{"collection":"scripture-revelation","full_text_available":true,"graph_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/api/page/gutenberg_47864/graph","html_url":"https://unchartedknowledge.5gfusion.net/v2/page/gutenberg_47864","id":"gutenberg_47864","license":"Public Domain (US)","rights_basis":"gutenberg_metadata_copyright_false","source":"gutenberg","source_url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/47864","summary":null,"tags":["Bible. Psalms -- Criticism, interpretation, etc.","Category: History - Ancient","Category: Poetry","Category: Religion/Spirituality","Comparative literature -- Assyro-Babylonian and Hebrew","Comparative literature -- Hebrew and Assyro-Babylonian","Hymns, Akkadian -- History and criticism"],"text":"THE ASSYRIAN AND HEBREW HYMNS OF PRAISE\n\n\n                                   BY\n                         CHARLES GORDON CUMMING\n\n                            AMS PRESS, INC.\n                          NEW YORK, N.Y. 10003\n                                  1966\n\n                             Copyright 1934\n                       Columbia University Press\n\n        Reprinted with the permission of the original publisher\n\n              Manufactured in the United States of America\n\n\n                          GRATEFULLY DEDICATED\n                                   TO\n                         RICHARD J. H. GOTTHEIL\n\n\n\n\n                                  NOTE\n\n\nProfessor Cumming has chosen a most interesting subject upon which to\nwrite a comparison of \u201cThe Assyrian and the Hebrew Hymns of Praise.\u201d He\nhas spent a number of years developing his theme, and has produced a\nbook which I commend heartily to the attention of scholars who are\ninterested in this field. Of course, we do not possess all the hymns\nwritten by the Assyrian poets, nor have we all those produced by the old\nHebrew songsters. But we certainly have sufficient to make it possible\nfor us to form a just idea of their character and of their beauty.\n\n                                                        Richard Gottheil\n\n\n\n\n                                FOREWORD\n\n\nIt was the author\u2019s original intention to add to this book a translation\nof all the important Assyrian hymns; for a bringing together of hymns\nnow scattered through many books and periodicals would be a very real\nservice to Old Testament scholarship. Such a task however calls for the\nknowledge and skill of the thoroughly competent Assyriologist. It is\nhoped that the list of texts and translations appended to this book may\nmake it easier for any interested reader to locate and carry further the\nstudy of any particular hymn. In the case of the Hebrew psalms some\nslight confusion may be spared the reader if he recognizes that the\nnumbering of the verses is that of the Hebrew text, which differs\nslightly in certain psalms from that of the English translations.\n\n                                                  Charles Gordon Cumming\n\n  Bangor Theological Seminary\n    Bangor, Maine\n    December, 1933\n\n\n\n\n                                CONTENTS\n\n\n                       THE HEBREW HYMNS OF PRAISE\n  I. Hebrew Psalms Which Are Not Hymns                                  3\n  II. Hebrew Sanctuary Hymns of Praise                                 18\n  III. Hebrew Eschatological Hymns                                     32\n  IV. Hebrew Nature Hymns                                              39\n  V. Hebrew Hymns in Praise of Sacred Institutions                     44\n\n\n                      THE ASSYRIAN HYMNS OF PRAISE\n  VI. Assyrian Hymnal Introductions to Prayers                         53\n  VII. Assyrian Antiphonal Hymns                                       72\n  VIII. Assyrian Self-Laudations of the Gods                           83\n\n\n           A COMPARISON OF THE ASSYRIAN AND THE HEBREW HYMNS\n  IX. The Literary Form of the Assyrian and the Hebrew Hymns           95\n  X. The Supreme God among the Gods                                   100\n  XI. The Supreme God in His Dwelling Place                           108\n  XII. The Supreme God as Creator                                     120\n  XIII. The Supreme God as Wise, Powerful, Merciful                   130\n  XIV. The Supreme God as King and Judge                              146\n  XV. Conclusion                                                      154\n\n\n                              BIBLIOGRAPHY\n  Texts and Translations of Assyrian Hymns                            161\n  Selected Bibliography                                               169\n  Indexes                                                             171\n\n\n\n\n                               Division I\n                       THE HEBREW HYMNS OF PRAISE\n\n\n\n\n                               Chapter I\n                   HEBREW PSALMS WHICH ARE NOT HYMNS\n\n\nThe Book of Psalms is no longer to be regarded by Old Testament scholars\nas an isolated phenomenon. Similar religious poetry is found not only in\nthe narrative and prophetic portions of the Old Testament, in the\nApocrypha, and the New Testament, but also in the literatures of Egypt,\nBabylonia, Persia, India, and Greece. Indeed, wherever religion really\ndevelops beyond the primitive stage, it expresses itself in poetry and\nwe get something comparable to the Hebrew psalms.\n\nOne primary fact, then, to be considered in the study of the Old\nTestament psalms is that they are only the surviving fragments of the\nreligious poetry of a race; and that they have been preserved partly by\nreason of the literary merit that made it difficult for them to be\nforgotten, and partly by reason of the fact that they happened to be\nincluded in the song books of the sanctuaries. One must accordingly bear\nconstantly in mind the larger literature of which they were a part, and\nemploy to a legitimate degree the imagination, in order to rightly\ncomprehend the life out of which the psalms have come, and to see in any\ntrue perspective the significance of the surviving psalms.\n\nFurthermore, it is now to be clearly recognized that the careful\nphilological study of words and sentences, and the further effort to\ndetermine the date and authorship of the psalms, while always\nindispensable, are yet inadequate methods of procedure. It is true that\nagain and again fixing with philological accuracy the meaning of a word\nor clause is the clue to the understanding of a psalm, yet to arrive at\nany just appreciation of the psalms it is absolutely necessary to\nclassify them scientifically on the basis of their similarities and\ndissimilarities, and so to arrange them in the species or groups into\nwhich they naturally fall. It is then possible to compare psalm with\npsalm within the species, fixing as nearly as possible the type and\nnoting every variation from the type. In this way the eye of the reader\nis opened to the originality and literary beauty of particular psalms,\nwhich originality and literary beauty are in turn the expression of the\nuniqueness and power of the psalmist\u2019s spiritual experience.\n\nIt may also be suggested that another principle of investigation should\nprove fruitful, namely, an attempt to arrange the groups of psalms, and\nthe individual psalms within the groups, according to the principle of\ndevelopment from the lower to the higher stages of religious experience.\nOf course opinions may and do differ as to what is highest in religion,\nbut the student of religion may never cease in his effort to find the\nline of development and to determine the highest. Since then the psalms\nare almost exclusively religious literature, and since the supreme\nmotive for studying them is to gain the more complete understanding of\nreligion, it is necessary to arrange the psalms in ascending order, so\nthat one can more readily appraise the worth of religion in them, and\ndetermine and properly appreciate that which is most precious.\n\nFinally, a further source of enlightenment and a valuable standard of\nappraisal has been neglected, unless the Old Testament psalms in their\nrespective groups are compared with the psalms of Egypt, Babylonia,\nPersia, India, and Greece. Many decades have passed since a succession\nof studies first pointed out striking similarities between the Hebrew\nand the Babylonian so-called penitential psalms. Recent commentaries on\nthe psalms such as Staerks in 1911 and Kittels in 1916 have printed in\nthe appendices a number of Egyptian and Babylonian psalms, but the\ncomparative method has not yet been widely and thoroughly applied.\n\nAn immense amount of work yet remains to be done in comparative study of\nthe religious poetry of the different literatures. Species must be\ncompared with species; prayer of supplication with prayer of\nsupplication; prayer of thanksgiving with prayer of thanksgiving;\naffirmation of faith with affirmation of faith; hymn of praise with hymn\nof praise, and teaching psalm with teaching psalm. Before Hebrew hymns\nof praise, however, can be properly studied, the relationship of the\nhymns to the other groups that make up Hebrew religious poesy ought to\nbe understood. Consideration must first be given, therefore, to the\ndifferent groups of psalms to be found in the Hebrew Psalter.\n\n\n                   Psalms of Lamentation and Petition\n\nIt has been suggested that the psalms ought to be classified in groups,\nand that the groups ought to be arranged in an ascending order,\naccording to the stage of religious development which they represent.\nFollowing this principle, one can quite properly place lowest the Psalms\nof Lamentation and Petition. The lament in such psalms describes the\nunhappy plight of the oppressed nation, the persecuted religious\ncommunity, or the afflicted individual. The petition makes earnest\nappeal to Yahwe for deliverance. Frequently the petition is reinforced\nby rather na\u00efve considerations, such as are calculated to persuade the\nDeity to action. Surely Yahwe ought to be concerned for the glory of his\nname! Why should the unbelievers say scoffingly, \u201cWhere is now your\nGod?\u201d Again what profit is there to Yahwe in the death of his followers?\nAssuredly the dead in Sheol do not praise him. Most commonly does the\npsalmist urge that he has long trusted Yahwe; that Yahwe is his only\nhope, and that therefore Yahwe can not fail him.\n\nIn addition to the lament and the petition\u2014the two most characteristic\nfeatures of this group\u2014one generally finds the vow. If God will come to\nthe help of the sufferer, he will in turn render some specified service\nto Yahwe. It may be an animal sacrifice at the sanctuary, or it may be\nsuch a spiritual sacrifice of praise and testimony as will turn sinners\nto Yahwe. Yet another common feature of this group is the protestation\nof confidence that Yahwe will most certainly deliver the suppliant.\nFrequently it is found near the end of the psalm, and so confident is\nthe sufferer of deliverance that he commonly uses the perfect tense, as\nif his salvation were already effected.\n\nOf the fifty Psalms of Lamentation in the Psalter, thirteen express the\npetition of the nation or the religious community for Yahwe\u2019s\ndeliverance. Psalms 79, 74, 44, 80, 83, 60, 137, and 129 lament the\nhumiliation and suffering endured by the nation at the hands of foreign\nenemies; 85 and 126 recognize in general terms Israel\u2019s affliction, and\nimplore Yahwe\u2019s mercy; while Psalms 10 and 123 lament the wrongs\ninflicted upon the pious of the land by the powerful and godless rich.\n\nOf these Psalms 137, 129, 125, and 123 are distinctive both for\noriginality and simplicity of expression and for sincerity and intensity\nof feeling. Psalm 137 recalls the wrongs and the insults received at the\nhands of Babylonians and Edomites and calls for vengeance upon those\nnations. Psalm 129, in much the same spirit, remembers Israel\u2019s manifold\nsufferings at the hands of many foes and petitions vindictively for\nrevenge. On the other hand 125 recalls Yahwe\u2019s goodness in restoring the\nnation from exile and pleads with confidence for a further manifestation\nof his favor; while in 123 the contempt of the rich and the proud causes\nthe pious to look with humble and childlike confidence to the God of\nmercy.\n\nUndoubtedly greater far than any of the preceding psalms is Psalm 90,\nwhich, transcending the limitations of the nation and the sect, laments\nthe brevity and troubled nature of human life, and pleads for some\nknowledge of the plan of the eternal God, some permanency for human\neffort, some small measure of happiness in life\u2019s brief day.\n\nTo this group of national prayers of lamentation and petition ought\npossibly to be added Psalm 67. There is here, to be sure, no lament, but\nverses 2 and 3 are a petition for the coming of Yahwe\u2019s salvation to\nearth, and verses 4, 5, and 6 may also be understood as a petition for\nthe establishment of divine government upon earth:\n\n  May peoples praise Thee, O God;\n  May all peoples praise Thee.\n  May nations be glad and sing for joy.\n  For thou shalt judge peoples righteously\n  And govern nations upon earth.\n\nVerses 7 and 8 are then simply a positive expression of confidence that\nthe prayer just uttered is to be answered and God\u2019s supreme blessing\nreceived. The psalm is not then an eschatological hymn of praise, but\nrather an eschatological prayer.\n\nPsalms 20 and 72 have distinctive positions in this group, since each\noffers up a petition in behalf of the king. In Psalm 20 the king had\napparently presented his offerings and sacrifices at the sanctuary, and\nthe priest prays, in verses 2-6 that God will remember the king\u2019s\nsacrifices and grant him help in the day of trouble and all his hearts\ndesires. Naturally, in the case of a king, the chief concern is that he\nshould be victorious over his enemies whenever war should come. In verse\n7 the priest, possibly informed by some sign that the sacrifice had\nindeed been accepted by Yahwe, gives positive assurance that the prayer\nhas been answered:\n\n  Now I know that Yahwe will save his anointed.\n\nVerse 8 reaffirms faith in Yahwe as mightier than horse or chariot,\nwhile verse 9 again predicts victory over the enemy. The psalm concludes\nin verse 10, as it began, with a petition for the king.\n\nPsalm 72 might be fitted into the coronation service, being then the\nprayer offered for a just and successful reign. This would mean\ntranslating the successive sentences of the psalm from verse 1 to verse\n11 and from verse 15 to verse 17 as petitions. Thus verse 2 would be\ntranslated:\n\n  May he judge thy people with righteousness\n  And thy poor with justice.\n\nand other verses correspondingly. This psalm is then in no sense a psalm\nof lamentation, but it seems to be a psalm of petition in behalf of the\nking who is about to begin his reign.\n\nThe remaining thirty-seven Psalms of Lamentation, or almost one-fourth\nof the Psalter, arise out of the distress of the individual. The most\ncommon misfortune is sickness (Psalms 13, 6, 88, 70, 39, 77, and 102),\naccordingly the petition is that the afflicted one may be saved from\ndeath by Yahwe\u2019s merciful power.\n\nTogether with sickness there is usually the bitter complaint against the\nwicked enemies (Psalms 3, 13, 70, 64, 140, 7, 55, and 109). It is of\ncourse altogether understandable that men should be alienated from a\nsick person, regarding him as justly smitten of God and afflicted, and\nthat such men should in turn be regarded by the sick man as enemies. It\nis also possible that in some instances, as in Psalms 22 and 69, it may\nbe a matter of religious persecution. On the other hand the language\nused in a number of psalms (13, 70, 64, 140, 7, 55, 57, 59, and 109)\nrather strongly suggests that the enemies are practicers of black magic,\nan art familiar to every land unilluminated by modern scientific\nknowledge.\n\nYet in a considerable number of these psalms it is Yahwe himself who has\nsent the affliction. When this is the case the psalmist may do either of\ntwo things: he may acknowledge his misfortune to be just punishment for\nhis sin, and accordingly petition for forgiveness and deliverance\n(Psalms 38, 88, 39, and 102); or he may affirm his innocence and demand\ndeliverance as a matter of justice (Psalms 26, 7, 17, 59, and 71).\n\nOf all the individual psalms of lamentation, unquestionably the three\nfinest are 51, 42-43, and 130. Psalm 51 has but one single clause\nreferring to physical distress! \u201cthat the bones which thou hast broken\nmay rejoice,\u201d and is remarkable for its profound consciousness of guilt,\nand its strong conviction that cleansing and regeneration and the\nrighteous life can only be achieved by divine mercy and divine\nredemptive power. As for Psalms 42-43, there is expressed in language of\nhaunting beauty, both an intense thirst for the presence of God, and the\nawakening realization of a something of superior worth in man that can\nonly be satisfied by the experience of God. This would seem to be the\nroad along which the Hebrew ultimately arrived at the consciousness of\nhis own supreme worth and immortality. Yet possibly the rarest of these\npsalms both for simplicity of expression and depth of religious insight\nis 130. The psalmist, who \u201cwaits for God more than they who watch for\nthe morning\u201d has an amazingly profound consciousness of sin expressed in\nthe words:\n\n  If iniquities thou should\u2019st record, O Yahwe,\n  Lord who could stand ...\n\nand likewise a sublime conception of God\u2019s mercy:\n\n  But with Thee is forgiveness\n  That Thou mays\u2019t be revered.\n\n\n                  Psalms of Testimony and Thanksgiving\n\nCorresponding to the Psalms of Lamentation and Petition are the Psalms\nof Testimony and Thanksgiving. The afflicted community or individual\nwhich has, in answer to its petition to Yahwe, experienced deliverance\nis obligated to give public expression to its gratitude for Yahwe\u2019s\nsalvation. Such psalms may be expected to tell the story of the\naffliction, the appeal for divine help, and the deliverance. Furthermore\nit is altogether natural for any people with a national and a religious\nconsciousness to look back through the years and the centuries and to\ngive thanks for the favors manifested by Deity to the fathers.\nOriginally the first words of such psalms may well have been: \u201cGive\nthanks to Yahwe\u201d or \u201cI will give thanks to Yahwe.\u201d\n\nIt is best to begin with the individual psalms of thanksgiving, since\nthe individual experience of affliction and deliverance recurs with\nlittle change from age to age, and the individual psalm of thanksgiving\naccordingly approximates more nearly than the national the original\ntype. The individual psalms of thanksgiving in the Psalter are 116, 30,\n32, 138, 66, 21, 18, 118, and 103.\n\nPsalm 116 is the testimony of a man who has been sick unto death. In\nanguish and despair he prayed: \u201cO Yahwe save my life.\u201d Yahwe heard his\nprayer, restored him to health, and accordingly he is in the temple to\npay his vows, to offer up his sacrifices of thanksgiving and to give his\ntestimony in the presence of all Yahwe\u2019s people.\n\nAgain Psalm 30 is the testimony of a man who had once been very\nprosperous, but who by the loss of Yahwe\u2019s favor had been brought low.\nNear unto death, he cried unto Yahwe, pleading that his death could not\nprofit the Deity since the dead in Sheol praise not God. Yahwe saved his\nlife to the end that he might praise and give thanks to his God\ncontinually.\n\nPsalm 32 is in form and content quite similar to the teaching or wisdom\npsalms. Here, however, the teaching is based on a personal experience of\ndeliverance from sickness, and the teaching is itself a testimony of\ngratitude for recovery. In his distress this psalmist made confession of\nhis sin. Yahwe forgave and healed him. Jonah 2:3-10 is likewise a psalm\nof thanksgiving. The afflicted one at the point of death made his prayer\nand his vow. That prayer came to Yahwe in his sanctuary and he was\nsaved. Accordingly he offered to Yahwe the sacrifice of thanksgiving.\n\nPsalms 138 and 66 do not state the nature of the deliverance for which\nthey give thanks, but the author of 66 follows time honored custom by\noffering an actual animal sacrifice at the sanctuary in fulfillment of\nhis vow. Psalms 18 and 118 express the gratitude of two national leaders\nfor deliverance from great peril.\n\nThe difficulty of deciding with certainty to which group a number of\npsalms belong is illustrated by Psalm 21. Verses 2 and 8 are addressed\nto Yahwe and express the king\u2019s devotion to his God, while verses 3-7\ndescribe the goodness of Yahwe to the king. Yahwe had bestowed upon him\nthe crown, had given him length of days, and had maintained him in\nsecurity and honor upon his throne. Verses 9-13 are addressed to the\nking, probably by the priest, and promise the king complete victory over\nhis enemies. The concluding verse 14 addressed to Yahwe:\n\n  Be exalted, O Yahwe in thy strength\n    We will sing and praise thy Power.\n\nThis verse has the form of a petition, but its formal language amounts\nto an ascription of praise. The psalm then does not in the main utter a\npetition, nor express faith in Deity, but is rather an expression of\nthanksgiving and may well have been originally used in the celebration\nof an anniversary of the king\u2019s ascension to the throne.\n\nThe classic individual psalm of thanksgiving in the Psalter is 103.\nThough it is here an individual who calls upon his soul to bless Yahwe,\nyet there is little that is personal about the psalm, for the psalmist\nidentifies himself with his fellow Israelites and for that matter with\nuniversal humanity. Also there is little to distinguish this psalm of\nthanksgiving from the hymn of praise. The psalmist does not refer in\nverses 3-5, nor anywhere else, to any single individual personal\nconcrete experience of Jehovah\u2019s salvation, and the psalm is not in that\nsense a psalm of testimony. Yet exhortation to \u201cforget not all His\nbenefits,\u201d the mention at the very outset of the psalm of the healing of\ndiseases; linking of this healing with the forgiveness of sin as in the\npsalms of lamentation; the enumeration of Yahwe\u2019s gracious favors to\nman; all these are calculated to call forth gratitude, and it is\nactually as a psalm of thanksgiving that the readers of the Bible have\nalways regarded it. Notable in the psalm is the conception of the all\nbut limitless mercy of God; the comparison of God\u2019s compassion to that\nof an earthly father\u2019s, the emphasis upon the eternity of God in\ncontrast to the frail mortality of man and the fact that God\u2019s mercy is\nextended to successive generations of men.\n\nThe transition to the national psalms of thanksgiving is splendidly made\nby Psalm 107. This might perhaps be called a liturgical psalm of\nthanksgiving. Verses 1-3 are clearly introductory. There is the general\ncall to thanksgiving in verse 1:\n\n  Give thanks unto Yahwe for he is good,\n  For his mercy endureth forever.\n\nThen in verses 2 and 3 the call is directed especially to the\nrepresentatives of the Diaspora who by divine mercy have returned from\nall lands to Zion. The service of thanksgiving proper falls into four\nparts. The author has selected the four most wonderful deliverances of\nwhich he has knowledge; the deliverance of travelers hopelessly lost in\nthe great desert; the deliverance of men who for their rebellion against\nGod had been fettered and cast into prison; the deliverance of the sick\nwho for their iniquities had been brought to the gates of death; the\ndeliverance of sailors from a terrible storm on the much-dreaded sea. We\nmay suppose that processions representing each of these groups came\nforward in the temple, while their stories were being told\u2014possibly by a\nsoloist\u2014after which the chorus summoned them to give thanks, adding to\nthe refrain a couplet suitable to each group. The psalm concludes with a\nhymn of praise to the God who manifests his power both over nature and\nover the affairs of men.\n\nThe National Psalms of Thanksgiving in the Psalter are fewer in number\nthan the individual and further removed from the original type. This may\nbe because national escapes from peril are rarer and more difficult to\ncelebrate; and as they become more remote in time, the few psalms of\nthanksgiving that have been written to celebrate those deliverances have\nless and less interest for the public, and correspondingly less\nsuitability for public worship, and so are lost. In the Psalter we have\nin addition to Psalm 107, Psalms 124, 136, 114, 124, and 65. Of these\nPsalm 124 is the only one which could be supposed to have been composed\nto celebrate a recent deliverance. On the one hand the language is\ngeneral and the figures of speech are familiar, but on the other hand\nthere is a spontaneity, simplicity and power of expression that suggest\na recent experience of escape from great peril. This is especially true\nof verse 7.\n\nLikewise delightful for its originality of literary form is Psalm 114.\nIt celebrates in poetic and dramatic language the triumphant crossing of\nthe Red Sea and the Jordan. Obviously it is looking back at these events\nthrough the media of legend and myth, and verse 2 makes it clear that\nthe poem can not be earlier than the division of the kingdom.\nNevertheless the author is so thrilled by the stories that have come\ndown to him that his poem possesses amazing spontaneity and power.\n\nIn contrast with the two preceding poems, Psalms 136 and 105 are highly\nstereotyped. Every second line in 136 is the refrain: \u201cFor his mercy\nendureth forever\u201d and the psalm was therefor probably written for public\nrendition. Both psalms deal with the theme so dear to the Hebrew heart,\nYahwe\u2019s gift to the fathers of the land of Canaan, and both retell\nsomething of the biblical story of the patriarchs, the deliverance from\nEgypt, and the conquest.\n\nPsalm 65 seems to be essentially a psalm of harvest thanksgiving. It\naccompanies the payment of vows (verse 2). Verses 2-5 are introductory,\nannouncing the presence of the worshipers at the sanctuary. Verses 6-9\nexpress faith in the God of land and sea, while verses 10-14 accredit to\nhim the increase of the fields and the flocks. The psalms of testimony\nand thanksgiving pass over naturally into the hymns of praise, but as\nthe hymns form the chief object of this study their treatment is\npostponed until the next chapter.\n\n\n                            Psalms of Faith\n\nOut of the experience of affliction as expressed in the psalms of\nlamentation and petition, and out of the further experience of\ndeliverance as expressed in the psalms of testimony and thanksgiving,\ndevelops a serene faith and confidence over against the perplexities,\nthe perils, and the conflicts of life. One characteristic element in the\nPsalm of Lamentation and Petition is the affirmation of faith in Yahwe.\nThat affirmation of faith gradually develops until it becomes the entire\ntheme of the psalm. This development can be traced to some extent in the\npsalms themselves. It is well to begin with Psalm 9, for while it\nexpresses predominatingly confidence, yet it petitions at some length\nfor Yahwe\u2019s help against Israel\u2019s enemies. Psalm 27 makes a much\nstronger affirmation of faith in Yahwe and a correspondingly briefer\npetition for divine protection; while Psalms 4 and 16, expressing quiet\nconfidence in Yahwe, have only the very briefest appeals for his\nassistance. Psalms 11, 62, 63, and 92 still recognize the presence of\nenemies, but all are confident that their wicked foes must perish, while\nthe faithful will experience Yahwe\u2019s blessing.\n\nThe classic expressions of faith in Yahwe, however, are Psalms 23, 131,\n121, and 91. Psalm 23:1-4 conceives of God under the figure of a\nshepherd, who gives to his own food, drink, guidance, protection. With\nthe thought of danger in verse 4 the psalmist apparently felt the need\nof a stronger figure of speech to express his perfect security and good\nfortune, so in verse 5 he conceives of God as his host. God is providing\nfor him most generously and he is confident that he will be the happy\nguest of God for the rest of his days.\n\nPsalm 131 is of rarest beauty in its simplicity. This psalmist is aware\nthat there are problems which he cannot solve by reason, and which might\nbe permitted to harass his soul. Not in presumptuous pride, but in\nsincere humility, he simply trusts Yahwe, with a mind as free from\nprotest as that of a weaned child in its mother\u2019s arms.\n\nPsalm 121 and more especially Psalm 91 seem to be liturgical in\ncharacter. In Psalm 121, verse 1, the psalmist recognizes his need of\nhelp and that the help must come from Deity. Many of his fellow\ncountrymen had through the centuries uncritically sought help from the\ngods of the high places. This psalmist asks with intense yearning and\nearnestness whence his help is to come. In verse 2 he answers his own\nquestion:\n\n  My help cometh from the Lord,\n  Maker of heaven and earth.\n\nIt is perhaps a question whether verses 3-8 are a soliloquy, or whether\nthey are addressed to the psalmist by the priest. In either case the\npsalmist has the assurance that Israel\u2019s God, who neither slumbers nor\nsleeps, will keep him everywhere and at all times, secure from evil.\n\nIn Psalm 91, verses 1 and 2 state the general truth that the man who\ntrusts God is happy:\n\n  Blessed is the man, who dwelleth in the secret place of the most High,\n        Who abideth under the shadow of the Almighty,\n        Who saith of Yahwe, \u201cMy refuge and my fortress,\n        My God in whom I trust.\u201d\n\nThe verses 3-13 bring to the psalmist the assurance, presumably from\nGod\u2019s spokesman, the priest, that Yahwe will keep him under his constant\nprotection, and that he need fear no peril however great. Finally in\nverses 14-16 the assurance is confirmed by a divine oracle, the voice of\nGod, promising the psalmist deliverance from every trouble, long life\nand honor.\n\nAmong these psalms of faith ought certainly to be included Psalm 46.\nAlthough this psalm does not contemplate any present situation in life,\nit looks forward with confidence to the turmoil and conflict, that in\nthe last days will precede Yahwe\u2019s final victory and subsequent reign of\nrighteousness and peace. The psalm is written, not from an individual\nbut from a national point of view. Its motive is sounded forth in the\nrefrain which occurs at verse 8 and verse 12, and which undoubtedly\nought to be inserted after verse 4 to divide the psalm into three equal\nsections:\n\n  Yahwe of Hosts is with us,\n  A fortress for us is the God of Jacob.\n\nIt may accordingly be described as a national eschatological psalm of\nfaith.\n\nThe psalm opens with the strong profession of faith of verse 2:\n\n  God is for us refuge and strength,\n  In troubles he proves himself help indeed.\n\nVerses 3 and 4 introduce us to the dread and terrifying phenomena of the\nlast days; yet are not the believers in Yahwe afraid:\n\n  Therefore will we not fear though the earth tremble,\n  And the mountains sink down into the heart of the sea.\n  Let its waters roar and rage,\n  Let the mountains shake with its violence;\n  Yahwe of hosts is with us,\n  A fortress for us is the God of Jacob.\n\nThe second division, verses 5-7, pictures the serenity of the new\nJerusalem already enjoying what the old Jerusalem lacked, a river\nflowing through its midst, and protected by God in this great hour while\nthe hostile nations rage without its walls. Finally the third division,\nverses 9-11, invites us to behold the evidence of the complete and final\ndefeat of the enemies of God, the bows snapped, the spears broken, and\nthe chariots burning up in fire. Also one is to hear the voice of God\nclaiming forevermore his rightful and supreme sovereignty among the\nnations of the earth.\n\nUnique among the psalms of confidence is Psalm 139. The psalmist\nmarvels, in verses 1-6, at Yahwe\u2019s complete knowledge of his earthly\nlife; in verses 7-12, at the omnipresent power of Deity, from which\nthere is no escape; in verses 14-16, at the divine wisdom manifested in\nthe creation of the psalmist\u2019s body and the complete determining of his\nlife\u2019s course, in verse 17 at the innumerable thoughts and purposes of\nGod. Verses 19-22 descend to the commonplace in petitioning for the\ndeath of the wicked while the concluding verses 23-24 ask God that his\nheart be searched for the discovery of wrong and that he be divinely\nguided in the right way. It is perhaps possible to regard verses 1-18 as\nan expression of faith in Yahwe, introductory to the petitions 19-24 and\nso class the poem as a psalm of lamentation and petition, but the verses\n1-18 seem to be relatively so much more important that it seems wiser to\nregard it as a psalm of faith.\n\n\n                       Teaching or Wisdom Psalms\n\nThere is a natural line of development from the psalm of faith to what\nmay perhaps be called teaching or wisdom psalms. The believing psalmist\nassumes that God is in complete control of all the circumstances of\nlife, and is convinced that God will protect him from all evil and give\nhim success. This assumption of faith then becomes for many the all\nimportant, fundamental law of life, and as such it must needs be taught\nto youth. Thus doubtless originated the wisdom psalms; of which we have\nin the Psalter 1, 112, 34, 78, 127, 128, 133, 125, 73, 37, 49.\n\nPsalm 1 is a splendid type of the wisdom psalm, since it begins with the\ncharacteristic opening words: \u201cBlessed is the man,\u201d and then sets forth\nthe qualities of the good man and claims for him success, while it\nasserts for the wicked certain condemnation and ruin. Psalms 112 and 34\nare also characteristic wisdom psalms, confined however in the\nartificial limitations of alphabetical acrostics. Psalm 78 teaches the\nsame lesson as to the secret of success from history, recalling how\nYahwe had again and again punished disobedience and rewarded obedience\nuntil he finally rejected Ephraim and accepted Judah, and chose David to\nbe his servant.\n\nIf there were in Israel wise men, such as the author of Ecclesiastes,\nwho taught that all life was vanity, there were other wise men such as\nthe author of Psalm 127 who taught that while all human effort without\nGod\u2019s cooperation was vain, yet life with God\u2019s cooperation was certain\nof happiness. God does give his help to man, and one of his very best\ngifts is children. Again 128 gives the assurance that he who walks in\nYahwe\u2019s ways will enjoy the fruits of his labor, and in happiness see\nhis children and children\u2019s children round about him. Psalm 133 pays\nsimple and charming tribute to the joy of human fellowship.\n\nThe assertion that the righteous always prosper and that the wicked\nsuffer misfortune was inevitably challenged by the sceptics and scorned\nby the scoffers, who mocked the believing psalmist in his distress\nsaying: \u201cWhere is now your God?\u201d It became necessary therefore to deal\nwith this problem on the basis of the facts of life, and we get\naccordingly a somewhat different type of wisdom psalm. Psalm 125\ntestifies to the existence of this problem. Verses 1 and 2, to be sure,\naffirm the security of the righteous. Verse 3, however, attempts to\njustify the affirmation of the preceding verses by a rational argument.\nIf the righteous were not certain to prosper in the world, why should\nmen be righteous? Would not the righteous become wicked and the moral\nfoundations of life crumble? The petition in verses 4 and 5 requesting\nYahwe\u2019s favor for the good and his punishment for the wicked, while\nproperly no part of a teaching psalm, are further recognition that\nactually certain of the facts of life contradict the psalmist\u2019s theory.\nNevertheless, his own conviction is expressed in verse 1:\n\n  They who trust in Yahwe are as Mount Zion\n  Which cannot be moved but abideth forever.\n\nPsalm 73 is the teaching of one who wrestled with this same problem of\nthe theodicy. Verse 1 is an assertion of his faith:\n\n  Yes God is good to Israel\n  To those who are pure of heart.\n\nBut verses 2-20 tell how nearly the psalmist came to losing that faith\nas he saw the wicked prosper, while he himself suffered misfortunes, and\nhow he recovered his faith with the conviction that the prosperity of\nthe wicked was but temporary and their ultimate doom certain. Verses\n23-28 are accordingly an assertion of the psalmist\u2019s devotion to Yahwe\nas in a psalm of faith, but the main thesis of the psalm is stated in\nverse 1, and so may therefore be best grouped with the wisdom psalms.\n\nPsalm 37 is composed in stanzas of four lines, the first letters of the\nfirst lines of the stanzas spelling out the alphabet. The author of the\npsalm is an old man who gives warning against fretting over the\nprosperity of the wicked, and who affirms on the basis of his long\nexperience of life, that, while the prosperity of the wicked is\nshort-lived, God never forsakes the righteous. The use of the acrostic\nform may itself be taken as evidence of this psalmist\u2019s unquestioning\nbelief in the above dogma.\n\nThe author of Psalm 49 has no certain promise of prosperity for the\nrighteous, nor does he threaten the wicked with premature death, but he\ndoes smile at their fatuous confidence, since death must surely overtake\nthem. Therefore he does not let their possession of wealth trouble him\nbecause it cannot be taken to Sheol. On the other hand there seems to be\njust a suggestion in verse 16 that God can relieve the pious from the\ngrasp of death:\n\n  Surely God will redeem my life from the power of Sheol\n  For he will receive me.\n\n\n\n\n                               Chapter II\n                    HEBREW SANCTUARY HYMNS OF PRAISE\n\n\nThe hymn of praise is very similar to the psalm of thanksgiving. Indeed\nit is sometimes difficult to decide in which category a psalm belongs,\nas in the case of Psalm 103. The fundamental difference is that the\npsalm of thanksgiving expresses gratitude while the hymn of praise\nexpresses adoration. The psalm of thanksgiving testifies to that which\nhas actually been experienced, the hymn of praise voices enthusiasm for\nthe wisdom and power and goodness that are in God. The psalm of\nthanksgiving is thus in its nature subjective, conscious of what the\npsalmist has experienced, while the genuine hymn is objective,\nforgetting self in adoration of Deity.\n\nThe question of the nature of the hymn of praise is involved with the\nquestion of its origin. Praise did not in the beginning burst forth\nspontaneously from the human heart. Religion arose out of a\nconsciousness of need, and a feeling that there was a power to meet that\nneed. In Babylonia, as in India and elsewhere the hymn of praise is\noften but little more than an introduction to a petition. The singer\ntells the Deity that He is wise and then asks for wisdom; or strong and\nasks for strength, or rich and asks for material blessings. Praise is\nsuspiciously close to flattery and far from disinterested. In Israel\nalso it is believed that the Deity desires praise. There is no profit\nfor Yahwe in the death of the psalmist, since the dead praise not Yahwe.\nBut in Israel praise is not a mere preliminary to a petition. The Old\nTestament psalmist does not praise God and then ask for favors. Almost\nno hymns are found in the psalter followed by what can actually be\ncalled a petition. The Hebrew hymn of praise has passed beyond that\nstage of development. As the expression of faith in Deity in the psalm\nof lamentation developed into the independent psalm of faith, so the\nwords of praise that once introduced the petition for help have\ndeveloped into the independent hymn of praise. Nor is the Old Testament\nhymn of praise just an expression of gratitude for the divine favors\nreceived; with or without anticipation of favors to come. The hymn of\npraise is not a mere variant of the psalm of gratitude. The hymn of\npraise has transcended the human experience of need and deliverance and\nforgets the self in adoration of Deity. Praise is an end in itself,\ndesired of God, and necessary for the human spirit.\n\nThe first home of the hymn of praise, in the light of all that is known\nof the development of religion, must undoubtedly have been the\nsanctuary. This judgment is confirmed by the testimony of the Old\nTestament psalms:\n\n  Praise waiteth for thee, O God, in Zion.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 65:2.\n\n  Enter into his gates with thanksgiving,\n  And into his courts with praise.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 100:4.\n\n  Praise him ye servants of Yahwe,\n  Ye who stand in the house of Yahwe.\n                                                        \u2014Psalm 135:1, 2.\n\n  Sing unto Yahwe a new song,\n  His praise in the congregation of saints.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 149:1.\n\n  Behold bless ye Yahwe, ye servants of Yahwe,\n  Who by night stand in the house of Yahwe.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 134:1.\n\n  I will praise Yahwe with my whole heart,\n  In the assembly of the upright and the congregation.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 111:1.\n\nSuch pious Hebrews as the authors of Psalms 42-43 and 84 longed for the\nsanctuary because it was pre\u00ebminently the place for worship and praise.\nTypical sanctuary hymns of praise are Psalms 150, 148, 147, 146, 145,\n111, 135, 117, 113, 33, 115.\n\nThe external form of the hymn of praise is very simple. It is introduced\nby the call to praise, originally addressed by the priesthood of the\nsanctuary to the worshippers. The characteristic form of the call was:\n\u201cPraise ye Yahwe,\u201d \u201cHallelujah.\u201d So Miriam called upon her Hebrew\nsisters to praise Yahwe when the victory had been gained at the Sea of\nReeds over Pharaoh\u2019s forces:\n\n  Praise ye Yahwe, for he hath triumphed;\n  Horse and rider hath he thrown into the sea.\n                                                          \u2014Exodus 15:21.\n\nThis call to praise was followed by the body of the hymn setting forth\nin participial phrases, adjectival clauses, or independent sentences the\nreasons why men should praise Yahwe. Then the hymn was rounded out in\ngood symmetrical form with the same concluding call to\npraise:\u2014\u201cHallelujah.\u201d\n\nWhile the above is the standard form of the hymn, a few psalms repeat\nthe call to praise at intervals throughout the psalm, creating somewhat\nthe impression of a union of little hymns. Thus Psalm 147 is in three\nparts each introduced by a call to praise. Part I has the call to praise\nin verse 1, and the reasons for praise in verses 2-6. Part II has the\ncall to praise in verse 7 and the reasons for praise in verses 8-11.\nPart III has the call to praise in verse 12 and the reasons for praise\nin verses 13-20. The whole hymn then concludes with \u201cHallelujah.