{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_44636/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_44636","id":"gutenberg_44636","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/44636","summary":null,"tags":["Bible and science","Category: History - Religious","Category: Philosophy & Ethics","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Cosmology","Creation","Religion and science"],"text":"THE\n\nMOSAIC HISTORY\n\nOF THE\n\nCREATION OF THE WORLD;\n\nILLUSTRATED BY DISCOVERIES AND EXPERIMENTS DERIVED FROM THE PRESENT\nENLIGHTENED STATE OF SCIENCE; WITH REFLECTIONS, INTENDED TO PROMOTE\nVITAL AND PRACTICAL RELIGION.\n\nBY THOMAS WOOD, A. M.\n\nREVISED AND IMPROVED\n\nBY THE REV. J. P. DURBIN, A. M.\n\nPROFESSOR OF LANGUAGES, AUGUSTA COLLEGE, KENTUCKY.\n\n\u201cEvery man has a particular train of thought into which his mind falls,\nwhen at leisure, from the impressions and ideas which occasionally\nexcite it; and if one train of thinking be more desirable than another,\nit is surely that which regards the phenomena of nature with a constant\nreference to a supreme intelligent author.\u201d--_Bacon._\n\nFIRST AMERICAN, FROM THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.\n\nNEW-YORK.--M^{C}ELRATH & BANGS.\n\n1831.\n\n\n\n\n[_Entered, according to the Act of Congress, July 27, in the year 1831,\nby M^{c}Elrath & Bangs, in the Office of the Clerk of the Southern\nDistrict of New-York._]\n\n\n\n\nJOHN T. WEST & CO., PRINTERS.\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE\n\nTO THE SECOND LONDON EDITION.\n\n\nAs God made man with a capacity susceptible of knowledge, so has he\nfurnished him with the means of acquiring it. The Divine Being is\nincomprehensible to all but himself: for a finite capacity can never\nfully grasp an infinite object. Neither can he be perceived at all,\nonly so far as he is pleased to reveal himself. He has given us a\nrevelation of his nature, perfections, and will; which could never have\nbeen discovered by reasoning and conjecture. He has also favored us\nwith a revelation of his works, without which the origin, constitution,\nand nature of the universe, could never have been adequately known. The\norigin, duty, and interest of man, are matters in which we are greatly\nconcerned. How valuable then are the Sacred Scriptures!\n\nThe heathen world by wisdom knew not God. On theological subjects,\nthe greatest Philosophers and Poets of whom antiquity could boast,\nwere puerile in their opinions, and absurd and contradictory in their\nliterary productions. Their progress in many of the sciences, and\nthe polite arts, was considerable; but in religion they made none:\nnot because they neglected to investigate the nature of it, as one\nobserves; for there was not a subject they thought on, nor discoursed\nabout, more than the nature and existence of the gods; neither was\nit for want of natural abilities, nor of learning; for persons who\nformed the brightest constellation of geniuses that ever illuminated\nthe republic of letters, were devoted to the investigation of the\nprinciples and causes of things. Moses, the sacred historian, had\naccess to the Fountain of knowledge, and has revealed the mystery\nthat lay hid for ages, because he was taught it by the inspiration of\nthe Almighty. By the Hebrew Lawgiver we are instructed concerning the\nCreation of the World; an illustration of whose account is attempted in\nthe following pages.\n\nThe attention of the reader is called to that era when the elementary\nprinciples of matter were first produced, and the formation of\ncreatures took place; when vitality was given to a vast variety of\nanimals, and mind was infused into Man as the peculiar offspring of\nGod: when motion was impressed on the universe, and the various Planets\nbegan their orbicular revolutions: when Time commenced, and\n\n                    \u201cHistory, not wanted yet,\n    Lean\u2019d on her elbow watching Time, whose course\n    Eventful should supply her with a theme.\u201d\n\nWhat a stupendous fabric is Creation! a marvellous display of\nomnipotence! It is infinitely diversified, and magnificently grand. Ten\nthousand objects strike the attentive eye, and afford inexpressible\ndelight to a contemplative mind. The blue ethereal arch is highly\nilluminated, and richly adorned with sparkling globes of light--whose\nnumber, distances, magnitudes, motions, and influences, elude the most\ndiligent research: these millions of suns, the glory of other worlds,\nare equally the works of the Creator, and, with rays of dazzling\nsplendor, irradiate the peculiar systems to which they belong: and,\nwhile they celebrate his wisdom and power, form a brilliant canopy\nover our heads. That golden globe of light, which is the center of\nour planetary system, shines forth in his glory, and spreads abroad\nthe lucid day: he does not only emit his cheering rays to surrounding\norbs, some of which revolve at immense distances, but, in running his\nprescribed course, measures out our time, renders our hours joyful, and\nwithout whose reviving beams we should dwell in perpetual darkness. The\npale silver Moon gilds the shadows of the evening, and directs the feet\nof the benighted and lonely traveller in safety to his abode.\n\nIn the lower walks of Nature, we perceive numerous assemblages of\ncreatures, which, calling forth the exercise of our understanding,\nraise our admiration. The vapors arise, unite in the aerial regions,\nand descend in rain, snow, or hail, according to the different\ntemperature of the climates; and thus the valleys are watered, the\ngreen carpet is spread under our feet, delightfully adorned with\nfruitful trees and variegated flowers. The vast collections of water,\ncalled seas, are stored with innumerable finny inhabitants, both small\nand great, which are amply supplied with necessary food. On earth,\nthere are the wild beasts of the forest, the roaming cattle of the\ndesert, the domestic animals of the field, the feathered tribes with\ntheir glossy plumage and delightful notes, beside an incredible number\nof living creatures that escape the utmost vigilance of the unassisted\neye: which are all effects of infinite skill, omnipotent energy, Divine\nmunificence, and conspire to utter his praise. The sultry regions are\nfanned with cooling breezes, which revive the numerous classes of\ncreatures, and without which they would otherwise faint. But of all\nthe visible effects of omnific power and uncreated goodness, Man has a\nclaim to the first rank, for in his composition are mysteriously joined\nboth matter and spirit.\n\nHow wonderfully has God displayed his wisdom, power, and goodness, in\nthe creation of the Universe! What are the most labored and diversified\nworks of Art, when compared with the majestic grandeur and sublimity\nof those of Nature! The things on which the fertile imagination of man\nhas long been employed, when considered in a detached point of view,\ngratify our curiosity, raise our admiration, and gain our applause;\nbut when compared with the productions of the Divine Hand, they sink\nand are deprived of their lustre, like the sparkling glow-worm in the\ncopse, when the Sun shines forth with the refulgence of his meridian\nsplendor.\n\nReligious instruction is here mixed with philosophical discoveries. The\nworks of Nature conduct an enlightened mind to the great Creator. The\ncelebrated Dr. Watts, with this point in view, says,\n\n    \u201cPart of thy name divinely stands,\n      On all thy creatures writ,\n    They show the labor of thy hands,\n      Or impress of thy feet.\u201d\n\nMr. Adams, in his Lectures, says, \u201cThe two kingdoms of nature and\ngrace, as two parallel lines, correspond to each other, follow a like\ncourse, but can never be made to touch. An adequate understanding\nof this distinction in all its branches, would be the consummation\nof knowledge.\u201d Stephens, in his Human Nature Delineated, says, \u201cThe\nman who would seek after knowledge in this world, and happiness in\nthe world of spirits, I would advise to pursue his studies without\nany other guides than the Word and the Works of God.\u201d And Dr. A.\nClarke, on John iv, 3, affirms, that, \u201cproperly understood, earthly\n_substances_ are the types, representatives, and shadows of heavenly\nthings.\u201d St. Paul appears to inculcate this idea where he says, \u201cNow\nwe see as through a glass, darkly: but then face to face.\u201d The word\n\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, rendered _darkly_, is peculiarly important, and the right\nknowledge of which will assist us to understand his meaning. Parkhurst\ngives the following definition of the _term_ and the _thing_. \u201c\u0391\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\nfrom \u03b7\u03bd\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03b9, the _perfect passive_, of \u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9\u03c4\u03c4\u03c9, to _hint, intimate,\nsignify with some degree of obscurity_; an _enigma_, in which one thing\n_answers_ or stands in _correspondence to_, or as the _representative_\nof another; which is, in _some respects, similar_ to it, occurs 1 Cor.\nxiii, 12. _Now_, in this life, _we see by means of a mirror_ reflecting\nthe images of heavenly and spiritual things, \u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03b9\u03b3\u03bc\u03b1\u03c4\u03b9, _in an\nenigmatical manner_, invisible things being represented by visible;\nspiritual, by natural; eternal, by temporal; _but then_, in the eternal\nworld, _face to face_; every thing being seen in itself, and not by\nmeans of a representative or similitude.\u201d\n\nThe idea thus suggested, induced the author to engage in the following\nwork: he thought that if the Mosaic account of the Creation were given\nin detail, each day apart, using the aid afforded by the present\nenlightened state of science, and directing the reader to look\n\n    \u201cThrough Nature, up to Nature\u2019s God.\u201d\n\nthe work would be instructive, and might tend to cultivate the mind\nand amend the heart. And he is happy that he has it in his power to\nsay, that the plan has obtained not only the general approbation of\northodox and pious Christians, but the warm encomiums of many Ministers\nof the Gospel, both of the Establishment and among the Dissenters. He\nhas received very flattering Epistolary Communications from persons of\npiety, literature, and science.\n\nThe author has availed himself of various sources of information: some\nof the best works published on different illustrative subjects have\nbeen consulted: and those on Natural History and Chemical Science\nwere found of considerable service. That part which treats on the\nAnatomical structure of Man, the reader will perceive is written\nby a gentleman deeply versed in Physiological science. It is from\nthe pen of the late Benjamin Gibson, Esq. who filled the important\nsituations of _Vice-President of the Literary and Philosophical Society\nof Manchester, and Surgeon to the Infirmary of that town_: and who,\nunexpectedly, and in the most obliging manner, offered to prepare a\nManuscript for this work, which gives it a peculiar excellence it\notherwise would not have had.\n\nThe favorable reception which the former large edition has met with\nfrom the public, and the consequent demand there was upon the author to\nprepare a new one, produced a considerable excitement in his mind; and,\nunder these circumstances, it was not less his wish, than it has been\nhis endeavor, to make the second edition more worthy to meet the public\neye, as well as more extensively useful. The _whole_ of the work, with\nthe exception of that part by Mr. Gibson, therefore, has been written\nanew, and such important additions and arrangements made, as will, he\ntrusts, meet the approbation of his readers. He has received assistance\nfrom a writer of eminence, whose name, were he at liberty to mention\nit, would do honor to his work, and whose corrections have increased\nits value. The Religious Improvements he believes to be natural and\nscriptural, and hopes they may be read with advantage by all Christians\nwho have received the truth as it is in Christ. He can say, that he\nhas endeavored to make the whole work both instructive and useful, so\nfar as his leisure from arduous ministerial duties would allow him: by\ndirecting the attention of the reader to God, through the medium of\nhis visible works, and by that means to inculcate true religion and\ngenuine piety. May the Divine blessing render this additional effort\nsuccessful!\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE\n\nTO THE AMERICAN EDITION.\n\n\nThis work, which is now presented to the public, has not been reprinted\nin America heretofore, notwithstanding it passed through _two_ editions\nin England, with honorable approbation, in a short space of time. This\nfirst American edition, it is confidently believed, will be received\nwith approbation; because the work will be found, on perusal, to answer\nto its title; and surely no subject can interest the Christian and\nintelligent reader more deeply, than the _illustration of the creation\nof the world, as recorded by Moses, the servant of God_.\n\nThis volume inspires a deeper interest when the reader is promised that\nthe illustration of this splendid subject shall be _by means of the\ndiscoveries drawn from the present enlightened state of science_. Thus\nthe reader will see clearly confirmed this glorious truth: _Religion\nand Literature are mutual helpmates to the knowledge, love, and glory\nof God._\n\nThis important truth has been strangely obscured for several ages; but\nis now emerging to light with increased splendor. Nor is it important\nto inquire, at this stage of mental improvement throughout the\ncivilized world, the cause of its obscuration, but rather to rejoice,\nthat it is now assuming its place as a fundamental principle in sound\nphilosophy. It is the duty of every benevolent individual to contribute\naccording to his ability, to an inseparable union of sound literature\nand vital religion. The one will secure the interests and success of\nthe other, and both combined, the glory of God.\n\nOur author, in this respect, has been very happily successful. He has,\ngenerally, illustrated the various parts of the Mosaic Creation, with\nperspicuity and precision, and then applied the whole to the production\nand support of vital piety in the heart of the reader. So that while\nthe astonishing magnificence, glory, and wisdom of creation, fills the\ncontemplative mind with admiration, the heart also is fired with an\nardent and rational devotion.\n\nThe character of this volume is, therefore, neither _purely_\nscientific, nor _purely_ devotional; but both wisely and happily\ncombined, under the high and direct sanction of revelation.\n\nIt will be apparent to every person, by a mere glance at the size\nof the volume, that it is not intended to contain all the _minuti\u00e6_\nconnected with the Mosaic Creation, but the principal, and most\nimportant facts, so as to make the work suitable to the great mass of\nintelligent and thoughtful readers. This object it will be found to\nhave well accomplished.\n\nThe _improvements_, which are mentioned in the title-page, have been\nadded to the American edition, with design to adapt the work more\nnearly to the wants of the American public. They are found incorporated\nin the body of the volume, in smaller type, and enclosed in brackets;\nwhich was judged to be the best method.\n\nThese additional papers are written at some length, principally on\ntopics which have become more prominent since our author finished his\nwork, and which are now exciting intense interest in this country. They\nare, therefore, considered to be real and interesting improvements to\nthe American edition.\n\nFinally, the author of these additional papers, would respectfully\ncommend this American edition of the Mosaic Creation, illustrated by\nmeans of the present enlightened state of science, _to the friends of_\nLITERATURE AND RELIGION COMBINED _for the instruction and salvation of\nmankind, and for the glory of God_.\n\n                                                          J. P. DURBIN.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS.\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nON THE CREATOR OF THE WORLD.\n\n    Distinguished by his name _Jehovah_ -- His essence and\n    self-existence expressed by the words I AM --His attribute\n    of goodness the glory of all his other perfections -- Elohim\n    signifying a Trinity of Persons in a Unity of Essence -- The\n    Creation ascribed to one God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy\n    Spirit -- The first production of matter -- The creatures made\n    for the manifesting of God\u2019s attributes, that he might impart\n    happiness to them.                                    p. 13-40.\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nFIRST DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--CHAOS.\n\n    Inquiry into the origin of things natural to man --\n    Character of Moses as a sacred historian important --\n    Explanation of the term Created -- Chaotic state of the\n    elementary principles of matter -- Influence of the Spirit\n    of God upon the chaotic mass -- Opinions of the ancients --\n    Similitude between the first and second creation -- Agency\n    of the Holy Spirit in the work of regeneration asserted and\n    proved.                                               p. 41-51.\n\n\n_Section_ II.--FIRE.\n\n    Omnific word -- Moving principles in Nature -- Criticism on\n    the original word \u05d0\u05d9\u05e8 _aur_ -- Creation of Fire -- Its nature\n    -- Friction exciting the action of fire -- Fire attracted by\n    bodies -- Fire conducted -- Fire in a state of combination --\n    Fire elastic -- Expansive force of fire -- Subterraneous fires\n    -- Earthquakes and volcanic Eruptions -- Air a storehouse of\n    fire -- General and final dissolution of nature by fire --\n    Fire a symbol of the Deity, in his gracious presence, vital\n    influence, transforming energy, and destructive operation. p.\n    51-74.\n\n\n_Section_ III.--LIGHT.\n\n    Motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause\n    of light -- Light the most simple body -- Velocity of light\n    -- Light diffusive -- Light the medium through which objects\n    become visible -- Light beautiful, or its rays of different\n    colors -- Light a visible resemblance of its Divine Author,\n    in his spirituality, simplicity, purity, energy, goodness,\n    manifestation, glory.                                 p. 75-89.\n\n\n_Section_ IV.--DAY AND NIGHT.\n\n    Original terms of Day and Night -- Motion the effect of\n    a Divine power -- Commencement of Time -- Utility of Day and\n    Night -- Religious Improvement of Time -- Sin moral Darkness --\n    The Gospel a Light to dispel it -- A Christian the subject of\n    a transition from the one state to the other.         p. 89-95.\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nSECOND DAY.\n\nON THE ATMOSPHERE.\n\n    Composition of Atmospheric Air -- Atmosphere divided\n    into three regions -- Air a fluid -- Its compressibility\n    and elasticity -- Weight and pressure -- Equilibrium --\n    Transparency -- Wind -- Causes of Wind -- Variety of Winds\n    -- Velocity of Winds -- Destructive Winds -- Wind under the\n    control of God -- Wind a similitude of the Holy Spirit\u2019s\n    operations.                                          p. 95-114.\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nTHIRD DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--THE SEA.\n\n    Water and Land separated -- Formation of the Sea -- Its\n    restrictions -- Extent -- Depth -- Composition -- Saltiness\n    -- Motion -- Tides -- Four states of water -- Circulation --\n    Religious Improvement.                              p. 114-135.\n\n\n_Section_ II.--THE EARTH.\n\n    Surface of the Earth -- Mountains -- Fertility of Plants --\n    Dissemination of seeds -- Preservation of Plants -- Adaptation\n    to different Climates -- Number of Vegetables -- Succession of\n    Vegetables -- Remarkable Trees -- Sensitive Plants -- Kitchen\n    Vegetables -- Garden Flowers -- Religious Improvement.\n                                                        p. 136-165.\n\n\n_Section_ III.--MINERALS.\n\n    Gold -- Silver -- Platina -- Mercury -- Copper -- Iron\n    -- Tin -- Lead --Nickel -- Zinc -- Palladium -- Bismuth --\n    Antimony -- Tellurium --Arsenic -- Cobalt -- Manganese --\n    Tungsten -- Molybdenum --Uranium -- Titanium -- Chromium --\n    Columbium or Tantalium -- Cerium -- Oxmium -- Rodium -- Iridium\n    -- Religious Improvement.                           p. 165-183.\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\nFOURTH DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--THE SUN.\n\n    Signs -- Names -- Nature -- Motions -- Form -- Magnitude --\n    Distance -- Suspension -- Idolatrous worship of the Sun -- The\n    Sun an emblem of Christ.                            p. 183-198.\n\n\n_Section_ II.--THE MOON.\n\n    Names -- Dimensions -- Motions -- Seasons -- Phases --\n    Harvest Moon -- Moon\u2019s Surface -- Aerial Stones -- Eclipses --\n    Moonlight -- Epithets -- Religious Improvement.     p. 198-214.\n\n\n_Section_ III.--THE SEASONS.\n\n    Seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter -- Displaying\n    Divine Power, Wisdom, Goodness, Faithfulness -- Religious\n    Improvement.                                        p. 214-223.\n\n\n_Section_ IV.--THE PLANETS AND FIXED STARS.\n\n    Mercury -- Venus -- The Earth -- Mars -- Ceres -- Pallas --\n    Juno --Vesta -- Jupiter -- Saturn -- Georgium Sidus -- Comets\n    -- Fixed Stars -- Religious Improvement.            p. 223-278.\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nFIFTH DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--FISHES.\n\n    Of Fishes in general -- The Cetaceous kind -- Cartilaginous\n    -- Spinous -- Crustaceous -- and Testaceous -- Animalcules --\n    Religious Improvement.                              p. 279-296.\n\n\n_Section_ II.--ON FOWLS.\n\n    Number of Species -- Superiority and peculiar construction\n    -- Skill in building their Nests -- Power and Season of\n    Propagation -- Dexterity in providing Food -- Instinct --\n    Migrations -- Insects -- Religious Improvement.     p. 296-317.\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nSIXTH DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--ON QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES.\n\n    Quadrupeds in general -- Motion -- Habits -- Rumination --\n    Proportion -- Tastes -- Clothing -- Weapons -- Proportionate\n    Number -- Faculties -- Reptiles -- Religious Improvement.\n                                                        p. 318-344.\n\n\n_Section_ II.--MAN.\n\n    _Body_: -- Its Creator -- Formation -- Vitality -- Blood\n    -- Heart -- Arteries and Veins -- Digestion -- Respiration --\n    Glands -- Absorbents -- Nervous System -- Organs of Sense --\n    Bones -- Sinovia -- Muscles -- Tendons -- Cellular Membrane --\n    Skin. _Soul_: Its Immateriality -- Freedom -- Immortality --\n    Moral Image -- Adam\u2019s dominion over the Creatures -- Woman --\n    Paradise.                                           p. 344-398.\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII.\n\nSEVENTH DAY.\n\nON THE SABBATH.\n\n    Sabbath instituted -- Blessed and sanctified -- Given to\n    Adam as a General Precept for his Posterity -- Renewed before\n    and at the giving of the Law -- A sign between God and his\n    people -- Worldly Business prohibited -- Works of Necessity\n    and Mercy excepted --Advantages resulting from observing it\n    -- A Seventh Day regarded by the Heathens -- The Sabbath of\n    universal and perpetual obligation -- The Lord\u2019s Day.\n                                                        p. 399-410.\n\n\n\n\nTHE\n\nMOSAIC HISTORY, &c.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I.\n\nON THE CREATOR OF THE WORLD.\n\n    Distinguished by his name JEHOVAH -- His essence and\n    self-existence expressed by the words I AM -- His attribute\n    of goodness the glory of all his other perfections -- Elohim\n    signifying a Trinity of Persons in a Unity of Essence -- The\n    Creation ascribed to one God, the Father, the Son, and the Holy\n    Spirit -- The first production of matter -- The creatures made\n    for the manifesting of God\u2019s attributes, and that he might\n    impart happiness to them.\n\n\nAs it is proposed, in the following pages to give the Mosaic account\nof the creation of the world, it is very natural that the mind should\ncome to the meditation of this interesting subject, by contemplating\nthe character of the Great Creator, according to his own revelations.\n\nIt is evident that God made himself gradually known, as the state and\ncondition of mankind required. In the earlier ages of the world, while\nrevelation was but dawning on the human race, he was but little known,\nin comparison of the subsequent diffusion of his glory and perfections.\nWhen he, according to his promise, came to deliver the children of\nIsrael out of Egypt, he revealed himself to them by his name JEHOVAH.\nHe had before declared himself by this name to Abraham, Isaac, and\nJacob; but not as it imports the performance of his promises; in\nwhich sense, their posterity afterwards, in the time of Moses, well\nunderstood it.\n\nOf all the names which the Divine Being has been pleased to designate\nhimself by, that of JEHOVAH is the greatest. It comes from a root\nwhich imports his eternity, independency, efficacy, and truth. In the\nHebrew it is written with four letters, \u05d9 _yod_, \u05d4 _he_, \u05d5 _vau_,\n\u05d4 _he_, thus \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4 i.e. JHVH:[1] the points used in that language,\nmake our English word consist of seven letters, J_e_H_o_V_a_H. God\nhimself gives the interpretation of this name. \u201cAnd the Lord passed\nby before him, and proclaimed \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4 YEHOVAH, the LORD GOD, merciful\nand gracious, long-suffering, and abundant in goodness and truth,\nkeeping mercy for thousands, forgiving iniquity, and transgression,\nand sin, and that will by no means clear the guilty.\u201d These different\nnames have been considered as so many attributes of the Divine\nNature. Commentators divide them into eleven, thus: 1. \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4 JEHOVAH.\n2. \u05d0\u05dc EL, the strong or mighty God. 3. \u05e8\u05d7\u05d5\u05dd RACHUM, the merciful\nBeing, who is full of tenderness and compassion. 4. \u05d7\u05e0\u05d9\u05df CHANUN, the\ngracious One: He, whose nature is goodness itself--the loving God.\n5. \u05d0\u05e8\u05da \u05e4\u05d9\u05dd\u05d0 EREC APAYIM, long-suffering, the Being who, because of\nhis goodness and tenderness, is not easily irritated, but suffers\nlong and is kind. 6. \u05e8\u05d1 RAB, the great or mighty One. 7. \u05d7\u05e1\u05d3 CHESED,\nthe bountiful Being: He who is exuberant in his beneficence. 8. \u05d0\u05de\u05ea\nEMETH, the Truth, or true One: He alone who can neither deceive nor\nbe deceived--who is the Fountain of truth, and from whom all wisdom\nand knowledge must be derived. 9. \u05d7\u05e1\u05d3 \u05e0\u05e6\u05e8 NOTSER CHESED the preserver\nof bountifulness: He whose beneficence never ends, keeping mercy for\nthousands of generations--showing compassion and mercy while the\nworld endures. 10. \u05e0\u05e9\u05d0 \u05e2\u05d5\u05df \u05d5\u05e4\u05e9\u05e2 \u05d5\u05d7\u05d8\u05d0\u05d4 NOSE _\u00e2von vapesh\u00e2 vechataah_:\nHe who bears away iniquity and transgression and sin; properly the\nREDEEMER, the Pardoner, the Forgiver, the Being whose prerogative\nalone it is to forgive sin, and save the soul. \u05e0\u05e7\u05d4 (\u05dc\u05d5) \u05dc\u05d0 \u05d9\u05e0\u05e7\u05d4 NAKEH\n_lo yinnakeh_, the righteous Judge, who distributes justice with an\nimpartial hand; with whom no innocent person can ever be condemned. 11.\nAnd \u05e4\u05e7\u05d3 \u05e2\u05d5\u05df PAKED _\u00e2von_, &c. He who visits iniquity; he who punishes\ntransgressors, and from whose justice no sinner can escape. The God of\nretributive and vindictive justice. These eleven attributes, as they\nhave been termed, are all included in the name _Jehovah_; and are the\nproper interpretation of it.[2]\n\nThe Jews had a superstitious respect for this name; and, after the\nBabylonian captivity, discontinued the use of it, which caused\nthem soon to forget its true pronunciation. They called it the\n_Tetragrammaton_, or four-lettered name of God, which, to the present\nday, the Jews will neither write nor pronounce. They deemed it to be\nineffable; and therefore when it occurred in reading the Scriptures;\nsubstituted \u05d0\u05d3\u05e0\u05d9 _Adonai_.\n\nThe Jews tell us that the woman\u2019s son, mentioned in Lev. xxxiv, 11, was\naccused of blasphemy and stoned to death, because he pronounced the\nname _Jehovah_. But I conceive, that he had spoken contemptuously of\nGod. We read, verse 10, that he and a man of Israel strove together,\nand it is probable that the Israelite, in the heat of contention, would\ndeny his being a member of the church of God, because he was the son of\nan Egyptian father who was an idolater; whereupon, no doubt, the son\nof the Israelitish woman spoke scornfully and opprobriously of the God\nof Israel, despising the privilege of being one of his people. This, I\nimagine, was the blasphemy of which he was accused, and for which he\nwas condemned and stoned to death; and not for pronouncing the name of\n_Jehovah_ only.\n\nThe Seventy who translated the Old Testament into Greek, at the desire\nof Ptolemy Philadelphus, King of Egypt, about the 124th Olympiad, were\nalso very sparing in the use of this name _Jehovah_; and therefore did\nnot render it according to the sacred import of the Hebrew, but changed\nit into the word \u039a\u03c5\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2, _Lord_, which is of the same signification\nwith _Adonai_ in the Hebrew. Origen, Jerome, and Eusebius, testify,\nthat, in their time, the Jews left the name _Jehovah_ written in their\ncopies with Samaritan characters, instead of the common Chaldee or\nHebrew characters. And those divines, who at the command of King James\ntranslated the Scriptures anew into English, have very rarely used the\nword _Jehovah_, but rendered it _Lord_. Yet we may observe, that when\nthis word _Lord_ is substituted for _Jehovah_, it is printed in large\nRoman letters. It is to be wished, that the name _Jehovah_ had been\npreserved in the English translation of the Scriptures, and especially\nin those passages whose sense entirely depends on the meaning of the\nword.\n\nAfter the appointment of Moses, by Jehovah, to deliver the children of\nIsrael from the tyranny and oppression under which they groaned, and\nto conduct them from Egypt to worship God at Horeb, he was anxious to\nobtain a particular revelation of the Divine nature and attributes,\nthat he might be able to regulate, direct, and superintend their\nworship; and this he deemed necessary on account of the Israelites\nhaving been long conversant among the Egyptians, who were idolaters\nand polytheists, and called their gods by a variety of names. Hereupon\nhe said to God, \u201cBehold, when I come unto the children of Israel, and\nshall say unto them, The God of your fathers hath sent me unto you;\nand they shall say unto me, What is his name? what shall I say unto\nthem?\u201d Intimating, that it was expedient God should call himself by\nan appropriate name, to distinguish himself from all the gods of the\nheathen. For men did not, at this time, as Dr. Shuckford observes,\nknow the works of creation well enough to demonstrate from them the\nattributes of God; nor could they, by speculation, form proper and\njust notions of his nature. Though he had revealed himself to Abraham,\nIsaac, and Jacob, by the name \u05d0\u05e0\u05d9 \u05d0\u05dc \u05e9\u05d3\u05d9 _Ani El shaday_, \u201cI am God\nall-sufficient,\u201d and likewise that of \u05d9\u05d4\u05d5\u05d4 _Jehovah_; yet a further\nknowledge of him was sincerely desired and earnestly requested.[3]\n\nWhereupon, says God to Moses, I AM _that_ I AM, \u05d0\u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 \u05d0\u05e9\u05e8 \u05d0\u05d4\u05d9\u05d4 EHEYEH\n_asher_ EHEYEH. The Vulgate translates these words--EGO SUM QUI SUM,\n_I am who am_. The Septuagint--\u0395\u03b3\u03c9 \u03b5\u03b9\u03bc\u03b9 \u1f41 \u03a9\u03bd, _I am he who exists_.\nThe Arabic paraphrases them--_The Eternal, who passes not away_. Not\n_I was_, but I AM and WILL BE: a name that expresses his own essence,\nand signifies independency, immutability, and necessary existence. As\nif he had said, You may inquire who I am, and by what name I would\nbe distinguished: know then that I AM HE who has being from himself,\nand has no dependence on any other.[4] This contains in it the whole\nplenitude and possibility of being, all that is, or can be, or, as the\nApostle expresses it, \u03c0\u03b1\u03bd \u03c4\u03bf \u03c0\u03bb\u03b7\u03c1\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1 \u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03c4\u03b7\u03c4\u03bf\u03c2 \u201call the fulness of\nthe Godhead.\u201d By this name he is distinguished not only from all false\ngods, but from all other beings whatsoever; implying, that he exists\nafter some very eminent and peculiar manner, and that nothing else\nbesides him truly and essentially is.[5]\n\nThe self-existence of God proves that he always was, and evidently\nshows that he cannot cease to be. \u201cHe is, and was, and is to come.\u201d His\nnecessary existence comprehends a duration which has neither beginning,\nsuccession, nor end. He can have no succession in his duration, because\nwherever this is there must be priority, and wherever there is a\npriority there must be a beginning. He is in the complete possession\nof an endless life, all at once. He exists in one eternal _now_. He\nis unchangeable in his essence or manner of existence, so that no\nperfection can be added to him, nor any excellency taken from him, but\nhe remains invariably the same.\n\nAll natural perfections are essential to him as an infinite being, such\nas eternity, omnipotence, immensity, omniscience, spirituality, and\nimmutability; and all moral perfections belong to him as a good Being,\nsuch as wisdom, holiness, justice, goodness, truth, faithfulness.\nThese latter are communicable, because there are some rays of them\nin his creatures, but none of them in that transcendent degree that\nare in him, nor ever can be. The former we call his _natural_ and\n_incommunicable_ perfections, for the sake of distinction; though it is\ncertain the latter are equally as natural to him, and incommunicable,\nin that infinite degree possessed by himself.\n\nGod being unchangeable in his essence, must also be so in all his\nperfections, because they are no other than his essence, and are not\ndistinguished in him, either from his essence, or from one another;\nbut are one and the same Being, revealed and manifested to us, under\nvarious notions, which we call _attributes_, to help us the better to\nconceive of him, who are not able to apprehend what may be known of\nhim, under any one name, or by any one act of our understanding.\n\nThe combination of all his perfections renders him a glorious Being;\nand that fixed and invariable state of contentment and satisfaction,\ncomplacency and delight, which result from the secure possession and\nenjoyment of all that is good and desirable, or, in other words, of\nall possible excellencies and perfections in the highest degree,\nconstitutes him infinitely blessed.\n\nMoses was favored with another remarkable and interesting manifestation\nof the Divine Being; for perceiving God\u2019s merciful condescension in\nanswer to his prayers offered up for his people, he persevered in the\nholy exercise, and even asked him for a manifestation of his glory:\n\u201cShow me,\u201d said he, \u201cI beseech thee, thy glory,\u201d or, according to the\noriginal, \u201cmake me see it.\u201d He could not mean an open view of the\nunclouded majesty of God, but only such a display of the Divine glory\nas a mortal is capable of beholding. God answered, \u201cI will make all\nmy _goodness_ to pass before thee:\u201d intimating, that his _goodness_\nis his glory, and that he could not bear the infinite splendor of his\nholiness and justice. _Goodness_ is the true and genuine character of\nGod, and the glory of all his other perfections, and by it they are\nall rendered engaging. Without this they would be terrible: for wisdom\nwithout goodness degenerates into insidious cunning; and power without\nit is the character of a tyrant. Were God destitute of this amiable\nperfection, he would have such a defect in his nature, as infinite\nperfection itself, in every other attribute, could not sufficiently\ncompensate.\n\nAll nations have acknowledged this perfection of the Divine Being.\nPlato calls him the \u03b9\u03b4\u03b5\u03b1 \u03c4\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b1\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u03c5, the idea or essence of goodness.\nIn the three principles of the Platonic Trinity--\u03c4\u03bf \u03b1\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd _goodness_,\n\u03bd\u03bf\u03c5\u03c2 _intelligence_, and \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b7 _vitality_.--The first place is assigned\nto the \u03c4\u03bf \u03b1\u03b3\u03b1\u03b8\u03bf\u03bd _goodness_, which the Platonists conceive to be like\nan immense and most pure light, continually diffusing and communicating\nits invigorating beams. To this the Platonist Boctius alludes, in that\ncelebrated description of God, where he calls him _Fons Boni Lucidus_,\nthe lucid fountain of goodness.--There is an ancient cabalistical\ntable, supposed to be borrowed from the Pythagoreans, which represents,\nin a visible scheme, the order of the Divine perfections: wherein it is\nobservable that _goodness_ presides over, and gives laws and measures\nto all the other attributes of God.\n\nPhilo says, God is the name of _goodness_; and our English word, adds\na late author, seems to be a contraction of the word _good_; or,\nhowever, is the same with the German _Got_, or _Godt_, which came, as\nis thought, from the Arabic word _Gada_, of the same signification. So\nthat the German and the English name of the Supreme Being, in common\nuse, is taken from the attribute of his _goodness_. \u201cThe word itself\nis pure Anglo-saxon,\u201d says Dr. Adam Clarke, \u201cand, among our ancestors,\nsignified not only the Divine Being, now commonly designated by the\nword, but also _good_; as in their apprehension it appears, that _God_\nand _Good_ were correlative terms; and when they thought or spoke of\nhim, they were ever led from the word itself to consider him as THE\nGOOD BEING a fountain of infinite benevolence and beneficence towards\nhis creatures.\u201d The word GOD, expressed in the old Saxon, is _bona\nres_, a good thing.\n\nThat God is _good_, is the constant language of Divine revelation;\nfor this attribute is every where celebrated, both in the Old and\nNew Testament. It may be distinguished as _natural_, _moral_, and\n_communicative_. The first of these is the absolute perfection of his\nnature, which is goodness itself in its very essence. He is originally\ngood, and that of himself; which is a property peculiar to no other\ncreature, for all the goodness of the creature is derived from God. He\nis infinitely and therefore incomprehensively good to men and angels;\nhence his goodness knows no limits. We read of the \u201criches of his\ngoodness,\u201d which are as \u201cunsearchable,\u201d as is his \u201cgreatness.\u201d He is\nimmutably good, for \u201cthe goodness of God endureth continually.\u201d And as\nhis dependence on no one admits not of his being changed by others,\nso neither does his immutability admit of it by himself; for if he\nalter for the better he was not God before, and if for the worse, he\nthen would not be God. Thus he is essentially, originally, infinitely,\nincomprehensibly, and unchangeably good.\n\nThe _moral_ goodness of God is his perfect purity or holiness;\ntherefore his goodness and holiness are united--\u201cgood and upright is\nthe Lord.\u201d According to any rational opinion we can form of him, he\nis a Being possessed, not only of every natural power and perfection,\nbut of every moral excellence. The holiness of his nature removes\nhim to the greatest possible distance from all moral evil, and makes\nhim necessarily approve of moral good. All his designs are pure and\nupright, and worthy of himself: he always acts according to the perfect\nrectitude of his own nature. Though he is not under the direction of\nany superior, yet his own rectitude always determines him to pursue\nwhat is right to be done towards his creatures. This property of\nthe Divine Being greatly heightens our idea of his excellence, and\nnaturally points him out as the Governor of mankind. And as he adheres\nto it in his own conduct and administration, and likewise approves and\nloves it in his rational creatures, whom he governs; so he disapproves\nand hates the reverse in them, and will most certainly animadvert\nupon the temper and behavior of those who act contrary to his divine\nadmonitions, and make them most sensibly feel the effects of their\nwickedness.\n\nThe _communicative_, or relative goodness of God, or his goodness to\nhis creatures, is his inclination or self-propension to deal well and\nbountifully with them. As the notion of God includes goodness, so\nthe idea of goodness implies holy diffusiveness. Therefore, says the\nPsalmist, \u201cThou art good, and doest good.\u201d All that we are, have, or\nhope for, that is good, proceeds from God as its fountain; hence he is\ncalled, \u201cthe fountain of living waters.\u201d This communicative goodness\nimplies, that, from his all-sufficiency, he is ready to impart to\nhis creatures whatever their necessities require. This attribute is\nuniversal: \u201che is good to all\u201d his creatures from the highest angel\nto the meanest reptile; especially, to his people, \u201cTruly,\u201d says the\nPsalmist, \u201cGod is good to Israel, even to such as are of a clean\nheart.\u201d But, though God is good to all his creatures, yet he is not\nequally so in the same kind and degree of blessings. His munificence is\nregulated by his wisdom, and the different capacities with which he has\nformed his creatures makes this inequality necessary.\n\n    [There is one vast and awful question which must occur to\n    every reflecting mind--_What is God?_\n\n    As it regards his _Nature_, the Scriptures say, He is a\n    _Spirit_. We must therefore, conceive the Creator to be, a\n    _Living_, _Rational_, _Benevolent_, and _Spiritual_ ESSENCE;\n    absolutely, necessarily, and naturally _perfect_, and,\n    therefore, _immaterial_, _uncompounded_, _indivisible_, and\n    _eternal_.\n\n    It is necessarily understood that this essence is\n    _peculiar_: that there is nothing in its nature which has\n    any resemblance to _created_ substances, whether material\n    or spiritual; and that it is _underived_, and consequently,\n    _independent_.\n\n    This Divine Essence being immaterial, impalpable, simple\n    and indivisible, cannot have _body_ or _parts_: nor can it be\n    said to be a _whole_, for this would imply an _aggregation_ of\n    parts: but is itself a perfect, absolute, single, and eternal\n    INDIVIDUALITY, incapable of self-multiplication, or increase;\n    or of diminishing itself, or endangering its existence.\n\n    This essence is a _living_ essence; and, therefore, has\n    inherently the power and principles of _action_: It is a\n    _rational_ essence, and therefore, must act according to\n    the eternal principles of _reason_ and _right_: It is a\n    _benevolent_ essence, and therefore, all its actions must\n    be infinitely _good_ and _kind_. Absolute _perfection_,\n    _infinitude_, and _sovereignty_ in all these respects,\n    constitute the Being we call God.\n\n    As God is a single, indivisible, independent, and eternal\n    UNIT, we cannot ascribe _different_ perfections, or attributes\n    to him, so as to suppose one attribute _separate from, and\n    independent of_ another, capable of acting _per se_, or\n    participating _conjunctively_ with other attributes _as an\n    integer_. Nor can we suppose this eternal, and independent Unit\n    to act by being _operated upon_ in any degree, by other agents,\n    nor can he operate on himself. All his actions, therefore,\n    spring from himself, and are performed _without excitement,\n    effort, means, or previous ratiocination_.\n\n    It will follow from the preceding reasoning, that every\n    action of the Divine Being, in regard to himself, is precisely\n    the same in _nature_: so that we cannot say of one act it is\n    an effort of his _power_ to the _exclusion_ of his wisdom: nor\n    of his wisdom to the exclusion of his goodness: nor of his\n    goodness to the exclusion of his holiness: and so of the rest.\n    Strictly speaking we cannot say the power _of_ God; the wisdom\n    _of_ God; the goodness _of_ God, &c.; because the power of God\n    _is_ God; the wisdom of God _is_ God; the goodness of God _is_\n    God.\n\n    In contemplating this awful subject _abstractly_, we should\n    say there are no such things as _attributes_ in the Divine\n    Being, _as they are commonly understood_. What we call his\n    attributes, are only different modes of the operations of the\n    same eternal, undivided, and independent Unit. Indeed, God is\n    one entire perfection which exerts itself in different ways and\n    actions.\n\n    But as we cannot comprehend this single entire perfection;\n    nor understand _how_ it exerts the whole of itself, as a single\n    indivisible agent, _in each particular act_, as it really\n    does, mankind have always been in the habit of assisting their\n    contemplations by regarding the _nature_ of the acts of this\n    single, indivisible, and eternal agent, and thus _infering_\n    the nature of the Divine Being. And as these acts appear\n    to differ in _quality_, we infer a quality in the agent,\n    corresponding with the quality of the actions which we see: we\n    call this quality by a _name_, and _thus derive the doctrine of\n    attributes_.\n\n    For example: When we see this single, indivisible agent\n    manifesting himself in such a manner as to give us the idea\n    of _unlimited power_, we ascribe _omnipotence_ to him, as an\n    attribute. When we see a manifestation indicating _infinite\n    wisdom_, we ascribe _omniscience_ to him as an attribute.\n    In the same manner in reference to the manifestations\n    which indicate justice, goodness, mercy, truth, holiness,\n    faithfulness, righteousness, kindness, &c, all of which we\n    ascribe to him upon such indications.\n\n    Although _this rationale_, in contemplating the Divine\n    Being, is necessary to _creatures_, yet it is calculated to\n    lead the mind into error. We am insensibly inclined to ascribe\n    the divine actions to those attributes _exclusively_ which\n    we suppose they indicate. This, probably, has been the most\n    fatal error of mankind, and, doubtless, laid the foundation\n    of darkness and idolatry. We must never conceive that any act\n    of the Divine Being proceeds from _one_ or more attributes to\n    the _exclusion_ of others; or that one attribute participates\n    _more_ in one act than another. This is the fatal mistake.\n    Hence theologians have become blind and foolish, bewildering\n    the multitude by building up theories on the consideration of\n    a single attribute; thus making the Divine Being to consist\n    of parts, and these parts independent too. Instances of this\n    awful mistake might be given, but it scarcely comes within the\n    design of this paper. It is sufficient to say; if we conceive\n    correctly of the divine acts, _we will ascribe each equally to\n    all the Divine Attributes_.\n\n    As we conceive this single, indivisible, underived,\n    independent, and eternal agent, or perfection to be absolutely\n    infinite, and illimitable in all possible ways, or manner, of\n    exerting Himself, we, of course, conceive all the qualities,\n    indicated by the divine acts, which we call attributes, to be\n    absolutely infinite, perfect, and eternal: and thus we derive\n    the doctrine of the absolute perfection, and infinitude of all,\n    and each of the Divine Attributes.\n\n    From the foregoing reflections, the reader will readily\n    conceive of the Divine Being, as a Living, Rational,\n    Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence, existing as a single,\n    underived, independent, Unit: a Unit, not in reality consisting\n    of attributes, or perfections, but itself one single, entire\n    perfection: exerting itself not by attributes, but as an\n    individual Unit or Agent, in such a manner that each action\n    is the action of the Divine Being, and not of one or more of\n    his attributes: that the existence of this single, underived,\n    independent, and eternal Agent, was, and is _necessary_, and,\n    therefore, he could not but have existed, and cannot cease to\n    be; that He is absolute, and infinite in all possible ways and\n    manner of acting, and consequently we conceive Him possessed of\n    all possible perfections in an infinite degree.]\n\nBy the assistance of Divine revelation we are enabled further to pursue\nour inquiries concerning this very important subject; and without\nwhich, we should be involved in great darkness and uncertainty, not\nonly respecting his moral perfections, but the _mode_ of his existence.\nAnd this must be a matter of superior interest to mankind, or our\nadorable Creator would not have communicated it, which he evidently\nhas done through the medium of the Scriptures, written by Divine\ninspiration.\n\nMoses, having received by Divine revelation instruction concerning the\norigin and formation of the world, conducts us at once to its great\nand adorable Architect. \u201cIn the beginning GOD created the heavens and\nthe earth.\u201d Here he adopts a phraseology to express the supreme Being,\nwhich is generally used in the Old Testament for the same purpose,\nand is very important and necessary to be understood, as it gives us\ninformation after what _manner_ he exists. \u2018The original word \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05de\n_Elohim_, God,\u2019 says a great linguist, \u2018is certainly the plural form\nof \u05d0\u05dc _el_, or \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4 _eloah_, and has long been supposed, by the most\neminently learned and pious men, to imply a _plurality_ of persons in\nthe divine nature.\u2019 As this plurality appears in so many parts of the\nsacred writings to be confined to _three_ Persons, namely, the Father,\nthe Son, and the Holy Spirit, hence the doctrine of the TRINITY.\n\nIt is very remarkable that we no sooner open the Bible, than this\ndoctrine is presented to our view. The laws and ordinances established\namong the Jews were designed to guard that people from idolatry, which\nin Abraham\u2019s time had become very general. On the recollection of this\ncircumstance it appears extraordinary that Moses, when he is describing\nthe creation of the world, should, in order to express his conceptions\nof the Divine Being, introduce a term which implies _plurality_; and,\nfrequently connecting it with verbs and persons singular, should use\nthat term _thirty_ times in the short account of the creation, when the\nlanguage afforded other words in the singular number that would have\nanswered his purpose equally well; nay, if he did not wish to express\na _plurality_, that grammatical accuracy should have led him to adopt.\nWhen he made use of a plural noun for the name of God, which he has\ndone, perhaps, _five hundred_ times more in one form or other in the\nfive books of his writings, this _plurality_, I apprehend, was the idea\nhe meant to convey to mankind. He, or rather the HOLY SPIRIT, by whom\nhe was inspired to write his history, meant to give some hints and\nintimations of a doctrine more clearly to be revealed in future ages.[6]\n\nThe ancient Jews understood _Elohim_ as conveying the idea of a\nplurality in the Godhead. \u201cCome,\u201d says one of them, \u201cand see the\nmystery of the word _Elohim_: there are _three degrees_, and each\ndegree by itself _alone_, and yet notwithstanding they are all _one_,\nand joined together in one, and are not _divided_ from each other.\u201d[7]\n\nR. Bechai, a celebrated author among the Jews, discoursing of the\nword _Elohim_, and of the import and signification of it, adds these\nwords:--\u201cAccording to the cabalistical way, this name _Elohim_ is two\nwords, namely, _El him_, that is, _they are God_. But the explanation\nof the Yod is to be fetched from Eccles. xii, 1, _Remember thy_\nCREATORS. He that is prudent will understand it.\u201d These words do\nsufficiently prove the Cabala among the Jews, says Bishop Kidder, that\nthough the Divine Nature was but _one_, yet there was some kind of\n_plurality_ in this Divine Nature; and this is fairly insinuated in the\n_Bara Elohim_, which we find in the beginning of Genesis.[8]\n\nJohn Xeres, a Jew converted in England some years ago, published a\nsensible and affectionate address to his unbelieving brethren, wherein\nhe says, that \u201cthe word _Elohim_, which we render GOD in Gen. i, 1, is\nof the plural number, though annexed to a verb of the singular number;\nwhich,\u201d says he, \u201cdemonstrates as evidently as may be, that there are\nseveral persons partaking of the same Divine nature and essence.\u201d[9]\n\nIt is clear too, how sensible the Jews have been that there is a\nnotion of _plurality_ plainly imported in the Hebrew text, since they\nhave forbidden their common people the reading of the history of the\ncreation, lest, understanding it literally, they should be led unto\nheresy.[10] When the Scriptures are suppressed, or the common people\ndenied the use of them, it may with propriety be presumed that their\nsuperiors, who act in an arbitrary and unjust manner, have embraced\nanti-scriptural notions, and, in order to prevent detection, lay\naside the only infallible _test_ of truth; and, to conceal their base\nmotives, and make their deleterious conduct appear not only plausible,\nbut necessary and proper, they boldly assert the incompetency of\nthe people to judge of scripture doctrines for themselves, and wish\nto be considered compassionate and friendly in judging and deciding\nfor them. The fact is, the common people are denied the use of the\nScripture, lest understanding it in a certain sense, which their\nsuperiors call heresy, it should lead them into the understanding of\nplain and unequivocal facts stated therein, and which are of the utmost\nimportance for them to know.\n\nIt may be observed here likewise, that the Hebrew doctors always\nsupposed the first verse of Genesis to contain some latent mystery. The\nRabbi Ibba indeed expressly says it does, and adds, \u201cThis mystery is\nnot to be revealed, till the coming of the Messiah.\u201d\n\nMr. Parkhurst, who has greatly distinguished himself in Hebrew\nliterature, and to whose pious and learned labors most Biblical\nstudents are indebted, says, \u201cLet those who have any doubt whether\n\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05de _Elohim_, when meaning the true God, Jehovah, be _plural_ or not,\nconsult the following passages, where they will find it joined with\nadjectives, pronouns, and verbs _plural_:\u201d he refers to twenty-five\ntexts in the Old Testament on this occasion.[11]\n\nIf Moses and the Jews held the doctrine of the Trinity, and the word\n_Elohim_ imports _plurality_, it is natural to ask, How comes it to\npass that the Septuagint version renders the plural name Elohim, when\nused for the true God, by the singular one \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2, and never by the\nplural \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03b9? The learned Ridley,[12] after Allix, has answered this\nquestion. He says, \u201cThe Talmudists own that the LXXII Interpreters\ndid purposely change the notion of _plurality_ implied in the\nHebrew _Elohim_ into the Greek singular, lest Ptolemy Philadelphus\nshould conclude that the Jews, as well as himself, had a belief\nof Polytheism.\u201d And Bishop Huntingford adds, \u201cOf all the Greek\nappellations of Divinity, \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2 was the only simple and direct term\nwhich they could adopt, to counteract idolatrous misconceptions.\u201d\n\nThis phraseology, as to its signification, is not peculiar to Moses,\nbut is used by the other sacred writers also, and exactly accords\nwith the whole tenor of Divine revelation. The creation of the world\nis ascribed to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, as joint,\nconcurring, equal, and efficient causes thereof, in the Scriptures. It\nwill not surely be presuming too much, says Bishop Huntingford, if we\nsuppose Joshua and Solomon to be more deeply instructed in the Jewish\nReligion, than to be capable of using improper language respecting the\nDeity. Yet the former says, \u201cYe cannot serve the Lord: for he is the\nHoly Gods;\u201d and the latter says, \u201cThe fear of Jehovah is the beginning\nof wisdom; and the knowledge of the Holies is understanding.\u201d[13]\nSuch is the phraseology of the Hebrew text. In these passages, and\nothers that might be produced, the word in the Hebrew is in the plural\nnumber, because of the _plurality_ of persons in the Godhead; but in\nour translation it is in the _singular_ number, because of the unity of\ntheir essence.\n\nBut more particularly. The creation of the world is ascribed to\nJEHOVAH: \u201cI have made the earth, and created man upon it: I, even\nmy hands, have stretched out the heavens, and all their host have\nI commanded. I am the Lord that maketh all things, that stretcheth\nforth the heavens alone, that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself.\u201d\nHe had no _moving causes_ exciting him to create matter and produce a\nuniverse, but his own will, goodness, wisdom, and power. He created\nall things himself, without the assistance of _any instruments_. The\nprophet ascribes to God alone the framing and stretching out of the\nheavens and the earth without the counsel, direction, or ministry of\nany subordinate agency. \u201cWho hath measured the waters in the hollow\nof his hand, and meted out heaven with a span, and comprehended the\ndust of the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales,\nand the hills in a balance? With whom took he counsel, and who\ninstructed him, and taught him in the path of judgment, and taught him\nknowledge, and showed to him the way of understanding?\u201d He created\nall things without any _toil_, _labor_, _change_, or _alteration_ in\nhimself. There was not in him any transition from rest to labor, from\nidleness to business, from strength to weariness. Though \u201cevery good\nand perfect gift is from above, and cometh down from the Father of\nlights,\u201d yet \u201cwith him there is no variableness, neither shadow of\nturning.\u201d The Prophet says, \u201cHast thou not known? hast thou not heard,\nthat the everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of the\nearth, fainteth not, neither is weary?\u201d And he proceeded in the work\nof creation without _any delay_: it was not a successive forming of\nthings by alteration, which required much time to render them perfect,\nbut was as in a moment, as quickly and readily as a word is spoken,\nproduced in the rapid succession as recorded by Moses. This work then\nGod is said to have done _alone_, to the exclusion, not of the Son and\nthe Spirit, but of all that are not God by nature; and by himself, to\nthe exclusion of all second causes or inferior agents.\n\nIt is ascribed also to the SON of God. The evangelist John asserts\nin very express terms the Divinity of Jesus Christ, of the truth\nof which he designed his whole Gospel should be a proof. \u201cIn the\nbeginning was the \u039b\u03bf\u03b3\u03bf\u03c2 Word.\u201d By the \u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03b7 _beginning_, here, we\nare to understand the beginning of the creation, not the beginning\nof the gospel state, as the Socinians say. We have the authority of\nGrotius, that \u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03b7 is taken from \u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\u05e9\u05d9\u05ea _Bereshith_, Gen. i, 1,\ntranslated by the Septuagint \u03b5\u03bd \u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03b7, and consequently must signify,\nfrom _the beginning of the creation of God_. It is not said, that\n_he_ was _made_ in the beginning, but that he _was_ in the beginning,\ndid exist when the world began, which is of the same import as if he\nsaid, he was from eternity; for he that did exist in the beginning,\nnever did himself begin to be. The personal Wisdom of God says, \u201cThe\nLord possessed me in the beginning of his way, before his works of\nold.\u201d--\u201cAnd the Logos,\u201d or \u201cWord, was with God.\u201d He could be with no\ncreature, because there was no creature in being; and therefore it\nis very properly said, that he \u201cwas with God,\u201d the Father; and his\nbeing with him shows, that he is a distinct person or subsistence\nfrom the Father.--\u201cAnd the Logos,\u201d or \u201cWord was God.\u201d Though he is a\nperson distinct from that of the Father, yet he is of the very same\nessence with him. He that was with God, was God; and if he was God in\nthe beginning, that is from eternity, he is the same still, he cannot\ncease to be what he was. Here then the evangelist asserts the eternal\nexistence of Christ, his personal co-existence with the Father, and\nthat he is of the very same undivided nature and essence with him.\nThough he is a person distinct from the Father, yet he is of the same\nsubstance, equal with him in all divine perfections; not a _secondary_\nGod, inferior to the Father, as the Arians assert. \u201cAll things were\nmade by him.\u201d All things, from the highest angel to the meanest worm,\nwere made by him, not as a subordinate instrument, but as a co-ordinate\nagent, as a joint efficient cause, co-operating with the Father in this\nwork. \u2018To say that Christ made all things by a delegated power from\nGod, is _absurd_; because the thing is impossible. Creation means,\ncausing that to exist that had no previous being: this is evidently\na work which can be effected only by _omnipotence_. Now God cannot\ndelegate his _omnipotence_ to another: were this possible, he _to_ whom\nthis omnipotence was delegated, would, in consequence, become God; and\nhe _from_ whom it was delegated, would _cease to be such_: for it is\nimpossible that there should be _two_ omnipotent beings.\u2019 \u201cAnd without\nhim was not any thing made that was made.\u201d This is added for the more\ncertainty, it being usual with the Hebrews, when they would affirm that\na thing is so indeed, to confirm by a particular negative what they\nhad before affirmed. Our Lord said to the Jews, \u201cMy Father worketh\nhitherto, and I work.\u201d The phrase \u1f61\u03c2 \u03b1\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9 signifies \u201cto this time,\u201d \u201cto\nthe present,\u201d that is, in all works whatever. Hence he is no creature,\nor he must have created himself; and if he created himself, he must\nhave been in existence and not in existence at the very same time,\nwhich is both contradictory and absurd. And if every work performed\nby the Father was equally performed by the Son, the Son must, in all\nrespects, be equal to the Father, in nature and perfections. This our\nLord\u2019s words signify and imply, and in this sense the Jews understood\nhim--as \u201cmaking himself equal with God.\u201d[14] \u201cHe is the image of God,\u201d\nthe \u03c0\u03c1\u03c9\u03c4\u03bf\u03c4\u03bf\u03c7\u03bf\u03c2 \u201cFIRST PRODUCER of every creature: for by him were all\nthings created, that are in heaven, and that are in earth, visible and\ninvisible, whether they be thrones, or dominions, or principalities,\nor powers:\u201d all the angels, however diversified in rank or employment\nin the heavenly world; and all the rational, animal, vegetable, and\ninanimate creatures, belonging to this terrestrial abode: \u201call things\nwere made by him,\u201d as the efficient cause, \u201cand for him,\u201d as the last\nend.--\u201cGod hath in these last days spoken unto us by his Son, whom he\nhath appointed heir of all things, by whom also he made the worlds,\u201d\ni.e. the heavens and the earth. The Father does all by the Son, and the\nSon does all from the Father. Whatsoever the Father does, that also\ndoes the Son likewise. \u201cUnto the Son he saith, Thy throne, oh God, is\nfor ever and ever; a sceptre of righteousness is the sceptre of thy\nkingdom. Thou, Lord, in the beginning hast laid the foundation of the\nearth; and the heavens are the works of thy hands.\u201d In these passages\nthe _Divinity_ of Christ is plainly asserted, and the operations of his\npower are proofs of his Godhead. He that is the Creator of all things\nis God: but Christ is the Creator of all things; therefore Christ is\nGod. He calls himself \u201cthe Beginning of the creation of God,\u201d where the\nword \u03b1\u03c1\u03c7\u03b7 means the Creator, the efficient Cause of all things, he by\nwhose power the creation had its beginning and perfection. And \u201che that\nbuilt all things is God.\u201d\n\nThe learned Jacob Bryant wrote a very valuable Tract entitled, _The\nsentiments of Philo Jud\u00e6us concerning the \u039b\u039f\u0393\u039f\u03a3, or Word of God_;\nfrom which the following are quotations. \u201cPhilo Jud\u00e6us speaks at large\nin many places of the Word of God, the second person, which he mentions\nas _the second Divinity_, the _great Cause_ of all things, and styles\nhim as Plato, as well as the Jews, had done before, the LOGOS. Of the\nDivine Logos or Word he speaks in many places, and maintains at large\nthe Divinity of the second Person, and describes his attributes in a\nvery precise and copious manner, styling him _the second Deity, who\nis the Word of the supreme God, his first-begotten Son; and the image\nof God_. In his treatise upon _creation_, he speaks of the Word as\n_the Divine operator by whom all things were disposed_: and mentions\nhim as _superior to the angels and all created beings, and the image\nand likeness of God_, and says, that _this image of the true God was\nesteemed the same as God_. _This_ LOGOS, _the_ WORD _of_ GOD, says he,\n_is superior to all the world, and more ancient; being the productor of\nall that was produced. The eternal Word of the everlasting God is the\nsure and fixed foundation upon which all things depend_.\u201d\n\nCreation is moreover ascribed to the HOLY SPIRIT. That the Holy Spirit\nhas a _personality_ distinct from that of the Father, and also that\nof the Son, and a real and proper _Divinity_, is a doctrine of Divine\nrevelation. In his personal capacity, he is not the Father, nor the\nSon. He neither is nor can be divided either from the Divine essence,\nnor from the other two persons, but yet is personally distinct from\nthem. His relation to, and mission by, the Father and the Son, clearly\nevince his personal distinction. He is called the Spirit of the\n_Father_, and the Spirit of the _Son_. He is represented as _sent_ by\nthe Father, and also as _sent_ by the Son. These things show that he is\na Divine person, and has a distinct personality. The Holy Spirit is the\nlast in the order of subsistence: the Father is the first, the Son is\nthe second, and the Holy Spirit is the third. Yet we should know, that\nthe Father is not before the Son, nor the Son before the Holy Spirit,\nby a priority of time, nor of dignity and perfections; for the three\npersons in the Divine essence are _co-eternal_.\n\nThe Holy Spirit was equally concerned with the Father and the Son in\nthe work of Creation. \u201cBy the Word of the Lord were the heavens made,\nand all the host of them by the breath (Heb. Spirit) of his mouth.\u201d The\n_breath_ or spirit of the Lord\u2019s _mouth_, says an excellent author,\ndoes undoubtedly mean the third person of the Trinity; who is called,\n\u201cThe Spirit of God, and the Breath of the Almighty.\u201d--\u201cThey lift up\ntheir voice to God with one accord, and said, LORD, thou art GOD, which\nhast made heaven and earth, and the sea, and all that therein is. WHO,\nby the mouth of thy servant David, hast said,\u201d &c. The terms LORD and\nGOD are here used to express the Divinity of _him_, says the same able\nwriter, who spake _by the mouth_ of his servant David. But it was the\nHOLY GHOST who _spake by the mouth_ of his servant David--for, saith\nSt. Peter, \u201cThis Scripture must needs have been fulfilled, which the\nHOLY GHOST,\u201d by the mouth of David, \u201cspake,\u201d &c. Therefore the terms\nLORD and GOD are certainly used to _express the Divinity of the_ HOLY\nGHOST.[15] In the work of creation, the \u201cSPIRIT of GOD moved upon the\nface of the waters,\u201d by an infinite vitality infusing life, and with\na formative energy giving form. \u201cBy his SPIRIT he hath garnished the\nheavens\u201d with an incalculable number of luminous stars; all those\nglittering worlds, which serve for use as well as beauty, were formed\nby the Spirit of God.\n\nAs none but the _third_ Person in the Godhead is ever so much as once\nin the Scriptures called the _Spirit of God_; so the Holy Spirit\u2019s\nagency in the work of creation evinces his distinct personality, and\nis a confirmation of his proper Divinity. A cause must be equal to the\neffect it produces: but no finite spirit could be a joint, concurring,\nefficient cause in the work of the creation: therefore the Holy Spirit\nis God. Supposing the matter of which the worlds were made to be called\ninto being out of nothing by the Almighty power of the Father, or by\nthe fiat of the Son; yet the animating of the whole lifeless mass, the\nputting of every part into motion, the assortment of all the particles,\nthe assigning of them their proper places, and the completing of the\nwhole with such astonishing beauty and harmony, which was the peculiar\nwork of the Holy Spirit, required no less than an almighty power, which\nclearly demonstrates that he is God.\n\nThus we see that the creation of the world is ascribed to one God, the\nFather, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. The Son and the Holy Spirit were\njoint Creators, of equal power, and equal efficiency with the Father.\nThere is no where to be found in the Scriptures the least hint of\ndifferent degrees of creating energy, nor of sole efficiency in one of\nthe Persons in the Godhead, and a bare instrumental compliance in the\nother. The creation was the common effect of their joint acting: nor\nis it ever said, nor so much as hinted or implied, that the distinct\nPersons in the Godhead had different provinces, nor that one creature\nwas made by one, and another creature was the workmanship of another.\nThe Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, are never represented as acting\nseparately, but always in conjunction.\n\nThe sacred historian assures us, that, at the commencement of time,\n\u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05de _Elohim_, the triune God, caused matter to exist, which, previous\nto this astonishing display of his creating energy, had no being.\nMoses, as an inspired author, is the only one who could instruct us in\nthe formation and unfolding of the world. He is not an Epicurus, who\nhas recourse to atoms; a Lucretius, who believes matter to be eternal;\na Spinoza, who admits a material God; a Descartes, who prates about\nthe laws of motion; but a legislator, who announces to all men without\nhesitation, without fear of being mistaken, how the world was created.\nNothing can be more simple, nor more sublime than his opening: \u201cIn the\nbeginning God created the heaven and the earth.\u201d He could not have\nspoken more assuredly, if he had been a spectator; and by these words,\nmythology, systems, and absurdities, shrink to nought, and are mere\nchimeras in the eyes of reason.[16]\n\nHad Moses been a fictitious writer, how natural and how easy would it\nhave been for him to have filled up the first part of his history with\nmarvellous relations about the creation? With what pomp of language,\nwith what waste of rhetoric, could he probably have embellished that\nsurprising scene? With what a grand _apparatus_ of celestial machinery\nmight he have made the omnipotent Architect come forth to build a\nuniverse? How many sub-agents and subalterns would a fabulous poet\nor historian have employed in this stupendous and multifarious work?\nWith what solemnity would every part have been gone about, and with\nhow many episodes, digressions, and reflections, would the story have\nbeen filled, in order to give it an air of the marvellous? But read\nthe beginning of Genesis, and observe how differently Moses writes. No\nscope is given to fancy or invention. All is narrated with an ease,\nplainness, and simplicity, which evidently shows that he kept close\nto truth, and laid down the facts just as they were presented to his\nmind; a manner of writing rarely, if at all, to be found in any other\nhistorians, but such as had the honor of being the _amanuensis_ of the\nSPIRIT of truth.[17]\n\nThe description which Moses furnishes concerning the creation, as\nrelating to circumstances previous to the existence of mankind, could\nbe derived only from immediate revelation. It was received by the\nJews with full conviction of its truth, on the authority of that\n_inspiration_ under which Moses was known to act.[18] And when the\ncreation of the world began, by the lapse of time, to be removed to\na remote distance, God was pleased thus to provide a contemporary\nhistorian, and appoint a whole nation to be the guardians of his\nhistory; as well that this register might be the most authentic, as\nthat all mankind might hence be instructed in the knowledge of a fact,\nwhich was so necessary for them to know, and yet so impossible to be\notherwise ascertained.[19]\n\nIt may be proper to notice, that some futile objections have been made\nto the period which is assigned by Moses to the creation, as though it\nwere too recent to be reconciled with reason and philosophical inquiry.\nHow long matter remained in a quiescent state after its creation, we\nhave no data to enable us to determine: but, as its resting in an\nanimate state, so far as we know, could answer no valuable purpose,\nwe may reasonably conjecture the time would not be long. The creation\nof the world began, according to Usher, before the Christian era 4004\nyears, if we follow the Hebrew text. The Septuagint version places it\n5872, and the Samaritan 4700 before the vulgar era.--Sanchoniathon,\nthe first Phenician historian, according to the most extended accounts\nof Porphyry, flourished long after Moses, probably not less than\ntwo hundred years. Manetho, high-priest of Heliopolis, wrote the\nEgyptian history only in the time of Ptolemy Philadelphus, not more\nthan 300 years before Christ, and professes to have transcribed his\nDynasties from some pillars of Hermes Trismegistus, written in the\nHebrew dialect.--Berosus was the first noted Chaldean historian, and\nhe was contemporary with Manetho.--The Chinese have not any work in\nan intelligible character above 2200 years old. One of the Chinese\nemperors, about 213 years before the Christian era, ordered all their\nhistorical records to be destroyed.--The Greeks could produce no dates\nbeyond 550 years before Christ, and but little historical information\nprior to the Olympiads, which began 775 years before the Christian era.\nOrpheus and Museus, fabulous poets, were not so remote as Moses; for\nit is supposed they lived about 200 years after him, in the days of\nGideon. Daries Phrygius and Dystys Cretensis, fabulous poets, wrote the\nhistory of the Trojan war, about 400 years after Moses. Homer wrote his\npoems after David\u2019s time, and about 550 years after Moses. Herodotus,\ncalled the father of history, who flourished about 450 years before\nthe Christian era, was the first Grecian historian that deserves the\nname; yet he begins with fable. Thucydides rejects, as uncertain, all\nthat preceded the Peloponnesian war; and Plutarch, not one of the least\nhistorians among the Grecians, ventured not beyond the time of Theseus,\nwho lived a little before the ministry of Samuel.[20] So that all these\npoets and historians flourished long after the time of Moses, some of\nthem nearly a thousand years; for he wrote about A. M. 2460. The works\nof the Jewish lawgiver are not only the most ancient, but also the most\nauthentic, of all the monuments of antiquity.\n\nIf the world were some thousands of years older, it must be much better\npeopled than it is at present. Population has always increased since\nthe deluge, and yet there might be three times as many more inhabitants\non the earth than it at present contains. It has been computed that at\nleast 5000 millions of men might live at once on our globe: and yet it\ndoes not appear that there are really more than 1080 millions. In Asia\nare reckoned 650 millions; in Africa and America, 300 millions; and in\nEurope, 130 millions.\n\nIf we consider the arts invented by men, we shall find that few or none\nof them have been discovered more than two or three thousand years.\nMan owes not only to his nature and reason the aptitude he has for\nacquiring arts and sciences, but he is also led to this by necessity;\nby the desire he has to procure himself conveniences and pleasures;\nby vanity and ambition; and by luxury, the child of abundance, which\ncreates new wants. This propensity is evident among all men, in all\nages. History carries us back to the time when men had scarcely\ninvented the most necessary arts; when those arts which were known were\nbut very imperfectly understood; and in which they scarcely knew any\nthing of the first principles of the sciences.\n\nAbout four thousand years ago, men were still in a state of great\nignorance concerning most subjects; and if we calculate according to\nthe progress which they made since that time, and afterwards go back\nto the remotest periods, we may with tolerable exactness fix the era\nwhen men knew nothing; which is, in other words, that of the infancy\nof the human race. Were their existence to be carried higher, it is\nutterly improbable that the most useful and necessary arts should\nhave continued unknown to them through such a long series of ages. On\nthe contrary, all that can be discovered by the human mind must have\nbeen known a long time ago. From this circumstance therefore we must\nconclude, that the origin of the human race can have no other era than\nthat which Moses has assigned it in his history of the creation.[21]\n\nIf it be asked, What! was God a _solitary_ Being? Did he exist alone,\nbefore this exertion of his glorious power? Formed as we are for\nsociety, we have no conception of any satisfaction arising from a state\nof absolute loneliness; nor can we conceive that the Deity should rest\n_inactive_ from eternity, and not exert those amazing powers of which\nthe stupendous creation proves he is amply possessed? There are some\nparticulars naturally deducible from questions like these, which we\ncannot solve. We have no adequate apprehension of eternity; we are\nlost in the idea. And when we attempt to contemplate God existing from\neternity without _cause_ or as _beginning_ to exist, we are utterly\nlost in the speculation; for among all the objects that come within\nthe reach of our senses, we see nothing existing that has not had\na cause to produce it. We frequently smile at children, when they\nask their little simple questions, as we deem them; but we are mere\nchildren ourselves, in this profound ocean of wonder. But something\nvery observable strikes an attentive reader in the Mosaic account\nof the creation, which suggests that the Deity is not a solitary\nBeing, existing in such an absolute _unity_ as to exclude all degree\nof personality or communion. For \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05de _Elohim_, as we have already\nobserved, the very first name by which Moses calls God, being plural,\nshows that though he exists in an undivided unity of nature, yet in a\nTrinity of Persons. And this notion of a plurality, so far from being\ncontrary to reason, is more agreeable to it than any opinion of the\nabsolute _unity_ of the Divine nature. For conceive we only three\nDivine persons mutually to partake of the Divine essence or nature, to\nbe united by the same perfect will, and to possess the same infinite\npowers and perfections; and all our apprehensions of the loneliness of\nsolitary existence immediately subside; the Father, the Son, and the\nHoly Ghost, consummately happy in each other, have been from eternity\nreciprocal objects of complacence, and will remain such for ever. Let\nthis argument be fairly and impartially considered, and the notion of\na Trinity of Subsistences in a Unity of the Divine Nature, will appear\nfar more consonant to reason, and liable to less objections, than that\nof mere solitary and absolute unity.[22]\n\n    [_A further consideration of the suggestion in the close of\n    the last paragraph._\n\n    Although nothing can be clearer than that the Divine\n    Essence is _one_, simple, and indivisible; _yet_ this does\n    not prevent it from subsisting in _personality_, i.e. _in a\n    plurality of persons_.\n\n    It must be carefully observed, that the plurality has\n    regard to the _persons_, not to the Essence. We cannot say\n    there is a plurality of Essences; but we can say, the Living,\n    Rational, Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence _subsists in three\n    persons_. This then is the MODUS EXISTENDI of the Divine Being.\n\n    Although we are assured this is his _mode of existence_,\n    we do not pretend to comprehend the _nature_ of it. We may,\n    without any injury to the proposition, affirm, the _nature_ of\n    the fact is incomprehensible by _created intellect_. Yet the\n    fact itself is sufficiently well attested, and is not repugnant\n    to reason, though it is above the comprehension of reason.\n\n    It is believed by many very learned, pious, and eminent\n    men, that the doctrine of a _plurality of persons in the\n    Godhead_, can be established by an argumentation founded solely\n    on the acknowledged nature of the Divine Being.\n\n    The Rev. JAMES KIDD, Prof. of Oriental Languages, Marischal\n    College and University, Aberdeen, with the approbation of many\n    learned men in England, among whom is Dr. Adam Clarke, in\n    whose house he delivered private lectures on his manuscript,\n    has published a very able and satisfactory essay on this plan,\n    of which a brief clue to the mode of argumentation is here\n    attempted.\n\n    A. _The Divine Being is a necessarily existent, and an\n    eternally, immensely, and immutably Living, Intelligent,\n    Rational, Moral, Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence._\n\n    B. _The very_ LAW _of the nature of such a being, is\n    eternal, immense, and immutable_ ACTIVITY, ENERGY, _and_\n    EFFICIENCY, _exercised eternally, immensely, and immutably_,\n    ACCORDING TO HIS OWN NATURE.\n\n    C. _That such a being_ WAS _as necessarily existent,\n    perfect, and happy,_ BEFORE _creation, and providence as since;\n    and would forever continue as necessarily existent, perfect,\n    and happy, if creation and providence should cease to be_.\n\n    These three propositions are so obviously true, every\n    reader will readily and cordially grant them. It is proposed,\n    therefore, to show, from the nature of the Divine Being, _that\n    his Essence_ MUST _subsist in a plurality of persons_.\n\n    The proposition does not contemplate an explanation of the\n    _manner_ of this subsistence; nor, at present, the _number_\n    of persons; but the simple fact, _That_ FROM THE VERY NATURE\n    OF THE DIVINE BEING, HIS ESSENCE MUST SUBSIST IN PLURAL\n    PERSONALITY.\n\n    The existence of a being, or the possession, or exercise of\n    any principle, passion or attribute, _implies personality_, or\n    individual identity, which is the same thing. The mind cannot\n    conceive of existence, passion, principle, or action, without\n    conceiving of them inhering in actually existing Essence, which\n    _must_ assume in the mind the idea of personality. Therefore,\n    _personality_ is strictly, and properly applicable to the\n    Divine Essence. But the doctrine of a _plural_ personality is\n    to be established at present.\n\n    It will be easily conceived, and readily granted, that\n    a being which exists necessarily, eternally, immensely,\n    and immutably, as a Living, Intelligent, Rational, Moral,\n    Benevolent, and Spiritual Essence, _must have exercised\n    Himself, and his perfections, necessarily, eternally,\n    immensely, and immutably_. This then is granted. But the mind\n    will readily and easily perceive, that the Divine Being could\n    not have exercised Himself THUS, _in the works of Creation\n    and Providence_. Because, it is readily admitted, there _was_\n    a time when Creation and Providence _began_: during a whole\n    eternity _beyond_ this period, there was no existence except\n    God Himself. Consequently, He _cannot_ have been exercised\n    according to his own nature and perfections, _eternally_, in\n    reference to Creation and Providence.\n\n    Again: He cannot have exercised his perfections\n    _immensely_, in reference to Creation and Providence: because,\n    however extensive we may conceive the empire of Creation and\n    Providence to be, it is not _immense_; it is actually limited,\n    and, therefore, could not admit of an _immense exercise of his\n    nature and perfections_.\n\n    It is readily granted, that the Divine Being was as\n    necessarily, and perfectly happy _before_ Creation and\n    Providence as since; and if Creation and Providence should\n    cease, his happiness would continue the same: hence, it\n    follows, necessarily, that the happiness of the Divine Being\n    was, is, and ever will be entirely _independent_ of Creation\n    and Providence.\n\n    But the happiness of any being consists, essentially,\n    _in the exercise of its powers and perfections according\n    to the law of its own nature_. And as it has been shown,\n    that the happiness of the Divine Being is eternal, immense,\n    and immutable, it follows, _He must have exercised Himself\n    eternally, immensely, and immutably_.\n\n    As it has been _granted_, That from the very nature of\n    the Divine Being, He must have been eternally, immensely,\n    and immutably active and happy, according to the law of his\n    own nature: and it has been _proven_, That He could not have\n    been eternally, immensely, and immutably active and happy, in\n    reference to Creation and Providence, it follows, necessarily,\n    that the _means_ and _principles_ of these eternal, immense,\n    and immutable activity and happiness, _must exist_ IN HIS OWN\n    CONSTITUTION, _and be exercised entirely_ WITHIN _Himself_.\n\n    This conclusion cannot be denied, granting the premises in\n    the propositions A. B. C. in reference to the Divine Being.\n    It remains to be proven, That such principles, and means\n    of eternal, immense and immutable activity and happiness\n    _cannot_ be conceived of in the constitution of the Divine\n    Being, _without conceiving his essence to subsist in plural\n    personality_.\n\n    The consideration simply of the nature and eternal activity\n    of the Divine Being would establish the idea of _plural\n    personality_ in his Essence: because the mind cannot conceive,\n    that the same single being can be both _agent_ and _object,\n    in reference to the same action_. And as it has been proven,\n    that _previous_ to the existence of Creation and Providence,\n    God existed eternally _alone_, consequently, no possible form\n    of existence but Himself, and yet he was eternally, immensely,\n    and immutably active and happy; it will follow irresistibly,\n    that _there must be a plurality in his single Essence_; and the\n    mind naturally assumes, this plurality is _personal_; as it\n    cannot conceive of activity, and happiness without conceiving\n    them to belong to person, or persons. And as action implies\n    both _agent_, and an _object_ distinct from the agent; and\n    there being no such agent, or object existing _without_ the\n    Divine Being, it must be infered, that these agent and object,\n    concerned in the eternal activity and happiness of his nature,\n    must exist _inherently, eternally, immensely, and immutably_\n    WITHIN _Himself_.\n\n    Thus we are COMPELLED to admit a plurality of persons in\n    the Divine Essence.\n\n    It will be recollected, the Divine Being has not only\n    exercised Himself eternally, but also _immensely_, according\n    to the law of his own nature and perfections: i.e. He has\n    necessarily, and eternally exercised Himself to the extent of\n    his nature and perfections. This will be readily admitted when\n    we reflect, that unless we admit the exercise of the nature\n    and perfections of God _to their full extent_, we must admit\n    a _redundancy_ in the Divine Nature, and perfections, which\n    would be manifestly absurd, as it would _imply imperfection_.\n    For it would imply (if we may dare say so) that there is an\n    _efficiency_, or _ability_ in the Divine Being, which He\n    has never exercised to its full extent; and in proportion\n    to the _deficiency_ in the exercise, we must conclude this\n    _efficiency_ or ability is _useless_, which would be repugnant\n    to the true idea of the Divine Being.\n\n    It is therefore, _proven_, That the Divine Being\n    necessarily exercised Himself _immensely_, because his nature,\n    and perfections are immense. But it will be readily perceived,\n    this could not be done in the works of Creation and Providence:\n    because, however vast they may be, they are not _immense_:\n    and, therefore, could not admit of the immense exercise of his\n    nature and perfections to their full extent: from which it\n    must follow, inevitably, _That the immense exercise of his own\n    nature and perfections must be_ WITHIN _Himself_.\n\n    As it has already been proven above, that this internal\n    exercise in the Divine Essence necessarily implies _plurality_\n    in the Godhead; so now also, is it proven, that the admission\n    of such plurality is the only view competent to show _HOW_\n    the Divine Being could have exercised his own nature and\n    perfections _immensely_, as the attribute of immensity\n    appertains to God only.\n\n    As it is granted, that the Divine Being was necessarily as\n    happy _before_ Creation and Providence as since, and would\n    continue so, should Creation and Providence cease; of course\n    his happiness consists in the exercise of his own nature and\n    perfections according to their own law. But, in order that the\n    Divine Being should be eternally, immensely, and immutably\n    happy, the WHOLE of the Divine Nature and perfections must\n    be exercised eternally, immensely, and immutably. But if we\n    divest the Divine Essence of its plural personality, we cannot\n    conceive that some of the divine perfections can be exercised\n    at all. For example: the divine goodness, love, wisdom,\n    intelligence, and all his _moral_ perfections. We surely cannot\n    say, He manifests his goodness to Himself; or exercises his\n    love towards Himself; or employs his wisdom in understanding\n    Himself; all of which ideas are obviously absurd. But so\n    soon as we admit the idea of a plural personality, or the\n    subsistence of the Divine Essence in a plurality of persons,\n    we can conceive the moral perfections exercised in Himself,\n    between the persons of the Godhead. This is the only ground on\n    which we can conceive of his eternal, immense, and immutable\n    happiness. For we can readily conceive of the distinct persons\n    in the Divine Essence, _communicating mutually_ to each other\n    the _whole_ of the divine moral perfections; and thus conceive\n    of the perfect and independent happiness of God.\n\n    The only remaining view of this subject would be this:\n    the activity, energy, and influence of the Divine Being can\n    only regard Creation and Providence. But as there was a _past\n    eternity before_ Creation and Providence began, in which the\n    Divine Being existed, He must be considered as having been\n    _inactive_, _solitary_, and _unconscious_; (because there\n    cannot be consciousness where there is not action,) the whole\n    and every part of which view is derogatory to the acknowledged\n    character of God. How much more reasonable is it to conceive\n    the Divine Essence to subsist in a plurality of persons, and\n    thus to conceive, _consistently_, of the eternal, immense, and\n    immutable activity and happiness of the Divine Being?\n\n    _Thus we see, that what the Scriptures declare concerning\n    the plurality of persons in the Divine Essence_, CANNOT BE\n    OTHERWISE, AS IS DEMONSTRATED ABOVE, FROM THE NECESSARY NATURE\n    OF THE GLORIOUS DIVINITY.\n\n    The demonstration might be extended to each of the divine\n    perfections, and the same result would be obtained. The above\n    remarks are a mere clue to the argument which is possible, and\n    satisfactory; founded on the necessary nature of Jehovah.\n\n    The key to the whole demonstration is this:\n\n    1. The Divine Being, from his very and necessary nature,\n    must be eternally, immensely, and immutably active.\n\n    2. He must be eternally, immensely, and immutably happy.\n\n    3. In order to be eternally, immensely, and immutably\n    active and happy, He must be exercised to the whole extent of\n    his nature and perfections, eternally, immensely, and immutably.\n\n    4. That such an exercise of his nature and perfections, in\n    an eternal, immense, and immutable manner, cannot be, in regard\n    to Creation and Providence; because, Creation and Providence\n    are not eternal, immense, and immutable.\n\n    5. As there was not any thing _before_ Creation and\n    Providence, but God Himself, it must follow, necessarily, that\n    the eternal, immense, and immutable activity and happiness of\n    the Divine Being were WITHIN _Himself entirely_.\n\n    6. As it is impossible for the human intellect to conceive,\n    that a being can be both _agent_ and _object, in the same\n    action_, and the activity of the Divine Being has been shown to\n    have been within Himself entirely; it follows, THAT THE DIVINE\n    ESSENCE MUST HAVE SUBSISTED ETERNALLY, IMMENSELY, AND IMMUTABLY\n    IN A PLURALITY.\n\n    7. And as the mind is _forced_ to admit a _plurality_ in\n    the Divine Essence, it naturally, and necessarily assumes\n    PERSONS for this plurality; and thus concludes, _There must\n    be a plurality of persons in the Godhead as the Scriptures\n    declare._\n\n    From the foregoing elements of the argument, it will be\n    very easy to observe, if a _plurality_ must be admitted, there\n    is no objection in the mind to admit it is _triple_; and\n    hence, as the substance of the Divine Essence has been shown\n    to exist necessarily in a plurality, the mind conceives a\n    _triple plurality_, as easy as any other, and thus conceives\n    the reasonableness of the doctrine of the _Trinity in Unity_.\n\n    The most successful argument against this conclusion is\n    this: _It is impossible to conceive how three can be one_.\n    This is admitted, _when the objects designated by_ \u201cthree\u201d\n    _are the same as the object designated by_ \u201cone.\u201d But this is\n    not the case in the doctrine of the Trinity in Unity. The term\n    _Trinity_ applies to the _persons_ in which the Divine Essence\n    subsists, and _not_ to the essence itself. So the term _Unity_\n    applies to the _Essence only_, and _not_ to the persons. This\n    simple distinction removes the whole force of the objection.\n\n    The Unitarians, therefore, do us wrong when they say, _we\n    believe three are one_. And Trinitarians do themselves wrong\n    when they say, _to the three one God_: because, it is not true\n    that there is a \u201cthree one God.\u201d But it is a glorious truth,\n    THAT THE DIVINE ESSENCE SUBSISTS IN THREE PERSONS, ETERNALLY,\n    IMMENSELY, AND IMMUTABLY.\n\n    It is very natural to suppose, that God imparted a\n    knowledge of Himself to our first parents in Paradise. The\n    Scriptures clearly support this supposition. This knowledge\n    would, of course, include the doctrine of the Trinity; and we\n    cannot admit for a moment, that so important a doctrine as the\n    plurality of persons in the Godhead, could have been wholly\n    lost by mankind, though it might become obscured. Accordingly\n    we find the traditionary remains of this doctrine throughout\n    the Old World.\n\n    \u201cThe Hindoos\u201d says M. Sonerat, \u201cadore _three_ principal\n    Deities, Brouma, Schiven, and Vichenou, who are still but\n    _one_; which kind of Trinity is there called Trimurti, and\n    signifies the re-union of those powers. The generality of\n    Indians at present, adore only one of these three divinities;\n    but some learned men, beside this worship, also address their\n    prayers to the three united. The representation of them is to\n    be seen in many pagodas, under that of human figures with three\n    heads, which on the coast of Orissa, they call Sariharabrama,\n    on the Coromandel coast, Trimourti,\u201d &c.\n\n    This account of M. Sonerat is very pertinent, and is\n    confirmed by Dr. Buchanan who made extensive researches in that\n    country. See his _Star in the East_.\n\n    The same tradition is found in China. \u201cAmong the ancient\n    Chinese characters\u201d says Dr. A. Clarke, \u201cwhich have been\n    preserved, we find the following \u0394 like the Greek _delta_.\n    According to the Chinese dictionary _Kang-hi_, this character\n    signifies _union_. According to _Choueouen_, a celebrated work,\n    \u0394 is _three united in one_. The Lieou-chou-tsing-hoen, which is\n    a rational and learned explanation of ancient characters, says;\n    \u201c\u0394 signifies intimate union, harmony, the chief good of man, of\n    the heaven, and of the earth; it is the union of three.\u201d\n\n    Lao-tse says; \u201cHe who is as visible, and yet cannot be\n    seen, is denominated _lieou_; he who can be heard, and yet\n    speaks not to the ears, _hi_; he who is tangible, and yet\n    cannot be felt, is named _ouei_: in vain do you consult your\n    senses about these _three_; your reason alone can discourse of\n    them, and it will tell you they are but one,\u201d &c.\n\n    One of the missionaries at Peking, who wrote the letters from\n    which I have made the above extracts, takes it for granted,\n    \u201cthat the mystery of the _Trinity_ was known among the ancient\n    Chinese, and that the character \u0394 was its symbol.\u201d _Dr. A.\n    Clarke, on the 1st chap. John\u2019s Gospel._\n\n    The existence of this same tradition in China is conveyed\n    to us through another channel. \u201cIt was the leading feature in\n    _Lao-Kiun\u2019s_ system of philosophical theology, and a sentence\n    which he continually repeated as the foundation of all true\n    wisdom, that TAO, the eternal reason, produced ONE; _one_\n    produced TWO; _two_ produced THREE; and THREE produced all\n    things.\u201d _Le Compt\u2019s Memoirs of China_.\n\n    Traditions of this doctrine are found also in Chaldea\n    and Persia indeed throughout the East; from whence all agree\n    they were imported, through Ph\u0153nicia, into Egypt, and thence\n    into Greece. The great and original sources of information\n    being in the neighborhood of the Euphrates, where the _first\n    post-diluvian_ families resided; and the mighty intellects\n    which were to influence the world, by the materials which\n    were drawn from thence, being in Greece, the consequence\n    was, we find the Grecian philosophers travelling _up_ the\n    streams of knowledge to the fountains, and thence returning to\n    enlighten the world by the results of their researches. For\n    example: Pythagoras, Plato, and others visited Egypt first,\n    thence to Ph\u0153nicia, and thence to Chaldea, and the East, from\n    whence they undoubtedly drew their theology. (Nor should it\n    be forgotten that _their_ philosophy was _theological_.) The\n    concurrent testimony of history establishes this fact. The\n    consequence of all this is, the doctrine of the Trinity was\n    known to the Greek philosophers, who preserved it to the world\n    in their incomparable writings, a collateral testimony of the\n    authenticity of the Scripture doctrine. For this opinion we\n    have the highest authority in the republic of letters.\n\n    \u201cIt is said that the first Christians borrowed their notion\n    of a Triune God from the later Platonists; and that we hear not\n    of a Trinity in the church till converts were made from the\n    school of Alexandria. But if this be the case we may properly\n    ask, _Whence had those Platonists the doctrine?_\n\n    \u201cIt is not surely so simple, or so obvious as to have\n    occurred to the reasoning mind of a pagan philosopher;\n    or if it be, _why do Unitarians suppose it to involve a\n    contradiction?_--The Platonic and Pythagorean Trinities\n    never could have occurred to the mind of him, who, merely\n    from the works of creation, endeavored to discover the being\n    and attributes of God; and therefore as those philosophers\n    travelled into Egypt and the East in quest of knowledge, it\n    appears to us in the highest degree probable, that they picked\n    up this mysterious and sublime doctrine in those regions where\n    it had been handed down as a dogma from the remotest ages,\n    and where we know science was not taught systematically, but\n    detailed in collections of sententious maxims, and traditionary\n    opinions. If this be so we cannot doubt but that the pagan\n    trinities had their origin in some primeval revelation. Nothing\n    else indeed can account for a doctrine so remote from human\n    imagination, and of which we find vestiges in the sacred books\n    of almost every civilized people of antiquity. The corrupt\n    state in which it is viewed in the writings of Plato and\n    others, is the natural consequence of its descent through\n    a long course of oral tradition. The Trinity of Platonism\n    therefore, instead of being an objection, lends, in our\n    opinion, no feeble support to the Christian doctrine, since it\n    affords almost a complete proof of that doctrine having made\n    a part of the first revelation to man.\u201d _Ency. Brit. Art._\n    THEOLOGY.\n\n    \u201cSome have indeed pretended, that the _Trinity_, which\n    is commonly called _Platonic_, was a fiction of the later\n    Platonists, unknown to the founder of the school: but any\n    person who will take the trouble to study the writings of Plato\n    will find _abundant evidence that he really asserted_ A TRIAD\n    OF DIVINE HYPOSTASES, _all concerned in the formation, and\n    government of the world_.\u201d _Ency. Brit. Art._ PLATONISM.\n\n    \u201cPythagoras, though inferior to Plato in reputation, and\n    lived before him, held the same doctrine, and derived it from\n    the same sources. He visited Egypt, Persia, Chaldea, &c, and\n    thence returned to Greece.\u201d _Ency. Brit. Art._ PYTHAGORAS.\n\n    These quotations are directly from the Encyclopedia\n    Britannica, than which no authority can be better. I might\n    increase the quotations to the same effect from Dr. Oglevie,\n    the learned Cudworth and others, were it necessary. The above\n    is thought sufficient to establish the fact, _That the doctrine\n    of a Trinity in Unity was once prevalent in the Pagan world,\n    and that remains and traditions of it are yet abundant through\n    all the East, where the revelations of God were made to\n    mankind_.]\n\nIf it be asked, \u201cWhy did God conceal himself from eternity till within\nsix thousand years; for, according to Divine revelation, it is not\nyet so long since the world was made?\u201d I answer, God is at perfect\nliberty to do what he pleases, to do it when he pleases, and to give\nno account of the reasons of his conduct. If he had pleased to create\nthe world as many millions of years sooner, as there have been days\nsince its creation, the same question might have been asked, Why did\nhe not create the world sooner, and thereby discover himself? For the\nlongest time that can be imagined is just as nothing in comparison with\neternity. If God had pleased, he might have concealed his existence\nand perfections to all eternity, or, in other words, never have made\nany thing. Seeing therefore it was only of his sovereign pleasure that\nhe made creatures, to whom he might manifest himself, surely he had a\nright to fix on the time for doing it. We are sure he is infinitely\nwise, and consequently all his works are done in the fittest time, and\nbest manner.\n\nGod made the world, not because he needed the praise or service of\ncreatures to add to his blessedness; for he who is self-existent\nmust necessarily be infinitely perfect and absolutely independent;\nand would always have remained the same happy Being, enjoying his\nown excellencies and perfections, had no creature ever been made.\nBut it was for the manifesting of his own glorious attributes, and\ncommunicating happiness to creatures capable of it, that he, in\nthe beginning, created this magnificent fabric of the heavens and\nthe earth, with all things therein, whether visible or invisible,\nanimate or inanimate, material substances or immaterial spirits. For\nhe created beings of different ranks and powers, to whom he might\nmanifest himself, or communicate his goodness. Some of these were pure\nintellectual spirits, fit for the felicity and employments of the\nheavenly state, to stand in his immediate presence, and execute his\nrighteous commands: but these were created before the solar system;\nfor the angels, those \u201csons of God,\u201d called \u201cmorning stars,\u201d were\npresent, and sung together for joy, when \u201cthe foundations\u201d of this\nworld were laid. Others he formed out of the earth, with life, sense,\nand instinct, but destitute of reason, designing them to be subservient\nto the necessities or conveniences of a higher order of beings. Besides\nthese he created other beings of a middle rank, partaking of an earthly\npart, fashioned with infinite skill and art, of exquisite symmetry, and\nadorned with great external beauty; and of a spiritual part akin to\nangels, and but little inferior to them, being in their constitution a\ncompound of the animal and angelic natures.\n\nIt is not by reason alone then, or the light of heathen philosophy,\nbut \u201cthrough faith,\u201d in the infallible testimony of Divine revelation,\n\u201cwe understand that the worlds were framed by the word of God, so that\nthings which are seen were not made of things which do appear.\u201d The\nsun, moon, stars, and earth, which we see, were not made of matter\nwhich had existed from eternity, as some of the heathen philosophers\nsupposed, but of what God created anterior to the formation of those\nwonderful orbs. The word \u03ba\u03b1\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03c4\u03b9\u03c3\u03b8\u03b1\u03b9, _framed_, signifies not only to\n_make_ or _produce_ simply, but properly _to place_ or _set in joint_\nthe parts of any body or machine in their right order. Accordingly\nPlato says, that in making the world, God proceeded with the exactness\nof a geometrician, arranging every thing in complete symmetry. All this\nwas done by the _word_ of God, which is not to be understood of any\narticulate sound, but of the simple act of his own will; he willed the\nuniverse, with all its variety of furniture, into existence. And this\nis a matter of _faith_, to be believed; not to be known by mere reason;\nfor reason, without faith, can apprehend a formation of things from\nmatter previously made ready.\n\nA pious expositor very justly observes, By faith assenting to Divine\nrevelation, and not by reason we understand the truth and wonders,\nthe reasons and causes, the manner and end, of the creation of the\nworld. Reason indeed tells us that there was a creation, consequently\na Creator; but reason without Divine revelation could never have\ndiscovered the circumstances and manner of the creation, which wholly\ndepended upon the will of God. Reason could never have known them,\nif God had not in his word first revealed them. Reason may propound\nthe question, How was the world made, and all things therein? But\nrevelation must resolve it.\n\n\u201cOh Lord my God, thou art very great; thou art clothed with honor\nand majesty. Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment: who\nstretchest out the heavens like a curtain: who layeth the beams of\nhis chambers in the waters: who maketh the clouds his chariot: who\nwalketh upon the wings of the wind: who maketh his angels spirits; his\nministers a flaming fire: who laid the foundations of the earth, that\nit should not be moved for ever. Thou coveredst it with a garment:\nthe waters stood above the mountains. At thy rebuke they fled; at the\nvoice of thy thunder they hasted away. They go up by the mountains;\nthey go down by the valleys unto the place which thou hast founded for\nthem. Thou hast set a bound that they may not pass over; that they turn\nnot again to cover the earth.\u201d Such is the sublime language of Divine\nrevelation!\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFootnotes - Chapter I\n\n    [1] As the name _Jehovah_, in the Hebrew consists of four\n    letters, so for the most part the name of the supreme Being\n    does in all languages. Thus among the Persians, the name is\n    \u03a3\u03bf\u03c1\u03c5; among the Arabians, _Alla_; among the Assyrians, _Adad_;\n    among the Egyptians, \u0398\u03c9\u03c5\u03b8 or \u0398\u03b5\u03c5\u03b8 with the Grecians, \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2; the\n    Latins, _Deus_; the French, _Dieu_; the Spaniards, _Dios_; the\n    Italians, _Idio_; and with the Germans, _Gott_.\n\n    The name _Jehovah_ is written differently. Sanchoniathon\n    writes it _Jevo_; Diodorus the Sicilian, Macrobius, Clemens\n    Alexandrinus, Jerome, and Origen, _Jao_; Epiphanius, Theodoret,\n    and the Samaritans, _Jab\u00e9_ or _Jave_: we find likewise _Jahoh_,\n    _Javo_, _Jaou_, _Jaod_. Lewis Capellus is for _Javo_; Drusius\n    for _Jav\u00e9_; Mercer for _Jehevah_: Hottinger _Jehra_. The Moors\n    call their God _Juba_, whom some believe to be _Jehovah_.\n    The Latins probably took their _Juvis_ or _Jovis Pater_ from\n    _Jehovah_. It is certain that these four letters may likewise\n    be expressed by _Javo_, _Jaho_, _Jaon_, _Jevo_, _Jav\u00e9_,\n    _Jehvah_, &c. Mussulmen frequently use the name _Hu_, or\n    _Hou_, which has almost the same signification as _Jehovah_,\n    i.e. _He who is_. But the great name of God is _Allah_, which\n    they pronounce often, and have great confidence in. Among the\n    Arabians, and all Mahometans the name _Allah_ corresponds with\n    the _Elohim_ and _Adonai_ of the Hebrews, and even that of\n    _Jehovah_. See Calmet\u2019s Dictionary.\n\n    [2] Dr. A. Clarke on Exod. xxxiv, 6, 7.\n\n    [3] Philo-Biblius seems to intimate, that the God of the\n    Ph\u0153nicians was anciently called by the name _Jehovah_; and that\n    _Jevo_, _Javo_, more recently used by them, is a corruption of\n    it; for it is said, that Jerombalus who supplied Sanchoniathon\n    with materials for his Ph\u0153nician history, was a priest of the\n    God Jevo. Euseb. Pr\u00e6p. Evang. lib. i. c. 9.\n\n    [4] \u201cOn the front of the famous temple of Apollo, at\n    Delphos, was graven the Greek word \u0395\u03b9 (which signifies _thou\n    art_, being the second person singular of the verb \u03b5\u1f30\u03bc\u1f76.) The\n    learned among the Philosophers labored long to discover its\n    meaning, each giving his own opinion; but could not find it\n    out, until Plutarch (who travelled into Egypt and Greece for\n    instruction in ancient sciences and other things) meeting with\n    that passage in the writings of Moses, where God manifested\n    himself by saying, I AM THAT I AM; he was struck with it, and\n    having it explained to him, he then conceived the true and\n    exalted sense of the word \u0395\u03b9, engraved on the front of the\n    temple. It implied, as it were, an admonition to those who were\n    about to enter the temple, to worship God, who is the only\n    self-existent Being in the universe.\u201d Creighton\u2019s Enquiry into\n    the Origin of True Religion, p. 21. Second Edition.\n\n    On a temple dedicated to Neitha, at Sais, the chief town\n    in Lower Egypt, was this inscription: \u201cI am whatever is, or\n    has been, or will be, and no mortal has hitherto drawn aside\n    my veil; my offspring is the sun.\u201d It appears highly probable\n    that the ancient Egyptians acknowledged an active as well\n    as a passive principle in nature, and, as Plutarch asserts,\n    worshipped \u03c4\u1ff3 \u03c0\u03c1\u03ce\u03c4\u1ff3 \u0398\u03b5\u1ff3, the supreme Deity. Enfield\u2019s History\n    of Philosophy, vol. i. p. 76, 77.\n\n    [5] Norris on Reason and Religion. Contemp. i.\n\n    [6] Allix\u2019s Judgment of the Jewish Church against the\n    Unitarians, p. 116. Edit. 1699. See also p. 119. Simpson\u2019s\n    Apology for the Doctrine of the Trinity, p. 379, 380.\n\n    [7] Rabbi Simeon Ben Jochai, in Zoar, on the sixth section\n    of Leviticus. See Ainsworth\u2019s Annotations on the place.\n\n    [8] Demonstration of the Messias, Part iii. p, 170, 171.\n    Edit. 1700.\n\n    [9] Jones on the Trinity, chap. iii. sect. 1.\n\n    [10] Allix. p. 132.\n\n    [11] Gen. i, 26; iii, 22; xi, 7; xx, 13; xxxi, 53; xxxv,\n    7; Deut. iv, 7; v, 23; Josh. xxiv, 19; 1 Sam. iv, 8; 2 Sam.\n    vii, 23; Psal. lviii, 12; Isai. vi, 8; Jer. x, 10; xxiii, 36;\n    See Prov. ix, 10; xxx, 3; Psal. cxlix, 2; Eccl. v, 7; xii, 1:\n    Job v, 1; Isai. vi, 3; liv, 5; Hos. xi, 12, or xii, 1; Mal.\n    i,6; Dan. vii, 18, 22, 25; Hebrew Lexicon, p. 19. Edit. 1811.\n    See also Mr. Parkhurst\u2019s pamphlet against Dr. Priestly and Mr.\n    Wakefield, p. 3-9, and p. 148, &c.\n\n    [12] Ridley\u2019s Eight Discourses, p. 79.\n\n    [13] See Allix\u2019s Judgment of the Jewish Church, p. 118.\n\n    [14] Professor Kidd\u2019s Essay on the Doctrine of the Trinity,\n    p. 452.\n\n    [15] Jones on the Trinity.\n\n    [16] Ganganelli\u2019s Letters.\n\n    [17] Rev. Hugh Knox\u2019s Sermons.\n\n    [18] Gray\u2019s Key to the Old Testament.\n\n    [19] M. Pascal\u2019s Thoughts.\n\n    [20] See Gray\u2019s Key, Notes, p. 82-83.\n\n    [21] See Sturm. vol. iv. p. 266.\n\n    [22] Christian\u2019s Magazine, vol. ii, p. 97, 98.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II.\n\nFIRST DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--CHAOS.\n\n    Inquiry into the origin of things natural to man --\n    Character of Moses as a sacred historian important --\n    Explanation of the term Created -- Chaotic state of the\n    elementary principles of matter -- Influence of the Spirit\n    of God upon the chaotic mass -- Opinions of the ancients --\n    Similitude between the first and second creation -- Agency of\n    the Holy Spirit in the work of regeneration asserted and proved.\n\n\nAs creatures possessed of conscious existence, and furnished with both\nintellectual and moral powers, it is very natural for us to inquire\ninto the origin and first state of things; and, when difficulties\npresent themselves, to meet with clear and satisfactory solutions of\nthem, removing the darkness in which they were enveloped, affords\nto reflecting minds a high gratification. Without the aid of divine\nrevelation, the creation of the world would have been involved in\nuncertainty, and our unassisted reason left to speculate in fields\nof wide conjecture. But in following the luminous torch of sacred\ncommunication, we are safely conducted to the first great Cause, by\nwhose almighty _fiat_ matter was called into existence, and afterwards\ndisposed and modified according to the plan devised by the eternal Mind.\n\nMoses, considered as a man of scientific habits, being well versed in\nall the \u201cwisdom of the Egyptians\u201d--mathematical, physical, moral, and\ndivine; could not but know that his cosmogony would have to pass the\nordeal of critical investigation, and undergo the best of philosophical\ninquiry: that contemporaries, as well as future and remote nations\nand generations, would minutely examine his historical record; and\nscience, in its progressive state of improvement, try the validity\nof his system: that it would meet the inquisitive eye of genius and\nlearning, and fall into the hands of both sincere friends and insidious\nenemies to religious truth: that candor would patiently search into its\npretensions, impartially weigh its evidence, and sober inquiry respect\nits claims: while narrow prejudice, blind bigotry, or superstitious\nenthusiasm, would dispute its authority, deny its veracity, and\ndisdainfully reject its aid. But listening to an all-wise Instructor,\nfollowing a Guide that could not deceive him; and disregarding the\nenvenomed tongue of calumny, the lampooning pen of the satirist, the\nsurly frown of literary pride, and the imperious authority of exalted\nrank; he committed to writing a true account of the creation of the\nworld, for the information and religious improvement of mankind to the\nlatest generation.\n\nViewed as the ground-work of all future revelations, if any defect or\nfalse position were discovered in his relation of things, that would\ndeprive his history of credibility, and decisively prove him to have\nbeen led by the sallies of a vain and heated imagination, and not the\nSpirit of the living God. But of this there was no danger; and, as a\ndistinguished author pertinently observes, \u201cfrom the book of Genesis,\nalmost all the ancient philosophers, astronomers, chronologists, and\nhistorians, have taken their respective _data_: and all the modern\nimprovements and accurate discoveries in different arts and sciences\nhave only served to confirm the facts detailed by Moses, and to show,\nthat all the ancient writers on these subjects, have approached to,\nor receded from truth, and the phenomena of nature, in the exact\nproportion as they have followed the Mosaic history.\u201d As a writer,\nMoses does not attack other systems, formed on this or that hypothesis;\nbut in a simple and incontrovertible narrative, acquaints us with the\norigin of matter, and the progressive formation and completion of the\nsolar system.\n\nThe Scriptures inform us, that Moses was privileged to converse with\nGod \u201cface to face, as a man speaketh unto his friend,\u201d and from him\nreceived clear and manifest revelations, not by visions, ecstasies,\ndreams, inward inspirations, or the mediation of angels, but familiarly\nand with confidence, by articulate sounds, in his own language. The\nLord said, \u201cWith him will I speak mouth to mouth, even apparently,\nand not in dark speeches; and the similitude of the Lord shall he\nbehold.\u201d God being a Spirit, has neither shape nor parts, consequently\nis invisible, and cannot be seen by eyes of flesh: he is the most\nsimple essence. When he speaks of himself as having a face, mouth,\neyes, hands, &c, he adapts his language to our capacities, designing\nto express by these figures the perfections of his nature; but he\nis really one undivided essence. That which Moses saw, was only the\n_Shekinah_, a glorious brightness, the symbol of the Divine presence,\nand not the essence, which is invisible.\n\nIn giving an account of the true origin of things, he attends\nparticularly to the _mode_, _agent_, and _time_ of their being\nproduced. His history commences with the creation of matter, \u201cIn\nthe beginning.\u201d Before the creative acts mentioned by him, all was\neternity. _Time_ signifies _duration_ measured by the revolutions of\nthe heavenly bodies; but prior to the creation of these bodies, there\ncould be no measurement of duration, and consequently no _time_;\ntherefore, \u201cIn the beginning,\u201d must necessarily mean the commencement\nof time which followed, or rather was produced by God\u2019s creative acts,\nas an effect follows, or is produced by a cause.\n\n    [From several expressions in this chapter, it is obvious\n    that Mr. Wood considered the account given by Moses, in the\n    first chapter of Genesis, to apply to _universal creation_,\n    and not to be restricted to our _Solar System_. It is also\n    plainly inferable, that he considered this the _first exercise\n    of God\u2019s creative energy in any way_. This view is entirely too\n    contracted, is not clearly warranted by the text of the sacred\n    historian, and is unnecessary.\n\n    There are no passages of Scripture which say distinctly,\n    the Mosaic creation is the first or only acts of creative\n    energy: but there are several which intimate the _previous\n    existence of creatures_, and of course imply a previous\n    exercise of creative power.\n\n    It is sufficiently clear that there were intelligent beings\n    existing at the creation of this world. Hence it is said, \u201cthe\n    morning stars sang together, and the sons of God shouted for\n    joy,\u201d in view of the rising creation.\n\n    Since, therefore, the previous existence of intelligent\n    beings is established, we must, of course, assign to them some\n    _mode_ of subsistence; and this will compel us to assign at\n    least what must be _necessary_ to every creature, a _place of\n    abode_, suited to his wants and conditions, without which he\n    cannot subsist. Thus we establish even a _material_ creation,\n    _anterior_ to the creation mentioned by Moses.\n\n    After weighing the account which Moses gives in the first\n    chapter of Genesis, together with the facts and analogies in\n    Nature, the conclusion seems irresistible, _that he describes\n    only our Solar System_; which includes the seven primary\n    planets, Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and\n    Herschel: the four asteroides, Vesta, Juno, Ceres, and Pallas:\n    and the eighteen moons which attend the primary planets.\n    Because,\n\n    1. As this account forms the introduction to a revelation\n    designed for the _human family only_, it is reasonable to\n    conclude it would have reference to those bodies only which\n    operate materially to their benefit or injury. But there are no\n    such bodies except in the Solar System.\n\n    2. Moses in describing the formation of the heavenly\n    bodies, mentions only the _sun_ and _moon_ in a conspicuous\n    manner: because, these are the only luminaries which contribute\n    _essentially_ to our comfort: and then, lest a beholder might\n    imagine God did not also make the other suns and stars, says\n    incidentally, \u201cHe made the stars also.\u201d\n\n    3. The conclusion is clear from the fact, that _the Solar\n    System is complete in itself_: forming a perfect whole, which\n    could exist were all other stars and suns destroyed, and vice\n    vers\u00e2, all other systems could exist were the Solar System\n    destroyed.\n\n    4. It does not well comport with the character of the\n    Divine Being, when we consider his eternal power, infinite\n    wisdom, and boundless goodness, to suppose He never exercised\n    his creative energies but _once_, and that not until a few\n    thousand years since. Yet we are compelled to this conclusion,\n    however reluctantly, unless we restrict the Mosaic account of\n    the creation to our Solar System.\n\n    This argument will derive additional weight, when we\n    recollect the _immensity_ of God\u2019s works taken together, and\n    the _illimitable space_ in which he has, and may, exercise his\n    creative energy. We may _approximate towards_ a very faint idea\n    of their immensity, by calling to mind the immense number of\n    _fixed stars_. All astronomers admit their number to be very\n    great indeed, but how many cannot be correctly known. There\n    may be millions whose light has not reached us yet. Of those\n    which may be detected, Professor _Vince_, says, there are at\n    least _seventy-five millions_; and each the centre of a system\n    as large, possibly much larger than our own. Indeed we can\n    scarcely approach towards a competent idea of _illimitable\n    space_. The nearest _fixed star_ is supposed to be Sirius, or\n    the dog-star, at the lowest calculation _twenty-two billions\n    of miles distant_. If we compute according to this analogy,\n    and say there are seventy-five millions of fixed stars, each\n    the _centre_ of a system, perfect, and independent: what mind\n    can conceive the illimitable space through which these worlds\n    must lie? Yet this would scarcely be an approximation towards\n    the true extent. Beyond this there is still _unoccupied space_,\n    \u201cwhere existence sleeps in the wide abyss of possibility.\u201d\n\n    It may, therefore, be asked with justice, whether a being\n    capable of creating, even in this limited view, would have\n    exercised his creative powers _but once_, and that not until\n    a few thousands years since? _Credat qui posset, non ego._\n    Who can tell what may have been the _successive_ creations,\n    durations, and, possibly, destructions of those worlds which we\n    see, and of others, of which the inhabitants of this earth have\n    never heard, whose light has not yet reached us since their\n    creation, though coming at the rate of nearly _twelve millions\n    of miles in a minute_?\n\n    Finally: A _succession_ of creative acts, whose\n    commencement runs back _almost_ parallel with eternity, and\n    will extend forward _almost ad infinitum_, seems to comport\n    best with the eternal, immense, and immutable activity, energy,\n    and goodness of the Divine Being.]\n\nThe word _created_ means, that God caused that to exist which,\npreviously to this moment, had no being. The Rabbins, who are\nlegitimate judges in a case of verbal criticism on their own\nlanguage, are unanimous in asserting, that the word \u05d1\u05e8\u05d0\n_bara_ expresses the commencement of the existence of a thing,\nor its egression from nonentity to entity. It does not, in its\nprimary meaning, denote the _preserving_ or _new forming_ things\nthat had previously existed, as some imagine; but _creation_, in\nthe proper sense of the term, though it has some other acceptations\nin other places. The supposition that God formed all things out of\na pre-existing eternal nature, is certainly absurd: for, if there\nwas an eternal nature besides an eternal God, there must have been\ntwo self-existing, independent, and eternal Beings, which is a most\npalpable contradiction. _Ex nihilo nihil fit_, \u201cThat out of nothing,\nnothing is produced\u201d is a maxim that applies itself in every case where\nDeity is not concerned; it was the main argument used by Aristotle and\nhis followers, but is completely refuted by the authority of Divine\nrevelation. God created \u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd \u05d5\u05d0\u05ea \u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e5 _eth hashamayim\nveet haarets_, \u201cthe heavens and the earth.\u201d The word \u05d0\u05ea\n_eth_, which is generally considered as a particle, simply denoting\nthat the word following is in the accusative or oblique case, is often\nunderstood by the Rabbins in a much more extensive sense, \u201cThe particle\n\u05d0\u05ea _eth_,\u201d says Aben Ezra, \u201csignifies the _substance_ of the\nthing.\u201d The like definition is given by Kimchi in his _Book of Roots_.\n\u201cThis particle,\u201d says Mr. Ainsworth, \u201chaving the _first_ and _last_\nletters of the Hebrew alphabet in it, is supposed to comprise the _sum_\nand _substance_ of _all things_.\u201d \u201cThe particle \u05d0\u05ea _eth_,\u201d\nsays Buxtorf, Talmudic Lexicon sub voce, \u201cwith the Cabalists, is often\nmystically put for the _beginning_ and the _end_, as \u0391\nalpha and \u03a9 omega are in the Apocalypse.\u201d On this ground,\nthese words should be translated, \u201cGod in the beginning created the\n_substance_ of the heavens, and the substance of the earth: i.e. the\n_prima materia_, or first elements, out of which the heavens and the\nearth were successively formed.\u201d[23]\n\nDuring the first state of things, Moses informs us, that \u201cthe earth was\nwithout form and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep.\u201d The\noriginal terms \u05ea\u05d4\u05d5 _tohoo_, and \u05d1\u05d4\u05d5 _bohoo_, translated, \u201cwithout form\nand void,\u201d convey the idea of confusion and disorder. The translation\nby Paginus, is _desert and emptiness_; in the Vulgate, it is _empty and\nvoid_; in the Septuagint, _invisible and incomposed_; from the Syriac,\n_desert and uncultivated_; the Samaritan is the same as the Vulgate;\nthe Arabic, _covered with abysses_: these translations are allowed\nby the learned Walton. There is but little difference in their real\nmeaning, and all the Versions express the first state of things.[24]\nThe whole collection of matter, created in a fluid state, was a crude,\nindigested chaos: all belonging to our system, as the sun, moon, stars,\nearth, and seas, lay blended together in one vast, confused mass,\nwithout any arrangement of their constituent particles, heavy and\nlight, dense and rare, fluid and solid, being all mixed together; air,\nwater, and earth, (which have since obtained the name of elements,)\nwere promiscuously scattered throughout.\n\nThe chaotic mass remained in this primitive state, till God was pleased\nto assimilate, assort, and arrange the materials,--out of which he\nbuilt up, in the space of six days, the whole of creation.[25] _The\nSpirit of God_, represented us sitting upon the vast abyss, like a\nbird, while either in the act of incubation or fostering its young,\n_moved_ or brooded _upon the face of the waters_, communicating, by his\nvital energy, life and motion to the unformed chaos.\n\nSome writers understand by  \u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05de _the Spirit of God_, a \u201cmighty\nsweeping wind,\u201d a \u201ctremendous tempest,\u201d separating diversified\nparticles of the elementary principles of matter, and combining those\nof the same kind together. But this is making an effect to be produced\nby a cause, which, as yet, had no existence; nor, as a cause, is it\nsufficient to produce so great an effect. To make an effect superior to\nits cause, is as absurd and contradictory as to say, a long line and a\nshort one are equal. That the single Hebrew word \u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 _ruach_, the Greek\n\u03c0\u03bd\u03b5\u03c5\u03bc\u03b1 _pneuma_, the Latin _spiritus_, and the ancient Saxon _ghost_\nor _gast_, signifies _wind_, as well as the vital breath, the soul of\nman, a created spirit good or evil, is readily admitted. But concerning\nthe phrase \u05e8\u05d5\u05d7 \u05d0\u05dc\u05d4\u05d9\u05de, _the Spirit of God_, so frequently used in the\nScriptures of the Old Testament, there is not one instance that it\nsignifies _wind_, and to attempt to force such meaning upon it, is a\nmost manifest violation done to the text. By _the Spirit of God_, is\nmeant the third subsistence in the Divine essence, distinguished from\nthe person of the Father, and that of the Son; he is called a _Spirit_,\nto signify his spiritual and immaterial nature, as well as to express\nhis mighty agency; and the works of which he is the author can only be\neffected by an omnipotent power.\n\nMilton, who was well versed in the Hebrew language, in his address to\nthe Holy Spirit, says,\n\n                            \u201cThou from the first\n    Wast present, and with mighty wings outspread,\n    Dove-like, sat\u2019st brooding on the vast abyss,\n    And mad\u2019st it pregnant.\u201d\n\nThe Holy Spirit, by his vital influence, infused that efficient power\ninto the great mass of matter, which was necessary for the assumption\nof different forms, and the discharge of the assigned functions of\nselecting and arranging the materials out of which the world is\nformed. By brooding over the mingled earth and water, says Dr. Owen,\n\u201che communicated a prolific virtue; and inlaid them with the seeds of\nanimal life; and therefore the earth and the water brought forth all\nsorts of creatures in abundance, according to the seeds and principles\ncommunicated to them by the cherishing motion of the _Spirit of God_.\u201d\n\nAs several of the ancients have described the elementary principles\nof all things to be a gloomy chaos, consisting of _darkness_ and\n_water_, we may easily infer from what source they derived this notion.\nAristotle observes, the theologists and natural philosophers agreed,\nthat all things were produced, as the former said, \u201cout of night;\u201d or,\nas the latter, \u201cout of a confused mixture.\u201d Whatever knowledge the\ninhabitants of Chaldea had of the creation of the world, they ascribe\nto the teaching of an amphibious monster denominated Oannes. He taught\nhis auditors, that there was a time when all things were darkness\nand water, in the midst of which various monsters of horrible forms\nreceived life and light. Over this chaotic mass presided the demon\nOmoroca, a mythological personification of the ocean. At length arrived\nthe destined hour of the creation. The monster Omoroca fell subdued\nbeneath the victorious arm of Belus; the animals which composed her\nempire were annihilated; and the world was formed out of her substance.\nOannes, however, taught, that this physiological description was to be\ntaken merely in an allegorical sense, and that the whole fable alluded\nto the aqueous origin of the universe. Matter having been thus created,\nBelus divided the darkness from the light, separated the earth from the\nheavens, disposed the world in order, and called the starry host into\nexistence.\n\nAccording to the Ph\u0153nician system, the principle of the universe was\na _dark air_, and a _turbulent evening chaos_; an opinion not very\ndissimilar to that given by Moses. Sanchoniathon afterward ascribes to\nmaterial operation the origin of that which may be denominated the will\nor desire of God, when in his great wisdom he thought fit to create\nthe world out of nothing. From this personification of Divine love,\na chaotic mixture was produced, and within it were comprehended the\nrudiments of all things.\n\nThe cosmogony of the ancient Egyptians, though more obscure, is\ngiven by Diodorus Siculus. \u201cDamascius having inquired about what was\nthe first principle in the world, gives this as an ancient Egyptian\ndoctrine. The Egyptians have chosen to celebrate the first cause\nas _unspeakable_. They accordingly style it _darkness unknown_ and\nmention it with a three-fold acclamation. Again. In this manner the\nEgyptians styled the first principle _an inconceivable darkness; night\nand darkness past all imagination_.\u201d This is perfectly consonant\nto passages from the same author, quoted by Dr. Cudworth. \u201cThere\nis one origin of all things, celebrated by the name of _unknown_\n(incomprehensible) _darkness_.\u201d Again. \u201cThey hold, that the first\nbeginning or cause of things was _darkness beyond all conception; an\nunknown darkness_.\u201d\n\nHesiod mentions, \u201cA chaos as first existing. Next was produced the\nspacious earth, the seat of the immortals; Tartarus hid within the\nrecesses of the ample globe; and divine love, the most beautiful of the\ndeities. From chaos sprung Erebus, and black night; and from the union\nof night and Erebus were born ether and the day.\u201d[26] Zeno, of Cittium,\nthe founder of the Stoics, said, Hesiod meant by the chaos, \u201cWater, out\nof which all things were formed, which by concretion became firm earth.\u201d\n\nIn the work of Aristophanes, we meet with a similar passage. \u201cChaos,\nand night, and black Erebus, and wide Tartarus, first existed; at that\ntime, there was neither earth, air, nor heaven. But in the bosom of\nErebus, black-winged night produced an a\u00ebrial egg; from which, in due\nseason, beautiful Love, decked with golden wings, was born. Out of dark\nchaos, in the midst of wide-spreading Tartarus, he begot our race, and\ncalled us forth into the light.\u201d[27]\n\nIt is unnecessary to multiply quotations to prove, that the ancients\nwere not only acquainted with the cosmogony of Moses, but received it\nas true; to which they added their own coloring.\n\n    [It is now generally agreed by cosmogonists, commentators,\n    biblical critics, and natural philosophers, that the\n    _substance_ of the earth certainly, and probably the materials\n    of the Solar System, was first created in a chaotic state, and\n    subsequently arranged in order. This opinion is very ancient\n    and almost universal, found in all nations. Ovid, an ancient\n    heathen poet, has well described this chaos:\n\n        Ante mare et terras, et, quod teget omnia, C\u0153lum,\n        Unus erat toto natur\u00e6 vultus in orbe,\n        Quem dix\u00e9re Chaos; rudis indigestaque moles,\n        Nec quicquam nisi pondus iners; congestaque eodem.\n        Non bene junctarum discordia semina rerum.\n\n        Before the seas, and this terrestrial ball,\n        And heaven\u2019s high canopy that covers all:\n        _One_ was the face of nature if a face:\n        _Rather a rude and indigested mass:\n        A lifeless lump, unfashioned and unframed,\n        Of jarring seeds, and justly_ CHAOS _named_.--Dryden.\n\n    Notwithstanding the general prevalence of this opinion,\n    and the high authorities which support it, the reader must not\n    imagine it is absolutely _universal_. Some eminent men have\n    suggested, that the earth, and matter generally, was created in\n    a _solid_ state at first. This is the view taken by Mr. Ure, of\n    the Andersonian University. He supposes _the earth was created\n    a solid ball, or spheroid, regular on its surface, without\n    hills and vallies, and immersed in a crust of ice, which\n    completely and uniformly surrounded it: that it was a cold\n    lifeless lump; heat not yet having pervaded it_. The first, and\n    all quickening operation of heat he supposes to be indicated\n    by these words of Moses: \u201cAnd the Spirit of God moved on the\n    face of the waters.\u201d He supposes, all the matter of our earth\n    is in the same relative position, in which it was when it first\n    existed at the command of God; _except such cases in which some\n    subsequent force has disarranged it_. These cases he supposes\n    to have been many, and to have operated to the _upheaving_\n    the mountains, and hollowing out the beds of the sea, &c. He\n    says of the earth: \u201cThe central mass composed, most probably,\n    of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalies, as volcanic\n    phenomena seem to attest, would fuse, when first the calorific\n    energy was made to actuate the body of the earth, and the\n    exterior parts would oxydize into the crust of mineral strata,\n    and the outermost coat of all, the fixed ice, would melt into\n    the moveable _waters_.\u201d _New Syst. of Geol. B. 1. chap. 1. p.\n    7._\n\n    Perhaps Mr. Ure\u2019s view might be improved, and made\n    to approximate much nearer the common opinion, possibly\n    identified with it, by supposing the mass of matter composing\n    our earth, was confusedly mixed,--and of course chaotic--but\n    was in a frozen, hard, inactive state: that the quickening\n    energy, which softened and fused it, was simultaneous with its\n    revolution on its axis. The consequence then would be precisely\n    what we find it to be; viz: an enlargement of the equatorial\n    diameter, and a flattening of the poles. This I conceive to be\n    the true theory in this case.\n\n    Mr. Ure confirms his view by a quotation from Sir Isaac\n    Newton; Optics, Book 3. towards the conclusion. \u201cIt seems\n    probable to me that God in the beginning formed matter in\n    solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles, of such\n    sizes and figures, and with such other properties, and in such\n    proportions to space, as most conduced to the end for which he\n    formed them. All material things seem to have been composed\n    of the hard and solid particles above mentioned, variously\n    associated in the _first creation_ by the counsels of an\n    intelligent agent. For it became him who created them to set\n    them in order; and if he did so, it is unphilosophical to seek\n    for any other origin of this world, or to pretend that it might\n    rise out of chaos by the mere laws of Nature; though being once\n    formed, it may continue by those laws for many ages.\u201d\n\n    I have given this quotation precisely as I found it in\n    Mr. Ure\u2019s New System of _Geology_, B. 1. chap. 1. p. 10.\n    Considering the well founded reputation of Newton, it adds very\n    much to the probability of the above theory: yet it seems to\n    me to be at variance with the commonly received impression of\n    Newton\u2019s opinion on this subject. I have not his work at hand\n    to examine it.\n\n    The Encyclopedia Britannica, Article _Earth_, seems to\n    favor this view. It says, \u201cThe common notion of the earth\u2019s\n    being originally a chaos, seems neither to have a foundation in\n    reason, nor in the Mosaic account of the creation.\u201d\n\n    The reader will here perceive high authorities on both\n    sides, and all claiming to agree with Moses. The weight of\n    evidence seems to be in favor of a chaotic creation, which\n    does _not_ necessarily imply that the mass was created in a\n    _soft_ state. But the configuration, and internal structure of\n    the earth abundantly prove it was in a soft, or compressible\n    state when it was assuming its present form and structure.\n    This condition was the effect of the quickening energy of the\n    Spirit of God. The difference between the _equatorial_ and\n    _polar_ diameters of the earth, which is now well established,\n    and is about twenty-seven miles, can scarcely be accounted for,\n    without supposing the substance of the earth, at least to a\n    great depth, to have been partially or wholly fluid; in which\n    case, by turning round rapidly on its own axis, it would assume\n    the shape it is known to possess. It may, indeed, be said, the\n    Almighty could give it any shape and qualities he pleased, and\n    we cannot well object to it.\n\n    As it regards the interior, or central parts of our planet,\n    our author has said nothing, and possibly he would give\n    this very good reason for his silence--_we can know nothing\n    certainly_. Still, however, we may subjoin the conjectures of\n    some eminent philosophers.\n\n    Some suppose the central parts of our globe to be\n    _cavernous_ or _hollow_. The principal argument for this\n    theory is the transmission of _sound_ and _motion_ through vast\n    extents of country, in case of volcanoes and earthquakes. It is\n    supposed this could not be done so perfectly and extensively,\n    unless we suppose some _a\u00ebriform_, or _gaseous_ body within the\n    earth, by means of which it might be transmitted: which would\n    be to suppose it _cavernous_ or _hollow_.\n\n    Dr. Halley supposes the earth is a hollow sphere, in\n    which there is inclosed a central magnetic globe, and by the\n    motions of this globe the variations of the magnetic needle are\n    produced.\n\n    Our own ingenious, but unfortunate countryman, _Symms_,\n    supposed the earth to be hollow, and inhabited within, and its\n    interior accessible to us. He argues, there is no necessity,\n    for the purposes of gravitation, or for any other purposes, to\n    suppose the earth solid to the centre: And it is inconsistent\n    with the divine beneficence to suppose such an amount of matter\n    as this globe would be, if solid, should have been created to\n    afford so small a portion, _scarcely one-fourth_, fit for the\n    actual habitation of man, for whom principally it was created.\n    He, therefore, supported, that the interior of the earth was an\n    immense cavern blessed with changes of season, succession of\n    day and night, cold and heat, and inhabited by human beings,\n    and other animals. He supposed the poles of the earth were\n    hollow, and this hollow entrance gradually verged round towards\n    the equator; and ships have, without knowing it, been within\n    the verge, from whence they found no difficulty of returning.\n\n    Others have supposed the central parts of our globe are\n    solid. This is the common supposition, and is principally\n    supported by these two arguments:--As the attraction of\n    gravitation depends on the _quantity_ of matter, as well as\n    the distance; unless we suppose the earth a _solid_ body it\n    will not be able to exert a sufficient attractive influence on\n    the moon to keep her in her orbit. Again: it is ascertained\n    by actual experiment, that the _mean_ density of the earth is\n    about _five_ times that of water: from which it is infered it\n    is solid, and must increase in density from the surface to the\n    centre, in order to give this high mean proportion over the\n    bodies at its surface.\n\n    The increasing density of the earth, from the surface to\n    the centre is owing to _compression_ in part, and partly to the\n    supposed fact, that the heavier substances are placed nearer\n    the centre. Thus we find the different strata of rocks indicate\n    the same. Granite is the heaviest and lowest rock _in situ_.\n\n    Some have supposed that _iron_, probably nearly in a\n    metallic state, constitutes the nucleus of our earth. This idea\n    seems to have been suggested to account for the influence of\n    the earth on a magnetic needle.\n\n    But the most splendid, and very probable conjecture is\n    founded on the experiments of Berzelius, and Sir H. Davy, on\n    the earths, which experiments prove them to have _metallic\n    bases_ universally: hence all our earths are _metallic oxides_.\n    From these circumstances it is conjectured, that the nucleus\n    of our globe is constituted of the metals in a pure, or nearly\n    pure state, which are the bases of our earths, alkalis, and\n    alkaline earths.\n\n    It would almost seem a legitimate conjecture to suppose the\n    substances of our globe were, at _first, metals_ and _gases_:\n    that the oxygen, combining with the metals formed earths, and\n    alkalis; and the gases combining among themselves formed air,\n    water, &c. This would be a chemical process, and necessarily\n    _fuse_ and soften the earth, and introduce the process of\n    cooling, which would proceed from the surface towards the\n    centre. Hence some eminent philosophers have conjectured that\n    there is a great degree of heat in the interior of the earth\n    yet: probably the central parts are in a state of igneous\n    fusion. Some recent researches of Cordier tend to establish\n    this opinion. The amount of evidence in favor of this\n    conjecture is increasing annually, and probably will prevail.\n    See the _additional_ paper on _volcanos_ in this volume.]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ II.--_Fire._\n\n    Omnific word -- Moving principles in Nature -- Criticism\n    on the original word \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 aur -- Creation of fire -- Its nature\n    -- Friction exciting the action of fire -- Fire attracted by\n    bodies -- Fire conducted -- Fire in a state of combination --\n    Fire elastic -- Expansive force of fire -- Subterraneous fires\n    -- Earthquakes and Volcanic Eruptions -- Air a storehouse of\n    fire -- General and final Dissolution of Nature by fire --\n    Fire a symbol of the Deity, in his gracious presence, vital\n    influence, transforming energy, and destructive operation.\n\n\nThe sacred historian here informs us of the first regular production\nreduced from the chaotic mass. With an astonishing majesty of\nexpression, God said, \u05d9\u05d4\u05d9 \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 \u05d5\u05d9\u05d4\u05d9 \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 YEHI AUR, _vayehi aur_, _Let\nthere be light: and there was light_. Or, more literally, _Be light:\nand light was_. Pagninus translates the words \u05d9\u05d4\u05d9 \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 YEHI AUR,\nliterally, _Sit lux, Be light_. In the Greek it is \u03b3\u03b5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b8\u03b7\u03c4\u03c9 \u03c6\u1ff6\u03c2, _Be\nlight made_, or _generated_. In the Vulgate, _Fiat lux_, which is much\nthe same as the Greek. The celebrated Dionysius Longinus, meeting\nwith this passage in the Septuagint, considered it as a specimen of\nthe _true sublime_. Though a heathen, he thus expresses himself:\n\u201cSo likewise the Jewish lawgiver, (who was no ordinary man) having\nconceived a just idea of the divine power, he expressed it in a\ndignified manner; for at the beginning of his laws he thus speaks: GOD\nSAID--_What?_ LET THERE BE LIGHT! _and there was light_. LET THERE BE\nEARTH! _and there was earth_.\u201d[28]\n\nHere we may inquire, Whether this was a word uttered with a sound, like\nthat which God spake from mount Sinai in giving the Law; or only the\nexercise of the inward faculty of reason or understanding? It could not\nbe a word spoken with a sound, for that requires air as its _medium_,\nand none as yet existed; neither was there any ear to hear, nor any\nuse of such words. Nor could it be any exercise of the Divine Mind,\nnow beginning to think of the creation and formation of things; for\nthis purpose was in his thoughts from eternity. The meaning therefore\nis, that God did, without any instruments, toil, labor, alteration,\nor delay, for the manifestation of his own infinite goodness, wisdom,\npower, and will, actually working like a powerful word or command,\ninstantaneously produce _light_.[29] Thus\n\n    \u201cDark Chaos heard his voice.\u201d\n\nThe Psalmist, touching on the subject of creation, says, \u201cHe spake, and\nit was done: he commanded, and it stood fast\u201d--\u05d9\u05e2\u05de\u05d3 _jagnamad, it stood\nforth_, as a servant at his master\u2019s command, prepared to do his will,\nand to execute his pleasure.[30]\n\nThe divine commandment which produced light, says an intelligent\nwriter, must be considered as operating on the properties of matter\nalready created; and as light is found to proceed from the motion of\nluminous particles, we must conceive some central force, or attracting\npower, to be the instrument of producing this phenomenon of light,\nby its attractive or propelling properties. There seem to be moving\nprinciples in all nature, which, when put in action by the first\nCause, produce natural effects according to established laws, which\ncannot be altered unless by the first Mover. As the Hebrew word \u05ea\u05d4\u05d5\u05de\n_tehom, abyss_, translated _deep_, signifies also to move with a sort\nof confused motion; we may justly conclude that the chaotic mass had\nsome gravitating powers in it, before the forming of the system; and\nthat attracting and repelling force was naturally and originally in\nthe universe; and that the first Mover gave them in a regular course,\nthe specifical direction, and systematical attractions. What our\ndistinguished philosopher, Sir Isaac Newton, has suggested concerning\nattraction and gravitation, even in point of philosophy, appears to\nagree with the Principia of Moses.\n\nAnother author writes, Whether Moses intended a philosophical account\nof light in this place, I will not pretend to say; but one thing is\ncertain, that he makes use of a word which points out some of the\nprincipal properties of light. The original word \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 _aur_ signifies\nthat body which renders objects visible, which we call _light_; it\nalso signifies _fire_, and perhaps Moses intended to point out in one\nword, what in our language requires two, _light_ and _fire_. When we\nconsider the words of Moses, it appears evident that what is in our\nversion called _light_, is in the Hebrew rather something that sends\nforth light. The original word \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 _aur_ may signify any thing that\nmakes things visible by emitting particles of light. When the Almighty\nsaid, \u201cLet there be \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 _aur, light_,\u201d it is not certain that he meant\nelementary fire, or original unpropagated light. It is more probable\nthat he intended by that word, a body that sent forth light by means of\nthe motion of similar particles of luminous and igneous matter.\n\nWhatever may be the philosophic differences between these two, _light_\nand _fire_, continues the same author, we are certain that they are\nseldom separated. The origin of that light which now renders bodies\nvisible to us, seems chiefly to be _fire_, though light and fire are\nnot inseparably connected; for light may be propagated where there is\nno fire, as from putrid bodies, &c, and fire may be where there is no\nlight, as in iron, sulphur, &c.\n\nThe Hebrew word \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 _aur_, signifies not only light, but\n_fire_. God created this powerful agent on the first day, and diffused\nit through every part of nature; because without it no operation could\nbe carried on and perfected. T. Bartholine quotes Aristotle as saying,\n\u201cThat fire is the efficient cause of all things.\u201d Robison says, \u201cHeat\nis susceptible of fixation--of being accumulated in bodies, and, as\nit were, laid up till we have occasion for it; and we are as certain\nof getting the stored-up heat, as we are sure of obtaining from our\ndrawers the things we put in them.\u201d[31] It pervades all bodies: this is\nnot the case with any other substance we know of--not even light. It\nlies hid in every thing around us. It is a substance which we are ever\nin want of; it is therefore deposited on every side, and is ready for\nevery exigency.\n\n_Caloric_ is the name given by modern chemists, to that substance by\nwhose influence the phenomena of heat are produced, and which had\nbefore been distinguished by the terms _igneous fluid_, _matter of\nheat_, and other analogous denominations. In order to give precision\nto chemical language, it was necessary to adopt a word by which to\ndistinguish between the substance which produces the sensation we call\nheat, and the sensation itself; these being connected as cause and\neffect; for whenever caloric becomes fixed in a body, it loses its\nproperty of affording heat. Whatever is the nature of that quality in\nbodies called heat, we are assured it does resemble the sensation of\nheat. A man whose mind is destitute of the cultivation of science, if\nendued with common sense, never imagines the sensation of heat to be\nin the fire; he only imagines that there is something in fire which\noccasions this sensation.\n\nThough we are well acquainted with the effects of fire, we know but\nlittle of its nature. It is so active, as well as powerful a principle,\nthat it eludes all our researches. We may, however, define it to be the\nphlogiston or inflammable principle, which pervades in a greater or\nless degree all substances. Boerhaave thinks it is a fluid of a nature\npeculiar to itself; that it was created such as it is, and cannot be\naltered in its nature or its properties; that it naturally exists in\nequal quantities in all places; and that it is wholly imperceptible to\nour senses, being only discoverable by such effects as in its operation\nit produces.[32]\n\nThat fire is really a substance, and not a quality, appears from its\nacting upon other substances, the reality of which has never been\ndoubted. Charcoal, in its natural state, contains within its pores a\nlarge quantity of air; but if charcoal is heated, this air is expelled\nby the fire, which assumes its place, and occupies the pores of the\ncharcoal. The burning of lime also, which deprives it of a great part\nof its weight by expelling the fixable air, demonstrates that fire, as\na substance, enters into the pores of the lime, and forces out those\nother substances which are least intimately combined with it.\n\nCollision or friction of solid bodies, is the means most generally\nused for exciting the action of fire. The vacuities of all solid\nbodies are replete with fire, so that it is impossible to agitate or\nseparate their parts swiftly, without giving the same rapid motion to\nthe element contained within them. When a piece of hardened steel is\nstruck with a flint, some particles of the metal are scraped away from\nthe mass, and so violent is the fire which follows the stroke, that it\nmelts and vitrifies them. If the fragments of steel are catched upon\npaper, and viewed with a microscope, you will find most of them perfect\nspherules, and very highly polished. Their sphericity demonstrates that\nthey have been in a fluid state, and the polish upon their surface\nshows them to be vitrified; the fire being disengaged with violence,\ndisposes the particles of the substance to combine with the vital\nair, while this air accelerates the combustion. The whole of the heat\nproduced is not afforded by the body itself, because in proportion as\nthe interior fire is disengaged, the external air acts upon the body\nand gives out fire.\n\nIf the irons at the axis of a coach-wheel are applied to each other,\nwithout the interposition of some unctuous matter to keep them from\nimmediate contact, they will become so hot when the carriage runs\nswiftly along, as to set the wood on fire; and the fore wheels being\nsmallest, and making more revolutions, will be most in danger. The same\nwill happen to mill-work, or any other machinery, if the necessary\nprecautions are neglected. It is no uncommon practice with a blacksmith\nto use a plate of iron as an extemporaneous tinder-box; for it may be\nhammered on an anvil till it becomes red hot, and will fire a match of\nbrimstone. A strong man who strikes quick, and keeps turning the iron,\nso that both sides may be equally exposed to the force of the hammer,\nwill perform this in less time than would be expected. If in the\ncoldest season you lay one dense iron plate upon another, and press the\nupper one, by a weight, on the lower one, and then rub the one over the\nother; by reciprocal motions, they will first grow warm, and at length\nso hot, as in a short time to emit sparks, and at last grow red hot, as\nif taken out of a vehement fire.\n\nIt is not necessary that the substance should be very hard; a cord\nrubbed backwards and forwards swiftly against a post or a tree will\ntake fire; a stick of wood pressed against another which is turned\nswiftly about in a lathe, will soon make it turn black and emit smoke.\nEven the palms of your hands, if you rub them briskly together, when\nthey are dry, will smell as if they were scorched. The method of\nexciting fire by rubbing two sticks of wood together, was anciently\npractised by country people, and is still retained in some parts of\nthe world. The manner is exactly described in Captain Cook\u2019s voyage.\nThe inhabitants of New-Holland are there said to produce fire with\ngreat facility, and spread it in a wonderful manner. To produce it,\nthey take two pieces of _soft_ dry wood; one is a stick about eight or\nnine inches long, the other piece is flat. The stick they shape into an\nobtuse point at one end, and pressing it upon the other, turn it nimbly\nby holding it between both their hands, as we do a chocolate mill,\noften shifting their hands up and down, and then moving them down upon\nit to increase the pressure as much as possible. By this method they\nget fire in less than two minutes, and from the smallest spark they\nincrease it with speed and dexterity.\n\nThe matter of fire is attracted more or less by all bodies. When any\nheated body comes in contact with a cold one, the former loses a part\nof its heat, and both of them become equally warm. If heated iron is\nlaid upon a stone, its heat will flow into the stone; if thrown into\nthe water, the heat will be diffused through the water. If a number of\ndifferent substances, as metals, wood, wool, &c, are brought together\ninto a place where there is not a fire, if they are of different\ntemperatures, that is of different degrees of heat, the fire will be\nattracted from the hottest to those that are colder, till a perfect\nequilibrium is produced, or till they have all acquired the same\ntemperature, as may be proved by applying the thermometer successively\nto each of them.\n\nIt does not appear, however, that all bodies have an equal attraction\nfor the matter of fire. If a rod of iron is put into the fire for a\nshort time, the end which is at a moderate distance from the fire will\nalmost burn the hand; but a rod of wood, of the same length will be\nconsumed to ashes at the end which is in the fire, before the other end\nis sufficiently heated to burn the hand. A ball of lead, and a ball of\nwool, may be of exactly the same temperature by the thermometer, but\nthey will not appear of the same degree of heat on applying the hand.\nIf they are of a temperature below that of our bodies, the lead will\nappear much colder than the wool, because it attracts the heat more\nrapidly from the hand; if they are of a higher temperature, the lead\nwill appear much hotter, from the facility with which it parts with its\nheat. This property in bodies is called their _conducting_ power; and\nthose bodies through which the element of fire most rapidly circulates,\nare called good conductors.\n\nThe power of conducting the matter of fire seems to depend upon the\ntexture of bodies, that is, upon the contact of their parts; hence the\nexcessive slowness with which heat is communicated to bodies of a rare\nand spongy texture. Thus flannel, wool, and feathers, are considered as\nwarm coverings, not because they possess more heat in themselves--for\nthey serve to preserve any cold body in a cool state better than other\nsubstances--but because they prevent the escape of the animal heat from\nour bodies.\n\nThe matter of fire will exist in a state of combination, in a _latent_\nstate, so as not to be perceptible to our senses. It will be found by\nobservation, that every body which exists contains a quantity of the\nmatter of fire in a fixed or neutralized state, disarmed of all its\nactive, penetrating, and destructive qualities, like an acid and an\nalkali in combination.