, 244\n\nPlato, on the distribution of the soul in the body, ii. 221 _n._ 1\n\nPlebeian myrtle-tree at Rome, ii. 168\n\nPleiades, beginning of year determined by observation of the, ii. 244, 245\n            _n._\n\nPliny on \u201cserpents\u2019 eggs,\u201d i. 15;\n  on medicinal plants, 17;\n  on the touch of menstruous women, 96;\n  on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. 14;\n  on the mythical springwort, 71;\n  on the Druidical worship of mistletoe, 76 _sq._;\n  on the virtues of mistletoe, 78;\n  on the birds which deposit seeds of mistletoe, 316 _n._ 1;\n  on the different kinds of mistletoe, 317\n\nPlough, piece of Yule log inserted in the, i. 251, 337\n\nPloughing in spring, custom at the first, i. 18\n\nPloughshare, crawling under a, as a cure, ii. 180\n\nPlum-tree wood used for Yule log, i. 250\n\nPlurality of souls, doctrine of the, ii. 221 _sq._\n\nPlutarch, on oak-mistletoe, ii. 318 _n._ 1\n\nPogdanzig, witches\u2019 Sabbath at, ii. 74\n\nPointing sticks or bones in magic, i. 14\n\nPoitou, Midsummer fires in, i. 182, 190 _sq._, 340 _sq._;\n  fires on All Saints\u2019 Day in, 246;\n  the Yule log in, 251 _n._ 1;\n  mugwort at Midsummer in, ii. 59\n\nPoix, Lenten fires at, i. 113\n\nPoland, need-fire in, i. 281 _sq._\n\n_Polaznik_, _polazenik_, _pola\u017eaynik_, Christmas visiter, i. 261, 263, 264\n\nPole, sacred, of the Arunta, i. 7\n\nPoles, passing between two poles after a death, ii. 178 _sq._;\n  passing between two poles in order to escape sickness or evil spirit,\n              ii. 179 _sqq._\n\nPollution, menstrual, widespread fear of, i. 76 _sqq._\n\nPolygnotus, his picture of Orpheus under the willow, ii. 294\n\nPomerania, hills called the Blocksberg in, i. 171 _n._ 3\n\nPommerol, Dr., i. 112\n\nPond, G. H., on ritual of death and resurrection among the Dacotas, ii.\n            269\n\nPongol or Feast of Ingathering in Southern India, ii. 1, 16\n\nPontesbury, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257\n\nPopinjay, shooting at a, i. 194\n\n_Popish Kingdome, The_, of Thomas Kirchmeyer, i. 125 _sq._, 162\n\nPoplar, the white, used in sacrificing to Zeus at Olympia, ii. 90 _n._ 1,\n            91 _n._ 7;\n  black, mistletoe on, 318 _n._ 6\n\n\u2014\u2014 -wood used to kindle need-fire, i. 282\n\nPorcupine as charm to ensure women an easy delivery, i. 49\n\nPort Lincoln tribe of South Australia, their superstition as to lizards,\n            ii. 216 _sq._\n\n_Porta Triumphalis_ at Rome, ii. 195\n\nPortrait statues, external souls of Egyptian kings deposited in, ii. 157\n\nPortreach, sacrifice of a calf near, i. 301\n\nPoseidon makes Pterelaus immortal, ii. 103;\n  priest of, uses a white umbrella, i. 20 _n._ 1\n\nPosidonius, Greek traveller in Gaul, ii. 32\n\nPoso in Central Celebes, custom at the working of iron in, ii. 154;\n  the Alfoors of, 222\n\nPossession by an evil spirit cured by passing through a red-hot chain, ii.\n            186\n\nPotawatomi women secluded at menstruation, i. 89\n\n_Potlatch_, distribution of property, ii. 274\n\nPots used by girls at puberty broken, i. 61, 69\n\nPowers, extraordinary, ascribed to first-born children, i. 295\n\nPo\u017eega district of Slavonia, need-fire in, i. 282\n\nPr\u00e4ttigau in Switzerland, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 119\n\nPrayers of adolescent girls to the Dawn of Day, i. 50 _sq._, 53, 98 _n._\n            1;\n  for rain, 133\n\nPretence of throwing a man into fire, i. 148, 186, ii. 25\n\nPriapus, image of, at need-fire, i. 286\n\nPriest of Aricia and the Golden Bough, i. 1;\n  of Earth, taboos observed by the, 4;\n  of Diana at Aricia, the King of the Wood, perhaps personified Jupiter,\n              ii. 302 _sq._;\n  at Nemi, 315\n\nPriestesses not allowed to step on ground, i. 5\n\nPriests expected to pass through fire, ii. 2, 5, 8, 9, 14\n\nPrimitive thought, its vagueness and inconsistency, ii. 301 _sq._\n\nPrince Sunless, i. 21\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Wales Island, Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 40\n\nPrincess royal, ceremonies at the puberty of a, i. 29, 30_ sq._\n\nProcession with lighted tar-barrels on Christmas Eve, i. 268\n\nProcessions with lighted torches through fields, gardens, orchards, etc.,\n            i. 107 _sq._, 110 _sqq._, 113 _sqq._, 141, 179, 233 _sq._,\n            266, 339 _sq._;\n  on Corpus Christi Day, 165;\n  to the Midsummer bonfires, 184, 185, 187, 188, 191, 192, 193;\n  across fiery furnaces, ii. 4 _sqq._;\n  of giants (effigies) at popular festivals in Europe, 33 _sqq._\n\nProfligacy at Holi festival in India, ii. 2\n\nProphecy, the Norse Sibyl\u2019s, i. 102 _sq._\n\nProserpine River in Queensland, i. 39\n\nProvence, Midsummer fires in, i. 193 _sq._;\n  the Yule log in, 249 _sqq._\n\nPrussia, Midsummer fires in, i. 176 _sq._;\n  mullein gathered at Midsummer in, ii. 63 _sq._;\n  witches\u2019 Sabbath in, 74\n\n\u2014\u2014, Eastern, herbs gathered at Midsummer in, ii. 48 _sq._;\n  divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, 53, 61;\n  belief as to mistletoe growing on a thorn in, 291 _n._ 3\n\nPrussian custom before first ploughing in spring, i. 18\n\nPrussians, the old, worshipped serpents, ii. 43 _n._ 3\n\nPterelaus and his golden hair, ii. 103\n\nPuberty, girls secluded at, i. 22 _sqq._;\n  fast and dream at, ii. 222 _n._ 5;\n  pretence of killing the novice and bringing him to life again during\n              initiatory rites at, 225 _sqq._\n\nPueblo Indians of Arizona and New Mexico, use of bull-roarers among the,\n            ii. 230 _n._, 231\n\nPulayars of Travancore, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 69\n\nPulverbatch, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257;\n  belief as the bloom of the oak on Midsummer Eve at, ii. 292\n\nPumpkin, external soul in a, ii. 105\n\nPunchkin and the parrot, story of, ii. 97 _sq._, 215, 220\n\nPunjaub, supernatural power ascribed to the first-born in the, i. 295;\n  passing unlucky children through narrow openings in the, ii. 190\n\nPurification by stinging with ants, i. 61 _sqq._;\n  by beating, 61, 64 _sqq._;\n  of mourners by fire, ii. 17, 18 _sq._;\n  after a death, 178;\n  by passing under a yoke, 193 _sqq._\n\nPurificatory theory of the fires of the fire-festivals, i. 329 _sq._, 341,\n            ii. 16 _sqq._;\n  more probable than the solar theory, i. 346\n\nPurple loosestrife (_Lythrum salicaria_) gathered at Midsummer, ii. 65\n\n_Purra_ or _poro_, secret society in Sierra Leone, ii. 260 _sq._\n\nPuttenham, George, on the Midsummer giants, ii. 36 _sq._\n\nPyrenees, Midsummer fires in the French, i. 193\n\nQuarter-ill, a disease of cattle, i. 296\n\nQuedlinburg, in the Harz Mountains, need-fire at, i. 276\n\nQueen Charlotte Islands, the Haida Indians of, i. 44\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Heaven, ii. 303\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Summer, i. 195\n\nQueen\u2019s County, Midsummer fires in, i. 203;\n  divination at Hallowe\u2019en in, 242\n\nQueensland, sorcery in, i. 14;\n  seclusion of girls at puberty in, 37 _sqq._;\n  dread of women at menstruation in, 78;\n  natives of, their mode of ascertaining the fate of an absent friend, ii.\n              159 _sq._;\n  use of bull-roarers in, 233\n\n_Quimba_, a secret society on the Lower Congo, ii. 256 _n._\n\nQuimper, Midsummer fires at, i. 184\n\nQuirinus, sanctuary of, at Rome, ii. 168\n\nRaces at fire-festivals, i. 111;\n  to Easter bonfire, 122;\n  at Easter fires, 144;\n  with torches at Midsummer, 175.\n  _See also_ Torch-races\n\nRadium, bearing of its discovery on the probable duration of the sun, ii.\n            307 _n._ 2\n\nRahu, a tribal god in India, ii. 5\n\nRain, Midsummer bonfires supposed to stop, i. 188, 336;\n  bull-roarers used as magical instruments to make, ii. 230 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -clouds, smoke made in imitation of, i. 133\n\n\u2014\u2014 -makers (mythical), i. 133\n\n\u2014\u2014 -water in Morocco, magical virtues ascribed to, i. 17 _sq._\n\nRaking a rick in the devil\u2019s name, i. 243;\n  the ashes, a mode of divination, 243\n\nRalston, W. R. S., on sacred fire of Perkunas, ii. 91 _n._ 3\n\nRama, his battle with the King of Ceylon, ii. 102\n\nRampart, old, of Burghead, i. 267 _sq._\n\nRamsay, John, of Ochtertyre, on Beltane fires, i. 146 _sqq._;\n  on Midsummer fires, 206;\n  on Hallowe\u2019en fires, 230 _sq._;\n  on burying cattle alive, 325 _sq._\n\nRarhi, Brahmans of Bengal, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 68\n\nRat, external soul of medicine-man in, ii. 199\n\nRattan, creeping through a split, to escape a malignant spirit, ii. 183\n\nRattle used at a festival, i. 28\n\nRattles to frighten ghosts, i. 52\n\nRaven clan, ii. 271\n\nRay-fish, cure for wound inflicted by a, i. 98 _n._ 1\n\nRaymi, a festival of the summer solstice, i. 132\n\nReapers throw sickles blindfold at last sheaf, ii. 279 _n._ 4\n\nReaping, girdle of rye a preventive of weariness in, i. 190\n\nReay, in Sutherland, the need-fire at, i. 294 _sq._\n\nRed earth or paint smeared on girls at puberty, i. 30, 31;\n  girl\u2019s face painted red at puberty, 49 _sq._, 54;\n  women at menstruation painted, 78\n\n\u2014\u2014 and white, girls at puberty painted, i. 35, 38, 39, 40;\n  women at menstruation painted, 78\n\n\u2014\u2014 -hot iron chain, passing persons possessed by evil spirits through a,\n            ii. 186\n\n\u2014\u2014 Island, i. 39\n\n\u2014\u2014 ochre round a woman\u2019s mouth, mark of menstruation, i. 77\n\nRedemption from the fire, i. 110\n\nReed, W. A., on a superstition as to a parasitic plant, ii. 282\n\nReed, split, used in cure for dislocation, ii. 177\n\nReef, plain of, in Tiree, i. 316\n\nRegaby, in the Isle of Man, i. 224\n\nReindeer sacrificed to the dead, ii. 178\n\nReinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, O. Frh. von, on the Yule log, i. 249\n\nReiskius, Joh., on the need-fire, i. 271 _sq._\n\nReligion, movement of thought from magic through religion to science, ii.\n            304 _sq._\n\nReligious associations among the Indians of North America, ii. 266 _sqq._\n\nRemedies, magical, not allowed to touch the ground, i. 14\n\nRenewal of fire, annual, in China, i. 137.\n  _See also_ Fire\n\nRengen, in the Eifel Mountains, Midsummer flowers at, ii. 48\n\nResoliss, parish of, in Ross-shire, burnt sacrifice of a pig in, i. 301\n            _sq._\n\nResurrection, ritual of death and, ii. 225 _sqq._\n\nReuzes, wicker giants in Brabant and Flanders, ii. 35\n\nRevin, Midsummer fires at, i. 188\n\nRhenish Prussia, Lenten fires in, i. 115\n\nRheumatism, crawling under a bramble as a cure for, ii. 180\n\nRhine, the Lower, need-fire on, i. 278;\n  St. John\u2019s wort on, ii. 54\n\nRhodesia, the Winamwanga of, ii. 297\n\n_Rhodomyrtus tomentosus_, used to kindle fire by friction, ii. 8\n\nRh\u00f6n Mountains, Lenten custom in the, i. 117\n\nRhys, Sir John, on Beltane fires, i. 157;\n  on driving cattle through fires, 159;\n  on old New Year\u2019s Day in the Isle of Man, 224;\n  on Hallowe\u2019en bonfires in Wales, 239 _sq._;\n  on burnt sacrifices in the Isle of Man, 305 _sqq._;\n  on alleged Welsh name for mistletoe, ii. 286 _n._ 3\n\nRibble, the, i. 245\n\nRibwort gathered at Midsummer, ii. 49\n\nRickard, R. H., quoted, i. 34\n\nRickets, children passed through cleft ash-trees as a cure for, ii. 168;\n  children passed through cleft oaks as a cure for, 170;\n  children passed through a holed stone as a cure for, 187\n\nRickety children passed through a natural wooden ring, ii. 184\n\nRiedel, J. G. F., on the Kakian association in Ceram, ii. 249\n\nRif, province of Morocco, Midsummer fires in, i. 214 _n._, 215;\n  bathing at Midsummer in, 216\n\nRiga, Midsummer festival at, i. 177\n\nRight hand, luckiness of the, i. 151 _n._\n\n\u2014\u2014 turn (_deiseal_, _dessil_) in the Highlands of Scotland, i. 150 _n._ 1,\n            154\n\nRigveda, how Indra cured Apala in the, ii. 193\n\nRing, crawling through a, as a cure or preventive of disease, ii. 184\n            _sqq._;\n  divination by a, i. 237;\n  worn by initiates as token of the new birth, ii. 257.\n  _See also_ Rings\n\nRinghorn, Balder\u2019s ship, i. 102\n\nRinging church bells on Midsummer Eve, custom as to, ii. 47 _sq._\n\nRings as amulets, i. 92;\n  mourners creep through, ii. 178, 179.\n  _See also_ Ring\n\nRio de Janeiro, i. 59\n\n\u2014\u2014 Negro, ordeals of young men among the Indians of the, i. 63\n\nRisley, Sir Herbert H., on Indian fire-walk, ii. 5 _n._ 3\n\nRitual, myths dramatized in, i. 105;\n  of death and resurrection, ii. 225 _sqq._\n\nRivers, Dr. W. H. R., on _tamaniu_, ii. 199 _n._ 1\n\nRivers, menstruous women not allowed to cross or bathe in, i. 77, 97;\n  claim human victims at Midsummer, ii. 26 _sqq._;\n  bathing in, at Midsummer, 30\n\nRizano, in Dalmatia, the Yule log at, i. 263\n\nRobertson, Rev. James, quoted, i. 150 _sqq._\n\nRobinson, C. H., on human life bound up with that of an animal, ii. 209\n\nRochholz, C. L., on need-fire, i. 270 _n._\n\nRocks, sick people passed through holes in, ii. 186 _sq._, 189 _sq._\n\nRoman belief as to menstruous women, i. 98 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 cure for dislocation, ii. 177\n\nRomans deemed sacred the places which were struck by lightning, ii. 299\n\nRomanus Lecapenus, emperor, ii. 156\n\nRome, the sacred fire of Vesta at, i. 138, ii. 91;\n  Midsummer Day in ancient, i. 178;\n  myrtle-trees of the Patricians and Plebeians at, ii. 168;\n  oak of the Vespasian family at, 168\n\nRomove, sacred oak and perpetual fire at, ii. 91, 286\n\nRoof of house, the external soul in, ii. 156\n\nRook, the island of, initiation of young men in, ii. 246\n\nRoscher, Dr. W. H., on the Roman ceremony of passing under a yoke, ii. 194\n            _n._ 2\n\nRoscoe, Rev. J., on life-trees of kings of Uganda, ii. 160;\n  on passing through a cleft stick or a narrow opening as a cure, 181\n\nRoscommon, County, divination at Hallowe\u2019en in, i. 243\n\nRose-tree, death in a blue, ii. 110\n\nRoses, festival of the Crown of, i. 195;\n  the King and Queen of, 195\n\nRoss-shire, Beltane cakes in, i. 153;\n  burnt sacrifice of a pig in, 301 _sq._\n\nRotenburg on the Neckar, offering to the river on St. John\u2019s Day, ii. 28;\n  the wicked weaver of, 289 _sq._\n\nRottenburg, in Swabia, burning the Angel-man at, i. 167;\n  precautions against witches on Midsummer Eve at, ii. 73\n\nRoumanians of Transylvania, their belief as to the sacredness of bread, i.\n            13\n\nRowan, parasitic, esteemed effective against witchcraft, ii. 281;\n  superstitions about a, 281 _sq._;\n  how it is to be gathered, 282;\n  not to be touched with iron and not to fall on the ground, 282\n\n\u2014\u2014 -tree a protection against witches, i. 154, 327 _n._ 1, ii. 184 _n._ 4,\n            185;\n  hoop of, sheep passed through a, 184.\n  _See also_ Mountain-ash\n\nRubens, painter, ii. 33\n\nRucuyennes of Brazil, ordeal of young men among the, i. 63\n\nRue aux Ours at Paris, effigy of giant burnt in the, ii. 38\n\nRue burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213\n\nR\u00fcgen, sick persons passed through a cleft oak in, ii. 172\n\nRum, island of, and the Lachlin family, ii. 284\n\nRupert\u2019s Day, effigy burnt on, i. 119\n\nRupt in the Vosges, Lenten fires at, i. 109;\n  the Yule log at, 254\n\nRupture, children passed through cleft ash-trees or oaks as a cure for,\n            ii. 168 _sqq._, 170 _sqq._\n\nRussia, Midsummer fires in, i. 176, ii. 40;\n  need-fire in, i. 281, ii. 91;\n  treatment of the effigy of Kupalo in, 23;\n  the Letts of, 50;\n  purple loose-strife gathered at Midsummer in, 65;\n  fern-seed at Midsummer in, 65, 66, 287 _sq._;\n  birth-trees in, 165\n\nRussian feast of Florus and Laurus, i. 220\n\n\u2014\u2014 story of Koshchei the deathless, ii. 108 _sqq._\n\nRustem and Isfendiyar, i. 104 _sq._\n\nRuthenia, Midsummer bonfires in, i. 176\n\nRye, girdles of, a preventive of weariness in reaping, i. 190\n\nSaale, the river, claims a human victim on Midsummer Day, ii. 26\n\nSaaralben in Lorraine, ii. 47\n\nSabbaths of witches on the Eve of May Day and Midsummer Eve, i. 171 _n._\n            3, 181, ii. 73, 74\n\nSacramental bread at Nemi, ii. 286 _n._ 2\n\n\u2014\u2014 meal at initiation in Fiji, ii. 245 _sq._\n\nSacred flutes played at initiation, ii. 241\n\n\u2014\u2014 kings put to death, i. 1 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 persons not allowed to set foot on the ground, i. 2 _sqq._;\n  not to see the sun, i. 18 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 stick (_churinga_), ii. 234\n\nSacrifice of cattle at holy oak, i. 181;\n  of heifer at kindling need-fire, 290;\n  of an animal to stay a cattle-plague, 300 _sqq._;\n  of reindeer to the dead, ii. 178\n\nSacrifices, human, at fire-festivals, i. 106;\n  traces of, 146, 148, 150 _sqq._, 186, ii. 31;\n  offered by the ancient Germans, 28 _n._ 1;\n  among the Celts of Gaul, 32 _sq._;\n  the victims perhaps witches and wizards, 41 _sqq._;\n  W. Mannhardt\u2019s theory, 43\n\n\u201cSacrificial fonts\u201d in Sweden, i. 172 _n._ 2\n\n_Sada_, _Saza_, Persian festival of fire at the winter solstice, i. 269\n\nSage, divination by sprigs of red, on Midsummer Eve, ii. 61 _n._ 4\n\nSagittarius, mistletoe cut when the sun is in the sign of, ii. 82\n\nSahagun, B. de, on the treatment of witches and wizards among the Aztecs,\n            ii. 159\n\nSaibai, island of Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 40\n            _sq._\n\nSail Dharaich, Sollas, in North Uist, need-fire at, i. 294\n\nSt. Antony, wood of, i. 110\n\nSt. Brandon, church of, in Ireland, sick women pass through a window of\n            the, ii. 190\n\nSt. Christopher, name given to Midsummer giant at Salisbury, ii. 38\n\nSt. Columb Kill, festival of, i. 241\n\nSt. Corona, church of, at Koppenwal, holed stone in the, ii. 188 _sq._\n\nSaint-Denis-des-Puits, the oak of, ii. 287 _n._ 1\n\nSt. Eloi, Bishop of Noyon, his denunciation of heathen practices, ii. 190\n\nSt. Estapin, festival of, on August the sixth, ii. 188\n\nSt. George\u2019s Day, i. 223 _n._ 2\n\nSt. Hubert blesses bullets with which to shoot witches, i. 315 _sq._\n\nSt. James\u2019s Day (July the twenty-fifth), the flower of chicory cut on, ii.\n            71\n\nSt. Jean, in the Jura, Midsummer fire-custom at, i. 189\n\nSt. John blesses the flowers on Midsummer Eve, i. 171;\n  his hair looked for in ashes of Midsummer fire, 182 _sq._, 190;\n  fires of, in France, 183, 188, 189, 190, 192, 193;\n  prayers to, at Midsummer, 210;\n  claims human victims on St. John\u2019s Day (Midsummer Day), ii. 27, 29;\n  print of his head on St. John\u2019s Eve, 57;\n  oil of, found on oak leaves, 83\n\n\u2014\u2014, the Knights of, i. 194\n\n\u2014\u2014, Grand Master of the Order of, i. 211\n\n\u2014\u2014 the Baptist associated by the Catholic Church with Midsummer Day, i.\n            160, 181\n\nSt. John\u2019s blood found on St. John\u2019s wort and other plants at Midsummer,\n            ii. 56, 57\n\nSt. John\u2019s College, Oxford, the Christmas candle at, i. 255\n\n\u2014\u2014 Day, Midsummer fires on, i. 167 _sqq._, 171 _sqq._, 178, 179;\n  fire kindled by friction of wood on, 281;\n  fern-seed blooms on, ii. 287.\n  _See also_ Midsummer.\n\n\u2014\u2014 Eve (Midsummer Eve) in Malta, i. 210 _sq._;\n  wonderful herbs gathered on, ii. 45 _sqq._;\n  sick children passed through cleft trees on, 171\n\nSt. John\u2019s fires among the South Slavs, i. 178;\n  among the Esthonians, 180.\n  _See also_ Midsummer fires\n\n\u2014\u2014 flower at Midsummer, ii. 50;\n  gathered on St. John\u2019s Eve (Midsummer Eve), 57 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 girdle, mugwort, ii. 59\n\n\u2014\u2014 herbs gathered at Midsummer, ii. 46 _sq._, 49;\n  a protection against evil spirits, 49\n\n\u2014\u2014 Night (Midsummer Eve), precautions against witches on, ii. 20 _n._\n\n\u2014\u2014 oil on oaks at Midsummer, ii. 293\n\n\u2014\u2014 root (_Johanniswurzel_), the male fern, ii. 66\n\n\u2014\u2014 wort (_Hypericum perforatum_), garlands of, at Midsummer, i. 169 _n._\n            3, 196;\n  gathered on St. John\u2019s Day or Eve (Midsummer Day or Eve), ii. 49, 54\n              _sqq._;\n  a protection against thunder, witches, and evil spirits, 54, 55, 74;\n  thrown into the Midsummer bonfires, 55\n\nSt. Juan Capistrano, in California, ordeal of nettles and ants among the\n            Indians of, i. 64\n\nSt. Julien, church of, at Ath, ii. 36\n\nSt. Just, in Cornwall, Midsummer fire-custom at, i. 200\n\nSt. Lawrence family, their lives bound up with an old tree at Howth\n            castle, ii. 166\n\nSt. Martin invoked to disperse a mist, i. 280\n\nSt. Mary at L\u00fcbeck, church of, i. 100\n\nSt. Michael\u2019s cake, i. 149, 154 _n._ 3\n\nSt. Nonnosius, relics of, in the cathedral of Freising, Bavaria, ii. 188\n            _sq._\n\nSt. Patrick and the Beltane fires, i. 157 _sq._\n\nSt. Patrick\u2019s Chair, i. 205\n\n\u2014\u2014 Mount, i. 205\n\nSt. Peter, the Eve of, Midsummer fires in Ireland on, i. 202\n\n\u2014\u2014 and St. Paul, celebration of their day in London, i. 196\n\nSt. Peter\u2019s at Rome, new fire at Easter in, i. 125\n\n\u2014\u2014 Day, bonfires in Belgium on, i. 194 _sq._;\n  bonfires at Eton on, 197;\n  fires in Scotland on, 207\n\n\u2014\u2014 Eve, bonfires on, i. 195, 198, 199 _sq._;\n  gathering herbs on, ii. 45 _n._ 1\n\nSt. Rochus\u2019s day, need-fire kindled on, i. 282\n\nSt. Thomas\u2019s day (21st December), bonfires on, i. 266;\n  witches dreaded on, ii. 73\n\n\u2014\u2014 Mount, near Madras, the fire-walk at, ii. 8 _n._ 1\n\nSaint-Valery in Picardy, i. 113\n\nSt. Vitus\u2019s dance, mistletoe a cure for, ii. 84\n\n\u2014\u2014 Day, \u201cfire of heaven\u201d kindled on, i. 335\n\nSt. Wolfgang, Falkenstein chapel of, ii. 189\n\nSaintes-Maries, Midsummer custom at, i. 194\n\nSaintonge, the Yule log in, i. 251 _n._ 1;\n  wonderful herbs gathered on St. John\u2019s Eve in, ii. 45;\n  St. John\u2019s wort in, 55;\n  vervain gathered at Midsummer in, 62 _n. 4_;\n  four-leaved clover at Midsummer in, 63\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Aunis, Midsummer fires in, i. 192\n\nSalee, in Morocco, Midsummer fires at, i. 214, 216\n\nSalisbury, Midsummer giants at, ii. 37 _sq._\n\nSalop (Shropshire), fear of witchcraft in, i. 342 _n._ 4\n\nSalt, prohibition to eat, i. 19, 20;\n  used in a ceremony after marriage, 25 _sq._;\n  abstinence from, associated with a rule of chastity, 26 _sqq._;\n  prohibition to taste, 60, 68, 69;\n  not to be handled by menstruous women, 81 _sq._, 84;\n  divination by, 244\n\n\u2014\u2014 cake, divination by, i. 238 _sq._\n\nSamhain, Eve of, in Ireland, i. 139, 225, 226;\n  All Saints\u2019 Day in Ireland, 225\n\n_Samhanach_, Hallowe\u2019en bogies, i. 227\n\n_Samhnagan_, Hallowe\u2019en fires, i. 230\n\nSamland fishermen will not go to sea on Midsummer Day, ii. 26\n\nSamoan story of woman who was impregnated by the sun, i. 74 _sq._\n\nSamoyed shamans, their familiar spirits in boars, ii. 196 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 story of the external soul, ii. 141 _sq._\n\nSamson, effigy of, ii. 36;\n  an African, 314\n\nSan Salvador in West Africa, ii. 200\n\nSanctity and uncleanness not clearly differentiated in the primitive mind,\n            i. 97 _sq._\n\nSanctuary of Balder, i. 104\n\nSand, souls of ogres in a grain of, ii. 120\n\nSandhill, in Northumberland, Midsummer fires at, i. 198\n\nSangerhausen, i. 169\n\nSangro, river, i. 210\n\nSankuru River, ii. 264\n\nSanta Catalina Istlavacan, birth-names of the Indians of, ii. 214 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 Maria Piedigrotta at Naples, i. 221\n\nSapor, king of Persia, i. 82 _sq._\n\nSarajevo, need-fire near, i. 286\n\nSardinia, Midsummer fires in, i. 209\n\nSatan preaches a sermon in the church of North Berwick, ii. 158;\n  brings fern-seed on Christmas night, 289\n\n_Satapatha Brahmana_, on the sun as Death, ii. 174 _n._ 1\n\nSaturday, Easter, new fire on, i. 121, 122, 124, 127, 128, 130;\n  second-sight of persons born on a, 285\n\nSaturnalia at puberty of a princess royal, i. 30 _sq._;\n  license of the, ii. 291 _n._ 2\n\nSaucers, divination by seven, i. 209\n\nSavage, secretiveness of the, ii. 224 _sq._;\n  dread of sorcery, 224 _sq._\n\nSaxo Grammaticus, Danish historian, i. 102 _n._ 1;\n  his account of Balder, 103\n\nSaxons of Transylvania, story of the external soul among the, ii. 116\n\nSaxony, fires to burn the witches in, i. 160;\n  the Wends of, ii. 297\n\n\u2014\u2014, Lower, the need-fire in, i. 272\n\nScania, Midsummer fires in, i. 172\n\nSchaffhausen, St. John\u2019s three Midsummer victims at, ii. 27\n\nSchar mountains of Servia, need-fire in the, i. 281\n\n_Scharholz_, Midsummer log in Germany, ii. 92 _n._ 1\n\nSchaumburg, Easter bonfires in, i. 142\n\nSchlegel, G., on Chinese festival of fire, ii. 5 _n._ 1\n\nSchlich, W., on mistletoe, ii. 315 _sq._;\n  on _Loranthus europaeus_, 317\n\nSchlochau, district of, witches\u2019 Sabbath in, ii. 74\n\nSch\u00f6llbronn in Baden, \u201cthunder poles\u201d at, i. 145\n\nSchoolcraft, Henry R., on renewal of fire, i. 134 _n._ 1\n\nSch\u00fcrmann, C. W., on the Port Lincoln tribe of South Australia, ii. 216\n            _sq._\n\n_Schvannes_, bonfires, i. 111 _n._ 1\n\nSchweina, in Thuringia, Christmas bonfire at, i. 265 _sq._\n\nSchwenda, witches burnt at, i. 6\n\nScience, movement of thought from magic through religion to, ii. 304\n            _sq._;\n  and magic, different views of natural order postulated by the two, 305\n              _sq._\n\nScira, an Athenian festival, i. 20 _n._ 1\n\n\u201cScoring above the breath,\u201d cutting a witch on the forehead, i. 315 _n._\n            2;\n  counter-spell to witchcraft, 343 _n._\n\nScotch Highlanders, their belief in bogies at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 227;\n  their belief as to Snake Stones, ii. 311\n\nScotland, sacred wells in, i. 12;\n  Celts called \u201cthunder-bolts\u201d in, 14 _sq._;\n  Snake Stones in, 15 _sq._, ii. 311;\n  worship of Grannus in, i. 112;\n  Beltane fires in, 146 _sqq._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 206 _sq._;\n  divination at Hallowe\u2019en in, 229, 234 _sqq._;\n  need-fire in, 289 _sqq._;\n  animals burnt alive as a sacrifice in, 302;\n  \u201cscoring above the breath,\u201d a counter-charm for witchcraft in, 315 _n._\n              2;\n  witches as hares in, 315 _n._ 1;\n  St. John\u2019s wort in, ii. 54;\n  the divining-rod in, 67.\n  _See also_ Highlands _and_ Highlanders\n\nScots pine, mistletoe on, ii. 315\n\nScott, Sir Walter, on the fear of witchcraft, i. 343;\n  oaks planted by, ii. 166\n\nScourging girls at puberty, i. 66 _sq._\n\n_Scouvion_, i. 108.\n  _See_ _Escouvion_\n\nScratching the person with the fingers forbidden to girls at puberty, i.\n            38, 39, 41, 42, 44, 47, 50, 53, 92\n\nScrofula, vervain a cure for, ii. 62 _n._ 1;\n  creeping through an arch of vines as a cure for, 180;\n  passage through a holed stone a cure for, 187\n\nScylla, daughter of Nisus, the story of her treachery, ii. 103\n\nScythes and bill-hooks set out to cut witches as they fall from the\n            clouds, i. 345 _sq._\n\nSea, menstruous women not allowed to approach the, i. 79;\n  bathing in the, at Easter, 123;\n  bathing in the, at Midsummer, 208, 210, ii. 30;\n  demands a human victim on Midsummer Day, 26\n\nSeal, descendants of the, in Sutherlandshire, ii. 131 _sq._\n\nSeats placed for souls of dead at the Midsummer fires, i. 183, 184\n\nSeclusion of girls at puberty, i. 22 _sqq._,;\n  in folk-tales, 70 _sqq._;\n  reasons for the, 76 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of novices at initiation, ii. 233, 241, 250, 253, 257 _n._ 1, 258, 259,\n            261, 264, 266\n\n\u2014\u2014 of women at menstruation, i. 76 _sqq._\n\nSecret language learnt at initiation, ii. 253, 255 _n._ 1, 259, 261 _n._\n\n\u2014\u2014 societies and totem clans, related to each other, ii. 272 _sq._\n\nSecretiveness of the savage, ii. 224 _sq._\n\nSedbury Park oak, in Gloucestershire, ii. 316\n\n_Sedum telephium_, orpine, used in divination at Midsummer, ii. 61\n\nSeed-corn, charred remains of Midsummer log mixed with the, ii. 92\n\nSeeman, Berthold, on St. John\u2019s blood, ii. 56\n\nSeler, Professor E., on nagual, ii. 213 _n._\n\n_Semo_, a secret society of Senegambia, ii. 261\n\nSenal Indians of California, their notion as to fire stored in trees, ii.\n            295\n\nSenegambia, the Walos of, ii. 79;\n  secret society in, 261 _sq._\n\nSennar, a province of the Sudan, human hyaenas in, i. 313\n\nSeparation of children from their parents among the Baganda, i. 23 _n._ 2\n\nSeptember, eve of the first of, new fire on the, i. 139;\n  the eighth, feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, 220;\n  the fire-walk in, ii. 9\n\nSerpent, girls at puberty thought to be visited by a, i. 31;\n  supposed to swallow girl at puberty, 57;\n  ten-headed, external soul in a, ii. 104 _sq._;\n  twelve-headed, external soul of demon in a, 143;\n  external soul of chief in a, 201.\n  _See also_ Snake\n\nSerpents burnt alive at the Midsummer festival in Luchon, ii. 38 _sq._,\n            43;\n  witches turn into, 41;\n  worshipped by the old Prussians, 43 _n._ 3;\n  in the worship of Demeter, 44 _n._;\n  the familiars of witches, 202;\n  spirits of the dead incarnate in, 211 _sq._\n\nSerpents\u2019 eggs (glass beads) in ancient Gaul, i. 15\n\nServia, Midsummer fire custom in, i. 178;\n  the Yule log in, 258 _sqq._;\n  need-fire in, 281, 282 _sqq._\n\nServian stories of the external soul, ii. 110 _sqq._\n\nServians, house-communities of the, i. 259 _n._ 1\n\nSetonje, in Servia, need-fire at, i. 282 _sqq._\n\nSeven bonfires, lucky to see, i. 107, 108\n\n\u2014\u2014 leaps over Midsummer fire, i. 213\n\n\u2014\u2014 sorts of plants gathered at Midsummer, ii. 51 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 years, a were-wolf for, i. 310 _n._ 1, 316 _n._ 2\n\nSex totems among the natives of South-Eastern Australia, ii. 214 _sqq._;\n  called \u201cbrother\u201d and \u201csister\u201d by men and women respectively, 215\n\nSexes, danger apprehended from the relation of the, ii. 277 _sq._\n\nSeyf el-Mulook and the jinnee, the story of, ii. 137\n\nSgealoir, the burying-ground of, i. 294\n\n_Sgreball_, three pence, i. 139\n\nSham-fights at New Year, i. 135\n\nShamans of the Yakuts and Samoyeds keep their external souls in animals,\n            ii. 196\n\nShamash, the Assyrian sun-god, ii. 80 _n._ 3\n\nShanga, city in East Africa, ii. 314\n\nShawnee prophet, ii. 157\n\nSheaf, the last cut at harvest, the Yule log wrapt up in, i. 248;\n  reapers blindfold throw sickles at the, ii. 279 _n._ 4\n\nSheaves of wheat or barley burnt in Midsummer fires, i. 215\n\nSheep made to tread embers of extinct Midsummer fires, i. 182;\n  driven over ashes of Midsummer fires, 192;\n  burnt to stop disease in the flock, 301;\n  burnt alive as a sacrifice in the Isle of Man, 306;\n  witch in shape of a black, 316;\n  driven through fire, ii. 11 _sqq._;\n  omens drawn from the intestines of, 13;\n  passed through a hole in a rock to rid them of disease, 189 _sq._\n\nShells used in ritual of death and resurrection, ii. 267 _n._ 2, 269\n\nSherbro, Sierra Leone, secret society in the, ii. 259 _sqq._\n\nShirley Heath, cleft ash-tree at, ii. 168\n\nShirt, wet, divination by, i. 236, 241\n\nShoe, divination by thrown, i. 236\n\nShoes of boar\u2019s skin worn by king at inauguration, i. 4;\n  magical plants at Midsummer put in, ii. 54, 60, 65\n\nShooting at the sun on Midsummer Day, ii. 291\n\n\u2014\u2014 at witches in the clouds, i. 345\n\n\u201cShot-a-dead\u201d by fairies, i. 303\n\nShropshire, the Yule log in, i. 257;\n  fear of witchcraft in, 342 _n._ 4;\n  the oak thought to bloom on Midsummer Eve in, ii. 292, 293\n\nShrove Tuesday, effigies burnt on, i. 120;\n  straw-man burnt on, ii. 22;\n  wicker giants on, 35;\n  cats burnt alive on, 40;\n  the divining-rod cut on, 68;\n  custom of striking a hen dead on, 279 _n._\n\nShuswap Indians of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among\n            the, i. 53 _sq._;\n  girls at puberty forbidden to eat anything that bleeds, 94;\n  fence themselves with thorn bushes against ghosts, ii. 174 _n._ 2;\n  personal totems among the, 276 _n._ 1;\n  their belief as to trees struck by lightning, 297 _n._ 3\n\nSiam, king of, not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 3;\n  tree-spirit in serpent form in, ii. 44 _n._ 1\n\nSiamese, their explanation of a first menstruation, i. 24;\n  their story of the external soul, ii. 102\n\nSiberia, marriage custom in, i. 75;\n  external souls of shamans in, ii. 196 _sq._\n\nSibyl, the Norse, her prophecy, i. 102 _sq._\n\nSibyl\u2019s wish, the, i. 99\n\nSicily, Midsummer fires in, i. 210;\n  St. John\u2019s Day (Midsummer Day) regarded as dangerous and unlucky in, ii.\n              29;\n  bathing at Midsummer in, 29;\n  St. John\u2019s wort in, 55\n\nSickness, bonfires a protection against, i. 108, 109;\n  transferred to animal, ii. 181\n\nSieg, the Yule log in the valley of the, i. 248\n\nSiena, the, of the Ivory Coast, their totemism, ii. 220 _n._ 2\n\nSierck, town on the Moselle, i. 164\n\nSierra Leone, birth-trees in, ii. 160;\n  secret society in, 260 _sq._\n\nSieve, divination by, i. 236\n\nSikkhim, custom after a funeral in, ii. 18\n\nSilence compulsory on girls at puberty, i. 29, 57;\n  in ritual, 123, 124, ii. 63, 67, 171, 184\n\nSilesia, Spachendorf in, i. 119;\n  fires to burn the witches in, 160;\n  Midsummer fires in, 170 _sq._, 175;\n  need-fire in, 278;\n  witches as cats in, 319 _sq._;\n  divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, ii. 53\n\nSilius Italicus, on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. 14 _n._ 3\n\nSill of door, unlucky children passed under the, ii. 190\n\nSilver sixpence or button used to shoot witches with, i. 316\n\nSilvia and Mars, story of, ii. 102\n\nSimeon, prince of Bulgaria, his life bound up with the capital of a\n            column, ii. 156 _sq._\n\nSimla, i. 12\n\nSimurgh and Rustem, i. 104\n\nSin-offering, i. 82\n\nSinghalese, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 69\n\nSingleton, Miss A. H., ii. 192 _n._ 1\n\nSiouan tribes of North America, names of clans not used in ordinary\n            conversation among the, ii. 224 _n._ 2\n\nSioux or Dacotas, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. 268\n            _sq._\n\nSipi in Northern India, i. 12\n\nSirius, how the Bushmen warm up the star, i. 332 _sq._\n\nSister\u2019s Beam (_Sororium tigillum_) at Rome, ii. 194, 195 _n._ 4\n\nSisyphus, the stone of, i. 298\n\nSixpence, silver, witches shot with a, i. 316\n\nSixth day of the moon, mistletoe cut on the, ii. 77\n\nSixty years, cycles of, ii. 77 _n._ 1\n\nSkin disease, traditional cure of, in India, ii. 192;\n  leaping over ashes of fire as remedy for, 2\n\nSky, girls at puberty not allowed to look at the, i. 43, 45, 46, 69\n\nSkye, island of, i. 289;\n  the need-fire in, 148\n\nSlane, the hill of, i. 158\n\nSlave Coast, custom of widows on the, ii. 18 _sq._;\n  use of bull-roarers on the, 229 _n._\n\nSlavonia, the Yule log in, i. 262 _sq._;\n  need-fire in, 282\n\nSlavonian (South) peasants, the measures they take to bring down witches\n            from the clouds, i. 345\n\nSlavonic peoples, need-fire among, i. 280 _sqq._, 344\n\n\u2014\u2014 stories of the external soul, ii. 108 _sqq._\n\nSlavs, the oak a sacred tree among the, ii. 89;\n  oak wood used to kindle sacred fires among the, 91\n\n\u2014\u2014, the South, Midsummer fires among the, i. 178;\n  the Yule log among the, 247, 258 _sqq._;\n  divination from flowers at Midsummer among the, ii. 50;\n  their belief in the activity of witches at Midsummer, 74 _sq._;\n  need-fire sometimes kindled by the friction of oak-wood among the, 91\n\nSleep, magic, at initiation, ii. 256 _sq._\n\nSligo, the Druids\u2019 Hill in County, i. 229\n\nSlope of Big Stones in Harris, i. 227\n\nSlovenians, their belief in the activity of witches on Midsummer Eve, ii.\n            75\n\nSmith, a spectral, i. 136\n\nSmoke made in imitation of rain-clouds, i. 133;\n  used to stupefy witches in the clouds, 345;\n  used to fumigate sheep and cattle, ii. 12, 13\n\n\u2014\u2014 of bonfires, omens drawn from the, i. 116, 131, 337;\n  intended to drive away dragons, 161;\n  allowed to pass over corn, 201, 337\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Midsummer bonfires a preservative against ills, i. 188;\n  a protection against disease, 192;\n  beneficial effects of, 214 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Midsummer herbs a protection against thunder and lightning, ii. 48;\n  used to fumigate cattle, 53\n\n\u2014\u2014 of need-fire used to fumigate fruit-trees, nets, and cattle, i. 280\n\nSmyth, R. Brough, on menstruous women in Australia, i. 13\n\nSnake said to wound a girl at puberty, i. 56;\n  seven-headed, external soul of witch in a, ii. 144;\n  external soul of medicine-man in, 199.\n  _See also_ Serpent\n\n\u2014\u2014 Stones, superstitions as to, i. 15 _sq._;\n  belief of the Scottish Highlanders concerning, ii. 311\n\nSnakes, fat of, i. 14;\n  thought to congregate on Midsummer Eve or the Eve of May Day, 15 _sq._;\n  charm against, 17;\n  spirits of plants and trees in the form of, ii. 44 _n._;\n  sympathetically related to human beings, 209 _sq._\n\nSnow, external soul of a king in, ii. 102\n\nSocieties, secret, and clans, totemic, related to each other, ii. 272\n            _sq._\n\nSodewa Bai and the golden necklace, story of, ii. 99 _sq._\n\nSoemara, in Celebes, were-wolf at, i. 312\n\nSofala in East Africa, i. 135 _n._ 2\n\nSogamoso, heir to the throne of, not allowed to see the sun, i. 19\n\nSogne Fiord in Norway, Balder\u2019s Grove on the, i. 104, ii. 315\n\nSolar festival in spring, ii. 3\n\n\u2014\u2014 theory of the fires of the fire-festivals, i. 329, 331 _sqq._, ii. 15\n            _sq._, 72\n\nSolstice, the summer, new fire kindled at the, i. 132, 133;\n  its importance for primitive man, 160 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, the winter, celebrated as the Birthday of the Sun, i. 246;\n  Persian festival of fire at the, 269\n\nSolstices, the old pagan festivals of the two, consecrated as the\n            birthdays of Christ and St. John the Baptist, i. 181 _sq._;\n  festivals of fire at the, 246, 247, 331 _sq._;\n  fern-seed gathered at the, ii. 290 _sq._;\n  mistletoe gathered at the, 291 _sq._\n\nSolstitial fires perhaps sun-charms, ii. 292\n\nSoma, Hindoo deity, i. 99 _n._ 2\n\nSomme, the river, i. 113;\n  the department of, mugwort at Midsummer in, ii. 58\n\nSomersetshire, Midsummer fires in, i. 199\n\nSonnerat, French traveller, on the fire-walk in India, ii. 6 _sqq._\n\nSoosoos of Senegambia, their secret society, ii. 261 _sq._\n\nSoracte, fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani on Mount, ii. 14 _sq._;\n  the Soranian Wolves at, 91 _n._ 7\n\n\u201cSoranian Wolves\u201d (_Hirpi Sorani_), ii. 14;\n  at Soracte, 91 _n._ 1\n\nSoranus, Italian god, ii. 14, 15 _n._ 1, 16\n\nSorcerers, Midsummer herbs a protection against, ii. 45;\n  detected by St. John\u2019s wort, 55;\n  detected by fern root, 67\n\nSorcery, pointing sticks or bones in, i. 14;\n  bonfires a protection against, 156;\n  sprigs of mullein protect cattle against, 190;\n  mistletoe a protection against, ii. 85;\n  savage dread of, 224 _sq._\n  _See also_ Witchcraft\n\n\u2014\u2014 and witchcraft, Midsummer plants and flowers a protection against, ii.\n            45, 46, 49, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 72\n\nSorcha, the King of, in a Celtic tale, ii. 127 _sq._\n\nSoul, the notion of, a quasi-scientific hypothesis, ii. 221;\n  the unity and indivisibility of the, a theological dogma, 221\n\n\u2014\u2014 of chief in sacred grove, ii. 161\n\nSoul of child deposited in a coco-nut, ii. 154 _sq._;\n  deposited in a bag, 155;\n  bound up with knife, 157\n\n\u2014\u2014 of iron, ii. 154\n\n\u2014\u2014 of ruptured person passes into cleft oak-tree, ii. 172\n\n\u2014\u2014 of woman at childbirth deposited in a chopping-knife, ii. 153 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 the external, in folk-tales, ii. 95 _sqq._;\n  in parrot, 97 _sq._;\n  in bird, 98 _sq._;\n  in necklace, 99 _sq._;\n  in a fish, 99 _sq._, 122 _sq._;\n  in cock, pigeon, starling, spinning-wheel, pillar, 100 _sq._;\n  in a bee, 101;\n  in a lemon, 102;\n  in a tree, 102;\n  in a barley plant, 102;\n  in a box, 102, 117, 143 _n._ 4, 149;\n  in a firebrand, 103;\n  in hair, 103 _sq._;\n  in snow, 103 _sq._;\n  in two or three doves, 104;\n  in a ten-headed serpent, 104 _sq._;\n  in a pumpkin, 105;\n  in a spear, 105;\n  in a dragon, 105;\n  in a gem, 105 _sq._;\n  in an egg, 107, 125, 127, 140 _sq._;\n  in a duck\u2019s egg, 109 _sq._, 115 _sq._, 116, 119 _sq._, 120, 126, 130,\n              132;\n  in a blue rose-tree, 110;\n  in a bird, 111, 119, 142, 150;\n  in a pigeon, 112 _sq._;\n  in a light, 116;\n  in a flower, 117 _sq._;\n  in grain of sand, 120;\n  in a stone, 125 _n._ 1, 156;\n  in a thorn, 129;\n  in a gem, 130;\n  in a pigeon\u2019s egg, 132, 139;\n  in a dove\u2019s egg, 133;\n  in a box-tree, 133;\n  in the flower of the acacia, 135 _sq._;\n  in a sparrow, 137;\n  in a beetle, 138, 140;\n  in a bottle, 138;\n  in a golden cock-chafer, 140;\n  in a dish, 141 _sq._;\n  in a precious stone, 142;\n  in a bag, 142;\n  in a white herb, 143;\n  in a wasp, 143 _sq._;\n  in a twelve-headed serpent, 143;\n  in a golden ring, 143;\n  in seven little birds, 144;\n  in a seven-headed snake, 144;\n  in a quail, 144 _sq._;\n  in a vase, 145 _sq._;\n  in a golden sword and a golden arrow, 145;\n  in entrails, 147 _sq._;\n  in a golden fish, 147 _sq._, 220;\n  in a hair as hard as copper, 148;\n  in a cat, 150 _sq._;\n  in a bear, 151;\n  in a buffalo, 151;\n  in inanimate things, 153 _sqq._;\n  in a hemlock branch, 152;\n  in folk-custom, 153 _sqq._;\n  in a mountain scaur, 156;\n  in ox-horns, 156;\n  in roof of house, 156;\n  in a tree, 156;\n  in a spring of water, 156;\n  in capital of column, 156 _sq._;\n  in a portrait statue, 157;\n  in plants, 159 _sqq._;\n  in animals, 196 _sqq._;\n  of shaman or medicine-man in animal, 196, 199;\n  kept in totem, 220 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -boxes, amulets as, ii. 155\n\n\u2014\u2014 -stones, ii. 156\n\n\u2014\u2014 -stuff of ghosts, ii. 182\n\nSoulless King, whose soul was in a duck\u2019s egg, Lithuanian story of the,\n            ii. 113 _sqq._\n\nSouls of dead sit round the Midsummer fire, i. 183, 184;\n  of people at a house-warming collected in a bag, ii. 153;\n  male and female, in Chinese philosophy, 221;\n  the plurality of, 221 _sq._;\n  human, transmigrate into their totemic animals, 223\n\nSow, the cropped black, at Hallowe\u2019en, i. 239, 240\n\nSower, the Wicked, driving away, i. 107, 118\n\nSowerby, James, on mouse-ear hawk-weed, ii. 57;\n  on orpine, 61 _n._ 4;\n  on yellow hoary mullein, 64;\n  on the Golden Bough, 284 _n._ 3;\n  on mistletoe, 316 _n._ 5\n\nSowing hemp seed, divination by, i. 235\n\nSpachendorf, in Silesia, effigy burnt at, i. 119\n\nSpae-wives and Gestr, Icelandic story of the, ii. 125 _sq._\n\nSpain, Midsummer fires and customs in, i. 208;\n  bathing at Midsummer in, ii. 29;\n  vervain gathered at Midsummer in, 62\n\nSpark Sunday in Switzerland, i. 118\n\nSparks of Yule log prognosticate chickens, lambs, foals, calves, etc., i.\n            251, 262, 263, 264\n\nSparrow, external soul of a jinnee in a, ii. 137\n\nSpear used to help women in hard labour, i. 14;\n  external soul in a, ii. 105\n\nSpeicher, in the Eifel, St. John\u2019s fires at, i. 169\n\nSpell recited at kindling need-fire, i. 290;\n  of witchcraft broken by suffering, 304\n\nSpells cast on cattle, i. 301, 302;\n  cast by witches on union of man and wife, 346\n\nSpencer (B.) and Gillen (F. J.) on initiation of medicine-man, ii. 238\n\nSpinning-wheel, external soul of ogress in a, ii. 100\n\nSpirit or god of vegetation, effigies of, burnt in spring, ii. 21 _sq._;\n  reasons for burning, 23;\n  leaf-clad representative of, burnt, 25\n\nSpirits of the hills, their treasures, ii. 69\n\n\u2014\u2014 of plants and trees in the form of snakes, ii. 44 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 of water propitiated at Midsummer, ii. 31\n\nSpree, the river, requires its human victim on Midsummer Day, ii. 26\n\nSpreewald, the Wends of the, ii. 48\n\nSprenger, the inquisitor, ii. 158\n\nSpring of water, external soul in a, ii. 156\n\nSprings, underground, detected by divining-rod, ii. 67 _sq._\n\nSpringwort, mythical plant, procured at Midsummer, ii. 69 _sqq._;\n  reveals treasures, opens all locks, and makes the bearer invisible and\n              invulnerable, 69 _sq._\n\nSproat, G. M., on seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 43 _sq._\n\nSpruce trees free from mistletoe, ii. 315\n\nSqueals of pigs necessary for fruitfulness of mangoes, i. 9\n\nSquirrels burnt in the Easter bonfires, i. 142, ii. 40\n\nStabbing a transformed witch or werewolf in order to compel him or her to\n            reveal himself or herself, i. 315\n\nStaffordshire, the Yule log in, i. 256\n\nStamfordham, in Northumberland, need-fire at, i. 288 _sq._\n\nStarling, external soul of ogress in a, ii. 100\n\nStebbing, E. B., on _Loranthus vestitus_ in India, ii. 317 _n._ 2\n\nSteinen, Professor K. von den, on the bull-roarer, ii. 233 _n._ 2\n\n_Stelis_, a kind of mistletoe, ii. 317, 318\n\nSterile beasts passed through Midsummer fires, i. 203, 338\n\nSternberg, in Mecklenburg, need-fire at, i. 274\n\nStewart, Jonet, a wise woman, ii. 184\n\nStewart, W. Grant, on witchcraft, i. 342 _n._ 4\n\nStheni, near Delphi, ii. 317\n\nSticks, charred, of bonfires, protect fields against hail, i. 144\n\n\u2014\u2014, charred, of Candlemas bonfires, superstitious uses of, i. 131\n\n\u2014\u2014, charred, of Easter fire, superstitious uses of, i. 121;\n  preserve wheat from blight and mildew, 143\n\n\u2014\u2014, charred, of Midsummer bonfires, planted in the fields, i. 165, 166,\n            173, 174;\n  a charm against lightning and foul weather, 174;\n  kept to make the cattle thrive, 180;\n  thrown into wells to improve the water, 184;\n  a protection against thunder, 184, 192;\n  a protection against lightning, 187, 188, 190\n\n\u2014\u2014, sacred, whittled, i. 138 _n._ 1\n\nStiffness of back set down to witchcraft, i. 343 _n._, 345\n\nStinging girls and young men with ants, i. 61, 62 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 with ants as a form of purification, i. 61 _sqq._\n\n_Stipiturus malachurus_, emu-wren, men\u2019s \u201cbrother\u201d among the Kurnai, ii.\n            216\n\nStolen kail, divination by, i. 234 _sq._\n\nStone, look of a girl at puberty thought to turn things to, i. 46;\n  the Hairy, at Midsummer, 212;\n  external soul in a, ii. 125 _n._ 1, 156;\n  precious, external soul of khan in a, 142;\n  magical, put into body of novice at initiation, 271\n\nStones thrown into Midsummer fire, i. 183, 191, 212;\n  placed round Midsummer fires, 190;\n  carried by persons on their heads at Midsummer, 205, 212;\n  at Hallowe\u2019en fires, divination by, 230 _sq._, 239, 240;\n  used for curing cattle, 324, 325;\n  sick people passed through holes in, ii. 186 _sqq._;\n  magical, inserted by spirits in the body of a new medicine-man, 235\n\nStoole, near Downpatrick, Midsummer ceremony at, i. 205\n\nStow, John, on Midsummer fires in London, i. 196 _sq._\n\nStrabo, on the Hirpi Sorani, ii. 14;\n  on the human sacrifices of the Celts, 32\n\nStrackerjan, L., on fear of witchcraft in Oldenburg, i. 343 _n._\n\nStrap of wolf\u2019s hide used by were-wolves, i. 310 _n._ 1\n\nStrathpeffer, in Ross-shire, i. 153\n\nStrathspey, sheep passed through a hoop of rowan in, ii. 184\n\nStraw tied round trees to make them fruitful, i. 115\n\nStreams, menstruous women not allowed to cross running, i. 97;\n  need-fire kindled between two running, 292\n\nStrength of people bound up with their hair, ii. 158 _sq._\n\nStriking or throwing blindfold, ii. 279 _n._ 4\n\n_Striped Petticoat Philosophy, The_, i. 6.