{"collection":"myth-cosmogony","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_47228/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_47228","id":"gutenberg_47228","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/47228","summary":null,"tags":["Category: History - Religious","Category: Mythology, Legends & Folklore","Hindu mythology","Legends -- India"],"text":"INDIAN MYTH AND LEGEND\n\n\n\n\n _MYTH AND LEGEND IN LITERATURE AND ART_\n\n\n CLASSIC MYTH AND LEGEND\n _By A. R. Hope Moncrieff_\n\n CELTIC MYTH AND LEGEND\n POETRY AND ROMANCE\n _By Charles Squire_\n\n TEUTONIC MYTH AND LEGEND\n _By Donald A. Mackenzie_\n\n ROMANCE AND LEGEND\n OF CHIVALRY\n _By A. R. Hope Moncrieff_\n\n EGYPTIAN MYTH AND LEGEND\n _By Donald A. Mackenzie_\n\n INDIAN MYTH AND LEGEND\n _By Donald A. Mackenzie_\n\n MYTHS OF BABYLONIA AND ASSYRIA\n _By Donald A. Mackenzie_\n\n MYTHS OF CRETE\n AND PRE-HELLENIC EUROPE\n _By Donald A. Mackenzie_\n\n THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY LTD.\n\n\n\n\n[Illustration: SITA FINDS RAMA AMONG LOTUS BLOOMS\n_From the painting by Warwick Goble_]\n\n\n\n\n INDIAN MYTH\n AND LEGEND\n\n\n DONALD A. MACKENZIE\n\n\n _With Illustrations in Colour\n by Warwick Goble\n and numerous monochrome\n Plates_\n\n\n THE GRESHAM PUBLISHING COMPANY LIMITED\n 66 CHANDOS STREET COVENT GARDEN LONDON\n\n\n\n\nPREFACE\n\n\nThis volume deals with the myths and legends of India, which survive to\nus in the rich and abundant storehouse of Sanskrit literature, and with\nthe rise and growth of Brahmanism, Buddhism, Jainism, &c. The reader\nis introduced to the various sacred works of the Hindus, including\nthe ancient invocatory hymns of the four Vedas, the later speculative\nand expository \u201cForest Books\u201d in which \u201cthe Absolute is grasped and\nproclaimed\u201d, and those great epic poems the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_, which is three\ntimes longer than the _Iliad_, and the _M\u00e1h\u00e1bharata_, which is four\ntimes longer than the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_. In no other country have the national\npoets given fuller and finer expression to the beliefs and ideals and\ntraditions of a people, or achieved as a result wider and more enduring\nfame. At the present day over two hundred million Hindus are familiar\nin varying degrees with the legendary themes and traditional beliefs\nwhich the ancient forest sages and poets of India invested with much\nbeautiful symbolism, and used as mediums for speculative thought and\nprofound spiritual teachings. The sacred books of India are to the\nHindus what the Bible is to Christians. Those who read them, or hear\nthem read, are believed to be assured of prosperity in this world and\nof salvation in the next. To students of history, of ethnology, and of\ncomparative religion they present features of peculiar interest, for\nthey contain an elaborate sociology of the ancient Aryo-Indians, their\npolitical organizations, their codes of laws, their high ethical code,\nand above all their conceptions of God, the soul, and the Universe.\nSome knowledge of them is necessary for those who desire to approach\nwith sympathy the investigation of the religious beliefs of our Hindu\nfellow men and to understand their outlook upon life and the world.\n\nThe Introduction deals with various aspects of the study of these\nancient myths and legends which have been the inspiration of a national\nliterature infused with much grandeur and sublimity. The historic\nAryan controversy, of which the science of comparative mythology is\na by-product, is passed under review, and it is shown to what extent\nphilological theories regarding race problems have been modified during\nrecent years as a result of the adoption of broader and more exact\nmethods of ethnic and arch\u00e6ological research and the ever-extending\nstudy of comparative mythology. There has also been condensed\nmuch important data dealing with the early phases of Aryo-Indian\ncivilization accumulated for historical purposes by industrious and\npainstaking Sanskrit scholars who have been engaged in investigating\nand systematizing the internal evidence of the various religious poems\nand treatises. It will be found that no general agreement has yet been\nreached regarding Aryo-Indian chronology, but it now appears to be well\nestablished that although there were early cultural as well as racial\n\u201cdrifts\u201d, fresh invasions, which had far-reaching results in the social\nand religious life of northern India, occurred at a late period in\nwhat is known as the Vedic Age. In consequence, the problem presented\nby this ancient civilization tends rather to grow more complex than to\nbecome simplified. Its origin is still wrapped in obscurity. At the\nvery dawn of history Aryo-Indian culture had attained a comparatively\nhigh state of development, and a considerable period must be allowed\nfor its growth. Even some of the ancient Vedic hymns, addressed by\npriests to the deities, are styled \u201cnew songs\u201d, which suggests the\nexistence of an older collection. Many of them also afford indications\nthat immemorial beliefs were in process of change and fusion. The\nsublime deities, Varuna and Mitra (Mithra), for instance, were already\ndeclining in splendour. Yet they must have been closely associated with\nIndra, king of the gods, in the unknown Aryan homeland, as is made\nevident by an inscription recently deciphered at Boghaz K\u00f6i, in Asia\nMinor, which refers to them as deities of the mysterious Mitanni people\nwho were of Aryan speech like the settlers in the Punjab. There is no\nevidence, however, that the Mitanni rulers gave recognition to the fire\ngod Agni, who in India was exalted as the twin brother of Indra. The\nproblem involved may not be devoid of ethnic significance, although the\nidentity of the Agni-worshipping section of the early raiders remains\nobscure.\n\nDuring the early Vedic Age in India prominence was given to the gods:\nthe social organization was of patriarchal character; the goddesses\nremained shadowy and vague, some being, indeed, little more than\nfigures of speech. A great change took place, however, after the\ninvasions of the Bharata and other tribes who are now referred to\nas \u201clate comers\u201d. Profound and speculative thinkers attained to the\npantheistic conception of the world soul; new doctrines, which are not\nreferred to in the Vedic hymns, regarding the ages of the universe\nand transmigration of souls, received wide acceptance as the result\nof missionary efforts: the Vedic gods were reduced to the position of\nminor deities and new goddesses rose into prominence, one indeed being\nBharati, the tribal deity of the Bharatas, who became associated with\nthe Saraswati river and under her new name was ultimately made the\nwife of the supreme god Brahma. It is significant to note that the\nnew culture radiated from the \u201cMiddle Country\u201d, the area controlled\nby the \u201clate comers\u201d. That it contained elements which were not of\nIndian origin is made clearly evident when we find that the doctrines\nof the ages of the universe and transmigration of souls were shared\nby other peoples, including the Greeks and Celts and a section of the\nancient Egyptians. Sumero-Babylonian and Egyptian resemblances may\nalso be traced in post-Vedic religious literature, the former, for\ninstance, in the Deluge legend, and the latter in the myth regarding\nthe avenging goddess Kali, who slaughters the enemies of the gods\nlike Hathor-Sekhet, and has similarly to be restrained by one of\nthe deities. The worship of goddesses was also prominent among the\nSumerians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Celts, as contrasted with the worship\nof gods among broad-headed mountain and wandering peoples. In this\nconnection special interest attaches to the conclusions of prominent\nethnologists, who include in the Mediterranean or \u201cBrown\u201d race of\nbrunet \u201clong heads\u201d the early Egyptians and Neolithic Europeans, the\nSumerians and present-day \u201cAryan\u201d types in India, and especially in the\nold \u201cMiddle Country\u201d and Bengal. On the other hand, a broad-headed type\nis still prominent in the Punjab, the area occupied by the earliest\ninvaders who worshipped the Vedic gods. Dr. Haddon suggests that these\npioneers of civilization were mixed with peoples of Mongolian and other\naffinities. Some such ethnic explanation must be urged to account\nfor the differences between Vedic and post-Vedic mythologies. The\ninvasions of the \u201clate comers\u201d, who entered India by a new route, no\ndoubt stimulated thought and promoted culture after settled conditions\nwere secured, as was undoubtedly the result of the mingling of races\nelsewhere.\n\n\u201cIt may be put down as an axiom\u201d, says Professor Jastrow, \u201cthat nowhere\ndoes a high form of culture arise without the commingling of diverse\nethnic elements. Civilization, like the spark emitted by the striking\nof steel on flint, is everywhere the result of stimulus evoked by the\nfriction of one ethnic group upon another\u201d: and he supports his theory\nwith the evidence afforded by Egypt, Babylonia, Greece, Rome, France,\nGermany, and Great Britain, as well as the present-day United States of\nAmerica, \u201cthe melting pot\u201d of many peoples.\n\nThroughout this volume comparative evidence is provided to assist the\nreader towards the study of this most interesting aspect of the Aryan\nproblem. We trace the cremation custom, which has prevailed in India\nsince Vedic times, to countries as wide apart as Great Britain, into\nwhich it was introduced during the Bronze Age, and Southern Siberia,\nwhere it is still practised by the Mongolian Buriats. Over the areas\noccupied by representatives of the Mediterranean race it was unknown\nprior to the invasions of unidentified fire-worshippers. Special\ninterest also attaches to the horse sacrifice, which was also an\nAryo-Indian ceremony even in Vedic times. It is not yet unknown among\nthe Buriats. At one time the horse sacrifice was widely prevalent.\nWhite horses were sacrificed to the sun in Ancient Greece; the sun\nhorses are referred to with horror by Ezekiel; the ceremony was also\nconnected with the mysteries of Aricia grove. Indeed, as is pointed\nout in Chapter V, various ancient peoples offered up this domesticated\nand historic animal. In the Indian epics and religious treatises there\nare illuminating references to the horse sacrifice which throw much\nlight on the significance of the immemorial practice. White and black\nhorses were alternately favoured, and it is evident that the practice\nwas not only associated with solar worship, but was also intended\nto secure fertility\u2014crops, and therefore rain in the first place,\nincrease of flocks, herds, human offspring, &c.\u2014as is undoubtedly\nthe case among the modern-day Buriats. In India the horse was also\noffered up as a sin offering, a late conception, evidently. A prominent\nfeature of this sacrifice in most countries was the decapitation of\nthe sacrificial victim. Recent evidence from Egypt suggests that the\nsacrifice of the ass may have preceded the sacrifice of the horse.\nProfessor Flinders Petrie has found in a triple tomb in the early\ndynastic Tarkhan cemetery the skeletons of three asses with the heads\ncut off and placed beside them. He suggests that the animals were\nkilled to accompany their owner to the other world. The Buriats still\nsacrifice horses at graves, professedly for the same reason. As this\ncustom was not prevalent throughout Ancient Egypt, it may have been an\nimportation, connected, perhaps, with the myth about the sun-ass which\ngallops round a hill-surrounded world followed by the pursuing night\nserpent. An isolated reference is also made to the sacrifice of the\nass in a Twelfth Dynasty story about a Naga-like demigod, a fact which\nemphasizes the historical importance of the material embedded in folk\ntales and mythologies. In this connection it may be noted that certain\ndeveloped myths suggest there may have been either a cultural contact\nof Ancient Egypt with India, through an unidentified medium, or an\ninfusion of religious ideas into both countries from a common source.\nIn an Indian creation myth Praj\u00e1pati weeps creative tears like the\nEgyptian sun-god Ra, whose rays are tears from which all things spring,\nas Maspero shows.\n\nIn India the juice of the soma plant was identified with the vital\nprinciple, and the demons were the poisoners of crops and plants;\nin Egypt honey-flowers and sacred trees sprang from the fertilizing\ntears of deities, while the tears of demons produced poisonous plants,\ndiseases, &c. Like the Egyptian Horus, the Indian Praj\u00e1pati, or Brahma,\nsprang from a lotus bloom floating on the primordial waters. The\nchaos-egg myth is also common to both mythological systems. Brahma\nissues from a golden egg like Ra, and a similar myth is connected with\nthe Egyptian Ptah and Khnumu, and with the Chinese P'an Ku, while the\negg figures in Eur-Asian folk tales which contain the germs of the\nvarious mythologies. All mythologies have animistic bases; they were,\nto begin with, systematized folk beliefs which were carried hither\nand thither in various stages of development by migrating and trading\npeoples. Each separate system bears undoubted traces of racial or local\ninfluences; each reflects the civilization in which it flourished, the\nhabits of thought and habits of life of the people, and the religious,\nethical, and political ideals of their rulers and teachers. When\nwell-developed myths of similar character are found in widely separated\ndistricts, an ethnic or cultural contact is suggested. Such myths may\nbe regarded as evidence of remote racial movements, which, although\nunsupported by record or tradition, are also indicated by ethnological\ndata. It is hoped that the reader will find much suggestive material\nin this connection in their study of the myths and legends of India.\nThey will also find that many of the tales retold in this volume have\nqualities which make universal appeal, and that some are among the most\nbeautiful which survive from the civilizations of the ancient world.\n\nNot a few, we are assured, will follow with interest the development\nfrom primitive myths of great and ennobling ideas which have exercised\na culturing influence in India through many long centuries, and are\nstill potent factors in the domestic, social, and religious life of\nmany millions of Hindus.\n\n DONALD A. MACKENZIE.\n\n\n\n\nCONTENTS\n\n\n CHAP. Page\n\n INTRODUCTION xvii\n\n I. INDRA, KING OF THE GODS 1\n\n II. THE GREAT VEDIC DEITIES 19\n\n III. YAMA, THE FIRST MAN, AND KING OF THE DEAD 38\n\n IV. DEMONS AND GIANTS AND FAIRIES 61\n\n V. SOCIAL AND RELIGIOUS DEVELOPMENTS OF THE VEDIC AGE 76\n\n VI. MYSTERIES OF CREATION, THE WORLD'S AGES, AND SOUL WANDERING 97\n\n VII. NEW FAITHS: VISHNU RELIGION, BUDDHISM, AND JAINISM 119\n\n VIII. DIVINITIES OF THE EPIC PERIOD 138\n\n IX. PRELUDE TO THE GREAT BHARATA WAR 157\n\n X. ROYAL RIVALS: THE PANDAVAS AND KAURAVAS 173\n\n XI. THE TOURNAMENT 185\n\n XII. FIRST EXILE OF THE PANDAVAS 195\n\n XIII. THE CHOICE OF DRAUPADI 213\n\n XIV. TRIUMPH OF THE PANDAVAS 224\n\n XV. THE GREAT GAMBLING MATCH 237\n\n XVI. SECOND EXILE OF THE PANDAVAS 249\n\n XVII. DEFIANCE OF DURYODHANA 270\n\n XVIII. THE BATTLE OF EIGHTEEN DAYS 285\n\n XIX. ATONEMENT AND THE ASCENT TO HEAVEN 310\n\n XX. NALA AND DAMAYANT\u00cd 328\n\n XXI. WANDERINGS IN THE FOREST 340\n\n XXII. NALA IN EXILE 353\n\n XXIII. THE HOMECOMING OF THE KING 364\n\n XXIV. STORY OF RAMA: HOW SITA WAS WON 374\n\n XXV. THE ABDUCTION OF SITA 394\n\n XXVI. RAMA'S MISSION FULFILLED 408\n\n INDEX 429\n\n\n\n\nPLATES IN COLOUR\n\n\n Page\n\n SITA FINDS RAMA AMONG LOTUS BLOOMS _Frontispiece_\n _From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n\n SHANTANU MEETS THE GODDESS GANGA _facing_ 164\n _From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n\n ARJUNA AND THE RIVER NYMPH \" 226\n _From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n\n THE ORDEAL OF QUEEN DRAUPADI \" 242\n _From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n\n THE RETURN OF THE HEROES SLAIN IN BATTLE \" 320\n _From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n\n DAMAYANTI AND THE SWAN \" 330\n _From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n\n DAMAYANTI CHOOSING A HUSBAND \" 336\n _From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n\n RAMA SPURNS THE DEMON LOVER \" 400\n _From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n\n\n\n\nPLATES IN MONOCHROME\n\n\n Page\n\n THE CREMATION GHAT, BENARES _facing_ xxxvi\n\n KALI \" xl\n _From a bronze in the Calcutta Art Gallery_\n\n A VYASA, OR PUBLIC READER, RECITING THE MAHABHARATA \" xlviii\n\n INDRA \" 4\n _From the Indra Temple, Ellora_\n\n INTERIOR OF A TEMPLE TO VISHNU (BRINDABAN) \" 10\n\n THE PARADISE OF INDRA \" 16\n _From a rock sculpture at M\u00e2mallapuram_\n\n AGNI, THE FIRE GOD \" 20\n _From a painting by Nanda Lall Bose_\n\n SHIVA'S DANCE OF DESTRUCTION, ELLORA \" 26\n\n SURYA IN HIS CHARIOT \" 32\n _From the Kail\u00e2sa Temple, Ellora_\n\n THE KAILASA TEMPLE OF SHIVA, ELLORA \" 40\n\n YAMA AND SAVITRI \" 52\n _From a painting by Nanda Lall Bose_\n\n THE CITY OF THE GODS, PALITANA \" 58\n\n DURGA SLAYING GIANTS AND DEMONS \" 64\n _From a sculpture at M\u00e1mallapuram_\n\n THE CELESTIAL FAIRIES (APSARAS) \" 68\n _Sculpture on a modern Hindu temple, Benares_\n\n GROUP OF PRESENT-DAY BRAHMANS \" 80\n\n SADHUS (RELIGIOUS MENDICANTS) AT BENARES \" 82\n\n A YOGI ON A BED OF SPIKES \" 84\n _An example of present-day austerities_\n\n THE BIRTH OF BRAHMA: SPRINGING FROM A LOTUS ISSUING\n FROM VISHNU \" 100\n _From an original Indian painting_\n\n HANUMAN \" 106\n _From a bronze in the Victoria and Albert Museum_\n\n THE HINDU TRINITY AT ELEPHANTA \" 120\n\n VISHNU UPHOLDING THE UNIVERSE \" 124\n _From a sculpture at M\u00e2mallapuram_\n\n KRISHNA AND THE GOPIS (HERDSMAIDS) \" 128\n _From a modern sculpture_\n\n BUDDHA EXPOUNDING THE LAW \" 130\n\n THE BOAR INCARNATION OF VISHNU RAISING THE EARTH FROM\n THE DEEP \" 136\n _From a rock sculpture at Udayagiri_\n\n INTERIOR OF A ROCK-HEWN BUDDHIST TEMPLE (AJANTA) \" 140\n\n LAKSHMI ARISING FROM THE SEA OF MILK \" 144\n _From a sculpture at M\u00e2mallapuram_\n\n SHIVA DANCING ON TRIPURA \" 148\n _From a bronze in the Madras Museum_\n\n GANESA \" 150\n _From a sculpture in the Victoria and\n Albert Museum_\n\n KARTIKEYA, THE WAR GOD \" 152\n _From a painting by Surendra Nalh Gangoly_\n\n PARVATI, WIFE OF SHIVA \" 154\n _From a South Indian temple_\n\n A VAISHNAVAITE NUN READING THE RAMAYANA \" 374\n\n THE CORONATION OF RAMA AND SITA \" 424\n\n\n\n\n_To My Indian Friends_\n\n\n\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\n\nThe triangular sub-continent of India is cut off from the rest of Asia\nby the vast barriers of the Himalayas, the Hindu Kush, the Suleiman\nmountains, and the Indian Ocean. Its population comprises about two\nhundred and ninety-five millions, and is of greatest density on the\nfertile northern plain, which is watered by three river systems, the\nIndus and its tributaries on the west, and the Ganges and Brahmaputra\nwith their tributaries which pour into the Bay of Bengal. South of\nthe Vindhya mountain ranges is the plateau of the Deccan. The climate\nvaries from temperate on the Himalayan slopes to tropical in southern\nIndia, and over the entire country there are two pronounced annual\nseasons, the dry and the rainy.\n\nOur interest abides in this volume chiefly with the northern plain\nand the people who are familiar in varying degrees with the sacred\nand heroic literature passed under review; that is, with the scenes\nof the early Indian civilization known as Aryan and those numerous\ninheritors of Aryan traditions, the Hindus, who exceed two hundred and\nseven millions of the population of India. Modern Hinduism embraces a\nnumber of cults which are connected with the early religious doctrines\nof the Aryanized or Brahmanized India of the past; it recognizes, among\nother things, the ancient caste system which includes distinct racial\ntypes varying from what is known as the Aryan to the pre-Dravidian\nstocks. Other religious organizations may be referred to in passing.\nBuddhists are chiefly confined to Burma, Sikhs number two millions,\nthe Mohammedans nearly sixty-three millions, while the Parsees number\nroughly ninety-five thousand; less than three million natives and\nhalf-castes are Christians.\n\nLike Egypt, India is a land of ancient memories, but its history, or\nrather pre-history, does not begin until about a thousand years after\nthe erection was completed of the great pyramids at Gizeh. Between\n2000 B.C. and 1200 B.C. tribes of pastoral and patriarchal peoples of\nAryan speech were pouring over the north-western frontier and settling\nin the Punjab. There are no written or inscribed records, or even\nnative traditions, of this historic migration, but we are able to\nfollow vaguely, from the references found in religious compositions,\nthe gradual conquest of northern India, which covered a period of\nseveral centuries. To what extent this invasion was racial, rather than\ncultural, it is extremely difficult to discover. But no doubt can be\nentertained regarding the influence exercised by the ancient military\naristocracy and their religious teachers. Certain of the Aryan gods\nstill receive recognition in India after a lapse of over three thousand\nyears. This fact makes Indian mythology of special interest to the\never-increasing number of students of comparative religion.\n\nIndian mythology also possesses particular attractions for us on\naccount of its intimate association with what is known as the \u201cAryan\nproblem\u201d. Scholars of a past generation held pronounced views on Aryan\nmatters, and produced a considerable literature of highly controversial\ncharacter. In fact, theories regarding the Aryan languages and the\nAryan \u201crace\u201d are as varied as they are numerous; the wordy warfare\nwhich occupied the greater part of the nineteenth century, was\nwaged ever strenuously and not infrequently with much brilliance;\noccasionally, however, it was not awanting in the undesirable elements\nof personal feeling and national antipathy. But, happily, we appear to\nhave reached a time when this fascinating and important problem can be\nconsidered dispassionately in the proper scientific spirit, and without\nexperiencing that unnecessary dread of having to abandon decided\nopinions which may have been formed when the accumulated data had less\nvariety and bulk than that which is now available. This change has been\nbrought about by the extended study of comparative religion and the\nwonderful and engaging results which have attended modern-day methods\nof ethnic and arch\u00e6ological research.\n\nThe Aryan controversy had its origin at the close of the eighteenth\ncentury, when that distinguished Oriental scholar Sir William Jones,\nwho acted for a period as a judge of the Supreme Court in Bengal, drew\nattention to the remarkable resemblances between the Sanskrit, Greek,\nLatin, German, and Celtic languages. In 1808, Schlegel published his\n_Language and Wisdom of the Hindus_, and urged the theory that India\nwas the home of an ancestral race and a group of languages that were\nprogenitors of various European ones. Other scholars subsequently\nfavoured Zend, the language of Persia, and transferred the \u201cracial\nbeehive\u201d to that country; rival claims were afterwards set up for Asia\nMinor and the Iranian plateau.\n\nThe science of Comparative Philology was a direct product of these\nearly controversies; it was established in the \u201cthirties\u201d when Bopp\npublished his Comparative Grammar in which a new term, having a racial\nsignificance, was invented: he grouped all European languages, except\nBasque, Magyar, Turkish, and Finnish, as \u201cIndo-Germanic\u201d. After the\nstudy of Sanskrit literature revealed, however, that the Aryans\noccupied but a small part of India when their sacred hymns, the Vedas,\nwere composed, the cradle of the Aryan race was shifted to some\nuncertain area beyond the Himalayan mountains.\n\nMax M\u00fcller, the distinguished Sanskrit authority, who in the words\nof an Indian scholar \u201cdevoted his lifetime to the elucidation of the\nlearning, literature, and religion of ancient India\u201d,[1] abandoned\nBopp's patriotic term \u201cIndo-Germanic\u201d and adopted Aryan, which he\nfounded on the Sanskrit racial designation \u201cArya\u201d. At first he accepted\nthe theory of an Aryan race and especially of an Aryan civilization\nwhich originated on the Central Asian plateau, but, as will be seen, he\nsubsequently modified his views in this regard.\n\n[1] Romesh C. Dutt's _Ram\u00e1yana_ dedication.\n\nA new theory regarding the Aryans, who are now more commonly referred\nto as Indo-Europeans, was strongly advocated in 1851 and later by Dr.\nRobert Gordon Latham, who devoted many years to the study of ethnology\nand philology. He argued that as the major part of the peoples speaking\nIndo-European tongues was found in Europe, the cradle of the race\nmight, after all, be transferred westward. This theory was supported\nby the fact (among others) that the Lithuanian language was no less\narchaic than Sanskrit.\n\nThe European hypothesis found in time many able supporters, and the\nadvocates of rival Teutonic and Celtic claims waxed eloquent and heated\nover the exact location of the Aryan homeland. An industrious search\nwas meanwhile conducted for words common to all Aryan languages which\ndescribed the natural features of the racial \u201ccradle\u201d. This work of\nreconstruction was certainly not lacking in picturesque results, for\nattractive visions were presented of Aryan Arcadias in which the simple\nand contemplative ancestors of many bitter controversialists dwelt\ntogether in exemplary unity and peace. The question of location might\nremain unsettled, but it was generally agreed that the ancient people\nwere surrounded by cows, sheep, and goats; sometimes they rode their\nhorses or yoked them in rough rumbling carts, and sometimes they ate\nthem. No asses were admitted to the fold because of their decided\npartiality for Central Asian plains, which seemed quite reasonable.\nTrouble was occasionally caused by wolves and bears, or, mayhap, a\nstray lion, but these and other worries associated with the simple\nlife might be compensated for by the fact that the primitive people,\nas one writer[2] put it, \u201cunderstood the art of drinking\u201d. Mead,\nbrewed from honey, was found to be \u201cdear to the hearts of the ancient\nAryans\u201d; had the Brahman ever forgotten his \u201cmadhu\u201d, the Welshman his\n\u201cmedhu\u201d, or the Lithuanian his \u201cmedus\u201d? Problems arose regarding the\nancients' knowledge of trees: it was found that \u201cbhaga\u201d was applied\nindifferently by the family groups to the beech and the oak, and more\nthan one ingenious explanation was suggested to account for this\napparent discrepancy. Then, suddenly, Professor Max M\u00fcller swept into\nthe background the rival Aryan homeland pictures, pointing out the\nwhile that it is \u201calmost impossible to discover any animal or any plant\nthat is peculiar to the north of Europe and is not found sporadically\nin Asia also\u201d. Destructive criticism proceeded apace, until now nothing\nhas been left to us of the ancestral Arcadia but \u201cair, water, heat and\ncold\u201d. In his review of the widely accepted philological \u201cevidence\u201d\nregarding the Aryan homeland, Max M\u00fcller declared it to be so pliant\nthat it was possible \u201cto make out a more or less plausible case for any\npart of the world\u201d. The advanced group of philologists held, indeed,\nthat no racial centre could be located. Ultimately \u201cDelbr\u00fcck went\nso far,\u201d says Professor Ripley, \u201cas to deny that any single parent\nlanguage ever existed in fact\u201d.[3]\n\n[2] Rydberg's _Teutonic Mythology_.\n\n[3] _The Races of Europe_, W. Z. Ripley, p. 481.\n\nMeanwhile ethnologists and arch\u00e6ologists were engaged accumulating\nimportant data. It was found that Europe had been invaded at the close\nof the Stone Age by a broad-headed (brachycephalic) people, who brought\nno culture and even retarded the growth of civilization in their areas\nof settlement. A new problem was thus presented: were the Aryans a\nbrachycephalic (broad-headed) or a dolichocephalic (long-headed)\npeople? Its solution was rendered all the more difficult when it was\nfound that living representatives of both racial types were peoples of\nAryan speech. The idea that skull shapes, which are associated with\nother distinct physical characteristics, were due to habits of life and\nthe quality of food which had to be masticated, was in time advanced\nto discredit new methods of ethnic research, but it has since been\nthoroughly disproved. In many ancient graves are found skulls which do\nnot differ from those of modern men and women, living under different\nconditions and eating different food.\n\nPatriotic controversialists were not awanting again in dealing with the\nproblem of varying skull shapes. French scientists, for instance, have\nidentified the \u201cbroad heads\u201d, now generally known as the Alpine race,\nwith the ubiquitous Celts, but as present-day Hindus are mainly \u201clong\nheads\u201d, the Aryan racial connection here suggested remains obscure. A\nclue to the mystery was sought for in Asia Minor, but no satisfactory\nresult could be obtained there to support philological theories,\nbecause the Armenians, who are \u201cbroad heads\u201d, and their enemies and\nneighbours the Kurds, who are \u201clong heads\u201d, are both peoples of Aryan\nspeech. A scornful scientist has dismissed as a \u201cprehistoric romance\u201d,\nthe theory that the fair Scandinavian \u201clong heads\u201d are identical\nwith the brunet \u201clong heads\u201d of India. Both the Celtic (Alpine)\nand Indo-Germanic racial theories are as inconclusive as they are\ndiametrically in opposition.\n\nThe science of philology, which, at its inception, \u201cdazzled and\nsilenced all\u201d, has been proved to be no safe guide in racial matters.\nWe must avoid, as Professor Ripley says, \u201cthe error of confusing\ncommunity of language with identity of race. Nationality may often\nfollow linguistic boundaries, but race bears no necessary relation\nwhatever to them.\u201d[4]\n\n[4] _The Races of Europe_, W. Z. Ripley, p. 17.\n\nBy way of illustration, it may be pointed out in this connection\nthat English is spoken at the present day by, among others, the Hong\nKong Chinamen, the American Red Indians and negroes, by the natives\nof Ireland, Wales, Cornwall, and the Scottish Highlands, besides the\ndescendants of the ancient Britons, the Jutes, the Angles, the Saxons,\nthe Norsemen, the Danes, and the Normans in England, but all these\npeoples cannot be classified in the racial sense simply as Englishmen.\nSimilarly, the varied types of humanity who are Aryan in speech cannot\nall be regarded as representatives of the \u201cAryan race\u201d, that is, if we\naccept the theory of an \u201cAryan race\u201d, which Virchow, by the way, has\ncharacterized as \u201ca pure fiction\u201d.\n\nMax M\u00fcller, in his closing years, faced this aspect of the problem\nfrankly and courageously. \u201cAryas\u201d, he wrote, \u201care those who speak\nAryan languages, whatever their colour, whatever their blood. In\ncalling them Aryas we predicate nothing of them except that the grammar\nof their language is Aryan.... I have declared again and again that\nif I say Aryas, I mean neither blood, nor bones, nor hair, nor skull;\nI mean simply those who speak an Aryan language. The same applies to\nHindus, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts, and Slavs. When I speak of\nthese I commit myself to no anatomical characteristics. The blue-eyed\nand fair-haired Scandinavians may have been conquerors or conquered,\nthey may have adopted the language of their darker lords or their\nsubjects, or vice versa. I assert nothing beyond their language when\nI call them Hindus, Greeks, Romans, Germans, Celts, and Slavs, and in\nthat sense, and in that sense only, do I say that even the blackest\nHindus represent an earlier stage of Aryan speech and thought than the\nfairest Scandinavians.... To me an ethnologist who speaks of an Aryan\nrace, Aryan blood, Aryan eyes and hair, is as great a sinner as a\nlinguist who speaks of a dolichocephalic dictionary or a brachycephalic\ngrammar.\u201d[5]\n\n[5] _Biographies of Words and the Home of the Aryas_, pp. 120 and 245.\n\nAryan, however, has been found to be a convenient term, and even\nethnologists do not scorn its use, although it has been applied \u201cin\na confusing variety of signification by different philologists\u201d.\nOne application of it is to the language group comprising Sanskrit,\nPersian, Afghan, &c. Some still prefer it to \u201cIndo-European\u201d, which\nhas found rivals in \u201cAfro-European\u201d, among those who connect the\nAryan languages with North Africa, and \u201cAfro-Eurasian\u201d, which may be\nregarded as universal in its racial application, especially if we\naccept Darwin's theory that the Garden of Eden was located somewhere in\nAfrica.[6] We may think of the Aryans as we do of the British when that\nterm is used to include the peoples embraced by the British Empire.\n\n[6] _The Descent of Man_, Charles Darwin, chap. vi, p. 155 (1889 ed.),\nand _The Ancient Egyptians_, G. Elliot Smith, pp. 63, 64 (1911).\n\nIn India the Aryans were from late Vedic times divided into four\ncastes\u2014Brahmans (priests), Kshatriyas (kings and warriors), Vaisyas\n(traders, &c.), and Sudras (aborigines).\n\nCaste (Varna) signifies \u201ccolour\u201d, but it is not certain whether the\nreference is to be given a physical or mythological application. The\nfirst three castes were Aryans, the fairest people; the fourth caste,\nthat comprising the dark-skinned aborigines, was non-Aryan. \u201cArya\u201d,\nhowever, was not always used in the sense that we have been accustomed\nto apply \u201cAryo-Indian\u201d. In one of the sacred books of the ancient\npeople it is stated: \u201cThe colour of the Brahmans was white; that of\nthe Kshatriyas red; that of the Vaisyas yellow; and that of the Sudras\nblack\u201d.[7] This colour reference connects \u201ccaste\u201d with the doctrine of\nyugas, or ages of the universe (Chapter VI).\n\n[7] Muir's _Original Sanskrit Texts_, vol. 1, p. 140.\n\nRisley, dealing with \u201cthe leading castes and tribes in Northern India,\nfrom the Bay of Bengal to the frontiers of Afghanistan\u201d, concludes\nfrom the data obtained from census returns, that we are able \u201cto\ndistinguish two extreme types of feature and physique, which may be\nprovisionally described as Aryan and Dravidian. A third type, which in\nsome respects may be looked upon as intermediate between these two,\nwhile in other, and perhaps the most important, points it can hardly\nbe deemed Indian at all, is found along the northern and eastern\nborders of Bengal. The most prominent characters are a relatively short\n(brachycephalic) head, a broad face, a short, wide nose, very low in\nthe bridge, and in extreme cases almost bridgeless; high and projecting\ncheekbones and eyelids, peculiarly formed so as to give the impression\nthat the eyes are obliquely set in the head.... This type ... may be\nconveniently described as Mongoloid....\u201d[8]\n\n[8] _The Tribes and Castes of Bengal_, H. H. Risley, vol. 1, xxxi.\n\nAccording to Risley, the Aryan type is dolichocephalic (long-headed),\n\u201cwith straight, finely-cut (lepto-rhine) nose, a long, symmetrical\nnarrow face, a well-developed forehead, regular features, and a high\nfacial angle\u201d. The stature is \u201cfairly high\u201d, and the body is \u201cwell\nproportioned, and slender rather than massive\u201d. The complexion is \u201ca\nvery light transparent brown\u2014\u2018wheat coloured\u2019 is the common vernacular\ndescription\u2014noticeably fairer than the mass of the population\u201d.\n\nThe Dravidian head, the same authority states, \u201cusually inclines to be\ndolichocephalic\u201d, but \u201call other characters present a marked contrast\nto the Aryan. The nose is thick and broad, and the formula expressing\nits proportionate dimensions is higher than in any known race, except\nthe Negro. The facial angle is comparatively low; the lips are thick;\nthe face wide and fleshy; the features coarse and irregular.\u201d The\nstature is lower than that of the Aryan type: \u201cthe figure is squat and\nthe limbs sturdy. The colour of the skin varies from very dark brown\nto a shade closely approaching black.... Between these extreme types\u201d,\nadds Risley, \u201cwe find a large number of intermediate groups.\u201d[9]\n\n[9] _ibid._ xxxii-xxxiii.\n\nOf late years ethnologists have inclined to regard the lower types\nrepresented by hill and jungle tribes, the Veddas of Ceylon, &c., as\npre-Dravidians. The brunet and long-headed Dravidians may have entered\nIndia long before the Aryans: they resemble closely the Brahui of\nBaluchistan and the Man-tse of China.\n\nIndia is thus mainly long-headed (dolichocephalic). We have already\nseen, however, that in northern and eastern Bengal there are traces of\nan infusion of Mongolian \u201cbroad heads\u201d; another brachycephalic element\nis pronounced in western India, but it is not Mongolian; possibly we\nhave here evidences of a settlement of Alpine stock. According to\nRisley, these western broad heads are the descendants of invading\nScythians,[10] but this theory is not generally accepted.\n\n[10] _The People of India_, H. H. Risley, p. 59.\n\nThe Eur-Asian Alpine race of broad heads are a mountain people\ndistributed from Hindu Kush westward to Brittany. On the land bridge\nof Asia Minor they are represented by the Armenians. Their eastern\nprehistoric migrations is by some ethnologists believed to be marked\nby the Ainus of Japan. They are mostly a grey-eyed folk, with dark\nhair and abundant moustache and beard, as contrasted with the Mongols,\nwhose facial hair is scanty. There are short and long varieties of\nAlpine stock, and its representatives are usually sturdy and muscular.\nIn Europe these broad-headed invaders overlaid a long-headed brunet\npopulation, as the early graves show, but in the process of time the\nbroad heads have again retreated mainly to their immemorial upland\nhabitat. At the present day the Alpine race separates the long-headed\nfair northern race from what is known as the long-headed dark\nMediterranean race of the south.\n\nA slighter and long-headed brunet type is found south of Hindu Kush.\nRipley has condensed a mass of evidence to show that it is akin to the\nMediterranean race.[11] He refers to it as the \u201ceastern branch\u201d, which\nincludes Afghans and Hindus. \u201cWe are all familiar with the type,\u201d he\nsays, \u201cespecially as it is emphasized by inbreeding and selection\namong the Brahmans.... There can be no doubt of their (the Eastern\nMediterraneans) racial affinities with our Berbers, Greeks, Italians,\nand Spaniards. They are all members of the same race, at once the\nwidest in its geographical extension, the most populous and the most\nprimitive of our three European types.\u201d[12]\n\n[11] _The Races of Europe_, W. Z. Ripley, 450 _et seq_.\n\n[12] _The Races of Europe_, W. Z. Ripley, p. 451.\n\nProfessor Elliot Smith supports Professor Ripley in this connection,\nand includes the Arabs with the southern Persians in the same group,\nbut finding the terms \u201cHamitic\u201d and \u201cMediterranean\u201d insufficient,\nprefers to call this widespread family the \u201cBrown race\u201d, to distinguish\nits representatives from the fair Northerners, the \u201cyellow\u201d Mongolians,\nand the \u201cblack\u201d negroes.\n\nNorth of the Alpine racial area are found the nomadic Mongolians, who\nare also \u201cbroad heads\u201d, but with distinguishing facial characteristics\nwhich vary in localities. As we have seen, the Mongoloid features are\ntraceable in India. Many settlers have migrated from Tibet, but among\nthe high-caste Indians the Mongoloid eyes and high cheek bones occur in\nfamilies, suggesting early crossment.\n\nAnother distinctive race has yet to be accounted for\u2014the tall, fair,\nblue-eyed, long-headed Northerners, represented by the Scandinavians of\nthe present day. Sergi and other ethnologists have classed this type as\na variety of the Mediterranean race, which had its area of localization\non the edge of the snow belt on lofty plateaus and in proximity to the\nArctic circle. The theory that the distinctive blondness and great\nstature of the Northerners were acquired in isolation and perpetuated\nby artificial selection is, however, more suggestive than conclusive,\nunless we accept the theory that acquired characteristics can be\ninherited. How dark eyes became grey or blue, and dark hair red or\nsandy, is a problem yet to be solved.\n\nThe ancestors of this fair race are believed to have been originally\ndistributed along the northern Eur-Asian plateaus; Keane's blonde\nlong-headed Chudes[13] and the Wu-suns in Chinese Turkestan are classed\nas varieties of the ancient Northern stock. An interesting problem\nis presented in this connection by the fair types among the ancient\nEgyptians, the modern-day Berbers, and the blondes of the Atlas\nmountains in Morocco. Sergi is inclined to place the \u201ccradle\u201d of the\nNortherners on the edge of the Sahara.\n\n[13] _Man, Past and Present_, A. H. Keane, p. 270.\n\nThe broad-headed Turki and Ugrians are usually referred to as a blend\nof the Alpine stock and the proto-Northerners, with, in places,\nMongolian admixture.\n\nAs most of the early peoples were nomadic, or periodically nomadic,\nthere must have been in localities a good deal of interracial and\nintertribal fusion, with the result that intermediate varieties were\nproduced. It follows that the intellectual life of the mingling peoples\nwould be strongly influenced by admixture as well as by contact with\ngreat civilizations.\n\nIt now remains for us to deal with the Aryan problem in India. Dr.\nHaddon considers that the invading Aryans were \u201cperhaps associated\nwith Turki tribes\u201d when they settled in the Punjab.[14] Prior to this\nracial movement, the Kassites, whose origin is obscure, assisted\nby bands of Aryans, overthrew the Hammurabi dynasty in Babylon and\nestablished the Kassite dynasty between 2000 B.C. and 1700 B.C. At\nthis period the domesticated horse was introduced, and its Babylonian\nname, \u201cthe ass of the East\u201d, is an indication whence it came. Another\nAryan invasion farther west is marked by the establishment of the\nMitanni kingdom between the area controlled by the Assyrians and the\nHittites. Its kings had names which are clearly Aryan. These included\nSaushatar, Artatatama, Sutarna, and Tushratta. The latter was the\ncorrespondent in the Tel-el-Amarna letters of his kinsmen the Egyptian\nPharaohs, Amenhotep the Magnificent, and the famous Akhenaton. The two\nroyal houses had intermarried after the wars of Thothmes III. It is\nimpossible to fix the date of the rise of the Mitanni power, which held\nsway for a period over Assyria, but we know that it existed in 1500\nB.C. The horse was introduced into Egypt before 1580 B.C.\n\n[14] _The Wanderings of Peoples_, A. C. Haddon, p. 21.\n\nIt is generally believed that the Aryans were the tamers of the horse\nwhich revolutionized warfare in ancient days, and caused great empires\nto be overthrown and new empires to be formed. When the Aryans entered\nIndia they had chariots and swift steeds.\n\nThere is no general agreement as to the date of settlement in the\nPunjab. Some authorities favour 2000 B.C., others 1700 B.C.; Professor\nMacdonell still adheres to 1200 B.C.[15] It is possible that the\ninfusion was at first a gradual one, and that it was propelled by\nsuccessive folk-waves. The period from the earliest migrations until\nabout 800 or 700 B.C. is usually referred to as the Vedic Age, during\nwhich the Vedas, or more particularly the invocatory hymns to the\ndeities, were composed and compiled. At the close of this Age the area\nof Aryan control had extended eastward as far as the upper reaches of\nthe Jumna and Ganges rivers. A number of tribal states or communities\nare referred to in the hymns.\n\n[15] _Vedic Index of Names and Subjects_ (1912), p. viii.\n\nIt is of importance to note that the social and religious organization\nof the Vedic Aryans was based upon the principle of \u201cfather right\u201d,\nas contrasted with the principle of \u201cmother right\u201d, recognized by\nrepresentative communities of the Brown race.\n\nLike the Alpine and Mongoloid peoples, the Vedic Aryans were a\npatriarchal people, mainly pastoral but with some knowledge of\nagriculture. They worshipped gods chiefly: their goddesses were vague\nand shadowy: their earth goddess Prithivi was not a Great Mother in the\nEgyptian and early European sense; her husband was the sky-god Dyaus.\n\nIn Egypt the sky was symbolized as the goddess Nut, and the earth as\nthe god Seb, but the Libyans had an earth-goddess Neith. The \u201cQueen\nof Heaven\u201d was a Babylonian and Assyrian deity. If the Brown race\npredominated in the Aryan blend during the Vedic Age, we should have\nfound the Great Mother more in prominence.\n\nThe principal Aryan deities were Indra, god of thunder, and Agni, god\nof fire, to whom the greater number of hymns were addressed. From the\nearliest times, however, Aryan religion was of complex character. We\ncan trace at least two sources of cultural influence from the earlier\nIranian period.[16] The hymns bear evidence of the declining splendour\nof the sublime deities Varuna and Mitra (Mithra). It is possible that\nthe conflicts to which references are made in some of the hymns were\nnot unconnected with racial or tribal religious rivalries.\n\n[16] A convenient term to refer to the unknown area occupied by the\nVedic Aryans before they invaded India.\n\nIndra, as we show (Chapter I), bears resemblances to other \u201chammer\ngods\u201d. He is the Indian Thor, the angry giant-killer, the god of war\nand conquests. That his name even did not originate in India is made\nevident by an inscription at Boghaz K\u00f6i, in Asia Minor, referring to a\npeace treaty between the kings of the Hittites and Mitanni. Professor\nHugo Winckler has deciphered from this important survival of antiquity\n\u201cIn-da-ra\u201d as a Mitanni deity who was associated with Varuna, Mitra,\nand Nasatya.\n\nNo evidence has yet been forthcoming to indicate any connection between\nthe Aryans in Mitanni and the early settlers in India. It would appear,\nhowever, that the two migrations represented by the widely separated\nareas of Aryan control, radiated from a centre where the gods Indra,\nVaruna, and Mitra were grouped in the official religion. The folk-wave\nwhich pressed towards the Punjab gave recognition to Agni, possibly\nas a result of contact, or, more probably, fusion with a tribe of\nspecialized fire-worshippers.\n\nIf we separate the Indra from the Agni, cremating worshippers, it will\nbe of interest to follow the ethnic clue which is thus suggested.\nModern-day Hindus burn their dead in accordance with the religious\npractice of the Agni worshippers in the Vedic Age. It is doubtful,\nhowever, if all the Aryan invaders practised cremation. There are\nreferences to burial in the \u201chouse of clay\u201d, and Yama, god of the dead,\nwas adored as the first man who explored the path to the \u201cLand of the\nPitris\u201d (Fathers) which lay across the mountains. Professor Oldenberg\nconsiders that these burials referred to the disposal of the bones and\nashes of the dead.\n\nProfessor Macdonell and Dr. Keith, however, do not share Professor\nOldenberg's view in this connection.[17] They hold that the epithet\n_Agni-dagdhah_, \u201cburnt with fire\u201d, \u201capplies to the dead who were burned\non the funeral pyre\u201d; the other custom being burial\u2014_An-agni-dagdhah_,\n\u201cnot burnt with fire\u201d. They also refer to _Paroptah_, \u201ccasting out\u201d,\nand _Uddhitah_, \u201cExposure of the dead\u201d, which are expressions of\ndoubtful meaning. These authorities add: \u201cBurial was clearly not rare\nin the Rigvedic period: a whole hymn (x, 18) describes the ritual\nattending it. The dead man was buried apparently in full attire, with\nhis bow in his hand, and probably at one time his wife was immolated\nto accompany him.... But in the Vedic period both customs appear in a\nmodified form: the son takes the bow from the hand of the dead man, and\nthe widow is led away from her dead husband by his brother or nearest\nkinsman. A stone is set up between the dead and the living to separate\nthem.\u201d\n\n[17] _Vedic Index of Names and Subjects_, A. A. Macdonell and A. B.\nKeith, Vol. I, pp. 8, 9 (1912).\n\nThe Persian fire-worshippers, on the other hand, did not cremate\ntheir dead, but exposed them on \u201ctowers of silence\u201d to be devoured\nby vultures, like their modern-day representatives the Parsees, who\nmigrated into India after displacement by the Mohammedans. In Persia\nthe sacred fire was called Atar,[18] and was identified with the\nsupreme deity Ahura-Mazda (Ormuzd).\n\n[18] Compared with the Latin _atrium_, \u201cthe room that contained the\nhearthfire\u201d. Agni is cognate with the Latin _ignis_, cf. Lithuanian,\n_ugnis szwenta_, \u201choly fire\u201d\u2014_Early Religious Poetry of Persia_,\nProfessor Moulton, pp. 38, 39.\n\nAgni of the Vedic Age is the messenger between gods and men; he\nconducts the deities to the sacrifice and the souls of the cremated\ndead to Paradise; he is also the twin brother of Indra.\n\nNow, it is of interest to note, in considering the racial significance\nof burial rites, that cremation was not practised by the western\nrepresentatives of the Brown race. In pre-Dynastic Egypt the dead were\ninterred as in Babylon,[19] with food vessels, &c. Neolithic man in\nEurope also favoured crouched burials, and this practice obtained all\nthrough the Bronze Age.\n\n[19] The theory that certain Babylonian graves show traces of cremation\nhas been abandoned.\u2014_A History of Sumer and Akkad_, L. W. King, pp.\n20, 21 (1910).\n\nThe Buriats, who are Mongols dwelling in the vicinity of Lake Baikal,\nstill perpetuate ancient customs, which resemble those of the Vedic\nAryans, for they not only practise cremation but also sacrifice\nthe horse (see Chap. V). In his important study of this remarkable\npeople, Mr. Curtin says:[20] \u201cThe Buriats usually burn their dead;\noccasionally, however, there is what is called a \u2018Russian burial\u2019,\nthat is, the body is placed in a coffin and the coffin is put in the\nground. But generally if a man dies in the Autumn or the Winter his\nbody is placed on a sled and drawn by the horse which he valued most to\nsome secluded place in the forest. There a sort of house is built of\nfallen trees and boughs, the body is placed inside the house, and the\nbuilding is then surrounded with two or three walls of logs so that no\nwolf or other animal can get into it.\u201d The horse is afterwards slain.\n\u201cIf other persons die during the winter their bodies are carried to the\nsame house. In this lonely silent place in the forest they rest through\nthe days and nights until the first cuckoo calls, about the ninth of\nMay. Then relatives and friends assemble, and without opening the house\nburn it to the ground. Persons who die afterwards and during the Summer\nmonths are carried to the forest, placed on a funeral pile, and burned\nimmediately. The horse is killed just as in the first instance.\u201d\n\n[20] _A Journey in Southern Siberia_, Jeremiah Curtin, p. 101.\n\nWhen the dead are buried without being burned, the corpse is either\ncarried on a wagon, or it is placed upright in front of a living man on\nhorseback so as to ride to its last resting place. The saddle is broken\nup and laid at the bottom of the grave, while the body is turned to\nface the south-east. In this case they also sacrifice the horse which\nis believed to have \u201cgone to his master, ready for use\u201d.\n\nCremation spread throughout Europe, as we have said, in the Bronze\nAge. It was not practised by the early folk-waves of the Alpine race\nwhich, according to Mosso,[21] began to arrive after copper came into\nuse. The two European Bronze Age burial customs, associated with urns\nof the \u201cfood vessel\u201d and \u201cdrinking cup\u201d types, have no connection with\nthe practice of burning the dead. The Arch\u00e6ological Ages have not\nnecessarily an ethnic significance. Ripley is of opinion, however,\nthat the practice of cremation indicates a definite racial infusion,\nbut unfortunately it has destroyed the very evidence, of which we are\nmost in need, to solve the problem. It is impossible to say whether the\ncremated dead were \u201cbroad heads\u201d or \u201clong heads\u201d.\n\n[21] _The Dawn of Mediterranean Civilization_, A. Mosso, London Trans.,\n1910.\n\n\u201cDr. Sophus M\u00fcller of Copenhagen is of opinion that cremation was not\npractised long before the year 1000 B.C. though it appeared earlier\nin the south of Europe than in the north. On both points Professor\nRidgeway of Cambridge agrees with him.\u201d[22]\n\n[22] British Museum _Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age_, pp.\n23, 24.\n\nThe migration of the cremating people through Europe was westward and\nsouthward and northward; they even swept through the British Isles as\nfar north as Orkney. They are usually referred to by arch\u00e6ologists\nas \u201cAryans\u201d; some identify them with the mysterious Celts, whom the\nFrench, however, prefer to associate, as we have said, with the Alpine\n\u201cbroad heads\u201d especially as this type bulks among the Bretons and the\nhillmen of France. We must be careful, however, to distinguish between\nthe Aryans and Celts of the philologists and arch\u00e6ologists.\n\nIt may be that these invaders were not a race in the proper sense,\nbut a military confederacy which maintained a religious organization\nformulated in some unknown area where they existed for a time as a\nnation. The Normans who invaded these islands were Scandinavians[23];\nthey settled in France, intermarried with the French, and found allies\namong the Breton chiefs. It is possible that the cremating people\nsimilarly formed military aristocracies when they settled in Hindustan,\nMitanni, and in certain other European areas. \u201cNothing is commoner in\nthe history of migratory peoples,\u201d says Professor Myres,[24] \u201cthan to\nfind a very small leaven of energetic intruders ruling and organizing\nlarge native populations, without either learning their subjects'\nlanguage or imposing their own till considerably later, if at all.\u201d\nThe arch\u00e6ological evidence in this connection is of particular value.\nAt a famous site near Salzburg, in upper Austria, over a thousand\nBronze Age graves were discovered, just over half of which contained\nunburnt burials. Both methods of interment were contemporary in this\ndistrict, \u201cbut it was noticed that the cremated burials were those\nof the wealthier class, or of the dominant race.\u201d[25] We find also\nthat at Hallstatt \u201cthe bodies of the wealthier class were reduced to\nashes\u201d.[26] In some districts the older people may have maintained\ntheir supremacy. At Watsch and St. Margaret in Carniola \u201ca similar\nblending of the two rites was observed ... the unburnt burials being\nthe richer and more numerous\u201d.[27] The descent of the Achaens into\nGreece occurred at a date earlier than the rise of the great Hallstatt\ncivilization. According to Homeric evidence they burned their dead;\n\u201cthough the body of Patroklos was cremated,\u201d however, \u201cthe lords of\nMycenae were interred unburnt in richly furnished graves\u201d.[28] In\nBritain the cremating people mingled with their predecessors perhaps\nmore intimately than in other areas where there were large states\nto conquer. A characteristic find on Acklam Wold, Yorkshire, may\nbe referred to. In this grave \u201ca pile of burnt bones was in close\ncontact with the legs of a skeleton buried in the usual contracted\nposition, and they seemed to have been deposited while yet hot,\nfor the knees of the skeleton were completely charred. It has been\nsuggested in cases like this, or where an unburnt body is surrounded\nby a ring of urn burials, the entire skeleton may be those of chiefs\nor heads of families, and the burnt bones those of slaves, or even\nwives, sacrificed at the funeral. The practice of suttee (sati) in\nEurope rests indeed on the authority of Julius C\u00e6sar, who represents\nsuch religious suicides as having, at no remote period from his own,\nformed a part of the funeral rites of the Gaulish chiefs; and also\nstates that the relatives of a deceased chieftain accused his wives\nof being accessory to his death, and often tortured them to death on\nthat account.\u201d[29] If this is the explanation, the cremating invaders\nconstituted the lower classes in Gaul and Britain, which is doubtful.\nThe practice of burning erring wives, however, apparently prevailed\namong the Mediterranean peoples. In an Egyptian folk-tale a Pharaoh\nordered a faithless wife of a scribe to be burned at the stake.[30]\nOne of the Ossianic folk tales of Scotland relates that Grainne,\nwife of Finn-mac-Coul, who eloped with Diarmid, was similarly dealt\nwith.[31] The bulk of the arch\u00e6ological evidence seems to point to the\ninvaders, who are usually referred to as \u201cAryans\u201d having introduced\nthe cremation ceremony into Europe. Whence came they? The problem is\ngreatly complicated by the evidence from Palestine, where cremation\nwas practised by the hewers of the great artificial caves which were\nconstructed about 3000 B.C.[32] As cremation did not begin in Crete,\nhowever, until the end of period referred to as \u201cLate Minoan Third\u201d\n(1450-1200 B.C.)[33] it may be that the Palestinian burials are much\nlater than the construction of the caves.\n\n[23] Associated, some authorities urge, with Germans from the mouth of\nthe Elbe.\n\n[24] _The Dawn of History_, J. L. Myres, p. 199.\n\n[25] British Museum _Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age_, p. 98.\n\n[26] British Museum _Guide to the Antiquities of the Early Iron Age_,\np. 8.\n\n[27] _ibid._ p. 6.\n\n[28] _ibid._ p. 8.\n\n[29] British Museum _Guide to the Antiquities of the Bronze Age_, pp.\n16, 17.\n\n[30] _Egyptian Myth and Legend_, p. 143.\n\n[31] Campbell's _West Highland Tales_, vol. iii, p. 55.\n\n[32] _A History of Civilization in Palestine_, R. A. S. Macalister.\n\n[33] _The Discoveries in Crete_, Professor R. M. Burrows, p. 100.\nDating according to _Crete the Forerunner of Greece_, C. H. and H. B.\nHawes, p. xiv.\n\n[Illustration: THE CREMATION GHAT, BENARES\n 1 Photo. Johnson and Hoffmann]\n\nIt seems reasonable to suppose that the cremation rite originated among\na nomadic people. The spirits of the dead were got rid of by burning\nthe body: they departed, like the spirit of Patroklos, after they had\nreceived their \u201cmeed of fire\u201d. Burial sites were previously regarded\nas sacred because they were haunted by the spirits of ancestors (the\nIndian _Pitris_ = \u201cfathers\u201d). A people who burned their dead, and were\ntherefore not bound by attachment to a tribal holy place haunted by\nspirits, were certainly free to wander. The spirits were transferred by\nfire to an organized Hades, which appears to have been conceived of by\na people who had already attained to a certain social organization and\nwere therefore capable of governing the communities which they subdued.\nWhen they mingled with peoples practising other rites and professing\ndifferent religious beliefs, however, the process of racial fusion must\nhave been accompanied by a fusion of beliefs. Ultimately the burial\ncustoms of the subject race might prevail. At any rate, this appears\nto have been the case in Britain, where, prior to the Roman Age, the\nearly people achieved apparently an intellectual conquest of their\nconquerors; the practice of the cremation rite entirely vanished.\n\nWe have gone far afield to find a clue to assist towards the solution\nof the Aryan problem in India. The evidence accumulated is certainly\nsuggestive, and shows that the conclusions of the early philologists\nhave been narrow in the extreme. If the long-headed Kurds are, as\nRipley believes, the descendants of the Mitanni raiders, then the\nAryans of history must be included in the Brown race. As, however,\ncremation was not practised by the Berbers, the Babylonians, the early\nCretans, or other representatives of the ancient brunet dolichocephalic\npeoples, it may be that the custom, which still lingers among the\nMongolian Buriats, was not in the narrow sense of Aryan origin. It may\nhave been first practised among an unknown tribe of fire-worshippers,\nwho came under the influence of a great teacher like Zoroaster. We\ncannot overlook in this connection the possibility of an individual\norigin for a new and revolutionary system of religious doctrines.\nBuddhism, for instance, originated with Buddha.\n\nAs we have said, the Vedic religion of the Aryans in India was\ncharacterized by the worship of male deities, the goddesses being of\nsecondary and even slight importance. A religious revolution, however,\noccurred during the second or Brahmanical Age\u2014the age of priestly\nascendancy. Fresh invasions had taken place and the Aryans were divided\ninto tribal groups of Westerners and Easterners, on either side of\na central power in Madhyadesa, the \u201cMiddle Country\u201d which extended\nbetween the upper reaches of the Saraswati and the Ganges and the\nJumna rivers. The Westerners included the peoples of the Punjab and\nthe north-western frontier, and the Easterners the kingdoms of Kasi\n(Benares) and Maghadha as well as Kosala and Videha, which figure\nprominently in the _Ram\u00e1yana_ epic, where the kings are referred to\nas being of the \u201cSolar race\u201d. The Middle Kingdom was the centre of\nBrahmanical culture and influence: it was controlled by those federated\ntribes, the Kuru Panchalas, with whom were fused the Bh\u00e1ratas of\nthe \u201cLunar race\u201d. It is believed that the military aristocracy of\nthe \u201cMiddle Country\u201d were late comers who arrived by a new route\nand thrust themselves between the groups of early settlers.[34] The\nBharatas worshipped a goddess Bharati who was associated with the\nSaraswati river on the banks of which the tribe had for a period been\nlocated. Saraswati became the wife of Brahma, the supreme god, and it\nwould seem that she had a tribal significance.\n\n[34] _Vedic Index of Names and Subjects._\n\nIf the Bharatas of the \u201cLunar race\u201d worshipped the moon and rivers, it\nis possible that they belonged to the Brown race. The folk-religion\nof the tribe would be perpetuated by the people even although their\npriests became speculative thinkers like the unknown authors of the\n_Upanishads_. It is significant to note, therefore, that the goddesses\nultimately came into as great prominence in India as in Egypt. This\nchange took place during the obscure period prior to the revival of\nBrahmanism. In the sixth century before the Christian era Buddhism\nhad origin, partly as a revolt of the Kshatriya (aristocratic) class\nagainst priestly ascendancy, and the new faith spread eastward where\nBrahmanic influence was least pronounced. When the influence of\nBuddhism declined, the Pantheon is found to have been revolutionized\nand rendered thoroughly Mediterranean in character. The Vedic gods had\nin the interval suffered eclipse; they were subject to the greater\npersonal gods Brahma, with Vishnu and Shiva, each of whom had a goddess\nfor wife. Brahma, as we have said, had associated with him the river\ndeity Saraswati of the Bharatas; the earth goddess, Lakshmi, was the\nwife of Vishnu; she rose, however, from the Ocean of Milk. But the most\ndistinctive and even most primitive goddesses were linked with Shiva,\nthe Destroyer. The goddess Durga rivalled Indra as a deity of war.\nKali, another form of Durga, was as vengeful and bloodthirsty as the\nScottish Cailleach, or the Egyptian Hathor, who, as the earlier Sekhet,\nrejoiced in accomplishing the slaughter of the enemies of Ra.[35] Kali,\nas we shall see (Chapter VIII) replaced the Vedic king of the gods as\na successful demon slayer. As the Egyptian Ra went forth to restrain\nHathor, so did Shiva hasten to the battlefield, flooded by gore, to\nprevail upon his spouse Kali to spare the remnant of her enemies.\n\n[35] See _Egyptian Myth and Legend_.\n\n[Illustration: KALI\n_From a bronze in the Calcutta Art Gallery_\n 2]\n\nThe rise of the goddesses may have been due in part to the influence\nof Dravidian folk-religion. This does not, however, vitiate the theory\nthat moon, water, and earth worship was not unconnected with the\nascendancy of the Brown race in India. The Dravidian brunet long heads\nwere, as we have said, probably represented in the pre-Aryan, as well\nas the post-Vedic folk-waves, which mingled with pre-Dravidian stocks.\nMr. Crooke inclines to the view that the Aryan conquest was more moral\nand intellectual than racial.[36] The decline of the patriarchal\nreligion of the Vedic military aristocracy may thus be accounted\nfor; the religious practices of the earlier people might ultimately\nhave attained prominence in fusion with imported ideas. If the Aryan\nracial type was distinctive, as it appears to have been, in colour at\nany rate, the predominant people who flourished when the hymns were\ncomposed, may have greatly declined in numbers owing to the ravages\nof disease which in every new country eliminates the unfit in the\nprocess of time. Even if Aryan conquest was more racial in character\nthan Mr. Crooke will allow, the physical phenomena of the present day\ncan be accounted for in this way, due allowance being made, of course,\nfor the crossment of types. In all countries which have sustained\nthe shock of invasion, the tendency to revert to the aboriginal type\nis very marked. At any rate, this is the case in Egypt and Crete as\npresent-day evidence shows. In Great Britain, which was invaded by the\nbroad heads of the Bronze Age, the long-headed type is once again in\nthe majority; a not inconsiderable proportion of our people show Stone\nAge (Mediterranean) physical characteristics.\n\n[36] _The North-Western Provinces of India_, 1897, p. 60.\n\nIn this connection it is of interest to refer to immemorial beliefs and\ncustoms which survive in representative districts in Britain and India\nwhere what may be called pre-Aryan influences are most pronounced. A\npeople may change their weapons and their language time and again, and\nyet retain ancient modes of thought. In Devon, which the philologists\nclaim to be largely Celtic like Cornwall, the folk-lore shows marked\naffinities with that of Ireland, Wales, and Scotland, suggesting the\nsurvival of ancient Mediterranean racial influence, for much of what\nwe call Celtic links with what belongs to ancient Greece and the\nEgyptian Delta. Mr. Gomme has shown[37] in an interesting summary\nof recorded folk-practices that the \u201cram feast\u201d of Devon resembles\nclosely in essential details similar ceremonies in ancient Greece and\nmodern India. At the beginning of May the people of Devon were wont\nto sacrifice a ram lamb to the deity of waters. The animal was tied\nto a pillar, its throat was cut, and young men scrambled to obtain\npieces of its flesh for girls. The devourer was assured of good luck\nduring the year. After the ceremony, dancing, wrestling, and drinking\nwere indulged in. A comparison is drawn between this and similar rites\namong the ancient Semites and ancient Greeks. In India a Dravidian\nParia acts as the temporary village priest. He uses a whip like the\n\u201cgad whip\u201d in Lincolnshire, and kills the lamb by tearing its throat\nwith his teeth. A scramble takes place for the flesh, the people\ncirculate the village, as some communities in our own country still\nperpetuate the ceremony of \u201criding the marches\u201d of ancient burghs;\nthen universal licence prevails. Similarly law was suspended at the\nancient Scottish Hallowe'en celebrations; in some districts even in our\nown day Hallowe'en and New Year practical jokes and rowdyism is still\nprevalent. Herodotus refers to the universal licence and debauchery\nwhich characterized the Isis festival in Egypt.\n\n[37] _Ethnology in Folklore_, George Laurence Gomme, p. 34 _et seq_.\n\nA remarkable feature of post-Vedic religion in ancient India is the\nprominence given to the doctrine of metempsychosis (transmigration of\nsouls) and the conception of the yugas or ages of the universe.\n\nIn the _Rigveda_ the soul of the dead proceeds at once, or at any\nrate after burial, towards the next world. In one passage only is\nit spoken of \u201cas departing to the waters or the plants\u201d, and this\nreference, Professor Macdonell suggests,[38] \u201cmay contain the germs\nof the theory\u201d of transmigration. In the speculative prose treatises,\nthe _Upanishads_, which were composed in the Middle Country, the\ndoctrine of metempsychosis is fully expounded. It does not follow,\nhowever, that it originated in India although it may have obtained\nthere unrecognized by the priestly poets who composed the hymns to\nthe deities, long before it became an essential tenet of orthodox or\nofficial religion. Other representative communities of the Brown race\nprofessed this doctrine which appears to have evolved from the vague\nbelief shared by more than one primitive race, that the souls of the\ndead, and especially of dead children, were ever on the outlook for\nsuitable mothers. Even in Central Australia a particular tribe has\nperpetuated \u201cthe germs of the theory\u201d, which may also be traced in the\nwidespread custom of visiting standing stones at a certain phase of\nthe moon to perform a ceremony so that offspring may be obtained. The\nUpanishadic doctrine of metempsychosis is less likely to have been\nso much coincidental as racial when we find that it is restricted to\nthose areas where definite racial influences must have been at work.\nThe Greeks believed in transmigration. So did also a section of the\nEgyptian people as Herodotus has stated and as is proved by references\nin folk-tales, temple chants and inscriptions.[39] As we show (Chapter\nVI), the Irish conception closely resembled the Indian, and it also\nobtained among the Gauls. There is no trace, however, that the\nTeutonic peoples were acquainted with the fully developed doctrine of\nmetempsychosis; the souls of the dead departed immediately to Valhal,\nHela, or the loathsome Nifelhel.\n\n[38] _A History of Sanskrit Literature_, p. 115.\n\n[39] See _Egyptian Myth and Legend_.\n\nThe doctrine of the world's ages is common to the Indian, Greek, and\nIrish mythologies, but is not found in Teutonic mythology either.[40]\nThere are indications that it may have at one time obtained in Egypt,\nfor there was an Age of Ra, then a deluge, an Age of Osiris, an Age of\nSet, &c.; but the doctrine, like other conceptions in Egypt, probably\nsuffered from the process of priestly transformation in the interests\nof sectarian propaganda.\n\n[40] The \u201cGolden Age\u201d of the gods, and the regeneration of the world\nafter Ragnarok, do not refer to the doctrine of the world's ages as\nfound in other mythologies.\n\nIn India the ages are called the yugas, and this term has a totally\ndifferent meaning in Vedic and Upanishadic times. Evidently the Bharata\ninvasion and the establishment of the middle country power of their\nallies, the Kuru-Panchalas, was not unconnected with the introduction\nof the doctrines of metempsychosis and the yugas, and the prominence\nsubsequently given to the worship of female deities.\n\nIf this theory can be established, we are confronted by an extremely\ninteresting problem. It would appear that the mythology of the Vedic\nperiod bears a close resemblance to Teutonic, while that of the\npost-Vedic period connects more intimately with Greek, Celtic, and\nEgyptian. Assuming that the Vedic people were influenced by what we\nrecognize as Teutonic modes of thought, do we find here proof that\nthe Aryans came from Europe? In Chapter II it is shown that the Norse\nHeimdal displays points of resemblance to Agni. The former, however,\nhas been developed almost beyond recognition as a fire god, and it is\nevident that we find him in northern Europe in his latest and most\npicturesque form. On the other hand, there is no dubiety about the\norigin of the Vedic Agni.\n\nThe evidence afforded by arch\u00e6ology is highly suggestive in this\nconnection. Scandinavia received its culture from the south at a\ncomparatively late period in the Bronze Age, and it certainly exercised\nno intellectual influence in Europe in earlier times. Bronze is, of\ncourse, of less ethnic significance than beliefs, but it is difficult\nto believe, at the same time, that an isolated and poorly armed\npeople could have imposed its intellectual culture over a wide area\nwithout having received anything in return. It is more probable that\nthe northern Germanic peoples were subjected to the same influences\nwhich are traceable in their mythology and in the Vedic hymns, from\na common source, and there may be more than mere mythology in the\npersistent tradition that the ancestors of the Teutons immigrated from\nAsia led by Odin. We need not assume that the movement was so much a\nracial as a cultural one, which emanated from a particular area where\nreligious conceptions were influenced by particular habits of life\nand \u201cimmemorial modes of thought\u201d. Among the settled and agricultural\npeoples of the Brown race, the development of religious ideas followed\ndifferent lines, and were similarly controlled by early ideas which\nsprang from different habits and experiences.\n\nIn the opening chapters we present various phases of Aryan life and\nreligion in India, beginning with the worship of Indra, and concluding\nwith the early stages of modern Hinduism. From the ancient tribal\nstruggles of the Middle Country accumulated the hero songs which\nreceived epic treatment in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_, while the traditions of\nthe \u201cEasterners\u201d were enshrined in the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_. Although neither\nof these great works can be regarded as historical narratives, they\ncontain a mass of historical matter which throws much light on the\nhabits and customs and beliefs of the early peoples.\n\nThese epics were utilized by Brahmanical compilers for purposes of\nreligious propaganda, and survive to us mainly as sacred books. In\nour pages we have given prominence to the heroic narrative which\nremains embedded in the mass of doctrinal treatises and mythological\ninterpolations. The miraculous element is somewhat toned down in the\naccounts of conflicts, and the more dramatic phases of the heroic\nstories are presented in as full detail as space permits, so as to\nafford our readers glimpses of ancient life in northern India at a\ntime when Vedic religion still held sway. This applies especially to\nthe _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_, the kernel of which, no doubt, contains the hero\nsongs of the Bharata and other tribes. The mythical conflicts of the\n_R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_ appeal less to western minds than its purely human episodes.\nWe cannot help being impressed by the chivalrous character of the\nleading heroes, the high sense of honour displayed by the princes,\nand the obedience shown by sons to their parents. We may weary of\nRama's conflicts with giants and demons, but will long remember him\nas the child who pronounced his name as \u201c'Ama\u201d and cried for the moon,\nor sat on his father's knee at meetings of the State Council. Our\ninterest will also abide with him as a lover and a faithful husband\nwho suffered wrong. His brothers are noble and heroic characters,\nworthy of Shakespeare. But even the Bard of Avon never depicted more\nwonderful and fascinating women than the heroines of the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_\nand _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_. Our gallery includes, among others, the noble and\nself-sacrificing Savitri, who rescued her husband from the clutches of\ndeath by exercise of her strong love and devotion; the faithful and\nvirtuous Sita, and the sorrowful and constant Damayant\u00ed, and beautiful\nShakuntal\u00e1. In western literature romance usually ends with marriage;\nin India the devotion of wives is of more account than the yearnings of\nlove-smitten Juliets on moonlight nights.\n\nAnother aspect of Sanskrit literature is the feeling of the poets for\nNature. These voluminous writers revelled in the luxuriant loveliness\nand splendour of Indian forests, and the charms of gleaming valleys\nand serene, snow-capped mountains; even the gods loved to hear the hum\nof insects and the songs of melodious birds, and, like mortals, to\ngather flowers of sweet scents and brilliant colours. Hundreds of songs\nwere sung in praise of the lotus blooms that gemmed the clear waters\nof lakes and ponds, and Paradise was pictured as a jungle of beauty,\nfanned by soft winds, radiant with blossoms, and ever vocal with music\nand song. To illustrate this phase of India's classic literature, we\nreproduce at length the representative story of Nala with much of its\npoetic details.\n\nThe civilization revealed by the narrative poems was of no mean\norder. The ancient Aryans were chivalrous knights. No such barbaric\nincident occurs in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ battles as when in the _Iliad_ the\nvictorious Achilles drags behind his chariot the body of the slain\nHector. When Arjuna, the Indian Achilles, slays Karna, the Indian\nHector, he honours his fallen foe and performs those rites at the\nfuneral pyre which assures the dead hero immortal bliss in Paradise.\nWhen, again, Arjuna mortally wounds Bhishma, he procures water to\nquench the thirst of his dying opponent. Even the villains are not\nwithout their redeeming qualities. Duryodhana of the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_,\nwho consents to the slaughter of his sleeping rivals, dies with grief\nbecause the innocent children of his enemies were slain. R\u00e1vana, the\ndemon king of Ceylon, touches us in the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_ by his grief for his\nson, who was slain fighting against Laksmana, brother of Rama.\n\nTo appreciate fully the sacred and romantic literature of India, we\nshould follow the advice of Robert Louis Stevenson. \u201cTo learn aright\nfrom any teacher,\u201d he wrote, \u201cwe must first of all, like a historical\nartist, think ourselves into sympathy with his position.\u201d And if in\nendeavouring to understand the religious conceptions of the ancient\nforest sages, we, at times, find ourselves in difficulties, it may be\nthat \u201cif a saying is hard to understand, it is because we are thinking\nof something else\u201d\u2014we are looking on India with European eyes and\nwith European prejudices. \u201cThere is always\u201d, said Stevenson, \u201ca ruling\nspirit behind the code of rules, an attitude, a relation, a point of\nthe compass, in virtue of which we conform or dissent.\u201d[41]\n\n[41] _Lay Morals._\n\nWe are confident that our readers who peruse with sympathy and, we\nhope, with enjoyment, the chapters which follow, will feel themselves\ndrawn closer than hitherto to the millions of our fellow subjects\nin the great dependency of the British Empire, by whom Rama and\nYudhishthira are regarded as ideal types of strong manhood, and Savitri\nand Sita as perfect women and exemplary lovers and wives.\n\n[Illustration: A VYASA, OR PUBLIC READER, RECITING THE MAHABHARATA\n 3]\n\n\n\n\nINDIAN MYTH AND LEGEND\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER I\n\nIndra, King of the Gods\n\n Types of Hammer Gods\u2014The Aryan Indra\u2014Chinese World Shaper\u2014Scottish\n Hunting Deity\u2014Egyptian Artisan God\u2014Greek and Roman Thunder\n Gods\u2014Thor\u2014Hittite, Assyrian, and other types\u2014A Wail from\n Palestine\u2014Babylonian Influence\u2014Indra's Indian Character\u2014A Nature\n Myth\u2014Drought Demon slain\u2014Gods and Demons in conflict\u2014Origin of\n Indra's Thunderbolt\u2014Demons' plot to destroy Universe\u2014Babylonian\n Creation Myth\u2014How Indra Shaped the World\u2014Elfin Artisans in\n India, Egypt, and Germania\u2014Babylonian Artisan God\u2014Indra the\n Harvest God\u2014The God of Battle\u2014Comparison with Thor\u2014Aryan Cattle\n Lifters\u2014Indra's Queen and Attendants.\n\n\nThe ancient Eur-Asian \u201chammer god\u201d, bearing the tribal name of Indra,\naccompanied the earliest invading bands of hunting and pastoral\nAryans, who hailed with joy the \u201cfresh woods and pastures new\u201d of the\nPunjab, the green country of \u201cFive Rivers\u201d. This deity of wanderers\nand invaders was already of great antiquity and wide distribution;\nhis attributes were in accord with the habits and ideals of his\nworshippers; they multiplied with the discoveries of man and were ever\ninfluenced by the conditions prevailing in new areas of localization.\nHe was the Thunderer who brought rain to quicken dried-up pasture\nlands; he was the god of fertility, and he became the corn spirit;\nhe was \u201cthe friend of man\u201d; he was the artisan of the Universe which\nhe shaped with his hammer, the dragon slayer, the giant killer, the\nslaughterer of enemies, the god of war. His racial significance must\never remain obscure. We cannot identify his original home, or even\nfix with certainty the arch\u00e6ological period in which he first took\ndefinite shape. It is possible that he may have been invoked and\npropitiated by Neolithic, or even by Pal\u00e6olithic, flint knappers who\nstruck fire from stone long ere they suspected the existence of metal;\nthe primitive hunting and pastoral wanderers may have conceived of a\nthunder deity engaged in splintering the hills with his stone hammer,\nand fighting demons in the rude manner in which they themselves\ncontended against beasts of prey. Memories of the Stone Age cling to\nthe hammer god. Indra's bolt was \u201cthe all-dreaded thunderstone\u201d of\nShakespeare's lyric; until recently Pal\u00e6olithic and Neolithic artifacts\nwere reputed to be \u201celf bolts\u201d and \u201cthunder bolts\u201d which fell from the\nsky; in Scandinavian folklore \u201cthe flint hills\u201d are the fragments of\nthe weapon wielded by the thunder giant Hrungner. The bolt or hammer\nultimately became an axe; and according to the modern Greeks, lightning\nflashes are caused by the blows of the \u201csky axe\u201d (astropel\u00e9ki);\nScottish Gaelic retains an immemorial reference to the \u201cthunder ball\u201d\n(peleir-tarnainaich).\n\nThe hammer god's close association with hilly countries suggests that\nhe was first worshipped on the steppes and then distributed by the\nnomads whose migrations were propelled by changing climatic conditions.\nHe is found as far east as China, where, as P'an Ku, the dwarfish\n\u201cfirst man\u201d, he smites primeval rocks with his thunder hammer while\nengaged in the work of shaping the hills; he is found as far west\nas Scotland, where, as the hunting giant Finn-mac-Coul, \u201cin height\nsixty feet\u201d, he strikes with his hammer, \u201cOrd na Feinne\u201d, such mighty\nblows on his shield that he is heard by his followers in Lochlann\n(Scandinavia). From ancient Egypt come distant echoes of the world\nartisan Ptah, now a dwarf and anon a giant, who hammers out the copper\nsky, suggesting the presence in Memphis of early Asian settlers at\nthe very dawn of history. In southern Europe the deity is Zeus-pater\n(Jupiter), the sublime wielder of the thunderbolt; in northern Europe\nhe is lusty Thor, hurling Mjolner through the air against Jotuns, or\ncleaving valleys with it in the mountain range which he mistook for\nthe giant Skrymer. We find the hammer god as Tarku among the Hittites;\nhe is Indra in Mitanni as in the Punjab; he is Rammon, or Adad, who\nis carried aloft in triumph by the soldiers of Assur-banipal, the\nAssyrian Emperor; he is remembered in Palestine by the wail of Naaman,\nwho cried: \u201cWhen my master goeth into the house of Rimmon to worship\nthere, and he leaneth on my hand, and I bow myself in the house of\nRimmon: when I bow down myself in the house of Rimmon, the Lord pardon\nthy servant in this thing....\u201d[42] The thunder god is also known in\nBabylon, which received many of its settlers from the hills of Elam\nand where Kassites, associated with Aryans, established a dynasty\nafter successful invasion, prior to the discovery of the Punjab. The\nauthorities are agreed that Aryan culture shows traces of Babylonian\ninfluence; it does not follow, however, that Indra is of Babylonian\norigin.\n\n[42] _2 Kings_, v, 18.\n\nBut although his name, which has been deciphered as \u201cIn-da-ra\u201d at\nBoghaz-K\u00f6i in Asia Minor, may belong to the early Iranian period, the\nVedic \u201cKing of the gods\u201d assumed a distinctly Indian character after\nlocalization in the land of the \u201cFive Rivers\u201d; he ultimately stepped\nfrom his chariot, drawn by the steeds of the Aryan horse tamers, and\nmounted an elephant; his Heaven, called Swarga, which is situated on\nthe summit of Mount Meru, eclipses Olympus and Valhal by reason of its\ndazzling Oriental splendour; his combats are reflections of the natural\nphenomena of Hindustan.\n\nWhen the hot Indian summer draws to a close, the whole land is parched\nand athirst for rain; rivers are low and many hill streams have dried\nup; man and beast are weary and await release in the breathless\nenervating atmosphere; they are even threatened by famine. Then dense\nmasses of cloud gather in the sky; the tempest bellows, lightnings\nflash and thunder peals angrily and loud; rain descends in a deluge;\nonce again torrents pour down from the hills and rivers become swollen\nand turgid. Indra has waged his battle with the Drought Demons, broken\ndown their fortress walls, and released the imprisoned cow-clouds which\ngive nourishment to his human \u201cfriends\u201d; the withered pastures become\ngreen with generous and rapid growth, and the rice harvest follows.\n\nAccording to Vedic myth, Indra achieved his first great victory\nimmediately after birth. Vritra, \u201cthe encompasser\u201d, the Demon of\nDrought, was holding captive in his mountain fortress the cloud-cattle\nwhich he had harried in the approved manner of the Aryan raiders.[43]\nMankind entreated the aid of the gods, \u201cthe shining ones, the world\nguardians\u201d:\n\n[43] One of the sections of the epic _Mahabharata_ is called\n\u201cGo-Harran\u201d, which signifies \u201ccattle harrying\u201d.\n\n Who will take pity? Who will bring refreshment?\n Who will come nigh to help us in distress?\n Counsels the thoughts within our hearts are counselling,\n Wishes are wished and soar towards the highest\u2014\n O none but them, the shining ones, are merciful,\n My longing wings itself towards the Eternals.\n\n[Illustration: INDRA\n_From the Indra Temple, Ellora_\n 4]\n\nIndra arose heroically to do battle for the sacrificers. Impulsively he\nseized the nectar of the gods, called Soma, and drank a deep draught\nof that intoxicating juice. Then he snatched up his thunderstone which\nhad been fashioned by the divine artisan Twashtri, who resembles the\nGermanic Mimer, the \u201cwonder smith\u201d. His \u201cfavourite bays\u201d, named the\nBold and the Brown, were yoked in his golden chariot by his attendants\nand followers, the youthful Maruts.\n\nNow, at the very beginning, Indra, the golden child, became the king of\nthe three worlds. He it was who gave the air of life; he gave strength\nalso. All the shining gods revered him and obeyed his commands. \u201cHis\nshadow is immortality; his shadow is death.\u201d\n\nThe Maruts, the sons of red Rudra, were the spirits of tempest and\nthunder. To each of their chariots were yoked two spotted deer and one\nswift-footed, never-wearying red deer as leader. They were stalwart and\ncourageous youths, \u201cfull of terrible designs like to giants\u201d; on their\nheads were golden helmets and they had golden breastplates, and wore\nbright skins on their shoulders; their ankles and arms were decked with\ngolden bracelets. The Maruts were always strongly armed with bows and\narrows and axes, and especially with gleaming spears. All beings feared\nthose \u201ccloud shakers\u201d when they hastened forth with their lightning\nspears which \u201cshattered cattle like the thunderstone\u201d; they were wont\nto cleave cloud-rocks and drench the earth with quickening showers.\n\nWhen Indra drove forth to attack the Drought Demon, the \u201chastening\nMaruts\u201d followed him, shouting with loud voices: in \u201ca shower\u201d were\nthe Maruts \u201clet loose\u201d; they dashed towards the imprisoned cows of the\nclouds and \u201cchased them aloft\u201d.\n\nThe dragon Vritra roared when Indra drew nigh; whereat heaven shook and\nthe gods retreated. Mother Earth, the goddess Prithivi (prit\u00b4hi-vee),\nwas troubled regarding her golden son. But Indra advanced boldly with\nthe roaring Maruts; he was inspired by the hymns of the priests; he had\ndrunken deeply of Soma; he was strengthened by the sacrifices offered\non earth's altars; and he wielded the thunderstone.\n\nThe Drought Demon deemed itself invulnerable, but Indra cast his weapon\nand soon discovered the vulnerable parts of its writhing body. He slew\nthe monster; it lay prone before him; the torrents burst forth and\ncarried it away to the sea of eternal darkness. Then Indra rejoiced and\ncried out:\n\n I have slain Vritra, O ye hast'ning Maruts;\n I have grown mighty through my own great vigour;\n I am the hurler of the bolt of Thunder\u2014\n For man flow freely now the gleaming waters.\n\nOn earth the worshippers of the god were made glad; the Rishi hymned\nhis praises:\n\n I will extol the manly deeds of Indra:\n The first was when the Thunder stone he wielded\n And smote the Dragon; he released the waters,\n He oped the channels of the breasted mountains.\n\n He smote the dragon Vritra in its fortress\u2014\n Twashtri had shaped for him the thunder weapon\u2014\n Then rushing freely like to bellowing cattle\n The gladsome waters to the sea descended.\n\n Bull-spirited did Indra choose the Soma,\n He drank its juices from the triple ladles;\n Then clutched the Bounteous One his thunder weapon,\n And fiercely smote the first-born of the Dragons.\n\n The smitten monster fell amidst the torrents,\n That pause nor stay, for ever surging onward;\n Then Vritra covered by the joyful billows\n Was carried to the darksome deeps of Ocean.\n\n \u2014_Rigveda_, i. 32.\n\nA post-Vedic version of the encounter between Indra and the demon\nVritra is given in the \u201cVana Parva\u201d section of _Mah\u0101bh\u0101rata_. Although\nit is coloured by the change which, in the process of time, passed\nover the religious beliefs of the Aryans, it retains some features of\nthe original myth which are absent in the Vedic hymns. It should be\nunderstood that, at the period referred to, the belief obtained that\nthe gods derived their powers from the saintly Rishis,[44] who fed them\nwith sacrifices and underwent terrible penances, which enabled them to\nsupport or destroy the Universe at will.\n\n[44] The deified poets and sages. See Chapter VIII.\n\nIt is related that in the Krita Age (the first Age of the Universe) a\nhost of D\u0101n\u0101vas (giants and demons) were so strongly armed that they\nwere invincible in battle. They selected the dragon Vritra as their\nleader, and waged war against the gods, whom they scattered in all\ndirections.\n\nRealizing that they could not regain their power until they\naccomplished the death of Vritra, the Celestials appeared before their\nGrandsire, the Supreme Being, Brahma, the incarnation of the Soul of\nthe Universe. Brahma instructed them to obtain the bones of a Rishi\nnamed Dadhicha, from which to construct a demon-slaying weapon. So the\ngods visited the Rishi and bowed down before him, and begged the boon\naccording to Brahma's advice.\n\nSaid Dadhicha: \u201cO ye gods, I will renounce my body for your benefit.\u201d\n\nThen the Rishi gave up his life, and from his bones the artisan god,\nTwashtri, shaped Indra's great weapon, which is called Vajra.[45]\n\n[45] Adolf Kaegi says: \u201cAlso Vadha or Vadhar\u201d, which he compares\nwith German, _Wetter_; O.H. German, _Wetar_: Anglo-Saxon, _Weder_;\nEnglish, _Weather_. The original word signifying the sudden change\nin atmospheric conditions caused by the thunderstorm was ultimately\napplied to all states of the air.\n\nTwashtri spake to Indra and said: \u201cWith this, the best of weapons, O\nexalted one, reduce that fierce foe of the gods to ashes! And, having\nslain the foe, rule thou happily the entire domain of heaven, O chief\nof the celestials, with those that follow thee.\u201d[46]\n\n[46] Roy's translation of _Mahabharata_.\n\nThen Indra led the gods against the mighty host. They found that Vritra\nwas surrounded by dreaded Danavas, who resembled mountain peaks. A\nterrible conflict was waged, but once again the gods were put to\nflight. Then Indra saw Vritra growing bolder, and he became dejected.\nBut the Supreme Being protected him and the gods endowed him with their\nstrength, so that he became mightier than before. Thereupon Vritra was\nenraged, and roared loudly and fiercely, so that the heavens shook and\nthe earth trembled with fear. Deeply agitated, Indra flung his divine\nweapon, which slew the leader of the Danavas. But Indra, thinking the\ndemon was still alive, fled from the field in terror to seek shelter\nin a lake. The Celestials, however, perceived that Vritra had been\nslain, and they rejoiced greatly and shouted the praises of Indra.\nThen, rallying once more, the gods attacked the panic-stricken Danavas,\nwho turned and fled to the depths of ocean. There in the fathomless\ndarkness they assembled together, and began to plot how they would\naccomplish the destruction of the three worlds.[47]\n\nAt length the dread conspirators resolved to destroy all the Rishis who\nwere possessed of knowledge and ascetic virtue, because the world was\nsupported by them. So they made the ocean their abode, raising billows\nhigh as hills for their protection, and they began to issue forth from\ntheir fortress to make attacks on the mighty saints.\n\nIn the Babylonian Story of Creation the female dragon Tiawath (Tiamat),\nwhose name signifies \u201cthe sea\u201d,[47] desired to possess the world, and\nplotted against the gods with her horde of giant serpents, \u201craging\ndogs, scorpion men, fish men, and other terrible beings\u201d. The gods\nthen selected Belus (Bel-Merodach) as their leader, and proclaimed him\ntheir king. He slew Tiawath and covered the heavens with one part of\nher body, and fashioned the earth with the other half. Then he set the\nmoon and the stars in the sky, and afterwards created man: \u201che divided\nthe darkness, separated the heavens from the earth, and reduced the\nuniverse to order\u201d.[48] The sun was the offspring of the moon.\n\n[47] Like the giants and demons of Teutonic mythology, who fought with\nthe gods in the Last Battle.\n\n[48] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, by T. G. Pinches, LL.D.\n\nThe Indian Vedic and Epic dragon-slaying stories have evidently no\nconnection, however, with a lost Creation myth. It is possible that\nthey are part of the floating material from which Babylonian mythology\nwas framed. At the same time Babylonian influences may not have been\nabsent in the post-Vedic Age. Indra bears points of resemblance to\nBel-Merodach, but he is not a Creator in the sublime sense; he is\nrather an artisan god like the Chinese P'an Ku, the lonely hammerman,\nand the Egyptian Ptah, who acquired a potter's wheel, in addition to\nhis hammer, in the Nile valley.\n\nIndra fashioned the universe in the simple manner that the early\nAryans built their wooden houses.[49] How he obtained the requisite\nmaterial puzzled the Vedic poets. It may be that there was a World\nTree, however, like the great ash Ygdrasil of Teutonic mythology.\nAfter measuring space with the sun, Indra set up four corner posts and\nconstructed the world walls; the roof was the cloud-thatched sky. The\nwide doors of the world opened to the east, and every morning they\nwere opened to admit the sun, which Indra flung at evening into the\ndarkness as a Neolithic man may have flung out a house torch. These\ndoors are the \u201cgates\u201d, celebrated in the Vedic hymns, through which the\ngods entered to partake of the sacrifices and libations. Indra, who\nis called \u201can accomplished artisan\u201d, is lauded as the god who \u201cfirmly\nsecured the dominion of air in the frame of heaven and earth\u201d. In\nanother hymn it is told: \u201cIndra measured six broad spaces, from which\nno existing thing is excluded: he it is who made the wide expanse of\nearth and the lofty dome of the sky, even he\u201d. (V. i, 47\u00b73, 4.)\n\n[49] _Cosmology of Rigveda_, Wallis.\n\n[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A TEMPLE TO VISHNU (BRINDABAN)\n 5]\n\nIn the work of shaping the universe Indra is assisted by the shadowy\ndeities Savitri, who merged with Surya, the sun god, Brihaspati, \u201cLord\nof Prayer\u201d, who merged with Agni, god of fire, and Vishnu, god of\ngrace. He was also aided by the Ribhus, the artisans of the gods, who\ndwelt in the region of mid-air. Their number is given variously as\nthree or the multiples of three; they were the sons of Sudhanvan, who\nwas apparently identical with Indra, because \u201cIndra is a Ribhu when he\nconfers gifts\u201d; indeed, the artisans are referred to as the children\nof the Thunder god. They make grass and herbs, and also channels for\nstreams. In some respects they resemble the earth-gnomes, the Khnumu,\n\u201cthe modellers\u201d, the helpers of the Egyptian artisan god Ptah, who\nshaped the world. \u201cCountless little figures of these gods are found in\nEgyptian tombs; for even as once the Khnumu had helped in the making\nof the world, so would they help to reconstruct in all its members the\nbody of the dead man in whose tomb they were laid.\u201d[50] The Ribhus\nsimilarly renovated aged and decrepit parents; \u201cthey reunited the old\ncow to the calf\u201d; they are also credited with having shaped the heavens\nand the earth,[51] and with having fashioned the \u201ccow of plenty\u201d, and\nalso a man named Vibhvan.[52]\n\n[50] _Religion of the Ancient Egyptians_, Professor A. Wiedemann, p.\n137.\n\n[51] _Rigveda_, iv, 34. 9.\n\n[52] _Cosmology of Rigveda_, Wallis.\n\nAccording to the _Oxford Dictionary_, they are \u201cthe three genii of the\nseasons in Hindu mythology\u201d. The Sanskrit word \u201cRibhu\u201d is sometimes\ncompared with the Germanic word \u201cElf\u201d. Professor Macdonell considers\nit \u201clikely that the Ribhus were originally terrestrial or aerial\nelves\u201d.[53] They are evidently of common origin with the Teutonic elfin\nartisans who are associated with Thor, the Germanic Indra.\n\n[53] _A History of Sanskrit Literature_, pp. 106, 107.\n\nThe mother of the Ribhus was Saranyu, daughter of Twashtri, \u201cthe Hindu\nVulcan\u201d, the \u201cmaster workman\u201d. Twashtri forms the organism in maternal\nwombs and supports the races of man.[54] As we have seen, he was the\nfashioner of Indra's thunderbolt: similarly the Teutonic elfin artisan\nSindre makes Thor's hammer.[55]\n\n[54] _Rigveda_, ii, 53; iii, 55.\n\n[55] _Teutonic Myth and Legend_, pp. 35-9.\n\nThe two groups of Teutonic wonder-smiths were rivals; so were the\nRibhus and Twashtri. The elfin artisans prove their skill in both\ncases by producing wonderful gifts for the gods. Loke acts as a\nmischief-making spy in Germanic myth, and Dadyak in Indian, and both\nlose their heads for wagers, but save them by cunning.\n\nThe Ribhus had provided the Celestials with horses and chariots, but\nTwashtri fashioned a wonderful bowl which filled itself with Soma\nfor the gods. In the contest that ensued the Ribhus transformed the\nbowl into four cups. \u201cThis bowl\u201d, says Professor Macdonell, \u201cperhaps\nrepresents the moon, the four cups being its phases.\u201d One of the Ribhus\nwas a famous archer, like the elfin artisan Egil of Teutonic mythology.\n\nThe artisan of Babylonian mythology is Ea, father of Bel-Merodach. He\nis \u201cKing of the abyss, creator of everything, lord of all\u201d. He was the\ngod of artisans in general, and is identified with the sea-deity of\nthe Persian Gulf\u2014half-fish, half-man\u2014who landed \u201cduring the day to\nteach the inhabitants the building of houses and temples, the gathering\nof fruits, and also geometry, law and letters\u201d. His pupils included\n\u201cpotters, blacksmiths, sailors, stonecutters, gardeners, farmers,\n&c.\u201d[56]\n\n[56] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, T. G. Pinches, LL.D.\n\nThe Ribhus and Twashtri were the artisans of nature, the spirits of\ngrowth, the genii of the seasons, the elves of earth and air. Indra's\nclose association with them emphasizes his character as a god of\nfertility, who brought the quickening rain, and as the corn god, and\nthe rice god. He was the son of Father Heaven and Mother Earth, two\nvague deities who were never completely individualized, but were never\nforgotten. Heaven was the sky-god Dyaus-pita (from div = to shine), the\nZeus pater of the Greeks, Jupiter of the Romans, and Tivi[57] (later,\nOdin) of the Germanic peoples, whose wife was the earth-goddess Jord,\nmother of Thor. The Hindu earth-mother (Terra mater) was Prithivi.\nDyaus is sometimes referred to as a ruddy bull, whose bellowing is\nthe thunder; as the Night heaven he is depicted as a black steed\ndecked with pearls which are the stars; in one of the Vedic hymns\nreference is made to his \u201cthunderstone\u201d. Prithivi, who is sometimes\nsymbolized as a cow, is the source of all vegetation, the supporter\nof earth, the female principle. She never assumes the importance of\nthe Assyrian Ishtar, or the north Egyptian \u201cearth-mother\u201d Neith, or\nthe \u201cearth-mothers\u201d of Europe. The Vedic Aryans were Great Father\nworshippers rather than Great Mother worshippers: their female deities\nwere Night, Dawn, Earth, and the Rivers, but they were not sharply\nindividualized until late; they are vague in the Vedas.\n\n[57] An old Germanic name of Odin related to Divus. Odin's descendants\nwere the \u201cTivar\u201d. (Pronounce _Dyaus_ as one syllable rhiming with\n_mouse_.)\n\nAs the Greek Cronus (Roman Saturn) slew his father Ur\u0103nus (Heaven), so\ndid Indra slay his father Dyaus (Heaven). His earth-mother addresses\nhim, saying: \u201cWho has made thy mother a widow? Who has sought to slay\nthe sleeping and the waking? What deity has been more gracious than\nthou, since thou hast slain thy father, having seized him by the\nfoot?\u201d[58]\n\n[58] _Rigveda_, iv, 18. Wilson, vol. iii, p. 153.\n\nThe Indian father-slaying myth appears to be connected with the\ndoctrine of reincarnation. In the _Laws of Manu_ it is stated that\n\u201cthe husband, after conception by his wife, becomes an embryo and is\nborn again of her; for that is the wifehood of a wife, that he is born\nagain by her\u201d.[59] In the famous story of Shakunt\u0103l\u0101, the husband\nis similarly referred to as the son of his wife, the son being a\nreincarnation of the father.[60] This belief resembles the Egyptian\nconception which is summed up in the phrase \u201chusband of his mother\u201d.[61]\n\n[59] _The Laws of Manu_, ix, 8; p. 329. (_Sacred Books of the East_,\nvol. xxv.)\n\n[60] _Adi Parva_, sect. lxxiv of _Mahabharata_, Roy's translation.\n\n[61] See _Egyptian Myth and Legend_.\n\nAt the barley harvest in spring and the rice harvest in autumn\nofferings were made to the gods. A sacrificial cake of the new barley\nor rice was offered to Indra and Agni, a mess of old grain boiled and\nmixed with milk and water was given to the other gods, and a cake was\nalso offered to Father Heaven and Mother Earth in which clarified\nbutter was an important ingredient; or the offering might consist\nentirely of butter, because \u201cclarified butter is manifestly the sap of\nthese two, Heaven and Earth; ... he (the offerer) therefore gladdens\nthese two with their own sap or essence\u201d.\n\nThe reason for this harvest offering is explained as follows: The gods\nand the demons contended for supremacy. It chanced that the demons\ndefiled, partly by magic and partly by poison, the plants used by men\nand beasts, hoping thus to overcome the gods. Men ceased to eat and the\nbeasts stopped grazing; all creatures were about to perish because of\nthe famine.\n\nSaid the gods: \u201cLet us rid the plants of this.\u201d\n\nThen they offered sacrifices and \u201caccomplished all that they wanted to\naccomplish, and so did the Rishis\u201d.\n\nA dispute then arose among the gods as to who should partake of the\nofferings of the firstfruits\u2014that is, of the new plants which replaced\nthose the demons had poisoned. It was decided to run a race to settle\nthe matter. Indra and Agni won the race and were therefore awarded the\ncake. These two gods were divine Kshatriyas (noblemen), the others\nwere \u201ccommon people\u201d. Whatever Kshatriyas conquer, the commoners are\npermitted to share; therefore the other gods received the mess of old\ngrain.\n\nAfter the magic spell was removed from the plants by the gods, men ate\nfood and cattle grazed once again. Ever afterwards, at the beginning of\neach harvest, the first fruits were offered up to Indra and Agni. The\nfee of the priest was the first-born calf \u201cfor that is, as it were, the\nfirstfruits of the cattle\u201d.[62]\n\n[62] _The Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by Professor J. Eggeling,\nPart I, pp. 369, 373. (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xii.)\n\nThe popular Thunder god of the Vedic period bears a close resemblance\nto the hard-drinking, kindly, and impulsive Thor, the Teutonic god\nof few words and mighty deeds, the constant \u201cfriend of man\u201d and the\ninveterate enemy of demons. In the hymns Indra is pictured as a\nburly man, with \u201chandsome, prominent nose\u201d, \u201cgood lips\u201d, and \u201ccomely\nchin\u201d; he is \u201clong-necked, big-bellied, strongly armed\u201d, and has\na weakness for ornaments. He is much addicted to drinking \u201csweet,\nintoxicating Soma\u201d; he \u201cfills his stomach\u201d; he quaffs \u201cthirty bowls\u201d\nat a single draught ere he hastens to combat against \u201chostile air\ndemons\u201d. Sometimes he is placed in a difficulty when two tribes of his\nworshippers are in conflict: both cry to him for victory, but\u2014\n\n The god giveth victory unto him\n Who with generous heart pours out\n The draught he thirsts for\u2014\n Nor feels regret in giving;\n Indra joins with him upon the battlefield.\n\n _Rigveda_, iv, 24. 2-6.\n\nThe Aryans, who were as notorious cattle lifters as the Gauls and the\nScottish Highlanders, were wont to invoke the god ere they set out on a\nraid, chanting with loud voices:\n\n Indra, whose riches are boundless, O grant us\n Thousands of beautiful cows and horses:\n Destroy, thou mighty one, all who despise us,\n Visit with death all those who would harm us, and\n Indra, whose riches are boundless, O grant us,\n Thousands of beautiful cows and horses.\n\n _Wilson's translation._\n\nIn other hymns the Thor-like character of Indra, the war god, is\nnaively depicted. A sceptic is supposed to say: \u201cMany men declare that\nthere is no Indra. Who ever saw him? Why should we adore him?\u201d\n\nThe god makes answer: \u201cO singer, I _am_: behold me! I am here now,\nand I am greater than any living being. I delight in the performance\nof holy rites. I am also the Destroyer; I can hurl creation to ruin.\u201d\n_Rigveda_, viii, 89.\n\n I never knew a man to speak so to me,\n When all his enemies are safely conquered;\n Yea, when they see how fierce the battle rages,\n They even promise me a pair of bullocks.\n\n When I am absent in far distant places,\n Then all with open hands their gifts would bring me ...\n Lo! I will make the wealthy niggard needy,\n Seize by the foot and on the hard rock dash him.\n\n _Rigveda_, x, 27.\n\n\n The lord of both the worlds hates all the haughty,\n He cares for those who feel themselves but human.\n\n _Rigveda_, vi, 47.[63]\n\n[63] Arrowsmith's translation.\n\nThese verses recall: \u201cSilence, thou evil one,\u201d roared Thor, \u201cor else\nwith my hammer shall I strike thy head off and end thy life.\u201d\n\nThen did Loke answer humbly: \u201cSilent indeed I shall be now, O Thor, for\nI know full well thou wilt strike.\u201d[64]\n\n[64] _Teutonic Myth and Legend_, p. 173.\n\n[Illustration: THE PARADISE OF INDRA\n_From a Rock Sculpture at M\u00e2mallapuram_\n 6]\n\nThe human qualities of Indra are illustrated in epic narrative. Arjuna,\nthe Indian Achilles, is his son, and pays a visit to the brilliant\nCelestial city on the summit of Mount Meru, where flowers are ever\nblooming, and pretty nymphs dance to pleasure battle-slain warriors.\n\nArjuna saluted his divine sire. \u201cAnd Indra thereupon embraced him\nwith his round and plump arms. And taking his hand, Shakra (Indra)\nmade him sit on a portion of his own seat.... And the lord of the\nCelestials\u2014that slayer of hostile heroes\u2014smelt the head of Arjuna,\nbending in humility, and even took him upon his lap.... Moved by\naffection, the slayer of Vritra touched that beautiful face with his\nown perfumed hands. And the wielder of the thunderbolt, patting and\nrubbing gently again and again with his own hands, which bore the\nmarks of the thunderbolt, the handsome and large arms of Arjuna, which\nresembled a couple of golden columns and were hard in consequence of\ndrawing the bowstring and shooting arrows, began to console him. And\nthe slayer of Vritra ... eyeing his son of curling locks smilingly and\nwith eyes expanded with delight, seemed scarcely to be gratified. The\nmore he gazed, the more he liked to gaze on. And seated on one seat,\nthe father and son enhanced the beauty of the assembly, like the sun\nand moon beautifying the firmament together.\u201d[65]\n\n[65] _Vana Parva_ section of _Mah\u0103bh\u0103rata_, sect. xliii, Roy's\ntranslation.\n\nIndra was attended in his heaven by vague spirits, called Vasus, who\nappear to have acted as his counsellors. When Bhishma, a hero of the\ngreat Bh\u0103rata war, was slain in battle, he was given a place among the\nVasus. The Thunder god's queen is a shadowy personality, and is called\nIndrani.\n\nIndra was attended by a dog, as befitted a deity of primitive\nhuntsmen. After the early Aryan period, he showed less favour for his\nbays and chariot, and seated himself upon a great white elephant, \u201cthe\nhandsome and ever victorious\u201d, named Airavata; it \u201cwas furnished with\nfour tusks\u201d and \u201cresembled the mountain of Kailasa with its summits\u201d.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER II\n\nThe Great Vedic Deities\n\n Agni the Fire God\u2014Source of Life\u2014The Divine Priest\u2014Myths\n regarding his Origin\u2014The Child God\u2014Resemblances to Heimdal and\n Scyld\u2014Messenger of the Gods\u2014Martin Elginbrodde\u2014Vayu or Vata, the\n Wind God\u2014Teutonic Vate and Odin\u2014The Hindu \u201cWild Huntsman\u201d\u2014Rudra the\n Howler\u2014The Rain God\u2014Sublime Varuna\u2014The Omniscient One\u2014Forgiver of\n Sins\u2014Mitra, an ancient Deity\u2014Babylonian Prototype\u2014A Sun God\u2014A Corn\n God\u2014Mitanni Deities\u2014Surya, the Sun God\u2014The Adityas\u2014Ushas, Goddess\n of Dawn\u2014Ratri, Night\u2014Chandra, the Moon\u2014Identified with Soma\u2014The\n Mead of the Gods\u2014A Humorous Hymn\u2014Sources of Life\u2014Origin of Spitting\n Ceremonies.\n\n\nAgni, the fire god, was closely associated with Indra, and is sometimes\ncalled his twin brother. The pair were the most prominent deities in\nVedic times: about 250 hymns are addressed to Indra and over 200 to\nAgni.\n\nIndra gave the \u201cair of life\u201d to men; Agni symbolized the \u201cvital spark\u201d,\nthe principle of life in animate and inanimate Nature; he was in man,\nin beast, and fish; he was in plants and trees; he was in butter and in\nintoxicating Soma. The gods partook of the nature of Agni. In one of\nthe post-Vedic Creation myths he is identified with the Universal soul;\nBrahma existed in the form of Agni ere the worlds were framed and gods\nand men came to be. Agni was made manifest in lightning, in celestial\nsun flames, in the sacred blaze rising from the altar and in homely\nhousehold fires. The fire god was the divine priest as contrasted with\nIndra, the divine warrior.\n\nIn the Vedic invocations there are evidences that several myths\nhad gathered round the fascinating and wonderful fire god. One hymn\nrefers to him as a child whose birth was kept a secret; his mother,\nthe queen, concealed him from his sire; he was born in full vigour as\na youth, and was seen sharpening his weapons at a distance from his\nhome which he had forsaken.[66] Sometimes he is said to have devoured\nhis parents at birth: this seems to signify that he consumed the fire\nsticks from which holy fire was produced by friction. Another hymn says\nthat \u201cHeaven and Earth (Dyaus and Prithivi) fled away in fear of (the\nincarnation of) Twashtri when he was born, but they returned to embrace\nthe lion\u201d.[67]\n\n[66] _Rigveda_, v, 2.\n\n[67] _Rigveda_, i, 95.\n\nAgni was also given ten mothers who were \u201ctwice five sisters\u201d,[68] but\nthe reference is clearly explained in another passage: \u201cThe ten fingers\nhave given him birth, the ancient, well-loved Agni, well born of his\nmothers\u201d.[69]\n\n[68] _Rigveda_, iv, 6. 8.\n\n[69] _Rigveda_, iii, 23. 3.\n\nDawn, with its darkness-consuming fires, and starry Night, are the\nsisters of Agni; \u201cthey celebrate his three births, one in the sea, one\nin the sky, one in the waters (clouds)\u201d. Typical of the Oriental mind\nis the mysterious reference to Agni's \u201cmothers\u201d owing their origin to\nhim. The poet sings:\n\n Who among you hath understood the hidden (god)?\n The calf has by itself given birth to its mothers.\n\nProfessor Oldenberg, who suggests that the waters are the \u201cmothers\u201d,\nreasons in Oriental mode: \u201cSmoke is Agni, it goes to the clouds, the\nclouds become waters\u201d.[70]\n\n[70] _Rigveda_, _i_, 95. 4, and note, Oldenberg's _Vedic Hymns_\n(_Sacred Books of the East_, vol. xlvi).\n\n[Illustration: AGNI, THE FIRE GOD\n_From a painting by Nanda Lall Bose_\n(By permission of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Calcutta)\n 7]\n\nIn his early humanized form Agni bears some resemblance to Heimdal,\nthe Teutonic sentinel god, who has nine mothers, the daughters of\nsea-dwelling Ran, and is thus also a \u201cson of the waters\u201d; he is clad\nin silvern armour, and on his head is a burnished helmet with ram's\nhorns. Horsed on his swift steed, Gulltop, he watches the demons who\nseek to attack the citadel of the gods.... His sight is so keen that\nhe can see by night as well as by day.... Heimdal is loved both by\ngods and by men, and he is also called Gullintani because his teeth\nare of gold. There was a time when he went to Midgard (the earth) as\na child; he grew up to be a teacher among men and was named Scef.\nScef is identified as the patriarch Scyld in _Beowulf_, who came over\nthe sea as a child and rose to be the king of a tribe. Mankind were\ndescended from Heimdal-Scef: three sons were born to him of human\nmothers\u2014Thrall, from whom thralls are descended; Churl, the sire of\nfreemen, and Jarl from whom nobles have sprung.[71]\n\n[71] _Teutonic Myth and Legend_, pp. 16 and 187-9.\n\nIn _Mahabharata_ there is a fragment of an old legend which relates the\norigin of Karna, the son of Queen Pritha and the sun god: the birth\nof the child is concealed, and he is placed in a basket which is set\nafloat on the river and is carried to a distant country.[72]\n\n[72] See Chapter X.\n\nOne of the Vedic references to Agni, as we have seen, suggests an\norigin similar to Karna of the epic period. He was connected with the\nintroduction of agriculture like the Teutonic Scef, which signifies\n\u201cSheaf\u201d. Agni is stated to have been \u201ccarried in the waters.... The\ngreat one has grown up in the wide unbounded space. The waters (have\nmade) Agni (grow)\u201d.[73] Agni is \u201csharp faced\u201d (i, 95); he is \u201cthe\nbright, brilliant, and shining one\u201d (iv, i. 7); he is \u201cgold toothed\u201d\n(v, 22); he sees \u201ceven over the darkness of night\u201d (i, 94. 7); he\n\u201cmakes all things visible\u201d; he conquers the godless, wicked wiles; he\nsharpens his two horns in order to pierce Rakshasas (giants) (v, 2). \u201cO\nAgni, strike away with thy weapons those who curse us, the malicious\nones, all ghouls, be they near or far\u201d (i, 94. 9). Heimdal blows a\ntrumpet in battle; Agni is \u201croaring like a bull\u201d (i, 94. 10).\n\n[73] Oldenberg, _Rigveda_, iii, 1.\n\nAs Heimdal, in his Scef-child form, was sent to mankind by the gods,\n\u201cMatarisvan[74] brought Agni to Bhrigu as a gift, precious like wealth,\nof double birth, the carrier, the famous, the beacon of the sacrifice,\nthe ready, the immediately successful messenger.... The Bhrigus\nworshipping him in the abode of the waters have verily established\nhim among the clans of Ayu. The people have established beloved Agni\namong the human clans as (people) going to settle (establish) Mitra\u201d\n(i, 60). Oldenberg explains that people going anywhere secure safety\nby ceremonies addressed to Mitra, i.e. by concluding alliances under\nthe protection of Mitra. Another reference reads, \u201cAgni has been\nestablished among the tribes of men, the son of the waters, Mitra\nacting in the right way\u201d. Oldenberg notes that Mitra is here identified\nwith Agni; Mitra also means \u201cfriend\u201d or \u201cally\u201d (iii, 5. 3, and note).\nScyld in _Beowulf_, the mysterious child of the sea, became a king over\nmen. Agni \u201cindeed is king, leading all beings to gloriousness. As soon\nas born from here, he looks over the whole world.... Agni, who has been\nlooked and longed for in Heaven, who has been looked for on earth\u2014he\nwho has been looked for has entered all herbs\u201d (i, 98).[75] To Agni's\nlove affairs upon earth there are epic references, and in the \u201cVishnu\nPurana\u201d he is mentioned as the father of three human sons.\n\n[74] A demi-god.\n\n[75] _Vedic Hymns_, trans. by Oldenberg. (_Sacred Books of the East_,\nvol. xlvi.)\n\nThe reference to the Bhrigus, to whom Agni is carried, is of special\ninterest. This tribe did not possess fire and were searching for it\n(_Rigveda_, x. 40. 2). In another poem the worshippers of Agni are\n\u201chuman people descended from Manush (Manu)\u201d (vi, 48. 8). The Bhrigus\nwere a priestly family descended from the patriarch Bhrigu: Manu was\nthe first man. Two of the Teutonic patriarch names are Berchter and\nMannus.\n\nAgni was the messenger of the gods; he interceded with the gods on\nbehalf of mankind and conducted the bright Celestials to the sacrifice.\nThe priest chanted at the altar:\n\n Agni, the divine ministrant of the sacrifice, the greatest\n bestower of treasures; may one obtain through Agni wealth\n and welfare day by day, which may bring glory and high\n bliss of valiant offspring.\n\n Agni, whatever sacrifice and worship thou encompassest on\n every side, that indeed goes to the gods. Thou art King of\n all worship.... Conduct the gods hither in an easy-moving\n chariot.[76]\n\n[76] _Rigveda_, i, 13 and i, 26 (Oldenberg).\n\nLike Indra, Agni was a heavy consumer of Soma; his intensely human side\nis not lost in mystic Vedic poetry.\n\n Agni, accept this log, conqueror of horses, thou who lovest\n songs and delightest in riches....\n\n Thou dost go wisely between these two creations (Heaven and\n Earth) like a friendly messenger between two hamlets....\n\nHis worshippers might address him with great familiarity, as in the\nfollowing extracts:\u2014\n\n If I were thee and thou wert me, thine aspirations should be\n fulfilled.