\u201d\nLikewise Psalm 148 is in two parts. Part I has the call to praise in\nverses 1-5a, and the reasons for praise in verse 5b and verse 6. Part II\nhas the call to praise in verses 7-13a, and the reasons for praise in\nverses 13bc and 14abc. Again there is a concluding \u201cHallelujah.\u201d\n\nIt is worth observing that in general the Old Testament hymn of praise\nspeaks of Yahwe in the third person. Human being calls upon human being\nto praise Yahwe, and human being tells human being why Yahwe is worthy\nto be praised. Hymns which thus use the third person exclusively are\nPsalms 150, 149, 148, 147, 146, 134, 117, 113, 111, 100, 98, 96, 95, 47,\n29, 24, 19:2-5b; 19:5c-7. Yahwe is addressed in the second person in the\nfollowing verses: Psalm 135:13; Psalm 97:9; Psalm 99:3, 8; Psalm 115:1,\n2; Psalm 93:2, 3, 5. The second and third persons are used in about\nequal degree in Psalm 68, 145, 194, while Psalms 8, 84, 67 use the\nsecond person exclusively. Now the use of the second person is of course\ncharacteristic of prayer. The fact therefore that in the standard Hebrew\nhymn of praise the third person is used, because Hebrew is calling upon\nhis fellow Hebrew to Praise Yahwe, testifies rather powerfully to the\nsocial and democratic character of worship in Israel.\n\nTaking up now the three divisions of the Hebrew hymn in order, it is to\nbe noticed that the call to praise has undergone certain changes in the\nwording. While in the great majority of the hymns the call to praise is\n\u201cHallelujah\u201d in Psalm 134 the call is: \u201cBless ye Yahwe\u201d; and in Psalm\n100 all the land is bidden: \u201cShout to Yahwe\u201d; and in Psalm 33 the\nrighteous are called upon to: \u201cRejoice in Yahwe.\u201d Most impressive\nperhaps of all the calls to praise is that of Psalm 29, where the\nsummons is addressed to the residents of heaven:\n\n  Ascribe to Yahwe, ye gods,\n  Ascribe to Yahwe glory and strength.\n\nAgain, when it is an individual who sings his hymn of praise, he must\neither address deity in the first person, as in Psalm 145:1:\n\n  I will extol thee, my God, O King;\n  And I will bless thy name for ever and ever;\n\nor he must call upon himself to praise Yahwe as in Psalm 146:1:\n\n  Praise Yahwe, O my soul.\n\nStill further variation from the standard form is found, when the call\nto praise takes the form of a petition to Yahwe, a petition however\nwhich is really an ascription of glory to him. This occurs very\nbeautifully in Psalm 115:1:\n\n  Not unto us, O Lord, not unto us,\n  But unto thy name give glory.\n\nSo also in Psalms 67 and 68, the petitions of the opening verses are\nreally that God will glorify his own name, and the petitions merge\naltogether naturally into the calls to praise that follow.\n\nThe calls to praise in the various hymns, however they vary, yet bear\neloquent testimony to the enthusiasm which animated the Hebrew hymns.\nThey were sung not only to the accompaniment of many musical\ninstruments, but also with dancing. The singing was not limited to\nsanctuary choirs, but was participated in by the entire concourse of\npeople. The call to praise goes out to those in the sanctuary Psalm\n150:1; to priests, Levites, Israelites, proselytes Psalm 135:19ff; to\nJerusalem Psalm 147:12; to all nations Psalm 117; to everything that\nhath breath Psalm 150:6; to all things animate and inanimate in heaven\nand earth Psalm 148.\n\nThe reasons given in the body of the hymns why men should praise Yahwe\nnaturally vary somewhat. However one predominant reason is that God in\nwisdom and power created the entire physical universe as it was visible\nto the ancient Hebrew; the firmament with sun, moon and stars, and the\nwaters above the firmament; the earth and everything upon the earth, and\nthe waters beneath the earth. It is Yahwe who causeth the winds to blow,\nand the lightnings to flash, and hail and snow and rain to fall upon the\nearth; it is Yahwe who causeth all vegetation to grow, and giveth\nincrease to the flock, and sustaineth life in everything that breatheth.\n(Psalms 148:5-6; 147:4, 8, 15-18; 146:6; 135:6, 7; 115:15; 104:2-32;\n68:10, and 29:3-10.)\n\nA second almost equally prominent reason for praising Yahwe is for his\nwisdom, might, and goodness revealed in his dealings with Israel. He had\nchosen the race for his own, had redeemed it from the power of Egypt,\nhad revealed unto it his will in laws, statutes and commandments, had\nled it safely through the great desert, and had given it possession of\nthe land of Canaan. (Psalms 148:14; 147:2,13,20; 135:4,9-12; 33:12.) It\nis noteworthy that little attention is given to the return from exile,\npartly, perhaps, because it may have been easier to see the hand of God\nin remote history, and partly because the return from Babylon and the\nsubsequent history were not themes to create hymnal enthusiasm. On the\nother hand Israel did, as it will appear, look toward the future for\nYahwe\u2019s final and most glorious participation in human affairs.\n\nA third potent reason for praising Yahwe is because of his merciful help\nextended to the weak and lowly on the earth, the widow, the orphan and\nthe stranger, the oppressed and the troubled. Especially is he to be\npraised, because he saves the righteous and destroys the wicked. (Psalms\n147:3; 146:7-9; 145:14, 18-20; 113:6-9; 103:13; 33:18-20; 68:6.)\n\nAgain the psalmist praises Yahwe for what he is in himself. His\ngreatness is unsearchable. He is high above all Gods. His understanding\nis infinite. He is gracious and full of compassion. He is righteous in\nall his ways and holy in all his works. He is good, his mercy is\neverlasting and his faithfulness is extended to generation after\ngeneration. His name is holy and to be revered. (Psalms 150:2; 147:5;\n146:7-9; 135:3, 5; 113:4; 111:4, 9; 100:5.)\n\nYet another reason for praising Yahwe is that he stands in such contrast\nto the gold and silver idols of the nations, which are the work of men\u2019s\nhands, and powerless to see or hear or help. (Psalms 135:15-17;\n115:4-8.) Likewise Yahwe is an infinitely more reliable and potent\nsource of help than the mortal human prince who goeth so soon to the\ngrave and whose thoughts and plans then perish forever. (Psalm 146:3,\n4.)\n\nAs the hymns in praise of Yahwe quite fittingly begin with Hallelujah\n\u201cPraise ye Yahwe,\u201d so also the great majority of them come to a\nconclusion with \u201cHallelujah.\u201d (Psalms 150, 149, 148, 147, 146, 135, 117,\n115, 113, 104.) There are a few hymns which have not the Hallelujah at\nthe close (Psalms 29, 33, 111, 145), but these are not typical hymns.\nPsalms 29 and 33 do not use \u201cHallelujah\u201d in the opening call to praise,\nwhile 111 and 145 are individual and alphabetical hymns of praise, in\nwhich \u201cHallelujah\u201d could not well be made an integral part of the hymn.\nOn the other hand a number of hymns have a longer and stronger\nconcluding call to praise than the simple \u201cHallelujah\u201d:\n\n  Let everything that breatheth praise Yahwe.\n  Praise ye Yahwe.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 150:6.\n\n  The praise of Yahwe shall my mouth speak;\n  And let all flesh bless his holy name\n  For ever and ever.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 145:21.\n\n  The dead praise not Yahwe,\n  Nor any who go down into silence;\n  But as for us we will praise Yahwe\n  Both now and evermore;\n  Praise ye Yahwe.\n                                                      \u2014Psalm 115:17, 18.\n\n  House of Israel, bless ye Yahwe;\n  House of Aaron, bless ye Yahwe;\n  House of Levi, bless ye Yahwe;\n  Worshippers of Yahwe, bless ye Yahwe;\n  Blessed by Yahwe from Zion who inhabits Jerusalem;\n  Praise ye Yahwe.\n                                                       \u2014Psalm 135:19-21.\n\nSuch in general is the sanctuary hymn of praise, but each of the hymns\nin this group (Psalms 150, 148, 147, 135, 113, 145, 111, 146, 115, 33,\n117) merits or demands at least brief individual mention. Of all these\nPsalm 150 deserves to be mentioned first because its position at the end\nof the psalter may be accepted as strong testimony of the great\nimportance attached to praise in the worship of Israel. The psalm also\nmerits consideration for its own sake because of the clarity and\nsymmetry of its arrangement:\n\nCall to praise Yahwe (verse 1a); where praise Yahwe (verse 1bc);\nwherefore praise Yahwe (verse 2); wherewith praise Yahwe (verses 3, 4,\n5); concluding call to praise Yahwe (verse 6).\n\nPsalm 148 is particularly notable for the universality of its call to\npraise. Verses 1-5 call upon everybody and everything in the heavens\nabove to praise Yahwe, while verses 7-13 call to his praise everything\nand everybody on the earth beneath including:\n\n  Kings of the earth, and all people;\n  Princes, and all judges of the earth;\n  Both young men and maidens;\n  Old men and children.\n\nAfter the tremendous universality of this call to praise, the brevity of\nthe body of the hymn, with the reference to Yahwe\u2019s supreme glory on the\none hand, and the reference to his goodness to Israel on the other hand,\nis very effective:\n\n  Let them praise the name of Yahwe,\n  For his name alone is supreme.\n  His glory is above earth and heaven,\n  And he hath given victory to his people.\n  The praise is he of all his faithful ones,\n  Even of the Israelites, the people near to him,\n  Praise ye Yahwe.\n\nPsalm 147 is a splendid example of the union of three little hymns in\none composition. The absence of a concluding call to praise is\nsurprising; it has doubtless been lost in process of transmission.\n\nPsalm 135 has a number of little variations from the ordinary usage of\nthe hymns. Verses 1 and 2 are a typical call to praise:\n\n  Praise ye Yahwe;\n  Praise ye the name of Yahwe;\n  Praise him, ye servants of Yahwe,\n  Ye who stand in the house of Yahwe,\n  In the courts of the house of our God.\n\nBut then verses 3 and 4 are two little hymns in themselves:\n\n  Praise Yahwe; for Yahwe is good.\n  Sing praises unto him, for he is gracious,\n  For Yahwe hath chosen Jacob for himself,\n  And Israel is his treasure.\n\nWith verse 5 one would expect a renewed call to praise, as for example:\n\n  Praise Yahwe for Yahwe is great,\n\nbut instead of the call to praise there is substituted an affirmation of\nfaith:\n\n  For we know that Yahwe is great,\n  And our Lord above all gods.\n\nVerses 6-12 proceed in normal course reciting the greatness of Yahwe in\ncreation and in history, but verse 13 contains its surprise, for the\nthird person is exchanged for the second and Yahwe is directly\naddressed:\n\n  Thy name, O Yahwe, endureth for ever,\n  Thy remembrance, O Yahwe, to all generations.\n\nThe second person is the natural usage of prayer, and the subject of\nverse 14 would have been appropriate for petition:\n\n  For Yahwe will deliver his people,\n  And he will show mercy to his servants.\n\nPossibly this very fact accounts for the use of the second person in\nverse 13. The thought of rescue naturally suggests the idea of the idol\nworship of the oppressors (verses 15-18), and the contrast between the\nimpotent idols and Yahwe lends enthusiasm to the mighty concluding call\nto praise (verses 19-21).\n\nIn this group of sanctuary hymns, Psalm 113 undoubtedly deserves a\nunique place. The call to praise is distinctive both for its sublimity\nof conception and the beauty of the language:\n\n  Praise ye Yahwe;\n  Praise, ye servants of Yahwe,\n  Praise the name of Yahwe.\n  Blessed be the name of Yahwe\n  Now and evermore;\n  From the rising of the sun to its going down\n  Yahwe\u2019s name is to be praised.\n                                                            \u2014Verses 1-3.\n\nHowever the rarest beauty and chiefest charm of this hymn is in the\nunexpected contrast between the Yahwe exalted high above all nations and\nYahwe stooping from on high to the poorest and weakest of the earth.\nThere is here a beautiful illustration of the characteristic Hebrew\ntendency to make truth concrete, in the case of the childless wife whom\nYahwe remembers, and saves from being divorced, causing her to remain at\nhome the joyful mother of children:\n\n  High above all nations is Yahwe;\n  Above the heavens his glory.\n  Who is like Yahwe our God,\n  Who dwelling in high heaven,\n  Stoopeth to look upon the earth?\n  He raiseth up poor men from the dust;\n  From the dung hill he lifteth needy men,\n  To seat them beside princes.\n  Even with the princes of his people.\n  He causeth the barren woman to live at home\n  The mother of children joyful.\n  Praise ye Yahwe.\n\nIt is safe to say that no greater hymn of praise is to be found in the\npsalter than Psalm 100. It is great in its originality, clarity, and\nstrength. It is addressed to the congregation entering the temple, and\nthough not sung by the procession might yet be called a processional\nhymn. It is perhaps a question how wide the application of verse 1 is,\nwhether the call to praise goes out to all the earth and all humanity,\nor whether the call is intended simply for all the land of Palestine.\nVerses 3 and 4 seem to make it reasonably clear that the call to praise\nis here meant not for humanity but for the Jewish people. The psalm is\nnot then an eschatological hymn as the wider application of verse 1\nmight suggest. The hymn falls into two divisions of almost equal\nlengths, verses 1-3 and verses 4-5. In the first division verses 1 and 2\nconstitute the call to praise:\n\n  Shout to Yahwe all the land:\n  Serve Yahwe with gladness;\n  Come in before him with singing.\n\nVerse 3 makes up the body of the hymn in this division, and it is to be\nnoted that while the actual content of verse 3 is characteristic reason\nfor praise, yet the introduction of \u201cKnow ye\u201d adds another to the\nsuccession of imperatives in this psalm, increases its strength, and is\nreminiscent of the fact that there were requirements for those who would\nenter Yahwe\u2019s temple as Psalm 24:3-5 makes clear:\n\n  Know ye that Yahwe is God:\n  It is He who hath made us, and we are\n  His people and sheep of his pasture.\n\nIn the second division verse 4 is the call to praise:\n\n  Enter his gates with thanksgiving,\n  His courts with praise;\n  Be thankful to him, bless his name,\n\nand verse 5 the body of the hymn:\n\n  For good is Yahwe: unto everlasting his mercy\n  And to all generations his faithfulness.\n\nThere is no further conclusion and assuredly none is needed.\n\nPsalm 134 is a simple liturgical hymn of a night service in the\nJerusalem temple. Some one representing the congregation standing\nwithout calls upon the priests in the sanctuary to lift up hands to the\nHoly of Holies and bless Yahwe (verses 1-2). The priests from within\nreplying invoke Yahwe\u2019s blessing upon the worshipper.\n\nAnother very beautiful liturgical hymn of praise is Psalm 24. Verses 1\nand 2 are sung by the congregation approaching the sanctuary, and are\nhymnal in character. Arrived at the sanctuary the question is asked, who\nare worthy to enter Yahwe\u2019s sanctuary (verse 3), and the answer is given\nin verses 4, 5. These three verses belong to the category of the\nteaching psalms. In verse 6 the congregation announces that it seeks the\nGod of Jacob. However the temple doors are closed and the congregation\ndemands that the gates be lifted up to permit the King of Glory to\nenter, verse 7. Verse 8 brings the challenge from within the temple:\n\u201cWho is this king of glory?\u201d and the answer is returned by the company\nwithout: \u201cYahwe strong and mighty, Yahwe mighty in battle.\u201d Again the\ndemand is made that the temple gates be lifted up (verse 9), but again\nthe challenge comes from within: \u201cWho is this king of glory?\u201d And now\nthe company returns the age-old title of the king, \u201cYahwe of hosts, he\nis the king of glory,\u201d and we are to understand that the gates did lift\nup, and that the mighty God passed in.\n\nIt is clear that this liturgical hymn is made up of what were once\nindependent literary units. This is sufficiently obvious from the fact\nthat in verse 6 the worshipping company are seeking the deity\u2019s\npresence, as indeed is presupposed by verses 3-5, while in verses 7-10\nthe company is seeking entrance for Yahwe himself into the temple or\nmore probably into the city. The whole constitutes a noble liturgical\nhymn of praise.\n\nPsalms 111 and 145 have little claim to recognition other than that they\nare alphabetical psalms, the twenty-two lines of 111 beginning with the\ntwenty-two successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet, while the first\nlines of the twenty-two couplets of Psalm 145 likewise begin with the\ntwenty-two successive letters of the alphabet.\n\nPsalm 146 opens in the characteristic style of an individual hymn of\npraise:\n\n  Praise ye Yahwe:\n  Praise Yahwe, O my soul;\n  While I live I will praise Yahwe;\n  I will sing praises unto my God, while I exist.\n\nThen, however, there are three verses in the manner of wisdom\nliterature, although introduced by verse 3 in the hortatory style of the\nprophet:\n\n  Trust ye not in princes,\n  Nor in man in whom is no help:\n  His breath goeth out, he returneth to his ground;\n  In that day his thoughts perish.\n  Happy is he who has Jacob\u2019s God for his help,\n  Whose hope is in Yahwe his God,\n  Maker of heaven and earth.\n\nVerses 6-9 give the standard reasons why men should praise Yahwe, and\nverse 10 closes the hymn with that hopeful outlook for the future so\nsignificant, and so characteristic of the Hebrew religion and the Hebrew\nhymn of praise:\n\n  Yahwe shall reign forever,\n  Thy God, O Zion, unto all generations.\n  Praise ye Yahwe.\n\nPsalm 115 varies so widely from the standard hymn of praise that it is\njust a question whether it belongs with the hymns, or with the psalms of\npetition. As previously pointed out, the introductory call to praise\nhere takes on the form of a petition, fortified moreover as in prayers\nof petition with reasons why Yahwe should answer it.\n\n  Not to us, Yahwe, not to us,\n  But to thy name give glory,\n  For thy mercy\u2019s sake, for thy truth\u2019s sake.\n  Why should the nations say,\n  Where is their God?\n                                                           \u2014Verses 1, 2.\n\nWhat would ordinarily be the body of the first division of the hymn\nbegins with verse 3 and runs on to verse 8 contrasting the God who is in\nthe heavens and who has power to do whatever he wills with the impotent\nand useless idols of the nations (verses 3-8).\n\nA new section clearly begins with verse 9. In a hymn proper verses 9-11\nwould constitute a renewed call to praise, but here they are a summons\nto Israelites, priests, proselytes to trust Yahwe:\n\n  Israel, trust in Yahwe:\n  Their help and their shield is he.\n  House of Aaron, trust in Yahwe;\n  Their help and their shield is he.\n  Worshippers of Yahwe, trust in Yahwe;\n  Their help and their shield is he.\n\nThere follows in verses 12-14 not reasons why Yahwe should be trusted,\ncorresponding to the manner in which the body of a hymn gives reasons\nwhy Yahwe should be praised, but rather a strong affirmation of\nconfidence, which again is a common feature of the prayer of petition.\n\n  Yahwe remembers us and will bless,\n  He will bless the house of Israel.\n  He will bless the house of Aaron.\n  He will bless the worshippers of Yahwe,\n  The small with the great,\n\n  Yahwe will increase you,\n  You and your children.\n  Blessed are ye of Yahwe,\n  Maker of heaven and earth.\n\nFinally where in verses 16-18 would ordinarily be expected a renewed\ncall to praise, we have here something that resembles the vow of a\nprayer of petition, although it is hymnal to the extent that it promises\nto praise Yahwe for evermore.\n\nIt ought also to be observed that the psalm has a number of features\nthat indicate it to be liturgical in character. Verses 1-8, it may be\nsupposed, were sung by the congregation made up of Israelites, and\nproselytes, led by priests and Levites. Then verses 9-11 constitute an\nantiphonal response to their petition, one choir singing: \u201cO Israel,\ntrust in Yahwe,\u201d while the second choir responded: \u201cHe is their help and\ntheir shield.\u201d The whole congregation that first sang verses 1-8 now\nsings verses 12-13, and in reply to their affirmation of faith, the\ntemple choir gives the comforting assurance of Yahwe\u2019s favor in verses\n14-15. Then the congregation sings the hymnal vow of verses 16-18. It\nremains accordingly a question whether we have in Psalm 115 a liturgical\nhymn of praise, or a liturgical psalm of petition in which the hymnal\nspirit and form has a prominent place.\n\nPsalm 33 is also difficult of classification. Verses 1-3 are a typical\nhymnal call to praise and verses 4-7 give customary reasons for praising\nYahwe. Then verse 8 issues a renewed call to worship Yahwe and verses\n9-11 again give customary reasons for so doing. But when we arrive at\nverse 12 we have the characteristic introduction to a wisdom psalm:\n\n  Happy the nation whose God is Yahwe,\n  The people he hath chosen for his inheritance.\n\nand there follow in verses 13-19 the sententious utterances,\ncharacteristic of the wisdom literature, teaching that neither men nor\nnations are saved by physical might, but only by the mercy of Yahwe\nextended to those who fear him. Not inappropriately there follows, in\nverses 20 and 21, an affirmation of faith in Yahwe, which is followed in\nturn by the brief petition:\n\n  Let thy mercy, O Yahwe, be upon us,\n  According as we have trusted in thee.\n\nThe first half of the psalm, verses 1-11 is a hymn of praise; the second\nhalf, verses 12-22, despite the petition at the close is perhaps best\ncalled a wisdom psalm.\n\nIn the very short Psalm 117 the call to praise goes out in verse 1 to\n\u201call nations\u201d and to \u201call peoples.\u201d It is a question however whether the\nmercy of Yahwe in verse 2 is extended to all peoples or limited to the\nHebrews. In any case this little hymn of praise forms a suitable\ntransition to the special group of eschatological hymns of praise.\n\n\n\n\n                              Chapter III\n                      HEBREW ESCHATOLOGICAL HYMNS\n\n\nThe sanctuary hymns of praise which we have been studying have for, the\nmost part, the backward look through Israel\u2019s history to the creation of\nthe world. A few of them also have in small degree the forward look\ncalling for Yahwe\u2019s praise because of what he will yet accomplish in the\nworld; and certainly many of the hymns are characterized by an\nenthusiasm for Yahwe\u2019s greatness that asserts or presupposes his\nsupremacy in the universe. Nevertheless it is right to gather together a\nspecial group of hymns which look forward more definitely and concretely\nto the actual triumphant consummation of Yahwe\u2019s plan, and the\nachievement of Israel\u2019s glorious destiny. These hymns are sung in\ncontemplation of Yahwe\u2019s great final victory. He has at long last\nappeared to judge the world; his mightiest enemies have suffered\ncomplete and final defeat. He has taken his rightful position upon his\nthrone, and all nations acknowledge his authority. The physical world\nwill now yield its abundant increase, and the divine reign of peace and\nrighteousness will begin. Such hymns, fittingly called eschatological,\nare Psalms 96, 98, 149, 47, 99, 97, 93, 82.\n\nOne not inconspicuous difference in these eschatological hymns is in the\ncall to praise. Many eschatological hymns indeed seem to have been\nintroduced simply by the triumphant shout: \u201cYahwe is king.\u201d (Psalms 99,\n97, 93.) The announcement of the momentous fact, that at last Israel\u2019s\nGod has actually ascended his throne to take to himself power and\nsovereignty over the earth, does of itself inspire hymnal enthusiasm.\nQuite probably the abruptness of the announcement corresponds to the\nsuddenness and unexpectedness of the event itself. However hymns\nbeginning with the shout: \u201cYahwe is king\u201d sometimes follow up that\nannouncement with a summons to praise Yahwe. Indeed the very fact that\nYahwe has become king is reason why men and nations should be called\nupon to praise him. So while Psalm 93, beginning with \u201cYahwe is king,\u201d\nhas no further call to praise, Psalm 97 does complete the great\nannouncement with a brief call to praise:\n\n  Yahwe is king, let the earth rejoice;\n  Let the many shores be glad.\n\nAnd Psalm 99 follows up the announcement not with one but with repeated\ncalls to worship Yahwe (verses 1, 3, 5, 9).\n\nAnother group of eschatological hymns (Psalms 96, 98, 149) begins indeed\nwith a call to praise, but feels the utter inadequacy of the old songs.\nThe amazingly new world situation demands a new song. Consequently they\nstart with:\n\n  Sing to Yahwe a new song.\n\nThey may later make explicit announcement that Yahwe has become king as\nin Psalm 96:10:\n\n  Say among the nations, Yahwe is king,\n\nor that fact may be made implicitly understood by the general context of\nthe hymn.\n\n  Shout before the king Yahwe.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 98:6.\n\n  Let Zion\u2019s sons rejoice in their king.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 149:2.\n\nUndoubtedly there were also in Israel eschatological hymns, which issued\nthe great call to praise in varied and impressive ways, following up the\ncall to praise with the momentous announcement of Yahwe\u2019s assumption of\nworld government. Of such hymns Psalm 47 is a representative. It calls\nthe peoples to the praise of Yahwe in verse 2 and announces the great\nfact of his newly accepted kingship in verse 3:\n\n  All ye peoples, clap your hands,\n  Shout to God with the voice of triumph,\n  For Yahwe most high is to be feared,\n  A great king is he over all the earth.\n\nIt was observed in the study of the sanctuary hymns that certain of them\n(147, 148) repeated the call to praise at intervals throughout the hymn,\ncreating somewhat the impression of a union of little hymns in one. This\nphenomenon seems to be particularly conspicuous in the eschatological\nhymns. Thus Psalm 96 may be divided into three hymns: I, verses 1-6; II,\nverses 7-10; III, verses 11-13. So also Psalm 98 divides into: I, verses\n1-3; II, verses 4-6a; III, verses 6b-9. Likewise Psalm 99: I, verses\n1-4; II, verses 5-8; III, verse 9. Psalm 47 breaks into two parts: I,\nverses 1-5; II, verses 6-9; and Psalm 149 likewise: I, verses 1-4; II,\nverses 5-9. In all these hymns the repeated calls to praise represent\ngrowing momentum and power of hymnal enthusiasm for Yahwe, the great\nking.\n\nTurning from the introductions to the conclusions of the eschatological\nhymns we find that Psalm 149 is the only one of those found in the\npsalter that does actually end with, \u201cHallelujah.\u201d Others, however\n(Psalms 97, 99, 96, 98), do end with the hymnal note of praise and all\nconclude with the note of triumph. In Psalm 149 it is Israel\u2019s national\ntriumph:\n\n  To execute vengeance upon the nations,\n  Punishments upon the peoples,\n  To bind their kings with chains,\n  And their nobles with fetters of iron,\n  To execute upon them the Judgment written,\n  An honor is it for all His faithful ones.\n                                                            \u2014Verses 7-9.\n\nIn Psalm 47 it is Yahwe\u2019s great political triumph:\n\n  For to God belong the shields of the earth;\n  He is greatly exalted.\n\nPsalms 96 and 98 close with the joyous anticipation that the reign of\nJustice is at hand:\n\n  ... For he has come to judge the earth;\n  He will judge the world with righteousness,\n  And the peoples with equity.\n\nIt is interesting that three other psalms conclude with the thought of\nthe holiness of Yahwe and Yahwe\u2019s house:\n\n  Exalt Yahwe our God,\n  And worship at his holy hill,\n  For holy is Yahwe our God.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 99:9.\n\n  Rejoice ye righteous in Yahwe,\n  And give thanks at the remembrance of his holiness.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 97:12.\n\n  Thy testimonies are very sure:\n  Holiness becometh thy house,\n  O Yahwe, forever.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 93:5.\n\nIn the study of the standard hymns of praise it was observed that Deity\nis regularly spoken of in the third person, while in only a very few\ninstances the second person, the usage of prayer, is employed. Of the\neschatological hymns we have examined there are four in which the second\nperson occurs, Psalms 97, 99, 93, and 82. Psalm 97 is a hymn in three\nsections. The first section, verses 1-6, makes the announcement of\nYahwe\u2019s appearance on earth and the third person is used. The second\nsection, verses 7-9, speaks of Yahwe\u2019s supremacy over the gods, and\nwhere the psalmist is speaking of the joy of Jerusalem and Judah\u2019s towns\nover Yahwe\u2019s victory he uses the second person. But the third section,\ntreating of Yahwe\u2019s deliverance of the righteous again uses the third\nperson. It is difficult to account for the use of the second person in\nthe second section of this hymn, unless it is that the very thought of\nJudah\u2019s joy over Yahwe\u2019s triumph brought Yahwe nearer to the\nconsciousness of the psalmist, and so put the psalmist into the attitude\nof mind of a suppliant toward Yahwe, with the consequent use of the\nsecond person, as in prayer.\n\nPsalm 99 seems to be a hymn of four sections. The first section consists\nof verses 1, 2, 3, containing six lines ending with the refrain: \u201cHoly\nis he.\u201d The second section consists of verses 4 and 5 containing also\nsix lines and ending likewise with the refrain: \u201cHoly is he.\u201d There is\nfurthermore a natural line of division at the end of verse 7, and if we\ncan suppose that the refrain was here inadvertently omitted, we should\nagain have six lines ending with the same refrain. This leaves us in\nverses 8 and 9 a fourth section of six lines ending in the refrain\nslightly expanded: \u201cFor holy is Yahwe our God.\u201d Moreover the hymn is\ndivided into two main divisions of twelve lines each, each ending with a\nlittle hymn of three lines, which is substantially the same:\n\n  Exalt ye Yahwe our God,\n  And worship at his footstool,\n  Holy is he.\n                                                           \u2014Verses 5, 9.\n\nAgain there is in this hymn the same difficulty in accounting for the\nuse of the second person as in Psalm 97, and again the same explanation\nis to be offered. In verse 3a, to be sure, there may be a mistake in the\ntext, for it is scarcely felicitous to have the second person in verse\n3a and the third person in verse 3b. In verses 4 and 8 however, the very\nsubject matter is that which would ordinarily be followed by petitions,\nand which would bring about the attitude of the mind in prayer, and the\nconsequent direct address to God:\n\n  Thou has restored equity;\n  Thou has executed justice and righteousness in Jacob.\n\n  Yahwe, our God, thou didst answer them:\n  A forgiving god wast thou to them,\n  And one avenging their wrongs.\n\nAgain Psalm 93 may be divided into four sections, though not all four of\nequal length. Verse 1, of three lines, makes the great announcement in\nthe third person that Yahwe is king. Verses 2 and 3, of four lines, are\naddressed to Yahwe in the second person and inform him that his throne\nis from everlasting, but that mighty foes are in rebellion against him.\nThen verse 4, of three lines, makes the reassuring announcement in the\nthird person that Yahwe is mightier than the foes. Verse 5 addresses\nYahwe in the second person, expressing confidence that his divine\nauthority will endure, and his house retain forever its sanctity. It\nseems not improbable that the verses employing the third person, and the\nverses employing the second persons were sung by different choirs, and\nthat we have in this psalm a liturgical eschatological hymn.\n\nThe actual content of the eschatological hymns has to some extent been\nshadowed forth in this discussion. The one great fact in the hymns is\nthe triumphant intervention of Yahwe in the affairs of the world. His\nappearance on the earth is accompanied by the most spectacular physical\nphenomena. The heavens declare his glory and the earth trembles. While\nclouds and darkness surround his person, his lightnings illuminate the\nworld; the hills melt like wax beneath his feet, and a fire goeth before\nhim and destroyeth his enemies (Psalm 97:2-6; Psalm 99:1). The\nappearance of Yahwe on the earth is followed by his complete and final\nvictory. Turbulent and mighty as the waves of the great ocean, all his\nenemies are speedily vanquished. His right hand and his holy arm achieve\nfor him the victory, and all the ends of the earth witness the salvation\nachieved by God (Psalm 98:1; Psalm 93:3, 4). In virtue of this great\nvictory Yahwe is now to be feared above all gods; indeed he is\nrecognized as the one and only god. All those who had served graven\nimages and boasted of their idols are put to shame. Yahwe reigns from\nhis temple in Jerusalem, and the peoples of the earth bring their\nofferings into his courts, as they worship him, ascribing to him all\nglory and strength (Psalm 96:3, 4, 7, 8; Psalm 97:7). Yahwe\u2019s\nsovereignty extends into the political realm. He who is great in Zion is\nhigh above all peoples. He is the great king over all the earth. His\nsovereignty means the extention of his favor to Israel, the rescue of\nhis faithful servants from the might of wicked oppressors, and the\nelevation of the Hebrew race to power:\n\n  He subdueth peoples under us,\n  And nations under our feet.\n\nIndeed according to Psalm 149 it means the most complete and vindictive\nvengeance of Israel upon the nations (verses 6-9). However, in hymns\nbroader and more generous of conception it means the establishment of a\nreign of righteousness and peace over all the earth, for which not only\nthe peoples but the physical world itself will rejoice. The world is to\nbe established so that it can not be moved. The earth will give her\nincrease. Yahwe will bless his people and the very ends of the earth\nwill fear him (Psalms 96:13; 98:9, 67; 82).\n\nUnique in the group of eschatological hymns is Psalm 82. It has no call\nto praise, no summons to the Israelites, nor to the nations, nor to the\nphysical universe, to rejoice at God\u2019s appearing; it does not even\nannounce that God has become king. What it does is to single out from\nall the momentous events of God\u2019s final victory on earth one scene, but\nthe description of that one scene is of itself such as to kindle hymnal\nenthusiasm and to give the psalm the atmosphere and character of a hymn.\n\nGod takes his place as judge in the council of the gods (verse 1). He\narraigns the gods for their protection of the wicked, and exhorts them\nto do justice to the poor and the fatherless, and to rescue them from\ntheir oppressors. He realizes, however (verse 5), that appeal to these\njudges is hopeless. They are without understanding and in darkness,\nwhile the very moral foundations of the world tremble. Therefore God\npronounces final judgment upon the judges. They had been given the\nstatus of gods but now they are to die like men (verses 6, 7). This\npronouncement, implying as it does that God will now himself give\njustice to the earth, calls forth the petition of verse 8:\n\n  Arise O God, judge the earth,\n  For thou shalt inherit all nations.\n\nDespite this anticipatory petition at the close, Psalm 82 is essentially\na positive announcement of God\u2019s triumph, and calling forth as it does\nhymnal enthusiasm, is itself essentially a hymn.\n\nSimilarly Psalm 2 must be assigned to the group of eschatological hymns.\nHere again there is no call to praise, no summoning of the nations to\nwelcome God\u2019s appearing, no proclamation that Yahwe has become king over\nall the earth. Like Psalm 82 this psalm also selects and describes a\nsingle situation out of the many that go to make up Yahwe\u2019s final\nestablishment of his kingdom upon earth. It is presupposed in the psalm\nthat Yahwe has already proclaimed his sovereignty over the earth and\nestablished his own anointed king upon the throne of the world in\nJerusalem. But (verses 1-3) the nations of the world are plotting\nrebellion against Yahwe and against his anointed king. Their rebellion\n(verses 4-6) simply provokes Yahwe to derisive laughter. Over against\ntheir impotence he simply reaffirms his inflexible decision:\n\n  As for me I have set my king\n  Upon my holy hill of Zion.\n\nThen the king takes up the word (verses 7-9) and announces the divine\ndecree. Yahwe had formally adopted him as son, and had given to him the\nkingdoms of the earth with power over them to break them in pieces. The\nking has spoken. Another voice makes the practical application (verses\n10-12) and warns the kings and the rulers of the earth to make their\nhumble peace with Yahwe, and with his anointed, before his wrath is\nfully aroused.\n\n\n\n\n                               Chapter IV\n                          HEBREW NATURE HYMNS\n\n\nThe abode of the hymns already discussed was the sanctuary and their\nplace was in sanctuary worship, but there is a group of hymns, the real\nbackground of which was Nature\u2019s great out of doors. These hymns include\nPsalms 29; 19:1-5b; 19:5c-7; 104; and 8. Of these Psalm 29 resembles\nmost closely in its literary form the standard hymns. It has the call to\npraise, the body of the hymn setting forth the greatness of Yahwe; and\nit has a conclusion, though the conclusion is not a renewed summons to\nexalt the deity. The hymn as a whole expresses the reaction of the\npsalmist to a thunder and lightning storm. He watches it rise in the\nLebanon mountains in the North, and follows it with his eye and ear and\nimagination until it loses itself in the desert of Kadesh. He observes\nthe forked lightning (verse 7) but is vastly more impressed by the\nthunder to which he attributes the destructive power of the storm. The\nsignificant fact is that the storm does not create in the psalmist fear,\nbut moves him to adoration of his great God, and to renewed faith and\nconfidence. The introductory call to praise (verses 1-2) summons the\ngods above to worship Yahwe and to ascribe to him glory and strength.\nThe body of the hymn celebrates the thunder, \u201cThe Voice of Yahwe,\u201d\nsomewhat as Psalm 19:8-10 celebrates: \u201cThe Law of Yahwe.\u201d Verse 9c: \u201cBut\nin his temple every one saith Glory\u201d forms a transition to the\nconclusion in verses 9-10, which remembers that the God of the thunder\nstorm was also the God of the flood, the eternal king, who because of\nhis eternal existence and his great power can give strength and peace to\nhis people.\n\nPsalm 19 contains two short nature hymns or more probably two fragments\nof hymns. The first Psalm 19:1-5b seems to be a hymn of the night. It\ndoes not call upon the heavens to praise God, as the typical hymn would\ndo, but simply announces that the heavens do declare God\u2019s glory. This\nthey do without language or words or sounds over all the earth,\nceaselessly declaring his glory from day to day, from night to night,\nfrom age to age. Psalm 19:5c-7 has no introductory nor concluding call\nto praise, and the few lines that we have, effective though they are,\nare probably only a fraction of the body of the original hymn. Moreover\nthe original was undoubtedly a hymn to Shamash the Assyrian Sun God. The\nAssyrians watched with reverent eye the Sun God\u2019s glorious journey\nacross the heavens. They knew also of his wearisome return in the\nunderworld from West to East, and they were glad to think of the bride\nand the repast awaiting him in his tent on the edge of the heavenly\nocean. The Hebrew like the Assyrian had great admiration for the\nilluminating rays and the fervent heat of the sun, but he would go no\nfurther than to compare the sun to a bridegroom, and a strong man. It\ndoes seem strange that the psalmist has retained in verse 4c the sun\u2019s\ntent: \u201cFor the sun he hath set a tent in the sea,\u201d but even so it is\nYahwe who has placed the tent there, even as it is Yahwe who has placed\nthe sun in the heavens. The Hebrew who used this fragment of a poem saw\nGod\u2019s glory revealed in the progress of the sun across the sky by day,\neven as he saw that glory revealed in the star studded heavens by night.\n\nPsalm 104 differs from the standard Hebrew hymns of praise in two\nrespects. It is addressed in considerable part directly to Deity in the\nsecond person, while the standard Hebrew hymn regularly uses the third\nperson. Also it has a petition at its close, which the standard hymn has\nnot. In these two respects Psalm 104 resembles a prayer. However the\npetition is very brief, formal, almost incidental; it can scarcely be\nsaid to grow out of the psalm, and certainly the hymnal portion (verses\n1-34) can not be regarded as introductory to it. Psalm 104 is also\nremarkable among Hebrew hymns for its length, as a hymn devoted\nexclusively to the activity of God in nature. Of the other nature hymns\nin the Psalter, Psalm 19:1-5b and Psalm 19:5c-7 are mere fragments, and\nPsalms 8 and 29 are relatively short, but Psalm 104 contains\nseventy-nine lines of which the first seventy-one are dominated by the\ntheme:\n\n  How manifold are thy works, O Yahwe!\n  All of them in wisdom thou hast made.\n                                                              \u2014Verse 24.\n\nAs it stands in the text Psalm 104 has a hymnal introduction and\nconclusion. The brief introduction may indeed be a liturgical addition.\nIn it the psalmist calls upon himself to praise Yahwe: \u201cBless my soul\nYahwe.\u201d The conclusion is longer and expresses the psalmist\u2019s life long\ndevotion to his God:\n\n  I will sing to Yahwe while I live;\n  I will sing praises to my God so long as I exist.\n  May my meditation be pleasing to him;\n  As for me I rejoice in Yahwe.\n\n  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .\n\n  Bless my soul Yahwe\n  Praise ye Yahwe.\n                                                    Verses 33, 34, 35cd.\n\nAgain it may be noted that the petition in verse 35ab: \u201cLet sinners be\nconsumed, out of the earth, and let the wicked be no more,\u201d has no real\norganic connection with the hymn, and certainly the concluding\n\u201cHallelujah\u201d may well be an addition.\n\nThe analysis of the body of the hymn is clear. Verses 1-4 praise the God\nof heaven; verses 5-9, the God of creation; verses 10-18, the God of the\nearth, the domestic animals, and man; verses 19-21, the God of the\nnight; verses 22-24, the God of the day; verses 25-26, the God of the\nsea; verses 27-30, the God who giveth life to everything that liveth.\nThe body of the hymn then culminates in the pious wish that Yahwe\u2019s\nglory may endure forever and that the mighty God may rejoice in his\nworks, even he who causes the earthquake and the volcanic eruption. Here\nalso comes the petition, but a petition has really no place in a genuine\nHebrew hymn of praise.