\n\nFluids, from their very nature and constitution, contain a greater\nquantity of caloric in a latent state than solid bodies: indeed it is\nnow universally admitted, and may be easily proved, that the fluidity\nof all bodies is altogether owing to the quantity of fire which they\nretain in this latent or combined state, the elasticity of which keeps\ntheir particles remote from each other, and prevents their fixing into\na solid mass. All bodies, therefore, in passing from a fluid to a solid\nstate, emit a quantity of fire or heat. When water is thrown upon quick\nlime, it is absorbed by the lime, and in this state it is capable of\nretaining a much smaller quantity of caloric than in its natural state;\non the slacking of lime, therefore, a very intense heat is produced,\nthe matter of fire which preserved the water fluid being disengaged and\ndetached. If spirit of vitriol is added to strong oil of turpentine,\nthey will condense into a solid mass, and a great quantity of heat will\nbe sensibly emitted. Upon the same principle it will be found, on the\nother hand, that when any body passes from a solid to a fluid state,\nthe adjacent bodies will be deprived of a quantity of their natural\nheat.\n\n    [This theory of what is called _burning lime_, is not\n    sufficiently clear. Fire does not enter into the pores of the\n    lime by burning. The mineral commonly used for procuring _quick\n    lime_ is the _carbonate_ of lime, or common _limestone_, which\n    is composed of carbonic acid with a small quantity of water,\n    43, and lime 57, in 100 parts. By submiting it to a strong\n    heat, the carbonic acid is driven off, and the quick or pure\n    lime remains, which is an _oxide of calcium_. The loss in\n    weight is owing to the expulsion of the carbonic acid, with\n    the small portion of water. By adding water to the quick lime,\n    it is dissolved, and falls into a powder. This process is\n    called _slacking lime_, and the product, _slack-lime_. During\n    the process a large quantity of heat is disengaged; and if\n    the slacking be done in the dark, _light_ is also observed to\n    be thrown out. This heat is given out by the _water_, not the\n    lime. The lime having a _greater affinity_ for the _hydrogen_\n    of the water than exists between the hydrogen and oxygen in\n    water, seizes upon it, and the _oxygen passes off_, together\n    with the _latent caloric_ of the water, and thus the heat is\n    produced which is observed in slacking lime. The hydrogen of\n    the water combines with the lime and becomes solid, forming\n    an _hydrate of lime_, which is the common slacked lime used in\n    mortar.]\n\nThe matter of fire is _elastic_, as is proved evidently from all its\neffects. There is indeed reason to believe, that caloric is the only\nfluid in nature which is permanently elastic, and that it is the\ncause of the elasticity of all fluids which are esteemed so. From the\nelasticity of this element it results, that all natural bodies can only\nretain a certain quantity of it, without undergoing an alteration in\ntheir state and form. Thus a moderate quantity of fire admitted into a\nsolid body expands it; a still larger quantity renders it fluid; and if\nthe quantity is still increased, it will be converted into vapor.\n\nCaloric expands all bodies which it penetrates, more or less, in\nproportion to its quantity, and to the nature of those bodies. The\nexpansion of water, even previous to its assuming the form of vapor,\nmay be seen in an easy experiment. If a quantity of cold water,\ncontained in a clear flask, is immersed in a vessel of boiling water;\nas the heat enters, the water in the flask will be seen to rise in the\nneck till it overflows.\n\nAn iron rod a foot long being heated red hot, became 1-60 longer\nthan before; and a glass cylinder, a fathom long, under the same\ncircumstances, gained 1-50 in length. A metalline ring thus heated was\nincreased 9-100 in its diameter; and a glass globe became extended\n1-100 part by the heat of the hand only applied to its surface.[33]\n\nThe _general_ effects of caloric are to increase the bulk of the\nsubstances with which it unites, and to render them specifically\nlighter than they were before; but in whatever quantity it is\naccumulated in bodies, it never adds to their absolute weight.\nCaloric favors the solution of salts, and promotes the union of many\nsubstances. In other cases it serves to separate bodies already united;\nso that in the hands of chemists it is the most useful and powerful\nagent with which they are acquainted. It is the cause of fluidity in\nall substances which are capable of becoming fluid, from the heaviest\nmetal to the lightest gas. Let it be remembered that _all_ fluids are\nformed from solids by an addition of caloric; and that, by abstracting\nthis caloric, solids would be reproduced. It insinuates itself among\ntheir particles, and invariably separates them in some measure from\neach other. We have reason to believe that every solid substance on\nthe face of the earth might be converted to a fluid, or even a gas,\nwere it submitted to the action of a very high temperature in peculiar\ncircumstances.[34]\n\n    [The general and aggregate bearing of the facts and\n    experiments which are now known, render the statement here\n    made by Mr. Wood extremely probable, viz; That caloric is a\n    very subtle fluid which pervades in large quantities every\n    particle of matter in the universe--that it is the agent which\n    regulates the _densities_ of all bodies, and by consequence,\n    regulates in some measure their _weight_ and _dimensions_. It\n    is considered as an almost settled question, _that a stratum\n    of caloric surrounds each ultimate particle of every body, so\n    that the ultimate particles of bodies do not, and cannot be\n    made to touch each other_. Their inherent inclination to come\n    into actual contact is called their _attraction of cohesion_:\n    the power of this attraction is in proportion to the distance\n    at which they are kept from each other by the atmosphere of\n    caloric which intervenes between them. This atmosphere of\n    caloric is _idio-repulsive_: of course the particles of caloric\n    have an inherent _repulsion_ among themselves, and are ever\n    struggling to get further asunder.\n\n    This idio-repulsive nature of caloric is the great, and\n    constant antagonist power to the attraction of cohesion.\n    Caloric has a tendency to drive the particles of matter further\n    from each other, and these particles have a mutual tendency\n    to approach. Hence these two principles are ever in conflict.\n    As a general rule we may say, when the attraction of cohesion\n    prevails greatly, the body becomes _solid_: when the two forces\n    are pretty nearly balanced, the body becomes _liquid_: when the\n    caloric prevails greatly, the body becomes _gaseous_.\n\n    There is sufficient reason to believe, that _every_ body\n    in nature might be raised to a _gaseous_ state by the addition\n    or action of a sufficient quantity of caloric: and there is,\n    probably, a sufficient quantity in nature, to render the whole\n    _universe_ gaseous, were it sufficiently excited to a state\n    of freedom. It is a well known fact, that _all the metals are\n    fusible by heat_, and many of them have been _volatalized_, and\n    it is extremely probable all of them may be.\n\n    As caloric regulates the density of bodies, by resisting\n    and modifying the influence of the attraction of cohesion: if\n    it were entirely withdrawn from nature, or the whole of it\n    rendered perfectly latent, _all matter would become perfectly_\n    SOLID and FIXED: even _water_ and _air_ would assume the\n    _solidity of the diamond_.\n\n    We must, therefore, regard caloric as the great\n    conservative principle of the Universe, and yet capable, if\n    called into action, of destroying it instantly.\n\n    These views strongly corroborate _our_ paper on _chaos_.]\n\nFrom the experiments of General Roy, in the 75th volume of the\nPhilosophical Transactions, it appears that the expansion of a steel\npendulum of a clock is such, that every four degrees of the thermometer\nwill cause a variation of a second per day; and that the difference\nbetween the going of a clock in summer and winter will be about six\nseconds per day, or one minute in ten days, owing to the metallic\npendulum varying in length with every change of temperature. A\nknowledge of this circumstance gave rise to Harrison\u2019s self-regulating\ntime-piece, which, by the different expansion of _different_ metals,\naccommodates its movements to every change of seasons or climate.\n\nThe fire deposited below the surface of the earth is peculiarly\nimportant, having produced earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. Dr.\nWatson, late Bishop of Llandaff, in his Chemical Essays, says, The most\nremarkable changes which have taken place in the form and constitution\nof the earth, since the deluge, have probably been produced by\nsubterraneous fires; for it is to their agency that philosophers\nascribe volcanos and earthquakes; those tremendous instruments of\nnature, by which she converts plains into mountains, the ocean into\nislands, and dry land into stagnant pools. Mr. Lemery, as far as I have\nbeen able to learn, adds the learned Bishop, was the first person who\nillustrated, by actual experiment, the origin of subterraneous fires.\nHe mixed twenty-five pounds of powdered sulphur with an equal weight of\niron filings; and having kneaded the mixture together, by means of a\nlittle water, into the consistency of a paste, he put it into an iron\npot, covered it with a cloth, and buried the whole a foot under ground.\nIn about eight or nine hours time the earth swelled, grew warm, and\ncracked: hot sulphureous vapors were perceived: a flame which dilated\nthe cracks was observed; the superincumbent earth was covered with a\nyellow and black powder: in short, a subterraneous fire, producing a\nvolcano in miniature, was spontaneously lighted up from the reciprocal\nactions of sulphur, iron, and water.\n\nVolcanic eruptions are awfully terrific, and sometimes extensively\ndestructive. The violent eruption of Vesuvius, in 1767, is reckoned the\n27th since that which destroyed the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii,\nin the reign of the Emperor Titus; and this eruption of 1767, has been\nsucceeded by several others. Of the eruptions of \u00c6tna, Mr. Oldenburg\nhas given a historical account in the Philosophical Transactions, No.\nxlviii. p. 967. A very great eruption of this mountain was in the year\n1669. The progress of the lava, or fiery deluge, was at the rate of a\nfurlong a day. It advanced into the sea 600 yards, and was then a mile\nin breadth. It had destroyed, in forty days, the habitations of 27,000\npersons; and of 20,000 inhabitants of the city of Catanea, only 3,000\nescaped. This inundation of liquid fire, in its progress, met with a\nlake four miles in compass, and not only filled it up, although it was\nfour fathoms deep, but raised it into a mountain. Borelli, an ingenious\nNeapolitan, has calculated, that the matter discharged at this eruption\nwas sufficient to fill a space of 93,838,750 cubic spaces. The lava\nwhich ran from it is fourteen miles in length, and, in many parts, six\nin breadth. There have been no such eruptions since, although there\nhave been signs of many, more terrible, that preceded it.[35]\n\nThe principal volcanos in Europe are Mount Vesuvius, near Naples, in\nItaly; Mount \u00c6tna, in Sicily; Mount Hecla, in Iceland; and Stromboli,\nthe most northern of the Lipari islands, north of Sicily. Of all the\nvolcanos recorded in history, Stromboli seems to be the only one that\nburns incessantly. \u00c6tna and Vesuvius are sometimes many months, and\neven years, without the least emission of fire; but this is ever at\nwork, and, for ages past, has been considered as the light-house of\nthe Mediterranean Sea. It is very probable, that Mount Vesuvius and\nMount \u00c6tna form but different portions of _one_ chain of mountains that\npasses under the sea, and the isle of Lipari; for whenever one of the\nvolcanos has a great eruption, it is observed that the other, and the\nvolcano in the isle of Lipari, throw out more flames than ordinary.\nThis remark was made by Huet, Bishop of Avranches, in France, a\ncelebrated philosophical, historical, and commercial writer. The force\nof volcanos is supposed to be the greatest of any thing yet known in\nnature. In the great eruption of Vesuvius, in 1779, a stream of lava,\nof an immense magnitude, is said to have been projected to the height\nof at least 10,000 feet above the top of the mountain.\n\n    [The present state of chemical science, and the\n    geological discoveries of the last ten or fifteen years,\n    seem to discountenance the theory, that volcanic action, and\n    earthquakes result from _sulphur_, _iron_, and _water_, as Mr.\n    Lemery\u2019s experiment seems to indicate.\n\n    The vast extent of volcanic action, as indicated by extinct\n    and active volcanos, would require a greater amount of these\n    materials, than can be supposed to exist in the composition of\n    the earth. Thus, according to the Newtonian test of a correct\n    theory, the means, if true, would not be sufficient.\n\n    Again: If sulphur and iron were the principal agents in\n    producing volcanic action, and earthquakes, _volcanic products\n    would give evidence of it_, by being, principally, _sulphate\n    of iron_. So far is this from being the fact, that in 100\n    parts, volcanic product, Dr. Kennedy found, in reference to two\n    volcanos, not exceeding 14.25 oxide of iron, and no sulphur at\n    all.\n\n    Volcanic products are generally, \u201cmixtures of the earth in\n    an oxidated and fused state, under intense ignition; water and\n    saline substances, such as might be furnished by the sea and\n    air, altered as might be expected from the formation of fixed\n    oxidated matter.\u201d URE.\n\n    These two simple considerations must set aside the theory\n    mentioned in the text. Other valid objections might be urged.\n\n    As this theory is inadmissible, because, neither true in\n    application to volcanic action and product, nor sufficient in\n    force, it is proper to supply the deficiency.\n\n    By a careful inspection of the phenomena attending volcanic\n    action, as well as an examination of its products, we are\n    clearly convinced, the _agents are a\u00ebriform_; chiefly _steam_\n    and the _gases_, and they act with an _expansive force from\n    beneath_.\n\n    Mouna Roa, in the island Owhyhee, rises 15,000 feet,\n    and has on its top a crater _eight miles_ in circumference,\n    containing a vast lake of molten lava. Mr. Goodrich visited it\n    in 1824. He says, \u201cexhalations escape from all the fissures of\n    the lava crust, producing here and there a blast _like strong\n    vapor blowing out of a steam boiler_.\u201d\n\n    Subsequently, a party from the Blonde frigate visited it,\n    and the Rev. Charles Stewart, who accompanied the party, has\n    given a description of the crater. He says, \u201cits surface had\n    all the agitation of the ocean. Billow after billow tossed\n    its monstrous bosom into the air, and occasionally the waves\n    from apposite directions met with such violence, as to dash\n    the fiery spray, in the concussion, forty or fifty feet high.\u201d\n    _Ure\u2019s New Syst. Geol._ pp. 381-2.\n\n    In both these accounts we clearly see a\u00ebriform agents\n    acting from beneath. The _hissing_ noise of steam escaping from\n    a boiler, convinces of the _nature_ of the body escaping. The\n    _upheaving_ of the melted lava proves, not only, that the agent\n    acts from _beneath_ by expansion, but also, by its resemblance\n    to the common phenomenon observed in boiling liquids, that\n    the agent is formed below, and rises through the melted lava,\n    heaving it up in swells and waves, until it escapes in a\n    gaseous state, like vapor from boiling liquids.\n\n    We must come to the same conclusion from the experiments,\n    observations, and reports of the celebrated, and intrepid\n    Spallanzani, who visited and examined the crater of the\n    ever-burning Stromboli. His words are nearly these: Fluid lava,\n    resembling melted brass red-hot, and liquid filled the crater\n    to a certain height, and this matter appeared to be influenced\n    by two distinct impelling powers; the one whirling and\n    agitated; and the other upwards, terminating in an explosion\n    like a short clap of thunder. Immediately before the explosion\n    occurred, the lava appeared _inflated_, and _large bubbles_,\n    some several feet in diameter, rose and burst, the detonation\n    followed and the lava sunk. During the rising, _a sound\n    issued from the crater like that produced by a liquid boiling\n    violently in a caldron_. In this case we have every evidence of\n    an _a\u00ebriform agent acting from beneath_.\n\n    An a\u00ebriform agent is detected also by examining the\n    _structure_ of volcanic products, which have been ejected in\n    a melted state. They are found to be _vesicular_, _cellular_,\n    and _porous_. This structure proves, incontestibly, that these\n    cavities and cells were filled with an a\u00ebriform body, which\n    escaped upon cooling.\n\n    This position might be sustained by other proofs, but it\n    is unnecessary. It remains only to ask, _whether these elastic\n    agents are sufficient to produce the astonishing amount and\n    products of volcanic action and earthquakes_?\n\n    The force which elastic agents are known to possess, when\n    generated suddenly, and raised to a high temperature, answers\n    this question promptly in the _affirmative_. A very few grains\n    of gunpowder, when converted into gas by sudden ignition in\n    a gun-barrel, by their expansive force drive a bullet with\n    astonishing power and velocity. A few cubic feet of water\n    converted into steam, will burst the strongest metallic barrier\n    which man can construct, unless it find vent.\n\n    As we have seen sufficiently clearly that a\u00ebriform bodies,\n    as steam and gases, are the elastic agents in producing\n    earthquakes and volcanos, it remains to inquire into the\n    _production_ and _action_ of those agents.\n\n    As it regards their production, the present state of\n    geological and chemical science suggests _three_ theories,\n    each of which would be adequate to the object.\n\n    It is necessary to premise that _water_ is a common agent\n    in each of the three theories.\n\n    1. The splendid discoveries of Sir H. Davy, in regard to\n    the _bases_ of the earths, demonstrating them to be _metallic_,\n    and the earths merely _oxides_ of those metals, have led to the\n    conjecture, _that these metals exist in nearly a pure state in\n    the interior of the earth_; of course the _crust_ of the earth\n    is composed of the various metallic oxides.\n\n    It is well known that many of these metals _take fire on\n    coming into contact with water, as potassium, sodium, &c_; and\n    _all of them oxidize rapidly on meeting with water and air_,\n    and thus _large quantities of hydrogen gas would be evolved_.\n\n    This theory is so reasonable, in view of the\n    _combustibility_ of metals, and so conformable to science, that\n    we almost decide it is true, without further examination.\n\n    But, in order that its demonstration should be clear, it\n    must first be shown, _that the metals do exist in nearly a pure\n    state in the interior of the earth_: and then, _that they are\n    accessible by water, or air, or both_.\n\n    The first point can only be rendered _probable by analogy_.\n    We _know_ that the earths which are found in the crust of our\n    planet are _metallic oxides_. It is very natural to suppose\n    these metals existed in a pure _metallic state at the creation,\n    as well at the surface as at the centre_; as all other bodies\n    most probably existed in an elementary and uncombined state\n    when God first produced them. From this supposition it is\n    easy to see, that when water and air came into action, which\n    would be at the earth\u2019s surface, these metals would be rapidly\n    oxidized, thus forming the earths. But as this process would\n    commence at the _surface_ of the earth, and _tend towards the\n    centre_, it is evident its _progress would be arrested by its\n    own action_.\n\n    For the _accumulation of the earths_, by the oxidation of\n    the metals, would gradually form the _superincumbent crust_,\n    which would act as a _barrier_ to the water and air, preventing\n    their contact with the metals in the interior, _which_, of\n    course, _would not be oxidized_.\n\n    In this state they would remain buried deep under the\n    superincumbent oxidated crust of the earth, until water and\n    air should find access to them. When this should take place\n    a rapid, and extensive _chemical action_ would commence,\n    generating immense quantities of hydrogen gas, the metals\n    _decomposing_ the air and water, in the process of oxidation,\n    and setting the _hydrogen_ of the water, and _nitrogen_ of the\n    air _free_. Thus a large amount of the most inflammable of all\n    gases would be disengaged. The rapid chemical action would\n    _raise the temperature_ of these gases, and thus _increase\n    their bulk_ immensely, which would produce an irresistible\n    _expansive force_, which would _increase the pressure_ against\n    the sides of the cavern in which the gases were generated,\n    _and the_ IGNITION _of the hydrogen would be a necessary\n    consequence_. Such an immense volume of gas being ignited, and\n    confined, would produce such a degree of heat, as rapidly to\n    _decompose_ or _melt_ the substances in its neighborhood, and\n    set at liberty a vast quantity of other gases; all of which\n    being _ignited_, and of course _expanded_ immeasurably, would\n    not only shake a given section of the earth, but, if placed\n    in its centre, would shake the solid globe throughout, and\n    rend it into ten thousand pieces, if it did not find means to\n    escape. If it found means of escape by some opening forced from\n    its seat to the surface of the earth, _that opening would_\n    CONSTITUTE A VOLCANO; from which the gases would escape, and\n    throw out before them the vast amount of volcanic products\n    which are known to come forth of the craters.\n\n    It now remains to inquire, _whether a sufficient quantity\n    of water can be supposed to have access to these metals_?\n\n    From what we know of the distribution of water generally\n    in the bowels of the earth, we should have no difficulty in\n    admitting the _affirmative_. But this question may be clearly\n    answered by two circumstances.\n\n    First: Large quantities of boiling water and mud, are\n    frequently ejected from volcanos. This proves an _excess_\n    of water at, or near the seat of action, which could not be\n    decomposed, before the amount of gases generated, and acting\n    with incredible force, drove it out of the crater. This fact is\n    true in some measure of all volcanos, but eminently so of those\n    in South America. \u201cBouguer and Condamine saw these formidable\n    torrents tear up the surface of a whole country. Six hours\n    after an explosion of Cotopaxi, a village nearly eighty miles\n    distant in a straight line, and probably one hundred and forty\n    by the winding channel, was entirely swept away by the flood.\u201d\n    _Ure\u2019s New Sys. Geol._ p. 386.\n\n    Secondly: The position of volcanos, _always near the\n    sea_, together with the _agitations of the sea_, previous to,\n    and during an eruption, as well as the _saline_ matter in\n    the ejected substances, render it very clear, _that the sea,\n    by subterranean communication, supplies water at the seat\n    of volcanic action_. \u201cThe sea seems to sympathise with the\n    agitations of the adjoining volcanos, rising and falling with\n    rapid alternation--_caused by the sudden deflux of a great body\n    of water into the vast volcanic caverns_.\u201d _Ure\u2019s New Sys.\n    Geol._ p. 388.\n\n    This fact is so well known in the history of volcanos,\n    that it needs no further proof. It has, however, led to the\n    remark, that volcanos are generally situated in islands, or\n    near the sea coast. Indeed many of them are _submarine_, and\n    have actually been seen in operation, throwing up vast columns\n    of water to an immense height, until the edge of the crater\n    appeared above the surface of the sea, and increased into\n    islands, which have become permanent. At such times the water\n    of the sea for a great distance round became _hot_, fishes\n    died; and even the pitch melted from the hulks of the vessels\n    in the neighborhood.\n\n    2. Another theory has been proposed which does not differ\n    from the first, in regard to the _materials_ employed at the\n    seat of volcanic action, nor in the _manner_ of the process;\n    but in regard to the _condition_ of those materials when they\n    _begin_ to operate in the production of the elastic agents.\n    These materials may be in a state of _igneous fusion_ in the\n    interior of the earth. This state is supposed to have resulted\n    thus:\n\n    When God created the substances of the earth, they were\n    in an _elementary_ and _uncombined_ state, promiscuously\n    mixed through each other from the surface to the centre. By\n    his _Spirit brooding over the great deep_, caloric and light,\n    which were in a _latent_ state, were called into action,\n    which gave impulse and motion to every particle of matter,\n    thus quickening the whole mass by producing _intense heat_.\n    This would cause the _aqueous_ and _gaseous_ particles to\n    rise through the mass, and collect at the surface. This would\n    bring them in contact with the metals in a pure state, which\n    would of course _oxidize_, and become _earths_. This action\n    would go on until it arrested its own progress, by forming and\n    consolidating the oxidated crust of the earth inclosing all\n    the interior substances in a state of igneous fusion, which\n    have been gradually cooling ever since. The _primitive_ rocks,\n    which have a crystalline structure, are supposed to have been\n    deposited during this process, as it is evident they could not\n    have crystallized under any other circumstances, and they are\n    well known to be composed of the earths which are only metals\n    in a state of oxidation. It is now only necessary to introduce\n    the water to this mass of melted matter, or any part of it, as\n    in the first theory to the metals in their pure state, _and we\n    have the same results in all respects_.\n\n    This theory has two advantages over the first. It agrees\n    best with the crystalline structure which primitive rocks are\n    known to possess, and which must result from chemical action on\n    the materials in a state of solution. It also seems to accord\n    best with the Mosaic account of the action of heat and light,\n    in assimilating, arranging and settling the materials of the\n    earth.\n\n    Moreover, it is confirmed by experiments made on the\n    _temperature_ of the earth at different depths. The following\n    tables are extracted from Mr. Ure\u2019s New System of Geology, pp.\n    426-7. They accord, in their tendency, with the opinions of\n    other eminent philosophers than those whose names appear in the\n    tables.\n\n    _Observations on the temperature of the earth._\n\n        In the mines of Giro-Magny, three leagues from Befort,\n        M. Gensanne found:\n\n            At 333 feet, 54\u00bd Fahr.\n               680   \u201c   62\n              1016   \u201c   66\u00bd\n              1429   \u201c   73\n\n        In the mines of Freyberg, M. D\u2019Aubuisson found\n\n            External air           41\n            In the galleries       50\n            528 feet, water pool   52\n            858 water of a spring  57\n\n        At Junghohebirke,\n\n            external thermometer   32\n            1040 feet, water was   63\n\n        Observations by Captain Lean in the mines of\n        Cornwall.\n\n            At surface, in June,   59\n               118 feet deep       64\u00bd\n               480  \u201c              68\n               840  \u201c              69\u00bd\n              1144  \u201c              79\n\n        _December._\n\n            At the surface air     50\n               120 feet air        57\n               600  \u201c   air        66\n              ----  \u201c   water      64\n               962  \u201c   air        70\n              ----  \u201c   water      74\n              1200  \u201c   air        78\n              ----  \u201c   water      78\n\n    M. Humboldt obtained analogous results in many mines\n    in South America. The evidence in favor of a _perpetually\n    increasing temperature as you descend into the earth_, and a\n    _higher temperature formerly at the surface of the earth_, is\n    increasing daily. _See the conclusion of this paper._\n\n    3. There is yet a third theory, founded on _voltaic\n    energy_, or _galvanism_ and _electricity_.\n\n    The application of these agents to the production of\n    volcanic action, had occurred to me, before I met with the\n    \u201cOutline of the course of Geological Lectures, given in Yale\n    College,\u201d by Professor Silliman, from which the following\n    extract is made. I had not regarded their application in\n    the same manner as he has explained it. Indeed, my thoughts\n    on the subject had not assumed any definite direction. I\n    shall transcribe from his \u201cOutline,\u201d pp. 118-19, inserted in\n    \u201cBakewell\u2019s Introduction to Geology, first American Edition.\u201d\n\n    \u201cWhatever we may think of the hypothesis now detailed, may\n    we not suppose, with sufficient probability, that those voltaic\n    powers which we _know_ to exist--whose action we can command,\n    and whose effects having been first observed within the memory\n    of the present generation, now fill us with astonishment, are\n    constantly active in producing the phenomena of earthquakes and\n    volcanos?\n\n    \u201cArrangements of metals and fluids are the common means\n    by which we evolve this wonderful power, in our laboratories;\n    and it would seem that nothing more than juxta-position, in\n    a certain order, is necessary to the effect. Even substances\n    apparently dry and inert, with respect to each other, will\n    produce a permanent, and in proportion to the means employed,\n    a powerful effect, as in the columns of De Luc and Zamboui. It\n    would seem indeed that metals and fluids are not _necessary_\n    to the effect. Arrangements of almost any substances that are\n    of different natures, will cause the evolution of this power.\n    Whoever has witnessed the overwhelming brilliancy and intense\n    energy of the great galvanic combinations, especially the\n    deflagrator of Dr. Hare, and considers how very trifling, in\n    extent, are our largest combinations of apparatus, compared\n    with those natural arrangements of earths, salts, metals, and\n    fluids, which we know to exist in the earth, in circumstances\n    similar to those which, in our laboratories, are effectual in\n    causing this power to appear, will not be slow to believe that\n    it may be in the earth perpetually evolved, and perpetually\n    renewed; and now mitigated, suppressed, or revived, according\n    to circumstances influencing the particular state of things at\n    particular places.\n\n    \u201cIn our laboratories we see emanating from this source,\n    intense light, irresistible heat, magnetism in great energy,\n    and above all, a decomposing power, which commands equally\n    all the elements, and the proximate principles in all their\n    combinations.\n\n    \u201cSir Humphrey Davy, after discovering that the supporters\n    of combustion and the acids, were all evolved at the\n    positive pole, and the combustibles and metals, and their\n    oxidated products, at the negative--proved that even the\n    firmest rocks and stones could not resist this power; their\n    immediate principles and elements being separated by its\n    energy. The decomposition of the alkalies, earths, and other\n    metallic oxides being a direct and now familiar effect of\n    voltaic energy--their metals being set at liberty, and being\n    combustible both in air and water--elastic agents produced\n    by this power, and rarified by heat, being also attendant on\n    these decompositions, it would seem that the first principles\n    are fully established by experiment, and that nothing is\n    hypothetical, but the application to the phenomena of\n    earthquakes and volcanos.\u201d\n\n    The reader will perceive that all of the above theories\n    agree in one respect, viz; in the agency of _elastic bodies_,\n    as steam and gases, produced by the decomposition of\n    substances; and that the same substances are supposed to be\n    employed, though not precisely in the same manner, nor in the\n    same condition. Further Geological and Chemical experiments\n    may, hereafter, settle the question between these theories.\n    They are all scientific in their principles, and fully\n    competent to the object, and it is not impossible but that they\n    may all be true in part or in whole, acting separately in some\n    instances, and combined in others.\n\n    Under the agency of either of them the products would be\n    the same. Dr. Kennedy has made experiments on the composition\n    of volcanic products, and found, Silex, 51--Alumina, 19--Lime,\n    9.5--Oxide of iron, 14.5--Soda, 4--Muriatic acid, 1--in 100\n    parts.\n\n    As it regards the extent of volcanic action and\n    earthquakes, the two first theories agree best with actual\n    appearances. They would lead us to conclude that volcanic\n    action was necessarily more extensive in the earlier ages of\n    the world than now. Because, every action would oxidize the\n    crust of the earth deeper, and increase the superincumbent\n    strata, and render the access of water and air more difficult.\n    _This is found to be the fact by observation in different\n    countries._\n\n    In some parts of France, in which kingdom there is not,\n    and has not been for the last two thousand years, any active\n    volcano, _there are ranges of extinct volcanos, in which may\n    be counted from seventy to one hundred craters_. They are so\n    close their bases touch in many instances. The same fact is\n    observed along the Rhine, and in Hungary, and other countries.\n    _See Ure\u2019s New Syst. Geol. and Bakewell\u2019s Geology._\n\n    Mr. Ure reckons up two hundred and five _active_\n    volcanos at this time. One hundred and seven in islands, and\n    ninety-eight on continents.\n\n    It is very evident that the _seat_ of volcanic action is\n    vastly below the surface of the earth. The _extent_ of country\n    which is shaken by the effort of the gases to escape, will\n    prove this. The agitations have been felt over all Europe, and\n    even _across the Atlantic_!\n\n    Again: If the action were not situated far below the\n    surface of the earth, the mountains, which only serve as\n    _chimnies_, and which have been formed by the action of the\n    volcanos, _would sink in_. This has been the case in a few\n    instances. This will appear more clearly if we consider\n    the _amount_ of matter ejected. Did it not come from an\n    immeasurable distance beneath, the accumulated mass at the\n    surface of the earth would break down the _substrata_ which\n    lie over the immense caverns formed by the ejection. The\n    _dimensions_ of those caverns, situated under the volcanic\n    mountains, are far greater than one would suppose at first\n    consideration. _The internal caverns must be as large as the\n    ejected masses, which came out of them._ \u00c6tna is known to have\n    thrown out matter sufficient to form twenty such mountains as\n    it is. It is strongly probable that the whole island of Sicily\n    is of volcanic origin. Humboldt says the dome-shaped craters\n    of volcanos rise from six hundred to eighteen thousand feet in\n    height. He considers the _whole mountainous district of Quito\n    as one immense volcano_.\n\n    Indeed, from a close survey of the geological features of\n    the earth, there is reason to believe, that at very remote\n    periods almost the whole surface of our globe has been the\n    theatre of volcanic action. It is a matter of gratitude\n    that its amount is growing less every year, of course the\n    destructions by earthquakes are more limited. In process\n    of time, it may be hoped, the earth may become permanently\n    tranquil, nor flame, nor shake, until the final catastrophe,\n    which God has ordained to destroy our planet, by a general and\n    simultaneous action of all the fires of the earth.\n\n    P.S. It may be of advantage to recollect, that the\n    _expansive force of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to\n    5_. According to Vauban, 140 pounds of water converted into\n    vapor would produce an explosion capable of blowing up 77,000\n    pounds, while 140 pounds of gunpowder could only blow up a mass\n    of 30,000. _See the text under the head_, \u201cSALUTARY EFFECTS OF\n    WATER.\u201d\n\n\n    APPENDIX.\n\n    _On the temperature of the earth anciently._\n\n    That the temperature of the earth\u2019s surface was much higher\n    in the first ages of its existence, than since the period of\n    authentic history, seems now to be nearly established, in the\n    opinion of the learned, and only requires time to have the\n    weight of evidence produce its proper effect on the great mass\n    of community.\n\n    Though this fact would be apprehended from what is said\n    above, it may be desirable to the reader to see a concise view\n    of the reasons which induce this opinion.\n\n    1. _It may be inferred from the original constitution of\n    the globe, and the chemical action consequent upon it._ It\n    has been seen above that the _natural_ condition of matter\n    is _cold_, _frozen_, _inactive_, and _solid_: and that the\n    elements of this globe were created in a _simple, uncombined\n    state_. If this mass of elements received a quickening impulse,\n    the chemical laws of _affinity_ and _attraction_, and also the\n    natural law of _gravitation_, would commence exerting their\n    influence. This we know would create a rise in the temperature\n    of the whole mass, in proportion to the _amount_ of matter\n    acted on, and the _force_ of the different principles and\n    agents which were in operation. Upon consideration of these\n    points in regard to our earth, no one can doubt but that they\n    would raise the temperature to an inconceivable height.\n\n    _Refrigeration_ would commence at the surface as soon\n    as the first violent action was abated, and the water and\n    air began to assume their relative places, through which the\n    heat would escape into celestial space. This refrigeration\n    would be increased by the oxidation of the metals forming the\n    crust of the earth, which would confine the interior heat\n    more effectually, because, the earths are almost complete\n    _non-conductors_ of caloric. Thus the crust of the earth would\n    continue to cool, and the oxidation would thicken it, and, of\n    course, contribute to the reduction of its temperature.\n\n    From this natural process it is very evident that the earth\n    was much warmer during its first periods; earthquakes, and\n    volcanos much more common than now, and a general instability\n    in the condition of our globe. The deluge was the climax of its\n    alternations, and settled, in some measure, its constitution by\n    a sudden and great reduction of temperature.\n\n    2. _It may be inferred from the vast extent of volcanic\n    action, as indicated by the remains of extinct volcanos, and\n    their effects on the earth._ This argument is merely _called up\n    here_, not to be discussed at length, but to be _referred_ to,\n    as it has been mentioned in a preceding part of this paper.\n\n    It is almost impossible for the ordinary reader, who has\n    not closely studied the geological phenomena which present\n    themselves to the close observer, to conceive of the extent\n    to which volcanic action operated anciently. It would not be\n    exaggeration to say, there was a remote period _when our globe\n    was a single volcano_: the whole surface of it being subject to\n    its action.\n\n    Though we may ascribe something of the formation of hills\n    and vallies to the action of water, yet, doubtless, the\n    most effectual agent in upheaving the mountains, and even\n    continents, possibly, was volcanic force.\n\n    \u201cThose ranges of volcanos,\u201d says the celebrated Humboldt,\n    \u201cthose eruptions through vast chasms, those subterranean\n    thunders, that roll under the transition rocks of porphyry and\n    slate in the new world, remind us of the present activity of\n    subterranean fire, of the power, which in remote ages, _has\n    raised up chains of mountains, broke the surface of the globe,\n    and poured torrents of liquid earth in the midst of the most\n    ancient strata_.\u201d\n\n    From this constant and extensive volcanic action we may\n    safely infer the high temperature of our earth anciently.\n\n    3. _It may be inferred from the origin of primitive,\n    trapean, and basaltic rocks._ The primitive rocks, as granite,\n    gneiss, mica slate, &c, give evidence on this consideration;\n    they must have been deposited when their substance was in\n    solution, admitting of _chemical mobility_, in order that they\n    might assume a crystalline form which they are known to have.\n\n    It is not easy to conceive _how_ the substances of the\n    primitive rocks could be solved, except by _heat_, as a\n    _principal solvent_. The acids, and water also, may have\n    contributed to their solution, but would not be competent of\n    themselves. This consideration would give a high temperature\n    for the earth anciently.\n\n    It is now generally admitted that the trap, and basaltic\n    rocks are of _igneous_ origin. When we consider the _magnitude_\n    of the trap and basalt formations, the extent of surface which\n    they cover, the hills, and even elevated and lofty mountains\n    which they form, we shall not hesitate to assign a higher\n    temperature to our earth at the period when fires, so immense\n    as to effect the upheaving and ejection of all these, actually\n    burned in the bowels of the earth.\n\n    4. _It may be inferred from the well preserved remains of\n    vegetables and animals of warm equatorial climates, in high\n    northern latitudes where they have not been found since the\n    memory of man._ This is a conclusive argument if its _data_\n    be well established. Because, if _tropical_ and _equatorial_\n    animals and fruits are _now_ found buried and fossilized\n    in Siberia, and the islands of the _arctic sea_, in such a\n    state of preservation as to forbid the supposition they were\n    transported thither, it will follow inevitably, that they _grew\n    there_, and there flourished, died, and were buried.\n\n    Moreover, if _herbivorous_ animals are found fossilized\n    in those high northern latitudes, under such circumstances as\n    forbid the supposition, that they were transported thither, it\n    will doubtless, follow, that not only _they_ lived there, but\n    also _luxuriant vegetation_ must at the same time have covered\n    the plains where their remains are entombed.\n\n    The inference which we are forced to draw from these\n    _data_, is this: _As no such tropical and equatorial animals or\n    plants have been known to exist there, nor even herbage of any\n    kind, on which such animals might subsist, since the memory of\n    man, there was a time anciently when the climate suited their\n    growth, and of course was very much warmer than it is known to\n    be now, its temperature then corresponding to the temperature\n    of the present equatorial regions, as it produced and subsisted\n    anciently the animals and plants which the tropical regions\n    produce and subsist at the present time, and which cannot\n    subsist in any other climates._\n\n    In proof of the above position, it is well known that\n    animals and plants have their peculiar climates, in which they\n    are _indigenous_, and out of which they cannot thrive, or even\n    live, if too far removed. It is also well known, that the\n    warmer, and more moist the climate is, the more luxuriant the\n    vegetation, and the more huge the animals.\n\n    Hence we are in the habit of denominating animals and\n    plants by the climates in which they are indigenous, as\n    _arctic_, or northern; _tropical_, or southern. Let us now see\n    if the tropical animals and plants once lived and flourished in\n    high northern latitudes. The best authorities follow.\n\n    \u201cWe proceed now to examine the remains of quadrupeds:\n    _these are found accumulated in regions where similar animals\n    do not_ NOW _exist_. Some are buried deep in gypsum.--Some\n    present themselves to view, accumulated in vast caverns, and\n    destitute of any envelope. The islands of Lachof, situated\n    to the NORTH _of Siberia_, are, according to a modern\n    traveller, _only heaps of sand, ice, and bones of elephants and\n    rhinoceros_, mixed with those of great cetaceous animals, and\n    even, agreeably to the latest accounts, with the remains of\n    gigantic birds.\n\n    \u201cThere have been found in _Siberia, whole carcases of the\n    elephant, covered with their_ FLESH and SKIN, preserved by the\n    frosts which prevail in those regions.--Germany has furnished\n    the greatest number (of bones:)--In France a great many bones\n    of the elephant have been met with.\n\n    \u201cThese discoveries, though as yet scarcely commenced, have\n    thrown already _a new light upon the revolutions which our\n    globe must have undergone, and upon the_ STATES WHICH MUST HAVE\n    PRECEDED THE PRESENT COURSE AND CONSTITUTION OF NATURE.\n\n    \u201cThese bones, presenting no trace of having been rolled\n    up and down, occurring only fractured as we find those of\n    our domestic animals, and sometimes joined together in the\n    form of skeletons, often even as it were heaped up in common\n    cemeteries, clearly demonstrate, _that the catastrophe which\n    has destroyed the living beings to which they belonged must\n    have overtaken them in the_ SAME CLIMATES WHERE WE MEET WITH\n    THESE RECORDS OF THEIR FORMER EXISTENCE.\n\n    \u201cThe quantity of nourishment which such huge animated\n    masses required, and their numbers, proved by the existence of\n    the carnivorous kinds, _render it probable that the countries\n    where we find their remains_ ONCE _enjoyed a temperature, if\n    not warmer, at least more favorable to vegetation_.\u201d MALTE\n    BRUN, _Physical Geography, Book 12_.\n\n    In the above quotations, the data on which our argument\n    rests are so clearly sustained there needs no comment. The\n    authority given is unquestionable, and could be corroborated by\n    scores of weighty names, and in reference to all the _northern_\n    countries of Asia, Europe, and America.\n\n    It is impossible to read the above extracts without being\n    convinced that those tropical and equatorial animals lived,\n    flourished, and died _where_ their remains are _now_ found. And\n    it is equally impossible to avoid another conclusion; viz: that\n    there must have been a heavy vegetation on those plains, where\n    _now_ the rein-deer can scarcely pick up a blade of grass.\n\n    From these convictions no other inference can be drawn, but\n    that the temperature of the _frigid zones_, was anciently much\n    higher than at present; and of course the general temperature\n    of the earth also.\n\n    From the perfect preservation of these fossil remains; from\n    the fact that they are found in their relative position, bone\n    to bone, and, in some instances, with their _hair_, _skin_,\n    and _flesh undecayed_, it is obvious, _the animals must have\n    perished by a catastrophe which overwhelmed them suddenly, and\n    was, instantaneously followed by a freezing of the overwhelming\n    waters_. Such was the catastrophe of the _scripture deluge_,\n    which _physically_ was competent to perform the phenomena, as\n    shall be shown presently.\n\n    Let us now see if we do not arrive at the same conclusion\n    by examining the _fossil_ VEGETABLES.\n\n    At Portland, England, the Rev. Dr. Buckland finds fossil\n    plants _akin to the cycas family of Malabar_, from which he\n    concludes, \u201cit is probable that the climate of these regions,\n    _at the time when the oolites_ (a series of rocky strata) _were\n    deposited, was of the same warm temperature with that_ (the\n    tropical) _which produces a large proportion of the existing\n    cycade\u00e6_.\u201d URE, _New Syst. Geol._ p. 433.\n\n    \u201cThe remarkable development of these vegetables\n    (equisetums) during the first (or coal measure) period of\n    vegetation, and their size in the second (or oolitic) period,\n    _smaller_ than before, but still far greater than our existing\n    equisetums, accord with many other facts, furnished by fossil\n    vegetables of many other families, to lead us to regard the\n    _climate of the earth, at these remote epochs, to have been\n    hotter than the hottest of modern climates_.\u201d _Ibid_, p. 443.\n\n    \u201cThere is no doubt, however, that _palms with fan-shaped\n    leaves covered Europe with their lofty vegetation at this\n    remote period, in regions where no species of these plants\n    could_ NOW _grow_!\u201d _Ibid_, p. 452.\n\n    The palm is well known to be a _tropical_ plant, and cannot\n    thrive, except in a warm climate. The climate of Europe, when\n    it grew in the north, must have been tropical. Indeed, in\n    all parts of northern Europe _tropical flowers_, _leaves_,\n    and _fruits_ are found in such a state of preservation as to\n    convince the most incredulous, _that they must have grown\n    on the spot_; which would be to convince him of the high\n    temperature, anciently, of those regions.\n\n    \u201cProfessor Kounizin describes in the Isis for 1821, immense\n    beds of fossil wood in several localities of the governments\n    of Novogorod and Twer in the _north_ of Russia, _where no such\n    trees are now found to grow_.\n\n    \u201cNear Constand on the river Necker, M. Autenrieth found an\n    entire forest of the trunks of _palm trees_, buried along with\n    the remains of elephants.\u201d _Ure, Ibid_, p. 455.\n\n    \u201cThe fossil shells found in the strata of England, and\n    France, and the contiguous countries, having for the most part,\n    no _antitypes alive except in equatorial regions_, harmonize\n    with the preceding details.\u201d _Ibid_, p. 456.\n\n    To the above testimony might be added the _caves_ in\n    Germany, England, and France, in which great quantities of\n    bones are found in such a state of preservation, and under such\n    circumstances as to show that the animals whose bones are found\n    were in the habit of frequenting these caves, and perished\n    in them suddenly, as their remains are found mixed with sand\n    and gravel, _but not water-worn_. Of these bones, the great\n    majority are those of the hy\u00e6na; hence these dens, specially in\n    England, are called _hy\u00e6na dens_. In them are also found the\n    bones of other animals _gnawed_ by the hy\u00e6nas.\n\n    From these facts there can be no doubt but the hy\u00e6na\n    inhabited England, France, and Germany, and dwelt in these\n    caves, and here perished when the sudden catastrophe of the\n    flood overtook him. This argues beyond doubt that these\n    countries were once _warm_, _when these tropical animals lived\n    in them_.\n\n    5. _The same fact may be inferred from the immense amount\n    of vegetable matter which was necessary to supply the materials\n    for the coal measures._ This is an irresistible argument in\n    view of the _immense amount_ of coal in the bowels of the\n    earth, which must be of _vegetable origin_. Because at the\n    ratio of vegetable product of _our age_, the earth would not\n    produce a sufficient amount to form the coalbeds, short of\n    millions of years.\n\n    The _vegetative power_ of the earth, therefore, must have\n    been anciently very much greater than at present, which could\n    only be on the supposition of a _warmer_ and more moist climate.\n\n    Moreover, the fact that tropical plants are known to have\n    contributed almost entirely to the formation of coal measures\n    in the _northern latitudes_, is proof direct. This is clear\n    from the fact that their roots, stems, leaves, flowers, and\n    fruits are found impressed on the coal, in such a manner that\n    there can be no mistake; and the _perfection_ of the impression\n    forbids the supposition that they were _transported_ thither\n    from tropical climates.\n\n    \u201cBrown coal and black coal, the former sometimes called\n    wood coal, is found chiefly in diluvial or alluvial ground.\n    It contains, besides charcoal and bitumen, _various vegetable\n    principles, and the branches or trunks of trees_ partially\n    decomposed, _which mark the origin of this kind of coal_.\u201d\n    _Bakewell\u2019s Geology_, p. 111.\n\n    \u201cWood coal, or brown coal, is found in low situations\n    and appears to have been _formed of heaps of trees_ buried\n    by inundations under beds of clay, sand, or gravel.--In some\n    specimens of this coal the _vegetable fibre, or grain_, is\n    perceptible in one part, and the other part is reduced to\n    coal.\u201d _Ibid_, p. 121.\n\n    \u201cIn wood coal we may almost seize nature in the fact of\n    making coal, before the process is completed. These formations\n    of coal are of far more recent date than that of common coal,\n    though their origin must be referred to a former condition\n    of our globe, _when the vegetable productions of tropical\n    climates flourished in northern latitudes_. The _vegetable\n    origin_ of common mineral coal appears to be established by its\n    association with strata _abounding in vegetable impressions_,\n    by its close similarity to wood coal, (which is undoubtedly a\n    _vegetable product_) and lastly by the decisive fact, that some\n    mineral coal in the Dudley coal-field is _entirely composed of\n    the layers of mineralized plants_.\u201d _Ibid_, p. 122.\n\n    \u201cWhen we see the multitude of reeds filled and surrounded\n    with sandstone, having their thin scaly bark _converted into\n    a true coal_, it is _impossible to doubt of its vegetable\n    origin_.\u201d _Ure\u2019s New System Geol._ p. 166.\n\n    Quotations from the best authorities might be multiplied\n    to the same effect, but it is deemed unnecessary. It remains\n    to repeat the question, _Could such an amount of vegetable\n    matter have been accumulated, short of millions of years, at\n    the ratio of the present vegetative powers of the earth?_ It is\n    impossible. The only remaining conclusion is, the vegetative\n    power of the earth anciently was much greater than at present,\n    which could not have been except its temperature was much\n    higher also.\n\n    In conclusion on this question, it is necessary to say,\n    that the reduction of the earth\u2019s temperature would be gradual,\n    in a natural way, by the heat flying off into celestial spaces,\n    until the crust became so thick and compact as to prove a\n    perfect non-conductor of caloric. Then the surface of the earth\n    would depend on the heating power of the sun altogether.\n    The thickening of the crust of the earth would be attended\n    with earthquakes, volcanos, and partial deluges, the natural\n    and necessary results of the oxidations of the metals. Hence\n    we would have different strata of rocks, sand, gravel, &c,\n    deposited at different times, and over different sections of\n    the country. Hence also forests would be overthrown, and the\n    vegetation of years be thrown together in the nearest lakes\n    or seas; which explains the origin of _coal-basins_. This\n    state of things also well explains the alternations of strata\n    of different kinds, as sand, gravel, chalk, fresh and salt\n    water deposites, &c, as well as the dislocations, fractures,\n    contortions, and confusions observable in the structure of the\n    earth\u2019s crust.\n\n    There are however various phenomena which indicate\n    clearly that there was _a general and sudden reduction of\n    temperature_. The state of preservation, in which those animals\n    in Siberia are found, proves this. The vestigia of the _last_\n    great revolution in our globe clearly indicate the DELUGE\n    to have been the cause of this general and sudden reduction\n    of temperature. This would be the natural consequence of\n    _submerging_ the earth in water: and the suddenness of the\n    event is well attested both by the scriptures, and the physical\n    history of our earth.\n\n    The action of the deluge does not come within the\n    contemplation of this volume, and therefore will not be noticed\n    here.]\n\nThe air is another storehouse of fire. When lucid igneous particles\nare strongly attracted to one another in great quantities, their heat\nbecomes intolerable, and is capable of destroying the most solid\nbodies. It is well known, that when converged in the focus of one of\nHartsocker\u2019s burning-glasses, they will produce wonderful effects: tin,\nlead, or any soft metal, will dissolve at the first touch; and iron,\nwhich requires a very strong fire for liquefaction, will melt before\none of these glasses almost as soon as applied. They will consume\nwood, though wet, in a moment; vitrify bricks and pumice stones, and\ndissolve earthen vessels full of water; and plume-allum, which will\nresist the fire of the hottest glass-houses, without alteration, is\ninstantly melted. Even gold, that resists the force of common fire, is\nsoon liquefied by their powerful agency. This plainly shows us that,\nprovided there were not a wise and almighty Providence, superintending\nall his works, those materials which are of the greatest utility to the\nharmony and order of things, would have a direct tendency to destroy\nthe whole. If lucid igneous particles were to form solid bodies, and\ndepart from their state of fluidity, they would, in an instant, reduce\nthis globe to ashes, or render it liquid fire. Were they all of one\nkind, it is probable they might unite in solid bodies; but the wisdom\nof Providence has formed them of various colors, and of different\nreflections and refrangibility. This prevents them from associating in\nsuch a manner as to do harm, which can only be produced by converging\nthem with some instrument which prevents their flying off. As all\nthese have not the same degree of reflexibility and refrangibility, but\nas some are capable of greater reflections and refractions than others,\nthey cannot, without force, be united in one solid body, yet they are\nall serviceable for important purposes, contributing to the happiness\nof man, and the welfare of all living creatures.\n\nConsidering the extent of fire, and that its property is, when put into\nmotion, to consume all combustible substances within its reach, it is\nastonishing that the world has not long since been destroyed! This\nterrible element is at present restrained and directed by its almighty\nCreator; but divine revelation informs us, that a period will arrive\nwhen its utmost energies shall be called into action. The apostle Peter\nasserts, that \u201cthe heavens and earth, which are now, by the same word\nare kept in store, reserved unto fire against the day of judgment and\nperdition of ungodly men;--in the which the heavens shall pass away\nwith a great noise, and the elements shall melt with fervent heat; the\nearth also, and the works that are therein shall be burnt up.\u201d Again\nhe says, \u201clooking for and hasting unto the coming of the day of God,\nwherein the heavens being on fire shall be dissolved, and the elements\nshall melt with fervent heat.\u201d The _passing away of the heavens_\nmeans the same as their being _dissolved by fire_. The word \u1fec\u03bf\u03b9\u03b6\u03b7\u03b4\u1f78\u03bd\nsignifies with a _very loud_ and _terrible noise_: with a sound\nresembling that of a great _storm_. In this place it more particularly\ndenotes the horrid crackling noise of a wide-spreading fire.\n\n    \u201cThe cloud-capp\u2019d towers, the gorgeous palaces,\n    The solemn temples, the great globe itself\n    Yea, all which it inherit, shall _dissolve_;\n    And, like the baseless fabric of a vision,\n    Leave not a wreck behind.\u201d\n\nThe word rendered _melt_, is a metaphor taken from _metals_,\ndissolving in the fire, or _wax_ before the flame; so will the fierce\nand spreading fire of the last day _melt down_ this globe, and its\nsurrounding atmosphere.[36] That the world was to be dissolved by fire\nwas the opinion of Anaximander, Anaxiphanes, Anaxagoras, Archelaus,\nDiogenes, and Leucippus.[37] The inference which the apostle deduces\nfrom this view of the general and final conflagration of the world,\nis highly impressive. \u201cSeeing then that all these things shall\nbe dissolved, what manner of persons ought ye to be in all holy\nconversation and godliness.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ III.--LIGHT.\n\n    Motion of luminous and fiery particles the first cause\n    of light -- Light the most simple body --Velocity of light\n    -- Light diffusive -- Light the medium through which objects\n    become visible -- Light beautiful, or its rays of different\n    colors -- Light a visible resemblance of its Divine Author,\n    in his spirituality, simplicity, purity, energy, goodness,\n    manifestation, glory.\n\n\nMoses, in the original word \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 _aur_, seems plainly to hint at the\noperation of a principle in the universe which, as a second cause,\nproduced the phenomenon of _light_. This, most probably, was the motion\nof the luminous and fiery particles in the chaotic mass which, at the\nDivine command, separated themselves from the other gross materials of\nthe miscellaneous composition, and by an attractive sympathy associated\nin one body.\n\nIt is conjectured, that light was at first impressed on some part of\nthe heavens, or collected in some lucid body. Dr. Wall says, Though the\nsun was not yet formed into a compact body, yet the most subtile and\nactive particles had already begun to fly together to the centre of the\nsolar system, which gave some light; though probably not so great as\nwhen afterward they made the compact body of the sun. And the earth,\nwhich was then only a round lump of mud, or muddy salt-water, being\nturned, as it has been ever since, upon its own axis, receiving that\nlight on its several hemispheres successively, made night and day, or\nevening and morning. Milton gives his opinion in the following lines:\n\n    \u201cLet there be light! said GOD; and forthwith light\n    Ethereal, first of things, quintessence pure,\n    Sprung from the deep; and from her native east\n    To journey through the aery gloom began,\n    Spher\u2019d in a radiant cloud; (for yet the sun\n    Was not;) she in a cloudy tabernacle\n    Sojourn\u2019d the while.\u201d\n\nLight, after a short progression, concentrated in the sun, the common\ncentre of our system; the various parts of this system, by his central\nlight or fire, are balanced, and, by mutual attraction, move in the\nexpanse, according to fixed laws, or determined distances.[38]\n\nLight was once considered to be a property or quality of matter only;\nbut more recently it has been discovered to be a _body_, a very subtile\nfluid, consisting of minute particles. We have no certain knowledge of\nits nature; though a collection of its rays make other things visible,\nyet its constituent parts themselves are most exquisitely small, and\nquite imperceptible; and therefore it approaches the nearest to the\nnature of spirit.[39]\n\nOf all material bodies, light is the most _simple_. Most others are\ncompounded of several parts, not only of different, but sometimes of\ncontrary natures: but light is an unmixed body. It is also a most\npure matter; It has no defilement in itself, neither is it capable\nof contracting pollution from other objects. When it shines upon a\ndunghill or sepulchre, which sends forth the most offensive effluvia,\nit still remains uncontaminated.\n\n    [The author is undoubtedly mistaken when he considers light\n    \u201cof all material bodies--the most simple,\u201d and \u201can unmixed\n    body.\u201d\n\n    It is well known that a beam, or pencil, of light, as\n    emitted from the sun, is _not_ a simple body, but is capable of\n    being divided into seven prismatic colors. The image which is\n    formed by the refraction of the pencil, by means of a prism, is\n    called a _Spectrum_, and clearly exhibits the compound nature\n    of light. The refracted rays of the Spectrum may be collected\n    and made to constitute a pencil of light again, which will be\n    white, or colorless as before.\n\n    If this prismatic Spectrum be examined closely, it will\n    be found that the different colored rays differ very much\n    in their _heating_, _illuminating_, and _chemical_ powers.\n    Dr. Herschell, and other experimenters, have found that the\n    _orange_ rays possess a greater illuminating power than the\n    red; and the _yellow_ more than the orange: but the _maximums_\n    of illumination lies in the _brightest yellow_ or _palest\n    green_.\n\n    There is also a very sensible difference in the _heating_\n    power of these colored rays. By passing the bulb of a\n    delicate air thermometer through the different colored rays,\n    it indicates the greatest heat in the _red_ rays; next in\n    the _green_, and so on diminishing to the _violet_. But\n    the maximum of heat has been ascertained to be immediately\n    _beyond_ the red rays, and of course _out_ of the Spectrum,\n    in an _unilluminated_ spot: thus indicating that there are\n    _invisible_ rays possessing a greater heating power than any of\n    the seven colored rays. These are called _calorific rays_.\n\n    By the experiments of Ritter and Wallaston it is now\n    satisfactorily ascertained that there are also _chemical rays\n    which excite neither heat nor light_, and lie on the _other\n    side_ of the Spectrum from the invisible calorific rays, just\n    without the violet. It is true, the chemical effect can be\n    distinguished even to the green rays, but this seems to be by\n    _diffusion_, or a species of sympathy. The sensible chemical\n    power is exerted just without the violet rays.\n\n    This fact is established more clearly by Berard. He\n    concentrated, by a lens, all the portion of the Spectrum from\n    the green to the red rays, and made them act on muriate of\n    silver _two hours_ without effect. He then concentrated all\n    the portion of the Spectrum from the green to the violet rays,\n    and made them act on muriate of silver, and _they blackened it\n    in less than six minutes_. Thus, evidently, are detected very\n    different properties in the different portions of the prismatic\n    Spectrum.\n\n    Instead, therefore, of light being a \u201csimple substance,\u201d\n    and \u201cunmixed\u201d it is found to be decidedly _compound_. It is\n    capable of being divided into seven differently colored rays,\n    and these rays, according to their natural properties, into\n    three classes: the _illuminating_ rays, _calorific_ rays, and\n    _chemical_ rays.]\n\nThe rays of light always proceed in _straight lines_, unless diverted\nby some intervening body. They are subject to the laws of attraction\nlike other small bodies. If a stream of light be admitted through a\nsmall hole into a dark room, and the edge of a knife be applied, it\nwill be diverted from its natural course, and _inflected_ towards it.\nWhen the rays of light are thrown back by any opposing body, they are\nsaid to be _reflected_. When in passing from one medium to another,\nthey are inflected or diverted from their rectilineal course, they\nare said to be _refracted_; and this property of light is called its\n_refrangibility_. Refraction arises from this, that the rays are more\nattracted by a dense, than by a rare medium.\n\nThe _velocity_ of light is prodigious, and almost incredible; it moves\nat the rate of near 200,000 miles in _a second_ of time! Roemer, a\nDanish philosopher, was the first who found the means of determining\nthe velocity of light, by the difference of time in the eclipses\nof Jupiter\u2019s satellites, when the earth was on the same, or on the\ncontrary side of the sun, with that planet. This point may be easily\nproved; for when the earth is between the sun and this planet, those\neclipses will happen about 8\u00bc minutes sooner, than according to the\ntables; but when the earth is in the contrary position, the eclipses\nhappen about 8\u00bc minutes later than they are predicted by the tables.\nHence, therefore, light takes up about 8\u00bc minutes in passing from the\nsun to the earth, a distance of 95,513,794 miles; and it takes about\n16\u00bd minutes of time to go through a space equal to the diameter of the\nearth\u2019s orbit, which is at least 190 millions of miles in length; which\nis near a million of miles swifter than the motion of a cannon-ball,\nwhich flies with the velocity of about a mile in eight seconds.[40]\nIn comparing this velocity of light with that of a cannon-ball, it\nhas been observed, that light passes through a space in about eight\nminutes, which a cannon-ball with its ordinary velocity, could not\ntraverse in less than thirty-two years! The velocity of sound bears a\nvery small proportion to that of light. Light travels, in the space of\neight minutes, a distance in which sound could not be communicated in\nseventeen years; and even our senses may convince us, if we attend to\nthe explosion of gunpowder, &c, of the almost infinite velocity of the\none compared with that of the other.[41] Were the propagation of the\nrays of light less rapid, the darkness would be very slowly dissipated,\nand great inconveniences would result to the inhabitants of the earth.\n\nThe _divisibility_ of the parts of matter is no where more apparent\nthan in the minuteness of the particles of light. The unobstructed rays\nof light which proceed from a candle, will, almost instantaneously,\nfill a space of two miles; and it has been computed, says Dr. O.\nGregory, that there fly out of the end of the flame of a burning\ncandle, in a second of time, ten thousand millions of times more such\nparticles than there are visible grains of sand in the whole earth.\nDr. Nieuwentyt has computed, that an inch of candle, when converted to\nlight, becomes divided into 269,617,040 parts, with 40 ciphers annexed;\nat which rate there must issue out of it, when burning, 418,660, with\n39 ciphers more, particles in the second of a minute; vastly more than\na thousand times a thousand million of times the number of sands the\nwhole earth can contain; reckoning ten inches to one foot, and that 100\nsands are equal to one inch.[42] As sound is propagated only at the\nrate of 1,142 feet in a second, a particle of light must be 786,000\ntimes more subtile than a particle of air. If the particles of light\nwere not extremely small, their velocity would be highly destructive.\nIndeed, were they equal in bulk to the two millionth part of a grain of\nsand, this impulse would not be less than sand shot from the mouth of a\ncannon. If the particles of light had more density, they would not only\ndazzle us by their splendor, but injure us by their heat.\n\nThere is no creature of God that _diffuses_ itself, and whose influence\nreaches so far and wide, and fills so large a vacuum, as light. All\nthat inconceivable space between this globe and the fixed stars, a\ndistance which numbers cannot reach, is replete with light. Nay, the\nspace in which it is diffused is not less than the universe itself; the\nimmensity of which exceeds the conception of human understanding. It is\nfrom this almost unlimited diffusion of light that the very remotest of\nthe heavenly bodies in the solar system become discernible, either by\nthe naked eye or by telescopes. And had we instruments that could carry\nour sight as far as the light is extended, we should discover those\nbodies which are placed at the very extremity of the universe.[43]\n\nLight is the _medium_ through which objects become _visible_ to us.\nIt is owing to it, that we are enabled to behold and contemplate the\nwonderful works of the great Creator; to discover unexplored systems\nin the trackless regions of unbounded space, to imbibe knowledge from\nthings created, to hold intercourse with each other, to steer the\nhollow bark to distant climes, and to investigate the records of all\nscience. Without its aid, the world would have been an inhospitable\nwilderness, involved in sable shades of perpetual night. \u201cTruly the\nlight is sweet, and a pleasant thing it is for the eyes to behold it.\u201d\n\nLight _beautifies_ every delightful object which comes within the reach\nof its rays.\n\n            \u201cNature\u2019s resplendent robe!\n    Without whose vesting beauty all were wrapt\n    In unessential gloom.\u201d\n\nAll colors are rays of light differently reflected. The cause of their\ndiversity was first rationally accounted for by Sir Isaac Newton. He\nhas shown that color is not a specific property of bodies, but is\ncaused by the different rays of light being reflected from the surface\nof the body; the rest of the rays passing into or through the body. He\ndiscovered that in the rays of light are all the colors in nature; and\nthe primary colors he considered to be seven in number, namely, red,\norange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet; and that bodies appear\nof different colors, as they have the property of reflecting some rays\nmore powerfully than others. These colors are poetically enumerated by\nThomson.\n\n                \u201cFirst the flaming _red_\n    Sprung vivid forth; the tawny _orange_ next;\n    And next delicious _yellow_; by whose side\n    Fell the kind beams of all-refreshing _green_:\n    Then the pure _blue_, that swells autumnal skies,\n    Ethereal play\u2019d; and then, of sadder hue,\n    Emerg\u2019d the deepen\u2019d _indigo_, as when\n    The heavy-skirted evening droops with frost;\n    While the last gleamings of refracted light\n    Dy\u2019d in the fainting _violet_ away.\u201d\n\nSince the time of this justly celebrated philosopher, it has been\nobjected, that the seven colors above mentioned are not primitive.\nIt seems very obvious that there can be only three primitive colors,\nnamely, red, yellow, and blue; since all the colors can be made by\nmeans of these. It has lately been advanced by Prieur, that the\nprimitive colors are violet, green, and red; that the yellow is formed\nwith red and green, the latter being in excess; and that when the red\nis in excess, they form orange; the green and violet form blue. The\ncolors excited by the different refrangible rays do not appear to\ndetermine what are the primitive colors, since we find that different\nrays are capable of producing the same color, as a mixture of the\nyellow with the red produces orange. And it must be admitted, that the\nviolet rays excite, in some degree, the idea of red along with the\nblue; as in the green, the yellow and blue may be discerned, but none\nof the red. When the different colored rays are mixed together, either\nby recomposition, or by getting each color by a separate Spectrum, the\nresult will be white light. Hence Sir Isaac Newton concluded, that\nwhen the rays are promiscuously reflected from any surface it will\nappear white. He also found, and the discovery has since been confirmed\nby the experiments of Dr. Herschell, that the different colored rays\nhave not by any means the same illuminating power. The violet rays\nappear to have the least luminous effect, the indigo more, the blue a\nlittle more, the green very great, between the green and the yellow the\ngreatest of all, the yellow the same as the green, and the red less\nthan the yellow.[44] From experiments it is found, that those rays of\nlight are of the largest quantity that paint the brightest colors;\nand of all these, the red rays have the least refrangibility. Without\nlight vegetables would have no color, but would appear white; this has\nbeen remarkably illustrated by Professor Robison. Some bodies absorb\none colored ray, others another, while they reflect the rest. This is\nthe cause of color in bodies. A red body, for instance, reflects the\nred rays and absorbs the rest. A white body reflects all the rays, and\nabsorbs none; while a black body, on the contrary, absorbs all the\nrays, and reflects none:[45] this shows, that black colored apparel is\nvery improper during the heat of summer, or in tropical climates.\n\n    [There is one difficulty scarcely mentioned, and surely\n    not accounted for, in the preceding chapter: i.e. _How are we\n    to reconcile the creation of light on the first day, and the\n    creation of the sun not until the fourth?_\n\n    This has been a standing proposition since the revival\n    of learning. There can be no doubt but the account of the\n    creation, arrangement and nature of the world, as given\n    by Moses, is correct; and would so appear to the most\n    philosophically scientific, could we ascertain certainly\n    the meaning of the sacred historian, and did we understand\n    perfectly the phenomena of nature.\n\n    It is reasonable to suppose that the discoveries in natural\n    philosophy would tend to influence the explanations of Moses\u2019\n    account. This is the fact. These discoveries have produced two\n    theories in regard to light: The _vibratory_, or Cartesian; and\n    the _corpuscular_, or Newtonian.\n\n    The Newtonian theory supposes the sun to be the original\n    and principal source of light; and that light is emitted\n    from the sun\u2019s surface in inconceivably small _corpuscles_,\n    in such rapid succession, and in straight lines, as to seem\n    a continuous ray, though, in reality, the particles are a\n    thousand miles apart in their approach to the earth.\n\n    This is the most popular of modern theories, and the only\n    one, as I recollect, employed by commentators in illustrating\n    the account of Moses; or rather in solving the difficulty by\n    reconciling this theory with his account.\n\n    Some have supposed the sun was created long before, our\n    earth, and that his beams took effect on our earth, as now, on\n    the fourth day from his creation. Others have supposed that\n    the sun and earth were created _simultaneously_, but that the\n    sun\u2019s beams did not fully penetrate our atmosphere, so as to\n    make himself distinctly visible as now, until the fourth day.\n    In both these cases it is supposed that the words of Moses,\n    in regard to the creation of the sun on the fourth day, are\n    to be interpreted of his _appearance_, and _influence_ on the\n    earth, by dispensing light. But this does not account for the\n    _existence_ of light _from the first to the fourth day_. This\n    is an insuperable objection here.\n\n    Finding the foregoing theories pressed with this\n    insurmountable difficulty, other commentators have supposed,\n    Light was a real substance, created _simultaneously_, and in\n    conjunction with the original chaotic mass of our earth; and\n    when God said \u201cLet there be light, and there was light,\u201d He,\n    by his divine power, caused the chaotic light to separate\n    itself from the earth, and, departing, _to condense_ in the\n    body of the sun; or, as some would probably say, in view of Dr.\n    Herschell\u2019s solar discoveries, in the phosphoric clouds which\n    surround the real body of the sun. In this case, if the light\n    concentrated in the body of the sun, then that luminary must be\n    a body of _condensed light_: if in the solar phosphoric clouds\n    of Dr. Herschell, then those clouds would be _condensed light_.\n    This body of condensed light is considered the source of our\n    solar light, which flies off from it in the form of rays or\n    beams.\n\n    DR. URE, in his Chemical Dictionary, article LIGHT, takes\n    this view. He says, \u201cWe learn from scripture, that light\n    pre-existed before this luminary (the sun) and that its\n    _subsequent condensation_ in his orb was a particular act of\n    Almighty Power. The phosphorescence of minerals, buried since\n    the origin of things in the bowels of the earth, coincides\n    strictly with the Mosaic account of the creation. We shall\n    therefore regard light as the first born element of chaos,\n    as an independent essence, universally distributed through\n    the mineral, vegetable, and animal world, capable of being\n    disengaged from its latent state by various natural and\n    artificial operations.\u201d\n\n    This theory, as I understand Dr. Ure\u2019s view, has _two_\n    advantages, and _three_ disadvantages. It accounts for the\n    production of light on the _first_ day, as Moses says. It\n    also accounts for the _artificial production_ of light by\n    friction between bodies which have never been exposed to solar\n    light, by combustion, compression, &c. For though it supposes\n    light \u201csubsequently condensed\u201d in the sun, I presume it does\n    not suppose _all_ the light thus transferred from the earth,\n    and condensed: much of it is latent, and combined with other\n    substances, from which it is evolved by friction, combustion,\n    compression, &c.\n\n    But this ingenious theory, which is mentioned by our\n    author, and attributed to Dr. Wall, is pressed with _three_\n    difficulties:\n\n    1. It does not suppose the existence of the sun until the\n    _fourth_ day, and of course no common centre of attraction to\n    the earth and other planets. But it is impossible to conceive\n    of the _safe existence_ of the planets _previous_ to the\n    existence of their common center, which now regulates their\n    order and motion. This is an insuperable difficulty, unless we\n    resort to a \u201cparticular act of Almighty Power.\u201d\n\n    2. If the body of the sun be \u201ccondensed light,\u201d\n    _abstracted_ from the earth, the scene of its creation, then\n    we must suppose that _a body more than a million times\n    greater than the earth was drawn off from it_, which indeed\n    would require an \u201cact of Almighty Power,\u201d and is utterly\n    irreconcilable to the laws of attraction.\n\n    3. This view also destroys the idea of the sun\u2019s being\n    an opake and habitable globe, unless we could conceive the\n    inhabitants capable of dwelling in \u201ccondensed light;\u201d which\n    supposition is at variance with all our ideas of rational\n    existence. Hence it robs the mind of the pleasing and almost\n    intuitively correct idea of the sun\u2019s being a habitable globe.\n\n    These difficulties appeared so great that others, and\n    particularly Dr. Adam Clarke, have offered a new mode of\n    interpretation, founded on the Newtonian theory as improved by\n    Dr. Herschell. Dr. Clarke supposes that _caloric_, or latent\n    heat, was produced on the first day, when God said, \u201clet there\n    be light; and there was light.\u201d In this case he considers that\n    latent heat and latent light are, probably, the same: or that\n    it is the same subtile substance diffused throughout creation,\n    which is capable of producing heat and light, when properly\n    excited.\n\n    Yet, in his remarks on the sun, he embraces Dr. Herschell\u2019s\n    ideas of the sun\u2019s real body being opake and habitable,\n    surrounded by phosphoric clouds which are the source of our\n    solar light. Of course the Doctor only transfers the source\n    of light from the real body of the sun to these phosphoric\n    clouds with which he is invested. Our solar light then comes by\n    _impulsion_ from these clouds, and not from the sun\u2019s real body.\n\n    These clouds are supposed to give light to the _Solar_\n    inhabitants also, the intensity of which is regulated by a\n    stratum of clouds placed _below_ the _outer_ phosphoric clouds,\n    and which defends the sun\u2019s real body from too great degree of\n    light.\n\n    This is Dr. Herschell\u2019s supposition, and seems to be pretty\n    well established.\n\n    This ingenious theory solves the difficulty under notice,\n    by supposing that _caloric_, and not light, is intended in\n    the third verse, where God said, \u201cLet there be light.\u201d And by\n    supposing latent light, as well as latent heat, it seems to\n    provide for the well known existence of light in combination\n    with many, if not all, terrestrial substances; and yet it\n    refers to the sun as the principal source of light, which\n    according to this interpretation, was not necessary to the\n    existence of the substance intended in the third verse--\u201cLet\n    there be light, and there was light.\u201d\n\n    This theory has another most excellent suggestion, viz:\n    that the heat excited by the sun at the earth\u2019s surface, is\n    produced by the luminous rays of the sun combining with the\n    caloric in the atmosphere, and other substances at the surface\n    of the earth. This suggestion supposes a very close affinity,\n    if not identity in the matter of light and heat.\n\n    Although this explanation approaches much nearer a\n    satisfactory solution of the difficulty in question, yet it is\n    by no means unembarrassed.\n\n    In the first place it is built upon a singular translation\n    of a word. The text, according to this theory, should be, \u201cAnd\n    God said let there be _caloric_, and there was caloric.\u201d\n    This may be the text; but I cannot help thinking, that a bias\n    to a system of philosophy, and a strong desire to _cut_ the\n    difficulty rather than _solve_ it, suggested this translation.\n    The text seems to have been so generally and uniformly\n    understood of light, it would be difficult to alter it. It\n    would be better to suspect a defect in our knowledge of the\n    source and nature of light.\n\n    Again: this view seems to suppose a _consecutive_ creation,\n    which is at variance with a seemingly well settled opinion,\n    in regard to the _Solar System_, and even at variance with\n    Dr. Clarke\u2019s own remarks on Gen. chap. i, v. 2. On this verse\n    he says: \u201cGod seems at _first_ to have created the elementary\n    principles of _all things_.\u201d\n\n    Finally: as his view is Newtonian, it is liable to all\n    the objections to which that theory is liable: such as the\n    _diminution_ which would take place at the source from whence\n    the light came; and the _destructive force_ with which it would\n    fall at the surface of the earth.\n\n    These considerations, with others, have influenced many of\n    the most learned and acute philosophers to look for another\n    theory. Our own countryman, Dr. Franklin, felt them. He says,\n    in a letter dated April 23, 1752, in reference to the theory,\n    of light being _particles of matter driven off from the sun\u2019s\n    surface_; \u201cMust not the smallest portion conceivable have, with\n    such a motion, a force exceeding that of a twenty-four pounder\n    discharged from a cannon? Must not the sun diminish exceedingly\n    by such a waste of matter, and the planets, instead of drawing\n    near to him, as some have feared, recede to greater distances,\n    through the lessoned attraction? Yet these particles with this\n    amazing motion, will not drive before them, or remove the\n    least, and slightest dust they meet with, and the sun appears\n    to continue of his ancient dimensions, and his attendants move\n    in their ancient orbits.\u201d\n\n    He then supposes the phenomena of light may be more\n    satisfactorily solved by supposing a subtle fluid, universally\n    diffused, which is invisible _when at rest_, but _becomes\n    visible when put in motion_, by affecting the nerves of the\n    eye, as the vibrations of the air affect the ear, and produce\n    the sensation of sound; and that the different degrees of\n    intensity in the vibrations, will account for the different\n    colors. _See Nicholson\u2019s Encyclopedia_, LIGHT.\n\n    This is the _vibratory_ or Cartesian system of light. As\n    already suggested, it supposes the existence of a subtle,\n    luminiferous ether, diffused throughout the universe, pervading\n    every particle of matter, and is capable of being put in\n    motion, so as to become visible, by the sun, as the grand\n    natural _excitant_, friction, combustion, compression, &c.\n    The _laws_ of the vibrations of this luminiferous fluid, are\n    precisely the same with those ascertained, and determined, in\n    regard to light as commonly understood. This luminiferous fluid\n    is to be considered an elementary substance, and was created\n    when the different substances composing the chaotic mass were\n    created. At its first creation, like caloric, it was in a\n    _latent_ state, as no excitant as yet had put it in motion.\n\n    It is to be understood, therefore, that the substances of\n    each planet in the _Solar System_, as well as the sun himself,\n    were created _simultaneously_ in a chaotic state, at their\n    proper relative distances from each other: that the requisite\n    quantity of each elementary substance was present in each mass:\n    but as caloric, and this luminiferous ether were _latent_,\n    these masses were solid, frozen lumps; inactive and lifeless;\n    and darkness necessarily prevailed. This then was the original\n    condition of the elements of our Solar System, according to\n    the scriptures. \u201cAnd the earth was without form and void; and\n    darkness was upon the face of the deep.\u201d Gen. i, 2.\n\n    In order, therefore, to produce a quickening in these\n    masses, which rendered them _soft_, it was only necessary to\n    call the latent caloric, and this luminiferous ether into\n    action, which would agitate, and bring to light the whole\n    mass, and thus commence the arrangement and organization of\n    the Solar System. However, as there was no exciting cause\n    _then_ in operation, it is evident the Almighty must have given\n    the _first_ impulse to these elements. This he did, and the\n    important fact is recorded by Moses in these words: \u201cAND THE\n    SPIRIT OF GOD MOVED UPON THE FACE OF THE GREAT DEEP,\u201d Jehovah\n    saying at the same time, \u201cLET THERE BE LIGHT.\u201d\n\n    Here is the Mosaic account of the production of light,\n    and possibly heat also, which took place on the _first_ day.\n    The same process went on _simultaneously_ in the sun and\n    planets, and the continued action cleared up their respective\n    atmospheres, and the _sun_ became visible at the earth\u2019s\n    surface on the _fourth_ day. Hence, the sun was said to have\n    been _made_ on the fourth day.\n\n    This solution of the difficulty is consistent with the\n    account of Moses; and also all the well ascertained phenomena\n    of light can be satisfactorily explained by it. It will\n    naturally lead the mind to observe the resemblance between the\n    phenomena of light and heat, and impel us to the conclusion,\n    that light, or vision, is the _effect_ of a material cause, as\n    heat is of caloric: and it is natural to suppose this cause\n    is in the same relation to light, that caloric is to heat. Of\n    course we should conclude that light, or the luminiferous ether\n    in a latent state, enters into combination with all substances,\n    as does caloric; and at the same time a large proportion of it\n    is _free_, or in motion, and of course sensible to the eye, as\n    _free_ caloric is to the sense of feeling. Moreover we must\n    conclude that this latent light is capable of being set free\n    or evolved by the exciting influence of the sun, as also by\n    friction, compression, combustion, chemical action, &c. It\n    will be of advantage, therefore, to establish the fact of the\n    existence of _latent_ light, in combination with terrestrial\n    substances.\n\n    That this is the fact may be proven by a single reflection\n    on the process of _combustion_. It is a daily observation that\n    light is produced by _burning_ bodies. Let us suppose these\n    bodies burnt at midnight in a close room; still light will\n    be given out copiously and constantly. _Whence_ this light?\n    The natural and obvious answer is, it was in combination in\n    a _latent state_ with the burning bodies, and by combustion\n    it was set free, and thrown out, and thus put the surrounding\n    luminiferous ether in motion.\n\n    It is said by some, the light evolved in this case is not\n    from the burning bodies, but from the oxygen which is supplied\n    by the air to support the combustion. This does not alter the\n    case at all: for then the light was in combination with the\n    oxygen, and was invisible, being in a latent state, until it\n    was set free from the oxygen by combustion.\n\n    The same conclusion is obtained in the process of\n    _compression_ and _expansion_. If atmospheric air, or oxygen\n    be suddenly compressed in a glass syringe; or if a glass ball,\n    filled with the latter, be suddenly broke _in vacuo_, a _flash\n    of light_ is instantly perceived. In this case the light\n    suddenly becomes visible, which was invisible before, being\n    latent in combination with the air. (URE.)\n\n    We arrive at the same conclusion in case of _friction_. It\n    is well known that pieces of wood can be made to _blaze_ by\n    rubbing them together. But it is not so well known, that two\n    pieces of rock crystal, or quartz, taken from any depth in the\n    earth, and which cannot be supposed to have ever been in the\n    light of the sun, when rubbed quickly together, even _under\n    water, will give out volumes of light_. _Whence_ this light?\n    from the quartz doubtless. Of course it must have been in a\n    latent state, and was set free by friction. Let it be strictly\n    observed, the crystals _never were exposed to the light of the\n    sun, of course could not have derived this light from that\n    luminary_.\n\n    We must come to the same conclusion, in regard to the light\n    given out by _animal_ substances. Many _insects_ are known to\n    have the power of evolving light, or putting the surrounding\n    luminiferous ether in motion, which is the same. Putrescent\n    animal matter has been observed to possess it, in some cases,\n    in a very great degree; sufficiently to illuminate a room, or\n    pantry, for hours together. In some instances the fingers of\n    those who touched the luminous flesh, became luminous.\n\n    This is eminently the case in regard to some fishes. A\n    species of fish called PHOLAS, has the power of evolving a\n    large quantity of light. This power is greater when the fish is\n    sound and fresh. Pliny mentions this fish, and says it rendered\n    the hands and clothes of persons luminous. When put in water,\n    under proper circumstances, it renders the water luminous. But\n    when put in milk, a single _pholas_ made seven ounces of it so\n    luminous as to enable one to distinguish the faces of persons\n    present. _Ency. Brit. Art._ LIGHT.\n\n    The evolution of light from the sea in the night, is a fact\n    of common observation, and is sometimes so great as to enable\n    one to read large print on a ship\u2019s deck. _Ency. Brit. Art._\n    LIGHT.\n\n    In all the above instances, and many more might be added,\n    the light evolved, or, (which is the same thing in this\n    investigation,) the luminiferous ether put in motion, must have\n    been in a state of combination with the substances from which\n    it was evolved. The only question which remains is this: _Was\n    all this light transmitted from the sun, and become latent and\n    combined at the earth\u2019s surface by absorption?_\n\n    It would certainly be hazardous to answer this question in\n    the affirmative. For how could we account for the evolution of\n    light from those bodies which have never been subject to the\n    sun\u2019s influence?\n\n    Again: If all this light had been transmitted from the\n    sun, it will inevitably follow, that there was a time when\n    the quantity of light at the surface of the earth, and in\n    combination with terrestrial bodies, _was very small_, and of\n    course combustion, friction, and compression of bodies produced\n    anciently a much smaller quantity of light than now; because\n    there was a smaller quantity in combination.\n\n    It is evident that this supposition would come to this\n    conclusion: _The quantity of light, in combination at the\n    earth\u2019s surface, has increased in the same ratio as the\n    increase of the duration of the influence of the sun on the\n    earth: and, by consequence, the quantity of light produced by\n    artificial means has increased in the same proportion._ Of\n    course, fires and candles burn more brightly now than they did\n    five thousand years since.\n\n    Though this conclusion is legitimate from the foregoing\n    supposition, yet it is at war with common sense, and the\n    current observations of the world.\n\n    We are therefore compelled to conclude that the MATTER _of\n    light_ is diffused throughout the universe, as is caloric, and\n    that it is evolved, or put in motion by the influence of the\n    sun; as also by artificial and chemical means; as combustion,\n    compression, friction, chemical action, &c.\n\n    This conclusion is much strengthened by the fact, that the\n    _existence of caloric_ is well ascertained, _not as proceeding\n    from the sun_, but in combination with all terrestrial\n    substances; and also by the fact of the constant _analogy_\n    between the phenomena of light and heat. This analogy is so\n    strong and striking that we are compelled to conclude, _if\n    heat be the effect of a real substance, light must be also_.\n    Indeed the analogy is so strong that it almost convinces us of\n    the _identity_ of the matter of heat, light, electricity, and\n    galvanism.\n\n    Notwithstanding the amount of evidence is against this\n    supposition at present, yet there is a strong tendency in\n    recent philosophical experiments to confirm it; and I am\n    inclined to believe that future discoveries will confirm this\n    identity. Some of the most obvious evidences in favor of it may\n    be introduced here.\n\n    1. Almost all the celebrated authors and experimenters have\n    occasionally _suggested_ the probability of this identity.\n    Mr. Turner, Elements of Chemistry, p. 67, says, in reference\n    to heat and light: \u201cIt has been supposed that _they are\n    modifications of the_ SAME AGENT; and though most persons\n    regard them as independent principles, yet they are certainly\n    allied in a way which at present is inexplicable.\u201d Again,\n    p. 71. \u201cMr. Leslie conceives that light when absorbed, _is\n    converted into heat_.\u201d Dr. Henry (Art. Light,) says, \u201cA new\n    fact has been lately ascertained by Dr. Delaroche, which seems\n    to point out _a close connection_ between heat and light,\n    _and a gradual passage of the one into the other_. The rays\n    of _invisible_ heat pass through glass with difficulty at a\n    temperature below that of boiling water; but they traverse\n    it with a facility always increasing with the temperature,\n    as it approaches the point at which bodies become luminous.\u201d\n    \u201cThe general facts, says Sir H. Davy, of the refraction and\n    effects of the solar beam, offer an analogy to the agencies\n    of electricity.\u201d (_Ure, Chemical Dictionary, Article Light._)\n    It is well known that this view pressed itself strongly on\n    the attention of Sir Isaac Newton, during his philosophical\n    investigation. _See Ure, Chem. Dic. Art. Light._\n\n    2. This identity is strongly suggested by the constant and\n    striking analogy between the laws of heat and light.\n\n    _First:_ The color of surfaces has an influence on the\n    passage of light and heat.\n\n    _Secondly:_ The power of light, heat, and electricity\n    diminishes as the squares of their distances.\n\n    _Thirdly:_ The particles of heat, light, and electricity,\n    are _idio-repulsive_.\n\n    _Fourthly:_ The passage of the electric spark is generally\n    attended with the production of light and heat.\n\n    _Fifthly:_ Heat is emitted in all directions from the\n    surface of an ignited body: so is light from the surface of a\n    burning body.\n\n    _Sixthly:_ The laws of reflection are the same in light and\n    heat.\n\n    Other coincidences might be established, and other\n    celebrated names added.\n\n    If this identity should be established finally, it would\n    not effect the doctrine of the foregoing pages in the least. It\n    would only be necessary to say, the luminiferous fluid of this\n    essay is the well established substance now called caloric.\n\n\n    _Addenda on Light._\n\n    1. It is now generally admitted that the real body\n    of the sun is surrounded with a peculiar set of clouds,\n    _phosphorescent_ in their nature. It is also allowed that these\n    clouds do not emit heat. And as it is well known that no one of\n    the _planets_ has such clouds, but receive their light from the\n    sun, _it is extremely probable that these phosphorescent clouds\n    are intended by the Creator, to be the great dispenser of light\n    to the solar system, by operating as the exciting cause to put\n    the luminiferous ether in motion throughout the solar system_.\n\n    By a parity of reasoning, each centre of a system may be\n    invested with similar clouds, which operate in the same way in\n    reference to the planets which belong to it.\n\n    2. If light were a real substance, _as commonly\n    understood_, solar light must proceed from the sun by\n    _impulsion_, and artificial light from burning bodies by\n    _evolution_. Take the case of burning bodies. A single candle\n    placed two miles above the surface of the earth in the air, and\n    lighted up in that position, will _instantly illuminate a space\n    of two miles in every direction from itself, or a spherical\n    space four miles in diameter_. In this case a sufficient\n    quantity of light is instantly evolved to fill this space,\n    and the evolution continues as long as the candle burns. The\n    question upon this fact is this: Can it be supposed that there\n    is a sufficient quantity of light, in combination with a single\n    candle, or the oxygen necessary to keep up its combustion, to\n    fill a spherical space four miles in diameter for several hours\n    together? This would indeed be almost incredible in view of the\n    space filled by light evolved from a single candle.\n\n    But this difficulty would be satisfactorily solved upon\n    the supposition that light is the _effect_, produced by a\n    luminiferous ether, universally diffused, and put in motion,\n    by which it becomes visible, by the sun, burning bodies,\n    &c. Because, the motion which renders the luminiferous\n    ether visible, commences instantly upon the commencement of\n    combustion, and is propagated from the point of combustion _in\n    right lines_, under the appearance of rays of light: but the\n    motion ceases instantly on the cessation of combustion, and of\n    course darkness instantly ensues.]\n\nAfter having attended to the production of _light_, and noticed some\nof its properties, it is a paramount duty to contemplate its glorious\nAuthor; especially as by this mysterious production he himself has\nchosen to be represented. If creatures be excellent, what must be\nthe Creator? and to admire the former without adoring the latter,\nwould be profane and atheistical. \u201cThe Deity,\u201d says Sir Isaac Newton,\n\u201cin infinite space, as in his own _sensorium_, has an intimate\nperception of all things:\u201d so we, possessing intellect, should \u201clook\nthrough nature up to nature\u2019s GOD.\u201d Then matter, however rarefied or\ndiversified, would serve as his minister to introduce us into his\npresence. A pious ancient, on being asked by a profane philosopher, How\nhe could contemplate high things, since he had no books? answered, That\nhe had the whole world for his book, ready open at all times, and in\nall places, and that he could therein read things heavenly and divine.\nAs the visible creation is the outward expression of the existence of\nGod, and displays several of his infinite perfections; so we should\nstudy him in the works of nature, and trace him in the operation of his\nhands.\n\nThe late excellent and pious Bishop Horne very beautifully\nobserves,--\u201cWhen the angels beheld the dark and disordered state of\ncreated nature upon its first production, they were, doubtless, thrown\ninto some perplexity to conceive how it should ever be made a means of\nmanifesting forth the glory of the Creator. But when they saw the light\nspring up, at the Divine command, from that blackness of darkness, and\nfix its residence in its tabernacle the sun, illuminating and adorning\nthe firmament of heaven with its glorious show, and the earth with its\nbeautiful furniture, all formed out of rudeness and confusion, then\nthey confessed that the difficulty of the work served only to display\nthe skill of the workmaster, which is proportionally estimated by the\nunpromising nature of the materials.\n\nIn like manner, whoever views the chaos to which the infinite wisdom of\na presiding Providence sometimes permits the moral world to be reduced\nby the prevailing power of the prince of darkness, and the agency of\nhis instruments, will scarce be able, at first, to discern any traces\nof the Divine counsels in a mirror so sullied and clouded over by the\nenormities of sinful men. Yet let him wait with patience for a little\nseason, and those clouds shall pass away; a light shall shine, and some\ngreat end present itself to sight, so worthy of God, so beneficial to\nman, that standing amazed at a power able to bring the greatest good\nout of the greatest evil, he will be forced to cry out concerning the\neconomy of the spiritual system, as David did concerning the operations\nof the natural--\u2018Oh Lord, how manifold are thy works! In wisdom hast\nthou made them all.\u2019\u201d[46]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ IV.--DAY AND NIGHT.\n\n    Original terms of Day and Night -- Motion the effect of\n    a Divine power -- Commencement of Time -- Utility of Day and\n    Night -- Religious improvement of Time -- Sin moral darkness --\n    The Gospel a Light to dispel it -- A Christian the subject of\n    a transition from the one state to the other.\n\nThe separation of _light_ from the _darkness_, was the work of the\n_first day_. This was an arrangement made by infinite Wisdom, as\nwell as a display of almighty power. When this took place, it is\nhighly probable that God gave to the earth its rotation upon its own\naxis, to produce the necessary succession of _day_ and _night_. \u201cThe\nword \u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 _\u00e9reb_, which we translate _evening_, comes from the root\n\u05e2\u05e8\u05d1 _\u00e2rab_, to _mingle_, and properly signifies that state in which\nneither absolute darkness, nor full light, prevails. It has nearly\nthe same grammatical signification with our _twilight_, the time that\nelapses from the setting of the sun till he is eighteen degrees below\nthe horizon, and eighteen degrees before he arises. Thus we have the\nmorning and evening twilight, or _mixture_ of light and darkness, in\nwhich neither prevails; because, while the sun is within eighteen\ndegrees of the horizon, either after his setting, or before his rising,\nthe atmosphere has power to refract the rays of light, and send them\nback to the earth. The Hebrews extended the meaning of this term to the\nwhole duration of night, because it was ever a _mingled_ state; the\nmoon, the planets, or the stars, tempering the darkness with some rays\nof light. From the _ereb_ of Moses came the \u0395\u03c1\u03b5\u03b2\u03bf\u03c2 _Erebus_ of Hesiod,\nAristophanes, and other heathens, which they _deified_, and made with\n_nox_, or night, the parent of all things. The word \u05d1\u05e7\u05e8 _boquer_,\nwhich we translate _morning_, from \u05d1\u05e7\u05e8 _boquar_, he _looked out_, is a\nbeautiful figure, which represents the morning as _looking out_ at the\neast, and illuminating the whole of the upper hemisphere.\u201d[47]\n\nAll bodies continue in a state of rest, till they are put into motion\nby some external force impressed on them. Motion is the removal of a\nbody from one place to another, or a continual change of place.[48]\nAny force acting on a body to move it, is called a _power_. The\n_momentum_, or quantity of motion, is in proportion to the force\nimpressed. The heavier any body is, the greater is the power required\nto move it.\n\nThere are but three possible ways of accounting for motion:--either\nby supposing that there has been an infinite succession of impulses\ncommunicated from one body to another from eternity, without any active\nprinciple either in matter or without it: or, that there is an active\nprinciple in matter that renders it self-active, and motion essential\nto it: or, else, that there is a Being distinct from matter, and is the\ncause of its motion.\n\nAn infinite succession of impulses, without an active or moving\nprinciple, will never give birth to motion, because this would be to\nproduce an effect without the assistance of a cause. This absurdity\nwas asserted by Spinosa; yet when urged by his friends to explain how\nmatter could ever come into motion, if motion was neither essential to\nmatter, nor proceeded from any external cause, he always avoided giving\na direct answer. This conduct makes it reasonable to believe, that he\nhimself would have given up his account of motion, if he could have\nsaved his atheistical scheme and his reputation.\n\nThat motion is essential to all matter, and action as much an attribute\nof matter, as extension or solidity; and, consequently, every atom of\nmatter is necessarily self-moving, or active from the necessity of its\nown nature, is asserted by Toland. Though he thought fit to reject the\nhypothesis of Spinosa as indefensible, yet he believed in the atheistic\nnotion, that motion is essential to matter, and thinks it will be\nsufficient without troubling the Supreme Being. The reason which has\nalways determined mankind to look out for a cause of motion extrinsical\nto matter, was this: though they could easily conceive it capable of\nbeing moved and divided; yet the conceiving of it to be undivided, and\nunmoved, was a more simple notion of matter, than the conceiving it\ndivided and moved. This being first in order of nature, and an adequate\nconception of it too, they thought it necessary to inquire, how it\ncame out of this state, and by what causes motion, from whence this\ndiversity in matter arose, could come into the world?\n\nDescartes, though he allowed the infinity of matter, as well as Toland,\nwas yet sensible that even this would not alter the nature of matter,\nnor the idea that every person had of its inactivity, and therefore\ncould see no way of altering its primitive idea, and reconciling it\nwith the motion of matter, but by introducing an infinite Being, who\nhad sufficient power to rouse matter out of that sleepy state in which\nits original idea had represented it.[49]\n\nThat such a circumstance exists, and what it is, a French author very\nclearly states. He says, The universe is composed of matter, and, as a\nsystem, is sustained by motion. Motion is not a property of matter,\nand without this motion the solar system could not exist. Were motion a\nproperty of matter, that undiscovered and undiscoverable thing, called\nperpetual motion, would establish itself. It is because motion is not\na property of matter, that perpetual motion is an impossibility in\nthe hand of every being but that of the Creator of motion. When the\npretenders to atheism can produce perpetual motion, and not till then,\nthey may expect to be credited.\n\nThe natural state of matter, as to place, is a state of rest. Motion,\nor change of place, is the effect of an external cause acting upon\nmatter. As to that faculty of matter called _gravitation_, it is the\ninfluence which two or more bodies have reciprocally on each other to\nunite and be at rest. Every thing which has hitherto been discovered\nwith respect to the motion of the planets in the system, relates only\nto the laws by which motion acts, and not to the cause of motion.\nGravitation, so far from being the cause of motion to the planets that\ncompose the solar system, would be the destruction of the solar system,\nwere revolutionary motion to cease; for as the action of spinning\nupholds a top, the revolutionary motion upholds the planets in their\norbits, and prevents them from gravitating and forming one mass with\nthe sun.\n\n    \u201cBy ceaseless action all that is subsists;\n    Constant rotation of the unwearied wheel\n    That nature rides upon, maintains her health,\n    Her beauty, her fertility. She dreads\n    An instant\u2019s pause, and lives but while she moves.\n    Its own revolvency upholds the world.\u201d\n\nIn one sense of the word, philosophy knows, and atheism says, that\nmatter is in perpetual motion. But the motion here meant refers to\nthe state of matter, and that only on the surface of the earth. It\nis either decomposition, which is continually destroying the form of\nthe bodies of matter, or recomposition, which renews that matter in\nthe same or another form, as the decomposition of animal or vegetable\nsubstances enter into the composition of other bodies. But the motion\nthat upholds the solar system is of an entirely different kind, and is\nnot a property of matter. It operates also to an entirely different\neffect. It operates also to perpetual preservation, and to prevent any\nchange in the state of the system.\n\nGiving then to matter all the properties which philosophy knows it\nhas, or all that atheism ascribes to it, and can prove, and even\nsupposing matter to be eternal, it will not account for the system\nof the universe, or of the solar system, because it will not account\nfor motion, and it is motion that preserves it. When, therefore, we\ndiscover a circumstance of such immense importance, that without it the\nuniverse could not exist, and for which neither matter, nor any, nor\nall, the properties of matter can account, we are by necessity forced\ninto the rational and comfortable belief of the existence of a cause\nsuperior to matter, and that cause is GOD.\n\nThe motion of the earth, therefore, is an effect of Divine power,\nbecause there is none other equal to it; and the constant operation of\nthe same cause is requisite to perpetuate its progress. How amazing\nit is that this globe, so large in circumference, should move at all!\nPlato attributes motion to the power of God, \u201cHow is it possible,\u201d he\nargues, \u201cfor so prodigious a mass to be carried round for so long a\ntime, by any natural cause? For which reason,\u201d he says, \u201cI assert God\nto be the cause, and that it is impossible it should be otherwise.\u201d[50]\n\u201cEvery thing that is moved,\u201d adds Aristotle, \u201cmust of necessity be\nmoved by some other thing; and that thing must be moved, either by\nanother, or not by another thing. If it be moved by that which is moved\nby another, we must of necessity come to some Prime Mover that is not\nmoved by another. For it is impossible that what moves, and is moved by\nanother, shall proceed _ad infinitum_.\u201d[51] Since motion then is not\na property of matter, but an effect produced by the power of a Divine\nagent, what a constant display we have of this efficient energy, in\nmoving this earth, and with such a surprising, swiftness! Surely all\nmen should fear and reverence a Being, who possesses and exercises\nsuch a power! He who created all things out of nothing, could, if he\npleased, extinguish the light, and shake the solid earth into atoms!\n\nWhen the ponderous wheel of nature first began to move, _time_,\nconsisting of days, months, years, and ages, and measured by the\nduration and revolutions of the heavenly bodies, commenced.\n\n    _Time_ (in eternity parenthesis)\n    Is measur\u2019d by successive days and months,\n    Seasons and years; which closely like the links\n    Of an extended chain progressive join:\n    Or as a clock, with all its hidden springs\n    And constant motions, wound up to the top,\n    Begins its course, revolving until down.\n\nThe distinction between _day_ and _night_ is a wise and gracious\nprovision for man. In the morning, after the weary limbs have repaired\ntheir exhausted vigor by the indulgence of soft repose, we are pleased\nwith the blessing of light; and, after a few fleeting hours engaged\nin our diversified pursuits of the day, we begin to court the evening\nshades, pleased again to enjoy that balmy retreat which alone refits\nus for the fatigues of the ensuing day. When a few fleeting hours\nare spent, the day is no longer gratifying; but its light becomes\nburdensome, and we wish for the shadows of the evening to be stretched\nover us. This sable period is scarcely gone, when we welcome the\ndawning day, and leave the place of our rest with gladness.\n\n_Day_ and _night_, and their alternate changes, are adapted to suggest\nuseful thoughts, and calculated to employ our serious meditation.\n\n      \u201cFrom night to day, from day to night,\n    The _dawning_ and the _dying_ light\n      Lectures of heavenly wisdom read;\n    With silent eloquence they raise\n    Our thoughts to the Creator\u2019s praise.\n      And neither sound nor language need.\u201d\n\nA force continually impressed by the supreme Being produces and\npreserves these different and useful motions, which measure out that\nportion of time assigned us, for the performance of his work, and\nthe securing of our own salvation. We are directed in his word how\nto employ this important _talent_ lent to us; also warned to guard\nagainst a misapplication of it, and told that a day will come when we\nshall have to give an account of our stewardship. As _day_ is afforded\nfor the management of those employments which could not be done in\nthe night, how unwise would it be to postpone such concerns till the\napproach of darkness? So the short period of life is given us that we\nmay \u201cwork out our own salvation.\u201d We are favored with the light of\nDivine truth to illuminate our understandings; the operation of the\nHoly Spirit to influence our wills; and our pressing necessities should\nimpel us to perform what God requires.\n\nThe Greeks have two words for _time_, \u03c7\u03c1\u03bf\u03bd\u03bf\u03c2 and \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9\u03c1\u03bf\u03c2: the former\nsignifies time in general; and the latter that part of it which is\nproper for doing a thing--the present season in which any thing to be\ndone may be done fitly and to advantage. Accordingly Solomon says,\n\u201cTo every thing there is a season, and a time to every purpose under\nheaven.\u201d\n\nWhat the apostle says to the Christians at Ephesus is equally\napplicable and interesting to persons in succeeding ages of the world;\ngiving a view of the importance of time, and directing to a right\nimprovement of it. \u201cSee that ye walk circumspectly, not as fools, but\nas wise, redeeming the time, because the days are evil.\u201d\n\n_Walking_, in the Scripture style, is a word frequently used to denote\nthe whole course of a man\u2019s life and conversation, including all\nhis thoughts, words and actions. Walking _circumspectly_, \u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u03c9\u03c2,\nsignifies correctly, accurately, consistently, or perfectly. In\nanother place the same word is rendered _diligently_. Herod said to\nthe wise men come from the east, Go to Bethlehem, and search \u03b1\u03ba\u03c1\u03b9\u03b2\u03c9\u03c2,\n_diligently_, narrowly, for the young child Jesus. But the word\n_circumspect_ is from the Latin _circumspicio_, and signifies to\nlook round about, on all hands, to be every way watchful, wary, and\ncautious, in order to avoid danger, discern enemies before they come\ntoo nigh, and secure a man\u2019s interest by every possible and lawful\nmeans.[52]\n\nThe necessity of this duty is suggested in the Greek text, \u03b2\u03bb\u03b5\u03c0\u03b5\u03c4\u03b5 \u03bf\u03c5\u03bd\n_see then_ or _therefore_, take care of this as a matter of the highest\nconcern and greatest importance; it is that on which your all depends.\nHe adduces a cogent reason for this--\u201cNot as fools, but as wise.\u201d As if\nhe should say, It is your _wisdom_ to walk circumspectly, and not to\nwalk so would be your _folly_: to walk circumspectly is the wisdom that\nGod recommends to you, and which is adapted to make you truly wise,\nboth in this world and in that which is to come.\n\nThe word _redeeming_, \u03b5\u03be\u03b1\u03b3\u03bf\u03c1\u03b1\u03b6\u03bf\u03bc\u03b5\u03bd\u03bf\u03b9, literally signifies _buying\ntime_. The term _buying_ is proper in reference to civil contracts,\nbut it is here applied morally. Properly speaking, time cannot be\nbought: it is a commodity for which all the treasures in the world\nwould not be an equivalent. Its price is above rubies. But the\nterm imports the great value of time, and intimates that we should\nbe willing to suffer any privation or inconveniences, rather than\nlose it. _Redeeming_ properly implies the laying down a price for\nre-purchasing or recovering that which was ours, but which has fallen\ninto the possession of another. A captive sometimes is redeemed out\nof the hand of an enemy. Now, in this sense, to redeem time already\npast is impossible, for when once gone it is irrecoverable. So that\nby _redeeming_ time, nothing else can be understood but a diligent\nand prudent improvement of it, which is the only way in our power\nto counterbalance the loss we have sustained by our former neglect.\nThe effects of our past negligence should be counteracted by double\ndiligence in future: we should do much work in a little time. This is\nto redeem that time, concerning which we have allowed worldly business,\nunprofitable visits, sensual indulgence, carnal recreations, and vain\nthoughts, to rob us, and, as it were, to take and keep us captive. To\nredeem time then is to be diligent in future, wisely improving it so as\nmay make amends for our very culpable remissness. Future diligence is,\nas it were, the price of redemption paid down for what we had mortgaged\ninto the hands of those things which we have suffered to deprive us of\nit.\n\nThe argument used to enforce the practice of this duty is, \u201cbecause the\ndays are evil.\u201d Time, in itself, properly speaking, is neither good nor\nevil; but in regard to the moral state of mankind may be so called.\nThe days here primarily intended by the apostle, denominated _evil_,\nwere those of his own time, in which he himself and his contemporaries\nlived, and which abounded with trouble and danger, by reason of the\nopposition made by unbelieving Jews and Gentiles against Christianity.\nBut all our days, as well as those, may be called evil, because of\nthe prevalence of sin, Satanic delusion, and hostility of the ungodly\nagainst real religion. Many persons can adopt the language of the\npatriarch Jacob, \u201cFew and evil have the days of the years of my life\nbeen.\u201d Job gives a similar testimony, \u201cMan that is born of a woman, is\nof few days, and full of evil.\u201d\n\nThe whole argument runs thus: seeing that you cannot enjoy true quiet\nand substantial comfort in this terrestrial abode, and are in danger\nof being quickly deprived of all opportunity of getting and doing\ngood, fail not to improve the present time to the best advantage, in\nreference to the future state, that you may secure for yourselves a\nhappy and glorious eternity.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFootnotes - Chapter II\n\n    [23] See Dr. A. Clarke on Gen. i. 1.\n\n    [24] Barington\u2019s Dissertations, &c, p. 82.\n\n    [25] An eminent chemist and philosopher, Dr. Priestley,\n    has very properly observed, that it seems plain that Moses\n    considered the whole terraqueous globe as being created in\n    a _fluid_ state, the earthly and other particles of matter\n    being mingled with the water. The present form of the earth\n    demonstrates the truth of the Mosaic account, for it is well\n    known, that, if a soft or elastic globular body be rapidly\n    whirled round on its axis, the parts at the poles will be\n    flattened, and the parts on the equator, midway between the\n    north and the south poles will be raised up. This is precisely\n    the shape of our earth; it has the figure of an _oblate\n    spheroid_, a figure pretty much resembling the shape of an\n    _orange_. It has been demonstrated by admeasurement, that the\n    earth is flatted at the poles, and raised at the equator. This\n    was first conjectured by Sir Isaac Newton, and afterwards\n    confirmed by M. Cassini, and others, who measured several\n    degrees of latitude at the equator and near the north pole,\n    and found that the difference perfectly justified Sir Isaac\n    Newton\u2019s conjecture, and consequently confirmed the Mosaic\n    account. The result of the experiments instituted to determine\n    this point, proved, that the diameter of the earth at the\n    equator is greater by more than _twenty-three_ and _a half_\n    miles than it is at the poles, allowing the polar diameter to\n    be 1-334 part shorter than the _equatorial_, according to the\n    recent admeasurements of several degrees of latitude made by\n    Messrs. Mechain and Delambre. L\u2019Histoire des Mathem. par M. de\n    la Lande, tom. iv, part v, liv. vi: and Dr. Adam Clarke, on\n    Gen. i. 10.\n\n    [26] Hesiod. Theog. 116.\n\n    [27] Aristoph. Aves, 694.\n\n    [28] Longin, sect. ix, Edit. Pearce.\n\n    [29] Walker\u2019s History of the Creation, p. 8, 9.\n\n    [30] Benson on the Text.\n\n    [31] Preface to Dr. Black\u2019s Lectures, by Robison.\n\n    [32] Carpenter\u2019s Lectures on the Works of Creation, vol. i.\n    p. 87.\n\n    [33] Boerhaave\u2019s Chem. by Shaw, vol. i. p. 299.\n\n    [34] Parkes\u2019s Chemical Catechism, or Rudiments of\n    Chemistry, chap. ii.\n\n    [35] Contemplative Philosopher, vol. ii. p. 149, 150.\n\n    [36] See Dr. Burnet\u2019s Theory, vol. ii, p. 30.\n\n    [37] Apud Stob. Eclog. Phys. p. 44.\n\n    [38] That light is a fluid which encompasses the earth,\n    and requires only to be agitated by some other inflamed body,\n    in order to render it perceptible, is an hypothesis, says a\n    celebrated German divine, that has been adopted by the most\n    eminent philosophers. \u201cIt is certain, at least, that there is\n    a great difference between _fire_ and _light_. The latter is\n    incomparably more subtile than the former. It penetrates glass,\n    and other transparent bodies, in a moment; whereas fire does it\n    very slowly. The pores of glass are consequently large enough\n    to give a free passage to the light, while the fire meets with\n    more resistance, because it is less subtile. Fire moves more\n    slowly than light. Let burning coals be brought into a room,\n    the heat diffuses itself very slowly, and the air becomes\n    warm by degrees; but the moment a candle is brought into an\n    apartment, the whole is suddenly illuminated; and wherever\n    the rays can reach the parts become more visible. From these\n    facts, and some others, it is concluded, that fire and light\n    are different substances; although we generally see them both\n    together, and find that one may produce the other. But the\n    consequence drawn from this is possibly false.\u201d\n\n    [39] A new material has recently been introduced in\n    this country, for the purpose of lighting houses, streets,\n    manufactories, &c, namely, the inflammable gas of coals.\n    When coals are burning in a common fire-place, a flame more\n    or less luminous, according as it is more or less encumbered\n    with incombustible smoke and vapor, issues from them; and\n    very frequently emit some very beautiful streams of a flame\n    remarkably bright. All this arises from the gases which are\n    extricated from the coal by the heat. It was natural to imagine\n    that such gas might be received in proper reservoirs, and, on\n    being forced out of small apertures, and lighted, would serve,\n    as the flames of candles, to illuminate rooms or other places.\n    The trial was easily made, and has been attended with the\n    desired effect.\n\n    [40] Dr. Rees\u2019s New Cyclop\u00e6dia, Art. Light; and Dr. O.\n    Gregory\u2019s Lessons, Astronomical and Philosophical p. 157.\n\n    [41] Gregory\u2019s Economy of Nature, vol. i, p. 173.\n\n    [42] See Relig. Philos. vol. iii, pp. 869, 870, Fourth\n    Edition.\n\n    [43] Sturm\u2019s Reflections, vol. iii, p. 184.\n\n    [44] Dr. Rees\u2019s Cyclop\u00e6dia, Art. Light.\n\n    [45] Parkes\u2019s Rudiments of Chemistry, chap. xii.\n\n    [46] Sermon on 1 Pet. ii, 21.\n\n    [47] Dr. Adam Clarke on Gen. i, 31.\n\n    [48] When Zeno, the Prince of the Stoics, was endeavoring\n    to prove, by a sophistical argument, that there was no\n    motion, Diogenes, the cynic, who had come into his school to\n    hear him, quickly started up and walked: which was an ocular\n    demonstration of motion, and sufficient to refute all his\n    sophisms adduced to the contrary.\n\n    [49] See Gurdon\u2019s Sixth Sermon at Boyle\u2019s Lecture.\n\n    [50] Plato in Epinom.\n\n    [51] Aristot. Physic. lib. vii, c. 5.\n\n    [52] Dr A. Clarke on Eph. v, 15.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III.\n\nSECOND DAY.\n\nON THE ATMOSPHERE.\n\n    Composition of Atmospheric Air -- Atmosphere divided\n    into three regions -- Air a fluid -- Its compressibility\n    and elasticity -- Weight and pressure -- Equilibrium --\n    Transparency -- Wind -- Causes of Wind -- Variety of Winds\n    -- Velocity of Winds -- Destructive Winds -- Wind under the\n    control of God -- Wind a similitude of the Holy Spirit\u2019s\n    operations.\n\n\nOn the _second day_ God made a space or _expansion_, surrounding the\nsolid earth to a certain height, called the _atmosphere_. This word\nis derived from \u1f00\u03c4\u03bc\u03cc\u03c2 and \u03c3\u03c6\u03b1\u1fd6\u03c1\u03b1, and signifies a body of vapor in a\nspherical form. By this name we understand the \u201centire mass of air\nwhich encircles all parts of the terrestrial globe, which moves with it\nround the sun, which touches it in all parts, ascending to the tops of\nits mountains, penetrating into its cavities, and incessantly floating\non its waters. It is a fluid which we inhale from the first to the\nlast moment of our existence.\u201d The Hebrew word \u05e8\u05e7\u05d9\u05e2 _raki\u00e2_, from \u05e8\u05e7\u05e2\n_rak\u00e2_, used by Moses, (and which our translators, by following the\n_firmamentum_ of the Vulgate, which is a translation of the \u03c3\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03c9\u03bc\u03b1,\nof the Septuagint, have improperly rendered _firmament_,) signifies to\n_spread out as the curtains of a tent or pavilion_.[53] It corresponds\nwith those beautiful words of Isaiah, \u201cIt is he that STRETCHETH OUT\nthe heavens as a curtain, and SPREADETH THEM out as a tent to dwell\nin.\u201d \u201cThus,\u201d as a learned and pious author justly observes, \u201cthe\nsecond great production of the Almighty was the element which is next\nin simplicity, purity, activity, and power, to the light, (or, rather\n_fire_,) and no doubt was also used by him as an agent in producing\nsome subsequent effects.\u201d[54]\n\nIt is particularly deserving notice, that, after the creation of\ncaloric, the atmosphere was the next regular production. If heat\nhad not previously existed, could the atmosphere have been formed?\nThe Creator, having first impressed certain principles on matter,\nimpregnating it with repelling forces and systematical attractions,\nproceeded with his work according to these radical and fixed laws.\nOne of the general laws discovered by Dr. Black, and which is laid\ndown as a chemical axiom, is, that \u201cWhenever a body _changes_ its\nstate, it either combines with caloric, or separates from caloric.\u201d\n\u201cThe most probable opinion concerning the nature of caloric,\u201d says Mr.\nDalton, \u201cis that of its being an elastic fluid of great subtlety, whose\nparticles repel one another, but are attracted by all other bodies.\nEvery kind of matter has its peculiar affinity to heat, by which it\nrequires a certain portion of the fluid, in order to be in equilibrium\nwith other bodies at a certain temperature.\u201d[55] It is now generally\nsupposed, adds Mr. Parkes, that the air owes its elasticity to the\ncaloric which it contains; and, that if it could be deprived entirely\nof this, it would lose its elastic form. The expansibility of the air\nis effected by the operation of caloric: for being rarefied by heat,\nit occupies a larger space than otherwise it would. It is extremely\nprobable, says Lavoisier, that air is a fluid naturally existing in a\nstate of vapor; or, as we may better express it, that our atmosphere\nis a compound of all the fluids which are susceptible of the vaporous\nor permanently elastic state, in the usual temperature, and under the\ncommon pressure.[56]\n\nFor the discovery of the composition of atmospheric air, we are\nindebted to Scheele, an able chemist, born 1742, at Stralsund, in\nGermany, who was a member of the Academy of Stockholm, and one of the\nRoyal Society of Medicine at Paris, and whose laborious investigations\nof nature have perpetuated his memory. When the nature of atmospheric\nair began to be understood, it was imagined that it was a mere\n_mixture_ of oxygen gas and nitrogen gas; and Mr. Dalton is still of\nthis opinion: but, says Mr. Parkes, we have now abundant reason to\nbelieve that it is a mere chemical compound; that is, that the oxygen\nand nitrogen form atmospheric air by a chemical union. Atmospheric air\nis a chemical mixture of oxygen and nitrogen rendered a\u00ebrial by the\nexpansive power of caloric: it likewise contains a portion of carbonic\nacid gas, which was formerly calculated at one per cent.; but Mr.\nDalton has lately demonstrated that it does not amount to more than\none part in a thousand.[57] Carbonic acid gas is nearly twice as heavy\nas common air; hence it is evident that it must combine _chemically_\nwith the atmosphere, or it would be found only near the surface of the\nearth. If it were merely _mixed_ with atmospheric air, its gravity\nwould prevent it from ascending to any great height: but it is found to\nexist in the atmosphere at the greatest heights, (though probably not\nin the same proportion) as well as near the surface of the earth; which\nis a proof that it is not a mere mixture, but that it is chemically\ncombined with the air. There are about 22 parts of oxygen, and 78 of\nnitrogen, in every 100 measures of atmospheric air, or 23 of the former\nand 77 of the latter, if the calculation be made by weight.[58]\n\nAntony de Marti observes, If a few hundredth parts of oxygen only were\nwanting in atmospheric air, fire would lose its strength, candles would\nnot diffuse such complete light, and animals would with difficulty\nseparate the necessary quantity of the vivifying oxygen. On the other\nhand, if the atmosphere were more charged with oxygen than nitrogen,\nanimals indeed would acquire a more free respiration; but, let us\nconsider the activity which fire would acquire by air of superior\npurity. We know that, on some occasions, the least spark excites the\nstrongest flame in a combustible body, and which increases so much\nas to consume it in a few moments: candles _then_ would be no sooner\nlighted than they would be destroyed, without answering any other\npurpose than that of dazzling us for a few moments: iron would be\ncalcined, instead of acquiring from the fire that softness necessary\nfor transforming it into its various instruments, and which it cannot\nreceive in a more moderate heat. Nothing would be capable of checking\nthe progress of this destructive element, which is nourished by vital\nair, if this a\u00ebriform substance were not abundantly mixed with mephitic\nair, which serves to restrain it.\n\nPure atmospheric air is composed of three gaseous substances only, but\nis perpetually contaminated by a variety of exhalations from the earth.\n\u201cThe atmosphere is a vast laboratory,\u201d says Fourcroy, \u201cin which nature\noperates immense analyses, solutions, precipitations, and combinations:\nit is a grand reservoir, in which all the attenuated and volatilized\nproductions of terrestrial bodies are received, mingled, agitated,\ncombined, and separated. Notwithstanding this mixture, of which it\nseems impossible for us to ascertain the nature, atmospheric air is\nsensibly the same, with regard to its intimate qualities, wherever we\nexamine it.\u201d Hence, whatever may be the nature of the a\u00ebrial fluid,\nwhen absolutely pure, that which we breathe, and which commonly\ngoes under the name of _air_, must be considered as an exceedingly\nheterogeneous mixture, various at various times, and which it is by\nno means possible to analyze with accuracy. The whole mass of it\ncontains a great deal of water, together with the vast collection of\nparticles raised from all bodies of matter on the surface of the earth\nby effluvia, exhalations, &c, so that it may be termed a _chaos_ of the\nparticles of all sorts of matter confusedly mingled together. And hence\nit has been considered as a large chemical vessel, in which the matter\nof all kinds of bodies is copiously floating; and thus exposed to the\ncontinual action of that immense surface, the sun, from whence proceed\ninnumerable operations, sublimations, separations, compositions,\ndigestions, fermentations, putrefications, &c.\n\nThough, in this view, the atmosphere seems to be a kind of sink or\ncommon sewer, where all the poisonous effluvia arising from putrid\nand corrupted matter is deposited; yet it has a wonderful facility of\npurifying itself, and one way or other, of depositing those vapors\ncontained in it; so that it never becomes noxious, except in particular\nplaces, and for a short time; the general mass remaining, upon all\noccasions, pretty much the same.[59] The way in which this purification\nis effected, is different according to the nature of the vapor with\nwhich the air is loaded. Aqueous vapor ascends; and also much of that\nvapor arising from decayed and putrid animal and vegetable substances,\n(and which, by some modern philosophers, is called _phlogiston_,\nattaching itself to the aqueous vapor,) ascends along with it; and\nprobably descends again with the rain; whence the fertilizing qualities\nof rain-water above those of any other: while another part is absorbed\nby vegetables; for the phlogistic vapor is probably the food for\nplants. But sulphureous, acid, and metalline exhalations, produced\nprincipally by volcanos; vapors, arising from houses where lead and\nother metals are smelted; descend, in consequence of their specific\ngravity, and suffocate and spread destruction around them, poisoning\nnot only animals, but vegetables also. From all these, the air seems\nnot capable of purifying itself, otherwise than by winds, or by letting\nthem subside by their superior gravity, till they are absorbed either\nby the earth or water, according as it is their nature to unite with\none or other of these elements. Of this kind also seem to be the vapors\nwhich are properly called pestilential. The contagion of the plague\nitself seems to be of a heavy, sluggish nature, incapable of rising in\nthe air, but attaching itself to the walls of houses, bed-clothes, and\nwearing apparel. Hence, scarcely any constitution of the atmosphere\ncan dispel these noxious effluvia; nor does it seem probable that\npestilential distempers ever cease until the contagion has operated so\nlong, and been so frequently communicated from one to another, that,\nlike a ferment much exposed to the air, it becomes vapid, communicates\na milder infection, and at last loses its strength altogether.\n\nThe atmosphere, or body of air encompassing the earth on all sides,\nis generally divided into _three_ regions. The lowest region extends\nfrom the earth to the place where the air is no longer heated by the\nrays which the earth reflects: this region is the wannest. The _middle_\nregion begins where the preceding one ends, and goes to the summit of\nthe highest mountains, or even the highest clouds; this is the space\nwhere rain, hail, and snow are engendered: this region is much colder\nthan the preceding one. The _third_ region extends from the middle one\nto the utmost height of the atmosphere; whose limits have not been\nascertained.[60] If the air were of an equal density throughout, the\nheight of the atmosphere might be determined: but since the density\nof the air decreases with the pressure, it will be more rarefied and\nexpanded the higher we go; and by this means the altitude of the\natmosphere becomes indefinite, and terminates in pure ether. But though\nwe cannot assign its real height, it is certain, from observations and\nexperiments, that a distance of 45 or 50 miles is the utmost limit\nwhere the density is sufficient to refract the rays of light. For the\nbeginning and ending of twilight show, that the height at which the\natmosphere begins to refract the sun\u2019s light is about 45 English miles;\nand therefore that may be reckoned the altitude of the air to the least\ndegree of density.\n\nThe air is justly reckoned among the number of _fluids_, because it\nhas all the properties by which a fluid is distinguished. It requires\nbut little attention to be convinced of this. The air yields to the\nsmallest force impressed on it; its parts are easily moved among\nthemselves; it presses according to its perpendicular height, and its\npressure is every where equal. That the air is a fluid consisting of\nsuch particles as have no cohesion among themselves, but easily glide\nover one another, and yield to the smallest impression, appears from\nthe ease and freedom with which animals breathe in it, and move through\nit without any difficulty or sensible resistance. The ease with which\nit is penetrated, and driven about in every direction, and the motion\nof it in pipes and channels, however crooked and intricate, demonstrate\nits fluidity. It is also known to be a fluid, by the easy conveyance\nwhich it affords to sound.\n\n_Compressibility_ and _elasticity_ are evident properties of air. Its\nelasticity was first ascertained by some experiments of Lord Bacon.\nThe air nearest the earth is in a state of compression, occupying a\nsmaller space than it otherwise would do, were it not compressed by\nthe superincumbent air. It must therefore be in a state something\nresembling that of a quantity of fine carded wool thrown loosely into a\ndeep pit; the lower strata supporting the weight of the upper strata,\nand being compressed by them; and so much the more compressed as they\nare further down, while the upper stratum only is in its unconstrained\nand most expanded state. If we should suppose this wool thrown in by\na hundred weight at a time, it will be divided into strata of equal\nweights, but of unequal thickness, the lowest being the thinnest, and\nthe superior strata gradually increasing in thickness.[61]\n\nWhen the air is in a state of compression, we find that the same force\nwith which we compressed it is necessary to keep it in its bulk; and\nthat if we cease to press it together, it will swell out and regain its\nnatural dimensions, which shows its elasticity. This distinguishes it\nessentially from such a body as a mass of flour, salt, and such like,\nwhich remains in the compressed state to which we reduce it. There is\nsomething therefore which opposes the compression of air, different\nfrom its simple impenetrability, and produces motion, by repelling\nthe compressing body. As an arrow is gradually accelerated by the\nbow-string pressing it forward, and at the moment of its discharge\nis brought to a state of rapid motion; so the ball from a pop-gun or\nwind-gun is gradually accelerated along the barrel by the pressure\nof the air during its expansion from its compressed state, and\nfinally quits it with an accumulated velocity. These two motions are\nindications perfectly similar to the elasticity of the bow and of the\nair.\n\nMr. Parkes observes, that atmospheric air in all states, and in all\nseasons, is _permanently_ elastic. This elasticity arises from caloric\nbeing chemically combined with the solid substances of which it is\ncomposed. I say _solid_, because we have abundant evidence that oxygen\nand nitrogen are both capable of taking a solid form, and actually\ndo, in many instances, exist in a state of solidity. Nitrogen is a\ncomponent part of all animal substances, and exists in a solid state in\nall the ammoniacal salts. Oxygen takes the same state when it combines\nwith metals and other combustibles; and in the composition of the\nnitrous salts they both take the same state of solidity. These facts\nsurely evince that atmospheric air owes its fluidity to caloric.\n\nDr. Hales, by means of a press, condensed the air 33 times; and,\nafterwards, by forcing water in an iron globe, into 1,551 times less\nspace than it naturally occupies. The dilation of the air, by virtue of\nits elastic force, is found to be very surprising. In experiments made\nby Mr. Boyle, it dilated to 10,000, and even, at last, in 13,679 times\nits space; and this altogether by its own expansive force, without the\nhelp of fire. In fact, it appears that the air we breathe is compressed\nby its own weight into at least the 13,679th part of the space it would\noccupy in _vacuo_. But if the same air be condensed by art, the space\nit would take up when most dilated, will be, according to the same\nauthor\u2019s experiments, as 550,000 to 1.\n\nIt is only by means of the experiments made with pumps,[62] and the\nbarometrical tube, by Galileo and Torricelli, that we came to the\nproof, not only that the atmosphere is endued with _weight_ and\n_pressure_, but also of the measure and quantity of that pressure. The\nrise of water in a pump was formerly attributed to the horror that\nnature had of a vacuum. This absurd notion was refuted about the middle\nof the seventeenth century, by the following occurrence. The Duke of\nFlorence, having occasion to raise water to the height of 50 or 60\nfeet, ordered a common pump to be made for that purpose; but when it\nwas completed, the workmen were astonished to find that it would not\nwork. The matter was referred to Galileo, but he was unable to account\nfor it in any way. All they were able to determine was, that water\nwould not rise in a common pump more than 32 or 35 feet. The fact\nremained inexplicable till philosophers caught the idea of atmospheric\npressure; since when, the suspension of mercury in the barometer, and\nwater in a pump, have been well understood.[63]\n\nThat the air is a heavy body, has been demonstrated by a variety of\nexperiments. The air next the earth is more dense than that at a\ndistance, because, as it is of an elastic or springy nature, it is\npressed down by the whole weight of the superincumbent air. Its general\nforce of gravity appears, from its surrounding the earth, and always\naccompanying it in its orbit round the sun. As the matter of which the\nair is composed is always variable, so likewise will its weight or\ngravity be, as barometers of various kinds and structure evince. The\nweight of the air at the earth\u2019s surface, is found by the quantity of\nmercury that the atmosphere balances in the barometer; in which, at a\nmean state, the mercury stands 29\u00bd inches high. And if the tube were\na square inch wide, it would at that height contain 29\u00bd cubic inches\nof mercury, which is just 15 pounds weight; and so much weight of air\nevery square inch of the earth\u2019s surface sustains; and every square\nfoot, as containing 144 inches, must sustain a pressure of 2,160. At\nthis rate, a middle-sized man, whose surface is about 15 square feet,\nmust sustain a weight of 32,400 pounds, or 16 tons; for the air, like\nother fluids, presses equally upwards, downwards, and sideways, in\nevery direction. But because this enormous weight bears equally on all\nsides, and is counterbalanced by the spring of air diffused through all\nparts of the body, it is not in the least felt by us.[64]\n\nBy this enormous pressure we should undoubtedly be crushed in a moment\nwere not all parts of our bodies filled either with air or some other\nelastic fluid, whose spring is just sufficient to counterbalance the\nweight of the atmosphere. The human body is a bundle of solids, hard\nor soft, filled or mixed with fluids, and there are few or no parts of\nit which are empty. All communicate either by vessels or pores; and\nthe whole surface is a sieve through which the insensible perspiration\nis performed. The whole extended surface of the lungs is open to the\npressure of the atmosphere; every thing therefore is in equilibrio: and\nif free or speedy access be given to every part, the body will not\nbe damaged by the pressure, however great, any more than a wet sponge\nwould be deranged by plunging it any depth in water. The pressure is\ninstantaneously diffused by means of the incompressible fluids with\nwhich the parts are filled: and if any parts are filled with air or\nother compressible fluids, these are compressed till their elasticity\nbalances the pressure. Besides, all our fluids are acquired slowly, and\ngradually mixed with that proportion of air which they can dissolve or\ncontain. The whole animal has grown up in this manner from the first\nvital atom of the embryo. For such reasons the pressure can occasion\nno change of shape by squeezing together the flexible parts; nor any\nobstruction by compressing the vessels or pores.\n\nSometimes the air is so heavy and elastic as to support the mercury in\nthe tube at the height of 31 inches nearly; at other times it is so\nlight and unelastic, as to suffer it to fall as low as 28 inches. The\ndifference between these two altitudes is three inches, that is, about\n1-9th of the whole weight of the atmosphere. Our bodies, therefore, are\nsometimes pressed with a weight one-ninth more than at other times,\nthat is, with about 3,360 pounds more weight at one time than another.\nThis has considerable effect on our feelings, and consequently on our\nhealth, but we are apt to ascribe this effect to a wrong cause. When\nwe feel ourselves dull and languid, we think it is owing to the air\nbeing too thick and heavy about us. But it is just the reverse: the air\nis then too light and thin, as is evident from the mercury\u2019s sinking\nin the barometer, and its not bearing up the clouds: it is seldom\ndense enough at two miles height to bear them up.[65] The weight of\nthe air is proved by its supporting the clouds and vapors which we so\nfrequently see floating in it; in the same manner that the swimming of\na piece of wood indicates the weight of the water which supports it.\n\nIt may be remarked, says Mr. Parkes, that the Creator has endowed\natmospheric air with the property of preserving its own _equilibrium_\nat all times and in all places. Its elasticity is such, that,\nhowever it may be consumed by respiration or combustion, its place\nis immediately supplied with a new portion; and though by a mistaken\npolicy the doors and windows of our habitations may be constructed so\nas to exclude it as much as possible, it will have admission; it forces\nits way through every crevice, and performs the most important office\nassigned it, in defiance of all our exertions. If the properties which\nare given to the different substances in nature, and the laws by which\nthey are governed, be thus examined, we shall find them all tending to\npromote the welfare and felicity of every species of animated beings.\n\nThe _transparency_ of the air is a very beneficial property it\npossesses. According to Dr. Keill, and other writers on astronomy, it\nis entirely owing to the atmosphere that the heavens appear bright in\nthe day-time. For, without an atmosphere, that part of the heavens only\nwould shine in which the sun is placed: and if we could exist without\nair, and should turn our backs toward the sun, the whole heavens would\nappear as dark as in the night, and the stars would be seen as clear\nas in the nocturnal sky. In this case we should have no twilight;\nbut a sudden transition from the brightest sunshine to the blackest\ndarkness immediately after sunset; and from the blackest darkness\nto the brightest sunshine at sun-rising; which would be extremely\ninconvenient, if not fatal to the sight of men. But, by means of\nthe atmosphere, we enjoy the sun\u2019s light, reflected from the a\u00ebrial\nparticles, for some time before he rises, and after he sets. For, when\nthe earth by its rotation has prevented us from seeing the sun, the\natmosphere, being still higher than we, has the sun\u2019s light imparted to\nit, which gradually decreases until he has descended 18 degrees below\nthe horizon; and then, all that part of the atmosphere which is above\nus becomes dark. The atmosphere refracts the sun\u2019s rays so, as to bring\nhim in sight every clear day, before he rises in the horizon; and to\nkeep him in view for some minutes after he is really set below it. For,\nat some times of the year, we see the sun ten minutes longer above the\nhorizon, than he would be if there were no refractions; and about six\nminutes every day at a mean rate. We cannot but perceive the wisdom of\nGod displayed in this contrivance, to prevent the sudden transition\nfrom light to extreme darkness, and his goodness manifested therein to\nman.\n\nBesides these, there are many other advantages we derive from the\natmosphere. Were it not for the atmospheric air, which is the vehicle\nof light and sound, our eyes would be useless, and the pleasures which\narise from the variegated prospects that now surround us, unknown.\nSound would never strike our ears, nor convey the charms of language\nfrom one person to another; all the delights of mutual converse would\nbe lost. The sense of smell would never be regaled with odoriferous\nsweets; nor annoyed with exhalations from putrid and morbid substances.\nIn short, life would become extinct, and a chaos of darkness and\nemptiness ensue. It has been well remarked, that, if the Deity had\nintended only to give us existence, and had been indifferent about\nour happiness or misery, all the necessary purposes of hearing might\nhave been answered without harmony; of smell, without fragrance; of\nvision without beauty. The consideration of the various _uses_ to\nwhich the different substances in nature may be applied, gives so\nsatisfactory an assurance of the goodness of the Almighty, as is\ncalculated to produce in us gratitude and obedience. With this view,\nan elegant French writer has said on this necessary fluid, \u201cIn the\nuse of atmospheric air, _man_ is the only being who gives to it all\nthe modulations of which it is susceptible. With his voice alone, he\nimitates the hissing, the cries, and the melody of all animals; while\nhe enjoys the gift of speech denied to every other. To the air he also\ncommunicates sensibility; he makes it sigh in the pipe, lament in\nthe flute, threaten in the trumpet, and animates to the tone of his\npassions even the solid brass, the box tree, and the reed. Sometimes he\nmakes it his slave: he forces it to grind, to bruise, and to move for\nhis advantage an endless variety of machines. In a word, he harnesses\nit to his ear, and obliges it to waft him over the stormy billows of\nthe ocean.\u201d\n\n_Wind_ is air in motion. As the air is a fluid, its natural state is\nthat of rest, which it cannot have but by an universal equilibrium\nof all its parts. When, therefore, this natural equipoise of the\natmosphere is destroyed in any part, the circumjacent air necessarily\nmoves towards that part, to restore it; and this motion of the air is\ncalled _wind_. Hence, where the equilibrium of the air is disturbed,\nthe wind may blow from every point of the compass at the same time:\nthose who live northward of that point have a north wind; those who\nlive southward have a south wind; and so on of the rest: but those\nwho live on the spot, where all those winds meet and rush together,\nwill have turbulent and boisterous weather, such as whirlwinds and\nhurricanes, accompanied with rain, lightning, and thunder. For\nsulphureous exhalations from the south, torrents of nitre from the\nnorth, and aqueous vapors from every part, are there violently blended\ntogether, and seldom fail to produce these phenomena.\n\nThe causes of wind augment or diminish the gravity or elasticity of\nthe atmosphere; for two portions of air, which are equal in elasticity\nor gravity, remain mutually immoveable. We must look for the causes of\nwind in the variation of heat and cold, the position of the sun, the\nnature of the soil, the inflammation of meteors, the condensation of\nthe vapors into rain, and other similar circumstances: but the most\ngeneral causes are heat and cold. Fire, which expands and rarefies the\nair, diminishes its elasticity, and, consequently, makes it lighter in\nsome places than in others; hence the pressure of the ambient air is\ngreater than that of the rarefied, whence a motion arises; and thus\nseveral winds blow towards the part where the air is rarefied by the\nheat; which currents of air, if strong, are called _winds_, if gentle,\n_breezes_ or _gales_. Thus the air is constantly carried from the polar\nregions towards the torrid zone, where it is also affected by the\ndiurnal motion of the sun from east to west.\n\n\u201cWhen we reflect attentively upon the nature of winds in general,\u201d\nsays Dr. O. Gregory, \u201cconsidering all the causes which disturb the\nequilibrium of the atmosphere, the great mobility due to its fluidity\nand its elasticity, the influence of heat and cold upon the latter,\nthe immense quantity of vapor with which it is charged and discharged\nalternately, the mutual effect of contiguous air and water in motion,\nthe varied attractions of the sun and moon, upon the a\u00ebrial fluid, and\nfinally the changes produced by the earth\u2019s rotation in the velocity of\nthe atmospherical molecul\u00e6 at different parallels of latitude; we shall\nno longer be astonished at the inconstancy and variety which infringe\nupon the regularity of some of our winds, nor of the extreme difficulty\nof reducing the whole to laws wearing the semblance of certainty.\u201d[66]\n\nThere is a great variety of winds. The ancients observed only four,\ncalled _venti cardinales_, because they blow from the four cardinal\npoints. Homer mentions no more than _eurus_, the east; _notus_, the\nsouth; _zephyrus_, the west; and _boreas_, the north wind.[67] In\nimitation of him, others do the same. Afterwards intermediate winds\nwere added, first one, then two, between each of these. Most writers,\nmake only eight winds, and Vitruvius[68] informs us that the Athenians\nbuilt a marble tower in the form of an octagon with eight winds\nmarked, every one on that side which faced it. The moderns make 32\nwinds, the four cardinal winds 90 degrees distant, and 28 collateral\nor intermediate, 11 degrees and 15 minutes distant from each other, of\nwhich those in the middle between two cardinals, are 45 degrees distant\nfrom each cardinal.[69] But some make as many points on the compass,\nand as many winds, as there are degrees on the horizon, namely, 360.\n\nThe winds for a considerable space north of the equator, about 30\ndegrees in the open sea, blow from the north-east, and as far south\nof the equator, from the south-east. These are called _trade-winds_,\nfrom their facilitating trading voyages. In the Indian ocean, from its\nparticular situation, and that of the lands which surround it, from\nApril or May, to October or November, the wind blows from south-east to\nnorth-west; and during the rest of the year from the opposite quarters:\nthese winds are called _monsoons_. In Jamaica and the Caribbee islands,\nin the months of July, August, or September, there are usually violent\nstorms of wind, called _hurricanes_; the wind during the hurricane\nfrequently veering, and blowing in every direction.\n\n    \u201cWinds from all quarters agitate the air\n    And fit the limpid element for use,\n    Else noxious. Oceans, rivers, lakes, and streams,\n    All feel the fresh\u2019ning impulse, and are cleansed\n    By restless undulation. E\u2019en the oak\n    thrives by the rude concussion of the storm.\n    He seems indeed indignant, and to feel\n    The impression of the blast with proud disdain,\n    Frowning, as if in his unconscious arm\n    He held the thunder. But the monarch owes\n    His firm stability to what he scorns,\n    More fixed below, the more disturbed above.\u201d\n\nWinds have been measured, and their velocity calculated. The following\nis Mr. John Smeaton\u2019s table of the rate at which the wind travels:\n\n    Wind.                       Miles in  Feet in\n                                an Hour.   a Sec.\n\n    Hardly perceptible                 1     1,47\n    Just perceptible                   2     2,98\n                                       3     4,40\n    Gentle, pleasant                   4     5,87\n                                       5     7,35\n    Pleasant brisk gale               10    14,67\n                                      15    22,00\n    Very brisk                        20    29,34\n                                      25    36,67\n    High winds                        30    44,01\n                                      35    51,34\n    Very high                         40    58,68\n                                      45    66,01\n    Storm, tempest                    50    73,35\n    Great storm                       60    88,02\n    Hurricane                         80   117,36\n    ---- that tears up trees,      }\n         destroys buildings &c. &c.} 100   146,70[70]\n\nThere are some winds that are awfully destructive. In the Gulf of\nPersia, particularly at Ormus, during the months of June and July, a\nhot suffocating wind sometimes blows from the west, for a day or two\ntogether, which scorches up and destroys any animal exposed to it. On\nthis account the people of Ormus then leave their habitations, and\nretire to the mountains. Winds similar to this in kind, but not in\ndegree, are sometimes felt on the coast of Coromandel, where they are\ncalled _terrenos_; and likewise on the Malabar coast. On the coast of\nAfrica, north of Cape Verd, during the months of December, January, and\nFebruary, an easterly wind sometimes blows for a day or two, called by\nsailors _harmattan_, so intensely cold, as to be almost as destructive\nas the west winds at Ormus. The _simoon_ is a hot wind which blows\noccasionally in the deserts of Arabia, parched by a vertical sun. If\ninhaled in any quantity, it produces instant suffocation, or at least\nleaves the unhappy sufferer oppressed with an asthma and lowness of\nspirits. Its approach is perceived by a redness in the air, well\nunderstood by those who are accustomed to journey through the desert;\nand the only refuge which they have from it, is to fall down with\ntheir faces close to the ground, and to continue as long as possible\nwithout respiration.