\n\n _Rigveda_, xiii, 44. 23.\n\n If, O Agni, thou wert a mortal and I an immortal, I would not\n abandon thee to wrong or to penury: my worshippers should\n not be poor, nor distressed, nor miserable.\n\n _Rigveda_, viii, 19.\n\nThese appeals are reminiscent of the quaint graveyard inscription:\n\n Here lie I, Martin Elginbrodde.\n Hae mercy on my soul, Lord God,\n As I wad dae were I Lord God,\n And ye were Martin Elginbrodde.\n\nThe growth of monotheistic thought is usually evinced in all\nmythologies by the tendency to invest a popular deity with the\nattributes of other gods. Agni is sometimes referred to as the sky god\nand the storm god. In one of the hymns he is entreated to slay demons\nand send rain as if he were Indra:\n\n O Agni, overcome our enemies and our calamities;\n Drive away all disease and the Rakshasas\u2014\n Send down abundance of waters\n From the ocean of the sky.\n\n _Rigveda_, x, 98. 12.\n\nIndra similarly absorbed, and was absorbed by, the wind god Vayu or\nVata, who is also referred to as the father of the Maruts and the\nson-in-law of the artisan god Twashtri. The name Vata has been compared\nto Vate, the father of the Teutonic Volund or Wieland, the tribal deity\nof the Watlings or Vaetlings; in old English the Milky Way was \u201cWatling\nStreet\u201d. Comparisons have also been drawn with the wind god Odin\u2014the\nAnglo-Saxon Woden, and ancient German Wuotan (pronounced Vuotan). \u201cThe\netymological connection in this view\u201d, writes a critic, \u201cis not free\nfrom difficulty.\u201d[77] Professor Macdonell favours the derivation from\n\u201cva\u201d = \u201cto blow\u201d.\n\n[77] Art. \u201cAryan Religion\u201d, Hastings' _Ency. Rel. and Ethics_.\n\nThe Indian Vata is invoked, as Vayu, in a beautiful passage in one of\nthe hymns which refers to his \u201ctwo red horses yoked to the chariot\u201d: he\nhad also, like the Maruts, a team of deer. The poet calls to the wind:\n\n Awake Purandhu (Morning) as a lover awakes a sleeping maid....\n Reveal heaven and earth....\n Brighten the dawn, yea, for glory, brighten the dawn....\n\nThese lines recall Keats at his best:\n\n There is no light\n Save what from heaven is with the breezes blown....\n\n _Ode to the Nightingale._\n\n\nA stirring hymn to the wind god loses much of its vigour and beauty in\ntranslation:\n\n Sublime and shining is the car of Vata;\n It sweeps resounding, thundering and crashing;\n Athwart the sky it wakens ruddy flashes,\n Or o'er the earth it sets the dust-clouds whirling.\n\n The gusts arise and hasten unto Vata,\n Like women going to a royal banquet;\n In that bright car the mighty god is with them,\n For he is rajah of the earth's dominions.\n\n When Vata enters on the paths of heaven,\n All day he races on; he never falters;\n He is the firstborn and the friend of Ocean\u2014\n Whence did he issue forth? Where is his birthplace?\n\n He is the breath[78] of gods: all life is Vata:\n He cometh, yea, he goeth as he listeth:\n His voice is heard; his form is unbeholden\u2014\n O let us offer sacrifice to Vata.\n\n[78] The air of life = the spirit.\n\n _Rigveda_, x, 168.\n\nAnother wind or storm god is Rudra, also the father of the Maruts,\nwho are called \u201cRudras\u201d. He is the \u201cHowler\u201d and \u201cthe Ruddy One\u201d, and\nrides a wild boar. Saussaye calls him \u201cthe Wild Huntsman of Hindu\nMythology\u201d. He is chiefly of historical interest because he developed\ninto the prominent post-Vedic god Shiva, the \u201cDestroyer\u201d, who is still\nworshipped in India. The poets invested him with good as well as evil\nqualities:\n\n Rudra, thou smiter of workers of evil,\n The doers of good all love and adore thee.\n Preserve me from injury and every affliction\u2014\n Rudra, the nourisher.\n\n Give unto me of thy medicines, Rudra,\n So that my years may reach to a hundred;\n Drive away hatred, shatter oppression,\n Ward off calamity.\n\n _Rigveda_, ii, 33.\n\nThe rain cloud was personified in Parjanya, who links with Indra as the\nnourisher of earth, and with Agni as the quickener of seeds.\n\nIndra's great rival, however, was Varuna, who symbolized the investing\nsky: he was \u201cthe all-enveloping one\u201d. The hymns impart to him a\ncharacter of Hebraic grandeur. He was the sustainer of the universe,\nthe lawgiver, the god of moral rectitude, and the sublime sovereign\nof gods and men. Men worshipped him with devoutness, admiration, and\nfear. \u201cIt is he who makes the sun to shine in heaven; the winds that\nblow are but his breath; he has hollowed out the channels of the rivers\nwhich flow at his command, and he has made the depths of the sea. His\nordinances are fixed and unassailable; through their operation the\nmoon walks in brightness, and the stars which appear in the nightly\nsky, vanish in daylight. The birds flying in the air, the rivers in\ntheir sleepless flow, cannot attain a knowledge of his power and wrath.\nBut he knows the flight of the birds in the sky, the course of the\nfar-travelling wind, the paths of ships on the ocean, and beholds all\nsecret things that have been or shall be done. He witnesses men's truth\nand falsehood.\u201d[79]\n\n[79] Muir's _Original Sanscrit Texts_, v, 58, ff.\n\n[Illustration: SHIVA'S DANCE OF DESTRUCTION, ELLORA (see pages 147-8)\n 8]\n\nHe is the Omniscient One. Man prayed to him for forgiveness for sin,\nand to be spared from the consequences of evil-doing:\n\n May I not yet, King Varuna,\n Go down into the house of clay:\n Have mercy, spare me, mighty Lord.\n\n O Varuna, whatever the offence may be\n That we as men commit against the heavenly folk,\n When through our want of thought we violate thy laws,\n Chastise us not, O god, for that iniquity.\n\n _Rigveda_, vii, 89.[80]\n\n[80] Professor Macdonell's _A History of Sanskrit Literature_.\n\n His messengers descend\n Countless from his abode\u2014for ever traversing\n This world and scanning with a thousand eyes its inmates.\n Whate'er exists within this earth, and all within the sky,\n Yea, all that is beyond, King Varuna perceives....\n May thy destroying snares, cast sevenfold round the wicked,\n Entangle liars, but the truthful spare, O King!\n\n _Rigveda_, iv, 16.[81]\n\n[81] _Indian Wisdom_, Sir Monier Williams.\n\nIn contrast to the devotional spirit pervading the Varuna hymns is the\nattitude adopted by Indra's worshippers; the following prayer to the\ngod of battle is characteristic:\u2014\n\n O Indra, grant the highest, best of treasures,\n A judging mind, prosperity abiding,\n Riches abundant, lasting health of body,\n The grace of eloquence and days propitious.\n\n _Rigveda_, ii, 21. 6.\n\nThe sinner's fear of Varuna prompted him to seek the aid of other gods.\nRudra and the Moon are addressed:\n\n O remove ye the sins we have sinned,\n What evil may cling to us sever\n With bolts and sharp weapons, kind friends,\n And gracious be ever.\n From the snare of Varuna deliver us, ward us,\n Ye warm-hearted gods, O help us and guard us.\n\nAssociated with Varuna was the God Mitra (the Persian Mithra). These\ndeities are invariably coupled and belong to the early Iranian period.\nMuch controversy has been waged over their pre-Vedic significance.\nSome have regarded Mithra as the firmament by day with its blazing\nand fertilizing sun, and Varuna as the many-eyed firmament of night,\nin short, the twin forms of Dyaus. Prof. E. V. Arnold has shown,\nhowever, that in the Vedas, Mithra has no solar significance except in\nhis association with Agni. The fire god, as we have seen, symbolized\nthe principle of fertility in Nature: he was the \u201cvital spark\u201d which\ncaused the growth of \u201call herbs\u201d, as well as the illuminating and\nwarmth-giving flames of sun and household hearth.\n\nMitra as Mithra with Varuna, and a third vague god, Aryaman, belong\nto an early group of equal deities called the Adityas, or \u201cCelestial\ndeities\u201d. \u201cIt would seem that the worship of these deities\u201d, says Prof.\nArnold, \u201cwas already decaying in the earliest Vedic period, and that\nmany of them were then falling into oblivion.... In a late Vedic hymn\nwe find that Indra boasts that he has dethroned Varuna, and invites\nAgni to enter his own service instead. We may justly infer from all\nthese circumstances that the worship of the \u2018celestials\u2019 occupied at\none time in the history of the race a position of greater importance\nthan its place in the _Rigveda_ directly suggests.\u201d[82]\n\n[82] _The Rigveda_, by Professor E. Vernon Arnold, p. 16 (_Popular\nStudies in Mythology, Romance, and Folklore_).\n\nThe following extracts from a Mitra-Varuna hymn indicate the attitude\nof the early priests towards the \u201cCelestial deities\u201d:\u2014\n\n To the gods Mitra and Varuna let our praise go forth with\n power, with all reverence, to the two of mighty race.\n\n These did the gods establish in royal power over themselves,\n because they were wise and the children of wisdom, and\n because they excelled in power.\n\n They are protectors of hearth and home, of life and strength;\n Mitra and Varuna, prosper the mediations of your\n worshippers....\n\n As the sun rises to-day do I salute Mitra and Varuna, and\n glorious Aryaman.... The blessings of heaven are our\n desire....\n\n _Prof. Arnold's translation._\n\nIn Babylonian mythology the sun is the offspring of the moon. The\nSemitic name of the sun god is Samas (Shamash), the Sumerian name is\nUtu; among other non-Semitic names was Mitra, \u201capparently the Persian\nMithra\u201d. The bright deity also \u201cbears the names of his attendants\n\u2018Truth\u2019 and \u2018Righteousness\u2019, who guided him upon his path as judge of\nthe earth\u201d.[83]\n\n[83] _The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria_, by Dr. T. G. Pinches, p.\n68.\n\nIt may be that the Indian Mitra was originally a sun god; the religion\nof the sun god Mithra spread into Europe. \u201cDedications to Mithra the\nUnconquered Sun have been found in abundance.\u201d[84] Vedic references\nsuggest that Mitra had become a complex god in the pre-Vedic Age,\nbeing probably associated with a group of abstract deities\u2014his\nattributes symbolized\u2014who are represented by the Adityas. The\nMitra-Varuna group of Celestials were the source of all heavenly gifts;\nthey regulated sun and moon, the winds and waters and the seasons. If\nwe assume that they were of Babylonian or Sumerian origin\u2014deities\nimported by a branch of Aryan settlers who had been in contact with\nBabylonian civilization\u2014their rivalry with the older Aryan gods, Indra\nand Agni, can be understood. Ultimately they were superseded, but the\ninfluence exercised by their cult remained and left its impress upon\nlater Aryan religious thought.\n\n[84] Frazer's \u201cGolden Bough\u201d (_Adonis, Attis, Osiris_, p. 255, n.,\nthird edition).\n\nThe Assyrian word \u201cmetru\u201d signifies rain.[85] The quickening rain which\ncaused the growth of vegetation was, of course, one of the gifts of the\nCelestials of the firmament. It is of interest to note, therefore, in\nthis connection that Professor Frazer includes the western Mithra among\nthe \u201ccorn gods\u201d. Dealing with Mithraic sculptures, which apparently\ndepict Mithra as the sacrificer of the harvest bull offering, he says:\n\u201cOn certain of these monuments the tail of the bull ends in three\nstalks of corn, and in one of them cornstalks instead of blood are seen\nissuing from the wound inflicted by the knife\u201d.[86]\n\n[85] Professor H. W. Hogg, in Professor Moulton's _Early Religious\nPoetry of Persia_, p. 37.\n\n[86] \u201cThe Golden Bough\u201d (_Spirits of the Corn and Wild_, vol. ii, p.\n10).\n\nCommenting on the Assyrian \u201cmetru\u201d Professor Moulton says: \u201cIf this is\nhis (Mithra's) origin, we get a reasonable basis for the Avestan (Early\nPersian and Aryan) use of the word to denote a \u2018contract\u2019, as also for\nthe fact that the deity is in the Avesta patron of Truth and in the\nVeda of Friendship. He is \u2018the Mediator\u2019 between Heaven and Earth, as\nthe firmament was by its position, both in nature and mythology: an\neasy corollary is his function of regulating the relations of man and\nman.\u201d\n\nThe character of an imported deity is always influenced by localization\nand tribal habits. Pastoral nomads would therefore have emphasized the\nfriendliness of Mithra, who sent rain to cause the growth of grass on\nsun-parched steppes. Both Mithra and Varuna had their dwelling-place\nin the sea of heaven, the waters \u201cabove the firmament\u201d from which the\nrain descended. Ultimately the Indian Mitra vanished, being completely\nmerged in Varuna, who became the god of ocean after the Aryans reached\nthe sea coast. In post-Vedic sacred literature the priestly theorists,\nin the process of systematizing their religious beliefs, taught that a\ngreat conflict took place between the gods and demons. When order was\nrestored, the various deities were redistributed. Indra remained the\natmospheric god of battle, and Varuna became the god of ocean, where,\nas the stern judge and lawgiver and the punisher of wrongdoers, he kept\nwatch over the demons. In the \u201cNala and Damayanti\u201d epic narrative, the\nfour \u201cworld guardians\u201d are: Indra, king of the gods; Agni, god of fire;\nVaruna, god of waters; and Yama, judge of the dead.\n\nIt may be that the displacement of Varuna as supreme deity was due to\nthe influence of the fire-worshipping cult of Agni, who was imported\nby certain unidentified Aryan tribes that entered India. Agni did not\nreceive recognition, apparently, from the other Aryan \u201cfolk-wave\u201d,\nwhich established a military aristocracy at Mitanni in Mesopotamia,\nand held sway for a period over the Assyrians and some of the Hittite\ntribes. An important inscription, which is dated about 1400 B.C.,\nhas been deciphered at Boghaz-K\u00f6i in Asia Minor by Professor Hugo\nWinckler, who gives the names of the following deities:\n\n \u201cMi-it-ra, Uru-w-na, In-da-ra, and Na-sa-at-ti-ia\u201d\u2014\n\nMitra, Varuna, Indra, Nasatya. The latter is Nasatyau, the Vedic\nAswins, twin gods of morning, who have been compared to the Greek\nDioskouri (Castor and Pollux), sons of Zeus.\n\nA Vedic triad, which suggests a rival cult to that of the worshippers\nof Varuna and other Adityas, is formed by Vayu (wind), Agni (fire), and\nSurya (the sun).\n\nThe Indian sun god Surya, like the Egyptian Ra, had three forms. The\nrising sun was Vivasvat; the setting sun was Savitri.\n\nVivasvat was the son-in-law of Twashtri, the artisan of Nature; he\nwas an abstract deity, and apparently owed his origin to the group of\nAdityas.\n\nSavitri, who had yellow hair, was of pre-Vedic origin. He was the\n\u201cStimulator\u201d. When he commanded Night to approach, men ceased their\nlabours, birds sought their nests, and cattle their sheds.[87]\n\n[87] _Rigveda_, ii, 38.\n\nDuring the long centuries covered by the Vedic period many \u201cschools of\nthought\u201d must have struggled for supremacy. The Vivasvat myth belongs,\nit would appear, to the time before the elephant was tamed by the\nAryans. Aditi, the mother of the Adityas, who is believed to be of\nlater origin than her children, had eight sons. She cherished seven\nof them; the eighth, which was a shapeless lump, was thrown away, but\nwas afterwards moulded into Vivasvat, the sun; the pieces of the lump\nwhich were cast away by the divine artisan fell upon the earth and\ngave origin to the elephant, therefore elephants should not be caught,\nbecause they partake of divine nature.\n\n[Illustration: SURYA IN HIS CHARIOT\n_From the Kail\u00e2sa Temple, Ellora_\n 9]\n\nSurya is an Aryanized sun god. He drives a golden chariot drawn by\nseven mares, or a mare with seven heads; he has golden hair and golden\narms and hands. As he is alluded to as \u201cthe eye of Varuna and Mitra\u201d,\nand a son of Aditi, it is evident that if he did not originally belong\nto the group of Adityas, he was strongly influenced by them. In his\nSavitri character, which he possesses at morning as well as at evening,\nhe stimulates all life and the mind of man. One of the most sacred and\noldest mantras (texts) in the Vedas is still addressed by Brahmans to\nthe rising sun. It runs:\u2014\n\n Let us meditate on that excellent glory of the divine Vivifier,\n May he enlighten (or stimulate) our understandings.[88]\n\n[88] _Indian Wisdom_, p. 20.\n\nThe feeling for Nature pervades the ancient religion and literature of\nIndia. Priests were poets and singers in early Vedic times. A Rishi\nwas a composer of hymns to the gods, and several are named in the\ncollections. Every great family appears to have had its bardic priest,\nand its special poetic anthology which was handed down from generation\nto generation. Old poems might be rewritten and added to, but the\nambition of the sacred poet was to sing a new song to the gods. The\noldest Vedic hymns are referred to as \u201cnew songs\u201d, which suggests that\nothers were already in existence.\n\nThese Rishis looked upon Nature with the poet's eye. They symbolized\neverything, but they revelled also in the gorgeous beauty of dawn and\nevening, the luxuriance of Indian trees and flowers, the serene majesty\nof Himalayan mountains, the cascades, the rivers, and the shining\nlakes. The wonder and mystery of the world inspired their hymns and\ntheir religion. Even the gods took delight in the songs of birds, the\nharping of forest winds, the humming of bees, the blossoming trees,\nand the flower-decked sward. Heaven has its eternal summer and soft\nscented winds, its lotus-gemmed lakes and never-fading blooms.\n\nThe effulgence and silence of dawn inspired some of the most beautiful\nVedic hymns. Dawn is Ushas, the daughter of Dyaus; she is the Indian\nAurora:\n\n Hail, ruddy Ushas, golden goddess, borne\n Upon thy shining car, thou comest like\n A lovely maiden by her mother decked,\n Disclosing coyly all thy hidden graces\n To our admiring eyes; or like a wife\n Unveiling to her lord, with conscious pride,\n Beauties which, as he gazes lovingly,\n Seem fresher, fairer, each succeeding morn.\n Through years and years thou hast lived on, and yet\n Thou'rt ever young. Thou art the breath of life\n Of all that breathes and lives, awaking day by day\n Myriads of prostrate sleepers, as from death,\n Causing the birds to flutter from their nests,\n And rousing men to ply with busy feet\n Their daily duties and appointed tasks,\n Toiling for wealth, or pleasure, or renown.[89]\n\n[89] _Indian Wisdom_, Sir Monier Williams.\n\nThe Vedic poets \u201clooked before and after\u201d. One sang:\n\n In ages past did mortals gaze\n On Ushas veiled in gleaming gold.\n We who are living watch her rays,\n And men unborn will her behold.\n\n _Rigveda_, i, 113. 11.\n\nNight, Ratri, is the sister of Dawn. The one robes herself in crimson\nand gold; the other adorns her dark raiment with gleaming stars. When\nbenevolent Ratri draws nigh, men turn towards their homes to rest,\nbirds seek their nests, cattle lie down; even the hawk reposes. The\npeople pray to the goddess to be protected against robbers and fierce\nwolves, and to be taken safely across her shadow:\n\n She, the immortal goddess, throws her veil\n Over low valley, rising ground, and hill.\n But soon with bright effulgence dissipates\n The darkness she produces; soon advancing\n She calls her sister Morning to return,\n And then each darksome shadow melts away.\n\n _Rigveda_, x.[90]\n\n[90] _Indian Wisdom_, Sir Monier Williams.\n\nThe moon is the god Chandra, who became identified with Soma. Among\nancient peoples the moon was regarded as the source of fertility\nand growth; it brought dew to nourish crops which ripened under the\n\u201charvest moon\u201d; it filled all vegetation with sap; it swayed human life\nfrom birth till death; it influenced animate and inanimate Nature in\nits periods of increase and decline; ceremonies to secure offspring\nwere performed during certain phases of the moon.\n\nSoma was the intoxicating juice of the now unknown Soma plant, which\ninspired mortals and was the nectar of the gods. The whole ninth book\nof the _Rigveda_ is devoted to the praises of Soma, who is exalted even\nas the chief god, the Father of all.\n\n This Soma is a god; he cures\n The sharpest ills that man endures.\n He heals the sick, the sad he cheers,\n He nerves the weak, dispels their fears;\n The faint with martial ardour fires,\n With lofty thought the bard inspires,\n The soul from earth to heaven he lifts,\n So great and wondrous are his gifts;\n Men feel the god within their veins,\n And cry in loud exulting strains:\n We've quaffed the Soma bright\n And are immortal grown:\n We've entered into light\n And all the gods have known.\n What mortal now can harm,\n Or foeman vex us more?\n Through thee beyond alarm,\n Immortal god, we soar.[91]\n\n[91] Muir's _Original Sanskrit Texts_, v, 130.\n\n\u201cThe sun\u201d, declared one of the poets, \u201chas the nature of Agni, the moon\nof Soma.\u201d At the same time Agni was a great consumer of Soma; when it\nwas poured on the altar, the fire god leapt up joyfully. The beverage\nwas the \u201cwater of life\u201d which was believed to sustain the Adityas and\nthe earth, and to give immortality to all the gods; it was therefore\ncalled Amrita (ambrosia).\n\nAs in Teutonic mythology, the Hindu giants desired greatly to possess\nthe \u201cmead\u201d to which the gods owed their power and supremacy. The\nassociation of Soma with the moon recalls the Germanic belief that the\nmagic mead was kept for Odin, \u201cthe champion drinker\u201d, by Mani, the moon\ngod, who snatched it from the mythical children who are the prototypes\nof \u201cJack and Jill\u201d of the nursery rhyme.[92] Indra was the discoverer\nof the Soma plant and brought it from the mountains. The Persian mead\n(mada) was called Haoma.\n\n[92] See _Teutonic Myth and Legend_.\n\nThe priests drank Soma when they made offerings and lauded the gods.\nA semi-humorous Rigvedic hymn compares them to the frogs which croak\ntogether when the rain comes after long drought.\n\n Each (frog) with merry croak and loudly calling\n Salutes the other, as a son his father;\n What one calls out, another quickly answers,\n Like boys at school their teacher's words repeating....\n They shout aloud like Brahmans drunk with Soma,\n When they perform their annual devotions.\n\n _Rigveda_, vii, 103.[93]\n\n[93] Kaegi's _Rigveda_, Arrowsmith's translation. This was apparently a\nrain charm; its humour was of the unconscious order, of course.\n\nThere are references in the _Rigveda_ to the marriage of Soma, the\nmoon, and Sury\u00e1, the maiden of the sun.\n\nIn Vedic religion many primitive beliefs were blended. We have seen,\nfor instance, that life was identified with breath and wind; the\n\u201cspirit\u201d left the body as the last breath. Agni worshippers regarded\nfire as \u201cthe vital spark\u201d. Soma worship, on the other hand, appears\nto be connected with the belief that life was in the blood; it was\nliterally \u201cthe life blood\u201d. The \u201cblood of trees\u201d was the name for\nsap; sap was water impregnated or vitalized by Soma, the essence of\nlife. Water worship and Soma worship were probably identical, the\nmoon, which was believed to be the source of growth and moisture,\nbeing the fountain head of \u201cthe water of life\u201d. In Teutonic mythology\nthe \u201cmead\u201d is taken from a hidden mountain spring, which issued from\n\u201cMimer's well\u201d in the Underworld. Odin drank from Mimer's well and\nobtained wisdom and long life. The \u201cmead\u201d was transported to the moon.\nThe \u201cmead\u201d was also identified with saliva, the moisture of life,\nand spitting ceremonies resulted; these survive in the custom still\npractised in our rural districts of spitting on the hand to seal a\nbargain; \u201cspitting stones\u201d have not yet entirely disappeared. Vows are\nstill taken in India before a fire. References to contracts signed in\nblood are common and widespread.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER III\n\nYama, the First Man, and King of the Dead\n\n Burial Customs\u2014Inhumation and Cremation\u2014Yama the First Man\u2014The\n Discoverer of Paradise\u2014His Twin Sister\u2014Persian Twin Deities\u2014Yama\n and Mitra\u2014Yama as Judge of the Dead\u2014The \u201cMan in the Eye\u201d\u2014Brahman's\n Deal with Dharma-Yama\u2014Sacrifice for a Wife\u2014Story of Princess\n Savitri\u2014Her Husband's Fate\u2014How she rescued his Soul from Yama\u2014The\n Heavens of Yama, Indra, and Varuna\u2014Teutonic, Greek, and Celtic\n Heavens\u2014Paradise denied to Childless Men\u2014Religious Need for a\n Son\u2014Exposure of Female Infants\u2014Infanticide in Modern India\u2014A\n Touching Incident.\n\n\nIn early Vedic times the dead might be either buried or cremated. These\ntwo customs were obviously based upon divergent beliefs regarding the\nfuture state of existence. A Varuna hymn makes reference to the \u201chouse\nof clay\u201d, which suggests that among some of the Aryan tribes the belief\noriginally obtained that the spirits of the dead hovered round the\nplace of sepulture. Indeed, the dread of ghosts is still prevalent in\nIndia; they are supposed to haunt the living until the body is burned.\n\nThose who practised the cremation ceremony in early times appear to\nhave conceived of an organized Hades, to which souls were transferred\nthrough the medium of fire, which drove away all spirits and demons\nwho threatened mankind. Homer makes the haunting ghost of Patroklos\nexclaim, \u201cNever again will I return from Hades when I have received my\nmeed of fire\u201d.[94] The Vedic worshippers of Agni burned their dead\nfor the same reason as did the ancient Greeks. \u201cWhen the remains of\nthe deceased have been placed on the funeral pile, and the process of\ncremation has commenced, Agni, the god of fire, is prayed not to scorch\nor consume the departed, not to tear asunder his skin or his limbs,\nbut, after the flames have done their work, to convey to the fathers\nthe mortal who has been presented to him as an offering. Leaving behind\non earth all that is evil and imperfect, and proceeding by the paths\nwhich the fathers trod, invested with a lustre like that of the gods,\nit soars to the realms of eternal light in a car, or on wings, and\nrecovers there its ancient body in a complete and glorified form; meets\nwith the forefathers who are living in festivity with Yama; obtains\nfrom him, when recognized by him as one of his own, a delectable abode,\nand enters upon more perfect life, which is crowned with the fulfilment\nof all desires, is passed in the presence of the gods, and employed in\nthe fulfilment of their pleasure.\u201d[95]\n\n[94] _Iliad_, xxiii, 75.\n\n[95] Muir, _Original Sanskrit Texts_, v. 302.\n\nAgni is the god who is invoked by the other deities, \u201cMake straight the\npathways that lead to the gods; be kind to us, and carry the sacrifice\nfor us\u201d.[96]\n\n[96] _Rigveda_, x. 51 (Arnold's translation).\n\nIn this connection, however, Professor Macdonell says, \u201cSome passages\nof the _Rigveda_ distinguish the path of the fathers or dead ancestors\nfrom the path of the gods, doubtless because cremation appeared as a\ndifferent process from sacrifice\u201d.[97]\n\n[97] _A History of Sanskrit Literature_, p. 117.\n\nIt would appear that prior to the practice of cremation a belief in\nParadise ultimately obtained: the dead walked on foot towards it. Yama,\nKing of the Dead, was the first man.[98] Like the Aryan pioneers who\ndiscovered the Punjab, he explored the hidden regions and discovered\nthe road which became known as \u201cthe path of the fathers\u201d.\n\n[98] As was also Manu of a different or later cult.\n\n To Yama, mighty king, be gifts and homage paid.\n He was the first of men that died, the first to brave\n Death's rapid rushing stream, the first to point the road\n To heaven, and welcome others to that bright abode.\n\n _Sir M. Monier Williams' translation._[99]\n\n[99] From _Indian Wisdom_.\n\nProfessor Macdonell gives a new rendering of a Vedic hymn[100] in which\nYama is referred to as follows:\n\n[100] _A History of Sanskrit Literature_, p. 117.\n\n Him who along the mighty heights departed,\n Him who searched and spied the path for many,\n Son of Vivasvat, gatherer of the people,\n Yama the king, with sacrifices worship.\n\n _Rigveda_, x, 14. 1.\n\nYama and his sister Yam\u00ed, the first human pair, are identical with the\nPersian Yima and Yimeh of Avestan literature; they are the primeval\n\u201ctwins\u201d, the children of Vivasvat, or Vivasvant, in the _Rigveda_ and\nof Vivahvant in the _Avesta_. _Yama_ signifies twin, and Dr. Rendel\nHarris, in his researches on the Greek Dioscuri cult, shows that among\nearly peoples the belief obtained widely that one of each pair of\ntwins was believed to be a child of the sky. \u201cThis conjecture is borne\nout by the name of Yama's father (Vivasvant), which may well be a\ncult-epithet of the bright sky, \u2018shining abroad\u2019 (from the root _vas_,\n\u2018to shine\u2019)\u201d.... In the _Avesta_ \u2018Yima, the bright\u2019 is referred to: he\nis the Jamshid of Fitzgerald's Omar.[101]\n\n[101] _Early Religious Poetry of Persia_, Professor J. H. Moulton, p.\n42.\n\n[Illustration: THE KAILASA TEMPLE OF SHIVA, ELLORA\n 10]\n\nYima, the Iranian ruler of Paradise, is also identical with Mitra\n(Mithra), whose cult \u201cobtained from 200-400 A.D. a world-wide diffusion\nin the Roman Empire, and came nearer to monotheism than the cult of any\nother god in paganism\u201d.[102]\n\n[102] _A History of Sanskrit Literature_, Professor Macdonell, p. 68.\n\nProfessor Moulton wonders if the Yama myth \u201cowed anything to Babylon?\u201d\nIt is possible that the worshippers of Agni represented early Iranian\nbeliefs, and that the worshippers of Mitra, Varuna, and the twins (Yama\nand Yima and the twin Aswins) were influenced by Babylonian mythology\nas a result of contact, and that these opposing sects were rivals in\nIndia in early Vedic times.\n\nIn one of the hymns[103] Yami is the wooer of her brother Yama. She\ndeclares that they were at the beginning intended by the gods to be\nhusband and wife, but Yama replies:\n\n[103] _Rigveda_, x, 10.\n\n \u201cWho has sure knowledge of that earliest day? Who has seen it with his\n eyes and can tell of it? Lofty is the law of Mitra and Varuna; how\n canst thou dare to speak as a temptress?\u201d\n\n _Arnold's translation._\n\nIn the Vedic \u201cland of the fathers\u201d, the shining Paradise, the two\nkings Varuna and Yama sit below a tree. Yama, a form of Mitra, plays\non a flute and drinks Soma with the Celestials, because Soma gives\nimmortality. He gathers his people to him as a shepherd gathers his\nflock: indeed he is called the \u201cNoble Shepherd\u201d. He gives to the\nfaithful the draught of Soma; apparently unbelievers were destroyed or\ncommitted to a hell called Put. Yama's messengers were the pigeon and\nthe owl; he had also two brindled watch-dogs, each with four eyes. The\ndead who had faithfully fulfilled religious ordinances were addressed:\n\n Fear not to pass the guards\u2014\n The four-eyed brindled dogs\u2014that watch for the departed.\n Return unto thy home, O soul! Thy sin and shame\n Leave thou behind on earth; assume a shining form\u2014\n Thine ancient shape\u2014refined and from all taint set free.\n\n _Sir M. Monier Williams' translation._[104]\n\n[104] From _Indian Wisdom_.\n\nYama judged men as Dharma-rajah, \u201cKing of righteousness\u201d; he was\nPitripati, \u201clord of the fathers\u201d; Samavurti, \u201cthe impartial judge\u201d;\nKritana, \u201cthe finisher\u201d; Antaka, \u201che who ends life\u201d; Samana, \u201cthe\nleveller\u201d, &c.\n\nIn post-Vedic times he presided over a complicated system of Hells; he\nwas Dandadhara, \u201cthe wielder of the rod or mace\u201d. He had a noose with\nwhich to bind souls; he carried out the decrees of the gods, taking\npossession of souls at their appointed time.\n\nIn one of the _Brahmanas_ death, or the soul which Death claims as his\nown, is \u201cthe man in the eye\u201d. The reflection of a face in the pupil\nof the eye was regarded with great awe by the early folk; it was the\nspirit looking forth. We read, \u201cNow that man in yonder orb (of the sun)\nand that man in the right eye truly are no other than Death; his feet\nhave stuck fast in the heart, and having pulled them out, he comes\nforth; and when he comes forth then that man dies; whence they say of\nhim who has passed away, \u2018_he has been cut off_\u2019 (life or life-string\nhas been severed)\u201d.[105]\n\n[105] _Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by Professor Eggeling, Part IV,\n1897, p. 371 (_Sacred Books of the East_).\n\nYama might consent to prolong the life of one whose days had run out,\non condition that another individual gave up part of his own life in\ncompensation; he might even agree to restore a soul which he had bound\nto carry away, in response to the appeal of a mortal who had attained\nto great piety. The Vedic character of Yama survives sometimes in Epic\nnarrative even after cremation had become general. The following\ntwo touching and beautiful stories, preserved in _Mahabharata_, are\nprobably very ancient Aryan folk tales which were cherished by the\npeople and retold by the poets, who attached to them later religious\nbeliefs and practices.\n\n\nTHE BRAHMAN AND HIS BRIDE\n\nOnce upon a time Menaka, the beautiful Apsara (celestial fairy), who is\nwithout shame or pity, left beside a hermitage her new-born babe, the\ndaughter of the King of Gandharvas (celestial elves). A pious Rishi,\nnamed Sthula-kesha, found the child and reared her. She was called\nPramadarva, and grew to be the most beautiful and most pious of all\nyoung women. Ruru, the great grandson of Bhrigu, looked upon her with\neyes of love, and at the request of his sire, Pramati, the virgin was\nbetrothed to the young Brahman.\n\nIt chanced that Pramadarva was playing with her companions a few\ndays before the morning fixed for the nuptials. As her time had\ncome, she trod upon a serpent, and the death-compelling reptile bit\nher, whereupon she fell down in a swoon and expired. She became more\nbeautiful in death than she had been in life.\n\nBrahmans assembled round the body of Pramadarva and sorrowed greatly.\nRuru stole away alone and went to a solitary place in the forest where\nhe wept aloud. \u201cAlas!\u201d he cried, \u201cthe fair one, whom I love more\ndearly than ever, lieth dead upon the bare ground. If I have performed\npenances and attained to great ascetic merit, let the power which I\nhave achieved restore my beloved to life again.\u201d\n\nSuddenly there appeared before Ruru an emissary from the Celestial\nregions, who spake and said: \u201cThy prayer is of no avail, O Ruru.\nThat one whose days have been numbered can never get back her own\nlife again. Thou shouldst not therefore abandon thine heart to grief.\nBut the gods have decreed a means whereby thou canst receive back thy\nbeloved.\u201d\n\nSaid Ruru: \u201cTell me how I can comply with the will of the Celestials, O\nmessenger, so that I may be delivered from my grief.\u201d\n\nThe messenger said: \u201cIf thou wilt resign half of thine own life to this\nmaiden, Pramadvara, she will rise up again.\u201d\n\nSaid Ruru: \u201cI will resign half of my own life so that my beloved may be\nrestored unto me.\u201d\n\nThen the king of the Gandharvas and the Celestial emissary stood before\nDharma-rajah (Yama) and said: \u201cIf it be thy will, O Mighty One, let\nPramadarva rise up endowed with a part of Ruru's life.\u201d\n\nSaid the Judge of the Dead: \u201cSo be it.\u201d\n\nWhen Dharma-rajah had spoken thus, the serpent-bitten maiden rose from\nthe ground, and Ruru, whose life was curtailed for her sake, obtained\nthe sweetest wife upon earth. The happy pair spent their days deeply\ndevoted to each other, awaiting the call of Yama at the appointed\ntime.[106]\n\n[106] From _Adi Parva_ section of _Mahabharata_.\n\n\nSTORY OF SAVITRI\n\nThere was once a fair princess in the country of Madra, and her name\nwas Savitri. Be it told how she obtained the exalted merit of chaste\nwomen by winning a great boon from Yama.\n\nSavitri was the gift of the goddess Gayatri,[107] wife of Brahma, the\nself-created, who had heard the prayers and received the offerings\nof Aswapati, the childless king of Madra, when he practised austere\npenances so that he might have issue. The maiden grew to be beautiful\nand shapely like to a Celestial; her eyes had burning splendour, and\nwere fair as lotus leaves; she resembled a golden image; she had\nexceeding sweetness and grace.\n\n[107] Saraswati's rival. Brahma took Gayatri, the milkmaid, as a second\nwife, because his chief wife, Saraswati, despite her wisdom, arrived\nlate for a certain important ceremony, at which the spouse of the god\nwas required.\n\nIt came to pass that Savitri looked with eyes of love upon a youth\nnamed Satyavan \u201cthe Truthful\u201d. Although Satyavan dwelt in a hermitage,\nhe was of royal birth. His father was a virtuous king, named\nDyumatsena, who became blind, and was then deprived of his kingdom by\nan old enemy dwelling nigh to him. The dethroned monarch retired to the\nforest with his faithful wife and his only son, who in time grew up to\nbe a comely youth.\n\nWhen Savitri confessed her love to her sire, the great sage Narada, who\nsat beside him, spoke and said: \u201cAlas! the princess hath done wrong in\nchoosing for her husband this royal youth Satyavan. He is comely and\ncourageous, he is truthful and magnanimous and forgiving, he is modest\nand patient and without malice; honour is seated upon his forehead; he\nis possessed of every virtue. But he hath one defect, and no other. He\nis endued with short life; within a year from this day he must die, for\nso hath it been decreed; within a year Yama, god of the dead, will come\nfor him.\u201d\n\nSaid the king unto his daughter: \u201cO Savitri, thou hast heard the words\nof Narada. Go forth, therefore, and choose for thyself another lord,\nfor the days of Satyavan are numbered.\u201d\n\nThe beautiful maiden made answer unto her father the king, saying:\n\u201cThe die is cast; it can fall but once; once only can a daughter be\ngiven away by her sire; once only can a woman say, \u2018_I am thine_\u2019. I\nhave chosen my lord; once have I chosen, nor can I make choice a second\ntime. Let his life be brief or be long, I must now wed Satyavan.\u201d\n\nSaid Narada: \u201cO king, the heart of thy daughter will not waver; she\nwill not be turned aside from the path she hath selected. I therefore\napprove of the bestowal of Savitri upon Satyavan.\u201d\n\nThe king said: \u201cAs thou dost advise, so must I do ever, O Narada,\nbecause that thou art my preceptor. Thee I cannot disobey.\u201d\n\nThen said Narada: \u201cPeace be with Savitri! I must now depart. May\nblessings attend upon all of you!\u201d\n\nThereafter Aswapati, the royal sire of Savitri, went to visit\nDyumatsena, the blind sire of Satyavan, in the forest, and his daughter\nwent with him.\n\nSaid Dyumatsena: \u201cWhy hast thou come hither?\u201d\n\nAswapati said: \u201cO royal sage, this is my beautiful daughter Savitri.\nTake thou her for thy daughter-in-law.\u201d\n\nSaid Dyumatsena: \u201cI have lost my kingdom, and with my wife and my\nson dwell here in the woods. We live as ascetics and perform great\npenances. How will thy daughter endure the hardships of a forest life?\u201d\n\nAswapati said: \u201cMy daughter knoweth well that joy and sorrow come and\ngo and that nowhere is bliss assured. Accept her therefore from me.\u201d\n\nThen Dyumatsena consented that his son should wed Savitri, whereat\nSatyavan was made glad because he was given a wife who had every\naccomplishment. Savitri rejoiced also because she obtained a husband\nafter her own heart, and she put off her royal garments and ornaments\nand clad herself in bark and red cloth.\n\nSo Savitri became a hermit woman. She honoured Satyavan's father and\nmother, and she gave great joy to her husband with her sweet speeches,\nher skill at work, her subdued and even temper, and especially her\nlove. She lived the life of the ascetics and practised every austerity.\nBut she never forgot the dread prophecy of Narada the sage; his\nsorrowful words were always present in her secret heart, and she\ncounted the days as they went past.\n\nAt length the time drew nigh when Satyavan must cast off his mortal\nbody. When he had but four days to live, Savitri took the _Tritatra_\nvow of three nights of sleepless penance and fast.\n\nSaid the blind Dyumatsena: \u201cMy heart is grieved for thee, O my\ndaughter, because the vow is exceedingly hard.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cBe not sorrowful, saintly father, I must observe my vow\nwithout fail.\u201d\n\nSaid Dyumatsena: \u201cIt is not meet that one like me should say, \u2018Break\nthy vow,\u2019 rather should I counsel, \u2018Observe thy vow.\u2019\u201d\n\nThen Savitri began to fast, and she grew pale and was much wasted\nby reason of her rigid penance. Three days passed away, and then,\nbelieving that her husband would die on the morrow, Savitri spent a\nnight of bitter anguish through all the dark and lonely hours.\n\nThe sun rose at length on the fateful morning, and she said to herself,\n\u201c_To-day is the day_.\u201d Her face was bloodless but brave; she prayed in\nsilence and with fervour and offered oblations at the morning fire;\nthen she stood before her father-in-law and her mother-in-law in\nreverent silence with joined hands, concentrating her senses. All the\nhermits of the forest blessed her and said: \u201cMayest thou never suffer\nwidowhood.\u201d\n\nSaid Savitri in her secret heart: \u201cSo be it.\u201d\n\nDyumatsena spoke to her then, saying: \u201cNow that thy vow hath been\ncompleted thou mayest eat the morning meal.\u201d\n\nSaid Savitri: \u201cI will eat when the sun goes down.\u201d\n\nHearing her words Satyavan rose, and taking his axe upon his shoulder,\nturned towards the distant jungle to procure fruits and herbs for his\nwife, whom he loved. He was strong and self-possessed and of noble\nseeming.\n\nSavitri spoke to him sweetly and said: \u201cThou must not go forth alone,\nmy husband. It is my heart's desire to go with thee. I cannot endure\nto-day to be parted from thee.\u201d\n\nSaid Satyavan: \u201cIt is not for thee to enter the darksome jungle; the\nway is long and difficult, and thou art weak on account of thy severe\npenance. How canst thou walk so far on foot?\u201d\n\nSavitri laid her head upon his bosom and said: \u201cI have not been made\nweary by my fast. Indeed I am now stronger than before. I will not\nfeel tired when thou art by my side. I have resolved to go with thee:\ndo not therefore seek to thwart my wish\u2014the wish and the longing of a\nfaithful wife to be with her lord.\u201d\n\nSaid Satyavan: \u201cIf it is thy desire to accompany me I cannot but\ngratify it. But thou must ask permission of my parents lest they find\nfault with me for taking thee through the trackless jungle.\u201d\n\nThen Savitri spoke to the blind sage and her husband's mother and said:\n\u201cSatyavan is going towards the deep jungle to procure fruits and herbs\nfor me, and also fuel for the sacrificial fires. It is my heart's wish\nto go also, for to-day I cannot endure to be parted from him. Fain,\ntoo, would I behold the blossoming woods.\u201d\n\nSaid Dyumatsena: \u201cSince thou hast come to dwell with us in our\nhermitage thou hast not before asked anything of us. Have thy desire\ntherefore in this matter, but do not delay thy husband in his duties.\u201d\n\nHaving thus received permission to depart from the hermitage, Savitri\nturned towards the jungle with Satyavan, her beloved lord. Smiles\ncovered her face, but her heart was torn with secret sorrow.\n\nPeacocks fluttered in the green woodland through which they walked\ntogether, and the sun shone in all its splendour in the blue heaven.\n\nSaid Satyavan with sweet voice: \u201cHow beautiful are the bright streams\nand the blossoming trees!\u201d\n\nThe heart of Savitri was divided into two parts: with one she held\nconverse with her husband while she watched his face and followed his\nmoods; with the other she awaited the dread coming of Yama, but she\nnever uttered her fears.\n\nBirds sang sweetly in the forest, but sweeter to Savitri was the\nvoice of her beloved. It was very dear to her to walk on in silence,\nlistening to his words.\n\nSatyavan gathered fruits and stored them in his basket. At length\nhe began to cut down the branches of trees. The sun was hot and\nhe perspired. Suddenly he felt weary and he said: \u201cMy head aches;\nmy senses are confused, my limbs have grown weak, and my heart is\nafflicted sorely. O silent one, a sickness hath seized me. My body\nseems to be pierced by a hundred darts. I would fain lie down and rest,\nmy beloved; I would fain sleep even now.\u201d\n\nSpeechless and terror-stricken, the gentle Savitri wound her arms about\nher husband's body; she sat upon the ground and she pillowed his head\nupon her lap. Remembering the words of Narada, she knew that the dread\nhour had come; the very moment of death was at hand. Gently she held\nher husband's head with caressing hands; she kissed his panting lips;\nher heart was beating fast and loud. Darker grew the forest and it was\nlonesome indeed.\n\nSuddenly an awful Shape emerged from the shadows. He was of great\nstature and sable hue; his raiment was blood-red; on his head he wore\na gleaming diadem; he had red eyes and was fearsome to look upon; he\ncarried a noose.... The Shape was Yama, god of death. He stood in\nsilence, and gazed upon slumbering Satyavan.\n\nSavitri looked up, and when she perceived that a Celestial had come\nnigh, her heart trembled with sorrow and with fear. She laid her\nhusband's head upon the green sward and rose up quickly: then she\nspake, saying, \u201cWho art thou, O divine One, and what is thy mission to\nme?\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cThou dost love thy husband; thou art endued also with\nascetic merit. I will therefore hold converse with thee. Know thou that\nI am the Monarch of Death. The days of this man, thy husband, are now\nspent, and I have come to bind him and take him away.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cWise sages have told me that thy messengers carry\nmortals away. Why, then, O mighty King, hast thou thyself come hither?\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cThis prince is of spotless heart; his virtues are without\nnumber; he is, indeed, an ocean of accomplishments. It would not be\nfitting to send messengers for him, so I myself have come hither.\u201d\n\nThe face of Satyavan had grown ashen pale. Yama cast his noose and tore\nout from the prince's body the soul-form, which was no larger than a\nman's thumb; it was tightly bound and subdued.\n\nSo Satyavan lost his life; he ceased to breathe; his body became\nunsightly; it was robbed of its lustre and deprived of power to move.\n\nYama fettered the soul with tightness, and turned abruptly towards the\nsouth; silently and speedily he went upon his way....\n\nSavitri followed him.... Her heart was drowned in grief. She could not\ndesert her beloved lord.... She followed Yama, the Monarch of Death.\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cTurn back, O Savitri. Do not follow me. Perform the funeral\nrites of thy lord.... Thine allegiance to Satyavan hath now come to an\nend: thou art free from all wifely duties. Dare not to proceed farther\non this path.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cI must follow my husband whither he is carried or\nwhither he goeth of his own will. I have undergone great penance. I\nhave observed my vow, and I cannot be turned back.... I have already\nwalked with thee seven paces, and the sages have declared that one who\nwalketh seven paces with another becometh a companion. Being thus made\nthy friend, I must hold converse with thee, I must speak and thou must\nlisten.... I have attained the perfect life upon earth by performing\nmy vows and by reason of my devotion unto my lord. It is not meet\nthat thou shouldest part me from my husband now, and prevent me from\nattaining bliss by saying that my allegiance to him hath ended and\nanother mode of life is opened to me.\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cTurn back now.... Thy words are wise and pleasing indeed;\ntherefore, ere thou goest, thou canst ask a boon of me and I will grant\nit. Except the soul of Satyavan, I will give thee whatsoever thou dost\ndesire.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cBecause my husband's sire became blind, he was deprived\nof his kingdom. Restore his eyesight, O mighty One.\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cThe boon is granted. I will restore the vision of thy\nfather-in-law.... But thou hast now grown faint on this toilsome\njourney. Turn back, therefore, and thy weariness will pass away.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cHow can I be weary when I am with my husband? The fate\nof my husband will be my fate also; I will follow him even unto the\nplace whither thou dost carry him.... Hear me, O mighty One, whose\nfriendship I cherish! It is a blessed thing to behold a Celestial;\nstill more blessed is it to hold converse with one; the friendship of a\ngod must bear great fruit.\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cThy wisdom delighteth my heart. Therefore thou canst ask\nof me a second boon, except the life of thy husband, and it will be\ngranted thee.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cMay my wise and saintly father-in-law regain the kingdom\nhe hath lost. May he become once again the protector of his people.\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cThe boon is granted. The king will return to his people and\nbe their wise protector.... Turn back now, O princess; thy desire is\nfulfilled.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cAll people must obey thy decrees; thou dost take away\nlife in accordance with divine ordinances and not of thine own will.\nTherefore thou art called Yama\u2014he that ruleth by decrees. Hear my\nwords, O divine One. It is the duty of Celestials to love all creatures\nand to award them according to their merit. The wicked are without\nholiness and devotion, but the saintly protect all creatures and show\nmercy even unto their enemies.\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cThy wise words are like water to a thirsty soul. Ask of\nme therefore a third boon, except thy husband's life, and it will be\ngranted unto thee.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cMy sire, King Aswapati, hath no son. O grant that a\nhundred sons may be born unto him.\u201d\n\n[Illustration: YAMA AND SAVITRI\n_From a painting by Nanda Lall Bose_\n(By permission of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Calcutta)\n 11]\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cA hundred sons will be born unto thy royal sire. Thy boon\nis granted.... Turn back, therefore, O princess; thou canst not come\nfarther. Long is the path thou hast already travelled.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cI have followed my husband and the way hath not seemed\nlong. Indeed, my heart desireth to go on much farther. Hear my words,\nO Yama, as thou dost proceed on thy journey. Thou art great and wise\nand powerful; thou dost deal equally with all human creatures; thou art\nthe lord of justice.... One cannot trust oneself as one can trust a\nCelestial; therefore, one seeketh to win the friendship of a Celestial.\nIt is meet that one who seeketh the friendship of a Celestial should\nmake answer to his words.\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cNo mortal hath ever spoken unto me as thou hast spoken. Thy\nwords are indeed pleasing, O princess. I will grant thee even a fourth\nboon, except thy husband's life, ere thou dost depart.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cMay a century of sons be born unto my husband and me so\nthat our race may endure. O grant me this, the fourth boon, thou Mighty\nOne.\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cI grant unto thee a century of sons, O princess; they will\nbe wise and powerful and thy race will endure.... Be without weariness\nnow, O lady, and turn back; thou hast come too far already.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cThose who are pious must practise eternal morality,\nO Yama. The pious uphold the universe. The pious hold communion with\nthe pious only, and are never weary; the pious do good unto others nor\never expect any reward. A good deed done unto the righteous is never\nthrown away; such an act doth not entail loss of dignity nor is any\ninterest impaired. Indeed, the doing of good is the chief office of the\nrighteous, and the righteous therefore are the true protectors of all.\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cThe more thou dost speak, the more I respect thee, O\nprincess. O thou who art so deeply devoted unto thy husband, thou canst\nnow ask of me some incomparable boon.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cO mighty One, thou bestower of boons, thou hast already\npromised what cannot be fulfilled unless my husband is restored unto\nme; thou hast promised me a century of sons. Therefore, I ask thee, O\nYama, to give me back Satyavan, my beloved, my lord. Without him, I\nam as one who is dead; without him, I have no desire for happiness;\nwithout him I have no longing even for Heaven; I will have no desire\nto prosper if my lord is snatched off; I cannot live without Satyavan.\nThou hast promised me sons, O Yama, yet thou dost take away my husband\nfrom mine arms. Hear me and grant this boon: Let Satyavan be restored\nto life so that thy decree may be fulfilled.\u201d\n\nSaid Yama: \u201cSo be it. With cheerful heart I now unbind thy husband.\nHe is free.... Disease cannot afflict him again and he will prosper.\nTogether you will both have long life; you will live four hundred\nyears; you will have a century of sons and they will be kings, and\ntheir sons will be kings also.\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus, Yama, the lord of death, departed unto his own\nplace. And Savitri returned to the forest where her husband's body lay\ncold and ashen-pale; she sat upon the ground and pillowed his head\nupon her lap. Then Satyavan was given back his life.... He looked upon\nSavitri with eyes of love; he was like to one who had returned from a\nlong journey in a strange land.\n\nSaid Satyavan: \u201cLong was my sleep; why didst thou not awaken me, my\nbeloved?... Where is that dark One who dragged me away?\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cYama hath come and gone, and thou hast slept long,\nresting thy head upon my lap, and art now refreshed, O blessed one.\nSleep hath forsaken thee, O son of a king. If thou canst rise up, let\nus now depart hence for the night is already dark....\u201d\n\nSatyavan rose up refreshed and strong. He looked round about and\nperceived that he was in the midst of the forest. Then he said: \u201cO\nfair one, I came hither to gather fruit for thee, and while I cut down\nbranches from the trees a pain afflicted me. I grew faint, I sank upon\nthe ground, I laid my head upon thy lap and fell into a deep slumber\neven whilst thou didst embrace me. Then it seemed to me that I was\nenveloped in darkness, and that I beheld a sable One amidst great\neffulgence.... Was this a vision or a reality, O fairest and dearest?\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cThe darkness deepens.... I will tell thee all on the\nmorrow.... Let us now find our parents, O prince. The beasts of the\nnight come forth; I hear their awesome voices; they tread the forest in\nglee; the howl of the jackal maketh my heart afraid.\u201d[108]\n\n[108] Unfaithful wives were transformed into jackals after death.\n\nSaid Satyavan: \u201cDarkness hath covered the forest with fear; we cannot\ndiscover the path by which to return home.\u201d\n\nSavitri said: \u201cA withered tree burneth yonder. I will gather sticks and\nmake a fire and we will wait here until day.\u201d\n\nSaid Satyavan: \u201cMy sickness hath departed and I would fain behold\nmy parents again. Never before have I spent a night away from the\nhermitage. My mother is old and my father also, and I am their crutch.\nThey will now be afflicted with sorrow because that we have not\nreturned.\u201d\n\nSatyavan lifted up his arms and lamented aloud, but Savitri dried\nhis tears and said: \u201cI have performed penances, I have given away\nin charity, I have offered up sacrifices, I have never uttered a\nfalsehood. May thy parents be protected by virtue of the power which I\nhave obtained, and may thou, O my husband, be protected also.\u201d\n\nSaid Satyavan: \u201cO beautiful one, let us now return to the hermitage.\u201d\n\nSavitri raised up her despairing husband. She then placed his left arm\nupon her left shoulder and wound her right arm about his body, and they\nwalked on together.... At length the fair moon came out and shone upon\ntheir path.\n\nMeanwhile Dyumatsena, the sire of Satyavan, had regained his sight, and\nhe went with his wife to search for his lost son, but had to return to\nthe hermitage sorrowing and in despair. The sages comforted the weeping\nparents and said: \u201cSavitri hath practised great austerities, and there\ncan be no doubt that Satyavan is still alive.\u201d\n\nIn time Satyavan and Savitri reached the hermitage, and their own\nhearts and the hearts of their parents were freed from sorrow.\n\nThen Savitri related all that had taken place, and the sages said: \u201cO\nchaste and illustrious lady, thou hast rescued the race of Dyumatsena,\nthe foremost of kings, from the ocean of darkness and calamity.\u201d\n\nOn the morning that followed messengers came to Dyumatsena and told\nthat the monarch who had deprived him of his kingdom was dead, having\nfallen by the hand of his chief minister. All the people clamoured for\ntheir legitimate ruler. Said the messengers: \u201cChariots await thee, O\nking. Return, therefore, unto thy kingdom.\u201d\n\nGreat was their wonder to find that Dyumatsena was no longer blind.\n\nSo the king was restored to his kingdom, in accordance with the boon\nwhich Savitri had obtained from Yama. And sons were in time born unto\nher father. Thus did the gentle Savitri, by reason of her great piety,\nraise from misery to high fortune the family of her husband and her own\nfather also. She was the rescuer of all; the bringer of happiness and\nprosperity.... He who heareth the story of Savitri will never endure\nmisery again....\n\n * * * * *\n\nThe beauties of Yama's heaven are sung by the sage Narada in the great\nepic poem _Mahabharata_.[109] \u201cListen to me,\u201d he says. \u201cIn that fair\ndomain it is neither too hot nor too cold. Life there is devoid of\nsorrow; age does not bring frailties, and none ever hunger or thirst;\nit is without wretchedness, or fatigue, or evil feelings. Everything,\nwhether celestial or human, that the heart seeks after is found there.\nSweet are the juicy fruits, delicious the fragrance of flowers and tree\nblossoms, and waters are there, both cold and hot, to give refreshment\nand comfort. Nymphs dance and sing to the piping of celestial elves,\nand merry laughter ever blends with the strains of alluring music.\n\n[109] _Lokapala-Sabhakhyana_ section of _Sabha Parva_.\n\n\u201cThe Assembly House of Yama, which was made by Twashtri, hath splendour\nequal to the sun; it shines like burnished gold. There the servants of\nthe Lord of Justice measure out the allotted days of mortals. Great\nrishis and ancestors await upon Yama, King of the Pitris (fathers),\nand adore him. Sanctified by holiness, their shining bodies are clad\nin swan-white garments, and decked with many-coloured bracelets and\ngolden ear-rings. Sweet sounds, alluring perfumes, and brilliant flower\ngarlands make that building ever pleasant and supremely blest. Hundreds\nof thousands of saintly beings worship the illustrious King of the\nPitris.\n\n\u201cThe heaven of Indra was constructed by the great artisan-god himself.\nLike a chariot it can be moved anywhere at will. The Assembly House\nhas many rooms and seats, and is adorned by celestial trees. Indra\nsits there with his beautiful queen, wearing his crown, with gleaming\nbracelets on his upper arms; he is decked with flowers, and attired\nin white garments. He is waited upon by brilliant Maruts, and all the\ngods and the rishis and saints, whose sins have been washed off their\npure souls, which are resplendent as fire. There is no sorrow, or fear,\nor suffering in Indra's abode, which is inhabited by the spirits of\nwind and thunder, fire and water, plants and clouds, and planets and\nstars, and the spirits also of Prosperity, Religion, Joy, Faith, and\nIntelligence. Fairies and elves (Apsaras and Gandharvas) dance and sing\nthere to sweet music; feats of skill are performed by celestial battle\nheroes, auspicious rites are also practised. Divine messengers come and\ngo in celestial chariots, looking bright as Soma himself.\n\n\u201cThe heaven of Varuna was constructed by Vishwakarman (Twashtri)\nwithin the sea. Its walls and arches are of pure white, and they are\nsurrounded by celestial trees, made of sparkling jewels, which always\nblossom and always bear fruit. In the many-coloured bowers beautiful\nand variegated birds sing delightful melodies. In the Assembly House,\nwhich is also of pure white, there are many rooms and many seats.\nVaruna, richly decked with jewels and golden ornaments and flowers, is\nthroned there with his queen. Adityas[110] wait upon the lord of the\nwaters, as also do hooded snakes (Nagas) with human heads and arms,\nand Daityas and Danavas (giants and demons) who have taken vows and\nhave been rewarded with immortality. All the holy spirits of rivers and\noceans are there, and the holy spirits of lakes and springs and pools,\nand the personified forms of the points of the heavens, the ends of the\nearth, and the great mountains. Music and dances provide entertainment,\nwhile sacred hymns are sung in praise of Varuna.\u201d\n\n[110] Sons of the goddess Aditi. They are attendants of Varuna, their\nchief, as the Maruts are attendants of Indra.\n\n[Illustration: THE CITY OF THE GODS, PALITANA\n 12]\n\nThese heavens recall the Grecian \u201cIslands of the Blest\u201d and the Celtic\nOtherworld, where eternal summer reigns, trees bear blossoms and fruit\ncontinually, and there is no wasting with age. Indra's Assembly House\nis slightly reminiscent of the Teutonic Valhal, but is really more like\nthe gardens of the underworld Hela. The Indian heroes do not feast on\npork like those of Teutonic and Celtic myth; in the Assembly House\nof Kuvera, god of wealth, however, fat and flesh are eaten by fierce\nsentinel dwarfs. The fairy-like Apsaras are wooed by Indra's favoured\nwarriors as well as by the gods.\n\nOne of the conditions which secured entry to the heaven of Yama was\nthat a man should have offspring. A rishi, named Mandapala, devoted\nhimself to religious vows and the observance of great austerities, but\nwhen he reached the region of the Pitris, he could not obtain \u201cthe\nfruit of his acts\u201d. He asked: \u201cWhy is this domain unattainable to me?\u201d\n\nSaid the Celestials: \u201cBecause thou hast no children.... The Vedas have\ndeclared that the son rescueth the father from a hell called Put. O\nbest of Brahmans, strive thou to beget offspring.\u201d[111]\n\n[111] _Adi Parva_ section of _Mahabharata_, Roy's trans., p. 635.\n\nA father could only reach Heaven if his son, after performing the\ncremation ceremony, poured forth the oblation and performed other\nnecessary services to the dead. Consequently, all men showed great\nanxiety to have sons. In the Vedic period the exposure of female\nchildren was not unknown; indeed, this practice is referred to in the\n_Yajurveda_. \u201cIt is sorrowful to have a daughter,\u201d exclaims the writer\nof one of the _Brahmanas_.\n\nOne reason for infanticide in modern India is associated with the\npractice of exogamy (marriage outside of one's tribe). Raids took\nplace for the purpose of obtaining wives and these were invariably\nthe cause of much bloodshed. In 1842 members of the Kandhs tribe\ntold Major Macpherson \u201cthat it was better to destroy girls in their\ninfancy than to allow them to grow up and become causes of strife\nafterwards\u201d. Colonel MacCulloch, Political Agent for Manipur, stamped\nout infanticide in the Naga country by assuring the people of a tribe\nthat they would be protected against the wife-hunting parties of a\nstronger tribe. \u201cMany years afterwards a troop of Naga girls from the\nweaker tribe paid a visit of ceremony to Colonel MacCulloch, bearing\npresents of cloth of their own weaving in token of their gratitude to\nthe man who had saved their lives.\u201d[112]\n\n[112] The Tribes and Castes of Bengal. H. H. Risley (1892), vol. i,\nlxv, _et seq_.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IV\n\nDemons and Giants and Fairies\n\n Indian Asuras as Demons\u2014Persian Ahura a God\u2014Indian Gods as Persian\n Demons\u2014Theory of Assyrian Influence\u2014Indra's Battle with Asuras\u2014Like\n Thor's Conflict with Giants\u2014The Sun and Moon Devourer\u2014Giants\n and Demons of Ocean\u2014The Flying City\u2014Destruction of World by\n Fire\u2014Teutonic Parallel\u2014Serpent Demigods\u2014Man's Special Enemies\u2014The\n Corpse Eaters\u2014Demons of Disease, Unbelief, and Robbery\u2014Elves\n and Fairies\u2014The \u201cGood People\u201d\u2014Celestial Musicians and Dancing\n Girls\u2014Origin of Mythical Beings\u2014Story of a Love-sick King\u2014His Fairy\n Bride\u2014The Echoing Forest Nymph\u2014The \u201cLanguage of Birds\u201d\u2014Birds as\n Spirits and Ghosts.\n\n\nThe gods are the Suras and the demons the Asuras or \u201cnon-gods\u201d. This\ndistinction, however, did not obtain in the early Vedic period.\nOriginally the deities, and especially Varuna and Mitra, were called\nAsuras, but in the later part of the _Rigveda_ the term is applied\nchiefly to the enemies of the gods. In the _Atharvaveda_, as in\nsubsequent Epic literature, the Asuras are simply demons and giants and\ngoblins.\n\nNo conclusive explanation can be offered as to how this remarkable\nchange took place in the course of the centuries embraced by the Vedic\nperiod. It may have been due primarily to sectarian strife between\nthe religious teachers of those tribes which had been influenced by\nBabylonian modes of thought and those which clung tenaciously to\nthe forms of primitive Aryan nature worship, and perhaps also the\nworship of ancestors (Pitris). In the old Persian language, which,\nlike Greek, places \u201ch\u201d before a vowel where \u201cs\u201d is used in Sanskrit,\nAhura ( = Asura) signifies \u201cgod\u201d. The Zoroastrian chief god is\ncalled Ahura-Mazda, \u201cthe wise Lord\u201d, as Varuna is addressed in early\nRigvedic hymns, \u201cwise Asura and King\u201d, and \u201cthe all-knowing Asura\nwho established the heavens and fixed the limits of the earth\u201d. On\nthe other hand \u201cdaeva\u201d in the Iranian dialect, which is cognate with\nSanskrit \u201cdeva\u201d, \u201cgod\u201d, came to mean \u201cdemon\u201d. \u201cAsura\u201d is derived from\nthe root \u201casu\u201d, which signifies \u201cthe air of life\u201d, and \u201cdeva\u201d from\n\u201cdiv\u201d, \u201cto shine\u201d, or \u201cdeiwo\u201d, \u201cheavenly\u201d.\n\nThe view has been urged that the revolt against \u201cAsura\u201d in India was\ndue to the hatred cherished towards the Persians who had become subject\nto the Assyrians, the worshippers of Ashur. It was originally based\non the assumption that Assyrian aggression caused the migration of\nAryan tribes towards India. Subsequent research, however, has tended\nto dispel this theory. It has been found, for instance, that Aryans\nwere associated with the Kassites who overthrew the Hammurabi dynasty\nof Babylon prior to the invasion of the Punjab, and that the Assyrians\nwere for a period vassals of the Mitanni kings, who had Aryan names and\nworshipped Indra, Varuna, and Mithra in Mesopotamia and Asia Minor.\nThe weak point in the Ashur-Asura theory is that it throws no light on\nthe process which caused the Persian \u201cdaeva\u201d to be applied to demons\ninstead of to gods. How the gods of the Indian Aryans became the demons\nof Persia and the demons of Persia became the gods of India is a\nproblem for which a solution has yet to be found.\n\nThe expository and speculative books of the priests\u2014the _Brahmanas_\nand _Upanishads_\u2014which are attached to the Vedic hymns, do not help\nus greatly in accounting for the change. We read that \u201cthe gods and\nAsuras contended together, and that the former, being less numerous\nthan the latter, took some bricks, and placing them in a proper\nposition to receive the sacrificial fire, with the formula, \u2018Thou art a\nmultiplier\u2019, they became numerous\u201d.[113] In one of the Brahmanas we are\ninformed:\n\n[113] Muir's _Original Sanskrit Texts_, v, 15.\n\n \u201cThe Asuras performed at the sacrifice all that the Devas performed.\n The Asuras became thus of equal power with the Devas, and did not\n yet yield to them. Thereupon the Devas had a vision of the \u2018silent\n praise\u2019. The Asuras, not knowing it, did not perform the \u2018silent\n praise\u2019. This \u2018silent praise\u2019 is the latent essence of the hymns.\n Till then, whatever weapons the Devas used against the Asuras, the\n Asuras used in revenge against them; but when the Devas had a vision\n of the \u2018silent praise\u2019 and raised it as a weapon, the Asuras did not\n comprehend it. With it the Devas aimed a blow at the Asuras, and\n defeated them, for they had no comprehension of this weapon. Thereupon\n the Devas became masters of the Asuras. He who has such a knowledge\n becomes master of his enemy, adversary, and hater.\u201d[114]\n\n[114] Professor E. Vernon Arnold's _The Rigveda_, p. 54.\n\nThis explanation is but an echo of the Indra-Vritra combat. Another\nstatement is to the effect that \u201cthe Devas gave up falsehood and\nadopted truth, while the Asuras gave up truth and adopted falsehood\u201d.\nFurther, we learn that when a sacrifice was performed the Asuras put\nthe offerings into their own mouths, while the Suras (gods) gave the\nofferings they received to one another.\n\nThe Asuras became completely identified with the demons and giants;\nthey symbolized evil, darkness, and drought. In Epic literature we\nread that \u201cin ancient times the gods and Asuras were very active in\ndestroying one another. And the terrible Asuras always succeeded in\ndefeating the gods.\u201d ... Indra goes forth with his thunderbolt against\nKesin, the leader of the Asuras, who wielded a great mace; this mace\nthe demon hurled against the god, but Indra \u201ccut it up in its course\nwith his thunderbolt. Then Kesin, furious with rage, hurled a huge mass\nof rock at him.\u201d Indra \u201cof a hundred sacrifices rent it asunder with\nhis thunderbolt, and it fell down upon the ground. And Kesin himself\nwas wounded by that falling mass of rock.[115] Thus sorely afflicted he\nfled\u201d. Indra rescues a beautiful lady who had been seized by the Asura,\nand she informs the god that her sister had previously fallen a victim\nto the demon....[116]\n\n[115] In the combat between Thor and the giant Hrungner, the\nthunder-hammer similarly cleaves a mass of flint hurled by the\nenemy.\u2014_Teutonic Myth and Legend._\n\n[116] _Mahabharata, Vana Parva_ section, pp. 679-80, Roy's trans.\n\nThe Asuras obstructed sacrifices; they were ever hovering round\naltars to discover if rites were properly performed; if a priest did\nnot perform a ceremony in orthodox fashion, the sacrifice was of no\navail, because the Asuras devoured it; if a man neglected a part of\na ceremonial performance, a demon might take possession of him and\naccomplish his ruin.\n\nOne of the terrible Asuras is the demon Rahu, who causes eclipses by\nswallowing the sun and the moon, like the Chinese dragon, the wolf\nManagarm of Teutonic mythology, and the Grecian demons who devour\nHelena, the sun maiden, sister of the twin Dioscuri. In the Vedic\nperiod Rahu was represented by the demon Svarbhanu.\n\n[Illustration: DURGA SLAYING GIANTS AND DEMONS\n_From a sculpture at M\u00e1mallapuram_\n 13]\n\nThe Asuras of Ocean are the Daityas and Danavas, the descendants of\nthe chaos hags Diti and Danu, and Kasyapa, a superhuman sage. These\nare the giants and demons who fought against the gods like the Titans,\nthe Irish Fomorians, and the Norse Jotuns. Indra confined them in\nthis region, which is called Patala, and they remain there \u201cafflicted\nby Time\u201d,[117] and subject to the sway of Varuna. Like the Norse\ngiants, they will be let loose to take part in the \u201cLast Battle\u201d. An\n\u201cAsura fire\u201d burns constantly in Patala, fed by water; it is \u201cbound\nand confined\u201d, but cannot be extinguished; when the end of all comes,\nit will burst forth and burn up the three worlds.[118] In Teutonic\nmythology the Universe is similarly doomed to be consumed by fire at\nRagnarok, \u201cthe Dusk of the Gods\u201d.\n\n[117] \u201cOverwhelmed by misfortune\u201d (Roy).\n\n[118] Heaven, Earth, and the Underworld.\n\nThe abodes of these giants and demons are exceedingly beautiful; they\nare agleam with gold and precious stones; seats and beds are provided\nin the mansions, and there are also recreation grounds, and forests\nand mountains resembling clouds. Indeed, the Daityas and Danavas live\npretty much in the same manner as the gods, for \u201cthe gods and Danavas\nare brothers, although ever hostile to one another\u201d.[119] The Danava\nwomen are of gigantic stature, and wear jewels as large as mountain\nboulders; when terrified by the attacks of the gods, they \u201cbewail like\nunto cranes in Autumn\u201d. One of the Daitya tribes reside in the moving\ncity named Hiranyapura, which they constructed for their protection;\nsometimes it sinks below the sea, or under the earth; at other times it\nsoars across the heavens like the sun. Indra, as we have seen, has a\nsimilar aerial city.\n\n[119] _Mahabharata._\n\nIn the Underworld dwell also the Nagas, the demoniac Cobras; they\nare of human form to the waist, the rest of their bodies being like\nthose of serpents. Their king is Shesha, who is also named Vasuki and\nKarkot\u00e1ka; he is sometimes represented with a thousand heads, and\nresembles Typhon, who fought with Zeus. In the _Ramayana_ he is Ravana,\nthe Demon of Ceylon. The prototypes of Shesha and his hosts are the\ndragons Vritra, \u201cthe encompasser\u201d; Ahi, \u201cthe confiner\u201d; and fierce\nKushna, \u201cthe scorcher\u201d, who spits out the sunset fires and burns up day.\n\nWhen serpent worship became prevalent among the Aryans, the Nagas\nwere regarded as demigods. They were occasionally \u201cthe friends of\nman\u201d, and to those they favoured they gave draughts of their nectar,\nwhich endowed them with great strength. Their city was the Paradise of\nserpent worshippers. The female Nagas were beautiful nymphs, who were\nsometimes wooed by mortals.\n\nAs the Asuras are the enemies of the gods, the Rakshas or Rakshasas\nare the enemies of man.[120] These demons are \u201cnight prowlers\u201d; they\nhave greatest power after \u201cthe first forty seconds of grey twilight\npreceding nightfall\u201d. They travel faster than the wind, and go through\nthe air; they have also power to change their shape. Sometimes they\nappear in the guise of tigers, bears, or great monkeys; and their hues\nvary from yellow to red, and blue to green. In the _Ramayana_ they\nare found associated with the Asuras of Ceylon; a spy enters a demon\ndwelling and sees them in all their shapes, some frightfully deformed,\nwith small bodies and long arms; some as grotesque dwarfs, others\nas horrible giants with long projecting teeth; some with one eye,\nothers with three eyes; some with one leg, two legs, or three, or even\nfour; and some with heads of serpents, horses, or elephants. In the\n_Mahabharata_ the Rakshasas are like gorillas; they have arrow-shaped\nears, big red eyes, and red hair and beards, and mouths like caves;\nthey feast on human beings and cattle. The heroic Bhima, like Siegfried\nDietrich of Bern, Beowulf, and Finn-mac-Coul, is a mighty slayer of\nthese man-eating demons. They are impervious to weapons, but Bhima\nwrestles with them and breaks their backs or tears them asunder, after\nlively combats with trees and boulders. Female Rakshasas sometimes fall\nin love with human beings, and transform themselves into beautiful\nwomen. Bhima takes one for his bride, and she carries him through the\nair to a Celestial retreat among the mountains.\n\n[120] Asuras are sometimes called Rakshasas also.\n\nThe most loathsome Rakshasas are the goblin-like Pisachas,[121] who\nare devourers of dead bodies in cemeteries, and are exceedingly vile\nand malignant fiends. They are the bringers of diseases and wasting\nfevers. In the _Atharvaveda_ Agni is invoked by the priests, who mutter\ncharms over suffering and \u201cpossessed\u201d mortals, to take the Pisachas\nbetween his teeth and devour them. They are \u201cthose who hound us in\nour chambers, while shouting goes on in the night of the new moon ...\nthe flesh devourers, who plan to injure us, and whom I overcome\u201d.\nThe priest declares: \u201cI plague the Pisachas as the tiger the cattle\nowners. As dogs who have seen a lion, these do not find a refuge....\nFrom villages I enter Pisachas fly away.... May Nirriti (a goddess of\ndestruction) take hold of this one.\u201d[122]\n\n[121] _Pron._ pe-shatch'as.\n\n[122] Bloomfield's _Atharvaveda_ iv, 36 (_Sacred Books of the East_,\nvol. xlii).\n\nKali, a demon who holds friendly converse with the gods in the \u201cStory\nof Nala\u201d, is attended by Dw\u00e1para, a flesh-eater like the Pisachas.\nThe Panis are aerial demons, who are hated by bluff, honest Indra,\nbecause they are the inspirers of foolish actions, slander, and\nunbelief, and the imps who encourage men to neglect homage to deities.\nThe black Dasyus are repulsive of aspect and jealous-hearted; they\nare the stealers of the cloud cows who are held captive for Vritra in\nthe cave of the demon Vala. The Darbas, \u201cthe tearers\u201d, are a variety\nof Pisachas. Reference is made in _Mahabharata_ to \u201cugly Vartikas of\ndreadful sight, having one wing, one eye, and one leg\u201d; when they\n\u201cvomit blood, facing the sun\u201d, a dreadful happening is known to be at\nhand, because they are fiends of evil omen.\n\nAmong the supernatural beings who are sometimes the enemies, but in\nmost cases the friends of mankind, are the Yakshas, the Gandharvas, and\nthe Apsaras (Apsarasas).\n\nThe Yakshas are occasionally referred to as the Punyajanas, \u201cthe good\npeople\u201d; they may be of human stature, with big benevolent eyes, or\npowerful giants who can fight as fiercely as Rakshasas. They are\nguardians of hidden treasure, like the dwarfs and giants of Teutonic\nlegend, being associated with Kuvera, god of wealth, whose abode is\nsituated among the Himalayan mountains. In Kuvera's domain are found\n\u201cmultitudes of spirits\u201d who do not visit the world of men as a rule,\nbut remain near the treasure for purposes of defence; \u201csome are of\ndwarfish stature, some of fierce visage, some hunchbacked, some of\nblood-red eyes, some of frightful yells; some are feeding upon fat and\nflesh, and some are terrible to behold; and all are armed with various\nweapons, and endued with the speed of the wind\u201d.[123]\n\n[123] _Mahabharata_, Roy's trans. (_Sabha Parva_, p. 32).\n\n[Illustration: THE CELESTIAL FAIRIES (APSARAS)\n_Sculpture on a modern Hindu Temple, Benares_\n 14]\n\nThe Gandharvas are grouped in tribes, and number over six thousand\nindividuals. They are all of the male sex. They haunt the air, the\nforests, and the mountains, and, like the Rakshasas, have power to\nwork illusions in the grey twilight before nightfall. References are\nmade in the Epics to their combats with human beings. To warriors who\novercome them they impart instruction in religious matters; those whom\nthey conquer they carry away, like the Teutonic elves and dwarfs. The\nGandharvas are renowned musicians and bards and singers. When they\nplay on their divine instruments the fairy-like Apsaras, who are all\nfemales, dance merrily. In the various Aryan heavens these elves and\nfairies delight and allure with music and song and dance the gods, and\nthe souls of those who have attained to a state of bliss. The Apsara\ndancing girls are \u201cvoluptuous and beautiful\u201d, and inspire love in\nParadise as well as upon earth. Their lovers include gods, Gandharvas,\nand mortals. Arjuna, the human son of Indra, who was transported in\na Celestial chariot to Swarga over Suravithi, \u201cthe Milky Way\u201d, was\nenchanted by the music and songs and dances of the Celestial elves and\nfairies. He followed bands of Gandharvas who were \u201cskilled in music\nsacred and profane\u201d, and he saw the bewitching Apsaras, including the\nnotorious Menaka, \u201cwith eyes like lotus blooms, employed in enticing\nhearts\u201d; they had \u201cfair round hips and slim waists\u201d, and \u201cbegan to\nperform various evolutions, shaking their deep bosoms and casting their\nglances around, and exhibiting other attractive attitudes capable of\nstealing the hearts and resolutions and minds of the spectators\u201d.[124]\n\n[124] _Vana Parva_ section of _Mahabharata_.\n\nIn the _Rigveda_ there is a water-nymph, named Apsaras; she is the\n\u201cspouse\u201d of Gandharva, an atmospheric deity who prepares Soma for\nthe gods and reveals divine truths to mortals. They vanish, however,\nin later times; the other Vedas deal with the spirit groups which\nfigure so prominently in the Epics. No doubt the groups are older than\nGandharva, the god, and Apsaras, the goddess, who may be simply the\nelf-king and the fairy-queen. The \u201cblack\u201d Dasyus are sometimes referred\nto by modern-day writers as the dark aborigines who were displaced by\nthe Aryans; a tribal significance is also given to the Rakshasas and\nthe Gandharvas. But this tendency to identify the creatures of the\nspirit world with human beings may be carried too far. If \u201cDasyus\u201d\nwere really \u201cdark folk\u201d,[125] it should be remembered that in Teutonic\nmythology there are \u201cblack dwarfs\u201d, who live in underground dwellings,\nand \u201cwhite elves\u201d associated with air and ocean; there are also black\nand white fairies in the Scottish Highlands, so that black and white\nspirits may simply belong to night and day spirit groups. It may be\nthat the Indian aborigines were referred to contemptuously as Dasyus\nby the Aryans. The application of the names of repulsive imps to human\nenemies is not an unfamiliar habit even in our own day; in China the\nEuropean is a \u201cforeign devil\u201d, but Chinese \u201cdevils\u201d existed long\nbefore Europeans secured a footing in the Celestial Kingdom. Those\nwho seek for a rational explanation for the belief in the existence\nof mythical beings should remember that primitive man required no\nmodels for the creatures of his fancy. He symbolized everything\u2014his\nideals, his desires, his hopes and his fears, the howling wind, the\nlow whispering breeze, the creaking tree, the torrent, the river, the\nlake, and the mountain; he heard the hammer or the trumpet of a mighty\ngod in the thunderstorm, he believed that giants uprooted trees and\ncast boulders down mountain slopes, that demons raised ocean billows\nin tempest, and that the strife of the elements was a war between gods\nand giants; day and night, ever in conflict, were symbolized, as were\nalso summer and winter, and growth and decay. If the fairies and elves\nof Europe are Lapps, or the small men of an interglacial period in\nthe Pleistocene Age, and if the Dasyus and Gandharvas of India are\nmerely Dravidians and pre-Dravidians who resisted the Aryan invasion,\nwho, then, it may be asked, were the prototypes of the giants \u201cbig as\nmountains\u201d, or the demons like \u201ctrees walking\u201d, the \u201ctiger-headed\u201d\nRakshasas, \u201cugly Vartikas\u201d with \u201cone wing, one eye, and one leg\u201d?\nand what animal suggested Vritra, or the fiery dragon that burned up\ndaylight, or Rahu, the swallower of sun and moon? If the redhaired and\nred-bearded Rakshasas are to be given a racial significance, what of\nthe blue Rakshasas and the green? The idea that primitive man conceived\nof giants because he occasionally unearthed the bones of prehistoric\nmonsters, is certainly not supported by Scottish evidence; Scotland\nswarms with giants and hags of mountain, ocean, and river, although it\nhas not yielded any great skeletons or even a single artifact of the\nPal\u00e6olithic Age. Giants and fairies are creations of fancy. Just as\na highly imaginative child symbolizes his fears and peoples darkness\nwith terrifying monsters, so, it may be inferred, did primitive man who\ncrouched in his cave, or spent sleepless nights in tempest-stricken\nforests, conceive with childlike mind of demons thirsting for his blood\nand giants of wind and fire intent on destroying the Universe.\n\n[125] Dasyu and Dasa are \u201capplied in many passages of the _Rigveda_\nto superhuman enemies\u201d. The colour reference in Dasa is probable, but\nit is also used in other senses. For a full discussion on conflicting\nviews regarding Dasyu and Dasa see _Vedic Index of Names and Subjects_.\nMacdonell and Keith, vol. i, pp. 347-9 and 356-8.\n\nIn India, as elsewhere, the folk of the spirit world might woo or be\nwooed by impressionable mortals. A Gandharva related to Arjuna, the\nPandava prince, by whom he was defeated in single combat, the \u201ccharming\nstory\u201d, as he called it, of King Samvarana and the fairy-like Tapati,\na daughter of the sun god, Surya. Tapati was of all nymphs the most\nbeautiful; she was \u201cperfectly symmetrical\u201d and \u201cexquisitely attired\u201d;\nshe had \u201cfaultless features, and black, large eyes\u201d; and, in contrast\nto an Apsara, she \u201cwas chaste and exceedingly well conducted\u201d. For\na time the sun god considered that no husband could be found who was\nworthy of his daughter; and therefore \u201cknew no peace of mind, always\nthinking of the person he should select\u201d. One day, however, King\nSamvarana worshipped the sun, and made offerings of flowers and sweet\nperfumes, and Surya resolved to bestow his daughter upon this ideal man.\n\nIt came to pass that Samvarana went a-hunting deer on the mountains. He\nrode swiftly in pursuit of a nimble-footed stag, leaving his companions\nbehind, until his steed expired with exhaustion. Then he wandered about\nalone. In a secluded wood he beheld a maiden of exquisite beauty; he\ngazed at her steadfastly for a time, thinking she was a goddess or \u201cthe\nembodiment of the rays emanating from the sun\u201d. Her body was as radiant\nas fire and as spotless as the crescent moon; she stood motionless like\nto a golden statue. The flowers and the creepers round about partook\nof her beauty, and \u201cseemed to be converted into gold\u201d. She was Tapati,\ndaughter of the sun.\n\nThe king's eyes were captivated, his heart was wounded by the arrows of\nthe love god Kama; he lost his peace of mind. At length he spoke and\nsaid: \u201cWho art thou, O fair one? O maiden of sweet smiles, why dost\nthou linger in these lonely woods? I have never seen or heard of one so\nbeautiful as thee.... The love god tortures me.\u201d\n\nThat lotus-eyed maiden made no answer; she vanished from sight like to\nlightning in the clouds.\n\nThe king hastened through the forest, lamenting for her: he searched\nin vain; he stood motionless in grief; he fell down on the earth and\nswooned.\n\nThen, smiling sweetly, the maiden appeared again. In honeyed words she\nspoke, saying: \u201cArise, thou tiger among kings. It is not meet that\nthou shouldst lose thy reason in this manner.\u201d\n\nSamvarana opened his eyes and beheld Tapati. Weak with emotion he spoke\nand said: \u201cI am burning with love for thee, thou black-eyed beauty, O\naccept me. My life is ebbing away.... I have been bitten by Kama, who\nis even like a venomous snake. Have mercy on me.... O thou of handsome\nand faultless features, O thou of face like unto the lotus or the\nmoon, O thou of voice sweet as that of singing Kinnaras, my life now\ndepends on thee. Without thee, O timid one, I am unable to live. It\nbehoveth thee not, O black-eyed maid, to cast me off; it behoveth thee\nto relieve me from this affliction by giving me thy love. At the first\nsight thou hast distracted my heart. My mind wandereth. Be merciful;\nI am thy obedient slave, thy adorer. O accept me.... O thou of lotus\neyes, the flame of desire burneth within me. O extinguish that flame by\nthrowing on it the water of thy love....\u201d[126]\n\n[126] _Mahabharata_, Roy's translation (_Adi Parva_, section, pp.\n495-6).\n\nTapati replied: \u201cI am not mistress of mine own self. I am a maiden\nruled by my father. If thou dost love me, demand me of him. My heart\nhath been robbed by thee.\u201d\n\nThen, revealing her identity, Tapati ascended to heaven, and once again\nSamvarana fell upon the earth and swooned.\n\nThe ministers and followers of the king came searching for him, and\nfound him \u201clying forsaken on the ground like a rainbow dropped from\nthe firmament\u201d. They sprinkled his face with cool and lotus-scented\nwater. When he revived, the monarch sent away all his followers except\none minister. For twelve days he worshipped the sun constantly on the\nmountain top. Then a great Rishi, whom he had sent for, came to him,\nand the Rishi ascended to the sun. Ere long he returned with Tapas, the\nsun god having declared that Varanasi would be a worthy husband for his\ndaughter.\n\nFor twelve years the king lived with his fairy bride in the mountain\nforests, and a regent ruled over the kingdom.\n\nBut although the monarch enjoyed great bliss, living the life of a\nCelestial, the people of the kingdom suffered greatly. For twelve years\nno rain fell, \u201cnot even a drop of dew came from the skies, and no corn\nwas grown\u201d. The people were afflicted with famine; men grew reckless,\nand deserted their wives and children; the capital became like to a\ncity of the dead.\n\nThen a great Rishi brought Varanasi back to his capital with his\nCelestial bride. And after that things became as they were before. Rain\nfell in abundance and corn was grown. \u201cRevived by that foremost of\nmonarchs of virtuous soul, the capital and the country became glad with\nexceeding joy.\u201d[127] A son was born to the king, and his name was Kuru.\n\n[127] Like an Egyptian Pharaoh, the rajah is here a god among men.\nHis presence was necessary to ensure the success of rain-bringing\nceremonies.\n\nThere are many other uncatalogued Celestial beings like Tapati in\nIndian fairyland. In the _Atharva-veda_ there are numerous named and\nnameless spirits of good and evil, and throughout the Epics references\nare made to semi-divine beings who haunt streams, lakes, forests, and\nplains. A _Rigveda_ hymn is addressed to the forest nymph Aranyani. She\nechoes the voices of man and beast and creates illusions:\n\n She mimics kine that crop the grass,\n She rumbles like a cart at even,\n She calls The cow, she hews down wood,\n The man who lingers says, \u201cWho calleth?\u201d\n\n O Aranyani will not harm\n If one will not invade her dwelling,\n When, having eaten luscious fruit,\n At her sweet will she turns to slumber.\n\nThe singing birds are all singing spirits in India as in Europe. The\n\u201clanguage of birds\u201d is the language of spirits. When Siegfried, after\neating of the dragon's heart, understood the \u201clanguage of birds\u201d, he\nheard them warning him regarding his enemies. Our seafarers whistle\nwhen they invoke the spirit of the wind. Sir Walter Scott drew\nattention, in his _Minstrelsy of the Scottish Border_, to the belief\nthat the speech of spirits was a kind of whistling. As we have seen,\nthe wives of Danavas had voices like Cranes; Homer's ghosts twittered\nlike bats; Egyptian ghosts were hooting owls. In India the croaking\nraven is still a bird of evil omen, as it is also in the West. In the\nScottish Highlands the spirits of the dead sometimes appear as birds;\nso do fairies. The Irish gods and the Celestial Rishis of India take\nthe form of swans, like the \u201cswan maidens\u201d, when they visit mankind. In\nthe Assyrian legend of Ishtar the souls of the dead in Hades \u201care like\nbirds covered with feathers\u201d. Numerous instances could be quoted to\nillustrate the widespread association of birds with the spirit world.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER V\n\nSocial and Religious Developments of the Vedic Age\n\n Aryan Civilization\u2014Tribes and Clans\u2014Villages and Trade\u2014Divisions of\n Society\u2014Origin of Castes\u2014Rise of the Priestly Cult\u2014Brahmanic Ideals\n of Life\u2014Brahmanic Students\u2014The Source of Algebra\u2014Samaveda and\n Yajurveda\u2014Atharva-veda Charms and Invocations\u2014The \u201cMiddle Country\u201d\n the Centre of Brahmanic Culture\u2014Sacred Prose Books\u2014Bold Pantheism\n of the Upanishads\u2014Human Sacrifice and its Symbolism\u2014Chaos Giant\n Myth in India, Babylonia, and China, and in Teutonic Mythology\u2014Horse\n Sacrifices in India, Siberia, Greece, Rome, &c.\u2014Creation the Result\n of Sacrifice\u2014Death as the Creator and Devourer.\n\n\nDuring the Vedic Age, which came to a close in the eighth century\nB.C., the Aryan settlers spread gradually eastward and southward. At\nfirst they occupied the Punjab, but ere the Rigvedic period was ended\nthey had reached the banks of the Jumna and the Ganges in the \u201cMiddle\nCountry\u201d. In the early hymns the great Himalayan mountains dominate\nfertile river valleys, but the greater part of northern India is\ncovered by vast and dense forests. No mention is made of the sea.\n\nThe Aryans were a pastoral and hunting people, with some knowledge of\nagriculture. They possessed large herds of cattle, and had also sheep,\ngoats, and asses; they were, besides, famous breeders and tamers of\nhorses; the faithful dog, man's earliest friend, followed both herdsman\nand hunter. The plough was in use, and bullocks were yoked to it; grain\nwas thrashed in primitive manner and ground between \u201cpounding stones\u201d.\nBarley and wheaten cakes, milk, curds, butter, and cheese, and wild\nfruits were the chief articles of diet; the products of the chase were\nalso eaten, but there appears to have been at the earliest period a\nrestriction in the consumption of certain foods. Beef was not eaten at\nmeals. Bulls were sacrificed to the gods. Two kinds of intoxicating\nliquors were brewed\u2014the mysterious Soma, beloved by deities, and a\nmead or ale called \u201csura\u201d, the Avestan \u201chura\u201d, prepared probably from\ngrain, which had ever an evil reputation as a cause of peace-breaking,\nlike dice, and of wrongdoing generally.\n\nMetals were in use, for the earliest Aryan invasion took place in the\nBronze Age, during which there were great race movements and invasions\nand conquests in Asia and in Europe. It is doubtful whether or not iron\nwas known by the earliest Aryan settlers in India; it was probably not\nworked, but may have been utilized for charms, as in those countries\nin which meteoric iron was called \u201cthe metal of heaven\u201d. The knowledge\nof the mechanical arts had advanced beyond the primitive stage.\nWarriors fought not only on foot but also in chariots, and they wore\nbreastplates; their chief weapons were bows and horn or metal-tipped\narrows, maces, battleaxes, swords, and spears. Smiths roused their\nfires with feather fans; carpenters are mentioned in the hymns, and\neven barbers who used razors.\n\nThe father was the head of the family, and the family was the tribal\nunit. War was waged by a loose federation of small clans, each of which\nwas distinguished by the name of a patriarch. The necessity of having\nto conduct frequent campaigns in a new country, peopled by hostile\naliens, no doubt tended to weld tribal units into small kingdoms and\nto promote the monarchic system. But intertribal feuds were frequent\nand bitter. The Aryans of the Punjab, like the Gauls who settled in\nnorthern Italy, and the clans of the Scottish Highlands in the Middle\nAges, were continually divided among themselves, and greatly occupied\nin subduing rivals and in harrying their cattle.\n\nVillages were protected by stockades or earthworks against the attacks\nof enemies and wild beasts, or they contained strongholds. They were\ngoverned by headsmen, who were, no doubt, military leaders also;\ndisputes were settled by a judge. Land, especially grazing land,\nappears to have been held in common by communities, but there are\nindications that cultivated plots and houses were owned by families and\nultimately by individuals, the father in such cases being the supreme\nauthority. Village communities, however, might be migratory, and\ncertain of them may have had seasonal areas of settlement.\n\nPermanent villages existed in groups and also at some distance from\none another, and were connected by roads, and one clan might embrace\nseveral separate communities. Trade was conducted by barter, the cow\nbeing the standard of value, but in time jewels and gold ornaments\nwere used like money for purchases; \u201cnishka\u201d, a necklet, afterwards\nsignified a coin. Foreign traders were not unknown at an early period.\nThe use of alphabetic signs appears to have been introduced by Semites\nbefore the close of the Vedic period; from these evolved ultimately the\nscientific Sanskrit alphabet and grammar.\n\nIn the Iranian period[128] there were social divisions of the people,\nbut the hereditary system does not appear to have obtained until\nthe close of Rigvedic times. Kings might be elected, or a military\naristocracy might impose its sway over an area; a priest was originally\na poet or leader of thought, or a man of elevated character, like the\nScottish Highland _duine-usual_, the \u201cupwardly man\u201d, who might be the\nson of a chief or of the humblest member of a community.\n\n[128] A convenient term as explained in our Introduction.\n\nThe earliest Aryan divisions of society were apparently marked by\noccupations. At first there were three grades: warriors, priests, and\ntraders, but all classes might engage in agricultural pursuits; even\nin the Epic period princes counted and branded cattle. In the later\nVedic age, however, a rigid system of castes came into existence,\nthe result, apparently, of having to distinguish between Aryans and\naborigines at first, and subsequently between the various degrees\nof Aryans who had intermarried with aliens. Caste (Varna) signifies\ncolour, and its relation to occupation is apparent in the four\ndivisions\u2014Brahmans, priests; Kshatriyas, the military aristocracy;\nVaisyas, commoners, workers, and traders, who were freemen; and Sudras,\nslaves and aborigines. In the _Yajurveda_, the third Veda, the caste\nsystem is found established on a hereditary basis. The three upper\ncastes, which were composed of Aryans only, partook in all religious\nceremonials, but the members of the Sudra caste were hedged about by\nsevere restrictions. The knowledge of the Vedas was denied to them, and\nthey were not allowed to partake of Soma offerings, and although in the\nprocess of time their position improved somewhat in the religious life\nof the mingled people, their social inferiority was ever emphasized;\nthey might become traders, but never Kshatriyas or Brahmans.\n\nThe most renowned of early Brahmans were the Rishis, the poets[129]\nwho composed the \u201cnew songs\u201d to the gods. They were regarded as\ndivinely inspired men and their fame was perpetuated after death.\nSeveral renowned poets are referred to in sacred literature and\ninvested with great sanctity. The hymns or mantras were committed to\nmemory and then handed down from generation to generation. At religious\nceremonies these were chanted by reciters, the Hotri priests. There\nwere also priests who were skilled in the correct performance of\nsacrificial rites, and family priests, the Purohitas, who were the\nguides, philosophers, and friends of kings and noblemen. A Rishi might\nbe a Purohita and a seer, who ensured by the performance of mystic\nceremonies a monarch's success in battle and afterwards celebrated his\nachievements in song.\n\n[129] \u201cA Rishi, \u2018seer\u2019, is primarily a composer of hymns.... The Rishis\nultimately become the representatives of a sacred past.\u201d _Vedic Index\nof Names and Subjects_ vol. i, pp. 115-117 (1912).\n\nIn the process of time an organized priesthood came into existence, and\na clan or kingdom had its chief priest. The production of new hymns\ncame to an end; those which existed were considered sufficient for all\npurposes; religious beliefs were systematized, and an arbitrary ritual\nbecame more and more complicated.\n\nThere are indications that at an early period a chief or king might\noffer up a sacrifice, but when the profession of the Brahman became\nhereditary, no rite could be performed unless presided over by\nholy men. A sacrifice might be rendered futile by an error in the\nconstruction of an altar, or in the order of ceremonial practices,\nor by failure to select appropriate chants. The Asuras and Rakshasas\nand other demons were ever hovering round the altar, endeavouring to\nobstruct ceremonies and to take advantage of ritualistic errors to\nintercept offerings intended for the gods. It was by making sacrifices\nthat man was believed to obtain power over the gods, or magical control\nover the forces of nature.\n\n[Illustration: GROUP OF PRESENT-DAY BRAHMANS\n 15 Photo. Frith]\n\nFor the performance of some sacrifices a day of preparation might be\nrequired. Altars had to be erected with mathematical exactness; the\nstones were blessed and anointed; offerings were made at every stage\nof the work so that the various deities might give protection in their\nvarious spheres. The following extract from one of the Brahmanas\naffords a glimpse of the preparatory rites:\u2014\n\n Thrice he (the priest) perambulates it (the altar); for thrice he\n walks round it (whilst sprinkling); thus as many times as he walks\n round it, so many times does he perambulate it....\n\n Having thereupon put that stone into the water pitcher, (he) throws it\n in that (south-westerly) direction, for that is Nirriti's region; he\n thus consigns pain to Nirriti's region....\n\n Outside the fire altars he throws it, &c.[130]\n\n[130] _Satapatha Brahmana_, trans. by Prof. Eggeling (_Sacred Books of\nthe East_, No. XLIII, p. 170).\n\nHuman failings may be imputed to Brahmans, but it must be recognized\nthat the ideals of their caste were of a high order. They were supposed\nto be born with \u201cspiritual lustre\u201d, and their lives were consecrated\nto the instruction and uplifting of mankind and the attainment of\nsalvation. A Brahman's life was divided into four periods. The\nfirst was the period of childhood, and the second was the period\nof probation, when he went to live in a forest hermitage, where he\nacted as the servant of a revered old sage, his spiritual father, and\nreceived instruction in Brahmanic knowledge for a number of years.\nDuring the third period the Brahman lived the worldly life; he married\nand reared a family and performed the duties pertaining to his caste.\nHospitality was one of the chief worldly duties; if a stranger, even\nalthough he might be an enemy, came and asked for food he received it,\nalthough the Brahman family should have to fast to supply him. In the\nfourth period the Brahman, having proved himself a faithful husband and\nexemplary father, divided his worldly possessions between his grown-up\nsons and daughters; then he abandoned his comfortable home and,\nassuming the deerskin clothing of hermits, went to live in a lonely\nforest, or among the Himalayan mountains, to prepare for the coming of\ndeath, far away from the shadows cast by sin and sorrow. In solitude\nhe performed rigid penances and addressed himself with single-minded\ndevotion to the contemplation of spiritual problems. Subduing the five\nsenses, he attained to the state of Yoga (concentration). Placing his\nmind entirely upon the contemplation of the soul, he became united\nultimately with the World Soul (God), thus obtaining the release which\nwas Salvation. Some Brahmans were teachers who instructed pupils\nand composed the sacred writings. The forest hermitages were the\nuniversities of ancient India.\n\nThe profession of the priesthood had certainly its mercenary aspect;\nsacrificial fees were fixed as well as sacrificial rites, and a not\nunimportant part of a ceremony was the offering of generous gifts to\nthe Brahmans, who presided at the altar. But on the whole the riches\nthus expended were not given in vain. As in Egypt, the rise and\nendowment of the priestly cult was due to the accumulation of wealth\nwhich enabled a section of society to find leisure for study and the\npromotion of culture. Aryan civilization in India owed much to the\nBrahmans. They introduced and elaborated alphabetic signs; the devoted\nscholars among them compiled the first Sanskrit grammar and studied the\nart of composition. Among the hermits there were great and original\nthinkers who laid the basis of Indian metaphysical thought, and rose\nfrom the materialism of the early Vedic hymns to the idealism of the\nspeculative prose works, which included the _Forest Books_, a name\nredolent of leafy solitude and of simple and contemplative lives on the\nbanks of sweetly-flowing waters. Even their devotion to the mysteries\nof sacrificial ritual, which became more and more complicated, was not\nunproductive of permanent benefits to mankind. The necessity for the\nexact construction of altars, and the observance of ceremonies in due\nseason, promoted the study of mathematical science. These Brahmans\ninvented the numerical figures which have attained universal usage, and\nin time they gave the world Algebra. The influence of their culture may\nbe traced in other directions. At the present day it has indirectly\nbrought into existence the science of Comparative Religion.\n\n[Illustration: SADHUS (RELIGIOUS MENDICANTS) AT BENARES\n 16]\n\nAt the close of the Rigvedic period the Aryans had extended their sway\nto the district known as Madhyadesa, the \u201cmiddle country\u201d, between the\n\u201cFive Rivers\u201d of the Punjab and the upper reaches of the Jumna and\nGanges. Pioneers were meantime pressing southward and eastward towards\nthe sea. Migrations were, no doubt, due to propulsion as well as\nattraction; fresh folk-waves probably poured in periodically from the\nnorth-west, while the settled population must have increased rapidly\nin the fertile land controlled by the invaders, to whom the aborigines\noffered but slight resistance.\n\nThe second Vedic book, the _Samaveda_, does not contain much fresh\nmaterial: it is mainly a compilation of the Rigvedic hymns which the\npriests chanted at the Soma sacrifice. Its sole interest, from a\nhistorical point of view, is the evidence it affords of the steady\ngrowth of ritualistic tendencies. A new era of Aryan civilization is\nrevealed, however, by the third Veda, the _Yajurveda_. In this book the\ntribes are found to have extended their area of control down the Ganges\nvalley, and southward along the banks of the Indus. It is of interest\nto note here that the word \u201cSamudra\u201d, first applied to the broadening\nIndus where it receives its tributaries, and signifying \u201ccollected\nwaters\u201d, became in the _Brahmanas_ the name of the world-encircling\nocean, across which in due time loomed the ships which \u201conce in\nthree years\u201d carried to Solomon's order \u201cgold, and silver, ivory (or\nelephants' tusks), and apes, and peacocks\u201d.[131]\n\n[131] 1 _Kings_, x, 22.\n\nIn the _Yajurveda_ we find that Aryan civilization has developed\ngreatly in the course of three or four centuries. Powerful tribes have\nestablished kingdoms, and small states are being subjected to the\nlarger. The hardened system of social organization is reflected by the\nreferences to the four distinct castes. Hitherto the Kshatriyas have\ncontrolled the destinies of the people, but now the Brahmans achieve an\nintellectual conquest and impose their sway over kings and nobles. The\nholy men are no longer the humble servants of generous patrons; they\nare the human representatives of the all-controlling deities. \u201cVerily,\nthere are two kinds of gods; for the gods themselves, assuredly, are\ngods, and those priests who have studied and teach Vedic lore, are the\nhuman gods.\u201d\n\nThe offerings to the deities are \u201cconsecrated by the feeding of\npriests\u201d.[132]\n\n[132] _Satapatha Brahmana_, translated by Professor Eggeling, Part I,\np. 374 (_Sacred Books of the East_).\n\nEven the gods become dependent upon the priests, who provided them by\noffering sacrifices with the \u201cfood\u201d they required, and also with the\nSoma which gave them length of years. Indra could not combat against\nthe Asuras without the assistance of the priests who chanted formulas\nto ensure victory; it was, therefore, due to the power exercised, in\nthe first place, by the priests that the drought demon was overcome and\nrain fell in abundance.\n\n[Illustration: A YOGI ON A BED OF SPIKES\n_An example of present-day austerities_\n 17]\n\nPriests might also accumulate in heaven credit balances of Celestial\npower by undergoing penances for long periods. A heavy debt was also\ndue to them by the gods for their sacrificial offerings. When a Brahman\ndesired to exercise his accumulated power, he might even depose the\ndeities, who were therefore placed under compulsion to fulfil his\ndemands; his Celestial credit might exceed the \u201cpaying\u201d possibilities\nof the supreme Powers. In the sacred tales Brahmans were credited with\nperforming rigid penances for centuries.\n\nIn the fourth Veda, the _Atharva-veda_, the revival of belief in\nformulas is emphasized. This book, which did not receive recognition\nas an inspired work at first, is in the main a collection of metrical\ncharms of great antiquity. Many resemble closely those which have been\ncollected by folk-lorists during late years in the Scottish Highlands\nand elsewhere throughout Europe. The Rigveda hymns reveal the religious\nbeliefs and aspirations of the advanced thinkers of their age; the\n_Atharva-veda_ contains the germs of folk religion\u2014the magical\nformulas chanted to dispel or invoke the vague spirits who helped or\nthwarted mankind. It teaches that the Universe is upheld by sacrifice\nand the spiritual exaltation of Brahmans, and that Brahmanic power may\nbe exercised by the use of appropriate charms. Human beings might also\nbe influenced by the spirits invoked by means of formulas.\n\nPrimitive man believed that all emotions were caused by spirits. When\nthe poet sang, he was \u201cinspired\u201d\u2014he drew in a spirit; ecstasy was \u201ca\nstanding outside of oneself\u201d, the soul having escaped temporarily from\nthe body. Wrath was caused by a demon, and \u201cbattle fury\u201d by the spirit\nof war which possessed the warrior. When a human being was \u201cseized\u201d by\na fit, his convulsions were believed to be caused by the demon who had\nentered his body. Love was inspiration in the literal sense, and an\nIndian lover might compel a heedless lady to regard him with favour\nby reciting an Atharva-vedic spell. Apparently the love spirit had a\nweakness for honey. The lover chanted:\n\n Honey be mine at the tip of my tongue,\n May sweetness of honey pervade my speech,\n So that my love may come under my spell\u2014\n So that my lady may yield to my will.\n\n _Atharva-veda_, i, 34.\n\n As the grass is shorn from earth by the wind,\n So may thy soul be shorn to my will,\n And then, O lady, thou'lt give me thy love,\n Nor be averse to me as thou wert.\n\n _Atharva-veda_, ii, 30.\n\nA lover, we find, can invoke the lady to embrace him \u201cas the creeper\nembraces a tree\u201d; if she clings to his arm he can cause her to cling\nto his heart; his influence over her mind is like the influence of a\nwing-beating eagle over the wind. It may be, too, that a neglected girl\nfinds it necessary to prepare a love potion with \u201csalve, sweet wood,\nand spikenard\u201d, and to cause the heart of an ungallant swain to suffer\nfrom \u201ca parching heart\u201d, which \u201clanguishes for love\u201d, and experiences\nthe \u201cyearning of the Apsaras\u201d.\n\nWarriors were charmed against spells, cattle and sheep were charmed\nagainst wild beasts, a house was charmed against evil spirits and\ndemons.[133] Greedy demons of disease, who devoured the flesh of\npatients, were greatly feared: Brahmans performed ceremonies of\nriddance and \u201cplagued them as the tiger plagues the cattle owners\u201d.\nThe following is a charm against cough:\n\n[133] There are formulas in Gaelic for blessing a house, &c. The\ncustoms of nailing horse-shoes upon doors and hanging up holly at\nChristmas for protection against evil spirits indicate the persistence\nof ceremonial practices long after ancient beliefs have been forgotten.\n\n As the soul with the soul's desires swiftly to a distance flies,\n Thus do thou, O cough, fly forth along the soul's course of flight.\n As a well-sharpened arrow swiftly to a distance flies,\n Thus do thou, O cough, fly forth along the expanse of the earth.\n As the rays of the sun swiftly to a distance fly,\n Thus do thou, O cough, fly forth along the flood of the sea.\n\n _Atharva-veda_, vi, 105.[134]\n\n[134] Bloomfield's _Atharva-veda_ (_Sacred Books of the East_, vol.\nxlii).\n\nA Scottish Highland charm similarly invokes the Powers, or the \u201cKing of\nthe Elements\u201d:\n\n To cause the wrath of men to ebb,\n Like to a wave from the sea to the floodtide,\n And a wave from the floodtide to the ebb.\n\nOccasionally a mantra is infused with high religious fervour. A Brahman\nmight pray:\n\n From the sins which knowingly or unknowingly we have committed, do ye,\n all gods, of one accord release us.\n\n If awake or asleep, to sin inclined, I have committed a sin, may what\n has been, and what shall be, as if from a wooden post, release me.\n\n _Atharva-veda_, vi, 115. 1-2.[135]\n\n[135] Bloomfield's translation.\n\nAnother hymn of this character concludes:\n\n In heaven, where our righteous friends are blessed,\n Having cast off diseases from their bodies,\n From lameness free and not deformed in members,\n There may we see our parents and our children.\n\n _Atharva-veda_, vi, 120.[136]\n\n[136] _A History of Sanskrit Literature_, Professor Macdonell, p. 199.\n\nWhile the tribes were spreading southward and eastward, Madhyadesa,\nthe \u201cmiddle country\u201d, remained the centre of Brahmanic culture. In that\ndistrict came into existence the earliest sacred prose works which\nconstitute the basis of classic Hinduism. The first were the oldest\n_Brahmanas_; these comment on and expound the doctrines of the Vedic\nhymns, especially in their relation to the ritual of sacrifices. To\nthe _Brahmanas_ were added the _Aran\u00b4yakas_, \u201cforest books\u201d, which\nare more speculative in tendency. The expository appendices to the\n_Aran\u00b4yakas_ are called the _Upanishads_, \u201cthe sittings down\u201d, or \u201cthe\nsessions\u201d\u2014the pupil sat at his master's feet\u2014and in these a high\nlevel of thought is attained. \u201cFor the first time\u201d, says Professor\nMacdonell, \u201cwe find the Absolute grasped and proclaimed.\u201d\n\nAll the tribes were not infused with the same degree of culture. In the\n_Yajur-veda_ period there were various schools of thought, and these\ncontinued to exercise their influence into historic times, even after\nUpanishadic doctrines became widespread.\n\nEre we deal, however, with the new theological doctrines of the\nBrahmanic teachers, we should follow the development of sacrificial\npractices, because from these evolved the bold Pantheism which\ncharacterized the conception of the World Soul, Brahm\u0103.\n\nThe two greatest sacrifices were the _purusha-medha_, the human\nsacrifice, and _aswa-medha_, the sacrifice of the horse. Both were\nprevalent in early times, and in simpler form than they survive to us\nin the doctrinal works and the Epics. A human sacrifice was believed\nto be of highest potency, but it became extremely rare, as in Egypt,\namong the ruling and cultured classes. It was perpetuated in India,\nhowever, until about half a century ago, by the Dravidian Khonds in\nBengal and Madras, and had to be suppressed by British officers. Human\nsacrifices, in historic times, were \u201coffered to the earth goddess,\nTari Pennu or Bera Pennu, and were believed to ensure good crops, and\nimmunity from all diseases and accidents\u201d. One official record states\nthat the victim, after being stabbed by the priest, was \u201cliterally cut\nto pieces\u201d. Each person who was \u201cso fortunate as to procure it carried\naway a morsel of the flesh, and presented it to the idol of his own\nvillage\u201d.[137]\n\n[137] _Omens and Superstitions of Southern India_, by Edgar Thurston,\np. 799 _et seq._, 1912.\n\nFrom the practice of sacrificing human beings arose the conception that\nthe first act of Creation was, if not human sacrifice, at least the\nsacrifice of the first being with human attributes. The Universe is the\ngiant Purusha (\u201cman\u201d); he is \u201call that hath been and shall be\u201d. In a\nRigvedic hymn, which is regarded as being of later composition than the\nRigvedic period, it is set forth:\n\n \u201cWhen the gods performed a sacrifice with Purusha as the oblation,\n the Spring was its butter, the Summer its fuel, and the Autumn its\n (accompanying) offering. This victim, Purusha, born in the beginning,\n they immolated on the sacrificial grass.\u201d\n\nFrom this universal sacrifice issued forth all that exists. The Brahman\nrose from Purusha's mouth, the Rajanya (Kshatriya) from his arms, the\nVaisya from his thighs, and the Sudra sprang from his feet. Indra and\nAgni came from his mouth, and Vayu from his breath.\n\n \u201cWhen the gods, performing sacrifice, bound Purusha as a victim,\n there were seven sticks (stuck up) for it (around the fire).... With\n sacrifice the gods performed the sacrifice. These were the earliest\n rites.\u201d[138]\n\n[138] Muir's _Original Sanskrit Texts_, vol. i, pp. 9-10.\n\n\u201cFrom his (Purusha's) navel arose the air, from his head the sky,\nfrom his ears the four quarters; in this manner (the gods) formed\nthe worlds.\u201d This conception resembles closely the story in Teutonic\nmythology of the cutting up by the gods of the body of the chaos giant\nYmer; his skull became the sky, his bones the rocks, his blood the\nsea, and so on. One of the Chinese P'an Ku[139] myths is of similar\ncharacter; the world is composed of different parts of his body. The\nBabylonian Merodach also divided the body of the chaos demon, Tiawath\nor Tiamat; her head became the sky, her body the earth, and her blood\nthe rivers which fill the sea. Purusha, the chaos giant of India, had\n\u201ca thousand heads, a thousand eyes, and a thousand feet\u201d; the earth was\nequal to the space covered by ten of his fingers; he was \u201cthe whole\nuniverse\u201d.\n\n[139] P'an Ku in his giant form. Like the Egyptian Ptah, he is now a\ndwarf and anon a giant.\n\nThe horse sacrifice was also infused, like the human sacrifice, with\nsymbolic significance. It was probably practised in the early Iranian\nperiod by the Aryan horse tamers, who may have substituted man's\nfleet-footed friend for human beings. The Mongolian Buriats in the\nvicinity of Lake Baikal, Siberia, are the latest surviving sacrificers\nof the domesticated animal. Their horse sacrifice (Tailgan) was held on\n2 August on a sacred hill inhabited by their gods, the Burkans, \u201cthe\nmasters\u201d. The horse was bound, thrown upon its back and held tightly\nby ropes, while the officiating person cut open its breast and pulled\nout the pulsating heart like the sacrificers of human beings in Ancient\nMexico. The animal's bones were burned on the altars, and the flesh was\ncooked and devoured by the worshippers. Portions of the flesh, and some\nof the broth prepared, were given to the flames, which also received\nlibations of the liquor called _tarasun_, distilled from sour milk.