\n\nStromberg Hill, burning wheel rolled down the, i. 163\n\nStrutt, Joseph, on Midsummer fires in England, i. 196\n\nStseelis Indians of British Columbia, dread and seclusion of menstruous\n            women among the, i. 89\n\nStuart, Mrs. A., on withered mistletoe, ii. 287 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 Lake in British Columbia, i. 47\n\nStukeley, W., on a Christmas custom at York, ii. 291 _n._ 2\n\nStyria, fern-seed on Christmas night in, ii. 289\n\nStyx, the passage of Aeneas across the, ii. 294\n\nSubincision at initiation of lads in Australia, ii. 227 _sq._, 234, 235\n\nSub-totems in Australia, ii. 275 _n._ 1\n\nSudan, ceremony of new fire in the, i. 134;\n  human hyaenas in, 313\n\nSudeten mountains in Silesia, i. 170\n\nSuffering, intensity of, a means to break the spell of witchcraft, i. 304\n\nSuffolk, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96 _n._ 2;\n  duck baked alive as a sacrifice in, 303 _sq._\n\nSuk of British East Africa, their dread of menstruous women, i. 81\n\n\u201cSultan of the Oleander,\u201d i. 18\n\nSumatra, the Minangkabauers of, i. 79;\n  the Kooboos of, ii. 162 _n._ 2;\n  the Looboos of, 182 _sq._;\n  totemism among the Battas of, 222 _sqq._;\n  use of bull-roarers in, 229 _n._\n\nSummer, King of, chosen on St. Peter\u2019s Day, i. 195\n\nSun, rule not to see the, i. 18 _sqq._;\n  priest of the, uses a white umbrella, 20 _n._ 1;\n  not to shine on girls at puberty, 22, 35, 36, 37, 41, 44, 46, 47, 68;\n  not to be seen by Brahman boys for three days, 68 _n._ 2;\n  impregnation of women by the, 74 _sq._;\n  made to shine on women at marriage, 75;\n  sheep and lambs sacrificed to the, 132;\n  temple of the, at Cuzco, 132;\n  the Birthday of the, at the winter solstice, 246;\n  Christmas an old heathen festival of the birth of the, 331 _sq._;\n  symbolized by a wheel, 334 _n._ 1, 335;\n  in the sign of the lion, ii. 66 _sq._;\n  magical virtues of plants at Midsummer derived from the, 71 _sq._;\n  in the sign of Sagittarius, 82;\n  calls men to himself through death, 173, 174 _n._ 1;\n  fern-seed procured by shooting at the sun on Midsummer Day, 291;\n  the ultimate cooling of the, 307\n\nSun-charms, i. 331;\n  the solstitial and other ceremonial fires perhaps sun-charms, ii. 292\n\n\u2014\u2014 -god, ii. 1, 16\n\nSundal, in Norway, need-fire in, i. 280\n\nSunday, children born on a Sunday can see treasures in the earth, ii. 288\n            _n._ 5\n\n\u2014\u2014 of the Firebrands, i. 110\n\n\u2014\u2014 in Lent, the first, fire-festival on the, i. 107 _sqq._\n\nSung-yang, were-tiger in, i. 310\n\nSunless, Prince, i. 21\n\nSunshine, use of fire as a charm to produce, i. 341 _sq._\n\nSuperb warbler, called women\u2019s \u201csister\u201d among the Kurnai, ii. 215 _n._ 1,\n            216, 218\n\nSuperstitions, Index of, i. 270;\n  about trees struck by lightning, ii. 296 _sqq._\n\nSurenthal in Switzerland, new fire made by friction at Midsummer in the,\n            i. 169 _sq._\n\nS\u00fbrya, the sun-god, ii. 1\n\nSussex, cleft ash-trees used for the cure of rupture in, ii. 169 _sq._\n\nSutherland, the need-fire in, i. 294 _sq._\n\nSutherlandshire, sept of the Mackays, \u201cthe descendants of the seal,\u201d in,\n            ii. 131 _sq._\n\nSwabia, \u201cburning the witch\u201d in, i. 116;\n  custom of throwing lighted discs in, 116 _sq._;\n  Easter fires in, 144 _sq._;\n  custom at eclipses in, 162 _n._;\n  the Midsummer fires in, 166 _sq._;\n  witches as hares and horses in, 318 _sq._;\n  the divining-rod in, ii. 68 _n._ 4;\n  fern-seed brought by Satan on Christmas night in, 289\n\nSwahili of East Africa, their ceremony of the new fire, i. 133, 140;\n  birth-trees among the, ii. 160 _sq._;\n  their story of an African Samson, ii. 314\n\nSwallows, stones found in stomachs of, i. 17\n\nSwan-woman, Tartar story of the, ii. 144\n\nSwan\u2019s bone, used by menstruous women to drink out of, i. 48, 49, 50, 90,\n            92\n\nSwans\u2019 song in a fairy tale, ii. 124\n\nSwanton, J. R., quoted, i. 45 _n._ 1\n\nSweden, customs observed on Yule Night in, i. 20 _sq._;\n  Easter bonfires in, 146;\n  bonfires on the Eve of May Day in, 159, 336;\n  Midsummer fires in, 172;\n  the need-fire in, 280;\n  bathing at Midsummer in, ii. 29;\n  \u201cMidsummer Brooms\u201d in, 54;\n  the divining-rod in, 69, 291;\n  mistletoe to be shot or knocked down with stones in, 82;\n  mistletoe a remedy for epilepsy in, 83;\n  medical use of mistletoe in, 84;\n  mistletoe used as a protection against conflagration in, 85, 293;\n  mistletoe cut at Midsummer in, 86;\n  mystic properties ascribed to mistletoe on St. John\u2019s Eve in, 86;\n  Balder\u2019s balefires in, 87;\n  children passed through a cleft oak as a cure for rupture or rickets in,\n              170;\n  crawling through a hoop as a cure in, 184;\n  superstitions about a parasitic rowan in, 281\n\nSwitzerland, Lenten fires in, i. 118 _sq._;\n  new fire kindled by friction of wood in, 169 _sq._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 172;\n  the Yule log in, 249;\n  need-fire in, 279 _sq._, 336;\n  people warned against bathing at Midsummer in, ii. 27;\n  the belief in witchcraft in, 42 _n._ 2;\n  divination by orpine at Midsummer in, 61\n\nSympathetic relation between cleft tree and person who has been passed\n            through it, ii. 170, 171 _n._ 1, 172;\n  between man and animal, 272 _sq._\n\nSyria, restrictions on menstruous women in, i. 84\n\nSyrmia, the Yule log in, i. 262 _sq._\n\nTabari, Arab chronicler, i. 82\n\nTaboo conceived as a dangerous physical substance which needs to be\n            insulated, i. 6 _sq._\n\nTabooed men, i. 7 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 persons kept from contact with the ground, i. 2 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 things kept from contact with the ground, i. 7 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 women, i. 8\n\nTaboos regulating the lives of divine kings, i. 2;\n  observed by priest of Earth in Southern Nigeria, 4\n\nTacitus, on human sacrifices offered by the ancient Germans, ii. 28 _n._\n            1;\n  on the goddess Nerthus, 28 _n._ 1\n\nTahiti, king and queen of, not allowed to set foot on the ground, i. 3;\n  the fire-walk in, ii. 11\n\nTahitians, the New Year of the, ii. 244\n\nTajan and Landak, districts of Dutch Borneo, i. 5, ii. 164\n\nTalbot, P. Amaury, on external human souls in animals, ii. 208 _n._ 1, 209\n            _n._ 1\n\n_Talegi_, Motlav word for external soul, ii. 198\n\nTales of maidens forbidden to see the sun, i. 70 _sqq._\n\nTalismans of cities, i. 83 _n._ 1\n\nTalmud, the, on menstruous women, i. 83\n\nTamanaks of the Orinoco, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 61 _n._ 3\n\n_Tamaniu_, external soul in the Mota language, ii. 198 _sq._, 220\n\nTamarisk, Isfendiyar slain with a branch of a, i. 105\n\nTami, the, of German New Guinea, their rites of initiation, ii. 239 _sqq._\n\nTanganyika, Lake, tribes of, i. 24\n\nTanner, John, and the Shawnee sage, ii. 157\n\n_Tantad_, Midsummer bonfire, i. 183\n\nTaoist treatise on the soul, ii. 221\n\nTapajos, tributary of the Amazon, i. 62\n\nTaphos besieged by Amphitryo, ii. 103\n\nTara, new fire in the King\u2019s house at, i. 158\n\nTar-barrels, burning, swung round pole at Midsummer, i. 169;\n  burnt at Midsummer, 180;\n  procession with lighted, on Christmas Eve, 268\n\nTarbolton, in Ayrshire, annual bonfire at, i. 207\n\nTartar stories of the external soul, ii. 142 _sq._, 144 _sq._\n\nTartars after a funeral leap over fire, ii. 18\n\nTattooing, medicinal use of, i. 98 _n._ 1;\n  at initiation, ii. 258, 259, 261 _n._\n\nTay, Loch, i. 232\n\nTcheou, dynasty of China, i. 137\n\nTeak, _Loranthus_ on, ii. 317\n\nTeanlas, Hallowe\u2019en fires in Lancashire, i. 245\n\nTeeth filed as preliminary to marriage, i. 68 _n._ 2\n\nTegner, Swedish poet, on the burning of Balder, ii. 87\n\n_Tein Econuch_, \u201cforlorn fire,\u201d need-fire, i. 292\n\n_Tein-eigin_ (_teine-eigin_, _tin-egin_), need-fire, i. 147, 148, 289,\n            291, 293\n\n_Teine Bheuil_, fire of Beul, need-fire, i. 293\n\nTent burnt at Midsummer, i. 215\n\nTermonde in Belgium, Midsummer fires at, i. 194\n\nTessier, on the burning wheel at Konz, i. 164 _n._ 1\n\nTests undergone by girls at puberty, i. 25\n\nTeutates, Celtic god, ii. 80 _n._ 3\n\nTeutonic stories of the external soul, ii. 116 _sqq._\n\nTexas, the Toukaway Indians of, ii. 276\n\n_Thahu_, curse or pollution, i. 81\n\nThays of Tonquin, their customs after a burial, ii. 177 _sq._\n\nThebes, in Greece, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, i. 130 _sq._\n\nTheodore, Archbishop of Canterbury, his denunciation of a heathen\n            practice, ii. 190 _sq._\n\nTheophrastus on the different kinds of mistletoe, ii. 317\n\nTherapia, effigies of Judas burnt at Easter in, i. 131\n\nThief wears a toad\u2019s heart to escape detection, i. 302 _n._ 2\n\nThiers, J. B., on the Yule log, i. 250;\n  on gathering herbs at Midsummer, ii. 45 _n._ 1;\n  on belief concerning wormwood, 61 _n._ 1\n\nThieves detected by divining-rod, ii. 68\n\nThighs of diseased cattle cut off and hung up as a remedy, i. 296 _n._ 1\n\nThirty years\u2019 cycle of the Druids, ii. 77\n\nThlinkeet Indians. _See_ Tlingit\n\nThomas, N. W., ii. 210 _n._ 2\n\nThomas the Rhymer, verses ascribed to, ii. 283 _sq._\n\nThompson Indians of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among\n            the, i. 49 _sqq._;\n  their dread of menstruous women, 89 _sq._;\n  prayer of adolescent girl among the, 98 _n._ 1;\n  supposed invulnerability of initiated men among the, ii. 275 _sq._;\n  their ideas as to wood of trees struck by lightning, 297\n\nThomsdorf, in Germany, i. 99\n\nThomson, Basil, ii. 244 _n._ 1, 2\n\nThonga, the, of Delagoa Bay, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i.\n            29 _sq._;\n  will not use the wood of trees struck by lightning, ii. 297;\n  think lightning caused by a bird, 297 _n._ 5\n\nThor, a Norse god, i. 103\n\nThorn, external soul in a, ii. 129;\n  mistletoe on a, 291 _n._ 3\n\n\u2014\u2014 bushes used to keep off ghosts, ii. 174 _sq._\n\nThought, the web of, ii. 307 _sq._\n\nThreatening fruit-trees, i. 114\n\nThree Holy Kings, the divining-rod baptized in the name of the, ii. 68\n\u2014\u2014 leaps over bonfire, i. 214, 215\n\nThreshold, shavings from the, burnt, ii. 53\n\nThrice to crawl under a bramble as a cure, ii. 180;\n  to pass through a wreath of woodbine, 184\n\nThrowing or striking blindfold, ii. 279 _n._ 4\n\nThrumalun, a mythical being who kills and resuscitates novices at\n            initiation, ii. 233.\n  _See also_ Daramulun _and_ Thuremlin\n\nThrushes deposit seeds of mistletoe, ii. 316 _n._ 1\n\nThunder associated with the oak, i. 145;\n  Midsummer fires a protection against, 176;\n  charred sticks of Midsummer bonfire a protection against, 184, 192;\n  ashes of Midsummer fires a protection against, 190;\n  brands from the Midsummer fires a protection against, 191;\n  certain flowers at Midsummer a protection against, ii. 54, 58, 59;\n  the sound of bull-roarers thought to imitate, 228 _sqq._\n  _See also_ Lightning\n\nThunder and lightning, the Yule log a protection against, i. 248, 249,\n            250, 252, 253, 254, 258, 264;\n  bonfires a protection against, 344;\n  smoke of Midsummer herbs a protection against, ii. 48;\n  vervain a protection against, 62;\n  name given to bull-roarers, 231 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 and the oak, the Aryan god of the, i. 265\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 -besom,\u201d name applied to mistletoe and other bushy excrescences on\n            trees, ii. 85, 301;\n  a protection against thunderbolts, 85\n\n\u2014\u2014 -bird, the mythical, i. 44\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 -bolts,\u201d name given to celts, i. 14 _sq._\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 -poles,\u201d oak sticks charred in Easter bonfires, i. 145\n\nThunderstorms and hail caused by witches, i. 344;\n  Midsummer flowers a protection against, ii. 48\n\nThuremlin, a mythical being who kills lads at initiation and restores them\n            to life, ii. 227.\n  _See also_ Daramulun\n\nThuringia, custom at eclipses in, i. 162 _n._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 169, ii. 40;\n  Schweina in, i. 265;\n  belief as to magical properties of the fern in, ii. 66 _sq._\n\nThursday, Maundy, i. 125 _n._ 1\n\nThurso, witches as cats at, i. 317\n\nThurston, E., on the fire-walk, ii. 9\n\nThyme burnt in Midsummer fire, i. 213;\n  wild, gathered on Midsummer Day, ii. 64\n\nTibet, sixty years\u2019 cycle in, ii. 78 _n._\n\nTicunas of the Amazon, ordeal of young men among the, i. 62 _sq._\n\nTiger, a Batta totem, ii. 223\n\nTiger\u2019s skin at inauguration of a king, i. 4\n\nTimmes of Sierra Leone, their secret society, ii. 260 _n._ 1\n\nTinneh Indians, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 47 _sqq._;\n  their dread and seclusion of menstruous women, 91 _sqq._\n\nTinnevelly, the Kappiliyans of, i. 69\n\nTipperary, county of, were-wolves in, i. 310 _n._ 1;\n  woman burnt as a witch in, 323 _sq._\n\nTiree, the need-fire in, i. 148;\n  the Beltane cake in, 149;\n  witch as sheep in, 316\n\n_Tivor_, god or victim, i. 103 _n._\n\nTiyans of Malabar, their seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 68 _sq._\n\nTlactga or Tlachtga in Ireland, i. 139\n\nTlingit (Thlinkeet) Indians of Alaska, seclusion of girls at puberty among\n            the, i. 45 _sq._\n\nTlokoala, a secret society of the Nootka Indians, ii. 271\n\nToad, witch in form of a, i. 323\n\n\u2014\u2014 clan, ii. 273\n\n\u2014\u2014 -stools thrown into Midsummer bonfires as a charm, i. 172\n\nToad\u2019s heart worn by a thief to prevent detection, i. 302 _n._ 2\n\nToads burnt alive in Devonshire, i. 302\n\nToaripi of New Guinea, their rule as to menstruous women, i. 84\n\nTobas, Indian tribe of the Gran Chaco, their custom of secluding girls at\n            puberty, i. 59\n\nTobelorese of Halmahera, their rites of initiation, ii. 248\n\nToboengkoe, the, of Central Celebes, custom observed by widower among the,\n            ii. 178 _sq._\n\n_Tocandeira_, native name for the _Cryptocerus atratus_, F., ant, i. 62\n\nTodas of the Neilgherry Hills, their ceremony of the new fire, i. 136\n\nTokio, the fire-walk at, ii. 9 _sq._\n\nTokoelawi of Central Celebes, custom observed by mourners among the, ii.\n            178\n\nTomori, the Gulf of, in Celebes, i. 312\n\nTongue of medicine-man, hole in, ii. 238, 239\n\nTonquin, the Thays of, their burial customs, ii. 177 _sq._\n\n_Tonwan_, magical influence of medicine-bag, ii. 268, 269\n\nTooth of novice knocked out at initiation, ii. 227, 235\n\nToradjas of Central Celebes, were-wolves among the, i. 311 _sq._;\n  their custom at the smelting of iron, ii. 154\n\nTorch-races at Easter, i. 142;\n  at Midsummer, 175\n\nTorches interpreted as imitations of lightning, i. 340 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014, burning, carried round folds and lands at Midsummer, i. 206;\n  applied to fruit-trees to fertilize them, 340\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Demeter, i. 340\n\n\u2014\u2014, processions with lighted, i. 141, 141 _sq._, 233 _sq._;\n  through fields, gardens, orchards, and streets, 107 _sq._, 110 _sqq._,\n              113 _sqq._, 179, 339 _sq._;\n  at Midsummer, 179;\n  on Christmas Eve, 266\n\nTorres Straits Islands, seclusion of girls at puberty in the, i. 36 _sq._,\n            39 _sqq._;\n  dread and seclusion of women at menstruation in the, 78 _sq._;\n  use of bull-roarers in the, ii. 228 _n._ 2, 232\n\nTortoises, external human souls lodged in, ii. 204\n\nTorture, judicial, of criminals, witches, and wizards, ii. 158 _sq._\n\nTotem, transference of man\u2019s soul to his, ii. 219 _n._, 225 _sq._;\n  supposed effect of killing a, 220;\n  the receptacle in which a man keeps his external soul, 220 _sqq._;\n  the individual or personal, 222 _n._ 5, 224 _n._ 1, 226 _n._ 1\n  _See also_ Sex totem\n\n\u2014\u2014 animal, artificial, novice at initiation brought back by, ii. 271\n            _sq._;\n  transformation of man into his, 275\n\n\u2014\u2014 clans and secret societies, related to each other, ii. 272 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 names kept secret, ii. 225 _n._\n\n\u2014\u2014 plants among the Fans, ii. 161\n\nTotemism, suggested theory of, ii. 218 _sqq._\n\nTotems, honorific, of the Carrier Indians, ii. 273 _sqq._;\n  personal, among the North American Indians, 273, 276 _n._ 1;\n  multiplex, of the Australians, 275 _n._ 1\n\nTouch of menstruous women thought to convey pollution, i. 87, 90\n\nToukaway Indians of Texas, ceremony of mimic wolves among the, ii. 276\n\nToulouse, torture of sorcerers at, ii. 158\n\nTouraine, Midsummer fires in, i. 182\n\nTrain, Joseph, on Beltane fires in Isle of Man, i. 157\n\nTransference of a man\u2019s soul to his totem, ii. 219 _n._, 225 _sq._\n\nTransformation of men into wolves at the full moon, i. 314 _n._ 1;\n  of witches into animals, 315 _sqq._, ii. 311 _sq._;\n  of men into animals, 207;\n  of man into his totem animal, 275\n\nTransmigration of soul of ruptured person into cleft oak-tree, ii. 172;\n  of human souls into totem animals, 223\n\nTransylvania, the Roumanians of, i. 13;\n  story of the external soul among the Saxons of, ii. 116;\n  belief as to children born on a Sunday in, 288 _n._ 5\n\nTravancore, women deemed liable to be attacked by demons in, i. 24 _n._ 2;\n  the Pulayars of, 69\n\nTravexin, in the Vosges, witch as hare at, i. 318\n\nTreasures guarded by demons, ii. 65;\n  found by means of fern-seed, 65, 287;\n  discovered by divining-rod, 68;\n  revealed by springwort, 70;\n  revealed by mistletoe, 287, 291;\n  bloom in the earth on Midsummer Eve, 288 _n._ 5\n\nTrebius, on the springwort, ii. 71\n\nTree burnt in the Midsummer bonfire, i. 173 _sq._, 180, 183;\n  external soul in a, ii. 102, 156\n\n\u2014\u2014 -creeper (_Climacteris scandens_), women\u2019s \u201csister\u201d among the Yuin, ii.\n            216\n\n\u2014\u2014 -spirit, effigies of, burnt in bonfires, ii. 21 _sqq._;\n  human representatives of, put to death, 25;\n  human representative of the, perhaps originally burnt at the\n              fire-festivals, 90\n\n\u2014\u2014 spirits bless women with offspring, ii. 22;\n  in the form of serpents, 44 _n._ 1\n\nTrees, men changed into, by look of menstruous women, i. 79;\n  burnt in spring fires, 115 _sq._, 116, 142;\n  burnt in Midsummer fires, 173 _sq._, 185, 192, 193, 209;\n  burnt at Holi festival in India, ii. 2;\n  burnt in bonfires, 22;\n  lives of people bound up with, 159 _sqq._;\n  hair of children tied to, 165;\n  the fate of families or individuals bound up with, 165 _sqq._;\n  creeping through cleft trees as cure for various maladies, 170 _sqq._;\n  fire thought by savages to be stored like sap in, 295;\n  struck by lightning, superstitions about, 296 _sqq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 and plants as life-indices, ii. 160 _sqq._\n\n_Tr\u00e9foir_, the Yule log, i. 249\n\n_Tr\u00e9fouet_, the Yule log, i. 252 _n._ 2, 253\n\nTregonan, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires on, i. 199\n\nTrench cut in ground at Beltane, i. 150, 152\n\nTrevelyan, Marie, on Midsummer fires, i. 201;\n  on Hallowe\u2019en, 226 _n._ 1;\n  on St. John\u2019s wort in Wales, ii. 55 _n._ 2;\n  on burnt sacrifices in Wales, 301\n\nTreves, the archbishop of, i. 118\n\nTriangle of reeds, passage of mourners through a, ii. 177 _sq._\n\nTrie-Chateau, dolmen near Gisors, ii. 188\n\nTrilles, Father H., on the theory of the external soul among the Fans, ii.\n            201\n\nTrinidad, the fire-walk in, ii. 11\n\nTriumphal arch, suggested origin of the, ii. 195\n\nTrolls, efforts to keep off the, i. 146;\n  and evil spirits abroad on Midsummer Eve, 172;\n  Midsummer flowers a protection against, ii. 54;\n  rendered powerless by mistletoe, 86, 283, 294\n\nTrue Steel, whose heart was in a bird, ii. 110 _sq._\n\nTrumpets sounded at initiation of young men, ii. 249\n\n\u2014\u2014 penny, at the feast of the Nativity of the Virgin, i. 221, 222\n\nTsetsaut tribe of British Columbia, seclusion of girls at puberty among\n            the, i. 46\n\nTsimshian girls at puberty, rules observed by, i. 44 _n._ 2\n\nTubuan or Tubuvan, man disguised as cassowary in Duk-duk ceremonies, ii.\n            247\n\nTugeri or Kaya-Kaya of Dutch New Guinea, ii. 242;\n  their use of bull-roarers, 242 _sq._\n\nTui Nkualita, a Fijian chief, founder of the fire-walk, ii. 11\n\n_Tulsi_ plant, its miraculous virtue, ii. 5\n\nTummel, the valley of the, i. 231\n\nTunis, New Year fires at, i. 217;\n  gold sickle and fillet said to be found in, ii. 80 _n._ 3\n\nTunnel, creeping through a, as a remedy for an epidemic, i. 283 _sq._\n\nTurf, sick children and cattle passed through holes in, ii. 191\n\nTurks of Siberia, marriage custom of the, i. 75\n\nTurukhinsk region, Samoyeds of the, ii. 196\n\nTutu, island of Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 41\n\nTwanyirika, a spirit whose voice is heard in the sound of the bull-roarer,\n            ii. 233 _sq._;\n  kills and resuscitates lads at initiation, 234\n\nTwelfth Day, Eve of, the bonfires of, i. 107;\n  processions with torches on, 340\n\n\u2014\u2014 Night, the King of the Bean on, i. 153 _n._ 3;\n  cake, 184;\n  the Yule log on, 248, 250, 251;\n  the divining-rod cut on, ii. 68\n\nTwelve Nights, remains of Yule log scattered on fields during the, i. 248;\n  between Christmas and Epiphany, were-wolves abroad during the, 310 _n._\n              1\n\n\u201cTwice born\u201d Brahman, ii. 276\n\nTwin brothers in ritual, i. 278\n\n\u2014\u2014 -producing virtue ascribed to a kind of mistletoe, ii. 79\n\nTwins and their afterbirths counted as four children, ii. 162 _n._ 2\n\nTwins, father of, i. 24\n\nTwo Brothers, ancient Egyptian story of the, ii. 134 _sqq._\n\nTyrol, \u201cburning the witch\u201d in the, i. 116;\n  fires to burn the witches in the, 160;\n  Midsummer fires in the, 172 _sq._;\n  magical plants culled on Midsummer Eve in the, ii. 47;\n  St. John\u2019s wort in the, 54;\n  mountain arnica gathered at Midsummer in the, 58;\n  use of four-leaved clover in the, 62 _sq._;\n  dwarf-elder gathered at Midsummer in the, 64;\n  the divining-rod in the, 68;\n  mistletoe used to open all locks in the, 85;\n  belief as to mistletoe growing on a hazel in the, 291 _n._ 3\n\nTyrolese peasants use fern-seed to discover buried gold and to prevent\n            money from decreasing, ii. 288\n\n\u2014\u2014 story of a girl who was forbidden to see the sun, i. 72\n\nUalaroi, the, of the Darling River, their belief as to initiation, ii. 233\n\nUaupes of Brazil, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 61\n\nUganda, kings of, not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 3 _sq._;\n  life of the king of, bound up with barkcloth trees, ii. 160;\n  passage of sick man through a cleft stick or a narrow opening in, 181\n              _sq._;\n  cure for lightning-stroke in, 298 _n._ 2\n  _See also_ Baganda\n\nUisnech, in County Meath, great fair at, i. 158\n\nUist, Beltane cakes in, i. 154\n\n\u2014\u2014, North, need-fire in, i. 293 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, South, fairies at Hallowe\u2019en in, i. 226;\n  salt cake at Hallowe\u2019en in, 238 _sq._\n\nUiyumkwi tribe, their treatment of girls at puberty, i. 39 _sq._\n\nUkami, in German East Africa, ii. 313\n\n_Ukpong_, external soul in Calabar, ii. 206\n\nUlad Bu Aziz, Arab tribe in Morocco, their Midsummer fires, i. 214\n\nUmbrellas in ritual, i. 20 _n._ 1, 31\n\nUncleanness, ceremonial, among the Indians of Costa Rica, i. 65 _n._ 1;\n  and sanctity not clearly differentiated in the primitive mind, 97 _sq._\n\nUncleanness of women at menstruation, i. 76 _sqq._\n  _See also_ Menstruous\n\nUnguent made from fat of crocodiles and snakes, i. 14\n\nUniversal healer, name given to mistletoe, ii. 77\n\nUnlucky, Midsummer Day regarded as, ii. 29\n\n\u2014\u2014 children passed through narrow openings, ii. 190\n\nUnmasking a were-wolf or witch by wounding him or her, i. 315, 321\n\nUnmatjera tribe of Central Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. 234;\n  initiation of a medicine-man in the, 238\n\nUp-helly-a\u2019, at Lerwick, i. 269 _n._\n\nUraons. _See_ Oraons\n\nUrabunna tribe of Central Australia, their rites of initiation, ii. 234\n\n_Ustrels_, a species of vampyre in Bulgaria, i. 284\n\nVagney, in the Vosges, Christmas custom at, i. 254\n\nVagueness and inconsistency of primitive thought, ii. 301 _sq._\n\nVal di Ledro, effigy burnt in the, at Carnival, i. 120\n\nValais, the canton of, Midsummer fires in, i. 172;\n  cursing a mist in, 280\n\nValenciennes, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 114 _n._ 4\n\nValentines at bonfires, i. 109 _sq._\n\nVallancey, General Charles, on Hallowe\u2019en customs in Ireland, i. 241 _sq._\n\nVall\u00e9e des Bagnes, cursing a mist in the, i. 280\n\nVampyres, need-fire kindled as a safeguard against, i. 284 _sqq._, 344\n\nVapour bath, i. 40\n\nVar, Midsummer fires in the French department of, i. 193\n\nVarro, on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. 14 _n._ 3\n\nVase, external soul of habitual criminal in a, ii. 145 _sq._\n\nVecoux, in the Vosges, i. 254\n\nVedic hymns, the fire-god Agni in the, ii. 295 _sq._\n\nVegetables at Midsummer, their fertilizing influence on women, ii. 51\n\nVegetation, spirit of, burnt in effigy, ii. 21 _sq._;\n  reasons for burning, 23;\n  leaf-clad representative of, burnt, 25\n\n\u2014\u2014 -spirits, W. Mannhardt\u2019s view that the victims burnt by the Druids\n            represented, ii. 43\n\nVelten, C., on an African Balder, ii. 312 _sq._\n\n_Verbascum_, mullein, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 63 _sq._;\n  its relation to the sun, 64\n\n_Verbena officinalis_, vervain, gathered at Midsummer, ii. 62\n\nVerges, in the Jura, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 114 _sq._\n\nVermin exorcized with torches, i. 340\n\n_Versipellis_, a were-wolf, i. 314 _n._ 1\n\nVervain, garlands or chaplets of, at Midsummer, i. 162, 163, 165;\n  burnt in the Midsummer fires, 195;\n  used in exorcism, ii. 62 _n._ 4;\n  a protection against thunder and lightning, sorcerers, demons, and\n              thieves, 62;\n  gathered at Midsummer, 62\n\nVespasian family, the oak of the, ii. 168\n\nVesper-bell on Midsummer Eve, ii. 62\n\nVessels, special, used by menstruous women, i. 86, 90;\n  used by girls at puberty, 93\n\nVesta, sacred fire in the temple of, annually kindled, i. 138;\n  the fire of, at Rome, fed with oak-wood, ii. 91, 286\n\nVestal Virgins relit the sacred fire of Vesta, i. 138;\n  their rule of celibacy, 138 _n._ 5\n\nVestini, the ancient, i. 209\n\nVeth, P. J., on the Golden Bough, ii. 319\n\nVictims, human, claimed by St. John on St. John\u2019s Day (Midsummer Day), i.\n            27, 29;\n  claimed by water at Midsummer, ii. 26 _sqq._\n\nVictoria, aborigines of, their custom as to emu fat, i. 13;\n  their dread of women at menstruation, 77 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 sex totems in, ii. 217\n\nVidovec in Croatia, Midsummer fires at, i. 178\n\nVienne, department of, Midsummer fires in the, i. 191;\n  the Yule log in, 251\n\n_Vilavou_, New Year\u2019s Men, name given to newly initiated lads in Fiji, ii.\n            244\n\nVillage surrounded with a ring of fire as a protection against an evil\n            spirit, i. 282\n\nVimeux, Lenten fires at, i. 113\n\nVintage, omens of, i. 164\n\nVipers sacred to balsam trees in Arabia, ii. 44 _n._ 1\n\nVirbius at Nemi interpreted as an oak-spirit, ii. 295\n\nVirgil, on the fire-walk of the Hirpi Sorani, ii. 14;\n  his account of the Golden Bough, 284 _sq._, 286, 293 _sq._, 315 _sqq._\n\nVirgin, the, blesses the fruits of the earth, i. 118;\n  the hair of the Holy, found in ashes of Midsummer fire, 182 _sq._, 191;\n  feast of the Nativity of the, 220 _sq._;\n  and child supposed to sit on the Yule log, 253 _sq._\n\nVirgins of the Sun at Cuzco, i. 132;\n  the Vestal, and the sacred fire, 136\n\nVirginia, rites of initiation among the Indians of, ii. 266 _sq._\n\nVirginity, test of, by blowing up a flame, i. 137 _n._\n\nVirility supposed to be lost by contact with menstruous women, i. 81\n\n_Viscum album_, common mistletoe, ii. 315 _sqq._;\n  _Viscum quernum_, 317\n\nVisiter, the Christmas, i. 261 _sq._, 263, 264\n\nViti Levu, the largest of the Fijian Islands, ii. 243\n\nVitrolles, bathing at Midsummer in, i. 194\n\nVogel Mountains, i. 118\n\nVoigtland, bonfires on Walpurgis Night in, i. 160;\n  tree and person thrown into water on St. John\u2019s Day in, ii. 27 _sq._;\n  divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, 53;\n  mountain arnica gathered at Midsummer in, 57 _sq._;\n  wild thyme gathered at Midsummer in, 64;\n  precautions against witches in, 73 _sq._\n\nVolga, the Cheremiss of the, i. 181\n\nVolksmarsen in Hesse, Easter fires at, i. 140\n\n_Voluspa_, the Sibyl\u2019s prophecy in the, i. 102 _sq._\n\nVoralberg, in the Tyrol, \u201cburning the witch\u201d at, i. 116\n\nVorges, near Laon, Midsummer fires at, i. 187\n\nVosges, Midsummer fires in the, i. 188, 336;\n  the Yule log in the, 254;\n  cats burnt alive on Shrove Tuesday in the, ii. 40\n\n\u2014\u2014 Mountains, Lenten fires in the, i. 109;\n  witches as hares in the, 318;\n  magic herbs culled on Eve of St. John in the, ii. 47\n\n_Vrid-eld_, need-fire, i. 280\n\nVultures, lives of persons bound up with those of, ii. 201, 202\n\nWadai, ceremony of the new fire in, i. 134, 140\n\nWadoe, the, of German East Africa, ii. 312\n\nWafiomi, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 28\n\nWagstadt in Silesia, Judas ceremony at, i. 146 _n._ 3\n\nWajagga, the, of German East Africa, birth-plants among the, ii. 160\n\nWakelbura tribe (Australia), dread and seclusion of women at menstruation\n            in the, i. 78\n\nWakondyo, their custom as to the afterbirth, ii. 162 _sq._\n\nWales, Snake Stones in, i. 15 _sq._;\n  Beltane fires and cakes in, 155 _sq._;\n  Midsummer fires in, 200 _sq._;\n  divination at Hallowe\u2019en in, 229, 240 _sq._;\n  Hallowe\u2019en fires in, 239 _sq._;\n  the Yule log in, 258;\n  burnt sacrifices to stop cattle-disease in, 301;\n  witches as hares in, 315 _n._ 1;\n  belief as to witches in, 321 _n._ 2;\n  bewitched things burnt in, 322;\n  divination by flowers on Midsummer Eve in, ii. 53;\n  St. John\u2019s wort in, 55;\n  mistletoe to be shot or knocked down with stones in, 82;\n  mistletoe cut at Midsummer in, 86;\n  mistletoe used to make the dairy thrive in, 86;\n  Beltane fire kindled by the friction of oak-wood in, 91;\n  mistletoe gathered at Midsummer in, 293\n\nWalhalla, i. 101\n\nWalking over fire as a rite, ii. 3 _sqq._\n\nWalls, fortified, of the ancient Gauls, i. 267 _sq._\n\nWalnut, branches of, passed across Midsummer fires and fastened on\n            cattle-sheds, i. 191\n\nWalos of Senegambia, their belief as to a sort of mistletoe, ii. 79 _sq._\n\nWalpi, Pueblo Indian village, use of bull-roarers at, ii. 231\n\nWalpurgis Day, i. 143\n\n\u2014\u2014 Night, witches abroad on, i. 159 _sq._;\n  a witching time, 295;\n  precautions against witches on, ii. 20 _n._;\n  witches active on, 73, 74\n\nWangen in Baden, Lenten fire-custom at, i. 117\n\nWanyamwezi, their belief as to wounded crocodiles, ii. 210 _n._ 1\n\nWarlock, the invulnerable, stories of, ii. 97 _sqq._\n\nWarriors tabooed, i. 5\n\nWarwickshire, the Yule log in, i. 257\n\nWashamba, the, of German East Africa, their custom at circumcision, ii.\n            183\n\nWashington State, seclusion of girls at puberty among the Indians of, i.\n            43\n\nWasmes, processions with torches at, i. 108\n\nWasp, external soul of enchanter in a, ii. 143\n\nWasps, young men stung with, as an ordeal, i. 63\n\nWassgow mountains, the need-fire in the, i. 271\n\nWater from sacred wells, i. 12;\n  menstruous women not to go near, 77;\n  consecrated at Easter, 122 _sqq._, 125;\n  turned to wine at Easter, 124;\n  improved by charred sticks of Midsummer fires, 184;\n  at Midsummer, people drenched with, 193 _sq._;\n  heated in need-fire and sprinkled on cattle, 289;\n  claims human victims at Midsummer, ii. 26 _sqq._;\n  supposed to acquire certain marvellous properties at Midsummer, 29\n              _sqq._;\n  haunted and dangerous at Midsummer, 31\n\nWater of life, ii. 114 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 of springs thought to acquire medicinal qualities on Midsummer Eve, i.\n            172\n\n\u2014\u2014, rites of, at Midsummer festival in Morocco, i. 216;\n  at New Year in Morocco, 218\n\n\u2014\u2014 spirits, offerings to, at Midsummer, ii. 28\n\nWayanas of French Guiana, ordeals among the, i. 63 _sq._\n\nWeariness, magical plants placed in shoes a charm against, ii. 54, 60\n\nWeaver, the wicked, of Rotenburg, ii. 289 _sq._\n\nWeeks, Rev. John H., on rites of initiation on the Lower Congo, ii. 255\n            _n._ 1\n\nWeeping of girl at puberty, i. 24, 29\n\nWeidenhausen, in Westphalia, the Yule log at, i. 248\n\nWells, sacred, in Scotland, i. 12;\n  menstruous women kept from, 81, 96 _sq._;\n  charred sticks of Midsummer fires thrown into, 184;\n  crowned with flowers at Midsummer, ii. 28\n\n\u2014\u2014, holy, resorted to on Midsummer Eve in Ireland, i. 205 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014, the Lord of the, ii. 28\n\nWelsh cure for whooping-cough, ii. 180, 192 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 name, alleged, for mistletoe, ii. 286 _n._ 3\n  _See also_ Wales\n\nWends, their faith in Midsummer herbs, ii. 54\n\n\u2014\u2014 of Saxony, their idea as to wood of trees struck by lightning, ii. 297\n\n\u2014\u2014 of the Spreewald gather herbs and flowers at Midsummer, ii. 48;\n  their belief as to the divining-rod, 68 _n._ 4\n\nWensley-dale, the Yule log in, i. 256\n\nWere-tigers in China and the East Indies, i. 310 _sq._, 313 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 -wolf, how a man becomes a, i. 310 _n._ 1;\n  story in Petronius, 313 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 -wolves compelled to resume their human shape by wounds inflicted on\n            them, i. 308 _sqq._;\n  put to death, 311;\n  and the full moon, 314 _n._ 1;\n  and witches, parallelism between, 315, 321\n\nWerner, Miss Alice, on a soul-box, ii. 156 _n._ 1;\n  on African Balders, 314\n\nWestenberg, J. C., on the Batta theory of souls, ii. 223 _n._ 2\n\nWestermarck, Dr. Edward, on New Year rites in Morocco, i. 218;\n  on Midsummer festival in North Africa, 219;\n  his theory that the fires of the fire-festivals are purificatory, 329\n              _sq._;\n  on water at Midsummer, ii. 31\n\nWestphalia, Easter fires in, i. 140;\n  the Yule log in, 248;\n  divination by orpine at Midsummer in, ii. 61;\n  camomile gathered at Midsummer in, 63;\n  the Midsummer log of oak in, 92 _n._ 1\n\nWetteren, wicker giants at, ii. 35\n\n_Wetterpf\u00e4hle_, oak sticks charred in Easter bonfires, i. 145\n\nWexford, Midsummer fires in, i. 203\n\nWhalton, in Northumberland, Midsummer fires at, i. 198\n\nWheat thrown on the man who brings in the Christmas log, i. 260, 262, 264;\n  protected against mice by mugwort, ii. 58 _sq._\n\nWheel, fire kindled by the rotation of a, i. 177, 179, 270, 273, 289\n            _sq._, 292, 335 _sq._, ii. 91;\n  as a symbol of the sun, i. 334 _n._ 1, 335;\n  as a charm against witchcraft, 345 _n._ 3\n\n\u2014\u2014, burning, rolled down hill, i. 116, 117 _sq._, 119, 141, 143, 161, 162\n            _sq._, 163 _sq._, 166, 173, 174, 201, 328, 334, 337 _sq._,\n            338;\n  thrown into the air at Midsummer, 179;\n  rolled over fields at Midsummer to fertilize them, 191, 340 _sq._;\n  perhaps intended to burn witches, 345\n\nWherry, Mrs., i. 108 _n._ 2, ii. 36 _n._ 1\n\nWhips cracked to drive away witches, ii. 74\n\nWhitby, the Yule log at, i. 256\n\nWhite, Rev. G. E., on passing through a ring of red-hot iron, ii. 186;\n  on passing sheep through a rifted rock, 189 _sq._\n\nWhite birds, ten, external soul in, ii. 142\n\n\u2014\u2014 bulls sacrificed by Druids at cutting the mistletoe, ii. 77\n\n\u2014\u2014 chalk, bodies of newly initiated lads coated with, ii. 241\n\n\u2014\u2014 clay, bodies of novices at initiation smeared with, ii. 255 _n._ 1, 257\n\n\u2014\u2014 cloth, fern-seed caught in a, i. 65, ii. 291;\n  springwort caught in a, i. 70;\n  mistletoe caught in a, ii. 77, 293;\n  used to catch the Midsummer bloom of the oak, 292, 293\n\n\u2014\u2014 cock burnt in Midsummer bonfire, ii. 40\n\n\u2014\u2014 herb, external souls of two brothers in a, ii. 143\n\n\u2014\u2014 horse, effigy of, carried through Midsummer fire, i. 203\n\n\u2014\u2014 Sunday, i. 117 _n._ 1\n\nWhiteborough, in Cornwall, Midsummer fires on, i. 199\n\nWhooping-cough cured by crawling under a bramble, ii. 180;\n  Bulgarian cure for, 181;\n  child passed under an ass as a cure for, 192\n\nWicked Sower, driving away the, i. 107, 118\n\nWicken (rowan) tree, a protection against witchcraft, i. 326, 327 _n._ 1\n\nWicker giants at popular festivals in Europe, ii. 33 _sqq._;\n  burnt in summer bonfires, 38\n\nWiesensteig, in Swabia, witch as horse at, i. 319\n\n\u201cWild fire,\u201d the need-fire, i. 272, 273, 277\n\nWilde, Lady, her description of Midsummer fires in Ireland, i. 204 _sq._\n\nWilken, G. A., on the external soul, ii. 96 _n._ 1\n\nWilkes, Charles, on seclusion of girls at puberty, i. 43\n\nWill-fire, or need-fire, i. 288, 297\n\nWillow, mistletoe growing on, ii. 79, 315, 316;\n  children passed through a cleft willow-tree as a cure, 170;\n  crawling through a hoop of willow branches as a cure, 184;\n  crawling under the root of a willow as a cure, 181;\n  Orpheus and the, 294\n\nWimmer, F., on the various sorts of mistletoe known to the ancients, ii.\n            318\n\nWinamwanga, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 24 _sq._;\n  their custom as to lightning-kindled fire, ii. 297 _sq._\n\nWind, bull-roarers sounded to raise a, ii. 232\n\nWindow, magic flowers to be passed through the, ii. 52\n\nWine thought to be spoiled by menstruous women, i. 96\n\nWinenthal in Switzerland, new fire made by friction at Midsummer in the,\n            i. 169 _sq._\n\nWinnebagoes, ritual of death and resurrection among the, ii. 268\n\nWinnowing-basket, divination by, i. 236\n\nWinter solstice, Persian festival of fire at the, i. 269\n\n\u201cWinter\u2019s Grandmother,\u201d burning the, i. 116\n\nWinterbottom, Thomas, on a secret society of Sierra Leone, ii. 260\n\nWintun Indians of California, seclusion of girls among the, i. 42 _sq._\n\nWitch, burning the, i. 116, 118 _sq._;\n  effigy of, burnt in bonfire, 159;\n  compelled to appear by burning an animal or part of an animal which she\n              has bewitched, 303, 305, 307 _sq._, 321 _sq._;\n  in form of a toad, 323.\n  _See also_ Witches\n\nWitch, MacCrauford, the great arch, i. 293\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 -shot,\u201d a sudden stiffness in the back, i. 343 _n._, 345\n\nWitch\u2019s herb, St. John\u2019s wort, ii. 56 _n._ 1\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014 nest,\u201d a tangle of birch-branches, ii. 185\n\nWitchcraft, bonfires a protection against, i. 108, 109;\n  holy water a protection against, 123;\n  cattle driven through Midsummer fire as a protection against, 175;\n  burs and mugwort a preservative against, 177, ii. 59 _sq._;\n  Midsummer fires a protection against, i. 185, 188;\n  a broom a protection against, 210;\n  need-fire kindled to counteract, 280, 292 _sq._, 293, 295;\n  in Devonshire, 302;\n  great dread of, in Europe, 340;\n  the fire-festivals regarded as a protection against, 342;\n  stiffness in the back attributed to, 343 _n._, 345;\n  colic and sore eyes attributed to, 344;\n  a wheel a charm against, 345 _n._;\n  thought to be the source of almost all calamities, ii. 19 _sq._;\n  leaping over bonfires as a protection against, 40;\n  its treatment by the Christian Church, 42;\n  and sorcery, Midsummer herbs and flowers a protection against, 45, 46,\n              49, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 72;\n  St. John\u2019s wort a protection against, 54;\n  dwarf-elder used to detect, 64;\n  fern root a protection against, 67;\n  mistletoe a protection against, 85 _sq._, 282, 283, 294;\n  fatal to milk and butter, 86;\n  oak log a protection against, 92;\n  the rowan a protection against, i. 327 _n._ 1, ii. 184 _n._ 4, 185, 281;\n  children passed through a ring of yarn as a protection against, 185;\n  a \u201cwitch\u2019s nest\u201d (tangle of birch-branches) a protection against, 185.\n  _See also_ Sorcery\n\nWitches not allowed to touch the bare ground, i. 5 _sq._;\n  burnt and beheaded, 6;\n  effigies of, burnt in bonfires, 107, 116 _sq._, 118 _sq._, 342, ii. 43;\n  charm to protect fields against, i. 121;\n  Beltane fires a protection against, 154;\n  cast spells on cattle, 154;\n  steal milk from cows, 154, 176, 343, ii. 74;\n  in the form of hares and cats, i. 157, 315 _n._ 1, 316 _sqq._, 317, 318,\n              319 _sq._, ii. 41, 311;\n  burnt on May Day, i. 157, 159, 160;\n  fires to burn the witches on the Eve of May Day (Walpurgis Night), 159\n              _sq._, ii. 20 _n._;\n  abroad on Walpurgis Night, i. 159 _sq._;\n  kept out by crosses, 160 _n._ 1;\n  driving away the, 160, 170, 171;\n  resort to the Blocksberg, 171;\n  Midsummer fires a protection against, 176, 180;\n  steal milk and butter at Midsummer, 185;\n  on Midsummer Eve, 210, ii. 19;\n  active on Hallowe\u2019en and May Day, 19, 73 _sqq._, 184 _n._ 4, 185;\n  burnt in Hallowe\u2019en fires, i. 232 _sq._;\n  abroad at Hallowe\u2019en, 226, 245;\n  the Yule log a protection against, 258;\n  thought to  cause cattle disease, 302 _sq._;\n  transformed into animals, 315 _sqq._;\n  as cockchafers, 322;\n  come to borrow, 322, 323, ii. 73;\n  cause hail and thunder-storms, i. 344;\n  brought down from the clouds by shots and smoke, 345 _sq._;\n  burning missiles hurled at, 345;\n  burnt or banned by fire, ii. 19 _sq._;\n  gather noxious plants on Midsummer Eve, 47;\n  gather St. John\u2019s wort on St. John\u2019s Eve, 56;\n  purple loosestrife a protection against, 65;\n  tortured in India, 159;\n  animal familiars of, 202.\n  _See also_ \u201cBurning the Witches\u201d\n\nWitches at Ipswich, i. 304 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 and hares in Yorkshire, ii. 197\n\n\u2014\u2014 and were-wolves, parallelism between, i. 315. 321\n\n\u2014\u2014 and wizards thought to keep their strength in their hair, ii. 158\n            _sq._;\n  put to death by the Aztecs, 159\n\n\u2014\u2014 and wolves the two great foes dreaded by herdsmen in Europe, i. 343\n\n\u201c\u2014\u2014, Burning the,\u201d a popular name for the fires of the festivals, ii. 43\n\nWitches\u2019 Sabbath on the Eve of May Day and Midsummer Eve, i. 171 _n._ 3,\n            181, ii. 73, 74\n\n\u201cWithershins,\u201d against the sun, in curses and excommunication, i. 234\n\nWiturna, a spirit whose voice is heard in the sound of the bull-roarer,\n            ii. 234\n\nWizards gather baleful herbs on the Eve of St. John, ii. 47;\n  gather purple loosestrife at Midsummer, 65;\n  animal familiars of, 196 _sq._, 201 _sq._\n\nWoden, Odin, or Othin, the father of Balder, i. 101, 102, 103 _n._ 1\n\nWolf, Brotherhood of the Green, at Jumi\u00e8ges in Normandy, i. 185 _sq._, ii.\n            15 _n._, 25\n\n\u2014\u2014 clan in North-Western America, ii. 270, 271, 272 _n._ 1\n\n\u2014\u2014 masks worn by members of a Wolf secret society, ii. 270 _sq._\n\n\u2014\u2014 society among the Nootka Indians, rite of initiation into the, ii. 270\n            _sq._\n\nWolf\u2019s hide, strap of, used by were-wolves, i. 310_ n._ 1\n\nWolfeck, in Austria, leaf-clad mummer on Midsummer Day at, ii. 25 _sq._\n\nWolfenb\u00fcttel, need-fire near, i. 277\n\nWolves and witches, the two great foes dreaded by herdsmen in Europe, i.\n            343\n\nWoman burnt alive as a witch in Ireland in 1895, i. 323 _sq._\n\nWomen in hard labour, charm to help, i. 14;\n  after childbirth tabooed, 20;\n  who do not menstruate supposed to make gardens barren, 24;\n  impregnated by the sun, 74 _sq._;\n  impregnated by the moon, 75 _sq._;\n  at menstruation painted red, 78;\n  leap over Midsummer bonfires to ensure an easy delivery, 194, 339;\n  fertilized by tree-spirits, ii. 22;\n  barren, hope to conceive through fertilizing influence of vegetables,\n              51;\n  creep through a rifted rock to obtain an easy delivery, 189;\n  not allowed to see bull-roarers, 234, 235, 242.\n  _See also_ Menstruous women\n\nWonghi or Wonghibon tribe of New South Wales, ritual of death and\n            resurrection at initiation among the, ii. 227\n\nWood, the King of the, at Nemi, i. 2, 285, 286, 295, 302, 309\n\nWoodbine, sick children passed through a wreath of, ii. 184\n\nWoodpecker brings the mythical springwort, ii. 70 _sq._\n\nWootton-Wawen, in Warwickshire, the Yule log at, i. 257\n\n\u201cWorking for need-fire,\u201d a proverb, i. 287 _sq._\n\nWorms, popular cure for, i. 17\n\nWormwood (_Artemisia absinthium_), ii. 58 _n._ 3;\n  burnt to stupefy witches, i. 345;\n  superstitions concerning, ii. 61_ n._ 1\n\nWorship of ancestors in Fiji, ii. 243 _sq._;\n  of the oak explained by the frequency with which oaks are struck by\n              lightning, 298 _sqq._\n\nWorth, R. N., on burnt sacrifices in Devonshire, i. 302\n\nWorthen, in Shropshire, the Yule log at, i. 257\n\nWotjobaluk, of South-Eastern Australia, sex totems among the, ii. 215\n            _sq._\n\nWounding were-wolves in order to compel them to resume their human shape,\n            i. 308 _sqq._\n\nWounds, St. John\u2019s wort a balm for, ii. 55\n\nWreath of woodbine, sick children passed through a, ii. 184\n\nWreaths of flowers thrown across the Midsummer fires, i. 174;\n  superstitious uses made of the singed wreaths, 174;\n  hung over doors and windows at Midsummer, 201\n\nWurtemberg, Midsummer fires in, i. 166;\n  leaf-clad mummer at Midsummer in, ii. 26\n\nW\u00fcrzburg, Midsummer fires at, i. 165\n\nYabim, the, of New Guinea, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 35;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 232;\n  rites of initiation among the, 239 _sqq._\n\nYaguas, Indians of the Amazon, girls at puberty secluded among the, i. 59\n\nYakut shamans keep their external souls in animals, ii. 196\n\nYakuts leap over fire after a burial, ii. 18\n\nYam, island of Torres Strait, treatment of girls at puberty in, i. 41\n\nYap, seclusion of girls at puberty in the island of, i. 36\n\nYaraikanna, the, of Northern Queensland, seclusion of girls at puberty\n            among the, i. 37 _sq._\n\nYarn, divination by, i. 235, 240, 241, 243;\n  sick children passed through a ring of, ii. 185\n\nYarra river in Victoria, i. 92 _n._ 1\n\nYear called a fire, i. 137\n\nYellow Day of Beltane, i. 293\n\n\u2014\u2014 snow, the year of the, i. 294\n\nYibai, tribal subdivision of the Coast Murring tribe, ii. 236\n\nYoke, purification by passing under a, ii. 193 _sqq._;\n  ancient Italian practice of passing conquered enemies under a, 93 _sq._\n\nYork, custom formerly observed at Christmas in the cathedral at, ii. 291\n            _n._ 2\n\nYorkshire, belief as to menstruous women in, i. 96 _n._ 2;\n  Beal-fires on Midsummer Eve in, 198;\n  the Yule log in, 256 _sq._;\n  need-fire in, 286 _sqq._;\n  witch as hare in, 317, ii. 197\n\nYoruba-speaking negroes of the Slave Coast, use of bull-roarers among the,\n            ii. 229 _n._\n\nYoung, Hugh W., on the rampart of Burghead, i. 268 _n._ 1\n\nYoung, Issobell, buries ox and cat alive, i. 325\n\nYpres, wicker giants at, ii. 35\n\nYucatan, fire-walk among the Indians of, ii. 13 _sq._, 16\n\nYuin, the, of South-Eastern Australia, their sex totems, ii. 216;\n  totem names kept secret among, 225 _n._\n\nYukon, the Lower, i. 55\n\nYule cake, i. 257, 259, 261\n\n\u2014\u2014 candle, i. 255, 256, 260\n\n\u2014\u2014 log, i. 247 _sqq._;\n  in Germany, 247 _sqq._;\n  made of oak-wood, 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 259, 260, 263, 264 _sq._, ii.\n              92;\n  a protection against conflagration, i. 248 _sq._, 250, 255, 256, 258;\n  a protection against thunder and lightning, 248, 249, 250, 252, 253,\n              254, 258, 264;\n  in Switzerland, 249;\n  in Belgium, 249;\n  in France, 249 _sqq._;\n  helps cows to calve, 250, 338;\n  in England, 255 _sq._;\n  in Wales, 258;\n  among the Servians, 258 _sqq._;\n  a protection against witches, 258;\n  in Albania, 264;\n  privacy of the ceremonial of the, 328;\n  explained as a sun-charm, 332;\n  made of fir, beech, holly, yew, crab-tree, or olive, ii. 92 _n._ 2\n\nYule Night in Sweden, customs observed on, i. 20 _sq._\n\nYuracares of Bolivia, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 57 _sq._\n\n_Zadrooga,_ Servian house-community, i. 259\n\nZambesi, the Barotse of the, i. 28\n\nZapotecs, supreme pontiff of the, not allowed to set foot on ground, i. 2;\n  the sun not allowed to shine on him, i. 19;\n  their belief that their lives were bound up with those of animals, ii.\n              212\n\nZemmur, the, of Morocco, their Midsummer custom, i. 215\n\nZerdusht and Isfendiyar, i. 104\n\nZeus and his sacred oak at Dodona, ii. 49 _sq._;\n  wood of white poplar used at Olympia in sacrificing to, 90 _n._ 1, 91\n              _n._ 7\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Danae, i. 74\n\n\u2014\u2014 and Hephaestus, i. 136\n\nZimbales, a province of the Philippines, superstition as to a parasitic\n            plant in, ii. 282 _n._ 1\n\nZoroaster, on the uncleanness of women\n  at menstruation, i. 95\n\nZoznegg, in Baden, Easter fires at, i. 145\n\nZulus, seclusion of girls at puberty among the, i. 22, 30;\n  fumigate their gardens with medicated smoke, 337;\n  their custom of fumigating sick cattle, ii. 13;\n  their belief as to ancestral spirits incarnate in serpents, 211\n\nZ\u00fclz, in Silesia, Midsummer fires at, i. 170\n\nZu\u00f1i Indians of New Mexico, their new fires at the solstices, i. 132\n            _sq._;\n  use of bull-roarers among the, ii. 230 _n._, 231\n\nZurich, effigies burnt at, i. 120\n\n\n\n\n\n\nFOOTNOTES\n\n\n   M1 Bonfires at the Pongol festival in Southern India.\n\n    1 Ch. E. Gover, \u201cThe Pongol Festival in Southern India,\u201d _Journal of\n      the Royal Asiatic Society_, N.S., v. (1870) pp. 96 _sq._\n\n   M2 Bonfires at the Holi festival in Northern India. The village priest\n      expected to pass through the fire. Leaping over the ashes of the\n      fire to get rid of disease.\n\n    2 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_\n      (Westminster, 1896), ii. 314 _sqq._; Captain G. R. Hearn, \u201cPassing\n      through the Fire at Phalon,\u201d _Man_, v. (1905) pp. 154 _sq._ On the\n      custom of walking through fire, or rather over a furnace, see Andrew\n      Lang, _Modern Mythology_ (London, 1897), pp. 148-175; _id._, in\n      _Athenaeum_, 26th August and 14th October, 1899; _id._, in\n      _Folk-lore_, xii. (1901) pp. 452-455; _id._, in _Folk-lore_, xiv.\n      (1903) pp. 87-89. Mr. Lang was the first to call attention to the\n      wide prevalence of the rite in many parts of the world.\n\n    3 Pandit Janardan Joshi, in _North Indian Notes and Queries_, iii. pp.\n      92 _sq._, \u00a7 199 (September, 1893); W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and\n      Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii. 318 _sq._\n\n    4 E. T. Atkinson, \u201cNotes on the History of Religion in the Himalayas\n      of the N.W. Provinces,\u201d _Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_,\n      liii. Part i. (Calcutta, 1884) p. 60. Compare W. Crooke, _Popular\n      Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster, 1896), ii.\n      313 _sq._\n\n   M3 Vernal festival of fire in China. Ceremony to ensure an abundant\n      year. Walking through the fire. Ashes of the fire mixed with the\n      fodder of the cattle.\n\n    5 See above, vol. i. pp. 136 _sq._\n\n    6 G. Schlegel, _Uranographie Chinoise_ (The Hague and Leyden, 1875),\n      pp. 143 _sq._; _id._, \u201cLa f\u00eate de fouler le feu c\u00e9l\u00e9br\u00e9e en Chine et\n      par les Chinois \u00e0 Java,\u201d _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_,\n      ix. (1896) pp. 193-195. Compare J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious\n      System of China_, vi. (Leyden, 1910) pp. 1292 _sq._ According to\n      Professor Schlegel, the connexion between this festival and the old\n      custom of solemnly extinguishing and relighting the fire in spring\n      is unquestionable.\n\n   M4 Passage of the image of the deity through the fire. Passage of\n      inspired men through the fire in India.