[71] _Sirocco_ is a periodical wind which generally\nblows in Italy and Dalmatia every year about Easter. It blows from\nthe south-east by south; it is attended with heat, but not rain; its\nordinary period is twenty days, and it usually ceases at sunset. When\nthe sirocco does not blow in this manner, the summer is almost free\nfrom easterly winds, whirlwinds, and storms. This wind is prejudicial\nto plants, drying and burning up the buds; though it hurts not man\nany otherwise than by causing in him an extraordinary weakness and\nlassitude; inconveniences that are fully compensated by a plentiful\nfishing, and a good crop on the mountains. In the summer time, when\nthe westerly wind ceases for a day, it is a sign that the sirroco will\nblow the day following, which usually begins with a sort of whirlwind.\nWhen St. Paul was sailing close to the shore at Crete, there arose in\nthe north-east, a tempestuous wind, called by the sacred historian,\n_euroclydon_; by Pliny, the _mariner\u2019s plague_; and in modern language,\na _levanter_, which drove the ship from the coast: this not being a\npoint wind, but rather a kind of hurricane, often shifting its quarter,\ntossed them backward and forward in the Adriatic.\n\nOn Saturday, November 27, 1703, a tremendous storm shook all Europe,\nwhich has been considered the most dreadful tempest that has ever\ntaken place since the deluge. This storm commenced three days before\nit arrived at its height. A strong west wind set in about the middle\nof the month, the force of which was increased every day till the\n27th. Great damage was sustained, and much alarm excited, both by sea\nand land. The late Rev. Dr. Stennett, in endeavoring to account for\nit, observes, that \u201chaving most probably taken its rise in America,\nit made its way across the western ocean, and collecting confederate\nmatter in its passage over the seas, spent its fury on those parts of\nthe world, whither this army of terrors was principally commissioned.\u201d\nThe violence of the wind produced a hoarse, dreadful noise, like one\ncontinued peal of thunder; whilst the excessive darkness of the night\nadded to the horror of the scene. Some accounts say, that it lightened;\nbut it is probable, that this apprehension arose from there being, at\ntimes, many meteors and vapors in the air; the hurry and agitation of\nnature being too great to admit of thunder and lightning, in their\nusual course.\n\nGreat loss of property was sustained; many painful accidents happened\nto those who escaped with their lives; and not a few had all their\napprehensions realized, as they met death in some of its most\ndreadful forms. In the city of London and its vicinity, more than 800\ndwelling-houses were laid in ruins, and above 2,000 stacks of chimnies\nwere precipitated to the ground. As a further proof of its strength\nand fury, we are informed, that the lead which covered the roof of\n100 churches, was rolled up, and hurled, in prodigious quantities, to\ngreat distances. But the dreadful devastation spread throughout the\ncountry. In one extensive plain, on the banks of the Severn, not less\nthan 15,000 sheep, being unable to resist its violence, were driven\ninto the river and drowned. Such was the quantity of trees torn up\nby their roots, that a person anxious to ascertain the number, had\nproceeded through but a part of the county of Kent, when, arriving at\nthe prodigious amount of 250,000, he relinquished the undertaking.\nIf such were the dreadful ravages of this storm by land, it will be\nanticipated they were still more disastrous on the water. Accordingly\nwe are informed, that the best part of our navy being then at sea, if\nit had been at any other than a full flood and spring tide, the loss\nmight have proved fatal to the nation. It was computed that not less\nthan 300 ships were utterly destroyed by this tempest; among which were\n15 of the royal navy, containing upwards of 2,000 seamen, who \u201csunk as\nlead in the mighty waters.\u201d The whole loss of property was estimated\nat four millions of money--of lives, about eight thousand--and cattle\nwithout number.\n\nTowards the evening of the 27th, it pleased Him, \u201cwho gathereth the\nwind in his fists,\u201d gradually to suppress the storm, till there was a\nperfect calm. Men were encouraged to leave the retreats in which they\nhad taken refuge, and view the \u201cdesolations which God had made in the\nearth.\u201d[72]\n\nThough the winds are produced by the operation of natural causes, and\nseem to move in natural courses, yet there is a first Cause, whose\nefficiency is necessary to their existence, motions, and continuance.\nWe shall select the following remarkable instance as an illustration of\nthe truth of this assertion.\n\nThe disciples of Christ were once in imminent danger from a storm at\nthe sea of Tiberias, which is also called the Sea of Galilee, and\nthe Lake of Gennesaret, and, according to Pliny, is sixteen miles\nlong, and six broad. It is said, \u201cBehold, there arose a great tempest\nin the sea,\u201d \u03c3\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03bc\u1f78\u03c2 \u03bc\u03ad\u03b3\u03b1\u03c2, a great concussion or shaking. The same\nexpression is frequently used, both in the Scripture and in other\nwritings, for an earthquake; but here it is applied to the sea. Luke\ncalls this tempest \u201ca storm of wind;\u201d Mark, \u201ca great storm of wind;\u201d\nand both of them use the word \u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03c8, which the philosopher says is a\nparticular kind of wind, or rather a conflict of many winds. The most\nprobable derivation, says Mr. Parkhurst, seems to be from \u03bb\u03b1 or \u03bb\u03b9\u03b1\u03bd,\n_very much_, and \u03bb\u03b1\u03c0\u03c4\u03c9, _to lick_ or _lap up_, as wolves do water in\ndrinking; for a whirlwind _violently licks up_, as it were, the dust of\nall light bodies in its way. Hence \u03bb\u03b1\u03b9\u03bb\u03b1\u03c8 is a wind that is suddenly\nwhirled and rolled about downwards and upwards. Aristotle explains the\nword by _a violent whirlwind, moving from beneath upwards_. Hesychius,\na learned Grecian, defines it to be a storm or tempest of wind, with\nrain. It seems to have been a whirlwind and hurricane in which the\ndisciples then were. Luke says, that this storm of wind _came down_;\nit descended with great force into the sea, and lifted up its waves,\nwhich beat into the ship, and pressed it much, so that it was in great\ndanger of being swallowed up and sunk by them. All the views given us\nof this tempest show the disciples to have been in imminent danger. It\nis said, \u201cthat the ship was covered with the waves,\u201d which \u201cbeat into\nit, so that it was now full of water,\u201d as Mark expresses it. Nay, Luke\nsays, \u201cthey were filled with water, and were in jeopardy,\u201d or in great\ndanger. The ship was immersed, or just sinking into the deep. So that\nthe disciples were brought to the utmost extremity. The great distress\nthey were in is expressed in these words, \u201cWe perish, \u1f00\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03cd\u03bc\u03b5\u03b8\u03b1, _we\nare lost_.\u201d[73] This way of speaking is still in use among sea-faring\nmen, and indeed among others. Nothing is more common than for men to\nsay, Such a vessel, or such a ship\u2019s crew, or such a person, was lost\nat sea, in such a place, and at such a time. It is also to be observed,\nthey do not say, We are in danger of being lost, or we are ready to\nbe lost, or we shall be lost, but, _we are lost_. Which shows what\napprehension they had of their condition; they saw no probability of\nescaping by any naturally rational method; they looked on themselves as\nlost.\n\nAll the Evangelists agree in this, though they do not use the same\nword. Mark mentions the place where he was asleep, _in the hinder\npart of the ship_, or stern, where he, as Lord and Master, should be.\nBut to the great concern of the disciples, he was there in a deep or\nsound sleep, as the word \u03b1\u03c6\u03c5\u03c0\u03bd\u03c9\u03c3\u03b5, which Luke uses, signifies, and is\nconfirmed by the loud cry, and repeated call of the disciples to him,\nsaying, \u201cMaster, Master, we perish!\u201d This sleep, doubtless, was brought\non him through his great fatigue in preaching all the preceding day,\nand from the great concourse of people resorting to him, to have the\nsick healed, and devils cast out. He seems to have signified that he\nwas very weary, just before he entered into the ship, to a man who said\nto him, \u201cMaster, I will follow thee whithersoever thou goest:\u201d the\nanswer he returned was, \u201cThe foxes have holes, and the birds of the\nair have nests; but the Son of Man hath not where to lay his head.\u201d\nIntimating as though he wanted an opportunity to lie down, and take\nsome rest: and accordingly, when he was come into the ship, placing\nhimself at the stern, he lay down, and fell fast asleep.\n\nChrist was their last resource, but he was asleep in the same ship.\nHowever, they resolved to apply to him, and in so doing were certainly\nright. They used this language, \u201cLord, save us;\u201d which implies that\nthey believed he was able to save them; and indeed the considerable\nmiracles which had been so lately wrought in their presence, were\nsufficient to convince them of his ability to deliver them in their\ngreatest extremity. Our Lord indeed blamed them for their incredulity\nand want of faith. The question he put to them, as related by Luke, is\n\u201cWhere is your faith?\u201d You professed to have faith in me, and doubtless\nhad a little while ago; where is it now? Mark expresses himself, \u201cWhy\nare ye so fearful? how is it that ye have no faith?\u201d that is, none in\nexercise, none sufficient to suppress your alarming fears? Matthew\nsays, \u201cWhy are ye fearful, Oh ye of little faith?\u201d It would seem they\nhad no faith in Christ when sleeping, though not destitute of it when\nawake; but for this he justly reprimanded them. For though, as the Son\nof Man, he was asleep, yet as the Son of God, by nature, he neither\nsleeps nor slumbers. He was equally able to save them when sleeping as\nwell as when waking.\n\nIt is not only certain that he was able to save them, but it is matter\nof fact that he in reality did so. Being awaked by his disciples, he\nrises up, and, with a majestic voice, and in an authoritative manner,\nshowing, as it were, some kind of resentment at the wind and sea, as\nif they had exceeded their commission, and the one had blown and the\nother raged too much, and too long, rebukes them, saying, \u201cPeace, be\nstill:\u201d \u03a3\u03b9\u03ce\u03c0\u03b1, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03af\u03bc\u03c9\u03c3\u03bf, be silent, hold thy peace, stop thy mouth, put\na bridle on it, (as the last Greek word signifies;) go on no longer to\nthreaten with shipwreck, and loss of lives. On this the wind ceased,\nand the sea became calm and smooth. The ship now moved quietly on, and\nthey all arrived safe at the land of the Gadarenes, which is opposite\nto Galilee.\n\nThis had a very considerable effect both on the mariners and disciples,\nwho rightly concluded from hence that their deliverer was more than\na man. There was such a display of majesty, such a lustre of Divine\npower appeared in this behest, as filled them with astonishment and\nfear. They _marvelled_ greatly, and _feared exceedingly_. Matthew seems\nto relate this, as though the mariners were the only persons who were\naffected with their deliverance: the men said one to another, \u201cWhat\nmanner of man is this, that even the winds and the sea obey him?\u201d\nBut Mark and Luke represent it as a question of the disciples to one\nanother, \u201cWhat manner of man is this?\u201d of what qualities, powers,\nand perfections? He must be more than a mere man, he can be no other\nthan the mighty God, \u201cwhom the winds and the sea obey.\u201d It is to be\nobserved, that the word _man_, inserted in our translation, is not in\nthe question, as expressed by any of the Evangelists, in the original,\nbut \u201cWho is this?\u201d The disciples were sufficiently convinced by this\nmiracle, which so nearly concerned themselves, that their Master must\nbe God over all, blessed forever.\n\nThis amazing instance of the power of Christ, shows clearly his Deity.\nSince he has such authority over the wind and seas, it must unavoidably\nfollow that he is truly and properly God. It is said, \u201che rebuked the\nwind and the sea,\u201d a phrase that is used only of the Most High God, who\nstands distinguished from all other beings by this, that \u201che stilleth\nthe noise of the seas, the noise of their waves, and the tumult of the\npeople.\u201d The Messiah makes use of this as an argument to prove, that\nhe is able to redeem, because he can rebuke the sea, dry it up, and\ncover the heavens with clouds. \u201cIs my hand shortened at all, that it\ncannot redeem? or have I no power to deliver? behold, at my rebuke I\ndry up the sea: I make the rivers a wilderness. I clothe the heavens\nwith blackness, and I make sackcloth their covering.\u201d That it is the\nMessiah who here speaks, the following words abundantly declare: \u201cThe\nLord God hath given me the tongue of the learned, that I should know\nhow to speak a word in season to him that is weary: he wakeneth morning\nby morning; he wakeneth mine ear to hear as the learned. The Lord\nGod hath opened mine ear, and I was not rebellious, neither turned\naway back. I gave my back to the smiters, and my cheeks to them that\nplucked off the hair: I hid not my face from shame and spitting.\u201d Now\non our Lord rebuking the wind and the sea, the one _ceased_, and the\nother became _calm_; this was done by speaking a word only, in an\nauthoritative manner. Moses divided the waters of the Red Sea with a\nrod; Joshua, the waters of Jordan with the ark of the covenant; Elisha,\nwith the Prophet\u2019s mantle: but here Christ calmed the raging billows\nwith a word. When he rebuked the wind and the sea, not only the former\ninstantly ceased to rage, but the sea immediately became calm, which\nwas very unusual and extraordinary; for after the wind has ceased, and\nthe storm is over, the waters of the sea commonly continue raging, and\nin a violent motion for a considerable time. Must not that man be an\ninfidel, who can read this account, and deny the Deity of Jesus Christ?\nOr, must he not be forced to one or other of these two conclusions,\neither to deny the truth of the fact, or to believe that Jesus Christ\nis truly and properly God?\n\n    [_Addenda on Atmosphere._\n\n    1. By more recent and accurate experiments it is\n    established, that the relative proportions of oxygen and\n    hydrogen in air, are not precisely as given by Mr. Wood; but\n    are 21 of oxygen, and 79 of hydrogen in 100 parts.\n\n    2. Experiments on the _compressibility_ of the atmosphere\n    have been carried to a much greater extent than stated in the\n    text, and since our author wrote. It was generally believed\n    that air might be made to assume a _liquid_ form by pressure;\n    and it has been recently accomplished by Mr. Perkins, as he\n    states, by a pressure of 2,000 atmospheres.\n\n    3. Our author very justly states, that the _gaseous_ state\n    of the atmosphere is owing to the quantity of _caloric_ in\n    combination, the entire _abstraction_ of which would render\n    our atmosphere a body as solid as the diamond. This caloric is\n    not imparted to it by the beams of the sun _passing through_\n    it; because, radiant matter does not warm gaseous bodies by\n    passing through them. This caloric is chiefly supplied from the\n    _earth_, by the lowest stratum of air coming in contact with\n    it, and when heated ascends, and thus gives place to a colder\n    stratum. Hence the air is much warmer at the surface of the\n    earth, than in its higher regions.\n\n    4. Our author inclines to the opinion that the atmosphere\n    is the product of a _chemical_ combination of the gases, yet\n    great names, and weighty arguments are in favor of the opposite\n    theory of a _mere mixture_ of gases.\n\n    5. There is one point not presented in the preceding\n    section. It is well known that oxygen is abstracted from the\n    air by _combustion_, and the _breathing_ of animals. This\n    abstraction is very large. From whence then comes the supply\n    of oxygen sufficient to keep up the constitutional quantity of\n    this gas in the atmosphere? The only answer I have met with to\n    this difficult question is this: The _growing of vegetables_\n    is supposed to supply it, as it is well known that they absorb\n    carbonic acid during the day, and evolve oxygen. But it is also\n    well known that this process is _reversed_ during the night.\n    Hence it would appear that this is not a sufficient cause.\n    Still it would seem there must be a sufficient supply from some\n    source, as chemists have not been able to detect any change in\n    the constitution of the air.\n\n    May not the oxygen be _restored_ back again by _evolution_\n    from those bodies which have _absorbed_ it, _upon their\n    decomposition_? Thus there would be a successive absorption and\n    evolution as the process of nature went on; which would tend to\n    keep up an equal distribution of oxygen.]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFootnotes - Chapter III\n\n    [53] Dr. Clarke on Gen. i, 6.\n\n    [54] Benson on Gen. i, 6.\n\n    [55] Dalton\u2019s New System of Chemical Philosophy, part 1, p.\n    1.\n\n    [56] Lavoisier\u2019s Elements of Chemistry, p. 78.\n\n    [57] Manchester Memoirs, New Series, vol. i, p. 254.\n\n    [58] When solid substances are rendered permanently\n    a\u00ebriform by heat, the air thus produced is called a _gas_. John\n    Baptist van Helmont, a physician and chemist, born at Brussels,\n    in 1577, and educated at Louvain, was the first chemist who\n    made use of this term to denote an elastic fluid. He gave fixed\n    air the name of _gas_.\n\n    The oxygen gas in atmospheric air is the principle\n    of combustion, as the vehicle of heat; and is absolutely\n    necessary for the support of animal life. Pure oxygen gas\n    has the property of accelerating the circulation of all the\n    animal fluids, and occasions the most rapid combustion of all\n    combustible substances; so that it is the most energetic and\n    powerful agent that chemists are acquainted with. Oxygen gas is\n    a little heavier than atmospheric air, and 740 times lighter\n    than water.\n\n    Nitrogen gas is chiefly distinguished by certain _negative_\n    qualities, such as being incapable of supporting combustion and\n    animal life. It is uninflammable, and somewhat lighter than\n    atmospheric air. Nitrogen gas has the effect of neutralizing,\n    in some measure, the properties of oxygen gas, and rendering\n    it fit for respiration and combustion. By the union of\n    nitrogen gas with the oxygen gas this change is effected: the\n    latter, which would burn every thing within its reach with an\n    unparalleled activity, is, as it were, dissolved and diluted;\n    and the nature of the former is so much enveloped by the\n    latter, that the compound possesses properties different from\n    either of these gasses, so as to be fitted for every purpose\n    for which it was designed.\n\n    Though nitrogen gas is, by itself, so noxious to animals,\n    it answers an important end when mixed with oxygen gas in\n    atmospheric air. Were it not for this large quantity of\n    nitrogen in the atmosphere, the blood would flow with too great\n    rapidity through the vessels, and all animals would have too\n    great spirits; the consequence of which would be, that the\n    life of man would not be protracted to the length that it now\n    is. \u201cIf the proportions of oxygen and nitrogen were reversed\n    in the atmospheric air, says Dr. Lambe, the air taken in by\n    respiration would be more stimulant, the circulation would\n    become accelerated, and all the secretions would be increased:\n    but the tone of the vessels, thus stimulated to increased\n    action, would be destroyed by over-excitement; and, if the\n    supply from the stomach were not equal to the consumption, the\n    body must inevitably waste and decay.\u201d Hence the wisdom of God\n    is remarkably displayed in the constitution of the atmospheric\n    air! See Parke\u2019s Chemical Catechism, chap. ii.\n\n    [59] \u201cMr. Cavendish,\u201d says Dr. O. Gregory, \u201cis the first\n    who endeavored to establish that the proportions of the two\n    principal elements of the atmospheric air were constant. The\n    observations since made by M. de Mairy in Spain, M. Berthollet,\n    in Egypt and in France; Mr. Davy, in England; and by Dr.\n    Beddoes on the air brought from the coast of Guinea, seem\n    to have confirmed this grand result. But one of the finest\n    experiments made on this subject is that of Gay Lussac, in\n    France, who, having been elevated alone in a balloon to the\n    height of 6,900 metres, the greatest ever attained by any\n    person, brought some atmospheric air from these regions. This\n    air, being analysed at his return, comparatively with that\n    on the surface of the earth, gave the same principles in the\n    same proportions; a proof that the chemical constitution of\n    the atmosphere at these great heights, is the same as at the\n    surface of the earth. This result has been since confirmed by\n    the experiments made by Messrs. Humboldt and Gay Lussac on\n    eudiometry. The air of the surface of the earth, analysed at\n    different days, at various hours and temperatures, presented\n    no change in its composition: it always contained 0.21 of\n    oxygen in volume, 0.783 of azote, 0.003 of hydrogen, and 0.004\n    of carbonic acid. Biot and Arrago have also lately verified\n    this grand result. The atmospheric air, analysed in places\n    the most distant from each other, in deep valleys, on high\n    mountains, on banks of lakes, and in the glaciers of Chamouny,\n    always presented to them the same composition.\u201d Ha\u00fcy\u2019s Natural\n    Philosophy, Note, vol. i. p. 218.\n\n    [60] Sturm\u2019s Reflections, vol. iv. p. 49.\n\n    [61] \u201cGalileo, to whom was reserved the glory of preparing,\n    long before, the way for the theory of Newton, by the discovery\n    of the law to which the acceleration of heavy bodies is\n    subjected, having let fall from a great height different balls\n    of gold, of lead, of copper, or porphyry, with a ball of wax,\n    observed that all these bodies employed nearly the same time\n    in falling to the earth. The ball of wax, the only one that\n    was sensibly retarded, was no more than four inches from the\n    earth at the end of the fall of the other bodies. Galileo,\n    considering that this difference was very far from being\n    proportional to that of the weights, concluded that it depended\n    solely on the resistance of the air. This conjecture has been\n    since verified by direct experiments, consisting in letting\n    fall from the top of a tube, within which the vacuum has been\n    made the most perfect possible, bodies of different materials,\n    such as lead, iron, wood, cork, feathers, wool, &c, and it has\n    been found that none of these bodies will then permit of our\n    perceiving any sensible difference in the duration of their\n    fall. As to bodies which raise themselves in air, such as\n    smoke, it is known that their ascension is occasioned by the\n    circumstance of their being specifically lighter than air: they\n    are with respect to this fluid, situated as a piece of cork\n    is with respect to water, which when immersed in that water\n    to a certain depth, and then left to itself, rises again to\n    the surface. The vulgar regard all as being without gravity\n    which rises instead of falling: whence Newton remarked that the\n    weight of the vulgar was the excess of the absolute weight of\n    a body above the weight of the air. The ascent of air-balloons\n    in the midst of the air is well calculated to undeceive the\n    partisans of this theory of bodies without heaviness.\u201d Ha\u00fcy\u2019s\n    Natural Philosophy, vol. i. p. 48.\n\n    [62] To Otto Guericke, a burgo-master of Magdeburgh, we\n    are indebted for the invention of the pneumatic machine, or\n    air-pump.\n\n    [63] The atmosphere presses equally on the whole surface of\n    the water in the well, until the rod of the pump is moved; but,\n    by forcing the rod down, the bucket compresses the air in the\n    lower part of the pump tree, which being elastic, forces its\n    way out of the tree through the valve; so that when the bucket\n    is again raised, that part of the pump tree under the bucket\n    is void of air; and the _weight of the atmosphere_, pressing\n    on the body of water in the well, forces up a column of water\n    to supply its place; the next stroke of the pump rod causes\n    another column of water to rise; and as long as the bucket fits\n    the pump tree close enough to produce a vacuum, a constant\n    stream of water may be drawn from below. Parkes\u2019s Chemical\n    Catechism, pp. 47, 418.\n\n    [64] As the earth\u2019s surface contains, observes Mr.\n    Ferguson, in round numbers, 200,000,000 square miles, must\n    contain no less than 5,575,680,000,000,000 square feet; which\n    being multiplied by 2,160, the numbers of pounds on each square\n    foot, amounts to 12,043,468,800,000,000,000 pounds, for the\n    weight of the whole atmosphere. Mr. Coates computed that the\n    weight of the air which pressed upon the whole surface of the\n    earth, is equal to that of a globe of lead sixty miles in\n    diameter.\n\n    The following simple experiments within the reach of every\n    one\u2019s observation, show clearly the weight or gravitating power\n    of the air. Let any one lay his hand on the top of a long\n    perpendicular pipe, such as a pump filled to the brim with\n    water, which is at first prevented from running out by the\n    valve below: then let the valve be opened, so that the water\n    may descend, and he will find his hand so hard pressed to the\n    top of the pipe that he cannot draw it away. The prop is now\n    gone; he has no pressure under his hand; a column of air, 45\n    miles high forces it down by its weight; and he must let in\n    the air under it before the hand can be withdrawn.--If we shut\n    the nozzle and valve-hole of a pair of bellows after having\n    squeezed the air out of them, we shall find that a very great\n    force, even some hundred pounds, is necessary for separating\n    the boards; they being kept together by the pressure of the air\n    which surrounds them.--If any one will apply the open end of a\n    syringe to his hand, and then draw up the piston, he will find\n    his hand sucked into the syringe with great force, and it will\n    give pain, and the soft part of the hand will swell into it,\n    being pressed in by the neighboring parts, which are subject to\n    the action of the external air.\n\n    [65] A heavy air is more favorable to health than a\n    light one, because it promotes the circulation of the blood,\n    and insensible perspiration. When the air is heavy, it is\n    generally clear; whereas a light air is generally accompanied\n    with clouds, rain, or snow, which render it damp. Too great\n    a dryness of the air is very injurious to the human body;\n    but this seldom happens for any length of time, except in\n    sandy countries. A damp air is very unwholesome, because it\n    relaxes the fibres, obstructs insensible perspiration, and\n    if heat accompany the dampness, it disposes the humors to\n    putrefy. An air too hot dilates all the fluids of the body, and\n    occasions sweatings, which bring on weakness and oppression.\n    On the other hand, when the air is to cold, the solid parts\n    contract excessively, and the fluids are condensed; hence\n    result obstructions and inflammations. The best air is that\n    which is neither too heavy nor too light, too moist nor too\n    dry, and which is not impregnated with noxious vapors. Sturm\u2019s\n    Reflections, vol. iv, p. 50.\n\n    [66] \u201cThe most ingenious theories of the periodical winds\n    we recollect, are those of Mr. Hadley, first proposed in Phil.\n    Trans. vol. xxxix, p. 58, and lately revised by Mr. Dalton,\n    in his Meteorological Essays,--and of Dr. Halley, first\n    published in Phil. Transac. vol. xvi, p. 153, and recently\n    defended by Dr. Kirwan, in his paper, \u2018On the Variations of\n    the Atmosphere.\u2019 In the latter mentioned paper Kirwan has\n    given some interesting information relative to variable winds,\n    as westerly, easterly, southerly, northerly, and opposite\n    concomitant winds; also relative to the succession of winds,\n    and the Sirocco. See likewise the Philosophical Magazine,\n    No. 60. Some curious facts respecting winds, and waves on\n    the surface of the sea, are related by Mr. Horsburg in the\n    Philosophical Journal, No. 60.\u201d Ha\u00fcy\u2019s Nat. Phil. vol. i, pp.\n    285,286.\n\n    [67] Odyss. v. 295.\n\n    [68] A celebrated architect, born at Formio, in Italy. He\n    was greatly esteemed by Julius C\u00e6sar, and employed by Augustus\n    in constructing public buildings and warlike machines. He wrote\n    a valuable Treatise on Architecture.\n\n    [69] This division, with the several names on each point,\n    was made by the Germans, as most commodious; but these names\n    are not easily expressed in other languages. They are thus\n    marked in English:\n\n        North.          East.           South.         West.\n        N and by E      E and by S      S and by W     W and by N\n        N N E           E S E           S S W          W N W\n        N E and by N    S E and by E    S W and by S   N W and by W\n        N E             S E             S W            N W\n        N E and by E    S E and by S    S W and by W   N W and by N\n        E N E           S S E           W S W          N N W\n        E and by N      S and by E      W and by S     N and by W\n\n    [70] \u201cThe most decisive circumstance tending to show the\n    great velocity of brisk winds,\u201d says Dr. O. Gregory, \u201cis that\n    of the rapid passage of the celebrated a\u00ebronaut M. Garnerin,\n    from London to Colchester. On the 30th of June, 1802, the wind\n    being strong, though not impetuous, M. Garnerin and another\n    gentleman ascended with an inflammable air-balloon from\n    Ranelagh Gardens, on the south-west of London, between four and\n    five o\u2019clock in the afternoon; and in exactly three-quarters of\n    an hour they descended near the sea, at the distance of four\n    miles from Colchester. The distance of the places of ascent and\n    descent is at least 60 miles; so that, allowing no time for\n    the elevation and depression of the balloon, but, supposing\n    the whole period occupied in transferring it in a path nearly\n    parallel to the earth\u2019s surface, its velocity must have been at\n    the rate of 80 miles per hour. If, therefore, the wind moved\n    no faster than the balloon, its velocity was then 80 miles per\n    hour, or 117\u00bd feet per second; a celerity but little less than\n    the greatest assigned by Kraaft: and hence it is probable, that\n    the velocity of very impetuous winds is not less than 130 or\n    140 feet per second.\u201d Ha\u00fcy\u2019s Nat. Phil. vol. i, p. 282.\n\n    [71] Mr. Bruce, who, in his journey through the desert,\n    suffered from the simoon, gives of it the following graphical\n    description. \u201cAt eleven o\u2019clock, while we contemplated with\n    great pleasure the rugged top of Chiggre, to which we were fast\n    approaching, and where we were to solace ourselves with plenty\n    of good water, Idris, our guide, cried out, with a loud voice,\n    \u2018Fall on your faces, for here is the simoon.\u2019 I saw from the\n    south-east a haze come, in color like the purple part of the\n    rainbow, but not so compressed or thick. It did not occupy\n    twenty yards in breadth, and was about twelve feet high from\n    the ground. It was a kind of blush on the air, and it moved\n    very rapidly: for I scarce could turn to fall on the ground\n    with my head to the northward, when I felt the heat of its\n    current on my face. We all lay flat on the ground as if dead,\n    till Idris told us it was blown over. The meteor or purple-haze\n    which I saw, was indeed passed, but the light air that still\n    blew was of heat sufficient to threaten suffocation. For my\n    part, I found distinctly in my breast that I had imbibed a part\n    of it, nor was I free of an asthmatic sensation, till I had\n    been some months in Italy, at the baths of Poretta, near two\n    years afterwards.\u201d Though the severity of this blast seems to\n    have passed over them almost instantaneously, it continued to\n    blow so as to exhaust them till twenty minutes before five in\n    the afternoon, lasting through all its stages very near six\n    hours, and leaving them in a state of the utmost despondency.\n\n    _Fatal Simoon._--Extract of a letter from Smyrna:--We have\n    received intelligence of a dreadful calamity having overtaken\n    the largest caravan of the season, on its route from Mecca\n    to Aleppo. The caravan consisted of 2,000 souls, merchants\n    and travellers from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf, pilgrims\n    returning from Mecca, and a numerous train of attendants; the\n    whole escorted by 400 military. The march was in three columns.\n    On the 15th of August last, they entered the great Arabian\n    Desert, in which they journeyed seven days, and were already\n    approaching its edge. A few hours more would have placed them\n    beyond danger; but on the morning of the 23d, just as they had\n    struck their tents, and commenced their march, a wind arose\n    from the north-east, and blew with tremendous violence. They\n    increased the rapidity of their march to escape the threatening\n    danger; but the fatal Kamsin had set in. On a sudden dense\n    clouds were observed, whose extremity obscured the horizon, and\n    swept the face of the desert. They approached the columns, and\n    obscured the line of march. Both men and beast, struck with a\n    sense of common danger, uttered loud cries. The next moment\n    they fell beneath its pestiferous influence lifeless corpses.\n    Of 2,800 souls, composing the caravan, not more than 20 escaped\n    this calamity; they owed their safety to the swiftness of their\n    dromedaries. Literary Panorama, for January, 1814.\n\n    [72] See Baptist Magazine, for December, 1816.\n\n    [73] So the word is translated Luke xix, 10; 2 Cor. iv, 3.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV.\n\nTHIRD DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--THE SEA.\n\n    Water and land separated -- Formation of the sea -- Its\n    restrictions -- Extent -- Depth -- Composition -- Saltness\n    -- Motion -- Tides -- Four states of water -- Circulation --\n    Religious improvement.\n\n\nOn the _third day_, the earth was drained, and the waters, which before\ncovered its surface, were gathered into copious receptacles, and called\nseas. God said, \u201cLet the waters under the heaven be gathered into one\nplace, and let the dry land appear; and it was so. And God called the\ndry land Earth; and the gathering together of the waters called he\nSeas.\u201d The almighty Creator proceeds to separate, put in order, and\ncontrol the element nearest to _light_ and _air_ in quality and use,\nand, although not elastic, yet of great power. Probably the air was\nused by him as the great agent in gathering the waters into one place.\nThus, instead of the confusion, which existed when the earth and the\nwater were mixed in one great mass, there is now order; and by their\nseparation each is rendered useful: the earth affording a habitation\nand support for man and the various orders of land animals; and the\nwater forming an abode for the numerous tribes of living creatures\nadapted to subsist in that liquid element.[74]\n\nPrevious to this arrangement, the water, being a pure element, was\nabove the earth. Thus the Psalmist, \u201cThou coveredst it with the deep\nas with a garment: the waters stood above the mountains,\u201d so that they\ndid not appear. \u201cAt thy rebuke they fled; at the voice of thy thunder\nthey hasted away.\u201d At the omnipotent word they started back, and shrunk\naway, says Bishop Patrick; like an affrighted slave at the thunder\nof his master\u2019s threatenings, if his commands are not obeyed. They\ngathered themselves in those places where they now are, which by Moses\nare called seas; and there God shut them up, confining them that they\nmight not return to cover the earth. God \u201cbrake up,\u201d for the reception\nof the waters, his \u201cdecreed place,\u201d that vast concave or hollow in the\nearth; \u201cand set bars and doors,\u201d banks and shores, the weak sand to\ncontrol this element, which, however it roar and struggle, it cannot\npass.\n\nIt is wonderful that the sea, which has a natural disposition, from its\nbeing a purer and lighter element, to be above the earth, should not\noverflow it; but the amazing power of Omnipotence retains it within its\nprescribed limits. For he has pronounced, \u201cHitherto shalt thou come,\nbut no further; and here shall thy proud waves be stayed.\u201d As if he had\nsaid, Though thy tides flow with mighty strength, though the swelling\nbillows of thy pride (so the original) rise high in a storm, and dash\nagainst the shore with impetuous force and overwhelming rage, yet here\nshall they stop: though they roar and foam, as if irritated at the\nopposing strand, yet dare not to approach beyond those limits to thee\nassigned; but, obedient to thy Lord and Master, submissively retire.\nHere we see the power and dominion of the supreme Being in the kingdom\nof nature, whose sway the sea is subject to! Our preservation from its\nthreatening destruction, by the continual restrictions it is under, is\na perpetual expression of Divine goodness and mercy, and should induce\nall men to live always in the reverential fear of God. \u201cFear ye not\nme? saith the Lord: will ye not tremble at my presence, which have\nplaced the sand for the bound of the sea, by a perpetual decree, that\nit cannot pass; and though the waters thereof toss themselves, yet they\ncannot pass over it.\u201d\n\nIf we look upon the map of the world, we shall find that the ocean\noccupies a considerably greater surface of the globe than the land\nis found to do. Although the ocean, properly speaking, is but one\nextensive sheet of water, continued over every part of the globe\nwithout interruption; and although no part is divided from the rest,\nyet geographers have distinguished it by different names, as the\nAtlantic or Western Ocean; the Northern, Southern, Pacific, Indian,\nand German Oceans. In this vast receptacle, almost all the rivers of\nthe earth ultimately terminate. And yet these vast and inexhaustable\nsupplies do not seem to increase its stores; for it is neither\napparently swelled by their tribute, nor diminished by their failure;\nit continues constantly the same. Indeed, the quantity of water of\nall the rivers and lakes in the world is nothing compared to that\ncontained in this prodigious reservoir. And some natural philosophers\nhave carried their ideas on this subject so far as to assert, in\nconsequence of certain calculations, that, if the bed of the sea were\nempty, all the rivers of the world flowing into it with a continuance\nof their present stores, would take up at least 800 years to fill it\nagain to its present height.[75]\n\nTo ascertain the _depth_ of the sea has been found impracticable,\nboth on account of the numerous experiments which it would be found\nnecessary to make, and the want of proper instruments for that purpose.\nBeyond a certain depth the sea has hitherto been found unfathomable;\nand though several methods have been contrived to obviate this\ndifficulty, none of them has completely answered the purpose. We know\nin general that the depth of the sea increases gradually as we leave\nthe shore; but if this continued beyond a certain distance, the depth\nin the middle of the ocean would be prodigious. Indeed, the numerous\nislands every where scattered in the sea demonstrate the contrary,\nby showing us that the bottom of the water is unequal like the land,\nand that so far from uniformly sinking, it sometimes rises into lofty\nmountains. If the depth of the sea be in proportion to the elevation\nof the land, as has been generally supposed, its greatest depth will\nnot exceed five or six miles; for there is no mountain six miles\nperpendicular above the level of the sea. The sea has never been\nactually sounded to a greater depth than a mile and 66 feet; every\nthing beyond that, therefore, rests entirely upon conjecture and\nanalogical reasoning, which, in this case, are in no wise conclusive.\nAlong the coasts, where the depth of the sea is generally well known,\nit has always been found proportioned to the height of the shore; when\nthe coast is high and mountainous, the sea that washes it is deep;\nwhen, on the contrary, the coast is low, the water is shallow. Whether\nthis analogy holds at a distance from the shore, experiments alone can\ndetermine.\n\nWater is an uninflammable fluid, says Dr. O. Gregory, and, when pure,\nis transparent, colorless, and void of taste and smell. Mr. Cavendish\nmade a discovery that it is formed by the union of _hydrogen_ and\n_oxygen_. It may, therefore, be considered as _oxide of hydrogen_:\noxygen and hydrogen appearing to unite, only in that certain proportion\nof which water is the result. In 1798, (observes Mr. Parkes) Mr. Sequin\nmade a grand experiment for the composition of water. He expended no\nless than 25,582 cubic inches (or nearly two hogsheads) of inflammable\nair, and 12,457 of vital air. The first weighed 1,039 grains, and\nthe second 6,210, amounting to 7,249 grains, and the water obtained\namounted to 7,245 grains, or about three-fourths of a wine pint. The\nloss was only four grains. Another experiment was afterwards made\nby Le Fevre, in which nearly two pounds and a quarter of water was\nproduced.\n\nThe sea water contains a quantity of _salt_, but not in the same\nproportions every where. In the torrid zone, where otherwise, from the\nexcessive heat, it would be in danger of putrefaction, the water is\nfound most salt; as we advance northward its briny quality diminishes,\ntill at the poles it is nearly gone altogether. Under the line,\nLucas found that the sea comprised a seventh part of solid contents,\nconsisting chiefly of sea-salt. At Harwich, he found it yielded 1-25 of\nthe same matter. At Carlscroon, in Sweden, it contains 1-30 part, and\non the coast of Greenland a great deal less. This gradual diminution\nof saltness from the equator to the pole, is not, however, without\nparticular exceptions. The Mediterranean sea contain 1-22 of the\nsea-salt, which is less than the German sea contains. The saltness of\nsome seas, or of particular parts of the same seas, may be increased,\nas Mr. Boyle intimates, from rocks and other masses of salt, either at\nthe bottom of the sea, or dispersed near their shores.\n\nThis phenomenon of the sea perplexed the philosophers before the time\nof Aristotle, and surpassed even the great genius of that philosopher.\nFather Kircher, after having consulted three and thirty authors\nupon the subject, could not help remarking, that the fluctuations\nof the ocean itself were scarcely more various than the opinions\nconcerning the origin of its saline impregnation. Bernadine Gomesins,\n(observes Bishop Watson) about 200 years ago, published an ingenious\ntreatise on salt: in this treatise, after reciting and refuting the\nopinions of Empedocles, Anaxagoras, and Aristotle, on the subject in\nquestion, he proposes his own; wherein he maintains, that the sea was\noriginally created in the same state in which we at present find it,\nand impregnated, from the very first, with the salt which it contains.\nIndeed, we cannot account for the general saltness of the sea from\nsecond causes; hence we must suppose it has had this property from\nthe creation. Naturalists assure us, that, though some few species of\nfishes thrive in fresh water, and some others live alternately in fresh\nand salt, yet by far the greatest number cannot exist out of the sea;\nwhich is a proof that the sea was at the creation impregnated with salt.\n\nThe saltness of the sea has been considered by some as a peculiar\nblessing from Providence, in order to keep so great an element pure\nand wholesome: but facts prove that this property is not capable of\npreserving it from putrefaction. Sir Robert Hawkins, one of our most\nenlightened navigators, gives an account of a calm, in which the sea\ncontinuing for some time without its usual motion, began to assume a\nvery formidable appearance. \u201cWere it not (says he) for the moving of\nthe sea, by the force of winds, tides, and currents, it would corrupt\nall the world. The experiment of this I saw in the year 1590, lying\nwith a fleet about the islands of Azores, almost six months; the\ngreatest part of the which time we were becalmed. Upon which all the\nsea became so replenished with various sorts of gelies, and forms of\nserpents, adders, and snakes, as seemed wonderful; some green, some\nblack, some yellow, some white, some of divers colors, and many of\nthem had life; and some there were a yard and a half and two yards\nlong; which had I not seen, I could hardly have believed. And hereof\nare witnesses all the companies of the ships which were then present;\nso that hardly a man could draw a bucket of water clear of some\ncorruption. In which voyage, towards the end thereof, many of every\nship fell sick, and began to die apace. But the speedy passage into\nour country was a remedy to the crazed, and a preservative for those\nthat were not touched.\u201d[76] Mr. Boyle informs us, that he once kept a\nquantity of sea water, taken from the English channel, for some time\nbarrelled up; and, in a few weeks, it began to acquire a fetid smell.\nHe was also assured by one of his acquaintance, who had been becalmed\nfor about fourteen days in the Indian ocean, that the water, for want\nof motion, began to stink; and, that had the calm continued much\nlonger, the stench would probably have poisoned him. It is the motion,\ntherefore, and not the saltness of the sea, that preserves it in its\npresent state of salubrity.[77]\n\nThe sea has three kinds of motion: the _first_ is that undulation\nwhich is occasioned by the wind. This motion is evidently confined to\nthe surface; the bottom, even during the most violent storms, remains\nperfectly calm. Mr. Boyle has remarked, from the testimony of several\ndivers, that the sea is affected by the winds to the depth only of six\nfeet. It would follow from this, that the height of the waves above\nthe surface does not exceed six feet; and that this holds, in the\nMediterranean sea at least, we are informed by the Compte de Marsigli;\nthough he also sometimes observed them, during a very violent tempest,\nrise two feet higher.\n\nThe _second_ kind of motion is that continual tendency which the whole\nwater in the sea has towards the west. It is greater near the equator\nthan about the poles; and, indeed, cannot be said to take place at all\nin the northern hemisphere beyond the tropic. It begins on the west\nside of America, where it is moderate; hence that part of the ocean has\nbeen called _Pacific_. As the waters advance westward, their motion is\naccelerated; so that, after having traversed the globe, they strike\nwith great violence on the eastern shore of America. Being stopped\nby that continent, they turn northward, and run with considerable\nimpetuosity in the Gulf of Mexico; from thence they proceed along\nthe coast of North America, till they come to the south side of the\ngreat bank of Newfoundland, when they turn off, and run down to the\nWestern Isles. This current is called the _Gulf stream_. It was first\naccurately described by Dr. Franklin, who remarked also, that the\nwater in it having been originally heated in the torrid zone, cools so\ngradually in its passage northward, that even the latitude might be\nfound in any part of the stream by means of a thermometer. This motion\nof the sea westward has never been explained: it seems to have some\nconnection with the trade-winds, and the diurnal revolution of the\nearth upon its axis.\n\nThe _third_, and most remarkable motion of the sea, is the tide; which\nis a regular swell of the ocean every 12 hours, accounted for from the\nprincipal of gravitation. The sagacious Kepler long ago conjectured,\nthat the earth and moon, and every particle of them, mutually gravitate\ntowards each other, and are the cause of the tides. If, says he, the\nearth ceased to attract its waters towards itself, all the water in\nthe ocean would rise and flow into the moon: the sphere of the moon\u2019s\nattraction extends to our earth, and draws up the water. This, at that\ntime, was mere conjecture; for Sir Isaac Newton was the first who\nclearly pointed out the cause of this phenomenon. On the shores of the\nocean, and in bays, creeks, and harbors, which communicate freely with\nit, the waters rise above their mean height twice a day, and as often\nsink below it, forming what is called a _flood_ and an _ebb_, a _high_\nand _low water_. It has been stated, that in the middle of the sea the\ntide seldom rises higher than one or two feet; but, on the coast, it\nfrequently reaches to the height of 45 feet, and, in some places, even\nto more. At Plymouth, it is sometimes 21 feet between the greatest and\nleast depth of the water in the same day, and sometimes only 12 feet.\n\nWhen the sun and moon act conjointly on the tides, which is at the\nchange and full of the moon, they are stronger and run higher than at\nother times, and are called _spring tides_; but when the sun and moon\nare 90 degrees apart, their attractive powers, being in opposition to\neach other, occasion the tides to be weaker and lower than at other\ntimes, and these are called _neap tides_. The word _neap_ is derived\nfrom the Saxon; it signifies low, decrescent, and is used only of the\ntide. These different heights of tide are observed to succeed each\nother in a regular series, diminishing from the greatest to the least,\nand then increasing from the least to the greatest, according to the\nage and situation of the moon.\n\n    \u201cThe moon turns ocean in his bed,\n    From side to side, in constant ebb and flow,\n    And purifies from stench his watery realms.\u201d\n\nSir Isaac Newton calculated the attractive powers of the sun and moon\non the tides, and found the attraction of the latter to be about three\ntimes greater than that of the former.\n\nWater is found to exist in four states: namely, solid, or ice;\nliquid, or water; vapor, or steam; and in a state of composition\nin other bodies. The younger Lemery observes, that ice is only the\nre-establishment of the parts of water in their natural state;\nthat the mere absence of fire is sufficient to account for this\nre-establishment; and that the fluidity of water is a real fusion, like\nmetals exposed to the fire; differing only in this, that a greater\nquantity of fire is necessary to the one than the other.\n\nUnderneath the poles, water is always solid; there it is similar to the\nhardest rocks, and may be formed by the chisel of the statuary like a\nstone. The following circumstance, noticed by Bishop Watson, will show\nthe solidity that water is capable of acquiring when divested of a\nlarge portion of caloric. It is related that at the whimsical marriage\nof Prince Gallitzen, in 1739, the Russians applied ice to the same\npurposes as stone. A house, consisting of two apartments, was built\nwith large blocks of ice; and the icy cannon, which were fired in honor\nof the day, performed their office more than once without bursting.\n\nDuring the severe winter of 1740, observes M. de Bomare, a palace of\nice, 52 feet long, 16 wide, and 20 high, was built at Petersburgh,\naccording to the most elegant rules of art. The river Neva afforded the\nice, which was from two to three feet thick, blocks of which were cut\nand embellished with various ornaments. When built up, the different\nparts were colored by sprinkling them over with water of various tints.\nSix cannons, made of and mounted with ice, with wheels of the same\nmatter, were placed before the palace; and a hempen bullet was driven\nby one of these cannons, in the presence of the whole court, through\na board two inches thick, at the distance of sixty paces. Cowper\nremarks,--\n\n                        \u201cNo forest fell,\n    Imperial mistress of the fur-clad Russ,\n    When thou wouldst build--no quarry sent its stores\n    T\u2019 enrich thy walls; but thou didst hew the floods,\n    And make thy marble of the glassy wave.\n    Silently as a dream the fabric rose,\n    Ice upon ice; the well-adjusted parts\n    Were soon conjoin\u2019d; nor other cement ask\u2019d\n    Than water interfused to make them one.\n    Lamps gracefully disposed, and of all hues,\n    Illumin\u2019d ev\u2019ry side. Long wavy wreaths\n    Of flowers, that feared no enemy but warmth,\n    Blush\u2019d on the pannels, which were once a stream,\n    And soon to slide into a stream again.\u201d\n\nIn the most northern part of the Russian territory, the cold is\nsometimes sufficient to freeze mercury, or 72 degrees below the\nfreezing point of water.[78] It is so intense in some seasons, that the\npoor inhabitants cannot venture out of their miserable huts but at the\nhazard of their lives.\n\n    \u201cThere, through the prison of unbounded wilds,\n    Barr\u2019d by the hand of nature from escape,\n    Wide roams the Russian exile. Nought around\n    Strikes his sad eye but deserts lost in snow,\n    And heavy loaded groves, and solid floods,\n    That stretch athwart the solitary vast\n    Their icy horrors to the frozen main.\u201d\n\nIn Iceland and Germany the thermometer frequently falls to zero, which\nis 32 degrees below the freezing point. At Hudson\u2019s Bay it has been\nknown to sink even 50 degrees lower. When stones or metals, which have\nbeen exposed to such degrees of cold, are touched by the tongue, or\nthe softer parts of the human body, they absorb the heat from those\nparts with such rapidity, that the flesh becomes instantly frozen and\nmortified, and the principle of life in them is extinguished. Some\nFrench academicians, who made a journey to the northern end of the\nBaltic, and wintered under the polar circle, found it necessary to use\nall possible precautions to secure themselves from the dreadful cold\nwhich prevailed. They prevented, as much as possible, the entrance of\nthe external air into their apartments; and if at any time they had\noccasion to open a window or a door, the humidity of their breath,\nconfined in the air of the house, was condensed and frozen into a\nshower of snow; their lungs, when they ventured to breathe the cold\nair, felt as if they were torn asunder; and they often heard the\nrending of the timber around them by the expansive power of the frost\non the fluid in its pores. In this terrible cold the thermometer\nfell to 33 below zero.[79] The most intense cold ever known in the\nneighborhood of London was on December 25th, 1796, when the thermometer\nindicated 2 below zero.\n\nThe ice at each pole of the earth forms an immense cupola, the arch of\nwhich extends some thousand miles over the continents; the thickness\nof which, beyond the 60th degree of latitude, is several hundred\nfeet. Navigators have assigned to detached masses, which are met with\nfloating at sea, an elevation of from 1,500 to 1,800 feet.[80] There\ncan be no doubt but that the thickness of these cupolas of ice is much\ngreater nearer the poles; for astronomy sometimes presents in the\nheavens so vast an image of them, that the rotundity of the earth seems\nto be considerably affected thereby. Captain Cook could never approach\nnearer the south pole, where there is no land, than the 70th degree of\nlatitude; that is, no nearer than 1,500 miles; and it was only under\nthe favor of a bay, that he was permitted to advance even so far.[81]\nAll the results of observations made by navigators, concur in proving\nthat the temperature of the sea decreases according to the depth; and\nthat the deepest gulfs are continually covered with ice, even under the\nequator. From a late memoir by M. Perron, some say, there is reason to\nbelieve that these mountains of ice at the poles, which have hitherto\nimpeded the progress of European navigators, have been detached from\nthe depths of the sea to float at the surface.[82]\n\nWhen water is converted into ice, it is lighter[83] than when in a\nfluid state, which is a circumstance of great importance. Galileo\nwas the first who observed this. Ice consequently floats upon water,\nits specific gravity being to that of water as eight to nine. This\nrarefaction seems to be owing to the air-bubbles produced in water\nby freezing; and which, being considerably larger in proportion to\nthe water frozen, render the body so much specifically lighter: these\nair-bubbles, during their production, acquire a great expansive power,\nso as to burst the containing vessels though ever so strong.\n\n    [The specific weight of ice is known to be less than\n    that of water. Our author assigns a reason not entirely\n    satisfactory. We must admit that the freezing of the upper\n    stratum of water, although it may _include_ the air which was\n    in the water frozen, yet, _it does not expel the air from the\n    subjacent volumes of water_. Hence the air in the water below\n    will balance the effects of the air included in the ice.\n\n    It is a singular fact, and is regarded as a deviation from\n    the general rule, that water _expands_ in volume in proportion\n    as its temperature is _reduced below_ 40\u00b0 Fahrenheit. It also\n    expands by raising its temperature above this degree.\n\n    The _expansion_ of the volume then, and not the enclosed\n    air bubbles, is the cause of water being specifically lighter\n    when converted into ice. But it remains to account for its\n    expansion by a _reduction_ of temperature.\n\n    This is a difficult question. It seems most probable\n    that this expansion is owing to a peculiar arrangement, of\n    the particles of water, in the act of crystallization, i.e.\n    _freezing_. M. Mairan found that the particles of water, in\n    the act of freezing, arranged themselves constantly at an angle\n    of 60\u00b0, and by this arrangement _increased the bulk_ of the\n    water thus crystallized.\n\n    It is obviously a mistake to attribute the \u201cexpansive\n    power\u201d of freezing to the force of the inclosed air-bubbles:\n    because the reduction of temperature would reduce this supposed\n    expansion of the inclosed air. The true cause of the expansion\n    of ice is supposed above, in the arrangements of the particles\n    of water in the process of crystallization.\n\n    The _power_ which disposes these particles to arrange,\n    _increases with the reduction of temperature_, until the\n    disposing power becomes sufficiently great to force every\n    impediment to the inclination to arrange. Hence the strongest\n    vessels burst in the process of freezing.\n\n    The impediments may restrain the accomplishment of the\n    arrangement of the particles for a time, but the disposing\n    power will overcome them, if the reduction of temperature go\n    on; and when they are overcome _suddenly_, the crystallization\n    will take place _instantly_. Hence the sudden rending of\n    vessels, trees, mountain rocks, &c, upon the sudden congelation\n    of water.\n\n    Even when there is no cause to impede crystallization, it\n    is well known that the _preparation_ to crystallize, or freeze,\n    may be observed in the liquid; the particles seeming to be\n    _preparing_ to arrange themselves; and then, at a given stage\n    of the preparation, they take their places _suddenly_, and thus\n    we have ice.\n\n    This consummation may be retarded, or hastened by\n    _artificial_ means. Water may be reduced to a lower temperature\n    by being kept _still_, than when _agitated_. And if it be\n    cooled down to the lowest possible temperature, _without\n    congealing_, it may remain fluid at that temperature for a long\n    time. But if the vessel be _suddenly struck_; or the surface\n    of the water _touched with a piece of ice_; or _a large piece\n    of cold metal be brought in contact with the outside of the\n    vessel; the water will instantly crystallize or freeze in\n    beautiful crystals_.\n\n    These facts establish the above theory. Because, 1. there\n    is no increased reduction of temperature effected, by striking\n    the vessel, touching the surface of the water with ice, or the\n    outside of the vessel with cold metal. 2. There is every reason\n    to conclude these things _commence the motion_ in the water,\n    which is at rest, balanced between an inclination to be at\n    rest, and an inclination to move in arranging the particles;\n    the motion communicated overcomes this balance in favor of\n    the disposition to crystallize, and hence the water freezes\n    instantly, with an expansion of volume.]\n\nIt is owing to the _expansion_ of water in freezing, that rocks\nand trees are often split during intense frosts. According to the\ncalculations of the Florentine academicians, a spherule of water, only\none inch in diameter, expands in freezing with a force superior to the\nresistance of 13\u00bd tons weight. Major Williams also attempted to prevent\nthis expansion; but during the operation the iron plug which stopped\nthe orifice of the bomb-shell containing the freezing water, and which\nwas more than two pounds weight, was projected several hundred feet\nwith great velocity; and in another experiment the shell burst. This\nproperty of water is taken advantage of in splitting slate. At Colly\nWestern, the slate is dug from the quarries in large blocks: these are\nplaced in an opposite direction to what they had in the quarry, and the\nrain is allowed to fall on them: it penetrates their fissures, and the\nsharp frost freezes the water, which, expanding with its usual force,\nsplits the slate into thin layers.[84]\n\nM. Mairan, in a dissertation on ice, attributes the increase of its\nbulk chiefly to a different arrangement of the parts of the water\nfrom which it is formed; the icy skin on the water being composed\nof filaments, which according to him, are found to be constantly\nand regularly joined at an angle of 60\u00b0; and which, by this angular\ndisposition, occupy a greater volume than if they were parallel. He\nfound the augmentation of the volume of water by freezing, in different\ntrials, a 14th, an 18th, a 19th, and when the water was previously\npurged of air, only a 22d part: that ice, after its formation,\ncontinues to expand by cold; for, after water had been frozen to some\nthickness, the fluid part being let out by a hole in the bottom of the\nvessel, a continuance of the cold made the ice convex; and a piece of\nice, which was at first only a 14th part specifically lighter than\nwater, on being exposed some days to the frost, became a 12th part\nlighter. To this cause he attributes the bursting of ice on ponds.\n\nSeveral philosophers have been very desirous to experience how far the\nexpansive force of freezing water might be carried. \u201cAn iron gun of an\ninch thickness,\u201d says M. Ha\u00fcy, \u201cfilled with water and exactly closed,\nhaving been exposed by Buot to a strong frost, was found to be burst\nin two places at the end of twelve hours. The Florentine philosophers\nwere able, by means of the same cause, to burst a sphere of very thick\ncopper; and Musschenbroek, having calculated the effort which would\noccasion the rupture, found that it would be capable of raising a\nweight of 27,720 pounds.\u201d\n\n\u201cColonel E. Williams, of the Royal Artillery, when at Quebec, in the\nyears 1794 and 1795,\u201d says Dr. O. Gregory, \u201cmade many experiments.\nHe filled all sizes of iron bomb-shells with water, then plugged the\nfusee-hole close up, and exposed them to the strong freezing air of the\nwinter in that climate; sometimes driving in the iron plugs as hard as\npossible with a sledge-hammer: and yet, though they weighed near three\npounds, they were always forced out by a sudden expansion of the water\nin the act of freezing, like a ball impelled by gunpowder, sometimes\nto the distance of between 400 and 500 feet: and when the plugs were\nscrewed in, or furnished with hooks and barbs, by which to lay hold of\nthe inside of the shell, so that they could not possibly be forced\nout; in that case the shell was always split in two, though its\nthickness of metal was about an inch and three quarters. It is further\nremarkable, that through the circular crack, round about the shells\nwhere they burst, there stood out a thin film or sheet of ice, like a\nfin; and in the cases where the plugs were projected by freezing water,\nthere suddenly issued from the fusee-hole a bolt of ice of the same\ndiameter, and stood over it sometimes to the height of eight inches\nand a half. Hence we need not be surprised that excessive frost should\ncause the ice to split rocks, and other solid substances.\u201d[85]\n\nIt was necessary for the preservation of the world, that water should\nin this instance be subjected to a law different from that of other\nsubstances which change from fluid to solid. The wisdom and goodness\nof the great ARTIFICER of the world will manifest itself in this\narrangement, if we consider what would have been the consequences had\nwater been subject to the general law, and like other fluids, become\nspecifically heavier by the loss of its caloric. In winter, when the\natmosphere became reduced to 32\u00b0, the water on the surface of our\nrivers would have sunk as it froze; another sheet of water would\nhave frozen immediately, and sunk also; the ultimate consequence of\nwhich would have been, that the beds of our rivers would have become\nrepositories of immense masses of ice, which no subsequent summer could\nunbind; and the world would shortly have been converted into a frozen\nchaos. How admirable the wisdom, how skilful the contrivance, that by\nsubjecting water to a law contrary to what is observed by other fluids,\nas it freezes it becomes specifically lighter, and, swimming upon the\nsurface, performs an important service by preserving a vast body of\ncaloric in the _subjacent_ fluid from the effects of the surrounding\ncold, ready to receive its own accustomed quantity on the first change\nof the atmosphere?[86]\n\nOwing to the distance of this globe from the sun, and to the vast\nmountains of ice at the poles, the atmosphere over a large portion of\nthe earth is at times reduced to so low a temperature, that, if it\nwere not for a wise provision of nature, all vegetable life must be\ndestroyed. Caloric has always a tendency to equilibrium; therefore, if\nthe temperature of the air be lowered, the earth cools in proportion:\nbut when the atmosphere is reduced to 32\u00b0, the water which it held\nin solution becomes frozen, and precipitates in the form of snow on\nthe earth, covering it as with a carpet, and thereby preventing the\nescape of that caloric which is necessary for the preservation of\nthose families of vegetables that depend on it for their support and\nmaturity. Be the air ever so cold, the ground, thus covered, is seldom\nreduced below 32\u00b0, but is maintained equably at that temperature for\nthe purpose above mentioned.[87] Homer has described a shower of snow,\nand its extensive effects, in a fine strain of poetry.\n\n    \u201cIn Winter\u2019s bleak uncomfortable reign,\n    A snowy inundation hides the plain:\n    Jove stills the winds, and bids the skies to sleep;\n    Then pours the silent tempest thick and deep:\n    And first the mountain tops are covered o\u2019er,\n    Then the green fields, and then the sandy shore;\n    Bent with the weight the nodding woods are seen,\n    And one bright waste hides all the works of men:\n    The circling seas alone, absorbing all,\n    Drink the dissolving fleeces as they fall\u201d--POPE.\n\nSnow is furnished with the power of absorbing and combining with a\nlarge portion of oxygen, which gives it its fertilizing property. The\nsnow melting and penetrating into the softened earth communicates to it\noxygen, and this oxygen promotes the germination of seeds. The carbon\nof the earth combining with the oxygen, is converted into carbonic\nacid, and thereby acquires more solubility; while the water contributes\nto excite that activity which had been rendered dormant in the roots\nby the cold. It is this property of carbon which deprives water of the\nsuperabundant oxygen that would render it prejudicial to health, and\nunfit for the purposes of life. Thus what would otherwise be injurious\nto us is improved by the ground, and gives at the same time power and\nactivity to the mould. How multiplied are those means which infinite\nwisdom and goodness employ for the preservation of the productions of\nNature![88]\n\nIce at 32\u00b0 must absorb 140\u00b0 of caloric before it can become a fluid;\nor such a quantity as would raise a body of water of equal bulk with\nitself from 32\u00b0 to 172\u00b0. For instance: \u201cTake any quantity by weight of\nice or snow at 32\u00b0, and mix it with an equal weight of water heated\nexactly to 172\u00b0. The snow instantly melts, and the temperature of\nthe mixture is still only at _thirty-two_ degrees. Here the water is\ncooled 140\u00b0, while the temperature of the snow is not increased at\nall; so that 140\u00b0 of caloric have disappeared. They must have combined\nwith the snow; but they have only melted it, without increasing its\ntemperature. Hence it follows irresistibly that ice, when converted\ninto water, absorbs and combines with 140\u00b0 of caloric. Water then,\nafter being cooled down to 32\u00b0, cannot freeze till it has parted with\n140\u00b0 of caloric; and ice, after being heated to 32\u00b0, (which is the\nexact freezing point), cannot melt till it has absorbed 140\u00b0 more of\ncaloric. This is the cause of the extreme slowness of these operations.\nThere can be no doubt, then, but water owes its fluidity to its latent\ncaloric, and that its caloric of fluidity is 140\u00b0.\u201d[89] And all this\narrangement in nature, connected with the operation of these elements,\nis immediately under the control and direction of the infinitely wise\nand almighty Creator of the universe. \u201cHe sendeth forth his commandment\nupon earth: his word runneth very swiftly. He giveth snow like wool:\nhe scattereth the hoar-frost like ashes. He casteth forth his ice like\nmorsels: who can stand before his cold? He sendeth out his word, and\nmelteth them: he causeth his wind to blow, and the waters flow.\u201d\n\nDrops of rain, falling through a cold region of the atmosphere, are\nfrozen and converted into hail; and thus the _hail_ is produced by\n_rain_. When it begins to fall, it is _rain_; when it is falling, it\nis converted into _hail_; so that it is literally true, that _it rains\nhail_. The further a hail-stone falls, the larger it generally is;\nbecause, in its descent, meeting with innumerable particles of water,\nthey become attached to it, are also frozen, and thus its bulk is\ncontinually increasing till it reaches the earth.[90] A storm of hail\nfell near Liverpool, in Lancashire, in the year 1795, which greatly\ndamaged the vegetation, broke windows, &c, &c. Many of the stones\nmeasured five inches in circumference. Dr. Halley mentions a similar\nstorm of hail in Lancashire, Cheshire, &c, April 29, 1697, that for\nsixty miles in length, and two miles in breadth, did immense damage,\nby splitting trees, killing fowls and all small animals, knocking\ndown men and horses, &c, &c. Mezeray, in his History of France, says,\nthat in Italy, in 1510, there was for some time a horrible darkness,\nthicker than that of night; after which the clouds broke into thunder\nand lightning, and there fell a shower of hail-stones which destroyed\nall the beasts, birds, and even fish of the country. It was attended\nwith a strong smell of sulphur, and the stones were of a blueish color,\nsome of them weighing one hundred pounds weight. The Almighty says to\nJob--\u201cHast thou seen the treasures of the hail, which I have reserved\nagainst the time of trouble, against the day of battle and war.\u201d While\nGod has such artillery at his command, how soon may he desolate a\ncountry, or a world![91]\n\nThe aqueous fluid is in continual circulation. The constant _round_\nwhich it travels, says Dr. Paley, and by which, (without suffering\neither adulteration or waste,) it is continually offering itself to\nthe wants of the habitable globe, is much to be admired. From the sea\nare exhaled, by the heat of the sun, into the air, those vapors which\nare there condensed into clouds: these clouds are dissolved into rain\nand dew, or into snow and hail, which are but rain congealed, by the\ncoldness of the air, and descend in showers, which, penetrating into\nthe crevices of the hills, supply the springs: which springs flow in\nlittle streams into the valleys; and there uniting, become rivers,\nwhich rivers, in return, feed the ocean. So there is an incessant\ncirculation of the same fluid; and not one drop probably more or less\nnow than there was at the creation. A particle of water takes its\ndeparture from the surface of the sea, in order to discharge certain\nimportant offices to the earth: and, having executed the service which\nwas assigned to it, returns to the bosom which it left.[92] Thus, as\none of the greatest of naturalists says, \u201cAll the rivers run into the\nsea; yet the sea is not full: unto the place from whence the rivers\ncome, thither they return again.\u201d\n\nWater, when taken up by the atmosphere, is not in an aqueous state, but\nis converted into vapor by the efficiency of heat, and then combines\nwith more than five times the quantity of caloric than is required to\nbring ice-cold water to a boiling heat, and occupies a space 800 times\ngreater than it does when in the form of water. A large portion of the\nmatter of heat combining chemically with water, renders it specifically\n_lighter_; which is the cause of its rising and mixing with the\natmosphere. The waters on the face of the earth would be dissipated in\nvapor by a small degree of heat, if we had no atmosphere. Under the\npressure of the atmosphere water boils at 212\u00b0, but in vacuo it boils\nwhen heated only to 67\u00b0. On the contrary, if additional pressure be\ngiven to water by a Papin\u2019s digester, it may be heated to 400\u00b0, without\nproducing ebullition. However long we boil a fluid, in an open vessel,\nwe cannot make it in the smallest degree hotter than the boiling\npoint.[93] When arrived at this point, the vapor absorbs the heat, and\ncarries it off as fast as it is generated. When water is received into\nthe atmosphere, if the air be warm, it becomes so far changed by its\nunion with the matter of heat as to be perfectly invisible. In this\nstate it occupies a space 1,400 times greater than its ordinary liquid\nstate.\n\nAfter vapor has remained some time in the atmosphere, it becomes in a\nmeasure condensed; and the particles of water of which it is composed\nunite, and form hollow vesicles, which accumulate together and produce\nclouds. How this is effected, those who have attentively considered\nthe subject are not agreed. Dr. Thomson, after well investigating the\nmatter, concludes, from all the facts, that \u201cthe formation of clouds\nand rain cannot be accounted for by a single principle with which\nwe are acquainted.\u201d It is, however, says Mr. Parkes, probable that\n_electricity_ alone is the primary cause. Saussure conjectures that it\nis the electrical fluid which surrounds these vesicles, and prevents\nthem from dissolving in the air. And the idea of the formation of\nclouds by the agency of electricity was mentioned by Volta, and also by\nDr. Franklin.\n\n    [It is allowed by all, that clouds are formed by the\n    aqueous vapors which are held suspended, or in solution, by\n    the atmosphere. It is not a settled question, whether the air\n    holds these vapors in solution, or merely suspended; and thus,\n    keeping the particles asunder, prevents their condensation.\n\n    This aqueous vapor is _invisible_ when perfectly in union\n    with the air. When it begins to separate from the air, it\n    becomes visible by condensation, in the form of _clouds_,\n    _mists_, and _fogs_. When it is perfectly separated and\n    sufficiently condensed it becomes _rain_, and when the\n    temperature is sufficiently low to freeze the condensed drops,\n    they become _snow_, or _hail_.\n\n    The above process is quite intelligible, but the _agent_ of\n    this condensation is, perhaps, inexplicable. It is impossible\n    to solve all the phenomena of the formation of clouds, by\n    supposing the vapors condensed by a reduction of temperature,\n    produced by the warmer volumes of clouds rising into the\n    regions of colder ones. For we know the natural tendency of the\n    warmer strata of air, from the neighborhood of the earth, is to\n    rise, with its watery particles, to colder regions. Hence there\n    would be a constant condensation, which would seem to require a\n    constant deposition of rain, or mist; or, at least, a constant\n    accumulation of clouds.\n\n    Again: On this theory, the nights would be cloudy and\n    rainy: as the vapors raised during the day would be condensed\n    by the superior coldness of the night succeeding. Moreover, it\n    is well known that great rains fall in very warm weather, and\n    when a _rise_ of temperature is observed.\n\n    These, and other considerations, have induced many persons\n    to have recourse to _electricity_ to solve this difficult\n    question, and various observations seem to countenance the\n    idea that it may be the remote agent of the formation of\n    clouds, by producing a sudden rarefaction of the air, which\n    would, of course, produce a sudden reduction of temperature;\n    the consequence of which would be a rapid condensation of the\n    watery particles in combination with the air. This condensation\n    would form clouds, and if sufficiently rapid and extensive, a\n    fall of rain would ensue.\n\n    This supposition is much strengthened by a fact of common\n    observation, viz: _when clouds are impending over us, but no\n    rain falling, a sudden shower comes down instantly upon a\n    flash of lightning._ In this case it is so obvious that the\n    lightning had an immediate agency, that none can doubt, who\n    ever observed the phenomenon.\n\n    The _electrified_ state of _clouds_, _fogs_, and _mists_,\n    is considered strong proof in favor of this theory. Clouds are\n    almost always highly charged with electricity, and sometimes so\n    highly charged as to become _luminous_, and very destructive.\n\n    On the 11th of August, 1772, about midnight, a bright cloud\n    was observed covering a mountain in the district of Cheribon,\n    in the island of Java, at the same time several reports were\n    heard like those of a gun. The people who dwelt upon the upper\n    parts of the mountain not being able to fly fast enough, a\n    great part of the cloud, almost three leagues in circumference,\n    detached itself under them, and was seen at a distance rising\n    and falling like the waves of the sea, and emitting globes of\n    fire so luminous, that the night became as clear as day. The\n    effects of it were astonishing; every thing was destroyed for\n    seven leagues round; the houses were demolished; plantations\n    were buried in the earth, and 2,140 people lost their lives.\n    _Ency. Brit. Article_, CLOUDS.\n\n    In another case, October 29th, 1757, in the island of\n    Malta, a little after midnight, there was seen to the South\n    west of the city Melita, a great black cloud, which, as it\n    approached, changed its color, till at last it became like a\n    flame of fire mixed with smoke. A dreadful noise was heard on\n    its approach, which alarmed the whole city. It passed over the\n    port, and came first on an English ship, which in an instant\n    was torn to pieces, and nothing left but the hulk; part of\n    the masts, sails, and cordage were carried to a considerable\n    distance along with the cloud. The small craft were sunk\n    instantly. It demolished a part of the city, and passed over to\n    Sicily, but did no injury there as it was previously exhausted.\n    Several hundred were killed. _Ency. Brit. Article_, CLOUD.]\n\nThe principle of evaporation is the primary cause of all rain, mist,\ndew, &c. The ocean loses many millions of gallons of water hourly by\nevaporation. The Mediterranean alone is said to lose more by it, than\nit receives from the Nile, the Tiber, the Rhone, the Po, and all the\nother rivers that fall into it. When Dr. Halley made his celestial\nobservations upon the tops of the mountains at St. Helena, he found\nthat the quantity of vapor which fell there (even when the sky was\nclear) was so great, that his observations were thereby much impeded:\nhis glasses were so covered with water through the condensation of the\nvapors, that he was obliged to wipe them every ten minutes. In order to\ndetermine, with some degree of accuracy, how much water would be raised\nin vapor in any space of time, he took a vessel of water salted to the\nsame degree with that of sea-water, in which he placed a thermometer,\nand by means of a pan of coals brought the water to the same degree of\nheat as would be produced by the sun in summer: he then affixed the\nvessel of water with the thermometer in it, to one end of a pair of\nscales, and exactly counterpoised it with weights on the other. Then,\nat the end of two hours, he found by the alteration in the weight of\nthe vessel, that a sixtieth part of an inch in the depth of the water\nwas gone off in vapor; and therefore, in twelve hours, one-tenth of an\ninch would have gone off. From this experiment the Doctor calculates\n(in as accurate a manner as the subject will admit of) the quantity of\nwater raised by evaporation from the Mediterranean Sea, to be at least\nfive thousand two hundred and eighty millions of tons of water in a\nday; and from the river Thames twenty millions three hundred thousand\ntons per day, on the average.\n\nThis water is conveyed by the winds to every part of the continents:\nthese it fertilizes in the form of rain, and afterwards supplies the\nrivers, which flow again into the sea. In our climate, evaporation is\nfound to be about four times as much from the vernal to the autumnal\nequinox, as from the autumnal to the vernal. Heat facilitates all\nsolutions; and the greater the difference between the temperature\nof the air and the evaporating surface, the greater will be the\nevaporation. Bishop Watson found that, even when there had been no rain\nfor a considerable time, and the earth had been dried by the parching\nheat of summer, an acre of ground dispersed into the air above 1,600\ngallons of water in the space of twelve hours of a summer\u2019s day. A\nlittle reflection would convince any one of the importance of the\nprinciple of evaporation. Innumerable instances of its use might be\nadduced; suffice to add, that without it neither grass nor corn could\nbe sufficiently void of moisture to lay up for use. Our clothes when\nwashed could not be dried; neither could a variety of the most common\noperations, which conduce much to our comfort and convenience, be\nperformed without it.\n\nIt is evident that water exists in the atmosphere in abundance, even in\nthe driest seasons, and under the clearest sky. By the experiments of\nSaussure, it appears, that a cubic foot of atmospheric air will hold\neleven grains of water in solution. From this property of the air we\nderive many advantages. It has a tendency to preserve every thing on\nthe face of the earth in a proper degree of moisture. It appears, from\nthe experiments of some a\u00ebronauts, that the air is much drier in the\nhigher regions than it is near the surface of the earth.\n\nWhen two opposite currents of air meet, of different temperatures,\nthe vapors are sometimes condensed thereby, and rain ensues. It may\nbe remarked, that if the temperature of our atmosphere had been 212,\nor upwards, rain could never have fallen on the earth; for the water\ntaken up by evaporation would have been converted into a _permanently_\nelastic fluid. Such is the necessity of rain, that it _alone_ not only\naffords a proper degree of moisture to the vegetable creation, but\nis of service in bringing the soils into a fit state to perform their\noffice. Dry earth of itself is ineffective; but when _moistened_ it\nhas the property of decomposing atmospheric air, and of conveying its\noxygen to the roots of those plants which vegetate within it. We are\nindebted to Humboldt for the knowledge of this fact. It is impossible\never to contemplate the various ways in which the different operations\nof nature are made to correct and balance each other, without being\nstruck with the infinite comprehension of the Divine Mind, which could\nthus foresee the tendency of every law which it was about to establish.\nHow many cases are there in which the slightest oversight would have\nproduced the destruction of the world!\n\nThe effects of vapor have furnished a new moving force to mechanics,\nsays Ha\u00fcy, which it required no ordinary genius to have created, and to\nhave measured its energy. This science, during a long time, had only\nemployed water as a moving force, by availing itself of its natural\ncourse, or by judiciously managing its fall, so as to subject it to the\noperation of machines which is regulated by an impulsion continually\nrenewed. The experiments made upon the force of water reduced to\nvapor, gave birth to the idea of applying that vapor so much the more\nadvantageously to the same purpose, because independently of its\ngreat energy, it may be transported wherever it is called for by the\ninterests of commerce and industry.\n\nThe execution of steam-engines has had, like that of all other\nmachines, its different epochs, to which successively corresponded new\ndegrees of perfection. To diminish, as far as possible, the quantity\nof vaporisation requisite for the effect in contemplation, and to make\na moderate use of the combustible; to combine with this chief economy\nthat of substance and of workmanship, by contracting the dimensions of\nthe pieces without diminishing their utility; to prevent explosions,\nby the wisest precautions adopted in the management of an agent whose\npower becomes destructive when it is not limited: these are in general\nthe objects which have fixed the attention of engineers, and have\nexcited among them a laudable kind of rivalship.[94]\n\nIn no invention, either for ingenuity or utility, has modern genius\nbeen more conspicuous than in the invention of the steam-engine.\nThe amazing power wielded by man, by this means, is just matter\nof astonishment and wonder. In no part of the kingdom have these\nstupendous machines been brought to greater perfection, either in size\nor principle, than in the mining counties of Cornwall and Devon. The\nlargest ever built has lately been erected at Chacewater mine, in the\ncounty of Cornwall, by Mr. S. Moyle, of that place, and is for size and\nefficiency, as well as neatness, without a parallel. This stupendous\nmachine is equal to 1,010 horses; it works day and night in pumping dry\na mine of 100 fathoms deep, and of a large extent: and the quantity of\nwater pumped out in one minute, and the column consequently lifted,\nis greater than any other machine of the kind ever erected. The whole\nreflects the greatest credit on the abilities of the engineer, and\nforms an interesting object to all those who are curious in mechanism,\nor who may visit the mines of Cornwall.[95]\n\nA very ingenious naturalist suggests the idea, that subterraneous\nfire, and steam generated from it, are the true and real causes of\nearthquakes. And he thinks the elasticity of steam and its expansive\nforce, are every way capable of producing the stupendous effects\nattributed to earthquakes, when it is considered that this expansive\nforce of steam is to that of gunpowder as 140 to 5. He also apprehends\nthat subterraneous fire must, at different times, have existed\nuniversally in the bowels of the earth, and that in union with water,\nor by the expansive power of steam, it has produced the immense\ncontinents, as well as the mountains of our globe.[96] There are,\nin the Memoirs of the Paris Academy of Sciences for the year 1707,\nsome observations communicated by Vauban, from which it results that\n140 pounds of water converted into vapor, would produce an explosion\ncapable of blowing up a mass of 77,000 pounds, while 140 pounds of\npowder could only produce a similar effect upon a mass of 30,000.\n\nWater would be the purest of all drinks, says Sturm, were it as\nabsolutely simple body; but on the other hand, its medicinal virtue\nwould be reduced to nothing. If we consider the manner in which water\nnourishes plants, it is easy to presume that it communicates the\nnutritious juices which it contains, to men and animals in the same\nway. Water is not very nutritive by itself, but being very subtile, it\ndissolves the nutritious parts of aliments, is a vehicle for them, and\ncarries them along into the minutest vessels. It is consequently the\nmost wholesome drink; and is essentially necessary to men and animals;\nand its salutary effects are felt, where all other liquids are found\nhurtful to health. \u201cThe water of Egypt,\u201d says the Abb\u00e9 Mascrier, \u201cis\nso delicious, that one would not wish the heat to be less, or to be\ndelivered from the sensation of thirst. The Turks find it so exquisite,\nthat they excite themselves to drink of it by eating _salt_. It is a\ncommon saying among them, that if Mahomed had drank of it, he would\nhave besought God that he might never die, in order to have had this\ncontinual gratification. When the Egyptians undertake the pilgrimage of\nMecca, or go out of their country on any other account, they speak of\nnothing but the pleasure they shall have, at their return, in drinking\nof the waters of the Nile. There is no gratification to be compared to\nthis: it surpasses, in their esteem, that of seeing their relations\nand families. All those who have tasted of this water, allow that they\nnever met with the like in any other place. When a person drinks of it\nfor the first time, he can scarcely be persuaded that it is not a water\nprepared by art: for it has something in it inexpressibly agreeable and\npleasing to the taste; and it should have the same rank among _waters_,\nthat _champaigne_ has among _wines_. But its most valuable quality is,\nthat it is exceedingly salutary. It never incommodes, let it be drank\nin what quantity it may: this is so true, that it is no uncommon thing\nto see some persons drink three buckets full of it in a day, without\nthe least inconvenience! When I pass such encomiums on the water of\nEgypt, it is right to observe, that I speak only of that of the _Nile_,\nwhich indeed is the only water, drinkable, for their _well-water_ is\ndetestable and unwholesome. _Fountains_ are so rare, that they are a\nkind of prodigy in that country; and as to _rain-water_, that is out of\nthe question, as scarcely any falls in Egypt.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nHaving attended to the situation and properties of water in the world\nof nature, we shall now show that by this element is represented the\nblessings of Divine grace in the moral or spiritual world. God is\nthe _fountain of living waters_, ever-living, all-sufficient, and\nincessantly flowing; like waters, arising and issuing from a spring,\nwhich continue during the whole year: not like waters that proceed only\nfrom some excess of rain, such as land-floods, or those flowing down\nfrom hills, which in the winter season run in torrents, but in the\nheat of summer are dried up and fail. Such uncertain waters are well\nexpressed by Job--\u201cMy brethren have dealt deceitfully as a brook, and\nas the stream of brooks they pass away; which are blackish by reason\nof the ice, and wherein the snow is hid: what time they wax warm they\nvanish: when it is hot they are consumed out of their place. The paths\nof their way are turned aside; they go to nothing, and perish. The\ntroops of Tema looked, the companies of Sheba waited for them. They\nare confounded because they had hoped; they came thither, and were\nashamed.\u201d He alludes to those merchants who travelled in companies or\ncaravans, with beasts of burden, through the deserts of Arabia; who,\nhaving in the winter observed and marked out in certain places on the\nroad great pools of water, or copious streams locked up in the valleys\nby severe frosts; so that, when travelling the same road in summer,\nthey expected finding water there still to refresh themselves and their\nthirsty camels; but, to their great grief and consternation, instead\nof pools or brooks of water, found heaps of dry sand, occasioned by\nintense heat. But God is a fountain which sends forth streams of\nblessings in all seasons, and never fails. The _living waters_ which\nproceed from him as their fountain, are not stagnant, or dead, but\nrunning, like those that issue from springs which are never dry, and\npossess the most refreshing and invigorating properties.\n\nThe element of water is used for washing and purifying the body; so the\noperation of Divine grace on the soul removes its moral defilement.\nAll the purifications by water under the law, were outward expressions\nof this inward cleansing. Thus those important words by the prophet\nEzekiel, \u201cI will sprinkle clean water upon you, and ye shall be clean;\nfrom all your filthiness, and from all your idols, will I cleanse you:\na new heart also will I give you, and a new spirit will I put within\nyou.\u201d Accordingly the Psalmist says, \u201cThou shalt wash me, and I shall\nbe whiter than snow.\u201d He also prays, \u201cCreate in me a clean heart, oh\nGod; and renew a right spirit within me.\u201d As purity is necessary for\nenjoying communion with God in all his instituted ordinances, he says,\n\u201cI will wash mine hands in innocency: so will I compass thine altar,\noh Lord.\u201d Similar language is used in the New Testament. Our Lord said\nto Peter, \u201cIf I wash thee not, thou hast no part in me.\u201d The apostle\nPaul, after mentioning several immoral characters to the Christians at\nCorinth, says, \u201cAnd such were some of you: but ye are washed, but ye\nare sanctified, but ye are justified in the name of the Lord Jesus, and\nby the Spirit of our God.\u201d\n\nOur Lord gave himself for us, not only that he might redeem us from\nall iniquity, but also that he might purify us unto himself a peculiar\npeople. This cleansing, washing, and purifying the soul from sin, is,\nin the Holy Scripture, attributed to the virtual efficacy of his blood.\n\u201cThe blood of Jesus Christ his Son cleanseth us from all sin.\u201d \u201cUnto\nhim that loved us, and washed us from our sins in his own blood.\u201d\nThe primary effect of his blood is the expiation of sin; and, as a\nconsequence thereof, the remission of it. \u201cThis is my blood which is\nshed for the remission of sins.\u201d \u201cIn whom we have redemption through\nhis blood, the forgiveness of sins.\u201d Now by the blood of Christ in\nthese places we are to understand his sufferings, which were completed\nin the shedding of his blood on the cross.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ II.--THE EARTH.\n\n    Surface of the Earth -- Mountains -- Fertility of Plants --\n    Dissemination of Seeds -- Preservation of Plants -- Adaptation\n    to different Climates -- Number of vegetables -- Succession of\n    vegetables -- Remarkable Trees -- Sensitive Plants -- Kitchen\n    vegetables -- Garden flowers -- Religious Improvement.\n\n\nThe dry land and the seas constitute what is called the _terraqueous\nglobe_; what proportion the superficies of the sea bears to that of the\nland, cannot be easily ascertained; but, as one observes, the earth\nand the water exist in a most judicious proportion to each other.\nAccording to the most exact calculations, the surface of the earth is\n199,512,595 square miles; and that of the sea is to the land as three\nto one. There is no certain measurement of the proportion of land and\nwater which the parts within the polar circles contain. The superficies\nof the sea appearing so large, may lead some persons to suppose, that\nthe proportions between the land and water are not wisely adjusted; and\nthat had there been less sea and more dry land, this would have been\nmore adapted to the accommodation and service of mankind. As such a\nsupposition as this tends to arraign the wisdom of God, so it proceeds\nfrom ignorance of natural philosophy. For, as Dr. Keill asserts, \u201cif\nthere were but half the sea that now is, there would be also only half\nthe quantity of vapors; and, consequently, we could have no more than\nhalf so many rivers as there now are, to supply not only all the dry\nland we have at present, but half as much more; for the quantity of\nvapors which are raised, bears a proportion to the surface whence they\nare raised, as well as the heat which raised them. The wise Creator so\nprudently ordered it, that the sea should be large enough to supply\nvapors sufficient for all the land, which it would not do if it were\nless than it now is.\u201d[97] The Scriptures speak of God as making all\nthings in number, weight, and measure; as proceeding in his works with\nthe greatest exactness. \u201cHe hath measured the waters in the hollow of\nhis hand, and meted out heaven with a span, and comprehended the dust\nof the earth in a measure, and weighed the mountains in scales, and the\nhills in a balance.\u201d Those who wish to see this further illustrated,\nwould do well to consult Ray\u2019s \u201cWisdom of God manifested in the works\nof the Creation,\u201d and his \u201cPhysico-theological Discourses.\u201d\n\nThe stately mountains, that lift their lofty heads above the clouds,\nserve for very beneficial purposes. Does the bold atheist call them\nblemishes, and irregularities in the formation of the earth? Surely\nhe never considered how necessary they are, for arresting the clouds\nin their flight, and conveying their waters through imperceptible\nchannels, till they meet in some common receptacle, whence they burst\nout in springs to fertilize the lower grounds, and afford refreshing\nstreams for man and beast. \u201cThis,\u201d says Mr. Halley, \u201cseems to be the\ndesign of the hills, that their ridges, being placed through the midst\nof the continents, might serve as it were for alembics, to distil\nfresh water for the use of man and beast; and that their heights might\ngive a descent to those streams to run gently, like so many veins of\nthe microcosm, to be more beneficial to the creation.\u201d They are, says\nMr. Ray, \u201cfor the generation and maintenance of rivers and fountains,\nwhich--on the hypothesis that all proceed from rain water--could not\nsubsist without them, or but rarely. So we should have only torrents,\nwhich would fail in summer, or in any dry season, and nothing to trust\nto, but stagnating water, reserved in pools and cisterns. The great\ninconvenience resulting from this I need not take pains to show. I say\nthat fountains and rivers would be but rare, were there no mountains.\nFor the whole dry land being but one continued mountain, and ascending\nall along from the sea to the mid-land, as is undeniably proved by\nthe descent of rivers even in plain countries; the water sinking into\nthe earth, may run under ground, and, according as the vein leads it,\nbreak out in the side of this mountain, though the place, as to outward\nappearance, be a plain. There are huge ridges and extended chains of\nmountains directed for the most part to run east and west; by which\nmeans they give admittance and passage to the vapors, brought by the\nwinds from the Atlantic and Pacific oceans; but stop and inhibit their\nexcursions to the north and south, either condensing them on their\nsides into water, by a kind of external distillation; or by straitening\nand constipating them, compelling them to gather into drops, or descend\ndown in the rain.\u201d\n\nAfter the waters had subsided, the land appeared, dry and fit for\nvegetation. \u201cAnd God said, Let the earth bring forth grass, the herb\nyielding seed, and the fruit-tree yielding fruit after his kind,\nwhose seed is in itself upon the earth: and it was so. And the earth\nbrought forth grass, and herb yielding seed after his kind, and the\ntree yielding fruit, whose seed was in itself, after his kind.\u201d Here we\nrise to organized and vegetative bodies. At the Divine command, herbs,\nplants, trees, and all the almost endless varieties of the vegetable\nworld, bearing their several seeds and fruits, according to their\ndifferent kinds, immediately began to appear. Thus before God formed\nany living creature to dwell upon the earth, he provided abundantly\nfor its sustenance. \u201cNow as God delights to manifest himself in the\nlittle as well as the great,\u201d says a celebrated commentator, \u201che has\nshown his consummate wisdom in every part of the vegetable creation.\nWho can account for, or comprehend, the structure of a single tree or\nplant? The roots, the stem, the woody fibres, the bark, the rind, the\nair-vessels, the sap-vessels, the leaves, the flowers, and the fruits,\nare so many mysteries. All the skill, wisdom, and power of men and\nangels, could not produce a single grain of wheat!\u201d\n\nDr. Hales, in his Statistical Essays, has observed, that the substances\nof vegetables appear, by a chemical analysis, to be composed of\nsulphur, volatile salt, water, and earth, which are all endued with\nmutually attracting powers; and also of a large portion of air, which\nhas a wonderful power of strongly attracting in a fixed state, or\nof repelling in an elastic state, with a power which is superior to\ngreat compressive forces.[98] By the infinite combinations, action,\nand reaction of these principles, all the operations in animal and\nvegetable bodies are effected. These active a\u00ebrial principles are very\nserviceable in carrying on the work of vegetation to its perfection\nand maturity; not only in helping, by their elasticity, to distend\neach ductile part, but, also, by enlivening and invigorating their\nsap, where, mixing with the other mutually attracting principles, they\nare, by gentle heat and motion, set at liberty to assimilate into the\nnourishment of the respective parts. The sum of the attracting powers\nof these mutually acting and re-acting principles, is, while in this\nnutritive state, superior to their repelling power; by which the work\nof nutrition is gradually advanced by the nearer and nearer union of\nthese principles from a less to a greater degree of consistency, till\nthey are advanced to that viscid, ductile state, whence the several\nparts of vegetables are formed; and are, at length, firmly compacted\ninto hard substances, by the flying off of the watery diluting vehicle:\nbut when they are again disunited by the watery particles, their\nrepelling power is thereby become superior to their attracting power,\nand the union of the parts of vegetables is so thoroughly dissolved,\nthat putrefaction commences.\n\nGod has endued the vegetable creation with the astonishing power\nof multiplying itself by seeds, slips, roots. &c. ad infinitum: it\ncontains in itself all the rudiments of the future plants through\ntheir endless generations. The celebrated Linn\u00e6us, in an \u201coration\nconcerning the augmentation of the habitable earth,\u201d which proceeds on\nthe supposition of the existence of a sexual system in the vegetable\nworld, shows how from one plant of each species the immense number\nof individuals now existing might arise. He gives some instances of\nthe surprising fertility of certain plants; as, of the elecampane,\none plant of which produced 3,000 seeds; of spelt, 2,000; of the\nsun-flower, 4,000; of the poppy, 3,200; of tobacco, 40,320: and one\ngrain of Turkey-corn produces 2,000 others! But supposing any annual\nplant producing yearly only two seeds, even of these, after 20 years,\nthere would be 1,048,576 individuals. For they would increase yearly\nin a double proportion, _viz._ 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, &c. The seed of the\n_elm_, as a learned author observes, affords a remarkable instance of\nthe prolific power with which the vegetable creation is endued, to\nmultiply its different species. \u201cThis tree produces one thousand five\nhundred and eighty-four millions of seeds; and each of these seeds\nhas the power of producing the same number. How astonishing is this\nproduce! At first one seed is deposited in the earth; from this one a\ntree springs, which in the course of its vegetative life produces one\nthousand five hundred and eighty-four millions of seeds. This is the\nfirst generation. The second generation will amount to two trillions,\nfive hundred and ten thousand and fifty-six billions. The third\ngeneration will amount to fourteen thousand six hundred and fifty-eight\nquadrillions, seven hundred and twenty-seven thousand and forty\ntrillions! And the fourth generation from these would amount to fifty\none sextillions, four hundred and eighty-one thousand three hundred\nand eighty-one quintillions, one hundred and twenty-three thousand one\nhundred and thirty-six quadrillions! Sums too immense for the human\nmind to conceive; and when we allow the most confined space in which a\ntree can grow, it appears that the seeds of the third generation from\none elm would be many myriads of times more than sufficient to stock\nthe whole superficies of all the planets in the solar system!\u201d\n\nWhile many plants and trees may be propagated by branches, buds,\nsuckers, and leaves fixed in the ground; so concerning the\ndissemination of seeds after they come to maturity, the Author of\nnature has wisely provided in various ways; this being absolutely\nnecessary, since without it no crop could follow. The stalks and stems\nfavor this purpose; for these raise the fruit above the ground, so that\nthe winds, shaking them to and fro, widely disperse the ripe seeds.\nThe pericarpium, a pellicle or thin membrane encompassing the fruit or\ngrain of a plant, is generally shut at the top, that the seeds may not\nfall before they are shaken out by stormy winds. Wings are given to\nmany seeds, by the help of which they fly far from the mother plant,\nand frequently spread over a large tract of country. These wings\nconsist either of down, as in most of the composite-flowered plants;\nor of a membrane, as in birch, alder, ash, &c. Several kinds of fruits\nare endued with a remarkable elasticity, by the force of which the\nripe pericarpies throw the seeds to a great distance; as wood-sorrel,\nspurge, phyllanthus, and dittany. Other seeds or pericarpies are rough,\nor provided with hooks, as hounds-tongue, agrimony, &c; so that they\nare apt to stick to animals which pass by them, and by this means are\ncarried to their holes, where they are both sown and manured. Berries,\nas well as other pericarpies, are by nature allotted for aliment to\nanimals; but, with this condition, that while they eat the pulp, they\nshall sow the seeds: for when they feed on it, they either disperse\nthem at the same time; or, if they swallow them, they are returned\nunhurt. The mistletoe always grows on other trees, because the thrush\neating its seeds, casts them forth with its dung. The cross-bill living\non fircones, and the haw-finch feeding on pinecones, sow many of their\nseeds.\n\nThe structure of plants contributes essentially both to their own\npreservation, and that of others. But the wisdom of the Creator appears\nvery remarkable in the manner of the growth of trees. For as their\nroots descend deeper than those of other plants, provision is thereby\nmade that they shall not rob them too much of nourishment;[99] and\nwhat is still more, a stem, not above a span in diameter, often shoots\nits branches very high; these bear perhaps many thousand buds, each of\nwhich is a plant, with its leaves, flowers, and stipul\u00e6. Now if all\nthese grew on the plain, they would take up a thousand times as much\nspace as trees do; and, in this case, there would scarcely be room in\nall the earth for so many plants as at present trees alone afford.\nBesides, plants that shoot up in this way are more easily preserved\nfrom cattle by a natural defence: their leaves also, falling in autumn,\ncover the plants growing about them against the rigor of the winter;\nand, in the summer, they afford a pleasing shade, not only to animals,\nbut to plants, against the intense heat of the sun. We may add, that\ntrees, like all other vegetables, imbibe water from the earth: which\ndoes not circulate again to the root, but being dispersed like small\nrain, by the transpiration of the leaves, moistens the plants that grow\naround. Many plants and shrubs are armed with thorns, as the buckthorn,\nsloe, carduus, cotton-thistle, &c: these serve to keep off animals,\nwhich otherwise would destroy their fruit. At the same time, they cover\nmany other plants, especially of the annual kind, under their branches.\nNay it has frequently been observed on commons where furze grows, that\nwherever a bush was left untouched for some years by the inhabitants a\ntree has sprung up, being secured by the prickles of that shrub from\nthe bite of cattle. So that while adjacent grounds are robbed of plants\nby voracious animals, some may be preserved to ripen flowers and\nfruit, and stock the surrounding parts with seeds which otherwise would\nbe quite extirpated. All herbs cover the ground with their leaves, and\nby their shade hinder it from being totally deprived of that moisture\nwhich is necessary to their nourishment. Mosses, which adorn the most\nbarren places, do, at the same time, preserve lesser plants when they\nbegin to shoot, from cold and drought; as is evident in gardens, where\nplants are preserved in the same way. They also hinder the fermenting\nearth from forcing the roots of plants upwards in the spring; like what\nhappens annually to trunks of trees, and other things put into the\nground. Hence very few mosses grow in warm climates, the same necessity\nnot existing in those places.\n\nThe great Author of all things intended that the whole earth should be\ncovered with plants, and that no place should be void or barren. But\nsince all countries have not the same changes of seasons, and every\nsoil is not equally adapted to every plant; therefore, that no place\nshould be without some, he gave to each of them such a nature as might\nbe chiefly accommodated to their own climate: so that some of them can\nbear intense cold, others an equal degree of heat; some delight in dry\nground, others in moist, &c. Hence plants grow where the seasons of the\nyear and the soil are friendly to their constitution. Grasses, the most\ncommon of all plants, can bear almost any temperature of air: in this\nthe good providence of the Creator particularly appears; for all over\nthe globe they are necessary for the nourishment of cattle. The same\nis observed in relation to our most common grains. Thus neither the\nscorching sun, nor the pinching cold, hinders any country from having\nvegetables. Nor is there any soil which does not bring forth many kinds\nof plants. Deserts and sandy places are adorned with trees and plants.\n\nIf we connect the vast fecundity of vegetables with their number,\nhow bountiful will the great Author of nature appear! Solomon had a\ncomprehensive knowledge of the different species of plants, for he\n\u201cspake of trees, from the cedar-tree that is in Lebanon even unto\nthe hyssop that springeth out of the wall;\u201d but his writings on this\nsubject, not being quoted by any ancient author, nor the least fragment\nremaining, are entirely lost. Theophrastus, a Greek philosopher, who\nsucceeded Aristotle in his school at Athens, where his name became so\ncelebrated that he was attended by two thousand pupils, wrote a work\nentitled \u201cThe History of Plants,\u201d in which above 500 different plants\nare described. Dioscorides, a Grecian by birth, but under the Roman\nempire, a physician and botanist in the time of Nero, being near 300\nyears posterior to Theophrastus, describes about 600 plants. Pliny\nthe elder,[100] in his voluminous work entitled \u201cThe History of the\nWorld,\u201d gives descriptions of above 1,000 different species of plants.\nHieronymus Bock, or Bouc, a German, generally known by the name of\n_Tragus_, in 1532, published a History of Plants, in which he describes\n800 species.\n\nFrom later botanical researches, we learn, that the bountiful\nCreator has enriched the earth with about 20,000 different species\nof vegetables. The following statement of the progress of botanical\nknowledge has recently been given to the public. Messrs. Humboldt\nand Boupland, the celebrated travellers, have collected in their\nfive years\u2019 travels through South America, 3,800 species of plants,\nof which upwards of 3,000 were new, and absolutely unknown before\nto the botanists of Europe. We are at present acquainted altogether\nwith 44,000 species of plants; while the whole number mentioned by\nthe Greeks, Romans, and Arabians, does not exceed 1,400. It is worth\nremarking, that the vegetable productions of the new world seem to have\nbeen in an inverse ratio, both in point of number and luxuriance, to\nthose of the animal kingdom. In North America, for instance, the number\nof lofty trees is far greater than in Europe. In the former country,\nthere are found 137 species of trees, whose trunks exceed the height\nof 30 feet; while in Europe there are scarcely 45 species. But it is\nsingular there are no firs to be found on any part of the mountains of\nSouth America, between the tropics, though they are very abundant in\nNorth America. The reason why Magnolias, and other equinoxial plants,\nappear so far north in America, is, that as far as lat. 48 deg. the\nsummers are 9 degrees (of Fahrenheit) hotter than in the corresponding\nEuropean latitudes. The winters, however, are more than proportionably\ncolder. At Philadelphia the summer is as hot as at Rome; while the\nwinter corresponds with that of Vienna. At Quebec, the summer is warmer\nthan at Paris; the winter colder than at St. Petersburgh. Beyond Lake\nSuperior, and at Hudson\u2019s Bay, it is said that the earth is perpetually\nfrozen at the depth of three feet from the surface, which prevents the\ninhabitants from digging wells. The same thing happens in Siberia,\non the banks of the Lena; while in South America there are cities at\na greater height than the highest summit of the Pyrenees, and houses\nmore elevated than the Peak of Teneriffe, the region, in Europe, of\nperpetual congelation. To this we may add, that Linn\u00e6us, the celebrated\nbotanist, divided all plants into classes, the classes into orders, the\norders into genera, and the genera into species: and the species, we\nare told, amount perhaps to 40,000, or 50,000, or more!\n\nThe fertility of the earth has been continued from the creation,\nthrough every successive period, to the present time. Plants spring\nup, grow, flourish, ripen their fruit, wither, and at last, having\nfinished their course, die, and return to the dust again, from whence\nthey first took their rise. Thus black mould, which covers the earth,\nis generally owing to dead vegetables. For all roots descend into the\nsand by their branches, and after a plant has lost its stem, the root\nremains; but this too rots at last, and changes into mould. Thus this\nkind of earth is mixed with sand, by the arrangement of nature, nearly\nin the same way as dung thrown on fields is wrought into the earth by\nthe industry of the husbandman. But the earth offers again to plants\nfrom its bosom what it has thus received. For when seeds are committed\nto the earth, they draw to themselves, accommodate to their nature,\nand turn into plants, the more subtile parts of this mould by the\nco-operation of the sun, air, and rain; so that the tallest tree is,\nproperly speaking, nothing but mould wonderfully compounded with air\nand water, and modified by a virtue communicated to a small seed by the\nCreator. From these plants, when they die, just the same kind of mould\nis formed as gave birth to them originally; whence fertility remains\ncontinually uninterrupted. Whereas the earth could not make good its\nannual consumption, unless it were constantly recruited by new supplies.\n\nThat the Author of nature had so constituted the world that none of the\nelements should be subject to destruction, might have been supposed by\nthe ancients; but, till the present advanced state of the science of\nchemistry, no proof of this interesting fact could have been adduced.\nOf the indestructibility of matter it may be remarked, that provision\nhas been made even for the restoration of the fallen leaves of\nvegetables, which rot on the ground, and, to a careless observer, would\nappear to be lost for ever. Berthollet has shown by experiment, that,\nwhenever the soil becomes charged with such matter, the oxygen of the\natmosphere combines with it, and converts it into carbonic acid gas.\nThe consequence of this is, that this same carbon in process of time\nis absorbed by a new race of vegetables, which it clothes with a new\nfoliage, and which is itself destined to undergo similar putrefaction\nand renovation to the end of time.\n\nThe selection of a few remarkable trees and plants will serve to\nimpress the reader with a sense of the wisdom and power of God, as\ndisplayed in the vegetable kingdom. As rivers and brooks are very\nseldom found in deserts and sandy places, many of the trees growing\nthere distil water; and, by that means, afford great comfort both to\nman and beast. Thus the _Tillandsia_, which is a parasitical plant,\ngrowing on the tops of trees in the deserts of America, has its leaves\nturned at the base into the shape of a pitcher, with the extremity\nexpanded; in these the rain is collected, and preserved for the use of\nmen, beasts, and birds. The water-tree in Ceylon produces cylindrical\nbladders, covered with a lid; into these is secreted a most pure\nand refreshing water. There is a kind of cuckow-pint in New France,\nof which, if a person break a branch, it will afford him a pint of\nexcellent water. How wise, how beneficial is the adaptation of plants\nto the inhabitants of those countries where they grow!\n\nOn the top of a rock, in one of the Canary Islands, says Glass, in\nhis History, grows the _Fountain Tree_, called, in the language of\nthe ancient inhabitants, _Garse_, (sacred or holy tree,) which for\nmany years has been preserved sound, entire, and fresh. Its leaves\nconstantly distil such a quantity of water as is sufficient to furnish\ndrink to every living creature in Hierro; nature having provided this\nremedy for the drought of the island. It is situated about a league\nand a half from the sea. Nobody knows of what species it is, only\nthat it is called _Til_. It is distinct from other trees, and stands\nby itself. The circumference of its trunk is about twelve spans, the\ndiameter four, and in height from the ground to the top of the highest\nbranch forty spans: the circumference of all the branches together, is\none hundred and twenty feet. The branches are thick and extended: the\nlowest commence an ell from the ground. Its fruit resembles the acorn,\nand tastes something like the kernel of a pine-apple, but is softer and\nmore aromatic. The leaves of this tree resemble those of the laurel,\nbut are larger, wider, and more curved; they come forth in perpetual\nsuccession, so that the tree always remains green. On the north side\nof the trunk, are two large tanks, or cisterns, of rough stone, or\nrather one cistern divided, each half being twenty feet square, and\nsixteen spans in depth. One of these contains water for the drinking of\nthe inhabitants; and the other that which they use for their cattle,\nwashing, and such like purposes. Every morning, near this part of\nthe island, a cloud or mist arises from the sea, which the south and\neasterly winds force against the fore-mentioned steep cliff, so that\nthe cloud, having no vent but by the gutter, gradually ascends it,\nand from thence advances slowly to the extremity of the valley, where\nit is stopped and checked by the front of the rock, which terminates\nthe valley, and then rests upon the thick leaves and wide-spreading\nbranches of the tree, from whence it distils in drops, during the\nremainder of the day, until it is at length exhausted, in the same\nmanner that we see water drip from the leaves of trees after a heavy\nshower of rain. This tree yields most water in those years when the\nLevant or easterly winds have prevailed for a continuance, for by these\nwinds only the clouds or mists are drawn hither from the sea. A person\nlives on the spot near where this tree grows, who is appointed by the\ncouncil to take care of it, and its water; and is allowed a house to\nlive in, with a certain salary. He every day distributes to each family\nof the district, seven pots or vessels full of water, besides what he\ngives to the principal people in the island.\n\nIn Cockburn\u2019s Voyages we find the following account of the _Dropping\nTree_, near the mountains of Vera Paz, in America. \u201cOn the morning of\nthe fourth day we came out on a large plain where were numbers of fine\ndeer, and in the middle stood a tree of an unusual size, spreading its\nbranches over a vast compass of ground. Curiosity led us up to it; we\nhad perceived, at some distance, the ground about it to be wet, at\nwhich we began to be somewhat surprised, as well knowing there had no\nrain fallen for near six months past, according to the certain course\nof the season in that latitude; that it was impossible to be occasioned\nby the fall of dew on the tree, we were convinced, by the sun having\npower to exhale all moisture of that nature a few minutes after his\nrising. At last, to our great amazement, as well as joy, we saw water\ndropping, or, as it were, distilling fast from the end of every leaf of\nthis wonderful (nor had it been amiss, if I had said miraculous) tree;\nat least it was so with respect to us, who had been laboring four days\nthrough extreme heat without receiving the least moisture, and were now\nalmost expiring for the want of it. We could not help looking on this\nas liquor sent from heaven to comfort us under our great extremity. We\ncatched what we could of it in our hands, and drank very plentifully\nof it, liking it so well, that we could hardly prevail with ourselves\nto give it over. A matter of this nature could not but excite us to\nmake the strictest observations concerning it; and accordingly we staid\nunder the tree near three hours: we found that we could not clasp its\nbody by five times. We observed the soil where it grew to be very\nstony; and upon the nicest inquiry we could afterwards make, both of\nthe natives of the country, and the Spanish inhabitants, we could not\nlearn that there was any such tree known throughout New Spain, nor\nperhaps all America over.\u201d\n\nThe _Tallow Tree_, mentioned by Du Halde in his History of China, grows\nin great plenty in that country, producing a substance much like our\ntallow, and serving for the same purposes. It is about the height of a\ncherry tree; its leaves are in form of a heart, of a deep shining red\ncolor, and its bark very smooth. Its fruit is enclosed in a kind of pod\nor cover, like a chestnut, and consists of three round white grains,\nof the size and form of a small nut, each having its peculiar capsule,\nand within that a little stone. This stone is encompassed with a white\npulp, which has all the properties of true tallow, as to consistence,\ncolor, and even smell; and accordingly the Chinese make their candles\nof it, which doubtless would be as good as those in Europe, if they\nknew how to purify this vegetable as we do the animal tallow, and make\ntheir wicks as fine. All the preparation they give it, is to melt it\ndown, and mix a little oil with it, to make it softer and more pliant.\nIt is true, their candles made of it yield a thicker smoke, and give a\ndimmer light than those of ours; but these defects are owing in a great\nmeasure to the wicks, which are not of cotton, but only a little rod or\nswitch of dry light wood, covered with the pith of a rush, wound round\nit, which, being very porous, serves to filtrate the minute parts of\nthe tallow, attracted by the burning stick, and which by this means is\nkept burning.\n\nThe _Tea Tree_ is a native of China, of very slow growth; it has a\nblack, woody, irregular, branched root, and rises to a fathom high, or\nrather more. Its leaves are very thick set, without any regularity,\nand are, in substance, like those of the morella cherry tree; but,\nwhen young, they resemble, except in color, the spindle tree, with red\nberries, called _euonymus_. The larger leaves are about two inches\nlong, and one broad. The method of gathering them is one by one, lest\nthey should be torn. The first gathering begins at the middle of the\nfirst moon, immediately before the vernal equinox; these leaves are\nscarcely full opened, being only of two or three days growth; but\nthey are accounted the best, fetch the best price, and are called the\nflower of the tea; but, by the Chinese, _veui boui_, or bohea tea. The\nsecond gathering begins about a month after, and the last gathering is\nin June; the leaves of the gatherings are sorted into three several\nclasses, according to their size and goodness, and sold accordingly.\nAfter the leaves are gathered, they are the same day carried to the\nwork-house, and roasted over a slow fire in an iron pan; and, that they\nmay be thoroughly and equally dried, the roaster keeps them continually\nstirring with his hands, then takes them out, with a shovel like a fan,\nand commits them to the rollers, who roll them with the palms of their\nhands in small parcels, till they are equally cooled, and the sharp\nyellow and greenish juice is quite discharged. They are then poured\nupon a mat, and sorted a second time into different classes according\nto their goodness, and those that are less curled or burnt are taken\nout.--It is said that the Dutch were the first importers of tea into\nEurope, about the year 1606, for which they exchanged dried sage with\nthe Chinese: and though the English did certainly about the same time\ngain a knowledge of this plant, we do not find that the government\ntook any cognizance of it till the Restoration, when in 1660, a duty\nof eight-pence per gallon was laid on the liquor made, and sold in all\ncoffee-houses.\n\nThe _Coffee Tree_ is a native of the Indies, grows surprisingly quick,\nand its body is naturally of an upright form; its leaves are something\nlike those of the common bay, but curl at the end and hang downwards.\nThe blossoms first appear in July, when they show themselves in bunches\nat the joints, near the ends of the branches; they are much like\nthe flowers of the jessamine, but have the addition of some yellow\n_apices_, which are loose on the top of the blossom, and a _style_\nwhich shoots out near half an inch above it. The fruit appears about\nOctober, which hangs on the tree till the next July before it is ripe:\nit is then gathered and prepared for the market, or for propagating\nother plants. Coffee is, perhaps, one of the greatest blessings, among\nthose that are not really necessaries of life, that Providence has\ngranted to mankind; and, considering its beneficial qualities as well\nas its agreeable properties, it should be ranked among the most elegant\nplants, in foliage, blossom, and fruit. It is a wholesome, pleasant,\nand cheap beverage, and of great use in many disorders. The origin of\nthe use of coffee is stated to be as follows. A prior of a monastery\nin the part of Arabia where this berry grows, having remarked that the\ngoats which eat of it became extremely brisk and alert, resolved to try\nthe experiment on his monks, of whom he so continually complained for\ntheir lethargic propensities. The experiment turned out successful;\nand, it is said, it was owing to this circumstance that the use of this\nArabian berry came to be so universal.\n\nThe _Banian Tree_ is a native of several parts of the East Indies. It\nhas a woody stem, branching to a great height and vast extent, with\nheart-shaped entire leaves, ending in acute points. Of this tree the\nfollowing lines of Milton contain a description equally beautiful and\njust.\n\n                    \u201cThere soon they chose\n    The fig tree; not that tree for fruit renown\u2019d,\n    But such as at this day to Indians known\n    In Malabar or Decan, spreads her arms,\n    Branching so broad and long, that in the ground\n    The bended twigs take root and daughters grow\n    About the mother tree, a pillar\u2019d shade,\n    High over arch\u2019d and echoing walks between;\n    There oft the Indian herdsman, shunning heat,\n    Shelters in cool, and tends his pasturing herds\n    At loop-holes cut through thickest shade.\u201d\n\nThe banian tree, or Indian fig, is perhaps the most beautiful of\nnature\u2019s productions in that genial climate, where her luxuriance is\ndisplayed with the greatest profusion and variety. Some of these trees,\nas they are continually increasing, and, contrary to most other things\nin animal and vegetable life, seem to be exempted from decay, grow to\nan amazing size. Every branch projecting from the main body throws out\nits own roots, at first in small tender fibres, several yards from the\nground; these continually grow thicker till they reach the surface; and\nthere striking in, they increase to large trunks, and become parent\ntrees, shooting out new branches from the top; these at length suspend\ntheir roots, which, swelling into trunks, produce other branches:\nthus continuing in a state of progression as long as the earth, the\nfirst parent of them all, contributes her sustenance. The Hindoos\nare peculiarly fond of this tree; they view it as an emblem of the\nDeity, from its long duration, outstretching arms, and overshadowing\nbeneficence; they almost pay it divine honors, and\n\n    \u201cFind a fane in every sacred grove.\u201d\n\nNear these trees the most esteemed pagodas are generally erected; under\ntheir shade the brahmins spend their lives in religious solitude; and\nthe natives of all casts and tribes are fond of recreating in the cool\nrecesses, beautiful walks, and lovely vistas of this umbrageous canopy,\nimpervious to the hottest beams of a tropical sun.\n\nA description of a tree in the island of Java, called the _Upas_, or\nPoison Tree, is given to the public by a surgeon belonging to the\nDutch East India Company, of the name of Foersch, who was stationed at\nBatavia, in the year 1774. Surprising its this account may be, it is\naccompanied by so many public facts, and names of persons and places,\nthat it is somewhat difficult to conceive it fabulous. The Upas grows\nabout seven leagues from Batavia, in a plain surrounded by rocky\nmountains, the whole of which plain, containing a circle of ten or\ntwelve miles round the tree, is totally barren. Nothing that breathes\nor vegetates can live within its influence. The bird that flies over\nit drops down dead. The beast that wanders into it expires. The whole\ndreadful area is covered with sand, over which lie scattered loose\nflints and whitened bones, Thus,\n\n    \u201cFierce in dread silence on the blasted heath,\n    Fell Upas sits!\u201d\n\nThis tree may be called the emperor\u2019s great military magazine. In\na solution of the poisonous gum which exudes from it, his arrows\nand offensive weapons are dipped; the procuring, therefore, of this\npoisonous gum, is a matter of as much attention as of difficulty.\nCriminals are only employed in this dreadful service. Of these, several\nevery year are sent with a promise of pardon and reward if they procure\nit. Hooded in leather cases, with glass eyelet-holes, and secured as\nmuch as possible from the foul effluvia of the air they are to breathe,\nthey undertake this melancholy journey, travelling always with the\nwind. About one in ten escapes, and brings away a little box of this\ndireful commodity!\n\nEvery one skilled in natural history knows, that the mimos\u00e6, or\nsensitive plants, close their leaves, and bend their joints, on\nthe least touch. This is truly astonishing: but hitherto no end or\ndesign of nature has appeared from these motions; they soon recover\nthemselves, and the leaves are expanded as before. Dion\u00e6 Muscipula, or\nVenus\u2019s Fly Trap, is a newly discovered sensitive plant; and shows that\nnature may have some view towards its nourishment, in forming the upper\njoint of its leaf like a machine to catch food. Upon the middle of this\nlies the bait for the unhappy insect that becomes its prey. Many minute\nred glands, that cover its inner surface, and which, perhaps, discharge\nsome sweet liquor, tempt the poor animal to taste them; and the instant\nthese tender plants are irritated by its feet, the two lobes rise up,\ngrasp it fast, lock the two rows of spines together, and squeeze it to\ndeath. Further, lest the strong efforts for life, in the creature thus\ntaken, should serve to disengage it, three small erect spines are fixed\nnear the middle of each lobe among the glands, that effectually put an\nend to all its struggles. Nor do the lobes ever open again, while the\ndead animal continues there. But it is nevertheless certain that the\nplant cannot distinguish between an animal and a mineral substance; for\nif we introduce a straw, or a pin, between the lobes, it will grasp it\nfull as fast as if it were an insect. This plant grows in America, in\nwet shady places, and flowers in July and August. The largest leaves\nare about three inches long, and an inch and a half across the lobes:\nthe glands of those exposed to the sun are of a beautiful red color;\nbut those in the shade are pale, and inclining to green. The roots are\nsquamous, sending forth few fibres, and are perennial. The leaves are\nnumerous, inclining to bend downwards, and are placed in a circular\norder; they are jointed and succulent; the lower joint, which is a kind\nof stalk, is flat, longish, two-edged, and inclining to heart-shaped.\nIn some varieties, they are serrated on the edges near the top. The\nupper joint consists of two lobes, each lobe is of a semi-oval form,\nwith their margins furnished with stiff hairs, like eye-brows, which\nembrace or lock in each other when they are inwardly irritated. The\nupper surfaces of these lobes are covered with small red glands, each\nof which appears, when highly magnified, like a compressed arbutus\nberry. Among the glands, about the middle of each lobe, are three very\nsmall erect spines. When the lobes enclose any substance, they never\nopen again while it continues there. If it can be shoved out, so as\nnot to strain the lobes, they expand again; but if force is used to\nopen them, so strong has nature formed the spring of their fibres,\nthat one of the lobes will generally snap off, rather than yield. The\nstalk is about six inches high, round, smooth, and without leaves,\nending in a spike of flowers. The flowers are milk-white, and stand,\non foot stalks, at the bottom of which is a little painted bractea, or\nflower-leaf.\n\nThere is not an article in botany more admirable than a contrivance,\nvisible in many plants, to take advantage of good weather, and to\nprotect themselves against bad. They open and close their flowers and\nleaves in different circumstances; some close before sun-set, some\nafter; some open to receive rain, some close to avoid it. The petals\nof many flowers expand in the sun; but contract at night, or on the\napproach of rain. After the seeds are fecundated, the petals no longer\ncontract. All the trefoils may serve as a barometer to the husbandman;\nthey always contract their leaves on an impending storm. Some plants\nfollow the sun, others turn from it. Many plants, on the sun\u2019s recess,\nvary the position of their leaves, which is styled, the _sleep of\nplants_. A singular plant was lately discovered in Bengal. Its leaves\nare in continual motion all day long; but when night approaches; they\nfall down from an erect posture to rest.[101]\n\nA plant has a power of directing its roots for procuring food. The red\nwhortle-berry, a low evergreen plant, grows naturally on the tops of\nour highest hills, among stones and gravel. This shrub was planted in\nan edging to a rich border, under a fruit wall. In two or three years\nit over-ran the adjoining deep-laid gravel walk, and seemed to fly from\nthe border, in which not a runner appeared. An effort to come at food,\nin a bad situation, is extremely remarkable, in the following instance.\nAmong the ruins of New Abbey, formerly a monastery in Galloway, there\ngrows on the top of a wall, a plane tree, about twenty feet high.\nStraitened for nourishment in that barren situation, it several years\nago directed roots down the side of the wall, till they reached the\nground ten feet below; and now the nourishment it afforded to those\nroots during the time of their descending, is amply repaid, having\nevery year, since that time, made vigorous shoots. From the top of the\nwall to the surface of the earth these roots have not thrown out a\nsingle fibre, but are now united in a single root.\n\nPlants, when forced from their natural position, are endowed with the\npower to restore themselves. A hop-plant, twisting round a stick,\ndirects its course from south to west, as the sun does. Untwist it, and\ntie it in the opposite direction, it dies. Leave it loose in the wrong\ndirection, it recovers its natural direction in a single night. Twist\nthe branch of a tree, so as to invert its leaves, and fix it in that\nposition, if left in any degree loose, it untwists itself gradually,\ntill the leaves be restored to their natural position. What better can\nan animal do for its welfare? A root of a tree meeting with a ditch\nin its progress, is laid open to the air. What follows? It alters its\ncourse, like a rational being, dips into the ground, surrounds the\nditch, rises on the opposite side to its wonted distance from the\nsurface, and then proceeds in its original direction. Lay a wet sponge\nnear a root laid open to the air; the root will direct its course\nto the sponge. Change the place of the sponge; the root varies its\ndirection. Thrust a pole into the ground at a moderate distance from\na climbing plant; the plant directs its course to the pole, lays hold\nof it, and rises on it to its natural height. A honeysuckle proceeds\nin its course till it be too long for supporting its weight; and then\nstrengthens itself by shooting into a spiral. If it meet with another\nplant of the same kind, they coalesce for mutual support, the one\nscrewing to the right, the other to the left. The claspers of briony\nshoot into a spiral, and lay hold of whatever comes in their way for\nsupport. If, after completing a spiral of three rounds, they meet with\nnothing, they try again, by altering their course.\n\nBy comparing these and other instances of seeming voluntary motion\nin plants, with that share of life wherewith some of the inferior\nkind of animals are endowed, we can scarce hesitate at ascribing\nthe superiority to the former: that is, putting sensation out of\nthe question. Muscles, for instance, are fixed to one place as much\nas plants are; nor have they any power of motion, besides that of\nopening and shutting their shells; and in this respect, they have no\nsuperiority over the motion of the sensitive plant: nor does their\naction discover more sagacity, or even so much, as the roots of the\nplane tree, mentioned by Lord Kames.[102]\n\nBeckmann\u2019s History of Inventions and Discoveries presents us with an\ninteresting account of Kitchen Vegetables and Garden Flowers, collected\nfrom numerous authorities; some parts of which I shall now transcribe,\nand incorporate with information derived from other sources.\n\nOur foreign kitchen vegetables have, for the most part, been procured\nfrom the southern countries, but chiefly from Italy; and the number of\nthem has rapidly increased, in the course of the last two centuries.\nMany of them require laborious attention to make them thrive in our\nclimate. On the other hand, some grow so readily, and increase so much\nwithout culture, even in the open fields, that they have become like\nindigenous weeds, as is the case with hops, which at present abound\nin our hedges. Some plants, however, both indigenous and foreign,\nwhich were formerly raised by art and used at the table, are no\nlonger cultivated, because we have become acquainted with others more\nbeneficial.\n\nAmong many which were formerly cultivated, but at present are no longer\nesteemed, are the following. Winter-cresses, _erysimum barbarea_;\ncommon alexander, _smyrnium olosatrum_, which in the seventeenth\ncentury was used instead of celery; bulbous ch\u00e6rophyllum, the roots of\nwhich are still brought to market at Vienna, where they are boiled and\neaten as salad. Rampion, _phyteuma spicata_, was formerly used in like\nmanner. The earth nut, the tuberous roots of the _lathyrus tuberosus_,\nwhich grows wild in many parts of Germany, is still cultivated in\nHolland and in some districts on the Rhine. Rocket, _brassica eruca_,\nin Italian, _ruchette_, the young leaves of which were eaten by our\nforefathers as salad, and is still retained in Italy. And there are\nseveral others either but imperfectly known or little regarded.\n\nAmong the kitchen vegetables of which no certain traces are to be found\nin the works of the ancients, is spinage, _spinacea oleracea_. Its\nnative country is unknown; but the name is new, and certainly derived\nfrom the nature of its prickly seeds. As far as I know, it first occurs\nin the year 1351, among the food used by the monks on fast-days; and at\nthat time it was written _spinagium_ or _spinachium_.\n\nThe ancients were acquainted with curled cabbages, and even with\nsome of those kinds which we call _broccoli_. Under this term is\nunderstood all those species, the numerous young flower heads of which,\nparticularly in spring and autumn, can be used like cauliflowers.\nThe broccoli used at present was however first brought from Italy to\nFrance, together with the name, about the end of the sixteenth century.\n\nOur cauliflower, about the same time, was first brought from the Levant\nto Italy; and in the end of the seventeenth century was transplanted\nthence to Germany. For a long time the seeds were procured annually\nfrom Cyprus, Candia, and Constantinople, by the Venetians and Genoese,\nwho sent them to every part of Europe, because at that time the art\nof raising seed was not understood. The seeds of cauliflowers were\nbrought from Italy to Antwerp, where no seed was raised, or such only\nas produced degenerate plants. Prosper Alpinus, in the year 1588, found\nabundance of this vegetable in Egypt, and from his account there is\nreason to conjecture it was then very little known in Europe. Conrad\nGesner seems not to have been acquainted with it; at any rate it is not\nmentioned by him in a list of the cabbage kind of plants. Even in the\ntime of Bauhin, it must have belonged to those vegetables which were\nscarce; because he has been so particular in naming the garden in which\nhe saw it. Von Hohberg, who wrote about 1682, says that cauliflower, a\nfew years before, had been brought to Germany for the first time.--It\nwould be difficult to define all the species of the cabbage kind, the\nleaves and flowers of which were used by the ancients as food; but\nit would be a task still more arduous to determine those that have\nesculent roots.\n\nPotatoes were first imported into Europe, in the year 1565, by Hawkins,\nfrom Santa-Fe, New Mexico, Spanish America. They were planted for\nthe first time in Ireland, by Sir Walter Raleigh, who had an estate\nin that kingdom. The natural history of the potatoe was so little\nunderstood, that a total ignorance which part of the plant was the\nproper food, had nearly ruined any further attention towards its\ncultivation. For perceiving green apples appear on the stems, these\nwere first supposed to be the fruit; but on being boiled, and finding\nthem unpalatable, or rather nauseous, Raleigh was disgusted with his\nacquisition, nor thought any more of cultivating this plant. Accident,\nhowever, discovered the real fruit, owing to the ground being turned\nover, through necessity, that very season; and to his surprise, a\nplentiful crop was found under ground, which being boiled, proved\nnourishing to the stomach, and grateful to the taste. On its utility\nbeing known, its cultivation became general through Ireland. It found\nits way to this kingdom, and was first planted on the western coast,\nin consequence of a vessel containing some potatoes, being wrecked at\nthe village of Formby, in Lancashire; a place still famed for this\nexcellent vegetable.\n\nAsparagus was first planted in England in the year 1662, in the reign\nof Charles II. Artichokes were first introduced about the same time.\nCos lettuces were originally brought from the island of Cos, near\nRhodes, in the Mediterranean. Turnips were brought into this country\nfrom Hanover. In the time of Henry VIII, several kinds of fruits and\nplants were cultivated in England, as apricots, and a fine gooseberry\nfrom Flanders; also salads, carrots, and other edible roots. These\nvegetables were before this period imported from Holland and Flanders.\nSo that Queen Catherine, to procure a salad, had to dispatch a\nmessenger to fetch it from those countries. Fruit seems to have been\nscarce in the time of Henry VII. In an original manuscript, signed by\nhimself, and kept in the Remembrance office, it appears that apples\nwere not less than one or two shillings each, and that a red one cost\ntwo shillings. The great plenty and variety of vegetables displayed\nupon modern tables, through every month in the year, evidently shows\nwhat superior blessings we enjoy, in this respect, compared with those\nof our forefathers.\n\nSome of the flowers introduced into our gardens, and now cultivated\neither on account of their beauty, or the pleasantness of their smell,\nhave been procured from plants which grew wild, and which have been\nchanged, or, according to the opinion of florists, improved by the art\nof the gardener. The greater part of them however came originally from\ndistant countries, where they grow in as great perfection as ours,\nwithout the assistance of man. It is probable that the modern taste for\nflowers came from Persia to Constantinople, and was imported thence\nto Europe for the first time, in the sixteenth century. At any rate,\nmany of the productions of our flower-gardens were conveyed to us by\nthat channel. Clusius and his friends, in particular, contributed very\nmuch to excite this taste; and the new plants brought from both the\nIndies by travellers who frequently visited these countries, tended\nto increase it. That period also produced some skilful gardeners, who\ncarried on a considerable trade in the roots and seeds of flowers; and\nthese, likewise assisted to render it more general. Among these were\nJohn and Vespasian Robin, gardeners to Henry IV, of France, and Emanuel\nSweert, gardener to the emperor Rodolphus II, from whom the botanists\nof that time procured many rarities, as appears from different passages\nof their works.\n\nSimon de Tovar, a Spanish physician, brought the tuberose to Europe\nbefore the year 1594 from the East Indies, where it grows wild in Java\nand Ceylon, and sent some roots of it to Barnard Paludanus, who first\nmade this flower publicly known, in his annotations on Linschoten\u2019s\nvoyage. The full tuberoses were first procured from seed by one Le\nCour, at Leyden, who kept them scarce for some years, by destroying\nthe roots. The propagation of them in most countries is attended with\ndifficulties: but in Italy, Sicily, and Spain, it requires no trouble;\nand at present the Genoese send a great many roots to England, Holland,\nand Germany. The oldest botanists classed them among the hyacinths, and\ntheir modern name _polianthes tuberose_ was given them by Linn\u00e6us in\nhis Hortus Cliffortianus.\n\nThe auricula, _primula auricula_, grows wild among the long moss\ncovered with snow, on the confines of Switzerland and Steyermark,\nwhence it was brought to our gardens, where, by art and accident, it\nhas produced more varieties than any other species of flower. I do not\nknow who first transplanted it from its native soil. Pluche says only\nthat some roots were pulled up by Walloon merchants, and carried to\nBrussels. However, this is certain, that it was first cultivated with\ncare by the Flemings, who were very successful in propagating it. In\nthe time of Clusius, most of the varieties of the auricula were scarce.\n\nThe common fritillary, or chequered lily, _fritillaria meleagris_,\nwas first observed in some parts of France, Hungary, Italy, and other\nwarm countries, and introduced into gardens about the middle of the\nsixteenth century. At first it was called _lilium variegatum_; but\nNoel Capperon, an apothecary at Orleans, who collected a great many\nscarce plants, gave it the name of _fritillaria_, because the red or\nreddish-brown spots of the flower form regular squares. It was first\ncalled _meleagris_ by Dodon\u00e6us, because the feathers of that fowl are\nvariegated almost in the same manner.\n\nThe roots of the magnificent crown imperial, _fritillaria imperialis_,\nwere about the middle of the sixteenth century brought from Persia to\nConstantinople, and were carried thence to the Emperor\u2019s garden at\nVienna, from which they were dispersed all over Europe. This flower was\nfirst known by the Persian name _tusac_, until the Italians gave it\nthat of _corona imperialis_, or crown imperial. It has been imagined\nthat the figure of it is to be found represented on the coins of Herod,\nand that, on this account, it has been considered as the lily so much\ncelebrated in the Scripture.\n\nThe Persian lily, _fritillaria Persica_, which is nearly related to\nit, was made known almost about the same time. The bulbs or roots\nwere brought from Susa to Constantinople, and for that reason it was\nformerly called _lilium Susianum_.\n\nAfrican and French marigolds, _tagetes erecta_ and _patula_, are\nindigenous in South America, and were known to botanists under the\nname of _caryophillus Indicus_, from which is derived the French\nappellation _\u0153illet d\u2019 Inde_. Cordus calls them, from their native\ncountry, _tanacetum Peruvianum_.\n\nAmong the most beautiful ornaments of our gardens, is the bella-donna\nlily, _amaryllis formosissima_, the flower of which, composed of six\npetals, is of a deep red color, and in a strong light, or when the\nsun shines upon it, has an agreeable yellow lustre like gold. The\nfirst roots of it ever seen in Europe were procured in 1593, on board\na ship which had returned from South America, by Simon de Tovar, a\nphysician at Seville. In the year following, he sent a description of\nthis flower to Clusius; and as he had at the same time transmitted\nsome roots to Bernard Paludanus, and count d\u2019Aremberg, the former\nsent a dried flower, and the latter an accurate drawing of it, to\nClusius, who published it in 1601. One of the Robins gave, in 1608,\na larger and more correct figure, which was afterwards copied by\nBry, Parkinson, and Rudbeck; but a complete description, with a good\nengraving, was published in 1742, by Linn\u00e6us, who in 1737 gave to that\ngenus the name by which they are known at present. Tovar received it\nfrom South America, where it was found by Plumier and Barrere, and at\na later period by Thiery de Menonville. At first it was classed with\nthe narcissus, and it was afterwards called _lilio-narcissus_, because\nits flower resembled that of the lily, and its roots those of the\nnarcissus. It was named _flos-Jacob\u00e6us_, because some imagined that\nthey discovered in it a likeness to the badge of the knights of the\norder of St. James in Spain, whose founder, in the fourteenth century,\ncould not indeed have been acquainted with this beautiful amaryllis.\n\nAnother species of this genus is the Guernsey lily, _amaryllis\nSarniensis_, which in the magnificence of its flower is not inferior\nto the former. This plant was brought from Japan, where it was found\nby K\u00e6mpfer, and also by Thunberg, during his travels some years ago\nin that country. It was first cultivated in the beginning of the\nseventeenth century, in the garden of John Morin, at Paris, where it\nflowered, for the first time, on the 7th of October, 1634. It was then\nmade known by Jacob Cornutus, under the name of _narcissus Japonicus\nflore rutilo_. After this it was again noticed by John Ray, an\nEnglishman, in 1665, who called it the _Guernsey lily_, which name it\nstill very properly bears. A ship returning from Japan was wrecked on\nthe coast of Guernsey, and a number of the bulbs of this plant, which\nwere on board, being cast on shore, took root in that sandy soil. As\nthey soon increased, and produced beautiful flowers, they were observed\nby the inhabitants, and engaged the attention of Mr. Hatton, the\ngovernor\u2019s son, whose botanical knowledge is highly spoken of by Ray,\nand who sent roots of them to several of his friends who were fond of\ncultivating curious plants. Of this elegant flower Dr. Douglass gave a\ndescription and figure in a small treatise published in 1725, which is\nquoted by Linn\u00e6us in his Bibliotheca, but not by Haller.\n\nOf the numerous genus of the ranunculus, florists, to speak in a\nbotanical sense, have obtained a thousand different kinds; for,\naccording to the manner in which they are distinguished by gardeners,\nthe varieties increase almost every summer.\n\nThe principal part of them, however, and those most esteemed, were\nbrought to us from the Levant. Some were carried from that part of the\nworld so early as in the time of the crusades; but most of them have\nbeen introduced into Europe from Constantinople since the end of the\nsixteenth century, particularly the Persian ranunculus, the varieties\nof which, if I am not mistaken, hold at present the first rank. Clusius\ndescribes both the single and the full flowers as new rarities. This\nflower was in the highest repute during the time of Mahomet IV. His\nGrand Vizir, Cara Mustapha, well known by his hatred against the\nChristians and the siege of Vienna, in 1683, wishing to turn the\nSultan\u2019s thoughts to some milder amusement than that of the chase,\nfor which he had a strong passion, diverted his attention to flowers;\nand, as he remarked that the Emperor preferred the ranunculus to all\nothers, he wrote to the different Pachas throughout the whole kingdom\nto send him seeds or roots of the most beautiful kinds. The Pachas of\nCandia, Cyprus, Aleppo, and Rhodes, paid most regard to this request;\nand the elegant flowers which they transmitted to court were shut up\nin the seraglio as unfortunate offerings to the voluptuousness of the\nSultan, till some of them, by the force of money, were at length freed\nfrom their imprisonment. The ambassadors from the European courts,\nin particular, made it their business to procure roots of as many\nkinds as they could, which they sent to their different sovereigns.\nMarseilles, which at that period carried on the greatest trade to the\nLevant, received on this account these flowers very early; and a person\nthere, of the name of Malaval is said to have contributed very much to\ndisperse them all over Europe.\n\nSome of our most common flowering shrubs have been long introduced into\nthe gardens: the bay-tree has been cultivated more than two centuries;\nit is mentioned by Tusser, in the list of garden plants inserted in\nhis work called, \u201cFive Hundred Points of Good Husbandry,\u201d printed in\n1573. The laurel was introduced by Cole, a merchant at Hampstead, some\nyears before 1629, when Parkinson published his Paradisus Terrestris,\nand at that time we had in our gardens oranges, myrtles of three sorts,\nlauristinus, cypress, phyllyrea, alaternus, arbuttus; a cactus, brought\nfrom Bermuda, and the passion-flower, which last had flowered here, and\nshowed a remarkable peculiarity, by rising from the ground near a month\nsooner, if a seedling plant, than if it grew from roots brought from\nVirginia.\n\n\n_Crust of the Earth._\n\n    [In the preceding section the Author has noticed the\n    _superficies_ of the earth principally; as its inequalities\n    because of seas, lakes, rivers, mountains, vallies, &c. The\n    _rocky_, and _earthy_ masses and strata, which cover the\n    nucleus of our globe, are scarcely mentioned at all. Whether\n    the _central_ parts of the earth be solid, soft, or hollow, and\n    filled with gaseous matter, is not the subject of enquiry here:\n    but the _composition_ and _arrangement_ of the _solid crust_ of\n    the planet come under consideration.\n\n    As it regards the composition of the crust of the earth\n    considered principally, it consists of _metallic oxides_.\n    The bases of the different earths are well known to be\n    _metals_. The metal called _Silicon_, is the base of silex or\n    flint--_Aluminum_ is the metallic base of pure clay--_Calcium_,\n    of lime--_Magnesium_, of magnesia--_Potasium_, of potash, &c.\n    Iron, also, enters largely into the composition; and soda,\n    whose metallic base is _sodium_, forms a considerable portion.\n\n    These bases, at their creation, existed in an _uncombined_\n    state, as did all the elementary substances. When they entered\n    into combination with _oxygen_ they became _earths_, which are\n    simple metallic oxides, which readily combine with the _acids_,\n    in which combination they are generally seen, though not\n    always, at the earth\u2019s surface; as carbonate of lime, or common\n    limestone; the composition of which is _calcium_, _oxygen_, and\n    _carbonic acid_.\n\n    Rocks of the _silicious_ family are not considered _earthy\n    salts_, though, occasionally, they may contain a small per\n    cent. of acid. They are called _earthy compounds_. _Granite_\n    is an instance; composed of _feldspar_, _quartz_, and _mica_.\n    Gneiss, and mica slate are of similar composition, though in\n    different proportions, and under different arrangements.\n\n    It will readily occur to the reader that there are some\n    other earths, and other substances also, as the acids, and\n    gases, which enter into the composition of the earth\u2019s crust,\n    though in small proportions, and, therefore, are not considered\n    _principal_ ingredients, and hence not noticed in this general\n    sketch.\n\n    The rocky, or stony substances, composed of the above\n    elements, under the influence of chemical affinities, and\n    other principles, are found in _crystalline_, _stratified_,\n    _amorphous_, and _aggregate masses_. The _position_,\n    _structure_, and _contents_ of these masses will develope the\n    _natural history of the solid crust of our Earth_.\n\n    In order to facilitate this development, the rocks have\n    been divided, according to their age into,\n\n    1. _Primitive Rocks._ These were deposited _first_, as is\n    evident from their position, being the lowest of all the rocks.\n    Their name indicates their relative age.\n\n    2. _Transition Rocks._ These rocks are deposited\n    immediately above the primitive, of course subsequently to\n    them. They are called _transition_ rocks, because they were\n    deposited as the earth was _passing_ from an uninhabitable to a\n    habitable state, as is evident from the fact that _they contain\n    the first traces of organized being imbedded in them_.\n\n    3. _Secondary Rocks._ These are deposited next in\n    succession to the transition rocks, and mark a _third_ grand\n    geological epoch, by being almost altogether a _mechanical_\n    deposition, and lie _horizontally_ when _in situ_, and contain\n    an increase of organic remains, both in quantity and variety.\n\n    4. _Tertiary Rocks._ These derive their name from their\n    succession to the secondary, and of course mark the _fourth_\n    geological epoch in the history of the arrangement of the\n    earth\u2019s crust, which completed its redemption from the abyss of\n    waters, and fitted it for the habitation of man.\n\n    This division of the rocks designates the _order of time_\n    in which they were successively deposited, as is evident from\n    their position.\n\n    Considering these rocks _in situ_, they may be reckoned\n    _general formations_, extended all around the globe in\n    concentric circles, as the coats of an onion around its centre,\n    in the order above stated, beginning with the primitive rocks.\n\n    It is, however, well known that _fractures_ and\n    _dislocations_ prevail to a great extent, the result of\n    violence subsequently to the deposition of these rocks,\n    removing large portions of them _out of place_. But this\n    circumstance need not interrupt the grand _natural_ order of\n    the construction of the earth\u2019s crust.\n\n    There is also a class of stony substances which follow no\n    general laws, either in regard to _position_, _form_, or _age_.\n    These are volcanic and igneous productions of every kind; as\n    basalt, lava, &c. These shall be mentioned subsequently.\n\n    In the above remarks we have an _outline_ of the structure\n    of the crust of the earth; but in order to have a more\n    satisfactory development, the principal and distinctive\n    features of the leading rock formations must be stated in order.\n\n\n    _Primitive Rocks._\n\n    1. _This class occupies the lowest position as a class_,\n    yet the individual rocks of this class have a general order of\n    position among themselves. Granite is lowest; then Gneiss--Mica\n    Slate--Clay Slate--Primitive Limestone--Porphyry--Sienite--and\n    Greenstone.\n\n    _These rocks are sometimes observed alternating with each\n    other, and sometimes passing into each other._ But these\n    circumstances do not effect the general order. When the\n    formations are _undisturbed_, in penetrating them we should\n    come to granite last; and it is universally the lowest of all\n    observed rock formations.\n\n    2. _This class is generally, indeed we may say,\n    universally, crystalline in its structure._ Each integrant\n    particle is not a _perfect crystal_; but throughout the mass\n    there is a partial crystallization, such as would be the result\n    of an effort to crystallize perfectly, under a great pressure;\n    in which case the particles would mutually interfere with each\n    other.\n\n    The very fact of this crystallization implies _first_; a\n    prevailing state of _unagitated solution_ of the crystallizing\n    materials: _secondly_: that their crystallization was the\n    effect of _chemical action_.\n\n    3. _The primitive rocks contain no fragments, either\n    angular, or rounded by attrition, imbedded in them_; simply\n    because no rocks preceded them, and of course could not be\n    broken up. It is, however, to be carefully observed, that\n    perfect crystals of different kinds are found imbedded in\n    primitive rocks. When they prevail to a great extent they\n    constitute _porphyritic rocks_. It is evident that these\n    crystals must have been formed before the consolidation of the\n    including rock, and must have been suspended in the solution\n    which formed the rock upon crystallization.