\n\nIt is clear that Psalm 104 is predominatingly and essentially a hymn of\npraise. Yet it has in its use of the second person; in the presence of\nthe petition; and perhaps also in its length, since it is a nature hymn,\nfeatures that seem unhebraic. It is perhaps also significant that its\nclose resemblance to the famous Egyptian hymn of Pharaoh Iknaton has\noften been observed. We have, it would seem, in Psalm 104 a very\nprobable example of the influence of foreign literature, Egyptian,\nAssyrian, or both.\n\nPsalm 8 might be considered an impressionistic soliloquy of the starry\nnight, were it not dominated by the thought of God, and addressed\ndirectly to God. It begins with an exclamation for the psalmist is\noverwhelmingly impressed with the realization of the glory of God:\n\n  Yahwe our God,\n  How sublime is thy name in all the earth,\n  Thou who hast placed thy glory upon the heavens.\n                                                               \u2014Verse 2.\n\nYet how strange that the great God of the universe should have revealed\nhimself to the weak children of Israel. It is assuredly the knowledge of\nGod as the creator of the heavens that is to overcome arrogant rebellion\nagainst God, such rebellion as actually prevails in the psalmist\u2019s\nworld. May it not be true that the great God hath chosen through the\ntestimony of the humble to confound the mighty:\n\n  Out of the mouth of babes and sucklings thou has established strength\n  To bring to silence the enemy and the rebel.\n\nBut how marvelous this condescension of God to stoop to man in his\nweakness, and then what a marvelous place God has given man in the\nuniverse! The psalmist feels first the insignificance of man:\n\n  As I look at thy heavens, the fine workmanship of thy fingers,\n  The moon and the stars which thou hast shaped,\n  What is man that thou should\u2019st remember him?\n  Even the son of man that thou should\u2019st care for him?\n                                                            \u2014Verses 4-5.\n\nThen, however, he pays tribute to the place that God has given man:\n\n  Yet thou hast made him but a little lower than God,\n  And crownest him with glory and honor,\n  Thou causest him to rule over the works of thy hands;\n  Everything hast thou placed beneath his feet,\n  Sheep and oxen all of them,\n  And also the beasts of the field,\n  The birds of the heavens and the fish of the sea,\n  That which passeth on the paths of the sea.\n                                                            \u2014Verses 6-9.\n\nAnd now in recognition both of the glory of God revealed in the heavens\nand also of the goodness of God to man, the psalmist again exclaims out\nof the fullness of his heart:\n\n  Yahwe our lord,\n  How sublime is thy name in all the earth.\n\nPsalm 8 takes a unique position among the Old Testament hymns of praise.\nIt is addressed altogether in the second person to Yahwe, and to that\nextent takes on the form and nature of a prayer. But it has no\nsuggestion of a petition, nor does it make any definite effort to\nexpress gratitude. It has something of the reflective attitude, as it\nseems to ponder over man\u2019s place in the universe, but it is assuredly\nnot a teaching nor a wisdom psalm. It has been maintained by some\nscholars that the first two and last two lines were meant to be sung by\na chorus, while the body of the hymn is a solo. However, it is more\nnatural to suppose that in the use of the plural, \u201cYahwe _our_ Lord,\u201d\nthe psalmist is simply recognizing himself as one of the many followers\nof Yahwe, rather than that a choir is singing. The truth is that the\npsalm is intensely individualistic and dominated from beginning to end\nby the feeling of adoration for Yahwe, the Hebrews\u2019 God and only God,\nwhose name is glorious in all the earth. It is a hymn of praise, but one\nthat stands apart because of the originality and beauty of its literary\nform, and the sincerity and profundity of the spiritual experience that\ninspired it.\n\n\n\n\n                               Chapter V\n             HEBREW HYMNS IN PRAISE OF SACRED INSTITUTIONS\n\n\nBut there were in Hebrew religious poesie not only hymns in praise of\ndeity, but also hymns in praise of sacred institutions. Especially\nprominent were hymns in praise of the sanctuary. Naturally however, only\nthose that were written in praise of the temple in Jerusalem, or could\nbe so interpreted had a chance for survival, and of those we have in the\nPsalter only 84, 122, 48, and 87.\n\nIt is best to begin with Psalm 84, for it represents a transition stage\nbetween the psalm of lamentation and petition and the hymn of praise. In\ngreat part Psalm 84 is addressed in the second person to deity, and it\nactually has, in verses 9, 10, a petition for Yahwe\u2019s favor. The request\nin these verses is not explicit, yet the context, especially verses 3\nand 11, makes it clear that our psalmist, like the author of Psalms\n42-43, earnestly desires the privilege of worshipping in the temple.\nMoreover the petition of verses 9, 10 is reinforced by a profession of\ndevotion in verses 11-13 that corresponds to the affirmation of faith,\nso characteristic a feature of the prayer of supplication. In so far\nthis psalm is also itself a psalm of lamentation and supplication. On\nthe other hand verses 2-8 are essentially an expression of devotion to\nthe temple:\n\n  How lovely is thy dwelling,\n  O Yahwe of hosts!\n  Longeth, yea fainteth my soul\n  For the courts of Yahwe;\n  My heart and my flesh cry out unto the living God.\n                                                            \u2014Verses 2-3.\n\nHe envies the birds which nest in the temple (verse 4), the priests who\nare continually in the sanctuary praising God, and the men who, by God\u2019s\nfavor, are privileged to pilgrimage to Jerusalem, to pass from rampart\nto rampart, and to behold God in Zion. Psalm 84 therefore deserves to be\ngrouped with the hymns in praise of the temple.\n\nAs Psalm 84 has kinship with the psalms of lamentation and supplication,\nso Psalm 122 has a certain kinship with the psalms of faith. In the\nlatter the psalmist has a joyous confidence in Yahwe, in this psalm he\nhas great joy in the temple and the holy city. Verses 1 and 2 affirm his\njoy in the temple, and his positive intention of attending in company\nwith others the great festivals:\n\n  I am glad whenever they say unto me,\n  Let us go to the house of Yahwe.\n  Our feet shall assuredly stand\n  Within thy gates O Jerusalem.\n\nThen follows, in verses 3-5, his praise of Jerusalem the city of David:\n\n  Jerusalem that is built\n  As a city compact and solid,\n  Whither go up Yahwe\u2019s tribes.\n  A law is it for Israel to give thanks to Yahwe\u2019s name,\n  For there abide the thrones of justice,\n  The thrones of the house of David.\n\nHaving thus praised the city, the psalmist exhorts others to pray for\nit:\n\n  Pray for the peace of Jerusalem,\n  May thy dwellings prosper,\n  May peace be within thy walls,\n  Prosperity in thy palaces.\n                                                           \u2014Verses 6, 7.\n\nThe psalm then closes with his personal protestation of devotion to the\ncity:\n\n  For the sake of my brethren and companions\n  I will say: \u201cPeace be in Thee.\u201d\n  For the sake of the house of Yahwe our God\n  I will seek thy good.\n                                                            \u2014Verses 8-9.\n\nIt has been said above that this psalm has some similarity to the psalms\nof faith. It is possible that it also, in verses 6-9, reflects the\ninfluence of prophetic style. But, since the spirit that animates it is\none of enthusiasm for the holy city, it is best classed among the hymns\nof praise.\n\nPsalm 48 is also, in a sense, a transition hymn, for it praises, not God\nalone, but both God and the city in which he dwells. Verse 2 praises\nYahwe, and verse 3 the city:\n\n  Great is Yahwe and to be praised exceedingly\n  In the city of our God on his holy mountain.\n  Beautiful for situation, the joy of all the earth,\n  Is Mount Zion, on the Northern slope,\n  The city of the great King.\n\nThen verses 4-8 record the city\u2019s chief glory, that Yahwe has been in\nits midst, its mighty defender against its foes:\n\n  God is known in her palaces as a defense:\n  For lo, kings assembled;\n  They invaded her together;\n  They saw, so they marveled;\n  They were troubled, they fled.\n  Fear seized them there,\n  As pain seizes a woman in travail,\n  While thou didst shatter them,\n  As an east wind the great merchantmen.\n\nOur psalmist and his associates are obviously pilgrims to Jerusalem.\nThey had previously heard of such events as the deliverance of Jerusalem\nfrom Sennacherib; they have now seen with their own eyes the sacred\nsites which testify to such deliverances. They have meditated on Yahwe\u2019s\ngoodness in the holy temple, and are certain of his universal fame.\nTherefore, they can bid Zion and the towns of Judah rejoice in their\nGod:\n\n  As we have heard, so have we seen\n  In the city of Yahwe of hosts, in the city of our God.\n  God will establish it forever.\n  We have thought O God of thy loving kindness\n  In the midst of thy temple.\n  As thy name O God,\n  So is thy praise unto the ends of the earth.\n  Victories fill thy right hand.\n  Let Mount Zion rejoice,\n  Let the towns of Judah be glad\n  Because of thy deliverances.\n\nIt is evident that the closing verses (13-15) must have been spoken in\nJerusalem, and it is perhaps equally clear that they must have been\nspoken, not by the pilgrims to residents of Jerusalem, but rather by\nresidents of Jerusalem, probably the temple choir to the pilgrims,\nexhorting them to make their final procession around the city, that they\nmay know it and be able to tell the story of the city to the oncoming\ngeneration, and so inspire in them reverence and loyalty for the God of\ntheir fathers:\n\n  Walk about Zion and go round her:\n  Count up her towers;\n  Give heed to her ramparts;\n  Consider her palaces,\n  That you may tell it to the coming generation,\n  For this God is our God forever and ever;\n  He will be our guide even unto death.\n\nBut if verses 9-12 were spoken by the pilgrims, and verses 13-15 by the\ntemple choir, then it is probable that likewise verses 2-4 were spoken\nby the pilgrims, and verses 5-8 by the temple choir. Thus Psalm 48 may\nbe considered a liturgical hymn of praise, rendered in the temple on one\nof the great religious festivals that brought the pilgrims of the\ndiaspora to the holy city.\n\nPsalm 87 is a hymn devoted entirely to the praise of the temple and the\nholy city. Unfortunately the text is in disorder. Probably verse 5b\nshould be brought back to verse 1, and then the introductory verses 1-3\nwould read:\n\n  Its foundation is in the holy mountains,\n  And the Most High doth sustain her.\n  Yahwe loveth the gates of Zion\n  More than all the dwellings of Jacob.\n  Glorious things he speaketh concerning thee,\n  O city of God.\n\nThe rest of the psalm is exceedingly difficult. Verse 3 leads us to\nexpect a divine pronouncement regarding Zion\u2019s future glory. In that day\nEgypt and Babylon, Philistia and Tyre, together with far distant\nEthiopia, will recognize it as a distinction to be a Hebrew. Verses 4\nand 5 perhaps read:\n\n  I will cause Egypt and Babylon to remember thy children,\n  Behold Philistia and Tyre with Ethiopia,\n  They shall say of Zion, \u201cThis one and that one was born in her.\u201d\n\nThen the psalmist informs us (verses 6, 7) that Yahwe himself will count\nup the scattered Jews of the diaspora, and they in turn in that great\nday will be proudly mindful of the mother city:\n\n  Yahwe will count them in the midst of the peoples\n  This one and that one was born there;\n  And princes as common people will say\n  We shall all make our home in thee.\n\nTwo psalms, 119 and 19:8-15, are in praise of the Jewish law. Since\nPsalm 119 is an alphabetical psalm, each successive eight lines\nbeginning with the twenty-two successive letters of the Hebrew alphabet,\nits one hundred seventy-six lines are necessarily a very mechanical and\nmediocre production. Psalm 19:8-15, on the other hand, is a much finer\npiece of craftsmanship. The first six lines (verses 8-10) which are\nstrikingly uniform in style, draw attention to six complementary virtues\nof the law. Then four lines (verses 11-12) express in general terms the\njoy that is to be found in knowledge of the law and the practical\nbenefit to be derived from obedience to it. Verses 13 and 14 present his\nhumble petition that he be delivered from violating the law unwittingly\nor presumptuously, while verse 15 dedicates the hymn so carefully\nwritten, not to any princely patron but to Yahwe, his strength and\nredeemer.\n\nAnother little group of hymns deals with the king, who as the anointed\nof Yahwe was also a sacred institution. From a modern standpoint however\nPsalm 45 is purely secular in character, celebrating as it does the\nking\u2019s wedding day. Verse 2 is introductory in which the author\nannounces himself as a clever poet. Verses 3-10 are in\ncharacteristically extravagant praise of the king. Verses 11-16 are\ndevoted to the bride, while verse 17 makes tactful and appropriate\nreference to the princes yet to be born. Verse 18 concluding the poem,\nmakes the na\u00efvely modest promise that the pen of the poet will guarantee\nimmortal fame to the king.\n\nPsalm 101 is likewise secular, for it is evidently a king\u2019s\nproclamation. As such it may have been used in the coronation service in\nthe temple, and so preserved in the sanctuary song book. Quite\nnaturally, as is always to be expected, the king promises to walk\nuprightly in his own private life, to choose wise counsellors, to turn a\ndeaf ear to slanderers, to give protection to honest men, and to\nsuppress the wicked.\n\nPsalm 72 might likewise be fitted into the coronation service, being\nthen the prayer offered for a just and successful reign. This would mean\ntranslating the successive sentences of the psalm from verse 1 to verse\n11 and from verse 15 to verse 17 as petitions. Thus verse 2 would be\ntranslated:\n\n  May he judge thy people with righteousness\n  And thy poor with justice,\n\nand the other verses correspondingly, and the psalm would accordingly be\nclassed as a prayer of supplication. On the other hand if the successive\nsentences, with the necessary exception of verse 1 are to be regarded as\npredictions of a glorious reign, then the psalm is to be regarded as a\nhymn in praise of the Messiah, or possibly of an ordinary king who has\njust ascended the throne.\n\nPsalm 110 and Psalm 2 are clearly hymns in praise of the king. Psalm 110\nbrings to the king in verse 1 the oracle of Yahwe:\n\n  Oracle of Yahwe to my lord, sit on my right hand\n  Until I make thy enemies my footstool.\n\nThen in verses 2-7 the priest supplements this oracle with his assurance\nof Yahwe\u2019s effective support, and the king\u2019s great triumph over all his\nenemies. The imagery describing Yahwe\u2019s activity belongs to eschatology,\nand we undoubtedly have here an eschatological hymn in praise of the\nking.\n\nPsalm 2 is likewise an eschatological hymn, dealing with that same\nfeature of the last days as Psalm 110, and the last futile rebellion of\nthe nations against the will of Yahwe and Yahwe\u2019s king. In verses 1-3\nsome one, perhaps a layman, asks why the nations are so foolish as to\nrebel against Yahwe:\n\n  Why do the nations rage,\n  And the peoples plan a mad thing?\n  The kings of the earth take their stand,\n  And princes plot together\n  Against Yahwe and against his anointed:\n  \u201cLet us break their bands\n  And cast from us their cords.\u201d\n\nThen in verses 4-5 a priest, one who knows the plan of God, gives\nanswer:\n\n  He that sitteth in the heavens laugheth;\n  The lord is scornful of them.\n  Presently he will speak to them in his anger,\n  And terrify them in his rage:\n  \u201cI, on my part, have set my king\n  Upon Zion, my holy hill.\u201d\n\nAnd now it is for the king himself to add a final authoritative word\nconcerning Yahwe\u2019s plan, for to the king himself Yahwe had actually\nspoken:\n\n  I will declare the decree;\n  Yahwe said to me: \u201cYou are my son;\u201d\n  I this day have adopted you.\n  Ask me, and I will make the nations your inheritance,\n  And the entire earth your possession.\n  You can beat them with an iron rod;\n  You can break them in pieces like a potter\u2019s vessel.\n\nYahwe\u2019s decree, bestowing such power over the nations upon Israel\u2019s\nking, having thus been made known, it only remained to advise the\nnations to make humble submission to Yahwe and to Yahwe\u2019s representative\nupon the throne in Zion:\n\n  And now, O kings, be prudent;\n  Take warning, ye judges of the earth.\n  Worship Yahwe with reverence,\n  Submit to him with trembling.\n  Do homage to the son, lest he be angry and ye perish,\n  For his anger is quickly kindled.\n  Happy are all who secure his protection.\n\nHere again, as in Psalm 110, because of the prominence of the king in\nthis dramatic setting forth of one of the important features of the last\ndays, Psalm 2 must be classed as an eschatological hymn in praise of the\nking.\n\n\n\n\n                              Division II\n                        ASSYRIAN HYMNS OF PRAISE\n\n\n\n\n                               Chapter VI\n                ASSYRIAN HYMNAL INTRODUCTIONS TO PRAYERS\n\n\nAs in the case of the Hebrew hymns of praise, so also it is right to\nattempt to see the Assyrian hymns in relation to the whole body of\nAssyrian religious poetry. Assyrian communities and Assyrian individuals\ninevitably had their afflictions, and like their kinsmen the Hebrews\nthey called out unto deity in their distresses in prayers of lamentation\nand supplication. They experienced also on various occasions what they\nbelieved to be deliverances out of their troubles, and when they could\nattribute those deliverances to the aid of deity, they felt gratitude\nand expressed their gratitude by sacrifices and thanksgiving to the\ngods. Furthermore the Assyrians felt adoration for deity, trusted in\ndeity, reflected upon the will of deity and the secret of the prosperous\nlife, and like their kinsmen the Hebrews they strove to express their\nideas and their emotions in poetry. Accordingly we have in Assyrian\nreligious poetry much that corresponds to what is found in the Old\nTestament psalter.\n\nHowever, one striking difference between Hebrew and Assyrian religious\npoetry confronts us at the very outset. The Hebrew poetry is concerned\nwith the one god Yahwe, while Assyrian poetry has to do with many gods,\nShamash, Sin, Nebo, Ninib, Nergal, Adad, Nusku, Bel, Marduk, and others.\nThis might seem to make it very difficult, if not impossible, to form\nany unified conception of Assyrian religion, or to make any satisfactory\ncomparison between the psalms of Assyrian and Israel. But from the\nbeginning there were many points of similarity between the Assyrian gods\nof the various city states, who frequently bore, to be sure, different\nnames, but who represented or were associated with the same objects or\nforces in nature. Furthermore the growth of political unity in\nMesopotamia was accompanied there, as it has been elsewhere, by a growth\nin religious unity. As one city gained authority over other cities, its\ngod not only acquired greater prestige, but he also extended his\nauthority in greater or lesser measure over the conquered cities and\nover the gods of those cities. Moreover he tended to take to himself the\nchief prerogatives and attributes of the conquered deities. With the\ngrowth and organization of empire there developed, in the exaltation of\none god to a supreme place, a tendency toward monotheism; and with the\ninevitable interchange of religious ideas a gradually increasing\nsimilarity in the attributes and prerogatives of the chief gods.\nEspecially is it to be recognized that hymnal enthusiasm tends to blot\nout for the time the consciousness of other deities, and to exalt in\nwisdom and power and goodness the deity which is being worshipped, so\nthat for the moment the attitude of the worshipper may be practically\nthat of a monotheist. Accordingly the many names for deity have\nrelatively little significance; they offer no serious obstacle to the\nstudent who would compare the religious ideas and experiences of\nMesopotamia with the religious ideas and experiences of Israel.\n\nHere again, however, it must be borne in mind that the literature of\nAssyria which has survived is only a small fraction of that which once\nexisted, and what we now have owes its survival in part, to be sure to\nmerit, but in part also to mere chance. Nevertheless sufficient\nliterature exists to justify two general observations. The first is\nthis, that the closest correspondence between Assyrian and Hebrew\nreligious poetry is to be found in the psalms of lamentation and\nsupplication, which represent and express only the lowest level of\nreligious experience in the Hebrew psalms. The second general\nobservation is that while Hebrew religious poetry develops, and clearly\ndifferentiates into independent literary species, the Assyrian religious\npoetry does not achieve so full a development, nor so clear a\ndifferentiation. The one explanation of this fact would seem to be that\nAssyrian religion did not go so far in emancipating itself from\nsuperstition and formalism, and in achieving a lofty conception of deity\nand a profound religious experience. Certain it is that Assyria did not\ndevelop to the same degree as did Israel the independent prayer of\nthanksgiving, the independent psalm of faith, the independent wisdom\npsalm, nor the independent hymn of praise.\n\nThe number of Assyrian hymns copied, transliterated, and translated by\nAssyriologists, is between sixty and seventy. The number can not be\ndefinitely fixed, since many texts are but mere fragments because of the\nbreaking and marring of the clay tablets. The fact that so many hymnal\ncompositions are incomplete necessarily makes the task of interpreting\nthe individual hymns and of arriving at well founded general conclusions\nmuch more difficult. The sixty odd hymns, it may be of interest now to\nnote, are distributed among the Assyrian deities as follows: Marduk 14,\nNergal 8, Shamash 7, Ninib 7, Ishtar 6, Sin 5, Adad and Nusku 3 each,\nNebo, Bel, and Belit two each, Enlil, Asshur, Sarpanitum, Damkina one\neach.\n\nPerhaps the most important general fact about the Assyrian hymns is that\nthe great majority of them are addressed directly to the deity in the\nsecond person, which is the usage of prayer. Moreover a very large\nproportion of these can not be called independent literary compositions,\nsince they are followed by, and are introductory to, prayers, or magical\nceremonies, or the offering of sacrifices. In some cases the prayer is\nmuch longer than the hymn, while in others the prayer shrinks to a very\nbrief petition, couched in general terms. This has occasioned much\nconfusion of terminology, some calling a poem a hymn, others naming it a\nprayer. It is necessary therefore at this point to attempt to\ndistinguish clearly between the hymn and the prayer.\n\nThe purpose of the hymn is to praise the deity and the emotion behind\nthe hymn is enthusiasm for the great and glorious god; for his power,\nfor his wisdom, for his great achievements. The genuine hymn,\naccordingly, is objective rather than subjective. The prayer, on the\nother hand, is concerned with the relationship of worshipper and deity.\nThe worshipper is in trouble and looks to the deity for forgiveness, or\nprosperous and turns to the deity with gratitude. The prayer is\naccordingly subjective rather than objective. In the hymn, the deity is\nprominent; in the prayer the worshipper. Prayers are most naturally\naddressed to the deity in the second person, while the hymn, in which\nthe worshipper recedes into the background and the thought is of God\nalone, would more naturally employ the third person. Since then these\nAssyrian hymns are in the second person, which is the usage of prayer,\nand since the vast majority of these hymns are actually followed by\nprayers, it is best to begin with the hymns which are clearly only\nhymnal introductions to prayers, and then to pass by way of those, in\nwhich the petition is secondary and unimportant, to that which\napproaches the genuine independent hymn. It seems at least possible that\nthe Assyrian hymn is an evolution from the hymnal introduction of the\nprayers.\n\nBeginning then with class I of Assyrian hymns, the hymnal introductions\nto prayers, it is to be further observed, that these prayers are temple\nprayers. Marduk No. 9 has fourteen lines of directions for the\nperformance of certain ceremonies, after which the priest is instructed\nto take the hand of the sick man and repeat the psalm, of which lines 17\nto 44 are the hymnal portion, and 45 to 94 the prayer proper. So also\nMarduk No. 12 states in lines 1 to 5 of the text that the Urugallu\npriest is to arise in the first hour of the night on the second day of\nNisan, wash in river water, put on a linen garment, and repeat the\npsalm; of which lines 6 to 28 are hymnal, 29 to 32 petition the favor of\nthe deity for the city Babylon and the temple Esagila.\n\nIn a hymn to Marduk No. 11, the connecting link between the hymnal\nportion and the petition is: \u201cI, the Urugallu priest of Ekur, would\nspeak the favorable word.\u201d\n\nA hymn to Ishtar No. 3 is followed by an enumeration of the sacrifices\nfor the goddess and of presents for the temple servants. Above all, the\nhymns are in such a uniform and formal style, and the gods are so\nfrequently addressed as lords of such and such temples that one is\ncompelled to look to the temple as the birthplace and home of many of\nthese Assyrian hymns.\n\nIt is altogether natural that there should be a hymnal introduction to\nthe temple prayer. The Assyrian god in his temple is as the king in his\npalace. He must not be approached abruptly or brusquely. Indeed the\nAssyrian gods are kings, queens, princes. Consequently the formal court\nstyle is used in addressing them. It is not used rigidly in all hymns,\nbut it is the norm from which it is advisable to take our departure. An\nexample of this formal court style is Nergal No. 1.\n\n  O lord mighty and exalted,    first born of Nunammir,\n  Prince of the Annunaki,    lord of the battle,\n  Offspring of Kutushar,    the mighty queen,\n  O Nergal, strong one of the gods,    darling of Ninnenna.\n\n  Thou treadest in the high heavens,    lofty is thy place.\n  Thou art great in Hades,    there is none like thee\n  With Ea, in the multitude of the gods,    is thy council pre\u00ebminent.\n  With Sin in the heavens    thou see\u2019st through everything.\n  Given thee has Bel, thy father    the black headed race, all living\n              creatures,\n  The living creatures of the field    he has entrusted to thy hand.\n\nAssyrian hymns of class I can be divided into two portions, the first\nportion, the invocation, the second portion, the ascription of praise.\nIt is especially the invocation in which the court style is seen. Every\nmember at the court of a monarchy has an official title, be that member\nking, queen, prince or noble. That title consists first of all in the\nlineage or genealogy by virtue of which he has his rank. So it is with\nthe Assyrian deity. Thus the hymn to Nebo No. 1 begins:\n\n  O lord, first born of Marduk,\n  O Nebo lofty offspring of Sarpanitum.\n\nA hymn to Ninib No. 1:\n\n  O strong son,    first born of Bel,\n  Great perfect    son of Isara.\n\nA hymn to Nergal No. 1:\n\n  O lord, mighty and exalted,    first born of Nunammir,\n  Prince of the Annunaki,    lord of the battle.\n  Offspring of Kutushar,    the mighty queen, Ninnenna,\n  O Nergal, strong one of the gods,    darling of Ninnenna.\n\nHymn to Marduk No. 7:\n\n  O mighty, powerful, strong one of Eridu,\n  O noble, exalted, first-born of Ea.\n\nJust as the king\u2019s title includes mention of the provinces and countries\nover which he holds sway, so the god is to be addressed as lord of those\ncities and temples, in which he is recognized and honored. Nebo is:\n\n  Lord of Ezida,    protection of Borsippa.[1]\n\nMarduk is:\n\n  Marduk, the mighty, who causeth Itura to rejoice;[2]\n  Lord of Isagila, help of Babylon, lover of Ezida.\n\nSin is:\n\n  Father Nannar, lord of Ur,    chief of the gods,[3]\n  Father Nannar, lord of Egissirgal,    chief of the gods.\n\nNusku is:\n\n  God of Nippur, leader and counsellor of the gods.[4]\n\nThe sway of the gods was extended however far beyond their temples and\ntemple cities. Marduk is not merely \u201cKing of Ezida, lord of Emachtila,\u201d\nhe is \u201cMarduk, lord of the lands,\u201d and \u201cMarduk, king of heaven and\nearth.\u201d[5] So also Ishtar is \u201cIshtar, queen of all peoples, directress\nof mankind\u201d;[6] while Shamash is:\n\n  Shamash, king of heaven and earth,[7]\n  Ruler of things above and below.\n\nIt would be expected that the gods would have official duties at the\nheavenly court, and that these offices would be included in their\ntitles. Opposed to this, however, must have been the tendency of the\nworshippers to exalt their own special deity to a supreme position; and\nthis would tend to bring with it the elimination of all titles that\nwould suggest a subordinate position, and they would be inclined at the\nsame time to attribute to their own deity those offices, for which other\ndeities were famed. Nebo however is addressed as\n\n  Nebo, bearer of the tablets of destiny of the gods, director of\n              Esagila.[8]\n\nNusku is:\n\n  Protector of the sacrificial gifts of all the Igigi,[9]\n  Messenger of Anu, who brings Bel\u2019s commands to fulfilment.\n\n  Founder of the cities, renewer of the sanctuaries,[10]\n\na title quite appropriate for an earthly king but seemingly rather\nincongruous when applied to a god.\n\nIt is Nusku, leader and counsellor of the great gods,[11] Ninib is\n\n  Ninib, mighty god, warrior, prince of the Annunaki, commander of the\n              Igigi.[12]\n\nIt may be said here that we probably owe to the court style the ever\nrecurring adjectives: \u201cstrong,\u201d \u201cmighty,\u201d \u201cpowerful,\u201d \u201cperfect,\u201d\n\u201cunique,\u201d \u201cglorious,\u201d \u201cnoble,\u201d \u201cexalted,\u201d and such nouns as \u201cruler,\u201d\n\u201cgovernor,\u201d \u201cjudge,\u201d \u201clord,\u201d \u201cprince,\u201d \u201cking,\u201d which have been\ntransferred from the earthly sovereigns to the gods they worshipped.\nHere too it may be pointed out that it is altogether in harmony with\ncourt style that the god\u2019s prowess as a warrior, or wisdom as a\ncounsellor, or ethical virtues as a ruler should be expressed in his\ntitles, even as such qualities have been expressed in the titles of\nearthly kings.\n\nNot all hymns, however, of class I are, strictly speaking, temple hymns.\nThe Assyrian deities were not limited to their temples and the cities\nover which their sway extended. They were also identified with natural\nforces and the heavenly bodies, the sun, the moon and the stars. The\nBabylonians and Assyrians were impressed by the glory of the rising and\nthe setting sun, the beauty of the waxing and waning moon; by the\nbrilliancy of the evening star and the planets and by the grandeur of\nthe thunder-storm. Certain phenomena also had their deep significance.\nAn eclipse of the moon might well bode disaster for king and court and\nland. The rising of the sun was the auspicious moment for the banishing\nof all the demons and all the powers of darkness.\n\nAccordingly we have a group of hymns which do not belong so much to the\ntemple as to the great out-of-doors. In other words they are nature\nhymns. They have such invocations as the following:\n\n  O lord, chief of the gods, who alone is exalted on earth and in\n              heaven.[13]\n\nor thus:\n\n  O Sin, O Nannar, mighty one,[14]\n  Sin who art unique, thou that brightenest\n  That giveth light unto the nations,\n\nor this:\n\n  Sarpanitum, shining star, dwelling in Endul,[15]\n  Strongest of the goddesses, whose clothing is the light;\n  Who crossest the heavens, who passest over the earth,\n  Sarpanitum whose station is lofty.\n\nor this:\n\n  Lord, illuminator of the darkness, opener of the face of heaven[16]\n\nor this:\n\n  To Nusku mighty lord (lofty) judge,[17]\n  Shining Light, illuminator of the night, god ...\n\nThe following first lines of a hymn are neither invocation nor\nascription, yet how naturally does an appeal made to the sun-god for\nfreeing of the king from the ban resting upon him, at the moment of the\nscattering of darkness before the rising sun, begin with such an hymnal\nintroduction, as this:\n\n  O Shamash, when out of the great mountain thou comest forth,[18]\n  Out of the great mountain, the mountain of the springs, thou comest\n              forth,\n  When out of the mountain, the place of destinies, thou comest forth,\n  Where heaven and earth meet together out of the heaven\u2019s foundations,\u2014\n\nSo far we have been dealing with the first portion of the hymnal\nintroduction, namely the invocation. We have seen that the court style\nwould prescribe that the god be addressed by his proper title, which\nincludes his lineage and his sovereignty over temple and city, or his\nexalted place in nature, or both. Naturally however when the sway of the\ngod extended far beyond temple and city to all lands, to heaven and\nearth, it was not so necessary to salute the god as lord of city and\ntemple. And similarly when the god was exalted to a supreme position\namong the gods, the matter of pedigree became secondary. Perhaps this\nexplains the shortening of the invocation in certain hymns to a single\nline:\n\n  (Holy) Ishtar, heroine among goddesses,[19]\n  Thy seat ... in the midst of the bright heavens,\n\nor even to a single word\n\n  Lord, warlike art thou, perfect in understanding thro\u2019 thyself,[20]\n  Ninib, warlike art thou, perfect in understanding thro\u2019 thyself,\n\n  Shamash, when out of the great mountain thou comest forth[21]\n\n  Shamash, from the foundation of the heavens thou shinest forth[22]\n\nOn the other hand, it was easy to expand indefinitely the invocation\nfrom its natural length of four to six lines, until the invocation\nbecame itself hymnal praise of the god. So with Sin No. 5 where the\nhymnal invocation to Sin covers 23 lines.\n\nFollowing the invocation in the hymnal introductions of Assyrian prayers\nis the ascription of praise, just as modern prayers frequently begin\nwith the elements of invocation and ascription. The ascription of praise\nmay be quite similar in content, but while the invocation assumes\ncertain attributes of the deity as already recognized and known by\neveryone and as having become official titles of the deity, the\nascription definitely assigns virtues or attributes to the deity. The\ninvocation consists of phrases and adjectival clauses: it makes no\nstatement. It is simply an extended nominative of address. The\nascription consists of independent sentences, asserting certain\nattributes of the deity. It is altogether natural that the humble\nworshipper, approaching the god, should assign to that god greatness and\nwisdom and authority and might, for this not only pleases the god, but\nalso tends to awaken sympathy for the helpless and suffering suppliant,\nand reminds the deity of his responsibility for the worshippers.\n\nMore particularly it is also to be expected that the worshipper assigns\nthose special virtues or powers to the deity, to which he is about to\nmake his appeal. Man posits in God that which corresponds to his own\nneed. Accordingly, correspondence between the ascriptions and the\npetitions show the unity of the whole composition and indicate that it\nis a prayer. Frequently the suppliant is a sick person, and so naturally\nreference is made to the power of the deity to heal:\n\n  Shamash, to give life to the dead, to loosen the captive is in thy\n              hand.[23]\n\n  Where thou dost regard, the dead live, the sick arise,\n  The afflicted is saved from his affliction, beholding thy face.[24]\n\nThe cause of his misfortune, the Babylonian seeks not in natural causes,\nbut in the displeasures of the deity, and this displeasure may be due to\nsin. To Ninib he prays:\n\n  Free me from sin, remit the transgression,[25]\n  Take the shame away, remove the sin\n\nand this petition is made to the god of whom he says in the ascription:\n\n  From him who sin possesses    thou dost remove the sin,[26]\n  The man with whom his god is angry    thou art quick to favor.\n\nIf, however, the worshipper feels that he has been unjustly treated,\nthen he appeals to the justice of God:\n\n  The law of all men thou directest.\n  Eternally just in Heaven art thou.\n  The just wisdom of the lands art thou.\n  The pious man thou knowest,    the evil man thou knowest[27]\n\n  Shamash honors the head of the just man;\n  Shamash rends the evil man like a thong;\n  Shamash, the support of Anu and Bel, art thou;\n  Shamash, lofty judge of heaven and earth art thou.\n\nHere follows the plea for the healing of the king.\n\nAs healing of sickness was a magical performance, magical powers are\nattributed to the gods, in the hymnal introduction. Thus:\n\n  Heaven and earth are thine;\n  The space of heaven and earth is thine;[28]\n  The magic of life is thine;\n  The spittle of life is thine;\n  The pure incantation of the ocean is thine.\n\nIn a Nusku magical text No. 3 Nusku is addressed as:\n\n  Mighty in battle, whose attack is powerful,\n  Nusku, who burns up and conquers the fire\n\nand there follows in the petition:\n\n  Burn the sorcerer and the sorceress;\n  May the life of my sorcerer and my sorceress be destroyed.\n\nIn Sin No. 4 the suppliant is one with whom his god and goddess were\nangry, upon whom destruction and ruin had come, whose heart was darkened\nand soul troubled. It is appropriate that he should say to his god,\n\n  The fallen one whom thou seizest thou raisest up;\n  A judgment of right and justice thou judgest.\n  The fallen one whom thou seizest thou raisest up;\n  A judgment of right and justice thou judgest.\n  He who has sin thou forgivest quickly the sin;\n  Him against whom his god is angry thou regardest with favor.\n\nIn Marduk No. 12 the petition:\n\n  To thy city Babylon show favor\n\ncorresponds to the ascription:\n\n  Bel, thy dwelling is Babylon, Borsippa thy crown.\n\nIt has been seen in the case of the invocations that they vary in length\nfrom a single word to twenty-three lines, and it is fairly obvious that\nthe increasing length of the invocation gives it more and more of hymnal\ncharacter. There is a similar variation in the length of the\nascriptions. There are some of a single line:\n\n  Thy name is altogether good in the mouth of the people.[29]\n\n  Thy name is (spread) in the mouth of men, O protecting God,[30]\n  Among all gods thy deity is praised.\n\nIn other hymnal introductions the ascription is three, six, eight,\neleven, and more lines in length. As the ascription increases in length,\nand as the lament and petition of the prayer likewise diminish in\nlength, and as the ascription of praise changes in character, no longer\ncorresponding to the petitions of the suppliant, we get the evolution of\nthe hymn.\n\nIn the well-known prayer to Ishtar (No. 7), the hymnal introduction\nconsists of thirty-seven lines. In it occur such rhetorical questions\nas:\n\n  Where is thy name not heard,    where not thy decrees?\n  Where are thy images not made,    where are thy temples not founded?\n  Where art thou not great,    where art thou not exalted?\n  Anu, Enlil and Ea have exalted thee;    among the gods have they\n              increased thy dominion.\n\nYet the last lines of this same hymn are particularly suitable to a\nprayer of lamentation and petition:\n\n  Where thou dost regard, the dead live, the sick arise;\n  The afflicted is saved from his affliction, beholding thy face\n\nand this same hymn to Ishtar opens with the words:\n\n  I pray unto thee, lady of ladies, goddess of goddesses,\n\nFurthermore, in the hymnal portion is imbedded a lament of four lines,\nwith the refrain:\n\n  How long wilt thou tarry?\n\nTherefore this psalm, although containing hymnal material of exceptional\nbeauty, is a single composition, a prayer with a hymnal introduction. On\nthe other hand, Marduk No. 4 has sixteen lines extolling the exploits of\nthe war god, when the text breaks off. The breaking of the text makes a\ndecision difficult, but as there is no indication in any of the\nascriptions of praise that a prayer is to follow, one would be inclined\nto pronounce it a fragment of a hymn rather than of a prayer.\n\nMarduk No. 1 is actually followed by a prayer of an individual, but\nsince the hymnal portion consists of thirty-eight lines describing in\nlarge measure mythical feats of the god, one is almost justified in\nregarding this hymnal portion as an independent hymn.\n\nOn the border line between prayer and hymn is Sarpanitum No. 1. The\npetition is a very general one, asking favor for the worshipper, the\nking and the sons of Babylon:\n\n  To the servant who graciously calls upon thy name, be gracious;\n  For the king who fears thee determine a good fate;\n  To the sons of Babylon give generously.\n\nIt would seem that this petition might be little more than a pious\nconclusion, or even a postscript to the hymn. If this be true, then the\nmain purpose of the psalm is that of praise, and one must class it among\nthe hymns, remembering however that it is an evolution from the hymnal\nintroduction of the prayer.\n\nVery similar is the case of Sin No. 5. In this psalm are twenty-three\nlines of invocation, fifteen lines of ascription, and eleven lines of\npetition. Moreover the portion which we have called ascription opens\nwith a couplet of question and answer:\n\n  Who is exalted in heaven,    thou alone art exalted;\n  Who is exalted on earth,    thou alone art exalted.\n\nThis couplet is followed by eight lines in praise of the word of Sin,\nexpressed however in the second person, not the third. Unfortunately,\nthe translation of four of the remaining lines is so uncertain that no\nconclusion can be drawn from them as to the nature of the whole psalm.\nHowever, the petition at the close is a general one in behalf of temple\nand city, and the calling upon the various gods of the pantheon to\nplacate Sin is a recognition of the supreme place of that deity. Here\nagain then, as in the case of the hymn to Sarpanitum, we have a hymn,\nstanding at the end of the line of development of the hymnal\nintroductions.\n\nWe have left of the hymns of Class I, two hymns which have no petition\nat the close. The first of these, however, the hymn to Enlil, may be\nregarded as introductory to the offering of sacrifices. Nevertheless it\nis practically an independent hymn and sung, as the conclusion shows, by\na congregation:\n\nFather Enlil, with song majestically we come. The hymn to Shamash (No.