\n\n_    7 The Dying God_, p. 262.\n\n    8 (Sir) H. H. Risley, _Tribes and Castes of Bengal, Ethnographic\n      Glossary_ (Calcutta, 1891-1892), i. 255 _sq._ Compare W. Crooke,\n      _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_ (Westminster,\n      1896), i. 19; _id._, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western\n      Provinces and Oudh_ (Calcutta, 1896), ii. 355. According to Sir\n      Herbert Risley, the trench filled with smouldering ashes is so\n      narrow (only a span and a quarter wide) \u201cthat very little dexterity\n      would enable a man to walk with his feet on either edge, so as not\n      to touch the smouldering ashes at the bottom.\u201d\n\n    9 W. Crooke, _Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and\n      Oudh_, ii. 82.\n\n   10 M. J. Walhouse, \u201cPassing through the Fire,\u201d _Indian Antiquary_, vii.\n      (1878) pp. 126 _sq._ Compare J. A. Dubois, _M\u0153urs, Institutions et\n      C\u00e9r\u00e9monies des Peuples de l\u2019Inde_ (Paris, 1825), ii. 373; E.\n      Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras, 1906), pp.\n      471-486; G. F. D\u2019Penha, in _Indian Antiquary_, xxxi. (1902) p. 392;\n      \u201cFire-walking in Ganjam,\u201d _Madras Government Museum Bulletin_, vol.\n      iv. No. 3 (Madras, 1903), pp. 214-216. At Akka timanhully, one of\n      the many villages which help to make up the town of Bangalore in\n      Southern India, one woman at least from every house is expected to\n      walk through the fire at the village festival. Captain J. S. F.\n      Mackenzie witnessed the ceremony in 1873. A trench, four feet long\n      by two feet wide, was filled with live embers. The priest walked\n      through it thrice, and the women afterwards passed through it in\n      batches. Capt. Mackenzie remarks: \u201cFrom the description one reads of\n      walking through fire, I expected something sensational. Nothing\n      could be more tame than the ceremony we saw performed; in which\n      there never was nor ever could be the slightest danger to life. Some\n      young girl, whose soles were tender, might next morning find that\n      she had a blister, but this would be the extent of harm she could\n      receive.\u201d See Captain J. S. F. Mackenzie, \u201cThe Village Feast,\u201d\n      _Indian Antiquary_, iii. (1874) pp. 6-9. But to fall on the hot\n      embers might result in injuries which would prove fatal, and such an\n      accident is known to have occurred at a village in Bengal. See H. J.\n      Stokes, \u201cWalking through Fire,\u201d _Indian Antiquary_, ii. (1873) pp.\n      190 _sq._ At Afkanbour, five days\u2019 march from Delhi, the Arab\n      traveller Ibn Batutah saw a troop of fakirs dancing and even rolling\n      on the glowing embers of a wood fire. See _Voyages d\u2019Ibn Batoutah_\n      (Paris, 1853-1858), ii. 6 _sq._, iii. 439.\n\n   M5 Hindoo fire-festival in honour of Darma Rajah and Draupadi.\n      Worshippers walking through the fire.\n\n   11 Sonnerat, _Voyage aux Indes orientales et \u00e0 la Chine_ (Paris, 1782),\n      i. 247 _sq._\n\n_   12 Madras Government Museum, Bulletin_, vol. iv. No. 1 (Madras, 1901),\n      pp. 55-59; E. Thurston, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_\n      (Madras, 1906), pp. 471-474. One of the places where the\n      fire-festival in honour of Draupadi takes place annually is the\n      Allandur Temple, at St. Thomas\u2019s Mount, near Madras. Compare\n      \u201cFire-walking Ceremony at the Dharmaraja Festival,\u201d _The Quarterly\n      Journal of the Mythic Society_, vol. ii. No. 1 (October, 1910), pp.\n      29-32.\n\n   M6 Fire-festival of the Badagas in Southern India. Sacred fire made by\n      friction. Walking through the fire. Cattle driven over the hot\n      embers. The fire-walk preceded by a libation of milk and followed by\n      ploughing and sowing.\n\n   13 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),\n      i. 98 _sq._; _id._, _Ethnographic Notes in Southern India_ (Madras,\n      1906), pp. 476 _sq._\n\n   14 E. Thurston, _Castes and Tribes of Southern India_ (Madras, 1909),\n      i. 100 _sq._\n\n   15 F. Metz, _The Tribes inhabiting the Neilgherry Hills_, Second\n      Edition (Mangalore, 1864), p. 55.\n\n   M7 The fire-walk in Japan.\n\n   16 \u201cA Japanese Fire-walk,\u201d _American Anthropologist_, New Series, v.\n      (1903) pp. 377-380. The ceremony has been described to me by two\n      eye-witnesses, Mr. Ernest Foxwell of St. John\u2019s College, Cambridge,\n      and Miss E. P. Hughes, formerly Principal of the Teachers\u2019 Training\n      College, Cambridge. Mr. Foxwell examined the feet of the performers\n      both before and after their passage through the fire and found no\n      hurt. The heat was so great that the sweat ran down him as he stood\n      near the bed of glowing charcoal. He cannot explain the immunity of\n      the performers. He informs me that the American writer Percival\n      Lowell walked in the fire and was burned so severely that he was\n      laid up in bed for three weeks; while on the other hand a Scotch\n      engineer named Hillhouse passed over the hot charcoal unscathed.\n      Several of Miss Hughes\u2019s Japanese pupils also went through the\n      ordeal with impunity, but one of them burned a toe. Both before and\n      after walking through the fire the people dipped their feet in a\n      white stuff which Miss Hughes was told was salt. Compare W. G.\n      Aston, _Shinto_ (London, 1905), p. 348: \u201cAt the present day plunging\n      the hand into boiling water, walking barefoot over a bed of live\n      coals, and climbing a ladder formed of sword-blades set edge upwards\n      are practised, not by way of ordeal, but to excite the awe and\n      stimulate the piety of the ignorant spectators.\u201d\n\n   M8 The fire-walk in Fiji, Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands, and Trinidad.\n\n   17 Basil Thomson, _South Sea Yarns_ (Edinburgh and London, 1894), pp.\n      195-207. Compare F. Arthur Jackson, \u201cA Fijian Legend of the Origin\n      of the _Vilavilairevo_ or Fire Ceremony,\u201d _Journal of the Polynesian\n      Society_, vol. iii. No. 2 (June, 1894), pp. 72-75; R. Fulton, \u201cAn\n      Account of the Fiji Fire-walking Ceremony, or _Vilavilairevo_, with\n      a probable explanation of the mystery,\u201d _Transactions and\n      Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute_, xxxv. (1902) pp. 187-201;\n      Lieutenant Vernon H. Haggard, in _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 88\n      _sq._\n\n   18 S. P. Langley, \u201cThe Fire-walk Ceremony in Tahiti,\u201d _Report of the\n      Smithsonian Institution for 1901_ (Washington, 1902), pp. 539-544;\n      _id._, in _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1901) pp. 446-452; \u201cMore about\n      Fire-walking,\u201d _Journal of the Polynesian Society_, vol. x. No. 1\n      (March, 1901), pp. 53 _sq._ In his _Modern Mythology_ (pp. 162-165)\n      Andrew Lang quotes from _The Polynesian Society\u2019s Journal_, vol. ii.\n      No. 2, pp. 105-108, an account of the fire-walk by Miss Tenira\n      Henry, which seems to refer to Raiatea, one of the Tahitian group of\n      islands.\n\n_   19 Annales de l\u2019Association de la Propagation de la Foi_, lxix. (1897)\n      pp. 130-133. But in the ceremony here described the chief performer\n      was a native of Huahine, one of the Tahitian group of islands. The\n      wood burned in the furnace was hibiscus and native chestnut\n      (_Inocarpus edulis_). Before stepping on the hot stones the\n      principal performer beat the edge of the furnace twice or thrice\n      with _ti_ leaves (dracaena).\n\n_   20 Les Missions Catholiques_, x. (1878) pp. 141 _sq._; A. Lang,\n      _Modern Mythology_, p. 167, quoting Mr. Henry R. St. Clair.\n\n   M9 Hottentot custom of driving their sheep through fire and smoke.\n\n   21 Peter Kolben, _The Present State of the Cape of Good Hope_, Second\n      Edition (London, 1738), i. 129-133.\n\n  M10 Fire applied to sick cattle by the Nandi and Zulus.\n\n   22 A. C. Hollis, _The Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 45 _sq._\n\n   23 Rev. Joseph Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal_ (London, 1857), p. 35.\n\n  M11 Indians of Yucatan walk over hot embers in order to avert\n      calamities.\n\n   24 Diego de Landa, _Relation des choses de Yucatan_ (Paris, 1864), pp.\n      231, 233.\n\n  M12 The fire-walk in antiquity, at Castabala in Cappadocia and at Mount\n      Soracte near Rome.\n\n   25 Strabo, xii. 2. 7, p. 537. Compare _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second\n      Edition, pp. 89, 134 _sqq._\n\n   26 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ vii. 19; Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 784 _sqq._ with the\n      comment of Servius; Strabo, v. 2. 9, p. 226; Dionysius\n      Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Rom._ iii. 32. From a reference to the\n      custom in Silius Italicus (v. 175 _sqq._) it seems that the men\n      passed thrice through the furnace holding the entrails of the\n      sacrificial victims in their hands. The learned but sceptical Varro\n      attributed their immunity in the fire to a drug with which they took\n      care to anoint the soles of their feet before they planted them in\n      the furnace. See Varro, cited by Servius, on Virgil, _Aen._ xi. 787.\n      The whole subject has been treated by W. Mannhardt (_Antike Wald-\n      und Feldkulte_, Berlin, 1877, pp. 327 _sqq._), who compares the\n      rites of these \u201cSoranian Wolves\u201d with the ceremonies performed by\n      the brotherhood of the Green Wolf at Jumi\u00e8ges in Normandy. See\n      above, vol. i. pp. 185 _sq._\n\n   27 L. Preller (_R\u00f6mische Mythologie_,3 i. 268), following G. Curtius,\n      would connect the first syllable of Soranus and Soracte with the\n      Latin _sol_, \u201csun.\u201d However, this etymology appears to be at the\n      best very doubtful. My friend Prof. J. H. Moulton doubts whether\n      _Soranus_ can be connected with _sol_; he tells me that the\n      interchange of _l_ and _r_ is rare. He would rather connect\n      _Soracte_ with the Greek \u1f55\u03c1\u03b1\u03be, \u201ca shrew-mouse.\u201d In that case Apollo\n      Soranus might be the equivalent of the Greek Apollo Smintheus, \u201cthe\n      Mouse Apollo.\u201d Professor R. S. Conway also writes to me (11th\n      November 1902) that _Soranus_ and _Soracte_ \u201chave nothing to do with\n      _sol_; _r_ and _l_ are not confused in Italic.\u201d\n\n   28 Livy, xxvi. 11. About this time the Carthaginian army encamped only\n      three miles from Rome, and Hannibal in person, at the head of two\n      thousand cavalry, rode close up to the walls and leisurely\n      reconnoitered them. See Livy, xxvi. 10; Polybius, ix. 5-7.\n\n  M13 Little evidence to shew that the fire-walk is a sun-charm.\n\n   29 Above, p. 1.\n\n   30 Above, p. 15.\n\n   31 Above, pp. 13 _sq._\n\n  M14 On the other hand there is much to be said for the view that the\n      fire-walk is a form of purification, the flames being thought either\n      to burn up or repel the powers of evil. Custom of stepping over fire\n      for the purpose of getting rid of a ghost. Widows fumigated to free\n      them from their husbands\u2019 ghosts.\n\n   32 Above, p. 8, compare p. 3.\n\n   33 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, i. (Leyden,\n      1892), p. 355; _id._ vi. (Leyden, 1910) p. 942.\n\n   34 Rev. J. H. Gray, _China_ (London, 1878), i. 287, 305; J. J. M. de\n      Groot, _op. cit._ i. 32, vi. 942.\n\n   35 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ i. 137, vi. 942.\n\n   36 J. G. Gmelin, _Reise durch Sibirien_ (G\u00f6ttingen, 1751-1752), i. 333.\n\n   37 W. L. Priklonski, \u201cUeber das Schamenthum bei den Jakuten,\u201d in A.\n      Bastian\u2019s _Allerlei aus Volks- und Menschenkunde_ (Berlin, 1888), i.\n      219. Compare Vasilij Priklonski, \u201cTodtengebr\u00e4uche der Jakuten,\u201d\n      _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 85.\n\n   38 J. A. H. Louis, _The Gates of Thibet_ (Calcutta, 1894), p. 116.\n\n   39 E. Allegret, \u201cLes Id\u00e9es religieuses des Fa\u00f1 (Afrique Occidentale),\u201d\n      _Revue de l\u2019Histoire des Religions_, l. (1904) p. 220.\n\n   40 A. B. Ellis, _The Ewe-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West\n      Africa_ (London, 1890), p. 160.\n\n  M15 Hence it seems probable that the chief use of the fire in the\n      fire-festivals of Europe was to destroy or repel the witches, to\n      whose maleficent arts the people ascribed most of their troubles.\n\n   41 Above, pp. 162, 163, 211, 212, 214, 215, 217.\n\n   42 See the references above, vol. i. p. 342 note 2.\n\n   43 See the references above, vol. i. p. 342 note 3.\n\n   44 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 52 _sqq._, 127;\n      _The Scapegoat_, pp. 157 _sqq._ Compare R. K\u00fchnau, _Schlesische\n      Sagen_ (Berlin, 1910-1913), iii. p. 69, No. 1428: \u201cIn the county of\n      Glatz the people believe that on Walpurgis Night (the Eve of May\n      Day) the witches under cover of the darkness seek to harm men in all\n      sorts of ways. To guard themselves against them the people set small\n      birch trees in front of the house-door on the previous day, and are\n      of opinion that the witches must count all the leaves on these\n      little trees before they can get into the house. While they are\n      still at this laborious task, the day dawns and the dreaded guests\n      must retire to their own realm\u201d; _id._, iii. p. 39, No. 1394: \u201cOn\n      St. John\u2019s Night (between the 23rd and 24th of June) the witches\n      again busily bestir themselves to force their way into the houses of\n      men and the stalls of cattle. People stick small twigs of oak in the\n      windows and doors of the houses and cattle-stalls to keep out the\n      witches. This is done in the neighbourhood of Patschkau and\n      generally in the districts of Frankenstein, M\u00fcnsterberg, Grottkau,\n      and Neisse. In the same regions they hang garlands, composed of oak\n      leaves intertwined with flowers, at the windows. The garland must be\n      woven in the house itself and may not be carried over any threshold;\n      it must be hung out of the window on a nail, which is inserted\n      there.\u201d Similar evidence might be multiplied almost indefinitely.\n\n  M16 The effigies burnt in the fires probably represent witches.\n  M17 Possibly some of the effigies burnt in the fires represent\n      tree-spirits or spirits of vegetation.\n\n_   45 The Golden Bough_, Second Edition (London, 1900), ii. 314-316.\n\n_   46 The Dying God_, pp. 249 _sqq._\n\n   47 Above, vol. i. p. 117, compare pp. 143, 144.\n\n   48 See above, vol. i. p. 120.\n\n_   49 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 56 _sqq._\n\n   50 Above, vol. i. pp. 120, 167.\n\n   51 Above, vol. i. pp. 115 _sq._, 116, 142, 173 _sq._, 185, 191, 192,\n      193, 209.\n\n   52 Above, vol. i. p. 120.\n\n   53 Above, vol. i. p. 116. But the effigy is called the Witch.\n\n  M18 Reasons for burning effigies of the spirit of vegetation or for\n      passing them through the fire.\n\n   54 The chapter has since been expanded into the four volumes of _The\n      Dying God_, _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, and _The\n      Scapegoat_.\n\n_   55 The Dying God_, p. 262.\n\n  M19 The custom of passing images of gods or their living representatives\n      through the fires may be simply a form of purification.\n\n   56 Above, pp. 9, 10, 14.\n\n   57 Among the Klings of Southern India the ceremony of walking over a\n      bed of red-hot ashes is performed by a few chosen individuals, who\n      are prepared for the rite by a devil-doctor or medicine-man. The\n      eye-witness who describes the ceremony adds: \u201cAs I understood it,\n      they took on themselves and expiated the sins of the Kling community\n      for the past year.\u201d See the letter of Stephen Ponder, quoted by\n      Andrew Lang, _Modern Mythology_ (London, 1897), p. 160.\n\n  M20 Yet at some of the fire-festivals the pretence of burning live\n      persons in the fires points to a former custom of human sacrifice.\n\n_   58 The Dying God_, pp. 205 _sqq._; _Spirits of the Corn and of the\n      Wild_, i. 216 _sqq._\n\n   59 Above, vol. i. p. 120.\n\n   60 Above, vol. i. p. 186.\n\n   61 Above, vol. i. p. 148.\n\n   62 Above, vol. i. p. 233.\n\n   63 Above, vol. i. p. 194.\n\n   64 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 524.\n\n_   65 Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des K\u00f6nigreichs Bayern_ (Munich,\n      1860-1867), iii. 956; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 524. In the\n      neighbourhood of Breitenbrunn the lad who collects fuel at this\n      season has his face blackened and is called \u201cthe Charcoal Man\u201d\n      (_Bavaria_, etc., ii. 261).\n\n   66 A. Birlinger, _Volksth\u00fcmliches aus Schwaben_ (Freiburg im Breisgau,\n      1861-1862), ii. 121 _sq._, \u00a7 146; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp.\n      524 _sq._\n\n  M21 In pagan Europe the water as well as the fire seems to have claimed\n      its human victim on Midsummer Day. Custom of throwing a man and a\n      tree into the water on St. John\u2019s Day.\n\n   67 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Schwaben_\n      (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 428 _sq._, \u00a7\u00a7 120, 122; O. Freiherr von\n      Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic, 1863), p. 194;\n      J. A. E. K\u00f6hler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte\n      Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 176; J. V.\n      Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und M\u00e4hren_ (Prague\n      and Leipsic, 1864), p. 49, \u00a7 311; W. J. A. Tettau und J. D. H.\n      Temme, _Die Volkssagen Ost-preussens, Litthauens und West-preussens_\n      (Berlin, 1837), pp. 277 _sq._; K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_\n      (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 48; R. Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_\n      (Gera, 1871), p. 31, Nr. 62.\n\n   68 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbr\u00e4uche und deutscher\n      Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 34.\n\n   69 E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Br\u00e4uche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich,\n      1913), p. 163.\n\n   70 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 507.\n\n   71 J. A. E. K\u00f6hler, _loc. cit._ Tacitus tells us that the image of the\n      goddess Nerthus, her vestments, and chariot were washed in a certain\n      lake, and that immediately afterwards the slaves who ministered to\n      the goddess were swallowed by the lake (_Germania_, 40). The\n      statement may perhaps be understood to mean that the slaves were\n      drowned as a sacrifice to the deity. Certainly we know from Tacitus\n      (_Germania_, 9 and 39) that the ancient Germans offered human\n      sacrifices.\n\n  M22 Loaves and flowers thrown into the water on St. John\u2019s Day, perhaps\n      as substitutes for human beings.\n\n   72 E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Schwaben_\n      (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 429, \u00a7 121.\n\n   73 O. Frh. von Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus B\u00f6hmen_\n      (Prague, N.D.), p. 311.\n\n   74 Karl Lynker, _Deutsche Sagen und Sitten in hessischen Gauen_2\n      (Cassel and G\u00f6ttingen, 1860), pp. 253, 254, \u00a7\u00a7 335, 336.\n\n  M23 Midsummer Day deemed unlucky and dangerous.\n\n   75 E. H. Meyer, _Badisches Volksleben_ (Strasburg, 1900), p. 506.\n\n   76 Giuseppe Pitr\u00e8, _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo,\n      1881), p. 313.\n\n  M24 In Europe people used to bathe on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day,\n      because water was thought to acquire wonderful medicinal virtues at\n      that time.\n\n   77 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 489 _sq._, iii. 487; A. Wuttke,\n      _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 77 \u00a7 92; O.\n      Freiherr von Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Das festliche Jahr_ (Leipsic,\n      1863), p. 193; F. J. Vonbun, _Beitr\u00e4ge zur deutschen Mythologie_\n      (Chur, 1862), p. 133; P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube\n      in Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), i. 143 \u00a7 161; Karl Haupt,\n      _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 248, No. 303; F. J.\n      Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und \u00e4usseren Leben der Ehsten_ (St.\n      Petersburg, 1876), p. 415; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_\n      (London, 1870), pp. 261 _sq._; Paul S\u00e9billot, _Le Folk-lore de\n      France_ (Paris, 1904-1907), ii. 160 _sq._; T. F. Thiselton Dyer,\n      _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), pp. 322 _sq._, 329 _sq._\n      For more evidence, see above, vol. i. pp. 193, 194, 205 _sq._, 208,\n      210, 216; _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 204 _sqq._\n\n   78 Le Baron de Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,\n      1861-1862), i. 420 _sq._; E. Monseur, _Le Folklore Wallon_\n      (Brussels, N.D.), p. 130; P. S\u00e9billot, _Le Folk-lore de France_, ii.\n      374 _sq._\n\n   79 E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Br\u00e4uche des Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich,\n      1913), p. 163. See above, p. 27.\n\n  M25 Similar customs and beliefs as to water at Midsummer in Morocco.\n\n   80 E. Westermarck, \u201cMidsummer Customs in Morocco,\u201d _Folk-lore_, xvi.\n      (1905) pp. 31 _sq._; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with\n      Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in\n      Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 84-86; E. Doutt\u00e9, _Magie et\n      Religion dans l\u2019Afrique du Nord_ (Algiers, 1908), pp. 567 _sq._ See\n      also above, vol. i. p. 216.\n\n   81 See above, vol. i. pp. 213-219.\n\n   82 E. Westermarck, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with Agriculture,\n      certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in Morocco_\n      (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 94 _sq._\n\n   83 This has been rightly pointed out by Dr. Edward Westermarck\n      (\u201cMidsummer Customs in Morocco,\u201d _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 46).\n\n  M26 Human sacrifices by fire among the ancient Gauls. Men and animals\n      enclosed in great wicker-work images and burnt alive.\n\n   84 Caesar, _Bell. Gall._ vi. 15; Strabo, iv. 4. 5, p. 198; Diodorus\n      Siculus, v. 32. See W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 525 _sqq._\n\n   85 Strabo, iv. 4. 4, p. 197: \u03c4\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c6\u03bf\u03bd\u03b9\u03ba\u1f70\u03c2 \u03b4\u03af\u03ba\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ac\u03bb\u03b9\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2\n      [_i.e._ the Druids] \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03ad\u03c4\u03c1\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03bf \u03b4\u03b9\u03ba\u03ac\u03b6\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd, \u1f45\u03c4\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03b5 \u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u1f70 \u03c4\u03bf\u03cd\u03c4\u03c9\u03bd \u1f96,\n      \u03c6\u03bf\u03c1\u1f70\u03bd \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03c4\u1fc6\u03c2 \u03c7\u03ce\u03c1\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bd\u03bf\u03bc\u03af\u03b6\u03bf\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u03bd \u1f51\u03c0\u03ac\u03c1\u03c7\u03b5\u03b9\u03bd. On this passage see W.\n      Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 529 _sqq._; and below, pp. 42 _sq._\n\n  M27 As the fertility of the land was supposed to depend on these\n      sacrifices, Mannhardt interpreted the victims as representatives of\n      tree-spirits or spirits of vegetation.\n\n_   86 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 80 _sqq._\n\n  M28 Wicker-work giants at popular festivals in modern Europe. The giant\n      at Douay on July the seventh. The giants at Dunkirk on Midsummer\n      Day.\n\n   87 Madame Cl\u00e9ment, _Histoire des f\u00eates civiles et religieuses du\n      d\u00e9partement du Nord_2 (Cambrai, 1836), pp. 193-200; A. de Nore,\n      _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, (Paris and\n      Lyons, 1846), pp. 323 _sq._; F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the\n      Giants in Guildhall, their real and legendary History_ (London,\n      1859), pp. 78-87; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 523, note. It is\n      said that the giantess made her first appearance in 1665, and that\n      the children were not added to the show till the end of the\n      seventeenth century. In the eighteenth century the procession took\n      place on the third Sunday in June, which must always have been\n      within about a week of Midsummer Day (H. Gaidoz, \u201cLe dieu gaulois du\n      soleil et le symbolisme de la roue,\u201d _Revue Arch\u00e9ologique_, iii.\n      s\u00e9rie iv. 32 _sq._).\n\n_   88 The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine_, xxix. (1759), pp. 263-265; Madame\n      Cl\u00e9ment, _Histoire des f\u00eates civiles et religieuses du d\u00e9partement\n      du Nord_,2 pp. 169-175; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions\n      des Provinces de France_, pp. 328-332. Compare John Milner, _The\n      History, Civil and Ecclesiastical, and Survey of the Antiquities of\n      Winchester_ (Winchester, N.D.), i. 8 _sq._ note 6; John Brand,\n      _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 325\n      _sq._; James Logan, _The Scottish Gael or Celtic Manners_, edited by\n      Rev. Alex. Stewart (Inverness, N.D.), ii. 358. According to the\n      writer in _The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine_ the name of the procession was\n      the Cor-mass.\n\n  M29 Wicker-work giants in Brabant and Flanders.\n\n   89 Madame Cl\u00e9ment, _Histoire des f\u00eates civiles et religieuses_, etc.,\n      _de la Belgique m\u00e9ridionale_, etc. (Avesnes, 1846), p. 252; Le Baron\n      de Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels, 1861-1862),\n      i. 123-126. We may conjecture that the Flemish _Reuze_, like the\n      _Reuss_ of Dunkirk, is only another form of the German _Riese_,\n      \u201cgiant.\u201d\n\n   90 F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall, their real\n      and legendary History_ (London, 1859), pp. 64-78. For the loan of\n      this work and of the one cited in the next note I have to thank Mrs.\n      Wherry, of St. Peter\u2019s Terrace, Cambridge.\n\n   91 E. Fourdin, \u201cLa foire d\u2019Ath,\u201d _Annales du Cercle Arch\u00e9ologique de\n      Mons_, ix. (Mons, 1869) pp. 7, 8, 12, 36 _sq._ The history of the\n      festival has been carefully investigated, with the help of documents\n      by M. Fourdin. According to him, the procession was religious in its\n      origin and took its rise from a pestilence which desolated Hainaut\n      in 1215 (_op. cit._ pp. 1 _sqq._). He thinks that the effigies of\n      giants were not introduced into the procession till between 1450 and\n      1460 (_op. cit._ p. 8).\n\n  M30 Midsummer giants in England.\n\n   92 George Puttenham, _The Arte of English Poesie_ (London, 1811,\n      reprint of the original edition of London, 1589), book iii. chapter\n      vi. p. 128. On the history of the English giants and their relation\n      to those of the continent, see F. W. Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the\n      Giants in Guildhall, their real and legendary History_ (London,\n      1859).\n\n   93 Joseph Strutt, _The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England_,\n      New Edition, by W. Hone (London, 1834), pp. xliii.-xlv.; F. W.\n      Fairholt, _Gog and Magog, the Giants in Guildhall_ (London, 1859),\n      pp. 52-59.\n\n   94 F. W. Fairholt, _op. cit._ pp. 59-61.\n\n   95 F. W. Fairholt, _op. cit._ pp. 61-63.\n\n  M31 Wicker-work giants burnt at or near Midsummer.\n\n   96 Felix Liebrecht, _Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia_\n      (Hanover, 1856), pp. 212 _sq._; A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes, et\n      Traditions des Provinces de France_, pp. 354 _sq._; W. Mannhardt,\n      _Baumkultus_, p. 514.\n\n   97 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 514, 523.\n\n  M32 Animals burnt in the Midsummer bonfires. Serpents formerly burnt in\n      the Midsummer fire at Luchon. Cats formerly burnt in the Midsummer,\n      Easter, and Lenten bonfires.\n\n_   98 Athenaeum_, 24th July 1869, p. 115; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp.\n      515 _sq._ From a later account we learn that about the year 1890 the\n      custom of lighting a bonfire and dancing round it was still observed\n      at Bagn\u00e8res de Luchon on Midsummer Eve, but the practice of burning\n      live serpents in it had been discontinued. The fire was kindled by a\n      priest. See _Folk-lore_, xii. (1901) pp. 315-317.\n\n   99 A. Breuil, \u201cDu culte de St.-Jean Baptiste,\u201d _M\u00e9moires de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9\n      des Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) pp. 187 _sq._; Collin de\n      Plancy, _Dictionnaire Infernal_ (Paris, 1825-1826), iii. 40; A. de\n      Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_, pp.\n      355 _sq._; J. W. Wolf, _Beitr\u00e4ge zur deutschen Mythologie_\n      (G\u00f6ttingen and Leipsic, 1852-1857), ii. 388; E. Cortet, _Essai sur\n      les F\u00eates Religieuses_ (Paris, 1867), pp. 213 _sq._; Laisnel de la\n      Salle, _Croyances et L\u00e9gendes du Centre de la France_ (Paris, 1875),\n      i. 82; W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515.\n\n  100 Tessier, in _M\u00e9moires et Dissertations publi\u00e9s par la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Royale\n      des Antiquaires de France_, v. (1823) p. 388; W. Mannhardt,\n      _Baumkultus_, p. 515.\n\n  101 Alexandre Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 407.\n\n  102 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 519; W. Mannhardt,\n      _Baumkultus_, p. 515.\n\n  103 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515; Montanus, _Die deutschen\n      Volksfesten, Volksbr\u00e4uche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn,\n      N.D.), p. 34.\n\n  104 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 515.\n\n  105 A. Meyrac, _Traditions, Coutumes, L\u00e9gendes, et Contes des Ardenness_\n      (Charleville, 1890), p. 68.\n\n  106 Above, vol. i. p. 142.\n\n  M33 Thus the sacrificial rites of the ancient Gauls have their\n      counterparts in the popular festivals of modern Europe.\n  M34 The men, women, and animals burnt at these festivals were perhaps\n      thought to be witches or wizards in disguise.\n\n  107 Strabo, iv. 4. 5, p. 198, \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f04\u03bb\u03bb\u03b1 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03c9\u03c0\u03bf\u03b8\u03c5\u03c3\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd \u03b5\u1f34\u03b4\u03b7 \u03bb\u03ad\u03b3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9;\n      \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b3\u1f70\u03c1 \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5\u03c4\u03cc\u03be\u03b5\u03c5\u03cc\u03bd \u03c4\u03b9\u03bd\u03b1\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b5\u03c3\u03c4\u03b1\u03cd\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03bd \u1f10\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u1f31\u03b5\u03c1\u03bf\u1fd6\u03c2 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76\n      \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c3\u03ba\u03b5\u03c5\u03ac\u03c3\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bf\u03c3\u03c3\u1f78\u03bd \u03c7\u03cc\u03c1\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03be\u03cd\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, \u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b1\u03bb\u03cc\u03bd\u03c4\u03b5\u03c2 \u03b5\u1f30\u03c2 \u03c4\u03bf\u1fe6\u03c4\u03bf\u03bd\n      \u03b2\u03bf\u03c3\u03ba\u03ae\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u03b8\u03b7\u03c1\u03af\u03b1 \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd\u03c4\u03bf\u1fd6\u03b1 \u03ba\u03b1\u1f76 \u1f00\u03bd\u03b8\u03c1\u03ce\u03c0\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u1f61\u03bb\u03bf\u03ba\u03b1\u03cd\u03c4\u03bf\u03c5\u03bd.\n\n  108 Above, p. 39.\n\n  109 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,\n      1909), pp. 214, 301 _sq._; Ulrich Jahn, _Hexenwesen und Zauberei in\n      Pommern_ (Breslau, 1886), p. 7; _id._, _Volkssagen aus Pommern und\n      R\u00fcgen_ (Stettin, 1886), p. 353, No. 446.\n\n  110 See above, vol. i. p. 315 _n._ 1.\n\n  111 The treatment of magic and witchcraft by the Christian Church is\n      described by W. E. H. Lecky, _History of the Rise and Influence of\n      the Spirit of Rationalism in Europe_, New Edition (London, 1882), i.\n      1 _sqq._ Four hundred witches were burned at one time in the great\n      square of Toulouse (W. E. H. Lecky, _op. cit._ ii. 38). Writing at\n      the beginning of the eighteenth century Addison observes: \u201cBefore I\n      leave Switzerland I cannot but observe, that the notion of\n      witchcraft reigns very much in this country. I have often been tired\n      with accounts of this nature from very sensible men, who are most of\n      them furnished with matters of fact which have happened, as they\n      pretend, within the compass of their own knowledge. It is certain\n      there have been many executions on this account, as in the canton of\n      Berne there were some put to death during my stay at Geneva. The\n      people are so universally infatuated with the notion, that if a cow\n      falls sick, it is ten to one but an old woman is clapt up in prison\n      for it, and if the poor creature chance to think herself a witch,\n      the whole country is for hanging her up without mercy.\u201d See _The\n      Works of Joseph Addison_, with notes by R. Hurd, D.D. (London,\n      1811), vol. ii., \u201cRemarks on several Parts of Italy,\u201d p. 196.\n\n  112 Strabo, iv. 4. 4, p. 197. See the passage quoted above, p. 32, note\n      2.\n\n  M35 Mannhardt thought that the men and animals whom the Druids burned in\n      wickerwork images represented spirits of vegetation, and that the\n      burning of them was a charm to secure a supply of sunshine for the\n      crops.\n\n  113 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, pp. 532-534.\n\n_  114 Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 270-305.\n\n  115 Some of the serpents worshipped by the old Prussians lived in hollow\n      oaks, and as oaks were sacred among the Prussians, the serpents may\n      possibly have been regarded as genii of the trees. See Simon Grunau,\n      _Preussischer Chronik_, herausgegeben von Dr. M. Perlbach, i.\n      (Leipsic, 1876) p. 89; Christophor Hartknoch, _Alt und Neues\n      Preussen_ (Frankfort and Leipsic, 1684), pp. 143, 163. Serpents\n      played an important part in the worship of Demeter, but we can\n      hardly assume that they were regarded as embodiments of the goddess.\n      See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 17 _sq._\n\n  116 For example, in China the spirits of plants are thought to assume\n      the form of snakes oftener than that of any other animal. Chinese\n      literature abounds with stories illustrative of such\n      transformations. See J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of\n      China_, iv. (Leyden, 1901) pp. 283-286. In Siam the spirit of the\n      _takhien_ tree is said to appear sometimes in the shape of a serpent\n      and sometimes in that of a woman. See Adolph Bastian, _Die Voelker\n      des Oestlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) p. 251. The vipers that\n      haunted the balsam trees in Arabia were regarded by the Arabs as\n      sacred to the trees (Pausanias, ix. 28. 4); and once in Arabia, when\n      a wood hitherto untouched by man was burned down to make room for\n      the plough, certain white snakes flew out of it with loud\n      lamentations. No doubt they were supposed to be the dispossessed\n      spirits of the trees. See J. Wellhausen, _Reste Arabischen\n      Heidentums_2 (Berlin, 1897), pp. 108 _sq._\n\n  M36 It is a common belief in Europe that plants acquire certain magical,\n      but transient, virtues on Midsummer Eve. Magical plants culled on\n      Midsummer Eve (St. John\u2019s Eve) or Midsummer Day (St. John\u2019s Day) in\n      France. St. John\u2019s herb.\n\n  117 J. L. M. Nogu\u00e8s, _Les m\u0153urs d\u2019autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_\n      (Saintes, 1891), p. 71. Amongst the superstitious practices\n      denounced by the French writer J. B. Thiers in the seventeenth\n      century was \u201cthe gathering of certain herbs between the Eve of St.\n      John and the Eve of St. Peter and keeping them in a bottle to heal\n      certain maladies.\u201d See J. B. Thiers, _Trait\u00e9 des Superstitions_\n      (Paris, 1679), p. 321.\n\n  118 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_\n      (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 150 _sq._\n\n  119 Jules Lec\u0153ur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Cond\u00e9-sur-Noireau,\n      1883-1887), ii. 8, 244; Am\u00e9lie Bosquet, _La Normandie romanesque et\n      merveilleuse_ (Paris and Rouen, 1845), p. 294.\n\n  120 De la Loubere, _Du Royaume de Siam_ (Amsterdam, 1691), i. 202. The\n      writer here mentions an Italian mode of divination practised on\n      Midsummer Eve. People washed their feet in wine and threw the wine\n      out of the window. After that, the first words they heard spoken by\n      passers-by were deemed oracular.\n\n  121 Aubin-Louis Millin, _Voyage dans les D\u00e9partements du Midi de la\n      France_ (Paris, 1807-1811), iii. 344 _sq._\n\n  122 Alexandre Bertrand, _La Religion des Gaulois_ (Paris, 1897), p. 124.\n      In French the name of St. John\u2019s herb (_herbe de la Saint-Jean_) is\n      usually given to _millepertius_, that is, St. John\u2019s wort, which is\n      quite a different flower. See below, pp. 54 _sqq._ But \u201cSt. John\u2019s\n      herb\u201d may well be a general term which in different places is\n      applied to different plants.\n\n  123 Bruno Stehle, \u201cAberglauben, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche in Lothringen,\u201d\n      _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 379.\n\n  124 L. F. Sauv\u00e9, _Le Folk-lore des Hautes-Vosges_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 168\n      _sq._\n\n  M37 Magical plants culled on Midsummer Eve or Midsummer Day in the Tyrol\n      and Germany.\n\n  125 I. V. Zingerle, \u201cWald, B\u00e4ume, Kr\u00e4uter,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche\n      Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) pp. 332 _sq._; _id._,\n      _Sitten, Br\u00e4uche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck,\n      1871), p. 158, \u00a7\u00a7 1345, 1348.\n\n  126 Christian Schneller, _M\u00e4rchen und Sagen aus W\u00e4lschtirol_ (Innsbruck,\n      1867), p. 237, \u00a7 24.\n\n  127 J. H. Schmitz, _Sitten und Br\u00e4uche, Lieder, Spr\u00fcchw\u00f6rter und R\u00e4thsel\n      des Eifler Volkes_ (Treves, 1856-1858), i. 40.\n\n  128 J. H. Schmitz, _op. cit._ i. 42.\n\n  129 A. Kuhn, _M\u00e4rkische Sagen und M\u00e4rchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 330.\n\n  130 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna,\n      1879-1880), ii. p. 287, \u00a7 1436.\n\n  131 W. von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen und Gebr\u00e4uche aus dem\n      Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), p. 254.\n\n  132 M. Pr\u00e4torius, _Deliciae Prussicae_ (Berlin, 1871), pp. 24 _sq._\n      Kaupole is probably identical in name with Kupole or Kupalo, as to\n      whom see _The Dying God_, pp. 261 _sq._\n\n  M38 Magical plants culled on Midsummer Eve (St. John\u2019s Eve) or Midsummer\n      Day in Austria and Russia.\n\n  133 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westb\u00f6hmen_\n      (Prague, 1905), p. 86.\n\n  134 R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), pp. 78, 90, 93, 105;\n      _id._, \u201cZauberglaube bei den Huzulen,\u201d _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p.\n      256.\n\n  135 Dr. F. Tetzner, \u201cDie Tschechen und M\u00e4hrer in Schlesien,\u201d _Globus_,\n      lxxviii. (1900) p. 340.\n\n  136 J. B. Holzmayer, \u201cOsiliana,\u201d _Verhandlungen der gelehrten Estnischen\n      Gesellschaft_, vii. Heft 2 (Dorpat, 1872), p. 62.\n\n  137 P. Einhorn, \u201cWiederlegunge der Abg\u00f6tterey: der ander (_sic_) Theil,\u201d\n      printed at Riga in 1627, and reprinted in _Scriptores rerum\n      Livonicarum_, ii. (Riga and Leipsic, 1848) pp. 651 _sq._\n\n  138 J. G. Kohl, _Die deutsch-russischen Ostseeprovinzen_ (Dresden and\n      Leipsic, 1841), ii. 26.\n\n  M39 Magical plants culled on St. John\u2019s Eve or St. John\u2019s Day among the\n      South Slavs, in Macedonia, and Bolivia.\n\n  139 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), pp. 348, 386.\n\n  140 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religi\u00f6ser Brauch der S\u00fcdslaven_\n      (M\u00fcnster i. W., 1890), p. 34.\n\n  141 G. F. Abbott, _Macedonian Folk-lore_ (Cambridge, 1903), pp. 54, 58.\n\n  142 H. A. Weddell, _Voyage dans le Nord de la Bolivie et dans les\n      parties voisines du P\u00e9rou_ (Paris and London, 1853), p. 181.\n\n  M40 Magical plants culled at Midsummer among the Mohammedans of Morocco.\n\n  143 W. Westermarck, \u201cMidsummer Customs in Morocco,\u201d _Folk-lore_, xvi.\n      (1905) p. 35; _id._, _Ceremonies and Beliefs connected with\n      Agriculture, certain Dates of the Solar Year, and the Weather in\n      Morocco_ (Helsingfors, 1913), pp. 88 _sq._\n\n  M41 Seven different sorts of magical plants gathered at Midsummer. Nine\n      different sorts of plants gathered at Midsummer. Dreams of love on\n      flowers at Midsummer Eve. Love\u2019s watery mirror at Midsummer Eve.\n\n  144 J. Lec\u0153ur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Cond\u00e9-sur-Noireau,\n      1883-1887), ii. 9.\n\n  145 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna,\n      1879-1890), ii. 285.\n\n  146 J. A. E. K\u00f6hler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte\n      Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 376.\n\n  147 O. Freiherr von Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Fest-Kalender aus B\u00f6hmen_\n      (Prague, N.D.), p. 312.\n\n  148 Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _loc. cit._\n\n  149 M. T\u00f6ppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 72.\n\n  M42 Garlands of flowers of nine sorts gathered at Midsummer and used in\n      divination and medicine.\n\n  150 Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _loc. cit._\n\n  151 J. A. E. K\u00f6hler, _Volksbrauch_, etc., _im Voigtlande_, p. 376.\n\n  152 C. Lemke, _Volksth\u00fcmliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887),\n      i. 20.\n\n  153 P. Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,\n      1903-1906), i. 144 _sq._\n\n  154 Le Baron de Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,\n      1861-1862), i. 423.\n\n  155 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,\n      1909), p. 252.\n\n  156 M. T\u00f6ppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_,2 p. 72.\n\n  157 M. T\u00f6ppen, _op. cit._ p. 71.\n\n  158 A. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und \u00e4ussern Leben der Ehsten_ (St.\n      Petersburg, 1876), pp. 362 _sq._\n\n  159 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 267 _sq._\n\n  160 Willibald M\u00fcller, _Beitr\u00e4ge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in M\u00e4hren_\n      (Vienna and Olm\u00fctz, 1893), p. 264.\n\n  161 W. von Schulenburg, _Wendisches Volksthum_ (Berlin, 1882), p. 145.\n\n  M43 St. John\u2019s wort (_Hypericum perforatum_) gathered for magical\n      purposes at Midsummer. St. John\u2019s blood on St. John\u2019s Day.\n\n  162 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbr\u00e4uche und deutscher\n      Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 145; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche\n      Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 100, \u00a7 134; I. V. Zingerle,\n      \u201cWald, B\u00e4ume, Kr\u00e4uter,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Mythologie und\n      Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p. 329; A. Schlossar, \u201cVolksmeinung und\n      Volksaberglaube aus der deutschen Steiermark,\u201d _Germania_, N.R.,\n      xxiv. (1891) p. 387; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche\n      aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 428; J. Brand, _Popular\n      Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), i. 307, 312; T.\n      F. Thiselton Dyer, _Folk-lore of Plants_ (London, 1889), pp. 62,\n      286; Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition\n      (London, 1886), pp. 147, 149, 150, 540; G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi\n      e Costumi Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), pp. 161 _sq._; G. Pitr\u00e8,\n      _Spettacoli e Feste Popolari Siciliane_ (Palermo, 1881), p. 309. One\n      authority lays down the rule that you should gather the plant\n      fasting and in silence (J. Brand, _op. cit._ p. 312). According to\n      Sowerby, the _Hypericum perforatum_ flowers in England about July\n      and August (_English Botany_, vol. v. London, 1796, p. 295). We\n      should remember, however, that in the old calendar Midsummer Day\n      fell twelve days later than at present. The reform of the calendar\n      probably put many old floral superstitions out of joint.\n\n  163 Bingley, _Tour round North Wales_ (1800), ii. 237, quoted by T. F.\n      Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p. 320.\n      Compare Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_\n      (London, 1909), p. 251: \u201cSt. John\u2019s, or Midsummer Day, was an\n      important festival. St. John\u2019s wort, gathered at noon on that day,\n      was considered good for several complaints. The old saying went that\n      if anybody dug the devil\u2019s bit at midnight on the eve of St. John,\n      the roots were then good for driving the devil and witches away.\u201d\n      Apparently by \u201cthe devil\u2019s bit\u201d we are to understand St. John\u2019s\n      wort.\n\n  164 J. L. M. Nogu\u00e8s, _Les m\u0153urs d\u2019autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_\n      (Saintes, 1891), pp. 71 _sq._\n\n  165 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westb\u00f6hmen_\n      (Prague, 1905), p. 84. They call the plant \u201cwitch\u2019s herb\u201d\n      (_Hexenkraut_).\n\n  166 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. v. (London, 1796), p. 295.\n\n  167 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste, Volksbr\u00e4uche und deutscher\n      Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), p. 35.\n\n  168 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _Folk-lore of Plants_ (London, 1889), p. 286;\n      K. Bartsch, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Mecklenburg_, ii. p.\n      291, \u00a7 1450_a_. The Germans of Bohemia ascribe wonderful virtues to\n      the red juice extracted from the yellow flowers of St. John\u2019s wort\n      (W. M\u00fcller, _Beitr\u00e4ge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in M\u00e4hren_,\n      Vienna and Olm\u00fctz, 1893, p. 264).\n\n  169 K. Bartsch, _op. cit._ ii. p. 286, \u00a7 1433. The blood is also a\n      preservative against many diseases (_op. cit._ ii. p. 290, \u00a7 1444).\n\n  170 A. Kuhn, _M\u00e4rkische Sagen und M\u00e4rchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 387, \u00a7\n      105.\n\n_  171 Die gestriegelte Rockenphilosophie_5 (Chemnitz, 1759), pp. 246\n      _sq._; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfesten, Volksbr\u00e4uche und\n      deutscher Volksglaube_, p. 147.\n\n  172 Berthold Seeman, _Viti, An Account of a Government Mission to the\n      Vitian or Fijian Islands in the years 1860-61_ (Cambridge, 1862), p.\n      63.\n\n  M44 Mouse-ear hawkweed (_Hieracium pilosella_) gathered for magical\n      purposes at Midsummer.\n\n  173 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xvi. (London, 1803) p. 1093.\n\n  174 K. Seifart, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen, Schw\u00e4nke und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Stadt und\n      Stift Hildesheim_2 (Hildesheim, 1889), p. 177, \u00a7 12.\n\n  175 C. L. Rochholz, _Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_ (Berlin, 1867), i. 9.\n\n  176 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und M\u00e4hren_\n      (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 98, \u00a7 681.\n\n  177 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 100, \u00a7\n      134.\n\n  M45 Mountain arnica gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.\n\n  178 J. A. E. K\u00f6hler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte\n      Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 376. The belief\n      and practice are similar at Gr\u00fcn, near Asch, in Western Bohemia. See\n      Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westb\u00f6hmen_\n      (Prague, 1905), p. 84.