\n_Tarasun_ was the Soma of the Buriats, and their fire spirit was, like\nthe Indian Agni, a ready drinker of it. Bits of food were also flung\nto aerial spirits, while oblations were poured on the hill, the belief\nprevailing that these offerings multiplied sufficiently to permit of\nthe gods feeding sumptuously. As each of the worshippers of the spirits\nof nature accepted a portion of sacrificial food, a prayer was chanted,\nentreating the gods to cause increase of all things.\n\n\u201cLet our villages be one verst longer,\u201d they said; \u201ccreate cattle in\nour enclosures; under our blankets create a son; send down rain from\nhigh heaven to us; cause much grass to grow; create so much grain that\nthe sickle cannot raise it, and so much grass that the scythe cannot\ncut it.\u201d\n\nAfter the sacrifice, the food was divided and the fragments that\nremained were carefully burned, \u201cfor none of it must be eaten by\ndogs; that would be desecration, and misfortune would follow in its\nwake\u201d.[140]\n\n[140] _A Journey in Southern Siberia_, by Jeremiah Curtin, pp. 44-8.\n\nThe purpose of this annual sacrifice was evidently to secure fertility\nand prosperity generally, and we refer to it here so fully because of\nthe light it throws on the Indian ceremonial which it resembles closely\nin some of its details.\n\nThere are two direct references to the horse sacrifice in the\n_Rigveda_.[141] The animal is \u201ccovered with rich trappings\u201d and led\nthrice round the altar. It is accompanied by a goat, which is killed\nfirst to \u201cannounce the sacrifice to the gods\u201d. A goat was also slain at\na burial to inform the gods that the soul was about to enter Heaven.\n\n[141] _Rigveda_, i, 162, and i, 163.\n\nIn the _Story of Nala_ and in the _Ram\u00e1yana_, the horse sacrifice\nis performed to secure human offspring. A second _Ram\u00e1yana_ horse\nsacrifice is offered as an atonement after the slaying of the demon\nRavana. An elaborate account of this great ceremonial is also given in\nthe _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_. It was performed after \u201cthe great war\u201d on the advice\nof the sage Vyasa to atone for the slaying of kinsmen. The horse was\nlet loose and an army followed it. Whichever country the animal entered\nhad to be conquered for the owner of the horse, so that only a powerful\nmonarch could fulfil the conditions of the sacrifice. A hundred such\nsacrifices might enable a king to depose Indra.\n\nIt is significant, however, that the animal was released to wander from\nkingdom to kingdom on the night of the full moon in the spring month\nof Choitro, and that it returned in the following year at the close\nof the winter season. When the ground was prepared by being ploughed\nby the king, the queen followed him, sowing the seeds of every kind\nof vegetable and curative herb which grew in the kingdom. A countless\nnumber of representative animals were sacrificed before the sacred\nhorse was slain, the rain drum and trumpet were sounded, and the king\nand queen were drenched with holy water.\n\nThe flesh of the horse was cooked and eaten, and Indra and the other\ngods appeared and partook of their portions. Pieces were also flung\nin the fire, and the fire received also its meed of Soma. When the\nsacrifice was completed, the king divided the herb offerings among the\npeople; what remained over was burned.\n\nIn the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ a white horse is sacrificed, but in the _Ram\u00e1yana_\na black victim is offered up. White horses were sacrificed to Mars by\nthe Romans; the Greeks sacrificed white horses to the sun by throwing\nthem in the sea; the Spartans offered up their horses, like the\nBuriats, on a hilltop.\n\nThere can be little doubt that the Greek and Roman horse sacrifices\nwere also intended to ensure fertility. A horse was offered up to Diana\nat the August harvest festival, and we know that that popular goddess\ngave plentiful crops and was the guardian of flocks and herds and wild\nanimals of the chase; she also presided at birth, and women invoked her\naid. Virgins and youths took a prominent part at this harvest festival.\nThe Roman horse sacrifice took place on 15 October. The animal was\noffered to Mars; the head was conveyed to the king's house[142] and\ndecorated with loaves, and the blood was preserved until April, when it\nwas mixed by virgins with the blood of calves; this mixture was given\nto shepherds to ensure the increase of flocks which were fumigated.\nIn the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ the king and the princes stand for a time in the\nsmoke belching from the altar, to be cleansed of their sins.\n\n[142] That is, the so-called \u201croyal house\u201d, or house of the \u201cking of\nthe sacred rites\u201d.\n\nThe Persians, and other peoples of Aryan speech and custom, sacrificed\nhorses regularly. But the custom was not confined to Indo-Europeans.\nThe Scythians,[143] who were probably Mongols, not only offered horses\nto the Spirit of Fertility, but also, like the Buriats, to the dead.\nThe Patagonians sacrificed horses to tree spirits. In this connection\nit may be noted that some European horse sacrifices took place in\nsacred groves; the Buriats tied their horse to a birch tree, which\nwas carried to the mountain top and fixed to a stake; the Indian\nsacrificial posts were probably substitutes for trees.\n\n[143] A broad-headed people.\n\nIn the _Upanishads_ the sacrifice of the horse is infused, as we have\nindicated, with mystic symbolism. We read: \u201cThe dawn in truth is the\nhead of the sacrificial horse. The sun is the eye; the wind the\nbreath ... the year the body, the heaven is the back ... the\nconstellations the bones; the sky the muscles; the rivers, arteries and\nveins; the liver and spleen, the mountains; the herbs and trees, the\nvarious kinds of hair.\u201d The horse is also identified with the sun: \u201cThe\nsun, as long as he rises is the fore part of the body; the sun, as long\nas he descends is the hind part of the body, &c.\u201d The horse is also day\nand night in turn, and its birthplace is the sea; it carries the gods\nand the Asuras; it is the symbol of Death, \u201cwho is voracity\u201d, from whom\nall things came. \u201cThere was not anything here before.\u201d Death first\n\u201ccreated this mind, desiring, _May I have a soul_. He went forth\nworshipping. From him, when worshipping, the waters were produced....\nThe froth of the waters which was there became consistent. This became\nthe earth.... He made himself threefold. His eastern quarter is the\nhead ... his western quarter is the tail, &c.\u201d\n\nThe work of Creation proceeds, and then \u201che (Death as the Creator)\nresolved to devour all that he had created; for he eats all.... He is\nthe eater of the whole universe; this whole universe is his food.\u201d\n\nAfter a year of purification the Creator slaughtered his horse body.\n\u201cHe gave up the animal to the gods. Therefore they (the gods) slaughter\nthe purified animal, representing in its nature, as Praj\u00e1pati, all\ndeities. He (the Creator) is the Ashwameda[144] who shines.\u201d\n\n[144] Horse sacrifice.\n\nThe gods performed the sacrifice to overcome the demons, the\nrepresentatives of sin. Therefore the horse sacrifice removes all sin.\n\nAfter much fantastic symbolism the following lesson in the form of a\nmantra is extracted from the parable of Creation:\u2014\n\n \u201cFrom the unreal lead me to the real, from darkness lead me to light,\n from death lead me to immortality.\u201d\n\nThe Upanishadic treatment of the Purusha myth differs somewhat from\nthe Vedic, and is intended to strengthen the Monotheistic tendencies\ndisplayed in some of the hymns.\n\nWhen the Universal soul, according to this later doctrine, took at the\nbeginning \u201cthe shape of a man\u201d ... he \u201cbeheld nothing but himself\u201d.\n\n \u201cHe said first _This, I am_. Hence the name of \u2018I\u2019 was produced.\n Therefore, even now a man, when called, says first, \u2018It is I\u2019, and\n tells afterwards any other name that belongs to him. And, because He,\n as the first of all of them consumed by fire all the sins, therefore\n he is called Purusha....\n\n He was afraid; therefore man, when alone, is afraid. He then looked\n round. Since nothing but myself exists, of whom should I be afraid?\n Hence his fear departed; for whom should he fear, since fear arises\n from another.\n\n He did not feel delight. Therefore nobody, when alone, feels delight.\n He was desirous of a second. He was in the same state as husband\n (Pati) and wife (Patni).... He divided this self twofold. Hence were\n husband and wife produced. Therefore was this only a half of himself,\n as a split pea is of the whole.... This void is thus completed by\n woman. He approached her. Hence men were born.\u201d\n\nThe first two \u201cmortals\u201d then assumed the forms of all creatures, male\nand female in turn. They were, in order, the first cattle, the first\nhorses, the first asses, the first goats, the first sheep, and so on.\n\u201cIn this manner He created every living pair whatsoever down to the\nants.\u201d Then he reflected and said: \u201cI am verily this creation, for I\ncreated this all.\u201d\n\nThe lesson then follows. Men say, \u201cSacrifice to this, sacrifice to\nthis, sacrifice to one or the other god?\u201d But these words are \u201cnot\nproper\u201d, because \u201cHe is really this creation; for he verily is all the\ngods\u201d.\n\nThus the first Being, as a commentator remarked, \u201cwhose nature\ncomprehended all elements, who is eternal, who is not conceived by\nthought, sprang forth by himself.... He consumed all sins, for unless\none is in a worldly state he cannot consume sins.... Being mortal he\ncreated immortals.\u201d[145]\n\n[145] _The Brihad Aranyaka Upanishad._\n\nFrom the myth of the chaos-giant Purusha we pass to the higher\npantheistic conception of Brahm\u0103, the soul of the Universe.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VI\n\nMysteries of Creation, the World's Ages, and Soul Wandering\n\n The World Soul\u2014Vedic Hymn of Creation\u2014Brahm\u0103 the only\n Reality\u2014Doctrine of the Upanishads\u2014Creation Myths\u2014The Chaos\n Egg in India and Egypt\u2014Ancestor Worship\u2014Celestial Rishis and\n Manus\u2014Influence of Folk Religion\u2014Imported Doctrines\u2014The Yugas\n or Ages of the Universe\u2014Ape God's Revelations\u2014The Ages in\n Greek and Celtic Mythologies\u2014Universal Destruction\u2014A Deathless\n Sage\u2014His Account of the Mysteries\u2014Narayana the Creator and\n Destroyer\u2014Transmigration of Souls\u2014Beliefs in India, Egypt, Greece,\n and among the Celts.\n\n\nBefore the Vedic Age had come to a close an unknown poet, who was\none of the world's great thinkers, had risen above the popular\nmaterialistic ideas concerning the hammer god and the humanized spirits\nof Nature, towards the conception of the World Soul and the First\nCause\u2014the \u201cUnknown God\u201d. He sang of the mysterious beginning of all\nthings:\n\n There was neither existence, nor non-existence,\n The kingdom of air, nor the sky beyond.\n\n What was there to contain, to cover in\u2014\n Was it but vast, unfathomed depths of water?\n\n There was no death there, nor Immortality.\n No sun was there, dividing day from night.\n\n Then was there only THAT, resting within itself.\n Apart from it, there was not anything.\n\n At first within the darkness veiled in darkness,\n Chaos unknowable, the All lay hid.\n\n Till straightway from the formless void made manifest\n By the great power of heat was born that germ.\n\n _Rigveda_, x, 129 (Griffith's trans.).\n\nThe poet goes on to say that wise men had discovered in their hearts\nthat the germ of Being existed in Not Being. But who, he asked, could\ntell how Being first originated? The gods came later, and are unable to\nreveal how Creation began. He who guards the Universe knows, or mayhap\nhe does not know.\n\nOther late Rigvedic poets summed up the eternal question regarding the\nGreat Unknown in the interrogative pronoun \u201cWhat?\u201d (Ka). Men's minds\nwere confronted by an inspiring and insoluble problem. In our own day\nthe Agnostics say, \u201cI do not know\u201d; but this hackneyed phrase does\nnot reflect the spirit of enquiry like the arresting \u201cWhat?\u201d of the\npondering old forest hermits of ancient India.\n\nThe priests who systematized religious beliefs and practices in the\n_Brahmanas_ identified \u201cKa\u201d with Praja\u00b4pati, the Creator, and with\nBrahma, another name of the Creator.\n\nIn the Vedas the word \u201cbrahma\u201d signifies \u201cdevotion\u201d or \u201cthe highest\nreligious knowledge\u201d. Later Brahm\u0103 (neuter) was applied to the World\nSoul, the All in All, the primary substance from which all that exists\nhas issued forth, the Eternal Being \u201cof which all are phases\u201d; Brahm\u0103\nwas the Universal Self, the Self in the various Vedic gods, the Self\nin man, bird, beast, and fish, the Life of Life, the only reality, the\nunchangeable. This one essence or Self (Atman) permeates the whole\nUniverse. Brahm\u0103 is the invisible force in the seed, as he is the\n\u201cvital spark\u201d in mobile creatures. In the _Khandogva Upanishad_ a young\nBrahman receives instruction from his father. The sage asks if his\npupil has ever endeavoured to find out how he can hear what cannot be\nheard, how he can see what cannot be seen, and how he can know what\ncannot be known? He then asks for the fruit of the Nyagrodha tree.\n\n\u201cHere is one, sir.\u201d\n\n\u201cBreak it.\u201d\n\n\u201cIt is broken, sir.\u201d\n\n\u201cWhat do you see there?\u201d\n\n\u201cNot anything, sir.\u201d\n\n\u201cMy son,\u201d said the father, \u201cthat subtile essence which you do not\nperceive there, of that very essence this great Nyagrodha tree exists.\nBelieve it, my son. That which is the subtile essence, in it all that\nexists has itself. It is the True. It is the Self; and thou, my son,\nart it.\u201d\n\nIn _Katha Upanishad_ a sage declares:\n\n The whole universe trembles within the life (Brahm\u0103); emanating\n from it (Brahm\u0103) the universe moves on. It is a great fear, like an\n uplifted thunderbolt. Those who know it become immortal....\n\n As one is reflected in a looking-glass, so the soul is in the body; as\n in a dream, so in the world of the forefathers; as in water, so in the\n world of the Gandharvas; as in a picture and in the sunshine, so in\n the world of Brahm\u0103....\n\n The soul's being (nature) is not placed in what is visible; none\n beholds it by the eye.... Through thinking it gets manifest Immortal\n become those who know it....\n\n The soul is not to be gained by word, not by the mind, not by the eye,\n how could it be perceived by any other than him who declares it exists?\n\n When all the desires cease that are cherished in his heart (intellect)\n then the mortal becomes immortal.\n\n When all the bonds of the heart are broken in this life, then the\n mortal becomes immortal....[146]\n\n[146] Dr. E. R\u00f6er's translation (Calcutta).\n\nThe salvation of the soul is secured by union with Brahm\u0103, the supreme\nand eternal Atman (Self), \u201cthe power which receives back to itself\nagain all worlds.... The identity of the Brahm\u0103 and the Atman, of God\nand the Soul, is the fundamental thought of the entire doctrine of the\nUpanishads.\u201d[147]\n\n[147] Deussen's _Philosophy of the Upanishads_, p. 39.\n\nVarious creation myths were framed by teachers to satisfy the desire\nfor knowledge regarding the beginning of things. The divine incarnation\nof Brahm\u0103 is known as Brahma (masculine) Prajapati, and N\u00e3r\u00e3yana.\n\nIn one account we read: \u201cAt first the Universe was not anything. There\nwas neither sky, nor earth, nor air. Being non-existent it resolved,\n\u2018Let me be\u2019. It became fervent. From that fervour smoke was produced.\nIt again became fervent. From that fervour fire was produced.\u201d\nAfterwards the fire became \u201crays\u201d and the rays condensed like a cloud,\nproducing the sea. A magical formula (D\u00e1sahotri) was next created.\n\u201cPrajapati is the D\u00e1sahotri.\u201d\n\nEminently Brahmanic in character is the comment inserted here: \u201cThat\nman succeeds who, thus knowing the power of austere abstraction (or\nfervour), practises it.\u201d\n\nWhen Prajapati arose from the primordial waters he \u201cwept, exclaiming,\n\u2018For what purpose have I been born if (I have been born) from this\nwhich forms no support?...\u2019 That (the tears) which fell into the\nwater became the earth. That which he wiped away became the air. That\nwhich he wiped away, upwards, became the sky. From the circumstance\nthat he wept (_arod\u00edt_), these two regions have the name of _rodas\u00ed_\n(worlds)....\u201d\n\n[Illustration: THE BIRTH OF BRAHMA: SPRINGING FROM A LOTUS ISSUING\nFROM VISHNU (see page 124)\n\n_From an original Indian painting_\n 18]\n\nPrajapati afterwards created Asuras and cast off his body, which became\ndarkness; he created men and cast off his body, which became moonlight;\nhe created seasons and cast off his body, which became twilight; he\ncreated gods and cast off his body, which became day. The Asuras\nreceived milk in an earthen dish, men in a wooden dish, the seasons in\na silver dish, and the gods were given Soma in a golden dish. In the\nend Prajapati created Death, \u201ca devourer of creatures\u201d.\n\n\u201cMind (or soul, _manas_) was created from the non-existent\u201d, adds\na priestly commentator. \u201cMind created Prajapati. Prajapati created\noffspring. All this, whatever exists, rests absolutely on mind.\u201d[148]\n\n[148] Muir's _Original Sanskrit Texts_, vol. i, pp. 29-30.\n\nIn another mythical account of Creation, Prajapati emerges, like the\nEgyptian Horus, from a lotus bloom floating on the primordial waters.\n\nThe most elaborate story of Creation is found in the _Laws of Manu_,\nthe eponymous ancestor of mankind and the first lawgiver.\n\nIt relates that in the beginning the Self-Existent Being desired to\ncreate living creatures. He first created the waters, which he called\n\u201cnarah\u201d, and then a seed; he flung the seed into the waters, and it\nbecame a golden egg which had the splendour of the sun. From the\negg came forth Brahma, Father of All. Because Brahma came from the\n\u201cwaters\u201d, and they were his first home or path (ayana), he is called\nNarayana.\n\nThe Egyptian sun god Ra similarly rose from the primordial waters as\nthe sun-egg. Ptah came from the egg which, according to one myth,\nwas laid by the chaos goose, and to another issued from the mouth of\nKhnumu.[149] This conception may have had origin in the story of the\ngiant of the folk tales who concealed his soul in the egg, in the\ntree, and in various animal forms. There are references in Indian\nliterature to Brahma's tree, and Brahma is identified with Purusha, who\nbecame in turn a cow, a goat, a horse, &c., to produce living creatures.\n\n[149] See _Egyptian Myth and Legend_.\n\nIn Manu's account of Creation we meet for the first time with the\nMaha-rishis or Deva-rishis, the Celestial priest poets. These are the\nmind-born sons of Brahma, who came into existence before the gods and\nthe demons. Indeed, they are credited with some acts of creation. The\nseven or fourteen Manus were also created at the beginning. Originally\nthere was but a single Manu, \u201cthe father of men\u201d.\n\nThe inclusion of the Rishis and the Manus among the deities is a late\ndevelopment of orthodox Brahmanism. They appear to represent the\nFathers (Pitris) who were adored by ancestor worshippers. The tribal\npatriarch Bhrigu, for instance, was a Celestial Rishi.\n\nIt must be borne in mind that more than one current of thought was\noperating during the course of the centuries, and over a wide area,\nin shaping the complex religion which culminated in modern Hinduism.\nThe history of Hinduism is the history of a continual struggle between\nthe devotees of folk religion and the expounders of the Forest Books\nproduced by the speculative sages who, in their quest for Truth, used\nprimitive myths to illustrate profound doctrinal teachings. By the\ncommon people these myths were given literal interpretation. Among the\npriests there were also \u201cschools of thought\u201d. One class of Brahmans, it\nhas been alleged, was concerned chiefly regarding ritual, the mercenary\nresults of their teachings, and the achievement of political power: men\nof this type appear to have been too ready to effect compromises by\nmaking concession to popular opinion.\n\nJust as the _Atharva-veda_ came into existence as a book after the\n_Rigveda_ had been compiled, so did many traditional beliefs of\nanimistic character receive recognition by Brahmanic \u201cschools\u201d after\nthe period of the early _Upanishads_. It may be, however, that we\nshould also recognize in these \u201cinnovations\u201d the influence of races\nwhich imported their own modes of thought, or of Aryan tribes that had\nbeen in contact for long periods with other civilizations known and\nunknown.\n\nIn endeavouring to trace the sources of foreign influences, we\nshould not always expect to find clues in the mythologies of great\ncivilizations like Babylonia, Assyria, or Egypt alone. The example of\nthe Hebrews, a people who never invented anything, and yet produced the\ngreatest sacred literature of the world, is highly suggestive in this\nconnection. It is possible that an intellectual influence was exercised\nin early times over great conquering races by humble forgotten peoples\nwhose artifacts give no indication of their mental activity.\n\nIn Indian Aryan mythology we are suddenly confronted at a comparatively\nlate period, at any rate some time after tribal settlements were\neffected all over Hindustan from the Bay of Bengal to the Arabian\nSea, with fully developed conceptions regarding the World's Ages and\nTransmigration of Souls, which, it is quite evident, did not originate\nafter the Aryan conquest of Hindustan. Both doctrines can be traced in\nGreek and Celtic (Irish) mythologies, but they are absent from Teutonic\nmythology. From what centre and what race they originally emanated we\nare unable to discover. The problem presented is a familiar one. At the\nbeginnings of all ancient religious systems and great civilizations\nwe catch glimpses of unknown and vanishing peoples who had sowed the\nseeds for the harvests which their conquerors reaped in season.\n\nThe World's Ages are the \u201cYugas\u201d of Brahmanism. \u201cOf this elaborate\nsystem ... no traces are found in the hymns of the _Rigveda_. Their\nauthors were, indeed, familiar with the word \u2018yuga\u2019, which frequently\noccurs in the sense of age, generation, or tribe.... The first passage\nof the _Rigveda_ in which there is any indication of a considerable\nmundane period being noted is where \u2018a first\u2019 or an earlier age\n(yuga) of the gods is mentioned when \u2018the existent sprang from the\nnon-existent\u2019.... In one verse of the _Atharva-veda_, however, the word\n\u2018yuga\u2019 is so employed as to lead to the supposition that a period of\nvery long duration is intended. It is there said: \u2018We allot to thee a\nhundred, ten thousand years, two, three, four ages (yugas)\u2019.\u201d[150]\n\n[150] Muir's _Original Sanskrit Texts_, vol. i, p. 46.\n\nProfessor Muir traced references in the _Brahmanas_ to the belief in\n\u201cYugas\u201d as \u201cAges\u201d, but showed that these were isolated ideas with\nwhich, however, the authors of these books were becoming familiar.\n\nWhen the system of Yugas was developed by the Indian priestly\nmathematicians, the result was as follows:\u2014\n\n One year of mortals is equal to one day of the gods. 12,000 divine\n years are equal to a period of four Yugas, which is thus made up, viz.:\n\n Krita Yuga, with its mornings and evenings, 4,800 divine years.\n Treta Yuga, \" \" \" \" 3,600 \"\n Dw\u00e3para Yuga, \" \" \" \" 2,400 \"\n Kali Yuga, \" \" \" \" 1,200 \"\n Making 12,000 \"\n\nThese 12,000 divine years equal 4,320,000 years of mortals, each\nhuman year being composed of 360 days. A thousand of these periods of\n4,320,000 years equals one day (Kalpa) of Brahma. During \u201cthe day of\nBrahma\u201d fourteen Manus reign: each Manu period is a Manvantara. A year\nof Brahma is composed of 360 Kalpas, and he endures for 100 of these\nyears. One half of Brahma's existence has now expired.\n\nAt the end of each \u201cday\u201d (Kalpa) Brahma sleeps for a night of equal\nlength, and before falling asleep the Universe becomes water as at the\nbeginning. He creates anew when he wakes on the morning of the next\nKalpa.[151]\n\n[151] Abridged from Muir's _Original Sanskrit Texts_, pp. 43, 44, and\nWilson's _Manu_, p. 50.\n\nOne of the most interesting accounts of the Yugas is given in the\n_Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_. It is embedded in a narrative which reflects a phase of\nthe character of that great epic.\n\nBhima of the Pan\u00b4davas, the human son of the wind god Vayu, once went\nforth to obtain for his beloved queen the flowers of Paradise\u2014those\nCelestial lotuses of a thousand petals with sun-like splendour and\nunearthly fragrance, which prolong life and renew beauty: they grow\nin the demon-guarded woodland lake in the region of Kuvera, god of\ntreasure. Bhima hastened towards the north-east, facing the wind, armed\nwith a golden bow and snake-like arrows; like an angry lion he went,\nnor ever felt weary. Having climbed a great mountain he entered a\nforest which is the haunt of demons, and he saw stately and beautiful\ntrees, blossoming creepers, flowers of various hues, and birds with\ngorgeous plumage. A soft wind blew in his face; it was anointed with\nthe perfume of Celestial lotus; it was as refreshing as the touch of\na father's hand. Beautiful was that sacred retreat. The great clouds\nspread out like wings and the mountain seemed to dance; shining streams\nadorned it like to a necklace of pearls.\n\nBhima went speedily through the forest; stags, with grass in their\nmouths, looked up at him unafraid; invisible Yakshas and Gandharvas\nwatched him as he went on swifter than the wind, and ever wondering how\nhe could obtain the flowers of Paradise without delay....\n\nAt length he hastened like to a hurricane, making the earth tremble\nunder his feet, and lions and tigers and elephants and bears arose and\ntook flight from before him. Terrible was then the roaring of Bhima.\nBirds fluttered terror-stricken and flew away; in confusion arose the\ngeese and the ducks and the herons and the kokilas....[152] Bhima tore\ndown branches; he struck trees and overthrew them; he smote and slew\nelephants and lions and tigers that crossed his path. He blew on his\nwar-shell and the heavens trembled; the forest was stricken with fear;\nmountain caves echoed the clamour; elephants trumpeted in terror and\nlions howled dismally.\n\n[152] Indian cuckoo.\n\nThe ape god Hanuman[153] was awakened; drowsily he yawned and he lashed\nhis long tail with tempest fury until it stretched forth like a mighty\npole and obstructed the path of Bhima. Thus the ape god, who was also\na son of Vayu, the wind, made Bhima to pause. Opening his red sleepy\neyes, he said: \u201cSick am I, but I was slumbering sweetly; why hast thou\nawakened me so rudely? Whither art thou going? Yonder mountains are\nclosed against thee: thou art treading the path of the gods. Therefore\npause and repose here: do not hasten to destruction.\u201d\n\n[153] In his character as the Typhoon.\n\nSaid Bhima: \u201cWho art thou? I am a Kshatriya, the son of Vayu.... Arise\nand let me pass, or else thou wilt perish.\u201d\n\nHanuman said: \u201cI am sickly and cannot move; leap over me.\u201d\n\n[Illustration: HANUMAN\n_From a bronze in the Victoria and Albert Museum_\n 19]\n\nSaid Bhima: \u201cI cannot leap over thee. It is forbidden by the Supreme\nSoul, else would I bound as Hanuman bounded over the ocean, for I am\nhis brother.\u201d\n\nHanuman said: \u201cThen move my tail and go past.\u201d\n\nThen Bhima endeavoured to lift the tail of the ape god, but failed, and\nhe said: \u201cWho art thou that hath assumed the form of an ape; art thou a\ngod, or a spirit, or a demon?\u201d\n\nHanuman said: \u201cI am the son of Vayu, even Hanuman. Thou art my elder\nbrother.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhima: \u201cI would fain behold the incomparable form thou didst\nassume to leap over the ocean.\u201d\n\nHanuman said: \u201cAt that Age the universe was not as it is now. Thou\ncanst not behold the form I erstwhile had.... In Krita Yuga there was\none state of things and in the Treta Yuga another; greater change came\nwith Dw\u00e3para Yuga, and in the present Yuga there is lessening, and I\nam not what I have been. The gods, the saints, and all things that are\nhave changed. I have conformed with the tendency of the present age and\nthe influence of Time.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhima: \u201cI would fain learn of thee regarding the various Yugas.\nSpeak and tell what thou dost know, O Hanuman.\u201d\n\nThe ape god then spake and said: \u201cThe Krita Yuga (Perfect Age) was so\nnamed because there was but one religion, and all men were saintly:\ntherefore they were not required to perform religious ceremonies.\nHoliness never grew less, and the people did not decrease. There were\nno gods in the Krita Yuga, and there were no demons or Yakshas, and no\nRakshasas or Nagas. Men neither bought nor sold; there were no poor and\nno rich; there was no need to labour, because all that men required was\nobtained by the power of will; the chief virtue was the abandonment\nof all worldly desires. The Krita Yuga was without disease; there was\nno lessening with the years; there was no hatred, or vanity, or evil\nthought whatsoever; no sorrow, no fear. All mankind could attain to\nsupreme blessedness. The universal soul was Narayana: he was _White_;\nhe was the refuge of all and was sought for by all; the identification\nof self with the universal soul was the whole religion of the Perfect\nAge.\n\n\u201cIn the Treta Yuga sacrifices began, and the World Soul became _Red_;\nvirtue lessened a quarter. Mankind sought truth and performed religious\nceremonies; they obtained what they desired by giving and by doing.\n\n\u201cIn the Dw\u00e3para Yuga the aspect of the World Soul was _Yellow_:\nreligion lessened one-half. The Veda, which was one (the _Rigveda_)\nin the Krita Yuga, was divided into four parts, and although some\nhad knowledge of the four Vedas, others knew but three or one. Mind\nlessened, Truth declined, and there came desire and diseases and\ncalamities; because of these men had to undergo penances. It was a\ndecadent Age by reason of the prevalence of sin.\n\n\u201cIn the Kali Yuga[154] the World Soul is _Black_ in hue: it is the Iron\nAge; only one quarter of virtue remaineth. The world is afflicted, men\nturn to wickedness; disease cometh; all creatures degenerate; contrary\neffects are obtained by performing holy rites; change passeth over all\nthings, and even those who live through many Yugas must change also.\u201d\n\n[154] The present Age, according to Hindu belief.\n\nHaving spoken thus, Hanuman bade Bhima to turn back, but Bhima said: \u201cI\ncannot leave thee until I have gazed upon thy former shape.\u201d\n\nThen Hanuman favoured his brother, and assumed his vast body; he grew\ntill he was high as the Vindhya mountain: he was like to a great golden\npeak with splendour equal to the sun, and he said: \u201cI can assume even\ngreater height and bulk by reason of mine own power.\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus, Hanuman permitted Bhima to proceed on his way under\nthe protection of Vayu, god of wind. He went towards the flowery steeps\nof the sacred mountain, and at length he reached the Celestial lotus\nlake of Kuvera, which was shaded by trees and surrounded by lilies; the\nsurface of the waters was covered with golden lotuses which had stalks\nof lapis lazuli. Yakshas, with big eyes, came out against Bhima, but\nhe slew many, and those that remained were put to flight. He drank the\nwaters of the lake, which renewed his strength. Then he gathered the\nCelestial lotuses for his queen.\n\nIn this tale we discover the ancient Indo-European myth regarding the\nearth's primitive races. The first age is the White Age, the second is\nthe Red Age, the third the Yellow Age, and the fourth, the present Kali\nYuga, is the Black or Iron Age.\n\nHesiod, the Greek poet, in his _Works and Days_, divided the mythical\nhistory of Greece similarly, but the order of the Ages was different;\nthe first was the Golden Age (yellow); the second was the Silver Age\n(white); the third was the Bronze Age (red); the fourth was the Age\nof the Heroes; and the fifth was the Age in which Hesiod lived\u2014the\nIron (black) Age. The fourth Age is evidently a late interpolation.\nAuthorities consider that the Heroic Age did not belong to the original\nscheme.\n\nIn the Greek Golden Age men lived like the gods under the rule of\nKronos; they never suffered the ills of old age, nor lost their\nstrength; they feasted continually, and enjoyed peace and security.\nThe whole world prospered. When this race passed away they became\nbeneficent spirits who watched over mankind and distributed riches.\n\nIn the Silver Age mankind were inferior; children were reared up for a\ncentury, and died soon afterwards; sacrifice and worship was neglected.\nIn the end Zeus, son of Kronos, destroyed the Silver Race.\n\nIn the Bronze Age mankind sprang from the ash. They were endowed with\ngreat strength, and worked in bronze and had bronze houses: iron was\nunknown. But Bronze Age men were takers of life, and at length Black\nDeath removed them all to Hades.\n\nZeus created the fourth race, which was represented by the semi-divine\nheroes of a former generation; when they fell in battle on the plain of\nTroy and elsewhere, Zeus consigned them to the Islands of the Blest,\nwhere they were ruled over by Kronos. The fifth Age may originally have\nbeen the fourth. As much is suggested by another Hesiodic legend which\nsets forth that all mankind are descended from two survivors of the\nFlood at the close of the Bronze Age.\n\nIn _Le Cycle Mythologique Irlandais et la Mythologie Celtique_, the\nlate Professor D'Arbois de Jubainville has shown that these Ages are\nalso a feature of Celtic (Irish) mythology. Their order, however,\ndiffers from those in Greek, but it is of special interest to note that\nthey are arranged in exactly the same colour order as those given in\nthe _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_. The first Celtic Age is that of Partholon, which\nde Jubainville identified with the Silver Age (white); the second is\nNemed's, the Bronze Age (red); the third is the Tuatha de Danann, the\nGolden Age (yellow); and the fourth is the Age of the dark Milesians,\ncalled after their divine ancestor Mile, son of Beli, the god of night\nand death. The Irish claim descent from the Milesians.\n\nProfessor D'Arbois de Jubainville considered that the differences\nbetween the Irish and Greek versions of the ancient doctrine were due\nin part to the developments which Irish legend received after the\nintroduction of Christianity. There are, however, he showed, striking\naffinities. The Tuatha de Danann, for instance, like the \u201cGolden Race\u201d\nof the Greeks, became invisible, and shared the dominion of the world\nwith men, \u201csometimes coming to help them, sometimes disputing with them\nthe pleasures of life\u201d.\n\nLike the early Christian annalists of Ireland, the Indian Brahmans\nappear to have utilized the legends which were afloat among the people.\nBoth in the Greek and Celtic (Irish) myths the people of the Silver Age\nare distinguished for their folly; in the Indian Silver or White Age\nthe people were so perfect and holy that it was not necessary for them\nto perform religious ceremonies; they simply uttered the mystic word\n\u201cOm\u201d.[155]\n\n[155] \u201cOm\u201d originally referred to the three Vedas; afterwards it\nsignified the Trinity.\n\nThere are many interesting points of resemblance between certain of the\nIrish and Indian legends. We are informed, for instance, of the Celtic\nSt. Finnen, who fasted like a Brahman, so to compel a pagan sage, Tuan\nMacCarell, to reveal the ancient history of Ireland. Tuan had lived\nall through the various mythical Ages; his father was the brother of\nPartholon, king of the \u201cSilver Race\u201d. At the end of the First Age,\nTuan was a \u201clong-haired, grey, naked, and miserable old man\u201d. One\nevening he fell asleep, and when he woke up he rejoiced to find that\nhe had become a young stag. He saw the people of Nemed (the Bronze or\nRed Race) arriving in Ireland; he saw them passing away. Then he was\ntransformed into a black boar; afterwards he was a vulture, and in the\nend he became a fish. When he had existed as a fish for twenty years he\nwas caught by a fisherman. The queen had Tuan for herself, and ate his\nfish form, with the result that she gave birth to the sage as her son.\n\nIn similar manner Bata of the Egyptian Anpu-Bata story,[156] after\nexisting as a blossom, a bull, and a tree, became the son of his\nunfaithful wife, who swallowed a chip of wood.\n\n[156] See _Egyptian Myth and Legend_.\n\nTuan MacCarell assured St. Finnen, \u201cin the presence of witnesses\u201d,\nas we are naively informed, that he remembered all that happened\nin Ireland during the period of 1500 years covered by his various\nincarnations.\n\nAnother, and apparently a later version of the legend, credits the\nIrish sage, the fair Fintan, son of Bochra, with having lived for 5550\nyears before the Deluge, and 5500 years after it. He fled to Ireland\nwith the followers of Cesara, granddaughter of Noah, to escape the\nflood. Fintan, however, was the only survivor, and, according to Irish\nchronology, he did not die until the sixth century of the present era.\n\nOne of the long-lived Indian sages was named Markandeya. In the _Vana\nParva_ section of the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ he visits the exiled Pandava\nbrethren in a forest, and is addressed as \u201cthe great Muni, who has seen\nmany thousands of ages passing away. In this world\u201d, says the chief\nexile, \u201cthere is no man who hath lived so long as thou hast.... Thou\ndidst adore the Supreme Deity when the Universe was dissolved, and the\nworld was without a firmament, and there were no gods and no demons.\nThou didst behold the re-creation of the four orders of beings when the\nwinds were restored to their places and the waters were consigned to\ntheir proper place.... Neither death nor old age which causeth the body\nto decay have any power over thee.\u201d\n\nMarkandeya, who has full knowledge of the Past, the Present, and\nthe Future, informs the exiles that the Supreme Being is \u201cgreat,\nincomprehensible, wonderful, and immaculate, without beginning and\nwithout end.... He is the Creator of all, but is himself Increate, and\nis the cause of all power.\u201d[157]\n\n[157] Roy's translation.\n\nAfter the Universe is dissolved, all Creation is renewed, and the cycle\nof the four Ages begins again with Krita Yuga. \u201cA cycle of the Yugas\ncomprises twelve thousand divine years. A full thousand of such cycles\nconstitutes a Day of Brahma.\u201d At the end of each Day of Brahma comes\n\u201cUniversal Destruction\u201d.\n\nMarkandeya goes on to say that the world grows extremely sinful at the\nclose of the last Kali Yuga of the Day of Brahma. Brahmans abstain\nfrom prayer and meditation, and Sudras take their place. Kshatriyas\nand Vaisyas forget the duties of their castes; all men degenerate and\nbeasts of prey increase. The earth is ravaged by fire, cows give little\nmilk, fruit trees no longer blossom, Indra sends no rain; the world\nof men becomes filled with sin and immorality.... Then the earth is\nswept by fire, and heavy rains fall until the forests and mountains are\ncovered over by the rising flood. All the winds pass away; they are\nabsorbed by the Lotus floating on the breast of the waters, in which\nthe Creator sleeps; the whole Universe is a dark expanse of water.\n\nAlthough even the gods and demons have been destroyed at the eventide\nof the last Yuga, Markandeya survives. He wanders over the face\nof the desolate waters and becomes weary, but is unable to find a\nresting-place. At length he perceives a banyan tree; on one of its\nboughs is a Celestial bed, and sitting on the bed is a beautiful boy\nwhose face is as fair as a full-blown lotus. The boy speaks and says;\n\u201cO Markandeya, I know that thou art weary.... Enter my body and secure\nrepose. I am well pleased with thee.\u201d\n\nMarkandeya enters the boy's mouth and is swallowed. In the stomach of\nthe Divine One the sage beholds the whole earth (that is, India) with\nits cities and kingdoms, its rivers and forests, and its mountains and\nplains; he sees also the gods and demons, mankind and the beasts of\nprey, birds and fishes and insects....\n\nThe sage related that he shook with fear when he beheld these wonders,\nand desired the protection of the Supreme Being, whereat he was ejected\nfrom the boy's mouth, and found himself once again on the branch of the\nbanyan tree in the midst of the wide expanse of dark waters.\n\nMarkandeya was then informed by the Lord of All regarding the mysteries\nwhich he had beheld. The Divine One spoke saying: \u201cI have called\nthe waters \u2018Nara\u2019, and because they were my \u2018Ayana\u2019, or home, I am\nNarayana, the source of all things, the Eternal, the Unchangeable. I\nam the Creator of all things, and the Destroyer of all things.... I am\nall the gods.... Fire is my mouth, the earth is my feet, and the sun\nand the moon are my eyes; the Heaven is the crown of my head, and the\ncardinal points are my ears; the waters are born of my sweat. Space\nwith the cardinal points are my body, and the Air is in my mind.\u201d[158]\n\n[158] Roy's translation. This conception of the World God resembles the\nEgyptian Ptah and Ra. See _Egyptian Myth and Legend_.\n\nThe Creator continues, addressing Markandeya: \u201cI am the wind, I am the\nSun, I am Fire. The stars are the pores of my skin, the ocean is my\nrobe, my bed and my dwelling-place....\u201d The Divine One is the source\nof good and evil: \u201cLust, wrath, joy, fear, and the overclouding of the\nintellect, are all different forms of me.... Men wander within my body,\ntheir senses are overwhelmed by me.... They move not according to their\nown will, but as they are moved by me.\u201d\n\nMarkandeya then related that the Divine Being said: \u201cI create myself\ninto new forms. I take my birth in the families of virtuous men....\nI create gods and men, and Gandharvas and Rakshas and all immobile\nbeings, and then destroy them all myself (when the time cometh). For\nthe preservation of rectitude and morality, I assume a human form;\nand when the season for action cometh, I again assume forms that are\ninconceivable. In the Krita Age I become white, in the Treta Age I\nbecome yellow, in the Dw\u00e3para I become red, and in the Kali Age I\nbecome dark in hue.... And when the end cometh, assuming the fierce\nform of Death, alone I destroy all the three worlds with their mobile\nand immobile existences.... Alone do I set agoing the wheel of Time: I\nam formless: I am the Destroyer of all creatures: and I am the cause of\nall efforts of all my creatures.\u201d[159]\n\n[159] _Mahabharata, Vana Parva_, section clxxxix, P. C. Roy's\ntranslation.\n\nMarkandeya afterwards witnessed \u201cthe varied and wondrous creation\nstarting into life\u201d.\n\nThe theory of Metempsychosis, or Transmigration of Souls, is generally\nregarded as being of post-Vedic growth in India as an orthodox\ndoctrine. Still, it remains an open question whether it was not\nprofessed from the earliest times by a section of the various peoples\nwho entered the Punjab at different periods and in various stages of\nculture. We have already seen that the burial customs differed. Some\nconsigned the dead hero to the \u201cHouse of Clay\u201d, invoking the earth\nto shroud him as a mother who covers her son with her robe, and the\nbelief ultimately prevailed that Yama, the first man, had discovered\nthe path leading to Paradise, which became known as the \u201cLand of the\nFathers\u201d (Pitris). The fire worshippers, who identified Agni with the\n\u201cvital spark\u201d, cremated the dead, believing that the soul passed to\nheaven like the burnt offering, which was the food of the gods. It is\napparent, therefore, that in early times sharp differences of opinion\nexisted among the tribes regarding the destiny of the soul. Other\nunsung beliefs may have obtained ere the Brahmans grew powerful and\nsystematized an orthodox creed. The doctrine of Metempsychosis may\nhave had its ancient adherents, although these were not at first very\nnumerous. In one passage of the _Rigveda_ \u201cthe soul is spoken of as\ndeparting to the waters or the plants\u201d, and it \u201cmay\u201d, says Professor\nMacdonell, \u201ccontain the germs of the theory\u201d of Transmigration of\nSouls.[160]\n\n[160] _History of Sanskrit Literature_, p. 115.\n\nThe doctrine of Metempsychosis was believed in by the Greeks and the\nCelts. According to Herodotus the former borrowed it from Egypt, and\nalthough some have cast doubt on the existence of the theory in Egypt,\nthere are evidences that it obtained there as in early Aryanized India\namong sections of the people.[161] It is possible that the doctrine\nis traceable to a remote racial influence regarding which no direct\nevidence survives.\n\n[161] See _Egyptian Myth and Legend_.\n\nAll that we know definitely regarding the definite acceptance of\nthe theory in India is that in _Satapatha Brahmana_ it is pointedly\nreferred to as a necessary element of orthodox religion. The teacher\ndeclares that those who perform sacrificial rites are born again and\nattain to immortality, while those who neglect to sacrifice pass\nthrough successive existences until Death ultimately claims them.\nAccording to Upanishadic belief the successive rebirths in the world\nare forms of punishment for sins committed, or a course of preparation\nfor the highest state of existence.\n\nIn the code of Manu it is laid down, for instance, that he who steals\ngold becomes a rat, he who steals uncooked food a hedgehog, he who\nsteals honey a stinging insect; a murderer may become a tiger, or have\nto pass through successive states of existence as a camel, a dog, a\npig, a goat, &c.; other wrongdoers may have to exist as grass, trees,\nworms, snails, &c. As soon as a man died, it was believed that he was\nreborn as a child, or a reptile, as the case might be. Sufferings\nendured by the living were believed to be retribution for sins\ncommitted in a former life.\n\nAnother form of this belief had evidently some connection with lunar\nworship, or, at any rate, with the recognition of the influence\nexercised by the moon over life in all its phases; it is declared in\nthe _Upanishads_ that \u201call who leave this world go directly to the\nmoon. By their lives its waxing crescent is increased, and by means of\nits waning it brings them to a second birth. But the moon is also the\ngate of the heavenly world, and he who can answer the questions of the\nmoon is allowed to pass beyond it. He who can give no answer is turned\nto rain by the moon and rained down upon the earth. He is born again\nhere below, as worm or fly, or fish or bird, or lion, or boar or animal\nwith teeth, or tiger, or man, or anything else in one or another place,\naccording to his works and his knowledge.\u201d[162]\n\n[162] Paul Deussen's translation.\n\nBelief in Metempsychosis ultimately prevailed all over India, and it\nis fully accepted by Hinduism in our own day. Brahmans now teach that\nthe destiny of the soul depends on the mental attitude of the dying\nperson: if his thoughts are centred on Brahma he enters the state of\neverlasting bliss, being absorbed in the World Soul; if, however, he\nshould happen to think of a favourite animal or a human friend, the\nsoul will be reborn as a cow, a horse, or a dog, or it may enter the\nbody of a newly-born child and be destined to endure once again the\nills that flesh is heir to.\n\nIn Egypt, according to Herodotus, the adherents of the Transmigration\ntheory believed that the soul passed through many states of existence,\nuntil after a period of about three thousand years it once again\nreanimated the mummy. The Greeks similarly taught that \u201cthe soul\ncontinues its journey, alternating between a separate, unrestrained\nexistence and fresh reincarnation, round the wide circle of necessity,\nas the companion of many bodies of men and animals\u201d.[163] According\nto C\u00e6sar, the Gauls professed the doctrine of Metempsychosis quite\nfreely.[164]\n\n[163] _Psyche_, Erwin Rohde.\n\n[164] _De Bello Gallico_, vi, xiv, 4.\n\nBoth in India and in Egypt the ancient doctrine of Metempsychosis was\ncoloured by the theologies of the various cults which had accepted\nit. It has survived, however, in primitive form in the folk tales.\nApparently the early exponents of the doctrine took no account\nof beginning or end; they simply recognized \u201cthe wide circle of\nnecessity\u201d round which the soul wandered, just as the worshippers of\nprimitive nature gods and goddesses recognized the eternity of matter\nby symbolizing earth, air, and heaven as deities long ere they had\nconceived of a single act of creation.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VII\n\nNew Faiths: Vishnu Religion, Buddhism, and Jainism\n\n Religious Ages\u2014Influence of the Upanishads\u2014The Inspiration\n of Great Teachers\u2014Conception of a Supreme Personal God\u2014Rise\n of Vishnu and Shiva Cults\u2014Krishna a Human Incarnation of\n Vishnu\u2014The Bhagavad-gita\u2014Salvation by Knowledge\u2014Buddha's Revolt\n against Brahmanism\u2014His Gloomy Message to Mankind\u2014Spread of\n Buddhism\u2014Jainism\u2014Revival of Brahmanism\u2014The Puranas\u2014Incarnations\n of Vishnu\u2014Creator as a Boar\u2014Egyptian and European Conceptions and\n Customs\u2014Jagganath\u2014Kalki.\n\n\nModern-day Brahman pundits, the cultured apostles of the ancient forest\nsages, acknowledge a Trinity composed of Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the\nPreserver, and Shiva the Destroyer. A rock carving at Elephanta, which\ndepicts the supreme god with three heads, indicates that the conception\nis of considerable antiquity. To what particular period it must be\nassigned, however, we cannot yet definitely decide.\n\nThe religious history of India is divided into four Ages: (1) the Vedic\nAge; (2) the Brahmanical Age; (3) the Buddhist Age; and (4) the Age of\nthe reform and revival of Brahmanism.\n\nAs we have seen, many gods were worshipped in the Vedic Age, but ere it\nhad ended Pantheistic ideas found expression in the hymns. Two distinct\ncurrents of thought characterize the Brahmanical Age. On the one hand\nthere was the growth of priestly influence which is the feature of the\n_Brahmanas_, and on the other the development of the bold Pantheism\nof the _Upanishads_, which are permeated with a catholicity of spirit\ndirectly opposed to narrow and pedantic ritualism. Towards the close of\nthis Age, Vishnu and Shiva were deities of growing ascendancy.\n\nThe Buddhist Age began in the sixth century before Christ, and Buddhism\ngradually supplanted Brahmanism as a national religion. In the tenth\ncentury of our era, however, Brahmanism was revived, drawing its\ninspiration mainly from the _Upanishads_, and purified by the teachings\nof Buddha and other reformers.\n\nThese religious movements of the post-Vedic times, which have exercised\na cumulative influence in shaping modern-day Hinduism, were due\ndirectly and indirectly to the speculative reasonings of the unknown\nauthors of the _Upanishads_. The Pantheistic doctrines of these ancient\nphilosophers, however, hardly constituted a religion: they were rather\nan esoteric system of belief devoid of popular appeal. But they have\nbeen the inspiration of a succession of profound thinkers and eloquent\nteachers of revered memory in India, who infused ancient modes of\nthought with high philosophic doctrines, and utilized archaic myths\nto develop a religion which in its purest form permeates the acts of\neveryday life and requires the whole-hearted devotion and service of\npious Hindus to the will of the Supreme Being.\n\nIn the Brahmanical Age Upanishadic teachings made limited appeal, but\nevidences are not awanting that knowledge of them was not confined\nto the Brahmans, because the revolts which gave India Buddhism and\nJainism originated among the Kshatriyas. Meanwhile the gods of the\n_Vedas_ continued their hold upon the allegiance of the great masses\nof the people, although the ancient Vedic religion had been divested\nof its simplicity and directness by the ritualistic priesthood. Gods\nand men depended upon the Brahmans for their prosperity and even for\ntheir continued existence. It was taught that \u201cthe gods lived in fear\nof death, the strong Ender\u201d, but were supported and fed by penance and\nsacrifice. The priests achieved spiritual dominion over their rivals,\nthe Kshatriyas.\n\n[Illustration: THE HINDU TRINITY AT ELEPHANTA (see page 119)\n 20]\n\nThere was, however, more than one \u201cschool of thought\u201d among the\nBrahmans. The sages who memorized and repeated the older Upanishads,\nand composed new ones, could not have failed to pass unrecorded\njudgments on the superstitious practices of their ritualistic\nbrethren. Account must also be taken of the example and teachings of\nthe bands of wandering devotees, the Bhiksus, who neither performed\npenances nor offered up sacrifices, and of the influence exercised\nby the independent thinkers among the Kshatriyas, who regarded with\ndisfavour the pretensions of the powerful priesthood. The elements\nof revolt could never have been absent during the two centuries of\nthe Brahmanical Age. Upanishadic teachings had stirred the minds of\nthinking men, but they had one marked defect; they left unsatisfied\nthe religious sense which could find no repose in a jungle of abstract\nthought. It was impossible, however, for the leaders of thought to\nreturn to the polytheism of the Vedic Age, or to worship deities\ncontrolled by human beings. A new and higher religion became a\nnecessity for those who, like the Hebrew Psalmist, appear to have cried:\n\n \u201cO Lord ... thou desirest not sacrifice, else would I give it; thou\n delightest not in burnt offering. The sacrifices of God are a broken\n spirit.\u201d\n\n \u2014_Psalms_, li, 16, 17.\n\nAt any rate, we find that, before the Brahmanical Age had ended,\nthe conception was becoming more prevalent of a supreme personal\ngod, greater than Indra or Agni, and worthy of minds influenced by\nthe _Upanishads_\u2014a god who was the embodiment of the First Cause,\nan Infinite Being uncontrolled by the priesthood. One section of the\npeople appears to have worshipped Vishnu as the Celestial incarnation\nof the World Soul, while another gave recognition to Shiva. In the\nabsence of records, however, it is impossible to ascertain to what\nextent monotheistic ideas were developed by unorthodox teachers. The\nnew doctrines may have degenerated, like Buddhism, as they became\nwidespread. It is evident, however, that the priesthood were unable to\nignore them, for they are referred to in their \u201cbooks\u201d.\n\nAlthough the political prominence of Vishnu and Shiva belong to the\nAge of reformed Brahmanism, it is undoubted that both deities were\nworshipped throughout the long period of Buddhistic ascendancy. The\nGreek ambassador Megasthenes, who resided in India between B.C. 311\nand 302, and wrote _Ta Indika_, furnishes interesting evidence in\nthis connection. \u201cBy his description of the god Dionysus, whom they\nworshipped in the mountains, Shiva\u201d, says Professor Macdonell, \u201cmust\nbe intended, and by Herakles, adored in the plains ... no other can be\nmeant than Vishnu and his incarnation Krishna.... These statements seem\nto justify the conclusion that Shiva and Vishnu were already prominent\nas highest gods, the former in the mountains, the latter in the Ganges\nvalley.... We also learn from Megasthenes that the doctrine of the\nfour Ages of the World (Yugas) was fully developed in India by this\ntime.\u201d[165]\n\n[165] _A History of Sanskrit Literature_, p. 411.\n\nIn the _Rigveda_ Vishnu is a god of grace. He is, however, a secondary\ndeity\u2014an attribute of the sun and a phase of Agni. From the earliest\ntimes, it is significant to note, his benevolent character is\nemphasized. In one of the hymns[166] he is called \u201cthe Kinsman\u201d; he\nwelcomed to his heaven of bliss the faithful worshippers of the gods.\nAn interesting reference is made to his \u201chighest step\u201d. As detailed in\nlater writings, the myth involved is to the effect that the demon Bali,\none of the dreaded Danavas (Titans), had, in the Treta Yuga, secured\ntemporary ascendancy over the gods. Vishnu appeared before him in the\nform of the dwarf Vamana, and requested as much territory as he could\nmeasure out by taking three strides. The demon granted this request,\nand Vishnu immediately assumed the form of a giant; his first step\ncovered the heavens, the second crossed the entire earth, and the third\nand highest reached the abode of the gods. So was the Universe won back\nfrom the Asuras. It is believed that the myth refers to the progress of\nthe conquering sun by day and by night.\n\n[166] _Rigveda_, i, 154, 155.\n\nIn _Yajurveda_ Vishnu is more prominent than in the _Rigveda_, and\nin the _Brahmanas_ \u201cthere is a growing tendency\u201d, remarks Professor\nBarnett, \u201cto regard him as a blessed Cosmic Spirit\u201d.[167] He is fully\nidentified with Brahma in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_. In some of the myths he\nis the source of Indra's strength and valour, and he appears to have\nabsorbed the sublime character of Varuna, the god of sinners; he is\nsimilarly associated with the sea, but the Sea of Milk.\n\n[167] _Hinduism_, by L. D. Barnett.\n\nShiva is a development of the Vedic storm god Rudra, who was not only\ndreaded, but also revered as a destroyer of evil-doers, hatred, evil,\nand disease, and as a nourisher who gave long life.[168]\n\n[168] _Rigveda_, ii, 33.\n\nBoth deities inspired love and reverential fear; they won the\naffections of human hearts and were worshipped emotionally. Their\ncults have had independent doctrinal development, however, and they\ndivide Hinduism to-day into two great churches, one of which recognizes\nVishnu, and the other Shiva, as the greatest god. Their union in the\nTrinity has not yet obliterated sectarian differences.\n\nMany myths have collected round Vishnu, originally a purely abstract\ndeity, because the faith which he represents had to be imparted to the\nmasses in \u201cparables\u201d. These \u201cparables\u201d were, of course, given literal\ninterpretation by the people. The majority of the myths belong to the\npost-Buddhist Age\u2014the Age of Brahmanical revival, during which came\ninto existence the sacred poems called the _Puranas_. Many were also\nincorporated in the great epics, the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ and the _Ram\u00e1yana_,\nwhich existed in part, at least, before the rise of Buddhism and\nJainism.\n\nWhen Vishnu, the god of mercy and goodness, received recognition\nas Narayana in the Brahmanical Age, he was worshipped as the\n\u201cunconquerable preserver\u201d who at the dawn of each Yuga (Age) awoke as\nthe child of the primordial waters. In one myth he rises from a lotus\nbloom; in another he is supposed to sleep, as Brahma, on the coils\nof the world-serpent Shesha, which is \u201ca part of a part of Vishnu\u201d.\nThis serpent rests on the tortoise, Kurma, another form of Vishnu.\nWhen the tortoise moves its limbs, Shesha is roused to yawn; thus\nare earthquakes caused. A creation myth which teaches the absolute\nsupremacy of Vishnu tells that at the beginning Brahma sprang from a\nlotus issuing from the navel of the Preserver, while Shiva came from\nhis forehead.\n\n[Illustration: VISHNU UPHOLDING THE UNIVERSE\n_From a sculpture at M\u00e2mallapuram_\n 21]\n\nVishnu is a dark god with four arms; in one of his right hands he holds\na warshell, and in the other a flaming discus, which destroys enemies\nand returns after it is flung; in one left hand he holds a mace, and in\nthe other a lotus bloom.\n\nThe belief that the Supreme Being from time to time \u201cassumes a human\nform ... for the preservation of rectitude and morality\u201d is an\noutstanding feature of Vishnuite religion, which teaches that Vishnu\nwas born among men as Ramachandra, Krishna, Balarama, and Buddha. These\nare the Avataras of the Preserver. Avatara means literally \u201ca descent\u201d,\nbut is used in the sense of an \u201cIncarnation\u201d.\n\nRama Chandra is the hero of the _Ram\u00e1yana_ epic, which is summarized in\nour closing chapters; he is the human ideal of devotion, righteousness,\nand manliness, the slayer of the demon Ravana, who oppressed and\npersecuted mankind.\n\nKrishna and his brother Balarama figure as princes of Dwaraka in the\n_Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_. Krishna is represented as the teacher of the Vishnuite\nfaith, the devotional religion which displaced the Vedic ceremonies\nand links Upanishadic doctrines with modern Hinduism. It recognizes\nthat all men are sinful, and preaches salvation by Knowledge which\nembraces Works. Sinners must surrender themselves to Krishna, the human\nincarnation (Avatara) of Vishnu, the Preserver, the God of Love.\n\nThis faith is unfolded in the famous _Bhagavad-gita_[169] in the\n_Bhishma Parva_ section of the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ epic. Krishna is acting\nas the counsellor and charioteer of the Pandava warrior Arjuna. Ere\nthe first day's battle of the Great War begins, the human Avatara of\nVishnu reveals himself to his friend as the Divine Being, and gives\ninstruction as to how men may obtain salvation.\n\n[169] The \u201cDivine Song\u201d.\n\nKrishna teaches that the soul is \u201cunborn, unchangeable, eternal, and\nancient\u201d; it is one with the Supreme Soul, Vishnu, the First Cause,\nthe Source of All. The soul \u201cis not slain when the body is slain\u201d; it\nenters new bodies after each death, or else it secures emancipation\nfrom sin and suffering by being absorbed in the World Soul.... All\nsouls have to go through a round of births. \u201cOn attaining to Me,\nhowever,\u201d says Krishna, \u201cthere is no rebirth.\u201d\n\nKrishna gives Salvation to those who obtain \u201cKnowledge of self or\nBrahma\u201d.... He says: \u201cThe one who hath devoted his Self (Soul) to\nabstraction, casting an equal eye everywhere, beholdeth his Self in\nall creatures, and all creatures in his Self. Unto him that beholdeth\nMe in everything and beholdeth everything in Me, I am never lost and\nhe also is never lost in Me. He that worshippeth Me as abiding in all\ncreatures, holding yet that All is One, is a devotee, and whatever mode\nof life he may lead, he liveth in Me....\n\n\u201cEven if thou art the greatest sinner among all that are sinful, thou\nshalt yet cross over all transgressions by the raft of Knowledge\u201d....\nKnowledge destroys all sins. It is obtained by devotees who, \u201ccasting\noff attachment, perform actions for attaining purity of Self, with\nthe body, the mind, the understanding, and even the senses, free from\ndesire\u201d. To such men \u201ca sod, a stone, and gold are alike\u201d.\n\nKrishna, as Vishnu, is thus revealed: \u201cI am the productive cause of\nthe entire Universe and also its destroyer. There is nothing else that\nis higher than myself.... I am Om (the Trinity) in all the Vedas,\nthe sound in space, the manliness in man. I am the fragrant odour in\nearth, the splendour in fire, the life in all creatures, and penance in\nascetics.... I am the thing to be known, the means by which everything\nis cleansed.... I am the soul (self) seated in the heart of every\nbeing. I am the beginning, the middle, and the end of all beings.... I\nam the letter A (in the Sanskrit alphabet).... I am Death that seizeth\nall, and the source of all that is to be.... He that knoweth me as the\nSupreme Lord of the worlds, without birth and beginning ... is free\nfrom all sins.... He who doeth everything for me, who hath me for his\nsupreme object, who is freed from attachment, who is without enmity\ntowards all beings, even he cometh to me.... He through whom the world\nis not troubled, and who is not troubled by the world, who is free from\njoy, wrath, fear, and anxieties, even he is dear to me.\u201d\n\nTo Arjuna Krishna says: \u201cExceedingly dear art thou to me. Therefore\nI will declare what is for thy benefit. Set thy heart on Me, become\nmy devotee, sacrifice to me, bow down to me. Then shalt thou come to\nme.... Forsaking all (religious) duties, come to me as thy sole refuge.\nI will deliver thee from all sins. Do not grieve.\u201d\n\nIt is, however, added: \u201cThis is not to be declared by thee to one who\npractiseth no austerities, to one who is not a devotee, to one who\nnever waiteth on a preceptor, nor yet to one who calumniateth Me.\u201d\n\nUnbelievers are those who are devoid of knowledge. Krishna says: \u201cOne\nwho hath no knowledge and no faith, whose mind is full of doubt, is\nlost.... Doers of evil, ignorant men, the worst of their species ... do\nnot resort to Me.\u201d ... Such men \u201creturn to the path of the world that\nis subject to destruction\u201d. He denounces \u201cpersons of demoniac natures\u201d\nbecause they are devoid of \u201cpurity, good conduct, and truth.... They\nsay that the Universe is void of truth, of guiding principle and of\nruler.... Depending on this view these men of lost souls, of little\nintelligence and fierce deeds, these enemies of the world, are born\nfor the destruction of the Universe.\u201d They \u201ccherish boundless hopes,\nlimited by death alone\u201d, and \u201ccovet to obtain unfairly hoards of wealth\nfor the gratification of their desires\u201d; they say, \u201cThis foe hath been\nslain by me\u2014I will slay others.... I am lord, I am the enjoyer....\nI am rich and of noble birth\u2014who else is there that is like me?...\nI will make gifts, I will be merry.... Thus deluded by ignorance,\ntossed about by numerous thoughts, enveloped in the meshes of delusion,\nattached to the enjoyment of objects of desire, they sink into foul\nhell.... Threefold is the way to hell, ruinous to the Self (Soul),\nnamely, lust, wrath, likewise avarice.... Freed from these three gates\nof darkness, a man works out his own welfare, and then repairs to the\nhighest goal.\u201d[170]\n\n[170] Extracts from Roy's translation of _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_.\n\nBalarama is an incarnation of the world serpent Shesha. According to\nthe legend, he and Krishna are the sons of Vasudeva and Devak\u00ed. It\nwas revealed to Kansa, King of Mat\u00b4hur\u00e3[171], who was a worshipper\nof Shiva, that a son of Devak\u00ed would slay him. His majesty therefore\ncommanded that Devak\u00ed's children should be slain as soon as they were\nborn. Balarama, who was fair, was carried safely away. Krishna, the\ndark son, performed miracles soon after birth. The king had his father\nand mother fettered, and the doors of the houses were secured with\nlocks. But the chains fell from Vasudeva, and the doors flew open\nwhen he stole out into the night to conceal the babe. As he crossed\nthe river Jumna, carrying Krishna on his head in a basket, the waters\nrose high and threatened to drown him, but the child put out a foot\nand the river immediately fell and became shallow. In Mathura the\ntwo brothers performed miraculous feats during their youth. Indeed,\nthe myths connected with them suggest that their prototypes were\nvoluptuous pastoral gods. Krishna, the flute-player and dancer, is the\nshepherd lover of the Gopis or herdsmaids, his favourite being Radh\u00e1.\nHe was opposed to the worship of Indra, and taught the people to make\nofferings to a sacred mountain.\n\n[171] Or Muttra.\n\n[Illustration: KRISHNA AND THE GOPIS (HERDSMAIDS)\n_From a modern sculpture_\n 22]\n\nKing Kansa had resort to many stratagems to accomplish the death\nof Krishna, but his own doom could not be set aside; ultimately he\nwas slain by the two brothers. The _Harivamsa_, an appendix to the\n_Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_, which is as long as the Iliad and the Odyssey together,\nis devoted to the life and adventures of Krishna, who also figures in\nthe _Puranas_.\n\nVishnu's Buddha Avatara was assumed, according to orthodox teaching,\nto bring about the destruction of demons and wicked men who refused to\nacknowledge the inspiration of the Vedas and the existence of deities,\nand were opposed to the caste system. This attitude was assumed by the\nBrahmans because Buddhism was a serious lay revolt against Brahmanical\ndoctrines and ceremonial practices.\n\nBuddha, \u201cthe Enlightened\u201d, was Prince Siddartha of the royal family\nGautama, which, as elsewhere told, ruled over a Sakya tribe. At his\nbirth marvellous signs foretold his greatness. Reared in luxury, he was\nkept apart from the common people; but when the time of his awakening\ncame, he was greatly saddened to behold human beings suffering from\ndisease, sorrow, and old age. One night he left his wife and child, and\nwent away to live the life of a contemplative hermit in the forest,\nwith purpose to find a solution for the great problem of human sin and\nsuffering. He came under the influence of Upanishadic doctrines, and\nat the end of six years he returned and began his mission.\n\nBuddha, the great psychologist, was one of the world's influential\nteachers, because his doctrines have been embraced in varying degrees\nof purity by about a third of the human race. Yet they are cold and\nunsatisfying and gloomy. The \u201cEnlightener's\u201d outlook on life was\nintensely timid and pessimistic; he was an \u201cenemy of society\u201d in\nthe sense that he made no attempt to effect social reforms so as to\nminimize human suffering, which touched him with deepest sympathy, but\nunfortunately filled him with despair; his solution for all problems\nwas Death; he was the apostle of benevolent Nihilism and Idealistic\nAtheism.\n\nThere is no supreme personal god in Buddhism and no hope of\nimmortality. Gods and demons and human beings are \u201cliving creatures\u201d;\ngods have no power over the Universe, and need not be worshipped or\nsacrificed to, because they are governed by laws, and men have nothing\nto fear from them.\n\nBuddha denied the existence of the Self-Soul of the _Upanishads_.\nSelf is not God, in the sense that it is a phase of the World Soul.\nThe \u201cself-state\u201d is, according to the \u201cEnlightener\u201d, a combination of\nfive elements\u2014matter, feeling, imagination, will, and consciousness;\nthese are united by Kamma,[172] the influence which causes life to\nrepeat itself. Buddha had accepted, in a limited sense, the theory\nof Transmigration of Souls. He taught, however, that rebirth was the\nresult of actions and desire. \u201cIt is the yearning for existence\u201d, he\nsaid, \u201cwhich leads from new birth to new birth, which finds its desire\nin different directions, the desire for pleasure, the desire for\nexistence, the desire for power.\u201d Death occurs when the five elements\nwhich constitute life are divided; after death nothing remains but the\nconsequences of actions and thoughts. Rebirth follows because \u201cthe\nyearning\u201d, the essence of \u201cworks\u201d, brings the elements together again.\nThe individual exists happily, or the reverse, according to his conduct\nin a former life; sorrow and disease are results of wrong living and\nwrong thinking in previous states of existence.\n\n[172] Karma, \u201cworks\u201d and their consequences.\n\n[Illustration: BUDDHA EXPOUNDING THE LAW\n 23]\n\nThe aim of the Buddhist is to become the \u201cmaster of his fate\u201d. Life\nto him is hateful because, as the Enlightener taught,\u201cbirth is\nsuffering, death is suffering; to be joined to one thou dost not love\nis suffering, to be divided from thy love is suffering, to fail in thy\ndesire is suffering; in short, the fivefold bonds that unite us to\nearth\u2014those of the five elements\u2014are suffering\u201d. As there can be no\nlife without suffering in various degrees, it behoves the believer to\nsecure complete emancipation from the fate of being reborn. Life is\na dismal and tragic failure. The Buddhist must therefore destroy the\ninfluence which unites the five elements and forms another life. He\nmust achieve the complete elimination of inclination\u2014of the yearning\nfor existence. Buddha's \u201csacred truth\u201d, which secures the desired end,\nis eightfold\u2014\u201cright belief, right resolve, right speech, right action,\nright life, right desire, right thought, and right self-absorption\u201d.\nThe reward of the faithful, who attains to perfect knowledge, unsullied\nby works, is eternal emancipation by Nirvana, undisturbed repose or\nblissful extinction[173], which is the Supreme Good. If there had been\nno belief in rebirth, the solution would have been found in suicide.\n\n[173] Buddha's negative attitude towards immortality and the conception\nof a Supreme Being was departed from by those of his followers who have\ntaught that Nirvana is a conscious state of eternal bliss.\n\nBuddha taught that the four Noble Verities are: (1) pain, (2) desire,\nthe cause of pain, (3) pain is extinguished by Nirvana, (4) the way\nwhich leads to Nirvana. The obliteration of Desire is the first aim\nof the Buddhist. This involves the renunciation of the world and of\nall evil passions; the believer must live a perfect life according to\nthe Buddhist moral code, which is as strict as it is idealistic in the\nextreme. \u201cIt does not express friendship, or the feeling of particular\naffection which a man has for one or more of his fellow creatures, but\nthat universal feeling which inspires us with goodwill towards all men\nand constant willingness to help them.\u201d[174]\n\n[174] Burnouf, quoted by Max M\u00fcller, _Chips from a German Workshop_, i,\n222.\n\nBelief in the sanctity of life is a prevailing note in Buddhism. The\nteacher forbade the sacrifice of animals, as did Isaiah in Judah.\n\n \u201cTo what purpose is the multitude of your sacrifices unto me? saith\n the Lord: I am full of the burnt offerings of rams, and the fat of fed\n beasts; and I delight not in the blood of bullocks, or of lambs, or of\n he goats.\u201d\n\n _Isaiah_, i, II.\n\nBrahmanism was influenced in this regard, for offerings to Vishnu were\nconfined to cakes, curds, sweetmeats, flowers, oblations, &c.\n\nBuddha, the enemy of the priesthood, was of the Kshatriya caste, and\nhis religion appears to have appealed to aristocrats satiated with\na luxurious and idle life, who felt like the Preacher that \u201call is\nvanity\u201d; it also found numerous adherents among the wandering bands of\nunorthodox devotees. The perfect Buddhist had to live apart from the\nworld, and engage for long intervals in introspective contemplation so\nas to cultivate by a stern analytic process that frame of mind which\nenabled him to obliterate Desire blankly and coldly. Familiar statues\nof Buddha show the posture which must be assumed; the legs are crossed\nand twisted, and the hands arranged to suggest inaction; the eyes gaze\non the bridge of the nose.\n\nMonastic orders came into existence for men and women, but the status\nof women was not raised. From these orders were excluded all officials\nand the victims of infectious and incurable diseases. A lower class of\nBuddhists engaged in worldly duties. Although Buddha recognized the\ncaste system, his teaching removed its worst features, for Kshatriyas\nand converted Brahmans could accept food from the Sudras without fear\nof contamination. Kings embraced the new religion, which ultimately\nassumed a national character.\n\nMissionaries were from the earliest times sent abroad, and Buddhism\nspread into Burma, Siam, Anam, Tibet, Mongolia, China, Java, and Japan.\nThe view is suggested that its influence can be traced in Egypt. \u201cFrom\nsome source,\u201d writes Professor Flinders Petrie, \u201cperhaps the Buddhist\nmission of Asoka, the ascetic life of recluses was established in the\nPtolemaic times, and monks of the Serapeum illustrated an ideal to man\nwhich had been as yet unknown in the West. This system of monasticism\ncontinued until Pachomios, a monk of Serapis in Upper Egypt, became the\nfirst Christian monk in the reign of Constantine.\u201d[175]\n\n[175] Petrie, _The Religion of Egypt_, pp. 92-3.\n\nJainism, like Buddhism, was also a revolt against Brahmanic orthodoxy,\nand drew its teachers and disciples chiefly from the aristocratic\nclass. It was similarly influenced in its origin by the _Upanishads_.\nJainites believe, however, in soul and the world soul; they recognize\nthe Hindu deities, but only as exalted souls in a state of temporary\nbliss achieved by their virtues; they also worship a number of\n\u201cconquerors\u201d or \u201copeners of the way\u201d, as Buddhism, in debased form,\nrecognizes Buddha and his disciples as gods, and allows the worship\nhere of a tooth and there of a hair of the Enlightener, as well as\nsacred mounds connected with his pilgrimages. In the gloomy creed of\nthe Jainites it is taught that \u201cemancipation\u201d may be hastened by rigid\nausterities which entail systematic starvation. Many Jainites have in\ntheir holy places given up their lives in this manner, but the practice\nis now obsolete.\n\nIn the Age which witnessed the decline of Buddhism in India, and the\nrise of reformed Brahmanism, the religious struggle was productive\nof the long poems called the _Puranas_ (old tales) to which we have\nreferred. In these productions some of the ancient myths about the\ngods were preserved and new myths were formulated. They were meant\nfor popular instruction, and especially to make converts among the\nunlettered masses. Their authors were chiefly of the Vishnu cult, which\nhad perpetuated the teachings of the unknown sages who at the close\nof the Brahmanical Age revolted against impersonal Pantheism, the\nritualistic practices of the priesthood, and the popular conceptions\nregarding the Vedic deities who ensured worldly prosperity, but\nexercised little influence on the character of the individual.\n\nIndra and Agni and other popular deities were not, however, excluded\nfrom the Pantheon, but were divested of their ancient splendour and\nshown to be subject to the sway of Brahma, their Lord and Creator,\nwhose attributes they symbolized in their various spheres of activity.\nVishnuites taught that Vishnu was Brahma, and Shivaites that Shiva was\nthe supreme deity.\n\nIn this way, it would appear, the authors of the _Puranas_ effected\na compromise between immemorial beliefs and practices and the higher\nreligious conceptions towards which the people were being gradually\nelevated. A similar policy was adopted by Pope Gregory the Great, who\nin the year 601 caused the Archbishop of Canterbury to be instructed to\ninfuse Pagan ceremonials with Christian symbolism. It was decreed that\nheathen temples should be changed into churches, and days consecrated\nto sacrificial ceremonies to be observed as Christian festivals. The\nAnglo-Saxons were not to be permitted to \u201csacrifice animals to the\nDevil\u201d, but to kill them for human consumption \u201cto the praise of God\u201d,\nso that \u201cwhile they retained some outward joys they might give more\nready response to inward joys\u201d. The Pope added: \u201cIt is not possible to\ncut off everything at once from obdurate minds; he who endeavours to\nclimb to the highest place must rise not by bounds, but by degrees or\nsteps.\u201d[176]\n\n[176] Bede, _Historia Ecclesiastica_, lib. i, chap. xxx.\n\nIt is necessary for us, therefore, in dealing with Puranic beliefs,\nand the movement which culminated in modern-day Hinduism, to make a\ndistinction between the popular faith and the beliefs of the most\nenlightened Brahmans, and also between the process of mythology-making\nand the development of religious ideas.\n\nIn early Puranic times, when Brahmanism was revived, Vishnu's\nbenevolent character was exalted to so high a degree that, it was\ntaught, even demons might secure salvation through his grace. Prahlada,\nson of the King of the Danavas, worshipped Vishnu. As a consequence,\nterrible punishments were inflicted upon him by his angry father. At\nlength Vishnu appeared in the Danava palace as the Nrisinha incarnation\n(half man, half lion), and slew the presumptuous giant king who had\naspired to control the Universe.\n\nAnother incarnation of Vishnu was the boar, Var\u00e1ha. A demon named\nHiranyaksha had claimed the earth, when at the beginning of one of the\nYugas it was raised from the primordial deep by the Creator in the form\nof a boar. Vishnu slew the demon for the benefit of the human race.\nEarlier forms of this myth recognize Brahma, or Prajapati, as the boar.\nIn _Taittiriya Brahmana_ it is set forth: \u201cThis Universe was formerly\nwater, fluid; with that (water) Prajapati practised arduous devotions\n(saying), \u2018How shall this universe be (developed)?\u2019 He beheld a lotus\nleaf standing. He thought, \u2018There is something on which this rests.\u2019\nHe as a boar\u2014having assumed that form\u2014plunged beneath towards it. He\nfound the earth down below. Breaking off (a portion of) her, he rose to\nthe surface.\u201d\n\nThis treatment of the boar is of special interest. In Egypt the boar\nwas the demon Set, and the \u201cblack pig\u201d is the devil in Wales and\nScotland, and also in a \u201clayer\u201d of Irish mythology. Hatred of pork\nprevailed in Egypt and its vicinity, and still lingers in parts of\nIreland and Wales, but especially in the Scottish Highlands. The Gauls,\nlike the Aryans of India, did not regard the boar as a demon, and they\nate pork freely, as did also the Ach\u00e6ans and the Germanic peoples.\nRoast pig is provided in Valhal and in the Irish Danann Paradise, but\nthe Irish \u201cdevil\u201d, Balor, who resembles the Asura king of India, had a\nherd of black pigs.\n\nThe struggle between Kshatriyas and Brahmans is reflected in Vishnu's\nincarnation as Parasu-rama (Rama with the axe). He clears the earth\ntwenty-one times of the visible Kshatriyas, but on each occasion a few\nsurvive to perpetuate the caste.\n\nJagannath[177] is also regarded as a form of Vishnu, although\napparently not of Brahmanic origin. He is represented by three forms,\nrepresenting the dark Krishna, the fair Balarama, and their sister,\nSubhadra. Once a year the idol is bathed and afterwards taken forth\nin a great car, which is dragged by pious worshippers. Some have\nconsidered it a meritorious act to commit suicide by being crushed\nunder its wheels.\n\n[177] Juggernaut.\n\n[Illustration: THE BOAR INCARNATION OF VISHNU RAISING THE EARTH FROM\nTHE DEEP\n\n_From a rock sculpture at Udayagiri_\n 24]\n\nIt is believed that Vishnu will yet appear as Kalki, riding on a\nwhite horse and grasping a flaming sword. He will slay the enemies of\nevil and re-establish pure religion. Many pious Vishnuites in our own\nday look forward to the coming of their supreme deity with fear and\ntrembling, but not without inflexible faith.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER VIII\n\nDivinities of the Epic Period\n\n The Great Indian Epics\u2014Utilized by the Brahmans\u2014The Story\n of Manu\u2014Universal Cataclysm\u2014How Amrita (Ambrosia) was\n obtained\u2014Churning of the Ocean\u2014The Demon Devourer of Sun and\n Moon\u2014Garuda, the Man Eagle\u2014Attributes of the God Shiva\u2014Comparison\n with Irish Balor\u2014Rise of the Goddesses\u2014Saraswati and Lakshmi or\n Sri\u2014Fierce Durga and Kali\u2014Sati, the Ideal Hindu Wife\u2014Legend of the\n Ganges\u2014The Celestial Rishis\u2014Vishwamitra and Vasishtha\u2014History in\n the Vedas\u2014Wars between Aryan Tribes\u2014Kernel of Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata Epic.\n\n\nThe history of Brahmanism during the Buddhist Age is enshrined in the\ngreat epics _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ and _Ram\u00e1yana_, which had their origin before\nB.C. 500, and continued to grow through the centuries.\n\nThe _Mahabharata_, which deals with the Great War for ascendancy\nbetween two families descended from King Bharata, has been aptly\nreferred to as \u201cthe Iliad of India\u201d. It appears to have evolved from\na cycle of popular hero songs, but after assuming epic form it was\nutilized by the Brahmans for purposes of religious propaganda. The\nwarriors were represented as sons of gods or allies of demons, and the\naction of the original narrative was greatly hampered by inserting\nlong speeches and discussions regarding Brahmanic conceptions and\nbeliefs. An excellent example of this process is afforded by the famous\n_Bhagavad-gita_, from which we have quoted in the previous chapter. The\nnarrative of the first day's battle is interrupted to allow Krishna to\nexpound the doctrines of the Vaishnava faith, with purpose to make\nconverts to the cult of Vishnu. Almost every incident in the poem is\nutilized in a similar manner. In fact the epic, as we are informed in\nthe opening section, \u201cfurnisheth the means of arriving at the knowledge\nof Brahma\u201d. The priests, with this aim in view, loaded the chariots of\nheroes with religious treatises, and transformed a tribal struggle for\nsupremacy into a great holy war. If the _Iliad_ survived to us only in\nPope's translation, and our theologians had scattered through it, say,\nmetrical renderings of Bunyan's _Pilgrim's Progress_, the Thirty-nine\nArticles of the Church of England, the _Westminster Confession of\nFaith_, Fox's _Book of Martyrs_, and a few representative theological\nworks of rival sects, a fate similar to that which has befallen the\n_Mahabharata_ would now overshadow the great Homeric masterpiece. The\n\u201cIliad of India\u201d is a part of what may be called the Hindu Bible, which\nembraces the _Ramayana_, the _Vedas_, the _Upanishads_, the _Puranas_,\n&c.\n\nThe _Ram\u00e1yana_, which is called \u201cthe Odyssey of India\u201d, because it\ndeals with the wanderings and adventures of the exiled prince Rama, was\nutilized mainly by the cult of Vishnu, but both Vishnu and Shiva figure\nas great gods in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_, and now one and anon the other is\ngiven first place.\n\nIf the documentary material, which is available in India for dealing\nwith its ancient religious beliefs, were as scanty as those which\nsurvive to us from Ancient Egypt, comparisons might have been drawn\nbetween the Brahmanic cults and the priestly theorists of Heliopolis,\nMemphis, Sais, &c., and it might have been remarked of the one nation\nas of the other that its people clung to archaic beliefs long after\nnew and higher religious conceptions obtained as tenets of orthodox\nreligion. In India the process of change and development can, however,\nbe not only traced, but partially accounted for, as we have shown. Old\nmyths were embraced in the epics and the _Puranas_ for the purpose of\neducating the people by effecting a compromise between folk religion\nand the profound doctrines of the ancient forest sages.\n\n\u201cFather Manu\u201d of the _Vedas_, who appears to have been worshipped as a\npatriarchal ancestor, was, for instance, embraced in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_\nby the cult of Vishnu. He had been exalted by the ritualists as one who\nwas greater than the gods, because he had been the first to inaugurate\nsacrificial rites, and he was afterwards associated with Brahma in\nperforming some of the acts of Creation at the beginning of one of the\nYugas (Ages). It was necessary, therefore, to show that he owed his\npower and opportunities to Vishnu.\n\nIn the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ the sage Markandeya refers to Manu as the great\nRishi, who was equal unto Brahma in glory. He had practised rigid\nausterities in a forest for ten thousand years, standing on one leg\nwith uplifted hand. One day while he brooded in wet clothes, a fish\nrose from a stream and asked for his protection against the greater\nfish which desired to swallow it, at the same time promising to reward\nhim. Manu placed the fish in an earthen jar and tended it carefully\ntill it increased in size; then he put it in a tank. The fish continued\nto grow until the tank became small for it, and Manu heard it pleading\nto be transferred to the Ganges, \u201cthe favourite spouse of Ocean\u201d. He\ncarried it to the river, and in time the fish spoke to him, saying: \u201cI\ncannot move about in the river on account of my great length and bulk.\nTake me quickly to the Ocean.\u201d Manu was enabled to carry the fish from\nthe Ganges to the sea, and then it spoke with a smile and said:\n\n[Illustration: INTERIOR OF A ROCK-HEWN BUDDHIST TEMPLE (AJANTA)\n 25]\n\n \u201cKnow thou, O worshipful one, my protector, that the dissolution of\n the Universe is at hand. The time is ripe for purging the world. I\n will therefore advise thee what thou shouldst do, so that it may be\n well with thee. Build a strong and massive ark, and furnish it with a\n long rope; thou wilt ascend in it with the seven Rishis (the Celestial\n Rishis), and take with thee all the different seeds enumerated by\n Brahmans in days of yore, and preserve them carefully. Wait for me and\n I will appear as a horned animal. Act according to my instructions,\n for without mine aid thou canst not save thyself from the terrible\n deluge.\u201d\n\nManu gathered together all the different seeds and \u201cset sail in an\nexcellent vessel on the surging sea\u201d. He thought of the fish, and\nit arose out of the waters like an island; he cast a noose which he\nfastened to the horns on its head, and the fish towed the ark over the\nroaring sea; tossed by the billows the vessel reeled about like one who\nis drunk. No land was in sight. \u201cThere was water everywhere, and the\nwaters covered the heaven and the firmament also.... When the world was\nthus flooded none but Manu, the seven Rishis, and the fish could be\nseen.\u201d\n\nAfter many long years the vessel was towed to the highest peak of the\nHimavat, which is still called Nau-bandhana (the harbour), and it was\nmade fast there. The fish then spoke and said: \u201cI am Brahma, the Lord\nof all Creatures; there is none greater than me. I have saved thee\nfrom this cataclysm. Manu will create again all beings\u2014gods, Asuras,\nand men, and all those divisions of creation which have the power of\nlocomotion and which have it not. By practising severe austerities he\nwill acquire this power....\u201d\n\nThen Manu set about creating all beings in proper and exact order.[178]\n\n[178] Condensed from _Vana Parva_ section of _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_, sec.\nclxxxvii, Roy's trans.\n\nMarkandeya elsewhere described the universal cataclysm with more\ndetail. After a drought lasting for many years, seven blazing suns\nwill appear in the firmament; they will drink up all the waters. Then\nwind-driven fire will sweep over the earth, consuming all things;\npenetrating to the nether world it will destroy what is there in a\nmoment; it will burn up the Universe. Afterwards many-coloured and\nbrilliant clouds will collect in the sky, looking like herds of\nelephants decked with wreaths of lightning. Suddenly they will burst\nasunder, and rain will fall incessantly for twelve years until the\nwhole world with its mountains and forests is covered with water. The\nclouds will vanish. Then the Self-created Lord, the First Cause of\neverything, will absorb the winds and go to sleep. The Universe will\nbecome one dread expanse of water.\n\nAccount has to be taken of the persistent legend regarding the ambrosia\nwhich gave strength to the gods and prolonged their existence. In\n\u201cTeutonic mythology\u201d it is snatched by Odin from the giants of the\nUnderworld, and is concealed in the moon, which is ever pursued by the\ndemon wolf Managarm, who seeks to devour it.\n\nThe development of the Indian form of the myth is found in the story of\n\u201cThe Churning of the Ocean\u201d, which is dealt with in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_,\nthe _Ram\u00e1yana_, and several of the _Puranas_.\n\nAccording to the epics, the ambrosia, the Indian name of which is\namrita (both words implying immortality), was required by the gods so\nas to enable them to overcome the demons. In _Vishnu Parva_, however,\na Brahmanic addition to the myth was made so as to exalt a sage and\nillustrate the power he could exercise over the old Vedic deities. It\nis related that Durv\u00e1sas obtained from a merry nymph a sweet-scented,\ninspiring garland which made him dance. He presented it to Indra,\nwho placed it on the head of his elephant. The elephant then began\nto prance about, and grew so excited that it cast the garland on the\nground. Durv\u00e1sas was enraged because that his gift was slighted in\nthis manner, and cursed Indra and foretold the ruin of his kingdom.\nThereafter the king of the gods began to suffer loss of power, whereat\nthe other deities became alarmed, fearing that the demons would\novercome him in battle. Appeal was made to Brahma, who referred the\ngods to Vishnu, the Preserver. That supreme being commanded that the\nocean should be churned for amrita.\n\nIn the epics the gods allied themselves with the demons to procure\namrita from Vishnu's Sea of Milk. The \u201cchurning stick\u201d was the mountain\nMandara, and the \u201cchurning rope\u201d the serpent Vasuka[179] (Ananta or\nShesha). Vishnu said: \u201cThe demons must share in the work of churning,\nbut I will prevent them from tasting of the amrita, which must be kept\nfor Indra and the gods only.\u201d\n\n[179] Va'suki.\n\nThe gods carried the mountain Mandara to the ocean, and placed it on\nthe back of Kurma, the king of tortoises, who was an incarnation of\nVishnu.[180] Round the mountain they twisted the serpent, which was \u201ca\npart of a part of Vishnu\u201d, the Asuras holding its hood and the gods its\ntail. As a result of the friction caused by the churning, masses of\nvapour issued from the serpent's mouth which, becoming clouds charged\nwith lightning, poured down refreshing rains on the weary workers.\nFire darted forth and enwrapped the mountain, burning its trees and\ndestroying many birds, and the lions and elephants that crouched on its\nslopes. In time the Sea of Milk produced butter flavoured by the gums\nand juices which dropped from the mountain. The gods grew weary, but\nVishnu gave them fresh strength to proceed with the work. At length the\nmoon emerged from the ocean; then arose the Apsaras, who became nymphs\nin Indra's heaven; they were followed by the goddess Lakshmi, Vishnu's\nwhite steed, and the gleaming gem which the god wears on his breast.\nThen came Dhanwantari, the physician of the gods, who carried a golden\ncup brimming with amrita. Beholding him, the Asuras cried out: \u201cThe\ngods have taken all else; the physician must be ours.\u201d\n\n[180] Brahma, as Prajapati, assumes, in one of the myths, the form of a\ntortoise to \u201ccreate offspring\u201d.\n\nNext arose the great elephant Air\u00e1vata, which Indra took for himself.\nThe churning still went on until the blue, devastating poison appeared\nand began to flow over the earth, blazing like a flame mixed with\nfumes. To save the world from destruction, Shiva swallowed the poison\nand held it in his throat. From that time he was called Nilakantha,\n\u201cthe blue-throated\u201d.\n\nMeanwhile the demons desired to combat against the gods for the\npossession of the beautiful goddess Lakshmi and the amrita. But Vishnu\nassumed a bewitching female form, and so charmed the Asuras that they\npresented the amrita to that fair woman.\n\nVishnu immediately gave the amrita to the gods, but soon it was\ndiscovered that a demon named Rahu had assumed Celestial form with\npurpose to drink it. The amrita had only reached his throat when the\nsun and moon discovered him and informed Vishnu. The divine Preserver\nthen flung his discus and cut off Rahu's huge head, which resembled\na mountain peak. Rendered immortal by the amrita the head soared to\nthe sky, roaring loud and long. From that day Rahu's head, with mouth\nagape, has followed sun and moon, and when he swallows one or the other\nhe causes the eclipses.\n\n[Illustration: LAKSHMI ARISING FROM THE SEA OF MILK\n_From a sculpture at M\u00e2mallapuram_\n 26]\n\nMeanwhile the demons fought against the gods, but were defeated,\nalthough they flung rocks and mountains. Thousands were slain by\nthe sky-scouring discus of Vishnu, and those who survived concealed\nthemselves in the bowels of the earth and the depths of the ocean of\nsalt waters.\n\nOnce upon a time the ambrosia was robbed from the gods by Gar\u00b4uda,\nhalf giant and half eagle, the enemy of serpents. This \u201clord of birds\u201d\nwas hatched from an enormous egg five hundred years after it had been\nlaid by Diti, mother of giants; his father was Kas\u00b4yapa, a Brahman\nidentified with the Pole Star, who had sacrificed with desire for\noffspring. It happened that Diti, having lost a wager, was put under\nbondage by the demons, and could not be released until she caused the\namrita to be taken from a Celestial mountain where it was surrounded\nby terrible flames, moved by violent winds, which leapt up to the sky.\nAssuming a golden body, bright as the sun, Garuda drank up many rivers\nand extinguished the fire. A fiercely revolving wheel, sharp-edged and\nbrilliant, protected the amrita, but Garuda diminished his body and\nentered between the spokes. Two fire-spitting snakes had next to be\novercome. Garuda blinded them with dust and cut them to pieces. Then,\nhaving broken the revolving wheel, that bright sky-ranger flew forth\nwith the amrita which was contained in the moon goblet.\n\nThe gods went in pursuit of Garuda. Indra flung his thunderbolt, but\nthe bird suffered no pain and dropped but a single feather. When he\ndelivered the amrita to the demons his mother was released, but ere\nthe demons could drink Indra snatched up the golden moon-goblet and\nwended back to the heavens. The demon snakes licked the grass where the\ngoblet had been placed by Garuda, and their tongues were divided. From\nthat day all the snakes have had divided tongues.... Garuda became\nafterwards the vehicle of Vishnu; he has ever \u201cmocked the wind with his\nfleetness\u201d.\n\nShiva, as we have indicated, developed from Rudra, the storm god. He\nis first mentioned as Mahadeva, \u201cthe great god\u201d, in the _Yajurveda_,\nand in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ he is sometimes exalted above Vishnu. In one\npart he is worshipped by Krishna. He is the \u201cblue-necked, three-eyed\ntrident-bearing lord of all creatures\u201d. The trident is a lightning\nsymbol which appears to have developed from the three wriggling flashes\nheld in the left hand of hammer-gods like Tarku and Rammon. Shiva's\nthird eye was on his forehead, and from it issued on occasion a flame\nof fire which could consume an enemy; once he slew Kamadeva, the love\ngod, who wounded him with flowery arrows, by causing the flame to\nspring forth.\n\nBalor, the night god of Irish mythology, had similarly a destroying\neye; \u201cits gaze withered all who stood before it\u201d;[181] he was the god\nof lightning and death, the \u201ceye-flame\u201d being the thunderbolt.\n\n[181] _Celtic Myth and Legend_, p. 49.\n\nShiva's dwelling is on the Himalayan mount Kaila\u00b4sa[182]. He is\nGirisha, \u201cthe lord of the hills\u201d, and Chandra-Shekara, \u201cthe moon\ncrested\u201d, Bhuteswara, \u201clord of goblins\u201d, and Sri Kanta, \u201cbeautiful\nthroated\u201d. When he is depicted with five heads, he is regarded as the\nsource of the five sacred rivers flowing from the mountains. As the\ngod with snow-white face, he is the spirit of asceticism (Maha-Yogi)\nadored by Brahmans performing penances. In the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ Arjuna,\nthe warrior, invoked him by engaging in austerities until smoke issued\nfrom the earth. Then Shiva, \u201cthe illustrious Hara\u201d, appeared in huge\nand stalwart form and wrestled with him. Arjuna's limbs were bruised\nand he was deprived of his senses. When he recovered he hailed the god,\nsaying: \u201cThou art Shiva in the form of Vishnu and Vishnu in the form\nof Shiva....[183] O Hari, O Rudra, I bow to thee. Thou hast a (red)\neye on thy forehead.... Thou art the source of universal blessing, the\ncause of the cause of the Universe.... Thou art worshipped of all the\nworlds. I worship thee to obtain thy grace.... This combat in which I\nwas engaged with thee (arose) from ignorance.... I seek thy protection.\nPardon me all I have done.\u201d\n\n[182] Or Kail\u0101sa.\n\n[183] Combined with Vishnu he is Hari-hara.\n\nShiva, whose sign is the bull, embraced Arjuna and said, \u201cI have\npardoned thee.\u201d\n\nThe god was invoked by another warrior, Ashwattaman, son of Drona.\nHaving naught else to sacrifice, the worshipper flung himself upon the\naltar fire; Shiva accepted him and entered his body so as to assist him\nin slaughtering his sleeping enemies. Bloody rites were at one time\nassociated with Shiva worship. As the Destroyer of the Hindu Trinity,\nhe is armed with a discus, a sword, a bow, and a club; but his most\nterrible weapon is the trident. Sometimes he is clad in the skin of an\nelephant and sometimes in that of a leopard, the tail dangling behind.\nA serpent, coiled on his head, rears itself to strike; another serpent\ndarts from his right shoulder against an enemy.\n\nThe bull symbol, Nandi, the moon crescent on his forehead, and the\nserpent girdle, indicate that Shiva is a god of fertility. A phallic\nsymbol is associated with his worship. In localities he is adored\nat the present day in the form of a great boulder painted red which\nusually stands below a tree. Offerings are made to this stone, and\nwomen visit it during the period of the moon's increase to pray for\noffspring.\n\nAs Natesa, the dancer, Shiva dances triumphantly on the body of a slain\nAsura. A fine bronze in the Madras Museum depicts him with four arms,\nand a beaming, benevolent face, wearing a tiara, and surrounded by a\nhalo of fire; he absorbed the attributes of Agni as well as those of\nRudra. He is the destroyer of evil and disease, the giver of long life\nand the god of medicine, and is accordingly invoked to cure sickness.\nVictims of epilepsy are believed to be possessed by Shiva.\n\nIn early Puranic times, when Brahmanism was revived and reformed, the\nworship of goddesses came into prominence. This was one of the most\npronounced features of the anti-Buddhist movement, and was due probably\nto the influence of Great Mother worshippers. In the Vedic Age, as\nwe have seen, the goddesses were vague and shadowy; as wives of the\ngods they were strictly subordinate, reflecting, no doubt, the social\ncustoms which prevailed among the Aryans. Ushas, the dawn, and Ratri,\nthe night, were mainly poetic conceptions. Even Prithivi, the Earth\nMother, who was symbolized as a cow, played no prominent part in Vedic\nreligion: a magical influence was exercised by water goddesses. The\nmale origin of life appears to have been an accepted tenet of Vedic\nbelief. Aditi, mother of the Adityas, is believed to be of more recent\norigin than her sons. Indra seems to have similarly had existence\nbefore his mother, like the other hammer gods, and especially P'an Ku\nand Ptah.\n\nFemale water spirits are invariably regarded as givers of boons,\ninspiration and wisdom; holy wells have from remote times been\nregarded as sources of luck; by performing ceremonial acts those who\nvisit them obtain what they wish for in silence; their waters have,\nwithal, curative properties, or they may be used for purposes of\ndivination. The name of the goddess Saraswati signifies \u201cwaters\u201d; she\nwas originally the spirit of the Saraswati river, and was probably\nidentical with Bharati, the goddess of the Vedic Bharata tribe. In\nPuranic times she became the wife of Brahma and the Minerva of the\nHindu Pantheon. She is identical with Vach, \u201cMother of the Vedas\u201d,\nthe goddess of poetry and eloquence, and Viraj, the female form of\nPurusha, who divided himself to give origin to the gods and demons and\nall living creatures. When Brahma took for a second wife Gayatri, the\nmilkmaid, she cursed him so that he could only be worshipped once a\nyear.\n\n[Illustration: SHIVA DANCING ON TRIPURA\n_From a bronze in the Madras Museum_\n 27]\n\nSaranyu, who may have developed from Ushas, the Dawn, is the bride of\nSurya, the sun god, and mother of the twin Aswins; she fashioned the\ntrident of Shiva and the discus of Vishnu, and other weapons besides.\n\nLakshmi, or Sri, who had her origin at the Churning of the Ocean,\nbecame the wife of Vishnu, and the goddess of beauty, love, and\nprosperity. She has had several human incarnations, and in each case\nwas loved by the incarnation of Vishnu. She is Sita in the Ram\u00e1yana,\nand the beautiful herdswoman beloved by Krishna. Lakshmi is \u201cthe\nworld-mother, eternal, imperishable; as Vishnu is all-pervading, she is\nomnipresent. Vishnu is meaning, she is speech; Vishnu is righteousness,\nshe is devotion; Sri is the earth, and Vishnu is the support of the\nearth.\u201d This benevolent goddess is usually depicted as a golden lady\nwith four arms, seated on a lotus.\n\nShiva's complex character is reflected in the various forms assumed\nby his bride. As the Destroyer he is associated with Durga, who has\ngreat beauty and is also a war goddess. As Kali she is the black\nearth-mother, and as Jagadgauri, the yellow woman, the harvest bride.\nArmed with Celestial weapons, Durga is a renowned slayer of demons. In\nher Kali form she is of hideous aspect. Sculptors and painters have\ndepicted her standing on the prostrate form of Shiva and grinning with\noutstretched tongue. Her body is smeared with blood because she has\nwaged a ferocious and successful war against the giants. Like Shiva,\nshe has a flaming third eye on her forehead. Her body is naked save\nfor a girdle of giants' hands suspended from her waist; round her neck\nshe wears a long necklace of giants' skulls: like the Egyptian Isis,\nKali can conceal herself in her long and abundant hair. She has four\narms: in one she holds a weapon, and in another the dripping head of a\ngiant; two empty hands are raised to bless her worshippers. Like the\nEgyptian Hathor or Sekhet, the \u201cEye of Ra\u201d, she goes forth to slay the\nenemies of the gods, rejoicing in slaughter. Like Hathor, too, she is\nasked to desist, but heeds not. Then Shiva approaches her and lies\ndown among her victims. Kali dances over the battlefield and leaps on\nher husband's body. When she observes, however, what she has done, she\nejects her tongue with shame.\n\nAs Sati, Shiva's wife is the ideal of a true and virtuous Hindu woman.\nWhen Sati's husband was slighted by her father, the Deva-rishi,\nDaksha, she cast herself on the sacrificial fire. Widows who died on\nthe funeral pyres of their husbands were called Sati[184], because in\nperforming this rite they imitated the faithful goddess.\n\n[184] Often spelled _Suttee_.\n\nSati was reborn as Uma, \u201cLight\u201d, the impersonation of divine wisdom;\nas Amvika the same goddess was a sister of Rudra, or his female\ncounterpart, Rudra taking the place of Purusha, the first man. Par\u00b4vati\nwas another form of the many-sided goddess. Shiva taunted her for being\nblack, and she went away for a time and engaged in austerities, with\nthe result that she assumed a golden complexion.\n\n[Illustration: GANESA (see page 151)\n_From a sculpture in the Victoria and Albert Museum_\n 28]\n\nA trinity of goddesses is formed by Saraswati, the white one, Lakshmi,\nthe red one, and Par\u00b4vati, the black one. The three were originally\none\u2014a goddess who came into existence when Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva\nspoke of the dreaded Asura, Andhaka (Darkness) and looked one at\nanother. The goddess was coloured white, red, and black, and divided\nherself, according to the Varaha Purana, into three forms representing\nthe Past, Present, and Future.\n\nIt was after Sati burned herself that the sorrowing Shiva was wounded\nby Kamadeva, the love god, whom he slew by causing a flame of fire to\ndart from his third eye. This god is the son of Vishnu and Lakshmi.\nHe is usually depicted as a comely youth like the Egyptian Khonsu; he\nshoots flowery arrows from his bow; his wife Rati symbolizes Spring,\nthe cuckoo, the humming bee, and soft winds. As Manmatha he is the\n\u201cmind-disturber\u201d; as Mara, \u201cthe wounder\u201d; as Madan, \u201che who makes one\nlove-drunk\u201d; and as Pradyumna he is the \u201call-conqueror\u201d.\n\nGane\u00b4sa[185], the four-armed, elephant-headed god of wisdom, is the son\nof Shiva and Parvati. He is the general of Shiva's army, the patron of\nlearning and the giver of good fortune. At the beginning of books he is\ninvoked by poets, his image is placed on the ground when a new house\nis built, and he is honoured before a journey is begun or any business\nis undertaken. The elephant's head is an emblem of sagacity. A myth\nin one of the Puranas relates that the planet Saturn, being under a\ncurse, decapitated Ganesa simply by looking at him. Vishnu mounted on\nthe back of the man-eagle Garuda and came to the child's aid. He cut\noff the head of Indra's elephant and placed it on Ganesa's neck. In a\nconflict with a Deva-rishi Ganesa lost one of his tusks. Several myths\nhave gathered round this popular, elephant-headed deity, who is also\nidentified with the wise rat.\n\n[185] A familiar Bengali rendering is \u201cGonesh\u201d, which is often given as\na pet name to an exemplary boy.\n\nAnother son of Shiva and Parvati is Kartikeya, the Celestial general\nand slayer of demons. He is also regarded as the son of Agni and the\nGanges.\n\nThe goddess of the Ganges is Gang\u00e1. This most sacred of all Indian\nrivers, the cleanser of sins and the giver of immortality, was\noriginally confined to the Celestial regions, where it flowed from a\ntoe of Vishnu. How it came to earth is related in the following myth:\nSag\u00b4ara, a King of Ayodha (Oude), had great desire for offspring. He\nperformed penance, with the result that one wife became the mother of a\nsingle son and the other of sixty thousand sons. He prepared to perform\na horse sacrifice, but Indra stole the sacred animal. All the sons\nwent in search of it by digging each for the depth of a league towards\nthe centre of the earth. They were, however, consumed by the fire of\nKapila, a form of Vishnu, who protected the earth goddess, his bride.\nSagara was informed that his sons would come to life again and rise\nto heaven when the Ganges flowed down to the earth. His grandson went\nthrough rigid penances, and at length Brahma consented to grant the\nprayer that the sacred river should descend from the Himalayas. Shiva\nbroke the fall of the waters by allowing them to flow through his hair,\nand they were divided into seven streams. When the waters reached the\nashes of the slain princes, their spirits rose to heaven and secured\neternal bliss. Sagra island, at the mouth of the Ganges, is invested\nwith great sanctity, on account of its association with the King of\nAyodha of this legend. All the Indian rivers are female, with the\nexception of the Sona and Brahmaputra, the spirits of which are male.\n\n[Illustration: KARTIKEYA, THE WAR GOD\n_From a painting by Surendra Nath Gangoly_\n(By permission of the Indian Society of Oriental Art, Calcutta)\n 29]\n\nOther goddesses include Man\u00b4asa, sister of Vasuka, King of the Nagas,\nwho gives protection against snake bites, and is invoked by the serpent\nworshippers: Sasti, the feline goddess of maternity and protectress\nof children, who rides on a cat; and Shitala, the Bengali goddess of\nsmallpox, who is mounted on an ass, carries a bundle of reeds in her\nhand, and is clad in red; she is propitiated on behalf of victims of\nthe dreaded disease.\n\nA prominent part is played in the Brahmanic mythology of the\nRestoration period by the Deva-rishis, the deified Vedic poets, sages,\nand priests, who stand between the Vedic gods and the Trinity of\nBrahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.\n\nOriginally there were seven Deva-rishis, and these were identified with\nthe seven stars of the Great Bear, their wives being represented by the\nPleiades. Their number was, however, increased in time.[186] Sometimes\nthey visit the earth in the form of swans, but more often they are\nbrooding sages who curse gods and mortals on receiving the slightest\nprovocation.\n\n[186] In _Vishnu Purana_ the Rishis are divided as follows: 1,\nBrahmarishis, sons of Brahma; 2, Devarishis, semi-divine saints; 3,\nRajarishis, royal saints who had practised austerities. There are\nvariants in other sacred books which refer to Maharishis, Paramarishis,\n&c.\n\nOne of the most prominent of these Rishis is Na\u00b4rada[187], who cursed\nand was cursed by Brahma. In the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ he is a renowned\nteacher and a counsellor of kings, and also a messenger between Indra\nand heroes. He is a patron of music, and invented the Vina (lute) on\nwhich he loves to play. His great rival is Parvata, who also acts as a\nCelestial messenger.\n\n[187] Or N\u00e3rada.\n\nDaksha is the father of Sati, the peerless wife of Shiva. It was on\naccount of this rishi's quarrel with her husband, who was not invited\nto a great feast, that she flung herself upon the sacrificial fire.\nShiva cut off Daksha's head and replaced it with the head of a goat.\n\nBhrigu was the patriarch of a Vedic priestly family. He married a\ndaughter of Daksha, and was the father of Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu, who\nrose from the ocean of milk. Bhrigu once cursed Agni, whom he compelled\nto consume everything. Angiras, Kratu, and Pulaha were Deva-rishis\nwho also married daughters of Daksha. Pulastya was a famous slayer of\nRakshasas. He once cursed a king who refused to make way for him on a\nnarrow forest path, and the king became a Rakshasa.\n\nMarichi was the grandfather of the dwarf incarnation of Vishnu, and\nAtri was the father of the irascible sage Durvasas, a master curser.\n\nVasishtha is sometimes referred to as identical with Vyasa, the reputed\narranger of the Vedas, and author of the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_. He possessed\na wonderful cow which granted whatever he wished for. A king named\nVishwamitra desired to possess this wonderful animal, and when he\nfound that he was unable to obtain it by force, he determined to raise\nhimself from the Kshatriya to the Brahman caste by performing prolonged\nausterities. When Vishwamitra secured this elevation he fought with his\nrival.\n\nSome Vedic scholars regard Vishwamitra and Vasishtha as actual\nhistorical personages. They argue that Vishwamitra was originally a\nPurohita (family priest) in the service of Sudas, the king of an Aryan\ntribe called the Tritsus. References are found in the _Rigveda_ to the\nwars of Sudas, who once defeated a coalition of ten kings. Vishwamitra\nis believed to have been deposed by Sudas in favour of Vasishtha, and\nto have allied himself afterwards with the enemies of the Tritsus.[188]\n\n[188] _Rigveda_, viii, 53. 9-11, and vii, 18.\n\nProfessor Oldenberg, the German Sanskrit scholar, is convinced,\nhowever, that there is no evidence in the _Rigveda_ of the legendary\nrivalry between Vishwamitra and Vasishtha. He regards the Vasishthas as\nthe family priests of the Bharata tribe and identical with the Tritsus.\n\n\n[Illustration: PARVATI, WIFE OF SHIVA (see page 150)\n_From a South Indian temple_\n 30]\n\nAmong the tribes which opposed the advance of the conquering King\nSudas, who appears to have been a late comer, was the Puru people\non the banks of the Saraswati river. We find that the early authors\nsuddenly cease to refer to them, and the problem is presented: What\nfate had befallen the Purus? Professor Oldenberg, whose view is\naccepted by Professor Macdonell, Oxford, explains that the Purus merged\nin the Kuru coalition. The Kurus gave their name to Kuru-kshetra,\nthe famous battlefield of the epic _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_; they had already\nfused with the Panchala tribe and formed the Kuru-Panchala nation in\nMadhyadesa, the \u201cMiddle Country\u201d, the home of Brahmanic culture, the\nbirthplace of the famous old _Upanishads_.\n\nThe Bharatas, and their priestly aristocracy of Tritsus, the\nVasishthas, appear to have joined the Kuru-Panchala confederacy about\nthe time that the _Brahmanas_ were being composed, and these were\nprobably influenced by the ritualistic practices of the Vasishthas.\nThere are references to Agni of the Bharatas, and a goddess Bharati is\nmentioned in connection with the Saraswati river.\n\nIt appears highly probable that the Bharatas and the Kuru-Panchalas\nrepresent late invasions of peoples who displaced the earlier Aryan\nsettlers in Hindustan. Among the enemies of the invaders were the\nKasis, a tribe which became associated with Benares. It is not\npossible to prove the theory that this people had any connection with\nthe Kassites who established a Dynasty at Babylon. The Kassites are\nbelieved to be identical with the Coss\u00e6i of later times, who were\nsettled between Babylon and the Median highlands. Some think the\nKassites came from Asia Minor after the Hittite raid on Babylon, if\nthe Kassites, as Hittite allies, were not the actual raiders. The fact\nthat the Maltese cross, which is found on Elamite neolithic pottery,\nfirst appears on Babylonian seals during the Kassite Dynasty, suggests,\nhowever, that the Kassites came from the east and not the west, with\nthe horse, called in Babylon \u201cthe ass of the east\u201d.\n\nThe great epic _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_, \u201cthe Iliad of India\u201d, may have been\nfounded on the hero songs which celebrated the Aryan tribal wars in\nIndia. Its action is centred in Kuru-kshetra, \u201cthe country of the\nKurus\u201d, in which the Bharatas had settled. Two rival families contend\nfor supremacy; these are the Kauravas (the Kurus) and the Pandavas who\nare supported by the Panchalas and others. The Pandavas and Kauravas\nare cousins and the descendants of the eponymous King Bharata. In the\nroyal family tree the tribal names of Kuru and Puru appear as names of\nkings.\n\nA popular rendering is given in several chapters which follow of the\nepic narrative embedded in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_, which is about eight\ntimes as long as the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_ combined. This monumental\nwork is divided into eighteen books; a supplementary nineteenth book\nalone exceeds in length the two famous Greek epics.\n\nAs we have stated, the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ had its origin as an epic prior\nto B.C. 500. It was added to from time to time until it assumed its\npresent great bulk. The kernel of the narrative, however, which appears\nto have dealt with the early wars between the Kurus and Panchalas, must\nbe placed beyond B.C. 1000.\n\nOur narrative begins with the romantic stories which gathered round\nthe names of the legendary ancestors of the Kauravas and the Pandavas.\nThe sympathies of the Brahmanic compilers are with the latter, who are\nsymbolized as \u201ca vast tree formed of religion and virtue\u201d, while their\nopponents are \u201ca great tree formed of passion\u201d.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER IX\n\nPrelude to the Great Bharata War\n\n Dushyanta and Shakuntala\u2014Romantic Wooing\u2014Birth of\n Bharata\u2014Shakuntala's Appeal\u2014Her Claim vindicated\u2014King Bharata's\n Reign\u2014King Hastin and King Kuru\u2014King Shantanu's Bride a\n Goddess\u2014Seven Babes drowned\u2014Story of Satyavati\u2014Vyasa, Poet and\n Sage\u2014Bhishma's Terrible Vow\u2014Fisher Girl becomes Queen\u2014Marriage by\n Capture\u2014A Childless King\u2014Origin of Dhritarashtra, Pandu, and Vidura.