\n\n    4. _The primitive rocks contain no traces of organized\n    bodies._ This is an universal characteristic, and proves\n    incontestibly that they were formed _previous to the existence\n    of organized beings_.\n\n    5. _The primitive rocks are usually inclined at a high\n    angle to the horizon, and frequently are vertical._ This seems\n    to be the result of crystallization, as mechanical deposition\n    would place them _horizontally_, having the general bearing of\n    the curve of the earth.\n\n    6. The principal primitive rocks are granite, gneiss, and\n    mica slate.\n\n    They are composed of the same materials, in different\n    proportions; viz; feldspar, quartz, and mica. These three\n    minerals constitute granite, when feldspar is the _base_,\n    and the quartz is embedded in a crystalline state, and the\n    mica interspersed generally. They constitute gneiss, when the\n    feldspar _decreases_, and the mica _increases_, and is arranged\n    in layers. They compose mica slate, when the feldspar almost\n    _disappears_, and the mica and quartz are intimately united.\n\n    7. Though the primitive rocks occupy the lowest position\n    _in situ_, yet they sometimes form, not only the _summits_ of\n    lofty mountains, but sometimes the _mountain mass_ itself, and\n    appear at the surface. In these cases it is evident that they\n    have been _upheaved_ by a force acting beneath, and forcing\n    them through the superincumbent rocks, which were rent, and\n    glided down the sides of the rising mass of primitive rocks,\n    leaving them bare and visible at the summit. In this case the\n    rocks which were uppermost before the mountain mass began\n    to rise, would be found at the _foot_ of the mountain; and\n    the rocks which were next to the uppermost, would be found\n    immediately above them, reclining on the side of the mountain;\n    and thus _ascending through the ages of the rocks to the summit\n    of the mountain, where we find the primitive rock formations\n    constituting its apex_.\n\n    This phenomena of primitive rocks forming the apices of\n    mountains may be explained differently. The primitive rocks,\n    and other classes in succession, _may have been deposited in\n    mountain masses_, and the upper rocks being _softer_ and more\n    _exposed_, have yielded to the ravages of the elements, and\n    to the demolishing force of the deluge, and thus laid the\n    primitive rocks bare. The _first_ seems to be the most probable\n    supposition.\n\n    8. It is beyond a doubt, that in some instances, an\n    upheaving force has operated, and elevated the granitic summits\n    of mountains; and so powerful was the upheaving force that the\n    blocks of granite have broke at the apex of the elevation, and\n    some of them hang over perpendicularly in awful grandeur; and\n    others have rolled down the sides far into the plains below.\n\n    This theory of the formations of some of the principal\n    mountains would be firmly established in every mind, if every\n    one could have an opportunity of inspecting them without\n    prejudice. The primitive rocks would be seen shooting up from\n    the centre of the mountain, into lofty pyramidal elevations,\n    resembling, sometimes, lofty spires, or cupolas; and sometimes\n    the summit is rounded off as a dome. The rocks are in a\n    _verticle_ position, which proves they could not have been\n    _deposited there_ from a state of quiet repose.\n\n    Sometimes two summits project from the same common base,\n    having an intervening valley or depression between them. In\n    this case, the rocks which lay uppermost before the mass was\n    upheaved, upon upheaving, broke and glided down the sides, on\n    which they depend in magnificent drapery; but the portion of\n    them which was situated _between_ the uprising summits, not\n    being able to escape, is found in the valley which is formed\n    between the peaks.\n\n    In some instances, as the mass is elevating itself it bears\n    up upon it a large mass of the over-laying rock, which forms\n    the apex of the mountain, crowning it as a stately castle\n    crowns the summit of the hill on which it is built. In this\n    case the crowning mass is entirely different, and perfectly\n    distinct from the subjacent materials. _For some further\n    remarks on the structure, and formation of mountains, and\n    mountain masses, and the deluge, see Theory of the Earth, end\n    of Sect. 2, chap. iv._\n\n    9. As there was a rapid and irresistible chemical action,\n    at a very high temperature, going on during this first great\n    geological period, and the whole globe in almost omnipotent\n    fermentation, there is no difficulty in accounting for the\n    irregularities, contortions, dislocations and fractures which\n    we observe in the earth. This whole process was anterior to the\n    existence of organized being.\n\n\n    _Transition Rocks._\n\n    1. _This class was deposited subsequently to the primitive\n    rocks, and after they had consolidated._ This is evident\n    from the fact that, in their natural order, they _overlay_\n    the primitive, which could not be the case, unless they were\n    deposited subsequently, any more than the roof of the house\n    could be put on before the foundation was laid.\n\n    2. _Their structure is evidently the result both of\n    chemical action, and mechanical deposition._ These principles\n    appear to have acted sometimes conjointly; and at other times\n    to have alternated. Hence the crystallization is more imperfect\n    than in the primitive, and occasionally seems to disappear.\n\n    3. _From the complex action under which they were\n    deposited, they are generally, neither verticle nor horizontal,\n    but inclined about between these two positions._\n\n    4. _They were deposited as the primitive chaotic ocean\n    was subsiding, and the elevations of the new-born earth had\n    recently emerged._ Hence they are found next to the summits of\n    the primitive mountains, _on their flanks_.\n\n    5. _The transition rocks contain some fragments of all the\n    primitive class._ This would be the natural consequence of the\n    summits of primitive rock formations being exposed to the fury\n    of the elements; which would rend portions of them, and thus\n    deposit the fragments mechanically in the floods subsiding\n    below on the flanks of the mountains.\n\n    6. _In these rocks we meet with the first traces of\n    organized being._ (SILLIMAN.) This fact is irresistible proof\n    that these rocks were deposited _subsequently_ to the existence\n    of the enclosed remains. The probability is, that the animals\n    and vegetables found in transition rocks, were created at the\n    _commencement_ of the transition period, and their remains\n    deposited as the rocks were successively deposited.\n\n    It is remarkable that these organized beings belonged to\n    genera now extinct. They were of an inferior class, having\n    neither the delicacy, complexity, or sensibility of those which\n    we now see. They were crude, and gross, corresponding to the\n    condition of the earth at the time of their existence.\n\n    It is also evident that they lived, and died, and were\n    inhumed in the same places; as they present, generally, no\n    marks of violence, and their most delicate parts are well\n    preserved.\n\n    These organic remains occupy vast districts of country, and\n    constitute, principally, large masses of marbles, sometimes\n    many hundreds of feet in the interior of mountains. They are\n    identified with the rock, and frequently impart to it its\n    beauty.\n\n    7. The reader will readily perceive that this class of\n    rocks marks the _commencement_ of _sensitive_ existence. And it\n    would seem, from an examination of fossil remains generally,\n    that the creation of animals and vegetables was _progressive_,\n    produced with structures and functions adapted to the condition\n    of the globe, at the time of their creation.\n\n\n    _Secondary Rocks._\n\n    1. _These rocks are so called, because they are the second\n    great deposit, after the grand foundation of the primitive\n    rocks were laid._ Of course they point out the third great\n    geological period.\n\n    2. _Their position is horizontal, corresponding to the\n    general curve of the earth._ This regards their natural\n    position. They are found, under particular circumstances,\n    inclined to the horizon. They occupy a lower position on the\n    sides of mountains, resting on the transition class, which is\n    immediately subjacent _in natural order_.\n\n    3. _This class is much less chemical, indeed very little\n    so, in its structure._ It is the result of mechanical\n    deposition, after the chemical action had nearly ceased in the\n    great primitive and retiring abyss.\n\n    4. _These rocks abound more in fragments of other rocks,\n    and in the remains of organized beings, than the preceding\n    class._ This would be natural, as a greater extent of the\n    earth\u2019s surface would be exposed to the elements, and thus the\n    destruction would be greater: and as the condition of the earth\n    was better for sustaining sensitive beings, these would of\n    course be more abundant both in _kind_ and _number_.\n\n    It is also well ascertained, from the fossil remains found\n    in this class of rocks, that during their deposition, there\n    existed many species of animals and plants which do not now\n    exist: that many of the animals were _monsters_ of incredible\n    size and voracity; of such hugeness, grossness, and ferocity as\n    were suitable to the then prevailing condition of the earth.\n\n    The researches of the last ten or fifteen years, in\n    England, have brought to light the skeletons of animals,\n    approaching the _lizard genus_, from _sixty to seventy feet\n    long_!! They are abundant in England, and occasionally found\n    on the continent. Who can say, but that the other genera\n    of animals then existing, were also as much more vast, and\n    misshapen than their present existing types? A single glance\n    at the _geological reminiscences_ of this ancient period must\n    convince any observer, that the vegetable, and specially the\n    animal genera then existing were really astonishing both in\n    _size_, _shape_, and _nature_.\n\n    It becomes a question of some interest, whether these huge\n    animals ceased to exist, having found their graves in this\n    secondary class of rocks, before the existence of man?\n\n    There are many reasons which induce a supposition they did\n    cease to exist. Man could scarcely have been safe in the land\n    of these wonderful creatures. Moreover, it is probable their\n    constitutions were adapted to the condition of the world at\n    this period, which we suppose to have been more gross in its\n    air, and water, and more ardent in its climate; as it had not\n    yet settled, and dried; and the waters had not yet sufficiently\n    subsided, to render the earth the abode of the more delicate\n    land-animals, birds, and specially man. It is probable the\n    earth was marshy, with numerous inland lakes, to a considerable\n    extent; the waters still somewhat turbid; the air gross and\n    moist; and the temperature still very high. Such a state of the\n    planet would suit the constitutions of such monsters as the\n    _ichthyosaurus_, and _plesiosaurus_, which would perish as the\n    condition of the globe became more pure, and its temperature\n    reduced.\n\n\n    _Tertiary Rocks._\n\n    1. _These rocks were deposited as the earth was actually,\n    and finally redeemed from water, and became fit for the abode\n    of the more delicate and gentle land-animals and birds._ Hence,\n    it is very rare, if ever, the fossil remains of animals which\n    live wholly on land, are found below this class of rocks. But\n    man\u2019s companion animals are found, as elephants, deer, horse,\n    sheep, &c.\n\n    2. This class is not so extensively spread as the preceding\n    classes. It includes the _diluvial_ and _alluvial_ formations,\n    and indicate an alternation of fresh and sea waters in its\n    deposition. This class covers the low countries as they slope\n    from primitive districts towards the sea. Such grand vallies\n    are called _diluvial_, because deposited chiefly by the great\n    primitive ocean, as it retired through its last stages to\n    its resting beds. The deposites at the mouths of rivers, or\n    any other deposites from causes now in operation, are called\n    _alluvial_.\n\n    3. Some of the principal members of this class are: 1.\n    Argillaceous, and sandy depositions from the sea. 2. Marl,\n    and gypsum, from fresh water. 3. Sand, and sandstone, with or\n    without shells, from sea water. 4. Limestone, and silicious\n    millstone grit, from fresh water.\n\n\n    _Conclusion._\n\n    From what has been said above we may clearly deduce the\n    following particulars.\n\n    1. The crust of the earth is constructed of four great\n    general classes of rocks: the _primitive_ at the foundation;\n    the _transition_, laying immediately over the primitive; the\n    _secondary_ immediately above these; and the _tertiary_ at the\n    surface. In this arrangement we consider the rocks in their\n    natural position.\n\n    2. The _position_, _structure_, and _organic remains_ of\n    these classes, clearly point out a grand geological epoch,\n    corresponding to the time of the deposition of each class,\n    and thus indicate their relative ages. They indicate also the\n    successive conditions of the globe as it passed from its gross\n    chaotic state, to a state suitable for the habitation of man,\n    and his companion animals.\n\n    3. _The natural history of the_ PRIMITIVE WORLD, _as\n    deduced from_ GEOLOGICAL FACTS, CORRESPONDS _expressly in the_\n    ORDER _and_ NATURE OF THE EVENTS, WITH THE ACCOUNT GIVEN BY\n    MOSES.\n\n    4. The gradual retiring of the primitive chaotic ocean,\n    would give sufficient time for the production of those immense\n    beds of marine animals which are found in the most solid and\n    elevated mountains. During the prevalence of the sea, these\n    beds would form at the bottom, and when it retired they would\n    consolidate, with the mineral deposites, into rocks.\n\n    In this case the process is supposed to go on in a _quiet_\n    ocean, peaceably retiring, and leaving the deposition in\n    layers. But we must not suppose the waters were always still,\n    and peacefully retiring. If so, there could not have been\n    such distinct and different deposites, in which different\n    substances sometimes alternate. Moreover, in this case there\n    would have been but one deposition, which would have been\n    regular and continuous, changing its character simply by almost\n    imperceptible degrees, and extending all round the globe, as\n    the globe was at first wholly immersed in water. But this is\n    not the case. There is every reason to believe there were\n    violent agitations, earthquakes, volcanos, tempests, deluges,\n    &c, _occasionally_, during the subsidence of the primitive\n    waters. Hence the _dislocations_, _contortions_, _protrusions\n    of lower rocks through upper ones_, and the _upheaving\n    of the bottom of the seas in various places into ridges,\n    and mountains_, producing a tremendous _deflux of waters_\n    frequently, which would wash out channels and vallies, and\n    carry off fragments of rocks, &c, into the waters below.\n\n    Hence it is evident that the elevations on the earth\u2019s\n    surface have been _partly_ caused by subterranean force\n    upheaving them; and _partly_ by currents of water wearing away\n    channels, defiles, vallies, &c.\n\n    The natural result of upheaving, _in mass_, the bed of\n    the ocean, would be to protrude a body in which were embedded\n    the marine exuvi\u00e6 throughout the whole depth of the marine\n    deposites. Hence mountain masses are sometimes composed of\n    limestone, in which are found immense quantities of sea\n    shells, throughout the mass, and entering intimately into the\n    composition of the rock. This, without doubt, is the true\n    origin of these marine mountain remains.\n\n    Some have been disposed to attribute them to the _deluge_\n    in the days of Noah; but this is impossible for two reasons.\n    1. The deluge did not continue a sufficient length of time to\n    allow these animals to be produced in such quantities, or to\n    bury them so deeply in the earth. 2. The _rising_ waters could\n    not have carried them to their present places; because, in\n    that case they would be found at the _surface_ of the earth, or\n    near it _exclusively_; whereas they are found buried thousands\n    of feet in mountains, and embedded in solid rocks. They could\n    not have been _transported_ by the waters, because they would\n    have suffered violence, and been fractured, and compressed;\n    which is not generally the case. They are found perfectly\n    preserved, though of such delicate structure as would seem\n    to have been destroyed by the least violence. Hence it is\n    evident they are buried where they lived and died in perfect\n    tranquillity.\n\n    It is true, there are instances in which the _position_ and\n    _nature_ of the animals clearly prove that they were inhumed\n    by some _sudden_ catastrophe. For instance: when we see the\n    fossil remains of delicate, and very active fish so placed as\n    to indicate they were _caught_, we are convinced they perished\n    _suddenly_. But this case is always _local_, and may have been\n    produced by an earthquake, or volcanic action.\n\n    That the primitive chaotic ocean occupied the earth a\n    long time, _generally_ in a state of tranquillity, though\n    occasionally, strongly agitated, and rising into overwhelming\n    deluges and gradually retired, is evident also, from the fact,\n    that the most delicate _plants_, _leaves_, and _flowers_ are\n    found inhumed, as the marine animals above, _in a state of\n    perfect preservation_.\n\n    All the above phenomena took place prior to the creation of\n    man.\n\n\n    _Appendix._\n\n    There is another class of rocky substances which obey no\n    settled laws, and, therefore, are noticed here in an appendix:\n    _They are rocks and substances of evident igneous origin_: as\n    _basalt_, _obsidium_, _lavas of all textures_, and _trap_ rocks\n    _frequently_, perhaps generally. These have one common origin:\n    they are also of similar composition generally; and in this\n    approach the composition of primitive rocks. They have been\n    evidently _ejected from the bowels of the earth in a melted\n    state_. They are found in almost all countries; and in some\n    cases form mountains, and cover the surfaces of large districts\n    to an astonishing depth: as in the north of Ireland, more than\n    500 feet thick, and over an area of 800 square miles. (URE.)\n\n    Being _protruded_ from beneath in a melted state they are\n    found injected through the superincumbent rocks in _shafts_ or\n    _veins_ of various sizes, from several inches to several feet.\n    Sometimes being unable to rend the solid rocks above they are\n    injected _between their strata_. They are generally somewhat\n    crystalline in structure, because deposited on the same\n    principles as granite, when undisturbed. From their _position_,\n    _superficial extent_, and _quantity_, we infer they are the\n    products of all ages, and of immense igneous action, seated at\n    an unknown distance beneath the surface of the earth. Hence we\n    may have some idea of the vast amount of igneous action which\n    operated in the early ages of our planet. It must have been\n    violently shaken from the centre to the surface.]\n\nWe may well ask, in the language of a German philosopher, Who can\nenumerate all the blessings which the vegetable kingdom affords? It\nis at least manifest that all the arrangements of Providence, in this\nrespect, have for their grand object the advantage of the creatures.\nGod has provided for the wants of each individual. He has assigned\nto each that plant, which is most proper for its nourishment and\nsupport. There is not a plant on the earth, but what has its particular\ndestination and use. What sentiments of veneration and gratitude\nshould we feel, at the sight of lawns, gardens, fields, and meadows!\nHere his beneficent care has collected all that is necessary for the\ncomfort and preservation of the inhabitants of the earth. Here, oh\nGod! thou openest thy hand, and satisfiest the desire of every living\ncreature! Here every herb, ear of corn, flower, and tree, proclaims thy\ngoodness! How closely might our modern geologists walk with God, if,\nlike a Boyle, and a Ray, every new discovery led them to an increasing\nadmiration of Divine wisdom and omnipotent power![103] for\n\n            \u201cPhilosophy, baptiz\u2019d\n    In the pure fountain of eternal love,\n    Has eyes indeed; and viewing all she sees\n    As meant to indicate a God to man,\n    Gives him his praise, and forfeits not her own.\u201d\n\nTo meet God in the immensity of his works, and trace him in the\noperations of his hand, gives expansion to intellect, opens new sources\nof enjoyment, and greatly exalts the character of man. The sacred\nwriters conduct us to the _forest_, and, after selecting particular\ntrees, press on our attention their emblematical uses.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ III.--MINERALS.\n\n    Gold -- Silver -- Platina -- Mercury -- Copper -- Iron\n    -- Tin -- Lead -- Nickel -- Zinc -- Palladium -- Bismuth --\n    Antimony -- Tellurium -- Arsenic -- Cobalt -- Manganese --\n    Tungsten -- Molybdenum -- Uranium -- Titanium -- Chromium --\n    Columbium or Tantalium -- Cerium -- Oxmium -- Rodium -- Iridium\n    -- Religious Improvement.\n\nSome parts of the earth\u2019s surface are barren and unfruitful, yielding\nno pleasant herb for cattle, nor vegetable for the service of man.\nBut the bowels of the earth in such places are commonly stored with\nrich mines, and useful minerals. Without these what could we do in\nthe field, the house, the market, or crossing the seas? Surely, the\ninfinitely wise Architect has not made any thing in vain! It is\ndeserving of notice, says Mr. Parkes, that if minerals had been placed\non the _surface_ of the globe, they would have occupied the greatest\npart of the earth, and prevented its cultivation. Their being deposited\n_below_, is a proof of management and design worthy of that Being who\ncould furnish so great a variety of this class of bodies.\n\nThere are twenty-seven distinct metals, which possess properties very\ndifferent and distinct from each other. For a knowledge of most of\nthese, we are indebted to the more perfect modes of analysis, which\nmodern chemistry has afforded. The ancients were acquainted with only\nseven. The properties of these were tolerably well known to the early\nchemists, who acquired their knowledge from the alchemists. Metals\nare divided into two classes, by modern chemists. The one contains\nthe malleable, and the other the brittle metals. This last class is\nsometimes subdivided into those which are easily, and those which are\ndifficultly fused. The malleable metals are eleven, namely, Gold,\nSilver, Platina, Mercury, Copper, Iron, Tin, Lead, Nickel, Zinc,\nand Palladium. The brittle metals are Bismuth, Antimony, Tellurium,\nArsenic, Cobalt, Manganese, Tungsten, Molybdenum, Uranium, Titanium,\nChromium, Columbium or Tantalium, Cerium, Oxmium, Rodium, and Iridium.\n\n_Gold_ is the heaviest of all metals excepting platina; it is neither\nvery elastic nor hard; but so malleable and ductile, that it may be\ndrawn into very fine wire, or beaten into leaves so thin as to be\ncarried away by the slightest wind. Dr. Black has calculated, that it\nwould take fourteen millions of films of gold, such as is on some fine\ngilt wire, to make the thickness of one inch: whereas fourteen million\nleaves of common printing paper make near three quarters of a mile.\nAccording to Fourcroy, the ductility of gold is such, that one ounce\nof it is sufficient to gild a silver wire more than thirteen hundred\nmiles long. Such is the tenacity of gold, that a wire 1-16th of an inch\nin diameter will support a weight of 500 pounds without breaking. Gold\nmay be known from all other metals by its bright yellow color, and its\nweight. Its specific gravity is 19.3; when heavier, it must be combined\nwith platina; when lighter, and of a deep yellow color, it is alloyed\nwith copper; and if of a pale color, with silver.\n\nArabia had formerly its gold mines. The gold of Ophir, so often\nmentioned in Scripture, must be that which was procured in Arabia,\non the coast of the Red Sea. We are assured by Sanchoniathon, and by\nHerodotus, quoted by Eusebius, that the Ph\u0153nicians carried on a\nconsiderable traffic in gold, even before the days of Job, who thus\nspeaks of it, \u201cThen shall thou lay up gold as dust, and the gold of\nOphir as stones of the brooks.\u201d Gold is found in Peru, as well as in\nseveral other parts of the world. It generally occurs in a metallic\nstate, and most commonly in the form of grains. It frequently is\nmet with in the ores of other metals, but is chiefly found in the\nwarmer regions of the earth. It abounds in the sands of many African\nrivers, in South America, and in India. Several rivers in France\ncontain gold in their sands. It has also been discovered in Hungary,\nSweden, Norway and Ireland. Near Pamplona, in South America, single\nlaborers have collected upwards of \u00a3200 worth of wash-gold in a day.\nIn the province of Sonora, the Spaniards discovered a plain, fourteen\nleagues in extent, in which they found wash-gold at the depth of only\n16 inches; the grains were of such a size that some of them weighed\n72 ounces, and in such quantities, that in a short time, with a few\nlaborers, they collected 1,000 marks, (equal in value to \u00a331,219\n10_s._ sterling,) even without taking time to wash the earth which\nhad been dug. They found one grain which weighed 132 ounces; this is\ndeposited in the royal cabinet at Madrid, and is worth \u00a3500.[104] The\nnative gold found in Ireland was in grains, from the smallest size to\nupwards of two ounces. Only two grains were found of greater weight,\none of which weighed 5, and the other 22 ounces.[105] Gold mines were\nformerly worked in Scotland; and indeed now, grains of this metal are\noften found in brooks after a great flood. It has been said, that at\nthe nuptials of James V, covered dishes filled with coins of _Scotch\ngold_ were presented to the guests by way of dessert. Standard gold\nof Great Britain is twenty-two parts pure gold, and two parts copper;\nit is therefore called gold of \u201ctwenty-two carots fine.\u201d Some have\nthought that Moses made use of sulphuret of potass to render the calf\nof gold adored by the Israelites soluble in water. Stahl wrote a long\ndissertation to prove that this was the case.\n\n_Silver_ is a heavy, sonorous, brilliant, white metal; exceedingly\nductile, and of great malleability and tenacity. It possesses these\nlatter properties in so great a decree, that it may be beaten into\nleaves much thinner than any paper, or drawn into wire as fine as a\nhair without breaking. Fifty square inches of silver leaf weigh not\nmore than a grain. The specific gravity of silver is 10.500. When\nperfectly pure, it is a very soft metal. To know when it is pure, heat\nit in a common fire, or in the flame of a candle: if it be alloyed,\nit will become tarnished; but if it be pure, it will remain perfectly\nwhite. Our standard silver is formed with fifteen parts pure silver,\nand one part copper.\n\nSilver is found in various parts of the world in a metallic state; also\nin the states of a sulphuret, a salt, and an oxide. Native silver is\nfound chiefly in the mines of Potosi. Sulphuret of silver occurs in the\nsilver mines of Germany, Hungary, Saxony and Siberia. Oxides of silver\nare also common in some of the silver mines in Germany. Silver has\nlately been found in a copper-mine in Cornwall.[106] Most of our lead\nmines also afford it, particularly some in Scotland. In the county of\nAntrim, in Ireland, there is a mine so rich, that every thirty pounds\nof lead ore is said to produce one pound of silver. By the silver which\nwas produced from the lead mines in Cardiganshire, Sir Hugh Middleton\nis said to have cleared two thousand pounds a month, and that this\nenabled him to undertake the great work of bringing the New River from\nWare to London.\n\nSilver was used in commerce eleven hundred years before the foundation\nof Rome. Moses, says, \u201cAnd Abraham weighed to Ephron the silver, which\nhe had named in the audience of the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels\nof silver, current money with the merchant.\u201d At this period silver was\nnot coined, but being only in bars, or ingots, in commerce was always\nweighed. In the museum of the Academy of Sciences at St. Petersburgh,\nis a piece of _native_ silver from China of such firmness, that\ncoins have been struck from it without its having passed through the\ncrucible.[107]\n\n_Platina_, the heaviest of all metals, is nearly as white as silver,\nand difficultly fusible, though by great labor may be rendered\nmalleable, so as to be wrought into utensils like other metals. It\nwill resist the strongest heat of our fires without melting, and, like\niron, is capable of being welded when properly heated. It is found in\ngrains, in a metallic state, at St. Domingo: and also at Santa Fe, in\nPeru, in the language of whose inhabitants it means _little silver_. It\nhas recently been discovered in an ore of silver found in Estremadura,\nexisting in its metallic form. This metal was first introduced into\nEngland by Charles Wood, who brought it from Jamaica in the year 1741.\nIt has been drawn into wire less than the two thousandth part of an\ninch in diameter. The specific gravity of hammered platina is 23.66,\nwhich is more than double that of lead.\n\n_Mercury_, in the temperature of our atmosphere, is a fluid metal,\nhaving the appearance of melted silver: in this state it is neither\nductile nor malleable; very volatile when heated; extremely divisible;\nand is the heaviest of all metals except platina and gold. We see it\nalways in a fluid state, because it is so fusible that a small portion\nof caloric will keep it in a state of fluidity; but when submitted\nto a sufficient degree of cold, is similar to other metals, and may\nbe beaten into plates. It has been determined, that at 39 degrees\nbelow zero of Fahrenheit\u2019s thermometer is the point at which the\ncongelation of mercury takes place. In the winter of 1799, Mr. Pepys\nfroze 56 pounds of it into a solid and malleable mass. At Hudson\u2019s Bay,\nfrozen mercury has lately been reduced to sheets as thin as paper, by\nbeating it upon an anvil that had previously been reduced to the same\ntemperature. It is a substance so volatile that it may be distilled\nlike water; and is sometimes purified in this way from mixture with\nother metals, being often adulterated with lead and bismuth. It is also\nso elastic when in a state of vapor, that it is capable of bursting the\nstrongest vessels. According to Mr. Biddle, its specific gravity at 47\ndegrees above zero is 13.545; but when frozen into a solid at 40 below\nzero, 15.612.\n\nThis metal is brought to Europe from the East Indies and Peru; but is\nfound in greater abundance at Almaden in Spain, where it is extracted\nfrom the ore by distillation. The quicksilver mine of Guanca Velica,\nin Peru, is 170 fathoms in circumference, and 480 deep. In this\nprofound abyss are streets, squares, and a chapel where religious\nmysteries on all festival occasions are celebrated. Millions of\nflambeaux are continually burning to enlighten this subterranean abode.\nThis mine generally affects those who work in it with convulsions.\nNotwithstanding this, the unfortunate victims of an insatiable avarice\nare crowded all together, and plunged _naked_ into this abyss. Tyranny\nhas invented this refinement in cruelty, to render it impossible for\nany thing to escape its restless vigilance.\n\n    \u201cThus in the dark Peruvian mine confin\u2019d,\n    Lost to the cheerful commerce of mankind,\n    The groaning captive wastes his life away,\n    For ever exil\u2019d from the realms of day;\n    While, all forlorn and sad, he pines in vain\n    For scenes he never shall possess again.\u201d\n\nMercury is raised in such abundance in Spain, that in the year 1717\nthere remained above 1,200 tons of it in the magazines at Almaden,\nafter the necessary quantity had been exported to Peru for the use of\nthe silver mines there. The quicksilver mines of Idria, a town in the\ncircle of Lower Austria, have been wrought constantly for 300 years,\nand are thought on the average to yield above 100 tons of quicksilver\nannually. Mercury is found also in Hungary and China; it occurs most\ncommonly in argillaceous schistus, lime-stones, and sand-stones. It\nis likewise found in Sweden, amalgamated with silver, and frequently\ncombined with sulphur. Running mercury is seen in globules, in some\nearths and stones in America, and is collected from the clefts of\nrocks. Cinnabar, or sulphuret of mercury, is also generally found in\nthose countries which produce the fluid metal.[108]\n\n_Copper_ is of a red color, very sonorous and elastic, and the most\nductile of all metals, except gold. A wire 1-10th of an inch will\nsupport near 300 pounds. Its specific gravity is 8.66. It will not\nburn so easily as iron; which is evident from its not striking fire by\ncollision. Copper-mines have been worked in China, Japan, Sumatra, and\nin the north of Africa. Native copper is generally found in Siberia,\nSweden, Hungary, and some parts of France. Copper is found in several\nparts of England and Wales, particularly in Cornwall, and the Isles of\nMan and Anglesea. The copper pyrites found in Cornwall are _sulphuret_\nof copper. Anglesea formerly yielded more than twenty thousand tons\nof copper annually: the vein of metal was originally more than seventy\nfeet thick. Copper mines have not been worked in England above 160\nyears. Before that period, whenever the workmen met with copper ore in\nthe tin mines of Cornwall, they threw it aside as useless, no English\nminer at that time knowing how to reduce it to a metallic state. To\nchemical science, therefore, we are indebted for such an ample supply\nof this valuable metal. It is asserted, that a large copper mine has\nbeen worked for some time in the state of New-Jersey in America, and\nthat the ore raised there is brought to this country to be smelted.\nNative oxides of copper are found in Cornwall and in South America.\nCarbonate of copper occurs as a natural production in two varieties,\ncalled _malachite_ and _mountain green_. Sulphate of copper, of a very\nrich quality, is also found in the state of Connecticut. The stream\nin its course destroys vegetation; and where it settles in places\nnear the spring, large lumps of metallic salt are collected. Bishop\nWatson relates, that the waters which issue from the copper mines in\nthe county of Wicklow, in Ireland, are so impregnated with sulphate of\ncopper, that one of the workmen having accidentally left a shovel in\nthis water, found it some weeks after so incrusted with copper, that\nhe imagined it was changed into copper. The proprietors of the mines,\nin pursuance of this hint, made proper receptacles for the water,\nand now find these streams of as much interest to them as the mines.\nWhen miners wish to know whether an ore contains copper, they drop\na little nitric acid upon it; after a short time they dip a feather\ninto the acid, and then wipe it over the polished blade of a knife;\nand if there be the smallest quantity of copper in it, the copper will\nbe precipitated on the knife.[109] A mass of _native_ copper has been\nfound in a valley in the Brazils, containing 2,666 pounds weight. The\ndescription of it in the Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at\nLisbon is said to be very interesting, as the largest specimen ever\nfound before this weighs only ten pounds. In the museum of the Academy\nof Sciences at St. Petersburgh, is a piece of native malleable copper\nof extraordinary magnitude, found on the copper island lying to the\neast of Kamschatka.[110] The Romans were acquainted with this metal;\nfor the only money used by that people, till the 485th year of their\ncity, was made of it, when silver began to be coined. In Sweden, houses\nare covered with copper.[111]\n\n_Iron_ is of a livid blueish color, and one of the hardest and most\nelastic of all metals. When dissolved, it has a nauseous styptic taste,\nand being strongly rubbed emits a peculiar smell. It is attracted by\nthe magnet, and has the property of becoming itself magnetic. It is\nfused with great difficulty, but gives fire by collision with flint. An\niron wire only one-tenth of an inch in diameter, will carry a weight of\n450 pounds without breaking; and a wire of tempered steel, of the same\nsize, will carry one of about 900 pounds. Iron becomes softer by heat,\nand has capability of being welded to another piece of the same metal\nso as to form one entire mass; and this may be done without melting\neither of the pieces. No other metal, except platina, possesses this\nsingular properly, which renders it most suitable for every common\npurpose. Its specific gravity varies from 7.6 to 7.8.\n\nThis valuable metal is plentifully diffused throughout nature,\npervading almost every thing, so as to be detected even in plants and\nanimal fluids, and is the chief cause of color in earths and stones.\nIt is found in large masses, and in various states, in the bowels of\nthe earth. In the museum of the Academy of Sciences at Petersburgh is a\nmass of native iron twelve hundred pounds weight. In the northern parts\nof the world whole mountains are formed of iron ore, and many of these\nores are magnetic. Of the English ores, the common Lancashire hematite\nproduces the best iron. This metal is found in solution in many natural\nsprings, and gives the character to all our chalybeate waters: besides\nwhich, there are some springs which contain iron in combination with\nsulphuric acid. These are called vitriolated waters. There are several\nin this land; but those at Chadwell near London, and at Swansea in\nGlamorganshire, are probably the most important.\n\nAs this metal possesses so many properties, exists in so many different\nstates, and is capable of being applied to such a variety of excellent\npurposes, it is certainly the most useful of all the products of the\nmineral kingdom. It was used in the time of Moses, in whose writings\nCanaan is mentioned as \u201ca land whose stones were iron.\u201d The Greeks\nunderstood the method of tempering it. Homer, in the ninth book of his\nOdyssey, describes the fire-brand driven into the eye of Polyphemus,\nas hissing like hot iron immersed in water. The advantages which we\nderive from the magnetic property of iron are incalculable. To this\nwe are indebted for the _mariner\u2019s compass_, by which man is enabled\nto traverse the ocean, open a friendly or commercial intercourse with\nevery quarter of the globe, and to steer his course with the utmost\naccuracy.\n\n    \u201cTall navies hence their doubtful way explore,\n    And ev\u2019ry product waft from ev\u2019ry shore;\n    Hence meagre want expell\u2019d, and sanguine strife,\n    For the mild charms of cultivated life.\u201d\n\nIron may be moulded by the hammer into any form, and united into as\nmany parts as the workman pleases, without rivets or solder. Were\nit not for this peculiar quality, many works of great importance\ncould never have been executed. A most stupendous fabric, achieved\nby means of welded iron is the Chinese bridge of chains, hung over a\ndreadful precipice in the neighborhood of Kingtung, to connect two\nhigh mountains. The chains are twenty-one in number, stretched over\nthe valley, and bound together by other cross chains, so as to form a\nperfect road from the summit of one immense mountain to that of the\nother.\n\nSome idea of the extent and importance of the iron trade may be\nconceived from the following account, abridged from Malkin\u2019s Scenery,\n&c, of South Wales. \u201cMerthyr Tydvill was a very inconsiderable village\ntill the year 1755, when the late Mr. Bacon obtained a lease of the\niron and coal-mines of a district at least eight miles long, and four\nwide, for 99 years. Since then these mines have been leased by him\nto four distinct companies, and produce to the heirs of Mr. Bacon a\nclear annual income of ten thousand pounds. The part occupied by Mr.\nCrawshay contains now the largest set of iron works in the kingdom.\nHe constantly employs more than two thousand workmen, and pays weekly\nfor wages, coal, and other expenses of the works, twenty-five thousand\npounds. The number of smelting furnaces belonging to the different\ncompanies at Merthyr is about sixteen. Around each of these furnaces\nare erected forges and rolling-mills, for converting pig into plate\nand bar-iron. These works have conferred so much importance on the\nneighborhood, that the obscure village of Merthyr Tydvill has become\nthe largest town in Wales, and contains more than twelve thousand\ninhabitants.\u201d\n\n_Tin_ is white, a little elastic, and so exceedingly soft and ductile,\nthat it may be beaten out into leaves thinner than paper. It is much\nmore combustible than many of the metals; and is soluble in all the\nmineral acids. Its specific gravity is 7.291, or about 516 pounds to\nthe cubic foot. This metal is found in Germany, Saxony, South America,\nthe East Indies, and in England, chiefly in Cornwall and Devonshire.\nIt must have been known very early, as it is mentioned in the books of\nMoses. Homer in his Iliad mentions the use of tin.\n\nPliny says, that the Romans learned the method of tinning their\nculinary vessels from the Gauls. They used tin to alloy copper, for\nmaking those elastic plates which they employ in shooting darts from\ntheir warlike machines. The addition of tin to copper renders that\nmetal more fluid, and disposes it to assume all the impressions of the\nmould. It was probably with a view to this, that it was used by the\nancient Romans in their coinage. Many of the imperial _large brass_, as\nthey are called, are found to consist of copper and tin alone. Antique\ncoins frequently occur, made by forgers in the different reigns,\nin imitation of the silver currency, which contain a very large\nproportion of tin. There are coins of Nero which are of a most debased\nand brittle brass.\n\nAccording to Aristotle, the tin mines of Cornwall were known and worked\nin his time. Diodorus Siculus, who wrote about forty years before the\nChristian era, gives an account of working these mines: he says, that\ntheir produce was conveyed to Gaul, and thence to different parts of\nItaly. The miners of Cornwall were so celebrated for their knowledge\nof working metals, that, about the middle of the seventeenth century,\nthe renowned Becher, a physician of Spire, and tutor of Stahl, came\nover to this country on purpose to visit them; and it is reported of\nhim, that, when he had seen them, he exclaimed, He who was a _teacher_\nat home, was a _learner_ when he came there. About 3,000 tons of tin\nare furnished annually in Cornwall, two-fifths of which are usually\nexported to India by the East India Company. There are two kinds of tin\nknown in commerce, namely, _block_ tin, and _grain_ tin. Block tin is\nprocured from the common tin ore, and usually cast in blocks of about\n320 pounds weight. It is taken to the proper offices to be assayed,\nwhere it receives the impression of a lion rampant, being the arms of\nthe Duke of Cornwall, pays a duty of four shillings per hundred weight\nto the Duke, and then becomes legally salable. Grain tin is found in\nsmall particles, in what is called the _stream tin ore_. It appears to\nhave been washed from its original bed in remote ages. This kind of tin\nowes its superiority, not only to the purity of the ore, but to the\ncare with which it is washed and refined.\n\n_Lead_ is of a blueish white color, scarcely sonorous, unelastic,\nand, being the softest of all metals, yields readily to the hammer.\nIt generally contains a small quantity of silver. An alloy of this\nmetal with tin forms pewter, and in different proportions soft solder.\nIts specific gravity is 11.35. Lead ore is very abundant in Scotland,\nthe western parts of Northumberland and Durham, Derbyshire, and many\nother parts of the world. The lead found in these counties occurs\non the estates of Colonel Beaumont, and of those of the late Lord\nDerwentwater: the last of these were forfeited to Government; and are\nnow in the possession of Greenwich Hospital. Lead was known in the time\nof Moses, and was in common use among the ancients. The Romans sheathed\nthe bottoms of their ships with it, fastened by nails made with bronze.\nDuring the first century, at Rome, it was twenty-four times the price\nit is now in Europe; whereas tin was only eight times its present price.\n\n_Nickel_ is white, ductile and malleable, but of difficult fusion. It\nis attracted by the magnet, and has itself the property of attracting\niron: but as the nickel of commerce always contains iron, this may\ndisguise its properties, and prevent its nature being exactly known,\nRichter, in his Annales de Chimie, asserts, that this metal, in its\npure state, is nearly as brilliant as silver, and more attractable by\nthe loadstone than iron; that it is not liable to be altered by the\natmosphere; and that its specific gravity when forged is 8.666. The\nore of nickel is procured from various parts of Germany, and is often\nfound with cobalt. It is chiefly used in China; and it is said, that\nthe manufacturers of Birmingham combine it with iron, and melt it with\nbrass, with great advantage.\n\n_Zinc_ possesses but a small degree of malleability and ductility,\nexcept under certain circumstances. When broken, it appears of a\nshining blueish white; and when exposed to the air, becomes covered\nwith a pellicle which reflects various colors. If beaten out into thin\nleaves, it will take fire from the flame of a common taper. Its filings\nare mixed with gunpowder, to produce those brilliant stars and spangles\nwhich are seen in the best artificial fire-works. It is also one of the\nmetals employed to form Galvanic batteries. It is the most combustible\nmetal we have. It will decompose water without the assistance of heat.\nNext to manganese, it has the strongest affinity for oxygen of all\nthe metals. Its specific gravity is 6.861. Its nature is such, that\nit seems to form the link between brittle and malleable metals. Some\nmineralogists consider zinc to be the most abundant metal in nature,\nexcepting iron. Calamine, or lapis calaminaris, which is a native oxide\nof zinc, combined with carbonic acid, is found both in masses and in\na crystallized state, and is generally combined with a large portion\nof silex. Zinc is also found in an ore called _blend_, in which state\nit is mineralized by sulphur. The miners call it Black Jack--a mineral\nemployed till lately in Wales for mending the roads. Zinc is generally\ncalled by our artists _spelter_; and in England and elsewhere it is\nextracted from calamine, and other ores, by distillation. This metal\nabounds in China, where it is used for current coin, and for that\npurpose is employed in the utmost purity. These coins have frequently\nTartar characters on one side, and Chinese on the other. They have\ngenerally a square hole in the centre, that they may be carried on\nstrings, and more readily counted.\n\n_Antimony_ is of a dusky white color, brilliant, brittle, and destitute\nof ductility. Though seemingly hard, it may be cut with a knife.\nIts specific gravity, according to Bergman, is 6.86. It is procured\nfrom an ore which is found chiefly in Hungary and Norway. Native\nantimony, alloyed with a small portion of silver and iron, has been\nfound in Sweden. And it is said, that it has been found in the state\nof Connecticut, in America, nearly in a pure metallic form. There are\nfive distinct ores of antimony, but the grey is the only one found\nin sufficient quantity for the manufacturer; it is a sulphuret of\nantimony. Perhaps we have no metal more valuable as a medicine than\nthis, or one which is applied in such various ways.\n\n_Bismuth_ is of a yellowish white color, lamellated texture, and\nmoderately hard, but not malleable. It is so brittle that it breaks\nreadily under the hammer, and may be reduced to powder. It has the\nsingular property of _expanding_ as it cools. Hence, probably, its use\nin the metallic composition for printers\u2019 types; as from this expansive\nproperty are obtained the most perfect impressions of the moulds in\nwhich the letters are cast. In manufactories this metal is known to\nthe workmen by the name of _tin glass_. It is one of the metals which\nwill inflame when suspended in oxymuriatic acid gas. It is generally\nfound with cobalt in the cobaltic ores of Saxony and England. Native\nbismuth, and sulphuret of bismuth, are found on the continent; and a\nsulphuret of bismuth has been discovered in Cornwall; but this is not\nan abundant metal. If 8 parts of bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, be\nmelted together, the mixed metal will fuse at a heat no greater than\n212\u00b0. Tea-spoons made of this alloy are sold in London, to surprise\nthose who are unacquainted with their nature. They have the appearance\nof common tea-spoons, but melt as soon as they are put into hot tea.\n\n_Arsenic_, when reduced to its pure metallic state, is a friable\nbrilliant metal, of a blueish white color, easily tarnishing, or\noxidizing, by exposure to the air. In all its states it is extremely\npoisonous. It may be known by the smell of garlic, and by the white\nfumes which it exhales when thrown upon a piece of red-hot coal. Its\nspecific gravity is 8.310. It is found in Bohemia, Hungary, Saxony, and\nother places on the continent; and in combination with acids, sulphur,\nor oxygen. The arsenic of commerce is prepared in Saxony, in the\noperation of roasting the cobalt ores for the manufacture of zaffre.\nThe reverberatory furnace in which the ores are roasted terminates in a\nlong horizontal chimney; and in this chimney the arsenical vapors are\ncondensed, forming a crust, which at stated times is cleared off by\ncriminals, who are condemned to this work.\n\n_Cobalt_ is a whitish-grey, brittle metal, nearly resembling fine\nhardened steel; is difficult of fusion, but obedient to the magnet.\nAccording to Bergman, its specific gravity is about 7.700; though\nTassaret makes it 8.538. Formerly all our cobalt came from Saxony. The\ncobalt ores of Hesse produce a nett profit of \u00a314,000 a year, as stated\nin Born\u2019s Travels; though once they were used for no other purpose than\nto repair the roads. But now cobalt is found abundantly in the Mendip\nhills in Somersetshire, and in a mine near Penzance in Cornwall. Zaffre\nis now made from the cobalt ores found in these hills. Had it not been\nfor the rapid promulgation of chemical science in these kingdoms, this\nimportant metal might have lain in the bowels of the earth undiscovered\nfor ages yet to come. Formerly miners not only threw cobalt aside as\nuseless, but they considered it so troublesome when they found it among\nother ores, that, as stated in Beckmann\u2019s History of Inventions, a\nprayer was used in the German church, that God would preserve miners\nfrom _cobalt_ and from _spirits_. It is now very valuable to the\nmanufacturers of porcelain.\n\n_Manganese_ is of a dark grey color, brilliant, very brittle, of\nconsiderable hardness, and difficult fusibility. Its specific gravity\nhas been estimated by Bergman at 6.850, and by Hielm 7.00. It is\nnever found native. It was first procured in its pure metallic form\nby Kaim and Gahn between 1770 and 1775. It abounds in America, and\nin various parts of the continent. The manganese which is used in\nEngland, is obtained in a state of black oxide from Somersetshire and\nDevon. It is found either in the state of an oxide or a salt. But the\ndiscovery of mines of it in this country is a new acquisition, owing\nto the spirit of chemical research. Dr. William Dyce, of Aberdeen, has\nlately communicated to the Society for the Promotion of Arts, &c, the\ndiscovery of a mine of great extent, and very fine quality, in the\nvicinity of that town: for which the gold medal of the Society was\nsent him. Professor Beattie, of the same place, has also discovered\nmanganese in his neighborhood, on the river Don, of good quality.\nScheele discovered this metal in the ashes of burnt vegetables. Proust\nhas lately announced the discovery of a native sulphuret of manganese.\nThat from the Bristol and the Mendip hills generally contains lead.\n\n_Tungsten_ is a heavy metal, but its properties are not much known.\nIt is procured from a mineral found in Sweden, and from an ore called\n_wolfram_, found in Cornwall, Germany, &c. It has been used in France\nfor making vegetable lakes; but is not used here. Though it has been\nrecommended as a proper basis for colors, it shows in some instances a\nstrange fugacious disposition. Its specific gravity is 17.60.\n\nThe same may be said of the other metals, their properties not being\nmuch known. _Molybdenum_ was first procured in a metallic state by\nHielm, in the year 1782; and, it is believed, has been employed in\nsome processes of dyeing in Germany. As the ore may be had in great\nplenty, it will probably, some time hence, come into general use here.\nAt present it is not used in any of the arts. Its specific gravity\nis 8.61. _Uranium_ was discovered by Klaproth in 1789, in a mineral\ncalled pechblend; and has since been found combined with carbonic acid,\nin the common green mica. _Titanium_ was first noticed in the year\n1781, by Mr. Macgregor, in a greyish black sand, found in the vale of\nMenachan in Cornwall; but has since been discovered by Klaproth in\nseveral other minerals. An ore of it occurs in Transylvania, which\nvery much resembles yellow sand. This metal has been used in France\nfor painting porcelain. _Tellurium_ was discovered by Klaproth in the\nyear 1798, in a particular kind of gold ore. It has hitherto been\nfound in quantities too small to allow of its being employed in the\narts. Its specific gravity is only 6.115. _Chromium_ received its\nname from a property it has of imparting a lively color to a variety\nof other bodies. The emerald is colored by an oxide of this metal.\n_Columbium_ was discovered in a mineral sent from Massachusetts in\nNorth America. _Tantalium_ was found in an ore from Swedish Lapland:\nbut Dr. Woollaston has lately discovered that this and columbium are\nidentically the same metal. _Cerium_ had not been seen in a metallic\nform till Sir Humphrey Davy procured it from some oxide discovered by\nHissinger and Berzelius in 1804. Its scarcity will prevent its being\napplied to any useful purpose.\n\nThe metals are simple substances, distinguishable from all other bodies\nby their lustre, great specific gravity, perfect opacity, and superior\npower of conducting electricity. They are the great agents by which\nwe are enabled to explore the bowels of the earth, and examine the\nrecesses of nature. Their uses are so multiplied, that they are become\nof prime importance in every occupation of life.\n\nThe reason why one metal possesses such opposite and specific\ndifferences from those of another, is not to be attributed to chance,\nbut must certainly be the effect of consummate wisdom and contrivance.\nThese metals differ so much from each other in their degrees of\nhardness, lustre, color, elasticity, fusibility, weight, malleability,\nductility, and tenacity, that the Author of nature appears to have had\nin view all the necessities of man coming within the range of their\noperation.[112]\n\n    [It is now generally admitted that there are FORTY\n    _distinct metals_.\n\n    Some of these metals are the _bases_ of the _alkalis_,\n    _alkaline earths_, and _earths_. And as _this_ class of metals\n    is but little known to the great mass of readers, some remarks\n    will be acceptable: they are recommended to his special\n    attention, as they form the base of the only satisfactory\n    theory of _volcanos_ and _earthquakes_. The number of metals in\n    this class are _twelve_.\n\n    1. The bases of the three alkalis, _potash_, _soda_, and\n    _lithia_.\n\n    The base of _potash_ is POTASIUM. This metal was discovered\n    in 1807 by Sir H. Davy. Its texture is crystalline; color\n    and lustre similar to mercury. It is solid at the ordinary\n    temperature of the atmosphere; somewhat fluid at 70\u00b0, melts\n    at 150\u00b0. Its affinity for oxygen is so great that it oxidizes\n    rapidly in the air; and decomposes water instantly upon\n    contact, emitting heat, flame, and light, as it swims on the\n    surface of the water, being the _lighter_ substance. In these\n    cases it oxidizes and becomes potash, by abstracting oxygen\n    from the air and water.\n\n    The base of _soda_ is SODIUM. This metal was discovered\n    by the same chemist the same year. It has the strong metallic\n    lustre of silver. It fuses at 200\u00b0, and evaporates at a full\n    red heat. It decomposes both air and water, but not so rapidly\n    as potasium. When thrown on water it effervesces strongly; and\n    inflames with light, when thrown on boiling water. In these\n    cases soda results, which is the _oxide of sodium. This metal\n    is the base of common salt._\n\n    The base of _lithia_ is LITHIUM. This metal was discovered\n    in Sweden in 1818, by Arfwedson. It is of a white color, like\n    sodium; but oxidizes so rapidly as not to be kept in its pure\n    metallic state. Its peculiar properties are, therefore, not so\n    certainly known. Its alkaline quality is well ascertained, when\n    in combination with oxygen, in which form it commonly appears.\n\n    2. The bases of the four alkaline earths, _baryta_,\n    _strontia_, _lime_ and _magnesia_.\n\n    The base of _baryta_ is BARIUM. This metal was discovered\n    by Sir H. Davy, in 1808. It is of a dark gray color, very\n    heavy, and attracts oxygen very strongly from the air, and from\n    water, with effervescence, caused by the escape of hydrogen\n    gas, and thus becomes an oxide which is the pure earth baryta,\n    of a white color, and very heavy. Its intimate properties are\n    not yet well known.\n\n    The base of _strontia_, is STRONTIUM. This metal is very\n    much like barium, in color, weight, and power of decomposing\n    air and water, and thus becoming an oxide, which is the earth\n    strontia. Yet it is satisfactorily distinguished from barium.\n\n    The base of _lime_ is CALCIUM. This metal was\n    satisfactorily obtained first by Sir H. Davy. It is of a\n    whiter color than the two last mentioned metals; and like them\n    decomposes the air and water, and thus becomes lime, which is\n    an _oxide of calcium_. The _base_ of common _limestone is_, of\n    course, _a metal_.\n\n    The base of _magnesia_ is MAGNESIUM. This metal was\n    discovered by Sir H. Davy, but in very small quantities;\n    sufficient, however, to determine its strong affinity for\n    oxygen, so as to decompose water, and thus oxidize, and become\n    the earth magnesia, which is a metallic oxide. The base of\n    common magnesia is, of course, a metal.\n\n    3. The bases of the five earths, _alumina_, _glucina_,\n    _yttria_, _zirconia_, and _silica_.\n\n    The base of _alumina_ is ALUMINIUM. The existence of this\n    metal was pretty satisfactorily ascertained by Sir H. Davy,\n    and subsequently _established_ by W\u00f6hler. It is very difficult\n    to obtain it, as the preparation is attended with intense heat\n    and light. When obtained it is generally in small scales of\n    a metallic lustre. It requires a great heat to fuse it; and\n    when heated to redness in the open air, it burns with a bright\n    light, and the product is an _oxide of aluminium_, which is\n    _pure clay_, of a white color, and quite hard.\n\n    This oxide, or pure clay, is very abundant in the\n    composition of the earth, though generally very much\n    adulterated. It is found in all countries and used for making\n    bricks, porcelain ware, pipes, &c. When pure it sometimes\n    crystallizes. Hence it is capable of forming some of the most\n    beautiful _gems_: as the sapphire and ruby, which are pure\n    crystallized clay. _Clay, then, has a metallic base._\n\n    The base of _glucina_, is GLUCINIUM. Glucina was first\n    discovered by Vauquelin in 1798, and by analogy its base was\n    _supposed_ to be metallic, which has since been confirmed by\n    Dr. W\u00f6hler, who has obtained the base in the form of a metal.\n    _An. de ch. et de ph. Sept. 1828, as quoted by Dr. Bache,\n    Turner\u2019s Chem. p. 303._\n\n    The base of _yttria_ is YTTRIUM. This metal was obtained in\n    a separate state by Dr. W\u00f6hler, (See last quoted authority,)\n    though its existence was inferred by Godolin who discovered the\n    earth which is an oxide of this metal.\n\n    The base of _zirconia_ is ZIRCONIUM. The earth was\n    discovered by Klaproth in 1789, and its metallic base clearly\n    established by Berzelius 1824.\n\n    The base of _silica_ is SILICIUM. There exists some doubts\n    among chemists whether this base is indeed a _metal_; but\n    there is no doubt but that it is _combustible_, and that the\n    earth silica, (or silex,) is an _oxide_. From _analogy_ it\n    would be inferred this base is metallic, and the _evidence_\n    preponderates on this side. This oxide, or earth, is very\n    abundant. It is more commonly called _silex_. It is the base\n    of the whole class of primitive rocks, and almost altogether\n    constitutes quartz, flint, &c.\n\n    The reader is now desired to recollect that this class of\n    metals constitutes the _bases of the alkalis, and earths_;\n    which are simply _metallic oxides_ or a combination of oxygen\n    with the metals. Recollect also that _all these metals are\n    inflammable_, and some of them simply upon exposure to air and\n    water. Now as the earths at the surface of our globe are the\n    results of _chemical action_, in which the oxygen combined with\n    the metals, it is beyond a doubt that these substances were\n    created in their elementary and uncombined state; and that\n    the act of combining would produce an inconceivable amount of\n    heat, so as to fuse completely the whole mass of our earth; and\n    in this state of fusion the oxides would commence forming at\n    the _surface chiefly_; and thus by oxidizing the metals would\n    form the earths, rocks, &c, which constitute, principally,\n    the _crust_ of our globe. When this crust became sufficiently\n    thick it would protect the _interior_ parts of the earth from\n    oxidation, by preventing the access of air and water; and they\n    would of course remain in a pure metallic state. But, (as is\n    most probable,) if the materials, being promiscuously mixed\n    throughout the mass at the commencement of the chemical action,\n    should oxidize throughout, then the indurating of the crust,\n    by cooling, would inclose the _interior_ parts _in a state of\n    fusion_, and in that state they remain to the present time. Nor\n    is this astonishing when we recollect the _earths_ are almost\n    perfect _non-conductors of caloric_: of course it could not\n    escape at all through the _crust_ of the earth, formed of many\n    strata of earths, in the shape of rocks, which, taken together,\n    may be about eight miles thick.\n\n    If, by any concussion, or by percolation, water, or air\n    should reach these metals in the interior, or these fused\n    masses of matter, the consequence would be _decomposition_,\n    and the production of a great amount of gas, and heat, which\n    operating conjointly, first produce earthquakes by struggling\n    to escape from the caverns in which they are generated; and\n    when they find a passage, they would break forth into volcanos.\n    This is the only true and satisfactory theory of earthquakes\n    and volcanos.\n\n    It may be added, that this action would naturally bring to\n    its aid the astonishing powers of electricity and galvanism.\n\n    The _forty_ metals mentioned above, may be classed\n    scientifically into _two_ classes.\n\n    1. _The bases of the alkalis, alkaline earths, and earths._\n    These are twelve: potasium, sodium, and lithium; bases of the\n    alkalis--barium, strontium, calcium, and magnesia; bases of the\n    alkaline earths--aluminium, glucinium, yttrium, zirconium, and\n    silicium; bases of the earths.\n\n    2. Metals, the oxides of which are neither alkalis, or\n    earths. These are _twenty-eight_ in number, and may be set down\n    in the following order: gold, silver, iron, copper, mercury,\n    lead, tin, antimony, zinc, bismuth, arsenic, cobalt, platinum,\n    nickel, manganese, tungsten, tellurium, molybdenum, uranium,\n    titanium, chromium, columbium, palladium, rhodium, iridium,\n    osmium, cereum, and cadmium.\n\n    Not only the _first_ class of metals are _combustible_,\n    but the _last_ also. _All_ the metals are now well known to\n    be combustible bodies, _and may be made to burn as really as\n    wood_.]\n\n_Gems_ are of a higher order than metals, of a more refined nature, and\nconsist of two classes, the pellucid and semi-pellucid. Those of the\nfirst class are bright, elegant, and beautiful fossils, naturally and\nessentially compound, ever found in small detached masses, extremely\nhard, and of great lustre. Those composing the second class are stones\nnaturally and essentially compound, not inflammable nor soluble in\nwater, found in detached masses, and composed of crystalline matter\ndebased by earth: however, they are but slightly debased, are of great\nbeauty and brightness, of a moderate degree of transparency, and\nusually found in small masses.\n\nThe knowledge of the gems depends principally on observing their\nhardness and color. Their _hardness_ is commonly allowed to stand in\nthe following order: the diamond, ruby, sapphire, jacinth, emerald,\namethyst, garnet, carneol, chalcedony, onyx, jasper, agate, porphyry,\nand marble. This difference, however, is not regular and constant, but\nfrequently varies. In point of _color_, the diamond is valued for its\ntransparency, the ruby for its deep red, the sapphire for its blue,\nthe emerald for its green, the jacinth for its orange, the amethyst\nfor its purple, the carneol for its carnation, the onyx for its tawny,\nthe jasper, agate, and porphyry, for their vermillion, green, and\nvariegated colors, and the garnet for its transparent blood-red.\n\nThere is not a unity of opinion concerning the cause of this\ndifference. \u201cTheir colors,\u201d says Cronstedt, \u201care commonly supposed to\ndepend upon metallic vapors; but may they not more justly be supposed\nto arise from a phlogiston united with a metallic or some other earth?\nbecause we find that metallic earths which are perfectly well calcined\ngive no color to any glass; and that the manganese, on the other hand,\ngives more color than can be ascribed to the small quantity of metal\nwhich is to be extracted from it.\u201d M. Magellan is of opinion, that\ntheir color is owing chiefly to the mixture of iron which enters their\ncomposition; but approves the sentiment of Cronstedt, that phlogiston\nhas a share in their production, it being well known that the calces\nof iron when dephlogisticated, produce the red and yellow colors of\nmarble, and when phlogisticated to a certain degree produce the blue or\ngreen colors.\n\nWith regard to the texture of gems, M. Magellan observes, that all of\nthem are foliated or laminated, and of various degrees of hardness.\nWhenever the edges of these lamin\u00e6 are sensible to the eye, they have\na fibrous appearance, and reflect various shades of color, which\nchange successively according to their angular position to the eye.\nThese are called by the French _chatorantes_; and what is a blemish\nin their transparency, often enhances their value on account of their\nscarcity. But when the substance of a gem is composed of a broken\ntexture, consisting of various sets of lamin\u00e6 differently inclined to\neach other, it emits at the same time various irradiations of different\ncolors, which succeed one another according to their angle of position.\nThis kind of gems has obtained the name of _opals_, which are valued\nin proportion to the brilliancy, beauty, and variety of their colors.\nTheir crystallization, no doubt, depends on the same cause which\nproduces that of salts, earths, and metals: but as to the particular\nconfiguration of each species of gems, we can hardly depend upon any\nindividual form as a criterion to ascertain each kind; and when we\nhave attended with the utmost care to all that has been written on the\nsubject, we are at last obliged to appeal to chemical analysis, because\nit very often assumes various forms.[113]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nThe rich treasures of the earth are within it, observes a worthy\nauthor, so that they cannot be discovered and brought to the surface\nwithout the labor of man; yet they are not placed so deep, as to render\nhis exertion ineffectual. Thus nothing but what is comparatively\nworthless is to be found by the indolent on the surface of life. Every\nthing valuable must be obtained by diligent research and sedulous\neffort. All wisdom, science, art and experience, are hidden at a proper\ndepth for the exercise of intellect, and they who bend their attention\nto any of these objects shall not be disappointed in their pursuit.\n\nThe treasures of wisdom, which are displayed in the redemption of\nmankind by Jesus Christ, and recorded in the Divine Oracles, do not lie\nupon the surface of the letter, for every superficial reader to observe\nthem: therefore our Lord says, \u201cSearch the Scriptures.\u201d The word\n\u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03c5\u03bd\u03b1\u03c4\u03b5, compounded of \u03b5\u03c1\u03b5\u03c9, _I seek_, and \u03b5\u03c5\u03bd\u03b7, _a bed_, is, says\nSt. Chrysostom, \u201ca metaphor taken from those who dig deep and search\nfor metals in the bowels of the earth. They look for the bed where\nthe metal lies, and break every clod, and sift and examine the whole,\nin order to discover the ore.\u201d In Leigh\u2019s Critica Sacra, we meet\nwith these observations, illustrative of the Greek word--\u201c_Search_;\nthat is, shake and sift them, as the word signifies: search narrowly,\ntill the true force and meaning of every sentence, yea, of every word\nand syllable, nay, of every letter and yod therein, be known and\nunderstood. Confer place with place; the scope of one place with that\nof another; things going before with things coming after: compare word\nwith word, letter with letter, and search it thoroughly.\u201d\n\nThe Holy Scriptures contain the most invaluable treasures, a complete\ncollection of doctrines, precepts, and promises, necessary to\neverlasting happiness. In this respect they have a peculiar advantage\nabove all the writings of the most distinguished philosophers in the\nheathen world. The Bible presents an exact model of religion, for the\ninstruction and common benefit of mankind. Here we have, in a narrow\ncompass, all the things necessary to be known, believed, and practised,\nin order to our salvation; for it is, \u201ca lamp to our feet, and a light\nto our path.\u201d We are taught the knowledge of the only living and\ntrue God, his spiritual nature, adorable perfections, and endearing\nrelations to his rational creatures: so that the meanest Christian\nwho can read, may arrive at more true and just notions of him, than\nthe wisest heathen sages could attain, who as the Apostle intimates,\ndid only grope after him in the dark.--We are informed how Adam was\ncreated, how he fell, and what is the consequence of his transgression\nto all his posterity: the most celebrated heathens were not able to\naccount for the origin of moral evil, as affecting the human race. The\nglorious plan of redemption by Jesus Christ is set before us, in its\ncommencement, progress, and completion; which is the highest display\nof the moral perfections of God, and attended with the most beneficial\nadvantages to man.--The rules of duty, all the agenda of religion, or\nthings to be done, are plainly stated, and properly enforced. Promises,\ncontaining pardon, adoption, sanctification, and eternal life, are\nevery where interspersed, and are \u201cyea, and amen, in Christ.\u201d\n\nOur obligation to search the Scriptures, and by that means acquaint\nourselves with their valuable contents, appears from the _necessity_\nand _design_ of committing them to writing. St. Paul says, \u201cAll\nscripture is given by inspiration of God, and is profitable\nfor doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in\nrighteousness: that the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished\nunto all good works.\u201d But how can they contribute to these important\nends without being read? What effect could the mere writing of them\nhave on mankind, to inform the judgment and regulate the life? How\ncould Christian motives have proper influence, if the Sacred Volume\nwere neglected? Is it not an insult to common sense, to assert that\nthe Scriptures were written for our instruction and admonition, but\nit is not necessary to peruse them to learn what they teach? To have\na Bible, and not to read it, for direction in the way of truth and\nholiness, would not be attended with any peculiar advantage. Precious\nmetals, deposited in the earth, must be procured to be rendered\nbeneficial. The Holy Scriptures contain the revelation of God to\nmankind, declare his will with certainty, and are the prescribed means\nof salvation: the Apostle says, \u201cthey are able to make us wise unto\nsalvation, through faith that is in Christ Jesus.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFootnotes - Chapter IV\n\n    [74] Benson on Gen. i, 9, 10.\n\n    [75] Contemplative Philosopher, vol. ii, pp. 177-179.\n\n    [76] M. Savary, in his instructive and entertaining Letters\n    on Greece, has the following pertinent reflections: \u201cWe enjoy\n    the finest weather imaginable; not a cloud obscures the sky,\n    and a south-east wind wafts us directly towards the port to\n    which our wishes tend. We have now entirely lost sight of land,\n    and, as far as the eye can reach, only view the immense abyss\n    of the waters, and the vast expanse of the heavens. How awful\n    is this sight! How does it inspire the mind with great ideas!\n    How adventurous is man, who trusts his fortune and his life\n    to this frail vessel he has built, which a worm may pierce,\n    or a single blast dash to pieces against a rock. Yet in this\n    he braves the fury of the ocean! But how admirable is his\n    ingenuity! He commands the winds, enchains them in the canvas,\n    and forces them to conduct him where he pleases. He sails from\n    one end of the world to the other, and traverses the immense\n    liquid plains without any signals to direct him. He reads his\n    course in the heavens. A needle, which wonderfully points\n    perpetually to the pole, and the observation of the stars,\n    inform him where he is. A few lines and points mark out to him\n    the islands, coasts, and shoals, which his skill enables him\n    to approach or avoid at pleasure. Yet has he cause to tremble,\n    notwithstanding all his science and all his genius! The fire\n    of the clouds is kindling over his head, and may consume his\n    dwelling. Unfathomable gulfs are yawning beneath his feet,\n    and he is separated from them only by a single plank. His\n    confidence might make us imagine he knew himself immortal; yet\n    he must die--die never to revive again, except in another state\n    of being.\u201d\n\n    [77] As it is sometimes necessary to preserve sea water\n    in casks for bathing and other purposes, it is of importance\n    to know how to keep it from putrefaction. Dr. Henry from\n    many experiments made by him for the preservation of sea\n    water from putrefaction, has concluded, that two scruples of\n    quick-lime are sufficient to preserve a quart of sea water.\n    The proportions, however, may vary a little according to the\n    strength of quick-lime employed.\n\n    [78] \u201cFrosts often occasion a scantiness of water in our\n    fountains and wells. This is sometimes erroneously accounted\n    for by supposing that the water freezes in the bowels of\n    the earth. But this, as Dr. Robison remarks, is a great\n    mistake: the most intense cold of a Siberian winter would not\n    freeze the ground two feet deep; but a very moderate frost\n    will consolidate the whole surface of a country, and make\n    it impervious to the air; especially if the frost have been\n    preceded by rain, which has soaked the surface. When this\n    happens, the water which was flittering through the ground is\n    all arrested, and kept suspended in its capillary tubes by the\n    pressure of the air.\u201d Ha\u00fcy\u2019s Nat. Phil. p. 198.\n\n    [79] Dr. Black\u2019s Lectures, vol. i. p. 69.\n\n    [80] See Ellis\u2019s voyage to Hudson\u2019s Bay.\n\n    [81] St. Pierre\u2019s Studies, vol. i, pp. 129-132.\n\n    [82] See 21st volume of the Philosophical Magazine.\n\n    [83] The specific gravity of water is as follows; a\n    wine-pint measure weighs one pound; consequently a cubic foot\n    of water weighs about 1,000 ounces, or 62\u00bd pounds, avoirdupois.\n    It is 816 times heavier than atmospheric air.\n\n    [84] Parkes\u2019s Chemical Catechism, p. 108.\n\n    [85] Ha\u00fcy\u2019s Natural Philosophy, vol. i. pp. 197, 198.\n\n    [86] Parkes\u2019s Chemical Catechism, pp. 94, 95.\n\n    [87] Parkes\u2019s Chemical Catechism, p. 92.\n\n    [88] Driessen on the Nature of Snow.\n\n    [89] Thomson\u2019s Chemistry, vol. i, p. 365.\n\n    [90] \u201cThe English word _hail_, in Latin _grando_, in Greek\n    \u03c7\u03b1\u03bb\u03b1\u03b6\u03b1, gives us no information about the nature of the thing:\n    but, if we take the word \u05d1\u05e8\u05d3 BeReD in Hebrew, it resolves\n    itself into \u05d1..\u05e8\u05d3, which signifies _in descensu_, and so\n    describes to us the physiological formation of hail: which, as\n    philosophers agree, is first formed into drops of rain, and,\n    _as it falls_, is frozen into hail.\u201d Jones\u2019s Letter on the Use\n    of the Hebrew Language.\n\n    [91] Dr. Clarke on Exod. ix, 18.\n\n    [92] See Dr. Paley\u2019s Natural Theology, p. 407.\n\n    [93] There are hot spouting springs of water in Iceland, of\n    which a traveller says, \u201cNear Laugervatan, a small lake about\n    two days\u2019 journey distant from Mount Hecla, we beheld the steam\n    of the hot springs rising in eight different places, one of\n    which of which continually threw up into the air a column of\n    water from eighteen to twenty-four feet high. The water was\n    extremely hot, so that a piece of mutton and some salmon trouts\n    were almost boiled to pieces in it in six minutes.\n\n    At Gyser, not far from Skallholt, one of the Episcopal\n    sees in Iceland, within the circumference of three English\n    miles, forty or fifty boiling springs are seen together; and\n    the largest, which is in the middle, particularly engaged our\n    attention the whole of the day that we spent here. The aperture\n    through which the water arose is nineteen feet in diameter; and\n    round the top is a basin nine feet higher than the conduit.\n    Here the water does not continually, but only by intervals\n    several times a day; and, as I was informed by the Icelanders,\n    in wet weather higher then at other times.\n\n    On the day we were there the water spouted ten different\n    times, between the hours of six and eleven in the morning, each\n    time the height of fifty or sixty feet. Before, the water had\n    not risen above the margin of the pipe; but now it began by\n    degrees to fill the upper basin, and at last to run over. Our\n    guides told us that the water would soon spout up much higher\n    than it had done.\n\n    Soon after four o\u2019clock we observed that the earth began\n    to tremble in three different places; as well as the top of a\n    mountain which was about three hundred fathoms distant from the\n    mouth of the spring. We also frequently heard a subterraneous\n    noise, like the discharge of a cannon; and immediately\n    afterwards a column of water spouted from the opening, which at\n    a great height divided itself into several rays, and according\n    to our observation was ninety-two feet high. Our great surprise\n    at this uncommon force of the air and fire was increased, when\n    many stones which we had flung into the aperture wore thrown up\n    again with the spouting water.\u201d _Troil._\n\n    [94] Savary, Newcomen, Cawley, Watt, and Boulton,\n    Englishmen; and Betancourt and the brothers Perrier, Frenchmen;\n    are names well known in the history of steam-engines. And\n    those persons who wish to acquaint themselves with the\n    principles and manner of operation of this most important\n    class of machines, says Dr. O. Gregory, may be referred to\n    the following work:--The Repertory of Arts and Manufactures,\n    the Philosophical Journal, and the Philosophical Magazine, in\n    various places; the second volume of Mr. Brewster\u2019s edition\n    of Ferguson\u2019s Select Lectures, the second volume of Gregory\u2019s\n    Mechanics, and the second volume of Prony\u2019s treatise entitled\n    Nouvelle Architecture Hydraulique.\n\n    [95] Plymouth Chronicle.\n\n    [96] Whitehurst\u2019s Inquiry into the Original State and\n    Formation of the Earth.\n\n    [97] Examination of Dr. Burnet\u2019s Theory of the Earth, pp.\n    92, 93.\n\n    [98] The substances of which vegetables are composed, now\n    amount to fifteen in number; but almost the whole of vegetable\n    substances are composed of four ingredients, namely, carbon,\n    hydrogen, oxygen, and azote. Of these, the last, namely, azote,\n    forms but a small proportion even of those vegetable substances\n    of which it is a constituent part, while, into many, it does\n    not enter at all.--Contemplative Philosopher, vol. i. p. 150.\n\n    [99] Of the efficacy of water in vegetation, we have\n    on record some remarkable instances. That vegetables will\n    grow in woollen cloth, moss, and in other insoluble media,\n    besides soils provided they be supplied with water, has been\n    repeatedly shown since the days of Van Helmont and Boyle: but\n    the experiments of a modern author, says Mr. Parkes, from\n    their apparent correctness, seem more highly interesting and\n    conclusive.\n\n    Seeds of plants were sown in pure river-sand, in litharge,\n    in flowers of sulphur, and even among metal, or common leaden\n    shot; and in every instance nothing employed for their\n    nourishment but distilled water. The plants throve, and\n    passed through all the usual gradations of growth to perfect\n    maturity. The author then proceeded to gather the entire\n    produce, the roots, stems, leaves, pods, seeds, &c. These were\n    accurately weighed, dried, and again weighed, then submitted to\n    distillation, incineration, lixivation, and the other ordinary\n    means used in a careful analysis. Thus he obtained from these\n    vegetables all the materials peculiar to each individual\n    species, precisely as if it had been cultivated in a natural\n    soil--viz. the various earths, the alkalies, acids, metals,\n    carbon, sulphur, phosphorus, nitrogen, &c. He concludes this\n    very important paper nearly in these extraordinary words:\n    \u201cOxygen and hydrogen, with the assistance of solar light,\n    appear to be the only elementary substances employed in the\n    constitution of the whole universe; and Nature, in her simple\n    progress works the most infinitely diversified effects by\n    the slightest modifications in the means she employs.\u201d--See\n    Recherches sur la Force assimilatrice dans les V\u00e9g\u00e9taux, par M.\n    Henri Braconnot, Annales de Chimie, Fev. et Mars, 1808.\n\n    [100] He was born at Verona, of an illustrious family; and\n    at the foot of Vesuvius, while attempting to ascertain the\n    cause of an extraordinary cloud issuing therefrom, was, by the\n    sulphureous exhalation from the burning lava, suffocated, A.D.\n    79.\n\n    [101] The _Tabacum_, or common Tobacco plant, was first\n    discovered in America, by the Spaniards, about the year\n    1560, and by them imported into Europe. It had been used\n    by the inhabitants of America long before; and was called\n    by the inhabitants of the islands, _yoli_, and by those of\n    the continent, _p\u00e6tux_. It was sent into Spain from Tabaco,\n    a province of Yucatan, where it was first discovered, and\n    from whence it takes its common name. Sir Walter Raleigh is\n    generally said to have been the first who introduced it into\n    England, about the year 1585, in the reign of Queen Elizabeth,\n    and who taught his countrymen how to smoke it. The following\n    anecdote is related of him. He having imitated the Indians in\n    smoking this plant, at length so much delighted in it, that\n    he was unwilling to disuse it on his return to England; and\n    therefore supplied himself with several hogsheads, which he\n    placed in his own study, and generally indulged himself with\n    smoking secretly two or three pipes a day. He had a simple man,\n    who waited at his study door, to bring him up daily a tankard\n    of old ale and nutmeg, and he always laid aside his pipe when\n    he heard him approaching. One day, being earnestly engaged in\n    reading some book which amused him, the man abruptly entered,\n    and, surprised at seeing his master enveloped in smoke, (a\n    sight perfectly new to him) the smoke ascending in thick vapors\n    from his mouth and the bowl of the tobacco-pipe, immediately\n    threw the ale in his master\u2019s face, ran down stairs, and\n    alarmed the family with repeated exclamations, that his master\n    was on fire in the inside, and that if they did not make haste,\n    before they could get up stairs, he would be burned to ashes.\n\n    [102] Taylor on remarkable Trees, Plants, and Shrubs.\n\n    [103] Evangelical Magazine, January, 1814.\n\n    [104] Dr. Black, ii. 694.\n\n    [105] Phil. Trans. for 1796.\n\n    [106] See Mr. Hitchen\u2019s Paper, in Phil. Trans. vol. xci. p.\n    159.\n\n    [107] Storch\u2019s Picture of Petersburgh, p. 330.\n\n    [108] Several salts are formed by art with this metal for\n    medicinal purposes. One of the most valuable is _calomel_,\n    which is made by triturating fluid mercury with corrosive\n    sublimate, and then submitting the mixture to sublimation. As\n    this medicine is much used in private families, and as dreadful\n    consequences might ensue if it were improperly prepared, it\n    ought to be generally known, says Mr. Parkes, that if it be\n    not perfectly insipid to the taste, and indissoluble by long\n    boiling in water, it contains a portion of oxymuriate of\n    mercury, or corrosive sublimate, and consequently is poisonous.\n\n    [109] Monthly Review, Appendix, vol. xxvii. N.S. p. 551.\n\n    [110] Storch\u2019s Picture of Petersburgh, p. 319.\n\n    [111] In domestic economy, the necessity of keeping copper\n    vessels always clean is generally acknowledged; but it may\n    not perhaps be so well known, that fat and oily substances,\n    and vegetable acids, do not attack copper while _hot_; and,\n    therefore, if no liquor be ever suffered to grow _cold_ in\n    these utensils, they may be used for every culinary purpose\n    with perfect safety.--Dr. Percival gives an account of a\n    young lady who amused herself, while her hair was dressing,\n    with eating samphire pickle impregnated with copper. She soon\n    complained of pain in the stomach, and in five days vomiting\n    commenced, which was incessant for two days. After this her\n    stomach became prodigiously distended: and in nine days after\n    eating the pickle, death relieved her from her sufferings.\n    Medical Transactions, vol. iii, p. 80.\n\n    [112] The materials forming nearly the whole of this\n    Section have been selected and arranged from the _seventh_\n    Edition of Parkes\u2019s _Chemical Catechism_: a work of peculiar\n    interest, and which was confidently recommended to the Author\n    by a physician and chemist of distinguished celebrity.\n\n    [113] See Encyclop\u00e6dia Britannica.\n\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V.\n\nFOURTH DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--THE SUN.\n\n    Signs -- Names -- Nature -- Motions -- Form -- Magnitude --\n    Distance -- Suspension -- Idolatrous worship of the Sun -- The\n    Sun an Emblem of Christ.\n\n\nOn the _fourth day_, \u201cGod said, Let there be lights in the firmament of\nthe heaven to divide the day from the night, and let them be for signs,\nand for seasons, and for days, and years: and let them be for lights in\nthe firmament of the heaven to give light upon the earth: and it was\nso. And God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day,\nand the lesser light to rule the night: he made the stars also. And God\nset them in the firmament of the heaven, to give light upon the earth,\nand to rule over the day and over the night, and to divide the light\nfrom the darkness.\u201d The light which had hitherto been scattered and\nconfused, was now collected and formed into several luminaries, and so\nrendered more glorious and of greater utility.\n\nA sensible and pious author observes, that not only the two great\nlights, which were made after a special manner to rule the day and\nthe night, but, in general, all the lights in the firmament of the\nheaven, are said to be for signs and for seasons; or, as some render\nthe words, \u201cfor signs of the seasons.\u201d And indeed this seems to be the\nmeaning of the inspired writer. As for the manner of expression, \u201cfor\nsigns and for seasons,\u201d it is very common in the Hebrew, as well as in\nmany other languages, and is a figurative way of speech, expressing\nthose things disjunctively, which must by the understanding be joined\ntogether. First, these lights are said to be _for signs_, and then the\nthings are mentioned which they are to signify, namely, the _seasons_,\nthe _days_, and the _years_: whereas, if we understand the word _signs_\nin an indefinite sense, and not confined to what follows, we are\nthrough the whole text left in great uncertainty; seeing that there are\n_signs_ appointed _in the heaven_ for some purpose or other, but not\nknowing for what. Besides, if we must take all the parts of the text\ndisjunctively, then \u201cthe lights in the firmament\u201d must be taken for\n_seasons_, and for _days_, and for _years_, as well as for _signs_.\nBut we know, that the celestial bodies are not themselves _seasons_,\nand _days_, and _years_, but only _signs_ of them, by such particular\nmotions and aspects, as God, according to the laws of nature, has\nordained them. Neither can I see reason to believe, that every motion\nor position of the heavenly bodies has a special signification in it:\nthough serving in general to display the wisdom and power of God, in\ntheir regular courses. The sun, indeed, which is called the _greater\nlight_, is said _to rule the day_, as it is by the appearance of\nhis light, increasing and decreasing, that we measure the length of\nthe day; and the moon likewise _to rule the night_, partly on the\nlike account. Thus likewise the sun\u2019s course (if we may so call it)\nis a determining sign of the beginning and ending of the year, and\nof its various seasons. And in general, the sun, the moon, and the\nother lights, are necessary signs of the seasons of sowing, reaping,\nplanting, and are useful in navigation, as well as other arts.\n\nCostard, in his History of Astronomy, makes some critical remarks on\nthe name of this greater light. He says, The sun is, by the Greeks,\ncalled \u1f29\u03bb\u03b9\u03bf\u03c2: which is nothing more than the Hebrew word \u05d0\u05dc _El_,\nmodelled after the Greek manner of pronunciation, and signifies _Lord_;\nthe first idolatrous worship being paid to this planet. In the Hebrew\nlanguage it is called \u05e9\u05de\u05e9 _Shemesh_, and in the Chaldee \u05e9\u05de\u05e9\u05d0 _Shimsha_,\nfrom \u05e9\u05de\u05e9 _Shamesh_, to _minister_, on account of its administering\nlight and heat to this world. From this property of communicating heat,\nit is also called \u05d4\u05de\u05d4 _Hammah_. By the Ph\u0153nician idolaters it seems\nto have been called \u05d1\u05e2\u05dc _Baal_, or \u05d1\u05e2\u05dc \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd _Baal-Shamim_, the _Lord\nof Heaven_. And on account of the supposed swiftness of its diurnal\nmotion from east to west, it had a chariot dedicated to it at Sidon, an\nancient town of Ph\u0153nicia. Such a chariot is still seen on the coins of\nthat place. This superstition was likewise imitated by the idolatrous\nJews: for we read of _the horses which the kings of_ Judah _had given_,\nor dedicated, _to the sun_. By the Chaldeans it seems to have been\ncalled \u05d1\u05dc _Bel_, and by the Assyrians \u05e4\u05dc _Pul_; and, with the addition,\nsometimes of \u05d0\u05d1 _ab_, or \u05d0\u05e3 _ap_, i.e. _father_, \u05d0\u05e3-\u05e4\u05dc _Ap-Pul_, or\n_Father-Lord_; from whence the Greeks formed their \u0391\u03c0\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03c9\u03bd, another\nname given by them to the sun. The name of this luminary, among the\nRomans, was _sol_; given more probably, on account of his scorching\nheat in the summer, or from his determining the length of the year by\nhis course, than because he appeared _solus, alone_, according to the\nderivation given by Macrobius.\n\nThe _nature_ of the sun is a subject which has not only excited the\nmost diligent inquiry among men of scientific knowledge, but the\nopinions concerning it have passed through a variety of vicissitudes.\nThe sun being evidently the source of light and heat, was by the\nancients considered to be a globe of fire. But Dr. Herschell\u2019s\ndiscoveries, by means of his immensely large telescopes, tend to prove,\nthat what we call the _sun_ is only the _atmosphere_ of that luminary:\n\u201cthat this atmosphere consists of various _elastic fluids_, which are\nmore or less transparent; that as the clouds surrounding our earth are\nprobably decompositions of some of the elastic fluids belonging to the\natmosphere itself, so we may suppose that in the vast atmosphere of the\nsun similar decompositions may take place, but with this difference,\nthat the decompositions of the elastic fluids of the sun are of a\n_phosphoric_ nature, and are attended by lucid appearances, by giving\nout light.\u201d The body of the sun this celebrated astronomer considers as\nhidden generally from us, by means of this luminous atmosphere; that\nwhat are called _macul\u00e6_, or _spots_ on the sun, are real openings in\nthis atmosphere, through which the _opaque body_ of the sun becomes\nvisible; that this atmosphere itself is not _fiery_ nor _hot_, but\nis the instrument which God designed to act on the caloric or latent\nheat; and that heat is only produced by the solar light acting on and\ncombining with the caloric or matter of fire contained in the air, and\nother substances which are heated by it.\n\nThis indefatigable investigator of the heavenly phenomena shows, by\nmany substantial proofs, drawn from natural philosophy, that _heat_ is\nproduced by the sun\u2019s rays only when they act on a calorific medium;\nand that they cause the production of heat by uniting with the matter\nof fire which is contained in the substances that are heated,--as the\ncollision of flint and steel will inflame a magazine of gunpowder,\nby uniting with its latent fire, and bring the whole into action.\nThis point is capable of a very clear elucidation. \u201cOn the tops of\nmountains, and at heights to which the clouds seldom reach to shelter\nthem from the direct rays of the sun, we always find regions of ice and\nsnow. Now if the sun\u2019s rays themselves conveyed all the heat we find\non the earth, it would of course be hottest in situations similar to\nthe tops of mountains, where their course is least interrupted. But\nall those who have ascended in balloons confirm the coldness of the\nupper regions of the atmosphere; and, therefore, since even on the\nearth the heat of the situation depends on the facility with which the\nmedium yields to the impression of the sun\u2019s rays, we have only to\nadmit, that, on the sun itself, the fluids composing its atmosphere,\nand the matter on its surface, are of such a nature as not to be\ncapable of any excessive heat from its own rays. It is also a well\nknown fact, that the focus of the largest burning lens thrown into\nthe air, will occasion no heat in the place where it has been kept\nfor a considerable time, although its powers of exciting heat, when\nproper bodies are exposed to it, should be sufficient to melt or fuse\nthe most refractory metals.\u201d That the sun is a luminous, and not an\nigneous body, has met with the general consent of modern philosophers;\nan opinion to which every new discovery in philosophy gives additional\nsupport.\n\nThe telescope, said to have been invented by the children of a\nspectacle-maker at Middleburgh, in the year 1590, but first brought\nto such a degree of perfection by Galileo as to make any considerable\ndiscoveries in the celestial regions, has led to the most important\nresults in the science of astronomy. Among which are the _spots_ in\nthe sun\u2019s disk, by whose motion from west to east the sun is perceived\nto revolve upon his own axis in 25 days, 14 hours, 8 minutes. This\nrevolution of the sun round his own axis is probably not the only\nmotion which this luminary experiences. There is great reason to\nbelieve that he has another motion, either rectilinear, or round some\nindefinitely remote centre of attraction. In this last course, he\ncarries along with him, through space, the entire system of planets,\nsatellites, and comets; in the same manner in which each planet\ndraws his satellites along with him in his motion round the sun. He\ncommunicates light and heat to at least twenty opaque bodies, which\nrevolve round him, at different distances, in ellipses that differ but\nlittle from circles.\n\nFrom the motion of the spots, which is sometimes straight and sometimes\ncurved, we learn that the sun\u2019s axis is not perpendicular to the plane\nof his ecliptic, but inclined to it, or the plane of the earth\u2019s\nannual orbit, so as to form an angle of about 83 degrees. Christopher\nScheiner, a most diligent observer of these spot\u2019s in the sun\u2019s disk,\npublished a treatise concerning them in A.D. 1626. These spots are\nsometimes seen to increase to a very large size, and to continue for\na considerable time. In the year 1779, there was a spot on the sun\u2019s\ndisk which was large enough to be seen with the naked eye: it was\ndivided into two parts, and must have been 50,000 miles in diameter:\nthis, and other phenomena of the same kind, may be accounted for from\nsome natural change of the atmosphere. For if some of the fluids which\nenter into its composition be of a shining brilliancy, while others are\nmerely transparent, then any temporary cause removing the lucid fluid,\nwill permit us to see the body of the sun through the transparent ones.\nDr. Herschell supposes that the spots in the sun are mountains on\nits surface, which, considering the great attraction exerted by this\nluminary upon bodies placed at its surface, and the slow revolution it\nhas about its axis, he thinks may be more than 300 miles in height, and\nyet not be rendered unstable by the centrifugal force.\n\n    [There appears to be a _discrepancy_ between this last\n    statement--\u201cDr. Herschell supposes that the spots in the sun\n    are _mountains_ on his surface;\u201d--and the statement made a\n    few paragraphs preceding--\u201cthat what are called _macul\u00e6_,\n    or _spots_ on the sun, Dr. Herschell thought to be _real\n    openings_ in his atmosphere, through which the opake body\n    of the sun becomes visible.\u201d These statements must have been\n    made at different periods of his observations on the sun,\n    which continued about fifteen years. The last statement was,\n    doubtless, Dr. Herschell\u2019s mature opinion.\n\n    As this seems to be a settled question among philosophers;\n    and as it has induced the enlightened world to regard the sun\n    as a _habitable globe_, it will not be out of place to enlarge\n    a little on this point.\n\n    The spots on the sun\u2019s surface has led to the conclusion\n    above, and also to a determination of the motion of the sun\n    around his own axis. They appear to have been observed, for\n    the first time, in A.D. 1610, by Fabricius and Harriot; the\n    first in Germany, the second in England. It is uncertain\n    which noticed them first; but it is certain the discovery was\n    _original with both_.\n\n    After the observations of these two fortunate persons\n    were known, the attention of the scientific was directed to\n    this phenomenon. Scheiner supposed the spots to be _planets_\n    which revolved very near the sun. In process of unwearied\n    observations, it was ascertained that these spots changed their\n    positions. Sometimes two would blend together, and thus run\n    into each other. Sometimes one large one would divide into\n    two or three smaller ones. They were observed to dilate, and\n    contract; and to have umbr\u00e6, or shades attending them.\n\n    From these phenomena Galileo and others supposed the solar\n    spots were _schoria floating on the burning liquid matter_, of\n    which they supposed the sun composed. M. de la Hire, and La\n    Lande supposed them to be eminences which occasionally rose\n    above the rolling tides of fire, as islands rise above the sea.\n    All these theories were on the supposition that the sun was an\n    igneous body, in a high state of combustion, by which means he\n    dispenses heat and light to the surrounding planets.\n\n    Dr. WILSON, Professor of practical astronomy in the\n    University of Glasgow, was the first to conjecture that these\n    spots were _depressions_ rather than elevations. This was\n    about the year 1769. The Doctor rendered this conjecture very\n    probable, by his close and lucid observations and illustrations.\n\n    These spots attracted the attention of the celebrated\n    Dr. Herschell in 1779, who continued to observe them closely\n    until 1794, and by means of his immensely large and powerful\n    telescopes, he clearly established Dr. Wilson\u2019s conjectures,\n    _that these spots are openings in the luminous surface of the\n    sun, through which his opake body appears_.\n\n    Dr. Herschell regards the real body of the sun to be\n    an _opake nucleus_, fit for the habitation of intellectual\n    creatures: that he has an atmosphere suited in density and\n    height to his own magnitude: that in the higher regions of\n    this atmosphere there are _two_ sets of clouds surrounding the\n    sun, which are permanently and essentially luminous, being\n    _phosphoric_ in their nature. The lower set of these clouds,\n    which are _next_ the sun, are less bright, and more dense than\n    the upper set. They are designed to serve as a _curtain_ to the\n    sun\u2019s body, to prevent a too great intensity of light at his\n    real surface; the higher set of clouds, which are visible to\n    us, being the principal source, or rather _agent_, of light.\n\n    It is plain from the foregoing theory, that _we_ never see\n    the real body of the sun, except when we see the spots on his\n    surface: that what we commonly call the sun, are only those\n    bright, luminous phosphorescent clouds, which permanently\n    surround his body, and which give light _outwards_ to the\n    planets, and also _inwards_ to his own inhabitants.\n\n    It will be obvious also to any one, that the inhabitants\n    of the sun _cannot see_ any heavenly body, as the stars, and\n    planets; because they are inclosed by those clouds, which are\n    impenetrable to vision. They may catch a glimpse of a passing\n    star through these openings as we do of the sun\u2019s body.\n\n    It is highly probable (see _our_ paper on light, attached\n    to our author\u2019s chapter on the same,) that these luminous\n    phosphoric clouds _do not actually emit light, or heat_; but\n    only _excite_ them at the surfaces of the different planets.\n    That is: it is very probable there is a _matter of light_ or\n    a _luminiferous ether_, diffused through all existing matter,\n    as caloric is, which is _excited by these clouds_, and _thus_\n    becomes _visible_, which is light, as latent caloric is\n    excited, and becomes sensible, by becoming _free_. Indeed it is\n    very probable _that the matter of heat and light is the same_,\n    and that heat and light are only _different modifications_ of\n    the action of the same substance, excited in a different, or\n    higher degree.]\n\nThe sun has two _apparent_ motions, namely, the diurnal and annual.\nBy the _former_ he appears to move round the earth in twenty-four\nhours: and by the latter he appears to traverse that circle in the\nheavens, called the ecliptic, in the course of a year. These motions,\nare, however, only apparent: the sun does not travel round the earth\nin twenty four hours: he does not change his place in the heavens at\ndifferent seasons of the year. His apparent motions are occasioned\nby the earth\u2019s real motions. The sun\u2019s apparent diurnal motion is\noccasioned by the earth\u2019s real rotation about its axis: and the sun\u2019s\napparent annual motion is caused by the earth\u2019s real motion in her\norbit, through the whole of which she travels in a little less than 365\ndays, and 6 hours.\n\nThe fixed stars appear every twenty-four hours to make an entire\nrevolution about the earth. The sun makes the same apparent circuit;\nbut the apparent diurnal motion of the sun is evidently slower than\nthat of the fixed stars. This appearance is occasioned by the daily\nrotation of the earth on its axis; for while it is turning once on its\naxis it advances in its orbit a whole degree; therefore it must make\nmore than a complete rotation before it can come into the same position\nwith the sun that it had the preceding day. In the same way, as when\nboth hands of a watch set off together at any hour, as twelve o\u2019clock,\nthe minute hand must travel more than the whole circle before it can\novertake the hour hand: hence the difference between solar and sidereal\ndays, which it is important to understand in explaining the equation of\ntime.\n\nThough the sun appears to us merely as a circular disk, yet he is\na _spheroid_, higher under his equator than about his poles. The\ndeception arises from this; that all the parts of his surface are\nequally luminous, and consequently there is nothing which can suggest\nto us, at the great distance he is from the earth, that the central\nparts are more prominent than the sides, although in reality, they are\nnearer by half a million of miles.\n\nThis luminous body is supposed to be 886,473 English miles in diameter,\nabout 2,700,000 in circumference, in solid bulk 24,000,000 times as\nbig as the moon, and 1,384,462 times as big as the earth, and its\nsuperficies in square miles, about 2,236,603,000,000. This _magnitude_\nof the sun may appear exaggerated; for our eyes can discover nothing so\nlarge as the earth which we inhabit; and as to this alone we compare\nthe sun, so we are tempted to believe the testimony of sense rather\nthan our reason. But what confirms this prodigious size, is his visible\nmagnitude, notwithstanding the vastly remote point which he occupies\nin space. And, concerning this subject, no doubt can remain, if we\nadmit the calculations of astronomers, which are made on principles\nindubitably correct.\n\nThe sun does not appear large; but this is owing to his _distance_\nfrom the earth, which is 95,513,794 miles: this is so prodigious, that\na cannon-ball, which is known to move at the rate of eight miles in a\nminute, would be something more than twenty-two years in going from\nthe earth to the sun. If a spectator were placed as near to any of the\nfixed stars as we are to our sun, he would see our sun as small as\nwe see a common star, divested of its circumvolving planets; and in\nnumbering the stars he would reckon it one of them. But the earth\u2019s\norbit being an ellipse, the sun is not always at an equal distance from\nit. When he is in his apogee, that is, furthest from the earth, the sun\nis full two millions of miles further from us than when he is in his\nperigee, or nearest the earth: nevertheless, we feel greater heat than\nwhen he is in our winter. The difference of temperature between summer\nand winter does not depend chiefly upon our nearness to the sun, but\nupon the following causes. 1. In summer, the solar rays strike upon the\nearth more perpendicularly than in winter, and therefore they act with\ngreater force than when they strike it obliquely. 2. The rays of the\nsun coming more perpendicularly in summer than in winter, have less of\nthe atmosphere to pass through. 3. In the summer, the sun continues a\nlonger time above the horizon than below it; and consequently there is\ntime for the earth to accumulate a greater portion of heat than in the\ndays of winter. We know, in the longest days, that the sun to us is\nabove the horizon 16 hours; whereas, in the shortest days, it is not\nmore than 8 hours visible.[114]\n\nThe miraculous suspension of the natural powers of the heavenly\nbodies, as recorded in the book of Joshua, shows that they are\nupheld, controlled, and directed in their operations, by a Being who\nis infinitely wise and powerful. To account for this miracle, and to\nascertain the _manner_ in which it was wrought, has employed the pens\nof the ablest _divines_ and _astronomers_, especially of the last\ntwo centuries. For the elucidation of this important fact, I shall\ntranscribe the view which Dr. Adam Clarke has given of it, which he\nconsiders to be strictly philosophical, consonant to the Pythagorean,\nCopernican, or Newtonian system, which is the system of the universe,\nlaid down in the writings of Moses.\n\nHe assumes, as a thoroughly demonstrated truth, that the sun is in\nthe _centre_ of the system, moving only round his own axis, and the\ncommon centre of the gravity of the planetary system, while all the\nplanets revolve round _him_; and that his influence is the cause of the\n_diurnal_ and _annual_ revolutions of the earth.\n\n\u201cJoshua\u2019s address is in a poetic form in the original, and makes the\ntwo following hemistichs:\n\n    \u05e9\u05de\u05e9 \u05d1\u05d2\u05d1\u05e2\u05d9\u05df \u05d3\u05d5\u05dd\n    \u05d5\u05d9\u05e8\u05d7 \u05d1\u05e2\u05de\u05e7 \u05d0\u05d9\u05dc\u05d5\u05df\n    Shemesh, be-Gib\u00eaon dom:\n    Vyareach, be\u00e8mek Aiyalon.\n    Sun! upon Gib\u00eaon be dumb:\n    And the moon on the vale of Aiyalon.\n\n\u201cThe effect of this command is related in the following words: \u05d5\u05d9\u05d3\u05dd\n\u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05e9 \u05d5\u05d9\u05e8\u05d7 \u05e2\u05de\u05d3 _vayiddom ha_-SHEMESH _ve_-YAREACH _\u00e2mad; And the sun was\ndumb, or silent, and the moon stood still_. And it is added, _And the\nsun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about\na whole day._\n\n\u201cI consider, that the word \u05d3\u05d5\u05dd _dom_, refers to the _withholding_ or\n_restraining_ this influence, so that the cessation of the earth\u2019s\nmotion might immediately take place. The desire of Joshua was, that the\nsun might not sink below the horizon; but as _it_ appeared now to be\nover Gibeon, and the _moon_ to be over the valley of Ajalon, he prayed\nthat they might continue in these positions till the battle should\nbe ended; or, in other words, that the day should be miraculously\nlengthened out.[115]\n\n\u201cWhether Joshua had a correct philosophical notion of the true system\nof the universe, is a subject that need not come into the present\ninquiry; but whether _he spoke_ with strict propriety on this occasion,\nis a matter of importance, because he must be considered as acting\n_under the Divine influence_, in requesting the performance of such\na stupendous miracle: and we may safely assert, that no man in his\nright mind would have thought of offering such a petition, had he\nnot felt himself under some Divine afflatus. Leaving, therefore, his\nphilosophical knowledge out of the question, he certainly spoke as if\nhe had known that the solar influence was the cause of the earth\u2019s\n_rotation_, and therefore, with the strictest philosophic propriety,\nhe requested, that that influence might be for a time restrained, that\nthe diurnal motion of the earth might be arrested, through which alone,\nthe sun could be kept above the horizon, and the day be prolonged. His\nmode of expression evidently considers the sun as the great _ruler_ or\n_master_ in the system; and all the planets, (or at least the _earth_)\nmoving in their respective orbits at his _command_. He therefore\ndesires him, (in the name and by the authority of his Creator) to\nsuspend his _mandate_ with respect to the earth\u2019s motion, and that of\nhis satellite, the moon. Had he said, _Earth, stand thou still_--the\ncessation of whose diurnal motion was the _effect_ of his command, it\ncould not have obeyed him; as it is not even the _secondary_ cause\neither of its annual motion round the sun, or its diurnal motion round\nits own axis. Instead of doing so, he speaks to the sun, the _cause_\n(under God) of all these motions, as his great archetype did, when, in\nthe storm on the sea of Tiberias, he rebuked the _wind_ first, and then\nsaid to the _waves_, Peace, be still! \u03a3\u03b9\u03c9\u03c0\u03b1, \u03c0\u03b5\u03c6\u03b9\u03bc\u03c9\u03c3\u03bf, be _silent_!\nbe _dumb_! And the effect of this command was, a cessation of the\nagitation in the _sea_, because the _wind_ ceased to _command_ it, that\nis, to exert its influence upon the waters.\n\n\u201cThe terms in this command are worthy of particular note: Joshua does\nnot say to the sun, _Stand still_, as if he had conceived _him_ to be\n_running his race round the earth_; but, be _silent_, or _inactive_;\nthat is, as I understand it, _restrain thy influence_; no longer act\nupon the earth, to cause it to revolve round its axis; a mode of\nspeech which is certainly consistent with the strictest astronomical\nknowledge: and the writer of the account, whether Joshua himself, or\nthe author of the Book of _Jasher_, in relating the consequence of\nthis command, is equally accurate, using a word widely different, when\nhe speaks of the _effect_, the retention of the solar influence had\non the moon: in the first case, the sun was _silent_, or _inactive_,\n\u05d3\u05d5\u05dd _dom_; in the _latter_, the moon _stood still_, \u05e2\u05de\u05d3 _\u00e2mad_. The\n_standing still_ of the moon, or its continuance above the horizon,\nwould be the natural effect of the cessation of the solar influence,\nwhich obliged the earth to discontinue her diurnal rotation, which, of\ncourse, would arrest the moon; and thus both it and the sun were kept\nabove the horizon, probably for the space of a whole day. As to the\naddress to the _moon_, it is not conceived in the same terms as that to\nthe _sun_, and for the most obvious philosophical reason: all that is\nsaid is simply, _and the moon on the vale of Ajalon_, which may be thus\nunderstood: \u2018Let the sun restrain his influence, or be inactive, as he\nappears now upon Gibeon, _that_ the moon may continue as she appears\nnow over the vale of Ajalon.\u2019 It is worthy of remark, that every word\nin this poetic address is apparently selected with the greatest caution\nand precision.\n\n\u201cAt the conclusion of the 13th verse, a different expression is used\nwhen it is said, _So, the sun stood still_, it is not \u05d3\u05d5\u05dd _dom_, but\n\u05e2\u05de\u05d3 _\u00e2mad_; \u05d5\u05d9\u05e2\u05de\u05d3 \u05d4\u05e9\u05de\u05e9 _vai-ya\u00e2mod ha-shemesh_, which expression,\nthus varying from _that_ in the command of Joshua, may be considered\nas implying, that in order to _restrain his influence_, which I have\nassumed to be the _cause_ of the earth\u2019s motion, the sun himself\nbecame _inactive_, that is, ceased to revolve round his own axis;\nwhich revolution is, probably, one cause, not only of the revolution\nof the earth, but of all the other planetary bodies in our system, and\nmight have effected all the planets at the time in question: but this\nneither could, nor did produce any disorder in nature; and the delay\nof a few hours in the whole planetary motions, dwindles away into an\nimperceptible point in the thousands of years of their revolutions. I\nneed scarcely add, that the _command of Joshua to the sun_, is to be\nunderstood as a _prayer to God_ (from whom the sun derived his being\nand continuance) that the effect might be what is expressed in the\ncommand; and therefore it is said, verse 14, \u2018that the LORD HEARKENED\nUNTO THE VOICE OF A MAN, _for the Lord fought for Israel_.\u2019\u201d\n\nHow glorious an object is the sun! too dazzling for mortal eye long to\ngaze on: the brightest visible emblem of its adorable Creator. This\nluminary rejoices to run his prescribed course, makes our day joyful,\nand without his reviving beams we should dwell in perpetual darkness.\nHe, as the great source of day, distributes light and life through all\nnature. Seeds, in the bosom of the earth, feel his vegetative presence,\nand unfold themselves. By his diffusive influence he causes the vital\njuice to ascend in the tubes of trees, plants, and vegetables; and\nclothes them with their various and beautiful foliage. He nourishes the\nyoung fruits, gives them their fine tints, and brings them to maturity.\nAt his approach, millions of insects awake into life, shine, collect\nthemselves, and sport in his rays. Animals partake of his benefits,\nand without his animating beams they would sink into insensibility\nand death: even in caves and dens of the earth, his visitation gives\nlife. His heat has a pleasing effect on all the juices and fluids in\nthe human body, which, without his directive or impulsive energy,\nwould soon become stagnant and useless. He is, by the Divine wisdom\nand goodness, placed at such a proper distance from us, that, were he\nmuch nearer, the blood would boil in our veins, and our bodies soon be\neither dissolved or calcined: or, were he at a much greater distance,\nwe should become torpid, and presently be congealed to statues of ice.\nThe very bowels of the earth partake of his influence, thus producing\nmany valuable and useful metals. He penetrates the highest mountains,\nthough composed of stones and rocks. He darts his beams even into the\ndepths of the ocean, where the watery tribes live and play at his\ncommand.\n\n                                \u201c---- O SUN;\n    Soul of surrounding worlds! in whom best seen\n    Shines out thy Maker!----\n    \u2019Tis by thy secret, strong, attractive force,\n    As with a chain indissoluble bound,\n    Thy system rolls entire.----\n    INFORMER of the planetary train!\n    Without whose quick\u2019ning glance their cumbrous orbs\n    Were brute unlovely mass, inert, and dead,\n    And not, as now, the green abodes of life!\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAs the sun is the greatest visible glory in the natural world, so it\nis selected by the pen of Divine inspiration as the brightest emblem\nof the Supreme Being--\u201cThe Lord God is a sun.\u201d This great luminary has\nbeen considered by the Heathen as the representative of the Deity,\nand as such received religious adoration. According to Mr. Bryant\u2019s\nsystem of Ancient Mythology, the worship of fire is nearly as old as\nthe flood, having been propagated by the posterity of Ham, in Egypt,\nwho called themselves Ammonians, and carried this worship with them\nwherever they went, erecting their _puratheia_, or fire-temples, in\nall their settlements. It is stated, that fire was the primitive,\nor at least the principal object of idolatrous worship, and common\nto all idolaters from the first apostasy at Babel. For the original\ninstitution of this sacred fire among the Chaldeans, we must go back\nto Nimrod, concerning whom the Alexandrian Chronicon asserts, that\n\u201cthe Assyrians called Nimrod, Ninus; this man taught the Assyrians\nto worship fire.\u201d From the Greeks we may trace it backwards to the\nUr of the Chaldeans; on which the learned Classius remarks, that\n\u201cUr is the name of a city wherein the sacred fire was conserved and\nworshipped by the Chaldeans, whence it was called _Ur_, which otherwise\nsignifies _fire_.\u201d Plutarch confesses that the Romans, in the days of\nNuma, borrowed their worship of fire from the Greeks at Athens and\nDelphi. Numa built a temple of an orbicular form, to represent, as\nPlutarch interprets, the system of the heavens; which temple was the\nconservatory of a holy and perpetual fire, kindled at first by the\nreflections of the sun-beams, and placed in the centre of the building;\nthe astronomy of that early period placing the sun in the centre of\nthe world. Fire has such an affinity to light, that the same word has\nsometimes comprehended them both. The _Ur_ of the Chaldeans was _fire_;\nthe _Horus_ of the Egyptians was _light_: and the reason is plain,\nbecause fire and light are united at the body of the sun, and by him\ndiffused over the world. If, therefore, we consider fire as called into\naction by the sun, and bear in mind that the ancient Pythagoreans used\nthe same term \u03a0\u03a5\u03a1 to denote both fire and the sun,[116] we shall get at\nthe root of most of the heathen mythologic divinity.\n\nSo universal was the attachment to this fire, that Macrobius undertook\nto reduce the names of all the heathen deities to the one object of the\nsun and its attributes. He says, \u201cThe Egyptians consecrated a lion in\nthat part of the heavens where the heat of the sun is most powerful,\nbecause that animal seems to derive his nature from the sun, excelling\nall other creatures in fire and force, as the sun exceeds the other\nlights of heaven. His eyes, likewise, are bright and fiery, as the\nsun with a bright and fiery aspect surveys the world. The Lybians\nrepresented their Jupiter Hammon, which was the setting sun, with the\nhorns of a ram, with which that animal exerts its strength, as the sun\nacts by its rays. The worship of Egypt abundantly shows, that the bull\nis to be referred to the sun; which is plain from the worship of a bull\nat Heliopolis, the city of the sun; and of the bull Apis at Memphis,\nwhere it was an emblem of the sun; and of the other bull called Pacis,\nconsecrated in the magnificent temple of Apollo at Hermunthis.\u201d[117]\n\nWheresoever fire was worshipped in the puratheia of antiquity after\nthe manner of Numa, we may suppose that there the true solar system\nprevailed, which places the solar fire in the centre; and that this\nwas really the universal opinion of the most ancient Heathens.\nThis doctrine agrees with the name which they gave to the sun in\nhis physical capacity, calling him _cor c\u0153li_, the heart of the\nheaven;[118] which illustration and allusion is probably of very great\nantiquity, because it cannot with any propriety be applied to the more\nmodern Ptolemaic hypothesis. The analogy is very striking; for as the\nheart is the centre of the animal system, so is the sun in the centre\nof our world: as the heart is the fountain of the blood, so is the sun\nthe source of light and fire: as the heart is the life of the body, so\nis the sun the life and heat of animated nature, and the first mover of\nthe mundane system: when the heart ceases to beat, the circuit of life\nis at an end; and if the sun should cease to act, a total stagnation\nwould take place throughout the whole frame of nature. Macrobius,\npursuing this analogy, says, \u201cWe have before observed, that the sun is\ncalled the fountain of the ethereal fire; therefore the sun is in the\nheavens, what the heart is in animals.\u201d Since the circulation of the\nblood has been known, this analogy has been taken up with advantage\nby the celebrated Hervey himself, who, first of all the moderns,\nexplained to us with sufficient accuracy this branch of natural\nphilosophy. He observes, that the heart of animals is the foundation\nof life, the chief ruler of all things in the animal system, the sun\nof the microcosm, from which flows all its strength and vigor. The\nphilosophers of antiquity called the sun the heart of the microcosm;\nthe moderns call the heart the sun of the microcosm. There must be\nsomething very striking in the analogy which is thus convertible, and\nhas been taken up at both ends by such different persons, at such\nremote periods of time.\n\nThe savage philosophy of America seems to have comprehended in it the\nrelation, which we have already noticed, between the animal system and\nthe frame of nature. Acosta, in his History of the Indies, reports,\nthat in the human sacrifices of the Mexicans, the high priest pulled\nout the heart with his hands, which he showed smoking to the sun, to\nwhom he offered this heat and fume of the heart, and presently he\nturned towards the idol, and cast the heart at his face. A very highly\nesteemed correspondent in Ceylon writes, There is a cast of people\ninhabiting this island who live wild in the woods, and worship fire\nas an emblem of purity; they are called Vandals, and several English\nofficers have met a premature death by intruding near the holy fire,\nwhich is under a tamarind tree.\n\nWith the Persians fire was an object of worship from the earliest\ntimes, under the name of _Amanus_, and _Mithas_; and it is retained as\nsuch at this day by the Geberrs, Gaurs, Guebres, or Ghebers, a sect of\nIndian philosophers. Pottinger says, \u201cAt the city of Yezd, in Persia,\nwhich is distinguished by the appellation of the Dar\u00fbb Abadut, or\nseat of Religion, the Guebres are permitted to have an Atush Kudu, or\nFire Temple (which, they assert, has had the sacred fire in it since\nthe days of Zoroaster), in their own compartment of the city; but for\nthis indulgence they are indebted to the avarice, not the tolerance\nof the Persian government, which taxes them at twenty-five rupees\neach man.\u201d Hanway informs us, that the Ghebers suppose the throne of\nthe Almighty is seated in the sun, and hence their worship of that\nluminary. \u201cAs to fire,\u201d says Grose, \u201cthe Ghebers place the spring-head\nof it in that globe of fire, the sun, by them called Mithras, or\nMihir, to which they pay the highest reverence, in gratitude for the\nmanifold benefits flowing from his ministerial omniscience. But they\nare so far from confounding the subordination of the servant with the\nmajesty of the Creator, that they not only attribute no sort of sense\nor reasoning to the sun or fire, in any of its operations, but consider\nit as a purely passive blind instrument, directed and governed by the\nimmediate impression on it of the will of God; but they do not even\ngive that luminary, all glorious as it is, more than the second rank\namong his works, reserving the first for the stupendous production of\nthe Divine power, the mind of man.\u201d The temples are generally built\nover subterraneous fires. Rabbi Benjamin observes, \u201cEarly in the\nmorning, they (the Parsees or Ghebers of Ouham) go in crowds to pay\ntheir devotions to the sun, to whom upon all the altars are spheres\nconsecrated, made by magic, resembling the circles of the sun; and,\nwhen the sun rises, these orbs seem to be inflamed, and turn round with\na great noise. Every one has a censer in his hands, and offers incense\nto the sun.\u201d\n\nIt is not a little surprising that the descendants of faithful Abraham,\ntaken into covenant with God, should fall under the influence of this\nidolatrous worship! The apostasy of the Israelites in the wilderness\nfrom the true God to the golden calf, was occasioned by a previous\nattachment to the sacred rites of the Egyptian idolatry. And the\ncalves which were afterwards set up in Dan and Bethel, were probably\nderived from the same source. The Israelites were not only cautioned\nagainst this worship, but, if the charge of idolatry brought against\nan Israelite was proved by unequivocal facts and competent witnesses,\nit affected his life. Such was the progress of this idolatrous worship\namong this people at one period, that Josiah, king of Judah, took away\nout of the temple of the Lord the horses, and burned the chariots,\nwhich the kings, his predecessors, had consecrated to the sun. Job,\nin allusion to this vile worship, says, \u201cIf I beheld the sun when\nit shined, or the moon walking in brightness; if my heart hath been\nsecretly enticed, or my mouth hath kissed my hand:[119] this also were\nan iniquity to be punished by the judge: for I should have denied the\nGod that is above.\u201d Ezekiel, in a vision, saw \u201cat the door of the\ntemple of the Lord, between the porch and the altar, about five and\ntwenty men, with their backs toward the temple of the Lord, and their\nfaces toward the east: and they worshipped the sun toward the east,\u201d in\nimitation of the Egyptians, Persians, and other Eastern nations.\n\nWhile the heathen have thus paid idolatrous worship to the sun, some\npersons, believing in the truth of revealed religion, have entertained\nstrange notions concerning this luminary. It is remarkable, observes\na polite writer, that whilst some of the ancients imagined the _sun_\nto be the seat of future blessedness, from Psal. xix, 14, \u201cHe set his\ntabernacle in the sun,\u201d a Mr. Swinden, among the moderns, endeavors\nto prove that _hell_ is seated in the sun, chiefly pleading that this\nis the grand repository of fire; that its horrible face, viewed by a\ntelescope, suits the description given of the burning lake; and that\nbeing in the _centre_ of the system, it might be properly said that\nwicked men were _cast down into it_. But these are mere hypotheses, and\nunworthy of serious consideration.\n\nNotwithstanding this idolatrous worship of the sun, there is a sober\nand religious use to be made of this luminary; for being the greatest\nvisible glory in the natural world it is selected as the brightest\nemblem of the Supreme Being--\u201cThe Lord God is a sun.\u201d An object thus\nillustrious and useful in the regular and wise economy of nature, is\nmentioned in the sacred volume as a metaphor fraught with truths of\ninfinite moment, imparting wisdom to the simple, and instruction to the\nignorant. He admirably represents the unity, glory, and bounty of God.\n\nViewing our sun in all his paramount qualities to every material\nobject in nature, how is he eclipsed and surpassed by the Sun of\nRighteousness, of whose splendor, grace, and energy this is but a faint\nemblem, and from whom issues, in bright and gentle beams, all the\nlight, life, joy, and hope received and enjoyed in the Christian world.\nThe one is the most magnificent creature among the vast variety of\nobjects which surround us, but the other is the source of all that is\nexcellent, attractive, and beneficial, in the whole range of material\ncauses and effects, as well as in the nature, extent, and perpetuity of\nthe kingdom of grace. The material sun runs its course from day to day,\nwith unwearied regularity, activity, and ardor, and thus completes its\ncircuit according to its original destination. And did not our adorable\nSaviour also finish the great career of our redemption, after he held\nperformed all those miracles, and published his own everlasting gospel,\nwhich are the sublime and interesting themes of the sacred writers, by\noffering himself on the consecrated altar a sacrifice for the sins of\nmankind? The former diffuses light, vitality, vegetation, and felicity\nthrough the whole mass of animated nature in our planetary system. And\ndoes not the other likewise dissipate the ignorance which darkens the\nintellectual regions, enlighten our minds in all saving knowledge, and\nproduce in the human heart every grace and virtue?\n\nWere our natural sun to withdraw his beams, or absent himself from\nthe centre of our system for any given time, the planets would start\nout of their orbits; darkness, black as night, would instantly spread\nitself over the whole mass, and \u201cchaos come again.\u201d And if the glorious\nLuminary of the moral world were to hide his face behind a thick cloud\nof gathering vengeance and judicial desertion, this would introduce\ninto the soul alarming fears and tumultuous passions, which would exist\nin a state of opposition and conflict. Those who have been brought out\nof the darkness of ignorance, wickedness and misery, into the light\nof knowledge, holiness and happiness, by Christ, who is the light of\nthe world, should be careful to walk in the light of his countenance\nall the days of their life. Does not the earth return the fructifying\nwarmth of the sun, and all his genial effects, in a profusion of\nverdure, foliage, and flowers? Do not all the irrational tribes\njoyfully greet his rising every morning, and bask in his presence\nthrough the day with great delight? All the orbs which revolve round\nhim, and are preserved and cherished in their respective spheres by his\nministry, pay him perpetual homage by maintaining invariable harmony\nand order. And being thus taught by natural objects, what is due for\nthe reception of so many mercies, surely it is an unquestionable duty\nthat we guard against every thing which would prevent us doing the will\nof our best benefactor.\n\nChristian believers, rich in the bloom of holiness, and ripening for\nthe harvest of glory, are said to be \u201cclothed with the sun.\u201d It is the\ngracious promise, on which all their hopes and wishes confidently rely,\nthat the \u201crighteous shall\u201d ultimately \u201cshine as the sun in the kingdom\nof their Father.\u201d[120] Thus it is written, \u201cThe path of the just is as\nthe shining light, that shines more and more unto the perfect day.\u201d\nIn the path of the just there is a progress from a less to a greater\nlight: it does not only grow clearer, but increases in clearness till\nit is light in perfection; advancing from the break of day to the sun\nrising, and then to the brightness of noon-day.\n\n    \u201cJESUS, let all thy lovers shine,\n      illustrious as the sun,\n    And bright with borrow\u2019d rays divine,\n      Their glorious circuit run.\n\n    Beyond the reach of mortals, spread\n      Their light where\u2019er they go;\n    And heavenly influences shed,\n      On all the world below.\n\n    As giants, may they run their race,\n      Exulting in their might:\n    As burning luminaries, chase\n      The gloom of hellish night.\n\n    As the bright Sun of Righteousness,\n      Their healing wings display;\n    And let their lustre still increase\n      Unto the perfect day.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ II.--THE MOON.\n\n    Names -- Dimensions -- Motions -- Seasons -- Phases --\n    Harvest Moon -- Moon\u2019s Surface -- A\u00ebrial Stones -- Eclipses --\n    Moonlight -- Epithets -- Religious Improvement.\n\n\nThe _moon_ is called a _great light_, but _less_ than the sun. Moses\ndoes not here speak philosophically, according to her bulk, but to the\nproportion of light she affords us, which is more than all the planets\nin the solar system and all the fixed stars put together.\n\n    \u201cHe smooth\u2019d the rough-cast moon\u2019s imperfect mould,\n    And comb\u2019d her beamy locks with sacred gold;\n    Be thou, said he, Queen of the mournful night,--\n    And as he spoke, she rose o\u2019erclad wish light,\n    With thousand stars attending on her train.\u201d\n\nThe moon is not a primary planet, but only a satellite, or secondary\nplanet, attendant on our earth, round which she revolves, and along\nwith which she is carried round the sun.\n\n\u201cThe moon,\u201d says Dr. O. Gregory, \u201cis a dark, or opake body, shining\nprincipally with the light she receives from the sun. If she shone by\na light of her own, we should feel a sensible warmth from her rays;\nbut it is a light reflected from the sun with which she shines, and\nis so exceedingly weak and languid, that the greatest burning glass\nwill not collect enough to make any sensible degree of heat. This has\nbeen accounted for, and those who have gone through the computation\nassert that the light of the full moon is ninety thousand times less\nthan day-light.\u201d The ancients early discovered, that the moon had no\nlight of its own, but shone with that which it reflected from the sun.\nThis, after Thales, was the sentiment of Anaxagoras and Empedocles, who\nthence accounted not only for the mildness of its splendor, but the\nimperceptibility of its heat, which our experiments confirm.\n\nIn the Hebrew language the moon is called \u05d9\u05e8\u05d4 _Yarah_, or, more\nstrictly speaking, says Parkhurst, the _lunar light_, or _flux of\nlight, reflected from the moon\u2019s body_, or _orb_. That this is the true\nsense of the word is evident from several passages of Scripture, one of\nwhich is, \u201cFor the precious (produce) \u05e0\u05e8\u05e9 \u05d9\u05e8\u05d7\u05d9\u05dd _put forth by_--what?\nNot the _orbs_ of the moon surely (for the orb is but _one_), but _by\nthe fluxes_ or _streams of light_ reflected from it, which are not\nonly _several_ but _various_, according to the moon\u2019s different phases\nand aspects in regard to the sun and the earth. And this may lead us\nto the radical idea of the word \u05d9\u05e8\u05d7; for as \u05d9\u05d7\u05e8 and \u05d0\u05d7\u05e8,\u200e \u05d9\u05d7\u05d3 and \u05d0\u05ea\u05d3 &c.,\nare very nearly related to each other respectively, so likewise\nI conjecture that \u05d9\u05e8\u05d7 is to \u05d0\u05e8\u05d4, in sense as well as in sound, and\nconsequently that it signifies _to go in a track_ or _in a constant\ncustomary road or way_; and this affords us a good descriptive name\nof the _lunar light_; for, _Behold_, says _Bildad_ in Job, chap. xxv,\n5, _even to the_ \u05d9\u05e8\u05d7 or lunar light \u05d5\u05dc\u05d0 \u05d9\u05d0\u05d4\u05d9\u05dc _and he_ (God) _hath\nnot pitched a tent_ (for it); as he has for the \u05e9\u05de\u05e9 or _solar light_.\nNo! The _lunar_ stream has _fixed station_ from whence it issues,\nbut together with the orb which reflects it, and which like a human\n_traveller_ moves now a quicker, now a slower pace, is continually\n_performing its appointed journey_, and _proceeding in a constant_,\nthough regularly irregular _track_.\u201d\n\nThe Greeks called the moon \u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03b7, which may be considered as a\nderivative from \u03bc\u03b7\u03bd. Parkhurst says, This word may be derived either\nfrom \u03bc\u03b7\u03bd\u03b7, _the moon_, by the phases of which the month is reckoned,\nor else it may be deduced from the Hebrew \u05de\u05e0\u05d4 _manah_, _to number_,\n_compute_, as being computed by the lunar phases. And it is probable\nthat the first _computations_ of time were made by the _revolutions_ of\nthe moon. It is obvious to remark, that not only these two Greek words,\nbut also the Latin _mensis_, a month, and the English _moon_, _month_,\nare ultimately derived from the same Hebrew \u05de\u05e0\u05d4. Leigh observes, that\n\u201cthe Hebrews call the moon and a month by the same name, because the\nmoon is renewed every month. The Greeks also call \u03c3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b7, from \u03c3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2,\nbecause it every day renews its light.\u201d Parkhurst on the word \u03c3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b7\u03bd\u03b7\nsays, \u201cThe Greek etymologists, and particularly Plato, deduce it from\n\u03c3\u03b5\u03bb\u03b1\u03c2 \u03bd\u03b5\u03bf\u03bd, _new light_, because its light is continually renewed.\u201d\nBut the learned Goguet says; \u201cThe Greeks gave to the _moon_ the name\n_selene_, which comes from the Ph\u0153nician word (\u05dc\u05df or \u05dc\u05d5\u05df namely)\nwhich signifies _to pass the night_; whence also we may observe is\nplainly derived the Latin name of the moon, _luna_.\u201d From _lun_ with\nthe termination _a_, comes _luna_, and this name is given to the planet\nfrom her _changing_ or appearing under different phases.\n\nAs to the _dimensions_ of the moon, according to the most accurate\ncalculations, her diameter is 2,175 miles, the circumference 6,831\nmiles, the surface contains 14,898,750 square miles, and its solidity\n5,408,246,000 cubical ones. Her bulk is equal to about a fiftieth part\nof our earth, and her mean distance from the earth is about 240,000\nmiles.\n\nThe _motions_ of the moon are most of them very irregular. The only\nequable motion she has, is her revolution on her own axis. The time in\nwhich she moves round her axis is about 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes,\n5 seconds; and her revolution through an elliptical orbit is performed\nin the same time as her rotation on her axis, moving about 2,290 miles\nevery hour. Her revolution round her axis exactly in the same time\nthat she goes round the earth, is the reason she always turns the same\nface towards us: she has only one day and one night in the course of a\nmonth. From a long series of observations, it has been ascertained that\nthe moon makes a complete revolution in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, 5\nseconds; this is called the periodical month; but, if we refer to the\ntime passed from new moon to new moon again, the month consists of 29\ndays, 12 hours, and 44 minutes, which is called the synodical month.\nThis difference is occasioned by the earth\u2019s annual motion in its\norbit. Thus, if the earth had no motion, the moon would make a complete\nround in 27 days, 7 hours, 43 minutes, and 5 seconds; but while the\nmoon is describing her journey the earth has passed through nearly a\ntwelfth part of its orbit, which the moon must also describe before\nthe two bodies come again into the same position that they before held\nwith respect to the sun: this takes up so much more time as to make\nher synodical month equal to 29 days, 12 hours, and 44 minutes. The\nmotions of the hour and minute hands of a watch may serve to give some\nidea of the periodical and synodical revolutions of the moon; for when\nthe minute hand has performed a complete revolution, it has yet some\ndistance to go to obtain a coincidence with the hour hand, similar to\nthat which it had the preceding hour.\n\nWe have observed that the same face is turned towards us during\nthe whole of the moon\u2019s revolution, and that the other half of her\nsurface is never visible to us. This arises from the two motions we\nhave noticed, which, with regard to our view of the moon, appear to\ncounteract each other. Her revolution round the earth is performed\ntowards the _east_; while the revolution upon her own axis is performed\ntowards the _west_: so that, one of these motions turns as much of her\nface from us, as the other turns towards us. And from the moon\u2019s axis\nbeing inclined to the plane of her orbit, sometimes one of her poles\nis inclined towards the earth, and sometimes the other: in consequence\nof which, we see more or less of her polar regions in different periods\nof her revolution. When the moon is in _perigee_, or nearest distance\nfrom the earth, her motion is quickest; and when in _apogee_, or most\nremote distance, her motion is slowest.\n\nThe length of the day is equal to our lunar month, for all that time\nis included in one revolution round her axis. Her days and nights,\ntherefore, will constantly be of the same length, or almost fifteen\nof our days each. The year will be exactly the same with our year;\nbecause, being an attendant on the earth, she must go round the sun\nin the same time as that does. Her difference of seasons will be much\nless than on our earth, having only a small inclination of her axis\nof six degrees and a half; so that the variation between her summer\u2019s\nheat and her winter\u2019s cold must be comparatively inconsiderable. Hence\nthere will be only thirteen degrees of Torrid Zone, on some parts\nmost opposite the sun, and thirteen degrees of Frigid Zone on those\ncontiguous to her poles; which consequently must leave seventy-seven\ndegrees for what we should call her Temperate Zones, both in the north\nand south parts from her Equator. Our earth, unquestionably, performs\nthe office of a moon to the moon, waxing and waning regularly, but\nappearing thirteen times as large, and, of course, affording her\nthirteen times as much light as she does to us. When she changes to us,\nthe earth appears full to her; when she is in her first quarter to us,\nthe earth is in its third quarter to her; and _vice vers\u00e2_. To the moon\nthe earth seems to be the largest body in the universe, and must indeed\nbe a most magnificent sight.\n\nOn the supposition that the moon is inhabited, it may be observed, that\nthose who are placed about the middle of the surface, or face next to\nus, will constantly see our earth over their heads, and increasing and\ndecreasing in light, like as the moon itself appears to us. Those who\nare situated near the borders, whether on the right or left, or upon\nthe top or bottom, will also constantly have the same appearance in the\nopposite part of the horizon. But those who live on the side of the\nmoon which is not presented to us, will know nothing of our earth, or\nat least, they will never have an opportunity of seeing this large and\nwonderful moon, without travelling perhaps more than 1,500 of our miles\non the surface of that luminary. To those who live on this side of the\nmoon, or travel to it on any account, as we may pass from the northern\ninto the southern hemisphere of our globe, the earth, indeed, when at\nfull to them, will appear to be more than three times as broad as the\nmoon does to us, and to communicate, as has been already mentioned,\nabout thirteen times as much light to her, as she does to us when at\nthe full.\n\nThe moon, possessing no native light, shines entirely by light received\nfrom the sun, and which is reflected to us from her surface. That half\nof her which is towards the sun is enlightened, and the other half is\ndark and invisible: hence, when she is between us and the sun, she\ndisappears, because her dark side is then towards us. Whilst making\nher revolution round the heavens, she undergoes a continual change of\nappearance. She is sometimes on our meridian at midnight, and therefore\nin that part of the heavens which is opposite to the sun; when she\nappears with a face completely circular, which is called a _full\nmoon_. As she moves eastward, a part of her dark side comes forward\non the western side, and, in a little more than seven days, reaches\nto the meridian, at about six in the morning, having the appearance\nof a semi-circle, with the convex side turned towards the sun: this\ncrescent gradually becomes more slender, till, about fourteen days\nafter the full moon, being so near the sun, and in a line between that\nluminary and our earth, she is rendered invisible to us, from the\nsuperior splendor of that orb of light. About four days after this\ndisappearance, she may be seen in the evening, a little to the eastward\nof the sun, in the form of a fine crescent,[121] as before, but having\nher convex side turned from the sun. Travelling still towards the\neast, the crescent becomes wider; and when advanced to the meridian,\nabout six in the evening, she again bears the appearance of a bright\nsemi-circle, with the same difference that we observed of the crescent,\nthat is, its convex side is now turned _from_ the sun. Advancing still\nmore eastward, the semi-circular moon widens into an oval shape, till\nat last, in about twenty-nine days and a half from the last opposition\nto the sun, she is again in the same situation, and appears a full moon.\n\nThe following account of the _harvest moon_, so called, taken from\nthe Pantalogia, will no doubt be acceptable to the reader.--It is\nremarkable that the moon, during the week in which she is full about\nthe time of harvest, rises sooner after sun-setting than she does in\nany other full moon week in the year. By this means, she affords an\nimmediate supply of light after sun-set, which is very beneficial for\nthe harvest and gathering in the fruits of the earth; and hence this\nfull moon is distinguished from all the others in the year, by calling\nit the harvest-moon.\n\nTo conceive the reason of this phenomenon, it may first be considered,\nthat the moon is always opposite to the sun when she is full; that she\nis full in the signs Pisces and Aries in our harvest months, those\nbeing the signs opposite to Virgo and Libra, the signs occupied by the\nsun about the same season; and because those parts of the ecliptic\nrise in a shorter space of time than others, as may easily be shown\nand illustrated by the celestial globe: consequently, when the moon is\nabout her full in harvest, she rises with less difference of time, or\nmore immediately after sun-set, than when she is full at other seasons\nof the year.\n\nIn our winter, the moon is in Pisces and Aries about the time of her\nfirst quarter, when she rises about noon; but her rising is not then\nnoticed, because the sun is above the horizon. In spring, the moon is\nin Pisces and Aries about the time of her change; at which time, as she\ngives no light, and rises with the sun, her rising cannot be perceived.\nIn summer, the moon is in Pisces and Aries about the time of her last\nquarter; and then, as she is on the decrease, and rises not till\nmidnight, her rising usually passes unobserved. But in autumn, the moon\nis in Pisces and Aries at the time of her full, and rises soon after\nsun-set for several evenings successively; which makes her regular\nrising very conspicuous at that time of the year.\n\nAnd this would always be the case, if the moon\u2019s orbit lay in the plane\nof the ecliptic. But as her orbit makes an angle of 5\u00b0 18\u02b9 with the\necliptic, and crosses it only in the two opposite points called the\nnodes, her rising when in Pisces and Aries will sometimes not differ\nabove 1h. 40min. through the whole of seven days; and at other times,\nin the same two signs, she will differ three hours and a half in the\ntime of her rising in a week, according to the different positions of\nthe nodes with respect to these signs; which positions are constantly\nchanging, because the nodes go backward through the whole ecliptic in\n18 years 225 days.\n\nThis revolution of the nodes will cause the harvest moons to go through\na whole course of the most and least beneficial states, with respect to\nthe harvest, every nineteen years. The following table shows in what\nyears the harvest-moons are least beneficial as to the times of their\nrising, and in what years they are most beneficial, from the year 1790\nto 1861: the column of years under the letter L are those in which the\nharvest-moons are least of all beneficial, because they fall about\nthe descending node; and those under the letter M are the most of all\nbeneficial, because they fall about the ascending node.\n\nHARVEST MOONS.\n\n     L     M     L     M     L     M     L     M\n    1790  1798  1807  1816  1826  1835  1844  1853\n    1791  1799  1808  1817  1827  1836  1845  1854\n    1792  1800  1809  1818  1828  1837  1846  1855\n    1793  1801  1810  1819  1829  1838  1847  1856\n    1794  1802  1811  1820  1830  1839  1848  1857\n    1795  1803  1812  1821  1831  1840  1849  1858\n    1796  1804  1813  1822  1832  1841  1850  1859\n    1797  1805  1814  1823  1833  1842  1851  1860\n          1806  1815  1824  1834  1843  1852  1861\n                      1825\n\nWhen the moon is viewed through a good telescope, there appear vast\ncavities and asperities on various parts of her face, some of them\nextremely resembling deep caverns and vallies, and others mountains.\n\n    \u201cTurn\u2019d to the sun direct, her spotted disk\n    Shows mountains rise, umbrageous vales descend,\n    And caverns deep, as optic tube descries.\u201d\n\nThe cavities, it is conjectured, do not contain water; hence it is\nconcluded that there can be no extensive seas and oceans, like those\nwhich cover a great part of our earth. It is, however, imagined that\nthere may be springs and RIVERS. The moon seems, as a learned author\nhas observed, in almost every respect to be a body similar to our\nearth, to have its surface diversified by hill and dale, mountains\nand vallies, rivers and lakes. With regard to a lunar atmosphere, the\nexistence of which has long been a subject of much dispute, it is\nnow generally admitted.[122] The irregularity of the moon\u2019s surface,\narising from hills and vallies, renders her more capable of reflecting\nthe sun\u2019s rays to us. Though philosophers have differed widely in their\nideas concerning the materials of the moon\u2019s mountains, some from their\nbrilliancy even supposing them to be rocks of diamonds, there is no\ndiversity of opinion as to their use. If smooth and polished, like a\nmirror, or covered with water, she would not reflect and distribute\nthe light received from the sun. In some positions she would show us\nhis image no larger than a single point, and with a lustre that would\ninjure our sight: but roughened by these hills and vallies, her surface\nreturns the sun\u2019s light to us in an equable and pleasant manner, and\nenables us to examine her with ease and precision.\n\nThat the moon is a planet similar to our earth, is a sentiment very\nearly adopted. Orpheus is the most ancient author, whose opinion on\nthis subject has come down to us. Proclus presents us with three verses\nof that philosopher, wherein he positively asserts, that the moon\nwas another earth, having in it mountains, vallies, &c. Pythagoras,\nwho followed Orpheus in many of his opinions, taught likewise, that\nthe moon was an earth like ours, replete with animals, whose nature\nhe presumed not to describe, though he was persuaded they were of a\nmore noble and elegant kind than ours, and not liable to the same\ninfirmities. Stob\u00e6us gives us the opinion of Democritus about the\nnature of the moon, and the cause of those spots which we see upon\nits disk. That great philosopher imagined, that \u201cthose spots were\nno other than shades, formed by the excessive height of the lunar\nmountains,\u201d which intercepted the light from the lower parts of that\nplanet, where the valleys formed themselves into what appeared to us\nas shades or spots. Plutarch went further, alleging, that there were\nembosomed in the moon, vast seas and profound caverns: he says, those\ndeep and extensive shades which appear upon the disk of that planet,\nmust be occasioned by _the vast seas_ it contains, which are incapable\nof reflecting so vivid a light, as the more solid and opake parts; \u201cor\nby caverns extremely wide and deep, wherein the rays of the sun are\nabsorbed,\u201d whence those shades and that obscurity which we call the\nspots of the moon. And Zenophanes said, that those immense cavities\nwere inhabited by another race of men, who lived there just as we do\nupon earth.\n\n        \u201cAnd oft I think, fair planet of the night,\n        That in thy orb the wretched may have rest.\u201d\n\n    [The height of the moon\u2019s atmosphere is supposed to be\n    1.622 miles; or a little more than a mile and a half.\n\n    The observations on the moon have been so accurate, and\n    so often repeated, by means of the best glasses, that the\n    _map of the moon_ is now considered nearly perfect. On this\n    map is laid down the position of _spots_, _cavities_, and\n    _mountains_, representing their _size_, _height_, _depth_, and\n    _peculiarities_. They are very numerous.\n\n    Some of these mountains are full _five miles high_. They\n    descend in height, from the highest to small elevations.\n\n    Several astronomers, particularly Herschell, has distinctly\n    observed and described _volcanos_ in the moon, _actually\n    flaming_; and others in an _expiring state_. _Craters_ of\n    extinct volcanos are visible, and so numerous as to indicate\n    very clearly, that volcanic action was once very extensive and\n    powerful in the moon.\n\n    Some of the _cavities_ are more than _three miles and a\n    half deep_, and sixteen broad at the surface. _Ferguson\u2019s\n    Astronomy, additional chapters by Dr. Brewster._]\n\nThat stones have fallen from the _clouds_ or from much _higher\nregions_, is a fact which has recently been very closely investigated,\nand also fully demonstrated. A table, constructed by M. Izarn, a\nforeign chemist, exhibits a variety of facts of this kind, from which\nthe following is an extract.\n\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |                     |    _Places where_    |      _Period of_     |\n  |   _Substances._     |     _they fell._     |     _their fall._    |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |  Shower of stones.  |        At Rome.      |     Under Tullus     |\n  |                     |                      |      Hostilius.      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |  Shower of stones.  |        At Rome.      | Consuls, C. Martius, |\n  |                     |                      |   and M. Torquatus.  |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  | A very large stone. |    Near the river    |    Second year of    |\n  |                     |    Negos, Thrace.    |  the 78th Olympiad.  |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  | Three large stones. |      In Thrace.      | Year before J.C. 452.|\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |  Stone of 72 lbs.   |     Near Larissa,    |    January, 1706.    |\n  |                     |      Macedonia.      |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  | About 1,200 stones; |      Near Padua,     |       In 1510.       |\n  |    one 120 lbs.     |       in Italy.      |                      |\n  | Another of 60 lbs.  |                      |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  | Another of 59 lbs.  |   On Mount Vasier,   |  November 27, 1627.  |\n  |                     |       Provence.      |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |  Two large stones,  |       Liponas,       |   September, 1753.   |\n  |  weighing 20 lbs.   |      in Bresse.      |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |    A stony mass.    |   Niort, Normandy.   |       In 1750.       |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |  A stone of 7\u00bd lbs. | At Luce, in Le Maine.| September 13, 1768.  |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |      A stone.       |  At Aire, in Artois. |       In 1768.       |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |      A stone.       |    In Le Contenin.   |       In 1768.       |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |  Extensive shower   |   Environs of Agen.  |    July 24, 1790.    |\n  |     of stones.      |                      |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |  About 12 stones.   |   Sienna, Tuscany.   |     July, 1794.      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |    A large stone    |     Wold Cottage,    |  December 13, 1795.  |\n  |     of 56 lbs.      |       Yorkshire.     |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  | A stone of 10 lbs.  |     In Portugal.     |  February 19, 1796.  |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  | A stone of 120 lbs. |   Sal\u00e9, Department   |   March 17, 1798.    |\n  |                     |     of the Rhone.    |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |  Shower of stones.  | Benares, East Indies.|  December 19, 1798.  |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |  Shower of stones.  |    At Plann, near    |    July 3, 1753.     |\n  |                     |    Tabor, Bohemia.   |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |    Mass of iron,    |       America.       |    April 5, 1800.    |\n  |   70 cubic feet.    |                      |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |     Mass of do.     |  Abakauk, Siberia.   |      Very old.       |\n  |    14 quintals.     |                      |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  | Shower of stones.   |      Barboutan,      |     July, 1789.      |\n  |                     |    near Roquefort.   |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |     Large stone,    |      Ensisheim,      |  November 7, 1492.   |\n  |       260 lbs.      |     Upper Rhine.     |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |     Two stones,     |     Near Verona.     |       In 1762.       |\n  |  200 and 300 lbs.   |                      |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  | A stone of 20 lbs.  |      Sales, near     |   March 12, 1798.    |\n  |                     |    Ville Franche.    |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n  |     Several do.     |     Near L'Aigle,    |   April 26, 1803.    |\n  | from 10 to 17 lbs.  |       Normandy.      |                      |\n  +---------------------+----------------------+----------------------+\n\nThe stones generally appear luminous in their descent, moving in\noblique directions, with very great velocities, and commonly with a\nhissing noise. They are frequently heard to explode, or burst, and\nseem to fly in pieces, the larger parts falling first. They often\nstrike the earth with such force, as to sink several inches below the\nsurface. They are always different from the surrounding bodies, but is\nevery case are similar to one another, being semi-metallic, coated with\na thin black encrustation. They bear strong marks of recent fusion.\nChemists have found, on examining these stones, that they very nearly\nagree in their nature and composition, and in the proportions of their\ncomponent parts.\n\nTheir specific gravities are generally about three or four times that\nof water, being heavier than common stones. From the above account,\nit is reasonable to conclude, that they have all the same origin. I\nbelieve it is generally agreed among philosophers, that all these\na\u00ebrial stones, chemically analysed, evince the same properties;\nand that no stone, found on our earth, possesses exactly similar\nproperties, nor in the same proportions: this is an extraordinary\ncircumstance, and deserves particular notice. At the sitting of the\nSociety of Natural History at Halle, July 6, 1816, M. Chladni submitted\nto the inspection of the members present, a collection of meteoric\nstones, or stones fallen from the atmosphere; and to the exhibition, he\nadded his own observations on their nature and formation. Dr. K\u00e6stner,\ntaking up the subject in the same point of view which M. Chladni had\ngiven of it, admitted that these stones are not natives of this earth,\nbut of other celestial bodies; to which he added, that the chemical\nanalysis of them proves, that many of the same substances as are found\nin our mountains, and among the solids of our globe, are also component\nparts of the solids and mountains of other globes; certainly of those\ncelestial bodies which are nearest to us; and probably of the others\nwhich form our planetary system.