\n\n  179 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),\n      ii. 299; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des K\u00f6nigreichs Bayern_,\n      iii. (Munich, 1865), p. 342; I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Br\u00e4uche und\n      Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 160, \u00a7 1363.\n\n  M46 Mugwort (_Artemisia vulgaris_) gathered for magical purposes at\n      Midsummer. Mugwort in China and Japan.\n\n  180 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1013; A. de Gubernatis,\n      _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), i. 189 _sq._; Rev.\n      Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London,\n      1886), p. 75. In England mugwort is very common in waste ground,\n      hedges, and the borders of fields. It flowers throughout August and\n      later. The root is woody and perennial. The smooth stems, three or\n      four feet high, are erect, branched, and leafy, and marked by many\n      longitudinal purplish ribs. The pinnatified leaves alternate on the\n      stalk; they are smooth and dark green above, cottony and very white\n      below. The flowers are in simple leafy spikes or clusters; the\n      florets are purplish, furnished with five stamens and five\n      awl-shaped female flowers, which constitute the radius. The whole\n      plant has a weak aromatic scent and a slightly bitter flavour. Its\n      medical virtues are of no importance. See James Sowerby, _English\n      Botany_, xiv. (London, 1802) p. 978. Altogether it is not easy to\n      see why such an inconspicuous and insignificant flower should play\n      so large a part in popular superstition. Mugwort (_Artemisia\n      vulgaris_) is not to be confounded with wormwood (_Artemisia\n      absinthium_), which is quite a different flower in appearance,\n      though it belongs to the same genus. Wormwood is common in England,\n      flowering about August. The flowers are in clusters, each of them\n      broad, hemispherical, and drooping, with a buff-coloured disc. The\n      whole plant is of a pale whitish green and clothed with a short\n      silky down. It is remarkable for its intense bitterness united to a\n      peculiar strong aromatic odour. It is often used to keep insects\n      from clothes and furniture, and as a medicine is one of the most\n      active bitters. See James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xviii.\n      (London, 1804) p. 1230.\n\n  181 Breuil, \u201cDu culte de St.-Jean-Baptiste,\u201d _M\u00e9moires de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 des\n      Antiquaires de Picardie_, viii. (1845) p. 224, note 1, quoting the\n      cur\u00e9 of Manancourt, near P\u00e9ronne.\n\n  182 L. Pineau, _Le folk-lore du Poitou_ (Paris, 1892), p. 499.\n\n  183 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und M\u00e4hren_\n      (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), pp. 90 _sq._, \u00a7\u00a7 635-637.\n\n  184 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, i. p. 249, \u00a7 283; J.\n      Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1013; I. V. Zingerle, in\n      _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853) p.\n      331. and _ib._ iv. (1859) p. 42 (quoting a work of the seventeenth\n      century); F. J. Vonbun, _Beitr\u00e4ge zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Chur,\n      1862), p. 133, note 1. See also above, vol. i. pp. 162, 163, 165,\n      174, 177.\n\n  185 A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie der Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), i.\n      190, quoting Du Cange.\n\n  186 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_\n      (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 262.\n\n  187 Jules Lec\u0153ur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_ (Cond\u00e9-sur-Noireau,\n      1883-1886), ii. 8.\n\n  188 Joseph Train, _Historical and Statistical Account of the Isle of\n      Man_ (Douglas, Isle of Man, 1845), ii. 120.\n\n  189 Le Baron de Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,\n      1861-1862), i. 422.\n\n  190 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, vi. (Leyden,\n      1910) p. 1079, compare p. 947.\n\n  191 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 947.\n\n  192 J. J. M. de Groot, _op. cit._ vi. 946 _sq._\n\n  193 Rev. John Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),\n      p. 318, compare pp. 315 _sq._, 329, 370, 372.\n\n_  194 Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) p.\n      42; Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste_, p. 141. The German name of\n      mugwort (_Beifuss_) is said to be derived from this superstition.\n\n  195 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen, und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna,\n      1879-1880), ii. 290, \u00a7 1445.\n\n  196 Montanus, _Die deutschen Volksfeste_, p. 141.\n\n  197 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London,\n      1882-1883), i. 334 _sq._, quoting Lupton, Thomas Hill, and Paul\n      Barbette. A precisely similar belief is recorded with regard to\n      wormwood (_armoise_) by the French writer J. B. Thiers, who adds\n      that only small children and virgins could find the wonderful coal.\n      See J. B. Thiers, _Trait\u00e9 des Superstitions_5 (Paris, 1741), i. 300.\n      In Annam people think that wormwood puts demons to flight; hence\n      they hang up bunches of its leaves in their houses at the New Year.\n      See Paul Giran, _Magie et Religion Annamites_ (Paris, 1912), p. 118,\n      compare pp. 185, 256.\n\n  198 C. Lemke, _Volksth\u00fcmliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887),\n      i. 21. As to mugwort (German _Beifuss_, French _armoise_), see\n      further A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 16 _sqq._;\n      J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 356 _sq._\n\n  M47 Orpine (_Sedum telephium_) used in divination at Midsummer.\n\n  199 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xix. (London, 1804) p. 1319.\n\n  200 John Aubrey, _Remains of Gentilisme and Judaisme_ (London, 1881),\n      pp. 25 _sq._; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_\n      (London, 1882-1883), i. 329 _sqq._; Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers\n      and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), p. 136; D. H.\n      Moutray Read, \u201cHampshire Folk-lore,\u201d _Folk-lore_, xxii. (1911) p.\n      325. Compare J. Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xix. (London, 1804),\n      p. 1319: \u201cLike all succulent plants this is very tenacious of life,\n      and will keep growing long after it has been torn from its native\n      spot. The country people in Norfolk sometimes hang it up in their\n      cottages, judging by its vigour of the health of some absent\n      friend.\u201d It seems that in England the course of love has sometimes\n      been divined by means of sprigs of red sage placed in a basin of\n      rose-water on Midsummer Eve (J. Brand, _op. cit._ i. 333).\n\n  201 M. T\u00f6ppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), pp. 71 _sq._;\n      A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebr\u00e4uche und M\u00e4rchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,\n      1859), ii. 176, \u00a7 487; E. Hoffmann-Krayer, _Feste und Br\u00e4uche des\n      Schweizervolkes_ (Zurich, 1913), p. 163. In Switzerland the species\n      employed for this purpose on Midsummer day is _Sedum reflexum_. The\n      custom is reported from the Emmenthal. In Germany a root of orpine,\n      dug up on St. John\u2019s morning and hung between the shoulders, is\n      sometimes thought to be a cure for hemorrhoids (Montanus, _Die\n      deutschen Volksfeste_, p. 145). Perhaps the \u201coblong, tapering,\n      fleshy, white lumps\u201d of the roots (J. Sowerby, _English Botany_,\n      vol. xix. London, 1804, p. 1319) are thought to bear some likeness\n      to the hemorrhoids, and to heal them on the principle that the\n      remedy should resemble the disease.\n\n  M48 Vervain gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer. Magical virtue\n      of four-leaved clover on Midsummer Eve.\n\n  202 See above, vol. i. pp. 162, 163, 165. In England vervain (_Verbena\n      officinalis_) grows not uncommonly by road sides, in dry sunny\n      pastures, and in waste places about villages. It flowers in July.\n      The flowers are small and sessile, the corolla of a very pale lilac\n      hue, its tube enclosing the four short curved stamens. The root of\n      the plant, worn by a string round the neck, is an old superstitious\n      medicine for scrofulous disorders. See James Sowerby, _English\n      Botany_, vol. xi. (London, 1800) p. 767.\n\n  203 Dr. Otero Acevado, in _Le Temps_, September 1898. See above, vol. i.\n      p. 208, note 1.\n\n  204 Le Baron de Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,\n      1861-1862), i. 422.\n\n  205 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de\n      France_, p. 262; Am\u00e9lie Bosquet, _La Normandie romanesque et\n      merveilleuse_, p. 294; J. Lec\u0153ur, _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, i.\n      287, ii. 8. In Saintonge and Aunis the plant was gathered on\n      Midsummer Eve for the purpose of evoking or exorcising spirits (J.\n      L. M. Nogu\u00e8s, _Les m\u0153urs d\u2019autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_, p.\n      72).\n\n  206 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und M\u00e4hren_,\n      p. 207, \u00a7 1437.\n\n  207 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebr\u00e4uche und M\u00e4rchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,\n      1859), ii. 177, citing Chambers, _Edinburgh Journal_, 2nd July 1842.\n\n  208 I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Br\u00e4uche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2\n      (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 107, \u00a7 919.\n\n  209 Laisnel de la Salle, _Croyances et L\u00e9gendes du Centre de la France_\n      (Paris, 1875), i. 288.\n\n  210 J. L. M. Nogu\u00e8s, _Les m\u0153urs d\u2019autrefois en Saintonge et en Aunis_,\n      pp. 71 _sq._\n\n  211 Le Baron de Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_, i. 423.\n\n  M49 Camomile gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.\n\n  212 W. Kolbe, _Hessische Volks-Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche_2 (Marburg, 1888),\n      p. 72; Sophus Bugge, _Studien \u00fcber die Entstehung der nordischen\n      G\u00f6tter- und Heldensagen_ (Munich, 1889), pp. 35, 295 _sq._; Fr.\n      Kauffmann, _Balder_ (Strasburg, 1902), pp. 45, 61. The flowers of\n      common camomile (_Anthemis nobilis_) are white with a yellow disk,\n      which in time becomes conical. The whole plant is intensely bitter,\n      with a peculiar but agreeable smell. As a medicine it is useful for\n      stomachic troubles. In England it does not generally grow wild. See\n      James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xiv. (London, 1802) p. 980.\n\n  213 A. Kuhn, _Sagen, Gebr\u00e4uche und M\u00e4rchen aus Westfalen_ (Leipsic,\n      1859), ii. 177, \u00a7 488.\n\n  214 M. T\u00f6ppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), p. 71.\n\n  M50 Mullein (_Verbascum_) gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.\n\n  215 A. Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Th\u00fcringen_ (Vienna,\n      1878), p. 289, \u00a7 139.\n\n  216 W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Volkssagen Ostpreussens,\n      Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), p. 283.\n\n  217 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. vii. (London, 1798), p. 487.\n      As to great mullein or high taper, see _id._, vol. viii. (London,\n      1799), p. 549.\n\n  218 Tettau und Temme, _loc. cit._ As to mullein at Midsummer, see also\n      above, vol. i. pp. 190, 191.\n\n  M51 Seeds of fir-cones, wild thyme, elder-flowers, and purple\n      loosestrife gathered for magical purposes at Midsummer.\n\n  219 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und M\u00e4hren_,\n      p. 205, \u00a7 1426.\n\n  220 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 93, \u00a7 648.\n\n  221 J. A. E. K\u00f6hler, _Volksbrauch, Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte\n      Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_ (Leipsic, 1867), p. 377.\n\n  222 Alois John, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube im deutschen Westb\u00f6hmen_\n      (Prague, 1905), p. 84.\n\n  223 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,\n      1857), p. 397.\n\n  224 C. Russwurm, \u201cAberglaube aus Russland,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche\n      Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) pp. 153 _sq._ The purple\n      loosestrife is one of our most showy English wild plants. In July\n      and August it may be seen flowering on the banks of rivers, ponds,\n      and ditches. The separate flowers are in axillary whorls, which\n      together form a loose spike of a reddish variable purple. See James\n      Sowerby, _English Botany_, vol. xv. (London, 1802) p. 1061.\n\n  M52 Magical properties attributed to fern seed at Midsummer.\n\n  225 J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities_, i. 314 _sqq._; Hilderic Friend,\n      _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition (London, 1886), pp. 60, 78,\n      150, 279-283; Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire\n      Folk-lore_ (London, 1883), p. 242; Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and\n      Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), pp. 89 _sq._; J. B. Thiers,\n      _Trait\u00e9 des Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), p. 314; J. Lec\u0153ur,\n      _Esquisses du Bocage Normand_, i. 290; P. S\u00e9billot, _Coutumes\n      populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), p. 217; _id._,\n      _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1882),\n      ii. 336; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869),\n      pp. 94 _sq._, \u00a7 123; F. J. Vonbun, _Beitr\u00e4ge zur deutschen\n      Mythologie_ (Chur, 1862), pp. 133 _sqq._; Montanus, _Die deutschen\n      Volksfesten_, p. 144; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Gebr\u00e4uche aus\n      Mecklenburg_, ii. 288, \u00a7 1437; M. T\u00f6ppen, _Aberglauben aus\n      Masuren_,2 p. 72; A. Schlossar, \u201cVolksmeinung und Volksaberglaube\n      aus der deutschen Steiermark,\u201d _Germania_, N.R., xxiv. (1891) p.\n      387; Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen und Br\u00e4uche des Volkes in\n      Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), p. 309; J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg,\n      _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich, 1857), pp. 407 _sq._; I. V.\n      Zingerle, _Sitten, Br\u00e4uche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2\n      (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 103, \u00a7 882, p. 158, \u00a7 1350; Christian\n      Schneller, _M\u00e4rchen und Sagen aus W\u00e4lschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), p.\n      237; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und\n      M\u00e4hren_, p. 97, \u00a7\u00a7 673-677; Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar\n      aus B\u00f6hmen_ (Prague, N.D.), pp. 311 _sq._; W. M\u00fcller, _Beitr\u00e4ge zur\n      Volkskunde der Deutschen in M\u00e4hren_ (Vienna and Olmutz, 1893), p.\n      265; R. F. Kaindl, _Die Huzulen_ (Vienna, 1894), p. 106; _id._,\n      \u201cZauberglaube bei den Huzulen,\u201d _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p. 275; P.\n      Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in Schlesien_ (Leipsic,\n      1903-1906), i. 142, \u00a7 159; G. Finamore, _Credenze, Usi e Costumi\n      Abruzzesi_ (Palermo, 1890), p. 161; C. Russwurm, \u201cAberglaube in\n      Russland,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,\n      iv. (1859) pp. 152 _sq._; A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_\n      (Paris, 1878-1882), ii. 144 _sqq._ The practice of gathering ferns\n      or fern seed on the Eve of St. John was forbidden by the synod of\n      Ferrara in 1612. See J. B. Thiers, _Trait\u00e9 des Superstitions_5\n      (Paris, 1741), i. 299 _sq._ In a South Slavonian story we read how a\n      cowherd understood the language of animals, because fern-seed\n      accidentally fell into his shoe on Midsummer Day (F. S. Krauss,\n      _Sagen und M\u00e4rchen der S\u00fcdslaven_, Leipsic, 1883-1884, ii. 424\n      _sqq._, No. 159). On this subject I may refer to my article, \u201cThe\n      Language of Animals,\u201d _The Archaeological Review_, i. (1888) pp. 164\n      _sqq._\n\n  226 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 97, \u00a7\u00a7 673, 675.\n\n_  227 Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859)\n      pp. 152 _sq._; A. de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_, ii. 146.\n\n  228 M. Longworth Dames and E. Seemann, \u201cFolk-lore of the Azores,\u201d\n      _Folk-lore_, xiv. (1903) pp. 142 _sq._\n\n  229 August Witzschel, _Sagen, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Th\u00fcringen_\n      (Vienna, 1878), p. 275, \u00a7 82.\n\n  M53 Branches of hazel cut at Midsummer to serve as divining-rods.\n\n  230 W. M\u00fcller, _Beitr\u00e4ge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in M\u00e4hren_ (Vienna\n      and Olmutz, 1893), p. 265; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Gebr\u00e4uche\n      aus Mecklenburg_, ii. p. 285, \u00a7 1431, p. 288, \u00a7 1439; J. Napier,\n      _Folk-lore, or Superstitious Beliefs in the West of Scotland_\n      (Paisley, 1879), p. 125.\n\n  231 A. Kuhn, _M\u00e4rkische Sagen und M\u00e4rchen_ (Berlin, 1843), p. 330. As to\n      the divining-rod in general, see A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers\n      und des G\u00f6ttertranks_2 (G\u00fctersloh, 1886), pp. 181 _sqq._; J. Grimm,\n      _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 813 _sqq._; S. Baring-Gould, _Curious\n      Myths of the Middle Ages_ (London, 1884), pp. 55 _sqq._ Kuhn\n      plausibly suggests that the forked shape of the divining-rod is a\n      rude representation of the human form. He compares the shape and\n      magic properties of mandragora.\n\n  232 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),\n      i. 296 _sq._\n\n  233 E. Krause, \u201cAbergl\u00e4ubische Kuren und sonstiger Aberglaube in Berlin\n      und n\u00e4chster Umgebung,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Ethnologie_, xv. (1883) p.\n      89.\n\n  234 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,\n      1857), p. 393.\n\n  235 Karl Freiherr von Leoprechting, _Aus dem Lechrain_ (Munich, 1855),\n      p. 98. Some people in Swabia say that the hazel branch which is to\n      serve as a divining-rod should be cut at midnight on Good Friday,\n      and that it should be laid on the altar and mass said over it. If\n      that is done, we are told that a Protestant can use it to quite as\n      good effect as a Catholic. See E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und\n      Gebr\u00e4uche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 244 _sq._, No. 268.\n      Some of the Wends of the Spreewald agree that the divining-rod\n      should be made of hazel-wood, and they say that it ought to be wrapt\n      in swaddling-bands, laid on a white plate, and baptized on Easter\n      Saturday. Many of them, however, think that it should be made of\n      \u201cyellow willow.\u201d See Wilibald von Schulenburg, _Wendische Volkssagen\n      und Gebr\u00e4uche aus dem Spreewald_ (Leipsic, 1880), pp. 204 _sq._ A\n      remarkable property of the hazel in the opinion of Bavarian peasants\n      is that it is never struck by lightning; this immunity it has\n      enjoyed ever since the day when it protected the Mother of God\n      against a thunderstorm on her flight into Egypt. See _Bavaria,\n      Landes- und Volkskunde des K\u00f6nigreichs Bayern_, i. (Munich, 1860) p.\n      371.\n\n  M54 The divining-rod in Sweden obtained on Midsummer Eve.\n\n  236 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 289, referring to Dybeck\u2019s\n      _Runa_, 1844, p. 22, and 1845, p. 80.\n\n  237 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), pp. 266 _sq._\n\n  M55 The mythical springwort supposed to bloom on Midsummer Eve.\n\n  238 Heinrich Pr\u00f6hle, _Harzsagen_ (Leipsic, 1859), i. 99, No. 23.\n\n  M56 Another way of catching the springwort. The white bloom of chicory.\n\n  239 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 812 _sq._, iii. 289; A. Kuhn,\n      _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des G\u00f6ttertranks_2 (G\u00fctersloh, 1886),\n      pp. 188-193; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European\n      Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), pp. 174-178; J. F. L.\n      Woeste, _Volks\u00fcberlieferungen in der Grafschaft Mark_ (Iserlohn,\n      1848), p. 44; A. Kuhn und W. Schwartz, _Norddeutsche Sagen, M\u00e4rchen\n      und Gebr\u00e4uche_ (Leipsic, 1848), p. 459, No. 444; Ernst Meier,\n      _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart,\n      1852), pp. 240 _sq._, No. 265; C. Russwurm, \u201cAberglaube in\n      Russland,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,\n      iv. (G\u00f6ttingen, 1859) p. 153; J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und\n      Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und M\u00e4hren_ (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 88,\n      No. 623; Paul Drechsler, _Sitte, Brauch und Volksglaube in\n      Schlesien_ (Leipsic, 1903-1906), ii. 207 _sq._ In Swabia some people\n      say that the bird which brings the springwort is not the woodpecker\n      but the hoopoe (E. Meier, _op. cit._ p. 240). Others associate the\n      springwort with other birds. See H. Pr\u00f6hle, _Harzsagen_ (Leipsic,\n      1859), ii. 116, No. 308; A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers_,2 p.\n      190. It is from its power of springing or bursting open all doors\n      and locks that the springwort derives its name (German\n      _Springwurzel_).\n\n  240 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ x. 40.\n\n  241 Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Schwaben_\n      (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 238 _sq._, No. 264.\n\n  M57 The magical virtues ascribed to plants at Midsummer may be thought\n      to be derived from the sun, then at the height of his power and\n      glory. Hence it is possible that the Midsummer bonfires stand in\n      direct relation to the sun.\n  M58 This consideration tends to bring us back to an intermediate\n      position between the rival theories of Mannhardt and Westermarck.\n\n  242 See above, pp. 45, 46, 49, 54, 55, 59, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67.\n\n  M59 Miscellaneous examples of the baleful activity of witches at\n      Midsummer and of the precautions which it is necessary to take\n      against them at that time. Witches in Voigtland. The witches\u2019\n      Sabbath in Prussia on Walpurgis Night and Midsummer Eve. Midsummer\n      Eve a witching time among the South Slavs.\n\n  243 Le Baron de Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Calendrier Belge_ (Brussels,\n      1861-1862), i. 423 _sq._\n\n  244 Anton Birlinger, _V\u00f6lksthumliches aus Schwaben_, Freiburg im\n      Breisgau, (1861-1862), i. 278, \u00a7 437.\n\n  245 Robert Eisel, _Sagenbuch des Voigtlandes_ (Gera, 1871), p. 210, Nr.\n      551.\n\n  246 W. J. A. von Tettau und J. D. H. Temme, _Die Volkssagen\n      Ostpreussens, Litthauens und Westpreussens_ (Berlin, 1837), pp. 263\n      _sq._\n\n  247 F. S. Krauss, _Volksglaube und religi\u00f6ser Brauch der S\u00fcdslaven_\n      (M\u00fcnster i. W., 1890), p. 128.\n\n  M60 Relation of the fire-festivals to the myth of Balder.\n  M61 Veneration of the Druids for the mistletoe.\n\n  248 Pliny derives the name Druid from the Greek _drus_, \u201coak.\u201d He did\n      not know that the Celtic word for oak was the same (_daur_), and\n      that therefore Druid, in the sense of priest of the oak, might be\n      genuine Celtic, not borrowed from the Greek. This etymology is\n      accepted by some modern scholars. See G. Curtius, _Grundz\u00fcge der\n      Griechischen Etymologie_5 (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 238 _sq._; A.\n      Vani\u010dek, _Griechisch-Lateinisch Etymologisches W\u00f6rterbuch_ (Leipsic,\n      1877), pp. 368 _sqq._; (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London\n      and Edinburgh, 1888), pp. 221 _sqq._ However, this derivation is\n      disputed by other scholars, who prefer to derive the name from a\n      word meaning knowledge or wisdom, so that Druid would mean \u201cwizard\u201d\n      or \u201cmagician.\u201d See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 305; Otto\n      Schrader, _Reallexikon der Indogermanischen Altertumskunde_\n      (Strasburg, 1901), pp. 638 _sq._; H. D\u2019Arbois de Jubainville, _Les\n      Druides et les Dieux Celtiques \u00e0 forme d\u2019animaux_ (Paris, 1906), pp.\n      1, 11, 83 _sqq._ The last-mentioned scholar formerly held that the\n      etymology of Druid was unknown. See his _Cours de Litt\u00e9rature\n      Celtique_, i. (Paris, 1883) pp. 117-127.\n\n  249 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 249-251. In the first edition of this book\n      I understood Pliny to say that the Druidical ceremony of cutting the\n      mistletoe fell in the sixth month, that is, in June; and hence I\n      argued that it probably formed part of the midsummer festival. But\n      in accordance with Latin usage the words of Pliny (_sexta luna_,\n      literally \u201csixth moon\u201d) can only mean \u201cthe sixth day of the month.\u201d\n      I have to thank my friend Mr. W. Warde Fowler for courteously\n      pointing out my mistake to me. Compare my note in the _Athenaeum_,\n      November 21st, 1891, p. 687. I also misunderstood Pliny\u2019s words,\n      \u201c_et saeculi post tricesimum annum, quia jam virium abunde habeat\n      nec sit sui dimidia_,\u201d applying them to the tree instead of to the\n      moon, to which they really refer. After _saeculi_ we must understand\n      _principium_ from the preceding _principia_. With the thirty years\u2019\n      cycle of the Druids we may compare the sixty years\u2019 cycle of the\n      Boeotian festival of the Great Daedala (Pausanias, ix. 3. 5; see\n      _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 140 _sq._), which,\n      like the Druidical rite in question, was essentially a worship, or\n      perhaps rather a conjuration, of the sacred oak. Whether any deeper\n      affinity, based on common Aryan descent, may be traced between the\n      Boeotian and the Druidical ceremony, I do not pretend to determine.\n      In India a cycle of sixty years, based on the sidereal revolution of\n      Jupiter, has long been in use. The sidereal revolution of Jupiter is\n      accomplished in approximately twelve solar years (more exactly 11\n      years and 315 days), so that five of its revolutions make a period\n      of approximately sixty years. It seems, further, that in India a\n      much older cycle of sixty lunar years was recognized. See Christian\n      Lassen, _Indische Alter-thumskunde_, i.2 (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 988\n      _sqq._; Prof. F. Kielhorn (G\u00f6ttingen), \u201cThe Sixty-year Cycle of\n      Jupiter,\u201d _The Indian Antiquary_, xviii. (1889) pp. 193-209; J. F.\n      Fleet, \u201cA New System of the Sixty-year Cycle of Jupiter,\u201d _ibid._\n      pp. 221-224. In Tibet the use of a sixty-years\u2019 cycle has been\n      borrowed from India. See W. Woodville Rockhill, \u201cTibet,\u201d _Journal of\n      the Royal Asiatic Society for 1891_ (London, 1891), p. 207 note 1.\n\n  M62 Medical and magical virtues ascribed to mistletoe in ancient Italy.\n\n  250 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 11 _sq._\n\n  251 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiii. 94.\n\n  M63 Agreement between the Druids and the ancient Italians as to the\n      valuable properties of mistletoe.\n  M64 Similar beliefs as to mistletoe among the Ainos of Japan.\n\n  252 Rev. John Batchelor, _The Ainu and their Folk-lore_ (London, 1901),\n      p. 222.\n\n  M65 Similar beliefs as to mistletoe among the Torres Straits Islanders\n      and the Walos of Senegambia. These beliefs perhaps originate in a\n      notion that the mistletoe has fallen from heaven.\n\n_  253 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres\n      Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 198 _sq._\n\n  254 M. le baron Roger (ancien Gouverneur de la Colonie fran\u00e7aise du\n      S\u00e9n\u00e9gal), \u201cNotice sur le Gouvernement, les M\u0153urs, et les\n      Superstitions des N\u00e8gres du pays de Walo,\u201d _Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9\n      de G\u00e9ographie_, viii. (Paris, 1827) pp. 357 _sq._\n\n  M66 Such a notion would explain the ritual used in cutting mistletoe and\n      other parasites.\n\n  255 Above, p. 77.\n\n  256 Compare _The Times_, 2nd April, 1901, p. 9: \u201cThe Tunis correspondent\n      of the _Temps_ reports that in the course of certain operations in\n      the Belvedere Park in Tunis the workmen discovered a huge circle of\n      enormous stumps of trees ranged round an immense square stone\n      showing signs of artistic chisel work. In the neighbourhood were\n      found a sort of bronze trough containing a gold sickle in perfect\n      preservation, and a sarcophagus containing a skeleton. About the\n      forehead of the skeleton was a gold band, having in the centre the\n      image of the sun, accompanied by hieratic signs, which are\n      provisionally interpreted as the monogram of Teutates. The discovery\n      of such remains in North Africa has created a sensation.\u201d As to the\n      Celtic god Teutates and the human sacrifices offered to him, see\n      Lucan, _Pharsalia_, i. 444 _sq._:\n\n      \u201c_Et quibus immitis placatur sanguine diro_\n      _ Teutates horrensque feris altaribus Hesus._\u201d\n\n      Compare (Sir) John Rhys, _Celtic Heathendom_ (London and Edinburgh,\n      1888), pp. 44 _sqq._, 232. Branches of the sacred olive at Olympia,\n      which were to form the victors\u2019 crowns, had to be cut with a golden\n      sickle by a boy whose parents were both alive. See the Scholiast on\n      Pindar, _Olymp._ iii. 60, p. 102, ed. Aug. Boeck (Leipsic, 1819). In\n      Assyrian ritual it was laid down that, before felling a sacred\n      tamarisk to make magical images out of the wood, the magician should\n      pray to the sun-god Shamash and touch the tree with a golden axe.\n      See C. Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_ (Paris, 1902), pp. 132 _sq._\n      Some of the ancients thought that the root of the marsh-mallow,\n      which was used in medicine, should be dug up with gold and then\n      preserved from contact with the ground (Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xx. 29).\n      At the great horse-sacrifice in ancient India it was prescribed by\n      ritual that the horse should be slain by a golden knife, because\n      \u201cgold is light\u201d and \u201cby means of the golden light the sacrificer\n      also goes to the heavenly world.\u201d See _The Satapatha-Br\u00e2hmana_,\n      translated by Julius Eggeling, Part v. (Oxford, 1900) p. 303\n      (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xliv.). It has been a rule of\n      superstition both in ancient and modern times that certain plants,\n      to which medical or magical virtues were attributed, should not be\n      cut with iron. See the fragment of Sophocles\u2019s _Root-cutters_,\n      quoted by Macrobius, _Saturn_. v. 19. 9 _sq._; Virgil, _Aen._ iv.\n      513 _sq._; Ovid, _Metamorph._ vii. 227; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv.\n      68, 103, 176; and above, p. 65 (as to purple loosestrife in Russia).\n      On the objection to the use of iron in such cases compare F.\n      Liebrecht, _Des Gervasius von Tilbury Otia Imperialia_ (Hanover,\n      1856), pp. 102 _sq._; _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 225\n      _sqq._\n\n  257 \u00c9tienne Aymonier, \u201cNotes sur les Coutumes et Croyances\n      Superstitieuses des Cambodgiens,\u201d _Cochinchine Fran\u00e7aise, Excursions\n      et Reconnaissance_ No. 16 (Saigon, 1883), p. 136.\n\n  258 See above, vol. i. pp. 2 _sqq._\n\n  M67 The ancient beliefs and practices concerning mistletoe have their\n      analogies in modern European folk-lore.\n\n  259 Ernst Meier, \u201c\u00dcber Pflanzen und Kr\u00e4uter,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche\n      Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (G\u00f6ttingen, 1853), pp. 443 _sq._ The\n      sun enters the sign of Sagittarius about November 22nd.\n\n  260 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 533, referring to Dybeck,\n      _Runa_, 1845, p. 80.\n\n  261 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,\n      1909), p. 87.\n\n  M68 Medicinal virtues ascribed to mistletoe by ancients and moderns.\n      Mistletoe as a cure for epilepsy.\n\n  262 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 250, \u201c_Omnia sanantem appellantes suo\n      vocabulo_.\u201d See above, p. 77.\n\n  263 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 1009: \u201c_Sonst aber wird das\n      welsche_ olhiach, _bretagn._ ollyiach, _ir._ uileiceach, _gal._\n      uileice, _d. i. allheiland_, _von_ ol, uile universalis, _als\n      benennung des mistels angegeben_.\u201d My lamented friend, the late R.\n      A. Neil of Pembroke College, Cambridge, pointed out to me that in N.\n      M\u2019Alpine\u2019s _Gaelic Dictionary_ (Seventh Edition, Edinburgh and\n      London, 1877, p. 432) the Gaelic word for mistletoe is given as _an\n      t\u2019 uil_, which, Mr. Neil told me, means \u201call-healer.\u201d\n\n  264 A. de Gubernatis, _La Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882),\n      ii. 73.\n\n  265 Rev. Hilderic Friend, _Flowers and Flower Lore_, Third Edition\n      (London, 1886), p. 378. Compare A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers\n      und des G\u00f6ttertranks_2 (G\u00fctersloh, 1886), p. 206, referring to\n      Keysler, _Antiq. Sept._ p. 308.\n\n  266 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_\n      (Paris and Lyons, 1846), pp. 102 _sq._ The local name for mistletoe\n      here is _besq_, which may be derived from the Latin _viscum_.\n\n  267 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des G\u00f6ttertranks_2\n      (G\u00fctersloh, 1886), p. 205; Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of\n      Indo-European Tradition and Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), p. 186.\n\n  268 \u201cEinige Notizen aus einem alten Kr\u00e4uterbuche,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr\n      deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (G\u00f6ttingen, 1859) pp. 41\n      _sq._\n\n  269 Francis P\u00e9rot, \u201cPri\u00e8res, Invocations, Formules Sacr\u00e9es, Incantations\n      en Bourbonnais,\u201d _Revue des Traditions Populaires_, xviii. (1903) p.\n      299.\n\n_  270 County Folk-lore_, v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch and\n      Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 120.\n\n  271 Prof. P. J. Veth, \u201cDe Leer der Signatuur, iii. De Mistel en de\n      Riembloem,\u201d _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, vii. (1894)\n      p. 111. He names Ray in England (about 1700), Boerhaave in Holland\n      (about 1720), and Van Swieten, a pupil of Boerhaave\u2019s (about 1745).\n\n_  272 County Folk-lore_, vol. v. _Lincolnshire_, collected by Mrs. Gutch\n      and Mabel Peacock (London, 1908), p. 120.\n\n  273 Rev. Mr. Shaw, Minister of Elgin, quoted by Thomas Pennant in his\n      \u201cTour in Scotland, 1769,\u201d printed in J. Pinkerton\u2019s _Voyages and\n      Travels_, iii. (London, 1809) p. 136; J. Brand, _Popular Antiquities\n      of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 151.\n\n  274 Walter K. Kelly, _Curiosities of Indo-European Tradition and\n      Folk-lore_ (London, 1863), p. 186.\n\n  M69 The medicinal virtues ascribed to mistletoe seem to be mythical,\n      being fanciful inferences from the parasitic nature of the plant.\n\n  275 On this point Prof. P. J. Veth (\u201cDe Leer der Signatuur,\u201d\n      _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 112)\n      quotes Cauvet, _El\u00e9ments d\u2019Histoire naturelle medicale_, ii. 290:\n      \u201c_La famille des Loranthac\u00e9es ne nous offre aucun int\u00e9ret._\u201d\n\n  M70 The belief that mistletoe extinguishes fire seems based on a fancy\n      that it falls on the tree in a flash of lightning.\n\n  276 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des G\u00f6ttertranks_2\n      (G\u00fctersloh, 1886), p. 205, referring to Dybeck, _Runa_, 1845, p. 80.\n\n  277 A. Kuhn, _op. cit._ p. 204, referring to Rochholz, _Schweizersagen\n      aus d. Aargau_, ii. 202.\n\n  278 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 153.\n\n  279 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und M\u00e4hren_\n      (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 37, \u00a7 218. In Upper Bavaria the\n      mistletoe is burned for this purpose along with the so-called\n      palm-branches which were consecrated on Palm Sunday. See _Bavaria,\n      Landes- und Volkskunde des K\u00f6nigreichs Bayern_, i. (Munich, 1860),\n      p. 371.\n\n  M71 Other wonderful properties ascribed to mistletoe; in particular it\n      is thought to be a protection against witchcraft.\n\n  280 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des G\u00f6ttertranks_,2 p. 206,\n      referring to Albertus Magnus, p. 155; Prof. P. J. Veth, \u201cDe Leer der\n      Signatuur,\u201d _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, vii. (1904)\n      p. 111.\n\n  281 J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_ (Zurich,\n      1857), p. 398.\n\n  282 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 97, \u00a7\n      128; Prof. P. J. Veth, \u201cDe Leer der Signatuur,\u201d _Internationales\n      Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 111.\n\n  283 A. Wuttke, _op. cit._ p. 267, \u00a7 419.\n\n  284 W. Henderson, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the Northern Counties of\n      England and the Borders_ (London, 1879), p. 114.\n\n  285 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,\n      1909), p. 88.\n\n  286 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 269.\n\n  M72 A favourite time for gathering mistletoe is Midsummer Eve.\n\n  287 Above, pp. 77, 78.\n\n  288 Above, pp. 82, 84.\n\n  289 Above, pp. 83, 86.\n\n  290 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 353, referring to Dybeck,\n      _Runa_, 1844, p. 22.\n\n  291 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,\n      1909), p. 88.\n\n  M73 The two main incidents of Balder\u2019s myth, namely the pulling of the\n      mistletoe and the lighting of the bonfire, are reproduced in the\n      great Midsummer celebration of Scandinavia.\n\n  292 See above, p. 86.\n\n  293 G. Wahlenberg, _Flora Suecica_ (Upsala, 1824-1826), ii. No. 1143\n      _Viscum album_, pp. 649 _sq._: \u201c_Hab. in sylvarum densiorum et\n      humidiorum arboribus frondosis, ut Pyris, Quercu, Fago etc. per\n      Sueciam temperatiorem passim_.\u201d\n\n  294 Above, vol. i. pp. 171 _sq._\n\n  295 L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 259.\n\n  296 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 78, who adds, \u201c_Mahnen die\n      Johannisfeuer an Baldrs Leichenbrand?_\u201d This pregnant hint perhaps\n      contains in germ the solution of the whole myth.\n\n  M74 Hence the myth of Balder was probably the explanation given of a\n      similar rite.\n\n  297 Above, vol. i. p. 148.\n\n  298 Above, vol. i. p. 186.\n\n  299 Above, p. 26.\n\n  M75 If a human representative of a tree-spirit was burned in the\n      bonfires, what kind of tree did he represent? The oak the principal\n      sacred tree of the Aryans.\n\n  300 As to the worship of the oak in Europe, see _The Magic Art and the\n      Evolution of Kings_, ii. 349 _sqq._ Compare P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in\n      alter und neuer Zeit_, in two parts (Wurzen, N.D., and Berlin,\n      1891).\n\n  301 Strabo, xii. 5.1, p. 567. The name is a compound of _dryu_, \u201coak,\u201d\n      and _nemed_, \u201ctemple\u201d (H. F. Tozer, _Selections from Strabo_,\n      Oxford, 1893, p. 284). We know from Jerome (_Commentar. in Epist. ad\n      Galat._ book ii. praef.) that the Galatians retained their native\n      Celtic speech as late as the fourth century of our era.\n\n_  302 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 365.\n\n  303 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 55 _sq._, 58 _sq._, ii. 542,\n      iii. 187 _sq._; P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_\n      (Berlin, 1891), pp. 40 _sqq._; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of\n      Kings_, ii. 363 _sqq._, 371.\n\n  304 L. Preller, _R\u00f6mische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 108.\n\n  305 Livy, i. 10. Compare C. B\u00f6tticher, _Der Baumkultus der Hellenen_\n      (Berlin, 1856), pp. 133 _sq._\n\n  306 C. B\u00f6tticher, _op. cit._ pp. 111 _sqq._; L. Preller, _Griechische\n      Mythologie_,4 ed. C. Robert, i. (Berlin, 1894) pp. 122 _sqq._; P.\n      Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 2\n      _sqq._ It is noteworthy that at Olympia the only wood that might be\n      used in sacrificing to Zeus was the white poplar (Pausanias, v. 14.\n      2). But it is probable that herein Zeus, who was an intruder at\n      Olympia, merely accepted an old local custom which, long before his\n      arrival, had been observed in the worship of Pelops (Pausanias, v.\n      13. 3).\n\n  307 Without hazarding an opinion on the vexed question of the cradle of\n      the Aryans, I may observe that in various parts of Europe the oak\n      seems to have been formerly more common than it is now. See the\n      evidence collected in _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_,\n      ii. 349 _sqq._\n\n  M76 Hence the tree represented by the human victim who was burnt at the\n      fire-festivals was probably the oak.\n\n  308 However, some exceptions to the rule are recorded. See above, vol.\n      i. pp. 169, 278 (oak and fir), 220 (plane and birch), 281, 283, 286\n      (limewood), 282 (poplar and fir), 286 (cornel-tree), 291 (birch or\n      other hard wood), 278, 280 (nine kinds of wood). According to\n      Montanus, the need-fire, Easter, and Midsummer fires were kindled by\n      the friction of oak and limewood. See Montanus, _Die deutschen\n      Volksfeste, Volksbr\u00e4uche und deutscher Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn,\n      N.D.), p. 159. But elsewhere (pp. 33 _sq._, 127) the same writer\n      says that the need-fire and Midsummer fires were produced by the\n      friction of oak and fir-wood.\n\n  309 Above, vol. i. p. 177.\n\n  310 M. Pr\u00e4torius, _Deliciae Prussicae_, herausgegeben von Dr. William\n      Pierson (Berlin, 1871), pp. 19 _sq._ W. R. S. Ralston says (on what\n      authority I do not know) that if the fire maintained in honour of\n      the Lithuanian god Perkunas went out, it was rekindled by sparks\n      struck from a stone which the image of the god held in his hand\n      (_Songs of the Russian People_, London, 1872, p. 88).\n\n  311 See above, vol. i. pp. 148, 271, 272, 274, 275, 276, 281, 289, 294.\n\n  312 Above, vol. i. pp. 148, 155.\n\n_  313 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 186.\n\n_  314 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 366. However, sacred\n      fires of other wood than oak are not unknown among Aryan peoples.\n      Thus at Olympia white poplar was the wood burnt in sacrifices to\n      Zeus (above, p. 90 _n._1); at Delphi the perpetual fire was fed with\n      pinewood (Plutarch, _De EI apud Delphos_, 2), and it was over the\n      glowing embers of pinewood that the Soranian Wolves walked at\n      Soracte (above, p. 14).\n\n  315 Montanus, _Diedeutschen Volksfeste, Volksbr\u00e4uche und deutscher\n      Volksglaube_ (Iserlohn, N.D.), pp. 127, 159. The log is called in\n      German _Sckarholz_. The custom appears to have prevailed\n      particularly in Westphalia, about Sieg and Lahn. Compare Montanus,\n      _op. cit._ p. 12, as to the similar custom at Christmas. The use of\n      the _Scharholz_ is reported to be found also in Niederlausitz and\n      among the neighbouring Saxons. See Paul Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter\n      und neuer Zeit_ (Berlin, 1891), pp. 86 _sq._\n\n  316 Above, vol. i. pp. 248, 250, 251, 257, 258, 260, 263. Elsewhere the\n      Yule log has been made of fir, beech, holly, yew, crab-tree, or\n      olive. See above, vol. i. pp. 249, 257, 263.\n\n_  317 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 140 _sq._\n\n  318 A curious use of an oak-wood fire to detect a criminal is reported\n      from Germany. If a man has been found murdered and his murderer is\n      unknown, you are recommended to proceed as follows. You kindle a\n      fire of dry oak-wood, you pour some of the blood from the wounds on\n      the fire, and you change the poor man\u2019s shoes, putting the right\n      shoe on the left foot, and _vice versa_. As soon as that is done,\n      the murderer is struck blind and mad, so that he fancies he is\n      riding up to the throat in water; labouring under this delusion he\n      returns to the corpse, when you can apprehend him and deliver him up\n      to the arm of justice with the greatest ease. See Montanus, _op.\n      cit._ pp. 159 _sq._\n\n  M77 If the human victims burnt at the fire-festival represented the oak,\n      the reason for pulling the mistletoe may have been a belief that the\n      life of the oak was in the mistletoe, and that the tree could not\n      perish either by fire or water so long as the mistletoe remained\n      intact among its boughs.\n  M78 Ancient Italian belief that mistletoe could not be destroyed by fire\n      or water.\n\n  319 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xiii. 119: \u201c_Alexander Cornelius arborem leonem\n      appellavit ex qua facta esset Argo, similem robori viscum ferenti,\n      quae neque aqua neque igni possit corrumpi, sicuti nec viscum, nulli\n      alii cognitam, quod equidem sciam._\u201d Here the tree out of which the\n      ship Argo was made is said to have been destructible neither by fire\n      nor water; and as the tree is compared to a mistletoe-bearing oak,\n      and the mistletoe itself is said to be indestructible by fire and\n      water, it seems to follow that the same indestructibility may have\n      been believed to attach to the oak which bore the mistletoe, so long\n      at least as the mistletoe remained rooted on the boughs.\n\n  M79 Conception of a being whose life is outside himself.\n  M80 Belief that a man\u2019s soul may be deposited for safety in a secure\n      place outside his body, and that so long as it remains there intact\n      he himself is invulnerable and immortal.\n\n_  320 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 26 _sqq._\n\n  M81 This belief is illustrated by folk-tales told by many peoples.\n\n  321 A number of the following examples were collected by Mr. E. Clodd in\n      his paper, \u201cThe Philosophy of Punchkin,\u201d _Folk-lore Journal_, ii.\n      (1884) pp. 288-303; and again in his _Myths and Dreams_ (London,\n      1885), pp. 188-198. The subject of the external soul, both in\n      folk-tales and in custom, has been well handled by G. A. Wilken in\n      his two papers, \u201cDe betrekking tusschen menschen- dieren- en\n      plantenleven naar het volksgeloof,\u201d _De Indische Gids_, November\n      1884, pp. 595-612, and \u201cDe Simsonsage,\u201d _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5. In\n      \u201cDe Simsonsage\u201d Wilken has reproduced, to a great extent in the same\n      words, most of the evidence cited by him in \u201cDe betrekking,\u201d yet\n      without referring to that paper. When I wrote this book in 1889-1890\n      I was unacquainted with \u201cDe betrekking,\u201d but used with advantage \u201cDe\n      Simsonsage,\u201d a copy of it having been kindly sent me by the author.\n      I am the more anxious to express my obligations to \u201cDe Simsonsage,\u201d\n      because I have had little occasion to refer to it, most of the\n      original authorities cited by the author being either in my own\n      library or easily accessible to me in Cambridge. It would be a\n      convenience to anthropologists if Wilken\u2019s valuable papers,\n      dispersed as they are in various Dutch periodicals which are seldom\n      to be met with in England, were collected and published together.\n      After the appearance of my first anthropological essay in 1885,\n      Professor Wilken entered into correspondence with me, and\n      thenceforward sent me copies of his papers as they appeared; but of\n      his papers published before that date I have not a complete set.\n      (Note to the Second Edition.) The wish expressed in the foregoing\n      note has now been happily fulfilled. Wilken\u2019s many scattered papers\n      have been collected and published in a form which leaves nothing to\n      be desired (_De verspreide Geschriften van Prof. Dr. G. A. Wilken_,\n      verzameld door Mr. F. D. E. van Ossenbruggen, in four volumes, The\n      Hague, 1912). The two papers \u201cDe betrekking\u201d and \u201cDe Simsonsage\u201d are\n      reprinted in the third volume, pp. 289-309 and pp. 551-579. The\n      subject of the external soul in relation to Balder has been fully\n      illustrated and discussed by Professor F. Kauffmann in his _Balder,\n      Mythus und Sage_ (Strasburg, 1902), pp. 136 _sqq._ Amongst the first\n      to collect examples of the external soul in folk-tales was the\n      learned Dr. Reinhold K\u00f6hler (in _Orient und Occident_, ii.,\n      G\u00f6ttingen, 1864, pp. 100-103; reprinted with additional references\n      in the writer\u2019s _Kleinere Schriften_, i., Weimar, 1898, pp.