\n\n\nNow the sire of the great King Bharata[189] was royal Dushyanta of\nthe lunar race, the descendant of Atri, the Deva-rishi, and of Soma,\nthe moon; his mother was beautiful Shakuntala, the hermit maiden, and\ndaughter of a nymph from the celestial regions. And first be it told of\nthe wooing of Shakuntala and the strange childhood of her mighty son.\n\n[189] _Pron._ bah\u00b4ra-ta or bhah\u00b4ra-ta.\n\nOne day King Dushyanta, that tiger among men, went forth from his\nstately palace to go a-hunting with a great host and many horses and\nelephants. He entered a deep jungle and there slew numerous wild\nanimals; his arrows wounded tigers at a distance; he felled those\nthat came near with his great sword. Lions fled from before him, wild\nelephants stampeded in terror, deer sought to escape hastily, and birds\nrose in the air uttering cries of distress.\n\nThe king, attended by a single follower, pursued a deer across a desert\nplain, and entered a beautiful forest which delighted his heart, for\nit was deep and shady, and was cooled by soft winds; sweet-throated\nbirds sang in the branches, and all round about there were blossoming\ntrees and blushing flowers; he heard the soft notes of the kokila[190],\nand beheld many a green bower carpeted with grass and canopied by\nmany-coloured creepers.\n\n[190] The Indian cuckoo.\n\nDushyanta, abandoning the chase, wandered on until he came to a\ndelightful and secluded hermitage, where he saw the sacred fire of that\naustere and high-souled Brahman, the saintly Kanva. It was a scene of\npeace and beauty. Blossoms from the trees covered the ground; tall were\nthe trunks, and the branches were far-sweeping. A silvery stream went\npast, breaking on the banks in milk-white foam; it was the sacred River\nMalini, studded with green islands, loved by water fowl, and abounding\nwith fish.\n\nThen the king was taken with desire to visit the holy sage, Kanva, he\nwho is without darkness. So he divested himself of his royal insignia\nand entered the sacred grove alone. Bees were humming; birds trilled\ntheir many melodies; he heard the low chanting voices of Brahmans among\nthe trees\u2014those holy men who can take captive all human hearts....\n\nWhen he reached the abode of Kanva, he wondered to find that it was\nempty, and called out: \u201cWho is here?\u201d and the forest echoed his voice.\n\nThen came towards him a beautiful black-eyed virgin, clad in a robe of\nbark. She reverenced the king and said: \u201cWhat seekest thou? I am thy\nservant.\u201d\n\nSaid the royal Dushyanta to the maiden of faultless form and gentle\nvoice: \u201cI have come to honour the wise and blessed Kanva. Tell me, O\nfair and amiable one, whither he hath gone?\u201d\n\nThe maiden answered: \u201cMy illustrious sire is gathering herbs, but if\nthou wilt tarry he will return ere long.\u201d\n\nDushyanta was entranced by the beauty and sweet smiles of the gentle\ngirl, and his heart was moved towards her, for she was in the bloom of\nyouth. So he spake, saying: \u201cWho art thou, O fairest one? Whence comest\nthou, and why dost thou wander alone in the woods? O comely maiden,\nthou hast taken captive my heart.\u201d\n\nThe bright-eyed one made answer: \u201cI am the daughter of the holy and\nhigh-souled Kanva, the ever-wise and ever-constant.\u201d\n\nSaid the king: \u201cBut Kanva is chaste and austere and hath ever been a\ncelibate, nor can he have broken his rigid vow. How came it that thou\nwert born the daughter of such a one?\u201d\n\nThen the maiden, who was named Shakuntala, because that the birds\n(shakunta) had nursed her, revealed unto the king the secret of her\nbirth. Her real sire was Vishwamitra[191], the holy sage who had been\na Kshatriya and was made a Brahman in reward for his austerities. It\ncame to pass that Indra became alarmed at his growing power, and he\nfeared that the mighty sage of blazing energy would, by reason of his\npenances, cast down even him, the king of the gods, from his heavenly\nseat. So Indra commanded Menaka, the beauteous Ap'sara, to disturb the\nholy meditations of the sage, for he had already achieved such power\nthat he created a second world and many stars. The nymph called on\nthe wind god and on the god of love, and they went with her towards\nVishwamitra.\n\n[191] _Pron._ vish-wah-mit\u00b4ra.\n\nMenaka danced before the brooding sage; then the wind god snatched\naway her moon-white garments, and the love god shot his arrows at\nVishwamitra, whereupon that saintly man was stricken with love for the\nnymph of peerless beauty, and he wooed her and won her as his bride. So\nwas he diverted from his austerities. In time Menaka became the mother\nof a girl babe, whom she cast away on the river bank.\n\nNow the forest was full of lions and tigers, but vultures gathered\nround the infant and protected her from harm. Then Kanva found and took\npity on the child; he said: \u201cShe will be mine own daughter.\u201d\n\nSaid Shakuntala: \u201cO king, I was that child who was abandoned by the\nnymph, and now thou dost know how Kanva came to be my sire.\u201d\n\nThe king said: \u201cBlessed are thy words, O princess. Thou art of royal\nbirth. Be thou my bride, O beautiful maid, and thou wilt have garlands\nof gold and golden ear-rings and white pearls and rich robes; my\nkingdom also will be thine, O timid one; wed thou me in Gandharva mode,\nwhich of all marriages is the best.\u201d[192]\n\n[192] The Gandharva marriage was legalized by Manu, but only for\nmembers of the Kshatriya (kings and warriors) caste.\n\nThen Shakuntala promised to be the king's bride, on condition that he\nwould choose her son as the heir to his throne.\n\n\u201cAs thou desirest, so let it be,\u201d said Dushyanta. And the fair one\nbecame his bride.\n\nEre Dushyanta went away he promised Shakuntala that he would send a\nmighty host to escort her to his palace.\n\nWhen Kanva returned, the maiden did not leave her hiding-place to greet\nhim; but he searched out and found her, and he read her heart. \u201cThou\nhast not broken the law,\u201d he said. \u201cDushyanta, thine husband, is noble\nand true, and a son will be born unto thee who will achieve great\nrenown.\u201d\n\nIn time fair Shakuntala became the mother of a comely boy, and the\nwheel mark[193] was on his hands. He grew to be strong and brave, and\nwhen but six years old he sported with young lions, for he was suckled\nby a lioness; he rode on the backs of lions and tigers and wild boars\nin the midst of the forest. He was called All-tamer, because that he\ntamed everything.\n\n[193] A sign of martial and royal origin.\n\nNow when Kanva perceived that the boy was of unequalled prowess, he\nspake to Shakuntala and said: \u201cThe time hath come when he must be\nanointed as heir to the throne.\u201d So he bade his disciples to escort\nmother and son unto the city of Gajasahvaya[194], where Dushyanta had\nhis royal palace.\n\n[194] _Pron._ Gaj-as-ah-va\u00b4ya.\n\nSo it came that Shakuntala once again stood before the king, and she\nsaid unto him: \u201cLo! I have brought unto thee this thy son, O Dushyanta.\nFulfil the promise thou didst make aforetime, and let him be anointed\nas thine heir.\u201d\n\nDushyanta had no pleasure in her words, and made answer: \u201cI have no\nmemory of thee. Who are thou and whence cometh thou, O wicked hermit\nwoman? I never took thee for wife, nor care I whether thou art to\nlinger here or to depart speedily.\u201d\n\nStunned by his cold answer, the sorrowing Shakuntala stood there like\na log.... Soon her eyes became red as copper and her lips trembled;\nshe cast burning glances at the monarch. For a time she was silent;\nthen she exclaimed with fervour: \u201cO king without shame, well dost\nthou know who I am. Why wilt thou deny knowledge of me as if thou wert\nbut an inferior person? Thy heart is a witness against thee. Be not a\nrobber of thine own affections.... The gods behold everything: naught\nis hidden from them; verily, they will not bless one who doth degrade\nhimself by speaking falsely regarding himself. Spurn not the mother of\nthy son; spurn not thy faithful wife. A true wife beareth a son; she\nis the first of friends and the source of salvation; she enables her\nhusband to perform religious acts, her sweet speeches bring him joy;\nshe is a solace and a comforter in sickness and in sorrow; she is a\ncompanion in this world and the next. If a husband dies, a wife follows\nsoon afterwards; if she is gone before, she waiteth for her husband\nin heaven. She is the mother of the son who performs the funeral rite\nto secure everlasting bliss for his sire, rescuing him from the hell\ncalled Put. Therefore a man should reverence the mother of his son, and\nlook upon his son as if he beheld his own self in a mirror, rejoicing\nthe while as if he had found heaven.... Why, O king, dost thou spurn\nthine own child? Even the ants will protect their eggs; strangers far\nfrom home take the children of others on their knees to be made happy,\nbut thou hast no compassion for this child, although he is thy son,\nthine own image.... Alas! what sin did I commit in my former state that\nI should have been deserted by my parents and now by thee!... If I must\ngo hence, take thou thy son to thy bosom, O king.\u201d\n\nSaid Dushyanta: \u201cIt has been well said that all women are liars. Who\nwill believe thee? I know naught regarding thee or thy son.... Begone!\nO wicked woman, for thou art without shame.\u201d\n\nShakuntala made answer, speaking boldly and without fear: \u201cO king,\nthou canst perceive the shortcomings of others, although they may be\nas small as mustard seeds; thou art blind to thine own sins, although\nthey may be big as Vilwa fruit. As the swine loveth dirt even in a\nflower garden, so do the wicked perceive evil in all that the good\nrelate. Honest men refrain from speaking ill of others: the wicked\nrejoice in scandal. O king! truth is the chief of all virtues. Truth is\nGod himself. Do not break thy vow of truth: let truth be ever a part\nof thee. But if thou wouldst rather be false, I must needs depart,\nfor, verily, such a one as thee should be avoided.... Yet know now, O\nDushyanta, that when thou art gone, my son will be king of this world,\nwhich is surrounded by the four seas and adorned by the monarch of\nmountains.\u201d\n\nShakuntala then turned from the king, but a voice out of heaven spoke\nsoftly down the wind, saying:\n\n\u201c_Shakuntala hath uttered what is true. Therefore, O Dushyanta, cherish\nthy son, and became thou wilt cherish him by command of the gods, let\nhis name be Bharata (\u2018the cherished\u2019)_.\u201d\n\nWhen the king heard these words, he spoke to his counsellors and said:\n\u201cThe celestial messenger hath spoken.... Had I welcomed this my son by\npledge of Shakuntala alone, men would suspect the truth of her words\nand doubt his royal birth.\u201d\n\nThereafter Dushyanta embraced his son and kissed him, and he honoured\nShakuntala as his chief rani[195]; he said to her, soothingly: \u201cFrom\nall men have I concealed our union; and for the sake of thine own good\nname I hesitated to acknowledge thee. Forgive my harsh words, as I\nforgive thine. Thou didst speak passionately because thou lovest me\nwell, O great-eyed and fair one, whom I love also.\u201d\n\n[195] Queen.\n\nThe son of Shakuntala was then anointed as heir to the throne, and he\nwas named Bharata.[196]\n\n[196] This story is the plot of \u201cShakuntala\u201d, the Sanskrit drama of the\npoet Kalidasa, who lived in the fifth century A.D. He makes the king\ngive the heroine a ring, which she loses while bathing. A fish swallows\nthe ring, and it is found by a fisherman, who delivers it to the king.\nThen suddenly His Majesty remembers his bride, whom he had forgotten\nand already denied. The misfortunes of the monarch and maid resulted\nfrom the curse of the sage Durvasas. _Pron._ Sha-koon\u00b4-ta-lah.\n\nWhen Dushyanta died, Bharata became king. Great was his fame, as\nbefitted a descendant of Chandra.[197] He was a mighty warrior,\nand none could withstand him in battle; he made great conquests,\nand extended his kingdom all over Hindustan, which was called\nBharatavarsha.[198]\n\n[197] _Pron._ chun\u00b4dra (\u201cch\u201d as in \u201cchange\u201d). Also Soma, the moon god.\n\n[198] Subsequently the name for India as a whole.\n\nKing Bharata was the sire of King Hastin, who built the great city\nof Hastinapur; King Hastin begot King Kuru, and King Kuru begot King\nShantanu.\n\nBe it told of the King Shantanu that he was pious and just and\nall-powerful, as was meet for the great grandson of King Bharata. His\nfirst wife was the goddess Ganga of the Ganges river, and she was\ndivinely beautiful like to her kind. Ere she assumed human form for\na time, there came to her the eight Vasus, the attendants of Indra.\nIt chanced that when the Brahman Vasishtha was engaged in his holy\nmeditations the Vasus flew between him and the sun, whereupon the\nangered sage cursed them, saying: \u201cBe born among men!\u201d Nor could they\nescape this fate, so great was the Rishi's power over celestial beings.\nSo they hastened to Ganga, and she consented to become their human\nmother, promising that she would cast them one by one into the Ganges\nsoon after birth, so that they might return speedily to their celestial\nstate. For this service Ganga made each of the Vasus promise to confer\nan eighth part of his power on her son, who, according to her desire,\nshould remain among men for many years, but would never marry or have\noffspring.\n\n[Illustration: SHANTANU MEETS THE GODDESS GANGA\n_From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n 2]\n\nA day came thereafter when King Shantanu walked beside the Ganges.\nSuddenly there appeared before him a maiden of surpassing beauty. She\nwas Ganga in human form. Her celestial garments had the splendour of\nlotus blooms; she was adorned with rare ornaments, and her teeth were\nradiant as pearls. The king was silenced by her charms, and gazed upon\nher steadfastly.... In time he perceived that the maiden regarded him\nwith love-lorn eyes, as if she sought to look upon him for ever, and\nhe spoke to her, saying: \u201cO slender-waisted and fair one, art thou one\nof the Danavas, or art thou of the race of Gandharvas, or art thou of\nthe Apsaras; art thou one of the Yakshas or Nagas,[199] or art thou of\nhuman kind, O peerless and faultless one? Be thou my bride.\u201d\n\n[199] Art thou a demon or nymph or fairy or dwarf or demi-god?\n\nThe goddess made answer that she would wed the king, but said she must\nneeds at once depart from him if he spoke harshly to her at any time,\nor attempted to thwart her in doing as she willed. Shantanu consented\nto her terms, and Ganga became his bride.\n\nIn time the goddess gave birth to a son, but soon afterwards she cast\nhim into the Ganges, saying: \u201cThis for thy welfare.\u201d\n\nThe king was stricken with horror, but he spake not a word to his\nbeautiful bride lest she should leave him.\n\nSo were seven babes, one after another, destroyed by their mother in\nlike manner. When the eighth was born, the goddess sought to drown him\nalso; but the king's pent-up wrath broke forth in a torrent of speech,\nand he upbraided his heartless wife. Thus was his marriage vow broken,\nand Ganga given power to depart unto her own place. But ere she went\nshe revealed unto the king who she was, and also why she had cast the\nVasus, her children, into the Ganges. Then she suddenly vanished from\nbefore his eyes, taking the last babe with her.\n\nEre long the fair goddess returned to Shantanu for a brief space, and\nshe brought with her for the king a fair and noble son, who was endowed\nwith the virtues of the Vasus. Then she departed never to come again.\nThe heart of Shantanu was moved towards the child, who became a comely\nand powerful youth, and was named Satanava.[200]\n\n[200] His other names are Deva-bratta and Ganga-bratta, and he was\nultimately known as Bhishma.\n\nWhen Shantanu had grown old, he sought to marry a young and beautiful\nbride whom he loved. For one day as he walked beside the Jumna river he\nwas attracted by a sweet and alluring perfume, which drew him through\nthe trees until he beheld a maiden of celestial beauty with luminous\nblack eyes.[201] The king spake to her and said: \u201cWho art thou, and\nwhose daughter, O timid one? What doest thou here?\u201d\n\n[201] The Pharaoh of the Anpu-Bata Egyptian story was similarly\nattracted by a perfume which issued from a lock of hair. See _Egyptian\nMyth and Legend_.\n\nSaid the maiden, blessing Shantanu: \u201cI am the daughter of a fisherman,\nand I ferry passengers across the river in my boat.\u201d\n\nNow, the name of this fair maiden was Satyavati.[202] Like Shakuntala,\nshe was of miraculous origin, and had been adopted by her reputed sire.\nIt chanced that a fish once carried away in its stomach two unborn\nbabes, a girl and a boy, whose father was a great rajah. This fish was\ncaught by a fisherman, who opened it and found the children. He sent\nthe manchild unto the rajah and kept the girl, who was reared as his\nown daughter. She grew to be comely and fair, but a fishy odour ever\nclung to her.\n\n[202] _Pron._ sat\u00b4ya-vat-ee.\n\nOne day, as she ferried pilgrims across the Jumna, there entered her\nboat alone the high and pious Brahman Parashara, who was moved by the\nmaiden's great beauty. He desired that she should become the mother of\nhis son, and promised that ever afterwards an alluring perfume would\nemanate from her body. He then caused a cloud to fall upon the boat,\nand it vanished from sight.\n\nWhen the fisher girl became the mother of a son, he grew suddenly\nbefore her eyes, and in a brief space was a man. His name was\nVyasa[203]; he bade his mother farewell, and hastened to the depths of\na forest to spend his days in holy meditation. Ere he departed he said\nunto Satyavati: \u201cIf ever thou hast need of me, think of me, and I shall\ncome to thine aid.\u201d\n\n[203] _Pron._ vyas\u00b4a (two syllables). The reputed author of the\n_Mah\u00e1-bh\u00e1rata_.\n\nWhen this wonder had been accomplished, Satyavati became a virgin again\nthrough the power of the great sage Parashara, and a delicious odour\nlingered about her ever afterwards.\n\nOn this maiden King Shantanu gazed with love. Then he sought the\nfisherman, and said he desired the maiden to be his bride. But the man\nrefused to give his daughter to the king in marriage until he promised\nthat her son should be chosen as heir to the throne. Shantanu could\nnot consent to disinherit Satanava, son of Ganga, and went away with a\nheavy heart.\n\nGreatly the king sorrowed in his heart because of his love for the\ndark-eyed maiden, and at length Satanava was given his secret. Then\nthat noble son of Ganga went to search for the beautiful daughter of\nthe fisherman, and he found her. The fisherman said unto him, when\nhe had made known his mission: \u201cIf Satyavati bears sons, they will\nnot inherit the kingdom, for the king hath already a son, and he will\nsucceed him.\u201d\n\nSatanava thereupon made a vow renouncing his claim to the throne, and\nsaid: \u201cIf thou wilt give thy daughter unto my sire to be his queen, I,\nwho am his heir, will never accept the throne, nor marry a wife, or be\nthe father of children. If, then, Satyavati will become the mother of a\nson, he will surely be chosen rajah.\u201d When he had spoken thus, the gods\nand Apsaras, the mist fairies, caused flowers to fall out of heaven\nupon the prince's head, and a voice came down the wind, saying: \u201c_This\none is Bhishma._\u201d\n\nSo from that day the son of Ganga was called Bhishma, which signifies\nthe \u201cTerrible\u201d, for the vow that he had taken was terrible indeed.\n\nThen was Satyavati given in marriage to the king, and she bore him two\nsons, who were named Chitrangada and Vichitra-virya.[204]\n\n[204] _Pron._ chit-ran\u00b4gad-a (\u201cch\u201d as in \u201cchange\u201d) _and_\nvi-cheet\u00b4ra-veer-ya.\n\nIn time Shantanu sank under the burden of his years, and his soul\ndeparted from his body. Unto Bhishma was left the care of the\nqueen-mother, Satyavati, and the two princes.\n\nWhen the days of mourning went past, Bhishma renounced the throne in\naccordance with his vow, and Chitrangada was proclaimed king. This\nyouth was a haughty ruler, and his reign was brief. He waged war\nagainst the Gandhari of the hills[205] for three years, and was slain\nin battle by their rajah. Then Bhishma placed Vichitra-virya on the\nthrone, and, as he was but a boy, Bhishma ruled as regent for some\nyears.\n\n[205] An Aryan tribe in the north-west of India. Part of their\nterritory was included in the Persian empire. Keith identifies them\nwith the Gandarians who accompanied Xerxes in his campaign against the\nGreeks.\n\nAt length the time came for the young king to marry, and Bhishma set\nout to find wives for him. It chanced that the King of Kasi (Benares)\nhad three fair daughters whose swayamvara[206] was being proclaimed.\nWhen Bhishma was told of this he at once entered his chariot and drove\nfrom Hastinapur[207] to Kasi to discover if the girls were worthy of\nthe monarch of Bharatavarsha. He found that they had great beauty, and\nhe was well pleased thereat. The great city was thronged with rajahs\nwho had gathered from far and near to woo the maidens, but Bhishma\nwould not tarry until the day of the swayamvara. He immediately seized\nthe king's fair daughters and placed them in his chariot. Then he\nchallenged the assembled rajahs and sons of rajahs in a voice like\nthunder, saying:\n\n[206] A festival at which a princess selected a husband from among the\nkings and warriors assembled together.\n\n[207] A drive of about 500 miles. Indian poets, however, have never\ntroubled about geographical difficulties.\n\n\u201cThe sages have decreed that a king may give his daughter with many\ngifts unto one he has invited when she hath chosen him. Others may\nbarter their daughters for two kine, and some may give them in exchange\nfor gold. But maidens may also be taken captive. They may be married\nby consent, or forced to consent, or be obtained by sanction of their\nsires. Some are given wives as reward for performing sacrifices, a form\napproved by the sages. Kings ever favour the swayamvara, and obtain\nwives according to its rules. But learned men have declared that the\nwife who is to be most highly esteemed is she who is taken captive\nafter battle with the royal guests who attend a swayamvara. Hear and\nknow, then, ye mighty rajahs, I will carry off these fair daughters of\nthe king of Kasi, and I challenge all who are here to overcome me or\nelse be overcome themselves by me in battle.\u201d\n\nThe royal guests who were there accepted the challenge, and Bhishma\nfought against them with great fury. Bows were bent and ten thousand\narrows were discharged against him, but he broke their flight with\ninnumerable darts from his own mighty bow. Strong and brave was he\nindeed; there was none who could overcome him; he fought and conquered\nall, until not a rajah was left to contend against him.[208]\n\n[208] The Kasi tribe was Aryan but was disliked by the eastern Aryans\nbecause its beliefs were not according to the standards imposed by the\nBrahmans. Conflicts were frequent.\n\nThus did Bhishma, the terrible son of the ocean-going Ganga, take\ncaptive after battle the three fair daughters of the King of Kasi; and\nhe drove away with them in his chariot towards Hastinapur.[209]\n\n[209] _Pron._ has-teen\u00b4a-poor. Marriage by capture was called a R\u00e1kshas\nmarriage, and was sanctioned by Manu.\n\nWhen he reached the royal palace he presented the maidens unto Queen\nSatyavati, who was well pleased, and at once gave many costly gifts to\nBhishma. She decided that the captives should become the wives of her\nson, King Vichitra-virya.\n\nEre the wedding ceremony was held, the eldest maiden, whose name was\nAmba, pleaded with the queen to be set free, saying:\n\n\u201cI have been betrothed already by my sire unto the Rajah of Sanva. Oh,\nsend me unto him now, for I cannot marry a second time.\u201d\n\nHer prayer was granted, and Bhishma sent her with an escort unto the\nRajah of Sanva. Then the fair Amba related unto him how she had been\ntaken captive; but the rajah exclaimed, with anger: \u201cThou hast already\ndwelt in the house of a strange man, and I cannot take thee for my\nwife.\u201d\n\nThe maiden wept bitterly, and she knelt before the monarch and said:\n\u201cNo man hath wronged me, O mighty rajah. Bhishma hath taken a terrible\nvow of celibacy which he cannot break. If thou wilt not have me for\nwife, I pray thee to take me as thy concubine, so that I may dwell\nsafely in thy palace.\u201d\n\nBut the rajah spurned the beautiful maiden, and his servants drove\nher from the palace and out of the city. So was she compelled to seek\nrefuge in the lonely forest, and there she practised great austerities\nwith purpose to secure power to slay Bhishma, who had wronged her. In\nthe end she threw herself upon a pyre, so that she might attain her\ndesire in the next life.[210]\n\n[210] She helps to kill Bhishma in the great war, having changed her\nsex with a Yaksha.\n\nHer two sisters, Amvika and Amvalika, became the wives of\nVitchitra-virya, who loved them well; but his days were brief, and he\nwasted away with sickness until at length he died. No children were\nborn to the king, and his two widows mourned for him.\n\nThe heart of Queen Satyavati was stricken with grief because that her\ntwo sons were dead, and there was left no heir to the throne of King\nBharata.\n\nNow it was the custom in those days that a kinsman should become the\nfather of children to succeed the dead king.[211] So Queen Satyavati\nspake unto Bhishma, saying: \u201cTake thou the widows of my son and raise\nup sons who will be as sons of the king.\u201d\n\n[211] A similar practice is referred to in Genesis xxxviii; it was a\nregular institution among the ancient Hebrews.\n\nBut Bhishma said: \u201cThat I cannot do, for have I not vowed never to be\nthe sire of any children.\u201d\n\nIn her despair Satyavati then thought of her son Vyasa, and he\nimmediately appeared before her and consented to do as was her\ndesire.[212]\n\n[212] This custom is called \u201cniyoga\u201d, and was legalized by Manu, but\nonly for the lower castes.\n\nNow Vyasa was a mighty sage, but, by reason of his austerities in his\nlonely jungle dwelling, he had grown gaunt and repulsive of aspect so\nthat women shrank from before him; fearsome was he, indeed, to look\nupon.\n\nAmvika closed her eyes with horror when she beheld the sage, and she\nhad a son who was born blind: he was named Dhritarashtra. Amvalika\nturned pale with fear: she had a son who was named Pandu, \u201cthe pale\none\u201d.\n\nSatyavati desired that Vyasa should be the father of a son who had no\ndefect; but Amvika sent her handmaiden unto him, and she bore a son\nwho was called Vidura. As it happened, Dharma, god of justice, was put\nunder the spell of a Rishi at this time, to be born among men, and he\nchose Vidura to be his human incarnation.\n\nThe three children were reared by Bhishma, who was regent over the\nkingdom, and was yet subject to Queen Satyavati. He taught them the\nlaws and trained them as warriors. When the time came to select a king,\nDhritarashtra[213] was passed over because that he was blind, and\nVidura because of his humble birth, and Pandu, \u201cthe pale one\u201d, was set\nupon the throne.\n\n[213] _Pron._ dreet\u00b4a-rash\u00b4\u00b4tra, Pan\u00b4doo, _and_ Ve-dur\u00b4a (\u201cu\u201d as \u201coo\u201d).\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER X\n\nRoyal Rivals: the Pandavas and Kauravas[214]\n\n[214] _Pron._ pan\u00b4davas _and_ kow\u00b4ravas.\n\n King Pandu's Two Wives\u2014Pritha and the Sun God\u2014Birth of Karna\u2014The\n Indian Moses\u2014Babe rescued from Floating Cradle\u2014Pandu slays Brahman\n in Deer Guise\u2014His Doom pronounced\u2014Queen burned on King's Pyre\u2014Blind\n Brother becomes Rajah\u2014The Rival Princes\u2014Attempt to kill Bhima\u2014His\n Visit to the Underworld\u2014The Draught of Strength\u2014Drona, Preceptor of\n Princes\u2014His Royal Rival Draupada\u2014Training of Young Warriors\u2014The\n Faithful Bhil Prince\u2014His Sacrifice.\n\n\nKing Pandu became a mighty monarch, and was renowned as a warrior and a\njust ruler of his kingdom. He married two wives: Pritha, who was chief\nrani, and Madri[215], whom he loved best.\n\n[215] _Pron._ pree\u00b4tha _and_ ma-dree\u00b4.\n\nNow Pritha was of celestial origin, for her mother was a nymph; her\nfather was a holy Brahman, and her brother, Vasudeva, was the father\nof Krishna.[216] When but a babe she had been adopted by the Rajah of\nShurasena, whose kingdom was among the Vindhya mountains. She was of\npious heart, and ever showed reverence towards holy men. Once there\ncame to the palace the great Rishi Durvasas, and she ministered unto\nhim faithfully by serving food at any hour he desired, and by kindling\nthe sacred fire in the sacrificial chamber. After his stay, which was\nin length a full year, Durvasas, in reward for her services, imparted\nto Pritha a powerful charm[217], by virtue of which she could compel\nthe love of a celestial being. One day she had a vision of Surya, god\nof the sun; she muttered the charm, and received him when he drew nigh\nin the attire of a rajah, wearing the celestial ear-rings. In secret\nshe became in time the mother of his son, Karna, who was equipped at\nbirth with celestial ear-rings and an invulnerable coat of mail, which\nhad power to grow as the wearer increased in stature. The child had the\neyes of a lion and the shoulders of a bull.\n\n[216] Krishna of the Yadavas was descended from the moon through Yadu:\nBharata was descended through Puru, Yadu's brother.\n\n[217] A _mantra_.\n\nIn her maidenly shame Pritha resolved to conceal her new-born babe.\nSo she wrapped him in soft sheets and, laying under his head a costly\npillow, placed him in a basket of wicker-work which she had smeared\nover with wax. Then, weeping bitterly, she set the basket afloat on the\nriver, saying: \u201cO my babe, be thou protected by all who are on land,\nand in the water, and in the sky, and in the celestial regions! May all\nwho see thee love thee! May Varuna, god of the waters, shield thee from\nharm. May thy father, the sun, give thee warmth!... I shall know thee\nin days to come, wherever thou mayst be, by thy coat of golden mail....\nShe who will find thee and adopt thee will be surely blessed.... O my\nson, she who will cherish thee will behold thee in youthful prime like\nto a maned lion in Himalayan forests.\u201d\n\nThe basket drifted down the River Aswa until it was no longer seen by\nthat lotus-eyed damsel, and at length it reached the Jumna; the Jumna\ngave it to the Ganges, and by that great and holy river it was borne\nunto the country of Anga.... The child, lying in soft slumber, was kept\nalive by reason of the virtues possessed by the celestial armour and\nthe ear-rings.\n\nNow there was a woman of Anga who was named Radha, and she had peerless\nbeauty. Her husband was Shatananda, the charioteer. Both husband\nand wife had for long sorrowed greatly because that they could not\nobtain a son. One day, however, their wish was gratified. It chanced\nthat Radha went down to the river bank, and she beheld the basket\ndrifting on the waves. She caused it to be brought ashore; and when it\nwas uncovered, she gazed with wonder upon a sleeping babe who was as\nfair as the morning sun. Her heart was immediately filled with great\ngladness, and she cried out: \u201cThe gods have heard me at length, and\nthey have sent unto me a son.\u201d So she adopted the babe and cherished\nhim. And the years went past, and Karna grew up and became a powerful\nyouth and a mighty bowman.\n\nPritha, who was comely to behold, chose King Pandu at her swayamvara.\nTrembling with love, she placed the flower garland upon his shoulders.\n\nMadri came from the country of Madra[218], and was black-eyed and\ndusky-complexioned. She had been purchased by Bhishma for the king with\nmuch gold, many jewels and elephants and horses, as was the marriage\ncustom among her people.\n\n[218] Identified with Cashmere by some of the authorities.\n\nThe glories of King Bharata's reign were revived by Pandu, who achieved\ngreat conquests and extended his territory. He loved well to go\na-hunting, and at length he retired to the Himalaya mountains with\nhis two wives to pursue and slay deer. There, as fate had decreed, he\nmet with dire misfortune. One day he shot arrows at two deer which\nhe beheld sporting together; but they were, as he discovered to his\nsorrow, a holy Brahman and his wife in animal guise. The sage was\nwounded mortally, and ere he died he assumed his wonted form, and\nforetold that Pandu, whom he cursed, would die in the arms of one of\nhis wives.\n\nThe king was stricken with fear; he immediately took vows of celibacy,\nand gave all his possessions to Brahmans; then he went away to live in\na solitary place with his two wives.\n\nSome have told that Pandu never had children of his own, and that the\ngods were the fathers of his wives' great sons. Pritha was mother of\nYudhishthira[219], son of Dharma, god of justice, and of Bhima, son\nof Vayu, the wind god, and also of Arjuna[220], son of mighty Indra,\nmonarch of heaven. Madri received from Pritha the charm which Durvasas\nhad given her, and she became the mother of Nakula and Sahadeva, whose\nsires were the twin Aswins, sons of Surya, the sun god. These five\nprinces were known as the Pandava brothers.\n\n[219] _Pron._ yoo-dish\u00b4thi-ra (_h_ sounded after _t_).\n\n[220] _Pron._ arjoo\u00b4na\u00b4\u00b4.\n\nKing Pandu was followed by his doom. One day, as it chanced, he met\nwith Madri, his favourite wife; they wandered together in a forest, and\nwhen he clasped her in his arms he immediately fell dead as the Brahman\nhad foretold.\n\nHis sons, the Pandava brothers, built his funeral pyre, so that his\nsoul might pass to heaven. Both Pritha and Madri desired to be burned\nwith him, and they debated together which of them should follow her\nlord to the region of the dead.\n\nSaid Pritha: \u201cI must go hence with my lord. I was his first wife and\nchief rani. O Madri, yield me his body and rear our children together.\nO let me achieve what must be achieved.\u201d\n\nMadri said: \u201cSpeak not so, for I should be the chosen one. I was King\nPandu's favourite wife, and he died because that he loved me. O sister,\nif I survived thee I should not be able to rear our children as thou\ncanst rear them. Do not refuse thy sanction to this which is dear unto\nmy heart.\u201d\n\nSo they held dispute, nor could agree; but the Brahmans, who heard\nthem, said that Madri must be burned with King Pandu, having been his\nfavourite wife. And so it came to pass that Madri laid herself on the\npyre, and she passed in flames with her beloved lord, that bull among\nmen.\n\nMeanwhile King Pandu's blind brother, Dhritarashtra, had ascended the\nthrone to reign over the kingdom of Bharatavarsha, with Bhishma as his\nregent, until the elder of the young princes should come of age.\n\nDhritarashtra had taken for wife fair G\u00e1ndh\u00e1ri, daughter of the Rajah\nof G\u00e1ndh\u00e1ra. When she was betrothed she went unto the king with eyes\nblindfolded, and ever afterwards she so appeared in his presence. She\nbecame the mother of a hundred sons, the eldest of whom was Duryodhana.\nThese were the princes who were named the Kauravas, after the country\nof Kuru-jangala.[221]\n\n[221] The upper part of the Punjab, which was ruled over ultimately by\nthe sons of Duryodhana. Another explanation is that the Kauravas, or\nKuru brothers, were called after their eponymous ancestor, King Kuru.\nThe Kuru people are believed to be a group of the tribes mentioned\nin the _Rigveda_. The Kurus may have been late-comers who formed a\nmilitary aristocracy, and displaced earlier settlers who opposed their\nrule.\n\nThe widowed Pritha returned to Hastinapur with her three sons and the\ntwo sons of Madri also. When she told unto Dhritarashtra that Pandu his\nbrother had died, he wept and mourned greatly; then he bathed in holy\nwaters and poured forth the funeral oblation. The blind king gave his\nprotection to the five princes who were Pandu's heirs.\n\nSo the Pandavas and Kauravas were reared together in the royal palace\nat Hastinapur. Nor was favour shown to one cousin more than another.\nThe young princes were trained to throw the stone and to cast the\nnoose, and they engaged lustily in wrestling bouts and practised\nboxing. As they grew up they shared work with the king's men; they\nmarked the young calves, and every three years they counted and branded\nthe cattle. Yet, despite all that could be done, the two families lived\nat enmity. Of all the young men Bhima[222], of the Pandavas[223], was\nthe most powerful, and Duryodhana[224], the leader of the Kauravas,\nwas jealous of him. Bhima was ever the victor in sports and contests.\nThe Kauravas could ill endure his triumphs, and at length they plotted\namong themselves to accomplish his death.\n\n[222] _Pron._ bhee\u00b4ma.\n\n[223] The _Mah\u00e1-bh\u00e1rata_ favours the Pandavas from the outset.\n\n[224] _Pron._ door-yo\u00b4dhan-a.\n\nIt chanced that the young men had gone to dwell in a royal palace on\nthe banks of the Ganges. One day, when they feasted together in the\nmanner of warriors, Duryodhana put poison in the food of Bhima, who\nsoon afterwards fell into a deep swoon and seemed to be dead. Then\nDuryodhana bound him hand and foot and cast him into the Ganges; his\nbody was swallowed by the waters.\n\nBut it was not fated that Bhima should thus perish. As his body sank\ndown, the fierce snakes, which are called Nagas, attacked him; but\ntheir poison counteracted the poison he had already swallowed, so that\nhe regained consciousness. Then, bursting his bonds, he scattered the\nreptiles before him, and they fled in terror.\n\nBhima found that he had sunk down to the city of serpents, which is in\nthe underworld. Vasuki, king of the Nagas, having heard of his prowess,\nhastened towards the young warrior, whom he desired greatly to behold.\n\nBhima was welcomed by Aryaka, the great grandsire of Pritha, who was a\ndweller in the underworld. He was loved by Vasuki, who, for Aryaka's\nsake, offered great gifts to fearless Bhima. But Aryaka chose rather\nthat the lad should be given a draught of strength which contained the\nvirtues of a thousand Nagas. By the king of serpents was this great\nboon granted, and Bhima was permitted to drain the bowl eight times. He\nimmediately fell into a deep slumber, which continued for the space of\neight days. Then he awoke, and the Nagas feasted him ere he returned\nagain unto his mother and his brethren, who were mourning for him the\nwhile. Thus it fell that Bhima triumphed over Duryodhana, for ever\nafterwards he possessed the strength of a mighty giant. He related unto\nhis brothers all that had befallen him, but they counselled him not to\nreveal his secret unto the Kauravas, his cousins.\n\nAbout this time the prudent Bhishma deemed that the young men should\nbe trained to bear arms; so he searched far and wide for a preceptor\nwho was at once a warrior and a scholar, a pious and lofty-minded man,\nand a lover of truth. Such was Drona, the brave and god-adoring son of\nBharadwaja. He was well pleased to have care of the princes, and to\ngive them instruction worthy of their rank and martial origin.\n\nDrona had no mother: his miraculous birth was accomplished by a\nbeautiful nymph, and his sire was Bharadwaja, a most pious Brahman. Of\nsimilar origin was Drupada[225], son of a rajah named Prishata[226].\nDrona and Drupada were reared together like brothers by the wise\nBharadwaja, and it was the hope of both sires that their sons would\nrepeat their own lifelong friendship. But when, after happy youth, they\ngrew into manhood, fate parted them. The rajah retired from the throne,\nand Drupada ruled the kingdom of Panchala[227]. Bharadwaja died soon\nafterwards, and Drona married a wife named Kripa, who became the mother\nof his son Ashwatthama[228]. The child was so named because at birth he\nuttered a cry like to the neighing of a horse. Drona devoted himself\nto rearing his son, while he accumulated the wisdom of the sages and\nperformed sacred rites with pious mind like to his holy sire.\n\n[225] _Pron._ droo\u00b4pa-da.\n\n[226] _Pron._ prish\u00b4ata.\n\n[227] _Pron._ pan-chal\u00b4a.\n\n[228] _Pron._ ash-wat-tha\u00b4ma. _Aswa_, a horse; _sthama_, sound or\nstrength.\n\nWhen the sage Jamadagni, son of Bhrigu, closed his career, he bestowed\nhis great wealth on the sons of Brahmans. Drona received heavenly\nweapons and power to wield them. Then he bethought him to visit\nDrupada, the friend of his youth, and share his inheritance with\nhim.[229]\n\n[229] Apparently Drona had a claim to part of the kingdom ruled over by\nDrupada.\n\nDrona stood before the rajah and exclaimed: \u201cBehold thy friend.\u201d\n\nBut Drupada frowned; his eyes reddened with anger, and for a while he\nsat in silence. At length he spoke haughtily and said:\n\n\u201cBrahman, it is nor wise nor fitting that thou shouldst call me friend.\nWhat friendship can there be between a luckless beggar and a mighty\nrajah?... I grant that in youth such a bond united us, one to another,\nbut it has wasted away with the years. Do not think that the friendship\nof youth endures for ever in human hearts; it is weakened by time, and\npride plucks it from one's bosom. Friendship can exist only between\nequals as we two once were, but no longer chance to be. Hear and know!\nRich and poor, wise and ignorant, warriors and cowards, can never be\nfriends; it is for those who are of equal station to exercise mutual\nesteem.... Say, can a Brahman respect one who is ignorant of the Vedas?\nCan a warrior do other than despise one who cannot go forth to battle\nin his rumbling chariot? Say, can a monarch condescend to one who is\nfar beneath him?... Begone, then, thou dreamer! Forget the days and the\nthoughts of the past.... I know thee not....\u201d\n\nDrona heard the harsh words of his old friend with mute amaze. For a\nmoment he paused. Then abruptly he turned away, nor spake he in reply.\nHis heart burned with indignation as he hastened out of the city.\n\nIn time he reached the city of Hastinapur, and Bhishma bade him\nwelcome. When Drona undertook the training of the princes he said:\n\u201cI will do as is thy desire, O Bhishma, but on condition that when\nthe young men are become complete warriors they will help me to fight\nagainst mine enemy, Drupada, the Rajah of Panchala.\u201d\n\nBhishma gave willing consent to this condition. Thereafter Drona abode\nwith his wife in the royal palace, and his son Ashwatthama was trained\nwith the Pandavas and Kauravas. He became the family priest as well\nas the instructor of the princes. And ere long the young men were\naccomplished warriors, and deeply learned in wisdom and in goodness.\n\nDrona took most delight in the Pandavas. Yudhishthira was trained as a\nspearman, but he was more renowned as a scholar than for feats of arms.\nArjuna surpassed all others in warrior skill; he was of noble bearing,\nand none like him could ride the steed, guide the elephant, or drive\nthe rattling chariot, nor could any other prince withstand his battle\ncharge or oppose him in single combat. He was unequalled with javelin\nor dart, with battleaxe or mace, and he became the most famous archer\nof his day. Strong Bhima learned to wield the club, Nakula acquired\nthe secret of taming steeds, and Sahadeva became a mighty swordsman,\nand acquired great knowledge of astronomy.\n\nDrona trained the Kauravas with diligence also, as well as his own son,\nwho was wise and brave; but among all his pupils he loved Arjuna best,\nfor he was the most modest and the most perfect, the most fearless, and\nyet the most obedient to his preceptor.\n\nDuryodhana of the Kauravas was jealous of all the Pandavas, and\nespecially of Arjuna.\n\nThe fame of Drona as a preceptor was spread far and wide, and the sons\nof many rajahs and warriors hastened to Hastinapur to be instructed by\nhim. All were welcomed save one, and he was the son of the rajah of the\nrobber Bhils. This young man pleaded that he might be trained as an\narcher, but without avail. Drona said: \u201cAre not the Bhils highwaymen\nand cattle-lifters? It would be a sin, indeed, to impart unto one of\nthem great knowledge in the use of weapons.\u201d\n\nWhen he heard these words, the rajah's son was stricken with grief, and\nhe turned homeward. But he resolved to become an accomplished warrior.\nSo he fashioned a clay image of Drona and worshipped it, and wielded\nthe bow before it until his fame as an archer was noised abroad.\n\nOne day Drona went forth with the princes to hunt in the Bhil kingdom.\nTheir dog ran through the woods, and it beheld the dark son of the\nrajah of the Bhils and barked at him. Desiring to display his skill,\nthe young man shot seven arrows into the dog's mouth ere it could be\nclosed, and, moaning and bleeding, the animal returned thus to the\nprinces.\n\nWondering greatly, the princes searched for the greatly-skilled\narcher, and found him busy with his bow. They spoke, saying: \u201cWho art\nthou?\u201d And the Bhil made answer: \u201cI am a pupil of Drona.\u201d\n\nWhen Drona was brought to the place, the young man kissed his feet.\n\nSaid the wise preceptor: \u201cIf thou art my pupil, I must receive my\nreward.\u201d\n\nThe young man made answer: \u201cCommand me, and I will give thee whatsoever\nthou dost desire.\u201d\n\nSaid Drona: \u201cI should like to have the thumb of thy right hand.\u201d\n\nThe faithful prince of the Bhils did not hesitate to obey his\npreceptor; with a cheerful face he severed his thumb from his right\nhand and gave it to Drona.\n\nAfter his wound had healed, the young man began to draw his bow with\nhis middle fingers, but found that he had lost his surpassing skill,\nwhereat Arjuna was made happy.\n\nAll the other Bhil warriors who trained in archery followed the\nprince's example and drew the bow with their middle fingers, and this\ncustom prevailed ever afterwards amongst the tribe.\n\nNow when all the Hastinapur princes had become expert warriors, Drona\naddressed the blind king, as he sat among his counsellors, and said:\n\u201cO mighty rajah, thy sons and the sons of thy brother Pandu have now\nattained surpassing skill in arms, and they are fit to enter the\nbattlefield.\u201d\n\nSaid the king, who was well pleased: \u201cSo thy task is finished, O noble\nson of Bharadwaja? Let now a place be made ready, in accordance with\nthy desire, so that the princes may display their martial skill in the\npresence of their peers and the common people.\u201d\n\nThen Drona, accompanied by Vidura, the king's brother, made choice of\na wide and level plain on which the Pandavas and Kauravas might perform\ntheir mighty feats.\n\nSo be it next told of the great tournament on the plain, and of the\ncoming of illustrious Karna.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XI\n\nThe Tournament\n\n A Brilliant Assembly\u2014Princes display Feats of Arms\u2014Mimic\n Warfare\u2014Duryodhana and Bhima\u2014A Fierce Struggle\u2014Arjuna's Wonderful\n Skill\u2014Despondency of Kauravas\u2014The Coming of Karna\u2014He proves Himself\n equal to Arjuna\u2014Challenge to Single Combat\u2014The Gods intervene\u2014Queen\n Pritha's Emotion\u2014Karna taunted with Low Birth\u2014Kauravas make him a\n King\u2014Joy of his Foster Father\u2014Bitter and Angry Rivals.\n\n\nOn the day of the great tournament, vast multitudes of people from all\nparts of the kingdom assembled round the barriers on the wide plain.\nA scene of great splendour was unfolded to their eyes. At dawn many\nflags and garlands of flowers had been distributed round the enclosure;\nthey adorned the stately royal pavilion, which was agleam with gold and\njewels and hung with trophies of war; they fluttered above the side\ngalleries for the lords and the ladies, and even among the clustering\ntrees. White tents for the warriors occupied a broad green space.\nA great altar had been erected by Drona beside a cool, transparent\nstream, on which to offer up sacrifices to the gods.\n\nFrom early morn the murmurous throng awaited the coming of king and\ncounsellors, and royal ladies, and especially the mighty princes who\nwere to display their feats of arms and engage in mimic warfare. The\nbright sun shone in beauty on that festal day.\n\nThe clarion notes of the instruments of war proclaimed the coming of\nthe king. Then entered the royal procession, and blind Dhritarashtra\nwas led towards his throne in the gleaming pavilion. With him came the\nfair queen Gandhari, mother of the Kauravas, and stately Pritha, widow\nof King Pandu, the mother of the Pandavas. There followed in their\ntrain many high-born dames and numerous sweet maidens renowned for\ntheir beauty. When all these ladies, attired in many-coloured robes and\nglittering with jewels and bright flowers, were mounting the decorated\ngalleries, they seemed like to goddesses and heavenly nymphs ascending\nto the golden summit of the mountain of Meru.... The trumpets were\nsounding loud, and the clamour which arose from the surging multitude\nof people of every caste and every age and every tribe was like the\nvoice of heaving ocean in sublime tempest.\n\nNext came venerable and white-haired Drona, robed in white, with white\nsacrificial cord; his sandals were white, and the garlands he wore were\nwhite also. His valiant son, Aswatthama, followed him as the red planet\nMars follows the white moon in cloudless heaven. The saintly preceptor\nadvanced to the altar where the priestly choir gathered, and offered up\nsacrifices to the gods and chanted holy texts.\n\nThen heralds sounded their trumpets as the youthful princes entered in\nbright array, bejewelled and lightly girded for exercise, their left\narms bound with leather. They were wearing breastplates; their quivers\nwere slung from their shoulders, and they carried stately bows and\ngleaming swords. The princes filed in according to their years, and\nYudhishthira came first of all. Each saluted Drona in turn and awaited\nhis commands.\n\nOne by one the youthful warriors displayed their skill at arms, while\nthe vast crowd shouted their plaudits. The regent Bhishma, sitting on\nthe right side of the throne, looked down with delight, and Vidura,\nsitting on the left side, informed the sightless king of all that took\nplace.\n\nThe princes shot arrows at targets, first on foot and then mounted on\nrapid steeds,[230] displaying great skill; they also rode on elephants\nand in chariots, and their arrows ever flew with unerring aim.\n\n[230] Like the Parthians, the ancient Hindus were expert archers on\nhorseback.\n\nNext they engaged in mimic warfare, charging with chariots and on\nelephants: swords clamoured on shields, ponderous maces were wielded,\nand falchions shimmered like to the flashes of lightning. The movements\nof the princes, mounted and on foot, were rapid and graceful; they were\nfearless in action and firm-footed, and greatly skilled in thrust and\nparry.\n\nBut ere long the conflict was waged with more than mimic fury. Proud\nDuryodhana and powerful Bhima had sought one another and were drawn\napart from their peers. They towered on the plain with uplifted maces,\nand they seemed like two rival elephants about to fight for a mate.\nThen they charged with whirling weapons, and the combat was terrible to\nbehold.\n\nVidura pictured the conflict to blind Dhritarashtra, as did Pritha also\nto the blindfolded Queen Gandhari. Round the barriers the multitudes\nswayed and clamoured, some favouring Duryodhana and others mighty Bhima.\n\nThe princes fought on, and their fury increased until at length it\nseemed that one or the other would be slain. But while yet the issue\nhung doubtful, Drona, whose brow was troubled, marked with concern the\nmenacing crowd, which was suspended with hope and fear, and seemed like\nan ocean shaken by fitful gusts of changing wind. Then he interposed,\nbidding his son to separate the angry combatants so that the turmoil\nmight have end. The princes heard and obeyed, and they retired slowly\nlike ocean billows, tempest-swollen, falling apart.\n\nTo allay excitement, trumpet and drum were sounded aloud. Then\nwhite-haired Drona stepped forward, and in a voice like thunder\nsummoned brave Arjuna to come forth.\n\nFirst of all the valiant hero performed a sacred rite. Thereafter he\ncame before the multitude in all his splendour, clad in golden armour,\nlike to a glorious evening cloud. Modestly he strode, while trumpets\nblared and the drums bellowed, and he seemed a very god. He was girdled\nwith jewels, and he carried a mighty bow. As the people applauded and\nshouted his praises, Pritha, his mother, looked down, and tears dropped\nfrom her eyes. The blind king spake to Vidura, saying: \u201cWhy are the\nmultitudes shouting now like to the tumultuous sea?\u201d\n\nSaid Vidura: \u201cThe valiant son of Pritha hath come forth in golden\narmour, and the people hail him with joy.\u201d\n\nThe blind monarch said: \u201cI am well pleased. The sons of Pritha sanctify\nthe kingdom like to sacrificial fires.\u201d\n\nSilence fell upon the people, and Drona bade his favourite pupil to\ndisplay his skill. Arjuna performed wonders with magic arms; he created\nfire by the _Agneya_ weapon, water by the _Varuna_ weapon, wind by the\n_Vayavya_ weapon, clouds by the _Paryanya_ weapon, land by the _Bhanma_\nweapon, and he caused mountains to appear by the _Parvatya_ weapon.\nThen by the _Antardhyana_ weapon he caused all these to vanish.[231]\n\n[231] This is a notable example of the characteristic exaggerations of\nlate Brahmanical compilers. Other exaggerations are of milder form.\n\nArjuna then set up for his target an iron image of a great boar, and\nat one bending of the bow he shot five arrows into its gaping jaws.\nWondrous was his skill. Next he suspended a cow horn, which swayed\nconstantly in the wind, and discharged into its hollow with unerring\naim twenty rapid arrows. Heaven and earth resounded with the plaudits\nof the people when he leapt into his chariot and discharged clouds\nof arrows as he was driven speedily round the grounds. Having thus\ndisplayed his accomplishments as an archer, he drew his sword, which he\nwielded so rapidly round and about that the people thought they beheld\nlightning and heard thunder. Ere he left the field he cast the noose\nwith exceeding great skill, capturing horses and cows and scampering\ndeer at a single throw. Then Drona embraced him, and the people shouted\nhis praises.\n\nGreat was the joy of the Pandavas as they rested around Drona like to\nthe stars that gather about the white moon in heaven. The Kauravas were\ngrouped around Aswatthama as the gods gather beside Indra when the\ngiant Daityas threaten to assail high heaven. Duryodhana's heart burned\nwith jealous anger because of the triumph achieved by Arjuna.\n\nEvening came on, and it seemed that the tournament was ended; the\ncrowds began to melt away. Then, of a sudden, a mighty tumult of\nplaudits broke forth, and the loud din of weapons and clank of armour\nwas heard all over the place. Every eye immediately turned towards the\ngate, and the warriors and the people beheld approaching an unknown\nwarrior, who shook his weapons so that they rattled loudly.\n\nSo came mighty Karna, son of Surya, the sun god, and of Pritha, the\nmother of the three Pandavas\u2014Arjuna, Bhima, and wise Yudhishthira.\nHe was comely as a shining god, clad in golden armour, and wearing\ncelestial ear-rings. In his right hand he carried a great\nmany-coloured bow; his gleaming falchion was on his thigh. Tall as a\ncliff he strode forward; he was an elephant in his fury, a lion in his\nwrath; stately as a palm tree was that tamer of foemen, so fearless and\nso proud, so dauntless and so self-possessed.\n\nHe paused in the centre of the plain and surveyed the people with\npride. Stiffly he paid homage to Drona and Kripa. Then he, the eldest\nson of Pritha, spake to Pritha's youngest son, Arjuna, the brothers\nbeing unknown one to another, and he said: \u201cWhatever feats thou hast\nperformed this day with vain boast, Arjuna, these will I accomplish and\nsurpass, if Drona will permit me.\u201d\n\nHis voice was like to thunder in heaven, and the multitude of people\nsprang up and uttered cries of wonder. Duryodhana and the other sons of\nKuru heard the challenge with glad hearts, but Arjuna remained silent,\nwhile his eyes flashed fire.\n\nThen Drona gave the warrior permission to display his skill. Karna was\nwell pleased, and he performed every feat which had given Arjuna fame\non that great day.\n\nDuryodhana proclaimed his joy with beaming countenance, and he embraced\nKarna, whom he hailed as \u201cbrother\u201d, saying: \u201cI bid thee welcome, thou\nmighty warrior. Thou hast won the honours of the field. Demand from me\nwhatsoever thou dost desire in this kingdom, and it will be given unto\nthee.\u201d\n\nSaid Karna: \u201cThy word is thy bond, O prince. All I seek is to combat\nagainst Arjuna, whom I have equalled so far. Fain would I win the\nvictor's renown.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana said: \u201cThou dost ask for a worthy boon indeed. Be our ally,\nand let the enemy fear thee.\u201d\n\nArjuna was moved to great wrath, and cried out: \u201cUninvited chief!\nBoasting thus, thou wouldst fain be regarded as mine equal, but I will\nso deal with thee that thou wilt die the death of a braggart who cometh\nhere an unbidden guest, speaking boastfully ere thou art spoken to.\u201d\n\nSaid Karna, answering proudly and calm: \u201cWaste not words, Arjuna, nor\ntaunt me with coming hither uninvited. The field of combat is free to\nall warriors; they enter by their valour, and do not await until thou\ndost call them; they win their places by strength and skill, and their\nwarrant is the sword. Wrathful speech is the weapon of a coward. Do not\nboast of thy pastimes or be vain of thy bloodless feats. Speak with\nthine arrows, O Arjuna, until, in Drona's presence, mine will cause all\nmen to wonder, flying towards thee.\u201d\n\nDrona was stirred to wrath, and spake to Arjuna, saying: \u201cCanst thou\nhear him boast in this manner? I give thee leave to fight him here and\nnow.\u201d\n\nArjuna at once strode forward, fully armed, and he was supported by\nDrona and Bhishma. Duryodhana and his band stood by Karna. Then the two\nwarriors prepared for single combat, but not in mimic warfare.\n\nThick clouds gathered in the sky; lightning flashed and thunder pealed;\nthe mighty Indra guarded his son Arjuna, who stood in shadow. Surya,\nthe sun god, cast a shaft of light athwart the darkening plain, and\nKarna's golden armour gleamed bright and fair.\n\nThe noble dames looked on, and some praised Arjuna and others praised\nKarna. Pritha, the mother of both heroes, was alone divided in her\nlove. She knew her firstborn by his voice and noble bearing and by his\narmour, and her heart was torn with grief to behold the two brothers\nready to slay each other. A cloud blinded her eyes, and, uttering a\nlow cry, she swooned where she sat. Vidura sprinkled water on her face,\nand she was revived. Then she wept bitterly because that she could not\nreveal the secret of Karna's birth.\n\nKripa,[232] the foster-brother of Bhishma, performed the duties of\nherald, and as Arjuna strode forth to combat he proclaimed: \u201cBehold!\nthis is mighty Arjuna, of Bharata's great line, son of Pandu and of\nPritha, a prince of valour and worth who will not shrink from battle.\nUnknown and long-armed chief,\u201d he said unto Karna, \u201cdeclare now thy\nname and lineage, the royal house thou dost adorn, and the names of thy\nsire and thy mother. Know thou that by the rules of single combat the\nsons of kings cannot contend against low-born or nameless rivals.\u201d\n\n[232] Kripa, like Drona, was of miraculous birth. He and his sister\nwere found in a forest, and were adopted by King Shantanu.\n\nKarna heard, but was silent. He hung his head like the dew-laden lotus\nbloom; he could claim nor lineage or high rank, as he believed, for he\nregarded the charioteer of Anga as his sire.\n\nDuryodhana, perceiving his discomfiture, cried out to Kripa, saying:\n\u201cValour is not reckoned by birth but by deeds. Karna hath already shown\nhimself to be the peer of princes. I now proclaim him the Rajah of\nAnga.\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus, the elder of the Kauravas led Karna by the hand\nand placed him upon a throne, and the red umbrella was held above his\nhead. Brahmans chanted the texts for the ceremony and anointed Karna as\na king. Then the fan was waved and the royal umbrella raised on high,\nwhile the Kauravas shouted: \u201cThe rajah is crowned; blessings on the\nrajah; honour to the valorous warrior!\u201d\n\nRobed in royal attire, Karna then spake to Duryodhana and said: \u201cWith\ngenerous heart thou hast conferred upon me a kingdom. O prince, speak\nand say what service thou wouldst have me to render unto thee.\u201d\n\nSaid Duryodhana: \u201cBut one boon do I ask of thee, O king. Be my comrade\nand, O valiant warrior, be my helper also.\u201d\n\nKarna said: \u201cAs thou desirest, so be it.\u201d\n\nThen Duryodhana and Karna embraced one another to confirm their loyal\nfriendship.\n\nLo! now a charioteer drew nigh; he was a scantily-clad and wearied\nold man, and he stooped, leaning heavily upon his staff. He was the\naged sire of Karna, and rejoiced in his heart to see his son so highly\nhonoured among princes. Karna cast aside his weapons, knelt down, and\nkissed the old man's feet. The happy sire embraced the crowned head of\nthe warrior and wept tears of love.\n\nThe Pandava brothers gazed upon father and son, amused and scornful....\nBhima spake to Karna, saying: \u201cSo thou, with such a sire, hast presumed\nto seek combat with a Pandava!... Son of a charioteer, what hast thou\nto do with weapons of war? Better were it that thou shouldst find thee\na goad and drive a bullock-cart behind thy sire.\u201d\n\nKarna grew pale with wrath; his lips quivered, but he answered not a\nword. He heaved a deep sigh and looked towards the sun.\n\nThen Duryodhana arose like a proud elephant and spake to Bhima,\nsaying: \u201cSeek not with insults to give sorrow unto a mighty hero.\nTaunts come ill from thee, thou tiger-like chief. The proudest warrior\nmay contend against the most humble: a hero is known by his deeds. Of\nKarna's birth we care naught. Hath Drona other than humble lineage?\n'Tis said, too, that thou and thy brethren are not sons of Pandu, but\nof certain amorous deities.... Look upon Karna, adorned with jewels and\nin golden armour! Do hinds bring forth tigers?... Karna was born to be\na king; he hath come to rule by reason of his valour and his worth. If\nany prince or warrior among you will deny my words, hear and know, now,\nthat I will meet him in deadly combat.\u201d\n\nThe assembled multitude heard these mighty words with joy and shouted\nloud applause.\n\nBut darkness came on, and lamps were lit upon the plain.... Drona and\nthe sons of Pandu made offerings at the altar, and the king and his\ncounsellors, the noble dames and the high-born maids, departed in\nsilence to their homes.... Then all the people deserted the barriers,\nsome shouting, \u201cArjuna hath triumphed;\u201d others, \u201cKarna is victor;\u201d and\nsome also, \u201cDuryodhana hath won.\u201d\n\nPritha had rejoiced in her heart to behold her noble son crowned\nking....\n\nDuryodhana walked by Karna's side and took him away to his own palace,\nglad of heart, for he no longer feared Arjuna's valour and skill at\narms.\n\nEven Yudhishthira doubted Arjuna's worth; he feared that Karna was the\ngreatest hero in the world of men.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XII\n\nFirst Exile of the Pandavas\n\n Princes' First Campaign\u2014Kauravas driven back\u2014Pandavas achieve\n Victory\u2014Drupada humbled by Drona\u2014Panchala Kingdom divided\u2014Pandava\n Prince made \u201cLittle Rajah\u201d\u2014Duryodhana's Plot\u2014Pandavas' First\n Exile\u2014Their New Home\u2014Escape in the Night\u2014Wanderings in the\n Jungle\u2014Bhima slays a Rakshasa\u2014The Demon Bride\u2014Sojourn in\n Eka-chakra\u2014Story of the Brahman Family\u2014Bhima overcomes the\n Asura King\u2014Miraculous Birth of Drupada's Children\u2014Swayamvara\n proclaimed\u2014Pandavas depart to Panchala.\n\n\nThe Pandavas and Kauravas had now become accomplished warriors, and\nDrona, their preceptor, claimed his reward. So he spoke unto his pupils\nand said: \u201cGo forth against Drupada, Rajah of Panchala; smite him in\nbattle and bring him to me.\u201d\n\nThe cousins could not agree to wage war together by reason of their\njealousies. So the Kauravas, led by Duryodhana, were first to attack\nDrupada; they rode in their chariots and invaded the hostile capital,\nand slaked their thirst for battle. The warriors of Panchala arose to\nfight; their shouting was like the roaring of lions, and their arrows\nwere showered as thickly as rain dropping from the clouds. The Kauravas\nwere defeated, and they retired in disorder, uttering cries of despair.\n\nThe Pandavas then rushed against the enemies of Drona. Arjuna swept\nforward in his chariot like to the fire which consumeth all things\nat the end of time, and he destroyed horses and cars and warriors.\nThe battle-roar of Bhima was like to the roar of ocean stricken by a\ntempest; wielding his mace, he struck down elephants big as mountains,\nand many horses and charioteers also, and he covered the ground with\nrivers of blood; as a herdsman driveth his cattle before him, so did\nBhima drive before him with his mace the terror-stricken hosts of\nPanchala.\n\nDrupada endeavoured to turn the tide of battle; surrounded by his\nmightiest men, he opposed Arjuna. Then a great uproar arose among\nthe Panchala forces, for as the lion leaps upon the leader of a herd\nof elephants, so did Arjuna rush against Drupada. A boastful warrior\nintervened, but the strong Pandava overcame him, and at length, after\nfierce fighting, Arjuna seized Drupada as Garuda, king of birds,[233]\nseizeth a mighty snake after disturbing the waters of the ocean.\n\n[233] Half man and half eagle, and enemy of the serpent race.\n\nThe remnant of the Panchala host then broke and fled, and the Pandavas\nbegan to lay waste the capital. Arjuna, however, cried unto Bhima:\n\u201cRemember that Drupada is the kinsman of the Kauravas; therefore cease\nslaying his warriors.\u201d[234]\n\n[234] The Kurus and Panchalas were allies.\n\nDrupada was led before Drona, who, remembering the proud words of the\nfallen rajah, spoke and said: \u201cAt last I have conquered thy kingdom,\nand thy life is in my hands. Is it thy desire now to revive our\nfriendship?\u201d\n\nDrona smiled a little and continued thus: \u201cBrahmans are full of\nforgiveness; therefore have no fear for thy life, O king. I have not\nforgotten that we were children together. So once again I ask for thy\nfriendship, and I grant thee, unasked, the half of the kingdom; the\nother half will be mine, and if it pleaseth thee we will be friends.\u201d\n\nSaid Drupada: \u201cThou art indeed noble and great. I thank thee, and\ndesire to be thy friend.\u201d\n\nSo Drona took possession of half of the kingdom. Drupada, who sorrowed\ngreatly, went to rule the southern Panchalas; he was convinced that\nhe could not defeat Drona by Kshatriya power alone, which is inferior\nto Brahman power, and he resolved to discover means whereby he might\nobtain a son who could overcome his Brahman enemy.\n\nThereafterwards the Pandavas waged war against neighbouring kings, and\nthey extended the territory over which the blind maharajah held sway.\n\nThe Kauravas were rendered more jealous than ever by the successes\nachieved by the Pandavas, and also because the people favoured them.\nNow Duryodhana desired to become heir to the throne, but the elder\nprince of the conquering Pandavas could not be set aside. In the end\nYudhishthira was chosen, although unwillingly, by the blind king, and\nhe became Yuva-rajah, \u201cLittle Rajah\u201d, supplanting Bhishma, who had been\nregent during the minority. Yudhishthira, accordingly, ruled over the\nkingdom, and he was honoured and beloved by the people; for although\nhe was not a mighty warrior like Arjuna, or powerful like Bhima, he\nhad great wisdom, and he was ever just and merciful, and a lover of\ntruth.[235]\n\n[235] The modern-day Hindu regards Yudhishthira as an ideal man.\n\nDuryodhana remonstrated with his blind father, the maharajah, and he\nspoke to him, saying: \u201cWhy, O my father, hast thou thus favoured the\nPandavas and forgotten thine own sons? Thou wert Pandu's elder brother,\nand should have reigned before him. Now the children of thy younger\nbrother are to succeed thee. The kingdom is thine own by right of\nbirth, and thy sons are thine heirs. Why, then, hast thou lowered us in\nthe eyes of thy subjects?\u201d\n\nSaid the blind Dhritarashtra: \u201cDuryodhana, my son, know thou that\nPandu, my brother, was the mightiest ruler in the world. Could I, who\nhave ever been blind, have set him aside? His sons have great wisdom\nand worth, and are loved by the people. How, then, could I pass them\nover? Yudhishthira hath greater accomplishments for governing than thou\ndost possess, my son. How could I turn against him and banish him from\nmy council?\u201d\n\nDuryodhana said: \u201cI do not acknowledge Yudhishthira's superiority as a\nruler of men. And this I know full well, I could combat against half a\nscore of Yudhishthiras on the field of battle.... If, my father, thou\nwilt set me aside and deny me my right to a share of government in the\nkingdom, I will take mine own life and thus end my sorrow.\u201d\n\nSaid Dhritarashtra: \u201cBe patient, O my son, nor give way to thy\nvexation. If such is thy desire, I will divide the kingdom between thee\nand Yudhishthira, so that no jealousy may exist between you both.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana was well pleased, hearing these words, and he said: \u201cI\nagree, O my father, and will accept thine offer. Let the Pandavas take\ntheir own land and rule over it, and I and my brethren will remain at\nHastinapur with thee. If the Kauravas and Pandavas continue to dwell\nhere together, there will be conflicts and much shedding of blood.\u201d\n\nSaid Dhritarashtra: \u201cNeither Bhishma, the head of our family, nor\nVidura, my brother, nor Drona, thy preceptor, will consent to the\nPandavas being sent hence.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana made answer: \u201cConsult them not; they are beneath thee, my\nsire. Command the Pandavas to depart unto the city of Varanavartha[236]\nand dwell there; when they have gone no one will speak to thee\nregarding this matter.\u201d\n\n[236] Allahabad, then probably a frontier town of the area of Aryan\ncontrol, pronounced Var\u00b4an-a-vart\u00b4\u00b4ha.\n\nDhritarashtra listened to his son and followed his counsel. He\ncommanded Yudhishthira to depart with his brethren to the city of\nVaranavartha, rich in jewels and gold, to dwell there until he recalled\nthem. Accordingly the Pandava brethren bade farewell to Dhritarashtra\nand left Hastinapur, taking with them their mother, the widowed queen\nPritha, and went towards the city of Varanavartha. The people of\nHastinapur mourned for them greatly.\n\nEre they departed, Vidura spoke to them in secret, bidding them to be\naware of the perils of fire. He repeated a verse to Yudhishthira and\nsaid: \u201cPut thy trust in the man who will recite these words unto thee;\nhe will be thy deliverer.\u201d\n\nNow Duryodhana had plotted with Shakuni, the brother of Queen Gandhari,\nto accomplish the destruction of his kinsmen. Then their ally, Kanika\nthe Brahman, said in secret to Dhritarashtra: \u201cWhen thine enemy is in\nthy power, destroy him by whatever means is at thy disposal, in secret\nor openly. Show him no mercy, nor give him thy protection. If thy son,\nor brother, or kinsman, or thy father even, should become thine enemy,\ndo not hesitate to slay if thou wouldst have prosperity. Let him be\novercome either by spells, or by curses, or by deception, or by payment\nof money. Do not forget thine enemy, even although thou mayst disdain\nhim.\u201d\n\nThe maharajah lent a willing ear thereafter to the counsel of his son,\nwhom, in his secret heart, he favoured most.\n\nEre the Pandavas had left Hastinapur, Duryodhana sent unto Varanavartha\nhis secret agent, Purochana, to erect a commodious new dwelling for\nthem. This was accomplished with all speed, and it became known as\nthe \u201chouse of lac\u201d. It was built of combustible material: much hemp\nand resin were packed in the walls and between the floors, and it was\nplastered over with mortar well mixed with pitch and clarified butter.\n\nPurochana welcomed the Pandavas when they arrived at Varanavartha,\nand they wondered at the splendour of the great new dwelling. But\nYudhishthira smelt the mortar, and he went over the whole house\nexamining it closely; then he said unto Bhima: \u201cThe enemy hath caused\nthis mansion to be erected for us, and their trusted workers have done\nwell for them, for it is full of hemp and straw, resin and bamboo, and\nthe mortar is mixed with pitch and clarified butter.\u201d\n\nIn due time a stranger visited the Pandavas, and he repeated the secret\nverse which Vidura had communicated to Yudhishthira. He said: \u201cI will\nconstruct for you a secret passage underground which will lead to a\nplace of safety, lest you should have to escape from this house when\nthe doors are made secure and it is set on fire.\u201d\n\nSo the man set to work in secret, and ere long the underground passage\nwas ready. Then Bhima resolved to deal with Purochana in the very\nmanner that he had undertaken to deal with the princes.\n\nOne evening Pritha gave a feast in the new dwelling to all the poor\npeople in Varanavartha. When the guests had taken their departure,\nthere remained behind a poor Bhil woman and her five sons, who had\ndrunken heavily, as was the custom of their people, and were unable to\nrise up. They slumbered on the floor.\n\nA great windstorm had arisen, and the night was dark. So Bhima deemed\nthat the time had come to accomplish his purpose. He went outside and\nsecured the doors of the dwelling of Purochana, which stood beside that\nof the Pandavas; then he set it on fire. Soon the flames spread towards\nthe new mansion which had been erected according to Duryodhana's\ndesire, and it burned fiercely and speedily. Pritha and her sons made\nswift escape by the underground passage and took refuge in the jungle.\nIn the morning the people discovered among the embers of Purochana's\nhouse the blackened remains of his body and the bodies of his servants.\nIn the ruins of the Pandavas' dwelling they found that a woman and five\nmen had perished, and they lamented, believing that Pritha and her\nsons were dead. There was great sorrow in Hastinapur when the tidings\nwere borne thither. All the people bewailed the fate of the Pandavas.\nBhishma and Vidura wept, and blind Dhritarashtra was moved to tears\nalso. But Duryodhana rejoiced in secret, believing that his enemies had\nall been destroyed.\n\nThe Pandavas, having escaped through the subterranean passage, hastened\nsouthwards and entered the forest, which abounded with reptiles and\nwild animals and with ferocious man-eating Asuras and Rakshasas of\ngigantic stature. Weary and footsore were they all, and greatly\noppressed with sleepiness and fear. At length the mighty Bhima lifted\nup all the others and hastened on through the darkness: he took his\nmother on his back, and Madri's sons on his shoulders, and Yudhishthira\nand Arjuna under his arms. He went swifter than the wind, breaking down\ntrees by his breast and furrowing the ground that he stamped upon. The\nwhole forest was shaken as with fear.\n\nAt length the Pandavas, fatigued and athirst and heavy with sleep,\nfound a place to rest in safety; and they all lay down to slumber below\na great and beautiful Banyan tree except mighty Bhima, who kept watch\nover them.\n\nNow there lived in the forest on a Shala tree a ferocious Rakshasa\nnamed Hidimva. He was of grim visage and terrible to behold; his eyes\nwere red, and he was red-haired and red-bearded; his cheeks were of\ncloud colour and his mouth was large, with long, sharp-pointed teeth,\nwhich gleamed in darkness; his ears were shaped like to arrows; his\nneck was broad as a tree, his belly was large, and his legs were of\ngreat length.\n\nThe monster was exceedingly hungry on that fateful night. Scenting\nhuman flesh in the forest, he yawned and scratched his grizzly beard,\nand spoke to his sister, saying: \u201cI smell excellent food, and my mouth\nwaters; to-night I will devour warm flesh and drink hot, frothy blood.\nHasten, now, and bring the sleeping men unto me; we will eat them\ntogether, and afterwards dance merrily in the wood.\u201d\n\nThen the Rakshasa woman went towards the place where the Pandavas\nslept. When she beheld Bhima, the long-armed one, clad in royal\ngarments and wearing his jewels, she immediately fell in love with him,\nand she said to herself: \u201cThis man with the shoulders of a lion and\neyes like to lotus blooms is worthy to be my husband. I will not slay\nhim for my evil brother.\u201d\n\nNow a Rakshasa woman has power to transform herself, and this one at\nonce assumed the shape of a beautiful woman; her face became as fair as\nthe full moon; on her head was a garland of flowers, her hair hung in\nringlets; delicate was the hue of her skin, and she wore rich ornaments\nof gold with many gems. Timidly she approached Bhima and spoke to him,\nsaying: \u201cO bull among men, who art thou and whence comest thou? Who\nare these fair ones lying in slumber there? Hear and know that this\nforest is the abode of the wicked chieftain of the Rakshasas. He is my\nbrother, and hath sent me hither to kill you all for food, but I desire\nto save thee, O long-armed one. Be thou my husband. I will take thee to\na secret place among the mountains, for I can speed through the air at\nwill.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhima: \u201cI cannot leave my mother and my brethren to become food\nfor a Rakshasa.\u201d\n\nThe woman said: \u201cLet me be thy servant. Awaken thy mother and thy\nbrethren and I will rescue you all from my fierce brother.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhima: \u201cI will not awaken them from pleasant and needful slumber,\nbecause I do not fear a Rakshasa. O fair one, thou canst go as it\npleaseth thee, and I care not if thou dost send thy brother unto me.\u201d\n\nMeantime the Rakshasa chieftain had grown impatient. He descended from\nhis tree and hastened after his sister, with gaping mouth and head\nthrown back. Darkly blue was his body, like to a raincloud.\n\nThe Rakshasa woman said to Bhima: \u201cHe cometh hither in wrath. Awaken\nthy kinsfolk, and I will carry you all through the air to escape him.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhima: \u201cLook on my arms, which are strong as the trunks of\nelephants; my legs are like iron maces, and my chest is indeed powerful\nand broad. I will slay this man-eater, thy brother.\u201d\n\nThe Rakshasa chieftain heard the boast of Bhima, and he fumed with rage\nwhen he beheld his sister in comely human guise, and said to her: \u201cI\nwill slay thee and those whom thou wouldst fain help against me.\u201d Then\nhe rushed against her, but Bhima cried: \u201cThou wilt not kill a woman\nwhile I am near. I challenge thee to single combat now. This night will\nthy sister behold thee slain by me as an elephant is slain by a lion.\u201d\n\nSaid the Rakshasa: \u201cBoast not until thou art the victor. I will kill\nthee first of all, then thy friends, and last of all my treacherous\nsister.\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus, he rushed towards Bhima, who nimbly seized the\nmonster's outstretched arms and, wrestling violently, cast him on the\nground. Then as a lion drags off his prey, Bhima dragged the struggling\nRakshasa into the depths of the forest, lest his yells should awaken\nthe sleepers. There they fought together like furious bull elephants,\ntearing down branches and overthrowing trees.\n\nAt length the dread clamour awoke the Pandavas, and they gazed with\nwonder on the beautiful woman who kept watch in Bhima's place.\n\nSaid Pritha: \u201cO celestial being, who art thou? If thou art the goddess\nof woods or an Apsara, tell me why thou dost linger here?\u201d\n\nThe fair demon said: \u201cI am the sister of the chieftain of the\nRakshasas, and I was sent hither to slay you all; but when I beheld thy\nmighty son the love god wounded me, and I chose him for my husband.\nThen my brother followed angrily, and thy son is fighting with him, and\nthey are filling the forest with their shouting.\u201d\n\nAll the brethren rushed to Bhima's aid, and they saw the two wrestlers\nstruggling in a cloud of dust, and they appeared like two high cliffs\nshrouded in mist.\n\nArjuna cried out: \u201cO Bhima, I am here to help thee. Let me slay the\nmonster.\u201d\n\nBhima answered: \u201cFear not, but look on. The Rakshasa will not escape\nfrom my hands.\u201d\n\nSaid Arjuna: \u201cDo not keep him alive too long. We must hasten hence.\nThe dawn is near, and Rakshasas become stronger at daybreak; they\nexercise their powers of deception during the two twilights. Do not\nplay with him, therefore, but kill him speedily.\u201d\n\nAt these words Bhima became strong as Vayu, his sire, when he is\nangered,[237] and, raising aloft the Rakshasa, he whirled him round and\nround, crying: \u201cIn vain hast thou gorged on unholy food. I will rid the\nforest of thee. No longer wilt thou devour human beings.\u201d\n\n[237] The god of wind.\n\nThen, dashing the monster to the ground, Bhima seized him by the hair\nand by the waist, laid him over a knee, and broke his back. So was the\nRakshasa slain.\n\nDay was breaking, and Pritha and her sons immediately turned away to\nleave the forest. The Rakshasa woman followed them, and Bhima cried to\nher: \u201cBegone! or I will send thee after thy brother.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cIt is unseemly to slay a woman. Besides, she is the\nsister of that Rakshasa, and even although she became angry, what harm\ncan she do us?\u201d\n\nKneeling at Pritha's feet, the demon wailed: \u201cO illustrious and blessed\nlady, thou knowest the sufferings women endure when the love god wounds\nthem. Have pity upon me now, and command thy son to take me for his\nbride. If he continues to scorn me, I will slay myself. Let me be thy\nslave, and I will carry you all wheresoever you desire and protect you\nfrom perils.\u201d\n\nPritha heard her with compassion, and prevailed upon Bhima to take\nher for his bride. So the two were married by Yudhishthira; then the\nRakshasa took Bhima upon her back and sped through the air to a lonely\nplace among the mountains which is sacred to the gods. They lived\ntogether beside silvery streams and lakes sparkling with lotus blooms;\nthey wandered through woods of blossoming trees where birds sang\nsweetly, and by celestial sea-beaches covered with pearls and nuggets\nof gold. The demon bride had assumed celestial beauty, and ofttimes\nplayed sweet music, and she made Bhima happy.\n\nIn time the woman became the mother of a mighty son; his eyes were\nfiercely bright, like arrows were his ears, and his mouth was large; he\nhad copper-brown lips and long, sharp teeth. He grew to be a youth an\nhour after he was born, but, still remaining bald, his mother named him\nGhatotkacha, which signifies \u201cpot-headed\u201d.[238]\n\n[238] Bald as a pot. _Pron._ gat-ot-katch\u00b4a.\n\nBhima then returned to his mother and his brethren with his demon bride\nand her son. They abode together for a time in the forest; then the\nRakshasa bade all the Pandavas farewell and departed with Ghatotkacha,\nwho promised to come to aid the Pandavas whenever they called upon him.\n\nOne day thereafter Vyasa appeared before the Pandavas and counselled\nthem to go towards the city of Eka-chakra[239] and to live there for a\ntime in the house of a Brahman. Then he vanished from sight, promising\nto come again.\n\n[239] _Pron._ eka chak\u00b4ra.\n\nThe Pandavas went therefore to Eka-chakra and lived with a Brahman who\nhad a wife and a daughter and an infant son. Disguised as holy men, the\nbrethren begged for food as alms. Every evening they brought home what\nthey had obtained, and Pritha divided the whole into two portions; the\none half she gave to wolf-bellied Bhima, and the rest she kept for his\nbrethren and herself.\n\nNow the city of Eka-chakra was protected against every enemy by a\nforest-dwelling Rakshasa named Vaka, who was king of the Asuras.[240]\nEach day the people had to supply him with food, which consisted of a\ncartload of rice, two bullocks, and the man who conveyed the meal to\nhim.\n\n[240] As a rule the Asuras are the enemies of the gods and the\nRakshasas the enemies of mankind. See Chapter IV.\n\nOne morning a great wailing broke forth in the Brahman's house because\nthat the holy man was required to supply the demon's feast. He was too\npoor to purchase a slave, and he said he would deliver himself unto\nVaka. \u201cAlthough I reach Heaven,\u201d he cried, \u201cI will have no joy, for my\nfamily will perish when I am gone.\u201d His wife and his daughter pleaded\nin turn to take his place, and the three wept together. Then the little\nboy of tender years plucked a long spear of grass, and with glowing\neyes he spoke sweetly and said: \u201cDo not weep, Father; do not weep,\nMother; do not weep, Sister. With this spear I will slay the demon who\ndevours human beings.\u201d\n\nAs they wept there they heard him, nor could forbear smiling.\n\nPritha was deeply moved by the lamentations of the Brahman family, and\nshe said: \u201cSorrow not. I will send forth my son Bhima to slay the Asura\nking.\u201d\n\nThe Brahman made answer, saying: \u201cThat cannot be. Thy sons are Brahmans\nand are under my protection. If I go forth, I will but obey the rajah;\nif I send thy son, I will be sin-guilty of his death, for the gods\nabhor the man who causeth a guest to be slain, or permits a Brahman to\nperish.\u201d\n\nSaid Pritha: \u201cBhima is strong and mighty, nor can a demon do him\nany harm. He will slay this bloodthirsty Rakshasa and return again\nin safety. But, O Brahman, thou must not reveal unto anyone who hath\nperformed this mighty deed, lest the people should trouble my son\nand desire to obtain the secret of his power, for he is skilled in\nmantras.\u201d[241]\n\n[241] Charms.\n\nThen was the household made happy, and Bhima prepared to go forth.\nThat mighty hero collected the rice and drove the bullocks towards the\nforest. When he drew nigh to the appointed place, he began to eat the\nfood himself, and called the Rakshasa by name over and over again.\nVaka heard and came through the trees towards Bhima. Red were his\neyes, and his hair and his beard were red also; his ears were pointed\nlike arrows; he had a mouth like a cave, and his forehead was puckered\nin three lines. Terrible was he to look upon; his body was huge,\nindeed.[242]\n\n[242] A man-devouring demon was supposed to sit under a bridge in\nCaithness every night. When a late wayfarer began to walk over, the\nmonster growled, \u201cTramp, tramp, tramp\u201d, so as to terrify him and obtain\nhim for food. According to local belief, the demon \u201chad eyes like a\nsaucer, a nose like a poker, and a mouth like a cave\u201d. The Egyptian\ndemon Set was red like the Indian Rakshasa. Red-haired people are\ndisliked in India still; a native girl with auburn locks is not cared\nfor as a bride.\n\nThe Rakshasa saw Bhima eating his meal, and approached angrily, biting\nhis lower lip. \u201cFool,\u201d he cried, \u201cwouldst thou devour my food before my\nvery eyes?\u201d\n\nBhima smiled, and continued eating with face averted. The demon\nsmote him, but the hero only glanced round as if one had touched his\nshoulder, and he went on eating as before.\n\nRaging furiously, the Rakshasa tore up a tree, and Bhima rose leisurely\nand waited until it was flung at him. When that was done, he caught the\ntrunk nimbly and hurled it back. Many trees were uprooted and flung by\none at the other. Then Vaka sprung forward to wrestle, but the Pandava\noverthrew him and dragged him round and round until the demon gasped\nwith fatigue. The earth shook; trees were splintered in pieces. Then\nBhima began to strike the monster with his iron fists, and at length he\nbroke Vaka's back across his knee. Terrible were the loud screams of\nthe Rakshasa while Bhima was bending him double. He died howling.\n\nA mighty clamour was then awakened in the forest. All the other Asuras\nwere terror-stricken, and, bellowing horribly, they hastened towards\nBhima and made obeisance before him. Then Bhima made them take vows\nnever again to eat human flesh or to oppress the people of the city.\nThey promised willing obedience, and he allowed them to depart.\n\nThereafter Pritha's son dragged the monster's body to the main gate of\nEka-chakra. He entered the city secretly and hastened to the Brahman's\nhouse, and he told Yudhishthira all that had taken place.\n\nWhen the people of the city discovered that the Asura king had been\nslain, they rejoiced greatly, and hastened towards the house of the\nBrahman. But that holy man made evasive answer to them, and said that\nhis deliverer was a certain high-souled Brahman who had offered to\nsupply food to the demon. Thereafter the people established a festival\nin honour of Brahmans.\n\nThe Pandavas remained a time in the city, and they studied the Vedas.\nOne day there came to their dwelling a saintly man of rigid vows,\nand he told the story of the miraculous births of Drupada's son and\ndaughter from sacrificial fire.\n\nWhen Drupada had lost half of his kingdom, he paid pilgrimages to holy\nplaces. He promised great rewards to superior Brahmans, so that he\nmight have offspring, ever desiring greatly to be avenged upon Drona.\nHe offered the austere Upay\u00e1ja a million cows if he would procure a\nson for him, and that sage sent him unto his brother Y\u00e1ja. Now Y\u00e1ja was\nreluctant to aid the rajah thus; but at length he consented to perform\nthe sacrificial rite, and prevailed upon Upay\u00e1ja to help him.\n\nSo the rite was performed, and when the vital moment came, the Brahmans\ncalled for the queen to partake in it. But Drupada's wife was not\nprepared, and said: \u201cMy mouth is still filled with saffron and my body\nis scented. I am not fit to receive the libation which will bring\noffspring. Tarry a little time for me.\u201d\n\nBut the Brahmans could not delay the consummation of the sacrificial\nrite. Ere the queen came, a son sprang forth from the flames: he was\nclad in full armour, and carried a falchion and bow, and a diadem\ngleamed brightly upon his head. A voice out of the heavens said: \u201c_This\nprince hath come to destroy Drona and to increase the fame of the\nPanchalas_\u201d.\n\nNext arose from the ashes on the altar a daughter of great beauty. She\nwas exceedingly dark, with long curling locks and lotus eyes, and she\nwas deep-bosomed and slender-waisted. A sweet odour clung to her body.\n\nA voice out of heaven said: \u201c_This dusky girl will become the chief of\nall women. Many Kshatriyas must die because of her, and the Kauravas\nwill suffer from her. She will accomplish the decrees of the gods._\u201d\n\nThen the son was called Dhrishta-dyumna[243] and the daughter\nDraupadi.[244] Drona thereafter took the Panchala prince to his palace,\nand instructed him to become an accomplished warrior. He knew that he\ncould not thwart destiny, and he desired to perpetuate his own mighty\ndeeds.\n\n[243] _Pron._ dhrish-ta-dyum\u00b4na.\n\n[244] _Pron._ drow\u00b4pa-dee\u00b4\u00b4\n\nHaving heard these words, Pritha desired to journey towards Panchala,\nand she and her sons took leave of their host. Ere they went away, the\nhigh-souled ascetic said that Draupadi had been destined to become a\nPandava queen.\n\nPritha and her sons wandered from the banks of the Ganges and went\nnorthwards, and soon they fell in with great numbers of people all\ngoing the same way. Yudhishthira spake to a troop of Brahmans, and\nasked them whither they were bound, and they answered saying that\nDrupada of Panchala was observing a great festival, and that all the\nprinces of the land were hastening to the swayamvara of his peerless\nand slender-waisted daughter, the beautiful Draupadi.\n\nIn that great and increasing company were Brahmans who were to\nperform the sacred rites, and youths who were to take part in joyous\nrevelry\u2014dancers and jugglers, boxers and wrestlers, and those who\ndisplayed feats of strength and skill at arms; there were also bards\nthere and singers to chant the praises of heroes.\n\nThe Brahmans praised the beauty of Draupadi, and said to the Pandava\nbrethren: \u201cCome with us to the festival and the sports and the\nswayamvara; you will be feasted and will receive gifts. You are all as\ncomely as princes and as fair as the bright gods; mayhap Draupadi may\nchoose from among ye this stalwart and noble youth, strongly armed and\nof fearless bearing, and if he should perform mighty feats, the garland\nmay be thrown upon his shoulders.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cSo be it. We will hasten with you to the swayamvara\nand share banquet and bounty.\u201d\n\nSo the Pandavas went towards Panchala with the troop of Brahmans. When\nthey reached the city they took up their abode in the humble dwelling\nof a potter, still disguised as Brahmans, and they went out and begged\nfood from the people.\n\nIn their secret hearts the brethren desired greatly to win the fair\nbride whose fame had been bruited abroad.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIII\n\nThe Choice of Draupadi\n\n Drupada's Hope\u2014Conditions for winning his Daughter\u2014The Great Bow\n and Whirling Target\u2014The Swayamvara\u2014Pandavas in Disguise\u2014Love-sick\n Rajahs put to Shame\u2014Karna strings the Bow\u2014Rejected as a Base-born\n Suitor\u2014Arjuna's Triumph\u2014Chosen by Princess\u2014An Angry Scene\u2014Rajahs\n seek Vengeance\u2014Warriors attack Supposed Brahmans\u2014Karna and Salya\n overcome\u2014Princess taken to Potter's House\u2014Pritha's Command\u2014An\n Evening Meal\u2014The Royal Spy.\n\n\nNow Drupada had long cherished the hope that Arjuna would become his\ndaughter's husband. He never revealed his wish to any man, but ere he\nproclaimed the swayamvara of Draupadi, he thought of the great Pandava\narcher, and caused to be made a powerful bow which only a strong man\ncould bend and string. For a target he had constructed a strange and\ncurious device: a high pole was erected, and it was surmounted by a\ngolden fish, which was poised above a swiftly-revolving wheel. Then\nDrupada issued a proclamation far and wide summoning the regents and\nprinces of the world to the swayamvara. He said: \u201cThe man who will\nbend the bow and shoot an arrow through the wheel which will strike\nand bring down the golden fish shall obtain my daughter in marriage.\u201d\nNone but a mighty archer who was Arjuna's equal could hope to win\nthe beautiful Draupadi, for five arrows only were allowed to each\ncompetitor, and the fish must needs be struck on an eye to be brought\ndown.\n\nA great field was enclosed for the swayamvara. It was surrounded by a\nfosse and barrier and swan-white pavilions, with domes and turrets that\nwere agleam with gold and jewels, festoons and streamers and bright\ngarlands. The turrets of the royal mansion were lofty and golden like\nHimalayan mountain peaks.\n\nFor sixteen days there were sports and banquets, and everyone within\nthe city made merry. Then came the great and festal day. At dawn\ntrumpets and drums awakened the people, and flags and flowers decorated\nevery street. The whole populace gathered on the plain and massed\naround the barriers. The rajah's soldiers kept order, and wrestlers\nand jugglers and dancers and musicians performed merrily until the\nappointed hour drew nigh.\n\nAt length the people roared their welcome to the king and the high-born\nladies and all the royal guests, who thronged the galleries and\npavilions. The mighty rajahs, frowning defiance one upon another, were\nranged on lofty seats round the throne of King Drupada. Multitudes\nhad gathered to gaze on the glittering scene, pressing against the\nbarriers, or clustering on trees and scaffolds, while others looked\ndown from lofty lattice and high house roofs.... A thousand trumpets\nclamoured; and the murmuring of the swaying people was like the voice\nof the heaving main.\n\nAmong others came in all her beauty the Princess Draupadi, stepping\ngently and sweet, bearing in a delicate hand the golden bridal garland,\nwhich was adorned with sparkling gems. Tardily she made approach,\nblushing with increasing loveliness, and appeared in the presence of\nthe princes. Mighty and high-born men were there. The Pandavas beheld\nin the galleries their enemies Duryodhana, Karna, and all the great\nKauravas, and they saw also Krishna, the amorous and powerful one,\nand his brother, the wine-drinking Balarama[245], the Y\u00e1dava princes,\nthe Rajah of Sindhu and his sons, the Rajah of Chedi, the Rajah of\nKosala, the Rajah of Madra, and many more. Now the Pandavas were still\ndisguised as Brahmans, and stood among the holy men.\n\n[245] _Pron._ bal-a-rah\u00b4ma.\n\nAn aged and white-haired Brahman, clad in white, approached the high\naltar, chanting mantras. He spread the holy grass and poured out oil;\nthen he kindled the sacred fire, and the offering to the gods was\nblessed.\n\nThereafter the thousand trumpets were sounded, and a tense silence\nfell upon the buzzing crowd. In the solemn hush all eyes were turned\ntowards the royal mansion as Drupada's valiant son, Dhrishta-dyumna,\nled forth his sister Draupadi, and in a voice like thunder proclaimed\nhis father's will, saying:\n\n\u201cHere stands the noble princess, my sister. Whosoever can bend this\nbow, and strike with an arrow yonder whirling target set on high, may,\nif his lineage is noble, claim Draupadi for his bride. My words are\ntruth!\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus, the prince recited to his sister the names of the\nroyal guests, their lineage and their deeds of fame, and bade her award\nthe golden garland to the successful archer.\n\nThe rajahs then descended from their gorgeous thrones and gathered\naround Draupadi as the bright gods gather around P\u00e1rvati, the mountain\nbride of Shiva. Their hearts were filled with love for the maiden\nand with hate for one another. Rivals frowned upon rivals. Those who\nhad been close friends became of a sudden angry enemies because that\nDraupadi was so beautiful. Krishna and Balarama alone remained aloof;\ncalmly and self-restrained they stood apart, while rajah opposed rajah\nlike to angry elephants.\n\nEach of the love-sick monarchs gazed upon the mighty bow and upon the\nwhirling target on high, and for a time no man sought to lift the bow\nlest he should be unable to bend it and then be put to shame. At length\na rajah, more bold than the others, picked it up and tried his strength\nwithout avail; another followed and another, but failed to string it.\nSoon many rajahs strained their arms in vain, and some fell upon the\nground and groaned, while the laughter of the people pealed around the\nbarriers.... The gods had assembled in mid-air and looked down with\nsteadfast eyes.\n\nAt length proud Karna strode forward; he took the bow and bent it and\nfixed the bowstring. Then he seized an arrow. Drupada and his son\nwere alarmed, fearing he might succeed and claim the bride. Suddenly\nDraupadi intervened, for she would not have the son of a charioteer for\nher lord. She said, speaking loudly: \u201cI am a king's daughter, and will\nnot wed with the base-born....\u201d\n\nKarna smiled bitterly, his face aflame. He cast down the bow and walked\naway, gazing towards the sun. He said: \u201cO sun! be my witness that\nI cast aside the bow, not because I am unable to hit the mark, but\nbecause Draupadi scorns me.\u201d\n\nOthers sought to perform the feat, but in vain, and many rajahs feared\nto make attempt lest they should compel the laughter of the people. A\nbuzz of merry voices arose from beyond the barriers.\n\nMeanwhile the Pandava brethren, disguised as Brahmans, looked on with\nthe others.\n\nThen suddenly silence fell upon everyone, for Arjuna advanced from\nthe priestly band to lift the bow. The Brahmans applauded him, shaking\ntheir deerskins.\n\nSaid the rajahs: \u201cCan a weakly Brahman, who is a mere stripling,\naccomplish a feat which is beyond the strength of mighty warriors.\u201d\n\nOthers said: \u201cThe Brahman knoweth best his own skill. He would not go\nforward if he were not confident of success.\u201d\n\nAn aged priest endeavoured to restrain Arjuna, lest he should by his\nfailure bring ridicule upon the Brahmans; but the hero would not be\nthwarted. He strode forward like to a stately elephant and bared his\nbroad shoulders and ample chest. He was nimble as a lion, and calm and\nself-possessed.\n\nEre he lifted the bow, he walked round it; then he addressed a prayer\nto the gods.... He stood up unmoved and serene as a mountain peak, and\nhe bent the bow and fixed an arrow in it....\n\nAll eyes watched him. He drew the cord, and the arrow flew upwards with\na hissing sound; it hit the target eye, and the golden fish fell over\nand clashed upon the ground.\n\nLike distant thunder arose the plaudits of the multitude; hundreds of\nBrahmans shouted in ecstasy and waved their scarfs; a thousand trumpets\nclamoured in triumph, and the drums were beaten loud....\n\nThe heart of Draupadi was filled with joy, and, smiling coyly, she\nadvanced towards Arjuna and flung the golden bridal garland over his\nshoulders. Celestial blossoms fluttered, descending through the air,\nand the sound of celestial music was heard.\n\nDrupada was well pleased, because he had already recognized the hero\nin his Brahman guise; but the jealous rajahs stormed in fury, and each\nsaid unto the other: \u201cBehold! the king goeth to greet this youth.\nTo him we are as worthless as jungle grass; he tramples upon us in\nhis pride.... Are we to be humbled by a Brahman and denied the fruit\nof our nourished hopes? The daughter of a rajah must even choose a\nKshatriya for her husband.... Verily, the life of a priest is sacred,\nbut the rajah who scorns his peers must die\u2014he and his son together.\nLet us seize also this shameless woman who honours the Brahman\u2014that\ntrespasser of our birthright\u2014so that she may be burned at the stake!\u201d\n\nShouting with anger one to another, the rajahs poured from the\ngalleries with drawn swords and rushed towards Arjuna and the princess.\nLike ponderous wild elephants they advanced; but the Pandavas rose\nagainst them. Arjuna bent the great bow, and Bhima, having no weapon,\nuprooted a tree and stood defying them like to hell's stern judge\nwielding his mighty club. Yudhishthira and the younger brothers were\nsoon beside them, and the Brahmans hastened also to give their aid.\n\nFor a moment the rajahs paused, wondering at the daring of the priestly\nband; but impatient Karna and angry Salya, Rajah of Madra, dashed\nforward like to infuriated elephants against Arjuna and Bhima. The\nbrothers sustained the shock, and when Karna had been struck by Arjuna,\nhe faltered in amaze and said: \u201cBrahman, who art thou? Art thou a god\nin human guise? No Brahman could thus attack me, nor dost there live a\nman who can thwart me with defiance as thou hast done even now, save\nArjuna alone.\u201d\n\nSaid Arjuna, \u201cI am nor god nor hero, but a humble Brahman who hath\nbeen trained to use of arms. I have come hither to tame thy pride, thou\nhaughty youth; therefore be firm.\u201d\n\nBut Karna fell back, deeming it vain to oppose the power of a holy man.\n\nMeanwhile Madra's king fought against peerless Bhima. Both were\nlong-armed and of gigantic strength. Sharp and fierce was their\nconflict. When their clubs were splintered, they leapt one upon the\nother and wrestled fiercely, struggling with all their might. Then, of\na sudden, Bhima stopped and swung aloft the mighty rajah and threw him\nheavily upon the ground, where he lay unconscious and bleeding before\nthe eyes of the multitude.\n\nThe rajahs drew back, humbled because of Karna's flight and Salya's\ndownfall.\n\n\u201cBrave, indeed, are the Brahmans,\u201d they said. \u201cWho can they be? What is\ntheir lineage? and whence come they?\u201d\n\nThe Pandavas scorned to make answer. But Krishna had knowledge of\nwho they were, and he interposed with gentle words to soothe the\nangry rajahs. The monarchs heard him and withdrew, and the tumult was\nappeased.\n\nThen Arjuna took Draupadi by the hand and led her away in peace from\nthat scene of angry strife. So ended the swayamvara, and Krishna\ndeclared that the bride had been fairly won.\n\nThe Pandava brethren went towards the house of the potter, and they\nentered and addressed their mother Pritha, saying: \u201cA great gift have\nwe obtained this day.\u201d\n\nSaid Pritha: \u201cThen share the gift between you, as becomes brethren.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira said: \u201cWhat hast thou said, O mother? The gift is the\nPrincess Draupadi whom Arjuna hath won at the swayamvara.\u201d\n\nSaid Pritha: \u201cAlas! what have I said? I have sinned deeply in saying,\n\u2018Then share the gift between you, as becomes brethren.\u2019 But, O\nYudhishthira, my son, the fatal words have been spoken; you must devise\nhow they can be obeyed without involving one another in wrong.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira pondered a time and then spake to Arjuna, saying: \u201cMy\nbrother, thou hast won Draupadi by thine own merit. She must therefore\nbe thy bride.\u201d\n\nSaid Arjuna: \u201cThou, Yudhishthira, art our elder brother and we are thy\nservants. The princess is for thee.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira said: \u201cLet this matter be arranged in accordance with\nthe will of the gods. It is for Drupada to say unto which of us his\ndaughter will be given.\u201d\n\nNow, as hath already been told, each one of the Pandavas yearned in his\nsecret heart to have Draupadi for his bride....\n\nMeanwhile the evening meal had been prepared, and Pritha desired that\nthe princess should at once take her place, and serve out the portions\nto the brethren. So she said unto Draupadi: \u201cDivide the food, and first\nset aside a share for the poor; then cut what is left into two parts,\none part for Bhima, and the rest for my other sons and for thee and me.\u201d\n\nThe princess smiled when she beheld the great meal which Bhima devoured.\n\nWhen they had all eaten they retired to rest. Draupadi slept with\nPritha, and the brethren lay at their feet.\n\nKing Drupada was sore troubled in heart after his daughter had been\nled away to the potter's house, and he sent his valiant son to watch\nher. Dhrishta-dyumna went forth in disguise, and, listening at the\nwindow, he discovered to his joy that the Brahmans were no other than\nthe Pandava brethren. He returned to his royal sire and related all\nthat had happened, and what had been spoken at the evening meal. The\nking was well pleased because that the brethren were Kshatriyas and not\nBrahmans.\n\nIn the morning Drupada sent a priest to the potter's house to ask how\nit fared with all the brethren.\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cInform thou the rajah that his daughter hath been\nwon by a family who will not bring shame or disgrace upon his royal\nname. None but a man of high birth could have shot down the fish of\ngold.\u201d\n\nDrupada, ere this message was delivered unto him, sent a second\nmessenger bidding the brethren to come to the palace because that the\nnuptial feast was ready.... Two chariots awaited them. Then Pritha and\nDraupadi entered one of the chariots together, and the five brethren\nentered the other, and they were all driven towards the royal palace.\n\nWhen the people beheld the Pandavas and marked their comely bearing\nand royal gait, they knew that they were not Brahmans, but high-born\nKshatriyas.\n\nThe Pandava guests were made welcome, and the king and his son and all\nhis counsellors sat down to feast with them.\n\nSaid the rajah at length unto Yudhishthira: \u201cI perceive that you are\nmen of high birth. Tell me, therefore, I pray thee, who ye are\u2014your\nnames and your lineage.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira said: \u201cWe are of humble birth. Do now with us as is thy\ndesire.\u201d\n\nSaid Drupada: \u201cIn Indra's name, I adjure thee to reveal yourselves unto\nme now.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira said: \u201cKnow, then, that we are the Pandava princes....\nOur brother Arjuna was the winner of Draupadi. Thy daughter, like to\na lotus, hath been but transferred from one lake to another. I have\nspoken what is true.\u201d\n\nDrupada glowed with joy and satisfaction. He prevailed upon the\nbrethren to remain at the palace, and entertained them for many days.\n\nAt length Yudhishthira was addressed by Drupada, who said: \u201cThou art\nthe elder brother. Speak and say if it is thy desire that Arjuna be\ngiven Draupadi for his bride.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cI would fain speak with Vyasa, the great Rishi,\nregarding this matter.\u201d\n\nNow Vyasa was in the city of Panchala at that time, and he was brought\nbefore the rajah, who spake to him regarding Draupadi.\n\nThe Rishi said: \u201cThe gods have already declared that she will become\nthe wife of all the five Pandava brethren.\u201d\n\nDrupada's son spoke and said: \u201cWith reverence I have heard thy words,\nO Vyasa, but to me it appears that Draupadi hath been betrothed unto\nArjuna alone.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cThou hast spoken truly, but there is wisdom in the\nwords of Vyasa which in my heart I cannot condemn. Besides, our mother\nhath already commanded us to share our gift together.\u201d\n\nThen Vyasa told that Draupadi was the reincarnation of a pious woman\nwho once prayed unto the god Shiva for a husband: five times she\nprayed, and the god rewarded her with the promise of five husbands in\nher next existence. Vyasa also revealed that the Pandava brethren were\nfive incarnations of Indra, and thus were but as one.\n\nDrupada then gave consent for his daughter to become the bride of all\nthe brethren, and it was arranged that she should be married unto\nthem all, one after the other, according to their ages. So on five\nsuccessive days she was led round the holy fire by each of the five\nPandava princes.\n\nDrupada thereafter conferred great gifts upon his sons-in-law; he gave\nthem much gold and many jewels, and he gave them numerous horses and\nchariots and elephants, and also a hundred female servants clad in\nmany-coloured robes, and adorned with gems and bright garlands. Unto\nthe Pandavas Krishna gave much raiment and ornaments of gold, and rare\nvessels sparkling with jewels, besides female servants from various\nkingdoms.\n\nNow when Duryodhana came to know that the Pandava brethren were still\nalive, and had formed a powerful alliance with Drupada, he was moved\nto jealous wrath. A great council was held, at which the young men\nclamoured for war and the grave elders spoke in favour of peace. At\nlength it was agreed that the Pandava princes should be invited to\nreturn to Hastinapur so that the raj might be divided between them and\nthe sons of Dhritarashtra. Then Vidura was sent to Panchala to speak\nwith the Rajah Drupada and his sons-in-law regarding this matter.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIV\n\nTriumph of the Pandavas\n\n Pandavas visit Drupada's Palace\u2014Their Identity revealed\u2014Draupadi's\n Five Husbands\u2014Kingdom assigned to Pandavas\u2014Building of\n Indra-prastha\u2014Arjuna goes into Exile\u2014His Serpent Bride\u2014Marriage\n in Manipur\u2014An Heir to a Throne\u2014Meeting with Krishna\u2014Abduction\n of Princess\u2014Miraculous Origin of Jarasandhu\u2014His Two\n Mothers\u2014Slain by Bhima\u2014The Imperial Sacrifice\u2014Krishna kills\n Shishupala\u2014Yudhishthira's Triumph\u2014Jealousy of Duryodhana.\n\n\nThe Pandava brethren returned to Hastinapur with Vidura. They took with\nthem their mother, Queen Pritha, and their wife, Draupadi, and the\npeople went forth in great multitudes and bade them glad welcome. Then\nthere was much rejoicing and many banquets.\n\nAt length Dhritarashtra spake unto Yudhishthira and his brethren and\nsaid: \u201cI will now divide the raj between you and my sons. Your share\nwill be the southwestern country of Khandava-prastha.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhishma: \u201cThe maharajah hath spoken wisely. It is meet that you\nshould depart unto the country of Khandava-prastha as he hath decreed.\u201d\n\nSo the Pandava princes bade farewell to all their kinsmen and to wise\nDrona, and they went towards their own country. On the banks of the\nJumna they built a strong fort, and in time they made a great clearance\nin the forest. When they had gathered together the people who were\nsubject unto them, they erected a great and wonderful city like unto\nthe city of Indra, and it was called Indra-prastha.[246] High walls,\nwhich resembled the Mandara mountains, were built round about, and\nthese were surrounded by a deep moat wide as the sea.\n\n[246] _Pron._ indra-prast\u00b4ha.\n\nIn time the fame of Rajah Yudhishthira went far and wide. He ruled with\nwisdom and with power, and he had great piety. Forest robbers were\npursued constantly and put to death, and wrongdoers were ever brought\nto justice; indeed, the people who suffered from evildoing went before\nthe rajah as children go before a father seeking redress.\n\nThe brethren lived happily together. In accordance with the advice of\na Rishi, they made a compact that when one of them was sitting beside\nDraupadi, none of the others should enter, and that if one of them\nshould be guilty of intrusion, he must needs go into exile for the\nspace of twelve years.\n\nAs it chanced, Yudhishthira was sitting with Draupadi one day when a\nBrahman, whose cattle had been carried off, hastened to Arjuna and\nentreated him to pursue the band of robbers. The weapons of the prince\nwere in the king's palace, and to obtain them Arjuna entered the room\nin which Yudhishthira and Draupadi sat, thus breaking the compact made\nby the brethren. He hastened after the robbers and recovered the stolen\ncattle, which he brought back unto the Brahman.\n\nOn his return to the palace, Arjuna said unto his brother that he\nmust needs become an exile for twelve years to expiate his offence.\nYudhishthira, however, sought to prevail upon him not to depart. But\nArjuna made answer that he had pledged his oath to fulfil the terms\nof the compact. \u201cI cannot waver from truth,\u201d he said; \u201ctruth is my\nweapon.\u201d So when he had bidden farewell to Pritha and Draupadi and his\nfour brethren, he took his departure from the city of Indra-prastha.\nAnd a band of Brahmans went with him.\n\nArjuna wandered through the jungle, and he visited many holy places.\nOne day he went unto Hurdwar, where the Ganges flows upon the plain,\nand he bathed in the holy waters. There he met with Ul\u00fap\u00ed, daughter of\nV\u00e1suka, king of the Nagas, who had great beauty. She loved him, and she\nled him to her father's palace, where he abode a time, and she gave him\nthe power to render himself invisible in water. A child was born unto\nthem, and he was named Iravat.\n\nThereafterwards Arjuna went southwards until he came to the Mahendra\nmountain.[247] He was received there by Parasu Rama, the Brahman hero,\nwho gave him gifts of powerful weapons, and imparted to him the secret\nof using them.\n\n[247] In Ganjam district, Madras.\n\nSo he wandered from holy place to holy place until he reached Manipur.\nNow the rajah of that place had a beautiful daughter whose name was\nChitr\u00e1ngad\u00e1. Arjuna loved her, and sought her for his bride. The rajah\nsaid: \u201cI have no other child, and if I give her unto thee, her son must\nremain here to become my heir, for the god Shiva hath decreed that the\nrajahs of this realm can have each but one child.\u201d Arjuna married the\nmaiden, and he dwelt for three years at Manipur. A son was born, and he\nwas named Chitrangada. Thereafter Arjuna set out on his wanderings once\nmore.\n\nHe passed through many strange lands, travelling westward, and at\nlength he reached the city of Prabh\u00e1sa[248], which is nigh to Dw\u00e1rak\u00e1,\non the southern sea, the capital of his kinsman Krishna, rajah of the\nY\u00e1dhavas.\n\n[248] _Pron._ pra-bha\u00b4sa.\n\n[Illustration: ARJUNA AND THE RIVER NYMPH\n_From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n 3]\n\nKrishna welcomed Arjuna, and took the Pandava hero to dwell in his\npalace. Then he gave a great feast on the holy mountain of Raivataka,\nwhich lasted for two days. Arjuna looked with love upon Krishna's fair\nsister, Subhadra[249], a girl of sweet smiles, and desired her for a\nbride.\n\n[249] _Pron._ soo-bhad\u00b4ra.\n\nNow it was the wish of Balarama that Subhadra should be given unto\nDuryodhana, whom, indeed, she would have chosen had a swayamvara\nbeen held. So Krishna advised Arjuna to carry her away by force, in\naccordance with the advice of the sages, who had said aforetime: \u201cMen\napplaud the Kshatriyas who win brides by abducting them.\u201d\n\nWhen the feast was over, Arjuna drove his chariot from the holy\nmountain towards Dwaraka until he came nigh to Subhadra. Nimbly he\nleapt down and took her by the hand and lifted her into his chariot;\nthen he drove hastily towards the city of Indra-prastha.\n\nBalarama was greatly angered, and desired to pursue Arjuna; and he\nspoke to Krishna, saying: \u201cThou art calm, and I can perceive that\nArjuna has done this thing with thy knowledge. Thou shouldst not have\ngiven our sister unto him without my consent. But let the deed be upon\nhis own head, for I will pursue him and slay him and his brethren, one\nand all.\u201d\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cArjuna is our kinsman[250] and of noble birth, and is\na worthy husband for Subhadra. If thou wilt pursue him and bring back\nour sister, no one else will marry her now because that she hath been\nin the house of another. Better were it that we should send messengers\nafter Arjuna and invite him to return here, so that the marriage may be\nheld according to our rites.\u201d\n\n[250] Krishna's father, Vasudeva, was the brother of Pritha, mother of\nArjuna.\n\nBalarama said: \u201cSo be it, seeing that thou art well pleased with this\nmatter.\u201d\n\nThus it came to pass that messengers followed Arjuna and prevailed\nupon him to return with Subhadra to Dwaraka. A great feast was then\nheld, and they were married with pomp and in state. And Arjuna abode at\nthe court of Krishna for many months, until the time of his exile came\nto an end.\n\nWhen Arjuna returned to Indra-prastha with Subhadra, he was received\nwith great rejoicing by his brethren. He went unto Draupadi and greeted\nher; but she said coldly: \u201cWhy come hither? Where is the sister of\nKrishna?\u201d\n\nArjuna soothed her with gentle words; and then Subhadra approached\nDraupadi, attired in red silk, but in the simple fashion of a keeper of\ncows, and made obeisance before her, saying: \u201cI am thy handmaiden.\u201d\n\nDraupadi embraced the sister of Krishna and said \u201cLet thy husband be\nwithout an enemy.\u201d\n\nThe heart of Subhadra was filled with joy at these words; she said: \u201cSo\nbe it.\u201d\n\nThus was peace made; the two women thereafter loved one another, and to\nPritha both were very dear.\n\nNow Draupadi became the mother of five sons to her five husbands; and\nSubhadra had one son only, and his name was Abhimanyu[251], who in the\nyears that followed was an illustrious warrior.\n\n[251] _Pron._ ab-hi-mun\u00b4yoo (\u201cu\u201d as in \u201cbun\u201d).