\n\nThat these stones are projected from lunar volcanos, very strong\nreasons have been assigned to prove. As 1. Volcanos in the moon have\nbeen observed by means of the telescope. 2. The lunar volcanos are\nvery high, and the surface of that globe suffers frequent changes,\nas appears by the late observations of Schro\u00ebter. 3. If a body be\nprojected from the moon to a distance greater than that of the point\nof equilibrium, between the attraction of the earth and the moon,\nit will, on the known principles of gravitation, fall to the earth.\n4. That a body may be projected from the lunar volcanos beyond the\nmoon\u2019s influence, is not only possible, but very probable; for on\ncalculation it is found, that four times the force usually given to a\ntwelve pounder, will be quite sufficient for this purpose: it is to\nbe observed, that the point of equilibrium is much nearer; and that a\nprojectile from the moon will not be so much retarded as one from the\nearth, both on account of the moon\u2019s rarer atmosphere, and its less\nattractive force.[123]\n\nOf all the phenomena of the heavens, there are none which engage the\nattention of mankind more than _eclipses_ of the sun and moon; and to\nthose who are unacquainted with the principles, nothing can appear more\nextraordinary than the accuracy, even to a second of time, with which\nthey are predicted. Eclipses of the sun are occasioned by the shadow of\nthe intervening new moon falling on the earth, and those of the moon\nare caused by the shadow of the earth falling on the full moon, the\nearth at the full moon being always in a direction between the sun and\nmoon.\n\nIt is ascertained that, for an eclipse of the sun to be annular, the\nmost favorable circumstances will be when the sun is in perigee, and\nthe moon in apogee; and, for an eclipse to be total, the most favorable\ncase is when the sun is in apogee, and the moon in perigee. The motion\nof the moon being much swifter than that of the earth, and the motions\nof both being directed from west to east, an eclipse of the sun must\nalways begin in the western edge of the sun; and as the moon is a great\ndeal less than the earth, her shadow forms a cone, the section of which\nis much less than the earth, so that a small portion of the earth only\ncan, at any time, be involved in the shadow at one time. Hence it is,\nthat an eclipse of the sun is not perceived, at the same instant, in\nevery part of the hemisphere that is turned towards the sun, and that,\nin some parts, it will not be seen at all. For instance, a friend of\nmine, writing from Ceylon in the month of May, (1817,) says, \u201cOn the\n16th of this month, we had a fine sight of an eclipse of the sun about\nnoon: I think about 3-4ths of the surface were covered.\u201d But in this\ncountry we had no solar eclipse at the same time. Again, in different\nsituations, different parts of the sun\u2019s disk will appear eclipsed;\nbut, on the contrary, an eclipse of the moon is perceived, at the same\nmoment, in every part of the earth where this planet is visible, and\nappears every where to occupy the same portion of her disk. Hence,\neclipses of the sun are much less frequent in any particular place than\neclipses of the moon.\n\nIf the nodes of the moon constantly corresponded with the same points\nin the heavens, the eclipses of the sun or moon might be expected in\nthe same months, and even on the same days; but as the nodes shift\nbackwards, or contrary to the earth\u2019s annual motion, about 19\u00bd degrees\nin a year, the same node will come round about nineteen days sooner\nevery year than in the preceding. From the time, therefore, when the\nascending node passes by the sun, as seen from the earth, there will be\nonly 173 days before the descending node passes by him. If, then, at\nany time of the year, we have eclipses about either of the nodes, their\nreturn may be expected in about 173 days, in or near the other.\n\nIt may be further observed, that, after the sun, moon, and nodes, have\nbeen once in a line of conjunction, they will return nearly to the same\nstate again in 228 lunations, or eighteen years and ten days; so that\nthe same node which was in conjunction with the sun and moon at the\nbeginning of the first of these lunations, will be within less than\nhalf a degree of the line of conjunction with the sun and moon again,\nwhen the last of these lunations is completed. In that time, therefore,\nthere will be a regular period of eclipses for many ages.\n\nThese things being properly considered, it will not be difficult to\nconceive how astronomers are able to foretell the exact time when any\nphenomenon of this kind will happen; for, as an eclipse can only take\nplace at the time of a new or full moon, the principal requisites are,\nto determine the number of mean conjunctions and oppositions that\nwill happen every year, and the true places of the sun and moon in\ntheir orbits at each of those times. And, if from this, when proper\ncalculations have been made, it appears that the two luminaries are\nwithin the proper limits of the node, there will be an eclipse.\nTo facilitate these operations, we have astronomical tables ready\ncomputed, by which the places of the heavenly bodies, and every other\nparticular required, may be easily found for any given instant of\ntime.[124]\n\nWith delight we reflect on the invaluable benefits which this _lesser\nlight_ confers on our globe. She sometimes appears visible in the\npresence of the sun; but how faint and pale is her shining! God has\nappointed her to _rule the night_, and give light to men. How cheerless\nand uncomfortable would our nights be, were we destitute of the light\nwhich this faithful and inseparable companion of our earth dispenses!\nHow strange are her eclipses, occasioned by the earth interposing\nand shading her face! but, they are highly useful in astronomical,\ngeographical, and chronological calculations. How salutary, too, is her\nattractive influence, which sways the ocean, and actuates the world\nof waters; causing the swelling of the tides, and perpetuating the\nregular returns of ebb and flow; by which the liquid element itself\nis preserved from putrefaction, and the surrounding continents from\ninfection and disease.\n\nA moonlight night has led the greatest poets in every age to vie with\neach other in attempting to describe its beauty and use. Among all\nthe treasures of modern poetry, I know not one superior, for pleasing\nimagery, and variety of numbers, to that of Milton:\n\n    \u201cNow came still evening on, and twilight grey\n    Had in her sober livery all things clad.\n                    Now glowed the firmament\n    With living sapphires: Hesperus, that led\n    The starry host, rode brightest, till the Moon,\n    Rising in clouded majesty, at length,\n    Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light.\n    And o\u2019er the dark her silver mantle threw.\u201d\n\nHomer, in the eighth book of the Iliad, gives us a description of a\nfine moonlight night, which is esteemed a master-piece of nocturnal\npainting. Milton\u2019s pencil leaves off where that of Homer begins:\n\n    \u201cAs when the Moon, refulgent lamp of night,\n    O\u2019er heaven\u2019s clear azure sheds her sacred light;\n    When not a breath disturbs the deep serene,\n    And not a cloud o\u2019ercasts the solemn scene;\n    Around her throne the vivid planets roll,\n    And stars unnumbered gild the glowing pole;\n    O\u2019er the dark trees a yellower verdure shed,\n    And tip with silver every mountain\u2019s head;\n    Then shine the vales; the rocks in prospect rise;\n    A flood of glory bursts from all the skies;\n    The conscious swains rejoicing in the sight,\n    Eye the blue vault, and bless the useful light.\u201d\n\nThe wise Son of Sirach, although his writings are not admitted into\nthe sacred canon, deserves to be heard on this subject. He says, \u201cThe\nLord made the moon also to serve in her season, for a declaration of\ntimes, and a sign of the world. From the moon is the sign of feasts,\na light decreaseth in her perfection. The month is called after her\nname, increasing wonderfully in her changing, being an instrument of\nthe armies above, shining in the firmament of heaven; the beauty of\nheaven, the glory of the stars, an ornament giving light to the highest\nplaces of the Lord. At the commandment of the Holy One they will stand\nin their order, and never faint in their watches.\u201d This is paraphrased\nwith great elegance and spirit by Mr. Broome:\n\n    \u201cBy thy command the moon, as day-light fades,\n    Lifts her broad circle in the deep\u2019ning shades;\n    Arrayed in glory, and enthroned in light,\n    She breaks the solemn terrors of the night;\n    Sweetly inconstant in her varying flame,\n    She changes still, another, yet the same!\n    Now in decrease, by slow degrees she shrouds\n    Her fading lustre in a vale of clouds;\n    Now of increase, her gathering beams display\n    A blaze of light, and give a paler day;\n    Ten thousand stars adorn her glittering train,\n    Fall when she falls, and rise with her again;\n    And o\u2019er the deserts of the sky unfold\n    Their burning spangles of sidereal gold:\n    Through the wide heavens she moves serenely bright,\n    Queen of the gay attendants of the night:\n    Orb above orb in sweet confusion lies,\n    And with a bright disorder paints the skies.\u201d\n\nMany striking epithets have been given to this refulgent lamp of the\nnight, some of which are noticed by Nichols in his Conference with\na Theist. Tully asserts, that the moon was called _Diana_, because\nshe made a day of the night, whilst all other stars did not make a\ntwilight. \u00c6schylus, a tragic poet, born at Athens 397 before the\nChristian era, calls her \u03c0\u03c1\u03b5\u03c3\u03b2\u03c5\u03db\u03bf\u03bd \u03b1\u03db\u03c1\u03c9\u03bd, the ancient, the governess,\nor mother of the stars. Apollinaris, bishop of Hierapolis, in Phrygia,\nabout A.D. 171, denominates her, \u03bd\u03c5\u03c7\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd \u03b2\u03b1\u03c3\u03b9\u03bb\u03b5\u03b9\u03b1 \u03b1\u03c4\u03b1\u03c1\u03c0\u03c9\u03bd, the queen\nof the nightly paths. Tynesius, who flourished A.C. 400, styles\nher, \u03c0\u03bf\u03b9\u03bc\u03b7\u03bd \u03bd\u03c5\u03c7\u03b9\u03c9\u03bd \u03b8\u03b5\u03c9\u03bd, the princess of the nocturnal gods: which\nis consonant to Horace\u2019s lucidum c\u0153li decus--syderum regina. Virgil\nlikewise calls her, astrorum decus, the ornament of the stars. Seneca\nterms her, obscuri dea clara mundi, the bright goddess of the obscure\nworld; and also clarumque c\u0153li sydus et noctis decus, the bright star\nof heaven, and the grace of the night. Statius, who lived at Rome in\nthe reign of Domitian, in his Thebais, terms her, arcan\u00e6 moderatrix\nCynthia noctis, the moon the governess of silent night. \u201cFair as the\nmoon,\u201d was an ancient manner of describing beauty, and, it is said,\nstill prevails in the East.\n\nAmong the ancients, observes Mr. Butler, the moon was an object of\nprime respect. By the Hebrews, she was more regarded than the sun,\nand they were more inclined to worship her as a deity. The _new_\nmoons, or first days of every month, were observed as festivals among\nthem, which were celebrated with sound of trumpets, entertainments,\nand sacrifice. The moon was the goddess of the Ph\u0153nicians, whom they\nworshipped under the name Ashtoreth, or Astarte. The moon is sometimes\nin Scripture styled, the \u201cqueen of heaven.\u201d She is likewise styled,\n\u201cthe goddess of the Zidonians,\u201d and \u201cthe abomination of the Zidonians,\u201d\nas she was worshipped very much in Zidon, or Sidon, a famous city of\nthe Ph\u0153nicians, situated upon the eastern coast of the Mediterranean.\nSolomon, who had many wives that were foreigners, was prevailed upon\nby them to introduce the worship of this goddess into Israel, and he\nbuilt her a temple on the mount of Olives, which, on account of this\nand other idols, is called \u201cthe mount of corruption.\u201d[125] Milton says,\n\n                              \u201cThere stood\n    Her temple on th\u2019 offensive mountain, built\n    By that uxorious king, whose heart, though large,\n    Beguil\u2019d by fair idolatresses, fell,\n    To idols foul.\u201d\n\nThe _full_ moon was held favorable for any undertaking by the Spartans;\nand no motives could induce them to enter upon an expedition, march\nan army, or attack an enemy, till the _full_ of the moon. It is usual\nwith the modern Arabians to begin their journeys at the _new_ moon; a\npractice which, indeed, appears to be very ancient. When the Shunammite\nproposed going to Elisha, her husband dissuaded her by observing that\nit was neither _new_ moon nor sabbath.\n\n1. The _moon_ is an emblem of the _church_ of God, which receives\nits light from Christ as the moon does from the sun. Especially, of\nthe Jewish dispensation, which consisted much in the observation\nof new moons, its solemn feasts being governed by them. The Jewish\ndispensation was a veiled and shadowy one: Christ and the blessings\nof the covenant of grace were revealed in dark promises, obscure\nprophecies, types and ceremonies, which were all significant figures of\nthat grace which should be displayed, with fulness and evidence, under\nthe Christian dispensation. The Jewish economy exhibits such marks of\nimperfection, as show the necessity of some new revelation to supply\nits defects. Its rites and precepts seem to be particularly suited to\nthe condition, capacity, temper and genius of that particular people,\nfor whom they were first formed, but not to be calculated for general\nuse. It consisted chiefly of external performances, such as washings,\nsacrifices, and oblations, which could not purify the conscience, nor,\nindeed, satisfy the reason of man. The provision for sin, by way of\natonement, was partial, and not thoroughly effectual: for some sins no\nsacrifice was admitted; and though sacrifice, where it was appointed,\nmight atone for ceremonial impurity, yet the inward guilt and\ndefilement still remained, and the justice of God was not satisfied.\nYet the observance of these was enjoined in a very awful manner. The\nomission of what was prescribed by these laws, or even a defect in\nobserving the minute circumstances of them, was made a capital crime,\nor rendered the delinquents liable to be cut off from the congregation.\nThe Apostle styles the whole code of these laws, \u201ca yoke of bondage;\u201d\nand says, that, previous to the coming of Christ, the Jews were in\nbondage under what he terms \u201cthe beggarly elements of the world.\u201d\n\nThere were indeed wise reasons for such a dispensation: to keep the\nJews a distinct people, and preserve them from idolatry, while they\nwere continually employed in the service of God; to remind them of\ntheir obligations to purity, inward and outward holiness; and, as a\nschoolmaster, to bring them to Christ; the law being a type and shadow\nof that \u201ctruth and grace which came by Jesus Christ,\u201d who was \u201cthe end\nof the law for righteousness.\u201d On which account, the law of Moses was\nnot perpetual, but a temporary institution: thus the Apostle reasons,\n\u201cThere is verily a disannulling of the commandment going before for\nthe weakness and unprofitableness thereof; for,\u201d as he says in another\nplace, \u201cthe law could not in any wise make the comers thereunto\nperfect.\u201d He calls the law, \u201ca shadow of good things to come.\u201d The\nLevitical ceremonies led the Jewish church into the knowledge of the\npromised Messiah, and what he was to do, suffer, purchase, and apply.\nHence the words of St. Peter, \u201cOf which salvation the prophets have\ninquired and searched diligently, who prophesied of the grace that\nshould come unto you: searching what or what manner of time the Spirit\nof Christ which was in them did signify, when it testified beforehand\nthe sufferings of Christ, and the glory that should follow. Unto whom\nit was revealed, that not to themselves, but unto us they did minister\nthe things which are now reported unto you by them that have preached\nthe gospel unto you, with the Holy Ghost sent down from heaven.\u201d The\nChristian dispensation is attended with greater clearness. We have\na far more comprehensive knowledge of the glorious Redeemer, in his\nperson, natures, offices, and blessings; of the spiritual nature of his\nkingdom, and the way of salvation through faith in him, than what the\nJews had. Thus the Apostle says, \u201cBut we all with open face beholding\nas in a glass the glory of the Lord, are changed into the same image,\nfrom glory to glory, even as by the Spirit of the Lord.\u201d\n\nIn the Revelation, we have this representation given of the Christian\nchurch: \u201cAnd there appeared a great wonder in heaven; a woman clothed\nwith the sun, and the moon under her feet, and upon her head a crown of\ntwelve stars.\u201d An author, quoted by Dr. A. Clarke, gives the following\nelucidation of this passage.--That the woman here represents the true\nchurch of Christ, most commentators are agreed. In other parts of the\nApocalypse, the pure church of Christ is evidently pourtrayed by a\nwoman. In chapter xix, verse 7, a great multitude are represented as\nsaying, \u201cLet us be glad and rejoice, and give honor to him; for the\nmarriage of the Lamb is come, and his _wife_ hath made herself ready.\u201d\nIn chapter xxi, 9, an angel talks with St. John, saying, \u201cCome hither,\nI will show thee the _bride_, the Lamb\u2019s wife.\u201d That the Christian\nChurch is meant will appear also from her being \u201cclothed with the\nsun,\u201d a striking emblem of Jesus Christ, the Sun of Righteousness,\nthe light and glory of the Church; for the countenance of the Son of\nGod is, as \u201cthe sun shineth in his strength.\u201d The woman has the \u201cmoon\nunder her feet.\u201d Bishop Newton understands this of the Jewish typical\nworship; and, indeed, the Mosaic system of rites and ceremonies could\nnot have been better represented. The moon is the less light, ruling\nover the night, and deriving all its illumination from the sun: in like\nmanner, the Jewish dispensation was the bright moonlight night of the\nworld, and possessed a portion of the glorious light of the gospel.\nAt the rising of the sun the night is ended, and the lunar light no\nlonger necessary as the sun which enlightens her shines full upon the\nearth: exactly in the same way has the whole Jewish system of types\nand shadows been superseded by the birth, life, crucifixion, death,\nresurrection, ascension, and intercession of Jesus Christ. Upon the\nhead of the woman is \u201ca crown of twelve stars;\u201d a very significant\nrepresentation of the _twelve apostles_, who were the first founders of\nthe Christian church; and by whom the gospel was preached in a great\npart of the Roman empire with astonishing success.\n\n2. The phenomenon of the moon is _mutability_. This beautiful luminary,\nwhose gentle beams render the summer evenings still more agreeable, and\nin the winter nights cheer the abodes of solitude, and aid the midnight\ntraveller, is perpetually changing. In this, and in nothing but this,\nobserves Mr. Basely, she is invariable, and a perfect index to all\nwithin her orbit. This should teach us, says Mr. Browne, that there is\nnot any thing permanent in the present scene. Mutability is engraved in\nlegible characters upon every earthly object. Every thing is in motion,\nand assuming a different appearance, whilst vicissitude and change wait\non the affairs of mortals. Such is the fluctuating state of the present\nworld, whether we view kingdoms in general, or the personal concerns of\nmen in particular.\n\nBut while these things are fortuitous as to man, we should reflect that\nthey are under the direction and control of a Divine providence. The\nprosperous issue of all our designs and enterprises depends entirely\non the sovereign disposer of events. \u201cExcept the Lord build the house,\nthey labor in vain that build it; except the Lord keep the city, the\nwatchman waketh but in vain.\u201d \u201cA man\u2019s heart deviseth his way; but the\nLord directeth his steps;\u201d the result of his designs and projects being\nunder the dominion and direction of God. Whether his undertaking shall\nsucceed or fail, belongs alone to the Most High to determine. Let as\narrange our worldly concerns in the most prudent and politic manner,\nso that there shall appear the greatest probability of success, yet\nGod has the ordering of the event. Solomon has long since observed,\nthat, amongst the many vanities under the sun, one is, \u201cthe race is\nnot to the swift, nor the battle to the strong, neither yet bread to\nthe wise, nor yet riches to men of understanding, nor yet favor to men\nof skill: but time and chance happeneth to them all.\u201d Some unforeseen\ncircumstance may interrupt our pursuit, and disappoint our expectation.\nSo great is the uncertainty which attends all human affairs, and all\nfuture events are concealed in such thick darkness, that we can never\npositively affirm that this or the other scheme, however wisely laid,\ncannot be frustrated, or that it is impossible the success should be\notherwise than as we calculate. No man knows what shall be on the\nmorrow; the only thing we know previously is, that every event shall be\nas God is pleased to settle it.\n\nThis consideration, that it is not by our own choice and foresight, but\nthe will and wisdom of God, our affairs are directed and determined,\nwe should apply to ourselves. We are not competent to mark out our own\nways, nor can we seriously imagine that matters should be arranged\nexactly according to our imperfect views and secret inclinations; but\nwe should refer ourselves to his guidance who cannot err, and willingly\nacquiesce in his providential decisions: saying, \u201cI know, oh Lord, that\nthe way of man is not in himself: it is not in man that walketh to\ndirect his own steps.\u201d We are commanded by the Apostle James to say,\n\u201cIf the Lord will, we shall live, and do this, or that.\u201d And Solomon\u2019s\nadvice is, \u201cTrust in the Lord with all thine heart; and lean not unto\nthine own understanding. In all thy ways acknowledge him, and he shall\ndirect thy paths.\u201d Concerning all our lawful designs, enterprises, and\nprojects, we may pray, \u201cEstablish thou the work of our hands upon us;\nyea, the work of our hands establish thou it.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ III.--THE SEASONS.\n\n    Seasons: Spring, Summer, Autumn, Winter -- Displaying\n    Divine Power, Wisdom, Goodness, Faithfulness -- Religious\n    Improvement.\n\nThe Divine Architect appointed the sun and moon the places of their\nrising, the circuits they were to run, and where they were to go down:\nhe marked out the line in which they were to move through all the\ndifferent climates of the earth. They instantly obeyed his all-powerful\nword, and have ever since acted faithfully to his command. In their\noperations, they measure out our days and nights, distinguish between\ndifferent periods of time, and produce the several seasons of the year.\n\n    \u201cWith what an awful world-revolving power\n    Were first th\u2019 unwieldy planets launched along\n    Th\u2019 illimitable void! Thus to remain\n    Amid the flux of many thousand years,\n    That oft has swept the toiling race of men\n    And all their labored monuments away,\n    Firm, unremitting, matchless in their course;\n    To the kind tempered change of night and day,\n    And of the seasons ever stealing round,\n    Minutely faithful.\u201d\n\nGod is the supreme ruler in the kingdom of nature, and the constant\nchanges of day and night, summer and winter, seed-time and harvest, are\nappointed and regulated by his providential influence. This wonderful\nand stupendous system, consisting of matter, is preserved by motion.\nDeprive it of motion, and, as a system, it must expire. Who, then,\nbreathed into this amazing combination of things acting together, the\nlife of motion? What power impelled the planets to move, since motion\nis not a property of the matter of which they are composed? Did not\nannual observation familiarize it to us (to speak unphilosophically),\nwho that observes the sun going in appearance further from us during\nsix months in succession, and all that time decreasing in light and\nheat, could ever think that he would again return to us? What hinders\nhis projection into boundless space, till he should appear no larger\nthan a star, or get beyond the reach of our powers of vision? What,\nbut the immediate control of God! for this is a work superior to all\ncreated strength, and only to be effected by almighty energy.[126]\n\nWhen we have seen that glorious lamp of heaven, the great ruler of the\nday, gone so far from us that we scarcely knew how to stand before\nthe cold, how has his return revived and cheered us, visiting the\nfrozen earth with his friendly beams, infusing a genial warmth into\nevery creature, and inspiring us with the pleasing hope of once more\nenjoying those various fruits of the earth, which are the liberal gifts\nof an indulgent Providence! It is the Divine Being who commands the\nsun to rise, who, \u201ccoming out of his chamber\u201d in the east, rejoices\nas a strong man to run a race. Again, he bids this glorious orb to\nwithdraw, and obscure his beauty behind thick clouds, or sink below\nthe western ocean; when, behold, the day is covered with darkness, and\nnight succeeds. At his sovereign command, the glowing summer recedes,\nand winter approaches with chilling aspect. \u201cHe sends his snow like\nwool, and scattereth his hoar frost like ashes. He casteth forth his\nice like morsels: who can stand before his cold?\u201d He then recalls the\nsolar influence, scatters the inauspicious clouds, thaws the frozen\nridges of the field; the corn springs up and flourishes, and the heart\nof man rejoices with the pleasing hope of a plenteous harvest. Thus\ndoes the almighty Creator, and beneficent Governor of the world, order\nand regulate the constant succession of the seasons; his Providence\nover-rules and directs the whole movement, and nothing can come to pass\nwithout his superintendence.\n\nReason, as well as supernatural revelation, asserts the reality of a\nDivine providence. The happiest inquirers into the phenomena of nature\nhave discovered that every thing is made with the justest proportion,\nand that the whole machine is directed according to the most exact\nrules: but they have also perceived a power above and beyond the energy\nof natural principles, and which could not possibly be accounted for\nany other way than by admitting an immediate act or influence of the\nsupreme Being. In the revolving of the celestial orbs, we observe an\nexact agreement with the established laws of mechanism: but, yet, there\nis a force demonstrable in them which is altogether immechanical; and,\nconsequently, immediately issuing from God himself.\n\nThe remarks made by Dr. A. Clarke on this point, will, it is presumed,\ngratify the intelligent reader. \u201cThe _double motion_ of a primary\nplanet, namely, its _annual_ revolution and _diurnal_ rotation, is\none of the greatest wonders the science of astronomy presents to our\nview.--The laws which regulate the latter of these motions are so\ncompletely hid from man, notwithstanding his present great extension\nof philosophic research, that the times which the planets employ in\ntheir rotations can only be determined by observation. How is it that\ntwo motions, so essentially different from each other, should be in\nthe same body, at the same time, without one interfering at all with\nthe other?--No astronomer, since the foundation of the world, has been\nable to demonstrate that the earth\u2019s motion in the heavens is at all\naccelerated or retarded by the diurnal rotation; or, on the other hand,\nthat the earth\u2019s motion on its axis experiences the least irregularity\nfrom the annual revolution.\u201d\n\nThe rotation of the earth round its own axis, from west to east, once\nin 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds, is the cause of the distinction\nbetween day and night, by bringing the different parts of the earth\u2019s\nsurface successively into, and from under the solar rays. And the\nrevolution of the earth round the sun, from any equinox or solstice to\nthe same point again, in 365 days, 48 minutes, 48 seconds, produces\nthe agreeable vicissitudes of the seasons, and measures the length of\nour year. For though the revolution is that of the earth, yet both\nthe hours of the day and night, the different lengths of the days\nand nights, and the seasons of the year, cannot be determined but by\nthe heavenly bodies. Thus the earth has a two-fold motion, like a\nchariot-wheel; for while it goes forward on its annual journey, it is\nstill in its diurnal motion turning upon its own centre. But it differs\nfrom the motion of a chariot-wheel in this: that its hourly motion in\nits orbit is 75,222 miles; and that by the motion upon its axis, the\ninhabitants on the equator are carried after the rate of 1,042 miles an\nhour, and those upon the parallel of London 580 miles.\n\nThe Dr. proceeds, \u201cHow wonderful is this contrivance! and what\nincalculable benefits result from it! The uninterrupted and equable\ndiurnal rotation of the earth gives us day and night in their\nsuccession, and the annual revolution causes all the varied scenery of\nthe year. If one motion interfered with the other, the return of the\nday and night would be irregular; and the change of seasons attended\nwith uncertainty to the husbandman. These two motions are, therefore,\nharmoniously impressed upon the earth, that the gracious promise of the\ngreat Creator might be fulfilled, \u2018While the earth remaineth, seed-time\nand harvest, and cold and heat, and summer and winter, and day and\nnight, shall not cease.\u2019\n\n\u201cThe double motion of a secondary planet is still more singular than\nthat of its primary; for (taking the moon for an example) besides its\nparticular revolution round the earth, which is performed in 27 days,\n7 hours, 43 minutes, 4\u00bd seconds; it is carried round the sun with the\nearth once a year. Of all the planetary motions, with which we have a\ntolerable acquaintance, that of the moon is the most intricate: upwards\nof twenty equations are necessary, in the great majority of cases, to\nreduce her mean to her true place; yet not one of them is derivable\nfrom the circumstance that she accompanies the earth in its revolution\nround the sun. They depend on the different distances of the earth\nfrom the sun in its annual revolution, the position of the lunar nodes,\nand various other causes, and not on the annual revolution itself,\na motion which, of all others, might be expected to cause greater\nirregularities in her revolution round the earth than could be produced\non that of the latter by the planetary attractions. Who can form an\nadequate conception of that influence of the earth which thus draws the\nmoon with it round the sun, precisely in the same manner as if it were\na part of the earth\u2019s surface, notwithstanding the intervening distance\nof about 240,000 miles; and, at the same time, leaves undisturbed the\nmoon\u2019s proper motion round the earth? And what beneficent purposes are\nsubserved by this harmony? In consequence of it, we have the periodical\nreturns of new and full moon; and the ebbing and flowing of the sea,\nwhich depend on the various lunar phases, with respect to the sun and\nearth, (as if demonstrable from each of these phases being continually\ncontemporaneous with the particular phenomenon of the tides,) always\nsucceed each other with a regularity necessarily equal to that of the\ncauses which produce them. Thus we see that God is continually present,\nsupporting all things by his energy, and that, while his working is\nmanifest, his ways are past finding out.\u201d\n\nThomson, in his descriptive, philosophical, moral, and religious poem,\nadmirably well delineates the revolving seasons.\n\n    \u201cThese, as they change, ALMIGHTY FATHER, these\n    Are but the _varied_ God. The rolling year\n    Is full of thee. Forth in the pleasing spring\n    THY beauty walks. THY tenderness and love\n    Wide flush the fields; the softening air is balm;\n    Echo the mountains round; the forest smiles;\n    And every sense, and every heart is joy.\n    Then comes THY glory in the summer-months,\n    With light and heat refulgent. Then THY sun\n    Shoots full perfection through the swelling year:\n    And oft THY voice in dreadful thunder speaks;\n    And oft at dawn, deep noon, or falling eve,\n    By brooks and groves, in hollow-whispering gales.\n    THY bounty shines in Autumn unconfin\u2019d,\n    And spreads a common feast for all that lives.\n    In Winter awful THOU! with clouds and storms\n    Around THEE thrown, tempest o\u2019er tempest roll\u2019d.\n    Majestic darkness! on the whirlwind\u2019s wing,\n    Riding sublime, THOU bidst the world adore,\n    And humblest nature with THY northern blast.\n    Mysterious round! what skill, what force divine,\n    Deep felt, in these appear! a simple train,\n    Yet so delightful mix\u2019d, with such kind art,\n    Such beauty and beneficence combin\u2019d;\n    Shade, unperceiv\u2019d, so softening into shade;\n    And all so forming an harmonious whole;\n    That, as they still succeed, they ravish still.\u201d\n\nHe who governs the whole frame of nature, and directs and regulates\nthese successive changes, must possess almighty _power_, without\nwhich, he would be infinitely inadequate to the task. He who made the\ncelestial orbs of such a prodigious bulk, and whirls them round with\nan almost incredible swiftness, causing the regular return of day and\nnight, summer and winter, what can he not do? None among the mighty\nhost of heaven, or among the inhabitants of the earth, can resist his\npower, or stay his arm when lifted up. He who created all things out\nof nothing, could, if he pleased, extinguish the lights of heaven,\nand shake the solid earth to atoms. How easily, then, can he stop our\nbreath, break the slender thread of life, dissolve our feeble frame, or\nhurl guilty and impenitent sinners into the pit of destruction! He who\nbrought darkness for the space of three days upon the Egyptians, and a\ndreadful tempest of forty days and forty nights upon the inhabitants\nof the old world, can make the days of the ungodly darkness, and their\nnights full of horror. He can strike them with \u201cthe arrow that flieth\nby day,\u201d his swift pointed lightning; or with the pestilential vapors\nof the night, which \u201cwalk in darkness,\u201d and give the deadly stroke\nunseen.\n\n    \u201cLord, when my thoughtful soul surveys\n    Fire, air, and earth, and stars and seas,\n      I call them all thy slaves;\n    Commissioned by my father\u2019s will,\n    Poison shall cure, or balm shall kill;\n    Vernal suns or zephyr\u2019s breath,\n    May burn or blast the plants to death,\n      That sharp _December saves_.\n\n    What can winds or planets boast\n      But a precarious power?\n    The sun is all in darkness lost,\n    Frost shall be fire, and fire be frost,\n    When he appoints the hour.\u201d\n\nShall not, then, such a frail creature as man, think and speak of this\nomnipotent Being with the greatest reverence and profound humility?\nOh God, fill the minds of all men with just and enlarged views of thy\nmajesty and greatness! for thou killest, and thou makest alive; thou\nwoundest, and thou healest: neither is there any that can deliver out\nof thy hand.\n\nDivine _wisdom_ also shines forth in the regular and uninterrupted\nsuccession of the seasons. \u201cThe Lord by wisdom hath founded the earth,\nand by understanding established the heavens.\u201d Not only the different\nmagnitudes of the heavenly orbs, but their particular distances, and\nthe harmonious laws by which they move, do loudly proclaim, that he\nwho formed, ranges, and actuates them all, must be infinitely wise.\nWithout looking into boundless space, where shine many thousand globes\nof light, or fixed stars, supposed to be suns like our own, and to\nhave planets revolving round them, we may discover luminous displays\nof Divine wisdom in our own system, in the constant succession of the\nseasons, that may justly excite our wonder and adoration. How wise\nmust he be who has so exactly proportioned the different magnitudes\nof the earth and the sun, and placed them at a proper distance from\neach other! Is not equal wisdom discovered in that equable, steady,\nswift, and complicate motion of the earth, by which the delightful\nand necessary succession of the seasons return? It is the wisdom of\nGod that at first arranged the motion of the celestial bodies, and\nthat preserves them in their rapid and yet regular progressions and\nrotations, with so much order and harmony. \u201cHow manifold, oh Lord, are\nthy works! in wisdom hast thou made them all. Thy understanding is\ninfinite, for thou tellest the number of the stars, and callest them\nall by their names.\u201d\n\nThe _goodness_ of God to the inhabitants of the earth, is also\ndisplayed in the revolving seasons. When the almighty Creator took\na survey of all the works his hands had made, he saw that they were\ngood; not only conformable to eternal reason, but proper to answer the\nend for which he designed them. And this goodness manifested in the\nformation of the world, is not more clearly discovered in any thing\nthan in the return of day and night, heat and cold, summer and winter.\nWe are pleased with the light in the morning, but it is after we have\nrested well in the night: when a few hours are spent, we grow weary\nof the light, and wish for the return of the silence and darkness of\nthe nocturnal season. After a long cold winter, we joyfully welcome\nthe approach of summer; but when scorched a few months with its heat,\nand ready to faint, the return of winter is not so unpleasant to us\nas it appeared more early in the spring. But whatever effect these\nsuccessions may have upon us, it is certain they are very beneficial.\nThe light of the day is advantageous for managing the toils and\nbusiness of life; and the coolness and stillness of the night are\nas suitable for rest and sleep. The summer\u2019s heat is necessary for\nripening the fruits of the earth, and hastening the harvest: but the\nwinter\u2019s cold and hoary frost are subservient to prepare the earth for\nthe seed, and render it fertile. Nay, this dreary season is serviceable\nboth to man and beast; it tends to remove distempers contracted in the\nsummer\u2019s unwholesome air, and gives a new spring and vigor to nature.\nHow great, then, is the Divine goodness in preserving the constant and\nregular revolution of these seasons, so pleasant and beneficial to\nmankind! \u201cOh that men would praise the Lord for his goodness, and for\nhis wonderful works to the children of men.\u201d\n\nWe cannot but perceive the _faithfulness_ of God in continuing these\nseasons, according to his promise, to this period. We still see day\nsucceeding day, and year succeeding year: this covenant made with\nmankind is inviolably kept. The husbandman cultivates his land,\nploughs up the furrows, casts in the seeds, in hope of the ensuing\nharvest, when he expects that his expense, labor, and patience, will\nbe recompensed with a rich and large increase. But should God, in\nanger, open the bottles of heaven, pour down the rain in torrents,\ncause swelling floods to arise, and, rolling with alarming impetuosity\nforward, to sweep away at once the fruit of all his toil, how great\nmust be his grief and astonishment! Such were the consternation and\nconfusion that seized mankind at the time of the flood. The husbandman\nhad tilled his land, thrown his seed into the ground; he saw it with\npleasure springing up, and promised himself a plentiful harvest: when\nquickly, all the flood-gates of heaven were opened, all the fountains\nof the great deep were broken up, and a rapid current overflowed the\nspringing corn, swept away numerous flocks of cattle, overthrew the\nhabitations of the people, and drowned man and beast to the very\ntops of the mountains! But in this general ruin, Noah found favor\nwith God, and he and his family were preserved in the Ark. When the\nwaters had abated, and the earth became dry, this pious patriarch,\nbeing much affected with the awful judgment inflicted upon mankind,\nespecially with the distinguishing mercies conferred upon himself\nand family, offered sacrifice, in testimony of his gratitude, to his\ngreat Deliverer, who was well-pleased with it. And on this, he made a\ncovenant with him, and with all his posterity, in which he promises\nthat he will not again curse the ground for man\u2019s sake, nor any more\nsmite every living thing, but that, \u201cwhile the earth remaineth,\u201d\nthe successive seasons of the year shall be continued. The awful\ndisobedience of the inhabitants of the old world rendered it necessary\nto inflict so dreadful a judgment; but as soon as it had subsided, God\npromised never to punish mankind again so universally. And, in token of\nhis faithfulness, he set the rainbow in the cloud, to be a sign of his\ncovenant, which has not been broken, but faithfully kept even to this\nday. However the Almighty may contend in anger with particular nations\nor provinces, he will no more do so with mankind in general.\n\nHow happy is the situation of our native isle! There are few countries,\nif any, that exceed it. The climate is temperate; neither days nor\nnights are ever of immoderate length; the summer and winter are neither\nextremely hot, nor excessively cold; the seed-time and harvest are\ngenerally favorable, and the produce of the land is plenteous. The\ninhabitants of some countries endure a long and severe winter, seeing\nnot the sun for many weeks: nay, there are some places where it rises\nnot for several months; but these parts are not inhabited in the winter\nseason. In other countries, the inhabitants are scorched with the rays\nof a vertical sun, and wish in vain for the cooling winter\u2019s snow.\nSome know not what is meant by the heat of summer, and others are as\nignorant of the cold of winter. Some see the sun, but comparatively\nfeel not his warming influence; while others are penetrated with his\nburning rays all the year. But the people of this country have moderate\nsummer, heat sufficient for ripening the most useful fruits, and winter\nthat may be well endured. The days are not so hot in the summer, but\nthe nights are sufficiently cool for allaying the heat; and they are\nlong enough in winter for managing the business that is requisite to\nbe done. Some warmer climates produce more delicious fruits: but no\ncountry under the canopy of the heavens does more abound with all the\nsubstantial supports of life; not only equal to our own consumption,\nbut frequently to enable us to assist our neighbors. Happy are the\npeople that are in such a case: yea, thrice happy are they whose God is\nJehovah. All his works praise him: may we join the grand chorus, and\nbless his holy name. Surely, if the works of creation were attentively\nviewed, and seriously considered, they would not only be truly admired,\nbut their glorious Author would be sincerely regarded, diligently\nworshipped, and practically obeyed.\n\nThe following table has been ascribed to the illustrious astronomer,\nDr. Herschell. It is constructed upon a philosophical consideration\nof the attraction of the sun and moon in their several positions\nrespecting the earth, and confirmed by the experience of many years:\nactual observation will, without trouble, suggest to the observer what\nkind of weather will most probably follow the moon\u2019s entrance into any\nof her quarters; and that so near the truth, that in very few instances\nwill it be found to fail.\n\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |   _New or Full Moon._    |     _Summer._      |      _Winter._     |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |If it be new or full moon,|    Very rainy.     |   Snow and rain.   |\n  |or the moon enters into   |                    |                    |\n  |the first or last quarters|                    |                    |\n  |at the hour of 12         |                    |                    |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  | Between hours of 2 and 4 |    Changeable.     |   Fair and mild.   |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |                  4  -  6 |       Fair.        |        Fair.       |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |                  6  -  8 | Fair, if wind N.W. |  Fair and frosty,  |\n  |                          |Rainy, if S. or S.W.|   if N. or N.E.    |\n  |                          |                    |Rainy, if S. or S.W.|\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |                  8  - 10 |       Ditto.       |       Ditto.       |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |          10 and Midnight |       Fair.        |  Fair and frosty.  |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |           Midnight and 2 |       Ditto.       | Hard frost, unless |\n  |                          |                    |   wind S. or S.W.  |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |                  2  -  4 |     Cold, with     |  Snow and Stormy.  |\n  |                          |  frequent showers. |                    |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |                  4  -  6 |        Rain.       |       Ditto.       |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |                  6  -  8 |   Wind and rain.   |       Stormy.      |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |                  8  - 10 |     Changeable.    |  Cold, rain if W.  |\n  |                          |                    |     snow if E.     |\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n  |              10 and Noon |  Frequent showers. |Cold with high wind.|\n  +--------------------------+--------------------+--------------------+\n\nHence, the nearer the time of the moon\u2019s entrance, at full and change,\nor quarters, is to midnight (that is, within two hours before or after\nmidnight), the more fair weather is in summer, but the nearer to\nnoon the less fair. Also, the moon\u2019s entrance, at full, change, and\nquarters, during six of the afternoon hours, viz. from four to ten,\nmay be followed by fair weather; but this is mostly dependant on the\nwind. The same entrance, during all the hours after midnight except the\ntwo first, is unfavorable to fair weather; the like, nearly, may be\nobserved in winter.[127]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nIt is an easy and excellent method of conveying instruction, and\nimpressing it upon the heart, to take occasion from natural objects to\nraise the mind to things spiritual and divine. The day and night, and\ntheir alternate changes, may suggest such thoughts as the following, to\na serious mind engaged in meditation.\n\nWhat a glorious creature is light! How beneficial to this world! How\nuseful, nay, how necessary for managing those employments which could\nnot be done in the night! How unwise, then, is he who postpones the\nnecessary business of the day till night overtake him?--So beneficial,\nso requisite, is the light of life in the important work of human\nsalvation. Does God allow men a day, a gracious season, and the light\nof his word, for the good of their souls? Of what extreme folly shall\nthey be guilty, if they neglect the necessary business till the night\nof death come, and they drop into the grave, where there is neither\nwork, nor wisdom, nor device! Now is the day of grace, and God is\nfavoring them with the light of reason and revelation. May he give\nthem wisdom to improve these advantages, to his glory, and their own\nhappiness! They know not how soon their sun may set, and the night of\ndeath come upon them. If it should be before their everlasting interest\nis secured, they will be lost for ever. Oh Lord, teach us so to number\nour days, that we may apply our hearts to wisdom!\n\nNight comes on apace; I must soon undress, and lie down to sleep. And\nit cannot be long before I must put off this body, lie down in the\ngrave and sleep in the dust. What shall I do that my soul may not be\nfound naked, but be clothed and adorned with the glorious robes of\nrighteousness? Jesus, to whom shall I go but to thee, for thou hast\nthe words of eternal life!--How awful, and full of horror, is this\napproaching darkness! If the imperfection of man did not require the\nrest of sleep, surely it would be a pleasant thing always to dwell in\nthe light. Will it not then, be unspeakably delightful to abide in the\nlight of God\u2019s countenance, to see the Divine Majesty with a strong and\nopen eye? and to behold his unutterable glories without any fear of\nbeing deprived of the beatific vision, or of returning night? But oh!\nhow dismal must that place of darkness be where the light never shines!\nwhere the miserable inhabitants never see one beam of Divine light,\none ray from God\u2019s reconciled face! where the grossest darkness reigns\nfor ever, without the least hope of returning day! and where nothing\nremains for them, but a black, a horrible, an eternal night!\n\n    \u201cIs light so grateful to the human sense?\n    Created light? a faint, refracted ray?\n    One, distant sun? the shadow, but, of God!\n    Dark adumbration of the DEITY?\n    Oh! what is heav\u2019n! that day of endless light?\n    Where saints shall from th\u2019 essential fountain drink\n    Of radiance! in God\u2019s full, paternal shine?\n    Ah! what is Hell? of ever-absent day,\n    A night all hopeless!--and all endless too!\u201d\n\nThe successive changes of day and night may suggest what is frequently\nthe condition of good people in this world. Their day of prosperity\nis sometimes followed with a night of adversity; and then, when\nsorrow and weeping have endured for a night, light and joy spring up\nin the morning.--Is the light of the day pleasing? rejoice in it with\ntrembling, for the night is advancing. Is the darkness of the night\nsolemn and awful? rejoice in hope that the day is approaching. Hence\nbe instructed, oh my soul, in the concerns of thy eternal welfare. Are\nprosperity, health, and relatives, agreeable? rejoice in them as one\nthat rejoices not: these must have an end; and adversity, sickness, and\ndeath, will come. Are losses, affliction, and pain, not joyous, but\ngrievous? mourn as one that weeps not: ease, health, and gladness, are\nin prospect, and will continue for ever. And how happy and glorious\nwill that world be, where light and joy shall never cease! But how\ndreadful is that abode where darkness, despair, and anguish shall never\nend!\n\nThe succession of cold and heat, winter and summer, will always suggest\npious and useful reflections in retirement. How pleasing it is to see\nthe sun return, and to feel his cheering rays, after a long, cold,\nand tempestuous winter! So it is delightful to the humble penitent\nsinner, after a long season of darkness and sorrow, when the Sun of\nRighteousness arises with his reviving influences, and God lifts upon\nhim the smiles of his reconciled countenance. All misery, and clouds of\ndoubt and fear, are then dispersed, and heavenly light breaks into the\nsoul, and fills it with gladness. And does the want of the light of God\ncause the serious Christian to mourn and weep, and taste no sweetness\nin any of the comforts of life? How extremely miserable, then, must a\nperson be, who is driven to an everlasting distance from the presence\nof God, and from the glorious Sun of Righteousness; only to see his\nglory very remote, but never to feel the reviving beams of his love;\nand to be punished in hell, far \u201cfrom the presence of the Lord, and the\nglory of his power.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ IV.--THE PLANETS AND FIXED STARS.\n\n    Mercury -- Venus -- The Earth -- Mars -- Ceres -- Pallas --\n    Juno -- Vesta -- Jupiter -- Saturn -- Georgium Sidus -- Comets\n    -- Fixed Stars -- Religious Improvement.\n\nMoses, after stating that God created the sun and the moon, says, \u201che\nmade the stars also.\u201d A learned author explains it, \u201che made the lesser\nlight, with the stars, to rule the night.\u201d It is very probable that the\nwhole _solar system_ was created in six days: but as the design of the\nsacred historian was to relate what especially belongs to our globe and\nits inhabitants, he therefore passes by the planetary system, leaving\nit simply included in the plural word, \u05e9\u05de\u05d9\u05dd _shamayim_, _heavens_. In\na work of this nature, it is proper to take a concise view of all the\nplanets, their number, distances, magnitudes, revolutions, &c.\n\n_Wandering Stars_, says Baseley, is one of the many appellations by\nwhich our solar system has been sometimes designated. And the figure\nit makes in the heavens is not unaptly expressed by the phraseology.\nFor we distinguish the planets from the fixed stars by the lustre\nof the former, which is only from that side which faces the sun,\nand by their motion, which is seldom, and then but apparently,\ninterrupted. Their brightness seems more uniform, has the cast of\nreflected rather than direct illumination, and is altogether free from\nscintillation or twinkling. Their connection with the globe we inhabit\nis more perceptible, and their relative situation to one another\nless stationary. Their distance from us is not so remote, and more\nsusceptible of calculation. The latter occupy a certain region situated\nin our neighborhood between us and the former.\n\nThe planets are opake bodies, and nearly spherical. Being opake in\nthemselves, they become visible only by reflecting the light, which\nthey receive from the sun. The laws by which they are governed were\ndiscovered by Kepler, who demonstrated that they must necessarily\nrevolve in elliptical, and not in circular orbits. Astronomers have\ndivided them into classes: the _primary_ planets are Mercury, Venus,\nthe Earth, Mars, Ceres, Pallas, Juno, Vesta, Jupiter, Saturn, and the\nGeorgium Sidus; and the second class includes the satellites which\nbelong to some of the primary planets, such as the Moon, the attendant\non the Earth, the four moons or satellites that revolve about Jupiter,\nthe seven that attend Saturn, and the six that wait on the Georgium\nSidus.\n\n_Mercury_ is the smallest of the seven primary planets, and nearest\nto the sun; he appears as a small star, and emits a very vivid\nwhite light. He was called by the Greeks \u03a3\u03c4\u03b9\u03bb\u03b2\u03c9\u03bd, plainly alluding\nto his brightness. Costard observes, \u201c\u05d1\u05e8\u05e7 \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8 _Bark-oor_, \u05d1\u05e8\u05e7 \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9\n_Bark-oori_, or, changing the letter \u05d1 into \u05de as letters of the same\norgan frequently are, \u05de\u05e8\u05e7 \u05d0\u05d5\u05e8\u05d9 _Mark-oori_, we have in another dialect,\nwith a Latin termination _us_, another name of this planet, Mercurius;\nand from whence comes _Mercury_, as he is called by us.\u201d This planet\nnever goes to a greater distance from the sun than about 27\u00b0 50\u02b9; so\nthat he appears only a little after sunset, and again a little before\nsunrise; he is never longer in setting after the sun than an hour and\nfifty minutes nor does he ever rise more than an hour and fifty minutes\nbefore that luminary: he is then about as far as the moon appears to\nbe from the sun on the second day after the change. His mean distance\nfrom the sun says Dr. O. Gregory, is to that of the earth from the sun\nas 387 to 1,000: hence his distance is about thirty-seven millions of\nmiles. To an inhabitant of Mercury, the sun appears almost three times\nbroader than we see him from the earth; because the planet is almost\nthree times nearer to the sun than the earth. Whence also the solar\ndisk, seen from Mercury, is seven times greater than the disk as it\nappears to us, and Mercury has seven times more light than the earth.\n\n                  \u201c---- Mercury the first,\n    Near bordering on the day, with speedy wheel\n    Flies swifter on, inflaming where he comes\n    With seven-fold splendor.\u201d\n\nThe diameter of this planet is more than one-third of the diameter\nof the earth, or 3,180 miles. Hence his surface is about 1/7th; and\nhis magnitude 1/16th of that of the earth. His period of revolution\nround the sun is 87 days, 23 hours, 14 minutes, 33 seconds, which is\nhis year, and falls short of three of our months: hence he moves in\nhis orbit round the sun at the rate of more than 95,000 miles in an\nhour. According to some astronomers, it has not been ascertained by\nobservation, whether Mercury turns upon his own axis, and therefore it\ncannot be certainly affirmed that he has the vicissitude of day and\nnight, neither the return of summer and winter: because they depend\nupon the inclination of the axis of his rotation, which is unknown,\nto the plane of the orbit which he describes about the sun; though\nthere is very little doubt entertained on the subject. But Schro\u00ebter\naffirms that he \u201chas distinguished spots and mountains, which he\nhas assiduously followed, till he has arrived at the subsequent\nconclusions: that the apparent diameter of the planet is about 6\u02ba;\nthat it does not present any sensible ellipticity; that the mountains\nit contains are proportionably larger than those of Venus and the\nEarth; that the highest are, as in these two bodies, in the southern\nhemisphere; that the angle which the equator makes with its orbit is\nvery considerable; that the difference of days and seasons ought to be\nmuch greater in Mercury than it is on the earth; that its atmosphere,\nlike that of Venus, is very dense; and lastly, that its rotation about\nits axis is 24 hours, 5 minutes, 30 seconds.\u201d When examined by means\nof a telescope magnifying about 200 or 300 times, he appears equally\nluminous throughout his whole surface, without the least dark spot. He\nexhibits the same difference of phases with the moon, being alternately\nhorned, gibbous, and shining almost with a round face, though not\nentirely full because his enlightened side is never turned directly\ntoward us; but at all times perfectly well defined without any ragged\nedge, and completely bright; and, like the moon, the crescent is always\nturned toward the sun. Mercury has no inferior planet known to us, and\nif that be actually the case, a spectator on his body will want the\nargument taken from the horned phases of the planets, to establish\nthe true system of the world. But though we do not see any planets\ninferior to Mercury, it does by no means follow that there are none:\nfor we seldom see Mercury himself, he being buried in the rays of the\nsun; and a planet much nearer the sun could never be seen from the\nearth. The first observation that was ever made of a transit, was by\nGassendi, who saw Mercury on the sun, A.M. November 7, 1631. Since his\ntime there have occurred seventeen other transits of this planet, the\nlast of which was at his ascending node on the 9th of November, 1802.\nThe ascending and descending nodes are in the 16\u00b0 of Taurus, and 16\u00b0\nof Scorpio. Other transits are expected in the years 1822, 1832, 1835,\n1845, and 1848.\n\n_Venus_, the second planet from the sun in the order of the system,\nis the most beautiful star in the heavens, being easily distinguished\nby her brightness and whiteness, which exceeds that of all the other\nplanets, and is so considerable, that in a dusky night she projects\na sensible shadow. Concerning her name, Costard remarks, \u201cFrom the\nChaldee \u05d4\u05df _Han_, or _Hen_, which signifies _gratia_, _decor_,\n_elegantia_, with the \u00c6olic digamma \u03dc, comes _Fen_, or _Ven_, and\nwith the additional termination _us, Venus_; the name by which this\nplanet was known among the Romans, and by which, from them, it has\nbeen transmitted to us.\u201d The mean distance of Venus from the sun is\nabout 69,000,000 miles; her diameter is 7,630 miles; she performs\nher revolution round the sun in 224 days, 16 hours, 41 minutes, 27\nseconds; her diurnal motion on her axis, according to some observations\naccurately made by Schro\u00ebter, is performed in 23 hours, 21 minutes; and\nshe moves at the rate of 81,398 miles an hour.\n\nThis planet constantly attends the sun, and never departs from him more\nthan forty-seven degrees, and consequently is never seen at midnight,\nnor in opposition to that luminary; being visible only for three or\nfour hours in a morning or evening, according as she is before or\nafter the sun. Venus is a _morning star_ when she appears westward\nof the sun, for she then rises before him, and is among poets called\nPhosphorus or Lucifer--\n\n                  \u201c----Fair morning star,\n    That leads on dawning day to yonder world,\n    The _seat of man_.\u201d\n\nbut when eastward of the sun, she is an _evening star_, shining after\nhe is set, and then the poets give her the name Hesperus or Vesper.\n\n              \u201c---- Her lovely beams adorn\n    As well the dewy eve, as opening morn.\u201d\n\nShe is in each situation, alternately, between nine and ten months,\nor about 290 days. Pythagoras is said to have first discovered that\nHesperus and Phosphorus were one and the same star. \u201cFrom the name\nPhosphorus,\u201d says Costard, \u201cit seems as if this is the same star that\nin Isaiah is called \u05d4\u05d9\u05dc\u05dc \u05d1\u05df \u05e9\u05d4\u05e8 _Helal-ben-shahar_, or _Helal, son of\nthe morning_; a name given it on account of its remarkable brightness.\nIf so, that is the oldest record of a planet that occurs in any author\nwhatever now extant: this was about the year before Christ 710.\u201d\n\nVenus is frequently seen in the day-time, when in the inferior part of\nher orbit, at about forty degrees distant from the sun.\n\n    \u201cNo stars besides their radiance can display\n    In Ph\u0153bus\u2019 presence the dread Lord of day;\n    Ev\u2019n Cynthia\u2019s self, though regent of the night,\n    Is quite obscur\u2019d by his emergent light;\n    But VENUS only, as if more divine,\n    With Ph\u0153bus dares in partnership to shine.\u201d\n\nTo quiet the minds of some superstitious people, greatly alarmed at\nthe appearance of Venus in the day-time, Dr. Halley wrote a small\npiece, published in the Philosophical Transactions (No. 349) to show\nthat this was nothing extraordinary, and might be expected every eight\nyears. Venus, when viewed through a good telescope, is rarely seen to\nshine with a full face, but has phases just like those of the moon,\nbeing now gibbous, now horned, &c, and her illuminated part constantly\nturned towards the sun, looking toward the east when a morning star,\nand toward the west when an evening star. M. de la Hire, in 1700,\nthrough a telescope of sixteen feet, discovered mountains in Venus,\nwhich he found to be larger than those in the moon. These observations\nhave recently been confirmed by M. Schro\u00ebter, who, in the year 1780,\ncommenced a course of observations on this planet, the results of which\nwere published in the Philosophical Transactions for 1792.\n\nVenus, as well as Mercury, is sometimes seen to transit the sun\u2019s\ndisk, in form of a dark round spot; but these transits seldom happen.\nThe first that was ever observed, was seen by our countryman Jeremiah\nHorrox, at Hool, an obscure village fifteen miles north of Liverpool:\nhis account of which was published by Hevelius at Dantzic in 1661,\nunder the title, \u201cVenus in sole visa, anno 1631, November 24.\u201d Mr.\nHorrox\u2019s friend, William Crabtree, according to his direction, saw\nthis transit at the same time, at Manchester. Two have occurred in the\nlast century, namely, one June 6th, 1761, seen by many astronomers,\nwhich excited particular attention by a dissertation published by\nDr. Halley in the Philosophical Transactions (No. 348) in which he\nproposed finding, from that transit, the sun\u2019s parallax, and thence the\ndistance of the earth from the sun: and the other, June 3d, 1769, at\n10^{h}. 10\u02b9, according to M. de la Lande, and consequently invisible\nat Paris and London; but by comparing together two observations made,\none at Mexico, and the other to the north of Petersburgh, we perceive\nthe sun\u2019s parallax, was determined with great precision. The transits\nof Venus, occurring between the years 1631 and 2110, according to the\ncalculations of persons most eminent in astronomical science, are as\nfollow:\n\n    1631      December  6\n    1639      December  4\n    1761      June      5\n    1769      June      3\n    1874      December  8\n    1882      December  6\n    2004      June      7\n    2109      December 10\n\nThe _Earth_ is the next planet in order; called by the Greeks \u0393\u03b7, and\nby the poets \u0393\u03b1\u03b9\u03b1, from \u03b3\u03b1\u03c9 to _generate_, _produce_, which, says\nParkhurst, is from the Hebrew, \u05d2\u05d0\u05d4 _to grow_ as a plant, because it\nproduces, or is the mother of all terrestrial things; or in the poetic\nlanguage of the Orphic hymn to the earth,\n\n        \u201c---- Brings forth her various fruits,\n    With throes maternal.\u201d\n\nThe word used by Moses is \u05d4\u05d0\u05e8\u05e5 _haarets_, translated _earth_, whence\nin the Anglo-Saxon, _eard_ and _eord_; Danish _jord_, _jorden_; Dutch\n_erd_ and _aerd_; and Teutonic _erd_, _erde_.\n\nThe distance of the earth from the sun is about 95,000,000 miles:\nher orbit round the sun is 597,000,000 miles, and she performs her\nrevolution round the sun, from any equinox or solstice to the same\npoint again, in 365 days, 5 hours, 49 minutes, 57 seconds; of course,\nher hourly motion in her orbit is 68,000 miles. Her diameter is 7,964\nmiles, her circumference is 25,000 miles, and the time of rotation upon\nher axis, from west to east, is 23 hours, 56 minutes, 4 seconds: by\nwhich the inhabitants upon the equator are carried after the rate of\n1,042 miles an hour, and those upon the parallel of London, 580 miles,\nas we have already noticed. The annual and diurnal motion of the earth\nis thus described by Milton:\n\n    \u201cShe from the West her silent course advances\n    With inoffensive pace, that spinning sleeps\n    On her soft axle, while she paces even,\n    And bears us soft with the smooth air along.\u201d\n\nFrom this circumstance arises the _apparent_ diurnal revolution of all\nthe heavenly bodies from east to west.\n\n\u201cThe motion of the earth,\u201d says an intelligent writer, \u201chas so long\nceased to be a disputed question, that the arguments on each side are\nnearly forgotten; and those who do not scruple to adopt the hypothesis\nof the earth\u2019s motions, are often less acquainted with the arguments\non which it is supported, than they would have been in former times,\nwhen their opinions must have been the subjects of fierce contention.\u201d\nLa Place observes, \u201cthat if the earth be at rest, and the stars move,\nthe velocity of these latter must be immense; and yet all the purposes\nthereof might have been answered by a moderate motion of the earth\nalone. The moon\u2019s distance from the earth is 240,000 miles; of course,\nthe length of the tract which it traverses, if it moves round the\nearth in 24 hours, is about 1,500,000; that is, at the rate of 62,500\nmiles an hour, instead of 2,290 miles, which is really the case:\nconsequently, in each second of time, the moon, known to be the slowest\nof all the heavenly bodies, must move more than seventeen miles. Again,\nthe sun\u2019s mean distance from the earth is about 95,000,000 miles;\nconsequently, the diurnal path of that luminary, if it revolve about\nour globe in twenty-four hours, must be 580,000,000: and therefore, in\na single second, the beat of a clock, he must move nearly 7,000 miles.\nUpon the same principle; that is, supposing the earth to be the centre\nof the system, and not the sun, the planet Mars, in a second of time,\nmust travel at the rate of more than 10,000 miles, Jupiter 36,000, and\nSaturn 62,000. And, lastly, the fixed stars being yet indefinitely more\nremote from the earth than the sun or Saturn, their motion in or near\nthe equator must be vastly swifter than this. If the earth does not\nmove round the sun, the sun must move with the moon round the earth;\nnow; the distance of the sun to that of the moon is nearly 400 to 1,\nand the period of the moon being about twenty-eight days, the sun\u2019s\nperiod should be, by the law above mentioned, full 600 years, whereas,\nit is, in fact, but a single year. This consideration was, of itself,\nthought of weight enough to determine the controversy between the two\nopinions, and to establish the motion of the earth in its orbit for\never.\u201d\n\nThat the shape of the earth was an extended plane, and the visible\nhorizon its utmost bounds, was the opinion of the ancients. But that\nit is globular, a little raised at the equator, and flattened at the\npoles, being about thirty-seven miles shorter than at the equator, so\nas nearly to resemble an orange, is demonstrable on the most evident\nand unquestionable principles. 1. All the appearances of the heavens,\nboth at land and at sea, are the same as they would be if the earth\nwere a globe. Mariners first begin to lose sight of the lower parts of\nobjects, and then gradually of the higher parts; also, persons on shore\nfirst discover the masts before the hull of approaching vessels, and\non leaving a port the masts are seen when the hull is out of sight,\nwhich must be owing to the convexity of the water between the eye and\nthe object, otherwise the largest and most conspicuous parts would have\nbeen visible the longest.\n\n    \u201cBehold, when the glad ship shoots from the port\n    Upon full sail, the hulk first disappears,\n    And then the lower, then the higher sails;\n    At length the summit of the towering mast\n    Alone is seen; nor less, when from the ship\n    The longing sailor\u2019s eye in hope of shore:\n    For then, from the top-mast, though more remote\n    Than either deck, the shore is first beheld.\u201d[128]\n\n2. Navigators sailing round the globe, as Magellan, Drake, Lord Anson,\nCook, and others, have steered their course directly south and west\ntill they came to the Magellanic sea, and from thence to the north\nand west, till they returned to their port from the east; and all the\nphenomena which should naturally arise from the earth\u2019s rotundity,\nhappened to them. Beside, their method of sailing was also founded\nupon this hypothesis, which could not have succeeded so happily, if\nthe earth had been of any other figure. 3. In all lunar eclipses, the\nshadow of the earth falling upon the moon is always circular; and a\nbody can be no other than a globe, which in all situations casts a\ncircular shadow. It is true, the surface of the earth is not an exact\ngeometrical globe: but what the earth loses of its sphericity by\nits inequalities, as writers on this subject have remarked, is very\ninconsiderable: the highest mountains bearing so little proportion to\nits bulk, as scarcely to be equivalent to the minutest protuberance on\nthe surface of an orange, or a grain of dust to a common globe.\n\n    \u201cThese inequalities to us seem great;\n    But to an eye that comprehends the whole,\n    The tumor, which to us so monstrous seems,\n    Is as a grain of sparkling sand that clings\n    To the smooth surface of a sphere of glass;\n    Or as a fly upon the convex dome\n    Of a sublime, stupendous edifice.\u201d\n\nIt is not so easy as some imagine, says a German philosopher and\ndivine, to determine exactly the size of the earth. It is true, there\nis but one longitude; but there are two latitudes, the north and the\nsouth. Both of these begin at the equator; the one extends northward,\nthe other southward, as far as the arctic and antarctic poles. But, no\none has yet been able to reach either pole. The mountains of ice in\nGreenland and the Northern Sea, have always obstructed the passage to\nthe north pole: and immense fields, mountains, and islands of ice, have\nrendered the passage to the south pole impossible. Thanks, however, to\nthe geometricians, we can at present know very nearly the size of our\nglobe. According to the most exact calculations, the surface of the\nearth is 199,512,595 square miles. The seas and unknown parts of the\nearth, by a measurement of the best maps, contain 160,522,026 square\nmiles. The inhabited parts contain about 38,990,559 square miles,\nin the following proportion: Europe--4,456,065; Asia--10,768,823;\nAfrica--9,654,807; America--14,110,874: Hence it appears that scarcely\none-third of the globe is habitable. It has been calculated, that\nthere might be at least _three thousand millions_ of men upon the\nearth at once: but in reality there are no more than about a _thousand\nand eighty millions_: of which there are, in Asia--650 millions; in\nAfrica--150; in America--150; in Europe--130.\n\nThe path traversed by the earth, which, in astronomical language, is\ncalled its orbit, is the apparent path of the sun: it is called the\n_ecliptic_, because eclipses, both solar and lunar, always happen in\nthis circle--also _via solis_, or the sun\u2019s path, because the sun\nnever departs from it; and, therefore, at any time to denote the sun\u2019s\nplace in the heavens, astronomers have divided the whole circle of the\nearth\u2019s motion in 360 equal parts, which they term _degrees_, and every\nthirty of these a _sign_, of which there are twelve. In this circle\nthe sun advances nearly one degree every twenty-four hours, and thirty\ndegrees every month; thus passing through the whole 360 degrees in a\nyear. The signs are called by different names, and, with regard to\ntheir situations and corresponding seasons and months, they stand in\nthe following order:\n\n    _Northern Signs; so denominated as being north of the Equator._\n\n              {Aries \u2648, the Ram, part of March and April.\n    Spring.   {Taurus \u2649, the Bull, April and May.\n              {Gemini \u264a, the Twins, May and June.\n\n              {Cancer \u264b, the Crab, June and July.\n    Summer.   {Leo \u264c, the Lion, July and August.\n              {Virgo \u264d, the Virgin, August and September.\n\n    _Southern Signs; so called as being south of the Equator._\n\n              {Libra \u264e, the Balance, September and October.\n    Autumn.   {Scorpio \u264f, the Scorpion, October and November.\n              {Sagittarius \u2650, the Archer, November and December.\n\n\n              {Capricornus \u2651, the Goat, December and January.\n    Winter.   {Aquarius \u2652, the Water-bearer, January and February.\n              {Pisces \u2653, the Fishes, February and March.\n\nThe order of the signs is thus poetically described by Dr. Watts.\n\n    \u201cThe Ram, the Bull, the heavenly Twins,\n    And next the Crab the Lion shines,\n        The Virgin and the Scales:\n    The Scorpion, Archer, and Sea-goat,\n    The Man that holds the Water-pot,\n        And Fish with glittering tails.\u201d\n\nDr. Long observes, that \u2648 represents the horns of the ram; \u2649 the head\nand horns of the bull; \u264a the figure of gemini, the twins joining hands\nand feet; the character cancer \u264b represents the changes of the sun\u2019s\ndeclination from north to south, by two lines or figures drawn so as to\npoint two contrary ways; \u264c is the tail of the lion; \u264d was originally\nthe three ears of corn which Virgo held; \u264e is the beam of the balance;\n\u264f was at first the picture of the scorpion; \u2650 the arrow of the Archer;\n\u2651 represents capricorn, the goat-fish; \u2652 is a natural representation\nof the water\u2019s undulating surface; \u2653 is the picture of two fishes tied\ntogether back to back.\n\nThe figures of the twelve signs are supposed by Dr. Jennings, and other\nastronomers, to be Egyptian hieroglyphics, by which they designed to\nexhibit some remarkable natural occurrence in each month, as the sun\npassed through these signs. Thus the first three months, beginning\nfrom the vernal equinox, were remarkable for the production of those\nanimals which they most valued, namely, sheep, kine, and goats. The\nlambs came first, which are represented by their parent, the Ram; next\nthe calves, represented by the Bull; and the kids, which commonly come\nin pairs, and which, therefore, gave the name to Gemini, the third\nconstellation; which was not at first represented by Two Boys, but by\nTwo Beasts; as referring to the fruitfulness of goats, in producing\n_twin kids_ about the time when the sun was in that constellation.\nWhen, in the fourth month, the sun is arrived at the summer solstice,\nhe discontinues his progress towards the north pole, and begins to\ngo back again to the southward; this retrograde motion the Egyptians\nexpressed by the Crab, which is said to go backwards. The excessive\nheat that usually follows in the next month, is signified by the Lion;\nan animal remarkable for his strength and fierceness; or, as others\nobserve, when that animal, driven by thirst from the desert, made his\nappearance on the banks of the Nile. Nothing could be more proper\nthan the symbol for the harvest: namely, the Virgin reaper or gleaner\nwith an ear of corn in her hand. The seventh constellation, when the\nsun arrives at the autumnal equinox, is expressed by the Balance or\nScales, in equilibrio, because the days and nights, being then of the\nsame length, seemed to indicate an equilibrium like that instrument.\nOctober is often a sickly season, when the surfeits acquired in the\nhot months of the summer produce their fatal effects; the symbol is\ntherefore the Scorpion, who wounds with a sting in his tail, as he\nrecedes; or, according to others, when certain regular winds brought\nforth a burning vapor like the poison of the scorpion. The diversion\nof hunting, which is chiefly followed after the fall of the leaf, is\ndesignated by Sagittarius, or the archer. The Goat, which is an animal\nthat delights to browse up hill and to climb the highest rocks, is the\nemblem of the winter solstice, when the sun begins to ascend from the\nsouthern tropic, and is continually mounting higher and higher for the\nensuing half year. Aquarius, or the Water-bearer, fitly represents the\nrains, or snows, of the winter. And the Two Fishes in a band, had, it\nis imagined, reference to the prime fishing season, which began in\nFebruary.\n\nThe names given to our months originated as follows:\n\nThe name given to the month of _January_ by the Romans was taken\nfrom _Janus_, one of their divinities, to whom they gave two faces;\nbecause on the one side, the first day of this month looked towards\nthe new year, and on the other towards the old one. It was called\n_wolf-monat_ by our Saxon ancestors, on account of the danger they\nthen experienced from wolves. Some etymologists derive _February_ from\n_Februa_, an epithet given to Juno, as the goddess of purification;\nwhile others attribute the origin of the name to _Februa_, a feast\nheld by the Romans in this month, in behalf of the manes of the\ndeceased. The Saxons named February _sprout kele_, on account of the\nsprouts of the cole-wort which began to appear in this month. Among\nthe Romans, _March_, from Mars, was the first month, and marriages\nmade in this month were accounted unhappy. The Saxons called March\n_lent-monat_, or _length-moneth_, \u201cbecause the days did first begin,\nin length, to exceed the nights.\u201d--_April_ is derived from _Aprilis_,\nof _aperio_, I open; because the earth, in this month, begins to open\nher bosom for the production of vegetables. The Saxons called this\nmonth _oster-monat_, from the goddess Eoster, or because the winds\nwere found to blow generally from the east in this month.--_May_ is\nso called from _Maia_, the mother of Mercury, to whom sacrifices were\noffered by the Romans on the first of this month; or, according to\nsome, from respect to the senators and nobles of Rome, who were named\n_Majores_, as the following month was termed Junius, in honor of the\nyouth of Rome. The Saxons called May, _tri-milki_, because, in that\nmonth, they began to milk their kine three times in the day.--The\nSaxons called June _weyd-monat_, because their beasts did then _weyd_\nor feed in the meadows.--The word _July_ is derived from the Latin\n_Julius_, the surname of C. C\u00e6sar, the dictator, who was born in it.\nMark Antony first gave to this month the name of July, which was before\ncalled _Quintilis_, as being the fifth month in the year, in the old\nRoman calender established by Romulus. July was called by the Saxons,\n_hew-monat_, or _hey-monat_, because therein they usually mowed, and\nmade their hay-harvest.--_Sextilis_ was the ancient Roman name for\n_September_, it being the sixth month from March. The Emperor Augustus\nchanged this name, and gave it his own, because in this month C\u00e6sar\nAugustus took possession of his first consulship, celebrated three\ntriumphs, reduced Egypt under the power of the Roman people, and put\nan end to all civil wars. \u201cThe Saxons called August _arn-monat_ (more\nrightly _barn-monat_,) intending thereby the then filling of their\nbarnes with corne.\u201d _September_ is composed of _septem_, seven, and the\ntermination _ber_, like _lis_ in _Aprilis_, _Quintilis_, _Sextilis_.\nThis rule will also apply to the three following months, Octo-ber.\nNovem-ber, Decem-ber. Our Saxon ancestors called it _Gerst-monat_,\n\u201cfor that barley which that moneth commonly yielded was anciently\ncalled gerst.\u201d--_October_ was called _Domitianus_ in the time of\nDomitian: but, after his death, by the decree of the senate, it took\nthe name of October, every one hating the name and memory of so\ndetestable a tyrant. It was called _wyn-monat_, or wine month, by the\nSaxons--The Saxons called _November wint-monat_, or wind-month, on\naccount of the prevalence of high winds in this month.--_December_ was\ncalled _winter-monat_ by the Saxons; but, after they were converted\nto Christianity, it received the name of _heligh-monat_, or holy\nmonth.[129]\n\nThe names of our days are of Heathen origin. The seven planets were\nanciently looked on as presiding over the affairs of the world, and to\ntake it by turns each one hour at a time, according to the following\norder: Saturn first, then Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mercury, and\nlast of all, the Moon. Hence they denominated each day of the week\nfrom the planet whose turn it was to preside the first hour of the\nnychthemeron, a term compounded of \u03bd\u03c5\u03be, _night_, and \u1f21\u03bc\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1, _day_,\nwhich implies both night and day, and is divided into twenty-four\nparts, called _hours_. Thus, assigning the first hour of Saturday to\nSaturn, the second will fall to Jupiter, the third to Mars, and so the\ntwenty-second of the same nychthemeron will fall to Saturn again, and\ntherefore the twenty-third to Jupiter, and the last to Mars: so that\non the first hour of the next day, it will fall to the Sun to preside;\nand by the like manner of reckoning, the first hour of the next will\nfall to the Moon, of the next to Mars, of the next to Mercury, of the\nnext to Jupiter, and the next to Venus: hence the days of the week came\nto be distinguished by the Latin names of _Dies Saturni_, _Solis_,\n_Lun\u00e6_, _Martis_, _Mercurii_, _Jovis_, and _Veneris_. The ancient\nSaxons had a great many idols, seven of which were appropriated to the\nseven days of the week, because of some worship that was offered to\neach idol on its respective day. The northern nations substituted, for\nthe Roman Divinities, such of their own as most nearly resembled them\nin their peculiar attributes, and hence the derivation of the names\nnow in use. These were Seater, the Sun, the Moon, Tuisco, Woden, Thor,\nFriga: hence among us the names of Saturday, Sunday, Monday, Tuesday,\nWednesday, Thursday, and Friday. For, as Saturday, Sunday, and Monday,\nplainly denote the day of Saturn, the Sun, and the Moon; so Tuesday,\nWednesday, Thursday, and Friday, denote the day of Tuisco, Woden, Thor,\nand Friga, which are the Saxon names respectively answering to Mars,\nMercury, Jupiter, and Venus. Verstegan, in his \u201cRestitution of Decayed\nIntelligence,\u201d describes the Saxon deities who presided over each day\nof the week, and gives plates of the idols, pp. 74-85.\n\nHow amazing it is that this ponderous globe should be suspended in\nthe fluid air, without any visible support, and upheld only by the\nsovereign will of its almighty Creator! His power, who \u201changeth the\nearth upon nothing,\u201d is inconceivably great; and the revolutions of\nthis globe produce the most beneficial effects. The daily rotation of\nthe earth causes the uniform succession of light and darkness; and\nits annual motion occasions the difference of the length of the days\nand nights, and the beautiful diversity of the seasons. Many pious\nChristians, who read the Scriptures to great personal advantage,\nbut who are unacquainted with the science of astronomy, are apt to\ndoubt the truth of the astronomical principles concerning the shape\nand motion of the earth, because, as Dr. O. Gregory judiciously\nobserves, they think them contrary to divine revelation. Such persons\nwould do well to consider for what purpose the Holy Scriptures were\nwritten, whether as a measure of faith, or as a rule to regulate our\nphilosophical notions? Gassendus, though he does not give a direct\nanswer to the question, has made the following very pertinent\nobservations on the subject. \u201cThere are,\u201d says he, \u201ctwo sacred volumes,\nthe one written, called the Bible; the other Nature, or the World;\nGod having manifested himself by two lights, the one of revelation,\nand the other of demonstration; accordingly the interpreters of the\nformer are divines; of the latter mathematicians. As to matters of\nnatural knowledge, the mathematicians are to be consulted; and as to\nobjects of faith, the prophets; the former being no less interpreters,\nor apostles, from God to men than the latter. And as the mathematician\nwould be judged to wander out of his province, if he should pretend\nto controvert, or set aside any article of faith from principles of\ngeometry; so it must be granted, the divines are no less out of their\nlimits, when they venture to pronounce on a point of natural knowledge,\nbeyond the reach of any not versed in geometry and optics, merely\nfrom Holy Scripture, which does not pretend to teach any thing of the\nmatter.\u201d\n\n_Mars_ is the first of the four superior planets in order from the sun,\nhis orbit being immediately beyond that of the earth. He was called by\nthe Greeks \u0391\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2, the supposed god of war, which, says Parkhurst, comes\nfrom the Hebrew \u05e2\u05e8\u05d9\u05e5 _violent_, _destructive_. Costard remarks, \u201cThis\nplanet, I suppose, was called \u05e2\u05e8\u05e2 _Ara_, \u05e2\u05e8\u05e5 _Aretz_, \u0391\u03c1\u03b7\u03c2, and, in\nanother dialect, \u05de\u05e2\u05e8\u05e5 _Ma-aretz_, or _Mars_, in a softer pronunciation,\nfrom his _strong glowing brightness_.\u201d He is distinguished from the\nother planets by the red and fiery appearance, of his disk: whether his\nruddy troubled color arises from a natural disposition to reflect the\nred rays of light best, or from a thick atmosphere attending it, is\nrather uncertain; but it is generally attributed to the density of his\natmosphere.\n\n    \u201cIn larger circuit rolls the orb of Mars,\n    Guiltless of stern debate, and wasteful wars,\n    As some have erring taught: he journies on,\n    Impell\u2019d and nourish\u2019d by the attractive sun;\n    Like us, his seasons and his days he owes\n    To the vast bounty which from Ph\u0153bus flows.\u201d\n\nHis figure, like that of the earth, is an oblate spheroid. His mean\ndistance from the sun is 145,000,000 miles, and he travels round that\ncommon centre of gravity in about 687 of our days, or 1 year, 321 days,\n22 hours, 18 minutes, 27 seconds, which is nearly equal to two of\nour years; and therefore his velocity in his orbit is at the rate of\n55,000 miles an hour. He has likewise a rotation upon his axis, which\nis performed in 1 day, 39 minutes, 22 seconds. This was discovered\nby means of spots seen on his surface. Dr. Hook, in 1665, observed\nseveral spots, which, having a motion, he concluded that the planet\nrevolved upon its axis. In 1666, M. Cassini saw several spots in the\ntwo hemispheres of Mars, which, by continuing his observations very\ndiligently, he found to move from east to west, and to return in the\nspace of 24 hours, 40 minutes, to their former situation. Whence both\nthe motion and period, or natural day of this planet, were determined.\nIn 1781, Dr. Herschell observed the spots of Mars very minutely, from\nthe motion of which he has found his rotation upon his axis to be\nperformed in 24 hours, 39 minutes, 21-2/3 seconds; and he says that\nthere cannot be more than two seconds of uncertainty in this result.\nThe different seasons will take place on this planet very much like\nwhat they are known to do upon our earth, with this difference, that\nthe seasons there will be almost as long again as with us, on account\nof the time he takes in moving round the sun being nearly twice as long\nas our year. The diameter of Mars being 4,135 miles, he is about 2/11,\nor less than a fifth, and more than a sixth part as large as the earth;\nand if any moon attend him, she must be very small, for it has not yet\nbeen discovered by the best telescopes of our most eminent astronomers;\nif without a moon, walking his round in perpetual solitude, he must\nconsequently want that division of time, which, from the moon\u2019s\nrevolution round the earth, is called a month.\n\nFrom the greater distance of Mars in his orbit than our earth is,\nthe inhabitants there will scarcely see Mercury, unless it be when\nhe appears on the sun\u2019s face, and passes over him like a dark spot,\nin the same manner as he sometimes does to us. Venus will to them\nappear somewhat similar to the appearances of Mercury to our earth,\nthe apparent distance from the sun being nearly the same to them as\nMercury is to us. Our earth to them, also, will be an inferior planet,\nor within his orbit, being nearer to the sun, in a way similar to what\nVenus appears to us, and will alternately be a morning or evening star;\nand our moon, which will always be seen to accompany her, when in a\nposition to have the benefit of the sun\u2019s light, will not be seen at a\ngreater distance, than about a semi-diameter of the sun or moon from it.\n\nThis planet being half as far again from the sun as our earth is, his\nlight and heat are not half so much as our own. When in opposition\nto the sun, he is found to be five times nearer to us than when in\nconjunction; and, therefore, he appears so much bigger and brighter at\none time than another. In 1719, his apparent magnitude and brightness\nwere so much increased, that, by the uninformed, he was taken for a new\nstar.\n\nThe telescopic appearance of Mars is very variable. This planet\nexhibits larger and more remarkable spots than any of the others.\nThe belts and cloudy appearances are found to change their shape and\narrangement frequently. The predominant brightness of the polar regions\nleads to the supposition that those parts of his surface, like the\npoles of the earth, are intensely frozen, or always covered with snow;\nand Dr. Herschell imagines that the changes in brightness are connected\nwith the summer and winter seasons on that planet. The phases of Mars\nwere first discovered by Galileo. Having his light from the sun, and\nrevolving round it, he has an increase and decrease like the moon.\nAt his quadratures, he appears gibbous, but never horned, like Venus,\nMercury, and the Moon; which shows, that his orbit includes that of the\nearth, and that it is from the sun that he receives his light.\n\nBetween the orbit of Mars and that of Jupiter, the smaller planetary\nbodies, lately discovered, revolve. _Ceres_ was discovered on the 1st\nof January, 1801, by M. Piazzi, astronomer at Palermo, in the island\nof Sicily. When viewed through a good telescope, it is of a ruddy\ncolor, appears to be of the size of a star of the eighth magnitude,\nand surrounded with a dense atmosphere. Her mean distance from the sun\nis 260,000,000 miles; and her revolution is performed in 4 years, 7\nmonths, 10 days. Dr. Herschell and Schro\u00ebter differ very much as to\nthe magnitude of this planet; the former says the diameter is only 160\nmiles, but the latter makes it more than ten times greater, or 1,624\nmiles. _Pallas_ was discovered on the 28th of March, 1802, by Dr.\nOlbers, of Bremen. Its mean distance from the sun 270,000,000 miles;\nits diameter 80 miles; and it performs its revolution in about 4 years,\n280 days. _Juno_ was discovered on the 1st of September, 1804, by M.\nHarding, of Lilienthal. Its mean distance from the sun is 290,000,000\nmiles; and its diameter is 119 miles, and the time of revolution round\nthe sun 5 years, 181 days. _Vesta_ was discovered by Dr. Olbers, on\nthe 29th of March, 1807. It is nearer to Mars than either of the other\nnewly discovered planets; and the revolution through its orbit is\nperformed in less time. The size of this planet is not known. Its light\nis more intense, pure, and white, than any of the other three.\n\nA century and half ago it was conjectured, says a very intelligent\nauthor, that there must be a planet between the orbits of Jupiter\nand Mars, on account of the distance subsisting between those two\nplanets. The discovery of Ceres confirmed this happy conjecture; but\nthe opinion which it seemed to establish respecting the harmony of the\nsolar system, appeared to be completely overturned by the discovery\nof Pallas and Juno. Dr. Olbers, willing to find a theory that should\naccount for the facts newly ascertained, imagined that these small\ncelestial bodies were merely the fragments of a larger planet, which\nhad burst asunder by some internal convulsion, and that several more\nmight yet be discovered between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. He\ntherefore concluded, that though the orbits of all these fragments\nmight be differently inclined to the ecliptic, yet, as they must\nhave all diverged from the same point, they ought to have two common\npoints of re-union, or two nodes in opposite regions of the heavens,\nthrough which all the planetary fragments must sooner or later pass.\nOne of these nodes Dr. Olbers found to be in Virgo, and the other in\nthe Whale; and it was actually in the latter of these regions that M.\nHarding discovered the planet Juno. With the intention, therefore, of\ndetecting other fragments of the supposed planet, Dr. Olbers examined,\nthrice every year, all the little stars in the opposite constellation\nof the Virgin and the Whale, till his labors were crowned with success,\nby the discovery of a new planet in the constellation of Virgo, to\nwhich he gave the name of Vesta.\n\nThe existence of four planets between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter,\n(continues the same author,) revolving round the sun at nearly the\nsame distances, and differing from all the other planets in their\ndiminutive size, and in the form and position of their orbits, is\nacknowledged to be one of the most singular phenomena in the history of\nastronomy. The discordance of these phenomena with the regularity of\nthe planetary distances, and with the general harmony of the system,\nnaturally suggests the opinion, that the inequalities in this part\nof the system were produced by some great convulsion, and that the\nfour planets, as we have already hinted, are the fragments of a large\ncelestial body, which once existed between Mars and Jupiter. To suppose\nthem independent planets, as they must necessarily be if they did not\noriginally form one, their diminutive size, the great eccentricity\nand inclination of their orbits, and their numerous intersections,\nwhen projected on the plane of the ecliptic, are phenomena absolutely\ninexplicable on every principle of science, and subversive of that\nharmony and order which before the discovery of these bodies, seemed\nto pervade the planetary system. Admitting, however, the hypothesis\nthat these planetary bodies, are the remains of a larger body, which\ncirculated round the sun, nearly in the orbit of the greatest fragment,\nthe system resumes its order, and we discover a regular procession in\nthe distances of the planets, and a general harmony in the form and\nposition of their orbits. But, independently of analogical reasoning,\nthe elements of the new planets furnish several direct arguments, drawn\nfrom the eccentricity and inclination of their orbits, and from the\nposition of their perihelia and nodes; and all concurring to show, that\nthe four new planets have diverged from one point, and have, therefore,\nbeen originally combined in a larger body.\n\n_Jupiter_ is the largest of all the planetary bodies, and, next to\nVenus the brightest. He was called by the Greeks \u0396\u03b5\u03c5\u03c2, which is from\n\u03b6\u03b5\u03c9, _to be hot_, or, says Parkhurst, immediately from the Hebrew \u05d6\u05d9\n_to shine_, compounded, perhaps, with \u05d9\u05e9 _substance_, q.d. _the shining\nsubstance_; a name very justly given to this planet, on account of his\nstrong and clear light.\n\n                      ----\u201cIn distant skies\n    Revolves the mighty magnitude of Jove,\n    With kingly state, the rival of the sun.\u201d\n\nHis mean distance from the sun is 490,000,000 miles, and his diameter\nis 89,170 miles, or more than 11 times that of the earth, and therefore\nhis magnitude is 1,400 times greater than our earth; of course, as the\nsurface of a globe increases according to the square of its diameter,\nour earth will, to the inhabitants of Jupiter, appear 121 times less\nthan this noble planet appears to us. His revolution round the sun,\nfrom east to west, is performed in 11 years, 315 days, 14 hours, 39\nminutes, 2 seconds, which is nearly twelve of our years; and his motion\nin his orbit is 29,000 miles an hour. He performs his diurnal rotation\nupon his axis in 9 hours, 55 minutes, 33 seconds, by which motion his\nequatorial parts are carried round at the amazing rate of 26,000 miles\nan hour, which is about twenty-five times the velocity of the like\nparts of our earth. He has, of course, a rapid succession of days, as\nthe poet observes,\n\n    \u201cIn ample compass Jove conducts his sphere,\n    And later finishes his tedious year;\n    Yet swiftly on his axle turn\u2019d, regains\n    The frequent aid of day to warm his plains.\u201d\n\nThe axis of Jupiter is nearly perpendicular to his orbit, so that he\nhas no sensible change of seasons. This is not the work of chance, as\nDr. O. Gregory observes, but wisely ordered by the Divine Architect;\nfor if the axis of this planet were inclined any considerable number\nof degrees, so many degrees round each pole would be almost six years\ntogether in darkness. And as each degree of a great circle on this\nplanet contains more than 700 miles, it is natural to conceive, that\nvast tracts of land would be rendered uninhabitable by any considerable\ninclination of his axis.\n\nThe appearance of this planet, through a telescope, opens a vast\nfield for interesting inquiry. His surface is not equally bright, but\nvariegated with certain bands, or belts, of a dusky appearance: they\nrun parallel to each other, and are continued round the body of the\nplanet. They are not regular or constant in their appearance: sometimes\nonly one is seen; at other times six or eight. The breadth of them\nis likewise variable; one belt is sometimes becoming narrow, while\nanother, in its neighborhood, grows broader as if one had flowed into\nthe other: in these cases, an oblique belt has been observed to be\nbetween them, as if for the purpose of establishing a communication.\nSometimes, one or more spots are formed between the belts, which\nincrease till the whole is united in a large dusky belt. There are also\nbright spots to be discovered on Jupiter\u2019s surface; these are rather\nmore permanent than the belts, and re-appear after unequal intervals of\ntime. The remarkable spot, by whose motion the rotation of Jupiter upon\nhis own axis was first ascertained, disappeared in the year 1694, and\nwas not seen again till 1708, when it re-appeared exactly in the same\nplace, and has been occasionally seen ever since.\n\nJupiter is enlightened by four moons, or satellites, each of them\nlarger than that with which we are supplied, and which revolve at\ndifferent distances from that planet. In the solar system the moons,\nor satellites, revolve round their respective primary planets as\ncentres, in the same manner as the primary planets revolve round the\nsun. By means of Jupiter\u2019s satellites, a method has been obtained\nfor demonstrating that the motion of light is progressive, and not\ninstantaneous, as was formerly supposed; which discovery is important\nto the interests of science. M. Huygens, in his Treatise on Light,\nconcludes from these eclipses, that light transmits itself about\n600,000 times faster than sound.\n\nDistances and Revolutions of Jupiter\u2019s Satellites.\n\n                                      Revolution.\n                      Distance.     _d._ _h._ _m._\n    1st Satellite      250,000        1   18   36\n    2d                 401,000        3   13   15\n    3d                 648,000        7    3   59\n    4th              1,128,000       16   18   30\n\nThey are thus referred to by Mallet:\n\n    \u201cAbout him round _four_ planetary moons,\n    On earth with wonder all night long beheld,\n    Moon above moon, his fair attendants dance.\u201d\n\nTo a spectator placed on the surface of Jupiter, each of the satellites\nwould put on the phases of the moon; but as the distance of any of\nthem from Jupiter is but small, when compared with the distance of\nthat planet from the sun, the satellites are therefore illuminated by\nthe sun very nearly in the same manner with the primary itself; hence\nthey appear to us always round, having constantly the greatest part\nof their enlightened half turned towards the earth: and indeed they\nare so small, that were they to put on the phases of the moon, these\nphases could scarcely be discerned through the best telescopes. When\nthe satellites pass through their inferior semicircles, they may cast\na shadow upon their primary, and thus cause an eclipse of the sun to\nhis inhabitants; and in some situations this shadow may be observed\ngoing before or following the satellite. On the other hand, in passing\nthrough their superior semicircles, the satellites may be eclipsed in\nthe same manner as our moon by passing through the shadow of Jupiter:\nand this is actually the case with the first, second, and third; but\nthe fourth, by reason of the extent of its orbit, passes sometimes\nabove or below the shadow, as is the case with our moon.\n\nThese satellites were first discovered on the 7th of January, 1610,\nby the celebrated Galileo, who called them _Medician Stars_, in honor\nof the family of the Medici, dukes of Tuscany, his patrons. These\nsatellites, revolving about Jupiter at different distances, from west\nto east, when viewed through a telescope, make a beautiful appearance.\nAs our moon revolves round the earth, enlightening the nights, by\nreflecting the light she receives from the sun; so these satellites,\nrevolving round Jupiter, may also be supposed to enlighten the nights\nof that planet.\n\n_Saturn_ is a very conspicuous planet, though he shines with a pale and\nfeeble light, very unlike that of Jupiter and the other planets. He\nwas called by the Greeks \u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd. \u201cFrom the account given by Diodorus\nSiculus,\u201d says Costard, \u201cit seems as if the Chaldeans called this\nplanet by some name not widely different from this of the Greeks.\nIn the language of Chaldea, the verb \u05e4\u05e0\u05d0 _phana_, or \u05e4\u05e0\u05d4 _phanah_,\nsignifies _convertere se_, _divertere se_, _declinare_. And whatever\n_vanishes_, or _disappears_, very properly _declines_, or _turns\naside_, from our view. This planet, therefore, was most probably called\n\u05e4\u05df _phen_, or \u05e4\u05d9\u05df _phain_, and, with a Greek termination, \u03c6\u03b1\u03b9\u03bd\u03c9\u03bd, on\naccount of his _withdrawing_ himself, by reason of his distance. And\nthis conjecture is yet further confirmed from his name in another\ndialect, or among another people. For from \u05e1\u05ea\u05e8 _sater, latuit,\nabscondit se_, with the paragogic \u05df _nun_ which is not unusual in the\nformation of Eastern words, comes the word \u05e1\u05ea\u05e8\u05df _Saturn_, and with the\nLatin termination _us, Saturnus_.\u201d\n\nHis mean distance from the sun is 900,000,000 miles, consequently his\nmotion in his orbit is proportionably slow; and his annual revolution\nround the sun, from west to east, being so much longer likewise than\nthat of the other planets, he takes 29 years, 164 days, 7 hours,\n21 minutes, 50 seconds, which is almost _thirty_ of our years, to\naccomplish it, in his orbit travelling with a velocity of 22,000 miles\nan hour. His diameter is 79,000 miles; and his magnitude is about 1,000\ntimes that of the earth. The time of rotation upon his axis is 10\nhours, 17 minutes.\n\n    \u201cStill further off, scarce warm\u2019d by Ph\u0153bus\u2019 ray,\n    Through his wide orbit, Saturn wheels away;\n    How great the change, could we be wafted there!\n    How slow the seasons! and how long the year!\u201d\n\nThere is a singular and curious appendage to Saturn, namely, a thin,\nbroad, opake ring, encompassing the body of the planet, without\ntouching it; like the horizon of an artificial globe; it appears to be\nsuspended round the planet, and to keep its place without any immediate\nconnection with it. The distance of this prodigious circle from the\nbody of the planet is usually stated to be about 21,000 miles.\n\nThe dimensions of the ring, or of the two rings with the space between\nthem, Dr. Herschell has given as follows:\n\n                                                  Miles.\n    Inner diameter of the smaller ring           146,345\n    Outside diameter of ditto                    184,393\n    Inner diameter of the larger ring            190,248\n    Outside diameter of ditto                    204,883\n    Breadth of the inner ring                     20,000\n    Breadth of the outer ring                      7,200\n    Breadth of the vacant space, or dark zone      2,839\n\nIt puts on different appearances to us, sometimes being seen quite\nopen, or as a wide oval, and at others, only as a single line. When\nour eye is in the plane of the ring, or looking at it directly on\nthe edge, it is invisible to us; and it is in this situation twice\nin each revolution of the planet; that is, once in about fifteen\nyears: at these times, he appears quite round, for nine or ten months\ntogether. The ring was invisible to us on the 15th of June, 1803, and,\nsince that time, gradually increased in light and breadth for about\nseven years: and, after which, has again decreased, till, as before,\nafter an interval of fifteen years, in the present year 1818, the\nring is again edgewise to us, and invisible. With telescopes of great\nmagnifying power, two belts or stripes have been discovered on Saturn;\nthey appear parallel to the ring, and are supposed to be permanent. Of\nwhat component materials this ring is composed, or by what means it is\nsuspended, we as yet remain ignorant: but of its use, it is supposed to\nsupply light and heat to the planet, agreeably to the observation of a\npoet who has evinced an extensive acquaintance with philosophy.\n\n    \u201cMuse! raise thy voice, mysterious truth to sing,\n    How o\u2019er the copious orb a lucid ring,\n    Opake and broad, is seen its arch to spread,\n    Round the big globe at stated periods led;\n    Perhaps (its use unknown) with gather\u2019d heat\n    To aid the regions of that gelid seat,\n    The want of nearer Ph\u0153bus to supply,\n    And warm with reflex beams his summer sky;\n    Else might the high-plac\u2019d world, expos\u2019d to frost,\n    Lie waste, in one eternal winter lost.\u201d\n\nBesides the ring, Saturn is also furnished with seven attendant moons,\nor satellites, which move around him at different distances, in a way\nsimilar to those of Jupiter.\n\nDistances and Revolutions of Saturn\u2019s Satellites.\n\n                                      Revolution.\n                     Distance.    _d._ _h._ _m._ _s._\n    1st Satellite     172,000       1   21   18   26\n    2d                217,000       2   17   44   51\n    3d                315,000       4   12   25   11\n    4th               705,000      15   22   41   14\n    5th             2,126,000      79    7   53   42\n    6th               137,000       1    8   53    9\n    7th               107,000       0   22   37   30\n\nThe sixth and seventh satellites were discovered by Dr. Herschell in\n1787 and 1788: they are nearer to Saturn than any of the other five;\nbut, to prevent confusion, they have been called the 6th and 7th. The\n5th satellite has been observed by Dr. Herschell to turn once round its\naxis, exactly in the time in which it revolves round Saturn: in this\nrespect it resembles our moon. Their distance from us is so far, as not\nto be easily visible, even with a good telescope, unless the air be\nexceedingly clear.\n\nIt was for ages that astronomical science limited the solar system to\nsix planets, and Saturn was considered as its utmost extent. Vitruvius,\nspeaking of the planet Saturn, says, that star \u201cis near the extremity\nof the world, and touches the frozen regions of heaven.\u201d He did not\nunderstand the extent of our planetary system.\n\nIt is to the indefatigable application of Dr. Herschell that we are\nindebted for the discovery of a new planet, which is the fourth of the\nsuperior ones then known, and, being at twice the distance of Saturn\nfrom the sun, has quadrupled the bounds formerly assigned to the solar\nsystem. This planet was discovered on the 13th of March, 1781, and\nis called by different names: the discoverer bestowed upon it that\nof _Georgium Sidus_, in honor of our present venerable and beloved\nsovereign; by the French it is called _Herschell_, and by the Italians,\n_Uranus_. This important discovery is very deservedly noticed by the\nPoet Laureat, in his Ode entitled \u201cCarmen Seculare for the year 1800.\u201d\n\n          \u201cMathesis with uplifted eye,\n          Tracing the wonders of the sky,\n          Beholds new constellations rise,\n          New systems crown the argent skies;\n    Views with new lustre round the glowing pole,\n    Wide his stupendous orb the _Georgian Planet_ roll.\u201d\n\nOn the 11th January, 1787, Dr. Herschell discovered the second and\nfourth satellites which attend his own planet the Georgium Sidus; and\nin the following years, previously to 1791, he observed four others\nrevolving round the same body. Though this celebrated astronomer was\nthe first who discovered the Georgium Sidus to be one of the planets\nof the solar system, yet no doubt can be entertained of its having\nbeen before observed and considered as a fixed star. Flamsteed in\n1690, Mayer in 1756, and Monnier in 1769, determined the places of\nthree stars which cannot now be found. And M. La Place, according to\nhis theory of Jupiter and Saturn, has found that the Georgium Sidus\nwas _exactly_ in those three points at those very times. These truly\nsingular occurrences leave no doubt of the identity of these three\nstars with the new planet. The lines which Mallet applied to Saturn are\nnow, with a little alteration, more applicable to the Georgium Sidus,\nor Herschell planet.\n\n    \u201cLast, outmost Herschell walks his frontier round,\n    The boundary of worlds; with his pale moons,\n    Faint-glimmering through the darkness night has thrown,\n    Deep-dy\u2019d and dead, o\u2019er this chill globe forlorn:\n    An endless desert, where extreme of cold\n    Eternal sits, as in his native seat,\n    On wintry hills of never-thawing ice;\n    Such Herschell\u2019s earth.\u201d\n\nHis mean distance from the sun is about 1,800,000,000 miles, and he\nperforms his revolution from west to east round the sun in 83 years,\n294 days, 8 hours, 39 minutes; and in his orbit he moves with a\nvelocity of 15,846 miles an hour. His diameter is 4\u00bd times larger than\nthat of the earth, being more than 35,000 miles; and his magnitude\nis 80\u00bd times larger than that of the earth. The orbit in which he\nrevolves is nineteen times further from the sun than the earth\u2019s\norbit; consequently he has 361 times less light and heat from the\nsun than we have. Notwithstanding this, his proportion of light is\nconsiderable; for having been calculated, it is found to be equal to\nthe effect of 284 of our full moons. When the sky is very serene and\nclear, and the moon absent, this planet may be perceived with the naked\neye, unassisted by a telescope: and it appears as a star of the fifth\nmagnitude, with a blueish white light, and a brilliancy between that of\nVenus and the Moon.\n\nThe want of light arising from the great distance of this planet from\nthe sun, is supplied by six satellites, which revolve at different\ndistances round their primary.\n\nDistances and Revolutions of the Satellites of the Georgium Sidus.\n\n                                       Revolution.\n                      Distance.    _d._ _h._ _m._ _s._\n    1st Satellite      226,450       5   21   25    0\n    2d                 293,053       8   17    0    0\n    3d                 342,784      10   23    0    0\n    4th                392,514      13   11    0    0\n    5th                785,028      38    1   49    0\n    6th              1,570,057     107    7   35   10\n\nAll these satellites, it has been said, perform their revolutions in\ntheir orbits contrary to the order of the signs; that is, their real\nmotion is retrograde, but probably, as suggested by Dr. Hutton, this\nis an optical illusion.[130] As the indefatigable Dr. Herschell has\nalready discovered six satellites belonging to this planet, does not\nits immense distance from the sun leave some ground for conjecture,\nthat there may remain some undiscovered, and that his attendants are as\nnumerous, if not more so, than those of Saturn?\n\n    Characters used for the Sun, Moon, and Planets.\n\n    \u2609 The Sun\n    \u263d The Moon\n    \u263f Mercury\n    \u2640 Venus\n    \u2295 The Earth\n    \u2642 Mars\n    \u2643 Jupiter\n    \u2644 Saturn\n    \u2645 Herschell, or Georgium Sidus.\n\nThe mark which characterises the planet Herschell is the initial of the\ndiscoverer\u2019s name, intersected by a cross bar to represent a cross, by\nwhich to denote that the discovery of the planet took place after the\nbirth of Christ.\n\nAstronomy produces calculations concerning the magnitudes, distances,\nand revolutions of the planets, and their respective satellites,\nwhich, to the uninformed, appear absurd, chimerical, and presumptuous;\nwhile, probably, they laugh at such notions as were received among men,\nwhen even the wisest of them were weak enough to believe, that the\nearth was an immense plain, situated in the centre of the universe;\nthat the vault of heaven was of crystal; and that the sun was no other\nthan a plate of red hot iron, about as large as the Peloponnessus. The\nfollowing thoughts, communicated by my much esteemed friend Thomas\nExley, A. M. may assist such persons to entertain more favorable\nsentiments of the science of astronomy, and also serve to enlarge their\nviews of the Supreme Being.\n\n\u201cMany persons who have not had the advantages of proper instruction\nin mathematical science, cannot be persuaded that it is in the power\nof man to ascertain the distances of the sun, moon, and planets,\nand, of course, pay little regard to the assertions of astronomers\non this subject. Sometimes, they are bold enough to say the thing is\nimpossible, because no one has ever been to any of those bodies. Let\nsuch persons consider, that it is not necessary to go to a remote\nobject in order to measure its distance; for that purpose, it will be\nsufficient to know the length of a line at the place of the spectator,\nand the inclination of this line to two others directed from its\nextremities to the object; for, on the length of this line, and the\nposition of the two others, depends the distance of the object from the\nends of that line.\n\n\u201cThus, if I wish to know the distance of a neighboring tower, or\nother object beyond a river, or in some other way inaccessible; I\nmeasure any convenient line terminating in my station, and by some\ninstrument proper for measuring angles, I ascertain the position of\nmy measured line to the lines connecting its extreme points and the\nobject. On these data depends the distance, and from this line and\nthese angles accurately measured, the exact distance may be with\ngreat ease truly found. It is on similar principles that astronomers\ninvestigate the distances of the heavenly bodies. They take as the\ngiven or measured line, which may be called the base, some line on the\nearth, the semi-diameter for instance, as being the most convenient.\nThe angle formed, or rather contained by two lines drawn from the sun\nor planet to the ends of the semi-diameter of the earth, is called the\nparallax, because it shows the difference of the apparent situation\nof the object as seen from the extremities of the semi-diameter, that\nis, it measures the arc of a great circle in the heavens contained\nbetween its two apparent places. Hence to ascertain its parallax, or\ndifference of the apparent place when the object is viewed from the\nother end of the semi-diameter, becomes a problem of great importance\nin astronomy; for this being truly discovered, the distance of the\nplanet will be obtained with the utmost exactitude. If any other line\nbesides the semi-diameter of the earth, whose length and position are\nknown, be used as a base, and the parallax in respect of this line be\nfound, the same conclusions will follow. The chief difficulty in this\naffair arises from the smallness of the angle to be measured, which\nis a consequence of the greatness of the distance in respect of the\nearth\u2019s semi-diameter. Several ingenious methods have been proposed\nand employed by astronomers to discover the distances of the sun and\nplanets, but nothing serves this purpose so well as the transits of\nVenus over the sun\u2019s disk. At certain periods, which can be foretold\nby astronomers, this planet passes exactly between us and the sun, and\nis seen as a dark round spot for some hours, moving in a line across\nthe sun\u2019s face or disk. The observer should be furnished with a good\nchronometer, or pendulum clock with seconds, to note the time of the\ntransit; and good instruments, to take the apparent diameters of the\nsun and Venus, and her greatest distance from the sun\u2019s limb while\npassing over his disk: from these observations, and the known phenomena\nof the motions of the earth and Venus, the parallax may be found. But\nif two observers, at very distant places of the earth properly chosen,\nmake these observations, the parallax may be obtained with much greater\nease and nicety; because the distance of the apparent tracks of Venus\nacross the sun as seen from the two places, and also the difference of\nthe time of the passage, arises from the parallax of Venus and that\nof the sun. The two last transits, which happened in the years 1761\nand 1769, were carefully observed for this purpose; and it is to the\nresults of these observations that the present astronomers are indebted\nfor their more accurate knowledge of the distances of the planets, and\nthe dimensions of the solar system.\n\n\u201cIt should be observed, that if the parallax, and consequently the\ndistance of any one of the planets by any means becomes known, the same\nis easily obtained for each of the other planets, from the relation\nwhich has been clearly discovered to subsist between the periodical\ntimes of revolution of the planets round the sun, and their distances\nfrom that central luminary. Astronomers have most decidedly proved that\nthe square of the time in which any planet revolves is to the square\nof the time in which any other revolves, as the cube of the distance\nof the first, is to the cube of the distance of the other; and since\nall the times are known from observation, if the distance of any one be\ndetermined, there is no difficulty at all to find the distances of all\nthe other planets from the sun.\n\n\u201cIt has also been matter of great surprise to the unlearned, that\nastronomers should pretend to tell the magnitudes of the sun and\nplanets. But this is no difficult problem when the distance is known.\nThe _apparent_ diameter is readily found from observation, and on this\nand the distance depends the _true_ diameter. If the apparent diameters\nof two objects be equal, the true diameter of the one will be greater\nas it is more remote; and the apparent diameter of any object will\nincrease as the distance of it from the observer diminishes. From this\nevery one sees, that a knowledge of the distance of the object is an\nindispensible element for finding its bulk; and, according to the\naccuracy of the measure of the distance, will be that of the measure of\nthe magnitude, provided the apparent distance be truly taken; and this,\nin the present improved state of our instruments, presents no obstacle.\nThere can be no doubt but that astronomers are very near the truth in\nthe numbers which they now give us for expressing the distances and\nmagnitudes of the sun and planets.\n\n\u201cThe telescope has been of singular use to the astronomer; it has\nshown him many phenomena of the heavenly bodies, concerning which he\nwould otherwise have been totally ignorant. It is by the assistance of\nthis noble instrument that we have attained to the knowledge of the\nrotations of the sun and planets, the phases of Venus and Mercury,\nSaturn\u2019s ring, and many other particulars exceedingly interesting. The\ntelescope has discovered several planets which otherwise would have\nrevolved in their courses unknown and unnoticed by the inhabitants of\nthis globe; it has informed us that several of the planets have moons\nmoving round them, as our moon revolves round the earth; besides, it\nhas presented to our view an innumerable multitude of fixed stars which\nwithout this assistance we should never have seen.\n\n\u201cIt is no wonder that great efforts have been made to improve this\nexcellent instrument; these efforts have been attended with great\nsuccess, and what may be further done in this respect we cannot tell;\nhowever, there is a limit to the improvements of the telescope, for\nafter it has attained a certain degree of magnifying power, the motes\nand vapors in the atmosphere would be so magnified as to occupy its\nwhole field of view, and thus render it a useless incumbrance.\u201d\n\nWho can contemplate the power which produced the solar system, at once\nso magnificent, beautiful, and delightful, without astonishment and\nadmiration? The planets are kept in a regular motion, and retained in\nan invariable course round the sun, by the power of this luminary\u2019s\nattraction or gravity. These bodies have a projectile force, being\npropelled forwards in a right line, which is the nature of all simple\nmotion; but the sun\u2019s attraction combining with their own projectile\nforce, withdraws them from their rectilineal courses, and preserves\nthe most perfect harmony in the system. This wonderful mechanism\nwas originally impressed on the system by its infinitely wise and\nomnipotent Creator; to which primary impulse it has with undeviating\nuniformity adhered, having never suffered in its operations from the\ngreatest distance of space, or intervals of time!\n\nSurely no power less than that which at first gave existence and\nmodification to matter, is equal to the government of the world. The\nsolar orb and the planetary bodies could no more subsist in their\npresent form and order, without a Divine, supporting, and directing\nhand, than they could at the beginning make themselves. What is that\ngeneral law or force called _gravitation_, without which the whole\nframe of nature would soon be dissolved? Is it not a power constantly\nissuing from the Deity, and which if he should suspend but for one\nmoment, the whole creation would sink into ruins? How inconceivably\ngreat and operative must that power be, that is present throughout the\nuniverse, with all the heavenly orbs to preserve them in their courses;\nand on this earth, with every creature, and every particle of matter,\nto preserve its present form!\n\nIn addition to the planets and their satellites, there are _Comets_,\nwhich revolve round the sun, and, consequently, are a part of the\nsolar system. They have often a long tail, in appearance resembling\nhair, issuing from that side which is turned away from the sun. Comets\nare popularly divided into three kinds, namely, bearded, tailed, and\nhairy: but this arrangement seems to apply rather to the different\ncircumstances of the same comet, than to the phenomena of several.\nThus, when a comet is eastward of the sun, and moves with him, it is\nsaid to be bearded, because the light precedes it in the manner of a\nbeard: but when it is westward of him, it is said to be tailed, because\nthe train of light follows it in the manner of a tail: and, lastly,\nwhen the sun and comet are diametrically opposite, the earth being\nbetween them, the train is hid behind the body of the comet, excepting\nthe extremities, which being broader than the body of the comet, appear\nround it like a border of hair (_coma_), from which circumstance it is\nsaid to be hairy, and is denominated a comet.\n\nWithout attending to the variety of opinions which philosophers and\nastronomers have entertained concerning the nature and use of comets,\nwe may affirm, that they have been considered as alarming phenomena,\ndisplayed by the Divine Being to warn mankind of the near approach of\nsome dreadful calamity, such as wars, pestilence, and famine. This\nopinion prevailed during the dark ages between the decline of the Roman\nempire, and the dawn of the Reformation. To this apprehension some of\nour modern poets have alluded in strong and descriptive language. Young\nsays,\n\n    \u201cHast thou ne\u2019er seen the comet\u2019s flaming light?\n    Th\u2019 illustrious stranger passing, terror sheds\n    On gazing nations, from his fiery train\n    Of length enormous; takes his ample round\n    Through depths of ether; coasts unnumber\u2019d worlds\n    Of more than solar glory; doubles wide\n    Heaven\u2019s mighty cape; and then revisits earth,\n    From the long travel of a thousand years.\u201d\n\nMilton uses still greater strength of language when he compares his\nhero to a comet:\n\n    \u201cIncensed with indignation, Satan stood\n    Unterrified, and like a comet burn\u2019d\n    That fines the length of Ophiucus huge\n    In the arctic sky, and from his horrid hair\n    Shakes pestilence and war.\u201d\n\nSimilar ideas are finely expressed by Savage:\n\n    \u201cIn fancy\u2019s eye encount\u2019ring armies glare,\n    And sanguine ensigns wave unfurled in air!\n    Hence the deep vulgar deem impending fate,\n    A monarch ruined, or unpeopled state.\n    Thus comets, dreadful visitants! arise,\n    To _them_ wild omens, science to the _wise_,\n    These mark the comet to the sun incline,\n    While deep red flames around its centre shine!\n    While its fierce rear a winding trail displays,\n    And lights all ether with a sweeping blaze!\n    Or when, compell\u2019d, it flies the torrid zone,\n    And shoots by worlds unnumbered and unknown;\n    By worlds, whose people, all aghast with fear,\n    May view that minister of vengeance near.\u201d\n\nNotwithstanding the present improved state of astronomical science, it\nis evident that the philosophy of comets is very imperfect. Kepler,\nthough in other respects a very great genius, and to whose useful\nlabors astronomy is deeply indebted, indulged in the most extravagant\nconjectures; he imagined that the planets were large animals, swimming\nround the sun: and that the comets were animals still more huge and\nmonstrous, which had been generated in the celestial spaces. Jean\nBodin, a learned Frenchman of the 16th century, entertained an opinion,\nif possible, still more absurd and ridiculous. He maintained that the\ncomets are spirits, which having lived on the earth innumerable ages,\nand being at last arrived on the confines of death, celebrated their\nlast triumph, or are recalled to the firmament like shining stars! Mr.\nWhiston was of opinion, that comets are so many hells, appointed in\ntheir orbits alternately to carry the damned into the confines of the\nsun, there to be scorched by its violent heat, and then to return with\nthem beyond the orb of Saturn, there to starve them in those cold and\ndismal regions. Thus\n\n    \u201cBorn in an age more curious than devout;\n    More fond to fix the place of heaven or hell,\n    Than studious this to shun, or that secure.\u201d[131]\n\nJames Bernoulli, in his Systema Cometarum, says, that comets are no\nother than the satellites of some very distant planet, which is itself\ninvisible to us on account of its vast distance, as are also the\nsatellites, unless when they are in that part of their orbits which\nis nearest the earth. Comets, according to Des Cartes, were formerly\nfixed stars: but which becoming gradually covered with macul\u00e6, and\nat length wholly deprived of their light, cannot keep their places,\nbut are carried off by the vortices of the circumjacent stars; and in\nproportion to their magnitude and solidity, moved in such a manner as\nto be brought nearer the orb of Saturn; and thus, coming within reach\nof the sun\u2019s light, are rendered visible.\n\nAristotle, Seneca, Plutarch, and others, testify, that the\nPythagoreans, and the whole Italian sect, maintained, that a comet\nwas a kind of planet or wandering star, which appeared again after a\nlong interval of time. Hippocrates Chius was of the same opinion as\nAristotle informs us. Democritus held also the same opinion, as Seneca\ntells us in his \u201cNatural Questions;\u201d book vii, chap. 3, \u201cFor,\u201d says he,\n\u201cDemocritus, the most curious and subtle of all the ancients, suspected\nthat there were many more stars which moved, meaning by this expression\nthe comets; but he neither established their number, or their names,\nthe courses of the five planets not having as yet been discovered.\u201d\nAgain, Seneca assures us, that Apollonius Myndius, one of the most\nskilful philosophers in the search of natural causes, asserted, that\nthe Chaldeans reckoned comets among the other wandering stars, and\nthat they knew their courses. Apollonius himself maintained, that a\ncomet was a star of its own kind, as the sun and moon are, but that its\ncourse was not yet known; that by its motions it mounts very high in\nthe heavens, and only appears when it descends into the lower part of\nits orbit. And Seneca himself embraces this opinion in the following\ntruly philosophical words: \u201cI cannot believe,\u201d says he, \u201cthat a comet\nis a fire suddenly kindled, but that it ought to be ranked among the\neternal works of nature. A comet has its proper place, and is not\neasily moved from thence; it goes its course, and is not extinguished,\nbut runs off from us. But you will say, if it were a wandering star\nit would keep in the zodiac. But who can set one boundary to all\nthe stars? Who can restrain the works of the Divinity to a narrow\ncompass? For each of those bodies, which you imagine to be the only\nones that have motion, have very different circles; why, therefore,\nmay there not be some that have peculiar ways of their own, wherein\nthey recede far from the rest? But that their courses may be known,\nit is necessary to have a collection of all the ancient observations\nabout comets; for their appearances are so rare, that their orbits are\nnot yet determined; nor can we as yet find whether they have their\nperiods, or whether they return again in a certain order.\u201d--\u201cThe time\nwill come,\u201d continues he, \u201cwherein these things which are now hid from\nus will be discovered; which observation, and the diligence of after\nages, will find out. For it is not one age that is sufficient for so\ngreat matters: the time will be when posterity will wonder that we were\nignorant of things so plain; one will arise who will demonstrate in\nwhat regions of space the comets wander, why they recede so far from\nthe other planets; how great and what sort of bodies they are.\u201d[132]\nThe period, predicted by Seneca, in the first century of the Christian\nera, is not yet arrived. \u201cAfter all that has been done and written on\nthe subject of comets,\u201d says a late writer, \u201cwe must confess, that\nour knowledge of these wandering bodies is still very imperfect.\u201d\n\u201cIt appears to me,\u201d says La Lande, \u201cthat almost every thing depends\non comets. The only thing that I recommend to my correspondents, is\nto look after and attend to comets: the knowledge of comets is alone\nwanting to complete the science of astronomy.\u201d\n\nSeveral ages elapsed before this prediction of Seneca seemed likely to\nbe fulfilled. Tycho Brah\u00e9 was the first who attempted to restore the\ncomets to their proper rank in creation. Having diligently observed the\ncomet of 1577, and finding that it had no sensible diurnal parallax,\nhe very properly determined its true place to be among the other\nrevolving bodies in the planetary regions, as appears by his book De\nCometa, 1577. And Sir Isaac Newton, from his amazing discoveries, gives\nthe following theory of comets: \u201cThey are,\u201d says he, \u201ccompact, solid,\nfixed, and durable bodies; in fact, a kind of planets, which move in\nvery oblique and eccentric orbits, every way with the greatest freedom;\npersevering in their motions even against the course and direction of\nthe planets: and their tail is a very thin and slender vapor, emitted\nby the head or nucleus of the comet, ignited or heated by the sun.\u201d\n\nVarious conjectures have been formed concerning the nature of the tails\nof comets. Dr. Hamilton, of Dublin, in the second of his Philosophical\nEssays, urges several objections against the Newtonian hypothesis: he\nremarks, that, since the tail of a comet, though exceedingly rare,\nmeets with no resistance in its rapid motion round the sun (except so\nslight a one as can only cause a very small condensation on that side\nof it which moves foremost, and thereby may make it a little brighter\nthan the other side), it cannot possibly move in a medium denser and\nheavier than itself, and therefore cannot be raised up from the sun\nby the superior gravity of such a medium. And since the stars seen\nthrough all parts of a comet\u2019s tail appear in their proper places,\nand with their usual colors, he infers that the rays of light suffer\nno refraction in passing through the tail; therefore, since bodies\nreflect and refract light by one and the same power, he concludes\nthat the matter of a comet\u2019s tail has not the power of refracting or\nreflecting light, and is, of consequence, a lucid or self shining\nsubstance. Also from what astronomers say of the splendor of comets\u2019\ntails, it is manifest they do not shine with such a dull light as would\nbe reflected to us by the clouds or vapors at so great a distance, but\nwith a brisker though a glimmering light, such as would arise from a\nvery thin, volatile, burning matter. Dr. Halley, speaking of the great\nstreams of light in the remarkable aurora borealis seen in 1716, says,\n\u201cthey so much resembled the long tails of comets, that at first sight\nthey might be taken for such:\u201d and afterwards, \u201cthis light seems to\nhave a great affinity to that which the effluvia of electric bodies\nemit in the dark.\u201d Dr. Hamilton improves upon these hints: and since,\nas he shows, the tails of comets, the aurora borealis, and the electric\nfluid, agree remarkably, not only in their appearance, but also in such\nproperties as we can observe of each of them, he concludes that they\nare substances of the same nature. And, because the electric matter,\nfrom its vast subtility and velocity, seems capable of making great\nexcursions from the planetary system, he imagines that the several\ncomets, in their long excursions from the sun in all directions, may\novertake this matter; and by attracting it to themselves may come back\nreplete with it, and being again heated by the sun, may disperse it\namong the planets, and so keep up a circulation of this matter, which\nthere is reason to think is necessary in our system.[133]\n\nComets, descending from the remote parts of the system with great\nrapidity become visible to us in the lower parts of their orbits; and\nafter a short stay, go off again to vast distances, and disappear. They\nmove about the sun in very eccentric ellipses; and the velocity with\nwhich they seem to move is variable in every part of their path round\nthe sun; when near to which they appear to move with great swiftness,\nand, when very remote, their motion is slow. They are opake bodies, but\nof a much greater density than the earth; for some of them are heated\nin every period to such a degree, as would vitrify or dissipate any\nsubstance known to us. Sir Isaac Newton computed the heat of the comet,\nwhich appeared in the year 1680, when nearest the sun, to be 2,000\ntimes hotter than red hot iron, and that, being thus heated, it must\nretain its heat till it comes round again, although its period should\nbe more than 20,000 years; and it is computed to be only 575.\n\nThe number of the comets is much greater than that of the planets\nbelonging to our system. From the beginning of the Christian era, till\nnow, there have appeared about five hundred. Before that time, we\nhave accounts of about one hundred others. But, when it is considered\nthat there may have been many that have not been seen, from being too\nnear the sun, from appearing in moon-light, from being in the other\nhemisphere, or from being too small, or from not being recorded, the\nnumber is probably much greater. Miss Herschell, by means of the\ntelescope, has, within the last twenty years, discovered several\ncomets. The orbits of about one hundred comets have been calculated\nwith sufficient accuracy for ascertaining their identity on any future\nappearance. Many of these orbits are inclined to the plane of the\necliptic in large angles, and many of them approach much nearer the sun\nthan the earth does. Their motions are also different from those of the\nplanets, some of them being direct and others retrograde, nearly half\nthe number moving each way. The different motions of the comets, and\nthe various inclinations of their orbits to the plane of the ecliptic,\nmust not be regarded as the work of chance, but as calculated to answer\nbeneficial purposes, or avoid baneful consequences; for if these orbits\nhad been nearly coincident with that of the earth, both bodies might\nhave arrived at the common point of intersection of their orbits at\nthe same time; in which case a derangement of both motions must, at\nleast, have been the necessary result.[134] But, according to all the\nobservations that have been made respecting their present distribution\nand direction, there is not the least reason to apprehend any such\nconsequence.\n\nThe following table contains a list of the last twenty-three of the\nprincipal comets that have been observed, with the time of passing\ntheir perihelia, and their nearest approach to the sun.\n\n                            Nearest distance\n            Passage of the   from the Sun in  Direction of\n    Years.    Perihelion.    English Miles.   their Motion.\n    ------  --------------  ----------------  -------------\n    1790     January   15      71 millions     Retrograde.\n    1790     January   28     101              Direct.\n    1790     May       21      75              Retrograde.\n    1792     January   13     122              Retrograde.\n    1792     December  27      91              Retrograde.\n    1793     November   4      38              Retrograde.\n    1793     November  18     142              Direct.\n    1795     December  15      23              Direct.\n    1796     April      2     149              Retrograde.\n    1797     July       9      50              Retrograde.\n    1798     April      4      46              Direct.\n    1798     December  31      73              Retrograde.\n    1799     September  7      79              Retrograde.\n    1799     December  25      25              Retrograde.\n    1801     August     8      22              Retrograde.\n    1802     September  9     103              Direct.\n    1804     February  13     101              Direct.\n    1805     November  18      35              Direct.\n    1805     December  31      84              Direct.\n    1806     December  28     102              Retrograde.\n    1807     September 18      61              Direct.\n    1811     August    20      25              Direct.\n    1815     April     26     121              Direct.\n\nBut of all the comets, the periods of three only are known with any\ndegree of certainty, being found to return at intervals of 75, 129,\nand 575 years; and of these, that which appeared in 1680 is the most\nremarkable. This comet, at its greatest distance, is about 11,200\nmillions of miles from the sun, while its least distance from the\ncentre of the sun is about 490,000 miles; being less than one third\npart of the sun\u2019s semi-diameter from his surface. In that part of its\norbit which is nearest the sun, it flies with the amazing velocity of\n880,000 miles in an hour; and the sun, as seen from it, appears 100\ndegrees in breadth, consequently 40,000 times as large as he appears\nto us. The astonishing distance that this comet runs out into empty\nspace, naturally suggests to our imagination the vast distance between\nour sun and the nearest of the fixed stars, of whose attractions all\nthe comets must keep clear, to return periodically and go round the\nsun. How wonderful that, though this body travelled almost two thousand\ntimes faster than a cannon ball, yet it drew after it a tail of fire,\nor of phosphoric gas, eight millions of miles in length! How amazing\nto consider, that this stupendous body, traversing the immensity of\nthe creation with such rapidity, and at the same time wheeling about\nin that line which its great Creator prescribed to it, should move\nwith such inconceivable velocity, and at the same time with such\nexact regularity! How spacious must the universe be, that, gives such\nbodies as these full play, without suffering the least disorder or\nconfusion by it! With what a glorious exhibition must those beings\nbe entertained, who can look into this great theatre of nature, and\nsee myriads of these tremendous objects wandering through those\nimmeasurable depths of \u00e6ther, and running their appointed courses!\nOur eyes may hereafter be strong enough to command this magnificent\nprospect, and our understandings able to find out the several uses of\nthese immense parts of the universe. In the mean time, they are most\nsuitable objects for our imagination to contemplate, that we may\nform more extensive notions of infinite wisdom and power, and learn\nto think humbly of ourselves, and of all the little works of human\ninvention.[135]\n\nThe _Fixed Stars_ are objects of peculiar interest, and are so\ndenominated, because they are observed always to preserve the same\ndistance from each other; and are distinguished from the planets by\ntheir twinkling, which seems to depend on the atmosphere; for we are\nassured, that where the air is exceedingly pure and dry, the stars\nappear with a light altogether free from scintillation. All the\nheavenly bodies, the sun, moon, and stars, appear to move round the\nearth, in circles parallel to the equinoctial, once in the compass of\ntwenty-four hours; though these _apparent_ motions are almost entirety\nto be accounted for by the _real_ motions of the earth: but by far\nthe greater number of them never change their relative situations,\neach (so long as an observer continues in the same place) rising and\nsetting at the same interval of time, and at the same points of the\nhorizon;--these are called the _fixed stars_.\n\nThe fixed stars, as appears from several considerations, are placed\nat immense distances from us. Mr. Exley, in a friendly communication,\nsays, \u201cIt should be noticed, that the distances of the fixed stars have\nnever yet been discovered; not indeed so much for want of a method,\nas for want of a base line sufficiently large for this admeasurement.\nThe diameter of the earth\u2019s orbit is about one hundred and ninety\nmillions of miles; and the fixed stars, viewed from the opposite ends\nof this extensive base line or diameter, have no sensible parallax, but\nall appear in the very same situations, and of the same magnitudes;\nand as this is the greatest line to the extremities of which we can\nhave access, it is very probable we shall ever remain in ignorance of\nthe true distances of the fixed stars. One thing, however, is fully\nascertained by the observations which have been made to find the\nparallax of the stars, which is, that they are so immensely distant\nfrom our planetary regions, that the whole solar system, consisting\nof the sun and planets, with their satellites, and the comets, would,\nif viewed from the nearest fixed star, appear as crowded into one\nsingle point of space, which is also known from other observations.\nHow astonishingly extensive is the view of the universe which such\nobservations furnish!\u201d\n\nOur earth is at so great a distance from the sun, that if seen from\nthence, it would appear no bigger than a point, although its diameter\nis 7,954 miles. Yet that distance is so small, compared with the\nearth\u2019s remote situation from the fixed stars, that if the orbit in\nwhich the earth moves round the sun were the circumference of a globe,\nthat globe, seen from the nearest star, would likewise appear no bigger\nthan a point, although, it is at least 190,000,000 miles in diameter.\nFor the earth in going round the sun is 190,000,000 miles nearer to\nsome of the stars at one time of the year than at another, and yet\ntheir apparent magnitudes, situations, and distances from one another\nstill remain the same; and being viewed through a telescope which\nmagnifies above 200 times, they still appear as mere points: which\nproves them to be at least 400,000 times further from us than we are\nfrom the sun.\n\nIt is not to be imagined, that all the stars are placed in one concave\nsurface, so as to be equally distant from us; but that they are\nscattered at immense distances from one another through unlimited\nspace. So that there may be as great a distance between any two\nneighboring stars, as between our sun and those which are nearest to\nhim. Therefore an observer, who is nearest any fixed star, will look\non it alone as a real sun; and consider the rest as so many shining\npoints, placed apparently at equal distances from him in the firmament.\nThe star nearest to us, or the largest in appearance, is Sirius, or the\nDog Star, and astronomers have calculated from indubitable principles,\nthat its distance from us is considerably more than two millions of\nmillions of miles! The apparent magnitude of Sirius has been computed\nat 27,000 times less than the sun, and, therefore, supposing their\nmagnitudes equal, is 27,000 times more distant. If so, as our earth\nis ninety-five millions of miles from the sun, that multiplied by\ntwenty-seven thousand, will give two millions of millions, and an\naddition of 565 thousand millions, for the distance of this star from\nthe sun.[136] Our earth, in moving round the sun, is 195,000,000 miles\nnearer to this star in one part of its orbit, than in the opposite\none; and yet the magnitude of the star appears not to be in the least\naltered or affected by it. A cannon-ball flying from thence at the\nrate of 400 miles in an hour, would not reach us in 732,000 years! The\ndistance of the star \u03b3 Draconis appears, by Dr. Bradley\u2019s observations,\nto be at least 400,000 times that of the sun, and the distance of\nthe nearest fixed star not less than 80,000 diameters of the earth\u2019s\nannual orbit; that is, the distance of the earth from the former is =\nto 400,000 \u00d7 95,000,000 = 38,000,000,000,000, and the latter not less\nthan 7,600,000,000,000. As these distances are much too great to be\ncomprehended by the human imagination, we shall, perhaps, obtain a\nbetter idea of them by comparing them with the velocity of some moving\nbody, by which they may, in some way, be estimated. The swiftest motion\nwe know of is that of light, which passes from the sun to the earth\nin about eight minutes, or, at the rate of 200,000 miles nearly in a\nsecond of time: and yet even light would be more than six years in\ntraversing the first space, and a year and a quarter nearly, in passing\nfrom the nearest fixed star to the earth. Again, a cannon ball, moving\nwith its initial or greatest velocity of about ten miles in a minute,\nwould be more than seven millions of years in passing from the star \u03b3\nDraconis to the earth. The celebrated M. Huygens carried his thoughts\nso far upon this subject, as to believe that there might be stars at\nsuch inconceivable distances from our earth, that their light, though\nit is known to travel at the rate of 12,000,000 miles in a minute, has\nnot yet reached us, since the creation of the world!\n\n    \u201cHow distant some of the nocturnal suns!\n    So distant, says the sage, \u2019twere not absurd\n    To doubt, if beams, set out at nature\u2019s birth,\n    Are yet arrived at this so foreign world;\n    Though nothing half so rapid as their flight.\u201d\n\nAnd Mr. Addison observes, that this thought of Mr. Huygens is far from\nbeing extravagant, when we consider that the universe is the work of\ninfinite power, prompted by infinite goodness, having an infinite space\nwherein to exert itself, so that our imaginations can set no bounds to\nit.\n\nThe magnitudes of the stars appear to be very different from one\nanother; which difference may probably arise, partly from a diversity\nin their real magnitude, but chiefly, no doubt, from their different\ndistances. Hence it is, that the fixed stars have been divided, for the\nsake of distinction, into six orders or classes. Those which appear\nlargest, are considered as stars of the first magnitude; the next to\nthem in lustre, stars of the second magnitude; and so on, through the\ndifferent gradations, to the smallest that are visible to the naked\neye, which are said to be of the sixth magnitude. This distribution\nhaving been made long before the invention of telescopes, the stars\nwhich cannot be seen without the assistance of these instruments,\nare distinguished by the name of telescopic stars. Bayer, besides\naccurately distinguishing the relative size and situation of each star,\nmarked the stars in each constellation with the letters of the Greek\nand Roman alphabets, setting the first Greek letter to the first or\nprincipal star in each constellation, to the second in order; then,\nwhen the Greek alphabet was gone over, he passed to _a_, _b_, _c_, of\nthe Roman, and so on. This useful method of noting and describing the\nstars has been adopted by all astronomers since the time of Bayer; and\nthey have further enlarged it, by adding the ordinal numbers 1, 2, 3,\n&c, when any constellation contains more stars than can be marked by\nthe two alphabets.\n\nAs it would be impossible to furnish names for all the fixed stars,\nand retain those names in the memory; it became necessary not only to\nascertain their exact relative situations, but to invent some method\nby which the principal part of the stars which can be seen may be\nknown, without having recourse to a separate name for each. Ancient\nastronomers formed a commodious plan of arranging the fixed stars\nin constellations under names and figures of various personages,\ncelebrated in antiquity, and even of birds, beasts, fishes, &c.\nThis division of the heavens into constellations is obviously very\nancient; for some of them are mentioned by Hesiod and Homer, both of\nwhom probably flourished nearly 1000 years before the Christian era.\nArcturus, Orion, and the Pleiades, are twice mentioned in the book\nof Job: and in the prophecy of Amos, composed about 400 years before\nChrist, the _seven stars_ and _Orion_ are mentioned. As the knowledge\nof the stars became more extensive, the number of the constellations\nwas increased; and at the same time more stars were introduced into\neach constellation. Such of the stars as were not comprehended under\nany constellations, were by the ancient astronomers, called unformed\nstars. The modern astronomers have reduced not these unformed stars\nonly, but many other stars, into new figures; and it is probable that\nother constellations will still continue to be invented.[137]\n\nWith respect to the number of fixed stars, there have been several\naccounts, given by different persons, at various times. The celebrated\nHipparchus, of Rhodes, 120 years before Christ, formed a catalogue\nof 1,022 stars; to which Ptolemy added four more. Ulug Beigh, the\ngrandson of Tamerlane, formed a catalogue of 1,017 stars. Tycho Brah\u00e9\u2019s\ncatalogue only extended to 777; but he took care to ascertain all their\nplaces. Kepler\u2019s catalogue amounted to 1,163, which Ricciolus enlarged\nto 1,468. Bayerus extended his catalogue further than any of his\npredecessors, having described the places of 1,725. Hevelius increased\nthe catalogue to 1,888. Flamsteed enlarged these catalogues to the\nnumber of about 3,000. But by means of the telescope, which affords\nus a glimpse of infinite space, and presents to our view myriads of\nworlds, and systems of worlds, by which it is filled, the number of\nthe stars is astonishingly increased. Galileo found eighty stars in\nthe space of the belt of Orion\u2019s sword, and F. de Rheita observed more\nthan 2,000 in the whole constellation of Orion, of which not more than\nseventy or eighty can ever be seen without glasses. Dr. Hook reckoned\nseventy-eight stars in the single constellation of the Pleiades; and F.\nde Rheita, with a better telescope, discovered 188: whereas we cannot\nreckon above seven or eight seen by the naked eye. At the present\nperiod, the positions of 60,000 fixed stars have been exactly recorded,\nand they are generally arranged according to the size they appear; 20\nof the largest are called stars of the first magnitude; 65 are of\nthe second magnitude; 205 of the third; 485 of the fourth; 648 of the\nfifth; and about 1,500 of the sixth magnitude; the remainder, being\ninvisible to the naked eye, are called telescopic stars.\n\nWhere the stars are in great abundance, Dr. Herschell supposes they\nform primaries and secondaries, that is, suns revolving about suns, as\nplanets revolve about the sun in our system. He considers that this\nmust be the case in what is called the _milky way_, the stars being\nthere in prodigious quantity. Of this he gives the following proof:\non August 22, 1792, he found that in forty-one minutes of time, not\nless than 258,000 stars had passed through the field of view in his\ntelescope! Dr. Chalmers observes, If we ask the number of suns and of\nsystems--the unassisted eye of man can take in a thousand, and the\nbest telescope which the genius of man has constructed can take in\neighty millions. Thus, by the help of telescopes, we discover a vast\nmultitude of stars which are invisible to the naked eye; and the better\nthe glasses are, still the more become visible; so that we can set no\nlimits either to their number, or to their distances.\n\n    \u201cMyriads beyond with blended rays inflame\n    The _milky way_, whose stream of vivid light,\n    Poured from innumerable fountains round,\n    Flows trembling, wave on wave, from sun to sun,\n    And whitens the long path to heaven\u2019s extreme:\n    Distinguished tract!\u201d\n\nFrom an attentive examination of the stars with good telescopes, many\nthat appear only single to the naked eye, are found to consist of two,\nthree, or more stars. The late Dr. Maskelyne observed the \u03b1 Herculis to\nbe a double star, and other astronomers have discovered many more to\nbe double. Dr. Herschell has found 700; of these about forty had been\nobserved before. The following will serve as a specimen, and afford the\nobserver a few objects for his attention. \u03b1 Herculis is a beautiful\ndouble star: the two bodies are apparently unequal: the largest is red,\nand the smallest of a blueish color inclining to green. \u03b3 Andromed\u00e6,\ndouble, very unequal: the larger of a reddish white color; the smaller\na fine bright sky blue, inclining to green. \u03b2 Lyr\u00e6, quadruple, unequal\nwhite, but three out of the four inclined to red. \u03b5 Bootis, double,\nvery unequal, larger, of a reddish color; the smaller is blue, or of a\nfaint lilac color. \u03b1 Lyr\u00e6, double, very unequal; the larger is a fine\nbrilliant white, the smaller dusky.\n\nNew stars sometimes appear, while others disappear. Several stars\nmentioned by ancient astronomers are not now to be found: several\nare now visible to the naked eye, which are not mentioned in ancient\ncatalogues; and some stars have suddenly appeared, and again after\na considerable interval vanished. Fortunio Liceti, a celebrated\nphysician, who died in 1656, in Padua, published a treatise, entitled,\n\u201cDe novis Astris et Cometis.\u201d In it he gives us an ample account\nof the several new stars spoken of by the ancients, among which he\nmentions that remarkable one which appeared A.D. 389, near the Eagle.\nIt was as bright as the planet Venus, for the space of three weeks,\nbut afterwards entirely disappeared. In the ninth century, the Arabian\nastronomers, Massahala, Haly, and Albumazar, observed a new star in\nthe 15th degree of Scorpio, whose light equalled that of the moon in\nher first octant: it was visible for four months. Cyprianus Leovitius\nrelates, that in the reign of the emperor Otho, A.D. 946, a new star\nwas seen between the constellations of Cepheus and Cassiopeia; and\nalso that another was seen A.D. 1264, very near the same part of the\nheavens, which had no proper motion. One of the most celebrated of the\nnew stars is that discovered by Cornelius Jansen, November 8, 1572, in\nthe chair of Cassiopeia: it exceeded Sirius in brilliancy, and Jupiter\nin apparent magnitude; it gradually decayed; and, after sixteen months,\ndisappeared. On the 13th of August, 1596, David Fabricius observed a\nnew star in the neck of the Whale, and it disappeared after October\nin the same year, but was supposed to be again discovered in the year\n1637. In the year 1600, William Jansen discovered a changeable star\nin the neck of the Swan. It was seen by Kepler, who wrote a treatise\nupon it, and determined its place to be 16\u00b0 18\u02b9 \u2652, and 55\u00b0 30\u02b9 or 32\u02b9\nnorth latitude. Ricciolus saw it in 1616, 1621, and 1624. Cassini saw\nit again in 1655; it increased till 1660; then decreased, and at the\nend of 1661 it disappeared. In November, 1665, it appeared again, and\ndisappeared in 1681. In 1715 it appeared, as it does at present, and\nis of the sixth magnitude. In 1686, Kircher observed \u03c7 in the Swan,\nto be a changeable star in the neck of that constellation; and, from\ntwenty years\u2019 observations, the period of the return of the same phases\nwas found to be 405 days. In 1604, Kepler discovered a new star near\nthe heel of Serpentarius, so very brilliant that it exceeded every\nfixed star, and even Jupiter, in apparent magnitude. For more recent\ndiscoveries, see Dr. Herschell\u2019s paper, \u201cOn the proper Motion of the\nSun and the Solar System, with an account of the several changes that\nhave happened among the fixed stars since the time of Mr. Flamsteed,\u201d\nvol. lxxiii, of the Philosophical Transactions, or the fifteenth of the\nAbridgment.\n\nAll the stars seem to have a common and general motion about the\npole of the ecliptic, at the rate of a degree in seventy-two years;\nthis is occasioned by the precession of the equinoctial points. In\nconsequence of this apparent motion, the constellations change their\npositions in regard to the equinoctial points. Hence it is, that the\nconstellation Aries now is in the sign Taurus, and Taurus occupies the\nsign Gemini. It has been the common opinion that the fixed stars have\nno real motion, but the accurate observations of modern astronomers\nshow, that some of them have a motion peculiar to themselves, by which\nthey slowly change their places. Thus Arcturus is found to approach\nthe ecliptic about four minutes in 100 years; and its distance from a\nsmall star near it has been sensibly changed during the last century.\nSirius seems to recede from the ecliptic about two minutes per century.\nSimilar motions have been observed in Aldebaran, Rigel, the eastern\nshoulder of Orion, the Goat, the Eagle, &c. Other stars have been\nobserved to have a motion in different directions. Perhaps all the\nstars have similar motions, which are performed by certain fixed laws\nin spaces, which, though very large in reality, yet, because of their\nimmense distance, subtend at the earth angles so very small, as in\nsome cases to be quite imperceptible, while in other cases they may\nbe observed, as in the stars above-mentioned; and on this rational\nsupposition the appearance and disappearance, and variations in\nmagnitude, of some stars may be accounted for.\n\nThe fixed stars do not appear to be all regularly disseminated through\nthe heavens, but the greater part of them are collected into clusters;\nand it requires a large magnifying power, with a great quantity\nof light, to distinguish separately the stars which compose these\nclusters. With a small magnifying power, and small quantity of light,\nthey only appear as minute whitish spots, much like small light clouds,\nand thence they are called nebul\u00e6. The number of nebul\u00e6 was formerly\nimagined to be about 103; but Dr. Herschell, early in the year 1784,\nhad discovered 469 more, and since then has given a catalogue of\n2,000 nebul\u00e6 which he has discovered. The most careful and accurate\nobservations give great reason to conclude, that they all consist\nof large masses or clusters of stars at prodigious distances from\nour system. Dr. Herschell is of opinion the starry heaven is replete\nwith these nebul\u00e6, and that each of them is a distinct and separate\nsystem independent of the rest. The milky way he supposes to be that\nparticular nebul\u00e6 in which our sun is placed; and, in order to account\nfor the appearance it exhibits, he supposes its figure to be much more\nextended towards the apparent zone of illumination, than in any other\ndirection; which is a supposition that he thinks allowable, from the\nobservations he has made on the figures of other nebul\u00e6.