\n      158-161). Many versions of the tale were also cited by W. R. S.\n      Ralston (_Russian Folk-tales_, London, 1873, pp. 109 _sqq._). (Note\n      to the Third Edition.)\n\n  M82 Stories of an external soul common among Aryan peoples. The external\n      soul in Hindoo stories. Punchkin and the parrot. The ogre whose soul\n      was in a bird.\n\n  322 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, Third Edition (London, 1881), pp.\n      12-16.\n\n  323 Maive Stokes, _Indian Fairy Tales_ (London, 1880), pp. 58-60. For\n      similar Hindoo stories, see _id._, pp. 187 _sq._; Lai Behari Day,\n      _Folk-tales of Bengal_ (London, 1883), pp. 121 _sq._; F. A. Steel\n      and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_ (Bombay and London, 1884),\n      pp. 58-60.\n\n  M83 The princess whose soul was in a golden necklace. The prince whose\n      soul was in a fish.\n\n  324 Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, pp. 239 _sqq._\n\n  325 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, pp. 1 _sqq._ For similar\n      stories of necklaces, see Mary Frere, _Old Deccan Days_, pp. 233\n      _sq._; F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_, pp. 83\n      _sqq._\n\n  M84 Cashmeer stories of ogres whose lives were in cocks, a pigeon, a\n      starling, a spinning-wheel, and a pillar. Cashmeer and Bengalee\n      stories of ogres whose lives were in bees.\n\n  326 J. H. Knowles, _Folk-tales of Kashmir_, Second Edition (London,\n      1893), pp. 49 _sq._\n\n  327 J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ p. 134.\n\n  328 J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ pp. 382 _sqq._\n\n  329 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, pp. 85 _sq._; compare _id._,\n      pp. 253 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872) p. 117. For an Indian\n      story in which a giant\u2019s life is in five black bees, see W. A.\n      Clouston, _Popular Tales and Fictions_ (Edinburgh and London, 1887),\n      i. 350.\n\n_  330 Indian Antiquary_, i. (1872), p. 171.\n\n  M85 The external soul in a Siamese or Cambodian story. Indian stories of\n      a tree and a barley plant that were life-tokens.\n\n  331 A. Bastian, _Die Voelker des oestlichen Asien_, iv. (Jena, 1868) pp.\n      304 _sq._\n\n  332 Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of Bengal_, p. 189.\n\n  333 F. A. Steel and R. C. Temple, _Wide-awake Stories_ (Bombay and\n      London, 1884), pp. 52, 64. In the Indian _Jataka_ there is a tale\n      (book ii. No. 208) which relates how Buddha in the form of a monkey\n      deceived a crocodile by pretending that monkeys kept their hearts in\n      figs growing on a tree. See _The Jataka or Stories of the Buddha\u2019s\n      former Births_ translated from the Pali by various hands, vol. ii.\n      translated by W. H. D. Rouse (Cambridge, 1895), pp. 111 _sq._\n\n  334 G. W. Leitner, _The Languages and Races of Dardistan_, Third Edition\n      (Lahore, 1878), p. 9.\n\n  M86 The external soul in Greek stories. Meleager and the firebrand.\n      Nisus and his purple or golden hair. Pterelaus and his golden hair.\n      Modern Greek parallels. The external soul in doves.\n\n  335 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, i. 8; Diodorus Siculus, iv. 34;\n      Pausanias, x. 31. 4; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 604 _sqq._; Antoninus\n      Liberalis, _Transform._ ii.; Dio Chrysostom, _Or._ lxvii. vol. ii.\n      p. 231, ed. L. Dindorf (Leipsic, 1857); Hyginus, _Fab._ 171, 174;\n      Ovid, _Metam._ viii. 445 _sqq._ In his play on this theme Euripides\n      made the life of Meleager to depend on an olive-leaf which his\n      mother had given birth to along with the babe. See J. Malalas,\n      _Chronographia_, vi. pp. 165 _sq._ ed. L. Dindorf (Bonn, 1831); J.\n      Tzetzes, _Scholia on Lycophron_, 492 _sq._ (vol. ii. pp. 646 _sq._,\n      ed. Chr. G. M\u00fcller, Leipsic, 1811); G. Knaack, \u201cZur Meleagersage,\u201d\n      _Rheinisches Museum_, N. F. xlix. (1894) pp. 310-313.\n\n  336 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, iii. 15. 8; Aeschylus, _Choeph._ 612\n      _sqq._; Pausanias, i. 19. 4; _Ciris_, 116 _sqq._; Ovid, _Metam._\n      viii. 8 _sqq._ According to J. Tzetzes (_Schol. on Lycophron_, 650)\n      not the life but the strength of Nisus was in his golden hair; when\n      it was pulled out, he became weak and was slain by Minos. According\n      to Hyginus (_Fab._ 198) Nisus was destined to reign only so long as\n      he kept the purple lock on his head.\n\n  337 Apollodorus, _Bibliotheca_, ii. 4. 5 and 7.\n\n  338 J. G. von Hahn, _Griechische und albanesische M\u00e4rchen_ (Leipsic,\n      1864), i. 217; a similar story, _ibid._ ii. 282.\n\n  339 B. Schmidt, _Griechische M\u00e4rchen, Sagen und Volkslieder_ (Leipsic,\n      1877), pp. 91 _sq._ The same writer found in the island of Zacynthus\n      a belief that the whole strength of the ancient Greeks resided in\n      three hairs on their breasts, and that it vanished whenever these\n      hairs were cut; but if the hairs were allowed to grow again, their\n      strength returned (B. Schmidt, _Das Volksleben der Neugriechen_,\n      Leipsic, 1871, p. 206). The Biblical story of Samson and Delilah\n      (Judges xvi.) implies a belief of the same sort, as G. A. Wilken\n      abundantly shewed in his paper, \u201cDe Simsonsage,\u201d _De Gids_, 1888,\n      No. 5 (reprinted in his _Verspreide Geschriften_, The Hague, 1912,\n      vol. iii. pp. 551-579).\n\n  340 J. G. von Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. 215 _sq._\n\n_  341 Ibid._ ii. 275 _sq._ Similar stories, _ibid._ ii. 204, 294 _sq._ In\n      an Albanian story a monster\u2019s strength is in three pigeons, which\n      are in a hare, which is in the silver tusk of a wild boar. When the\n      boar is killed, the monster feels ill; when the hare is cut open, he\n      can hardly stand on his feet; when the three pigeons are killed, he\n      expires. See Aug. Dozon, _Contes albanais_ (Paris, 1881), pp. 132\n      _sq._\n\n  342 J. G. von Hahn, _op. cit._ ii. 260 _sqq._\n\n_  343 Ibid._ i. 187.\n\n_  344 Ibid._ ii. 23 _sq._\n\n  345 \u00c9mile Legrand, _Contes populaires grecs_ (Paris, 1881), pp. 191\n      _sqq._\n\n  M87 The external soul in Italian stories. Silvia\u2019s son. The dragon twin.\n      The soul in a gem.\n\n  346 Plutarch, _Parallela_, 26. In both the Greek and Italian stories the\n      subject of quarrel between nephew and uncles is the skin of a boar,\n      which the nephew presented to his lady-love and which his uncles\n      took from her.\n\n  347 G. Basile, _Pentamerone_, \u00fcbertragen von Felix Liebrecht (Breslau,\n      1846), ii. 60 _sq._\n\n  348 R. H. Busk, _Folk-lore of Rome_ (London, 1874), pp. 164 _sqq._\n\n  M88 Italian story of a wicked fairy whose death was in an egg. A\n      sorcerer Body-without-Soul whose death was in an egg.\n\n  349 T. F. Crane, _Italian Popular Tales_ (London, 1885), pp. 31-34. The\n      hero had acquired the power of turning himself into an eagle, a\n      lion, and an ant from three creatures of these sorts whose quarrel\n      about their shares in a dead ass he had composed. This incident\n      occurs in other tales of the same type. See below, note 2 and pp.\n      120 with note 2, 132, 133 with note 1.\n\n  350 J. B. Andrews, _Contes Ligures_ (Paris, 1892), No. 46, pp. 213\n      _sqq._ In a parallel Sicilian story the hero Beppino slays a\n      sorcerer in the same manner after he had received from an eagle, a\n      lion, and an ant the same gift of transformation in return for the\n      same service. See G. Pitr\u00e8, _Fiabe, Novelle e Racconti popolari\n      Siciliani_, ii. (Palermo, 1875) p. 215; and for another Sicilian\n      parallel, Laura Gonzenbach, _Sicilianische M\u00e4rchen_ (Leipsic, 1870),\n      No. 6, pp. 34-38.\n\n  M89 The external soul in Slavonic stories. Russian story of Koshchei the\n      Deathless, whose death was in an egg.\n\n  351 Anton Dietrich, _Russian Popular Tales_ (London, 1857), pp. 21-24.\n\n  M90 Other versions of the story of Koshchei the Deathless. Death in the\n      blue rose-tree.\n\n  352 Jeremiah Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of the Russians, Western\n      Slavs, and Magyars_ (London, 1891), pp. 119-122. Compare W. R. S.\n      Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_ (London, 1873), pp. 100-105.\n\n  353 W. R. S. Ralston, _op. cit._ p. 109.\n\n  354 W. R. S. Ralston, _Russian Folk-tales_, pp. 113 _sq._\n\n_  355 Id._, p. 114.\n\n  M91 The external soul in Bohemian and Servian stories. True Steel, whose\n      strength was in a bird.\n\n_  356 Id._, p. 110.\n\n  357 Madam Csedomille Mijatovies, _Serbian Folk-lore_, edited by the Rev.\n      W. Denton (London, 1874), pp. 167-172; F. S. Krauss, _Sagen und\n      M\u00e4rchen der S\u00fcdslaven_ (Leipsic, 1883-1884), i. 164-169.\n\n  M92 Servian story of the dragon of the water-mill whose strength was in\n      a pigeon. The fight with the dragon.\n\n  358 A. H. Wratislaw, _Sixty Folk-tales from exclusively Slavonic\n      Sources_ (London, 1889), pp. 224-231.\n\n  M93 The external soul in a Lithuanian story. The Soulless King whose\n      soul was in a duck\u2019s egg. The Soulless King. The water of life. The\n      soul in the duck\u2019s egg.\n\n  359 A. Leskien und K. Brugmann, _Litauische Volkslieder und M\u00e4rchen_\n      (Strasburg, 1882), pp. 423-430; compare _id._, pp. 569-571.\n\n  M94 The external soul in Teutonic stories. Transylvanian story of a\n      witch whose life was in a light. German story of Soulless the\n      cannibal, whose soul was in a box. The helpful animals.\n\n  360 Josef Haltrich, _Deutsche Volksm\u00e4rchen aus dem Sachsenlande in\n      Siebenb\u00fcrgen_4 (Vienna, 1885), No. 34 (No. 33 of the first edition),\n      pp. 149 _sq._\n\n  361 J. W. Wolf, _Deutsche M\u00e4rchen und Sagen_ (Leipsic, 1845), No. 20,\n      pp. 87-93.\n\n  M95 German story of flowers that were life-tokens.\n\n  362 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_\n      (Oldenburg, 1867), ii. 306-308, \u00a7 622. In this story the flowers are\n      rather life-tokens than external souls. The life-token has been\n      carefully studied by Mr. E. S. Hartland in the second volume of his\n      learned work _The Legend of Perseus_ (London, 1895).\n\n  M96 The warlock in the wood, whose heart was in a bird.\n\n  363 K. M\u00fcllenhoff, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Lieder der Herzogth\u00fcmer Schleswig\n      Holstein und Lauenburg_ (Kiel, 1845), pp. 404 _sqq._\n\n  M97 The external soul in Norse stories. The giant whose heart was in a\n      duck\u2019s egg.\n\n  364 P. Chr. Asbj\u00f6rnsen og J. Moe, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_ (Christiania,\n      N.D.), No. 36, pp. 174-180; G. W. Dasent, _Popular Tales from the\n      Norse_ (Edinburgh, 1859), pp. 55 _sqq._\n\n  365 P. Chr. Asbj\u00f6rnsen, _Norske Folke-Eventyr_, Ny Samling (Christiania,\n      1871), No. 70, pp. 35-40; G. W. Dasent, _Tales from the Fjeld_\n      (London, 1874), pp. 223-230 (\u201cBoots and the Beasts\u201d). As in other\n      tales of this type, it is said that the hero found three animals (a\n      lion, a falcon, and an ant) quarrelling over a dead horse, and\n      received from them the power of transforming himself into animals of\n      these species as a reward for dividing the carcase fairly among\n      them.\n\n  M98 The external soul in Danish stories. The warlock whose heart was in\n      a duck\u2019s egg. The helpful animals.\n\n  366 Svend Grundtvig, _D\u00e4nische Volksm\u00e4rchen_, \u00fcbersetzt von A.\n      Strodtmann, Zweite Sammlung (Leipsic, 1879), pp. 194-218.\n\n  M99 Danish story of the magician whose heart was in a fish. The\n      magician\u2019s heart.\n\n  367 Svend Grundtvig, _D\u00e4nische Volksm\u00e4rchen_, \u00fcbersetzt von Willibald\n      Leo (Leipsic, 1878), pp. 29-45.\n\n M100 The external soul in Icelandic stories. The king\u2019s son in the cave\n      of the giantesses whose life was in an egg. The swans\u2019 song. The\n      life-egg. An Icelandic parallel to Meleager.\n\n  368 J. C. Poestion, _Isl\u00e4ndische M\u00e4rchen_ (Vienna, 1884), No. vii. pp.\n      49-55. The same story is told with minor variations by Konrad Maurer\n      in his _Isl\u00e4ndische Volkssagen der Gegenwart_ (Leipsic, 1860), pp.\n      277-280. In his version a giant and giantess, brother and sister,\n      have their life in one stone, which they throw backwards and\n      forwards to each other; when the stone is caught and broken by the\n      heroine, the giant and giantess at once expire. The tale was told to\n      Maurer when he was crossing an arm of the sea in a small boat; and\n      the waves ran so high and broke into the boat so that he could not\n      write the story down at the time but had to trust to his memory in\n      recording it afterwards.\n\n  369 W. Mannhardt, _Germanische Mythen_ (Berlin, 1858), p. 592; John\n      Jamieson, _Etymological Dictionary of the Scottish Language_, New\n      Edition, revised by J. Longmuir and D. Donaldson (Paisley,\n      1879-1882), iv. 869, _s.v._ \u201cYule.\u201d\n\n M101 The external soul in Celtic stories. The giant whose soul was in a\n      duck\u2019s egg.\n\n  370 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition\n      (Paisley and London, 1890), i. 7-11.\n\n  371 J. F. Campbell, _Popular Tales of the West Highlands_, New Edition,\n      i. 80 _sqq._\n\n M102 The herdsman of Cruachan and the helpful animals. The simple giant\n      and the wily woman.\n\n  372 Compare _Taboo and the Perils of Soul_, p. 12.\n\n  373 Rev. D. MacInnes, _Folk and Hero Tales_ (London, 1890), pp. 103-121.\n\n M103 Argyleshire story of the Bare-Stripping Hangman whose soul was in a\n      duck\u2019s egg.\n\n  374 Rev. J. Macdougall, _Folk and Hero Tales_ (London, 1891), pp. 76\n      _sqq._ (_Waifs and Strays of Celtic Tradition_, No. iii.).\n\n M104 Highland story of Headless Hugh.\n\n  375 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), pp. 187\n      _sq._ The writer tells us that in his youth a certain old Betty\n      Miles used to terrify him with this tale. For the tradition of\n      Headless Hugh, who seems to have been the only son of Hector, first\n      chief of Lochbuy, in the fourteenth century, see J. G. Campbell,\n      _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and Islands of\n      Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), pp. III _sqq._ India also has its stories\n      of headless horsemen. See W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore\n      of Northern India_ (London, 1896), i. 256 _sqq._\n\n M105 The Mackays the descendants of the seal.\n\n  376 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_, pp. 191 _sq._, from\n      information furnished by the Rev. A. Mackay. In North Uist there is\n      a sept known as \u201cthe MacCodrums of the seals.\u201d and a precisely\n      similar legend is told to explain their descent from seals. See J.\n      G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands of\n      Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 284.\n\n M106 The external soul in Irish and Breton stories. The giant and the\n      egg. The helpful animals. Body-without-Soul. The helpful animals.\n      The giant whose life was in a box-tree.\n\n  377 Jeremiah Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of Ireland_ (London, N.D.),\n      pp. 71 _sqq._\n\n  378 P. S\u00e9billot, _Contes populaires de la Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1885),\n      pp. 63 _sqq._\n\n  379 F. M. Luzel, _Contes populaires de Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1887), i.\n      435-449. Compare _id._, _Veill\u00e9es Bretonnes_ (Morlaix, 1879), pp.\n      133 _sq._ For two other French stories of the same type, taken down\n      in Lorraine, see E. Cosquin, _Contes populaires de Lorraine_ (Paris,\n      N.D.), Nos. 15 and 50 (vol. i. pp. 166 _sqq._, vol. ii. pp. 128\n      _sqq._). In both of them there figures a miraculous beast which can\n      only be slain by breaking a certain egg against its head; but we are\n      not told that the life of the beast was in the egg. In both of them\n      also the hero receives from three animals, whose dispute about the\n      carcase of a dead beast he has settled, the power of changing\n      himself into animals of the same sort. See the remarks and\n      comparisons of the learned editor, Monsieur E. Cosquin, _op. cit._\n      i. 170 _sqq._\n\n  380 F. M. Luzel, _Veill\u00e9es Bretonnes_ pp. 127 _sqq._\n\n M107 The external soul in stories of non-Aryan peoples. The ancient\n      Egyptian story of the Two Brothers. The heart in the flower of the\n      Acacia.\n M108 Bata in the Valley of the Acacia. How Bata died and was brought to\n      life again.\n\n  381 (Sir) Gaston Maspero, _Contes populaires de l\u2019\u00c9gypte ancienne_3\n      (Paris, N.D.), pp. 1 _sqq._; W. M. Flinders Petrie, _Egyptian\n      Tales_, Second Series (London, 1895), pp. 36 _sqq._; Alfred\n      Wiedemann, _Alt\u00e4gyptische Sagen und M\u00e4rchen_ (Leipsic, 1906), pp.\n      58-77. Compare W. Mannhardt, \u201cDas \u00e4lteste M\u00e4rchen,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr\n      deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859) pp. 232-259. The\n      manuscript of the story, which is now in the British Museum,\n      belonged to an Egyptian prince, who was afterwards King Seti II. and\n      reigned about the year 1300 B.C. It is beautifully written and in\n      almost perfect condition.\n\n M109 The external soul in Arabian stories. The jinnee and the sparrow.\n      The ogress and the bottle.\n\n_  382 The Thousand and One Nights, commonly called, in England, The\n      Arabian Nights\u2019 Entertainments_, translated by E. W. Lane (London,\n      1839-1841), iii. 339-345.\n\n  383 G. Spitta-Bey, _Contes arabes modernes_ (Leyden and Paris, 1883),\n      No. 2, pp. 12 _sqq._ The story in its main outlines is identical\n      with the Cashmeer story of \u201cThe Ogress Queen\u201d (J. H. Knowles,\n      _Folk-tales of Kashmir_, pp. 42 _sqq._) and the Bengalee story of\n      \u201cThe Boy whom Seven Mothers Suckled\u201d (Lal Behari Day, _Folk-tales of\n      Bengal_, pp. 117 _sqq._; _Indian Antiquary_, i. 170 _sqq._). In\n      another Arabian story the life of a witch is bound up with a phial;\n      when it is broken, she dies (W. A. Clouston, _A Group of Eastern\n      Romances and Stories_, Privately printed, 1889, p. 30). A similar\n      incident occurs in a Cashmeer story (J. H. Knowles, _op. cit._ p.\n      73). In the Arabian story mentioned in the text, the hero, by a\n      genuine touch of local colour, is made to drink the milk of an\n      ogress\u2019s breasts and hence is regarded by her as her son. The same\n      incident occurs in Kabyle and Berber tales. See J. Rivi\u00e8re, _Contes\n      populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_ (Paris, 1882), p. 239; R.\n      Basset, _Nouveaux Contes Berb\u00e8res_ (Paris, 1897), p. 128, with the\n      editor\u2019s note, pp. 339 _sqq._ In a Mongolian story a king refuses to\n      kill a lad because he has unwittingly partaken of a cake kneaded\n      with the milk of the lad\u2019s mother (B. J\u00fclg, _Mongolische\n      M\u00e4rchen-Sammlung, die neun M\u00e4rchen des Siddhi-K\u00fcr_, Innsbruck, 1868,\n      p. 183). Compare W. Robertson Smith, _Kinship and Marriage in Early\n      Arabia_, New Edition (London, 1903), p. 176; and for the same mode\n      of creating kinship among other races, see A. d\u2019Abbadie, _Douze ans\n      dans la Haute Ethiopie_ (Paris, 1868), pp. 272 _sq._; Tausch,\n      \u201cNotices of the Circassians,\u201d _Journal of the Royal Asiatic\n      Society_, i. (1834) p. 104; J. Biddulph, _Tribes of the Hindoo\n      Koosh_ (London, 1880), pp. 77, 83 (compare G. W. Leitner, _Languages\n      and Races of Dardistan_, Lahore, 1878, p. 34); Denzil C. J.\n      Ibbetson, _Settlement Report of the Panipat, Tahsil, and Karnal\n      Parganah of the Karnal District_ (Allahabad, 1883), p. 101; J.\n      Moura, _Le Royaume du Cambodge_ (Paris, 1883), i. 427; F. S. Krauss,\n      _Sitte und Brauch der S\u00fcdslaven_ (Vienna, 1885), p. 14; J. H. Weeks,\n      _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 132. When the Masai of\n      East Africa make peace with an enemy, each tribe brings a cow with a\n      calf and a woman with a baby. The two cows are exchanged, and the\n      enemy\u2019s child is suckled at the breast of the Masai woman, and the\n      Masai baby is suckled at the breast of the woman belonging to the\n      enemy. See A. C. Hollis, _The Masai_ (Oxford, 1905), pp. 321 _sq._\n\n M110 The external soul in Basque, Kabyle, and Magyar stories.\n\n  384 W. Webster, _Basque Legends_ (London, 1877), pp. 80 _sqq._; J.\n      Vinson, _Le folk-lore du pays Basque_ (Paris, 1883), pp. 84 _sqq._\n      As so often in tales of this type, the hero is said to have received\n      his wonderful powers of metamorphosis from animals whom he found\n      quarrelling about their shares in a dead beast.\n\n  385 J. Rivi\u00e8re, _Contes populaires de la Kabylie du Djurdjura_ (Paris,\n      1882), p. 191.\n\n  386 W. H. Jones and L. L. Kropf, _The Folk-tales of the Magyar_ (London,\n      1889), pp. 205 _sq._\n\n  387 R. H. Busk, _The Folk-lore of Rome_ (London, 1874), p. 168.\n\n M111 The external soul in a Lapp story. The giant whose life was in a\n      hen\u2019s egg. The helpful animals.\n\n  388 F. Liebrecht, \u201cLappl\u00e4ndische M\u00e4rchen,\u201d _Germania_, N.R., iii. (1870)\n      pp. 174 _sq._; F. C. Poestion, _Lappl\u00e4ndische M\u00e4rchen_ (Vienna,\n      1886), No. 20, pp. 81 _sqq._\n\n M112 The external soul in Samoyed and Kalmuck stories.\n\n  389 A. Castren, _Ethnologische Vorlesungen \u00fcber die altaischen V\u00f6lker_\n      (St. Petersburg, 1857), pp. 173 _sqq._\n\n  390 B. J\u00fclg, _Kalm\u00fcckische M\u00e4rchen_ (Leipsic, 1866), No. 12, pp. 58\n      _sqq._\n\n M113 The external soul in Tartar poems.\n\n  391 Anton Schiefner, _Heldensagen der Minussinschen Tataren_ (St.\n      Petersburg, 1859), pp. 172-176.\n\n  392 A. Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 108-112.\n\n  393 A. Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 360-364; A. Castren, _Vorlesungen \u00fcber\n      die finnische Mythologie_ (St. Petersburg, 1857), pp. 186 _sq._\n\n  394 A. Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 189-193. In another Tartar poem\n      (Schiefner, _op. cit._ pp. 390 _sq._) a boy\u2019s soul is shut up by his\n      enemies in a box. While the soul is in the box, the boy is dead;\n      when it is taken out, he is restored to life. In the same poem (p.\n      384) the soul of a horse is kept shut up in a box, because it is\n      feared the owner of the horse will become the greatest hero on\n      earth. But these cases are, to some extent, the converse of those in\n      the text.\n\n M114 The external soul in a Mongolian story and Tartar poems.\n\n  395 Schott, \u201cUeber die Sage von Geser-Chan,\u201d _Abhandlungen der\n      k\u00f6niglichen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin_, 1851, p. 269.\n\n  396 W. Radloff, _Proben der Volkslitteratur der t\u00fcrkischen St\u00e4mme\n      S\u00fcd-Sibiriens_, ii. (St. Petersburg, 1868), pp. 237 _sq._\n\n  397 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ ii. 531 _sqq._\n\n  398 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ iv. (St. Petersburg, 1872) pp. 88 _sq._\n\n  399 W. Radloff, _op. cit._ i. (St. Petersburg, 1866) pp. 345 _sq._\n\n M115 The external soul in a Chinese story.\n\n  400 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden,\n      1901) pp. 105 _sq._\n\n M116 The external soul in a story told by the Khasis of Assam.\n\n  401 Major P. R. T. Gurdon, _The Khasis_ (London, 1907), pp. 181-184.\n\n M117 The external soul in a Malay poem. Bidasari and the golden fish.\n\n  402 G. A. Wilken, \u201cDe betrekking tusschen menschen- dieren- en\n      plantenleven naar het volksgeloof,\u201d _De Indische Gids_, November\n      1884, pp. 600-602; _id._, \u201cDe Simsonsage,\u201d _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5,\n      pp. 6 _sqq._ (of the separate reprint); _id._, _Verspreide\n      Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 296-298, 559-561. Compare L. de\n      Backer, _L\u2019Archipel Indien_ (Paris, 1874), pp. 144-149. The Malay\n      text of the long poem was published with a Dutch translation and\n      notes by W. R. van Ho\u00ebvell (\u201cSja\u00efr Bidasari, een oorspronkelijk\n      Maleisch Gedicht, uitgegeven en van eene Vertaling en Aanteekeningen\n      voorzien,\u201d _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van\n      Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xix. (Batavia, 1843) pp. 1-421).\n\n M118 The external soul in a story told in Nias.\n\n  403 J. T. Nieuwenhuisen en H. C. B. von Rosenberg, \u201cVerslag omtrent het\n      eiland Nias,\u201d _Verhandelingen van het Bataviaasch Genootschap van\n      Kunsten en Wetenschappen_, xxx. (Batavia, 1863) p. 111; H.\n      Sundermann, \u201cDie Insel Nias,\u201d _Allgemeine Missions-Zeitschrift_, xi.\n      (1884) p. 453; _id._, _Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst_\n      (Barmen, 1905), p. 71. Compare E. Modigliani, _Un Viaggio a N\u00edas_\n      (Milan, 1890), p. 339.\n\n M119 The external soul in a Hausa story. The king whose life was in a\n      box. The helpful animals.\n\n  404 Major A. J. N. Tremearne, _Hausa Superstitions and Customs_ (London,\n      1913), pp. 131 _sq._ The original Hausa text of the story appears to\n      be printed in Major Edgar\u2019s _Litafi na Tatsuniyoyi na Hausa_ (ii.\n      27), to which Major Tremearne refers (p. 9).\n\n M120 The external soul in a South Nigerian story. The external soul in a\n      story told by the Ba-Ronga of South Africa. The Clan of the Cat.\n\n  405 Major A. G. Leonard, _The Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London,\n      1906), pp. 319-321.\n\n  406 Henri A. Junod, _Les Chants et les Contes des Ba-ronga_ (Lausanne,\n      N.D.), pp. 253-256; _id._, _The Life of a South African Tribe_\n      (Neuchatel, 1912-1913), i. 338 _sq._\n\n M121 The external soul in stories told by the North American Indians. The\n      ogress whose life was in a hemlock branch.\n\n  407 J. Curtin, _Myths and Folk-tales of the Russians, Western Slavs, and\n      Magyars_ (London, 1891), p. 551. The writer does not mention his\n      authorities.\n\n  408 G. B. Grinnell, _Pawnee Hero Stories and Folk-tales_ (New York,\n      1889), pp. 121 _sqq._, \u201cThe Bear Man.\u201d\n\n  409 Washington Matthews, \u201cThe Mountain Chant: a Navajo Ceremony,\u201d _Fifth\n      Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp.\n      406 _sq._\n\n  410 Franz Boas, \u201cThe Social Organization and the Secret Societies of the\n      Kwakiutl Indians,\u201d _Report of the United States National Museum for\n      1895_ (Washington, 1897), p. 373.\n\n M122 The external soul in folk-custom.\n M123 The soul removed from the body as a precaution in seasons of danger.\n      Souls of people collected in a bag at a house-warming. Soul of a\n      woman put in a chopping-knife at childbirth.\n\n_  411 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 63 _sq._\n\n  412 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The\n      Hague, 1875), p. 54.\n\n  413 A. C. Kruijt, \u201cEen en ander aangaande het geestelijk en\n      maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,\u201d _Mededeelingen van wege\n      het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 23 _sq._;\n      _id._, \u201cVan Paloppo naar Posso,\u201d _Mededeelingen van wege het\n      Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlii. (1898) p. 72. As to the\n      _lamoa_ in general, see A. C. Kruijt, _op. cit._ xl. (1896) pp. 10\n      _sq._\n\n  414 A. C. Kruijt, \u201cHet koppensnellen der Toradja\u2019s van Midden-Celebes,\n      en zijne beteekenis,\u201d _Verslagen en Mededeelingen der koninklijke\n      Akademie der Wetenschappen_, Afdeeling Letterkunde, iv. Reeks, iii.\n      (Amsterdam, 1899) pp. 201 _sq._; _id._, \u201cHet ijzer in\n      Midden-Celebes,\u201d _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van\n      Nederlandsch- Indi\u00eb_, liii. (1901) pp. 156 _sq._ Both the\n      interpretations in the text appear to be inferences drawn by Mr.\n      Kruijt from the statement of the natives, that, if they did not hang\n      up these wooden models in the smithy, \u201cthe iron would flow away and\n      be unworkable\u201d (\u201c_zou het ijzer vervloeien en onbewerkbaar\n      worden_\u201d).\n\n M124 Soul of a child put for safety in an empty coco-nut or a bag. Souls\n      of people in ornaments, horns, a column, and so forth. The souls of\n      Egyptian kings in portrait statues. A man\u2019s life bound up with the\n      fire in his lodge.\n\n  415 A. H. B. Agerbeek, \u201cEnkele gebruiken van de Dajaksche bevolking der\n      Pinoehlanden,\u201d _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en\n      Volkenkunde_, li. (1909) pp. 447 _sq._\n\n  416 J. A. Jacobsen, _Reisen in die Inselwelt des Banda-Meeres_ (Berlin,\n      1896), p. 199.\n\n  417 In a long list of female ornaments the prophet Isaiah mentions (iii.\n      20) \u201chouses of the soul\u201d (\u05d1\u05ea \u05d4\u05e0\u05e4\u05e9) or (\u05e9\u05e4\u05e0\u05d4 \u05ea\u05d1), which modern\n      scholars suppose to have been perfume boxes, as the Revised English\n      Version translates the phrase. The name, literally translated\n      \u201chouses of the soul,\u201d suggests that these trinkets were amulets of\n      the kind mentioned in the text. See my article, \u201cFolk-lore in the\n      Old Testament,\u201d _Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor_\n      (Oxford, 1907), pp. 148 _sqq._ In ancient Egyptian tombs there are\n      often found plaques or palettes of schist bearing traces of paint;\n      some of them are decorated with engravings of animals or historical\n      scenes, others are modelled in the shape of animals of various\n      sorts, such as antelopes, hippopotamuses, birds, tortoises, and\n      fish. As a rule only one such plaque is found in a tomb, and it lies\n      near the hands of the mummy. It has been conjectured by M. Jean\n      Capart that these plaques are amulets or soul-boxes, in which the\n      external souls of the dead were supposed to be preserved. See Jean\n      Capart, _Les Palettes en schiste de L\u2019\u00c9gypte primitive_ (Brussels,\n      1908), pp. 5 _sqq._, 19 _sqq._ (separate reprint from the _Revue des\n      Questions Scientifiques_, avril, 1908). For a full description of\n      these plaques or palettes, see Jean Capart, _Les D\u00e9buts de l\u2019Art en\n      \u00c9gypte_ (Brussels, 1904), pp. 76 _sqq._, 221 _sqq._\n\n  418 Miss Alice Werner, in a letter to the author, dated 25th September\n      1899. Miss Werner knew the old woman. Compare _Contemporary Review_,\n      lxx. (July-December 1896), p. 389, where Miss Werner describes the\n      ornament as a rounded peg, tapering to a point, with a neck or notch\n      at the top.\n\n  419 Rev. James Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), p. 190.\n      Compare Dudley Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 83:\n      \u201cThe natives occasionally fix ox-horns in their roofs and say that\n      the spirit of the chief lives in these horns and protects the hut;\n      these horns also protect the hut from lightning, though not in\n      virtue of their spiritual connections. (They are also used simply as\n      ornaments.)\u201d No doubt amulets often degenerate into ornaments.\n\n  420 R. Thurnwald, \u201cIm Bismarckarchipel und auf den Salomo-inseln,\u201d\n      _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Ethnologie_, xlii. (1910) p. 136. As to the\n      Ingniet, Ingiet, or Iniet Society see P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die\n      K\u00fcstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_ (Hiltrup bei M\u00fcnster, N.D.),\n      pp. 354 _sqq._; R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der S\u00fcdsee_\n      (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 598 _sqq._\n\n  421 G. Cedrenus, _Historiarum Compendium_, p. 625B, vol. ii. p. 308, ed.\n      Im. Bekker (Bonn, 1838-1839).\n\n  422 Alexandre Moret, _Du caract\u00e8re religieux de la Royaut\u00e9 Pharaonique_\n      (Paris, 1902), pp. 224 _sqq._ As to the Egyptian doctrine of the\n      spiritual double or soul (_ka_), see A. Wiedemann, _The Ancient\n      Egyptian Doctrine of the Immortality of the Soul_ (London, 1895),\n      pp. 10 _sqq._; A. Erman, _Die \u00e4gyptische Religion_ (Berlin, 1905),\n      p. 88; A. Moret, _Myst\u00e8res \u00c9gyptiens_ (Paris, 1913), pp. 199 _sqq._\n\n  423 F. Mason, \u201cPhysical Character of the Karens,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Asiatic Society of Bengal_, 1866, Part ii. No. 1, p. 9.\n\n_  424 A Narrative of the Captivity and Adventures of John Tanner, during\n      Thirty Years\u2019 Residence among the Indians_, prepared for the press\n      by Edwin James, M.D. (London, 1830), pp. 155 _sq._ The passage has\n      been already quoted by Sir John Lubbock (Lord Avebury) in his\n      _Origin of Civilisation_4 (London, 1882), p. 241.\n\n M125 Strength of people supposed to reside in their hair.\n\n  425 Fran\u00e7ois Valentijn, _Oud en Nieuw Oost-Indi\u00ebn_ (Dordrecht and\n      Amsterdam, 1724-1726), ii. 143 _sq._; G. A. Wilken, \u201cDe Simsonsage,\u201d\n      _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5, pp. 15 _sq._ (of the separate reprint);\n      _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 569 _sq._\n\n  426 J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen Selebes\n      en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), p. 137.\n\n M126 Witches and wizards shaved to deprive them of their power.\n\n  427 J. G. Dalyell, _The darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,\n      1834), pp. 637-639; C. de Mensignac, _Recherches ethnographiques sur\n      la Salive et le Crachat_ (Bordeaux, 1892), p. 49 note.\n\n  428 W. Crooke, _Popular Religion and Folk-lore of Northern India_\n      (Westminster, 1896), ii. 281.\n\n  429 W. Crooke, _op. cit._ ii. 281 _sq._\n\n  430 B. de Sahagun, _Histoire des choses de la Nouvelle Espagne_,\n      traduite par D. Journdanet et R. Sim\u00e9on (Paris, 1880), p. 274.\n\n M127 Life of a person supposed to be bound up with that of a tree or\n      plant. Birth-trees in Africa.\n\n  431 Above, pp. 102, 110, 117 _sq._, 135, 136.\n\n  432 Walter E. Roth, _North Queensland Ethnography, Bulletin, No. 5,\n      Superstition, Magic, and Medicine_ (Brisbane, 1903), p. 27.\n\n  433 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 202.\n\n  434 G. Duloup, \u201cHuit jours chez les M\u2019Bengas,\u201d _Revue d\u2019Ethnographie_,\n      ii. (1883), p. 223; compare P. Barret, _L\u2019Afrique Occidentale_\n      (Paris, 1888), ii. 173.\n\n  435 Fr. Kunstmann, \u201cValentin Ferdinand\u2019s Beschreibung der Serra Leoa,\u201d\n      _Abhandlungen der histor. Classe der k\u00f6nig. Bayer. Akad. der\n      Wissenschaften_, ix. (1866) pp. 131 _sq._\n\n  436 Bruno Gutmann, \u201cFeldbausitten und Wachstumsbr\u00e4uche der Wadschagga,\u201d\n      _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Ethnologie_, xlv. (1913), p. 496.\n\n  437 C. Velten, _Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche der Suaheli_ (G\u00f6ttingen, 1903), pp.\n      8 _sq._ In Java it is customary to plant a tree, for example, a\n      coco-nut palm, at the birth of a child, and when he grows up he\n      reckons his age by the age of the tree. See _Annales de la\n      Propagation de la Foi_, iii. (Lyons and Paris, 1830) pp. 400 _sq._\n\n  438 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-K\u00fcste_ (Jena,\n      1874-1875), i. 165.\n\n  439 Rev. J. Macdonald, _Religion and Myth_ (London, 1893), p. 178.\n\n  440 H. Trilles, _Le Tot\u00e9misme chez les F\u00e2n_ (M\u00fcnster i. W., 1912), p.\n      570.\n\n  441 Rev. John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 295.\n\n  442 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), pp. 52, 54 _sq._\n      Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 295 _sq._;\n      and for other examples of burying the afterbirth or navel-string at\n      the foot of a tree or planting a young tree over these remains, see\n      _id._, pp. 182 _sqq._ In Kiziba, a district to the west of Lake\n      Victoria Nyanza, the afterbirth is similarly regarded as a sort of\n      human being. Hence when twins are born the people speak of four\n      children instead of two, reckoning the two afterbirths as two\n      children. See H. Rehse, _Kiziba, Land und Leute_ (Stuttgart, 1910),\n      p. 117. The conception of the afterbirth and navel-string as\n      spiritual doubles of the child with whom they are born is held very\n      firmly by the Kooboos, a primitive tribe of Sumatra. We are told\n      that among these people \u201ca great vital power is ascribed to the\n      navel-string and afterbirth; because they are looked upon as brother\n      or sister of the infant, and though their bodies have not come to\n      perfection, yet their soul and spirit are just as normal as those of\n      the child and indeed have even reached a much higher stage of\n      development. The navel-string (_oeri_) and afterbirth (_t\u0115m-boeni_)\n      visit the man who was born with them thrice a day and thrice by\n      night till his death, or they hover near him (\u2018_zweven voorbij hem\n      heen_\u2019). They are the good spirits, a sort of guardian angels of the\n      man who came into the world with them and who lives on earth; they\n      are said to guard him from all evil. Hence it is that the Kooboo\n      always thinks of his navel-string and afterbirth (_oeri-t\u0115mboeni_)\n      before he goes to sleep or to work, or undertakes a journey, and so\n      on. Merely to think of them is enough; there is no need to invoke\n      them, or to ask them anything, or to entreat them. By not thinking\n      of them a man deprives himself of their good care.\u201d Immediately\n      after the birth the navel-string and afterbirth are buried in the\n      ground close by the spot where the birth took place; and a ceremony\n      is performed over it, for were the ceremony omitted, the\n      navel-string and afterbirth, \u201cinstead of being a good spirit for the\n      newly born child, might become an evil spirit for him and visit him\n      with all sorts of calamities out of spite for this neglect.\u201d The\n      nature of the ceremony performed over the spot is not described by\n      our authority. The navel-string and afterbirth are often regarded by\n      the Kooboos as one; their names are always mentioned together. See\n      G. J. van Dongen, \u201cDe Koeboe in de Onderafdeeling Koeboe-streken der\n      Residentie Palembang,\u201d _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde\n      van Nederlandsch-Indi\u00eb_, lxiii. (1910) pp. 229 _sq._\n\n  443 Franz Stuhlmann, _Mit Emin Pascha ins Herz von Afrika_ (Berlin,\n      1894), p. 653.\n\n M128 Birth-trees among the Papuans, Maoris, Fijians, Dyaks, and others.\n\n  444 A. Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_ (Bremen, 1859), pp. 103\n      _sq._; _id._, _Der Mensch in der Geschichte_ (Leipsic, 1860), iii.\n      193.\n\n  445 R. Taylor, _Te Ika a Maui, or New Zealand and its Inhabitants_2\n      (London, 1870), p. 184; Dumont D\u2019Urville, _Voyage autour du monde et\n      \u00e0 la recherche de La P\u00e9rouse sur la corvette Astrolabe_, ii. 444.\n\n  446 W. T. L. Travers, \u201cNotes of the traditions and manners and customs\n      of the Mori-oris,\u201d _Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand\n      Institute_, ix. (1876) p. 22.\n\n  447 The late Rev. Lorimer Fison, in a letter to me dated May 29th, 1901.\n      Compare _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 184.\n\n  448 N. Annandale, \u201cCustoms of the Malayo-Siamese,\u201d _Fasciculi\n      Malayenses_, Anthropology, part ii. (a) (May, 1904), p. 5.\n\n  449 B. F. Matthes, _Bijdragen tot de Ethnologie van Zuid-Celebes_ (The\n      Hague, 1875), p. 59.\n\n  450 R. van Eck, \u201cSchetsen van het eiland Bali,\u201d _Tijdschrift voor\n      Nederlandsch Indi\u00eb_, N.S., ix. (1880) pp. 417 _sq._\n\n  451 G. A. Wilken, \u201cDe Simsonsage,\u201d _De Gids_, 1888, No. 5, p. 26 (of the\n      separate reprint); _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague,\n      1912), iii. 562.\n\n  452 M. C. Schadee, \u201cHet familieleven en familierecht der Dajaks van\n      Landak en Tajan,\u201d _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van\n      Nederlandsch-Indi\u00eb_, lxiii. (1910) p. 416.\n\n  453 F. Grabowsky, \u201cDie Theogenie der Dajaken auf Borneo,\u201d\n      _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, v. (1892) p. 133.\n\n  454 J. Perham, \u201cManangism in Borneo,\u201d _Journal of the Straits Branch of\n      the Royal Asiatic Society_, No. 19 (Singapore, 1887), p. 97; _id._,\n      in H. Ling Roth, _The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo_\n      (London, 1896), i. 278.\n\n M129 Birth-trees in Europe. Marriage oaks. Trees with which the fate of\n      families or individuals is thought to be bound up. The Edgewell oak.\n      The old tree at Howth Castle. The oak of the Guelphs.\n\n  455 Angelo de Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882),\n      i. pp. xxviii. _sq._\n\n  456 W. Mannhardt, _Baumkultus_, p. 50; H. Ploss, _Das Kind_2 (Leipsic,\n      1884), i. 79.\n\n  457 K. Bartsch, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna,\n      1879-1880), ii. p. 43, \u00a7 63.\n\n  458 F. S. Krauss, \u201cHaarschurgodschaft bei den S\u00fcdslaven,\u201d\n      _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) p. 193.\n\n  459 Karl Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), ii. 129,\n      No. 207.\n\n  460 \u201cHeilige Haine und B\u00e4ume der Finnen,\u201d _Globus_, lix. (1891) p. 350.\n      Compare K. Rhamm, \u201cDer heidenische Gottesdienst des finnischen\n      Stammes,\u201d _Globus_, lxvii. (1891) p. 344.\n\n  461 Thomas Moore, _Life of Lord Byron_, i. 101 (i. 148, in the collected\n      edition of Byron\u2019s works, London, 1832-1833).\n\n  462 J. G. Lockhart, _Life of Sir Walter Scott_ (First Edition), vi. 283\n      (viii. 317, Second Edition, Edinburgh, 1839).\n\n  463 Sir Walter Scott\u2019s _Journal_ (First Edition, Edinburgh, 1890), ii.\n      282, with the editor\u2019s note.\n\n  464 Letter of Miss A. H. Singleton to me, dated Rathmagle House, Abbey\n      Leix, Ireland, 24th February, 1904.\n\n  465 P. Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, ii. (Berlin, 1891)\n      pp. 85 _sq._\n\n M130 The Life-tree of the Manchu dynasty.\n\n_  466 Die Woche_, Berlin, 31 August, 1901, p. 3, with an illustration\n      shewing the garden and the tree.\n\n M131 The myrtle-trees of the patricians and plebeians at Rome. The oak of\n      the Vespasian family.\n\n  467 Pliny, _Natur. Hist._ xv. 120 _sq._\n\n  468 Suetonius, _Divus Vespasianus_, 5.\n\n M132 Life of persons supposed to be bound up with that of the cleft trees\n      through which in their youth they were passed as a cure for rupture.\n      In England ruptured children are passed through cleft ash-trees.\n\n_  469 The Gentleman\u2019s Magazine_, 1804, p. 909; John Brand, _Popular\n      Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 289.\n\n  470 Gilbert White, _The Natural History of Selborne_, Part II. Letter 28\n      (Edinburgh, 1829), pp. 239 _sq._; Francis Grose, _A Provincial\n      Glossary_ (London, 1811), p. 290; J. Brand, _op. cit._ iii. 287-292;\n      R. Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_3 (London, 1881),\n      pp. 415, 421; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_ (London, 1883), pp. 67\n      _sq._; W. Wollaston Groome, \u201cSuffolk Leechcraft,\u201d _Folk-lore_, vi.\n      (1895) pp. 123 _sq._; E. S. Hartland, in _Folk-lore_, vii. (1896)\n      pp. 303-306; _County Folk-lore, Suffolk_, edited by Lady E. C.\n      Gurdon (London, 1893) pp. 26-28; Beatrix A. Wherry, \u201cMiscellaneous\n      Notes from Monmouthshire,\u201d _Folk-lore_, xvi. (1905) p. 65; Marie\n      Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London, 1909), p.\n      320. Sometimes the tree was an oak instead of an ash (M. Trevelyan,\n      _l.c._). To ensure the success of the cure various additional\n      precautions are sometimes recommended, as that the ash should be a\n      maiden, that is a tree that has never been topped or cut; that the\n      split should be made east and west; that the child should be passed\n      into the tree by a maiden and taken out on the other side by a boy;\n      that the child should always be passed through head foremost (but\n      according to others feet foremost), and so forth. In Surrey we hear\n      of a holly-tree being used instead of an ash (_Notes and Queries_,\n      Sixth Series, xi. Jan.-Jun. 1885, p. 46).\n\n M133 The practice in Sussex.\n\n  471 \u201cSome West Sussex superstitions lingering in 1868, collected by\n      Charlotte Latham, at Fittleworth,\u201d _Folk-lore Record_, i. (1878) pp.\n      40 _sq._\n\n M134 Sick children passed through cleft trees, especially oaks, as a cure\n      in Germany, France, Denmark, Sweden, and Greece.\n\n  472 For the custom in Germany and Austria, see J. Grimm, _Deutsche\n      Mythologie_,4 ii. 975 _sq._; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche\n      Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 317, \u00a7 503; A. Kuhn und W.\n      Schwartz, _Nord-deutsche Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Gebr\u00e4uche_ (Leipsic,\n      1848), pp. 443 _sq._; J. F. L. Woeste, _Volks\u00fcberlieferungen in der\n      Grafschaft Mark_ (Iserlohn, 1848), p. 54; E. Meier, _Deutsche Sagen,\n      Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Schwaben_ (Stuttgart, 1852), p. 390, \u00a7 56;\n      F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),\n      ii. 301; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des K\u00f6nigreichs Bayern_,\n      ii. (Munich, 1863) p. 255; J. A. E. K\u00f6hler, _Volksbrauch,\n      Aberglauben, Sagen und andre alte Ueberlieferungen im Voigtlande_\n      (Leipsic, 1867), pp. 415 _sq._; L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und\n      Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_ (Oldenburg, 1867), i. 72 _sq._,\n      \u00a7 88; K. Bartsch, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Mecklenburg_\n      (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 290 _sq._, \u00a7 1447; J. Haltrich, _Zur\n      Volkskunde der Siebenb\u00fcrger Sachsen_ (Vienna, 1885), p. 264; P.\n      Wagler, _Die Eiche in alter und neuer Zeit_, i. (Wurzen, 1891) pp.\n      21-23. As to the custom in France, see Marcellus, _De medicamentis_,\n      xxxiii. 26 (where the tree is a cherry); J. B. Thiers, _Trait\u00e9 des\n      Superstitions_ (Paris, 1679), pp. 333 _sq._; A. de Nore, _Coutumes,\n      Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_ (Paris and Lyons,\n      1846), p. 231; L. J. B. B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud, in _Bull\u00e9tins de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9\n      d\u2019Anthropologie de Paris_, iv. s\u00e9rie, i. (1890) pp. 895-902; _id._,\n      _Superstitions et Survivances_ (Paris, 1896), i. 523 _sqq._ As to\n      the custom in Denmark and Sweden, see J. Grimm, _Deutsche\n      Mythologie_,4 ii. 976; H. F. Feilberg, \u201cZwieselb\u00e4ume nebst\n      verwandtem Aberglauben in Skandinavien,\u201d _Zeitschrift des Vereins\n      f\u00fcr Volkskunde_, vii. (1897) pp. 42 _sqq._ In Mecklenburg it is\n      sometimes required that the tree should have been split by lightning\n      (K. Bartsch, _l.c._). The whole subject of passing sick people\n      through narrow apertures as a mode of cure has been well handled in\n      an elegant little monograph (_Un Vieux Rite m\u00e9dical_, Paris, 1892)\n      by Monsieur H. Gaidoz, who rightly rejects the theory that all such\n      passages are symbols of a new birth. But I cannot agree with him in\n      thinking that the essence of the rite consists in the transference\n      of the disease from the person to the tree; rather, it seems to me,\n      the primary idea is that of interposing an impassable barrier\n      between a fugitive and his pursuing foe, though no doubt the enemy\n      thus left behind is apparently supposed to adhere to the further\n      side of the obstacle (whether tree, stone, or what not) through\n      which he cannot pass. However, the sympathetic relation supposed to\n      exist between the sufferer and the tree through which he has been\n      passed certainly favours the view that he has left some portion of\n      himself attached to the tree. But in this as in many similar cases,\n      the ideas in the minds of the persons who practise the custom are\n      probably vague, confused, and inconsistent; and we need not attempt\n      to define them precisely. Compare also R. Andree, _Ethnographische\n      Parallelen und Vergleiche_ (Stuttgart, 1878), pp. 31 _sq._; E. S.\n      Hartland, _The Legend of Perseus_ (London, 1894-1896), ii. 146\n      _sq._; L. J. B. B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud, _Superstitions et Survivances_\n      (Paris, 1896), i. 523-540.