\n7) is unique among the Assyrian hymns, because of its length, being four\nhundred and twenty-four lines. The style is uniform throughout. In the\nbeginning of the poem line four is a repetition of line two, and line\nthree simply adds the name Shamash to line one. As in other hymns so\nhere the god\u2019s name is held back from the first line in order that it\nmay be inserted with greater emphasis in the second line. Here too there\nare repeated invocations to the god, that is we have an invocation and\nascription of praise, then a second invocation and ascription of praise.\nThroughout the poem nearly every line is complete by itself and there is\nno strophic arrangement. Nor are there rhetorical questions, nor\nquestions and answers, to relieve the monotony. Portions of it read like\nwisdom literature:\n\n  He who receives not a bribe, who has regard for the weak,\n  Shall be well pleasing to Shamash, he shall prolong his life,\n  The judge, the arbitrer who gives righteous judgment,\n  Shall complete a palace, a princely abode for his dwelling place.\n  He who gives money at usury, what does he profit?\n  He cheats himself of gain, he empties his purse.\n\nThese two features, the great length of the hymn and the presence of\nthese wisdom passages would seem to indicate a late and somewhat _blas\u00e9_\ndevelopment of the hymn. Not great enthusiasm for the deity, but sober\nreflection and the pious wish to say everything possible about the deity\ncontrolled the writer. The complete absence of any magical element,\nwhether of ceremonies or prayers, shows that there must have been a\nconsiderable hymnal literature of which unfortunately we are not in\npossession.\n\nWe have seen that the great majority of Assyrian hymns are addressed in\nthe second person to deity, which is the usage of prayer; that the\ntemple is the home of these hymns but that a few of them might be called\nNature hymns; that they may be divided into two portions, the invocation\nand the ascription of praise; that they are written in the court style,\nemploying the honorific titles of royalty and nobility; that with very\nfew exceptions they are followed by petitions for divine help, and that\nthe ascriptions of praise are frequently so worded as to be little else\nthan introductory to such petitions; that, as the hymnal portion is\nlengthened, and as the lament and petition are shortened until they\ndisappear entirely, we have the evolution of the hymn; that it begins\nwith something approaching flattery of the god, as introductory to the\nappeal for aid, and develops into a genuine expression of adoration for\ndeity.\n\nThe invocation of the Assyrian hymn corresponds in a loose way to the\ncall to praise of the Hebrew hymn, and the Ascription of praise\ncorresponds much more closely to the body of the Hebrew hymn. It exalts\nthe deity as being great in the midst of the gods, as bearing a glorious\nname, as possessor of temples and cities, and as ruler over wide areas,\nas the creator and preserver of the physical universe, and as being\nhimself wise, and powerful, and merciful, a king and judge among gods\nand men. Closer attention will be given to the content of the Assyrian\nhymn when comparing that content with the content of the Hebrew hymns of\npraise.\n\nIt ought to be observed that in many instances the Assyrian hymnal\nintroduction to prayer is clearly attested to be the vehicle of\nindividual rather than congregational worship. In certain hymns we have\nexamples of god addressing god in hymnal language, and in connection\nwith other hymns there are directions for the priest to repeat himself\nboth hymnal introduction and the petition which follows it. Moreover in\nthe petition which follows the hymnal introduction a space is frequently\nleft for the insertion of the name of the suppliant. Still more\nimportant is the fact that in the hymnal introductions themselves the\nfirst personal pronoun frequently occurs:\n\n  I pray unto thee, lady of ladies, goddess of goddesses.[31]\n\n  I reverence thy name, Marduk, powerful one of the gods,[32]\n  Regent of heaven and earth.\n\n  Lord, leader of the Igigi, I am obedient to thy word.[33]\n\n  Strong one, glorious one, begotten of Nunammir\n  Who art clothed with sublimity, powerful one I will praise thy\n              name.[34]\n\nOn the other hand there is but one example of the actual use of the\nfirst person plural in the hymnal introductions:\n\n  Father Enlil with song majestically we come,\n  The presents of the ground are offered to thee as sacrifice.[35]\n\nIt is not contended that the hymnal introductions are strongly\nindividual in character, showing the marks of individual originality and\ngenius; on the contrary they are on the whole rather stereotyped and\nmonotonous in their sameness: neither is it urged that the god of these\nhymnal introductions seems to be in any very marked way the god of the\nindividual human being, but that the hymnal prayer does provide a way\nfor the individual to approach deity in the sanctuary, and that worship\nwas accordingly individual as well as social.\n\nFor very many of the Assyrian Hymnal Introductions there is no clear and\ncertain way of determining whether the hymn is congregational or\nindividual, although the general character of the titles and attributes\nascribed to deity suggests in many instances the social rather than the\nindividual hymn. However we do have two examples of the processional\nhymn. Above we quoted the first two lines of a twenty-five line Sumerian\nprocessional hymn to Enlil. In this case the worshippers are advancing\ninto the sanctuary bringing with them their sacrificial gifts:\n\n  O lord of Sumer figs to thy dwelling we bring.\n\nWe have another splendid example of a processional hymn in the hymn to\nMarduk, No. 13. It is a hymn of thirty-seven lines, of which the first\nthirty lines welcome the god to his temple, while the last seven lines\nimplore his favor for the cities of Nippur and Sippar and especially for\nBabylon and his temple Esagila:\n\n  Thy city Nippur    cast not away    let her cry to thee: O lord peace.\n  Sippar    cast not away    let her cry to thee: O lord peace.\n  Babylon the city of thy peace    cast not away    let her cry to thee:\n              O lord peace.\n  Look graciously upon thy house    look graciously upon thy city    let\n              them cry to thee: O lord peace.\n\nThis hymn was sung while the great god, Marduk was being conducted in\ntriumphant procession to his temple:\n\n  Return lord, on thine entrance into thy house, may thy house rejoice\n              in thee.\n\nIn the first thirty lines this pious wish is repeated with a succession\nof titles for the deity. Then not only the city, but the great Gods one\nby one greet Marduk, wishing him on his entrance into his house peace.\nBut processional hymns were also sung when the god was carried forth\nfrom the temple:\n\n  Arise, come out, O Bel    the king expects thee.\n  Arise, come out, our Belit    the king expects thee.\n  Bel comes out from Babylon    the lands bow before him.\n  Sarpanitum comes out    fragrant incense is burned.\n  Tashmitum comes out    frankincense full of cypresses is burned.\n\nIt has been mentioned that a common motif for praise was the possession\nof sanctuaries. It is of interest that out of such hymnal lines as the\nfollowing developed the independent hymn in praise of the sanctuary:\n\n  Thy house Izida    is a house incomparable;[36]\n  Thy city Borsippa    is a city incomparable.\n\n  In Ekur, the house of festivals,    is thy name exalted.[37]\n\n  In Ekur, the temple of holiness,    exalted are his decrees.[38]\n\nIn Marduk No. 7 and Bel No. 1 we have two fragments of hymns which\napparently were devoted entirely to the praise of the sanctuary, as\nthese two hymns are not addressed in the second person to deity, the\ndiscussion of them is postponed for a later section.\n\nIt is also of interest that hymnal lines in praise of the divine word\ntended to develop into the independent hymn in praise of the word. Such\nlines are:\n\n  Thy word, when it extends to the sea    the sea is frightened;[39]\n  Thy word, when it extends to the marsh    the marsh laments.\n\n  Thy word, when it is proclaimed in heaven,    the Igigi prostrate\n              themselves.[40]\n  Thy word, when it is proclaimed on earth,    the Annunaki kiss the\n              ground.\n  Thy word, when it sounds on high like a stormwind,    makes food and\n              drink to abound.\n  Thy word, when it sounds over the earth,    vegetation springs up.\n  Thy word, it makes fat stall and stable,    it multiplies living\n              creatures.\n  Thy word, it causes truth and righteousness to arise    so that men\n              speak the truth.\n  Thy word, it is like the distant heaven,    the hidden underworld,\n              which no man can see.\n  Thy word, who can know it,    who can compare (anything) with it.\n\nBefore concluding this chapter on Assyrian hymnal introductions to\nprayers, it is well to give one complete example of such a hymn, the\nhome of which was the sanctuary:\n\n  Strong son, first born of Bel,[41]\n  Great perfect offspring of Isara,\n  Who art clothed with might, who art full of fury,\n  Storm god, whose onslaught is irresistible,\n  Mighty is thy place among the great gods,\n  In Ekur, the house of festivals, is thy head exalted.\n  Bel thy father has granted thee\n  That the law of all the gods thy hand should hold;\n  Thou renderest the judgment of mankind;\n  Thou leadest him that is without a leader, the man that is in need;\n  Thou graspest the hand of the weak, thou raisest up him that is bowed\n              down;\n  The body of the man that to the lower world has been brought down thou\n              dost restore.\n  From him who sin possesses the sin thou dost remove;\n  The man with whom his guardian god is angry, thou art quick to favor.\n  Ninib, prince among the gods, a warrior art thou.\n        [There follows a petition for the forgiveness of sins.]\n\nThe following hymn, which belongs not so much to the sanctuary as to\nNature, is of peculiar interest because of the light it throws upon\nPsalm 19:40-6. Here indeed the Sun god not only runs his course but is\nin very truth a bridegroom, and has his tent, and, refreshed by the\nbanquet he has enjoyed, is strong to run his race:\n\n  Shamash, at thy entrance into the midst of heaven,[42]\n  May the door of the pure heaven greet thee,\n  May the gate of heaven bless thee;\n  May justice, thy beloved messenger, direct thy way;\n  In Ebarra the seat of thy sovereignty, let thy sublimity shine,\n  May Ea, thy beloved wife, come before thee with joy,\n  May thy heart be at rest,\n  May for thy divinity a banquet be prepared.\n  Shamash, warrior hero, be praised.\n  Lord of Ebarra, may thy course be guided aright,\n  Walk the straight path, go upon the course permanently fixed for you.\n  Shamash, judge of the world, determiner of its decisions art thou.\n\nThe following delightful fragment of a hymn to Shamash seems to belong\neven more to Nature\u2019s out of doors than the preceding hymn:\n\n                     [Beginning of tablet broken.]\n  Lord, illuminator of the darkness, opener of the face of [heaven][43]\n  Merciful God, who raisest up the lowly, who protectest the weak,\n  For thy light wait the great gods\n  The Annunaki all of them gaze upon thy face\n  The mortals all together as a single individual thou leadest.\n  Expectant with raised head they look for the light of the sun;\n  When thou appearest they exult and rejoice;\n  Thou art their light unto the ends of the distant heaven.\n  Of the wide earth the object of attention art thou;\n  There gaze upon thee with joy numerous peoples.\n                           [Text breaks off.]\n\nCorresponding to this hymn to the Sun God, the following hymn to the\nMoon God, Sin, is likewise very beautiful:\n\n  O Sin, O Nannar, mighty one,[44]\n  Sin who art unique, thou that brightenest,\n  That givest light unto the nations,\n  That unto the human race art favorable,\n  Bright is thy light in heaven,\n  Brilliant is thy flame like the fire god.\n  Thy brightness fills the broad earth;\n  The mortals rejoice, they grow strong who see thee.\n  O Anu of the heavens whose purpose no man understands,\n  Overwhelming is thy light like Shamash thy first born;\n  Before thy face the great gods bow down, the fate of the world is\n              determined by thee.\n\n\n\n\n                              Chapter VII\n                       ASSYRIAN ANTIPHONAL HYMNS\n\n\nThere is also among the Assyrian hymns addressed in the second person to\ndeity a group of hymns, which are distinguished by refrains, frequent\nrepetitions of a phrase or clause, or marked parallelisms of lines. It\nis, however, in most cases very difficult to know whether the hymn is\nactually antiphonal or not.\n\nNergal No. 4 is a hymn fragment of ten lines. For the first eight lines,\nthe second half of each line is the refrain: \u201cDestroyer of the hostile\nland,\u201d while the first half of each line gives a separate title of the\ngod. Thus:\n\n  Warrior raging flood ...,    destroyer of the hostile land;\n  Warrior, lord of the underworld,    destroyer of the hostile land;\n  God that comest forth from Shitlam,    destroyer of the hostile land;\n  Great steer, mighty lord,    destroyer of the hostile land.\n\nOne would be inclined to suggest that a priest chanted the first half\nline and a choir the refrain. The difficulty is that elsewhere we have\nsuch refrains where an individual is the speaker.\n\nIn a hymn to Ramman (No. 3) Enlil thus addressed his son Ramman:\n\n  Thou, O my son, thou storm with all seeing eyes,\n  Thou storm god with vision from on high;\n  Ramman, thou storm,\n  Thou storm god with vision from on high;\n  Thou storm who like the seven demons flieth,\n  Thou storm god with vision from on high.\n  Storm, may thy sonorous voice give forth its utterance,\n  Thou storm god with vision from on high.\n  The lightning thy messenger send forth,\n  Thou storm god with vision from on high.\n\nThe next five lines, still continuing the message of Enlil to his son,\nhas the refrain: \u201cWho can strive with thee.\u201d\n\n  My son, go forth, go up, who that cometh can strive with thee?\n  If the foe do harm, the father is over thee, who can strive with thee?\n  With the small hail stones thou art skillful, who can strive with\n              thee?\n  With the great hail stones thou art skillful, who can strive with\n              thee?\n  Let thy small and great stones be upon him, who can strive with thee?\n\nSince these two refrains are both in a passage spoken by an individual,\nit must be concluded that in this hymn at any rate the refrain is used,\nnot for antiphonal rendering, but for impressiveness, perhaps for\nmagical power.\n\nIn the light of the above fact, it is altogether possible that the\nrefrain occurring eight times in the invocation to Sin (Sin No. 5) may\nhave been recited by the priest, and not by the choir in antiphonal\nresponse to the priest. The refrain differs from the preceding examples\nin that the titles of deities which lend variety to the lines are\nimbedded in the middle of the refrain:\n\n  Father Nannar, lord Anshar,    chief of the gods;\n  Father Nannar, lord great Anu,    chief of the gods;\n  Father Nannar, lord Sin,    chief of the gods;\n  Father Nannar, lord of Ur,    chief of the gods;\n  Father Nannar, lord of Egishirgal,    chief of the gods;\n  Father Nannar, lord of the tiara, brilliant one,    chief of the gods;\n  Father Nannar, whose rule is perfect,    chief of the gods;\n  Father Nannar, who dost go forth in the robe of majesty,    chief of\n              the gods.\n\nA fragment of a hymn to Nebo (Nebo No. 2) has in a passage of five lines\nyet a different use of the refrain. The refrain which makes up the\nsecond half of each line is varied in three lines by the introduction of\na new word from the first half line:\n\n  O lord, thy might    is a might incomparable;\n  O Nebo, thy might    is a might incomparable;\n  Thy house Ezida    is a house incomparable;\n  Thy city Borsippa    is a city incomparable;\n  Thy district of Babylon    is a district incomparable.\n\nThe carrying forward in the refrain of the important word of the first\nhalf line does suggest very forcibly that an individual chanted the\nfirst half line, and a choir the second half line. The same arrangement\nwould hold for the couplet that follows the above lines, the second line\nof the couplet being a response to the first.\n\n  Thy weapon is a dragon    from whose mouth no poison flows;\n  Thy weapon is a dragon    from whose mouth no blood sprays.\n\nBut mere arrangement in couplets and close parallelisms seems\ninsufficient to prove the presence of responses, for in a hymn to Nebo\n(Nebo No. 4) it is Nusku who speaks, though the couplet would suggest a\nresponse:\n\n  Lord, warlike art thou,    perfect in understanding through thyself,\n  Ninib, warlike art thou,    perfect in understanding through thyself.\n\nLikewise the priest, we are informed, speaks in the following couplet:\n\n  Bel, to whom in his strength there is no equal,\n  Bel, gracious king, lord of the lands.\n                                                        (Marduk No. 12.)\n\nSo also the hymnal introduction of the two following couplets is to the\nprayer of an individual:\n\n  Thou treadest in the high heavens,    lofty is thy place;\n  Thou art great in Hades    there is none like thee.\n\n  With Ea in the multitude of the gods    is thy counsel pre\u00ebminent\n  With Sin in the heavens    thou see\u2019st through everything.\n                                                         (Nergal No. 1.)\n\nThere are two long hymns to Nergal (Nergal No. 5 and No. 6) in which the\nantiphonal response seems to be a certainty. In Nergal No. 5 the\nresponse, coming in the second line, consists of the words: \u201cGod Nergal\u201d\nfollowed by an additional word or phrase borrowed from the preceding\nline.\n\n  Warrior whose terribleness ...\n  God Nergal, Warrior;\n  Prince of the shining face and flaming mouth ...\n  God Nergal, Prince of the Shining Face;\n  Legitimate son, favorite of Bel,    Great Guardian ...\n  God Nergal, Legitimate Son;\n  Chief of the great gods    Clothed in grandeur and splendor ...\n  God Nergal, Chief;\n  Mighty one over the Annunaki    Whose splendor is terrifying ...\n  God Nergal, Mighty One\n  Lord of the raised head,    Lofty one, favorite of Ekur ...\n  God Nergal, Lord of the Raised Head\n  High one of the great gods    Whose judgment and decision ...\n  God Nergal, High One\n  Lofty giant    Who spittest out poison ...\n  God Nergal, Lofty Giant\n  Of gigantic size with terrible limbs, raging demons to right and left\n              of him,\n  God Nergal, of Gigantic Size\n  Of tremendous power, whose blow is effective, crouches a demon at his\n              side,\n  God Nergal, of Tremendous Power;\n  Great sword god, at the noise of whose feet the barred house opens,\n  God Nergal, Great Sword God\n  Lord who goeth about by night, to whom bolted doors open of\n              themselves,\n  God Nergal, Lord Who Goeth by Night;\n  Warrior his whip cracks and men cry: \u201cThe noise of his weapon\u201d\n  God Nergal, Warrior His Whip Cracks;\n  Perfect one, whose strength is overwhelming ...\n  God Nergal, Perfect One;\n  Combatter of the enemy of Ekur, the foe of Duranki thou combattest,\n  God Nergal, Combatter of the Enemy;\n  Frightful one, raging fire god ...\n  God Nergal, Frightful One;\n  Storm flood which overwhelms the disobedient land ...\n  God Nergal, Storm Flood which Overwhelms.\n                          [Tablet breaks off.]\n\nSince the second line of each of the twenty-five couplets above begins\nwith the words: \u201cGod Nergal\u201d and, then adds the first word or phrase of\nthe preceding line, it may be called a refrain with variations. Moreover\nit would seem probable that a priest chanted the longer first line, and\na choir the second line in response.\n\nNergal No. 6 opens with an introductory couplet:\n\n  Flood watering the harvest    knows any one thy name?\n  Powerful one, flood watering the harvest    knows any one thy name?\n\nThis usage of repeating the first line and adding a word to it, suggests\nthat the second line was repeated with greater emphasis, and possibly by\na choir in response to a priest. After this introductory couplet there\nfollow eleven couplets with a double refrain, made up of the first half\nlines of each couplet. Thus:\n\n  Powerful one,    mighty one, lord of the kingdom of the dead,\n  Most mighty one,    divine scion of Shitlam;\n  Powerful one,    great strong steer,\n  Most mighty one,    lord of Gushidi;\n  Powerful one,    ruler, divine prince of Erech,\n  Most mighty one,    lord of Kutha.\n\nFor the eleven such couplets one is inclined to surmise a choir chanting\nthe refrains, and a priest announcing the titles of the deity. This\nseems more probable than that one choir repeated the first line and a\nsecond choir the second line. After two ordinary couplets, marked only\nby fairly close parallelism, there follows a triplet in praise of the\nincomparable god:\n\n  Lord    who is like thee    who rivals thee?\n  Most mighty one    who is like thee    who rivals thee?\n  Nergal    who is like thee    who rivals thee?\n\nWith the change of the invocation from \u201cLord\u201d to \u201cMost mighty one\u201d to\n\u201cNergal\u201d the lines undoubtedly grow in intensity until the name Nergal,\nwhich is held back until the third line, would be thundered forth in\nthat third line with the greatest enthusiasm. Here again it seems highly\nprobable that a choir chanted the refrain: \u201cWho is like unto thee, who\nrivals thee?\u201d The second part of this hymn consists of eighteen lines in\ncouplets and triplets in praise of the word of Nergal. The ease with\nwhich the second half line follows from the first half line suggests\nthat here the priest chanted the first half line, and a choir the second\nhalf line.\n\nIn this same class of Antiphonal hymns belong two hymns with a veritable\ndin of repetitions. The first is Sin No. 3. It opens with the formal\ninvocation:\n\n  Thou whose glory in the sacred boat of heaven is self created,\n  Father Nannar    lord of Ur,\n  Father Nannar    lord of Ekissirgal,\n  Father Nannar    lord of the new moon.\n  Lord Nannar    first born son of Enlil.\n\nIt is easy to suppose that a priest chanted the entire first line, and\nthat a choir chanted the first half lines of the next four lines while\nthe priest supplied in the second half lines the titles of the deity.\nThere follows what might be regarded as an imitation of the huzzas of a\ncrowd welcoming a sovereign. Here it is welcoming the ascent of the moon\ngod in the heavens:\n\n  When thou ascendest,    when thou ascendest,\n  When before thy father    before Bel thou art glorious,\n  Father Nannar when thou art glorious,    when thou pursuest thy way,\n  When in the boat that in the heavens ascendest    thou art glorious,\n  Father Nannar    when unto Esaguz thou mountest,\n  Father Nannar    when like skiff upon the floods thou ascendest,\n  When thou ascendest, when thou ascendest,    thou when thou ascendest,\n  In thy rising and in thy completion of thy course,    yea in thine\n              ascension.\n\nAfter one further couplet the long subordinate clause ends, and the\nprincipal statement is made:\n\n  \u201cHail thou that in the majesty of a king daily rises.\u201d\n\nIn the above, the clause: \u201cwhen thou ascendest\u201d is repeated nine times\nand may well have been shouted by the choir or concourse of worshippers.\n\nNergal No. 7 is a hymn with an even greater complexity of repetitions,\nand is somewhat suggestive of the repetitions characteristic of the\nHindu hymns sung to the accompaniment of the rattling Indian drums. The\nfirst fourteen lines are:\n\n  Nergal\u2019s heroism    I will praise (I will sing)\n  When with a shout    the house of the hostile land the lord attacked,\n  When Shitlam\u2019s scion    the house of the hostile land the lord\n              attacked,\n  Shitlam\u2019s scion    who alone is a warrior,\n  (When with a shout)    the house of the hostile land the lord\n              attacked,\n  When with rejoicing    the house of the hostile land the lord\n              attacked,\n  The great steer    the strong one    who alone is a warrior,\n  When with rejoicing    the house of the hostile land the lord\n              attacked,\n  When with a shout    the house of the hostile land the lord attacked,\n              an ox bound in the yoke,\n  When Shitlam\u2019s scion    the house of the hostile land the lord\n              attacked, his creative implement ...\n\n  When with a shout    the house of the hostile land the lord attacked,\n              whose reed is in process of growth,\n  When the great steer    the strong one    the house of the hostile\n              land the lord attacked, his raven is black,\n  When with a shout    the house of the hostile land the lord attacked,\n  When Shitlam\u2019s scion    the house of the hostile land the lord\n              attacked, his raven is white.\n                             [Gap in text.]\n\nAs to the rendering of this first part of Nergal No. 7, the first line\n\u201cNergal\u2019s heroism, I will praise, I will sing\u201d makes it certain that an\nindividual, probably a priest or a choir leader, sang the first line,\nand highly probable that he recited the beginnings of each line, and the\nnew additions to the lines, leaving to the choir to recite the refrain.\nThe main purpose of the hymn, as announced in the opening line, was to\nnarrate the heroic exploits of the gods in war against the enemy. The\nnarration was sung by the leader, and the repetitions, giving clarity\nand emphasis, and possibly magical power, were evidently sung by the\nchoir. The second portion of the hymn, as it is continued beyond the gap\nin the inscription until the tablet breaks off, differs from the first\npart, in that it largely lacks the repetitions, and in that it does not\nemploy the third person of the verb, but is addressed directly to deity.\nIt belongs accordingly among the hymnal introductions.\n\nFinally there is now appended to this chapter the discussion of three\nhymns, which might perhaps be better called dramatic rather than\nantiphonal compositions. The first hymn is Ishtar No. 6, and it has\nthree distinct parts. Part I is addressed by the worshipper to the\ndeity, and consists of eleven lines. In lines 1-7 the worshipper\nattempts to set forth clearly certain prominent characteristics of the\ndeity he is seeking:\n\n  Light of heaven, which flames like fire over the earth    thou art;\n  Goddess when over the earth thou standest\n  One who as the earth stands firm    thou art;\n  Unto thee the way of truth pays homage;\n  When thou enterest a man\u2019s house,\n  A leopard gone forth to seize the lamb    thou art;\n  A lion which strides over the plains    thou art.\n\nAnd having thus stated her attributes, the worshipper goes on to summon\nthe goddess by her names:\n\n  Storming Virgin    Ornament of heaven,\n  Virgin Ishtar    Ornament of heaven,\n  Thou who art adorned with the brilliancy of sparkling stones\n                 Ornament of heaven,\n  Sister of Shamash    Ornament of heaven.\n\nPart II is the reply of the deity to the worshipper, announcing first in\na strophe of four lines her appearance and the purpose thereof:\n\n  To give omens    I rise    I arise in perfection;\n  Beside my father to give omens    I rise    I arise in perfection;\n  Beside my brother Shamash to give omens    I rise    I arise in\n              perfection;\n  In the bright heavens to give omens    I rise    I arise in\n              perfection.\n\nIn the next strophe of four lines she expresses her gratification over\nher praise, possibly in allusion to the hymnal lines just sung by her\nworshipper or worshippers:\n\n  In joy over my praise,    in joy over my praise\n  In joy    a goddess    I walk proudly.\n  Ishtar    goddess of the evening    I am\n  Ishtar    goddess of the evening    I am.\n\nPart II concludes in a strophe of seven lines, each line setting forth a\ngreat feat of Ishtar\u2019s, and ending with the clause: \u201cthat is my glory.\u201d\nHere again it is shown that the presence of a refrain is no certain\nproof of antiphonal rendering, since the repetition is in the mouth of\nthe individual Ishtar. Part III is the petition.\n\nThe hymn to Ramman (Adad No. 3) is also a composition in three parts.\nPart I, lines 1-14 is a hymn of praise addressed in the second person\ndirectly to Ramman, of which the first ten lines are in praise of the\nname of Ramman. The lines are in three divisions, and the first six\nlines end with the refrain: \u201cBull mighty and glorious, is thy name\nexalted God.\u201d\n\n  Ramman the glorious,    bull mighty and glorious,    is thy name\n              exalted God;\n  Lord Ramman,    bull mighty and glorious,    is thy name exalted God;\n  Ramman heaven\u2019s child    bull mighty and glorious,    is thy name\n              exalted God;\n  Lord of Karkar,    bull mighty and glorious,    is thy name exalted\n              God;\n  Ramman, lord of plenty,    bull mighty and glorious,    is thy name\n              exalted God;\n  Companion of Lord Ea    bull mighty and glorious,    is thy name\n              exalted God.\n\nThe next three lines introduce variety into the second division, while\nthe tenth line is uniform with the first six, save for a change of\nwording in the first division:\n\n  Father Ramman    lord that rideth the storm    is thy name exalted\n              God;\n  Father Ramman    that rideth the great storm    is thy name exalted\n              God;\n  Father Ramman    that rideth the great lion    is thy name exalted\n              God;\n  Ramman lion of heaven    bull mighty and glorious    is thy name\n              exalted God.\n\nThe last four lines of Part I pass over from the praise of the name of\nRamman to praise of the activity of the god of the storm:\n\n  Thy name doth dominate the land;\n  Thy majesty covers the land like a garment;\n  At thy thunder the great mountain father Mullil is shaken;\n  At thy rumbling the great mother Ninlil trembles.\n\nPart II of this hymn, lines 15-26, is made up of Enid\u2019s summons to his\nson Ramman to go up with sonorous voice, with lightning, and with small\nand great hail stones against the hostile land. This section has already\nbeen discussed earlier in this chapter. Part III is in reality a brief\nconclusion to the hymn. It relates in four lines that Ramman obeyed the\nsummons of Enlil:\n\n  Ramman gave ear to the words    which his father spoke to him;\n  The father Ramman went out of the house    storm of sonorous voice;\n  Out of the house, out of the city went he up,    the youthful lion;\n  Out of the city took his way    the storm of sonorous voice.\n\nThe third hymnal composition of this group, the so-called litany to\nAsshur, is in two parts. Part I is a long hymn addressed by an\nindividual, possibly Asshurbanipal, to Asshur, of which the chief\ndistinguishing characteristic is the oft repeated vow of the individual\nto praise the deity. Nineteen of the twenty-two lines of Part I are as\nfollows:\n\n  Mighty lord of the gods,    all knowing one;\n  Powerful stately lord of the gods,    determiner of fates;\n  Asshur mighty lord,    all knowing one;\n  Powerful stately lord of the gods,    determiner of fates;\n  Asshur almighty one, lord of the gods,    lord of the lands;\n  His greatness (I will praise),    his sublimity proclaim;\n  The memory of Asshur I will glorify,    his name I will magnify;\n  The sublimity of him who dwells    at Ekharraggalkurra I will\n              proclaim;\n  His might I will praise,    to his will I will submit;\n  He who dwells at Ascharra,    Asshur determiner of fates;\n  To reveal (his glory)    to the inhabitants of the land\n  That later generations may learn of his fame\n  I will for ever praise his lordship\n  Mighty one with broad understanding    potentate of the gods;\n  Mighty creator of the heavens,    builder of the mountains;\n  Mighty creator of the gods,    begetter of the goddesses;\n  Of great heart and deep understanding\n        O glorious one,    whose name arouses fear;\n        O Asshur,    whose decrees reach into the distance.\n\nThe promise of the poet here to make the fame of Asshur known to later\ngenerations corresponds to the promise of the author of Psalm 45 for the\nfame of the reigning Hebrew king. In Part II of this litany to Asshur,\nfirst Anu, Bel, and Ea, the lords of the gods proclaim Asshurbanipal as\nruler of Assyria, promising him many years of sovereignty, lines 1-6;\nand then Asshur appoints him to lordship over lands and men, lines 7-8.\nThe concluding couplet, lines 9-10 is suggestive of the close\nrelationship between the fame of the king, and the fame of the patron\ngod of the kingdom.\n\n  Through the mouth let it be proclaimed    continually let the ear hear\n              it,\n  That I Asshur have named you    to lordship over lands and men.\n  May the memory of Asshur be praised,    his divinity be exalted,\n  So that the exaltation of Asshur,    the lord of lords, may be known.\n\nCommon to these three compositions and of great interest to the Old\nTestament student is the appearance and message of the deity, since\nthere are parallels to this in the Old Testament. Especially close is\nthe parallel to the decree of Yahwe in Psalm 2, and the oracle of Yahwe\nin Psalm 110.\n\n\n\n\n                              Chapter VIII\n                  ASSYRIAN SELF-LAUDATIONS OF THE GODS\n\n\nIn addition to the hymnal introductions to prayers, and the antiphonal\nhymns, there was in Assyrian poesie a distinct and notable group of\nhymns in which the gods praise themselves. It is of course presupposed\nin the hymnal introductions that the gods desire and welcome the praise\nof men. The gods do praise one another. Enlil praised Ramman in the hymn\nto Ramman No. 2 which was discussed in the last chapter. Also Nusku\npraises Ninib in Ninib No. 4:\n\n  Nusku the lofty messenger of Bel in Ekur met him,\n  Unto Lord Ninib greeting he spoke:\n  Lord warlike art thou, perfect in understanding through thyself,\n  Ninib warlike art thou, perfect in understanding through thyself.\n  Thy dazzling brilliancy covers Bel\u2019s house as a garment.\n  Thy wagon, because of its thundering noise,\n  At its going shakes heaven and earth;\n  At the raising of thy hand darkness stretches itself out.\n  The Annunaki, the great gods are terrified.\n\nSince the gods thus welcome the praise of gods and men, there is no\nreason why the Assyrian god should not appear to proclaim his greatness\nand to challenge the admiration of gods and men. In the hymn to Ishtar\nNo. 6, which was studied in the preceding chapter, the goddess in\nresponse to the opening hymn of praise announced her appearance to give\nomens, and proclaimed in hymnal lines her own glory.\n\nBut there are other hymns sung by the gods in their own praise. Ninib\nNo. 5 is a fragment of a hymn, fourteen lines in length, sung by Ninib\nin his own honor. Some of the lines are:\n\n  King who by day shines like Anu I am:\n  He whom Anu in her sovereign power hath chosen I am.\n  The warrior, who at the command of Ea into the terrible battle goes, I\n              am.\n  He whose sovereignty shines to the borders of heaven and earth I am;\n  The mighty one among the gods, robed in brilliancy I am.\n\nSimilarly Ninib No. 6 is another hymnal fragment of fourteen lines in\nwhich the deity praises himself. Some of the lines exalting his prowess\nare:\n\n  Against my terrible brilliancy which like Anu is mighty who raises\n              himself?\n  Storm god with fifty mouths my divine weapons I carry;\n  A warrior who destroys mountains, merciless storm I carry;\n  A weapon like a corpse-eating dragon I carry;\n  Mountain destroyer, the heavy weapon of Anu I carry.\n\nMore impressive is a hymn of some fifty lines, though the tablet is\nbroken off, sung by Belit in her own honor. The theme of the hymn is the\nsupremacy of Belit. Thus she announces herself:\n\n  Am I not the daughter of Bel?\n  Am I not supreme? I am the warrior.\n  Am I not the goddess? The warlike daughter of Bel I am.\n  The high placed daughter of Bel I am.\n\nHer power is irresistible:\n\n  The waters which I stir up do not become clear;\n  The fire which I kindle does not go out;\n  The house of heaven, the house of earth unto my hand he has entrusted;\n  The city which I plunder is not restored;\n  The utterance of my exalted command destroys the land of the foe.\n\nBelit is supreme in heaven and in earth:\n\n  At the lifting of my hand the heavens stand still, and the lofty\n              powers of heaven supplicate me.\n  I am supreme, the hand of him who contends with me shall not stand\n              against my hand.\n  My mighty pace fills the earth\n  I am supreme, the foot of him who contends with me shall not stand\n              against my foot.\n  Who is there before me? Who is there behind me?\n  From the lifting up of mine eyes who can escape?\n  From the rush of my onslaught who can flee?\n\nYet this warlike goddess is apparently not without some tenderness:\n\n  The exalted daughter of Bel I am,\n  The noble heroine of my father Sin I am,\n  I am supreme, the legitimate wife of Ea I am,\n  Him who is bowed down I lift up, the aged one I lift up.\n\nSimilar in its theme is a hymn to Ishtar (No. 4), for it begins thus:\n\n  Who is equal to me    me?\n  Who is comparable to me    me?\n  Goddess I am    I am mistress;\n  Small and great    I uproot, I lay low.\n\nShe is like Belit a goddess of war:\n\n  In the midst of the battle    when I take my place,\n  The heart of battle, the arm of valiant courage, the strength of\n              heroism I am.\n  Behind the battle    when I approach,\n  A conquering power    which fiercely attacks I am.\n\nShe is the goddess of the evening star, and of the earth\u2019s vegetation,\nthe goddess of fertility:\n\n  In the heavens in the evening when I take my place,\n  The lady who fills the firmament of heaven I am.\n  Through my appearance fear is established in the heavens;\n  Through my radiance the fishes are affrighted in the deep.\n  In the heavens I take my place,    and send rain;\n  In the earth I take my place,    and cause the vegetation to spring\n              forth.\n  Who is equal to me    me?\n  Who is equal to me    me?\n\nThere are three strophes in praise of the name of the goddess, beginning\nwith the announcement of the seven names of the deity, after this\nfashion:\n\n  My first name is    I am Ishtar\n  My second name is    Lady of the lands\n  My third name is    The lofty one who causes the heavens to tremble,\n              the earth to quake;\n  My fourth name is    Flaming fire.\n\nThe last and twenty-third strophe is almost identical with the first\nstrophe, in obedience to the same instinct or artistic principle, which\ncauses the Hebrew hymn of praise to return in its conclusion to the\nopening call to praise:\n\n  Who is equal to me    me?\n  Who is comparable to me    me?\n  I am Ishtar    I\n  Small and great    I uproot, I lay low.\n\nRather effective is the single line in response to the hymn of the\ngoddess:\n\n  Resplendent goddess, art thou not an overwhelming flood?\n\nIs this line a pious gloss, the comment of a devout reader of the hymn,\nor is it an integral part of the hymnal composition? If the latter, then\nthis hymn would belong in the same group with hymn to Ishtar No. 6,\nRamman No. 2, and the litany to Asshur.\n\nThere is a second hymn to Ishtar (No. 5), of which the first lines are\nbroken off, and which is followed by a priest\u2019s short prayer, but which\nis spoken altogether by Ishtar in her own praise. At the beginning we\nhave a strophe of nine lines, four couplets, and an additional line. The\nfirst half line of each couplet continues the same, \u201cShe who in the days\nof long ago,\u201d and the first half line of the second line of each couplet\nremains just the name: \u201cIshtar.\u201d The second half lines of each couplet\nare almost identical, and the second half of each couplet differs from\nthe second half of the preceding couplet only by the changing of a\nsingle word. If the hymn were not in the first person, and thus put into\nthe mouth of Ishtar herself, one would say that the first line of the\ncouplet was recited by a priest, and that the second line was shouted by\na choir in response:\n\n  She    who in the days of long ago    in the earth was magnified am I\n  Ishtar    who    in the earth is magnified am I\n  She    who in the days of long ago    in all lands was magnified am I\n  Ishtar    who    in all lands is magnified am I\n  She    who in the days of long ago    in the sanctuary was magnified\n              am I\n  Ishtar    who    in the sanctuary is magnified am I\n  She    who in the days of long ago    in all sanctuaries was magnified\n              am I\n  Ishtar    who    in all sanctuaries is magnified am I\n  She    who in the days of long ago    in the holy sanctuaries is\n              magnified am I.\n\nThere follows a strophe of six lines, of which the first half lines give\ndifferent titles of Ishtar, and the second half lines have the refrain,\n\u201cin the temple of my riches am I.\u201d Then after three broken lines this\nhymnal composition closes with a brief petition of four lines repeated\nby the priest in behalf of the temple.\n\nThe five hymns, just reviewed, are all in the nature of a\nself-introduction of the gods and goddesses as powerful, incomparable\nbeings. This is what one would expect. There is among gods as among\nkings a great deal of rivalry about prestige. The God must sound abroad\nhis own glory. Beyond that, however, is the fact that in every religion\na god must be, to a large extent, an unknown deity. His\nself-manifestations can be only occasional, and never clearly\napprehended by man, so that when the god appears, man must necessarily\nask: \u201cWho art thou?\u201d and the deity must reply, as did Ninib and Belit\nand Ishtar: \u201cI am ...\u201d These self-introductions of deity inevitably\nrecall to the mind of the Old Testament student Yahwe\u2019s introduction of\nhimself to Moses in Exodus 3:6; and again the self-introduction of Yahwe\nthat precedes the promulgation of the Ten Commandments in Exodus 20:2.\nEspecially are they, however, suggestive of the repeated\nself-announcements of deity, that occur in almost every chapter of\nIsaiah 40-55. Here also we have again and again the rhetorical question,\nand the emphasis upon the power, the wisdom, the fame, and the\nincomparable status of Yahwe. Just a few of these hymnal lines are here\nquoted:\n\n  Who raised up from the East    the man who is ever victorious?\n  Who delivers to him the nations,    and makes him rule over kings?\n  Who hath indeed done this,    He who calls the generations from the\n              beginning;\n  I Yahwe am the first,    and I am the last, I am he.\n                                                       \u2014Isaiah 41: 2, 4.\n\n  I am Yahwe,    that is my name;\n  I yield my glory to no one,    nor my praise to idols.