\n\nAs time went on, the Pandavas grew more and more powerful. They waged\ngreat wars, until many rajahs owed them allegiance; and at length\nYudhishthira deemed that the time had come to hold his great Rajas\u00faya\nsacrifice to celebrate the supremacy of his power over all.\n\nKrishna came to Indra-prastha at this time and said: \u201cThere is now but\none rajah who must needs be overcome ere the Imperial sacrifice can be\nperformed: his name is Jarasandha, monarch of Magadha. He hath already\nconquered six-and-eighty kings, and he hath slaughtered those who were\nour kinsmen dear.\u201d\n\nNow this rajah was of great valour and matchless strength. His body\nwas invulnerable against weapons; not even the gods could wound him\nwith mace or sword or with arrow. He was also of miraculous birth,\nfor he was born of two mothers[252] who had eaten of a mantra-charmed\nmango which fell into the lap of his sire when that he was childless\nand was undergoing penances to obtain offspring. Nor did the babe come\nto life after birth until he was united by a Rakshasa woman, named\nJara, the goddess of the household, who, because she was worshipped in\nthe palace, performed some good each day in return.[253] So the child\nwas called Jarasandha[254], which signifies \u201cunited by Jara\u201d, and he\nincreased daily like to the moon in its first phase.\n\n[252] In one of the Egyptian temple chants Osiris is called \u201cthe\nprogeny of the two cows Isis and Nepthys\u201d.\n\n[253] Like the European household elves and fairies.\n\n[254] _Pron._ ja-ra-sund\u00b4ha.\n\nKrishna said unto Yudhishthira: \u201cThis monarch of Magadha cannot be\nvanquished in battle even by gods or by demons. But he may be overcome\nin a conflict, fighting with bare arms. Now I am \u2018Policy\u2019, Bhima is\n\u2018Strength\u2019, and Arjuna is \u2018Protector\u2019. Together, O king, we will surely\naccomplish the death of Jarasandha, who is arrogant and covetous and\nproud.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cDo as it seemeth best unto thee, O lord of the\nuniverse; thou art our wise counsellor and guide.\u201d\n\nThen Krishna, Arjuna, and Bhima disguised themselves as Brahmans and\nwent towards the city of Mathura, which was Jarasandha's capital. When\nthey arrived there they entered the palace of the mighty rajah like to\nmountain lions eyeing cattle-folds. They went boldly before the king\ndecked with flowers, and the king said: \u201cYe are welcome.\u201d\n\nArjuna and Bhima were silent, but Krishna spake to Jarasandha, saying:\n\u201cThese two men are observing vows, and will not open their mouths until\nmidnight; after that hour they will speak.\u201d\n\nThe king provided for his guests in the sacrificial chamber, and after\nmidnight he visited them, and discovering that they were warriors, he\nasked: \u201cTell me truly who ye are, and why ye have come hither.\u201d\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cWe are decked with flowers to achieve prosperity, and we\nhave entered the abode of our enemy to fulfil the vows of Kshatriyas.\u201d\n\nJarasandha said: \u201cI have never done you an injury. Why, therefore, do\nye regard me as your enemy?\u201d\n\nThen Krishna revealed himself, and upbraided the king because that he\nwas wont to offer up in sacrifice to Shiva the rajahs whom he took\ncaptive in battle. He said: \u201cThou hast slaughtered our kinsmen in this\nmanner because thou dost imagine there liveth no man who is so powerful\nas thou. For thy sins thou art doomed to go to Yama's kingdom, there\nto be tortured a time. But thou canst attain to the Heaven of Indra\nby dying the death of a Kshatriya in battle with thy peers. Now, O\nking, we challenge thee to combat. Set free the rajahs who are in thy\ndungeons, or die at our hands!\u201d\n\nSaid the king: \u201cI have taken captive in battle these royal prisoners\nof mine, whom I shall offer in sacrifice to Shiva, according to my\nvow. Let us therefore meet in battle, army against army, or in single\ncombat.\u201d\n\nKrishna said: \u201cMeet thou one of us in single combat. With whom dost\nthou desire to fight?\u201d\n\nThen Jarasandha expressed his wish to meet Bhima in battle. Bhima was\nmade glad thereat, for, in truth, he thirsted for the conflict; but he\ndesired that they should fight without weapons, and the king consented,\nand made ready for the fray.\n\nNow Jarasandha was of lofty stature and great strength, and he fought\nso fiercely that the combat lasted for thirteen days in presence of\ngreat multitudes of the people. In the end the king was swung aloft,\nand his back was broken over Bhima's knee. Then a mighty tumult arose,\nwhich caused all who were there to quake with fear, for the roar of the\nPandavas mingled with the shrieks of Jarasandha ere death silenced him.\n\nKrishna went boldly into the palace and set free all the rajahs who\nwere in captivity. And one by one they took vows to attend the Imperial\nsacrifice. Then Krishna received Sahadeva, son of Jarasandha, and\ninstalled him as Rajah of Magadha.\n\nWhen the great Yudhishthira came to know that Jarasandha had been\nslain, he sent forth his four brethren with great armies to collect\ntribute from every rajah in the world.[255] Some there were among the\nkings who welcomed them; others had to be conquered in battle. But when\nthey had sworn allegiance to Yudhishthira, they joined the Pandava\nforce and assisted in achieving further victories. A whole year went\npast ere the brethren returned again unto Indra-prastha.\n\n[255] That is, in Northern India.\n\nKrishna came from Dwaraka to aid Yudhishthira at the ceremony, and he\nbrought with him much wealth and a mighty army.\n\nStately pavilions were erected for the kings who came to attend the\ngreat sacrifice: their turrets were high, and they were swan-white and\nflecked with radiant gold. Silver and gold adorned the walls of the\nrooms, which were richly perfumed and carpeted and furnished to befit\nthe royal guests.\n\nThen the rajahs came to Indra-prastha in all their splendour and\ngreeted mighty Yudhishthira. Those who were friends brought gifts, and\nthose who had been subdued in battle brought tribute. White-haired\nand blind old Dhritarashtra came, and with him were Kripa and Bhishma\nand Vidura. Proud Duryodhana and his brethren came also, professing\nfriendship, and Karna came with bow and spear and mace. Drona and\nhis son, and their enemies Drupada and his son, were there also, and\nBalarama, Krishna's brother, and their father Vasudeva. And among many\nothers were jealous Sishupala[256], King of Chedi[257], and his son,\nand both wore bright golden armour.\n\n[256] _Pron._ sish-oo-pah\u00b4la.\n\n[257] _Pron._ chay\u00b4dee.\n\nMany Brahmans assembled at Indra-prastha, and Krishna honoured them and\nwashed their feet. The gifts that were given to these holy sages were\nbeyond computation. In great numbers came men of every caste also; and\nall were feasted at banquets, so that the words \u201cTake ye and eat\u201d were\nheard continuously on every hand.\n\nNow there were deep and smouldering jealousies among the assembled\nrajahs, and when the time came to honour him who was regarded as the\ngreatest among them by presenting the Arghya[258], their passions were\nset ablaze. First Bhishma spake forth and said that the honour was due\nto Krishna, the pious one, who was the noblest and greatest among them\nall. \u201cKrishna,\u201d he said, \u201cis the origin of all things; the universe\ncame into being for him alone. He is the incarnation of the Creator,\nthe everlasting one, who is beyond man's comprehension.\u201d\n\n[258] A gift of fruit or flowers, like an offering to the image of a\ngod.\n\nWhen the Arghya was given unto Krishna, Sishupala, the Rajah of Chedi,\narose in wrath and said: \u201cIt ill becomes thee, O Yudhishthira, to\nhonour thus an uncrowned chieftain. Gathered about thee are ruling\nkings of highest fame. If the honour be due to age, then Vasudeva can\nclaim it before his son; if it is due to the foremost rajah, then\nDrupada should be honoured; if it is due to wisdom, Drona is the most\nworthy; if it is due to holiness, Vyasa is the greatest. Drona's son\nhath more knowledge than Krishna, Duryodhana is peerless among younger\nmen, Kripa is the worthiest priest, and Karna the greatest archer. For\nwhat reason should homage be paid unto Krishna, who is neither the\nholiest priest, the wisest preceptor, the greatest warrior, nor the\nforemost chieftain? To the shame of this assembly be it said that it\ndoth honour the murderer of his own rajah, this cowherd of low birth.\u201d\n\nSo spake Sishupala, the tiger-hearted one, and terrible was his wrath.\nHe hated Krishna, because that he had carried away by force the\nbeautiful Rukmini, who had been betrothed unto himself, the mighty\nRajah of Chedi.\n\nKrishna then spoke. Calm was he of voice and demeanour, but his eyes\nwere bright. Unto the rajahs he said: \u201cHear me, O ye princes and\nkings! The evil-tongued Sishupala is descended from a daughter of\nour race, and in my heart I have never sought to work ill against a\nkinsman. But once, when I went eastward, he sacked my sea-swept Dwaraka\nand laid low its temple; once he broke faith with a rajah and cast him\ninto prison; once he seized the consort of a king by force; and once\nhe disguised himself as the husband of a chaste princess and deceived\nher. And I have suffered because of his sins, nor sought vengeance,\nbecause that he was of our own race. He hath even come after my consort\nRukmini, and is worthy of death.\u201d\n\nAs he spoke, the faces of many rajahs grew red with shame and anger,\nbut Sishupala laughed aloud and made answer: \u201cI seek no mercy from\nKrishna, nor do I fear him.\u201d\n\nThen Krishna thought of his bright, resistless discus, and immediately\nit was in his hand. In anger he spake forth and said: \u201cHear me, ye\nlords of earth! I have promised the pious mother of Sishupala to pardon\na hundred sins committed by her son. And I have fulfilled my vow. But\nnow the number is more than full, and I will slay him, O ye mighty\nrajahs, before your eyes.\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus, Krishna flung the discus, and it struck Sishupala\non the neck, so that his head was severed from his body. He fell down\nlike to a cliff struck by the thunderbolt. Then the assembled rajahs\nbeheld a great wonder, for the passion-cleansed soul of Sishupala\nissued from his body, beautiful as the sun in heaven, and went towards\nKrishna. Its eyes were like to lotus blooms, and its form like to a\nflame; and it adored Krishna and entered into his body.[259]\n\n[259] Krishna represented the worshippers of Vishnu, of whom he was\nan incarnation. Sishupala, who was reputed to have been born with\nthree eyes, was an incarnation of Shiva. Rukmini was an incarnation of\nLakshmi.\n\nThe rajahs all looked on, silent and amazed, while thunder bellowed out\nof heaven, and lightning flashed, and rain poured down in torrents.\nSome grew angry, and laid hands on their weapons to avenge the death of\nSishupala; others rejoiced that he had been slain; the Brahmans chanted\nthe praises of Krishna.\n\nYudhishthira commanded his brothers to perform the funeral rites over\nthe dead with every honour. So the body of Sishupala was burned and the\noblation poured forth. Then his son was proclaimed Rajah of Chedi.\n\nThereafter the great sacrifice was performed with solemnity and in\npeace. Krishna, who had maintained the supremacy of Yudhishthira by\nslaying a dangerous and jealous rival, looked on benignly.\n\nHoly water was sprinkled by the Brahmans, and all the monarchs made\nobeisance and honoured Yudhishthira, saying: \u201cThou hast extended the\nfame of thy mighty sire, Pandu, and thou art become even greater than\nhe was. Thou hast graced with this sacrifice thine high station and\nfulfilled all our hopes. Now, O emperor over all, permit us to depart\nto our own homes, and bestow thy blessing upon us.\u201d\n\nSo one by one they took leave of Yudhishthira and went away, and the\nfour Pandavas accompanied the greatest of them to the confines of their\nkingdoms. Krishna was the last to bid farewell.\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cUnto thee I owe all things. Because thou wert here,\nO valorous one, I was able to perform the great sacrifice.\u201d\n\nKrishna said: \u201cMonarch of all! rule thou over thy people with a\nfather's wisdom and care. Be unto them like rain which nourisheth the\nparched fields; be a shade in hot sunshine; be a cloudless heaven\nbending over all. Be thou ever free from pride and passion; ever rule\nwith power and justice and holiness, O Yudhishthira.\u201d\n\nSo he spake from his chariot and then went his way, and Yudhishthira\nturned homeward with tear-dimmed eyes.\n\nNow when Duryodhana had witnessed the triumph of the Pandavas, his\nheart burned with jealous rage. He envied the splendour of the palaces\nat Indra-prastha; he envied the glory achieved by Yudhishthira. Well he\nknew that he could not overcome the Pandavas in open conflict, so he\nplotted with his brethren to accomplish their fall by artifice and by\nwrong.\n\nAs in after-time the wise Sanjaya said: \u201cThe gods first deprive of his\nreason that man unto whom they ultimately send disgrace and defeat\u201d.\n\nBut Duryodhana had to work the will of the Creator under the influence\nof fate, and it was doomed that the Pandavas should suffer for a time\nat his hands.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XV\n\nThe Great Gambling Match\n\n Duryodhana's Plot\u2014Shakuni the Gambler\u2014Loaded Dice\u2014Challenge to\n Yudhishthira\u2014An Unequal Contest\u2014Pandavas lose Kingdom and become\n Slaves\u2014Draupadi Staked and Lost\u2014How Duhsasana humbled her\u2014Pandava\n Queen's Appeals\u2014Treated as a Menial\u2014Attempt to Disrobe her\u2014Taunted\n by Karna\u2014Bhima's Terrible Vows\u2014Alarming Omens\u2014Pandavas regain\n Liberty\u2014Second Gambling Match\u2014Pandavas go into Exile.\n\n\nNow Shakuni, Prince of Gandhara,[260] and brother of Dhritarashtra's\nqueen, was renowned for his skill as a gambler. He always enjoyed good\nfortune because that he played with loaded dice. Duryodhana plotted\nwith him, desiring greatly to subjugate the Pandavas, and Shakuni said:\n\u201cBe advised by me. Yudhishthira loves the dice, although he knows not\nhow to play. Ask him to throw dice with me, for there is no gambler who\nis my equal in the three worlds. I will put him to shame. I will win\nfrom him his kingdom, O bull among men.\u201d\n\n[260] Candahar\n\nDuryodhana was well pleased at this proposal, and he went before his\nblind father, the maharajah, and prevailed upon him to invite the\nPandavas to Hastinapur for a friendly gambling match, despite the\nwarnings of the royal counsellors.\n\nSaid Dhritarashtra: \u201cIf the gods are merciful, my sons will cause no\ndispute. Let it be as fate hath ordained. No evil can happen so long\nas I am near, and Bhishma and Drona are near also. Therefore, let the\nPandavas be invited hither as my son desireth.\u201d\n\nSo Vidura, who feared trouble, was sent unto Indra-prastha to say:\n\u201cThe maharajah is about to hold a great festival at Hastinapur, and he\ndesires that Yudhishthira and his brethren, their mother Pritha and\ntheir joint wife Draupadi, should be present. A great gambling match\nwill be played.\u201d\n\nWhen Yudhishthira heard these words, he sorrowed greatly, for well\nhe knew that dice-throwing was ofttimes the cause of bitter strife.\nBesides, he was unwilling to play Prince Shakuni, that desperate\nand terrible gambler.... But he could not refuse the invitation of\nDhritarashtra, or, like a true Kshatriya, disdain a challenge either to\nfight or to play with his peers.\n\nSo it came to pass that the Pandava brethren, with Pritha, their\nmother, and their joint wife Draupadi, journeyed to Hastinapur in\nall their splendour. Dhritarashtra welcomed them in the presence of\nBhishma and Drona and Duryodhana and Karna; then they were received\nby Queen Gandhari, and the wives of the Kaurava princes; and all the\ndaughters-in-law of the blind maharajah became sad because that they\nwere jealous of the beauty of Draupadi and the splendour of her attire.\n\nThe Pandava lords and ladies went unto the dwelling which had been\nprepared for them, and there they were visited in turn by the lords and\nladies of Hastinapur.\n\nOn the day that followed, Yudhishthira and his brethren went together\nto the gambling match, which was held in a gorgeous pavilion, roofed\nwith arching crystal and decorated with gold and lapis lazuli: it had a\nhundred doors and a thousand great columns, and it was richly carpeted.\nAll the princes and great chieftains and warriors of the kingdom were\ngathered there. And Prince Shakuni of Gandhari was there also with his\nfalse dice.\n\nWhen salutations had passed, and the great company were seated, Shakuni\ninvited Yudhishthira to play.\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cI will play if mine opponent will promise to throw\nfairly, without trickery and deceit. Deceitful gambling is sinful,\nand unworthy a Kshatriya; there is no prowess in it. Wise men do not\napplaud a player who winneth by foul means.\u201d\n\nShakuni said: \u201cA skilled gambler ever playeth with purpose to vanquish\nhis opponent, as one warrior fighteth another less skilled than himself\nto accomplish his overthrow. Such is the practise in all contests; a\nman plays or fights to achieve victory.... But if thou art in dread of\nme, O Yudhishthira, and afraid that thou wilt lose, 'twere better if\nthou didst not play at all.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cHaving been challenged, I cannot withdraw. I\nfear not to fight or to play with any man.... But first say who doth\nchallenge and who is to lay stakes equally with me.\u201d\n\nThen Duryodhana spoke, saying: \u201cO rajah, I will supply jewels and gold\nand any stakes thou wilt of as great value as thou canst set down. It\nis for me that Shakuni, my uncle, is to throw the dice.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cThis is indeed a strange challenge. One man is to\nthrow the dice and another is to lay the stakes. Such is contrary to\nall practice. If, however, thou art determined to play in this fashion,\nlet the game begin.\u201d\n\nWell did the Rajah of Indra-prastha know then that the match would not\nbe played fairly. But he sat down, notwithstanding, to throw dice with\nShakuni.\n\nAt the first throw Yudhishthira lost; indeed, he lost at every throw\non that fatal day. He gambled away all his money and all his jewels,\nhis jewelled chariot with golden bells, and all his cattle; still he\nplayed on, and he lost his thousand war elephants, his slaves and\nbeautiful slave girls, and the remainder of his goods; and next, he\nstaked and lost the whole kingdom of the Pandavas, save the lands which\nhe had gifted to the Brahmans. Nor did he cease to play then, despite\nthe advice offered him by the chieftains who were there. One by one he\nstaked and lost his brethren; and he staked himself and lost also.\n\nSaid Shakuni: \u201cYou have done ill, Yudhishthira, in staking thine own\nself, for now thou hast become a slave; but if thou wilt stake Draupadi\nnow and win, all that thou hast lost will be restored unto thee.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira said: \u201cSo be it. I will stake Draupadi.\u201d\n\nAt these words the whole company was stricken with horror. Vidura\nswooned, and the faces of Bhishma and Drona grew pallid; many groaned;\nbut Duryodhana and his brethren rejoiced openly before all men.\n\nShakuni threw the dice, and Yudhishthira lost this the last throw. In\nthis manner was Draupadi won by Duryodhana.\n\nThen all the onlookers gazed one upon another in silence and wide-eyed.\nKarna and Duhsasana[261] and other young princes laughed aloud.\n\n[261] _Pron._ doo-sas\u00b4a-na.\n\nDuryodhana rose proudly and spake unto Vidura, saying: \u201cNow hasten unto\nDraupadi and bid her to come hither to sweep the chambers with the\nother bondswomen.\u201d\n\nVidura was made angry, and answered him: \u201cThy words are wicked, O\nDuryodhana. Thou canst not command a lady of royal birth to become a\nhousehold slave. Besides, she is not thy slave, because Yudhishthira\ndid stake his own freedom before he staked Draupadi. Thou couldst not\nwin aught from a slave who had no power to stake the princess.\u201d\n\nBut Duryodhana cursed Vidura, and bade one of his servants to bring\nDraupadi before him.\n\nSaid Vidura: \u201cDuryodhana is this day deprived of his reason. Dishonesty\nis one of the doors to hell. By practising dishonesty Duryodhana will\naccomplish yet the ruin of the Kauravas.\u201d\n\nThe beautiful Draupadi was sitting at peace within the fair dwelling\nset apart for the Pandavas on the banks of the Ganges; its walls\nand towers were mirrored on the broad clear waters. Then suddenly,\nas a jackal enters stealthily the den of a lion, the menial sent by\nDuryodhana entered the palace and stood before high-born Draupadi.\n\nSaid this man: \u201cO queen, the mighty son of Pandu hath played and lost;\nhe hath lost all, even his reason, and he hath staked thee, and thou\nhast been won by Duryodhana. And now Duryodhana bids me to say that\nthou art become his slave, and must obey him like to other female\nslaves. So come thou with me, for thou must henceforth engage in menial\nwork.\u201d\n\nDraupadi was astounded when he spake these words, and in her anguish\nshe cried: \u201cHave I heard thee aright? Hath my husband, the king, staked\nand lost me in his madness? Did he stake and loose aught beside?\u201d\n\nSaid the man: \u201cYudhishthira hath lost all his riches and his kingdom;\nhe staked his brethren and lost them one by one; he staked himself and\nlost; and then he staked thee, O queen, and lost also. Therefore, come\nthou with me.\u201d\n\nDraupadi rose in her pride and spoke angrily, saying: \u201cIf my lord did\nstake himself and become a slave, he could not wager me, for a slave\nowns neither his own life nor the life of another. Speak, therefore,\nunto my husband these words, and unto Duryodhana say: \u2018Draupadi hath\nnot been won\u2019.\u201d\n\nThe man returned to the assembly and spake unto Yudhishthira the words\nwhich Draupadi had said, but he bowed his head and was silent.\n\nDuryodhana was made angry by the defiant answer of the proud queen, and\nhe said unto his brother Duhsasana: \u201cThe sons of Pandu are our slaves,\nand thy heart is without fear for them. Go thou to the palace and bid\nthe princess, my humble menial, to come hither quickly.\u201d\n\nRed-eyed and proud Duhsasana hastened to the palace. He entered the\ninner chambers and stood before Draupadi, who was clad in but a single\nrobe, while her hair hung loosely.\n\nSaid the evil-hearted Kaurava: \u201cO princess of Panchala with fair lotus\neyes, thou hast been staked and lost fairly at the game of hazard.\nHasten, therefore, and stand before thy lord Duryodhana, for thou art\nnow his bright-eyed slave.\u201d\n\nDraupadi heard and trembled. She covered her eyes with her hands before\nthe hated Duhsasana; her cheeks turned pale and her heart sickened.\nThen suddenly she leapt up and sought to escape to an inner room. But\nthe evil-hearted prince seized her by the hair, for he no longer feared\nthe sons of Pandu, and the beautiful princess quivered and shook in\nher loose attire like to a sapling which is shaken by the storm wind.\nCrouching on her knees, she cried angrily, while tears streamed from\nher lotus eyes: \u201cBegone! O shameless prince. Can a modest woman appear\nbefore strangers in loose attire?\u201d\n\n[Illustration: THE ORDEAL OF QUEEN DRAUPADI\n_From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n 4]\n\nSaid stern and cruel Duhsasana: \u201cEven if thou wert naked now, thou must\nfollow me. Hast thou not become a slave, fairly staked and fairly won?\nHenceforth thou wilt serve among the other menials.\u201d\n\nTrembling and faint, Draupadi was dragged through the streets by\nDuhsasana. When she stood before the elders and the chieftains in the\npavilion she cried: \u201cForgive me because that I have come hither in this\nunseemly plight....\u201d\n\nBhishma and Drona and the other elders who were there hung their heads\nin shame.\n\nUnto Duhsasana Draupadi said angrily: \u201cCease thy wickedness! Defile me\nno longer with unclean hands. A woman's hair is sacred.\u201d\n\nSacred indeed were the locks of the Pandava queen, for they had been\nsprinkled with water sanctified by mantras at the imperial sacrifice.\n\nWeeping, she cried: \u201cHear and help me, O ye elders. You have wives\nand children of your own. Will you permit this wrong to be continued.\nAnswer me now.\u201d\n\nBut no man spake a word.\n\nDraupadi wept and said: \u201cWhy this silence?... Will no man among ye\nprotect a sinless woman?... Lost is the fame of the Kauravas, the\nancient glory of Bharata, and the prowess of the Kshatriyas!... Why\nwill not the sons of Pandu protect their outraged queen?... And hath\nBhishma lost his virtue and Drona his power?... Will Yudhishthira no\nlonger defend one who is wronged?... Why are ye all silent while this\ndeed of shame is done before you?\u201d\n\nAs she spake thus, Draupadi glanced round the sons of Pandu one by one,\nand their hearts thirsted for vengeance. Bhishma's face was dark, Drona\nclenched his teeth, and Vidura, white and angry, gazed upon Duhsasana\nwith amaze while he tore off Draupadi's veil and addressed her with\nfoul words. When she looked towards the Kaurava brethren, Duhsasana\nsaid: \u201cHa! on whom darest thou to look now, O slave?\u201d\n\nShakuni and Kama laughed to hear Draupadi called a slave, and they\ncried out: \u201cWell spoken, well spoken!\u201d\n\nDuhsasana endeavoured to strip the princess naked before the assembly;\nbut Draupadi, in her distress, prayed aloud to Krishna, invoking him\nas the creator of all and the soul of the universe, and entreated him\nto help her. Krishna heard her, and multiplied her garments so that\nDuhsasana was unable to accomplish his wicked purpose.\n\nKarna spake to Draupadi and said: \u201c'Tis not thy blame, O princess, that\nthou hast fallen so low. A woman's fate is controlled by her husband;\nYudhishthira hath gambled thee away. Thou wert his, and must accept thy\nfate. Henceforward thou wilt be the slave of the Kaurava princes. Thou\nmust obey them and please them with thy beauty.... 'Tis meet that thou\nshouldst now seek for thyself a husband who will love thee too well to\nstake thee at dice and suffer thee to be put to shame.... Be assured\nthat no one will blame a humble menial, as thou now art, who looks with\neyes of love upon great and noble warriors. Remember that Yudhishthira\nis no longer thy husband; he hath become a slave, and a slave can have\nno wife.... Ah! sweet Princess of Panchala, those whom thou didst\nchoose at thy swayamvara have gambled and lost thee; their kingdom they\nhave lost, and their power also.\u201d\n\nAt these words Bhima's bosom heaved with anger and with shame. Red-eyed\nhe scowled upon Karna; he seemed to be the image of flaming Wrath.\nUnto Yudhishthira he spake grimly, saying: \u201cIf you hadst not staked\nour freedom and our queen, O king and elder brother, this son of a\ncharioteer would not have taunted us in this manner.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira bowed his head in shame, nor answered a word.\n\nArjuna reproved Bhima for his bitter words; but Pritha's mighty son,\nthe slayer of Asuras, said: \u201cIf I am not permitted to punish the\ntormentor of Draupadi, bring me a fire that I may thrust my hands into\nit.\u201d\n\nA deep uproar rose from the assembly, and the elders applauded the\nwronged lady and censured Duhsasana. Bhima clenched his hands and, with\nquivering lips, cried out:\n\n\u201cHear my terrible words, O ye Kshatriyas.... May I never reach Heaven\nif I do not yet seize Duhsasana in battle and, tearing open his breast,\ndrink his very life blood!...\u201d\n\nAgain he spoke and said: \u201cIf Yudhishthira will permit me, I will slay\nthe wretched sons of Dhritarashtra without weapons, even as a lion\nslays small animals.\u201d\n\nThen Bhishma and Vidura and Drona cried out: \u201cForbear, O Bhima!\nEverything is possible in thee.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana gloried in his hour of triumph, and unto the elder of the\nPandava brethren spake tauntingly and said: \u201cYudhishthira, thou art\nspokesman for thy brethren, and they owe thee obedience. Speak and say,\nthou who dost ever speak truly, hast thou lost thy kingdom and thy\nbrethren and thine own self? O Yudhishthira, hast thou lost even the\nbeauteous Draupadi? And hath she, thy wedded wife, become our humble\nmenial?\u201d\n\nYudhishthira heard him with downcast eyes, but his lips moved not....\nThen Karna laughed; but Bhishma, pious and old, wept in silence.\n\nThen Duryodhana cast burning eyes upon Draupadi, and, baring his knee,\ninvited her, as a slave, to sit upon it.\n\nBhima gnashed his teeth, for he was unable to restrain his pent-up\nanger. With eyes flashing like lightning, and in a voice like to\nthunder he cried out: \u201cHear my vow! May I never reach Heaven or meet my\nancestors hereafter if, for these deeds of sin, I do not break the knee\nof Duryodhana in battle, and drink the blood of Duhsasana!\u201d\n\nThe flames of wrath which leapt on the forehead of Bhima were like red\nsparks flying from tough branches on a crackling fire.\n\nDhritarashtra was sitting in his palace, nor knew aught of what was\npassing. The Brahmans, robed in white, were chanting peacefully their\nevening mantras, when a jackal howled in the sacrificial chamber. Asses\nbrayed in response, and ravens answered their cries from all sides.\nThose who heard these dread omens exclaimed: \u201c_Swashti! Swashti!_\u201d[262]\n\n[262] Similar to \u201cAmen\u201d.\n\nDhritarashtra shook with terror, and when Vidura had told him all that\nhad taken place, he said: \u201cThe luckless and sinful Duryodhana hath\nbrought shame upon the head of Rajah Drupada's sweet daughter, and thus\ncourted death and destruction. May the prayers of a sorrowful old man\nremove the wrath of Heaven which these dark omens have revealed.\u201d\n\nThen the blind maharajah was led to Draupadi, and before all the elders\nand the princes he spoke to her, kindly and gently, and said: \u201cNoble\nqueen and virtuous daughter, wife of pious Yudhishthira, and purest of\nall women, thou art very dear unto my heart. Alas! my sons have wronged\nthee in foul manner this day. O forgive them now, and let the wrath of\nHeaven be averted. Whatsoever thou wilt ask of me will be thine.\u201d\n\nSaid Draupadi: \u201cO mighty maharajah, thou art merciful; may happiness\nbe thy dower. I ask of thee to set at liberty now my lord and husband\nYudhishthira. Having been a prince, it is not seemly that he should be\ncalled a slave.\u201d\n\nDhritarashtra said: \u201cThy wish is granted. Ask a second boon and\nblessing, O fair one. Thou dost deserve more than a single boon.\u201d\n\nSaid Draupadi: \u201cLet Arjuna and Bhima and their younger brethren be\nset free also and allowed to depart now with their horses and their\nchariots and their weapons.\u201d\n\nDhritarashtra said: \u201cSo be it, O high-born princess. Ask yet another\nboon and blessing and it will be granted thee.\u201d\n\nSaid Draupadi: \u201cI seek no other boon, thou generous monarch: I am a\nKshatriya by birth, and not like to a Brahman, who craveth for gifts\nwithout end. Thou hast freed my husbands from slavery: they will regain\ntheir fortunes by their own mighty deeds.\u201d\n\nThen the Pandava brethren departed from Hastinapur with Pritha and\nDraupadi, and returned unto the city of Indra-prastha.\n\nThe Kauravas were made angry, and Duryodhana remonstrated with his\nroyal sire and said: \u201cThou hast permitted the Pandava princes to depart\nin their anger; now they will make ready to wage war against us to\nregain their kingdom and their wealth; when they return they will slay\nus all. Permit us, therefore, to throw dice with them once again. We\nwill stake our liberty, and be it laid down that the side which loseth\nshall go into exile for twelve full years, and into concealment for a\nyear thereafter. By this arrangement a bloody war may be averted.\u201d\n\nDhritarashtra granted his son's wish and recalled the Pandavas. So\nit came to pass that Yudhishthira sat down once again to play with\nShakuni, and once again Shakuni brought forth the loaded dice. Ere long\nthe game ended, and Yudhishthira had lost.\n\nDuhsasana danced with joy and cried aloud: \u201cNow is established the\nempire of Duryodhana.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhima: \u201cBe not too gladsome, O Duhsasana. Hear and remember my\nwords: May I never reach Heaven or meet my sires until I shall drink\nthy blood!\u201d\n\nThen the Pandava princes cast off their royal garments and clad\nthemselves in deerskins like humble mendicants. Yudhishthira bade\nfarewell to Dhritarashtra and Bhishma and Kripa and Vidura, one by one,\nand he even said farewell to the Kaurava brethren.\n\nSaid Vidura: \u201cThy mother, the royal Pritha, is too old to wander with\nthee through forest and jungle. Let her dwell here until the years of\nyour exile have passed away.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira spoke for his brethren and said: \u201cBe it so, O saintly\nVidura. Now bless us ere we depart, for thou hast been unto us like to\na father.\u201d\n\nThen Vidura blessed each one of the Pandava princes, saying: \u201cBe\nsaintly in exile, subdue your passions, learn truth in your sorrow, and\nreturn in happiness. May these eyes be blessed by beholding thee in\nHastinapur once again.\u201d\n\nPritha wept over Draupadi and blessed her. Then the Princess of\nPanchala went forth with loose tresses; but ere she departed from the\ncity she vowed a vow, saying: \u201cFrom this day my hair will fall over my\nforehead until Bhima shall have slain Duhsasana and drunk his blood;\nthen shall Bhima tie up my tresses while his hands are yet wet with the\nblood of Duhsasana.\u201d\n\nThe Pandava princes wandered towards the deep forest, and Draupadi\nfollowed them.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVI\n\nSecond Exile of the Pandavas\n\n The Gift of the Sun God\u2014Life in the Jungle\u2014Bhima and the Ape\n God\u2014Flowers of Paradise\u2014Draupadi's Complaint to Krishna\u2014Reproved\n by Yudhishthira\u2014Arjuna wrestles with the God Shiva\u2014His Celestial\n Weapon\u2014Visit to Indra's Heaven\u2014Battle with Sea Giants\u2014Sages in the\n Forest\u2014Duryodhana captured by Gandharvas\u2014Pandavas rescue him\u2014His\n Desire to perish\u2014The Rival Sacrifice\u2014Karna's Vow\u2014Adventure at\n Sacred Pond\u2014Pandavas in Virata\u2014Adventures of Brethren\u2014The Cattle\n Raid\u2014Kauravas defeated\u2014Marriage of Arjuna's Son\u2014End of Exile.\n\n\nYudhishthira lamented his fate to the Brahmans as he wandered towards\nthe forest. \u201cOur kingdom is lost to us,\u201d he said, \u201cand our fortune;\neverything is lost; we depart in sorrow, and must live on fruits and\nroots and the produce of the chase. In the woods are many perils\u2014many\nreptiles and hungry wild animals seeking their prey.\u201d\n\nA Brahman advised the deposed rajah to call upon the sun god, and\nYudhishthira prayed: \u201cO sun, thou art the eye of the universe, the soul\nof all things that are; thou art the creator; thou art Indra, thou art\nVishnu, thou art Brahma, thou art Prajapati, lord of creatures, father\nof gods and man; thou art fire, thou art Mind; thou art lord of all,\nthe eternal Brahma.\u201d\n\nThen Surya[263] appeared before Yudhishthira and gave unto him a copper\npot, which was ever filled with food for the brethren.[264]\n\n[263] The sun god.\n\n[264] Like the \u201cPot of Worth\u201d possessed by the Celtic Finn-mac-Coul.\n\nFor twelve long years the Pandavas lived in the woods with their wife\nDraupadi, and Dhaumya, the Brahman. Whatever food they obtained, they\nset apart a portion for the holy men and ate the rest. They visited\nholy shrines; they bathed in sacred waters; they performed their\ndevotions. Ofttimes they held converse with Brahmans and sages, who\ninstructed them in pious works and blessed them, and also promised them\nthat their lost kingdom would be restored in the fullness of time.\n\nThey wandered in sunshine and in shade; they dwelt in pleasant places,\namidst abundant fruits and surrounded by flowers. They suffered also\nfrom tempests and heavy rains, when their path would be torn by\nstreams, and Draupadi would swoon, and all the brethren would be faint\nand weary and in despair. Then Bhima would carry them all on his back\nand under his arms.\n\nThe gods appeared unto the brethren during their exile. Dharma, god of\nwisdom and holiness, addressed Yudhishthira his son many questions,\nwhich he answered piously and well. Hanuman, son of Vayu, the wind god,\nwas made manifest before Bhima. It chanced that the strong Pandava, who\nwas also Vayu's son, was hastening on his way and went swift as the\nwind; the earth shook under him and trees fell down, and he killed at\none touch of his foot tigers and lions and even great elephants that\nsought to obstruct his path.[265] Hanuman shrank to the size of an ape,\nbut his tail spread out in such great proportions across Bhima's path,\nthat he was compelled to stay his course and stand still. He spake to\nBhima then and told the tale of Rama and Sita. Then he grew suddenly as\nlofty as Vindhya mountain and transported his brother, the Pandava,\nto the garden of Kuvera,[266] King of Yakshas, lord of treasure,\nwho dwells in Mount Kailasa in the Himalayas; then Bhima procured\nsweet-scented flowers, which gave youth to those who had grown aged and\nturned grief into joy, and these he gave unto Draupadi.\n\n[265] Like the Celtic giant Caoilte, who went swifter than the March\nwind, and the Teutonic storm-giant Ecke, who gave chase to Dietrich\nin his character as Thunor (Thor).\u2014See _Teutonic Myth and Legend_,\nChapter xxxviii.\n\n[266] Like the Teutonic elf-king Laurin, whose wonderful rose garden is\namong the Tyrolese mountains.\u2014_Teutonic Myth and Legend._\n\nKrishna came to visit the Pandavas in the forest, and Draupadi lamented\nbefore him, saying: \u201cThe evil-hearted Duryodhana dared to claim me for\nhis slave. Fie! fie! upon the Pandavas because that they looked on in\nsilence when I was put to shame. Is it not the duty of a husband to\nprotect his wife?... These husbands of mine, who have the prowess of\nlions, saw me afflicted, nor lifted a hand to save.\u201d\n\nDraupadi wept bitter tears from her exquisite coppery eyes, but Krishna\nat length comforted her, saying: \u201cThou wilt yet live to see the wives\nof those men who persecuted thee lamenting over their fallen husbands\nas they welter in their life blood.... I will help the Pandavas, and\nthou wilt be once again a queen over kings.\u201d\n\nKrishna said to Yudhishthira: \u201cHad I been at Dwaraka when thou wert\ncalled upon to visit Hastinapur, this unfair match would not have\ntaken place, for I would have warned Dhritarashtra. But I was waging\na war against demons.... What can I do, now that this disaster is\naccomplished?... It is not easy to confine the waters after the dam\nhath burst.\u201d\n\nAfter Krishna returned to his kingdom, Draupadi continued to lament her\nfate. She said to Yudhishthira: \u201cThe sinful, evil-hearted Duryodhana\nhath a heart of steel.... O king, I lie on the ground, remembering\nmy soft luxurious bed. I, who sit on a grass mat, cannot forget my\nchairs of ivory. I have seen thee in the court of monarchs; now thou\nart a beggar. I have gazed upon thee in thy silken robes, who art now\nclad in rags.... What peace can my heart know now, O king, remembering\nthe things that have been? My heart is full of grief.... Doth not thy\nwrath blaze up, seeing thy brothers in distress and me in sorrow?\nHow canst thou forgive thy cruel enemy? Art thou devoid of anger,\nYudhishthira?... Alas! a Kshatriya who doth not act at the right\nmoment\u2014who forgiveth the foeman he should strike down, is the most\ndespised of all men. The hour hath now come for thee to seek vengeance;\nthe present is not a time for forgiveness.\u201d\n\nSaid the wise Yudhishthira: \u201cAnger is sinful; it is the cause of\ndestruction. He that is angry cannot distinguish between right and\nwrong. Anger slayeth one who should be reverenced; it doth reverence\nto one who should be slain. An angry man may commit his own soul to\nhell. Know thou that wise men control their wrath so as to achieve\nprosperity both in this world and in the next. A weak man cannot\ncontrol his wrath; but men of wisdom and insight seek to subdue their\npassions, knowing that he who is angry cannot perceive things in their\ntrue perspective. None but ignorant people regard anger as equivalent\nto energy.... Because fools commit folly, should I who seek wisdom do\nlikewise?... If wrongs were not righted except by chastisement, the\nwhole world would speedily be destroyed, for anger is destruction;\nit maketh men to slay one another. O fair Draupadi! it is meet to\nbe forgiving; one should forgive every wrong. He who is forgiving\nshall attain to eternal bliss; he who is foolish and cannot forgive\nis destroyed both in this world and in the next. Forgiveness is the\ngreatest virtue; it is sacrifice; it is tradition; it is inspiration.\nForgiveness, O beautiful one! is holiness; it is Truth; it is Brahma.\nBy forgiveness the universe is made steadfast.... The wise man who\nlearns how to forgive attaineth to Brahma (the highest god). O\nDraupadi, remember thou the verses of the sage\u2014\n\n \u2018Let not thy wrath possess thee,\n But worship peace with joy;\n Who yieldeth to temptation\n That great god will destroy\u2019.\n\nHe who is self-controlled will attain to sovereignty, and the qualities\nof self-control are forgiveness and gentleness. O let me attain with\nself-control to everlasting goodness!\u201d\n\nSaid Draupadi: \u201cI bow down before the Creator and Ordainer of life and\nthe three worlds, for my mind, it seems, hath been dimmed. By deeds men\nare influenced, for deeds produce consequences; by works are they set\nfree.... Man can never gain prosperity by forgiveness and gentleness;\nthy virtue hath not shielded thee, O king; thou art following a\nshadow.... Men should not obey their own wills, but the will of the god\nwho hath ordained all things.... Yet O, methinks, as a doll is moved by\nstrings, so are living creatures moved by the lord of all; he doth play\nwith them as a child with a toy.... Those who have done wrong are now\nhappy, and I am full of grief and in sore distress. Can I praise thy\ngod who permits of such inequality? What reward doth thy god receive\nwhen he alloweth Duryodhana to prosper\u2014he who is full of evil; he who\ndoth destroy virtue and religion? If a sin doth not rebound on the\nsinner, then a man's might is the greatest force and not thy god, and I\nsorrow for those who are devoid of might.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira made answer: \u201cAlas! thy words are the words of an\nunbeliever. I do not act merely for the sake of reward. I give because\nit is right to give, and I sacrifice because it is my duty so to do.\nI follow in the paths of those who have lived wise and holy lives,\nbecause that my heart turneth toward goodness. I am no trader in\ngoodness, ever looking for the fruits thereof. The man who doubteth\nvirtue will be born among the brutes;[267] he will never attain to\neverlasting bliss. O do not, thou fair one, doubt the ancient religion\nof thy people! God will reward; he is the giver of fruits for deeds;\nvirtue and vice bear fruits.... The wise are content with little in\nthis world; the fools are not content although they receive much,\nbecause they will have no joy hereafter.... The gods are shrouded in\nmystery; who can pierce the cloud which covers the doings of the gods?\nAlthough thou canst not perceive the fruits of goodness, do not doubt\nthy religion or the gods. Let thy scepticism give room to faith. O do\nnot slander the great god, but endeavour to learn how to know him. Turn\nnot away from the Supreme One who giveth eternal life, O Draupadi.\u201d\n\n[267] In the next life in this world, according to the belief in\ntransmigration of souls.\n\nSaid Draupadi: \u201cI do not slander my god, the lord of all, for in my\nsorrow I but rave.... But yet I hold that a man should act, lest by\ninaction he is censured. Without acts no one can live. He who believeth\nin chance and destiny and is inactive, liveth a life of weakness and\nhelplessness which cannot last long. Success comes to him who acts, and\nsuccess depends on time and circumstance. So hath a wise Brahman taught\nme.\u201d\n\nBhima then spoke, charging Yudhishthira with weakness, and pleading\nwith him to wrest the sovereignty from Duryodhana: \u201cO thou art like\nfroth,\u201d he cried; \u201cthou art unripe fruit! O king, strike down thine\nenemies! Battle is the highest virtue for a Kshatriya.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cVerily, my heart burneth because of our sufferings.\nBut I have given my pledge to remain in exile, and it cannot be\nviolated, O Bhima. Virtue is greater than life and prosperity in this\nworld; it is the way to celestial bliss.\u201d\n\nThen they were all silent, and they pondered over these things.\n\nNow the Pandavas had need of celestial weapons, for these were\npossessed by Drona and Bhishma and Karna. In time, therefore, the holy\nsage Vyasa appeared before Arjuna and bade him to visit Mount Kailasa,\nthe high seat of the gracious and propitious god Shiva, the three-eyed,\nthe blue-throated, and to perform penances there with deep devotion, so\nas to obtain gifts of arms. So Arjuna went his way, and when he reached\nthe mountain of Shiva he went through great austerities: he raised his\narms aloft and, leaning on naught, stood on his tiptoes; for food he\nate at first withered leaves, then he fed upon air alone. Great was the\nfervour of his austerities, and from the ground smoke issued forth.\nThe Rishis pleaded with Shiva, fearing disaster from the penances of\nArjuna. Then the god assumed the form of a hunter and went towards\nIndra's warrior son, whom he challenged to single combat. First they\nfought with weapons; then they wrestled one with another fiercely and\nlong, and in the end Arjuna was cast upon the ground and he swooned.\nWhen that brave Pandava regained consciousness he made a clay image of\nShiva, prostrated himself and worshipped the gracious one, and made an\noffering of flowers. Soon afterwards he beheld his opponent wearing\nthe garland he had given, and he knew that he had wrestled with Shiva\nhimself. Arjuna fell down before him, and received from the god a\ncelestial weapon named Pasupata. Then a great storm broke forth, and\nthe earth shook, and the spirit of the weapon stood beside Arjuna,\nready to obey his will.\n\nNext appeared Indra, king of gods, Varuna, god of waters, Yama, king\nof the dead, and Kuvera, lord of treasures, and they stood upon the\nmountain summit in all their glory; unto Arjuna they gave gifts of\nother celestial weapons.\n\nThereafter Indra transported his son to his own bright city, the\ncelestial Swarga, where the flowers always bloom and sweet music is\never wafted on fragrant winds. There he beheld sea-born Apsaras, the\nheavenly brides of gods and heroes, and music-loving Gandharvas, who\nsang songs and danced merrily in their joy. And Urvasi, a fair Apsara\nof faultless form, with bright eyes and silken hair, looked with love\nupon Arjuna; but she sought in vain to subdue him, whereat she spoke\nscornfully, saying: \u201cKama, god of love, hath wounded me with his\narrows, yet thou dost scorn me. For this, O Arjuna, thou wilt for a\nseason live unregarded among women as a dancer and musician.\u201d\n\nArjuna was troubled, but Indra said: \u201cThis curse will work out for thy\ngood.\u201d\n\nArjuna abode in Indra's fair city for the space of five years. He\nachieved great skill in music and in dance and song. And he was trained\nalso to wield the celestial weapons which the gods had given unto him.\n\nNow the demons and giants who are named the Daityas and Danavas were\nthe ancient enemies of Indra. Certain of them there were who had their\ndwellings in the lowest division of the underworld beneath the floor\nof ocean, which is called Patala. And a day came when Arjuna waged war\nwith them. He rode forth in Indra's great car, which went through the\nair like to a bird, and Matali was the driver. When he reached the\nshore of the sounding sea, the billows rose against him like great\nmountains, and the waters were divided; he saw demon fish and giant\ntortoises, and vessels laden with rubies. But he paused not, for he was\nwithout fear. The mighty Arjuna was eager for battle, and he blew a\nmighty blast upon his war shell: the Daityas and Danavas heard him and\nquaked with terror.[268] Then the demons smote their drums and sounded\ntheir trumpets, and amidst the dread clamour the wallowing sea monsters\narose and leapt over the waves against Indra's great son. But Arjuna\nchanted mantras; he shot clouds of bright arrows; he fought with his\nbright celestial weapons, and the furies were thwarted and beaten back.\nThen they sent fire against him and water, and they flung rocks like to\ngreat peaks; but he fought on until in the end he triumphed, and slew\nall that stood against him nor could escape.\n\n[268] Like Dietrich von Bern, he assumes the character of the thunder\ngod, and reminds us of Thor going eastward to battle against the Jotuns.\n\nThereafter the valiant hero rode speedily towards the city of demons\nand giants which is named Hiranyapura. The women came out to lure him,\ncalling aloud, and their voices were like the voices of cranes. He\nheard but paused not. All these evil giant women were driven before\nhim; in confusion they fled, terrified by the clamour of Indra's\ncelestial car and the driving of Matali, and their ear-rings and\ntheir necklaces fell from their bodies like to boulders tumbling and\nthundering adown mountain steeps.\n\nArjuna reached the city of Hiranyapura and entered it; and he gazed\nwith wonder on mighty chariots with ten thousand horses, which were\nmany-coloured like to gaily-plumaged peacocks, beautiful and stately\nand proud. And he wrecked the dwellings of the Daityas and Danavas.\n\nIndra praised his warrior son for his valour in overcoming the demons\nand giants of ocean, and he gave unto him a chain of gold, a bright\ndiadem, and the war shell which gave forth a mighty blast like to\nthunder.[269]\n\n[269] For slaying a sea giant, the Celtic Finn-mac-Coul was awarded by\nthe king of Erin the \u201cHorn of Worth\u201d, which could be heard \u201cover seven\nhills\u201d. Like Arjuna's war shell, it was evidently the \u201cthunder horn\u201d.\n\nDuring the years that Arjuna had his dwelling in Indra's celestial\ncity, Yudhishthira and his three younger brethren, with Draupadi and\nthe priest Dhaumya, abode a time in the forest of Kamyaka. Great\nsages visited them there, and from one Yudhishthira obtained skill in\ndice. Others led the wanderers to sacred waters, in which they were\ncleansed of their sins, and they achieved great virtues. And the sages\nrelated unto them many tales of men and women who suffered and made\nself-sacrifices, undergoing long exiles and performing penances so as\nto attain to great wisdom and win favour from the gods.\n\nThereafter the exiles went northward towards the Himalayas, and at\nlength they beheld afar off the dwelling of Kuvera, lord of treasure\nand King of Yakshas. They gazed upon palaces of crystal and gold; the\nhigh walls were studded with jewels, and the gleaming ramparts and\nturrets were adorned by dazzling streamers. They saw beauteous gardens\nof bright flowers, and soft winds came towards them laden with perfume;\nwonderful and fair were the trees, and they were vocal with the songs\nof birds.\n\nKuvera walked forth and spake words of wisdom unto Yudhishthira,\ncounselling him to be patient and long-suffering, and to wait for the\ntime and the place for displaying Kshatriya prowess.\n\nThe exiles wandered on, and one day, when they sighed for Arjuna,\nthey beheld the bright car of Indra, and they worshipped Matali, the\ncharioteer. Then Indra came with his hosts of Apsaras and Gandharvas,\nand when they had adored him, the god promised Yudhishthira that he\nwould yet reign in splendour over all men.\n\nArjuna appeared, and he was received with rejoicing, and all the\nPandavas returned together to Kamyaka. There they were visited by\nMarkandeya, the mighty sage, whose life endures through all the world's\nages, and he spake of the mysteries and all that had taken place from\nthe beginning, and revealed unto them full knowledge of the Deluge.\n\nNow while the Pandavas were enduring great suffering in the forest,\nKarna spake to Duryodhana and prevailed upon him to spy upon their\nmisery. So Dhritarashtra's son went forth, as was the custom every\nthree years, to inspect the cattle and brand the calves. And with him\nwent Karna and many princes and courtiers, and also a thousand ladies\nof the royal household. When, however, they all drew nigh to the\nforest, they found that the Gandharvas and Apsaras, who, as it chanced,\nhad descended to make merry there, would not permit the royal train to\nadvance. Duryodhana sent messages to the Gandharva king, commanding\nhim to depart with all his hosts; but the celestial spirits feared him\nnot, and issued forth to battle. A great conflict was waged, and the\nKauravas were defeated. Karna fled, and Duryodhana and many of his\ncourtiers and all the royal ladies were taken prisoners.\n\nIt happened that some of Duryodhana's followers who took flight reached\nthe place where the Pandavas were, and told them how their kinsmen\nhad been overcome. Then Arjuna and Bhima and the two younger brethren\nwent forth against the Gandharvas and fought with them until they were\ncompelled to release the royal prisoners. In this manner was the proud\nDuryodhana humbled by those against whom he had cherished enmity.\n\nYudhishthira gave a feast to the Kauravas, and he called Duryodhana\nhis \u201cbrother\u201d, whereat Duryodhana made pretence to be well pleased,\nalthough his heart was stung with deep mortification.\n\nAfter this the sullen and angry Duryodhana resolved to end his life.\nHis friends remonstrated with him, but he said: \u201cI have naught to live\nfor now, nor do I desire friendship, or wealth, or power, or enjoyment.\nDo not delay my purpose, but leave me each one, for I will eat no\nmore food, and I will wait here until I die. Return, therefore, unto\nHastinapur and reverence and obey those who are greater than me.\u201d\n\nThen Duryodhana made a mat of grass, and, having purified himself with\nwater, sat down to wait for the end, clad in rags and absorbed in\nsilent meditation.\n\nBut the Daityas and Danavas[270] desired not that their favourite\nrajah should thus end his life lest their power should be weakened,\nand they sent to the forest a strange goddess, who carried him away\nin the night. Then the demons, before whom Duryodhana was brought,\npromised to aid him in the coming struggle against the Pandavas, and he\nwas comforted thereat, and abandoned his vow to die in solitude. So he\nreturned speedily unto Hastinapur and resumed his high position there.\n\n[270] Demons and giants.\n\nSoon afterwards, when the princes and the elders sat in council with\nthe maharajah, wise old Bhishma praised the Pandava princes for their\nvalour and generosity, and advised Duryodhana to offer them his\nfriendship, so that the kinsmen might ever afterwards live together in\npeace. Duryodhana made no answer, and, smiling bitterly, rose up and\nwalked out of the council chamber. Bhishma was made angry thereat, and\ndeparted also and went unto his own house.\n\nThen Duryodhana sought to rival the glory of Yudhishthira by holding\nan Imperial sacrifice. Duhsasana, with evil heart, sent messengers\nunto Yudhishthira, inviting him to attend with his brethren; but\nYudhishthira said: \u201cAlthough this great sacrifice will reflect honour\non all the descendants of King Bharata, and therefore upon me and my\nbrethren, I cannot be present because our years of exile have not yet\ncome to an end.\u201d\n\nHe spoke calmly and with dignity, but Bhima was made angry, and\nexclaimed: \u201cMessengers of Duryodhana, tell thy master that when\nthe years of exile are over, Yudhishthira will offer up a mighty\nsacrifice with weapons and burn in consuming flames the whole family of\nDhritarashtra.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana received these messages in silence. And when the sacrifice,\nwhich was called Vaishnava, was held, Karna said unto Duryodhana: \u201cWhen\nthou has slain the Pandavas and canst hold thy Rajasuya[271], I will be\npresent also to do homage unto thee.\u201d\n\n[271] Dhritarashtra being still alive and the Pandavas having refused\nto attend, Duryodhana was unable, as he desired, to perform the greater\nsacrifice.\n\nThen Karna took a vow and said: \u201cI will neither eat venison nor wash my\nfeet[272] until I have slain Arjuna.\u201d\n\n[272] A necessary religious act of purification before prayer. Karna\nthus imperilled his soul's welfare to be avenged upon his rival.\n\nSpies hastened unto the Pandavas and related all that had taken place\nat the sacrifice, and also the words which Karna had spoken. When\nYudhishthira heard of the terrible vow which Karna had vowed, he\nsorrowed greatly, for he knew that a day must come when Arjuna and\nKarna would meet in deadly conflict.\n\nOne day thereafter Surya, god of the sun, warned Karna that Indra had\nresolved to divest him of his celestial armour and ear-rings. \u201cBut,\u201d\nsaid Surya, \u201cthou canst demand in exchange a heavenly weapon which hath\npower to slay gods and demons and mortal men.\u201d\n\nSo it came that Indra stood before Karna, disguised as a Brahman, and\nasked for his armour and ear-rings. Having vowed to give unto the\nBrahmans whatsoever they might ask of him, Karna took off his armour\nand ear-rings and gave them unto the king of the gods, from whom he\ndemanded in exchange an infallible weapon. Indra granted his request,\nbut smiled[273] and went upon his way, knowing well that the triumph of\nthe Pandavas was now assured.\n\n[273] A supernatural gift in such circumstances carried with it fatal\nconsequences.\n\nIt chanced that one day after this that Jayadratha[274], Rajah of\nSindhu, passed through the wood when the Pandavas had gone a-hunting.\nHe beheld Draupadi with eyes of love, and, despite her warnings,\ncarried her away in his chariot.\n\n[274] _Pron._ jay-a-drat\u00b4ha.\n\nWhen the Pandavas returned and were told by a bondmaiden what had taken\nplace, they set out in pursuit of the Rajah of Sindhu, who left his\nchariot when they drew nigh, and concealed himself in a thicket.\n\nBhima then said unto Yudhishthira: \u201cReturn now with Draupadi and our\nbrethren. Although the rajah should seek refuge in the underworld, he\nwill not escape my vengeance.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cRemember, O Bhima, that although Jayadratha hath\ncommitted a grievous sin, he is our kinsman, for he hath married the\nsister of Duryodhana.\u201d\n\nDraupadi said: \u201cHe is worthy of death, for he is the worst of kings\nand the vilest of men. Have not the sages said that he who carries off\nthe wife of another in times of peace must certainly be put to death.\u201d\n\nWhen Bhima found Jayadratha, he cast him down and cut off his hair\nexcept five locks; then the strong warrior promised to spare the\nrajah's life if he would do homage to Yudhishthira and declare himself\nhis slave.\n\nSo the Rajah of Sindhu had to prostrate himself before Yudhishthira as\na humble menial. Thereafter he departed in his shame and went unto his\nown country.\n\nWhen the twelfth year of exile was nigh to an end, the Pandava brethren\nbethought them to leave the forest. But ere they went a strange and\ndread adventure threatened them with dire disaster. It chanced that a\nstag carried away upon its antlers the twigs with which a Brahman was\nwont to kindle his holy fire. The Brahman appealed to Yudhishthira to\npursue the animal, and the Pandavas endeavoured in vain to kill it or\nrecover the sacred twigs. Weary with the chase, they at length sat down\nto rest. They were all athirst, and one of them climbed a banyan tree\nto look for signs of water, for birds ever flutter over pools. When it\nwas discovered that a pond was nigh, Yudhishthira sent Nakula towards\nit. The young man approached the water, and ere he stooped he heard a\nVoice which said: \u201cAnswer thou what I shall ask of thee ere thou dost\ndrink or draw water.\u201d\n\nBut Nakula's thirst was greater than his fear, and he drank of the\nwaters; then he fell dead.\n\nSahadeva followed him, wondering why his brother tarried. He too gazed\ngreedily upon the pool, and he too heard the Voice, but heeded not and\ndrank; and he fell dead also.\n\nArjuna next went towards the water. The Voice spake to him, and he\nanswered with anger: \u201cWho art thou that wouldst hinder me thus? Reveal\nthyself, and mine arrows will speak to thee.\u201d\n\nThen he drew his bow, and his shafts flew thick and fast as raindrops.\nBut his valour was as naught, for when he drank he also fell dead like\nthe others. Bhima followed him, and stooped and drank, unheeding the\nVoice, and he was stricken down like to Arjuna and Nakula and Sahadeva.\n\nAt length wise Yudhishthira approached the pond. He beheld his brethren\nlying dead, and sorrowed over them. Then, as he drew nigh to the water,\nthe Voice spake once again, and he answered it, saying: \u201cWho art thou?\u201d\n\nThe Voice said: \u201cI am a Yaksha. I warned thy brethren not to drink of\nthis water until they had answered what I should ask of them, but they\ndisregarded my warning and I laid them in death. If thou wilt answer my\nquestions thou canst, however, drink here nor be afraid.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cSpeak and I will answer thee.\u201d\n\nThe Voice said: \u201cWho maketh the sun to rise? Who keepeth him company?\nWho maketh the sun to go down? In whom is the sun established?\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cBrahma maketh the sun to rise; the gods accompany\nhim; Dharma maketh the sun to set; in truth is the sun established.\u201d\n\nThe Voice said: \u201cWhat sleepeth with open eyes? What moveth not after\nbirth? What is that which hath no heart? What is that which swelleth of\nitself?\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cA fish doth sleep with open eyes; an egg moveth not\nafter birth; a stone hath no heart; a river swelleth of itself.\u201d\n\nThe Voice said: \u201cWhat maketh The Way? What is called Water? What is\ncalled Food? What is called Poison?\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cThey that are pious make The Way; space is called\nwater; the cow is food[275]; a request is poison.\u201d\n\n[275] Babu P. C. Roy comments on this head: \u201cThe cow is the only food\nin this sense. The cow gives milk. The milk gives butter. The butter is\nused in _Homa_ (the offering). The Homa is the cause of the clouds. The\nclouds give rain. The rain makes the seeds to sprout forth and produce\nfood.\u201d\n\nThe Voice said: \u201cWho is spoken of as the unconquered enemy of man? What\nis spoken of as the enemy's disease? Who is regarded as holy? Who is\nregarded as unholy?\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cMan's unconquered enemy is anger, and his disease\nis covetousness; he who seeketh after the good of all is holy; he who\nis selfishly cold is unholy.\u201d\n\nThe Voice said: \u201cWho are worthy of eternal torment?\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cHe who sayeth unto the Brahman whom he hath asked\nto his house, I have naught to give; he who declareth the Vedas to be\nfalse; he who is rich and yet giveth naught to the poor.\u201d\n\nMany such questions did the Voice address to wise Yudhishthira, and\nhe answered each one patiently and with knowledge. Then the Yaksha\nrevealed himself in the form of Dharma, god of wisdom and justice, for\nbehold! he was the celestial sire of Yudhishthira. Unto his son he\ngranted two boons; and Yudhishthira desired that his brethren should\nbe restored to life, and that they should all have power to remain\nunrecognized by anyone in the three worlds for the space of a year.\n\nEre the Pandavas left the forest, Yudhishthira invoked the goddess\nDurga[276], giver of boons, saying: \u201cO slayer of the Buffalo Asura,\nthou art worshipped by the gods, for thou art the protector of the\nthree worlds. Chief of all deities, protect thou and bless thou us.\nConfer victory upon us, and help us in our distress.\u201d\n\n[276] A form of the goddess Kali, wife of Shiva.\n\nThe goddess heard Yudhishthira, and confirmed the promise of Dharma\nthat the Pandava brethren and Draupadi would remain unrecognized during\nthe thirteenth and last year of their exile.\n\nThen the wanderers concealed their weapons in a tree, and went together\ntowards the city of Virata[277] so that they might conceal themselves.\nAccording to the terms of banishment, they would have to spend a\nfurther twelve years in the jungle if the Kauravas discovered their\nwhereabouts.\n\n[277] _Pron._ vir-at\u00b4a.\n\nThe Pandavas found favour in the eyes of the rajah. Yudhishthira became\nhis instructor in the art of playing with dice, because he was wont to\nlose heavily. Bhima was made chief cook. Arjuna, attired as a eunuch,\nundertook to teach dancing and music to the ladies of the harem. Nakula\nwas given care of horses, and Sahadeva of kine. The queen was drawn\ntowards Draupadi, who offered to become a bondwoman on condition that\nshe should not have to wash the feet of anyone, or eat food left over\nafter meals; and on these terms she was engaged. The queen feared that\nDraupadi's great beauty would attract lovers and cause dispeace; but\nthe forlorn woman said that she was protected by five Gandharvas, and\nwas without fear.\n\nBhima soon won much renown by reason of his matchless strength. At a\ngreat festival he overcame and slew a wrestler from a far country who\nwas named Jim\u00fata, and he received many gifts. The rajah took great\npride in him, and was wont to take him to the apartments of the women,\nwhere he wrestled with caged tigers and lions and bears, slaying each\none at desire with a single blow. Indeed, all the brothers were well\nloved by the monarch because of their loyal services.\n\nIt chanced that the queen's brother, Kichaka[278], a mighty warrior\nand commander of the royal army, was smitten with love for beautiful\nDraupadi, and at length he sought to carry her away. But one night\nBhima waited for him when he came stealthily towards Draupadi, and\nafter a long struggle the strong Pandava slew him. Then Bhima broke all\nthis prince's bones and rolled up his body into a ball of flesh.\n\n[278] _Pron._ kee-chak\u00b4a (\u201cch\u201d at in \u201cchange\u201d).\n\nGreat was the horror of Kichaka's kinsmen when they discovered what\nhad happened, and they said: \u201cNo man hath done this awful deed; the\nGandharvas have taken vengeance.\u201d\n\nIn their wrath they seized Draupadi, to burn her on the pyre with the\nbody of Kichaka; but Bhima disguised himself and went to her rescue,\nand he scattered her tormentors in flight, killing many with a great\ntree which he had uprooted.\n\nThe rajah was terror-stricken, and spake unto the queen, and the queen\nthereafterwards asked Draupadi to depart from Virata. But the wife of\nthe Pandavas begged to remain in the royal service yet a time; and\nshe said that her Gandharva protectors would serve the rajah in his\ngreatest hour of peril, which, she foretold, was already nigh to him.\nSo the queen bore with her, and Draupadi tarried there.\n\nSoon afterwards the Rajah of Trigartis, hearing that mighty Kichaka was\ndead, plotted with the Kauravas at Indra-prastha to attack the city of\nVirata with purpose to capture the raj. Duryodhana agreed to aid him,\nso the Rajah of Trigartis invaded the kingdom from the north, while\nthe Kauravas marched against Virata from the south.\n\nIt came to pass that on the last day of the thirteenth year of the\nPandavas' exile the first raid took place from the north, and many\ncattle were carried off. Yudhishthira and Bhima, with Nakula and\nSahadeva, offered to give their help when it became known that the\nRajah of Virata had been captured by his enemies. The Pandavas went\nforth to rescue the monarch, and they routed the raiders and rescued\ntheir prisoner; they also seized upon the Rajah of Trigartis, and\nforced him to submit with humility to his rival ere he was allowed to\nreturn to his own city.\n\nMeanwhile the Kauravas had advanced from the south. Uttar[279], son of\nthe Rajah of Virata, went against them, and Arjuna was his charioteer.\nWhen the young man, however, beheld his enemies, he desired to flee,\nbut his driver compelled him by force to remain in the chariot.\n\n[279] _Pron._ oot\u00b4ar.\n\nThen Arjuna procured his own weapons from the tree in which they were\nconcealed. Thus, fully armed, he rode against the Kauravas, who said:\n\u201cIf this be Arjuna, he and his brethren must go into exile for another\ntwelve years.\u201d\n\nBhishma said: \u201cThe thirteenth year of concealment is now ended.\u201d\n\nThe Kauravas, however, persisted that Arjuna had appeared ere the full\ntime was spent.\n\nIndra's great son advanced boldly. Suddenly he blew his celestial war\nshell, and all the Kauravas were stricken with fear, and they swooned\nand lay on the field like men who slept. Arjuna forbore to slay them,\nand he commanded Uttar to take possession of their royal attire. Then\nthe great archer of the Pandavas returned to the city with the rajah's\nson.\n\nNow when the monarch discovered how Arjuna had served him by warding\noff the attack of the Kauravas, he offered the brave Pandava his\ndaughter, Uttara, for a bride; but Arjuna said: \u201cLet her be given unto\nmy son.\u201d\n\nIt was then that the Pandava brethren revealed unto the Rajah of Virata\nwho they were. All those who had assembled in the palace rejoiced\ngreatly and honoured them.\n\nTo the marriage of Abhimamju, son of Arjuna and Subhadra, came many\ngreat rajahs. Krishna came with his brother Balarama, and the Rajah\nDrupada came with his son Dhrishta-dyumna.\n\nNow the Rajah of Virata resolved to aid Yudhishthira in obtaining back\nhis kingdom from the Kauravas, who protested that their kinsmen had\nbeen discovered ere yet the complete term of exile was ended.\n\nShakuni, the cunning gambler, and the vengeful Karna supported the\nproud and evil-hearted Duryodhana in refusing to make peace with the\nPandava brethren, despite the warnings of the sages who sat around the\nMaharajah Dhritarashtra.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVII\n\nDefiance of Duryodhana\n\n The Council at Virata\u2014Speeches of Kings and Princes\u2014Army to be\n raised for the Pandavas\u2014Krishna's Attitude\u2014His Army on one side\n and Himself on the other\u2014Ambassador visits Kauravas\u2014Pandavas\n invited to Hastinapur\u2014A Deadlock\u2014Krishna visits Hastinapur\u2014Elders\n counsel Peace\u2014Duryodhana refuses to Yield\u2014Plot to seize Krishna\u2014A\n Revelation of Divine Power\u2014Krishna's Interview with Karna\u2014Pritha\n informs Karna of his Birth\u2014Karna refuses to desert Duryodhana\u2014His\n Resolution and Promise.\n\n\nEre the wedding guests departed from Virata, after merrymaking and\nsong and dance, the elders and princes and chieftains assembled in the\ncouncil chamber. Drupada was there with his son, and Krishna with his\nbrother Balarama and Satyaki his kinsman, and all the Pandava brethren\nwere there also, and many others both valiant and powerful. Bright and\nnumerous as the stars were the gems that glittered on the robes of the\nmighty warriors. For a time they spake kindly greetings one to another,\nand jested and made merry. Krishna sat pondering in silence, and at\nlength he arose and spake, saying:\n\n\u201cO rajahs and princes, may your fame endure for ever! Thou knowest well\nthat Yudhishthira was deprived of his kingdom by the evil trickster\nShakuni. He hath endured twelve years of exile, and hath served, like\nhis brethren, as a humble menial for a further year in the palace of\nthe Rajah of Virata. After long suffering Yudhishthira desires peace;\nhis heart is without anger, although he hath endured great shame. The\nheart of Duryodhana, however, still burns with hate and jealous wrath;\nstill, as in his youth, he desires to work evil by deceit against the\nPandava brethren. Now, consider well, O ye monarchs, what Yudhishthira\nshould do. Should he call many chieftains to his aid and wage war to\npunish his ancient foes? Or should he send friendly messengers to\nDuryodhana, asking him to restore the kingdom which he still continues\nto possess?\u201d\n\nBalarama then spoke and said: \u201cYe pious rajahs! ye have heard the\nwords of my brother, who loveth Yudhishthira. It is true, indeed, that\nthe Kauravas have wronged the Pandavas. Yet I would counsel peace, so\nthat this matter may be arranged between kinsmen. Yudhishthira hath\nbrought his sufferings upon his own head. He was unwise to play with\ncunning Shakuni, and also to continue playing, despite the warnings of\nthe elders and his friends. He hath suffered for his folly. Now let a\nmessenger be sent to Duryodhana, entreating him to restore the throne\nunto Yudhishthira. I do not advise war. What hath been gambled away\ncannot be restored in battle.\u201d\n\nNext arose Satyaki, the kinsman of Krishna. He said: \u201cO Balarama,\nthou hast spoken like to a woman. Thou remindest me that weaklings are\nsometimes born to warriors, like to barren saplings sprung from sturdy\ntrees. Timid words come from timid hearts. Proud monarchs heed not\ncounsel so weakly as thine. O Balarama! canst thou justify Duryodhana\nand blame the pious-hearted and gracious Yudhishthira? If it had\nchanced that Yudhishthira while playing with his brethren had been\nvisited by Duryodhana, who, having thrown the dice, achieved success,\nthen the contest would have been fair in the eyes of all men. But\nDuryodhana plotted to ruin his kinsman, and invited him to Hastinapur\nto play with the evil-hearted Shakuni, who threw loaded dice. But that\nis ended. Yudhishthira hath fulfilled his obligation; his exile is\npast, and he is entitled to his kingdom. Why, therefore, should he beg\nfor that which is his own? A Kshatriya begs of no man; what is refused\nhim he seizeth in battle at all times.... Duryodhana still clings to\nYudhishthira's kingdom, despite the wise counsel of Bhishma and Drona.\nRemember, O Balarama, it is not sinful to slay one's enemies, but it is\nshameful to beg from them. I now declare my advice to be that we should\ngive the Kauravas an opportunity to restore the throne of Yudhishthira;\nif they hesitate to do so, then let the Pandavas secure justice on the\nbattlefield.\u201d\n\nDrupada, Rajah of Panchala, then arose and said: \u201cYe monarchs, I fear\nthat Satyaki hath spoken truly. The Kauravas are a stubborn people.\nMethinks it is useless to entreat Duryodhana, whose heart is consumed\nwith greed. It is vain to plead with Dhritarashtra, who is but as\nclay in the hands of his proud son. Bhishma and Drona have already\ncounselled in vain. Karna thirsts for war, and Duryodhana intrigues\nwith him and also with false and cunning Shakuni. Methinks it were\nidle to follow the advice of Balarama. Duryodhana will never yield up\nwhat he now possesseth, nor doth he desire peace. If we should send\nto him an ambassador who will speak mild words, he will think that\nwe are weak, and become more boastful and arrogant than heretofore.\nMy advice is that we should gather together a great army without\ndelay: the rajahs will side with him who asketh first. Meanwhile let\nus offer peace and friendship unto Duryodhana: my family priest will\ncarry our message. If Duryodhana is willing to give up the kingdom of\nYudhishthira, there will be peace; if he scorns our friendship, he will\nfind us ready for war.\u201d\n\nKrishna again addressed the assembly and said: \u201cDrupada hath spoken\nwisely. The Pandavas would do well to accept his counsel. If Duryodhana\nwill agree to restore the raj unto Yudhishthira, there will be no\nstrife or bloodshed.... You all know that the Pandavas and Kauravas are\nmy kinsmen; know also that they are equally dear unto me.... I will now\ngo hence. When ye send out messengers of war, let them enter my kingdom\nlast of all.\u201d\n\nAfter Krishna had returned home, he was visited by Duryodhana and\nArjuna, for both parties desired greatly his help in the war. He spake\nto the rival kinsmen and said: \u201cBehold, I stand before you as in the\nbalance; I have put myself on one side, and all my army is on the\nother. Choose now between you whether you desire me or my forces. I\nshall not fight, but will give advice in battle.\u201d\n\nThen Duryodhana asked for the army, but Arjuna preferred to have\nKrishna alone. And Krishna promised to be Arjuna's charioteer.\n\nDuryodhana sought to prevail upon Balarama to aid him, but Krishna's\nbrother said: \u201cI have no heart for this war. I spake to Krishna in\nthy favour, but he answered me not. Well, thou knowest that thou hast\nwronged Yudhishthira, and that it would well become thee to act justly\nin this matter. Do thy duty, and thy renown will be great.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana departed in sullen anger from Balarama.\n\nIn time Drupada's priest appeared in the city of Hastinapur, and the\nelders and princes sat with Dhritarashtra to hear his message. Said\nthe Brahman: \u201cThus speaketh the Pandavas\u2014\u2018Pandu and Dhritarashtra\nwere brothers: why, therefore, should Dhritarashtra's sons possess\nthe whole kingdom, while the sons of Pandu are denied inheritance?\nDuryodhana hath ever worked evil against his kinsman. He invited them\nto a gambling match to play with loaded dice, and they lost their\npossessions and had to go into exile like beggars. Now they have\nfulfilled the conditions, and are prepared to forget the past if their\nraj is restored to them. If their rightful claim is rejected, then\nArjuna will scatter the Kauravas in battle.\u2019\u201d\n\nBhishma said: \u201cWhat thou hast said is well justified, but it is wrong\nto boast regarding Arjuna. It would be wise of thee not to speak of him\nin such manner again.\u201d\n\nAngrily rose Karna and said: \u201cIf the Pandavas have suffered, they are\nthemselves to blame. It is but fitting that they should plead for\npeace, for they are without followers. If they can prove their right\nto possessions, Duryodhana will yield; but he will not be forced by\nvain threatenings, or because the Rajahs of Panchala and Virata support\nthem. O Brahman! tell thou the Pandavas that they have failed to fulfil\ntheir obligations, for Arjuna was beheld by us before the thirteenth\nyear of banishment was completed. Let them return to a jungle for\nanother term, and then come hither and submit to Duryodhana and beg for\nhis favours.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhishma: \u201cThou didst not boast in this manner, O Karna, when\nArjuna opposed thee at the Virata cattle raid. Remember that Arjuna is\nstill powerful. If war comes, he will trample thee in the dust.\u201d\n\nDhritarashtra reproved Karna for his hasty speech, and said unto\nBhishma: \u201cHe is young and unaccustomed to debate; be not angry with\nhim.\u201d\n\nThen the blind old monarch sent his minister and charioteer, Sanjaya,\nto the Pandavas to speak thus: \u201cIf you desire to have peace, come\nbefore me and I will do justice. Except wicked Duryodhana and hasty\nKarna all who are here are well disposed to you.\u201d\n\nWhen Sanjaya reached the Pandavas, he was astonished to behold that\nthey had assembled together a mighty army. He greeted the brethren and\ndelivered his message.\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cWe honour Dhritarashtra, but fear that he has\nlistened to the counsel of his son Duryodhana, who desires to have\nus in his power. The maharajah offers us protection, but not the\nfulfilment of our claims.\u201d\n\nKrishna then spake, saying: \u201cThe Pandavas have assembled a mighty army,\nand cannot reward these soldiers unless they receive their raj. It is\nnot yet too late to make peace. Deliver unto the Kauravas, O Sanjaya,\nthis message: \u2018If you seek peace, you will have peace; if you desire\nwar, then let there be war.\u2019\u201d\n\nEre Sanjaya left, Yudhishthira spoke to him and said: \u201cTell thou\nDuryodhana that we will accept that portion of the raj which we\nourselves have conquered and settled: he can retain the rest. My desire\nis for peace.\u201d\n\nMany days went past, and the Pandavas waited in vain for an answer to\ntheir message. Then Yudhishthira spake to Krishna, saying: \u201cWe have\noffered to make peace by accepting but a portion of our kingdom, yet\nthe Kauravas remain silent.\u201d\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cI will now journey unto Hastinapur and address the\nmaharajah and his counsellors on thy behalf.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira said: \u201cMayst thou secure peace between kinsmen.\u201d\n\nThen Draupadi entered and, addressing Krishna, said: \u201cYudhishthira is\ntoo generous towards the Kauravas in offering to give up part of his\nkingdom unto them. He entreateth them overmuch, as well, to grant him\nthat which belongs not unto them. If the Kauravas wage war, my sire and\nmany other rajahs will assist the Pandavas.... Oh! can it be forgotten\nhow Duhsasana dragged me by the hair to the Gambling Pavilion, and how\nI was put to shame before the elders and the princes?...\u201d\n\nShe wept bitterly, and Krishna pitied her. \u201cWhy do you sorrow thus?\u201d\nhe asked with gentle voice. \u201cThe time is drawing nigh when all the\nKauravas will be laid low, and their wives will shed tears more bitter\nthan thine that fall now, O fair one.\u201d\n\nMessengers who arrived at Hastinapur announced the coming of Krishna.\nWise Vidura counselled that he should be welcomed in state, whereupon\nDuryodhana proclaimed a public holiday, and all the people rejoiced,\nand decorated the streets with streamers and flowers.\n\nVidura was well pleased, and he said to Duryodhana: \u201cThou hast done\nwell. But these preparations are in vain if thou art unwilling to do\njustice unto the Pandavas.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana was wroth, and said: \u201cI will give naught except what they\ncan win in battle. If the success of the Pandavas depends upon Krishna,\nthen let us seize Krishna and put him in prison.\u201d\n\nDhritarashtra was horror-stricken, and cried out: \u201cThou canst not thus\ntreat an ambassador, and especially an ambassador like unto Krishna.\u201d\n\nBhishma rose up and said: \u201cO maharajah, thy son desireth to work evil\nand bring ruin and shame upon us all. Methinks disaster is not now afar\noff.\u201d\n\nSo saying, he departed unto his own house, and Vidura did likewise.\n\nAll the Kauravas went forth to meet the royal ambassador save\nDuryodhana, who scarcely looked upon Krishna when he arrived at the\npalace.\n\nKrishna went to the house of Vidura, and there he saw Pritha, who\nwept and said: \u201cHow fares it with my sons, whom I have not beheld for\nfourteen years? How fares it with Draupadi? In sorrow have I heard of\ntheir sufferings in desolate places. Ah! who can understand mine own\nmisery, for every day is full of weariness and grief unto me?\u201d\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cBe comforted, O widow of Pandu! Thy sons have many\nallies, and ere long they will return in triumph to their own land.\u201d\n\nThereafter Krishna went to the house of Duryodhana, who sat haughtily\nin the feasting chamber. At length Dhritarashtra's son spake unto his\nkinsman, who ate naught. He said: \u201cWhy art thou unfriendly towards me?\u201d\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cI cannot be thy friend until thou dost act justly\ntowards thy kinsmen, the Pandavas.\u201d\n\nWhen Krishna went again to the house of Vidura, the aged counsellor\nsaid to him: \u201c'Twere better if thou hadst not come hither. Duryodhana\nwill take no man's advice. When he speaketh he doth expect all men to\nagree with him.\u201d\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cIt is my desire to prevent bloodshed. I came to\nHastinapur to save the Kauravas from destruction, and I will warn them\nin the council chamber on the morrow. If they will heed me, all will be\nwell; if they scorn my advice, then let their blood be upon their own\nheads.\u201d\n\nWhen the princes and the elders sat with Dhritarashtra in the council\nchamber, Narada and other great Rishis appeared in the heavens and were\ninvited to come down and share in the deliberations, and they came down.\n\nKrishna arose, and in a voice like thunder spake forth, saying: \u201cI have\ncome hither not to seek war, but to utter words of peace and love.\nO maharajah, let not your heart be stained with sin. Thy sons have\nwronged their kinsmen, and a danger threatens all: it approacheth now\nlike an angry comet, and I can behold kinsmen slaying kinsmen, and many\nnoble lords laid in the dust. All of you here gathered together are\nalready in the clutch of death. O Dhritarashtra, man of peace, stretch\nforth thine hand and avert the dread calamity which is about to fall\nupon thy house. Grant unto the Pandavas their rightful claim, and thy\nreign will close in glory unsurpassed and in blessed peace.... What\nif all the Pandavas were slain in battle! Would their fall bring thee\njoy? Are they not thine own brother's children?... But, know thou, the\nPandavas are as ready for war as they are eager for peace; and if war\ncomes, it will be polluted with the blood of these thy sons. O gracious\nmaharajah, let the last years of thy life be peaceful and pleasant, so\nthat thou mayst be blessed indeed.\u201d\n\nDhritarashtra wept and said: \u201cFain would I do as thou hast counselled\nso wisely, O Krishna, but Duryodhana, my vicious son, will not listen\nto me or obey, nor will he give heed unto his mother, nor to Vidura,\nnor unto Bhishma.\u201d\n\nNext Bhishma spoke, and he addressed Duryodhana, saying: \u201c'Twould be\nwell with thee if thou wouldst follow the advice of Krishna. Thou\nart evil-hearted and a wrongdoer; thou art the curse of our family;\nthou takest pleasure in disobeying thy royal sire and in scorning\nto be guided by Krishna and Vidura. Soon thy sire will be bereft of\nhis kingdom because of thy deeds; thy pride will bring death to thy\nkinsmen. Hear and follow my advice; do not bring eternal sorrow to\nthine aged parents.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana heard these words in anger, but was silent.\n\nThen Drona spake to him and said: \u201cI join with Bhishma and Krishna in\nmaking appeal unto thee. Those who advise thee to make peace are thy\nfriends; those who counsel war are thine enemies. Be not too certain of\nvictory; tempt not the hand of vengeance; leave the night-black road of\nevil and seek out the road of light and welldoing, O Duryodhana.\u201d\n\nNext Vidura rose up. He spoke with slow, gentle voice, and said: \u201cThou\nhast heard words of wisdom, O Duryodhana.... I sorrow deeply in this\nhour. My grief is not for thee, but for thine aged sire and thine aged\nmother, who will fall into the hands of thine enemies; my grief is for\nkinsmen and friends who must die in battle, and for those who will\nthereafter be driven forth as beggars, friendless and without a home.\nThe few survivors of war will curse the day of thy birth, O Duryodhana.\u201d\n\nAgain Bhishma spoke. He praised the valour of the Pandavas, and said:\n\u201cIt is not yet too late to avoid calamity. The field of battle is\nstill unstained by the blood of thousands; thine army hath not yet met\nthe arrows of death, O Duryodhana. Ere it is too late, make thy peace\nwith thy kinsmen, the Pandavas, so that all men may rejoice. Banish\nevil from thine heart for ever; rule the whole world with the heirs of\nPandu.\u201d\n\nDhritarashtra still wept.... The Rishis counselled peace like the\nelders.\n\nThen angry Duryodhana spoke, while his eyes burned bright and his\nbrows hung darkly, and said: \u201cKrishna counsels me to be just, yet he\nhateth me and loveth the Pandavas. Bishma scowls upon me, and Vidura\nand Drona look coldly on; my sire weeps for my sins. Yet what have\nI done that ye, O elders, should turn my sire's affection from me?\nIf Yudhishthira loved gambling and staked and lost his throne and\nfreedom, am I to blame? If he played a second time after being set\nat liberty, and became an exile, why should he now call me a robber?\nPallid and inconstant is the star of the Pandavas' destiny: their\nfriends are few, and feeble is their army. Shall we, who fear not\nIndra even, be threatened and browbeaten by the weak sons of Pandu?\nNo warrior lives who can overcome us. A Kshatriya fears no foeman;\nhe may fall in battle, but he will never yield. So have the sages\nspoken.... Hear me, my kinsmen all! My sire gifted Indra-prastha to the\nPandavas in a moment of weakness. Never, so long as I and my brother\nlive, will they possess it again. Never again will the kingdom of\nMaharajah Dhritarashtra be severed in twain. It has been united, and\nso will remain for ever. My words are firm and plain. So tell thou the\nPandavas, O Krishna, that they ask in vain for territory. Nor town nor\nvillage will they again possess with my consent. I swear by the gods\nthat I will never humble myself before the Pandavas.\u201d\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cHow canst thou speak in such a manner, O Duryodhana? How\ncanst thou pretend that thou didst never wrong thy kinsmen? Be mindful\nof thine evil thoughts and deeds.\u201d\n\nDuhsasana whispered to his elder brother: \u201cI fear, if thou dost not\nmake peace with the Pandavas, the elders will seize thee and send thee\nas a prisoner to Yudhishthira. They desire to make thee and me and\nKarna to kneel before the Pandavas.\u201d\n\nAngry was Duryodhana, and he rose and left the council chamber.\nDuhsasana and Karna and Shakuni followed him.\n\nKrishna then turned to Dhritarashtra and said: \u201cThou shouldst arrest\nthese four rebellious princes and act freely and justly towards the\nPandavas.\u201d\n\nThe weak old maharajah was stricken with grief, and he sent Vidura\nfor his elder son. Then came Queen G\u00e1ndh\u00e1ri and remonstrated with\nDuryodhana; but when she had spoken he answered not, and went away\nagain.\n\nShakuni and Karna and Duhsasana waited outside for Duryodhana, and they\nplotted to lay hands on Krishna so that the power of the Pandavas might\nbe weakened. But to Krishna came knowledge of their thoughts, and he\ninformed the elders who were there.\n\nOnce again the maharajah summoned Duryodhana before him, and Krishna\nsaid: \u201cAh! thou of little understanding, is it thy desire to take me\ncaptive? Know now that I am not alone here, for all the gods and holy\nbeings are with me.\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus, Krishna suddenly revealed himself in divine\nsplendour. His body was transformed into a tongue of flame; gods and\ndivine beings appeared about him; fire issued from his mouth and eyes\nand ears; sparks broke from his skin, which became as radiant as the\nsun....\n\nAll the rajahs closed their eyes; they trembled when an earthquake\nshook the palace. But Duryodhana remained defiant.\n\nKrishna, having resumed his human form, then bade farewell to the\nmaharajah, who lamented the doings of Duryodhana. The divine one spake\nand said: \u201cO Dhritarashtra, thee I forgive freely; but alas! a father\nis often cursed by the people because of the wicked doings of his own\nson.\u201d\n\nEre Krishna left the city he met Karna and spake to him, saying: \u201cCome\nwith me, and the Pandavas will regard thee as their elder brother, and\nthou wilt become the king.\u201d\n\nSaid Karna: \u201cAlthough Duryodhana is a rajah, he rules according to\nmy counsel.... I know, without doubt, that a great battle is pending\nwhich will cover the earth with blood. Terrible are the omens. Calamity\nawaits the Kauravas.... Yet I cannot desert those who have given me\ntheir friendship. Besides, if I went with thee now, men would regard me\nas Arjuna's inferior. Arjuna and I must meet in battle, and fate will\ndecide who is the greater. I know I shall fall in this war, but I must\nfight for my friends.... O mighty one, may we meet on earth again. If\nnot, may we meet in heaven.\u201d\n\nThen Krishna and Karna embraced one another, and each went his own way.\n\nVidura spake to Pritha, mother of the Pandavas, and said: \u201cO mother of\nliving sons, my desire is ever for peace, but although I cry myself\nhoarse, Duryodhana will not listen to my words. Dhritarashtra is old,\nyet he doth not work for peace; he is intoxicated with pride for his\nsons. When Krishna returneth to the Pandavas, war will certainly break\nout; the sin of the Kauravas will cause much bloodshed. I cannot sleep,\nthinking of approaching disaster.\u201d\n\nPritha sighed and wept. \u201cFie to wealth!\u201d she said, \u201cthat it should\ncause kinsmen to slaughter one another. War should be waged between\nfoemen, not friends. If the Pandavas do not fight, they will suffer\npoverty; if they go to war and win, the destruction of kinsmen will not\nbring triumph. My heart is full of sorrow. And alas! it is Karna who\nsupports Duryodhana in his folly; he hath again become powerful.\u201d\n\nPritha lamented the folly of her girlhood which caused Karna to be, and\nshe went forth to look for him. She found her son bathing in sacred\nwaters, and she spoke, saying: \u201cThou art mine own son, and thy sire\nis Surya. I hid thee at birth, and Radha, who found thee, is not thy\nmother. It is not seemly that thou shouldst in ignorance plot with\nDuryodhana against thine own brethren. Let the Kauravas this day behold\nthe friendship of thee and Arjuna. If you two were side by side you\nwould conquer the world. My eldest son, it is meet that thou shouldst\nbe with thy brethren now. Be no longer known as one of lowly birth.\u201d\n\nA voice spoke from the sun, saying: \u201c_What Pritha hath said is truth. O\ntiger among men, great good will be accomplished if thou wilt obey her\ncommand._\u201d\n\nKarna remained steadfast, for his heart was full of honour. He said\nunto Pritha, his mother: \u201cO lady, it is now too late to command my\nobedience. Why didst thou abandon me at birth? If I am a Kshatriya, I\nhave been deprived of my rank. No foeman could have done me a greater\ninjury than thou hast done. Thou hast never been a mother to me, nor do\nthy sons know I am their brother. How can I now desert the Kauravas,\nwho trust in me in waging this war. I am their boat on which to cross\na stormy sea.... I will speak without deceit unto thee. For the sake\nof Duryodhana I will combat against thy sons. I cannot forget his\nkindness; I cannot forget mine own honour. Thy command cannot now be\nobeyed by me. Yet thy solicitation to me will not be fruitless. I have\npower to slay Yudhishthira, and Bhima, and Nakula, and Sahadeva, but I\npromise they shall not fall by my hand. I will fight with Arjuna alone.\nIf I slay Arjuna, I will achieve great fame; if I am slain by him, I\nwill be covered with glory.\u201d\n\nSaid Pritha: \u201cThou hast pledged the lives of four of thy brethren. Be\nthat remembered to thee in the perils of battle. Blessed be thou, and\nlet health be given thee.\u201d\n\nKarna said: \u201cSo be it,\u201d and then they parted, the mother going one way\nand the son another.\n\nAfter this the Pandavas and Kauravas gathered together their mighty\narmies and marched to the field of battle.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XVIII\n\nThe Battle of Eighteen Days\n\n Armies on the Battlefield\u2014Bhishma leads the Kauravas\u2014Karna\n refrains from fighting\u2014Bhishma's Triumphant Charge\u2014Arjuna's\n Success\u2014Slaughter of Princes\u2014Bhima in Peril\u2014Iravat is slain\u2014The\n Rakshasa Warrior\u2014Duryodhana desires Karna as Leader\u2014The Fall\n of Bhishma\u2014Drona as Leader\u2014How Abhimanyu perished\u2014Arjuna's\n Revenge\u2014The Night Battle\u2014Drupada and Drona are slain\u2014Karna's\n Vow\u2014Bhima drinks Duhsasana's Blood\u2014Karna's Combat with\n Arjuna\u2014The Fall of Karna\u2014The Last Day of Battle\u2014Duryodhana in\n Hiding\u2014Discovered by Pandavas\u2014Bhima overcomes Duryodhana\u2014Wrath of\n Balarama\u2014Krishna intervenes\u2014Drona's Son in Pandava Camp\u2014A Night of\n Slaughter.\n\n\nSoon after Krishna had returned from Hastinapur, Duryodhana sent a\nchallenge to the Pandavas. His messenger spake, saying: \u201cYou have\nvowed to wage war against us. The time has come for you to fulfil\nyour vow. Your kingdom was seized by me, your wife Draupadi was put\nto shame, and you were all made exiles. Why do you not now seek to be\navenged in battle? Where is drowsy Bhima, who boasted that he would\ndrink the blood of Duhsasana? Duhsasana is weary with waiting for him.\nWhere is arrogant Arjuna, who hath Drona to meet? When mountains are\nblown about like dust, and men hold back the wind with their hands,\nArjuna will take captive the mighty Drona.... Of what account was the\nmace of Bhima and the bow of Arjuna on the day when your kingdom was\ntaken from you, and you were banished like vagabonds?... Vain will be\nthe help of Krishna when you meet us in battle.\u201d\n\nKrishna answered the messenger, saying: \u201cVainly dost thou boast of\nprowess, but ere long thy fate will be made known unto thee. I will\nconsume thine army like to fire which consumeth withered grass. Thou\nwilt not escape me, for I will drive the chariot of Arjuna. And let\nDuhsasana know that the vow of Bhima will ere long be fulfilled.\u201d\n\nSaid Arjuna: \u201cTell thou Duryodhana, \u2018It is unseemly for warriors to\nboast like women.... It is well that Duhsasana cometh to battle.\u2019\u201d\n\nWhen the messenger spake these words to Duryodhana, Karna said: \u201cCease\nthis chatter! Let the drums of war be sounded.\u201d\n\nSo on the morrow at red dawn the armies of the Kauravas and the\nPandavas were assembled for battle on the wide plain of Kuru-Kshetra.\nBhishma, with his large palmyra standard decked with five stars, had\nbeen chosen to lead Duryodhana's army, and Karna, who had quarrelled\nwith him, vowed not to fight so long as the older warrior remained\nalive. \u201cShould he fall, however,\u201d Karna said, \u201cI will go forth against\nArjuna.\u201d\n\nThe army of the Pandavas was commanded by Dhrishta-dyumna, son of\nDrupada, and brother of Draupadi. Among the young heroes were Arjuna's\ntwo sons, the noble and peerless Abhimanyu, whose mother was Krishna's\nfair sister Subhadra, and brave Iravat, whose mother was Ulupi, the\nserpent nymph, daughter of the king of the Nagas. Bhima's Rakshasa son,\nthe terrible Ghatotkacha, who had power to change his shape and create\nillusions, had also hastened to assist his kinsmen. Krishna drove the\nchariot of Arjuna, who carried his celestial bow, named Gandiva, the\ngift of the god Agni; and his standard was the image of Hanuman, the\nchief ape god, who was the son of Vayu, the wind god. Now the army of\nDuryodhana was more numerous than the army of Yudhishthira.\n\nDrona led the right wing of the Kaurava forces, which was strengthened\nby Shakuni, the gambler, and his Gandhari lancers. The left wing was\nled by Duhsasana, who was followed by Kamboja cavalry and fierce\nSakas and Yavanas mounted on rapid steeds. The peoples of the north\nwere there and the peoples of the south, and of the east also.[280]\nBlind old Dhritarashtra was in the rear, and with him was Sanjaya, his\ncharioteer, who related all that took place, having been gifted with\ndivine vision by Vyasa.\n\n[280] The late Professor H. H. Wilson considered that the Kamboja were\ntroops of Khorasan, Balkh, and Bokhara, that the Sakas, the Sac\u00e6 of the\nancients, were some of the Scythians from Turkestan and Tartary, and\nthat the Yavanas, \u201cIonians\u201d, were the Greeks of Bactria. The peoples of\nsouth and east included half-breeds and aborigines.\n\nEre yet the conflict began, Yudhishthira walked unarmed towards\nthe Kauravas, whereat his kinsmen made merry, thinking he was\nterror-stricken. But Pandu's noble son first spake to Bhishma and\nasked permission to fight against him. Bhishma gave consent. Then he\naddressed Drona in like terms, and Drona gave consent also. And ere he\nreturned to his place, Yudhishthira called out before the Kaurava army:\n\u201cWhoso desireth to help our cause, let him follow me.\u201d When he had\nspoken thus, Yuyutsu, the half-brother of Duryodhana, made answer: \u201cIf\nthou wilt elevate me, I will serve thee well.\u201d Said Yudhishthira: \u201cBe\nmy brother.\u201d Then Yuyutsu followed Yudhishthira with all his men, and\nno man endeavoured to hold him back.\n\nWhen the armies were being set in order for battle, Arjuna bade Krishna\nto drive his chariot to the open space on which the struggle would take\nplace. Indra's mighty son surveyed the hosts, and when he saw his\nkinsmen, young and old, and his friends and all the elders and princes\non either side ready to fall upon one another, his heart was touched,\nand he trembled with pity and sorrow. He spake to Krishna, saying: \u201cI\nseek nor victory, nor kingdom, nor any joy upon earth. Those for whose\nsake we might wish for power are gathered against us in battle. What\njoy can come to us if we commit the crime of slaying our own kinsmen?\u201d\n\nSo saying, Arjuna let fall his celestial bow and sat down on the bench\nof his chariot with a heart full of grief.\n\nKrishna admonished Arjuna, saying: \u201cThou art a Kshatriya, and it is\nthy duty to fight, no matter what may befall thee or befall others. So\nI command thee who am responsible for thy doings. He who hath wisdom\nsorroweth not for the living or for the dead. As one casteth off old\nraiment and putteth on new, so the soul casteth off this body and\nentereth the new body. Naught existeth that is not of the soul.\u201d\n\nAfter long instruction, Krishna revealed himself to Arjuna in his\ncelestial splendour and power and said: \u201cLet thy heart and thine\nunderstanding be fixed in me, and thou shalt dwell in me hereafter.\nI will deliver thee from all thy sins.... I am the same unto all\ncreatures; there is none hateful to me\u2014none dear. Those who worship\nme are in me and I am in them. Those who hate me are consigned to\nevil births: they are deluded birth after birth, nor ever reach unto\nme.\u201d[281]\n\n[281] A long section of the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ occurring here, and forming a\nsort of episode or discussion by itself, is called \u201cBhagavadgita\u201d, and\nis dealt with more fully in Chapters VI, VII.\n\nArjuna gave ear unto the counsel of Krishna, and prepared for the fray.\n\nLoudly bellowed the war shells, and the drums of battle were sounded.\nThe Kauravas made ready to attack with horsemen, footmen, and\ncharioteers, and elephants of war. The Pandavas were marshalled to meet\nthem. And the air was filled with the shouting of men, the roaring\nof elephants, the blasts of trumpets, and the beating of drums: the\nrattling of chariots was like to thunder rolling in heaven. The gods\nand Gandharvas assembled in the clouds and saw the hosts which had\ngathered for mutual slaughter.\n\nAs both armies waited for sunrise, a tempest arose and the dawn was\ndarkened by dust clouds, so that men could scarce behold one another.\nEvil were the omens. Blood dropped like rain out of heaven, while\njackals howled impatiently, and kites and vultures screamed hungrily\nfor human flesh. The earth shook, peals of thunder were heard, although\nthere were no clouds, and angry lightning rent the horrid gloom;\nflaming thunderbolts struck the rising sun and broke in fragments with\nloud noise....\n\nThe undaunted warriors never faltered, despite these signs and\nwarnings. Shouting defiance, they mingled in conflict, eager for\nvictory, and strongly armed. Swords were wielded and ponderous maces,\njavelins were hurled, and numerous darts also; countless arrows\nwhistled in speedy flight.\n\nWhen the wind fell and the air cleared, the battle waxed in fury.\nBhishma achieved mighty deeds. Duryodhana led his men against Bhima's,\nand they fought with valour. Yudhishthira fought with Salya, Rajah\nof Madra[282]; Dhrishta-dyumna, son of Drupada, went against Drona,\nwho had captured aforetime half of the Panchala kingdom with the\naid of the Pandavas. Drupada was opposed to Jayadratha, the Rajah of\nSindhu, who had endeavoured to carry off Draupadi, and was compelled to\nacknowledge himself the slave of Yudhishthira. Many single combats were\nfought with uncertain result.\n\n[282] Although the brother of Madri, mother of the two younger Pandava\nprinces, he was an ally of the Kauravas.\n\nAll day the armies battled with growing ardour. When evening was coming\non, Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna, perceived that the advantage lay with the\nKauravas, chiefly because of Bhishma's prowess. So he went speedily\nagainst that mighty warrior, and cut down the ensign of his chariot.\nBhishma said that never before had he beheld a youthful hero who could\nperform greater deeds. Then he advanced to make fierce attack upon the\nPandava army. Victoriously he went, cutting a blood-red path through\nthe stricken legions; none could resist him for a time. The heart\nof Arjuna was filled with shame, and he rode against Bhishma, whose\nadvance was stayed. The two heroes fought desperately until dusk. Then\nBhishma retired; but Arjuna followed him, and pressed into the heart of\nthe Kaurava host, achieving great slaughter. The truce was sounded, and\nthe first day's battle came to an end.\n\nYudhishthira was despondent because that the fortunes of war seemed to\nbe against him; in the darkness he went unto Krishna, who bade him to\nbe of good cheer, and Yudhishthira was comforted.\n\nOn the morning of the second day Bhishma again attacked the Pandava\nforces, shattering their ranks; but Arjuna drove him back. Perceiving\nthis, Duryodhana lamented to Bhishma that he had quarrelled with Karna.\nThe old warrior made answer: \u201cAlas! I am a Kshatriya and must fight\neven against my beloved kinsman.\u201d Then he rode against Arjuna once\nmore, and the two warriors contended fiercely and wounded one another.\n\nDrupada's son waged a long combat with Drona, and Bhima performed\nmighty deeds. He leapt on the back of an elephant and slew the son of\nthe Rajah of Maghadha[283]; and he slew the rajah and his elephant also\nwith a single blow of his mace.\n\n[283] Behar.\n\nTowards evening a furious combat was waged by Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna,\nand Lakshmana, son of Duryodhana. The young Pandava was about to\nachieve the victory, when Duryodhana came to his son's aid with many\nrajahs. Shouts were raised: \u201cAbhimanyu is in peril; he will be overcome\nby force of numbers!\u201d Arjuna heard these words, and rode to the rescue.\nThereupon the Kauravas cried out in terror: \u201cArjuna! Arjuna!\u201d and\nscattered in flight. That evening Bhishma spake unto Drona and said:\n\u201cMethinks the gods are against us.\u201d\n\nOn the third day the army of the Pandavas advanced in crescent\nformation and drove back the Kaurava army. Many were slain, and rivers\nof blood laid down the dust; horses writhed in agony, and the air was\nfilled with the shrieking and moaning of wounded men. Terrible were the\nomens, for headless men rose up and fought against one another; then\nthe people feared that all who contended in that dread battle would be\nslain.\n\nWhen he beheld the broken cars, the fallen standards, and the heaps of\nslain elephants and horses and men, Duryodhana said to Bhishma: \u201cThou\nshouldst yield thy place to Karna. Methinks thou art partial to Arjuna\nand the Pandavas.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhishma: \u201cThy struggle is in vain, foolish Duryodhana. None\ncan wipe out the stain of thy sins; of no avail is cunning against a\nrighteous cause. Verily, thou shalt perish because of thy folly.... I\nhave no fear of battle, and I will lead the Kauravas until I triumph or\nfall.\u201d\n\nThen angry Bhishma urged his charioteer to attack the enemy; and he\ndrove back all who opposed him, even Arjuna. The fighting became\ngeneral, nor did it end until night obscured the plain.\n\nBhima was the hero of the fourth day of battle. He swept against the\nKauravas like a whirlwind; in vain were darts thrown and arrows shot\nat the strong Pandava. He wounded both Duryodhana and Salya, Rajah of\nSindhu. Then fourteen of Duryodhana's brethren rushed to combat with\nhim. Like the lion who licks his lips when he beholds his prey drawing\nnigh, Bhima awaited them. Brief and terrible was the conflict, and\nere six princes fled in terror, eight were slaughtered by the mighty\nPandava.\n\nAnother day dawned, and Arjuna and Bhima advanced in triumph until they\nwere met and held back by Drona. Once again the sons of Duryodhana and\nArjuna sought out one another. Mighty were their blows and swift, and\nfor a time all men watched them, wondering greatly. At length Lakshmana\nwas grievously wounded, and was carried from the field by his kinsmen.\nAbhimanyu returned in triumph to Yudhishthira. On that same day were\nslain by Bhuri-sravas the ten great sons of Satyaki, Krishna's kinsman.\n\nAnother day dawned, and it was a day of peril for Bhima. Confident of\nvictory, he pressed too far into the midst of the Kaurava host, and was\nsurrounded by overwhelming numbers. Drupada perceived his peril and\nhastened to help him, but neither could retreat. Then Arjuna's fearless\nson, the slayer of Lakshmana, with twelve brave chieftains shattered\nthe Kaurava hosts and rescued Bhima and Drupada from the surging\nwarriors who thirsted for their blood.\n\nThe seventh day was the day of Bhishma. None could withstand him in\nhis battle fury. The Pandavas quailed before him, nor could Bhima or\nArjuna drive him back. Ere night fell, the standard of Yudhishthira was\ncut down, and the Kauravas rejoiced greatly, believing that they would\nachieve a great victory.\n\nOn the day that followed, however, the tide of battle turned. As\nBhishma advanced, his charioteer was slain, and the steeds took flight\nin terror. Then confusion fell on the Kaurava army. For a time the\nPandavas made resistless advance amidst mighty slaughter. Then the six\nGandhari princes advanced to beat back the forces of Yudhishthira.\nOn milk-white steeds they rode, and they swept like to sea birds\nacross the ocean billows. They had vowed to slay Iravat, son of Arjuna\nand the Naga princess. The gallant youth feared them not and fought\ntriumphantly, stirred with the joy of battle; he slew five of the\nprinces, but the sixth, the eldest prince, struck down Arjuna's son,\nwho was plucked thus rudely from life like to a fair and tender lotus.\nTerrible was the grief of Arjuna when he was told that his son had\nfallen. Then with tear-dimmed eyes he dashed upon the foe, thirsting\nfor vengeance; he broke through the Kaurava ranks, and Bhima, who\nfollowed him, slew more of Duryodhana's brethren.\n\nBhima's terrible son, the Rakshasa Ghatotkacha, also sought to be\navenged when Iravat fell. Roaring like the sea, he assumed an awesome\nshape, and advanced with flaming spears like the Destroyer at the end\nof Time, followed by other Rakshasas. Warriors fled from his path,\nuntil Duryodhana went against him with many elephants; but Ghatotkacha\nscattered the elephant host. Duryodhana fought like a lion and slew\nfour Rakshasas, whereupon Bhima's son, raging furiously, his eyes red\nas fire, dashed against Duryodhana; but that mighty Kaurava shot\narrows like angry snakes, and he wounded his enemy. Then a rajah\nurged his elephant in front of Duryodhana's chariot for protection.\nGhatotkacha slew the great animal with a flaming dart. Next Bhishma\npressed forward with a division to shield Dhritarashtra's son, and the\nRakshasa fought fiercely; he wounded Kripa, and with an arrow severed\nthe string of Bhishma's bow. Then the Panchalas hastened to aid Bhima's\nson, and the Kauravas were scattered in flight.\n\nDuryodhana was stricken with sorrow, and went to the snow-white tent\nof Bhishma that night and spoke, saying: \u201cForgive my harsh words, O\nmighty chieftain. The Pandavas are brave in battle, but they are unable\nto resist thee. If, however, thou dost love them too well to overcome\nthem utterly, let Karna take thy place, so that he may lead the hosts\nagainst our enemies.\u201d\n\nSaid Bhishma: \u201cAlas! Duryodhana, thy struggle is of no avail. The just\ncause must win; they who fight for the right are doubly armed. Besides,\nKrishna is with the Pandavas: he drives Arjuna's car, and not even the\ngods could strike them down. Thou art confronted by utter ruin, O proud\nand foolish prince. I will fight as I have fought until the end, which\nis not now far off.\u201d\n\nOn the next day Bhishma was like a lordly elephant which treads down\nthe marsh reeds; he was like a fire which burns up a dry and withering\nforest. In his chariot he advanced triumphantly, and great was the\ncarnage which he wrought.\n\nYudhishthira was in despair, and spake to Krishna when night fell.\nKrishna said: \u201cBhishma has vowed that he will not slay one who had\nbeen born a woman, knowing that the righteous would defame him if he\nslew a female. Let Sikhandin[284] be therefore sent against him with\nArjuna.\u201d\n\n[284] A daughter of Drupada who exchanged her sex with a Yaksha. She\nwas a reincarnation of the Princess Amba of Kasi, who, with her two\nsisters, was captured by Bhishma at the swayamvara. Her sisters were\nthe mothers of Pandu and Dhritarashtra.\n\nArjuna said: \u201cAlas! I cannot fight behind another, or achieve the fall\nof Bhishma by foul means. I loved him as a child; I sat upon his knee\nand called him \u2018Father\u2019. Rather would I perish than slay the saintly\nhero.\u201d\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cIt is fated that Bhishma will fall on the morrow, a\nvictim of wrong. As he hath fought against those whom he loveth, so\nmust thou, Arjuna, fight against him. He hath shown thee how Kshatriyas\nmust ever wage war, although their foemen be hated or well beloved.\u201d\n\nArjuna, being thus admonished, went forth on the tenth day with\nSikhandin, born a woman and made a male by a Yaksha.\n\nOnce again Duryodhana sought to prevail upon Bhishma to give place to\nKarna, and Bhishma answered him in anger: \u201cThis day will I overcome the\nPandavas or perish on the field of battle.\u201d\n\nThen the ancient hero advanced and challenged Arjuna. A terrible\nconflict ensued, and it lasted for many hours; all the warriors on\neither side stopped fighting and looked on. At length Sikhandin rushed\nforward like a foaming billow, and when Bhishma saw him his arms fell,\nfor he could not contend against one who had been born a woman. Then\nthe arrows of Arjuna pierced Bhishma's body, and the peerless old hero\nfell from his chariot wounded unto death.... The sun went down, and\ndarkness swept over the plain.\n\nThere was great sorrow on the blood-drenched plain that night. Arjuna\nwept as a son weeps for a father, and he carried water to Bhishma.\nYudhishthira cursed the day on which the war began. To the dying\nchieftain came Duryodhana and his brethren also. Friends and enemies\nlamented together over the fallen hero.\n\nBhishma spake to Duryodhana, saying: \u201cHear the counsel of thy dying\nkinsman; his voice speaketh as from the dead. If thy heart of stone can\nbe moved, thou wilt bring this slaughter of kinsmen by kinsmen to an\nend now. Restore unto Yudhishthira his kingdom and make thy peace with\nhim, and let Pandavas and Kauravas be friends and comrades together.\u201d\n\nHe spoke in vain, for his words stirred the heart of Duryodhana to hate\nhis kinsmen the Pandavas with a deeper hatred than before.\n\nKarna came to the battlefield, and Bhishma said unto him: \u201cProud rivals\nhave we two been, jealous one of the other, and ever at strife. My\nvoice faileth, yet must I tell thee that Arjuna is not greater than\nthou art on the battlefield. Nor is he of higher birth, for thou\nart the son of Pritha and the sun god Surya. As Arjuna is thine own\nbrother, 'twould be well for thee to bring this strife to an end.\u201d\n\nBut Bhishma spoke in vain. Karna hated his brother, and thirsted for\nhis life.\n\nA guard was set round Bhishma, who lay supported by a pillow of arrows,\nwaiting the hour of his doom. Nor did he die until after the great\nconflict was ended.\n\nThe Kauravas held a council of war, and they chose Drona to be their\nleader. The battle standard of the Brahman was a water jar and a golden\naltar upon a deerskin. He vowed before Duryodhana that he would take\nYudhishthira prisoner.\n\nOn the first day of Drona's command, and the eleventh day of the\ngreat war, Abhimanyu was foremost in the fight. He dragged a chieftain\nby the hair out of his chariot, and would have taken him prisoner,\nbut Jayadratha, the rajah who had endeavoured to abduct Draupadi,\nintervened, and broke his sword upon the young man's buckler.\nJayadratha fled, and Salya, Rajah of Madra, attacked Arjuna's noble\nson. But Bhima dashed forward and engaged him in fierce combat. Both\nwere mighty wielders of the mace; they were like two tigers, like\ntwo great elephants; they were like eagles rending one another with\nblood-red claws. The sound of their blows was like the echoing thunder,\nand each stood as steadfast as a cliff which is struck in vain by fiery\nlightning.... At length both staggered and fell, but Bhima at once\nsprang up to strike the final blow. Ere he could accomplish his fierce\ndesire, however, Salya was rescued by his followers and carried to a\nplace of safety.... Thereafter the battle raged with more fury than\never, until night fell and hid from sight all the dead and the living.\n\nDrona sought to fulfil his vow on the second day of his command, and he\nprompted Susarman, the rajah who had invaded Virata when the Pandavas\nwere servants there, to send a challenge for single combat to Arjuna.\nSusarman selected a place apart. Arjuna fought many hours, until he put\nthe boastful rajah and his followers to flight; then he taunted them\nfor their cowardice. Meanwhile Drona had dashed upon Yudhishthira, who,\nwhen confronted by certain downfall, leapt on the back of a swift steed\nand escaped from the battlefield. But it was no shame for a Kshatriya\nto flee before a Brahman.\n\nDuryodhana went against Bhima: he was wounded after a brief combat, and\nretreated from the field. Many warriors then pressed against Bhima,\nbut Arjuna had returned after fighting Susarman, and drove furiously\nagainst the Kauravas; in triumph he swept over the blood-red plain.\nKarna watched his rival with jealous wrath and entered the fray. The\nfire burned redly in his eyes, and he attacked Arjuna, resolved to\nconquer or to die. Uncertain and long was the conflict, and when night\nfell the two great warriors withdrew reluctantly from the field.\n\nDrona on the morrow arranged his army like to a spider's web, and\nonce again Susarman challenged Arjuna, so as to draw him from the\nbattle-front. It was the day of Abhimanyu's triumph and the day of\nhis death. Yudhishthira sent Arjuna's son to break the web of foemen,\nand he rode his chariot against elephants and steeds with conquering\nfury. Duryodhana attacked the youthful hero with a band of warriors,\nbut fell wounded by Abhimanyu, who also slew the warriors. Salya next\ndashed against Arjuna's son, but ere long he was carried from the field\ngrievously wounded. Then Duhsasana came forward, frowning and fierce.\n\nAbhimanyu cried out: \u201cBase prince, who plotted with Shakuni to win the\nkingdom of Yudhishthira and put Draupadi to shame, I welcome thee, for\nI have waited long for thee. Now thou wilt receive meet punishment for\nthy sins.\u201d\n\nAs he spake, the fearless youth flung a dart, and Duhsasana fell\nstunned and bleeding, but was rescued from death by his followers.\n\nProudly rode Lakshmana, son of Duryodhana, against Arjuna's son,\nand fought bravely and well; but he was cut down, and died upon the\nbattlefield.