\n\n  473 L. Strackerjan, _l.c._; K. Bartsch, _l.c._\n\n  474 E. Meier, _l.c._; _Bavaria, Landes- und Volkskunde des K\u00f6nigreichs\n      Bayern_, ii. 255; A. Wuttke, _l.c._\n\n  475 H. F. Feilberg, \u201cZwieselb\u00e4ume nebst verwandtem Aberglauben in\n      Skandinavien,\u201d _Zeitschrift des Vereins f\u00fcr Volkskunde_, vii. (1897)\n      p. 44.\n\n  476 J. Theodore Bent, _The Cyclades_ (London, 1885), pp. 457 _sq._\n\n M135 Sympathetic relation thought to exist between the child and the tree\n      through which it has been passed. The disease is apparently thought\n      to be left behind on the farther side of the cleft tree.\n\n  477 H. Ploss, _Das Kind_2 (Leipsic, 1884), ii. 221.\n\n  478 R. Baier, \u201cBeitr\u00e4ge von der Insel R\u00fcgen,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche\n      Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, ii. (1855) p. 141.\n\n M136 Creeping through cleft trees to get rid of spirits in Armenia and\n      Nias. Among the Bella Coola Indians mourners creep through cleft\n      trees to get rid of the ghost.\n\n  479 Manuk Abeghian, _Der armenische Volksglaube_ (Leipsic, 1899), p. 58.\n\n  480 Fr. Kramer, \u201cDer G\u00f6tzendienst der Niasser,\u201d _Tijdschrift voor\n      Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxiii. (1890) pp. 478-480; H.\n      Sundermann, _Die Insel Nias und die Mission daselbst_ (Barmen,\n      1905), pp. 81-83. According to the latter writer the intention of\n      passing through the cleft stick is \u201cto strip off from himself (_von\n      zich abzustreifen_) the last spirit that may have followed him.\u201d The\n      notion that the sun causes death by drawing away the souls of the\n      living is Indian. See _The Satapatha Br\u00e2hmana_, ii. 3. 3. 7-8,\n      translated by Julius Eggeling, Part I. (Oxford, 1882) p. 343\n      (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.): \u201cNow yonder burning (sun)\n      doubtless is no other than Death; and because he is Death, therefore\n      the creatures that are on this side of him die. But those that are\n      on the other side of him are the gods, and they are therefore\n      immortal.... And the breath of whomsoever he (the sun) wishes he\n      takes and rises, and that one dies.\u201d\n\n  481 Fr. Boas, in _Seventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,\n      p. 13 (separate reprint from the _Report of the British\n      Association_, Cardiff meeting, 1891). The Shuswap Indians of the\n      same region also fence their beds against ghosts with a hedge of\n      thorn bushes. See _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, p. 142.\n\n M137 The Madangs of Borneo creep through a cleft stick after a funeral in\n      order to rid themselves of the ghost.\n\n  482 C. Hose, \u201cIn the heart of Borneo,\u201d _The Geographical Journal_, xvi.\n      (1900) pp. 45 _sq._ Compare C. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan\n      Tribes of Borneo_ (London, 1912), ii. 36 _sq._, where, after\n      describing the ceremony of passing through the cloven stick, the\n      writers add: \u201cIn this way the Kayans symbolically prevent any of the\n      uncanny influences of the graveyard following the party back to the\n      house; though they do not seem to be clear as to whether it is the\n      ghosts of the dead, or the _Toh_ of the neighbourhood, or those\n      which may have contributed to his death, against whom these\n      precautions are taken.\u201d\n\n M138 The cleft stick or tree through which a person passes is a barrier\n      to part him from a dangerous foe; the closing of the cleft is like\n      shutting the door in the face of a pursuer. But combined with this\n      in the case of ruptured patients seems to be the idea that the\n      rupture heals sympathetically as the cleft in the tree closes.\n      Analogous Roman cure for dislocation.\n\n  483 Cato, _De agri cultura_, 159 (pp. 106 sq. ed. H. Keil, Leipsic,\n      1884): \u201c_Luxum siquod est, hac cantione sanum fiet. Harundinem\n      prende tibi viridem P. III. aut quinque longam, mediam diffinde, et\n      duo homines teneant ad coxendices. Incipe cantare in alio s. f.\n      moetas vaeta daries dardaries asiadarides una petes, usque dum\n      coeant. Motas vaeta daries dardares astataries dissunapiter, usque\n      dum coeant. Ferrum insuper jactato. Ubi coierint et altera alteram\n      tetigerint, id manu prehende et dextera sinistra praecide, ad luxum\n      aut ad fracturam alliga, sanum fiet._\u201d The passage is obscure and\n      perhaps corrupt. It is not clear whether \u201c_usque dum coeant_\u201d and\n      \u201c_ubi coierint_\u201d refer to the drawing together of the bones or of\n      the split portions of the reed, but apparently the reference is to\n      the reed. The charm is referred to by Pliny, _Nat. Hist._, xvii.\n      267: \u201c_Quippe cum averti grandines carmine credant plerique, cujus\n      verba inserere non equidem serio ausim, quamquam a Catone proditis\n      contra luxata membra jungenda harundinum fissurae._\u201d Compare J.\n      Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 186, ii. 1031 _sq._\n\n M139 Other examples of creeping through narrow openings after a death.\n\n  484 Pinabel, \u201cNotes sur quelques peuplades d\u00e9pendant du Tong-King,\u201d\n      _Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de G\u00e9ographie_, Septi\u00e8me S\u00e9rie, v. (Paris,\n      1884) p. 430; A. Bourlet, \u201cFun\u00e9railles chez les Thay,\u201d _Anthropos_,\n      viii. (1913) p. 45.\n\n  485 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo,\n      1766), pp. 268, 282.\n\n  486 N. Adriani en Alb. C. Kruijt, \u201cVan Posso naar Parigi, Sigi en\n      Lindoe,\u201d _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche\n      Zendelinggenootschap_, xlii. (1898) p. 502. The poles are of a\n      certain plant or tree called _bomba_.\n\n  487 Alb. C. Kruijt, \u201cEenige ethnografische aanteekeningen omtrent de\n      Toboengkoe en de Tomori,\u201d _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche\n      Zendelinggenootschap_, xliv. (1900) p. 223.\n\n M140 The intention of the custom probably is to escape from the ghost of\n      the dead.\n\n  488 For examples of these ceremonies I may refer to my article, \u201cOn\n      certain burial customs as illustrative of the primitive theory of\n      the soul,\u201d _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886)\n      pp. 64 _sqq._\n\n M141 Passing through an archway in order to escape from demons. Crawling\n      under an arch of bramble as a cure for various maladies. Crawling\n      under arches of various sorts as a cure or preventive of sickness.\n\n  489 S. Krascheninnikow, _Beschreibung des Landes Kamtschatka_ (Lemgo,\n      1766), pp. 277 _sq._\n\n  490 W. H. Furness, _Folk-lore in Borneo, a Sketch_, p. 28 (Wallingford,\n      Pennsylvania, 1899, privately printed). Compare _id._, _The\n      Home-life of Borneo Head-hunters_ (Philadelphia, 1902), p. 28: \u201cHere\n      a halt for final purification was made. An arch of boughs about five\n      feet high was erected on the beach, and beneath it a fire was\n      kindled, and then Tama Bulan, holding a young chicken, which he\n      waved and brushed over every portion of the arch, invoked all evil\n      spirits which had been accompanying us, and forbade them to follow\n      us further through the fire. The fowl was then killed, its blood\n      smeared all over the archway and sprinkled in the fire; then, led by\n      Tama Bulan, the whole party filed under the arch, and as they\n      stepped over the fire each one spat in it vociferously and\n      immediately took his place in the boats.\u201d\n\n  491 T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _English Folk-lore_ (London, 1884), pp. 171\n      _sq._; W. G. Black, _Folk-medicine_ (London, 1883), p. 70; R. Hunt,\n      _Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third Edition (London,\n      1881), pp. 412, 415; Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of\n      Wales_ (London, 1909), p. 320.\n\n  492 A. de Nore, _Coutumes, Mythes et Traditions des Provinces de France_\n      (Paris and Lyons, 1846), p. 152; H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite m\u00e9dical_\n      (Paris, 1892), pp. 7 _sq._\n\n  493 A. Strausz, _Die Bulgaren_ (Leipsic, 1898), p. 414.\n\n  494 A. Strausz, _op. cit._ p. 404. As to the Bulgarian custom of\n      creeping through a tunnel in a time of epidemic, see above, vol. i.\n      pp. 282-284.\n\n_  495 Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa_ (London,\n      1874), i. 60.\n\n M142 Custom in Uganda of causing a sick man to pass through a cleft stick\n      or a narrow opening in the doorway.\n\n  496 Rev. J. Roscoe, _The Baganda_ (London, 1911), p. 343. Compare _id._,\n      \u201cNotes on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Anthropological Institute_, xxxi. (1901) p. 126; id., \u201cFurther Notes\n      on the Manners and Customs of the Baganda,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 42 _sq._\n\n M143 Similar custom practised by the Kai of New Guinea and the Looboos of\n      Sumatra for the purpose of giving the slip to spiritual pursuers.\n\n  497 Ch. Keysser, \u201cAus dem Leben der Kaileute,\u201d in R. Neuhauss\u2019s _Deutsch\n      Neu-Guinea_, iii. (Berlin, 1911) pp. 141 _sq._\n\n  498 J. Kreemer, \u201cDe Loeboes in Mandailing,\u201d _Bijdragen tot de Taal-\n      Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch-Indie_, lxvi. (1912) p. 327.\n\n M144 Passing through cleft sticks in connexion with puberty and\n      circumcision.\n\n  499 Hermann T\u00f6njes, _Ovamboland, Land, Leute, Mission_ (Berlin, 1911),\n      pp. 139 _sq._ The writer was unable to ascertain the meaning of the\n      rite; the natives would only say that it was their custom.\n\n  500 A. Karasek, \u201cBeitr\u00e4ge zur Kenntnis der Waschambo,\u201d\n      _Baessler-Archiv_, i. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1911) p. 192.\n\n M145 Crawling through a ring or hoop as a cure or preventive of disease.\n      Passing sheep through a hoop of rowan. Milking a cow through a\n      natural wooden ring or a \u201cwitch\u2019s nest.\u201d Passing sick persons or\n      animals through a ring of yarn. Passing diseased children through a\n      coil. Passing through a hemlock ring during an epidemic. Passing\n      through a ring of red-hot iron to escape an evil spirit.\n\n  501 H. F. Feilberg, \u201cZwieselb\u00e4ume nebst verwandtem Aberglauben in\n      Skandinavien,\u201d _Zeitschrift des Vereins f\u00fcr Volkskunde_, vii. (1897)\n      pp. 49 _sq._\n\n  502 H. F. Feilberg, _op. cit._ p. 44.\n\n  503 J. G. Dalyell, _The Darker Superstitions of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,\n      1834), p. 121; Ch. Rogers, _Social Life in Scotland_ (Edinburgh,\n      1884-1886), iii. 239.\n\n  504 John Ramsay of Ochtertyre, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth\n      Century_, edited by A. Allardyce, (Edinburgh and London, 1888), ii.\n      454. Immediately after mentioning this custom the writer adds: \u201cAnd\n      in Breadalbane it is the custom for the dairymaid to drive the\n      cattle to the sheals with a wand of that tree [the rowan] cut upon\n      the day of removal, which is laid above the door until the cattle be\n      going back again to the winter-town. This was reckoned a\n      preservative against witchcraft.\u201d As to the activity of witches and\n      fairies on Hallowe\u2019en and the first of May, see above, vol. i. pp.\n      226 _sqq._, 295; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 52\n      _sqq._; J. G. Campbell, _Superstitions of the Highlands and Islands\n      of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1900), p. 18; _id._, _Witchcraft and Second\n      Sight in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p.\n      270. As to the power of the rowan-tree to counteract their spells,\n      see W. Gregor, _Notes on the Folk-lore of the North-East of\n      Scotland_ (London, 1881), p. 188; J. C. Atkinson, _Forty Years in a\n      Moorland Parish_ (London, 1891), pp. 97 _sqq._; _The Scapegoat_, pp.\n      266 _sq._\n\n  505 L. Strackerjan, _Aberglaube und Sagen aus dem Herzogthum Oldenburg_\n      (Oldenburg, 1867), i. p. 364, \u00a7 241.\n\n  506 L. Strackerjan, _op. cit._ i. p. 364, \u00a7 240.\n\n  507 Lieutenant-Colonel H. W. G. Cole, \u201cThe Lushais,\u201d in _Census of\n      India_, 1911, vol. iii. _Assam_, Part i. _Report_ (Shillong, 1912),\n      p. 140.\n\n  508 Franz Boas, in _Eleventh Report on the North-Western Tribes of\n      Canada_, pp. 3 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the\n      British Association for the Advancement of Science_, Liverpool\n      meeting, 1896).\n\n  509 Rev. G. E. White, Dean of Anatolia College, _Survivals of Primitive\n      Religion among the People of Asia Minor_, p. 12 (paper read before\n      the Victoria Institute or Philosophical Society of Great Britain, 6\n      Adelphi Terrace, Strand, London).\n\n M146 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in Scotland and Cornwall.\n\n  510 John Ramsay, _Scotland and Scotsmen in the Eighteenth Century_,\n      edited by Alex. Allardyce (Edinburgh, 1888), ii. 451 _sq._\n\n  511 J. G. Campbell, _Witchcraft and Second Sight in the Highlands and\n      Islands of Scotland_ (Glasgow, 1902), p. 100.\n\n  512 Mr. James S. Greig, in a letter to me dated Lindean, Perth Road,\n      Dundee, 17th August, 1913.\n\n  513 W. Borlase, _Antiquities, historical and monumental, of the County\n      of Cornwall_ (London, 1769), pp. 177 _sq._\n\n  514 Robert Hunt, _Popular Romances of the West of England_, Third\n      Edition (London, 1881), pp. 176, 415.\n\n M147 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in France.\n\n  515 Thomas-de-Saint-Mars, \u201cF\u00eate de Saint Estapin,\u201d _M\u00e9moires de la\n      Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 Royale des Antiquaires de France_, i. (1817) pp. 428-430.\n\n  516 J. Deniker, \u201cDolmen et superstitions,\u201d _Bulletins et M\u00e9moires de la\n      Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d\u2019Anthropologie de Paris_, v. s\u00e9rie, i. (1900) p. 111.\n      Compare H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite m\u00e9dical_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 26\n      _sq._; G. Fouju, \u201cL\u00e9gendes et Superstitions pr\u00e9historiques,\u201d _Revue\n      des Traditions Populaires_, xiv. (1899) pp. 477 _sq._\n\n M148 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in Bavaria, Austria, and\n      Greece.\n\n  517 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_ (Munich, 1848-1855),\n      ii. 48 \u00a7 61.\n\n  518 F. Panzer, _op. cit._ ii. 431 _sq._\n\n  519 Marie Andree-Eysn, _Volkskundliches aus dem\n      bayrisch-\u00f6sterreichischen Alpengebiet_ (Brunswick, 1910), pp. 1, 9,\n      with the illustrations on pp. 10, 11.\n\n  520 F. Panzer, _Beitrag zur deutschen Mythologie_, ii. 431.\n\n  521 J. Theodore Bent, _The Cyclades_ (London, 1885), p. 437.\n\n M149 Crawling through holed stones as a cure in Asia Minor. Passing\n      through various narrow openings as a cure or preventive in India and\n      Ireland.\n\n  522 E. H. Carnoy et J. Nicolaides, _Traditions populaires de l\u2019Asie\n      Mineure_ (Paris, 1889), p. 338.\n\n  523 Rev. George E. White (of Marsovan, Turkey), _Present Day Sacrifices\n      in Asia Minor_, p. 3 (reprinted from _The Hartford Seminary Record_,\n      February 1906).\n\n_  524 Central Provinces, Ethnographic Survey_, vii. _Draft Articles on\n      Forest Tribes_ (Allahabad, 1911), p. 46.\n\n  525 So my friend Dr. G. W. Prothero informs me in a letter.\n\n_  526 Census of India, 1911_, vol. xiv. _Punjab_, Part i. _Report_, by\n      Pandit Harikishan Kaul (Lahore, 1912), p. 302.\n\n M150 Crawling through holes in the ground as a cure for disease. Passing\n      through the yoke of a chariot as a cure for skin disease.\n\n  527 H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite m\u00e9dical_ (Paris, 1892), p. 10.\n\n  528 H. Gaidoz, _op. cit._ p. 21.\n\n  529 H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite m\u00e9dical_ (Paris, 1892), p. 21. Compare J.\n      Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii. 975 _sq._\n\n  530 H. F. Feilberg, \u201cZwieselb\u00e4ume nebst verwandtem Aberglaube in\n      Skandinavien,\u201d _Zeitschrift des Vereins f\u00fcr Volkskunde_, vii. (1897)\n      p. 45.\n\n  531 H. Gaidoz, _Un Vieux Rite m\u00e9dical_ (Paris, 1892), pp. 22 _sq._,\n      referring to Nyrop, in _Dania_, i. No. 1 (Copenhagen, 1890), pp. 5\n      _sqq._\n\n  532 Rev. John Campbell, _Travels in South Africa, Second Journey_\n      (London, 1822), ii. 346. Among the same people \u201cwhen a person is\n      ill, they bring an ox to the place where he is laid. Two cuts are\n      then made in one of its legs, extending down the whole length of it.\n      The skin in the middle of the leg being raised up, the operator\n      thrusts in his hand, to make way for that of the sick person, whose\n      whole body is afterwards rubbed over with the blood of the animal.\n      The ox after enduring this torment is killed, and those who are\n      married and have children, as in the other case, are the only\n      partakers of the feast.\u201d (J. Campbell, _op. cit._ ii. 346 _sq._).\n      Here the intention seems to be not so much to transfer the disease\n      to the ox, as to transfuse the healthy life of the beast into the\n      veins of the sick man. The same is perhaps true of the Welsh and\n      French cure for whooping-cough, which consists in passing the little\n      sufferer several times under an ass. See J. Brand, _Popular\n      Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883), iii. 288; L. J.\n      B. B\u00e9renger-F\u00e9raud, in _Bulletins de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 d\u2019Anthropologie de\n      Paris_, Quatri\u00e8me S\u00e9rie, i. (1890) p. 897; _id._, _Superstitions et\n      Survivances_ (Paris, 1896), i. 526. The same cure for whooping-cough\n      \u201cis also practised in Ireland; only here the sufferer is passed\n      round, that is, over and under, the body of an ass\u201d (letter of Miss\n      A. H. Singleton to me, dated Rathmagle House, Abbey-Leix, Ireland,\n      24th February 1904). But perhaps the intention rather is to give the\n      whooping-cough to the animal; for it might reasonably be thought\n      that the feeble whoop of the sick child would neither seriously\n      impair the lungs, nor perceptibly augment the stentorian bray, of\n      the donkey.\n\n  533 H. Oldenberg, _Die Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), p. 495.\n      According to a fuller account, Indra drew her through three holes,\n      that of a war-chariot, that of a cart, and that of a yoke. See W.\n      Caland, _Altindisches Zauberritual_ (Amsterdam, 1900), p. 31 note 5.\n\n M151 Passing under a yoke or arch as a rite of initiation.\n\n  534 Dr. E. Werner, \u201cIm westlichen Finsterregebirge und an der Nordk\u00fcste\n      von Deutsch-Neuginea,\u201d _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, lv. (1909) pp. 74\n      _sq._ Among some tribes of South-Eastern Australia it was customary\n      at the ceremonies of initiation to bend growing saplings into arches\n      and compel the novices to pass under them; sometimes the youths had\n      to crawl on the ground to get through. See A. W. Howitt, \u201cOn some\n      Australian ceremonies of Initiation,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) p. 445; _id._, _Native\n      Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 536.\n\n M152 The ancient Roman custom of passing enemies under a yoke was\n      probably in origin a ceremony of purification rather than of\n      degradation.\n\n  535 Livy iii. 28, ix. 6, x. 36; Dionysius Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit.\n      Roman._ iii. 22. 7. The so-called yoke in this case consisted of two\n      spears or two beams set upright in the ground, with a third spear or\n      beam laid transversely across them. See Livy iii. 28; Dionysius\n      Halicarnasensis, _l.c._\n\n  536 Livy i. 26: \u201c_Itaque, ut caedes manifesta aliquo tamen piaculo\n      lueretur, imperatum patri, ut filium expiaret pecunia publica. Is\n      quibusdam piacularibus sacrificiis factis, quae deinde genti\n      Horatiae tradita sunt, transmisso per viam tigillo capite adoperto\n      velut sub jugum misit juvenem. Id hodie quoque publice semper\n      refectum manet; sororium tigillum vocant_;\u201d Festus, _s.v._ \u201cSororium\n      Tigillum,\u201d pp. 297, 307, ed. C. O. M\u00fcller (Leipsic, 1839); Dionysius\n      Halicarnasensis, _Antiquit. Roman._ iii. 22. The position of the\n      beam is described exactly by the last of these writers, who had\n      evidently seen it. According to Festus, the yoke under which\n      Horatius passed was composed of three beams, two uprights, and a\n      cross-piece. The similarity of the ceremony to that which was\n      exacted from conquered foes is noted by Dionysius Halicarnasensis as\n      well as by Livy. The tradition of the purification has been rightly\n      explained by Dr. W. H. Roscher with reference to the custom of\n      passing through cleft trees, holed stones, and so on. See W. H.\n      Roscher, _Ausf\u00fchrliches Lexikon der griech. und r\u00f6m. Mythologie_,\n      ii. (Leipsic, 1890-1897) col. 21. Compare G. Wissowa, _Religion und\n      Kultus der R\u00f6mer_2 (Munich, 1912), p. 104.\n\n M153 Similarly the passage of a victorious Roman army under a triumphal\n      arch may have been intended to purify the men from the stain of\n      bloodshed by interposing a barrier between the slayers and the angry\n      ghosts of the slain.\n\n_  537 Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 165 _sqq._\n\n  538 Pliny, _Natur. Histor._ xv. 135: \u201c_Quia suffimentum sit caedis\n      hostium et purgatio_.\u201d\n\n  539 Cicero, _In Pisonem_, xxiii. 55; Josephus, _Bellum Judaicum_, vii.\n      5. 4.\n\n  540 It was not till after I had given this conjectural explanation of\n      the \u201cSister\u2019s Beam\u201d and the triumphal arch at Rome that I read the\n      article of Mr. W. Warde Fowler, \u201cPassing under the Yoke\u201d (_The\n      Classical Review_, March 1913, pp. 48-51), in which he quite\n      independently suggests practically the same explanation of both\n      these Roman structures. I have left my exposition, except for one or\n      two trivial verbal changes, exactly as it stood before I was aware\n      that my friend had anticipated me in both conjectures. The closeness\n      of the coincidence between our views is a welcome confirmation of\n      their truth. As to the _Porta Triumphalis_, the exact position of\n      which is uncertain, Mr. Warde Fowler thinks that it was not a gate\n      in the walls, but an archway standing by itself in the Campus\n      Martius outside the city walls. He points out that in the oldest\n      existing triumphal arch, that of Augustus at Ariminum, the most\n      striking part of the structure consists of two upright Corinthian\n      pillars with an architrave laid horizontally across them; and he\n      ingeniously conjectures that we have here a reminiscence of the two\n      uprights and the cross-piece, which, if our theory is correct, was\n      the original form both of the triumphal arch and of the yoke.\n\n M154 Belief in a sympathetic relation between a man and an animal such\n      that the fate of the one depends on that of the other. The external\n      souls of Yakut shamans in animals. Sympathetic relation between\n      witches and hares.\n\n  541 Professor V. M. Mikhailoviskij, \u201cShamanism in Siberia and European\n      Russia,\u201d _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895)\n      pp. 133, 134.\n\n  542 Th. Parkinson, _Yorkshire Legends and Traditions_, Second Series\n      (London, 1889), pp. 160 _sq._\n\n  543 See above, vol. i. pp. 315 _sqq._\n\n  544 B. F. Matthes, _Makassaarsch-Hollandsch Woordenboek_ (Amsterdam,\n      1859), _s.v._ _soem\u0101\u00f1g\u00e1_, p. 569; G. A. Wilken, \u201cHet animisme bij de\n      volken van den Indischen Archipel,\u201d _De Indische Gids_, June 1884,\n      p. 933; _id._, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), iii. 12.\n\n M155 Melanesian conception of the _tamaniu_, a person\u2019s external soul\n      lodged in an animal or other object.\n\n  545 R. H. Codrington, D.D., _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 250\n      _sq._ Compare _id._, \u201cNotes on the Customs of Mota, Banks Islands,\u201d\n      _Transactions and Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria_,\n      xvi. (1880) p. 136.\n\n M156 Sympathetic relation between a man and his _tamaniu_ (external\n      soul).\n\n  546 W. H. R. Rivers, \u201cTotemism in Polynesia and Melanesia,\u201d _Journal of\n      the Royal Anthropological Institute_, xxxix. (1909) p. 177. Dr.\n      Rivers cites a recent case of a man who had a large lizard for his\n      _tamaniu_. The animal lived in the roots of a big banyan-tree; when\n      the man was ill, the lizard also seemed unwell; and when the man\n      died, the tree fell, which was deemed a sign that the lizard also\n      was dead.\n\n M157 Soul of a Melanesian doctor in an eagle-hawk and a rat.\n\n  547 George Brown, D.D., _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), p.\n      177. The case was known to Dr. Brown, who made notes of it. The part\n      of Melanesia where it happened was probably the Duke of York Island\n      or New Britain.\n\n  548 \u201cTotemismus auf den Marshall-Inseln (S\u00fcdsee),\u201d _Anthropos_, viii.\n      (1913) p. 251.\n\n M158 The theory of an external soul lodged in an animal is very prevalent\n      in West Africa. The soul of a chief in a hippopotamus or a black\n      snake. Belief of the Fans that every wizard unites his life to that\n      of a wild animal by a rite of blood brotherhood.\n\n  549 Much of the following evidence has already been cited by me in\n      _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 593 _sqq._\n\n  550 Herbert Ward, _Five Years with the Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1890),\n      p. 53.\n\n_  551 Notes Analytiques sur les Collections ethnographiques du Mus\u00e9e du\n      Congo_, i. (Brussels, 1902-1906) p. 150.\n\n  552 Father H. Trilles, \u201cChez les Fangs,\u201d _Les Missions Catholiques_,\n      xxx. (1898) p. 322; _id._, _Le Tot\u00e9misme chez les F\u00e2\u1e45_ (M\u00fcnster i.\n      W. 1912), pp. 473 _sq._\n\n  553 Father H. Trilles, _Le Tot\u00e9misme chez les F\u00e2\u1e45_ (M\u00fcnster i. W. 1912),\n      pp. 167 _sq._, 438 _sq._, 484-489. The description of the rite of\n      blood-brotherhood contracted with the animal is quoted by Father\n      Trilles (pp. 486 _sq._) from a work by Mgr. Bul\u00e9on, _Sous le ciel\n      d\u2019Afrique, R\u00e9cits d\u2019un Missionnaire_, pp. 88 _sqq._ Father Trilles\u2019s\n      own observations and enquiries confirm the account given by Mgr.\n      Bul\u00e9on. But the story of an alliance contracted between a man or\n      woman and a ferocious wild beast and cemented by the blood of the\n      high contracting parties is no doubt a mere fable devised by wizards\n      and witches in order to increase their reputation by imposing on the\n      credulity of the simple.\n\n M159 Belief of the natives of the Cross River that they stand in a vital\n      relation to certain wild animals, so that when the animal dies the\n      man dies also.\n\n  554 Alfred Mansfeld, _Urwald-Dokumente, vier Jahre unter den\n      Crossflussnegern Kameruns_ (Berlin, 1908), pp. 220 _sq._\n\n M160 Similar belief of the Balong in the Cameroons.\n\n  555 J. Keller (missionary), \u201cUeber das Land und Volk der Balong,\u201d\n      _Deutsches Kolonialblatt_, 1 Oktober 1895, p. 484; H. Seidel,\n      \u201cEthnographisches aus Nordost Kamerun,\u201d _Globus_, lxix. (1896) p.\n      277.\n\n M161 Belief of the Ibos in external human souls which are lodged in\n      animals.\n\n  556 John Parkinson, \u201cNote on the Asaba People (Ibos) of the Niger,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxvi. (1906) pp. 314\n      _sq._\n\n  557 Charles Partridge, _Cross River Natives_ (London, 1905), pp. 225\n      _sq._\n\n M162 Belief of the negroes of Calabar that every person has an external\n      or bush soul lodged in a wild beast.\n\n  558 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp.\n      459-461. The lamented authoress was kind enough to give me in\n      conversation (1st June 1897) some details which do not appear in her\n      book; among these are the statements, which I have embodied in the\n      text, that the bush soul is never a domestic animal, and that when a\n      man knows what kind of creature his bush soul is, he will not kill\n      an animal of that species and will strongly object to any one else\n      doing so. Miss Kingsley was not able to say whether persons who have\n      the same sort of bush soul are allowed or forbidden to marry each\n      other.\n\n M163 Further particulars as to the Calabar belief in bush souls.\n\n  559 John Parkinson, \u201cNotes on the Efik Belief in \u2018Bush-soul,\u2019 \u201d _Man_,\n      vi. (1906) pp. 121 _sq._, No. 80. Mr. Henshaw is a member of the\n      highest grade of the secret society of Egbo.\n\n  560 Rev. Hugh Goldie, _Calabar and its Mission_, New Edition (Edinburgh\n      and London, 1901), pp. 51 _sq._ Compare Major A. G. Leonard, _The\n      Lower Niger and its Tribes_ (London, 1906), p. 217: \u201cWhen Efik or\n      waterside Ibo see a dead fish floating in the water of the kind\n      called _Edidim_ by the former and _Elili_ by the latter\u2014a variety of\n      the electric species\u2014they believe it to be a bad omen, generally\n      signifying that some one belonging to the house will die, the man\n      who first sees it becoming the victim according to Ibo belief. The\n      only reason that is assigned for this lugubrious forecast is the\n      fact that one of the souls of the departed is in the dead fish\u2014that,\n      in fact, the relationship or affinity existing between the soul\n      essence that had animated the fish and that of one of the members of\n      the household was so intimate that the death of the one was bound to\n      effect the death of the other.\u201d\n\n M164 Belief of the Ekoi of Southern Nigeria in external souls lodged in\n      animals. Case of a chief whose external soul was in a buffalo.\n\n  561 P. Amaury Talbot, _In the Shadow of the Bush_ (London, 1912), pp.\n      80-87. The Ekoi name for a man who has the power of sending out his\n      spirit into the form of some animal is _efumi_ (_id._, p. 71 note).\n      A certain chief named Agbashan, a great elephant hunter, is believed\n      to have the power of transforming himself into an elephant; and \u201ca\n      man of considerable intelligence, educated in England, the brother\n      of a member of the Legislative Council for one of the West African\n      Colonies, offered to take oath that he had seen Agbashan not only in\n      his elephant form, but while actually undergoing the metamorphosis\u201d\n      (_id._, pp. 82 _sq._). In this case, therefore, the man seems to\n      have felt no scruples at hunting the animals in one of which his own\n      bush soul might be lodged.\n\n M165 Belief of other tribes of Nigeria in external souls lodged in\n      animals.\n\n  562 Letter of Mr. P. Amaury Talbot to me, dated Eket, North Calabar,\n      Southern Nigeria, April 3d, 1913.\n\n  563 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1897), pp.\n      538 _sq._\n\n  564 C. H. Robinson, _Hausaland_ (London, 1896), pp. 36 _sq._\n\n  565 J. F. J. Fitzpatrick (Assistant Resident, Northern Nigeria), \u201cSome\n      Notes on the Kwolla District and its Tribes,\u201d _Journal of the\n      African Society_, No. 37, October, 1910, p. 30.\n\n  566 Extract from a Report by Captain Foulkes to the British Colonial\n      Office. My thanks are due to Mr. N. W. Thomas for sending me the\n      extract and to the authorities of the Colonial Office for their\n      permission to publish it.\n\n_  567 The Daily Graphic_, Tuesday, October 7th, 1902, p. 3.\n\n M166 The conception of an external soul lodged in an animal appears to be\n      absent in South Africa.\n\n  568 Rev. W. C. Willoughby, \u201cNotes on the Totemism of the Becwana,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 300. The\n      writer adds that he found a similar belief as to the sympathetic\n      relation between a wounded crocodile and the man who wounded it very\n      general among the Wanyamwezi, who, in 1882, were living under\n      Mirambo about two hundred miles south of Lake Victoria Nyanza and a\n      hundred miles east of Lake Tanganyika.\n\n  569 F. Speckmann, _Die Hermannsburger Mission in Africa_ (Hermannsburg,\n      1876) p. 167. Compare David Leslie, _Among the Zulus and Amatongas_,\n      Second Edition (Edinburgh, 1875) pp. 47 _sq._; \u201cThe Kaffirs believe\n      that after death their spirits turn into a snake, which they call\n      _Ehlose_, and that every living man has two of these familiar\n      spirits\u2014a good and a bad. When everything they undertake goes wrong\n      with them, such as hunting, cattle-breeding, etc., they say they\n      know that it is their enemies who are annoying them, and that they\n      are only to be appeased by sacrificing an animal; but when\n      everything prospers, they ascribe it to their good _Ehlose_ being in\n      the ascendant\u201d; _id._, _op. cit._ p. 148: \u201cWhen in battle two men\n      are fighting, their snakes (_Mahloze_) are poetically said to be\n      twisting and biting each other overhead. One \u2018softens\u2019 and goes\n      down, and the man, whose attendant it is, goes down with it.\n      Everything is ascribed to _Ehlose_. If he fails in anything, his\n      _Ehlose_ is bad; if successful, it is good.... It is this thing\n      which is the inducing cause of everything. In fact, nothing in Zulu\n      is admitted to arise from natural causes; everything is ascribed to\n      witchcraft or the _Ehlose_.\u201d\n\n      It is not all serpents that are _amadhlozi_ (plural of _idhlozi_),\n      that is, are the transformed spirits of the dead. Serpents which are\n      dead men may easily be distinguished from common snakes, for they\n      frequent huts; they do not eat mice, and they are not afraid of\n      people. If a man in his life had a scar, his serpent after his death\n      will also have a scar; if he had only one eye, his serpent will have\n      only one eye; if he was lame, his serpent will be lame too. That is\n      how you can recognise So-and-So in his serpent form. Chiefs do not\n      turn into the same kind of snakes as ordinary people. For common\n      folk become harmless snakes with green and white bellies and very\n      small heads; but kings become boa-constrictors or the large and\n      deadly black _mamba_. See Rev. Henry Callaway, M.D., _The Religions\n      System of the Amazulu_, Part ii. (Capetown, London, etc., 1869) pp.\n      134 _sq._, 140, 196-202, 205, 208-211, 231. \u201cThe _Ehlose_ of Chaka\n      and other dead kings is the Boa-constrictor, or the large and deadly\n      black Mamba, whichever the doctors decide. That of dead Queens is\n      the tree Iguana\u201d (David Leslie, _op. cit._ p. 213). Compare Rev.\n      Joseph Shooter, _The Kafirs of Natal and the Zulu Country_ (London,\n      1857), pp. 161 _sq._; W. R. Gordon, \u201cWords about Spirits,\u201d (_South\n      African_) _Folk-lore Journal_, ii. (Cape Town, 1880) pp. 101-103; W.\n      Grant, \u201cMagato and his Tribe,\u201d _Journal of the Anthropological\n      Institute_, xxxv. (1905) p. 270. A word which is sometimes\n      confounded with _idhlozi_ is _itongo_ (plural _amatongo_); but the\n      natives themselves when closely questioned distinguish between the\n      two. See Dudley Kidd, _Savage Childhood, a Study of Kafir Children_\n      (London, 1906), pp. 14 _sq._, 281-286. The notion that the spirits\n      of the dead appear in the form of serpents is widespread in Africa.\n      See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition, pp. 73 _sqq._ Dr. F. B.\n      Jevons has suggested that the Roman _genius_, the guardian-spirit\n      which accompanied a man from birth to death (Censorinus, _De die\n      natali_, 3) and was commonly represented in the form of a snake, may\n      have been an external soul. See F. B. Jevons, _Plutarch\u2019s Romane\n      Questions_ (London, 1892) pp. xlvii. _sq._; _id._, _Introduction to\n      the History of Religion_ (London, 1896), pp. 186 _sq._; L. Preller,\n      _R\u00f6mische Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), ii. 195 _sqq._; G.\n      Wissowa, _Religion und Kultus der R\u00f6mer_2 (Munich, 1912), pp. 176\n      _sq._\n\n M167 The conception of an external soul lodged in an animal occurs among\n      the Indians of Central America, some of whom call such a soul a\n      _nagual_.\n\n  570 H. H. Bancroft, _The Native Races of the Pacific Coast_ (London,\n      1875-1876), i. 661. The words quoted by Bancroft (p. 662, note),\n      \u201c_Cons\u00e9rvase entre ellos la creencia de que su vida est\u00e1 unida \u00e0 la\n      de un animal, y que es forzoso que mueran ellos cuando \u00e9ste muere_,\u201d\n      are not quite accurately represented by the statement of Bancroft in\n      the text. Elsewhere (vol. ii. p. 277) the same writer calls the\n      \u201csecond self\u201d of the Zapotecs a \u201c_nagual_, or tutelary genius,\u201d\n      adding that the fate of the child was supposed to be so intimately\n      bound up with the fortune of the animal that the death of the one\n      involved the death of the other. Compare Daniel G. Brinton,\n      \u201cNagualism, a Study in American Folk-lore and History,\u201d _Proceedings\n      of the American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia_, vol.\n      xxxiii. No. 144 (Philadelphia, January, 1894), pp. 11-73. According\n      to Professor E. Seler the word _nagual_ is akin to the Mexican\n      _naualli_, \u201ca witch or wizard,\u201d which is derived from a word meaning\n      \u201chidden\u201d with reference to the power attributed to sorcerers of\n      transforming themselves into animals. See E. Seler, \u201cAltmexikanische\n      Studien, II.\u201d _Ver\u00f6ffentlichungen aus dem K\u00f6niglichen Museum f\u00fcr\n      V\u00f6lkerkunde_, vi. heft 2/4 (Berlin, 1899), pp. 52-57.\n\n  571 Otto Stoll, _Die Ethnologie der Indianerst\u00e4mme von Guatemala_\n      (Leyden, 1889), p. 57.\n\n  572 Thomas Gage, _A New Survey of the West Indies_, Third Edition\n      (London, 1677), p. 334. The same writer relates how a certain Indian\n      named Gonzalez was reported to have the power of turning himself\n      into a lion or rather a puma. Once when a Spaniard had shot a puma\n      in the nose, Gonzalez was found with a bruised face and accused the\n      Spaniard of having shot him. Another Indian chief named Gomez was\n      said to have transformed himself into a puma, and in that shape to\n      have fought a terrific battle with a rival chief named Lopez, who\n      had changed himself into a jaguar. See Gage, _op. cit._ pp. 383-389.\n\n  573 Antonio de Herrera, _General History of the Vast Continent and\n      Islands of America_, translated by Capt. John Stevens (London,\n      1725-1726), iv. 138 _sq._ The Spanish original of Herrera\u2019s history,\n      a work based on excellent authorities, was first published at Madrid\n      in 1601-1615. The Indians of Santa Catalina Istlavacan still receive\n      at birth the name of some animal, which is commonly regarded as\n      their guardian spirit for the rest of their life. The name is\n      bestowed by the heathen priest, who usually hears of a birth in the\n      village sooner than his Catholic colleague. See K. Scherzer, \u201cDie\n      Indianer von Santa Catalina Istl\u00e1vacana (Frauenfuss), ein Beitrag\n      zur Culturgeschichte der Urbewohner Central-Amerikas,\u201d\n      _Sitzungsberichte der philos. histor. Classe der kais. Akademie der\n      Wissenschaften_ (Vienna), xviii. (1856) p. 235.\n\n  574 Otto Stoll, _Die Ethnologie der Indianerst\u00e4mme von Guatemala_\n      (Leyden, 1889), pp. 57 _sq._; _id._, _Suggestion und Hypnotism_2\n      (Leipsic, 1904), p. 170.\n\n M168 In some tribes of South-Eastern Australia the lives of the two sexes\n      are thought to be bound up with the lives of two different kinds of\n      animals, as bats and owls.\n\n  575 A. W. Howitt, \u201cFurther Notes on the Australian Class Systems,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 57\n      _sq._ Compare _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_\n      (London, 1904), pp. 148, 150. It is very remarkable that among the\n      Kurnai these fights had a special connexion with marriage. When\n      young men were backward of taking wives, the women used to go out\n      into the forest and kill an emu-wren, which was the men\u2019s \u201cbrother\u201d;\n      then returning to the camp they shewed the dead bird to the men. The\n      result was a fight between the young men and the young women, in\n      which, however, lads who were not yet marriageable might not take\n      part. Next day the marriageable young men went out and killed a\n      superb warbler, which was the women\u2019s \u201csister,\u201d and this led to a\n      worse fight than before. Some days afterwards, when the wounds and\n      bruises were healed, one of the marriageable young men met one of\n      the marriageable young women, and said, \u201cSuperb warbler!\u201d She\n      answered, \u201cEmu-wren! What does the emu-wren eat?\u201d To which the young\n      man answered, \u201cHe eats so-and-so,\u201d naming kangaroo, opossum, emu, or\n      some other game. Then they laughed, and she ran off with him without\n      telling any one. See L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and\n      Kurnai_ (Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and Brisbane, 1880), pp. 201\n      _sq._; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp.\n      149, 273 _sq._ Perhaps this killing of the sex-totem before marriage\n      may be related to the pretence of killing young men and bringing\n      them to life again at puberty. See below, pp. 225 _sqq._\n\n  576 Gerard Krefft, \u201cManners and Customs of the Aborigines of the Lower\n      Murray and Darling,\u201d _Transactions of the Philosophical Society of\n      New South Wales_, 1862-65, pp. 359 _sq._\n\n  577 A. W. Howitt, \u201cFurther Notes on the Australian Class Systems,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 56\n      _sq._\n\n  578 A. W. Howitt, _op. cit._ p. 57; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East\n      Australia_, p. 150.\n\n  579 A. W. Howitt, \u201cOn the Migrations of the Kurnai Ancestors,\u201d _Journal\n      of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 416.\n\n  580 C. W. Sch\u00fcrmann, \u201cThe Aboriginal Tribes of Port Lincoln,\u201d in _Native\n      Tribes of South Australia_ (Adelaide, 1879), p. 241. Compare G. F.\n      Angas, _Savage Life and Scenes in Australia and New Zealand_\n      (London, 1847), i. 109.\n\n  581 A. W. Howitt, \u201cFurther Notes on the Australian Class Systems,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) p. 58.\n      Compare _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,\n      1904), pp. 148-151.\n\n  582 James Dawson, _Australian Aborigines_ (Melbourne, Sydney, and\n      Adelaide, 1881), p. 52.\n\n M169 Bats regarded as the brothers of men, and owls as the sisters of\n      women.\n\n  583 See _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 47 _sq._ It is at least remarkable\n      that both the creatures thus assigned to the two sexes should be\n      nocturnal in their habits. Perhaps the choice of such creatures is\n      connected with the belief that the soul is absent from the body in\n      slumber. On this hypothesis bats and owls would be regarded by these\n      savages as the wandering souls of sleepers. Such a belief would\n      fully account for the reluctance of the natives to kill them. The\n      Kiowa Indians of North America think that owls and other night birds\n      are animated by the souls of the dead. See James Mooney, \u201cCalendar\n      History of the Kiowa Indians,\u201d _Seventeenth Annual Report of the\n      Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1898) p. 237.\n\n  584 A. L. P. Cameron, \u201cNotes on some Tribes of New South Wales,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) p. 350 note\n      1; A. W. Howitt, \u201cOn the Migrations of the Kurnai Ancestors,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. (1886) p. 416;\n      _id._, \u201cFurther Notes on the Australian Class Systems,\u201d _Journal of\n      the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) p. 57.\n\n  585 L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, pp. 194, 201,\n      _sq._, 215; _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xv. 416,\n      xviii. 56 _sq._; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East\n      Australia_ (London, 1904), pp. 148-151.\n\n  586 The following suggestion as to the origin of totemism was made in\n      the first edition of this book (published in 1890) and is here\n      reprinted without any substantial change. In the meantime much\n      additional evidence as to the nature and prevalence of totemism has\n      come to light, and with the new evidence my opinions, or rather\n      conjectures, as to the origin of the institution have repeatedly\n      changed. If I here reprint my earliest conjecture, it is partly\n      because I still think it may contain an element of truth, and partly\n      because it serves as a convenient peg on which to hang a collection\n      of facts which are much more valuable than any theories of mine. The\n      reader who desires to acquaint himself more fully with the facts of\n      totemism and with the theories that have been broached on the\n      subject, will find them stated at length in my _Totemism and\n      Exogamy_ (London, 1910). Here I will only call attention to the\n      Arunta legend that the ancestors of the tribe kept their spirits in\n      certain sacred sticks and stones (_churinga_), which bear a close\n      resemblance to the well-known bull-roarers, and that when they went\n      out hunting they hung these sticks or stones on certain sacred poles\n      (_nurtunjas_) which represented their totems. See Baldwin Spencer\n      and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_ (London,\n      1899), pp. 137 _sq._, 629. This tradition appears to point to a\n      custom of transferring a man\u2019s soul or spirit temporarily to his\n      totem. Conversely when an Arunta is sick he scrapes his _churinga_\n      and swallows the scrapings, as if to restore to himself the\n      spiritual substance deposited in the instrument. See Baldwin Spencer\n      and F. J. Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 135 note 1.\n\n M170 Sex totems and clan totems may both be based on the notion that men\n      and women keep their external souls in their totems, whether these\n      are animals, plants, or what not.\n\n  587 (Sir) George Grey, _Journals of Two Expeditions of Discovery in\n      North-West and Western Australia_ (London, 1841), ii. 228 _sq._\n\n  588 L. Fison and A. W. Howitt, _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_, p. 169. According\n      to Dr. Howitt, it is a serious offence to kill the totem of another\n      person \u201cwith intent to injure him\u201d (_Journal of the Anthropological\n      Institute_, xviii. (1889) p. 53). Such an intention seems to imply a\n      belief in a sympathetic connexion between the man and the animal.\n      Similarly the Siena of the Ivory Coast, in West Africa, who have\n      totemism, believe that if a man kills one of his totemic animals, a\n      member of his totemic clan dies instantaneously. See Maurice\n      Delafosse, \u201cLe peuple Si\u00e9na ou S\u00e9noufo,\u201d _Revue des \u00c9tudes\n      Ethnographiques et Sociologiques_, i. (1908) p. 452.\n\n M171 The savage may imagine his life to be bound up with that of more\n      animals than one at the same time; for many savages think that every\n      person has more souls than one.\n\n  589 According to Plato, the different parts of the soul were lodged in\n      different parts of the body (_Timaeus_, pp. 69C-72D), and as only\n      one part, on his theory, was immortal, Lucian seems not unnaturally\n      to have interpreted the Platonic doctrine to mean that every man had\n      more than one soul (_Demonax_, 33).\n\n  590 J. J. M. de Groot, _The Religious System of China_, iv. (Leyden,\n      1901) pp. 3 _sq._, 70-75.\n\n  591 Le sieur de la Borde, \u201cRelation de l\u2019Origine, M\u0153urs, Coustumes,\n      Religion, Guerres et Voyages des Caraibes sauvages des Isles\n      Antilles de l\u2019Amerique,\u201d p. 15, in _Recueil de divers Voyages faits\n      en Afrique et en l\u2019Amerique_ (Paris, 1684).\n\n  592 Washington Matthews, _The Hidatsa Indians_ (Washington, 1877), p.\n      50.\n\n  593 H. Ling Roth, \u201cLow\u2019s Natives of Borneo,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Anthropological Institute_, xxi. (1892) p. 117; W. W. Skeat, _Malay\n      Magic_ (London, 1900), p. 50.\n\n  594 A. C. Kruijt, \u201cEen en ander aangaande het geestelijk en\n      maatschappelijk leven van den Poso-Alfoer,\u201d _Mededeelingen van wege\n      het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xxxix. (1895) pp. 3 _sq._\n\n  595 A. Bastian, _Die V\u00f6lker des \u00f6stlichen Asien_, iii. (Jena, 1867) p.\n      248.\n\n  596 In some tribes, chiefly of North American Indians, every man has an\n      individual or personal totem in addition to the totem of his clan.\n      This personal totem is usually the animal of which he dreamed during\n      a long and solitary fast at puberty. See _Totemism and Exogamy_, i.