\n                                                           \u2014Isaiah 42:8.\n\n  I, I am Yahwe    besides me there is no saviour;\n  I have foretold    and I have saved;\n  I and no foreign god among you,    thereto are ye my witnesses.\n                                                         \u2014Isaiah 43:11f.\n\n  I am Yahwe and there is none else,    besides me there is no god.\n  I form the light    and create darkness\n  I make peace    and cause calamity\n  I Yahwe do all things.\n                                                        \u2014Isaiah 45:5, 7.\n\nThese and a great many similar lines have a good deal of the phraseology\nand the atmosphere of the Assyrian hymns of Belit and Ishtar, and in so\nfar support the Babylonian origin of Isaiah 40-45, but there is in the\nAssyrian hymns no such clear relationship of the deity to history as is\ncharacteristic of the Hebrew hymns in Isaiah 40-45.\n\nThere remains of Assyrian hymns still to be recognized a small and\ndistinct group in which deity is praised by man in the third person. One\nof these, Nergal No. 7, has been included among the Antiphonal hymns and\nalready studied. That portion, which is in the third person is simply\nnarrative, with many repetitions, telling of Nergal\u2019s heroic attack upon\nthe hostile land. It is mythological and epic material adapted to hymnal\npurposes. Similarly the hymn to Ramman No. 2 was included among the\nAntiphonal hymns, beginning as it does with fourteen lines spoken by man\nin praise of Ramman, and continuing with Enlil\u2019s charge to Ramman in the\nnext twelve lines. However, this hymn comes to its conclusion in the\nnext four and last lines with the use of the third person, telling how\nRamman obeyed the bidding of his father Enlil:\n\n  Ramman gave heed to the words which his father spoke to him;\n  Father Ramman went out of the house, the storm of sonorous voice,\n  Out of the house, out of the city he went up, the youthful lion,\n  Out of the city he took his way, the storm of thunderous voice.\n\nBeside this can be placed the fragment of eight lines, Ramman No. 1.\nHeaven and earth quake before Ramman\u2019s anger. The gods flee to the\nheights and to the depths before the mighty god of the tempest. This\nhymn invites comparison with Psalm 29, the Hebrew hymn in praise of the\n\u201cVoice of Yahwe\u201d:\n\n  The lord in his fury,    the heavens quake before him;\n  Ramman in his fury,    the earth trembles;\n  The great mountains    break to pieces before him.\n  Before his anger,    before his fury,\n  Before his roaring,    before his thunder;\n  The gods of heaven    to heaven ascend;\n  The gods of earth    to earth retire;\n  To the heights of heaven    they penetrate;\n  Into the depths of the earth    they enter.\n\nIn Marduk No. 4, following the hymnal invocation of six lines addressed\nin the second person to the deity, there is a section of fifteen lines\nmaking up the rest of the hymn, and extolling the greatness of Marduk,\nespecially his might in war. When he attacks, the heavens above and the\nearth beneath are troubled; the gods flee; his weapons flash forth and\ndestroy mountains. However the hymn is not a narrative of any event.\nThough the language is of a myth, yet the poem is not in its nature an\nepic. It is recited not to inspire interest, but to arouse enthusiasm\nfor the deity. It is thus, along with Ramman No. 1, more hymnal in\ncharacter than the narrative portions in Nergal No. 7 and Ramman No. 2:\n\n  The direction of conflict and battle is in the hands of Marduk, the\n              leader of the gods;\n  At whose wrath the heaven quakes;\n  At whose wrath the deep is troubled;\n  At the point of whose weapon the gods turn back;\n  Whose furious attack no one ventures to oppose;\n  The mighty lord, to whom there is no rival in the assembly of the\n              gods.\n  In the bright firmament of heaven, his course is powerful;\n  In Ekur, the temple of holiness, exalted are his decrees.\n  In the storm wind his weapons blaze forth;\n  With his flame steep mountains are destroyed.\n  He overwhelms the expanse of the billowy ocean.\n  Son of Esara is his name, warrior of the gods his title.\n  From the depths is he lord of the gods and men.\n  Before his terrible bow the heavens tremble,\n  Who the lofty house of death\u2019s shadow overthrows and destroys.\n\nIn the chapter on Assyrian Hymnal Introductions, it was observed that in\nSin No. 3 and Sin No. 5 there were hymnal lines in praise of the divine\nword, addressed directly to deity in the second person:\n\n  Thy word, when it sounds over the earth, vegetation springs up.\n\nIn Marduk No. 5 there are five hymnal lines in praise of the word of\ndeity, in four of which the third person is used, although one would\nhesitate to say that the hymn ceases to be addressed to deity, or that\nthe change of person is here particularly significant:\n\n  Thy word is a lofty net    which over heaven and earth thou spreadest\n              out.\n  Unto the sea it turns,    the sea it takes fright.\n  Unto the marsh it turns,    the marsh laments.\n  To the flood of Euphrates    it turns,\n  The word of Marduk    stirs up the bottom\n  Lord, thou art lofty,    who equals thee?\n\nIn the hymn to Nergal No. 7 there is a large hymnal passage in praise of\nthe word of deity. It begins apparently with the last line on the\nobverse side of the tablet, in which the second person of the direct\naddress to deity is used:\n\n  Thy word is a lofty net    Which stretches out over heaven and earth.\n\nUnfortunately the first lines on the reverse side of the tablet are\nlost, but the lines which remain are all in the third person, and unlike\nthe preceding hymn deity is not being directly addressed. We have here\nthen the hymnal form which is characteristic of the Hebrew hymn of\npraise. It is however somewhat difficult to account for this use of the\nthird person. Possibly it is because the word when once spoken has its\nindependent existence, and cannot be recalled, but goes forth to exert\nits harmful or helpful influence. Consequently in thinking of the\neffects to be accomplished by Nergal\u2019s word one can completely forget\nNergal, since the word has left the god behind and goes on its own way,\nwhither soever it was directed. It is to be noted that the effects of\nthe word mentioned in this hymn are all harmful. There is no record of\nany magical ceremony or magical use of the word following the hymn,\nalthough the language of the hymn would almost seem to be introductory\nto such a use of the mighty word of Nergal. Possibly then it can be\nconjectured that we have actually here a genuine hymn in praise of the\naweful word of deity. The hymn as preserved is as follows:\n\n  Thy word is a lofty net    which stretches out over heaven and earth\n  . . . . . . . . .\n  His word goes to the seer,    the seer takes fright;\n  His word goes to the enchanter,    the enchanter takes fright.\n  His word is announced to an afflicted man,    that man laments;\n  His word is announced to an afflicted woman,    that woman laments.\n  His word when it goes softly    ruins the land;\n  His word when it goes powerfully    destroys the houses.\n  His word is as a closed vessel    its innermost thoughts who can\n              learn?\n  His word is as a covered net    in which he snares.\n  His word within is not understood,    without it tramples down;\n  His word without is not understood,    within it tramples down;\n  His word makes the people sick,    the people it makes weak.\n  His word when it goes on high    the land makes sick;\n  His word when it goes below    destroys the land.\n  Warrior Nergal, below he commands    below he tramples underfoot\n  His word when there are five in a house    drives out five;\n  Warrior Nergal when there are ten in a house    drives out ten.\n  The word of the lord when it hastens on high    I am troubled;\n  The word of the lord because of its destructiveness    I sit and\n              lament.\n  At his word on high the heavens become dark,    mighty is his word.\n\nIt has also been observed in the chapter on Hymnal Introductions, that\nin Nebo No. 1 there was a couplet, and in Ninib No. 1 there was a hymnal\nline, both in praise of the sanctuary, and both addressed in the second\nperson to deity. Furthermore there is in the hymn to Marduk No. 4,\nreproduced above in this chapter a line in praise of the temple in Ekur:\n\n  In Ekur, the house of festivals,    is thy name exalted.\n\nBeyond this we have, however two hymnal fragments, which so far as they\nremain to us, are devoted to the praise of sanctuaries. The first of\nthese is Marduk No. 7:\n\n  ... day when he named Babylon faithfully by its name,\n  The lord of the crown built at the door of the ocean the house which\n              he loved.\n  The land with exultation and joy he filled;\n  Its head like the heavens he made high;\n  A house at the door of the ocean endowed with grandeur and glory for\n              the honor of his godhead is suitable.\n  ... Nebo and Sarpanitum a glittering sanctuary inhabit;\n  ... he caused to inhabit a dwelling of luxury.\n                          [Tablet breaks off.]\n\nThe second fragment, hymn to Bel, No. 1, consists only of five lines,\nwhich unfortunately are not altogether intelligible. Apparently the\nsanctuary of Enlil is compared first to a mountain, whose peak reaches\nto the heavens, and then to a majestic wild ox stretched out in the\nmountains, whose horns glitter in the rays of the sun. These hymnal\nfragments recall the Old Testament psalms in praise of Zion, and perhaps\nespecially Psalm 48:2:\n\n  Beautiful for situation,    the joy of all the earth\n  Is Mount Zion,    on the northern slope\n  The city of the great King.\n\nThe above small group of hymns are the only hymns or hymnal passages in\nwhich the third person is exclusively used. As has been seen, the great\nmajority of Assyrian hymns employ the second person and are really only\nhymnal introductions to prayers. A small but notable group is made up of\nthe self-laudations of the gods. On the other hand the vast majority of\nHebrew hymns speak of Yahwe in the third person in their praise of him,\nand their praise is disinterested; it is not introductory to a petition.\nIt is likewise significant that where Yahwe speaks in hymnal praise of\nhimself in Isaiah 40-45, it is to convince despairing, doubting Israel\nof his intention and power to save Israel, and to use Israel in the\nfulfillment of his eternal purpose. Here again one might say that while\nthe Assyrian deities haughtily and arrogantly proclaim their own\ngreatness, seeking thereby only their own glory, Yahwe\u2019s praise of\nhimself is almost altogether disinterested, since his concern is to\nachieve salvation of Israel and the world. In the Hebrew sense of the\nword then, the genuine hymn is only beginning to emerge in Assyrian\npoetry.\n\n\n\n\n                              Division III\n           A COMPARISON OF THE ASSYRIAN AND THE HEBREW HYMNS\n\n\n\n\n                               Chapter IX\n         THE LITERARY FORM OF THE ASSYRIAN AND THE HEBREW HYMNS\n\n\nThe comparison of the Assyrian and the Hebrew hymns ought naturally to\nbegin with the consideration of their literary form. This brings us to\nthe first and most obvious distinctive mark of poetry in both\nliteratures, the relatively uniform length of the lines in each poem.\nWherever a line lengthens out unduly it is clear that there is a lapse\ninto prose. A second phenomenon that meets the eye frequently in the\nAssyrian poems and even more often in the Hebrew psalms, is the falling\nof the line into two divisions:\n\n  He who accepts no bribe,    who takes the side of the weak,\n  Is well pleasing to Shamash,    prolongs his life.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 6.\n\n  Shining Fire God,    who surveys the tops of the mountains\n  Mighty Fire God,    illuminator of the darkness.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 1.\n\n  Who leadest the rivers    in the midst of the mountains,\n  Who openest the springs    in the midst of the hills.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 2.\n\n  What is man,    that thou should\u2019st remember him?\n  Even the son of man,    that thou should\u2019st care for him?\n                                                             \u2014Psalm 8:5.\n\n  The law of Yahwe is perfect,    converting the soul:\n  The testimony of Yahwe is sure,    making wise the simple;\n  The statutes of Yahwe are right,    rejoicing the heart.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 19:8.\n\n  Mouths to them,    but they speak not;\n  Eyes to them,    but they see not.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 115:5.\n\nOccasionally the lines in both Assyrian and Hebrew psalms fall into\nthree divisions:\n\n  When thou ascendest,    when thou ascendest,    when thou ascendest\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 3.\n\n  In heaven thou art lofty,    on earth thou art king,    clever adviser\n              of the gods.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  Father Ramman,    Lord that rideth the storm,    is thy name exalted\n              God.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ramman No. 3.\n\n  Yahwe our Lord,    how glorious thy name,    in all the earth!\n                                                             \u2014Psalm 8:2.\n\n  God will bless us,    and shall fear him    all the ends of the earth.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 67:8.\n\n  Who is this king of glory?    Yahwe strong and mighty,    Yahwe mighty\n              in battle.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 24:8.\n\nHowever the most conspicuous feature of both Assyrian and Hebrew poetry\nis the occurrence of two parallel lines in the distich or couplet.\nParallelism may also occur between the parts of the line, and hence it\nis sometimes difficult to distinguish between the two half lines and the\ncouplet, and between the line of three divisions and the tristich. In\nthe Assyrian hymns, as in the Hebrew hymns, the most common form of\nparallelism is the synonymous, the second line practically repeating the\nthought of the first line:\n\n  Thou treadest in the high heavens,    lofty is thy place:\n  Thou art great in the lower world,    there is none like thee.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 1.\n\n  The living creatures,    all of them thou shepherdest;\n  Thou art the protector of those,    which are above and below.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 7.\n\n  More to be desired than gold,    than much fine gold,\n  And sweeter than honey,    yea than honey from the comb.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 19:11.\n\n  Yahwe has made known his salvation,    before the nations he has\n              revealed his righteousness\n  He has remembered his mercy to Jacob,    and his loyalty to the house\n              of Israel.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 98:2.\n\nVery common in the Assyrian hymns, but not so frequent in the Hebrew\nhymns is tautological parallelism, where the second line repeats the\nthought of the first line in almost the same words. The frequency of\nthis form in the Assyrian hymns is most certainly in part due to the\nmagical potency attached to the repetition of significant lines.\n\n  O Lord, who is like thee,    who can be compared to thee?\n  Mighty one, who is like thee,    who can be compared to thee?\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 3.\n\n  When thou callest inside,    the people within thou killest;\n  When thou callest outside,    the people outside thou killest.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 7.\n\n  Sing praises to God,    sing praises:\n  Sing praises unto our king,    sing praises.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 47:7.\n\n  Let peoples thank thee O God;\n  Let peoples all of them thank thee.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 67:4.\n\nThe synthetical parallelism, in which the second line continues the\nthought of the first line is relatively common in both Assyrian and\nHebrew hymns:\n\n  Bel, thy father, has granted thee,\n  That the law of all the gods thy hand should hold.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 1.\n\n  From all countries,    so many as speak with the tongue,\n  Thou knowest their plans,    their walk thou observest.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 6.\n\n  The mountains rose,    the valleys fell\n  Unto the place,    thou hadst appointed for them.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 104:8.\n\n  Sing to Yahwe a new song,    for wonders he hath done;\n  Hath helped him his right hand    and his holy arm.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 98:1.\n\nIt is one indication of the superior literary quality of the Hebrew\nhymns that antithetical parallelism, in which the thought of the second\nline is opposed to that of the first line, occurs quite frequently in\nthe Hebrew hymns, and almost not at all in the Assyrian hymns:\n\n  I said, ye are gods,    and sons of the Most High all of you;\n  But ye shall die like men,    and fall like one of the demons.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 82:6f.\n\n  The dead do not praise Yahwe,    nor any who go down into silence,\n  But we will bless Yahwe    from henceforth and forever.\n                                                        \u2014Psalm 115:171f.\n\n  Shamash honors the head of the just man;\n  Shamash rends the evil man like a thong.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 1.\n\nBeyond the couplet, strophes of three, four, five, six, and more lines\nare common in the Assyrian hymns, even as in the Hebrew Psalter. Perhaps\nthe fact that interests the Old Testament student most in the strophic\narrangement is that the number of lines in the strophes in the same hymn\nis by no means always uniform. Accordingly if one may draw a conclusion\nfrom Assyrian usage for the Old Testament, the effort often so zealously\nmade to restore by elimination of lines a uniform strophic arrangement,\nis a grievous error. Variety rather than uniformity was often the end\nsought.\n\nAnother characteristic feature of both Assyrian and Hebrew hymns is the\noccasional appearance of the refrain. This refrain does not however\nappear artistically at the end of the strophe, as in Psalm 99 where the\nrefrain, \u201cHoly is He,\u201d is to be found at the end of verses 2, 5, 9, and\nprobably ought to be inserted at the end of verse 7. Rather the refrain\nusually forms the second half of the individual lines for a succession\nof three, five, seven, ten, or more lines. The same hymn may employ a\nvariety of refrains. The hymn to Ramman No. 3 has for the last two\nthirds of the first six lines:\n\n  \u2014Mighty Bull and glorious is thy name exalted God\u2014\n\nThen for three lines it repeats only the last third of the refrain:\n\n  \u2014is thy name exalted God\u2014\n\nreturning to the full refrain however for the tenth line. Then lines 16\nto 20 have for the last third of the line the refrain:\n\n  \u2014thou storm with elevated vision\u2014\n\nwhile lines 21 to 25 have for the last third of the line the refrain:\n\n  \u2014who can stand with thee?\u2014\n\nIn general this use of the refrain in the Assyrian hymns would seem to\ncorrespond to what we have in Psalm 115:9-11:\n\n  O Israel,    trust in Yahwe; their help and their shield is He.\n  O house of Aaron,    trust in Yahwe; their help and their shield is\n              He.\n  Ye fearers of Yahwe,    trust in Yahwe; their help and their shield is\n              He.\n\nIn a number of instances the refrain of the Assyrian hymn occurs in the\nfirst third or half of the line, and the occurrence of the double\nrefrain is also frequent:\n\n  She who in the days of long ago    in the earth was magnified am I;\n  Ishtar    who in the earth is magnified am I.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 5.\n\nNo such skill in the use of the double refrain is shown, however, as in\nPsalm 107.\n\nYet another feature common to Assyrian and Hebrew hymn is the prominence\nof the rhetorical question:\n\n  O Lord who is like thee,    who can be compared to thee?\n  Mighty One who is like thee,    who can be compared to thee?\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 3.\n\n  Who is equal to me,    me?\n  Who is comparable to me,    me?\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 4.\n\n  Who is like Yahwe our God,    in heaven or on earth\n  Who has placed his throne on high,    who stoops to regard the earth?\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 113:5f.\n\n  How many are thy works, O Yahwe?    all of them in wisdom thou hast\n              made.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 104:24.\n\nIt has already been pointed out in a previous chapter, that the use of\nthe refrain in the Assyrian hymns, as in the case of the Hebrew hymns,\nindicates antiphonal responses between priest and choir, and choir and\nchoir. Likewise the hymns of both literatures have been seen to take on\nmore decided liturgical character with the introduction of the divine\npronouncement through the priest as in the Litany to Asshur and the\nsecond Psalm. Both literatures have the sanctuary hymn, and the\nprocessional and the recessional hymn. The most significant difference\nbetween the Assyrian hymn and the Hebrew hymn would seem to be that the\nformer is usually addressed in the second person to deity, and is\naccordingly of the nature of prayer, while the Hebrew hymn is the\nresponse to the summons to praise deity, is expressed in the third\nperson, and is more genuinely hymnal in character.\n\n\n\n\n                               Chapter X\n                     THE SUPREME GOD AMONG THE GODS\n\n\nHaving compared the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns, with reference to their\nexternal form, and the circumstances under which they were sung, it is\nnow proper to examine more closely the actual contents of the hymns. The\nsubject of all genuine hymns is God. It is an argument for the common\nnature of the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns that practically all the hymnal\nphrases can be classified under the following heads:\n\n  1. The supreme God among the gods.\n  2. The glory of His name.\n  3. The supreme God a heaven\u2019s god.\n  4. The supreme God in his sanctuary.\n  5. The supreme God as creator.\n  6. The supreme God as God of nature.\n  7. The supreme God as wise.\n  8. The supreme God as powerful.\n  9. The supreme God as merciful.\n  10. The supreme God as king.\n  11. The supreme God as judge.\n\nThis classification enables us to study at one and the same time the\nphraseology and the content of the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns. It may be\nsaid at the outset, that there are practically no specific cases where\nliterary dependence can be demonstrated, but, what is more important,\nthere is a very striking similarity of phraseology, implying similar\nreligious ideas. This phraseology of the Assyrian hymns has its value\nfor the interpretation of the Hebrew hymns, and their content, and a\nlike value for the study of the Hebrew religion.\n\nIn comparing the phraseology of the Assyrian and the Hebrew hymns, the\nmost obvious difference is that the Assyrian hymns are addressed to many\ndifferent deities, each with its own proper name, Shamash, Sin, Marduk,\nNinib, and many others. The existence of the other gods is implied in\nsome Hebrew hymns, but the Hebrew hymnist never concedes to them an\nindividual independent existence, much less a name. Furthermore, one\nmeets everywhere in the Assyrian hymns the distinction of sex. There are\nhusbands and wives, sons and daughters, among the gods:\n\n  Strong, lofty one, highest of the goddesses;\n  O Damkina, Queen of all the gods,\n  Strong wife of Ea, valiant art thou.\n                                                    \u2014Hymn to Sarpanitum.\n\n  Am I not the daughter of Bel?\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Belit.\n\n  O strong son. First born of Bel;\n  Great perfect offspring of Isara.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 1.\n\n  O lord, first born of Marduk,\n  O ruler, lofty offspring of Sarpanitum.\n                                                    \u2014Hymn to Nebo No. 1.\n\n  The father who begot thee    Ea thou excellest.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\n  Sister of Shamash, Ornament of heaven\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 5.\n\n  Sin, bright brilliant god, Ninnar, first born of Ekur, son of Bel.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 2.\n\n  First born of Ea.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  Lord, mighty and exalted, first born of Nunnammir,\n  Offspring of Kutushar the mighty queen.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 1.\n\nOne would expect that the god to whom the hymn is addressed would be\nregarded as the supreme God, but in some hymns his subordinate\nrelationship to other gods is recognized:\n\n  Shamash, the support of Anu and Bel art thou.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 1.\n\n  He whom Anu in his lofty power hath chosen I am.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 3.\n\n  Mighty art thou among the gods, Ea has made thee splendid;\n  (Through the proclamation) of the oracle has Bel made thee great.\n  O Nebo, bearer of the tables of destiny of the gods,\n  Messenger of Anu, who brings Bel\u2019s commands to fulfillment.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 3.\n\nThe Assyrian refers altogether naturally to his deity as a god among\ngods, and frequently ascribes to him only a relative degree of strength\nand power:\n\n  A mighty one among the gods art thou.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 4.\n\n  O Marduk, powerful one of the gods.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 2.\n\n  Great one, ruler of the gods, Marduk mighty one.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\n  Thou art great among the gods, mighty is thy command.\n                                                       \u2014Hymn to Damkina.\n\nIt is only when the Assyrian hymn applies to its deity the superlative\ndegree, that it touches common ground with the Hebrew hymn. For both\nAssyrian and Hebrew worshippers praise their deity as the incomparable\ngod. Such passages from Assyrian hymns are:\n\n  O mighty God, to whom there is no rival in the assembly of the great\n              gods.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 5.\n\n  Marduk, among all gods thou excellest.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 6.\n\n  (Prince) of heaven and earth who hath not his equal.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 7.\n\n  Bel to whom in his strength there is no opponent.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 12.\n\n  Among the goddesses is none like unto her.\n                                                    \u2014Hymn to Sarpanitum.\n\n  King of kings, exalted one, whose decrees none can oppose,\n  No god is like unto thy divinity.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nAnd some Hebrew hymns recognize the existence of the gods in asserting\nthe absolute superiority of Yahwe:\n\n  For I know that Yahwe is great,\n  Even our Lord than all gods.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 135:5.\n\n  For a great God is Yahwe,\n  And a great King over all gods.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 95:3.\n\n  For great is Yahwe, and to be praised exceedingly;\n  Terrible is He above all gods.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 96:4.\n\nAlso the existence of many gods is implied in the rhetorical questions\ncommon to the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns. Assyrian:\n\n  O lord who is like thee, who can be compared to thee;\n  Mighty one, who is like thee, who can be compared to thee;\n  Lord Nannar who is like thee, who can be compared to thee?\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nIdentical in form is the question addressed to Nergal:\n\n  O lord who is like thee, who can be compared to thee;\n  Most mighty one, who is like unto thee, who can be compared to thee;\n  Nergal who is like thee, who can be compared to thee?\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 6.\n\nIshtar herself asks the question:\n\n  Who is equal to me, me;\n  Who is comparable to me, me?\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 4.\n\nThe question is followed by the answer in the following examples:\n\n  Who is exalted in heaven,    Thou alone art exalted;\n  Who is exalted on earth,    Thou alone art exalted.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  What god in heaven or earth can be compared to thee,\n  Thou art high over all of them\n  Among the gods superior is thy counsel.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\nBiblical examples of such rhetorical questions are:\n\n  For who in the skies can be compared unto Yahwe,\n  Who is like Yahwe among the gods?\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 89:7.\n\n  Yahwe god of hosts who is like thee?\n  Strong art thou Yahwe and thy faithfulness is round about thee.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 89:9.\n\n  Who is like Yahwe our God, in heaven or in earth,\n  Who sittest on high, who peereth into the depths?\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 113:5f.\n\nMoreover there is, for Assyrian, as for Hebrew, the council of the gods,\nin which one god is the supreme judge.\n\n  O mighty god to whom there is no rival in the assembly of the great\n              gods.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\n  Then come the great gods for trial before thee.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 3.\n\n  Yahwe takes his stand in the council of gods:\n  In the midst of gods he judgeth.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 82:1.\n\n  A God very terrible in the council of the holy ones,\n  And to be feared above all them that are round about Him.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 89:8.\n\nFurthermore, both in Assyrian and Biblical hymns, the gods themselves do\nhomage to the highest god:\n\n  O Sin, at thy appearance the gods assemble;\n  Kings, all of them, prostrate themselves.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 3.\n\n  There bow before thee the Igigi, the Annunaki, the gods, the\n              goddesses.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  Worship him all ye gods.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 97:7.\n\n  Ascribe unto Yahwe    Ye sons of God,\n  Ascribe unto Yahwe    Glory and strength.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 29:1.\n\nYahwe, who is thus worshipped by the gods, can appropriately be called\n\u201cGod of gods and Lord of lords\u201d:\n\n  O give thanks unto the God of gods.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 136:2.\n\n  O give thanks unto the Lord of lords.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 136:3.\n\nThe Assyrian hymn passes beyond the point where the deity is exalted\nabove other gods:\n\n  Whose great glory through Bel the regent of heaven,\n  Is exceedingly high over all gods,\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\nto the point where the god alone is exalted:\n\n  O lord chief of the gods, who alone is exalted on earth and in heaven;\n  Who is exalted in heaven, thou alone art exalted;\n  Who is exalted on earth, thou alone art exalted.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nLikewise the Hebrew hymn speaks of the exaltation of Yahwe and passes\nbeyond the point where Yahwe is high above all gods.\n\n  For thou art high over all the earth,\n  Thou art gone up exceedingly above all gods.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 97:9.\n\n  High over all nations is Yahwe;\n  Over the heavens his glory.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 113:4.\n\nto the point where Yahwe alone is exalted in the earth:\n\n  Be still and know that I am God:\n  I will be exalted in the earth;\n  I will be exalted among the nations.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 46:11.\n\nIt was said above that certain Hebrew hymnal passages recognize the\nexistence of other gods. It might have been pointed out there that one\nof those passages,\n\n  For great is Yahwe and to be praised exceedingly;\n  Terrible is he above all gods\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 96:4.\n\nis followed by:\n\n  For all the gods of the peoples are idols;\n  But Yahwe made the heavens\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 96:5.\n\nand Psalm 135:5:\n\n  For I know that Yahwe is great,\n  Even our Lord than all gods\n\nis followed by 135:15:\n\n  The idols of the nations are silver and gold,\n  The work of men\u2019s hands.\n\nYet this may not be an outright denial of the existence of all gods, nor\nan interesting example of the retention of phraseology which the\nreligion had outgrown. The Israel of most of the hymns was very much a\nnation among the nations. With feeling, at once intensely national and\nintensely religious, Israel poured its contempt upon idolatry, and\ndeclared that the nations had no god. On earth Yahwe is the supreme God,\nand in heaven in the heavenly court he reigns supreme, and the gods who\nare there, serve him and enhance his glory.\n\n\n                         The Glory of His Name\n\nAssyrian and Hebrew hymns are alike, in that both exalt the name of\ndeity. For both the name of the god is great and glorious and to be\nfeared. It is known in all the earth and is not to be forgotten. There\nseems to have been an element of mystery, possibly due to magic,\nattached to the name of the Assyrian deity.\n\n  Flood watering the harvest, knows anyone thy name.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 6.\n\nAnd in this connection it is well to notice that Ishtar announces\nherself by several names:\n\n  My first name is    I am Ishtar\n  My second name is    Lady of the countries.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 4.\n\nGreat and terrible is the name of the Assyrian and Hebrew deity.\n\n  The lord Ninib I am, at the naming of my name may be prostrated the\n              lofty powers.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 5.\n\n  Exceeding great is thy name, Marduk mighty one.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  Asshur, glorious one, whose name arouses fear,\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Asshur.\n\n  Let them praise thy name great and terrible.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 99:3.\n\n  Known in Judah is God, in Israel great is his name.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 76:2.\n\n  Lord whose name is glorious, recorder of the world.\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Enlil.\n\n  Not to us. Not to us, but to thy name give glory.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 115:1.\n\n  Thy name is altogether good in the mouths of the peoples.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 13.\n\n  Thy name is spread abroad, in the mouths of men, O protecting god.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 1.\n\n  Whose name is brilliant in all the earth, that is my glory.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 5.\n\n  As thy name, O God, so is thy praise unto the ends of the earth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 48:11.\n\n  Yahwe, our Lord, how majestic is thy name in all the earth.\n                                                             \u2014Psalm 8:2.\n\nNot only universal, but also eternal, is the fame of Assyrian and Hebrew\ndeity:\n\n  Therefore may the fame of Asshur not be forgotten, may men remember\n              Essharra.\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Asshur.\n\n  Yahwe thy name is forever,\n  Yahwe thy remembrance to generation and generation.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 135:13.\n\nIt may be significant also, that, while the name of the Assyrian and the\nHebrew deity is great and glorious and terrible, universally known and\nnever to be forgotten, it is said only of the Hebrew deity, that his\nname is holy:\n\n  For in Him doth our heart rejoice,\n  For in His Holy Name do we trust.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 33:21.\n\n  Bless my soul Yahwe, and all that is within me His Holy name.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 103:1.\n\nWhile both Assyrian and Hebrew hymns exalt the name of the deity, there\nis no passage in any Assyrian hymn, revealing such enthusiasm on the\npart of an individual, for the name of the god as Psalm 145:1b:\n\n  I will exalt thee,    my god,    O king,\n  And I will bless    thy name    for ever\n  Every day will I bless thee,\n  And I will praise thy name for ever and aye,\n\nNor is there any passage in an Assyrian hymn calling upon universal\nnature, sun, moon and stars, mountains, and hills, rain and snow, all\nliving creatures, all men and women, old and young, kings and nations,\nto praise the name of God, as Psalm 148:13:\n\n  Let them praise the name of Yahwe\n  For his name alone is exalted.\n\n\n\n\n                               Chapter XI\n                 THE SUPREME GOD IN HIS DWELLING PLACE\n\n\nThe Assyrians are known to readers of the Old Testament as worshippers\nof the hosts of heaven, and while their hymns represent them as adoring\nalso the Atmospheric Gods, and furthermore finding Deity not only in the\nheights above, but also in the depths beneath, nevertheless their\nreverent gaze was most frequently turned skyward. Their gods were mainly\ngods of heaven, and were associated, at times almost to the point of\nidentification, with the heavenly bodies. Thus the God Shamash bears the\nname of Sun, and is unmistakably and very closely associated with the\nsolar orb:\n\n  The mighty mountains has thy glory covered;\n  Thy brilliancy fills and overwhelms the countries;\n  Thou marchest regularly across the heavens.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 7.\n\nLikewise Nusku is a solar deity:\n\n  Strong fire god who surveys the tops of the mountains,\n  Mighty fire god, illuminator of the darkness.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 1.\n\nAlso Marduk:\n\n  Lofty in form, Marduk, shining sun god, bright torch,\n  Who by his rising illumines the (darkness), makes brilliant (    ).\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\nThe moon has its very worthy representative among the gods in the person\nof the great God Sin:\n\n  Thou that brightenest the night,\n  That givest light to all nations,\n  Bright is thy light in heaven;\n  Thy brightness fills the whole earth.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 1.\n\n  Thou that from the base of heaven to the height of heaven dost march\n              in glory;\n  Opening the door of heaven, and granting light to all men.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nThe evening star, the star which shines pre\u00ebminent in the heavens is\nrepresented by two glorious goddesses, Ishtar and Sarpanitum:\n\n  Light of heaven which flames like fire over the earth art thou.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 6.\n\n  In the heavens in the evening when I take my stand,\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 4.\n\n  She that flameth in the horizon of heaven.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 6.\n\n  Who art adorned with the brilliancy of sparkling stones, ornament of\n              heaven.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 6.\n\n  Ishtar who opens the bolt of the pure heavens, that is my glory.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 6.\n\n  Sarpanitum, shining star, dwelling in Endul,\n  Who crossest the heavens, who passest over the earth,\n  Sarpanitum, whose station is lofty,\n  Brilliant is my lady, lofty and high.\n                                                    \u2014Hymn to Sarpanitum.\n\nJust as Shamash, Sin, and Ishtar are so closely associated with sun,\nmoon, and evening star, so Ramman, in the two hymns written in his\nhonor, is almost identified with the thunderstorm.\n\nYahwe is not identified, nor closely associated, in the Hebrew hymns,\nwith any of the heavenly bodies, not even with the sun, but he, like the\nAssyrian deities, dwells in heaven, and his glory, as is theirs, is that\nof the stars. Of Yahwe it might have been said, as of Nergal and Ishtar:\n\n  Thou treadest in the high heavens, lofty is thy place.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 1.\n\n  Thy seat is in the high heavens, in the midst of the bright heavens,\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 2.\n\n  But our God is in the heavens,\n  Everything that he pleaseth, he doeth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 115:3.\n\n  The heavens are Yahwe\u2019s heavens.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 115:16.\n\n  Yahwe is in his holy temple;\n  Yahwe, in the heavens is his throne.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 11:4.\n\nYahwe was not identified with sun, moon or stars. No more was he\nidentified with the thunderstorm. \u2019Tis true, in Psalm 29 the thunder is\ndescribed as the voice of Yahwe, but while the tempest rages below,\nYahwe sits exalted in heaven, the mighty God, who gives strength to his\npeople, and blesses them with peace. It is the glory of the Hebrew\nreligion, that its God has been released from all identification with\nnature\u2019s forces and is lord in his universe. So he controls also the\nwinds:\n\n  Who bringeth forth the wind out of his treasuries.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 135:7.\n\n  To him that rideth in the ancient heavens.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 68:34.\n\n  Who maketh clouds his chariot,\n  Who walketh upon the wings of the wind.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 104:3.\n\nAs gods of heaven, both the Assyrian deities and Yahwe are revered as\nlofty, exalted beings. Marduk is addressed as the one\n\n  \u201cwho alone art lofty.\u201d\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  In heaven thou art lofty, on earth thou art king, clever adviser of\n              the gods.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\nTo Ninib it is said:\n\n  In Ekur, the house of festivals, is thy head exalted\n  Ninib, king, son of Bel, who himself is exalted.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 1.\n\nAnd for Asshur the wish is expressed:\n\n  May the memory of Asshur be praised, his divinity be exalted,\n  So that the exaltation of Asshur, the lord of lords, the warrior, may\n              shine.\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Asshur.\n\nSimilarly Yahwe is exalted:\n\n  But thou art high for ever, O Yahwe.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 92:9.\n\n  That they may know that thou alone art Yahwe\n  The most high over all the earth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 83:19.