\n\nThat there are other worlds, beside our earth, inhabited by rational\nbeings, endued with bodily constitutions adapted to the nature and\neconomy of the respective planets for which they are destined, is a\nconjecture that approaches the nearest to certainty. There is scarcely\nany doubt now remaining amongst philosophers, that our moon is a\nhabitable globe. The most accurate observations that have been made\nwith the most powerful telescopes, have confirmed the opinion. The\nsurface of the moon seems to be diversified by high mountains, large\nvalleys, and small and larger collections of water; consequently she\nresembles our earth; and there can be no doubt that our earth serves\nas a moon to the moon, whose inhabitants, comparing it with the sun,\nmay well say,\n\n        ----\u201cgives us his blaze again\n    Void of its flame, and sheds a softer day;\u201d\n\nwhich similarity existing between them, is a presumptive proof that\nthe moon, like our earth, is a commodious habitation for creatures\nendowed with capacity for knowing and adoring their beneficent Creator.\nBy a very correct analogy we are led to infer, says a learned author,\nthat all the _planets_ and their _satellites_ or attendant moons, are\n_inhabited_; for matter seems only to exist for the sake of intelligent\nbeings. And Dr. Herschell\u2019s discoveries have, by the general consent\nof philosophers, added, besides the Georgian planet, a _new habitable\nworld_ to our system, which is the SUN.\n\nTo an attentive mind it will appear highly probable, that the planets\nof our system, and their moons, are much of the same nature with our\nearth, and destined for the like purposes; for they are solid opaque\nglobes, capable of supporting animals and vegetables. Some of them\nare bigger, some less, and others about the size of our earth. They\nmove round the sun, as the earth does, in a shorter or longer time,\naccording to their respective distances from him: and have, where\nit would not be inconvenient, regular returns of summer and winter,\nspring and autumn. They have warmer and colder climates, as the various\nproductions of our earth require: and, in such as afford a possibility\nof discovering it, we observe a regular motion round their axis like\nthat of our earth, causing an alternate return of day and night; which\nis necessary for labor, rest, and vegetation, and that all their\nsurfaces may be exposed to the rays of the sun.\n\nCan a person who attends to the vast magnitude of the three planets,\nJupiter, Saturn, and Herschell or the Georgium Sidus, and compares the\nsystems of moons together which belong to them, bring himself to think,\nthat an infinitely wise Creator should dispose of all his animals and\nvegetables here, leaving the other planets destitute of living and\nrational creatures? To suppose that he had any view to our benefit\nin creating these moons, and giving them their motions round their\nrespective primaries; to imagine, that he intended these vast bodies\nfor any advantage to us, when he well knew, that they could not be seen\nbut by a few astronomers looking through telescopes; and that he gave\nto the planets regular returns of day and night, and different seasons\nto all where they would be convenient, but of no manner of service to\nus, except only what immediately concerns our own planet, the earth; to\nimagine, I say, that, he did all this on our account, would, I presume,\nbe charging him with having done much in vain: and be as absurd, as to\nfancy that he has created a little sun, and a planetary system within\nthe shell of our earth, and intended them for our use.\n\n    \u201cAs well might the minutest emmet say,\n    That Caucasus was raised to pave his way\n    The snail, that Lebanon\u2019s extended wood\n    Was destin\u2019d only for his walk and food.\n    The vilest cockle, gaping on the coast,\n    That rounds the ample seas, as well may boast,\n    The craggy rock projects above the sky,\n    That he in safety at its foot may lie;\n    And the whole ocean\u2019s confluent waters swell,\n    Only to quench his thirst, and move and blanch his shell.\u201d\n\nThese considerations amount to little less than a positive proof, that\nall the planets are inhabited: for if they are not, why all this care\nin furnishing them with so many moons, to supply those with light\nwhich are at the greater distances from the sun? Do we not see, that\nthe further a planet is from the sun, the greater apparatus it has for\nthat purpose? Such of the planets as are most remote from the sun, and\ntherefore enjoy least of his light, have that deficiency made up by\nseveral moons, which constantly accompany, and revolve about them, as\nour moon revolves round our earth. So that if the more distant planets\nhave the sun\u2019s light in less proportion by day than we, they have an\naddition made to it morning and evening by one or more of their moons,\nand a greater proportion of light during the night. We know that the\nearth goes round the sun, and turns round upon its own axis, to produce\nthe vicissitudes of summer and winter by the former, and of day and\nnight by the latter motion, for the benefit of its inhabitants: may we\nnot then fairly conclude, by parity of reason, that the end or design\nof all the other planets is the same? And is not this agreeable to the\nbeautiful harmony which exists throughout the works of nature? Surely\nit is! and it raises in us the most magnificent ideas of the supreme\nBeing, who is every where, and at all times present; displaying his\npower, wisdom, and goodness, among all his creatures; and distributing\nhappiness to innumerable beings of various ranks!\n\nWhen we consider the infinite power and goodness of God; the latter\ninclining, the former enabling him to make creatures suited to all\nstates and circumstances; that matter exists only for the sake of\nintelligent beings; and that wherever we see it, we always find it\npregnant with life, or necessarily subservient thereto; the numberless\nspecies, the astonishing diversity of animals in earth, air, water, and\neven on other animals; every blade of grass, every tender leaf, every\nnatural fluid, swarming with life; and every one of these enjoying\nsuch gratifications as the nature and state of each requires: when\nwe reflect also, that some centuries ago, till experience undeceived\nus, a great part of the earth was judged uninhabitable; the Torrid\nZone, by reason of excessive heat, and the two Frigid Zones because of\ntheir intolerable cold; it seems highly probable, that these numerous\nand large masses of the planets are not destitute of beings capable\nof contemplating with wonder, and acknowledging with gratitude, the\nwisdom, symmetry, and beauty of the creation. It is an undoubted\ntruth, that wherever God exerts his power, there also he manifests his\nwisdom and goodness.\n\nFrom what we know of our own system, it may be reasonably concluded,\nthat all the rest are with equal wisdom contrived, situated, and\nprovided with accommodations for rational inhabitants. Taking a survey\nof the system to which we belong; the only one accessible to us; from\nthence we are the better enabled to judge of the nature and end of the\nother systems of the universe. For although there is almost an infinite\nvariety in the parts of the creation which we have opportunities\nof examining, yet there is a general analogy running through and\nconnecting all the parts into one scheme, one design, one whole!\n\nThe stars, being at such immense distances from the sun, cannot\npossibly receive from him so strong a light as they seem to have; nor\nany brightness sufficient to make them visible to us. For the sun\u2019s\nrays must be scattered and dissipated before they reach such remote\nobjects, that they can never be transmitted back to our eyes, so as to\nrender these objects visible by reflection.\n\n    \u201cI launch into the trackless deeps of space,\n    Where, burning round, ten thousand suns appear\n    Of elder beam, which ask no leave to shine\n    Of our terrestrial star, nor borrow light\n    From the proud regent of our scanty day.\u201d\n\nThe stars, therefore, shine with their own native and unborrowed\nlustre, as the sun does; and since each particular star, as well as the\nsun, is confined to a particular portion of space, it is plain, that\nthe stars are of the same nature with the sun.\n\nIt is not probable that the Almighty, who always acts with infinite\nwisdom, and does nothing in vain, should create so many suns, fit for\nso many important purposes, and place them at such distances from\none another, without proper objects near enough to be benefited by\ntheir influences. Whoever imagines they were created only to give a\nfaint glimmering light to the inhabitants of this globe, must have a\nvery superficial knowledge of astronomy, and a mean opinion of the\nDivine wisdom: since, by a much less exertion of creating power, God\ncould have given to our earth considerably more light by one single\nadditional moon. Since the fixed stars are prodigious globes of light\nand heat, like our sun, and at inconceivable distances from one\nanother, as well as from us, it is reasonable to conclude they are made\nfor the same purposes that the sun is; each to bestow light, heat, and\nproduce vegetation, on a certain number of inhabited planets, kept by\ngravitation within the sphere of its activity.\n\nInstead then of one sun, and one world only, in the universe, as the\nunskilful in astronomy imagine, that science discovers to us such an\ninconceivable number of suns, systems, and worlds, dispersed through\nboundless space, that if our sun, with all the planets, moons, and\ncomets belonging to it, were annihilated, they would with difficulty be\nmissed, by an eye that could take in the whole creation; the space they\npossess being comparatively so small that it would scarce be a sensible\nblank in the universe, although Herschell, or the Georgium Sidus, the\nmost remote of our planets, revolves about the sun in an orbit whose\nmean distance from the sun is 1,822,575,228 miles, and some of our\ncomets make excursions to an amazing distance beyond the bounds of that\nplanet: and yet, they are incomparably nearer to the sun than to any\nof the stars; as is evident from their keeping clear of the attractive\npower of all the stars, and returning periodically by the virtue of the\nsun\u2019s attraction.\n\n\u201cIn the immensity of God\u2019s creation,\u201d says a learned author, \u201cwe may\nreadily conceive one system of heavenly bodies, and others beyond them,\nand others still in endless progression, through the whole vortex of\nspace! Every _star_ in the vast abyss of nature being a _sun_, with its\npeculiar and numerous attendant worlds. Thus there may be systems of\nsystems, in endless gradation, up to the throne of God!\u201d\n\n    \u201cOh, for a telescope HIS THRONE to reach!\n    Tell me ye learn\u2019d on earth, or blest above!\n    Where your great Master\u2019s orb? His planets where?\n                      On nature\u2019s Alps I stand\n    And see a thousand firmaments beneath!\n    A thousand systems as a thousand grains!\n    _Each_ of these STARS is a _religious house_;\n    I saw their altars smoke, their incense rise,\n    And heard Hosannas ring through _ev\u2019ry sphere_;\n    A seminary fraught with future gods!\n    Oh, what a root! Oh, what a branch is here!\n    Oh, what a Father! What a family!\n    Worlds, systems, and creations!---- And creations\n    In one agglomerated cluster hung,\n    Great _Vine_! on THEE; on THEE the cluster hangs;\n    The filial cluster! infinitely spread\n    In glowing globes, with various being fraught;\n    And drinks (nectareous draught!) immortal life!\u201d\n\nWhat an august! what an amazing conception, if human imagination can\nconceive it, does this give of the works of the Creator! Thousands\nof thousands of suns, multiplied without end, and ranged all around\nus, at immense distances from each other, attended by ten thousand\ntimes ten thousand worlds, all in rapid motion, yet calm, regular,\nand harmonious, invariably keeping the paths prescribed them; and\nthese worlds peopled with myriads of intelligent creatures, formed\nfor endless progression in perfection and felicity. If so much power,\nwisdom, goodness, and magnificence, is displayed in the material\ncreation, which is the least considerable part of the universe,\nhow great, how wise, how good must He be, who made and governs the\nwhole![138]\n\nThe persuasion that rational beings inhabit other worlds, has a\npowerful tendency to excite our curiosity.\n\n    \u201cYe sparkling isles of light that stud the sea\n    Of empyrean ether! Ye abodes\n    Of unknown myriads, spirits, or in bands\n    Held of corporeal frame! Fain would my soul\n    A thirst for knowledge unreveal\u2019d to man,\n    Question your habitants, and fain would hear\n    A voice responsive from your distant bourn.\n    Tell, tell me who possess your radiant climes;\n    What are their forms, their faculties, their hopes,\n    Their fears, if subject or to hope or fear?\n    What fond pursuits, what animating toils\n    Diversify existence with delight?\n    Rove they in course a\u00ebrial unconfined\n    From sphere to sphere, with interchange of joy\n    Heightening their mutual bliss; or dwell they fix\u2019d,\n    Each in his native solitary orb,\n    Unconscious of the lot of neighboring worlds?\n    What homage, what returns of grateful love\n    Yield they to Him who made them? Stand they fast\n    In undecaying blessedness, secure\n    From risk of loss: or tread they yet the stage\n    Of perilous probation? Hath sin won\n    Conquests through disobedience o\u2019er those hosts\n    In your bright regions yawn the gates of Death?\n    Falls he, who falls, for ever?--Power supreme\n    Pardon the aspiring thoughts that would presume\n    To pierce the veil which shrowds from mortal eye\n    The wonders of thy realms! Enough, to know\n    That Thou art Lord! Thy universal love\n    Pervades Creation; on each living form\n    Showers down its proper happiness; and, when guilt\n    Wakes thy reluctant vengeance, stays the bolt\n    Of wrath, and pales its mitigated fire!\u201d[139]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nStars are the hieroglyphics used to express both rulers and teachers;\ntherefore they may with great propriety be applied to the pastors of\nthe church. The Jews, says Dr. Doddridge, are said to have called\ntheir teachers _stars_. They are represented under that emblem in the\nRevelation, where St. John, speaking of our Lord, says, \u201cHe had in his\nright hand seven stars;\u201d and the allegorical explanation is, \u201cThe seven\nstars which thou sawest in my right hand are the angels (or ministers)\nof the seven churches,\u201d namely, in Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamos,\nThyatira, Sardis, Philadelphia, Laodicea. By \u03b1\u03b3\u03b3\u03b5\u03bb\u03bf\u03b9, _angels_, we are\nto understand the _messengers_ or persons whom God sent to preside\nover these churches. \u201cAngel of the church,\u201d in this place, says a\nlearned author, answers exactly to that officer of the synagogue\namong the Jews, called \u05e9\u05dc\u05d9\u05d7 \u05e6\u05d9\u05d1\u05d5\u05e8 _sheliach tsibbor_, the messenger\nof the church, whose business it was to _read_, _pray_, and _teach_,\nin the synagogue. The ministers of the gospel bear this allegorical\ndesignation.\n\n1. Because, like stars in the firmament, they are placed in a _high\nsituation_ in the church. Eliphaz says, \u201cBehold the height of the\nstars, how high they are!\u201d The sacred office is the highest that men\ncan occupy, both in point of rank and importance; and therefore the\nviews, dispositions, and deportment of ministers, should accord with\nit. They should not be sordid in their attachments, nor grovelling\nin their pursuits. A predilection for lucrative places, and worldly\nhonors, is inconsistent with the sanctity of their character, and the\ndesign of their profession. As they are in a station above others, so\ntheir minds should have a high elevation, contemplating spiritual and\ndivine things, with intense application, and holy delight. The glories\nof the new Jerusalem, and the felicities of the celestial Paradise,\nare subjects which should engross their thoughts, and be exhibited\nin their official ministrations. They should look on all debasing\npleasures, fleeting honors, and perishing riches, as things vastly\nbelow the dignity of their character, and contrary to the objects of\ntheir professional engagements. They have higher considerations to\nexcite their solicitude, and more important affairs to employ their\npowers, than to spend their time in things, which neither can afford\nthem any rational satisfaction, nor are of long duration. St. James\ncalls their attention to what is of most interest to them, where he\nsays, that \u201che who converteth a sinner from the error of his way shall\nsave a soul from death, and shall hide a multitude of sins.\u201d Success is\nthe most valuable remuneration, and should actuate ministers both in\ntheir private studies, and their public labors.\n\n2. Because of the _beneficial effects_ of their ministerial labors,\nbeing useful to men, in affording them light, direction, and comfort;\nand, consequently, the need the church has of them. Gospel ministers\nare as necessary to the moral world, during the present state of\nthings, as the sun, moon, and stars are in the universe. A church\nwithout such helps, would be like a firmament deprived of globular\nlights. Ministers, with the bright rays of heavenly doctrine, dispel\nthe darkness of ignorance, chase away the clouds of error, scatter\nthe mists of prejudice, disperse the fogs of vice, from the human\nmind. As stars engage the attention, and draw the eyes of persons\ntoward heaven, presenting in themselves astonishing displays of the\ninfinite perfections of wisdom, power, and goodness: so it is the work\nof ministers to endeavor to excite people to the contemplation of\nDivine things--to behold through the medium of the sacred Writings,\nthe mediatorial character of Christ, the results of his passion, the\nprevalence of his intercession, the happiness of his subjects, and the\nglories of his kingdom. As the stars serve for guides to seafaring\nmen, while traversing the untrodden paths of the swelling ocean; so\nthese symbolical stars are guides to those who embark in the vessel\nof the church, directing her course, through the inconstant sea of\nthis tumultuous and fluctuating world, to the harbor of everlasting\nrest. And as an extraordinary star in the east directed the wise men\nto Bethlehem, where Christ was born; so it devolves upon ministers, as\nstars of the church, to conduct inquiring sinners to Jesus, who is able\nand willing to save them from their sins, and bless them with holiness\nand eternal life. They may with propriety adopt the language of an old\npoet:--\n\n    \u201cOh that his light and influence\n      Would work effectually in me\n      Another new Epiphany,\n    Exhale and elevate me hence:\n\n    That as my calling doth require,\n      Star-like I may to others shine;\n      And guide them to that Sun divine,\n    Whose day-light never shall expire.\u201d\n\n3. All the light that ministers communicate to mankind, or to\nthe members of the church, is derived from Christ, the Sun of\nRighteousness, as the light of the planets is from the natural sun.\nThe pastors of the church have neither light nor grace of themselves:\nthey receive all from the \u201cFather of lights,\u201d in whose light only they\ncan see light; and it pleased him that in Christ should \u201call fulness\ndwell.\u201d Both ministers and people must be enlightened with emanations\nfrom him, or remain in darkness. St. Paul frankly acknowledges, \u201cBy the\ngrace of God I am what I am.\u201d Without him, the most eminent minister\nwould be like a dark lamp. Hence they have no reason to be proud of\ntheir qualifications; for they have received all their gifts and\ngraces from Christ. Their fitness for the ministerial work is not to\nbe ascribed either to their natural powers, the force of a superior\ngenius, a liberal education, intense study, or even to goodness and\npiety, but to the gratuitous bounty of God only. So likewise, whatever\nsuccess in the exercise of those gifts and graces they may have had,\nit flowed not from such sources, but from Christ. \u201cI have planted,\u201d\nsays St. Paul, \u201cand Apollos watered; but God gave the increase.\u201d The\nlargest planets are inconsiderable in comparison of the sun, which is\nthe great natural fountain of light and heat. The holy prophets are\nnothing when brought into contrast with Jesus Christ. And John the\nBaptist, though superior to all his predecessors, conscious of his own\nvast inferiority, confessed, \u201cHe it is who coming after me is preferred\nbefore me, whose shoe\u2019s latchet I am not worthy to unloose.\u201d--As the\nplanets shine with no other light than that derived from the sun;\nso ministers are to be resplendent only with the radiance of Divine\ntruth, received from the eternal Fountain of illumination. They are\nnot to shine with the glimmering light of fallable reason, the sparks\nof human wisdom, the glow-worm rays of vain philosophy; not with the\nsubtlety of Aristotle, the penetration of Cartes, the eloquence of\nCicero, the speculations of Plato, the propositions of Euclid; but\nwith the correct and comprehensive knowledge of the Scripture, which\nis \u201cgiven by inspiration of God, and is profitable for doctrine, for\nreproof, for correction, and for instruction in righteousness; that\nthe man of God may be perfect, thoroughly furnished unto all good\nworks.\u201d In a lower sense, it must be acknowledged, that human learning\nis of considerable use, affording ministers certain qualifications\nfor their work. The knowledge of the languages, moral and natural\nphilosophy, sacred and profane history, mathematical science, the art\nof speaking, particularly those branches of logic which teach us to\nrange our thoughts in a right method, to form propositions distinctly,\nand to draw just conclusions from acknowledged premises: I say, the\nknowledge of these different branches of literature and science, may\nvery much assist ministers to discover and defend the truth, and refute\nits adversaries with their own weapons. But they must derive all their\npeculiar lustre and excellence from the volume of Divine inspiration,\nwhence, as chosen instruments, they can make people wise to salvation.\n\n4. Ministers are like the stars of heaven, because of the difference\nthat is among them, in respect of gifts and ability. The stars differ\nfrom one another in situation, magnitude, influence, and glory. \u201cThere\nis one glory of the sun, another glory of the moon, and another glory\nof the stars: for one star differeth from another star in glory.\u201d\nThe gradation extends from stars of the first to those of the sixth\nmagnitude. Some are so dazzling, that they appear with a peculiar\nsplendor among the shining beauties of the night: others are obscure\nand nebulous; and there are many which can only be seen with the\nhelp of telescopes. The stars of the moral hemisphere are not all\nenlightened, \u201cby the Day-spring from on high,\u201d with the same degree of\nintellectual and Divine radiance. They have not all the same gifts, nor\ngifts in the same measure. Profound knowledge, excellency of speech,\nsolidity and firmness of judgment, prudence and dexterity of conduct,\nare not usually the portion of one, but distributed among several\nministers. One excels in a talent for preaching, another is eminent\nfor utterance and power in prayer, and another is distinguished by\nwisdom and stability for government. Paul was sublime and cogent in\nreasoning; Apollos was copious, eloquent, and mighty in the Scriptures;\nJohn soars high in mysteries, and yet excels in sweetness; Isaiah is\npompous and magnificent in his style; David charms and surprises us at\nthe same time, with his ecstatic raptures and poetic strains. In the\nlargest assembly of ministers there are not two alike, far less equal\nin all things. Some, like stars of the first magnitude, shine with\ngreat brilliancy: others have rays which are weak and obscure. Some are\nprudent, but not eloquent. Some have the gift of preaching, but are not\nremarkable for prudence and moderating their passions. Some have the\nart of affecting the passions: others have the skill of enlightening\nthe mind, and informing the judgment. Some, appearing as if formed\nin a finer mould, have a talent of politeness and address, in their\nintercourse with people of character. Some, like skillful physicians,\nknow how to deal with afflicted souls, and relieve wounded consciences.\nSome are sons of thunder, while others are sons of consolation. Though\nevery minister should have a competency of each of these gifts, yet\nsome excel in one, and some in another. Thus \u201cthere are diversities of\ngifts, but the same Spirit;\u201d and God, in diversifying his gifts, makes\nhis manifold wisdom appear. The Christians at Corinth not understanding\nthis, or too emulous for the first-rate talent, without sufficiently\nregarding Divine agency, which can render the meanest useful, became\nclamorous, and their indecorous conduct is held up to all succeeding\nages, with the censure they deservedly merited. However, to calm their\nperturbation, he says, \u201cTherefore let no man glory in men. For all\nthings are yours; whether Paul, or Apollos, or Cephas; and ye are\nChrist\u2019s; and Christ is God\u2019s.\u201d\n\n5. While some stars disappear, others arise that were not previously\nobserved. \u201cYour fathers, where are they? and the prophets, do they live\nforever?\u201d Many, \u201cof whom the world was not worthy,\u201d who were bold to\nsuffer for the name of Christ, not only the spoiling of their goods,\nthe loss of liberty, and banishment from their native country, but\neven death itself, have rested from their labors and afflictions, and\nare now enjoying a glorious reward. The Lord also sometimes raises\nup extraordinary lights, for asserting and propagating the truth,\nwhen his church is overwhelmed with the dark clouds of heresy and\nsuperstition. Of this Moses, Joshua, Elijah, and Elisha, as well as\nmany other prophets, whom the Lord called in an extraordinary manner,\nwere remarkable instances, in the Old Testament: and, in the New\nTestament, John the Baptist, and the apostles of Christ, whose voices\nwere heard, and whose rays extended to the ends of the earth. When the\nChristian church was covered with the dark superstition and idolatry\nof antichrist, God raised up some eminent lights, from time to time,\nto diffuse the pure doctrines of the Gospel, and lead the people out\nof mystic Babylon. Such were John Wickliffe in England, John Huss and\nJerome of Prague in Bohemia; and, a hundred years afterwards, Luther\nin Germany, Zuinglius in Switzerland, Calvin in France and Geneva,\nand John Knox in Scotland, whom Beza calls the apostle of the Scots.\nThen did the Gospel run, and was glorified, like a mighty torrent\ncarrying before it not only cities and provinces, but whole nations\nand kingdoms.[140] Actuated by zeal for religion, says a clergyman of\nthe Establishment, \u201cWickliffe, Jerome, and Huss, roused the slumbering\nclergy to opposition. The zeal of Luther and his associates alarmed all\nGermany, and shook the Papal throne itself. Gilpin alone, in a dark\nperiod, evangelized a large part of the northern counties of England.\nCranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, by their steady perseverance unto death,\nilluminated the British Isles. The zeal of Whitefield and the two\nWesleys has, even in our day, made England, Scotland, Ireland, and\nAmerica, experience very important consequences.\u201d Missionaries actuated\nby primitive zeal, and sent out by different societies to preach the\nGospel among Heathen nations, like burning luminaries are chasing away\nthe darkness of ignorance, gross superstition, and degrading idolatry,\nand, on their ruins, establishing the kingdom of Christ, and the reign\nof truth, peace, righteousness, and benevolence, in the earth.\n\n6. Ministers, considered as stars placed in the moral firmament, should\nshine with purity of doctrine, fervency of zeal, and holiness of life,\nboth in the summer of prosperity, and in the winter of adversity. 1st.\nIn the _solemn assemblies_ of God\u2019s people. Jerome says, Our pulpit\nshould be as Mount Tabor, where we should converse with Moses and the\nProphets, Christ and his Apostles, minding that we have to do with a\nholy God, and with the immortal souls of people, which must be shortly\neither in heaven or hell. 2d. Amongst _their flocks_, by an innocent,\ninstructive, and pious conversation, giving them no encouragement, by\ntheir example, to sin; but alluring them to better worlds, and pointing\nout the way thither. Their whole life should be a transcript of the\nholy life of the blessed Jesus, a living epistle in which the people\nmay read the way wherein they ought to walk. 3d. In _their families_.\nA minister should be \u201cone that ruleth well his own house,\u201d properly\npresiding over and governing his own family: \u201cfor if a man know not how\nto rule his own house, how shall he take care of the church of God?\u201d\nEli\u2019s conduct brought heavy judgments on himself and family, and a\ngreat scandal on the church.\n\n\n_Theory of the earth._\n\n    [Such intimations and analogies as can be drawn from nature\n    may, with propriety, be applied to the explanation of natural\n    phenomena, in the absence of direct and satisfactory proof.\n    Allowing this assumption, we conclude that the intimations\n    and analogies in nature are sufficiently strong and clear to\n    authorize a belief, _that all heavenly bodies are similar in\n    their great constitutional principles, and designs, and that\n    our earth may be taken as a fair and satisfactory sample of\n    them all_.\n\n    The only probable departure from this strong analogy in\n    the heavenly bodies, seems to be this: the _suns_, or _centres\n    of systems_, have a peculiar collection of phosphorescent\n    clouds, which are designed to be the great exciting causes, or\n    dispensers, of light to the planets which move round them. The\n    planets have not these phosphorescent clouds.\n\n    This does not interfere with the _general_ analogies\n    between the heavenly bodies; and establishes the _strict\n    analogies_ between the planets of all systems; and the suns, or\n    centres of all systems.\n\n    From all this we conclude, that a theory of _our earth_\n    which is satisfactory, will also be deemed satisfactory in\n    regard to the other heavenly bodies. We therefore lay down,\n    as authorized by the intimations and analogies of nature, the\n    following positions.\n\n    1. _There is a general analogy between the constitutional\n    principles and designs of the heavenly bodies; i.e. the suns\n    and their planets._\n\n    2. _That the sun, or center of each system, with all\n    the planets and satellites revolving about it, were created\n    simultaneously, as it regards their substances._\n\n    3. _That they were created at their relative distances from\n    the centre which they now preserve._\n\n    4. _That they were stationary when first created, having no\n    motion either on their axis, or in their orbits._\n\n    5. _That the materials of each body, when first created,\n    were solid, frozen, and lifeless._\n\n    6. _That the materials of each body were created in their\n    simple, uncombined, or elementary states._\n\n    7. _That it is most probable these elementary materials\n    were promiscuous in the mass, without regard to specific\n    gravity, or any other principle or law._\n\n    8. _That the arrangement of the materials of which our\n    earth is composed was effected by the operation of the laws\n    of nature, as they are called, which were simultaneously\n    impressed upon the matter of the Solar System, and is continued\n    impressed, by the direct agency of the Divine Being._\n\n    9. _That this reference of the commencement, and\n    continuance of the energies of the laws of nature, directly\n    to the Almighty, is both philosophical and scriptural; and is\n    noted by Moses in these words: \u201cAnd the spirit of God moved\n    upon the face of the waters (or deep.\u201d)_\n\n    Reasoning from these data, let us now see whether the\n    phenomena of the structure and arrangement of our planet are\n    explicable to a satisfactory degree.\n\n    1. Immediately upon the impress of the laws of nature, by\n    the direct effort of the Divine Being, the whole mass would\n    commence revolving on its own axis, and moving around its\n    centre in its orbit. At the same time a quickening impulse\n    would be felt, from the operation of the laws of nature, which\n    would impart life and animation to the mass. The first effect\n    of this impulse would be to call the _caloric_, light, and\n    electricity into action throughout the body. This would raise\n    its temperature instantly, and call into action all the other\n    powerful agents, as soon as formed: such as the acids, alkalis,\n    &c.\n\n    2. There will be no difficulty, to those who know the power\n    of these agents, in believing _that the consequence of their\n    united action would be an immediate fusion of the whole mass_.\n    This would establish a state of _chemical mobility_; i.e. the\n    various materials, owing to their fusion, would be at liberty\n    to _combine_, according to the laws of chemical affinity; and\n    to take their relative positions, according to the laws of\n    gravitation.\n\n    3. The result of this process would be binary, and ternary,\n    and other combinations. Oxygen would enter into combination\n    with the bases of the various acids, and thus form the acids;\n    and with the various metals and thus form oxides; and the acids\n    and oxides would unite and thus form other compounds, commonly\n    called _salts_.\n\n    4. As such combinations as these would commence forming\n    first, water and air would be gradually and subsequently\n    formed, by the three gasses, oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen,\n    escaping from the mass and rising to the surface, where the\n    oxygen combining with the hydrogen would form water; and with\n    the nitrogen would form air.\n\n    5. It is evident that the very small specific gravity of\n    the gases would cause them to escape from the interior parts of\n    the earth, rapidly, and to accumulate at the surface in immense\n    quantities. The consequence of this would be, _an immense\n    amount of water would be generated at the earth\u2019s surface; but\n    the oxidizable bodies in the interior of the mass would not,\n    all of them, be completely saturated with oxygen_.\n\n    6. The condition of the earth, at this stage of the action,\n    would be an inconceivably high state of ignition, specially\n    in the interior, and a rapid chemical action still going on;\n    the combinations still forming, and the bodies thus formed\n    arranging themselves. In a very little time the various classes\n    of bodies would have obtained, generally, their natural\n    relative positions, according to their specific gravities; and\n    all the combinable elements, in the same neighborhood, having\n    combined, a state of comparative rest would ensue of course.\n\n    7. In the mean time, large quantities of different\n    substances would be held in solution by the acids, alkalis, and\n    water, whose solvent powers would be very much increased by the\n    presence of intense heat.\n\n    8. If we examine the whole mass at this stage of the\n    natural process, we will find it is in a condition to\n    _crystallize_ whenever it can be _reduced_ to a sufficiently\n    low temperature to admit of crystallization. We know that the\n    reduction of temperature would commence at the surface, where\n    the caloric would be conducted upwards through the waters, and\n    would fly off into the celestial spaces. Of course, the first\n    crystallized depositions would take place _at the junction of\n    the waters with the oxides or earths, in a state of fusion, on\n    which the lower stratum of water was resting_.\n\n    9. This first deposition would extend all around the globe,\n    as the waters _entirely invested_ the earth, and would lay the\n    _foundation of the primitive family of rocks_, which are well\n    known to be crystalline in their structure, and the result\n    of chemical action. It is, however, evident that there were\n    occasional tremendous agitations, and concussions during the\n    deposition of the primitive rocks, which altered the state of\n    the fluids, and caused successive, and, sometimes, alternating\n    strata to deposit.\n\n    10. The period of the deposition of the primitive rocks\n    continued until the elevations on the earth\u2019s surface were\n    uncovered, became dry, and were subject to the disintegrating,\n    and rending powers of the elements: at which time some marine\n    animals, and some vegetables, adapted to warm and moist\n    climates, were created. The consequence of this state of\n    things would be that fragments of rocks, and marine animal and\n    vegetable remains would be found in the composition of the\n    strata deposited at this period, and subsequently. The family\n    of rocks thus deposited is called _transition_ rocks.\n\n    11. This is the proper place to institute an inquiry into\n    the origin of these _primitive elevations or mountains_.\n\n    12. It will be very obvious, that a mass of materials\n    thrown into chemical action, and raised to a very high\n    temperature, as explained above, would naturally, and\n    necessarily be upheaved at different points on its surface,\n    by the gases, and other bodies escaping from the interior.\n    And though the general softness of the mass would cause these\n    elevations to sink back again _at first_, upon the escape\n    of the gaseous bodies upheaving them; yet, when the surface\n    of the earth, which would cool by coming into contact with\n    the water, would thus begin to become solid, _the elevations\n    would maintain themselves, and consolidate_, and thus lay\n    the foundations of the irregularities which, subsequently,\n    would rise into mountains, and mountain chains, and sink into\n    vallies, by the combined action of the internal heat, and the\n    occasional rapid rise and subsidence of the waters, which would\n    alter the shape and appearance of the mountains, and deepen the\n    vallies.\n\n    13. But it becomes very natural to inquire into the cause\n    of the rapid rise, and subsidence of the waters at particular\n    times; which will also explain the cause of the distinctions\n    so obvious in the nature and ages of the different families of\n    rocks.\n\n    14. It will be recollected that the interior parts of\n    the earth are in a state of high ignition, and an immense\n    quantity of water surrounds the globe, the crust of which\n    is consolidating. By the natural pressure of the water, by\n    an occasional eruption of gas from the interior, and by\n    percolation, &c, the water would have access to the interior\n    materials in a heated state. In this case there would be an\n    immense production of steam, and decomposition of water, which\n    would of course produce an earthquake, until it broke forth in\n    a volcano under the waters. In this case an _elevation_ would\n    be produced on the surface, and, in all probability, a _cavity_\n    in the interior from whence the elevated materials came.\n\n    15. These phenomena would happen in quick succession, and\n    very extensively in the first period of the world; and every\n    time they happened, they would _reduce_ the quantity of water\n    at the surface, by admitting some into the interior cavities;\n    and by decomposing much; the oxygen and hydrogen of which would\n    enter into other combinations.\n\n    16. This will account for the rise and subsidence of the\n    waters, the formation of vallies, and mountains, and the\n    alterations in the fluids, so as to deposit the different\n    strata in succession.\n\n    17. During this process above, cavities sufficiently\n    numerous and capacious, filled with water, would be formed\n    in the earth to relieve the surface, in a great measure. But\n    it seems pretty evident that the waters thus retired into\n    those cavities were occasionally thrown back on the earth,\n    by the same means with which earthquakes and volcanos are\n    produced; and thus tremendous currents would ensue, which would\n    successively bury the vegetable materials in the adjoining\n    lakes, out of which the coal basins are formed; and also bury\n    those immense forests of trees, with the bones of animals, and\n    fishes also, which have been so clearly and satisfactorily\n    described by geologists.\n\n    18. Each successive deluge, in proportion to its power and\n    extent, would alter the quantity and quality of the materials\n    held in solution, and thus cause a corresponding deposition\n    subsequently. Hence, as remarked above, the distinction in\n    the strata, and the alternations of different substances\n    successively.\n\n    19. It may not be amiss here to say, it is very probable,\n    that many deluges preceded the formation of man, produced on\n    the same principles as the deluge of Noah, though for different\n    purposes, according to the wishes of the Divine Being.\n\n    20. To what has been said above, it is only necessary\n    to add, that all depositions, or formations of rocks took\n    place _at the bottom of the ocean_, or waters which held\n    the materials in solution, or suspended; and that this\n    ocean maintained its dominion for long periods together, in\n    comparative tranquility, and during such times the different\n    rock formations were deposited. The marine animals would\n    multiply, die, and their exuvi\u00e6 quietly fall to the bottom: at\n    the same time carbonate of lime would be copiously deposited\n    from the sea waters, and thus would consolidate into a stratum\n    of rock, the thickness of which would bear some proportion to\n    the length of the period of its deposition. If this stratum\n    _remained in its place_, upon the retiring of the sea, it would\n    appear at the surface at first; until it was covered with\n    mould, and the ruins of other rocks disintegrated into earth,\n    or soil. But if it were _upheaved_ by the force of the internal\n    fire, it would become a _limestone mountain_, containing the\n    organic remains as they were first quietly deposited. The same\n    may be said of primitive mountains, or any other kind.\n\n    21. The _transition_ rocks, the formation of which was\n    barely noticed above, (No. 10) were deposited successively\n    in strata, indicating their relative ages by the increase of\n    rocky fragments, and fossil remains in their composition,\n    from the oldest of the family to the newest: and also by the\n    gradual change in their structure, which is more crystalline\n    in the oldest, and becomes less so in the newest, owing to the\n    decrease of chemical action, and the increase of mechanical\n    deposition.\n\n    22. From the fossil remains in the different strata of the\n    transition rocks, we have good evidence of successive deluges,\n    which swept away the animals existing at the time, and buried\n    their remains which are now found in a fossil state; and others\n    succeeded them. This will account for particular animals being\n    peculiar to particular strata of rocks.\n\n    23. During the transition period the chemical action ceased\n    almost entirely, and the succeeding family of rocks, i.e. the\n    _secondary_, was deposited _mechanically_, their materials\n    being merely _suspended_ in the waters. This class, therefore,\n    is not crystalline in its structure, and is nearly horizontal\n    in position and contains greater quantities of fossil remains,\n    both of animals and vegetables. These remains are, also, the\n    relics of beings more delicately organized, and approach much\n    nearer to the genera and species of animals now existing.\n\n    24. During the deposition of this class of rocks, and also\n    of the _tertiary_ class which succeeded it, the sea retired far\n    from the up-lands, and well nigh into its permanent beds. The\n    up-lands would, by the disintegrating power of the elements, be\n    worn away at their surface, and thus afford the matter of soil,\n    which would naturally be carried down towards the final retreat\n    of the sea, by the waters, and be deposited in the vallies,\n    and low countries. The same process would furnish fragments of\n    rocks in abundance, and of all kinds, which would be rolled\n    down the declivities of the up-lands, and become more or less\n    rounded, and thus be found entering into the rocks of the\n    secondary and tertiary classes; or in beds of sand and gravel,\n    or in the channels of rivers in the form of _pebbles_. If these\n    fragments were thrown together in sufficient quantities, and a\n    suitable cement deposited among them they would consolidate and\n    form _pudding-stone_, or breccia marble; such as the Potomac\n    marble, of which the columns in the Capitol at Washington City\n    are made.\n\n    25. It is very evident that this process would deposit\n    the heavier fragments, and materials nearest the highlands\n    whence they originated; and carry the finer and richer matter\n    further away towards the sea, and deposit it nearer the mouths\n    of the rivers. This is well known to be the case, as in the\n    Mississippi. Here the phenomena are doubtless, from the mouth,\n    along all its tributaries to their sources.\n\n    26. While these successive depositions were making,\n    modified by tremendous eruptions from the force of subterranean\n    fire, the same agent of these modifications would produce\n    another very striking phenomena. The immense quantity of matter\n    thrown from the interior to the surface in a melted state,\n    would either shoot up in the form of cones, or columns, and\n    by cooling crystallize and consolidate; or would flow in its\n    melted state over the surface of the upper rocks, and thus\n    cover them. This is the case with a class of rocky substances\n    which may be called by the general name of _basalt_. Sometimes\n    when the force below was not sufficient to protrude the\n    melted matter through the superincumbent rocks, it drove it\n    in _between_ the strata, or shot it up _through_ some of the\n    strata; frequently upheaving the rocks on one side of the\n    protruding body, or depressing them on the other. In this case\n    the injected matter constitutes what is called a _fault_,\n    _shaft_, or _dike_, by miners.\n\n    27. It is not improbable, nay, it is pretty certain, that\n    many of these basaltic ejections took place under the ancient\n    chaotic abyss of waters, and have become visible by the\n    retiring of the sea.\n\n    28. In this theory we have a satisfactory explanation\n    of the formation of _metallic veins_, and the _dispersion_\n    of metallic grains in sands, and soil. The metals being in\n    a pure state, or nearly so, in the bowels of the earth when\n    _projected_ upwards by the force of subterranean power,\n    would be _injected_ into the rocks in the direction of the\n    operating force. Hence they are found in veins in solid rocks,\n    running in all directions, and descending to unknown depths.\n    Sometimes the whole of the vein appears to be _insulated_ by\n    the rock. In this case, the whole mass was _fused_, at least\n    partly, and when the force ceased to act, it would consolidate\n    around the injected metal, leaving no trace of its injection.\n    Sometimes the metallic vein evidently entered the rock _from\n    above_. In this case the metal in a _melted_ state was thrown\n    to the surface, and _meeting with a chasm, ran into it and\n    consolidated into a vein_. When the metal was raised from\n    below in a state of fusion in conjunction with an immense\n    mass of rocky matter in a state of fusion, they would appear\n    at the surface mixed throughout. When this rocky mass yielded\n    to the disintegrating power of the elements, the particles\n    of the metal and rock would be carried off together into the\n    lower positions, and be found in the form of _dust_, in the\n    secondary, or lower countries.\n\n    29. The shape of the earth, in regard to which it is said\n    the polar diameter is less than the equatorial, would be the\n    same on the above theory, as it has been shown to be, on the\n    supposition that the earth was in a soft state by the solvent\n    powers of water, as commonly supposed.\n\n    30. It is a matter of peculiar pleasure to the Christian\n    philosopher, to observe the strong tendency in the Science of\n    Geology, to confirm the account of the creation of the world,\n    as given by Moses in the Bible. By a careful comparison of the\n    account of Moses with well established geological positions,\n    it will be found that _they agree expressly, in the_ ORDER\n    _and_ NATURE _of the events_. This is a splendid evidence in\n    favor of revelation. There can be no doubt, but, that if the\n    phenomena of nature, and the teachings of the Bible were better\n    understood, more striking and unexpected agreements would be\n    found. Religion and Science will one day be inseparable.\n\n\n    _Remarks._\n\n    1. It will be necessary for the reader to peruse the above\n    theory very attentively, in order to form a correct judgment\n    of it, as it is merely an _outline_, very briefly drawn up,\n    yet it is hoped, pretty clearly. Whether it be well calculated\n    to explain the great leading geological phenomena which we\n    observe, the reader will determine for himself. It was not\n    drawn up _in view_ of such explanation, but was constructed\n    by _induction_ from those well ascertained phenomena. It was\n    drawn up _out of view_ of any ultimate object, or system,\n    _previously_ embraced, and is even _different_ from the\n    writer\u2019s previous opinions, before he had diligently compared\n    all the facts within his reach. It is therefore entitled to the\n    merit of having been drawn up with a sincere desire to attain\n    to truth on this interesting subject, and not to support a\n    favorite theory.\n\n    2. Upon examination it will be found to reconcile, in a\n    great measure, the _Vulcanian_ and _Neptunian_ theories which\n    have so long divided the principal writers on Geology. It\n    will be found that both _fire_ and _water_ were concerned in\n    producing the great geological phenomena. It cannot be doubted\n    but that subterranean force _commenced_ the irregularities on\n    our earth\u2019s surface, and continued the action, probably with\n    occasional intermissions, in upheaving the mountains, and\n    mountain chains: but as this was commenced, and principally\n    accomplished, _under_ the ancient sea, there can be no doubt\n    but that the water has had a powerful and extensive agency\n    in modifying the structure and composition of mountain, and\n    moderate elevations. And while we have every reason to believe\n    the force of subterranean fire was the principal agent in\n    rending, dislocating, and confusing the rock formations of the\n    crust of our earth; we have no less reason to acknowledge the\n    agency of water in depositing the various strata; contributing\n    to the disintegration of the exposed uplands; and carrying down\n    the _alluvion_ which form the fertile tracts of vallies, and\n    low countries; and the sand bars, and banks at the outlets, of\n    rivers, bays, gulfs, &c.\n\n    3. This view will be more clearly explained by examining\n    the _shape_ of continents, islands, and countries, which will\n    be found to correspond, pretty nearly with the shape of the\n    mountain ranges in each. That is: the _length_ of a continent,\n    island, or country will be found to be _in the direction of the\n    mountain range_; and the _breadth across_ the mountain range.\n\n    4. This would be the shape which would naturally result\n    from the transition, secondary, and tertiary formations arising\n    principally from the disintegration of the materials of the\n    mountain range. This is evident from a single reflection: if a\n    _conical_ body stood in the midst of a plain, and was equally\n    exposed to a power which wore it away, the portions thus torn\n    from the body would roll down the declivity towards the base of\n    the cone, and would occupy a circle, generally speaking, of the\n    plane at the base equidistant from the body. In the same manner\n    the wasting away of the primitive elevations would deposit the\n    detritus equidistant from the foot of the range.\n\n    5. It will be obvious, however, that the conformity of\n    a country, _in shape_, to the mountain ranges which run\n    through it, will be more or less modified by adventitious\n    circumstances. If one side of the mountain range was originally\n    more precipitous than the other: or if some tremendous\n    collection or current of water lashed or swept one side, and\n    not the other, the shape of the country would be modified; but\n    not so much as to destroy the general conformity in shape. The\n    above remarks will be confirmed by an inspection of accurately\n    drawn maps.\n\n    6. Finally: Some formations are entirely owing to the\n    agency of water; as sand banks, bars, shoals, &c, and some\n    entirely owing to the action of fire, as the deposites of lava;\n    the upheaving of volcanic mountains, even in the memory of man.\n    These are _adventitious_ formations, and do not even _modify_\n    a general theory.]\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFootnotes - Chapter V\n\n    [114] Time\u2019s Telescope for 1815, Introduction.\n\n    [115] Dr. Robert Wittie, in his Survey of the Heavens,\n    makes the following observations concerning this miraculous\n    interposition of Divine providence. \u201cWe read that Joshua, in\n    his zeal against the enemies of God and his people, in the heat\n    of battle, called to the sun and moon to stand still, &c. The\n    design was that the light might be lengthened, till he might\n    destroy the army of the Amorites, and the day was accordingly\n    prolonged, as the sun went not down for the whole day, and the\n    moon also staid.--But why should Joshua call to the moon to\n    stand still, as well as the sun, which I could be of no use\n    to him, while the sun was up? To this I answer with all due\n    modesty; I do believe Joshua did call thus by inspiration, and\n    a special impulse from God upon his spirit: for that which\n    would make the sun stand still, would stay the moon. He that\n    from the hasty zealous call of this great general, shall think\n    to form an argument to prove the philosophical notion of the\n    sun\u2019s diurnal motion about the earth, by taking the words in\n    a proper literal sense, may as well go on, and eke it out a\n    little further, and then he may prove the sun to have been in\n    the next great town, Gibeon, and the moon in the valley; but if\n    to all men this latter shall be judged a weak inference, I dare\n    say, to many wise men, so will the former.\u201d P. 12, 13.\n\n    [116] Aristotle de C\u0153l. lib. ii, cap. 13.\n\n    [117] Macrob. Sat. lib. i, cap. 21.\n\n    [118] Macrob. in Somn. Scip. lib. i, cap. 20.\n\n    [119] That is, in adoration; from _ad ore_, to the mouth,\n    i.e. _hand_ to the mouth.\n\n    [120] Baseley\u2019s Glory of the Heavens, pp. 73-76.\n\n    [121] The new moon is often styled a _crescent_; a word\n    formed from the Latin _crescere_, to _grow_; and though it is\n    used from the same figure of the moon in her wane or decrease,\n    when her horns are turned towards the west, yet these horns\n    always point to the east in the just crescent.\n\n    [122] M. Schro\u00ebter, of the Royal Society of Gottingen,\n    has recently published a very curious and elaborate work\n    in German, entitled, Selenotographische Fragmente, &c, or\n    Selenotopographical Fragments, intended to promote a more\n    accurate knowledge of the moon\u2019s surface: a valuable extract\n    from which may be seen in the Pantologia, article _Moon_.\n\n    [123] See Mr. Howard\u2019s valuable paper on the Philosophical\n    Transactions for 1802, Dr. Hutton\u2019s Dissertation in the New\n    Abridgment, part xxi, and Dr. Adam Clarke on Josh. x, 11.\n\n    [124] The principal eclipse of the sun, for the present\n    century, has been already calculated, and it is fully\n    determined that it will take place in the year 1847. It will\n    be annular in this country, and several other places. Time\u2019s\n    Telescope for 1815.\n\n    The Athenians, according to Plutarch, entertained very\n    terrific ideas of eclipses of the moon. Nicias and his army,\n    when they were on the point of withdrawing secretly from\n    Sicily, without being observed or suspected by the enemy,\n    refused to embark, because the moon became suddenly eclipsed;\n    this ignorant and superstitious conduct proved fatal, for they\n    were all, shortly after, either slain or taken prisoners.\n\n    [125] A valuable correspondent writing from Matura, in\n    Ceylon, May 7, 1817, says, \u201cA festival was lately celebrated\n    here, principally on the river. A large boat was rigged for the\n    purpose, somewhat after the manner of a ship, which carried a\n    number of dancers and other persons in disguise, accompanied\n    with the music of pipes and drums. I particularly inquired into\n    the meaning of the ceremonies; and, as far as I could learn, it\n    was a celebration of the birth of the sun and moon. The world\n    is believed to have been once inhabited by holy brahmins, whose\n    bodies were transparent, and afforded sufficient light. When\n    these fell into sin, they lost their splendor, and other lights\n    became necessary.\u201d\n\n    The African negroes, in the West Indies, on seeing the new\n    moon, take out of their pocket a piece of whatever money they\n    have, and, holding it up in their hand, say, \u201cGod bless the new\n    moon, this is all I can give you; take this, and give me good\n    luck:\u201d and then throw it up toward it. After this action, they\n    believe that prosperity will attend them during the time that\n    moon continues. On embracing the Christian religion, they lay\n    aside this heathenish practice.\n\n    [126] On the dial of the cathedral at Bruges, the sun is\n    represented directing the hours, with this motto, _Non rego,\n    nisi regar_: signifying, that the sun could not rule the\n    day, if it was not first ruled itself. Had the Pagan world\n    known this truth, the greatest part of it had not fallen into\n    idolatry.\n\n    [127] Literary Panorama, for January, 1814, pp. 954, 955.\n\n    [128] \u201cAt what time the earth began to be considered,\n    or rather suspected, to be spherical,\u201d says Costard, \u201cis\n    uncertain, but probably not before the undertaking long\n    voyages; the first of which, it may be, were down the Arabian\n    Gulf, and out of the Straits of _Bab-Al-mandub_, by Europeans\n    corruptly called _Babelmandel_. What opinion was commonly\n    entertained of those who undertook those long voyages, may be\n    learned, in some measure, from this word. For _Mandub_ is one\n    that is lamented at his funeral; therefore _Bab-al-mandub_ is\n    the _gate_, or _strait_, of one lamented at his funeral; as if\n    a person sailing beyond that point, was considered as going to\n    certain death, or never to return.\u201d\n\n    [129] See Verstigan\u2019s \u201cRestitution of Decayed\n    Intelligence,\u201d Edit. 1673, pp. 64-68; and Time\u2019s Telescope.\n\n    [130] On June 14, 1815, was published the following\n    astronomical notice. The Georgium Sidus is now visible to\n    the naked eye any clear night. It souths now a little before\n    midnight, is paler and less vivid than the fixed stars near it\n    in Scorpio; it will remain in company with Arcturus for two or\n    three years, passing north of it about the middle of the year\n    1816, and veering to the east, or left hand, at the rate of 4\u00b0\n    18\u02b9 annually, being near seven years in passing one sign, and\n    near 84 in making an entire revolution.\n\n    Dr. Herschell assumes, that the eclipses of the satellites\n    of the Georgium Sidus will, in the year 1818, be visible to\n    those who possess telescopes of high magnifying powers, when\n    they will appear to ascend through the shadow of the planet in\n    the direction almost perpendicular to the ecliptic.\n\n    [131] In the year 1712, Mr. Whiston having calculated\n    the return of a comet, which was to make its appearance on\n    Wednesday, the 14th of October, at five minutes after five in\n    the morning; he gave notice to the public accordingly, with\n    this terrifying addition, that _a total dissolution of the\n    world by fire was to take place on the Friday following_. The\n    reputation Mr. Whiston had long maintained, both as a divine\n    and a philosopher, left little or no doubt with the populace\n    of the truth of his prediction. Several ludicrous events\n    took place in consequence. A number of persons in and about\n    London seized all the barges and boats they could lay their\n    hands on in the Thames, very rationally concluding, that when\n    the conflagration took place, there would be the most safety\n    on the water. A gentleman who had neglected _family prayer_\n    for longer than five years, informed his wife that it was\n    his determination to resume that laudable practice the same\n    evening; but his wife having engaged _a ball at her house_,\n    persuaded her husband to put it off till they saw whether the\n    comet appeared or not. The South-sea stock immediately fell to\n    _five per cent._, and India stock to _eleven_. The captain of a\n    Dutch ship threw all his powder into the river, that the ship\n    might not be endangered.\n\n    The next morning the comet appeared according to the\n    prediction, and before noon the belief was universal, that\n    _the day of judgment was at hand_. About this time of the\n    day 123 clergymen were ferried over to Lambeth, it was said,\n    to petition that a short prayer might be penned and ordered,\n    there being none in the church service on that occasion.\n    Three maids of honor burnt their collections of novels and\n    plays, and sent to a bookseller\u2019s to buy each of them a Bible,\n    and Bishop Taylor\u2019s Holy Living and Dying. The run upon the\n    Bank was so prodigious, that all hands were employed from\n    morning till night in discounting notes, and handing out\n    specie. On Thursday, considerably more than _seven thousand\n    kept mistresses were legally married_! in the face of several\n    congregations. And to crown the whole, Sir Gilbert Heathcote,\n    at that time head director of the Bank, issued orders to all\n    the fire-offices in London, requiring them \u201cto keep a good look\n    out, and have a particular eye upon the Bank of England.\u201d\n\n    The comet which might have put the earth in most hazard,\n    was that of 1680. By Halley\u2019s calculation it passed, November\n    11, within 60 semi-diameters of the earth\u2019s orbit: and if, at\n    that time, the earth had been in that part of her orbit, there\n    is no conjecturing at the consequences.--Literary Panorama, for\n    December, 1811.--Probably the above was only a hoax upon Mr.\n    Whiston on account of the singularity of his opinion concerning\n    comets.\n\n    [132] Dr. Keill\u2019s Astronomy, 5th Edit. pp. 189, 190.\n\n    [133] Dr. O. Gregory\u2019s Treatise on Astronomy, p. 413.\n\n    [134] The celebrated Buffon supposed, that our earth was\n    originally formed by a comet\u2019s sweeping off and receiving in\n    his train a portion of the exterior part of the sun; which,\n    after having been sufficiently cooled, in the lapse of time,\n    perhaps hundreds of thousands of years, had gradually assumed\n    its present form! When we reflect that this eminent French\n    naturalist was an infidel and a libertine, his many strange\n    theories confirm the remark of the Poet,\n\n        \u201cAn undevout astronomer is mad.\u201d\n\n    When a person through the pride of intellect, will not\n    submit his fallible understanding to the sure light of Divine\n    revelation, he is liable to embrace the greatest absurdities,\n    which a sober and well-regulated mind would prevent.\n\n    [135] Guardian, No. 103.\n\n    [136] The distances of the fixed stars have never been\n    absolutely determined, and what is here stated is not given\n    as the true distance of Sirius; but from what has been\n    ascertained, the distance cannot be less than as above. Dr.\n    Bradley, after another method of calculation, makes it to\n    be more than ten times greater, or twenty-five millions of\n    millions, and 650 thousand of millions.\n\n    [137] In 1627, Schiller published a work, entitled C\u0153lum\n    Stellatum Christianum, containing the ancient catalogue,\n    with new constellations. In this work he rejected the\n    old designations, and substituted new figures for the\n    constellations, and names taken from the sacred Scriptures;\n    thus Aries he changed into St. Peter; Taurus, into St. Andrew;\n    Andromeda, into the holy sepulchre; Lyra, into the manger\n    of Christ; Hercules, into the wise men of the east; Canis\n    Major, into David; and so on. This he is said to have done in\n    imitation of the venerable Bede, who, instead of the profane\n    names and figures adopted by pagans, substituted the names of\n    the twelve apostles for those of the twelve constellations\n    in the zodiac: but these innovations were disregarded by\n    astronomers. Weigelius, professor of mathematics at Jena,\n    attempted to make an innovation of another kind; he wished to\n    change the starry heavens into a kind of C\u0153lum Heraldicum, by\n    introducing the arms of all the princes and states of Europe,\n    by way of constellations; but his project experienced the same\n    fate as those of Bede and Schiller.\n\n    [138] See Ferguson\u2019s Astronomy.\n\n    [139] Gisborne\u2019s _Walks in a Forest_, sixth edit. pp. 44,\n    45, 46.\n\n    [140] The author thankfully acknowledges his obligations\n    for many of the above thoughts to an old sermon preached \u201cat\n    the opening of the Synod of Lothian and Tweeddale;\u201d but cannot\n    say of what date, or by whom delivered, as his copy of it is\n    without title-page.\n\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI.\n\nFIFTH DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--FISHES.\n\n    Of Fishes in general -- The Cetaceous kind -- Cartilaginous\n    -- Spinous -- Crustaceous -- and Testaceous. -- Animalcules. --\n    Religious Improvement.\n\nOn the _fifth day_ were created fishes, and the fowls of heaven,\nwhatsoever flies in the expansion above us, or swims in the watery\nelement: these were produced from the waters. \u201cGod said, Let the waters\nbring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath life, and fowl\nthat may fly above the earth in the open firmament of heaven. And God\ncreated great whales, and every living creature that moveth, which the\nwaters brought forth abundantly, after their kind, and every winged\nfowl after his kind: and God saw that it was good. And God blessed\nthem, saying, Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the waters in the\nseas, and let the fowl multiply in the earth.\u201d\n\n    \u201cSee through this air, this ocean, and this earth,\n    All matter quick, and bursting into birth;\n    Above how high progressive life may go,\n    Around how wide, how deep extend below!\n    Vast chain of being, which from God began,\n    Nature\u2019s ethereal, human, angel, man,\n    Beast, _bird_, _fish_, _insect_, what no eye can see,\n    No glass can reach; from infinite to THEE,\n    from THEE to _nothing_!\u201d\n\nIt is generally granted that life is the highest perfection of\ncorporeal beings, the most inestimable jewel of the creation. Life,\nthough but in an insect, is more glorious than the sun. Solomon, making\na comparison between living and lifeless things, prefers the meanest\nof living creatures before the best and noblest of dead things, \u201cA\nliving dog is better than a dead lion.\u201d How much soever we may be\nastonished at the stupendous mass of inactive matter, yet the least\nanimated particle is still an object of greater admiration. God, in\ncreating the first individual of each species of living creatures, not\nonly gave a form to matter, but also a principle of life; inclosing in\neach a greater or less quantity of organical particles, indestructible\nand common to all organized beings. These pass from body to body,\nperpetuating this life, and ministering to the nutrition and growth\nof each. Thus every production, or increase by generation, is a\ncontinuance of this life, of which every succession of creatures is\nalways full. The total quantity of life remains the same; for whatever\ndeath seems to destroy, it does not affect that primitive life, which\nis diffused through all organized beings.\n\nHowever much the nature of life may perplex the most able, acute, and\ndiligent inquirers into the subject, or exceed the utmost reach of\nhuman comprehension; yet we see that it enables creatures to act, as\nit were, of themselves, and to seek and obtain such enjoyments as give\nthem a sensible pleasure. The creatures on which this amazing property\nhas been conferred, have also an inclination and ability to communicate\nit to their own species, which will succeed one another till time\nshall be no more! If we exercise our understanding on this remarkable\ninstance of creating energy, it will tend to excite in us the most\naugust thoughts of that almighty Being, who is the boundless source of\nexistence, vitality, and motion to all his creatures!\n\nIn the work of creation, observes a learned author, after the formation\nof light, air, water, and earth, the originals of all material objects,\nGod proceeded from creatures less excellent to those of a superior\norder. Such was his progress in the work of creation. Fish and fowl\nwere both formed out of the water. Hence there is a nearer alliance\nand greater resemblance between the form and motions of creatures that\nswim and those that fly, than between such as creep and those that walk\non the earth; and their bodies being intended to be lighter, and their\nmotion swifter, the wise Creator saw fit to form them from a light and\nfluid element.\n\nThe number of the different species of fish to which names are\ngiven, and with whose figure at least we are a little acquainted,\nis, according to Linn\u00e6us, above four hundred. The majority of these\nare confined to the sea, and would expire in the fresh water, though\nthere are a few which annually swim up the rivers, to deposit their\nspawn. Among the various sizes, some have monstrous shapes, and amazing\nqualities. Fishes are usually classed into three general divisions: the\n_cetaceous_, or those of the whale kind; the _cartilaginous_, or those\nwhich have gristles instead of bones; and the _spinous_, or bony kind,\ncalled so from their bones resembling the sharpness of thorns.\n\nIn the cetaceous species are included all the various kinds of Whales,\nthe Norwhal, or Sea-Unicorn, the Dolphin, the Grampus, and the\nPorpoise. Though \u201cGod created great whales,\u201d[141] the words of Moses,\naccording to the original, \u05d4\u05ea\u05e0\u05d9\u05e0\u05dd \u05d4\u05d2\u05d3\u05dc\u05d9\u05dd _ha-tan-neenin ha-gedoleen_,\nsays Dr. A. Clarke, must be understood rather as a general than a\nparticular term, comprising all the great aquatic animals, such as\nthese now mentioned. All these resemble quadrupeds in their internal\nstructure, and in some of their appetites and affections. Like\nquadrupeds, they have lungs, a midriff, a stomach, intestines, liver,\nspleen, bladder, and parts of generation; their heart also resembles\nthat of quadrupeds, with its partitions closed up as in them, and\ndriving red and warm blood in circulation through the body; and to keep\nthese parts warm, the whole kind are also covered between the skin\nand the muscles with a thicker coat of fat or blubber. The _aorta_,\nor principal artery, in that stupendous animal the _whale_, measures\nabout a foot in diameter; and it is computed that the quantity of blood\nthrown into it, at every pulsation of the heart, is not less than from\n_ten to fifteen gallons_.\n\n    \u201cNature\u2019s strange work, vast Whales of differing form,\n    Toss up the troubled floods and are themselves a storm;\n    Uncouth the sight, when they, in dreadful play\n    Discharge their nostrils, and refund a sea;\n    Or angry lash the foam with hideous sound,\n    And scatter all the watery dust around.\n    Fearless the fierce destructive monsters roll,\n    Ingulph the fish, and drive the flying shoal.\n    In deepest seas these living isles appear,\n    And deepest seas can scarce their pressure bear:\n    Their bulk would more than fill the shelvy strait,\n    And fathom\u2019d depths would yield beneath their weight.\u201d\n\nThese animals possessing finer organs and higher sensations than\nothers, show an eminent superiority. They have all the tenderness of\nbirds or quadrupeds for their young, nurse them with constant care, and\nprotect them from every injury. The female never produces more than\none young, or two at the most; and this she suckles entirely in the\nmanner of quadrupeds, her breasts being placed, as in the human kind,\nabove the navel. The ends of these she protrudes at pleasure, to afford\nnutriment to her offspring. Perhaps the prophet Jeremiah has an eye to\nthis when he says, \u201cThe sea-monsters draw out the breast, they give\nsuck to their young ones.\u201d Those of the cartilaginous kind, though not\ncapable of nursing their young, yet bring them alive into the world,\nand defend them with courage and activity; while the spinous kind, a\nfierce, unmindful tribe, deposit their spawn, and leave the success to\naccident, without affording any protection.\n\nAs this first class of sea animals breathe the air, it is obvious they\ncannot bear to be a long time at once under water. They necessarily,\nevery two or three minutes, emerge to the surface to take breath, as\nwell as to spout out through their nostril (for they have but one),\nthat water which they sucked in while gaping for their prey.\n\n    \u201cHugest of living creatures, on the deep,\n    Stretched like a promontory, sleeps or swims,\n    And seems a moving land, and at his gills\n    Draws in, and at his trunk spouts out, a sea.\u201d\n\nTheir tails therefore are different from those of all other fish: they\nare placed so as to lie flat upon the surface of the water; while\nthe other kinds have their tails, as we frequently see, upright or\nedge-ways. This position of the tail enables them to force themselves\nsuddenly to the surface of the water, at pleasure. How well is it that\nanimals of this enormous size do not approach our shores, for their\npresence would fright the other valuable fish from our coasts: they\nare therefore kept in the abysses of the ocean: just as wild beasts,\nimpelled by the same over-ruling Power, which hide themselves in the\nrecesses of the forest.[142]\n\nThe cartilaginous tribe, which have gristles instead of bones, unite\nthe principal of both the other classes in their conformation: like the\ncetaceous, they have organs of hearing, and lungs: like the spinous,\nthey have gills, and a heart without a partition. From the structure\nof their gills, these animals are enabled to live a longer time out\nof water than other fishes. The cartilaginous Shark, or Ray, lives\nsome hours after it is taken; while the spinous Herring, or Mackarel,\nexpires a few minutes after it is brought on shore. Some of this\nclass bring forth their young alive; and others produce them by eggs,\nwhich are afterwards brought to maturity. Most fishes having cold\nblood, have not heat sufficient to produce the f\u0153tus. The all-wise\nCreator therefore has ordained, that many of them shall propagate their\nspecies by eggs, and this they do near the shore; where, by means of\nthe solar rays, the water is warmer, and fitter for that purpose; and\nalso because water-insects abound more there, which afford the young\nfry nourishment. To the fish of the ocean, which cannot reach the\nshores by reason of the distance, the Creator has given eggs that swim,\nand these are hatched amidst the floating fucus, called _sargazo_.\nIn all, however, the manner of gestation is nearly the same: for,\non dissection, it is ever found, that the young, while in the body,\ncontinue in the egg till a very little time before they are brought\nforth; and as soon as they leave the shell, they also begin to quit\nthe womb. It is confidently asserted, that the young of the several\nspecies of the Shark, when pursued, will take refuge in the belly of\nits mother, by swimming in at her mouth. Of the same class of fishes\nare the Ray, the Torpedo,[143] the Lamprey, the Sturgeon, the Diodon,\nthe Angler, the Lump-Sucker, the Pipe Fish, the Hippocampus, or Sea\nHorse, the Sea Porcupine, and the Galley Fish.\n\nOf the spinous, or bony kind of fishes, these are obviously\ndistinguished from the rest, by having a complete bony covering to\ntheir gills; by their being furnished with no other method of breathing\nthan through the gills only; by their bones which are sharp and thorny;\nand by their tails, which are placed in a situation perpendicular to\nthe body. The history of any one of this order very much resembles\nthat of all the rest. They propagate not by bringing forth their young\nalive, as do the cetaceous tribes, nor by distinct eggs, as do the\ngenerality of the cartilaginous tribes, but by spawn, or pease, as they\nare generally called, which they produce by hundreds of thousands. The\nbones of this order of fishes, when examined slightly, appear to be\nentirely solid; yet, when viewed more closely, every bone is seen to be\nhollow, and filled with a substance less rancid and oily than marrow.\nThese bones are very numerous, and pointed; and, as in quadrupeds,\nare the props or stays to which the muscles are fixed, which move the\ndifferent parts of the body. The number of bones in all spinous fishes\nof the same kind is always the same. As this species partake less of\nthe quadruped in their formation than any other, so they can bear to\nlive out of their own element a shorter time. Some, indeed, are more\nvivacious in air than others: the eel will live several hours out of\nwater; and the carp has been known to be fattened in a damp cellar. The\nmethod is, by placing the fish in a net well wrapped up in wet moss,\nthe mouth only out, and hung up in a vault; then fed with white bread\nand milk, and the net sometimes plunged into the water.\n\nThe spinous class of fishes is more prolific than any other animal.\nAlthough their usual way of propagation is by spawn, yet there are\nsome, such as the eel and the blenney, which produce their young\nalive. Their power of increasing is such, that if they were suffered\nto multiply unmolested, and remain undiminished for only a few years,\nthe progeny of an individual would far exceed all human calculation.\nIt is asserted, that a single herring, in the space of twenty years,\nwould yield an offspring greater in bulk than ten such globes as this\nwe inhabit. A female herring deposits at least 10,000 eggs, in the sea\nnear to Great Britain![144] A tench lays 1,000 eggs. There have been\n200,000 ova or eggs found in a carp; and in one of eighteen inches,\n342,144: in a perch, weighing one pound two ounces, 69,216; and in\na sturgeon of one hundred and sixty pounds, there was the enormous\nnumber of 1,467,500. Leewenhoeck counted in a middling-sized cod, _nine\nmillion_ 384,000.\n\nThis multiplication of fishes is very astonishing; but the fact is,\nas they are obliged to devour one another for necessary subsistence,\nthe whole natives of the deep without these extraordinary supplies,\nwould soon be totally extinct. Were they to bring forth no more\nat a birth than land animals, the increase would be far too small\nfor the consumption. The weaker species would soon be destroyed by\nthe stronger, and the latter would soon after perish. Therefore to\nsupply millions of animals with food, and yet not depopulate the\nwatery realms, the issue produced by some of their species is almost\nincredible. The spawn is not by scores, but by millions: and by this\namazing expedient, constant reparation is made proportionable to the\nimmense havoc.\n\nAs the different species of fishes are designed to occupy the waters,\nand range to and fro in that element, so they are wonderfully formed\nfor that purpose. The chief instruments of the motion of a fish are\nthe fins, which in some fishes are more numerous than in others. The\nfish in a state of repose, spreads all its fins, and seems to rest on\nits pectoral and ventral fins near the bottom: on folding the right\npectoral fin, its body inclines to the right side; and on folding the\nleft fin, it inclines to that side.--When the fish desires to have\na retrograde motion, striking with the pectoral fins, in a contrary\ndirection, effectually produces it. When the fish desires to turn, a\nblow from the tail sends it round; but if the tail strike both ways,\nthen the motion is progressive. If the dorsal and ventral fins be cut\noff, the fish reels both to the right and left, and endeavors to supply\nits loss by keeping the rest of the fins in constant action. If the\nright pectoral fin be cut off, the fish leans to that side; if the\nventral fin on the same side be cut off, then it loses its equilibrium\nentirely. When the tail is cut off, the fish loses all motion, and is\ncarried wherever the water impels it.\n\nIn addition to the fins, an aquatic animal is furnished with an air\nbladder, a philosophical apparatus in its body; this sustains and\nenables it, at will to raise itself to the surface of the water, or,\notherwise, to descend. When any accident has burst this air bladder,\nor it has been punctured by way of experiment, the fish remains at the\nbottom of the vessel or river, totally unable to ascend. Flounders,\nSoles and Skates, which are without this appendage, seldom rise in\nthe water, and when they do, require a great effort. The simple\naction of the fins is not sufficient to raise the fish, its specific\ngravity being greater than the fluid in which it is immersed. The\nbag containing the air is supposed to be muscular, and when the air\nis compressed into a smaller compass by the action of this muscular\npower, the bulk of the fish is contracted with it; whereby, since the\nabsolute weight remains the same, the specific gravity, which is the\nsinking force, is increased, and the fish sinks; when, on the contrary,\nthis compression is removed, the air bladder expands, the fish is\nspecifically lighter, and it ascends.\n\nIn fish, we find the arrangement of the teeth nicely adapted to the\nhabits of the different species. For instance, in the Pike, the teeth\nare placed with their points projecting backwards towards the throat,\nby which an easy ingress is afforded, but which at the same time\nprevents all egress, and retains most effectually the prey when seized.\nThe alarm excited among smaller fishes at the approach of the Pike, is\nthus poetically expressed:\n\n    \u201c_Beware_, ye harmless tribes, the _tyrant comes_,\n    Exclaims the silver mantled naiad of the pond;\n    _Beware_, ye flirting _gudgeons_, _barbles_ fair,\n    And ye, quick-swimming _minnows_, gliding _eels_,\n    And all who breathe the lucid crystal of the lake,\n    Or lively sport between the dashing wheels\n    Of river mills, _beware_; the _tyrant comes_!\n    Grim death awaits you in his gaping jaws,\n    And lurks behind his hungry fangs--_beware_!\u201d\n\nThe Sword-Fish is distinguished by the upper jaw, which runs out in the\nfigure of a strong and sharp sword, sometimes to the length of three\nfeet, with which he scruples not to engage the whale himself.[145] The\nSun-Fish is one round mass of flesh; only it has two fins, which act\nthe part of oars.\n\nThe great Creator has beautified the innumerable myriads that swim\nin the vast ocean, giving the greatest proportion to their shapes,\nthe gayest colors to their skins, and a polished surface to their\nscales. The eyes of some are surrounded with a scarlet circle; while\nthe backs of others are diversified with crimson stains. View them\nwhen they glance along the stream, or when they are fresh from their\nnative brine; the silver is not more bright, nor the rainbow more\nglowing than their vivid, glossy hues! But we are lost in wonder at the\nexquisite contrivance and delicate formation of their gills: by which\nthey are accommodated, even in that dense medium, with the benefits of\nrespiration! A piece of mechanism this, possessed by the meanest of\nthe watery tribe; yet infinitely surpassing, in the fineness of the\nstructure of its operation, whatever is curious in the works of art,\nor commodious in the palaces of princes.\n\nAs the spinous order of fishes is extremely numerous, various modes of\nclassing them have been followed by different naturalists. The simplest\nis that of Linn\u00e6us, who ranks them in four divisions, according to\nthe positions of the fins. The 1st division is what that celebrated\nnaturalist terms _Apodal_; and includes the most imperfect of the\norder, namely, those which want the ventral or belly fins, and it\nconsists of the following genera:--The Eel, the Wolf-Fish, the Launce,\nor Sand-Eel, and The Sword Fish.--The 2d division consists of the\n_Jugular_ fishes, or those which have ventral fins before the pectoral,\nor nearer to the gills; and includes the Dragonet, the Weever, the\nCod, and the Blenny. The 3d division is called the _Thoracic_, or\nthose fishes which have the belly fins immediately under the pectoral;\nand includes the Goby, or Roch-Fish, the Bull-head, the Doree, the\nFlounder, the Wrasse, the Perch, the Stickleback, the Mackerel,\nthe Surmulet, and the Gurnard. The 4th division consists of the\n_Abdominal_, or those which have the ventral fins behind the pectoral,\nnearer the tail, and includes the Loach, the Salmon, the Pike, the\nArgentine, the Atherine, the Mullet, the Flying-Fish, the Herring, the\nCarp, &c. To the fishes, included in these four divisions, must be\nadded, all the several species belonging to each, some of which are\nnumerous.\n\nThere are two classes of animals inhabiting the water, which commonly\nreceive the name of fishes, entirely different from the preceding ones,\nand also very distinct from each other. They are divided by naturalists\ninto crustaceous and testaceous: both of which, being totally unlike\nfishes in appearance, seem to invert the order of nature. As those of\nthe cetaceous, cartilaginous, and spinous orders, have their bones on\nthe inside, and their muscles externally placed for the purpose of\nlife and motion; so these, on the contrary, have all their bony parts\non the outside, and their muscles within. For instance, persons who\nhave seen a Lobster, or an Oyster, perceive that their shells bear a\nstrong analogy to the bones of other aquatic animals; and that by these\ncoverings they are sustained and defended.\n\nCrustaceous fishes, such as the Crab and Lobster, have shells\nresembling a firm crust, and in some measure capable of yielding to\npressure or strength. Testaceous fishes, such as the Oyster or Cockle,\nare furnished with shells of considerable hardness, very brittle,\nand susceptible of yielding to compressure like the others. Of the\ncrustaceous kinds, are the Lobster, the Crab, and the Turtle:[146]\nand the testaceous, includes the numerous tribes of Oysters, Muscles,\nCockles, and Sea Snails. Some of these are extremely prolific. Under\nthe tail of a Lobster, Dr. Baster says, he counted 12,444 eggs, besides\nthose that remained in the body unprotruded. The female Turtle lays\nabout eighty or ninety eggs at a time, each the size of a pigeon\u2019s egg,\nin a hole prepared with her fore feet in the sand, a little above the\nhigh-water mark, which she covers so dexterously, that it is no easy\ntask to find the place; and then returns to the sea, leaving them to\nbe hatched by the solar rays. At the end of fifteen days, she deposits\nabout the same number of eggs again: and in fifteen days more, repeats\nthe same; three times in all, using the same precautions every time for\ntheir safety.\n\nAmong shell-fish, how various is their figures? The shells of some seem\nto be the rude production of chance, rather than of skill or design.\nYet, even in these, we find the nicest dispositions. Though uncouth,\nthey are exactly suited to the exigencies of their respective tenants.\nSome, on the other hand, are extremely neat; their structure is all\nsymmetry and elegance; no enamel is comparable to their polish. Not\na room in all the palaces of Europe is so adorned as the tenement of\nthe little fish that dwells in Mother of Pearl. Where else is such a\nmixture of red, blue, and green, so delightfully staining the most\nclear and glittering ground? But what is more admirable than all\ntheir beauty, is the provision made for their safety. As they have\nno speed to escape, so they have no dexterity to elude their foe: so\nthat, were they naked, they must be an easy prey to every free-booter.\nTo prevent this, what is only clothing to other animals, is to them\nclothing, habitation, and castle. They have a fortification which grows\nwith them, and is part of themselves. And by means of this, they live\nsecure amidst millions of ravenous jaws. The dark inky fluid, which the\nCuttle-Fish emits when alarmed, not only tinges the water, but, at the\nsame time, is so bitter, as immediately to drive off its enemies.\n\n    \u201cTh\u2019 endangered _cuttle_ thus evades his fears,\n    And native hoards of fluid safely bears.\n    A pitchy ink peculiar glands supply,\n    Whose shades the sharpest beams of light defy.\n    Pursued he bids the sable fountain flow,\n    And, wrapt in clouds, eludes th\u2019 impending foe.\n    The fish retreats unseen, while self-born night,\n    With pious shade, befriends her parent\u2019s flight.\u201d\n\nThe Nautilus, when he means to sail, discharges a quantity of water\nfrom his shell, by which it is rendered lighter than the surrounding\nmedium, and, of course, rises to the surface. The shell forms a kind of\nboat, and he extends two of his arms upward, which are each furnished\nat their extremity with an oval membrane, that he unfurls to the wind\nfor a sail. The other six arms hang over the sides of the shell, and\nsupply the place of either oars or rudder, with which he rows himself\nalong. When disposed to dive, he strikes sail, and at once sinks to\nthe bottom. When the weather is calm, he ascends again, and performs\nhis voyage without chart or compass.\n\n    \u201cTwo feet they upwards raise, and steady keep;\n    These are the masts and rigging of the ship.\n    A membrane stretched between supplies the sail,\n    Bends from the masts, and swells before the gale.\n    The other feet hang paddling on each side,\n    And serve for oars to row, and helm to guide.\n    \u2019Tis thus they sail, pleased with the wanton game,\n    The fish, the sailor, and the ship the same.\n    But, when the swimmers dread some danger near,\n    The sportive pleasure yields to stronger fear:\n    No more they wanton drive before the blasts,\n    But strike the sails, and bring down all the masts.\n    The rolling waves their sinking shells o\u2019erflow,\n    And dash them down again to sands below.\u201d\n\nThus, we see, according to the beneficent purpose and blessing of God,\nthe \u201cwaters bring forth abundantly.\u201d The finny tribes are numerous\nbeyond all calculation; they crowd to our shores in vast abundance,\nfrom which our markets are regularly and plentifully supplied. And, as\none judiciously observes, what a merciful provision is this for the\nnecessities of man! Many hundreds of thousands of mankind live, during\na great part of the year, on fish only. Fishes, which are liable to few\ndiseases, afford not only a wholesome, but a very nutritive diet; and\ngenerally come in vast quantities to our shores, when in their greatest\nperfection. In this also we may perceive that the kind providence of\nGod goes hand in hand with his creating energy; for, while manifesting\nhis wisdom and power, he is making a permanent provision for the\nsustenance of man through all his generations. The Mackerel, the\nHerring, and various other kinds, when lean, wander up and down the\nocean: but when fat they throng our creeks and bays, or haunt the\nrunning streams. Who bids these creatures leave our shores when they\nbecome unfit for our service? Who rallies and recalls the undisciplined\nvagrants, as soon as they are improved into desirable food? Surely\nthe furlough is signed, the summons issued, and the point of re-union\nsettled, by a Providence ever indulgent to mankind, and loading us with\nbenefits.\n\nBy the invention and assistance of magnifying glasses, the two extremes\nof the creation, as Mr. Baker intimates, which were out of the reach of\nformer ages, have been brought under our observation: the telescope is\ndirected to the heavenly bodies, and the microscope to unknown species\nof animals, &c. The first appearance of the microscope was about the\nyear 1621; since which period it has been very much improved. It is to\nthis valuable optical instrument that we are indebted for a great part\nof our present philosophy: we are brought into a kind of new world.\n\nNumberless animals are discovered, which, from their minuteness, must\notherwise for ever have escaped our observation. How many kinds of\nthese invisibles there may be, says Mr. Adams, is still unknown; as\nthey are discerned of all sizes, from those which are barely invisible\nto the naked eye, to such as resist the action of the microscope, as\nthe fixed stars do that of the telescope, and with the greatest powers\nhitherto invented appear only as so many moving points.\n\nThe smallest living creatures our instruments can show, are those which\ninhabit the waters; for though animalcules, equally minute, may fly in\nthe air, or creep upon the earth, it is scarcely possible to get a view\nof them; but as water is transparent, and confines the creatures in it,\nwe are able, by applying a drop of it to our glasses, to discover, to\na certain degree of smallness, all that it contains.\n\n                                \u201cWhere the pool\n    Stands mantled o\u2019er with green, invisible,\n    Amid the floating verdure millions stray.\n    Each liquid, too, whether it pierces, soothes,\n    Inflames, refreshes, or exalts the taste,\n    With various forms abounds. Nor is the stream\n    Of purest crystal, nor the livid air,\n    Though one transparent vacancy it seem,\n    Void of their unseen people. These, concealed\n    By the kind art of forming Heaven, escape\n    The grosser eye of man: for, if the worlds\n    In worlds inclosed should on his senses burst,\n    From cates ambrosial and the nectared bowl,\n    He would abhorrent turn; and in dead night,\n    When silence sleeps o\u2019er all, be stunned with noise.\u201d\n\nLeewenhoeck calculates, that a thousand millions of animalcules, which\nmay be discovered in common water, are not altogether so large as a\ncommon grain of sand! Eminent naturalists have discovered not less\nthan 30,000 in a single drop of water! What a display is this of the\nmanifold wisdom of God! While he makes some of the aquatic tribes so\nlarge, that they seem to require almost a whole sea to float in, he\nforms others so astonishingly minute, that several thousands will\nadhere to the point of a needle.[147]\n\nEvery animalcule being an organized body, how delicate and subtile\nmust the parts be that are necessary to constitute it, and to preserve\nits vital actions! How inconceivably small must it be, and yet a\nperfect animal. In animalcules, we discover the same multiplication\nof parts, diversity of figures, and variety of motions, as in the\nlargest animals. How amazingly curious must be the internal structure\nof these creatures! how minute the bones, joints, muscles, tendons!\nhow exquisitely delicate the veins, arteries, nerves! What a number of\nvessels and different circulations must be contained in one of these\nlittle creatures, and yet all have sufficient room for the performance\nof their several functions, without interfering with each other! It\nis difficult to conceive how in so narrow a compass, there should be\ncontained a heart as the fountain of life propelling the circulating\nfluid, veins and arteries as the conductors of the blood, a brain to\nsupply nerves in every part of the minute structure, muscles necessary\nto its motions, glands for the secretion of its fluids, stomach, and\nbowels to digest its food, eyes to direct its progress, a mouth to take\nin its nourishment, and organs of generation to propagate its kind!\n\n    \u201cHow sweet to muse upon His skill display\u2019d\n    (Infinite skill!) in all that he has made.\n    To trace in Nature\u2019s most minute design,\n    The signature and stamp of Power Divine;\n    Contrivance exquisite expressed with ease,\n    Where unassisted sight no beauty sees;\n    The shapely limb and lubricated joint,\n    Within the small dimensions of a point;\n    Muscle and nerve miraculously spun;\n    His mighty work, who speaks, and it is done;\n    Th\u2019 invisible in things scarce seen revealed;\n    To whom an atom is an ample field.\u201d\n\nAnimalcules in general, continues Mr. Adams, are observed to move in\nall directions with equal ease and rapidity, sometimes obliquely,\nsometimes straight forward; sometimes moving in a circular direction,\nor rolling upon one another, running backwards and forwards through\nthe whole extent of the drop, as if diverting themselves; at other\ntimes greedily attacking the little parcels of matter they meet with.\nNotwithstanding their extreme minuteness, they know how to avoid\nobstacles, or to prevent any interference with one another in their\nmotions: sometimes they will suddenly change the direction in which\nthey move, and take an opposite one; and, by inclining the glass on\nwhich the drop of water is, as it can be made to move in any direction,\nso the animalcules appear to move as easily against the stream as with\nit. When the water begins to evaporate, they flock towards the place\nwhere the fluid is, and show a great anxiety and uncommon agitation\nof the organs with which they draw in the water. These motions grow\nlanguid as the water fails, and at last cease altogether, without a\npossibility of renewal if they be left dry for a short time. They\nsustain a great degree of cold as well as insects, and will perish in\nmuch the same degree of heat that destroys insects. Some animalcules\nare produced in water at the freezing point, and some insects live in\nsnow.\n\n    [In the American Journal of Science and Arts for April,\n    1830, there is a letter to the editor, from _Dr. Joseph E.\n    Muse_, from which the following is an extract:\n\n    \u201cWhen the winter had made considerable progress, without\n    much frost, there happened a heavy fall of snow; apprehending\n    that I might not have an opportunity of filling my ice house\n    with ice, I threw in snow, perhaps enough to fill it; there was\n    afterwards severely cold weather, and I filled the remainder\n    with ice; about August the waste and consumption of ice,\n    brought us down to the snow; when it was discovered that a\n    glass of water which was cooled with it, contained hundreds\n    of animalcules, I then examined another glass of water, out\n    of the same pitcher, and with the aid of a microscope, before\n    the snow was put in it, found it perfectly clear and pure; the\n    snow was then thrown into it, and on solution the water again\n    exhibited the same phenomenon; hundreds of animalcules, visible\n    to the naked eye with acute attention, and when viewed through\n    the microscope resembling most diminutive shrimps; and wholly\n    unlike the eels discovered in the acetous acid, were seen in\n    the full enjoyment of animated nature.\n\n    \u201cI caused holes to be dug in several parts of the mass of\n    snow in the ice house, and to the centre of it; and in the most\n    unequivocal and repeated experiments had similar results.\u201d]\n\nThere is one remarkable circumstance, says Mr. Lobb, that we must not\npass over in our contemplation of these minute animals: which is, that\nthey are found proportionably much stronger, more active and vivacious,\nthan large ones. The spring of a flea in its first leap, how vastly\ndoes it outstrip any thing of which animals are capable! A mite, how\nvastly swifter does it run than a racehorse! M. de L\u2019Isle has given\nthe computation of the velocity of a little creature scarcely visible\nby its smallness, which he found to run three inches in half a second:\nnow, supposing its feet to be the fiftieth part of a line, it must make\n500 steps in the space of three inches; that is, it must shift its legs\n500 times in a second, or in the ordinary pulsation of an artery!\n\nThe modes of propagation among these animalcules are various, and the\nobservation of them is extremely curious. Some multiply by a transverse\ndivision; and it is remarkable, that though in general they avoid\none another, it is not uncommon, when one is nearly divided, to see\nanother push itself upon the small neck which joins the two bodies in\norder to accelerate the separation. Others, when about to multiply,\nfix themselves to the bottom of the water; then becoming first oblong,\nand afterwards round, turn rapidly as on a centre, but perpetually\nvarying the direction of their rotatory motion. In a little time, two\nlines forming a cross are perceived: after which the spherule divides\ninto four, which grow, and are again divided as before.[148] A third\nkind multiply by a longitudinal division, which in some begins in the\nfore part, in others in the hind part; and from others a small fragment\ndetaches itself, which in a short time assumes the shape of the parent\nanimalcule. Lastly, others propagate in the same manner as the more\nperfect animals.\n\nThe same rule seems to hold good in these minute creatures, which is\nobservable in the larger animals, namely, that the larger kinds are\nless numerous than such as are smaller, while the smallest of all are\nfound in such multitudes, that there seem to be myriads for one of the\nothers. They increase in size, like other animals, from their birth,\ntill they have attained their full growth: and when deprived of proper\nnourishment, they in like manner grow thin and perish.\n\nAnd, if the extreme minuteness of the parts of animalcules is not\nmerely surprising, but far above our utmost conception, what shall\nwe say to those various species, to which the mite itself, in point\nof size, is, as it were, an elephant? Naturalists suppose another\nspecies, or order, of invisible animalcules; namely, such as escape\nthe cognizance even of the best microscopes, and give many probable\nconjectures concerning them. Reason and analogy give some support to\nthe existence of an infinite number of these imperceptible creatures.\nThe naked eye, say some, takes in from the Elephant to the Mite; but\nthere commences a new order, reserved only for the microscope, which\ncomprehends all these from the Mite to those twenty-seven millions of\ntimes smaller; and this order cannot be said to be exhausted, if the\nmicroscope be not arrived at its last degree of perfection.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nAmong the Egyptians, all the natives of the water were in some degree\nesteemed sacred. In many parts the people did not feed upon them. The\npriests in particular never tasted this kind of food; and the reason\nwhy they abstained from it, was the sanctity imputed to this class of\ncreatures. For they were sometimes considered as sacred emblems: at\nother times worshipped as real deities. One species of fish called\nOxurunchus, had, according to Strabo, a temple, and divine honors paid\nto it. A fish called Phagrus, was, according to Clemens Alexandrinus,\nworshipped at Syene. The Lepidotus and Eel, were, as we find from\nHerodotus, objects of adoration; being each, sacred to the god Nilus.\nThis is ridiculed by Antiphanes, who says, that an Eel among the\nEgyptians was reverenced equally with their gods.\n\nThe Jews were under a divine prohibition not to make an idolatrous\ngraven image or likeness of any aquatic animals. However strange this\nidolatry may appear, yet, such was its extent, that it prevailed\nnot only in Syria, but in the borders of Lebanon, also at, Ascalon,\nAshdod, and Joppa, cities within the precincts of the tribes of Dan\nand Judah. Hence we see the propriety of the judgments inflicted upon\nthe Egyptians. \u201cAnd the Lord spake unto Moses, Say unto Aaron, Take\nthy rod, and stretch out thine hand upon the waters of Egypt, upon\ntheir streams, upon their rivers, and upon their ponds, and upon all\ntheir pools of water, that they may become blood.--Against all the\ngods of Egypt I will execute judgment.--And the fish that was in the\nriver died: and the river stunk.\u201d This was a punishment particularly\nwell adapted to the state of that blinded and infatuated people: as\nit showed them the baseness of those elements which they reverenced,\nand the insufficiency of the gods in which they trusted. And this\nremarkable display of the Divine displeasure was the means of affording\nknowledge very salutary to the Israelites; as it served to warn them\nnot to fall into the same or any similar act of idolatry, when they had\nseen it thus debased and exposed, and attended with such instances of\naccumulated evil.[149]\n\nFather Lamy remarks, that the principal parts of Fishes are the gills,\nscales, and fins. Some have scales, and no fins; others have neither\nscales nor fins. Upon which is founded the distinction which Moses\nmakes of clean and unclean fishes. Such as have neither scales nor\nfins are thought unclean. The authority for this is what the Lord\ncommanded Moses to communicate to the children of Israel. \u201cThese\nshall ye eat of all that are in the waters: whatsoever hath fins and\nscales in the waters, in the seas, and in the rivers, them shall ye\neat. And all that have not fins and scales in the seas, and in the\nrivers, of all that move in the waters, and of any living thing which\nis in the waters, they shall be an abomination unto you: they shall\nbe even an abomination unto you; ye shall not eat of their flesh, but\nyou shall have their carcases in abomination.\u201d The physical reason\nfor this distinction may be, because those which have fins and scales\nare the most nourishing; and the others, which are without fins and\nscales, being, in general, very difficult of digestion,--such as the\nConger, Eel, &c, which are too gross and fat for many stomachs. Among\nthe Romans, no fishes were suffered to be offered up in sacrifice, or\nserved up to the table of the gods, but such as were scaly.\n\nIn this distinction, direction, and prohibition, concerning fishes,\nthere is a further meaning. Dr. Spencer says, \u201cGod ordained this\ndistinction of meats, that the puerile nation of the Hebrews might be\nled by an application of this law to the first elements of sanctity\nand actual purity. And this conjecture is founded upon the reason\nGod himself has assigned for this institution; for after he had\ndelivered the law about separating the clean from the unclean animal,\nhe immediately adds, \u2018Be ye holy, for I the Lord your God am holy.\u2019\nWhich words St. Peter applies not to legal but to evangelical sanctity,\nsuch as we should aspire to through the whole course of our lives.\nI must not deny that the text of Leviticus, in the outward letter,\nrequires only a sort of legal sanctity, extending merely to corporeal\npurification: but it is agreeable to the umbratic nature of that law,\nthat we should believe those words to have contained a more sacred\nmeaning at the bottom, and to have directed the Jews to a sort of\npurity properly so called, and conformable to that of the Divine nature\nitself, under the figure of external purification.\u201d Indeed without\na view to the moral purification of the soul, an institution merely\naffecting the body would be but of minor importance.\n\nThis distinction then being founded upon the moral principles of good\nand evil, no doubt the peculiarities of the animals themselves will\nserve to furnish instruction. A celebrated writer on this subject\nremarks:--The progressive motion of fishes is owing to the tail: for\nso may a boat be driven forward by the agitation of a single oar from\nthe stern. The fins serve to keep a fish upright, and support it while\nit is stationary in any part of the water. The centre of gravity being\nabove the middle region of the body, a fish floats unnaturally with\nits back downwards, when the fins are taken off. The scales of fishes,\nwhich are very hard, bright, and radiated, compose a sort of armor,\nwhich serves for their defence, and adds at the same time an appearance\nof light and purity. The fishes thus distinguished differ as much in\ntheir way of life from the smooth and slimy inhabitants of the waters,\nas in their color and appearance; for they are generally disposed to\nraise themselves from the bottom, and swim about with agility in the\nsuperior regions of the water; while the Eel buries itself in the mire,\nand all the crustaceous tribe lie scrabbling upon the ground. Fishes\nof the Eel or snake kind are disturbed by thunder and storms, and swim\nabout when the waters are thick and turbulent: but as soon as the\nelements are at rest again, they presently slide down to their native\nmud.\n\nThus the mind, when polluted with impiety, and bowed down with\nunbelief, cannot be raised to the contemplation of evangelical truth,\nunless it is alarmed by the fear of Divine judgments; on which occasion\nprofligate sinners are sometimes most violently agitated, hurrying\nthemselves as fast as they can into a state of repentance. But as this\nis a temporary repentance, excited merely by a fear of suffering,\nthe effect abides no longer than the cause continues to operate;\nand so their terrors and their penitence vanish together. When there\nwas alarming thunder and destructive hail in the land of Egypt, and\nfire from the Lord ran along the ground, even Pharaoh could recollect\nhimself, and say, \u201cI have sinned this time: the Lord is righteous, and\nI and my people are wicked. But when he saw that the rain, and the\nhail, and the thunders were ceased, he sinned yet more, and hardened\nhis heart, he and his servants.\u201d Such is the fruitless issue of that\ninvoluntary repentance, which has no principle of Divine grace to\nsupport it. The moral of this distinction is obvious: the whole being\na figurative monition, that a sordid and groveling way of life was to\nbe abhorred by those who professed to serve God; whose mind being under\nthe direction of revealed truth, and influence of the Holy Spirit,\ntheir affections were to be raised from vice to virtue, from pollution\nto purity, from things temporal to things eternal. There are many\npersons who bury themselves in the mud like the Eel, drown their senses\nin eating and drinking, or waste their precious time in sleep and\nidleness;[150] utterly disregarding all serious reflection, devotional\nelevation, holy rectitude, and spiritual enjoyment. Our Saviour, who\nspake many things to the Jews in parables, says, \u201cThe kingdom of\nheaven is like unto a net that was cast into the sea, and gathered\nof every kind: which, when it was full, they drew to shore, and sat\ndown, and gathered the good into vessels, but cast the bad away.\u201d This\nwas spoken to fishermen, who had been called from their employment\nby our Lord, and to whom he said, \u201cI will make you fishers of men.\u201d\nThey had hitherto been laboring to catch fish, but hereafter they were\nto catch men: thus their secular calling is turned into a spiritual\nchannel. The word \u03c3\u03c9\u03b3\u03b7\u03bd\u03b7 is said to mean _a drag-net_, the particular\nuse of which is to drag fishes up from the bottom of the water. The\nsimilitude between that occupation from which, and that employment to\nwhich our Saviour called them, consists in these particulars:--the\nsea in which they were now to fish is the world, the fishes they were\nto catch are Jews and Gentiles, the net with which they were to catch\nthem is the Gospel, and they themselves were to be fishermen. Or\nthus:--by the _net_ may be understood the Gospel; by the _sea_ into\nwhich it is cast, the unconverted world; by _casting_ the net into the\nsea, the preaching of the Gospel; by _those_ that cast the net into\nthe sea, ministers; by the _fishes_ enclosed, the hearers; by the net\n_gathering of every kind_ of fishes, profane persons as well as sincere\nChristians; by the net being _full_ and _drawn to shore_, a set time\ncoming when the Gospel shall have fulfilled that for which it was sent,\nthe mystery of God being finished; by the _good_ being _gathered into\nvessels_ as valuable and precious, and the _bad cast away_ as vile and\ncontemptible, that separation which shall be made at the final close of\ntime between merely nominal and real Christians, casting the former\ninto hell, and bringing the latter to heaven.\n\nThis parabolical method of conveying important instruction, by which\nheavenly things are represented and set forth by expressions borrowed\nfrom earthly things which are familiar to us, was very ancient, as\nappears from Jotham\u2019s parable, and much in use among the Jews. It\nengaged the attention, because it was pleasant; it assisted the\nmemory, which is apt to retain what is conveyed in this form; it\nexcited inquiry after the meaning of what was thereby intended: and,\nconsequently, was likely to be rendered beneficial to the hearers.\nFather Quesnel remarks, The net of God\u2019s word, animated by his Spirit,\ndraws souls out of the abyss of sin and error, to Christian faith and\npiety. The net and vessel of the visible church receives both the good\nand bad fishes, true Christians and hypocrites. This is neither the\ntime, nor the place of distinction; all must continue mixed together\ntill the great day of separation. A man\u2019s being in the church will not\ninfallibly assure him of salvation: as yet there is time to become\nsuch as we ought to be. But the moment will come, when all desires and\nendeavors to this purpose will be attended only with despair. And who\nknows but this moment may be just at hand. Our faith is very weak if\nwe can think of being separated from the righteous without shuddering.\nOur love of salvation is very faint, if we do not endeavor earnestly to\nseparate ourselves in this world from the wicked, by the holiness of\nour lives and conversation.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ II.--ON FOWLS.\n\n    Number of Species -- Superiority and peculiar Construction\n    -- Skill in building their Nests -- Power and season of\n    Propagation -- Dexterity in providing Food -- Instinct --\n    Migrations -- Insects -- Religious Improvement.\n\nNot any part of nature is destitute of inhabitants. The woods, the\nwaters, the depths of the earth, have their respective tenants; while\nthe transparent and elastic air, and those regions where man can never\nsoar, but with much art and at considerable risk, are occupied with\nthe most beautiful creatures. Every order of animals is fitted for\nits situation in life; but none more apparently so than birds. Though\ninferior to beasts in the scale of nature, yet they hold the next rank,\nand far surpass fishes and insects, both in the structure of their\nbodies, and in their sagacity.\n\nThe number of species in this order of animals is very numerous,\namounting to above eight hundred. As some degree of classification\nappears necessary, they have therefore been arranged into eight orders.\nThe 1st is the _Struthious_, or Ostrich order, or those which never\nrise from the earth. This includes the Ostrich, the Cassowary, the\nDodo, the Solitary, and the Nazarene. The 2d is the _Rapacious_ order.\nThis includes the Eagle, the Condor, the Vulture, the Falcon, the\nShrike, or Butcher-Bird, and the Owl. The 3d is the _Gallinaceous_, or\nPoultry order, which is without both the talons and the hooked bill of\nthe rapacious kind. This includes the Bustard, the Cock, the Turkey,\nthe Pintada, or Guinea-Hen, the Grous, the Peacock, the Pheasant, the\nCurassow, the Partridge, and the Quail. The 4th is what some authors\nhave termed the _Columbine_ order. This includes the Dove, or Pigeon,\nwith its varieties. The 5th is the order of _Pies_. This includes the\nCrow, the Roller, the King-Fisher, the Cuckoo, the Wood-Pecker, the\nOriole, the Nuthatch, the Bee-Eater, the Wryneck, the Creeper, the\nHornbill, the Parrot, the Ani, the Wattle Bird, the Grackel, the Bird\nof Paradise, the Beef-Eater, the Curucui, the Barbets, the Jacamer,\nthe Tody, and the Humming Bird. The 6th is the _Passerine_, or Sparrow\nkind. This includes the Starling, the Thrush, the Chatterers, the\nGrosbeaks, the Bunting, the Finch, the Fly-Catchers, the Lark, the\nWagtail, the Warblers,[151] the Titmouse, the Swallow, the Goatsucker,\nthe Coly, the Tanager, and the Manakins. The 7th is the _Cloven-footed_\nWater-Fowl, including those with pinnated feet. This includes the\nHeron, the Ibis, the Curlow, the Snipe, the Sandpiper, the Plover, the\nOyster-Catcher, the Pratincole, the Rail, the Gallinule, the Boatbill,\nthe Umbre, the Jacana, the Sheathbill; and with pinnated, or finned\nfeet, the Phalarope, the Coot, and the Grebe. And the 8th is the\n_Web-footed_ Water-Fowl. This includes the Avoset, the Courier, the\nFlamingo, the Auk, the Guillemot, the Diver, the Tern, the Petrels, the\nGull, the Mersanger, the Duck, the Pelican, the Albatross, the Skimmer,\nthe Penguin, the Tropic Bird, and the Darter. These eight orders take\nin the several species belonging to each, some of which are very\nnumerous; the Duck genus alone embraces one hundred species, differing\nmuch both in size and plumage. Thus we see in birds also, that God has\nshown his wisdom and his power, in the gradation from the vast Ostrich,\nand Cassowary, to the Humming-Bird, which, in size is not much larger\nthan the Bee.\n\n    \u201cThe _ourissia_, bee-like in its size,\n    _Humming_ from flower to flower delighted flies,\n    And in a wondrous living rainbow drest,\n    Shifts all its colors on its wings and breast.\u201d\n\nOf all animated beings, this little bird is the most elegant in form,\nand superb in colors. The emerald, the ruby, and the topaz, sparkle in\nits plumage, which is never soiled by the dust of the ground. In Mr.\nBullock\u2019s Museum, Piccadilly, there is a case containing more than one\nhundred _Humming-birds_; and in the \u201cCompanion\u201d to this delightfull\nrepository of natural history, an interesting account is given of this\nlittle creature, that flutters from flower to flower, breathes their\nfreshness, wantons on the wings of the cooling zephyrs, sips the nectar\nof a thousand sweets, and resides in climes where reigns the beauty of\neternal spring.\n\nThe legs, the wings, the bones, even all parts of their bodies,\nare much lighter, firmer, and more compact in birds than in other\nanimals. Their lungs are extended over all the cavities of their\nbodies. Carniverous birds, like carniverous quadrupeds, have but one\nstomach, where their food is moistened or swelled; a gizzard, which\nis a very hard muscle, almost cartilaginous, and which they commonly\nfill with small stones, where the food is afterwards ground, in order\nto facilitate its complete digestion. In birds there is no ruminating:\nbut in such as are not carniverous, the food is immediately swallowed\ninto the crop, or anti-stomach (which is observed in many, especially\npiscivorous birds,) where it is moistened by some proper juice, and\nthen transferred to the gizzard, by the working of whose muscles,\nassisted by small pebbles, swallowed for that purpose, it is ground\nsmall, and so transmitted to the intestines.\n\nBirds we find supplied with a corney substance, instead of teeth\nand lips. Their bills are cut into various shapes, adapted to their\ndifferent habits. The sharp edge and tempered point of the Sparrow\u2019s\nbeak, enables it to pick every seed from its concealment; breaking the\ngrain to obtain the kernel. The hooked beak of the Hawk separates, like\na dissector\u2019s knife, the flesh from the bones of the animals on which\nit preys. The spoon-bill of the Goose enables her to graze, and collect\nfood from the bottoms of the pools. Birds of the Crane kind, which seek\ntheir food among the waters, having no web-feet, are supplied with long\nlegs for wading, or long bills for groping, and usually both: these are\nadmirably adapted to the shallow pools of water, or sides of rivers,\nwhich they frequent. But in birds living by suction, they are serrated,\nor tooth-like; these do not serve the purpose of teeth, but act as a\nsieve, or strainer, separating nicely from mud some nutriment conducive\nto the preservation of life.\n\nThe sense of seeing in birds is remarkably acute; and though their want\nof external ears is supplied by only two small orifices or ear-holes,\nyet they do not appear deficient in hearing. The scent of some species\nis exquisitely delicate. Men who attend decoys where ducks are caught,\ngenerally keep a piece of turf lighted, on which they breathe, lest the\nfowls should smell them and fly away. The voice of birds is much louder\nin proportion to their size, than that of other animals; for in fact,\nthe bellowing of an Ox is not heard at a much greater distance than the\nscream of a Peacock.\n\nThe covering of birds is perhaps one of the most beautiful. Their\nfeathers are light, smooth, and warm, inclining backward, downy at the\nstem, overlapping at their tips, beautifully variegated, and forming\na raiment, varying in circumstances, so as always to suit the habits\nof the bird. The construction of a single feather is \u201ca mechanical\nwonder.\u201d We see at the stem, a tough, light, pliant, and elastic\nmaterial, only found in feathers; also the pith, which feeds the\nfeathers, a substance peculiar to that purpose; likewise the beard,\nwhich grows on each side of the stem, and is stripped off when making\npens, the separate threads of which are called filaments, or rays.\nThese appear stronger when pressed perpendicularly to their plane, than\nwhen rubbed either up or down in the line of the stem; and this arises\nfrom the lamin\u00e6, of which these beards are composed, being flat, and\nplaced with their flat sides towards each other. Hence, though they are\neasily made to approximate each other, yet they require more force in a\ncontrary direction, having to encounter the impulse of the air, which\nrequires more strength. We find also, that these threads, in their\nnatural state, unite; and cannot, be parted without force, although\nnot joined by any glutinous adhesion, but by a mechanical contrivance.\nAnd, if separated by force or accident, when brought together they\nimmediately reclasp, resuming their former smoothness. These threads\nare interlaced with each other, by means of a vast number of fibres,\nor teeth, which they protrude on each side; fifty of these have been\ncounted in 1-20th of an inch: they are curved after a different manner\nfrom the filaments on which they grow. Those which proceed from the\nside toward the beginning of the quill-end, are shorter, firmer, and\nturn upward. Those on the side toward the extremity of the feather, are\nlonger, more flexible, and bent downward. They therefore act thus; when\nthe two lamin\u00e6 are pressed together, so that the long fibres are forced\nfar enough over the short ones, their crooked parts fall into the\ncavity made by the crooked parts of the others, just as a latch enters\nthe cavity of a catch on the door post. All this beautiful structure\nmay be seen by the microscope. In the Ostrich, whose feathers, or other\nfilaments, hang loose like down, this mechanism is wanting. But as this\nbird does not fly, and requires assistance only in running, perhaps\nthis formation is best adapted for that purpose. Small birds, which do\nnot migrate in the winter season, have the inner side of their feathers\nblack, because this is the warmest color: hence the heat of the bird is\nprevented from escaping.\n\nThe feathers of birds appear to be nourished and preserved in a\nremarkable manner; especially those that much frequent waters, for\nthey have a larger supply of oily substance, with which to trim them.\nLest the feathers should be injured by exposure to the air, every bird\nis furnished with a gland situated on the rump, containing a proper\nquantity of oil, which it presses out with its beak, and with which it\noccasionally anoints them. In water fowls, this oil is so plentiful,\nthat it even imparts a degree of rancidity to the flesh; and by it,\ntheir plumy coat is rendered completely waterproof.\n\nAs God made the fowls \u201cthat they might fly in the firmament of heaven,\u201d\nso has he adapted the form of their bodies, and the structure and\ndisposition of their plumage, for that very purpose. The head and neck\nin flying, are drawn principally within the breastbone, so that the\nwhole underpart exhibits the appearance of a ship\u2019s hull. The wings are\nused as sails, or rather oars, and the tail as a helm or rudder. By\nmeans of these, the creature is not only able to preserve the centre\nof gravity, but also to accelerate its speed through the air, either\nstraight forward, circularly in any kind of angle, as well as upward or\ndownward. Though the greatest part of the a\u00ebrial creation are adorned\nwith feathers, yet has the Deity enabled several to fly without them;\nsuch as the Bat, one species of Lizard, two sorts of fishes, and\nnumberless kinds of insects.\n\nThe skill with which birds erect their houses, and adjust their\napartments, is inimitable. The caution with which they conceal them\nfrom the searching eye, or intruding hand, is admirable. They fix\ntheir nests on the pliant branches that wave aloft in the air, or are\nsuspended over the flowing stream: by these means the vernal gales rock\ntheir cradle, and the murmuring waters lull their young; while both\nconcur to terrify their enemies, and have a tendency to prohibit their\napproach. Some hide their downy offspring from view, amidst the shelter\nof entangled furze. Others, with wary solicitude, place them in the\ncentre of a thorny thicket. And thus, by a variety of expedients, they\nare generally as secure, as if intrenched behind an impregnable mound.\n\n                              \u201cSome to the holly-hedge\n    Nestling repair, and to the thicket some;\n    Some to the rude protection of the thorn\n    Commit their feeble offspring: the cleft tree\n    Offers its kind concealment to a few,\n    Their food its insects, and its moss their nests.\n    Others apart, far in the grassy dale,\n    Or roughening waste, their humble texture weave.\n    But most in woodland solitudes delight,\n    In unfrequented glooms, or shaggy banks,\n    Steep, and divided by a babbling brook,\n    Whose murmurs soothe them all the live-long day,\n    When by kind duty fixed. Among the roots\n    Of hazel, pendent o\u2019er the plaintive stream,\n    They frame the first foundation of their domes;\n    Dry sprigs of trees, in artful fabric laid,\n    And bound with clay together. Now \u2019tis nought\n    But restless hurry through the busy air,\n    Beat by unnumbered wings. The Swallow sweeps\n    The slimy pool, to build his hanging house\n    Intent. And often, from the careless back\n    Of herds and flocks, a thousand tugging bills\n    Pluck hair and wool; and oft, when unobserved,\n    Steal from the barn a straw: till soft and warm\n    Clean and complete, their habitation grows.\u201d\n\nIf the Swan has large sweeping wings, and a copious stock of feathers,\nto spread over his callow young; the Wren supplies by contrivance\nwhat is wanting in her bulk. Though small, she has to nurse a very\nnumerous issue; therefore with surprising sagacity designs, and with\nwonderful diligence finishes her nest, being a neat oval, bottomed\nand vaulted over with a regular concave, within made soft with down,\nwithout thatched with moss, and having only a small aperture left for\nher entrance.\n\n                    \u201cIt wins my admiration,\n    To view the structure of that little work,\n    _A bird\u2019s nest_. Mark it well within, without.\n    No tool had he that wrought, no knife to cut,\n    No nail to fix, no bodkin to insert,\n    No glue to join: his little beak was all,\n    And yet how neatly finished!\u201d\n\nBy this means, the animating heat of her body is greatly increased\nduring the time of incubation. And her young no sooner burst the shell,\nthan they find themselves screened from the annoyance of weather, and\ncomfortably reposed, till they gather sufficient strength and plumage\nin their warm recess, to make their first essay into the wide expanse.\n\nAs to the succession of this class of animals, some are endued with\na remarkable power of propagating, while others are confined within\nnarrow limits. In general, the least animals, and those which are\nuseful and serve for nourishment to the greatest number of other\nanimals, are the most prolific. The Hawk kind generally lay not more\nthan two eggs, or at most four; while the Poultry species produce from\n50 to 100. The Diver, or Loon, which is eaten by a few animals, lays\nalso two eggs; but the Duck kind, the Moorgame, Partridges, &c, and\nsmall birds, lay a very great number. If we suppose two pigeons to\nhatch nine times a year, they may produce in four years 14,760 young!\n\nBirds generate in that particular season which supplies them with a\nstock of provisions, sufficient, not only for themselves, but for their\nincreasing families. They hatch their young when new-born insects swarm\non every side. So that the caterer, whether it be the male or female\nparent, needs only alight on the ground, or make a short excursion into\nthe air, to find a repast ready dressed for the tender charge at home.\nThe love they have for their offspring, while helpless, is invincibly\nstrong.[152] They nurse them with the greatest care, caress them with\naffectionate notes, put food into their mouths, cherish and keep them\nwarm, teach them to pick, eat, and gather food: whereas, the moment\nthey are able to provide for themselves, this anxious care vanishes\nas though it had never been. The Hen, while catering for her little\nbrood, would fly at a mastiff in their defence: yet, in a few weeks,\nleaves them to their own protection, not regarding them any more than\nothers of the same species.\n\nThey also provide their food with admirable art, which dexterity they\nbring into the world with them. Some birds, though not aquatic, live\non fish: and must necessarily find it more difficult to seize their\nprey than Water-fowl. From whence do they derive this natural instinct?\nThey stand on the brink of the liquid element, and when a shoal of\nfish comes (which they can discover at a distance,) they pursue them,\nskim along the surface, suddenly dive into the water, and carry off a\nfish.[153] Who gave the birds of prey their piercing sight, undaunted\ncourage, and the destructive weapons, without which they could not\npossibly subsist? Who points out to the Stork the place where she\nmay find frogs[154] and insects for her support? In order to procure\nthese, she must seek them not only in meadows, but also in the furrows\nof fields; and continue her search till the approach of morning, when\nthe other birds awake and begin to quit their places of retreat. What\namazing strength must the Condor have, seeing it can carry away a\nsheep, a deer, and even prey on the ox itself! How can we reconcile\nthat maternal instinct which causes the quail to adopt little birds\nof every species, which she not only takes under her protection, but\nbestows on them her tenderest cares! What cunning does the Crow use\nto secure the prey, which she cannot devour at once? She hides it in\nplaces such as other Crows do not frequent, and when hungry again, how\nwell does she know where she has deposited it![155]\n\nThere are also several birds, which, when food begins to fail, hide\nthemselves in the earth, or in caves, in a torpid state, during\nthe winter. We are assured, at least, that before the approach of\nthis season, the Strand-Swallows conceal themselves in the earth;\nthe Wall-Swallows repair to the holes of trees and old buildings;\nand the House, or Common Swallows seek for ponds, where they fasten\nthemselves in pairs, cling to roots or weeds, continue without motion,\nand apparently without life, till the return of spring, when they are\nre-animated, and return from that state of torpidity.\n\nThe infinitely wise Creator has given different instincts to birds;\nnone of which is superfluous, or useless, but each is indispensably\nnecessary to the preservation and well-being of the animal. The motion\nof birds not only requires strength and well-formed pliant limbs, but\nalso instinct to direct their movements. They have each two feet; but\ntheir bodies do not rest perpendicularly on them, for they project\nboth before and behind; and yet a chick will stand upright and run\nabout almost as soon as it leaves the shell. Young Ducks, just hatched\nby a Hen, know their own element, and swim about in the water without\nexample or instruction. Other birds know how to rise up from their\nnests into the air, balance themselves, pursue their course, make\nequal strokes with their wings in true time, stretch out their feet\nto equipoise their bodies, use their tails like an oar or rudder, to\ndirect their flight, and make long journeys from their native country\nto unknown regions.\n\nThe migration of birds is truly astonishing! Very few spend the winter\nwith us: the Yellow-Hammer, the Chaffinch, the Crow, the Raven, the\nSparrow, the Wren, the Partridge, the Robin, and the Fieldfare, are the\nprincipal. Most of the others either retire to some invisible resort,\nor leave us entirely. Some kinds of birds, without taking any high\nflight, or setting off in troops, draw gradually towards the south, to\nseek those seeds and fruits which are most congenial to their taste;\nbut they speedily return. Others, which are termed \u201cbirds of passage,\u201d\ncollect at certain seasons in large flocks, and fly off to other\nclimates; they even cross the seas, and make excursions of a surprising\nlength. The best known birds of this description are, the Quail, the\nSwallow, the Wild-Duck, the Plover, the Snipe, and the Crane, with some\nothers, which subsist on worms. In spring, the Cranes pass from Africa\ninto Europe, in order to enjoy a more temperate climate. They migrate\nin flocks like clouds; and sometimes, their strength being nearly\nexhausted, alight on ships, and are taken without any difficulty.\nSwallows act in a different way: while some continue in Europe, and\nseclude themselves from our view as already observed, others cross the\nseas. Wild-Ducks and Cranes also repair at the approach of winter to\nmilder climates. They all assemble on a certain day, and take their\nflight together. They commonly arrange themselves in two lines, united\nin one point like an inverted \u028c, with a bird at the head,\nand others following in the lines: whose beaks always rest on the tails\nof those preceding. The leader holds only a temporary commission:\nand having relinquished his charge, rests himself, and is replaced\nby another. But all birds of passage do not take their departure in\nflocks: for there are some which travel alone; and others with their\nfemales and young. It has been computed that they may easily go 200\nmiles in six hours each day, supposing they can take rest at intervals,\nor during the night. According to this calculation, they may pass from\nour climates to the Equinoctial line in seven or eight days! This\nconjecture has been verified; for Swallows have been seen on the coast\nof Senegal on the 9th of October, which was eight or nine days after\ntheir leaving Europe.\n\nThese migrations are wonderful in every point of view! Doubtless the\ndifference of heat and cold, and want of food, apprize them of the\nnecessity of changing their abode. But what reason can be assigned for\ntheir departure at the appointed time, when the season is sufficiently\nmild, and food still in abundance, to invite their continuance among\nus? How do they know that other climates will afford them necessary\nfood and warmth? By what operative power are they impelled to make this\nexit at the same period, as if preconcerted by mutual agreement? How\ncan they, notwithstanding the darkness of the nights, the perplexity\nof the road, and the remoteness of the countries to which they are\ndestined, still hold on in a direct course? Nature does not teach them\nall this art, industry, and penetration, which so much surprise us: if\nwe separate nature from its great Author, it is then a word destitute\nof meaning.\n\n    \u201cNature is but a name for an effect,\n    Whose cause is God.\u201d\n\nIt is He alone who gives wisdom to the fowls of the air.\n\nGod\u2019s superintendence over birds is particularly noticed by our\nSaviour. \u201cBehold the fowls of the air; for they sow not, neither do\nthey reap, nor gather into barns; yet your heavenly Father feedeth\nthem.\u201d God extends his providential care to all his creatures, not\nonly to those which are domesticated and receive their supplies from\nmen, but also to the fowls of the air. By a natural instinct they know\nhow to select that kind of food which is suitable for aliment, and\nwhere to procure it; but they are without any particular solicitude\nand forecast: nor have they need of these, because God takes care to\nprovide for them. St. Luke mentions the Ravens, which are carniverous\ncreatures. \u201cConsider,\u201d says he, \u201cthe ravens: for they neither sow nor\nreap; which neither have storehouse nor barn: and God feedeth them.\u201d\nGod asks Job, \u201cWho provideth for the raven his food?\u201d There are but\nthree things which concern such creatures; how their craving appetites\nmay be satiated, where they may repose, and by what means they may be\nprotected from the incursions of their enemies: and for all these God\nhas amply provided. He takes care of their food: \u201che giveth food to the\nyoung ravens which cry,\u201d and are the most helpless of all creatures.\nNaturalists observe, that the Raven exposes her young ones as soon as\nthey are hatched, leaves them to provide for themselves, and struggle\nwith hunger as soon as they emerge into life; so they certainly would\nperish, if Providence did not interfere in their behalf. But God makes\nthem his charge, and supplies their voracious cravings in due time,\nwhether by the insect, the reptile, or the dew from heaven. He protects\ntheir rest, and renders their habitations places of refuge and safety.\n\u201cThe trees of the Lord are full of sap: the cedars of Lebanon which he\nhath planted; where the birds make their nests: as for the Stork, the\nfir-trees are her house.\u201d\n\nThe meanest classes of sensitive beings are endued with the faculty\nof instinct: a sagacity which is neither derived from observation,\nnor awaits the finishing hand of experience; which without a tutor\nteaches them all necessary skill, and enables them, without a pattern,\nto perform every needful operation. And what is more remarkable, it\nnever misleads them, either into erroneous principles, or pernicious\npractices: nor ever fails to aid them in the most nice and difficult of\ntheir undertakings.--The inhabitants of the hive subsist as a regular\ncommunity.\n\n                                    ----\u201cAs _bees_\n    In Spring-time, when the sun with Taurus rides,\n    Pour fourth their populous youth about the hive\n    In clusters; they among fresh dews and flowers\n    Fly to and fro, or on the smoothed plank,\n    The suburb of their straw-built citadel,\n    New rubbed with balm, expatiate and confer\n    Their state affairs: so thick the a\u00ebry crowd\n    Swarmed and were straitened.\u201d\n\nTheir indulgent Creator has given them all implements necessary\neither for constructing combs, or composing honey. Bees have each a\nportable vessel, in which they bring home their collected sweets: and\nhave the most commodious storehouses, wherein to deposit them. They\nreadily distinguish every plant, which affords materials for their\nbusiness; and are complete practitioners in the arts of separation\nand refinement. Aware that the vernal bloom and summer sun are but\nfor a season, they improve to the utmost every shining hour, and lay\nup a stock sufficient to supply the whole society, till their flowery\nharvest shall return.\n\nInsects, which some persons may consider as so many rude scraps of\ncreation, ought to be classed among the most polished pieces of Divine\nworkmanship.\n\n    ----\u201cIn the vast and the minute\n    The unambiguous footsteps of the God,\n    Who gives its lustre to an insect\u2019s wing,\n    And wheels his throne upon the rolling worlds.\u201d\n\n\u201cThe first state in which insects appear, is that of the _ovum_ or egg;\nfrom the egg is hatched the insect in its larva or caterpillar state.\nThe larva, or maggot, crawls on many feet, and is extremely voracious,\ndevouring the herbage, and stripping trees of their leaves. When the\ntime arrives in which the larva or caterpillar is to change into the\nnext state, namely, that of chrysalis, or _pupa_, it ceases to feed;\nand having placed itself in some quiet situation for the purpose,\nlies still for several hours; and then by a kind of laborious effort,\nfrequently repeated, divests itself of its external skin, or larva\ncoat, and immediately appears in the very different form of a chrysalis\nor _pupa_. From this state emerges, at length, the insect, in its\ncomplete or ultimate form, from which it can never change; nor can it\nreceive any further increase of growth. This last stage is denominated\n_imago_.\u201d\n\n    \u201cWaked by his warmer ray, the reptile young\n    Come winged abroad; by the light air upborne,\n    Lighter, and full of soul. From every chink,\n    And secret corner, where they slept away\n    The wintery storms; or rising from their tombs,\n    To higher life; by myriads, forth at once,\n    Swarming they pour; of all the varied hues\n    Their beauty-beaming parent can disclose.\n    Ten thousand forms! ten thousand different tribes!\n    People the blaze.\u201d\n\nMany of them are decked with the richest finery. Their eyes are an\nassemblage of microscopes. The common Fly, for instance, perpetually\nsurrounded with enemies, having neither strength to resist, nor a\nretreat to secure herself, has need to be very vigilant, and always\non her guard: but her head is so fixed that she cannot turn it to see\nher danger; Providence, therefore, to supply this apparent defect, has\ngiven her more than a legion of eyes, insomuch that a single Fly is\nsupposed to have no less than eight thousand. Nay, it is asserted that\nthe common Dragon-fly is furnished with 25,000 of these diminutive\nlenses! By the help of this truly amazing apparatus, she sees on every\nside, with the utmost ease and speed, though without any motion of the\neye, or inflection of the neck. The dress of insects is a vesture of\nresplendent colors, bespangled with an arrangement of the brightest\ngems.\n\n    \u201cThe little _gnat_, in beauties, may compare\n    With all his rival brothers of the air;\n    Transparent feathers, purple, green and gold,\n    His wings, small feet, and gay-fringed tail enfold.\n    Four sharpened spears his head with weapons arm,\n    And his pearled eyes with liveliest graces charm.\n    In down of ev\u2019ry variegated dye\n    Shines, fluttering soft, the gaudy _butterfly_,\n    That powder which thy spoiling hand disdains,\n    The forms of quills and painted plumes contains;\n    Nor courts can more magnificence express,\n    In all their blaze of gems and pomp of dress.\u201d\n\nThe expansion of their wings displays the finest texture imaginable,\ncompared to which lawn is as course as sackcloth. The cases, which\ninclose their wings, glitter with the finest varnish, are scooped into\nornamental flutings, studded with radiant spots, or pinked with elegant\nholes. Not one but is endued with weapons to seize his prey, and\ndexterity to escape his foe, to despatch the business of his station,\nand enjoy the pleasure of his condition. It is affirmed that the female\nof the common house-fly is capable of producing 20 millions 80 thousand\n320; hence we cannot wonder at their swarming so much in autumn.\n\n    [Our author has devoted very few remarks indeed to\n    _insects_; yet the history of this class of creatures is as\n    interesting as any other, and is attracting considerable\n    attention. Their history is very far from being complete:\n    their _number_ is not known. They inhabit the air, water, and\n    earth. This family of creatures is called _insects_, because of\n    the _articulations_ of the body, so as to appear notched, or\n    intersected. A brief notice of some of their principal parts\n    follows, which is chiefly taken from No. VIII, of the Family\n    Library, published by J. & J. Harper, New-York.\n\n    _Mouth._--All insects either _divide_ their food, or _suck_\n    it. In those which divide their food, the parts of the mouth\n    are, an upper lip, and an under lip fixed to a piece called the\n    chin; between these two there are four lateral pieces, two on\n    each side; the two upper are called mandibles, the two lower,\n    jaws. The mandibles, or upper jaws cut the food: the lower jaws\n    divide and masticate it.\n\n    The mouth of those insects which suck their food, is\n    elongated into a tongue or proboscis. This is a tube attached\n    to the head. In some it is composed of two pieces connected by\n    a joint; for if it were constantly extended it would be too\n    much exposed to accidental injuries: therefore, in its indolent\n    state it is securely doubled up by means of this joint. In\n    some species, as the butterfly, the proboscis, when not in\n    use, is coiled up like a watch-spring. In some it is shut up\n    in a sharp-pointed sheath, which is of firmer texture than the\n    proboscis, and by which the insect pierces the food, and then\n    opens it within the wound to allow the proboscis to perform\n    its office by extracting the juice.\n\n    _Antenn\u00e6._--These are very slender arms resembling hairs,\n    which project from the heads of almost all insects. There are\n    generally two to each insect, which diverge somewhat. The\n    insects can move them in all directions, and when they are seen\n    doing this it commonly suggests the idea that these antenn\u00e6 are\n    _feelers_. However, their functions are not certainly known:\n    some suppose them to be organs of sense.\n\n    _Eyes._--These are generally found in the head of insects.\n    Their real number is, usually, two: the surfaces of which are\n    cut into many small faces; more than seventeen thousand have\n    been counted in the butterfly. Each face on the insect\u2019s eye is\n    considered as a crystalline lens, concave within, and convex\n    without. They have no eye-lids.\n\n    _Thorax, or throat._--This is the second division of the\n    body, and is placed directly behind the head. To the thorax\n    are attached the wings and legs: commonly three legs on each\n    side. Two membranes compose the wing, placed one above the\n    other. Cords, or small nerves, are found in the upper one.\n    The expansion of the wing is owing, as is supposed, to the\n    introduction of a fluid, at the will of the insect, into hollow\n    vessels which are detected in the composition of the wing.\n\n    _Abdomen._--This is the third division of the insect, and\n    is immediately connected with the thorax by articulation: it is\n    composed of rings from one to fifteen. Most of these rings have\n    an open pore placed laterally, through which air has access to\n    the fluids in the body. In some insects the last ring contains\n    the anus; in others, the organs of generation; or the means of\n    defence, as a sting.\n\n    _Muscles._--These are said to be disposed in bundles, the\n    fibres of which are not connected by a cellular membrane: they\n    are fixed to the hard parts, which are to be moved by horny\n    tendons.\n\n    The thorax contains the muscles which move the head up or\n    down, and those also which move the wings and the feet. In some\n    the muscles amount to four thousand. The muscular power of\n    some of these insects is astonishing, as may be known by the\n    distance they can leap: as the flea, and others, which leap two\n    hundred times their own length. If man could do this he would\n    leap at a single effort, more than one thousand feet.\n\n    All insects are supposed to have a knotted nervous system.\n    The knot nearest the head is composed of two lobes, from which\n    nerves pass to the eyes, antenn\u00e6, and mouth.\n\n    These are the principal common parts of insects. It would\n    be a delightful task to enter into a minute description of\n    their genera, species, habits, modes of life, subsistence,\n    defence, attack, &c. Only two or three can be noticed, which\n    must be taken as a specimen of the whole.\n\n    _The_ BEE.--This insect has attracted the attention of the\n    observing in all ages. On a pleasant summer\u2019s day the hive\n    presents the appearance of a busy, and populous city--the gates\n    appear to be crowded with many workmen--some going to search\n    for food, and others returning with it--some building--some\n    tending the young--some cleansing the dwelling, and others\n    carrying out the dead, and, apparently, performing some\n    honorable sepulchral rites, &c.\n\n    _The hive._--The interior of a bee-hive is itself a world\n    of wonders. It is not, as is commonly supposed, the same in\n    the form of its construction in all hives, it varies according\n    to circumstances. Yet there are some general principles which\n    seem to be common to all honeycombs: they do not touch each\n    other, but always are sufficiently far apart to allow room to\n    work on the opposite faces of each comb. The combs are placed\n    vertically in the hive, and each complete comb is composed of\n    two layers of six-sided cells, united by a common base. These\n    two layers of six-sided cells are not united by a common base\n    with a _flat_ bottom to each cell: but the hexagonal tube\n    terminates at the bottom in a _three-sided pyramidal cavity_.\n    The angle, formed at the apex of this pyramidal cavity, is\n    70\u00b0 32\u02b9--and the angle formed at the base of the hexagonal\n    tube, or cell, is 109\u00b0 28\u02b9. By this construction Reaumur has\n    demonstrated, that the bee has formed his comb on the only plan\n    which could produce cells of a determinate size, equal and\n    similar, in the strongest manner, occupying the least space,\n    and requiring the least quantity of matter.\n\n    The wax, out of which the cells are formed, is not the same\n    simple substance as honey, extracted from the flowers: it seems\n    to be elaborated by the bees in their bodies, and deposited\n    under their bellies in the form of scales. It is produced from\n    a nectar obtained from flowers, which is swallowed by the bee\n    in the greatest possible quantity, after which the bee hangs\n    motionless in the hive for twenty-four hours, during which time\n    the wax is elaborated and deposited under the belly in thin\n    scales resembling talc.\n\n    Some of the cells are filled with honey, and some are found\n    to contain the young bee in the condition of larva.\n\n    The bees which inhabit a hive may be regarded as a\n    community, which is found to be divided into three classes: the\n    queen--the males--and the workers, which are of no sex.\n\n    _The Queen._--She is the common mother of the hive, and\n    deposits all the eggs from which the young ones come: she\n    appears to be in size between the males and workers, but longer\n    than either.\n\n    The attention or reverence, with which the queen-bee is\n    regarded, is very remarkable. Upon withdrawing the queen from\n    a hive the workers are thrown into the greatest consternation;\n    they desist from work, run wildly through the hive, and refuse\n    all nourishment. This they do for twenty-four hours, after\n    which time a new queen will be received kindly, if offered\n    them; but previously, they pay no attention to a strange queen,\n    though introduced among them.\n\n    If no queen can be found, Schirach discovered, and Huber\n    has confirmed it, _that the bees have power to create a queen_,\n    in the following manner. They build some _royal_ cells (for\n    there are different kinds) into which they put the common\n    worker-worm, i.e. the grub which produces the work-bee, and\n    feed the insect with royal food, which is more pungent than\n    the common bee-food; and in a few days they have a queen-bee\n    produced, instead of a work-bee; then all is well.\n\n    The queen is always attended with a train, which wait upon\n    her, do her homage, caress and feed her, by presenting her\n    with honey. If they lose their own queen, and a stranger queen\n    is introduced, after twenty-four hours, they commence their\n    reverence for the new sovereign by surrounding her, caressing\n    her, feeding her, and opening a way for her when she moves.\n\n    Their devotions to their queen do not cease if she become\n    sterile, or die. Their veneration and tender attentions appear\n    to increase towards the dead body of their queen. It is a well\n    known fact, that the community perishes if they cannot procure\n    a queen by any means.\n\n    _The combats of the queens._--The bees seem to be purely\n    monarchial in their constitution of government. This will\n    appear from the following extraordinary facts:\n\n    If a strange queen be introduced into the hive where there\n    is a queen, the working-bees immediately seize upon her, and\n    detain her a prisoner: as soon as this is done, another party\n    hastens away to the reigning queen and surround her. They\n    then force the queens towards each other, in order to make\n    them decide the sovereignty of the hive in mortal combat. The\n    conquerer is cheerfully taken for the reigning sovereign.\n\n    Nor is it difficult to bring the rival queens to an\n    engagement: so soon as they recognize each other they rush\n    furiously to the combat, and the one or the other quickly\n    inflicts a mortal wound by piercing the belly of the antagonist\n    between the rings, by means of the sting.\n\n    So exclusive is the passion of the queen for sovereignty,\n    that she puts to death the young queens, so soon as she\n    ascertains them to be such. This she does even in the cells,\n    before they have come forth.\n\n    _The male bees._--These seem not to have attracted much\n    interest. They are not very numerous in the hive; generally not\n    exceeding an hundred or two. They are the largest in size, and\n    live perfectly idle.\n\n    _The working bees._--These, as their name imports, perform\n    the labors of the hive. The details of their labors cannot be\n    admitted here.\n\n    There is one question, in regard to bees, which\n    is difficult and curious: their senses. From the best\n    observations, and experiments, it would seem as if the antenn\u00e6,\n    or feelers, were the principal organs of sense. Upon taking\n    away the queen, in about an hour some one bee discovers it,\n    and becomes instantly agitated, and runs furiously about the\n    hive: the first companion he meets they cross their feelers\n    mutually, the discoverer giving his neighbor a gentle tap with\n    the feeler, and he in turn commences running furiously about\n    the hive, communicating the intelligence in a similar manner;\n    until the whole hive is in an uproar.\n\n    Huber introduced a queen to a hive, after twenty-four hours\n    absence of their own queen. The working bees which were nearest\n    immediately approached and touched her with their feelers, and\n    passing their trunks over every part of her body, gave her\n    honey. Then these gave place to others which treated her in\n    a similar manner; and all, with a vibration of their wings,\n    arranged themselves around their new sovereign.\n\n    From some experiments of Huber, it seems that the antenn\u00e6,\n    or feelers of bees are the organs of communication. He thinks\n    they have no organ for hearing. Their power of vision is very\n    clear and strong. Anciently, in New-England, the honey-hunters\n    are said to have found the nest of wild bees in the following\n    manner: they placed a plate of honey in the woods, and when\n    the bees came to get it, they caught two or three of them,\n    the bee-hunter would let one go, and observe his course, by a\n    pocket compass, as he flew to the nest: he would then walk off\n    at a right angle a few hundred yards, and let another bee go,\n    and observe the course: the angle, or point at which these two\n    lines, described by the flights of the bees, met, the hunter\n    knew to be the place where the bee-nest was.\n\n    The manner in which bees take their rest is a matter of\n    curiosity. Some attach themselves to a part of the hive, by\n    their fore-feet, and extend their hind-feet down: the next\n    bee by his fore-feet takes hold of the hind-feet of the first\n    bee, and thus suspends himself; others attach themselves in\n    like manner, until they form clusters, or festoons. In this\n    condition they take their rest.\n\n    It will be interesting to learn something of the _sting_ of\n    the bee. It is situated in the lower end of the ringed-body:\n    it is composed of three parts: the sheath, and two darts which\n    are enclosed in it, very small and penetrating. The darts are\n    barbed. When the bee strikes with its sting, the sharp and hard\n    point of the hollow sheath strikes and penetrates first, and\n    the two darts are immediately thrust into the incision made by\n    the sheath; and at the same time the bee injects a poisonous\n    liquor into the wound, which causes the pain and inflammation.\n    In some instances the sting is struck in so deeply the bee\n    cannot extricate it: in that case the wound is more painful,\n    but the loss proves fatal to the bee.\n\n    Destructive combats frequently take place between different\n    hives; and many perish on both sides. Occasionally single\n    combats, or duels, take place, which always prove fatal to\n    one or the other. Instances are known, in which the bees\n    of one hive plunder the bees of another. In this case a\n    battle generally ensues. And what is more astonishing still,\n    sometimes the hive-bees will, five or six of them, surround an\n    _humble-bee_, and rob him of his honey, as he is returning home\n    of an evening. Indeed a whole volume might be written, and the\n    natural history of the bee not be exhausted.\n\n    ANTS.--This insect has justly rivalled the bee in the\n    admiration of the philosopher, and, on some accounts, is\n    considered a more interesting creature. The instinct of this\n    creature does not appear so strikingly as that of the bee:\n    but it exhibits other and higher qualities, approaching to\n    the cardinal virtues of man: such as love, courage, patience,\n    perseverance, &c. The proof of all these will be found in the\n    few brief remarks which follow.\n\n    There are various kinds of ants: the fallow ant; the\n    sanguine ant; the legionary ant; the white ant, &c. There are\n    some traits common to all: They live in communities; build\n    cities, or ant-hills; and are divided into general classes,\n    with their appropriate grades and employments, somewhat similar\n    to bees; there are males, females, and neuters, or workers.\n\n    They also resemble the bees in their respect for their\n    matrons or queens; though they differ in this respect; they\n    admit of the presence of an indefinite number of queens, which\n    produces no ill consequences whatever. They all are equally\n    caressed, and attended.\n\n    There is a very marked difference between the ant and bee.\n    The queens, or matrons of the bees remain in their respective\n    hives, and their presence is necessary to the industry and\n    contentment of the communities. But the matrons or queens of\n    the ants act differently. The male and female ants have wings;\n    the neuters or workers have not. These generally swarm together\n    between July and September. They rise from the ant-hill\n    together, in immense numbers; sometimes the ants of a whole\n    district collect together and rise in the air, and seem only to\n    be sporting; but at this time the females become fecundated.\n    The quantity of ants with wings is so great sometimes, as, says\n    Dr. Bromley, to form a column on the water five or six miles\n    long, eight or ten feet broad, and six inches deep, when they\n    happened to fall into the river.\n\n    In this general destruction of the winged ants, some\n    females escape, which quickly divest themselves of their wings,\n    form an ant-hill, and found a new colony by depositing their\n    eggs in it.\n\n    It is also well ascertained that the working ants do not\n    permit all the females or queens to escape, but detain some as\n    prisoners, by cropping their wings. They pay every attention\n    to these royal prisoners guarding them diligently, and feeding\n    them liberally. When these females drop their eggs, the workers\n    take them up carefully, and deposit them in their proper places.\n\n    These are some of the principal traits common to the ant\n    tribe. A few brief remarks may be made on the principal species.\n\n    _The fallow ant._--The wars of this insect is the principal\n    thing which can be noticed here. We have a minute detail, of\n    one long and disastrous battle, by Huber. This battle took\n    place between the inhabitants of two neighboring ant-hills:\n    they met half way: the battle was commenced by single\n    combatants; then they fought in pairs on elevated ground; and\n    finally the battle became general. The attack is generally made\n    by seizing each other by the mandibles, and rearing up on their\n    hind feet so as to bring their abdomens forward, from which\n    they eject a pungent poison upon their adversaries, in order to\n    destroy them. This circumstance gives rise to a pungent smell\n    on the spot. During the combat they are frequently grappled so\n    closely together as to fall on their sides; and others coming\n    to their assistance the group is locked fast in the struggle.\n\n    During the action some are found leading away prisoners;\n    others going as couriers to bring fresh troops to the fight,\n    and some in the immediate vicinity of the hills keeping guard,\n    and transacting the common business of the community.\n\n    The battle occupied a space of about three feet square,\n    and lasted until the approach of night: then each party\n    retired; but was on the spot next morning at dawn of day, and\n    re-commenced the battle with greater fury, and carnage. It\n    finally terminated without subverting either republic.