\n      49-52, iii. 370-456, where the relation of the individual or\n      personal totem (if we may call it so) to the clan totem is\n      discussed. It is quite possible that, as some good authorities\n      incline to believe, the clan totem has been developed out of the\n      personal totem by inheritance. See Miss Alice C. Fletcher, _The\n      Import of the Totem_, pp. 3 _sqq._ (paper read before the American\n      Association for the Advancement of Science, August 1887, separate\n      reprint); Fr. Boas, \u201cThe Social Organization and the Secret\n      Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,\u201d _Report of the United States\n      National Museum for 1895_ (Washington, 1897), pp. 323 _sq._,\n      336-338, 393. In the bush souls of the Calabar negroes (see above,\n      pp. 204 _sqq._) we seem to have something like the personal totem on\n      its way to become hereditary and so to grow into the totem of a\n      clan.\n\n M172 The Battas of Sumatra, who have totemism, believe that every person\n      has a soul which is always outside of his body.\n\n  597 J. B. Neumann, \u201cHet Pane- en Bila-stroomgebied op het eiland\n      Sumatra,\u201d _Tijdschrift van het Nederlandsch Aardrijkskundig\n      Genootschap_, Tweede Serie, dl. iii. Afdeeling, meer uitgebreide\n      artikelen, No. 2 (1886), pp. 311 _sq._; _id._, dl. iv. No. 1 (1887),\n      pp. 8 _sq._; Van Ho\u00ebvell, \u201cIets over \u2019t oorlogvoeren der Batta\u2019s,\u201d\n      _Tijdschrift voor Nederlandsch Indi\u00eb_, N.S., vii. (1878) p. 434; G.\n      A. Wilken, _Verspreide Geschriften_ (The Hague, 1912), i. 296, 306\n      _sq._, 309, 325 _sq._; L. de Backer, _L\u2019Archipel Indien_ (Paris,\n      1874), p. 470; Col. Yule, in _Journal of the Anthropological\n      Institute_, ix. (1880) p. 295; Joachim Freiherr von Brenner, _Besuch\n      bei den Kannibalen Sumatras_ (W\u00fcrzburg, 1894), pp. 197 _sqq._; P. A.\n      L. E. van Dijk, \u201cEenige aanteekeningen omtrent de verschillenden\n      stammen (_Margas_) en de stamverdeling bij de Battaks,\u201d _Tijdschrift\n      voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxxviii. (1895) pp. 296\n      _sq._; M. Joustra, \u201cNaar het landschap Goenoeng,\u201d _Mededeelingen van\n      wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_, xlv. (1901) pp. 80\n      _sq._; _id._, \u201cHet leven, de zeden en gewoonten der Bataks,\u201d\n      _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche Zendelinggenootschap_,\n      xlvi. (1902) pp. 387 _sqq._; J. E. Neumann, \u201cKemali, Pantang, en\n      R\u0115boe bij de Karo-Bataks,\u201d _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en\n      Volkenkunde_, xlviii. (1906) p. 512. See further _Totemism and\n      Exogamy_, ii. 185 _sqq._\n\n  598 B. Hagen, \u201cBeitr\u00e4ge zur Kenntniss der Battareligion,\u201d _Tijdschrift\n      voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xxviii. (1883) p. 514. J.\n      B. Neumann (_op. cit._ dl. iii. No. 2, pp. 299) is the authority for\n      the seven souls. According to another writer, six out of the seven\n      souls reside outside of the body; one of them dwells in heaven, the\n      remaining five have no definite place of abode, but are so closely\n      related to the man that were they to abandon him his health would\n      suffer. See J. Freiherr von Brenner, _Besuch bei den Kannibalen\n      Sumatras_, pp. 239 _sq._ A different account of Batta psychology is\n      given by Mr. Westenberg. According to him, each Batta has only one\n      _tendi_ (not three or seven of them); and the _tendi_ is something\n      between a soul and a guardian spirit. It always resides outside of\n      the body, and on its position near, before, behind, above, or below,\n      the welfare of its owner is supposed in great measure to depend. But\n      in addition each man has two invisible guardian spirits (his _kaka_\n      and _agi_) whose help he invokes in great danger; one is the seed by\n      which he was begotten, the other is the afterbirth, and these he\n      calls respectively his elder and his younger brother. Mr.\n      Westenberg\u2019s account refers specially to the Karo-Battas. See C. J.\n      Westenberg, \u201cAanteekeningen omtrent de godsdienstige begrippen der\n      Karo-Bataks,\u201d _Bijdragen tot de Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van\n      Nederlandsch Indi\u00eb_, xli. (1892) pp. 228 _sq._\n\n M173 If a totem is the receptacle in which a man keeps his external soul,\n      it is no wonder that savages should conceal the secret from\n      strangers.\n\n  599 Compare Ch. Hose and W. McDougall, _The Pagan Tribes of Borneo_\n      (London, 1912), ii. 90 _sqq._: \u201cAn important institution among some\n      of the Ibans, which occurs but in rare instances among the other\n      peoples, is the _ngarong_ or secret helper. The _ngarong_ is one of\n      the very few topics in regard to which the Ibans display any\n      reluctance to speak freely. So great is their reserve in this\n      connection that one of us lived for fourteen years on friendly terms\n      with Ibans of various districts without ascertaining the meaning of\n      the word _ngarong_, or suspecting the great importance of the part\n      played by the notion in the lives of some of these people. The\n      _ngarong_ seems to be usually the spirit of some ancestor or dead\n      relative, but not always so, and it is not clear that it is always\n      conceived as the spirit of a deceased human being. This spirit\n      becomes the special protector of some individual Iban, to whom in a\n      dream he manifests himself, in the first place in human form, and\n      announces that he will be his secret helper.... When, as is most\n      commonly the case, the secret helper takes on the form of some\n      animal, all individuals of that species become objects of especial\n      regard to the fortunate Iban; he will not kill or eat any such\n      animal, and he will as far as possible restrain others from doing\n      so.\u201d Thus the _ngarong_ or secret helper of the Ibans closely\n      resembles what I have called the individual or personal totem.\n\n  600 It is not merely the personal name which is often shrouded in\n      mystery (see _Taboo and the Perils of the Soul_, pp. 318 _sqq._);\n      the names of the clans and their subdivisions are objects of\n      mysterious reverence among many, if not all, of the Siouan tribes of\n      North America, and are never used in ordinary conversation. See J.\n      Owen Dorsey, \u201cOsage Traditions,\u201d _Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau\n      of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1888), p. 396. Among the Yuin of\n      South-Eastern Australia \u201cthe totem name was called _Budjan_, and it\n      was said to be more like _Jo\u00efa_, or magic, than a name; and it was\n      in one sense a secret name, for with it an enemy might cause injury\n      to its bearer by magic. Thus very few people knew the totem names of\n      others, the name being told to a youth by his father at his\n      initiation\u201d (A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_,\n      London, 1904, p. 133).\n\n M174 This view of totemism may help to explain the rite of death and\n      resurrection which forms part of many initiatory ceremonies among\n      savages.\n\n  601 Theodor Benfey, _Pantschatantra_ (Leipsic, 1859), i. 128 _sq._\n      Similarly a man of the Kulin tribe in Victoria was called Kurburu,\n      that is, \u201cnative bear,\u201d because the spirit of a native bear was\n      supposed to have entered into him when he killed the animal, and to\n      have endowed him with its wonderful cleverness. This I learn from\n      Miss E. B. Howitt\u2019s _Folklore and Legends of some Victorian Tribes_\n      (chapter vi.), which I have been privileged to see in manuscript.\n      Among the Chiquites Indians of Paraguay sickness was sometimes\n      accounted for by supposing that the soul of a deer or a turtle had\n      entered into the patient. See _Lettres \u00c9difiantes et Curieuses_,\n      Nouvelle \u00c9dition, viii. (Paris, 1781) p. 339. We have seen (pp. 213\n      _sq._) that the Indians of Honduras made an alliance with the animal\n      that was to be their _nagual_ by offering some of their own blood to\n      it. Conversely the North American Indian kills the animal which is\n      to be his personal totem, and thenceforth wears some part of the\n      creature as an amulet (_Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 50). These facts\n      seem to point to the establishment of a blood covenant, involving an\n      interchange of life between a man and his personal totem or\n      _nagual_; and among the Fans of West Africa, as we saw (above, p.\n      201), such a covenant is actually supposed to exist between a\n      sorcerer and his _elangela_.\n\n M175 The rite of death and resurrection among the Wonghi of New South\n      Wales.\n\n  602 A. L. P. Cameron, \u201cNotes on some Tribes of New South Wales,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv. (1885) pp. 357\n      _sq._ Compare A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_\n      (London, 1904), pp. 588 _sq._\n\n M176 Use of the bull-roarer at initiatory ceremonies in Australia. The\n      sound of the bull-roarer compared to thunder. Belief of the Dieri\n      that by sounding a bull-roarer a newly initiated young man produces\n      a supply of edible snakes and lizards.\n\n  603 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central\n      Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 213, 453.\n\n  604 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_ (London,\n      1904), p. 538. As to Daramulun (of whose name Thuremlin is no doubt\n      only a dialectical variation) see _id._, pp. 407, 493, 494 _sq._,\n      497, 499, 500, 507, 523 _sq._, 526, 528, 529 _sq._, 535, 540, 541,\n      585 _sq._, 587; _id._, \u201cOn some Australian Ceremonies of\n      Initiation,\u201d _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii.\n      (1884) pp. 442, 443, 446, 447, 448, 450, 451, 452, 455, 456, 459. On\n      the bull-roarer see Andrew Lang, _Custom and Myth_ (London, 1884),\n      pp. 29-44; J. D. E. Schmeltz, _Das Schwirrholz_ (Hamburg, 1896); A.\n      C. Haddon, _The Study of Man_ (London and New York, 1898), pp.\n      277-327; J. G. Frazer, \u201cOn some Ceremonies of the Central Australian\n      Aborigines,\u201d _Proceedings of the Australasian Association for the\n      Advancement of Science for the Year 1900_ (Melbourne, 1901), pp.\n      317-322. The religious or magical use of the bull-roarer is best\n      known in Australia. See, for example, L. Fison and A. W. Howitt,\n      _Kamilaroi and Kurnai_ (Melbourne, Sydney, Adelaide, and Brisbane,\n      1880), pp. 267-269; A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East\n      Australia_, pp. 354, 509 _sq._, 514, 515, 517, 569, 571, 575, 578,\n      579, 582, 583, 584, 589, 592, 594, 595, 606, 659 _sq._, 670, 672,\n      696, 715; Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of\n      Central Australia_ (London, 1899), pp. 246, 344, 347; W. Baldwin\n      Spencer, _Introduction to the Study of Certain Native Tribes of the\n      Northern Territory_ (_Bulletin of the Northern Territory_, No. 2)\n      (Melbourne, 1912), pp. 19 _sq._, 23, 24, 31 _sq._, 37 _sqq._; A. R.\n      Brown, \u201cThree Tribes of Western Australia,\u201d _Journal of the Royal\n      Anthropological Institute_, xliii. (1913) pp. 168, 174; R.\n      Pettazzoni, \u201cMythologie Australienne du Rhombe,\u201d _Revue de\n      l\u2019Histoire des Religions_, lxv. (1912) pp. 149-170. But in the essay\n      just referred to Mr. Andrew Lang shewed that the instrument has been\n      similarly employed not only by savages in various parts of the\n      world, but also by the ancient Greeks in their religious mysteries.\n      In the Torres Straits Islands it is used both at the initiation of\n      young men and as a magical instrument. See _Reports of the Cambridge\n      Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904)\n      pp. 217, 218, 219, 328, 330-333, 346, 352. In various parts of New\n      Guinea it is sounded at the initiation of young men and is carefully\n      concealed from women; the sound is thought to be the voice of a\n      spirit. See Rev. J. Chalmers, _Pioneering in New Guinea_ (London,\n      1887), p. 85; _id._, \u201cToaripi,\u201d _Journal of the Anthropological\n      Institute_, xxvii. (1898) p. 329; Rev. J. Holmes, \u201cInitiation\n      Ceremonies of Natives of the Papuan Gulf,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Anthropological Institute_, xxxii. (1902) pp. 420, 424 _sq._; O.\n      Schellong, \u201cDas Barlum-fest der Gegend Finsch-hafens,\u201d\n      _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) pp. 150 _sq._,\n      154 _sq._; F. Grabowsky, \u201cDer Bezirk von Hatzfeldthafen und seine\n      Bewohner,\u201d _Petermanns Mitteilungen_, xli. (1895) p. 189; B. Hagen,\n      _Unter den Papua\u2019s_ (Wiesbaden, 1899), pp. 188 _sq._; Max Krieger,\n      _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, preface dated 1899), pp. 168 _sqq._; J.\n      Vetter, in _Mitteilungen der Geographischen Gesellschaft zu Jena_,\n      xi. (1892) p. 105; K. Vetter, in _Nachrichten \u00fcber Kaiser\n      Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel, 1897_ (Berlin), p. 93; R.\n      Neuhauss, _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, 1911), pp. 36, 297, 403, 406\n      _sq._, 410-412, 494 _sqq._; Otto Reche, _Der Kaiserin-Augusta-Fluss_\n      (Hamburg, 1913), pp. 349 _sqq._ (_Ergebnisse der S\u00fcdsee-Expedition\n      1908-1910_, herausgegeben von G. Thilenius). It is similarly used at\n      the circumcision-festivals in the French Islands, to the west of New\n      Britain (R. Parkinson, _Dreissig Jahre in der S\u00fcdsee_, Stuttgart,\n      1907, pp. 640 _sq._), and it is employed at mysteries or mourning\n      ceremonies in Bougainville and other Melanesian Islands. See R.\n      Parkinson, _op. cit._ pp. 658 _sq._; _id._, _Zur Ethnographie der\n      Nordwestlichen Salomo Inseln_ (Berlin, 1899), p. 11; R. H.\n      Codrington, _The Melanesians_ (Oxford, 1891), pp. 98 _sq._, 342.\n      Among the Minangkabauers of Sumatra the bull-roarer (_gasi\u0115ng_) is\n      used by a rejected lover to induce the demons to carry off the soul\n      of the jilt and so drive her mad. It is made of the frontal bone of\n      a brave or skilful man, and some of the intended victim\u2019s hair is\n      attached to it. See J. L. van der Toorn, \u201cHet animisme bij den\n      Minangkabauer in der Padangsche Bovenlanden,\u201d _Bijdragen tot de\n      Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde van Nederlandsch Indi\u00eb_, xxxix. (1890)\n      pp. 55 _sq._ Among the Yoruba-speaking negroes of the Slave Coast in\n      West Africa, particularly at Abeokuta, the sound of the bull-roarer\n      is supposed to be the voice of a great bogey named Oro, whose\n      votaries compose a secret society under the name of Ogboni. When the\n      sound of the bull-roarer is heard in the streets, every woman must\n      shut herself up in her house and not look out of the window under\n      pain of death. See R. F. Burton, _Abeokuta and the Cameroons\n      Mountains_ (London, 1863), i. 197 _sq._;, Missionary Chautard, in\n      _Annales de la Propagation de la Foi_, lv. (Lyons, 1883) pp.\n      192-198; Missionary Baudin, \u201cLe F\u00e9tichisme,\u201d _Les Missions\n      Catholiques_, xvi. (1884) p. 257; P. Bouche, _La C\u00f4te des Esclaves\n      et le Dahomey_ (Paris, 1885), p. 124; Mrs. R. B. Batty and Governor\n      Moloney, \u201cNotes on the Yoruba Country,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Anthropological Institute_, xix. (1890) pp. 160-164; A. B. Ellis,\n      _The Yoruba-speaking Peoples of the Slave Coast of West Africa_\n      (London, 1894), pp. 110 _sq._; R. H. Stone, _In Afric\u2019s Forest and\n      Jungle_ (Edinburgh and London, 1900), p. 88; L. Frobenius, _Die\n      Masken und Geheimb\u00fcnde Afrikas_ (Halle, 1898), pp. 95 _sqq._ (_Nova\n      Acta, Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der\n      Naturforscher_, vol. lxxiv. No. 1). Among the Nandi of British East\n      Africa and the Bushongo of the Congo region bull-roarers are sounded\n      by men to frighten novices at initiation. See A. C. Hollis, _The\n      Nandi_ (Oxford, 1909), pp. 40, 56; E. Torday and T. A. Joyce, _Les\n      Bushongo_ (Brussels, 1910), p. 82. Among the Caffres of South Africa\n      and the Boloki of the Upper Congo the bull-roarer is a child\u2019s toy,\n      but yet is thought to be endowed with magical virtue. See below, p.\n      232 note 3. Among the Koskimo Indians of British Columbia the sound\n      of the bull-roarers is supposed to be the voice of a spirit who\n      comes to fetch away the novices. See Franz Boas, \u201cThe Social\n      Organization and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,\u201d\n      _Report of the United States National Museum_ (Washington, 1897), p.\n      610. The bull-roarer is used as a sacred or magical instrument for\n      the making of rain by the Zu\u00f1i and other Pueblo Indians of Arizona\n      and New Mexico, also by the Navajos and Apaches of the same region,\n      and by the Utes of Nevada and Utah. See Dr. Washington Matthews,\n      \u201cThe Mountain Chant, a Navajo Ceremony,\u201d _Fifth Annual Report of the\n      Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), pp. 435, 436; Captain J. G.\n      Bourke, \u201cThe Medicine-men of the Apache,\u201d _Ninth Annual Report of\n      the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), pp. 476-479; Mrs.\n      Matilda Coxe Stevenson, \u201cThe Zu\u00f1i Indians,\u201d _Twenty-third Report of\n      the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington, 1904), pp. 115, 117,\n      128 _sq._, 175, 177, 355. The Guatusos of Costa Rica ascertain the\n      will of the deity by listening to the humming sound of the\n      bull-roarer. See Dr. C. Sapper, \u201cEin Besuch bei den Guatusos in\n      Costarica,\u201d _Globus_, lxxvi. (1899) p. 352; _id._, \u201cBeitr\u00e4ge zur\n      Ethnographie des s\u00fcdlichen Mittelamerika,\u201d _Petermanns\n      Mitteilungen_, xlvii. (1901) p. 36. The Caripunas Indians of the\n      Madeira River, in Brazil, sound bull-roarers in lamentations for the\n      dead. See Franz Keller, _The Amazon and Madeira Rivers_ (London,\n      1874), p. 124. The Bororo of Brazil also swing bull-roarers at their\n      festivals of the dead; the sound of them is the signal for the women\n      to hide themselves; it is believed that women and children would die\n      if they saw a bull-roarer. See K. von den Steinen, _Unter den\n      Naturv\u00f6lkern Zentral-Brasilien\u2019s_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 497-499. The\n      Nahuqua and other Brazilian tribes use bull-roarers in their masked\n      dances, but make no mystery of them. See K. von den Steinen, _op.\n      cit._ pp. 327 _sq._ As to the magical use of the bull-roarer, see\n      pp. 230 _sqq._\n\n  605 A. W. Howitt, \u201cThe Dieri and other Kindred Tribes of Central\n      Australia,\u201d _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xx. (1891)\n      p. 83; _id._, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 660. In\n      the latter passage Dr. Howitt omits the not unimportant particular\n      that the bull-roarer is swung for this purpose by the young man\n      _before his wounds are healed_.\n\n  606 On the desert nature of Central Australia and the magical-like\n      change wrought in its fauna and flora by heavy rain, see Baldwin\n      Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_\n      (London, 1899), pp. 4 _sq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 170 _sqq._,\n      316 _sqq._, 341 _sq._; J. G. Frazer, \u201cHowitt and Fison,\u201d\n      _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 160, 162 _sq._, 164.\n\n M177 The bull-roarer used by the Indians of New Mexico and Arizona to\n      procure rain. The bull-roarer used in Torres Straits Islands to\n      produce wind and good crops.\n\n  607 Captain J. G. Bourke, \u201cThe Medicine-men of the Apache,\u201d _Ninth\n      Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1892), pp.\n      476 _sq._\n\n  608 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, \u201cThe Zu\u00f1i Indians,\u201d _Twenty-third\n      Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology_ (Washington,\n      1904), pp. 115, 355.\n\n  609 Mrs. Matilda Coxe Stevenson, _op. cit._ p. 175; compare _id._, pp.\n      128 _sq._, 177.\n\n  610 Dr. Washington Matthews, \u201cThe Navajo Chant,\u201d _Fifth Annual Report of\n      the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1887), p. 436; compare _id._,\n      p. 435, where the sound of the bull-roarer is said to be \u201clike that\n      of a rain storm.\u201d\n\n  611 Karl von den Steinen, _Unter den Naturv\u00f6lkern Zentral-Brasiliens_\n      (Berlin, 1894), p. 328.\n\n_  612 Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition to Torres\n      Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) p. 352.\n\n  613 G. McCall Theal, _Kaffir Folk-lore_ (London, 1886), pp. 222 _sq._;\n      _id._, _Records of South-Eastern Africa_, vii. (1901) p. 456; Dudley\n      Kidd, _The Essential Kafir_ (London, 1904), p. 333. For an analogous\n      reason among the Boloki of the Upper Congo the elders do not like\n      when boys play with bull-roarers, because the sound resembles the\n      growl of a leopard and will attract these ferocious animals. See\n      Rev. John H. Weeks, _Among Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1913), p. 157.\n\n  614 A. C. Haddon, _Head-hunters, Black, White, and Brown_ (London,\n      1901), p. 104; _Reports of the Cambridge Anthropological Expedition\n      to Torres Straits_, v. (Cambridge, 1904) pp. 218, 219; Rev. J.\n      Chalmers, \u201cNotes on the Natives of Kiwai Island,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Anthropological Institute_, xxxiii. (1903) p. 119.\n\n  615 H. Zahn, \u201cDie Jabim,\u201d in R. Neuhauss\u2019s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin,\n      1911), iii. 333.\n\n M178 The whirling of bull-roarers by young men with bleeding backs in\n      Australia seems to have been a rain-making ceremony.\n\n_  616 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 256-258.\n\n  617 This appears to be the view also of Professor K. von den Steinen\n      (_Unter den Naturv\u00f6lkern Zentral-Brasiliens_, pp. 327 _sq._), who is\n      probably right in thinking that the primary intention of the\n      instrument is to make thunder, and that the idea of making rain is\n      secondary.\n\n M179 The sound of the bull-roarer at initiation is believed by Australian\n      women and children to be the voice of a spirit, who carries away the\n      novices.\n\n  618 A. W. Howitt, \u201cOn Australian Medicine Men,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Anthropological Institute_, xvi. (1887) pp. 47 _sq._; compare _id._,\n      _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, p. 596.\n\n  619 Baldwin Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central\n      Australia_, p. 246 note 1; _id._, _Northern Tribes of Central\n      Australia_ (London, 1904), p. 497. According to the classificatory\n      system of relationship, which prevails among all the aborigines of\n      Australia, a man may have, and generally has, a number of women who\n      stand to him in the relation of mother as well as of sister, though\n      there need not be a drop of blood in common between them, as we\n      count kin. This explains the reference in the text to a boy\u2019s\n      \u201cmothers.\u201d\n\n M180 In some Australian tribes the women believe that lads at initiation\n      are killed and brought to life again by a spirit, whose voice is\n      heard in the sound of the bull-roarer.\n\n  620 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_,\n      pp. 342 _sq._, 498.\n\n  621 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ p. 498.\n\n  622 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 366 _sq._, 501.\n\n  623 Spencer and Gillen, _op. cit._ pp. 373, 501.\n\n M181 A drama of resurrection from the dead used to be shewn to novices at\n      initiation in some tribes of New South Wales. Dr. Howitt\u2019s\n      description of the scene. The seeming dead man in the grave. The\n      resurrection from the grave.\n\n  624 A. W. Howitt, _Native Tribes of South-East Australia_, pp. 554-556.\n      Compare _id._, \u201cOn some Australian Ceremonies of Initiation,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) pp. 453\n      _sq._\n\n M182 In some Australian tribes a medicine-man at his initiation is\n      thought to be killed and raised again from the dead.\n\n  625 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_,\n      pp. 523-525; _id._, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, 480\n      _sq._, 484, 485, 487, 488; _id._, _Across Australia_ (London, 1912),\n      ii. 334 _sqq._\n\n  626 Spencer and Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_, pp. 480\n      _sq._\n\n  627 F. J. Gillen, \u201cNotes on some Manners and Customs of the Aborigines\n      of the McDonnel Ranges belonging to the Arunta Tribe,\u201d in _Report on\n      the Work of the Horn Scientific Expedition to Central Australia_,\n      Part iv. _Anthropology_ (London and Melbourne, 1896), pp. 180 _sq._;\n      B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Native Tribes of Central Australia_\n      (London, 1899), pp. 523 _sq._; _id._, _Across Australia_ (London,\n      1912), ii. 335.\n\n M183 Notable features in the initiation of Australian medicine-men.\n\n  628 B. Spencer and F. J. Gillen, _Northern Tribes of Central Australia_,\n      pp. 487, 488; _id._, _Across Australia_, ii. 481 _sq._\n\n M184 Rites of initiation in some tribes of German New Guinea. The novices\n      thought to be swallowed and disgorged by a monster, whose voice is\n      heard in the hum of the bull-roarers.\n M185 The return of the novices after initiation.\n\n  629 As to the initiatory rites among the Yabim, see K. Vetter, in\n      _Nachrichten \u00fcber Kaiser Wilhelms-Land und den Bismarck-Archipel_,\n      1897, pp. 92 _sq._; _id._, in _Mitteilungen der Geographischen\n      Gesellschaft zu Jena_, xi. (1892) p. 105; _id._, _Komm her\u00fcber und\n      hilf uns!_ ii. (Barmen, 1898) p. 18; _id._, cited by M. Krieger,\n      _Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin, preface dated 1899), pp. 167-170; O.\n      Schellong, \u201cDas Barlum-fest der Gegend Finschhafens,\u201d\n      _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) pp. 145-162;\n      H. Zahn, \u201cDie Jabim,\u201d in R. Neuhauss\u2019s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_ (Berlin,\n      1911), iii. 296-298. As to the initiatory rites among the Bukaua,\n      see S. Lehner, \u201cBukaua,\u201d in R. Neuhauss\u2019s _Deutsch Neu-Guinea_, iii.\n      402-410; among the Kai, see Ch. Keysser, \u201cAus dem Kai-Leute,\u201d\n      _ibid._ pp. 34-40; among the Tami, see G. Bamler, \u201cTami,\u201d _ibid._\n      pp. 493-507. I have described the rites of the various tribes more\n      in detail in _The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the\n      Dead_, i. 250-255, 260 _sq._, 290 _sq._, 301 _sq._ In the Bukaua and\n      Tami tribes the initiation ceremonies are performed not in the\n      forest but in a special house built for the purpose in the village,\n      which the women are obliged to vacate till the rites are over.\n\n M186 The monster who is supposed to swallow the novices is apparently\n      conceived as a ghost or ancestral spirit.\n\n_  630 The Belief in Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, i. 250,\n      251, 255, 261, 290 _sq._, 301. Among the Bukaua not only does the\n      bull-roarer bear the general name for a ghost (_balum_), but each\n      particular bull-roarer bears in addition the name of a particular\n      dead man, and varies in dignity and importance with the dignity and\n      importance of the deceased person whom it represents. And besides\n      the big bull-roarers with gruff voices there are little bull-roarers\n      with shrill voices, which represent the shrill-voiced wives of the\n      ancient heroes. See S. Lehner, \u201cBukaua,\u201d in R. Neuhauss\u2019s _Deutsch\n      Neu-Guinea_, iii. 410-412.\n\n  631 R. P\u00f6ch, \u201cVierter Bericht \u00fcber meine Reise nach Neu-Guinea,\u201d\n      _Sitzungsberichte der mathematischen-naturwissenschaftlichen Klasse\n      der Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften_ (Vienna), cxv. (1906)\n      Abteilung i. pp. 901, 902.\n\n M187 The drama of death and resurrection used to be enacted before young\n      men at initiation in some parts of Fiji.\n\n  632 Rev. Lorimer Fison, \u201cThe _Nanga_ or Sacred Stone Enclosure of\n      Wainimala, Fiji,\u201d _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xiv.\n      (1885) p. 27. The _Nanga_ or sacred enclosure of stones, with its\n      sacred rites, was known only to certain tribes of Fiji (the Nuyaloa,\n      Vatusila, Mbatiwai, and Mdavutukia), who inhabited a comparatively\n      small area, barely a third, of the island of Viti Levu. As to the\n      institution in general, see Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ pp.\n      14-31; A. B. Joske, \u201cThe Nanga of Viti-levu,\u201d _Internationales\n      Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) pp. 254-266; Basil Thomson,\n      _The Fijians_ (London, 1908), pp. 146-157. Compare _The Belief in\n      Immortality and the Worship of the Dead_, i. 427-438.\n\n  633 Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ p. 26; Basil Thomson, _op. cit._ 147.\n\n  634 Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ pp. 27 _sq._ The phrase \u201cthe\n      ancestral gods\u201d is used by Mr. Fison, one of our best authorities on\n      Fijian religion. Mr. Basil Thomson (_op. cit._ p. 157) questions the\n      accuracy of Mr. Fison\u2019s account of this vicarious sacrifice on the\n      ground that every youth was regularly circumcised as a matter of\n      course. But there seems to be no inconsistency between the two\n      statements. While custom required that every youth should be\n      circumcised, the exact time for performing the ceremony need not\n      have been rigidly prescribed; and if a saving or atoning virtue was\n      attributed to the sacrifice of foreskins, it might be thought\n      desirable in cases of emergency, such as serious illness, to\n      anticipate it for the benefit of the sufferer.\n\n  635 According to Mr. Fison, the enclosure was divided into three\n      compartments; Mr. Basil Thomson describes only two, though by\n      speaking of one of them as the \u201cMiddle Nanga\u201d he seems to imply that\n      there were three. The structure was a rough parallelogram lying east\n      and west, about a hundred feet long by fifty feet broad, enclosed by\n      walls or rows of stone slabs embedded endwise in the earth. See\n      Basil Thomson, _op. cit._ pp. 147 _sq._\n\n M188 Description of the rite. The mimic death. The mimic resurrection.\n      The sacramental meal. The intention of the rite.\n\n  636 A. B. Joske, \u201cThe Nanga of Vitilevu,\u201d _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr\n      Ethnographie_, ii. (1889) p. 259; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_, pp.\n      150 _sq._ According to Mr. Fison (_op. cit._ p. 19) the initiatory\n      ceremonies were held as a rule only every second year; but he adds:\n      \u201cThis period, however, is not necessarily restricted to two years.\n      There are always a number of youths who are growing to the proper\n      age, and the length of the interval depends upon the decision of the\n      elders.\u201d Perhaps the seeming discrepancy between our authorities on\n      this point may be explained by Mr. Joske\u2019s statement (p. 259) that\n      the rites are held in alternate years by two different sets of men,\n      the Kai Vesina and the Kai Rukuruku, both of whom claim to be\n      descended from the original founders of the rites. The custom of\n      dating the New Year by observation of the Pleiades was apparently\n      universal among the Polynesians. See _The Spirits of the Corn and of\n      the Wild_, i. 312 _sq._\n\n  637 Rev. Lorimer Fison, _op. cit._ pp. 20-23; A. B. Joske, _op. cit._\n      pp. 264 _sq._; Basil Thomson, _The Fijians_, pp. 150-153. The\n      sacramental character of the meal is recognized by Mr. Fison, who\n      says (p. 23) that after the performance of the rites the novices\n      \u201care now _V\u012blav\u00f3u_, accepted members of the _Nanga_, qualified to\n      take their place among the men of the community, though still only\n      on probation. As children\u2014their childhood being indicated by their\n      shaven heads\u2014they were presented to the ancestors, and their\n      acceptance was notified by what (looking at the matter from the\n      natives\u2019 standpoint) we might, without irreverance, almost call the\n      _sacrament_ of food and water, too sacred even for the elders\u2019 hands\n      to touch.\u201d\n\n M189 Initiatory rite in the island of Rook: pretence that the novices are\n      swallowed by the devil. Secret society of the Duk-duk in New\n      Britain. Novices supposed to be killed. The new birth.\n\n  638 Paul Reina, \u201cUeber die Bewohner der Insel Rook,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr\n      allgemeine Erdkunde_, N.F., iv. (1858) pp. 356 _sq._\n\n  639 R. Parkinson, _Im Bismarck Archipel_ (Leipsic, 1887), pp. 129-134;\n      _id._ _Dreissig Jahre in der S\u00fcdsee_ (Stuttgart, 1907), pp. 567\n      _sqq._; Rev. G. Brown, \u201cNotes on the Duke of York Group, New\n      Britain, and New Ireland,\u201d _Journal of the Royal Geographical\n      Society_, xlvii. (1878) pp. 148 _sq._; H. H. Romilly, \u201cThe Islands\n      of the New Britain Group,\u201d _Proceedings of the Royal Geographical\n      Society_, N.S., ix. (1887) pp. 11 _sq._; Rev. G. Brown, _ibid._ p.\n      17; _id._, _Melanesians and Polynesians_ (London, 1910), pp. 60\n      _sqq._; W. Powell, _Wanderings in a Wild Country_ (London, 1883),\n      pp. 60-66; C. Hager, _Kaiser Wilhelm\u2019s Land und der Bismarck\n      Archipel_ (Leipsic, N.D.), pp. 115-128; Hubner, quoted by W. H.\n      Dall, \u201cOn masks, labrets, and certain aboriginal customs,\u201d _Third\n      Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), p.\n      100; P. A. Kleintitschen, _Die K\u00fcstenbewohner der Gazellehalbinsel_\n      (Hiltrup bei M\u00fcnster, N.D.), pp. 350 _sqq._; H. Schurtz,\n      _Altersklassen und M\u00e4nnerb\u00fcnde_ (Berlin, 1902), pp. 369-377. The\n      inhabitants of these islands are divided into two exogamous classes,\n      which in the Duke of York Island have two insects for their totems.\n      One of the insects is the _mantis religiosus_; the other is an\n      insect that mimics the leaf of the horse-chestnut tree very closely.\n      See Rev. B. Danks, \u201cMarriage Customs of the New Britain Group,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xviii. (1889) pp. 281\n      _sq._; _Totemism and Exogamy_, ii. 118 _sqq._\n\n M190 Initiatory rite in Halmahera: pretence of begetting the novices\n      anew.\n\n  640 J. G. F. Riedel, \u201cGalela und Tobeloresen,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr\n      Ethnologie_, xvii. (1885) pp. 81 _sq._\n\n M191 The Kakian association in Ceram. The rite of initiation: pretence of\n      killing the novices.\n\n  641 The Kakian association and its initiatory ceremonies have often been\n      described. See Fran\u00e7ois Valentyn, _Oud en nieuw Oost-Indi\u00ebn_\n      (Dordrecht and Amsterdam, 1724-1726), iii. 3 _sq._; Von Schmid, \u201cHet\n      Kakihansch Verbond op het eiland Ceram,\u201d _Tijdschrift voor Ne\u00e9rlands\n      Indi\u00eb_ (Batavia, 1843), dl. ii. pp. 25-38; A. van Ekris, \u201cHet\n      Ceramsche Kakianverbond,\u201d _Mededeelingen van wege het Nederlandsche\n      Zendelinggenootschap_, ix. (1865) pp. 205-226 (repeated with slight\n      changes in _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_,\n      xvi. (1867) pp. 290-315); P. Fournier, \u201cDe Zuidkust van Ceram,\u201d\n      _Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal- Land- en Volkenkunde_, xvi. (1867)\n      pp. 154-156; W. A. van Rees, _Die Pionniers der Beschaving in\n      Ne\u00earlands Indi\u00eb_ (Arnheim, 1867), pp. 92-106; G. W. W. C. Baron van\n      Ho\u00ebvell, _Ambon en meer bepaaldelijk de Oeliasers_ (Dordrecht,\n      1875), pp. 153 _sqq._; Schulze, \u201cUeber Ceram und seine Bewohner,\u201d\n      _Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft f\u00fcr Anthropologie,\n      Ethnologie, und Urgeschichte_ (1877), p. 117; W. Joest, \u201cBeitr\u00e4ge\n      zur Kenntniss der Eingebornen der Insel Formosa und Ceram,\u201d _ibid._\n      (1882) p. 64; H. von Rosenberg, _Der Malayische Archipel_ (Leipsic,\n      1878), p. 318; A. Bastian, _Indonesien_, i. (Berlin, 1884) pp.\n      145-148; J. G. F. Riedel, _De sluik- en kroesharige rassen tusschen\n      Selebes en Papua_ (The Hague, 1886), pp. 107-111; O. D. Tauern,\n      \u201cCeram,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Ethnologie_, xlv. (1913) pp. 167 _sq._ The\n      best accounts are those of Valentyn, Von Schmid, Van Ekris, Van\n      Rees, and Riedel, which are accordingly followed in the text.\n\n M192 The resurrection of the novices.\n M193 The secret society of _Ndembo_ in the valley of the Lowe Congo.\n\n  642 No reason is assigned for this curious choice of a president. Can it\n      have been that, because negro children are born pale or nearly\n      white, an albino was deemed a proper president for a society, all\n      the initiated members of which claimed to have been born again?\n      Speaking of the people of the Lower Congo the old English traveller\n      Andrew Battel observes that \u201cthe children of this country are born\n      white, but change their colour in two days\u2019 time to a perfect black\u201d\n      (\u201cAdventures of Andrew Battel,\u201d in J. Pinkerton\u2019s _Voyages and\n      Travels_, xvi. London, 1814, p. 331).\n\n M194 Pretence of death as a preliminary to resurrection.\n M195 Seclusion of the novices.\n M196 Resurrection of the novices. Pretence of the novices that they have\n      forgotten everything.\n\n  643 Rev. J. H. Weeks, \u201cNotes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,\u201d\n      _Folk-lore_, xx. (1909) pp. 189-198; Rev. W. H. Bentley, _Life on\n      the Congo_ (London, 1887), pp. 78 _sq._; _id._, _Pioneering on the\n      Congo_ (London, 1900), i. 284-287. Mr. Weeks\u2019s description of the\n      institution is the fullest and I have followed it in the text. The\n      custom was in vogue down to recent years, but seems to have been\n      suppressed chiefly by the exertions of the missionaries. Besides the\n      _ndembo_ guild there is, or was, in these regions another secret\n      society known as the _nkimba_, which some writers have confused with\n      the _ndembo_. The _nkimba_ was of a more harmless character than the\n      other; indeed it seems even to have served some useful purposes,\n      partly as a kind of freemasonry which encouraged mutual help among\n      its members, partly as a system of police for the repression of\n      crime, its professed object being to put down witchcraft and punish\n      witches. Only males were admitted to it. Candidates for initiation\n      were stupefied by a drug, but there was apparently no pretence of\n      killing them and bringing them to life again. Members of the society\n      had a home in the jungle away from the town, where the novices lived\n      together for a period varying from six months to two years. They\n      learned a secret language, and received new names; it was afterwards\n      an offence to call a man by the name of his childhood. Instead of\n      the red dye affected by members of the _ndembo_ guild, members of\n      the _nkimba_ guild whitened their bodies with pipe clay and wore\n      crinolines of palm frondlets. See Rev. W. H. Bentley, _Life on the\n      Congo_, pp. 80-83; _id._, _Pioneering on the Congo_, i. 282-284;\n      Rev. J. H. Weeks, _op. cit._ pp. 198-201; (Sir) H. H. Johnston, \u201cA\n      Visit to Mr. Stanley\u2019s Stations on the River Congo,\u201d _Proceedings of\n      the Royal Geographical Society_, N. S. v. (1883) pp. 572 _sq._; E.\n      Delmar Morgan, \u201cNotes on the Lower Congo,\u201d _id._, N.S. vi. (1884) p.\n      193. As to these two secret societies on the Lower Congo, see\n      further (Sir) H. H. Johnston, \u201cOn the Races of the Congo,\u201d _Journal\n      of the Anthropological Institute_, xiii. (1884) pp. 472 sq.; \u00c9.\n      Dupont, _Lettres sur le Congo_ (Paris, 1889), pp. 96-100; Herbert\n      Ward, _Five Years with the Congo Cannibals_ (London, 1890), pp. 54\n      _sq._; _id._ \u201cEthnographical Notes relating to the Congo Tribes,\u201d\n      _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv. (1895) pp. 288\n      _sq._; E. J. Glave, _Six Years of Adventure in Congo Land_ (London,\n      1893), pp. 80-83; L. Frobenius, _Die Masken und Geheimb\u00fcnde Afrikas_\n      (Halle, 1898), pp. 43-54 (_Nova Acta. Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop. Carol.\n      Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher_, vol. lxxiv. No. 1); H.\n      Schurtz, _Altersklassen und M\u00e4nnerb\u00fcnde_ (Berlin, 1902), pp.\n      433-437; _Notes Annalytiques sur les Collections Ethnographiques du\n      Mus\u00e9e du Congo_ (Brussels, 1902-1906), pp. 199-206; Ed. de Jonghe,\n      _Les Soci\u00e9t\u00e9s Secr\u00e8tes au Bas-Congo_ (Brussels, 1907), pp. 15 _sqq._\n      (extract from the _Revue des Questions Scientifiques_, October\n      1907). Some of these writers do not discriminate between the two\n      societies, the _ndembo_ and the _nkimba_. According to our best\n      authorities (Messrs. Bentley and Weeks) the two societies are quite\n      distinct and neither of them has anything to do with circumcision,\n      which is, however, prevalent in the region. See Rev. J. H. Weeks,\n      \u201cNotes on some Customs of the Lower Congo People,\u201d _Folk-lore_, xx.\n      (1909) pp. 304 _sqq._ A secret society of the Lower Congo which\n      Adolf Bastian has described under the name of _quimba_ is probably\n      identical with the _nkimba_. He speaks of a \u201cSecret Order of those\n      who have been born again,\u201d and tells us that the candidates \u201care\n      thrown into a death-like state and buried in the fetish house. When\n      they are wakened to life again, they have (as in the Belliparo) lost\n      their memory of everything that is past, even of their father and\n      mother, and they can no longer remember their own name. Hence new\n      names are given them according to the titles or ranks to which they\n      are advanced.\u201d See A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der\n      Loango-K\u00fcste_ (Jena, 1874-1875), ii. 15 _sqq._\n\n M197 Bastian\u2019s account of the ritual of death and resurrection in West\n      Africa.\n\n  644 A. Bastian, _Ein Besuch in San Salvador_ (Bremen, 1859), pp. 82\n      _sq._\n\n M198 Acquisition of a patron animal or guardian spirit in a dream.\n\n  645 A. Bastian, _Die deutsche Expedition an der Loango-K\u00fcste_, ii. 183.\n      Elsewhere Bastian says that about San Salvador lads at puberty are\n      secluded in the forest and circumcised, and during their seclusion\n      \u201ceach of them is mystically united to the fetish by which his life\n      is henceforth determined, as the Brahman whispers the secret charm\n      in the ear of him who has been born again.\u201d See A. Bastian, _Ein\n      Besuch in San Salvador_ (Bremen, 1859), pp. 85 _sq._\n\n  646 H. Trilles, _Le Tot\u00e9misme chez les F\u00e2\u1e45_ (M\u00fcnster i. W., 1912), pp.\n      479 _sq._ The writer speaks of the guardian spirit as the individual\n      totem of the young warrior.\n\n M199 Dapper\u2019s account of the ritual of death and resurrection in the\n      Belli-Paaro society.\n\n  647 O. Dapper, _Description de l\u2019Afrique_ (Amsterdam, 1686), pp. 268\n      _sq._ Dapper\u2019s account has been abridged in the text.\n\n M200 Miss Kingsley on the rites of initiation into secret societies in\n      West Africa.\n\n  648 Miss Mary H. Kingsley, _Travels in West Africa_ (London, 1867), p.\n      531. Perhaps the smearing with clay may be intended to indicate that\n      the novices have undergone the new birth; for the negro child,\n      though born reddish-brown, soon turns slaty-grey (E. B. Tylor,\n      _Anthropology_, London, 1881, p. 67), which would answer well enough\n      to the hue of the clay-bedaubed novices.\n\n M201 The _purra_ or _poro_, a secret society of Sierra Leone. The new\n      birth. The _semo_, a secret society of Senegambia. Death and\n      resurrection at initiation.\n\n  649 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the\n      Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), pp. 135 _sq._ Compare\n      John Matthews, _A Voyage to the River Sierra-Leone_ (London, 1791),\n      pp. 82-85; J. B. L. Durand, _Voyage au S\u00e9n\u00e9gal_ (Paris, 1802), pp.\n      183 _sq._ (whose account is copied without acknowledgment from\n      Matthews). The _purra_ or _poro_ society also exists among the\n      Timmes of Sierra Leone; in this tribe the novices are sometimes\n      secluded from their families for ten years in the wood, they are\n      tattooed on their backs and arms, and they learn a language which\n      consists chiefly of names of plants and animals used in special\n      senses. Women are not admitted to the society. See Zweifel et\n      Moustier, \u201cVoyage aux sources du Niger,\u201d _Bulletin de la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9 de\n      G\u00e9ographie_ (Paris), VI. S\u00e9rie, xv. (1878) pp. 108 _sq._\n\n  650 T. J. Alldridge, _The Sherbro and its Hinterland_ (London, 1901), p.\n      130. This work contains a comparatively full account of the _purra_\n      or _poro_ society (pp. 124-131) and of the other secret societies of\n      the country (pp. 131-149, 153-159). Compare L. Frobenius, _Die\n      Masken und Geheimb\u00fcnde Afrikas_ (Halle, 1898), pp. 138-144 (_Nova\n      Acta, Abh. der Kaiserl. Leop.-Carol. Deutschen Akademie der\n      Naturforscher_, vol. lxxiv. No. 1).\n\n  651 Thomas Winterbottom, _An Account of the Native Africans in the\n      Neighbourhood of Sierra Leone_ (London, 1803), pp. 137-139. As to\n      the _semo_ or _simo_ society see further L. Frobenius, _op. cit._\n      pp. 130-138.\n\n M202 Ritual of the new birth among the Akikuyu of British East Africa.\n\n  652 Extract from a letter of Mr. A. C. Hollis to me. Mr. Hollis\u2019s\n      authority is Dr. T. W. W. Crawford of the Kenia Medical Mission.\n\n  653 W. Scoresby Routledge and Katherine Routledge, _With a Prehistoric\n      People, the Akikuyu of British East Africa_ (London, 1910), p. 152.\n      Compare C. W. Hobley, \u201cKikuyu Customs and Beliefs,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Royal Anthropological Institute_, xl. (1910) p. 441.\n\n  654 Mr. A. W. McGregor, of the Church Missionary Society, quoted by W.\n      S. Routledge and K. Routledge, _With a Prehistoric People_, p. 151,\n      note. 1. Mr. McGregor \u201chas resided amongst the Akikuyu since 1901.\n      He has by his tact and kindness won the confidence of the natives,\n      and is the greatest authority on their language\u201d (_id._, p. xxi).\n\n  655 W. S. Routledge and K. Routledge, _op. cit._ p. 151.\n\n M203 Rites of initiation among the Bondeis of East Africa. Rites of\n      initiation among the Bushongo of the Congo. The first ordeal. The\n      second ordeal. The last ordeal: the descent from the tree.\n\n  656 Rev. G. Dale, \u201cAn Account of the principal Customs and Habits of the\n      Natives inhabiting the Bondei Country,\u201d _Journal of the\n      Anthropological Institute_, xxv. (1896) p. 189.\n\n  657 E. Torday et T. A. Joyce, _Les Bushongo_ (Brussels, 1910), pp.\n      82-85. As for the title \u201cGod on Earth,\u201d applied to the principal\n      chief or king, see _id._, p. 53.\n\n M204 Rites of initiation among the Indians of Virginia: pretence of the\n      novices that they have forgotten their former life.\n\n  658 (Beverley\u2019s) _History of Virginia_ (London, 1722), pp. 177 _sq._\n      Compare J. Bricknell, _The Natural History of North Carolina_\n      (Dublin, 1737), pp. 405 _sq._\n\n M205 Ritual of death and resurrection at initiation into the secret\n      societies of North America. The medicine-bag as an instrument of\n      death and resurrection. Ritual of death and resurrection at\n      initiation among the Dacotas.\n\n  659 J. Carver, _Travels through the Interior Parts of North America_,\n      Third Edition (London, 1781), pp. 271-275. The thing thrown at the\n      man and afterwards vomited by him was probably not a bean but a\n      small white sea-shell (_Cypraea moneta_). See H. R. Schoolcraft,\n      _Indian Tribes of the United States_ (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), iii.\n      287; J. G. Kohl, _Kitschi-Gami_ (Bremen, 1859), i. 71; _Seventh\n      Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), pp.\n      191, 215; _Fourteenth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_\n      (Washington, 1896), p. 101.\n\n  660 J. Carver, _op. cit._ pp. 277 _sq._; H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian\n      Tribes of the United States_, iii. 287 (as to the Winnebagoes), v.