\n\nThen it was that the evil Jayadratha, who had vowed to be the slave\nof Yudhishthira in the forest, advanced stealthily with six warriors\nto fight with the lordly youth. Round him they surged like howling\nbillows; alone stood Abhimanyu, and seven were against him. His\ncharioteer was slain and his chariot was shattered; he leapt to the\nground and fought on, slaying one by one.... Perceiving his peril,\nthe Pandavas endeavoured to rescue Arjuna's son; but Jayadratha held\nthem back, and Karna aided him. At length Abhimanyu was wounded on\nthe forehead, blood streamed into his eyes and blinded him, and he\nstumbled. Ere he could recover, the son of Duhsasana leapt forward and\ndashed out his brains with a mace. So died the gallant youth, pure as\nhe was at birth. He died like to a forest lion surrounded by hunters;\nhe sank like to the red sun at evening; he perished like to a tempest\nwhose strength is spent; he was spent out even like a fire which has\nconsumed a forest and is extinguished on the plain; Abhimanyu was lost\nas is the serene white moon when shrouded in black eclipse.\n\nSo that day's battle ended, and Abhimanyu slumbered in the soft\nstarlight, lifeless and cold.\n\nWhen it was told to Arjuna that his son was slain, the mighty warrior\nwept silently and lay upon the ground. At length he leapt up and\ncried: \u201cMay the curse of a father and the vengeance of a warrior\nsmite the murderers of my boy!... May I never reach heaven if I do\nnot slay Jayadratha on the morrow....\u201d A spy hastened to the camp of\nthe Kauravas and told of the vow which Arjuna had taken. Jayadratha\ntrembled with fear.\n\nEarly next morning Arjuna spake to Krishna, saying: \u201cDrive swiftly, for\nthis will be a day of great slaughter.\u201d He desired to find Jayadratha;\nwith him went Bhima and Satyaki. Many warriors engaged them in battle,\nfor the Kauravas hoped to contrive that the sun should go down ere\nArjuna could fulfil his terrible vow.\n\nMounted on an elephant, Duhsasana opposed Arjuna; but the lordly\ntusker took flight when the rattling chariot drew nigh. Drona blocked\nthe way; but Arjuna refused combat, saying: \u201cThou art as a father\nunto me.... Let me find the slayer of my son....\u201d He passed on. Then\nDuryodhana came up and engaged him. Karna fought with Bhima, and\nBhurisrava attacked Satyaki. Long waged the bitter conflicts, and at\nlength Krishna perceived that his kinsman was about to be slain. He\ncalled to Arjuna, who cast a celestial weapon at Bhurisrava, which cut\noff both his arms; then Satyaki slew him. Many warriors confronted\nArjuna thereafter, and many fell. But the day wore on and evening drew\nnigh, and he could not find Jayadratha. At length Arjuna bade Krishna\nto drive furiously onward, and to pause not until he found the slayer\nof his son. The chariot sped like to a whirlwind, until at length\nArjuna beheld the evil-hearted Jayadratha; he was guarded by Karna and\nfive great warriors, and at that time the sun had begun to set.\n\nKarna leapt forward and engaged Arjuna; but Krishna, by reason of his\ndivine power, caused a dark cloud to obscure the sun, whereupon all\nmen believed that night had fallen. Karna at once withdrew; but Arjuna\ndrove on, and as the sun shot forth its last ray of dazzling light, he\ndashed upon Jayadratha as a falcon swoops down upon its prey. Brief\nwas the struggle, for ere daylight faded utterly, Arjuna overthrew\nthe slayer of his son and cut off his head. Bhima uttered a roar of\ntriumph when he saw the head of Jayadratha held aloft, and the Kauravas\nsorrowed greatly because that their wicked design had been thwarted.\n\nNight fell, but the fighting was renewed. In the darkness and confusion\nmen slew their kinsmen, fathers cut down their sons, and brothers\nfought against brothers. Yudhishthira sent men with torches to light up\nthe blood-red plain, and the battle was waged for many hours. Swords\nwere splintered and spears were lost, and warriors threw great boulders\nand chariot wheels against one another. All men were maddened with the\nthirst for blood, and the night was filled with horrors.\n\nAt length Arjuna called for a truce, and it was agreed that the\nwarriors should sleep on the battlefield. So all lay down, the\ncharioteer in his chariot, the horseman on his steed, and the driver of\nthe elephant on his elephant's back....\n\nDuryodhana reproached Drona because that he did not slay the Pandavas\nin their sleep.... \u201cLet Karna,\u201d he said, \u201clead the hosts to victory.\u201d\n\nSaid Drona: \u201cThou art reaping the red harvest of thy sins.... But know\nnow that on the morrow either Arjuna will fall or I will be slain by\nhim.\u201d\n\nWhen the bright moon rose in the heavens the conflict was renewed. Many\nfell on that awful night. Ghatotkacha, the Rakshasa son of Bhima, was\nforemost in the fray, and he slaughtered numerous Kaurava warriors. At\nlength Karna went against him, and then the air was filled with blazing\narrows. Each smote the other with powerful weapons, and for a time the\nissue hung in the balance. Ghatotkacha created illusions, but Karna\nkept his senses in that great fight, even after his steeds had been\nslain; he leapt to the ground, then flung a celestial dart, the gift of\nIndra, and Ghatotkacha, uttering terrible cries, fell down and breathed\nhis last breath. The Kauravas shouted with gladness, and the Pandavas\nshed tears of sorrow.\n\nEre the night was ended, Drona slew his ancient enemy Drupada, Rajah of\nSouthern Panchala, and he cut down also the Rajah of Virata.\n\nEre dawn broke, Dhrishta-dyumna, son of Drupada, went forth to search\nfor Drona, the slayer of his beloved sire.\n\nSaid Bhima: \u201cThou art too young to strike down so great a warrior as\nDrona. I will fight with him until he is wearied, then thou canst\napproach and be avenged.\u201d\n\nBhima struggled with the sage, his preceptor, for many hours; then\nDhrishta-dyumna engaged him, but neither could prevail over the slayer\nof Drupada.\n\nAt length the Pandava warriors shouted falsely: \u201cAswatthaman, son of\nDrona, is slain.\u201d\n\nWhen Drona heard the dread tidings, he fainted in his chariot, and\nvengeful Dhrishta-dyumna rushed forward and cut off his head. Then the\nson of Drupada threw the head of Drona towards Duryodhana, saying:\n\u201cHere is the head of thy mighty warrior; I will cut off the heads of\neach Kaurava prince in like manner.\u201d\n\nThe fall of Drona was like the sinking of heaven's sun; it was like the\ndrying up of the ocean; the Kauravas fled away in fear.\n\nTerrible was the grief of Aswatthaman when he approached at eventide\nand found that his sire had been slain. Night fell while he sorrowed,\nand he vowed to slay Dhrishta-dyumna and all his kindred.\n\nKarna was then chosen to be the leader of the Kaurava army, and\nDuryodhana hailed him with joy and said: \u201cThou alone canst stem the\ntide of our disasters. Arjuna hath been spared by Bhishma and by Drona\nbecause that they loved him. But the arm of Karna is strengthened by\nhatred of the proud Pandava archer.\u201d\n\nWhen morning broke over the plain of Kuru-kshetra, the first battle of\nKarna began, and it continued all day long. Countless warriors were\nslain; blood ran in streams, and the dead and mangled bodies of men and\nelephants and horses were strewn in confusion. The air was darkened\nwith arrows and darts, and it rang with the shouts of the fighters and\nthe moans of the wounded, the bellowing of trumpets, and the clamour of\ndrums.\n\nAt length evening came on and the carnage ended.... Duryodhana summoned\na council of war and said: \u201cThis is the sixteenth day of the war,\nand many of our strongest heroes have fallen. Bhishma and Drona have\nfallen, and many of my brethren are now dead.\u201d\n\nSaid Karna: \u201cTo-morrow will be the great day of the war. I have vowed\nto slay Arjuna or fall by his hand.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana was cheered by Karna's words, and all the Kauravas were once\nmore hopeful of victory.\n\nIn the morning Karna went forth in his chariot. He chose for his driver\nSalya, Rajah of Madra, whose skill was so great that even Krishna was\nnot his superior.\n\nArjuna was again engaged in combat with Susarman when Karna attacked\nthe Pandava army. So the son of Surya went against Yudhishthira and\ncast him on the ground, saying: \u201cIf thou wert Arjuna I would slay thee.\u201d\n\nBhima then attacked Karna, and they fought fiercely for a time, until\nArjuna, having overcome Susarman, returned again to combat with Karna.\n\nDuhsasana, who put Draupadi to shame, came up to help Karna, and Bhima\nsprang upon him. Now Bhima had long desired to meet this evil-hearted\nson of the blind maharajah, so that he might fulfil his vow. He swung\nhis mace and struck so mighty a blow that the advancing chariot was\nshattered. Duhsasana fell heavily upon the ground and broke his back.\nThen Bhima seized him and, whirling his body aloft, cried out: \u201cO\nKauravas, come ye who dare and rescue the helper of Karna.\u201d\n\nNo one ventured to approach, and Bhima cast down Duhsasana's body, cut\noff his head, and drank his blood as he had vowed to do. \u201cHo! ho!\u201d he\ncried, \u201cnever have I tasted a sweeter draught....\u201d\n\nMany Kaurava warriors fled, and they cried out: \u201cThis is not a man, for\nhe drinketh human blood.\u201d\n\nAll men watched the deadly combat which was waged between the mighty\nheroes Arjuna and Karna. They began by shooting arrows one at another,\nwhile Krishna and Salya guided the chariots with prowess and care. The\narrows of Arjuna fell upon Karna like to summer rain; Karna's arrows\nwere like stinging snakes, and they drank blood. At length Arjuna's\ncelestial bow Gandiva was struck and the bowstring severed....\n\nArjuna said: \u201cPause, O Karna. According to the rules of battle, thou\ncanst not attack a disabled foeman.\u201d\n\nBut Karna heeded not. He showered countless arrows, until his proud\nrival was wounded grievously on the breast.\n\nWhen Arjuna had restrung his bow, he rose up like to a stricken and\nangry tiger held at bay, and cast a screen of arrows against his foe.\nBut Karna feared him not, nor could Arjuna bear him down. The issue\nhung in the balance....\n\nThen suddenly a wheel of Karna's chariot sank in the soft ground, nor\ncould Salya urge the horses to advance.\n\nKarna cried out: \u201cPause now, O Arjuna, nor wage unequal war. It is not\nmanly to attack a helpless enemy.\u201d\n\nArjuna paused; but Krishna spake quickly, saying: \u201cO Karna, thou\nspeakest truly; but was it manly to shoot arrows at Arjuna whilst he\nengaged himself restringing his bow? Was it manly to scoff at Draupadi\nwhen she was put to shame before elders and princes in the gambling\nhall? Was it manly of thee and six warriors to surround Abhimanyu so as\nto murder him without compassion?\u201d\n\nWhen Arjuna heard his son's name, his heart burned with consuming\nwrath. Snatching from his quiver a crescent-bladed arrow, he drew his\nbow and shot it at Karna, whose head was immediately struck off.\n\nSo fell in that dread combat a brother by a brother's hand.\n\nThe Kauravas fled in terror when Karna was slain, and Kripa said unto\nDuryodhana: \u201cNow that our greatest warriors are dead, it would be well\nto sue for peace.\u201d\n\nSaid Duryodhana: \u201cAfter the wrongs I have done the Pandavas, how can\nI ask or expect mercy at their hands? Let the war go on till the end\ncomes.\u201d\n\nSalya was then chosen as the leader of the Kaurava army, which had\ngreatly shrunken in numbers, and on the morning of the eighteenth\nday of the war the battle was waged with fury. But the Pandavas were\nirresistible, and when Duryodhana perceived that they were sweeping all\nbefore them, he fled away secretly, carrying his mace. He had power to\nhide under water as long as he desired, by reason of a mighty charm\nwhich had been conferred upon him by the demons; so he plunged into a\nlake and lay concealed below the waters.\n\nSalya was slain by Yudhishthira, and he fell like to a\nthunder-splintered rock. Sahadeva overthrew false Shakuni, the gambler,\nwho had played against Yudhishthira with loaded dice, and Bhima cut\ndown all Duryodhana's brethren who had survived until that last\nfateful day. Of all the Kaurava heroes there then remained alive only\nAswa-thaman, son of Drona, Kripa, and Kritavarman, and the hidden\nDuryodhana.\n\nAt length Bhima discovered where Duryodhana was concealed.\nYudhishthira went to the lake side and urged him to come forth and\nfight.\n\nSaid Duryodhana: \u201cTake my kingdom now and have pleasure in it. Depart\nand leave me, for I must retire to the jungle and engage in meditation.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira said: \u201cI cannot accept aught from thee except what is won\nin battle.\u201d\n\nSaid Duryodhana: \u201cIf you promise to fight one by one, I will come out\nof the water and slay you all.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira said: \u201cCome forth, and the battle will be fought as thou\ndost desire. Now thou hast spoken as becomes a Kshatriya.\u201d\n\nStill Duryodhana tarried, and Bhima shouted: \u201cIf thou dost not come out\nof the lake at once, I will plunge in and drag thee to the shore.\u201d\n\nThen Duryodhana came forth, and the Pandavas laughed to see him, for he\nwas covered with mire, and water streamed down from his raiment.\n\nSaid Duryodhana: \u201cSoon will your merriment be turned to grief.\u201d\n\nNow, all during the time of the Pandava exile, Duryodhana had practised\nwith the mace, so that he became the equal of Bhima. But he had no one\nto support him there. The other survivors remained in hiding. Then\nBalarama appeared, and he caused the combat to be waged in the middle\nof the blood-red plain; he was Duryodhana's supporter.\n\nThe warriors fought like two fierce bulls, and smote one another heavy\nblows, until their faces were reddened with blood. Once Duryodhana\nalmost achieved victory, for he struck Bhima on the head so that all\npresent thought that the Pandava hero had received his deathblow.\nBhima staggered but recovered himself, and soon afterwards he struck\nDuryodhana a foul blow upon the knee, which smashed the bone so that\nhe fell prostrate. Thus was the vow of Bhima fulfilled....\n\nHe danced round Duryodhana a time, then, kicking his enemy's head,\ncried out at length: \u201cDraupadi is avenged.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira was wroth; he smote Bhima on the face and said: \u201cO\naccursed villain, thou wilt cause all men to speak ill of us.\u201d\n\nThen Arjuna led Bhima away, and Yudhishthira knelt beside Duryodhana\nand said: \u201cThou art still our ruler, and if thou wilt order me to slay\nBhima, thy command will be obeyed. Thou art now very nigh unto death,\nand I sorrow for the Kaurava wives and children, who will curse us\nbecause that thou hast been laid low.\u201d\n\nSaid Balarama: \u201cBhima hath broken the laws of combat, for he smote\nDuryodhana below the waist.\u201d\n\nKrishna said: \u201cMy brother, did not Duryodhana wrong the Pandavas with\nfoul play at dice? And did not Bhima, when he beheld Draupadi put to\nshame, vow to break the knee of Duryodhana?\u201d\n\nSaid Balarama: \u201cSo thou dost approve of this?... Can I forget that\nBhima kicked the head of our wounded kinsman, the rajah?\u201d\n\nKrishna stayed the vengeful hand of Balarama, and prevailed upon him to\ntake vows not to fight against the Pandavas.\n\nWhen night fell, the dying Duryodhana was visited on the battlefield by\nAswatthaman, son of Drona, and Kripa, and Kritavarman. Unto Aswatthaman\nhe gave permission to attack the Pandavas while yet they slumbered....\nThen Drona's son went forth in the darkness to glut his hunger for\nvengeance because that his sire had been slain.... The pale stars\nlooked down on the dead and the dying as Aswatthaman crossed the\nbattleplain and went stealthily towards the tents of his foemen, with\nKripa and Kritavarman.\n\nAt the gate of the Pandava camp an awful figure rose up against\nthe conspirators. Aswatthaman was not afraid, and he fought with\nhis adversary until he perceived that he was the god Shiva, the\nBlue-throated Destroyer. Then Drona's son drew back, and on an altar\nhe kindled a fire to worship the all-powerful deity. Then, having\nnaught else to sacrifice, he cast his own body upon the flames. By this\nsupremely pious act Shiva was propitiated; he accepted Drona's son and\nentered his body, saying: \u201cHitherto, for the sake of Krishna, have I\nprotected the sons of Draupadi, but now their hour of doom hath come.\u201d\n\nThen Aswatthaman rushed into the camp and slaughtered with the cruel\narm of vengeance. Rudely he awakened Dhrishta-dyumna, who cried out:\n\u201cCoward! wouldst thou attack a naked man?\u201d\n\nAswatthaman answered not his father's slayer, but took his life with\na single blow.... Through the camp he went, striking down each one he\nmet, and shrieks and moans arose on every side.\n\nDraupadi was awakened by the clamour, and her five young sons sprang up\nto protect her. Aswatthaman slew each one without pity.... Then he lit\na great fire to discover those who had concealed themselves, and with\nreeking hands he completed his ghastly work of slaughter. Meanwhile\nKripa and Kritavarman, with weapons in their hands, kept watch at the\ngate, and cut down all who endeavoured to escape.\n\nNow the Pandava princes slept safely on that night of horror in the\ncamp of the Kauravas, so that they escaped the sword of Drona's son.\n\nWhen his fell work was accomplished, the bloodthirsty Aswatthaman\ncut off the heads of Draupadi's five sons and carried them to\nDuryodhana, who rejoiced greatly, believing that they were the heads\nof Yudhishthira and his brethren. But when he perceived that the\navenger of night had slain the children of Draupadi instead, he cried\nout: \u201cAlas! what horror hast thou committed? Thou hast slain innocent\nchildren, who, had they lived, would have perpetuated our name and\nour fame. My heart burns with anger against the sires and not their\nharmless sons.\u201d\n\nDuryodhana groaned heavily: his heart was oppressed with grief, and,\nbowing down his head, he died sorrowing.\n\nThen Aswatthaman and Kripa and Kritavarman fled away, fearing the wrath\nof the Pandavas.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XIX\n\nAtonement and the Ascent to Heaven\n\n Draupadi's Sorrow\u2014The Vengeful Maharajah\u2014Bhima is Forgiven\u2014Dead\n Burned on Battlefield\u2014Atonement for Sin\u2014The Horse\n Sacrifice\u2014Arjuna's Wanderings\u2014A Woman turned to Stone\u2014The\n Amazons\u2014Father and Son Conflict\u2014The Wonderful Serpent Jewel\u2014Return\n of the Horse\u2014The Sacrifice Performed\u2014Maharajah Retires to the\n Forest\u2014Meeting of Mournful Relatives\u2014The Vision of the Dead\u2014Widows\n Drown Themselves\u2014A Forest Tragedy\u2014Dwaraka Horrors\u2014End of Krishna\n and Balarama\u2014City Destroyed by the Sea\u2014Farewell of the Pandavas\u2014The\n Journey to Heaven\u2014Yudhishthira Tested by Deities\u2014Vision of Hell\u2014The\n Holy Life.\n\n\nWhen it was told to the Pandava brethren that their camp had been\nraided in darkness by the bloodthirsty Aswatthaman, Yudhishthira\nexclaimed: \u201cAlas! sorrow upon sorrow crowds upon us, and now the\ngreatest sorrow of all hath fallen. Draupadi mourns the death of her\nbrother and her five sons, and I fear she will perish with grief.\u201d\n\nDraupadi came before her husbands and, weeping bitterly, said: \u201cFor\nthirteen cruel years you have endured shame and exile so that your\nchildren might prosper. But now that they are all slain, can you desire\nto have power and kingdom?\u201d\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cO daughter of a rajah, is thy grief so great as is\nPritha's and Gandhari's, and as great as those who lament the loss or\ntheir husbands on the battlefield? Thou hast less cause than others to\nwail now.\u201d\n\nDraupadi was soothed somewhat, but she turned to Bhima and said: \u201cIf\nthou wilt not bring to me the head of Aswatthaman, I will never again\nlook upon thy face.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cAswatthaman is a Brahman, and Vishnu, the greatest\nof the gods, will punish him if he hath done wrong. If we should slay\nhim now, O Draupadi, thy sons and thy brother and thy sire would not be\nrestored unto thee.\u201d\n\nDraupadi said: \u201cSo be it. But Aswatthaman hath a great jewel which\ngleams in darkness. Let it be taken from him, for it is as dear unto\nhim as his life.\u201d\n\nThen Arjuna went in pursuit of Aswatthaman and found him, and returned\nwith the jewel.\n\nTo the battlefield came blind old Dhritarashtra, mourning the death of\nhis hundred sons. And with the weeping maharajah were Queen Gandhari\nand the wives of the Kaurava princes, who sorrowed aloud. Wives wept\nfor their husbands, their children wailed beside them, and mothers\nmoaned for their sons. Bitter was the anguish of tender-hearted\nwomen, and the air was filled with wailing on that blood-red plain of\nKuru-kshetra.\n\nWhen Queen Gandhari beheld the Pandavas she cried out: \u201cThe smell of\nDuryodhana is upon you all.\u201d\n\nNow Dhritarashtra plotted in his weak mind to crush the head of Bhima,\nthe slayer of Duryodhana. When he embraced Yudhishthira he said: \u201cWhere\nis Bhima?\u201d and they placed before him an image of the strong Pandava.\nDhritarashtra put forth his arms, and he crushed the image in his\nembrace and fell back fainting. Then he wailed: \u201cAlas! Bhima was as a\nson unto me. Although I have slain him, the dead cannot return.\u201d\n\nWell pleased was the maharajah when it was told to him that Bhima still\nlived; and he embraced his son's slayer tenderly and with forgiveness,\nsaying: \u201cI have no children now save the sons of Pandu, my brother.\u201d\n\nPritha rejoiced to meet her five sons, and she embraced them one by\none. Then she went towards the sorrowing Draupadi, who fainted in her\narms. Thereafter they wept together for the dead.\n\nThe bodies of the slain rajahs and princes were collected together,\nand wrapped in perfumed linen and laid each upon a funeral pyre and\nburned, and the first pyre which was kindled was that of Duryodhana.\nThe Pandavas mourned for their kinsmen. Then they bathed in the holy\nGanges, and took up water and sprinkled it in the name of each dead\nhero. Yudhishthira poured out the oblation for Karna, his brother, and\nhe gave great gifts to his widows and his children. Thereafter all the\nremaining bodies of the slain were burned on the battlefield.[285]\n\n[285] No widows were burned with their husbands, for the Sat\u00ed (or\nSuttee) ceremony had not yet become general in India; nor did the\nBrahmans officiate at the pyres.\n\nYudhishthira was proclaimed rajah in the city of Hastinapur, and he\nwore the great jewel in his crown. A great sacrifice was offered\nup, and Dhaumya, the family priest of the Pandavas, poured the Homa\noffering to the gods on the sacred fire. Yudhishthira and Draupadi were\nanointed with holy water.\n\nIn the days that followed, Yudhishthira lamented over the carnage of\nthe great war, nor could he be comforted. At length Vyasa, the sage,\nappeared before him and advised that he should perform the horse\nsacrifice to atone for his sins.\n\nThen search was made for a moon-white horse with yellow tail and one\nblack ear, and when it was found a plate of gold, inscribed with the\nname of Yudhishthira, was tied upon its forehead. Thereafter the horse\nwas let loose, and was allowed to wander wheresoever it desired. A\ngreat army, which was led by Arjuna, followed the horse.\n\nNow it was the custom in those days that when the sacred horse entered\na raj[286], that raj was proclaimed to be subject to the king who\nperformed the ceremony. And if any ruler detained the horse, he was\ncompelled to fight with the army which followed the wandering animal.\nShould he be overcome in battle, the opposing rajah immediately joined\nforces with those of the conqueror, and followed the horse from kingdom\nto kingdom. For a whole year the animal was allowed to wander thus.\n\n[286] Royal territory.\n\nThe horse was let loose on the night of full moon in the month of\nChoitro.[287]\n\n[287] The Easter full moon.\n\nArjuna met with many adventures. He fought against a rajah and the\nson of a rajah, who had a thousand wives in the country of Malwa, and\ndefeated them. But Agni, who had married a daughter of the rajah, came\nto rescue his kin. He fought against Arjuna with fire, but Arjuna shot\ncelestial arrows which produced water. Then the god made peace, and\nthe rajah who had detained the horse went away with Arjuna. Thereafter\nthe horse came to a rock which was the girl-wife of a Rishi who had\nbeen thus transformed because of her wickedness. \u201cSo will you remain,\u201d\nher husband had said, \u201cuntil Yudhishthira performs the Aswa-medha\nceremony.\u201d The horse was unable to leave the rock. Then Arjuna touched\nthe rock, which immediately became a woman, and the horse was set free.\n\nIn time the horse entered the land of Amazons, and the queen detained\nit, and came forth with her women warriors to fight against Arjuna,\nwho, however, made peace with them and went upon his way. Thereafter\nthe holy steed reached a strange country where men and women and\nhorses and cows and goats grew upon mighty trees like to fruit, and\ncame to maturity and died each day. The rajah came against Arjuna, but\nwas defeated. Then all the army fled to the islands of the sea, for\nthey were Daityas, and Arjuna plundered their dwellings and obtained\nmuch treasure.\n\nOnce the horse entered a pond, and was cursed by the goddess Parvati,\nand it became a mare; it entered another pond and became a lion, owing\nto a Brahman's spell.\n\nIn the kingdom of Manipura the horse was seized, and soldiers armed\nwith fire weapons were ready to fight against the Pandavas and their\nallies. But when the rajah, whose name was Babhru-v\u00e1hana, discovered\nthat the horse bore the name of Yudhishthira, he said: \u201cArjuna is my\nsire;\u201d and he went forth and made obeisance, and put his head under the\nfoot of the Pandava hero. But Arjuna spurned him, saying: \u201cIf I were\nthy sire, thou wouldst have no fear of me.\u201d\n\nThen the rajah challenged Arjuna to battle, and was victorious on that\nday.[288] He took all the great men prisoners, and he severed Arjuna's\nhead from his body with a crescent-bladed arrow. The rajah's mother,\nChitrangada, was stricken with sorrow, as was also Ulupi, the daughter\nof Vasuka, the king of serpents, who had borne a son to Arjuna. But\nUlupi remembered that her sire possessed a magic jewel which had power\nto restore a dead man to life, and she sent the rajah of Manipura to\nobtain it from the underworld. But the Nagas refused to give up the\njewel, whereupon Arjuna's mighty son fought against them with arrows\nwhich were transformed into peacocks; and the peacocks devoured the\nserpents. Then the Naga king delivered up the magic jewel, and the\nrajah returned with it. He touched the body of Arjuna with the jewel,\nand the hero came to life again, and all his wounds were healed. When\nhe departed from Manipura city the rajah, his son, accompanied him.\n\n[288] Here we meet with the familiar father-and-son-combat theme of\nwhich the stories of the Persian Sohrab and Rustem, the Germanic\nHildebrand and Hadubrand, and the Celtic Cuchullin and Conlaoch are\nrepresentative variants. Arjuna had effected a temporary exogamous\nmarriage according to matriarchal customs.\n\nSo from kingdom to kingdom the horse wandered while the army followed,\nuntil a year had expired. Then it returned to Hastinapur.\n\nYudhishthira had meantime lived a life of purity and self-restraint.\nEach night he lay upon the ground, and always slept within the city.\nBeside him lay Draupadi, and a naked sword was ever betwixt them.\n\nGreat were the rejoicings of the people when the horse came back:\nthey made glad holiday, and went forth to welcome the army with gifts\nof fine raiment and jewels and flowers. Money was scattered in the\nstreets, and the poor were made happy, being thus relieved generously\nin their need.\n\nYudhishthira embraced Arjuna and kissed him and wept tears of gladness,\nand welcomed Arjuna's son, Babhru-v\u00e1hana, Rajah of Manipura, and also\nthe other rajahs who had followed the sacred horse.\n\nTwelve days after the return of Arjuna, and on the day when Magha's\nfull moon marked the close of the winter season, the people assembled\nin great multitudes from far and near to share Yudhishthira's generous\nhospitality and witness the Aswa-medha ceremony, which was held upon\na green and level portion of consecrated ground. Stately pavilions,\nglittering with jewels and gold, had been erected for the royal\nguests, and there were humbler places for the Brahmans. In thrones\nof gold sat Maharajah Dhritarashtra and Rajah Yudhishthira, and the\nother rajahs had thrones of sandalwood and gold. The royal ladies were\nranged together in their appointed places. Wise Vyasa was there, and he\ndirected the ceremony. And Krishna, the holy one, was there also.\n\nWhen all the guests were assembled, Yudhishthira and Draupadi bathed\ntogether in the sacred waters of the Ganges. Then a portion of ground\nwas measured out, and Yudhishthira ploughed it with a golden plough.\nDraupadi followed him, and sowed the seeds of every kind which is\nsown in the kingdom, while all the women and the Brahmans chanted\nholy mantras. Then a golden altar was erected with four broad layers\nof golden bricks, and stakes of sacred wood from the forest and from\nHimalaya, and it was canopied and winged with gold-brocaded silk.\n\nThen eight pits were dug for Homa[289] of milk and butter to be made\nready for the sacrificial fire, and in skins were wrapped up portions\nof every kind of vegetable and curative herb which grew in the kingdom,\nand these were placed in the Homa pits.\n\n[289] Offerings.\n\nOn the ground there were numerous sacrificial stakes, to which were\ntied countless animals\u2014bulls and buffaloes and steeds, wild beasts\nfrom forest and mountain and cave, birds of every kind, fishes from\nriver and lake, and even insects.\n\nThe priests offered up animals in sacrifice to each celestial power,\nand the feasting was beheld by sacred beings. The Gandharvas sang, and\nthe Apsaras, whom the Gandharvas wooed, danced like sunbeams on the\ngrass. Messengers of the gods were also gathered there, and Vyasa and\nhis disciples chanted mantras to celestial music. The people lifted\nup their voices at the sound of rain drum and the blast of the rain\ntrumpet. Then bright was the lustre of Yudhishthira's fame.\n\nWhen all the kings and royal ladies and sages took their places to be\nblessed by the horse sacrifice, Yudhishthira sat on his throne, and in\nhis hand he held the horn of a stag.\n\nVyasa sent four-and-sixty rajahs with their wives to draw water from\nthe holy Ganges. Many musicians went with them beating drums and\nblowing trumpets and playing sweet instruments, and girls danced in\nfront, going and returning. And all the rajahs and their wives were\ngiven splendid raiment by Yudhishthira, and necklaces of jewels also,\nand he put betelnut in their mouths one by one. To the Brahmans were\ngifted much gold and many jewels, and elephants, horses, and kine, and\nthey were well pleased.\n\nYudhishthira then sat naked in his throne, and each one who had drawn\nholy water poured a quantity over his head; and they poured what\nremained over the head of the sacred white horse.\n\nN\u00e1kula held the horse's head, and said: \u201cThe horse speaketh.\u201d\n\nThose who were about him asked in loud voices: \u201cWhat doth the horse\nreveal?\u201d\n\nSaid N\u00e1kula: \u201cThus speaketh the horse\u2014\u2018In other such ceremonies the\nhorse which is sacrificed departs unto Swarga[290], but I shall rise\nfar above Swarga, because that Krishna is here\u2019.\u201d\n\n[290] Indra's heaven.\n\nThen Dhaumya, having washed the horse, gave a scimitar to Bhima with\nwhich to strike off the head at a single blow. But ere this was done,\nDhaumya pressed an ear of the holy animal, and milk flowed forth. Then\nhe said to Bhima: \u201cPure indeed is the horse; verily the gods will\naccept the sacrifice. Strike now, O strong one.\u201d\n\nBhima raised the scimitar and severed the head, which immediately\nascended unto heaven and vanished from before the eyes of all. Great\nwas the wonder and the joy of the assembled multitude.\n\nKrishna and other rajahs and sages then cut open the horse's body, from\nwhich a bright light issued forth. They found that the animal was pure,\nand Krishna said unto Yudhishthira: \u201cThis, thy sacrifice, is acceptable\nunto Vishnu.\u201d\n\nDraupadi was made Queen of the Sacrifice, and mantras were chanted, and\nshe was adored and given rich offerings, because of her virtue and her\nwisdom.\n\nThe body of the slain steed was divided, and the flesh gave forth\nthe odour of camphor. Priests lifted portions in their ladles and\nplaced these on the sacrificial fire, and they made Soma. And Rajah\nYudhishthira and all his brethren stood in the sin-cleansing smoke and\nbreathed its fragrance.\n\nDhaumya cried out, as he laid a piece of flesh on the altar fire: \u201cO\nIndra, accept thou this flesh which hath turned to camphor.\u201d\n\nWhen he had uttered these words, Indra, accompanied by many gods,\nappeared before the people, who made obeisance with fear and secret\njoy. Indra took from Vyasa portions of the flesh and gave these to each\nof the gods. Then he vanished from sight with all his companions.\n\nVyasa blessed Yudhishthira, and Krishna embraced him.\n\nSaid Krishna: \u201cThy fame will endure for ever.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira made answer: \u201cUnto thee do I owe all these blessings.\u201d\n\nThereafter Krishna and the rajahs poured holy water over the heads of\nYudhishthira and Draupadi.\n\nAll the fragments of the herbs which had been provided for Homa were\nthen ground into powder. And Yudhishthira gave balls of the powder to\neach one present, so that they might eat of the sacred herbs and share\nin the blessings of the Aswa-medha. He ate his own portion last of all.\nThe fragments of the offerings which remained were burnt on the altar.\n\nThen Pritha and all the maidens who were with her made merry, while the\nmusicians played gladsome airs.\n\nYudhishthira distributed more gifts. Unto Vyasa he assigned an estate,\nand bestowed upon the Brahmans who officiated many animals and pearls\nand slaves. To the rajahs he gave war elephants and steeds and money,\nand to the rajahs' wives bridal-night gifts of raiment and jewels and\ngold.\n\nBhima feasted all the Brahmans, and Yudhishthira wept as he bade\nfarewell to Krishna, his friend in peace and in war, who departed in\nhis chariot unto sea-washed Dwaraka.\n\nThere was prosperity in the kingdom under Yudhishthira's wise and just\ngovernment; but blind old Dhritarashtra never ceased to mourn the\ndeath of Duryodhana, his first-born, and at length he retired to live\nin a humble dwelling in the jungle. With him went Queen Gandhari, and\nPritha, the mother of the Pandavas, and Vidura, and others who were of\ngreat age.\n\nYears went past, and a day came when Yudhishthira and his brethren and\ntheir wife Draupadi journeyed to the dwelling-place of their elders.\nThey found them all there save Vidura, who had departed to a sacred\nplace on the banks of the Ganges to undergo penance and wait for the\ncoming of Yama, god of the dead. Then all the kinsfolk, young and old,\nwent forth to find Vidura; but when they came to him he was wasted with\nhunger and great age, nor could he speak unto them. They waited beside\nhim until he died, and then they mourned together. This new sorrow\nawakened old-time grief, and they spoke of all those who had fallen in\nthe great war. Fathers and mothers lamented for their sons, and wives\nfor their husbands....\n\nWhile they wept and moaned together, the great sage Vyasa came nigh and\nspoke, saying: \u201cVerily, I will soothe all your sorrows.... Let each one\nbathe at sunset in the holy waters of the Ganges, and when night falls\nyour lost ones will return to you once again.\u201d\n\nThen they all sat waiting on the river bank until evening came on.\nSlowly passed the day; it seemed to be as long as a year.\n\nAt length the sun went down, and they chanted mantras and went into\nthe Ganges. Vyasa bathed beside the old Maharajah Dhritarashtra and\nYudhishthira.... Then all came out and stood on the bank.\n\nSuddenly the waters began to heave and foam, and Vyasa muttered holy\nwords and called out the names of the dead one by one.... Soon all the\nheroes who had been slain arose one by one. In chariots they came,\nand on horseback and riding upon lordly elephants. They all uttered\ntriumphant cries; drums were sounded and trumpets were blown; and it\nseemed as if the armies of the Pandavas and Kauravas were once again\nassembled for battle, for they swept over the river like a mighty\ntempest.\n\n[Illustration: THE RETURN OF THE HEROES SLAIN IN BATTLE\n_From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n 5]\n\nMany of the onlookers trembled with fear, until they beheld Bhishma and\nDrona, clad in armour, standing aloft in their chariots in splendour\nand in pride; then came Arjuna's son, the noble Abhimanyu, and Bhima's\nAsura son. Soon Gandhari beheld Duryodhana and all his brethren, while\nPritha looked with glad eyes upon Karna, and Draupadi welcomed her\nbrother Dhrishta-dyumna and her five children who had all been slain\nby vengeful Aswatthaman. All the warriors who had fallen in battle\nreturned again on that night of wonder.\n\nWith the host came minstrels who sang of the deeds of the heroes, and\nbeautiful girls who danced before them. All strife had ended between\nkinsmen and old-time rivals; in death there was peace and sweet\ncompanionship.\n\nThe ghostly warriors crossed the Ganges and were welcomed by those\nwho waited on the bank around Vyasa. It was a night of supreme and\nheart-stirring gladness. Fathers and mothers found their sons, widows\nclung to their husbands, sisters embraced their brothers, and all wept\ntears of joy. The elders who were living conversed with those who were\ndead; the burdens of grief and despair fell from all hearts after lone\nyears of mourning; the past was suddenly forgotten in the rapture of\nbeholding those who had died.\n\nSwiftly passed the night as if it had endured but for an hour. Then\nwhen dawn began to break, the dead men returned to their chariots and\ntheir horses and their elephants and bade farewells....\n\nVyasa spoke to the widows and said that those of them who desired to be\nwith their husbands could depart with them. Then the Kaurava princesses\nand other high-born ladies, who never ceased to mourn for their own,\nkissed the feet of the Maharajah Dhritarashtra and Queen Gandhari and\nplunged into the Ganges with the departing hosts.... Vyasa chanted\nmantras, and all the drowned widows were transported to heaven with\ntheir husbands....\n\nThe Pandavas returned to Hastinapur, and when two years had gone past\na new sorrow fell upon them. One day Narada, the sage, stood before\nYudhishthira and told that a great fire had swept through the jungle,\nand that Dhritarashtra, and Gandhari, and Pritha, and all who were with\nthem, had perished.\n\nSoon afterwards the Pandavas came to know, by reason of dread omens\nwhich appeared, that a great calamity was drawing nigh, but no man\ncould tell what it was or when it would take place.\n\nEre long it became known that the city of Dwaraka was doomed to be\ndestroyed. A horror in human shape was beheld in the night; it was\ncoloured yellow and black, its head was bald and its limbs misshapen,\nand men said it was Yama, god of the dead.... Visions of headless men\ncontending in battle were beheld at sunset.... The moon was eclipsed, a\ndread tempest ravaged the land, and a plague of rats afflicted the city.\n\nKrishna forbade all the people, on pain of death, to drink wine, and\ncommanded them to perform devotions on the seashore....\n\nThen the night was haunted by a black woman with yellow teeth who\ngrinned horribly at house doors. All the inhabitants of the city were\nstricken with terror.... Evil spirits came also and robbed the jewels\nof the women and the weapons of the men.... At length the chakra[291]\nof Krishna went up to heaven, and his chariot and horses followed\nit.... The end of the Y\u00e1davas was not afar off, and the day came when\nApsaras called out of heaven: \u201cDepart from hence,\u201d and all the people\nheard them.\n\n[291] Celestial weapon.\n\nWhen the people gathered on the seashore they held a feast, and\nbeing allowed to drink wine for one day, they drank heavily and\nbegan to quarrel. At length Satyaki slew Kritavarman, who had gone\nto the Pandava camp with Drona's son on the night of slaughter. Then\nKritavarman's friends killed Satyaki and one of Krishna's sons.\nKrishna slew the rebels, but he could not quell the tumult and the\nfighting which ensued; fathers slew their sons, and sons their fathers,\nand kinsmen contended fiercely against kinsmen.\n\nThen Krishna and Balarama left the city, and both died in the jungle.\nFrom Balarama's mouth issued a mighty snake, for he was the incarnation\nof the world serpent.... Krishna was mistaken for a gazelle by a\nhunter, who shot an arrow which pierced his foot at the only spot where\nhe could be mortally wounded. He then departed to his heaven, which is\ncalled Goloka.\n\nEre Krishna had left Dwaraka he caused messengers to hasten for\nArjuna, who came speedily, to find the women wailing for the dead.\nThen Vasudeva, father of Krishna, died, and Arjuna laid the body of\nthe old man upon the pyre, and he was burned with four of his widows,\nwho no longer desired to live. The bodies of Krishna and Balarama were\ncremated also.\n\nArjuna then set forth towards Indra-prastha with a remnant of the\npeople; and when they had left Dwaraka, the sea rose up and swallowed\nthe whole city, with those who had refused to depart from it.... Such\nwas the end of the power of the Yadavas.\n\nDeep gloom fell upon the Pandavas after this, and Vyasa, the sage,\nappeared before them, and revealed that their time had come to depart\nfrom the world.\n\nThen Yudhishthira divided the kingdom. He made Parikshit, son of\nAbhimanyu, Rajah of Hastinapur; and Yuyutsu, the half-brother of\nDuryodhana, who had joined the Pandava army on the first day of the\ngreat war, was made Rajah of Hastinapur. He counselled them to live at\npeace one with another.\n\nThe Pandavas afterwards cast off their royal garments and their jewels\nand put on the garb of hermits, and the bright-eyed and faithful\nDraupadi did likewise. Yudhishthira departed first of all, and his\nbrethren walked behind him one by one, and Draupadi went last of all,\nfollowed by a hound. They all walked towards the rising sun, and by the\nlong circuitous path which leads to Mount Meru, through forests and\nover streams and across the burning plains, never again to return.\n\nOne by one they fell by the way, all save Yudhishthira. Draupadi was\nthe first to sink down, and Bhima cried: \u201cWhy hath she fallen who hath\nnever done wrong?\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cHer heart was bound up in Arjuna, and she hath her\nreward.\u201d\n\nSahadeva was next to fall, and then Nakula. At length Yudhishthira\nheard the voice of Bhima crying in distress: \u201cLo! now the noble Arjuna\nhath fallen. What sin hath he committed?\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cHe boasted confidently that he could destroy all\nhis enemies in one day, and because he failed in his vow he hath fallen\nby the way.\u201d\n\nThe two surviving brothers walked on in silence; but the time came when\nmighty Bhima sank down. He cried: \u201cO Yudhishthira say, if thou canst\ntell, why I have fallen now.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cO wolf-bellied one, because of thy cursing and\ngluttony and thy pride thou hast fallen by the way.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira walked on, calm and unmoved, followed by his faithful\nhound. When he drew nigh to sacred Mount Meru, the world-spine, Indra,\nking of the gods, came forth to welcome him, saying: \u201cAscend, O\nresolute prince.\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cLet my brethren who have fallen by the way come\nwith me also. I cannot enter heaven without them, O king of the gods.\nLet the fair and gentle princess come too; Draupadi hath been a\nfaithful wife, and is worthy of bliss. Hear my prayer, O Indra, and\nhave mercy.\u201d\n\nSaid Indra: \u201cThy brethren and Draupadi have gone before thee.\u201d\n\nThen Yudhishthira pleaded that his faithful hound should enter heaven\nalso; but Indra said: \u201cHeaven is no place for those who are followed by\nhounds. Knowest thou not that demons rob religious ordinances of their\nvirtues when dogs are nigh?\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cNo evil can come from the noble. I cannot have joy\nif I desert this faithful friend.\u201d\n\nIndra said: \u201cThou didst leave behind thy brethren and Draupadi. Why,\ntherefore, canst thou not abandon thine hound?\u201d\n\nSaid Yudhishthira: \u201cI have no power to bring back to life those who\nhave fallen by the way: there can be no abandonment of the dead.\u201d\n\nAs he spake, the hound was transformed, and behold Dharma, god of\njustice, stood by the rajah's side.\n\nDharma said: \u201cO Yudhishthira, thou art indeed mine own son. Thou\nwouldst not abandon me, thy hound, because that I was faithful unto\nthee. Thine equal cannot be found in heaven.\u201d\n\nThen Yudhishthira was transported to the city of eternal bliss, and\nthere he beheld Duryodhana seated upon a throne. All the Kauravas were\nin heaven also, but the rajah could not find his brethren or fair\nDraupadi.\n\nSaid Indra: \u201cHere thou shalt dwell, O Yudhishthira, in eternal bliss.\nForget all earthly ties and attain to perfection; thy brethren have\nfallen short, therefore they sank by the way.\u201d\n\nYudhishthira said: \u201cI cannot remain here with the Kauravas who have\ndone me great wrong. Where my brethren are, there would I be also with\nour wife Draupadi.\u201d\n\nThen a celestial being conducted Yudhishthira to the abode of his\nbrethren and the Princess of Panchala. He entered the forest of the\nnether regions, where the leaves were like to sharp weapons and the\npath was covered with knives. Darkness hung heavily, and the way was\nmiry with blood and strewn with foul and mutilated corpses. Shapes\nof horror flitted round about like to shadows; fierce birds of prey\nfeasted upon human flesh. The damned were burning in everlasting fires,\nand the air reeked with foul odours. A boiling river went past, and\nYudhishthira saw the place of torture with thorns, and the desert of\nfiery sand: he gazed mutely upon each horror that was unfolded before\nhis eyes.\n\nFain would Yudhishthira have turned back, but he heard in the darkness\nthe voices of his brethren and Draupadi bidding him to stay a little\nwhile to comfort them while they suffered torment.\n\nThen Yudhishthira said to the celestial being: \u201cDepart now from me,\nfor I must remain here to assuage the sufferings of my brethren and\nDraupadi.\u201d\n\nAs he spake the gods appeared, and the scene of horror vanished from\nbefore the eyes of Yudhishthira, for it was an illusion conjured up to\ntest his constancy.\n\nThen Yudhishthira was led to the heavenly Ganges, and having bathed in\nits sacred waters, he cast off his mortal body and became a celestial.\nThen, rejoicing, he entered Swarga, the celestial city of Indra, and\nwas welcomed by Krishna in all his divine glory, and by his brethren\nand by Draupadi, and all whom he had loved upon earth.\n\nIndra spoke and said: \u201cThis is the beautiful and immortal one, who\nsprang from the altar to be thy wife, and these bright beings are\nher five children. Here is Dhritarashtra, who is now the king of the\nGandharvas; there is Karna, son of Surya, the peerless archer who was\nslain by Arjuna. Here cometh towards thee Abhimanyu, son of Arjuna;\nhe is now the star-bright companion of the lord of night.... Here are\nPandu, thy sire, and Pritha, thy mother, now united in heaven. Behold!\nalso, Yudhishthira, the wise Bhishma, whose place is with the Vasus\nround my throne: Drona sits with Dharma, god of wisdom. Here are all\nthe peerless warriors who fell in battle and have won heaven by their\nvalour and their constancy. So may all mortals rise to eternal bliss,\ncasting off their mortal bodies and entering by the shining door of the\ncelestial city, by doing kindly deeds, by uttering gentle words, and by\nenduring all suffering with patience. The holy life is prepared for all\nthe sons of men.\u201d\n\nThus ends sublimely the story of the Great War of the Bharatas.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XX\n\nNala and Damayant\u00ed\n\n A Noble Prince and Fair Princess\u2014Swan Messengers of Love\u2014A\n Royal Romance\u2014The Love-sick Maiden\u2014Indra and the Rishis\u2014The\n Swayamvara\u2014Gods Descend from Heaven\u2014Nala's Mission\u2014Interview with\n Damayant\u00ed\u2014A Faithful Lover\u2014Gathering of Rajahs\u2014Gods Rejected by\n Damayant\u00ed\u2014The Choice of Nala\u2014Wedding Gifts of the Gods\u2014The Royal\n Marriage\u2014Kali the Demon\u2014Plot to Ruin Nala.\n\n\nOnce upon a time there reigned in Nishadha[292] a great rajah of\nchoicest virtues whose name was Nala. He had great skill in taming\nsteeds; he was a peerless archer, and was devoted to truth. Nala\ncommanded a mighty army: like to the sun was his splendour, and he\nwas exalted over all other kings as is the monarch of the gods. He\nhad withal great piety, and he was deeply read in the Vedas, but he\nwas ever a passionate lover of dice. Many a high-born lady spoke his\npraises, for he was generous of heart, and self-controlled, and the\nguardian of law. Indeed, Nala was a very present Manu.[293]\n\n[292] The south-eastern division of Central India.\n\n[293] An incarnation of Manu, the first lawgiver.\n\nNow there ruled over the neighbouring state of Vidarbha the mighty\nrajah Bh\u00edma, the terrible in strength, who was likewise of choicest\nvirtues. He was childless, and he yearned for children. For long he\nhad been wont to perform many holy deeds intent upon offspring, but\nwithout avail.[294] It chanced, however, that one day there came to\nhis court a Br\u00e1hman named Damana, and hospitable welcome was accorded\nhim by the child-desiring Bh\u00edma, for the seer was feasted in the hall\nwith the rajah and his royal consort. Thereafter a boon was conferred\nupon the queen: she became the mother of one sweet girl, the pearl of\nmaidens, who was named Damayant\u00ed, and of three noble sons, Dama, Danta,\nand the renowned Dam\u00b4ana, who all grew great and powerful.\n\n[294] It was a religious necessity to have offspring. A son performed\nthe funeral rites which rescued his father's soul from hell.\n\nWhen fair Damayant\u00ed had attained the full bloom of her beauty, she was\nunequalled throughout the world for her brilliance and for her grace.\nUpon the faultless and slender-waisted maiden there waited, as about\nIndra's queen, a hundred female slaves and a hundred virgin handmaids,\nand she shone among them, decked with jewels and rich ornaments, like\nto the goddess of beauty, unrivalled and without a peer. Never among\nthe gods, or the Yakshas, or among mortal men was a maiden more fair\never heard of or ever beheld than soul-disturbing Damayant\u00ed, who\ndisturbed the souls of the gods.\n\nIn presence of Bhima's sweet daughter the high-born ladies of Vidarbha\ntook joy in constantly praising Nala, that tiger among rajahs. Likewise\nbefore Nishadha's king was Damayant\u00ed ever extolled because of her\nbeauty. So it fell that, hearing much of each other's virtues, the\nsilent passion of love was nurtured in both their hearts.\n\nImpatient grew Nala as his love increased, and he was wont to wander\nin a grove within his palace garden musing secretly upon the maiden\nof faultless form. One day he saw disporting in the grounds a flock\nof beautiful swans with wings all flecked with gold. The rajah crept\nforward softly and seized one, and much he marvelled to hear it cry\nout in human language.\n\n\u201cSlay me not, O gentle king, and to thee I will render a service, for\nI will praise thee in the presence of Damayant\u00ed so that ever after she\nshall think of no other mortal man but thee.\u201d\n\nImmediately Nala set the bird at liberty, and it flew away rejoicing\nwith its bright companions towards Vidarbha. When they reached the\nladies' garden of Bhima's palace they settled down at the feet of\nDamayant\u00ed, who was reposing in the shade with her virgin handmaids.\nAll the fair young women gazed in wonder on the swans, admiring their\ngraceful forms and their plumage gleaming with gold, and ere long they\nbegan to pursue them among the trees. Then of a sudden the bird which\nDamayant\u00ed followed spoke to her in human language and said:\n\n\u201cDamayant\u00ed, hear! The noble king Nala dwells in Nishadha. Comely is he\nas a god, nor can his equal be found in the world. Thou art the pearl\nof women, and he is the pride of men. If thou wert wed to him, then\nwould perfect beauty and noble birth be united. Blessed indeed would be\nthe union of the peerless with the peerless.\u201d\n\nWondering, the maiden listened while the bird conversed thus strangely,\nand then she said: \u201cSpeak also unto Nala in this manner.\u201d\n\nThe swan made answer: \u201cSo be it,\u201d and thereupon took flight with the\nothers to Nishadha, where it related unto Nala all that had taken\nplace.\n\n[Illustration: DAMAYANTI AND THE SWAN\n_From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n 6]\n\nEver after that day Damayant\u00ed ceased to live for herself alone; all\nher thoughts were given up to Nala. She desired most to sit apart in\nsilent reverie; the bloom faded from her cheeks, and she grew dejected\nand melancholy. Indeed, the maiden yielded up her soul to sorrow, and\nmuch she sighed in secret, gazing upward and meditating, for love had\ntaken possession of her heart; nor did she find pleasure in sleep, or\nin gentle converse, or in merry banquets. In the midst of her broken\nslumbers she was wont to weep and cry out: \u201cOh, woe is me!\u201d\n\nThe virgin handmaidens read her heart, and they went before her sire\nand told that his gentle daughter was pining for the monarch among\nmen. When Bhima heard this, he pondered deeply what should be done for\nDamayant\u00ed, and he perceived that her time for the swayamvara[295] had\ncome. So he summoned all the high-born rajahs upon earth, saying: \u201cO\nheroes of the world, come ye to the swayamvara.\u201d\n\n[295] The ceremony at which a princess made public choice of a husband\nfrom among a number of suitors gathered together.\n\nThen did the whole land resound with the trampling of elephants and\nhorses and the rumbling of chariots, for the stately princes, followed\nby their armies, swarmed towards the court of Bhima. By the strong lord\nof Vidarbha were they welcomed with honour, and they sat upon their\nthrones.\n\nNow it happened that at this time these two wise sages, N\u00e1rada and\nP\u00e1rvata,[296] ascended Mount Meru to Swarga, the heaven of Indra, and\nthey saluted the Cloud-compeller within his palace. The immortal lord\nbade them welcome, and asked how it fared with the world. Narada said\nit fared well with the world and with all the mighty kings. Then Indra\nspake, saying: \u201cWhere are all the royal heroes? Why do they not come\nhither as my honoured guests?\u201d[297]\n\n[296] Two of the ten Rishis (saints) who were sons of Br\u00e1hma. Narada\nwas a messenger of the gods. Parvata was his great rival.\n\n[297] Indra wonders that no battle-slain heroes are arriving at the\nIndian Valhal.\n\nThe wise sage made answer and said: \u201cO Cloud-compeller, the great\nrajahs cannot appear before thee because even now they are hastening\none and all to the swayamvara of Damayant\u00ed, the renowned daughter of\nBhima, the fairest woman upon earth. O slayer of drought demons, every\nking seeks to woo this maid of transcending beauty, for she is the\npearl of all the world.\u201d\n\nAs Narada spake, the other gods drew nigh and listened to his stately\nutterance. Then together they exclaimed with rapture: \u201cWe also will go\nthither....\u201d In an instant they were hastening through the air in their\nchariots towards the city of Vidarbha to mingle with the wooers of\nBhima's fair daughter.\n\nMeanwhile Nala had set forth with joy, his heart full of love for\nDamayant\u00ed. The gods beheld him standing upon the surface of the earth\nwith radiance like to the sun, and they arrested their course, gazing\nin mute wonder, for he was as comely as the god of love. Then, dropping\ndown through the blue air, they hailed the stately hero, saying: \u201cDo as\nwe now beseech thee, O most excellent of princes; be thou the bearer of\nour message.\u201d\n\nNala adored the gods with folded hands and promised to obey their will,\nsaying humbly: \u201cWho are ye that now command my service?\u201d\n\nIndra spoke and said: \u201cLo! we are the dread guardians of the world. I\nam Indra, lord of heaven; yon is Agni, god of fire; here is Varuna,\nking of the waters; and there is Yama, lord of the dead.[298] Thou must\ninform Damayant\u00ed that we have come to woo her and say to her: \u2018_Choose\nfor thine husband one of the celestial beings_\u2019.\u201d\n\n[298] At the period the poem was composed there were only four\n\u201cguardians\u201d; later there were eight.\n\nNala made answer with folded hands, saying: \u201cSend me not, I entreat\nthee, upon this mission. How can I who am enamoured with the maiden,\nplead aright the cause of another. In mercy spare me, ye gods\u2014spare me\nthis unwelcome service.\u201d\n\nBut the gods would not be moved from their purpose. They reminded Nala\nhe had already promised to do their will, and they therefore urged him\nto set forth without delay lest he should belie his words.\n\nThen the lord of Nishadha pleaded: \u201cThe palace of Bhima is strongly\nguarded, and I cannot enter there.\u201d\n\nIndra said: \u201cThou wilt indeed enter.\u201d\n\nAnd lo! even as the god spake, Nala found himself standing before\nDamayant\u00ed in her secret bower.\n\nThe beauteous maiden was surrounded by her virgin band, and he gazed\nupon her faultless limbs and slender waist and into her entrancing\neyes. Her shining beauty excelled even the tender rays of the moon. The\nlove of Nala grew deeper and stronger as he looked upon the smiling\nprincess; but he curbed his passion, remembering his mission.\n\nAll the maidens gazed with wonder and joy at the noble form, and in\ntheir hearts they exclaimed: \u201cOh! the splendid one; oh! the strong and\nmighty hero\u2014who is he?... Is he god, or Yaksha, or Gandharva?\u201d But\nthey spoke not a word, for they were made bashfully silent by reason of\nhis beauty.\n\nNala smiled upon Damayant\u00ed, and first she smiled softly in return; then\nshe exclaimed in her wonder: \u201cWho art thou that hast come hither like a\ncelestial being to awaken all my love. Speak and tell, O sinless lord.\nHow didst thou contrive to enter the palace unseen, for surely all the\nchambers are strongly guarded by stern orders of the king?\u201d[299]\n\n[299] Evidently the zenana system was in vogue prior to the Mohammedan\nconquest.\n\nThe rajah made answer, saying: \u201cO thou fairest one, know now that I am\neven Nala, and that I come hither as the messenger of the gods Indra\nand Agni, Varuna and Yama, and through their power have I entered here,\nunseen nor stayed, for it is their desire that I should say unto thee:\n\u2018_Choose, O princess, for thine husband one of the celestial beings_\u2019.\nSuch is the purpose of my mission from the great world guardians.\nHaving heard me, thou mayst decide as thou wilt.\u201d\n\nDamayanti at once did homage to the gods. Then she smiled upon Nala\nand spoke, saying: \u201cLo! I am thine already, and whatsoever I possess\nis thine also. O give me thy love in return, Nala. For know that my\nheart's love was increased by the endearing words of the swan, and it\nis because of thee that the rajahs are all gathered here now. If thou\nwilt despise me, I will suffer death for thy sake by fire, or by water,\nor even by the noose[300].\u201d\n\n[300] Death by hanging was not regarded as a special disgrace.\n\nThe rajah made answer and said: \u201cWilt thou despise these, the gods,\nand choose for thine husband a mortal who is more lowly than the dust\nthey walk upon? Let thy heart aspire to them. Remember, too, that the\nman who incurs the anger of the world's dread guardians will meet with\ncertain death. From such a fate oh shield me, thou fairest one!... So\nchoose one of the perfect gods, and thou shalt have robes unsullied by\ndust, garlands that never fade, and celestial joy without end.\u201d\n\nTrembling, and with tear-dimmed eyes, Damayant\u00ed said: \u201cI do homage with\ndue humility to all the gods, but oh! I desire thee for my husband,\nthee and thee only.\u201d\n\nBut Nala spake, saying: \u201cI am charged with the mission of the\ncelestial beings, and cannot plead for myself now. But afterwards\nI will come to claim thee, and will speak boldly, O bright one, so\nremember me in thine heart.\u201d\n\nThe maiden smiled through her tears. \u201cAh!\u201d she said, \u201cI see now a way\nof escape.... When thou comest to the swayamvara, enter thou together\nwith the gods, and I will name thee as mine own, so that no sin may be\ncharged against thee.\u201d\n\nThen Nala returned to the gods, who waited him eagerly, and he told\nthem all that the maiden had said, word for word. \u201cIn thy wisdom,\u201d he\nadded, \u201cthou wilt judge of what remains, O ye excelling gods.\u201d\n\nWhen at length the day of happy omen, the day of the swayamvara,\narrived, Bhima summoned at noontide all the love-sick rajahs, and they\npassed through the court of golden columns and under the bright portal\narch, and entered the Hall of State like to lions on the mountains. The\nrajahs were then seated on their thrones, adorned with garlands and\nwith dangling ear gems. The arms of some were robust and powerful like\nthe battle mace; those of others were delicate and smooth as a serpent.\nWith profuse and flowing hair, shapely noses, and arching eyebrows,\nthe faces of these great lords were radiant as the stars in heaven. As\na mountain cave is full of tigers, so was Bhima's great Hall full of\nrajah tigers on that day.\n\nWhen Damayant\u00ed entered in state, every eye and every soul was entranced\nby her dazzling beauty; all these lords of earth gazed upon her with\nunmoving eyes.... The name of each rajah was proclaimed in turn, and\nNala, looking about her, was suddenly stricken with dismay, for she\nperceived that there were present five Nalas who were undistinguishable\nin form and attire one from another. The four gods who desired to win\nher had each assumed the likeness of her beloved one. Whichsoever of\nthese she gazed upon, he seemed to be her rajah, and in her secret\nheart she wailed: \u201cHow can I discern Nala among the celestial beings?\u201d\n\nIn her sore distress the trembling maiden folded her hands and did\nhomage before the gods, to whom she prayed, saying:\n\n \u201cWhen I heard the sweet words of the swans, I pledged my heart to\n Nala. I adjure thee by this truth, O ye gods. Oh! reveal my lord.\n\n \u201cFrom my faith I have never swerved either by word or by deed. I\n adjure thee by this truth, O ye all-knowing Powers. Oh! reveal my\n lord.\n\n \u201cThe gods have destined that Nala should be mine husband. I adjure\n thee by this truth. Oh! reveal my lord.\n\n \u201cThe vow which I so pledged to Nala is holy, and I must ever keep\n it. I adjure thee by this truth. Oh! reveal my lord.\n\n \u201cO ye mighty ones, ye guardians of the world, assume now your forms\n divine, so that I may know Nala, the monarch of men.\u201d\n\nThe gods heard the sad maiden's piteous prayer and marvelled\ngreatly. They perceived that her resolve was firm, that she was\nconstant in truth and in love, and was holy and wise, and that she\nremained faithful to her lord. So they revealed the tokens of their\ngreatness....[301] Then Damayant\u00ed was able to discern the four\ncelestial beings because their skins were without moisture and their\neyes never winked, there was no dust on their garlands and their feet\ndid not touch the earth. She also knew Nala because he cast a shadow;\nthere was dust on his raiment, and his garland was beginning to fade;\ndrops of moisture stood on his skin, and his eyelids moved.\n\n[301] Deities cast no shadows, they never perspired, nor did their feet\ntouch the ground when walking. Their eyes never winked.\n\n[Illustration: DAMAYANTI CHOOSING A HUSBAND\n_From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n 7]\n\nGazing first upon the celestial beings and then upon him who was her\nheart's desire, Damayant\u00ed named Nala as her lord. She modestly touched\nthe hem of his garment and threw round his neck a wreath of bright\nflowers, and thus chose him for her husband.\n\nAll the rivals of Nala uttered cries of sorrow, but the gods and the\nsages exclaimed aloud: \u201cWell done! Well done!\u201d and honoured the lord of\nNishadha.\n\nNala spake in his joy to fair Damayant\u00ed, saying: \u201cSince thou, O maiden\nwith serene smile, hast chosen me for thine husband in the presence of\nthe gods, know that I will be a faithful consort who will ever take\ndelight in thy words. I am thine, and so long as my life endures I will\nbe thine only.\u201d\n\nSo did the lord of Nishadha pledge his faith, and the heart of the\nmaiden was made glad. The happy pair then did homage before the gods,\nand these resplendent guardians of the earth bestowed, in their joy,\neight surpassing gifts upon Nala. Indra gave him power to behold the\ngodhead in the sacrifice, and power to walk unhindered by any obstacle\nwheresoever he desired; Agni gave him power over fire, and power over\nthe three worlds;[302] Varuna gave him power over water, and power\nto obtain fresh garlands at will; and Yama gave him subtle skill in\npreparing food, and eminence in every virtue. Each of the gods also\nconferred his double blessing upon Nala, and thereafter they departed.\n\n[302] Heaven, earth, and the underworld.\n\nAll the rajahs wondered greatly when they beheld the maiden's choice\nconfirmed in this manner, and they went away as they came, with joy,\nand returned unto their own domains.\n\nBhima rejoiced greatly when the happy bridal was celebrated in pomp and\nwith state, and he bade Nala adieu with great courtesy when that great\nlord of Nishadha, after fitting sojourn at Vidarbha, set out to return\nto his native city with the pearl of women whom he had won.\n\nNow it chanced that when the gods had left the swayamvara they met\nin the midst of the blue air Kali[303], the demon of evil, who was\naccompanied by the wicked spirit Dw\u00e1para. Indra, the slayer of giants,\nspoke and said: \u201cWhither art thou going with Dw\u00e1para, O Kali?\u201d\n\n[303] Dowson regards the demon Kali as the personification of the Kali\nYuga.\n\nKali made answer: \u201cWe are hastening to the swayamvara, for it is my\ndesire to obtain Damayant\u00ed as my bride.\u201d\n\nSmiling, the king of gods spake, saying: \u201cThe bridal is now arranged\nand ended, for lo! the fair Damayant\u00ed has chosen Nala for her husband\nin our presence.\u201d\n\nWhen he heard these words, the heart of Kali was made angry, and\nhe exclaimed: \u201cSince she has preferred a mortal in presence of the\ncelestial beings, let her choice be her own doom.\u201d\n\nBut the gods said: \u201cKnow thou that our consent was freely given,\nbecause Damayant\u00ed has chosen for herself a husband endowed with all the\nvirtues, and equal even to the guardians of the world. If anyone should\nchance to curse Nala, the curse will recoil fatally, and the curser\nwill be cast into the torments of the dark lake of hell.\u201d Having spoken\nthus, the bright deities ascended the heavens.\n\nThen said Kali to Dwapara: \u201cI cannot now control my fierce wrath. Lo!\nI will be avenged upon Nala, for I will enter his body, and he will be\nbereft of his kingdom and of his bride. Thou, Dwapara, wilt enter the\ndice and give me thine aid.\u201d\n\nSo was a malignant compact arranged between the demon of evil and his\ndarksome ally, and together they went towards Nishadha to haunt the\nstately palace of Nala, waiting for the fatal moment.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXI\n\nWanderings in the Forest\n\n Nala Possessed by a Demon\u2014A Brother's Challenge\u2014The Game\n of Dice\u2014The Rajah's Stakes\u2014Alarm of Citizens\u2014Damayant\u00ed's\n Grief\u2014Flight of Children\u2014A Kingdom Gambled away\u2014The Exiled\n King\u2014His Faithful Wife\u2014Departure to the Forest\u2014Damayant\u00ed\n Deserted\u2014Seized by a Serpent\u2014Rescued by a Huntsman\u2014A Terrible\n Curse\u2014Forest Perils\u2014Appeal to a Tiger\u2014The Holy Mountain\u2014Prophecy\n of Hermits\u2014Address to the Asoka Tree\u2014The Caravan\u2014Disasters of a\n Night\u2014Damayant\u00ed's Flight to Chedi.\n\n\nFor twelve bright years Nala and Damayant\u00ed lived happily together. The\ngreat rajah ruled his people justly; he offered up every sacrifice\nto the gods, and he gave sumptuous gifts to holy men. Fair Damayant\u00ed\nbecame the mother of a beauteous daughter, who was named Indrasena, and\nof a comely son, who was named Indrasen. So were the blessings of life\nshowered upon the blissful pair.\n\nBut at length there came a day when, after performing an unclean act,\nNala sipped holy water and went to prayer with unwashed feet.[304] The\nwatchful Kali seized this fatal opportunity, and straightway entered\nthe rajah and possessed his inmost soul. Then that evil demon summoned\nPush\u00b4kara, the brother of Nala, saying: \u201cCome now and throw dice with\nthe king. I will give thee mine aid, so that thou wilt be enabled to\nwin the whole realm for thyself.\u201d\n\n[304] The ceremony of purification included the sipping of water and\nthe washing of feet.\n\nPushkara at once challenged his brother, whereupon the wicked spirit\nDwapara entered the dice.\n\nNala gave ready consent to take part in the game of hazard, for he was\nswayed by evil Kali. Then the two rivals began to play together in the\npresence of Damayant\u00ed.\n\nThe great rajah staked his wealth, and he was worsted; he staked his\ngolden treasures and he staked his chariots, and still he was worsted;\nhe staked his rich attire, and he continued to lose. The passion for\ndice had possessed Nala like to sudden madness, and it was in vain that\nhis friends endeavoured to restrain him.\n\nIn time rumours of dire happenings went abroad through the city,\nwhereupon the rajah's faithful subjects, accompanied by high\ncounsellors of state, assembled at the palace gate with desire to\nprevail upon him to cease playing. They urged upon Damayant\u00ed to\nintervene, and the spirit-broken daughter of Bhima approached Nala in\nanguish and in dismay, and with tear-choking voice she spoke to him,\nsaying: \u201cAll thy subjects are gathered without, for they cannot endure\nthe thought that misfortune should fall upon thee.\u201d\n\nNala heard her, but answered not a word, because his soul was clouded\nby evil Kali. Then the wise men said: \u201cIt is not he;\u201d and they departed\nto their homes in sorrow and in shame....\n\nSo the play went on; daily it went on through many weary months, and\nNala was always worsted.\n\nWhen, in the end, Damayant\u00ed perceived that all the treasures were lost,\nshe sent for the faithful charioteer, V\u00e1rshneya, and spoke to him,\nsaying: \u201cHasten now and yoke Nala's speedy and much-loved steeds, and\nplace my children in the chariot. Then drive quickly to the city of my\nkindred and leave them in care of my father, the Rajah Bhima. When thou\nhast done me that service, O Varshneya, thou mayst go wheresoever thou\nwilt.\u201d\n\nSo the charioteer conveyed the beauteous girl Indrasena and the comely\nboy Indrasen to the city of Vidarbha, and he delivered them safely unto\nBhima, whom he informed fully regarding the fall of Nala. Thereafter\nhe departed, sorrowing greatly, and went to the city of Ayodhy\u00e1,[305]\nwhere he took service with the renowned Rajah Rituparna.\n\n[305] Ayodhy\u00e1 signifies \u201cinvincible\u201d city. It is identified with the\nmodern Oude.\n\nNala played on; he continued to throw the dice, until at length he\nhad lost all his possessions. Then Pushkara smiled and spoke to his\nstricken brother, saying: \u201cNow, throw but one more hazard. Where is\nyour stake? Ah! you have naught left now save Damayant\u00ed. Let us throw\nthe dice for her.\u201d\n\nAt these words Nala's heart was rent in twain. Mute with sorrow, he\ngazed upon his brother.... He arose and stripped off his rich vestments\none by one in the presence of his lamenting friends. Then slowly and in\nsilence he went forth, naked and alone. Damayant\u00ed, wearing but a single\ngarment, followed him behind. Together they stood at the city gates.\n\nThen Pushkara, who had become rajah, caused to be proclaimed throughout\nthe city the dread decree: \u201c_Whosoever giveth food or drink unto Nala\nshall be immediately put to death_\u201d.\n\nIn their terror the people could not give further help to the fallen\nking, and for three days and three nights he drank water only. Then he\nplucked wild fruit and roots from the earth, and these he ate. Nala\nthereafter wandered away from Nishadha, an outcast among men, and\nDamayant\u00ed followed him behind.\n\nTortured by hunger, the fallen king at length beheld on the ground a\nflock of birds with gold-flecked wings, and he said in his heart: \u201cNow\nI will make me a welcome feast.\u201d\n\nSo he crept forward and flung over them his single garment; but they\nrose in the air, carrying it away with them. As they went they cried\nout mockingly in human language and said: \u201cKnow now, O foolish king,\nthat we are the dice. We came hither on purpose to despoil thee\nutterly, for so long as thou hadst left a single garment our joy was\nincomplete.\u201d\n\nThereupon Nala spoke to Damayant\u00ed in his anguish, saying: \u201cO blameless\none, by whose anger have I been driven from my kingdom and rendered\nthus unable to procure any food? Listen now to my counsel. The roads\ndiverge here before us, and one leads southward past the caves of holy\nhermits, which are stored with food, towards the kingdom of thy royal\nsire.\u201d\n\nAnxiously did Nala point out the way and urge upon Bhima's fair\ndaughter to take refuge in Vidarbha ere he would enter the great forest.\n\nWeighed down by her heavy sorrow, Damayant\u00ed made answer with\ntear-choking voice: \u201cAlas! thy words of counsel cause my heart to break\nand my limbs to fail me. How can I leave thee all alone in trackless\nforest when thou hast lost thy kingdom and thy riches, and whilst thou\nart athirst and tortured by hunger? Rather let me comfort thee, O my\nhusband, when in thy grief, and, famine-stricken as thou now art, thou\ndost ponder wearily over thy lost happiness, for in truth have wise\nphysicians said that a wife is the only balsam and the only healing\nherb for her husband's sorrow.\u201d\n\nSaid Nala: \u201cThou hast spoken truly. There is indeed no medicine for a\nstricken man like to his wife's love. Think not that I desire to part\nfrom thee.... Would that I could abandon myself!\u201d\n\nDamayant\u00ed wept and said: \u201cIf thou wouldst not leave me, why, O king,\ndost thou make heavier my sorrow by pointing out the way to Vidarbha?\nThou art too noble to abandon me, yet thou dost show me the road\nsouthward. If it is meet that I should return unto my father, come\nthou with me and he will bid thee welcome, and we could dwell together\nhappily in his palace.\u201d\n\nNala made answer sadly: \u201cAh! never can I return in my shame to that\ncity where I have appeared aforetime in pride and in splendour.\u201d\n\nThen, comforting Damayant\u00ed, Nala wandered on with her through the\ndeep forest, and they made one garment serve them both. Greatly they\nsuffered from hunger and from thirst, and when at length they came to a\nlonely hut, they sat down on the hard ground, nor had they even a mat\nto rest upon. Damayant\u00ed was overcome with weariness, and soon she sank\nasleep; she lay all naked on that bare floor. But there was no rest for\nNala; he thought with pain of his lost kingdom and the friends who had\ndeserted him, and of the weary journey he must make in the midst of the\ngreat forest. \u201cAh! were it better to die now and end all,\u201d he mused,\n\u201cor to desert her whom I love? She is devoted unto me more deeply\nthan I deserve. Perchance if she were abandoned she would return to\nVidarbha. She is unable to endure my sufferings and the constant sorrow\nwhich must be mine.\u201d\n\nLong he pondered thus, until Kali swayed him to desert his faithful\nwife. So he severed her garment and used half of it. He turned away\nfrom the fair princess as she lay fast asleep.\n\nRepenting in his heart, Nala returned speedily and gazed upon fair\nDamayant\u00ed with pity and with love. He wept bitterly, saying: \u201cAh! thou\ndost sleep on the bare hard ground whom neither sun nor storm hath ever\nused roughly. O my loved one, thou hast ever awakened to smile. How\nwilt thou fare when thou dost discover that thy lord hath abandoned\nthee in the midst of the perilous forest?... May sun and wind and the\nspirits of the wood protect thee, and may thou be shielded ever by\nthine own great virtue!\u201d\n\nThen the distracted rajah, prompted by Kali again, hastened away; but\nhis heart was torn by his love, which drew him back.... So time and\nagain he came and went, like to a swing, backward and forward, until in\nthe end the evil spirit conquered him, and he departed from Damayant\u00ed,\nwho moaned fitfully in her sleep; and he plunged into the depths of the\nforest.\n\nEre long the fair princess awoke, and when she perceived that she was\nall alone she uttered a piteous scream and cried out: \u201cOh! where art\nthou, my king, my lord, my sole protector?... I am lost; oh! I am\nundone. I am helpless and alone in the perilous wood.... Ah! now thou\nart but deceiving me. Do not mock me, my lord. Art thou hidden there\namong the bushes? Oh, speak!... Why dost thou not make answer?... I do\nnot sorrow for myself only. I cannot well endure that thou shouldst be\nalone, that thou shouldst thirst and be anhungered and very weary, and\nwithout me to give thee comfort....\u201d\n\nSo she wailed as she searched through the forest for Nala, now casting\nherself upon the ground, now sitting to pine in silence, and anon\ncrying out in her grief. At length she said: \u201cOh, may he who causeth\nNala to suffer endure even greater agony than he endureth, and may he\nlive for ever in darkness and in misery!\u201d\n\nHither and thither she wandered, seeking her lord, and ever was she\nheard crying: \u201cAlas! O alas! my husband.\u201d\n\nSuddenly a great serpent rose up in its wrath and coiled itself round\nher fair body....\n\n\u201cOh! my guardian,\u201d she cried, \u201cI am now undone. The serpent hath seized\nme. Why art thou not near?... Ah! who will comfort thee now in thy\nsorrow, O blameless Nala?\u201d\n\nAs she lamented thus, a passing huntsman heard her cries; he broke\nthrough the jungle and beheld Damayant\u00ed in the coils of the serpent....\nNimbly he darted forward and with a single blow smote off the monster's\nhead, and thus rescued the beauteous lady from her awesome peril. Then\nhe washed her body and gave her food, and she was refreshed.\n\n\u201cWho art thou, O fair-eyed one?\u201d he asked. \u201cWhy dost thou wander thus\nalone in the perilous wood?\u201d\n\nDamayant\u00ed of faultless form thereupon related to the huntsman the story\nof her sorrow. As she spoke, his frail heart was moved by her great\nbeauty, and he uttered amorous words with whining voice.... Perceiving\nhis evil intent, she was roused to fierce anger. Her chastity was her\nsole defence, and she cursed him so that he immediately fell down dead\nlike to a tree that has been smitten by lightning and is suddenly\nblasted.[306]\n\n[306] The power of a curse is illustrated in Southey's _Curse of\nKehama_.\n\nFreed thus from the savage huntsman of wild beasts, the lotus-eyed\nDamayant\u00ed wandered on through the deep forest, which resounded\neverywhere with the song of the cricket. All around her were trees of\nevery form and name, and she beheld shady arbours, deep valleys, and\nwooded hill summits, and lakes and pools, loud resounding waterfalls,\nand great flowing rivers. The forest was drear and appalling: it was\nfull of lions and tigers, of countless birds and fierce robbers. She\nsaw buffaloes and wild boars feeding, and the fierce and awesome forms\nthat were there also\u2014serpents and giants and terrible demons.... But,\nprotected by her virtue, she wandered on all alone without fear. Her\nsole anxiety was for Nala, and she wept for him, crying: \u201cAh! where\nart thou? O blameless one, remember now thy vows and thy plighted\nfaith. Remember the words which the gold-winged swan addressed unto\nthee.... Am I not thy loved one?... Oh! why dost thou not make answer\nin this dark and perilous forest? The savage beasts are gaping to\ndevour me. Why art thou not near to save?... I am weak and pallid and\ndust-stained, and have need of thee, my protector.... Whom can I ask\nfor Nala? The tiger is before me, the king of the forest, and I am\nnot afraid. I address him, saying: \u2018Oh! I am lonely, and wretched,\nand sorrowful, seeking for my exiled husband. If thou hast seen him,\nconsole me; if thou hast not seen him, devour me, and set me free from\nthis misery.\u2019 ... But the tiger turns down to the river bank, and I\nwander onward towards the holy mountain, the monarch of hills.\n\n\u201c'Hear me!' I cry. I salute thee, O Mountain.... I am a king's daughter\nand the consort of a king, the illustrious lord of Nishadha, the\npious, the faultless one, who is courageous as the elephant.... Hast\nthou seen my Nala, O mighty Mountain?... Ah! why dost thou not answer\nme?... Comfort thou me now as if I were thine own child.... Oh! shall I\never behold him again, and ever hear again his honey-sweet voice, like\nmusic, saying: \u2018Daughter of Vidarbha,\u2019 while it doth soothe all my pain\nwith its blessed sound?...\u201d\n\nHaving thus addressed the mountain, Damayant\u00ed turned northward and\nwandered on for three days and three nights. Then she reached a holy\ngrove, and entered it humbly and without fear. She beheld there the\ncells of hermits and their bright sacred fires. The holy men were\nstruck with wonder by reason of her beauty, and they bade her welcome,\nsaying: \u201cArt thou a goddess of the wood, or of the mountain, or of the\nriver? O speak and tell.\u201d\n\nDamayant\u00ed made answer: \u201cI am not a goddess of the wood, or a mountain\nspirit, or yet a river nymph, but a mortal woman.\u201d\n\nThen she related to the holy men the story of her sorrow and her\nwandering, and these seers spoke to her and said: \u201cA time cometh soon,\na time of beauty, when thou wilt again behold Nala in splendour and\nsin-released ruling over his people.\u201d\n\nWhen they had spoken thus, all the holy men vanished, and their sacred\nfires vanished also. Damayant\u00ed stood a while in silent wonder, and in\nher heart she said: \u201cHave I seen a vision?...\u201d Then she went towards\nanother region.\n\nLamenting for Nala, the fair one came to a beauteous asoka tree[307]:\nits green branches were gemmed with gleaming fruit, and were melodious\nwith the songs of birds. \u201cO happy tree,\u201d she cried, \u201ctake away all my\ngrief.... Say, hast thou beheld my Nala, the slayer of his enemies, my\nbeloved lord? Oh! hast thou seen my one love, with smooth, bright skin,\nwandering alone in the forest? Answer me, O blessed Asoka, so that I\nmay depart from thee in joy. Ah! hear and speak thou happy tree....\u201d\n\n[307] A (not) soka (sorrow). This beautiful tree has exquisitely\ncoloured and abundant blossom, varying from rich orange red to primrose\nyellow. It is sacred to Siva.\n\nSo, wailing in her deep anguish, Damayant\u00ed moved round the asoka. Then\nshe went towards a lonelier and more fearsome region.... She passed\nmany a river and many mountains, and she saw numerous birds and deer\nas she wandered on and on, searching for her lost lord.\n\nAt length she beheld a great caravan of merchants. Ponderous elephants\nand eager camels, prancing horses and rumbling cars came through a\nriver. The river banks were fringed by cane and tangled undergrowth;\nthe curlew called aloud there, and the osprey; red geese were\nclamouring; turtles were numerous, as were the fish and the serpents\nlikewise. All the noble animals of the caravan came splashing noisily\nacross the ford.\n\nThe great concourse of travellers stared with wonder on the\nslender-waisted, maniac-like woman, clad in but half a garment, smeared\nwith dust and pale and sorrowful, her long hair all matted and miry.\nSome there were who fled from her in fear. But others took pity and\nsaid: \u201cWho art thou, O lady, and what seekest thou in the lonely\nforest? Art thou a goddess of the mountain, or of the forest, or of the\nplain?... We pray for thy protection; be mindful of our welfare so that\nwe may prosper upon our journey.\u201d\n\nThen Damayant\u00ed told the story of her misfortune and sorrow, and all\nthe travellers gathered round about to hear\u2014boys and young men and\ngrey-haired sages. \u201cOh! have you beheld my lord, my Nala?\u201d she cried\nunto them.\n\nThe captain of the band answered her \u201cNay\u201d; and she asked him whither\nthe caravan was bound, whereat he said: \u201cWe are going towards the realm\nof Chedi, over which Sub\u00e1hu is king.\u201d When the merchants resumed their\njourney, Damayant\u00ed went with them.\n\nThrough the forest they travelled a long distance, and at eventide they\nreached the green shore of a beautiful wide lake which sparkled with\nbright lotus blooms.[308] The camp was pitched in the middle of a\ndeep grove. Gladly did the men bathe with their wearied animals in the\ndelicious, ice-cool waters.\n\n[308] They are coloured red, white, and blue.\n\nAt midnight all slept.... In the deep silence a herd of wild forest\nelephants, with moisture oozing from their temples,[309] came down to\ndrink from the gurgling stream which flowed nigh to the camp. When they\nscented the tame elephants lying crouched in slumber, they trumpeted\naloud, and of a sudden charged ponderously and fell upon them like to\nmountain peaks tumbling into the valleys beneath.... Trees and tents\nwere thrown down as they trampled through the camping ground, and the\ntravellers awoke panic-stricken, crying: \u201cOh! Alas! Ah! Oh!\u201d Some\nfled through the forest; others, blind with sleep, stood gasping with\nwonder, and the elephants slew them. The camp was scattered in the\ndire confusion; many animals were gored; men overthrew one another,\nendeavouring to escape; many shrieked in terror, and a few climbed\ntrees. Voices were heard calling: \u201cIt is a fire!\u201d and merchants\nscreamed, \u201cWhy fly away so speedily? Save the precious jewels, O ye\ncowards.\u201d\n\n[309] Rutting elephants. The seasonal juice is odorous, and issues from\nminute holes on each side of the elephant's temples.\n\nAmidst the tumult and the slaughter Damayant\u00ed awoke, trembling with\nfear, and she made swift escape, nor suffered a wound. In the deep\nforest she came nigh to the few men who had found refuge, and she heard\nthem say one to another:\n\n\u201cWhat deed have we done to bring this misfortune upon us? Have we\nforgotten to adore Manibhadra[310], the high king of the Yakshas?\nWorshipped we not, ere we set forth, the dread spirits which bring\ndisasters? Was it doomed that all omens should be belied? How hath it\ncome that such a disaster hath befallen us?\u201d\n\n[310] Manibhadra, the demi-god, was worshipped by travellers, and\nresembles Kuvera, god of wealth.\n\nOthers who had been bereft of their kindred and their wealth, and were\nin misery, said: \u201cWho was she\u2014that ill-omened, maniac-eyed woman who\ncame amongst us? In truth she seemed scarcely human. Surely it is by\nreason of her evil power that disaster hath befallen us. Ah! she is a\nwitch, or she is a sorceress, or mayhap a demon.... Without doubt she\nis the cause of all our woes.... Would that we could find her\u2014oh the\nevil destroyer! Oh the curse of our host!... Let us slay the murderess\nwith clods and with stones, with canes and with staves, or else with\nour fists....\u201d[311]\n\n[311] A curious glimpse of Hindu ideas regarding demi-gods or demons.\n\nWhen the terrified and innocent Damayant\u00ed heard these fearsome threats,\nshe fled away through the trees, lamenting her fate, and wailing:\n\u201cAlas! alas! my terrible doom doth haunt me still. Misfortune dogs my\nfootsteps.... I have no memory of any sin of thought or deed\u2014of any\nwrong done by me to living beings. Perchance, oh, alas! I did sin in\nmy former life, and am now suffering due punishment.... For I suffer,\nindeed. I have lost my husband; my kingdom is lost; I have lost my\nkindred; my noble Nala has been taken from me, and I am far removed\nfrom my children, and I wander alone in the wood of serpents.\u201d\n\nWhen morning broke, the sorrowful queen met with some holy Brahmans who\nhad escaped the night's disaster, and she went with them towards the\ncity of Chedi.\n\nThe people gazed with wonder on Damayant\u00ed when she walked though the\nstreets with her dust-smeared body and matted hair. The children danced\nabout her as she wandered about like to a maniac, so miserable and\nweary and emaciated.\n\nIt chanced that the sorrowing woman came nigh to the royal palace. The\nmother of the king looked forth from a window, and beheld her and said:\n\u201cHasten, and bid this poor wanderer to enter. Although stricken and\nhalf-clothed she hath, methinks, the beauty of Indra's long-eyed queen.\nLet her have refuge from those staring men.\u201d\n\nDamayant\u00ed was then led before the queen mother, who spoke gently,\nsaying: \u201cAlthough bowed down with grief, thou art beautiful of form.\nThou fearest not anyone. Who art thou so well protected by thine own\nchastity?\u201d\n\nBhima's daughter wept, lamenting her fate, and related all that had\nbefallen her, but did not reveal who she was. Then the queen mother\nsaid: \u201cDwell thou here with me, and our servants shall go in quest of\nthy husband.\u201d\n\nDamayant\u00ed said: \u201cO mother of heroes, if I abide here with thee I\nmust eat not of food remnants, nor do menial service, nor can I hold\nconverse with any man save the holy Brahmans who promise to search for\nmy husband.\u201d\n\nThe royal lady made answer: \u201cAs thou desireth, so let it be.\u201d Then she\nspake to Sunanda, her daughter, saying: \u201cThis lady will be to thee a\nhandmaiden and a friend. She is of thine own age and thy worthy peer.\nBe happy together.\u201d\n\nAt these words the Princess Sunanda was made glad, and she led the\nstrange woman unto her own abode, where sat all her virgin handmaidens.\n\nThere Damayant\u00ed dwelt for a time, waiting for her lost husband.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXII\n\nNala in Exile\n\n Nala's Wanderings\u2014The Magic Fire\u2014King of Serpents Rescued\u2014Nala\n Transformed\u2014His Service as a Charioteer\u2014Life in Ayodhya\u2014The Evening\n Song of Sorrow\u2014Search for Damayant\u00ed\u2014How she was Discovered\u2014Her\n Departure from Chedi\u2014Search for Nala\u2014A Woman's Faith\u2014Journey to the\n Swayamvara\u2014The Tree Wonder\u2014Demon Leaves Nala's Body\u2014The Coming of\n the Chariot\u2014Damayanti's Vow.\n\n\nSoon after Nala had fled into the forest depths, deserting the faithful\nDamayant\u00ed, he beheld a great fire which blazed furiously. As he drew\nnigh he heard a voice crying over and over again from the midst of the\nsacred flames: \u201cHasten, Nala! Oh, hasten, Nala, and come hither!\u201d\n\nNow, Agni had given Nala power over fire, so crying: \u201cHave no fear,\u201d he\nleapt through the flames.... In the space within that blazing circle\nbe beheld the king of serpents lying coiled up in a ring with folded\nhands and unable to move.[312] \u201cLo! I am Karkotaka,\u201d the serpent said,\n\u201cand am suffering this punishment because that I deceived the holy\nsage N\u00e1rada, who thereupon cursed me, saying: \u2018Thou wilt remain here\nin the midst of the flames until Nala cometh nigh to free thee from my\ncurse\u2019.... So do I lie without power to move. O mighty rajah, if thou\nwilt rescue me even now, I will reward thee abundantly with my noble\nfriendship, and help thee to attain great happiness. Oh lift me all\nspeedily from out of this fiery place, thou noble rajah!\u201d\n\n[312] This serpent was a demi-god with human face and hands. It ruled\nits kind in the underworld, and recalls the Egyptian king serpent in\nthe story of the shipwrecked sailor.\u2014See _Egyptian Myth and Legend_.\nIt is also called Vasuka and Shesha.\n\nWhen he had spoken thus, Karkotaka, king of the serpents, shrank to the\nsize of a man's finger, whereupon Nala uplifted and carried him safely\nthrough the flames to a cool and refreshing space without.\n\nThe serpent then said: \u201cNow walk on and count thy steps, so that good\nfortune may be assured to thee.\u201d\n\nNala walked nine steps, but ere he could take the tenth the serpent bit\nhim, whereat the rajah was suddenly transformed into a misshapen dwarf\nwith short arms.\n\nThen Karkotaka said: \u201cKnow now that I have thus changed thy form so\nthat no man may know thee. My poison, too, will cause unceasing anguish\nto the evil one who possesseth thy soul; he will suffer greatly until\nhe shall set thee free from thy sorrow. So wilt thou be delivered from\nthine enemy, O blameless one.... My poison will harm thee not, and\nhenceforth, by reason of my power, thou wilt have no need to fear the\nwild boar, or any foeman, or a Brahman, or the sages. Ever in battle\nthou wilt be victorious.... Now, go thy way, and be called \u2018V\u00e1huka, the\ncharioteer\u2019. Hasten thou unto the city of Ayodhya[313] and enter the\nservice of the royal Rajah Rituparna, the skilful in dice. Thou wilt\nteach him how to subdue horses, and he will impart to thee the secret\nof dice. Then wilt thou again have joy. Sorrow not, therefore, for thy\nwife and thy children will be restored unto thee, and thou wilt regain\nthy kingdom.\u201d\n\n[313] Oudh.\n\nThen the serpent gave unto Nala a magic robe, saying: \u201cWhen it is thy\ndesire to be as thou wert, O king, think of me and put on this garment,\nand thou wilt immediately resume thy wonted form.\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus, the king of serpents vanished from sight. Thereupon\nNala went towards the city of Ayodhy\u00e1, and he stood in the presence of\nthe royal Rajah Rituparna, unto whom he spoke thus: \u201cMy name is V\u00e1huk\u00e1.\nI am a tamer of steeds, nor is my equal to be found in the world; and I\nhave surpassing skill in cooking viands.\u201d\n\nThe rajah welcomed him and took him into his service, saying: \u201cThou\nshalt cause my horses to be fleet of foot. Be thou master of mine own\nsteed, and thy reward will be great.\u201d\n\nHe was well pleased and gave unto V\u00e1huka for comrades V\u00e1rshneya, who\nhad been in Nala's service, and J\u00edvala also. So the transformed rajah\nabode a long time at Ayodhya, and every evening, sitting alone, he sang\na single verse:\n\n Where is she all worn but faithful, weary, thirsty, hung'ring too?\n Thinks she of her foolish husband?... Doth another man her woo?\n\nEver thus he sang, and his comrades heard him and wondered greatly. So\nit came that one evening J\u00edvala spoke to Nala and said: \u201cFor whom do\nyou sorrow thus, O V\u00e1huka? I pray you to tell me. Who is the husband of\nthis lady?\u201d\n\nNala answered him with sad voice and said: \u201cOnce there was a peerless\nlady, and she had a husband of weakly will. And lo! as they wandered in\na forest together, he fled from her without cause, and yet he sorrowed\ngreatly. Ever by day and by night is he consumed by his overwhelming\ngrief, and brooding ever, he sings this melancholy song. He is a weary\nwanderer in the wide world, and his sorrow is without end; it is never\nstill.... His wife wanders all forlorn in the forest. Ah! she deserved\nnot such a fate. Thirsting and anhungered she wanders alone because\nher lord forsook her and fled; wild beasts are about her, seeking to\ndevour; the wood is full of perils.... It may be that she is not now\nalive....\u201d\n\nThus did Nala sorrow in his secret heart over Damayant\u00ed during his long\nsojourn at Ayodhya, while he served the renowned Rajah Rituparna.\n\nMeanwhile King Bhima was causing search to be made for his lost\ndaughter and her royal husband. Abundant rewards were offered to\nBr\u00e1hmans, who went through every kingdom and every city in quest of the\nmissing pair. It chanced that a Brahman, named Sudeva, entered Chedi\nwhen a royal holiday was being celebrated, and he beheld Damayant\u00ed\nstanding beside the Princess Sunanda and the queen mother at the royal\npalace.\n\nSudeva perceived that her loveliness had been dimmed by sorrow, and to\nhimself he said as he gazed upon her: \u201cAh! the lady with lotus eyes is\nlike to the moon, darkly beautiful; her splendour hath shrunken like\nthe crescent moon veiled in cloud\u2014she who aforetime was beheld in\nthe full moonlight of her glory. Pining for her lost husband, she is\nlike to a darksome night when the moon is swallowed; her sorrow hath\nstricken her like to a river which has become dry, like to a shrunken\npool in which lotus blooms shrivel and fade; she is, indeed, like to\nwithered lotus.... Doth Nala live now without the bride who thus mourns\nfor him?... When, oh when shall Damayant\u00ed be restored once again unto\nher lord as the moon bride is restored unto the peerless moon?[314] ...\nMethinks I will speak....\u201d\n\n[314] The moon is masculine, and the marriage occurs at a certain\nphase. In Egypt the moon is male, but was identified with imported\nfemale deities. In Norse mythology Mani is moon god; there was,\nhowever, an earlier moon goddess, Nana. In Ireland and Scotland the\nmoon was not individualized\u2014that is, not in the Gaelic language. The\nwords for moon in A. Saxon and German are masculine; in Gaelic they are\nfeminine.\n\nThe Brahman then approached Damayant\u00ed and said: \u201cI am Sudeva. Thy royal\nsire and thy mother and thy children are well.... A hundred Brahmans\nhave been sent forth throughout the world to search for thee, O noble\nlady.\u201d\n\nDamayant\u00ed heard him and wept.\n\nThe Princess Sunanda spoke to her queen mother, saying: \u201cLo! our\nhandmaid weeps because that the Brahman hath spoken unto her.... Who\nshe is we shall speedily know now.\u201d\n\nThen the queen mother conducted the holy man to her chambers and spoke\nto him, saying: \u201cWho is she\u2014this mysterious and noble stranger, O holy\nman?\u201d\n\nSudeva spoke in answer: \u201cHer name is Damayant\u00ed, and her sire is King\nBhima, lord of Vidarbha. Her husband is Nala.... From birth she has had\na dark beauty spot like to a lotus between her fair eyebrows. Although\nit is covered with dust, I perceived it, and so I knew her. By Brahma\nwas this spot made as the sign of his beauty-creating power.\u201d\n\nThe queen mother bade Sudeva to remove the dust from the beauty spot\nof Bhima's daughter. When this was done, it came forth like to the\nunclouded moon in heaven, and the royal lady and her daughter wept\ntogether and embraced the fair Damayant\u00ed[315].\n\n[315] The Gaelic Diarmid had similarly a beauty spot on his forehead.\nWomen who saw it immediately fell in love with him.\n\nThen the queen mother said: \u201cLo! thou art mine own sister's daughter,\nO beauteous one. Our sire is the Rajah Sud\u00e1man who reigns at\nDas\u00e1rna[316].... Once I beheld thee as a child.... Ah! ask of me\nwhatsoever thou desirest and it shall be thine.\u201d\n\n[316] Dasarna, \u201cTen Forts\u201d, in the south-eastern part of Central\nHindustan.\n\n\u201cAlas! I am a banished mother,\u201d Damayant\u00ed said with fast-flowing\ntears. \u201cPermit me, therefore, to return unto my children who have been\norphaned of mother and sire.\u201d\n\nThe queen mother said: \u201cBe it so.\u201d\n\nThen Damayant\u00ed was given an army to guard her on her journey towards\nher native city, and she was welcomed there by all her kindred and\nfriends with great rejoicing. King Bhima rewarded Sudeva with a\nthousand kine, and a town's revenue for a village.[317]\n\n[317] A Br\u00e1hman village settlement.\n\nWhen Damayant\u00ed was embraced by her mother she said: \u201cNow our chief duty\nis to bring home Nala.\u201d\n\nThe queen wept, and spoke to her husband, the royal Bhima, saying: \u201cOur\ndaughter still mourns heavily for lost lord and cannot be comforted.\u201d\n\nThen Bhima urged the Brahmans to search for Nala, offering munificent\nreward when that he should be found. Damayant\u00ed addressed these holy men\nere they departed and said unto them: \u201cWheresoever thou goest, speak\nthis my message over and over again:\n\n \u201c_Whither art thou gone, O gambler, who didst sever my garment in\n twain? Thou didst leave thy loved one as she lay slumbering in the\n savage wood. Lo! she is awaiting thy return: by day and by night she\n sitteth alone, consumed by her grief. Oh hear her prayer and have\n compassion, thou noble hero, because that she ever weepeth for thee in\n the depths of her despair!_\u201d\n\nSo the holy men went through every kingdom and every city repeating the\nmessage of Damayant\u00ed over and over again; but when they began to return\none by one, each told with sadness that his quest had been in vain.\n\nThen came unto Vidarbha that Brahman, the wise Parnada, who had\nsojourned a time in the city of Ayodhya. He addressed the daughter of\nBhima, saying: \u201cUnto Rituparna I spake regarding thy husband, repeating\nthy message, but he answered not a word. So I went out from before him.\nThereafter there came to me his charioteer, a man with short arms and\nmisshapen body. His name is V\u00e1huka, and he is skilled in driving the\nswift chariot and in preparing viands. He sorrowed greatly, and with\nmelancholy voice spoke unto me these words:\n\n \u2018_In the excess of her sorrow a noble woman will compose herself and\n remain constant, and so win heaven by her virtues. She is protected\n by the breastplate of her chastity, and will suffer no harm. Nor will\n she yield to anger although she be deserted by her lord, whose robe\n the birds have taken away, leaving him in sore distress. She will\n not be moved to wrath against her husband, the sorrow-stricken and\n famine-wasted, who hath been bereft of his kingdom and despoiled of\n happiness._\u2019\n\nWhen I heard the stranger's speech I came speedily hither to repeat it\nunto thee.\u201d\n\nDamayant\u00ed at once went and spoke to her mother privately, for she was\nassured that Vahuka, the charioteer, was her royal lord. Then she gave\nof her wealth to the Brahman, saying: \u201cThou wilt get more if Nala\nreturns home.\u201d The wise Parnada was weary with travel, and he departed\nto his own village.\n\nNeither Damayant\u00ed nor her mother made known unto King Bhima their\ndiscovery nor yet their immediate purpose. Secretly the wife of Nala\nspake to Sudeva and said: \u201cHasten thou unto the city of Ayodhya, and\nappear before the Rajah Rituparna as if thou hadst come by chance,\nand say unto him: \u2018_Once again is the daughter of Bhima to hold her\nswayamvara. All the kings and all the sons of kings are hastening as\naforetime to Vidarbha. To-morrow at dawn she will choose for herself a\nnew lord, for no one knoweth whether Nala liveth or not._\u2019\u201d\n\nSo Sudeva went unto Ayodhya and spake as Damayant\u00ed desired of him, and\nthen said: \u201cIf thou wouldst win the princess, O Rituparna, thou must go\nswiftly, for when the sun rises she will choose her a second husband.\u201d\n\nRituparna at once sent for Vahuka, and said: \u201cO skilled charioteer, I\nmust needs hasten to Vidarbha in a single day, because that the fair\nDamayant\u00ed holdeth her swayamvara at dawn to-morrow.\u201d\n\nAt these words the heart of Nala was torn with grief, and he said unto\nhimself: \u201cIs this but a stratagem to deceive me? Or is she whom I\nwronged estranged in mind? Hath she grown fickle of heart, she who hath\nbeen soul-stricken by grief in the depths of despair?\u201d\n\nThen he spake unto Rituparna and said: \u201cAs thou desirest so will I do,\nO Rituparna. I will drive thee in a single day to Vidarbha.\u201d\n\nHaving promised thus, he went forth and selected four steeds of high\ncourage with the ten good marks,[318] which were as swift as the wind.\nHe yoked them in haste, spake to them soothingly, and then set forth\nwith Rituparna and Varshneya also at full speed. The rajah sat in\nsilent wonder as the chariot went swiftly, and to himself he said:\n\u201cVahuka hath the god-like skill of the charioteer of heaven.... Can he\nbe Nala, who hath taken himself another body? If he is not Nala, he is\none who hath equal skill. Great men are wandering at times to and fro\nin disguise\u2014gods who are hidden in human form.\u201d\n\n[318] Ten twists or \u201ceddies\u201d of hair called A-vartas\u2014one on forehead,\ntwo on breast, one on each flank hollow, &c.\n\nSo the rajah marvelled and thought, while he rejoiced in the matchless\nskill of the misshapen charioteer.\n\nSwiftly they went. Over hills and rivers and over forests and lakes\nthe chariot glided like to a bird through the air.... Of a sudden the\nrajah's robe was swept away, and he cried to the charioteer, saying:\n\u201cStop at instant, so that Varshneya may hasten back and recover my\ngarment.\u201d\n\nNala paused not, and said: \u201cThy robe is now five miles behind us, and\nwe cannot wait to recover it.\u201d\n\nSo they went on with all speed. Ere long Rituparna beheld a lofty\nfruit tree, named Vibh\u00edtak, and he said to Vahuka: \u201cNow, skilful\ncharioteer, thou shalt perceive my ability in numbers. No single mind\nis accomplished in every kind of knowledge. On two branches of yonder\nfruit tree are fifty million leaves and two thousand and ninety-five\nberries.\u201d\n\nVahuka said: \u201cThe leaves and the fruit are invisible to me. But I will\ntear off a branch and count the berries while Varshneya doth hold the\nbridle.\u201d\n\n\u201cBut,\u201d urged the rajah, \u201cwe cannot pause on our journey.\u201d\n\nVahuka said: \u201cThou mayst stay with me, or thou canst let Varshneya\ndrive thee at full speed.\u201d\n\nThen the rajah spoke soothingly, saying: \u201cO matchless charioteer! I\ncannot go on without thee to Vidarbha. I trust in thee. If thou wilt\npromise that we will reach the city ere night falls, I will do even as\nyou desire.\u201d\n\nThe transformed Nala made answer: \u201cI will indeed make haste when I have\ncounted the berries.\u201d\n\nSo the horses were drawn up, and Nala tore a branch from the tree.\nHaving counted the berries, he found they were in number even as the\nrajah had said, and he exclaimed: \u201cWonderful, indeed, is thy power, O\nRituparna! Fain would I know thy secret.\u201d\n\nNow the rajah was eager to proceed on his way, and he said: \u201cI know the\nsecret of the dice, and am therefore skilled in numbers.\u201d\n\n\u201cThen,\u201d said Nala, \u201cif thou wilt impart to me thy secret, I will give\nthee knowledge in steeds.\u201d\n\nRituparna made answer thereat: \u201cSo be it;\u201d and he forthwith informed\nthe charioteer in the science of dice.\n\nNow when Nala grew skilful in dice, Kali immediately passed out of his\nbody, and Nishadha's fallen king vomited forth the serpent poison and\nwas made weak with the struggle. Released from the venom, Kali resumed\nhis wonted form, but he was beheld by Nala alone, who sought to curse\nhim.\n\nIn his terror, the evil demon folded his hands and said: \u201cDo not injure\nme, O king, and I will give thee matchless fame.... Know thou that\nDamayant\u00ed cursed me heavily in her wrath when thou didst desert her in\nthe forest, and I have ever since endured great agony. Night and day,\ntoo, have I been scorched by the poison of the king of serpents.... Now\nI seek thy pity. I come to thee that thou mayst be my refuge. Lo! I\npromise, if thou wilt not curse me, that he who henceforth faileth not\nto praise thee, will have no dread of me in his heart.\u201d\n\nNala's wrath subsided, and he permitted Kali to enter the cloven fruit\ntree. Then he leapt into the chariot and drove on, and Kali returned\nunto his own place.\n\nThe chariot flew on like a bird, and the soul of Nala was elated with\ngladness. But he still retained the form of Vahuka.\n\nAt eventide the watchmen on the walls of Vidarbha proclaimed the\ncoming of Rituparna, and King Bhima gave permission that he should\nenter by the city gate.\n\nAll that region echoed the thunder of the rumbling chariot. Nala's\nhorses, which V\u00e1rshneya had driven from Nishadha, and were within the\ncity, careered and neighed aloud as if Nala were beside them once again.\n\nDamayant\u00ed also heard the approaching chariot, and her beating heart\nwas like a cloud which thunders as the rain cometh on. Her soul was\nthrilled by the familiar sound, and it seemed to her that Nala was\ndrawing nigh....[319] On the palace roofs peacocks craned their necks\nand danced,[320] and elephants in their stalls, with uplifted trunks,\ntrumpeted aloud as if rain were about to fall.\n\n[319] This recalls: \u201cHe came even unto them.... The driving is like\nthe driving of Jehu the son of Nimshi; for he driveth furiously.\u201d\u20142\n_Kings_, ix, 20.\n\n[320] The Indian peacock is sensitive to rain, and goes round \u201cdancing\u201d\nwhen it is coming on.\n\nDamayant\u00ed said: \u201cThe sound of the chariot fills my soul with ecstasy.\nSurely my lord cometh. Oh, if I see not soon the moon-fair face of Nala\nI will surely die, for, thinking of his virtues, my heart is rent with\nsorrow. Unless he cometh now I will no longer live, but will perish by\nfire.\u201d\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXIII\n\nThe Homecoming of the King\n\n Damayant\u00ed's Suspicions\u2014Maid Interviews the Charioteer\u2014The Message\n Repeated\u2014A Husband's Emotion\u2014Wonders Performed by Nala\u2014Wife's Final\n Test\u2014Children Visit their Father\u2014Interview in the Palace\u2014Nala\n Reproaches Damayant\u00ed\u2014Her Confession and Vindication\u2014Message from\n the Gods\u2014Husband and Wife Reunited\u2014Nala Returns to Nishadha\u2014The\n Second Gambling Match\u2014Nala Wins back his Kingdom\u2014Erring Brother\n Forgiven\u2014King and Queen Once More.\n\n\nWith sorrowful anxiety Damayant\u00ed ascended to the roof terrace of the\nlofty palace to gaze upon the chariot as it entered the middle court.\nShe saw Rituparna stepping down, and Varshneya, who followed him, while\nV\u00e1huka began to unyoke the foaming steeds.\n\nKing Bhima, who knew naught of his daughter's stratagem, received\nthe royal Rajah of Ayodhya with much courtesy, and said: \u201cI bid thee\nwelcome, O king.... Why hast thou come hither?\u201d\n\nNow Rituparna wondered greatly that he beheld no kings or kings' sons,\nor even signs that a swayamvara was about to be held, but he kept his\ncounsel and said: \u201cI have come to salute thee, O Bhima.\u201d\n\nThe royal sire of Damayant\u00ed smiled thereat and said unto himself: \u201cHe\nhath not come so speedily through many cities for such a purpose. But\nwe shall know betimes why he hath made this journey.\u201d\n\nRituparna was conducted to his chamber for rest and refreshment by a\ncompany of royal servants, and V\u00e1rshneya went with them.\n\nMeanwhile Vahuka led his horses to the stables, and Damayant\u00ed descended\nto her chamber, thinking again and again that the sound of the coming\nchariot was like to the sound of Nala drawing nigh. So she called her\nfair handmaid, who was named Ke\u015bin\u00ed, and said unto her: \u201cGo forth and\nspeak to the misshapen charioteer with short arms, for methinks he is\nNala.... Ask thou him who he is, and be mindful of his answer.\u201d\n\nThe handmaiden went forth and spoke unto V\u00e1huka, saying: \u201cLo! the\nPrincess Damayant\u00ed would fain know whence ye come and for what purpose.\u201d\n\nSaid Vahuka: \u201cKing Rituparna hath heard that the swayamvara is to be\nheld at dawn to-morrow, so he set forth from Ayodhya and came hither\nswifter than the wind. I am his charioteer.\u201d\n\nKe\u015bin\u00ed asked him: \u201cWho is the third man who hath come?\u201d\n\nSaid V\u00e1huka: \u201cV\u00e1rshneya is his name. He departed unto Ayodhya when Nala\nfled away.... I am skilled in taming steeds and in preparing viands.\u201d\n\nThe handmaiden then asked: \u201cAnd doth this Varshneya know whither Nala\nhath fled and how he fares. Hath he told thee aught regarding him?\u201d\n\nSaid V\u00e1huka: \u201cV\u00e1rshneya carried away the children of Nala from\nNishadha, but he knows not aught of the rajah, O fair one. Indeed, no\nman knoweth. He hath assumed a strange form, and wanders disguised\nabout the world.... Nala alone knoweth, nor will he reveal himself.\u201d\n\nKe\u015bin\u00ed then spake, saying: \u201cWhen the holy Brahman went unto the city\nof Ayodhya he uttered those words of Damayant\u00ed once and once again:\n\n \u2018_Whither art thou gone, O gambler, who didst sever my garment in\n twain? Thou didst leave thy loved one as she lay slumbering in the\n savage wood. Lo! she is awaiting thy return. By day and by night she\n sitteth alone, consumed by her grief. Oh! hear her prayer and have\n compassion, thou noble hero, because that she ever weepeth for thee in\n the depths of her despair._\u2019\n\nNow speak again, I pray thee, the words which thou didst utter to the\nBrahman, for they gave healing to the stricken heart of Damayant\u00ed. Fain\nwould the princess hear that speech once more.\u201d\n\nThen was the soul of Nala rent with grief, hearing the message of\nDamayant\u00ed, and with tearful voice he said, repeating his former\nutterance:\n\n \u201c_In the excess of her sorrow a noble woman will compose herself and\n remain constant, and so win heaven by her virtues. She is protected\n by the breastplate of her chastity, and will suffer no harm. Nor will\n she yield to anger, although she be deserted by her lord, whose robe\n the birds have taken away, leaving him in sore distress. She will\n not be moved to wrath against her husband, the sorrow-stricken and\n famine-wasted, who hath been bereft of his kingdom and despoiled of\n happiness._\u201d\n\nNala could scarce restrain his emotion as he spoke these words. Then\nthe fair Ke\u015bin\u00ed hastened unto Damayant\u00ed and told all.\n\nIn her distress the princess said unto her handmaiden: \u201cGo thou and\nobserve this man closely, and return betimes to inform me of all he\ndoeth. When he doth prepare viands for his royal master let no fire be\ngiven unto him nor any water.\u201d\n\nKe\u015bin\u00ed hastened forth to watch the charioteer, and when she returned\nshe said: \u201cO princess, this man is like unto a god. When he approacheth\na low-built entrance he doth not stoop; the portal rises before him.\nMuch flesh was given unto him to prepare viands for Rituparna. He but\ngazed on the empty vessels and they were filled with water. No fire was\nlit, and he took a handful of withered grass and held it up to the sun,\nwhereupon it blazed instantly, and oh! the marvel, his fingers were\nunscorched by the flames. Water flows at his will, and as quickly it\nvanisheth. And lo! I beheld another marvel. When he lifted up flowers\nthat had faded they were immediately refreshed, so that they had\ngreater beauty and richer fragrance than before.\u201d[321]\n\n[321] The powers given Nala by the gods as marriage gifts are here\nillustrated.\n\nDamayant\u00ed was fully assured that V\u00e1huka was no other than her husband\nin altered form, and, weeping, she said softly: \u201cAh! go once again to\nthe kitchen, fair Ke\u015bin\u00ed, and obtain without his knowledge a small\nportion of the food which he hath prepared.\u201d\n\nEre long the handmaiden returned with a morsel of well-cooked meat, and\nwhen Damayant\u00ed, who had ofttimes tried the food which had been cooked\nby her husband, tasted thereof, she uttered a loud cry in her anguish,\nand said: \u201cYon charioteer is Nala!\u201d\n\nThen she sipped water of ablution,[322] and sent her two children with\nKe\u015bin\u00ed to the kitchen. Immediately that the charioteer beheld Indrasena\nand her brother he embraced them tenderly: he gazed lovingly upon the\nchildren, who were as beautiful as the children of the gods, and his\nsoul was deeply moved, while tears ran down his cheeks. Seeing that the\nhandmaiden observed him closely, he said: \u201cAh! the little ones are so\nlike unto mine own children that I could not restrain my tears.... Let\nus part now, O innocent maiden; we are in a land of strangers, and if\nthou comest so often men will speak ill of thee.\u201d\n\n[322] A part of the ceremony of purification. The mouth was washed\nafter eating, drinking, expectorating, slumbering, &c.\n\nWhen Damayant\u00ed was told how the charioteer had been so profoundly\nmoved when he saw the royal children, she sent Ke\u015bin\u00ed unto her mother,\nthe queen, for she was impatient to behold her husband once again.\nThe handmaiden spake to the queen, saying: \u201cLo! we have observed the\ncharioteer closely, and believe that he is Nala, although misshapen of\nform. Damayant\u00ed is fain he would come before her, with or without the\nknowledge of her sire, and that quickly.\u201d\n\nThe queen at once went unto Bhima and told him all, and the rajah gave\npermission that the charioteer should be summoned. In an instant word\nwas sent unto Nala, and soon he stood before Damayant\u00ed and gazed upon\nher, and was moved to anguish. The princess was clad in a robe of\nscarlet, and her hair was thrown into disarray and defiled with dust:\nshe wept and trembled with emotion.\n\nAt length Damayant\u00ed spoke, saying: \u201cO V\u00e1huka, hast thou ever heard of a\nnoble and upright man who fled away, abandoning his sleeping wife in a\nforest? Innocent was she, and worn out with grief. Who was he who thus\nforsook his wife but the lordly Nala?... What offence did I give unto\nhim that he should have deserted me while I slept? Was he not chosen\nby me as mine husband even before the gods?... How could he abandon\nher who loved him\u2014the mother of his children?... Before the celestial\nbeings he pledged his faith. How hath he kept his vow?\u201d\n\nShe spoke with broken voice, and her dark eyes were dewed by sorrow.\n\nNala made answer, gazing upon his beloved wife, and said: \u201cMy kingdom I\nlost by the dice, but I was innocent of evil, because Kali possessed my\nsoul, and by that demon was I also swayed to desert thee, O timid one!\nBut thou didst smite him with thy curse when thou wert in the forest\nmourning for me, yet he remained in my body until, in the end, he was\nconquered by my long-suffering and devotion. Lo! now, O beauteous\none, our grief is nigh to its end. The evil one hath departed, and\nthrough love of thee I come hither right speedily.... But how,\u201d he\nasked sternly, \u201cmay a high-born lady choose her another husband, as\nthou wouldst fain do, even now, O faint heart? The heralds have gone up\nand down the land saying: \u2018_The daughter of Bhima will hold her second\nswayamvara because such is her fancy._\u2019 And for this reason Rituparna\nmade haste to come hither.\u201d[323]\n\n[323] According to the laws of Manu, second marriages were unlawful.\nApparently, however, they were permissible at the early period of the\npoem, at least in some districts.