\n\nYahwe\u2019s exaltation above the earth brings with it also exaltation over\nall nations:\n\n  Yahwe in Zion is great,\n  And High is He above all nations.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 99:2.\n\n  High over all nations is Yahwe;\n  Over the heaven is his glory.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 113:4.\n\nSo also Marduk\u2019s exaltation has its significance for men:\n\n  High art thou    in heaven:\n  All people    thou see\u2019st.\n  Great art thou    upon earth:\n  Their omens    thou see\u2019st.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\nYahwe\u2019s exaltation seems to be not only above the earth, but he is also\nhighly exalted in the heavens:\n\n  His majesty is above earth and heaven.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 148:13.\n\n  Thou whose majesty is placed above the heavens.\n                                                             \u2014Psalm 8:2.\n\nBefore the exalted heavens\u2019 God, the Assyrian worshipper is reverent:\n\n  O lord thy divinity is full of awe\n  Like the far off heaven and the broad ocean.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nand as Heaven\u2019s God, Yahwe is to be praised:\n\n  Praise Yahwe from the Heavens;\n  Praise Him in the heights.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 148:1.\n\nThe Assyrian religion, in contrast to the Hebrew religion, finds God in\nthe lower world, and glorifies the deity of the lower world:\n\n  Thou art great in Hades, there is none like thee.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 1.\n\n  Warrior, lord of the under world.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 4.\n\nShe, who is goddess of heaven and earth is also goddess of the deep:\n\n  Lady of Egurra, ruler of the deep,\n  Who inhabitest the deep, lady of heaven and earth.\n                                                       \u2014Hymn to Damkina.\n\nThe Hebrew hymns have only the negative statements regarding Yahwe\u2019s\nprestige in the lower world:\n\n  The dead praise not Yahwe,\n  Neither any that go down to silence\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 115:17.\n\nand the assertion of Psalm 139:8 that Yahwe the omnipresent is present\nalso in Sheol.\n\n\n                    The Supreme God in His Sanctuary\n\nAlthough the Assyrian deities and Yahwe are gods of heaven, yet they\ntake up their abode in earthly sanctuaries:\n\n  Who hast taken up his exalted habitation among living creatures\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  For Yahwe hath chosen Zion,\n  He hath desired it for his habitation.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 132:13.\n\n  In Salem also is his tabernacle\n  And his dwelling place in Zion\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 76:3.\n\n  Bel thy dwelling is Babylon, Borsippa is thy crown.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 12.\n\n  Lord of Izida, shadow of Borsippa, director of Isagila.\n                                                    \u2014Hymn to Nebo No. 1.\n\n  Virgin. Virgin in the temple of my riches am I.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 5.\n\nThe sanctuary itself is venerated by Assyrian and Hebrew:\n\n  Thy house Ezida is a house incomparable.\n                                                    \u2014Hymn to Nebo No. 2.\n\n  How lovely are thy tabernacles O Yahwe of hosts.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 84:2.\n\n  Honor and majesty are before Him;\n  Strength and beauty are in his sanctuary.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 96:6.\n\nThere is nothing in the Hebrew hymns to indicate that Yahwe has more\nthan one sanctuary. This is due of course to the fact that the Hebrew\nhymns are preserved in a collection, whose editors recognized only\nJerusalem as a legitimate place of worship. On the other hand the\nAssyrian gods have usually several sanctuaries:\n\n  The sovereign of sanctuaries all of them.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 13.\n\n  Ishtar, who in all sanctuaries was magnified am I.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 5.\n\nIt is curious that the god should be addressed as the founder of cities\nand sanctuaries:\n\n  Founder of the cities, renewer of the sanctuaries.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 3.\n\n  Founder of sanctuaries, proclaimer of their names.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nApparently the Assyrian sanctuaries were thought to be as old as the\nworld itself, for the erection and naming of the sanctuaries is\nmentioned in connection with the creation of the earth:\n\n  Creator of the land, founder of sanctuaries, proclaimer of their\n              names.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 7.\n\nBut of Yahwe it is said:\n\n  Doth build up Jerusalem Yahwe;\n  The dispersed of Israel he gathereth together.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 147:2.\n\nIt is not forgotten in the Assyrian hymns, that the deity gives joy to\ncity and temple:\n\n  O Marduk the mighty who causest Itura to rejoice.\n  Lord of Isagila, help of Babylon, lover of Izida.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 8.\n\nThe processional hymn to Marduk opens with the line:\n\n  O lord on thine entrance into thy house may thy house rejoice in thee.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 13.\n\nHebrew temple worship must also have been joyful, when the worshippers\nobeyed the exhortation, Psalm 100:2: \u201cServe Yahwe with gladness\u201d; when\nthey praised him \u201cwith trumpet sound,\u201d \u201cwith psaltery and harp,\u201d \u201cwith\ntimbrel and dance,\u201d \u201cwith stringed instruments\u201d and \u201cpipe\u201d \u201cwith loud\ncymbals\u201d and \u201chigh sounding cymbals,\u201d Psalm 150. Distinctive of the\nHebrew hymns is, as we would expect, the great prominence given to the\npraise of Yahwe in the temple:\n\n  Praise, O Jerusalem, Yahwe;\n  Praise thy God, O Zion.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 147:12.\n\n  Blessed be Yahwe from Zion,\n  Who dwelleth at Jerusalem.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 135:21.\n\nNot only do Assyrian and Hebrew deity dwell in earthly sanctuaries, but\ntheir sanctuaries seem to have been alike situated on holy mountains:\n\n  Great and to be praised exceedingly\n  Is the city of our God.\n  His holy mountain, beautiful of situation,\n  Is the joy of the whole earth.\n  Mount Zion, on the sides of the North,\n  Is the city of a great King.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 48:2f.\n\nAnother reference to the holy mountain is found in Psalm 87:1\n\n  Its foundation is in the holy mountains.\n\nTo be compared with the last two selections is the couplet from a hymn\nto Bel:\n\n  Great mountain of Enlil Imkharkag whose peak reaches to heaven,\n  Whose foundation is laid in the glittering deep.\n\nThis couplet describes a temple of Bel which resembles a mountain. The\nname Great Mountain was also applied to Bel himself. Possibly the line\nof development was thus. The god dwells in the holy mountain. For that\nreason, the temple is built to resemble a mountain, and the name\nmountain passes over from the temple to the deity. At any rate, it is\ninteresting to note that Yahwe also dwells in the holy mountain and was\nlikewise called rock:\n\n  Rock of our salvation.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 95:1.\n\n  He only is my rock and my salvation,\n  My tower, I shall not be greatly moved.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 62:3.\n\nIt is natural to pass from the sanctuary to the physical representation\nof the deity. This in the Assyrian hymns is frequently crass:\n\n  Prince of shining face and flaming mouth raging fire god.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 5.\n\n  Of gigantic size with terrible limbs,\n  Raging demons to right and left of him.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 5.\n\n  Mighty in form, lofty in stature, and powerful for the exercise of his\n              lordship.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\nIn a number of passages, the god takes the still crasser form of an\nanimal. In Sin No. 5, line 19, it is the form of a horse:\n\n  O hastening steed, sturdy one, whose knees do not grow weary,\n  Who dost open the road for the gods, thy brothers.\n\nIn other passages, it is a bull or steer:\n\n  O strong young bull with huge horns, perfect in limbs,\n  with beard of lapis-lazuli color, full of glory and perfection.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  Great steer mighty lord, destroyer of the hostile land.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 4.\n\n  Powerful one great strong steer.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 6.\n\n  Thou who bearest horns who art clothed with glory.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 8.\n\n  A crouching ox art thou, bull that dost institute destruction.\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Enlil.\n\n  Warrior who as a steer stands firm at one\u2019s side,\n  Warrior who resembles a wild ox with great horns.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 5.\n\nIn the hymns proper, there is no such crass representation of Yahwe, but\nit is well to recall that Yahwe was not only represented by bull images\nat Bethel and Dan, but is referred to as the \u201cBull of Jacob.\u201d\n\n  How he sware unto Yahwe,\n  And vowed to the Bull of Jacob.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 132:2.\n\nIt is a stage higher in refinement, when the god is not represented as a\nnaked demon, nor as a powerful animal, however majestic in its strength,\nbut as a clothed being. Such a representation of the deity we have both\nin the Assyrian and the Hebrew hymns:\n\n  Father Nannar who dost go forth in the robe of majesty chief of the\n              gods.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  Robed in splendor, clothed in terror.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 2.\n\n  Chief of the great gods, clothed in grandeur and splendor.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 5.\n\n  Who art clothed with terror, who art full of glory.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 1.\n\n  The mighty one among the gods with brilliancy clothed am I.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 3.\n\n  Strongest of the goddesses whose clothing is the light.\n                                                    \u2014Hymn to Sarpanitum.\n\nFrom out of such imagery as that cited in so many passages has come\nthese two chaste references to Yahwe as clothed:\n\n  Yahwe is King: he is clothed with majesty\n  Clothed is Yahwe    he hath girded himself with strength.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 93:1.\n\n  My God thou art exceeding great,\n  With honor and majesty thou art clothed,\n  Who coverest thyself with light as with a garment.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 104:1.\n\nThere is but one instance in the Assyrian Hymns, when the beauty of the\ngod is the delight of the worshipper. This is somewhat akin to the\nfeeling of the mystic:\n\n  Fruit which hath created itself, of lofty form beautiful to look upon,\n  in whose being one cannot sufficiently state oneself.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nThere are no parallels to this among the biblical hymns but there are\nparallels among other psalms:\n\n  That I may dwell in the house of Yahwe\n  All the days of my life\n  To behold the beauty of Yahwe.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 27:4.\n\n  As for me I shall behold thy face in righteousness;\n  I shall be satisfied, when I awake, with (beholding) thy form.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 17:15.\n\n  So have I looked upon thee in the sanctuary\n  To see thy power and thy glory.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 63:3.\n\nHomage was paid to the Assyrian deities by the bringing of offerings to\ntheir temples, and this fact of the offering of sacrifices, finds a\nplace in the hymns:\n\n  Father Enlil with song majestically we come:\n  The presents of the ground are offered to thee as gifts of sacrifice\n      O lord of Sumer figs to thy dwelling we bring;\n      To give life to the ground thou dost exist.\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Enlil.\n\nA special distinction of Marduk\u2019s is that:\n\n  Among all gods who dwell in sanctuaries, sacrifice of every kind is\n              brought into his sanctuary.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 7.\n\nThe sacrifice, and especially the offering of wine, would favorably\naffect the disposition of the god:\n\n  On the festal day when he takes his seat in joy,\n  When on equality with Anu and Bel sesame wine made him genial.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 4.\n\nOn the other hand, the favorable disposition of the deity is manifested\nby his acceptance of the offering, and the proof of the magnanimity of\nthe god finds its due place in the hymn:\n\n  Thou eatest, drinkest their pure wine, noble beer from the cask\n  When they pour the noble beer for thee, thou acceptest it.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 7.\n\nIt is curious that, just as the gods for whom the temples were built,\nwere addressed as the builders of the temples, so the gods to whom\nsacrifices were offered, were addressed as those who maintained the\noffering of sacrifices. Doubtless the sacrifices of the temples had come\nto be regarded as in themselves absolutely essential to the established\norder, and the gods, as the givers of the earth\u2019s products, became thus\nthe patrons of the sacrifices.\n\n  Thou givest the bread of sacrifice, the daily sacrifices.\n                                           \u2014Marduk No. II, col. III:1.2.\n\n  Protector of the offerings for the gods, renewer of the temple cities.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\n  Who dost build dwellings and establishest offerings.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 7.\n\n  Protector of the sacrificial gifts of all the Igigi.\n                                                           \u2014Nusku No. 3.\n\nNusku as the fire god is particularly essential to the offering of\nsacrifices:\n\n  Without thee is no banquet held in the temple;\n  Without thee the gods smell no incense.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 3.\n\n  The bestower of incense who burns the freewill offering for the gods.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 2.\n\nIt is surely very significant that all this is absent from the Hebrew\nhymns. There is but one single reference to a sacrifice.\n\n  Give to Yahwe the glory due to his name;\n  Bring an offering and come into His courts.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 96:8.\n\nWhat the Hebrews in their hymns bring to Yahwe is an offering of praise\nfor:\n\n  His praise endureth forever.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 111:10.\n\nand the individual devoutly says:\n\n  I will praise Yahwe    while I live;\n  I will sing praises to my God    while I have my being.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 146:2.\n\nand a temple congregation says:\n\n  But we will bless Yahwe\n  From now and for evermore.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 115:18.\n\nSacrifice had its place, and on that great day of Yahwe\u2019s final triumph,\nthe kindreds of the peoples are called upon to bring an offering (Psalm\n96:8), but this seems to be only incidental to their acknowledgment in\nYahwe\u2019s temple of his universal lordship. I am assuming that the glory\nand strength of Psalm 96:7:\n\n  Give to Yahwe    ye kindreds of the peoples;\n  Give to Yahwe    glory and strength\n\nare to be understood in the spiritual rather than the material sense, as\nelsewhere the hymns only call for spiritual homage to Yahwe:\n\n  Worship Yahwe    in holy garments;\n  Tremble before Him all the earth.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 96:9.\n\n  Come let us worship and bow down;\n  Let us kneel before Yahwe our maker.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 95:6.\n\n  Exalt ye Yahwe    our God,\n  And worship    at his footstool.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 99:5.\n\n  The praise of Yahwe    my mouth shall speak,\n  And all flesh shall bless his holy name.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 145:21.\n\nThe Hebrew hymn does not praise Yahwe as the one who establishes\nsacrifice, nor as the God who accepts sacrifice. Although sacrifices\ncontinued to be offered in the temple, the hymn, as a hymn, transcends\nall formalism. The hymn is the expression of enthusiasm for Yahwe, the\nexalted and great God whom all the earth is to acknowledge, and\nconversely, it may perhaps be said that only such a magnificent\nconception of deity as the Hebrews had could produce such hymns.\n\n\n\n\n                              Chapter XII\n                       THE SUPREME GOD AS CREATOR\n\n\nThe ordinary person is very likely to limit the thought of God as\ncreator to the monotheistic religions. However the religious imagination\nis by no means controlled by logical reasoning. The problem of creation,\nin some form or other, has its fascination even for the primitive mind,\nand the conception of God as creator is not foreign to the religious\nthinking of polytheistic religions. Accordingly, although the Assyrian\ndeities never completely succeeded in emancipating themselves from close\nassociation with heavenly bodies and atmospheric forces, yet some of\nthem did win for themselves the significant title of creator:\n\n  O Lord of heaven    who created the earth.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 4.\n\n  Creator of the land, founder of sanctuaries, proclaimer of names.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 7.\n\n  Creator of the totality of heaven and earth, art thou O Shamash.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 6.\n\n  Creator of the upper universe, builder of the mountains,\n  Creator of the gods, begetter of the goddesses.\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Asshur.\n\nIn the preceding couplet one might expect instead of \u201cbuilder of the\nmountains,\u201d \u201cbuilder of the earth,\u201d but the second line would seem to\nsuggest that the mountains were the abodes of the gods, and therefore\nthe creation of mountains and gods is associated together. The following\ncouplet, while not affirming explicitly the act of creation by deity,\nseems nevertheless to presuppose it:\n\n  Heaven and earth are thine;\n  The space of heaven and earth is thine.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 6.\n\nTurning to the Hebrew hymns, there is a great variety of passages, in\nwhich Yahwe is referred to as creator:\n\n  Let all the earth fear Yahwe;\n  Let all the inhabitants of the world stand in awe of him,\n  For he spake and it was done,\n  He commanded and it stood fast.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 33:8f.\n\n  To him that spread forth the earth above the waters.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 136:6.\n\n  To him that by understanding made the heavens.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 136:5.\n\n  To him that made great lights,\n  The sun to rule by day,\n  The moon and stars to rule by night.\n                                                         \u2014Psalm 136:7-9.\n\n  When I behold thy heavens,\n  The work of thy fingers,\n  The moon and the stars,\n  Which thou hast ordained.\n                                                             \u2014Psalm 8:4.\n\n  By the word of Yahwe were the heavens made,\n  And by the breath of his mouth all their host.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 33:6.\n\nThe sun, moon and stars, the highest heaven and the waters above the\nheavens are called upon to praise Yahwe their creator:\n\n  Let them praise the name of Yahwe,\n  For he commanded, and they were created.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 148:5.\n\nHe is also the creator of the sea:\n\n  He gathereth the waters of the sea together as a heap;\n  He layeth up the deeps in storehouses.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 33:7.\n\nHere may be inserted the only reference in an Assyrian hymn to the\ncreation of the sea:\n\n  Thou didst bind the wide sea.\n\nBeside this should be placed the somewhat similar statement in Psalm\n104:9:\n\n  Thou hast set a bound that they may not pass over,\n  That they turn not again    to cover the earth.\n\nOnce Yahwe is praised as the creator of the sea and the land:\n\n  The sea is his and he made it,\n  And his hand formed the dry land.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 95:5.\n\nTwice Yahwe is referred to as \u201cmaker of heaven and earth\u201d:\n\n  Yahwe bless thee out of Zion,\n  Maker of Heaven and Earth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 134:3.\n\n  Blessed are ye of Yahwe,\n  Maker of heaven and earth.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 115:15.\n\nIn Psalm 33:6-9, the creation of the heavens, the sea, the earth are\nreferred to in order and Psalm 104:2-9 treats of the creation of the\nheavens, the earth and the sea, singling out that which is especially\nmarvelous in the creation of each. As for the heavens, it is that the\nbeams of heaven\u2019s chambers are laid upon the waters of the heavenly\nocean. As for the earth, it is that its foundations are so surely fixed\nthat it is immovable; and as for the sea, it is that its unruly waters\nshould be imprisoned within their bounds and restrained from overflowing\nthe earth.\n\nThe Assyrian deity is also credited with the creation of gods and\ngoddesses:\n\n  Creator of the gods, begetter of the goddesses.\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Asshur.\n\nThis creation is probably to be understood in the physical sense, for\nwhich there are many parallels in polytheistic religions, but no\nparallel in the Hebrew hymns. On the other hand the phraseology of the\nfollowing passages:\n\n  King and rulers thou namest,\n  Since to create gods and kings rests with thee.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Bel No. 3.\n\n  Through the mouth may it be proclaimed;\n  Without interruption may the ear hear it,\n  That I Asshur have named you to lordship\n  Over land and men\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Asshur.\n\nis entirely similar to Hebrew usage. Here the creation of God and King\nis equivalent to nomination or appointment. Similarly Yahwe appoints a\nking over Zion:\n\n  Yet I have set my king\n  Upon my holy hill of Zion.\n  I will tell of the decree:\n  Yahwe said to me Thou art my son;\n  This day have I begotten thee.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 2:6f.\n\nand in Psalm 82:6, although it is not said that Yahwe creates or begets\nthe gods, yet it seems to be his fiat, his decree that calls them into\nbeing:\n\n  I said, gods shall ye be\n  And sons of the Most High all of you.\n\nIt is also his decree that destroys them:\n\n  Nevertheless as men shall ye die,\n  And as one of the princes shall ye fall.\n\nIt is a question of secondary importance whether the Elohim is here to\nbe interpreted as actually gods, or judges. In either case, there is the\nsimilarity in Assyrian and Hebrew usage.\n\nFinally the creation of mankind is ascribed to the Assyrian deity, and\nby this is apparently meant the creation of the entire human family:\n\n  At thy command created was mankind.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Bel No. 3.\n\n  The creator of all mankind.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 14.\n\n  Heroine Ishtar, creator of mankind.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 3.\n\nThe Hebrew hymnists also believed that Yahwe created mankind, and they\nmarvelled at the perfection of man\u2019s body:\n\n  For I am fearfully and wonderfully made.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 139:14.\n\nThey marvelled also at his supreme place in the universe:\n\n  For thou hast caused him to lack little of the gods;\n  With glory and honor thou hast crowned him.\n                                                             \u2014Psalm 8:6.\n\nIt is significant, however, that Hebrew hymnal enthusiasm is not so much\nstirred by the thought of Yahwe as the creator of mankind, as it is by\nthe thought of him as the creator of the Hebrew nation:\n\n  Let Israel rejoice in its maker,\n  Let the sons of Zion be joyful in their King.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 149:2.\n\n  Come, let us worship and bow down,\n  Let us kneel before Yahwe our maker,\n  For he is our god,    and we are\n  His people    and the sheep of his pasture.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 95:6f.\n\nThis conviction, that Yahwe was the creator of their nation, was in no\nsmall degree both cause and result of the powerful national and\nreligious enthusiasm of the Hebrews, and of that mighty religious\nexperience, which finds so full and so free expression in the Hebrew\nhymns.\n\n\n                  The Supreme God as the God of Nature\n\nThe Assyrian and Hebrew hymnal literature which praise the deity as the\ncreator of the world, are also concerned with the deity as the god of\nnature. One prominent function of both Assyrian and Hebrew deity was to\nmaintain the food supply. Assyrian and Hebrew God, give the increase of\nthe soil:\n\n  Enlil, who makest to abound pure oil and milk:\n  Father Enlil, keeper of the plants of the garden;\n  Keeper of the grain fields are thou.\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Enlil.\n\n  Lord of the lands, king of heaven and earth, who heaps up abundance,\n  Lord of the living things, merciful one, increaser of the wheat.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\n  Who maketh peace    in the borders\n  Who filleth thee    with the purest of the wheat.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 147:14.\n\n  Who causeth grass to sprout for the cattle,\n  And herbs for the service of man,\n  To bring forth food from the earth,\n  And wine to make glad the heart of man.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 104:14.\n\n  Thou distributest the food of cultivation to all habitations\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 2.\n\nThe Assyrian deity of the hymnist also provides food for the gods,\nprobably through the sacrifices, which in turn were dependent upon the\ncrops:\n\n  Thou suppliest the food of god and goddess,\n  The creator among them    art thou.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 9.\n\nYahwe provides food not only for man but also for the beasts:\n\n  Who giveth to the beast its food,\n  To the young ravens which cry.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 147:9.\n\n  The young lions roar after their prey,\n  And seek from God their food.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 104:21.\n\nIt may be remarked that these verses reveal a close bond of sympathy\nbetween the Hebrew God and the lower animals. This finds fullest\nexpression in Psalm 104 where the brooks in the mountains afford drink\nfor the wild beasts, and the birds and the cedars of Lebanon avail for\nbirds\u2019 nests, the high mountains for the wild goats and the rocks for\nthe conies.\n\nWhile the Assyrian hymns do not happen to speak of the god as providing\nfood for the animals, yet there is one hymnal passage which reveals\nregard for the lower animals and perhaps also suggests a bond of\nsympathy between deity and the lower animals:\n\n  The creeping beast,    the four footed one,\n  For thy great light    their eyes are directed to thee.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 7.\n\nThe fertility of the soil is directly due to the act of the deity in\nsending rain:\n\n  In the heavens I take my place and send rain;\n  In the earth I take my place and cause the verdure to spring forth.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 4.\n\n  Thou causest to rain the abundant rains, mighty floods.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\nThe Hebrew poet remarks that the rain comes from the clouds, and he has\nalso observed that lightning is followed by rain. It is Yahwe:\n\n  Who covereth the heavens with clouds;\n  Who prepareth for the earth rain;\n  Who maketh grass to grow upon the mountains.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 147:8.\n\n  Who bringeth up vapors from the ends of the earth;\n  Lightnings for rain he maketh.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 135:7.\n\n  He watereth the mountains from his chambers.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 104:13.\n\nLikewise the fertility occasioned by the rivers and streams is due, in\nthe first place, to the deities which have opened the springs, and\nguided the streams down into the plains:\n\n  Who guidest the rivers in the midst of the mountains,\n  Who openest the springs in the midst of the hills.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 2.\n\n  Thou maintainest abundance without end,    the dried up spring thou\n              openest.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 2.\n\n  Director of the river courses, opener of the springs.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\n  Marduk, lord of abundance of riches, who pours down fullness,\n  Lord of the mountain streams and waters, ruler of the mountains,\n  Opener of the fountains and springs, guide of the rivers,\n  Bestower of corn and grain, creator of wheat and barley, renewer of\n              the green herb.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 9.\n\n  Gushea who gives the growth of plants,\n  Without thee is no river opened, no river shut off.\n  Thou who grantest life, without thee is no canal opened,\n  No canal shut off from which numerous people drink;\n  Without thee is no sacrificial portion, no portion of food.\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Ishtar.\n\nYahwe also can open the spring:\n\n  Who turnest the rock into a pool of water,\n  The flint into a fountain of water\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 114:8.\n\nand Yahwe is also the guide of the streams:\n\n  Who sendest forth springs into the valleys,\n  Between the mountains they run.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 104:10.\n\nIn addition to sending rain from heaven and causing streams to irrigate\nthe plains, the Assyrian deity also sows the seed:\n\n  Over the land thou goest scattering seed.\n                                                           \u2014Ninib No. 5.\n\nThe work of the deities in nature as elsewhere need not always be done\nimmediately, but can be accomplished by the spoken word. Assyrian and\nHebrew hymns alike exalt the power of the divine word. The voice that\nspeaks the word is a voice of thunder.\n\n  To him that rideth in the ancient heavens,\n  He uttereth his voice, a voice of strength.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 68:34.\n\n  As the sound of Adad\u2019s thunder thy voice is awe inspiring.\n                                                    \u2014Marduk II col. III.\n\nThe word of God is irresistible:\n\n  Counsellor, favorite of Ea, whose word cannot be withstood,\n  To whose powerful word the great Igigi give heed.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\n  Thy word is proclaimed in heaven, and the Igigi prostrate themselves:\n  Thy word is proclaimed on earth, and the Annunaki kiss the ground.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nThe word once spoken is not to be recalled. It is unalterable. It goes\non to do that work which the deity hath pleased:\n\n  The exalted hero, whose word is unalterable.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 14.\n\n  Perfect in judgment, whose word is not altered:\n  Determiner of destinies, whose word is not altered.\n                                                           \u2014Hymn to Bel.\n\n  Ninib, whose command is not altered.\n                                                            \u2014Ninib 4:32.\n\nThe word of the deity has its mysterious independent existence:\n\n  Thy word is like the distant heaven and the concealed earth, which no\n              man can see\n  Thy word who can know it, who can compare with it?\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nThe word exerts its power in nature:\n\n  Thy word sounds on high like a storm wind and food and drink do\n              abound;\n  The word makes fat stall and stable and multiplies living creatures.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nMore wonderful still, the word has ethical power:\n\n  Thy word causest truth and righteousness to arise,\n  That men may speak the truth.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Sin line 26.\n\nThe word also exerts its destructive power in nature:\n\n  Thy word when it extends to the sea the very sea is frightened;\n  Thy word when it extends to the marsh, the marsh laments.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 4.\n\n  Thy word is a lofty net which over heaven and earth thou spreadest\n              out:\n  Unto the sea it turns, the sea takes fright:\n  Unto the marsh it turns, the marsh laments:\n  To the flood of Euphrates it turns;\n  The word of Marduk stirs up the bottom.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 5.\n\nThe word may bring disaster to people and to lands:\n\n  His word is brought to an enchanter, that enchanter takes fright;\n  His word is brought to a seer, that seer takes fright;\n  His word is brought to a sorrowful man, that man laments;\n  His word is brought to a sorrowful woman, that woman laments;\n  His word when it goes softly, ruins the land;\n  His word when it goes powerfully, destroys the houses;\n  His word makes people sick, it makes the people weak;\n  His word when it goes on high, makes the land sick;\n  His word when it goes below, devastates the land;\n  His word when there are five in a house, drives out five;\n  His word when there are ten in a house, drives out ten.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 6.\n\n  The utterance of my exalted command destroys the land of the foe.\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Belit.\n\nLikewise the word of Yahwe has in the biblical hymns its independent\nexistence. This is apparent in Psalm 29, although in this instance it is\nthe thunder, as the voice of the deity, to which the devastation in\nnature is attributed. Yahwe\u2019s word exerts its power in nature; causing\nthe snow and ice to form, and again causing them to disappear:\n\n  He sendeth his command to earth;\n  Swiftly runneth his word.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 147:15.\n\n  He sendeth his word and melteth them;\n  He causeth his wind to blow and the water flows.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 147:18.\n\n  Fire and hail, snow and vapor,\n  Storm wind fulfilling his word.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 148:8.\n\nFor the Hebrew, the power of Yahwe\u2019s word is manifested supremely in the\ncreation of the world:\n\n  Over the mountains stood the waters:\n  At thy rebuke they fled;\n  At the voice of the thunder they hasted away.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 104:7.\n\n  By the word of Yahwe were the heavens made,\n  And by the breath of his mouth their host.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 33:6.\n\n  For he spake, and it was done;\n  He commanded, and it stood fast.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 33:9.\n\n  For he commanded and they were created.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 148:5.\n\n\n\n\n                              Chapter XIII\n              THE SUPREME GOD AS WISE, POWERFUL, MERCIFUL\n\n\nFrom the works of God in creation and nature, the hymnist passes readily\nand naturally to the thought of God\u2019s wisdom. The Assyrian hymns in many\npassages extol the wisdom of God, but wisdom, as one might expect in a\npolytheistic religion is attributed to the deities in varying degree.\nSome passages almost seem to appraise the god\u2019s intellectual capacity:\n\n  Of clever mind exceeding wise to whose plans nothing is comparable.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 6.\n\n  Of big heart and deep understanding.\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Asshur.\n\n  O lord, Bel, thou prince, who art mighty in understanding.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 10.\n\n  Powerful one, of open mind, director of gods and men.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 9.\n\nVery similar to this in the juxtaposition of power and wisdom is Psalm\n147:5:\n\n  Great is our Lord and mighty in power;\n  To his understanding there is no measurement.\n\nThe knowledge of the god is due in part to the fact that from his place\nof vantage in heaven he is able to observe all things:\n\n  Lady of heaven, the lands, and the seas,\n  All living beings of the earth thou beholdest.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 1.\n\n  As for those who speak with the tongue in all countries,\n  Thou knowest their plans, their walk thou observest,\n  Shamash, wise one, lofty one, thine own counsellor art thou.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 7.\n\nVery similarly it is said of Yahwe:\n\n  From Heaven looketh Yahwe:\n  He beholdeth all the sons of men;\n  From his dwelling place he regardeth\n  All the inhabitants of the earth.\n  He hath formed of all of them their hearts,\n  He that considereth all their deeds.\n                                                        \u2014Psalm 33:13-15.\n\nBut the knowledge of some Assyrian deities is deeper than that, for the\ngods read the omens and so learn the fates of men and nations for the\nyears to come:\n\n  With Sin in the heavens thou seest through everything.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 1.\n\n  Who looks through all signs, introduces omens.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 2.\n\n  The god apart from whom in the deep the lot of man is not determined\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\nWhile the gods, in some passages, are thought of as simply reading the\nsigns, in others, they actually have in their hands the determination of\ndestinies:\n\n  Bel thy father has granted thee,\n  That the law of all the gods thy hand should hold;\n  Thou renderest the judgment of mankind.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 1.\n\n  Who gave the fates of the great gods into thy hand;\n  Who commanded the kissing of thy feet, and appointed for thee homage.\n                                             \u2014Hymn to Marduk Nos. 1, 10.\n\n  O lord, who determines the decision of heaven and earth,\n  Whose command is not set aside.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  Perfect in judgment, whose word is not altered;\n  Determiner of destinies, whose word is not altered.\n                                                           \u2014Hymn to Bel.\n\n  Powerful, stately lord of gods, determiner of fates,\n  Thou who fixest the law of the deep, impartest to the gods sacrifice\n              and presents.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  Who dost call to lordship, dost bestow the sceptre;\n  Determinest destinies for far off days.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  Asshur, powerful stately lord of the gods, determiner of fates.\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Asshur.\n\nYahwe is also the determiner of destiny, but he is a rational power\nbehind events. It is the plan of his own heart that he carries into\neffect:\n\n  Yahwe bringeth to nought the counsel of the nations;\n  He maketh of no effect the plans of peoples.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 33:10.\n\n  The counsel of Yahwe for ever shall stand;\n  The plans of his heart for all generations.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 33:11.\n\n  He cutteth off the spirit of princes;\n  Terrible is he to the kings of the earth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 76:13.\n\nSince the events of earth are influenced so largely by the earthly\nsovereign, it is altogether natural that the deity\u2019s determination of\ndestinies should have special application to the case of the king. This\nmakes it easier to understand how the Hebrews looked to Yahwe to set\nupon the throne of Zion an ideal king. (Psalms 2, 110, and 72.) However\nmagical the Assyrian conception of the determination of fate, the\nAssyrian deities are in some passages hailed as omniscient:\n\n  O lord that knowest fate, who of thyself art glorious in Sumer,\n  Father Enlil, lord of unerring word,\n  Father Enlil, whose omniscience is self-created,\n  Thou possest all wisdom, perfect in power.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  Mighty lord of the gods, all knowing one.\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Asshur.\n\n  Of open mind, knower of the word, knower of everything.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 6.\n\nThe wisdom of the gods is so deep that it cannot be easily fathomed and\nunderstood:\n\n  O Anu of the heavens, whose purpose no man knows,\n  Whose command is not altered and whose purpose no god knows.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  O mighty leader whose deep inner being no god understands.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nWith these passages may be compared:\n\n  How great are thy works, Yahwe;\n  Exceeding deep are thy purposes.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 92:6.\n\nIt is especially in the works of Yahwe that the Hebrew finds His wisdom\nrevealed:\n\n  How many are thy works, Yahwe,\n  All of them in wisdom hast thou done.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 104:24.\n\nThe gods thus possessed of wisdom and knowledge are counsellors:\n\n  Shamash, wise one, lofty one, thine own counsellor art thou.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 7.\n\n  With Ea in the multitude of the gods is thy counsel pre\u00ebminent.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 1.\n\n  Lord, leader and counsellor of the great gods.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 1.\n\n  Judge of the world, leader ... powerful one,\n  Thou impartest counsel, lord of the gods.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  Among the gods superior is thy counsel.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\nReading these words, one hears again the voice of the great prophet of\nthe Babylonian exile. He seems to scoff at this feature of polytheism,\njust as elsewhere he scoffs at idolatry:\n\n  Who hath directed the spirit of Yahwe,\n  And as a counsellor hath taught him,\n  With whom took he counsel, and who instructed him,\n  And taught him knowledge and showed him the way of understanding?\n                                                          \u2014Isaiah 40:13.