\n\n    It was very remarkable, says Huber, that these ants, in\n    promiscuous combat, should know their own party. In a few\n    cases, for a moment, friends assailed, but rectified the error,\n    instantly, by caressing.\n\n    _The legionary ant._ Though the natural history of this\n    insect, throughout, is very interesting, there is place for but\n    one principal fact: i.e. their practice of making the _formica\n    fusca_, or negro ant, a slave. This curious fact was first\n    discovered by Huber, and has since been confirmed by Latreille,\n    and is now admitted readily by naturalists.\n\n    A campaign, for the purpose of procuring slaves, was\n    observed closely by Huber on the 17th of June, 1804. The column\n    was first seen crossing the road, being about ten inches long\n    and four broad. He followed them until they approached the\n    nest of the negro ant. The centinels on duty gave the alarm,\n    and the ants rushed out, and made a spirited resistance to\n    the invaders, but were finally driven into their house. The\n    legionary ants then rushed forward, attacked the hill, and\n    took the little city by assault. They remained in it but a few\n    minutes, and returned, each one carrying in his mouth a larva,\n    or young negro ant, and scampered home in confusion.\n\n    They never take the old ants captive, but the young, in a\n    state of infancy, and thus raise them in a state of slavery.\n    The consequence is that they are submissive and affectionate,\n    and perform with cheerfulness and fidelity all the domestic\n    duties of a legionary city. They provide house and food for\n    their masters, attend them, and serve them in every possible\n    way.\n\n    _The sanguine ant_ is also a slave dealer, and in the same\n    manner as the legionary. Nor is the negro ant the only victim:\n    the _mining ant_ is also reduced to a state of slavery by the\n    legionary, and sanguine ants.\n\n    There remains to be stated another circumstance connected\n    with the natural history of ants, which would scarcely be\n    credited, were it not tested by such names as Linn\u00e6us, Huber,\n    and Latreille: that is, _they keep milch-cows_. There are\n    certain insects, from which they extract a sweet saccharine\n    fluid for food, as we do milk from cows. The principal insects\n    which are thus used, are the plant-louse, and the gall-insect.\n    Linn\u00e6us, and after him other naturalists, call these insects\n    the _milch-cows of the ants_.\n\n    The fluid issues from the body of the insect through little\n    tubes placed above the abdomen on either side. When no ants are\n    present the plant-lice emit this liquor from their bodies by a\n    jerking motion: when they are in attendance they suck the juice\n    with great avidity. But what is still more astonishing, the\n    ants compel their milch-cattle to yield their milk, by gently\n    patting them on each side with their antenn\u00e6, or feelers. This\n    is properly milking them.\n\n    In addition to this the ants take care to appropriate\n    these milch-cattle to themselves, by collecting them in herds,\n    guarding and feeding them. They sometimes make an enclosure\n    around them, or around the tree or plant on which they find\n    them, and thus secure them. Some herds are owned in common by\n    the ant-hill; and others appear to belong to individuals.\n\n    The _yellow ant_ is known to remove these plant-lice from\n    the plants, and domesticate them in their hillocks for service\n    in winter.\n\n    In conclusion, in regard to ants we may mention their\n    ravages committed on property. In the East and West Indies\n    they are very destructive. They undermine houses in such a\n    manner as to cause them to fall. Some species will devour the\n    wood of a building of small size, in a single night. And it is\n    remarkable that they make their ravages _internally_. One would\n    not observe that they had assailed a beam of timber, unless he\n    should take means to examine its interior. They will devour\n    even the exterior of the timber when they have first coated\n    it over with mud or clay in order to conceal their work. They\n    devour furniture of all kinds, and completely consume the trees\n    which fall in some countries. The extent of the damage which\n    they can do, is incalculable.\n\n    These remarks will show what interest the natural history\n    of insects can inspire. It is not permitted to extend the\n    subject further in a note.]\n\nThe distinction between _clean_ and _unclean_ Fowls, made in the\nScriptures, serves to point out the difference between the two classes\nof _saints_ and _sinners_ among the human race. Those Fowls were\naccounted clean, which are gentle in their nature, as the Dove, and\nmusical in their notes, as the Lark; which qualifications are not\nto be found among birds of prey, as the Ostrich, Eagle, Vulture,\nHawk, Cormorant, Raven, Owl, Bat, &c. All these, so far as their\ninstincts and properties are discovered to us, agree so well with\nthe different characters of men, to whom in Scripture they have a\nsymbolical allusion, that none but the infinitely wise Creator could\nhave distinguished and applied their several peculiarities with so much\nsimplicity, brevity, and propriety.\n\nSeveral of the unclean Fowls feed on filth and dead carcases; whose\n\u201cyoung ones\u201d also \u201csuck up blood, and where the slain are, there\nare they.\u201d Dr. Buchanan, when at the distance of fifty miles from\nJuggernaut, says, \u201cWe know that we are approaching Juggernaut, by the\nhuman bones which we have seen for several days strewed by the way.\nThe Vultures seem to live here on human prey: they exhibit a shocking\n_tameness_. The obscene animals will not leave the body sometimes till\nwe come close to them. Yesterday a woman devoted herself to the idol:\nthis morning, as I passed the place of skulls, nothing remained of her\nbut her bones.\u201d The unrenewed nature of man is no more offended with\nevil, than a vulture is with human flesh, or a crow is with carrion, on\nwhich it feeds with delight.\n\nThe unclean Fowls persecute and devour those of a more gentle nature.\nThe Eagle, \u05e0\u05e9\u05e8 _nesher_, is from _nasher_ to _lacerate_, _cut_, or\n_tear to pieces_; hence the _Eagle_, a most rapacious bird of prey,\nhas its name from tearing the flesh of animals it feeds on: and for\nthis purpose, birds of prey have, in general, strong crooked talons and\na hooked beak. The Eagle is a cruel bird, exceedingly ravenous, and\nalmost insatiable. This propensity in birds of prey to seize, tear,\nand devour, is expressive of the violent and malevolent dispositions\nof some persons, who hate and endeavor to injure those who live in\nthe fear of God, and keep his commandments. Such were the heathens,\nwhom St. Paul has described as \u201ccruel\u201d and \u201cunmerciful, full of envy,\nmurder, and debate,\u201d given up to the vilest passions, and all the\nuncleanness of \u201cdead works.\u201d\n\nThe want of _natural affection_, and a _right understanding_ of Divine\nthings, among ungodly persons, is strikingly exhibited in the character\nof the Ostrich. This foolish bird, though it has wings, is not able\nto raise itself from the earth, and is void of that instinctive\ntenderness, which other creatures feel for their offspring: \u201cwhich\nleaveth her eggs in the earth, and warmeth them in the dust, and\nforgetteth that the foot may crash them, or that the wild beast, may\nbreak them. She is hardened against her young ones, as though they\nwere not hers; her labor is in vain without fear; because God hath\ndeprived her of wisdom, neither hath he imparted to her understanding.\u201d\nThe Ostrich lays from thirty to fifty eggs, not placed, like those of\nsome other birds, upon trees, or in the clefts of rocks, but in the\nsand, forgetting the danger to which they are exposed from the feet of\ntravellers or wild beasts. On the most trivial occasion, she forsakes\nher eggs, or her young ones, to which, perhaps, she never returns;\nor, if she does, it may be too late, either to restore life to the\none, or preserve the lives of the other. The prophet, applying this\nwant of affection, says, \u201cThe daughter of my people is cruel, like the\nOstriches in the wilderness.\u201d She is likewise inconsiderate and foolish\nin her private capacity, says Dr. Shaw, particularly in her choice of\nfood, which is frequently highly detrimental and pernicious to her; for\nshe swallows every thing greedily and indiscriminately, whether it be\npieces of rags, leather, wood, stone, or even iron. To secure herself,\nshe will thrust her head into the shrubs, though her body, which, when\nstanding upright, is from six to eight feet in height, from the top of\nthe head to the ground, be exposed. She has a little head, and scarcely\nany brain: hence historians tell us, that the emperor Heliogabalus,\nto gratify his luxurious taste, together with other delicacies, such\nas the combs of Cocks, the tongues of Pheasants and Nightingales, the\neggs of Partridges, the heads of Parrots and Peacocks, the brains of\nThrushes, had likewise served up to him, at one entertainment, the\nheads of six hundred Ostriches for the sake of the brains; because,\nbeing so very small, a less number would not have been sufficient to\nmake a dish. What an affecting emblematical representation is this\nsingular bird of the moral qualifications and habits of ignorant and\nwicked men! not to mention the superstitious practice of offering\nchildren to Moloch and other diabolical deities; the custom of exposing\nnew-born infants in the woods to perish with hunger, or be devoured by\nwild beasts; a practice still tolerated among the idolaters of China.\n\nThe heathen, who \u201cdid not like to retain God in their knowledge,\nbut became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was\ndarkened,\u201d were in this respect, symbolically represented by the tribe\nof Owls and Bats, and other birds of night, all of which the law\npronounced to be unclean. In the Owl we have a striking image of the\nsceptic, who loves darkness rather than light, and is more proud of\nhis artificial ignorance than any man ought to be of the most useful\nknowledge: who could never find Divine truth, because he never loved\nit; as the Owl is offended with that glory which the sun diffuses over\nthe natural creation. As the day has no charms for the Owl, so revealed\nreligion has nothing wise or wonderful in its nature and design with\nthe unbelieving philosopher; who brings with him to the word of God all\nthat prejudice with which the Owl flies out of its retreat into the\nsun-shine. Yet he has his admirers; as the hooting of the Owl is music\nin the ears of another of the same species. This emblematical bird,\nwhen exposed to the light of the sun against his will, lets down a\nconspicuous membrane over his eyes, to guard them from the inconvenient\nsplendor of the orb of day; as the infidel draws a dark veil of evil\nreasonings and blasphemous objections over his heart, to intercept and\nweaken the effulgent rays of heavenly truth. The Owl has a natural\naversion from the light; and if he breaks through his ordinary rule,\nand settled habit, so as to appear in the day-time, he is pursued and\nreprimanded by other birds, as one that is a disgrace to their kind.\nBut the birds which thus express their indignation against the Owl,\nnever kill him, being unarmed and inoffensive in their nature.[156]\nSo an infidel should not be put to death for his detestable and\ndemoralizing principles; but all Christians should agree in giving\npublic notice of him, and showing the world what he is. For internal\nrealities do not always comport with external appearances. The outward\nappearance of the Owl seems to promise a great degree of gravity and\nwisdom, while its principles and manners are opposite to the common\nsense of other birds, and its office in the creation reduces it to\nthe rank of a common mouse-trap. So the philosophers it represented\nmade a pompous display of reason and learning, all of which, so far\nas they applied these to divinity, were no better than ignorance and\nfolly. \u201cProfessing themselves to be wise, they became fools;\u201d and by\nan unaccountable fatality chose this very bird as the emblem of their\nwisdom; which was accordingly held in great veneration at Athens, the\nprincipal seat of heathen learning, as the symbol of Minerva, the\ntutelar goddess of that city.\n\nThe Bat is a sort of monster, partaking of the nature of both a\nbird and a beast, having feet or claws growing out of its pinions,\nand contradicts the general order of nature by creeping with the\ninstruments of its flight. What a contrast between this creature and\nthe Lark!\n\n                      \u201cUp-springs the Lark,\n    Shrill-voiced and loud, the messenger of morn;\n    Ere yet the shadows fly, he, mounted, sings\n    Amid the dawning clouds, and from their haunts\n    Calls up the tuneful nations.\u201d\n\nNothing can be more pleasing, observes Goldsmith, than to see the Lark\nwarbling upon the wing; raising its note as it soars, till it seems\nlost in the immense heights above us; the note continuing, the bird\nitself unseen; to see it then descending with a swell as it comes from\nthe clouds, yet sinking by degrees as it approaches its nest, the spot\nwhere all its affections are centered--the spot which has prompted\nall this joy. While the Lark thus mounts on triumphant wings, soaring\nup into the heavens with a song of praise to its Creator, this little\nblack animal lies sleeping in holes and cracks of decayed edifices;\nand if disturbed by any accident, drops down and crawls upon the\nearth. When darkness prevails, it comes forth from its concealment\nto haunt the cemeteries of the dead, and desolate places; as if it\npurposely avoided the society of all cheerful birds, and took a delight\nin associating with Owls and Beetles in dark and solitary abodes.\n\u201cThe bat is called \u05e2\u05d8\u05dc\u05e3 _\u00e2talaph_,\u201d according to Parkhurst, \u201cfrom \u05e2\u05d8\n_\u00e2t_ to _fly_, and \u05e2\u05dc\u05e3 _\u00e2laph_, _darkness_ or _obscurity_, because\nit flies about in the _dusk of the evening_, and in the _night_; so\nthe Septuagint \u03bd\u03c5\u03ba\u03c4\u03b5\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2, from \u03bd\u03c5\u03be, the _night_, and the Vulgate,\n_vespertilio_, from _vesper_, the evening.\u201d\n\nThese birds of the night but too appropriately symbolize with persons\nwho love darkness rather than light, because their deeds are evil.\nDr. Shaw, speaking of Ostriches, says, \u201cIn the lonesome part of the\nnight they frequently make a very doleful and hideous noise, sometimes\nresembling the roar of the Lion; at other times the hoarser voices of\nother quadrupeds, particularly the Bull or Ox.\u201d He adds, \u201cI have often\nheard them groan as if in the greatest agonies.\u201d Thus--\n\n    \u201cThe slaves of excess, Their senses to please,\n        Whole nights can bestow,\n    And on in a circle of riot they go;\n    Poor prodigals, they The night into day\n        By revellings turn,\n    And all the restraints of sobriety scorn.\n\n    The drunkards proclaim At midnight their shame,\n        Their sacrifice bring,\n    And loud to the praise of _their_ master they sing:\n    The hellish desires Which satan inspires,\n        In sonnets they breathe,\n    And shouting descend to the regions of death.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFootnotes - Chapter VI\n\n    [141] The great Greenland Whale is a large, heavy animal,\n    usually found from sixty to seventy feet long. The head alone\n    is equal to a third of its bulk; and the cleft of the mouth\n    is above twenty feet long. The upper jaw is furnished with\n    barbs, that lie like the pipes of an organ, the greatest in\n    the middle, and the smallest on the sides; these compose the\n    whale-bone, the longest spars of which are found to be not less\n    than eighteen feet. The fins on each side are from five to\n    eight feet, consisting of bones and muscles, and sufficiently\n    strong to give speed and activity to the great mass of body\n    which they move. The tail is about twenty-four feet broad; and,\n    when the fish is on one side, its blow is tremendous. The skin\n    is smooth and black, and in some places dappled with white and\n    yellow: which, running over the surface, have a very beautiful\n    effect. The outward or scarf skin is no thicker than parchment;\n    but this removed, the real skin appears of about an inch thick,\n    and covers the fat or blubber that lies beneath: this is from\n    eight to twelve inches in thickness; and, when the fish is in\n    health, of a beautiful yellow. The muscles lie beneath: and\n    these, like the flesh of quadrupeds, are very red and tough.\n\n    [142] A variety of opinions we meet with concerning the\n    _whale_ which swallowed Jonah, and in whose belly he was _three\n    days and three nights_. The following is offered by Dr. A.\n    Clarke. \u201cThat a fish of the _shark_ kind, and not a _whale_,\n    is here meant, _Bochart_ has abundantly proved, vol. iii, col.\n    742, &c, edit, Leyd. 1692. It is well known, that the throat\n    of a whale is capable of admitting little more than the _arm_\n    of an ordinary man; but many of the shark species can swallow\n    a whole man; and men have been found whole in the stomachs of\n    several. Every natural history abounds with facts of this kind.\n    Besides, the shark is a native of the _Mediterranean Sea_, in\n    which Jonah was sailing, when swallowed by what the Hebrew\n    terms \u05d3\u05d2 \u05d2\u05d3\u05d5\u05dc _dog gadol, a great fish_; but every body knows\n    that _whales_ are no produce of the Mediterranean Sea, though\n    some have been by _accident_ found there, as in most parts of\n    the maritime world: but let them be found where they may, there\n    is none of them found capable of swallowing a man.\u201d\n\n    [143] The _Torpedo_ is formidable, being well known by\n    the effect it produces when touched: but the manner of its\n    operating is to this hour a mystery to mankind. Such is the\n    unaccountable power it possesses, that, the instant it is\n    touched, it benumbs not only the hand and arm, but sometimes\n    also the whole body. The shock received, by all accounts, much\n    resembles the stroke of an electrical machine; being sudden,\n    tingling, and painful. \u201cThe instant,\u201d says Kemfer, \u201cI touched\n    it with my hand, I felt a terrible numbness in my arm, and as\n    far up as the shoulder. Even if one tread on it with the shoe\n    on, it affects not only the leg, but the whole thigh. Those who\n    touch it with the foot, are seized with a stronger palpitation\n    than even those who touch it with the hand. This numbness bears\n    no resemblance to that which we feel when a nerve is a long\n    time pressed, and the foot is said to be asleep: it rather\n    appears like a sudden vapor, which, passing through the pores\n    in an instant, penetrates to the very springs of life; whence\n    it diffuses itself over the whole body, and gives real pain.\n    The nerves are so affected, that the person struck imagines\n    all the bones of his body, and particularly those of the limb\n    that received the blow, are driven out of joint. All this\n    is accompanied with an universal tremor, a sickness of the\n    stomach, a general convulsion, and a total suspension of the\n    faculties of the mind.\u201d\n\n    We are in possession of some facts which relate to the\n    manner of its acting. Reaumur, who made several trials on\n    this animal, has at least convinced the world that it is not\n    necessarily, but by an effort, that the Torpedo benumbs the\n    hand of him that touches it. He tried several times, and could\n    easily tell when the fish intended the stroke, and when it\n    would continue harmless. Always before the fish meditated\n    the stroke, it flattened the back, raised the head and the\n    tail; and then by a violent contraction in the opposite side,\n    struck with its back against the pressing finger; while the\n    body, which before was flat, became humped and round. The\n    most probable solution of this phenomenon is, that it depends\n    on electricity. When the fish is dead, the whole power is\n    destroyed, and it may be handled, or eaten with perfect\n    security.\n\n    [144] A large herring-fishery is carried on at Douglas, in\n    the Isle of Man. Herrings are so abundant in the neighborhood\n    of Gottenburgh, that 200,000 barrels, on an average, are salted\n    there every year, and about 400,000 are employed in making\n    train oil. Besides these, 50,000 barrels are consumed fresh in\n    the country, or sent to Denmark. Allowing 1,200 fish to each\n    barrel, in this district alone, about 780,000,000 of herrings\n    are caught in a season. In the year 1776, 56,000 barrels were\n    sent to Ireland, and thence exported to the West Indies.\n\n    [145] The Indians of Jamaica and Cuba (says Oviedo) go a\n    fishing with the Remora, or Sucking-Fish, which they employ as\n    falconers employ hawks.--This fish, which is not above a span\n    long, is kept for the purpose, and regularly fed. The owner,\n    on a calm morning, carries it out to sea, secured to his canoe\n    by a small but strong line, many fathoms in length; and the\n    moment the creature sees a fish in the water, though at a great\n    distance, it darts away with the swiftness of an arrow, and\n    soon fastens upon it. The Indian, in the mean time, loosens\n    and lets go the line, which is provided with a buoy that keeps\n    on the surface of the sea, and serves to mark the course which\n    the Remora has taken, and pursues it in his canoe until he\n    conceives his game to be nearly exhausted and run down: he\n    then, taking up the buoy, gradually draws the line towards the\n    shore; the Remora still adhering with inflexible tenacity to\n    its prey; and it is with great difficulty that he is made to\n    quit this hold. By this method (adds Oviedo) I have known a\n    turtle caught, of a bulk and weight which no single man could\n    support.--Edward\u2019s West Indies, vol. i. p. 100.\n\n    [146] A species of sea turtle, weighing 840 lb. was\n    harpooned and caught on the 27th of September, 1811, off Sandy\n    Hook, near New-York. It measured three feet two inches round\n    the neck, was seven feet long, eight feet in circumference,\n    and seven feet and a half from the extremity of one fin to the\n    other: of a coal black color, with five black ridges on the\n    back resembling the sturgeon. It is said to be a trunk turtle,\n    a native of the East Indies, and was the first ever seen in\n    the American seas. The proprietor of a museum purchased it for\n    fifty dollars.\n\n    [147] Sir W. Jones, when in India, formed en acquaintance\n    with an intelligent and respectable Brahmin. The religion of\n    these men permits them not to destroy life, nor to swallow any\n    creature which has possessed it; and so strict are some, that\n    in the season when insects abound, they cover their mouths and\n    nostrils, and sweep the ground on which they walk with a soft\n    broom, that they may not tread on them. Sir William had a solar\n    microscope sent from England, and showing it to his Hindoo\n    friend, demonstrated the impossibility of his eating even fruit\n    and vegetables without swallowing the animalcules which adhere\n    to them. The Brahmin was astonished and seemed gratified; but\n    begged importunately for the microscope, _so_ importunately,\n    that, at length, Sir William reluctantly resigned it to\n    him. A momentary gleam of joy flashed across the Brahmin\u2019s\n    countenance; and, grasping the instrument, he immediately\n    descended from the viranda, where they were conversing, into\n    the garden, when, seizing a stone, he instantly smashed it to\n    pieces. On assigning his reason for this act, which he did a\n    few days afterwards, when his friend\u2019s anger had subsided, he\n    said, \u201cOh that I had remained in that happy state of ignorance\n    wherein you first found me! Yet will I confess, that, as\n    my knowledge increased, so did my pleasure, until I beheld\n    the last wonders of the microscope. From that moment I have\n    been tormented by doubt, and perplexed by mystery: my mind,\n    overwhelmed by chaotic confusion, knows not where to rest,\n    nor how to extricate itself from such a maze. I am miserable,\n    and must continue so to be, until I enter on another stage of\n    existence. I am a solitary individual, among fifty millions of\n    people, all educated in the same belief with myself, all happy\n    in their ignorance! So may they ever remain! I shall keep the\n    secret within my own bosom, where it will corrode my peace, and\n    break my rest; but I shall have some satisfaction in knowing\n    that I alone feel those pangs which, had I not destroyed\n    the instrument, might have been extensively communicated,\n    and rendered thousands miserable! Forgive me, my valuable\n    friend, and, oh, _convey no more implements of knowledge and\n    destruction_!\u201d These religious prejudices, which cannot bear\n    the light of sound philosophy, we perceive to be the results of\n    lamentable ignorance and degrading superstitions, and it may\n    be hoped will soon be removed by the cultivation of science,\n    and especially the dissemination of the Scriptures. The\n    missionaries now in the East will certainly be of very singular\n    use to the natives.\n\n    [148] M. de Saussure, in a letter to Bonnet, says,\n    \u201cInfusion-animalcules multiply by continued divisions and\n    sub-divisions. Those roundish or oval animalcules that have\n    no beak or hook on the fore part of their bodies, divide\n    transversely. A kind of stricture of strangulation begins about\n    the middle of the body, which gradually increases, till the\n    two parts adhere by a small thread only. Then both parts make\n    repeated efforts, till the division is completed. For some time\n    after separation, the two animals remain in seemingly torpid\n    state. They afterwards begin to swim about briskly. Each part\n    is only one half the size of the whole: but they soon acquire\n    the magnitude peculiar to the species, and multiply by similar\n    divisions. To obviate every doubt, I put a single animalcule\n    into a drop of water, which split before my eyes. Next day, I\n    had five; the day after, sixty; and, on the third day, their\n    number was so great, that it was impossible to count them.\u201d--La\n    Palingenesie Philosophique, par C. Bonnet, tom. i. pp. 428, 429.\n\n    [149] See Bryant\u2019s Observations upon the Plagues inflicted\n    upon the Egyptians, Part I.\n\n    [150] See Jones\u2019s Disquisition concerning clean and unclean\n    Animals.\n\n    [151] Nicholas, in his voyage to New-Zealand, vol. i, p.\n    334, says, \u201cThe morning of the 10th of January, 1815, was\n    announced to our enraptured ears by the swelling notes of the\n    woodland choristers, and never either before or since did I\n    hear such delightful harmony. Rising together at an early hour,\n    we fancied ourselves for the moment in some enchanted ground,\n    while the forest seemed to ring with the mellow warblings of\n    nature, and a thousand feathered songsters poured their soft\n    throats in responsive melody. There was, however, one bird that\n    was distinguished from all the rest, as well by the compass and\n    variety of its notes, as by their incomparable sweetness. This\n    bird, which has been brought to Port Jackson, and highly prized\n    there, is called by the colonists the _organ-bird_, and is, I\n    believe, peculiar to New-Zealand: the notes of the Nightingale,\n    however exquisite, are, in my opinion, much inferior to the\n    song of this bird; and I never thought before that either the\n    grove or forest could boast of such a vocal treasure.\u201d\n\n    [152] A Martin recently fixed her nest directly over\n    the window of the Inn at Rampside, in Low Farnes. After her\n    young were hatched, she became a very troublesome visitant,\n    by throwing the cleansing of her nest upon the window. The\n    servant-maid, with more attention to cleanliness than humanity,\n    removed the little inconvenience by destroying the nest with\n    a broom. The young birds of course fell to the ground; in\n    the mean time the parents collected a great number of their\n    own species, who quickly built a second nest, sufficiently\n    commodious for the reception of the distressed family, and the\n    young were safely conveyed to their new lodgings by the parents\n    and their assistants.\n\n    [153] Dr. Edmonston, in his view of the Zetland islands,\n    says, \u201cThe white-tailed Eagle, or Erne, boldly attacks fishes\n    of the largest size. Several desperate combats have been\n    witnessed between this bird and the Halibut. The former strikes\n    his claws into the fish with all his force, determined not to\n    relinquish his hold, and, although but rarely, is sometimes\n    drowned in the attempt to carry off his prize. When he has\n    overcome the Halibut, he raises one of his wings, which serves\n    as a sail, and if favored by the wind, in that attitude drifts\n    towards the land. The moment he touches the shore, he begins to\n    eat out and disengage his claws; but if discovered before this\n    can be effected he falls an easy prey to the first assailant.\u201d\n\n    [154] Bellonius says, \u201cThe Storks come to Egypt in such\n    abundance, that the fields and meadows, are white with them.\n    Yet the Egyptians are not displeased with this sight; as frogs\n    are generated in such numbers there, that did not the Storks\n    devour them, they would over-run every thing. Besides, they\n    also catch and eat Serpents. Between Belha and Gaza, the fields\n    of Palestine are often desert on account of the abundance of\n    Mice and Rats; and were they not destroyed by the Falcons that\n    come here by instinct, the inhabitants could have no harvest.\u201d\n\n    [155] Dr. Edmonston says:--\u201cThe crows generally appear in\n    pairs, even during winter, except when attracted to a spot\n    in search of food, or when they assemble for the purpose\n    of holding what is called the _Crow\u2019s court_. This latter\n    institution exhibits a curious fact in their history. Numbers\n    are seen to assemble on a particular hill or field, from many\n    different points. On some occasions the meeting does not appear\n    to be complete before the expiration of a day or two. As soon\n    as all the deputies have arrived, a very general noise and\n    croaking ensue, and, shortly after, the whole fall upon one or\n    two individuals, whom they persecute and beat until they kill\n    them. When this has been accomplished, they quietly disperse.\u201d\n\n    On the subject of Gulls, Dr. Edmonston says:--\u201cIn the\n    affectionate care of their offspring, these Gulls display great\n    sagacity and even foresight. When the cradle at Noss is about\n    to be slung, the gulls, aware of the approaching capture of\n    their young, are unremitting in their efforts to carry them\n    off. From the first moment that they observe preparations\n    making to enter the holm, they become noisy and restless,\n\n        ---- \u2018and chide, exhort, command,\n        Or push them off,\u2019\n\n    so that if bad weather delay the arranging of the cradle,\n    but for a few days, scarcely any are left to be taken away.\n\n    \u201cThis bird is a great enemy to the fowler, by intimating\n    to other birds his approach. One of them is an inseparable\n    attendant on the _Scarfs_, when they assemble on the rocks\n    for the purpose of drying and resting themselves; and they\n    seem sensible of the good offices of this voluntary guardian,\n    by quietly receiving it among them, and obeying its friendly\n    admonitions.--On the approach of a person from the shore, or\n    of a boat, the Gull having first testified marks of anxiety\n    and apprehension, flies off before either have approached\n    within gunshot, and all the Scarfs, except those who are young\n    and inexperienced, follow. It not merely contents itself with\n    giving them warning in due time, but urges their departure by\n    repeated calls, and sits down in the water, at a considerable\n    distance from the spot from which it fled, as if intending\n    to point out the place where they may consider themselves in\n    safety; and they generally all repair to the same place. To\n    the Seal this bird is of essential service. These animals\n    frequently lie upon the rocks for hours in succession, and so\n    well acquainted are some sportsmen with their haunts, that they\n    raise small bulwarks, or _rests_, to conceal their approach,\n    or wait their arrival behind a rock. The Gull, however,\n    frustrates all these precautions, by first flying over the head\n    of the hunter, and then screaming close to the Seal; and, when\n    the latter is not disposed to avail himself at once of this\n    friendly intimation, I have known them _strike him on the head_\n    with their feet. As soon as he slips into the water they appear\n    to be perfectly satisfied, as if they then conceived him in a\n    situation to protect himself.\n\n    \u201cThe Gull seems to consider itself the natural guardian of\n    the coast. If it spies a person at a distance, walking in a\n    cautious manner, in the neighborhood of any bird, it instantly\n    repairs to the spot, and by a keen acute cry, different from\n    the common note, endeavors to inform it of the approaching\n    danger. Ducks and Curlews know the hint quite well, and almost\n    always take advantage of it, and fly off long before the fowler\n    can arrive within gun-shot of them. On these occasions it often\n    comes with a sweep, as if intending to strike the person,\n    who by that means is kept in a state of constant alarm and\n    irritation; but if it do not immediately fly off, after having\n    succeeded in accomplishing the object of its mission, this\n    officious interference not unfrequently draws the vengeance of\n    the fowler on itself, and it falls the victim of its own good\n    intentions. This Gull is not satisfied with having alarmed\n    birds on any particular occasion. It does indeed fly to a\n    distance and sit down, but after its anxiety has been once\n    roused, it never loses sight of the fowler, but follows him at\n    a distance wherever he goes, and unless by pretended inactivity\n    the sportsman can quiet the apprehension of his enemy, it is\n    in vain to think of getting within reach of any bird that is\n    naturally shy and of a timid disposition. The scream of this\n    bird is peculiarly wild, and indicative of anxious impatience.\u201d\n\n    [156] Hasselquist, speaking of the _Strix Orientalis_,\n    or Oriental Owl, says, \u201cIt is of the size of the common owl,\n    living in the ruins of old deserted houses of Egypt and Syria;\n    and sometimes in inhabited houses. The Arab in Egypt calls it\n    _Massasa_, the Syrians _Bana_. It is very ravenous in Syria,\n    and in the evenings, if the windows be left open, it flies into\n    houses, _and kills infants_, unless they are carefully watched;\n    wherefore the women are much afraid of it.\u201d--Travels, p. 196.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII.\n\nSIXTH DAY.\n\n_Section_ I.--ON QUADRUPEDS AND REPTILES.\n\n    Quadrupeds in general -- Motion -- Habits -- Rumination --\n    Proportion -- Tastes -- Clothing -- Weapons -- Proportionate\n    Number -- Faculties -- Reptiles -- Religious Improvement.\n\nOn the _sixth day_ all terrestrial animals were formed. \u201cAnd God said,\nLet the earth bring forth the living creature after his kind, cattle,\nand creeping thing, and beast of the earth after his kind, and it was\nso. And God made the beast of the earth after his kind, and cattle\nafter their kind, and every thing that creepeth upon the earth after\nhis kind.\u201d According to Dr. A. Clarke, the words \u05e0\u05e4\u05e9 \u05d7\u05d9\u05d4 _nephesh\nchaiyah_, translated _living creature_, are a general term used to\nexpress all creatures endued with animal life, in any of its infinitely\nvaried gradations; from the half-reasoning elephant down to the stupid\npotto, or lower still, even to the polype,[157] which seems equally\nto share the vegetable and animal life. The word \u05d7\u05d9\u05ea\u05d5 _chaiyeto_,\ntranslated _beast_, and by Mr. Parkhurst, rendered _wild beasts_, seems\nto signify all wild animals, as the Lion, the Tiger, the Panther, the\nLynx, the Hy\u00e6na, &c, and especially such as are _carnivorous_, or\nsubsist on flesh. \u05d1\u05d4\u05de\u05d4 _behemah_, which we translate _cattle_, probably\nmeans those of the domestic species, such as are _graminivorous_, or\nlive on grass and other vegetables; and are capable of being tamed, and\napplied to domestic purposes. The word properly means _beasts_, and is\nso understood by the Seventy, whose interpretation of the words of Job\nis, \u201cBehold the beasts with thee, they eat grass like oxen.\u201d According\nto Ab, Ezra, and the Targum, it is the \u201cname of any great beast.\u201d But\nR. Levi says, that it is \u201can animal peculiarly called by that name.\u201d\n\nThe Hebrew _behemah_, says Buxtorf, is taken in the singular number\nfor the Elephant, because of its vast greatness. Ainsworth says, the\nword generally implies all large beasts; and of this classification the\nElephant is called Behemoth. \u201cBehold now _Behemoth_, which I made with\nthee; he eateth grass as an ox.\u201d The word here is plural, and signifies\nbeasts; but in this passage one particular beast is meant, for it is\nusual with the Hebrews or Jews to express great and excellent things by\nwords in the plural number. Though some later and very learned men take\nthe Leviathan to be the Crocodile, and the Behemoth to be a creature\ncalled the Hippopotamus, or river-horse, yet says Henry, \u201cI confess\nI see no reason to depart from the opinion, that it is the Elephant\nthat is here described, which is a very strong, stately creature, of a\nvery large stature, above any other, and of wonderful sagacity, and of\nsuch reputation in the animal kingdom, that, among so many four-footed\nbeasts as we have had the natural history of, Job chap. xxxviii, xxxix,\nwe can scarce suppose this should be omitted.\u201d[158]\n\nThe Elephant may be thus denominated from its great bulk and strength.\nHe is the largest of all land animals. Pliny tells us, that the\nElephants in India are thirteen feet and a half high, and have two\nteeth of such enormous size that the Indians use them for posts to\ntheir houses: those of the male being six or seven feet long, while\nthose of the female do not exceed one foot.\n\n    \u201cPeaceful, beneath primeval trees that cast\n    Their ample shade o\u2019er Niger\u2019s yellow stream,\n    And where the Ganges rolls his sacred wave,\n    Or mid the central depth of blackening woods,\n    High rais\u2019d in solemn theatre around,\n    _Leans the_ HUGE ELEPHANT.\u201d\n\nHis strength is also equal to that of many beasts. \u201cHis bones are as\nstrong as pieces of brass; his bones are like bars of iron.\u201d Some\nhistorians say, that in time of war people used to erect wooden towers\non the backs of Elephants, and from these elevated forts men combated\nwith their enemies. It is said that Antiochus had a great number of\nthese huge animals with towers constructed upon them, in each of which\nwere thirty-two men armed. \u201cHe is the chief of the ways of God:\u201d that\nis, a signal instance of Divine power and wisdom, the most excellent of\nall mere animals, in size, strength, understanding, and sagacity. None\nof the beasts is more prudent, says Strabo: none of them approaches\nnearer to man in his capacity, says Pliny. \u201cHe moveth his tail like a\ncedar.\u201d As his tail is not proportional to the bulk of his body, many\nunderstand by this term his proboscis or trunk. The original word \u05d6\u05e0\u05d1\nhere rendered _tail_, signifies properly the extreme part of a thing;\nhence it is as applicable to his trunk, which hangs like a tail, though\nplaced at the opposite extremity of his body. This he \u201cmoveth\u201d with\namazing dexterity, and, at pleasure, can stretch it out, and erect it\nlike a \u201ccedar\u201d growing out of a mountain.--\u201cBehold, he drinketh up a\nriver, and hasteth not: he trusteth that he can drink up Jordan into\nhis mouth.\u201d He being naturally of a hot constitution, and generally\ninhabiting hot climates, requires much liquid. His \u201cdrinking up a\nriver,\u201d is a hyperbolical expression implying his ardent thirst: and\n\u201chasteth not,\u201d signifies his reluctance to quit the stream till his\nparching desire be fully satiated. His \u201ctrusting\u201d that he can drink\nthe river \u201cJordan\u201d dry, is also an hyperbolical term to express his\ncopious draughts. \u201cHe eateth grass as an ox, the mountains bring him\nforth food;\u201d which he gathers, collects, and conveys to his mouth\nwith his long trunk. He resides \u201cwhere all the beasts of the field\nplay.\u201d So harmless is this strong animal, that the inferior part of\nthe brute creation are not intimidated at his presence, but graze with\nhim upon the mountains, and sport themselves about him in the plain,\napprehending no danger from him. How wondrous are the works of God! in\nwhich are no less evinced the effects of his power, than the displays\nof his wisdom. The word _cattle_, also includes Horses, Kine, Sheep,\nDogs, &c.\n\nQuadrupeds enjoy many advantages above the lower tribes of the animal\ncreation. They rank higher than the class of Birds, by bringing forth\ntheir young alive; they are superior to that of Fishes, by respiration\nthrough their lungs; they are exalted above the order of Insects, by a\ncirculation of red blood through their veins; and they differ almost\nfrom every other description of creatures, being either wholly or in\npart covered with hair.\n\nWhat admirable wisdom is displayed in the _motion_ of animals, suited\nto their various occasions! Reptiles, to which a clod, a plant, a\ntree, or a hole, will afford the means of supporting life, and which\nprotracted privations of food do not materially affect, require no legs\nto make extensive excursions, but their vermicular motion is adequate\nto every essential purpose. Beasts, whose necessities call for a larger\nsphere, possess accordingly a swifter motion; and this is imparted\nin various degrees, suitable to their range for food, and adapted to\naccelerate their speed in escaping from their enemies.\n\nIn the motion of animals, from the largest Elephant to the smallest\nMite, the whole body is exactly balanced. The head is not too heavy,\nnor too light for its kindred parts, nor they for it. The bowels hang\nnot loose, nor are so placed as to over-balance, or upset the system;\nbut well-braced, and accurately distributed to maintain an equipoise.\nThe most active members also are admirably well fixed, in respect to\nthe centre of gravity, being placed in the very point which best serves\nto support and convey the body. Every leg bears its share of the weight.\n\nThe _mouths_ of animals are nicely adapted to their different habits\nof life. The Ox, the Deer, the Horse, and the Sheep, have full lips,\nrough tongues, broad cutting teeth, corrugated cartilaginous palates,\nwhich qualify them for browsing, either by gathering large mouthfuls\nwhere the grass is long, or biting close where it is short. In those\nwhich subsist on flesh, the teeth are sharp, and calculated to hold\nand divide their food. The bore of the gullet in animals is answerable\nto their necessities. In a Fox, which feeds on bones, it is very\nlarge. But in a Squirrel it is exceedingly small, which prevents him\nfrom disgorging his meat in his descending leaps: and it is equally\ncontracted in Rats and Mice, which run along walls with their heads\ndownward.\n\nIn all animals, the strength and size of their _stomachs_ are\nproportioned to the nature and quantity of their food. Those whose\naliment is more tender and nutritive, have them smaller, thinner, and\nweaker: whereas they are large and strong in those whose food is less\nnutritive, and whose bodies require greater supplies. Carnivorous\nbeasts have their stomachs small and glandular, as flesh is the most\nnutritious. Those that derive their support from fruits and roots have\nthem of a middle size: while on the contrary, Sheep and Oxen, which\nfeed on grass, have the largest stomachs; and those which ruminate\nhave in general no less than four; in Africa, where the plants are\nnutritive, some of this class have only two. Yet the Horse, Hare, and\nRabbit, though graminivorous, have comparatively small stomachs. The\nHorse is made for labor, and both he and the Hare are constructed for\nquick and continued motion; for these the most easy respiration, also\nthe freest action of the diaphragm, is requisite. But this could not\nbe, did the stomach lie heavy and cumbersome upon it, as in Sheep and\nOxen.\n\nAnother very remarkable circumstance is, that those animals which have\nteeth on both jaws, possess but one stomach; whereas most of those\nwhich have no _upper teeth_, or no teeth at all, have three stomachs.\nFor the meat which is first chewed, is easily digested; but that which\nit swallowed whole, requires a stronger concoctive power.\n\nThe Horse eats night and day, slowly, but almost continually: whereas\nthe Ox eats quickly, and takes, in a short time, all the food nature\nrequires; and then lies down to ruminate. This difference arises\nfrom the different conformation of these animals. The Ox, of whose\nstomachs the first two form but one capacious bag, can, at the same\ntime, receive grass into both of them, without inconvenience, which he\nafterwards ruminates and digests at leisure. The Horse, whose stomach\nis small, and can receive but a small quantity of grass, is filled\nsuccessively in proportion as he digests it; and it passes into the\nintestines, where is performed the principal decomposition of the\nfood. Chewing the cud is but a vomiting without straining, occasioned\nby a re-action of the first stomach on the food which it contains.\nThe Ox fills the first two stomachs, the paunch, and the bag, which\nis but a portion of the paunch. This membrane acts with force on the\ngrass it contains; it is chewed but a little, and its quantity is\ngreatly increased by fermentation. Were the food liquid, this force of\ncontraction would occasion it to pass by the third stomach, which only\ncommunicates with the other by a narrow conveyance, and cannot admit\nsuch dry food, or, at least, can only admit the moistened parts. The\nfood must, therefore, necessarily pass up again into the \u0153sophagus, the\norifice of which is larger than the orifice of the conduit, and the\nanimal again chews and macerates it, and moistens it afresh with its\nsaliva: he reduces it to a paste, sufficiently liquid to enter into\nthis conduit, through which it passes into the third stomach, where it\nis again macerated before it goes into the fourth; and it is in this\nlast receptacle that the decomposition of the hay is finished, which is\nreduced to a perfect mucilage. What chiefly confirms this explication\nis, that as long as the animals suck, and are fed with milk and other\nliquid aliments, they do not chew the cud; and that they chew the cud\nmuch more in winter, when they are fed with dry food, than in summer,\nwhen they eat tender grass.\n\nAll the parts of the same animal are adopted to each other. So, for\ninstance, the length of the neck is always proportioned to that of the\nlegs. Though the Elephant has a short neck, because the weight of his\nhead and teeth would otherwise have been insupportable; but, then, he\nis provided with a trunk, which abundantly supplies the defect. In\nother beasts, the neck is always commensurate to the legs; so that they\nwhich have long legs have necks proportioned; and so vice versa, as is\nobservable in Lizards of all kinds, even from the Eft to the Crocodile.\nAnd creatures that have no legs, as they want no necks, so they\nhave none. This equality between the length of the neck and legs is\npeculiarly seen in beasts that feed on grass, in which these are very\nnearly equal; because the neck must necessarily have some advantage,\nfor it cannot hang perpendicularly, but must incline a little.\n\nThese creatures, while feeding, bend their heads downward for a\nconsiderable time, which would be very laborious and painful to the\nmuscles, were it not for a very stiff, strong cartilage, placed on each\nside of the neck, capable of stretching and shrinking again as need\nrequires, which butchers call pax-wax. The one end of this is attached\nto the head, and the next vertebr\u00e6 of the neck; and the other is knit\nto the middle vertebr\u00e6 of the back: and by the assistance of this,\nanimals are able to hold the head in that inclining posture all day\nlong. The head being placed at the end of a long lever, in a direction\nnearly perpendicular to the joints of the neck, would be in constant\ndanger of dislocation from its own weight, had not such a substance\nbeen added, which, by its great strength and toughness, retains the\nparts together, while, by its pliancy, it offers no obstruction to the\nfree motion of the neck and head.\n\nThe members of animals are exactly adapted to their manner of living.\nA Swine, whose natural food is chiefly the roots of plants, is provided\nwith a snout; long, that he may thrust it to a convenient depth in the\nground without injuring his eyes; and strong and suitably formed, for\nrooting and turning up the earth: therefore the retiring under-jaw\nworks after the manner of a plough-share, and makes its way to the\nfood: and besides, his scent is extremely acute in discovering such\nroots as are fit for him. Hence in Italy, the usual way of finding\ntruffles, or subterraneous mushrooms, is by tying a cord to the hind\nleg of a pig, and driving him into pastures. They who attend then mark\nwhere he stops and begins to root, and digging there, are sure to find\na truffle. So in pastures where there are earth-nuts, though their\nroots are deep in the ground, and the leaves are quite gone, the Swine\nwill find them by their scent, and root only in the places where they\ngrow.[159]\n\nIn some animals the head is long, in order to give room for the\nolfactory nerves, as in Dogs, which hunt by scent. In others, it is\nshort, as in the Lion, to give him the greater strength. In beasts of\nprey, as Lions, Tigers, Wolves, they have the trumpet-part or concavity\nof the ear standing forward, to meet the sound of the animals before\nthem, which they pursue or watch. The ears of animals of flight are\nturned backward, to apprize them of the approach of the pursuing\nenemy, lest he should assail them unseen. Beasts of prey have their\nfeet armed with claws, which some can sheath and unsheath at pleasure.\nThe Babyrouessa, or Indian Stag, a species of Wild-Boar, found in\nthe East Indies, has two _bent_ teeth more than half a yard long,\ngrowing upward, and, which is very singular, from the upper jaw. These\ninstruments are not wanted for defence, that service being provided\nfor by two tusks issuing from the under jaw, and resembling those of\nthe common Boar: nor does the animal thus use them. They might seem\ntherefore both superfluous and cumbersome: however, they have their\nutility; for this animal sleeps standing, and, in order to support its\nhead, hooks its upper tusks upon the branches of trees.\n\nIn the Mole we find a most scrupulous attention to the habits of the\nanimal. It has short legs, feet armed with sharp nails, a pig-like\nnose, a velvet coat, a small external ear, a sunk protracted eye, all\nwhich are conducing to utility and safety. Its feet are like so many\nshovels, placed in so peculiar a manner as to enable the animal to\nremove the earth on each side, and throw it backwards. The cylindrical\nfigure of the Mole, as well as the compactness of its form, arising\nfrom the terseness of its limbs, proportionably lessen its labor;\nbecause its bulk requires the least possible quantity of earth to\nfacilitate its progress. The structure of its face and jaws is similar\nto those of a Swine, and equally adapted to work in the ground. The\nnose is sharp, slender, tendinous, and strong. The plush covering,\nwhich, by the smoothness, closeness, and polish of the short piles that\ncompose it, rejects the cohesion of almost every species of earth,\ndefends the animal from cold and wet, and from the impediment which it\nwould otherwise experience by the adhesion of mould to its body. Being\nsubterraneous, of all animals it comes out from soils of all kinds\nthe brightest and cleanest. But its eyes are most to be admired. This\nanimal occasionally visiting the surface of the earth, self-security\nrequired a perception of light. The Mole did not need large eyes\nto compass a great range of vision; and prominent eyes would have\nbeen less easily defended, whilst working under ground. To reconcile\nthese inconveniences, these eyes are scarcely larger than the head\nof a corking pin; and these globules are so sunk in the skull, and\nsheltered with the velvet of their covering, that any contraction of\nthe eye-brows, not only closes up the apertures, but offers a cushion\nto prevent any sharp or protruding substance from injuring them. These\napertures in their open state, are like pin-holes in velvet, scarcely\npervious to loose pieces of earth.[160]\n\nThe different _tastes_ of animals show the wise economy of nature. Oxen\ndelight in low grounds, because they afford the most palatable food.\nSheep prefer barren hills, on which is produced a particular kind of\ngrass called festuca, which they highly relish. Goats climb up the\nprecipices of mountains, that they may browse on the tender shrubs; and\naccordingly have their feet constructed for jumping. Horses, not in\na state of domestication, chiefly resort to woods, and feed on leafy\nplants. Nay, so various are the appetites of animals, that there is\nscarcely any plant which is not chosen by some, and left untouched by\nothers. The Horse resigns the Water-Hemlock to the Goat; the Cow gives\nup the Monks-Hood to the Horse; for that on which some animals grow\nfat, others abhor as poison.--Hence no plant is absolutely poisonous,\nbut only respectively. Thus the Spurge, that is noxious to man, is a\nmost wholesome nourishment to the Caterpillar. That animals may not\ndestroy themselves for want of knowing this law of nature, they are\nguarded by such a delicacy of taste and smell, that thus they can\neasily distinguish what is pernicious from what is wholesome; and when\ndifferent animals subsist on the same plants, one kind always leaves\nsomething for the other, as the mouths of all are not equally adapted\nto lay hold on the grass; hence there is sufficient food for all.[161]\nThe leaves and fruits of trees are intended as food for some animals,\nsuch as the Sloth and Squirrel; the latter of which has feet adapted\nfor climbing. The Camel frequents the sandy and burning deserts, in\norder to obtain the barren produce of those soils. How wisely has the\nCreator provided for him! he is obliged to traverse those trackless\nwastes where frequently no water is found for many miles. Other\nanimals, so circumstanced, would perish with thirst: but he can endure\nit without much inconvenience; his belly being full of cells, where he\nreserves water for many days.[162]\n\nQuadrupeds are furnished with such _clothing_ as is suitable to their\nvarious offices. To beasts, hair is a commodious covering, which,\ntogether with the texture of their skins, fits them in all sorts of\nweather to lie on the ground, and to render service to man. The thick\nand warm fleeces of others are a good defence against the cold and\nwet, and also a soft bed; and to many, a comfortable shelter for their\ntender young. All the animals near Hudson\u2019s Bay are covered with a\nclose, soft, warm fur; and, what is very surprising, and shows the\nwisdom and goodness of Divine providence, the Dogs and Cats which are\ntaken thither from England, on the approach of winter, change their\nappearance, and acquire a much longer, softer, and thicker coat of hair\nthan they originally had.\n\nMany animals are armed with _weapons_ of self-defence, some of which\nare used for the destruction of others. Nay, we scarcely know an\nanimal which has not some enemy to contend with. Wild beasts are the\nmost pernicious and dangerous enemies. But, that they may not, by\ntoo atrocious a butchery, destroy a whole species, even these are\ncircumscribed within certain bounds. As to the most fierce of all, it\ndeserves to be noted, how few they are in proportion to other animals.\nThe number of them is not equal in all countries. These fierce animals\nsometimes destroy one another. Thus the Wolf devours the Fox. The Dog\ninfests both the Wolf and Fox. The Tiger often kills its own male\nwhelps. And wild beasts seldom arrive at so great an age, as animals\nwhich live on vegetables. For they are subject, from their alkaline\ndiet, to various diseases, which tend to accelerate their death: while\nthe Elephant, which feeds on vegetables, is fifty or sixty years\nbefore he attains his full strength, is in the highest state of vigor\nat about a hundred, and lives two or three hundred years. But, though\nanimals are infested by their peculiar enemies, yet they frequently\nelude their violence by stratagems and force. Thus the Hare, by her\ndoublings, often confounds the Dog. When the Bear attacks Sheep and\nCattle, these flock together for mutual defence. Horses join heads\ntogether, and fight with their heels. Oxen join tails, and fight with\ntheir horns. Swine unite in herds, and boldly oppose themselves to any\nattack, so that they are not easily overcome: and, what is remarkable,\nall of them place their young, as less able to defend themselves, in\nthe middle, that they may remain safe during the battle. Some animals\nconsult their safety by night. When Horses sleep in woods, one by turn\nremains awake, and, as it were, keeps watch. When Monkeys, in Brazil,\nsleep on trees, one of them keeps awake, in order to give the sign when\nthe Tiger creeps toward them; and in case the guard should be caught\nasleep, the rest tear him in pieces.\n\nDivine Providence is evidently displayed in keeping a just proportion\namongst all the different species of animals: this prevents any one\nof them from increasing too rapidly, to the detriment of others. For\nthe produce of the ground would be insufficient for the support of the\nanimal creation, were their increase not regulated and limited by the\nover-ruling power of God. To which we may add, that, if some animals\ndid not feed on others, the earth would be annoyed with putrified\nbodies. Therefore, when an animal dies, Bears, Wolves, Foxes, &c,\nexpeditiously take the whole of it away. But if a horse die near a\npublic road, in a few days he is swoln, burst, and at last filled with\ninnumerable grubs of carnivorous Flies, by which his flesh is soon\nentirely consumed, and so does not become a nuisance to passengers by\nhis poisonous stench. Thus the earth is not only kept clean from the\nputrefaction of dead carcases, but at the same time, by this economy of\nnature, the necessaries of life are provided for many animals.\n\nThough animals should not die a violent death, still their powers only\ncontinue for a limited time: they have their determinate periods of\ngrowth, perfection, and decay: hence it becomes necessary that one\nrace should succeed and replace another, and for this purpose they\nare endowed with a power of procreation. The formation of the f\u0153tus,\nthe manner of its existence, and the growth of its parts, are great\nsecrets of nature; and in all viviparous animals, the _milk_ found in\nthe female parent is a maintenance ready for the young animal, the\nmoment it enters the world. We have here, the nutritious quality of\nthe fluid--the organ for its reception and retention--the excretory\nduct, annexed to that organ--and the determination of the milk to the\nbreast, at the particular juncture when it is about to be wanted. The\nadvanced pregnancy of the female has no intelligible tendency to fill\nthe breasts with milk. The lacteal system is a constant wonder: and it\nadds to other causes of our admiration, that the number of the teats\nor paps in each species is found to bear a proportion to the number\nof the young. In the Sow, the Bitch, the Rabbit, the Cat, the Rat,\nwhich have numerous litters, the paps are numerous, and are disposed\nalong the whole length of the belly: in the Cow and Mare, they are\nfew.[163] And the teats of animals which give suck are exactly adapted\nto the mouth, particularly to the lips and tongue, of the suckling\nprogeny. Herodotus observes, that the most useful animals are the most\nfruitful in their generation: whereas the species of those beasts\nthat are fierce and mischievous to mankind are but scarcely continued.\nThe historian instances in a Hare, which is always either breeding or\nbringing forth; and a Lioness, which bears but once and then loses all\npower of conception.\n\nIt is evident that animals have not only a principle of self-motion,\nbut are endued with a degree of understanding; and have a will,\nincluding various passions. What then produces the disparity\nbetween men and brutes, the line which they cannot pass? It is not\nunderstanding: who can say that brutes have not this? We may as well\nassert that they have not sight, nor hearing. But the difference\nconsists in this: man is capable of knowing and enjoying God; the\ninferior creatures are not. This is the specific difference between the\ntwo: the great gulf which the brute cannot pass over.\n\nWe meet with a striking instance not only of industry, but\n_understanding_ in Beavers. In the northern parts of America, during\nthe months of June and July, they assemble, and form a society, which\ngenerally consists of more than two hundred. They always fix their\nabode by the side of a lake or river; and in order to make a stagnant\nwater above and below, they erect, with incredible labor, a dam or\npier, perhaps fourscore or a hundred feet long, and ten or twelve\nfeet thick at the base. When this dyke is completed, they build their\nseveral apartments, which are divided into three stories. The first is\nbeneath the level of the mole, and is for the most part full of water.\nThe walls of their habitations are perpendicular, and about two feet\nthick. If any wood project from them, they cut it off with their teeth,\nwhich are more serviceable than saws: and by the help of their tails,\nthey plaster all their works with a kind of mortar, which they prepare\nof dry grass and clay, mixed together. In August or September, they\nbegin to lay up their stores of food; which consist of the wood of the\nbirch, the plane, and of some other trees. Thus they pass the winter,\nin the enjoyment of ease and plenty.[164]\n\nIn the Dog we perceive evident marks of sagacity, recollection,\naffection, and revenge. _Sagacity_:--In the year 1760, whilst one\nRichardson, a waterman of Hammersmith, was sleeping in his boat,\nthe vessel broke from her moorings, and was carried by the current\nunder a west country barge. Fortunately, the man\u2019s dog happened to\nbe present; and the sagacious animal awaked him, by pawing his face,\nand pulling the collar of his coat, at the instant when the boat\nwas filled with water, and on the point of sinking; by which means\nhe had an opportunity of saving himself from inevitable death.[165]\n_Recollection_:--A Dog, which had been the favorite of an elderly\ngentlewoman, some time after her death, on seeing her picture, when\ntaken down from the wall, and laid on the floor to be cleaned,\ndiscovered the strongest emotions. He had never been observed, Dr.\nPercival believed, to notice the picture previously to this incident.\nHere was evidently a case of remembrance, or of the renewal of former\nimpressions. _Affection_:--A few miles from Aberdeen, as a gentleman\nwas walking across the Dee, when it was frozen, the ice gave way in\nthe middle of the river, and he sunk; but, by grasping his gun, which\nhad fallen athwart the opening, kept himself from being carried away\nby the current. A dog, who attended him, after many fruitless attempts\nto rescue his master, ran to a neighboring village, and took hold of\nthe first person he met. The man was alarmed, and would have disengaged\nhimself: but the Dog regarded him with a look so kind and significant,\nand endeavored to pull him along with so gentle a violence, that he\nbegan to think there might be something extraordinary in the case, and\nsuffered himself to be conducted by the animal; who brought him to his\nmaster in time to save his life.[166] _Revenge_:--A pack of ravenous\nFox-Hounds were half starved in their kennel, to render them more\nfurious and eager in the chace: and were severely lashed every day by\na merciless keeper, that they might be disciplined to the strictest\nobservance of his looks and commands. It happened that this petty\ntyrant entered the kennel without his scourge. The dogs observed his\ndefenceless state; and, instantly seizing him, at once satisfied their\nhunger and revenge by tearing him to pieces.[167]\n\nThe Monkey tribe is very numerous, and usually divided by naturalists\ninto three classes. Those which have no tails are termed Apes, and\nsuch as have very short ones, Baboons; but by far the most numerous\nclass consists of those which have long tails, and are known by the\ngeneral name of Monkeys. Were we to dissect and examine the several\ncomponent parts of any one creature which God has made, we should\nfind a perfection among its several powers, and an adaptation of its\nconstruction to its situation in the grand scale of existence, far\nsurpassing human wisdom.\n\nAt the Cape of Good Hope, Baboons are under a sort of natural\ndiscipline, and go about whatever they undertake with surprising skill\nand regularity. When they undertake to rob an orchard or vineyard\n(for they are extremely fond of grapes and apples,) they go in large\ncompanies, and with preconcerted deliberation. Part of them enter the\ninclosure, while one is set to watch: the rest stand without the fence,\nand form a line reaching all the way from their fellows within to their\nrendezvous without, which is generally in some craggy mountain. Every\nthing being thus disposed, the plunderers within the orchard throw\nthe fruit to those that are without as fast as they can gather it;\nor, if the wall or hedge be high, to those that sit on the top; and\nthese hand the plunder to those next them on the other side. Thus the\nfruit is pitched from one to another all along the line, till it is\nsafely deposited at their head-quarters. They catch it with amazing\ndexterity; and while the business is going forward, a profound silence\nis observed. Their sentinel, during the whole time, continues on the\nwatch, and when he perceives any one coming, instantly sets up a loud\ncry, on which signal the whole company scamper away. Nor are they\nwilling to go empty-handed; for if they are plundering a bed of melons,\nfor instance, they go off with one in their mouths, one in their hands,\nand one under their arms. If the pursuit be vigorous and close, they\ndrop first that from under their arms, then that from their hands; and\nif it be continued, they at last let fall that which they had kept\nin their mouth.[168] There is another species of Monkey in the West\nIndies, of the size of a Fox. These are in great numbers in the woods,\nand make aloud and frightful noise. But it is common for one only to\nmake a noise, and the rest to form a mute assembly round him. Marcgrave\nsays, \u201cI have frequently seen great numbers of them meeting about noon:\nat which time they formed a large circle, and one placing himself above\nthe rest, began to make a loud noise. When he had sung thus by himself\nfor some time, the rest all remaining silent, he lifted up his hand,\nand they all instantly joined in the chorus. This intolerable yell\ncontinued, till the same Monkey, who gave the signal for the beginning,\nlifted up his hand a second time. On this they were all silent again,\nand so finished the business of the assembly.\u201d\n\nThus we see, wherever we turn our eyes, the various species of\ncreatures which God has made. Every element is stocked with\ninhabitants, the sea with fishes, the air with fowls, and the earth\nwith quadrupeds and creeping things. All these different provinces are\nrichly replenished with food for the support of all the innumerable\ncreatures that live in them. And what surprising skill and sagacity\ndo some in the brute creation discover; such as might make many, who\npride themselves in their reason, to blush and be confounded! Who does\nnot admire the exquisite contrivance of birds in building their nests?\nthe subtlety of several creatures in seeking their proper food? and of\nothers in securing and defending themselves? The art of the Spider in\nweaving and spreading her nets, to ensnare and entangle her prey? the\nsapience and industry of the Bee in building her combs, and filling\nthem with pleasant food? and the care and foresight of the Ant, in\nlaying up her store against winter? In the meanest reptile, the Divine\nwisdom and power are conspicuously displayed.\n\nThe word \u05e8\u05de\u05e9 _remes_, translated _creeping thing_, and rendered\n_reptile_ by Parkhurst, includes all the different genera of serpents,\nworms, and such animals as are not pedaneous. What a disparity among\nanimals! While some are of an enormous size, and stalk about in the\ngreatness of their strength, others are of a delicate and diminutive\nappearance, bordering on comparative insignificance. But Divine \u201cskill\nand power are not less displayed in the beautiful Chevrotin, or\nTragulus, a creature of the Antelope kind, and smallest of all _bifed_\nor cloven-footed animals, whose delicate limbs are scarcely as large as\nan ordinary goose quill; nor the Shrew Mouse, perhaps the smallest of\nthe many-toed quadrupeds. In the _reptile_ race we see also the same\nskill and power; not only in the immense snake called Boa Constrictor,\nthe mortal foe and conqueror of the Royal Tiger, but also in the Cobra\nde Manille, a venomous serpent, not much larger than a common sewing\nneedle.\u201d\n\nThe Lizard tribe are distinguishable at first sight from other\noviparous animals. They have no shields, like the Tortoises, and are\nfurnished with tails, which are wanting in Toads and Frogs. They are\ncovered with scales, of greater or less rigidity, or with a kind of\nwarts or tubercles. Some of the species are scarcely more than two\ninches in length, whilst others extend even the length of twenty-six\nfeet. The larger ones live on animals, which they seize by stratagem,\nand the smaller ones on insects. The aquatic species undergo a\nmetamorphosis, from a tadpole to a perfect state. Most of them are\nproduced from eggs, but some are brought forth alive. In many of the\nspecies the color and form are exceedingly beautiful. They principally\ninhabit the warmer regions of the globe, and many of them serve mankind\nfor food.\n\nAs according to the economy of nature, the Lion seems appointed to\nthe dominion of the immense deserts of the torrid zone, the Eagle to\nrule as sovereign of the air, and the Whale to have the pre-eminence\nin the seas; so the Crocodile[169] and the Alligator appear to rule\nover the shores of the large rivers of tropical climates. All the\nrivers of Guinea are pestered with vast shoals of the former, M.\nAdanson having seen in the great river Senegal more than two hundred\nswimming together; and the latter are natives of the warmer parts of\nAmerica.--The Guana, which grows to the length of four or five feet,\nis very common in Surinam, the woods of Guiana, Cayenne and Mexico,\nand in many parts both of Africa and Asia; but is now become scarce\nin the West Indies, in consequence of being much sought after for\nthe table.--The Nimble Lizard, measuring from the tip of the nose to\nthe end of the tail about six inches, is known in almost every part\nof the temperate regions of Europe. The Green Lizard and the Nimble\nLizard, are considered by Dr. Shaw as varieties of the same species.\nThe Green Lizards are considered by the inhabitants of Carolina as\nvery useful animals, in consequence of destroying flies, and other\ntroublesome and noxious insects. They will sometimes remain motionless\nfor half a day, waiting for insects; and when one appears, they spring\nat it with the swiftness of an arrow. They are so familiar as to enter\nthe houses without fear, and, in pursuit of prey, ascend the tables\nwhilst families are eating, and even leap on their clothes. They are so\nbeautiful and cleanly, as to be suffered to run across the tables, and\neven the plates, without exciting the least alarm or disgust.\n\nThe Chameleon is a native of India, the Indian Islands, Africa, some of\nthe warmer parts of Spain and Portugal, and several of the countries\nof South America. Its usual length is about ten inches, and the tail\nnearly the same. All the motions of this creature are extremely slow,\nso that when travelling from one branch of a tree to another in pursuit\nof food, it may rather be said to lie in ambush among the leaves,\nin order to catch such insects as may come within the reach of its\nlong adhesive tongue, than go in search of prey. When walking on the\nground, it steps forward in a cautious, groping manner, seeming never\nto lift one foot till it is well assured of the firmness of the rest.\nFrom these precautions, its motions have a singular appearance of\ngravity, when contrasted with its diminutive size, and the activity\nthat might be expected in an animal so nearly allied to some of the\nmost active in the creation. Each of its eyes is covered with a rough\nmembrane, which is divided by a narrow horizontal slit, through which\nthe bright pupil, as if bordered with burnished gold, is seen. The\neyes have this singular property, of looking at the same instant in\ndifferent directions. One of them may frequently be seen to move when\nthe other is at rest; or one will be directed forward, whilst the other\nis attending to some object behind; or in the same manner upward and\ndownward. The property of changing its color is singular, and has led\nto various conjectures as to the cause.\n\nSerpents are distinguishable from those already mentioned, by their\ntotal want of feet. The banded Rattle-Snake, found both in North and\nSouth America, is the most dreaded of all serpents. Providence has\ngiven to man a security against its bite; for it generally warns the\npassenger by the rattling of its tail, as well as by its odor, which\nis extremely fetid. When it has been irritated, or the weather is very\nhot, its poison being introduced into a wound, often proves fatal in a\nshort time. If not provoked, it is inoffensive, being so much alarmed\nat the sight of men, as always, if possible, to avoid them, and never\ncommencing an attack. The Great Boa, which is the largest of all the\nserpent tribe, is frequently from thirty to forty feet in length, and\nof a proportional thickness. It is a native of Africa, India, the\nlargest Indian Islands, and South America, where it chiefly resides\nin the most retired situations in woods and marshy retreats. We are\nassured, that one of these serpents killed and devoured a buffalo, in\nthe island of Java. It is happy for mankind that their rapacity is\noften the means of their own punishment; for whenever they have gorged\nthemselves in this manner, they seek a retreat where they may lurk for\nseveral days and digest their meal, become unwieldy, stupid, helpless,\nsleepy, and may be approached and destroyed with safety.[170]\n\nThe snake tribe comprises nearly two hundred species, which differ from\neach other both in size and habit, and about one-fifth of the whole\nhave been discovered to be poisonous. \u201cThe deserts of Arabia,\u201d says\nAdanson, \u201care entirely barren, except where they are found to produce\nserpents; and in such quantities, that some extensive plains are almost\nentirely covered with them.\u201d The apparatus of poison in the Viper is\nvery similar to that of the Rattle-Snake, and all the other poisonous\nserpents. The _fang_ of a Viper is a wonderful instance of contrivance.\nIt is a perforated tooth, loose at the root: in its quiet state, lying\ndown flat on the jaw, but furnished with a muscle, which with a jerk,\nand by the pluck, as it were, of a string, suddenly erects it. Under\nthe tooth, close to its root, and communicating with the perforation,\nlies a small bag containing the venom. When the fang is raised, the\nclosing of the jaw presses its roots against the bag underneath; and\nthe force of this compression sends out the fluid, with a considerable\nimpetus, through the tube in the middle of the tooth. By this singular\napparatus, the animal is enabled to inflict on its enemies a most\ndeadly bite, and infuse into the wound the most deleterious liquid.\nYet, though in the mouth, this, in the quiescent state of the reptile,\ndoes not interfere with its ordinary office in taking its food.[171]\n\nNo less curious is the clothing of Reptiles. How well adapted are the\nrings of some, and the contortions of the skins of others, not only to\nguard the body sufficiently, but enable them to creep, perforate the\nearth, and perform all the functions of their stations, better than any\nother covering! Virgil gives the following description of a Sicilian\nserpent:\n\n    \u201cScarce had he finish\u2019d, when, with speckled pride,\n    A serpent from the tomb began to glide;\n    His hugy bulk on sev\u2019n high volumes roll\u2019d;\n    Blue was his breadth of back, but streak\u2019d with scaly gold;\n    Thus riding on his curls, he seem\u2019d to pass\n    A rolling fire along, and singe the grass.\n    More various colors through his body run,\n    Than Iris, when her bow imbibes the sun.\u201d\n\nEven the tegument of the Earthworms is made in the completest manner,\nfor effecting a passage in the earth, wherever instinct directs their\nmotions. Their bodies are composed of small rings, and have a curious\napparatus of muscles, which enables them with great strength to extend\nor contract the whole body. Each ring is likewise armed with stiff,\nsharp prickles, which they can open or close at pleasure. And under\ntheir skins is a shining juice, which they emit, as occasion requires,\nto lubricate their bodies, and facilitate their passage into the\nearth. By all these means they are enabled, with ease and speed, to\nwork themselves into the ground, which they could not do, if they were\ncovered with hair, feathers, scales, or such clothing as any of the\nother creatures.--One of the most singular properties of the serpent\ntribe is that of casting their skins from time to time. The beauty and\nlustre of their colors are then highly augmented. The old skins have a\ntarnished and withered appearance, and are forced off by the growth of\nthe new. When this takes place, so complete is the spoil or coat-skin,\nthat even the external coat of the eyes themselves make a part of it.\n\nAmong creeping things, the Spider engaged the attention of Solomon who\nobserves, that he is one of those \u201clittle things on the earth, that are\nexceeding wise.\u201d This creature subsists on flies, wasps, and similar\ninsects, without having wings to pursue them; a circumstance apparently\nof great difficulty, yet provided for by a resource, which no stratagem\nnor effort of his own could have produced, had not both the external\nand internal structure of this animal been specifically adapted to the\noperation. What surprising skill and sagacity does the Spider discover\nin weaving and spreading her nets to ensnare and entangle her prey!\nHow wonderfully artificial is her web, or _house_! How astonishingly\ncurious its architecture! With the fine and delicate threads she spins\nout of her bowels, how thin a web does she weave, constructed for\nthe purpose of procuring food! It is fastened according to the rules\nof mathematics, for its lines are drawn exactly from the centre at\nparallel distances.[172] When this net is spread, that she may the more\neffectually secure her prey, she cunningly conceals herself in her\ncovert, to evade the discovery of flies. It is from the accuracy of\nthis geometrical workmanship, that this cunning artist is immediately\napprized of the approach of a fly, or any other insect of the like\nnature, when she sallies forth and seizes on her prey. She is furnished\nwith a very sharp hooked forceps, placed near the mouth. With this\nweapon she seizes and pierces the flesh of such insects as entangle\nthemselves in her web; and, at the same instant, by means of a small\nwhite proboscis, she infuses a deadly juice into the wound, which,\nin a moment, kills the animal. This poison must be very deleterious;\nfor flies, and many other insects, may be mutilated by depriving them\nof their legs, wings, and even cutting their bodies through the very\nmiddle of their abdomen, and, in that condition, will survive several\ndays.--The Centipeds, the Scorpion, and the Tarantula, are all provided\nwith poisonous weapons.\n\n\n_Appendix to the Chapters on Plants, Fishes, Fowls and Quadrupeds._\n\n    [If we will attentively examine the _fossil remains\n    of fishes, animals, birds, and vegetables_, so abundantly\n    preserved entombed in the crust of our earth, we shall easily\n    see the necessity of looking into the sepulchres of these\n    primitive creatures if we would freely describe the \u201cMosaic\n    Creation.\u201d Many of their genera and species are now extinct:\n    and those which remain seem to have dwindled down to mere\n    _dwarfs_ in comparison with their prototypes.\n\n    It is a matter of great satisfaction, that these\n    interesting remains of the primordial world are so well\n    preserved. They are called by one _the medals of creation_:\n    they reveal the ancient condition of our earth; the successive\n    events; and the attending organic appendages of sensitive\n    beings: and it is a matter of great pleasure to the Christian,\n    that what they disclose so clearly on this subject agrees\n    expressly with the Bible.\n\n    The class of animated beings called _pisces_, or _fishes_,\n    is not so well known in regard to their _genera_, and\n    _species_, as the classes of quadrupeds and birds.\n\n    From the fossil remains of each, and their position in the\n    crust of the earth, it is well ascertained, that their genera\n    were created successively, and that the most ancient genera\n    are extinct. The same is true in regard to vegetables. It is\n    equally true, that, connected with the successive creation,\n    was a _successive improvement_ in the delicacy and complexity\n    of their structure and parts. There was also a reduction in\n    the _size_ of fishes, and quadrupeds, and a great reduction in\n    the _amount_ of vegetation, as well as the size of many of the\n    plants.\n\n    These periodic variations in all early organized bodies,\n    were evidently owing to the variations of the state of the\n    surface of our earth, and the surrounding atmosphere. The\n    Divine Being appears to have created the different genera\n    suited in constitution to the condition of the world at the\n    time. The cause of their successive extinction appears to have\n    been successive catastrophes, which altered the constitution of\n    our earth and atmosphere.\n\n    All these facts taken together indicate, that, in the\n    early periods of the earth, the soil, water, and air were\n    better calculated to sustain the simply huge, and inconceivably\n    powerful and fierce creatures of the animal kingdom, than the\n    delicate and beautiful beings of the present period. The same\n    is eminently true in regard to vegetables, specially their\n    _quantity_. They were of trunks, and spreading branches so huge\n    as to exceed belief, did we not see them well preserved in a\n    fossil state. Their quantity also was immense; hence the amount\n    of vegetable coal found in the earth.\n\n    These facts clearly indicate that, in the early periods of\n    our earth, the surface was moist, perhaps, marshy for a long\n    time, gradually drying, and passing to a habitable state: the\n    air was very moist and gross, and the temperature of the earth\n    was much higher than at present. Hence the huge and abundant\n    vegetable productions. These general facts shall be confirmed\n    by a few remarks in regard to each class.\n\n    _Fishes._--Under this class is included, here,\n    _testaceous_, and _crustaceous_ creatures, as well as\n    _fishes_ commonly so called. The most ancient of this family\n    seem to be entirely extinct, and their remains are found in\n    great abundance in the lower transition rocks. There are\n    many localities where fossil fish, of various kinds, are\n    found abundantly. They are sometimes found in the heart of\n    mountains, thousands of feet above the level of the sea. Their\n    localities are so numerous they need not be mentioned. They\n    are found in all possible _positions_, and in every degree of\n    _preservation_--some are _contorted_, and _crushed_; indicating\n    sudden violence. Others are inhumed in the very act of\n    swallowing their prey, and in every easy and natural position;\n    indicating that they expired without violence. Some of these,\n    which are thus quietly buried, are of the most active species;\n    thus proving the suddenness of the catastrophe.\n\n    So extensive are the depositions of _shell-fish_, that\n    whole beds of rock, in some cases, appear to be composed of\n    them; and, indeed, in some instances, mountains are composed\n    principally of these rocks filled with organic remains.\n\n    From these facts, it is allowed by all, that the sea once\n    covered these localities; and when it is recollected that some\n    of the rock strata, composed of the exuvi\u00e6 of these marine\n    creatures, are _hundreds_ of feet thick, the conclusion will\n    be irresistible, that the sea covered them for a long time,\n    and that these rocks which contain them _were deposited at\n    the bottom of the sea_, which have since become dry, by the\n    retiring of the waters, or by some subjacent force upheaving\n    the bed of the sea, and of course these deposits which had\n    been made at its bottom--when these fossil remains are found\n    in mountain masses they have been upheaved--when in low lands,\n    where the rocks lie _in situ_, the sea has exposed them by\n    retiring.\n\n    _Amphibious Creatures._--There are yet a few animals of\n    this class; but they can scarcely be called the types of the\n    ancient races, now extinct, whose remains have lately been\n    discovered, and attracted so much attention in Europe. They\n    are principally of the _crocodile_, and _saurian_ (or lizard)\n    families. Their size, and indicated power, ferocity, and\n    fierceness, are astonishing beyond measure. Their structure\n    clearly indicates their proper element was wet, marshy, and\n    reedy places, such as the crocodile delights in at this time:\n    thus indicating that they were in the earth as the ancient\n    chaotic seas retired, and was leaving the earth dry.\n\n    If a _single_ skeleton only, of any one of these creatures\n    had been found, naturalists would have pronounced it a _lusus\n    natur\u00e6_. But many have been found, of different genera and\n    species: only two or three shall be mentioned here.\n\n    One of the crocodile family, as is supposed, had a spine\n    composed of 133 vertebr\u00e6, or joints, taken together 21\u00bd feet in\n    length. The head was nearly 4 feet. Its species are extinct;\n    some refer even this huge animal to the lizard family.\n\n    _The Megalosaurus._ The skeleton of this huge creature has\n    been satisfactorily examined, and ascertained to belong to the\n    _lizard family_. Its thigh bone is 32 inches long. It is said\n    some have been found 4 feet. At 32 inches, the animal must\n    have been 48 feet in length. Dr. Buckland, from some fossil\n    remains, calculates some of them were as high as our largest\n    elephants, and sixty or seventy feet in length. And yet this\n    was a _lizard_ of the ancient world!\n\n    _The Pterodactyle._ This is a species of the saurian family\n    as those above. Its distinctive character is the _elongation of\n    its fourth toe_, so as to support a membrane for the purpose\n    of _flying_: hence its name, _wing-toed_. It is indeed a\n    curiosity. Its species is extinct.\n\n    _The Ichthyosaurus._ This is also a reptile of the lizard\n    kind: but because it so much resembles a _fish_; it has this\n    name, i.e. _fish-lizard_. It has a moderate tail--long pointed\n    muzzel armed with sharp pointed teeth; two huge eyes; breathed\n    air; swam in the water; crawled in marshy, reedy places, but\n    could not walk or run on land, having flat fins, or bony\n    paddles, somewhat like seals. The skeletons indicate some of\n    them to have been 25 feet long.\n\n    _The Plesiosaurus._ This animal, as its name imports,\n    was rather akin to lizards, than decidedly of the genus. Its\n    very peculiar characteristic is the immoderate length of its\n    neck, and the unexampled number of _vertebr\u00e6_ of which it is\n    composed. In other respects it approaches the ichthyosaurus.\n    Its remains indicate an animal, according to Cuvier, at least\n    30 feet long.\n\n    _The Iguanodon_, was of the lizard genus, three or four\n    times as large as the largest crocodile; having jaws equal in\n    size to the incisors of the rhinoceros, and crested with horns.\n    (DR. BUCKLAND.)\n\n    Many more creatures of the early periods of our earth might\n    be mentioned, which would come expressly under the title of\n    this volume; and the knowledge of which is durably preserved\n    in the fossils of the earth, all of which would confirm the\n    facts stated in the commencement of this paper, viz: that\n    during the first and grossest periods of our earth previously\n    to the creation of man, great numbers of genera and species\n    of huge and misshapen animals existed, which are now extinct.\n    For instance: the skeletons of animals of the _frog and\n    toad_ families, have been found so large, as to induce some\n    naturalists at first to call them _human remains_. A tapir has\n    been found the _size of an elephant_; and a species of the\n    _sloth tribe_ as long as a _rhinoceros_!!\n\n    These things will indeed appear incredible to the reader\n    at first; but let him recollect that the evidences of these\n    astonishing facts are contained in the solid crust of the\n    earth, and cannot be deceptive. They may be _seen, measured,\n    weighed, and put up so as to form the whole animal_, an object\n    of inspection to thousands.\n\n    There are but few fossil remains of _birds_ found in the\n    earth, and these are principally in the upper tertiary strata,\n    and in company with the fossil remains of such animals as are\n    companionable and serviceable to man. The reason of this is\n    obvious: the earth was not suitable for the habitation of birds\n    until it had become comparatively dry, and the seas had retired\n    in a great measure, and vegetation abundant. The aquatic genera\n    appeared first, of which there are a few remains. Moreover this\n    class of creatures could not be overtaken with any violent\n    catastrophe, so as to bury them in a body, or in particular\n    strata. It is, therefore, probable that birds, as a class, have\n    preserved their genera and species from the first; and are now\n    nearly the same in this respect, as well as in size, as in the\n    earlier periods of the world.\n\n    _Vegetables._--In the vegetable kingdom we are if possible,\n    more astonished than in the animal, of the ancient periods\n    of our earth. From their fossil remains, well and abundantly\n    preserved, it is very evident that the vegetation of the first\n    periods of our earth was abundant and heavy, beyond any thing\n    which we can conceive at this time. It cannot be doubted but\n    that the vegetative powers of the earth was very much greater\n    than at this time, or within the memory of man. This is evident\n    from the immense production of _vegetable coal_.\n\n    This statement may be rendered somewhat more credible when\n    it is recollected, that the earth, in its first periods, was\n    of a much higher temperature than now; and of course not only\n    produced more abundantly, but _all parts_ of the earth produced\n    vegetation in abundance. This is evident from the fact, that\n    within the arctic circle, where now reigns eternal winter, and\n    no vegetation can be found, there was anciently successive\n    products of heavy vegetation. (See appendix to our paper on\n    volcanos.) This is proven by plants being found fossilized\n    _on the spot, and in the position in which they grew; as\n    also the leaves and fruits of plants, which are known now to\n    be tropical, so well preserved, and in such a natural, easy\n    position as to prove clearly they grew on the spot on which\n    they were fossilized_.\n\n    The _flora_ of the primordial world was expressly a part\n    of the \u2018Mosaic creation,\u2019 and which is but little understood\n    as yet. Some of the principal plants were of the _fern_ and\n    _palm_ genera; but their size very far exceeded those now found\n    growing. By closely examining these fossil plants, it will be\n    found, _that they increase in size and quantity as the period\n    of their growth is distant from the time in which man was\n    created_: thus indicating _an increasing temperature of the\n    earth as we ascend in time_. This also corresponds with the\n    well known fact, _that the size of these plants now increases\n    progressively from the polar regions to the equator_.\n\n    Our author has given a concise and edifying description of\n    the principal families and individuals which now exist, and are\n    found in the earth. The above remarks are intended to direct\n    the attention to those _which have long since passed away_.]\n\nThe propriety of the distinction between clean and unclean beasts,\nmentioned in the Scripture, will appear on the first hearing of their\nnames; for we find amongst the clean creatures, Oxen, Sheep, Goats,\nand Lambs: and on the other side, Lions, Tigers, Wolves, Foxes, Swine,\nMoles, and Serpents. It is evident that there is a wide difference\nbetween these two parties, with respect to their manners and ways of\nlife.\n\nThose only are admitted among clean animals, which \u201cdivide the hoof\nand chew the cud.\u201d Animals which divide the hoof are more inoffensive\nwith their feet, than the several tribes of wild beasts, whose paws are\narmed with sharp claws, to seize their prey. Quadrupeds with a divided\nhoof tread surer than those whose hoof is entire; there being a plain\nmechanical reason why a foot, which presents several angles and edges,\nshould take faster hold on the ground. They are not only surer footed,\nbut also more orderly and regular in their progress. Sheep have a\nnatural tendency to follow each other\u2019s steps. They approach the fold,\nor return from it, in a train; as well as traverse their pastures in\nthe like order. Oxen tread in the very footsteps of their predecessors:\nso that a drove of them, on passing through a deep and narrow road,\nleave the surface divided into a regular succession of ridges and\nfurrows, as if it were the work of art. If animals could reason and\ndispute as men can, this plodding practice of the Ox might possibly\nbe ridiculed by the Ass; as the orthodox believer, who is content to\ntread in the steps of his forefathers, is scoffed at by the rambling\nfreethinker, who uses it as the privilege of his nature, to deviate\ninto by-ways, untrodden by those who were much wiser than himself.\n_Sure footing_ is an image not improperly applied to elementary truth\nand science: whence it will not be unnatural to suppose, that this\nfirst character of the clean animals was intended to be expressive of\nrectitude and certainty of principle in moral agents. Error is various\nand changeable in its nature: but truth, being uniformly the same in\nall ages, will always be productive of sobriety and regularity in those\nwho follow it.\n\nThe other character of clean animals is that of \u201cchewing the cud;\u201d\na faculty expressive of that act of the mind, by which it revolves,\nmeditates, and discourses on what it has laid up in the memory; and\nthe word _ruminate_ has the same metaphorical meaning. An animal\nthus employed has the appearance of abstraction in its countenance,\nas if it were engaged in deep meditation; and it ruminates more\nparticularly when lying in an horizontal position, for then the food\nis more easily recalled into the mouth from its temporary lodgment in\nthe stomach. This character then, is expressive of devout thought and\nholy conversation: for the word of God is the food of the mind, which,\nbeing laid up in the heart, should be frequently revolved; so that\nbeing properly applied to the inward man, it may contribute to a daily\nincrease in faith, purity, and goodness.\n\nThe clean animals were also _sacred_; that is, set apart by the law\nfor the purpose of sacrifice. The propriety of which is evident: for\nif the worshipper, who offered an animal to God, meant by that act to\ndevote himself, using the animal as his substitute or proxy; then\ncertainly it was not fit that he should represent himself by an unclean\ncreature, whose instincts and habits would convey an odious idea of his\nown person and character, and consequently make his devotion appear\nridiculous. In order to make a sacrifice acceptable, it was requisite\nthat the qualifications of the offerer should correspond with those\nof the offering. The innocent manners of a clean victim, were a tacit\nreflection on an unclean offerer. When the worshippers of the true\nGod were corrupt in their principles or morals, their oblations were\nno longer either proper or acceptable: which was signified to them\nin those words of the prophet--\u201cHe that killeth an ox, as if he slew\na man: he that sacrificeth a lamb, as if he cut off a dog\u2019s neck:\nhe that offereth an oblation, as if he offered swine\u2019s blood.\u201d The\nreason is added: \u201cThey have chosen their own ways, and their soul\ndelighteth in their abominations.\u201d But there is another sense in which\nthe institution of sacrifice is to be understood: for every sacrifice\nhad its prophetic use, and was prefigurative of the true sacrifice of\nJesus Christ; with respect to whom it was necessary that every animal,\npreferred to this sacred application, should be recommended by every\npossible character of innocence, purity, and perfection: therefore the\nsacrifices were taken from the tribes of Sheep, Goats, and Oxen.\n\nThe diet of the Jews being thus immediately connected with the most\nsolemn acts of religious adoration, the daily course of their living\ncarried with it an exhortation to purity of mind and body, and directed\ntheir faith to its supreme object, the vicarious sacrifice of the\nMessiah. The moral necessities of man can only be supplied by the death\nand benefits of a propitiatory sacrifice, the common substitute of all\nmankind: whence God has mercifully ordained, as well by the present\ncondition of creation itself, as by the appointment of revelation, that\nthe life of his body should be sustained in like manner: thereby to\nremind us every day, that the life of man is in a state of forfeiture;\nand that there can be neither the preservation, nor the remission\nof sins, without the shedding of innocent blood. Thus does mankind\nconspire in offering up a daily sacrifice, and attesting the truth of\nthe Christian doctrine, and many persons with the same insensibility\nthat Caiaphas uttered a similar prophecy in its favor, \u201cIt is necessary\nthat one man should die, that the whole people perish not.\u201d\n\nThese clean and unclean animals, with respect to their several ways\nof life, are as opposite as their dispositions. Sheep, Oxen, Goats,\nDeer, &c, are formed into societies, they herd peaceably together, and\nare subject to the laws of government, as well for their own advantage\nas for the service of man. But beasts of prey roam by themselves in\nforests and deserts, incapable of entering into any friendly communion.\nThey are so many single tyrants, who acknowledge no superior, but fight\ntheir way, and live in a state of hostility with the whole creation.\nIf they ever unite in gangs, it is with the spirit of thieves and\nmurderers, who are banded together only that they may plunder the\ninnocent with greater security. And, like other depredators, they are\nall fond of darkness. When the sun goes down, the Lion stalks forth\nfrom his den: at which time the Sheep, under the direction of the\nshepherd, are retiring to their fold. And when the cattle are climbing\nup the mountains to their pasture, invited by the reviving rays of\nthe rising sun, the tyrants of the night are warned back to their\nhiding-places.[173]\n\nThe blindness of the Mole, the petulance and immodesty of the Dog,\nthe subtlety of the Fox, the poisonous teeth and double tongue of the\nSerpent, afford ample scope for reflection. The Egyptian hieroglyphics\nwere certain visible representations of creatures, whose inclinations\nand actions led to the knowledge of those truths which they intended\nfor instruction. A profane and voluptuous man was represented by a\nSwine, whose filthy disposition caused it to be hated by all the\neastern people. A great hypocrite, or a notorious dissembler of\nwicked intentions, was expressed by a Leopard, because this animal\nacts craftily, concealing his head that he may with less difficulty\ncatch his unwary prey; for the creatures are as much alarmed at his\npresence, as they are pleased with the agreeable scent of his body:\nwhen therefore they approach him, delighted with the perfume, he will\ncover his head with his paws, till they come within his reach. An\nincorrigible person was also expressed by a Leopard\u2019s skin, because its\nspots no art can remove. A Chamelion likewise was the hieroglyphic of a\nhypocrite, who can accommodate himself to any religion that will serve\nhis turn; for this animal can change its color. A stupid, ignorant\nperson, an enemy to religion, was signified by an Ass; and one that was\nnot acquainted with men and things, or knew not how to acquit himself\nwith decency and propriety in the world, was painted with the head\nand ears of an Ass. The Egyptians were accustomed to put the heads of\nanimals on the bodies of men, to express the dispositions and conduct\nof those persons they were intended to represent. A Tiger, being a\nmost fierce animal, signified a savage, cruel, revengeful disposition,\nopposed to all goodness. A Fox is notorious for his craftiness;\ntherefore he is an emblem of a subtile person, under the influence of\nwicked thoughts and intentions.[174]\n\nRams, and Bullocks of Bashan, Lions, or any animal of prey, are figures\nfrequently used by the sacred writers for cruel and oppressive tyrants\nand conquerors. \u201cHear this word, ye kine of Bashan, which oppress\nthe poor.\u201d Bashan was a very fruitful place, a fine and fattening\npasture, in which were the best fed and strongest cattle. To these,\nthe prophet compares the great men among the Israelites, especially\ntheir judges and magistrates, who were proud, insolent, wanton and\nmischievous, like the bulls of Bashan; who oppressed the poor, as high\nfed cattle push and gore the weaker sort. \u201cThe Lion is come up from\nhis thicket, and the destroyer of the Gentiles is on his way; he is\ngone forth from his place to make thy land desolate: and thy cities\nshall be laid waste without an inhabitant.\u201d By this animal is meant\nNebuchadnezzar, the king of Babylon, so termed on account of his great\npower and fierceness; and as the Lion is commonly in the forest among\nthe thicket, so this terrible political ruler had his strong hold and\nprincipal seat at Babylon, which residence he left to commit awful\ndesolation among the cities of Judah and Israel.\n\nThe prophet Isaiah, with a boldness and majesty becoming the herald\nof the Most High, begins his prophecy with calling on the whole\ncreation to attend, when Jehovah speaks. \u201cHear, oh heavens; and give\near, oh earth; for the Lord hath spoken; I have nourished and brought\nup children, and they have rebelled against me.\u201d A charge of gross\ninsensibility and ingratitude is then brought against the Jews; by\ncontrasting their conduct with that of the Ox, and the Ass, which is\nthe most stupid of animals. \u201cThe Ox knoweth his owner, and the Ass his\nmaster\u2019s crib: but Israel doth not know, my people do not consider.\u201d\nWhat a cutting reproof! what an indelible reproach! to have been\nfavored with the best means of instruction, and yet to be exceeded by\nthe herd of the stall! To perish for lack of knowledge, after having\nhad the best means to acquire it, evinces the grossest inattention, and\nmost censurable insensibility.\n\nThe prophet Jeremiah lamented the wickedness of the age in which he\nlived, and the vice and immorality that every where abounded. He saw\nwith grief of heart the holy Sabbath profaned, the worship of God\nneglected, and his house and ordinances defiled. While a sorrowful\nwitness to their gross abominations, he saw the punishments that\nawaited their immorality, and then wept over what he could not amend.\nHe gave them faithful admonitions from God, but they disregarded them,\nand drank in iniquity like water, and drew sin as with a cart-rope:\nbecause they had been _taught_ to do evil (for so the margin reads,)\ntrained up in their evil ways, had learned to sin by precept and\nexample, and were great proficients in vicious pursuits: from their\nyouth their natural propensity to evil had increased by continued\npractice, till sinning was become habitual, and there was little hope\nleft of amendment. Therefore he exclaims, \u201cCan the Ethiopian change\nhis skin, or the Leopard his spots? then may ye also do good, that\nare accustomed to do evil.\u201d The Ethiopian\u2019s skin is of so sable a\nhue, that no water can wash it white. A Leopard\u2019s skin is beautifully\nspotted, which is not the result of accident, but nature, and cannot\nbe defaced. By these two similes the prophet designs to represent,\nnot only the natural impossibility without Divine aid, but also the\nextreme difficulty of habitual sinners learning to do well, after they\nhave long accustomed themselves to do evil. The least sin is to be\navoided, the least growth of sin to be prevented; for sin indulged in\nthought will beget desire, desire will break out into action, action\nwill grow into custom, custom will settle into habit, and then, there\nis the utmost danger of both body and soul being irrecoverably lost.\n\nWhen our Saviour sent forth his apostles to preach the Gospel, he\ninformed them of the hardships, dangers, and discouragements they\nwould have to encounter, in the faithful discharge of their ministry;\nespecially after his resurrection, when they would be deprived of\nhis personal presence; for we do not read of any great persecutions\nthey endured while he was with them. These sufferings he foretold,\nthat they might not be surprised at their approach; and that, by the\naccomplishment of this prediction, their faith might be confirmed.\n\u201cBehold, I send you forth as sheep in the midst of Wolves.\u201d Here we\nhave a prediction of their perilous condition; they were to be as Sheep\nin the midst of Wolves. And what situation more dangerous! What can\nsheep, that are feeble creatures, and destitute of natural armour to\ndefend themselves, expect, in the midst of ravenous wolves, but to be\nrent and torn to pieces? So those, amongst whom the apostles were to be\nsent, would have as great an inclination, arising from their malicious\ndispositions, to destroy them, as wolves have from their nature to\ndevour sheep. Wicked men are like wolves, whose nature it is to destroy\nand devour sheep; they are of a diabolical disposition towards the\nministers of the Gospel.\n\nOur Saviour also gave his apostles advice, how to conduct themselves in\nsuch very unpleasant and dangerous circumstances. \u201cBe ye therefore wise\nas serpents,\u201d not cunning as foxes, whose aim is to deceive others; but\nas serpents, whose policy is only to defend themselves, when they are\nin danger. A serpent\u2019s wisdom appears in a care to guard and secure its\nhead, that it may not be hurt; in stopping its ears against the voice\nof the charmer, which it does, says a certain naturalist, by laying\none ear close to the ground, and stopping the other with its tail;\nand in sheltering itself in the clefts of a rock, when in danger. So\nshould Christ\u2019s ministers, in a time of peril, use all lawful means for\ntheir own safety and preservation; they should be wary and circumspect\nto keep themselves from harm, either of body or soul. \u201cAnd harmless\nas doves.\u201d Ministers should be meek, do no person any harm, bear no\nill-will, be without gall, as is said of the dove; though their enemies\nshould be fierce and savage, like wolves, yet they must not study how\nto revenge the injuries done them. It should be their continual care\nto be inoffensive, in word and deed: wisdom and innocence should dwell\ntogether. Ministers must not be altogether doves, lest they fall into\ndanger; nor altogether serpents, lest they injure others; but they\nmust be both serpents and doves, the one for wisdom, the other for\ninnocence.\n\n    \u201cThat thou mayst injure no man, dove-like be,\n    And serpent-like, that none may injure thee!\u201d\n\nOur Saviour likewise cautions his followers against false teachers.\n\u201cBeware of false prophets.\u201d The term _prophet_ in the Scripture,\nsignifies one who foretells things to come; this is the most proper\nsignification of the word. It also means one who expounds the\npredictions of the Old Testament. And sometimes we are to understand\nby it, one employed in the ministry of the Gospel; in this sense a\nprophet and a teacher are reciprocal terms. So that by prophet here\nour Saviour means false teachers, who, pretending authority from God,\nexercised themselves in the ministry, and published false doctrine,\nor at least represented truth in a corrupt manner, with a fraudulent\nintention, from base motives, and for vile ends; by whose doctrine\npersons were in no small danger of being seduced from their simplicity,\nand drawn away from the truth, sincerity, and power of godliness; into\na dead and lifeless formality, and an empty show of religion and piety.\nNow against such men, Christ, in the days of his public ministry,\nwarned his hearers, to prevent their deception, apprising them that\nthey would \u201ccome in sheep\u2019s clothing.\u201d They disguised their dangerous\nprinciples and base intentions, under a show of external religion, and\nfair professions of love, that, thereby they might deceive others. \u201cBut\ninwardly they are ravening Wolves.\u201d They were as dangerous to the souls\nof men, as ravenous Wolves are to Sheep, which watch for an opportunity\nto seize their prey, silently approach the sheep-fold to see whether\nthe dogs be asleep, or the shepherd be absent: so false teachers with\nwretched hypocrisy and sophistry, counterfeit sincerity, humility, and\nsanctity; and were it not for this semblance of piety, their efforts\nto injure the church of God would be ineffectual. He compares these\nfalse teachers to Wolves, especially on account of their cruelty. These\nanimals are not content to satisfy their hunger, but will destroy\nmultitudes merely to gratify their voracious nature. So false teachers\nstrive to injure the whole church of God, and thus destroy souls.\n\nOur Saviour exhorted his auditory to the exercise of Christian\nprudence, in the dispensing of spiritual things. \u201cGive not that which\nis holy unto the Dogs, neither cast ye your pearls before Swine, lest\nthey trample them under their feet, and turn again and rend you.\u201d The\ndeep things of God, relating to doctrines, are not to be divulged to\nthose who are wallowing in sin; neither are the great things he has\ndone in his people to be declared to profane, furious persecutors:\nbut both classes of wicked men may be reproved on proper occasions.\nBy Dogs, our Saviour means froward, perverse, malicious, revengeful,\nboisterous, incorrigible, and irreclaimable sinners, who scorn holy\ninstitutions, mock at every thing sacred, scoff at religion, deride\nthe word of God, and all serious reproofs and admonitions, whether\ngiven by parents, masters, ministers, governors, and others; who are\nready to persecute those who preach the Gospel, and endeavor to promote\ntheir salvation. By Swine, he means such sinners as are profane and\nsensual, and like Swine wallow in the mud of sin and wickedness; to\nwhom it is as pleasant to live in their beastly lusts, as it is for\nSwine to wallow in the mire; and to disregard, abuse, and trample on\nholy things.\n\nSt. Peter, in showing what all men are in the sight of God, before\nthey receive his grace, and what those are who turn apostates from the\ntruth, alludes to two offensive actions of Dogs and Swine. \u201cIt has\nbefallen to them according to the true proverb, the Dog is turned to\nhis vomit, and the Sow that was washed to her wallowing in the mire.\u201d\nBlackwall says, this proverb, with great propriety and strength, marks\nout the sottishness and odious manners of persons enslaved to sensual\nappetites and carnal lusts; and the extreme difficulty of reforming\nvicious and inveterate habits. As a Dog, observe Bishop Patrick, when\nhe has vomited up his meat which made him sick, is no sooner well but\nhe returns to it, and eats it up again, forgetting how ill it agreed\nwith him; so an imprudent person commits the same error over again,\nfor which he formerly smarted. The evil nature remaining, and at last\ngaining the ascendency, in a man, who had through grace reformed\nhis life, renders him like the loathsome and detestable Sow, as Dr.\nDoddridge remarks; for the Sow that was washed from the filthiness she\nhad before contracted, having still the same unclean nature prevailing,\nis returned to wallow in the mire, and so makes herself as filthy as\nshe had ever been before. And, adds Dr. Whitby, these two proverbs are\nexpressive of the folly of those men who return to those vices they had\nformerly renounced.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n_Section_ II.--MAN.\n\n    BODY: -- Its Creator -- Formation -- Vitality -- Blood\n    -- Heart -- Arteries and Veins -- Digestion --Respiration --\n    Glands -- Absorbents -- Nervous System -- Organs of Sense --\n    Bones -- Sinovia --Muscles -- Tendons -- Cellular Membrane --\n    Skin. SOUL: -- Its Immateriality -- Freedom --Immortality --\n    Moral Image -- Adam\u2019s Dominion over the Creatures -- Woman --\n    Paradise.\n\nAll things necessary, convenient, and delightful, being prepared\nfor the accommodation of Man: light, that he might see; air, that\nhe might hear and breathe; dry land, on which he might walk; herbs\nand fruit-trees, for his gratification and sustenance; fish, fowl,\ncattle, and creeping things, for his service: then God proceeded to\nmake him, as the last and greatest display of his wisdom and power,\nthe master-piece of all sublunary creatures, whose creation alone is\nrepresented in the sacred History, as an effect resulting from a\ndivine consultation. \u201cAnd God said, Let us make man in our image, after\nour likeness. So God created man in his own image, in the image of God\ncreated he him; male and female created he them.\u201d It appears from the\ningenious Parable of Protagoras in Plato, it was a very ancient opinion\nthat _man_ was last created after the other living creatures.\n\nIn all the former works, God only said, Let such and such things be,\nand they were; he spake the word, and it was done. But now, when Man\nwas to be made, God is spoken of as calling a council, \u201cLet _us_ make\nman, in _our_ image, after _our_ likeness.\u201d This imports that Man\nwas to be a creature different from all that had been produced, and\nfar more excellent and wonderful in his constitution; a compound of\nflesh and spirit, heaven and earth, put together, the visible image\nof the Divine glory, and dedicated and devoted to his Creator\u2019s\nservice. Man was the work of ELOHIM, the Divine Plurality, marked\nhere more distinctly by the plural pronouns US and OUR; all the Three\nSubsistencies in the Godhead are represented as united in counsel and\neffort to bring into existence this astonishing creature.\n\nAben Ezra, a Jewish Rabbi, imagined that the souls of all men were made\non the first day of the creation, and that God consulted them to obtain\ntheir consent before he would assign them bodies of flesh, hereafter to\nbe created. This is a groundless hypothesis, derived from the Platonic\nphilosophy; for God says, \u201cLet us make man in our image,\u201d which shows\nthat Adam\u2019s soul had then no existence, for in that case, it doubtless\nwould have been in the image of God.\n\nSome other Jewish Doctors, as Manasseh ben Israel, ridiculously\nconceived that God spake to the elements. But this is more absurd than\nthe former; for the expression, \u201cLet us make man,\u201d implies capacity of\nconsultation in those spoken to, and real efficiency. But the elements\nare not intelligent beings, neither efficient, but only material parts\nof man.\n\nNor does God here speak to the angels, as the authority of the\nParaphrase, which is called Jonathan\u2019s, suggests. The words of the\nParaphrase are these: \u201cGod said to the angels, which ministered before\nhim, Let us make man.\u201d It is a noted saying of the Jewish Rabbis,\nthat God does nothing without consulting his family above: they mean,\nhis holy angels. Several heretics, in the first and second centuries\nof Christianity, were of opinion, that this lower world was made by\nangels. This notion is likewise erroneous: God here speaks to those in\nwhose image man was to be formed, but he was not made in the image of\nangels.\n\nIt is pretended by those who are enemies to the orthodox doctrine\nof the Trinity, that this is a figurative way of speaking, only to\nexpress the dignity of God, not to denote any plurality in him; that\nhe here speaks in the plural number after the manner of princes, who\nsay, We will and require, or, It is our pleasure. But this is only a\nfar-fetched invention, to evade the doctrine of the Trinity, by persons\nin latter times, and no way agreeable to the first ages of the world,\nor the Hebrew style. Melchizedeck, Abimelech, Pharoah, and Balak, all\nspeak in the singular number. The kings of Israel used the same style,\nas did Saul, David, and even Solomon in all his glory. And also the\nEastern monarchs: \u201cI (Darius) make a decree. I, even I, Artaxerxes the\nking, do make a decree.\u201d Nor is there in the Scriptures one example to\nthe contrary.\n\nBeside, how absurd it is to suppose that God would borrow his mode\nof speaking from a practice which did not exist! And even granting\nthis possible, yet the cases are not parallel. For though a King, or\nGovernor, may say _us_ and _we_, there is certainly no figure of speech\nthat will allow a single person to say, _one of us_, when he speaks of\n_himself_. It is a phrase that can have no meaning, unless there be\nmore persons than one concerned. Yet in addition to US and OUR, this we\nfind is the style in which God has spoken of himself.\n\nThere are some persons who maintain, in opposition to the clear light\nof revelation, that there is but one Subsistence in the Divine Nature.\nThis was the opinion of the Sabellians, a denomination which arose in\nthe third century; and, certain persons, in modern times, have embraced\nthe same. These contend that God here speaks to himself, as consulting\nwith himself, to create man, and that, though the words be plural, yet\nthe sense is singular, as if he had said, Let _me_ make man.\n\nOne of the Persons, or Subsistencies in the Godhead, here speaks to the\nother Two, and who more likely than the Father, who is first in the\norder of arrangement, as given by the sacred Writers. The Father, not\nthe Son, is the first; the Son, not the Holy Spirit, is the second;\nand the Holy Spirit, not the Father, is the third. Hence, the Father,\nwhen he said, \u201cLet us make man,\u201d addressed himself to the Son, and to\nthe Holy Spirit, who were therein joint and equal Creators with him.\n\u201cNone saith, Where is God my Maker?\u201d in the Hebrew, _Makers_, is the\nlanguage used in the Book of Job, implying a Plurality of Persons in\na Unity of Essence: a phraseology like that of Solomon, \u201cRemember thy\nCreator,\u201d in the original, _Creators_. The prophet Isaiah adopts the\nsame style, \u201cThy Maker is thine husband,\u201d in the Hebrew, _thy Makers\nare thy Husbands_. Thus it evidently appears, that this consultation\nwas among the Persons in the Godhead; that all the Three, the Father,\nthe Son, and the Holy Spirit, were concerned in man\u2019s creation; and\nwere therein joint Creators, equal in nature, power, and efficiency.\n\nDr. Waterland says, that this text, _Let us make man_, has been\nunderstood of Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, or at least of Father and\nSon, by the whole succession of Christian writers, from the times of\nthe apostles; which is a circumstance of considerable importance, and\nwill impress the minds of sincere and impartial men. That the Christian\nFathers were unanimous in their judgment, that these words were spoken\nby the Father to the Son, or Spirit, or both, appears in their works,\nfrom which we shall adduce a few proofs.\n\n_Barnabas_ says:--\u201cAnd for this the Lord was contented to suffer for\nour souls, though he be the Lord of the world; to whom God said, the\nday before the formation of the world, Let us make man after our image\nand similitude.\u201d[175]\n\n_Hermas_:--\u201cHe was present in counsel with his Father for the forming\nof the creature.\u201d[176]\n\n_Theophilus_ of Antioch:--\u201cHe directed these words, _Let us make man_,\nto none other than his own Word and his own Wisdom.\u201d[177]\n\n_Iren\u00e6us_:--\u201cHis Word and Wisdom, his Son and Spirit, are always\npresent with him, to whom also he spake, saying, _Let us make man_,\n&c.\u201d[178] Again:--\u201cMan was fashioned after the image and likeness of\nthe uncreated God, the Father willing his creation, the Son ministering\nand forming him, the Holy Ghost nourishing and increasing him.\u201d[179]\n\n_Tertullian_:--\u201cNay, because his Son is ever present with him, the\nsecond person, his Word; and the third, the Spirit in the Word;\ntherefore he spake in the plural, _Let us make man in our image_.\u201d[180]\n\n_Novatian_:--\u201cWho does not acknowledge the Son to be the second person\nafter the Father, when he reads that it was said to the Son by the\nFather, _Let us make man_.\u201d[181]\n\n_Origen_:--\u201cTo him also spake he (the Father,) _Let us make man after\nour image_.\u201d[182]\n\n_Athanasius_:--\u201cWho is this that God converses with here? To whom are\nthese notifications and determinations of his pleasure directed? Not\nto any of the creatures already made; much less to those things which\nwere not yet created; but, undoubtedly to some person, who was then\npresent with the Father, to whom he communicated his councils, and of\nwhose agency he made use in the creation of them. And who could this\nbe but his eternal Word? With whom can we conceive the Father holding\nhis conference, but with his Son, the divine LOGOS, that Wisdom of God,\nthat was present with him, and acted with him, in the creation of the\nworld, who was in the beginning with God, and was God? and who saith of\nhimself, _When he prepared the heavens, I was there; when he appointed\nthe foundations of the earth, then was I by him, as one brought up with\nhim_.\u201d\n\n_St. Augustine_:--\u201cHad God said no more than, Let _us make man_, it\nmight, with some color, be understood as spoken to the angels, whom\nthe Jews pretend he employed in framing the body of man, and other\ncreatures; but seeing it immediately follows, _after our image_, it is\nhighly profane to believe, that man was made after the similitude of\nangels; and that the similitude of God and angels is one and the same.\u201d\n\n_St. Ambrose_ speaks to the same purpose:--\u201cGod would not speak thus\nto his servants, because it is not to be thought, that servants were\npartners with their Lord, in his works of creation; or the works with\ntheir Author. And, supposing this should be admitted, that the work was\ncommon to God and angels, yet the image was not common.\u201d\n\nNay, the second Council of Sirmium, which was held in 351, pronounced\nan anathema on all those who denied this. The words of the Council are\nthese:--\u201cIf any say, that the Father did not speak to the Son, when\nhe said, _Let us make man_, but that he spake to himself, let him be\naccursed.\u201d[183]\n\n_Epiphanius_:--\u201cThis is the language of God to his Word, and\nOnly-begotten, as all the faithful believe.\u201d[184] And again he says,\n\u201cAdam was formed by the hand of the Father, and the Son, and the Holy\nGhost.\u201d[185]\n\nI observe more at large from _Iren\u00e6us_, that he rejects the notion\nof the Jews and Heretics, who supposed God spake to his angels.\nFor disputing against Heretics, who attributed the creation of the\nworld to angels, and powers separate from the one true God, he says\nthus:--\u201cAngels did not make us, nor did they form us; neither was it\nin their power to make the image of God: none but the Logos could do\nthis; no powers distinct from the Father of all things: for God did not\nwant their assistance in making the things which he had ordained. For\nhis Word and his Wisdom, the Son and the Holy Ghost, are always with\nhim; by whom and with whom, he made all things freely, and of his own\naccord; to whom also he spake in these words, _Let us make man in our\nimage and likeness_.\u201d[186]\n\nThe testimony of Dr. Kennicott will be respected by those who are\nlovers of the truth. \u201cGod, says he, being about to create man, is\nintroduced saying--_Let_ US _make man in_ OUR _image, after our\nlikeness_; in consequence of which the historian tells us--_so God\ncreated man in his own image, in the image of God created he him_.\nIt is evident then, that God created man in his own image; this is\nmentioned thrice by way of emphasis, and to prevent, if possible, all\npossibility of misconstruction. Now what God did, was certainly what\nhe proposed to do; God created man in his own image, that is, in the\nimage of the Godhead, and therefore God proposed to create him in the\nimage of the Godhead. But if God proposed to create him in the image of\nthe Godhead, the proposal must have been made to the Godhead; because\nthe words are--_Let us make man in_ OUR _image_. And if the proposal be\nhere made by God to the Godhead, it is absurd to suppose it made to the\nsame Person that makes it; and consequently reasonable to think it made\nto the other two persons in the Unity of the Godhead.\u201d[187]\n\nThe creature now to be made is man.[188] _And God said, Let us make\nman._ It is evident that God, by introducing the creation of man with\nthis peculiar phraseology, intends to impress the mind with a sense of\nsomething extraordinary in his formation. The word \u05d0\u05d3\u05dd _Adam_, which\nis translated _man_, is intended to designate the _species_ of animal,\nwhich is vastly superior to all the rest. Though the same kind of\norganization may be found in Man, as appears in the lower animals, yet,\nas one observes, there is a variety and complication in the parts, a\ndelicacy of structure, a nice arrangement, a judicious adaptation of\nthe various members to their great offices and different functions, a\ndignity of mien, and perfection of the whole, which are sought for in\nvain in all other creatures.\n\nMan is a compound creature, consisting of two distinct essential parts,\nbody and soul. The union of these constitutes man, for neither of\nthem when separated can be so denominated. The body was made before\nthe soul, and formed out of the earth, or, as \u05e2\u05e4\u05e8 _\u00e2pher_ implies,\nthe _dust_. \u201cThe Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground.\u201d He\nafterwards pronounced, _Dust thou art_. This led Solomon to affirm,\n\u201cAll are of the dust.\u201d The Apostle adds, \u201cThe first man was of the\nearth, dusty,\u201d as Ainsworth renders it. And we are said to \u201cdwell in\nhouses of clay,\u201d and to have our \u201cfoundation in the dust.\u201d Of the soul\nit is said, \u201cGod breathed into his nostrils the breath of life:\u201d \u05e8\u05d5\u05d7\n\u05d7\u05d9\u05d9\u05dd _ruach chayim_, the breath of LIVES; i.e. animal, intellectual, and\nspiritual. While this breath of God expanded the lungs, and set them to\nplay, his inspiration gave both spirit, understanding, and felicity.\nThus we see that the soul and the body are not the same thing; the one\nis of the earth, the other is from God. The Rabbins say, \u201cThe form of\nthe soul is not compounded of the elements, &c, but is of the Lord\nfrom heaven. Therefore when the material body, which is compounded\nof the elements, is separated, and the breath perishes because it is\nnot found, but with the body, and is needful for the body in all its\nactions; this form (i.e. the soul) is not destroyed, &c, but continues\nfor ever. This is that which Solomon by his wisdom said, \u2018Then shall\nthe dust return unto the earth as it was; and the spirit shall return\nunto God who gave it.\u2019\u201d\n\nAs the formation of man\u2019s body was effected previously to the infusion\nof his soul, we shall attend to the same order, in attempting to\nelucidate this important and very interesting subject. The word \u05d9\u05d9\u05e6\u05e8\n_jitzer_, rendered _he formed_, observes Mr. Benson, is not used\nconcerning any other creature, and implies a gradual process in the\nwork, with great accuracy and exactness. It is properly used of potters\nforming vessels on the wheel; and Rabbi D. Kimchi says, that, when\nused concerning the creation of man, it signifies the formation of his\nmembers. Bishop Patrick intimates, that the body of man was made not of\n_dry_, but _moist_ dust; and that this agrees with the Hebrew JITZER,\n_formed_, which is used concerning potters, who make their vessels of\n_clay_, not of _dry_ earth. Diodorus Siculus says, \u201cMan was made out of\nthe _slime_, or _mud_, of the Nile.\u201d The word of the Lord once came to\nJeremiah, saying, \u201cArise, and go down to the potter\u2019s house, and there\nI will cause thee to hear my words. Then I went down to the potter\u2019s\nhouse, and, behold, he wrought a work on the wheel. And the word of\nthe Lord came to me, saying, Behold, as the clay is in the potter\u2019s\nhand, so are ye in mine hand!\u201d A scene like this is presented to our\nimagination by the words of Moses; the Lord God _formed_, moulded, or\nmodelled man, as a potter does; we see the work, observes Bishop Horne,\nas it were upon the wheel, rising and growing under the hands of the\nDivine Artificer!\n\nBut, to give the thing a stronger impression on the mind, we will\nsuppose, says Judge Hale, that this figure rises by degrees, and is\nfinished part by part, in some succession of time; and that, when\nthe whole is completed, the veins and arteries bored, the sinews and\ntendons laid, the joints fitted, and liquor (transmutable in blood\nand juices) lodged in the ventricles of the heart, God infuses into\nit a vital principle, whereupon the liquor in the heart begins to\ndescend, and thrill along the veins, and a heavenly blush arises in the\ncountenance, such as scorns the help of art, and is above the power of\nimitation. The image moves, it walks, it speaks; it moves with such\na majesty, as proclaims it the lord of the creation, and talks with\nsuch an accent and sublimity, as makes every ear attentive, and even\nits great Creator enter into converse with it: were we to see all this\ntransacted before our eyes, I say, we could not but stand astonished at\nthe thing; and yet this is the exact emblem of man\u2019s formation.\n\nThe human body is an excellent piece of workmanship, the shape and\ncontexture of it admirable, evidently superior to that of all other\nanimals, and the brightest visible display of the wisdom of the Divine\nArchitect. The erect posture, figure, stature, use of every part, and\nsymmetry of the whole, cannot but excite admiration. The fabric of the\neye, the texture of the brain, the configuration of the muscles, the\ndisposition of the nerves, the construction of the bones; the veins and\narteries, spread throughout the system, the former to return the blood\nto the heart, and keep that mysterious engine playing, which throws\nthe vital fluid through the latter with prodigious force, to animate\nand invigorate every part; and many other important particulars, which\nwe shall now proceed to mention and illustrate, are not only manifest\nproofs of the great excellence of this system, but also of the skill,\ncontrivance, and consummate wisdom of God.\n\nWhen we take a general view of the animal world, we find the numerous\nindividuals which compose it, differing considerably in the phenomena\nwhich their economy exhibits. Man, and the higher orders of animals,\nare characterized by the constant performance of many complex and\nactive functions; as respiration, digestion, circulation, &c. Torpid\nor hibernating animals display this singular peculiarity, that these\nfunctions are performed for several months, and suspended for several\nmonths, alternately. In another modification of animated matter, namely\nthe egg, the evidences of vitality would not be exhibited, were not\ncertain agents applied to evolve them, and, when thus called forth,\nthey cannot be resumed after long suspension.\n\nAlthough we are ignorant of the nature of the cause which regulates\nthe uniform performance of this series of phenomena, thus more or less\nextensively displayed in the economy of different animals, we are\nnevertheless convinced that such a cause must exist, and are hence\nnaturally led to distinguish the phenomena by some appropriate term.\nThus observing that the human body, and the bodies of animals which\nbear it resemblance, possess locomotive powers, can regulate their\nactions, and are capable not only of resisting the laws which govern\ninanimate substances, but are enabled to act upon these substances in\ndirect opposition to these laws, we employ the terms life, vitality,\nand vital power, to express the phenomena which thus distinguish\nanimate from inanimate matter; and in order simply to determine the\nimport of those terms, we may take a general view of those powers which\na living animal body possesses, and which cease with its existence.\n\nWhen we compare the living with the dead body, the most striking\ncircumstance we observe is, that the former was surrounded by the same\nchemical agents which are capable of producing the decomposition and\ndestruction of its soft parts after death; hence it becomes evident,\nthat its component elements must have been sustained and preserved\nby some superior power, which ceases to act at the moment of its\ndissolution.\n\nOf all the phenomena which enter into the general idea of life, this\npower of self-preservation, or the capability of resisting the laws\nwhich govern inanimate matter, appears the most essential. Without\nthis principle we can form no conception of life, since it evidently\nexists without interruption till the moment of dissolution. It is\nthis principle which, communicated to an egg, enables it to resist\nfor a certain period the powers of heat, cold, and putrefaction; a\nprinciple of which the addle or barren egg is entirely devoid. Thus\nwe find from Mr. J. Hunter\u2019s experiments, that an impregnated egg\nis longer in freezing than an addle egg, and every one knows that\nthe former remains sweet or free from putrefaction much longer. This\nprinciple, which we may consider the most simple state of existence,\nis limited in its duration; and for its maintenance, the performance\nof no active function is necessary. Hence it continues in the egg\neither quiescent for a certain time, and is gradually destroyed; or,\nby the agency or stimulus of heat, it acquires the accession of the\npower of action, which assimilates inanimate matter into a living\nform, and, at length, exhibits in the chick all the phenomena of a\nmore perfect state of existence, which may be distinguished by the\nterm active life. In this state, many other phenomena of vitality\nare exhibited. Besides the power of self-preservation, an internal\nprinciple of support and reparation, and the power of performing the\nimportant actions of circulation, respiration, digestion, &c, which\nare subservient to this principle, is given to animals. These form the\nfeatures of what we call life, as it appears in man, and the higher\norders of animals, and certainly constitute its most useful, though not\nmost essential part. For how little superior is an egg, or a torpid\nanimal, to vegetable or inanimate matter, till the former contain a\nliving chick, the latter become an active animal? Thus, though life\nmay subsist under the quiescent form of self-preservation, it requires\nthe accession of certain principles, and a power of performing various\nimportant actions, to display its chief characters. The economy then\nof an egg, and of a perfect animal, such as man, may be considered\nas examples of the most simple and extensive phenomena of vitality.\nThese, however, are more or less perfectly exhibited in the different\norders of animals. It belongs, for instance, to the economy of certain\nanimals, which at one time of the year perform active functions,\nto become torpid at the approach of winter. In these creatures,\nrespiration, digestion, and every function which characterizes active\nlife, is suspended; as in the egg, the principle of self-preservation,\nthat latent spark of vitality, alone remains, by which we distinguish\ntorpidity from death. This condition, however, is not of long\ncontinuance; at the approach of summer\u2019s warmth, the power of action is\nagain called forth, active functions are superadded to the principle of\nself-preservation, and life, before quiescent and obscure, now resumes\nits most perfect form; or, in other words, the animal just now inert\nand motionless, respires again; its heart beats, its blood circulates,\nits muscles resume their accustomed motions, and it leaves its winter\nquarters in search of food. Having now assumed the nature of an active\nanimal, the performance of the functions characteristic of that state\n(which we shall now proceed to describe) becomes requisite; and, first,\nthe circulation of a fluid which we call _blood_.[189]\n\nThis fluid differs in its appearance in the different orders of\nanimals, though, in its essential properties there is little variety;\nthe appearance of the blood in man, and the more perfect animals, is\nthat of a red fluid, having a certain degree of viscidity, not being\nlimpid like common water. Though it appears to be a homogenous fluid\nwhilst circulating, or at the moment it escapes from its vessels, it\nis composed of three parts, essentially differing from each other; of\n_particles_, upon which the color of the blood depends; of _coagulating\nlymph_, which has the property of becoming spontaneously solid under\ncertain circumstances, and from which various structures in the body\nare formed; and of a limpid fluid called _serum_, which dilutes the\ncoagulating lymph, and fits it for circulating through blood vessels of\na very minute size. In some of the lower orders of animals, however,\nthe color of the particles of the blood is green, in others white,\ncorresponding with the color of the animal; in others there is no\ncolor whatever in the blood, so that it is either void of particles,\nor they are transparent, so as not to be seen. But this deficiency\nmust be considered as making no great difference in the blood itself,\nas its particles do not appear to be its most essential part. Many\nmicroscopical observations have been made to determine the size of a\nsingle particle of the blood, and according to the observations of\nseveral philosophers, the diameter of a single particle in man has been\ncomputed at the 3,000th part of an inch. The size of the particles in\nred blooded animals, is found not to correspond with the size of the\nanimal. They are as large in the mouse as the elephant, larger in some\ninsects than in man, smaller in the ox. They are in prodigious numbers,\nso as to give color to the blood, and of all its parts appear to be\nrenewed the most slowly; thus when animals are frequently bled, the\nflesh becomes paler and paler.[190]\n\nThe next part of the blood, or coagulating lymph, is of the greatest\nimportance. This constituent part becomes apparent, when blood is drawn\nfrom a vein into a cup, from its power of spontaneously coagulating\ninto a solid mass, which appears red from a mixture of red particles:\nthe color of the lymph however is transparent. This coagulation of\nthe blood differs very essentially from the coagulation of inanimate\nsubstances, and is considered by many physiologists to be the last\nexertion of a living principle, which the blood is supposed to possess.\nThis opinion, although not capable of absolute proof, is rendered\nextremely probable from a variety of facts, and by none more than the\nanalogy between the coagulation of the blood, and the contraction of\nthe muscles at death. These two actions appear to be influenced in\nsome degree by the same causes. Thus, sudden death from lightning,\nor a blow upon the stomach, prevents the muscles from becoming rigid\nafter death, and prevents also the coagulation of the blood. Under\nthese circumstances it remains fluid. Besides violent death, several\ncircumstances influence its tendency to coagulate and become solid,\nsuch as a great loss of blood--inflammation--pregnancy in females, and\nother causes.[191]\n\nThe third important part of the blood is the serum. This is limpid like\nwater, and remains permanently fluid, unless certain substances are\nemployed to coagulate it, such as alcohol, alum, or a certain degree\nof heat. It dilutes the other parts of the blood, so as to reduce the\nwhole to a proper state of fluidity. It is secreted, or naturally\nseparated from the blood, and poured out by exhalent vessels in various\ncavities and parts of the body, as the chest, abdomen, cellular\nmembrane, &c. It facilitates the easy motion of the various organs upon\neach other, and, when accumulated in large quantities, forms the fluid\nof dropsies.\n\nBesides these constituent parts, a quantity of water always circulates\nwith the blood, varying according to the quantity of fluids taken\nin, and regulated in its proportion by the kidneys. Thus if a large\nquantity of water is taken into the stomach, particularly if it contain\na little spirit in the form of punch, the kidneys are stimulated to\nan increased action, so as to separate from the blood the redundant\nquantity. A variety of other substances also are occasionally\nintroduced into the blood, along with the aliment, alkaline substances\nproducing their effect upon the nature of the urine, rhubarb on bile\ngiving it a yellow color, and turpentine or asparagus altering its\nodor; all these substances, before passing off by urine, must have been\nmixed with the blood, from whence the urine is formed, being in fact\nits excrementitious part.[192]\n\nIt is necessary for the blood thus formed, to pass to every part of\nthe body, that it may be converted into the nature of these parts, and\nthus become subservient to their growth; that fluids, serving important\npurposes in animal bodies, may be separated or secreted from it; and\nthat the temperature of the body may be equably maintained. The blood,\nhowever, has no power of motion in itself; if it be not propelled by\ncertain parts of the body, it remains quiescent like any extraneous\nfluid.\n\nIn two very numerous classes of animals, insects and zoophites, the\nmotion of the blood is very simple; they are nourished like vegetables,\nby the absorption of the fluid, which is prepared in their alimentary\ncanal, and have no circulation properly so called.\n\nBut in man, and the higher orders of animals, a complex apparatus for\nthe motion of the blood becomes necessary, consisting of an heart,\narteries, and veins. The _heart_ may be considered as the chief agent\nin circulation, the general reservoir, and source from whence the blood\nflows. It is composed of two principles, one a principle of reception,\nthe other a principle of propulsion. That cavity of the heart, which\nis called its auricle, receives the blood from the veins; the cavity\ncalled its ventricle, propels it through the arteries.\n\nAlthough the heart in all animals is formed on the same general\nprinciple, and for the same purpose, yet the economy of some animals\nadmits of a greater simplicity in the conformation of this organ, than\nothers. The most simple kind of heart is composed of one cavity, with\na tube entering into it, by which it receives the blood, and another\npassing out of it, by which the blood is conveyed over the body. The\nnext simple heart is composed of two cavities, an auricle, which\nreceives the blood, and propels it into a ventricle, which diffuses it\nover the body. Another kind of heart is composed of three cavities;\ntwo auricles, and one ventricle; one auricle receiving the blood from\nthe lungs, the other from the body generally; the blood from these two\nsources is mixed together in a single ventricle. This structure we\nfind in some amphibious animals, in which it is not necessary that the\nblood should circulate with so much influence from the oxygenous part\nof the atmosphere, as in other animals. Accordingly we find the heart\nadapted to transmit only one half of the blood through the lungs at\neach circulation, whilst in more perfect animals the whole mass passes\nby this route. The last kind of heart is formed of four cavities, two\nauricles and two ventricles, and is the most perfect apparatus as\nit is found in man, and quadrupeds generally.--It must, however, be\nconsidered as composed of two distinct parts, or two simple hearts\nadhering together, and performing distinct parts of the circulation;\nand one part intended to receive the blood from the body, and circulate\nit through the lungs; the other part to receive the blood from the\nlungs, and propel it over the rest of the body. It is better suited\nto the economy of some animals, as the cuttle fish, that these parts\nshould be separated to a considerable distance from each other. The\nreason why the heart is formed of two parts in most animals is, that\nit is necessary that the blood should receive the impulse of the heart\ntwice, first to propel it through the lungs, next to propel it over the\nrest of the body.\n\nThe blood is conveyed from the heart to every part of the body, by\nmeans of elastic tubes, called _arteries_. These arise from the\nventricles of the heart by two large trunks, which branch out in\nevery part of the body, into arteries of great minuteness, conveying\nthe blood from the heart to its most distant parts, so that it is\nimpossible to wound any part of the body with the finest point,\nwithout opening one of these vessels. This gives a good idea of their\nminuteness.\n\nFrom the minute termination of the arteries, begins a second set of\nvessels, the _veins_, which, having a contrary course, return the blood\nfrom every part of the body into the auricles of the heart.\n\nThe larger arteries and veins, near the heart, differ very much\nfrom each other in their structure and action. This difference,\nhowever, does not descend to their minute ramifications, which must\nbe considered as having the same structure, and performing the same\noffice, the one passing into the other by such imperceptible degrees,\nthat we cannot mark where the one terminates or the other begins.\n\nIf we consider these tubes as subservient to the circulation of the\nblood, we shall see the necessity of certain principles entering into\ntheir structure. As the blood is forcibly thrown from the heart, these\nvessels must be distended; one of their properties therefore, must be a\ncapability of being distended, which is given to them by elastic matter\nentering into their composition. As the vessels, however, are not to\nremain in a distended state, a power of reaction is added, which arises\nalso out of their elasticity, and assists in propelling the blood\nforwards.\n\nThus the elastic matter allows the vessels to be distended to a certain\ndegree, and also reduces them to a smaller size. But it is necessary\nthat the heart shall be assisted considerably, in the circulation\nof the blood, by a contractile power of the vessels themselves; and\nthe same quantity of blood is not to circulate in the same body at\nall times, for animals are liable to frequent injuries, by which the\nquantities of blood in their bodies may be very suddenly reduced. Hence\nthe vessels have given to them a further power of contraction to assist\nthe heart, and accommodate themselves, under certain circumstances, to\na smaller quantity of blood. For this purpose, a muscular structure is\nadded to them, which is present in largest proportion in the smaller\narteries; by this means, they are enabled so far to withstand the\npower of the heart, as to shut their cavities, and prevent the escape\nof blood when divided, forming one of the means by which the effusion\nof blood is spontaneously checked in living animals. And it may be\nremarked, that this power, for the purpose of self-preservation, is\nextended to larger arteries in the brute creation; for Mr. Hunter\nfound, that the flow of blood from the large artery in the neck of an\nass was checked by an exertion of this power, whilst every one knows\nthat its division in man is fatal.\n\nBesides these parts, arteries have an internal lining, which is\nperfectly smooth, and of considerable density, that the blood may\ncirculate with as little resistance, and be contained as completely as\npossible within its proper channels.\n\nThe same observations will apply to the veins, though some of their\nproperties are less strongly marked. They possess an elastic power\ncapable of distension and reaction, a muscular structure endowed with\ncontractility, and an internal lining over which the blood circulates\nwith as little resistance as possible. By these powers the blood\nis circulated through every part of the body with great velocity.\nAccording to the best calculations, the heart alone exerts a power\nequal to the pressure of 51\u00bd pounds, which propels the blood through\nthe arteries at the velocity of 149 feet in a minute; in which time it\nexpels from its cavities about 160 ounces.\n\nThus all animals are provided with an organ for propelling the blood,\nby certain channels, to the different parts of the body; but, as the\nfunctions of these parts are various, they require to be visited by\nvery different proportions of blood, according to their activity or\npowers of life. Some parts of the body may be said to be inert, and\nmerely possessed of a principle of life, to connect them with the\nother organs of the body, as parts of a living system, and to enable\nthem to go through certain processes in their healthy and diseased\nstates. Other parts are formed for active functions, and possess great\nsensibility. It is accordingly observed, that a smaller quantity of\nblood is distributed to bones, tendons, and similar inert parts, than\nto muscles and glands, whose exertions are more considerable.\n\nThis then is the general apparatus in perfect animals, by which the\nblood performs its circulation through the various parts of the body,\nbut during its course it is subject to constant exhaustion from various\nsources. It is converted in its passage into the nature of all the\ncomponent parts of the body, and has the different secreted fluids\nderived from it, and these processes go on with more activity in a\nyoung, than an adult person: hence we see the necessity of a constant\nsupply of materials to the blood, and this in the greatest proportion\nat an early period of life.\n\nAnimals are furnished with the means of this supply, by their power of\nconverting animal and vegetable substances into the nature of blood, by\na process called _digestion_. Some animals are led by their nature to\nlive on vegetable food, others on animal food only, whilst others can\nsubsist on either, or any mixture of both.[193] The digestive powers\nof man fit him for any proportion of animal or vegetable foods, and\nare the most perfect of all animals. Other creatures may be said to be\nconfined to a certain district, but the curiosity of man is to lead him\nover the whole world, and frequently place him in situations where only\none kind of food is attainable.\n\nThe first change which takes place in the food, in order that it shall\nbe converted into the nature of the blood, is its division into smaller\nparts, by the teeth or gizzards of animals. It is then passed into\nthe stomach, where it remains for some time exposed to the action of\na fluid, formed in the stomach, which is called gastric juice. This\npossesses a very strong power of coagulating and dissolving various\nanimal and vegetable substances. As far as we know, it acts on the\nprinciple of any other solvent, for it produces the same change in\nsubstances out of the body, or even within the body after death. It\nfrequently happens, for instance, when a person has been killed, by\naccident, in full health, that, on inspection, the stomach is found\ndissolved, and reduced to a gelatinous mass in several parts, arising\nfrom the action of the gastric juice, which had been formed in it\nbefore death. The gastric juice, however, cannot act upon living\nsubstances: hence the stomach resists its action, and worms sometimes\nreside and are even generated in the stomach. Every substance capable\nof being acted upon in the stomach, is reduced, by the solvent power\nof the gastric juice, into a pulpy mass, which has been called chyme,\nthe exact chemical properties of which have not been ascertained; in\nthis state it is by degrees transferred into the beginning of the small\nintestines, where it is mixed with the bile and pancreatic fluid, and\nundergoes a change into a milky fluid, which is called chyle. It is\nthen diffused by an undulating motion of the intestines over their\ninner surface, that it may be absorbed, and carried into the general\nmass of blood.\n\nAs far as has yet been ascertained by experiment, the chyle of animals,\nmost opposite to each other in their food, structure, and habits of\nlife, is so much alike as to have no distinguishable difference. The\nchyle of a Dog, or Wolf, differs in nothing from that of a Sheep or\nan Ox. This would appear surprising, were it not ascertained that\nalmost every alimentary matter undergoes a chemical change before it\nis converted into chyle, and that the ultimate analysis of either\nanimal or vegetable matter presents us with the same elements as those\nof the blood, which, though only three or four in number, are capable\nof forming the various substances of which the body is composed, by\ncombining with each other, and in different proportions. There is,\nhowever, this difference observable in the chyle, that in reptiles and\ninsects it is transparent like lymph.\n\nThe lacteals are the vessels by which the chyle is absorbed from the\nintestines: they form small processes on the internal surface of the\nintestines like the pile of velvet, which are hence called villi.\nA small portion of chyle being received into their open mouths, is\npropelled by successive contractions of these vessels into their large\ntrunk, the _thoracic duct_, from whence it is poured into a great\nvein near the heart, and, by circulating through the lungs, probably\nreceives its final change into blood; and this change would seem to\nbe easily effected, as the chyle already possesses the principal\nproperties of blood, being formed of particles swimming in a thinner\nfluid, and having a power of coagulating spontaneously.[194]\n\nThis is the apparatus by which the food is digested in man so as to\nreplenish the blood; but the digestive organs of different animals\nexhibit considerable varieties, some being more simple, others more\ncomplex in their structure, adapted to the kind of food with which the\nanimal is nourished. Ruminating animals, or animals which chew the\ncud, such as the Cow, have several stomachs, and the food undergoes\nmastication several times, at each time being passed into a different\nstomach, before being finally acted upon by the gastric juice, after\nwhich it is transmitted through a long tract of intestines. This is an\nexample of the most complex digestive organ fitted to act upon hard\nand fibrous food, which must be subjected to the action of several\nmenstrua preparatory to its being acted upon by the gastric juice.\n\nIn birds who live on grain as has been noticed, we meet with a\ndifferent apparatus to prepare it to be acted upon by the gastric\njuice. The food first passes into the crop, which forms a kind of\nreservoir from whence it may pass by degrees into the gizzard, by which\nthe grain is ground into small particles, before it is transmitted into\nthe stomach: and it is surprising with how great power the gizzard acts\nfor this purpose. The Abb\u00e9 Spallanzani introduced a garnet, which is a\nvery hard and angular stone, into the gizzard of a Wood-Pigeon, and, in\nthe course of a day, it was ground perfectly smooth, by the action of\nthe gizzard. He also introduced a leaden ball stuck full of tin points,\nand another with fine lancets, into the gizzard of a Turkey, and in\nabout 18 hours, the whole of the points were rubbed down. The gizzard\nalso possesses an amazing power of compression. Raumeur introduced into\nthe gizzard of a Turkey tubes of tinned iron, seven lines in length,\nand two in diameter, closed with solder at each end; some were indented\nby the action of the gizzard, and others crushed flat. Similar tubes,\nintroduced into the teeth of a vice, required the weight of about 440\nlb. to produce the same effect. The gizzard thus reduces into small\nparticles whatever food the animal selects, that it may be more readily\nacted upon by the gastric juice in the stomach; for the gastric juice\nacts like any other solvent, and therefore acts most advantageously\nwhen the food is reduced into small parts.--The digestive organs\nof some of the lower orders of animals form a striking contrast to\nthese. In the most simple apparatus with which we are acquainted, the\nstomach and the intestines are composed of a simple bag which has but\none opening, which serves both to receive the food, and discharge the\nexcrement. It composes in fact the whole bulk of a fresh-water Polypus.\nIn these animals the chyle is absorbed by small vessels in the sides of\nthe bag, and is conveyed to every part of the body.\n\nThus we find that the supply of materials to the blood is commensurate\nto its exhaustion, that in young animals where a more active process\nof formation is going on, a larger proportion of food is requisite,\nand more chyle formed; this, however, is not all that is necessary\nto prepare the blood for its important purposes within the body. The\nblood, by passing through the various parts of the body, is so changed\nby the abstraction of certain properties, as to render it unfit for\ncirculation, which implies the necessity of an organ, which may restore\nto the blood its requisite qualities. This office is performed by\n_respiration_, that function in animals by which the blood receives the\ninfluence of atmospherical air.\n\nThere is a great variety in the structure of the organ for exposing the\nblood to the air, suited to the mode of life in different animals. In\nman and quadrupeds generally the lungs serve this purpose; they are\ncomposed of a number of blood vessels spread out upon minute air cells,\nwhich communicate with and receive the air by means of the trachea\nor windpipe, in consequence of the expansion of the chest by certain\nmuscular powers. These vessels and cells are connected together by\ncellular membrane, so as to form a spongy mass called lungs, which are\ncommonly placed in the chests of animals.--But besides this kind of\norgan, which in birds is very large, they have air bags, or appendages\nto the lungs, diffused through various parts of the body; even some\nof their long bones contain nothing but air, and communicate with the\nlungs. It was from a knowledge of this fact that Mr. J. Hunter made\na Turkey breathe by its wings, by making an opening into their large\nbones, and closing the animal\u2019s mouth.\n\nIn Fish, the gills serve the purpose of lungs. They are composed of\na number of processes arising from cartilages, having distributed\nupon them minute blood-vessels, which receive the influence of air\ncontained in water: and hence distilled water, which contains little\nair, destroys fish, in the same manner as the exhausted receiver of an\nair pump does a breathing animal.\n\nThere is another mode of conveying air for the use of the blood in many\ninsects, by means of a number of tubes or spiracula: these receive\nthe external air, and, by ramifying in the body of the animal, convey\nits influence to the blood. Thus these animals may be said to respire\nlike vegetables, throughout the whole of their surface, by vessels\nwhich introduce the air at different points into their bodies. In some\ninsects the rectum forms the principal organ of respiration, and, in\nthe class of animals called Zoophites, there are no visible organs of\nrespiration.\n\nThese different modifications, in the respiratory organs of the higher\nand lower orders of animals, are all formed with the same intention,\nviz. that the blood may be exposed more or less to atmospherical\nair. In consequence of this the blood undergoes a process similar to\ncombustion, which extracts from it a part of its carbon, in the form of\ncarbonic acid, and by this means increases the relative proportion of\nits remaining elements. The inspired air at the same time is deprived\nof a part of its oxygen, which is the elastic fluid which commonly\nsupports respiration. All the corresponding effects produced upon\nthe blood are not yet fully explained. But by this means the color\nof the blood is changed from a dark to a florid red, it acquires the\npower of exciting the action of the heart, and is fitted for its\nvarious purposes within the body.[195] By these organs, respiration\nis performed more or less extensively in the different orders of\nanimals, corresponding in a great degree, to their activity, digestive\npowers, and the heat maintained in their bodies. Birds, whose extensive\nrespiratory organs consume a larger quantity of air, are capable\nof greater exertion; make more frequent meals than quadrupeds, and\nmaintain a superior temperature. Quadrupeds hold a middle place between\nbirds and reptiles. Respiration appears in the class of reptiles, as\nFrogs and Toads, to be a subordinate function only; they can exist\nwithout it nearly as long as they please; at the same time they make\nvery long fasts, and the heat of their bodies is more variable and\nlower than quadrupeds; hence they are called cold blooded animals.