\n\nDamayant\u00ed shook with emotion when these hard words were spoken, and\nshe addressed Nala, saying: \u201cDo not suspect me, O noble one, of such\nshameful guilt. It was for thee and thee alone that the Br\u00e1hmans went\nforth repeating the message which I addressed unto them. Lo! when\nI learned of the words thou didst speak unto the wise Parnada, I\nconceived this stratagem with purpose to bring thee hither. Faithful\nof heart have I remained, nor ever have I thought evil of thee. I call\nupon the wind to slay me now if I have sinned: on the sun I call also\nand on the moon, which enters into every thought of living beings. Let\nthese three gods who govern the three worlds[324] speak now to prove my\nwords, or else turn against me.\u201d\n\n[324] Heaven, the earth, and the underworld.\n\nThen the wind which the princess had adjured spake from without and\nsaid: \u201cO Nala, Damayant\u00ed hath done no evil, nor hath she thought on\nevil. For three long years she hath treasured up her virtue in its\nfullness. She speaketh what is true even now. Thou hast found the\ndaughter of Bhima: the daughter of Bhima hath found thee. Take now\nthine own wife to thy bosom.\u201d\n\nEven as the wind was speaking, flowers fell out of heaven all around\nthem,[325] and the soft music of the gods floated down the wind. Nala\nmarvelled greatly, and gazed with love upon the innocent Damayant\u00ed.\nThen he put on the holy garment and thought upon the king of serpents.\nImmediately he resumed his own form, and the daughter of Bhima beheld\nher lost husband once again.\n\n[325] A sign of divine approval and favour.\n\nDamayant\u00ed shrieked and embraced Nala, and she hid her face in his\nbosom. He was again travel-worn and dust-stained as he clasped her to\nhis heart, and she sighed softly. Long they stood there, speaking no\nwords, in silent ecstasy.... The children were brought in and Nala\nembraced them once more.\n\nThen did the queen, who rejoiced greatly, inform Bhima of Nala's\nreturn, and he said: \u201cWhen he has performed his ablutions he will be\nre-united to Damayant\u00ed on the morrow.\u201d\n\nThe whole night long the happy pair sat together in the palace relating\nall that had befallen them during the years that they were parted one\nfrom another.\n\nOn the morn that followed Nala was again wedded to Damayant\u00ed, and\nthereafter he paid homage to Bhima. The glad tidings of his return\nspread swiftly through the city, and there was great rejoicing. Soon\nall the houses were decorated with banners and garlands; the streets\nwere watered and strewn with flowers. The altars of the gods were also\nadorned.\n\nWhen Rituparna came to know that his charioteer, V\u00e1huka, was the Rajah\nof Nishadha, he was well pleased, and he went into Nala's presence and\nsaid: \u201cMay thou have joy with thy queen to whom thou art re-united.\nHave I ever done aught unjustly unto thee whilst thou wert in my\npalace? If so, I now seek thy forgiveness.\u201d\n\nSaid Nala, \u201cNo injustice have I ever suffered from thee, mine old\nfriend and kinsman.... I give thee fully all I have\u2014my skill in\nsteeds.\u201d\n\nRituparna was grateful unto Nala for his gift. He gave in return fuller\ninstruction in the science of dice, and thereafter departed to his own\ncity.\n\nWhen a month had gone past Nala took leave of King Bhima and went\ntowards Nishadha with one great chariot, sixteen elephants, fifty\narmed horsemen, and six hundred foot soldiers. The whole force entered\nthe city boldly and made the earth to shake. Nala at once went before\nPushkara and said: \u201cI would fain throw dice with thee once again. I\nhave much wealth and will stake all my treasure and even Damayant\u00ed\nupon the hazard. Thou, Pushkara, must stake thy kingdom. Let us stake\neverything; let us play for our lives. And know, too, that, according\nto ancient law, he who wins a kingdom by gambling must accept the\nchallenge to play the counter game.... If thou wilt not play, then let\nus settle our difference in single combat.\u201d\n\nPushkara restrained from smiling, for he was confident of success, so\nwith haughty contempt he made answer:\n\n\u201cIt is joy to me that thou dost again possess great treasure to enable\nthee to play. It is joy also to me that I can win Damayant\u00ed with\nfaultless limbs. Soon, indeed, will Bhima's daughter be decorated with\nthe treasure which I shall win; she shall stand by my side as Apsar\u00e1s,\nqueen of heaven, stands beside Indra. Long have I waited for thee so\nthat I might win Damayant\u00ed and be fully satisfied.\u201d\n\nNala would fain have drawn his sword, but composed himself, and, with\nangry eyes and scornful smile, he said: \u201cCease this idle chatter and\nlet us play. Thereafter thou wilt have no desire to speak.\u201d\n\nImmediately the two brothers set to the game, and Nala won at a single\nhazard all that he had lost. Then he smiled and said: \u201cNow the whole\nkingdom is mine once again. Fallen monarch! never wilt thou behold the\nfair Damayant\u00ed because thou art become her slave.... Know now, that\nthou didst not triumph heretofore by reason of thine own skill, but\nbecause Kali aided thee, nor didst thou perceive this, O fool!... But\nfear not that I will take vengeance.... I give thee back thy life. Thou\nwilt have an estate and revenues and my friendship, because I remember,\nO Pushkara, that thou art my brother.... Mayst thou live for a hundred\nyears!\u201d\n\nThen Nala embraced his brother, who did homage with hands folded,\nsaying: \u201cMay thy splendour endure for ever! May thou live for ten\nthousand years! Thou hast given me my life and a city in which to live.\u201d\n\nPushkara remained with Nala for a month, and then went his way to his\nown domain.\n\nAll Nishadha rejoiced because that their rightful king had returned.\nThe counsellors of state did homage before Nala, and said: \u201cThere is\ngreat joy now in city and country, and the people come to honour thee\neven as Indra is honoured by all the gods.\u201d\n\nWhen the rejoicings were over, and the city of Nishadha was again\ntranquil, Damayant\u00ed returned home escorted by a great army, and she\nbrought great treasures which her royal sire Bhima, the terrible in\nstrength, had conferred upon her. With the long-eyed queen came her\nchildren also.\n\nThereafter Nala lived in happiness like unto the mighty Indra, being\nhappily restored to his kingdom, and once again the monarch among men.\nHe achieved great renown as a ruler, and he performed every holy rite\nwith munificence and devotion.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXIV\n\nStory of Rama: How Sita was Won\n\n The Poet of the _Ramayana_\u2014Brahma's Command\u2014Two Great Kingdoms\u2014A\n Childless Maharajah\u2014Horse Sacrifice to Obtain Offspring\u2014The Demon\n King of Ceylon\u2014Gods Appeal to Vishnu for Help\u2014Birth of Rama and\n his Brethren\u2014Stories of Childhood\u2014Vishwamitra takes away Rama\n and Lakshmana\u2014Forest Battles with Rakshasas\u2014Breaking of Shiva's\n Bow\u2014Sita is Won\u2014Choice of an Heir\u2014Rama is Favoured\u2014The Hunchback's\n Plot\u2014Fulfilment of an Old Vow\u2014Prince Bharata Chosen and Rama\n Banished\u2014A Faithful Wife and Loyal Brother.\n\n\nNow hear the tale of Rama and Sita, which was related unto the poet\nValmiki[326] by Narada, the renowned Rishi. Be it told that when\nValmiki came to know of the adventures and achievements of the great\nprince, he went towards the river to bathe, musing the while. It\nchanced that two fond herons disported on the bank, when suddenly a\npassing huntsman shot the male bird, which at once fell dead in a pool\nof blood. Great was the grief of the female heron, and Valmiki's heart\nwas so deeply moved by its cries of distress that he gave utterance to\nhis emotions in a stream of metrical speech. In this manner was the\n_sloka_ metre invented. Then came towards the brooding poet the supreme\ngod Brahma, who smiled and commanded him to celebrate the story of Rama\nin the poetic measure which, involuntarily, he had invented. Valmiki\nprepared himself accordingly to fulfil the desire of Brahma. He sat\nupon a carpet of Kusa grass, sipped holy water, and became absorbed\nin thought, until visions of the story were revealed before his eyes.\nSloka by sloka and book by book, he composed the _Ramayana_; and as\nlong as mountains endure and rivers run towards the sea, so long will\nit be repeated by the lips of mankind.\n\n[326] _Pron._ val-mee\u00b4kee.\n\n[Illustration: A VAISHNAVAITE NUN READING THE RAMAYANA\n 31]\n\nValmiki sang that in days of yore there were two mighty kingdoms\nin sun-bright Hindustan, and these were Ko\u00b4sala, whose King was\nDasarat\u00b4ha, father of Rama, and Mit\u00b4hila,[327] which was ruled over by\nJan\u00b4aka, the father of beauteous Sita.\n\n[327] The kingdoms of Oudh and North Behar.\n\nNow the capital of Kosala was Ayodhya[328], which shone in splendour\nlike to Indra's celestial city; it had wide streets with large\ndwellings, richly decorated temples, towering like mountains, and grand\nand noble palaces. In the palace gardens there were numerous birds and\nflowers, shady groves of fruit trees, and lakes gemmed with bee-loved\nlotuses; the soft winds were wont to beat back the white water-blooms\nfrom the honey bees as coy maidens are withheld by the impulses of\nmodesty from their eager lovers. Birds disported on the gleaming lakes,\nkingfishers were angered to behold themselves mirrored in the depths,\nthinking they gazed upon rivals, and ruffled the waters with their\nflapping wings.... The city of Ayodhya was full of prosperous and happy\npeople.\n\n[328] _Pron._ a-y\u00f5d\u00b4hya.\n\nMaharajah Dasaratha, who was of the Solar Race, dwelt in a stately\npalace; it was surrounded by strong walls, and guarded by a thousand\nwarriors fierce as flames of consuming fire, and ever watchful like to\nmountain lions which protect their dens. Eight sage counsellors served\nthe monarch with devotion, and he had two family priests, Vasishtha and\nVamadeva.\n\nBut although Dasaratha was mighty and powerful, and prospered greatly,\nhis heart was full of sorrow because that no son had been born to him\nby either of his three queens, Kausalya, Kaikeyi, and Sumitra....\nAt length he resolved to perform the Aswamedha (horse sacrifice) so\nthat the gods might be prevailed upon to grant him an heir who would\nperpetuate his race. When his will was made known to the queens, their\nfaces brightened as the lotus brightens at the promise of spring.\n\nSo it came to pass that a black horse was let loose on the night of\nthe full moon of the month of Choitro[329]. A Brahman accompanied it,\nand after wandering for a full year, the animal returned again to the\nkingdom.[330]\n\n[329] Easter full moon.\n\n[330] As we have seen, Arjuna and an army accompanied the white horse\nwhich was sacrificed in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_.\n\nMany rajahs attended the ceremony which took place on the north bank\nof the Sarayu river. Twenty-one sacrificial posts were set up for the\nbirds, and beasts, and reptiles, which were to be offered up besides\nthe horse, and there were eighteen Homa pits. When the fire was kindled\nupon the altar, Kausalya, the chief queen, slew the horse with the\nsacred scimitar, while the Brahmans chanted mantras.... All night long\nKausalya and Kaikeyi, wives of the Maharajah, sat beside the horse's\nbody, as was needful in performance of the rite.... Portions of the\nflesh were duly given to the fire, and when the ceremony was completed,\nDasaratha awarded great gifts of kine and treasure to the Brahmans.\n\nAn oblation was afterwards offered to the gods, who came to the place\nof sacrifice with the music-loving Gandharvas, the Celestial saints,\nthe Siddhas[331], and seven Deva-rishis. Brahma came with Vishnu\nand Shiva, and Indra came also with the hastening Maruts. Ere they\ndeparted, the gods promised that four sons would be born to Dasaratha.\n\n[331] The spirits of ancestors.\n\nAfter this, Indra and the other gods[332] journeyed to the heaven of\nBrahma, and spake regarding Ravana[333], the monarch of demons, who had\nhis dwelling in Lank\u00e1.[334]\n\n[332] The Vedic deities.\n\n[333] _Pron._ rah\u00b4va-na.\n\n[334] He is called a Rakshasa king in the _Ramayana_. Ravana appears to\nbe the Brahmanical conception of Vritra, the ruler of the Danavas or\nAsuras. Lank\u00e1 is Ceylon.\n\nNow Ravana had performed such great penances that Brahma rendered\nhim invulnerable to gods and demons, with the result that the demon\nmade Yama, god of death, his slave, and put Agni and Vayu, and the\nsun and moon, under subjection; indeed, he oppressed all the gods and\nobstructed sacrifices and despoiled the Brahmans. So Indra and other\nminor deities entreated Brahma to deliver them from the sway of Ravana.\n\nBrahma heard the gods, and then conducted them to Vishnu's dwelling in\nthe Ocean of Milk. Indra and the others honoured the Preserver, and\ncried: \u201cO Lord of the Universe, remove the afflictions which press\nheavily upon us. Brahma hath blessed Ravana, nor can recall his gift.\nSave us, therefore, from the oppression of the demon king.\u201d\n\nVishnu spake and said: \u201cBe not afraid, for I shall deliver you all.\nRavana entreated Brahma for protection against all beings save the\napes and men. Go therefore towards the earth, ye gods, and assume the\nguise of apes, and lo! I will divide myself into four parts and be born\nas the four sons of Maharajah Dasaratha. When I shall battle against\nRavana, you will hasten to mine aid.\u201d\n\nIt came to pass that the wives of Dasaratha, who had eaten of\nsacrificial food, became the mothers of sons\u2014Kausalya of Rama,\nKaikeyi of Bharata, and Sumitra of Laksh\u00b4mana, and Satrughna. The\npeople of the kingdom rejoiced greatly; they danced and sang and decked\nAyodhya with streamers and flower garlands.\n\nOf the four children Rama was the most beautiful: lying in his white\ncradle he was like to a blue lotus bloom amidst the gleaming waves of\nthe Ganges. Vasishtha, the wise Brahman, perceived that he had all the\nmarks of Vishnu, and revealed his knowledge to the Maharajah, by whom\nthe child was well beloved. One evening the full moon rose in all its\nsplendour, and Rama stretched out his hands because he desired to have\nit for a toy. His mother bought him jewels, but he threw them from him\nand wailed and wept until his eyes were red and swollen. Many of the\nwomen assembled round the cradle in deep concern. One said that the\nchild was hungry, but he refused to drink; another that the Sasti was\nunpropitious, and offerings were at once made to that goddess; still\nRama wept. A third woman declared that a ghost haunted and terrified\nthe child, and mantras were chanted.\n\nWhen the women found that they were unable to soothe Kausalya's son,\nthe Maharajah was called, but Rama heeded him not. In his despair\nDasaratha sent for his chief counsellor, who placed in Rama's hands a\nmirror which reflected the moon. Then the little prince was comforted,\nbelieving that he had obtained the moon; he ceased to weep, and\neveryone was put at ease once again.\n\nWhen the children grew older they began to lisp words, and as they were\nunable to pronounce \u201cpeeta\u201d and \u201cmata\u201d[335] they said \u201cpa\u201d and \u201cma\u201d. If\nRama were asked his name, he answered \u201cAma\u201d. Sometimes the Maharajah\nsat among his sage counsellors with the little boy upon his knee.\n\n[335] Father and mother.\n\nIn their third year the princes had their ears pierced, and after that\nthey played with other children. They made clay images of gods and put\nclay offerings in their mouths, and they broke the images because they\nwould not eat.\n\nTheir education began when they were five years old. Vasishtha was the\npreceptor, and first he worshipped Saraswati, goddess of learning, and\ninstructed his pupils to make offerings of flowers and fruit. They\nreceived instruction daily, beginning with the alphabet; then they\nstudied grammar, and at length they mastered eighteen languages; they\nwere also instructed in music and dancing and painting, and in all the\nsciences. From time to time the princes were examined by their royal\nsire in the presence of his counsellors. Afterwards they were trained\nto exercise in arms and take part in military sports, and they became\nskilled archers, and elephant riders, and horsemen and charioteers.\nOf all the princes Rama was the most accomplished; he rose above the\nothers like to a flag which flutters proudly above a high dome.\n\nNow when the princes were sixteen years old, their royal sire began to\nconsider what brides should be selected for them. It chanced that while\nhe was discussing this matter one day with his counsellors, Vishwamitra\npaid a visit to the palace. Dasaratha welcomed him with due honours,\nand spake saying: \u201cSpeak and tell what is thy request so that I may\ngrant it speedily.\u201d\n\nThat mighty sage, who had been a Kshatriya in former times, but\nbecame a Brahman after practising rigid and long austerities, made\nanswer and said: \u201cO Maharajah, the Rakshasas are destroying our\nsacrificial offerings, and I pray you to permit Rama to return with me\nto my hermitage, for he is mighty and brave and young and is able to\noverpower the demons.\u201d\n\nReluctantly did Dasaratha consent, but not until Vasishtha had\nreassured him, and he commanded that Lakshmana should accompany Rama to\nthe hermitage. Then the princes took leave of their parents and went\naway with Vishwamitra.\n\nOn the first night they abode in a hermitage situated where the river\nSarayu pours into the Ganges, and the sage informed the princes that on\nthat very spot Shiva had been wounded by the arrows of Kamadeva, god of\nlove, whom he angrily consumed with the fire that issued from his third\neye.\n\nNext day the sage led the two princes towards a dark and fearsome\njungle haunted by numerous beasts of prey, in which dwelt the terrible\nRakshasa woman named Taraka, mother of Maricha;[336] she was misshapen\nand horrible, and continually ravaged all that country. Rama twanged\nhis bow to challenge her, and she came towards the princes roaring\nangrily and throwing boulders. Because she was a female, the sons of\nDasaratha were reluctant to cause her death. Rama shot arrows and cut\noff both her arms, and Lakshmana deprived her of nose and ears. She\nimmediately changed her shape and became invisible, but by the power\nof sorcery continued to cause many stones to fall in showers about the\nyoung heroes. Vishwamitra urged Rama to slay her, and, guided by sound\nalone, he shot a great arrow which caused her death. Then the sage\nrejoiced greatly, and embracing Rama kissed his head.\n\n[336] The fighting Rakshasas of the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ are all males. Here\nthe female\u2014the mother of demons\u2014is prominent, as in _Beowulf_ and\ntypical Scottish stories.\n\nIn the morning Vishwamitra chanted powerful mantras, which caused\nCelestial weapons to appear for Rama, and the spirits of the weapons\nstood before the prince with clasped hands and said: \u201c_We are thy\nservants, O nobly generous one. Good betide thee! Whatever thou dost\ndesire, lo! we shall accomplish for thee._\u201d[337]\n\n[337] A Gaelic axiom says, \u201cEvery weapon has its demon\u201d.\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cWhen I have need of you, I will think of you, and then you\nwill wait upon me.\u201d\n\nThereafter Vishwamitra led the princes to his hermitage, which was\nsituated in a pleasant grove where deer disported and birds sang\nsweetly. All the sages welcomed them. It chanced that when six days had\ngone past, the Brahmans prepared to offer up a sacrifice. Suddenly a\nband of Rakshasas, led by Maricha, son of the hag Taraka and Savahu,\nrushed towards the altar to defile the offering with bones and blood.\nRama thought of his Celestial weapons, and they immediately appeared\nbeside him. He cast one at Maricha which drove him hundreds of miles\nout to sea, and he threw a fire weapon at Savahu which consumed him;\nthen he attacked and slew all the other demons.... The sages rejoiced\ngreatly, and honoured the prince.\n\nNext morning Vishwamitra informed Rama and Lakshmana that he and the\nother sages purposed to attend a great sacrifice which was to be\noffered up by Janaka, Rajah of Mithila. \u201cYou will accompany us,\u201d he\nsaid, \u201cand the rajah will show you Shiva's great bow, which neither god\nnor man can break.\u201d\n\nNow, both while they abode at the hermitage and as they journeyed\ntowards Mithila, the princes heard the sacred legends of Vishnu in his\ndwarf incarnation, of the Churning of the Ocean, of the descent of\nGanga through Shiva's hair, and of the cursing of Indra by a sage.\n\nAt length they reached the capital of Janaka,[338] King of Mithila, who\nwelcomed Vishwamitra, and said: \u201cWho are these courageous young men\nwith the majesty of elephants and the fearlessness of tigers? Comely\nare they as the twin Aswins.\u201d\n\n[338] \u201cThe remains of the capital founded by Janaka, and thence termed\nJanakpur, are still to be seen, according to Buchanan, on the northern\nfrontier at the Janeckpoor of the maps.\u201d\u2014Note to Professor H. H.\nWilson's translation of the _Uttara Rama Charita_.\n\nSaid the sage: \u201cThese are sons of Dasaratha; they are slayers of\nRakshasas, and desire greatly to behold Shiva's mighty bow.\u201d\n\nThen the monarch spake to the nobles and warriors, and said: \u201cBring\nforth the bow.\u201d\n\nHis command was immediately obeyed. From an inner hall many stalwart\nmen hauled the stupendous bow on an eight-wheeled iron chariot into the\npresence of the monarch of Mithila.\n\n\u201cBehold the bow of Shiva!\u201d cried the warriors.\n\nSaid Janaka: \u201cBehold the mighty bow which has been treasured by\ngenerations of kings. Many rajahs and warriors have endeavoured in vain\nto bend it; even Rakshasas and Asuras have failed; the gods themselves\nquail before it.... To the rajah who can bend this mighty weapon I will\ngive in marriage my daughter, the beauteous Sita.\u201d\n\nRama gazed with wonder, and then said: \u201cPermit me to lift and bend thy\nbow.\u201d\n\nWondering greatly at these words, the monarch and many high nobles and\nstrong warriors gathered round about.... With smiling face, Rama lifted\nthe bow; then proudly he strung it, whereat those who looked on were\nall amazed.... The prince put forth his strength and bent the bow with\nresistless force until it snapped in the middle with a terrible noise\nlike to thunder; the earth shook and the mountains echoed aloud....\nAt the loud crash, which resembled the roar of Indra's thunderbolt,\nall who were present fell down stunned and terrified save Janaka and\nVishwamitra and the two sons of Dasaratha.\n\nSaid the monarch: \u201cNow have mine eyes beheld a great wonder. Peerless\nis Rama, the noble one, and he shall be given for wife my daughter\nSita, who is dearer to me than life.... Let speedy messengers hasten\nunto Dasaratha and bid him to come hither.\u201d\n\nWhen Dasaratha reached Janaka's capital, Rama and Sita were wedded\namidst great rejoicings.\n\nHappy were the lovers together. When they arrived at Ayodhya the people\nwelcomed them, and Dasaratha's queens embraced and kissed the soft-eyed\nbride of peerless fame.\n\nIt is told that on their honeymoon they loved to wander in the\nmoonlight. On a night of warmth and beauty they went to the banks of a\npond which sparkled with lotus blooms.\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cMy loved one, graceful art thou as the lotus, thy hair is\nlike silken moss, thine eyes like beautiful bees; fair is thy face as\nthe moon's soft image amidst the waters, thine arms are shapely lotus\nstalks, and thy bosom is like to buds of sweet lotus, O my peerless\nbride.\u201d\n\nThey plunged together into the cool, moon-swept waters, and Rama cast\nat his bride many fair water blooms. Sita retreated before him until\nshe went beyond her depth; then she clung lovingly to Rama, twining her\narms about his neck, nor did he hasten to draw her back, so dearly he\nloved to be embraced by her.\n\nHide-and-seek they then played amidst the floating flowers. Rama sank\ndown until his face only was seen, and Sita, who searched for him,\nknew not whether she saw the face of Rama or a blue lotus bloom on the\nsurface of the pond. Bending down to smell what seemed to be a flower,\nshe touched her lover's lips, and he kissed her sweetly. Then Sita hid\nherself, and her face was like to a lotus bloom among lotus blooms.\nRama kissed her many times ere she moved or smiled.... At length they\ndarted merrily from the pond in bright moonlight, their garments\ndripping sparkling water drops, and then they drank cups of honey;\nthe heart of Sita was intoxicated, and she babbled words of love and\nsweetness....\n\nRama and Sita spent happy hours together, sharing supreme joy like to\nVishnu and peerless Lakshmi in the bright Celestial regions.\n\nThe Maharajah Dasaratha was growing old, and his counsellors and the\npeople began to consider who should be appointed Yuvarajah (Young\nRajah), to take over the duties of sovereignty and allow the monarch\nto spend his closing years in preparation for death, so that he might\nsecure heaven in the next life.\n\nAll the sages and chieftains favoured the choice of Rama, and the\nheart of Dasaratha was filled with joy. The people rejoiced also when\nit was told to them that Rama was to become their ruler, and they\nraised shouts of triumph and gladness. Then Rama was sent for, and\nthe Maharajah blessed him and bade him to spend the night in Vishnu's\ntemple with his wife Sita, to prepare for the ceremony of installation\non the morrow. That night the city of Ayodhya was illuminated, and the\npeople prepared to decorate the streets with garlands and streamers\nwhen the dawn came.\n\nNow there was one who did not rejoice, because that she hated Rama, son\nof the queen Kausalya. This was the old nurse of Prince Bharata, son of\nthe queen Kaikeyi[339]. Her name was Manthara; she had been the slave\nof Kaikeyi while that queen yet abode in the palace of her sire, the\nrajah Aswapati. Ugly and misshapen was Manthara; she was short-necked,\nflat-breasted, and had legs like a crane; she was big-bellied and\nhumpbacked. When Rama was a child she had offended him and he smote\nher, and ever afterwards she regarded him with fierce enmity.\n\n[339] _Pron._ ky-kay-yee\u00b4.\n\nIt chanced that Kaikeyi was gazing idly from the palace roof on the\nilluminated and bustling streets, when the hunchbacked slave approached\nher, and said: \u201cCanst thou be merry, O foolish one, on this night?\nThou art threatened by dire misfortune. Dasaratha hath deceived thee.\nThy son Bharata hath been sent to thy father's city, so that the son\nof Kausalya may be installed as Yuvarajah on the morrow. Henceforth\nthou wilt be the bondswoman of Kausalya, Rama's mother, and thou wilt\nhave to wait obediently on the commands of proud Sita. Hasten now and\nprevent this dread happening.\u201d\n\nSaid Kaikeyi: \u201cWhy do you hate Rama? He is the eldest son of the chief\nqueen, and Bharata could not become Yuvarajah without the consent of\nKausalya's son, who honours me as he honours his own mother.\u201d\n\nManthara fumed with wonder and indignation at these words; then she\nsaid: \u201cWhat madness hath blinded thee? What folly maketh thee heedless\nof the gulf of sorrow which awaiteth thee and thy son? I am older than\nthou art, and have seen dark deeds committed in royal houses. Can\nBharata become the slave of Rama? Well I know that jealous Rama will\ndrive thy lordly son into exile and mayhap slay him.... Arise, thou\nheedless queen, and save Bharata, lest he be sent to wander alone in\nthe fearsome jungle. Speak thy mandate to the Maharajah, whose heart\nhath been captivated by thy beauty.... Any other woman but thee would\nrather die than suffer a rival wife to triumph over her.\u201d\n\nSaid Kaikeyi, whose heart began to burn with jealous anger: \u201cHow can I\nprevail upon Dasaratha to exalt my son and send Rama into exile?\u201d\n\nThen the hunchback reminded Bharata's mother that she had been promised\ntwo boons by her husband. In time past Dasaratha had gone to help Indra\nto wage war against the demons. He was grievously wounded and would\nhave died, but Kaikeyi cured him. So he vowed to grant her two boons,\nand she said: \u201cWhen I have need of two favours, I will remind thee of\nthy promise.\u201d\n\nManthara spake to the queen mother of Bharata, saying: \u201cNow go to the\nmourning chamber and feign sorrow and anger. The Maharajah will seek\nthee out, and when he findeth thee demand of him the two boons which he\npromised aforetime.\u201d\n\nSo it came to pass that in the mourning chamber Kaikeyi spake to\nDasaratha, and said: \u201cNow grant me the two boons as thou didst vow to\ndo, or I shall die this night.\u201d\n\nSaid the Maharajah: \u201cSpeak thy wishes, and they will be granted. May I\nnever achieve bliss if thy desires are not fulfilled.\u201d\n\nKaikeyi said: \u201cLet royal deeds redeem royal words. The first boon I ask\nis that my son Bharata be installed as Yuvarajah; the second is that\nRama be banished for fourteen years to live in the jungle as a devotee\nclad in a robe of bark.\u201d\n\nWhen Dasaratha heard these awful words he swooned and fell prone like\nto a tempest-smitten tree.... At length he recovered his senses, and\nopening his eyes, said: \u201cHave I dreamed a fearsome dream? Do demons\ntorture me? Is my mind clouded with madness?...\u201d\n\nHushed and trembling, he gazed upon Kaikeyi as a startled deer gazes\nat a tigress.... He was as helpless as a serpent which hath been\nmantra-charmed, and for a time he sobbed aloud.... At length wrath\npossessed him, and, red-eyed and loud-voiced, he reproached her,\nsaying: \u201cTraitress, wouldst thou bring ruin to my family?... Rama hath\nnever wronged thee; why dost thou seek to injure him? O Kaikeyi, whom I\nhave loved and taken to my bosom, thou hast crept into my house like a\npoisonous snake to accomplish my ruin. It is death to me to part with\nmy brave and noble Rama, now that I am old and feeble.... Have pity on\nme and ask for other boons.\u201d\n\nSaid Kaikeyi, coldly and bitterly: \u201cIf thou wilt break thy vow now to\none who saved thy life, all men will despise thee, and I will drink\npoison this very night.\u201d\n\nDasaratha was made silent a time. Then he spoke with tears, and said:\n\u201cBeautiful art thou, O Kaikeyi. Thou hast taken captive my heart. How\ncan this evil desire dwell in thy bosom and darken it with guile?\nThou hast entrapped me with the bait of thy beauty.... Can a father\ndishonour his well-loved son? Rather would I enter hell than send\nRama into exile. How can I look upon his face again? How can I suffer\nto behold him parting with gentle Sita?... Oh! I have drunk of sweet\nwine mingled with poison.... Have pity on me, O Kaikeyi! I fall at thy\nfeet.... I would that Yama would snatch me off in this hour.\u201d\n\nSaid Kaikeyi: \u201cIf thou dost honour truth thou wilt grant the boons I\ncrave, but if thou wouldst rather break thine oath, let me drink poison\nnow.\u201d\n\nDasaratha cried in his grief: \u201cO shadow-robed Night, decked with\nstars! arrest the hours that pass by, or else give my heart release.\nCover with thy darksome mantle my sorrow and my shame, and hide this\ndeed of crime from the knowledge of mankind. Let me perish ere the\ndawn; may the sun never rise to shine upon my sin-smeared life.\u201d\n\nSo he lamented through the night, and unto Kaikeyi he said: \u201cI grant\nthe boons, but I reject thee for ever and thy son Bharata also.\u201d\n\nMorning dawned.... The city was decorated with streamers and flowers.\nA golden throne was set up for Rama; the tiger's skin was spread for\nhis feet; the white umbrella waited for him. Elephants and chariot\nhorses were harnessed.... The preparations for the sacrifice were\ncompleted.... The crowds began to gather in the streets waiting for the\nMaharajah and noble Rama, whom all the people loved.\n\nTowards the palace went Sumantra, the chief counsellor. He entered\nthe chamber in which Dasaratha had spent the night to awaken him and\nconduct him to the ceremony.\n\nKaikeyi met the counsellor and said: \u201cSummon Rama hither, for the\nMaharajah must speak with him.\u201d\n\nWondering greatly, Sumantra hastened to the prince's dwelling and spake\nthe royal command. Said Rama: \u201cI will go quickly. Tarry here, O Sita,\nand await my return.\u201d\n\nSita followed Rama to the doorway and invoked the gods so that they\nmight bless and protect him.\n\nThe multitudes of people hailed the prince as he was driven in his\nchariot towards the palace, and women threw flowers upon him from the\nhousetops.... He entered the gate, driving through the first three\ncourts; he dismounted and walked across the two inner courts; he then\nbade his followers to remain without, and soon he stood before the\nMaharajah and made humble obeisance.\n\nRama beheld his father sitting beside Kaikeyi; his body was bent, his\nface was worn with grief. Tears fell from Dasaratha's eyes as his\nson kissed his feet and the feet of Kaikeyi also; he strove to speak\nwhile tears streamed from his eyes, but all he could utter was, \u201cOh!\nRama....\u201d The sorrow of Dasaratha rose and fell in his heart like to\nthe waves of a stormy sea.\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cOh! have I offended my sire? Speak, mother, and tell.\nWherefore do tears fall from his eyes? Why is his face clouded with\ngrief?... I would rather die than wound his heart by word or deed.\u201d\n\nKaikeyi said: \u201cThe Maharajah is not angered, nor is he grief-stricken,\nbut he fears to speak his purpose until thou dost promise to serve his\nwill.\u201d\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cO speak and I will obey even if I am asked to quaff poison\nand die ere my time. My promise is given and my lips have never lied.\u201d\n\nKaikeyi said coldly: \u201cThe Maharajah vowed to grant two boons when I\ncured his wounds and saved his life, although he repents his promise\nnow like to a man of low caste. I have asked him to fulfil his vow, and\nthe boons I crave are that Bharata, whose star is bright, be installed\nas Yuvarajah, and thou shouldst be banished for twice seven years....\nIf thou art ready to obey thy father's will and preserve his honour,\nthou wilt depart this day from the city and permit Bharata to govern\nthe kingdom.\u201d\n\nDasaratha's heart was pierced with agony at these words, but Rama heard\nthem unmoved; they fell upon his ears like to sparks falling into the\nsea. Calmly he spake and said: \u201cI will depart this day in fulfilment\nof my father's vow. Cheerfully will I obey his command. Let Bharata be\nsummoned quickly from Girivrajah, and I will hasten to the jungle of\nDandaka.\u201d\n\nSaid Kaikeyi: \u201cSo be it.... But tarry not, for thy sire will neither\nwash nor eat until thou hast departed hence.\u201d\n\nRama bowed before his sire who was prostrated with sorrow; he bowed\nbefore Kaikeyi also.... All the royal attendants wept, but Rama was\nunmoved as is the ocean when a pot of water is drawn from it or poured\nin.\n\nHe went towards Kausalya, his mother, who was engaged making offerings\nto Vishnu on his behalf, and informed her what had taken place.\n\nKausalya wept and cried: \u201cO dearly beloved, if thou hadst never been\nborn I would not have to suffer this calamity.... My son, I am the\nchief queen, but Kaikeyi hath supplanted me, and I am disliked and\nneglected by my husband.... I am old and unable to endure the loss of\nthee, my son.... Hath my heart grown hard as rock that it will not\nbreak now? Is Yama's mansions so full that I am not called away? I\nhave no desire to live any longer.... Can a son obey a sire in his\ndotage?... Rama, Rama, the people will rise in revolt; seize thou the\nthrone, and if thy father remaineth hostile slay him, because he hath\nbecome contemptible before all men, being but a woman's slave.\u201d\n\nLakshmana said: \u201cMother, thy words are just. Who will dare oppose Rama\nso long as I serve him?\u201d\n\nSaid Kausalya: \u201cHear the words of thy brother, Rama. If thy sire's\ncommand must be obeyed so must mine, and I command thee now not to\ndepart to the jungle. If thou wilt not obey me, I will eat no more food\nand thou wilt be guilty of my death.\u201d\n\nRama said: \u201cI must obey my sire's command. Permit me, therefore, O\nmother, to depart now.... O Lakshmana, I have promised my sire to obey.\nDo not ask me to break my plighted word.\u201d\n\nStill Kausalya pleaded with Rama to remain, and he sought to comfort\nher, but her grief was too heavy to be removed, for she loved her son\ndearly and hated her rival Kaikeyi.\n\nWith darkened brow and saddened eyes, Rama then went unto Sita and told\nher all, and said: \u201cMy mother is heartbroken, O Sita; she hath need of\nthee to soothe her grief. O dearly beloved, I must now depart and leave\nthee. Be ever obedient unto Bharata, nor laud me ever, for a rajah\ncares not to hear another praised in his presence.\u201d\n\nSaid Sita: \u201cA wife must ever accompany her husband and share his\nsufferings. If thou must depart to the forest, it is my duty to go\nbefore thee and smooth the thorns in thy path. So long as I am with\nthee I will be happy even in the jungle. Dearer to me than the palace\nis the place where I can hold sweet converse with my husband. I will\nlighten thy burden of sorrow, O Rama, but if thou wilt leave me here\nalone I will surely die.\u201d\n\nRama spoke of the perils of the jungle, which was full of wild beasts\nand venomous reptiles, where food was scarce, and, when found, bitter\nto taste, where they would find no home and would have to lie on the\nbare ground, and where they would suffer greatly from heat and cold,\nfrom tempest and rains. \u201cO Sita,\u201d he cried, \u201cthou art dearer to me than\nlife itself. How can I permit thee to suffer for me? My love will grow\ngreater when I know what it is to be separated from thee.... Wait here,\nO loved one, until I return again.\u201d\n\nSaid Sita: \u201cI know nor fear the perils and sorrows of the jungle.\nRather would I sleep with thee on the bare ground than lie here alone\non a bed of down. Without thee I have no desire to live.... Take me\nwith thee, O Rama, and let me share thy sorrow and thy joys. Sweeter\nwill be the jungle with thee beside me than the palace when thou hast\ndeparted.\u201d\n\nIn vain Rama remonstrated with her, but she refused to be separated\nfrom him. She fell at his feet, weeping bitterly, and at length he\nconsented that she should share his sufferings in the jungle.\n\nThen Lakshmana pleaded to accompany Rama also, nor could he be\npersuaded to remain behind.\n\nThereafter Rama and Sita and Lakshmana went together, walking\nbarefooted, towards the palace to bid farewell to the Maharajah and his\nqueens.\n\nRumours of what had happened were passing through the city, and the\npeople gazed with sorrow on Rama, his bride and his brother, and some\nsaid: \u201cThe Maharajah is possessed by demons.\u201d Others said: \u201cLet us\ndesert the city and follow Rama. Then Bharata will have none left to\nrule over.\u201d\n\nRama entered the palace with his wife and brother, and stood before the\nMaharajah with folded hands.\n\nDasaratha lamented and said: \u201cA woman hath deceived me. She concealed\nher wicked designs in her heart as a fire is concealed by ashes....\nThe evening is late; tarry therefore with thy mother and me until day\nbreaks.\u201d\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cKaikeyi commanded me to depart this day to the jungle, and\nI promised to obey.... When fourteen years have gone past we shall\nreturn again and honour thee.\u201d\n\nThe Maharajah and his counsellors desired to send the royal army and\nthe huntsmen and much grain and treasure to the jungle with Rama,\nalthough Kaikeyi protested loudly, but Rama refused to have soldiers\nand followers, and asked for the raiment of bark which he must wear,\nand for the spade with which to dig roots and the basket to carry them.\n\nThe shameless Kaikeyi then went away and returned with three dresses\nof bark. Rama and Lakshmana immediately cast off their royal garments\nand all their ornaments, and assumed the rough attire of devotees. But\nSita, who from childhood had been clad in silk, wept and said: \u201cHow can\nI wear raiment of bark? I cannot use such attire.\u201d\n\nAll the women shed tears at these words, and Dasaratha said: \u201cKaikeyi's\ncommand is binding on Rama only, and his wife and brother may assume\nany garments they desire.\u201d\n\nSo the robe of bark was taken away from Sita; it was not permitted that\nshe should be put to shame.\n\nThen Rama and Sita and Lakshmana took leave of all those who were in\nthe palace, and, amidst lamentation and wailing, took their departure\nfrom the palace. They were conveyed to the frontier of the kingdom in\na chariot, and many people followed them from the city, resolved to\nshare exile with Rama. The night was spent on the banks of the Tamasa,\nand all slept save Rama alone. As soon as dawn came, he awakened Sita\nand Lakshmana and the charioteer, and together they departed ere the\nslumbering multitude were aware. The exiles thereafter parted with the\ncharioteer, and crossing the river Tamasa, journeyed on till they saw\nthe sacred Ganges, in which the gods are wont to bathe, and on whose\nbanks many sages had chosen hermitages.\n\nWhen the people awoke and found that those whom they loved and honoured\nhad hastened away, they returned with hearts full of sorrow to the\nmourning city of Ayodhya.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXV\n\nThe Abduction of Sita\n\n The Maharajah's Doom\u2014Tale of the Hermit's Son\u2014A Curse\n Fulfilled\u2014Death of Dasaratha\u2014Bharata Refuses the Throne\u2014Visit to\n Rama in Exile\u2014Loyalty to a Dead Sire\u2014Javala the Sceptic\u2014Bharata\n Honours Rama's Sandals\u2014Wanderings of the Exiles\u2014A Love-stricken\n Rakshasa\u2014Jesting ends in Bloodshed\u2014A War of Vengeance\u2014Rama's Great\n Victory\u2014Ravana's Cunning Plot\u2014The Magic Deer\u2014Rama and Lakshmana\n Lured from Hermitage\u2014Sita Taken Captive.\n\n\nNow the Maharajah Dasaratha was doomed to die a sorrowful death. Be it\nknown that in his youth, when he loved to go a-hunting, he heard in the\njungle depths one evening a gurgling of water, and thought an elephant\nor a deer had come to drink from a hidden stream. He drew his bow; he\naimed at the sound and discharged an arrow.... A human voice uttered a\ncry of agony.... Breaking through the tangled jungle growth, Dasaratha\ndiscovered that he had mortally wounded a young hermit who had come to\ndraw water for his aged parents. The poor victim forgave the king and\ncounselled him, saying: \u201cHasten to my sire and inform him of my fate,\nlest his curse should consume thee as a fire consumes a withered tree.\u201d\nThen he expired.\n\nDismayed and sorrowing deeply, Dasaratha went towards the dwelling of\nthe boy's parents, who were blind and old. He heard the father cry:\n\u201cAh! why hast thou lingered, my son? I am athirst, and thy mother longs\nfor thee.\u201d\n\nIn broken accents the king informed the lonesome parents of their\nson's death. The sire lamented aloud, and said: \u201cOh! lead me to my son.\nLet me embrace him for the last time.\u201d\n\nDasaratha conducted the weeping parents to the spot where the lad\nlay lifeless and stained with blood. The sire clasped the body, and\ncried: \u201cOh! wilt thou not speak and greet me, my son? Thou liest on\nthe ground; thou dost not answer me when I call. Alas! thou canst not\nlove me any longer.... Thy mother is here. Oh! thou who wert dutiful\nand kind, speak but one tender word to her and to me.... Who will now\nread to us each morning the holy books? Who will now find roots and\nfruits to feed us?... Oh! tarry with us yet a little longer, my son.\nWait for us ere thou dost depart to the Kingdom of Death\u2014stay but one\nday longer, and on the morrow thy father and mother will go with thee\non the weary and darksome path of no returning.... How can we live now\nthat our child and protector is taken from us?\u201d\n\nSo the blind old hermit lamented. Then he spake to the king, and said:\n\u201cI had but this one child and thou hast made me childless. Now slay\nme also, because Death is blunted and unable to hurt me any more....\nA father cannot feel greater agony than when he sorrows for a beloved\nson. This peculiar sharp sorrow thou wilt yet know, O king. As I weep\nnow, and as I am hastened to death, mourning for my son, so wilt thou\nsuffer in like manner, sorrowing for a dearly-beloved and righteous\nson. Thy death, O Dasaratha, will cleanse thee of this crime.\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus, the hermit built the funeral pyre for the dead boy,\nand when it was lit he and his wife leapt amidst the flames and entered\nthe Kingdom of Death.\n\nAfter Rama had departed from Ayodhya, his mother, Kausalya, reproached\nDasaratha, saying: \u201cThou wouldst not break thy promise to Kaikeyi, but\nthou didst break thy promise made to thy counsellors that Rama should\nbe thy successor.\u201d\n\nThe Maharajah was bowed down with grief, and cried: \u201cOh! forgive me,\nKausalya, because my heart is breaking while I mourn for my beloved\nson. Oh! do not wound me again, I pray thee.\u201d\n\nKausalya wept and said: \u201cAlas! my grief hath made me speak cruelly to\nthee.\u201d\n\nIn the middle of the second night after Rama had departed, Dasaratha\nawoke and cried: \u201cO Kausalya, I am dying with grief. Mine eyes have\ngrown blind with weeping. Take my hand in thine and speak unto me. Oh!\nbitterly I grieve now that I cannot look upon Rama ere I die. Happy are\nthey whose eyes behold him.... My heart beats feebly\u201d....\n\nWhen he had spoken thus, Dasaratha fell back and was silent. Kausalya,\nmother of Rama, and Sumitra, mother of Lakshmana, knelt beside him, and\nthey swooned when his spirit fled.\n\nIn the morning messengers were sent speedily to Bharata, who sojourned\nin the kingdom of the Kaikeyas with his mother's sire, the rajah\nAswapati, bidding him to return without delay. Seven nights passed\nwhile the prince journeyed towards Ayodhya. He knew not that Dasaratha\nhad died until he reached the palace. Then Kaikeyi, his mother,\ninformed him without tears. Bharata wept, and flung himself down upon\nthe floor and cried aloud.\n\nKaikeyi said: \u201cThou shouldst not thus give way to grief, my son.\u201d\n\nSaid Bharata: \u201cIf the Maharajah were alive, he would have embraced and\nkissed me on my return. But where is Rama, who is now as a sire unto\nme?\u201d\n\nThen Kaikeyi told him all that had taken place, and said: \u201cFor thy\nsake, my son, I have accomplished this. Sorrow not, because thou wilt\nbe installed as ruler here.\u201d\n\nSaid Bharata: \u201cI have lost my father and my elder brother. Of what good\nis a kingdom unto me now? O evil-hearted woman, thou hast bereft this\nhouse of all joy; thou hast slain my sire and banished Rama.... But I\nwill bring my brother back from the jungle; he shall be seated on the\nthrone.\u201d\n\nSatrughna sorrowed like Bharata, and when he beheld the wicked\nhunchback Manthara he threw her down and dragged her across the floor,\nsaying: \u201cThis hateful creature is the cause of our calamities. I will\nslay her.\u201d\n\nKaikeyi flew away in terror, and Bharata said: \u201cSlay her not, because\nshe is a woman. I would have killed my wicked mother, but, had I done\nso, Rama would ne'er have forgiven me nor have spoken to me again.\nSpare this wretch, O Satrughna, lest Rama should be angry with thee.\u201d\n\nKausalya, mother of Rama, then approached Bharata and said: \u201cThe raj is\nnow thine, O ambitious one. Thy mother hath secured it for thee.\u201d\n\nBharata fell at her feet and vowed that he would never sit on the\nthrone, but would hasten after Rama to entreat him to return.\n\nThen Kausalya wept and embraced him because that he was loyal to his\nelder brother.\n\nWhen Bharata had performed the funeral rites for the Maharajah, he left\nAyodhya with a strong army to search for Rama.\n\nThe two brothers met in the jungle of Chitra-kuta, and they embraced\none another and wept for their dead sire.\n\nIn the morning Bharata spake to Rama in the presence of the army,\nsaying: \u201cThis raj, which was given unto me against my will, I now gift\nunto thee, mine elder brother. Accept it and remove the stain of my\nmother's sin.\u201d\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cO Bharata, my royal sire, fulfilling his vow, banished me\nto the jungle and appointed thee to the raj. A faithful son cannot\nrecall the mandate of his sire.\u201d\n\nThen Java\u00b4li, the Brahmanic counsellor of Dasaratha, spake and said:\n\u201cO Rama, why dim thine understanding with empty maxims? Thou hast\nalready obeyed thy sire. It is foolish to think that thou shouldst\ncontinue this allegiance to one who is dead. A man enters the world\nalone and departs alone; he owns not friendship to kindred. His parents\nare to him like a wayside inn which he leaves in the morning; his\nallegiance to them is temporary. He meets them like a traveller who\ntarries on his journey and then goes on his way as before. In this\nworld we have only one life to live. If thou wilt refuse this raj thou\nwilt destroy thy one life. I am sorry for those who scorn the blessings\nof this world so long as they are alive in the hope that they will\nreach a Paradise which does not exist. When this life is spent we are\nextinguished for ever. Alas! that men should make to their ancestors\nuseless offerings. Can a dead man eat thereof? These offerings are a\nwaste of food. If the soul endures and passes into a new body how can\nit benefit from food eaten by another? These practices were invented\nby cunning priests with selfish motives.... There is no Hereafter.\nTherefore snatch the joys of life while thou canst, O Rama, take the\nraj which is offered to thee and return to Ayodhya.\u201d\n\nSaid Rama, whose heart was filled with anger: \u201cO Javali, thy motive is\nexcellent but thy doctrines are false. A good man is distinguished from\nan evil man by his deeds. How can I, who have embraced a virtuous life,\nturn now into the path of evildoing? The gods who read a man's heart\nwould curse me for my sins. Vain are thine idle words; thy reasoning is\ncunning but false. Truth is our ancient path. Truth endures when all\nelse passes away. The venom of falsehood is more deadly than the venom\nof a serpent's sting. Thou hast said that there is no Hereafter, and\nthat we should snatch pleasures while life endures. If that is so, why\ndo wise men condemn what is evil if the vicious are simply pursuing\nthe quest of happiness? Why do sages live austere lives, eating fruits\nand roots, instead of feasting on flesh and drinking wine? There would\nbe no sciences if we believed only those things we behold. Inferential\nproof must be permitted. Is a woman to consider herself a widow when\nher husband is out of sight?... Know, all of ye, that I will be\nfaithful to the mandate of my sire. I will keep my promise which I\ncannot recall. Let Bharata reign, for I will dwell in the jungle.\u201d\n\nBharata said: \u201cIf my sire's wish must be fulfilled, let me remain in\nthe jungle for fourteen years so that Rama may return to Ayodhya.\u201d\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cNeither Bharata nor I can recall or change the commands of\nDasaratha.\u201d\n\nThereafter Bharata gave to Rama a pair of new sandals decked with gold,\nsaying: \u201cPut these upon thy feet and they shall accomplish the good of\nall.\u201d\n\nRama put on the sandals and then returned them to his brother, who\nsaid: \u201cI will live as a devotee for fourteen years with matted hair\nand in a robe of bark. These sandals, O Rama, will be placed upon the\nthrone which I will guard for thee. If thou dost not return when the\ntime of thy penance is ended, I will perish upon the pyre.\u201d\n\nThe brethren then took leave of one another. Bharata returned to\nAyodhya, and to his counsellors spake, saying: \u201cI will dwell outside\nthe city in Nandigrama until Rama returns again.\u201d\n\nThen he clad himself in bark and went to the jungle. There he conducted\nthe affairs of government, holding the royal umbrella over Rama's\nsandals. All presents which were given were first presented to the\nsandals, because Bharata ruled the kingdom for his elder brother. The\nsandals of Rama were the symbol of royal authority.\n\nMeanwhile Rama with Sita and Lakshmana went southward towards deeper\njungles, visiting various holy sages, and having crossed the Vindhya\nmountains, they wandered together in the Deccan and Southern India. At\nPanchavati[340], nigh to the sources of the river Godavari, the royal\nexiles built a hut with four rooms, and lived peaceful and pious lives.\nThirteen years and a half went over their heads.\n\n[340] Nasik. About 100 miles from Bombay.\n\nIt came to pass that one day there came to the quiet hermitage a\nRakshasa woman, named Surpa-nakha, the sister of Ravana, the demon King\nof Lanka, Ceylon. She was misshapen and ugly and her voice was harsh\nand unpleasant. When she beheld Rama, who was comely as a lotus, and\nof lofty and loyal bearing, her heart was filled with love for him.\nMade bold with this love, she resolved to assume another form so as to\ninduce him to leave the faithful Sita.... In time she stood before the\nprince in the guise of a young and beautiful woman, and said: \u201cWho art\nthou who hast come hither with thy bride to dwell in this lone jungle\nwhich is haunted by Rakshasas?\u201d\n\n[Illustration: RAMA SPURNS THE DEMON LOVER\n_From the painting by Warwick Goble_\n 8]\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cI am Rama, the elder son of a Maharajah named Dasaratha.\nI dwell here in exile in fulfilment of my sire's vow, with Sita, my\nspouse, and Lakshmana, my brother. Why dost thou, O fair one, who art\nas beautiful as the bride of Vishnu, wander about here all alone?\u201d\n\nSurpa-nakha said: \u201cI am a Rakshasa woman, the sister of Ravana, and\nhave come hither because I love thee. I have chosen thee for my\nhusband, and thou shalt rule over my great empire. Thy Sita is pale and\ndeformed and unworthy of thee, but I am of surpassing beauty and have\npower to assume any form at will. I must devour Sita and thy brother,\nso that we may range the jungle together and visit the lofty hills.\u201d\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cSita is my beloved bride, nor would I leave her. But\nLakshmana hath no consort and is a fit husband for thee.\u201d\n\nSurpa-nakha at once departed from Rama, and went and found Lakshmana,\nwho jested with her.\n\nThen the enraged Rakshasa woman sprang towards Sita in jealous anger,\nbut Rama thrust her back. Like to lightning Lakshmana leapt forward\nwith his sword and cut off the ears and nose of the evil-hearted\nSurpa-nakha, whereat she shrieked and fled away, wailing like to the\nstorm wind. The rocks answered back her awesome cries.\n\nSurpa-nakha hastened to one of her brothers who was named Khara,\nand when he saw her disfigured and bleeding, he cried: \u201cNone but a\nCelestial could have done this deed. This day will I drink the blood of\nIndra as a crane drinks milk and water.\u201d\n\nThen Surpa-nakha related what had taken place, and said: \u201cRama and\nLakshmana attacked me to protect the woman Sita, whose life-blood I\ndesired to drink. I entreat thee to bring her to me now.\u201d\n\nKhara called upon fourteen Rakshasas and commanded them to capture the\nthree royal hermits who dwelt in Dandaka jungle. They hastened away and\nSurpa-nakha went with them, but soon she returned wailing, because Rama\nhad slain the Rakshasas with Celestial arrows.\n\nKhara immediately called upon his brother Dush\u00b4ana, saying: \u201cAssemble\nan army of fourteen thousand Rakshasas, and bring my weapons and my\nchariot with white horses, for, verily, this day I must kill the\nhateful Rama.\u201d\n\nEvil were the omens as the army marched to battle. Jackals howled and\nbirds screamed at dawn; the sky was blood-red, and Rahu endeavoured\nto swallow the sun and caused an awesome eclipse; a headless horror\nappeared in mid air. The arrows of Rama emitted smoke, and he said to\nLakshmana: \u201cHasten with Sita to a secret cave in the mountains and\nprotect her there. I will battle with the demons alone.\u201d\n\nLakshmana did as his brother commanded. Then Rama girt on his glowing\narmour, and, armed with a Celestial bow and many arrows, he awaited\nthe coming of his enemies. When the Rakshasas appeared they quailed\nbefore him, because he appeared like to Yama at a Yuga end, but Khara\ndrove on in his chariot, urging his followers to attack; they followed\nhim roaring like a tempest, and they appeared like to black tremendous\nclouds rushing towards the rising sun.\n\nThousands of weapons were showered against Rama, who began to discharge\nflaming arrows, which swept among the Rakshasas like fire in a\nsun-dried forest, so that many were mangled and slain. Still Khara and\nhis brother continued to attack; but Rama seized a great Celestial\nweapon and slew Dushana and scattered the demon army in flight. Khara\nsought to avenge his brother's death, but Rama drew his bow and shot\na blazing arrow which consumed him instantly. So was the battle won,\nand Sita came forth from the cave and embraced her heroic husband and\nkissed him.\n\nOf all the Rakshasa host only Surpa-nakha escaped alive. She hastened\nto Lanka and informed the ten-headed King Ravana of the death of his\nbrothers, and said: \u201cThou canst not defeat Rama in battle. But he may\nbe overcome by guile. He hath a beautiful spouse, whose name is Sita,\nand she is dearer to him than life. If thou wilt take her captive, Rama\ncan be slain, because he is unable to exist without her.\u201d\n\nSaid Ravana: \u201cI will bring Sita hither in my chariot.\u201d\n\nOn the morrow Ravana and his brother Maricha, whom Rama had aforetime\ndriven far across the ocean with a Celestial weapon, went towards the\nhermitage of the royal exiles in a resplendent chariot which went\nthrough the air like a great bird; it was drawn by asses which had the\nheads of Rakshasas.\n\nMaricha assumed the shape of a golden deer with silvern spots; its\nhorns were tipped with sapphire and its eyes were like to blue lotus\nblooms. This beautiful animal of gentle seeming grazed below the trees\nuntil Sita beheld it with wondering eyes as she came forth to pluck\nwild flowers. She called to Rama, saying: \u201cA deer of wondrous beauty is\nwandering through the grove. I long to rest at ease on its golden skin.\u201d\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cO Lakshmana, I must fulfil the desire of Sita. Tarry with\nher until I obtain this animal for her.\u201d\n\nSo speaking, he lifted his bow and hastened away through the trees.\n\nLakshmana spoke to Sita and said: \u201cMy heart is full of misgiving. Sages\nhave told that Rakshasas are wont to assume the forms of deer. Ofttimes\nhave monarchs been waylaid in the forest by artful demons who came to\nlure them away.\u201d\n\nRama chased the deer a long time hither and thither through the forest,\nand at length he shot an arrow which pierced its heart. In his agony\nMaricha sprang out of the deer's body, and cried out in imitation of\nRama's voice: \u201c_Sita, Sita, save me! O save me, Lakshmana!_\u201d Then\nhe died, and Rama perceived that he had slain the Rakshasa Maricha,\nbrother of Ravana.\n\nSita's heart was filled with alarm when she heard the voice of the\nRakshasa calling in imitation of her husband. She spake to Lakshmana,\nsaying: \u201cHasten and help my Rama; he calls for help.\u201d\n\nSaid Lakshmana: \u201cDo not fear for Rama, O fair one. No Rakshasa can\ninjure him. I must obey his command and remain beside thee. The cry\nthou hast heard is an illusion wrought by demons.\u201d\n\nSita was wroth; her eyes sparkled and her voice shook as she spake,\nsaying: \u201cHath thine heart grown callous? Art thou thy brother's enemy?\nRama is in peril, and yet thou dost not hasten to succour him. Hast\nthou followed him to the forest desiring that he should die, so as to\nobtain his widow by force? If so, thy hope is a delusion, because I\nwill not live one moment after he dies. It is useless, therefore, for\nthee to tarry here.\u201d\n\nSaid Lakshmana, whose eyes were filled with tears: \u201cI do not fear for\nRama.... O Sita! thy words scald me, for thou art as a mother unto me.\nI cannot answer thee. My heart is free from sin.... Alas! that fickle\nwomen with poisonous tongues should endeavour to set brother against\nbrother.\u201d\n\nSita wept, and Lakshmana, repenting that he had spoken harshly, said:\n\u201cI will obey thee and hasten unto Rama. May the spirits of the forest\nprotect thee against hidden enemies. I am troubled because I behold\nevil omens. When I return, may I behold Rama by thy side.\u201d\n\nSaid Sita: \u201cIf Rama is slain I will die by drowning, or by poison, or\nelse by the noose. I cannot live without Rama.\u201d\n\nRavana kept watch the while, and when he saw Lakshmana leaving the\nhermitage, he assumed the guise of a forest sage and went towards\nthe lonely and sad-hearted Sita. The jungle had grown silent. Ravana\nsaw that Sita was beautiful as the solitary moon at midnight when it\nillumines the gloomy forest. He spake, saying: \u201cO woman of golden\nbeauty, O shy one in full bloom, robed in silk and adorned with\nflowers, art thou Sri, or Gauri,[341] or the goddess of love, or a\nnymph of the forest? Red as coral are thy lips; thy teeth shine like to\njasmine; love dwelleth in thine eyes so soft and lustrous. Slender art\nthou and tall, with shapely limbs, and a bosom like to ripe fruit....\nWherefore, O fair one, with long shining tresses, dost thou linger\nhere in the lonesome jungle? More seemly it were if thou didst adorn\na stately palace. Choose thee a royal suitor; be the bride of a king.\nWhat god is thy sire, O beautiful one?\u201d\n\n[341] Names of the wives of Vishnu and Shiva.\n\nSita honoured Ravana, believing that he was a Brahman. She told him\nthe story of Rama's exile, and said: \u201cRest thyself here until the\njungle-ranging brethren return to greet thee.\u201d\n\nThen Ravana said: \u201cNo Brahman am I, but the ruler of the vengeful\nRakshasas. I am Ravana, King of Lanka, dreaded by even the gods. Thy\nbeauty, O fair one, clad in yellow silk, has taken captive my heart. Be\nmy chief queen, O Sita, and five thousand handmaidens will wait upon\nthee. Share mine empire and my fame.\u201d\n\nSaid Sita, whose eyes flashed fiery anger: \u201cKnowest thou Rama, the\ngod-like hero who is ever victorious in strife? I am his wedded wife.\nKnowest thou Rama, the sinless and saintly one, who is strongly armed\nand full of valour and virtue? I am his wedded wife. What madness hath\nprompted thee to woo the wife of so mighty a warrior? I follow Rama\nas a lioness follows a lion. Canst thou, a prowling jackal, hope to\nobtain a lioness? Snatch from the jaws of a lion the calf which it is\ndevouring, touch the fang of a cobra when it seizeth a fallen victim,\nor tear up a mountain by the roots, or seize the sun in heaven before\nthou dost seek to win or capture the wife of Rama, the avenger.\u201d\n\nRavana boasted his prowess, saying: \u201cI have power to slay even Yama.\nI can torture the sun and shoot arrows through the earth. Little dost\nthou know of my glory and my heroism.\u201d\n\nThen he changed his shape and stood up in gigantic demon form with vast\nbody and ten heads and twenty arms.... Seizing Sita, he soared through\nthe air with her as Garuda carries off the queen of serpents; he placed\nher in his chariot and went away swifter than the wind.\n\nThe unseen spirits of the jungle looked on, and they heard the cries\nof Sita as she called in vain for Rama and Lakshmana. Jatayus[342],\nMonarch of Vultures, who lay asleep on a mountain top, heard her and\nawoke; he darted upon Ravana like to the thunderbolt of Indra. A fierce\nbattle was fought in mid air. Jatayus destroyed the chariot and killed\nthe Rakshasa asses, but Ravana took Sita in his arms, and, soaring\nhigher than the Vulture king, disabled him with his sword.\n\n[342] _Pron._ Jata\u00b4yus.\n\nThen Ravana continued his journey towards Lanka, floating in the air.\nAs he passed over the Mountain of Apes, Sita contrived to cast off her\nornaments, and they dropped through the air like falling stars.... The\nfive apes found them and said: \u201cRavana is carrying away some beautiful\nwoman who calls upon Rama and Lakshmana.\u201d\n\nWhen Ravana reached his palace he delivered Sita to a band of Rakshasa\nwomen, commanding them to guard her by day and by night.\n\nLong and loudly did Rama lament when he returned to the forest hut and\nfound that it was empty. He knew that Sita had been carried away, but\nwhither he knew not.\n\n\n\n\nCHAPTER XXVI\n\nRama's Mission Fulfilled\n\n Rama Laments for Sita\u2014The King of Vultures\u2014Story of the\n Demon\u2014Revelation after Death\u2014Rama forms an Alliance with the\n Apes\u2014Slaying of Bali\u2014The Rainy Season\u2014Sita's Life in Lanka\u2014Hanuman\n the Spy\u2014Discovery of Sita\u2014Battle with Giants\u2014Building of Rama's\n Bridge\u2014The Worship of Shiva\u2014Invasion of Lanka\u2014The War with\n Demons\u2014A Serpent Noose\u2014How the Sleeping Giant was Slain\u2014Rama and\n Lakshmana Wounded\u2014Hanuman carries a Mountain to Lanka\u2014Lakshmana\n Slain and Restored to Life\u2014Ravana seeks to kill Sita\u2014The Fall of\n Ravana\u2014Sita's Ordeal of Fire\u2014Rama's Return to Ayodhya\u2014Second Exile\n of Sita\u2014The Horse Sacrifice\u2014Rama's Warlike Sons\u2014Sita Returns to the\n Earth Mother\u2014Ascent of Rama.\n\n\nRama wept for Sita. He searched hither and thither through the forest,\nand called on every mountain and tree and on every bird and every\nbeast, asking whither she had gone. When he found a tattered garland\nwhich his loved one had worn, he swooned with overpowering grief.\n\nThen Lakshmana sprinkled water drops on his face until he revived.\n\u201cAlas! my brother,\u201d he cried, \u201cdo not sorrow thus lest death should\nsnatch thee away.\u201d\n\nSaid Rama: \u201cSita is my heart's love. I cannot live without her. For my\nsake she deserted the royal palace to wander in this fearsome jungle.\nNow that she is gone, the moments seem longer than years.... How can I\nlive on when she is lost to me?\u201d\n\nLakshmana comforted his brother: then they arose together and continued\ntheir vain search.... Rama beheld a beauteous lotus in a clear\nstream, and, blinded with tears, he deemed it was the face of Sita. \u201cO\nhard-hearted one,\u201d he exclaimed, \u201cart thou hiding there among the water\nblooms? Seekest thou to test my love in this manner? Arise and come to\nme, my sweet love, nor doubt me any longer.\u201d\n\nBut the bloom moved not, and Lakshmana led away his grief-distracted\nbrother.\n\n\u201cMayhap she hath returned to the hut now,\u201d Rama cried. Then the\nbrethren hastened to the hermitage, but found it empty as before....\nRama wailed in the moonlight and cried to the orb of night: \u201cO moon!\nmankind welcome thy coolness, but thou dost bring to me naught but\nsorrow and tears.... Thou lookest over the whole world, beholding all\nliving beings. Where, O tell me, where is my beloved one, my lost Sita?\u201d\n\nRama wandered fitfully through the jungle: the moonbeams and the\nshadows fluttered around, and it seemed as if the face of Sita were\npeering from everywhere. So passed a sleepless night, full of mourning\nand illusions.\n\nOn the morrow the brethren went forth again in quest of the lost one.\nThey came to the place where Jatayus lay dying, and that lordly bird\nspake to Rama and related all that had befallen Sita and himself.\n\nRama sat on the ground: he embraced the dying Vulture King, and said\nunto Lakshmana: \u201cAlas! my brother, the noble Jatayus hath given up his\nlife to serve me. I have lost my kingdom and my sire; I have lost Sita,\nand now our ally, the Rajah of Vultures, is dying.... All my friends\nare passing away. If I were to sit in the shade of a tree, the tree\nwould fall; if I stooped to drink water from a river, verily the river\nwould dry up....\u201d\n\nThen he spake to Jatayus, saying: \u201cWhither hath Ravana gone with my\nwell-beloved?\u201d\n\nSaid the Vulture: \u201cHe went southward towards an unknown forest\nfastness.... Alas! my strength fails, mine eyes grow blind, my life is\nebbing from my body.\u201d\n\nWhen he had spoken thus, Jatayus died in Rama's arms, and his soul\nascended to the heaven of Vishnu in a chariot of fire.\n\nThereafter the brethren went towards the south. On their way they met a\nblack demon of monstrous size; his head was in the middle of his body;\nhe had but one eye, and his teeth were numerous and long. Suddenly the\nmisshapen demon stretched out his two great arms, and the brethren\nfought against the arms.\n\nThe demon cried: \u201cWho are ye that dare to combat with me? I welcome ye\nbecause I am an hungered this day, and long to feast on human flesh.\u201d\n\nRama and Lakshmana fought on until they cleft both the great arms that\nwere coiled around them, whereat the monster fell upon the ground. Said\nRama: \u201cWe are Dasaratha's sons, who are exiles in the jungle.\u201d\n\nThen the demon revealed that he was Kabandha, and bade them burn his\nbody, so that he might be bereft of his Rakshasa form and nature;\nthereafter, he promised, he would inform them regarding Sita. The\nbrethren dug a pit and cremated the monster, and from the fire arose\nKabandha, the Gandharva, who had been placed under spells. He spake\nand said: \u201cRavana dwells in the island of Lanka; he is the King of\nRakshasas. If thou wouldst fain overcome him, thou must seek the aid of\nthe ape chief, Sugriva, King of the Vanars, who dwells on Rishyamukha\nmountain.\u201d[343]\n\n[343] Among the Nilgiri mountains.\n\nWhen the brethren went towards this mountain, Hanuman, son of Vayu,\nthe wind god, a counsellor of the Ape King, came forth to meet them. He\nconducted Rama and Lakshmana before Sugriva, to whom they related the\nstory of Sita's abduction.\n\nSaid Sugriva: \u201cSome days past I beheld a woman who was borne aloft in\nthe arms of a flying Rakshasa; she threw down her ornaments, which we\nhave preserved with care.\u201d\n\nThen the ornaments were brought forth, and they were recognized by\nLakshmana, but Rama wept so profusely that he knew not whether he gazed\nupon the jewels of Sita or not.\n\nSugriva, who was the son of Surya, the sun god, desired to aid Rama,\nbut he told that his bride and his kingdom had been taken from him by\nhis half-brother Bali, son of Indra, whom he feared.[344] Then Rama\npromised to slay Bali and restore the kingdom to Sugriva. And as he\npromised so did he do. Sugriva challenged his brother to single combat,\nand Rama discharged an arrow which pierced the heart of the usurper.\nAll the apes rejoiced greatly when the rightful King of the Vanars was\nrestored to his throne.\n\n[344] These apes are the incarnations of the Vedic deities who\nsojourned on earth according to Vishnu's command.\n\nThe rainy season came on soon afterwards, and Rama and Lakshmana went\nto dwell upon the mountain Malyavana, where they found a cave.\n\nSlowly passed the days of waiting. Ofttimes did Rama grieve for\nSita. He was wont to speak to Lakshmana, saying: \u201cDelightful is the\nseason of rain and tempest unto those who dwell in happy homes in the\nmidst of their families; it is a time of sorrow to those who suffer\nseparation.... Behold the great black clouds like to battling elephants\nleaping and rolling in heaven. Thunder roars amidst the mountains. The\nlightnings flash and sparkle; alas! their golden lustre in the darkness\nof night reminds me of my lost Sita.... Now the wind falls and the\nearth is bright with rain tears, and I hear the sighing of Sita as she\nweeps in pain and sorrow.... The rainbow comes forth in beauty like to\nSita arrayed with jewels and ornaments.... Now the earth is refreshed:\ntrees are budding and flowers bloom again in beauty, but I cannot be\nconsoled. Lost is Sita, my dearly beloved; she writhes in the palace of\nthe Rakshasa king as the lightning writhes amidst the black clouds....\nAh! I abandoned my throne and kingdom with joy because Sita was with\nme; now my heart is breaking because she hath been snatched away....\nSee how the shadows gather again; winds roar and rains pour down; as\ndubious is my future, and dark as is this gloomy day of sorrow. Jatayus\nhath told that Sita is concealed in a distant fastness.... How can I be\nconsoled? I mourn not for myself alone, but chiefly because she whom I\nlove sorrows and suffers in a strange land.\u201d\n\nNow, when Sita was dwelling in the palace of the demon king, guarded by\nRakshasa women, Ravana approached her again and again, and addressed\nto her sweet speeches, praising her beauty and endeavouring to win her\nlove. But Sita rejected him with scorn. Although she was his prisoner,\nhe could not win her by force. She was strengthened by her own virtue;\nshe was protected by Brahma's dread decree. Be it known that once\nupon a time the lustful Ravana had seized by force a nymph of Indra's\nheaven, whose name was Punjikashthala. When he committed that evil\noffence, Brahma spake angrily and said that Ravana's head would be\nrent asunder if ever again he attempted to act in like manner towards\nanother female in heaven or upon earth.\n\nSita said unto the demon king: \u201cThou shalt never have me for wife\neither in this world or in the next. Rather would I die than gratify\nthy desire.\u201d\n\nAngry was Ravana, and he commanded the female Rakshasas to convey\nSita to the Asoka grove, believing that her heart would be melted by\nthe beauties of that fair retreat. \u201cThou wilt provide her with fine\nraiment,\u201d he said, \u201cand with rich ornaments and delicious food, thou\nwilt praise me before her, and anon threaten her with dire calamity if\nshe refuseth to become my bride.\u201d\n\nSita remembered Rama in her heart by day and by night, and wept and\nmoaned for him, refusing to be comforted.\n\nWhen the rainy season was drawing to a close, Rama fretted because\nSugriva, King of the Vanars, was making no effort to collect his forces\nand prepare for the recovery of Sita. Instead, he drank wine and spent\nthe days in merriment among his wives. At length Lakshmana visited the\npalace and threatened Sugriva with death, because he had broken his\npromise, whereat the monarch summoned speedily his great armies of apes\nand bears in countless numbers. Four divisions were then sent out to\nthe north and the south, and eastward and westward, to search for Sita.\n\nSuccess attended the efforts of the army commanded by Hanuman. It\nchanced that his officers discovered on a mountain summit Sampati, the\nbrother of Jatayus, King of the Vultures. He was wounded and helpless,\nbecause his wings had been scorched by endeavouring to soar to the sun\nso that he might fulfil a vain boast. Although stricken thus, Sampati\ncould still see clearly over vast distances. He had beheld Ravana\ncarrying away Sita across the ocean towards Lanka. This knowledge he\ncommunicated through his son to Hanuman. When he rendered such great\nservice to Rama his wings began to grow, and he was enabled once again\nto take flight athwart the blue heaven.\n\nHanuman then resolved to visit the distant island with purpose to\ndiscover where Sita had been hidden. Assuming gigantic form, he stood\nupon a mountain top and leapt seaward. The mountain shook when he\nsprang from it. Over the sea went the wind god's son and that swiftly.\nBut demons endeavoured to arrest his progress through the air. Surasa,\nmother of the Nagas, rose up with gaping jaws, and cried: \u201cThou must\nneeds pass through my mouth ere thou wilt go farther, O Hanuman.\u201d\n\nThe heroic Ape extended his bulk, but the Naga hag opened wider and\nwider her jaws to prevent him passing. Then Hanuman shrank to the size\nof a man's thumb, and leapt into her mouth and out of it again and\nagain so as to fulfil her conditions, whereat the hag owned that she\nwas defeated and allowed him to pass.\n\nNext arose the she dragon, Sinhika, who clutched the shadow of Hanuman\nand held him back. Wrathfully she sprang forward to devour him, but\nagain the cunning Ape contracted himself, and entering her mouth,\nattacked her and wounded her so that she was slain.\n\nLeaping from her body, Hanuman resumed his journey until he arrived at\nLanka. Night had fallen but the moon shone brightly. He assumed the\nform of a cat and crept stealthily through the capital, gazing on the\nwonders about him. He reached the great palace of Ravana and entered\ntherein. It had shining crystal floors and jewelled stairways of gold\nand silver. The mansion of Indra was not more beautiful than that\nresplendent palace of the demon king. Hanuman crept on through the\nwomen's chamber, and beheld fair forms \u201csubdued in all the shapes of\nsleep\u201d; beautiful were they as lotus blooms that await the sun's first\nkiss ere they open their soft eyelids, or as the lustrous stars on an\nautumn night gleaming and moving in heaven; it seemed as if a wreath\nof sweet human blossoms had been thrown carelessly into that perfumed\nchamber of sleep.\n\nHanuman wandered on until he reached the Asoka grove. There he beheld\nthe long-lost Sita, the queen of stars. Fierce she demons surrounded\nher, and some were of fearsome shape; they had dogs' heads and pigs'\nheads and the faces of horses and buffaloes; some were of great bulk\nand others were dwarfish; some had but one eye and others had three\neyes; the ears of some hung touching the ground; others that were hairy\nwere the most horrible to behold.\n\nWhen morning came Ravana drew nigh to plead his love, praising the\nbeauty of Sita, but she rejected him, as she had ofttimes done before,\nwhereat the demon grew angry and threatened her with dire tortures and\neven death.... Sita was like to a gentle fawn surrounded by wolves. Yet\nshe was without fear. Rather would she perish than be unfaithful to\nRama.\n\nHanuman kept watch, crouching in the branches of a tree, and at length\nhe found it possible to approach her in secret. At first she feared\nthat Ravana had assumed the form of Hanuman to deceive her, but she was\nreassured when the Vanar spy showed her the ring of Rama, and related\nhow greatly he sorrowed because she had been taken from him. Then was\nher heart touched with sorrow mingled with joy. Hanuman offered to\ncarry her away, but in her modesty she refused to touch the body of any\nmale being save Rama. She took from her hair a bright jewel which she\ngave to Hanuman as a token; and she said that Ravana had allowed her\nbut two months to live if she refused to yield to him.\n\nHanuman desired, ere he left the city of Ravana, to show his enmity\nagainst the demons. Assuming his gigantic form, he uprooted trees and\ndestroyed fair mansions. The guards came out against him and he slew\nmany of them. But, at length, the mighty Indrajit, son of Ravana,\nhastened forth and shot a magic serpent-shaft which enwrapped Hanuman\nlike a noose, and rendered him helpless. Thus was he taken prisoner,\nand he was dragged before Ravana, who commanded that the Ape be put to\ndeath. But a counsellor intervened and advised that Hanuman should be\nregarded as an envoy, and treated with dishonour ere he was sent back,\nso that their enemies might be terrified. Ravana consented to this\ncourse, and an oil-soaked cloth was tied round the Ape's great tail and\nset on fire. But Sita prayed that the fire should not injure Hanuman,\nand her prayer was heard. The son of Vayu suddenly contracted his body\nso that his bonds fell from him, and he leapt over the city, setting\nfire with his flaming tail to many mansions, and so accomplishing great\ndestruction. Then he obtained another brief interview with Sita, and\nonce again leapt over the ocean; he hastened with the good tidings of\nhis journey to Rama, who rejoiced greatly that his loved one had been\nfound.\n\nPreparations were at once begun to rescue Sita. The Vanar armies were\nmarched southward, and they camped on the shore over against Lanka,\nwhich lies sixty miles from the mainland. Here they were joined by a\nnew and powerful ally.\n\nBe it known that the mighty deeds of Hanuman had stricken terror to the\nheart of Ravana. The demon king summoned a council of war to consider\nwhat should be done. All his warriors advised him to wage war, except\nBibhishana, his younger brother, who censured the monarch for the\noffence which he had committed against blameless Rama. \u201cHear my words,\u201d\nhe said, \u201cand restore Sita to her rightful lord, or else Rama will\nswoop down upon thy kingdom, O Ravana, as a falcon who seizeth his\nprey. Make peace with him now, lest many perish in battle.\u201d\n\nRavana was made angry, and cried: \u201cAlas! for the love of my near\nrelatives, who sorrow at my fame and smile at my peril; they are\never jealous and full of guile, because they hate me in their secret\nhearts.... Evil is thy speech, O Bibishana. Depart from me, false\nprince, and carry thy treason to our enemies.... If thou wert not my\nbrother I would slay thee even now.\u201d\n\nBibhishana was thus banished from the Rakshasa kingdom, and he\nimmediately crossed the sea and joined the forces of Rama.\n\nRama performed sacrifices to propitiate the God of Ocean, so that\nthe Vanar forces might be enabled to pass over to Lanka, but these\nproved to be unavailing. Then angrily he seized his bow and shot\nCelestial weapons into the bosom of the deep. The earth and the sea\nwere immediately convulsed, and darkness covered the heavens; lightning\nflashed and thunder bellowed aloud; the mountains began to break in\npieces. Rama next seized a fiery dart and threatened to dry up the\nwaters of the sea.\n\nAt that moment the King of Ocean rose serenely above the weltering\nbillows in all his splendour, attended by shining water snakes. He\naddressed Rama with great reverence, reminding him that according to\nancient laws he must remain unfordable, but counselling him the while\nto seek the aid of the Vanar chief Nala, son of Vishwakarma, the divine\nartisan, so that a bridge might be constructed to enable the armies to\ncross the deep. Then the King of Ocean vanished amidst the waves and\nthe heavens brightened again.\n\nNala was immediately called upon to give his aid. Assisted by his\nworkmen, this wonderful Vanar, whose body was green, constructed a\ncauseway of rocky islands between the mainland and Lanka (Ceylon), and\nto this day it is called \u201cRama's Bridge\u201d.[345]\n\n[345] Also \u201cAdam's Bridge\u201d. The green Celtic fairies are similarly\ncredited with making island chains and long jutting promontories which\nstretch out from opposite shores of arms of the sea.\n\nRama meanwhile set up the Linga symbol of the god Shiva, and worshipped\nit on that holy island which hath since been called Ramisseram.\n\nIn five days the strait was spanned. Then Rama mounted on the back of\nHanuman, son of the wind god Vayu, and Lakshmana mounted the back of\nAngada, son of Bali and grandson of Indra, and led the Vanar hosts\nacross the sea. The apes and bears which composed the great attacking\narmy leapt from island to island, shouting: \u201cVictory to Rama!\u201d \u201cVictory\nto Lakshmana!\u201d \u201cVictory to Sugriva!\u201d Now the apes were of many colours;\nthey were white and black, green and blue, yellow and red and brown.\nSugriva shone like silver, Angada resembled a white lotus; Nila, son of\nAgni, was red, and Hanuman was yellow as pure gold; Sarambha had also\na yellow body, and Nala was green, while Darvindha had a black body, a\nred face, and a yellow tail. These were all leaders and great warriors\nof the Vanar host.\n\nThe army landed in Lanka unopposed, and encamped on a plain fronting\nthe capital of the Rakshasa king.\n\nThe Rakshasas issued forth speedily to attack the apes, and the blowing\nof horns and beating of drums sounded like to the mighty thunder peals\nat a Yuga end. Indrajit was the Rakshasa leader. His followers rode\non elephants and lions, on camels and asses, on hogs and hyenas,\nand on wolves; they were armed with bows and arrows, maces, spears,\ntridents, swords, and beams, but some had also magic weapons. Roaring\nand swaying, they drove forward like to long sea-rollers assaulting the\nshore.\n\nThe gigantic apes wielded trees for clubs and threw great boulders, but\nsome depended on their sword-like nails and their long arrowy teeth.\nThey rushed against the demons, shouting \u201cRama, Rama!\u201d and soon the\nplain was covered by heaps of writhing bodies and severed limbs, while\nrivers of blood streamed across it from between the battling hosts.\nRama looked on without fear. He reposed his faith on the apes, for he\nknew that they were incarnations of the gods.\n\nThe apes were driven back until Sugriva flung a great tree, which\nshattered the chariot of Indrajit. Then the Rakshasa leader and his\narmy took flight.\n\nIndrajit obtained a new chariot by offering up in sacrifice a black\ngoat, and returning to the battlefield with his forces he shot arrows\nat Rama and Lakshmana. Then he threw a serpent noose, which bound\nthe two brothers so that they were unable to move. Great was their\nperil, but Vayu, god of wind, sent to their aid the great Celestial\nbird Garuda, the serpent killer, and the snakes which formed the noose\nfled from before it, whereat the brethren, who had meantime fallen in\na swoon, rose up again. Ravana then came forth, but Rama shot arrows\nwhich swept the ten crowns from his ten heads, and he retired in his\nshame and skulked in the city.\n\nThe Rakshasas were in desperate straits and bethought them to awaken\nKumbha-karna, the mightiest of all the demons. In former days he had\nterrorized the Universe; he continually devoured human beings, and had\ndefeated Indra even, but Brahma intervened and decreed that he would\nsleep for six months and then awaken for one day only. Each time he\nawoke he devoured a great meal, after which he was again overpowered by\nslumber.\n\nThousands of men danced and shouted and blew trumpets beside the great\nsleeper, but he could not be wakened; elephants were driven over his\nbody, yet he never moved; then beautiful women came and caressed him,\nand he suddenly opened his eyes and roared like to the sea. His eyes\nwere red with anger, and he cried: \u201cWhy have I been awakened before my\ntime?\u201d\n\nThe Rakshasas informed Kumbha-karna of the army which surrounded the\ncity, and they brought him much food; greedily he swallowed swine and\ndeer and many human beings and drank rivers of wine. Refreshed, but not\nyet satisfied, he arose and said: \u201cWhere are the apes so that I may\ndevour them?\u201d\n\nHe mounted his chariot and went forth to battle. The apes trembled to\nbehold him and fled panic-stricken.... Sugriva rallied them quickly,\nand then they began to fling trees and boulders, but these were all\nsplintered to pieces on the limbs of the giant. He defeated Hanuman,\nand seized Sugriva and carried him off in his chariot. Thousands of\napes were devoured by the mighty Rakshasa.\n\nAt length Kumbha-karna went against Rama and a fierce conflict ensued,\nbut in the end Rama discharged flaming arrows and severed his head from\nhis body. The monster staggered backward and fell into the ocean, and\ngreat billows arose and tossed angrily in the midst of the swollen deep.\n\nIndrajit thereafter offered up another sacrifice and secured fresh\nweapons. Rendering himself invisible, he rose high in the air and\nshowered arrows like rain until Rama and Lakshmana, who were\ngrievously wounded, fell down and pretended to be dead.\n\nWhen darkness came on, Hanuman and Bibhishana surveyed the battlefield\nwith torches and found that many apes had been wounded and slain.\nGreat was their sorrow, but Sushena, the ape physician, bade Hanuman\nto hasten to a certain Himalayan mountain to obtain healing herbs.\nThe wind god's son assumed tremendous bulk, and, leaping aloft, went\nspeedily through the air until he reached the place where the herbs\ngrew. He searched for them in vain; then he tore up the mountain,\nand carrying it in his hand returned again to the battlefield. The\nphysician soon discovered the herbs; then he gave healing to Rama and\nLakshmana and the wounded apes, who rose up at once ready and eager to\nfight as before. Hanuman returned with the mountain and restored it to\nits place.\n\nWhen the sun rose, Ravana sent forth young heroes to battle against the\napes and bears, but they were all slain. Then Indrajit came to avenge\nthe fallen, but Lakshmana drew his bow and shot an arrow which Indra\nhad given to him. Unerring was his aim, and Indrajit was struck down;\nhis body rolled headless upon the plain.\n\nRavana lamented for the death of his son, crying: \u201cHe was the mightiest\nof my heroes and the dearest to my heart. All the gods feared him, yet\nby a mortal was he laid low.... O my son, thy widow wails for thee\nand thy mother weeps in sore distress. Fondly I deemed that when the\nfrailties of old age afflicted me thou wouldst close mine eyelids in\ndeath, but youth is taken first and I am left alone to battle against\nmine enemies.\u201d\n\nFor a time the mighty demon wept; then he arose in wrath to wreak\nvengeance. First of all he hastened towards the Asoka grove to slay\nSita. But the Rakshasa dames concealed the wife of Rama, and prevailed\nupon Ravana not to pollute his fame by slaying a woman. One cried to\nhim: \u201cAuspicious is the last day of the waning moon. The hour of thy\nvengeance is nigh. Turn thee towards the battlefield and great glory\nwill be thine.\u201d\n\nRavana went gloomily away; he mounted his chariot to battle against his\nenemies, remembering those who had already fallen. Followed by a great\narmy, he swept from the city like to a tempest cloud which darkens the\nsummer heaven. He beheld his brother Bibhishana fighting for Rama, and\nangrily cast at him a great weapon, but Lakshmana flung a javelin which\nshattered it in flight. Ravana smiled grimly and shouted to Lakshmana:\n\u201cSlayer of my son, I welcome thee! Thou hast protected Bibhishana; now\nprotect, if thou canst, thine own self.\u201d\n\nHaving spoken thus he flung a great dart, which pierced the heart of\nLakshmana and pinned him to the earth.\n\nRama stooped over the fallen hero and cried: \u201cAlas! art thou fallen,\nmy gallant brother? Thy weapons have dropped from thy hands; death\nclaims thee, but, O Lakshmana, thou wilt not die alone. I am weary of\nbattle and of glory, and when my task is ended, I will follow in thy\nfootsteps.... The love of wife or friend is easily won, but the love of\na faithful brother, equal to thine, is rarely found in this world of\nillusions.... Dearest of brothers, greatest of heroes, wilt thou never\nawaken from thy deathly swoon or open again thine eyes to behold me?...\nAlas! the lips of Lakshmana are silent and his ears are stopped.\u201d\n\nIn the darkness of night Hanuman again hastened northward in speedy\nflight to obtain the mountain which he had aforetime carried to Lanka.\nThe physician found upon it the healing herbs; he pounded them and\nmade a paste which he placed under the nostrils of the unconscious\nwarrior. Then Lakshmana rose up again healed and hale and powerful.\nRama rejoiced greatly, and turned against his foes.... A night attack\nwas made upon the Rakshasa capital, and the Apes intercepted a\nsacrifice which Ravana sought to offer up to the gods so as to compel\ntheir aid; many fair mansions were given to the flames.\n\nWhen day came Ravana went forth to battle. Surpa-nakha, his sister\nwho had caused the war, stood in his way, and he thrust her aside\nimpatiently, whereat she cursed him, saying: \u201cFor this thou wilt never\nagain return to the city.\u201d\n\nRavana drove on in battle fury, his heart filled with hatred for his\nfoes and with sorrow for the fallen. Rama went against him in the\nchariot of Indra, and for a time a dubious conflict was waged. The\nearth trembled and the ocean shook with fear.\n\nSuddenly Rama darted forward. He drew his bow and shot a swift arrow,\nwhich smote off one of Ravana's ten heads, but immediately another\nappeared in its place.[346] Then the hero seized the flaming weapon\nwhich Brahma had created for the protection of the gods; with unerring\naim he discharged it in flaming splendour; it struck the demon; it\ncleft in twain his heart of iron. Roaring in his fierce agony Ravana\nfell ponderously upon the plain and immediately expired. So was the\nenemy of gods and men put to death by peerless Rama.\n\n[346] Like Hydra against which Hercules fought.\n\nCelestial music was heard in heaven and flowers fell upon the plain of\nvictory: a voice came down the wind, saying: \u201c_O victor of truth and\nrighteousness, thy task is now ended._\u201d\n\nThe Rakshasa hosts broke in flight when Ravana fell, and Rama entered\nthe city in triumph. Bibhishana burned the body of his fallen brother,\nand performed the funeral rites. Thereafter he was proclaimed King of\nLanka.\n\nWhen peace was restored, Rama commanded that Sita should be brought\nforth. She was carried towards the plain concealed in a litter, and\nall the Apes gathered round to behold her, whereat Rama requested her\nto alight and walk towards him, and she did so. With folded hands she\napproached her husband and knelt at his feet, weeping tears of joy.\n\nClouded was the brow of Rama; he spoke sternly, and said: \u201cMine enemies\nare slain, and thou art delivered from captivity, O Sita; but now that\nmy shame is removed I have no desire to behold thee. I cannot receive\nthee as my wife, because that thou hast dwelt in the house of Ravana.\u201d\n\nSaid Sita: \u201cChaste and innocent have I remained.... O Rama, if thou\nhadst informed me of thy doubt, I would have died ere now. Better is\ndeath than thy dark suspicion.\u201d\n\nAddressing Lakshmana, she then said: \u201cBuild for me a funeral pyre so\nthat I may end my grief amidst the flames.\u201d\n\nAs she desired so did the brother of Rama do. He built the pyre and set\nit alight. Then Sita invoked Agni:\n\n If in act and thought, she uttered, I am true unto my name,\n Witness of our sins and virtues, may this fire protect my fame!\n\n If a false and lying scandal brings a faithful woman shame,\n Witness of our sins and virtues, may this fire protect my fame!\n\n If in lifelong loving duty I am free from sin and blame,\n Witness of our sins and virtues, may this fire protect my fame!\n\n _R. C. Dutt's trans._\n\n[Illustration: THE CORONATION OF RAMA AND SITA\n 32]\n\nFearlessly she then leapt amidst the flames and vanished, while all\nlamented around her. Rama cried: \u201cThis day have I sinned, because she\nis innocent.\u201d\n\nIn that hour a great wonder was wrought. Suddenly the Deva-rishis and\nGandharvas and the gods appeared in the air. At the same time the red\nflames of the mighty pyre were divided, and the god Agni came forth\nwith Sita, whom he delivered to Rama, saying: \u201c_Receive thy wife who is\nwithout sin or shame._\u201d\n\nRama embraced Sita, and said: \u201cI have never doubted her virtue; she is\nwithout sin, and now her purity has been proved before all men.\u201d\n\nHe wept, and Sita hid her face in his bosom and soft embrace.\n\nThe exile of Rama was now ended, and he returned speedily in the car of\nIndra to Ayodhya, with Sita and Lakshmana and Hanuman.\n\nBharata welcomed his elder brother, and laid the sandals at his feet,\nsaying: \u201cThese are the symbols of thy rule, O Rama; I have guarded the\nthrone for thee. Now take thy crown and govern thy kingdom. I give thee\nback thine own.\u201d\n\nRama was crowned on the morrow amidst the rejoicings of the people, and\nprosperity returned once again to the kingdom.\n\nTime went past, but the sorrows of Sita were not ended. The people\nwhispered against the fair queen, doubting her virtue, because that she\nhad been taken away by Ravana, and they wondered Rama had received her\nback. At length her husband, yielding to the wishes of his subjects,\nbanished the innocent queen from the kingdom. The faithful Lakshmana\nconducted her towards the southern jungles, and abandoned her nigh to\nthe hermitage of Valmiki, counselling her with tears to take refuge\nwith the saintly poet.\n\nValmiki received her with pity, and soon afterwards she gave birth to\ntwo sons, who were named Lava and Kusa.\n\nSixteen years went past, and Rama's mind was troubled because that\nhe had slain Ravana, who was the son of Pulastya, the Rishi. So he\nresolved to perform the Aswamedha (horse sacrifice) to cleanse his soul\nof sin.\n\nThe horse was sent forth to wander through the land, and when it\napproached the hermitage of Valmiki, Lava and Kusa, the sons of Rama\nand Sita, took possession of it. They defeated the royal army and\nwounded Satrughna. Lakshmana hastened forth with another army, but he\nwas also grievously wounded and defeated by the young heroes. Then Rama\nhimself went southward to wage war and recapture the horse. When his\nsons came forth against him, Rama wondered to find that they were so\nlike to himself in countenance and bearing; his heart was filled with\ntenderness, and he asked them: \u201cWhose children are you?\u201d\n\nLava and Kusa greeted him with reverence, and said: \u201cSita is our\nmother, but we know not the name of our sire.\u201d\n\nThen Rama perceived that the lads were his own sons.... Valmiki, the\nsage, came towards him, and Rama said: \u201cThe people spoke evil things\nagainst Sita, and it was necessary to prove her innocence. Now let her\nbe taken into my presence, for I know that these noble children are\nmine.\u201d\n\nValmiki returned to Sita and asked her to go with him before Rama,\nbut for a time she refused to do so. The sage pleaded with her, and at\nlength she walked forth from the hermitage with downcast eyes and hands\nuplifted. In the presence of Rama and the people she then invoked the\nEarth, and cried:\n\n If unstained in thought and action I have lived from day of birth,\n Spare a daughter's shame and anguish and receive her, Mother Earth!\n\n If in duty and devotion I have laboured undefiled,\n Mother Earth! who bore this woman, once again receive thy child!\n\n If in truth unto my husband I have proved a faithful wife,\n Mother Earth! relieve thy Sita from the burden of this life!\n\n _R. C. Dutt's trans._\n\nWhen she had spoken thus, all who heard her wept and sorrowed. And\nwhile they gazed upon her with pity and tenderness, the earth suddenly\nyawned, and from its depths arose a golden throne sparkling with gems\nand supported by four great serpents, as a rose is supported by green\nleaves. Then the Earth Mother appeared and hailed Sita with loving\nwords, and led her to the throne, on which she seated herself beside\nher sinless daughter, the faithful and undefiled wife of Rama.... The\nthrone thereafter vanished and the earth closed over it.\n\nSo passed Sita from before the eyes of all mankind. Rama flung himself\nupon the ground in an agony of sorrow. But Brahma appeared and spake to\nhim, saying: \u201cWhy dost thou despair, O Lord of all? Well thou knowest\nthat life is but a dream, a bubble of water....\u201d\n\nRama, however, even after the Aswamedha had been performed, continued\nto mourn until the Celestial bird Garuda came for him: then he\nascended to heaven, as Vishnu, and found Sita, who was the goddess\nLakshmi, the incomparable Sri.\n\nSo endeth the story of Rama, whose fame can never die.\n\n\n\n\nINDEX\n\n Vowel Sounds.\u2014_\u0103_, almost like _u_ in _fur_; _ai_, like _i_ in\n _high_; _\u00e4_, as in _palm_; _e_, like _a_ in _late_; _\u00ef_, as _e_ in\n _he_; _\u00f6_, as in _shore_; _\u00fc_, as in _pull_; _u_, as in _sun_.\n\n\n Abhimanyu (\u0103b-hi-mun\u00b4yoo), son of Arjuna and Subhadra, 228;\n marries Uttara, Princess of Virata, 269;\n in great war, 286 _et seq._;\n fall of, 298, 299;\n in vision of the dead warriors, 320, 321;\n in Paradise of Indra, 327.\n\n Achaens (a-k\u0113\u00b4ans), burial rites of, xxxvi;\n as pork eaters, 136.\n\n Achilles (a-k\u0113l-es), contrasted with Indian hero, xlviii, 17.\n\n A\u00b4dad, the \u201chammer god\u201d, 3.\n\n \u201cAdam's Bridge\u201d, apes construct for Rama, 418.\n\n Aditi (\u0103-dee-tee), mother of the Adityas, 32, 58, 148.\n\n Adityas (\u00e4-deet\u00b4yas), early group of deities, 28;\n Mitra and, 29, 30, 32;\n Surya and, 33;\n sustained by soma, 36;\n in Varuna's heaven, 58, 59, 148.\n\n Africa, Garden of Eden in, xxiv.\n\n Afro-Eurasian languages and peoples, xxiv.\n\n Afro-European languages, xxiv.\n\n Ages (Historical), Vedic, Brahmanical Buddhist, Brahmanical Revival,\n 119.\n\n Ages of the universe (Yugas), doctrine of and relation to castes, xxv,\n xliii;\n in Indian, Greek, and Irish mythologies, xliv;\n traces of in Egyptian mythology, xliv;\n Indra-Vritra conflict in Krita age, 7 _et seq._\n See _World's Ages_.\n\n Agni (\u0103g\u00b4nee), god of fire, in Vedic age, xxxi;\n tribal worship of, xxxii;\n messenger between gods and men, xxxiii;\n the Teutonic Heimdal and, xlv, 20, 21, 22;\n Brihaspati and, 10;\n harvest-offerings to, 14;\n as winner of god's race, 14, 15;\n as Indra's brother and as Brahma, 19;\n myths regarding origin of, 20 _et seq._;\n identified with Mitra, 22, 28;\n as sire of three human sons, 22;\n worshipper of like Martin Elginbrodde, 23, 24;\n as ministrant of sacrifice, 23;\n Indra's attributes absorbed by, 24;\n rain god and, 26;\n supplants Varuna in Indra's service, 28, 29;\n not a Mitanni god, 31;\n in Nala story, 31;\n in rival group of deities, 32;\n \u201csun has nature of\u201d, 36;\n vows before a fire, 37;\n as \u201cvital spark\u201d, 37;\n why worshippers of burned their dead, 38, 39, 116;\n non-Babylonian character of, 41;\n as enemy of demons of disease, 67;\n Vishnu as a phase of, 122, 123;\n subject to Brahma, 134;\n Shiva absorbed attributes of, 148;\n as father of Kartikeya, 152;\n cursed by Daksha, the rishi, 154;\n \u201cof the Bharatas\u201d, 155;\n as a suitor of Damayanti, 332 _et seq._;\n appears at ordeal of Sita, 425.\n\n Agriculture, early Aryo-Indians had knowledge of, 76, 77.\n\n Ahi (\u0103\u00b4hee), the demon, \u201cthe confiner\u201d, 66.\n\n Ahura (\u0103\u00b4h\u00fcr\u00b4\u0103), signifies god in Persian.\n\n Ah\u00fcr\u00b4a-Maz\u00b4da (Ormuzd), supreme Persian deity, xxxiii, 62.\n\n Ainus of Japan, xxvii.\n\n Airavata (ai\u00b4ra-v\u00e4t-a), Indra's elephant, 18;\n origin of, 144.\n\n \u201cAir of Life\u201d, Indra source of, 19;\n spirit as, 37.\n\n Akhenaton (a-khen-\u00e4\u00b4ton), Mitanni Aryans and, xxx.\n\n Ale, the \u201csura\u201d of the early Aryo-Indians, 77.\n\n Algebra, the gift of ritualistic Brahmans, 83.\n\n Allabad. See _Varanavartha_.\n\n \u201cAll-tamer\u201d, King Bharata as, 161.\n\n Alphabetic signs, introduced by Semites, 78.\n\n Alpine race, identified with Celts, xxii;\n an inconclusive theory, xxiii;\n distribution of, xxvii;\n Turki and Ugrians, xxix;\n Patriarchal customs of, xxxi;\n identified with Celts, xxxv.\n\n Amazons, Arjuna's experiences with, 313.\n\n Amba (\u00e4m\u00b4ba), Princess, captured by Bhishma, 170;\n rejected by Rajah of Sanva, 170, 171;\n her revenge, 171 _n._;\n Sikhandin, incarnation of, helps to slay Bhishma, 295.\n\n Ambrosia, Amrita as, 36;\n in Teutonic and Indian mythologies, 142 _et seq._\n See _Amrita_.\n\n Amenhotep (a-men-h\u014d\u00b4tep) the Magnificent, Mitanni Aryans and, xxx.\n\n Amrita (\u0103m\u00b4r\u00efta), soma as, 36;\n the Indian Ambrosia, 142;\n in \u201cChurning of the Ocean\u201d myth, 143 _et seq._;\n Garuda captures, 145, 146.\n\n Amvika (\u0103m\u00b4vik\u0103), the goddess, sister of Rudra, 150.\n\n Ananta (\u0103n\u00b4anta), the serpent, 143.\n\n Ancestors, worship of, 61;\n the \u201cfathers\u201d and patriarchs, 102.\n See _Pitris_.\n\n Andhaka (\u0103n\u00b4dh\u0103k-\u0103) (Darkness), the Asura, 151.\n\n Anglo-Saxons, Pope Gregory on pagan practices of, 135.\n\n Animals, domesticated, charms to protect, 86.\n\n Antaka (\u0103n\u00b4tak-a), \u201clife-ender\u201d, Yama is, 42.\n\n Apes, Solomon got from India, 84.\n\n Apes, demi-gods, Hanuman and Bhima meet, 106 _et seq._;\n why gods assumed forms of, 377;\n Sita drops jewels on Mountain of, 407;\n Rama and Lakshmana in kingdom of, 410;\n Rama slays Bali for Sugriva, 411, 412, 413;\n invasion of Ceylon, 418;\n colours of the chief, 418;\n battles of with Rakshasas, 419 _et seq._;\n the ordeal of Sita, 424, 425.\n\n Apsaras (\u0103p\u00b4s\u0103r\u00e4s) or Apsarasas, Menaka one of the, 43;\n temptation of Vishwamitra, 159, 160;\n in Indra's heaven, 58;\n in Kuvera's heaven, 59;\n Indian fairies, 68;\n dancers and lovers, 69;\n sun maiden contrasted with, 71;\n origin of in \u201cSea of Milk\u201d, 144;\n Urvasa woos and curses Arjuna, 256;\n at horse sacrifice, 316.\n\n Apsaras, the water nymph, 69.\n\n _\u0102ran\u00b4y\u00e4kas_, the \u201cforest books\u201d, 88.\n\n Aran\u00b4y\u00e4ni, the forest nymph, 74, 75.\n\n Arch\u00e6ological Ages, xxxv.\n\n Arjuna (\u0103r\u00b4joo-na or arjoo\u00b4na), xlviii;\n Indra's affection for, 17;\n wooed by Apsara in Indra's heaven, 69;\n Gandharva's story told to, 71;\n \u201cDivine Song\u201d repeated by Krishna to, 125 _et seq._;\n story of wrestling of with Shiva, 146 _et seq._;\n son of Queen Pritha and Indra, 176;\n his feats of skill at the tournament, 188;\n Karna rivals, 189, 190;\n challenged to single combat, 190, 191 _et seq._;\n in battle against Drupada, 195, 196;\n the first exile, 198 _et seq._;\n wins Draupadi at swayamvara, 216, 217;\n drives back Karna, 218, 219;\n his exile from Indra-prastha, 225;\n the serpent nymph Ulupi and birth of Iravat, 226;\n marries princess of Manipur and birth of Chitr\u00e1ngad\u00e1, 226;\n wooing of Subhadra, sister of Krishna, 227, 228;\n expedition against Jarasandha, 229-31;\n at gambling match, 238 _et seq._;\n penance performed by, 255;\n wrestles with the god Shiva, 255, 256;\n spirit of celestial weapon appears before, 256;\n in Indra's heaven, 256;\n expedition against Danavas and Daityas, 256, 257, 258;\n rescues Duryodhana from Gandharva, 259;\n Karna vows to slay, 261;\n temporary death of, 263 _et seq._;\n as dancing and music teacher in Virata, 266;\n defeats Kauravas at Virata, 268;\n son of marries Uttara, 269;\n secures Krishna as an ally, 273;\n great war begins, 280 _et seq._;\n armed with celestial bow, 286;\n Krishna's instruction to, 287, 288;\n feats of in great war, 290 _et seq._;\n the fall of Bhishma, 295, 296;\n sorrow for Abhimanyu, 299;\n miracle on battlefield, 300;\n fights with and slays Karna, 303-5;\n performs funeral rites for Karna, 312;\n accompanies horse to be sacrificed after \u201cgreat war\u201d, 313;\n meets with Amazons, 314;\n horse becomes mare, then lion, 314;\n father and son combat, 314;\n slain by son and restored to life, 315;\n sacrifice performed, 316 _et seq._;\n rescues women from Dwaraka, 323;\n journey of towards Paradise, 324 _et seq._\n\n Arjuna's sons. See _Abhimanyu_, _Babhru-v\u00e1hana_, _Chitr\u00e1ngad\u00e1_,\n _Iravat_.\n\n Ark, Manu's, in \u201cStory of the Deluge\u201d, 140 _et seq._\n\n Armenians, Kurds contrasted with, xxii, xxvii.\n\n Arnold, Professor E. V., on Mitra and Varuna, 28, 29, 39 _n._, 41.\n\n Arrowsmith's translations of hymns, 16;\n rain-charm hymn, 37.\n\n Artisan, the world, Indra as, 10.\n\n Artisan god of Babylon, 12.\n\n Artisans, referred to in Vedic hymns, 77.\n\n Artisans (Divine), the Ribhus as, 10;\n Egyptian Khnumu and Germanic elves as, 11.\n\n Artisans of nature. See _Twashtri_ and _Ribhus_.\n\n Arya, a racial designation, xx.\n\n Aryaman (\u00e4r\u00b4ya-man), associated with Mitra and Varuna, 28.\n\n Aryan problem, history of, xviii;\n the language links, xix;\n Vedic Period problem, xx;\n the racial cradle, xxi _et seq._;\n \u201cbroad heads\u201d and \u201clong heads\u201d, xxii, xxvi;\n Max M\u00fcller's views, xxiii, xxiv;\n African origin of mankind, xxiv;\n racial type to-day, xxv;\n Mediterranean or \u201cBrown race\u201d theory, xxvii, xxxix;\n Turki tribes among, xxix;\n father and mother deities, xxxi;\n the \u201cAryans\u201d of arch\u00e6ology, xxxv;\n the cremating people invade Europe, xxxv;\n as military aristocracies, xxxvi;\n the Palestine evidence, xxxvii;\n philological theories narrow regarding, xxxviii;\n influence of disease on race types, xli;\n Vedic and post-Vedic modes of thought, xlv;\n in Vedic Age recognize \u201cfather right\u201d, xxx;\n conquest of Babylon, 3;\n late doctrines of transmigration and the world's ages, 103;\n invasion of the \u201cMiddle Country\u201d by Kurus, Panchalas, and Bharatas,\n 155.\n\n Aryan tribes, sects among, 103;\n Epic wars of, 156.\n\n Aryans, Hindus and, xvii;\n early influence, racial and cultural, xviii;\n late invasions of India by, xxxix;\n enter Punjab, 1;\n cattle lifters like Gauls and Scottish Highlanders, 4, 15;\n nature and ancestor worship among early, 61;\n folk movements from the Punjab, 76;\n rise of caste system, 79;\n seaward migrations of, 83.\n\n Aryas, Max M\u00fcller's definition of, xxiii _et seq._\n\n Asceticism, god of, Shiva as, 146.\n\n \u00c4shur, Assyrian god, the Asura theory, 62.\n\n \u0102sh\u00b4wa-m_e_d\u00b4\u00b4h\u0103 (horse sacrifice), 88.\n See _Horse Sacrifice_.\n\n Ashwattaman (\u0103sh-wat-th\u0103\u00b4m\u00e4n), son of Drona, a worshipper of Shiva,\n 147, 180;\n at the tournament, 185 _et seq._;\n sorrow of for father's death, 302;\n night-slaughter in Pandava camp, 307-9;\n great jewel of seized, 311.\n\n Asia Minor as Aryan racial cradle, xix;\n Aryan gods in, xxxi, 62;\n theory that Kassites came from, 155.\n\n Asoka tree (\u0103-sok\u00b4a), the holy, addressed by Damayanti, 348, 349.\n\n Ass, Creator assumes form of, 95;\n early Aryans had the, 76;\n the goddess Shitala rides on, 153;\n Rakshasas ride the in battle, 419.\n\n \u201cAss of the East\u201d, domesticated horse called, xxix, 156.\n\n Assur-banipal (ashur-b\u00e4n\u00b4ipal) of Assyria, 3.\n\n Assyrians, xxix;\n Mitanni Aryans overlords of, xxx, 31, 62;\n Mitra as a rain god of, 30;\n influence of on mythology of Persians, 62;\n souls as birds, 75.\n\n Asura, the Buffalo, Durga slayer of the, 265, 266.\n\n Asura (\u0103-shoo\u00b4ra) Andhaka (Darkness), the, 151.\n\n \u201cAsura fire\u201d, like world-fire in Teutonic mythology, 65.\n\n Asuras, first gods, then non-gods, 61;\n Ahuras signifies gods in Persian language, 62;\n Varuna as one of the, 62;\n enemies of the gods in epics, 63, 64;\n Kesin as leader of and conflict with Indra, 64;\n Daityas and Danavas as, 64, 65;\n Rakshasas as, 66;\n priests enable Indra to overcome, 84;\n in horse-sacrifice myth, 94;\n created by Prajapati, 101;\n Vishnu wins the universe from, 123;\n Manu as creator of, 141;\n Shiva dances on one of the, 147, 148;\n Vaka, king of, slain by Bhima, 207, 208, 209.\n\n Aswapati (ash\u00b4wa-p\u00e4t\u00ef), King of Madra, the princess Savitri a daughter\n of, 45.\n\n \u00c4\u00b4swins, twin gods of morning, 32;\n Babylonian aspect of, 41;\n Saranyu as mother of, 149;\n Nakula and Sahadeva sons of, 176.\n\n _Atharvaveda_ (\u0103t\u00b4h\u0103r-v\u0103-v_e_-da), Asuras are demons in, 61;\n Agni enemy of demons of disease in, 67;\n spirits of good and evil in, 74;\n metrical charms in, 85 _et seq._;\n meaning of \u201cYuga\u201d in, 104.\n\n Atman (\u00e4t\u00b4m\u0103n) Self, 98.\n See _Brahm\u0103_.\n\n Atri (\u0103t\u00b4r\u00ef), the rishi, father of Durvasas, the master curser, 154;\n as eponymous ancestor of the Bharatas, 157.\n\n Aurora, Ushas the Indian, 34.\n\n Austria, aristocratic cremations in, xxxvi.\n\n Autumn burial customs among Buriats, xxxiv.\n\n Avataras (\u0103v-\u0103-t\u00e4r-\u0103s) of Vishnu, the lion, 135;\n the boar, 135, 136;\n the horse, 137;\n the tortoise, Kurma, 143;\n Dasaratha's sons as, 377.\n See _Balarama_, _Kalki_, _Krishna_, _Parasu-rama_, _Rama_, and\n _Vishnu_.\n\n Avestan deities. See _Persian Mythology_.\n\n Axe, the lightning, 2.\n\n Ayodhya (\u0103-y\u014dd\u00b4hya), in myth regarding the descent of the Ganges, 152;\n Nala as a charioteer in, 342 _et seq._;\n in the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_, _et seq._\n\n\n Babhru-v\u00e1hana (b\u0103b-broo\u00b4-v\u00e4\u00b4\u00b4han-a), son of Arjuna and Chitr\u00e1ngad\u00e1,\n father and son combat, 314, 315.\n\n Babylon, burial customs in, xxxiii;\n Aryans influenced by, 3;\n Yama myth in, 41;\n invaded by Kassites and Aryans, 62;\n Kassites and Kasis of Benares, 155;\n horse called the \u201cass of the east\u201d in, 156.\n\n Babylonian mythology, \u201chammer god\u201d in, 3;\n story of creation in, 9, 90;\n the artisan god, 12;\n Mitra in, 29, 30;\n influence of in India, 61.\n\n Balarama (b\u0103l-\u0103-r\u00e4h\u00b4m\u0103), an Avatara of Vishnu, 125;\n an incarnation of the world serpent, 128;\n Juggernaut and, 136, 137;\n at swayamvara of Draupadi, 215 _et seq._;\n anger at Arjuna's capture of sister, 227;\n at Pandava imperial sacrifice, 232 _et seq._;\n at meeting of Pandava allies, 270 _et seq._;\n refuses to help Duryodhana, 273;\n anger of at fall of Duryodhana, 307;\n death of, 323.\n\n Bali (b\u00e4\u00b4l\u00ef), the demon, slain by Vishnu, 123.\n\n Balor (b\u00e4\u00b4lor), Irish night demon, his herd of black pigs, 136;\n Shiva compared with, 146.\n\n Baluchistan, Dravidians in, xxvi.\n\n Barbers, referred to in Vedic period, 77.\n\n Bargains, concluded by spitting, by using blood, and before fire, 37.\n\n Barley and wheat, Aryo-Indians grew, 77.\n\n Barnett, Professor, on Vishnu, 123.\n\n Basque language, xix.\n\n Bats, Homer's ghosts twitter like, 75.\n\n Bears, the, allies of apes, 418.\n\n Beech, the, in Aryan languages, xxi.\n\n Bel Merodach, slays Tiawath, 9.\n\n Beli (b_e_-l\u00ef), Irish god of night and death, 111.\n\n Beliefs, influenced by habits of life, xlv, xlvi.\n\n B_e_lus. See _Bel Merodach_.\n\n Ben\u00e4\u00b4res, Kasi tribe at, xxxix, 155;\n Bhishma captures three daughters of king of, 169.\n\n Bengal, human sacrifices in, 88.\n\n _Beowulf_ (b\u0101\u00b4\u014d-wulf), Agni and Scyld myth in, 21;\n the hag of like the Indian, 380 _n._\n\n Berbers, Brahmans resemble, xxvii;\n blonde types of, xxix.\n\n Berchter, Teutonic patriarch, 23.\n\n _Bhagavad-gita_ (bh\u0103\u00b4g\u0103-v\u0103d-g\u00eft\u00e4) (Divine Song), the, 125;\n doctrines of, 125 _et seq._;\n heroic narrative interrupted by, 138, 139.\n\n Bh\u00e1radw\u00e4ja, father of Drona, 179.\n\n Bharata (b\u00e4h\u00b4r\u0103-t\u0103 or bh\u00e4h\u00b4ra-ta) as son of King Dushyanta and\n Shakuntala, story of, 157 _et seq._;\n the eponymous king and patriarch, 156;\n named by the gods the \u201ccherished\u201d, 163.\n\n Bh\u0103\u00b4r\u0103t\u0103 (of the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_), 378;\n hunchback and mother of plot to raise, 384;\n loyalty of to Rama, 396;\n renounces throne, 397;\n pleads with Rama to return, 398, 399;\n Rama's sandals, 400;\n welcomes Rama to Ayodhya, 425.\n\n Bh\u00e4ratas, tribe of, xxxix;\n as \u201clate comers\u201d, xl;\n invasion of and change of beliefs, xliv;\n river goddess of, xl, 148, 149;\n union of with Kuru Panchalas, 155, 156;\n of \u201cthe lunar race\u201d, 157 _et seq._;\n tribal name of given to all India, 164.\n\n Bh\u0103\u00b4ratav\u00e4r\u00b4\u00b4sha, Hindustan and then all India called, 164.\n\n Bh\u0103\u00b4rat\u00ef, river goddess of the Bharatas, identified with Saraswati,\n 148, 149, 155.\n\n Bh\u00efls, the Prince of, story of, 182, 183.\n\n Bhima (bhee\u00b4m\u0103), the Pandava hero, like Siegfried, Dietrich, Beowulf,\n and Finn-mac-Coul, 66, 67;\n his search for celestial lotuses, 105;\n meeting with Hanuman, 106;\n Hanuman describes the four Yugas to, 107, 108, 109;\n son of Queen Pritha and Vayu, wind god, 176;\n youthful Duryodhana attempts to kill, 178;\n receives draught of strength from Nagas, 179;\n at the tournament: combat with Duryodhana, 187;\n ridicules Karna at the tournament, 193;\n in battle against Drupada, 195, 196;\n burning of \u201cHouse of Lac\u201d, 200;\n flight of Pandavas, 201;\n wooed by Rakshasa woman, 202, 203;\n slays Hidimva, 204, 205;\n his Rakshasa bride, 206;\n his Rakshasa son, 206;\n Vaka, the Asura king, slain by, 206 _et seq._;\n combat at Draupadi's swayamvara, 218, 219;\n Draupadi at feast in potter's house, 220;\n expedition against Jarasandha, 229-31;\n at gambling match, 238 _et seq._;\n vows to slay Duhsasana and Duryodhana, 244 _et seq._;\n the helper in exile, 250;\n accuses Yudhishthira of weakness, 254, 255;\n rescues Duryodhana from Gandharvas, 259;\n scornful message of to Kauravas, 261;\n punishes rajah Jayadratha, 262, 263;\n temporary death of, 263 _et seq._;\n in Virata, 266;\n slays Kichaka, 267;\n Duryodhana taunts regarding his vows, 285;\n feats of in great war, 292 _et seq._;\n slays Duhsasana and drinks his blood, 303, 304;\n fights with and mortally wounds Duryodhana, 306-7;\n Dhritarashtra seeks to slay, 311;\n slays horse for sacrifice, 318.\n\n Bhima, rajah of Vidarbha, father of Damayanti, in story of Nala, 328\n _et seq._\n\n Bhishma (bheesh\u00b4m\u0103), xlviii;\n the Vasus and, 17, 166, 327;\n the son of goddess Ganga and King Shantanu, 166;\n his vow of renunciation, 168;\n as regent, 168;\n capture of three daughters of King of Kasi, 169, 170;\n vow of the Princess Amba, 171 and 171 _n._;\n rears Pandu, Dhritarashtra, and Vidura, 172;\n employs Drona as preceptor of Pandavas and Kauravas, 181;\n at the tournament, 185 _et seq._;\n at division of raj, 224;\n at Pandava imperial sacrifice, 232 _et seq._;\n at the gambling match, 240 _et seq._;\n advises Duryodhana to recall Pandavas, 260, 261;\n declares Pandavas' exile has ended, 268;\n at Hastinapur conference, 274 _et seq._;\n as leader of Kaurava army, 286 _et seq._;\n fall of, 295;\n return of from Paradise, 320, 321.\n\n Bhr\u00efg\u00fc, the tribal patriarch a celestial Rishi, 102;\n the priestly family of, 153;\n as sire of goddess Lakshmi, 154;\n Agni cursed by, 154.\n\n Bhrigus (bhree\u00b4goos), tribe of, fire brought to, 22, 23.\n\n Bibhishana (bib-hish\u00b4ana), the Ceylon Rakshasa, 416;\n becomes ally of Rama, 417 _et seq._;\n made King of Ceylon, 424.\n\n Birch tree, horses sacrificed tied to, 93.\n\n Birds as spirits, cuckoo and cremation rite, xxxiv;\n as messengers of death, 41;\n beliefs in Europe, Africa, and Asia, 75;\n Rishis appear as, Shakuntala nursed by, 159, 160;\n love messengers in Nala story, 329, 330;\n king of vultures (see _Jatayus_).\n\n Black Age, the Kali Yuga, 108, 109;\n in Greek mythology, 109, 110;\n in Celtic mythology, 110 _et seq._\n\n Black dwarfs, Dasyus and, 70.\n\n Black fairies, 70.\n\n Black pigs, Irish night demon's herd of, 136.\n\n Blessings, for houses, &c., 86 _n._\n\n Blonde types in Europe, xxviii;\n in Asia and Africa, xxix.\n\n Blood, the life, spirit identified with, 37.\n\n \u201cBlood of trees\u201d, sap as, 37.\n\n Bloomfield, Professor, 87 _n._\n\n Blue demons, 71.\n\n Boar, the wild, Rudra the \u201cHowler\u201d rides, 26.\n\n Boar, the, incarnation of Vishnu, 135, 136;\n treatment of in Egypt and Europe, 136.\n\n Body, the celestial, 57.\n\n Boghaz K\u00f6i, Asia Minor, Indra referred to at, xxxi, 3.\n\n \u201cBold and the Brown\u201d, Indra's steeds, 5.\n\n Bopp's Comparative Grammar, xix.\n\n Boulder throwers, giants as, 70.\n\n Bow of Shiva, Rama breaks, 382, 383.\n\n Brahm\u0103 (br\u0103m\u00b4h\u0103 or br\u0103h-m\u0103), the \u201cWorld Soul\u201d, 88, 96, 97;\n Brahm\u00e4 the divine incarnation of, 100;\n the soul's being, 99;\n salvation through knowledge of, 100;\n release obtained through, 117, 118.\n\n Brahm\u00e4, the Creator, greater than Vedic gods, xl;\n river goddess wife of, xl;\n as \u201cthe grandsire\u201d, 7;\n Agni as, 19;\n the two wives of, 44, 98;\n the divine incarnation of Brahm\u0103 (World Soul), 100;\n emerges from chaos egg like Egyptian Ra, 101;\n identified with Purusha, 102;\n celestial Rishis are mind-born sons of, 102;\n Kalpa, or day, of, 105;\n length of \u201cyear\u201d of, 105;\n the sleep of, 105;\n universal destruction at end of day of, 113;\n Creator in the Trinity, 119;\n Vishnu identified with, 123;\n Indra and Agni become subject to, 134;\n as the fish in the deluge story, 139 _et seq._;\n as the chaos boar, 136;\n Manu associated with at creation, 140;\n Vedic gods appeal to, 143;\n Saraswati becomes the wife of, 149;\n Valmiki and, 374;\n at Dasaratha's horse sacrifice, 376, 377;\n Indra's appeal to, 377;\n curse of on Ravana, 412;\n appears to Rama, 427.