\n\nCounsel is given to gods and men by means of oracles:\n\n  Before thy face the great gods bow down, the fate of the world is set\n              before thee,\n  The great gods beseech thee, and thou givest counsel;\n  They take their stand all of them, they petition at thy feet;\n  O Sin, glorious one of Ekur, they beseech thee,\n  And thou givest the oracle of the gods.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 1.\n\n  To give omens do I arise, do I arise in perfection,\n  Beside my father Sin to give omens do I arise in perfection,\n  Beside my brother Shamash to give omens do I arise in perfection.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 5.\n\n  If one seeks advice, demands a suitable decision, so toward Marduk is\n              his attention.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  Kindly is thy thoughtfulness, thou impartest careful counsel.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 2.\n\nOne must remark here the complete absence from the biblical hymns of any\nreference to Yahwe as the giver of oracles. When one remembers how\nfrequently, in the historical narratives, resort is had to the deity for\ndisclosure of the future, its absence from the hymns seems significant.\nThe hymns are curiously silent about Yahwe as the counsellor of men,\nalthough testimony is given in the non-hymnal psalms to the attainment\nof spiritual insight in the temple.\n\nFor the author of Psalm 19:8-15, wisdom and knowledge are stored up in\nthe law. There may have been a certain reaction against seeking guidance\nof the deity because of Assyrian magical practises, but the fact is that\nthe hymns are less concerned with God\u2019s plans for the individual than\nthey are with his eternal plan for his people.\n\n\n                      The Supreme God as Powerful\n\nThe wise God is also the powerful God. The Assyrian deities, as well as\nYahwe, are pre\u00ebminently war gods. This fact is established by the\nastonishingly large number of references to their war activities. I will\nfirst cite examples to establish the fact that they are warriors:\n\n  O Shamash, warrior hero, be praised.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 4.\n\n  Destroyer of the enemy who in the midst of combat, amid the clash of\n              weapons and confusion of battle, art fearless.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  Mighty in battle whose attack is powerful.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 3.\n\n  Beside my father in battle I take my place;\n  Beside Bel in combat and battle I stand.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 4.\n\n  Lord great warrior,    endued with strength,\n  Inhabiting Imila    casting down the foe.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Bel No. 2.\n\n  Am I not supreme    I am the warrior.\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Belit.\n\n  The warrior who at the decision of Ea into the terrible battle goes am\n              I.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 3.\n\n  Warrior raging flood, destroyer of the hostile land.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 4.\n\nThere are very many references to Yahwe as warrior. His warlike titles\nare given in Psalm 24:\n\n  Yahwe,    strong and mighty,\n  Yahwe,    mighty in battle.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 24:8.\n\n  Yahwe of hosts,\n  He is the king of glory.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 24:10.\n\nThe Assyrian deity may be the commander of an army:\n\n  Terrible one to plunder the enemy\u2019s land he assembles his army,\n  Ninib mighty god, warrior, prince of the Annunaki, commander of the\n              Igigi\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 21.\n\nYahwe also has his army:\n\n  The chariots of God are myriads\n  Against his enemies.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 68:18.\n\nYahwe\u2019s momentous title is:\n\n  Yahwe of hosts.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 24:10.\n\nDue homage is paid to the strength and prowess of the deity:\n\n  Before his might, the gods in his city humbly prostrate themselves.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 5.\n\n  Bel, filled with power,\n  With terrible brilliancy adorned, destructive storm, furnished with\n              frightfulness.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Bel No. 1.\n\n  First-born of Ea, who in heaven and upon earth art overpowering\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 7.\n\n  I will praise his power, reverence his strength.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 4.\n\n  Of tremendous power, whose blow is visible, crouches an evil demon at\n              his side.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 5.\n\n  Powerful one\n  Most mighty one.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 6.\n\nLikewise Yahwe is, to repeat again the words of Psalm 24:\n\n  Yahwe    strong and mighty\n  Yahwe    might in battle.\n\n  Ascribe ye strength unto God;\n  His excellency is over Israel,\n  And his strength is in the skies.\n  Terrible art thou, O God from the sanctuary.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 68:35.\n\nYahwe\u2019s strength is in his arm:\n\n  Hath wrought salvation for him his right hand\n  And his holy arm.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 98:1.\n\n  To thee is an arm with strength;\n  Strong is thy hand, and high thy right hand.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 89:14.\n\nThe attack of the war god is as the onrush of a terrible electric storm:\n\n  In the face of the battle when I take my place,\n  A storm whose power is exalted am I.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 4.\n\n  Ninib, thy terrible shadow stretches over the land.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 4.\n\n  In the storm wind his weapons blaze forth.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 5.\n\n  A thundering storm over the world regions breaking,\n  A raging storm laying waste heaven and earth.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 3.\n\nHeaven and earth are shaken. The mountains are ablaze with flame. The\nocean depths are stirred up:\n\n  The heavens I cause to quake, the earth to shake that is my glory.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 5.\n\n  At whose battle heaven quakes.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 5.\n\n  Before the Lord tremble, O earth,\n  Before the God of Jacob.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 114:7.\n\n  The earth shook, also the heavens dropped rain before God.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 68:9.\n\n  With his flame steep mountains are destroyed.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 5.\n\n  The mountains I overwhelm altogether.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 5.\n\n  The weapon which destroys the high mountains chosen for royal lordship\n              am I.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 3.\n\n  The mountains skipped like rams,\n  The hills like lambs.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 114:3.\n\n  Who looketh on the earth and it trembleth;\n  He toucheth the mountains and they smoke.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 104:32.\n\n  His lightnings lightened the earth;\n  The earth saw, and trembled;\n  The mountains melted like wax before Yahwe,\n  Before the Lord of all the earth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 97:4f.\n\nThe sea also is affected by the attack of the war god:\n\n  At whose wrath the deep is troubled.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 5.\n\n  He overwhelmeth the expanse of the billowy ocean.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 5.\n\nOne can compare with this:\n\n  The sea saw and fled;\n  The Jordan turned backward.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 114:3.\n\nThe attack of the war god is of course irresistible and his enemies\nsuffer defeat. The great Marduk not even the gods can oppose:\n\n  At the point of whose weapon the gods turn back,\n  Whose furious attack no one ventures to oppose,\n  Storm flood, weapon against which no resistance is possible.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 14.\n\n  Who establishest defeat, who bringeth about victory,\n  King of the battle, wise one, powerful one, merciless,\n  Who destroyest all enemies.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 2.\n\n  Hero, whose snare casts down the foe.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 4.\n\n  Lance unresisting which destroys all enemies.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 2.\n\nSimilarly Yahwe is irresistible:\n\n  Terrible art thou, and who shall stand before thee,\n  Before the strength of thy anger?\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 76:8.\n\n  Let God arise, let his enemies be scattered,\n  And let those who hate him flee before him.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 68:2.\n\n  For Yahwe most high is terrible,\n  A great king over all the earth.\n  He will trample nations beneath us,\n  And peoples beneath our feet.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 47:3f.\n\n  I would soon subdue their enemies\n  And turn my hand against their adversaries.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 81:15.\n\nIn the hymns a good deal of attention is paid to the weapon of the god.\nIt may be a \u201cbow\u201d:\n\n  Before his terrible bow the heavens stand fast.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 4.\n\nAnd this may mean that on the production of his terrible weapon, the\nenemy surrenders and the storm ceases, just as when Yahwe hangs up his\nbow after the conflict of the thunderstorm, one knows that the rain is\nover, and that there will be no flood. Or the weapon may be a lance:\n\n  Lance unresting which destroys all enemies\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 2.\n\nor more terrible still a dragon:\n\n  Thy weapon is a dragon, from whose mouth no poison flows;\n  The weapon is a dragon, from whose mouth no blood springs.\n                                                    \u2014Hymn to Nebo No. 2.\n\nYahwe certainly wields an effective weapon:\n\n  But God will smite through the head of his enemies\n  The hairy head of such a one as goeth on in his wickedness.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 68:22.\n\n  Thou hast broken Rahab in pieces as one that is slain;\n  Thou hast scattered thy enemies with the arm of thy strength.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 89:11.\n\nBoth Assyrian and Hebrew war god use fire as a weapon:\n\n  Nusku who burns up and overpowers the foe.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 3.\n\n  A fire goeth before him and burneth his enemies round about.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 97:3.\n\nThe Assyrian hymns emphasize the impossibility of escape from the sight\nand power of the god:\n\n  Thy glance    who avoids it,\n  Thy attack    who escapes it?\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 4.\n\n  Thou gazest upon all inhabited places;\n  The evil doer thou destroyest quickly.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\n  Bel who through his glance casts down the mighty\n  Bel, with thine eyes thou seest everything;\n  Over the wide heavens goes out thy mind.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 12.\n\n  When thou liftest up thine eyes, who can escape?\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 6.\n\n  Who is there before me, who is there behind me,\n  From the lifting up of mine eyes who can escape,\n  From the rush of my onslaught who can flee?\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Belit.\n\nThere is an incomparably finer conception of god\u2019s omnipresence and\nomniscience in Psalm 139:7-12:\n\n  Whither shall I go from thy Spirit?\n  Or whither shall I flee from thy presence?\n  If I ascend up unto heaven thou art there;\n  If I make my bed in Sheol behold thou art there;\n  If I take the wings of the morning,\n  And dwell in the uttermost parts of the sea,\n  Even there shall thy hand lead me,\n  And thy right hand hold me.\n  If I say: Surely the darkness shall overwhelm me,\n  And the light about me shall be night,\n  Even the darkness hideth not from thee,\n  But the night shineth as the day.\n  The darkness and the light are both alike to thee.\n\n\n                      The Supreme God as Merciful\n\nThe wise and powerful God is also the merciful one, for mercy is an\nattribute of the Assyrian deities as of Yahwe:\n\n  Lord of all creatures, merciful unto the lands art thou,\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 1.\n\n  Merciful one among the gods.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 7.\n\n  [Marduk] the merciful, whose turning [i.e. mercy] is near.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 4.\n\n  Merciful and gracious is Yahwe;\n  Slow to anger and plenteous in mercy.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 103:8.\n\n  Gracious and merciful is Yahwe,\n  Slow to anger and great in mercy,\n  Good is Yahwe to all,\n  And his mercy is over all his works.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 145:8f.\n\n  But thou, Lord art a god, merciful and gracious,\n  Slow to anger and plenteous in mercy and truth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 86:15.\n\nThe divine mercy is extended to the unfortunate, the oppressed the weak\nand the aged, the bowed down and the fallen, the obedient and those who\nfear the deity:\n\n  He has established the god-fearers, to the oppressed he has brought\n              deliverance;\n  He has granted favors to the obedient, brought salvation to the just.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 2.\n\n  The fallen one thou seizest and raisest up,\n  A judgment of right and justice thou judgest.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 4.\n\n  Yahwe executeth righteous acts,\n  And judgments for all oppressed.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 103:6.\n\n  Who keepeth truth for ever,\n  Who executeth judgment for the oppressed.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 146:6.\n\n  Thou liftest up the weak, thou increasest the small;\n  Thou raisest up the powerless, thou protectest the weak.\n  Marduk, unto the fallen thou grantest mercy;\n  Stands under thy protection the weakling ... thou commandest his\n              raising up.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 12.\n\n  Merciful god, who raisest up the lowly,\n  Who protectest the weak.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 5.\n\n  Him who is bowed down    I lift up;\n  The aged one    I lift up.\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Belit.\n\n  Yahwe upholdeth all who fall;\n  He raiseth up all who are bowed down.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 145:14.\n\nAssyrian usage supports the view that the poor and the needy of the\npsalms, and the barren woman of Psalm 113 are not to be interpreted as\nthe Jewish nation, but as individuals. Yahwe, says the Psalmist, is the\nincomparable God, in that from his glorious seat in the heavens he\nbendeth low to help the needy upon the earth,\n\n  He raiseth from the dust the poor;\n  From the dunghill he lifteth up the needy,\n  To cause him to sit with princes,\n  Even with the princes of his people;\n  He maketh the barren woman to remain at home,\n  As a mother of children, joyous.\n                                                         \u2014Psalm 113:7ff.\n\nThe Hebrew hymn is, if anything more concrete than the Assyrian, in that\nit mentions not only the barren wife as above (one thinks of Sarah,\nRachel, Hannah), but also the widow and the orphan and the sojourner, as\nspecial objects of the deity\u2019s compassion.\n\n  Yahwe loveth the righteous:\n  Yahwe protecteth the sojourners;\n  The fatherless and the widow he upholdeth;\n  But the way of the wicked he perverteth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 146:9.\n\n  A father of the fatherless, and a judge of the widow,\n  Is God in his holy habitation.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 68:6.\n\nYahwe\u2019s mercy, as was that of the Assyrian deity, is extended in a\nspecial degree to those who keep his covenant and obey his commandments:\n\n  But the mercy of Yahwe is everlasting,\n  And his righteousness to children\u2019s children,\n  To those who faithfully keep his covenant,\n  And remember his precepts to do them.\n                                                       \u2014Psalm 103:17-18.\n\nMarvellously tender is the quality of that mercy extended to the exiles\nreturning to Jerusalem:\n\n  Yahwe buildeth up Jerusalem:\n  The dispersed of Israel he gathers together:\n  He healeth the broken in heart,\n  And bindeth up their wounds.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 147:2f.\n\nThere are many phrases in the Assyrian hymns to express the compassion\nof the deity for the sick and his power to heal. Two forms of expression\nare particularly interesting. The sick man is spoken of as one who is\nbound, his cure as the loosing of a captive; and a person extremely sick\nis spoken of as already dead, so that his cure is equivalent to the\nbringing of the dead back to life:\n\n  [Marduk Son of] the abyss, whose holy formula bestows life;\n  [Marduk], great magician of the gods who maketh alive the dead;\n  Terrible storm, which driveth away the great demons;\n  Lord of magic, before whom devils and demons of sickness hide\n              themselves;\n  [Lord], who drives out sickness, destroys the mountains;\n  Prince of the world regions, guardian of life;\n  Who maketh alive the dead, sole ruler of heaven and earth.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 17.\n\n  Merciful one among the gods\n  Merciful one who loves the awakening of the dead.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 7.\n\n  Shamash, to give life to the dead, to loosen the captive is in thy\n              hand.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 6.\n\n  Thou leadest him that is without a leader, the man that is in need:\n  Thou graspeth the hand of the weak;\n  Thou raisest up him that is bowed down;\n  The body of the man that has been brought to the lower world thou dost\n              restore.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 1.\n\n  Shining lord, who doeth good to the land, who through his word\n  The evil sickness seized, to its place banished it;\n  Merciful one, giver of life, restorer of the dead to life,\n  Who supporteth truth and justice, who destroyeth the evil.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 2.\n\nAlthough the Hebrews in sickness prayed unto Yahwe and were cured Psalms\n86:13, 16; 31; 38, yet there are few ascriptions of praise to Yahwe as\nthe healer of disease. This may be because the cure of sickness was apt\nto be so largely a matter of magic:\n\n  Yahwe looseth the bound:\n  Yahwe openeth the eyes of the blind;\n  Yahwe raiseth up them that are bowed down.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 146:7f.\n\n  Who forgiveth all thine iniquities:\n  Who healeth all thy diseases;\n  Who satisfieth thy desire with good things,\n  So that thy youth is renewed like the eagle.\n                                                        \u2014Psalm 103:3, 5.\n\nIn both the Assyrian and Hebrew hymns there are a few references to the\ndeity as preserving life:\n\n  Preserver of life, prince of Emachtila, renewer of life.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 13.\n\n  Darling of Ea, giver of life;\n  Prince of Babylon, protector of life.\n                                                    \u2014Hymn to Nebo No. 1.\n\n  Who holdeth our soul in life,\n  And suffereth not our feet to be moved.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 66:9.\n\nThe next two passages refer to Yahwe\u2019s protection in time of famine and\nwar:\n\n  Behold, the eye of Yahwe is unto those who fear him,\n  To those who wait for his loving kindness,\n  To deliver from death their soul,\n  And to keep them alive in famine.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 33:18f.\n\n  God is to us a god of deliverance,\n  And to Yahwe our lord belongeth escape from death.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 68:21.\n\nThere are in the Assyrian hymns a number of examples of the god\u2019s mercy\nin forgiving sin:\n\n  He who has sin, thou forgivest quickly the sin;\n  He against whom his god [guardian] is angry, thou turnest to him with\n              favor.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 4.\n\n  He who has sinned thou sparest.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 16.\n\n  For him who possesses sin the sin thou dost remove;\n  The man with whom his [guardian] god is angry thou art quick to favor.\n\nJust as there were few references in the biblical hymns to Yahwe as\nhealing sickness, so there are astonishingly few references to him as\nforgiving sin. In fact there are but two, and they are both found in an\nindividual hymn:\n\n  Who forgiveth all thy iniquities,\n  Who healeth all thy diseases.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 103:3.\n\n  As far as the East is from the West,\n  So far hath he removed our transgressions from us.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 103:12.\n\nThe mercy of the God is sometimes attested by the titles which he bears.\nBoth in the Assyrian and the biblical hymns, the deity is called\nShepherd. In the Assyrian hymns, the god is shepherd not only of the\nAssyrians, but of all peoples and of all living things:\n\n  Father Enlil, shepherd of the dark headed people.\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Enlil.\n\n  Shepherdess of all lands of the world,\n  Which are submissive to thee, which remember to worship thee.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 3.\n\n  The people of the countries all of them thou protectest;\n  What Ea the king, the prince has created of all thou art protector,\n  Thou shepherdest all created life together.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 7.\n\n  Given thee has Bel thy father the blackheaded race, all living\n              creatures;\n  The cattle of the field, the living creatures he has entrusted to thy\n              hand.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nergal No. 1.\n\n  Humanity, the black headed peoples,\n  The living souls as many as are in the land,\n  The four world regions entire,\n  The divine beings of all heaven and earth, as many as there are,\n  To thee is their attention turned:\n  Thou art their god, thou art their guardian god;\n  It is thou who grantest them life;\n  It is thou who preserveth them unhurt.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nThe Hebrew God is Shepherd of Israel, his own peculiar people.\n\n  For He is our God, and we are\n  The people of his pasture and the sheep of his hand.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 95:7.\n\n  Know that Yahwe, He is God:\n  He made us, and we are His,\n  His people, and the sheep of his pasture.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 100:3.\n\nThe Assyrian deity is frequently addressed in the hymns as father.\nProbably it originally meant father of the gods in a physical sense. In\nsome instances it may have meant no more than the supreme god:\n\n  Father Nannar, lord Anshar, chief of the gods.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  Father Enlil\u2014lord of lands.\n                                                         \u2014Hymn to Enlil.\n\nThe title of Father is also assigned to the deity as creator of men and\nall living things:\n\n  Father, begetter of gods and men,\n  Who dost build dwellings and establishest offerings.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  Father, begetter of all things,\n  Who lookest upon all living things.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nWith the same significance the deity is addressed in the following\ncouplet:\n\n  Mother womb begetter of all things\n  Who has taken up his exalted habitation among living creatures.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\nReligious meaning is put into the term in the following two examples:\n\n  O merciful gracious father,\n  Who hath taken into his care the life of the whole world.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  Thou art lord, as Father and mother [among men] art thou.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 9.\n\nYahwe is elsewhere in the Old Testament the father of the Hebrew nation\n(Hosea), and the father of the Messiah (Psalm 2), but in the hymns he is\nnot actually called father, though his compassion is likened to that of\na father for his children.\n\n  Like as a father pitieth his children,\n  So Yahwe pitieth those who fear him.\n  For He, indeed, knoweth our frame;\n  He remembereth that we are dust.\n                                                         \u2014Psalm 103:13f.\n\n\n\n\n                              Chapter XIV\n                   THE SUPREME GOD AS KING AND JUDGE\n\n\nThe final significance and supreme importance of deity for Assyrian and\nHebrew hymnists is perhaps best summed up in the words: \u201cKing\u201d and\n\u201cJudge.\u201d To be sure the person in sickness of any kind could and did\nhave recourse to the god who had wisdom and power to work deliverance.\nBut, even as the life of the Assyrian and Hebrew peoples revolved around\nthe earthly king upon his throne, so they sought for authority and\nleadership, protection and prosperity, in a heavenly king, whose right\nit was to reign in heaven and on earth. It is not strange then that many\nAssyrian hymns do homage to the deity as, \u201cKing of heaven and earth\u201d:\n\n  Shamash king of heaven and earth governor of things above and below.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 6.\n\n  Lord of the lands, king of heaven and earth, who heaps up abundance.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 3.\n\n  Marduk king of heaven and earth.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 6.\n\n  Marduk regent of heaven and earth.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\n  He whose sovereignty glitters to the borders of heaven and earth am I.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 3.\n\nHere may be placed the corresponding title of the goddess:\n\n  Queen of heaven above and below let it be spoken.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 5.\n\nThere are three references to the throne:\n\n  Thou placest on the glittering heavens thy throne.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 2.\n\n  When he sits upon the great throne of the holy chamber,\n  On the festal day when he takes his seat in joy, raising himself in\n              brilliancy.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 4.\n\n  Amid shouts of joy as king ascendest thou.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 3.\n\nTwice the sceptre is referred to:\n\n  A sceptre for remote days has Bel finished for thy hand.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 3.\n\n  Marduk holds in his hand the sceptre.\n                                                        \u2014Hymn to Marduk.\n\nWhile the god\u2019s throne is in heaven, it is his sovereignty over the\nearth which the hymnist has especially in mind:\n\n  In powerful sovereignty thou rulest the lands,\n  Thou placest on the glittering heavens thy throne.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 2.\n\n  Bel, gracious king, lord of the lands.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 12.\n\n  Ninib, king, whose father made submissive to him distant lands.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 7.\n\nThe \u201cking of heaven and earth\u201d is at the same time:\n\n  King of Babylon,    lord of Esagila,\n  King of Ezida,    lord of Emachtila.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 6.\n\nKingship may be entrusted to the particular deity by the supreme god:\n\n  A sceptre for remote days has Bel furnished for thy hand.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 3.\n\nOn the other hand, a certain measure of independence of the supreme god\nseems to be assigned in the same two hymns to the two deities:\n\n  Ninib King son of Bel, who of himself is exalted.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 7.\n\n  Thou placest on the glittering heavens thy throne.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 2.\n\nThere are two statements related to the quality of the kingly rule:\n\n  Father Nannar,    whose kingship is perfect.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n  King of kings, exalted, whose decrees none rival.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 5.\n\n\u201cKing of kings\u201d occurs only here in the Assyrian hymns. It is a title\nthat would come naturally into use, where city kings were compelled to\npay homage to royal founders of empires.\n\n\nTurning to the biblical hymns, it is noteworthy that, while Yahwe is\nspoken of several times as the \u201cMaker of heaven and earth,\u201d he is no\nwhere called \u201cKing of heaven and earth.\u201d This would be such an\nappropriate title for Yahwe that its absence tends to indicate that\nthere was little verbal borrowing of Hebrew hymnists from the Assyrian.\nReference is made however in the biblical hymns to Yahwe\u2019s throne:\n\n  Yahwe hath established his throne in the heavens,\n  And his kingdom ruleth over all.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 103:19.\n\nwhich is quite similar to the following passage from Hymn to Sin No. 2:\n\n  In powerful sovereignty thou rulest the lands,\n  Thou placest on the glittering heavens thy throne.\n\nIn both cases the throne (1) is in the heavens, (2) is established by\ndeity himself, (3) is the seat from which wide sovereignty is exerted\nover the earth.\n\n  God reigneth over the nations,\n  He sitteth upon his holy throne.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 47:9.\n\nOne is tempted to translate this: \u201cHe sitteth upon the throne of his\nsanctuary,\u201d which is parallel to the following passage from Hymn to\nNinib No. 7:\n\n  When he sits upon the great throne of the holy chamber.\n\nThis translation is supported by Psalm 150:1: \u201cPraise God in his\nsanctuary.\u201d There are two references to the throne in the biblical\nhymns:\n\n  Established is thy throne of old.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 93:2.\n\n  Righteousness and justice are the establishment of his throne.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 97:2.\n\nIn both Assyrian and Hebrew hymns, the ascension to the throne is\nreferred to as a joyous occasion:\n\n  Amid shouts of joy as king ascendest thou;\n  A sceptre for remote days has Bel furnished for thy hand.\n                                                     \u2014Hymn to Sin No. 7.\n\n  God is gone up with a shout,\n  Yahwe with the sound of a trumpet.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 47:6.\n\nThere is no reference to the sceptre as in Yahwe\u2019s hand, in the biblical\nhymns, although the sceptre is in the hands of the Messiah. (Psalm 2) As\nin the Assyrian hymns, emphasis is placed upon Yahwe\u2019s sovereignty over\nthe earth:\n\n  For Yahwe most high is terrible\n  A great king over all the earth.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 47:3.\n\n  For God is the king of all the earth.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 47:8.\n\n  God reigneth over the nations.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 47:9.\n\n  Say among the nations, Yahwe is king.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 96:10.\n\n  Yahwe is king; let the earth rejoice.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 97:1.\n\n  Yahwe reigneth, let the people tremble;\n  He sitteth above the cherubims, let the earth be moved.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 99:1.\n\nThere can be no question of Yahwe\u2019s subordination to any other God or\naccepting sovereignty from any other deity:\n\n  For a great God is Yahwe and a great king over all gods.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 95:3.\n\nSin has been given by Bel: \u201ca sceptre for remote days,\u201d but:\n\n  Yahwe will be king forever,\n  Thy God, O Zion, unto all generations.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 146:10.\n\n  Thy kingdom is an everlasting kingdom,\n  And thy dominion endureth throughout all generations.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 145:13.\n\nNot only will Yahwe reign forever, but Yahwe has been reigning from the\nbeginning:\n\n  Established is thy throne of old.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 93:2.\n\n  Yahwe sat at the flood,\n  Yea Yahwe sitteth as king forever.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 29:10.\n\nIt is perhaps important for Old Testament scholarship to bear in mind\nthat the conception of the deity as king is so very old, and that it is\npresent in the biblical hymns which can not be classed as\neschatological. It is in Psalm 103 that one finds the words:\n\n  Yahwe in the heavens hath established his throne,\n  And his kingdom ruleth over all\n\nand in Psalm 95 which can not be called eschatological, we have:\n\n  For a great God is Yahwe,\n  And a great king over all gods\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 95:3.\n\nwhile in Psalm 48:3, Jerusalem is the: \u201cCity of the great king.\u201d While\ntherefore \u201cYahwe is King\u201d is actually the opening line of several\neschatological hymns, and while those hymns exult in the complete\ntriumph of Yahwe yet it is only the completeness of the triumph that\ndistinguishes in the matter of kingship the eschatological hymns from\nthe others.\n\n\n                        The Supreme God as Judge\n\nKingship also implied Judgeship, the latter word having particular\napplication to the rendering of judicial decisions or the achievement of\njustice for the oppressed. The actual word judge occurs occasionally in\nthe Assyrian hymns as a title of the deity:\n\n  Shamash, lofty Judge of heaven and earth art thou.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 1.\n\n  Judge of heaven and earth; shining one of the world regions.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 2.\n\nJudgeship in the Assyrian hymns implies authority. The deity as judge\ndetermines the course of events in the world:\n\n  Shamash, judge of the world, director of decisions art thou.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 4.\n\n  Shamash the lofty decider, the judge of heaven and earth art thou.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 3.\n\n  Judge of all, who closest the door before the darkness,\n  Who makes the decisions for men in their settlements.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 2.\n\n  Bel thy father has granted thee,\n  That the law of all the gods thy hand should hold,\n  Thou renderest the judgment of mankind.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Ninib No. 1.\n\nThe judgeship of the Assyrian god has also ethical content:\n\n  Eternally just in heaven art thou.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 1.\n\n  Judge incorruptible, governor of mankind.\n                                                 \u2014Hymn to Shamash No. 6.\n\nConsequently the god intervenes in earthly affairs to overthrow\nwickedness and establish righteousness:\n\n  Just judge, who surveys the hearts of man who like the ...\n  Makes right and justice to shine, who against the evil ...\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 12.\n\n  Nusku, mighty warrior god, who burns up the evil doer,\n  Who introduces law and insight, administrator.\n                                                   \u2014Hymn to Nusku No. 2.\n\n  The wicked and the violent man thou correctest, proclaimest their\n              condemnation.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Ishtar No. 3.\n\nYahwe also exercised judgeship. The idea of kingship surely involves\nthat of judgeship with it. And as king it is said of Yahwe:\n\n  Righteousness and justice are the foundation of his throne.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 97:2.\n\n  A strong one has become king,\n  He loveth justice.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 99:4.\n\nYahwe overthrows wickedness and establishes righteousness:\n\n  Thou dost establish equity,\n  Thou executest justice and righteousness in Jacob.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 99:4.\n\nPsalm 11 says of Yahwe as king:\n\n  Yahwe trieth the righteous,\n  But the wicked and him that loveth violence his soul hateth.\n  Upon the wicked he will rain snares;\n  Fire and brimstone and burning wind\n  Shall be the portion of their cup.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 11:5-6.\n\n  For God is the judge\n  This one he putteth down, and this one he raiseth up.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 75:8.\n\n  And men shall say, Truly there is a reward for the righteous;\n  Verily there is a God, who judgeth in the earth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 58:12.\n\nYahwe\u2019s act of judgment, therefore, is equivalent to the deliverance of\nhis own people:\n\n  Yahwe will judge his people,\n  And upon his servants he will have mercy.\n                                                          \u2014Psalm 135:14.\n\nYahwe is thus continually judge of his people, but the supreme\nmanifestation of his justice will be seen in the eschatological\njudgment:\n\n  He shall judge the world with righteousness,\n  And the peoples with his truth.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 96:13.\n\n  He shall judge the world with righteousness,\n  And the peoples with equity.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 98:9.\n\n  Arise O God, judge the earth,\n  For thou shalt inherit all the nations.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 82:8.\n\nThe rendering of justice by the Assyrian deity is contemplated by his\nworshippers with joy:\n\n  Let Babylon rejoice in thee, let Esagila exult in thee,\n  Thou judgest with justice, and formest decisions.\n                                                  \u2014Hymn to Marduk No. 1.\n\nAs Yahwe\u2019s final act of judgment is so comprehensive and momentous, the\njoy of Yahwe\u2019s people is immeasurably greater than the enthusiasm of\nmilitary victory. It is interesting to recall that one of the earliest,\nif not the earliest of all the Hebrew hymns, that sung by Miriam and the\nHebrew women, celebrated a victory:\n\n  Sing ye to Yahwe, for he hath triumphed gloriously,\n  The horse and his rider hath he thrown into the sea.\n                                                          \u2014Exodus 15:21.\n\nIt is the same strong national spirit that flames forth in confidence of\nthe great final victory in Psalm 68:2, 4:\n\n  Let God arise, let his enemies be scattered;\n  Let them that hate him flee before him,\n  But let the righteous be glad;\n  Let them exult before God,\n  And let them rejoice with gladness.\n\nWhile Yahwe\u2019s victory has primary significance for Israel:\n\n  Let Israel rejoice in its maker,\n  Let the sons of Zion be joyful in their king.\n                                                           \u2014Psalm 149:2.\n\nYet the whole earth will rejoice when Yahwe cometh to judge the earth:\n\n  Let the heavens be glad, and let the earth rejoice;\n  Let the sea roar and its fulness;\n  Let the field exult, and all that is therein;\n  Then all the trees of the field shall sing for joy;\n  Before Yahwe, for he cometh;\n  For he cometh to judge the earth;\n  He will judge the world with righteousness,\n  And the peoples with his truth.\n                                                        \u2014Psalm 96:11-13.\n\n  Yahwe is king; let the earth rejoice;\n  Let the multitude of isles be glad.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 97:1.\n\n  Shout to Yahwe all the earth;\n  Break forth and sing for joy, yea sing praises.\n                                                            \u2014Psalm 98:4.\n\nIt is important to bear in mind that the conception of God as judge,\neven as the conception of God as king, is very old, and that Yahwe\nappears as king and judge in hymns that are not eschatological. It is\nonly when religious faith extends Yahwe\u2019s kingship and judgeship to the\nwhole world, and conceives of Yahwe as triumphantly transforming the\nworld in accordance with justice and truth, that the conception of Yahwe\nas Judge becomes eschatological.\n\n\n\n\n                               Chapter XV\n                               CONCLUSION\n\n\nIt is now universally recognized by scholars that the Hebrew nation came\nlate upon the stage of history, and that when the Hebrew Bedouin passed\nover out of the desert into the land of Canaan, they entered a land that\nhad already experienced millenniums of civilization. In successive\ndecades and centuries the Hebrew conquerors took over not only the land\nwith its walled cities and its cultivated fields, but they took over\nalso the land\u2019s sanctuaries, and in large measure its religious and\nmoral ideas.\n\nOne civilization among others that exerted very great influence for many\ncenturies over Canaan came from the Tigris Euphrates valley. It brought\nto Canaan its language, its literary forms, its myths and legends, its\nlegal statutes; it brought also in some degree the knowledge of its\ngods, and the hymns and prayers with which those gods were worshipped.\nThe Hebrews were inevitably directly and indirectly influenced by\nAssyrian culture and religion.\n\nIt is of some importance to recognize, although the fact is by no means\nsurprising, that the situations in life out of which the hymnal\nliteratures grew were quite similar in Assyria and in Israel. Both\npeoples had a certain number of hymns, which can best be characterized\nas Nature hymns; but both peoples had also hymns which belong very\nclearly to the sanctuary. Some of these are processional hymns: the\nprocession bringing the god to his sanctuary as in Psalm 24 and Hymn to\nMarduk No. 13; or the procession entering the sanctuary to bring gifts\nto the god as in Psalm 95 and the Hymn to Enlil; or the procession\npassing out from the sanctuary in solemn procession through the sacred\ncity as in Psalm 48 and a number of the Assyrian hymns. The great\nmajority of hymns, however in both literatures, just as one would\nexpect, offer praise to the deity in the sanctuary.\n\nNot only is the background of the hymns relatively similar in both\ncivilizations, but the principal features of Hebrew poetry, the rhythm,\nthe uniform length of lines, parallelism, arrangement in strophes, the\nrhetorical question, the refrain, the antiphonal responses, the\nintroduction into the hymn of the divine oracle, all belong to the\nliterature of the older civilization. Israel did not invent, but rather\nfound already in existence, its literary forms.