\nTheir other habits accord well with their organs of respiration. They\ngenerally live in impure air, their motions are languid, and they pass\na great part of their existence in a state of torpidity.\n\nA subordinate use of respiration in most animals, is the formation of\nthe voice: for this purpose there are membranes stretched across the\nnarrow part of the windpipe, which are thrown into a state of vibration\nby the current of air: the vibrations thus produced, being modified by\nother accessory parts, produce the voice. In many animals, however,\nit is produced by a very different mechanism. Some animals employ the\nfriction of certain elastic parts of the body, as Grasshoppers and\nCrickets; others employ the vibration of certain parts in the air,\nwhilst others impress a rapid motion on portions of air inclosed in\ncertain parts of their bodies.\n\nThere is a particular part of the heart in man, intended merely to\npropel the blood, which passes through the lungs to receive the\ninfluence of the air; this is the right ventricle; from whence the\nblood passes, by the pulmonary artery, through the minute vessels\nexpanded on the air cells, and is changed from a dark to a florid\ncolor: it is then returned back to the left ventricle, by the pulmonary\nveins, and is propelled over the rest of the body, where it is again\nchanged (by the abstraction of certain properties) to the dark color\npeculiar to venous blood: the blood is lastly conveyed by the veins\nto the right side of the heart from whence it set out, having passed\nthrough two circles.\n\nThe blood thus prepared by the lungs for circulation, passes in\ndifferent quantities to different parts of the body, according to\ntheir activity, and has various fluids formed from it, which are\ncalled secreted fluids, as gastric juice, milk, bile, &c. The parts\nof the body forming many of these fluids, are very peculiar in their\nstructure, and are called _glands_. They consist in an arrangement of\nvessels, endowed with a mode of action, with which we are unacquainted,\nby which the component parts of the blood are disposed to enter into\nnew combinations, and to form compounds differing from the blood\nitself. Thus the vessels are arranged on the inside of the stomach, in\nsuch a way, as by their action to form gastric juice from the blood; on\nthe same principle, milk is produced from the blood which circulates\nin the breast, or bile in the liver. As gastric juice, milk, and bile,\ndiffer very much from each other in their properties, we must infer,\nthat there is a considerable variety in the action, by which these\nvessels form these fluids from the blood; and this is necessarily\nconnected with a variety in arrangement, which is the case in all the\nglands of the body. In one gland, for example, the blood-vessels form a\nminute net-work; in another, are convoluted at their extremities; in a\nthird, a large branch suddenly divides into a number of small branches,\nlike the hairs of a painter\u2019s brush; in a fourth, they are disposed in\nan arborescent form, each gland differing from every other in the mode\nof distribution of its blood-vessels, and forming different products\nfrom the blood.\n\nThe substances formed by many of the glands of the body, are applied\nto useful purposes, within or without the body. An instance of the\nformer we have in the bile formed by the liver, or the gastric juice\nformed by the stomach; and of the latter, in the milk.--Other secreted\nfluids are rejected as excrementitious: the best example of this is\nthe urine formed by the kidneys. This gland separates from the blood\na great variety of substances, which might otherwise prove noxious by\ncirculating along with it; many of these have occasionally very curious\nchemical properties, and under a certain state of the body, the altered\nsecretion of this organ is very remarkable, in as far as it produces\na large quantity of a familiar substance, which in this instance is\ncomposed within the body. In the disease called diabetes, for example,\na patient sometimes makes four or five gallons of urine in the 24\nhours, in which is dissolved a considerable quantity of matter, like\ncommon sugar or treacle, probably to the amount of two or three pounds.\n\nBesides these fluids formed from the blood, each by an appropriate\nglandular apparatus, there are watery fluids constantly secreted in\nvarious parts of the body; and, that these may not accumulate, or\nremain after they have performed their office, it is necessary for the\nbody to be furnished with vessels, whose powers of removal may keep\npace with the deposition of these fluids. This introduces the system\nof vessels called _absorbents_, which are distinct in their office\nand nature from the blood-vessels, and are widely diffused over the\nwhole body. In every part of the body a limpid fluid is thrown out for\nthe purpose of easy motion, moistening the cellular membrane, which\nconnects the various parts of the body to each other, and lubricating\nthe contents of all the cavities of the body; this fluid is thrown out\nin the form of vapor by the exhalents, which belong to the arterial\nsystem, whilst the lymphatic absorbent vessels, by their action,\nremove what is not convenient for the function of the part; and these\ntwo actions, of deposition, by the exhalents, and absorption, by the\nlymphatics, go on during health, so nicely balanced, that when we open\ninto any of the great cavities of the body, as the belly or chest,\nthe quantity of fluid we find is extremely small. When, however, the\nbalance between these two orders of vessels is destroyed, when the\nexhalents throw out more fluid than usual, and the lymphatics only\nabsorb their natural quantity; or the exhalents deposit their natural\nquantity, whilst the lymphatics absorb less than natural, accumulation\nof water in the cellular membrane, or great cavities of the body, takes\nplace, and produces dropsies.\n\nThere is another set of vessels, which have been already mentioned,\na part of the same system of absorbents, which from their office of\nabsorbing a white fluid, the chyle, have been denominated lacteals;\nthese arise from the inner surface of the intestines, in great numbers,\nand convey the chyle into the general mass of blood.--Whilst the\nminute beginnings of the lacteal vessels, from the internal surface\nof the intestines, is a matter of ocular demonstration, we have only\npresumptive proof of the origin of the lymphatics, which make the\ngreatest part of the absorbent system. We have, however, good grounds\nfor concluding, that they arise from every external and internal\nsurface of the body. We find, for example, that certain remedies, as\nmercurial ointment, or turpentine, rubbed on the skin of any part of\nthe body, produce effects on distant parts; the mercury by removing\naffections of various parts of the body, the turpentine increasing\nthe flow of urine, and giving it a peculiar odor: these effects are\nexplained by presuming the absorption of these substances, by the\nlymphatics, arising from the surface of the skin. We have further proof\nof this from the occasional absorption of watery fluids, under peculiar\ncircumstances. Sailors at sea, in want of fresh water, have quenched\ntheir thirst by dipping their clothes in salt water, and applying them\nto the surface of the body, from which only the elementary part was\nabsorbed by these vessels. A jockey, after reducing himself to a great\ndegree has become in a short time too heavy to ride his match, merely\nby drinking a glass of wine, which had stimulated the absorbents of\nthe skin to take up a large quantity of aqueous matter from the air.\nOr a person gibbeted alive, has been observed to make a considerable\nquantity of urine as long as he lived, without any liquid being taken\nby the mouth. These are all considered as evidences that the lymphatic\nabsorbent vessels arise from every external surface of the skin, and\nare capable of taking up substances applied to them.\n\nWe find next that water accumulated in the large cavities of the chest\nor abdomen, or underneath the skin in the cellular membrane, of every\npart of the body, is occasionally removed from these situations, by\nremedies which have the power of increasing the action of the absorbent\nvessels. We hence conclude, that these vessels arise from every\ninternal part, and are, in short, widely diffused over the whole body,\nthough their beginnings are too minute to be detected by any mode of\nexamination with which we are acquainted.\n\nThe absorbent vessels, from whatever part they arise, terminate in the\nblood-vessels, principally by one vessel or trunk, which is called the\n_thoracic duct_. This commences in the cavity of the abdomen, passes\nthrough the chest on the right side of the spine, and, at length,\nenters a large vein situated on the left side of the neck. Through\nthis vessel, besides the fluids taken up in various parts of the body,\nthe whole of the nourishment from digested aliment passes into the\nblood; it may therefore be said to be the most important vessel in the\nbody,[196] and it is situated in one of the safest positions in the\nbody, so that an injury done to it is a very rare occurrence.\n\nThus the absorbent system is formed of two sets of vessels, having the\nsame structure, the same absorbing office, and the same termination,\nbut differing in the fluids they convey, and the parts of the body they\noccupy. The one widely diffused over the whole body, and from their\noffice of usually absorbing limpid fluids, called lymphatics; the other\narising only from the intestines, and denominated lacteals, from the\nmilky whiteness of the chyle they absorb.\n\nThus far the absorbent vessels have been described, as employed in\ntaking up fluids only. The action of the absorbent system, however,\nis not considered as confined to the fluid parts of the body; there\nare a variety of instances, in which the most solid parts appear to be\nremoved by the absorbents. Thus when a tooth is extracted, or drops out\nin old age, its bony socket is removed by the action of the absorbents.\nThe pressure of a pulsating tumor, called aneurism, against the ribs,\nor thigh bone, has produced their removal in the same way. These are\nconsidered as instances of solid matter being removed by the absorbent\nvessels, from internal parts of the body, without any external opening.\nIt is, however, a matter of doubt, which we cannot at present discuss,\nwhether a bone is broken down by the absorbents themselves, so as to\nbe removed in small particles; or whether, as is more probable, its\npresence or irritation (as an extraneous body) produces the secretion\nof a fluid, similar in its properties to the gastric juice, by which\nit is first reduced into minute particles, or entirely dissolved, so as\nthus to enter the absorbent vessels.\n\nAnother important part of the office of these vessels, is to\nmodel the shape of the body, and to concur with the action of the\nblood-vessels in regulating its growth. For the human body does\nnot, like a marble statue, constantly contain the same identical\nparticles in its composition. As the stream of a river is formed of\na constant succession of aqueous particles, sometimes increasing,\nsometimes diminishing its natural bulk; so the human body is constantly\nundergoing an imperceptible change of parts. The absorbents, by their\naction, remove exhausted particles, whilst the arteries form from the\nblood an adequate supply of new parts. When these two powers are equal,\nthe body continues of the same bulk; when from disease or contingent\ncircumstances, the one or the other predominates, the body increases in\ngrowth, becomes corpulent, or emaciated.\n\nThus we have seen a variety of organs necessary to carry on the\nfunctions of perfect animals: these, however, are inert, and incapable\nof motion in themselves. Hence a _nervous system_ becomes requisite,\nwhich may excite and influence the whole. We find in man, and\nquadrupeds generally, the nervous system placed principally in the\nbrain and spinal marrow; from these sources, the nerves are distributed\nlike white cords, and pass in various proportions to the different\nparts of the body, conveying the excitements of the brain.\n\nOne of the most important excitements conveyed from the brain, through\nthe medium of the nerves, is volition; by this means the muscles become\nobedient to the will, and perform the voluntary actions of animals.\nIf, for instance, I wish to take up a pen, I exert my volition towards\nthe action, and the consequence of this is, that the muscles employed\nin the action, are stimulated to contract, from a peculiar excitement\nbeing conveyed to them from the brain, through the medium of the\nnerves. We are totally ignorant, however, of the state of the brain,\nwhilst giving out the excitement, or the change which takes place in\nthe nerves whilst conveying it. We know, however, that the brain may\nbe rendered incapable of giving rise to the excitement, and it may be\narrested in its progress down the nerves by artificial means. If a\nligature be applied upon a nerve by tying a piece of thread round it,\nthe nerve is rendered incapable of transmitting the excitement, so as\nto produce motion in muscles. The same state is frequently produced in\nthe brain and nerves, by the disease called palsy, or by fractures of\nthe skull. There are also various excitements passing from the brain\nto the vital organs of the body, whose actions are not regulated by\nthe will, and are therefore called involuntary, or automatic actions,\nas circulation, parturition, &c. Thus if a person have ever so strong\na desire, he cannot make his heart beat more frequently; nor can he\nprevent it from beating more frequently, if any one should put him in\nbodily fear; although the heart is formed of muscular flesh, similar to\nthe muscles, which he can command in his arm. The reason of this is,\nthat the nerves of the heart cannot convey the influence of volition;\nfor the wisest reasons the heart acts without it.\n\nIt is also necessary for various influences to be communicated from\nexternal objects to the brain, to keep up a correspondence between\nanimals, and the material world around them, and to communicate\nthose impressions from which the brain is afterwards to carry on its\nfunctions. As the parts formed for this purpose differ from ordinary\nparts of the body, in having a larger share of nervous influence given\nto them, they have been called the _organs of sense_, which in an\nanatomical point of view, may be said to be five in number, the eye,\nthe ear, the tongue, the nose, and the skin.\n\nIn the _eye_, we discover a most accurate optical instrument, adapted\nto converge the rays of light at its posterior part. It is composed of\na spherical box, containing transparent media of different densities,\nby which the rays of light are conveyed to a point, so as to impress\na minute image of the visible appearance of external objects upon\nthe retina or expansion of the optic nerve, by which the impression\nis conveyed to the brain, so as to bring us acquainted with external\nobjects.\n\nThe _ear_ is formed to receive impressions from bodies in a state of\nvibration, which are conveyed to the brain by an apparatus composed of\nvarious substances, and eminently calculated to transmit the slightest\ntremors. The vibrations of the air, for instance, first strike the drum\nof the ear; are thence communicated to a delicate chain composed of\nfour minute bones. By these the vibration is increased, and transmitted\nto a fluid, contained in several small winding canals, in which the\ndelicate filaments of the nerves of hearing are arranged, so as to\ntransmit the impressions they receive from the surrounding fluids,\nand produce in the brain the perception of sound; these two senses,\nby the infinitely varied modification of their impressions, convey a\nprodigious supply of materials for the action of the mind.\n\nThe organ of _touch_ is next in point of importance; it has its seat\nin the extremities of the nerves distributed over the skin, and is the\nonly sense which belongs to every class of animals. This organ gives\nrise to sensations, which have no natural alliance with each other.\nBy this sense we compare different degrees of temperature with each\nother; from this we derive our idea of distance between bodies; of\ntheir tangible figure, of their roughness, smoothness, hardness, and\nother qualities, from the relative position with respect to ourselves,\nor the degree or kind of resistance they offer. And, when man has\nbeen deprived of his communication with many external objects, by the\nloss of vision, we find the organ of touch gradually encroaching upon\nthe function of the eye, and from attention to its finer impressions,\nbecoming, through the education of necessity, a much more extensive\nsource of information. As an instance of this, I may adduce Mr. Gough,\nwho can accurately distinguish the color and character of flowers, by\nthe nice sense of touch possessed by the tip of the tongue.\n\nThe other senses may be said to be of less importance. The _nose_\naffords a passage for the air to the lungs, and is impressed by the\nodorous particles of bodies diffused through it, and, whilst it thus\noccasionally administers to our gratification, it gives us notice of\nthe presence of those aeriform fluids which are noxious to respiration.\nLike the organ of _taste_, which is impressed by sapid bodies, it has\na peculiar sympathy with the stomach; thus the taste, or smell, of any\ndisagreeable substance, very commonly excites sickness and vomiting.\n\nThus each of the organs of sense are formed in a peculiar manner, and\nare supplied with nerves of a peculiar structure, which are capable\nof being excited by certain impressions only, so as to give rise to\nsensation. The odorous particles of bodies, for instance, if applied to\nthe nerves of the nose, excite an impression, which, when conveyed to\nthe brain, gives rise to the perception of smell; but, every one knows\nthat they produce no such effect when applied to the nerves of the\nskin. In the same way, the rays of light applied to the nerves of the\neye produce vision; but, no such effect takes place when they impinge\nupon the tongue.--Each of the organs of sense then possess a peculiar\nmodification of nerves, which are excited by appropriate impressions.\n\nBy these organs we become acquainted with what passes around us; but\nthe nervous system gives us notice of many changes which take place\nwithin our bodies. Internal pains point out to us the presence and\nsituation of diseases; and the disagreeable sensations of hunger,\nthirst, and fatigue, incline us to give refreshment and repose to the\nbody. It is also by means of the nervous system, that we experience the\npassions and emotions of the mind.\n\nThere are some animals so simple in their structure, that neither\nbrain, nor organs of sense have been detected; yet they are endowed\nwith motion, and are capable of selecting and swallowing their\nfood, and expelling their excrement; and as these acts appear to be\nvoluntary, we must conclude, that they possess nervous matter, though\nit be so interwoven with the rest of their structure that we cannot\nexhibit or detect it.\n\nAll these different structures which have been described as entering\ninto the formation of a perfect animal, are soft and flexible in\nthemselves, and, in order to the right performance of their functions,\nrequire the support of a substance of considerable firmness, which\nmay preserve them in their relative situations, and give a general\nshape to the body. For this purpose, _bones_ are formed in the higher\norders of animals. They consist of a certain portion of animal matter,\non which their powers of life depend, mixed with a portion of earthy\nmatter, which gives them a degree of solidity. The firmest substance\nin the body, composed entirely of animal matter, is cartilage, which\npossesses, however, too little solidity for the support of animals of\nconsiderable size, living in so rare a medium as air. Hence it happens\nthat when the earthy part is, by disease, abstracted from the bones,\nthey become bent and deformed by the weight of the body, or the action\nof its moving powers. In fishes, however, who inhabit a denser medium,\ncartilage becomes a convenient structure, being sufficiently firm\nfor their support, and, from its lightness, better suited to their\ncondition.\n\nHad the osseous system been merely intended to give shape to animals,\nand preserve the relative position of their parts, it might, for any\nuseful purpose, have been as well formed of one piece; and accordingly,\nwhen almost all the bones of the body have been anchylosed, or\nimmoveably united to each other by disease, the functions of life have\ngone on uniformly to an advanced age. There is a remarkable skeleton\nof this kind preserved at Trinity College, Dublin; where all the large\nbones of the body are immoveably united together, except the lower jaw,\nand the joints of the fingers; every joint in the body was immoveable,\nand yet this person lived to an old age. In order, however, that\nanimals may enjoy a power of changing their situation, the osseous\nsystem has been composed of a variety of pieces, and an apparatus added\nby which this may be easily effected. This is accomplished by adapting\nthe ends of bones to each other so as to form joints, which vary in\ndifferent parts of the body according to the motion of the part, some\nbeing formed for strength, others for extent and variety of motion; the\ntwo being incompatible, and never found in the same joint.\n\nIn the formation of a joint, however, it appears that two surfaces\nof bone would move with considerable attrition upon each other, not\nbeing capable of a sufficient degree of smoothness; it is therefore\nnecessary, in order to diminish attrition, that a substance be\ninterposed having a high degree of polish; this is supplied by\ncartilage, with which the ends of all bones, performing motion, are\ncovered; and as animals, both from the common occurrences of life, and\nfrom accident, are liable to considerable shocks, in order to guard\nthe system, as much as possible, against injury from these sources,\ncartilages are endowed with a considerable degree of elasticity, and\nthus by their reaction are capable of evading certain degrees of\nviolence.\n\nThe smoothness of cartilage, however, only prevents attrition to a\ncertain degree; that joints therefore may move with all possible ease\nand freedom, a fluid is interposed called _sinovia_. This is separated\nfrom the blood, by the vessels distributed to the inner surface of the\njoint, and is the most slippery of all fluids.\n\nIn order that bones may not be separated from each other, but preserve\ntheir relative situations, with a certain capacity of motion, it is\nrequisite that they should be joined together; this is done by the\nligaments surrounding a joint, which are of two kinds. The one adapted\nto the firm junction of the bones with each other, upon which the\nstrength of the joint depends; the other loosely attached round the\nends of contiguous bones, to secrete sinovia, and retain it in its\nproper situation; and hence called capsular or purse-like ligament.\n\nThis kind of structure, endowed with a power of secreting sinovia, is\nnot confined to the joints alone; for in many parts of the body, where\nmuscles during their action rub on bones, or tendon on tendon, small\nbags are formed for supplying sinovia, which are called burs\u00e6 mucos\u00e6.\n\nAs all these parts subservient to motion are inert in themselves,\nthat animals may enjoy the means of changing their situations and\nattitudes, a power must be applied to the bones for this purpose, which\nis supplied by muscular action. Thus we find the bones clothed with\n_muscles_, which give, in a great measure, the external shape to the\nbody, and act in considerable numbers on the joints, particularly those\nwhich possess much motion.\n\nAll animals have a muscular structure entering into their composition,\nwith some variety in its appearance. Muscles are generally fibrous\nto the eye, and in Man and Quadrupeds are of a red color; in some\nanimals, however, these circumstances are not at all obvious. Thus in\nmany fishes, the muscles are white, and put on a flaky appearance;\nwhilst in the fresh water Polypus, which possesses a great degree of\ncontractile power, no fibres can be seen. So that it is not necessary\nthat these properties should be obvious in the muscles of all animals.\nThus no person has ever seen the fibres in the muscles of a Flea, yet\nno animal can exert greater muscular power. In the same way, many parts\nof the body possess a contractile power, which have no apparent fibrous\nstructure; the best example of this, is the skin of the scrotum. The\nredness of a muscle, in fact, depends in a great measure on the degree\nof exertion it undergoes; thus when a limb becomes motionless from\npalsy, the muscles uniformly become pale.--The function of a muscle\nconsists in its contracting or shortening itself, in consequence of\nthe application of certain stimuli or excitements; the effect of this\ncontraction is, that the different bones to which the muscles are\nattached are moved in various directions. Thus (to give an example) a\nmuscle affixed to two contiguous bones, by shortening itself, brings\nthose points to which it is affixed nearer to each other; and, from\nthis mechanism, arise all the motions of the body. The greatest part\nof the muscles which put the limbs in motion by their contractions,\nare said to act under the excitement of volition, or, in other words,\nare under the control and influence of the will, and are therefore\ncalled voluntary muscles. There are many muscles, however, which are\nnot excited by volition, and are therefore called involuntary. As these\nare directed by influences, and perform the actions on which life\nimmediately depends, they, for obvious reasons, are not only put beyond\nthe powers of the will, but are enabled to carry on their contractions\nand motions without interruption or fatigue, entirely independent of\nits direction or our consciousness. In this manner the heart performs\nthe circulation of the blood, and the stomach and intestines give the\nrequisite motion to the food.--There are many other excitements which\nproduce contraction in muscles, such as the passions and emotions of\nthe mind, and various mechanical and chemical stimuli. Some of them\noccasionally excite the voluntary muscles of the body to a degree\nof action, over which volition has no control. Thus a person in an\nordinary state of mind, can walk more or less quietly as suits his\nconvenience; but it occasionally happens, we shall say in the field of\nbattle, that the passion of fear is excited; this excitement frequently\ndisregards the power of the will, and strongly excites the muscles\nemployed in running away.[197]\n\nIn most animals, there is connected with the muscles another kind of\nstructure called _tendon_, which consists in a white substance very\ndifferent from muscles, but having a fibrous structure. Although\ntendons are not necessary to the action of muscles, yet there are\nseveral advantages derived from them; they occupy much less room than\nmuscles, and can be placed in greater numbers around the joints, so\nas to preserve the beauty and uniformity of the limbs. They may be\nconsidered as living cords, joining the muscle to the bone on which it\nis to act, and, being more scantily supplied with blood than muscles,\nmake a smaller quantity of blood necessary to the system, which is\ncertainly a convenience. Although the different parts of the body\nvary very much in their functions and degree of motion; yet, it is\nconvenient, that they should be all united together by a substance of\nconsiderable elasticity. This is done by the interposition of _cellular\nmembrane_, which is the general connecting medium throughout the body,\nattaching each organ to its neighbor, but allowing sufficient play for\nthe performance of its function.\n\nIt is in the cellular membrane of different parts of the body that fat\nis deposited; and from the seeming caprice of nature, in overloading\nsome animals, and entirely denying it to others, its use has been\nthought inconsiderable in the system. When, however, we remark, that\nfat is taken up in some diseases where the appetite is impaired; and\nthat torpid animals, before hibernation, have a large quantity of it\naccumulated, and come out of that state quite emaciated: and that\nbees, who have no fat in their bodies, lay up a stock of food, having\nthe same chemical properties, against their hibernating season; it\nappears very probable, that one use of fat is to form a reservoir of\nnutriment, which supplies the wants of an animal when food is not\nintroduced by the stomach.\n\nIf we add the _skin_ to the cellular membrane, we may say, without\nthese the beauty and symmetry of the exterior would have been much\ndiminished. We should have seen the raw muscles in all their actions,\nand the naked nerves exposed to the air and to injury. There would have\nexisted deep fissures between the muscles, cavities in almost every\npart, and the body would have presented the sad appearance it now does\nin consumption.[198] But the cellular substance in some places only\nseparates one part from another, or affords a slippery surface for one\nmuscle to slide over the other: in others forming membranes or fascia\nto hide, to bind down and strengthen different organs; while in others\nadmitting into its cells an oily substance, becomes fat, and fills up\nall the interstices, rounds off all prominences, softens acute lines,\nand gives a graceful softness and contour to the whole. And the skin\nenveloping in a close case, keeps all compact, and hides from the eye\nwhatever might be offensive: while, at the same time the cutis or\ntrue skin serves for a surface for the nerves and exhalent vessels to\nterminate, the cuticle or scarf skin defends them from injury, and\nmoderates their excessive sensibility.\n\nAs all animals are to live in media where the heat varies, it was\nnecessary either to form them in such a way, that their functions\nshould not be affected by varieties in temperature, or that they should\nbe enabled to keep up the heat of their bodies at a regular point.\nAnimals have been endowed with the latter power, and can accordingly\nmaintain their heat, whether exposed to a high or low degree of\ntemperature, with some exception as to the degree in the lower orders\nof animals, in some of which the temperature varies with that of the\nmedium in which they are placed. This is the case with the Frog.--This\nanimal, when placed in warm water, has the temperature of its body\nraised several degrees, and, on the other hand, may be reduced to\nthe freezing point, without producing death. The heat of the human\nbody, however, is little changed, whether it be exposed to intense\ncold, or much above the heat of boiling water. In the experiments\nmade in heated rooms by Dr. Fordyce, and Sir Charles Blagden, these\ngentlemen remained several minutes in the heat of 260 degrees, nearly\n50 degrees more than boiling water. At this heat a beefsteak and eggs\nwere cooked near the stove, and yet the heated air produced no bad\neffect upon their bodies: it raised the temperature of their bodies\nonly a few degrees.--The lungs are the chief agents by which heat is\nintroduced into animal bodies. By their means, the blood is exposed to\nthe air, and consumes its oxygenous part, which contains the principle\nof heat in a combined state. This, during circulation, is evolved by\nthe minute blood vessels, so as to become sensible on every part of\nthe body: and it is an important fact, that the quantity of oxygen\nconsumed is greater in cold than warm weather; by this wise provision,\nin proportion as the heat is more quickly carried off by the coldness\nof the surrounding medium, the animal receives an increased internal\nsupply. Many experiments have been instituted to ascertain the quantity\nof oxygen consumed in a given time by ordinary respiration, and,\naccording to the best calculations, it appears that the consumption\namounts to about 33\u00bd ounces troy weight, in 24 hours; and it has been\ncomputed by philosophers, that the quantity of heat, which the oxygen\nconsumes and will supply to the body, is nearly equal to that given out\nby a common candle.[199] I have thus attempted to give a short view of\nthe different structures and functions of the body, and have briefly\npointed out some of their varieties in the different classes of animals.\n\nThis corporeal system, which by its uniform and harmonious action\ncontributes so essentially and largely to our terrestrial enjoyment,\nexhibits an astonishing display of the infinite wisdom, almighty power,\nand boundless goodness of its glorious Creator. Galen, an ancient Pagan\nphysician, on contemplating the different parts of the human body, and\nthe disposition of them, fell on his knees in humble adoration of the\nwisdom with which the whole is contrived; and was excited to challenge\nany one, after a hundred years\u2019 study, to tell how the least fiber or\nparticle could have been more commodiously placed, either for use or\nbeauty. His seventeen books on the subject are like so many hymns of\npraise to the almighty and all-wise God, the Creator. Lactantius calls\nhis writings on the body of man, a marvellous comment on his creation,\nand Galen himself managed the subject as a full demonstration of a\nDeity which every man carries about with him.\n\nBut what is still more deserving of our attention is the _soul_ of man:\nfor if the external structure be so admirable a piece of mechanism,\nwhat shall we say of the immaterial and intellectual spirit resident\nin it? This noble, constituent, essential part of man, is yet a more\nastonishing production of infinite skill and power. Elihu says, \u201cThe\nSpirit of God hath made me, and the breath of the Almighty hath given\nme life. There is a spirit in man, and the inspiration of the Almighty\ngiveth them understanding.\u201d God, by his creating energy, called all\nthings out of nothing, but there was neither order, light, nor motion,\ntill the Divine Spirit moved on the lifeless chaos; so the same\nall-wise and powerful Architect formed of clay the wonderful fabric\nof man\u2019s body, which remained without life and action, till the Holy\nSpirit infused a vital spirit into him, thereby enduing him with sense,\nmotion, understanding, will, and active powers. This soul, therefore,\nbecame a living principle of intelligence, consciousness, and activity,\nin man.\n\nThe great Creator said, \u201cLet us make man in _our image_, after _our\nlikeness_.\u201d Now, as the Divine Being is infinite, he is neither\nlimited by parts, nor definable by passions: therefore he can have\nno _corporeal image_ after which he formed the body of man. The\n_image_ and _likeness_ in which he was created must necessarily be\nintellectual: his soul must have been formed after the nature and\nperfections of God. The Creator was now producing a spirit, formed\nafter himself. He is the fountain whence it issued; hence the stream\nmust resemble the spring which produced it.\n\nThe most perfect description of God, given to us in the Scripture,\nis that by our Saviour:--\u201cGod is a Spirit.\u201d It has been observed by\nexpositors, that this assertion is no where else to be found in the\nsacred Writings. That passage, \u201cNow the Lord is that Spirit,\u201d sounds\nsomething like it, but in meaning is different. The word _God_ here\nis not to be understood personally, either for the Father, or the\nSon, or the Holy Ghost, alone, but essentially for the Divine Nature,\nwhich each of these glorious Persons possesses. The Divine Nature is\n_spirit_. This shows, that, according to the popular and common use of\nthe word, he is a Being entirely separated from matter or body, in all\nits properties and affections; that he is a pure mind, and possessed of\nthe most excellent powers and perfections, which belong to spiritual\nbeings.\n\nIt is difficult, for persons of a low understanding, who are\nunaccustomed to abstract reflections, and who have imbibed their\nknowledge by means of the external senses, employed on material\nobjects, to raise their minds to the contemplation of the existence\nof immaterial, invisible beings. But that there really are such, and\nparticularly that God is such, admits of the clearest proof, and will\nnot be called in question by any who on rational grounds acknowledge\nhis existence. It is usually granted, that it is much more easy to say\nwhat a spirit is not, than to define what it is. It is not in the power\nof the wisest and most knowing of men, to declare its nature. Nay, who\ncan explain what the consistence of any piece of matter is, which we\nevery day see and touch!\n\nBut as, notwithstanding our ignorance of the essence of material\nobjects, we are not only sure of their existence, but also know many\nof their properties; so in like manner, though we are ignorant of the\nnature of spirits, yet from their manifest operations and effects, we\nare both convinced that such beings exist, and have some notion of\nseveral of their faculties and powers.\n\nThe powers and capacities that we observe in all the operations and\nworks of God, are utterly inconsistent with the properties we discern\nin matter. In the works of creation we perceive evident proofs of\nthought, intention, contrivance, and design; which powers, we are sure,\nhaving no affinity with solidity, figure, and a capacity of being moved\nby the impulse of another, cannot arise from the composition or mixture\nof any of the known properties of matter. Not only the existence, but\nmany of the perfections of God, may be discerned in various parts of\nthe universe.\n\nIn short, we can say nothing higher of God, than that he is a Spirit.\nThis notion leads us to conceive of him as a most perfect Being, and\nto reject concerning him whatever would argue any imperfection. It\nleads us to believe him to be perfectly immaterial, free from all the\nimperfections of matter, and from all the infirmities of corporeal\ncreatures. But though _spirit_ signifies a being of higher rank than\nbody or matter, yet the word is too low to express the essence of God,\nany otherwise than analogically, or metaphorically. He is infinitely\nmore excellent than the highest created spirits, being eternal, and\nimmutable. But some may inquire, if God be such a Spirit, how is it\nthat in Scripture we read of his having bodily members, and natural\naffections, like men; such as head, eyes, ears, mouth, hands, and feet;\nand the affections, or passions, of anger, grief, love, joy, &c? these\nare ascribed to him, or rather assumed by him. I answer; this is done\nin condescension to our narrow capacities; for if God should speak\nto us of himself, as he is in himself, our understandings could not\ncomprehend him. As the inconceivable glories of the world to come, are\nexplained to us by the honors and pleasures of this life; so the nature\nof God, by a gracious condescension to our weakness, is signified to\nus by a likeness to our own. By human members being ascribed to God,\nare implied the moral excellencies of his spiritual nature, or rather\nhis operations, which are more sensible to us than his invisible\nnature. His eyes are emblems of his knowledge, wisdom, omniscience, and\nprovidence. His face indicates his favor, and sometimes is expressive\nof his displeasure, because both these appear in the countenance of\na man. His mouth is the symbol of the revelation of his will. His\nhand, or arm, is indicative of the less or greater exercises of his\npower.--Such a _Spirit_ is the Creator of man, whom he made in his\n_image_ or _likeness_.\n\nWhoever reflects with attention on the human soul, may easily\nperceive it to be of a nature entirely different from the body. Being\nimmaterial, it is not compounded of material principles, nor consists\nof innumerable parts which may be separated from each other; neither\nis it capable of solidity, figure, extension, and other properties\nof matter; but is a simple, uncompounded substance, though possessed\nof various and distinct powers; and therefore is neither visible nor\ndivisible, nor has it any dimensions or shape.\n\nThe soul has a power of _thought_, with which mere matter can never\nbe endued. If it pass through all the changes, and assume all the\nshapes of which it is capable, thought will never be the result. It may\nbe differently modified, framed, and disposed, but cannot think. \u201cI\nfind in me something that _thinks_,\u201d says a celebrated author, \u201cwhich\nneither earth, water, air, fire, nor any mixture of them, can possibly\ndo. Something which sees, hears, smells, tastes, and feels, all which\nare so many modes of thinking.\u201d Thought is the privilege of immaterial\nbeings.[200]\n\nThis inward principle is capable not only of thinking, but of love,\ndesire, hope, joy; hatred, fear, sorrow, anger, and a whole train of\ninward emotions, which are commonly called _passions_ or _affections_.\nA something apprehended to be good in itself, or calculated to be\nbeneficial to us, is the object of love. If that good be absent,\nit excites desire: if there be a probability of obtaining it, that\nproduces hope; and the possession of the desired object yields delight\nand joy. Evil, whether real, or imaginary only, is the object of\ndislike and aversion. If there be any probability of this evil coming\nin contact with us, it causes fear; and if it unavoidably come upon us,\nit produces sorrow or anger. These passions or affections seem to be\nthe only spring of action in the soul.\n\nThe soul has received from God a principle of motion, whereby\nit governs at pleasure every part of the body, and directs its\noperations: only with this exception, that all the vital motions,\nwhich are absolutely necessary for the continuance of animal life,\nare involuntarily going on, whether we advert to them or not; which\nis a marvellous instance of the wisdom and goodness of God. With the\nexception of these, I direct the motion of my whole body. By a single\nact of my will, I put my head, eyes, hands, or any part into motion:\nalthough the manner of doing this I do not comprehend. Every one feels\nthat he has an inherent power to move this or that part of his body or\nnot, and to give it a direction this way or the contrary, just as he\npleases. I can, as I choose, open or shut my eyes, speak or be silent,\nrise up or sit down, stretch out my hand or draw it in, and use any of\nmy limbs according to my pleasure, as well as my whole body. Matter may\nbe moved, but it can never move itself.\n\nThe soul is free in its operations; it possesses this property, which\nis capable of being exerted with regard to all its faculties, as well\nas all the motions of the body. It is a power of self-determination,\nwhich, though not affecting all our thoughts and imaginations, yet\nextends to our words and actions in general, with but few exceptions.\nI am certain, that I am free to speak or not to speak, to act or not\nto act, to do this or to do the contrary, as I am of my own existence.\nI have not only what is termed a _liberty of contradiction_, but what\nis termed a _liberty of contrariety_, a power to act one way, or the\ncontrary: to deny this would be to contradict the uniform experience\nof all human kind. The soul is not necessitated to judge or act by any\nbodily impulse. Let things appear as they may to the senses, the soul\ncan suspend its judgment, till it has examined and considered them more\nthoroughly. Let the appetites and inclinations of the body strongly\nurge their own gratification, the soul can refuse their solicitations,\nand maturely weigh what the consequences would be. Let all the\nallurements of sensible objects, the assurance of sensual enjoyments,\nor the influence of custom and example, try to corrupt the integrity\nof the soul, and lead it astray from the paths of peace and purity;\nunless it consent, the attempts will prove ineffectual. We can reason,\ndiscourse, study, contrive, choose, and refuse with discretion; begin\na work, and cease again at pleasure. We can reflect on what we have\ndone, and either rejoice and delight in it, or be ashamed and grieved\nfor it. We distinguish truth from error, moral good and evil; we fear\npunishment on having committed evil, and hope for reward on having done\nwell. And, through the grace of God assisting us, we have a power to\nembrace and resolve to do good, as well as evil. We are free to choose\nwhom we will serve, and, if we determine in favor of the better part,\nto continue therein.\n\n_Conscience_ is not a faculty of the soul distinct from the\nunderstanding, memory, will, and affections, but that power by which we\nare conscious of our own state, reflect on our actions, and pronounce\nthem either good or evil. This supposes, that we are acquainted with\nthe law of God, either natural or written, which is the rule of our\nduty. The name is derived from the Latin word _conscientia_, into which\nthe Greek word \u03c3\u03c5\u03bd\u03b5\u03b9\u03b4\u03b7\u03c3\u03b9\u03c2 is exactly translated. Both these words for\nconscience, signify, that the mind is possessed of a consciousness of\nthe actions and thoughts of the man, and passes a judgment on them,\naccording to some rule. The Jews have no proper word in their language\nfor conscience, and therefore use the term _heart_; which is also\nused in the New Testament. Conscience is the journal or diary of the\nactions of man. Its office is, 1. To call, urge, and excite us to duty.\n2. To testify and bear witness either for or against us, according\nas we perform or neglect our duty. 3. Either to excuse or acquit, or\naccuse and condemn us, on the evidence it gives of the moral nature\nand quality of our actions: if they be conformable to the Divine rule,\nas to matter and manner, it acquits us; if they be contrary to it,\nconscience accuses, condemns, and passes sentence upon us. 4. And if\nits sentence be true and just, conformable to rule, it is ratified by\nGod the Supreme Judge, whose deputy and vicegerent it is in the breast\nof every man.\n\nThough the soul is not under the imperious influence of the body, yet\nfor many ages it has been allowed by sensible men, that \u201cthere is\nnothing in the understanding which is not first perceived by some of\nthe senses.\u201d The imagination is the place where the images of things\nare first engendered, and from which they are transferred to the\nunderstanding. And therefore those who want any sense, cannot have the\nleast knowledge or idea of the objects peculiar to that sense: as they\nwho never had sight, have not the least conception of light or colors.\nBut there is a great difference between our senses, considered as the\navenues of knowledge. Some of them have a narrow sphere of action:\nothers a more extensive one. By _feeling_ we discern only those objects\nwhich touch some part of our body; and consequently this sense extends\nonly to a small number of objects. Our senses of _taste_ and _smell_\nextend to fewer still. But, on the other hand, our nobler sense of\n_hearing_ has a wide sphere of action: especially in the case of loud\nsounds, as thunder, the roaring of the sea, or the discharge of cannon:\nthe last of which sounds has been frequently heard at the distance\nof near a hundred miles. Yet the space to which the hearing itself\nextends is small, compared to that through which the _sight_ extends.\nThis sense takes in at one view, not only the most unbounded prospects\non earth, but also the moon, and the other planets, the sun, yea, the\nfixed stars, though at such an immeasurable distance.\n\nBut still none of our senses can reach beyond the bounds of this\nvisible world. They supply us with such knowledge of the material\nworld, as answers all the purposes of life. But as this was the design\nfor which they were given, beyond this they cannot go. They furnish\nus with no information at all, concerning the _invisible world_.\nBut the wise and gracious Governor of the worlds, both visible and\ninvisible, has prepared a remedy for this defect. He has favored us\nwith a _revelation_, concerning himself, his existence, perfections,\nand will; and another world, its nature, certainty, and duration: and\nthis revelation is contained in the Scriptures. And he has appointed\n_faith_ to supply the defect of sense; to take us up where sense sets\nus down, and help us over the great gulf. Its office begins where that\nof sense ends. Sense is the evidence of things that are seen; of the\nvisible, the material world, and the several parts of it. Faith, on\nthe other hand, is the \u201cevidence of things not seen,\u201d of the invisible\nworld: of all these invisible things, which are revealed in the Oracles\nof God.[201] Though eternal things come not within the reach of sense,\nyet, by faith, they are as present to the mind, in their reality,\nexcellence, and continuance, as if they were seen with the eye of the\nbody. The testimony of the God of truth, is the foundation and reason\nof this faith; for what he says must be true, because he cannot lie:\nthis is a principle concerning which all agree who own his existence.\n\nThe soul has a vast intellectual capacity; for the knowledge of God,\nnature, providence, the original and present state of man, the visible\nworld, sublime speculations, and useful discoveries, come within its\ncomprehension. It can reason, infer, reflect, and carry on a chain of\nthoughts, with perspicuity and close connection, concerning things. Its\npowers take in objects of all dimensions; yet they are not situated\nas bodies in a material place, where the greater occupy more space\nthan the less: for the thought of a mile, or ten thousand miles, does\nno more fill or stretch the soul, than that of a foot, an inch, or a\nmathematical point. And whereas all matter has its parts, and those\nextended, one without another, into length, breadth, and thickness, and\nso is measurable by inches, yards, or solid measures; there is nothing\nof measurable extension in any thing belonging to the soul, neither\nlength, breadth, nor thickness; nor is it possible to form an idea of\na foot of thought, a yard of reason, a pound of wisdom, or a quart of\nvirtue.[202] The soul is capable of abstract notions, mathematical and\nmetaphysical conceptions. Its powers are so great, that we can explore\nnature, span the surface of the earth, dive into its capacious seas,\nand there discover the numerous inhabitants of the watery world. We\ncan travel to the sun, continue our journey through our own spherical\nsystem, from planet to planet, tell their dimensions, measure their\ndistances, and accompany them through their various revolutions. We can\npass the boundaries of our own, and enter into other systems; and from\nthence, into eternity itself: ascending from region to region, from\nworld to world, from the creature till we reach the abode of the great\nCreator, who is the first cause of all things; and then, with ravished\neyes, gaze on that glorious Luminary of the moral world, till we are\namazed, delighted, and overpowered, with the splendor of his infinite\nperfections.\n\nThe soul is _immortal_ in its duration: it once began to be, but will\nnever cease to exist. When the whole of time is elapsed, it will live\nin the vigorous exercise of its active powers, and its existence run\nparallel with eternity. The death of the soul cannot be effected by the\noperation of second causes; and God, who is the first cause, will never\nannihilate it. The Sadducees denied the immateriality and immortality\nof the soul, saying, that, except God, there was no spirit: they were\nmuch like the Epicureans among the Gentile philosophers. In refutation\nof this Sadducean notion, our Saviour referred them to the five Books\nof Moses, which they acknowledged as of Divine authority, where God\nsays, \u201cI am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of\nJacob.\u201d Abraham had been dead upwards of 300 years when these words\nwere spoken to Moses. Now, says our Saviour, \u201cGod is not the God of\nthe dead, but of the living.\u201d Though the bodies of these renowned\npatriarchs had been long dead, and ceased to exist among mortals, their\nsouls were still living, not only in a future state, but with God.\nHe also warned his disciples of the opposition they would meet with,\nin the faithful discharge of their religious and ministerial duties,\nfrom the prejudice, rage, and fury of men; but urged them to take\ncourage, and not suffer themselves to be intimidated, so as to neglect\nin any degree the execution of the important commission he had given\nthem, saying, \u201cFear not them which kill the body, but are not able to\nkill the soul.\u201d Hence the soul is a principle distinct from the body,\nactually survives it, and can subsist without it, not only retaining\nits vital existence, but its consciousness, reflection, and activity.\nThe following lines of Addison are strongly and beautifully descriptive\nof the immortality of the soul:\n\n    \u201cThe soul, secure in her existence, smiles\n    At dissolution, and defies its power.\n    The stars shall fade away, the sun himself\n    Grow dim with age, and nature sink in years;\n    But thou shalt flourish in immortal youth--\n    Unhurt, amidst the war of elements,\n    The wreck of matter, and the crash of worlds.\u201d\n\nIn a word, since the soul is not material, it can have no parts; if it\nhave no parts, then it cannot be separated; if it cannot be separated,\nthen it cannot be dissolved; if it cannot be dissolved, then it is\nincorruptible; and if it be incorruptible, then it is immortal.\n\nThus it is evident, from all the perceptions of the soul, that it\nis not compounded like the body. Those powers and affections, such\nas thought and reason, judgment and liberty, love and hatred, joy\nand sorrow, can never be the properties or effects of matter, in any\npossible variation or modification of its parts. Nor can matter ever\nproduce those noble and just sentiments, those sublime and generous\naffections, to which the soul sometimes rises in its contemplations of\nGod, the phenomena of the universe, and the operation of Providence\nwhich sustains and governs all things. All this can never be produced\nby matter, which is altogether inactive of itself; and when motion\nis impressed on it, the only change produced is in the situation and\ncontexture of its parts. Surely all attempts to account for these\nthings, by any laws of nature known in the corporeal world, are\nabsolutely ridiculous.\n\nHow strange is it then, that such a spiritual being should be united so\nclosely to flesh and blood, imprisoned in a tenement of clay, and use\nthe body as the instrument of active operations.--Several philosophers,\namong whom is Socrates, have called the body \u03c4\u03b7\u03c2 \u03c8\u03c5\u03c7\u03b7\u03c2 \u03bf\u03b9\u03ba\u03b7\u03c4\u03b7\u03c1\u03b9\u03bf\u03bd, _the\nhabitation of the soul_; yea, \u03c6\u03c5\u03bb\u03b1\u03ba\u03b7 \u03ba\u03b1\u03b9 \u03c4\u03b1\u03c6\u03bf\u03c2, her moveable _prison_,\nand living _sepulchre_. These two essential parts of man, which God,\nat his creation, united so closely together, that both make but one\nperson, is a great mystery; considering the different natures that\nadhere, soul and body, matter and spirit. All this is unintelligible\nto the human intellect, however improved and capacious. The disputers\nof this world will find themselves completely perplexed, in attempting\nto explain by what ties a spirit is united to a piece of clay; and\nwhat holds it confined to its habitation. The adhesion of the material\nparticles in the human body, the flame of animal life kindled and\nburning clear and strong within us, and the union of spirit and matter,\nso that the one is the tenement of the other, and the instrument of\nits operations, are, as to their manner, mysterious, and attended with\ndifficulties that would perplex and confound the most penetrating and\nsagacious mind.\n\nMan then was created in the _natural_ image of God, which consisted\nchiefly in the spiritual nature, amazing powers, and immortality of\nhis soul; like God, it is a _spirit_, immaterial, invisible, active,\nintelligent, free, and immortal: and partly, in a lower sense, in the\nprivilege of his body, which, in his state of innocence, was, by the\npromise of his Creator, entitled to a gratuitous immortality. Some\nmake reason or understanding to be the image in which God created man:\nbut, though this may be included, yet, it is not the principal thing\nintended by the Divine _image_: for if rationality were the image, it\ncould never be lost. Sin, which defaces this beautiful image, does not\ndeprive man of intellect: his nature will for ever continue rational;\nhe can never, I presume, be deprived of his reason so as not to possess\nit any more. Thought and consciousness are inseparable from the nature\nof man, and therefore this _image_ of God in which Adam was created,\nmust be something distinct from reason. Indeed reasonable creatures\nonly can be the subjects of it, but reason is not the thing itself.\nTo suppose that mere reason is God\u2019s image in man, is an hypothesis\nunworthy of a reasonable nature; and with how much confidence soever\nsome assert, the assertion is reproachful to our Maker.\n\nThe chief thing intended by the Divine _image_, is moral rectitude;\nman was created in the _moral image_ of God; but that image in man\nwas only a _likeness_, it did not equal, but resembled its high\noriginal--a disparity which necessarily exists between a creature\nand its Creator. According to any rational opinion we can form of\nGod, we must believe that he is a spiritual Being; which includes the\nsimplicity of his nature, his indivisibility, and his immortality;\npossessed not only of every natural perfection, but of all moral\nexcellencies. He is not only an intelligent, omnipresent, omniscient,\nalmighty Being, but wise, holy, righteous, and good. Without moral\nperfections, his character would not be very interesting to us. If he\nhad no radical and constitutional principle in his nature that could\nmove him to regard the temper of our minds, and the complexion of our\nactions, or cause him to be either pleased or displeased with our\nbehavior, however conducted, we should have no reason to act either\nfrom motives of love or fear of him. His natural attributes alone, are\nvery far from finishing his character; in conjunction with these, his\nmoral excellencies complete his glory, exhibit him as the most perfect\nAgent, and render him in the most exalted sense our Governor. His\nholiness, justice, goodness, and truth, are called moral attributes,\nor communicable perfections; because we can trace some resemblance\nin angels and men; though there is an infinite disproportion between\nthese perfections as they exist in God, and are faintly displayed in\nthe creatures: in him they are infinite, in the creatures finite and\nlimited.\n\nThese moral perfections constitute God a proper object of religious\nadoration, and without which no worship would be due or could be\nrendered to him. The Divine Nature is the foundation of that worship\nwhich we, as rational beings, are under obligations to perform; and the\nrevelation of the will of God, with which he has graciously favored us\nin the Scripture, is the constant rule of his worship. On believing his\nexistence, and cultivating the knowledge of his attributes, especially\nthose which are so astonishingly displayed and harmonized in the\nredemption of mankind by Jesus Christ, it very naturally follows, to\nevery reflecting mind, that we owe him ourselves, and are bound by the\nstrongest ties to present to him the most spiritual worship of which\nour intelligent nature is capable.\n\nThe moral image of God, after which man was created, was his greatest\nexcellence. His _understanding_ possessed a large capacity for\nimprovement, equal to an extensive and accurate acquaintance with\nthings both natural and divine, the acquisition of which would\nfacilitate his own happiness, by rendering him more competent to\nanswer the benevolent design which his Creator projected in calling\nhim into existence. This capacity was amply supplied by his Creator;\nfor all divine knowledge is given by revelation; which he must either\ncommunicate to man, or he must remain ignorant of him. The capacity\nis one thing, and its improvement is another; which, as it is not\nnaturally inherent in man, so it must be acquired. The knowledge of\nthe nature, perfections, and will of God, can, in the first instance,\nonly be made known by himself; for there is not a correct notion of him\nin the whole intellectual and moral world, but what has been received\nfrom either Divine revelation, or his own immediate influence. Adam,\nthen, as an intelligent creature, was endued with the knowledge of\nGod, so far as was necessary to enable him to fear, love, and serve\nhim. Without a perception of his existence and perfections, and the\nknowledge of his will, he could not perform any acts of adoration,\nreverence, reliance, regard, and delight, toward him. If therefore\nman, in his primitive state, was obliged to worship his Creator (of\nwhich certainly no one can doubt,) it must be granted that he possessed\nknowledge equal to the nature and extent of his obligations. In his\nstate of innocence, he did not perform a blind devotion, or worship he\nknew not what. Such ignorance is the consequence of sin; therefore he\ncould not be the unhappy subject of it before he transgressed.\n\nSome persons have thought that Adam, in his primeval state, understood\nthe doctrine of a Trinity of Persons or Subsistencies in the Godhead.\nThough the knowledge of this important doctrine cannot be attained by\nreasoning on the operations of Divine wisdom, power, and goodness,\nvisibly and conspicuously displayed in the universe; yet, as Adam\nreceived by immediate revelation some truths, why may we not suppose\nthat this mystery was not conveyed to him in the same way, that his\nacts of devotion might comport with the honors due to each of the\nSacred Three? The Divine Nature is without multiplicity, it is one; but\nthe Three Subsistencies in that Essence are essential to the Godhead:\nthis arrangement is radical, constitutional, and eternal. Therefore why\nshould not God be worshipped according to his own natural distinction\nof Persons in his undivided Essence, by man in his primitive state? A\nTrinity in Unity is the most correct view of God; and, consequently,\nthe worship that accords with it, being the most accurate, must be\nacceptable to him. The Christian religion has not given existence to\nthis doctrine of the Trinity; for independently of the mediatorial\nscheme of redemption and salvation by Christ, God was from eternity the\nsame Triune Being, and cannot change. It is not improbable that man,\nwhile he retained his pristine state, worshipped the Father, the Son,\nand the Holy Spirit, in all his acts of religious worship. Lord Bacon,\nin his Confession of Faith, says,--\u201cI believe that nothing is without\nbeginning but God; no nature, no matter, no spirit, but one only, and\nthe same God. That God, as he is eternally almighty, only wise, only\ngood, in his nature; so he is eternally Father, Son, and Spirit, in\nPersons.\u201d\n\nWe cannot rationally suppose that Adam was a stranger to his _duty_,\neither in its nature, manner, or extent. If he had not known what\nduties his Creator required him to perform, it would have been\nimpossible for him to act agreeably to his will. Obedience to any\nauthority necessarily supposes a knowledge of what it enjoins: and,\nconsequently, Adam must have known what he ought to practise, in what\nmanner, and with what views; for, otherwise, he could not be obedient\nto the will of God in what he did. Hence we must conclude, that he was\nacquainted with the whole compass of his duty. As his understanding was\nnot blinded by contracted prejudices, so it was free from any natural\ndefect. His mind was furnished with correct views of God, his own\ndependence upon him, relations and obligations to him, and the way to\nplease and enjoy him.\n\nAdam, in his primitive state, knew wherein his _happiness_ consisted.\nIf he had been ignorant of that happiness to which he was entitled\nso long as he preserved his integrity, how could he have enjoyed it\nwhile in his possession; for a delight in any present good arises from\na perception of its nature and value. Neither was he ignorant of the\nmisery, into which an action committed against the will of his Creator\nwould bring him. He certainly knew that sinning against God would\ninevitably be attended with fatal effects to himself. His unclouded\nreason could not but discern, that rebellion against the dignity and\nsovereignty of his Maker would unavoidably expose him to his righteous\ndispleasure.\n\nAs the judgment of Adam could not but entirely approve of the supreme\nGood, in all the perfections of its nature, and revelation of the\nDivine Mind; so his _will_, with great freedom following its dictates,\nreadily embraced what was right, and exactly harmonized with every\nrequisition. He had a holy disposition, such as comported with the\ninfinite perfection of holiness, so resplendent in the Divine Nature.\nSome have asserted, that God formed man without any direction in his\nwill either to good or evil. But this imagination is irrational, for\nit supposes that he was neither holy nor unholy. It is evident from\nScripture, that he was created good in an ethical or moral sense,\nfor he was made in the _image_ of God, which chiefly consisted in a\nconformity to his moral perfections. He resembled these, particularly\nthat of holiness; so that, though in an infinitely lower degree, he was\nholy as God is holy; without the least taint of sin in his nature, or\nany inclination to evil, all his powers and faculties being disposed to\ncomply with his utmost requisition.\n\nAdam\u2019s _affections_ were subordinate and obedient to the higher\nfaculties of his soul, and moved without the least tumult or disorder.\nBeing pure and regular, there was no depravity or discord among them.\nNo temptation arose from vanity seated in any of the inferior powers:\nneither was there a rebellious disposition among the passions directed\nagainst his reason. No unlawful love, delight, or aversion had any\nplace in his innocent nature, and therefore the dictates of reason\ndid not meet with any control from corruption in the affections; and,\nconsequently, obedience to his Creator was not rendered difficult by\nunruliness in the passions. Being thus made after the _likeness_ of\nGod, he had the moral law written on his heart: that hereby he might\nhave a perfect rule of obedience, and be easily apprised of his duty\nto him. And as he was indispensably obliged to yield obedience to this\nlaw, and the consequence of violating it would be endless ruin, God, as\na just and gracious Sovereign, gave him ability to keep it. Herein he\ntreated him as a rational creature, and a subject of moral government.\n\nThe inferior _appetites_ of Adam were in a state of perfect subjection,\nand never indulged to the least excess. The animal structure requiring\nfood for its support, there was a great variety provided. But while\nsurrounded with plenty, he was strictly temperate; his appetite was\nregular, consistent with purity, and in harmony with his devotions.\nThe _senses_ also corresponded to the faculties of the soul, and\nwere inlets to wisdom and enjoyment. Thus, as one observes, all his\nfaculties both of body and mind were subservient to the glory of God,\nand contributed to his own felicity: a state which we are to regain by\nChrist.\n\n    \u201cEnslav\u2019d to sense, to pleasure prone,\n        Fond of created good;\n    Father, our helplessness we own,\n        And trembling taste our food.\n\n    Trembling we taste; for, ah! no more\n        To thee the creatures lead;\n    Chang\u2019d, they exert a baneful power,\n        And poison, while they feed.\n\n    Curs\u2019d for the sake of wretched man,\n        They now engross him whole;\n    With pleasing force on earth detain!\n        And sensualize his soul.\n\n    Groveling on earth we still must lie,\n        Till Christ the curse repeal:\n    Till Christ descending from on high\n        Infected nature heal.\n\n    Come then, our heavenly Adam, come,\n        Thy healing influence give;\n    Hallow our food, reverse our doom,\n        And bid us eat, and live.\n\n    Turn the full stream of nature\u2019s tide:\n        Let all our actions tend\n    To thee their source; thy love the guide,\n        Thy glory be the end.\n\n    Earth then a scale to heaven shall be,\n        Sense shall point out the road;\n    The creatures all shall lead to thee,\n        And all we taste be God.\u201d\n\nMan was _happy_ in his original state; he not only was free from pain\nand misery, but enjoyed delight. His pleasure was of a pure nature, not\nonly such as God approved, but derived from a Divine source. If his\nmind had not been possessed of correct knowledge, his will disposed\nto obedience, his affections regular and holy, and his appetites and\nsenses subject to a rational control, what pleasure could he have taken\nin the contemplation of infinite perfections, and in a compliance to\nthe requisitions of the moral law? Happiness necessarily supposes\ndelight, and delight as necessarily supposes a concordance between\nthe disposition of the soul, and the objects from which its pleasure\nsprings. Man was happy while innocent; he therefore enjoyed pleasure,\nwhich was pure, arising from positive holiness, and the presence\nand blessing of God. Surely it is reasonable to conclude, that Adam\nperformed devotional acts with holy reverence and supreme delight. He\ncould not but give the tribute of praise to his beneficent Creator, for\nhis superabundant goodness toward him; being favored with every thing,\nnot only necessary to his sustenance, in the excellent circumstances\nin which he was placed, but with whatever he could desire for the\nentertainment and delight of his innocent and heavenly mind. Above\nall, his grateful soul most certainly adored his Creator, for the\nglorious and beneficial displays of his wisdom, power, and goodness,\nand rejoiced in the interest he had in his approbation, protection,\nand kindness. While he retained his integrity, and enjoyed free access\nto his Maker, intimate communion with him, and was free from his\ndispleasure, what serenity, satisfaction, and pleasure must fill his\nsoul! He possessed that first and greatest of blessings, mentioned by\nHorace, _mens sana in corpore sano_, a sound mind in a healthy body.\n\nNotwithstanding the excellent state in which Adam was created, and\nadvantageous circumstances in which he was placed, yet he was liable\nto fall. By reason of the spiritual and intelligent principle in him,\nhe became a moral agent, and a subject of moral government. He knew\nhis duty, and had the power of determining his own choice and actions.\nHe could choose good, and refuse evil, and be influenced by the hope\nof reward and the fear of punishment. He had no disposition to sin in\nhis nature: for God could not create him in a sinful state, since that\nwould render him the author of sin. He had full power to stand: but\nGod could not interfere with the freedom of his will; and herein he\nacted toward him in a way agreeable to his condition of probation. The\nmutability of his will was essential to him as a rational creature,\nplaced in a state of responsibility for his actions to the great\nGovernor of the world. Dr. Paley says, \u201cFree agency in its very essence\ncontains liability to abuse. Yet, if you deprive man of his free\nagency, you subvert his nature.\u201d God answers for himself in Milton:--\n\n                    ----\u201cMan had of me\n    All he could have: I made him just and right,\n    Sufficient to have stood, though free to fall.\u201d\n\nThe sentiments of Faber are very appropriate. \u201cWhen the Almighty ceased\nfrom the work of creation, he pronounced all that he had made to be\nvery good. The new world was as yet free from the inroads of sin, and\nfrom the curse of sterility.\n\n                        ---- \u2018Nature then\n    Wanton\u2019d as in her prime, and play\u2019d at will\n    Her virgin fancies.\u2019\n\n\u201cThe whole creation smiled upon man, and the golden age of the poets\nwas realized. Blessed with perfect health, both mental and corporeal,\nour heaven-born progenitor was equally unconscious of the stings\nof guilt and the pangs of disease. His understanding was unclouded\nwith the mists of vice, ignorance, and error; his will, though\nabsolutely free, was yet entirely devoted to the service of God; and\nhis affections warm, vigorous, and undivided, were ardently bent upon\nthe great Fountain of existence. Though vested in an earthly body,\nhis soul was as the soul of an angel, pure, just, and upright. He was\nuncontaminated with the smallest sin, and free from even the slightest\ntaint of pollution. His passions perfectly under the guidance of his\nreason, yielded a ready and cheerful obedience to the dictates of\nhis conscience; an obedience, not constrained and irksome, but full,\nunreserved, and attended with sensations of unmixed delight. Such was\nman when he came forth from the hand of his Creator, the image of God\nstamped upon his soul and influencing all his actions.\u201d[203]\n\nWe may add, the authority and _dominion_ with which God invested Adam.\nThis extended \u201cover the fish of the sea, and over the fowl of the air,\nand over the cattle, and over the earth, and over every living thing\nthat creepeth upon the earth.\u201d God constituted him the ruler, under\nhim, of all the inferior creatures. He probably inducted him into this\noffice when he caused the creatures to pass in review before him.\n\u201cAnd the Lord God brought every beast of the field, and every fowl\nof the air, unto Adam to see what he would call them: and Adam gave\nnames to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast\nof the field: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that\nwas the name thereof.\u201d Man alone, says Smellie, enjoys the power of\ncommunicating and expressing his ideas by articulate and artificial\nlanguage. This inestimable prerogative is a great source of improvement\nto the human intellect. Without artificial language, though the Author\nof nature has bestowed on every animal a mode of expressing its wants\nand desires, its pleasures and pains, what a humiliating figure would\nthe human species exhibit?\n\nDr. Beattie, in defining the human voice, says, it is air sent out\nfrom the lungs, and so agitated, or modified, in its passage through\nthe windpipe and larynx, as to become distinctly audible. The windpipe\nconveys air into the lungs for the purpose of respiration and speech;\nthe top or upper part of which is called the larynx, consisting of\nfour or five cartilages, that may be expanded or brought together,\nby the agency of certain muscles which operate all at the same time.\nIn the middle of the larynx there is a small aperture, called the\n_glottis_, through which the breath and voice are conveyed, but which,\nwhen we swallow any thing, is covered by a lid called the _epiglottis_.\nAuthors have determined that the voice is produced by two semi-circular\nmembranes in the middle of the larynx, which form by their separation\nthe aperture that is termed the glottis. The space between them is not\nwider than one-tenth of an inch; through which the breath transmitted\nfrom the lungs must pass with considerable velocity. In its passage\nit is supposed to give a brisk vibratory motion to the membranous\nlips of the glottis, and so to form the sound which we call _voice_:\nin order to the production of which, it, however, seems necessary,\nthat, by an energy of the will, a certain degree of tenseness should\nbe communicated to the larynx, or at least to the two membranes in the\nmiddle of it. The voice, thus formed, is strengthened and mellowed by\na reverberation from the palate, and other hollow places in the inside\nof the mouth and nostrils; and as these are better or worse shaped\nfor this reverberation, it is said to be more or less agreeable. The\nglottis is found to be narrower in women and young persons than in men;\nhence the voices of the latter are deeper, or more grave, than those\nof the former. We can at pleasure dilate or contract this aperture,\nso as to form the tones of the voice to every variety of the musical\nscale. If we consider the many variations of sound, which the same\nhuman voice is capable of uttering, together with the small diameter\nof the glottis; and reflect that the same diameter must always produce\nthe same tone, and, consequently, that to every change of tone a\ncorrespondent change of diameter is necessary: we must be astonished\nat the mechanism of these parts and the fineness of the fibers,\nproducing effects so minute, various, and uniform. For it admits of\nproof, that the glottis is capable of at least sixty distinct degrees\nof contraction and enlargement, by each of which a different note is\nproduced.[204]\n\nConcerning the origin of language, numerous conjectures have been\nformed. As an instance how far the human mind, unassisted by a Divine\nrevelation, can go, Diodorus Siculus and Vitruvius have asserted, \u201cthat\nmen at first lived like beasts in woods and caves, forming only strange\nand uncouth noises, till their fears caused them to associate together;\nand that on growing acquainted with each other, they came to correspond\nabout things, first by signs, then to make names for them, and in time,\nto frame and perfect a language; and that the languages of the world\nare different, because different companies of men happening thus to\ncome together in different places, would, of course, form different\nsounds or names of things; hence would arise the variety observable\neven in ancient languages.\u201d Thus we perceive the necessity of the\nScriptures relative even to this subject.\n\n\u201cThe Mosaic History,\u201d observes Dr. A. Clarke, \u201crepresents man as\nbeing immediately capable of conversing with his Maker: of giving\nnames to the various tribes and classes of animals; and of reasoning\nconsecutively, and in perfectly appropriate terms, concerning his own\nsituation, and the relation he stood in to the creatures. As in man\u2019s\nfirst attempt at speech, according to this account, there appear no\ncrudeness of conception, no barrenness of ideas, and no inexpressive\nor unappropriate terms, it is most rational to conclude, that God who\nmade and endued him with corporeal and mental powers, perfectly suited\nto his state and condition in life, endued him also, not only with the\nfaculty of speech, but with speech or language itself; which latter was\nas necessary to his comfort, and, indeed, to the perfection and end\nof his being, as any other power or faculty which his Creator thought\nproper to bestow upon him.\u201d\n\nSome assert that Adam _gave names_, from an intimate knowledge of the\nnature and properties of each creature: that this shows the perfection\nof his knowledge, for the names affixed to the different animals\nin Scripture always express some prominent feature and essential\ncharacteristic of the creatures to which they are applied; and that had\nhe not possessed an intuitive knowledge of the grand and distinguishing\nproperties of those animals, he never could have given them such names.\nDr. Leland states, that man was immediately endued with the gift of\nlanguage, which necessarily supposes that he was furnished with a stock\nof ideas, a specimen of which he gave in giving names to the inferior\nanimals, which were brought to him for that purpose. Dr. Johnson\naffirms, that the origin of language must have come by inspiration.\nBut Bishop Warburton conjectures, that God, in this transaction with\nAdam, taught him language. Here, says he, by a common figure of speech,\nthe historian, instead of directly relating the fact, that God taught\nman language, represents it, by showing God in the _act_ of doing it,\nin a particular _mode_ of information; and that the most apposite we\ncan conceive in elementary instruction; namely, the giving of names\nto substances; things with which Adam was to be conversant, and which\ntherefore had need of being distinguished each by its proper name.\nAnd what a familiar image do these words give one of a learner of his\nrudiments? _And God brought every beast to Adam to_ SEE _what he would\ncall them_. But though it appears that God taught man language, yet we\ncannot reasonably suppose it any other than what served his present\noccasions, he being now of himself able to improve and enlarge it, as\nhis future necessities should require. The celebrated Cowper, touching\nthis subject says:--\n\n    \u201cOne man alone, the father of us all,\n    Drew not his life from woman; never gaz\u2019d,\n    With mute unconsciousness of what he saw,\n    On all around him: learn\u2019d not by degrees,\n    Nor aw\u2019d articulation to his ear;\n    But, moulded by his Maker into man\n    At once, upstood intelligent, survey\u2019d\n    All creatures, with precision understood\n    Their purport, uses, properties, assign\u2019d\n    To each his name significant, and, fill\u2019d\n    With love, and wisdom, render\u2019d back to Heaven\n    In praise harmonious the first air he drew.\n    He was excus\u2019d the penalties of dull\n    Minority. No tutor charg\u2019d his hand\n    With the thought-tracing quill, or task\u2019d his mind\n    With problems.\u201d\n\nHowever, by the creatures passing before Adam, probably in pairs,\nand he giving them names as they passed according to the nature and\nproperties of each, one thing evidently appears, namely, he was\nconvinced that none of these animals could be a suitable companion for\nhim; for, among all which he had named, \u201cthere was not a help-meet for\nhim:\u201d one suitable and proper as an intimate companion and friend.\n\n              \u201cHe views the vast creation o\u2019er,\n    Marks his own structure more than e\u2019er before;\n    Sees all the creatures with their co-mates blest,\n    Himself left pensive, far unlike the rest;\n    Without compeer with whom his hours to spend,\n    Or jointly at the sacred altar bend.\n    _Religion_--sacred to the first great Cause:\n    _Philosophy_--the voice of Nature\u2019s laws;\n    And _social dictates_, all at once combine\n    To teach their pupil, that the whole design\n    Is not completed, while his lonely life\n    Is left without a helper, friend, and wife.\n    Refulgent Sol, while traversing his way,\n    Has Luna shining with her lucid ray;\n    And though her glory is a borrow\u2019d light,\n    She reigns sole empress of the sable night.\n    Soft purling streams to rivers speed their course,\n    And blend themselves with their capacious source.\n    The spreading branches of uxorious vines,\n    Clasp round each other with encircling twines.\n    The climbing Ivy does the Oak embrace,\n    And meets with verdant wreaths his bending face.\n    The feather\u2019d tribes that wing the firmament,\n    By instinct led, to wedded love consent:\n    They range the neighb\u2019ring meads in quest of food,\n    And guard and cherish their young callow brood.\n    And shall the creatures without just pretence,\n    Alone possess this high pre-eminence?\n    Though with abounding earthly comforts blest,\n    Shall man pre-eminent still want the best:--\n    A bosom friend, than virgin rose more sweet,\n    And whom he can with heart-felt rapture greet;\n    Of pleasing form, equal and tender mind,\n    To whom he can in closest ties be join\u2019d?\u201d\n\nGod did not approve of this state of solitude: he said, \u201cIt is not good\nthat man should be alone,\u201d or only himself. The Creator had not yet\nfinished his works. He saw it necessary to relieve man in his solitary\nsituation; and his goodness and power were ready to concur with the\ndictates of his wisdom. He said, \u201cI will make him a _help-meet_ for\nhim;\u201d i.e. his counterpart, one like himself in shape, constitution,\nand disposition; exactly adapted to both his body and mind, the very\nimage of himself, _a second self_.\n\n    \u201cMust the fair creature promis\u2019d to be giv\u2019n,\n    Be sent to earth from the abode of heav\u2019n?\n    Angelic nature could not well supply\n    The craving void, remote, and far too high.\n    Will God select amongst the brutal race,\n    One, and refine it for his fond embrace?\n    Nay, that would be too mean for his respect,\n    Beneath his nature, void of intellect.\n    The wise Creator, to complete his plan,\n    Resolves to make a _help-meet_ from the Man,\n    Procure the stamina from him alone,\n    Thus constitute her \u201cbone of his own bone.\u201d\n    From Man! but where? what part can he forego,\n    From head majestic to the servile toe?\n    The head imperial would be much too high,\n    Lest she, perchance, should for the mast\u2019ry try.\n    The toilsome feet are base, of low renown,\n    Lest he should trample the fair creature down.\n    In Man\u2019s organic structure, mark! the part\n    Is that which lies contiguous to the heart;\n    Main spring of life, whence all the frame looks gay,\n    Centre, where all the lovely passions play;\n    Under the shield of the protecting arm,\n    Which can defend her from impending harm.\u201d\n\nAccordingly, God proceeded in his work: not as before, when he made\nman, and formed his body of the dust of the earth; but he took of the\nsubstance of man, and of that formed an associate for him. The process\nis mentioned by Moses, \u201cAnd the Lord God caused a deep sleep to fall\nupon Adam, and he slept: and he took one of his ribs, and closed up\nthe flesh instead thereof; and the rib, which the Lord God had taken\nfrom man, made he a woman.\u201d The word \u05ea\u05e8\u05d3\u05de\u05d4 translated _a deep sleep_,\nsignifies such a sleep as renders a man insensible of any thing done to\nhim; which was not natural but an extraordinary sleep; not occasioned\nby any act of violence done to nature, but the immediate effect of the\nhand of God upon him. Sleep, says a German author, is one of the most\nremarkable effects of the Divine goodness. It is certainly a proof of\nthe wisdom of our Creator, that we fall asleep imperceptibly. Sleep\ncomes unsummoned: it is the only change in our manner of existence\nin which reflection bears no part; and is alike independent of the\nunderstanding and the will. Our situation, indeed, during the time of\nsleep, is wonderful. We live, but without knowing or perceiving it! The\npalpitations of the heart, the circulation of the blood, the process\nof digestion, and, in a word, all the animal functions continue to\nbe performed without interruption. The mind appears, as it were, to\nsuspend its activity, for a time: by degrees, it looses all sensation,\nevery distinct idea. The senses are deadened, and stop their wonted\noperations. The muscles, by degrees, are moved more slowly, till all\nvoluntary motion ceases. This change begins in the forehead: then the\nmuscles of the eye-lids, and of the neck, arms, and feet, are so much\ndeprived of their activity, that the man seems to be metamorphosed\ninto a plant. The situation of the brain becomes such, that it cannot\ntransmit to the soul the same ideas as when we are awake. The soul\nperceives no object, though the nerve of vision is not altered; and\nit would see nothing, were the eyes to be even open. The ears are not\nshut, and yet they hear nothing. In a word, we find an unceasing source\nof admiration, in the wonderful preparations, and the tender care,\nwhich the Divine Being has employed, to procure us the blessings of\nsleep. The following epigram, translated from the Latin by Dr. Wolcott,\nis beautiful:--\n\n    \u201cCome, gentle sleep, attend thy votary\u2019s prayer,\n    And, though death\u2019s image, to my couch repair!\n    How sweet, thus lifeless, yet with life to lie,\n    Thus without dying, oh how sweet to die!\u201d\n\nThe word \u05e6\u05dc\u05e2 _tsela_, and in the Septuagint \u03c0\u03bb\u03b5\u03c5\u03c1\u03b1, rendered a _rib_,\nmost probably means _bone_, and _flesh_, not a naked bone, but one\nwith flesh adhering to it. \u201cAnd the rib which the Lord God had taken\nfrom man, _made_ he a woman,\u201d or, according to the Hebrew, _builded it\nup_ to be a woman; signifying, that the human species was perfect when\nthe woman was created, which before was like an imperfect building.\nThis implies, an old author intimates, that as children are derived\nfrom their parents to build up the family, so the woman was derived\nfrom Adam to build up his great family, mankind, of his own nature and\nsubstance; and that his posterity might spring wholly from him, both\nin respect of himself, and of his wife, their common mother, who was\ntaken out of him. What amazing wisdom is herein displayed; not only in\nproducing a creature _like_ man, but out of _a part of man himself_!\nGod could have animated and organized the dust of the earth, and of\nit formed the woman; but had he done so, she would have appeared\nin the eyes of man as a distinct being, to whom he had no natural\nrelation.[205]\n\n      \u201cHer form completed, lo! she rises fair,\n    Possess\u2019d of beauties far beyond compare!\n    This last production of the Artist\u2019s skill,\n    Best effort of his wisdom, might, and will,\n    Gains science\u2019 height: the high-wrought features shine,\n    Her form displays a symmetry divine.\n    Her pleasing gesture, as she walks along,\n    Exceeds the powers of harmony and song.\n    Her fine exterior, by her Maker drest,\n    Is but the mansion of a brighter guest,\n    To flesh superior far, howe\u2019er refin\u2019d;--\n    A pure, reflective, comprehensive mind!\n    Expression soft sits sparkling in her eyes,\n    While from her bosom heavenly raptures rise;\n    Intrinsic worth, comprising every grace,\n    Displays its radiance in her roseate face.\u201d\n\nWhen the woman was formed, \u201cGod brought her unto the man,\u201d i.e. he\npresented her to him to be his wife. We are not to imagine, by\n_bringing her to the man_, is meant, that God merely placed her before\nhis eyes, and thus exhibited her: but that he joined the man and the\nwoman together in marriage.\n\n      \u201cAttending angels strike the choral lay,\n    And hymn your anthems on this bridal day;\n    While the first Pair unite their willing hands,\n    Whose hearts are join\u2019d in love\u2019s eternal bands.\u201d\n\nOn receiving the woman, Adam said, \u201cThis is now bone of my bones, and\nflesh of my flesh.\u201d Adam was the common stock and root of all mankind;\nnot only all his posterity were wholly contained in him alone, but also\nthe first woman, the mother of us all, had her vital life in him, and\nwas part of his living flesh and bones: he saw that she was of the same\nnature, the same identical flesh and blood, the same constitution in\nall respects, having the same physical powers, mental faculties, and\ninalienable rights. He added, \u201cShe shall be called _Woman_, because she\nwas taken out of man;\u201d i.e. she shall partake of my name as she does\nof my nature. A literal version of the Hebrew would appear strange,\nsays Dr. A. Clarke, and yet a literal version is the only proper\none. \u05d0\u05d9\u05e9 _Ish_, signifies _man_; and the word used to express what\nwe term _woman_, is the same with feminine termination, \u05d0\u05e9\u05d4 _ishah_,\nand literally means _she-man_. Most of the ancient versions have felt\nthe force of the term, and have endeavored to express it as literally\nas possible. The Vulgate Latin renders the Hebrew _virago_, which is\na feminine form of _vir_, a man. Symmachus used \u03b1\u03bd\u03b4\u03c1\u03b9\u03c2 _andris_, a\nfemale form of \u03b1\u03bd\u03b7\u03c1, _aner_, a man. Our own term is equally proper,\nwhen understood: it is a literal translation of the original; and we\nmay thank the discernment of our Anglo-Saxon ancestors for giving it.\nWombman, of which _woman_ is a contraction, means the _man with the\nwomb_. Verstegan, in his Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, justifies\nthis sense of the word, on the ground of antiquity and propriety, and\nsays it should be so written. The term _woman_ was not peculiar to\nher, but common to the sex; she differing from man in sex only, not in\nnature. Afterward Adam called her \u05d7\u05d5\u05d4 _chavah_, which answers exactly\nto \u03b6\u03c9\u03b7 of the Septuagint, both signifying _life_, because she was the\nmother of all _living_.\n\n      \u201cOh blest existence! (now the man exclaims,\n    And higher praises of his God proclaims.)\n    My cup with blessings hast thou amply fill\u2019d,\n    Consummate joys for my great portion will\u2019d:\n    No wants are left, no good hast thou denied,\n    Thy lib\u2019ral hand has all I wish\u2019d supplied.\n    Thou Fount of being! source of pure delight!\n    In thee my comforts center and unite:\n    Thyself I love, thy vast perfections see,\n    And all thy gifts receiv\u2019d enjoy in Thee.\n\n      He turns to Eve, whose charms are all in view,\n    The perfect form which highest wisdom drew:\n    Her sweet attractions touch his yielding mind,\n    As three-fold cords his willing passions bind.\n    Sensations soft with quick transition roll,\n    And raise the transports of his grateful soul:\n    While thrilling raptures through his bosom move,\n    He feels his heart the seat of GOD--and _love_.\n\n      Their minds now glowing with celestial fire,\n    They jointly bend before their gracious SIRE;\n    Devotion\u2019s flame with greater ardor burns,\n    And both are vocal in his praise by turns.\n    While thus their pow\u2019rs in pleasing acts employ,\n    The _social_ worship much augments their joy:\n    Their warm addresses to the sacred throne,\n    Ascend as incense, and bring blessings down.\u201d\n\nThe relation between _husband_ and _wife_ is the strongest union that\nresults from the highest obligations of nature. \u201cTherefore,\u201d said Adam,\n\u201cshall a man leave his father and mother, and shall cleave unto his\nwife: and they shall be one flesh.\u201d Here we perceive, as Dr. Delany\nintimates, that Adam had a perfect idea of father and mother, before\nany existed; that he had clear ideas of the affection arising from\nthat relation, before any children were born into the world: and yet\nperceived that the endearment arising from marriage should be stronger\nthan these ties, so as to attach a man with warmer affection to his\nwife, than to those very parents to whom he was indebted for life. Now\nif the received doctrines of philosophy be true, that the senses are\nthe inlets of ideas, and that we can have no ideas without objects:\nthen we must conclude, that as he had these ideas, and had them not\nfrom nature, he must have received them from express revelation. Hence\nour Saviour, in his answer to the Pharisees, informs us, that the\nwords pronounced by Adam on this occasion, were the declaration of God\nhimself. \u201cHave ye not read that he which made them at the beginning,\nmade them male and female, and said, For this cause shall a man leave\nfather and mother, and shall cleave to his wife: and they twain shall\nbe one flesh.\u201d These two shall be considered as _one body_, having no\nseparate or independent interests: or, these two shall be _for the\nproduction_ of one flesh; from their union a posterity shall spring,\nas exactly resembling themselves as they do each other. The Greek word\n\u03c0\u03c1\u03bf\u03c3\u03ba\u03bf\u03bb\u03bb\u03b7\u03b8\u03b7\u03c3\u03b5\u03c4\u03b1\u03b9, translated _one flesh_, signifies shall be _glued_ to\nher.\n\nHow happy must such a state be, where the parties married come up to\nthe design of this sacred institution! Dr. Hunter observes, \u201cWhat\nan important era in the life of Adam! What a new display of the\nCreator\u2019s power, skill, and goodness! How must the spirit of devotion\nbe heightened, now that man could join in _social_ worship! What\nadditional satisfaction in contemplating the frame, order, and course\nof nature, now that he possessed the most exalted of human joys, that\nof conveying knowledge to a beloved object! Now he could instruct\nEve in the wonders of creation, and unfold to her their Maker\u2019s\nnature, perfections, and will!\u201d Oh happy state! They are happy in the\nconstitution of their nature,--being innocent, upright creatures; and\nin having their pure minds perfectly united in love and kindness to\neach other. They were happy in all their united acts of adoration and\npraise to their Creator,--exact harmony, unmixed delight, and untainted\npiety, residing in each breast! They lived in communion with God,\nenjoyed a transporting sense of his favor, walked in the light of his\ncountenance, and were raptured in their meditations on the Divine glory!\n\nWe have here the first institution of marriage, and we see in it\nseveral things worthy of peculiar attention and regard. 1. God\npronounces the state of celibacy _not a good one_: and the Lord God\nsaid, \u201cIt is not good that man should be alone,\u201d \u05dc\u05d1\u05d3\u05d5 _lebaddo_ only\nhimself. It was neither for his comfort, who was formed for society,\nnor for the accomplishment of God\u2019s purpose in the increase of mankind.\nThough he was created in the image of God, and enjoyed delightful\nintercourse with him, his solitary condition required a suitable\ncompanion. 2. God made the woman _for_ the man; he was not made _for\nher_, but she was made _for him_, and derived, under God, her being\nfrom him. The apostle says, \u201cNeither was the man created for the woman:\nbut the woman for the man,\u201d to be a suitable helper and comfort to him.\nAnd thus God has shown us, that every son of Adam should be united to a\ndaughter of Eve to the end of the world. 3. God made the woman _out_ of\nthe man: as Adam was immediately from God, so Eve was immediately from\nAdam; \u201cthe man is not of the woman, but the woman of the man:\u201d made of\na part of his body, taken out, not of his head, to show that she was\nnot to exercise dominion over him; nor of his foot, to indicate that\nshe must not be his slave; but of his side, to intimate that she needs\nhis counsel and direction; from under his arm, to teach him that he\nmust protect her; and near his heart, to tell him that he must love her\nas himself. The closest union, and the most affectionate attachment,\nshould subsist in the matrimonial connection. The man should ever\nconsider and treat the woman as a _part of himself_; and as no one ever\nhated his own flesh, but nourishes and supports it, so should a husband\nevince the greatest tenderness and affection for his wife: and on the\nother hand, considering that the woman derived her being from man, and\nwas made _for_ him, therefore the wife should \u201csee that she reverence\nher husband.\u201d \u201cFor as man is the image and glory of God; so the woman\nis the glory of the man.\u201d 4. God himself instituted the marriage union,\nand being appointed and established by him, it must be an honorable\nstate. \u201cMarriage is honorable in all,\u201d being a Divine institution; and\nconsequently suitable for persons of any rank, or employment, either\ncivil or sacred. The corruption of manners has strangely perverted\nthis original purpose and institution of God. However, he will never\naccommodate his morality to the times, nor to the inclinations of men.\nWhat was settled at the beginning, he judged most worthy of his glory,\nmost profitable for man, and most suitable to his nature. 5. Marriage\nwas instituted immediately on the creation of man and formation of\nthe woman; whence it is evident that God never designed that mankind\nshould be preserved, and the earth peopled any other way. And as the\nmarriage union took place while man was in a state of innocence,\nupright and pure, just such as his Creator made him, it is therefore\nsuitable to the greatest purity both of heart and life. 6. The design\nof this institution was, that man and woman might be mutually helpful\nto each other, in all the necessities and uses of life partaking of the\ncares and labors of each other, reciprocally sharing in each other\u2019s\ndelights and pleasures, and combining together to love, serve, and\nplease God.\n\nThe _situation_ of Adam and Eve is worthy of our attention. The sacred\nhistorian says, \u201cAnd the Lord God planted a garden eastward in Eden;\nand there he put the man whom he had formed.\u201d The word \u05e2\u05d3\u05df _Eden_,\nsignifying _pleasure_ or _delight_, is expressive of their excellent\nresidence. The Septuagint render the passage thus: \u03b5\u03c6\u03c5\u03c4\u03b5\u03c5\u03c3\u03b5\u03bd \u1f41 \u0398\u03b5\u03bf\u03c2\n\u03c0\u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03b4\u03b5\u03b9\u03c3\u03bf\u03c5 \u03b5\u03bd \u0395\u03b4\u03b5\u03bc, _God planted a Paradise in Eden_. The Fathers of\nthe Church; says Huet, both Latin and Greek, all the Interpreters of\nScripture, ancient and modern, and all the Orientals, do agree, that\nEden is a local name taken from the beauty of the place. The Garden\nor Paradise was situated in Eden, being two different places, as the\nwhole from its part. \u201cAnd a river went out of Eden to water the garden;\nand from thence it was parted, and became into four heads. And the\nname of the first is Pison; that is it which compasseth the whole land\nof Havilah, where there is gold; and the gold of that land is good;\nthere is bdellium and the onyx stone. And the name of the second river\nis Gihon: the same is it that compasseth the whole land of Ethiopia.\nAnd the name of the third river is Hiddekel: that is it which goeth\ntoward the east of Assyria. And the fourth river is Euphrates.\u201d The\nmost probable account of the situation of the terrestrial Paradise,\nsays Dr. A. Clarke, is that given by Hadrian Reland. He supposes it to\nhave been in Armenia, near the sources of the great rivers, Euphrates,\nTigris, Phasis, and Araxes. He thinks Pison was the Phasis, a river of\nCholchis, emptying itself into the Euxine Sea, where there is a city\ncalled Chabala, the pronunciation of which is nearly the same with that\nof Havilah, or \u05d7\u05d5\u05d9\u05dc\u05d4 _Chavilah_, according to the Hebrew, the _vau_ \u05d5\nbeing changed in Greek to _beta_ \u03b2. This country was famous for gold,\nwhence the fable of the Golden Fleece, attempted to be carried away\nfrom that country by the heroes of Greece. The Gihon he thinks to be\nthe Araxes, which runs into the Caspian Sea, both the words having\nthe same signification, namely, a _rapid motion_. The land of Cush,\nwashed by the river, he supposes to be the country of the Cuss\u00e6i of\nthe ancients; a nation of Asia, destroyed by Alexander to appease the\nmanes of Heph\u00e6stion. The Hiddekel all agree to be the Tigris; and the\nother river, Phrat, or \u05e4\u05e8\u05ea _Perath_, to be the Euphrates. All these\nrivers rise in the same tract of mountainous country, though they do\nnot proceed from one head.\n\nMan, says Faber, was placed by the Deity in the garden of Paradise. The\nbeauty of its scenery, the salubrity of its climate, the variety and\nexcellence of its fruits, all contributed to the beatitude of the first\npair, and tended to elevate their thoughts to that Being, who was the\nauthor and contriver of such numerous blessings. Trained, says Bishop\nHorne, in the school of Eden by the material elements of a visible\nworld, to the knowledge of one that is immaterial and invisible, Adam\nfound himself excited by the beauty of the picture, to aspire after the\ntranscendent excellence of the Divine original.\n\nFrom this, says Dr. A. Clarke, the ancient heathens borrowed their\nideas of the gardens of Hesperides, where the trees bore golden\nfruit; the gardens of Adonis, a word which is evidently derived from\nthe Hebrew \u05e2\u05d3\u05df _Aden_; and hence the origin of sacred gardens, or\ninclosures, dedicated to purposes of devotion, some comparatively\ninnocent, others impure. From the holiness of the garden of Eden,\nsays Faber, the Pagans probably borrowed their ancient custom of\nconsecrating groves to the worship of their various deities. The\ndescription given by Quintus Curtius of the sacred grove of Jupiter\nHammon is singularly beautiful, and almost presents to the imagination\nthe deep shades and the crystal streams of Eden. \u201cAt length,\u201d says\nhe, \u201cthey arrived at the consecrated habitation of the deity, which,\nincredible as it may seem, was situated in the midst of a desert, and\nshaded from the sun by so luxuriant a vegetation, that its beams could\nscarcely penetrate through the thickness of the foliage. The groves\nare watered by the meandering streams of numerous fountains; and a\nwonderful temperature of climate, resembling most of all the delightful\nseason of spring, prevails through the whole year with an equal degree\nof salubrity.\u201d\n\nThis golden age is described by Plato, in a manner which, independently\nof his confession (namely, that he gained his information from the\nPh\u0153nicians, who received it from their ancestors,) proves him to have\nderived it, not from written records, but from traditional reports.\nHis mansion of primeval bliss was not in this dark, diminished, and\ndeformed, this corrupted globe, but in a pure, ethereal, and lucid orb\nof unlimited extent, where men breathed, not air, but light, drank\nnectar, and partook of fruits spontaneously produced. The inclement\nseasons were unknown, raiment was not yet invented, and nakedness\nproduced no distress. When weary, the inhabitants reclined to sleep on\nsoft herbage, which received the influence of one eternal spring. In\nthese delightful regions no stormy winds interrupted their calm repose;\nno evil passion disturbed their serenity of soul; and reason, guided\nby benevolence, bore a universal sway. Whilst this state continued,\nman conversed freely with those animals, which, now wild, avoid his\npresence, and fly at his approach.\n\nVirgil was no stranger to a golden age; and Seneca has well\ndescribed the peaceful state whilst Saturn reigned. But of all the\nrepresentations, that which we find in Ovid is the most beautiful, and,\nallowing for poetic imagery, is accurately just.\n\n    \u201cThe golden age was first; when man, yet new,\n    No rule but uncorrupted reason knew,\n    And with a native bent did good pursue.\n    Unforc\u2019d by punishment, unaw\u2019d by fear,\n    His words were simple, and his soul sincere.\n    Needless was written law where none opprest:\n    The law of man was written in his breast.\n    No suppliant crowds before the judge appear\u2019d;\n    No court erected yet, nor cause was heard;\n    But all was safe, for conscience was their guard.\u201d\n\nSuch notions of the felicity enjoyed by man in a state of innocence,\nwere not confined to Italy and Greece, but have been discovered equally\namong the Persians, Indians, and Chinese. The Brahmins say, that in the\nbeginning of the world, plenty was every where diffused, and milk, with\nwine and honey, flowed from fountains. Similar images were used by the\nPersian magi to convey a notion of primeval happiness.[206]\n\nThus Adam and Eve were happy in their situation, being placed\nin Paradise, which was delightful for agreeable and pleasing\naccommodations of every kind to regale their senses; it was stored with\nthe utmost profusion of Divine bounty!\n\n    \u201cO Jesus! at thy feet we wait,\n      Till thou shalt bid us rise,\n    Restor\u2019d to our unsinning state,\n      To love\u2019s sweet paradise.\u201d\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\nFootnotes - Chapter VII\n\n    [157] The _marine_ Polypus is different in form from the\n    fresh-water Polype; but is nourished, increased, and may be\n    propagated after the same manner. When it produces its young,\n    they issue from its sides, as branches from a tree; these young\n    shoots are no sooner detached from their parents, than they\n    become separate Polypuses, and fish for prey.\n\n    It seems that every part of this animal possesses a\n    principle of life. If it be cut into three pieces, it is so far\n    from being destroyed, that it becomes three polypuses: the head\n    produces a body and tail; the body, a head and tail; and the\n    tail, a head and body. When a Polypus is cut in two lengthways,\n    these close themselves, the wounds are healed in a few moments,\n    and in the course of some hours they will eat greedily. If\n    these Polypuses be again cut into four, or six pieces, these\n    divisions of the animal will also become Polypuses; but they\n    will not be matured, nor capable of eating, for some days.\n    If this creature be turned like a glove, by pushing the tail\n    into the body until it come out of the mouth, after such an\n    operation it will still eat, and continue to produce young\n    ones; so strong and vigorous is the principle of life which it\n    possesses.\n\n    There are other insects which possess similar properties;\n    and it is certain that nearly all plants which are produced\n    from suckers, have no part which may not become either a stem\n    or branch, and which will germinate, and furnish one, or even\n    many plants.]\n\n    [158] For the contrary opinion, see Fragments appended to\n    Calmet\u2019s Dictionary, pp. 114-117.\n\n    [159] \u201cSome time ago, a person in the Isle of Wight,\n    digging the ground for the foundation of an out-house,\n    discovered the nest or magazine of a field-mouse. It was of\n    large dimension, and was stored with acorns, which were laid up\n    in the neatest and most compact manner imaginable. These were\n    so numerous that he was induced to count them, and found, in\n    the whole, no fewer than _eight hundred and two_. How wonderful\n    are those faculties with which the beneficent Creator of the\n    world has endowed his creatures, for the purpose of providing\n    for wants which they have no power to foresee, and yet, without\n    which provision, they must, during the severity of winter, be\n    inevitably destroyed!\u201d--New Monthly Magazine, July, 1814, p.\n    531.\n\n    [160] See Dr. Paley\u2019s Natural Theology, pp. 296-299.\n\n    [161] To this may be referred an economical experiment\n    well known to the Dutch, that when eight Cows have been in a\n    pasture, and can no longer get nourishment, two horses will do\n    very well there for some days; and when nothing is left for the\n    Horses, four Sheep will live on it.\n\n    [162] The Arabians, when travelling, and in want of water,\n    frequently kill their camels to obtain a supply, which, though\n    taken out of the animal, they find perfectly good.\n\n    [163] Dr. Paley\u2019s Natural Theology, p. 278.\n\n    [164] Dr. Percival\u2019s Instructions, p. 23.\n\n    [165] See Annual Register, vol. iii, p. 90.\n\n    [166] Dr. Beattie\u2019s Dissertations, Moral and Critical.\n\n    [167] Dr. Percival\u2019s Instructions, p. 8.\n\n    The Chinese consider the flesh of this animal as a dainty,\n    and public shambles are erected for the sale of it. In Canton\n    particularly, there is a street appropriated to that purpose;\n    and, what is very extraordinary, whenever a dog-butcher\n    appears, all the dogs in the place pursue him in full cry.\n    They know their enemy, and persecute him as far as they are\n    able.--Goldsmith\u2019s History of the Earth.\n\n    [168] Wesley\u2019s Philosophy, vol. i, p. 233.\n\n    [169] For a description of the _Crocodile_, given by\n    Divine inspiration, see Job chap. xli. It is a great question\n    among learned men, says Mr. Benson, what creature is meant by\n    \u05dc\u05d5\u05d9\u05ea\u05df, _leviathan_. Our translators were evidently uncertain\n    respecting it, and therefore have given us the original term\n    untranslated. The Seventy, however, have rendered it \u03b4\u03c1\u03b1\u03ba\u03c9\u03bd,\n    _the dragon_; but that is far from being correct. The dragon is\n    a genus belonging to the order of amphibia reptilia. There are\n    two species, 1. The volans, or flying dragon, with the wings\n    entirely distinct from the fore-legs, which is found in Africa\n    and the East Indies. 2. The pr\u00e6pos, with the wings fixed to the\n    fore-legs, which is a native of America. They are both harmless\n    creatures; and feed on flies, ants, and small insects. The word\n    \u05dc\u05d5\u05d9\u05ea\u05df, _leviathan_ is supposed to be derived from \u05dc\u05d5\u05d9, _levi_,\n    _joined_, or _coupled_, and \u05ea\u05df, _than_, or \u05ea\u05e0\u05d9\u05df _thannin,\n    a dragon_, that is, a _large serpent_, or _fish_, the word\n    _thannin_ being used both for a land-serpent, and a kind of\n    fish. And \u201cafter comparing what Bochart and others have written\n    on the subject, it appears to me,\u201d says Parkhurst, \u201cthat the\n    compound word \u05dc\u05d5\u05d9\u05ea\u05df, _leviathan, the coupled dragon_, denotes\n    some animal, partaking of the nature both of the land serpents,\n    and fishes, and, in this place, signifies the _crocodile_,\n    which lives as well under water as on the shore.\u201d\n\n    [170] Bingley\u2019s Animal Biography, vol. ii, p. 410, &c.\n\n    [171] Dr. Paley\u2019s Natural Theology, p. 286.\n\n    [172] Aristotle asserts that _spinning_ and _weaving_ were\n    first learned from the spider. Thence it has its Greek name\n    \u03b1\u03c1\u03b1\u03c7\u03bd\u03b7\u03c2, Latin _Aranea_, French _Araignce_, from the Hebrew\n    _Aragnevit_, _texuit_, or _Arach, textura_. And it is not\n    improbable that our English word _Spider_ is but a corruption\n    of _Spinner_, for _Spinn_ is the German word for _Spider_. With\n    this agrees that poetic fancy, that _Arachne_ an excellent\n    _spinster_, was by _Pallas_ turned into a _Spider_. Pallas\n    was the goddess of wisdom, war, weaving, spinning, and the\n    liberal arts; and she was invoked by almost every artist,\n    particularly such as worked in wool, embroidery, painting, and\n    sculpture.--Edward\u2019s Demonstration, &c.\n\n    [173] See Jones\u2019s Disquisition concerning clean and unclean\n    Animals.\n\n    [174] See D\u2019Assigny on the Hieroglyphics of Egypt.\n\n    [175] Epist. cap. v.\n\n    [176] Simil. ix, sect. 13.\n\n    [177] Ad. Autol. lib. 2, p. 96.\n\n    [178] Lib. iv, cap. 37, et lib. v. c. 15.\n\n    [179] Lib. iv, cap. 75.\n\n    [180] Adv. Prax. c. 12.\n\n    [181] Cap. 21, 25.\n\n    [182] Cont. Cel. lib. i, p. 63.\n\n    [183] Socrat. lib. ii. c. 30, where the Creed may be seen\n    at large.\n\n    [184] H\u00e6res. 23, n. 2.\n\n    [185] H\u00e6res. 44, n. 4. See Bibliotheca Biblica on the place.\n\n    [186] Lib. iv, cap. 37.\n\n    [187] Two Dissertations, &c. pp. 29, 30.\n\n    [188] Among the numerous traditions of the New-Zealanders,\n    says Nicholas, there is one which is very remarkable. It\n    refers to the creation of man, and has been handed down from\n    father to son, through all generations. They believe the first\n    man to have been created by three gods, Mowheerangaranga, or\n    Toopoonah, or grandfather, Mowheermooha, and Mowheebotakee; but\n    give the greatest share in the business to the first-mentioned\n    of these deities.\n\n    [189] Moses says, \u201cthe _life_, \u05e0\u05e4\u05e9 nephesh, of the flesh is\n    in the _blood_.\u201d And St. Paul affirms, \u201cGod hath made of _one\n    blood_ all nations of men.\u201d This sentence of Moses, which, in\n    conjunction with that of St. Paul, contains a most important\n    truth, had existed in the sacred Scriptures for 3,600 years,\n    before it arrested the attention of any philosopher. This is\n    more surprising, as the nations in which philosophy flourished,\n    were those which especially enjoyed the Divine oracles in\n    their respective languages. That the blood actually possesses\n    a _living principle_, and that the life of the whole body\n    is derived from it, is a doctrine of Divine revelation, and\n    which the observations and experiments of the most accurate\n    anatomists have served strongly to confirm. The proper\n    _circulation_ of this important fluid through the _whole_ human\n    system, was taught by Solomon in figurative language, Eccles.\n    xii, 6; and discovered, as it is called, and demonstrated by\n    Dr. Harvey in 1628; though some Italian philosophers had the\n    same notion a little before. This distinguished anatomist was\n    the first who fully revived the Mosaic notion of the _vitality_\n    of the blood; and which correct view was afterwards adopted by\n    the justly celebrated Mr. John Hunter, whose strong reasoning\n    and accurate experiments have served to sanction and give\n    publicity to a fact so long unknown to mankind. The doctrine of\n    Moses and St. Paul proves the truth of the doctrine of Harvey\n    and Hunter: and the reasonings and experiments of the latter,\n    illustrate and confirm the doctrine of the former.--See Dr. A.\n    Clarke on Lev. xvii, 11.\n\n    [190] As an instance of this I may mention the case of\n    a gentleman who was subject to frequent attacks of asthma,\n    to such a degree, that if he were not relieved immediately\n    by bleeding, he was in danger of suffocation: by being so\n    frequently bled in that state, his blood at length became so\n    pale as scarcely to stain a linen cloth, in consequence of the\n    particles of the blood being so slowly renewed.\n\n    [191] Two of these causes are peculiarly important and\n    interesting. When an animal has lost a considerable quantity\n    of blood, and faints in consequence, the power of the blood to\n    coagulate quickly is greatly increased.--When, for example, a\n    sheep is bled to death, if you receive a cupful of the blood\n    which first issues from the throat, and a cupful of the last,\n    you will find that the latter will coagulate sooner, and become\n    much more solid than the first portion. By way of experiment,\n    the large artery of the thigh of a dog has been divided and\n    laid open; the animal bled till he fainted, and on recovering\n    had no return of the bleeding. On examining the artery, its\n    divided end was found plugged up by coagulated blood, and much\n    contracted in its diameter; this natural means, however, of\n    checking h\u00e6morrhage, we shall afterwards find, is assisted by\n    the contractile power possessed by the vessel from whence it\n    is effused. Hence it appears that fainting is favorable to\n    checking h\u00e6morrhages, as far as it puts a temporary check on\n    the circulation, and should always be encouraged to a certain\n    degree. Another cause which influences the coagulation of the\n    blood, is inflammatory diseases. Under such circumstances it\n    remains much longer in a fluid state, but coagulates at length\n    more firmly. This coagulation of the lymph is the first step\n    towards its conversion into various parts of the body, or the\n    union of divided parts. When, for example, the coagulating\n    lymph is thrown out upon inflamed internal parts of the body\n    which lie in contact, as the intestines or lungs, it becomes\n    solid, and connects them loosely together. Blood vessels shoot\n    into it, and convert it at length into cellular membrane,\n    forming what are called adhesions, and in a similar way it\n    is converted into the nature of various parts of the body.\n    We may therefore say, that the coagulating lymph is the most\n    important part of the blood, inasmuch as it is subservient\n    to the formation of various organs in the body. Many parts,\n    particularly the muscles, very nearly resemble it in their\n    nature.\n\n    [192] Substances may even be introduced into the blood\n    directly. By way of experiment, Ipecacuanha, or a small\n    portion of Emetic Tartar, or Jalap, have been infused into the\n    veins: the result of this has been found to be, that they have\n    produced the same effect as if introduced by the stomach; the\n    former produced vomiting, the latter purging.\n\n    [193] Mr. Hunter, however, found that this natural\n    inclination might be changed by education, for he taught\n    an Eagle, which is a carnivorous animal, to subsist on\n    farinaceous food alone. The plan he adopted was this: he began\n    by abstracting the flesh meat, and substituting bread and\n    butter, till at length the meat was entirely taken away; he\n    then by degrees diminished the quantity of butter, till at\n    length the animal fed on bread alone. It appears, however, from\n    experiment, that this transition cannot be made suddenly, as\n    the gastric juice of the animal is not adapted to act upon an\n    opposite kind of food. It has been found that a quantity of\n    pear or apple introduced into the stomach of a Buzzard Hawk\n    was not digested, but remained unacted upon when the fowl was\n    killed for inspection many hours afterwards; yet the stomach of\n    this animal habitually digested bone.\n\n    [194] Dr. A. Hunter says, \u201cWhen we consider the delicacy\n    of the internal structure of the stomach, and the high and\n    essential consequence of its office, we may truly say, it is\n    treated with too little tenderness and respect on our parts.\n    The stomach is the chief organ of the human system, upon the\n    state of which all the powers and feelings of the individual\n    depend.\n\n    \u201cThe stomach is the kitchen that prepares our discordant\n    food, and which, after due maceration, it delivers over by\n    a certain undulatory motion, to the intestines, where it\n    receives a further concoction. Being now reduced into a white\n    balmy fluid, it is sucked up by a set of small vessels, called\n    lacteals, and carried to the thoracic duct. This duct runs up\n    the back-bone, and is in length about sixteen inches, but in\n    diameter it hardly exceeds a crow quill. Through this small\n    tube, the greatest part of what is taken in at the mouth\n    passes, and when it has arrived at its greatest height, it is\n    discharged into the left subclavian vein; when mixing with the\n    general mass of blood, it becomes, very soon, blood itself.\u201d\n\n    [195] Dr. O. Gregory observes, \u201cAnimal heat is preserved\n    _entirely_ by the inspiration of atmospheric air! The lungs\n    which imbibe the oxygen gas from the air, impart it to the\n    blood; and the blood, in its circulation, gives out the\n    caloric to every part of the body. Nothing can afford a more\n    striking proof of creative wisdom, than this provision for\n    the preservation of an equable animal temperature. By the\n    decomposition of atmospheric air, caloric is evolved, and\n    this caloric is taken up by the arterial blood, without its\n    temperature being at all raised by the addition. When it passes\n    to the veins, its capacity for caloric is diminished, as much\n    as it had been before increased in the lungs: the caloric,\n    therefore, which had been absorbed, is again given out; and\n    this slow and constant evolution of the caloric in the extreme\n    vessels over the whole body, is the source of that uniform\n    temperature which we have so much occasion to admire. Dr.\n    Crawford ascertained, that whenever an animal is placed in a\n    medium the temperature of which is considerably high, the usual\n    change of arterial venous blood does not go on; consequently,\n    no evolution of caloric will take place, and the animal heat\n    will not rise much above the natural standard. How pleasing it\n    is to contemplate the arrangements which the Deity has made for\n    the preservation and felicity of his creatures, and to observe\n    that he has provided for every possible exigency!\u201d--Lessons,\n    Astronomical and Philosophical, 4th edit. p. 87.\n\n    [196] A London Alderman, who had accidentally heard of the\n    thoracic duct, was so struck with the importance and delicacy\n    of the vessel, that he became very apprehensive lest it should\n    be in the least obstructed; and, being one day caught in a\n    crowd, from whence he could not extricate himself, he most\n    earnestly entreated those who pressed on him, to take care of\n    his thoracic duct.\n\n    [197] This is a good example of muscles, which, under\n    ordinary circumstances, are directed by the will, becoming\n    involuntary from an altered excitement.\n\n    [198] Dr. A. Hunter remarks, \u201cWere it possible for us to\n    view through the skin and integuments, the mechanism of our\n    bodies, after the manner of a watch-maker when he examines\n    a watch, we should be struck with an awful astonishment!\n    Were we to see the stomach and intestines busily employed in\n    the concoction of our food by a certain undulatory motion;\n    the heart working, day and night, like a forcing pump; the\n    lungs blowing alternate blasts; the humors filtrating through\n    innumerable strainers; together with an incomprehensible\n    assemblage of tubes, valves, and currents, all actively and\n    unceasingly employed in support of our existence, we could\n    hardly be induced to stir from our places!\u201d\n\n    [199] Mr. Cruikshank, late Professor of Chemistry at\n    Woolwich, judiciously observes, says Dr. Olinthus Gregory, that\n    the size of the body, the quantity of food taken in, the vigor\n    with which the system is acting, the passions of the mind,\n    and external heat or cold, are circumstances which will ever\n    occasion considerable variety in the quantity of the insensible\n    perspiration. This gentleman, assuming that the surface of the\n    hand is to that of the rest of the body as one to sixty (an\n    assumption which Mr. Abernethy thinks much too small for the\n    body,) and that every part of that surface perspired equally\n    with his hand, concluded that he lost during an hour, by\n    insensible perspiration from the skin, 3 ounces, 6 drams; and\n    in 24 hours, at that rate, would have lost 7 pounds, 6 ounces.\n    Also, that he lost 124 grains of vapor by respiration, in an\n    hour; or 6 ounces, 1 dram, and 36 grains, in 24 hours; which,\n    added to the former cutaneous exhalation, would make the whole\n    insensible perspiration, in 24 hours, equal to 8 pounds, 1\n    dram, and 36 grains: the evaporation from the lungs will be\n    little more than one-fifteenth of the whole.\n\n    Mr. Cruikshank has not the smallest doubt, but that\n    _electric fluid_ is also perspired from the pores of the skin:\n    it appearing to him impossible that an enraged Lion, or Cat,\n    should erect the hairs of the tail on any other principle:\n    indeed he strongly suspects that, as electric fire is now known\n    to be the prime conductor of the variation in the atmosphere,\n    so it is also the grand conductor of insensible perspiration.\n    He likewise states it as a matter beyond doubt, that,\n    independent of aqueous vapor (of fixed air and phlogiston,)\n    emitted from the skin in insensible perspiration, there is\n    an odorous effluvia, which, though generally insensible\n    to ourselves and the by standers, is perceptible to other\n    animals.--Hence it happens, that a Dog follows the footsteps of\n    his master by the smell; and, in like manner, with regard to\n    other animals: the Fox-Hound knows _afar_ the smell of the Fox;\n    the Pointer that of the Partridge, the Snipe, or the Pheasant;\n    and every carnivorous animal that of its prey.--Ha\u00fcy\u2019s Natural\n    Philosophy, vol. i, p. 27.\n\n    [200] Dr. Priestley has positively asserted, that the\n    doctrine of the soul has no foundation in reason or the\n    Scriptures. But Dr. Jortin, in his sermon on John xi, 25, vol.\n    vi, and Dean Sherlock, in his discourse on the immortality of\n    the soul, completely refute the Doctor\u2019s arguments. In the\n    fourth volume of the Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical\n    Society of Manchester, there is a very valuable paper, by Dr.\n    Ferriar, proving, by evidence apparently complete, that every\n    part of the brain has been injured without affecting the act of\n    thought; the reasoning of which memoir, being built on matters\n    of fact and experience, appears to have shaken the modern\n    theory of the materialists from its very foundation.\n\n    [201] See Wesley\u2019s Sermon on Heb. xi, 1.\n\n    [202] Dr. Scott\u2019s Christian Life, vol. v, p. 14.\n\n    [203] Practical Treaties on the Holy Spirit, pp. 7, 8.\n\n    [204] See Dr. Beattie\u2019s Theory of Language, chap. ii.\n\n    [205] It is very singular, says Nicholas, in his very\n    interesting history of New-Zealand, that the natives believe\n    that the first woman was made of one of man\u2019s ribs; and, what\n    adds still more to this strange coincidence, their general\n    term for bone is _hevee_, which, for ought we know, may be\n    a corruption of the name of our first parent, communicated\n    to them, perhaps, originally, by some means or other, and\n    preserved, without being much disfigured, among the records of\n    ignorance.\n\n\n    [206] See Townsend\u2019s Character of Moses, pp. 66-68.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII.\n\nSEVENTH DAY.\n\nON THE SABBATH.\n\n    Sabbath Instituted -- Blessed and Sanctified -- Given to\n    Adam as a General Precept for his Posterity -- Renewed before\n    and at the giving of the Law -- A Sign between God and his\n    People -- Worldly Business prohibited -- Works of Necessity\n    and Mercy excepted -- Advantages resulting from observing it\n    -- A Seventh Day regarded by the Heathens -- The Sabbath of\n    universal and perpetual obligation -- The Lord\u2019s Day.\n\n\nWhen God had made the world, and furnished it with a variety of\ncreatures, suited to the different elements of which it is composed;\nhad created man after his own image, far superior to all the other\nspecies of beings, endued with rational faculties, whom he therefore\nconstituted lord over them, situated in a residence curiously and\nbeautifully adorned, and plentifully stored with every thing adapted\nfor sustenance and delight; he exacted a reasonable service, which\nconsisted in the worship of himself, the one only true God, in\ncelebrating the expressions of his almighty power, infinite wisdom,\nand boundless goodness, displayed in his works. And to perpetuate, as\nwell as give a solemnity to this worship, he set apart a portion of\ntime for the exercise of it; by the constant and regular observation\nof which, a just sense of his infinite perfections, the recollection\nof his wondrous works, and the true worship of him, might be retained\namong men.\n\nMoses, the sacred historian, says, \u201cThus the heavens and the earth were\nfinished, and all the host of them. And God rested the seventh day, and\nsanctified it: because that in it he had rested from all his work which\nGod created and made.\u201d Here we have the origin of the Sabbath, _because\nthat in it he rested_, says Moses; \u05e9\u05d1\u05d4 _shebath_, from _shabath_, he\nrested; and hence _sabbath_, the name of the seventh day, signifying\n_a day of rest_. Not that he was weary with working, but he ceased to\nwork, or rested from making any more creatures, or species of beings,\nall kinds being already either actually or virtually made. When he had\nfinished the works of creation, in which he was employed six days, he\nrested on the seventh, and _blessed_ and _sanctified_ it; consecrated\nit for man to rest from all secular labors, and religiously employ this\nportion of time. This _blessing_ and _sanctifying_ the seventh day has\nthe force of a law or command. God separated it from a common to a\nreligious use, to be a standing memorial of his works of creation; and\nto be a sign to Adam and his posterity, who, by working six days and\nresting on the seventh, should show themselves to be the worshippers of\nthat Being who made the world in six days, and rested on the seventh.\n\nThe method pursued in creating the world, presenting a regular\nsuccession of astonishing events, was doubtless intended to convey\nuseful instruction to mankind. Considering the almighty power of the\nCreator, his _fiat_ would have been sufficient instantly to produce\nthe whole apparatus of nature, in beautiful and regular order. But he\nproceeded by degrees in this work, probably to teach us, that, after\nworking six days, we also should rest on the seventh. What other reason\ncan be assigned for his procedure, when a more expeditious plan would\nhave been as easy to him, and more consonant to his omnipotence: but\nonly, that all mankind from this measure should have a perpetual reason\nand obligation to consecrate a seventh day, after six days labor, to\nbe a holy rest to the Lord; and it is reasonable to suppose that God\nexpressly declared his will to our first parents as to this matter.\n\nAs the command for observing the seventh day was given to Adam, as\na general precept for all his posterity, no doubt he and his sons\nregarded it. Afterwards, through the impiety of the ante-deluvians,\nit might be obliterated in the earth, except in the solitary family\nof Noah; who, being a preacher of righteousness, cannot be supposed\nto have neglected the observation of this day, or to have omitted\nrecommending such an important point of religion to the new world after\nthe Flood. And though after this, when men were again multiplied on\nthe earth, wickedness and idolatry were introduced, and the lapse of\ntime had effaced from their minds this and other precepts of religion\nreceived from Noah; yet, we cannot but suppose that this important\ninstitution, with other things relating to the worship of God, was\nretained in the family of Abraham, and the succeeding Patriarchs, till\ntheir bondage in Egypt. But when, through the iniquity and idolatry\nof succeeding generations, the particular time, at first designed and\nallotted for this special service, became forgotten, and Divine worship\nwas entirely neglected by the generality of mankind, God then revealed\nand instituted the Jewish religion, prescribed the mode of worship to\nbe used, and by a special law appointed a certain season for the more\nsolemn exercise of it; and to be a token of the sincere worshippers of\nthe true God, who created all things: and the day thus appointed and\nconsecrated to public worship, was called the _Sabbath_, on account of\nthe rest required to be strictly observed on it, and a command given to\nall that they observe and sanctify it.\n\nThis command originally given to Adam, was renewed before the giving\nof either the moral, judicial, or ceremonial law. It is expressly\ntaken notice of at the fall of the manna, which was granted to the\nchildren of Israel in the wilderness of Sin, before they came to\nSinai, Exod. xvi, 23-27. It was afterwards inserted in the body of\nthe moral law. Exod. xx, 8. It is annexed to the judicial laws; i.e.\nthe laws determining right between man and man, and the punishment of\ntransgressors, Exod. xxiii, 12. And it is added to the first part of\nthe ceremonial law, or Levitical rites and ceremonies, Exod. xxxi,\n13-18; in which passage it is repeated four times in the compass of\nfour verses. In the fourth command God says, \u201cRemember the Sabbath-day,\nto keep it holy.\u201d What day is meant, the following words determine,\n\u201cSix days shall thou labor, and do all thy work: but the seventh is\nthe Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shall not do any work.\u201d\nThat is after six days of labor, the seventh shall be a day of holy\nrest, set apart for the public worship of God. The reason to enforce\nthis is added, \u201cBecause in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the\nsea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day.\u201d The Jews,\nin many of their feasts, were commanded to rest from servile labor,\non which account these are sometimes called _sabbaths_; but we also\nread of one day, which, by way of eminence, is styled the Sabbath, or\nday of rest. Thus we see, that the precept which God gave the Jews for\nthe observation of the Sabbath, appears to be only the repetition or\nrenewal of the law given to mankind from the beginning of the world,\nand not the first publication of it. A new reason indeed is added for\nthe observation of it, namely, their redemption from Egyptian bondage,\nwhich was effected on the seventh day of the week, when God overthrew\nPharaoh and his host in the Red Sea, and thereby delivered them.\n\u201cRemember that thou wast a servant in the land of Egypt, and that the\nLord thy God brought thee out thence through a mighty hand, and by a\nstretched out arm: therefore the Lord thy God commanded thee to keep\nthe Sabbath-day.\u201d And the Jews kept their Sabbath on the seventh day of\nthe week, in remembrance of their redemption from slavery in Egypt.\n\nIt is worthy of remark, that the command for the religious observance\nof the Sabbath, was delivered by Moses at Mount Sinai, in a way\ndifferent from all those ordinances which were only ceremonial. It was\nwritten by the supreme Being himself on tables of stone, on which every\nother thing written was confessedly moral, and of perpetual obligation:\nbut no part of the ceremonial law was written by the finger of God. The\nfourth command was written on tables of stone, to signify that it was\nto continue, as well as the other; and also it was put into the Ark,\nwith the rest of the moral precepts, and is referred to Deut. x, 4. as\nbeing one of the number.\n\nThe sanctification of the Sabbath is considered as a _sign_ between\nGod and his people. \u201cVerily my sabbaths ye shall keep: for it is a\nsign between me and you, throughout your generations; that ye may know\nthat I am the Lord that doth sanctify you:\u201d or, as the original may\nbe rendered, a sign to acknowledge that I Jehovah am your sanctifier.\nAgain--\u201cAnd hallow my Sabbaths; and they shall be a sign between me and\nyou, that ye may know that I am the Lord your God.\u201d Thus God made the\nsanctification of the Sabbath a sign by which it might be known who\ndid belong to him. Working six days, and keeping a holy rest on the\nseventh, is a sign of being the worshippers of the one living and true\nGod, who made heaven and earth in the space of six days, and rested the\nseventh: consequently, the neglecting and profaning the Sabbath is a\ntacit renouncing of him. Therefore the Jewish Rabbies have this saying\namong them, Whoever breaks the other commands is a wicked Israelite;\nbut he who openly and avowedly profanes the Sabbath, is considered as\nan infidel and idolater. Hence we read, that such were to be cut off\nfrom the people, and put to death: as they would not comply with this\ninstitution, so God would not own them as his people, but reject them.\n\nTo those who religiously observe the Sabbath, there are many particular\npromises made. \u201cIf thou turn thy foot from the Sabbath, from doing thy\npleasure on my holy day; and call the Sabbath a delight, the Holy of\n(or to) the Lord, honorable; and shalt honor him, not doing thine own\nways, not finding thine own pleasure, nor speaking thine own words:\nthen shalt thou delight thyself in the Lord; and I will cause thee to\nride upon the high places of the earth, and feed thee with the heritage\nof Jacob thy father: for the mouth of the Lord hath spoken it.\u201d Here\nGod secures to such persons the good of the land of Canaan, which he\nhas promised as an heritage to Jacob and his seed. Plenty, honor, and\nsecurity in the enjoyment of temporal blessings, are annexed to a\nreligious performance of the duty; he will bless the honest labors of\nthose who faithfully serve him, on the six days of the week, which he\nhas appointed for secular employments. The more sincere and devout any\nperson is in keeping the Sabbath, the more will his business prosper\non other days. Promises of this nature have been accomplished in all\nages, to those who have sanctified the Sabbath; and no doubt they will\ncontinue to be so in every subsequent period of time.\n\nAttending to worldly business on the Sabbath, is a profanation of it,\nand strictly prohibited. God says, \u201cThou shalt not do any work, thou,\nnor thy son, nor thy daughter, thy man-servant, nor thy maid-servant,\nnor thy cattle, nor the stranger that is within thy gates.\u201d Again: \u201cSix\ndays shall work be done: but the seventh day is the Sabbath of rest;\nye shall do no work therein: it is the Sabbath of the Lord in all your\ndwellings.\u201d The Sabbath was awfully profaned in the days of Nehemiah.\nHe says, \u201cIn those days saw I in Judah some treading wine-presses on\nthe Sabbath, and bringing in sheaves, and leading asses; as also wine,\ngrapes, and figs, and all manner of burdens, which they brought into\nJerusalem on the Sabbath day: and I testified against them in the day\nwherein they sold victuals. There dwelt men of Tyre also therein,\nwhich brought fish, and all manner of ware, and sold on the Sabbath\nunto the children of Judah and Jerusalem. Then I contended with the\nnobles of Judah, and said unto them, What evil thing is this that ye\ndo, and profane the Sabbath-day? Did not your fathers thus, and did\nnot our God bring all this evil upon us, and upon this city? yet ye\nbring more wrath upon Israel by profaning the Sabbath. And it came\nto pass, that when the gates of Jerusalem begun to be dark before\nthe Sabbath, I commanded that the gates should be shut, and charged\nthat they should not be opened till after the Sabbath: and some of my\nservants set I at the gates, that there should no burden be brought\nin on the Sabbath-day. So the merchants, and sellers of all sorts\nof ware, lodged without Jerusalem once or twice. Then I testified\nagainst them, and said unto them, Why lodge ye about the wall? if ye\ndo so again I will lay hands on you. From that time forth came they no\nmore on the Sabbath.\u201d This is a noble instance of well-directed zeal,\nand successful effort, in that great and good governor. His example\nought to be followed by persons in authority, filling high official\nsituations. The prophet Jeremiah speaks to the same purpose, \u201cThus\nsaith the Lord, Take heed to yourselves, and bear no burden on the\nSabbath-day, nor bring it in by the gates of Jerusalem: neither carry\nforth a burden out of your houses on the Sabbath-day, neither do ye any\nwork, but hallow ye the Sabbath-day, as I commanded your fathers.\u201d\n\nWorks of necessity and mercy are here to be excepted: these may be\ndone consistently with the sanctification of the Sabbath, though they\nare servile and laborious. But great care must be taken, not to plead\nnecessity where there really is none. By such works are meant things of\nimportance, which could not be done the day before, nor postponed till\nafter the Sabbath. A necessity which is occasioned by negligence, or\nwant of thought, or is only necessary to some worldly advantage, will\nnot be a sufficient excuse in this case. In seasons when people have\nmore than ordinary business in their hands, and therefore are apt to\nplead necessity for encroachments on the Sabbath; yet, even then, God\nhas particularly commanded them to rest. \u201cSix days shalt thou work; but\non the seventh day thou shalt rest: in earing-time and harvest thou\nshalt rest.\u201d\n\nThe religious observance of the Sabbath is adapted to promote the\nspiritual advantage of God\u2019s people. Its exercises tend to wean them\nfrom this present world, and raise them above the attractions of sense.\nBy this holy rest there is a pause made in their earthly pursuits,\nand they are called more solemnly to reflect on the invisible and\nimportant realities of a better world, in order to excite their devout\naffections. Had they no such intervals, their hearts would soon be\novercharged with the labors and cares of this life, and they would\nbe too regardless of a better state. God has made it even unlawful\nfor them to follow any secular employments on this day, on purpose to\npreserve them from the undue influence of the objects of sense, and\nthat they might with more intenseness pursue spiritual and eternal\nthings. It is certain, as one judiciously observes, that much of\nthe power of godliness consists in persons living above the present\nworld, in being dead to it, in viewing it with a holy indifference,\nand in setting their affections on things above. But this would be\nvery difficult, or next to impossible, if they were to be constantly\nemployed in worldly affairs; and therefore he who best knows the\ncomposition and constitution of man, has wisely and graciously\nappointed one day in seven, as a rest from terrestrial pursuits, and as\na season wherein he should set himself more intensely to prepare for\nthe heavenly world. When thus withdrawn from earthly concerns, persons\ncan more impartially examine, weigh, and consider how unsuitable a\nportion they are for an immaterial soul, immortal in its duration.\nThey have leisure to meditate with greater freedom on the Author of\ntheir being, on his end or design in placing them on the earth, and\non the results of their conduct awaiting them in a future state.\nThey, therefore, who are duly informed of the worth of the soul, and\nsuitably impressed with the awfulness of that world to which they are\nhastening; who desire the felicity of heaven, and dread the misery\nof hell; will rejoice at the return of the Sabbath, wherein they are\ncalled diligently to prepare for the one, and most cautiously to avoid\nthe other. While thus abstracted from all sublunary things, and engaged\nin the exercise of devotion, they gain a more intimate communion with\nGod. \u201cEvery one that keepeth the Sabbath from polluting it, and taketh\nhold of my covenant; even them will I bring to my holy mountain, and\nmake them joyful in my house of prayer; their burnt-offerings and\ntheir sacrifices shall be accepted upon mine altar.\u201d When persons are\nemployed on this sacred day, in meditating on the infinite perfections\nof God displayed in his works; when the desires of their souls are\nafter him, and they are engaged in offering up prayers and praises to\nthe glorious Author of their being and blessings; then he manifests\nhimself to them in a manner he does not to other men, sheds abroad his\nlove in their hearts, accepts their persons and services, and fills\nthem with joy and peace. This communion is most effectually promoted,\nwhen they are disengaged from earthly things, and wholly employed in\nthe duties of religion: according to that very encouraging promise, \u201cIn\nall places where I record my name, I will come unto thee, and I will\nbless thee.\u201d\n\nThe seventh day was observed by heathen nations, as well as the Jews.\nJosephus ventured to affirm, \u201cThere is no city, whether Grecian or\nBarbarian, there is no nation, which does not rest on the seventh\nday.\u201d Philo Jud\u00e6us stated many years before, that the seventh day\nwas a festival, not to one city or one country, but to all; and he,\ntherefore, calls it the _universal festival_. The heathen writers speak\nof the Sabbath as a high day among them. Clemens Alexandrinus gives\nquotations from Linus, Homer, Hesiod, and Callimachus, who speak of the\nseventh day as a day on which the work of the creation was finished,\nand call it _the holy day_, and _the birth day of the world_. Lucian\ninforms us, in his Pseudologista, that children at school were exempted\nfrom study on the seventh day. This day Suetonius calls a _sabbath_.\nIf any should say, that the Heathen, from the acquaintance they had\nwith the Jews and the writings of Moses, knew that the seventh day was\nto be kept holy: I would answer; that is not probable, for some of the\nHeathen writers who speak of the seventh-day Sabbath, lived near the\ntime of Moses. Beside, the Greeks were at that time wholly ignorant\nof his writings: the Jews thought it a profanation to communicate any\npart of them to the Heathen. Nor were the writings of Moses translated\ninto the Greek language till several hundred years after Homer: the\ntranslation was made in the days of Ptolemy the second, king of Egypt,\nabout three hundred years before the Christian era. And it is not\nof the Jews Saturday-sabbath that the Heathen writers speak, but of\nanother day in the week. It was not the seventh day of the week to\nwhich the ancient heathens confined their rest, but _a_ seventh day,\n_one_ day in seven. Their Sabbath or high festival was that day of the\nweek on which they worshipped the sun, their chief god. It remains\nthen, that the notice of the seventh day among the Heathen came to\nthem originally from the Patriarchs, whose descendants, in their\nseveral dispersions, carried along with them some impressions of the\ntrue religion, which partially continued with them afterward, though\nawfully corrupted with idolatry. To cure mankind of this idolatry, and\nsecure the worship of him who made the sun, and the whole universe,\nMoses, by Divine direction, appointed the last day of the week to be\nthe Jewish sabbath. We may also state, that the reason which God has\nassigned for sanctifying the seventh day to be the Jewish sabbath,\nnamely, his creating the world in six days, and resting the seventh,\nnot only concerns the Jews, but also the Heathens, who are equally\nbound to remember and adore their Creator. Hence the _Strangers_, or\nGentiles, who sojourned among the Jews, and were not obliged to keep\nthe ceremonial law, were bound to keep holy the Sabbath.\n\nThus we perceive, that this command is of a moral nature, and,\ntherefore, of universal and perpetual obligation. The Sabbath was\ninstituted from the beginning of the world, while all things were\nperfectly good, and our first parents were innocent and adorned with\nthe beauty of holiness: even then the Creator appointed that the\nseventh day should be employed in his more immediate service. Some have\nthought, that there is no express command for the observance of the\nSabbath, till after the children of Israel had come out of Egypt; and,\ntherefore, that all the obligations to observe it must be derived from\nthe law of Moses. But this command was given before sin had infected\nhuman nature, consequently previous to the ceremonial law, which, in\nall its parts, was contrived on account of sin, and intended to point\nto a Saviour: for in a state of innocence, there could be no propriety\nin the adoption of such shadows and ceremonies. Nay, as Archbishop\nUsher observes, the appointment of the Sabbath was not only before any\npart of the ceremonial law, but before any promise or prediction of\nChrist, to whom all the ceremonies of the law had respect. Therefore we\nmay conclude, that a command which was to be observed though man had\nnever sinned, and which stood in full force from the creation of the\nworld, cannot be made a part of the ceremonial law, which was not given\ntill after the expiration of 2,500 years. This is a duty incumbent\non all mankind, as is evident from the reason and end of its first\ninstitution; all men being alike God\u2019s creatures, and as such equally\nconcerned to worship him and commemorate his works. The Sabbath is as\nobligatory on all succeeding generations of men, as it was formerly on\nthe Jews, or before the Mosaic economy, on the Patriarchs and their\ncontemporaries. Every creature of God on earth, endued with reason, is\nobliged to separate this day from his common time, and to keep it holy\nto the Lord.\n\nWhen the Jewish ceremonial law was abrogated by Christ, the fourth\ncommand continued in force, and was observed. Speaking of the moral\nlaw, our Saviour says, \u201cThink not that I am come to destroy the law or\nthe prophets. I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. For verily I\nsay unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall\nin no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled.\u201d Now if not one\n\u05d9 _yod_, the smallest letter in the Hebrew alphabet, or _tittle_, or\n_point_, \u03ba\u03b5\u03c1\u03b1\u03b9\u03b1, either meaning those _points_, as a learned author\nremarks, which serve for vowels in this language, if they then existed;\nor the _apices_, or points of certain letters, such as \u05e8 _resh_, or\n\u05d3 _daleth_, \u05d4 _he_, or \u05d7 _cheth_, as the change of any of these into\nthe other would make a most essential alteration in the sense; I say,\nif not one of these was to pass from the law, surely not the command\nwhich is the longest of all the ten, is the only one to which a memento\nis prefixed, and has more reasons to enforce it than any of the other\nnine! Yea, so far from abolishing this command, our Saviour explains\nit, in the case of his disciples plucking the ears of corn on the\nSabbath; which is a manifest proof that he intended it to be continued\nfor the use of the Christian Church. He also enjoined his disciples\nto pray, when Jerusalem should be destroyed, which did not occur till\nforty years after his death, and the consequent abolishing of all the\nJewish rites and ceremonies, that their _flight_ might not be on the\n_Sabbath-day_.\n\nFrom the beginning of the world to the Christian dispensation, the\nseventh day of the week was the Sabbath: ever since the resurrection\nof Christ from the dead, the first day of the week is the Christian\nSabbath. Our Saviour, who is \u201cLord of the Sabbath,\u201d changed it from\nthe seventh to the first day of the week; which does not in the\nleast derogate from the honor and glory of God. If one Sabbath had\nbeen abolished and not another instituted in the room of it, then he\nwould lose the honor of public worship, which he has appointed to be\nperformed on that day. However, if there be a greater work than that\nof creation to be remembered and celebrated, to appoint a day for that\nspecial purpose, tends much more to advance the glory of God, than if\nit should be wholly neglected. And if \u201call men should honor the Son,\neven as they honor the Father,\u201d then it is expedient that a day should\nbe set apart for this worship, namely, the day on which Christ rested\nfrom the work of redemption, or, as the apostle expresses it, \u201cceased\nfrom his own works, as God did from his.\u201d In altering the Sabbath,\nfrom the seventh to the first day of the week, our Saviour displayed\nhis sovereign authority; herein he enjoined what time he would have\nconsecrated for his worship under the Gospel dispensation, as well as\nwhat worship he would have performed on that day. In observing the\nChristian sabbath, we express our faith in a public manner, that Christ\nis come in the flesh, and has completed the work of our redemption;\nand, consequently, that there is a way prepared for our justification,\naccess to God, and hope of finding pardon, acceptance, sanctification,\nand eternal life. And as all the ordinances of Gospel-worship have a\npeculiar relation to Christ, it is proper that the time in which they\nare performed should likewise have respect to him; and, therefore, the\nfirst day of the week is set apart in commemoration of his finishing\nthe work of our redemption.\n\nThat the Sabbath was actually changed from the seventh to the first day\nof the week, appears from the example of the apostles, who, after the\nresurrection of Christ, celebrated that day as a Sabbath. It was on the\nfirst day of the week that the Holy Ghost was poured down in a most\nmiraculous manner on the apostles, to qualify them for the ministry,\nand render them fit instruments for propagating Christianity in the\nworld. While St. Paul was at Troas, we read, that \u201cupon the first day\nof the week, when the disciples came together to break bread,\u201d i.e.\nto receive the Holy Sacrament, \u201cPaul preached unto them.\u201d This was\nnot a private, but a public meeting of the Church; nor was it a day\noccasionally appointed by the apostle, but the stated time of their\nmeeting; and it was usual for the Christians on their Sabbath to\nreceive the Lord\u2019s Supper. The apostle had continued at Troas seven\ndays; why did they not meet together, and he preach to them, on the\nseventh day of the week? because it was no longer the Sabbath, but\nchanged to the first day. It was on the first day of the week that the\nprimitive Christians made collections for the poor.--\u201cNow concerning\nthe collection for the saints, as I have given order to the churches of\nGalatia, even so do ye. Upon the first day of the week let every one\nof you lay by him in store as God hath prospered him, that there be no\ngatherings when I come.\u201d Every man at the conclusion of the week, was\nto cast up his weekly earnings, and see how much God had prospered him;\nand then to bring a right proportion, on the first day of the week, as\nis most likely, to the church or assembly, that it might be put in the\ncommon treasury. Thus it appears, as a learned commentator remarks,\nthat the first day of the week, which is the Christian sabbath, was the\nday on which their principal religious meetings were held in Corinth,\nand the churches of Galatia; and, consequently, in all other places\nwhere Christianity had prevailed. The apostle John speaks of the Lord\u2019s\nday, \u201cI was in the spirit on the Lord\u2019s day.\u201d He calls it the _Lord\u2019s\nday_, because on it Jesus Christ rose from the dead, and had appointed\nit to be the Christian sabbath: thus one Gospel ordinance is called\nthe Lord\u2019s Supper, from its having been instituted by Christ.--If any\nshould inquire when it was that Christ gave instruction to his apostles\nconcerning the change of the Sabbath; we may reply, that it was in\nthat interval of time, during which he \u201cshowed himself alive after his\npassion by many infallible proofs, being seen of them forty days, and\nspeaking of the things pertaining to the kingdom of God;\u201d of which we\nmay reckon the change of the Sabbath to have been one. But if this\nshould not be deemed sufficiently satisfactory, we have the highest\nreason to conclude, that information was given to the apostles by the\ninspiration of the Holy Spirit, whom Christ had promised to send them,\nand that should guide them into all truth. And surely there could not\nhave been a more proper day fixed on for the Christian sabbath; and\nwhich the Christian church has ever since continued to observe, and of\nwhich God himself has signified his approbation. And as the reason of\nthe change now stands, we can neither observe the Jewish seventh-day\nSabbath, without disowning the redemption which Christ has accomplished\nfor us; nor can we refuse to comply with this alteration, and keep holy\nthe Lord\u2019s day, without a manifest contempt not only of our Creator,\nbut of our gracious and merciful Redeemer, who, on this day of the\nweek, rose from the dead, and thereby confirmed our redemption from\nsin, Satan, spiritual thraldom, and everlasting misery.\n\nAs the redemption of the Jews out of Egypt was typical of our\nredemption by Christ, and the Jews on their Sabbath were to keep their\ndeliverance in remembrance; so surely Christians are under the greatest\nobligations on the first day of the week to remember their redemption\nby Christ. On this day our blessed Saviour rose from the dead, and his\nresurrection is a demonstrative evidence that the Supreme Judge is\nfully satisfied, and become the God of peace. There is no dispensing\nwith the honor of the moral law, no receding from the sacred rights of\njustice. The obedience and death of Christ, as our surety, were such as\nthe law and justice required; and by which the honor of God is secured,\nand of which he has most expressly declared his acceptance. When Christ\nhad laid down his life, in as ignominious death, which was all that\nthe law and justice could insist on, God himself unloosed the fetters\nof the grave, threw open the prison door, and in his resurrection from\nthe dead, gave an evident and solemn testimony of his approval. This\nwas the accomplishment of the words of the prophet, \u201cHe was taken from\nprison, and from judgment;\u201d released and discharged, in full evidence\nthat he had made satisfaction, and that God had accepted the payment\nat his hands. The apostle remarks on this important point, \u201cWhom God\nhath raised up, having loosed the pains of death: because it was not\npossible that he should be holden of it.\u201d Not possible, as it is not\njust or righteous that a prisoner, who has satisfied every demand that\nthe law has on him, should be kept longer in prison. The resurrection\nof Christ, therefore, was an open and authentic acknowledgment, that\nGod, considered as the moral Governor and Supreme Judge of mankind,\nacquiesced in his death, as a proper, full, and perfect satisfaction\nto Divine justice for sin. Hence he is represented, in raising Christ\nfrom the dead, as acting under the peculiar character of the God of\npeace. \u201cNow the God of peace, that brought again from the dead our Lord\nJesus Christ, that great shepherd of the sheep, through the blood of\nthe everlasting covenant.\u201d What a delightful view does this present\nof the resurrection of Christ--a risen Saviour, and a reconciled God!\nHow safely may men trust in the one, and with what humble confidence\nmay they apply to the other, for pardon, holiness, and heaven. With\nwhat holy joy should they on the Lord\u2019s day call to remembrance his\nresurrection, and meditate on the greatness of his love in shedding his\nblood for \u201cthe remission of sins,\u201d and to secure for them everlasting\nhappiness.\n\nThe ardent desire he manifested for our welfare was not extinguished,\nor even abated, by the most discouraging considerations: not by the\nunworthiness of those who were the objects of his compassion; not by\nthe thoughts of obscuring his Divine glory with frail humanity; not by\nthe prospect of being exposed to the contempt of men and contradiction\nof sinners; not by the view of meeting with very ungrateful usage from\nhis friends, and falling under the most bitter persecutions of his\nenemies; not by the necessity, arising from a covenant engagement,\nof suffering the punishment due to sin, and submitting to a most\nignominious and painful death. In opposition to these formidable\nobstacles, our blessed Redeemer resolutely and immoveably persevered\nin his benevolent design of dying for us, and thereby effecting our\nsalvation; and when suspended on the cross, he cried, \u201cIt is finished,\u201d\nand gave up the ghost. For calling this to remembrance, was the\nChristian sabbath instituted; and if the consideration of the love of\nChrist in being \u201cdelivered for our offences, and rising again for our\njustification,\u201d will not constrain us to sanctify the Lord\u2019s day, every\nother motive or reason will fail.\n\n\n\n\nTHE END.\n\n       *       *       *       *       *\n\n\n\n\n    Transcriber\u2019s Notes\n\n\n    Punctuation has been standardised.\n\n    Italic text has been denoted by _underscores_.\n\n    Characters in small caps have been replaced by all caps.\n\n    Non-printable superscripts are represented by a caret\n    followed by the character(s) placed in {}, i.e. x^{23}.\n\n    This book was written in a period when many words had not\n    become standarized in their spelling. Numerous words have\n    multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in the\n    text. These have been left unchanged while obvious spelling\n    mistakes have been repaired. Non-typical corrections are noted\n    below:\n\n         Pg 57 - Location of footnote 33 was not marked in the\n                 original text","title":"The Mosaic History of the Creation of the World: Illustrated by Discoveries and Experiments Derived from the Present Enlightened State of Science; With Reflections, Intended to Promote Vital and Practical Religion","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":214527}