\n\n Brahman, a Celtic, 111.\n\n Brahman Caste, 79.\n See _Caste_.\n\n Br\u00e4hm\u00b4\u0103n\u0103s, the, the soul as \u201cthe man in the eye\u201d in, 42;\n \u201cit is sorrowful to have a daughter\u201d, 60;\n evidence regarding Asuras in, 62, 63 _et seq._;\n ritualism of sacrifice, 81;\n expositions of Vedic hymns, 88;\n the \u201cKa\u201d of, 98;\n Yugas in, 104;\n transmigration doctrine, 116;\n begun before Bharatas joined Kurus, 155;\n Vishnu's rise in, 123.\n\n Brahmanical Age, religious revolution in, xxxix;\n growth of ritualism and pantheism, 119, 120;\n religious revolts in, 120, 121;\n bold pantheism of, 122.\n\n Brahmanism, post-Buddhistic rival of, xl, 134, 135;\n during the Buddhist Age, 132, 138;\n goddesses prominent after reform of, 148.\n\n Br\u00e4h\u00b4mans, the \u201cwhite\u201d, xxv;\n as members of Mediterranean race, xxvii;\n rise of organized priesthood, 80;\n four periods of lives of, 81;\n as hermits, 82;\n what culture owes to, 82;\n algebra the gift of, 83;\n as \u201chuman gods\u201d, 84;\n powers derived from penance, 85;\n ceremonies of riddance by, 86, 87;\n centre of ancient culture of, 88;\n pantheistic doctrines of, 88;\n Upanishadic doctrine of the world soul, 99;\n teaching of, 102;\n concessions by to popular opinion, 103;\n systematized religion, 116;\n the modern, 119;\n gods and men depend upon, 121;\n supremacy over Kshatriyas, 121;\n struggle with Kshatriyas, 136;\n Kuru Panchala country the centre of, 155.\n\n Brahmaputra, a male river, 152.\n\n Breath of life. See _Air of Life_.\n\n Bretons, Celts and, xxxv;\n Normans mix with, xxxvi.\n\n Brihaspati (br\u00ef-h\u0103sh\u00b4p\u0103t-\u00ef), \u201cLord of Prayer\u201d in Vedic creation myth,\n 10.\n\n Britain, cremation custom in, xxxvi, xxxvii;\n early people and invaders in, xxxviii;\n reversion to type in, xlii;\n folk customs of compared with Indian, xlii.\n\n British Isles, cremating invaders in, xxxv.\n\n Brittany, Alpine race in, xxvii.\n\n \u201cBroad heads\u201d in India, xxv, xxvi:\n burial customs of, xxxv;\n identified with Celts, xxxv.\n\n Bronze age, burial customs in Europe, xxxiii;\n European cremation rites in, xxxv _et seq._;\n late in Scandinavia, xlv;\n Aryan invasion of Punjab in, 77.\n\n Bronze age (mythical), in Indian, Greek, and Celtic mythologies, 107\n _et seq._\n\n Brown race, Mediterranean peoples of, xxviii;\n recognition of \u201cmother right\u201d by, xxx;\n in \u201cAryan blend\u201d, xxxi, xxxix;\n Bharatas of the, xl;\n Dravidians and, xlii;\n transmigration belief in communities of, xliii, xliv;\n beliefs and habits of life, xlvi.\n\n Buddha (b\u00fcd\u00b4h\u0103), as an incarnation of Vishnu, 129;\n early life of, 129, 130;\n one of the world's great teachers, 130;\n his doctrines, 130 _et seq._;\n missionaries of visit other lands, 133.\n\n Buddhism, professors of in India, xviii;\n eastward spread of, xl;\n Upanishadic teaching and, 120;\n decline of, 122, 134;\n Vishnu prominent before rise of, 124;\n Brahmanic attitude towards, 129;\n in China, Japan, &c., 133.\n\n Buddhist Age, in Indian history, 119;\n Brahmanism supplanted, 120;\n Brahmanism during, 138.\n\n Buffalo Asura, Durga the slayer of the, 265, 266.\n\n Bull, Dyaus as, 13;\n Agni as, 22;\n Mithra, \u201ccorn god\u201d as, 30;\n Shiva as, 147.\n\n Burial customs in Vedic Age, xxxii;\n in Babylon and Egypt, xxxiii;\n Buriat dead on horseback, xxxiv;\n cremation in Europe, xxxvi _et seq._;\n cremation in Palestine, xxxvii, xxxviii;\n \u201chouse of clay\u201d in Varuna hymn, 38;\n why dead were cremated, 38;\n goat slain to inform gods, 91;\n transmigration doctrine and, 115 _et seq._;\n cremation of Kauravas and Pandavas after war, 312.\n\n Buriats, the, a Mongolian people, xxxiii;\n cremation and inhumation practised by, xxxiv, xxxix;\n horse sacrifice among, 90;\n description of, 91;\n sacrifice horse like Spartans, 93;\n birch trees at sacrifices of, 93.\n\n Burning of erring wives, in Egyptian and Scottish tales, xxxvii.\n\n Burning of widows. See _Suttee_.\n\n Burrows, Professor, xxxviii _n._\n\n\n C\u00e6sar, Julius, on widow burning in Europe, xxxvii;\n on Gaulish belief in transmigration, 118.\n\n Cailleach (cal\u00b4yach), the Scottish, compared with Indian and Egyptian\n deities, xli.\n\n Caithness, man-devouring demon in, 208 _n._\n\n Cakes, offerings of, 14;\n early Aryo-Indians make, 77.\n\n Camels, Rakshasas ride in battle, 419.\n\n Campbell's _West Highland Tales_, reference to wife burning, xxxvii.\n\n Carniola, burial customs in, xxxvi.\n\n Carpenters, referred to in Vedic hymns, 77.\n\n Caste system, at present day, xvii;\n physical or mythological origin of, xxv;\n Vedic gods as Kshatriyas, 14;\n relation to occupation, 79;\n in Yajurvedic period Brahmans supreme, 84;\n Purusha doctrine of, 89;\n in the Kali Age, 113;\n Buddhism and Jainism as social revolts, 120;\n Brahmans as highest caste, 121;\n Vishwamitra raised from Kshatriya to Brahman, 154.\n\n Castor and Pollux, 32.\n\n Cat, Hanuman as a, 414.\n\n Cat goddess, Sasti the, 152, 153.\n\n Cataclysm, the universal, 141, 142.\n\n Cattle, charms to protect, 86.\n\n Cattle lifting, hymn to aid, 15, 16.\n\n Celestial credit, obtained by penance, 85.\n\n Celestial Rishis. See _Rishis, the Celestial_.\n\n Celtic mythology, otherworld, compared with Indian heavens, 59;\n the Fomorians of, 64;\n Tuan Mac Carell legend in, 111 _et seq._;\n transmigration of souls doctrine, 103, 116, 118;\n doctrine of world's ages, in, 110 _et seq._;\n treatment of the pig in, 136;\n Indian and Gaelic magic food pots, 249;\n the thunder horn, 258;\n demons in weapons, 381 _n._\n\n Celts, Aryan affinities of, xx;\n identified with \u201cbroad heads\u201d, xxii;\n racial theory, xxiii;\n Max M\u00fcller on, xxiv;\n identified with cremating invaders, xxxv;\n customs of in Ireland, Wales, and Scotland, xlii.\n\n Ceremonies of riddance, 85, 86.\n\n Ceylon, Ravana demon king of, 65;\n Rakshasas are Asuras in, 66.\n See _Lanka_.\n\n Chandra (ch\u0103n\u00b4dr\u0103, _ch_ as in _charge_), the moon god, 35;\n as ancestor of the Bharatas, 164.\n\n Chandra Shekara, the \u201cmoon crested\u201d, Shiva as, 146.\n\n Chaos boar, Vishnu as, 135;\n Brahm\u0101 or Prajapati as, 136.\n\n Chaos egg, in Indian and Egyptian mythologies, 101.\n\n Chaos giant, the Indian, Egyptian, Chinese, and Teutonic, 89, 90;\n symbolism in myth of, 95, 96.\n\n Chaos goose, the creation egg myth, 101.\n\n Chaos horse myth, 94 _et seq._\n\n Chariots in Vedic period, 77.\n\n Charms against demons of disease, 67, 85, 87;\n for love, 86.\n\n Ched\u00ef (chay\u00b4dee), Sishupala rajah of, slain at Pandava imperial\n sacrifice, 232, 233;\n Damayanti's sojourn in, 352, 356, 357.\n\n Cheese, early Aryo-Indians made, 77.\n\n \u201cCherished, the\u201d, King Bharata as, 163.\n\n Children, souls of dead, xliii;\n the female exposed, 60.\n\n China, Dravidian type in, xxvi;\n Hammer god of, 2;\n \u201cforeign devils\u201d, 70;\n chaos giant of, 90.\n\n Chitr\u00e1ngad\u00e1 (chit-r\u0103ng-ad\u00b4\u00e4), son of Arjuna and Manipur princess, 226;\n son of slays Arjuna, 314.\n\n Chivalry of Indian heroes, xlvi.\n\n Christians, number of in India, xviii.\n\n Churning of the ocean, the, 142 _et seq._\n\n Circulating of villages, xliii.\n\n Clans, the Aryo-Indian, 77;\n feuds were frequent, 77.\n\n Cloud-compeller, Indra as, 331.\n\n Cloud cows, 4 _et seq._, 67.\n\n \u201cCloud rocks\u201d, 5 _et seq._\n\n \u201cCloud shakers\u201d, Maruts as, 5 _et seq._\n\n Cobras, the demoniac Nagas, 65.\n\n Coins called after necklets, 78.\n\n Colour, caste and. See _Caste_.\n\n Comparative philology, Bopp and, xix.\n\n Copper age, invasion of Europe in, xxxv.\n\n Corn gods, Agni and Indra as, 14, 15;\n Mithra as, 30.\n\n Cornwall, Dravidian-like customs in, xlii.\n\n Cough, charm for, 87.\n\n Cow, Creator assumes form of, 95, 102;\n of Vasishtha, 154.\n\n Creation, Hymn of, the Rigvedic, 97, 98.\n\n Creation myths, the Babylonian, 9;\n the Indian \u201cWorld House\u201d made by Indra, 10;\n sacrificial origin of life and the world, 89;\n the giants of, 89, 90;\n the Purusha doctrine, 89, 90;\n in Egypt, China, Babylon, &c., 90;\n horse sacrifice in, 94 _et seq._;\n first man and woman, &c., 95;\n \u201ccreative tears\u201d, 100;\n Prajapati like Horus, 101;\n Brahma sun-egg like Egyptian Ra sun-egg, 101;\n Brahma's tree, 102;\n Markandeya's account of Yugas, 112 _et seq._;\n gods and doctrines existed before, 118;\n Narayana and Brahma, 124.\n\n Cremation in Vedic age, xxxii;\n not practised by Persians, Babylonians, or Egyptians, xxxiii;\n seasonal rites among Buriats, xxxiv;\n migratory peoples practised, xxxv;\n in ancient Austria, Greece, &c., xxxvi;\n evidence of Palestine, xxxvii;\n origin of, xxxviii, xxxix, 38, 39;\n practised by Agni worshippers, 116;\n ceremony of after \u201cgreat war\u201d, 312.\n\n Crete, cremation introduced into, xxxviii;\n reversion to type in, xlii.\n\n Cronus, Indra like, 13.\n\n Crooke, Mr., view on Aryan influence, xli.\n\n Crops, human sacrifices for, 89.\n\n Cuckoo and burial rites, xxxiv.\n\n Culture, wealth brings leisure and, 82.\n\n Curds, early Aryo-Indians made, 77.\n\n Curses, power of, the Rishis, 153, 154, 155;\n Damayanti kills huntsman by cursing, 346;\n Narada curses Karkotaka, 353;\n Brahman's wife cursed and rescued by Arjuna, 313;\n in tale of the hermit's son, 394, 395;\n Brahma's curse on Ravana, 413.\n\n Cyclops (ky\u00b4klops), the Indian. See _Vartikas_.\n\n\n Dadhicha (dad-hee\u00b4cha, _ch_ as in _chat_), the Rishi, thunderbolt\n made from bones of, 7, 8.\n\n Dadyak (d\u0103d\u00b4yak), the Indian Loke, 12.\n\n Daeva, the Persian, cognate with Sanskrit \u201cdeva\u201d, 62.\n\n Daityas (dait\u00b4y\u0103s), in Varuna's heaven, 59;\n giants of ocean, 64;\n enemies of gods, 65;\n Arjuna's expedition against, 256-8.\n\n Daksha (d\u0103k-sha), the Deva-rishi, in Sati myth, 150;\n story of quarrel with Shiva, his goat head, 153.\n\n Damayanti (d\u0103m-a-y\u00e4nt\u00b4ee), xlvii;\n loves Nala, 329;\n message of the swan, 330;\n gods desire, 332;\n Nala visits in secret, 333-5;\n the swayamvara and marriage, 335-7;\n demon possesses Nala, 340;\n the gambling match, 341, 342;\n exile of Nala, 342, 343;\n deserted by Nala, 344, 345;\n serpent seizes, 346;\n appeal to tiger and mountain, 347;\n appeal to asoka tree, 348;\n disaster to caravan, 349-51;\n in Chedi, 351, 352;\n discovered by Brahman, 356, 357;\n search for Nala, 358, 359;\n the second swayamvara, 360;\n Nala drives king to Rituparna, 360, 361;\n Kali ejected, 362;\n Damayanti vigil, 363;\n maid of interviews Nala, 365-8;\n Nala's interview with, 368-70;\n kingdom restored, 371-3.\n\n Danann (d\u00e4n\u00b4an) Age, in Irish mythology, 110 _et seq._\n\n Danavas (d\u00e4n\u00b4\u0103va), allies of drought demon, 7, 8;\n ocean home of, 9;\n in Varuna's heaven, 59;\n Asuras of ocean, 64;\n enemies of gods, 65;\n wives of have bird voices, 75;\n Bali one of the, Vishnu slays, 123;\n story of Prahlada and Vishnu, 135;\n Arjuna's expedition against, 256-8.\n\n Dance of Destruction, Kali performs the, 150.\n\n Dance of Shiva, 147, 148.\n\n Dancing girls in Indra's heaven, 69.\n\n Dandad\u00b4hara (d\u0103n-d\u00e4d\u00b4hara), \u201cwielder of the rod\u201d, Yama is, 42.\n\n Danu (d\u00e4\u00b4noo), mother of the Asuras, 64.\n\n D\u0103r\u00b4bas, \u201cthe tearers\u201d, like Pisachas, 68.\n\n \u201cDark folk\u201d, the mythological and racial, 70.\n\n Darwin, Charles, his theory of man's origin in Africa, xxiv.\n\n Dasa (d\u00e4\u00b4s\u0103), colour reference probable, 70.\n\n Dasaratha (d\u0103s-\u0103r-\u0103t\u00b4h\u0103), father of Rama, 375;\n horse sacrifice for offspring, 376;\n sons of incarnations of Vishnu, 377;\n Vishwamitra takes away Rama and Lakshmana, 379;\n at Rama's wedding, 383;\n Rama chosen as heir apparent, 384;\n plot of Kausalya and hunchback, 384 _et seq._;\n scene in the mourning chamber, 386, 387;\n Rama exiled, 388 _et seq._;\n tale of the hermit's son, 394, 395;\n death of, 396;\n Rama faithful to memory of, 398, 399.\n\n Dasyus (d\u00e4sh\u00b4yoos), as demons, 67;\n as dark aborigines, 69, 70;\n Macdonell and Keith on, 70 _n._;\n racial theory, 71.\n\n Daughter, \u201cit is sorrowful to have a\u201d, 60.\n\n Dawn, goddess of, 34.\n\n Day fairies, 70.\n\n Day of Brahma, universal destruction at end of, 113.\n\n Dead, disposal of, cremation, inhumation, casting out, and exposure,\n xxxii _et seq._;\n services to by children, 59, 60;\n the demon Pisachas devourers of, 67;\n horses sacrificed to, 93;\n return of, Ganges' vision, 320, 321.\n See _Burial customs_.\n\n Dead, judge of. See _Yama_.\n\n Death, messengers of, 41 (see _Yama_);\n as \u201cthe man in the eye\u201d, 42;\n as creator, 94;\n god of, as divine ancestor of Irish Milesians, 111;\n the gods fear, 121;\n Buddha's conception of, 130 _et seq._\n\n Deiwo, \u201cheavenly\u201d, 62.\n\n Delbr\u00fcck, view on Aryan parent language, xxii.\n\n Deluge, the, in Irish mythology, 112;\n at end of \u201cDay\u201d of Brahma, 113;\n Manu and the divine fish in story of, 140 _et seq._\n\n Demons, in Varuna's heaven, 59;\n when called Asuras, 61;\n the Persian as Aryan gods, 62;\n Asuras completely identified with, 63 _et seq._;\n mother of, 64;\n Norse and Indian, 65;\n Rakshasas are, 66;\n Vritra, Ahi, and Kushna, 66;\n as beautiful women, 67;\n man-eating, slain by heroes, 67;\n Pisachas, Kali, Dwapara, Panis, Dasyus, the, 67;\n Vala, Darbas, Vartikas, the, 68;\n rational explanation of criticized, 70, 71;\n the red, blue, and green, 71;\n priests enable gods to overcome, 84;\n wrath and \u201cbattle fury\u201d caused by, 85;\n overcome by sacrifice at creation, 94;\n none in the Krita Age, 107;\n Bali slain by Vishnu, 123;\n Ravana, king of, 125;\n salvation for through Vishnu, 135;\n story of Prahladha, 135;\n story of Hiranyaksha and Vishnu, 135, 136;\n epic warriors as allies of, 138;\n in \u201cChurning of the Ocean\u201d myth, 143 _et seq._;\n Durga's wars against, 149;\n slain by the avenging goddess Kali, 150;\n Arjuna's expedition against, 256-8;\n the allies of Duryodhana, 260;\n Kali and Dwapara in Nala story, 338 (see _Nala_);\n in weapons, 381;\n the headless, 410;\n Surasa and Sinhika, sea dragons, 414.\n\n Desert, the fiery, in Hades, 326.\n\n Destiny, belief in, 42 _et seq._\n\n Destroyer, the, Indra as, 16;\n Rudra as and Shiva as, 26, 119;\n Nirriti the goddess as, 67;\n Narayana as, 114, 115;\n Durga as and Kali as, 149 _et seq._\n\n Deussen's Philosophy of the _Upanishads_, 100.\n\n Deva (d_e_-v\u0103), god in India, demon in Persia, 62;\n references in Brahmanas to, 63 _et seq._\n\n Deva-bratta (d_e_\u00b4v\u0103-br\u0103tt\u0103), name of Bhishma, 166 _n._\n\n Devaki (d_e_\u00b4v\u0103k-ee), father of Krishna, 128.\n\n Deva-rishis (d_e_\u00b4v\u0103-ree\u00b4shees) (see _Rishis, the celestial_), Daksha\n and the Sati myth, 150;\n the most prominent, 153, 154, 155;\n Narada and Parvata in story of Nala, 331;\n at ordeal of Sita, 425.\n\n \u201cDevils\u201d, the \u201cforeign\u201d, 70.\n\n Devon, Dravidian-like customs in, xlii _et seq._\n\n Dharma (dh\u0103r\u00b4m\u0103) or Dharma-rajah, god of death and lord of justice,\n Yama is, 42;\n in story of Ruru, 43, 44;\n Vidura an incarnation of, 172;\n Yudhishthira a son of, 176;\n visits Yudhishthira, 250;\n causes temporary death of Pandavas, 263 _et seq._;\n as Yudhishthira's dog, 324, 325;\n Drona with in Paradise, 327.\n See _Yama_.\n\n Dhrista-dyumna (dhr\u00efs-t\u0103-dyum\u00b4n\u0103), son of Drupada, miraculous birth\n of, 210;\n at the potter's house, 220;\n as leader of Pandava army, 286 _et seq._;\n slays Drona, 302;\n slain by Aswatthaman, son of Drona, 308;\n in vision of dead warriors, 321.\n\n Dhritarashtra (dreet\u00b4a-r\u00e4sh\u00b4\u00b4tra), son of Vyasa, 172;\n becomes king: his wife Gandhari, 177;\n children of called Kamavas, 177;\n at the tournament, 186 _et seq._;\n invites Pandavas to visit Hastinapur, 223;\n divides raj with Pandavas, 224;\n at Yudhishthira's imperial sacrifice, 232 _et seq._;\n the gambling match between Pandavas and Kamavas, 239 _et seq._;\n terrified by omens, 246;\n releases Pandavas, 247;\n second match and Pandavas exiled, 248;\n attitude of before the great war, 274 _et seq._;\n Sanjaya relates incidents of great war to, 287;\n seeks to slay Bhima, 311;\n reconciled to Bhima, 311, 312;\n at horse sacrifice after great war, 316;\n retires to forest, 319;\n return of the dead, 320, 321;\n perishes in jungle fire, 322;\n as celestial king of Gandharvas, 327.\n\n Dhyaum\u00b4ya (dhyowm\u00b4y\u0103), Pandava Brahman, 250, 312.\n\n Diana, horse sacrifice to, 93.\n\n Diarmid (yeer\u00b4mit), lover of burned, xxxvii.\n\n Dice, in early Aryo-Indian period, 77;\n the loaded used by Shakuni, 240;\n in Nala story possessed by demon, 341;\n Rituparna gives Nala secret of, 362.\n\n Dietrich (deet\u00b4reech: _ch_ guttural), the Indian, 66, 67;\n Arjuna like, 257 _n._\n\n Dionysus, Shiva as, 122.\n\n Dioscuri (d\u00ef-os-k\u00f6\u00b4r\u00ef), Castor and Pollux, 32, 40, 64.\n\n Disease, racial types and, xli;\n demons of, 85;\n destroyed by Shiva, 148;\n and by Rudra, 26.\n\n Diti (deet\u00b4e), mother of demons, 64;\n in Garuda story, 145.\n\n Divine song, the, 125.\n See _Bhagavadgita_.\n\n Divine years, 104, 105.\n See _World's Ages_.\n\n Dog, Dharma as, 324, 325.\n\n Dog of Indra, 17.\n\n Dogs, God of dead has two, 41.\n\n Dragon of drought, Vritra as, 6.\n See _Demons_.\n\n Draupadi (drow\u00b4p\u0103-dee\u00b4\u00b4), daughter of Drupada, miraculous birth of,\n 210;\n her destiny, 211;\n Pandavas journey to swayamvara of, 212, 213;\n won by Arjuna at swayamvara contest, 217, 218;\n in house of potter with Pandavas, 219;\n how she became joint wife of Pandavas, 219 _et seq._;\n agreement regarding, 225;\n receives Subhadra, wife of Arjuna, 228;\n the gambling match, 238 _et seq._;\n staked and lost by Yudhishthira, 240;\n put to shame, 241 _et seq._;\n exile of with Pandavas, 248;\n reproaches Yudhishthira during second exile, 251 _et seq._;\n Jayadratha attempts to carry off, 262, 263;\n perils in city of Virata, 266 _et seq._;\n grief for slain children, 310 _et seq._;\n horse sacrifice rites performed, 312 _et seq._;\n vision of dead warriors, 321;\n journey of to Paradise, 324 _et seq._;\n in Paradise, 326.\n\n Dravid\u00b4ians, type of in India, xxv;\n lower types are pre-Dravidians, xxvi;\n beliefs of, xli;\n sacrificial customs like those of Devon, &c., xlii;\n the Dasa and Dasyus theory, 70 _n._, 71;\n human sacrifice among, 88;\n earth goddess of, 89.\n\n \u201cDrinking cup\u201d burials, xxxv.\n\n Drona (dr\u00f6\u00b4n\u0103), miraculous birth of, 179;\n put to shame by Drupada, 180, 181;\n becomes preceptor of the Pandavas and Kauravas, 181-4;\n story of the Bhil prince, 183;\n at the tournament, 185 _et seq._;\n Pandavas overthrow Drupada for, 195, 196;\n obtains half of Panchala, 197;\n Drupada plots to destroy, 209;\n trains prince who will slay him, 210;\n at Pandava imperial sacrifice, 232 _et seq._;\n at the gambling match, 240 _et seq._;\n in great war, 287 _et seq._;\n slays Drupada, 301;\n slain by Drupada's son, 302;\n return of from paradise, 320, 321;\n with Dharma in paradise, 327.\n\n \u201cDrought demon\u201d of Hindustan, 4;\n dragon Vritra as, 5, 6;\n slain by Indra, 6;\n priests enable Indra to overcome, 84.\n\n Drupada (droo\u00b4p\u0103-d\u0103), miraculous birth of, 179;\n as rajah puts Drona to shame, 180, 181;\n defeat of, 195, 196;\n Drona obtains half of kingdom, 197;\n plots to overthrow Drona, 209, 210;\n miraculous birth of son and daughter of, 210;\n the swayamvara of daughter of, 213 _et seq._;\n welcomes Pandavas at palace, 221;\n daughter of becomes joint wife of Pandavas, 222, 223;\n at meeting of Pandava allies, 270 _et seq._;\n daughter of who became a man, 295 _n._;\n in great war, 290 _et seq._;\n slain by Drona, 301.\n\n Duhsasana (doo\u00b4sas\u00b4\u0103-n\u0103) at gambling match, 240;\n puts Draupadi to shame, 242 _et seq._;\n Bhima vows to slay, 245;\n supports Duryodhana against the Pandavas, 280 _et seq._;\n is slain by Bhima, 303, 304.\n\n Durga (door\u00b4g\u00e4), the goddess, xl;\n the beautiful war goddess, 149;\n Yudhishthira invokes for help, 265, 266.\n\n Durvasa or Durvasas (door-v\u00e4s\u00b4\u00e4s), the rishi, a master curser, 154;\n Indra cursed by, 142, 143;\n gives powerful charm to Pritha, 174.\n\n Duryodhana (door-yo\u00b4dh\u0103n-\u0103), eldest of Kauravas, 177;\n attempts to kill youthful Bhima, 178 _et seq._;\n at the tournament, conflict with Bhima, 187;\n Karna's coming, 189 _et seq._;\n Karna becomes his ally, 193 _et seq._;\n fails to defeat Drupada, 195, 196;\n jealous of Yudhishthira, 197, 198;\n plots to destroy Pandavas, 199;\n the \u201chouse of lac\u201d, 200;\n believes his rivals are dead, 201;\n discovers Pandavas are alive, 223;\n Arjuna captures bride-elect of, 227;\n at Pandava imperial sacrifice, 232 _et seq._;\n arranges gambling match with Pandavas, 237 _et seq._;\n Shakuni plays for with loaded dice, 240 _et seq._;\n Draupadi won for, 240 _et seq._;\n Pandavas exiled, 248;\n Bhima vows to slay, 246;\n Draupadi's anger against, 251 _et seq._;\n captured by Gandharvas, 259;\n rescued by Pandavas, 259, 260;\n demons promise to help, 260;\n the royal sacrifice of, 261;\n plots against Pandavas with Karna and Shakuni, 269;\n condemned at meeting of Pandava allies, 270 _et seq._;\n interviews with Krishna and Balarama, 273;\n elders plead with at Hastinapur, 274 _et seq._;\n defiant speech of, 280;\n plot to seize Krishna, 281;\n Karna supports, 282, 283, 284;\n the declaration of war with Pandavas, 285, 286;\n combats of in battles, 289 _et seq._;\n hides from Pandavas, 305;\n conflict with Bhima, 306;\n fall of, 306, 307;\n night slaughter plot, 307;\n death of, 309;\n in vision of dead warriors, 321.\n\n Dushyanta (doosh\u00b4y\u00e4n-ta), king, in the Shakuntala story, 157 _et seq._\n\n Dutt, Romesh C., tribute to Max M\u00fcller, xx.\n\n Dw\u00e1para (dw\u00e4-p\u0103r\u0103), the demon in Nala story, 67, 338, 339, 341.\n\n Dw\u00e3para Yuga, length of, 104;\n the Red Age, 108, 109;\n in Greek and Celtic mythologies, 109 _et seq._\n\n Dw\u00e1rak\u00e1 (dw\u00e4\u00b4r\u0103k-\u00e4), capital of Y\u00e1dharas, Krishna welcomes Arjuna to,\n 226;\n a doomed city, 322;\n revolt in, 322;\n destruction of, 323.\n\n Dwarf form of Vishnu, 123.\n\n Dwarfs, the black, Dasyus and, 70.\n\n Dyaus (rhymes with _mouse_), the Aryan sky god, xxxi, 12;\n slain by son like Uranus, 13;\n as red bull and black steed, 13;\n harvest offering to, 14;\n flees from Agni, 20;\n Varuna and Mitra twin forms of, 28;\n Ushas (dawn), daughter of, 34.\n\n\n E\u00e4, Babylonian artisan god, 12.\n\n Earth, sustained by soma, \u201cwater of life\u201d, 36.\n\n Earth goddess, in India and Egypt, xxxi;\n Prithivi as, 6;\n the European and Egyptian, 13;\n the Dravidian, recent human sacrifices to, 89;\n Sri, Vishnu's wife, as, 148, 149;\n Kali as, 149, 150;\n Sita departs with, 427.\n\n \u201cEasterners\u201d, Indian tribes called, xxxix;\n traditions of in the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_, xlvi.\n\n Echo, Aranyani as, 74, 75.\n\n Eclipse, Rahu the Indian demon of, 144.\n\n Egg, myth of soul in, 102.\n\n Egg, the golden, Brahma emerges from, 101.\n\n Egg, the sun, Brahma emerges from like the Egyptian Ra, 101.\n\n Eggeling, Professor, 15, 42 _n._, 84 _n._\n\n Egypt, Mitanni Aryans and, xxx;\n sky and earth deities of, xxxi;\n early burial customs in, xxxiii;\n folk tale reference to wife burning, xxxvii;\n goddesses of compared with Indian, xli;\n reversion to type in, xlii;\n traces of ages doctrine in, xliv;\n belief in transmigration in, xliv, 116, 118;\n \u201cHammer god\u201d of, 3;\n Khn\u00fbm\u00fb of, like Indian Ribhus and European elves, 11;\n earth mother of, 13;\n \u201chusband of his mother\u201d belief in, 14;\n Indian rajah like Pharaoh of, 74 _n._;\n chaos giant of, 90 _n._;\n Prajapati has origin like Horus, 101;\n monasticism in, 133;\n treatment of boar in contrasted with Indian, 136;\n priestly theorists of and the Indian, 139, 140;\n myth of slaughtering goddess, Indian parallel, 150;\n belief regarding \u201ctwo mothers\u201d in, 229 _n._;\n serpent king of like Indian, 353 _n._\n\n Eka-chakra (ek\u0103-chak\u00b4r\u0103, _ch_ as in _charge_), Pandavas in city of,\n 206;\n story of Vaka, the Rakshasa, 207 _et seq._\n\n Elam, 3;\n \u201cMaltese cross\u201d on Neolithic pottery of, 155, 156.\n\n Elephant, the, in Vedic myth, 32;\n the sun and, 32;\n of Indra, 4, 17, 18, 144;\n Shiva wears skin of, 147;\n Ganesa has head of, 151.\n\n Elephants, Rakshasas ride in battle on, 419.\n\n Elf King of India, 69.\n\n Elginbrodde, Martin, and Agni worshipper like, 24.\n\n Elves, Gandharvas like, 68, 69;\n rational explanation of criticized, 70 _et seq._\n\n England, ancient. See _Britain_.\n\n Epics, the great Indian, xlvi;\n development of from hero songs, 138.\n See _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ and _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_.\n\n Eternal Being, 98.\n See _World Soul_.\n\n Europe, as racial cradle of Aryans, xx _et seq._;\n \u201cBroad heads\u201d, xxii;\n Neolithic burial customs in, xxxiii;\n cremation customs in, xxxv _et seq._;\n widow burning in, xxxvii;\n fairies and elves of, 70 _et seq._\n\n Evil, Divine One the source of, 115.\n\n Evil Age. See _Kali Yuga_.\n\n Exogamy in modern India, 60.\n\n Exorcism. See _Charms_.\n\n Exposure of female children, 60.\n\n Eye, the \u201cman\u201d in the, soul as, 42.\n\n \u201cEye of Ra\u201d, 150.\n\n\n Fairies, rational explanation of criticized, 70 _et seq._;\n the \u201cblack\u201d and \u201cwhite\u201d, 70;\n the Yakshas as \u201cthe good people\u201d, 68;\n the Apsaras, 68, 69.\n\n Fairy queen of India, 69.\n\n Family life, in Vedic period, 77;\n of the Brahmans, 81, 82.\n\n Father, the (Pitris), adored by ancestor worshippers, 102.\n\n \u201cFather\u201d, the \u201cGreat\u201d, Vedic Aryans worshippers of, 13;\n Brahma as \u201cfather of all\u201d, 101.\n See _Narayana_, _Praj\u00e1pati_, _Purusha_, _Shiva_, and _Vishnu_.\n\n \u201cFather Right\u201d, among Vedic Aryans, xxx, xli, 77.\n\n Fathers, rescued from hell by sons, 59, 60.\n\n Feline goddess, Sasti the, 152, 153.\n\n Female children, exposure of, 60.\n\n Fertility, Mongolian horse sacrifice to ensure, 91;\n Indian ceremonies, 92.\n\n Finn Mac Coul (fin\u00b4mak\u00b4\u00b4kool), wife of burned, xxxvii;\n the Indian heroic, 66, 67, 249 _n._\n\n Fire, worship of in Persia, xxxiii;\n as vital principle (bodily heat) in India, 37;\n vows taken before, 37;\n spirits transferred to Hades by, 38;\n Narayana as, 114;\n the everlasting, 326.\n See _Agni_ and _Cremation_.\n\n Firstfruits, gods' dispute regarding, 14.\n\n First man. See _Manu_, _Purusha_, and _Yama_.\n\n Fish, Manu and the, Deluge story, 140 _et seq._\n\n Fits, caused by demons, 85.\n\n Fitzgerald, Jamshid of his \u201cOmar\u201d, 40.\n\n Flowers of Paradise, 59;\n celestial lotuses, 105 _et seq._, 250, 251.\n\n Folk religion. In _Atharvaveda_, 85 _et seq._\n\n Fomorians (fo-more\u00b4eans), the Indian, 64, 65.\n\n Food, in Vedic hymns, 76, 77.\n\n Food of the gods, supplied by the priests, 84.\n\n \u201cFood Vessel\u201d burials, xxxv.\n\n Foreordination, belief in, 42 _et seq._\n\n _Forest Books_, the, hermits composed, 82, 83, 88, 102.\n\n Forest of Hades, 326.\n\n Frazer, Professor, 29 _n._;\n on Mithra, 30.\n\n Frogs, in Vedic rain charm, 36, 37.\n\n\n \u201cGad whip\u201d in Lincolnshire and India, xlii.\n\n Gajasahvaya (gaj-as-ah-v\u00e4\u00b4ya), city of, in Shakuntala story, 161.\n\n Gambling, dice in Vedic period, 77;\n the match between Kauravas and Pandavas, 238 _et seq._;\n Nala and his brother, 341 _et seq._\n\n Gand\u00e4r\u00b4ians, allies of Xerxes against the Greeks, 168.\n\n G\u00e1ndh\u00e1r\u00ef, Queen, wife of Dhritarashtra, 177;\n at the tournament, 187 _et seq._;\n lament of for sons, 311;\n retires to forest, 319, 320, 321;\n death of, 322.\n\n G\u00e4nd\u00b4h\u00e4r\u00ed, the tribe, 168.\n\n Gandharva (g\u00e4nd\u00b4h\u0103r-v\u0103), the atmospheric deity, 69.\n\n Gandharva marriage, 160.\n\n Gandharvas, the, king of, in folk tale, 43;\n in Indra's heaven, 58;\n like elves, 68;\n celestial musicians, 69;\n tribal significance of, 70;\n story of told to Arjuna, 71;\n as invisible sentinels, 106;\n capture of Duryodhana by, 259;\n at horse sacrifice, 316;\n Dhritarashtra as celestial king of, 327;\n at ordeal of Sita, 425.\n\n Gane\u00b4sa (g\u0103ne\u00b4sha), elephant-headed god of wisdom, 151.\n\n Gang\u00e1 (g\u0103ng\u00b4\u00e4), goddess of Ganges, 152;\n as wife of King Shantanu, 164 _et seq._\n\n Ganga-bratta, name of Bhishma, 166 _n._\n\n Ganges river, mentioned in late Rigvedic period, 76;\n Ganges, 83;\n story of Manu and the fish and, 140 _et seq._;\n myth of the descent of, 152;\n goddess of as wife of king, 164 _et seq._;\n dead warriors rise from, 320, 321;\n the heavenly, 326.\n\n Gardens of Hela, in Indian myth, 59.\n\n Gar\u00fada (g\u0103r-ood\u00b4\u0103), half giant, half eagle, Amrita story of, 145;\n the vehicle of Vishnu, 146;\n in Ganesa myth, 151;\n helps Rama in Ceylon war, 419;\n carries Rama to Paradise, 428.\n\n Gauls, the, widow burning among, xxxvii;\n transmigration of souls belief among, xliv, 118;\n cattle lifters like Vedic Aryans, 15;\n Aryo-Indians had clan feuds like, 77;\n as pork eaters, 136.\n\n Gauri (gow\u00b4ree), wife of Shiva, 405.\n\n Gayatri (g\u0103y\u00b4\u0103tree), the milkmaid goddess, second wife of Brahma, 44,\n 149.\n\n Germans as Aryans, xxiv.\n\n Ghatotkacha (g\u0103t-ot-k\u0103tch\u00b4\u00e4), the Rakshasa son of Bhima, 206;\n in great war, 286 _et seq._;\n avenges death of Iravat, 293, 294;\n fall of, 301;\n in vision of dead warriors, 320, 321.\n\n Ghosts, belief in, 38;\n birds as, 75.\n\n Ghosts and fire. See _Cremation_.\n\n Giant, the chaos, Purusha like Ymer, 89, 90;\n concealed soul of, 102;\n Vishnu as a, 123.\n\n Giants, in Varuna's heaven, 59;\n when called Asuras, 61, 63 _et seq._;\n Yakshas, \u201cthe good people\u201d, as, 68;\n rational explanation of criticized, 70, 71;\n mother of, 64;\n Norse and Indian, 65;\n the struggle with gods for ambrosia, 142 _et seq._;\n slain by the avenging goddess Kali, 150.\n See _Asuras_, _Danavas_, _Daityas_, and _Rakshasas_.\n\n Girisha (ge-reesh\u00b4\u0103), mountain god, Shiva as, 146.\n\n Goat, early Aryans had, 76;\n slain at horse sacrifices and at burials, 91;\n creator assumes form of, 95, 102;\n the Rishi Daksha has head of, 153.\n\n Goblins, Shiva as lord of, 146.\n\n Goddesses, shadowy in Vedic Age, xxxi;\n rise of the, 148;\n sun goddess makes Shiva's trident and Vishnu's discus, 149.\n\n Gods, Vedic Aryans exalted, xxxi;\n dispute among and race run by, 14;\n the Indian as Persian demons, 62;\n enemies of Asuras in epic literature, 63;\n magical control of, 80;\n priests as, 84;\n none in Krita Age, 107;\n fear of death among, 121.\n\n \u201cGold Toothed\u201d, the, Agni and Heimdal called, 21.\n\n Golden Age (Yellow Age), in Indian, Greek, and Celtic mythologies, 107\n _et seq._\n\n Goloka (go\u00b4lok-\u0103), paradise of Krishna, 323.\n\n Gomme, G. L., xlii.\n\n Gon\u00b4esh, 151 _n._\n\n Good, Divine One the source of, 115.\n\n \u201cGood people\u201d, the, Yakshas called, 68.\n\n Goose, the chaos, 101.\n\n Gopis (go\u00b4pees) (milkmaids), Krishna and the, 129;\n Gayatri of the as Brahma's wife, 149.\n\n Government, system of in Vedic Age, 77, 78.\n\n Grandsire, the, Brahma as, 7;\n myth regarding Indra's hammer, 7, 8.\n\n Grave, the. See _Burial customs_ and \u201c_House of clay_\u201d.\n\n Great Bear constellation, Deva-rishis form, 153.\n\n Great fathers. See _Father, the great_.\n\n \u201cGreat mother\u201d in Egypt and Europe, xxxi.\n See _Mother, the great_.\n\n Greece, cremation in ancient, xxxvi, 38, 39;\n May feast of Devon in, xlii;\n doctrine of ages of the universe, xliv, 109, 110;\n the \u201cIslands of the Blest\u201d, 59;\n demons of compared with Indian, 64;\n horse sacrifice in, 92, 93;\n doctrine of transmigration of souls in, xliv, 103, 116, 118.\n\n Greeks, the, Aryan racial theory, xxiv;\n Brahman type resembles, xxvii;\n Megasthenes, ambassador of, on Vishnu, Shiva, and Krishna, 122;\n Gandarians fought with Xerxes against, 168 _n._;\n in the great war of Bharatas, 287 _n._;\n language of and Persian, 61, 62.\n\n Green demons, 71;\n green fairies and ape demi-gods, 418.\n\n\n Habits of life, beliefs influenced by, xlv, xlvi.\n\n Haddon, Dr., view on Aryans, xxix.\n\n Hades, the organized, xxxviii, 38;\n bird-like spirits in, 75.\n\n Hags, Diti and Danu, mothers of giants and demons, 64;\n the Danava women, 65;\n Rakshasas as beautiful women, 67 (see _Pisachas_);\n in Scotland, 71;\n bird-like voices of, 75;\n the Babylonian chaos, 90;\n Arjuna terrifies in underworld, 257;\n Taraka slain by Rama, 380;\n Surpa-nakha woos Rama and brother, 400 _et seq._;\n as guardians of Sita, 412;\n Surasa, ocean hag, 414;\n Sinhika, sea dragon, 414.\n\n Hallowe'en celebrations, xliii.\n\n Hallstatt civilization, cremation in Greece earlier than, xxxvi.\n\n \u201cHammer gods\u201d, xxxi;\n Indra as, 1;\n attributes of, 2;\n of China, 2;\n of Scotland, Egypt, Greece, Rome, Asia Minor, Palestine, Babylon,\n &c., 3 _et seq._;\n origin of, 70.\n\n Hammurabi (-\u00e2\u00b4bi) Dynasty, overthrown by Kassites and Aryans, 62.\n\n Hanuman (h\u0103n\u00b4u-m\u00e4n), ape god, describes the Yugas to Bhima, 106, 107,\n 108, 109, 250, 251;\n Arjuna's standard the image of, 287;\n ape god, son of Vayu, 411;\n search of for Sita, 414;\n in Ravana's palace, 414;\n finds Sita, 415;\n conflict with Rakshasas, 416;\n escape of, 416;\n yellow as gold, 418;\n carries mountain to Ceylon, 421;\n restores Lakshmana, 422;\n death of Ravana, 423;\n accompanies Rama to Ayodhya, 425.\n\n Haoma, the Persian soma, 36.\n\n H\u0103r\u0103, Shiva as, 147.\n\n Hari, the illustrious, Vishnu as, 146.\n\n Hari-Hara, Vishnu and Shiva as, 147 _n._\n\n Harris, Dr. Rendel, on twin-deities conceptions, 40.\n\n Harvest bride, Jagadgauri as, 149.\n\n Harvest moon, as ripener of crops, 35.\n\n H\u00e4stin, King, 164.\n\n Hastinapur (h\u0103s-teen\u00b4\u00e4-poor), city of, 164;\n Bhishma brings captured princess to, 170;\n Pandava and Kaurava princes in, 177 _et seq._;\n Pandavas return to after marriage, 223, 224.\n\n Hathor (h\u00e4t\u00b4hor), Egyptian goddess, compared with Indian and Scottish\n deities, xli;\n goddess Kali like, 150.\n\n Hawes, Mr. and Mrs., xxxviii _n._\n\n Heaven of Indra, 58;\n like Valhal, 59;\n dancing girls in, 69;\n Pandavas and Kauravas in, 327.\n\n Heaven of Krishna, 323.\n\n Heaven of Kuvera, 59.\n\n Heaven of serpent worshippers, 66.\n\n Heaven of Varuna, 59.\n\n Heaven of Yama, 57;\n parents only admitted to, 59.\n\n Hebrews, great sacred literature of, 103.\n\n Hector, the Indian, xlviii.\n\n Heimdal (h\u012bm\u00b4dal), Teutonic god, like Agni, xlv, 20, 21, 22.\n\n Hela, xliv, like Indian heavens, 59.\n\n Heliopolis (h\u0113-li-op\u00b4ol-is), 139.\n\n Hell (see _Put_), Yama presides over, 42;\n parents only rescued from, 59;\n \u201cthreefold is the way to\u201d, 128;\n Yudhishthira's vision of, 326 _et seq_.\n\n Herakles, Vishnu as, 122.\n\n Hermitages, as universities, 82.\n\n Hermits, as scholars, 82.\n\n Hermit's son, tale of the, 394, 395.\n\n Hero songs, epics developed from cycles of, 138.\n\n Herodotus (her-od\u00b4otus), xliii;\n transmigration beliefs, xliv, 116, 118.\n\n Heroines of Indian literature, xlvii.\n\n Hesiod, doctrine of world's ages, 109 _et seq._\n\n Hidimva (hed-eem\u00b4v\u0103), the Rakshasa, slain by Bhima, 202-5.\n\n Hinduism, cults of, xvii;\n ancient culture basis of, 88;\n currents of thought in, 102;\n transmigration doctrine in, 117, 118;\n Vishnu and Shiva cults, 124;\n Puranic beliefs and, 135.\n\n Hindu-Kush, as a race-divider, xxvii.\n\n Hindus, number of, xvii;\n Aryans and, xxiv;\n dead cremated by, xxxii.\n\n Hindustan, Aryan aristocracy in, xxxvi;\n early Aryans displaced in by Kurus, Panchalas, and Bharatas, 155.\n\n Hiranyapura (her\u0103n\u00b4y\u0103-poor\u00b4\u00b4\u0103), flying island city of giants and\n demons, 65.\n\n Hittites, Aryans and, xxix;\n peace treaty with Mitanni Aryans, xxxi;\n \u201cHammer god\u201d of, 3;\n Mitannian relations with, 31;\n raid on Babylon and connection of Kassites with, 155, 156.\n\n Hogg, Professor H. W., on Mithra problem, 30.\n\n Hogs, Rakshasas ride in battle, 419.\n\n Homeric burial customs, xxxvi, 38.\n\n Homer's ghosts, like bats, 75.\n\n Horse, Babylonian name of, xxix, 156;\n when introduced into Egypt and India, xxx;\n Aryans breeders and tamers of, 76;\n Creator assumes form of, 95, 102;\n the white (Kalki), the next incarnation of Vishnu, 137;\n Avartas of, 360.\n\n Horse sacrifice, Buriats' offer to dead, xxxiv;\n prevalent in early times, 88;\n symbolism of, 90;\n among Mongolians, 90;\n to ensure fertility, 91;\n as atonement for sin, 92, 312, 426, 427;\n the Roman and Greek, &c., 92, 93;\n in Upanishadic creation myth, 94 _et seq._;\n in myth of descent of Ganges, 152;\n \u201cthe horse speaks\u201d, 317;\n in R\u00e1m\u00e1yana, Dasaratha performs for offspring, 376;\n gods attend, 376, 377.\n\n Horses, hymn to Indra for, 15, 16.\n\n Horus (ho\u00b4rus), the Egyptian, Prajapati rises from lotus like, 101.\n\n Hospitality, importance of in religious life, 81.\n\n Hotri priests, reciters, 80.\n\n Household fairy, Jara, the Rakshasa woman, as a, 229.\n\n \u201cHouse of clay\u201d, the grave as, xxxii, 115, 116.\n\n Hrungner (hroong\u00b4ner), Scandinavian giant, 2, 64.\n\n Human gods, priests as, 84.\n\n Human sacrifice prevalent in early times, 88;\n recent instances of, 89;\n symbolism of, 95, 96.\n\n Hunting period, the Aryans and, 76.\n\n Hura (hoo\u00b4ra), the Persian mead, 77.\n\n \u201cHusband of his mother\u201d, 14.\n\n Hyenas, Rakshasas ride in battle, 419.\n\n\n Iliad, the civilization of, xlvii;\n the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ book as long as and Odyssey, 129, 139, 156.\n\n Immortality, achieved by knowledge of Brahm\u0103, 99, 100.\n\n India, reversion to type in, xli, xlii.\n\n Indians, ancient Egyptians, Greeks, Celts, &c., and, 116 _et seq._\n\n Indo-European languages and peoples, xx, xxiv.\n\n Indo-Germanic languages and peoples, xix;\n M\u00fcller prefers Aryan, xx;\n the Celtic theory, xxiii.\n\n Indra (ind\u00b4r\u0103), in Vedic age, xxxi;\n tribal aspect of, xxxii;\n brother of Agni, xxxiii, 19;\n goddess Durga rivals, xl;\n as \u201cHammer god\u201d, 1;\n his thunderbolt, 2;\n in Mitanni, 3, 32;\n \u201cthunderstone\u201d of fashioned, 4;\n victory after birth, 4;\n attacks and slays drought demon, 5, 6;\n war song of, and hymn to, 6, 7;\n hammer of made from Rishi's bones, 7, 8;\n flight of in epic myth, 8;\n Bel Merodach and, 9;\n Pa'n Ku, Ptah, and, 9, 10;\n as world artisan, 10;\n Thor and, 11;\n Twashtri and, 11;\n a god of fertility, 12;\n parents of, 12;\n like Cronus, his father's slayer, 13;\n harvest offerings to, 14;\n as winner of god's race, 14, 15;\n as \u201cfriend of man\u201d, 15;\n cattle-lifters' hymn to, 15, 16;\n his human qualities, 17;\n dog and elephant of, 17, 18;\n Agni a drinker like, 23;\n attributes of absorbed by Agni and Vayu, 24;\n rain god and, 26;\n contrasted with Varuna, 27, 28;\n after redistribution of deities, 31;\n as discoverer of soma, 36;\n the heaven of, 58, 59;\n god of the overlords of Assyria, 62;\n reference to myth of in _Brahmanas_, 63;\n imprisons giants, 64;\n aerial city of, 65;\n hater of demon Panis, 67;\n dancing girls in heaven of, 69;\n made strong by the priests, 84;\n at horse sacrifice, 92;\n Vishnu source of strength of, 123;\n Krishna opposed to the worship of, 129;\n subject to Brahma, 134;\n cursed by Durvasas, 142;\n at \u201cchurning of the ocean\u201d, 143 _et seq._;\n origin of the elephant of, 144;\n battle with Garuda, 145;\n \u201cbefore his mother\u201d, 148;\n elephant of decapitated, 151;\n in myth of descent of Ganges, 152;\n Narada, the rishi, messenger of, 153;\n dread of Vishwamitra's creative power, 159, 160;\n Arjuna a son of, 176;\n guards Arjuna at the tournament, 191;\n Pandavas as five incarnations of, 222;\n heaven of attained by Kshatriyas, 230;\n welcomes Arjuna in Swarga, 256, 257;\n praises his warrior son, 258;\n adored by the Pandavas, 259;\n takes Karna's armour and ear-rings, 262;\n Karna uses weapon of, 301;\n at horse sacrifice of, 318;\n welcomes Yudhishthira to paradise and tests, 324 _et seq._;\n Pandavas and Kauravas in paradise of, 327;\n in story of Nala, 331;\n a suitor of Damayanti, 332 _et seq._;\n at Dasaratha's horse sacrifice, 376-7;\n appeal of to Brahma and Vishnu against Ravana, demon king, 377;\n becomes an ape, 377;\n Bali, ape king, son of, 411.\n\n Indrajit (ind-r\u0103\u00b4jit), the Rakshasa, in Ceylon war, 419 _et seq._\n\n Indrani (ind-r\u00e4n\u00b4ee), wife of Indra, 17.\n\n Indra-prastha (indr\u0103-pr\u0103st\u00b4ha), Pandavas build, 224, 225;\n Arjuna returns to, 228.\n\n Indus river, the sea and, 83, 84.\n\n Infanticide, in ancient and modern India, 60.\n\n Inspiration, to draw in a spirit, 85.\n\n \u201cIranian period\u201d, a convenient term, xxxi.\n\n Iranian plateau as Aryan racial cradle, xix.\n\n Iravat (eer\u00b4\u00e4-v\u0103t), son of Arjuna and serpent nymph Ul\u00fap\u00ed, 226;\n in great war, 286 _et seq._;\n fall of, 293.\n\n Ireland, doctrine of ages of universe in, xliv, 110 _et seq._;\n transmigration of souls belief in, xliv;\n Tuan MacCarell legend in, 111 _et seq._;\n Milesians of descended from god of death, 111;\n prejudice against pork in, 136.\n\n Iron, early Aryo-Indians and, 77.\n\n Iron Age, in Indian, Greek, and Celtic mythologies, 107 _et seq._;\n the \u201cBlack Age\u201d in India, 108, 109;\n in Greek mythology, 109, 110;\n in Celtic mythology, 110 _et seq._\n\n _Isaiah_, sacrifices condemned by, 132.\n\n Ishtar (ish\u00b4tar), 13;\n bird-like spirits in legend of, 75.\n\n Isis (\u012b\u00b4sis), festival of, xliii;\n Indian goddess Kali like, 150;\n as joint mother of Osiris, 229 _n._\n\n \u201cIslands of the Blest\u201d, 59.\n\n Italians, Brahmans resemble, xxvii.\n\n Ivory, Solomon got from India, 84.\n\n\n \u201cJack and Jill\u201d, as carriers of moon mead, 36.\n\n J\u0103g\u00b4g\u0103n\u0103th (Juggernaut), a Vishnu trinity, 136, 137;\n car of, 137.\n\n Jain\u00b4ism, Upanishadic teachings and, 120;\n Vishnu prominent before rise of, 124;\n origin of and doctrines of, 133, 134.\n\n Jamshid of Fitzgerald's _Omar_, 40.\n\n Janaka (j\u0103n\u00b4\u0103k\u0103), Rama breaks Shiva's bow before, 382, 383.\n\n Janeckpoor, 382 _n._\n\n J\u0103r\u00e4, the household fairy, at birth of Jarasandha, 229.\n\n Jarasandha (j\u0103-r\u00e4-sund\u00b4h\u0103), the rajah, has two mothers like Osiris,\n 229;\n the slaying of, 229-31.\n\n Jatayus (j\u0103t\u00e4\u00b4yus), king of vultures, attempt to rescue Sita from\n Ravana, 406, 407;\n Rama finds, 409;\n revelation and death of, 410;\n brother of helps Rama, 413.\n\n Jayadratha (j\u0103y-\u0103-dr\u0103t\u00b4h\u0103), the rajah, attempts to carry off Draupadi,\n 262;\n Bhima makes him a slave, 263;\n in great war, 297;\n fall of, 299, 300.\n\n Jewel, the great, 311;\n the magic life-giving, 315.\n\n Jones, Sir W., views of on Aryan problem, xix.\n\n J\u00f6rd (yerd), mother of Thor, 13.\n\n Jotuns (y_\u0113_\u00b4toons), the Indian, 64, 65.\n\n Jubainville, on world ages doctrine in Greek and Celtic mythologies,\n 110 _et seq._\n\n Juggernaut. See _J\u0103gg\u0103n\u0103th_.\n\n Jumna river, mentioned in late Rigvedic period, 76, 83;\n Krishna as babe causes miracle at, 128, 129.\n\n Jupiter, 3;\n the Indian, 12.\n\n Justice, lord of, Yama as, 57.\n See _Dharma_.\n\n\n K\u00e4, the great unknown, 98.\n\n Kaegi Adolf, on Vritra and \u201cweather\u201d, 8;\n rain-charm hymn, 37.\n\n Kaikeyi (ky-kay-yee\u00b4), wife of Dasaratha, 376;\n Bharata, son of, 378;\n plot against Rama, 384 _et seq._;\n Rama exiled, 388;\n anger of Bharata, 396 _et seq._\n\n Kail\u00e4\u00b4s\u0103, mountain of Shiva, 146;\n Arjuna visits Shiva on, 255, 256.\n\n Kali (k\u0103l\u00b4e), the demon in Nala story, 67;\n personification of Kali Yuga, 338;\n plots against Nala, 338, 339;\n enters Nala and causes ruin of, 340, 341;\n causes Nala to desert wife, 344;\n serpent poisons, 353;\n ejected by Nala, 362.\n\n Kali (k\u00e4\u00b4lee), the goddess, wife of Shiva, xl;\n like Egyptian and Scottish deities, xli, 150;\n as earth mother, 149;\n as slayer of enemies of gods, 149, 150.\n\n K\u0103l\u00ef Yug\u0103, the Black or Evil Age, 104, 108, 109;\n in Greek and Celtic mythologies, 109 _et seq._\n\n Kalk\u00ef, the white horse incarnation of Vishnu, 137.\n\n K\u0103lp\u0103, a \u201cday\u201d of Brahma, 105.\n\n Kamadeva (k\u00e4-m\u0103-dev\u0103), the love god, in story of the sun maiden, 72;\n the love god, Shiva consumes, 146;\n son of Vishnu and Lakshmi, 151.\n\n Kands tribe, exogamy in, 60.\n\n K\u0103ns\u0103, King of Mathura, 128.\n\n K\u00e4nv\u0103, the Brahman, in the Shakuntala story, 158 _et seq._\n\n K\u00e4rkot\u00e1ka (k\u00e4rkot\u0103\u00b4ka), Naga serpent demi-god, 65;\n the serpent king, Narada's curse, 353;\n rescued by Nala, 354.\n\n K\u0103rn\u0103, xlviii;\n Scef and Agni myths and, 21;\n the son of Surya, sun god, and Pritha, 174;\n babe set adrift in basket, 174;\n found by Radha in country of Anga, 176;\n rival of Arjuna at the tournament, 189, 190;\n challenges Arjuna, 191;\n made a rajah by Kauravas, 192;\n is put to shame by Pandavas, 193;\n the ally of Duryodhana, 194;\n rejected at Draupadi's swayamvara, 216;\n combat with Arjuna, 218, 219;\n at the gambling match, 240 _et seq._;\n advises Duryodhana to spy on exiled Pandavas, 259;\n vows to slay Arjuna, 261;\n Indra takes away celestial armour of, 262;\n plots against Pandavas, 269;\n at Hastinapur conference, 274 _et seq._;\n Krishna's interview with, 282;\n Pritha reveals secret of birth to, 283;\n refuses to desert the Kauravas, 283, 284;\n refusal to fight while Bhishma is leader of Kauravas, 286;\n comes to fight after Bhishma's fall, 296;\n slays Ghatotkacha with Indra's weapon, 301;\n becomes leader of Kauravas, 302;\n combat with Arjuna and fall of, 304, 305;\n performance of funeral rites for, 312;\n in Indra's heaven, 327.\n\n Kartikeya (k\u00e4rtik\u00b4ey\u0103), the war god, 152.\n\n K\u00e4si, Aryan tribe, xxxix;\n association of with Benares, 155;\n identification of with Kassites, 155, 156;\n king of, three daughters of captured by Bhishma, 169.\n\n Kassites, their origin obscure, xxix;\n Aryans enter Babylon with, 3;\n associated with Aryans in Babylon, 62;\n identification of with Kasis of Benares, 155, 156.\n\n K\u00e4s\u00b4y\u0103p\u0103, the pole star, 145.\n\n Kauravas (kow\u00b4r\u0103v\u0103s), as the Kurus, 156;\n sons of Dhritarashtra, 177;\n as youthful rivals of the Pandavas, 177 _et seq._;\n rivalries at the tournament, 185 _et seq._;\n failure of to defeat Drupada, 195, 196;\n first exile of their rivals, 198 _et seq._;\n raj divided with Pandavas, 224;\n at Pandava imperial sacrifice, 232 _et seq._;\n the gambling match with Pandavas, 237 _et seq._;\n feasted by exiled Pandavas, 260;\n attack on Virata, 267;\n Arjuna defeats, 268;\n declare Pandavas' exile not ended, 268;\n opposed to Pandavas' return after exile, 270 _et seq._;\n preparations for war, 273 _et seq._;\n conference at Hastinapur, 273 _et seq._;\n war breaks out, 285 _et seq._;\n mourning for and funeral rites, 310 _et seq._;\n return of the dead, 320, 321;\n in Indra's paradise, 325-7.\n\n Kausalya (kow\u00b4s\u0103l-y\u00e4), wife of Dasaratha, 376;\n Rama son of, 378;\n Rama's exile, 390 _et seq._;\n death of Dasaratha, 396;\n Bharata comforts, 397.\n\n Keats, John, 25.\n\n Keith, Dr., on Vedic burial customs, xxxii, 168 _n._\n\n Kesin (kay\u00b4sin), leads Asuras against Indra, 64.\n\n Khnumu (knoo\u00b4moo), of Egypt, Indian Ribhus like, 11;\n the Egyptian god, haos-egg myth in India and Egypt, 101.\n\n Khonds tribe, human sacrifice in, 88.\n\n Kichaka (kee-ch\u0103k\u00b4\u0103, _ch_ as in _change_), loves Draupadi and Bhima\n slays, 267.\n\n \u201cKing of the Elements\u201d, the Gaelic, 87.\n\n Kings, in the Vedic Age, 78.\n\n \u201cKinsman\u201d, the, Vishnu as, 123.\n\n Knowledge, salvation by, doctrine of in _Bhagavad-gita_, 126 _et seq._\n\n K\u00f3s\u00e4l\u00e4, Eastern Aryan kingdom, xxxix;\n Dasaratha, Ramas' father, rajah of, 375.\n\n Kripa (kreep\u00e4), miraculous birth of, 192 _n._;\n night slaughter in Pandava camp, 307-9.\n\n Krishna (krish\u00b4n\u0103), evidence of Greek ambassador, Megasthenes,\n regarding, 122;\n an avatara of Vishnu, 125;\n doctrines of his _Bhagavad-gita_ (Divine Song), 126 _et seq._;\n a son of Vasudeva, 128;\n father escapes with at birth, 128;\n the shepherd-lover of Gopis (milkmaids), 129;\n Juggernaut and, 136, 137;\n as teacher of Vaishnava faith, 138, 139;\n worship of Shiva by, 146;\n bride of an incarnation of Lakshmi, 149;\n nephew of Queen Pritha, 173;\n at swayamvara of Draupadi, 215 _et seq._;\n gifts of to Pandavas, 223;\n Arjuna visits during exile, 226;\n Arjuna weds Subhadra, sister of, 227;\n expedition against Jarasandha, 229-31;\n at Pandava imperial sacrifice, 231, 232;\n slays Sishupala, rajah of Chedi, 233, 234;\n Sishupala an incarnation of Shiva, 234 _n._;\n visits Pandavas during second exile, 251;\n at Abhimanyu's wedding, 269;\n at meeting of Pandava allies, 270 _et seq._;\n promise to be Arjuna's charioteer, 273;\n as spokesman for Pandavas, 275;\n visit to Hastinapur, 276, 277;\n pleads with Kauravas for peace, 278;\n reproves Duryodhana, 280;\n plot to seize and transformation of, 281;\n departure from Hastinapur, 282;\n prophecy regarding the great war, 286;\n instruction of to Arjuna, 287, 288;\n miracle by on battlefield, 300;\n the Arjuna-Karna combat, 304, 305;\n at horse sacrifice, 317, 318, 319;\n closing days of and death, 322 _et seq._\n\n Krit\u00e4 Yuga, length of, 104, 107;\n the White Age, 108, 109;\n in Greek and Celtic mythologies, 109 _et seq._\n\n Krit\u00e4n\u0103, \u201cthe finisher\u201d, Yama is, 42.\n\n Krit\u0103v\u0103r\u00b4m\u0103n, night slaughter in Pandava camp, 307-9;\n slain by Satyaki, 322.\n\n Kshatriya caste. See _Caste_.\n\n Ksh\u0103t\u00b4riy\u0103s, the red, xxv;\n aristocratic caste, gods as Kshatriyas, 14;\n Brahmans become greater than, 84;\n origin of caste of in Purusha myth, 89;\n Buddhism and Jainism originate among, 120, 132;\n Brahmans achieve spiritual dominion over, 121, 136;\n destroyed by Vishnu's warrior incarnation, 136;\n Vishwamitra raised to Brahman caste, 154;\n Gandharva marriage for, 160.\n\n K\u00fcber\u0103, god of treasure, Bhima's journey to region of, 105;\n Bhima reaches lotus lake of, 109.\n See _Kuvera_.\n\n Kumbha-Karna (koom\u00b4bh\u0103-k\u0103r\u00b4n\u0103), the sleeping giant, 419;\n slain by Rama, 420.\n\n Kurds, Armenians contrasted with, xxii;\n as descendants of Aryan raiders, xxxviii.\n\n Kurma (koor\u00b4m\u0103), king of tortoises, 143.\n\n Kuru (koo\u00b4roo), the tribe called, united with the Panchala tribe, 155.\n\n Kuru, King, as son of sun maiden and rajah Samvarna, 74, 156, 164.\n\n Kuru-Kshetr\u0103, country of the Kurus and famous battlefield of, 155,\n 156;\n Pandavas and Kauravas assemble for battle, 286.\n\n Kuru-P\u0103nch\u00e4l\u0103s, kingdom of, xxxix;\n doctrinal influence of, xliv;\n late invasion of and nation of, 155;\n wars of in epic narrative, 156.\n\n Kurus, the Kauravas of epic fame, 156.\n\n K\u00fcs\u0103, son of Rama and Sita, 426.\n\n Kushna (koosh\u00b4n\u0103), the demon, \u201cthe scorcher\u201d, 66.\n\n K\u00fcver\u0103, the heaven of, 59;\n demoniac hosts of, 68;\n like the Germanic Laurin, 251;\n Pandavas behold dwelling of, 258;\n advice of to Yudhishthira, 258.\n See _Kubera_.\n\n\n L\u0103ksh\u00b4m\u0103n\u0103, xlviii;\n son of Duryodhana, in great war, 291, 292.\n\n Laksh\u00b4mana, brother of Rama, 378;\n goes against demons, 379-81;\n goes into exile with Rama, 392 _et seq._;\n story of the hag Surpa-nakha, 400 _et seq._;\n the golden deer, 404;\n rape of Sita, 405 _et seq._;\n searches with Rama for Sita, 408;\n revelation of the vulture king, 409;\n conflict with headless demon, 410;\n among the apes, 411 _et seq._;\n in the Ceylon war, 418 _et seq._;\n Sita's second banishment, 426.\n\n Lakshmi (l\u0103ksh\u00b4mee), an earth goddess, xl;\n origin of in sea of milk, 144;\n as love goddess and Sri, 149;\n mother of the love god, 151;\n as daughter of Daksha, the rishi, 153, 154;\n Rukmini an incarnation of, 234 _n._;\n Sita as, 427.\n\n Lamb, sacrifice of in Devon, &c., and India, xlii.\n\n Land laws, in Vedic period, 78.\n\n \u201cLand of the Fathers\u201d, paradise as, 39-41, 42 _et seq._\n\n Language, indication of nationality not race, xxiii.\n\n \u201cLanguage of Birds\u201d, significance of belief regarding, 75.\n\n L\u0103nk\u00e4 (Ceylon), Ravana, demon king of, 65, 66, 377 _et seq._\n\n Lapps, fairies and elves as, 70 _et seq._\n\n \u201cLast battle\u201d, in Teutonic and Indian lore, 65.\n\n Latham, Dr. Robert Gordon, views of on Indo-European problem, xx.\n\n Laurin (law-reen), the rose garden of, 251.\n\n L\u0103v\u0103, son of Rama and Sita, 426.\n\n Leopard, Shiva wears skin of, 147.\n\n Life, essence of, soma as, 37;\n sanctity of in Buddhism, 132;\n \u201ccut off\u201d, belief regarding \u201cthe man in the eye\u201d (soul), 42;\n air of (see _Air of life_).\n\n Life, water of. See _Water of life_, _Moisture of life_, _Mead of\n gods_.\n\n Life blood, spirit identified with, 37.\n\n Life of life, the Brahma. See _World soul_.\n\n Lightning, Shiva a god of, 146.\n See _Agni_, _Indra_, and _Maruts_.\n\n Lincolnshire, the \u201cgad whip\u201d in, xlii.\n\n Lion, horse for sacrifice becomes a, 314.\n\n Lioness, King Bharata suckled by a, 161.\n\n Lions, Bharata as tamer of, 161.\n\n Liquors, intoxicating, made by early Aryo-Indians, 77.\n\n Literature, god of, Ganesa as, 151.\n\n Lithuanian language, xx, xxi.\n\n Loke (l\u014d\u00b4k\u0113), Dadyak the Indian, 12, 16.\n\n \u201cLong heads\u201d in India, xxv, xxvi;\n burial customs of, xxxv.\n\n Lotus, Prajapati rises from like the Egyptian Horus, 101;\n Brahm\u0103 rises from, 124.\n\n Lotuses, the celestial, Bhima's journey for, 105 _et seq._\n\n Love, charms for, 86.\n\n Love god, consumed by Shiva, 146;\n son of Vishnu and Lakshmi, names of, 151.\n\n Luck, water spirits the source of, 148.\n\n \u201cLunar Race\u201d, tribe of Bharatas as, xxxix;\n King Bharata and descendants belong to, 157 _et seq._\n\n Lunar worship, rebirth and, 117.\n\n\n Macalister, Professor, xxxviii _n._\n\n MacCulloch, Colonel, stamped out infanticide, 60.\n\n Macdonell, Professor, date of Aryan invasion of India, xxx;\n on Vedic burial customs, xxxii;\n on origin of transmigration theory, xliii, 116;\n on Ribhus, 11;\n on moon bowl, 12;\n on Vayu, 25;\n on \u201cpath of fathers\u201d and \u201cpath of the gods\u201d, 39;\n Yama hymn, 40;\n on monotheism of Mithra cult, 41, 87 _n._;\n on Upanishadic doctrines, 88;\n the Kuru and Puru tribes, 155.\n\n Macdonell and Keith, on Dasa and Dasyu, 70 _n._\n\n Macpherson, Major, infanticide custom, 60.\n\n M\u0103d\u0103n, the love god, 151.\n\n M\u0103d\u00b4hy\u0103des\u0103. See _Middle country_.\n\n M\u0103d\u00b4r\u0103, in story of Savitri, 44.\n\n Madras, human sacrifices in, 88.\n\n Madri (m\u0103d\u00b4ree), Queen, wife of King Pandu, 173;\n purchase of, 175;\n mother of two Pandavas, 176;\n performs suttee, 177.\n\n M\u0103gh\u0103d\u00b4h\u0103, Eastern Aryan kingdom, xxxix.\n\n Magical control of gods and nature, 80, 84.\n\n Magical formulas, in _Atharvaveda_, 85;\n in Scotland, 86 _n._\n\n Magyar language, xix.\n\n Mahabharata (m\u0103h\u00e4\u00b4bh\u00e4\u00b4\u00b4r\u0103t\u0103), the, hero songs beginning of, xlvi;\n heroes and heroines of, xlvii;\n villains of, xlviii;\n cattle harrying in, 4 _n._;\n Indra-Vritra battle in, 7 _et seq._;\n Ruru and Savitri tales from, 43 _et seq._;\n descriptions of the various heavens in, 57-9;\n religious need for a son in, 59, 60;\n Rakshasas like gorillas in, 66;\n demoniac Vartikas in, 68;\n purpose of horse sacrifices in, 92;\n smoke cleanses sins, 93;\n world's ages (yugas) in, 105;\n Markandeya's account of the yugas (world's ages) in, 112 _et seq._;\n Vishnu and Brahma in, 123;\n early myths in, 124;\n _Bhagavad-gita_ (Divine Song) in, 125 _et seq._;\n Krishna appendix to, 129;\n history of Brahmanism enshrined in, 138;\n furnishes knowledge regarding Brahma, 139;\n Markandeya's account of the Deluge in, 140 _et seq._;\n \u201cChurning of the Ocean\u201d in, 142;\n Shiva worshipped by Krishna in, 146;\n Shiva's gift of weapons in, 146;\n Vyasa as author of, 154;\n Kuru-Kshetra battlefield in Kuru country, 155;\n founded on tribal hero songs: heroes of, 156;\n compared with Iliad and date of origin of, 156;\n story of, 157 _et seq._;\n Pandavas favoured in, 178 _n._\n\n Maha deva (m\u0103h\u00e4\u00b4dayv\u0103), Shiva as, 146.\n\n Maha-rishis (m\u0103h\u00e4\u00b4reesh\u00b4\u00b4es), 102.\n See _Rishis, the Celestial_.\n\n \u201cMaltese cross\u201d in Elam and Babylon, 155, 156.\n\n Man, the first, Purusha as, 89;\n like the Teutonic Ymer, 90;\n like Chinese P'an Ku and Egyptian Ptah, 90 _n._\n\n \u201cMan in the eye\u201d, the, soul as, 42.\n\n Managarm, Teutonic moon devourer, Rahu the Indian, 64, 142.\n\n M\u00e4n\u00b4\u0103s\u0103, snake goddess, 152.\n\n Mandapala (m\u0103nd\u0103\u00b4p\u0103l\u00e4), the childless Rishi, refused entry to heaven,\n 59.\n\n M\u0103ndara mountain, in \u201cChurning of the Ocean\u201d myth, 143.\n\n Mani (man\u00b4ee), Germanic moon god, 36.\n\n Manipur, Arjuna weds princess of, 226.\n\n M\u0103n\u00b4m\u0103t\u00b4\u00b4h\u0103, the love god, 151.\n\n Mannus, Teutonic patriarch, 23.\n\n M\u0103nt\u00b4h\u0103r\u0103, the hunchback, plots against Rama, 385 _et seq._;\n Satrughna desires to slay, 397.\n\n _Manu, laws of_, reincarnation in, 13;\n Narayana creation myth in, 101 _et seq._;\n celestial Rishis in, 102;\n transmigration doctrine in, 117;\n Gandharva marriage legalized in, 160;\n the Niyoga custom, 171;\n second marriages unlawful in, 369 _n._\n\n Manu (m\u0103n\u00b4oo), patriarch of Agni worshippers, 23;\n Yama and, 39 _n._;\n eponymous ancestor of mankind, 101;\n different forms of, 102;\n in vedas and epics, 140;\n the story of the fish and the Deluge, 140 _et seq._\n\n Manus, the seven and fourteen, 102;\n fourteen reign during \u201cday of Brahm\u0103\u201d, 105.\n\n Mara, the love god, 151.\n\n Maricha, the Rakshasa of Ceylon, Rama drives over ocean, 381;\n as the golden deer, 403;\n Rama slays, 404, 405.\n\n M\u0103richi (m\u0103\u00b4reech-ee, _ch_ as in _each_), the rishi, the grandfather\n of Vishnu's dwarf incarnation, 154.\n\n M\u00e4rk\u0103ndey\u00b4\u0103, long-lived Indian sage, 112 _et seq._;\n visit of to Pandavas during exile, 259.\n\n Marriage customs, the choice of Savitri, 45, 46;\n capture, 60;\n Gandharva marriage, 160;\n Bhishma on various modes, 169;\n his capture of king's three daughters, 169, 170;\n Draupadi becomes joint wife of Pandavas, 222, 223;\n Arjuna and Ul\u00fap\u00ed, and princess of Manipur, and Subhadra, 226-8;\n second marriages unlawful, 369 _n._\n\n Mars, horse sacrificed to, 92, 93.\n\n Maruts (m\u0103r\u00b4oots), Indra's attendants, 5;\n in battle, 5, 6;\n Vayu and, 25;\n Rudras and, 26;\n in Indra's heaven, 58;\n at Dasaratha's horse sacrifice, 377.\n\n M\u0103t\u00e4li, Indra's chariot driver, 256, 258, 259.\n\n Maternity, Sasti goddess of, 152, 153.\n\n Mathematics, Brahmans and study of, 83.\n\n M\u0103t\u00b4hur\u00e3, Krishna and king of, 128.\n\n May customs, Buriats burn house of dead, xxxiv;\n \u201cram feast\u201d of Devon, xlii.\n\n Mead, the early Aryo-Indian, 77.\n\n Mead of the gods (see _Amrita_ and _Soma_), Teutonic and Hindu giants\n and, 36;\n as \u201cwater of life\u201d, 37.\n\n Mediator, the, Mithra as, 30, 31.\n\n Mediterranean race, xxvii;\n Brahmans of, xxviii;\n the new Brahmanical Pantheon, xl.\n See also _Brown race_.\n\n Mediterranean racial type and customs in Britain, xlii.\n\n Megas\u00b4thenes, the Greek ambassador in India, evidence of regarding\n Vishnu, Shiva, and Krishna, 122.\n\n Memphis (mem\u00b4fis), \u201cHammer god\u201d of, 3, 139.\n\n Men\u0103k\u00e4, the Apsara, 43, 69, 159, 160.\n\n Merodach, Babylonian god, in creation myth, 90.\n\n Meru (may\u00b4roo), 17.\n See _Mount Meru_.\n\n Mesopotamia, Aryan gods in, 62.\n\n \u201cMetal of heaven\u201d, iron the, 77.\n\n Metaphysical thought, Brahmans and, 82.\n\n Metempsychosis, doctrine of. See _Transmigration of souls_.\n\n Mexico, ancient, 90.\n\n \u201cMiddle Country\u201d (Madhyadesa) of Northern India, xxxix;\n tribal struggles and hero songs of, xlvi;\n early Aryo-Indians in, 76, 83;\n centre of Brahmanic culture, 88;\n held by Panchalas, 155.\n\n Milesian Age, in Irish mythology, 110 _et seq._\n\n Milk, Ocean of. See _Sea of Milk_.\n\n Milkmaids (Gopis), Krishna and the, 129.\n\n Milky Way, Arjuna travels by to Indra's heavens, 69, 256.\n\n Mimer, the \u201cwonder smith\u201d, Twashtri like, 4;\n well of, 37.\n\n Mind, identified with soul, 101.\n\n Miner\u00b4va, Saraswati as, 149.\n\n Missionaries, the Buddhist, 133.\n\n Mitanni (mi-tan\u00b4ee), Aryan settlement in, xxix;\n names of kings, xxx;\n kings as overlords of Assyria, xxx;\n deities of, xxxi, xxxii;\n military autocracy of, xxxvi;\n Kurds descendants of Aryans of, xxxviii, xxxix;\n Indra \u201chammer god\u201d of, 3;\n Aryanized kingdom of, 31;\n Agni not a god in, 32;\n Mitra, Varuna, Indra, and Nasatya gods of, 2;\n Aryan kings as overlords of Assyria, 62.\n\n Mithila (mit\u00b4hil\u00e4), Janaka, father of Sita, rajah of, 375.\n\n Mithra, in Vedic Age, xxxi;\n in Asia Minor, xxxii, 28;\n in Babylonian and Persian mythologies, 29;\n the Assyrian \u201cmetru\u201d, 30;\n as a \u201ccorn god\u201d, 30;\n as the mediator, 30, 31;\n as Fitzgerald's Jamshid (Yima), 40;\n monotheism of cult of, 41.\n\n Mit\u00b4r\u0103 (Mithra), in Vedic Age, xxxi;\n in Asia Minor, xxxii;\n identified with Agni, 22;\n associated with Varuna, 28;\n as protector of hearth and home, 29;\n as Babylonian sun god, 29;\n Assyrian and Persian clues, 30;\n a god of Mitanni, 32;\n Surya as \u201cthe eye\u201d of, 33;\n identified with Jamshid (Yima), 40;\n influenced by Babylonian beliefs, 40;\n plays flute in Paradise, 41;\n as an Asura, 61;\n god of the overlords of Assyria, 62.\n\n Mohammedans, number of in India, xviii.\n\n Moisture of life, saliva as, 37;\n creative tears of Prajapati, 100, 101.\n\n Monastic orders, the Buddhist, Egyptian, and Christian, 133.\n\n Money, name of coin derived from necklet, 78.\n\n Mongolians, in India, xxv, xxvi, xxvii, xxviii;\n Turki and Ugrian tribes, xxix;\n \u201cFather right\u201d among, xxxi;\n burial customs of, xxxiv;\n horse sacrifice among, 90;\n cremation ceremony described, 91.\n\n Monotheism, Mithra's cult and, 41.\n\n Moon, worship of, xl;\n doctrine of transmigration and, 117;\n standing stones visited by women at phases of, 147;\n as source of growth and moisture (water of life), 37;\n as ripener of crops, 35;\n influence of on animate and inanimate nature, 35;\n mead of Teutonic and Hindu gods in, 36, 142 _et seq._;\n horse sacrifice and phase of, 92, 313;\n race of the, King Bharata and descendants of, 157 _et seq._;\n Damayanti compared to, 356;\n gender of in Europe and Africa, 356 _n._, 357 _n._\n\n Moon bowl, Twashtri shapes, 12.\n\n Moon bride, 356.\n\n Moon devourer, Rahu in India, dragon in China, and the wolf in\n Teutonic lore, 64, 144.\n\n Moon god addressed with Rudra, 28;\n as sire of the sun, 29;\n Chandra as, 35;\n marriage of with sun maid, 37;\n Shiva as, 146.\n\n Morocco, blondes in, xxix.\n\n Mosso, A., broad heads invade Europe, xxxv.\n\n Mother, the great, worship of, 13;\n in India, 148;\n Lakshmi as, 149.\n\n Mother earth, invoked at burials, 115, 116.\n\n \u201cMother of the Vedas\u201d, Vach as, 149.\n\n \u201cMother right\u201d, recognized by brown (Mediterranean) race, xxx.\n\n Mothers, the, Agni has ten, 20;\n two of Rajah Jarasandha, 229;\n and of Osiris, 229 _n._\n\n Moulton, Professor, on Mithra's origin, 30, 40 _n._; 41.\n\n Mountain, the holy, addressed by Damayanti, 347.\n\n Mountain giants, theory of origin of, 71.\n\n Mount Meru (may\u00b4roo), Indra's heaven on, 4;\n Pandava princes journey to, 324 _et seq._\n\n Muir's Sanskrit texts, xxv, 39 _n._, 101 _n._;\n on Yugas, 104, 105 _n._\n\n M\u00fcller, Dr. Sophus, introduction into Europe of cremation rite, xxxv.\n\n M\u00fcller, Max, his Aryan term, xx;\n on Aryan racial cradle, xxi;\n on Aryan language and race problem, xxiii _et seq._\n\n Music, Narada the patron of, 153.\n\n Mycen\u00e6, lords of, did not cremate dead, xxxvi.\n\n Myres, Professor, on military aristocracies, xxxvi.\n\n Mythical Ages. See _World's Ages_.\n\n Mythology of India, its special interest, xviii;\n distinction between religion and, 135.\n\n Myths, rational explanation of criticized, 70, 71.\n\n\n N\u00e4g\u0103 country, infanticide in, 60.\n\n N\u00e4g\u0103s, the snake deities, in Varuna's heaven, 59, 65;\n worship of among Aryans, 66;\n none in world's first age, 107;\n Surasa mother of, 414.\n\n N\u0103k\u00fcl\u0103, the Pandava, son of Madri and twin Aswins, 176;\n temporary death of, 263;\n journey of towards paradise, 324 _et seq._.\n\n N\u0103l\u0103 (of the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_), \u201cworld guardians\u201d in story of, 31;\n horse sacrifice in, 91, and purpose of, 92;\n the story, 328 _et seq._;\n message of the swan, 330;\n gods desire Damayanti, 332;\n interview with Damayanti, 333-5;\n the swayamvara, 335-7;\n demon Kali plots against, 338-9;\n Kali enters, 340;\n gambling match with brother, 341, 342;\n exile of, 342, 343;\n deserts Damayanti, 344;\n the serpent Karkotaka, 353;\n is transformed, 354;\n as Vahuka, the charioteer, 355;\n Damayanti's search for, 358, 359;\n the second swayamvara, 360;\n journey to Rituparna, 360-3;\n Kali ejected, 362;\n Damayanti's maid interviews, 365-8;\n interview with Damayanti, 368-70;\n second gambling match and kingdom won back, 371-3.\n\n N\u00e4la (of the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_), the green ape artisan, 418.\n\n N\u0103n\u00b4di, bull of Shiva, 147.\n\n Narada (n\u00e4\u00b4r\u0103d\u0103), the Devarishi, in story of Savitri, 45;\n descriptions of various heavens by, 57-9;\n a renowned teacher and musician, 153;\n message of to Pandavas, 321, 322;\n in story of Nala, 331;\n curses Karkotaka, 353;\n in the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_, 374.\n\n N\u00e3r\u00e3yana (n\u00e4r\u00b4\u00e4y\u0103n\u0103), divine incarnation of world soul, 100;\n Brahma as, 101;\n colours of in various yugas (world's ages), 108;\n Markandeya's vision of at end of yugas, 114 _et seq._;\n Vishnu as, 124.\n\n Nasatya, in Asia Minor, xxxii, 32.\n\n Natesa (n\u0103-t_e_sh\u00b4\u0103), the dancer, Shiva as, 147, 148.\n\n Nature, feeling for in Sanskrit literature, xlvii;\n magical control of, 80.\n\n Necklet, coin called after, 78.\n\n Nectar, of the gods, soma as, 35;\n of Nagas, 66.\n\n Neith (ne-ith), Egyptian \u201cearth mother\u201d, 13.\n\n Nemed's Age, in Irish mythology, 110 _et seq._\n\n Neolithic Age, European burial customs in, xxxiii;\n Indra as a god of, 2.\n\n Nepthys (nep\u00b4this), as joint mother of Osiris, 229 _n._\n\n New Year celebrations, xliii.\n\n Nifelhel (n\u012dfel\u00b4hel), xliv.\n\n Night, Ratri goddess of, 34.\n\n Night fairies, 70.\n\n Nirriti, goddess of destruction, 67;\n region of in _Brahmanas_, 81.\n\n Nirv\u00e4n\u0103, \u201ceternal emancipation\u201d, Buddha's teaching regarding, 131 _et\n seq._\n\n Normans, xxxv, xxxvi.\n\n Northern fair race, xxvii, xxviii, xxix.\n\n\n Oak in Aryan languages, xxi.\n\n Ocean of Milk, xl;\n the churning of the, 142 _et seq._\n Also _Sea of Milk_.\n\n Ocean, heaven of. See _Varuna_.\n\n Odin (\u014d\u00b4din), xlv, 12, 13, 24, 36, 37.\n\n Odyssey, the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_ compared with, 129, 156;\n the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_ compared with, 139.\n\n Offspring, religious need for, 59, 60.\n\n Oldenberg, Professor, on Vedic burial customs, xxxii;\n on Agni's mothers, 20;\n on Agni and Mitra, 22;\n on Vishwamitra-Vasishtha problem, 154;\n on the Puru, Kuru, and other clans, 155.\n\n Olympus, 4.\n\n _Om_, the three Vedas and the Trinity, 111;\n Vishnu as, 126.\n\n Omar, Fitzgerald's, 40.\n\n \u201cOrd na Feinne\u201d, the Gaelic thunder hammer, 3.\n\n Orkney, cremating invaders reach, xxxv.\n\n Ormuzd, xxxiii.\n\n Osiris (\u014cs\u012b\u00b4ris), xliv;\n Rajah Jarasandha has two mothers like, 229 _n._\n\n Ossianic (osh\u00b4e-an-ik), wife burning reference, xxxvii.\n\n Oudh. See _Ayodhya_.\n\n Owls as messengers of death, 41;\n Egyptian spirits as, 75.\n\n\n Pachomios, the first Christian monk, 133.\n\n Pal\u00e6olithic Age, 71.\n\n Palestine, cremation in, xxxvii;\n \u201chammer god\u201d in, 3.\n\n P'an Ku, China's \u201cfirst man\u201d and thunder god, 2;\n like Indra and Ptah, 9, 10;\n as chaos giant, 90 _n._, 148.\n\n Panchala (p\u0103n-ch\u00e4l\u00b4\u0103\u2014_ch_ as in _change_) tribe united with Kuru\n tribe, xxxix;\n Drupada becomes rajah of, 180;\n divided by Drona, 197;\n Drupada's son and daughter the hope of, 210;\n swayamvara of Draupadi at, 211 _et seq._;\n Draupadi becomes joint wife of Pandavas at, 222.\n\n Pandavas (p\u00e4n\u00b4d\u0103v\u0103s), epic heroes, rivals of the Kauravas (Kurus),\n 156;\n the sons of Pritha and Madri, 176;\n as youthful rivals of the Kauravas, 177 _et seq._;\n rivalries at the tournament, 185 _et seq._;\n defeat Drupada for Drona, 195, 196;\n conquests by, 197;\n first exile of, 198 _et seq._;\n sojourn in Eka-chakra, 206 _et seq._;\n journey of to Panchala, 211, 212;\n Draupadi to be possessed by all, 219 _et seq._;\n division of raj with Kauravas, 224;\n Arjuna's exile, 225;\n imperial sacrifice of at Indra-prastha, 228 _et seq._;\n at the gambling match with Kauravas, 237 _et seq._;\n exiled, 248 _et seq._;\n second exile of, 249 _et seq._;\n need of celestial weapons, 255;\n rescue of Duryodhana by, 259, 260;\n four brothers stricken down at holy pond by Dharma, 263 _et seq._;\n end of forest exile, 263;\n in city of Virata, 266 _et seq._;\n Kauravas declare exile of not completed, 268;\n preparations for the \u201cgreat war\u201d, 270 _et seq._;\n the Virata meeting of allies of, 270 _et seq._;\n negotiations and preparations for war, 273 _et seq._;\n war breaks out with Kauravas, 285 _et seq._;\n triumph of mingled with grief, 310 _et seq._;\n behold return of the dead warriors, 320, 321;\n gloom of last days of, 322;\n journey of five brothers and Draupadi to Indra's heaven, 323-327.\n\n Pandu (pan\u00b4d\u00fc), son of Vyasa, 172;\n wives of when king, 173;\n story of doom of, 175 _et seq._;\n in paradise, 327.\n\n P\u00e4nis, aerial demons, enemies of Indra, 67.\n\n Pantheism, the Upanishadic, 88.\n See _Brahm\u0103_ and _World soul_.\n\n Paradise, the Indian, xlvii;\n dead walk to, or are transported to by fire, 39.\n Also see _Heaven_.\n\n Parashara (p\u0103r\u00e4sh\u00b4\u0103r\u0103), the Brahman, father of Vyasa, 167.\n\n P\u0103r\u0103s\u00fc\u00b4-r\u00e4ma\u0103 (Rama with the axe), an incarnation of Vishnu, 136.\n\n Parj\u0103n\u00b4ya, rain cloud as, 26.\n\n Parm\u00e4da, the Brahman, discovers Nala, 359.\n\n Parsees, number of, xviii;\n burial custom of, xxxiii.\n\n Parthians, the, ancient Indians archers on horseback like, 187 _n._\n\n P\u00e4rth\u00b4olon's age, in Irish mythology, 110 _et seq._\n\n P\u0103r\u00b4v\u0103t\u0103, the rishi, rival of Narada, 153;\n in story of Nala, 331.\n\n Parvati (p\u00e4r\u00b4v\u0103tee), the goddess, wife of Shiva, 150;\n mother of Ganesa, 151;\n as mother of Kartikeya, 152;\n horse for sacrifice becomes mare owing to curse of, 314.\n\n Pastoral life, the Aryan, 76.\n\n P\u00e4t\u00e4l\u0103, Indian Fomorians confined in, 64;\n \u201cAsura fire\u201d in, 65;\n Danavas and Daityas dwell in, 256.\n\n Patriarchal life in Vedic period, 77.\n\n Patriarchs, the tribal, Brighu as a celestial rishi, 102.\n\n Patroklos (p\u00e4-tr\u014dk\u00b4los), cremation of, xxxvi, xxxviii, 38.\n\n Peacocks, Solomon obtained from India, 84.\n\n Penance, power derived from, 85;\n Irish saint performs like Brahmans, 111.\n\n Persia, as Aryan racial cradle, xix;\n Assyrian influence in mythology of, 62;\n horse sacrificed in, 93.\n\n Persian Gulf, Ea, artisan god of, 12.\n\n Persian language compared with Sanskrit, 61, 62.\n\n Persian mythology, Mithra in, 29, 30;\n Haoma (soma) in, 36.\n\n Petrie, Professor Flinders, on monasticism in Egypt, 133.\n\n Pharaoh, Rajah a god among men like a, 74 _n._\n\n Physician of the gods, 144.\n\n Pig, the, treatment of in Asiatic, European, and African mythologies,\n 136.\n\n Pigeon as a messenger of death, 41.\n\n Pinches, Professor, 12, 29 _n._\n\n Pisachas (pe-sh\u00e4tch\u00b4\u0103s), devourers of dead bodies, 67.\n\n Pitri\u00b4p\u0103ti, \u201clord of the fathers\u201d (dead) Yama is, 42.\n\n Pit\u00b4ris, the spirits of ancestors, xxxviii;\n Yama king of the, 57, 58;\n worship of, 61, 102.\n\n Pitris (Fathers), the land of, xxxii;\n childless Rishi sent back from, 59, 116.\n\n Pleiades, wives of Rishis as, 153.\n\n Pleistocene age, men of as elves and fairies, 71.\n\n Plough, the, used by early Aryo-Indians, 76.\n\n Poetry, God of, Ganesa as, 151.\n\n Poets, priests were, 33, 78, 79, 80.\n See _Rishi_.\n\n Pole Star, Brahman identified with, 145.\n\n Pope Gregory the Great, 135.\n\n Pork, prejudice against and where eaten, 136.\n\n Posts, sacrificial, 93.\n\n \u201cPot of Worth\u201d, 249 _n._\n\n Prabhasa (pr\u0103-bh\u00e4\u00b4s\u0103), city of, Arjuna in, 226.\n\n Pr\u0103dyum\u00b4n\u0103, the love god, 151.\n\n Pr\u0103hl\u00e4d\u00b4\u0103, the demon king's son, story of, 135.\n\n Pr\u0103j\u00e4\u00b4p\u0103ti, the Creator, 94, 98;\n as the Chaos Boar, 136;\n divine incarnation of World Soul, 100;\n creative tears of, 100, 101;\n rises from lotus like the Egyptian Horus, 101.\n\n Pr\u0103m\u0103dv\u0103r\u0103, in story of \u201cThe Brahman and his Bride\u201d, 43, 44.\n\n Prayers, mantras as, 87.\n\n Predestination, belief in, 42 _et seq._\n\n Prehistoric monsters, bones of and giant stories, 71.\n\n Preserver, the, Vishnu as in Trinity, 119.\n\n Preserver, Vishnu as child creator, 124.\n\n Priesthood, rise of the, 80;\n four periods of Brahman's life, 81;\n how maintained, 82;\n as human gods, 84.\n See _Rishi_, _Hotri_, _Purohita_, _Brahman_.\n\n Priests, as poets and leaders, 33, 78, 79;\n caste of, 79.\n See _Caste_.\n\n Prishata (prish\u00b4\u00e4t\u0103), father of Drupada, 179.\n\n Pritha (preet\u00b4h\u00e4), mother of Pandavas, 21;\n mother of, a nymph, 173;\n Surya, sun god, father of her son Karna, 174;\n choice of King Pandu at swayamvara, 175;\n mother of three Pandavas, 176;\n desires to perform suttee, 176, 177;\n at the tournament, 186 _et seq._;\n the coming of Karna, 189 _et seq._;\n in first exile of Pandavas, 200;\n flight of, 201;\n story of Bhima and the Rakshasas, 202 _et seq._;\n sends Bhima to slay Vaka, 207;\n journeys with sons to Panchala, 211;\n exile of Arjuna, 225;\n Draupadi and Subhadra, 228;\n interview with Krishna, 282;\n reveals to Karna she is his mother, 283;\n Karna's promise, 284;\n her sorrow for the dead after \u201cgreat war\u201d, 312;\n retires to forest, 319;\n return of the dead, 320, 321;\n perishes in jungle fire, 322;\n in Paradise, 327.\n\n Prithivi (prit\u00b4hi-vee), Indian earth goddess, xxxi, 6;\n as a cow, 13;\n harvest offering to, 14;\n flees from Agni, 20, 148.\n\n _Psalms_, burnt offerings, 121.\n\n Ptah (t\u00e4), as \u201chammer god\u201d of Egypt, 3;\n like Indra and Pa'n Ku, &c., 9, 10;\n as a chaos giant, 90 _n._;\n emerges from chaos egg like Brahma, 101, 114 _n._, 148.\n\n Punjab, Aryan settlement in, xxix;\n date of invasion of, xxx;\n fire worshippers in, xxxii;\n Aryans of called \u201cWesterners\u201d, xxxix, 1;\n Indra in and in Mitanni, 3;\n beliefs regarding after life in, 40;\n Aryans in Babylon before entering, 62;\n Aryan folk drift from, 76.\n\n Punyaj\u00e4nas, \u201cthe good people\u201d, Yakshas as, 68.\n\n Pur\u00e4n\u0103s, the sacred poems, 124;\n Krishna in, 129;\n purpose of, 134, 135;\n Hinduism and, 135;\n the sacredness of, 139;\n old myths in, 140;\n the \u201cChurning of the Ocean\u201d in, 142.\n\n P\u00fcrocha\u00b4na, secret agent of Duryodhana, 200;\n death of, 201.\n\n Pur\u014dhit\u0103, family priest, 80;\n Vishwamitra as, 154.\n\n P\u00fcr\u00b4\u00fc, tribal name of as eponymous king, 156;\n a Vedic tribe, merged in Kuru coalition, 155.\n\n P\u00fcr\u00fcsh\u00b4\u0103, the \u201cfirst man\u201d, and sacrifice of by gods, 89;\n compared with Ymer, 90;\n myth of, 95;\n Brahma identified with, 102;\n Saraswati as the female form of, 149;\n Rudra as, 150.\n\n P\u00fcr\u00fcsh\u00b4\u0103-m_e_\u00b4\u00b4dha (human sacrifice), 88.\n\n Push\u00b4k\u0103r\u0103, brother of Nala, wins kingdom at dice, 340, 341, 342;\n kingdom won back from, 371-3.\n\n P\u00fct, the hell called, 41;\n fathers only are reserved from, 59.\n\n\n \u201cQueen of Heaven\u201d, the Babylonian and Assyrian, xxxi.\n\n\n R\u00e4, Egyptian sun god, xli, xliv;\n compared with Surya, 32;\n Brahma emerges from chaos egg like, 101, 114 _n._;\n Shiva acts like, 150.\n\n Race run by gods, 14.\n\n Races, the mythical, \u201csilver\u201d, \u201cgolden\u201d, \u201cbronze\u201d, and \u201ciron\u201d, 110.\n See _World's Ages_, _Lunar Race_, and _Solar Race_.\n\n Racial types, variety of in India, xvii, xviii;\n influence of disease on, xli.\n\n R\u00e4dh\u00e4\u00b4, Krishna's favourite, 129, 149.\n\n Ragnarok (rag\u00b4na-rok), in Teutonic mythology, xliv _n._;\n in Indian giant lore, 65.\n\n R\u00e4hu, swallower of sun and moon, 64;\n the rational theory, 71;\n the demon of eclipse, origin of, 144.\n\n Raids for wives, 60.\n\n Rain, frog hymn for, 36, 37;\n priests help Indra to bring, 84;\n Buriat horse sacrifice to obtain, 91;\n drum and trumpet to bring, 92, 317;\n souls turned into by the moon, 117.\n\n Rajah, as a divine Pharaoh, 74 _n._\n\n R\u00e4j\u0103s\u00fay\u0103 (imperial sacrifice) held by Yudhishthira, 228 _et seq._;\n Duryodhana desires to perform, 261.\n\n R\u00e4k\u00b4sh\u0103s\u0103s, Agni slayer of, 22;\n in Agni hymn, 24;\n \u201cenemies of man\u201d, the \u201cnight prowlers\u201d, 66;\n Yakshas sometimes like, 68;\n rational explanation of criticized, 71;\n none in world's first age, 107;\n the rishi Pulastya a slayer of, 154;\n Bhima weds a woman of, 202 _et seq._;\n Bhima's Rakshasa son, 206;\n Bhima slays Hidimva, 202-5;\n Jara as a household fairy who is worshipped, 229;\n Rama and Lakshmana wage war against, 379-81;\n unable to break Shiva's bow, 382;\n Rama battles against alone, 402, 403;\n apes battle against in Ceylon, 419 _et seq._;\n Kumbha-Karna, the sleeper, 419, 420;\n rout of in Ceylon war, 424.\n\n R\u00e4m\u0103 of _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_, xlvi, xlvii, xlviii;\n an avatara of Vishnu, 125;\n in cult of Vishnu, 139;\n story of, 374 _et seq._;\n birth of and childhood, 378;\n goes to forest with Vishwamitra, 378;\n slays Rakshasa woman, 380;\n celestial weapons and spirits of, 381;\n scatters demons, 381;\n breaks Shiva's bow, 382;\n wins Sita, 383; honeymoon of, 383, 384;\n selected as heir apparent, 384;\n hunchback's plot and Kaikeyi's commands, 385, 386;\n sent into exile, 389-93;\n Sita refuses to desert, 391-2;\n dying father calls for, 396;\n Bharata faithful to, 397;\n refuses to return until exile is ended, 398;\n reproaches Javali, 399;\n wanderings of with Sita and Laksmana, 400;\n wooed by Surpa-nakha, 400, 401;\n battle with Rakshasas, 402;\n demon as a golden deer, 403;\n rape of Sita by demon king of Ceylon, 404, 405, 406, 407;\n search for Sita, 408;\n vulture king's revelation, 409;\n conflict with demon, 410;\n apes become allies of, 410, 411;\n lamentations for Sita, 411, 412;\n Hanuman discovers Sita in captivity, 413-6;\n King of Ocean's advice, 417;\n \u201cRama's bridge\u201d constructed, 418;\n invasion of Ceylon, 419;\n battles with Rakshasas, 420-3;\n Ravana slain, 423;\n Sita's ordeal by fire, 424, 425;\n return to kingdom and coronation, 425;\n Sita's second exile, 426;\n meets his sons, 426;\n Sita vanishes with earth goddess, 427;\n ascends to heaven, 428.\n\n \u201cRama's bridge\u201d, green apes construct, 418.\n\n \u201cRama with the axe\u201d (Parasu-rama), an incarnation of Vishnu, 136.\n\n _Ramayana_ (r\u00e4m-ay\u00b4\u0103n-\u0103 or r\u00e4-my\u00b4\u0103n-\u0103), the, Aryan tribes in, xxxix;\n traditions of \u201ceasterners\u201d in, xlvi;\n heroes and heroines of, xlvii;\n demon's grief in, xlviii;\n Ravana the Typhon of, 65;\n Rakshasas are great demons in, 66;\n purpose of horse sacrifices in, 92;\n early myths in, 124;\n hero of, an avatara of Vishnu, 125;\n history of Brahmanism enshrined in, 138;\n its religious significance, 139;\n the \u201cchurning of the ocean\u201d in, 142;\n story of, 374 _et seq._\n\n \u201cRam feast\u201d of Devon, xlii;\n Indian and other parallels, xlii, xliii.\n\n R\u00e4m\u00b4mon, 3;\n Shiva compared with, 146.\n\n R\u00e4n, Teutonic sea goddess and Agni's mothers, 21.\n\n Rat, the, Ganesa as, 151.\n\n R\u00e4\u00b4tr\u00ef, goddess of night, 34;\n hymn to, 35, 148.\n\n Ravana (r\u00e4\u00b4v\u00e1n\u00e1), a demon, 125;\n demon king of Ceylon, power of derived from Brahma, 377;\n plot to abduct Sita, 403;\n disguised as Brahman, 405;\n carries Sita away, 406, 407;\n Rama hears of, 409, 410;\n apes tell of, 411;\n in peril if he injures Sita, 412;\n Bibhishana deserts, 417;\n the Rama war, 418 _et seq._;\n lamentation of for son's death, 421;\n seeks to slay Sita, 421, 422;\n sister curses and Rama slays, 423.\n\n Razors, used in Vedic period, 77.\n\n Red Age, the Treta Yuga, 108, 109;\n in Greek mythology, 109, 110;\n in Celtic mythology, 110 _et seq._\n\n Red demons, 71.\n\n Red hair, dislike of, 208.\n\n Religion and caste, 79;\n distinction between mythology and, 135.\n\n Rhode, Erwin, 118 _n._\n\n Rib\u00b4hus, divine artisans, in Vedic creation myth, 10;\n like Khnumu of Egypt and elves of Europe, 11, 12;\n rivalry with Twashtri, 11, 12.\n\n Ridgeway, Professor, on cremation custom, xxxv.\n\n \u201cRiding the marches\u201d, an ancient ceremony, xliii.\n\n _Rigv_e_\u00b4da_, belief regarding soul in the, xliii;\n cosmology of, 10;\n Soma book of, 35;\n gods Asuras in, then Suras, 61;\n forest nymph of, 74;\n horse sacrifice in, 91;\n meaning of Yuga in, 104;\n only Veda in Krita Yuga (First and Perfect Age), 108;\n germs of transmigration theory, 116;\n Vishnu in, 122.\n\n Rim\u00b4mon, Naaman's worship of, 3.\n\n Ripley, W. Z., xxii;\n on language and race, xxiii;\n views on Mediterranean race, xxvii;\n view on cremation custom, xxxv;\n Kurds as descendants of Aryan raiders, xxxviii, xxxix.\n\n Rishis, gods derive powers from, 7;\n Indra's hammer made from bones of, 7, 8;\n Danavas conspire to destroy, 9;\n associated with gods, 14;\n poets and priests, 33;\n story of the childless, who is not admitted to heaven, 59;\n ascends to sun in Tapati love story, 74;\n as swans, 75;\n composers of \u201cnew songs\u201d, 79, 80.\n\n Rishis, the celestial, mind-born sons of Brahma, 102;\n Manu as one of, 140;\n in story of the Deluge, 141 _et seq._;\n the various royal and celestial, 153 _n._, 154, 155.\n See _Deva-rishi_.\n\n Risley, views on India's races, xxv _et seq._;\n his Scythian theory, xxvii;\n on infanticide, 60.\n\n Ritualism of sacrifice, 80, 81 _et seq._;\n growth of in Samavedic hymns, 83.\n\n Ritup\u0103r\u00b4n\u0103, Rajah of Ayodhya, Nala takes service with, 342;\n Nala drives to sham swayamvara of Damayanti, 360 _et seq._;\n gives Nala secret of dice, 362.\n\n River, the boiling, in Hades, 326.\n\n River goddesses, 148.\n\n Rivers, worship of, xl;\n Shiva the source of five, 146.\n\n Rivers of India, all female except two, 152.\n\n Roads constructed in Vedic period, 78.\n\n R\u00f6er, Dr. E., 100 _n._\n\n Roman age in Britain, xxxviii.\n\n Romans as Aryans, xxiv;\n horse sacrifice of, 92, 93.\n\n R\u00fcd\u00b4r\u0103, storm god, as \u201cwild huntsman\u201d and Shiva, 26;\n appealed to against Varuna, 28;\n Shiva a development of, 123, 148;\n the goddess Amvika and, 150;\n as Mahadeva, 146;\n Shiva called, 147.\n\n Rudras, the, Maruts as, 26.\n\n R\u00fck\u00b4mini, Krishna's capture of, 233;\n an incarnation of Lakshmi, 234 _n._\n\n R\u00fcr\u00fc, story of life sacrifice of, 43, 44.\n\n Rydberg, on Aryan origins, xxi.\n\n\n Sacrifice, Buriats offer horse to dead, xxxiv;\n of lambs in England, India, &c., xlii;\n cake offerings and first fruits, 14;\n the priests' fee for, 15;\n of life for a woman, 43, 44;\n ritualism of, 80;\n the human (purusha-medha) and the horse (aswa-medha), 88 _et seq._;\n the human in recent times, 89;\n creation the result of, 89;\n the horse among Mongolian Buriats, 91;\n epic ceremonies, 92 _et seq._;\n trees and, 93;\n chaos horse myth, 94 _et seq._;\n symbolism of human sacrifice, 95, 96;\n Isaiah and Buddha oppose, 132;\n Sati (Suttee) offers herself on pyre, 150;\n the imperial (Rajas\u00faya) held by Yudhishthira, 228 _et seq._\n\n Sages, long-lived, in Indian and Irish legend, 112 _et seq._\n\n S\u0103h\u0103dev\u0103, son of Queen Madri and twin Aswins, 176;\n temporary death of, 263 _et seq._;\n journey of towards paradise, 324 _et seq._\n\n Sais, 139.\n\n S\u00e4kas, the, allies of the Kauravas, 287;\n identified with Scythians, 287 _n._\n\n Saliva, as moisture of life, 37.\n\n Salvation, release is, 82;\n by knowledge, doctrine of in _Bhagavad-gita_, 126 _et seq._\n\n Salya (s\u00e4l\u00b4y\u0103), Rajah of Madra, overcome by Bhima at Draupadi's\n swayamvara, 218, 219;\n in the great war, 289 _et seq._;\n as leader of Kauravas and fall of, 305.\n\n Salzburg, Austria, ancient cremation rites at, xxxvi.\n\n S\u0103m\u00b4\u0103n\u0103, \u201cthe leveller\u201d, Yama is, 42.\n\n _S\u00e4m\u00b4av_e_d\u0103_, Soma hymns of, 83.\n\n S\u0103m\u00b4\u0103vurti, \u201cthe impartial judge\u201d, Yama is, 42.\n\n S\u0103m\u00b4pati, brother of vulture king, 413, 414.\n\n S\u0103m\u00b4\u00fcdr\u0103, the sea, origin of name, 83, 84.\n\n S\u0103mv\u0103r\u00b4n\u00e4, King, story of his love for sun maiden, 71 _et seq._\n\n S\u0103nj\u00e4y\u00b4\u00e4, as ambassador to the Pandavas, 274, 275;\n relates incidents of great war to Dhritarastra, 287.\n\n Sanskrit, xix;\n Lithuanian language and, xx;\n compared with Persian language, 62;\n alphabet has Semitic basis, 78;\n influence of Brahmanic scholarship upon, 82.\n\n Sanskrit poets, heroes and heroines of, xlvii;\n feeling of for nature, xlvii.\n\n S\u0103n\u00b4v\u0103, Rajah of, rejects Princess Amba after capture of by Bhishma,\n 170, 171.\n\n Saranyu (s\u0103r\u0103n\u00b4yoo), mother of Ribhus, 11;\n bride of the sun god and divine artisan, 149.\n\n Saraswati (s\u0103r\u0103s\u00b4'w\u0103tee), a river goddess, xl;\n her rival Gayatri, 44 _n._;\n probably same as Bharati, 148;\n becomes wife of Brahma, 149;\n as \u201cmother of the Vedas\u201d and female form of Purusha, 149.\n\n S\u00e4st\u00ef, feline goddess of maternity, 152, 153.\n\n Satanava (s\u0103t\u00e4n\u00b4\u0103v\u0103), name of Bhishma, 166.\n\n _Satapath\u0103 Brahmana_ (s\u0103t\u0103p\u00e4t\u00b4ha), 15, 84;\n transmigration doctrine in, 116.\n\n S\u0103t\u00ef (suttee), in Europe, xxxvii;\n the goddess, ideal wife, 150, 151, 312.\n\n Satrughna (s\u0103t-r\u00fcg\u00b4hn\u0103), brother of Rama, 378;\n desires to slay hunchback, 397.\n\n Saturn, Indra like, 13;\n the planet of in Ganesa myth, 151.\n\n Satyaki (s\u0103t\u00b4y\u0103kee), at meeting of Pandava allies, 270 _et seq._;\n death of, 322, 323.\n\n Satyavan (sat\u00b4y\u0103-v\u00e4n), \u201cthe truthful\u201d, in Savitri story, 45 _et seq._\n\n Satyavati (s\u0103t\u00b4y\u0103-v\u00e4tee), the fisherman's daughter, story of King\n Shantanu's wooing of, 166 _et seq._;\n the mother of Vyasa, 167.\n\n Savitri (s\u0103vit\u00b4ri), assists Indra as world artisan, 10;\n the \u201cstimulator\u201d, as a sun god, 32;\n mantra still addressed to, 33.\n\n Savitri (sh\u00e4vit\u00b4ree), the heroine, xlvii;\n a perfect woman, xlviii;\n Sita, a perfect woman, xlviii;\n story of, 44 _et seq._\n\n Scandinavians, \u201cprehistoric romance\u201d regarding, xxiii;\n as Aryans, xxiv;\n late period of culture, xlv.\n\n Scandinavian thunder giant, 2.\n\n Scef, Agni as, 21.\n\n Scholars, the hermits as, 81, 82.\n\n Scotland, erring wives burned in, xxxvii;\n Highlanders of cattle lifters like Gauls and Aryo-Indians, 15;\n black and white fairies of, 70;\n giant theory does not apply to, 71;\n spirits as birds in, 75;\n Aryo-Indians had clans like Highlanders of, 77;\n the \u201cupwardly man\u201d in, 79;\n metrical charms of, 85, 86 _n._, 87;\n hatred of pork in, 136;\n hags of and the Indian, 380 _n._\n\n Scott, Sir Walter, on the \u201cspeech of spirits\u201d, 75.\n\n Scottish goddess, compared with Egyptian and Indian deities, xli.\n\n Scottish \u201cthunder ball\u201d, the, 2;\n Finn as a thunder giant, 3.\n\n Scyld, Agni as, 21, 22.\n\n Scythians, Indian traces of, xxvii;\n horse sacrificed by the, 93;\n Sakas as, 287 _n._\n\n Sea, the, unknown to early Aryo-Indians, 76;\n origin of name for, 83, 84;\n trade in Age of Solomon, 84;\n in horse-sacrifice creation myth, 94;\n in Manu story, 140 _et seq._;\n Surasa hag of the, 414;\n Sinhika dragon of, 414;\n king of the, 417, 418.\n\n Sea of Milk, Vishnu in, 123;\n the churning of, 143 _et seq._;\n Indra visits Vishnu in, 377.\n\n Seed, the creation, becomes a golden egg, 101.\n\n Seers, priests as, 80.\n\n Sek\u00b4het, Egyptian goddess, compared with Indian and Scottish deities,\n xli;\n K\u00e4li like, 150.\n\n Self, the universal, 98.\n See _World Soul_.\n\n Sergi on Mediterranean race, xxviii.\n\n Serpent, the World, Vishnu's sleep on and birth of Brahma, 124.\n\n Serpent demons or demigods, 65.\n\n Serpent goddess, 152.\n\n Serpent king, in Indian and Egyptian myth, 353 _n._\n\n Serpent worship, Aryans adopt, 66.\n\n Serpents, in the Garuda myth, 145;\n associated with Shiva, 147.\n\n Set, xliv;\n boar demon of Egypt, 136;\n red like Indian Rakshasas, 208 _n._\n\n Shakuni (sh\u0103-koo\u00b4nee), plots to overthrow Pandavas, 199;\n plots against Pandavas, 269;\n prince of Gandhara, plots to overthrow Pandavas, 237;\n plays dice with and cheats Yudhishthira, 240 _et seq._;\n in great war, 287;\n death of, 305.\n\n Shakuntala (sh\u0103-koon\u00b4t\u0103-l\u00e4h), reference to reincarnation in story of,\n 13;\n the hermit maiden, story of in the _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_, 157 _et seq._;\n in Kalidasa's drama, 163 _n._, 164 _n._\n\n Sh\u00e4\u00b4mash, Babylonian sun god, Mitra as, 29.\n\n Sh\u00e4n\u00b4t\u0103nu, King, 164;\n wooing of Ganga, 164 _et seq._;\n wooing of the fishermaid, 166 _et seq._;\n king, wooing of the fisherman's daughter, Satyavati, 167 _et seq._\n\n Sheep, early Aryans had, 76;\n charms to protect, 86.\n\n Shepherd, the divine, Mitra as, 41.\n\n She\u00b4sh\u0103, king of serpents (Nagas), 65, 66;\n as world serpent, Vishnu's sleep on, 124;\n Balarama an incarnation of, 128, 143.\n\n Shitala (she\u00b4t\u0103l\u0103), goddess of smallpox, 153.\n\n Shiva, in Brahmanical revival age, xl;\n restrains avenging goddess like Ra of Egypt, xli;\n identified with Rudra, 26;\n the Destroyer in the trinity, 119;\n the cult of, 122;\n evidence of Greek ambassador Megasthenes regarding, 122;\n Vedic prototype, 123;\n cult of, 124;\n worshipper of plots to slay Krishna, 128;\n as Brahm\u0101, 134;\n in epic narratives, 139;\n how he became the \u201cblue throated\u201d, 144;\n as a mountain god, 146;\n as \u201clord of all creatures\u201d, 146;\n compared with the Irish Balor, 146;\n in form of Vishnu, 147;\n weapons of, 147;\n as destroyer of disease, 148;\n the brides of, 149 _et seq._;\n stops goddess slaughtering enemies, 150;\n trident of made by goddess, 149;\n in myth regarding origin of goddesses, 151;\n destroys the love god, 151;\n Ganesa and Kartikeya, sons of, 151, 152;\n in Draupadi story, 222;\n Sishupala, Rajah of Chedi, slain by Krishna, an incarnation of, 234;\n Arjuna wrestles with for weapons, 255, 256;\n Aswatthaman and on \u201cnight of slaughter\u201d, 308;\n at Dasaratha's horse sacrifice, 376, 377;\n bow of, Rama breaks the, 382, 383.\n\n Siberia, burial customs in, xxxiv;\n horse sacrifice in, 90.\n\n Sid\u00b4dh\u0103s, spirits of ancestors, at horse sacrifice, 376.\n\n Siegfried (seeg\u00b4freed), the Indian, 66, 67;\n bird spirits and, 75.\n\n Sikhandin (sikh\u0103n\u00b4din), Drupada's daughter who became a man, 295;\n incarnation of Princess Amba, 295 _n._;\n fall of Bhishma, 295.\n\n Sikhs (sheeks), number of in India, xviii.\n\n Silver age (white age) in Indian, Greek, and Celtic mythologies, 107\n _et seq._\n\n Sin, creation horse-sacrifice removes, 94, 95.\n\n Sin-cleansing smoke, at horse sacrifice, 318.\n\n Sin\u00b4dre, Twashtri and, 11.\n\n Sin\u00b4hika, sea dragon, 414.\n\n Sishupala (sish-oo-p\u00e4h\u00b4l\u0103), Rajah of Chedi, at Yudhishthira's imperial\n sacrifice, 232;\n slain by Krishna, 233, 234;\n as an incarnation of Shiva, 234 _n._\n\n Sita (see\u00b4t\u00e4), the heroine, xlvii;\n as an incarnation of Vishnu's wife, 149;\n story of Rama and, 374 _et seq._;\n Rama wins by breaking Shiva's bow, 382;\n marriage and honeymoon, 383, 384;\n refuses to part with exiled husband, 387;\n departure of to jungle, 393;\n wanderings of with Rama and Lakshmana, 400 _et seq._;\n the golden deer, 403;\n rape of by demon king, 404-7;\n Rama's lamentations for, 411, 412;\n rejects Ravana, 412, 413;\n visited by Hanuman, 415, 416;\n return of to Rama and ordeal of fire, 424, 425;\n second exile of, 426;\n vanishes with earth goddess, 427;\n as Lakshmi in paradise, 428.\n\n Skull shapes, permanence of, xxii.\n\n Sky axe, lightning caused by, 2.\n\n Sky god, Dyaus-pita as, 12.\n See _Dyaus_ and _Vivasvant_.\n\n Slavs, as Aryans, xxiv.\n\n Sleep of Brahma, 105.\n\n Sleeping giant, Kumbha-Karna the, 419;\n slain by Rama, 420.\n\n Sloka metre, invented by Valmiki, 374.\n\n Smallpox, Shitala, goddess of, 153.\n\n Smith, Professor Elliot, his \u201cbrown race\u201d, xxviii.\n\n Smiths, in Vedic period, 77.\n\n Smoke, sins cleansed by, 93, 318.\n\n Snake goddess, the, 152.\n\n Snakes, in the Garuda myth, 145.\n\n Social grades. See _Caste_.\n\n \u201cSolar race\u201d, eastern Indians as, xxxix;\n Dasaratha of the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_ is of the, 375.\n\n Solomon, sea trade of with India, 84.\n\n Soma (s\u014d\u00b4m\u0103), nectar of gods, 5;\n cause of Indra's victory, 7;\n Twashtri's moon bowl for, 12;\n Indra's fondness for, 15;\n juice of unknown plant, 35;\n influence of, 35, 36;\n identified with Chandra, the moon god, 35, 36;\n as moon mead, 36;\n frog hymn to as rain charm, 36, 37;\n marriage of, 37;\n the drink of immortality, 41;\n prepared by Gandharva, 69;\n drunk by early Aryo-Indians, 77;\n Sudras did not drink, 79;\n Samavedic hymns to, 83;\n gods receive from priests, 84;\n _Tarasun_, the Mongolian, 90, 91;\n in horse sacrifice, 92;\n as the moon god and ancestor of the Bharatas, 157 _et seq._\n\n Son, religious need for a, 59, 60.\n\n _Song, the Divine_, 125.\n See _Bhagavad-gita_.\n\n Soul, as \u201cthe man in the eye\u201d, 42;\n of childless man in hell, 59;\n escape from body of, 85;\n salvation of through knowledge, 99, 100 (also see _Bhagavad-gita_);\n mind as, 101.\n\n Soul in the egg, myth of, 101, 102.\n\n Soul, the World. See _World Soul_.\n\n Souls, children's' wait for mothers, xliii;\n bound by Yama, god of death, 42;\n as birds, 75;\n reborn as tigers, fish, &c., 117;\n transmigration of, see _Transmigration of souls_.\n\n Spaniards, Brahmans resemble, xxviii.\n\n Spartans, horse sacrifice of, 93.\n\n \u201cSpeech of spirits\u201d, the \u201clanguage of birds\u201d, 75.\n\n Spells, for disease, 85, 87;\n for love, 86.\n\n Spirit, the, the life breath as, 37.\n\n Spirits of the dead, beliefs regarding, 38;\n of day and night, 70;\n birds as in Europe, Africa, and Asia, 75;\n magical formulas to control, 85, 86, 87.\n\n Spirits of weapons, Arjuna beholds, 256;\n do homage to Rama, 381;\n Gaelic weapon demons, 381 _n._\n\n Spitting customs, significance of, 37.\n\n \u201cSpitting Stones\u201d, 37.\n\n Sri (sree), Lakshmi, wife of Vishnu is, 149;\n Sita as, 427.\n\n Standing stones, ceremonies at for offspring, xliii, xliv.\n\n Stars, myth of Saturn and Ganesa, 151;\n rishis as \u201cGreat Bear\u201d and wives of as Pleiades, 153;\n Abhimanyu as one of the, 327.\n\n Stars, the Polar, Kas\u00b4yapa, the Brahman as, 145.\n\n Steeds of Indra, 4;\n names of, 5.\n\n Stevenson, Robert Louis, xlviii.\n\n Stone Age, the late, Europe in, xxii;\n people of Britain of, xlii;\n \u201chammer god\u201d of, 2.\n\n Stones, standing, Shiva worshipped at, 147.\n\n Subhadra (soo-bh\u0103d\u00b4r\u00e4), sister of Krishna and Balarama, worship of,\n 137;\n Arjuna's marriage by capture with, 227;\n Draupadi receives, 228.\n\n Sud\u00e4s, a Vedic king, 154;\n Vishwamitra's and Vasishtha's connection with, 154;\n Purus and other tribes oppose, 155.\n\n Sudeva (soo-day\u00b4v\u00fc), the Brahman, discovers Damayanti, 356, 357, 358;\n visits Nala, 359, 360.\n\n Sudhanvan (sud-h\u0103n\u00b4v\u0103n), Indra as, 10.\n\n Sudras (sud\u00b4r\u0103s), the black, xxv.\n See _Caste_.\n\n Sugriva (sug\u00b4riv\u0103), the ape king, son of Surya, 410;\n Rama slays his rival Bali, 411;\n revelries of, 413;\n silver hue of, 418;\n in Ceylon war, 419 _et seq._\n\n Sumit\u00b4r\u00e4, wife of Dasaratha, 376;\n Lakshmana and Satrughna sons of, 378.\n\n Sun, \u201chas nature of Agni\u201d, 36;\n the \u201cman\u201d in the, and death as, 42;\n Rahu, the devourer of, 64, 144;\n horse sacrifice to, 92 _et seq._;\n the bride of the, 149.\n\n Sun, god of, Sumero-Babylonian name of Mitra, 29;\n as offspring of the moon, 29;\n Narayana as, 114;\n Vishnu as a phase of, 122, 123.\n\n Sun egg, in Indian and Egyptian mythologies, 101.\n\n Sun maiden, marriage of with moon god, 37;\n Tapati the, loved by a king, 71 _et seq._\n\n Sunset, Kushna fiery demon of, 66.\n\n Sura (soor\u00e4), an early Aryo-Indian ale or mead, 77.\n\n Sur\u0103s, the Indian gods called, 61.\n\n Sur\u00e4s\u0103, sea hag, 414.\n\n Surp\u00e4\u00b4-n\u0103kh\u00e4, the rape of Sita, 403 _et seq._;\n curses Ravana, 423.\n\n Surya (soor\u00b4y\u0103), sun god, Savitri and, 10;\n in rival group of deities, 32;\n Aryan steeds of, 32;\n as eye of Varuna-Mitra, 32;\n daughter of loved by a king, 71 _et seq._;\n Saranyu the bride of, 149;\n as grandsire of Queen Madri's sons, 176;\n shines on Karna at the tournament, 191;\n gifts food pot to Pandavas, 249;\n his warning to Karna, 262;\n Sugriva, ape king, son of, 411.\n\n Suttee (s\u0103t\u00ef) in Europe, xxxvii.\n See _Sati_.\n\n Swan maidens, 75.\n\n Swans, Irish gods and Indian rishis as, 75, 153;\n the gold winged, in story of Nala, 329, 330.\n\n Sw\u0103r\u00b4g\u0103, 4;\n Kauravas and Pandavas in, 327.\n See _Heaven of Indra_.\n\n Sw\u0103y\u0103m\u00b4v\u0103r\u0103, Bhishma captures King of Kasi's daughters at, 169, 160;\n Draupadi's, 211, 212.\n\n Swine, religious treatment of in India, Egypt, and Europe, 136;\n Rakshasas ride in battle, 419.\n\n\n Tapati (t\u00e4\u00b4p\u0103ti), sun maiden, story of king's love for, 71 _et seq._\n\n Taraka (t\u00e4\u00b4r\u0103k\u00e4), the hag, slain by Rama, 380.\n\n Tarku, Hittite \u201chammer god\u201d, 3;\n Shiva compared with, 146.\n\n Teachers, Brahmans as, 82.\n\n Tears, the creative, Prajapati sheds, 100, 101.\n\n Tel-el-Amarna letters, Aryans and, xxx.\n\n Terra mater, the Indian, 13.\n\n Teutonic and Celtic treatment of boar, 136.\n\n Teutonic beliefs regarding soul and world's ages, xliv.\n\n Teutonic modes of thought, xliv _n._;\n compared with those of Vedic period, xlv.\n\n Teutonic mythology, doctrine of transmigration absent from, 103.\n\n Teutonic wonder smith, like Indian, 11, 12.\n\n Teutons, Aryan affinities of, xx;\n traditions of migrations of, xlv.\n\n Thor, Indra and, xxxi, 3;\n elfin artisans and, 11;\n like Indra, son of Earth Mother, 13;\n the \u201cfriend of man\u201d, 15, 16;\n a slayer of giants like Indra, 64;\n Arjuna compared with, 257 _n._\n\n Thorns of Hades, 326.\n\n Thothmes III (thoth\u00b4mes), Egyptian king, Mitanni Aryans and, xxx.\n\n Thunder- \u201cball\u201d, \u201cbolt\u201d, and \u201cstone\u201d, 2.\n\n Thunder gods. See _Hammer Gods_, also _Balor_, _Finn mac Coul_,\n _Hrungner_, _Indra_, _Jupiter_, _Pa'n Ku_, _Ptah_, _Rammon_,\n _Rimmon_, _Shiva_, _Tarku_, _Thor_, _Zeus_.\n\n Thunder horn, Arjuna receives from Indra, 258;\n Finn mac Coul has, 258 _n._\n\n Tiamat. See _Tiawath_.\n\n Tiawath of Babylonian myth, 9, 90.\n\n Tiger, Damayanti's appeal to the, 347.\n\n Tigers, demons with heads of, 71;\n Bharata as tamer of, 161.\n\n Titans, the Indian, 64.\n See _Danavas_.\n\n Tortoise incarnation of Vishnu, 143.\n\n Torture, in Hades, 326.\n\n Tournament, the, 185 _et seq._\n\n \u201cTowers of Silence\u201d, Parsees expose dead on, xxxiii.\n\n Trade, in Vedic period, 78;\n Solomon and Indian products, 84.\n\n Traders, caste of, 79.\n See _Caste_.\n\n Transmigration of souls, \u201cgerms of theory\u201d, xliii, 116;\n racial aspect of doctrine, xliv, 116;\n in Egyptian, Celtic, and Greek religions, 103, 118;\n the Irish Tuan Mac Carell legend, 111 _et seq._;\n a Post-Vedic doctrine in India, 103;\n becomes orthodox, 115;\n present-day beliefs, 117, 118;\n in Buddhism, 130 _et seq._;\n Yudhishthira on, 254.\n\n Treasure, god of (see _Kuvera_);\n Yakshas guard the hidden, 68.\n\n Tree, of Paradise, 41;\n of Brahma, 102;\n of religion, of passion, 156.\n\n Trees, the \u201cblood of\u201d, 37;\n horses tied to at sacrifices, 93.\n\n Tr\u00e9t\u00e4 Yuga, length of, 104;\n the Yellow Age, 108, 109;\n in Greek and Celtic mythologies, 109 _et seq._;\n Vishnu slays Bali in, 123.\n\n Tribes. See _Bharatas_, _Gandari_, _Kasis_, _Kosalas_, _Kurus_,\n _Panchalas_, _Purus_, _Videhas_, &c.\n\n Tri\u00b4g\u00e4rtis, Rajah of, attack on Virata, 267;\n Pandavas defeat, 268.\n\n Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, 119, 124.\n\n Trinity of goddesses, Saraswati (white), Lakshmi (red), Par\u00b4vati\n (black), 150, 151.\n\n Tritsus (tree\u00b4tsus), as an Aryan tribe, 154;\n identified with the Vasishthas, 154, 155;\n priestly aristocracy of, 155.\n\n Trumpet of thunder god, 70.\n\n Turkestan, fair type in, xxix.\n\n Turki, a blend of Alpine and Northern stocks, xxix.\n\n Turkish language, xix.\n\n Twashtri (tw\u0103sh\u00b4tre), the divine artisan, shapes Indra's\n \u201cthunderstone\u201d, 4;\n in hymn of victory, 6;\n makes Indra's hammer from Rishi's bones, 8;\n father of Saranyu and grandsire of Ribhus, 11;\n gives origin to human life, 11;\n Ribhus as rivals of, 11, 12;\n Agni an incarnation of, 20;\n as father of the sun god, 32;\n as maker of heavens, 57-9.\n\n Twin, Yama signifies, 40.\n\n Twin deities. See _Mitra_ and _Varuna_, _Yama_ and _Yami_, _Yima_ and\n _Yimeh_, _Indra_ and _Agni_, _Nasatya_, _the Aswins_, _Dioskouri_,\n _Castor_ and _Pollux_.\n\n T\u0233ph\u014dn, the Indian, 65.\n\n Typhoon, the, Hanuman the ape god as, 106.\n\n\n Ugrians, a blend of Alpine and Northern stocks, xxix.\n\n Ul\u00fap\u00ed, the serpent nymph, Arjuna loved by and birth of Iravat, 226;\n son of in great war, 286 _et seq._;\n fall of, 293;\n Arjuna restored to life, 314, 315.\n\n Um\u00e4, goddess of wisdom, bride of Shiva, 150.\n\n Universal destruction, at end of \u201cday\u201d of Brahma, 113.\n\n Universal self, Brahm\u0103 the, 98.\n See _World Soul_.\n\n Universities, the ancient, forest hermitages were, 82.\n\n _Up\u0103nish\u0103ds_, xl;\n transmigration belief in, xliii, 117;\n evidence regarding Asura problem in, 62, 63 _et seq._, 88;\n horse sacrifice doctrines in, 93 _et seq._;\n the fruit-tree lesson of, 99;\n fundamental thought of doctrine of, 100;\n influence of, 102, 103;\n Hinduism based on, 120;\n Vedic gods and, 121;\n bold Pantheism of, 122;\n Jainism and, 133;\n present-day Hindu esteem of, 139;\n composed in the \u201cmiddle country\u201d, 155.\n\n Uranus, slain like Dyaus, 13.\n\n Urvasa (ur\u00b4v\u00e4s\u0103), the Apsara, woos and curses Arjuna, 256.\n\n Ush\u00e4s, goddess of dawn, 34, 148;\n Saranyu developed from, 149.\n\n Uttar (oot\u00b4\u0103r), son of Rajah of Virata, 268.\n\n Utt\u0103r\u00e4, Princess of Virata, married to Abhimanyu, 269.\n\n \u00dct\u00fc, Sumerian sun god, Mitra as, 29.\n\n\n V\u00e4ch, the \u201cmother of the Vedas\u201d, Saraswati as, 149.\n\n Vadhar, the weather, Vritra as, 8 _n._\n\n V\u00e1huka (v\u00e4\u00b4huk\u0103), the charioteer, Nala as, 355 _et seq._\n\n Vaishnava (vaish\u00b4n\u0103v\u0103) faith. See _Vishnu_.\n\n Vaisya caste, 79.\n See _Caste_.\n\n Vaisyas (vais\u00b4y\u0103s), the yellow, xxv.\n\n Vaka (v\u00e4\u00b4k\u0103), the Asura king, slain by Bhima, 207 _et seq._\n\n Vala (v\u00e4\u00b4l\u0103), the demon, cloud cows in cave of, 68.\n\n Valhal, xliv;\n Indra's heaven like, 59;\n pork eaten in, 136.\n\n Valmiki (v\u00e4l\u00b4meek-e), the poet, how sloka metre was invented by, 374;\n composes _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_, 375;\n Sita takes refuge with, 426.\n\n Vamadeva (v\u00e4\u00b4m\u0103-day-v\u0103), family priest, 375.\n\n Vamana (v\u00e4m\u00b4\u0103n\u0103), dwarf form of Vishnu, 123.\n\n Vanars (v\u00e4\u00b4n\u0103rs) (apes), Rama secures as allies, 410 _et seq._\n See _Apes_.\n\n Var\u00e1ha (v\u0103r-\u00e4\u00b4h\u0103), boar incarnation of Vishnu, 135.\n\n Varanavartha (v\u0103r\u00b4\u0103n-\u0103-v\u0103rt\u00b4\u00b4h\u0103), Pandavas exiled to, 199 _et seq._\n\n V\u0103rn\u0103. See _Caste_.\n\n Vartikas (v\u00e4r\u00b4tik\u0103s), \u201cof one wing, one eye, one leg\u201d, 68;\n the rational theory, 71.\n\n V\u0103run\u0103, in Vedic Age, xxxi;\n in Asia Minor, xxxii;\n his Hebraic grandeur, 26;\n the Omniscient One, worshipped with devotion, 27;\n Mitra and, 28;\n dethroned by Indra, 28;\n protector of hearth and home, 29;\n in early group of deities, 30;\n in \u201csea of heaven\u201d, and as god of ocean, 31;\n a god of Mitanni, 32;\n Surya as \u201cthe eye\u201d of, 33;\n \u201chouse of clay\u201d (the grave) in hymn to, 38;\n in \u201cLand of the Fathers\u201d (Paradise), 41;\n Babylonian aspect of, 41;\n the heaven of, 58;\n Adityas his attendants, 58 _n._;\n worshipped by demons and giants, 59;\n as an Asura, 61;\n early title \u201cwise Azura and King\u201d, 62;\n god of the overlords of Assyria, 62;\n giants and demons controlled by, 65;\n Vishnu and, 123;\n as suitor of Damayanti, 332 _et seq._\n\n V\u0103sish\u00b4th\u0103, as rival of Vishwamitra, 154 _et seq._;\n Vasus cursed by, 164;\n in the _R\u00e1m\u00e1yana_, 375, 378.\n\n Vasishthas, a family of priests, 154;\n identical with the Tritsus, 154, 155;\n priestly aristocracy of, 155.\n\n Vasudeva (v\u00e4\u00b4sood_e_v\u0103), father of Krishna, 128;\n brother of Queen Pritha, 173;\n at Pandava imperial sacrifice, 232 _et seq._, 323.\n\n Vasuka. See _Vasuki_.\n\n Vasuki (v\u00e4\u00b4suke), Naga serpent demigod, 65;\n as the \u201cchurning rope\u201d, 143;\n King of Nagas, welcomes Bhima in underworld, 178;\n gives Bhima the draught of strength, 179;\n jewel of restores Arjuna to life, 314, 315.\n\n Vasus (v\u00e4\u00b4sus), attendants of Indra, 17;\n as children of Ganga and King Shantanu, 164 _et seq._;\n Bhishma among in Paradise, 327.\n\n V\u00e4\u00b4ta. See _Vayu_.\n\n Vate (va\u00b4te), the Teutonic, compared with Vata (Vayu), 24.\n\n V\u00e4\u00b4yu, wind god, compared with Odin, 24;\n hymns to, 25;\n in rival group of deities, 32;\n Bhima, son of, 105, 176;\n Hanuman, ape god son of, 106, 411;\n sends Garuda to help Rama, 419.\n\n Vedas (vay\u00b4d\u0103s), geographical evidence of, xx;\n Indra hymns, 6, 7;\n creation myth in, 10;\n goddesses vague in, 13;\n gods of in Buddhistic Age, 120;\n still regarded sacred, 139;\n father Manu in, 140;\n the \u201cmother\u201d of the, 149;\n Vyasa as arrayer of, 154.\n\n Veddas of Ceylon, xxvi.\n\n Vedic Age, the, length of, xxx;\n the \u201cGreat Mother\u201d in, xxxi;\n burial customs of, xxxii;\n eclipse of gods of, xl;\n Teutonic modes of thought in, xlv;\n the change in post Vedic times, xlv;\n glimpses of life of in epics, xlvi;\n gods are Asuras in early and Suras in late, 61;\n folk movements in, 76;\n dice and drinking in, 77;\n trade and culture in, 78;\n doctrines of transmigration and world's ages unknown in, 104;\n one of four ages, 119;\n goddesses vague in, 148.\n\n Vedic Aryans, \u201cfather right\u201d recognized by, xxx.\n\n Vedic hymns, 15, 16;\n majority of addressed to Indra and Agni, 19;\n _Brahmanas_ and _Upanishads_ and, 62, 63 _et seq._;\n materialism of, 82.\n\n Videha (ve\u00b4day-h\u0103), Eastern Aryan kingdom, xxxix.\n\n Vidura (ve-d\u00fcr\u00b4\u0103), son of Kyasa, 172;\n assists Drona to prepare for tournament, 183, 184;\n at the tournament with blind king, 185 _et seq._;\n ambassador to Pandavas after marriage, 223, 224;\n at the gambling match, 240 _et seq._;\n attitude of during negotiations, 276;\n retires to forest, 319.\n\n Villages, life in during Vedic Age, 78.\n\n Vind\u00b4hy\u00e4 mountain, ape god assumes proportions of, 109.\n\n Vir\u00e4j, female form of Purusha, Saraswati as, 149.\n\n Virata (vir-\u0103t\u00b4\u00e4), Pandavas' sojourn in, 266 _et seq._;\n Pandava allies meet at, 270, 273;\n warlike preparations, 273;\n rajah of slain by Drona, 301.\n\n Virchow, view on Aryan problem, xxiii.\n\n Vishnu (vish\u00b4noo), in Brahmanical revival age, xl;\n Vedic god of grace, assists Indra, world artisan, 10;\n the Preserver in the Trinity, 119;\n the cult of, 122;\n evidence of Greek ambassador, Megasthenes, regarding, 122;\n a god of grace in Rigveda, 122, 123;\n Brahma springs from in lotus bloom, 124;\n sleep of on World Serpent, 124;\n Avataras of, 125;\n the Buddha Avatara of, 129;\n _Puranas_ and cult of, 134;\n as Brahm\u00e4, 134;\n demons secure salvation through, 135;\n his lion incarnation, 135;\n his boar incarnation, 135, 136;\n Parasu-rama (Rama with the axe) incarnation of, 136;\n belief in the coming of on white horse (Kalki), 137;\n _Bhagavad-gita_ and cult of, 139;\n in epic narratives, 139;\n Manu and, 140;\n in \u201cchurning of the ocean\u201d myth, 143 _et seq._;\n white steed of, gem of, and wife of rise from Sea of Milk, 144;\n Garuda the vehicle of, 146;\n in form of Shiva, 147;\n discus of made by goddess, 149;\n in Ganesa myth, 151;\n in myth regarding origin of goddesses, 151;\n father of the love god, 151;\n Ganges flows from toe of, 152;\n wife of as daughter of Daksha, the rishi, 154;\n incarnation of slays incarnation of Shiva, 234 _n._;\n at Dasaratha's horse sacrifice, 376, 377;\n Indra's appeal to, 377;\n Dasaratha's sons as incarnations of, 377;\n Rama as, 427.\n See _Krishna_ and _Rama_.\n\n Vishwakarman (vish\u00b4w\u0103-k\u0103r\u00b4\u00b4m\u00e4n), the divine artisan, Twashtri is, 58.\n\n Vishwamitra (vish\u00b4w\u00e4-meet\u00b4\u00b4r\u0103), as rival of Vasishtha, 154;\n raised from Kshatriya to Brahman caste, 154;\n as father of Shakuntala, 159;\n Indra's dread of and temptation of, 159, 160;\n takes away Rama and Lakshmana to destroy demons, 379, 380, 381;\n breaking of Shiva's bow, 382, 383.\n\n Vital spark, cause of life and bodily heat, 37;\n Agni symbolizes, 19.\n\n Vivahvant, the Persian, 40.\n\n Viv\u0103sv\u0103nt, the sky god, 40.\n\n Viv\u0103sv\u0103t, as a sun god, 32.\n See _Vivasvant_.\n\n Volund, 24.\n\n Vows, by spitting and before fires, 37.\n\n Vritra (vrit\u00b4r\u00e4), the drought demon, slain by Indra, 6, 7;\n as leader of Danavas, 7;\n reference to myth of in _Brahman_ as, 63;\n \u201cthe encompasser\u201d, 66;\n captures cloud cows, 4 _et seq._, 67;\n rational explanation of, 71.\n\n Vulcan, the Hindu, Twashtri as, 11.\n\n Vultures, as protectors of the fairy babe, Shakuntala, 159, 160;\n king of, see _Jatayus_.\n\n Vyasa (vy\u00e4s\u00b4\u0103), reputed Vedic compiler and author of _Mah\u00e1bh\u00e1rata_,\n 154;\n identified with the legendary Vasishtha, 154;\n son of Parashara and Satyavati, 167;\n father of Dhritarashtra, Pandu, and Vidura, 171, 172;\n meets Pandavas during first exile, 206;\n reveals why Draupadi must be joint wife of Pandavas, 222;\n advises Arjuna to visit Shiva, 255;\n gifts divine vision to Sanjaya, 287;\n advises horse sacrifice as atonement after war, 312;\n at horse sacrifice, 316;\n causes dead to return, 320, 321.\n\n\n Wales, hatred of pork in, 136.\n\n Wallis, _Cosmology of Rigveda_, 10 _n._, 11 _n._\n\n War of gods and giants, 70.\n See _Giants_ and _Asuras_.\n\n Warriors, possessed by spirits, 85;\n caste of, 79.\n See _Caste_.\n\n War-shell, Arjuna's a thunder horn, 258.\n\n Water of life, soma the, 36;\n moon as source of, 37;\n creative tears as, 100, 101.\n\n Water spirits, givers of boons, 148.\n\n Waters, the primordial, in creation myths, 100, 101 _et seq._;\n universe returns to, 105, 141, 142;\n \u201chome\u201d of the creator, 114;\n in the boar myth, 136.\n\n \u201cWatling Street\u201d, 24.\n\n Wealth and culture, 82.\n\n Weapons, the early Vedic, 77.\n\n Weather, Indian demon of, 8 _n._\n\n Weeping of the creator, 100.\n\n Well worship, 37.\n\n Wells, the sources of luck, 148.\n\n \u201cWesterners\u201d, Indian tribes called, xxxix.\n\n White Age, the Krita Yuga, 108;\n in Greek and Celtic mythologies, 109 _et seq._\n\n Widows, drown themselves after return of dead warriors, 321;\n burning of, see _Suttee_.\n\n Wiedemann, Professor, 11 _n._\n\n Wieland (we\u00b4land), 24.\n\n Wife, the ideal, goddess Sati as, 150.\n\n Wife hunters, 60.\n\n Wife of Amon, 366.\n\n \u201cWild Huntsman\u201d, the Indian, 26.\n\n Williams, Sir M. Monier, 40, 40 _n._, 41, 42, 42 _n._\n\n Wilson, Vedic hymns, 13, 16, 105 _n._\n\n Winckler, Professor Hugo, reading of Indra inscription, xxxi.\n\n Wind, as \u201cair of life\u201d, 37.\n\n Wind god, Bhima and Hanuman sons of, 106.\n See _Vayu_.\n\n Winter burial customs among Buriats, xxxiv.\n\n Wisdom, goddess of, Uma as, 150.\n\n Wives, burning of as punishment in Egypt and Scotland, xxxvii;\n marriage by capture of, 60.\n\n Wolves, Rakshasas ride in battle, 419.\n\n Wonder smiths, Teutonic myth of and Indian, 11, 12.\n\n _Works and Days_, Hesiod's doctrine of world's ages in, 109 _et seq._\n\n World's ages, doctrine of the, post-Vedic conception of, 103;\n Greek evidence regarding Indian doctrine, 122;\n not in Teutonic mythology, 103;\n Tuan Mac Carell Irish legend, 111 _et seq._;\n the \u201cday\u201d and \u201cnight\u201d of Brahma, 105;\n the four Yugas, 104;\n the \u201cwhite\u201d, \u201cred\u201d, \u201cyellow\u201d, and \u201cblack\u201d in India, 108;\n Hanuman's account of to Bhima, 107, 108, 109;\n Markandeya's account of, 112 _et seq._;\n Narayana's account of, 115;\n Narayana at dawn of each Yuga, 124;\n Manu's association with Brahma, 140.\n See _Ages of the Universe_.\n\n World giant. See _Purusha_ and _Ptah_.\n\n World guardians, the four gods in Nala story, 332.\n\n World horse, myth of, 94 _et seq._\n\n World house of Vedic myth, 10.\n\n World mother, Lakshmi as, 149.\n\n World Serpent, Karokt\u00e1ka as, 65;\n Vishnu sleeps on, 124;\n Balarama an incarnation of, 128;\n issues from his mouth, 323.\n\n World Soul, hermits and Yoga, 82;\n pantheistic conception of, 88;\n in Purusha myth, 95;\n in Rigveda hymn, 97, 98;\n the \u201csubtile essence\u201d is the Self, 99;\n the soul's being, 99, 100;\n Brahma, the divine incarnation of, 100;\n colours of in various Yugas (ages), 108, 109;\n Greek and Celtic conceptions, 110 _et seq._;\n men's souls merged in, 118;\n Vishnu and Shiva incarnations of, 122;\n Buddha's teaching regarding, 130 _et seq._\n\n World tree, in Indra creation myth, 102;\n as Brahma's, 102.\n\n Worlds, the three, 65.\n\n\n Xerxes, Gandarians who fought with against the Greeks, 168 _n._\n\n\n Y\u00e4d\u0103v\u0103s, Krishna prince of, 215;\n end of power of, 323.\n\n _Yajurveda_ (y\u0103-joor\u00b4ved\u0103), exposure of female children in, 60;\n the civilization of, 84;\n the schools of thought in period of, 88;\n Vishnu in, 123;\n Mahadeva in, 146.\n\n Yakshas (y\u0103k\u00b4sh\u0103s), \u201cthe good people\u201d, 68;\n invisible sentinels, 106;\n none in world's first age, 107;\n changes sex with princess, 171;\n Kuvera king of, 258;\n Dharma as one of the unseen, 264, 265.\n\n Yama (y\u0103\u00b4m\u0103), god of the dead, as the \u201cfirst man\u201d, xxxii;\n in Nala story, 31;\n burial customs, 38;\n discoverer of \u201cthe path of the fathers\u201d, 39, 40;\n his sister Yami and Persian parallel, 40;\n in \u201cland of the fathers\u201d (Paradise) with Varuna, 41;\n Babylonian aspect of, 41;\n as Judge, Lord, Finisher, Leveller, &c., 42;\n as instrument of destiny, 42 _et seq._;\n in story of Ruru, 43, 44;\n in story of Savitri, 44;\n concessions won from, 50 _et seq._;\n the heaven of described, 57;\n parents only admitted to heaven of, 59;\n journey of to \u201cland of fathers\u201d, 116;\n vision of in Dwaraka, 322;\n as suitor of Damayanti, 332 _et seq._\n\n Y\u0103m\u00ed, sister of Yama, 40;\n Babylonian aspect of, 41;\n\n Y\u0103v\u0103n\u0103s, the, allies of Kauravas, 287;\n identified with Greeks, 287 _n._\n\n Years, the Divine, length of, 104, 105.\n See _World's ages_.\n\n Yellow age, the Dw\u00e3para Yuga, 108, 109;\n in Greek mythology, 109, 110;\n in Celtic mythology, 110 _et seq._\n\n Yima, the Persian Yama, 40.\n\n Yimeh, the Persian Yam\u00ed, 40.\n\n Ymer, the Teutonic chaos giant, Purusha like, 90.\n\n Y\u014dg\u0103, religious state called, 82.\n\n Yorkshire, burial rites in, xxxvii.\n\n Yudhishthira (yoo-dish\u00b4thi-r\u0103), xlviii;\n son of Queen Pritha and god Dharma, 176;\n at the tournament, 185 _et seq._;\n made \u201cLittle Rajah\u201d, 197;\n Duryodhana causes exile of, 198, 199;\n the \u201chouse of lac\u201d, 200;\n escape of with brothers and mother, 201;\n Arjuna offers Draupadi to, 220;\n regrets Arjuna's exile, 225;\n imperial sacrifice held by, 228 _et seq._;\n Surya's gift to in exile, 249;\n unfolds his faith to Draupadi, 252 _et seq._;\n his sense of honour, 255;\n Kuvera's advice to, 258;\n generosity towards Duryodhana, 260;\n refuses Duryodhana's invitation, 261;\n Jayadratha attempts to carry off Draupadi, 262, 263;\n rescues his brothers from temporary death, 263 _et seq._;\n Dharma's questions, 264 _et seq._;\n in Virata, 266 _et seq._;\n at meeting of Pandavas allies at Virata, 270 _et seq._;\n negotiations with Kauravas, 274 _et seq._;\n in the great war, 285;\n secures a Kaurava prince as ally, 287;\n flight of from battlefield, 297;\n smites Bhima, 307;\n sorrows for slain children, 310;\n the great jewel, 311;\n proclaimed rajah at Hastinapur, 312;\n horse sacrifice rites performed, 312 _et seq._;\n beholds return of the dead, 320, 321;\n divides his kingdom, 323;\n departure of to Indra's heaven, 324;\n tested and approved, 324-6.\n\n Yug\u0103, meaning of term changes, xliv;\n meaning of in Rigveda, 104.\n\n Yugas, the, colours of, 108, 109;\n in Greek and Celtic mythologies, 109 _et seq._;\n Markandeya lives through the various, 112 _et seq._;\n Manu's association with Brahma, 140.\n See _World's ages_.\n\n Y\u00fcy\u00fct\u00b4s\u00fc, Kaurava prince, joins the Pandava army, 287;\n made rajah, 323.\n\n\n Zend an Aryan language, xix.\n\n Zeus pater, 3;\n Dyaus-pita in India, 12;\n parent of twin deities, 32;\n serpent enemy of, 65;\n in world's ages doctrine, 110.\n\n Zoroastrian chief god. See _Ahura-Mazda_.\n\n\n\n\n_Printed and bound in Great Britain_\n\n\n * * * * *\n\nTranscriber's note:\n\n\nWhat appeared to be clear typographical errors were corrected; any\nother mistakes or inconsistencies were retained.\n\nText enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_).\n\nSmall capital text has been replaced with all capitals.\n\nRight aligned text was indented by 8 spaces\n\nWhen an image was placed in the middle of a paragraph, part of the\nparagraph was moved to keep the whole paragraph united.\n\nAttributions to quotations that were on the same line as the quotation\nitself were moved to a separate line.\n\nOn many of the transcriptions used in this book, an acute accent is\nused when an apostrophe would be expected by most readers. This usage\nwas retained.\n\nMany words are spelled inconsistently, especially Indian and\nother non-English words. These were retained as published as\nit is impossible to know which is the spelling originally\nintended (e.g.: Gar\u00b4uda/Garuda/Gar\u00fada; Damayant\u00ed/Damayanti;\nNarada/N\u00e1rada; V\u00e1huk\u00e1/V\u00e1huka/Vahuka; Ayodhy\u00e1/Ayodhya; Oudh/Oude;\nBhagavadgita/Bhagavad-gita; demi-god/demigod; Ul\u00fap\u00ed/Ulupi;\nDioscuri/Dioskouri; etc.)\n\n\"Aryo-Indian\" appeared consistently in the Index as \"Ayro-Indian\". This\nwas corrected.\n\nPunctuation on the index was very inconsistent and was made as\nconsistent as possible.\n\nPages indicated on the index are retained as on the published book, even\nin the few cases where they may be wrong.\n\nOn page 9 there are two anchors for footnote 47. It is not clear if\nthis is intended or a mistake and was retained as on the published book.","title":"Indian Myth and Legend","tradition":"myth-cosmogony","translated_text":null,"word_count":155913}