\n\nMoreover Israel undoubtedly found in the older civilization much of its\nhymnal phraseology and many of its basic religious ideas. The conception\nof God as creator of heaven and earth did not first emerge with\nIsraelitic monotheism, but is expressed in more than one Assyrian hymn.\nThe thought of God as king, and as exerting authority above and below,\ndid not wait for the establishment of the Israelitic monarchy under\nSaul, David, and Solomon, but was familiar to the Assyrian hymnist.\nCertainly the thought of the God of heaven, as making his earthy\ndwelling in a sacred sanctuary on holy ground, is many centuries older\nthan Solomon\u2019s temple. Finally the conception of God as wise, powerful,\nrighteous, and merciful found frequent expression in the Assyrian hymns\nlong before the Hebrews attributed those attributes to Yahwe.\n\nHowever, this certainly does not mean that the Hebrews were merely\npassive recipients of Assyrian Culture. They did obviously take over\ncertain literary forms and devices, but they created a new and distinct\ntype of hymn, which begins and ends with the exhortation to praise\nYahwe. What is even more important Hebrew genius has employed such\nsimplicity, variety, beauty, and power of expression as to create such\nmasterpieces of literature as Psalms 8; 24; 29; 47; 67; 100; 96 and 150.\n\nAgain, Israel did undoubtedly take over, as has been indicated, certain\nbasic conceptions of God, but Hebrew religious genius purified and\nexalted those conceptions. The Assyrian could conceive of one god as\nsupreme among the gods; the Hebrew came to think of Yahwe as the only\nGod, the altogether Spiritual Being, freed from the contamination of\npolytheism. The Assyrian exalted his god to the high heavens; the Hebrew\nemancipated Yahwe from any possibility of identification with sun, moon,\nor star, or any natural force. The Assyrian attributed to his god great\npower to bless or curse; the Hebrew attributed power to Yahwe, but\ndissociated him from all magical practise. The Assyrian does indeed\nascribe to his god righteousness and mercy, but the Hebrew makes\nrighteousness and mercy the essential attributes of Yahwe. In a word the\nhymnists of Israel at their highest and best reflect the influence of\nthe prophets, to which there was nothing comparable in Assyria.\n\nOne very important fact to be recognized is the emergence or development\nof the genuine hymn in Israel. It has been suggested that the great\nmajority of so called Assyrian hymns are really only hymnal\nintroductions to prayers or ceremonies; and furthermore that there may\nwell be a line of development from the hymnal introduction to the\nindependent hymn. There are two examples of hymnal introductions in the\nOld Testament Psalter, Psalms 89 and 144; and there is some\njustification for selecting Psalms 104 and 8 as hymns which represent\nthe completion of the process of development. Praise has thus attained\nto a much greater place in the Hebrew religion than in the religion of\nAssyria. Praise is no longer subordinate to any other goal; it has\nbecome an end in itself, profitable to man, and pleasing to God.\n\nThe Hebrew religion carries the hymn to its highest pitch of development\nin the eschatological hymn, which is sung in anticipation of Yahwe\u2019s\ncomplete and final triumph upon earth. The eschatological hymn owes its\norigin to the strong national spirit of the Hebrews, the strength of\ntheir conviction that a moral order exists in the world, and their faith\nin Yahwe as the wise and good, and powerful God who will bring justice\nand righteousness to triumph in the earth. There was in Assyria also, as\nwe have seen, the thought of god as exalted king, but the Assyrians\nnever attained to the conception of a god establishing complete and\nfinal ethical sovereignty over the earth.\n\nThe study of the Assyrian psalms has value for the Old Testament student\nin widening his field of knowledge, and thus saving him from the danger\nof setting up false standards. It is enlightening for him to observe in\nthe Assyrian hymns the very frequent fact of irregularity, in the length\nof lines, in the number of lines in the strophe, in the type of\nparallelism employed. This suggests that often it may be variety and not\nuniformity that the poet is seeking, and that extreme caution ought to\nbe observed in altering the Hebrew text, to make it conform to a Western\nconception of order and regularity.\n\nOne is impressed also by the prominence of the individual in the\nAssyrian hymn, and in the Assyrian cult, and is thus warned against the\nhighly artificial assumption that the individual of the Hebrew psalms is\na personification of the Hebrew nation. The individual may well have\nplayed a much larger part in the early religion of Israel than has been\ncommonly supposed.\n\nThe study of the Assyrian hymns will have value at various other points.\nThe consideration of the place of the refrains, the antiphonal\nrenderings, the divine oracles will help us to understand the use of the\nhymn in the Hebrew cult. Acquaintance with the Assyrian hymnal\nphraseology will undoubtedly be of assistance in the interpretation and\nclearer understanding of many phrases in the Hebrew hymns. The Assyrian\nhymns make however their indispensable contribution in that practically\nall the religious ideas of the Hebrew hymns exist in cruder form in the\nAssyrian hymns. They help us to reconstruct the polytheistic background\nof the Hebrew religion. They leave us with a clearer perception that\nYahwe was primarily a god of heaven, and with a fuller knowledge of just\nwhat that means. They help us to understand the prominence given to the\nattributes of Yahwe as a mighty god of war. They prove the antiquity of\nthe conception of God as king and judge, shepherd and father. They\nreflect crude and crass ideas of the divine wisdom, power, and mercy.\nAgainst the background of the Assyrian hymns one gains a juster\nappreciation of the developed Hebrew doctrine of God, the omnipresent,\nthe omniscient, the omnipotent, whose eternal plan is to be fulfilled,\nwho will cause truth and righteousness to prevail in the earth, who is\nto be universally and eternally adored.\n\n\n\n\n                              BIBLIOGRAPHY\n\n\n\n\n                TEXTS AND TRANSLATIONS OF ASSYRIAN HYMNS\n\n\n                            Hymns to Shamash\n\n1. Rawlinson, _Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia_, IV: 2, 28 No. 1;\ntranslated by Jastrow, _Die Religion Babyloniens und Assyriens_, I, 426;\nand by Fossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_, No. 30. It is a hymn of fourteen\nlines, introducing a petition to Shamash for the healing of the king.\nThe first two lines of the obverse and reverse sides of the tablet are\nmissing.\n\n2. R. IV: 2, 20 No. 2, translated by Jastrow, I, 427. There remain only\nthe first five lines of a hymn, introducing a prayer to Shamash at the\nrising of the sun.\n\n3. R. V, 50; translated by Jastrow, I, 428; by Zimmern, _Babylonische\nHymnen und Gebete in Auswahl, Der Alte Orient_, 1905, page 15; and by\nFossey, _La Magie Assyrienne_, No. 42. It is a hymn of eleven lines,\nintroducing a petition to Shamash for the freeing of the king from the\nban resting upon him, the prayer being offered at sunrise.\n\n4. Abel-Winckler, _Keilschrifttexte_, pages 59 to 60; translated by\nJastrow, I, 429. It is a hymn of twelve lines addressed to Shamash at\nsunset, wishing the God a safe return and glad welcome to his home from\nEa his wife.\n\n5. R. IV: 2, 19 No. 2; translated by Jastrow, I, 429; and by Zimmern,\n_Der Alte Orient_, 1905, page 15. It is a hymn of ten lines addressed to\nShamash at sunrise. After this hymnal section the poem goes on to\ndescribe how the gods inhale the odor of the sacrifice and refresh\nthemselves with the \u201cfood of heaven.\u201d This suggests that the rising of\nthe sun was the signal for the offering of sacrifice and the praise of\nShamash, even as it was also the favorable moment for the banning of the\npowers of darkness which troubled men. (See Jastrow, I, 430.)\n\n6. Craig, _Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts_, II, 3; also Gray,\n_The Shamash Religious Texts_, IV; translated by Jastrow II, 72; by\nZimmern, _Der Alte Orient_, 1905, page 15; by Martin, _Textes religieux\nAssyriens et Babyloniens_, pages 14-26. It is a hymn of six lines,\nfollowed by a prayer, in which an individual petitions for release from\nthe ban occasioning his sickness.\n\n7. Gray, _The Shamash Religious Texts_, pages 9-23; translated by Gray;\nalso by Jastrow, I, 432. It is a hymn, complete in four columns of four\nhundred and twenty lines, and is entirely free from any reference to\nincantation.\n\n\n                              Hymns to Sin\n\n1. Published and translated by Perry, _Hymnen und Gebete an Sin_\n(_Leipz. Sem. Studien_, 1907); by King, _Babylonian Magic and Sorcery_\n(London 1896); by Combe, _Histoire du Culte de Sin_ (Paris 1908). It is\na hymn of eleven lines introducing a petition of sixteen lines, in which\nthe king, on an occasion of an eclipse of the moon, requests an oracle\npromising deliverance from the evil which has befallen his palace and\nland. It is addressed to Sin in the second person.\n\n2. Published and translated by Perry and Combe. It gives the first\nfourteen lines of a hymnal introduction to prayer, and then breaks off.\nIt is addressed to Sin in the second person.\n\n3. Published and translated by Perry. It is a hymn of twenty-one lines\nwith many repetitions. The last three lines of Perry No. 3, form the\nfirst four lines of Perry No. 4, the two apparently forming one hymn. Of\nNo. 4 some nineteen lines are preserved, the last lines of the obverse\nand reverse being missing and other lines damaged. It is addressed to\nSin in the second person.\n\n4. Published and translated by Perry, King, and Combe. It is a hymn of\neleven lines, introducing a prayer of fourteen lines seeking the favor\nof Sin. It is in the second person. The prayer contains the lament and\npetition of an individual who feels that his god is angry with him and\nafflicting him.\n\n5. Published by Rawlinson IV, 5; also by Perry; and Combe: translated by\nJastrow, I, 436; by Zimmern, _Der Alte Orient_, page II, 1905; by Perry;\nby Combe; by Ungnad in Gressmann, _Altorientalische Texte und Bilder_,\npage 80; by Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament_, page\n141. It is a hymn of thirty-nine lines, introducing a petition nine\nlines in length for a temple of the god Sin. It is addressed in the\nsecond person to Sin, and was probably recited or sung at the full moon\nfestival.\n\n\n                             Hymns to Nebo\n\n1. Published and translated by King, _Babylonian Magic_, No. 22; also\ntranslated by Jastrow, I, 445. It contains eight lines of invocation,\nfollowed by the petition at much greater length of an individual,\nrequesting healing of his disease, favorable dreams, and the support of\nhis god.\n\n2. R. IV: 2, 20 No. 3; translated by Jastrow, I, 447. It is a fragment,\ngiving ten lines of a hymn in couplets, of which the second line largely\nrepeats the preceding line.\n\n\n                             Hymns to Ninib\n\n1. Published and translated by King, _Babylonian Magic_, No. 2;\ntranslated by Jastrow, I, 448. The first fourteen lines are addressed to\nthe god in epithets of praise. In the lines which follow an individual\nreminds the god of his sacrifice, and pleads for forgiveness of his sin\nand the favor of the god.\n\n2. Transliterated and translated by Jensen, _Kosmologie der Babylonier_,\npages 470-472; also translated by Jastrow, I, 449. It is an hymnal\nintroduction to prayer, twelve lines in length.\n\n3. Kouyunjik Collection, 2864, 1-22; published and translated by Hrozny,\n_Sumerisch-babylonische Mythen von dem Gotte Ninrag in Mitteilungen der\nvorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1903. It is a hymn addressed in the\nsecond person to Ninib, of which unfortunately only twelve lines are\npreserved, and of these no single line is complete. The hymn is composed\nin couplets the second line being a response to the first.\n\n4. K 8531 and Rm 126; published and translated by Hrozny; translated by\nJastrow, I, 455. Here we have an address of the God Nusku to the God\nNinib, of which the first seven lines are epithets of praise, which are\nthen followed by a petition that the anger of the God may abate, and\nthat he be honored by the great God.\n\n5. K 4829; published and translated by Hrozny; translated by Jastrow, I,\n459. It is a hymn of fourteen lines, in which Ninib praises his own\npower.\n\n6. R. II, 19 No. 2; published and translated by Hrozny; translated by\nJastrow, I, 460. This is a hymn of thirteen lines in which the God Ninib\nsings his own praise.\n\n7. Published and translated by Hrozny; translated by Jastrow, I, 463.\nThis is a hymnal composition of thirty lines in the course of which the\ngod Sharur addresses Ninib with hymnal praises.\n\n\n                            Hymns to Nergal\n\n1. Published and translated by King, _Babylonian Magic_, No. 27;\ntranslated by Jastrow, I, 467; also by B\u00f6llenr\u00fccher, _Gebete und Hymnen\nan Nergal_, No. 1. The first ten lines constitute a hymnal introduction\nto the prayer that follows. Lines 11-13 are a lament, lines 14-23 a\npetition, and line 24 a vow.\n\n2. Published and translated by B\u00f6llenr\u00fccher, _Gebete und Hymnen an\nNergal_ No. 2; also by King, _Babylonian Magic_, No. 46; translated by\nJastrow, I, 471. Nine lines of praise are addressed to the god, when the\ntablet breaks off.\n\n3. Published and translated by B\u00f6llenr\u00fccher, _Gebete und Hymnen an\nNergal_ No. 3. The beginning and end of the hymn are missing. Of the\ntwelve lines remaining no single line is complete.\n\n4. R. IV: 2, 26 No. 1; published and translated by B\u00f6llenr\u00fccher, No. 4;\ntranslated by Jastrow, I, 470. Only the first ten lines of this hymn are\npreserved. For the first eight lines, the second half line is a refrain.\n\n5. R. IV: 2, 24 No. 1; published and translated by B\u00f6llenr\u00fccher, No. 5;\ntranslated by Jastrow, I, 469. Of this hymn thirty-eight lines are\npreserved and are so arranged in couplets that the first line gives a\ntitle or attribute of the deity, while the second lines begin with the\nwords: \u201cGod Nergal\u201d and repeat the first words of the preceding line. It\nis thus a hymn with responses, made probably by priest and choir.\n\n6. Published by Craig, _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Assyriologie_, X, 276; Published\nand translated by B\u00f6llenr\u00fccher, No. 6. The hymn is divided into two\nparts. The first part of some forty lines is addressed directly to the\ngod. Of these forty lines there are eleven couplets, of which the first\nhalf lines make a double refrain. The second half of the hymn is in\npraise of the word of the god. Thirteen lines begin with, \u201cHis word.\u201d\nThe entire hymn is antiphonal in character.\n\n7. R. IV: 2, 30 No. 1; Haupt, _Akkadisch-Sumerische Keilschrifttexte_,\nNo. 20; published and translated by B\u00f6llenr\u00fccher, No. 7; translated by\nJastrow, I, 478. The first fourteen lines of the hymn are in narrative\nstyle, praising the attack of Nergal upon the hostile land. After a gap,\nwhere some lines are missing, there are twenty-one lines of praise\naddressed directly to the god in the second person.\n\n8. K 9880; published and translated by B\u00f6llenr\u00fccher, No. 8; translated\nby Jastrow, I, 477. It is an individual hymn, addressed directly to\nNergal, of which after the twelfth line the tablet breaks off.\n\n\n                             Hymns to Adad\n\n1. R. IV: 2, 28 No. 2; transliterated and translated by Strong,\n_Proceedings_ of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, XX, 161;\ntranslated by Jastrow, I, 482. It is a fragment of nine lines of a hymn\npraising in the third person of the verb the power of Adad.\n\n2. Transliterated and translated by Langdon, Sumerian and Babylonian\nHymns, pages 280-283; also by Rogers, _Cuneiform Parallels_, page 147;\nalso by Ungnad in Gressmann, _Altorientalische Texte_, pages 83f. It is\ncharacterized by Langdon, Rogers, and Ungnad as a hymn. It includes an\ninvocation to the god of ten lines, a hymn proper of four lines, an\naddress of Enlil to Ramman of ten lines and a narrative section of four\nlines.\n\n3. Transliterated and translated by King, Babylonian Magic, No. 21. It\nis a fragment of a hymn, containing nine broken lines.\n\n\n                             Hymns to Nusku\n\n1. R. IV: 2, No. 3; translated by Jastrow, I, 487. It is a short hymnal\nintroduction of eight lines, little more than an invocation to the god.\n\n2. Craig, _Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts_, I, plate 35;\ntranslated by Jastrow, I, 487. After nineteen lines the text breaks off.\nThe nineteen lines are of the nature of an invocation.\n\n3. Tallquist, _Die assyrische Beschworungsserie_, Maklu II, pages 1-17;\ntranslated by Jastrow, I, 297. It is a hymnal introduction of eleven\nlines, addressed directly to the god, and followed by an individual\u2019s\npetition in seven lines for the destruction of those whose witchcraft\nwas afflicting him.\n\n\n                              Hymns to Bel\n\n1. R. IV: 2, 27 No. 2; translated by Jastrow, I, 489. Only five lines of\nthe hymn are preserved. They seem to praise the great tower of Bel\u2019s\ntemple at Ekur.\n\n2. R. IV: 2, 27 No. 4; Haupt, _Akkadische und sumerische\nKeilinschrifttexte_, page 183; translated by Jastrow, I, 490. Eleven\nlines constitute an invocation to Bel. The text then breaks off.\n\n3. King, _Babylonian Magic_, No. 19; Jastrow, I, 492. Sixteen broken\nhymnal lines introduce the petition of a king.\n\n\n                            Hymns to Marduk\n\n1. Craig, Religious Texts, I, plates 29-31; published and translated by\nBr\u00fcnnow, _Assyrian Hymns_, in _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Assyriologie_, IV,\n246-248 and V, 58-66, 77-78; translated by Martin, _Textes religieux\nAssyriens et Babyloniens_, and by Jastrow, I, 513. The hymn consists of\nthirty-eight lines, and is followed by the petition that the anger of\nthe god may abate and favor be shown the suppliant.\n\n2. K 3459; Hehn, _Hymnen und Gebete an Marduk_, in _Beitrage zur\nAssyriologie_, V, 278-400. The poem is in three columns. Of column I,\nseven lines out of twenty are preserved entire. Of the twenty-one lines\nof column II, twelve are missing, and no single line is complete.\nColumns I and III are in praise of Marduk, while column II seeks\nforgiveness of sin and deliverance of a sufferer from trouble.\n\n3. K 3505; The first seventeen lines of a hymn are addressed directly to\nMarduk. The text then breaks off.\n\n4. King, _Tablets of Creation_, I, 204 ff; Craig, _Religious Texts_, I,\nPlate 43; Hehn, No. 5; Jastrow, I, 496ff. The first twenty-one lines of\na hymn are in praise of Marduk. The text then breaks off. In the hymnal\nportion the third person of the verb is used.\n\n5. R. IV: 2, 26 No. 4; translated by Jastrow, I, 496; also by Jeremias\nin Roscher\u2019s _Lexicon_, II, col. 2367; also by Hehn, No. 6. Nine lines\nof a hymn in praise of Marduk, the God of War, are preserved. The text\nthen breaks off.\n\n6. R. IV: 2, 29, No. 1; translated by Jastrow, I, 501; also by Fossey,\n_La Magie assyrienne_, pages 364-369; also by Jeremias in Roscher\u2019s\n_Lexicon_, II, col. 2355; also by Hehn, No. 7. It is a hymn twenty-nine\nlines in length, of definite strophic arrangement, addressed directly to\nMarduk, and followed by exorcisms of various demons.\n\n7. R. IV: 2, 18, No. 1; translated by Hehn, No. 12. It is a fragment of\neight lines, referring to the founding of Babylon and the temple of\nMarduk.\n\n8. R. IV: 2, 21, No. 1; also King, _Babylonian Magic_, No. 9; translated\nby King; by Hehn, No. 13; also by Jastrow, I, 500f. Though characterized\nby King and Jastrow as a prayer, yet the first nine lines, constituting\nthe invocation to the god may be regarded as hymnal material. The body\nof the prayer consists of seventeen lines, and may well be from a king,\nseeking health and the favor and support of his god.\n\n9. R. IV: 2, 57; translated by King No. 12; by Hehn No. 14; by Jastrow,\nI, 499; by Lenormant, _La Divination_, page 212ff; by Sayce, _Hibbert\nLectures_, pages 536ff. This tablet is concerned with the curing by\nMarduk\u2019s help of a sick man. The first sixteen lines give directions for\nthe ceremonies to be performed. The priest is instructed to hold the\nhand of the sick man, and repeat the prayer, lines 17-94. Of these lines\n17-44 are hymnal, serving as an invocation to the prayer. Following the\nprayer there are directions for further ceremonies. The hymn is in the\nsecond person addressed directly to the god.\n\n10. K 8961; Craig, _Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts_, I, Pl. 59;\ntranslated by Hehn, No. 17; also by Jastrow, I, 497. An incantation\nhymn, of which only twelve lines remain, is addressed directly to Marduk\nas an invocation to prayer.\n\n11. Craig, _Assyrian and Babylonian Religious Texts_, I, Pl. 1;\ntranslated by Martin, _Textes religieux_; also by Jastrow, I, 509. Of\nthis text the opening lines are missing. Ten lines are preserved, being\na prayer in the mouth of the priest, of which the first five lines\nsupply the element of adoration.\n\n12. R. IV: 2, 40, No. 1 transliterated and translated by Ball,\n_Proceedings_ of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, XV, 51-54;\ntranslated also by Hehn, No. 25; by Sayce, _Hibbert Lectures_, pages\n80f; by Jastrow, I, 509. The text comprises thirty-two lines. Lines 1 to\n6 state that the priest is to rise in the first hour of the night on the\nsecond day of Nisan, wash in river water, put on a linen garment and\nrepeat his prayer. Of the prayer, lines 7 to 28 are hymnal; lines 29 to\n32 petition the favor of the god for the city, Babylon and the temple,\nEsagila.\n\n13. R. IV: 2, 18 No. 2; Also published and translated by Weissbach,\n_Babylonische Miscellen_, pages 36-41; translated also by Ungnad, page\n85; by Rogers, page 130; by Jastrow, I, 503. This is a text of\nthirty-seven lines. A colophon at the end directs that the hymn should\nbe used on the eleventh day of Nisan, when Marduk enters his own\nsanctuary in the temple Esagila. It is a processional hymn apparently\nsung antiphonally, a priest or choir chanting the first half of the\nline, and a choir responding with the refrain. The first thirty-three\nlines welcome the god to his temple; the last four lines petition his\nfavor for the city and its temple.\n\n14. Hehn No. 16; King No. 18; Jastrow, I, 513. This is a fragment of\nwhich the first lines are missing. A petition for relief from sickness\nis preceded by hymnal lines praising Marduk, and expressing confidence\nin him.\n\n\n                             Hymn to Asshur\n\n1. Craig, _Religious Texts_, I, plates 32-34; translated by Jastrow, I,\n520. This is called by Jastrow a Litany to Asshur. It begins with a\nhymn, twenty-two lines of which are preserved. Then in six lines Anu,\nBel, Ea, and the great gods proclaim Asshurbanapal ruler of Assyria, and\nin the last four lines the god Asshur himself calls Asshurbanapal to\nlordship.\n\n\n                            Hymns to Ishtar\n\n1. King No. 1; duplicate, No. 5; translated by Jastrow, I, 529. It is\nonly a fragment of five lines of praise addressed directly to Ishtar.\n\n2. King No. 32; translated by Jastrow, I, 529. It is a fragment of ten\nlines of praise, addressed directly to Ishtar.\n\n3. Craig, Religious Texts, I, plates 15-17; translated by Jastrow, I,\n535. Eighteen lines of praise are followed by an enumeration of the\nsacrifices, foods for the temple servants, and of gifts of gold, as well\nas by directions for the purification of the sick, who wish to be healed\nby Ishtar.\n\n4. Reisner, Sumerisch-babylonische Hymnen, No. 56; transliterated and\ntranslated by Hussey, No. 1. The tablet was according to the colophon\nninety-five lines in length, but only fifteen strophes of four lines\neach are in good preservation. It is a hymn sung by Ishtar in praise of\nherself.\n\n5. Reisner No. 53; translated by Hussey, No. 5; by Langdon, _Sumerian\nand Babylonian Psalms_, page 192; by Jastrow, I, 530. This hymn opens\nwith three strophes of four, three, and four lines respectively in\npraise of the goddess. Then in strophes of five, four, and seven lines\nIshtar appears singing her own praise. There follows the prayer of\nthirteen lines petitioning the removal of her anger.\n\n\n                           Hymn to Sarpanitum\n\n1. Craig, I, plate 1; translated by Jastrow, I, 536. This is a hymn of\neleven lines addressed directly to the goddess, followed by a brief\npetition for the suppliant, the king, and the people of Babylon.\n\n\n                            Hymn to Damkina\n\n1. King No. 4; translated by Jastrow, I, 537. The hymn consists of seven\nlines of invocation to Damkina, and is followed by a petition for the\naverting of evil threatened by an eclipse of the moon.\n\n\n                             Hymns to Belit\n\n1. Haupt, _Assyrisch-sumerische Keilinschrifttexte_, pages 126-131;\nPrince, _The Hymn to Belit_ K 357, in the _Journal_ of the American\nOriental Society, XXIV, 103-128; translated by Jastrow, I, 538f. This is\na hymn of some fifty lines sung entirely by Belit in her own praise.\n\n2. Text and transliteration by Scheil, _Zeitschrift f\u00fcr Assyriologie_,\nX, 291-298; also Scheil, _Une saison de fouilles a Sippar_, page 98 and\nTablet II; translated by Jastrow, I, 541. The first twelve lines of the\nhymn are addressed to Nippur the city of Bel. The following thirty-eight\nlines are in praise of Belit, and are for the most part addressed\ndirectly to her.\n\n\n                             Hymn to Enlil\n\n1. Transliterated and translated by Langdon, _Sumerian and Babylonian\nHymns_, page 277. It is a psalm of twenty-five lines. The singers are\nthe bearers of sacrificial gifts to Enlil. The hymn is addressed\ndirectly to the god.\n\n\n\n\n                        A SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY\n\n\nBalla, E. Das Ich der Psalmen in Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur\ndes Alten und Neuen Testaments. 16. Heft, 1912.\n\nBarton, G. A. Archaeology and the Bible, 1914.\n\nBewer, J. A. The Psalms and the Song of Songs, Chapter XX in The\nLiterature of The Old Testament, 1926.\n\nB\u00f6llenr\u00fccher, J. Gebete und Hymnen an Nergal. (_Leipziger semitische\nStudien_, 1904.)\n\nBriggs, C. A. The Book of Psalms, I.C.C. (2 vols. 1906, 1907.)\n\nCombe, E. Histoire du Culte de Sin, 1908.\n\nCraig, J. A. Assyrian und Babylonian Religious Texts, I and II.\n(_Assyrische Bibliothek_, herausgegeben von Delitzsch und Haupt, XIII,\n1895).\n\nFossey, C. La Magie assyrienne, 1902.\n\nGunkel, H. Ausgew\u00e4hlte Psalmen, 1911.\n\n\u2014\u2014 Die Psalmen. (_Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart_, Band IV,\n1913.)\n\n\u2014\u2014 Die Psalmen, \u00fcbersetzt und erkl\u00e4rt, 1926.\n\n\u2014\u2014 Einleitung in die Psalmen, 1928.\n\nHaupt, P. Akkadische und sumerische Keilschrifttexte. (_Assyrische\nBibliothek_, herausgegeben von Delitzsch und Haupt, XIII, 1895.)\n\nHehn, J. Hymnen und Gebete an Marduk. (_Beitrage zur Assyriologie_,\n1906, Vol. V.)\n\nHussey, M. I. Some Sumerian-Babylonian Hymns of the Berlin Collection.\n(_American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literature_, January, 1907.)\n\nHrozny, F. Myten von dem Gotte Ninrag (Ninib). (_Mitteilungen der\nvorderasiatischen Gesellschaft_, 1903.)\n\nJastrow, M. Die Religion babyloniens und assyriens, 1905-12.\n\nJensen, P. Texte zur asyrisch-babylonischen Religion. I Lieferung, 1915.\n\nJeremias, A. Das Alte Testament in Lichte des alten Orients, 1906.\n\nKent, C. F. Songs, Hymns, and Prayers of the Old Testament, 1914.\n\nKing, L. W. Babylonian Magic and Sorcery, 1896.\n\nKittel, R. Kommentar zum Alten Testament XIII: Die Psalmen, 1914.\n\nLangdon, S. Sumerian and Babylonian Psalms, 1909.\n\nLods, A. Les Idees de M. Mowinckel. (_Revue de l\u2019histoire des\nreligions_, 1925, pp. 15-34.)\n\nMacMillan, K. D. Some Cuneiform tablets bearing on the Religion of\nBabylonia and Assyria. (_Beitrage zur Assyriologie_, Vol. V. 19.)\n\nMartin, F. Textes Religieux Assyriens et Babyloniens, 1900.\n\nMowinckel, S. Psalmen Studien, Vols. I-VI, 1921-24.\n\nNikolsky, N. Spuren magischen Formeln in den Psalmen, 1927.\n\nPerry, E. G. Hymnen und Gebete an Sin. (_Leipziger semitische Studien_,\n1907.)\n\nPeters, J. P. The Psalms as Liturgies, 1922.\n\nPinckert, J. Hymnen und Gebete an Nebo. (_Leipziger semitische Studien_,\n1907.)\n\nRadau, H. Sumerian Hymns and Prayers to Ninib. (_The Babylonian\nExpedition of the University of Pennsylvania_, Series A, Vol. XXIX, Part\nI.) 1911.\n\n\u2014\u2014 Miscellaneous Sumerian Texts from the Temple Library of Nippur.\n(_Hilprecht Anniversary Volume_, 1909.)\n\nRawlinson, G. Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, 1861-1884.\n\nRogers, R. The Religion of Babylonia and Assyria, 1908.\n\n\u2014\u2014 Cuneiform Parallels to the Old Testament, 1912.\n\nSayce, A. H. Hibbert Lectures, 1887.\n\nSimpson, D. C. (ed.) The Psalmists, 1926.\n\nSmith, J. M. P. The Religion of the Psalms, 1922.\n\nStaerk, W. Lyrik. (_Schriften des Alten Testaments in Auswahl_, III: 1,\n1911.)\n\nStrong, S. A. Proceedings, Society of Biblical Archaeology, Vol. XX:\n161, 1898.\n\nUngnad, A. F. E. In Gressmann, Altorientalische Texte und Bilder, 1909.\n\nWeber, C. Die Literatur der Babylonier und Assyrier, 1907.\n\nWelch, A. C. The Psalter in Life, Worship, and History, 1926.\n\nZimmern, H. Babylonische Hymnen und Gebete in Auswahl. (_Der alte\nOrient_, 1905.)\n\n\u2014\u2014 Babylonische Hymnen und Gebete, Zweite Auswahl. (_Der alte Orient_,\n1911.)\n\n\n\n\n                               FOOTNOTES\n\n\n[1]Hymn to Nebo No. 1.\n\n[2]Hymn to Marduk No. 8.\n\n[3]Hymn to Sin No. 3.\n\n[4]Hymn to Nusku No. 1.\n\n[5]Hymn to Marduk No. 6.\n\n[6]Hymn to Ishtar No. 7.\n\n[7]Hymn to Shamash No. 6.\n\n[8]Nebo No. 1.\n\n[9]Nusku No. 3.\n\n[10]Nusku No. 3.\n\n[11]Nusku No. 1.\n\n[12]Ninib No. 2.\n\n[13]Sin No. 5.\n\n[14]Sin No. 1.\n\n[15]Sarpanitum No. 1.\n\n[16]Shamash No. 5.\n\n[17]Nusku No. 2.\n\n[18]Shamash No. 3.\n\n[19]Ishtar No. 2.\n\n[20]Ninib No. 4.\n\n[21]Shamash No. 3.\n\n[22]Shamash No. 2.\n\n[23]Shamash No. 6.\n\n[24]Ishtar No. 7.\n\n[25]Ninib No. 1.\n\n[26]Ninib No. 1.\n\n[27]Shamash No. 1.\n\n[28]Marduk No. 6.\n\n[29]Marduk No. 8.\n\n[30]Nebo No. 1.\n\n[31]Ishtar No. 7.\n\n[32]Marduk No. 1.\n\n[33]Marduk No. 2.\n\n[34]Nergal No. 8.\n\n[35]Enlil No. 1.\n\n[36]Nebo No. 1.\n\n[37]Ninib No. 1.\n\n[38]Marduk No. 4.\n\n[39]Sin No. 3.\n\n[40]Sin No. 5.\n\n[41]Hymn to Ninib No. 1.\n\n[42]Hymn to Shamash No. 4.\n\n[43]Hymn to Shamash No. 5.\n\n[44]Hymn to Sin No. 4.\n\n\n\n\n                                INDEXES\n\n\n\n\n                             GENERAL INDEX\n\n\n                                   A\n  Adad, 53, 55\n  Adoration, 18, 19, 45, 53\n  Alphabetical psalms, 15, 17, 23, 28, 48\n  Anointed, 38, 48\n  Antiphonal hymns, 30, 72-82, 99, 157\n  Antithetical parallelism, 97\n  Apocrypha, 3\n  Ascription of praise, 57, 61, 63, 65, 66\n  Asshur, 55, 81, 110\n\n                                   B\n  Babylonia, 3, 4, 6\n  Bel, 55, 69, 92\n  Belit, 55, 84\n  Blessing, 12\n  Body of hymn, 19, 21, 26\n  Bull of Jacob, 80\n\n                                   C\n  Call to praise, 19-21, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 37,\n          39, 40, 85\n  Choir, 11, 43, 46, 47, 72, 73, 76, 77, 78, 86, 99\n  City, 45, 46, 73\n  Classification, 3\n  Comparative study, 4, 95\n  Conclusion of hymns, 10, 11, 15, 20, 23, 25, 27, 34, 39, 40, 64,\n          81, 85, 88\n  Confidence, 5, 6, 12, 15, 29\n  Coronation, 7, 48\n  Council of the Gods, 37, 103\n  Couplet, 73, 74, 75, 76, 86, 96\n  Court style, 56, 57, 59, 60, 66\n  Creator, 21, 81, 120, 121, 122, 123, 129, 155\n\n                                   D\n  Damkina, 55\n  Date, 1\n  Decree, 82\n  Destiny, 131, 132\n  Development, 4, 5, 12, 15, 18, 53, 56, 65, 66, 69, 92, 156\n  Diaspora, 11, 47\n  Divisions of line, 95\n\n                                   E\n  Egypt, 3, 4\n  Enemies, 5, 6, 7, 12, 14\n  Enlil, 55, 65, 72, 80\n  Enthusiasm, 18, 21, 22, 32, 34, 38, 54, 55, 107, 119, 123\n  Eschatological psalms, 6, 14, 26, 31, 32-38, 49, 50, 150, 152\n  Ethical character of Assyrian god, 59, 151\n  Exalted deity, 110, 111\n\n                                   F\n  Faith, 4, 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 25, 30, 45\n  Father, 145, 157\n  Fertility, 22, 85, 125, 126\n  Forgiveness, 8, 9, 10, 55, 143\n\n                                   G\n  Gloss, 86\n  Goodness, 22, 24, 42\n  Gratitude, 10, 18, 53, 55\n  Groups, 3, 4, 5, 9, 53\n\n                                   H\n  Hallelujah, 19, 20, 22, 23, 34, 41\n  Harvest, 12\n  Healing, 9, 10, 61, 62, 142\n  Heavens, 42, 109, 111, 120, 157\n  Holiness of Gawe, 22, 34, 107\n  Holy mountain, 114\n  Hymn, 4, 11, 12, 18, 20, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29, 30, 32, 41, 43, 44,\n          45, 53, 56, 65, 92\n  Hymnal introductions, 18, 40, 53, 60, 64, 65, 67, 74, 78, 83, 92,\n          156\n\n                                   I\n  Idols, 22, 25, 29, 37, 105\n  Iknaton, 41\n  Individual, the, in Assyrian and Hebrew religion, 7, 8, 9, 10, 14,\n          21, 28, 43, 67, 68, 72, 78, 141, 157\n  Invocation, 57, 60, 61, 65, 66, 73, 76, 89\n  Ishtar, 53, 55, 56, 58, 63, 64, 78, 79, 85, 86, 109\n\n                                   J\n  Jerusalem, 14, 21, 44, 45, 46, 141\n  Judge, 37, 104, 150, 151, 157\n\n                                   K\n  King, 6, 9, 10, 32, 36, 37, 38, 48, 49, 50, 82, 132, 146, 155,\n          156, 157\n\n                                   L\n  Lament, 5, 7, 8, 15, 44, 53, 54, 64\n  Legend, 11\n  Length of line, 95\n  Lightning, 40, 80\n  Litany, 81, 82\n  Literary dependence, 105, 155\n  Liturgical psalms, 10, 13, 27, 28, 30, 36, 41, 47\n  Lord, 80, 81, 82, 104\n  Lower world, 111\n\n                                   M\n  Magic, 7, 55, 62, 66, 73, 78, 90, 96, 106, 132, 134, 142, 155\n  Marduk, 53, 55, 56, 57, 58, 63, 64, 68, 69, 89, 91, 108, 110, 111\n  Mercy, 8, 10, 22, 26, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 155\n  Monotheism, 36, 53, 54, 102, 105, 120, 155\n  Moon, 109\n  Mountains, 114, 120\n\n                                   N\n  Name, 42, 75, 80, 81, 85, 106, 107\n  Nationalism, 5, 6, 8, 10, 14, 22, 152\n  Nature, 39, 53, 59, 71, 107, 109, 124, 154\n  Nebo, 57, 58, 73\n  Nergal, 53, 55, 56, 57, 72, 74, 75, 77, 88, 90\n  New song, 33\n  Night, 39\n  Ninib, 53, 55, 57, 58, 70, 83, 84, 110\n  Nusku, 53, 55, 58, 59, 62, 83, 108, 118\n\n                                   O\n  Oracle, 13, 49, 82, 133, 155, 157\n  Originality, 4, 5, 11, 26\n\n                                   P\n  Parallelism, 72, 74, 76, 96, 97, 154\n  Penitential, 4\n  Persecution, 7\n  Petition, 5-8, 10, 15, 21, 29, 38, 40, 41, 44, 48, 62, 63, 64, 87\n  Philological study of psalms, 3\n  Phraseology, 88, 100, 155, 157\n  Pilgrimage, 44, 46, 47\n  Polytheism, 53, 100, 101, 102, 103, 122, 133, 157\n  Power, 22, 84, 130, 131, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 155\n  Praise, 4, 6, 11, 18, 19, 23, 65, 83, 156\n  Prayer, 4, 6, 7, 9, 40, 53, 55\n  Priest, 6, 10, 13, 21, 29, 30, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 86\n  Processional, 11, 26, 27, 46, 68, 99, 154\n  Prophetic, 28, 45, 156\n  Proselytes, 21, 29\n\n                                   R\n  Ramman, 72, 79, 80, 88, 109\n  Reasons for praise, 20, 21, 22, 28, 29\n  Refrain, 35, 64, 72, 73, 75, 76, 79, 80, 87, 98, 154, 157\n  Repetitions, 72, 76, 77, 78, 88\n  Responses, 73, 74, 75, 86\n  Rhetorical questions, 63, 66, 87, 99, 103, 154\n  Righteousness, 151, 152, 155\n\n                                   S\n  Sacrifice, 5, 6, 9, 53, 55, 56, 65, 116, 117, 118, 119, 125\n  Sanctuary, 3, 5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 19, 21, 23, 25, 27, 32, 44, 59, 69,\n          86, 91, 92, 112, 154\n  Sarpanitum, 55, 59, 64, 65, 109\n  Sceptre, 146, 149\n  Second person, 20, 25, 35, 36, 40, 43, 55, 65, 66, 72, 89, 90, 92\n  Self-introduction, 87, 92\n  Sennacherib, 46\n  Shamash, 40, 53, 55, 58, 70, 71, 108\n  Sheol, 9, 17\n  Shepherd, 13, 144, 157\n  Sickness, 7, 8, 9, 61, 142\n  Simplicity, 5, 8, 11, 13\n  Sin, 53, 55, 57, 59, 63, 65, 71, 73, 76, 108\n  Soliloquy, 13, 41\n  Solo, 11, 43\n  Strophic arrangement, 65, 79, 86, 98, 154\n  Supplication, 4\n  Supreme God, 104, 105\n  Synonymous parallelism, 96\n  Synthetical parallelism, 97\n\n                                   T\n  Tautological parallelism, 96\n  Teaching, 4, 9, 15, 17, 30\n  Testimony, 8, 9, 12, 18, 42\n  Thanksgiving, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 53\n  Third person, 20, 25, 35, 36, 40, 55, 89, 90, 92, 99\n  Throne, 146, 148\n  Thunder, 39, 40, 88, 109, 127, 129\n  Titles, 57, 58, 68, 72, 73, 76, 87\n  Tristich, 76, 96\n  Type, 3, 9\n\n                                   U\n  Universalism, 24, 26, 31, 37, 53, 107\n\n                                   V\n  Variation, 3, 24, 75\n  Voice, 39, 88, 110\n  Vow, 5, 9, 12, 30, 81\n\n                                   W\n  War God, 134, 135, 136, 137, 157\n  Wisdom, 15, 28, 30, 65, 66, 130, 131, 132, 134, 155\n  Word, 69, 89, 90, 91, 127, 128, 129\n\n\n\n\n                       INDEX OF BIBLICAL PASSAGES\n\n\n                                 Psalm\n\n            1      15\n            2      38, 49, 50, 82, 123\n            3      7\n            4      12\n            7      7, 8\n            8      20, 22, 39, 41, 42, 47, 95, 96, 106, 110, 111, 121,\n                   123, 155, 156\n            9      12\n           10      5\n           11      12, 109, 151\n           13      7, 142\n           16      12\n           17      8, 116\n           18      9\n           19      20, 39, 40, 95, 96, 134\n           20      6\n           21      9\n           22      7\n           23      12\n           24      20, 27, 96, 135, 154, 155\n           26      8\n           27      12, 116\n           29      20, 21, 22, 23, 39, 104, 109, 128, 149, 155\n           30      9\n           31      142\n           32      9, 19\n           33      20, 22, 23, 30, 107, 121, 122, 129, 131, 132, 143\n           34      15\n           37      15, 16\n           38      8, 142\n           39      8\n           42      8, 19\n           43      8, 19\n           44      5, 44\n           45      48\n           46      14, 105\n           47      20, 32, 34, 97, 138, 148, 149, 155\n           48      45, 46, 47, 92, 106, 114, 150, 154\n           49      15, 16\n           51      8\n           55      7\n           56      7\n           57      7\n           58      151\n           59      7, 8\n           60      5\n           62      12, 114\n           63      12, 116\n           64      7\n           65      11, 12, 19\n           66      9, 20, 143\n           67      6, 21, 37, 96, 97, 155\n           68      20, 21, 22, 110, 127, 135, 136, 137, 138, 141, 143,\n                   151\n           69      7\n           70      7\n           71      8\n           72      6, 7, 48, 49\n           73      15, 16\n           74      5\n           75      151\n           76      106, 112, 132, 138\n           78      15\n           79      5\n           80      5\n           81      138\n           82      32, 35, 37, 38, 97, 104, 110, 123, 151\n           83      5, 110\n           84      20, 44, 112\n           85      5\n           86      140, 142\n           87      44, 47, 48, 114\n           88      8\n           89      103, 104, 136, 138, 156\n           90      6\n           91      13\n           92      12, 110, 132\n           93      20, 32, 35, 36, 116, 148, 149\n           95      20, 102, 114, 118, 121, 124, 144, 149, 150, 154\n           96      20, 32, 33, 34, 37, 102, 103, 105, 112, 118, 149,\n                   152, 153, 155\n           97      20, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37, 104, 137, 138, 148, 149, 151,\n                   153\n           98      20, 32, 33, 34, 36, 37, 96, 97, 136, 152, 153\n           99      20, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 98, 106, 110, 118, 149, 151\n          100      19, 20, 22, 26, 113, 144, 155\n          101      48\n          102      8\n          103      9, 10, 18, 22, 107, 140, 141, 143, 144, 145, 148, 150\n          104      22, 23, 39, 40, 41, 97, 99, 110, 116, 122, 124, 125,\n                   126, 129, 133, 137, 156\n          105      12\n          107      10\n          109      7\n          110      49, 82\n          111      19, 20, 22, 23, 28, 118\n          112      15\n          113      19, 20, 22, 23, 25, 99, 103, 105, 110, 111, 140, 141\n          114      11, 126, 136, 137\n          115      19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 29, 95, 97, 98, 106, 109, 112,\n                   118, 122\n          116      9, 142\n          117      19, 20, 21, 23, 31\n          118      9\n          119      48\n          121      13\n          122      44, 45\n          123      5, 6\n          124      11\n          125      5, 6, 15, 16\n          126      5\n          127      15, 16\n          128      15, 16\n          129      5, 6\n          130      8\n          131      13\n          132      112, 115\n          133      15, 16\n          134      19, 20, 27, 122\n          135      19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 102, 105, 107, 110, 114, 136,\n                   152\n          136      5, 11, 12, 104, 121\n          137      5\n          138      9\n          139      15, 112, 123, 139\n          144      156\n          145      19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 107, 118, 140, 149\n          146      19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, 118, 140, 141, 142, 149\n          147      19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 113, 114, 124, 125, 126, 129,\n                   130, 141\n          148      19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 107, 110, 111, 121, 129\n          149      19, 20, 23, 32, 33, 34, 37, 124, 153\n          150      19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 113, 148, 155\n\n\n                                 Jonah\n\n            2      9\n\n\n                                 Exodus\n\n          3:6      87\n         20:2      87\n\n\n                                 Isaiah\n\n      41:2, 4      87\n         42:8      87\n    43:11, 12      87\n      45:5, 7      88\n\n\n\n\n                          TRANSCRIBER\u2019S NOTES\n\n\n--A few typographical errors or inconsistent spellings were corrected.\n\n--An original cover image was produced, for unrestricted distribution\n  with this Distributed-Proofreaders eBook.\n\n--In the text version only, delimited italicized text within\n  _underscores_.\n\n--The original copyright notice is preserved, although this edition is\n  in the public domain in the country of publication.","title":"The Assyrian and Hebrew Hymns of Praise","tradition":"scripture-revelation","translated_text":null,"word_count":53888}