\n      430 _sqq._ (as to the Chippeways and Sioux); J. G. Kohl,\n      _Kitschi-Gami_, i. 64-70 (as to the Ojebways). For a very detailed\n      account of the Ojebway ceremonies, see W. J. Hoffman, \u201cThe Midewiwin\n      or Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwa,\u201d _Seventh Annual Report of\n      the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1891), especially pp. 215\n      _sq._, 234 _sq._, 248, 265. For similar ceremonies among the\n      Menomini, see _id._, \u201cThe Menomini Indians,\u201d _Fourteenth Annual\n      Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1896), pp. 99-102;\n      and among the Omahas, see J. Owen Dorsey, \u201cOmaha Sociology,\u201d _Third\n      Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology_ (Washington, 1884), pp.\n      342-346. I have dealt more fully with the ritual in _Totemism and\n      Exogamy_, iii. 462 _sqq._ Compare also P. Radin, \u201cRitual and\n      Significance of the Winnebago Medicine Dance,\u201d _Journal of American\n      Folk-lore_, xxiv. (1911) pp. 149-208.\n\n  661 G. H. Pond, \u201cDakota superstitions,\u201d _Collections of the Minnesota\n      Historical Society for the year 1867_ (Saint Paul, 1867), pp. 35,\n      37-40. A similar but abridged account of the Dakota tradition and\n      usage is given by S. R. Riggs in his _Dakota Grammar, Texts, and\n      Ethnography_ (Washington, 1893), pp. 227-229 (_Contributions to\n      North American Ethnology_, vol. ix.).\n\n M206 Ritual of mimic death among the Indians of Nootka Sound.\n\n_  662 Narrative of the Adventures and Sufferings of John R. Jewitt_\n      (Middletown, 1820), p. 119.\n\n_  663 Id._, p. 44. For the age of the prince, see _id._, p. 35.\n\n  664 H. J. Holmberg, \u201cUeber die V\u00f6lker des russischen Amerika,\u201d _Acta\n      Societatis Scientiarum Fennicae_, iv. (Helsingfors, 1856) pp. 292\n      _sqq._, 328; Ivan Petroff, _Report on the Population, Industries and\n      Resources of Alaska_, pp. 165 _sq._; A. Krause, _Die\n      Tlinkit-Indianer_ (Jena, 1885), p. 112; R. C. Mayne, _Four Years in\n      British Columbia and Vancouver Island_ (London, 1862), pp. 257\n      _sq._, 268; _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 264 _sqq._\n\n M207 Rite of death and resurrection at initiation into the Nootka society\n      of human wolves. Novice brought back by an artificial totemic animal\n      among the Niska Indians.\n\n  665 Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,\n      pp. 47 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the British\n      Association_, Leeds meeting, 1890); _id._, \u201cThe Social Organization\n      and the Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,\u201d _Report of the\n      United States National Museum for 1895_; (Washington, 1897), pp. 632\n      _sq._ But while the initiation described in the text was into a wolf\n      society, not into a wolf clan, it is to be observed that the wolf is\n      one of the regular totems of the Nootka Indians. See Fr. Boas, in\n      _Sixth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 32.\n\n  666 Fr. Boas, in _Tenth Report on the North-Western Tribes of Canada_,\n      pp. 49 _sq._, 58 _sq._ (separate reprint from the _Report of the\n      British Association_, Ipswich meeting, 1895). It is remarkable,\n      however, that in this tribe persons who are being initiated into the\n      secret societies, of which there are six, are not always or even\n      generally brought back by an artificial animal which represents\n      their own totem. Thus while men of the eagle totem are brought back\n      by an eagle which rises from underground, men of the bear clan\n      return on the back of an artificial killer-whale which is towed\n      across the river by ropes. Again, members of the wolf clan are\n      brought back by an artificial bear, and members of the raven clan by\n      a frog. In former times the appearance of the artificial totem\n      animal, or of the guardian spirit, was considered a matter of great\n      importance, and any failure which disclosed the deception to the\n      uninitiated was deemed a grave misfortune which could only be atoned\n      for by the death of the persons concerned in the disclosure.\n\n M208 In these initiatory rites the novice seems to be killed as a man and\n      restored to life as an animal.\n\n  667 See above, p. 213.\n\n  668 This is the opinion of Dr. F. Boas, who writes: \u201cThe close\n      similarity between the clan legends and those of the acquisition of\n      spirits presiding over secret societies, as well as the intimate\n      relation between these and the social organizations of the tribes,\n      allow us to apply the same argument to the consideration of the\n      growth of the secret societies, and lead us to the conclusion that\n      the same psychical factor that molded the clans into their present\n      shape molded the secret societies\u201d (\u201cThe Social Organization and the\n      Secret Societies of the Kwakiutl Indians,\u201d _Report of the United\n      States National Museum for 1895_, p. 662). Dr. Boas would see in the\n      acquisition of a _manitoo_ or personal totem the origin both of the\n      secret societies and of the totem clans; for according to him the\n      totem of the clan is merely the _manitoo_ or personal totem of the\n      ancestor transmitted by inheritance to his descendants. As to\n      personal totems or guardian spirits (_manitoos_) among the North\n      American Indians, see _Totemism and Exogamy_, iii. 370 _sqq._; as to\n      their secret societies, see _id._, iii. 457 _sqq._; as to the theory\n      that clan totems originated in personal or individual totems, see\n      _id._, iv. 48 _sqq._\n\n M209 Honorific totems among the Carrier Indians. Initiatory rites at the\n      adoption of a honorific totem. Simulated transformation of a novice\n      into a bear. Pretence of death and resurrection at initiation.\n\n  669 A. G. Morice, \u201cNotes, archaeological, industrial, and sociological,\n      on the Western D\u00e9n\u00e9s,\u201d _Transactions of the Canadian Institute_, iv.\n      (1892-93) pp. 203-206. The honorific totems of the Carrier Indians\n      may perhaps correspond in some measure to the sub-totems or\n      multiplex totems of the Australians. As to these latter see\n      _Totemism and Exogamy_, i. 78 _sqq._, 133 _sqq._\n\n M210 Significance of these initiatory rites. Supposed invulnerability of\n      men who have weapons for their guardian spirits.\n\n  670 See above, pp. 153 _sq._\n\n  671 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 357 (_The\n      Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of\n      Natural History_, April, 1900). Among the Shuswap of British\n      Columbia, when a young man has obtained his personal totem or\n      guardian spirit, he is supposed to become proof against bullets and\n      arrows (Fr. Boas, in _Sixth Report of the Committee on the\n      North-Western Tribes of Canada_, p. 93, separate reprint from the\n      _Report of the British Association_, Leeds meeting, 1890).\n\n M211 Initiatory rite of the Toukaway Indians.\n\n  672 H. R. Schoolcraft, _Indian Tribes of the United States_\n      (Philadelphia, 1853-1856), v. 683. In a letter dated 16th Dec. 1887,\n      Mr. A. S. Gatschet, formerly of the Bureau of Ethnology, Washington,\n      wrote to me: \u201cAmong the Toukawe whom in 1884 I found at Fort Griffin\n      [?], Texas, I noticed that they never kill the big or grey wolf,\n      _hatchukun\u00e4n_, which has a mythological signification, \u2018holding the\n      earth\u2019 (_hatch_). He forms one of their totem clans, and they have\n      had a dance in his honor, danced by the males only, who carried\n      sticks.\u201d\n\n M212 Traces of the rite of death and resurrection among more advanced\n      peoples.\n\n_  673 The Laws of Manu_, ii. 169, translated by G. B\u00fchler (Oxford, 1886),\n      p. 61 (_The Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xxv.); J. A. Dubois,\n      _M\u0153urs, Institutions et C\u00e9r\u00e9monies des Peuples de l\u2019Inde_ (Paris,\n      1825), i. 125; Monier Williams, _Religious Thought and Life in\n      India_ (London, 1883), pp. 360 _sq._, 396 _sq._; H. Oldenberg, _Die\n      Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 466 _sqq._\n\n  674 Lampridius, _Commodus_, 9; C. W. King, _The Gnostics and their\n      Remains_, Second Edition (London, 1887), pp. 127, 129. Compare Fr.\n      Cumont, _Textes et Monuments figur\u00e9s relatifs aux myst\u00e8res de\n      Mithra_, i. (Brussels, 1899) pp. 69 _sq._, 321 _sq._; E. Rohde,\n      _Psyche_3 (T\u00fcbingen and Leipsic, 1903), ii. 400 n. 1; A. Dieterich,\n      _Eine Mithrasliturgie_ (Leipsic, 1903), pp. 91, 157 _sqq._\n\n M213 The motive for attempting to deposit the soul in a safe place\n      outside of the body at puberty may have been a fear of the dangers\n      which, according to primitive notions, attend the union of the\n      sexes.\n M214 Balder\u2019s life or death in the mistletoe.\n\n  675 Above, p. 110; compare pp. 107, 120 _sq._, 132, 133.\n\n  676 Above, p. 120.\n\n  677 Above, p. 106.\n\n  678 Above, p. 145. In the myth the throwing of the weapons and of the\n      mistletoe at Balder and the blindness of Hother who slew him remind\n      us of the custom of the Irish reapers who kill the corn-spirit in\n      the last sheaf by throwing their sickles blindfold at it. See\n      _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i. 144. In Mecklenburg a cock\n      is sometimes buried in the ground and a man who is blindfolded\n      strikes at it with a flail. If he misses it, another tries, and so\n      on till the cock is killed. See K. Bartsch, _Sagen, M\u00e4rchen und\n      Gebr\u00e4uche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 280. In England\n      on Shrove Tuesday a hen used to be tied upon a man\u2019s back, and other\n      men blindfolded struck at it with branches till they killed it. See\n      T. F. Thiselton Dyer, _British Popular Customs_ (London, 1876), p.\n      68. W. Mannhardt (_Die Kornd\u00e4monen_, Berlin, 1868, pp. 16 _sq._) has\n      made it probable that such sports are directly derived from the\n      custom of killing a cock upon the harvest-field as a representative\n      of the corn-spirit. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild_, i.\n      277 _sq._ These customs, therefore, combined with the blindness of\n      Hother in the myth, suggest that the man who killed the human\n      representative of the oak-spirit was blindfolded, and threw his\n      weapon or the mistletoe from a little distance. After the Lapps had\n      killed a bear\u2014which was the occasion of many superstitious\n      ceremonies\u2014the bear\u2019s skin was hung on a post, and the women,\n      blindfolded, shot arrows at it. See J. Scheffer, _Lapponia_\n      (Frankfort, 1673), p. 240.\n\n M215 The view that the mistletoe contained the life of the oak may have\n      been suggested by the position of the parasite among the boughs.\n      Indian parallel to Balder and the mistletoe.\n\n  679 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 12; J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 ii.\n      1010. Compare below, p. 282.\n\n_  680 The Satapatha Brahmana_, xii. 7. 3. 1-3, translated by J. Eggeling,\n      Part v. (Oxford, 1900) pp. 222 _sq._ (_The Sacred Books of the\n      East_, vol. xliv.); Denham Rouse, in _Folk-lore Journal_, vii.\n      (1889) p. 61, quoting _Taitt\u012brya Br\u0101hmana_, I. vii. 1.\n\n  681 Col. E. T. Dalton, \u201cThe Kols of Chota-Nagpore,\u201d _Transactions of the\n      Ethnological Society_, N.S. vi. (1868) p. 36.\n\n M216 Analogous superstitions attaching to a parasitic rowan.\n\n  682 Jens Kamp, _Danske Folkeminder_ (Odense, 1877), pp. 172, 65 _sq._,\n      referred to in Feilberg\u2019s _Bidrag til en Ordbog over Jyske\n      Almuesm\u00e5l_, Fjerde hefte (Copenhagen, 1888), p. 320. For a sight of\n      Feilberg\u2019s work I am indebted to the kindness of the late Rev.\n      Walter Gregor, M.A., of Pitsligo, who pointed out the passage to me.\n\n  683 E. T. Kristensen, _Iydske Folkeminder_, vi. 380, referred to by\n      Feilberg, _l.c._ According to Marcellus (_De Medicamentis_, xxvi.\n      115), ivy which springs from an oak is a remedy for stone, provided\n      it be cut with a copper instrument.\n\n  684 A. Kuhn, _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des G\u00f6ttertranks_2\n      (G\u00fctersloh, 1886), pp. 175 _sq._, quoting Dybeck\u2019s _Runa_, 1845, pp.\n      62 _sq._\n\n  685 A. Kuhn, _op. cit._ p. 176.\n\n  686 Quoted by A. Kuhn, _op. cit._ pp. 180 _sq._ In Zimbales, a province\n      of the Philippine Islands, \u201ca certain parasitic plant that much\n      resembles yellow moss and grows high up on trees is regarded as a\n      very powerful charm. It is called _gay-u-ma_, and a man who\n      possesses it is called _nanara gayuma_. If his eyes rest on a person\n      during the new moon he will become sick at the stomach, but he can\n      cure the sickness by laying hands on the afflicted part.\u201d See W. A.\n      Reed, _Negritos of Zambales_ (Manilla, 1904), p. 67 (_Department of\n      the Interior, Ethnological Survey Publications_, vol. ii. part i.).\n      Mr. Reed seems to mean that if a man who possesses this parasitic\n      plant sees a person at the new moon, the person on whom his eye\n      falls will be sick in his stomach, but that the owner of the\n      parasite can cure the sufferer by laying his (the owner\u2019s) hands on\n      his (the patient\u2019s) stomach. It is interesting to observe that the\n      magical virtue of the parasitic plant appears to be especially\n      effective at the new moon.\n\n  687 A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 97 \u00a7\n      128; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London, 1870), p. 269. See\n      above, p. 86.\n\n M217 The fate of the Hays believed to be bound up with the mistletoe on\n      Errol\u2019s oak.\n\n  688 John Hay Allan, _The Bridal of Ca\u00f6lchairn_ (London, 1822), pp. 337\n      _sq._\n\n  689 Rev. John B. Pratt, _Buchan_, Second Edition (Aberdeen, Edinburgh,\n      and London, 1859), p. 342. \u201c_The corbie roup_\u201d means \u201cthe raven\n      croak.\u201d In former editions of this work my only source of\n      information as to the mistletoe and oak of the Hays was an extract\n      from a newspaper which was kindly copied and sent to me, without the\n      name of the newspaper, by the late Rev. Walter Gregor, M.A., of\n      Pitsligo. For my acquaintance with the works of J. H. Allan and J.\n      B. Pratt I am indebted to the researches of my learned friend Mr. A.\n      B. Cook, who has already quoted them in his article \u201cThe European\n      Sky-God,\u201d _Folk-lore_, xvii. (1906) pp. 318 _sq._\n\n M218 The life of the Lachlins and the deer of Finchra.\n\n  690 M. Martin, \u201cDescription of the Western Islands of Scotland,\u201d in J.\n      Pinkerton\u2019s _Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1808-1814), iii. 661.\n\n M219 The Golden Bough seems to have been a glorified mistletoe.\n\n  691 See James Sowerby, _English Botany_, xxi. (London, 1805), p. 1470:\n      \u201cThe Misseltoe is celebrated in story as the sacred plant of the\n      Druids, and the Golden Bough of Virgil, which was Aeneas\u2019s passport\n      to the infernal regions.\u201d Again, the author of the _Lexicon\n      Mythologicum_ concludes, \u201c_cum Jonghio nostro_,\u201d that the Golden\n      Bough \u201cwas nothing but the mistletoe glorified by poetical license.\u201d\n      See _Edda Rhythmica seu Antiquior, vulgo Saemundina dicta_, iii.\n      (Copenhagen, 1828) p. 513 note. C. L. Rochholz expresses the same\n      opinion (_Deutscher Glaube und Brauch_, Berlin, 1867, i. 9). The\n      subject is discussed at length by E. Norden, _P. Vergilius Maro,\n      Aeneis Buch VI._ (Leipsic, 1903) pp. 161-171, who, however, does not\n      even mention the general or popular view (_publica opinio_) current\n      in the time of Servius, that the Golden Bough was the branch which a\n      candidate for the priesthood of Diana had to pluck in the sacred\n      grove of Nemi. I confess I have more respect for the general opinion\n      of antiquity than to dismiss it thus cavalierly without a hearing.\n\n  692 Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 203 _sqq._, compare 136 _sqq._ See Note IV. \u201cThe\n      Mistletoe and the Golden Bough\u201d at the end of this volume.\n\n M220 If the Golden Bough was the mistletoe, the King of the Wood at Nemi\n      may have personated an oak spirit and perished in an oak fire.\n\n_  693 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 40 _sqq._, ii. 378\n      _sqq._ Virgil (_Aen._ vi. 201 _sqq._) places the Golden Bough in the\n      neighbourhood of Lake Avernus. But this was probably a poetical\n      liberty, adopted for the convenience of Aeneas\u2019s descent to the\n      infernal world. Italian tradition, as we learn from Servius (on\n      Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 136), placed the Golden Bough in the grove at\n      Nemi.\n\n_  694 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 12.\n\n_  695 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 186, 366 note 2.\n\n M221 A similar tragedy may have been enacted over the human\n      representative of Balder in Norway.\n\n  696 A custom of annually burning or otherwise sacrificing a human\n      representative of the corn-spirit has been noted among the\n      Egyptians, Pawnees, and Khonds. See _Spirits of the Corn and of the\n      Wild_, i. 238 _sq._, 245 _sqq._, 259 _sq._ We have seen that in\n      Western Asia there are strong traces of a practice of annually\n      burning a human god. See _Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, Second Edition,\n      pp. 84 _sqq._, 98 _sq._, 137 _sq._, 139 _sqq._, 155 _sq._ The Druids\n      appear to have eaten portions of the human victim (Pliny, _Nat.\n      Hist._ xxx. 13). Perhaps portions of the flesh of the King of the\n      Wood were eaten by his worshippers as a sacrament. We have found\n      traces of the use of sacramental bread at Nemi. See _Spirits of the\n      Corn and of the Wild_, ii. 94 _sqq._\n\n M222 The name of the Golden Bough may have been applied to the mistletoe\n      on account of the golden tinge which the plant assumes in withering.\n\n  697 It has been said that in Welsh a name for mistletoe is \u201cthe tree of\n      pure gold\u201d (_pren puraur_). See J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4\n      ii. 1009, referring to Davies. But my friend Sir John Rhys tells me\n      that the statement is devoid of foundation.\n\n  698 Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 137 _sq._:\u2014\n\n      \u201c_Latet arbore opaca_\n      _ Aureus et foliis et lento vimine ramus._\u201d\n\n  699 This suggestion as to the origin of the name has been made to me by\n      two correspondents independently. Miss Florence Grove, writing to me\n      from 10 Milton Chambers, Cheyne Walk, London, on May 13th, 1901,\n      tells me that she regularly hangs up a bough of mistletoe every year\n      and allows it to remain till it is replaced by the new branch next\n      year, and from her observation \u201cthe mistletoe is actually a golden\n      bough when kept a sufficiently long time.\u201d She was kind enough to\n      send me some twigs of her old bough, which fully bore out her\n      description. Again, Mrs. A. Stuart writes to me from Crear Cottage,\n      Morningside Drive, Edinburgh, on June 26th, 1901: \u201cAs to why the\n      mistletoe might be called the Golden Bough, my sister Miss Haig\n      wishes me to tell you that last June, when she was in Brittany, she\n      saw great bunches of mistletoe hung up in front of the houses in the\n      villages. The leaves were _bright golden_. You should hang up a\n      branch next Christmas and keep it till June!\u201d The great hollow oak\n      of Saint-Denis-des-Puits, in the French province of Perche, is\n      called \u201cthe gilded or golden oak\u201d (_Ch\u00eane-Dor\u00e9_) \u201cin memory of the\n      Druidical tradition of the mistletoe cut with a golden sickle.\u201d See\n      Felix Chapiseau, _Le Folk-lore de la Beauce et du Perche_ (Paris,\n      1902), i. 97. Perhaps the name may be derived from bunches of\n      withered mistletoe shining like gold in the sunshine among the\n      branches.\n\n  700 H. Gaidoz, \u201cBulletin critique de la Mythologie Gauloise,\u201d _Revue de\n      l\u2019Histoire des Religions_, ii. (Paris, 1880) p. 76.\n\n M223 The yellow hue of withered mistletoe may partly explain why the\n      plant is thought to disclose yellow gold in the earth. Similarly\n      fern-seed is thought to bloom like gold or fire and to reveal buried\n      treasures on Midsummer Eve. Sometimes fern-seed is thought to bloom\n      on Christmas night. The wicked weaver of Rotenburg.\n\n  701 See below, pp. 291 _sq._\n\n  702 See above, pp. 65 _sq._\n\n  703 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und M\u00e4hren_\n      (Prague and Leipsic, 1864), p. 97, \u00a7 673.\n\n  704 J. V. Grohmann, _op. cit._ p. 97, \u00a7 676; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche\n      Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin, 1869), p. 94, \u00a7 123; I. V. Zingerle,\n      _Sitten, Br\u00e4uche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2 (Innsbruck,\n      1871), p. 158, \u00a7 1350.\n\n  705 C. Russwurm, \u201cAberglaube in Russland,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche\n      Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859), pp. 152 _sq._; Angelo de\n      Gubernatis, _Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris, 1878-1882), ii. 146.\n\n  706 P. S\u00e9billot, _Traditions et Superstitions de la Haute-Bretagne_\n      (Paris, 1882), ii. 336; _id._, _Coutumes populaires de la\n      Haute-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1886), p. 217.\n\n  707 J. E. Waldfreund, \u201cVolksgebr\u00e4uche und Aberglauben in Tirol und dem\n      Salzburger Gebirg,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Mythologie und\n      Sittenkunde_, iii. (1855), p. 339.\n\n  708 H. Runge, \u201cVolksglaube in der Schweiz,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche\n      Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, iv. (1859), p. 175.\n\n  709 O. Frh. von Reinsberg-D\u00fcringsfeld, _Fest-Kalendar aus B\u00f6hmen_\n      (Prague, N.D.), pp. 311 _sq._ Compare Theodor Vernaleken, _Mythen\n      und Br\u00e4uche des Volkes in Oesterreich_ (Vienna, 1859), pp. 309\n      _sq._; M. T\u00f6ppen, _Aberglauben aus Masuren_2 (Danzig, 1867), pp. 72\n      _sq._ Even without the use of fern-seed treasures are sometimes said\n      to bloom or burn in the earth, or to reveal their presence by a\n      bluish flame, on Midsummer Eve; in Transylvania only children born\n      on a Sunday can see them and fetch them up. See J. Haltrich, _Zur\n      Volkskunde der Siebenb\u00fcrger Sachsen_ (Vienna, 1885), p. 287; I. V.\n      Zingerle, _Sitten, Br\u00e4uche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_2\n      (Innsbruck, 1871), p. 159, \u00a7\u00a7 1351, 1352; K. Bartsch, _Sagen,\n      M\u00e4rchen und Gebrauche aus Mecklenburg_ (Vienna, 1879-1880), ii. 285,\n      \u00a7 1431; E. Monseur, _Folklore Wallon_ (Brussels, N.D.), p. 6, \u00a7\n      1789; K. Haupt, _Sagenbuch der Lausitz_ (Leipsic, 1862-1863), i. 231\n      _sq._, No. 275; A. Wuttke, _Der deutsche Volksaberglaube_2 (Berlin,\n      1869), p. 76, \u00a7 92; F. J. Wiedemann, _Aus dem inneren und \u00e4usseren\n      Leben der Ehsten_ (St. Petersburg, 1876), p. 363.\n\n  710 I. V. Zingerle, _op. cit._ p. 103, \u00a7 882; _id._, in _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr\n      deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_, i. (1853), p. 330; W. M\u00fcller,\n      _Beitr\u00e4ge zur Volkskunde der Deutschen in M\u00e4hren_ (Vienna and\n      Olm\u00fctz, 1893), p. 265. At Pergine, in the Tyrol, it was thought that\n      fern-seed gathered with the dew on St. John\u2019s night had the power of\n      transforming metals (into gold?). See Ch. Schneller, _M\u00e4rchen und\n      Sagen aus W\u00e4lschtirol_ (Innsbruck, 1867), p. 237, \u00a7 23.\n\n  711 I. V. Zingerle, _Sitten, Br\u00e4uche und Meinungen des Tiroler Volkes_,2\n      pp. 190 _sq._, \u00a7 1573.\n\n  712 A. Schlossar, \u201cVolksmeinung und Volksaberglaube aus der deutschen\n      Steiermark,\u201d _Germania_, N.R., xxiv. (1891) p. 387.\n\n  713 Ernst Meier, _Deutsche Sagen, Sitten und Gebr\u00e4uche aus Schwaben_\n      (Stuttgart, 1852), pp. 242-244.\n\n M224 The golden or fiery fern-seed appears to be an emanation of the\n      sun\u2019s fire.\n\n  714 J. V. Grohmann, _Aberglauben und Gebr\u00e4uche aus B\u00f6hmen und M\u00e4hren_,\n      p. 97, \u00a7 675; W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_,\n      Second Edition (London, 1872), p. 98; C. Russwurm, \u201cAberglaube in\n      Russland,\u201d _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr deutsche Mythologie und Sittenkunde_,\n      iv. (1859) p. 152.\n\n  715 L. Bechstein, _Deutsches Sagenbuch_ (Leipsic, 1853), p. 430, No.\n      500; _id._, _Th\u00fcringer Sagenbuch_ (Leipsic, 1885), ii. pp. 17 _sq._,\n      No. 161.\n\n M225 Like fern-seed the mistletoe is gathered at the solstices (Midsummer\n      and Christmas) and is supposed to reveal treasures in the earth;\n      perhaps, therefore, it too is deemed an emanation of the sun\u2019s\n      golden fire. The bloom of the oak on Midsummer Eve.\n\n  716 For gathering it at midsummer, see above, pp. 86 _sq._ The custom of\n      gathering it at Christmas still commonly survives in England. At\n      York \u201con the eve of Christmas-day they carry mistletoe to the high\n      altar of the cathedral, and proclaim a public and universal liberty,\n      pardon and freedom to all sorts of inferior and even wicked people\n      at the gates of the city, toward the four quarters of heaven.\u201d See\n      W. Stukeley, _The Medallic History of Marcus Aurelius Valerius\n      Carausius, Emperor in Britain_ (London, 1757-1759), ii. 164; J.\n      Brand, _Popular Antiquities of Great Britain_ (London, 1882-1883),\n      i. 525. This last custom, which is now doubtless obsolete, may have\n      been a relic of an annual period of license like the Saturnalia. The\n      traditional privilege accorded to men of kissing any woman found\n      under mistletoe is probably another relic of the same sort. See\n      Washington Irving, _Sketch-Book_, \u201cChristmas Eve,\u201d p. 147 (Bohn\u2019s\n      edition); Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_\n      (London, 1909), p. 88.\n\n  717 A. A. Afzelius, _Volkssagen und Volkslieder aus Schwedens \u00e4lterer\n      und neuerer Zeit_ (Leipsic, 1842), i. 41 _sq._; J. Grimm, _Deutsche\n      Mythologie_,4 iii. 289; L. Lloyd, _Peasant Life in Sweden_ (London,\n      1870), pp. 266 _sq._ See above, p. 69. In the Tyrol they say that if\n      mistletoe grows on a hazel-tree, there must be a treasure under the\n      tree. See J. N. Ritter von Alpenburg, _Mythen und Sagen Tirols_\n      (Zurich, 1857), p. 398. In East Prussia a similar belief is held in\n      regard to mistletoe that grows on a thorn. See C. Lemke,\n      _Volksth\u00fcmliches in Ostpreussen_ (Mohrungen, 1884-1887), ii. 283. We\n      have seen that the divining-rod which reveals treasures is commonly\n      cut from a hazel (above, pp. 67 _sq._).\n\n  718 Above, pp. 90-92.\n\n  719 Fern-seed is supposed to bloom at Easter as well as at Midsummer and\n      Christmas (W. R. S. Ralston, _Songs of the Russian People_, pp. 98\n      _sq._); and Easter, as we have seen, is one of the times when fires\n      are ceremonially kindled, perhaps to recruit the fire of the sun.\n\n  720 Miss C. S. Burne and Miss G. F. Jackson, _Shropshire Folk-lore_\n      (London, 1883), p. 242.\n\n  721 Marie Trevelyan, _Folk-lore and Folk-stories of Wales_ (London,\n      1909), p. 88.\n\n  722 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 251.\n\n  723 Above, pp. 82 _sq._\n\n  724 Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xxxiii. 94: \u201c_Calx aqua accenditur et Thracius\n      lapis, idem oleo restinguitur, ignis autem aceto maxime et visco et\n      ovo._\u201d\n\n  725 See above, p. 85.\n\n M226 Aeneas and the Golden Bough. Orpheus and the willow.\n\n  726 Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 179-209.\n\n  727 Virgil, _Aen._ vi. 384-416.\n\n  728 Above, pp. 86, 282.\n\n  729 Above, p. 85.\n\n  730 Pausanias, x. 30. 6.\n\n  731 J. Six, \u201cDie Eriphyle des Polygnot,\u201d _Mittheilungen des kaiserlich\n      deutschen Archaeologischen Instituts, Athenische Abtheilung_, xix.\n      (1894) pp. 338 _sq._ Compare my commentary on Pausanias, vol. v. p.\n      385.\n\n  732 The sarcophagus is in the Lateran Museum at Rome. See W. Helbig,\n      _F\u00fchrer durch die \u00f6ffentlichen Sammlungen Klassischer Altert\u00fcmer in\n      Rom_2 (Leipsic, 1899), ii. 468.\n\n M227 Trees thought by the savage to be the seat of fire because he\n      elicits it by friction from their wood.\n\n  733 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, i. 19 _sqq._\n\n_  734 Die Edda_, \u00fcbersetzt von K. Simrock8 (Stuttgart, 1882), p. 264.\n\n  735 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 171.\n\n  736 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_, p. 287.\n\n  737 Max Girschner, \u201cDie Karolineninsel Nam\u00f6luk und ihre Bewohner,\u201d\n      _Baessler-Archiv_, ii. (1912) p. 141.\n\n  738 A. A. Macdonell, _Vedic Mythology_ (Strasburg, 1897), pp. 91 _sq._,\n      referring to _Rigveda_, vi. 3. 3, x. 79. 7, ii. 1. 14, iii. 1. 13,\n      x. 1. 2, viii. 43. 9, i. 70. 4, ii. 1. 1. Compare H. Oldenberg, _Die\n      Religion des Veda_ (Berlin, 1894), pp. 120 _sq._\n\n  739 Edward M. Curr, _The Australian Race_ (Melbourne and London,\n      1886-1887), i. 9, 18.\n\n M228 Trees that have been struck by lightning are deemed by the savage to\n      be charged with a double portion of fire.\n\n  740 James Mooney, \u201cMyths of the Cherokee,\u201d _Nineteenth Annual Report of\n      the Bureau of American Ethnology_, Part i. (Washington, 1900) p.\n      422, compare p. 435.\n\n  741 James Teit, _The Thompson Indians of British Columbia_, p. 346 (_The\n      Jesup North Pacific Expedition, Memoir of the American Museum of\n      Natural History_, April, 1900).\n\n  742 J. Teit, _op. cit._ p. 374.\n\n  743 The Shuswap Indians of British Columbia entertain a similar belief.\n      It has been suggested that the fancy may be based on the observation\n      that cold follows a thunder-storm. See G. M. Dawson, \u201cNotes on the\n      Shuswap people of British Columbia,\u201d _Transactions of the Royal\n      Society of Canada_, ix. (1891) Section ii. p. 38.\n\n  744 R. Wuttke, _S\u00e4chsische Volkskunde_2 (Dresden, 1901), p. 369.\n\n  745 Henri A. Junod, _The Life of a South African Tribe_ (Neuchatel,\n      1912-1913), ii. 291. The Thonga imagine that lightning is caused by\n      a great bird, which sometimes buries itself in the ground to a depth\n      of several feet. See H. A. Junod, _op. cit._ ii. 290 _sq._\n\n  746 Dr. James A. Chisholm (of the Livingstonia Mission, Mwenzo, N.E.\n      Rhodesia), \u201cNotes on the Manners and Customs of the Winamwanga and\n      Wiwa,\u201d _Journal of the African Society_, No. 36 (July, 1910), p.\n      363.\n\n  747 S. Powers, _Tribes of California_ (Washington, 1877), p. 287. The\n      dread of lightning is prominent in some of the customs observed in\n      Patiko, a district of the Uganda Protectorate. If a village has\n      suffered from lightning, ropes made of twisted grass are strung from\n      peak to peak of the houses to ward off further strokes. And if a\n      person has been struck or badly shaken, \u201can elaborate cure is\n      performed upon him. A red cock is taken, his tongue torn out, and\n      his body dashed upon the house where the stroke fell. Then the scene\n      changes to the bank of a small running stream, where the patient is\n      made to kneel while the bird is sacrificed over the water. A raw egg\n      is next given to the patient to swallow, and he is laid on his\n      stomach and encouraged to vomit. The lightning is supposed to be\n      vomited along with the egg, and all ill effects prevented.\u201d See Rev.\n      A. L. Kitching, _On the Backwaters of the Nile_ (London, 1912), p.\n      263.\n\n M229 Theory that the sanctity of the oak and the relation of the tree to\n      the sky-god were suggested by the frequency with which oaks are\n      struck by lightning.\n\n  748 See _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 349 _sqq._\n\n  749 W. Warde Fowler, \u201cThe Oak and the Thunder-god,\u201d _Archiv f\u00fcr\n      Religionswissenschaft_, xvi. (1913) pp. 318 _sq._ My friend Mr.\n      Warde Fowler had previously called my attention to the facts in a\n      letter dated September 17th, 1912.\n\n  750 Dr. W. Schlich\u2019s _Manual of Forestry_, vol. iv. _Forest Protection_,\n      by W. R. Fisher, Second Edition (London, 1907), pp. 662 _sq._ Mr. W.\n      Warde Fowler was the first to call the attention of mythologists to\n      this work.\n\n  751 Experiments on the conductivity of electricity in wood go to shew\n      that starchy trees (oak, poplar, maples, ash, elm, _sorbus_) are\n      good conductors, that oily trees (beech, walnut, birch, lime) are\n      bad conductors, and that the conifers are intermediate, the Scotch\n      pine in summer being as deficient in oil as the starchy trees, but\n      rich in oil during winter. It was found that a single turn of Holz\u2019s\n      electric machine sufficed to send the spark through oakwood, but\n      that from twelve to twenty turns were required to send it through\n      beech-wood. Five turns of the machine were needed to send the spark\n      through poplar and willow wood. See Dr. W. Schlich, _Manual of\n      Forestry_, vol. iv. _Forest Protection_, Second Edition (London,\n      1907), p. 664. In the tropics lightning is said to be especially\n      attracted to coco-nut palms. See P. Amaury Talbot, _In the Shadow of\n      the Bush_ (London, 1913), p. 73.\n\n  752 As to the Greek belief and custom, see H. Usener, _Kleine\n      Schriften_, iv. (Leipsic and Berlin, 1913), \u201cKeraunos,\u201d pp. 471\n      _sqq._; _The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 361. As to\n      the Roman belief and custom, see Festus, _svv._ _Fulguritum and\n      Provorsum fulgur_, pp. 92, 229, ed. C. O. M\u00fcller (Leipsic, 1839); H.\n      Dessau, _Inscriptiones Latinae Selectae_, vol. ii. pars i. (Berlin,\n      1902) pp. 10 _sq._, Nos. 3048-3056; L. Preller, _R\u00f6mische\n      Mythologie_3 (Berlin, 1881-1883), i. 190-193; G. Wissowa, _Religion\n      und Kultus der R\u00f6mer_2 (Munich, 1912), pp. 121 _sq._ By a curious\n      refinement the Romans referred lightning which fell by day to\n      Jupiter, but lightning which fell by night to a god called Summanus\n      (Festus, p. 229).\n\n M230 This explanation of the Aryan worship of the oak is preferable to\n      the one formerly adopted by the author.\n\n  753 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 iii. 64, citing a statement that\n      lightning strikes twenty oaks for one beech. The statistics adduced\n      by Mr. W. Warde Fowler seem to shew that this statement is no\n      exaggeration but rather the contrary.\n\n  754 W. Warde Fowler, \u201cThe Oak and the Thunder-god,\u201d _Archiv f\u00fcr\n      Religionswissenschaft_, xvi. (1913) pp. 317-320.\n\n_  755 The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 356 _sqq._\n\n  756 The suggestion is Mr. W. Warde Fowler\u2019s (_op cit._ pp. 319 _sq._).\n\n M231 The sacredness of mistletoe was perhaps due to a belief that the\n      plant fell on the tree in a flash of lightning.\n\n  757 Pliny, _Natur. Hist._ xvi. 249.\n\n  758 See above, p. 85.\n\n  759 J. Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_,4 i. 153. See above, p. 85.\n\n M232 Hence the stroke of mistletoe that killed Balder may have been a\n      stroke of lightning.\n\n  760 This interpretation of Balder\u2019s death was anticipated by W. Schwartz\n      (_Der Ursprung der Mythologie_, Berlin, 1860, p. 176), who cut the\n      whole knot by dubbing Balder \u201cthe German thunder-and-lightning god\u201d\n      and mistletoe \u201cthe wonderful thunder-and-lightning flower.\u201d But as\n      this learned writer nursed a fatal passion for thunder and\n      lightning, which he detected lurking in the most unlikely places, we\n      need not wonder that he occasionally found it in places where there\n      were some slight grounds for thinking that it really existed.\n\n M233 The King of the Wood and the Golden Bough.\n\n  761 On the relation of the priest to Jupiter, and the equivalence of\n      Jupiter and Juno to Janus (Dianus) and Diana, see _The Magic Art and\n      the Evolution of Kings_, ii. 376 _sqq._\n\n M234 Looking back at the end of the journey.\n M235 The movement of human thought in the past from magic to religion.\n M236 The movement of thought from religion to science.\n M237 Contrast between the views of natural order postulated by magic and\n      by science respectively.\n M238 The scientific theory of the world not necessarily final.\n M239 The shadow across the path.\n\n  762 \u201cI quite agree how humiliating the slow progress of man is, but\n      every one has his own pet horror, and this slow progress or even\n      personal annihilation sinks in my mind into insignificance compared\n      with the idea or rather I presume certainty of the sun some day\n      cooling and we all freezing. To think of the progress of millions of\n      years, with every continent swarming with good and enlightened men,\n      all ending in this, and with probably no fresh start until this our\n      planetary system has been again converted into red-hot gas. _Sic\n      transit gloria mundi_, with a vengeance\u201d (_More Letters of Charles\n      Darwin_, edited by Francis Darwin, London, 1903, i. 260 _sq._).\n\n  763 Since this passage was written the hope which it expresses has been\n      to some extent strengthened by the discovery of radium, which\n      appears to prolong indefinitely the prospect of the duration of the\n      sun\u2019s heat, and with it the duration of life on its attendant\n      planets. See (Sir) George Howard Darwin\u2019s Presidential Address to\n      the British Association, _Report of the 75th Meeting of the British\n      Association for the Advancement of Science_ (South Africa, 1905),\n      pp. 28 _sq._; F. Soddy, _The Interpretation of Radium_, Third\n      Edition (London, 1912), pp. 240 _sqq._; E. Rutherford, _Radio-active\n      Substances and their Radiations_ (Cambridge, 1913), pp. 653-656. At\n      the same time it should be borne in mind that even if the atomic\n      disintegration and accompanying liberation of energy, which\n      characterize radium and kindred elements, should prove to be common\n      in different degrees to all the other elements and to form a vast\n      and till lately unsuspected store of heat to the sun, this enormous\n      reserve of fuel would only defer but could not avert that final\n      catastrophe with which the solar system and indeed the whole\n      universe is remorselessly threatened by the law of the dissipation\n      of energy.\n\n M240 The web of thought.\n M241 Nemi at evening: the _Ave Maria_ bell.\n\n  764 See above, vol. i. pp. 15 _sq._\n\n M242 Snake Stones in the Highlands.\n\n  765 Alexander Carmichael, _Carmina Gadelica, Hymns and Incantations with\n      Illustrative Notes on Words, Rites, and Customs, dying and obsolete:\n      orally collected in the Highlands and Islands of Scotland and\n      translated into English_ (Edinburgh, 1900), ii. 312.\n\n M243 Witches as cats among the Oraons.\n\n  766 Above, vol. i. pp. 315 _sqq._\n\n  767 The late Rev. P. Dehon, S.J., \u201cReligion and Customs of the Uraons,\u201d\n      _Memoirs of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, vol. i. No. 9 (Calcutta,\n      1906), p. 141.\n\n M244 African parallels to Balder.\n M245 The worshipful ghost in the cave.\n M246 The man who could only be killed by the stalk of a gourd.\n\n  768 \u201cEvery clan (_Familienstamm_) has a definite thing which is\n      forbidden to all the members of the clan, whether it be a particular\n      kind of meat, or a certain fish, or as here the stalk of a gourd.\u201d\n\n  769 \u201cThe place in Nguu, where the ghost is said to dwell.\u201d\n\n  770 \u201cIn Ukami.\u201d\n\n  771 C. Velten, _Schilderungen der Suaheli_ (G\u00f6ttingen, 1901), pp.\n      195-197.\n\n M247 The man who could only be killed by a splinter of bamboo.\n\n  772 Miss Alice Werner, _The Natives of British Central Africa_ (London,\n      1906), p. 82. In a letter Miss Werner tells me that she learned\n      these particulars at Blantyre in 1893, and that the chief lived in\n      the neighbourhood of Mlanje.\n\n  773 Rev. Henry Rowley, _Twenty Years in Central Africa_ (London, N.D.),\n      pp. 36 _sqq._ For a reference to this and all the other works cited\n      in this Note I am indebted to the kindness of Miss Alice Werner.\n\n  774 Rev. David Clement Scott, _A Cyclopaedic Dictionary of the Mang\u2019anja\n      Language spoken in British Central Africa_ (Edinburgh, 1892), p.\n      315.\n\n M248 The man who could only be killed by a copper needle.\n\n  775 Edward Steere, _Swahili Tales_ (London, 1870), pp. 441-453. The\n      young man in the story is spoken of now as the nephew and now as the\n      son of the man he murdered. Probably he was what we should call a\n      nephew or brother\u2019s son of his victim; for under the classificatory\n      system of relationship, which seems to prevail among the Bantu\n      stock, to whom the Swahili belong, a man regularly calls his\n      paternal uncle his father.\n\n M249 These stories confirm the view that Balder may have been a real man\n      who was deified after death.\n\n  776 Above, vol. i. pp. 104 _sq._\n\n M250 Two species of mistletoe, the _Viscum album_ and the _Loranthus\n      europaeus_. Common mistletoe (_Viscum album_).\n\n  777 Virgil, Aen. vi. 205 _sqq._:\u2014\n\n      \u201c_Quale solet silvis brumali frigore viscum_\n      _ Fronde virere nova, quod non sua seminat arbos,_\n      _ Et croceo fetu teretis circumdare truncos:_\n      _ Talis erat species auri frondentis opaca_\n      _ Ilice, sic leni crepitabat bractea vento._\u201d\n\n  778 W. Schlich, _Manual of Forestry_, vol. iv. _Forest Protection_, by\n      W. R. Fisher, M.A., Second Edition (London, 1907), p. 412. French\n      peasants about Coulommiers think that mistletoe springs from birds\u2019\n      dung. See H. Gaidoz, \u201cBulletin critique de la Mythologie Gauloise,\u201d\n      _Revue de l\u2019Histoire des Religions_, ii. (1880) p. 76. The ancients\n      were well aware that mistletoe is propagated from tree to tree by\n      seeds which have been voided by birds. See Theophrastus, _De Causis\n      Plantarum_, ii. 17. 5; Pliny, _Naturalis Historia_, xvi. 247. Pliny\n      tells us that the birds which most commonly deposited the seeds were\n      pigeons and thrushes. Can this have been the reason why Virgil\n      (_Aen._ vi. 190 _sqq._) represents Aeneas led to the Golden Bough by\n      a pair of doves?\n\n  779 James Sowerby, _English Botany_, xxi. (London, 1805) p. 1470.\n\n  780 C. Fraas, _Synopsis Plantarum Florae Classicae_ (Munich, 1845), p.\n      152.\n\n  781 H. O. Lenz, _Botanik der alten Griechen und R\u00f6mer_ (Gotha, 1859), p.\n      597, quoting Pollini.\n\n  782 J. Lindley and T. Moore, _The Treasury of Botany_, New Edition\n      (London, 1874), ii. 1220. A good authority, however, observes that\n      mistletoe is \u201cfrequently to be observed on the branches of old\n      apple-trees, hawthorns, lime-trees, oaks, etc., where it grows\n      parasitically.\u201d See J. Sowerby, _English Botany_, xxi. (London,\n      1805) p. 1470.\n\n_  783 Encyclopaedia Britannica_, Ninth Edition, x. 689, _s.v._\n      \u201cGloucester.\u201d\n\n  784 H. Gaidoz, \u201cBulletin critique de la Mythologie Gauloise,\u201d _Revue de\n      l\u2019Histoire des Religions_, ii. (1880) pp. 75 _sq._\n\n  785 Angelo de Gubernatis, _La Mythologie des Plantes_ (Paris,\n      1878-1882), ii. 216 _sq._ As to the many curious superstitions that\n      have clustered round mandragora, see P. J. Veth, \u201cDe Mandragora,\u201d\n      _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, vii. (1894) pp. 199-205;\n      C. B. Randolph, \u201cThe Mandragora of the Ancients in Folk-lore and\n      Medicine,\u201d _Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and\n      Sciences_, vol. xl. No. 12 (January, 1905), pp. 487-537.\n\n_ M251 Loranthus europaeus._\n\n  786 W. Schlich, _Manual of Forestry_, vol. iv. _Forest Protection_,\n      Second Edition (London, 1907), pp. 415-417.\n\n  787 E. B. Stebbing, \u201cThe Loranthus Parasite of the Moru and Ban Oaks,\u201d\n      _Journal and Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal_, New\n      Series, v. (Calcutta, 1910) pp. 189-195. The _Loranthus vestitus_\n      \u201cis a small branching woody plant with dirty yellowish green leaves\n      which are dark shining green above. It grows in great clumps and\n      masses on the trees, resembling a giant mistletoe. The fruit is\n      yellowish and fleshy, and is almost sessile on the stem, which it\n      thickly studs\u201d (_ib._, p. 192). The writer shews that the parasite\n      is very destructive to oaks in India.\n\n  788 H. O. Lenz, _Botanik der alten Griechen und R\u00f6mer_ (Gotha, 1859), p.\n      598, notes 151 and 152.\n\n  789 C. Fraas, _Synopsis Plantarum Florae Classicae_ (Munich, 1845), p.\n      152.\n\n  790 H. O. Lenz, _Botanik der alten Griechen und R\u00f6mer_ (Gotha, 1859),\n      pp. 599 _sq._\n\n M252 Both sorts of mistletoe known to the ancients and designated by\n      different words.\n\n  791 Theophrastus, _Historia Plantarum_, iii. 7. 5, iii. 16. 1, _De\n      Causis Plantarum_, ii. 17; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ xvi. 245-247. Compare\n      Dioscorides, _De materia medica_, ii. 93 (103), vol. i. pp. 442\n      _sq._, ed. C. Sprengel (Leipsic, 1829-1830), who uses the form\n      _ixos_ instead of _ixia_. Both Dioscorides (_l.c._) and Plutarch\n      (_Coriolanus_, 3) affirm that mistletoe (_ixos_) grows on the oak\n      (\u03b4\u03c1\u1fe6\u03c2); and Hesychius quotes from Sophocles\u2019s play _Meleager_ the\n      expression \u201cmistletoe-bearing oaks\u201d (\u1f30\u03be\u03bf\u03c6\u03cc\u03c1\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 \u03b4\u03c1\u03cd\u03b1\u03c2, Hesychius,\n      _s.v._).\n\n M253 Doubts as to the identification of the ancient names for mistletoe.\n\n  792 Theophrastus, _Opera quae supersunt omnia_, ed. Fr. Wimmer (Paris,\n      1866), pp. 537, 545, 546, _s.vv._ \u1f30\u03be\u03af\u03b1, \u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03bb\u03af\u03c2, \u1f51\u03c6\u03ad\u03b1\u03c1.\n\n  793 F. Fraas, _Synopsis Plantarum Florae Classicae_ (Munich, 1845), p.\n      152.\n\n  794 H. O. Lenz, _Botanik der alten Griechen und R\u00f6mer_ (Gotha, 1859), p.\n      597, notes 147 and 148.\n\n  795 Theophrastus, _De Causis Plantarum_, ii. 17. 2, \u1f10\u03c0\u03b5\u1f76 \u03c4\u03cc \u03b3\u03b5 \u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd\n      \u1f00\u03b5\u03af\u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd \u03b5\u1f36\u03bd\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u1ff6\u03bd \u1f30\u03be\u03b9\u1ff6\u03bd (\u03c4\u1f74\u03bd \u03b4\u1f72 \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b2\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03bd) \u03bf\u1f50\u03b8\u1f72\u03bd \u1f04\u03c4\u03bf\u03c0\u03bf\u03bd, \u03ba\u1f02\u03bd \u1f21\n      \u03bc\u1f72\u03bd (\u1f10\u03bd) \u1f00\u03b9\u03c6\u03cd\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f21 \u03b4\u1f72 \u1f10\u03bd \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03bb\u03bf\u03b2\u03cc\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9\u03c2 \u1f10\u03bc\u03b2\u03b9\u1ff4\u03b7.\n\n M254 Did Virgil compare the Golden Bough to common mistletoe or to\n      _Loranthus_? Some enquirers decide in favour of _Loranthus_.\n\n  796 His letter is undated, but the postmark is April 28th, 1889. Sir\n      Francis Darwin has since told me that his authority is Kerner von\n      Marilaun, _Pflanzenleben_ (1888), vol. i. pp. 195, 196. See Anton\n      Kerner von Marilaun, _The Natural History of Plants_, translated and\n      edited by F. W. Oliver (London, 1894-1895), i. 204 _sqq._ According\n      to this writer \u201cthe mistletoe\u2019s favourite tree is certainly the\n      Black Poplar (_Populus nigra_). It flourishes with astonishing\n      luxuriance on the branches of that tree.... Mistletoe has also been\n      found by way of exception upon the oak and the maple, and upon old\n      vines\u201d (_op. cit._ i. 205).\n\n  797 Prof. P. J. Veth, \u201cDe leer der signatuur, III. De mistel en de\n      riembloem,\u201d _Internationales Archiv f\u00fcr Ethnographie_, vii. (1894)\n      p. 105. The Dutch language has separate names for the two species:\n      mistletoe is _mistel_, and _Loranthus_ is _riembloem_.\n\n  798 His letter is dated 18th February, 1908.\n\n M255 Reason for preferring common mistletoe. Perhaps Virgil confused the\n      two species.\n\n  799 But Sir Francis Darwin writes to me:\u2014\u201cI do not quite see why\n      _Loranthus_ should not put out leaves in winter as easily as\n      _Viscum_, in both cases it would be due to unfolding leaf buds; the\n      fact that _Viscum_ has adult leaves at the time, while _Loranthus_\n      has not, does not really affect the matter.\u201d However, Mr. Paton\n      tells us, as we have just seen, that in winter the _Loranthus_\n      growing on the oaks of Mount Athos has no leaves, though its yellow\n      berries are very conspicuous.","title":"The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and Religion (Third Edition, Vol. 11 of 12)","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":196436}